Skip to main content

Full text of "Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences"

See other formats 


tiJiiV.LJji.ixL 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF     THE 


AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


r 


OF 


ARTS    AND    SCIENCES. 


NEW     S  E  R I E  S. 
Vol.  IV. 

WHOLE     SERIES. 
Vol.  XIL 

from  may,  1876,  to  may,  1877. 
SELECTED    FROM    THE    RECORDS. 


BOSTON: 
PRESS    OF    JOHN    WILSON    AND    SON. 

1877. 


^    •     1  -Slo 


2  ^'  ^  I 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

I.     Researches  in  Telephony.     By  A.  Graham  Bell       ...         1 
II.     ScheeWs  Green :    Its   Composition   as  usunlbj  prepared,  and 
Some  Experiments   upon   Arsenite   of  Copper.     By  S.  P. 
Sharples,  S.  B 11 

III.  Contributions  from  the  Chemical   Laboratory  of  Harvard 

College  :  — 

1.  On  the  Ethers  of  Uric  Acid.     By  H.  B.  Hill     .     .       26 

2.  On  Some  of  the  Salts  of  Methyluric  Acid,  Q  H^  (CH^) 

N^O^.     By  Oscar  R.  Jackson 36 

IV.  Contributions  from  the  Physical  Laboratory  of  the  Massa- 

chusetts Institute  of  Technology :  — 

11.  On  the  Effect  of  Temperature  on  the  Viscosity  of  Air. 

By  Silas  W.  Holman 41 

V.     Contributions  to  the  Botany  of  North  America.     By  Asa 

Gray 51 

VI.     Contributions  from  the  Laboratory  of  S.  P.  Sharpies  :  — 

Schweinfurt  Green :  Some  Experiments  on  the  Action  of 
Arsenic  Trioxide  on  Copper  Acetate,  with  the  View 
of  Investigating  the  Composition  of  the  above  Com- 
pound.    By  E.  R.  Hills 85 

VII.     Milk  Analyses.     By  S.  P.   Sharples 98 

VIII.     On   a  New   Mode    of  Manipulating    Hydric  Sulphide.     By 

JOSIAH   P.    CoOKE,    Jr 113 

IX.      On  the  Process  of  Reverse  Filtering  and  its  Application  to  Large 

Masses  of  Material.     By  Josiah  P.  Cooke,  Jr.  .     .     .     124 
X.     Contributions   from  the   Physical  Laboratory  of   Harvard 
College :  — 

12.  On    Vortex    Rings    in    Liquids.     By  Johx  Trow- 

bridge     131 

XL     Contributions  from  the    Physical   Laboratory  of    Harvard 
College :  — 

14.  On  a  New  Method  of  Comparing  the  Electro-motive 

Forces  of  Two  Batteries  and  Measuring  their  Inter- 
nal Resistance.     By  B.  O.  Peirce,  Jr.   .     .     .     137 

15.  On  a  New  Method  of  Measuring  the  Resistance  of  a 

Galvanic  Battery.     By  B.  O.  Peirce,  Jr.    .     .     140 


IV  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

XII.     Note  on  (lie  Deternnnation  of  the  Law  of  Propagation  of  Heat 

in  the  Interior  of  a  Solid  Body.     By  B.  O.  Peirce,  Jr.     143 
XIII.     Antigeny,     or     Sexual    Dimorphism     in     Butterflies.       By 

Samuel  H.  Scudder 150 

XIY.     Characters  of  some  Little-knoxvn  or  New  Genera  of  Plants. 

By  Asa  Gray 159 

XV.     Ohserrationes  Liche7iologicce,  No.  4.      Observations  on  North 
American  and    other  Lichens.     By    Edward  Tucker- 

max,  M.A 166 

XVI.  Theory  of  the  Horizontal  Photohelio graph,  including  its  Ap- 
plication to  the  Determination  of  the  Solar  Parallax  by 
Means  of  Tra?isits  of  Venus.     By  Professor  William 

Harkness,  U.  S.  X 186 

XVII.     On  Diamido-sulpliobenzide-dicarhoriic   Acid.     By   Arthur 

Michael  and  T.  H.  Xorton 205 

XVIII.     Contributions  from  the  Chemical  Laboratory  of  Harvard 
College :  — 

Pccsearches  on  the  Substituted  Benzyl  Compounds.     By 

C.  LoRixG  Jackson 209 

First    Paper.   On   Certain  Substituted  Benzylbrom- 

ides.     C.  LoRiNG  Jackson 211 

Second    Paper.    On    Parabrombenzyl    Compounds. 

Woodbury  Lowery 221 

XIX.     Contribution  toward  the  History  of  the  Fluorides  of  Man- 
ganese.    By  W.  H.  Melville 228 

XX.     On  some  Algce  new  to  the  United  States.     By  W.  G.  Far- 
low     235 

Description  of  a  New  Alga  of  California.     By  Professor 

Daniel  C.  Eaton,  of  Yale  College 245 

XXI.     Descriptions  of  New  Species  of  Plants,  with  Revisions  of  Cer- 
tain Genera.     By  Sereno  Watson 246 


Proceedings 279 

List  of  the  Fellows  and  Foreign  Honorary  Members    336 
Index 343 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF  THE 


AMERICAN     ACADEMY 


OF 


ARTS    AND    SCIENCES. 

VOL.  XII. 
PAPERS  READ  BEFORE  THE  ACADEMY. 


I. 

RESEARCHES   IN  TELEPHONY. 
By  A.  Graham  Bell. 

Presented  May  10,  1876,  by  the  Corresponding  Secretary. 

1.  It  has  long  been  known  that  an  electro-magnet  gives  forth  a 
decided  sound  when  it  is  suddenly  magnetized  or  demagnetized. 
"When  the  circuit  upon  which  it  is  placed  is  rapidly  made  and  broken, 
a  succession  of  explosive  noises  proceeds  from  the  magnet.  These' 
sounds  produce  upon  the  ear  the  effect  of  a  musical  note,  when  the 
current  is  interrupted  a  sufficient  number  of  times  per  second.  The 
discovery  of  "  Galvanic  Music,"  by  Page,*  in  1837,  led  inquirers  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world  almost  simultaneously  to  enter  into  the  field  of 
telephonic  research ;  and  the  acoustical  effects  produced  by  magnetization 
were  carefully  studied  l)y  Marrian,t  Beatson,!   Gassiot,§  De  la  Rive,|| 

*  C.  G.  Page.     "The  Production  of  Galvanic  Music."     Sllliman's  Journ., 

1837,  XXXII.,  p.  .596;  Silliman's  Journ.,  July,  1837,  p.  854;  Silliman's  Journ., 

1838,  XXXIIL,  p.  118;  Bibl.  Univ.  (new  series),  1839,  XL,  p.  398. 

t  J.  P.  Marrlan.  Phil.  Mag.,  XXV.,  p.  382;  Inst.,  1845,  p.  20;  Arch,  de 
l']fclectr.,V.,  p.  105. 

t  IF.  Bfalson.  Arch,  de  I'Electr.,  V.,  p.  197 ;  Arch,  de  Sc.  Phys.  et  Nat. 
(2d  series),  II.,  p.  113. 

§  Gassiot.     See  "  Treatise  on  Electricity,"  by  De  la  Rive,  I.,  p.  300. 

II  De  la  Rive.  Treatise  on  Electricity,  I.,  p.  300;  Phil.  Mag.,  XXXV.,  p.  422 ; 
Arch,  de  I'Electr.,  V.,  p  200;  Inst.,  184G,  p.  83;  Coniptes  Kendus,  XX., 
p.  1287;  Comp.  Rend.,  XXII.,  p.  432;  Pogg.  Ann.,  LXXVI.,  p.  637;  Ann.  de 
Chim.  et  de  Phys.,  XXVI.,  p.  158. 

VOL.  Xll.      (n.  S.    IV.)  1 


2  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Matteucci,*  Guillemin,t  Wertheim,|  "\Vartraann,§  Janniar,]|  Joiile,11 
Laborde,**  Legat,tt  Reis,tl  PoggeiidorfF,§§  Du  Moucel,||||  Dele- 
zenne,1[ir  and  others.*** 

2.  In  the  autumn  of  1874,  I  discovered  that  the  sounds  emitted  by 
an  electro-magnet  under  the  influence  of  a  discontinuous  current  of 
electricity  are  not  due  wholly  to  sudden  changes  in  the  magnetic  con- 
dition of  the  iron  core  (as  heretofore  supposed),  but  that  a  portion  of 
the  effect  results  from  vibrations  in  the  insulated  copper-wires  composing 
the  coils.  An  electro-magnet  was  arranged  upon  circuit  with  an  in- 
strument for  interrupting  the  current,  —  the  rheotome  being  placed 
in  a  distant  room,  so  as  to  avoid  interference  with  the  experiment. 
Upon  applying  the  ear  to  the  magnet,  a  musical  note  was  clearly  per- 
ceived, and  the  sound  persisted  after  the  iron  core  had  been  removed. 
It  was  then  much,  feebler  in  intensity,  but  was  otherwise  unchanged, 
—  the  curious  crackling  noise  accompanying  the  sound  being  well 
marked. 

The  effect  may  probably  be  explained  by  the  attraction  of  the  coils 
of  the  wire  for  one  another  during  the  passage  of  the  galvanic  current, 

*  Matteucci.    Inst.,  1845,  p.  315 ;  Arch,  cle  I'Electr.,  V.,  389. 
t  Gui/leniin.     Corap.  Rend.,  XXII.,  p.  264;  Inst.,  1846,  p.  30;  Arch.  d.  So. 
Phys.  (2d  series),  I.,  p.  191. 

I  G.  Wertheim.  Comp.  Rend.,  XXII.,  pp.  336,  544;  Inst.,  1846,  pp.  65,  100; 
Pogg.  Ann.,  LXVIII.,p.  140;  Comp.  Rend.,  XXVI.,  p.  505;  Inst.,  1848,  p.  142; 
Ann.  de  Chim.  et  de  Phys.,  XXIII.,  p.  302;  Arch.  d.  Sc.  Phys.  et  Nat.,  VIII., 
p.  206 ;  Pogg.  Ann.,  LXXVII.,  p.  43 ;  Borl.  Ber.,  IV.,  p.  121. 

§  Elie  ]Vartmann.  Comp.  Rend.,  XXII.,  p.  544;  Phil.  Mag.  (3d  series), 
XXVIII.,  p.  544;  Arch.  d.  Sc.  Phys.  et  Nat.  (2d  series),  I.,  p.  419;  lust.,  1846, 
p.  290;  Monatscher.  d.  Berl.  Akad.,  1846,  p.  111. 

II  Janmar.  Comp.  Rend.,  XXIII.,  p.  319;  Inst.,  1846,  p.  269;  Arch.  d.  Sc. 
Phys.  et  Nat.  (2d  series),  II.,  p.  394. 

IF  J.  P.  Joule.     Piiil.  Mag.,  XXV.,  pp.  76,  225 ;  Berl.  Ber.,  III.,  p.  489. 

**  Lahorde.     Comp.  Rend.,  L.,  p.  692;  Cosmos,  XVII.,  p.  514. 

tt  Legal.    Brix.  Z.  S.,  IX.,  p.  125. 

\X  Reis.  "  Te'le'phonie."  Polytechnic  Journ.,  CLXVIII.,  p.  185;  Bottger's 
Notizbl.,  1863,  No.  6. 

§§  J.  C.  Poggendorff.  Pogg.  Ann.,  XCVIII.,  p.  192;  Berliner  Monatsber., 
1856,  p.  133 ;  Cosmos,  IX.,  p.  49  ;  Berl.  Ber.,  XII.,  p.  241 ;  Pogg.  Ann., 
LXXXVII.,  p.  139. 

nil  Du  Moncel.     Expose,  II.,  p.  125;  also.  III.,  p.  83. 

Tn[  Delezenne.  "  Sound  produced  by  Magnetization,"  Bibl.  Univ.  (new  series), 
1841,  XVI.,  p.  406. 

***  See   London  Journ.,  XXXII.,  p.  402;  Polytechnic  Journ.,  CX.,  p.  16; 

Cosmos,  IV.,  p.  43 ;  Glosener Traite'  gene'ral,  &c.,  p.  350 ;  Dove.-Repert.,VI., 

p.  58  ;  Pogg.  Ann.,  XLIII.,  p.  411 ;  Berl.  Ber.,  I.,  p.  144;  Arch.  d.  Sc.  Phys.  et 
Nat.,  XVI.,  p.  406  ;  Kuhn's  Encyclopedia  der  Physik,  pp.  1014-1021. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  6 

and  the  sudtlen  cessation  of  such  attraction  when  the  current  is  inter- 
rupted. When  a  spiral  of  fine  wire  is  made  to  dip  into  a  cup  of  mer- 
cury, so  as  thereby  to  close  a  galvanic  circuit,  it  is  well  known  that 
the  spiral  coils  up  and  shortens.  Ferguson  *  constructed  a  rheotome 
upon  this  principle.  The  shortening  of  the  spiral  lifted  the  end  of  the 
wire  out  of  the  mercury,  thus  opening  the  circuit,  and  the  weight  of 
the  wire  sufficed  to  bring  the  end  down  again,  —  so  that  the  spiral  was 
thrown  into  continuous  vibration.  I  conceive  that  a  somewhat  similar 
motion  is  occasioned  in  a  helix  of  wire  by  the  passage  of  a  discontinu- 
ous current,  although  further  research  has  convinced  me  that  other 
causes  also  conspire  to  produce  the  effect  noted  above.  The  extra 
currents  occasioned  by  the  induction  of  the  voltaic  current  upon  itself 
in  the  coils  of  the  helix  no  doubt  play  an  important  part  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  sound,  as  very  curious  audible  effects  are  produced  by 
electrical  impulses  of  high  tension.  It  is  probable,  too,  that  a  molecular 
vibration  is  occasioned  in  the  conducting  wire,  as  sounds  are  emitted 
by  many  substances  when  a  discontinuous  current  is  passed  through 
them.  Very  distinct  sounds  proceed  from  straight  pieces  of  iron, 
steel,  retort-carbon,  and  plumbago.  I  believe  that  I  have  also  obtained 
audible  effects  from  thin  platinum  and  German-silver  wires,  and  from 
mercury  contained  in  a  narrow  groove  about  four  feet  long.  In  these 
cases,  however,  the  sounds  were  so  faint  and  outside  noises  so  loud  that 
the  experiments  require  verification.  "Well-marked  sounds  proceed 
from  conductors  of  all  kinds  when  formed  into  spirals  or  helices.  I 
find  that  De  la  Rive  had  noticed  the  production  of  sound  from  iron 
and  steel  during  the  passage  of  an  intermittent  current,  although  he 
failed  to  obtain  audible  results  from  other  substances.  In  order  that 
such  effects  should  be  observed,  extreme  quietness  is  necessary.  The 
rheotome  itself  is  a  great  source  of  annoyance,  as  it  always  produces 
a  sound  of  similar  pitch  to  the  one  which  it  is  desired  to  hear.  It 
is  absolutely  requisite  that  it  should  be  placed  out  of  earshot  of  the 
observer,  and  at  such  a  distance  as  to  exclude  the  possibility  of  sounds 
being  mechanically  conducted  along  the  wire. 

3.  Very  striking  audible  effects  can  be  produced  upon  a  short  circuit  by 
means  of  two  Grove  elements.  I  had  a  helix  of  insulated  copper-wire 
(No.  23)  constructed,  having  a  resistance  of  about  twelve  ohms.  It 
was  placed  in  circuit  with  a  rheotome  which  interrupted  the  current 
one  hundred  times  per  second.     Upon  placing  the  helix  to  my  ear  I 

*  Ferguson.  Proceedings  of  Royal  Scottish  See.  of  Arts,  April  9,  18G6; 
Paper  on  "A  New  Current  Interrupter." 


4  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

could  hear  the  unison  of  the  note  produced  by  the  rheotome.  The 
intensity  of  the  sound  was  much  increased  by  placing  a  wrouglit-iron 
nail  inside  the  helix.  In  both  these  cases,  a  crackling  effect  accompa- 
nied the  sound.  When  the  nail  was  held  in  the  fingers  so  that  no 
portion  of  it  touched  the  helix,  the  crackling  effect  disappeared,  and  a 
pure  musical  note  resulted. 

When  the  nail  was  placed  inside  the  helix,  between  two  cylindrical 
pieces  of  iron,  a  loud  sound  resulted  that  could  be  heard  all  over  a  large 
room.  The  nail  seemed  to  vibrate  bodily,  striking  the  cylindrical  pieces 
of  metal  alternately,  and  the  iron  cylinders  themselves  were  violently 
agitated. 

4.  Loud  sounds  are  emitted  by  pieces  of  iron  and  steel  when  sub- 
jected to  the  attraction  of  an  electro-magnet  which  is  placed  in  cir- 
cuit with  a  rheotome.  Under  such  circumstances,  the  armatures  of 
Morse-sounders  and  Eelays  produce  sonorous  effects.  I  have 
succeeded  in  rendering  the  sounds  audible  to  large  audiences  by 
interposing  a  tense  membrane  between  the  electro-magnet  and  its 
armature.  The  armature  in  this  case  consisted  of  a  piece  of  clock- 
spring  glued  to  the  membrane.  This  form  of  apparatus  I  have  found 
invaluable  in  all  my  experiments.  The  instrument  was  connected 
with  a  parlor  organ,  the  reeds  of  which  weie  so  arranged  as  to  open 
and  close  the  circuit  during  their  vibration.  When  the  organ  was 
played  the  music  was  loudly  reproduced  by  the  telephonic  i-eceiver 
in  a  distant  room.  When  chords  were  played  upon  the  organ,  the 
various  notes  composing  the  chords  were  emitted  simultaneously  by 
the  armature  of  the  receiver. 

5.  rhe  simultaneous  production  of  musical  notes  of  different  pitch 
by  tlie  electric  current,  was  foreseen  by  me  as  early  as  1870,  and 
demonstrated  during  the  year  1873.  Elisha  Gray,*  of  Chicago,  and 
Paul  La  .Cour,t  of  Copenhagen,  lay  claim  to  the  same  discovery. 
The  fact  that  sounds  of  different  pitch  can  be  simultaneously  produced 
upon  any  part  of  a  telegraphic  circuit  is  of  great  practical  importance ; 
for  the  duration  of  a  musical  note  can  be  made  to  signify  the  dot  or 
dash  of  the  Morse  alphabet,  and  thus  a  number  of  telegraphic  mes- 
sages may  be  sent  simultaneously  over  the  same  wire  without  confusion 
by  making  signals  of  a  definite  pitch  for  each  message. 

6.  If  the  armature  of  an  electro-magnet  has  a  definite  rate  of  oscil- 
lation of  its  own,  it  is  thrown  bodily  into  vibration  when  the  interrup- 


*  ElUha  Gray.    Eng.  Pat.  Spec,  No.  974.     See  "  Engineer,"  March  26, 1876. 
t  Paul  la  Cour.     Telegraphic  Journal,  Nov.  1,  1875. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  5 

lions  of  the  current  are  timed  to  its  movements.  For  instance,  present 
an  electro-magnet  to  the  strings  of  a  piano.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
etrinjj  which  is  in  unison  with  the  rheotome  included  in  the  circuit 
will  be  thrown  into  vibration  by  the  attraction  of  the  magnet. 

liehnholtz,*  in  his  experiments  upon  the  synthesis  of  vowel  sounds 
caused  continuous  vibration  in  tuning-forks  which  were  used  as  the 
armatures  of  electro-magnets.  One  of  the  forks  was  employed  as  a 
rheotome.  Platinum  wires  attached  to  the  prongs  dipped  into  mer- 
cury. 

The  intermittent  current  occasioned  by  the  vibration  of  the  fork 
traversed  a  circuit  containing  a  number  of  electro-magnets  between 
the  poles  of  which  were  placed  tuning-forks  whose  normal  rates  of 
vibration  were  multiples  of  that  of  the  transmitting  fork.  All  the 
forks  were  kejjt  in  continuous  vibration  by  the  passage  of  the  inter- 
rupted current.  By  re-enforcing  the  tones  of  the  forks  in  different 
degrees  by  means  of  resonators,  Helmholtz  succeeded  in  reproducing 
artificially  certain  vowel  sounds. 

I  have  caused  intense  vibration  in  a  steel  strip,  one  extremity  of 
which  was  firmly  clamped  to  the  pole  of  a  U-shaped  electro-magnet,  the 
free  end  overhanging  the  otlier  pole.  The  amplitude  of  the  vibration 
was  greatest  when  the  coil  was  removed  from  the  leg  of  the  magnet  to 
which  the  armature  was  attached. 

7.  All  the  effects  noted  above  result  from  rapid  interruptions  of  a 
voltaic  current,  but  sounds  may  be  produced  electrically  in  many  other 
ways. 

The  Canon  Gottoin  de  Coma,t  in  1785,  observed  that  noises  were 
emitted  by  iron  rods  placed  in  the  open  air  during  certain  electrical 
conditions  of  the  atmosphere  ;  Beatson  $  produced  a  sound  from  an 
iron  wire  by  the  discharge  of  a  Leyden  jar;  Gore  §  obtained  loud 
musical  notes  from  mercury,  accompanied  by  singularly  beautiful  cris- 
pations  of  the  surface  during  the  course  of  experiments  in  electrolysis ; 
and  PagH  ||  produced  musical  tones  from  Trevelyan's  bars  by  the  action 
of  the  galvanic  current. 

8.  When  an  intermittent  current  is  passed  through  the  thick  wires 
of  a  Ruhmkorff's  coil,  very  curious  audible  effects  are  produced  by  the 

*  Helmholtz.    Die  Lelire  von  dem  Tonempfindungen. 

t  See  "  Treatise  on  Electricity,"  by  De  la  Rive,  I.,  p.  300. 

X  Ihid. 

§  Gore.     Proceedings  of  "Royal  Society,  XII.,  p.  217. 

II  Page.  "  Vibration  of  Trevelyan's  bars  by  the  galvanic  current."  SiUi- 
man's  Journal,  1850,  IX.,  pp.  105-108. 


6  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

currents  induced  in  the  secondary  wires.  A  rheotome  was  placed  in 
circuit  with  the  thick  wires  of  a  Ruhmkorff's  coil,  and  the  fine  wires 
were  connected  with  two  strips  of  brass  (A  and  B),  insulated  from  one 
another  by  means  of  a  sheet  of  paper.  Upon  placing  the  ear  against 
one  of  the  strips  of  brass,  a  sound  was  perceived  like  that  described 
above  as  proceeding  from  an  empty  helix  of  wire  during  the  passage  of 
an  intermittent  voltaic  current.  A  similar  sound,  only  much  more 
intense,  was  emitted  by  a  tin-foil  condenser  when  connected  with  the 
fine  wires  of  the  coil. 

One  of  the  strips  of  brass,  A  (mentioned  above),  was  held  closely 
against  the  ear.  A  loud  sound  came  from  A  whenever  the  slijs  B  was 
touched  with  the  other  hand.  It  is  doubtful  in  all  these  cases  whether 
the  sounds  proceeded  from  the  metals  or  from  the  imperfect  conductors 
interposed  between  them.  Further  experiments  seem  to  favor  the 
latter  supposition.  The  strips  of  brass  A  and  B  were  held  one  in  each 
hand.  The  induced  currents  occasioned  a  muscular  tremor  in  the 
fingei'S.  Upon  placing  my  forefinger  to  my  ear  a  loud  crackling  noise 
was  audible,  seemingly  proceeding  from  the  finger  itself.  A  friend 
who  was  present  placed  my  finger  to  his  e.ar,  but  heard  nothing.  I 
requested  him  to  hold  the  strips  A  and  B  himself.  He  was  then  dis- 
tinctly conscious  of  a  noise  (which  I  was  unable  to  jierceive)  proceed- 
ing from  his  finger.  In  these  cases  a  portion  of  the  induced  currents 
passed  through  the  head  of  the  observer  when  he  placed  his  ear  against 
his  own  finger ;  and  it  is  possible  that  the  sound  was  occasioned  by  a 
vibration  of  the  surfaces  of  the  ear  and  finger  in  contact. 

When  two  persons  receive  a  shock  from  a  Ruhmkorff's  coil  by  clasping 
hands,  each  taking  hold  of  one  wire  of  the  coil  with  the  free  hand,  a 
sound  proceeds  from  the  clasped  hands.  The  effect  is  not  produced  when 
the  hands  are  moist.  When  either  of  the  two  touches  the  body  of  the 
other  a  loud  sound  comes  from  the  parts  in  contact.  When  the  arm 
of  one  is  placed  against  the  arm  of  the  other,  the  noise  produced  can  be 
heard  at  a  distance  of  several  feet.  In  all  these  cases  a  slight  shock 
is  experienced  so  long  as  the  contact  is  preserved.  The  introduction 
of  a  piece  of  paper  between  the  parts  in  contact  does  not  materially 
interfere  with  the  production  of  the  sounds,  while  the  unpleasant 
effects  of  the  shock  are  avoided. 

When  a  powerful  current  is  passed  through  the  body,  a  musical  note 
can  be  perceived  when  the  ear  is  closely  applied  to  the  arm  of  the 
person  experimented  upon.  The  sound  seems  to  proceed  from  the 
muscles  of  the  fore-arm  and  from  the  biceps  muscle.  The  musical 
note  is  the  unison  of  the  rheotome  employed  to  interrupt  the  primary 


OP  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  7 

circuit.  I  failed  to  obtain  audible  effects  in  tbis  way  when  the  pitch 
of  the  rbeotome  was  high.  Elisha  Gray  *  has  also  produced  audible 
effects  by  the  passage  of  induced  electricity  through  the  human  body. 
A  musical  note  is  occasioned  by  the  spark  of  a  Ruhmkorff's  coil  when 
the  primary  circuit  is  made  and  broken  sufficiently  rapidly.  When 
two  rheotomes  of  different  pitch  are  caused  simultaneously  to  open  and 
close  the  primary  circuit,  a  double  tone  proceeds  from  the  spark. 

9.  AVhen  a  voltaic  battery  is  common  to  two  closed  circuits,  the 
current  is  divided  between  them.  If  one  of  the  circuits  is  rapidly 
opened  and  closed,  a  pulsatory  action  of  the  current  is  occasioned  upon 
the  other. 

All  the  audible  effects  resulting  from  the  passage  of  an  intermittent 
current  can  also  be  produced,  though  in  less  degree,  by  means  of  a 
pulsatory  current. 

10.  When  a  permanent  magnet  is  caused  to  vibrate  in  front  of  the 
pole  of  an  electro-magnet,  an  undulatory  or  oscillatory  current  of 
electricity  is  induced  in  the  coils  of  the  electro-magnet,  and  sounds 
proceed  from  the  armatures  of  other  electro-magnets  placed  upon  the 
circuit.  The  telephonic  receiver  referred  to  above  (par.  4),  was  con- 
nected in  circuit  with  a  single-pole  electro-magnet,  no  battery  being 
used.  A  steel  tuning-fork  which  had  been  previously  magnetized  was 
caused  to  vibrate  in  front  of  the  pole  of  the  electro-magnet.  A 
musical  note  similar  in  pitch  to  that  produced  by  the  tuning-fork 
proceeded  from  the  telephonic  receiver  in  a  distant  room. 

11.  The  effect  was  much  increased  when  a  battery  was  included  in 
the  circuit.  In  this  case,  the  vibration  of  the  permanent  magnet  threw 
the  battery-current  into  waves.  A  similar  effect  was  produced  by  the 
vibration  of  an  unmagnetized  tuning-fork  in  front  of  the  electro-magnet. 
The  vibration  of  a  soft  iron  armature,  or  of  a  small  piece  of  steel  spring 
no  larger  than  the  pole  of  the  electro-raagnet  in  front  of  which  it  was 
placed,  sufficed  to  produce  audible  effects  in  the  distant  room. 

12.  Two  sino-le-pole  electro-magnets,  each  having  a  resistance  of 
ten  ohms,  were  arranged  upon  a  circuit  with  a  battery  of  five  carbon 
elements.  The  total  resistance  of  the  circuit,  exclusive  of  the  battery, 
was  about  twenty-five  ohms.  A  drum-head  of  gold-beater's  skin, 
seven  centimetres  in  diameter,  was  placed  in  front  of  each  electro- 
magnet, and  a  circular  piece  of  clock-spring,  one  centimetre  in 
diameter,  was  glued  to  the  middle  of  each  membrane.  The  telephones 
so  constructed  were  placed  in  different  rooms.     One  was  retained  in 

*  Elisha  Gray.    Eng.  Pat.  Spec,  No.  2646,  see  "  Engineer,"  Aug.  U,  1874. 


8  PROCEEDINGS   OP  THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

the  experimental  room,  and  the  other  taken  to  the  basement  of  an 
adjoining  house. 

Upon  singing  into  the  telephone,  tlie  tones  of  the  voice  were  re- 
produced by  the  instrument  in  the  distant  room.  When  two  persons 
sang  simultaneously  into  the  instrument,  two  notes  were  emitted  simul- 
taneously by  the  telephone  in  the  other  house.  A  friend  was  sent 
into  the  adjoining  building  to  note  the  effect  produced  by  articulate 
speech.  I  placed  the  membrane  of  the  telephone  near  my  mouth,  and 
uttered  the  sentence,  "Do  you  understand  what  I  say  ?  "  Presently 
an  answer  was  returned  through  the  instrument  in  my  hand.  Articu- 
late words  proceeded  from  the  clock-spring  attached  to  the  membrane, 
and  I  heard  the  sentence  :  "  Yes ;  I  understand  you  perfectly." 

The  articulation  was  somewhat  muffled  and  indistinct,  although  in 
this  case  it  was  intelligible.  Familiar  quotations,  such  as,  "To  be,  or 
not  to  be  ;  that  is  the  question."  "  A  horse,  a  horse,*my  kingdom  for 
a  horse."  "  What  hath  God  wrought,"  &c.,  were  generally  understood 
after  a  few  repetitions.  The  effects  were  not  sufficiently  distinct  to 
admit  of  sustained  conversation  through  the  wire.  Indeed,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  the  articulation  was  unintelligible,  excepting  when  familiar 
sentences  were  employed.  Occasionally,  however,  a  sentence  would 
come  out  with  such  startling  distinctness  as  to  render  it  difficult  to 
believe  that  the  speaker  was  not  close  at  hand.  No  sound  was  audible 
when  the  clock-spring  was  removed  from  the  membrane. 

The  elementary  sounds  of  the  English  language  were  uttered  suc- 
cessively into  one  of  the  telephones  and  the  effects  noted  at  the  other. 
Consonantal  sounds,  with  the  exception  of  L  and  M,  were  unrecog- 
nizable. Vowel-sounds  in  most  cases  were  distinct.  Diphthongal 
vowels,  such  as  a  (in  ale),  o  (in  old),  i  (in  isle),  oiv  (in  now),  oy  (in 
boy),  oor  (in  poor),  oor  (in  door),  ere  (in  here),  ere  (in  there),  were 
well  marked. 

Triphthoogal  vowels,  such  as  ire  (in  fire),  our  (in  flour),  ower 
(in  mower),  ayer  (in  player),  were  also  distinct.  Of  the  elementary 
vowel-sounds,  the  most  distinct  were  those  which  had  the  largest  oral 
apertures.  Such  were  a  (in  far),  aw  (in  law),  a  (in  man),  and  e  (in 
men). 

13.  Electrical  undulations  can  be  produced  directly  in  the  voltaic 
current  by  vibrating  the  conducting  wire  in  a  liquid  of  high  resistance 
included  in  the  circuit. 

The  stem  of  a  tuning-fork  was  connected  with  a  wire  leading  to  one 
of  the  telephones  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  While  the 
tuning-fork  was  in  vibration,  the  end  of  one  of  the  prongs  was  dipped 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  9 

into  water  included  in  tlie  circuit.  A  sound  proceeded  from  the  distant 
telephone.  When  two  tuning-forks  of  different  pitch  were  connected 
together,  and  simultaneously  caused  to  vibrate  in  the  water,  two  musical 
notes  (the  unisons  respectively  of  those  produced  by  the  forks)  were 
emitted  simultaneously  by  the  telephone. 

A  platinum  wire  attached  to  a  stretched  membrane,  completed  a 
voltaic  circuit  l)y  dipping  into  water.  Upon  speaking  to  the  membrane, 
articulate  sounds  proceeded  from  the  telephone  in  the  distant  room. 
The  sounds  produced  by  the  telephone  became  louder  when  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  or  a  saturated  solution  of  salt,  was  substituted  for  the 
water.  Au'lible  effects  were  also  produced  by  the  vibration  of  plumbago 
in  mercury,  in  a  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash,  in  salt  and  water,  in 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  in  pure  water. 

14.  Sullivan  *  discovered  that  a  current  of  electricity  is  generated 
by  the  vibration  of  a  wire  composed  partly  of  one  metal  and  partly  of 
another ;  and  it  is  probable  that  electrical  undulations  were  caused  by 
the  vibration.  The  current  was  produced  so  long  as  the  wire  emitted 
a  musical  note,  but  stopped  immediately  upon  the  cessation  of  the 
sound. 

15.  Although  sounds  proceed  from  the  armatures  of  electro-magnets 
under  the  influence  of  uiidulatory  currents  of  electricity,  I  have  been  un- 
able to  detect  any  audible  effects  due  to  the  electro- magnets  themselves. 
An  undulatory  current  was  passed  through  the  coils  of  an  electro- 
magnet which  was  held  closely  against  the  ear.  No  sound  was  per- 
ceived until  a  piece  of  iron  or  steel  was  presented  to  the  pole  of  the 
magnet.  No  sounds  either  were  observed  when  the  undulatory  cur- 
rent was  passed  through  iron,  steel,  retort-carl)on,  or  plumbago.  In 
these  respects  an  undulatory  current  is  curiously  different  from  an  inter- 
mittent one.     (See  par.  2.) 

16.  The  telephonic  effects  described  above  are  produced  by  three 
distinct  varieties  of  currents,  which  I  term  respectively  intermittent, 
pulsatory,  and  undulatory.  Intermittent  currents  are  characterized  by 
the  alternate  presence  and  absence  of  electricity  upon  the  circuit ; 
Pulsatory  currents  result  from  sudden  or  instantaneous  changes  in  the 
intensity  of  a  continuous  current ;  and  undulatory  currents  are  pro- 
duced by  gradual  changes  in  the  intensity  of  a  current  analogous  to 
the  changes  in  the  density  of  air  occasioned  by  simi)le  jiendulous 
vibrations.     The  varying  intensity  of  an  undulatory  current  can  be 

*  Sullivan.  "  Currents  of  Electricity  produced  by  the  vibration  of  Metals." 
Phil.  Mag.,  1845,  p.  201;  Arch,  de  I'^lectr.,  X.,  p.  480. 


10 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 


represented  by  a  sinusoidal  curve,  or  by  the  resultant  of  several  sinus- 
oidal curves. 

Intermittent,  pulsatory,  and  undulatory  currents  may  be  of  two 
kinds,  —  voltaic,  or  induced;  and  these  varieties  may  be  still  further 
discriminated  into  direct  and  reversed  currents  ;  or  those  in  which 
the  electrical  impulses  are  all  positive  or  negative,  and  those  in  which 
they  are  alternately  positive  and  negative. 


I        00 


( 


^  s 

CD      in 


H    ^ 


Intermittent. 


(  Voltaic. 
(^  Induced. 


{ 

(  Reversed  (See  par.  8). 


Direct  (See  par.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6). 

Reversed. 

Direct. 


a 


_      r^      •— ' 


.--^Pulsatory- 


\ 


Voltaic, 


Undulatory. 


\ 


(  Direct  (See  par.  9). 
(  Reversed. 

/  Induced.    <  r,         '  j 
^  I  Reversed. 

ect  (See  par.  11,  12,  13,  15). 

versed. 
Direct. 
Reversed  (See  par.  10). 


Voltaic. 


Induced. 


(  Direc 
(  Reve 

{ 


17.  In  conclusion,  I  would  say  that  the  different  kinds  of  currents 
described  above  may  be  studied  optically  by  means  of  Konig's  mano- 
metric  capsule.*  The  instrument,  as  I  have  employed  it,  consists 
simjily  of  a  gas-chamber  closed  by  a  membrane  to  which  is  attached 
a  piece  of  clock-spring.  When  the  spring  is  subjected  to  the  attraction 
of  an  electro-magnet,  through  the  coils  of  which  a  "telephonic  "  current 
of  electricity  is  passed,  the  flame  is  thrown  into  vibration. 

I  find  the  instrument  invaluable  as  a  rheometer,  for  an  ordinary 
galvanometer  is  of  little  or  no  use  when  "  telephonic  "  currents  are  to 
be  tested.  For  instance,  the  galvanometer  needle  is  insensitive  to  the 
most  powerful  undulatory  current  when  the  impulses  are  reversed,  and 
is  only  slightly  deflected  when  they  are  direct.  The  manometric  cap- 
sule, on  the  other  hand,  affords  a  means  of  testing  the  amplitude  of 
the  electrical  undulations;  that  is,  of  deciding  the  difference  between 
the  maximum  and  minimum  intensity  of  the  current. 


*  Konig.    "  Upon  Manometric  Flames,"  Phil.  Mag.,  1873,  XLV.,  No.  297, 
298. 


OP  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  11 


II. 


SCHEELE'S    GREEN, 

ITS    COMPOSITION    AS   USUALLY    PREPARED,   AND    SOxME    EX- 
PERIMENTS UPON  ARSENITE    OF  COPPER. 

By  S.  p.  Sharples,  SB. 

Presented,  June  14,  1876. 

In  1778,  the  eminent  Swedish  chemist,  Charles  William  Scheele,  com- 
municated to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm  the  method  of 
preparing  the  green  pigment  which  has  since  borne  his  name.  He, 
however,  says,  that  it  was  discovered  three  years  previously. 

This  piument  is  of  a  yellowish  green  color,  and  has  been  long  used 
in  the  arts  under  various  names ;  such  as,  mountain  green,  mineral 
green,  and  Swedish  green.  At  the  time  of  its  discovery,  it  was  the 
most  brilliant  green  obtainable. 

The  discovery,  in.  1814,  of  the  copper  aceto-arsenite,  known  as 
Schweinfurth  green,  Paris  green,  English  green,  and  sometimes  wrongly 
called  Scheele's  green,  has,  however,  almost  entirely  tlirown  Scheele's 
green  out  of  the  market ;  and  it  is  at  the  present  day  an  unknown  sub- 
stance, so  far  as  its  use  as  a  pigment  is  concerned ;  although  it  may  be 
still  found  on  the  price  lists  of  manufacturing  chemists,  and  the  receipts 
for  its  manufacture  are  found  in  works  on  dyeing  and  calico-printing. 
But  its  covering  power  is  very  low,  and  it  is  far  inferior  in  brilliancy 
to  its  successful  rival,  Paris  green. 

Having  had  occasion  to  examine  some  samples  of  this  pigment  some 
time  ago,  I  became  convinced  that  the  composition  of  Scheele's  green, 
as  laid  down  in  the  books,  was  altogether  a  matter  of  conjecture ;  since 
I  could  find  no  record  of  any  analysis  that  had  ever  been  made  of  the 
substance  prepared  according  to  Scheele's  directions,  which  have  been 
copied  without  change  for  the  last  hundred  years. 

The  formula  given  varies  with  the  date  ;  Scheele  himself,  of  course, 
neither  made  a  quantitative  analj'sis  nor  gave  a  formula.  Succeeding 
writers  seem  to  have  followed  him  in  the  first  respect,  but  have  given 
formulas  to  correspond  with  their  ideas  of  the  composition  that  the  salt 
should  have. 


12  PROCEEDINGS    OP   THE    AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

The  older  writers  give  the  formula  CuOAs^Og,  this  would  give  the 
percentages  of  copper  oxide  and  arsenic  trioxide,  as  follows  :  — 

Copper  oxide,  29.50 

Arsenic  trioxide,  70.50 


100.00 


(The  atomic  weights  used  through  this  paper  are:  oxygen,  16; 
copper,  63.4 ;  the  old  formulas  being  changed  to  correspond  to  these 
weights.  As  a  matter  of  convenience,  I  have  made  all  statements  of 
composition  in  terms  of  copper  oxide  and  arsenic  trioxide,  but  in  so 
doing  I  have  no  wish  to  be  understood  as  asserting  that  they  exist  as 
copper  oxide  and  arsenic  trioxide  in  the  compound.) 

Berzelius  *  gives  the  formula,  Cu2:S.s ;  this,  in  modern  notation,  would 
be  Cu^As^Og ;  or  in  percentages. 

Copper  oxide,  44.50 

Arsenic  trioxide,  55.50 


100.00 


He  describes  the  methods  by  which  it  may  be  obtained  as  either,  by 
digesting  carbonate  of  copper  with  water  and  arsenious  acid,  or  by 
Scheele's  method,  giving  for  the  latter  almost  exactly  Sclieele's  receipt. 
Ure  t  gives  Scheele's  receipt,  and  then  says  it  consists  of  oxide  of 
copper,  28.51,  arsenious  acid,  71.46.  This  corresponds  to  the  first 
formula  given  above,  CuAs^O^. 

Miller  t  gives  the  formula  CuHAsOg.  This  in  percentages  would 
be: 

Copper  oxide,  42.37 

Arsenic  trioxide,  52.83 

Water,  4.80 

This  formula  seems  to  be  the  favorite  one  at  present,  and  may  be 
found  in  most  of  the  text-books. 

Bloxam,§  in  the  course  of  his  long  and  elaborate  investigations  of 
the  arsenites,  made  some  experiments  upon  copper  arsenite,  but 
failed  to  obtain  a  definite  compound.  The  first  salt  made,  he  says, 
contained :  — 

«  Ure's  Diet.,  New  York,  1847,  p.  1100. 

t  Traite  ile  Cliemie,  Tome  4,  p.  182.    Paris,  1847. 

t  Miller's  Elements  of  Chemistry.     London,  1864,  p.  292. 

§  Bloxam,  C.  L.,  Jour.  Chem.  Soc,  1862,  p.  292. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES. 


13 


Per  cente. 

Equivalents. 

40.54 

1.88 

53.80 

1. 

5.67 

1.16 

Per  cents. 

Equivalents. 

44.29 

2.21 

49.98 

1.00 

5.73 

1.26 

Per  cents. 

Equivalents. 

46.52 

2.35 

49.36 

1.00 

4.12 

.92 

Per  cents. 

Equivalents. 

42.69 

1.96 

52.67 

1. 

4.64 

.97 

Copper  oxide, 
Arsenic  trioxide, 
"Water, 

The  second  contained  :  — 

Copper  oxide, 
Arsenic  trioxide. 
Water, 

The  third  product  gave  :  — 

Copper  oxide. 
Arsenic  trioxide, 
Water, 

The  fourth  gave  :  — 

Copper  oxide. 
Arsenic  trioxide, 
Water, 

From  this  last  analysis  he  deduces  the  formula  CuIIAsO..  In  a 
foot-note  he  says :  "  Scheele's  prescription  for  the  commercial  green 
arsenite  of  copper  involves  2.3  equivalents  of  oxide  of  copper  for  one 
equivalent  of  arsenious  acid,  so  that  Scheele's  green  dried  at  212°  F., 
appears  to  be  essentially  a  mixture  of  CuHAsO^,  with  an  excess  of 
oxide  of  cojiper." 

This  observation  is  perfectly  correct  if  nothing  is  taken  into  the  ac- 
count except  the  quantities  taken  by  Scheele  ;  but  Sclieele  himself  says, 
in  a  foot-note:*  "Tlie  water  with  which  the  color  is  lixiviated  con- 
tains a  little  arsenic,  and  must  not  be  thrown  out  in  a  place  to  which 
cattle  have  access."  The  evident  tendency  of  this  loss  of  arsenic 
would  be  to  make  the  salt  more  basic  than  the  formula  (CuO)2.32As„03 
(H.,0)g2  calls  for,  this  being  the  formula  which  Bloxam  supposes  to 
represent  Scheele's  green. 

In  Watts's  Dictionary,!  under  the  head  of  arsenite  of  copper,  this 
sentence  occurs  :  "  It  is  a  light  green  precipitate,  which  dissolves  in  an 
excess  of  ammonia,  without  color,  yielding  a  solution  of  arsenic  acid 
and  cuprous  oxide." 

Berzelius's  formula  is  given,  and  the  sentence  just  quoted  is  evi- 


*  Scheele's  Essays.    London,  1786,  p.  254. 
t  Vol.  I.,  p.  376. 


14  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

dently  a  translation,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  from  the  same 
author. 

The  description  of  copper  arsenite  in  the  French  edition  of  Ber- 
zelius,  Paris,  1847,  is  as  follows:  "The  neutral  salt  is  obtained  by 
precijiitatinLT  sulphate  of  copper  by  arsenite  of  potassa.  The  precipi- 
tate is  green.  When  it  contains  an  excess  of  base,  its  color  is  more  in- 
tense ;  but  it  decomposes  spontaneously,  in  a  little  time  becoming  a  dark 
brown,  and  then  contains  cupric  arsenate  and  cuprous  arsenite.  Caustic 
ammonia  dissolves  this  salt  into  a  colorless  liquid  containing,  probably, 
cuprous  arsenate."  The  German  of  1838  is  the  same  as  the  above, 
with  the  exception  that  it  reads :  "  When  the  alkali  is  in  excess,  the 
color  is  more  intense,  but  it  decomposes  in  a  little  time,"  &c.  "  This 
salt "  referred  to  in  the  above  paragraph,  is  evidently  the  brown  salt, 
and  not  the  green.  Moreover,  the  German  text,  and  not  the  French, 
is  the  coi'rect  one,  as  is  shown  by  my  own  experiments. 

In  this  connection,  the  following  extract  is  of  interest.  Rose  says 
of  Scheele's  green  :  "  This  precipitate  is  soluble  in  an  excess  of  ammonia, 
also  in  an  excess  of  hydrate  of  potassa.  The  solution  has  in  both  cases 
a  similar  blue  color.  The  blue  solution  formed  by  hydrate  of  potassa 
deposits  in  time  reddish-brown  suboxide  of  copper  ;  the  liquid  becomes 
colorless,  and  contains  arsenate  of  potMssium.  The  blue  solution  formed 
by  ammonia  is  not  modified  by  time." 

The  reference  from  Berzelius  seems  to  have  been  misunderstood  by 
German  as  well  as  English  writers,  as  the  same  statement  occurs  in 
the  Handworterbuch  der  Chemie,  B.  2,  1858,  p.  300,  which  says 
Scheele's  green  dissolves  colorless  in  ammonia  as  arsenic  acid  and 
cuprous  oxide.     Graham-Otto  *  also  repeats  the  same. 

In  the  New  Chemistry,!  the  above  blunder  is  repeated,  and  two 
formulas  are  given,  as  follows  :  "  Arsenite  of  copper,  (Cu.,0)2As.,03  or, 
Cu./AsO,)^."  And  the  article  finishes  by  saying  there  are  also  two 
hydrated  salts,  CuH_,(As0.5)2,  and  CuHAsOn.  The  percentage  com- 
position of  these  salts  would  be  as  follows,  supposing  the  above  formulas 
are  correctly  given  :  — 


Copper 
Arsenic 

CCusC 
oxide,    (sub. 
trioxide, 

O2AS2O3. 
59.06) 
40.94 

CU3(AS03)2. 

54.61 
45.39 

CuH4(As03)o. 
25.33 
63.18 

CUHASO3. 
42.37 
52.83 

Water, 

11.49 

4.80 

*  Vol.  III.,  557,  4th  ed. 

t  Chemistry,  Theoretical  and  Practical.      Lippincott  &  Co. ;    Phila.,  1876, 
p.  260. 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  15 

In  the  first  of  these  formulas,  there  is  an  evident  mistake ;  it  is  a 
copy  of  the  formula  given  by  Watts,  without  takiug  into  account  that 
Watts,  while  doubling  the  atomic  weight  of  oxygen,  retained  the  old 
weight  of  copper,  so  that,  corrected,  this  formula  reads  (CuO)2  ASjOj ; 
or,  in  other  words,  is  Berzelius's  formula. 

But  both  of  the  formulas,  one  and  two,  are  wrong,  from  the  fact  that 
they  contain  no  water.  No.  3  is  an  evident  attempt  to  represent  the 
acid  arsenite  which  Berzelius  mentions,  and  No.  4  is  Bloxam's 
formula. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  whole  literature  of  the  subject  is  founded  upon 
three  sets  of  facts.  Scheele's  prescription,  which  all  the  authors,  whom 
I  have  quoted,  have  given,  making  only  such  alterations  as  were  necessary 
on  account  of  chancres  in  weights  and  measures.  And  it  is  a  sintjular  fact, 
that  not  one  of  these  authors  has  taken  the  trouble  to  see  if  the  quan- 
tities of  copper  sulphate  and  arsenic  trioxide  taken  would  produce  a 
salt  of  the  formula  given  ;  or  have  discovered  the  fact  tiiat  nearly 
twice  as  much  potassium  carbonate  is  used  as  is  necessary  to  saturate 
the  sulphuric  trioxide  of  the  copper  sulphate,  and  Scheele's  foot-note 
has  been  totallv  ignored. 

Secondly,  Berzelius's  account  of  the  salt,  which  has  evidently  been 
misunderstood. 

Thirdly,  Bloxam's  analyses  of  salts,  which  he  would  have  found 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  reproduce,  had  he  been  so  inclined. 

After  comparing  the  various  works  cited,  it  became  a  matter  of  in- 
terest to  find  out,  in  the  first  place,  what  Scheele's  green  really  is, 
what  are  its  properties,  and  whether  there  is  more  than  one  copper 
arsenite. 

The  experiment  was  tried  of  making  copper  arsenite  according  to 
the  method  given  by  Berzelius  ;  that  is,  by  dissolving  copper  carbonate 
in  an  aqueous  solution  of  arsenic  trioxide. 

Hydrocopper  carbonate  was  prepared  by  precipitating  copper  sul- 
phate in  the  cold  by  an  excess  of  sodium  carbonate,  and  washing  the 
precipitate  with  cold  water  until  free  from  sulphates.  Some  of  the 
precipitate  was  boiled  with  a  saturated  solution  of  arsenic  trioxide,  its 
blue  color  soon  changed  to  a  bright  green,  which  it  maintained, 
although  boiled  for  upwards  of  an  hour.  The  green  i^recipitate  was 
filtered  off,  and  washed  with  hot  water,  until  the  wash  waters  were  free 
from  arsenic. 

The  substance  remaining  on  the  filter  was  of  a  bright  sfreen  color, 
scarcely  inferior  to  Schweinfurth  green  in  brilliancy,  although  of  a 
vellowish  shade. 


16                     PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   AMERICAN  ACADEMY 

The  green  precipitate  was  dried  and  analyzed,  it  gave,  — 

Al^ALYSIS  No.  I. 

Per  cents.  Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide,                           66.02  8.31 

Arsenic  trioxide,                        8.32  .42 

Carbon  dioxide,                        15.26  3.47 

Water,                                     10.33  5.74 


99.93 


This  corresponds  well  with  a  mixture  of  dibasic  carbonate  and  tribasic 
arsenite. 

The  brown  basic  carbonate  produced  by  boiling  the  hydrocopper  car- 
bonate with  water  was  then  boiled  with  arsenic  trioxide,  but  was  not 
changed  in  color.  The  filtrate  from  the  green  precipitate  contained  a 
large  amount  of  arsenic,  but  was  free  from  copper  ;  and  I  failed  to 
obtain  on  evaporation  the  yellowish-green  acid  salt  spoken  of  by  Ber- 
zelius. 

P'urther  experiments  on  the  carbonate  were  tried  to  see  if  it  could 
be  completely  decomposed  by  boiling  with  excess  of  arsenic  trioxide, 
but  they  all  resulted  in  failure. 

It  seems  to  me  that  Berzelius  must  have  been  misled  by  the  produc- 
tion of  the  brilliant  green  arsenio-carbonate,  as  he  gives  no  analysis  to 
support  his  assertion. 

Arsenic  trioxide  seems  to  have  a  very  strong  influence  in  preventing 
the  blackening  of  copper  carbonates  and  hydrates,  a  very  small  per- 
centage preventing  this  well-known  reaction. 

A  series  of  expei-iments  were  then  tried  on  the  production  of 
Scheele's  green,  following  the  course  laid  down  in  the  books  and  by 
Scheele  himself;  viz.,  first,  the  production  of  a  more  or  less  basic, 
sodium  or  potassium  arsenite  ;  and,  secondly,  the  addition  of  this  to  a 
solution  of  copper  sulphate. 

Experiment  No.  1. 


Parts. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  sulphate. 

CuS0,5H„0 

50 

2.04 

Potassium  carbonate. 

K,C03 

25 

1.81 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

As,03 

10 

.50 

Dissolved  the  potassium  carbonate  in  water,  boiled  and  added  the 
arsenic  trioxide,  filtered  and  added  to  the  boiling  solution  of  copper  sul- 
phate. The  precipitate,  when  washed  and  dried,  was  of  a  yellowish 
green;  the  filtrate  was  blue. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


17 


Analysis  No.  II. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide,                             56.98 

7.18 

Arsenic  trioxide,                          21.45 

1.08 

Sulphur  trioxide,                         12.80 

1.60 

Ferrous  oxide,                                1.60 

.22 

Water,                                             7.17 

3.98 

Experiment  No.  2. 

Parts. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  sulphate,                 CuSO^oH^O 

50 

2.04 

Potassium  carbonate,           Kg^^s 

30 

2.17 

Arsenic  trioxide,                   AS2O3 

15 

.76 

Treated  as  before ;  filtrate  pale  blue,  precipitate,  a  brighter  green 
than  No.  1. 

Analysis  No.  III. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios, 

Copper  oxide,                               49.58 

6.24 

Arsenic  trioxide,                          32.12 

1.62 

Sulphur  trioxide,                            4.42 

.55 

Water,                                         13.88 

7.82 

Experiment  No.  3. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

CuSO,5H20,                       50 

2.04 

K,C03,                                40 

2.90 

As.,0„                                  10 

.50 

Treated  as  before  ;  filtrate  pale  yellow,  precipitate  had  more  of  a 
yellowish  tinge  than  before. 


Analysis  No.  IV. 


Copper  oxide, 
Arsenic  trioxide, 
Sulphur  trioxide. 
Water, 


CuSO,5H20, 
K..CO3, 

ASgOg, 

VOL.  XII.  (n.  8.  IV.) 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios, 

51.26 

6.43 

31.67 

1.60 

5.32 

.66 

11.75 

6.53 

No.  4. 

Parts. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

50 

2.04 

50 

3.61 

18 

.90 

18  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

The  potash  and  arsenic  were  dissolved  and  allowed  to  cool,  then 
added  to  the  cold  solution  of  copper.  The  mixture  effervesced  strongly  ; 
half  of  it  was  allowed  to  stand  until  next  day,  then  filtered ;  the  other 
half  was  boiled,  whicii  operation  it  stood  without  blackening.  Analysis 
of  the  first  half  gave, — 

Analysis  No.  V. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide, 

49.55 

6.24 

Arsenic  trioxide, 

38.90 

1.96 

Water, 

11.55 

6.42 

The  second  half  gave,  — 

Analysis  N 

0.  VI. 

Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide, 

46.65 

5.87 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

42.94 

2.17 

Water, 

10.41 

5.78 

Per  c«iits. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

51.40 

6.47 

39.57 

1.99 

8.72 

■    4.85 

This  preparation  was  repeated,  using  the  same  proportions ;  the  pre- 
cipitate was  boiled,  and  washed  with  hot  water  until  the  filtrate  was 
free  from  arsenic. 

Analysis  No.  VII. 

Copper  oxide. 
Arsenic  trioxide, 
Water, 

This  seems  to  indicate  that  either  the  salt  is  decomposed  by  washing 
with  hot  water,  or  that  it  consists  of  a  strongly  basic  salt  mixed  with 
free  arsenious  acid.  The  first  view  is  most  likely  the  correct  one,  if  we 
modify  it  so  as  to  read :  "it  is  decomposed  by  washing  with  either  hot 
or  cold  water,  forming  a  more  basic  salt." 

But  further  experiments  seem  to  show  that  this  decomposition  is 
much  slower  with  cold  tlian  with  hot  water.  And  I  have  found  it 
utterly  impossible  to  remove  the  whole  of  the  arsenic  by  prolonged 
washing. 

This  fact  was  further  confirmed  by  an  experiment  of  Prof.  J.  M. 
Ordway,  who  waslied  a  portion  of  the  salt  with  3,000  times  its  weight 
of  water,  without  completely  decomposing  it.  The  basic  salt  produced 
by  washing  does  not  blacken  on  boiling  with  water,  thus  showing  that 
we  have  a  true  basic  salt  or  mixtures  of  several  basic  salts,  and  not  a 
mixture  of  Bloxam's  normal  arsenite,  HCuAsO^,  and  hydrate  of 
copper. 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES. 


19 


Parts. 

Atomic  Ratios, 

124.8 

2. 

49. .5 

1. 

53. 

2. 

Experiment  No.  5. 

In  order  to  see  if  the  salt  IICu  AsO^  could  be  prepared  by  taking  the 
exact  amount  (if  arsenic  trioxide  and  copper  sulphate  necessary  to 
form  it,  the  following  ^Jroportious  were  taken  :  — 

Copper  sulphate, 
Arsenic  trioxide, 
Sodium  carbonate, 

The  solution  of  arsenic  in  the  sodium  carbonate  was  boiled,  and 
added,  while  boiling,  to  the  solution  of  copper  sulphate.  And  the 
ebullition  was  continued  till  all  the  carbonic  aoid  was  driven  off.  The 
precipitate  was  washed  by  decantation  once  or  twice,  and  then  divided 
into  three  portions ;  the  first  was  merely  drained,  the  second  was 
washed  a  little,  and  the  third  was  washed  until  arsenic  ceased  to  be 
found  in  the  wash-water.  These  portions  were  numbered  respectively, 
VIIL,  IX.,  X.  They  all  contained  basic  copper  sulphate,  and  No.  VIII. 
probably  contained  a  little  sodium  sulphate. 

Analysis  No.  VIII. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide. 

49.78 

6.27 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

35.93 

1.80 

Sulphur  trioxide, 

6.07 

.76 

Water, 

7.56 

4.20 

99.34 


Analysis  No.  IX. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios, 

Copper  oxide. 

47.71 

6.00 

Arsenic  oxide. 

43.74 

2.21 

Sulphur  trioxide, 

3.10 

.39 

Water, 

5.47 

3.04 

100.02 


Analysis  No.  X. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide. 

57.77 

7.27 

Arsenic  oxide. 

27.50 

1.39 

Sulphur  trioxide, 

5.27 

.66 

Water, 

8.97 

4.98 

99.51 


20  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

None  of  the  above  blackened  on  boiling  with  water,  and  all  gave  a 
blue  solution  with  ammonia.  Nos.  VIII.,  IX.  closely  approximate  a 
mixture  of  tribasic  sulphate  with  Bloxam's  salt;  while  No.  X.  is 
more  basic  than  the  formula  for  triarsenite  calls  for. 

Experiment  No.  6. 

Molecules. 

Copper  sulphate,  6 

Sodic  carbonate,  3 

Arsenic  trioxide,  1 

The  filtrate  was  blue  and  acid  ;  the  precipitate  gave,  — 

Analysis  No.  XL 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide. 

60.80 

7.66 

Arsenic  trioxide, 

14.53 

.73 

Sulphur  trioxide. 

13.34 

1.67 

Water, 

11.11 

6.17 

This  corresponds  with  a  mixture  of  tribasic  arsenite  and  sulphate, 
with  a  little  excess  of  copper  oxide. 

To  the  blue  filtrate  from  the  above,  three  molecules  more  of  sodic 
carbonate  were  added,  the  filtrate  was  faint  yellow,  and  free  from 
copper,  but  contained  arsenic;  the  precipitate  contained  a  little  car- 
bonate. 

Analysis  No.  XII. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  RatioSc 

Copper  oxide. 

56.71 

7.14 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

28.62 

1.44 

Sulpliur  trioxide, 

1.59 

.20 

Water, 

9.50 

5.28 

Carbon  dioxide, 

.3.35 

.77 

99.77 

These  precipitates  both  dissolved  in  ammonia  with  a  blue  color,  and 
stood  boiling  without  change  of  color. 

Experiment  No.  7. 

Molecules. 

Copper  sulphate,  6 

Potassium  carbonate,  6 

Arsenic  trioxide,  1 


OP   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  21 

Boiled  for  half  an  hour,  filtrate  colorless,  free  from  copper,  but  con- 
tained arsenic ;  precipitate  did  not  blacken  on  boiling,  was  free  from 
carbonates,  but  contained  basic  sulphate.  Washed  until  filtrate  was 
free  from  arsenic. 

Analysis  No.  XIII. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide, 

58.85 

7.41 

Arsenic  trioxide, 

27.08 

1.37 

Sulphur  trioxide, 

4.83 

.60 

Water, 

8.55 

4.75 

99.30 

Experiment  No.  8. 

Scheele's  orijrinal  receipt  is  very  nearly  one  part  by  weight  ot 
arsenic  to  three  each  of  copper  sulphate  and  potassium  carbonate,  and 
is  frequently  so  given.  The  proportions  as  given  by  Scheele  are,  eleven 
ounces  of  the  first,  and  thirty-two  of  each  of  the  otiiers.  In  molecules, 
supposing  the  potassium  carbonate  to  be  pure  and  anhydrous,  as  he 
directs  it  should  be,  the  receipt  will  be  as  follows  :  — 

As  A,  1- 

CuO,  2.32 

ICCOg,  4.34 

Or  nearly  double  the  amount  of  potassium  carbonate  required  in  the 

CuSO,  +  IVjCOg  =  CuCOg  +  K,SO,. 

A  portion  was,  therefore  prepared,  using 

Parts.  Molecules. 
Copper  sulphate                              6  2.35 

Potassium  carbonate,  3  2.17 

Arsenic  trioxide,  2  1. 

The  filtrate  was  slightly  acid  and  blue,  but  the  potassium  carbonate 
used  not  quite  anhydrous.  The  color  produced  was  fully  equal  to  that 
produced  by  the  oi-diuary  receipt.     The  filtrate  contained  arsenic. 

Analysis  No.  XIV. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide, 

51.37 

6.62 

Arsenic  trioxide, 

39.94 

2.02 

Sulphur  trioxide, 

1.80 

.22 

Water, 

6.61 

3.67 

22  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

This  is  an  almost  exact  mixture  of  tribasic  sulphate  and  arsenite. 
It  dissolved  in  ammonia  with  a  blue  color,  and  did  not  blacken  on  boil- 
ing. Tlie  potassium  carbonate  may,  therefore,  be  considerably  dimin- 
ished from  that  called  lor  in  Scheele's  receipt. 

Experiment  No.  9. 

This  was  nearly  a  repetition  of  Experiment  No.  4  as  to  quantities 
used.  The  object  being  in  this  case  to  study  more  iully  tlie  effects 
of  washing,  the  proportions  taken  approximate  closely  to  Scheele's 
receipt :  — 

Copper  sulpliate, 
Arseuic  trioxide, 
Potassic  carbonate, 

The  solutions  were  mixed  and  boiled  for  half  an  hour;  the  first 
(No.  XV.)  was  washed  until  the  wash-water  was  free  from  sulphates; 
the  other  (No.  XVI.)  until  the  wash- water  was  free  from  arsenic. 

Analysis  No.  XV. 


Parts. 

Molecules. 

3 

2.35 

1 

1. 

3 

4.34 

Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios, 

Copper  oxide, 

52.23 

G.60 

Ar.-ienic  trioxide. 

35.41 

1.79 

Sulphur  trioxide, 

5.88 

.74 

Water, 

6.02 

8.35 

99.54 
Analysis  No.  XVI. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratioa, 

Copper  oxide, 

57.18 

7.20 

Arsenic  trioxide, 

25.(32 

\.m 

Sulphur  trioxide, 

6.31 

.79 

Water, 

10.85 

3.90 

'Experiment  No.  10. 

This  preparation  was  made  exactly  according  to  Scheele's  own  direc- 
tions, as  given  by  himself  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Stockholm 
Academy,  using  the  English  translation  for  the  weights  and  measures. 
The  sample  was  divided  after  precipitation.  No.  XVII.  was  washed 
by  decantation  with  the  amount  of  water  he  specifies. 

No.  XVIII.  was  first  boiled  with  water,  and  then  washed  with  hot 
water  so  long  as  arsenic  was  found  in  the  filtrate.  The  proportions 
used  were,  — 


OF    ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  23 

Parts. 
Arsenic  trioxide,  11 

Potassium  carbouate,  32 

Dissolved   the  potassium  carbonate  in  thirty-two   parts  of  water, 
added  the  arsenic  trioxide  boiled  and  filtered. 

Parts. 

Copper  sulphate  crystallized,  32 

Water,  192 

Dissolved  and  boiled  while  hot ;  added,  with  constant  stirring,  the 
hot  solution  of  arsenic  trioxide. 

Analysis  No.  XVII. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Found. 

Taken. 

Copper  oxide, 

50.76 

3.10 

2.32 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

40.82 

1.00 

1. 

Sulphur  trioxide, 

1.63 

.10 

Water, 

6.41 

1.75 

99.62 
Analysis  No.  XVIII. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios, 

Copper  oxide. 

49.25 

6.20 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

42.66 

2.15 

Sulphur  trioxide. 

.42 

.05 

Water, 

6.71 

3.72 

99.04 

In  summing  up,  I  will  first  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  no  one 
of  the  eighteen  samples  does  the  arsenic  exist  in  these  compounds  in 
as  great  a  ratio  as  required  by  Bloxam's  formula.  Further,  they  all 
contain  water,  and  this  water  is  not  driven  off  at  a  temperature  of 
150°  C.  In  every  case,  arsenic  was  found  in  the  filtrate,  sometimes  in 
considerable  amount,  as  is  shown  by  comparison  of  the  ratios  of  copper 
sulphate  and  arsenic  trioxide  taken,  and  the  ratios  between  the  copper 
oxide  and  arsenic,  as  found  in  the  analysis.  All  the  samples  dissolved 
in  ammonia  with  a  blue  color. 

In  Experiments  Nos.  4,  9,  and  10  almost  identical  amounts  of  sub* 
stances  were  taken ;  but  the  results,  as  will  be  seen,  ditl'er  widely. 

Scheele's  green  may,  accoiding  to  my  experiments,  be  described  as  a 


24  PROCEEDINGS    OP   THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

more  or  less  basic  copper  arsenite,  which  may  or  may  not  contain  basic 
copper  sulphate  and  carbonate  ;  the  composition  of  it  seeming  to  de- 
pend to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  degree  of  concentration  of  the 
liquid  from  which  it  is  precipitated.  Its  basicity  also  seems  to  depend 
to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  same  fact,  the  more  dilute  the  solu- 
tion the  more  basic  tlie  salt. 

The  composition  also  depends,  to  some  extent,  on  the  amount  of 
wash-water  used  in  washing  it. 

The  normal  pi<fment  which  is  represented  by  Analysis  XVIII.  may 
be  described  as  follows  :  — 

It  is  of  a  yellowish  green  color,  soluble  in  dilute  acids  and  in  caustic 
alkalies.  It  dissolves  in  alkalies  with  a  blue  color,  and  is  decomposed 
by  excess  of  soda  or  potassa,  or  their  carbonates,  but  is  not  decom- 
posed by  ammonia,  even  upon  boiling.  It  does  not  blacken  upon 
boiling  with  distilled  water.  When  dissolved  in  ammonia,  if  a  solu- 
tion of  soda  or  potash  is  added,  the  solution  is  bleached,  from  the 
reduction  of  the  copper  salt  to  a  cuprous  salt. 

Its  average  composition,  as  generally  prepared,  omitting  the  sulphur 
trioxide  which  is  generally  found  in  it,  is  about  as  follows  :  — 


Copper  oxide, 

50.00 

Arsenic  trioxide, 

42.00 

Water, 

8.00 

This  approximates  closely  to  the  formula, 

Cu3As20,2Il20. 

This  formula  would  give  the  following  percentages :  — 


Copper  oxide. 

51.44 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

41.93 

Water, 

7.93 

Taking  this  view  of  the  subject,  Scheele's  green  is  the  normal  tri- 
cupric  arsenite,  and  corresponds  to  the  triargentic  arsenite  described 
by  Bloxam. 

It  is  almost  impossible,  however,  to  obtain  a  perfectly  constant  prod- 
uct, from  the  strong  tendency  to  form  basic  sulphates  and  basic 
arsenites. 

As  a  matter  of  economy  in  the  preparation,  it  will  be  found  more 
advantageous  to  take  the  following  proportions  rather  than  those  given 
by  Scheele :  - 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  25 

Parts. 
Copper  sulphate,  6 

Arsenic  trioxide,  2 

Sodium  carbonate,  Na^CO3l0H2O,  8 

Dissolve  the  soda  and  arsenic  in  ten  parts  of  water,  and  the  copper 
sulphate  in  forty  parts  of  water  ;  filter  botli  solutions  if  necessary.  Mix 
while  boiling,  boil  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  allow  to  stand  until 
next  day  ;  pour  off  the  supernatant  licjuid,  fill  up  the  vessel  with  hot 
water ;  repeat  this  operation  about  three  times,  then  filter,  and  dry  at 
about  100°  C. 

In  analyzing  these  salts,  the  water  was  determined  by  ignition  in  a 
current  of  oxygen.  The  water  being  collected  and  weighed  in  a 
chloride  of  calcium  tube.  The  arsenic  was  determined  in  various 
ways,  but  it  was  found  that  the  conversion  into  arsenic  pentoxide  and 
trituration  with  uranium  solution  gave  the  most  satisfactory  results. 
The  copper  was  determined  with  the  battery. 

The  separation  of  copper  and  arsenic  was  made  either  by  boiling 
with  a  slight  excess  of  potassa  with  previous  oxidation  by  nitric  acid 
or  bromine,  or  by  adding  potassa,  and  then  passing  hydrogen  sulphide 
through  the  solution  until  the  copper  was  completely  precipitated. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  my  assistant,  E.  R.  Hills,  for  the  able  manner 
in  which  he  has  aided  me  by  making  many  analyses  of  these  salts,  — an 
undertaking  that  can  be  appreciated  only  by  those  who  have  tried 
working  with  copper  and  arsenic  in  combination. 

Since  the  above  paper  was  finished,  I  have  succeeded  in  obtaining 
two  samples  of  copper  arsenite  as  found  in  commerce.  The  first  of 
these  resembled  closely  that  analyzed  in  Analysis  No.  XII.  in  color, 
and  on  examination  it  was  found  to  contain  carbon  dioxide  and  sul- 
phur trioxide  ;  the  other  resembled  Analysis  No.  XVIII.,  and,  like  it, 
contained  a  trace  of  sulphate. 

Boston,  June  1st. 


26  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


III. 


CONTRIBUTIONS  FROM  THE  CHEMICAL  LABORATORY  OF 

HARVARD   COLLEGE. 

I.— ON   THE    ETHERS   OF   URIC  ACID. 
By  H.  B.  Hill. 

{First  Paper.) 
Presented,  June  14,  1876. 

Although  the  constitution  of  many  of  the  derivatives  of  uric  acid 
may  be  said  to  be  fairly  established,  the  structure  of  uric  acid  itself 
is  still  a  matter  of  conjee-ture.  The  formulae  given  by  Baeyer,*  Kolbe,t 
Streckert  Erlenmeyer,  §  Mulder,  ||  Hiifner,  T[  Gibbs,  **  Medicus,  ft 
Drechsel,  tt  and  Mallet ;  §§  differing,  as  they  do,  in  points  more  or  less 
essential,  show  that  the  experimental  data  are  as  yet  insufficient  to  estab- 
lish its  structure.  In  this  connection  the  ethers  of  uric  acid  seem  to 
have  attracted  little  attention.  In  1864,  Dryjiin  |{||  prepared  the  diethyl 
and  triethyl  ethers  by  the  action  of  ethyl  iodide  upon  diplumbic  urate. 
I  have  been  unable  to  obtain  the  original  paper,  but  from  the  summary 
of  it  given  in  the  Jahresbericht  HH  for  that  year,  and  in  Gmelin's*** 
hand-book,  it  would  appear  that  he  submitted  them  to  no  very  ex- 
tended examination.  I  have,  therefore,  undertaken  the  study  of  the 
ethers  of  uric  acid,  with  the  hope  that  a  careful  study  of  the  products 

*  Ann.  Chem.  u.  Pliarm.,  127,  235. 

t  Journ.  fiir  prakt.  Chem.  [2]  1.  134.    Berichte,  Deutsch.  Chem.  Gesellsch. 
III.  183. 

J  Zeitsehr.  fUr  Chem.  1868,  863. 

§  Zeitsehr.  fur  Chem.  1869,  176.     Munchen.  Acad.  Ber.  2,  276. 

II  Bericht.  der  Deutsch.  Cliem.  Gesellsch.  VL  1237. 

t  Journ.  fur  prakt.  Chem.  [2J  3,  23. 

**  Amn.  Journ.  [2]  46,  289. 

tt  Ann.  Chem   u.  Pharm.  175,  243. 

tt  Chem.  Centralbl.  1875,  493. 

§§  Amn.  Journ.  Mch.  1876,  195. 

nil  Russ.  Zeitsehr.  Pharm.  ii.  3,  28,  49,  113,  121. 

IT  Jahresbericht.  1864,  629. 

***  Gmelin,  Suppl.  ii.  1026. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  27 

of  their  decomposition  may  throw  additional  light  upon  the  structure 
of  uric  aci(i. 

A  few  preliminary  experiments  convinced  me  that  the  compounds  in 
the  methyl  series  could  be  much  more  conveniently  made  than  those 
of  the  ethyl  or  benzyl.  I  tlierefore  began  with  the  methyl  ethers,  and 
this  paper  gives  tl^^  results  I  have  obtained  in  the  study  of  the  first  of 
these. 

Methyhiric  acid,  C-H3(CH3)N^03. 

Methyluric  acid  may  readily  be  prepared  by  the  action  of  methyl 
iodide  upon  monoplurabic  urate.  The  metathesis  takes  place  slowly 
at  110°-130°,  rapidly  between  160°  and  165°.  The  dry  lead  salt 
mixed  with  methyl  iodide  in  molecular  proportions,  enough  ether  being 
added  to  keep  the  mixture  fluid,  is  heated  in  sealed  tubes  for  eighteen 
hours  at  165°.  After  tlie  evaporation  of  the  ether,  the  product  of  the 
reaction  is  boiled  with  water,  and  the  solution  filtered  from  the  un- 
altered plumbic  urate.  The  lead  is  then  precipitated  with  hydric 
sulpliide,  and  the  plumbic  sulphide  filtered  off  boiling  hot.  The  filtrate 
deposits,  on  cooling,  meihyluric  acid  in  small  crystals.  Tliese  are 
dissolved  in  dilute  potassic  hydrate,  the  solution  boiled  for  a  ^evf 
minutes,  reprecipitated  by  hydrochloric  acid,  and  recr}stallized  from 
boiling  water.  The  yield  is  about  60 f^  of  the  amount  theoretically 
required  by  the  lead  salt  which  enters  into  the  reaction.  220  grms. 
plumbic  urate  gave  54  grms.  methyluric  acid,  and  89  grms.  of  unaltered 
lead  salt.  Afterwards,  in  working  up  the  recovered  lead  salt,  which 
was  much  more  compact  in  form  than  the  salt  originally  employed,  I 
found  the  decomposition  almost  complete.  In  this  case  100  grms.  lead 
salt  gave  me  41  grms.  methyluric  acid.  A  portion  of  the  uric  acid  is 
completely  decomposed,  and  is  found  as  ammonium  salt  in  the  mother 
liquors  and  the  crude  product.  I  attempted  to  increase  the  yield  by 
employing  anhydrous  ether  in  the  place  of  common  ether.  Although 
no  ammonium  compounds  were  then  formed,  a  much  smaller  percent- 
age of  the  lead  salt  entered  into  reaction.  Longer  heating  at  a  .ewer 
temperature  did  not  increase  the  yield,  inasmuch  as  a  larger  quantity 
of  dimethyl  ether  was  then  formed.  The  amount  of  dimethyl  ether 
formed  by  heating  to  16.)°  is  small;  and  as  it  is  much  more  soluble  in 
water  than  the  monomethyl  ether,  it  may  readily  be  removed  by  re- 
crystallization. 

Methyluric  acid  crystallizes  in  small  clear  flat  prisms,  apparently  of 
the  triraetric  system,  the  crystals  being  often  pointed  at  either  end. 
By  slow  cooling  of  a  dilute  solution,  these  crystals  sometimes  reach  a 


28  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

length  of  2-3  mm.,  but  they  are  usually  much  smaller.  The  substance 
undergoes  no  visible  change  when  heated  to  about  300°  ;  at  a  higher 
temperature,  it  melts  with  complete  decomposition,  and  without  per- 
ceptible sublimation.  It  is  soluble  in  boiling  water,  almost  insoluble 
in  cold  water  or  in  boiling  alcohol ;  insoluble  in  ether.  Cold  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid  dissolves  it  abundantly ;  upon  dilution  it  crystal- 
lizes out,  apparently  unchanged.  Air-dried  it  contains  water,  a  portion 
of  which  it  loses  at  100°  ;  the  rest  slowly,  but  completely,  at  160°. 

1.3887  grm.  substance  air-dried  lost  at  165°  0.1124  grm.  = 
8.09%. 

The  formula  C5H3(CH3)N^03 .  Hp  requires  9.00%.  Of  substance 
dried  at  100°:  — 

1.  0.7772  grm.  lost  at   165°  0.0399  grm.  =  5.13  %. 

2.  0.4953      „  „  0.0289     „     =  5.83  %. 

3.  0.4670      „  „  0.0238     „     =  5.10  %. 

4.  0.8106      „  „  0.0451     „     =  5.57  %. 

The  formula  C5H3(Cri3)N,03  .  iHp  requires  4.77  %. 

from  these  determinations,  it  would  appear  that  water  is  not  a 
definite  constituent  of  the  compound.  The  microscopic  appearance  of 
the  substance  remains  unchanged. 

The  substance  dried  at  165°  has  the  formula  05113(0 H3)N^03,  as 
the  following  analyses  show:  — 

1.  0.4284  grm.  gave  0.1310  grm.  11,0,  and  0.6210  grm.  OO2. 

2.  0.2748  grm.  gave  0.0985  grm.  II.p,  and  0.3972  grm.  OO2. 

3.  0.1822  grm.  gave  50.0  cc.  nitrogen,  at  20°.o,  and  754.3  mm.  pressure. 

Calculated  for  Found. 

0,H,N,03.  1  2                        3 

0       39.56  39.53  39.43 

H        3.30  3.39  3.98 

N       30.77  30.98 

To  determine  the  solubility  in  boiling  water,  a  boiling  saturated 
solution  was  filtered  through  a  hot, water  filter  into  tared  fiasks.  After 
cooling,  the  flasks  were  weighed,  the  contents  washed  out,  evaporated 
in  platinum,  and  the  residue  dried  at  165°. 

1.  52.290  grm.  solution  left  0.2043  grm.  residue. 

2.  55.379  grm.  solution  left  0.2187  grm.  residue. 

The  boiling  saturated  solution  contains,  therefore,  the  percentages,  — 
1  2 

0.3906  0.3950 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  29 

A  boiling  solution  was  allowed  to  stand  overnight  at  a  temperature 
of  about  20°.  For  three  hours  before  tiltering.  it  was  kept  at  20°, 
with  constant  stirring.  Portions  of  the  filtered  solution  were  weighed, 
evaporated,  and  the  residue  dried  at  lo5°, — 

1.  39.020  grm.  solution  gave  0.0083  grm.  residue. 

2.  49.854  grm.  solution  gave  0.0111  grm.  residue. 

The  solution  saturated  at  20°  contained,  therefore,  in  percentages, — 

1  2 

0.0213  0.0223 

As  the  mean  of  these  determinations,  we  find  that  there  is  required 
for  the  solution  of  one  part  of  methyluric  acid  253.6  parts  of  boiling 
water,  and  4596  parts  of  water  at  2(1°. 

The  aqueous  solution  reddens  litmus  feebly,  and  decomposes  car- 
bonates readily  on  heating.  A  solution  in  potassic  or  sodic  hydrate  is 
not  precipitated  by  carbonic  dioxide.  From  a  concentrated  cold  solu- 
tion, stronger  acids  precipitate  it  gelatinous,  from  hot  or  dilute  solutions 
crystalline. 

With  bases  metliyluric  acid  forms  a  series  of  definite  salts,  some  of 
which  have  been  studied  by  Mr.  O.  R.  Jackson  in  this  laboi-atory. 
The  results  of  this  investigation  he  presents  to  the  Academy  in  a 
separate  communication.  He  has  shown  tliat  the  monomethyl  ether 
of  uric  acid  is  itself  a  dibasic  acid,  like  uric  acid;  a  fact  which  is 
certainly  remarkable,  and  of  obvious  theoretical  importance. 

Action  of  Hydrochloric  Acid. 

In  1867,  Streeker*  showed  that  uric  acid  heated  with  fuming  hydro- 
chloric or  liydriodic  acid  to  170°  assimilates  five  molecules  of  water, 
giving  carbonic  dioxide,  ammonia,  and  glycocoll,  — 

C,H,X,03  +  5H,0  =  3C0,  +  3NH3  +  C,H,NO,. 

The  inferences  which  he  drew  f  from  this  reaction  concerning  the 
structure  of  uric  acid  are  well  known.  Emmerling$  has  I'ecently 
shown  that  cyanogen  gas  passed  into  boiling  hydriodic  acid  is  converted 
into  glycocoll,  and  seeks  thus  to  give  Strecker's  reaction  a  new  interpre- 
tation.    In  either  case,  however,  it  seemed  to  me  of  importance  to 

*  Ann.  Cliem.  u.  Pliarm.  146,  142;  Zeitschr.  fur  Chem.  1868,  215. 

t  Zeitschr.  fiir  Cliem.  1868,  363. 

t  Bericlite  Deutsch.  Cliem.  Gesellsch.  VI.  1351. 


30  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

determine  the  products  of  the  decomposition  of  methyhiric  acid  under 
these  conditions. 

Two  tubes,  each  containing  1.3  grm.  methyluric  acid,  and  an  excess 
of  hydrochloric  acid  saturated  at  0°,  were  heated  four  or  five  hours  at 
170'^.  The  gas  wliich  escaped  on  opening  the  tubes  was  found  to  con- 
tain no  methyl  chloride.  The  excess  of  acid  was  driven  off  on  the 
water  bath,  and  the  residue  distilled  with  plumbic  hydrate  until  the 
distillate  was  no  longer  alkaline.  The  ammoniacal  distillate  was  caught 
in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  evaporated  to  dryness  on  the  water  bath. 
The  residue  was  treated  with  a  small  (juantity  of  absolute  alcohol,  and 
the  filtered  solution  again  evaporated  to  dryness.  There  was  then  left 
a  white  saline  residue,  wliich  gave  with  great  readiness  Hofmaiin's  iso- 
cyanide  reaction,  showing  the  presence  of  a  monamine.  The  chloride 
was  converted  into  the  platinum  salt,  and  this  was  analyzed  after  re- 
crystallization  from  hot  water. 

0.4760  grm.  gave  on  ignition  0.1991  grm.  platinum. 

Calculated  for  Found. 

.      (CH3NH,).PtClg 
Pt  41.61  41.82 

Methylamine  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  products  of  the  reaction. 

From  the  residue  left  on  distillation,  it  was  easy  to  isolate  glycocoll 
in  the  ordinary  way.  The  licjuid  was  filtered  from  the  basic  [dumbic 
chloride,  the  lead  removed  from  the  solution  by  hydric  sulphide,  and 
the  filtrated  evaporated.  On  standing,  glycocoll  crystallized  out  with 
its  characteristic  properties.  For  its  identification,  it  was  converted 
into  the  copper  salt  by  boiling  with  freshly  precipitated  cupric  oxide, 
and  precipitation  of  the  blue  solution  by  alcohol.     Of  this  salt, — 

0.4400  grm.  lost  at  130°  0.0388  grm. 

Calculated  for  Found. 

(C2H,N0,)_,Cu  .  li.fi 
Bfi  7.85  7.68 

A  determination  of  copper  in  the  dry  salt  gave,  — 

0.4068  grm.  left  on  ignition  0.1523  grm.  CuO. 

Calculated  for  Found. 

(C,H,NO,),Cu 
CuO  37.00  37.43 

The  reaction  in  this  case  may  therefore  be  writtten, — 

C,H3(CH3)  N,03  +  5  H,0  =  3C0,  +  2NH3  +  CH.NH,  +  CJI.NO,. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  31 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  reaction  proves  the  commonly  accepted  view 
that  uric  acid  is  not  an  hydroxyl  but  an  iniid  acid. 

In  order  further  to  establish  tlie  relative  position  of  the  methyl 
radical,  it  seemed  to  me  of  chief  importance  to  follow  it  through  oxida- 
tion in  alkaline  and  acid  solution,  and  thus  determine  its  relation  to 
allantoin  and  alloxan  or  paraban. 

Methylallantoin.     C^H.  (CHg)  N^^. 

Methyluric  acid  is  readily  oxidized  in  alkaline  solution,  according  to 
the  metliod  of  Claus  and  Emde.*  The  .solution  must  be  dilute  with 
but  a  small  excess  of  alkali,  the  potassic  permanganate  added  slowly 
in  exact  molecular  proportion.  As  soon  as  the  manganese  dioxide  has 
separated,  it  must  be  filtered  rapidly  with  the  aid  of  the  pump,  and  the 
filtrate  slightly  acidified  with  acetic  acid.  I  then  found  it  most  ad- 
vantageous to  evaporate  as  quickly  as  possible  on  the  water  bath  to 
small  volume.  After  standing  twenty-four  hours,  the  methylallantoin 
crystallizes  out  in  clusters  of  radiated  prisms.  These  separated  from 
the  mother  liquor  by  pressure,  and  recrystallized  several  times  from 
hot  water,  form  clear  distinct  monoclinic  prisms,  closely  resembling 
ordinary  allantoin.  They  are  readily  soluble  in  hot  water,  sparingly 
in  cold ;  almost  insoluble  in  alcohol,  hot  or  cold,  and  insoluble  in 
ether.     These  crystals  melt  with  decomposition  at  225°. 

In  spite  of  many  variations  of  the  method,  I  could  obtain  in  this  way 
but  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  theoretical  yield.  From  the  mother  liquors 
evaporated  to  a  syrup,  alcohol  separates  a  potash  salt,  probably  of 
methylallantoic  acid.  On  account  of  its  uninviting  character  it  was 
not  further  examined. 

Methylallantoin  dried  at  100°  gave,  on  analysis, — 

0.23G2  grm.  gave  0.1092  grm.  11,0,  and  0.2978  grra.  COg. 

Calculated  for  Found. 

C,H,(CIl3)NA. 
C  34.89  34.39 

H  4.65  5.13 

Silver  nitrate  gives  in  a  hot  saturated  solution  on  the  cautious  addi- 
tion of  ammonic  hydrate,  a  crystalline  precipitate  consisting  of  needles 
or  short  prisms.  This  salt  is  readily  soluble  in  hot  water,  more 
sparing'y  in  cold.     By  spontaneous  evaporation  of  the  cold  solution, 

*  Bericlite  Deutsch.  Chera.  Gesellsch.  VII.  226. 


32  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

tolerably  perfect  crystals  of  the  trimetric  system  were  obtained.  This 
compound  may  be  dried,  without  decomposition,  at  100°,  and  gave  then 
OQ  analysis, — 

0.1668  grm.  left  on  ignition  0.0646  grm.  silver. 

Calculated  for  Found. 

AgC,II,(CIl3)N,03. 
Ag  38.71  38.61 

Baeyer  *  has  shown  that  allantoin,  when  heated  with  hydriodic  acid, 
breaks  up  into  urea  and  hydantoin ;  and  it  was  evident  that  methyl- 
allantoin  should  give  an  analogous  reaction.  I  therefore  heated 
methylallantoin  with  concentrated  hydriodic  acid,  following  the  direc- 
tions given  by  Baeyer.t  When  the  reaction  appeared  to  be  ended, 
the  liberated  iodine  was  reduced  with  sulphide  of  hydrogen,  and  the 
hydriodic  acid  removed  by  plumbic  carbonate.  The  filtrate  gave  on 
evaporation,  after  standing  for  some  time,  clear  crystals,  which,  freed 
from  the  syrupy  mother  liquor,  and  recrystallized  from  water,  formed 
transparent  prisms,  readily  soluble  in  water  or  alcohol,  and  giving  no 
precipitate  with  zincic  chloride.  Ti)eir  melting  point  I  found  to  be 
144°-145°.  The  quantity  at  my  disposal  was  insufficient  for  analysis, 
but  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  identity  of  this  substance  with  methyl 
hydantoiu  described  by  Neubauer  t  as  resulting  from  the  action  of 
baric  hydrate  upon  creatinine,  inasmuch  as  he  gives  these  properties  and 
the  melting  point  145'^.     The  reaction  may,  therefore,  be  written,  — 

CH3 

/ 

C,H,(CH3)N,03  +  H,  =  Co'        +  Co'' 

\  \ 

NH^  NH— CO 

Once,  as  the  action  of  the  hydi-iodic  acid  was  longer  continued,  I 
obtained  a  substance  crystallizing  in  broad  rhombic  plates,  readily 
soluble  in  water,  sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol,  wlii^h  gave  a  precipitate 
with  an  alcoholic  soUition  of  zincic  chloride.  These  crystals  melted 
at  10,5°,  and  sublimed  readily  at  100°.  They  were  evidently  sarcosine 
formed  from  the  decomposition  of  methylliydantoin. 

*  Ann.  Chem.  u.  Plmrm.  117,  178. 
t  Ann.  Cliera.  u.  Pharm.  130,  158. 
}  Ann  Chem.  u.  Pharm.  137,  288. 


OP   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  33 

Oxidation  of  methyluric  acid  with  nitric  acid. 

By  the  oxidation  of  methyluric  acid  with  nitric  acid,  a  solution  is 
obtained  which  gives  a  deep  red  coloration  on  wanning  with  amnionic 
hydrate.  From  this  solution,  however,  I  have  as  yet  been  unable  to 
isolate  a  crystalline  product.  By  spontaneous  evaporation  in  the  air, 
a  sticky  syrup  is  obtained,  which  does  not  solidify,  even  after  long 
standing  in  vacuo  over  sulphuric  acid.  Alcohol  dissolves  this  residue, 
the  solution  remains  clear  after  the  addition  of  ether,  and  on  evaporation 
again  leaves  an  uncrystallizable  syrup.  I  have  been  equally  unsuccess- 
ful in  separating  by  stannous  chloride  or  sulphide  of  hydrogen  a 
crystalline  alloxantine  or  dialuric  acid.  Oxidation  with  potassic 
chlorate  and  hydrochloric  acid,  according  to  the  method  of  Schlieper,* 
gave  the  same  result.  These  reactions  were  sufficient  to  give  a  quali- 
tative proof  tliat  the  solution  did  not  contain  ordinary  alloxan.  I 
therefore  attem(»ted  to  prepare  from  this  solution  a  methylalloxanate 
in  form  fit  for  analysis.  I  first  tried  with  baric  hydrate,  to  form  the 
barium  salt.  The  ordinary  method,  following  closely  the  directions 
of  Schlieper,  f  gave  me,  however,  a  salt  containing  but  a  trace  of 
nitrogen  and  with  percentages  of  barium,  carbon,  and  hydrogen, 
closely  approximating  those  required  by  a  basic  baric  mesoxalate, 
BaCgO^.BaO^H^.  At  the  same  time  a  strong  smell  of  methylamine 
was  perceived.  If  a  smaller  quantity  of  baric  hydrate  were  added  in 
the  cold,  and  then  alcohol  in  excess,  a  barium  salt  was  thrown  down 
which  contained  nitrogen,  but  it  could  not  in  this  way  be  obtained  of 
constant  cumposition.  Plumbic  hydrate  seemed  to  determine  the  for^ 
mation  of  the  methylalloxanate,  but  no  better  results  were  obtained. 
The  silver  salt  blackened  too  rapidly  to  admit  of  analysis. 

The  lime  salt  is  the  only  one  I  have  been  able  to  prepare  with  con- 
stant composition.  Methyluric  acid  is  dissolved  in  as  small  a  quantity 
of  nitric  acid  of  1.42  sp.  gr.  as  possible,  the  solution  somewliat  diluted, 
and  the  excess  of  acid  neutralized  with  calcic  carbonate  in  the  cold. 
The  solution  is  tiien  allowed  to  stand  in  vacuo  for  some  time,  to  free  it 
from  carbonic  dioxide,  afterwards  diluted  with  six  or  eight  volumes  of 
alcohol  and  filtered.  The  cautious  addition  of  amnionic  hydrate  to 
the  filtrate  throws  down  a  bulky  semigelatinous  precipitate,  wiiich,  well 
washed  with  alcohol,  and  dried  at  100°,  forms  an  amorphous  powder, 
which  has  a  faint  pink  color,  —  undoubtedly  caused  by  a  trace  of  alloxan. 
The  dry  salt  was  soluble  in  cold  water,  though  with  some  difficulty. 

*  Ann.  Cliem.  u.  Pharm.  55,  2G1. 
t  Ann.  Chem.  u.  Pharui.  55,  212. 
TOL.  XII.      (n.  S.    IV.)  3 


34  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Analysis  gave  for  substance  dried  at  100°,  — 

1.  0.1778  grm.  gave  0.1125  gnu.  CaSO^. 

2.  0.2275  grm.  gave  0.1446  grm.  CaSO,. 

3.  0.3049  grm.  gave  36.8  cc,  nitrogen  at  21°.5,  and  762.1  mm.  pressure. 

Calculated  for  Found. 

CJI(CH3)N20,Ca       1  2  3 

Ca  18.87  18.61  18.69 

N  13.21  13.68 

The  analyses  1  and  2  were  made  with  different  preparations. 

If  ammouic  hydrate  be  first  added,  and  the  calcic  salt  then  precipi- 
tated by  alcohol,  the  salt  contains  too  little  nitrogen  A  sample 
prepared  in  this  way  gave,  on  analysis,  20.88  %  Ca,  and  10.75  %  N. 
So  also  if  the  precipitate  thrown  down  by  ammonic  hydrate  in  alcoholic 
solution  be  dissolved  in  water,  and  reprecipitated  by  alcohol,  the  per- 
centage of  calcium  is  increased,  and  the  nitrogen  diminished.  Analysis 
gave  20.49  %  Ca. 

Inasmuch  as  the  chief  point  was  to  prove  the  formation  of  methyl- 
alloxan  by  this  oxidation,  I  distilled  the  calcium  salt,  prepared  in  the 
manner  described,  with  potassic  hydrate  in  a  current  of  steam.  The 
ammoniacal  distillate  readily  gave  the  characteristic  isocyanide  reaction 
by  heating  with  alcoholic  potash  and  chloroform.  It  was  neutralized 
■with  hydrochloric  acid,  evaporated,  and  from  the  residue  the  methyl- 
amine  chloride  separated  by  absolute  alcohol.  An  analysis  of  the 
platinum  salt  gave  — 

0.2160  grm.  left  on  ignition  0.0902  grm.  platinum. 

Calculated  for  Found. 

(CH^Nig.PtCl, 

Pt  41.61  41.76. 

Thus  proving  that  the  calcium  salt  contained  the  group  =  N  —  CH^ . 
lu  further  confirmation,  I  was  able  to  isolate  common  urea  as  the 
secondary  product  of  the  methylalloxan  formation.  After  oxidizing 
with  hydrochloric  acid  and  potassic  chlorate,  the  excess  of  acid  was 
driven  off  by  evaporation  at  gentle  heat,  the  potassic  chloride  separated 
with  absolute  alcohol,  and  the  alcoliolic  solution  evaporated  to  a  syrup. 
The  cautious  addition  of  strong  nitric  acid  caused  the  separation  of 
abundant  crystals  of  urea  nitrate  in  characteristic  form.  The  base,  set 
free  as  usual  with  baric  carbonate,  after  recrystallization  from  water, 
melted  at  129°-130'>. 


OP  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  35 

The  reaction  may,  therefore,  be  written :  — 

CH3 

/ 

NHjj  N  —  CO 

/  /  I 

C,H,(CH3)N,03  +  H,0,  =  CO         +  CO  CO 

\  \  I 

NH2  NH— CO 

Methyl paraban,  C3lI(CIl3)N203. 

Although  methylalloxan  is  so  unstable  in  the  presence  of  bases,  in 
acid  solution  it  possesses  remarkable  stability.  It  may  be  boiled  for 
some  time  with  strong  nitric  acid,  or  with  hydrochloric  acid  aud 
potassic  clilurate  before  tbe  red  coloration  with  ammonia  disappears. 
On  prolonged  boiling  (about  an  hour)  with  strong  nitric  acid,  the 
oxidation  is  complete,  and  the  solution  contains  methylparaban.  For 
its  preparation  I  have  found  it  most  advantageous  to  boil  methyluric 
acid  with  five  or  six  parts  of  nitric  acid  of  sp.  gr,  1.3,  until  a  drop 
taken  out  fjives  no  coloration  with  ammonia.  The  excess  of  acid  is 
then  driven  off  on  the  water  bath,  the  syrupy  residue  diluted  with  a 
little  water,  and  well  shaken  out  with  ether.  On  distilling  off  the 
ether,  a  syrup  remains  which  soon  crj'stallizes  in  shining  radiated 
prisms,  which  are  recrystallized  from  hot  water.  Thej  are  somewhat 
difficultly  soluble  in  cold  water,  readily  in  hot ;  soluble  in  alcohol  and 
ether.  The  substance  melts  at  149°. 5,  sublimes  very  slowly  at  100°, 
and  at  higher  temperature  with  great  readiness.  For  analysis,  the 
air-dried  substance  was  heated  three  hours  at  100°  ;  duriug  that  time 
0.2260  grm.  lost  0.0030  grm. 

1.  0.1714  grm.  gave  0.2333  grm.  CO2.  * 

2.  0.2160  grm.  gave  0.0785  grm.  H,0,  and  0.2629  grm.  COg. 

Found. 

1  2 

37.12  37.48 

4.04 

The  substance  gives  no  precipitate  with  calcic  chloride,  even  after 
the  addition  of  ammonic  hydrate.  On  warming  the  ammoniacal  solu- 
tion, a  precipitate  falls  not  wholly  soluble  in  acetic  acid.  Argen- 
tic nitrate  precipitates  it  only  in  concentrated  solution.  The  silver 
salt  prepared  from  concentrated  solution,  wnth  the  cautious  addition  of 

*  The  hydrogen  in  this  analysis  was  lost. 


Calculated  for 

C,N,H,03 

C 

37.50 

H 

3.13 

36  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE    AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

ammonic  hydrate,  crystallizes  in  prismatic  needles ;  quite  readily  solu- 
ble in  hot  water,  sparingly  in  cold.  Under  the  microscope  it  crystal- 
lizes from  hot  aqueous  solution  in  rhombic  plates.  It  may  be  dried  at 
100°  without  decomposition.     It  gave  on  analysis, — 

0.1210  grm.  left  on  ignition  0.0056  grm.  silver. 

Calculated  for  Found. 

AgC,N,Il303. 
As  45.95  45.95 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  substance  is  identical  with  that 
obtained  by  Dessaigiies*  from  creatinine,  which  was  first  recognized 
by  Strecker  f  as  methylparaban.  Dessaignes  gives  no  melting  point, 
but  the  description  given  corresponds  peifectly  with  the  substance  I 
have  obtained  ;  the  only  diiference  being  that  I  find  the  substance 
quite  readily  soluble  in  ether,  whereas  he  gives  it  as  somewhat  soluble 
only. 

A  consideration  of  the  bearing  of  these  facts  upon  the  structure  of 
uiic  acid  I  shall  postpone  until  I  have  obtained  further  results. 


n.  — ON    SOME    OF    THE    SALTS    OF   METIIYLURIC    ACID, 

C^HstCHsJN.Og. 

By  Oscar  R.  Jackson. 

Presented,  June  14,  1876. 

This  work  was  undertaken  with  the  purpose  of  proving  the  basicity 
of  methyluric  acid.  The  acid  was  obtained  by  the  method  described 
by  Prof.  11.  B.  Hill,  under  whose  direction  the  preparation  and  analyses 
of  the  salts  were  conducted. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  all  the  dibasic  salts  absorb  carbonic  acid  very 
readily  when  exposed  to  air,  as  is  the  case  with  the  salts  of  uric  acid, 
special  means  had  to  be  taken  to  dry  the  salts  in  an  atmosphere  free 
from  carbonic  acid.  For  this  purpose  they  were  dried  in  vacuo  over 
sulphuric  acid,  and  a  few  pieces  of  potassic  hydrate  were  also  placed 
under  the  receiver  when  the  dibasic  salts  were  dried.  For  the  de- 
termination of  the  water  of  crystallization,  the  salts  were   heated  to 

*  Ann.  Chem.  u.  Pharm.  97,  343. 
t  Ann.  Chem.  u.  Pharm.  118,  164. 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  37 

140°  to  150°  in  a  current  of  air ;  the  air  being  first  caused  to  pass 
tlirough  a  series  of  six  tubes,  each  2. J  feet  long;  two  being  filled  with 
solid  potassic  hydrate,  and  the  remaining  four  with  calcic  chloride. 
The  substance  being  weigiied  before  and  after  heating,  the  water  was 
estimated  by  the  loss  of  weight.  The  bases  were  then  estimated  in  the 
anhydrous  salts  by  the  methods  given  below. 

Dipotassic  methylurate,  K2CJI(CH3)N^03  .  311^0. 

This  salt  was  made  by  suspending  about  one  gramme  of  the  acid 
in  ten  or  fifteen  cubic  centimetres  of  boiling  water  in  a  small  flask, 
and  then  adding  a  solution  of  potassic  hydrate  in  large  excess  over  the 
amount  necessary  to  dissolve  the  acid.  The  solution  was  then  boiled 
for  some  time,  and  about  100  cc.  of  alcohol  added.  On  the  addition 
of  tlie  alcohol,  the  salt  separates  out  in  a  flocculent  form.  The  flask  is 
then  corked  up,  to  avoid  exposure  to  carbonic  acid,  and  allowed  to 
stand  twenty-four  hours.  The  precipitate  is  then  filtered  off  rapidly 
by  the  Bunsen  pump,  washed  with  alcohol,  and  dried  in  vacuo  over 
sulphuric  acid  and  potassic  hydrate. 

This  salt  when  dry  is  an  amorphous  flocculent  substance,  and  is 
very  soluble  in  hot  water;  but  when  a  hot  solution  cools,  the  salt  does 
not  separate  out,  but  becomes  a  gelatinous  mass  resembling  glue.  This 
salt  absorbs  carbonic  acid  very  readily  from  the  air.  When  carbonic 
acid  is  passed  tlu-ough  a  solution  of  this  salt,  the  monopotassic  salt  is 
probably  formed,  though  no  precipitate  falls. 

The  water  of  crystallization  was  determined  by  the  method  given 
above.  For  the  determination  of  the  potassium,  the  anhydrous  salt 
was  ignited  in  a  platinum  crucible  ;  and,  after  the  residue  had  been 
burned  as  white  as  possible,  it  was  treated  with  a  few  drops  of  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid  was  then  driven  off,  and 
the  crucible  ignited  gently  to  avoid  decrepitation,  and  then  finally 
heated  to  dull  redness  for  a  few  seconds. 

0.3700  grm.  of  salt  dried  in  vacuo  gave  0.0635  grm.  lip  =  17.17  % 
Calculated  for  K^C^HCCiyN.Og  .  311,0  =  17.29  % 

0.4974  grm.  of  dried  salt  gave  0.2367  grm.  KCl;  K  =  24.95  % 

Calculated  for  K,C5H(CH3)N,03  =  25.04  % 

Monopotassic  methylurate,  KCgTT2(CIl3)NP3  .  1\0. 

This  salt  was  made  by  suspending  about  one  gramme  of  the  acid  in 
ten  or  fifteen  centimetres  of  boiling  water,  and  adding  potassic  carbon- 


38  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


ate  in  slight  excess  over  the  calculated  amount.  The  acid  dissolves  on 
the  addition  of  the  potassic  carbonate  with  disengagement  of  carbonic  acid. 
The  solution  was  then  boiled  for  some  time,  until  the  effervescence 
ceased,  and  precipitated  with  alcohol;  allowed  to  stand  twenty-four 
hours,  filtered,  washed  with  alcohol,  and  dried  as  in  the  case  of  the 
dipotassic  salt. 

This  salt  is  quite  like  the  dipotassic  salt.  It  is  very  soluble  in  hot 
water,  gelatinous  on  cooling,  and  is  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

The  method  of  analysis  was  the  same  as  for  the  dipotassic  salt,  with 
the  exception  that  the  potassium  was  estimated  in  the  hydrous  salt. 

0.3161  grm.  of  salt  di-ied  in  vacuo  gave  0.0228  grm.  H^O  =  7.21  % 
Calculated  for  KCJi^CCHjjN.Oj.H.O  =    7.56% 

0.3766  grm.  of  salt  dried  wt7a(;Mo  gave  0.1152  grm.  KCl ;  K=  16.01  % 
Calculated  for  KC5H2(CH3)N^03  .  II^O  =  16.42  % 

Disodic  methyhirate,  Na,C5H(CIl3)NP3  .  3II2O. 

This  salt  was  made  bv  dissolving;  the  acid  in  an  excess  of  sodic 
hydrate  and  precipitating  with  alcohol,  exactly  as  in  the  case  of  the 
dipotassic  salt,  which  it  closely  resembles. 

The  analysis  was  conducted  in  the  same  way  as  above. 

0.6691  grm.  of  salt  dried  in  vacuo  gave  0.1287  grm.  H^O  =  19.23  % 
Calculated  for  Na2C5n(CH3)N,03 .  3H,0  =  19.28  % 

0.4548  grm.  dried  salt  gave  0.2304  grm.  NaCl ;  Na  =  19.92  % 

Calculated  for  Na2C5H(Cn3)N,03  =  20.35  % 

Monosodlc  methylurate,  l^a.C^:l.XCYi^)l!ifi.^  .  H2O. 

This  salt  was  made  by  adding,  very  carefully,  a  solution  of  Na.,SO^ 
to  a  boiling-hot  solution  of  monobaric  methylurate  until  there  is  no 
further  precipitate  of  baric  sulphate.  The  solution  was  then  filtered 
from  the  BaSO^,  evaporated  to  a  very  small  quantity,  and  then  pre- 
cipitated with  a  large  amount  of  alcoljol  100  to  150  cc. ;  allowed  to 
stand  twenty-fovtr  hours,  filtered,  washed  with  alcohol,  and  dried  in 
imcuo.  This  salt  does  not  seem  to  be  quite  as  gelatinous  as  the  rest, 
and  is  much  more  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol. 

In  the  analysis  of  this  salt  the  water  was  determined  as  above,  and 
the  sodium  by  ignition  of  the  anhydrous  salt,  and  treated  with  a  few 
drops  of  sulphuric  acid. 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  39 

0.1944  grm.  of  salt  dried  in  vacuo  gave  0.0150  grm.  H^O  =    7.81  % 
Calculated  forNaC,n,(CIl3)N,03.  11,0  =    8.10% 

0.1790  grm.  of  dried  salt  gave  0.0G13  grm.  Na^SO^;  Na    =  11.00  % 
Calculated  for  NaCJI.CCigN.Og  =  11.27  % 

Dibaric  methylurate,  BsLC^W^CR^^fi^ ,  S^HgO. 

This  salt  was  made  by  dissolving  one  gr.  of  the  acid  in  as  little  boil- 
ing water  as  possible  in  a  small  flaj^k,  and  adding  tweuty-Hve  cc.  of 
cold  saturated  solution  of  baric  hydrate.  The  solution  was  then  boiled 
for  some  time,  corked  up,  and  allowetl  to  stand.  The  salt  separates 
out  in  very  minute  needles,  clustered  together  in  places,  and  of  a 
slightly  greenish  tinge.  The  salt  was  collected  on  a  filter,  and  washed 
rapidly  with  a  very  small  quantity  of  cold  water,  and  then  dried  in 
vacuo.  The  chief  feature  of  this  salt  is,  that  it  is  the  only  one  of  the 
salts  obtained  which  shows  the  slightest  tendency  to  assume  a  crystal- 
line form.     It  is  also  the  most  insoluble  of  any  of  the  salts. 

The  salt  prepared  in  this  way  gave,  in  several  analyses,  too  great  a 
percentage  of  barium.  It  was  found  impossible  to  free  it  from  the 
excess  of  baric  hydrate  by  washing  on  account  of  the  ready  solubility 
of  the  salt. 

The  water  was  determined  as  before,  and  the  barium  by  ignition  o'f 
the  anhydrous  salt  in  a  platinum  crucible,  and  treatment  with  a  little 
sulphuric  acid.  The  excess  of  acid  was  driven  off,  and  then  the  crucible 
heated  for  some  time  in  a  current  of  air  to  oxidize  any  sulphide  which 
might  have  been  formed. 


o 


1.2318  grm.  salt  dried  in  vacuo  gave  0.1979  grm.  H^O      =  16.06  % 
Calculated  for  BaC,H(CH.)N,03 .  311120  =  16.57  % 

0.4738  grm.  dried  salt  gave  0.365G  grm.  BaSO^;  Ba  =  44.07  % 

Calculated  for  BaC5H(CH3)N^03  =  43.22  % 

3fonobaric  methylurate,  BaC5(H(CH3)N^03)2  •  4H2O. 

For  the  preparation  of  this  salt,  about  one  gramme  of  the  acid  was 
suspended  in  boiling  water,  and  baric  carbonate  added  until  no  more 
would  dissolve.  The  solution  was  then  boiled  for  some  time,  and 
filtered  from  the  undissolved  baric  carbonate,  and  precipitated  by 
alcohol.  On  tiie  addition  of  alcohol,  it  separates  out  as  white  powdei". 
It  is  very  soluble  in  hot  water,  and  solidifies  on  coolins:  into  a  white 
jelly-like  mass. 


40  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

The  analysis  was  made  as  in  the  case  of  the  dibarium  salt. 

0.5073  <rrm.  salt  dried  in  vacuo  gave  0.0G14  grm.  H^O       =  12.10  % 
Calculated  for  Ba  (C5H(CH8)N,03)  .  4H,0  =  12.60  % 

0.4472  grm.  dried  salt  gave  0.2109  grm.  BaSO, ;  Ba         =  27.73  % 
Calculated  for  Ba(C5H(Cn3)N,Oj2  =  27.45  % 

Monocaldc  methylurate,  Ca(C.H(CH.j)NP8)2  •  3HoO. 

This  salt  was  made  from  calcic  carbonate  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
monobarium  salt,  except  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  boil  the  acid 
with  the  carbonate  for  several  hours,  in  order  to  ensure  the  complete 
conversion  of  the  acid. 

This  salt  has  nearly  the  same  properties  as  tlie  monobarium  salt.  It 
is  a  grayish  substance,  very  soluble  in  hot  water,  and  gelatinizes  on 
cooling. 

The  analysis  was  conducted  as  in  the  case  of  the  barium  salts. 

0.2123  grm.  salt  dried  in  vacuo  gave  0.0244  grm.  H^O       =  11.49  % 
Calculated  for  Ca(C5lI(CH3)N,03)2 .  411^0  "  =  11.89  % 

0.1864  grm.  of  dried  salt  gave  0.0600  grm.  CaSO^  ;  Ca      =    9.43  % 
Calculated  for  Ca(C5H(CH3)N,03)2  =    9.95  % 

A  dicalcium  salt  has  been  obtained  by  the  action  of  methyluric  acid 
on  calcic  hydrate,  but  has  not  yet  been  analyzed. 

The  action  of  methyluric  acid  on  plumbic  carbonate  was  tried  with 
expectation  of  obtaining  a  lead  salt,  but  the  reaction  does  not  seem  to 
work  easily,  for  though  carbonic  acid  is  evolved,  and  sulphide  of 
hydrogen  gives  a  slight  precipitate  with  the  filtrate,  still  the  salt  which 
separates  out  on  cooling  does  not  seem  to  be  homogeneous,  and  on 
analysis  gives  but  a  very  small  percentage  of  lead.  It  probably  con- 
sists of  tlie  free  acid  with  a  small  amount  of  lead  salt. 

We  thus  see  that  there  are  two  distinct  sets  of  salts,  and  it  is  evident 
that  methyluric  acid  is  dibasic,  —  a  fact  of  considerable  theoretical  in- 
terest, inasmuch  as  uric  acid  only  forms  two  sets  of  salts,  and  not 
without  some  bearing  on  the  constitution  of  uric  acid. 

Before  closing.  I  wish  to  express  my  sincere  thanks  to  Prof.  IL  B. 
Ilill  for  his  valuable  advice,  and  for  the  kind  interest  which  he  has 
taken  in  the  progress  of  this  work. 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  41 


IV. 

CONTRIBUTIONS  FROM  THE  PHYSICAL  LABORATORY  OF 
THE  MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY. 

XL     ON   THE    EFFECT   OF   TEMPERATURE   ON    THE   VISCOSITY 

OF  AIR. 

By  Silas  W.  Holman. 

Read,  June  14,  1876. 

The  developments  of  the  "kinetic  theory"  of  gases  made  within  the 
last  ten  years  have  enabled  it  to  account  satisfactorily  for  many  of  the 
laws  of  gases.  The  mathematical  deductions  of  Clausius,  Maxwell 
and  others,  based  upon  the  hypothesis  of  a  gas  composed  of  molecules 
acting  upon  each  other  at  impact  like  perfectly  elastic  spheres,  have 
furnished  expressions  for  the  laws  of  its  elasticity,  viscosity,  conduc- 
tivity for  heat,  ditfusive  power  and  other  properties.  For  some  of 
these  laws  we  have  experimental  data  of  value  in  testing  the  validity  of 
these  deductions  and  assumptions.  Next  to  the  elasticity,  perhaps  the 
phenomena  of  the  viscosity  of  gases  are  best  adapted  to  investigation. 

According  to  the  kinetic  theory,  the  molecules  of  the  gas  are  con- 
stantly in  rectilinear  motion.  In  virtue  of  their  mass  and  velocity, 
these  molecules  have  a  certain  momentum.  Hence,  if  we  have  two 
layers  of  air  moving  over  each  other,  we  shall  have  a  mutual  inter- 
change of  momentum  from  the  transference  of  molecules  from  one 
layer  to  another,  the  result  being  a  tendency  toward  an  equalization 
of  the  velocities  of  the  two  layers.  This  produces  the  effect  of  friction 
between  the  two  layers,  and  its  amount  determines  the  viscosity  of  the 
gas  in  any  particular  case.  From  analytical  considerations  Maxwell 
has  deduced  *  an  expression  which,  as  corrected  by  Clausius,t  should 

read, 

_  Mu 

where  j/  is  the  coefficient  of  viscosity  of  any  gas  ;  Mis  the  mass  of  a  mole- 
cule ;  u  the  "velocity  of  mean  square  "  of  the  molecules  ;  and  s  thedis- 

*  Pliil.  Mag.  xix.,  xx.;    1860.  t  Phil.  Mag.  xix.,  434. 


42  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

tance  between  the  centres  of  two  molecules  at  impact.  The  value  of  t]  is 
expressed  in  units  of  length,  mass  and  time,  since  it  is  a  tatigentifJ 
force.  This  formula,  if  true,  shows  that  the  viscosity  of  any  gas  sliould 
be  independent  of  its  density  at  a  constant  temperature,  and  should  in- 
crease proportionally  to  the  value  of  u.  But  u'^  is  proportional  to  the 
absolute  temperature,  whence  we  see  that  the  viscosity  should  increase 
proportionally  to  the  square  root  of  the  absolute  temperature  (which 
we  may  reckon  from  —  273*0.).  Maxwell  has  also  pointed  out  *  that 
in  this  expression  we  should  obtain  the  same  result  with  regard  to  the 
pressure,  whatever  ast^umption  we  adopt  of  the  mutual  action  at  impact 
of  the  molecule ;  but  tiiat  it  is  necessary  to  make  some  special  assump- 
tion upon  the  nature  of  this  action  to  determine  the  variation  with  the 
temperature. 

Previous  to  this  deduction  by  Maxwell,  there  had  been  but  little 
work  done  upon  the  viscosity  of  gases,  and  almost  nothing  as  to  its 
variation  with  temperature.  Subsequently,  experiments  have  beeu 
made  by  Meyer,  Maxwell,  Puluj,  and  v(m  Oliermayer.  The  forms  of 
apparatus  used  have  depended  upon  two  fundamental  methods  :  I*',  the 
retardation  of  pendtdums  by  the  surrounding  ga-es ;  2°,  the  transpira- 
tion of  gases  through  capillary  tubes.  In  the  present  pai)er,  I  propose 
to  discuss  somewhat  the  value  of  these  experiments  in  determining  the 
variation  of  the  viscosity  with  the  temperature,  and  to  describe  some 
recent  experiments  made  with  a  modification  of  the  second  of  the 
above  methods. 

In  a  paper  published  in  Poggendorff's  Annalen,  exxv.,  177,  1865, 
O.  E.  Meyer  describes  a  series  of  experiments  upon  the  internal  friction 
of  air  made  by  measuring  the  retardation  of  three  circular  glass  plates 
oscillating  around  a  vertical  axis  in  a  closed  receiver  containing  the  gas, 
whose  temperature  and  pressure  could  be  varied.  From  the  results 
of  these  measurements,  Meyer  concludes  that  the  coefficient  of  viscosity 
is  independent  of  the  pressure.  It  will,  however,  be  evident,  upon  an 
inspection  of  the  published  results,  —  especially  by  application  of  the 
graphical  method,  —  that  no  reliance  can  be  placed  ui)on  them  for  de- 
termining variation  with  the  tempeiature.  IVIeyer's  second  paper 
(Pogg.  Ann.  cxxvii.,  199,  353)  is  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  Graham's 
transpiration  experiments,t  from  which  we  may  derive  quite  a  satis- 
factory proof  of  the  law  of  Poiseuille  as  a|)plied  to  gases.  In  the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  London,  186G,  Maxwell  published  a  series 

*  Pliil.  Mag.  XXXV.,  211. 

t  riiil.  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Lond.  1846-49. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  43 

of  results  obtained  by  a  similar  apparatus  to  that  used  by  Meyer. 
From  these  Maxwell  concludes  that  the  viscosity  is  independent  of  the 
pressure  upon  the  gas,  aud  that  it  increases  as  the  first  power  of  the 
absolute  temperature.  If,  however,  the  results  published  in  that  paper 
be  all  upon  which  this  law  is  based,  we  cannot  regard  it  as  very 
securely  established.  A  third  pa{)er  was  published  by  Meyer,  in  Pogg. 
Ann.  cxliii.,  14  ;  in  which  the  results  of  seven  experiments  with  oscil- 
lating plates  after  Maxwell's  pattern,  but  with  bitilar  suspension,  were 
given.  These,  like  the  others,  are  iusutiicient  to  determine  the  etFect 
of  temperature.  In  three  subsequent  papers*  by  Meyer  a  large  num- 
ber of  experiments  are  described.  These  were  made  by  the  method 
of  transpiration  through  capillary  tubes,  and  preliminary  experiments 
were  made  to  prove  the  validity  of  the  law  of  Poiseuille.  This  law 
may  be  expressed  by  the  following  equation  :  — 

where  V  is  the  volume  of  gas  transpired  in  the  time  t,  measured  at 
the  temperature  of  the  capillary,  and  under  the  pressure  p ;  the  pressure 
at  entering  tlie  tube  being  jo,,  and  at  leaving  it  jo,.  The  length  of  the 
capillary  is  1,  and  its  radius  R ;  ij  being  the  coefficient  of  viscosity  of 
the  gas.  This  law  may,  I  think,  be  regarded  as  established  for  varia- 
tions of  pressure  not  exceeding  two  atmospheres,  and  for  tubes  in 
which  the  length  is  very  large  as  compared  with  the  diameter. 

]Meyer  gives  a  series  of  twenty-five  experiments,  and  selects  eleven 
as  the  most  reliable.  These  all  seem  to  indicate  an  increase  of  viscos- 
ity with  rising  temperature  greater  than  the  \  power,  but  appear  at 
the  same  time  quite  discordant  among  themselves.  Upon  the  ac- 
companying figure,  I  have  shown  the  extremes  of  these  by  a  graphical 
representation.  The  method  used  to  discuss  them  is  one  described  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Academy  for  1874,  page  222.  If  we  have  a  line 
of  the  general  form  represented  by  the  equation  yz=.jnx^,  we  may 
take  logarithms  of  both  sides  and  get  the  equation,  log  y=-n  \ogx 
-\-  log  m,  which  has  the  form  of  the  ecjuation  to  a  straight  line.  Hence, 
if  we  have  the  coordinates  of  a  series  of  points  which  we  suppose  may 
be  connected  by  a  curve  of  the  exponeutitU  form,  we  may  determine 
this  fact  by  plotting  logarithms  of  these  cooi'dinates,  which  should  give 
us  points  along  a  straight  line  whose  tangent  is  the  exponent  in  the 
primary  equation.     Thus,  if  our  equation  to  the  variation  of  ri  with  the 

*  Pogg.  Ann.  cxlvui.,  1,  203,  526. 


44 


PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


absolute  temperature  r  be  of  the  supposed  form  i]  =  ct',  vvliere  c  is  a 
constant,  we  may  take  the  value  of  log  t]  and  log  t  fi-ora  our  experi- 
ments, and  expect  upon  plotting  them  to  get  a  straight  line  making  an 
angle  whose  tangent  is  x.  This  method  I  have  applied  to  the  results 
of  Meyer,  and  the  extreme  points  are  shown  at  the  points  marked 
D  and  £  in  the  accompanying  cut. 


Fig.  1. 


3.^ 


4.40 


.00 


The  single  experiment  at  zero  centigrade  gives  the  point  0.  All 
the  other  experiments  furnish  points  scattered  between  Z)  and  E.  The 
absolute  values  of  the  coefficient  in  these  cases  are  :  — 


For  the  line  CD,  x : 


T  = 

»?  = 

C    273°.  (7 

0.000168 

D    203°.2 

0.000198 

E    287°.5 

0.000178 

-  2.3 ;  for  the  line  GE,  a;—  1.12. 

This  gives  us 

OP  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  45 

an  idea  of  the  value  of  these  results  in  determining  the  variation  of  the 
viscosity  with  the  temperature.  We  cannot  say  from  them,  wliether  this 
variation  is  proportional  to  the  first  or  second  power  of  the  absolute 
temperature.  Even  the  results  published  in  the  tifth  paper,  which  was 
to  determine  this  law,  are  insutHcient.  In  the  first  series  of  these  re- 
sults, shown  upon  the  curve  by  the  extreme  lines  NS  and  TS,  we  see 
that  the  exponent  representing  the  law  of  variation  with  the  tempera- 
ture varies  from  x=  0.2 1  for  line  NS  to  x=.[).i)9  for  line  TS,  a 
variation  even  greater  than  in  the  results  previously  discussed.  All 
the  other  observations  give  points  intermediate  between  xVund  T,  The 
second  series  furnishes  little  better  data;  and  the  tliird  series,  from 
determinations  witii  oscillating  plates,  are  not  sufficiently  complete  for 
discussion  in  tliis  way.     They,  however,  afford  no  greater  satisfaction. 

Puluj  has  used  the  method  of  transpiration  for  some  measurements 
of  this  law,  and  his  results  appear  in  the  Sitz'ber.  Wien.  Acad,  of 
1874,  Ixix.,  287.  The  results  which  he  has  obtained  appear  rather 
more  concordant  than  those  of  Meyer,  but  still  siiow  considerable 
disagreement.  Upon  the  above  cut,  the  lines  OP  and  0  Q  show  the 
extremes  of  these  results  as  obtained  by  a  discussion  of  his  experi- 
ments. These  lines  do  not  represent  the  greatest  variations  between 
successive  results  in  the  same  series,  but  the  extreme  variation  between 
the  mean  results  of  various  series.  For  OP,  x=  O.Go  ;  for  OQ, 
x  =  0A7.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  these  results  are  more  concordant 
than  the  different  series  of  Meyer :  they  are  not,  however,  completely 
satisfactory. 

Later  than  these  we  have  a  brief  notice  of  some  experiments  by  von 
Obermayer,  in  the  Phil.  Mag.,  xlix.,  332,  1875,  in  which  he  states 
that  he  has  ol)tained  results  "  which  confirm  those  of  JNIeyer's  experi- 
ments in  a  perfectly  satisfactory  manner."  He  states  Meyer's  results 
as  furnishing  the  exponent  |  for  the  variation  of  q  with  the  absolute 
temperature ;  whence  we  must  conclude  that  this  number  expresses  the 
result  at  which  he  has  arrived. 

What  value  now  are  we  to  place  upon  these  results,  and  which  is 
the  true  one  ?  Maxwell  has  given  a:  =  1 ;  Meyer,  x  =z  ^  ;  Puluj, 
a;  =  f  ;  von  Obennnyer,  x  =  |.  The  first  two  values,  x  =1  and 
a:=:|,  we  can  hardly  accept  as  certain,  from  the  consilerations  pre- 
viously shown.  Tlie  value  given  by  Puluj  of  x=5  is  undoubtedly 
somewhat  greater  than  is  warranted  by  his  results.  Of  the  remaining 
experiments  we  cannot  judge,  since  they  have  not  yet  appeared  in  full, 
so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain. 

The  importance  of  this  question  in  its  bearing  upon  the  kinetic 


46 


PROCEEDINGS    OP   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


theory,  as  well  as  from  its  prominent  plaee  among  the  phenomena  of 
gases,  renders  it  very  desirable  that  we  should  know  the  true  law. 

In  endeavoring  to  arrange  some  new  form  of  apparatus  for  a  more 
accurate  study  of  this  law,  the  idea  of  a  differential  arrangement 
was  sugjrested  to  me  by  Professor  Pickering.  This  has  been  the 
origin  of  the  following  method.  Two  glass  capillaries,  AB  and 
CD,  were  placed  side  by  side,  each  in  a  tin  trough  to  contain  a  bath 
to  regulate  the  temperature  of  the  gas.  Air-tight  glass  and  rubber 
connectors  extended  from  G  to  the  gauge  F,  and  to  tlie  end  D  of  one 
capillary.  The  ends  ^  and  Cof  the  capillaries  were  connected  with 
the  gauge  E  by  means  of  a  T  joint  of  glass.  Tiie  end  A  of  the  second 
tube  communicated  with  the  external  air  throusfh  the  chloride  of 
calcium  tubes  -^aad  I.     The  size  of  the  connectors  at  the  ends  of  AB 

Fig:.  2. 


and  CD  was  sufficient  to  allow  the  gas  to  assume  the  temperature  of 
the  bath.  The  tube  at  G  was  connected  with  a  large  flask,  from  which 
the  air  was  continuously  exhausted  by  means  of  a  Richards'  jet  aspira- 
tor. The  size  of  this  flask  rendered  the  pressure  co:istant  in  spite  of 
slight  variations  in  water  pressure.  An  inspection  of  this  arrangement 
will  show  that  when  the  flask  is  exhausted,  and  a  vacuum  produced  at 
G,  the  air  will  enter  at  A  under  the  atmospheric  pressure,  and  will 
pass  with  constantly  diminishing  pressure  to  G ;  so  that,  at  any  inter- 
mediate point,  as  the  junction  of  the  two  tubes  at  BC,  we  shall  have  a 
pressure  intermediate  between  the  two  extremes.  It  will  also  be  seea 
that  the  same  volume  of  air  is  successively  transpired  through  ^5  and 
CD;  providing  that  there  be  no  leak,  which  was  carefully  guarded 
against  by  making  all  the  joints  about  C,  B,  and  B — which  were  the 
only  ones  that  affected  the  results  —  as  tight  as  possible.  By  the  two 
baths  we  may  have  the  gas  transpired  successively  through  AB  and 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  47 

(7Z),  either  at  the  same  or  at  different  temperatures.  Now,  if  we  de- 
note by  Fj,  i?j,  ^p  r]^,  &c.,  the  vohime  of  gas  transpired  by  A£,  the 
radius  and  length  of  AB,  and  the  coefficient  of  viscosity  of  the  air  pass- 
ing througii  it,  while  V^,  &c.,  represent  the  same  quantities  for  CD ; 
also,  if  PpP2'  7'"  Pi  '"epresent  the  pressure  of  the  gas  at  A,  B,  C,  and  B 
respectively  as  obtained  from  the  gauge  and  bai'ometer  readings ;  then 
from  (1)  we  may  write, 


and 


But  if  both  baths  are  at  the  same  temperature  F^  =  F^  if  <^  ^  #05  and 
11^  =  /^i,?  whence  we  may  write, 


^V^i  ~  Ih'-p-z'' 


(4.) 


Also  in  general  it  will  be  seen  from  the  nature  of  the  apparatus  that 

V  V. 

1 — — —  where  8^  and  8.^  represent  respectively  the  tempera- 


l-l-a5^         1  -|-  "So 

tures  at  which   \\  and   F^  are  transpired.     Hence 


(o.) 


From  equation  (0)  it  will  be  seen  that,  in  order  to  determine  with 
this  apparatus  the  ratio  j/j  :  //„  between  the  coefficients  of  viscosity 
in  the  two  tubes  when  the  temperature  of  these  is  8^  and  8.^  respectively, 
we  have  onl}-  to  know  the  ratio  of  the  dimensions  as  expressed  by 

jHrti  and  to  measure  jt?p  p.^,  and  p^  by  reading  three  mercury  columns. 

Also  we  can  obtain  a  value  of  Trrr  f™m  readings  of  the  gauges  when 

8^  =  8.,,  which  needs  only  to  be  corrected  for  expansion  of  the  glass 
to  be  used  directly  in  equation  (5).  The  whole  process  is  thus  re- 
duced to  the  simple  matter  of  reading  columns  of  mercury,  no  meas- 
ure-ments  of  volumes  of  gas  being  necessary.  The  nature  of  the 
correction  of  Ji  and  I  for  temperature  appears  by  putting  into  the 
above  formuhs  in  which  these  values  are  supposed  to  be  for  0°  C, 
the  coefficients  of  expansion  of  the  glass  =:  A ;  we  thus  get  from  (5)  :  — 

Vj  _  R,H\ -}- A6,)%{1 -\- A6.2)     Pi'-P^^     1  +  «S2 
V2  —  /?2'(  1  +  A6,]iX,(  1  +  .4c5j  •  ;v  -7-3-  '  I  +  aS, 

(6.) 
_R,H\-\-AdJ^?.,     pf-pl     1  +  oh 


48  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Lest,  however,  an  error  might  occur  in  the  last  reduction  fi'om  a 
difference  between  the  coefficient  of  expansion  of  the  bore  of  a  capillary 
tube  and  of  its  lineal  expansion,  I  have  carefidly  measured  both,  and 
find  that  the  coefficient  for  the  bore  is  0.0000075,  while  for  the  linear 
expansion  I  find  0.0i)00080  per  degree  centigrade,  a  difference  too 
slight  to  affect  the  results  in  my  use  of  it ;  I  have  thought  it  best  to 
use  the  value  0.0000075  as  it  entered  in  the  fourth  power,  while  the 
other  entered  only  in  the  first  power.  The  tubes  used  have  also  been 
calibrated  to  insure  the  selection  of  those  of  uniform  bore,  and  their 
dimensions  have  been  accurately  measured  by  mercury  and  a  micro- 
meter screw.  The  dimensions  of  the  two  tubes  used  in  ihe  experi- 
ments to  be  described,  were,  for  tube  No.  I.,  }.  =  1272.3  mm.,  R  = 
0.1098  mm. ;  for  tube  No.  II.,  ;i=  1274.1  mm.,  ie  =  0.1115  mm. 

To  make  an  experiment  with  this  apparatus,  it  is  merely  necessary 
to  start  the  jet  of  wafei"  and  allow  the  exhaustion  to  proceed  until  the 
mercury  columns  in  J^  and  J^  have  come  completely  to  rest.  Read- 
ings are  then  taken  of  the  heiglits  of  these  columns  by  means  of  a 
cathetometer  from  a  steel  scale  placed  beside  the  gauges.  Tlie  reading 
of  the  barometer  corrected  for  instrumental  error  gives  the  pressure 
at  A.  All  these  are  reduced  to  the  freezing  point,  and  A' and  i^are 
corrected  for  capillaiity  by  the  tables  of  Delcros.  <rhe  temperature  of 
the  baths  is  also  taken  by  thermometers  in  various  positions  in  the 
troughs.  This  must  be  kept  constant  throughout  the  experiment,  and 
I  have,  therefore,  principally  used  the  temperatures  of  melting  ice  and 
boiling  water.  In  the  experiments  of  which  the  following  table  gives 
the  results,  advantage  ha^s  been  taken  of  the  four  methods  of  checking 
the  results  of  one  experiment  by  another,  by  reversing  tiie  direction  of 
flow  of  the  air  through  the  tubes  and  heating  alternately?  in  each  case, 
first  one  and  then  the  other  trough.  In  the  table,  column  first  gives  the 
number  of  the  experiment;  column  second,  the  direction  of  flow  of  the 
air,  which  entered  at  the  tube  whose  number  is  first  given  and  passed  out 
from  the  other ;  columns  three,  four  and  five  give  the  pressures  at 
A,  B  and  D  respective'ly  ;  columns  six  and  seven  show  the  temperatures 
in  centigrade  degrees  of  the  baths  around  tubes  I.  and  II.  respectively ; 

column  eight  shows  the  values  of  the  ratio  j^-^  at  different  tempera- 

tures  ;  column  nine,  the  values  of  — ,  i.e.  of  ri  at  the  higher  to  ?/  at  the 

lower  temperature  ;  column  ten  shows  the  values  of  the  exponent  x  in 
tlie  equation  )^=  cr^.  This  is  the  quantity  which  it  was  the  object  of 
the  experiments  to  obtain. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


49 


No. 

Dir. 

Z*! 

Pi 

Pi 

3-1. 

^11. 

V2 

X 

m.  m. 

m.  m. 

VI.  711. 

1 

I.-II. 

759.9 

525  2 

16  3 

ii'o 

17.°0 

0.912 

•1 

»1 

,, 

5i9.3 

17.1 

17.0 

47.5 

1.083 

0.799 

4 

}f 

759.8 

525  6 

18  0 

15.1 

15.1 

0.916 

5 

M 

'1 

584.4 

18.9 

1  » 

J? 

0.921 

6 

J» 

765.7 

550.9 

18.6 

17.8 

178 

0.934 

7 

II-I. 

)f 

490  7 

17.7 

17.5 

99.0 

1.212 

0.776 

8 

>> 

)» 

491.2 

17.6 

17.5 

99.5 

1.206 

0.755 

9 

»I 

«» 

490.0 

17.3 

17.5 

99.8 

1.215 

0  780 

11 

755.2 

467.8 

20.4 

0.0 

100.0 

1.272 

0.771 

12 

»> 

»> 

46K.4 

19.4 

>) 

>J 

1  2()7 

0.7,57 

VA 

)J 

>1 

467.9 

19.6 

)) 

>) 

1.271 

0.708 

14 

J» 

I» 

Vu  7 

19.3 

)* 

)' 

1.273 

0.773 

16 

»t 

&14.2 

20  7 

0.0 

0.0 

0.027 

17 

i.-i'i. 

756.7 

525.3 

23.4 

*» 

VI 

0.928 

18 

J) 

T1 

5W.8 

21.5 

0.0 

100.0 

1.277 

0782 

19 

It 

761.4 

529  1 

16.1 

100.0 

100.0 

0.933 

20 

>> 

762.0 

530.2 

16  7 

f* 

?» 

0.937 

21 

M 

763.1 

452.2 

18.5 

100.0 

0.0 

1.259 

0.738 

Vi 


R^% 


In  the  calculation  of  the  ratio  -  of  this  table,  the  value  of  ^  ^  used 

was  the  mean  of  that  obtained  from  experiments  16  and  17,  after  cor- 
recting for  temperature.  The  agreement  of  these  two  values  within 
0.1  per  cent  is  a  test  of  the  accuracy  of  the  method,  as  the  two  ex- 
periments were  made  on  different  days,  and  the  direction  of  the  current 
was  reversed.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  vahie  of  this  quantity  increases 
slightly  with  the  temperature,  as  we  should  expect  from  the  slight 
ditFerence  in  size  of  the  two  tubes  used.  The  values  of  x  will  be  seen 
to  agree  quite  closely,  with  the  exception  of  experiments  2  and  21. 
I  have  treated  these  results  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  Meyer,  and 
the  result  is  shown  on  Fiij.  1- 

The  point  A  is  plotted  from  experiment  18.  and  i?  from  21  ;  so  that 
the  lines  AC  and  BC  show  the  greatest  variation  in  nine  out  of  ten 
determinations,  while  the  majority  of  these  lie  so  close  together  as  not 
to  be  capable  of  clear  representation  between  A  and  B.  The  point  C 
has  been  raised  from  C  for  distinctness.  Experiment  2  would  indicate 
a  deviation  from  the  straight  line ;  but  I  do  not  regard  this  as  a  per- 
fectly reliable  determination.  More  experiments  are  needed  between 
0°  and  100°  to  establish  the  law. 

In  order  to  compare  these  results  with  those  of  Meyer,  I  have  been 
obliged  to  assume  his  value  of  jy  =  0.000168  at  0.°  C.  as  a  start- 
ing-point, since  the  apparatus  which  I  have  used  does  not  give  absolute 
values  of  the  coefficient  of  viscosity,  but  only  ratios.  It  would  ap- 
pear, however,  that  the  great  concordance  among  the  results  thus  far 
obtained  would  warrant  its  application  to  absolute  measurements,  for 

VOL.  XII.       (n.  S.    IV.)  4 


60  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

which  it  would  only  be  necessary  to  measure  the  "volume  of  the  gas 
transpired  in  a  known  time.  These,  with  experiments  upon  other  gases, 
and  also  upon  the  validity  of  Poiseuille's  law,  I  hope  to  be  able  to  ac- 
complish. The  many  points  of  superiority  of  this  apparatus,  and  the 
excellence  of  these  preliminary  results,  would  seem  to  indicate  more 
accurate  determinations  than  others  preceding  them. 

As  a  result  of  these  experiments,  it  would  appear  that  the  viscosity 
of  air  increases  proportionally  to  the  0.77  power,  nearly,  of  the  absolute 
tempei-ature  between  0°  and  100°  C.  Tiiis  value  corresponds  quite 
closely  to  the  |  power,  and  we  might  infer  tiiat  this  was  tlie  value  of  x 
towards  which  the  experiments  pointed  ;  but  as  I  feel  assured  that 
further  experiments  will  furnish  still  more  concordant  results,  I  should 
be  unwilling  to  accept  0.75  until  tiiese  had  been  performed.  The  gen- 
eral agreement  of  my  results  with  the  numbers  of  iMeyer  and  von 
Obermayer  would  seem  to  point  to  the  fact  that  the  value  of  x  cannot 
be  as  great  as  unity,  and  is  probably  about  0.75. 


Plate  1, 


J7y<if«o" 


■"^ 


Siiciair  *  ist  lis:. 


yhil3. 


Canbya  Candida. 


Plate  II. 


^M  ciadai:  4  Sm.iiit.  Jbli , 


Arctomecon  Californicum. 


OP   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  51 


V. 


CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  THE  BOTANY  OF  NORTH 

AMERICA. 

By   Asa    Gray. 

Presented  June  13,  and  October  11,  1876. 

1.  Characters   of  Canhya   {n.  gen.)  and  Arctomecon. 

WITH  TWO   PLATES. 

CANBYA,  Parry,  nov.  gen.  Papaveracearum. 

Sepala  3,  caduca.  Petala  6,  obovata,  diu  persistentia,  deraum  scari- 
osa,  capsulam  obvolventia.  Stamina  6-9  :  filaraenta  antheris  oblongo- 
linearibus  breviora.  Ovarium  subglobosum  :  placentae  3,  nerviformes, 
multiovulatfB :  stylus  nullus :  stigmata  3,  oblongo-linearia,  reflexo- 
divaricata,  ovario  adpressa,  placentis  superposita,  facie  superiore 
(interiore)  prorsus  papillosa.  Capsula  ovoidea,  membranacea,  a  vertice 
ad  basim  trivalvis,  valvis  placentas  filiformes  cum  stigmatibus  persistentes 
nudantibus.  Semina  plurima,  elongato-oblonga,  parum  arcuata;  testa 
laevissima  nitida ;  rhaphe  baud  prominula  nuda.  Embryo  prope  basim 
albuminis  minimus,  cylindraceus.  —  Herbula  annua,  glabra,  parum  unci- 
alis ;  foliis  alternis  linearibus  integerrimis  subcarnosis  cum  ramis 
brevissimis  ciBspitoso-confertissimis  ;  scapis  perplurimis  filiformibus 
(semipollicaribus)  unifloris  ;  petalis  l«te  albis. 

Canbya  CANDIDA,  Parry.  South-eastern  California,  in  sandy  soil 
on  the  Upper  Mohave  River,  Dr.  E.  Palmer,  May  18,  1876  (in  flower 
and  fruit).  —  This  charming  little  winter-annual  is  one  of  the  discov- 
eries made  by  the  botanical  party,  consisting  of  Doctors  Palmer  and 
Parry  and  Mr.  Lemmon,  which  passed  last  winter  in  S.  E.  California 
and  adjacent  districts.  Dr.  Parry,  who  immediately  recognized  its 
botanical  interest,  proposed  to  dedicate  the  plant  to  our  common  friend 
and  worthy  fellow  botanist,  William  ]\I.  Canby,  Esq.,  of  Wilmington, 
Delaware ;  and  I  have  peculiar  pleasure  in  carrying  this  proposition 
into  effect. 


52  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

The  plant  is  of  most  diminutive  size,  but  of  much  botanical  interest 
and  no  small  beauty.  From  the  Sagina-Wkc  tuft  of  foliage  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground  rises  a  multitude  of  tiny  peduncles  or  scapes, 
each  tipped  with  a  bright  white  flower  which  lasts  for  many  days ;  the 
petals  (barely  two  lines  long)  opening  at  sunrise,  and  at  sunset 
closing  over  the  ovary,  and  at  length  permanently  over  the  capsule, 
into  a  globular  form,  which  the  discoverer  likens  to  a  pearl.  The 
most  unexpected  anomaly  in  this  order  of  a  persistent  (instead  of  ca- 
ducous) corolla  is  shared  by  Arctomecon,  native  of  the  same  district, 
as  Dr.  Parry  himself  ascertained  upon  rediscovering  that  exceedingly 
rare  plant  in  the  spring  of  the  preceding  year.  There  are  other 
Papaveraceous  plants  which  hold  their  petals  for  a  day  or  two,  notably 
Sanguinaria  in  which  they  open  and  close  for  four  or  five  days  before 
falling;  but  in  these  two  peculiar  genera  they  become  scarious,  re- 
maining permanently  in  Arctoniecon,  and  up  to  the  full  maturity  of  the 
capsule  iu  Canhya. 

The  two  genera,  although  closely  related,  differ  in  some  important 
points  of  floral  structure  as  well  as  in  aspect.  The  most  marked  differ- 
ence is  in  the  stigmas,  which  in  Canhya  are  perfectly  sessile,  long, 
entire,  and  divergent  to  the  utmost,  so  that  their  backs  are  closely 
applied  to  the  surface  of  the  rounded  top  of  the  ovary,  directly  over 
the  placentae,  and  the  upper  or  ventral  face  papillose-stigmatic ;  while 
Arctomecon  has  a  short  style,  the  indistinct  lobes  of  which  bear  extrorse 
and  two-lobed  stigmas,  which  are  alternate  with  the  placentae,  and 
are  closely  appressed  or  even  partly  united  in  a  kind  of  head.  The 
capsule  of  the  one  is  membranaceous  and  dehiscent  to  the  base;  of 
the  other,  coriaceous  and  apparently  dehiscent  only  to  the  middle. 
The  seeds  and  the  stamens  are  likewise  different.  The  wretched  figure 
of  Arctomecon  in  Fremont's  Report  exhibits  none  of  these  characters, 
and  it  led  Bentham  and  Hooker  to  conjecture  that  plant  might  be 
only  a  Papaver,  allied  to  P.  nudicaule.  Dr.  Parry's  specimens  were 
received  in  time  for  a  partial,  reconsti-uction  of  the  generic  character 
in  the  Botany  of  California  ;  but  the  position  of  the  stigmas  and  the 
presence  of  a  j^rominent  crest  of  the  seed  have  not  before  been  noticed. 
A  full  character  of  that  genus  is  therefore  here  given,  along  with  that 
of  Canhya. 

ARCTOMECON,  Torr. 

Sepala  2,  raro  3  ?  Petala  4,  latissime  obovata,  persistentia,  demum 
tenuiter  scariosa.  Stamina  indefinite  plurima:  filamenta  sursum  parum 
dilatata,  antheris   brevi-linearibus    lougiora.      Ovarium   obovoideum: 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  53 

placentaj  3-6,  nerviformes,  pluriovulatae  :  stylus  brevissimus,  sublobatus, 
lobis  erectis  pi.  m.  coadunatis  stigmata  placentis  alterna  cordato-biloba 
capitato-couferta  extrorsum  gereiitibus.  Capsula  obovoidea,  suban- 
giilata,  apice  brevitcr  3-6-valvis;  valvis  coriaceis  a  placentis  filiforra- 
ibus  stylo  brevissimo  persistente  connexis  solutis.  Semina  paiiciuscula, 
majuscula,  oblonga,  recta;  rhaplie  cristata;  testa  tenuiter  lineolata, 
crista  ad  hilurn  cariincnlato-dilatata  sursum  sensim  angustiore.  Em- 
bryo cylindraceus,  alhumine  §  brevior.  —  Ilerba  nana,  ut  videtur 
biennis;  foliis  alternis  (summisve  nunc  oppositis)  cuneatis  vel  spathu- 
lato-lanceolatis  apice  2-o-dentatis  seu  inciso  lobatis  barbato-setosis ; 
pedunculis  subumbellatis  nunc  scapiformibus  uniiioi'is ;  floribus  majus- 
culis  albis. 

Akctomecon  Californiccm,  Torr.  in  Frem.  Rep.  ed.  2,  312,  t.  2; 
Parry  in  Am.  JSaturalist,  ix.  139  &  268 ;  Brewer  «&  Watson,  Bot. 
Calif,  i.  21. 

The  accompanying  plates  illustrate  the  two  genera:  — 

PLATE  I.     CANBYA   CANDIDA.     Plant  of  the  natural  size. 
Fig.  1.  Flower  bud,  enlarged. 

2.  Expanded  flower,  enlarged. 

3.  Stamen,  more  magnified,  as  are  all  the  following  details. 

4.  Base  of  ovary  showing  cross  section,  and  upper  part,  with  the  stigmas. 
6.  Mature  capsule  witli  the  investing  persistent  petals. 

6.  Dehiscent  capsule,  with  seeds. 

7.  Same,  the  seeds  fallen. 

8.  Seed,  more  magnified. 

9.  Embryo,  on  the  same  scale. 

PLATE  II.    AKCTOMECON  CALIFORNICUM.    Natural  size  :  the  detaus 
variously  magnified. 
Fig.  1.     A  stamen. 

2.  Pistil  transversely  divided. 

3.  Dehiscent  capsule. 

4.  Seed,  lateral  view. 

5.  Same,  witli  crest  anterior. 

6.  Embryo,  equally  magnified  with  the  seed. 

7.  Portion  of  surface  of  seed,  more  magnified,  to  show  the  lineolation. 

8.  Portion  of  bristle  from  a  leaf. 


64  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

2.   Characters  of  New   Species,  &c. 

IsorYRUM  STiPiTATUM.  Perenne ;  radicibus  fuscicnlatis  ;  caulibiis 
spitham^is  versus  apicetn  1-2-foliatis  1-2-rioris;  foliis  radicalibus  tri- 
caulinis  saepius  bi-ternatisectis,  petioliilis  primariis  secundariisque 
elonofatis,  sesmentis  ultimis  foliolisve  sessilil)us  nunc  confluentibus 
lineari-oblongis  intefrris  vel  cuneatis  trifidis  ;  pedunculo  sub  flore 
parvo  incrassato ;  sepalis  4-5  oblongis ;  petalis  niillis ;  staminibus 
parum  10,  filainentis  subulato-complanatis :  folliculis  totidem  oblongis 
utrinque  obtusissimis  vix  venosis  3-4-spermis  longiuscule  stipitatis. 
—  Northern  C^dif()rnia,  near  Yreka,  Siskiyou  Co.,  April,  187G,  under 
Ceanothiis  and  Oak  bushes,  Rev.  E.  L.  Greene.  A  most  distinct  species  ; 
with  flowers  much  smaller  tlian  those  of  T.  occidentale,  of  which  it  has 
the  habit,  although  larger  than  those  of  T.  fumarioides.  Stipe  of  the 
fruit  nearly  a  Line  long. 

Nastuktium  traciiycarpum.  E  radice  annua  ?  erectum,  ramosum 
(pedale),  fere  glabrum  ;  foliis  lyrato-subpinnaiitidis ;  racemis  laxis  ; 
floribus  albidis  ;  petalis  spathnlatis  sepala  antherasque  oblongo-sagitta- 
tas  parum  supeiantibus ;  siliquis  oblongo-linearibus  (lin.  4-5  longis) 
papilloso-asperatis  in  pedicello  rigido  mox  recnrvato  curvato-adscenden- 
tibus  stylo  longo  subulato  superatis.  —  S.  W.  Colorado,  on  the  San 
Juan,  &c.,  T.  S.  Brandegee,  in  Hay  den's  Expedition,  1875.  The 
rhachis  of  the  raceme  and  the  stout  peilicels  are  more  or  less  studded 
with  the  small  rough  papill;^  which  abound  on  the  pod  and  suggest  the 
name  for  the  specirs,  which  is  a  very  distinct  one. 

Lepidium  dictyotdm,  Gray,  var.  ?  acutidens,  siliculis  magis  ovatis, 
dentibus  loniiioribus  deltoideo-  immo  subulato-trian<fulatis  omnino  acu- 
tis. —  California  at  Yreka,  E.  L.  Greene. 

Claytonia  bulbifkka.  C.  SibiriccB,  L.  (alsinodei,  Sims)  similis, 
sedbulbillis  radicalibus  bulboso-confertis  pereunans;  ra'-emis  elongandis 
fulioso-bracteatis ;  bracteis  spathnlatis  sen  lineari-oblongis ;  sepalis 
latioribus,  fructiferis  dilatatis.  —  Scott  Mountains,  Siskiyou  Co.,  Cali- 
fornia, P>.  L.  Greene.  Also  received  from  some  other  Californian  col- 
lectors, but  without  the  bulbiferous  base.  To  the  acute  observation  of 
Mr.  Greene  we  are  also  indebted  for  an  indication  of  the  characters 
which  appear  to  demand  the  re-establishment  of  C.  parvijlora,  Hook, 
and  perhaps  one  or  two  other  specicvS. 

Astragalus  coi>linus.  Dough,  var.  C\lifornicus,  leguminibus 
cum  stipite  sesquipoUicaribus  purpureo-marmoratis.  —  Yreka,  Califor- 
nia, E.  L.  Greene. 

Astragalus  FLAVus,  Nutt,  var.  candicans.     Canescens ;  pedun- 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  55 

culis  subscapiformibus.  —  Near  Richfield,  Utah,  at  5,900  feet,  in  loose 
a§hy  soil,  Lester  F.  Ward,  in  Powell's  Expedition.  Apparently  a 
form  of  Nattall's  species,  but  more  condensed  as  well  as  hoary,  and 
witli  somewhat  the  aspect  of  Oxytropis.  The  specimens  supply  mature 
fruit,  which  is  wanting  in  Nuttall's  specimens.  The  legume  is  one-celled, 
with  little  or  uo  introflexion  or  thickening  of  the  dorsal  suture ;  while 
externally  the  ventral  suture  has  a  very  salient  ridge  and  a  shallow  and 
broad  groove  each  side  of  it,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  A.  bisulcafus. 

Astragalus  Ward[.  laflnti :  perennis?  viridis,  undiqne  fere  gla- 
ber  ;  caulibus  erectis  nltrapedalibiis  foliosis  :  stipulis  triangularibus  vel 
subnlatis  parviilis  :  foliolis  multijngis  angusto-oblongis  obtusis  retusisve 
(lin.  3-4  longis)  ;  pedunculis  filiformibus  folio  brevioribus  laxe  racemoso- 
10-15-floris;  floribus  moxpendulis;  calycis  dentibus  subulato-setaceis 
tubo  breviter  campanulato  aeqiiilongis  ;  corolla  alba  nunc  purpurascente 
lin.  2-3  longa;  legumine  vesiculoso  ovato  acuto  recto  sub«quilatero 
baud  stipitato  glaberrimo  purpureo-marniorato  |-pollicari.  —  Sevier 
Co.,  Utah,  on  the  edge  of  Aquarin's  Plateau,  at  8,700  feet,  Lester 
F.  Ward,  in  Powell's  Expedition. 

Astragalus  Newberkyt.  Scyfocarpi :  subcaulescens  ;  caudicibus 
in  radice  elongato  profundo  brevissimis  confertis  ;  foliis  argenteo-seri- 
ceis ;  foliolis  3-7  nunc  lato-  nunc  angusto-obovatis  approximatis  (lin. 
4—6  longis)  ;  pedunculis  brevibus  vel  brevissimis  pauciHoris  ;  calyce 
cylindraceo  sericeo,  dentibus  tubo  plus  dimidio  brevioribus ;  corolla 
ochroleuca  |-pollicari,  unguibus  elongatis  ;  legumine  chartaceo  ovato 
infiato  villoso  pollicari  uiiiloculari,  acumine  lato  lateraliter  compresso 
subincurvo,  suturis  baud  incrassatis  nee  intiis  nee  extus  prominulis.  — 
A.  Chamceleuce,  Gray  in  Bot.  Iv'es  Colorad.  Exp.  10,  quoad  pi.  New- 
berry.—  On  the  frontiers  of  Utah  and  Arizona,  Prof.  Newberry. 
Cafion  east  nf  Glen  wood,  Sevier  Co.,  Utah,  at  7,000  feet,  Lester  F. 
Ward,  in  Powell's  Expedition,  1875.  Having  now  the  fruit,  it  is  clear 
that  Newberry's  plant,  in  flower  only,  is  not  the  same  as  Phaca  pyg- 
mcea,  Nutt.,  which  should  retain  the  name  of  A.  Chamceleuce,  while  this 
may  take  that  of  the  original  discoverer. 

Astragalus  Patthrsoxf.  Snjfocarpi :  robustus,  1-2-pedalis,  ad- 
presso-piiberulus,  nunc  glabellus ;  foliolis  6-10-jugis  oblongis  crassius- 
cnlis  (semipoll.  ad  pollicem  longis)  :  pedimculis  racemoso-plurifloris 
folium  fcquantibus  vel  superantibus ;  floribus  mox  pendulis  ultra-semi- 
pollicaribiis  ;  calycis  dentibus  setaceo-subulatis  tubo  cylindraceo  dimidio 
brevioribus  ;  corolla  alba  ;  carina  apice  nunc  purpurascente  ;  legumine 
ovali  crasso-coriaceo  inflate  glabro  (saepius  pollicari)  polyspermo,  basi 
intra  calycem  abrupte  contracta  substipitiformi,  suturis  nee  intrusis  nee 


56  PROCEEDINGS    OP   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

extus  prominulis.  —  Foot-hills  of  Gore  Mountains,  Colorado,  H.  N. 
Patterson.  Rio  McElmo,  Southwestern  Colorado,  T.  S.  Brandegee,  in 
Haydeii's  Expedition,  1875.  Utah  on  Dirty-Devil  River,  and  near 
Richfield,  L.  F.  Ward,  in  Powell's  Expedition,  1875.  The  two  last  in 
fruit  only ;  while  the  fruit  of  Mr.  Patterson's  plant  (who  alone  has 
found  the  flowers)  is  decidedly  smaller,  sometimes  little  over  half  an 
inch  lonw. 

Astragalus  subcompressus.  A.  racemoso  sect.  Galegiformhim 
admodum  siniilis  ;  dentibus  calycis  brevioribus ;  corolla  ochroleuca  ; 
legumine  falcato  lateraliter  compresso  intus  septo  completo  bilocellato, 
sulco  dorsali  angusto  subclauso,  stipite  e  calycis  tubo  baud  exserto.  — 
S.  W.  Colorado,  common  at  the  altitude  of  7,000  feet,  T.  S.  Brandegee, 
in  Haydeu's  Exped.  1875.  Legumes  an  inch  and  a  quarter  or  only 
an  inch  long,  2\  to  nearly  3  lines  wide,  the  well-developed  ones 
decidedly  falcate  ;  the  partition  about  twice  the  length  of  the  depth  of 
the  groove,  which  in  the  cross-section  of  the  well-grown  pod  before 
dehiscence  is  oval  and  almost  closed. 

Astragalus  ITaydknianus.  A.  bisulcato  affinis,  minor;  pube 
magis  cinerea  ;  spica  elongata  virgata  ;  floribus  multo  minoribus  (lin. 
3-4  longis)  ;  calycis  dentibus  subulatis  tubo  multo  brevioribus  ;  corolla 
alba,  carina  apice  purpureo  tincta  ;  legumine  ovali  utrinque  obtusissimo 
venis  transversis  ruguloso  6-7-ovulato  2-4-spermo,  facie  ventrali  late 
profundeque  impressa  sutura  ccstteformi  valde  piominente  percursa, 
stipite  calycem  hand  superante.  —  Common  in  S.  W.  Colorado,  at  the 
altitude  of  7,000  feet,  T.  S.  Brandegee,  in  Hayden's  Expedition,  1875. 
Also  banks  of  Grand  River  in  Middle  Park,  II.  N.  Patterson.  "  Plant 
2  or  3  feet  high."  Dedicated  to  Dr.  F.  V.  Hayden,  the  Director  of 
the  expedition  in  wliich  it  was  collected,  and  the  distinguished  ex- 
plorer and  surveyor  of  our  whole  Rocky  Mountain  district. 

Astragalus  tricarinatus.  A.  arrccto  subsimilis,  1-2-pedalis  ; 
foliolis  plnrimis  parvis  (lin.  3-4  longis)  ovalibus  obovatisve  emarjiinatis 
crassiusculis  supra  glabellis  subtus  cauo-puberulis  secus  rhachin  elon- 
gatam  sat  rigidam  sparsis  vel  remotiusculis ;  racemis  sparsifloris  longe 
pedunculati:^ ;  bracteis  ovato-subulatis  minimis  ;  floribus  subpatentibus  ; 
calycis  nigro-hirsutuli  tubo  brevi-campanulato  pe^licello  aequilongo 
dentibus  subulatis  parura  longiore  ;  corolla  ochroleuca  sen  flavida  (semi- 
pollicem  longa)  ;  ovario  glaberrimo ;  legumine  lato-lineari,  matnro 
arcuato  ultrapollicari  coriaceo  bilocellato  quasi  tiicarinato,  nempe  dorso 
inter  carinas  obtusas  late  sulcato,  ventre  acutissime  carinato,  faciebus 
concavis,  sectione  transversa  late  Y-formi,  stipite  calycis  tubo  breviore. 
—  White  Water,  San  Bernardino  Co.,  California,  Parry,  1876. 


OP   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  57 

Astragalus  humtllimus.  Caespitoso-depressus,  condensatus ; 
caudice  lignescente ;  caulibus  vix  polli<;anbus  stipulis  scariosis  coalitis 
imbricato-tectis  petiolis  persistentibus  hystricosis ;  foliolis  3-5-jugis 
oblongis  canescentibus  mai'jjine  revolutis  liiieain  lon^is  demiini  de- 
cidiiis ;  pedum-ulis  brevibus  1-3-flons ;  calycis  deiitibus  subulads  tubo 
oblongo-campanulato  dimidio  brevioribus;  corolla  pallida:  k^guraine 
ovato  coriaceo  albido-pubescente  parvo  (liii.  2  loiigo)  uniloculari 
9-ovulato  fere  moiiosperuio,  siituris  extus  promiuulis.  —  Flat  rocky 
grounds  on  the  jMesa  Verde,  S.  W.  Colorado,  T.  S.  Brandcgee,  in 
Hayden's  Expedition,  1875.  Habit  of  A.jejimns,  AVatson,  but  much 
more  dwarf  and  condensed,  not  rising  moie  than  2  or  3  inches 
above  the  ground,  and  often  choked  in  drifting  sand.  Persistent 
petioles  and  rhachis  only  an  inch  long,  more  rigid  and  spinescent 
than  those  of  A.  Jejunus,  which  are  also  persistent :  the  jjod  decidedly 
different. 

Lespedeza  leptostachya,  Engelm.  in  herb.  Gray.  Pube  undique 
adpressa  argenteo-canescens ;  petiolo  j)etiolulo  terminali  longiore ; 
foliolis  linearibus ;  spicis  paniculatis  gracilibus  sublaxifloris  longiuscule 
pedunculatis  ;  legumine  calycem  adsequante  vel  subsuperante.  —  Min- 
nesota, T.J.  Hale.  Illinois,  Bebb.  Iowa,  T.  C.  Arthur,  Bessey.  Has 
passed  for  L.  angusti folia,  from  which  its  slender  s()ikes  and  paniculate 
habit  at  once  distinguish  it.  Our  species  of  the  group  are  dilficult  and 
need  revision,  witii  very  ample  materials  to  be  studied  with  the  atten- 
tion which  Maxiraowicz  has  bestowed  upon  the  Asiatic  species.  L. 
capitafa,  Michx.,  should  be  known  by  its  very  short  petioles,  short- 
peduncled  and  globular  heads  of  flowers,  and  legume  much  shorter 
than  the  calyx  ;  L.  angusfifolia.  Ell.,  by  smaller  and  often  oblong 
heads,  on  distinct  ami  sometimes  slender  peduncles,  and  legumes  hardly 
shorter  than  the  calyx,  the  leaflets  linear ;  L.  kirta,  by  pubescence 
of  stem  perhaps  always  spreading,  leaflets  from  orbicular  to  narrow 
oblong,  petioles  mostly  slender,  oblong  spikes  on  elongated  peduncles, 
and  legume  at  maturity  hardly  shorter  than  the  cnlyx. 

Epilobium  jucundum.  E.  paniculato  affine  ;  floribus  multo  majori- 
bus  thyrsoideo-paniculatis ;  calycis  tubo  ultra  ovarium  longe  producto 
tubuloso-infundibuliformi ;  petalis  Isete  purpureis  late  obcordatis  semi- 
pollicaribus  ;  antheris  fere  linearibus  ;  stylo  prrelongo.  —  Scott  Valley, 
Siskij'ou  Co.,  California,  E.  L.  Greene,  Aug.  28,  1876.  A  showy 
species,  well  worthy  of  cultivation,  having  llowers  almost  as  large  as 
those  of  E.  obcordaium,  and  very  numerous  in  a  rather  crowded  pani- 
cle. The  calyx  beyond  the  ovary  is  half  an  inch  long,  more  narrowly 
funuel-form  thau  in  E.  paniculatum,  the  tubular  part  about  equalling 


58  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

the  ovary ;  the  petals  are  much  broader  as  well  as  larger,  and  the 
anthers  (of  short-linear  outline)  fully  twice  longer. 

Galium  Brandegei.  Caespitoso-depressum,  parvum,  glabrum, 
laevissimum ;  radieibus  fibrosis  ;  foliis  quaternis  obovatis  vel  spathulatis 
fere  aveniis  lin.  1-3  longis;  peduncuHs  uniHoris  solitariis  biiiisve  nudis  ; 
flore  albido  semi-lineam  loiigo ;  fructu  l,T3vi  glabro. —  Valley  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  New  Mexico,  on  Los  Finos  Trail,  at  9,000  feet,  Sept,,- 
1875,  T.  S.  Brandegee,  in  Hayden's  Expedition.  Spreading  extensively 
over  the  barely  moist  ground,  evidently  perennial ;  the  stems  only  2 
or  3  inches  long.  We  have  no  other  North  American  s^Decies  much 
resembling  this. 

BiiicivELLiA  Greenei.  Subsesquipedalis,  pube  viscidissima  ;  cauli- 
bus  usque  ad  capitula  solitaria  ramus  terminantia  foliosis ;  foliis  cauli- 
nis  ovatis  obtusis  medium  versus  inajqualiter  serratis  basi  subtruncatis 
brevissirne  petiolatis,  ramealibus  oblongis  subintegerrimis,  sumrais 
capitulum  involucrantibus  eoque  brevioribus  ;  involucro  proprio  multi- 
floro,  squamis  liuearibus  acumiaatis  glabellis,  extiniis  brevioribus  tan- 
tum  lauceolatis  ;  acheniis  ad  angulos  hirtellis. — Siskiyou  Co.,  California, 
on  the  south  fork  of  Scott  River,  E.  L.  Greene,  Aug.  '24,  1876.  Cau- 
line  leaves  an  inch  long,  thinnish  ;  those  of  the  short  and  somewhat 
corymbose  flowering  branches  barely  half  an  inch  long.  Head  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  long. 

BiGELOViA  Vaseyi.  Chrysothamnus :  depressa,  glabra,  Ifevis  ;  cau- 
libus  e  basi  decumbente  erectis  spithamaeis ;  foliis  atigustis  spathulato- 
linearibus  obtusis:  capitulis  corymboso-confertis  plerumque  sessilibus  ; 
involucro  aiigusto  oblongo  subclavato  5-floro,  squamis  minus  carinatis 
oblongis  obtusissimis  chartaceis,  exterioribus  apice  crassiore  viridulo  ; 
appendicibus  styli  obtusiusculis  parte  stiginatica  lineari  dimidio 
brevioribus  ;  ovario  glaberrimo.  —  Colorado,  in  Middle  Park,  Dr.  Geo. 
Yasey.  in  Powell's  Exped.,  1868.  Utah,  on  Aquarin's  Plateau,  at  9,000 
feet,  L.  F.  Ward,  in  Powell's  Exped.,  1875.  Leaves  an  inch  or  less 
in  length,  a  line  or  less  wide.  Heads  in  Vasey's  specimens  4  lines 
long,  in  Ward's  better  developed  ones  are  5  or  almost  6  lines  long;  the 
scales  of  the  involucre  less  carinate  and  less  prominently  straight 
ranked  than  in  the  related  species ;  the  greenish  tij)s  also  suggesting 
the  Aplodiscus  section. 

SoLiDAGO  SPARSIFLORA.  Virgaurea,  Virgatce :  scabrido-puberula ; 
foliis  inferioribus  ignotis,  su;  erioribus  floralibusque  parvulis  lanceolatis 
(lin.  6-12  longis);  racemulis  oligocephalis  laxis  laxcque  thyrsoideis  ; 
involucri  squamis  linearibus  ])uberulis  apice  viridulis  acutiusculis  ;  flori- 
bus  radii  circiter  10  ligulis  parvulis,  disci  4-5  ;  acheniis  sericeo-pubes- 


OF   AllTS   AND   SCIENCES.  59 

centibus.  —  Arizona,  near  Camp  Lowell,  Sept.,  1874.  Rothrock,  in 
Wlieekr  Expedition,  1874. 

Gymnolomia  (Heliomeris)  Porteri.  Annua,  ramosa  ;  foliislan- 
ceolatis  linearibusque  plerisque  alternis  integerrimis  margine  inferue 
parce  hisjjidis  ;  capitulLs  cymoso-pauiculatis,  pedunculo  gracili ;  involu- 
cro  laxo  e  squamis  angiiste  liiiearibus  siibfoliaceis  fere  uniseriatis 
ligulas  subjequantibus ;  receptaculo  alte  conico;  corolla  disci  fauce 
lati^sime  campanulata  lobis  aequilonga,  tubo  abrupto  brevi  basi  incras- 
sato ;  St)  lo  basi  bulboso,  ramis  liispidulis  appeiidice  tenuiter  subulata 
hispida  terminatis ;  acbeniis  turgidis  hispidulis  calvis,  marginibus  ad 
apicem  latum  truncatum  in  umlionem  parvum  productis,  areola  parva 
vix  anuulata.  —  Hudbeckin?  Porteri,  Gray,  PI.  Fendl.  83.  Stone 
Mountain,  Upper  Georgia,  Porter,  Hendee,  Ravenel,  and  later  Engel- 
mann  and  Canby,  August  and  September. 

Palafoxia  Feayi.  Scabra  ;  foliis  oblongis  lanceolatisque  basi  vel 
utrinque  obtusis  (poJlicaribiis)  ;  capitulis  subcymosis ;  involucro  e 
squamis  linearibus  obtusis  floribus  2-3-pIo  brevioribus  pedunculisque 
eglandulosis  ;  corollje  fauce  cylindracea  lobisque  breviusculis  P.  lineari- 
fijlicB  ;  pappi  paleis  oblongis  obtusis  basi  incrassatis  achetiio  multoties 
corollae  tubo  dimidio  brevioribus.  —  S.  Florida,  Dr.  William  T.  Feay, 
Dr.  Chapman. 

HuLSEA  Parryi.  Hurailis ;  foliis  plerisque  radicalibus  confertis 
spathulatis  infequaliter  argute  dentatis  priuiura  albo-lanuginosis  ;  cauli- 
bus  floriferis  plurimis  scapiformibus  (spithanijeis)  gracilibus  glabellis 
simplicibus  monoce[)halis  vel  basi  tlivisis  bracteis  paucis  linearibus 
subulatisve  instructis ;  capitulo  pro  genere  parvo  (semipollicem  alto)  ; 
involucro  viscoso-pubescente,  squamis  lato-linearibus  flores  disci  ligu- 
lasque  paucas  incons[)icuas  subfequantibus  ;  pappi  paleis  oblongis  parum 
erosis  subfequalibus.  —  S.  E.  California,  in  tiie  Mohave  district.  Dr. 
Parry,  1876.  The  flowers  appear  to  be  yellow,  with  tips  disposed  to 
turn  to  purple. 

Gaillardia  spathulata.  C.  acaw/i  spec,  insigni  peraffinis  ;  cau- 
libus  spithamjBis  e  caudice  perenni  multicipiti  plurimis  plerumque 
ramosis  foliatis ;  foliis  spalhulatis  integerrimis  basi  sensim  attenuata 
sessilibus  ;  pedunculo  breviusculo  ,  paj^pi  paleis  9-11  oldongis  longius 
aristatis,  arista  corollam  disci  mox  superante.  —  S.  Utah,  in  Rabbit 
Valley,  at  7,000  feet,  L.  F.  Ward,  in  Powell's  p]xped.,  1875.  Leaves, 
as  in  G.  acaidis,  thickish  and  firm;  the  larger  a  full  inch  long;  the 
uppermost  reduced  to  half  or  a  third  of  an  inch.  Heads  rather  smaller 
than  in  G.  acauiis.  on  a  slender  terminal  peduncle  of  an  inch  or  two  ia 
length.     Disk-corollas  3  lines  long. 


60  PROCEEDINGS    OP   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Tetrabyimia  comosa.  Lagothamnus :  lana  gnaphaloiclea  flealbata, 
3— 4-peclalis ;  ramis  ramulisque  erectis ;  foliis  sparsis  linearibus  plaiiis 
(s£Epe  ultra-pollicaribiu-i)  cuspidato-mucronatis  aiitdeciduis  autnoiiiiuUis 
in  spinam  modice  induratam  persistentem  mutatis  ;  fat-cic'ulis  axillaiibus 
nullis ;  capitulis  ad  apicem  ramosum  corymboso-cymiilosis  ;  caeterum 
fere  T.  spinosce.  —  W.  Nevada,  Lemmoii.  8.  E.  borders  of  California, 
E.  Palmer.     Potrero,  San  Diego  Co.,  D.  Cleveland. 

Nemacladds  longiplouus.  Foliis  radicalibus  magis  cano-birtis; 
corolla  tubulosa  sepalis  aequalibus  a  basi  fere  discretis  sublinearibus  3-4- 
plo  longioribus,  tubo  fere  integro ;  filamentis  longius  monadelphis  ; 
ovario  fusiformi ;  capsula  oblonga  septo  contrario  subcompressa  calyce 
libero  plus  diiplo  longiure ;  seminibus  turgide  ovalibus.  —  S.  E.  Cali- 
fornia, Wallace,  Lemnion.  A  specimen  of  this,  collected  by  Mr.  Wal- 
lace (probably  between  Los  Angeles  and  San  Bernardino),  has  long 
been  in  our  herbarium,  but  the  charaoters  have  been  noticed  only  nov? 
upon  the  coming  of  fine  specimens  collected  recently  by  Mr.  Lemmon. 
The  flowers  and  fruit  differ  strikingly  from  those  of  iV^  ramosissimus, 
and  call  for  emendation  of  tlie  generic  character.  In  the  new  species 
the  calyx  is  actually  free  from  the  ovary  and  capsule,  and  5-parted  to 
the  base,  and  the  long  and  narrow  capsule  is  2-valved  from  top  to  bot- 
tom. It  is  very  interesting  to  have  a  second  species  of  this  remarkable 
genus;  but  it  throws  no  additional  light  upon  its  affinities. 

Lobelia  Ludoviciana.  Inter  L.  paludusam  et  L.  appendlculafam 
quasi  media,  glabra,  caule  2-3-pe(lali  gracili  folioso  ;  foliis  crassiusculis 
basi  angustatis,  superioribus  lanceolatis  acutis,  inferioribus  petiolatis, 
imis  spathulatis  obtusis  ;  racemo  nudo  laxe  5-2()-floro  ;  floribus  secun- 
dis  horizontalibus  puberulis ;  corolla  casruleu  semipollicari ;  calycis 
tubo  fere  hemispboerico,  lobis  ovato-  seu  .(auriculis  brevibus  integris 
reflexis)  cordato-lanceolatis  tubo  corolla;  dimidio  brevioribus  capsula 
parum  longioribus  margine  saepius  integerriniis ;  autheris  majoribus 
superne  hirsutis,  apice  imberbi.  —  In  wet  prairies,  Western  Louisiana, 
J.  Hale  ;  Texas,  near  Houston.  Liiidheimer. 

Lobelia.  Feayana.  L.  Cliffortiance  et  L.  Berlandleri  affinis, 
glabra,  annna;  caulibus  spitbamajis  ramosis  ditfusis  tenellis  ;  foliis 
(^-|-pollicaribus)  obovatis  vel  rotundatis  petiolatis  repando-denticu- 
latis,  summisve  spathulatis  seu  lanceolatis  sessilibus ;  racerais  nudis 
pedunculatis  laxe  4-10-floris  ;  pedicellis  (lin.  2—4  lougis)  flori  a;quiIongis 
bractea  subulata  2— 3-plo  longioribus  ;  calycis  tubo  capsulaque  (§  iiifera) 
lato-obconicis,  sinubus  nudis,  lobis  subulatis  tubo  corollre  laste  ca^ruleae 
(parum  lin.  2  longne)  dimidio  brevioribus  apicem  liberum  capsuhv  vix 
Buperautibus ;  antheris  glabris,  brevioribus  apice  barbulatis  ;  seminibus 


OF   ARTS   AND    SCIENCES.  61 

oblongis,  te*ta  cellulosa.  —  Eastern  and  Southern  Florida,  Dr.  Feay, 
Dr.  K.  Palmer,  Mrs.  Treat,  &c. 

Akctostaphylos  Clevelandi.  a.  bicoloris  quoad  folia  et  tomen- 
tum  sat  similis,  bipedalis ;  ramis  longe  crebreque  foliosis  ;  foliis  sub- 
sessilibus  oblongis  sublauceolatis  cuspidato-acuminatis  supra  mox 
g^abratis  iiitidulis  subtus  albido-tomentulosis  ;  racemis  folioso-bractea- 
tis  ;  pedicellis  bractea  brevioribus  flore  diiplo  longioribus  supra  niediuui 
folioso-bibracteolatis ;  sepalis  ovatis  imbricatis  tonientosis ;  corolla 
brevi-oblonga  sub-urceolata  (lin.  4  loiiga)  albida  multinervulosa;  fila- 
mentis  subulatis  villosis ;  stigmate  capitato ;  disco  hypogyno  ovarii 
glabri  dimidiiim  aBquante  :  drupa  ignota.  —  Potrero,  San  Diego  Co., 
California,  D.  Cleveland,  1876.     In  flower  Sept.  20. 

Rhododendron  Chapmanii.  R.  punctato  perquam  similis  ;  ramis 
rigidioribus  erectis;  foliis  crassioribus  minus  petiolatis ;  floribus  prieco- 
cioribus  ;  corolla?  infundibuliformis  lobis  ovatis  tubo  staminibus  styloque 
brevioribus  ;  seminibus  anguste  oblongis.  —  R,  pimctatum  var.  Cbapra. 
Fl.  266.  —  Sandy  pine  barrens  of  W.  Florida,  Dr.  Chapman. 

CLETHRA,  PYROLA,  etc.  The  early  view  that  the  anthers  of 
Pyrolece.  are  in  normal  position  in  tiie  bud  (in  other  words,  that  they 
are  extrorse  and  the  foramina  basal),  to  which  I  reverted  in  the  later 
editions  of  the  Manual  of  Bot.  N.  U.  States,  upon  some  observations  by 
the  late  Prof.  H.  J.  Clark,  must  be  adhered  to.  Baillon,  indeed  (in 
Adansonia,  i.  194),  states  the  contrary  with  much  particularity,  appar- 
ently from  direct  ol)6ervation  :  "  Cliaque  loge  se  termine  en  un  tube  k 
pore  de  dehiscence  apical.  L'antliere  est  introrse  quand  le  pore  est 
en  haut.;  elle  est,  par  consequent,  extrorse  quand  le  pore  regarde  en 
bas.  Le  filet  est  dans  son  jeune  Tige  rectiligne  et  dresse.  Plus  tard  il 
s'alonge  beaucoup  et  s'inflecliit  en  se  moulant  sur  la  convexite  de 
I'anthere.  Lors  de  I'epanouissement  complet,  il  se  redresse  une  seconde 
fois  en  totalite."  I  can  affirm,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  anthers  are 
developed  from  the  first  in  this  extrorse  position,  and  undergo  no  in- 
version in  the  bud ;  indeed,  the  anther  is  well  formed  and  the  basal 
horns  i)lainly  recognizable  before  the  filament  has  an  appreciable  length, 
at  least  such  as  would  allow  the  former  to  execute  the  supposed 
"  mouvement  de  bascule." 

Clethra  agrees  with  the  Pyrolece  in  having  primarily  extrorse 
anthers,  as  well  as  in  the  simple  pollen  and  completely  polypetalous 
corolla.  These  characters  are  fully  equal  in  value  to  those  upon  which 
De  Candolle  and  others  break  up  the  original  Ericaceoi  into  separate 
orders,  and,  if  apprehended  by  Bentham  and  Hooker,  might  have  led 
them  to  give  ordinal  rank  to  the  /*?/rofe«,  appending  Clethra,  which  they 


62  PROCEEDINGS    OP    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

almost  exclude  from  Ericacece.  Much  preferring  to  retain  the  order 
as  a  jireat  whole,  I  would  combine  Clethra  and  the  tribe  Fyrulece  into 
the  third  suborder,  Pyrolinece. 

Galax  aphylla,  Linn.  The  name  first  appears  in  the  first  edition 
of  the  Species  Flantarum,  p.  200,  in  1753.  Neither  generic  nor  spe- 
cific name  has  any  fitness  ;  the  herb  is  not  milky,  nor  is  it  leafiess, 
except  as  to  tiie  scape.  The  plant  in  view,  the  Anonymos  s.  Belvedere, 
of  Clayton,  is  recognizable  by  the  good  generic  character  in  the  first 
edition  of  the  Flora  Virginica,  and  from  Clayton's  herbarium.  The 
generic  character  of  Galax  first  appears  a  year  later,  in  the  5th 
edition  of  the  Genera  Plantarum,  and  it  is,  as  has  been  noted,  utterly 
incongruous  with  Clayton's  plant,  to  whicli  Linnasus  meant  to  apply  it. 
This  generic  character  Linnasus  copied  from  Mitchell's  Nova  Planta- 
rum Genera,  viz.,  from  his  VUicella,  merely  substituting  the  name  of 
Galax.  Consequently  not  a  word  of  the  Linn;«an  generic  character 
is  applicable  to  Galax  aphylla^  Linnanis's  only  species  ;  wherefore  it  is 
not  surprising  that  Andrews,  Richaid,  and  Ventenat  should  have  re- 
spectively described  that  plant  under  other  generic  names.  Although 
the  contradiction  was  long  ago  pointed  out,  still  most  authors,  down 
to  Endlicher,  De  Candolle,  and  later,  have  followed  LinuiBus  in  citing 
Viticella  as  a  synonym  of  Galax.  Gronovius,  in  the  second  edition 
of  the  Flora  Virginica,  was  evidently  struck  by  this  total  discrepancy  ; 
and  he  covered  it  in  a  curious  way,  by  omitting  altogether  the  correct 
character  of  Clayton's  plant,  as  printed  in  the  original  edition.  It  was 
reserved  for  INIr.  Bentham  to  divine  what  Mitchell's  Viticella  really  is, 
viz.,  HydropJtyllum  appe^vliculatum,  to  which  the  name  of  Galax  etymo- 
logically  is  equally  inap|)lical)le.     See  lk'ntli.&  Ilook.  Gen.  ii.  827. 

STEIRONEMA,  Raf.  in  Ann.  Gen  Phys.  Brux.  vii.  192  (1820). 
Genus  between  Trientalis  and  Lysiinacliia,  distinguished  from  both  by 
the  presence  of  staminodia  (the  rudiments  of  the  other  series  of 
stamens)  between  the  fertile  filaments,  and  by  the  {estivation  of  the 
corolla,  in  whicli  each  division  is  separately  involute  around,  or  even 
convolutely  enwraps  the  stamen  before  it.  The  latter  character,  which 
I  have  I'ecently  ascert  dned,  is  not  alluded  to  by  Baudo  in  his  index  of 
the  caulescent  Anagallidece  (Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  ser.  2,  xx.),  nor  by  Bentham 
and  Hooker  in  the  second  volume  of  the  Genera  Plantarum,  in  which 
tlie  aestivation  of  the  corolla  is  first  systematically  einployed  in  the 
arrangement  of  this  order.*     Following  Bigelow  (§  Seleucia)  I  had 

*  The  tribe  Li/simackiem  is  characterized  as  having  convolute  (or  "  contorted  ") 
aestivation  of  the   corolla;  the  Primulece,  by  quincuncially  imbricated.     This 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  63 

long  ago  marked  out  Steironema  as  a  subgenus ;  but  this  new  particu- 
lar warrants  the  complete  se{)aration. 

The  species  are  not  easy  to  define,  as  they  incline  to  run  into  each 
other.  But  they  are  on  the  whole  tolerably  well  distinguished  in  the 
later  editions  of  the  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  N.  United  States. 
iliey  ace  :  — 

S.  ciLiATUM.     (S.  ciliata,  Raf.  1.  c.) 

S.  RADiCANS.  Lysimachia  radicans,  Hook.  Companion  to  Bot. 
Mag.  i.  177. 

S.  LANCEOLATUM.  {S.  heleropliylla,  Raf.  &  S.  Jlorida,  Baudo, 
mainly.)  Lysimachia  Ifinceolata,  Walt.  Var.  hybrid um,  tlie  L.  hy- 
brida,  Michx.  Var.  angustifolium,  the  L.  angustifuUa,  Lam.,  and 
L.  heterupliylla,  Michx. 

S.  LONGIFOLIOM.  (^S.  longifuUa'^  &  S.  revoluta,  Raf.)  The  oldest 
specific  name  is  Lysimachia  quadrijlora,  Sims,  Bot.  Mag.  t.  G60,  but 
that  name  is  an  inappropriate  and  deceptive  one.  L.  longifoUa^  Pursh, 
is  only  a  little  later,  and  is  unobjectionable. 

FuAXiNUS  Gkeggii.  Onuis:  fruticosa,  glabra ;  ramis  gracilibus 
teretibus  ;  foliolis  3-7  angusto-spathulatis  seu  oblongo-obovatis  obtusis 
obtuse  paucidentatis  vel  integerrimis  planis  coriapeis  fere  aveniis  sessili- 
bus  parvis,  petiolo  inter  foliola  alato-marginato  ;  samara  oblongo-lineari 
apice  retusa  stylo  brevissimo  apiculata.  —  F.  Schiedeana  vav. parviJoHa, 
Torr.  Bot.  Mex.  Bound.  16G.  —  S.  W.  Texas,  and  adjacent  parts  of 
Mexico,  Gregg,  Schott,  Bigelow,  Parry. 

FoRESTiERA  Neo-Mexicana.  F.  acuminatcB  proxima;  foliis  rai- 
noribus  (pollicaribus)  spathulato-oblongis  apice  obtusis  vel  obtuse 
subacuminatis  brevi-petiolatis ;  floribus  foemineis  fasciculatis  (baud 
paniculatis)  ;  calyce  minuto  subpersistente ;  drupis  brevi-oblongis  vel 
ovoideis  obtusis.  —  F.  acuminala  var.  parvifolia,  Gray,  Proc.  Am. 
Acad.  iv.  364:.  —  New  Mexico,  Fendler,  C.  Wright,  Palmer,  Brandegee. 

holds  well,  the  anomalous  case  of  Steironema  excepted,  yet  with  somewhat  of 
the  gradations  which  are  almost  everywiiere  apt  to  occur  between  these  two 
modes.  On  tiie  one  iiand  some  PrimuJie  (notably  P.  Boveana)  will  occasionally 
have  three  of  the  lobes  in  the  "contorted"  fashion,  and  only  two  wholly  cov- 
ered ;  on  the  other,  species  of  Li/simachlu,  such  as  L.  clethroides,  not  rarely 
present  flowers  with  one  lobe  wholly  exterior  and  one  wholly  interior.  By 
suppressing  the  tribe  Li/siinachiece,  C/jclauien  and  Dodecalheon  are  brought  into 
juxtaposition,  and  the  four  tribes  are  made  to  rest  on  stable  cliaracters,  —  Hot- 
toniece  on  the  anatropous  ovules,  Corklece  on  tlie  irregular  flowers,  and  SamoletB 
on  the  adnation  of  the  base  of  calyx  and  ovary. 

The  authors  of  the  Genera  Plantarum  have  overlooked  the  heterogone 
dimorphism  of  the  flowers  of  Hottonia. 


64  PROCEEDINGS   OP  THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

Amsonia  brevifolia.  Glabra ;  foliis  ovatis  vel  superiorlbus  lan- 
ceolatis  crassiusculis  basi  aiigustata  subsessilibus  ;  corolla  lobis  ovatis 
oblongisve  tubo  subclavato  dhnidio  brevioribus,  fauce  sub  ore  tantum 
barbato :  stigmate  subtrochleari  apice  bilobato  ;  foUiculis  moniliformi- 
torosis  in  articulis  turgidis  facile  secedentibus.  —  S.  Utab  and  "W. 
Arizona,  to  tlie  border  of  California,  Mrs.  Tbouipson,  Dr.  Parry,  Dr. 
Palmer.  Tbere  are  four  western  species,  forming  a  section,  charac- 
terized by  having  a  bilobed  tip  to  the  stigma,  and  the  more  or  less  clavate 
tube  to  tlie  corolla  always  longer  than  the  lobes ;  the  calyx  deeply 
parted  into  attenuate-subulate  divisions  (2  or  3  lines  long)  ;  the  stems 
lower,  more  branched,  and  bearing  smaller  or  simpler  flower-clusters 
than  the  eastern  species.  Of  these  the  present  and  the  nearly  i-elated 
A.  tomentosa,  Torr.,  have  very  torose  follicles,  disposed  when  dry  to 
break  up  into  joints.  A.  longijlora,  Torr.,  and  the  following  appear 
always  to  produce  slender  and  continuous  follicles,  and  have  a  tube  to 
the  corolla  four  or  five  times  the  length  of  the  lobes. 

Amsoxia  Palmeri.  Glabra ;  foliis  angusto-lanceolatis  lineari- 
busque  sessilibus ;  corollce  alboe  lobis  ovatis  (lin.  1^-2  longis)  tubo 
clavato  intus  longe  barbato  3-4-plo  brevioribus  ;  stigmate  didymo  hir- 
tello  ;  fulliculis  gracilibus  continuis.  —  Arizona,  Dr.  Palmer.  Described 
from  specimens  raised  from  seed  collected  by  Dr.  Palmer.  Inter- 
mediate in  appearance  between  A.  tomentosa,  which  is  sometimes  gla- 
brous, and  A.  longijlura.  The  stigma  consists  of  two  tliick  lobes, 
which  are  distinct  almost  down  to  tlie  reflexed  ring  or  collar.  The 
eastern  species,  reducible  to  two,  have  a  depressed-cajjitate  stigma, 
truncate  and  entire  at  the  apex. 

PiiiLiBEETiA  ToRREYi.  Velutino-pubesccns ;  foliis  cordato-lan- 
ceolatis  vel  sagittatis  acuminatis  ;  pedunculis  folia  a^quantibus  10—15- 
floris ;  corolliB  ut  videtur  albai  (lin.  8-9  diametro)  lobis  late  ovatis 
obtusis  extus  puberulis  villosissimo-ciliatis  pedicello  parum  brevioribus  ; 
columna  filamentorum  vix  ulla. —  Sarcosleinma  eleffcins?  Torr.  Bot. 
Mex.  Bound.  1G2,  non  Decaisne.  —  S.  W.  Texas,  Parry,  ]>igelow. 
P.  elegans  is  less  pubescent,  has  smoother  corolla  variegated  with  pur- 
ple witliin,  narrower  lobes,  and  a  manifest  column.  P.  cynanchoides 
(Sarcosteinma  cynanchoides,  Decaisne  in  DC.)  is  a  variable  species, 
with  smaller  and  more  numerous  flowers,  on  longer  filiform  pedicels, 
the  smoothish  corolla  barely  ciliate.  P.  linearis  is  a  variable  low 
species,  of  which  Sarcostemma  heterophyllum,  Engelm.,  appears  to  be 
a  form  approaching  the  narrowest-leaved  P.  cynanclioides ;  and  var. 
hirtella  (^Sarcostemma,  Bot;  Calif),  a  narrow-leaved  and  pubescent 
form,  the  leaves  rarely  auriculate  or  cordate  at  base.    P.  viminalis 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  '  65 

(Asclept'os  vuninolis,  Swartz)  appears  to  be  the  most  proper  name  for 
the  Sarcostemma  Brownii  (not  Bi-oivnei)  of  INIt-yer  and  Grisebach, 
S.  claitsnm  of  Decaisne,  mainly,  and  /S*.  crassifolium  of  Chapman 
P.  undulata  (^Sarcostemma  unduhitum,  Torr.  1.  c.)  is  our  only  species 
with  a  conspicuous  column,  somewhat  longer  than  the  tumid  scales  of 
tlie  stamineal  corona. 

ASCLEPIAS,  &c.  In  elaborating  this  genus  and  its  allies  for  the 
North  American  Flora,  the  limitation  of  the  genera  has  to  be  consid- 
ered. More  than  thirty  years  ago  this  work  was  done  by  the  excellent 
Decaisne  for  De  Candolle's  Prodromus,  evidently  in  a  hunied  way  ; 
Dr.  P^ngelmanu  and  the  late  Dr.  Torrey  have  |)ublislied  important 
details;  and  the  former  has  supplied  me  wiili  full  notes  and  many 
sketches  of  his  elaborate  studies,  which,  unfortunately,  have  for  a  long 
time  remained  unpublished.  For  his  I'erent  elaboration  of  the  whole 
order  in  the  new  Genera  Plantarum,  Mr.  Benthain  could  not  critically 
examine  all  the  species.  Had  he  done  so,  he  would  probably  have 
either  re-established  Nuttall's  Anantherix  (as  Dr.  Engelmann  in  his 
notes  long  ago  proposed),  or  he  would  have  remanded  it  to  Asclepias. 
The  process  of  the  hood,  s[)ecially  ciiaracteristic  of  this  last  genus, 
although  generally  corniform,  not  vei-y  rarely  takes  the  form  of  a 
pointless  crest  or  plate,  like  that  which  in  Ananthertx  divides  at  least 
the  upper  part  of  the  cavity.  Then  Acerates  angustifoUa  (Polyotus, 
Nutt.),  as  Nuttall  intimated,  has  the  technical  character  of  Asclepias 
in  a  reduced  form.  I  think  I  have  found  a  character  in  the  anthers, 
which  may  be  turned  to  useful  account;  and  it  may  be  of  no  disadvan- 
tage that,  while  distinguishing  Acerates  from  Gomphocarpus  (the  latter 
sufficiently  heterogeneous  without  the  addition  of  the  former),  it  helps 
to  separate  Nuttall's  original  Auantherix  (the  anomalous  Asclepias 
connivens  of  Baldwin)  from  the  two  more  common  sj)ecies  which 
Nuttall  long  afierwai'ds  added  to  it,  along  even  with  Podustigma, 
his  Stylandra. 

I  venture  to  rearrange  the  genera  in  question,  in  the  manner  pro- 
posed in  the  foot-note.* 

*  SYNOPSIS. 
A.  CucuUi  coronae  basilares  intus  nmli,  ab  antheras  longe  remoti. 
PoDOSTiGMA,  Ell.      Coroilae  lobi    campanulato-erecti.      Colunina  staminea 
praelonga.     Antherarum  alse  triangulares  basi  lata  truncata. 

B.  CucuUi  (aut  basilares  aut  in  columna  brevi  pi.  m.  elevati)  antlieris  prox- 
imae  :  corolla  rotatopatens  vel  reflexa.  • 

*  Cuculli  intus  processu  dorsali  vel  subbasilari  corniformi  seu  cristseformi  aucti. 

VOL.  XII.      (n.  S.    IV.)  5 


66      ^  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

To  obviate  confusion  or  mistake  wliich  may  arise  as  to  the  priority  of 
Elliott's  names  over  those  of  Nuttall,  it  sliould  be  recorded  that,  al- 

AjTANTiiEnix,  Nutt.  (Gen.)  Corolla  sub  anthesi  reflexa.  Columna  sub  cu- 
cuUis  brevissima.  CucuUi  adsurgentes,  corollEe  aequiloiigi,  antlieras  longe  supe- 
rantes,  oblongoclavati  apice  incurvo,  a  latere  compressi,  praeter  niarginem 
ventralem  anguste  apiceque  dilatato  bilamellatum  solidi,  crista  obtusissima 
inclusa.  Aiitlierarum  alae  ntembntnacere,  deorsum  valde  dilatatfe,  latissimas,  basi 
liorlzontaliter  tnincatffi.  Caudiculaj  capillares  poUijiiis  oblongis  2-8  j)lo  longiores  ! 
Folia  opposila. —  A.  connivens.  A.  viridis,  Nutt.  Gen.  excl.  syn.  Asclejiins  viridis, 
Walt. 

AscLEPiODORA.  Corolla  rotato-patens.  Cuculli  basilares  coluninfpbrevissimae 
totffi  inserii,  patenti-adsurgentes,  calceolifornies,  prorsus  cavi,  versus  apicem 
crista  lamellitbrmi  quasi  bilocellati.  Antlierarum  alas  corneae  basi  pi.  ni.  angus- 
tat£e.  Cnudicula  polliniis  pyr'forinibus  breviores.  Folia  sjei)ius  alterna. — 
A.  VIRIDIS.  A^chpias  viridis,  Walt.  Anantherix  jmnicidafmt,  Nutt.  Trans.  Am. 
Plul.  Soc.  V.  202.  ulcerate  joa/ijc((/a/a,  Decaisne.  —  A.  decumuens.  Anantherix 
decurnhens,  Nutt.  1.  c. 

Asclepias,  L.  Corolla  sub  anthesi  fere  semper  reflexa.  Cueulli  intus  pro- 
cessu  c'oriiifonni  vel  crista^fornii  audi.  Antlierarum  alfe  corneiB  deorsum  usque 
ad  basim  truncatam  seu  late  rotiindatam  dilatatae.     Folia  sanpius  opposita. 

*  *    Cuculli  intus  prorsus  inappendioulati :  corolla  sub  anthesi  reflexa. 

AcERATES,  Ell.  Cuculli  involuto-concavi,  intus  aperti.  Antlierarum  alae 
medio  vel  supra  medium  (nee  basi)  dilatatae  vel  angulatce.  Folia  sa^pius  alterna 
vel  subalterna.     Cfet.  Aschpiadis. 

ScHizoNOTUS.  Cuculli  saccati,  ovales,  intus  toto  longitudine  columnae  ad- 
nati,  extus  longitudinaliter  bivalves.  Antherae, etc.,  Aceratis.  Folia  opposita. — 
S.  PURPURASCENS.     Goinpliocarpiis  purpuruscens,  Gray,  Bot.  Calif,  i.  477. 

GoMPHOCARPUS,  R.  Br.  Cuculli  intus  vel  apice  aperti.  Antherae,  etc.,  Ascle- 
piadis. 

ASCLEPIAS,  L. 

An  American  genus  except  for  two  African  species,  mainly  North  American. 
I  do  not  see  the  way  to  a  really  natural  arrangement  of  our  species ;  but  the 
following  may  serve  as  a  key  to  them. 

§  1.  Cuculli  sessiles,  nee  basi  attenuati:  antlierarum  alae  basi  latae  angulato- 
truncatae  vel  auriuulato-deflexae,  rarius  rotundatae. 

*  Corolla  cum  corona  aurantiaca :  folliculi  nudi  in  pedicello  decurvo  arrecti : 
folia  pleraque  alterna  vel  sparsa :  herba  non  lactescens  ! 

A.  TUBEROSA,  L.,  et  var.  decumbens. 

*  *  Corolla  laete  rubja  vel  purpurea :  folliculi  nudi,  in  pedicello  decurvo  arrecti, 

A.  Curassavica  &  A.  incarnata  exceptaj. 

-1-   Cuculli  aurantiaci :  columna  sat  longa :  herbae  glabrae. 

A.  CcRASSAvicA,  L.  Naturalized  if  not  native  in  Florida,  &c. ;  now  widely 
dispersed  over  the  tropical  coasts. 

A.  PAL'PERCULA,  Michx.  A.  lanceolata,  Walt.,  a  name  which  might  be  restored. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  67 

though  the  first  volume  of  Elliott's  work  bears  the  date  of  1821  upon 
the  title-page,  the  first  fasciculus  was  issued  in  the  year  1816,  and  re- 

•t-  •«-   Cuculli  purpurei  vel  purpurascentes  :  urabellae  multiflorae. 

A.  KUBRA,  L.,  wliich  is  founded  on  Clayton's  no.  263  in  Gronov.  Fl.  Virg., 
with  uppermost  leaves  accidentally  alternate. 

A.  PURPURASCENS,  L.,  founded  on  Dill.  Elth.  t.  28,  and  Herm.  Parad.  Bot. 
33.  A.  amana,  L.,  founded  on  Dill.  Elth.  t.  27,  not  of  herb.  L.,  which  is  A.  vari- 
egata. 

A.  iNCARNATA,  L.,  With  var.  PULCHRA,  Pcrs.,  and  var.  longifolia,  the  latter 
a  Texan  and  New  Mexican  narrow-leaved  form. 

*  *  *    Corolla  et  corona  viridulae,  flavescentes,  albae,  nunc  sordide  vel  pallide 
purpurascentes. 

^  Foiliculi  processibus  mollibus  echinati,  crebre  tomentosi,  turgidi,  in  pedicellis 
defle.xis  arrecti :  plantse  tomentosae. 

A.  SPECiosA,  Torr.     A.  Donglasii,  Hook. 
A.  CoRNUTi,  Decaisne.     A.  Syriaca,  L. 

-t-  ■*-  Foiliculi  rostro  tantum  parce  verrucoso-echinulato  :  herba  glabra. 

A.  S0LLIVANTII,  Engelm. 

-I-  -1-  -f-  Foiliculi  laeves,  aut  glabri  aut  tomentulosi, 

■w-  In  pedicellis  deflexis  vel  decurvis  arrecti. 

=  TJmbella  in  pedunculo  elongato  caulem  siniplicem  terminante  solitaria :  folia 
arete  sessilia  seu  amplexicaulia  :  plantse  gluberrimae  glaucescentes. 

A.  OBTL'siFOLiA,  L.     A.  purpurascens,  Walt.  Car.  103. 

A.  Meadii,  Torr.  in  Gray,  Man.  ed.  2,  addend. ;  ed.  5,  397. 

=  =  Umbellae  in  caule  elato  2-4 ;  pedunculis  folia  lata  oblonga  aequantibus  vel 
superantibus  :  herba  praeter  inflorescentiam  glabra. 

A.  GLAUCESCENS,  HBK.  Specimens  of  this  Mexican  species  were  collected 
in  S.  \V.  Texas,  and  referred  in  the  Botany  of  the  ]\Iexicun  Boundary  Survey 
to  A.  Sitllicantii. 

^  =  =  Umbellae  pedunculo  caulibus  abbreviatis  foliisque  orbicularibus  longiore. 

A.  nummularia,  Torr.  Bot.  Mex.  Bound.  163,  t.  45. 

=  =  =  =  Umbellae  2-8  vel  plures,  raro  solitariae ;  pedunculis  (A.  cinerea  ex- 
cepta)  folia  baud  superantibus. 

a.  Folia  lata  seu  latiuscula,  sat   magna :    cuculli   lati   antheras  vix   parumve 
superantes  :  caules  dodrantales  ad  4-pedales. 

1.  Herbse  glabrae  vel  primum  puberulaj,  nunquam  floccosffi. 

A.  CRTPTOCERAS,  Watsou,  Bot.  King,  283,  t.  28.  Sat  humilis,  decumbens, 
rotundifolia;  cucuUis  saccato-ovatis  apice  bi-aouminatis  cornu  includentibus. 

A.  AMPLEXiCACLis,  Michx.  Decumbens;  foliis  carnosulis  cordatis  amplex- 
antibns  ;  cucuUis  obovato-truncatis,  cornu  fere  incluso.  —  A.  humistrata,  Walt., 
"  floribus  rubris  "  exceptis. 


68  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

issued,  with  the  second  fasciculus,  before  the  close  of  that  year ;  aud 
the  third  and  fourth  appeared  before  November,  1817,  —  the  latter 

A.  Jamesii,  Torr.  Adscendens,  subpedalis,  prinium  farinoso  pubera  ;  foliis 
orbiculatis  sen  late  ovalibus  crassis  ;  cucullis  latis  apice  truncatis,  cornu  cristae- 
fornii  falcato  parum  exserto. 

A.  rHYTOLACCOiDES,  Pursh.  Glabra,  4-5-pedali8 ;  umbellae  laxae  pedicellis 
filiformibus  elongatis;  corolla  vlridula;  cucullis  albis  vel  subroseis  eroso-trun- 
catis  angiilis  internis  in  dentein  longe  productis,  cornu  erecto  tenui-subulato 
exserto.  — A.  nivea,  Bot.  Mag.  t.  481,  non  L. 

A.  VARiEGATA,  L.  Glabra  vel  glabrata,  l-2«pedalis ;  unibellis  compactis 
brevi-pcdunculatis  ;  corolla  alba  basi  cucullisque  vijntricosis  purpureo  tiiictis  ; 
cornu  falcato-subulato  breviexserto. — Founded  wholly  on  syn.  Dill.  &  Pluk. 
A.  nivea,  L.  in  part,  as  to  syn.  Gronor.  &  herb. 

2.  Tomentosa  vel  pubescens  :  umbellae  laterales  brevi-peduneulatae  :  flores  viri- 
duli :  cucuUi  truncati :  folliculi  tomentosi  vel  canescens.     Cismontanse. 

A.  TOMENTOSA,  Ell.  CuculU  in  columna  brevissima  antheris  breviores,  pro- 
cessu  vix  exserto. 

A.  ARENARiA,  Torr.  Bot.  Mex.  Bound.  1G2.  CucuUi  antheras  superantes, 
processu  horizontaliter  exserto. 

3.  rioccoso-Ianuginosae  vel  canescentes,  demum  nunc  glabratse;  caules  robusti: 

folliculi  ovati.     Ultramontanae. 

<=>  CucuUi   erecti  apice    horizontaliter   truncati :    herbae  pube   brevi  sen  lana 
adi)ressa  primuni  dcalhatae  :  umbellfe  peduneulataj,  pedicellis  lanuginosis. 

A.  Fremonti,  Torr.  Pacif.  R.  Rep.  vi.  87,  sine  char.  Canescenti-tomentosa 
vel  pubera;  foliis  ovalibus  vel  oblongis  obtusis  retusisve  nunc  subcordatis 
petiolatis,  margine  lasvi ;  coroUae  albidae  lobis  oblongo-ovatis ;  columna  brevis- 
sima; cucullis  antheris  aequilongis  marginibus  anti^e  in  dentem  productis,  pro- 
cessu lato  apice  suhulato  inflexo  parum  exserto.  —  >«orthern  California,  Fremont, 
Newberry.     Not  since  met  with. 

A.  ehosa,  Torr.  Bot.  Mex.  Bound.  162.  A.  leucophi/I/a,  Engelm.  in  Am. 
Nat.  ix.  349;  Gray,  Bot.  Calif,  i.  476. —  This  species  proves  to  have  bien  tirst 
described  by  Dr.  I'orrey,  on  a  glabrate  state  of  the  plant  which,  in  the  younger 
and  white-lanuginous  condition,  appropriately  received  from  Dr.  Eiigelmann  the 
name  of  A.  leucophijlla.  Completely  glabrate  speciinens  have  since  come  in.  The 
rough  erosion  of  the  edges  of  the  leaves,  to  which  the  original  name  refers,  is 
evident  in  all  the  specimens. 

o  o  CucuUi    ventricosi,  processu  lato  incluso  :   herbae  lana  longiore  floccosa 
vestitae.     Californicae. 

A.  eriocarpa,  Benth.     Umbellas  pedunculatae. 

A.  vestita.  Hook.  &  Arn.     Umbellae  laterales  sessiles. 

b.  Folia   angusta,    glabra ;    caules    humiles    ramosi :    cuculli    obtusi   antheris 
breviores  vel  paullo  longiores  :  folliculi  ovati :  umbellse  pauciflorte. 

A.  BRACHYSTEPHANA,  Engelm.  in  Torr.  Bot.  Mex.  Bound.  163.  Cuculli 
brevissimi. 


OF  ARTS    AND   SCIENCES.  69 

containing  the  genera  in  question.  Nuttall's  Genera  of  North  Ameri- 
can Plants  appeared  as  a  whole  in  the  year  1818,  the  copyright 
bearing  the  date  of  April  3  of  that  year. 

A.  iNVOLUCRATA,  Eiigehii.  1.  c.      Uiiibella  foliis  quasi  involucrata. 

c.  Folia  angustissiina  :  caules  huniiles  insigniter  ramosi:  cuculli  lanceolato- 
subulati  longissimi,  basi  eoncavi. 

A.  MACROTis,  Torr.  Bot.  Mex.  Bound.  164,  t.  45.    A  peculiar  species. 

d.  Folia  ovata  seu  oblonga,  pubescentia  vel  glabella  :  caules  erecti  1-2-pedales  : 
cuculli  oblongi,  antheris  2-3-plo  longiores,  apice  iategerrimo  rotundato. 

1.  Cuculli  involuto-concavi,  supra  medium  a  processu  corniformi  apice  incurvo 
vel  inflexo  exserto  liberi :  foUiculi  toruentosi  vel  pubescentes. 

A.  ovALiFOLiA,  Decaisne  in  DC.  A.  variegntn  var.,  Hook.  Fl.  Bor.-Am.  ii. 
252,  t.  141.  A.  Nuttallitna,  Gray,  Man.  ed.  2,  non  Torr.  —  Tlie  habitat,  "  Cali- 
fornia," assigned  to  tiiis  si^ecies  by  Decaisne,  stood  in  the  way  of  its  identifica- 
tion. Tlie  following,  from  a  more  south-westerly  district,  which  I  confounded 
with  it,  appears  to  be  quite  distinct. 

A.  Hallii.  Puberula,  niox  glabrata  :  foliis  crassiusculis  ovato-seu  oblongo- 
lanceolatis  subacutis  basi  rotundatis  brevi-petiolatis,  costa  valida,  venis  leviter 
adsceiulentibus  rectis  subtus  proniinulis  :  umbellis  multifloris  paucis  corymbosis 
pedunculatis  ;  corollse  viridiilo-albae  purpiirascentis  lobis  oblongis  :  cucuUis  elon- 
gato-oblongis  inteyerrimis  basi  liastato-bigibbosis  cornu  sicajfornie  parum  super- 
antibus.  —  .1.  oral  ifoliu,  Gray  in  Proc.  Acad.Philad.  1863,  75.  —  Colorado;  near 
Denver,  E.  Hall,  no.  480.  Upper  Arkansas  River,  T.  C.  Porter.  In  aspect  this 
most  resembles  A.  Snllirainii.  The  follicles  are  not  known;  but  the  anther- 
wings  are  destitute  of  the  corniculations  at  the  basal  angle  which  are  conspicu- 
ous in  the  latter  species. 

A.  OBOVATA,  Ell.  Sk.  i.  321.  A  well-marked  species,  with  somewhat  the 
aspect  of  Acerates  viridiflora.  The  anther-wings  are  manifestly  bicorniculate  at 
the  salient  basal  angle.  Tlie  hoods  are  dorsally  somewhat  hastately  bigibbous 
above  the  short  contracted  base,  and  from  the  gibbosity  are  narrowly  wing- 
appendaged  upward  and  inward  for  some  distance :  the  inner  margins  of  the 
hood  entire,  straight,  and  so  involute  as  to  meet  vertically  for  almost  tlie 
whole  length :  at  the  very  base  inside  is  a  pair  of  short  and  roundish  fleshy 
internal  auricles.  The  abruptly  inflexcd  apex  of  the  horn  is  subulate  and 
traversed  with  a  dorsal  groove  or  channel. 

2.  Cuculli  a  latere  complanati,  solidi,  margine  ventral!  petaloideo-bilamellato, 
lamellis  semi-obovatis,  parte  dilatata  cristam  subconformem  eroso-trun- 
catam  includente,  angulo  interno  processu  subulato  breviter  exserto  api- 
culato. 

A.  NYCTAGiNiFOLiA.  Scabrido-puberula  ;  caule  ut  videtur  pedali  adsurgente  : 
foliis  ovatis  subrhombeis  basi  in  petiolum  sat  longum  contractis,  venis  adscen- 
dentibus  :  umbellis  axillaribus  4-8-floris  brevissime  pedunculatis  ;  pedicellis 
petiolo  a?qni!ongis  ;  corolla  viridula  semipollicari,  lobis  oblongis  ;  cucullis  erectis 
antheris  subtriplo  longioribus  :  columna  sub  corona  vix  ulla  :  antherarum  alls 


70  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

Melinia  angustifolia.  Fere  glabra,  subvolubilis ;  caulibus  fili- 
formibus  ;  foliis  angustissime  linearibus  petiolatis  ;  pedunculis  brevibus 

basi  rotundatis.  —  Rock  Spring,  Providence  Mountains,  S.  E.  California,  Palmer, 
1876.  —  Belongs,  with  the  preceding  and  tlie  following,  to  the  Oturia  section  of 
Kuntli  and  Decaisne  ;  but  with  a  pecuhar  hoot!,  not  unlike  that  of  A.  Cuii/teri 
(infra)  and  certainly  much  like  that  of  the  original  Anantherix.  The  crest  is 
produced  at  its  internal  angle  into  the  horn  which  is  the  distinguishing  mark 
of  Ascle/ikts. 

■M-  ++  Folliculi  in  pedicellis  recurvis  patulisve  penduli  vel  patentes  :  caules  elati 
junciformes,  foliis  subulato-fihformibus  delapsis  nudi :  cucullis  panduratis 
erectis  antheras  longius  superantibus:  processu  cristjeformi  adnato  intus  bre- 
vissime  cornuto. 

A.  SUBULATA,  Decaisne  in  DC.  1.  c. ;  Torr.  in  Pacif.  R.  Rep.  v.  3iJ2,  t.  7. — 
This  remarkable  Asdepius  of  the  S.  Californian  and  Arizonian  desert  appears 
to  be  tiie  Mexican  species  briefly  described  by  Decaisne;  but  a  comparison  of 
specimens  should  be  maile. 

•M-  ++  ++  Folliculi  (tamquam  noti)  in  pedicellis  adscendentibus  erecti,  stepius 
fusifornies. 

=  Folia  lata  plerumque  quaterna  :  flores  roseo-albi. 

A.  QUADRiFOLiA,  L.  A  pretty  species,  with  the  middle  leaves  almost  always 
in  whorls  of  four. 

=  =  Folia  lata  vel  latiuscula  opposita,  nee  vertieillata:  flores  parvi  albi. 

A.  PERENNis,  Walt.  A.  parviflora,  Ait.,  published  one  year  later.  A.  dehilis, 
Michx ,  partly  confused  with  A.  qiiudnfolid,  to  which  the  "Obs."  relates. 
Towards  its  northern  limits  this  species  conimonl}-  wants  the  coma  to  the  seeds. 
—  Var.  PAKVULA  is  a  low  and  remarkably  small-leaved  form  of  the  species, 
from  \V.  Texas,  mentioned  by  Torrey  in  Bot.  Mex.  Bound.  104.  —  The  two 
following  related  species  are  not  known  to  occur  within  the  United  States;  and 
the  last  by  its  narrow  leaves  would  belong  to  the  next  division.  They  are 
introduced  in  reference  to  the  synonymy. 

A.  xivEA,  L.  (n(jn  herb.,  but  {\\q  Apocipium  Pevsicnrm  j)u7('s,  etc.,  Dill.  Elth. 
t.  29,  and  A.  Ainericannm,  etc.,  Plum.  t.  iiO,  on  which  the  species  was  founded), 
Griseb.  Fl.  W.  Ind.  419,  excl.  syn.  Bot.  Mag.  (which  belongs  to  A.pIi'/toluiToides), 
is  West  Indian,  and  probably  not  in  Louisiana,  to  which  Grisehach  credits  it. 
It  is  distinguislied  from  A.  )>eren>iiti  by  the  greenish-white  corolla,  longer  hoods 
with  shorter  horn,  and  an  undulation  near  the  base  of  the  anther-wings,  at  least 
when  dry. 

A.  viRGATA,  Lagasca,  Gen.  &  Spec.  14,  is  Mexican,  and  resembles  the  pre- 
ceding in  the  flowers;  but  the  petals  are  wiiite,  or  sometimes  rose-iinled  (as 
in  Brit.  Fl.  Gard.  ser.  2,  t.  8.5),  the  anther-wings  plane,  and  the  leaves  linear  or 
linear-lanceolate  and  less  petioled.  From  Kunth's  character  (but  not  that  of 
Decaisne)  it  may  be  the  A.  Unifolia,  HBK.  I  have  seen  only  cultivated  speci- 
mens, under  the  name  of  A.  angustifolia  and  of  A.  linearis. 

=====  Folia  angusta  sen  angustissima  (elongato  lanceolata  ad  lineari-fili- 
formia),  in  sp.  nonnuUis  vertieillata,  in  unica  alterna. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  71 

bibracteolatis  pleruraque  unifloris  nunc  geminis ;  corolla  campanulata 
fere    5-partita    sepalis    lanceolatis    acuiuiuatis   parum   longiore,  lobis 

a.  Corolla  reflexa  generis  :  cuculii  cornusubulato  exserto  instructi. 
1.  Colurana  sub  cucuUis  conspicua,  antlieris  parum  dimidlo  brevior. 

A.  Mexicana,  Cav.  Ic.  i.  42,  t.  58.  A.  fascicularis,  Decaisne  in  DC.  A. 
macrop/ii/!la,  Nutt.  PI.  Gamb.  180.  This  species,  which  is  common  from  Oregon 
to  the  borilers  of  Mexico,  appears  to  be  identical  with  specimens  collected  in 
the  valley  of  Mexico  by  Bourgeau  (no.  (33),  and  by  Ghiesbreght  still  farther 
south.     The  figure  in  the  Icones  of  Cavanilles  very  well  represents  it. 

A.  VERTiciLLATA,  L.  A  widely  distributed  species,  including  ^4.  galioides, 
HBK.,  of  Me.xico.  Var.  pu.mila  is  a  singularly  dwarf  or  depauperate  form,  of 
the  western  dry  plains,  from  Nebraska  to  New  Mexico.  Var.  suBVERriciLLAXA 
(A.  verticillata  \a.r.  galioides,  Torr.  Dot.  Mex.  Bound.  164,  chiefly),  is  a  marked 
form,  with  single  stems,  simple  or  branched,  the  leaves  mostly  in  pairs  and 
threes,  and  their  margins  little  revolute,  the  horns  of  the  hoods  rather  less  ex- 
serted.  Decaisne's  A.  verticillata  var.  lini folia  may  include  this ;  but  it  is  evi- 
dently a  mixture  of  A.  verticillata  (to  wliicli  the  specimens  from  "Florida  and 
Georgia"  mny  belong) ;  of  A.  virijala,  L;ig.  {A  anf/astifolia,  Roeni.  &  Scliult.  &c.), 
which,  from  Kunth's  character  of  opposite  leaves  and  little  exserted  horn,  may 
be  A.  UnifoUa,  HBK.;  and  of  ^1.  Mexicana,  Cav.  (from  which  may  come  the 
character  of  leaves  4-6-nate),  which  must  be  identical  with  A.  fascicularis  of 
Decaisne.     Here  also  A.  linearis,  Scheele  in  Linntea,  xxi. 

(A.  LiNARiA,  Cav  ,  a  Mexican  species  which  has  been  associated  with  A.  vet- 
ticillnta,  differs  much  in  the  very  short  stamina!  column,  short  and  almost 
included  horns,  and  in  the  ovate  follicles  becoming  erect  on  the  docurved  pedi- 
cel, which  is  not  known  to  occur  in  any  species  of  this  section.) 

2.  Columna  brevis  crassior. 

A.  QUINQUEDENTATA.  Facie  fere  A.  verticillatce  var.  suhverticillntK ;  foliis 
omnibus  oppositis  angusto-linearibus  elongatis;  umbellis  paucifioris  longiuscuhi 
pedunculatis  ;  corollas  virescenti-alb£e  lobis  ovalibus  (lin.  2|-3  longis) ;  cucuUis 
antlieris  aequilongis  columna  triplo  longioribus  complicatis,  dorso  subcarinato, 
apice  truncato  grosse  argute  5-dentato  ;  processu  falcato  ad  apicem  cucuUi  usque 
adnato  ihiqiie  bifido,  lobo  dorsali  minimo  dentiforiin,  ventrali  in  coriiu  suljula- 
tum  inflexum  breviter  exsertum  producto. —  W.  Texas,  on  or  near  the  San 
Pedro  River,  C.  Wright,  no.  1689,  referred  in  Torr.  Bot.  Mex.  Bound.  104,  to  a 
variety  of  A.  verticillata.  It  is  much  more  related  to  the  appended  Mexican 
species. 

(A.  CoDLTERi.  Praecedenti  affinis ;  foliis  oppositis  filiformibus ;  umbellis 
3-6-floris ;  pedicellis  filiformibus  pedunculo  subaequilongis  ;  coroUae  albse  lobis 
oblongis  (lin.  3— t  longis)  ;  cucullis  columna  crassa  triplo  longioril)Us  antheras 
aequantibus  complicatocorapressis  subquadratis  dorso  carinatis  centro  solidis 
apice  truncatis  subintegris;  processu  lato-subulato  falcato  infra  apicem  cuculli 
libero  integerrimo  longius  exserto.  —  Mexico,  Coulter,  coll.  no.  983.  Single 
specimen,  in  flower:  fruit  not  seen.  The  horn  of  the  hood  springs  from  a  solid 
central  portion,  which  is  winged  dorsally  by  a  keel;  the  ventral  part  and  top 
bilamellar  and  open.) 


72  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

lanceolatis    apice   crassiusculo    recurvo  intus  piiberulis   basim   versus 
penicillato-barbulatis :  corona  phyllis  spathulato-oblongis  planis  crassi- 

A.  ANGUSTiFOLiA,  Ell.  Sk.  i.  325,  1817.  A.  tuberosa  ?  Walt.  Car.  fide  Eil. 
A.  Michanrii,  Decaisne,  1.  c. :  so  named  because  a  specimen  in  Micliaux's  herba- 
rium is  mixed  with  his  A.  longifolia  ;  but  Elliott's  specific  name  has  priority 
of  all  homonj'ms.  The  narrow  and  elongated  thickish  leaves  are  mainly 
alternate,  which  marks  the  species. 

A.  viRiDULA,  Chapm.  Fl.  302.  A  well  marked  species,  with  opposite  and 
very  narrow  leaves,  most  resembling  tlie  following  ;  but  with  smaller  yellowish- 
green  flowers,  and  hoods  considerably  exceeding  the  anthers  and  the  horn. 
—  Found  only  in  the  vicinity  of  Apalachicola,  Florida. 

3.  Columna  sub  cucuUis  nulla  :  folia  opposita. 

A.  ciNEREA,  Walt.  Well  distinguished  by  the  few-flowered  lax  umbels,  and 
short  very  obliquely  dorsally  truncate  hoods,  the  ventral  cusps  of  which  surpass 
the  broad-triangular  horn. 

b.  Corolla  cum  calyce  rotato-patens,  nunquam  reflexa  :  crista  mutica  adnata  in 
cucuUo. 

A.  Fkayi,  Chapman  in  litt.  A.  cinerece  subsimilis ;  foliis  fere  filiformibus 
longis  patentissirais ;  umbellis  terminalibus  et  subterminalibus  brevi-peduncu- 
lat'is  paui'ifloris  ;  corolla  alba  majuscula  explanata  ;  cucullis  etiam  albis  prajter 
costam  petaloideis  oblongis  integris  involuto-concavis  antheris  aequilongis  sed 
patenlibus  intus  dorso  medio  lamella  semiovali  integerrima  instructis.  — Tampa, 
Florida,  Dr.  Leavenworth  (a  single  specimen  in  herb.  Torr.,  collected  40  jears 
ago),  Dr.  Wm.  T.  Feay,  Dr.  A.  F.  Garber.  Dr.  Chapman  proposed  to  call  this 
an  Acerates,  but  in  my  view  it  is  clearly  an  Asclepias. 

§  2.  PoDOSTEMMA.  CuculH  stipitati,  erecti,  stipitibus  antheraslonge  superanti- 
bus  basibus  columnae  adnatis,  lamina  spathulata  intus  cristata,  crista  insequal- 
iter  bicorniculata  :  antherarum  aliB  medio  latiores  et  subangulatae. 

A.  i.oNGicoKNU,  Benth.  A.  Litidhrimerl,  Engelm.  &  Gray.  —  Ranges  from 
Texas  to  Nicaragua.     Follicles  arrect  on  the  deflexed  pedicels. 

§  3.  NoTHACERATES.  CuculU  sessiles,  oblongi,  apice  bidentati,  intus  crista 
angusta  jjrorsus  adnata  e  sinu  corniculato-excurrente :  antherarum  alffi 
deorsum  dilatat;B,  supra  basim  late  rotiindatam  auriculatoemargiiiatfe  :  pol- 
linia  arcuato-obovata.     Habitus  Acerutis  aiiriculuke. 

A.  STENOPHYLLA.  Poli/otiis  nnf;iistifi>liiis,  Nutt.  in  Trans.  Anier.  Phil.  Soc.  v. 
201.  Acei'iti's  angustifoUa,  Decaisne  in  DC.  1.  c.  Nuttall  noted  the  clear  transi- 
tion to  Asclepias. 

ACERATES,  Ell. 
«    Gynostemium  subglobosum  :  columna  sub  cucullis  brevibus  manifesta :  folia 
pleraque  allerna. 

A.  AURicuLATA,  Engelm.  in  Bot.  Mex.  Bound.  160.  Foliis  preelongis  ang  s- 
tissimis  umbellisque  ^.sc/«=/»Vu/t  stenophylhe  simillima;  cucullis  basi  late  auric  i- 
latis  ;  antherarum  alls  angustis  utrinque  sequilatis. 


OF    ARTS   AND    SCIENCES.  73 

usculis  inappendiculatis  basi  coroUae  et  columnne  longiusculae  insertis 
corolla  dimidio  brevioribus ;  rosiro  stigmatis  gracili  iutegerrimo  mem- 
braiiam  aiitlierurum  erectam  pauUo  superante. —  Metai>telina?  angusti- 
fuliu/n,  'I'orr.  Bot.  Mex.  Bouud.  159.  Ravine  at  Santa  Cruz,  Sonora, 
Mexico,  very  near  tbe  southern  boundary  of  Arizona.  Instead  of 
constituting  a  new  genus  for  this  species,  it  is  here  referred  to  the 
extra-tropical  South  American  genus  Melinia,  on  account  of  the  long 
and  slender  beak  to  the  stigma,  corolla-lobes  distinctly  but  narrowly 
dextrorse-convolute,  narrow  sepals,  &c.  It  is  excluded  from  Oxypetalum 
by  the  absence  of  any  tooth"  or  appendage  to  the  caudicles  of  the 
poUinia.  The  corona  is  attached  rather  more  distUictly  to  the  corolla 
than  to  the  cclumn.  and  the  pieces  are  wholly  distinct  and  rather  widely 
separate ;  but  a  slight  ridge  at  the  base  of  each  is  decurrent  into  a 
slightly  salient  line  on  the  column.  The  latter  is  about  the  length  of 
the  body  of  the  anthers,  w^hich,  again,  bear  a  still  longer  erect  mem- 
brane, ovate-oblonoj  in  form. 

MetastiiLma  Blodgetti.  Eiimetastehna  :  caulibus  filiformibus  ; 
foliis  parvis  anguste  lanceolatis ;  pedunculis  3-6-floris  pedicillis 
(lineam  lonois)  et  petiolo  brevioribus  vel  nullis  ;  corolke  5-partitae 
lobis  obloiigo-lanceolatis  iutus  sub  apice  peuicillato-barbatis :  coronge 

A.  LONGiFOLiA,  Ell.  Columna  pauUo  longiore  ;  ciicuUis  ovalibus  intejierrimis 
inappendiculatis  niarginibus  ventralihus  medio  coluninte  adnatis  antlieris  di- 
midio brevioribus  ;  antiierarum  alis  senii-rliombeis  basi  niagis  attenuatis. 

*  *  Gyiiostemiuni  longius  quam  latum  :  cucuUi  oblongi  parum  breviores,  basi 
bus  columnam  brevissimam  tola  longitudine  obtegentibus  :  folia  latiora  saepe 
opposita. 

A.  LAXUGixosA,  Decaisne.  Als  antherarum  paullo  infra  medium  latiores 
subangulatai. 

A.  viRiDiFLORA,  Ell.  AIsB  autlierarum  versus  apicem  latiores  subangulatae, 
basi  longius  angustatse. 

GOMPIIOCARPUS,  R.  Br. 

This  genus  is  briefly  defined  as  Asclepias  without  any  crest  or  horn  in  the 
hoods.  E.xcept  for  two  ai>pended  Californian  species,  which  technically  belong 
to  it,  it  would  be  restricted  to  the  Old  World,  mainly  to  Africa. 

G.  TOMEXTOsus,  Gray,  Bot.  Calif,  i.  477  {Acerates  lomentosa,  Torr.),has  wholly 
tlie  aspect  and  the  structure  of  Asclefjias  vestita,  of  the  same  region,  except 
as  to  the  hoods,  which  are  spreading  or  even  depending,  so  that  the  (juasi- 
bivalvular  opening  is  superior  or  in  appearance  dorsal,  giving  a  resemblance  to 
the  structure  in  the  plant  which  I  named  G.  purpurascens,  but  am  now  obliged 
to  separate  genericall y. 

G.  coRDiFOLius,  Benth.,  except  for  the  want  of  horn,  would  be  an  Asclepias, 
related  to  A.  phytolaccoides. 


74  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Bquamis  termi-subiilatis  imae  basi  corollas  insertis  antheris  cum  columna 
breviore  (sed  manifesta)  adaequantihus.  —  M.  parvijioruin,  Cbapm. 
Fl.  367,  non  R.  Br.—  Pine  Key,  S.  Florida,  Blodgett. 

GONOLOBUS  and  LACHNOS  TOiAIA.  Later  autbors  generally 
appear  to  liave  taken  tbeir  idea  of  Gouolohus  from  tbose  numerous 
tropical  speoies  wbicb  ditler  considerably  from  tbe  typical  ones  of  tbe 
Soutliern  Atlantic  States.  Tbe  latter  have  not  the  coloied-reticulated 
corolla  of  most  of  tbe  tropical  species,  nor  tbe  broad  and  rounded 
lobes  of  many  of  them,  nor  tbe  strongly  salient-angled  stigma,  which 
has  been  made  a  part  of  tbe  generic  character,  nor  is  the  corona  borne 
on  tbe  corolla,  but  either  distinctly  on  tbe  short  stamineal  column  or  at 
its  very  base  at  tbe  junction  with  tbe  corolla.  Laclmosfoma^  11 BK., 
was  founded  on  a  single  and  peculiar  species,  with  "  corolla  subbypo- 
crateriformis,"  or  at  least  with  tube  as  long  as  the  limb,  and  with 
"corona  pentapbylla,  fauci  coroUte  inserta,  foHolis  cuneatis  carnosis 
apice  lunato-bilobis,"  etc.  Noting  that  tbe  column  of  (llatnents  is 
aduate  to  tbe  tube  of  tbe  corolla  (as  it  truly  is  for  tbe  whole  length), 
Kunth,  indeed,  adds  the  query :  ''  An  igitur  corona  summo  tubo  fila- 
mentorum  nee  fauci  coroUae  inserta?"  But  the  flowers  I  have  exam- 
ined, from  Fendler's  no.  1050,  show  that  the  first  view  was  tbe  correct 
one.  On  separating  the  tube  of  the  corolla  from  that  of  the  filaments, 
almost  without  lesion,  the  coronal  appendages  are  left  on  tlie  former, 
to  which  they  manifestly  belong.  There  are,  moreover,  vestiges  of  a 
stamineal  corona,  in  tbe  form  of  minute  scale-like  processes,  one  under 
tbe  base  of  each  anther.  Decaisne  adds  three  other  species  to  the 
genus,  and  characterizes  it  by  the  "  corona  staminea  gynostegio  plus 
minusve  adnata,  pentapbylla."  It  will  be  allowed  that,  if  tbe  genus 
can  stand  upon  tbe  5-pbyllous  corona,  tbe  mere  insertion  will  be 
unimportant.  But  Mr.  Bentbam,  enlarging  the  genus  much  more  by 
adding  Decaisne's  Ibutia  and  Chthamalia,  includes  species  with  cup- 
shaped  and  wiih  annular  corona,  thus  resting  LacJmostoma  mainly  ou 
tbe  insertion  of  this  oi'gan,  which  is  variable  from  species  to  species, 
and  really  not  different  fi'om  that  of  typical  species  of  Gonolobus. 
And  our  only  reticulate-petaled  species  of  the  latter  bears  the  annular 
corona  distinctly  on  the  column,  close  to  its  base,  but  wholly  separate 
from  the  corolla.  It  thus  appears,  on  tbe  whole,  that  LacJmostoma 
should  be  restricted  to  the  original  L.  tigrinum  ;  and  that  CJdhamalia 
(as  the  subjoined  details  show)  should  form  only  a  subgenus  of  Gono- 
lohus.  Those  reticulate-flowered  tropical  species  (of  which  we  have 
one,  not  very  typical,  representative  in  Texas),  with  all  its  variations 
in  the  gyuostemium  and  corona,  may  form  another  section,  which  may 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  75 

conveniently  take  the  name  of  Dicfyolohus,  using  here  the  Greek  word 
in  the  sense  of  lobe,  instead  of  pod. 

The  North  American  Gonolobi,  of  the  Atlantic  United  States,  are 
confused  and  dilfitnilt,  partly  because  flower  and  fruit  have  seldom 
been  had  from  the  same  plant.  The  subjoined  conspectus  gives  the 
result  of  my  study  of  the  present  available  materials,  aided  by  notes 
and  sketches  from  Dr.  Enoelmanu.  * 


*  GONOLOBUS,  Michx.  Fl.  i.  119. 

§  1.  DiCTTOLOBUS.  Corolla  rete  subtili  conspicuo  saepius  colorato  venosissima, 
nunc  rugulosa ;  lobis  plerumque  hitis.  ilores  in  nostra  parvuli,  in  pleris 
majusculi. 

G.  RETicuLATUs,  Engelm.  Mss.  G.  qramtJntna,  Torr.  Bot.  Mex.  Bound.  165, 
non  Scheele  in  Linnsa. — Texas  and  adjacent  borders  of  Mexico.  Well  described 
(except  as  to  antlier-tips,  which  really  overlie  the  edges  of  tlie  stigma),  but 
wrongly  referred,  by  Dr.  Torrey.  Scheele's  description  of  the  peduncles  as 
shorter  than  the  petiole,  the  pedicels  as  barely  equalling  the  flowers,  and  the 
lobes  of  the  corolla  as  lancei)late-attenuate  from  a  broader  base,  is  incompatible 
with  the  present  species,  and  relates  to  a  variety  of  G.  Items,  Michx. 

§2.  EcGONOLOBUs.  Corolla  baud  reticulata,  lobis  angustioribus :  corona  sim- 
plex, intus  inappendiculata,  columnae  basi  sspius  iuserta  :  stigmatis  anguli 
parura  prominuli :  caules  herbacei. 

*  Pedunculi  pauci-pluriflori :  corolla  5  partita,  rotata,  patentissima, 

••-  Crassiuscula,  viridula,  extus  cum  calyce  pedunculo  brevi  pedicellisque  gla- 
bra :  corona  sub  gynosteraio  pateriformis  undulatocrenata,  carnosa  :  antherae 
membrana  tenuiter  scariosa  super  marginem  stigmatis  inflexa  :  folliculi  laeves 
5-angulati. 

G.  suBEROSus,  R.  Br.  Ci/nanchum,  L.  Hort.  Cliff.  79  (excl.  syn.  Apocymim 
scandens  fruticosum  finnioso  coiiice  BrasiUamuii,  Herm.  Parad.  53),  &  Spec.  212, 
excl.  syn.  Gronov.  Periplocn  Carnllnensis,  etc.,  Dill.  Elth.  300,  t.  229,  f.  296.  G. 
macroplii/llus,  Chapm  Fl.  368.  Corolla  in  alabastro  late  conica,  lobis  ovato-trian- 
gularibus  a  basi  sensim  angustioribus  acuminatis  supra  albido-hirsutulis  nunc 
glabratis.  —  Although  Hermann's  Brazilian  plant,  referred  to,  suggested  the 
name,  we  may  consider  the  Linnaean  species  as  founded  on  the  Dillenian  plant, 
the  figure  of  which  very  well  represents  what  we  take  for  this  species.  More- 
over tlie  Grouovian  synonym  belongs  to  G.  hirsidns  or  G.  Camfinensis.  De- 
caisne's  G.  siiber<>s>is,  with  ovate  pubescent  sepals,  and  corolla  glabrous  within, 
must  be  some  quite  other  species. 

G.  l;evis,  JMiclix.  Fl.  i.  119.  Minus  pilosus  vel  glahellus ;  nmbellis  5-10-floris 
petiolo  vix  aequilongis:  foliis  oblongo-cordatis ;  corolla  in  alabastro  elongato- 
conica,  lobis  lanceolatis  sen  lineari-lanceolatis  glabris ;  folliculis  laevibus  5-angu. 
latis.  —  Mississippi  to  Arkansas  and  Texas.  Pursh  introduces  some  confusion 
by  adding  a  wrong  synonym,  and  a  consequent  misstatement  of  the  color  of  the 
corolla.    It  passes  freely  into 


76  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

GiLTA  (Dactylophyllum)  Parry^.  Pygmaea,  floribunda,  pubes- 
cens ;  caule  e  radice  annua  nunc  vix  semipollicari  floiibus  breviore 
nunc  demum  bipollicuri  a  basi  confertim  ramoso ;  foliis  plerisque 
oppositis  5-7-partitis,  segmentis  acerosis  (lin.  2-3  longis)  ;  floribus  iu 
dicbotomiis  subsessilibus ;  calyce  profuude  5-fido  corolla  fere  triple 
breviore  lobis  lanceolato-subulatis,  tube  brevissimo  obconico ;  corolla 
aut    alba  aut   sulpliurea    aut  casruleo-lilacina,  tubo    brevissimo    cum 

Var.  MACROPHYLLUS.  Foliis  rotundato-cordatis  majoribus  (nunc  9-10-polli- 
caribus),  acuniine  abrupto,  lobis  basilaribus  rotundatis  sinuni  sjepe  claudentibus, 
pagina  inferiore  pube  molli  brevi  nunc  granulosa  saepius  indutis;  calycis  lobis 
versus  apicem  rariter  ciliolatis ;  foUiculis  brevibus  angulatis  5-costatis. —  G. 
macrophyllns,  Miclix.  1.  c.  G.  viridiflorus,  Nutt.  Gen.  i.  163  ( G.  Nuttallii,  De- 
caisne  in  DC.)  G  tiluefolius,  Decaisne  in  DC.  G.  grunulatus,  Scheele  in  Linnaea, 
xxi.  759.  Viiicetoxiciim  gonocaipos,  Walt.  Car.  1U4,  pro  parte.  —  S.  Carolina  to 
Texas,  Kentucky  and  Missouri.  Elliott's  G.  viacrofiliyllus,  with  muricate  fruit 
and  slender  lobes  to  the  corona,  must  be  G.  Baldwhiidnus,  Ciiapnian's  is  G. 
mberosas,  and  Decaisne's,  in  the  Prodromus,  is  mainly  G.  oUiquus.  Pursh's 
addition  of  "  flowers  dark  purple  or  dirty  yellow  "  was  taken  from  Walter, 
who  evidently  had  more  than  one  species  under  his  Vincetoxicuin  gonocarpos. 

■*-  -1-  Corolla  submembranacea,  purpurea,  ochroleuca,  vel  albida  :  corona  cupu- 
lifoimis,  gynosteniio  adsequans :  niembrana  antherarum  inconspicua  vel  ob- 
soleta :    pedunculi    saepius  loiigiusculi   pluriflori,  cum  calyce  pedicellisque 
pubescentes  :  corolla  extus  pi.  m.  pubera  :  folliculi  teretes  muricati. 
•t-t.  Coronae  subcarnosae  margo  tantum  crenatus. 

G.  OBLiQuus,  R.  Br.  Corolla  intus  sanguineo-purpurea,  extus  viridula, 
lobis  lineari-ligulatis :  corona  10-crenulata,  crenulis  aitemis  angustioribus 
plerunique  emarginatis  vel  bidenticulatis.  —  Roein.  &  Schult.  Syst.  vi.  64  ;  Bart. 
Fl.  Am.  Sept.  iii.  t.  99;  Gray,  Man.  ed.  5,  399.  G.  hlrsutus,  Nutt.  Gen.  i.  1G3, 
non  Michx.  G.  macrojihyllus,  Decaisne,  I.  c,  non  Michx.  Goiiolol'ium  hirsiitum, 
Pursh,  Fl.  i.  179.  Cynanchum  oblirpnnn,  Jacq.  Ic.  Ear.  t.  341.  C.  discolor,  Sims, 
Bot.  Mag.  t.  1273.  C.  hirtum,  L.  ?  quoad  Apocynum  scandens  Virginianum,  etc., 
Moris.  Hist.  The  most  northern  species,  ranging  from  (Carolina?)  the  moun- 
tains of  Virginia  to  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Kentucky.  —  Var.  Shortii,  ap- 
parently a  form  with  larger  (and  dull  purplish?)  flowers,  said  to  exhale  the 
scent  of  Calycanllttis-h\os,soms  :  known  only  in  specimens  collected  by  Short 
and  Peter,  near  Lexington,  Kentucky,  where  it  should  be  re-discovered. 

G.  HiRSUTUs,  Michx.  1.  c.  Pedunculi  pauciflori :  corolla  intus  atro-purpurea, 
lobis  elliptico-oblongis  :  corona  margine  obtuse  aequaliter  10-crenata.  — Virginia 
and  Tennessee  to  Florida.  The  corolla  in  dried  specimens  by  transmitted  light 
shows  a  reticulate  venation  more  distinctly  than  any  other  species  of  this  group. 

•w-  ++  Corona   5-lobata,   dentibus   geminatis   vel  bifidis   interjectis :   pedunculi 
pluriflori  sublongiores. 

G.  Carolinensis,  R.  Br.  Corolla  badia  vel  atro-purpurea,  majuscula.  lobis 
oblongis  seu  lineari-oblongis:  corona  subcarnosa,  undiilato-.5  lobata,  sinubus 
processu  subulato  biiido  gynostemio  adaequante  instructis.  — Cynanchum  Caroli- 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  77 

fauce  obconico  lobis  obovatis  integerrimis  vel  erosulis  apice  saepius  cus- 
pidalis  2-4-plo  breviore ;  antheris  oblongis ;  capsula  ovali-oblonga 
polysperma ;  semiiiibus  angulatis  fere  cubicis,  tegumento  externo  laxo 
temii  uec  spirillifero  nee  mucilaginoso.  —  San  Bernardino  Co.,  S.  E. 
California,  on  desert  plains  near  the  head  of  the  Mohave  River,  Parry 
and  Lemmon,  also  Palmer.  A  very  distinct  and  pretty  little  species, 
in  appearance  somewhat  intermediate  between  G.  dianthoides  and  a 

nense,  Jacq.  Ic.  Rar.  t.  342.  This  from  the  character  should  he  WaUer's  Vince- 
toxiciim  acaidliocarpos,  Elliott's  G.  Carolinensis  (excluding  the  fruit),  and  probahly 
(t.  kii-suins,  Sweet,  Brit.  Fl.  Gard.  t.  1.  It  extends  from  South  Carolina  to 
Louisiana  and  Arkansas. 

G.  Baldwixianus,  Sweet.  Corolla  albida  vel  flavida,  lobis  oblongis  demum 
subspathulatis  tenuioribiis  :  corona  fere  membranacea  altius  fissa,  segnientis  5  latis 
ssepius  eniarginatis,  10  per  paria  interjectis  lineari-subulatis  duplo  longioribus 
stigma  superantibus. —  G.  »«(;c;o/</(////((s,  Ell.,  non  Michx.  G.  Carolinensis, 'Nutt 
Gen.  i.  ItJo,  non  R.  Br.  G.  Iiirsutiis,  Lodd.  Cab.  t.  305  ?  Georgia  and  Alabama 
to  N.  W.  Arkansas.  Elliott  and  Nuttall,  who  describe  from  dried  specimens,  speak 
of  the  corolla  as  "  obscure  yellow  "  or  "  yellowish,"  but  Engelmann,  who  col- 
lected it  in  Arkansas,  says  "  wliitisii  "  ;  and  Buckley  on  tlie  ticket  of  his  speci- 
mens in  the  Torrey  herbarium,  collected  in  Alabama,  writes  "flowers  white." 
This  species  clearly  coimects  Poli/stenuiia,  Decaisne,  with  Emjoiiolohus. 

*  *  Flores  solitarii  subsessiles  :  antiiera9  etiam  Chtliamnlice,  sed  corona  simplex 

Eugonolubi. 

G.  SAGiTTiFOLTus.  Plumilis,  volubilis,  vix  puberula;  foliis  subcarnosis 
parvis  sagittatis,  auriculis  obtusis  :  corolla  lutea  glabra  alte  5-tiila,  lobis  lanceo- 
lato-linearibus  :  corona  imae  basi  corollae  inserta  cyathiforma  integerrima;  foUi- 
culis  lanceolatis  lajvihus.  —  Rio  Limpio,  W.  Texas,  Wright.  This  is  Dr.  Torrey's 
G.  parvifolius  only  as  respects  the  specimen  of  Wright  referred  to  by  him,  and 
from  which  he  describeil  the  follicle. 

§  3.  Chthamai.ia.  (ClithnmaUa  &  Lachnostomatis  sytec.  Decaisne.)  Corolla 
baud  reticulata,  campanulata  vel  rotata,  5  loba  vel  5-partita:  corona  intus 
cristata  vel  append iculata,  raro  (appendici>)us  liberis)  duplex  :  antherae 
prominiilaj  a  stigmate  niagis  liberae,  marginibus  nunc  (Asclepiadis  modo)  alls 
corneis  instructaj.     Plantse  humiliores  saepius  parviflores. 

*  Diffusae,  nee  volubiles  :  pedunculi  nuUi :  pedicelli  2-3  ad  axillas  fasciculati  : 
folia  cordata. 

G.  PUBIFLORC9,  Engclm.  PI.  Lindh.  i.  44;  Torr.  Mex.  Bound.  165.  G. 
prostratus,  Baldw.  in  Ell.,  non  R.  Br.  Chthatiuilia  /nihifloni,  Decaisne. — The 
only  species  of  this  section  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  an  ambiguous  one.  It 
has  exactly  the  aspect  of  the  two  following,  except  that  the  campanulate  corolla 
is  cleft  barely  to  the  middle  (in  which  it  is  very  unlike  true  Gonolohi),  but  the 
cup-shaped  crown,  which  overtops  the  stigma,  is  almost  simple  within,  the  five 
crests  being  attenuated  and  inconspicuous  or  even  obsolete  :  there  are  five 
minute  adnate  auricles  at  the  very  base.  The  follicle,  which  I  have  not  seen. 
is  said  to  be  smooth. 


78  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

very  dwarf  G.  dichotoma,  rlesirable  for  cultivation  on  account  of  its 
abundaut  and  vaiiously  colored  flowers  of  comparatively  large  size  for 
the  pygmy  growth,  the  corolla  being  fully  half  an  inch  long,  indeed 
longer  than  the  earlier  stems.  At  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Lemmou,  this 
dainty  plant  is  dedicated  to  Mrs.  Dr.  Parry,  one  of  the  botanical  party 
who  passed  the  last  winter  and  spring  in  the  San  Bernardino  district 
■ —  making  many  interesting  discoveries  —  and  whose  services  to  botany 
well  merit  this  recognition. 

G.  BiFLORUS,  Nutt.  in  herb.  DC. ;  Torr.  1.  c.  Chthamalia  biJJora,  Decaisne. 
In  this  tlie  corolla  is  rotate  and  deeply  5  cleft ;  the  corona  tleeply  lobed ;  and 
the  canaliculate  cre.st  ailnate  to  each  lobe  is  connected  at  base  with  the  cobimn, 
wliile  it  terminates  above  in  tlie  stout  and  conspicuous  tliickened  acumination 
which  incurves  over  the  ed^e  of  tlie  stigma.  The  follicles,  as  in  the  next, 
are  large  and  muricate.  —  Var.  Wrightii,  also  from  Eastern  Te.xas,  is  a  form 
with  the  corolla  almost  5-parted  into  narrower  lobes,  and  the  cusps  of  the 
corona  shorter. 

G.  CYNANCiioiDES,  Engelm.  PL  Lindh.  i.  48.  has  the  inflorescence  much 
inclined  to  be  racemose-clustered  on  a  peduncle-like  summit  of  the  stem,  the 
upper  leaves  being  reduced  and  bract-like,  the  corolla  rotatecampanulate  and 
almost  5  parted,  and  the  very  obtusely  5  lobed  corona  is  appendaged  within  by 
a  shorter  crest  which  terminates  in  a  free  and  blunt  apex,  shorter  than  the  lobo 
to  which  it  adheres. 

*  *  Caules  Juimiles    sed   volubiles :    fiores    (luteoli)   subsessiles   solitarii,  raro 

geinini  :  folia  parva,  pi.  m.  hastata. 

G.  PARViFOLitrs,  Torr.  1.  c,  excl.  fruct.  The  corolla  is  globose  in  the  bud, 
deeply  5-lobed,  and  almost  rotate  when  expanded,  the  lobes  ovate.  The  fleshy 
corona  is  at  the  very  base  of  the  short  column;  its  lobes  ovate,  spreading,  ap- 
pendaged with  a  very  broad  adnate  crest,  the  edge  of  which  at  base  is  united 
with  the  column,  at  the  apex  extended  into  a  minute  iuflexed  tooth. 

G.  HASTur.ATUS.  Litc/inostoma  hastulatitm,  Gray,  Bot.  Calif,  i.  G20.  In  this 
the  corolla  is  narrowly  oblong  in  the  bud,  the  lobes  linear.  The  corona  is  of 
distinct  pieces,  like  the  hoods  of  AsrJe/)ias,  and,  as  in  that  genus,  borne  at  the 
summit  of  the  colunm,  close  under  the  antliers  ;  tlie  ligule  or  horn  within 
is  prominently  exserted  and  inflexed.  Follicle  rather  slender  and  minutely 
muricate. 

*  *  *  Caules  elongati  subvolubiles  :  pedunculi  axillares  folio  sagittato-cordato 

brcviores,  unibellato  3-5-fiori :  corolla  oblongo-campanulata,  lurida,  inajus- 
cula  (J  pollicaris),  alte  6-fida,  lobis  lineari-obloiigis  :  corona  cyatliiformis, 
8ub-lobata,  intus  lamellis  5  columnae  adnatis  quasi  septata. 

G.  PRODOCTUS,  Torr.  1.  c.  The  follicles  are  ovate  and  smootli.  The  species 
ranges  from  Western  Texas  to  Arizona,  and  into  adjacent  parts  of  Mexico. 

*  *  *  *  Pedunculi  filiformes  folia  mox  longe  superantes,  quasi  racemoso-pauci- 

flori  :  flores  perpusilli:  corolla  rotata  :  corona  alte  lacuiiata,  duplex :  caulis 
humilis,  a  basi  ramosissimus,  nee  volubilis. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  79 

GiLiA  (Lfptostphox)  brevicula.  Inter  Tenuiforas  notabilis 
tubo  corollaj  (cajruleae  seu  violaceae)  limbo  parum  sesquilongiore,  foliis 
brevibus  calyceque  subglanluloso-liirtellis.  —  On  the  INIohuve  River, 
S.  E.  California,  Dr.  E.  Palmer,  187G.  —  Stem  barely  a  span  liigh, 
more  branching  than  in  G.  unJrosacea,  which  it  much  resembles;  the 
branches  becoming  c^nnose.  Leaves  only  3  lines  long ;  the  divisions 
acerose-subulate,  the  j^nbescence  short-hirsute  and  glandular.  Tube 
of  the  corolla  barely  5  lines  long,  nearly  double  the  length  of  the 
calyx  and  bracts  ;  the  oval  lobes  fully  o  lines  long.  Stamens  ex- 
serled  from  the  very  short  cyathiform  throat.  Style  exserted: 
stigmas  long  and  slender,  almo>t  capillary,  fully  equalling  the  lobes 
of  the  corolla.  The  latter  appears  to  have  been  blue,  or  violet-purple. 
The  flowers  are  abundant,  and  the  species  would  be  attractive  in 
cultivation. 

GiLiA  (Ipomopsis)  Haydeni.  G.  subniidcB  affinis,  ramosior,  fere 
glabra ;    ramulis    peduncidis     (corymbosis    longioribus)    calycibusque 


G.  PARViFLOROS.  Lnchnostoma  ?  pnrviflorum,  Torr.  1.  c.  This  remarkable  spe- 
cies closes  tlie  series.  Its  principal  corona  is  somewhat  Hlce  that  of  G.  Bitldwini- 
anits,  which  is  a  genuine  Gonolofiits.  It  is  diviileil  into  five  short  and  broad 
membranaceous  h)bes,  wliicti  from  tiie  apex  are  produced  into  a  pair  of  slender 
subulate  processes,  witii  a  wide  sinus  between  :  opposite  eacii  lobe  within,  and 
separately  inserted,  is  a  simihir  and  longer  process,  which  may  answer  to  the 
lignle  or  otiier  internal  appendage  of  the  foregoing  species,  become  wholly  free. 
Tlie  follicle  is  ovate  ami  tuberculate-muricate. 

(G.  PROSTRATUS,  R.  Br.,  the  Lnchnostoma  prostratum  of  Decaisne,  is  also  a 
Chtliainalia,  with  lobes  of  the  corona  nearly  distinct,  each  produced  into  a  pair 
of  processes  like  those  of  the  preceding,  but  also  with  a  shorter  intermediate 
one,  and  still  another  before  this,  the  latter  answering  to  the  internal  ligule 
adnate  up  to  the  notch  of  the  lobe.) 

To  Pl//ra»f!tpra  —  a  little  known  genus,  well  referred  by  Bentham  (who  had 
not  seen  specimens)  to  the  Gonolobece,  and  marked  by  the  direct  adhesion  of  the 
corona  lobes  by  the  whole  length  of  the  middle  of  tlie  inner  face  to  the  column 
—  there  are  two  Cuban  species  to  add,  both  with  flat-top(ied  stigma:  viz., — 

rxTCANTHERA  ACCMiNATA  =  0/ i/io.sM  acKiiiiiKita,  Griscb.  Cat.  PI.  Cubens. 
175.  In  this  the  Io])es  of  the  deeply  G-parted  corona  are  ovate-oblong,  attached 
along  the  middle  only  to  the  whole  length  of  the  column,  the  sinuses  rounded 
and  open.  Pollinia  obliquely  short-pyriform,  pellucid  at  the  insertion  of  the 
caudicle. 

Ptycan'tiiera  OBLONGATA  =  OrlJiosin  ohlongntn,  Griseb.  1.  c.  Lobes  of  the 
disk  oblately  oval  and  emarginate,  with  thinner  free  edges,  the  centre  adnate  to 
the  whole  length  of  the  column,  wliicli  is  considerably  shorter  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding species,  the  sinuses  somewhat  auriculate.  Pollinia  nearly  oblong, 
strongly  arcuate. 


80  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

praesertim  glandiilosis  ;  foliis  radicalibus  pinnatifidis,  caulinis  parcis 
brevibus  liiiearibus  iiitegerrimis  ;  corolla  tubuloso-infiiiidihuliformi  gra- 
cili  (^-|-pollicari)  hete  rosea,  tube  lobis  obovatis  3-4-|)lo  longiore ; 
antheris  subsessilibus  fauci  insertis ;  stigmatibus  brevisf^imis ;  ovarii 
loculis  6-ovulatis  2-3-spermis  ;  serainibns  obloiigis,  testa  tenui  sub  aqua 
nee  spirillifera  nee  mucilaginosa.  —  High  j^lains  of  the  San  Juan, 
S.  W.  Colorado  or  adjacent  part  of  Utah,  Braudegee,  in  Hayden's 
Exped.  1875. 

GiLiA  (Ipomopsis?)  c^spitosa.  Glanduloso-puberula,  viscida ; 
caulibus  brevissimis  e  caudice  inulticipiteca3spitante  pedunculis  ramisve 
floridis  nudiusculis  (2-3-pollicaribus)  laxe  3-5-floris  terminatis ;  foliis 
radicalibus  confertis  crassiusculis  spathulatis  vel  spathulato-lanceolatis 
(imis  lin.  2-3  longis)  obtusissimis,  sequentibus  longioribus  mucronatis, 
pedunculorum  ad  bracteas  subulatas  diminutis ;  pedicellis  fere  nudis  ; 
calycis  angusti  lobis  subulato-setaceis ;  ovulis  in  loculis  paucis.  — 
Rabbit  Valley,  Utah,  on  barren  cliffs  of  sandstone,  at  7,000  feet,  L.  F. 
Ward,  in  Powell's  Plixpedition,  1875.  The  corollas  gone,  and  fruit 
not  formed ;  but  the  plant  cannot  belong  to  any  already  published 
species. 

Phacelia  (Eutoca)  orisea.  Annua,  cinereo-pubescens  et  hirsuta, 
viscidula  :  caule  ultra-spithamaio  a  basi  ranioso  ;  ramis  patentibus  sat 
validis,  hirsutia  patentissima  rigidiila,  pube  brevissima  densa;  foliis 
ovatis  oblongisque  integerrimis  (semipollicaribus  ad  pollicaria)  brevi- 
petiolatis  cinereo-strigosis ;  spicis  elongatis  densifloris  ;  calycibus  sub- 
sessilibus, .sejxilis  spathulatis  patenti-hispidis  corolla  (alba?)  subdimidio 
brevioribus  capsulam  ovatam  acutam  paullo  sujoerantibus ;  filamentis 
longe  exsertis  pills  brevibus  papillisve  retrorsis  hirsutulis  basi  plicis 
transversis  adnatis  appendiculatis ;  ovulis  10-12;  seniinibus  5-6  grosse 
rugoso-favosis.  —  On  Pine  Mountain,  back  of  San  Simeon  Bay,  Cali- 
fornia, Palmer. 

Eritrichium  setosissimum.  Krynitzhya  inter  subsect,  Pseudo- 
myosotidemei  Pterygium,  habitu  potius  E.  glomerati,  cinereo-pubescens, 
hirsutulum,  et  setis  ui'entibus  hispidissimum  ;  caule  valido  ultra-bipe- 
dali  e  radice  nt  videtur  bieuni ;  foliis  spathulatis  sen  lanceolatis ;  spicis 
racemoso-paniculatis  pauci-  et  parvi-bracteatis,  friictiferis  elongatis 
strictis  (4-pollicaribus)  ;  corolla  alba  parva  (lin.  2-3  longa),  tubo  lobis 
rotundatis  vix  duplo  longiore  intus  versus  basin  10-dentato-annulato, 
fauce  insigniter  5-fornicata  ;  antheris  brevi-oblongis  ;  nuculis  pro  genere 
magnis  ala  integerrima  circumdatis  (cum  ala  ovata  lin.  2-3  longis) 
opacis  scabriuscnlis,  fiicie  dorsali  parum  convexis,  ventrali  angulo 
obtusissimo  per  sulcum  angustissimum  gynobasi  subuliformi  aequiloDgae 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  81 

affixa.  —  Shores  of  Fish  Lake,  Utah,  at  8,700  feet,  L.  F.  Ward,  in 
Powell's  J^xpedition,  1875.  A  most  remarkable  species,  which,  without 
the  fruit,  might  be  coufouuded  with  E.  glomeratum. 

F.RITRICH1UM  Hoi.OPTEUUM.  Kryiiitzkia,  facie  E.  leiocarpt  et  E. 
muriciilati  formjB  validioris  ;  corolla  fance  fornidbus  Conspicuis  basi 
tubi  appeudicibus  parvulis  instructis :  nuculis  omnibus  ala  an^usta  in- 
tegerrima  circumdatis  dorso  muricatis.  —  S.  Utah,  Capt.  F.  M.  Bishop  ; 
Ehrenberg,  Arizona,  Palmer. 

Pectocarta  (Gruvelia)  ptjsilla. —  Gruvelia  pusiUa,  A.  DC. 
Prodr.  X.  118.  That  most  successful  plant-finder,  Rev.  E.  L.  Greene, 
sends  this  Chilian  species  from  the  vicinity  of  Yreka,  in  the  northern 
part  of  California,  east  of  the  Coast  Range  mountains,  therefore  far 
from  the  coast.  It  there  abounds  in  company  with  the  natives  of  the 
region,  and,  as  Mr.  Greene  states,  would  not  be  suspected  to  be  other 
than  indigenous. 

Pectocarta  (Gruvelia)  setosa.  A  prEecedente  distiuctissima 
foliis  etc.  hispidis ;  calyce  t^etis  paucis  validis  divaricatis  horrido  ;  nucu- 
lis majoribus  ala  latiuscula  nunc  undulata  marginatis  undique  uncinato- 
setulosis.  —  S.  E.  California,  on  the  desert  plains  of  the  upper  Mohave 
River,  Palmer. 

Lycium  gracilipes.  Vrscidulo-puberulum  ;  foliis  crassiusculis 
spathulatis  seii  oblongo-obovatis  (lin.  2-6  longis)  :  pedicellis  pubero- 
glandulosis  folia  floralia  longius  superantibus  flori  subtequilongis  :  calyce 
campaiiulato  breviter  5-dentato  ;  corolla  infuudibuliformi  "  violacea  nunc 
albescente "  semipollicari,  tubo  proprio  calycem  vix  superante,  fauce 
sensim  ampliata,  lobis  5  lato-ovatis  obtusissimis  lineam  longis  ;  filamentis 
filiformibus  fauci  versus  basim  iusertis  iiiferue  villosulis ;  antheris  sub- 
inclusis.  —  Northern  Arizona,  at  Williams  Fork  (alias  Bill  Williams' 
River),  Palmer,  1876. 

Antirrhinum  (Pseudorontium*)  chttrospermum.  Calycis 
segmentis  oblongo-lanceolatis  tubo  corollae  tequilongis ;  cyatho  setuinis 
maximo  ollasformi.  —  Ehrenberg,  Arizona.  Palmer. 

Pentstemon  comarrhenus.  Speciosi:  gracilis,  glaucescens,  glaber 
vel  foliis   (summis  linearibus,  imis  oblongis  ovalibusque)   minutissime 

*  Antirrhinum  sect.  Pseudorontium.  Capsula  tenui-chartacea  subdidy- 
ma,  loculis  aequalibus  apice  irregulariter  ruinpentibus  Asurinoe.  Semina  ala 
pelviforiui  niodo  Orontii.  —  Sjiee.  2,  Am.  Bor.-Occ.  Merid. ;  foliis  alternis 
petiolatis  ovatis  integerrimis ;  caule  erecto ;  piibe  viscidula ;  floribus  parvis. 
A.  CTATHiFERUM,  Bentli.,  ex  tab.  &  descr.  calycis  sefrmentis  lineari-lanceolatis 
tubo  corollas  multo  brevioribus,  cyatho  seminis  niajusculo;  &  A.  chytro- 
6PERMUM  supra. 

VOL.  XII.  (n.  S.  IV.)  6 


82  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

pruinoso-puberulis ;  panicula  virgata  laxa ;  pedunculis  pedicellisque 
loiigiusculis ;  sep;ilis  ovalibus  parvis  (liaud  ultra  liu.  2  longis)  ;  corolla 
(pollicari)  c«ruIeo-pur|)urea,  tubo  inferne  loiigius  attenuato ;  antheris 
longissime  lanatis.  —  Common  in  Utah,  especially  southward,  coll.  by 
Gordon,  ¥..  W.  Emef;^on,  Mrs.  Thompson,  Siler,  and  recently  by 
L.  F.  Ward.  Like  P.  secundijlorus ;  but  flowers  larger,  looser  and 
hardly  secund  in  the  panicle;  and  the  anthers  long-woolly  almost  in 
the  manner  of  P.  Menziesii.  Still  nearer,  perhaps,  to  the  le-s-known 
P.  strictus,  Benth. ;  but  that  has  much  smaller  and  narrower  flowers 
in  a  crowded  inflorescence,  acuminate  sepals,  &c. 

Pentstemon  Wauoi.  Speciosi:  crebre  caesio-puberulus ;  caule  sub- 
pedali ;  corollis  extus  pallidis  ;  antherte  glabrie  loculis  subcartilagineis 
basi  acutis  apicibus  contiguis  longiuscule  inapertis :  cvst.  P.  f/labri. — 
Utah,  near  Glenwood,  at  5,300  feet,  L.  F.  Ward,  in  Powell's  Expe- 
dition, 1874. 

MiMULUs  Palmeri.  Eumimulus:  viscidulus  sed  fere  glaber,  spith- 
amajus  e  radice  annua,  paniculato-ramosus  ;  fuliis  sessilibus  integerrimis, 
imis  spathulato-oblongis,  superioribus  linearibus  ;  pedunculis  tiliformibus 
folium  bis  superantibus :  calyce  baud  obliquo,  dentibus  ae(]ualibus  latis 
obtusissimis  ;  corolla  (^  poll,  longa)  move  J^u nan i  infundibuliformi  san- 
guineo-purpurea  calyce  triplo  longiore,  lonis  brevibus  suba^qualibus. 
—  S.  E.  California,  on  the  Mohave  Kiver,  Palmer.  A  truly  handsome 
species,  well  worthy  of  cultivation. 

Okthocarpus  lasiorhynciius.  0.  lacero  proximus ;  pube  moUi- 
ore ;  floribus  majoribus ;  coroUie  loete  aurese  saccis  ampborilms  galea 
tenuiter  subulata  dense  albo-villosa  superatis.  —  Mohave  River,  S.  E. 
California,  Palmer,  1876. 

Munardklla  Palmeri.  Nana,  rhizomatibus  stoloniformibus  per- 
ennans  ;  capitulis  corollisque  M.  odoratisslince  ;  caulibus  vix  spithjimceis 
parum  puberulis ;  foliis  coiifertis  oblongo-linearibus  lanceolatisve 
obtusissimis  parvulis  crassiusculis  viridibus  fere  glabris,  venis  glandu- 
lisque  punctiformibus  obsoletis  ;  bracteis  rubesceutibus  ohlonjris  sub- 
hii'sutis  ciliatis  ;  dentibus  calycis  lanceolatis  acutis  intus  marginibusque 
parce  hispidis.  —  Redwood  forests  on  Sta.  Lucia  Mountains,  Cali- 
fornia, Palmer. 

Stachys  Rothrockii.  Spithamoea,  a  basi  ramosa,  villoso-lanata ; 
radice  ut  videtur  perenni ;  foliis  omnibus  sessilibus  lanceolatis  obtusius- 
culis  subintegerrimis  (pollicaribus),  floralibus  superioribus  flores  baud 
superantibus;  verticillastris  sjepius  trifloris  spicato-confertis ;  calyce 
sessili  subcampanulato,  dentibus  subovatis  muticis  ;  coroUaj  (lin.  4—5 
longue)   tubo  iucluso,  galea  saltern  extus  albo-villosa.  —  Zuni  Village, 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  83 

New  Mexico,  Dr.  J.  T.  Rothrock,  in  Wheeler's  Expedition,  ISTk  In 
aspect  considerably  unlike  any  other  North  American  species :  appar- 
ently indigenous. 

Eriogonuji  Greenei.  Heterosepala  inter  E.  proUferum  et  E. 
ovalifoUum :  niajusculum ;  foliis  oblongis  acutiusculis ;  scapo  ultra- 
sjjithamseo  sub  involucro  priuiario  sessili  3-radiato,  radiis  elongatis 
involucra  1-3  turbiiuita  (lin.  3  longa)  gerentibus  quandoque  pro- 
liferis ;  perigouio  albo  (lin.  3  longo),  segiuentis  exteriuribus  ovalibus 
basi  cordulatis  per  costam  viridulana  interioribus  angustioribus  baud 
emarginatis  longius  adnatis.  —  Northern  California,  on  rocky  hills 
about  Yreka,  E.  L.  Greene.  Au  interesting  accession  to  the  Hetero- 
sepala section. 

OxYTHECA  TRiLOBATA.  Cymoso-raniosa  ;  foliis  radicalibus  brac- 
teisque  fere  0.  Watsoai ;  involucris  longius  pedunculatis  pio  genere 
maximis  alte  5-partitis  nunc  hinc  divisis,  phyllis  patentibus  foliaceis 
oblongo-lanceolatis  costa  valida  excurrente  aristatis ;  perigonii  sepalis 
ligulato-oblongis  superne  trifidis,  lobis  ovato-lanceolatis  erosulis 
acuminatis.  —  San  Bernardino  Co ,  S.  E.  California,  Lenimon  and 
Parry. 

Chlor.ea  Austins.  Planta  allia  aphylla ;  radicibus  carnoso- 
fibrosis  ;  caulibus  fusciculatis  (subpedalibus)  laxe  vaginalis  ;  spica  ob- 
longa  laxiuscula ;  floribus  pro  genere  parvis  albidis  (perianthio  parum 
semipollicari)  ;  labello  trilobo,  lobo  medio  integerrimo  transverse 
oblongo ;  anthera  modo  Cephalantherce  substipitata. —  Banks  of  a 
wooded  ravine  iu  the  Sierra  Nevada,  California,  near  Quincy,  in 
Plumas  Co.,  Mrs.  R.  M.  Austin  ; —  whose  zeal  and  services  to  botany, 
and  notably  her  observations  upon  the  habits  of  Darlinytonia,  render  it 
particularly  proper  that  this  remarkable  plant  of  her  own  discovery 
should  commemorate  her  name.  I  refer  it  to  the  South  American 
genus  ChlorcBa,  rather  than  to  the  European  and  North  Asian  Cepha- 
lanthera,  on  account  of  its  habit,  and  because  there  is  no  articulation 
between  epichilium  and  hypochilium. 

POSTSCRIPT. 

Saxifraga  chrtsantha.  S.  Hirculo  et  serpyllifoUce  affinis  : 
caudiculis  perennantibus  caespitor^is  diapensioideo-foliatis  cum  stolonibus 
filiformibus  ;  foliis  spathulatis  seu  lineari-spathulatis  obtusissimis  niti- 
dulis  glabris  (lin.  2-3  longis)  basi  sensim  angustatis  sessilibus,  caudi- 
culorum  crebre  rosulato-imbricatis  ;  caulibus  floriferis  scapiibrmibus 
fere   bipoUicaribus    1— 4-foliatis    1— 2-floris   glabris    vel    superne    cum 


84  PROCEEDINGS   OP  THE    AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

calyce  reflexo  glanduloso-hirsutulis ;  petalis  ovalibus  lajte  aureis  basi 
ecallosis  supra  unguem  truncatis  vel  subcordatis  ;  ovario  et  capsula 
late  ovatis  apice  breviter  bilobis ;  seminibus  oblongis  striolatis  nitidis. 
—  S.  Hirculus,  Gray  in  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  xxxiii.  409  (coll.  Parry,  no. 
164  &  106),  non  L.  S.  serpyllifulia,  Gray  in  Proc.  Acad.  Philad. 
1803,  02  (coll.  Hall  &  Harbour,  no.  199),  non  Pursh.  High  alpine 
region  of  the  Coloi-ado  Rocky  Mountains,  especially  abundant  on 
Torrey's  and  Gray's  Peaks,  at  11-14,000  feet,  its  golden  flowers 
close  to  the  sward,  more  brilliant  than  those  of  the  equally  abundant 
Geum  Rossii  which  accompanies  it.  S.  Hirculus  occurs  at  very  much 
less  elevation,  fully  resembling  the  Arctic  American  and  the  European 
plant.  S.  serpylUfolia,  Pursh,  now  better  known  by  good  Alaskan 
specimens,  collected  by  Prof.  Harrington  in  1871-2,  is  more  slender, 
the  flowers  solitary  and  smaller,  the  calyx  not  reflexed  even  in  fruit, 
petals  light  yellow,  cells  of  the  anther  parallel,  ovary  partly  immersed 
in  a  disk,  its  base  adnate  to  the  base  of  the  calyx,  the  capsule  dis- 
tinctly 2-horned  at  the  summit,  and  the  tijJ  of  the  horns  narrow  and 
styliforra.  These  distinctions  were  made  out  several  years  ago,  and 
the  Rocky  Mountain  species  has  been  freely  distributed  among  bota- 
nists under  the  name  of  S.  chrysantha,  but  it  has  accidentally  escaped 
publication. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  85 


VI. 

CONTRIBUTION  FROM  THE  LABORATORY  OF  S.  P.  SHARPLES. 

* 

SCHWEINFURT    GREEX: 

SOME  EXPERIMENTS  ON  THE  ACTION  OF  ARSENIC  TRIOX- 
IDE  ON  COPPER  ACETATE,  WITH  THE  VIEW  OF  INVESTI- 
GATING THE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ABOVE  COiVU'OUND. 

By  E.  R.  Hills. 

Read  by  title,  November  8, 1876. 

After  the  completion  of  the  paper  on  Scheele's  Green  by  Professor 
S.  P.  Sharpies,  I  became  interested  to  know  something  about  the  com- 
position of  the  closely  allied  substance,  Schweinfurt  green,  —  as  to 
whether  it  was  perfectly  definite  in  its  composition,  or  whether  it  varied 
in  a  similar  manner  to  Scheele's  green.  I  therefore  obtained  a  sample 
of  Schweinfurt  green  from  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, which  was  procured  by  them  in  the  market  for  analysis. 
This  was  submitted  to  a  careful  analysis,  and  gave  as  follows  :  — 

Analysis  No.  I. 


Per  cents, 

Copper  oxide, 

25.82 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

45.18 

Acetic  anhydride  (CJT,jO,.j), 

15.40 

Sulphuric  anhydride  (SO3) 

1.76 

Barium  sulphate, 

11.44 

• 

99. GO 

If  now  we  deduct  from  this  the  sulphuric  anhydride  and  barium  sul- 
phate, and  calculate  the  percentages  anew,  we  have,  — 

Per  cents.  Atomic  Ratios. 
Copper  oxide,                               29.88  4.26 

Arsenic  trioxide,  52.30  3.00 

Acetic  anhydride,  17.82  1.98 

100. 


86  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

A  sample  of  Schweinfurt  green  was  then  obtained  from  Messrs. 
Folsom  &  Co.  of  this  city.  This  sample  was  said  to  be  perfectly 
pure,  and  was  made  in  their  works.  It  was  of  a  much  brighter  shade 
than  the  preceding,  and  gave  on  analysis  :  — 

Analysis  No.  II. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide, 

30.97 

4.43 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

52.82 

3.00 

Acetic  anhydride, 

16.03 

1.79 

99.82 

This  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  the   preceding  sample,  calculated 

as  pure    copper   aceto-arsenite.      It  corresponds  quite  nearly    to  the 

formula, 

2  (CuOCJip,)  3  (CuOAs^Og), 

which  calculated  to  percentages  is  thus :  — 

Per  cents.  Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide,  33.19  5. 

Arsenic  trioxide,  49.73  3 

Acetic  anhydride,  17.08  2. 

100. 

It  will  be  seen  by  comparing  the  percentages  that  both  samples 
analyzed  contain  more  arsenious  acid  than  is  called  for  by  the  formula: 
this  is  most  probably  due  to  the  difficulty  of  washing  out  the  excess 
of  arsenic  in  process  of  manufacture. 

The  foi-mula  given  in  the  books  for  Schweinfurt  green  is, — 


CuOC,H,03 

3(CuOAsP3), 

which  was  based  upon  the  following  analysis  :  — 

Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios, 

Copper  oxide, 

31.24 

3.96 

Arsenic  trioxide, 

58.62 

3.00 

Acetic  anhydride. 

10.13 

1.00 

100. 

This  analysis  was  made  by  E.  Ehrmann  in  the  laboratory  of  Pro- 
fessor Von  Liebig,  and  the  results  were  published  in  "  Der  Annalen 
der  Pharmacie,"  *  in  1834,  in  which  paper  Ehrmann,  after  giving  the 

*  Der  Annalen  der  Pharmacie,  Band  XII.,  1831,  Seite  72. 


OF   ARTS   AND    SCIENCES.  87 

origin  of  the  salt,  gives  a  formula  for  its  preparation,  and  then  the 
composition  as  determined  by  him. 

The  receipt  he  gives  is  as  follows,  which  he  states  works  as  well  in 
small  amounts  as  in  large  :  — 

"10  parts  verdigris  are  mixed  with  as  much  water  at  50-55°  as  is 
necessary  to  produce  a  moderately  thin  emulsion :  this  is  then  passed 
through  a  fine  hair  sieve,  to  separate  the  marc  of  the  grape  or  the 
small  particles  of  copper  from  the  basic  acetate  of  copper. 

"  This  emulsion  is  poured  still  warm  into  a  solution  of  8  parts  of 
powilered  arsenious  acid  in  100  parts  water,  which  is  kept  in  a  state 
of  brisk  ebullition  in  a  copper  kettle.  The  mixing  is  done  quickly, 
and  meanwhile  the  fire  must  be  kept  bright  and  hot,  so  that  the  boiling 
of  the  solution  of  arsenious  acid  may  not  be  interrupted.  The  color 
appears  in  a  few  minutes.  If  the  verdigris  is  added  cold,  or  the  boiling 
of  the  arsenious  acid  is  interrupted,  the  precipitate  is  of  a  dull  yellow- 
green  color,  in  which  case  some  acetic  acid  must  be  added  to  the  solu- 
tion, boiling  a  few  minutes  longer,  and  allowed  to  stand  to  cool  by  itself, 
after  which  the  dull  precipitate  becomes  crystalline,  and  is  converted 
into  Schweinfurt  green. 

"  On  account  of  the  difficulty  with  which  the  arsenious  acid  dissolves 
in  pure  water,  many  makers  add  to  the  water,  with  the  8  parts  of  ar- 
senious acid,  -^  parts  (that  is,  to  8  pounds  1  oz.)  of  pure  potash  ;  but, 
before  the  addition  of  the  verdigris,  the  solution  must  be  made  neutral 
with  acetic  acid.  .  .  . 

"  If  a  boiling  solution  of  neutral  acetate  of  copper  and  one  of  arse- 
nious acid  in  water,  the  amounts  of  each  being  equal,  are  mixed,  a  very 
voluminous  precipitate  of  a  dull  olive-green  color  occurs  immediately  : 
if  the  supernatant  liquid  be  allowed  to  stand  in  contact  with  this  some 
hours,  or  cool  slowly  with  it,  it  loses  its  gelatinous  condition,  sinks 
together,  becomes  crystalline  in  granular  crystals,  and  assumes  the  use- 
ful color  of  Vienna  green. 

"  The  compound  acquires  a  still  more  brilliant  color,  if  an  equal 
volume  of  cold  water  is  added  to  the  liquid  after  mixing. 

"  If  the  mixture,  instead  of  standing  by  itself,  be  boiled  a  few  min- 
utes, the  conversion  to  the  crystalline  salt  is  accomplished  in  a  very 
short  space  of  time. 

''  The  difference  in  the  shades  of  color  is  due  mainly  to  the  size  of 
the  crystalline  grains :  when  rubbed  to  a  fine  powder  on  a  color-slab, 
their  appearance  is  similar.  .  .  . 

"  The  pure  compound  which  was  obtained  by  the  preceding  method 
was  submitted  to  analytical  investigation.  .  .  . 


88  PROCEEDINGS    OP   THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

"  Sdiweinfurt  green  is  a  double  salt  of  acetic 'acid,  arsenious  acid, 
and  oxide  of  copper :  it  is  entirely  insoluble  in  water.  All  mineral 
acids,  and  even  concentrated  acetic  acid,  extract  the  oxide  of  copper 
from  it,  leaving  the  white  arsenious  acid  bthind.  It  is  also  decom- 
posed by  fixed  alkalies,  except  that  in  this  case  oxide  of  copper 
remains  behind.  If  the  alkaline  liquid,  which  has  dissolved  the 
arsenious  acid,  is  boiled  with  the  precipitated  oxide  of  copper,  this  is 
reduced  to  the  suboxide  by  the  arsenious  acid :  the  oxide,  which  is  at 
first  black,  becomes  orange-red  by  boiling.  .  .  .  Ammonia  dissolves  it 
without  decompo:*ition,  with  the  well  known  blue  color  of  copper." 

Some  Schweiiifurt  green  was  now  prepared  by  the  first  of  these 
receipts. 

Experiment  No.  1. 

Took  20  grams  verdigris  and  made  it  into  a  thin  paste  with  water, 
rubbing  it  well  in  a  mortar  to  break  up  any  lumps  and  mix  thor- 
oughly. IG  grams  of  arsenic  trioxide  were  dissolved  in  water,  to 
which  about  1  gram  of  potassium  carbonate  was  added :  then  the  emul- 
sion of  verdigris  was  added  to  the  boiling  solution  of  arsenic  trioxide, 
which  was  made  acid  with  acetic  acid.  At  first  yellow-green  copper 
arsenite  was  precipitated :  this,  on  boiling,  very  gradually  changed  to 
the  aceto-arsenite,  at  first  crystallizing  in  a  pellicle  over  the  surface ; 
finally,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  acetic  acid,  the  whole  mass  became 
more  dense  and  crystalline,  leaving  a  blue  solution,  from  which  the 
precipitate  was  separated  by  a  filter.  The  precipitate  was  washed 
with  boiling  water,  till  no  arsenic  was  fo\ind  in  the  filtrate  on  testing 
the  acidulated  liquid  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The  filtrate  con- 
tained copper,  arsenic  trioxide,  and  potassium  acetate. 

The  precipitate  was  dried  at  100°  C.  for  twenty -four  hours,  and  then 
analyzed. 

Analysis  No.  III. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios, 

Copper  oxide, 

32.00 

4.33 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

55.G3 

3.00 

Acetic  anhydride. 

12.31 

1.29 

99.94 

The  precipitate  was  of  a  pale  green  color,  inferior  to  the  samples 
previously  examined,  and  its  specific  gravity  was  much  lower. 

The  above  receipt  was  now  varied  by  substituting  the  neutral  copper 
acetate  for  verdigris :  the  manipulation  is  much  easier  than  with  the 
basic  acetate. 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  89 

Experiment  No.  2. 

80  grams  arsenic  trioxide  dissolved  in  water. 
100      „       copper  acetate         „         „       „ 

The  copper  salt  was  added  to  the  solution  of  arsenic  trioxide :  as  in 
the  former  case,  a  yellow-green  flocculent  precipitate  was  produced, 
which  was  graduMlly  converted  by  boiling  into  the  brilliant  aceto- 
arsenite.  The  filtrate  from  the  pigment  was  acid,  of  a  deep  blue  color, 
and  contained  arsenic  trioxide,  copper,  and  acetates. 

The  precipitate  wasdiied  at  100°  C.  as  before,  and  gave  on  analysis 
these  results  :  — 

Analysis  No.  IV. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide, 

32.12 

4.r>6 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

56.08 

3.00 

Acetic  anhydride, 

10.37 

1.07 

H)  droscopic  water. 

.61 

99.18 

These  two  salts  approximate  to  Ehrmann's  formula,  although  they 
vary  somewliat  from  it.  In  1858,*  "  N.  Reilter  found  in  four  com- 
mercial Schweinfurt  greens  (No.  I.  was  pure,  II.-IV.  were  mixed  with 
heavy  spar  and  gypsum,  all  four  samples  showed  the  presence  of  free 
arsenious  acid,  they  were  washed  before  analysis),  after  deducting 
the  water  and  impurities  :  — 


I. 

II. 

in. 

rv. 

Copper  oxide. 

33.97 

34.94 

33.83 

33,65 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

57.52 

58.18 

54.31 

57.93 

Acetic  auhydiide, 

8.51 

7.88 

11.86 

8.42 

100.00       101.00       100.00       100.00 

"  He  says  it  follows  from  these  numbers  that  Schweinfurt  green  con- 
sists of  monarseiiite  of  copper,  combined  with  vai-ying  amounts  of  basic 
(not  mono)  copper  acetate." 

It  will  be  seen,  by  comparison  of  these  results  with  those  obtained 
by  Ehrmann,  that  they  with  one  exception  contain  less  acetic  anhydride 
and  more  arsenic  trioxide  and  copper  oxide,  while  they  do  not  approach 
the  composition  of  the  commercial  samples  analyzed  by  myself.  Thia 
is,  I  think,  partly  due  to  an  admixture  of  free  arsenic  trioxide. 

*  Jahresbericht  der  Cliemie,  1858,  Seite  651. 


90  PROCEEDINGS    OP   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Experiment  No.  3. 

The  filtrate  in  Experiment  No.  2  contained  copper,  arsenic  trioxide, 
and  acetates.  To  this  solution,  in  which  no  precipitate  occurred  on  the 
addition  of  more  arsenic  trioxide,  sodium  carbonate  was  added  to 
faint  alkaline  reaction.  A  yellow-green  precipitate  fell,  which  was 
collected  on  a  filter,  washed  until  the  filtrate  was  free  from  arsenic 
trioxide.     Dried,  the  composition  was, — 


Analysis  No.  V. 

Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide,                            50.G9 

3.31 

Arsenic  trioxide,                       38.13 

1.00 

Walter,                                        11.88 

100.70 

This  is  copper  arsenite  of  the  following  formula,  CugAs^O,;  2H2O, 
with  about  4  per  cent  of  hydroscopic  water,  and  contained,  as  far  as 
could  be  ascertained  by  careful  testing,  no  acetic  acid. 

The  question  then  arose.  Does  sodium  arsenite  precipitate  pure  cop- 
per arsenite  from  copper  acetate  in  all  cases,  or  does  it  also  carry  down 
some  basic  copper  acetate  with  it  ?     This  led  to 

Experiment  No.  4. 

Copper  acetate,  33  grams. 

Sodium  carbonate,  50       „ 

Arsenic  trioxide,  18       „ 

The  arsenic;  trioxide  was  dissolved  in  the  sodium  carbonate,  and  the 
solution  mixed  with  the  copper  acetate  solution,  both  being  near  the 
boiling  point.  A  3'ellow-green  precipitate  fell,  the  supernatant  liquid 
contained  acetates,  arsenic  trioxide,  and  carbonates,  and  was  slightly 
yellow.  The  precipitate  was  separated  by  a  filter,  and  washed  till  no 
arsenic  trioxide  was  found  in  the  wash-water.  This  was  much  like  the 
product  obtained  in  Experiment  No.  3,  except  that  the  color  was  a 
little  brighter  and  of  a  bluer  shade,  and  when  analyzed  gave :  — 

Analysis  No.  VI. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

Copper  oxide. 

62.06 

10.35 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

37.81 

3.00 

Acetic  anhydride, 

2.70 

.40 

Water, 

8.21 

7.08 

100.78 


OF   ARTS   AND    SCIENCES.  91 

This  shows  that  when  sodium  arsenite  acts  on  copper  acetate,  if  there 
is  not  a  lai-ge  excess  of  arsenic  trioxide,  we  get  copper  arsenite, 
•which  contains  some  basic  copper  acetate,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
copper  sulpliate  under  like  conditions,  and  tliat  the  acetic  acid  gives  a 
brighter  shade  to  tlie  color. 

To  answer  the  question  as  to  whether  an  excess  of  copper  acetate 
would  produce,  when  mixed  with  arsenic  trioxide,  a  salt  containiajr 
more  basic  copper  acetate,  we  have 

Experiment  No.  5. 

Copper  acetate,  250  grams. 

Arsenic  trioxide,  50       „ 

Dissolved  in  water  separately,  and  mixed  the  boiling  solutions  and 
boiled  an  hour.  The  precipitate  was  green,  the  filtrate  from  it  was 
blue,  and  contained  arsenic  trioxide,  copper,  and  acetates.  The  pre- 
cipitate had  this  composition :  — 

Analysis  No.  VII. 

Per  cents. 

Copper  oxide,  50.00 

Arsenic  trioxide,  35.57 

Acetic  anhydride,  2.47 

"Water,  1 1 .07 


99.11 


This  result,  deducting  hydroscopic  water  and  calculating  the  per 
cents  anew,  gives  :  — 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios, 

Copper  oxide, 

52.06 

10.80 

Arsenic  trioxide, 

37  04 

3.00 

Acetic  anhydride, 

2.57 

.39 

Water, 

8.33 

7.38 

100.00 

This  is  a  mixture  of  copper  arsenite  and  basic  copper  acetate,  almost 
of  exactly  the  same  composition  as  that  obtained  by  the  action  of  sodium 
arsenite  on  copper  acetate  in  Experiment  No.  4,  and,  instead  of  con- 
taining a  considerable  amount  of  copper  acetate,  has  a  very  small 
amount. 


92 


PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 


Experiment  No.  6. 

To  Ihe  filtrate  from  the  pigment  obtained  in  Expt.  No.  5,  50  grams 
of  arsenic  trioxide  were  added  and  some  free  acetic  acid :  a  new  forma- 
tion of  the  well-known  color  of  Schweinfurt  green  occurred  after  a 
prolonged  boiling ;  this  was  allowed  to  stand  over  night  in  contact  with 
the  solution  from  which  it  was  precipitated ;  it  was  tiien  tiltered  off  and 
washed  free  from  the  excess  of  arsenic  trioxide.  The  filtrate  was  blue, 
and  acid,  containing  copper,  arsenic  trioxide,  and  acetates ;  on  the  addi- 
tion of  more  arsenic  trioxide,  no  precipitate  fell,  but,  on  neutralizing, 
one  was  produced  having  the  color  of  the  one  in  Expt.  No.  3,  and 
it  was  probably  of  similar  composition,  but  was  in  too  small  an  amount 
for  analysis.     The  composition  of  the  pigment  obtained  was  :  — 


Analysis  No.  VIII. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios, 

Copper  oxide. 

31.00 

7.09 

Arsenic  trioxide, 

54.48 

5.00 

Acetic  anhydride, 

11.32 

2.00 

Combined  water, 

2.55 

2.56 

Hydroscopic  water. 

.65 

.70 

100.00 
This  is  very  near  the  formula,  — 

2(CuOCJI,03)  5(CuOAs,03)-}-2II,0, 
which  when  calculated  in  percentages  is  :  — 


Copper  oxide. 
Arsenic  trioxide. 
Acetic  anhydride, 
Water, 


Per  cents. 

31.12 
55.43 
11.43 

2.02 

100.00 


Atomic  Ratios. 
7.00 
5.00 
2.00 
2.00 


This  was  the  first  hydrated  copper  aceto-arsenite  obtained,  excepting 
the  resulting  pigments  from  Expts.  Nos.  5  and  6,  whicli  may  be  consid- 
ered as  mixtures;  for,  although  there  was  a  small  amount  of  water  in 
nearly  all  samples,  it  was  hydroscopic  water,  and  was  entirely  driven 
oflf  by  heating  to  105°  C. 

This  experiment  was  repeated,  giving :  — 


OP   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  93 

Analysis  No.  IX. 


Copper  oxide, 
Arsenic  trioxide, 
Acetic  anhydride, 
Combined  water, 
Hydroscopic  water, 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Ratios. 

31.53 

7.05 

55.03 

5.00 

10.16 

1.76 

2.28 

2.32 

.64 

.60 

100.04 


This  is  a  confirmation  of  the  preceding  result,  and  seems  to  prove 
the  existence  of  a  hydrated  copper  aceto-arsenite. 

Having  experimented  on  an  excess  of  copper  acetate  with  a  small 
amount  of  arsenic  trioxide,  the  other  extreme  was  now  tried,  and,  as 
the  proportion  was  5  to  1  in  preceding  case,  so  here  5  to  1  was  used. 

Experiment  No.  7. 
Copper  acetate,  25  grams. 

Arsenic  trioxide,  125       „ 

Dissolved  separately,  added  the  copper  solution  to  the  arsenic  triox- 
ide, and  boiled ;  the  reaction  was  as  in  the  preceding  cases  ;  first  cop- 
per arsenite,  changing  to  aceto-arsenite ;  this  precipitate  was  filtei'ed 
off  and  washed  with  hot  water;  the  filtrate  contained  a  trace  of  copper 
and  a  large  amount  of  arsenic  trioxide.  When  the  excess  of  arsenic 
trioxide  was  waslied  out  of  the  precipitate,  the  latter  was  dried  at 
100°  C.  and  analyzed. 

Analysis  No.  X. 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Batios. 

Copper  oxide, 

31.19 

4.85 

Arsenic  trioxide. 

46.47 

3.00 

Acetic  anhydride. 

14.05 

1.76 

Combined  water, 

7.05 

4.85 

Hydroscopic  water, 

1.15 

99.91 
This  agrees  with  the  formula,  — 

2(CuOC,H,03)  3(CuOAs203)  +5H2O, 
which,  calculated  in  percentages,  gives,  — 


04  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 


Per  cents. 

Atomic  Katios 

Copper  oxide, 

30.90 

5.00 

Ai'seiiic  trioxide, 

46.22 

3.00 

Acetic  anhydride, 

15.88 

2.00 

Water, 

7.00 

5.00 

100.00 

This  salt  is  in  color  the  most  brilliant  of  all  the  samples  in  my  pos- 
session, and  of  a  decidedly  different  shade  from  thei  samples  of  the 
formulae,  — 

(CuOC,H,.0,)  3(CuOAs20,)  and 
2(CuOC,H,63)  3(CuOAsA), 

being  more  grass-green,  having  less  blue  in  it.  It  comports  itself 
with  acids  and  alkalies  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  last-mentioned  salt, 
but  is  a  little  more  dense ;  it  holds  to  its  five  molecules  of  water 
strongly,  it  not  being  decomposed  at  120°  C.  When  heated  for  a  long 
time  at  this  temperature,  it  oxidizes  slowly  and  gains  steadily  in 
weight.  Tliis  is  probably  the  salt  existing  in  the  commercial  samples 
examined  minus  tlie  water,  and  is  the  nearest  approach  to  them  I 
have  been  able  to  make,  the  exact  formula  for  their  production  being 
a  trade  secret. 

"*  Wagner  states  that  the  formula  given  by  Ehrmann  is  only 
empirical,  because  a  portion  of  the  copper  is  present  as  the  suboxide, 
and  a  portion  of  the  arsenic  as  arsenic  acid." 

To  test  this  statement,  I  examined  my  samples  of  Schweinfurt  green 
in  the  following  maimer:  In  each  case  a  weighed  amount  of  the  green 
was  dissolved  in  pure  hydrochloric  acid,  made  alkaline  with  ammonia 
water  and  "  magnesia  mixture  "  added,  and  in  each  case  a  precipitate 
occurred.  After  allowing  this  to  stand  over  night,  it  was  filtered  off 
and  washed  with  aqua  ammonia  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
neutralized  with  ammonia,  then  acidulated  with  acetic  acid,  and  acetate 
of  uranium  solution  of  known  strength  added,  testing  in  the  usual  way 
for  an  excess,  with  ferrocyanide  of  potash.  The  first  drop  of  uranium 
solution  gave  a  brown  coloration  when  tested  with  the  ferrocyanide, 
and  an  excess  gave  no  precipitate,  proving  beyond  a  doubt  the  absence 
of  arsenic  pentoxide. 

The  precipitate  obtained  by  the  "  magnesia  mixture  "  was  doubtless 
basic  magnesium  sulphate  and  magnesia  itself. 

*  Handbook  Chemiual  Technology,  Rudolf  Wagner,  Ph.  D.  Translated  by 
W.  Crooks,  F.R.S.     Appletou  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1872.     Page  58. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  95 

Therefore  I  conclude  that  the  formulae  do  represent  the  composition, 
both  empirically  and  rationally,  and  that  there  is  no  suboxide  of  cop- 
per present,  as  also  no  arsenic  acid. 

Wagner,  after  giving  Ehrmann's  receipt,  publishes  the  following  from 
M.  Braconnot:  '•  15  kilos  of  sulphate  of  copper  (CuSO^-f-'^^^-.'O)  are 
dissolved  in  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of  boiling  water,  and  mixed 
with  a  boiling  ami  concentrated  solution  of  arsenite  of  soda  or  potash, 
so  prepared  as  to  contain  20  kilos  of  arsenious  acid.  There  is  imme- 
diately formed  a  dirty  greenish-colored  precipitate,  which  is  converted 
into  Schweinfurt  green  by  the  addition  of  some  15  litres  concentrated 
wood-vinegar.  This  having  been  done,  the  precipitate  is  filtered  off 
and  washed.  .  .  . 

"  It  thus  appears  that  the  preparation  of  this  pigment  aims  first  at  the 
least  expensive  preparation  of  neutral  arsenite  of  copper,  which  is  then 
converted  into  aceto-arsenite  of  cojjper,  by  digesting  the  precipitate 
with  acetic  acid." 

Kow  this  is  very  probably  the  method,  by  which  the  samjile 
obtained  from  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  was  made,  and 
accounts  for  the  basic  copper  sulphate  found  in  it.  The  insoluble 
matter  is  used  to  dilute  the  color  and  as  adulteration. 

These  latter  are  therefore  impurities,  and  are  to  be  disregarded  in 
speaking  of  its  composition. 

Now  with  regard  to  the  pure  pigment:  Ehrmann's  analysis  is  with- 
out doubt  correct,  and  is  sustained  by  two  samples  prepared  by  myself; 
but  this  cannot  be  regarded  as  the  universal  composition  of  the  salt, 
and  does  not,  as  has  be^u  already  said,  cover  the  commerrial  samples 
that  I  found  in  the  market.  Therefore  we  must  look  farther,  and  we 
find  there  is  another  salt  having  the  formula,  — 

2(CuOC,HA)  3(CuOAsA), 

in  two  commercial  samples ;  hence  we  infer  that  the  composition  varies 
between  these  salts,  that  it  may  be  CuOC^H^Og  3(CuOAs.,0.j),  or 
2(CuOC^Hy03)  S^CuOAs^Og),  or  something  between  the  two;  and  we 
also  see  that  the  amount  of  arsenic  trioxide  may  vary  considerably, 
from  the  difficulty  with  which  it  is  removed  by  washing,  even  with  hot 
water,  in  process  of  manufacture. 

In  the  extract  from  N.  Reilter,  we  have  a  series  of  results  which 
vary  from  any  obtained  by  Ehrmann  and  myself  (with  one  exception), 
where  the  amounts  of  acetic  acid  are  much  less.  And  he  states 
that  Schweinfurt  green  is  copper  mono-arsenite  combined  with  varying 
amounts   of   basic   copper   acetate.      We   have   a   variance    of  from 


9(5  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

7.88% — 17.82%  of  acetic  anhydride,  a  variance  of  nearly  10%. 
As  the  salt  is  crystalline,  and  is  formed  out  of  different  propor- 
tions of  the  materials  used,  with  the  same  composition,  as  it  was  in 
several  cases  where  no  great  change  was  made,  it  appears  as  a  definite 
chemical  compound,  and  the  variation  is,  I  think,  best  explained  by 
considering  the  existence  of  several  definite  salts.  Also  in  three  cases 
I  have  found  water  chemically  combined,  which  shows  still  more  vari- 
ance, but  these  salts  also  appear  definite,  and  agree  with  vei*y  simple 
formulas. 

Pure  Schweinfurt  green  may  therefore  be  composed  either  entirely 
of  the  salt  having  the  formula  (CuOCJIuO.)  3(CuOAs03),  or  en- 
tirely of  that  having  the  formula  2(CuOC^HP3)  3(CuOAs203),  or 
may  have  a  composition  between  the  two,  from  a  mixture  of  these 
salts,  and  it  may  contain  combined  water  having  this  formula, 
2(CuOC,H,03),  5(CuOAs20,3)4-2H,0,  or  may  have  the  formula 
2(CuOC,H,03)  3(CuOAs203)  5H,0.  And  all  tiiese  results  may  be 
varied  again  still  more  by  a  mechanical  mixture  of  arsenic  trioxide, 
from  the  difficulty  of  removing  the  same  by  washing.  That  the  arsenic 
is  present  as  trioxide,  it  contains  no  arsenic  pentoxide  so  far  as  I  have 
been  able  to  find  in  this  investigation.  The  salts  of  the  formulae 
2(CuOC,H,03)  3(CuAs,03)  and  2(CuOC,HA)  3(CuOAs,03)+5H20 
are  more  brilliant  than  the  other  two  with  less  basic  copper  acetate 
in  them,  the  difference  being  quite  marked. 

Therefore  this  beautiful  pigment  is  not  so  definite  as  has  been  pre- 
viously supposed,  but  may  vary  some  ten  per  cent  in  its  amount  of 
acetic  acid,  twelve  per  cent  in  its  arsenic  trioxide,  and  five  per  cent 
in  its  amount  of  copper  oxide ;  while  some  samples  contain  chemi- 
cally combined  water,  in  one  specimen  going  up  to  seven  per  cent. 
And  all  of  these  would  be  taken  by  an  observer  for  Schweinfurt 
green,  and  can  only  be  distinguished  by  a  slight  difference  in  shade  of 
color  and  chemical  composition,  which  latter  shows  there  exists  three 
definite  salts. 

In  the  analyses  of  this  paper,  the  following  methods  were  employed: 

A  weighed  portion  was  dissolved  in  an  excess  of  nitric  acid,  the 
solution  boiled  some  time  in  order  to  oxidize  the  arsenic  trioxide, 
the  solution  was  then  made  alkaline  with  caustic  potasli,  which  pre- 
cipitated the  copper  as  oxide,  which  if  the  acids  are  all  oxidized  is 
black;  if  not,  orange-red,  in  which  case  the  separation  is  not  as  per- 
fect, and  it  cannot  be  manipulated  with  as  much  ease,  as  when  the 
oxidation   is  perfect.      The  fluid  with  the   precipitate  is  boiled  and 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  97 

filtered,  tlie  precipitate  washed  with  hot  water,  dissolved  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  and  the  metallic  copper  precipitated  by  a  battery. 

The  filtrate  containing  the  arsenic  is  made  acid  with  acetic  acid,  and 
titrated  wilh  uranium  acetate  solution. 

This  method  was  carefully  tested  against  others  and  itself,  and 
proved  to  give  the  most  satisfactory  results. 

The  acetic  anhydride  was  determined  by  ignition  with  lead  chromate 
as  in  an  oi-ganic  analysis,  collecting  the  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and 
weighing  the  same ;  the  excess  in  weight  of  water  above  that  formed 
from  the  combustion  of  the  acetic  acid,  gave  the  total  water.  The 
hydroscopic  water  was  determined  by  drying  the  salt  for  three  or  four 
hours  in  an  air-bath  at  100° — 105°  C.  until  a  constant  weight  was 
obtained,  of  course  deducting  the  hydroscopic  from  the  total  water, 
gives  that  which  is  combined. 

I  owe  my  sincere  thanks  to  Professor  S.  P.  Sharpies,  for  his  kind- 
ness in  allowing  me  the  use  of  his  very  convenient  laboratory,  his 
library,  and  for  some  suggestions  as  the  investigation  progressed. 

Boston,  October  24,  187G. 


VOL.  XII.  (n.  s.  it.) 


98  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


VII. 

MILK    ANALYSES. 

By  S.  p.  Sharples,  S.B. 

Presented,  Nov.  8,  1876. 

In  my  former  paper  on  this  subject,  read  before  the  Academy  last 
Decemlxjr,  I  gave  the  residts  of  the  analyses  of  a  number  of  specimens 
of  milk  from  the  vicinity  of  Boston.  Since  that  time  1  have  iiad  occasion 
to  examine  critically  the  method  of  analysis  which  I  a^as  led  to  adopt 
by  my  experiments,  as  then  reported,  and  the  results  were  so  satisfactory 
that  I  have  extended  my  investigations  further  upon  the  subject  of  pure 
milk  as  produced  by  cows  of  different  breeds  and  by  the  same  cow 
under  ditfurent  conditions.  The  pure  milk  for  these  experiments  was 
kindly  furnished  me  by  Dr.  E.  L.  Sturtevaut,  and  was  in  each  case 
drawn  under  his  own  supervision. 

The  method  of  analysis  followed  was  &'st  to  determine  the  specific 
gravity,  by  weighing  100  cc.  of  the  milk  :  this  was  then  set  for  cream  ; 
25  cc.  were  precipitated  by  acetic  add  and  the  sugar  determined. 
Five  cubic  centimetres  were  carefully  weighed,  evaporated  to  dryness, 
again  weighed,  tlie  fat  dissolved  out  by  benzine,  the  solids  not  fat 
weighed,  and  then  the  ash  determined  by  ignition.  The  caseine  was 
determined  by  difference,  and  of  course  includes  all  the  albumen  and 
other  substances  of  this  nature  that  exist  in  the  solids  not  fat  after  the 
abstraction  of  the  sugar  and  ash. 

The  test  analyses,  with  two  exceptions,  were  made  on  samples  of 
adulterated  milk,  which  were  seized  during  the  past  year  by  the  milk 
inspector  of  the  city  of  Lynn. 

Analysis  No.  I.     April  1,  1876. 

Cream 5^ 

Sp.  Gr 1.020 


OP  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


99 


Analysis 
2So.  1. 

Analysis 
No.  2. 

Average 

Sugar     .     .     . 

2.86 

2.86 

2.860 

Caseine  .     .     . 

2.99 

3.00 

2.995 

Ash  .     .     . 

.42 

.42 

.420 

Solids  not  Fat 
Fat    .     .     .     . 


Total  Solids 
Water    .     . 


6.27 
2.15 

8.42 
91.58 

100.00 


6.28 

2.18 

8.46 

91.54 

6.275 

2.165 

8.440 

91.560 

100.00 


100.000 


In  each  case,  a  sinnle  precipitation  of  tlie  caseine  and  fet  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  the  sugar  was  made ;  but  the  solution  was 
titrated  at  least  twice,  and  the  average  of  the  results,  which  never 
varied  more  than  a  cc,  taken  as  the  amount  of  sugar. 

This  method  of  determining  the  sugar  has  been  condemned  by  many 
chemists;  but,  if  the  precaution  is  taken  of  pi'eparing  a  fre-^h  solution 
every  time  a  series  of  determinations  are  made,  the  results  will,  so  far 
as  I  have  experimented,  be  found  to  be  comparable  with  each  other, 
and  those  determinations  made  in  the  same  sample  of  milk  will  agree 
very  closely  with  each  other. 


Analysis  No.  II.     April  8,  1876. 

Cream 6% 

Sp.  Gr 1.0215 


Sugar  . 
Caseine  . 
Ash  .     . 


Solids  not  Fat 
Fat  .     .    .     . 


Total  Solids 
Water    .     . 


Analysis 
No.  1 

3.45 

Analysis 
No.  2. 

3.45 

Average. 
3.450 

2.78 

2.79 

2.785 

.48 

.47 

.475 

6.71 

2.31 

9.02 

90.98 

6.71 
2.31 

9.02 
90.98 


6.710 
2.310 

9.020 

90.980 


100.00 


100.00 


100.000 


100  PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

Analysis  No.  III.     April  14,  1876. 

Cream 4% 

Sp.  Gr 1.022 

Analysis  Analysis 

No  1.               No  2.  Average. 

Sugar     ....        3.74             3.74  3.74 

Caseine.     .     .     .        3.28             3.26  3.27 

Ash .56              .56  .56 

Solids  not  Fat      .        7.58             7.56  7.57 

Fat 2.32             2.34  2.33 

Total  Solids    .     .        9.90             9.90  9.90 

Water    ....      90.10           90.10  90.10 

100.00         100.00  100.00 

Analysis  No.  IV.    May  2,  1876. 

Cream 5% 

Sp.  Gr 1.023 

Analysis  Analj'sis 

No.  1.                No.  2.  Average. 

Sugar     ....        3.36             3.36  3.360 

Caseiue  .     .     .  ' .        3.25             3.22  3.235 

Ash 50               .50  .500 

Solids  not  Fat     .        7.11             7.08  7.095 

Fat 2.25             2.25  2.250 

Total  Solids    .     .        9.36             9.33  9.345 

Water    ....      90.64          90.67  90.655 

100.00         100.00         100.000 

Analysis  No.  V. 

Cream 8% 

Sp.  Gr 1.0255 

Analysis  Analysis 

No.l.                No.  2.  Average. 

Sugar     ....        3.96             3.96  3.960 

Caseine ....        3.64             3.69  3.665 

Ash 45              .45  .450 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  101 

Solias  not  Fat      .        8.05             8.10  8.075 

Fat '    3.30            3.30  3.300 

Total  Solids    .     .      11.35           11.40  11.375 

Water   ....      88.65           88.60  88.625 

100.00         100.00         100.000 

Analysis  No.  VL     August  2,  1876.' 

Cream 8.5^ 

Sp.  Gr 1.023 

Analysis  Analysis 

No.  1.                Nu  2.  Average. 

Sugar     ....        3.04             3.04'  3.04 

Caseine ....        3.62             3.66  3.64 

Ash 43               .43  .43 

Solids  not  Fat     .        7.09             7.13  7.11 

Fat 2.18            2.14  •  2.16 

Total  Solids    .     .        9.27             9.27  9.27 

Water   ....      90.73           90.73  90.73 

100.00         100.00  100.00 


Analysis  No.  VIT.     August  28,  1876. 

(Sample  of  milk  known  to  be  pure.) 

Cream 5^ 

Sp.  Gr 1.030 

Analysis  Analysis 

Ko.  1.                J{o.  2.  Average. 

Sugar     ....        3.94             3.94  3.940 

Caseine  ....        4.81              4.82  4.815 

Ash 65              .65  .650 

Solids  not  Fat     .        9.40             9.41  9.405 

Fat 2.47             2.49  2.480 

Total  Solids    .     .      11.87           11-90  11.885 

Water   ....      88.13          88.10  88.115 

100.00         100.00         100.000 


102  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

Analysis  No.  VIII.     August  28,  1876. 

(Sample  known  to  be  pure.) 

Cream 18% 

Sp.  Gr 1.033 

Analysis  Analysis 

>i'o.  1.  JS'o.  'A.  Average. 

Sugar     ....        4.19  4.19  4.19 

Ciuseiue  ....        5.23  5.17  5.20 

Ash  ....     .  .72  .72  .72 

Solids  not  Fat      .      10.14  10.08  10.11 

Fat 4.35  4.35  4.35 


Total  Solids    .     .      14.49  14.43  14.46 

Water    ....      85.51  85.57  85.54 


100.00         100.00  100.00 

These  last  two  were  samples  of  pure  milk  furnished  by  Dr.  Sturte- 
vant.  After  finishing  the  first  analysis  of  each,  I  was  led  to  suspect 
that  there  must  be  some  error  in  No.  VII.,  as  the  total  solids  are  low 
for  a  pure  milk.  I  therefore  repeated  both  analyses,  taking  a  second 
sample  from  the  bottles  some  five  or  six  hours  after  the  first  samples 
wei'e  taken,  with  the  above  results.  The  above  eiglit  are  not  selected 
analyses,  but  are  all  the  duplicate  analyses  I  have  made  up  to  this 
time. 

These  analyses,  with  the  exception  of  the  two  last,  having  been 
made  for  legal  purposes,  it  became  necessary  to  compare  the  results 
with  some  standard  taken  arbitrarily  to  represent  an  average  pure 
milk.  The  standard  of  12.5  per  cent  total  solids  has  been  chosen  by 
many  chemists,  following  Mr,  Wanklyn  in  this  respect. 

It  is  in  all  prohabiHty  a  little  too  low  for  this  vicinity ;  but  it  has  been 
adopted  for  the  reason  tliat  the  courts  have  generally  ruled  that,  provided 
a  milk-dealer  keeps  his  milk  abjve  the  quality  of  the  poorest  milk  tliat 
has  ever  been  analyzed,  he  is  to  be  regarded  as  selling  pure  milk,  and 
is  therefore  not  liable  to  conviction  for  adulteraiiou.  Tlie  suit  for 
adulteration  being  a  criminal  suit  and  not  a  civil  suit  for  damages,  the 
defendant  is  given  every  advantage,  and  the  public  is  forced  to  be  con- 
tented if  the  milk  is  as  rii-h  in  total  solids  as  the  poorest  milk  that  a 
half-starved  cow  was  ever  known  to  give.  A  much  more  just  way  to 
the  consumer  and  to  the  producer  would  be  to  give  in  the  law  a  certain 


OP    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  103 

standard  below  which  the  solids  in  milk  should  not  be  allowed  to  fall. 
This  might  be  even  as  low  as  12  per  cent.  This  low  figure  would  be 
better  than  the  present  system,  because,  in  the  first  place,  the  consumer 
would  get  a  better  article  than  he  now  gets,  when  all  milk  that  contains 
over  Ut.75  per  cent  of  solid  matter  has  to  be  pa-;seJ  as  pure.  The 
producer  woidd  fire  better  also,  since  by  stopping  the  sale  of  watered 
milk,  or  rather  tliat  portion  of  watered  milk  tluit  falls  below  12  per 
cent  of  total  solids,  the  demand  would  be  increased  for  pure  milk.  As 
it  is  now,  the  majoi-ity  of  dealers  seem  to  prefer  to  buy  seven-eighths  or 
less  of  the  milk  that  they  need  and  make  up  the  balance  with  water, 
since  water  costs  considerably  less  than  milk. 

It  seems  to  be  pretty  generally  conceded  that  the  producer  very 
rarely  waters  the  milk  that  he  delivers  to  the  middlemen  or  contrac- 
tors. These  deliver  to  the  owuers  of  milk  routes,  who  sell  to  private 
families  or  to  stores,  from  whence  it  is  delivered  to  the  consumer. 
The  owners  of  the  milk  routes  are  the  ones  who  are  generally  accused 
of  adulterating  the  milk. 

Such  a  law  as  that  mentioned  would,  therefore,  only  diminish  their 
profits,  while  both  tlie  producer  and  contractor  would  be  better  satisfied  , 
for  the  market  would  be  better  and  the  consumer  would  be  better 
served.  It  may  be  urged,  oii  the  other  hand,  that  milk  being  an  un- 
certain animal  product,  dependent  on  various  circumstances  for  its 
richness  and  strength,  —  any  one  of  which  circumstances  may  at  any 
time  become  abnormal,  and  so  change  the  value  of  the  milk,  —  there- 
fore it  would  be  unjust  to  establish  any  fixed  standard  below  which 
the  solids  should  not  fall.  Tlie  answer  to  this  is  that  the  milk  of  well- 
fed  cows,  in  good  health,  rarely,  if  ever,  falls  below  11.5  per  cent  of 
total  solids,  and  that  it  will  average  over  13  per  cent  of  total  solids, 
and  that  by  establishing  the  standard  at  12  per  cent,  with  a  margin 
of  half  a  per  cent  for  exceptional  cases,  no  injustice  is  done  to  any 
one,  while  the  public  would  be  decidedly  benefited. 

The  average  milk  containing  12.5  per  cent  of  solids  should  have 
about  the  following  composition  :  — 

Actual 
Theory,  Analysis. 

Sp.  Gr 1.030  1.031 

Cream 8%  6% 

Sugar 4.40  4.32 

Caseine 4.30  4.27 

Ash 60  .64 


104 


PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE    AMERICAN   ACADEMY 


Solids  not  Fat     ....  9.30 

Fat 3.20 

Total  Solids 12.50 

Water 87.50 


100.00 


9.23 
3.27 

12.50 

87.50 

100.00 


For  comparison  I  have  annexed  the  figures  as  given  by  an  actual 
analysis  of  a  sample  of  milk  which  contained  12.5  per  cent  of  total 
solidso 

In  determininj;  the  amount  of  added  water  for  the  information  of 
the  court,  we  may  use  any  one  of  several  of  the  determinations  given; 
that  is,  we  may  compare  the  total  soUds,  when  we  have  the  proportion 

12.5      :      a     ::      lOO      :     x 

a  representing  the  amount  of  total  solids  found,  and  x  the  amount  of 
pure  milk  in  the  sample ;  or  we  may  use  the  proportion 

9.3  :      b     ::      lOO      :     x 

b  represents  the  amount  of  solids  not  fat.     A  third  proportion  is 

4.4  :      c      : :      lOO      :     x 

c  representing  the  percentage  of  sugar  as  found.  In  order  to  show 
how  nearly  the  amount  of  added  water  as  determined  by  these  three 
methods  agree,  I  will  give,  in  addition  to  the  six  samples  of  adulterated 
milk  already  given,  a  few  more  samples  of  milk  suspected  of  being 
adulterated,  and  then  give  the  amount  of  pure  milk  and  the  amount  of 
added  water  in  each  sam})le  as  determined  by  each  of  tlie  above  pro- 
portions. I  also  include  in  the  table  three  other  samples  of  milk  known 
to  be  pure,  but  which  would  be  condemned  by  one  or  more  of  the  above 
tests. 


Analysis. 

Sugar. 

Caseine. 

Ash. 

Solifls 

not 

Fat. 

Fat. 

Total 
Solids. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Cream. 

No.    IX. 

3.52 

3.37 

.46 

7.35 

2.45 

9.80 

90,20 

1.025 

9 

X. 

3.58 

3.25 

.4.3 

7.21 

3.37 

10.58 

89.42 

1 .024 

9 

„       XI. 

3.52 

3.11 

.52 

7.15 

2.10 

9.25 

90.75 

1 .024 

6 

„      XII. 

3.58 

3  5!) 

.48 

7.00 

2.07 

9.67 

90.38 

1.025 

6 

„    XIII. 

3  78 

3.40 

.48 

7.61 

2.53 

10.14 

89  86 

1.026 

8 

„    XIV. 

4.88 

3.48 

.64 

0.00 

2  13 

11  13 

88.87 

10315 

10 

„      XV. 

4.82 

3.54 

.57 

8.93 

2.71 

11.64 

88.36 

1028 

6 

OP   ARTS   AND    SCIENCES. 


105 


Numbers  VIL,  XIV,,  XV.,  were  known  to  be  pure  milk. 


From  Total  Solids. 

From  Solids  not  Fat. 

From  Sugab. 

Analysis. 

Pure  Milk. 

Added 
Water. 

Pure  Milk. 

Added 
Water. 

Pure  Milk. 

Adileil 
Water. 

No.        I. 

67.52 

32.48 

67.47 

32  53 

65.00 

35  00 

II. 

72.10 

27.84 

72  15 

27.85 

7841 

21.59 

„       lit. 

79.20 

20.80 

81.89 

18.61 

85.00 

15.00 

„       IV. 

74.76 

25  24 

76.28 

23.72 

70.37 

23.63 

V. 

91.00 

9.00 

86.83 

13  17 

90  00 

10.00 

„       VI. 

74.  IG 

25.84 

76.45 

23  55 

69.09 

30.91 

„    vn. 

95.0S 

4.92 

101.13 

—1  13 

89.55 

10.45 

„     i.\'. 

78.40 

21.60 

79.03 

20.97 

80.00 

20.00 

X. 

84.04 

15.36 

77.53 

22.47 

80  23 

19.77 

„      XI. 

74.00 

26.00 

7t..88 

23.12 

80.00 

20  00 

„     XII. 

77.36 

22.64 

81.72 

18  28 

80  23 

19.77 

„  XIII. 

81  12 

18.88 

81.83 

18.17 

84.77 

15.23 

„    XIV. 

89.04 

10.96 

96  77 

3.23 

110  90 

—10.90 

„     XV. 

93.12 

6.88 

90.02 

398 

109.55 

—  y.55 

The  figures  with  the  —  sign  before  them  sliow  that  this  iflgredient, 
instead  of  being  below  the  normal  amount,  was  present  in  excess. 

These  cases,  with  the  exception  of  Nos.  V.,  VIL,  XIV.,  and  XV., 
were  all  carried  into  court,  and  convictions  were  secured.  Xo.  V.  it 
was  thought  not  advisable  to  prosecute,  though  there  could  be  but 
little  doubt  of  the  adulteration.  The  other  three,  as  before  stated, 
were  pure  milk,  and  each  one  of  these  three  rises  in  one  determination 
above  the  standard  chosen  ;  and,  if  they  had  been  brought  to  me  to  be 
examined  as  adulterated  milks,  I  should  have  refused,  as  I  did  in  the 
case  of  Xo.  V.,  to  appear  against  the  seller,  as  in  each  case  there  would 
be  a  strong  doubt  in  his  favor. 

A  paper  by  Dr.  Mott,  of  Xew  York,  on  the  milk  from  the  right  and 
left  breasts  of  women,  suggested  to  me  that  I  sliould  try  similar  ex- 
periments with  the  different  quarters  of  tlie  udder  of  the  cow.  This  I 
have  been  enabled  to  do  throu<ih  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Sturtevant. 

I  had  previously  found  that  I  could,  without  any  extra  effort,  make 
from  four  to  six  com|)lete  analyses  a  day,  if  I  had  a  complete  set  of 
apparatus  for  each  analysis.  Commencing  work  at  10  a.-\i.,  when  the 
milk  arrived  at  my  office,  the  four  analyses  have  been  completed,  ex- 
cept the  reading  of  tlie  volume  of  cream,  by  6  p.m.  Analyses  Xos. 
XVI.,  XVII..  XVIII.,  and  XIX.,  were  of  milk  yielded  by  the  Ayrshire 
cow  "  Model  of  Perfection."  She  was  eleven  years  old,  and  calved 
Dec.  31,  1875.     Evening's  milk,  Aug.  13,  1876. 


106 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


The  milk  was  drawn  from  each  teat  into  a  separate  vessel,  and  was 


brought  to  me  next  morning. 


XVI.  Right  forward  teat,  yield  907.  grams. 

XVII.  Left  forward  teat,    yield  577.       „ 

XV'^III.  Right  rear  teat,        yield  680.       „ 

XIX.  Left  rear  teat,  vield  577.       „ 


Total  yield    2741. 


XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

Average. 

Cream 

Sp.  Gr 

Sugar 

Ch  seine 

Ash 

25. 
1.025 

4.09 

4.48 
.68 

42. 
1.024 

2.18 

6.58 

.61 

29. 
1.026 

3.44 

5.00 
.66 

24. 
1.028 

4.20 

5.59 

.67 

28.1 
1.0257 

3.72 

5.11 

.66 

Solids  not  Fat .     .     . 
Fat 

9.25 
5  59 

9.87 
4.43 

9.10 
4.39 

10.46 
3.84 

9.49 

4.68 

Total  Solids     .     .     . 
Water 

14.84 
85.16 

13,80 
86  20 

13.49 

86.51 

14  30 
85.70 

14.17 

85.83 

100.00 

lOO.UO 

100.00 

lOO.OJ 

100.00 

The  sugar  in  No.  XVII.  was  tested  a  second  time  with  the  same 
results. 

Analyses  Nos.  XX.,  XXL,  XXIL,  XXIIL  The  above  results 
varied  so  much  that  it  was  desirable  to  repeat  this  experiment,  which 
v/as  accordingly  done  with  another  cow,  with  the  following  results  :  — 

Ayrshire  cow  "  Tabitha;"  feed,  4  quarts  cob  meal  i)er  day,  hay.  and 
corn  fodder  ;  age,  2^  years;  calved  last  spring.  Evening's  milk,  Nov. 
19,  1875.     AualyzedNov.  21,  1876. 

XX.  Right  forward  teat,  yield  624.  grams. 

XXI.  Left  forward  teat,  yield  624.       „ 

XXIL  Right  rear  teat,  yield  680.       „ 

XXIIL  Left  rear  teat,  yield  737.       „ 


Total  yield  2665. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


107 


1 

;     XX. 

i 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

Average. 

Cream,  vol.  p.  c.     . 
Sp.  Gr 

Susar    

Caseine      .... 
Ash 

14. 
1.032 

4.00 

3.58 

.51) 

11. 

1.031 

5.ro 

3.42 

.57 

13. 
1.0.306 

4.72 

3.61 

.01 

10. 
1.0315 

4  88 

3.48 

.64 

11.9 
1.031 

4.87 

3.51. 

.60 

Solids  not  Fat     .     . 
Fat 

9  02 
3.32 

8  90 
3.00 

8.94 
2.73 

9.00 
2.13 

8.08 

2.77 

Total  Solids  .     .     . 
Water 

12..34 

87.66 

11.90 
8o.0l 

11.67 

88.33 

11.13 

88.87 

1175 

88.25 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

The  variation  in  this  case  consists  mainly  in  the  amount  of  fat. 
This  variation,  as  will  be  seen,  amounts  to  1.21  per  cent.  The 
averages  for  both  the  above  milks  were  found  by  ascertaining  the  total 
weight  of  each  product  given  by  tlie  teat,  adding  the  four  weights 
together  and  diviiiing  by  the  total  weight  of  milk  yielded. 

It  is  evident  from  these  experiments  that  each  quarter  of  the  udder 
yields  a  milk  that  may  differ  considerably  from  that  given  by  any  of 
the  other  quarters.  This,  however,  has  only  a  scientific  interest,  as  in 
practice  the  four  quarters  are  drawn  simultaneously  and  the  average 
result  is  used. 

Some  further  experiments  were  tried  in  reference  to  the  influence 
of  breed  and  feed  on  the  quality  of  the  milk.  These  are  far  too  few  in 
number  to  base  any  opinion  on  ;  but,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  carry 
them,  they  show  the  need  of  extended  experiments  on  this  subject, — 
experiments  which  should  be  carried  over  the  space  of  several  years, 
with  analysis  at  least  once  a  week,  careful  records  being  kept  of  tem- 
perature of  the  air,  state  of  the  weather,  and  general  condition  of  the 
cow ;  and  a  sufficient  number  of  cows  of  each  breed  should  be  em- 
ployed, that  the  individual  equation  of  the  cow  should  be  eliminated 
so  far  as  possible.  To  be  comparaljle,  these  analyses  should  be  either 
made  by  one  person,  or,  if  made  by  several,  they  should  be  made  l)y  the 
same  method,  and  these  persons  should  compare  their  working  by 
making  several  simultaneous  analyses  of  the  same  sample  of  milk. 

Analysis  No.  XXIV.,  Ayrshire  cow  "  Geor<rie ; "  calved  July  7, 
1876;  food,  pasture,  fodder  corn,  and  six  quarts  of  shorts.  Evening 
milk,  Aug.  7,  1876. 


108 


PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


Analysis  No.  XXV.,  Ayrshire  cow  "  Georgiana;"  calved  July  19  ; 
food  the  same  as  last.     Evening  milk,  Aug.  7,  1876. 

Analysis  No.  XXVI.,  Ayrshire  cow  "  Georgiana ; "  feed  for  a 
week  previous,  green  fodder  corn  and  grass.  Evening  milk,  Aug.  19, 
1876. 

Analysis  No.  XXVII.,  cow  "  Georgiana ; "  feed  for  the  previous 
week,  green  fodder  corn,  grass,  and  three  quarts  corn  meal  per  day. 
Evening  milk,  Aug.  28,  1876. 

Analysis  No.  XXVllI.,  cow  "  Georgiana ; "  feed  for  the  previous 
week,  grass,  and  five  quarts  of  shorts,  and  one  quart  of  corn  meal  per 
day.     Evening  milk,  Sept.  3,  1876. 

These  two  cows  were  full-blood  Ayrshire,  mother  and  daughter. 
"  Georgie "  was  imported,  and  "  Georgiana "  was  calved  in  this 
country. 


XXIV. 

XXV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

Average. 

Cream  vol.  p.  c. 
Sp.  Gr.     .     .     . 

Sugar  .... 
Caseine    .     .     . 
Ash      .... 

14. 

1.029 

5.00 

360 

.59 

17. 
1.031 

5.19 

4.13 

.07 

20. 
1.030 

5.20 

3.34 

.00 

5. 
1.030 

3.94 

4.82 
.65 

6. 
1.031 

4.32 

4.27 

.64 

12.4 
1.0302 

4.73 

4.03 

.63 

Solids  not  Fat  . 
Pat 

9.19 
3.09 

9.99 
.    4.20 

9.14 
4.34 

9.41 

2.48 

023 

3.37 

9.39 
3.48 

Total  Solids      . 
Water.     .     .     . 

12.28 
87.72 

14.19 

85.81 

13.48 
86.52 

11.89 
88  11 

12  50 

87.50 

12.87 
87.13 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Analysis  No.  XXIX.,  Jersey  cow  "  Ilenny  ;  "  calved  July  17,  1876  ; 
food,  pasture  and  green  fodder  corn,  two  quarts  mixed  corn  and  oat 
meal,  and  one  quart  shorts  per  day.     Evening  milk,  Aug.  6,  1876. 

Analysis  No.  XXX.,  Jersey  cow  "Danseuse;"  calved  May  11; 
same  feed  as  No.  XXIX.     Evening  milk,  Aug.  6,  1876. 

Analysis  No.  XXXL,  Jersey  cow  "  Ileuny  ;"  feed  for  the  previous 
week,  corn  fodder  and  pasture.     Evening  milk,  Aug.  19. 

Analysis  No.  XXXII.,  Jersey  cow  "  Henny  ; "  food,  pasture  and 
corn  meal.     Evening  milk,  Aug.  27,  1876. 

Analysis  XXXIII.,  cow  "Ilenny;"  food,  pasture  and  six  quarts 
of  shorts  per  day.     Evening  milk,  Sept.  3,  1876. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


109 


XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIU 

Average. 

Cream  vol.  p.  c. 
Sp.Gr.     .    .     . 

Suojar  .... 
Caseine    .     .     . 
Ash      .... 

27. 
1.027 

4.20 

4.42 

.59 

21. 
l.OSl 

4.57 

378 

.69 

22. 
1030 

5.67 

2.64 

.62 

18. 
1.033 

4.19 

5.17 

.72 

13.5 
1.030 

4.81 

8-83 

.61 

20  3 
1.030 

4.69 

3.97 

.02 

Solids  not  Fat  . 
Fat 

9  21 
4.72 

8.94 
6.61 

8.93 
5.07 

10.08 
4.35 

9.25 

4.78 

9  28 
5.12 

Total  Solids .     . 
Water .... 

1401 

85.99 

15.55 
84.45 

14.00 
86.00 

14.43 

85.57 

14.03 

85.97 

14.40 

85.60 

100.00 

lOU.OO 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

It  appears  from  the  average  of  these  two  series  of  analysis  that  in 
this  experiment  the  two  breeds  of  cows  gave  milk  that  averaged 
almost  exactly  the  same  composition,  with  the  exception  of  the  yield 
of  flit ;  the  Jersey  giving  on  the  average  nearly  one  half  more  fat 
than  the  Ayrshire.  The  average  result  of  the  thirty-four  analyses  of 
pure  milk,  twenty-two  of  which  were  reported  kst  December,  and 
twelve  now,  is  as  follows :  — 

Sp.  Gr 1.030 

Cream  vol.  p.  c 13.8 

Sugar 4.82 

Caseine 4-06 

Ash 65 

Solids  not  Fat 9.53 

Fat 4.62 

Total  Solids 14.15 

Water 85.85 

100.00 

"With  these  analyses  to  judge  from,  it  seems  to  me  that  an  inspector 
of  milk  is  fully  justified  in  asking  a  conviction  from  the  courts,  if,  when 
the  theoretical  milk  containing  12.5  per  cent  of  solids  is  taken  as  a 
standard,  each  of  the  three  proportions  starting  from  total  solids,  solids 
not  fat,  and  sugar,  show  an  addition  of  fifteen  per  cent  or  over  of  water. 


110 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 


No  specimen  of  pure  milk  that  I  have  ever  examined,  or  that  I  can 
find  any  records  of,  fails  to  the  extent  of  fifteen  per  cent  of  indicated 
adulteration  in  all  three  of  these  particulars.  And  I  may  add  still 
further,  although  the  specific  gravity  of  a  milk  is  not  regarded  as  a 
reliable  indication  of  its  purity,  that,  in  every  case  of  adulterated  milk 
I  have  met  with,  the  inspector  was  justified  in  his  seizure,  if  the  sp. 
gr.  fell  below  1.026. 

The  mistake  is  sometimes  made  of  con.sidering  the  estimation  of 
added  water  as  an  absolute  determination,  entitled  to  the  same  weight 
as  the  actual  analysis.  But  it  must  be  evident  to  any  one.  on  a  few 
moments'  reflection,  that  these  estimations  cannot  be  so  regarded,  and 
that  they  are  only  approximsitions,  whose  chief  value  is  to  show  the 
courts  how  much  the  milk  falls  below  a  milk  of  fair  quality ;  and, 
when  taken  in  connection  with  the  fact  that  pure  milk  never  falls  so 
far  below  this  standard,  tiiey  enable  the  court  to  judge  intelligently 
whether  there  are  fair  grounds  for  considering  the  sample  to  be 
adulterated. 

Boston,  Nov.  27,  1876. 


APPENDIX. 

It  having  been  suggested  that  the  first  run  of  the  milk  of  a  cow  was 
much  poorer  than  the  strippings.  and  therefore  a  milkman,  who  was 
desirous  of  proving  that  his  milk  was  unwatered,  might  procure  an 
analysis  of  such  a  specimen,  the  foIlo^^ing  experiment  was  tried  :  — 

Analysis  No.  XXXI V.,  cow  "  Georgiana,"  right  forward  teat.    Even- 


Analysis  No.  XXXIV. 

Average. 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

Sp.  Gr 

Cream      .... 

Sugar  

Ciiseine    .... 
Asli 

1.029 

6% 

i.o;i2 

y% 

4.80 

4.25 

.58 

1.027 

11% 

4.50 

3.!  10 

.54 

1.029 

«% 

4.61 

3  65 

.55 

4. 
3.06 
.54 

49 

3.01 
.54 

Solids  not  Fat .    . 
Fat 

8.09 
1.78 

8.04 
1.84 

9.63 
3.03 

8.94 
4.03 

8.81 
2.61 

Total  Solids     .     . 
Water     .... 

9.87 
90.13 

9.88 
90.12 

12  66 

87.34 

12.97 
87.03 

1142 

88.58 

100.00 

IOj.uo 

lOJ.UO 

100.00 

100.00 

OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES. 


Ill 


ing,  Dec.  3, 1876.  The  milk  was  divided  into  three  portions,  as  follows  . 
319  grams  were  fir.st  drawn  into  one  bottle,  274  grams  were  drawn 
into  a  second,  and  the  remainder  of  the  milk,  100  grams,  was  drawn 
into  the  third  bottle.  These  three  samples  of  milk  were  brouj^ht  to 
Boston  next  morning  and  analyzed,  with  the  following  results.  No.  1 
proving  so  poor,  a  second  analysis  was  made  of  it.  This  did  not 
change  the  figures  to  any  amount. 

The  first  drawing  in  this  case,  while  showing  a  deficiency  of  total 
solids,  and  soli<Is  not  fat,  nevertheless  has  rather  more  than  the  average 
amount  of  sugar,  so  the  rule  laid  down  would  fail  to  condemn  this  as 
a  watered  milk.  No  one,  however,  would  hesitate  a  moment  in  saying 
that  it  was  a  very  poor  article  indeed.  "  Georgiana's"  milk,  as  shown 
all  through  tliis  paper,  is  not  a  very  rich  milk. 

The  near  approach  of  Ayrshire  milk  to  woman's  milk  is  worthy  of 
remark.  The  average  of  many  analyses  of  woman's  milk,  as  given  by 
different  authors,  is  as  follows  :  — 


Colnrert 
Woman's  Milk 

Average  of 

12  Analyses, 

by  Mott. 

Wliite 
Woman's  Milk 

Average  of 

89  Analyses, 

by  Verniiis  and 

Becquerel. 

Wliite 
Woman's  Milk 

Average  of 

14  Analyses, 

by  Sijiiou. 

White 
Woman's  Milk 

Average  of 

14  Analyses, 

by  Tidy. 

Sugar      

Caseine 

Ash 

5.71 

332 

.60 

4  364 

3.924 
0.138 

4  82 
3.43 
0.23 

4  265 
3.5-23 
0.285 

Solids  not  Fat      .     . 
Fat 

9.63 
4.03 

8.426 

2.666 

9.11 
2  53 

8.073 
4.021 

Total  Solids    .     .     . 
Water 

13.66 
8634 

11  092 
88.908 

11.64 

88.36 

12.194 

87  806 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

These  differ  fully  as  much  among  themselves  as  any  one  differs 
from  the  average  of  Ayrshire  milk,  as  given.  Any  tampering  with 
Ayrshire  milk,  such  as  adding  sugar  and  water  to  it,  in  order  to  make 
it  more  nearly  resemble  woman's  milk,  will  therefore  evidently  do 
more  harm  than  good:  it  is  free  from  the  excess  of  fat  which  often- 
times renders  Alderney  milk  unfit  for  food  for  delicate  children,  and  I 
have  been  assured  by  those  who  have  used  it  that  it  makes  an  excellent 
substitute  for  woman's  milk.     For  children's  food,  it  evidently  needs 


112  PEOCEEDINGS   OF  THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

nothing  done  to  it,  except  warming  it  slightly,  so  as  to  take  the  chill 
off. 

In  this  connection,  I  think  I  am  justified  in  saying  that  no  one  cow's 
milk. is  as  uniform  in  composition  as  the  milk  of  a  herd  of  cows,  and 
that,  if  a  uniform  diet  is  wished  for  a  child,  it  will  be  much  better 
secured  by  mixing  the  milk  of  a  number  of  cows,  than  when  it  is 
attempted  by  trying  to  secure  the  milk  of  a  single  cow.  Since,  as  we 
see,  the  milk  of  any  one  of  the  cows  taken  varies  very  considerably. 

Boston,  Dec.  7,  1876. 


OF    ARTS   AND    SCIENCES.  113 


VIII. 

ON   A    NEW   MODE   OF   MANIPULATING   HYDRIC 

SULPHIDE. 

By  Josiah  p.  Cooke,  Jr., 

Erving  Prqfessor  qf  Chemistry  and  Mineralogy  in  Harvard  College. 
Presented  May  30th,  1876. 

In  chemical  laboratories,  where  instruction  in  qualitative  analysis  is 
given  to  large  numbers  on  the  class  system,  the  use  of  hydric  sulphide 
gas  as  a  reagent  is  attended  with  grave  inconveniences.  These  evils 
can  in  great  measure  be  avoided  by  substituting  for  the  gas  a  solution 
of  the  reagent  in  water,  saturated  at  the  ordinary  temperature  and 
pressure  of  the  air ;  when,  as  is  well  known,  one  volume  of  water 
dissolves  about  3.4  volumes  of  the  gas  (measured  at  15°  C.  and  76 
cm.).  Such  a  solution  was  for  a  long  time  used  in  the  laboratory  of 
Harvard  College.  It  was  prepared  in  a  long  series  of  two  litre  bottles 
connected  by  glass  tubes  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  solution  was  kept 
in  the  laboratory  in  a  large  tubulated  glass  flask,  from  which  it  was 
drawn  by  the  students,  as  occasion  required.  This  solution  answers 
almost  every  purpose  for  which  the  reagent  is  used  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  qualitative  analysis,  and  the  few  conditions  under  which  it 
does  not  give  satisfactory  results  can  be  easily  avoided.  Moreover,  in 
ease  of  application  and  promptness  of  effect  it  has  all  the  advantages 
of  a  liquid  reagent ;  and  the  only  inconvenience  its  use  involves  is  an 
occasional  evaporation  of  a  solution,  which  the  dilution  by  the  reagent 
may  render  necessary.  Of  course  a  solution  of  hydric  sulphide  is 
liable  to  oxidation,  and  soon  becomes  turbid  in  contact  with  the  air ; 
but  this  change  can  be  easily  avoided  by  fitting  to  the  neck  of  the 
flask  (in  which  the  solution  is  kept),  by  means  of  a  rubber  stopper,  a 
glass  tube  dipping  under  the  liquid,  and  connecting  this  tube  with  one 
of  the  vents  of  illuminating  gas  in  the  laboratory. 

For  quantitative  work,  and  for  the  preparation  of  chemical  products, 
when  considerable  quantities  of  metallic  sulphides  must  be  precipitated, 
a  solution  of  hydric  sulphide,  saturated  under  the  ordinary  pressure  of 

VOL.  XII.  (N.  S.  IV.)  8 


114  PROCEEDINGS    OP    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

the  air,  is  inconveniently  dilute ;  and  two  years  since  we  described  a 
simple  method  by  which  a  solution  concentrated  under  pressure  could 
easily  be  prepared  with  the  ordinary  laboratory  appliances.  A  heavy 
glass  bottle  of  about  four  litres'  capacity  served  as  a  generator,  and 
from  this  the  gas  passed  through  a  wash-bottle  into  two  other  bottles 
of  the  same  size  and  strength  as  the  first.  The  intermediate  bottle 
was  three-fourths  filled  with  water,  while  the  last  served  simply  as 
a  gasholder.  The  connections  were  so  arranged  that  the  gas,  after 
bubbling  up  through  the  water,  was  delivered  at  the  top  of  the  gas- 
holder ;  and,  by  a  tube  uniting  the  bottom  of  the  gasholder  with  the 
water-pipes  of  the  laboratory,  the  interior  of  the  apparatus  could  be 
submitted  to  the  pressure  of  a  column  of  water  sixty  feet  high.  The 
gasholder  was  also  provided  with  an  exit  tube,  which  could  be  closed 
by  a  compression  cock.  The  connecting  tubes  all  passed  through 
rubber  stoppers  which  were  firmly  wired  to  the  necks  of  the  bottles, 
and  the  water-bottle  was  connected  with  its  neighbors  by  two  lengths 
of  stout  rubber  hose  so  that  the  water  could  be  shaken  up  with  the 
gas  without  disturbing  the  rest  of  the  apparatus.  In  order  to  saturate 
the  water  with  hydric  sulphide,  a  charge  of  ferrous  sulphide  sulphuric 
acid  and  water  sufficient  to  yield  at  least  three  times  the  amount  of 
gas  theoretically  required  was  placed  in  the  generator,  and,  after  the 
connections  were  made,  the  gas  was  allowed  to  stream  through  the  ap- 
paratus until  all  the  air  was  displaced.  The  exit  tube  of  the  last  bottle 
was  then  closed,  the  water  pressure  turned  on  and  the  water-bottle 
frequently  shaken,  until  absorption  ceased,  and  the  aqueduct  water  — 
at  first  forced  by  its  pressure  into  the  gasholder  —  was  driven  back 
into  the  pipes.  Before  dismounting  the  api^aratus,  the  rubber  connec- 
tors were  all  closed  by  compression  cocks,  and  care  was  taken  to  vent 
the  generator  gradually.  Moreover,  the  connectors  of  the  water-bottle 
were  so  arranged  that  when  the  apparatus  was  dismounted  a  short 
piece  of  rubber  hose  was  left  attached  to  each  orifice  of  the  bottle, 
both  of  which  were  closed  by  compression  cocks.  To  one  of  these  a 
vent  tube  was  subsequently  attached,  and  by  this  the  solution  was 
drawn  off  at  pleasure,  as  from  a  soda-water  siphon. 

This  simple  apparatus  was  constantly  used  by  us  for  two  years,  and 
served  an  excellent  purpose ;  but  it  was  found  that  after  the  glass 
genei'ators  had  been  charged  several  times  they  were  liable  to  burst 
under  the  same  pressure  which  at  first  they  had  readily  sustained.  The 
same  accident  never  happened  to  the  other  bottles.  But  of  course,  if 
the  pressure  is  long  continued,  bottles  of  glass  of  the  size  named, 
however  well  made,  would  be  liable  to  such  an  accident ;  and,  if  the 


OP   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


115 


apparatus  is  to  be  remounted,  it  would  be  better  to  use  a  metallic  vessel 
for  the  generator,  aud  to  cover  the  glass  bottles  with  some  kind  of 
netting.  The  experience  with  the  glass  apparatus  led  us  to  seek  to 
adapt  to  the  same  purpose  some  one  of  the  various  soda-water  appara- 
tuses which  are  greatly  used  in  the  United  States  for  the  production 
of  effervescing  drinks.  After  examining  several  of  the  patterns  in  the 
market,  we  selected  for  trial  the  one  represented  below,  which  is  man- 
ufactured by  the  firm  of  John  Matthews,  of  New  York,  at  their  estab- 
lishment, —  First  Avenue,  26th  and  27th  Streets,  —  in  that  city. 
The  apparatus  was  designed  by  them  for  preparing  that  overcharged 
aqueous  solution  of  carbonic  dioxide,  which  in  the  United  States  is 
familiarly  called  soda-water ;  but  with  a  very  slight  modification  it  can 
be  used  with  equal  efficiency  for  the  preparation  of  a  similar  solution 
of  hydric  sulphide.  We  have  worked  out  the  details  of  the  process, 
which  this  new  application  involves,  and  publish  them  with  the  hope 
that  the  apparatus  may  be  found  of  as  great  value  in  other  laboratories 


Fig.  1. 


116 


PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


as  in  our  own.  The  wood-cuts  are  taken  from  the  catalogue  of  the 
firm,  who  have  kindly  loaned  the  blocks  for  this  paper ;  and  we  would 
here  express  our  obligations  to  them  for  their  great  courtesy  and  lib- 
erality during  the  whole  course  of  our  exjieriments. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  two  parts,  the  generator  and  the  fountains  ; 
and  in  Fig.  1  the  generator  is  represented  connected  by  a  rubber  hose 
with  one  of  the  fountains,  of  which  in  practice  we  use  three,  connected 
in  a  line  by  similar  lengths  of  rubber  hose,  like  so  many  Woolf's  bot- 
tles. In  the  figure,  only  the  first  of  the  line  is  represented,  which  is 
set  on  trunnions  in  a  frame,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  agitation  of  the 
water  and  the  gas.  Only  one  of  these  frames,  however,  is  required, 
to  which  the  other  fountains  can  readily  be  transferred.  A  section  of 
the  generator  is  represented  in  Fig.  2.     It  is  made  of  cast  iron,  and  in 


Fig.  2. 

two  parts  (readily  distinguished  in  the  figure),  which  are  firmly  bolted 
together,  so  as  to  confine  in  its  place  the  bell-metal  jjlate  M,  which 
separates  the  upper  from  the  lower  chamber.  In  the  lower  chamber  is 
placed  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  poured  in  through  the  bung  A. 


OF   ARTS    AND   SCIENCES. 


117 


In  the  upper  chamber,  and  resting  on  the  plate,  is  placed  coarsely 
powdered  sulphide  of  iron,  which  is  put  in  through  the  bung  B. 
Through  the  plate  M,  and  on  two  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
there  are  cut  radial  slits,  ^  an  inch  wide,  which  are  guarded  by  four 
iron  arms.  These  arms  are  attached  to  the  agitator  shaft  S,  and  move 
over  the  surface  of  the  plate,  alternately  covering  and  uncovering  the 
slits,  when  the  handle  E  is  turned.  To  the  lower  end  of  the  same 
shaft  is  fastened  the  agitator  O,  which  is  turned  simultaneously  with 
the  arms  just  mentioned.  After  the  apparatus  has  been  charged,  it  is 
evident  that  by  turning  the  handle  the  sulphide  of  iron  may  be  sifted 
down  at  pleasure  into  the  acid  water  below ;  and  the  handles  and  arms 
are  so  disposed  that  when  the  bungs  are  uncovered  by  the  handles  the 
slits  are  covered  by  the  arms.  From  the  generator,  the  gas  passes 
through  the  washer  R,  whose  relations  to  the  apparatus,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  pressure  gauge,  are  evident  from  the  figure.  The  generator  is 
lined  with  lead,  and  the  rest  of  the  apparatus,  including  the  bell-metal 
plate  M,  with  pure  tin.  The  lead  lining  of  the  generator  is  seamless 
and  very  heavy,  and  all  the  cocks  are  lined  with  block  tin  tubing.  Of 
the  various  valves,  bungs,  and  stuffing  boxes  indicated  in  the  figure,  it 
is  unnecessary  to  speak  in  detail.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  they  are 
of  excellent  workmanship,  and  during  a  year's  trial  have  kejit  perfectly 
tight.  The  charging  bung,  B,  however,  is  closed  by  a  safety  cap  of 
peculiar  construction,  which  deserves  special  mention,  because  it  insures 
the  safety  of  the  apparatus.  The  cap  is  represented  by  Fig.  3,  and  a 
section  is  given  in  Fig.  4.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  last  that  the  escape 
of  the  compressed  gas  from  the  generator  through  the  apertures  d  is 
only  prevented  by  a  thin  disk  a,  which  is  shown  in  detail  by  Fig.  5. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  5. 


FifT.  4. 


This  disk  is  made  of  two  thin  plates  :  the  lower  one,  which  comes  in 
contact  with  the  acid  spray,  is  of  lead,  and  the  upper  one  of  silvered 
copper,  whose  thickness  is  so  adjusted  that  it  must  be  at  once  ruptured 
if  the  pressure  in  the  apparatus  should  become  unduly  great. 


118 


PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


Although  the  so-called  soda-water  fountains  —  in  which  the  solution 
of  the  gas  and  water  is  made  —  have  all  in  general  the  same  simjDle 
relation  of  parts,  they  are  constructed  of  very  different  materials  and 
after  very  different  methods.  The  outside  shell  may  be  either  of  ham- 
mered copper  or  of  some  form  of  iron,  and  this  may  be  lined  with  tin, 
enamel,  or  glass.  After  having  determined  by  experiment  that  a  solu- 
tion of  hydric  sulphide  —  especially  when  some  carbonic  dioxide  is 
added  —  exerts  no  action  on  a  surface  of  metallic  tin,  except  a  very 
slight  and  superficial  staining,  we  selected  as  best  adapted  to  our 
purpose  the  steel  fountains,  also  manufactured  by  the  firm  of  John 
Matthews,  Fig.   6.     These  are  made  of  plates  of  steel,  united  in  a 


K.VkKi.'i^^^^'^^^ 


Fig.  G. 


peculiar  way  invented  by  themselves  so  as  to  secure  with  comparative 
lightness  very  great  strength.  They  are  lined  on  the  inside  with  sheet  tin, 
and  the  tin  lining  forms  an  independent  vessel,  which  alone  is  connected 
with  the  bungs.  The  tubes  and  valve  cocks  are  also  either  made  or 
lined  with  tin,  so  that  the  solution  never  comes  in  contact  with  any 
other  metal.  For  making  ordinary  soda-water,  the  fountain  requires 
only  a  single  valve,  which  connects  with  a  tube  leading  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  and  this  serves  both  to  charge  the  fountain  and  to  draw 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  119 

off  the  solution  when  made.  But  since  a  solution  of  hydric  sulphide 
is  rendered  turbid  if  left  in  contact  with  eveu  a  small  quantity  of  air, 
and  since  a  variable  amount  of  free  hydrogen  is  always  formed  by  the 
action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  common  sulphide  of  iron,  it  was  necessary 
for  our  purpose  to  add  to  the  ordinary  fountain  a  vent  cock  as  shown 
in  the  last  figure.  This  enables  us  to  connect  together  several  foun- 
tains after  the  manner  of  Woolf's  bottles  as  already  described,  and,  by 
passing  the  current  of  gas  through  the  whole  line,  to  drive  out  all  the 
air  originally  in  the  apparatus,  as  well  as  the  free  hydrogen  subse- 
quently evolved.  Moreover,  in  the  preparation  of  the  solution  of 
hydric  sulphide,  the  generator  should  be  much  larger  relatively  to 
the  fountains  than  in  the  preparation  of  soda-water.  Thus  we  use 
for  charging  the  so-called  six-gallon  steel  fountains,  the  "Upright 
Generator  "  known  as  No.  40,  which  has  a  capacity  below  the  diaphragm 
of  sixty  litres.  It  should  be  here  stated  that  the  fountains  are  only 
rated  at  two  thirds  of  their  total  capacity,  which  is  the  volume  of  soda 
water  which  is  ordinarily  made  in  them.  They  should  never  be  more 
than  thi-ee-fourths  filled  with  water.  But,  even  with  this  liberal 
allowance  for  gas  room,  the  six-gallon  fountains  referred  to  will  hold 
twenty-five  litres  of  water.  It  may  also  be  stated,  although  the  fact 
must  be  evident,  that  a  single  large  fountain  will  not  give  as  good 
results  as  several  small  ones  of  equal  capacity ;  since  in  expelling  the 
air  and  free  hydrogen,  as  we  have  described,  there  would  be  a  consid- 
erable loss  of  material,  if  only  one  fountain  were  used.  Still,  in  labora- 
tories where  the  consumption  is  not  great,  the  loss  is  not  important ; 
and  the  smallest  "  Upright  Generator,"  with  one  six- gallon  fountain, 
will  be  found  to  be  a  perfectly  satisfactory  apparatus. 

Assuming  first  that  the  larger  apparatus  is  used,  the  method  of 
charging  is  as  follows  :  The  large  generator  is  too  heavy  to  be  readily 
moved,  and  should  be  placed  so  that  the  discharge  valve  will  empty 
directly  into  a  drain.  Water  also  should  be  brought  to  the  apparatus  by 
hose,  —  if  possible,  both  hot  and  cold  water,  —  not  only  for  convenience 
in  charging,  but  also  in  washing.  Finally,  there  ought  to  be  a  good 
flue  in  the  neighborhood,  into  which  the  waste  gas  may  be  discharged. 
The  apparatus  having  been  thus  established,  the  three  fountains —  first 
rinsed  out  —  are  filled  each  with  twenty-five  litres  of  distilled  water, 
and,  the  valves  having  been  secured,  the  fountains  are  connected  with 
each  other  and  the  generator  by  means  of  stout  rubber  hose  as  already 
indicated,  and  the  vent  valve  of  the  last  fountain  is  connected  with 
the  flue  by  a  length  of  common  gas  hose.  The  generator  is  then 
charged  as  follows  :  The  handle  is  first  placed  so  as  to  uncover  the 
bungs  and  cover  the  slits  in  the  diaphragm.     Through  the  bung  A  is 


120  PEOCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

now  poured  40  litres  of  hot  water,  heated  to  between  70°  and  80°  C, 
and  then  5  litres  of  common  oil  of  vitriol  are  poured  very  cautiously 
into  the  same  bung  through  a  lead  funnel  with  narrow  spout  provided 
for  the  purpose.  The  acid  water  will  thus  be  heated  nearly  to  the 
boiling  point,  and  its  capacity  of  dissolving  ferrous  sulphate  raised  to 
the  maximum.  Next  6  kilogrammes  of  sulphide  of  iron  —  previously 
sufficiently  pulverized  to  pass  through  a  wire  sieve  with  eight  meshes 
to  the  inch,  and  mixed  with  two  kilogrammes  of  marble  powder  —  is 
run  through  a  wide-mouth  funnel  into  the  bung  B.  The  bungs  having 
been  now  all  closed,  the  joints  of  the  apparatus  tested,  the  exit  valve 
D  of  the  generator  and  all  the  valves  of  the  fountains  opened,  a  small 
amount  of  the  powder  is  sifted  down  into  the  acid  water  by  turning 
the  handle  not  more  than  a  single  revolution,  always  taking  care  to 
leave  it  so  that  the  slits  of  the  diaphragm  shall  be  left  covered.  The 
gas  is  then  allowed  to  stream  through  the  apparatus,  and  tested  as  it 
escapes  into  the  flue,  until  it  burns  without  explosion,  using  a  small 
pneumatic  trough  for  that  purpose.  The  air  is  now  nearly  expelled, 
and  the  escape  of  gas  should  be  reduced  by  the  last  vent  valve  until 
the  current  only  su^jplies  a  small  jet,  which  may  now  be  attached  and 
lighted  with  safety,  and  by  the  size  of  this  flame  the  vent  may  after- 
wards be  regulated.  The  handles  are  now  slowly  turned,  and  the 
pressure  in  the  apparatus  carried  up  to  about  120  pounds.  The  valves 
of  the  fountains  and  the  valve  D  of  the  generator  are  now  all  closed, 
and  the  two  last  fountains  detached,  leaving  the  first  (which  is  mounted 
on  a  frame  as  represented  in  Fig.  1)  united  to  the  generator  as  before. 
This  is  now  rocked  for  several  minutes  to  and  fro,  in  order  to 
thoroughly  agitate  the  water  with  the  gas.  The  stop  valve  G  should 
then  be  opened,  and  then  the  valve  D  (very  gradually),  so  that  the  gas 
may  be  admitted  slowly  to  the  fountain.  The  valves  are  then  again 
closed,  and  the  agitation  renewed,  and  the  same  operation  is  repeated 
several  times  until  no  more  gas  is  absorbed  by  the  water  in  the  foun- 
tain, the  pressure  in  the  generator  meanwhile  being  maintained  at  120 
lbs.,  by  turning  the  handle.  The  first  fountain  is  then  removed,  and 
the  same  process  repeated  with  each  of  the  others.  At  the  close  of 
the  operation,  after  all  chemical  action  has  ceased,  there  remains  in  the 
generator  —  both  free  and  dissolved  in  the  liquid  residue  —  a  large 
volume  of  hydric  sulphide  gas.  This  we  economize  by  venting  the 
generator  slowly  through  Woolfs  bottles  containing  aqua  ammonia, 
and  thus  preparing  at  tlie  same  time  ammonic  sulphide.  It  is  not 
unimportant  to  aild  that  the  generator  should  be  emptied  before  it 
cools,  and  the  ferrous  sulphate  has  time  to  crystallize.  The  discharge 
valve  R  should  then  be  removed,  and  the  whole  apparatus  thoroughly 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  121 

washed  out.  If  the  valve  becomes  clogged,  it  can  generally  be  cleared 
by  developing  pressure  in  the  generator  by  means  of  a  small  charge 
of  ground  marble.  Otherwise,  after  the  pressure  has  been  relieved, 
and  the  upper  valves  and  bungs  closed,  the  discharge  valve  must  be 
cautiously  removed,  and  an  opening  forced  through  the  lower  bung. 
Such  details  are  necessary  in  order  that  others  may  profit  by  our  ex- 
perience ;  but,  lest  the  details  should  convey  the  impression  that  the 
apparatus  is  complicated,  and  that  the  process  requires  skilled  labor, 
it  may  be  stated  that  in  this  laboratory  the  apparatus  is  entirely  iu 
charge  of  a  laboratory  servant,  and  may  be  managed  by  any  workman 
of  ordinary  intelligence.  It  does  not  require  more  than  four  hours  to 
work  over  a  single  charge,  and  this  yields  75  litres  of  hydric  sulphide 
solution  under  a  pressure  of  120  lbs.  According  to  our  experience, 
this  supply  lasts  with  a  class  of  one  hundred  students  in  qualitative 
analysis  about  a  month.  For  laboratories  where  the  classes  are  much 
smaller  than  this,  we  should  recommend  the  smallest  size  generator, 
which  may  be  used  with  a  single  six-gallon  fountain.  The  smaller 
apparatus  is  managed  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  the  larger,  only 
taking  one  half  the  quantity  of  materials.  It  is  important  as  before 
to  wash  out  in  the  first  place  all  the  air,  and  to  maintain  a  small  cur- 
rent of  gas  through  the  vent  valve  of  the  fountain  while  the  pressure 
in  the  apparatus  is  rising.  This  of  course  entails  some  loss  of  hydric 
sulphide ;  but  the  chief  loss  is  caused  by  the  venting  of  the  generator, 
and  all  this  gas  may  be  utilized  for  the  preparation  of  alkaline  sul- 
phides as  described  above,  or  this  waste  gas  may  be  used  for  washing 
out  the  air  from  a  second  fountain,  and  thus  preparing  it  for  a  subse- 
quent charge. 

For  dispensing  the  reagent  in  our  qualitative  laboratory,  we  place 
the  fountain  iu  a  cupboard  and  connect  it  by  a  block-tin  tube  with  a 
so  called  "draught  column,"  Fig.  7,  in  the  ventilating  hood  above. 
From  this  each  student  draws  the  reagent  as  it  is  required.  In  quan- 
titative work  we  may  draw  the  charged  water  directly  from  the  fountain 
into  the  midst  of  the  solution  to  be  treated,  using  simply  a  common 
rubber  hose  terminated  by  a  glass  tube  which  dips  under  the  surface 
of  the  liquid :  the  hose  is  attached  to  the  nipple  of  a  cajj  which 
screws  on  to  the  valve  of  the  fountain,  and  by  confining  two  or  more 
disks  of  linen  cloth  between  the  cap  and  the  head  of  the  valve  (like 
washers)  we  can  filter  the  solution  as  it  flows  out.  It  is  more  con- 
venient, however,  to  distribute  the  reagent  to  advanced  students  in  the 
well-known  soda-water  siphon,  Fig.  8.  These  require  no  description, 
but  as  the  simple  apparatus  used  for  filling  the  siphon  is  not  yet 
a  familiar  object  in  chemical  laboratories,   we  give  a  figure   of  the 


122 


PRaCEZDLN'GS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY  . 


apparatus   (Fig.   9),   taken,  like  our  other  cuts,  from  the  catalogue 
of  John  Matthews.    By  pressing  the  foot  on  a  pedal  shown  at  the  base 


Fio-.  7. 


Fis.  «■ 


of  the  apparatus,  the  siphon  —  confined  in  a  cage  —  is  raised,  so  that 
its  mouth  is  forced  tightly  against  one  opening  of  a  valve  of  peculiar 
construction,  the  second  opening  of  which  is  united  by  a  block-tin  tube 
to  a  fountain  ;  while  at  the  same  time  the  handle  of  the  siphon  is 
pressed  back.  On  now  pushing  the  upper  lever  shown  in  the  cut  to  the 
right,  the  valve  of  the  fountain  having  been  previously  opened,  a  con- 
nection is  made  between  the  fountain  and  the  siphon  ;  when  the  charged 
water  rushes  into  the  latter,  condensing  the  air  to  a  fraction  of  its  origi- 
Bal  volume.  If  next  the  same  lever  is  pushed  momentarily  to  the  left, 
the  first  connection  is  closed;  while  a  vent  is  opened,  through  which 
the  condensed  air  rushes  out  into  the  atmosphere  before  the  gas  in 
solution  has  time  to  escape,  and  then  on  pushing  back  the  handle  a 
further  portion  of  liquid  enters,  nearly  filling  the  interior  of  the  bottle. 
Lastly,  on  raising  the  foot,  the  valve  of  the  siphon  shuts  at  the  same 
time  that  the  bottle  is  lowered  and  released  from  its  cage,  —  the  whole 
process  being  the  work  of  a  few  seconds.  At  the  first  filling,  there 
sometimes  remains  a  small  amount  of  air  in  the  siphon,  so  that  the 
solution  becomes  slightly  turbid  on  standing;  but  this  effect  of  oxidation 
can  be  easily  avoided  by  using  a  sufficient  amount  of  marble  powder 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


123 


iu  charging  the  generator.     This  siphon    unquestionably  affords   the 

most  convenient  mode  of  using  hydric  sulphide;   and  for  a  private 

laboratory  a  single  siphon,  well  charged, 

will    afford  as  ample  a   supply   as   will 

ordinarily  be  needed.     It  is  greatly  to  be 

hoped   that  our  manufacturing  chemists 

may  soon  find  an  advantage  in  supplying 

this  important  reagent  in  such  an  elegant 

form.* 

When  the  water  is  charged  as  directed 
above,  it  of  course  holds  in  solution,  be- 
sides hydric  sulphide,  a  considerable  vol- 
ume of  carbonic  dioxide ;  and  if,  under 
any  circumstance,  the  presence  of  this 
last  gas  would  produce  an  injurious  effect, 
the  marble  powder  can  be  simply  omitted 
in  charging  the  generator.  In  almost  all 
cases,  however,  the  carbonic  dioxide  ex- 
erts a  very  beneficial  influence,  and  in 
several  ways.  In  the  first  place,  it  in- 
sures the  non-action  of  the  hydric  sul- 
phide on  the  metallic  surfaces  of  the  ap- 
paratus. In  the  second  place,  it  protects 
the  solution  from  the  action  of  the  air 
when  it  is  drawn  into  an  open  vessel,  so 
that  after  a  metallic  sulphide  has  been 
precipitated  by  an  excess  of  the  reagent, 
the  products  may  be  digested  in  an  open 
flask  or  beaker  without  fear  of  oxidation.  In  the  third  place,  the 
carbonic  dioxide  adds  greatly  to  the  tension  of  the  confined  gas,  and 
enables  us  to  develop  sufiicient  pressure  to  charge  the  siphon  without 
unnecessarily  increasing  the  strength  of  the  solution  of  hydric  sulphide. 

Chemical  Laboratort  of  Harvard  College,  1876. 


Fig.  9. 


*  All  the  apparatus  here  described  may  be  obtained  from  the  firm  of  John 
Matthews,  First  Avenue,  26th  and  27th  Streets,  New  York,  at  very  reasonable 
rates.  Be  careful  in  ordering  to  state  the  use  to  which  the  apparatus  is  to  be 
put,  with  the  caution  that  no  silver  plating  or  lead  paint  should  be  used  upou  it. 


124  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   AMERICAN  ACADEMY 


IX. 


ON    THE    PROCESS    OF    REVERSE    FILTERING    AND    ITS 
APPLICATION  TO  LARGE  MASSES   OF  MATERIAL. 

By  Josiah  p.  Cooke,  Jr., 

Erving  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Mineralogy  in  Harvard  College. 

Presented  May  30, 1876. 

Bt  reverse  filtering  is  meant  a  process  of  filtration  in  which  the  liquid 
to  be  filtered  is  drawn  upwards  instead  of  flowing  downwards  in  the 
usual  way.  Such  a  system  is  often  used  in  the  arts,  as  when  a  porous 
septum  is  attached  to  the  mouth  of  a  suction  pipe ;  or  as  in  the  small 
portable  filters  so  useful  to  travellers,  by  which  clear  water  may  be 
sucked  up  from  a  muddy  pool  or  turbid  stream.  These  last  suggested 
the  application  of  the  same  principle  in  chemical  analysis  to  the  treat- 
ment of  those  precipitates  which  are  usually  weighed  on  a  dried 
filter.  In  such  cases,  it  is  of  course  essential  that  the  weight  of  the 
paper  disk  used  as  a  filter  should  remain  invariable  ;  and  this  constancy 
can  be  best  secured  by  making  the  disk  as  small  as  possible.  If  the 
filter  is  large,  it  is  impossible  to  have  any  confident  assurance  of  the 
constancy  of  its  weight,  however  great  the  care  that  may  be  taken  to 
secure  a  similarity  of  hygrometric  conditions  at  the  two  weighings  ;  and 
hence  it  has  not  hitherto  been  practicable  to  determine  on  a  dried  filter 
the  weight  of  any  considerable  quantity  of  a  precipitate  with  accuracy. 
But,  in  the  process  of  reverse  filtering,  we  can  both  wash  and  collect 
very  large  masses  of  precipitates  with  a  filter  not  more  than  an  inch  iu 
diameter  ;  and  if,  before  drying,  these  little  disks  of  paper  are  soaked  in 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and  afterwards  thoroughly  washed  in  water, 
their  weight  remains  practically  invariable.  Indeed,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  enclose  the  filter  in  a  weighing  tube,  or  to  pay  any  special  regard  to 
its  hygrometric  conditions  other  than  to  keep  the  usual  drying  materials 
in  the  balance  case.  The  only  liability  to  alteration  of  weight  would 
arise  from  the  dissolving  of  soluble  material  in  the  paper,  and  this  may 
be  wholly  prevented  by  previously  washing  the  disks  as  just  described. 
In  the  early  part  of  1873,  having  occasion  to  determine  large  quan- 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  125 

titles  of  sulphide  of  antimony,  we  in  the  first  j^lace  employed  the  porous 
filtering  cones  described  by  Prof.  C.  E.  Munroe ;  *  but  we  found  these 
both  too  limited  in  capacity,  and  too  susceptible  to  hygroscopic  influ- 
ences, to  give  the  degree  of  accuracy  we  required. 
We  were  therefore  led  to  devise  the  following 
apparatus,  which  Figures  1  and  2  will  help  us  to 
describe.  The  most  essential  part  of  this  appa- 
ratus is  the  platinum  "  rose  "  represented  by  Fig. 
I.  This  is  cemented  bv  sealinor-wax  to  the  end  of 
a  glass  tube,  and  to  its  perforated  base  the  small 
filters  are  applied.     The  glass  tube  is  so  cemented  Fig.  1. 

into  the  neck  of  the  "  rose  "  that  the  end  may  reach  quite  down  to  the 
perforated  plate,  and  thus  draw  up  all  the  liquid  which  collects  in  the 
hemispherical  cup.  Moreover,  the  perforated  plate  has  an  unbroken 
rim  about  -jV  ^^  ^^  '^^^^  wide  around  the  edge,  which  is  sufficient  to 
prevent  any  solid  particles  from  creeping  by  the  edges  of  the  paper 
disk.  The  success  and  rapidity  of  the  filtering  depend  on  the  proper 
construction  of  the  perforated  disk,  and  we  obtained  the  best  results 
only  after  several  trials.  The  holes  should  be  smoothly  perforated 
about  5^0  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  as  numerous  as  possible,  leaving 
the  unbroken  rim  described  above.  After  the  perforations  are  made, 
the  face  of  the  plate  should  be  ground  perfectly  smooth.  We  use 
two  sizes  of  these  "  roses,"  in  one  of  which  the  hemisphere  is  \^  of  an 
inch,  and  of  the  other  li  inches  in  diameter;  but  the  smaller  is  the 
more  useful,  and  is  sufficiently  large  for  all  ordinary  purposes.  A  disk 
of  washed  Swedish  filtering  paper,  ||  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  weighs 
only  about  20  milligrammes  ;  and,  to  give  an  idea  of  the  rapidity  of  the 
filtration,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that,  under  a  pressure  of  50  centi- 
metres of  mercury,  these  filters  will  pass  from  20  to  30  litres  of  clear 
water  in  an  hour.  We  have  been  greatly  indebted  to  Messrs.  John- 
eon,  Matthey,  &  Co.,  of  Hatton  Garden,  London,  for  the  care  they  have 
taken  in  the  construction  of  these  "  roses  ; "  and  they  can  be  procured 
of  them  through  the  mail.  The  cost  of  the  smaller  size  is  fifteen 
shillings  sterling.  The  construction  of  the  rest  of  the  apparatus  is 
made  clear  by  Fig.  2.  One  of  the  stems  of  a  glass  three-way  tube  is 
clamped  to  an  arm  which  can  be  raised  or  lowered  on  the  vertical  bar 
of  an  elevating  stand  by  a  rack  and  pinion  movement,  which  ought, 
however,  to  be  so  loose,  that  the  arm  can  be  pushed  suddenly  up 
when  necessary.     By  its  second  stem,  the  three-way  tube  is  connected 

*  American  Journal  of  Science,  May,  1871. 


126 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 


by  a  rubber  hose  with  a  large  glass  bottle,  in  which  a  partial  vacuum 
is  maintained  by  a  Buusen  pump,  but  this  connection  can  be  closed  by 


Fig.  2. 

a  compression  cock.  The  third  stem,  which  makes  a  connection  with 
the  atmosphere,  is  closed  by  a  rubber  connector  and  nipper  tap,  and 
serves  to  suddenly  relieve  the  pressure  in  case  the  filter  slips  or  breaks. 
From  the  first  and  vertical  stem  of  the  three-way  tube  below  the 
clamp  is  suspended  the  glass  tube,  having  the  rose  at  its  end.  The 
suspension  consists  of  a  rubber  connector,  so  long  that  it  can  be  bent 
double  and  the  rose  inverted,  and  so  stout  that  when  thus  bent  the 
connection  with  the  bottle  is  completely  closed.  When  inverted,  the 
tube  of  the  rose  rests  against  the  thumbscrew  of  the  pinion,  and  is 
thus  confined. 

In  order  that  we  may  make  clear  the  mode  of  using  the  apparatus, 
let  us  assume  that  five  grammes  of  antimonious  sulphide  have  been 
precipitated  in  a  glass  beaker,  holding  two  litres  of  liquid,  and  that  the 
precipitate  has  settled,  —  as  it  will  after  boihog,  —  leaving  the  super- 
natant liquid  perfectly  clear.     A  partial  vacuum  having  been  formed 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  ItiJ 

in  the  bottle,  and  the  beaker  having  been  placed  on  the  stand,  we 
begin  by  attaching  the  paper  disk  to  the  base  of  the  rose,  moistening 
it  for  the  pnrpose  with  water,  and  forcing  it  with  the  thumb  against 
the  perforated  plate  until  the  adhesion  is  complete  at  every  point.  It 
is  important  that  the  disk  should  not  overlap  the  edge  of  the  plate  ;  and, 
if  the  plate  has  been  made  as  described,  it  will  adhere  tightly  without 
so  doing.  The  compression  cock  is  then  slowly  opened ;  and,  as  soon 
as  the  sound  indicates  that  the  air  is  being  sucked  through  the  filter, 
the  base  of  the  rose  is  quickly  sunk  under  the  liquid,  and  constantly 
lowered  by  the  rack  and  pinion  movement,  as  fast  as  the  liquid  is  drawn 
off.  The  supernatant  liquid  may  thus  be  decanted  until  the  rose  is 
close  down  to  the  precipitate ;  but  care  should  be  taken  at  this  stage 
not  to  push  the  process  too  far,  lest  the  filter  should  become  clogged 
by  the  adhesion  of  solid  particles,  as  would  be  the  case,  if  it  comes  too 
near  the  level  of  the  precipitate.  When  the  safe  level  has  been 
reached,  the  arm  of  the  stand  is  suddenly  pushed  upwards,  while  the 
rose  is  inverted  and  supported  as  above  described.  The  beaker  is  now 
filled  up  with  hot  water ;  and,  after  the  precipitate  has  subsided,  the 
wash  water  is  drawn  off  as  before,  and  so  repeatedly  as  often  as  may 
be  necessary.  It  is  important,  however,  to  carefully  watch  the  filter, 
and  every  time  before  immersing  the  rose  to  see  that  the  paper  is 
moist  and  firmly  adhering  to  the  perforated  plate.  It  is  further  essen- 
tial that  the  suction  should  not  be  for  a  moment  interrupted  while  the 
filter  is  immersed.  This  condition  is  secured  by  the  simple  rubber 
joint  we  have  described ;  for,  while  when  the  rose  is  inverted  the  con- 
nection with  the  bottle  is  closed,  the  moment  it  is  turned  down  the 
connection  is  opened,  and  the  filter  begins  to  draw.  If,  however,  by 
any  accident  the  filter  should  slip,  the  operator  when  on  his  guard  can 
avoid  loss  of  material  by  quickly  opening  the  nipper  tap,  and  relieving 
the  pressure  until  the  rose  can  be  withdrawn  and  washed  out.  The 
filter  can  then  be  fished  out  with  a  glass  I'od,  washed  off  and  replaced. 
A  good  strong  filter  will  bear  quite  rough  treatment ;  and,  if  in  the  pro- 
cess it  becomes  clogged,  it  can  be  taken  off  when  the  rose  is  inverted, 
and  the  adhering  precipitate  washed  back  into  the  beaker.  When  re- 
placed, the  paper  thus  cleansed  often  filters  as  rapidly  as  before.  If,  as 
is  sometimes  the  case,  the  paper  becomes  hopelessly  clogged,  no  great 
loss  of  accuracy  is  suffered  by  using  a  second  or  even  a  third  filter. 
Of  course,  they  must  all  be  dried,  and  weighed  either  with  the  precipi- 
tate or  apart,  as  most  convenient. 

The  precipitate,  having  been  thus  washed,  is  next  to  be  transferred 
to  the  crucible  in  which  it  is  to  be  weighed  ;  and,  to  hold  five  grammes 


128  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

of  precipitated  antimonious  sulphide,  we  shall  require  a  crucible  hav- 
ing a  capacity  of  250  cubic  centimetres.  As  much  of  the  water  as  can 
readily  be  decanted  from  the  precipitate  is  first  poured  into  the  cru- 
cible and  drawn  off  with  the  filter,  and  then  the  precipitate  is  washed 
in  with  as  little  additional  water  as  possible.  Now  the  filter  is 
plunged  into  the  semi-fluid  mass,  and  must  not  afterwards  be  removed 
until  the  process  is  completed.  The  rose  ought  not  even  to  be  raised 
however  slightly,  although  additional  material  may  be  poured  in 
around  it.  As  the  mass  contracts  in  the  crucible,  the  filter  must  be 
made  to  follow,  always  keeping  it  immersed ;  and  during  this  time  the 
precipitate  which  has  collected  around  the  j^latiuum  rose  may  be 
washed  down  by  a  stream  from  a  wash  bottle.  In  this  way  the  greater 
part  of  the  water  can  be  removed,  leaving  the  precipitate  nearly  as 
compact  as  it  is  left  on  a  common  filter,  when  dried  by  Bunsen's 
pump.  When  the  precipitate  is  in  this  condition,  the  pressure  is 
relieved  by  opening  the  nipper  tap,  and  the  rose  raised,  which  leaves 
the  filter  behind.  If  any  of  the  precipitate  has  clung  to  the  platinum, 
this  must  now  be  washed  into  the  crucible  with  a  few  drops  of  water, 
the  rose  and  tube  having  first  been  detached  from  the  connector  for 
the  purpose.  It  only  now  remains  to  dry  the  precipitate  with  the 
•little  filter,  and  weigh  it.  If  it  is  important  to  dry  the  precipitate  at 
a  temperature  above  150°  C,  or  even  to  ignite  it,  the  mass  should 
first  be  thoroughly  dried  at  100°.  The  little  disk  of  paper  can  then 
be  removed  and  weighed  sei^arately,  while  the  rest  of  the  mass  is 
heated  to  a  higher  temperature.  The  amount  of  material  which 
remains  adhering  to  the  paper  under  these  circumstances  is  exceed- 
ingly small,  not  usually  exceeding  a  few  milligrammes  ;  and  allowance 
can  be  made  for  it  in  the  final  result,  without  sensible  error. 

Like  other  analytical  processes,  this  method  has  its  limits  ;  and  any 
attempt  to  extend  it  beyond  the  sphere  of  its  usefulness  will  lead  to 
unsatisfactory  results.  It  is  of  no  use  for  filtering  turbid  liquids,  since 
the  small  filters  are  rapidly  clogged,  and  the  process  becomes  propor- 
tionally slow.  Whenever,  however,  a  precipitate  settles  clearly,  this 
method  enables  us  to  wash,  collect,  and  weigh  very  large  quantities  of 
precipitates  in  a  very  short  time  with  wonderful  accuracy.  We  have 
used  it  chiefly  to  determine  sulphide  of  antimony  and  chloride  bromide 
or  iodide  of  silver ;  and  the  results  of  the  following  analyses,  extracted 
from  our  forthcoming  paper  on  the  Atomic  Weights  of  Antimony, 
will  show  how  great  accuracy  can  be  attained  with  it :  — 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENXES.  129 


Synthesis  of  Sulphide  of  Axtimo.vy. 


Weiglit  in  Grammes 
of  Sb  taken. 

Weight  of  Sb„ 
dried  at  ISO' 

S3 
u. 

Per  cent  of  S 
ill  same. 

2.1439 

3.0025 

28.58 

2.3417 

3.2792 

28.59 

2.2182 

3.1061 

28.59 

Analysis  of  Antimoniods  Chloride. 

Weight  in  Grammes  "Weight  of  AgCl  Per  cent 

of  Sb  CI3  taken.  obtained.  of  Chloiine 

20300  3.8282  4G.652 

1.3686  2.5813  46.659 

1.8638  3.5146  46.651 


Analysis  of  Antimonious  Bromide. 


Weight  in  Grammes 
of  Sb  Bi^  takun. 

Wei.'htof  Ag 
obtauied. 

Br 

Per  cent 
of  Brouiine. 

1.2124 

1.8991 

66.655 

0.9417 

1.4749 

66.647 

These  analyses  exhibit  a  fair  sample  of  the  results  which  can  easily 
be  obtained  with  this  method.  In  order  to  assure  ourselves  that  the 
weiglit  of  the  small  paper  disks  remained  constant,  we  have  repeat- 
edly dissolved  off  the  small  amount  of  adhering  precijiitate,  and  after 
washing  and  drying  reweiglied  the  disks  at  the  completion  of  the 
analysis.  Even  with  the  larger  di?ks  there  was  in  no  case  any  mate- 
rial change  in  the  weight,  and  in  most  aises  no  alteration  whatever 
could  be  detected  with  a  balance  turning  readily  with  -j^  of  a  milli- 
gramme. 

The  method  of  collecting  precipitates  here  described,  which,  as  we 
have  shown,  is  so  useful  where  considerable  quantities  are  to  be  esti- 
mated, is  equally  applicable  to  very  small  amounts.  When  the  quan- 
tity of  the  precipitate  does  not  exceed  a  few  milligrammes,  the  whole 
becomes  fiistened  by  the  suction  to  the  surface  of  the  paper.  There  is 
then,  of  course,  no  need  of  a  crucible  in  the  process.  The  filter,  hav- 
ing been  dried  in  a  watch  glass,  is  weighed  by  itself,  and  a  result  of  very 
great  accuracy  is  reached  with  great  i-apidity.  AVe  have  in  this  way  fre- 
quently estimated  minute  quantities  of  baric  sulphate  and  argentic  chlo- 
ride, whose  weight  proved  to  be  only  a  fraction  of  a  milligramme. 

VOL.  XII.   (n.  S.  IV.)  9 


130  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Although  the  apparatus  here  described  and  figured  was  invented 
independently  by  myself  in  order  to  overcome  difficulties,  already 
stated,  which  I  met  with  in  the  course  of  my  investigations,  yet  in  its 
main  features  I  was  anticipated  by  Professor  H.  Carmichael,now  of  Bow- 
doin  College ;  and  I  had  the  misfortune  not  to  have  my  attention  called 
to  his  paper  on  the  subject  —  dated  at  Gottingen,  1870,  and  published 
in  the  Zeitsclirift  fur  Chemie,  neue  Folge,  Band  VI.,  481  — until  long 
after  my  own  apparatus  had  been  perfected.  But  although  Professor 
Carmichael  and  myself  started  from  the  same  fundamental  idea,  yet  we 
have  worked  this  idea  out  in  very  different  forms,  and  with  very  differ- 
ent purposes  in  view.  While  therefore  I  would  acknowledge  most 
fully  Professor  Carmichael's  priority,  I  have  thought  it  best  to  publish 
this  paper  with  the  sole  object  of  adding  to  his  previous  work  the 
results  of  my  own  experience,  and  with  the  hope  that  I  may  thus  aid 
in  introducing  into  analytical  laboratories  what  I  believe  to  be  the 
most  important  improvement  in  analytical  chemistry  which  has  been 
made  since  the  invention  of  the  Bunsen  pump. 

Chemical  Laboratory  of  Harvard  College,  1876. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  131 


X. 


coxTRiBUTioxs  feo:m  physical  laboratory  of  har- 
vard COLLEGE. 

No.   XIi:  — ON    VORTEX   RINGS   IN   LIQUIDS. 
By  Joiix  Trowbridge. 

Presented,  March  14,  1877. 

It  has  often  been  observed  by  chemists  that  a  drop  of  colored  liquid 
falling  from  a  burette  into  a  liquid  of  a  different  specific  gravity,  in 
which  it  can  diffuse,  assumes  tlie  form  of  a  ring.  Vortex  motion,  by 
the  researches  of  Helmholtz,  Thomson,  Rankine,  and  Maxwell,  is  now 
attracting  so  much  attention,  that  I  have  thought  that  a  study  of  the 
general  equations  of  motion  of  matter  in  connection  with  a  study  of 
these  rings  would  contribute  to  our  knowledge  of  vortex  movement. 

Prof.  W.  B.  Rogers  publislunl  in  "  The  American  Journal  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,"  Vol.  XXVI.,  1858,  a  paper  on  smoke  rings  and  liquid 
rings,  and  described  several  methods  of  studying  them.  In  Professor 
Tait's  "  Recent  Advances  in  Physical  Science,"  a  method  of  forming 
smoke  rings  is  given.  The  apparatus  consists  merely  of  a  large  box 
closed  at  one  end  by  a  thin  sheet  of  India  rubber,  or  with  a  tightly 
stretched  towel,  and  having  a  circular  opening  of  six  or  eight  inches 
in  diameter  at  the  other.  Clouds  of  sal-ammoniac  vapor  are  generated 
inside  the  box,  and  rings  are  expelled  from  the  circular  opening  by  a 
blow  upon  the  rubber  or  towel.  Sir  William  Thomson  suggests  that 
two  such  boxes  placed  so  that  the  rings  may  impinge  on  each  other  at 
any  angle  would  form  a  useful  apparatus  for  studying  the  behavior 
of  such  rings  towards  each  other.  At  the  conclusion  of  this  paper, 
several  metiiods  of  studying  liquid  rings  will  be  described.  When  a 
drop  of  liquid  falls  from  a  short  distance  into  a  liquid  of  less  density, 
in  which  it  cannot  diffuse,  the  conditions  of  its  motion  just  after  the 
instant  of  its  striking  the  surface  of  the  liquid  of  less  density  are 
indicated  by  the  general  equations  of  heterogeneous  strains.*     "  For 

*  Thomson  and  Tait's  ivatural  Philosophy. 


V62  PROCEEDINGS    OP   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

each  particle  we  liave  the  component  veh)cities  u,  v,  w,  parallel  to  the 
fixed  axes  OX,  OF,  OZ.     These  have  the  following  expressions:  — 

^    ^  ^  dt'  dt'  dt' 

X,  y,  z,  t  being  independent  variables,  and  «,  /3,  /,  functions  of  them.  If 
the  disturbed  condition  is  so  related  to  the  initial  condition  that  every 
portion  of  the  body  can  pass  from  its  initial  to  its  disturbed  position 
and  strain,  by  a  translation  and  a  strain  without  rotation,  —  i.e.,  if  the 
three  principal  axes  of  the  strain  at  any  point  are  lines  of  the  sub- 
stance which  retain  their  parallelism,  —  we  must  have,  — 

Eq.  (2)  :    —  =  ^  'b  z='i°-  ^  =z^Ii  - 

dz         dy  dx         dz  dy         dx 

and,  if  these  equations  are  fulfilled,  the  strain  is  now  rotational,  as 
specified."  But  these  equations  express  that  a  d x  -\-  ^  dy  -\-  y  d  z,  i& 
the  differential  of  a  function  of  three  independent  variables  ;  and  there- 
fore, in  order  that  there  may  be  no  rotation,  a  strain  potential  must 
exist.  The  forces  which  solicit  the  particles  of  tlie  drop  when  it  rests 
upon  the  liquid  of  less  density  in  which  it  cannot  diffuse  are  evidently 
their  mutual  attraction,  a  force  arising  from  the  superficial  tension  of 
the  liquid,  and  one  ai'ising  from  gravitation.  It  is  evident,  from  a 
consideration  of  these  forces,  that,  after  the  drop  has  suffered  a  strain 
at  the  surface,  every  poilion  of  the  drop  cannot  pass  from  its  initial 
position  to  the  next  following  by  a  translation  and  a  strain  without 
rotation.  For  the  drop  tends  to  return  from  a  shape  api)roaching  an 
oblate  spheroid  to  that  of  a  sphere.  Equations  (2)  do  not  liold,  and  a 
strain  potential  does  not  exist,  and  tlierefore  this  drop  must  rotate. 
This  rotation  is  not  in  general  of  the  ring  form.  If,  on  tiie  other  hand, 
the  drop  of  liquid  can  diffuse  itself  in  the  liquid  through  which  it  falls, 
each  particle  with  the  velocity  u,  v,  w,  is  solicited  at  the  moment  of  im- 
pact by  a  superficial  tension,  by  the  force  of  gravitation,  and  by  a  force 
arising  from  the  rate  of  diffusion.  In  this  case,  there  is  no  tendency 
of  the  body  to  reassume  the  spheroidal  form  in  its  passage  through 
the  liquid.  On  tiie  other  hand,  to  assume  that  each  particle  in 
the  next  state  of  the  drop  very  near  that  which  it  assumes  on  striking 
the  free  surface  of  the  liquid  of  less  density,  is  translated  without  rota- 
tion, is  to  assume  that  each  particle  is  compelled  to  move  in  restrained 
limits,  which  do  not  exist.  For  the  components  X\  Y^,  Z^,  of  the 
attraction,  which  tend  to  make  the  non-diffusible  drop  reassume  its 
spherical  form,  we  have  in  the  case  of  the  diffusible  the  components 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


133 


X,  T,  Z,  of  an  external  force  arising  from  the  superficial  tension  of 
the  liquid,  and  the  impulse  given  to  the  drop. 

If  we  follow  the  notation  of  Poisson  *  and  Helraholtz,t  we  shall 
have  for  the  general  equations  of  internal  motion  of  a  liquid  :  — 

-rr        1  dp         (fit     I        dii     1       du     I        dit 
h  dx  dt      '        (/x     '        dy     '         dz 


rl    dp  do     ,        do     t       du     I        du 

— '-  =  —   -4-  u—  -\-  V—  -+-  w— 

h   dy  dt    ^      dx  ^      dy     ^        'I- 


rr         1    dp  dw     1        dw     i       dw     i 

Z -L  =^  —  +  U —  -4-  V —  H- 

k   dz  dt      ^       dx     *       dy     ' 


W- 


dz 
dw 

I 

'  dz 


dh     \        dh     I       dh     I         dh  Sh     /  ,\ 

—  4-  u—  -\-  V—  -\-  w —  =  —    (4) 
dt~     dx~    dy~      dz  U     ^  ^ 

du    I    dv    I    dw  f-^ 

—  -U  —  -I-  —  =.  0    (0) 
dx^  dy^  dz  ^   ^ 

In  which  p  is  the  pressure  in  a  liquid  at  the  point  x,  y,  z;  X,  Y,  Z, 
are  the  components  of  the  external  forces  acting  on  a  unit  of  mass; 
and  h  is  the  density.  When  tlie  variation  of  h  is  infinitely  small,  we 
have  Eq.  (5).  The  forces  X,  T,  Z,  are  considered  to  have  a  potential 
V.     So  that 

X=ir,  T^II.         Z^.'-f    Eq.(6) 

dx  dy  dz 

and  the  velocities  u,  v,  w,  a  velocity  potential  qp.     So  that 


u 


d<i> 


dtp 
dy 


IV.  =     ^     Eq.  (7) 


dx'  dv'  dz 

or,  udx  -f-  vay  -f-  wdz  =  d(f, 

and  q)  satisfying  the  equation 

dx-'     '     dy'     '     dz^ 

which  is  what  equation  (5)  becomes  under  the  conditions  expressed 
above.     We  must  therefore  have 


du 
dy 


du 
d~x' 


do 
dz 


dw  dw        du      T-i       /o\ 

cV  dx  =  d-z       ^^^•('^) 


*  Traitede  Mechanique. 
t  Crelle's  Journ.,  LV.,  1858. 


dv 
dz 

d'o         2^ 

dw 

7G~ 

dii         ^ 

d.     2r 

du 

d>;          gy 
dx          "^ 

dy 

134  PEOCEEDINGS    OP    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

equations  similar  to  the  equations  expressing  a  strain  potential. 
Helmholtz  has  shown  that  in  the  case  of  rotation  of  a  fluid  element, 
Eqs.  (8)  become 


Eq.  9 


and  therefore  "  the  existence  of  a  velocity  potential  is  inconsistent  with 
the  existence  of  rotation  of  the  fluid  element."  We  have  seen  from 
the  equations  of  strain  that  the  existence  of  a  strain  potential  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  rotation  of  a  material  particle.  Let  us  now  see  if 
vortex  movement  can  arise  in  a  liquid  from  variation  of  density  and 
pressure.     Following  Ilelmholtz's  notation,  we  have,  if  t/;  is  a  function 

5i  =:.  ^  -]-  rci^.  +  t>^  +  w'!±    Eq.  (10) 
St         at     '       dx    "^    du  ^       dz         A    V     >' 

Calling  S,  y,  ^,  the  components  of  the  angular  velocity,  we  can  obtain 
their  variations  by  substituting  them  in  succession  iu  Eq.  (10).  If  we 
eliminate  X,  T,  Z,  from  Ecjs.  (.'J)  by  the  help  of  P^qs.  (G),  supposing 
that  h  and  p  are  functions  of  x,y^  z,  t,  we  obtain,  introducing  the  values 
of  ^,  7,  "Q,  from  Eqs.  (9)  :  — 

_,       /-,,\    8f  v/f'y     r    dw\     I       dv    I     ^dw     ,       1  /dh    dp         dh    dp\ 

Eq.  (11)  ^  =  -  S(-  +  -^-)  +  r-  +  C^,  +  2T.U '^~d, -i) 

and  similar  expressions  for  the  variations  of  /  and  ^.  If  the  variation 
of  h  is  infinitely  small,  we  obtain  by  the  aid  of  Eq.  (5)  :  — 

Sf  ^.dn     I       do     I     ydw 

—  =  5 \-  y h  t  — 

9(  'dx  dx  '  dx 

If  it  is  not  infinitely  small,  we  have  the  term 

1  /dh  dp fM  dp\ 

2h\dz  'dy         dy  di) 

which  is  independent  of  ^,  y,  t,  and  depends  upon  the  variation  of  h  and 
p.  This  term  enters  into  the  expressions  for  the  variations  in  the 
angular  velocities ;  and  shows,  therefore,  that  a  vortex  movement  can 
arise  iu  a  process  of  diffusion  by  a  variation  in  density  and  pressure, 
without  the  aid  of  initial  angular  velocities.     This  condition  can  be 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  135 

shown  experimentally  by  dropping  a  somewhat  dense  solution  of  one 
of  the  aniline  colors  into  a  mixture  of  glycerine  and  water.  The  orig- 
inal ring,  after  ceasing  to  move  downward  in  the  mixture,  breaks  up 
gradually  into  segments,  which  slowly  in  their  turn  assume  the  ring 
form.  A  mixture  of  water  and  glycerine  is  not  necessary:  jieculiar 
cusp-like  figures  indiv'ating  tlie  first  stage  of  vortical  movement  can  be 
seen  whenever  a  thin  stratum  of  one  liquid  slowly  diffuses  itself  through 
another  liquid  of  different  density. 

By  a  consideration  of  the  equations  — 

e  ^  +  ("1  -  t^)dt  =  e(^  +  ^i  dt^ 

«  C+  K  -  ^o)dt  =  e(^:+^^dt^ 

given  by  Helmholtz,  from  which  he  draws  the  conclusion  that  "  each 

vortex   line   remains   continually  composed   of  the   same  elements  of 

fluid,  and  swim^  forward  with  them  in  the  fluid,"  we  see,  on  intro- 

^> 

duciug  the  new  expressions  which  we  have  found  for  --,  &c.,  P]q.  (11), 

St 

that  we  approach  nearer  and  nearer  to  this  theoretical  conclusion  when 
the  variations  of  h  are  smaller  and  smaller.  Obviously,  we  should  then 
obtain  tlie  most  perfect  rings  Tvlien  the  drop  and  the  liquid  in  which 
the  motion  takes  place  are  composed  of  the  same  liquid.  And,  there- 
fore, a  drop  of  water  falling  into  loater  must  form  a  more  perfect  ring 
than  that  formed  by  a  drop  of  any  colored  liquid  of  greater  density 
than  water. 

The  formation  of  these  liquid  rings  is  as  fascinating  and  as  simple 
an  occupation  as  blowing  soap-bubbles.  All  liquids  falling  from  such 
a  height  that  the  surface  of  the  liquid  is  not  too  much  disturbed  tO' 
enable  the  drup  to  be  acted  upon  symmetrically  by  the  forces  at  the 
free  surfiice  will  form  rings,  if  too  great  differences  of  density  do  not 
exist,  and  if  the  drop  can  diffuse  in  the  liquid.  The  preceding  mathe- 
matical discussion,  as  we  have  seen,  shows  us  that  a  drop  of  pure  water 
on  striking  the  same  element  under  the  above  conditions  must  neces- 
sarily assume  the  ring  shape.  This  can  be  shown  experimentally  by 
covering  the  free  surface  of  the  water  with  a  fine  powder,  or  with  mat- 
ter in  a  fine  state  of  subdivision.  1  have  found  that  an  alcoholic  tinct- 
ure of  ginger,  whicli  gives  on  the  surface  of  water  a  milky  liquid 
consisting  of  particles  iu  a  fine  state  of  subdivision,  answers  the  purpose 


136  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

very  well.     Fine  particles  will  be  carried  down  by  the  drop,  and  will 
be  seen  to  rotate  in  a  vortex  ring  far  below  the  surface.     This  fact  can 
be  stated,  al^o,  bj'-  the  employment  of  any  of  the  aniline  colors  which 
are  solvent  in  water,  the  falling  drop  consisting  of  a  colored  solution 
whose  specific  gravity  does  not  differ  sensibly  from  that  of  water.    The 
metiiod  that  1  have  emploj^ed  to  produce  the  rings  consists  merely  of  a 
small  glass  tube,  slightly  smaller  at  one  end  than  the  otiier.     A  bit  of 
cotton  is  wedged  in  nearer  the  larger  end,  over  wliich  a  piece  of  flexi- 
ble rubber  tubing  is  slipped.     AVith  the  aid  of  the  moutli,  one  can  fill 
this  tube  with  licpiid  and  eject  it  in  drops  at  pleasure.    The  same  appa- 
ratus enables  us  to  form  the  rings  beneath  the  surface  of  the  liquid. 
With  a  tube  bent  horizontally,  one  can  send  the  rings  through  a  liquid 
in  any  desired  direction  ;  and,  by  means  of  a  three-way  glass  joint  and 
a  small  india-rubber  bag,  one  can  send  forth,  by  the  same  impulse,  two 
rings  whose  paths  make  any  desired  angle  with  each  other.     By  partly 
immersing  the  glass  tubes  connected  with  the  three-way  tube  in   the 
free  surface  of  the  liquid,  and  covering  tiie  surface  of  the  water  with 
fine  powder,  one  can  study  the  mutual  behavior  of  half-vortex  rings. 
A  simpler  method  is  to  illuminate,  by  means  of  a  gas-light,  the  bottom 
of  a  flat,  white  porcelain   dish    filled  with  water,  and  to  observe  the 
shadows  of  the  half-vortex  rings  on  the  bottom  of  tlie  dish  formed  by 
the  movement  of  two  spatulse  along  the  surfiice.    It  can  be  readily  seen, 
by  this  simple  method,  that  a  lialf-vortex  ring  moving  near  another  in 
a  parallel  path  and  with  a  less  velocity  tends  to  follow  in  the  path  of 
the  first ;  and  that  two   equal  half-vortex  rings  moving   in   opposite 
directions  along  the  same  path  separate  into  two  vortices  which  move 
at  right  angles  to  the  path  of  the  original  vortices.      We  can  conclude, 
also,  from  this  general  discussion,  that,  whenever  a  mass  of  vapor  of 
greater  density  than  the  surrounding  air  is  suddenly  formed  in  the 
higiier  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  it  tends  to  descend  through  it  in  a 
vortex  ring. 

The  results  of  the  preceding  discussion  are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  An  an^dogy  between  the  strain  potential  and  the  velocity  poten- 
tial is  indicated. 

2.  It  is  shown  that  the  formation  of  liquid  rings  is  a  necessary  result 
of  the  fumlameutal  equations  of  strains  and  those  of  hydrodynamics  ; 
and  that  tlu-y  constitute  a  general  and  not  a  special  phenomenon.  A 
drop  of  water  falling  into  water  from  a  suitable  height  must  assume  a 
ring  shape. 

3.  Vortices  can  and  do  arise  in  certain  processes  of  diffusion. 

4.  Simple  methods  of  studying  vortex  motion  in  liquids  are  given. 


OP   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


137 


XI. 


CONTRIBUTIOXS   FROM   THE   PHYSICAL  LABORATORY   OF 

HARVARD  COLLEGE. 


NO.  XIV.  — ON  A  NEW  METHOD  OF  COMPARING  THE  ELECTRO- 
MOTIVE FORCES  OF  TWO  BATTERIES  AND  MEASURING 
THEIR   INTERNAL  RESISTANCE. 

By  B.  O.  Peirce,  Jr. 

Presented,  March  14,  1877. 

The  relative  strengths  of  two  currents  which  give  ri?e  to  different 
deflections  of  a  galvanometer  needle  are  not  easily  compared,  and 
therefore  it  has  been  the  aim  of  pliysicists  in  making  electric  meas- 
urements to  choose  such  methods  as  require  the  current  through  the 
galvanometer  to  be  made  either  zero,  or  else  equal  in  two  given  cases. 
The  method  of  measuring  resistances  by  Wheatstone's  Bridge  is  an 
example  of  a  '' nul"  method.  Mance's  and  Thomson's  methods  of 
measuring  the  resistances  of  batteries  are  examples  of  the  class  which 
require  equal  deflections. 

Poggendorff's  method  of  comparing  the  electromotive  forces  of 
two  batteries  is  the  only  accurate  method  vehich  belongs  under  either 
of  these  heads. 

I  have  found  that  very  accurate  results  can  be  obtained  in  the 
following  way :  — 


Fig.   1. 

The  batteries  to  be  measured  are  arranged  as  in  the  figure,  with 
their  electromotive  forces  conspiring,     r  is  any  small  resistance.     R^ 


138  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

and  i?2  ^^^  resistances  which  may  be  varied  until  no  current  passes 
through  tlie  galvanometer.  AVhen  the  current  through  the  galvano- 
meter is  nothing,  the  ratio  of  the  electromotive  forces  of  the  two 
batteries  is  very  easily  found.  Let  HJ^  and  K2  be  tlie  electromotive 
forces  of  the  two  batteries,  and  -5^  and  B^  their  internal  resistances. 

Kirclioff 's  Second  Law,  when  applied  to  the  closed  figure  embracing 
the  resistance  £^,  H^,  G,  gives, 

JE,  =  (B,  +  7?J  0  (1) 

where  (7  is  the  current  traversing  the  circuit. 

The  same  law  when  applied  to  the  closed  figure  r,  B,^,  B.^,  G,  gives 

B,=  (r  +  B,  +  B,)0  (2) 

Dividing  (1)  by  (2) 


(3) 


In  order  to  use  this  formula,  we  must  know  the  values  of  i?^  and 
B^.  These  may  be  determined  thus :  Give  to  B.,  a  little  different 
value,  and  vary  B^  until  there  is  again  no  current  going  through  the 
galvanometer.  Repeat  this  operation  with  still  a  ditferent  value  of 
B^,  and  there  will  be  three  different  values  of  the  ratio  of  the  elec- 
tromotive forces,  which  will  give  three  equations  to  determine  B^,  B^, 

E 
and  —^.     B.  and  R„  are  most  conveniently  made  large ;   and  in  this 

case,  if  extreme  accuracy  is  not  needed,  we  may  neglect  B^  and  B,^ 
compared  with  R^  and  R^. 

It  is,  of  course,  not  necessary  to  have  any  resistance  corresponding 
to  r ;  but  as  it  is  often  possible  to  get  quite  accurate  results  by  making 
R^  and  ^2  small  resistances,  and  then  varying  r  by  means  of  a 
rheostat  until  no  current  traverses  the  galvanometer,  a  resistance  r 
is  inserted  in  the  figure. 

Tlie  chief  advantages  of  this  method  are  :  — 

1st,  its  great  accuracy. 

2d,  that  the  current  through  the  galvanometer  is  made  zero. 

3d,  that  the  circuit  does  not  have  to  be  broken  during  the  com- 
parison. 

4th,  that  the  resistances  of  the  two  batteries  are,  very  readily  ob- 
tained without  altering  any  of  the  adjustments,  if  their  electromotive 
forces  are  constant. 

The   greatest   disadvantage   in    this   arrangement   is    that  a  large 


OF   ARTS    AND   SCIENCES. 


139 


current  passes  through  the  resistance  coils.  The  current  through  the 
coils  may  be  reduced  by  connecting,  through  a  shunt,  the  battery- 
poles  which  are  already  connected  by  the  resistance  coils,  and  in  this 
way  one  can  avoid  all  risk  of  injuriou.^ly  heating  tlie  fine  wire. 

The  use  of  the  shunt  makes  the  formula  which  determines  the  ratio 
of  the  electromotive  force  of  the  two  batteries  a  little  more  complex, 
but  the  mechanical  work  of  the  comparison  is  not  altered. 


Fig.  2. 

C  (Fig.  2)  is  the  strength  of  the  current  going  through  the  un- 
divided circuit.  Cp  and  Cj  are  the  strengtlis  of  the  currents  going 
through  the  shunt  and  through  the  resistance  box  respectively.  Let 
S  be  the  resistance  of  the  shunt, 

(7=  (7,+ Co     and     C^{R^^R.^=  C^.S 

5+ /?!  +  /?, 


.-.  C=Ci 


S 


c.  =  ^ 


cs 


Kirchoff's  Second  Law  gives,  when  applied  to  the  closed  figures 
B^,  R^,  and  G,  and  r,  B.^,  R.,,  and  G, 


B,  =  B,G  + 


R,SC 


5  +  i^i  +  i?2 


(1) 


B.,=  (r  +  B.^)G+^^^^^ 


(2) 


140  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


Dividing  (1)  by  (2) 


E.,         (r  +  B,)  (6  +  E,  +  R.,)  4-  li;S  ^  ' 


wliich  is  the  formula  required. 


NO.  XV.— OX  A  NEW  METHOD   OF  MEASURING  THE   RE- 
SISTANCE OF  A  GALVANIC  BATTERY. 

By  B.  0.  Peirce,  Jr. 
Presented,  March  14,  1877. 

Of  the  many  known  methods  of  measuring  the  resistance  of  a  galvanic 
battery,  only  two,  those  of  Mance  and  Tiiomson,  are  found  to  give 
accurate  results.  A  third  method,  which  seems  to  work  well  in  prac- 
tice, is  this :  — 

A  known  resistance  (r),  a  galvanometer  of  known  resistance  (G^), 
and  the  battery  whose  resistance  is  to  be  measured,  are  joined  up  in 
a  simple  circuit.  The  battery  is  shunted,  and  the  deflection  of  the 
galvanometer  needle  is  noted.  This  shunt  is  now  removed,  and  the 
galvanometer  is  shunted,  so  that  it  gives  the  same  deflection  as  before. 
A  knowledge  of  the  ratio  of  the  resistances  of  the  shunts  gives  the 
resistance  of  the  battery  by  means  of  a  simple  formula.  Let  E  be  the 
electromotive  force  of  the  battery,  and  B  its  resistance,  and  let  ^S*  and 
G  be  the  resistances  of  the  shunts.  In  the  expressions  that  follow, 
Cff,  Csi  ^'^d  Ca  denote  currents  passing  through  the  galvanometer  and 
the  two  shunts  respectively. 

When  the  battery  is  shunted,  the  whole  current  in  the  circuit  is 

8^  r  -}-  G 

Kirchoff 's  Laws  give 

(7  =  Cff  -I-  C;    and     (T^ .  ^  =  Ga{r  +  G) 

therefore 

C^G,^A±L^r_0)  ^2) 

o 


OF   ARTS   AND    SCIENCES.  141 

Equating  the  secoud  members  of  (1)  and  (2) 

i:S=  C,|^(r+  G)-lrB{S-\-r-\-G)'^  (3) 

When  the  battery  shunt  is  removed,  and  a  shunt  put  across  the 
terminals  of  the  galvanometer,  the  whole  current  traversing  the 
circuit  is 

Kirchoff's  Laws  give 

C  =  Ca-\-  a    and     C^.G=  Cg.G 
therefore 

C  =  C,  (^i^)  (5) 

Equating  the  second  members  of  (4)  and  (5) 

Ea=  cJ^G<s^(r  +  B)  {G-]-o)^  (6) 

Dividing  (3)  by  (6)  and  cancelling,  we  have,  since  the  current 
passing  through  the  galvanometer  is  the  same  in  both  cases, 

[f7(T  +  (r  +  i?)  ( (?  +  o)-]S  =  \_S{r  J^  G) -\- B{S -\- r  Jr  G)']a 
or  if 


(;._|_    G)8—   G 


In  practice,  the  terminals  of  r  are  connected  to  the  galvanometer 
and  to  the  battery  respectively  by  binding-screws  with  three  wire 
holes  in  each.  One  terminal  of  a  Wheatstone's  Rheostat  is  perma- 
nently fastened  to  one  pole  of  the  battery,  and  the  other  terminal  is 
connected,  first  with  the  binding-screw  on  one  side  of  r,  and  then  with 
that  on  the  other  side.  The  handle  of  the  Rheostat  is  to  be  turned 
until  the  galvanometer  needle  gives  the  same  deflection  in  the  second 


142  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

case  as  in  the  first,  and  the  ratio  of  the  lengths  of  the  shunt  are  taken 
to  represent  the  ratio  of  their  resistances. 

With  a  piece  of  uncovered  copper  wire,  not  more  than  two  metres 
long,  and  a  resistance  r  equal  to  only  twenty-four  one  hundredths 
of  an  ohm,  I  have  obtained  results  which  are  quite  as  good  as  those 
obtained  witli  a  box  of  resistance  coil,  using  Thomson's  method. 

r  should  be  a  small  resistance  of  not  over  five  ohms  for  a  long-coil 
galvanometer,  and  not  over  three  ohms  for  a  short-coil  galvanometer. 
This  method  offers  some  advantages  over  that  of  Thomson,  but  it  is 
not  generally  as  good  as  the  method  due  to  Mance. 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  143 


XII. 


NOTE  OX  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  THE  LAW  OF  PROPA- 
GATION OF  HEAT  IN  THE  INTERIOR  OF  A  SOLID 
BODY. 

By  B.  O.  Peirce,  Jr. 

Presented  April  11th,  1877. 

Newton's  experiments  upon  the  amount  of  heat  communicated  from 
a  body  ^  to  a  neighboring  body  B,  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
A,  led  him  to  think  that  this  amount  was  directly  proportional  to  the 
difference  of  temperature  between  the  two  bodies.  In  180o.  Biot, 
assuminof  that  Newton's  results  were  reliable,  conceived  that  the  same 
law  must  hold  for  the  communication  of  heat  between  two  neighboring 
molecules  in  the  interior  of  a  solid  body,  and  he  compared  the  observed 
temperatures  at  different  points  of  a  long  bar  heated  at  one  end  with 
the  temperatures  calculated  on  the  assumption  that  the  flux  of  heat 
in  the  direction  x  is  represented  by 

dv 
dx 

where  y.  is  constant  for  the  same  body  and  v  is  the  temperature  of  the 
point  under  consideration.  Fourier  —  whose  "  Tlieorie  de  la  Chaleur  " 
was  written  in  1811,  but  not  published  until  1822  —  followed  Biot 

in  assuming 

dv 
dx 

to  represent  the  flux  of  heat  in  the  inside  of  a  body,  and 

7   dv 
dx 

the  radiation  at  its  surface,  where  x  and  h  are  different  constants  which 
he  calls  respectively  the  "  conducibilite  propre "  and  '•  condiicibilite 
relative  a  I'air  atmospherique."  Just  before  Fourier's  work  was 
publijjhed,  MM.  Dulong  «nd  Petit  showed  that  the  amount  of  heat 
communicated  from  one  body  to  another  depends  not  only  upon  the 


144  PROCEEDINGS   OP  THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

difference  of  their  temperatures,  but  also  upon  the  absolute  tempera- 
tures of  each.  Poisson  published,  in  1835,  his  ''Theorie  de  la  Chaleur," 
in  which  he  assumed  that  the  expression  which  Dulong  and  Petit  had 
given  for  the  loss  of  heat  from  radiation  also  represents  the  passage 
of  the  heat  from  molecule  to  molecule  in  the  interior  of  the  body. 
Libri,  shortly  before  Poisson's  book  was  pu!)li>hed,  presented  to  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  a  paper  in  which  he  assumed  that  Fourier  and 
Biot  were  correct  in  their  hypothesis  that  the  internal  flux  of  heat 
could  be  written 

,   dn 

dx 

but  that  the  law  of  extra  radiation  was  that  stated  by  Dulong  and 
Petit.  In  1837,  Kelland  published  his  "Theory  of  Heat."  He 
applied  Libri's  hypotheses  to  the  problem  of  determining  the  final 
distribution  of  heat  in  a  ring,  and  showed  that  the  solution  thus 
arrived  at  was  not  very  different  from  that  wliich  Fourier  had  de- 
termined. In  other*  respects,  Kelland  simply  gave  Fourier's  work 
with  corrections,  as  his  object  was  to  furnish  a  book  for  students. 
In  1841,  Professor  Kelland  made  a  report  to  the  British  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science  "  On  the  Present  State  of  our 
Theoretical  and  Experimental  Knowledge  of  the  Laws  of  Conduction 
of  Heat." 

In  this  report,  Kelland  says  that,  although  olyections  might  be  made 
to  the  particular  assumptions  of  Fourier,  Libri,  and  Poisson,  it  is  very 
probable  that  the  flux  of  heat  in  the  interior  of  a  body  may  be  written 

where  c  is  a  constant  depending  upon  the  bofly  and  /{i")  is  some  un- 
determined function  of  the  temperature.  Kelland  assumed  a  particular 
value  for  f{v),  and  compared  the  temperatures  calculated  from  the 
different  hypotheses  of  Fourier,  Libri,  Poisson,  and  himself,  with  the 
corresponding  temperatures  observed  by  Biot  in  his  experiments  upon 
long  bars.  This  comparison  does  not  give  the  jDreference  to  any  one 
of  the  different  assumptions.  Since  1841,  nothing  of  any  importance 
has  been  done,  so  far  as  I  know,  in  the  general  theory  of  heat  con- 
duction. Lame,  whose  "Theorie  de  la  Chaleur"  was  published  in 
18G2,  follows  Fourier  in  his  hypotheses,  and  those  writers  who,  like 
Sir  William  Thomson,  have  had  occasion  to  discuss  practical  questions 
about  the  cooling  of  bodies,  have  also  made  the  same  assumptions, 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  145 

since  the  error  thus  introduced  into  their  calculations  is  necessarily 
less  than  those  arising  from  eri-ors  in  observing  the  phenomena. 

Dulong  and  Petit's  experiments  showed  that  Fourier's  assumption 
with  regard  to  the  flux  of  heat  at  the  surface  of  a  body  due  to  ladia- 
tion  was  wrong,  and  Principal  Forbes's  experiments  upon  heated 
metallic  bars  showed  that,  in  order  to  write  the  ^ux  of  heat  in  the 
interior  of  a  body 

do 

dx 

X  must  be  regarded  as  a  function  of  the  temperature.     Forbes's  ex- 
periments evidently  offer  no  objection  to  Kelland's  hypothesis,  for 

—  q,(v)$         and        —  c  ^M 
dx  dx 

are  equivalent  expressions,  if 

(p{v)  =  cf'(v). 

The  first  step  in  determining  the  form  of  the  function y  is  made  by 
showing  that  it  must  satisfy  a  differential  equation  which  when  the 
heated  body  is  at  its  final  state,  reduces  to  Laplace's  Equation. 

Consider  the  element  of  volume  dxdydz,  which  has  one  of  its 
angles  at  the  point  (x,  y,  z)  and  its  diagonally  opposite  angle  at 
{x  -\-  dx,  y  -\-  dy,  z  -\-  dz).  During  the  instant  dt,  the  flux  of  heat 
across  that  face  of  the  element  which  contains  the  point  (x,  y,  z)  and 
is  parallel  to  the  coordinate  plane  xy,  is 

F{v,  z)=  —  c  ^  dxdydt. 

The  amount  of  heat  which  flows  out  at  the  opposite  face  of  the 
element  is  obtained  by  developing  -F(t',  z)  by  Taylor's  Theorem : 

F(v  J^dv,z-\-dz)=  —  c  ^  dxdydt  —  c  ^^  dxdydzdt. 

The  flux  across  the  second  face  is  less  than  the  flux  across  the  first 
face  by 

c        I '  dxdydzdt. 

Considering  each  of  the  other  pairs  of  opposite  faces,  it  is  evident  that 
in  the  instant  dt  a  quantity  of  heat  equal  to 

VOL.  XII.       (n.  S.    IV.)  10 


146  PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

have  been  arlderl  to  the  element.  Let  Q  be  the  total  amount  of  heat 
in  the  molecule,  then 

If  Laplace's  Operator  is  written  "  —  V^," 

-^  =  —  cV-f(v)  dxdydz. 

Let  s  be  the  specific  heat  of  the  body  which  Dulong  and  Petit  have 
shown  to  be  a  function  of  the  temperature,  and  lets  =  ^\v),  then 

d^Q  ^  d^v  .  "^'s  .  dxdydz, 

^^(^)  4f  =  -  "^'-^(^^ 
If  r"^  =  x^  -{-  ip'  and  (jp  =  tan"~^  — 

—  \/Hiv\  =  ^!^  -J-  ^'^")  I  ^/Tf)  ,  ^y» 

-^  ^  ^  df^    ">     r^  .  cl(t>-^  "I"  r  .  dr  "^   dz^ 

•'  '^'^''^  ir  =  +  '  [d7^  +  77dF+  ?W^  +  d7^)-^^'^ 

If  the  body  has  reached  its  final  state,  the  element  loses  as  much  heat 
in  any  given  time  as  it  gains,  so  that  f(^v)  must  satisfy  Laplace's 
Equation,  or 

vy(r)  =  0. 

Consider  a  thin  plate  of  metal  of  practically  infinite  extent,  and 
of  which  all  points  are  at  a  uniform  temperature.  Let  this  plate  be 
laid  upon  and  covered  witii  some  perfectly  non-conducting  material,  so 
that  there  can  be  no  flux  of  heat  perpendicular  to  the  [)lane  of  the 
plate,  and  let  a  single  point  be  heated  by  means  of  a  copper  wire 
pushed  through  the  non-conducting  material  upon  which  the  f)late  lies. 

There  will  be  a  fiux  of  heat  from  tlie  heated  point  in  all  directions 
in  the  plane  of  the  plate ;  and,  if  the  plate  is  homogeneous,  the  flux 
will  be  the  same  in  all  azimuths. 

After  the  plate  has  reached  its  final  state,  the  amount  of  heat  added 
to  each  element  of  the  plate  will  be  the  same  that  flows  out  of  it,  and 
dQ  =  0.  If  the  plate  lies  in  the  coordinate  plane  xy,  there  will  be 
no  flux  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  z,  and  hence 

d'f{")  —  0 . 
-d7^ ^' 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  147 

and,  if  the  plate  is  homogeneous, 

Therefore /(r)  must  be  a  solution  of  the  differential  equation 
or  f{v)  =  J  +  i?  log  r, 


and  the  flux  =  —  c 


clf\v)  ^cB 

dr  r 


Consider  a  second  plate  of  metal  in  every  way  like  the  first,  only  that 
it  is  heated  at  two  points  by  means  of  a  Y  shaped  piece  of  copper 
which  is  itself  heated  at  its  stem.  The  two  arms  of  the  Y  are  pushed 
through  the  non-conducting  material  and  are  of  equal  lengths,  so  that 
the  two  points  shall  be  equally  heated. 

If  Tj  and  r^  are   the  distances  of  any  point  from  the  two  heated 
points,  it  is  evident  from  the  theory  of  conjugate  functions  that 

f(v)  is  constant  along  any  curve  of  the  system  [j\r..^  =  const.]  If  a 
is  the  distance  of  the  heated  points  from  each  other,  the  equation  of 
the  system  of  curves  for  any  one  of  which /'(y)  is  constant  may  be 
written 

(x^  +  /)((x-ar +  /)=!'. 

Before  the  plate  is  imbedded  in  the  non-conducting  material,  let  it 
be  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  a  mixture  of  parafRne,  rosin,  and  wax, 
and  after  it  has  been  heated  long  enough  to  have  sensibly  reached  its 
final  state  let  the  source  of  heat  be  removed;  then,  if  there  is  a 
clean  line  of  demarcation  between  the  wax  that  has  been  melted  and 
that  which  has  not,  the  form  of  one  of  the  isothermals  can  be  studied 
at  leisure.  Wherever  y(r)  is  constant,  v  must  be  constant  unless  f(^v) 
is  an  equation  of  an  infinitely  high  degree,  which  is  inadmissible;  and 
conversely,  if  v  is  constant  along  any  curve, /(y)  must  also  be  constant 
at  all  points  on  that  curve.  If  the  isothermal  traced  by  the  melted 
wax  is  a  curve  whose  equation  is  i\r^  =  c,  it  will  be  safe  to  assume 
that  the  flux  of  heat  in  the  intei'ior  of  a  body  is 

_  c  "^^^"^ 


148  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

as  Kellaud  assumed.  By  use  of  a  suitable  arrangement,  it  would  be 
very  easy  to  use  such  ranges  of  temperature  as  should  make  the 
experiment  decisive.  If  the  points  were  unequally  heated  by  accident, 
the  wax  curve  would  not  be  symmetrical  with  respect  to  a  line  per- 
pendicular to  that  joining  the  two  heated  points.  There  could  be  no 
trouble  with  lack  of  homogeneity  of  the  plate,  as  preliminary  experi- 
ments show  that  from  a  single  heated  point  the  curve  is  perfectly 
symmetrical  and  distinct,  with  a  probable  error  iu  finding  the  line 
of  demarcation  practically  insensible.  I  am  indebted  to  Professor 
Gibbs  for  the  suggestion  that  the  New  Hampshire  Infusorial  Earth 
might  be  advantageously  used  as  an  almost  perfect  non-conductor  of 
heat. 

Whatever  might  be  the  result  of  a  series  of  experiments  like  those 
referred  to  above,  it  is  evident,  from  the  differential  equation,  that 
Fourier's  solution  cannot  be  a  correct  one.  If  the  uniform  tempera- 
ture of  the  plate  were  taken  as  the  zero  of  the  scale,  the  temperature 
of  any  point  in  the  plate  due  to  the  two  heated  points  would  be  tho 
sum  of  the  temperatures  that  would  be  given  to  the  same  point  if  each 
heated  point  acted  alone.  On  this  hypothesis,  it  would  be  very  easy 
to  find  a  point  in  the  plate  so  situated  that,  when  the  plate  had 
reached  its  final  state,  the  point  would  have  a  temperature  nearly 
double  that  which  either  of  the  heated  points  have,  which  is  mani- 
festly absurd.  It  does  not  appear  that  writers  upon  this  subject  have 
noticed  this  fact. 

If  experiment  shows,  as  it  probably  will,  that  the  propagation  of 
heat  in  the  interior  of  a  solid  is  determined  by  the  expression 

—  c^JM, 

dx 

it  will  not  be  hard  to  determine  J{v)  experimentally.  The  infusorial 
earth,  it  is  believed,  will  prevent  any  sensible  loss  of  heat  from  con- 
duction or  radiation,  so  that  the  flow  of  heat  in  the  plate  will  be  de- 
termined solely  by  the  law  of  internal  flux.  Let  a  plate  of  any  metal 
other  than  copper  be  heated  at  a  single  point,  and  after  it  has  reached 
its  final  state  let  the  temperatures  of  the  different  points  of  the  plate 
be  determined  relatively  by  means  of  the  thermoelectric  currents 
obtained  by  touching  different  points  of  the  plate  by  the  copper  ter- 
minals of  a  Thomson's  Short-Coil  Galvanometer.  These  terminals 
are  to  be  held  by  wooden  pincers,  and  pushed  through  the  light  infuso- 
rial earth  so  as  to  explore  the  points  of  any  line  radiating  from  the 
point  where  the  heat  is  applied. 


OF   AETS   AND   SCIENCES.  149 

Let  Tf,,  r^,  r„  r.j,  &c.,  be  a  series  of  points  in  such  a  line  determined 
by  experiment,  so  tliut  the  galvanometer  gives  the  same  deflection 
when  one  terminal  is  at  /•„_!  and  the  other  at  r«  as  it  does  when  the 
first  terminal  is  at  r^  and  the  second  at  r.^.  If  v  is  the  temperature  of 
all  points  upon  the  circle  whose  radius  is  r^,  the  temperature  of  all 
points  at  a  distance  from  the  heated  point  equal  to  r^  will  be  (v  —  V*'), 
and  all  points  at  a  distance  of  Vn  will  have  a  temperature  equal  to 
(v  —  7iVv).  The  temperatures  may  be  determined  as  a  function  of 
r,  [y  =  qr(r)]  by  obtaining  the  equation  of  the  curve  drawn  by 
plotting  the  temperature  as  abscissas  and  the  corresponding  values  of 
r  as  ordinates  ;  and  tlie  form  of  the  function  y  may  be  mathematically 
obtained  from  the  equation. 

/(gr(r))  =  ^'  +  ^'logr, 

A'  is  the  value  of /(f/;(l)). 

Kelland  unintentionally  says  that  the  assumption  of 

dflv) 
^    dx 

as  the  law  of  flux  will  only  necessitate  the  writing  off(v)  instead  of 
V  in  Fourier's  formulas.  This  statement  is  evidently  only  true  when 
these  formulas  refer  to  a  body  which  has  attained  its  final  state. 

Mr.  E.  B.  Lefavour  and  myself  are  engaged  upon  the  experimental 
work  laid  out  in  this  paper. 

Harvard  University,  April  4,  1877. 


150  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 


XIII. 

ANTIGENY,  OR   SEXUAL   DIMORPHISM   IN   BUT- 
•      TERFLIES. 

By  Samuel  H.  Scudder. 

Presented,  March  14,  1877. 

In  bis  work  on  Selection  in  relation  to  sex,  Darwin  discusses  the  dif- 
ference of  coloring  which  frequently  distingui.shes  the  sexes  of  butter- 
flies, and  concludes  that  "the  male,  as  a  general  rule,  is  the  most 
beautiful,  and  departs  most  from  the  usual  type  of  coloring  of  the 
group  to  which  the  species  belongs."  (op.  cit.  i.  390.)  Of  the  first 
proposition  there  can  be  no  doubt;  but,  in  the  second,  two  distinct 
elements  appear  to  be  confounded  :  the  separation  of  these  is  the 
object  of  the  present  eommunicalion. 

Sexual  dimorphism,  or  antigeny,*  as  exhibited  in  butterflies,  is  of 
two  kinds,  —  colorational  and  structural.  Colorational  antigeny  again 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  the  first  including  those  cases  in 
which  it  is  partial  ;  the  second,  those  in  which  it  is  complete. 

As  one  example  of  partial  antigeny,  we  may  take  Ci/aniris  pseudar- 
giolus  (Boisd.-LeC).  In  the  south,  a  portion  of  the  females  of  the 
spring  brood  have  the  upper  surface  of  the  wings  uniformly  brown ; 
another  portion  have  the  greater  part  blue,  like  the  male  ;  in  the  north, 
all  the  females  are  blue.  In  Jasoniades  Turnus  (Linn.),  the  males,  and 
in  the  north  all  the  females,  are  yellow  above,  heavily  banded  with 
black ;  in  the  south,  a  large  proportion  of  the  fem;des  have  lost  the 
yellow  ground,  and  become  wholly  black  ;, while  others  retain  the 
universal  ground-tint  of  the  male.  The  dark  female  of  Atrytone 
Zahuloa  (Boisd.-LeC.)  was  for  a  long  while  considered  a  species  dis- 
tinct from  the  normal  female,  in  which  the  tawny  colors  of  the  male 
are  shared  by  its  mate. 

*  This  term,  signifying  opposition  or  rlivcrsity  of  the  sexes,  is  proposed  to 
avoid  circumlocution;  for  tliere  are  so  ni;iny  forms  of  sexual  dimorphism 
requiring  specific  names,  that  a  compound  term  for  the  general  phenomenon 
becomes  inconvenient. 


OF    ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  151 

These  are  all  cases  of  melanism,  and  may  be  taken  as  examples  of  a 
class;  in  the  first  two,  perhaps  iu  all,  it  is  only  toward  the  southern 
part  of  the  insect's  range  that  the  melanism  appears,  and  is  in  accord- 
ance with  the  general  rule  that  melanic  antigeny  is  more  common  at 
the  south,  while  its  opposite,  albinism,  is  more  frequent  toward  the 
north. 

Albinism,  for  instance,  is  a  common  feature  in  the  northern  genus 
Enrynms.  In  our  common  E.  Philodice  (God.)  and  E.  Earytheme 
(lioisd.),  many  females  may  be  found  in  which  the  bright  yellow  or 
orange  of  the  upper  surface  is  replaced  by  a  sordid  greenish-white; 
and  if  we  go  farther  north,  or  to  higher  altitudes,  we  shall  tiud  other 
species,  iu  which  the  albinism  has  become  complete,  affecting  all  the 
females. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that,  while  albinic  antigeny  finds  its 
most  complete  expression  in  high  tem[)erate  regions,  and  melanic  an- 
tigeny prevails  toward  the  tropics,  the  albinic  females  of  a  partially 
antigenic  sj^ecies  never  appear  in  the  spring  brood,  but  increase  in 
numbers  throughout  the  hot  season ;  while,  at  least  iu  the  case  of  the 
blue  butterfly  mentioned,  the  melanic  females  emerge  in  early  spring, 
are  confined  to  this  biood,  and  are  replaced  in  warmer  weather  by  the 
gynandromorphic  females ;  thus,  spring  apparition  appears  to  be  corre- 
lated with  southern  distrIl)ution,  and  summer  apparition  WMth  northern 
distribution  :  these  two  phenomena  appear,  in  either  case,  to  be  directly 
antagonistic. 

Although  both  albinism  and  melanism  may  become  complete,  par- 
tial antigeny,  wherever  it  exists,  is  confined  to  the  phenomena  of 
melanism  and  albinism,  and  does  not  extend  to  the  more  varied  forms 
of  complete  colorational  antigeny,  to  which  reference  will  now  be 
made. 

In  the  male  of  Xanthidla  Nicippe  (Cram.),  the  black  bordering 
band  of  the  wings  is  sharply  defined,  and  extends  across  the  entire 
outer  margin  ;  in  the  female,  the  band  is  blurred,  and  stops  abruptly 
before  it  reaches  the  lower  angle  of  the  front  wings,  or  has  half  trav- 
ersed the  hind  wings.  In  Redone  Brettus  (Boisd.-LeC),  the  female  is 
very  dark-brown,  almost  black,  with  two  little  yellow  spots  in  the 
middle  of  the  front  wings  ;  while  the  male  differs  totally,  being  tawny 
with  indented  brown  borders  and  an  oblique  black  dash  in  the  middle 
of  the  front  wings  :  at  first  glance,  no  one  could  suppose  them  iden- 
tical. In  Semnopsyche  Diana  (Cram.),  the  male  is  a  rich  dark-brown 
with  a  very  broad  fulvous  margin  upon  all  the  wings,  marked  on  the 
front  wings  by  one  or  two  rows  of  black  spots.     The  female,  on  the 


152  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Other  hand,  is  a  ricli  purple-black,  with  no  trace  of  fulvous,  but  with 
the  space  where  it  belDiigs  occupied  on  the  fore  wings  by  three  rows 
of  white  spots  and  dashes,  and  on  the  hind  wings  by  two  belts  of  blue, 
broken  into  spots,  one  of  the  belts  narrow,  the  other  exceedingly  broad. 
In  Erora  lata  (Edw.),  the  male  is  wholly  brown,  with  a  border  of 
deep  blue  on  a  23oi'tion  of  the  hind  wings ;  while  in  tiie  female,  the 
blue  has  extended  so  as  to  cover  almost  all  the  hind  wings,  and  even 
the  base  of  the  fore  wings.  But  it  is  in  the  Coppers  (  Villicantes)  that 
this  ph(?nomen<)ii  is  most  common.  Here  the  females  are  usually  of  a 
fulvous  color  heavily  spotted  with  black,  and  particularly  noticeable 
for  their  conspicuous  broad  dark  border,  and  a  row  of  spots  crossing 
the  wing  beyond  the  middle ;  while  the  males  are  either  of  some  dark- 
brown  shade  with  a  purplish  gloss,  or  of  a  fiery  hue,  almost  always 
without  any  border  or  spots. 

Now  in  all  these  cases  of  colorational  antigeny,  it  is  the  female,  and 
never  the  male,  which  first  departs  from  the  normal  type  of  coloring 
of  the  group  to  which  the  species  belongs.  Occasionally  the  feminine 
peculiarity  has  been  transmitted  to  the  male,  and,  by  this  means,  a  new 
type  of  coloration  estal)lished  in  the  group ;  but  I  recall  no  case  where 
the  male  alone  departs  from  the  general  type  of  coloring  pecidiar  to  the 
group.  This  is  precisely  the  opposite  conclusion  to  that  wliicli  Darwin 
reached.  He  gives  several  examples  on  the  authority  of  Bates,  which 
certainly  favor  his  conclusion,  but  may,  at  the  same  time,  be  explained 
from  the  opposite  point  of  view.  He  gives  other  examples  from  the 
European  blue  butterflies,  which  not  only  do  not  support,  but  even 
oppose,  his  general  statement. 

Take  the  case  of  Semn.  Diana,  than  which  we  could  hardly  find  a 
stronger,  since  the  group  {Dnjades)  to  which  it  belongs  is  remarkably 
uniform,  exhibiting  in  all  its  numerous  membei's  the  same  character- 
istic play  of  fulvous  and  black  markings.  Tiie  male  of  S.  Diana  is 
indeed  very  unlike  most  otlier  fritillaries,  but  it  retains,  nevertheless, 
abundant  traces  of  the  same  style  of  ornamentation,  and  has  precisely 
the  same  colors,  while  the  female  departs  widely  from  the  charac- 
teristic features  of  ornamentation,  and,  in  addition,  loses  every  trace 
of  fulvous,  so  that  no  one  at  first  glance  woidd  recognize  it  as  a 
member  of  the  group.  Take  again  Earyinus  Philodice  and  its 
allies.  In  some  species,  indeed,  there  are  only  pale  females  ;  but  in 
others  all,  or  most  of  the  females,  are  yellow  or  orange,  like  the  males  ; 
and  any  one  who  knows  how  yellow  and  orange  tints  prevail  through- 
out the  group  of  Fugacia  will  acknowledge  that  the  color  of  the  males 
is  normal.     So  too  with  the  Blues  {^Adolescentes),\\\\\(A\  Larwiu  him- 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  153 

self  quotes  :  in  almost  all  of  them,  both  males  anrl  females  are  of  some 
shade  of  blue  ;  in  comparatively  few,  the  males  are  blue  and  the  femnles 
brown  ;  in  exceedingly  few,  both  sexes  are  brown  ;  and  the  very  fact 
that  they  are  familiarly  known  as  "  Blues"  is  a  popular  recognition  of 
the  prevailing  color.  In  the  group  of  Skippers  to  which  H.  Brettus 
belongs  (^Aslyn),  tiie  prevailing  colors,  at  least  in  the  temperate  zones, 
are  certainly  tawny  and  black,  or  brown  ;  the  latter,  marginal.  This 
is  the  case  with  the  male  of  H.  Brettns,  while  the  female  diverges 
from  the  type  in  becoming  wholly  brown.  In  Jusonlades  TiiniHS, 
where  we  sometimes  have  a  black  female,  it  is  more  ditficult  to  decide 
what  should  be  considered  tiie  normal  color,  owing  to  diversity  of  view 
upon  the  relationship  of  many  of  the  Swallow-tails  ;  but.  to  judge  only 
from  those  agreed  by  all  to  be  most  nearly  allied  to  it,  there  can  be  no 
question  whatever  that  the  striped  char.icter  prevails. 

It  will  also  be  noticed,  in  this  last  case  and  others  given,  that  wher- 
ever partial  antigeny  or  dimor[)liism  is  confined  to  one  sex, it  is  always 
to  the  female :  there  seems  to  be  no  exception  to  this  rule.  In  these 
instances,  on  my  hypothesis,  half  of  the  females  depart  from  the  type ; 
on  Darwin's,  half  of  the  females,  and  ail  of  the  males.  But  if,  on  Dar- 
win's theory,  sometimes  one-half,  and  sometimes  three-quarters  of  a 
species  has  diverged  from  the  type,  why  does  it  never  happen  that 
only  one-fourth  of  the  sjiecies  diverges  ?  This  seems  to  be  a  very  per- 
tinent and  damaging  inquiry. 

The  instances  given  by  Darwin,  which  strongly  sustain  his  view, 
are  drawn  from  specimens  of  the  Sotith  American  genus  Epicalia, 
found  in  the  rich  cabinet  of  Mr.  Bates.  The  facts,  as  stated  by  him.  are 
these  :  There  are  twelve  sjjecies  of  the  genus  discussed  by  him  ;*  of 
these,  nine  have  gaudy  males  and  plain  females  ;  one  has  plain  male 
and  plain  female  ;  and  two  have  gaudy  males  and  gauily  females.  The 
plain  females,  he  adds,  ''  resemble  each  other  in  their  general  type  of 
coloration,  and  likewise  resemble  both  sexes  in  several  allied  genera, 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  world."  To  examine  this  case  fairlv 
would  need  a  large  collection  of  exotic  butterflies.  If  we  confine  our- 
selves to  Epicalia,  we  evidently  cannot  say  whether  the  gaudy  or  the 
plain  coloring  be  normal :  there  would  be  less  variation  from  the 
standard  on  the  supposition  that  the  gaudy  were  the  normal  t3'pe,  and 
in  this  case  it  is  the  female  which  has  departed  from  the  type  ;  but  the 
difference  is  not  enough  to  form  an  objection.  It  is  only  when  we 
look  outside  of  Epicalia  that  judgment  seems  to  lean  toward  Darwin's 

*  Kirby,  in  his  last  general  catalogue,  gives  fifteen. 


154  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

side ;  but,  from  the  unfortunate  want  of  material,  I  cannot  fairly  dis- 
cuss this  point. 

Take,  however,  another  case,  which  appears  to  be  equally  compli- 
cated,—  our  native  Coppers  (Villicaiites).  We  have  one  species  in 
which  both  sexes  are  fiery  red  marked  with  black  ;  another  where  both 
are  fulvous  marked  with  black  ;  others  where  both  sexes  are  brown ; 
and  several  where  the  male  is  brown,  marked  with  fulvous,  and  the 
female  fulvous,  marked  with  brown  ;  others  where  the  male  is  wholly 
brown,  and  the  female  fulvous,  spotted  with  brown ;  and  again  others 
with  fiery  male,  and  brown  female.  We  have  nearly  every  possible 
variation,  but  the  prevalent  feature  is  a  dark  male,  often  with  more  or 
less  metallic  reflections,  which  sometimes  increase  so  as  to  give  the 
insect  a  fiery  copper  hue ;  and  a  fulvous,  spotted,  and  margined  female. 
I  do  not  see  how  we  can  po.^sibl}'  discover,  with  any  certainty,  fi'om 
within  tlie  limits  of  the  group  of  Coppers,  what  sliould  be  considered 
the  normal  type.  Nor  are  we  much  better  off  in  an  examination  out- 
side the  group:  there  the  prevailing  tint  is  either  brown  or  blue; 
and  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  brown,  tending  strongly  to  copper, 
should  be  considered  the  normal  type  ;  in  which  case  the  males  are 
normal,  and  the  species  generally  antigenic. 

But  sexual  dimorphism  is  not  confined  to  color  or  pattern  ;  there  is 
also  structural,  as  well  as  colorational,  antigeny.  This  term  embraces 
all  those  minor  features  which,  in  these  and  other  animals,  have  been 
classed  as  accessory  or  secondary  sexual  peculiarities.  Structural 
antigeny  is  always  complete,  and,  in  direct  opposition  to  the  features 
we  have  been  discussing,  is  wholly  confined  to  the  males. 

In  butterflies,  structural  antigeny  is  mostly  confined  to  the  wings 
and  the  legs  ;  occasionally  it  appears  in  the  antennfe.  Sometimes  it 
affects  the  contour  of  the  wings.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous  cases 
among  our  own  butterflies  is  in  Slrymon  Titus  (Fabr.),  where  the  fore 
wings  of  the  male  have  a  poinded  tip,  and  the  hind  wings  have  the 
inner  angle  sharply  defined  ;  while  in  the  female  both  the  tip  of  the 
fore  wings  and  the  inner  angle  of  the  hind  wings  are  broadly 
rounded. 

Or  it  may  affect  the  direction  of  the  veins  of  the  wings.  Usually 
the  difference  between  the  sexes  is  slight,  and  concerns  the  point  of 
origin  of  one  or  two  of  the  upper  branches  of  the  subcostal  vein  of  the 
fore  wings  ;  but  occasionally  it  is  very  marked,  as  in  many  hair-streaks, 
such  as  Thecla  Edwardsii  Saund.,  where  the  branches  of  the  sub- 
costal vein  near  the  end  of  the  cell  are  thrown  far  out  of  place  to 
accommodate  a  patch  of  peculiar  crowded  scales ;    this  patch  itself, 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  155 

moreover,  is  a  feature  of  the  males  alone,  and  occurs  in  many  hair- 
streaks  wliere  the  position  of  the  veins  is  not  altered. 

One  of  the  most  curious  patches  of  tliis  kind  is  found  in  the  males 
of  some  species  of  Eurymus,  althouj^h  wholly  absent  from  others  inti- 
mately allied  to  them.  It  is  a  little  patch  of  lustreless  scales,  which 
occurs  at  that  part  of  the  base  of  the  hind  wings  which  is  always  cov- 
ered by  the  front  wings,  so  that  it  is  quite  concealed  from  sight. 
Patches  of  a  different  nature  also  mark  the  male  sex  ;  thus,  next  the 
middle  of  the  lower  median  vein  of  the  hind  wing  of  Danaida  Plexip- 
pus  (Linn.),  and  in  some  of  its  allies,  we  have  a  heavy  thickening  of 
the  membrane,  conspicuous  from  its  covering  of  black  scales. 

In  very  many  males  of  the  larger  Skippers  {Hesperides),  the  front 
edge  of  the  fore  wing  is  abnormally  expanded,  and  folded  compactly 
upon  the  upper  face  of  the  wing,  so  snugly  that  often  it  can  oidy  be 
discovered  with  the  lens;  moreover  tlie  scales  within  this  have  turned 
to  white  silken  floss,  which,  when  the  fold  is  raised,  contrast  conspicu- 
ously with  tiie  ordinarily  dark  surface  of  this  part  of  the  wing.  In 
certain  Swallow-tails  (E(/m'tes)  also,  the  inner  border  of  the  hind  wings 
is  folded  back  in  a  similar,  though  looser,  manner  ;  but  is  so  much  lar- 
ger that,  when  opened,  it  often  exposes  a  white  downy  surface  as  large 
as  the  abdomen. 

Then  again  there  is  much  variety  of  male  adornment  in  special  mod- 
ifications of  hairs  or  scales  upon  ihe  wings.  The  patch  of  tiie  hair- 
streaks  already  mentioned  is  one  instance  of  this;  another  example 
is  found  among  the  Dryadcs,  in  a  row  of  long,  fulvous,  partially  erect 
hairs  along  the  upper  edge  of  the  cell  of  the  hind  wings  ;  this  is  accom- 
panied by  a  curious  apparent  thickening  of  the  veins  in  tlie  middle  of 
the  fore  wing,  due  altogether  to  the  presence  of  a  multitude  of  small 
and  densely  clustered  black  scales,  crowded  against  the  veins  at  this 
point.  A  faint  oblique  ])atch  of  minute  and  crowded  lustreless  scales, 
accompanied  by  long  silky  hairs,  is  often  seen  crossing  the  wings  of 
some  of  the  Satyrids ;  but  this  feature  finds  fullest  expression  iu  the 
Astyci,  or  smaller  Skippers,  where  a  large  proportion  of  males  liave  a 
patch  or  oblique  dash  of  peculiar  scales  covering  veins  and  membrane 
indiscriminately,  but  usually,  and  in  our  native  butterflies  ahvaj^s,  occu- 
pying the  middle  of  the  front  wing,  and  crossing  the  median  veins 
obliquely  near  their  base.  This  dash  is  variously  formed,  but  the 
scales  which  compose  it  are  much  larger  than  the  ordinai-y  scales,  are 
black,  and  frequently  partially  erect.  They  may  also  differ  in  various 
parts  of  the  patch  itself,  and  alter  its  character  abruptly ;  for  in- 
stance, some  comparatively  huge  and  brilliant  scales  may  occupy  the 


156  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

middle  line,  and  be  buttressed  by  a  multitude  of  minute,  crowded,  lus- 
treless scales  ;  or  there  may  be  at  one  point  a  sort  of  whirlpool  of  large 
party-colored  scales,  imbricated,  in  the  most  regular  fashion,  like  the 
normal  scales,  and,  beyond  them  again,  a  multitude  of  the  minute, 
crowded,  lustreless  fcales.  These  peculiarities,  however,  must  be 
studied  with  a  glass  ;  the  naked  eye  may  indeed  discern  that  the  patch 
differs  in  different  insect?,  but  the  general  effect  in  all  alike  is  a  vari- 
ously formed  velvety  patch  or  olilitpie  streak  of  black. 

It  may  be  remarked,  in  passing,  that  wherever  antigeny,  colorational 
or  structural,  manifests  itself  in  the  wings  of  butterflies,  the  differences 
between  the  sexes  almost  invariably  occur  upon  the  upper  surface,  and 
generally  upon  the  front  wing  only  ;  it  occasionally  happens  that  there 
is  a  slight  difference  in  the  general  tone  of  color  on  the  under  surface  of 
both  sexes,  corresponding  to  what  appears  above,  as  in  Semrwpsyche 
Diana  ;  but  it  rarely  affects  the  markings  of  the  wings.  The  differ- 
ences upon  the  upper  surface,  however,  and  especially  upon  the  fore 
wings,  are,  as  we  have  seen,  often  conspicuous  and  very  curious.  One 
can  scarcely  doubt  tliat  tliis  is  in  direct  relation  with  the  general 
absence  of  all  ornamentation  from  the  lower  surface  of  both  wings,  and 
usually  also  from  the  upper  surface  of  the  hind  wings,  of  moths. 

Sexual  dimorphism  in  the  legs  shows  itself  in  the  proportional  length 
of  the  different  pairs  in  the  two  sexes,  in  the  special  development 
of  certain  joints,  in  the  appendages,  and  in  the  clothing.  It  ap|)ears 
remarkably  in  the  appendages  of  the  two  higher  families  of  butter- 
flies, Nijmphales  and  Rnrules,  and  especially  in  the  latter  family,  where 
the  terminal  appendages  of  the  fore  legs  are  nearly  or  quite  lost  in  the 
males,  and  are  as  cons|)icuous  as  on  the  other  legs  in  the  female.  I  have 
not  discovered  that  the  differences  in  the  length  of  tlie  leg-joints  follow 
any  general  law,  although  tliere  are  few  of  our  butterflies  whose  sexes  do 
not  vary  in  this  particular  ;  this  form  of  antigeny  is  also  most  conspic- 
uous in  the  Rurales.  The  males  of  certain  VilUcantes  (  Chrysophaniis, 
Epidemia,  Heodes,  Feniseca)  also  present  another  curious  feature  in  a 
tumid  swelling  of  the  basal  joint  of  the  middle  and  hind  tarsi.  Finally, 
the  fore  legs  of  the  males  of  Nijmphales  are  frequently  furnished  with  a 
spreading  brush  of  hairs  ;  or,  in  other  butterflies,  the  thighs  and  shanks 
of  the  middle  and  hind  legs  are  supplied  with  curious  pencils  or  fringes 
of  stiff  hair,  which  appear  to  have  the  same  sigaificauce  as  similar 
adornments  in  higher  animals. 

Darwin  supposes  that  these  various  male  appurtenances,  which 
occur  throughout  the  aniratd  kingdom,  have  all  arisen  by  natural  selec- 
tion, —  that  one  of  rival  males  being  selected  as  a  mate  whose  outward 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  157 

cliarms  are  greatest.  He  certainly  brings  powerful  argument  and  a 
strong  array  of  facts  to  support  this  hypothesis ;  but  what  then  shall 
be  said  of  tlie  following  ilhistration  of  structural  antigeuy ;  viz.,  the 
presence  iu  many  males,  but  in  no  females  whatever,  of  scales  of 
the  most  exquisite  beauty  and  delicacy,  scattered  among  tlie  more 
common  sort,  and  invisible  to  the  naked  eye  ?  Even  with  the  help  of 
the  microscope,  they  can  often  only  be  discovered  by  ruffling  the  wing, 
and  forciljly  extracting  them  from  their  concealment;  and,  so  far  as 
we  can  see,  they  give  to  tlie  wing  no  peculiar  character  by  which  it 
may  be  distinguished  from  other  wings. 

These  peculiar  scales,  or  androcouia,  as  they  may  be  called  in  ref- 
erence to  their  masculine  nature,  were  first  noticed  by  Bernard 
Deschamps  more  than  forty  years  ago,*  but  have  never  been  properly 
studied  tliroughout  the  butterflies.  Deschamps  called  them  plumules, 
from  their  feathery  tips  ;  but  the  term  is  utterly  inappropriate  to  most 
of  them  ;  and  their  form  is  so  varied  that  only  some  word  expressing 
their  masculine  character  should  be  accepted,  since  this  is  their  single 
common  peculiarity. 

These  androconia  are  very  capricious  in  their  occurrence ;  a  number 
of  allied  genera  may  possess  them,  while  a  single  genus,  as  closely 
allied,  may  be  quite  destitute.  This  is  true  throughout  the  butterflies, 
and  yet  there  are  large  groups  in  which  they  are  altogether  wanting, 
and  others  in  which  their  absence  is  extremely  rare.  In  the  highest 
butterflies,  they  are  long,  slender,  and  invariably  feathered  at  the  tip. 
In  one  small  group  (the  Hdiconii),  they  are  toothed  as  well  as  feath- 
ered. With  the  exception  of  the  Heliconii,  they  may  generally  be 
distinguished  from  ordinary  scales  by  the  absence  of  any  dentation 
at  the  tip.  In  the  Voracia,  they  are  fringed,  and,  with  a  single  known 
exception,  their  extreme  base  is  expanded  into  a  sort  of  bulb ;  else- 
where, even  in  the  other  Pierids,  they  are  not  fringed,  but  have  a 
smooth  rounded  edge.  In  the  Adolescentes  they  assume  a  battledore 
or  fan  shape,  with  a  smooth  edge,  and  are  generally  beaded,  and  more 
heavily  striate  than  the  scales.  The  same  is  true,  but  with  more  vari- 
ations, in  tiie  Villicantes  and  Ephori,  where  they  have  been  considered 
wanting.  In  the  Equites,  where  also  they  have  been  supposed  to  be 
wanting,  they  differ  but  little  from  the  scales,  but  are  much  smaller 
and  incjre  coarsely  striate.  In  the  Urblcolce,  where  no  one  has  hitherto 
recognized  them,  they  present  the  greatest  variety  in  the  same  individ- 


*  Recherches  microscopiques  ?ur  I'organlsation  des  ailes  des  Le'pidopteres, 
Ann.  Sc.  Nat.  [2]  III.  111-37  (1835). 


158  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

ual  ;  in  one  group  (Hiesperides)  there  are  hair-like  androconia,  and 
others  wliich  are  exceedingly  hirge  and  spindle-shaped.  In  the  Astyei, 
besides  hair-like  and  gigantic  androconia,  there  are  usually  some  which 
are  spoon-shaped,  with  long  handles. 

As  a  general  rule,  these  androconia  are  present  in  the  patches  to 
which  we  have  alluded  as  forming  oue  phase  of  the  antigenic  charac- 
ters of  the  male ;  but  often,  as  in  the  Adolescentes  and  Voracia,  they 
are  scattered  indiscriminately  or  in  rows  over  the  upper  surface  of  the 
wings  ;  and  there  are  many  patches,  like  those  at  the  base  of  tlie  hind 
wings  of  some  Fagacia,  and  next  the  median  vein  of  the  same  wing 
in  Dan.  Plerippus,  where  androconia  are  not  found.  They  do,  how- 
ever, sometimes  occur  in  patches  on  the  hind  wings,  as  in  the  fetid  next 
the  inner  margin  of  the  Equltes  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  discal 
spot  of  the  Ephori,  they  seem  to  be  present  in  all  patches  found  on 
the  front  wings  ;  occasionally  forming  the  principal  part  of  such  patches, 
as  in  the  Callidryades,  and  again  taking  no  part  in  the  display. 
Take,  for  example,  the  Dryades,  where  so  many  small  black  scales 
are  crowded  against  certain  veins  as  to  give  them  a  thickened  appear- 
ance ;  the  androconia  are  also  present  in  great  numbers,  but  entirely 
concealed  ;  only  by  removing  the  scales  can  even  the  tassels  of  their 
long  and  slender  blades  be  seen.  Perhaps  even  more  curious  than 
this  is  the  arrangement  by  which  all  the  androconia  of  the  Equites  and 
Hesperides  are  tightly  enclosed  in  a  fold  of  the  membrane  ;  it  is  not 
impossible  that  this  fold  can  be  opened  at  vvill  by  the  insect,  and  it 
would  then  become  conspicuous,  and  probably  an  attraction  to  the  but- 
terfly's mate  ;  but  what  possible  advantage  can  there  be  in  partially  or 
wholly  concealed  androconia,  scattered  separately  over  the  wing  ?  In 
some  Adolescentes,  they  are  exceedingly  scarce,  numbering  not  more 
than  one  to  a  hundred  scales,  and  the  exposed  surface  of  this  one  not 
one-tenth  that  of  the  scales  about  it.  One  might  search  an  hour  with 
a  microscope  over  an  unruffled  wing  and  overlook  it;  indeed,  it  is  as 
the  merest  speck  of  dust  in  a  dust  heap.  Does  the  siglit  of  these  creat- 
ures surpass  our  power  of  vision  with  the  microscope  ?  The  theory 
of  sexual  selection  proposed  by  Darwin  appears  to  fail  here,  just  where 
it  should  aid  us  most. 


OF   ARTS    AND   SCIENCES.  159 


XIV. 


CHARACTERS   OF   SOME    LITTLE-KNOWN   OR   NEW 
GENERA   OF    PLANTS. 

By  Asa  Gray. 

Read  May  9,  1877. 

CANOTIA,  Torr.,  Genus  Rutacearum. 

Flores  hermaphroditi.  Calyx  parvus,  qiiinquelobus,  persistens ; 
lobis  latis  sestivatione  imbricatis.  Petala  5,  hypogyna,  oblonga,  utrin- 
qiie  obtusissima,  basi  lata  iuserta,  aestivatione  imbricata,  intus  medio 
costa  prominula  instructa,  decidua.  Stamina  5,  hypogyna,  calycis  lobis 
opposita  :  filamenta  subulata,  petalis  parum  breviora,  persistentia : 
antherje  oblongo-cordatae,  introrsae,  sinu  profiindo  apici  acutissimo 
filamenti  affixis,  mucrone  parvo  apiculataj  ;  localis  iutus  longitudi- 
nallter  deiiisceiitibus.  Pollen  madidum  tricorne.  Discus  iiullus.  Ova- 
rium gynobasi  crassa  eoque  multo  ranjore  inferne  leviter  10-sulcata  im- 
positum,  o-loculare,  stylo  crasso  demum  elongando  superatnra  :  stigma 
parvum,  leviter  5-lobum ;  loculis  ovarii  oppositipetalis.  Ovula  in 
loculis  saepissirae  6,  angulo  iuterno  biseriatim  inserta,  subhorizontalia ; 
micropyle  int'era.  Capsiila  ovato-fusiformis,  lignescens,  epicarpio  tenui 
subcarnoso  induta,  5-locularis,  ab  apice  10-valvis  (primum  septicida,  mox 
loculicida),  portionibus  styli  persistens  10-fissilis  superatis  ;  columella 
nulla.  Semina  in  loculis  solitaria  vel  bina  loculum  implentia,  adscen- 
dentia,  subovata,  complanata ;  testa  subcoriacea  creberrime  papillulosa 
inferne  in  alam  latam  membranaceam  nucleo  sublongiorem  producta. 
Embryo  in  strato  tenui  albuminis  carnosi  rectus ;  cotyledoiiibus  ovali- 
bu3  planis  ;  radicula  breviuscula,  infera.  —  Arbuscula  10-'20-pedalis, 
prorsus  apliylla.  glaberrima ;  ramis  alternis  spartioideis  viridibus  rigidis 
nunc  spiuesceutibus  striatulis  cicatricibus  parvis  remotis  brunneis 
notatis ;  inflorescentia  secus  ramulorum  racemiformi ;  pedunculis  bre- 
vissimis  fasciculatim  vel  cymoso-3-7-floris ;  pedicellis  articulatis  ;  brac- 
teis  parvis  squamiformibus  ovato-subulatis  oppositis  deciduis ;  corolla 
alba;  glandulis  ordinis  evanidis. 


160  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Canotia  holacantha,  Toit.  in  Pacif.  R.  Rep.  iv.  G8 ;  Benth.  & 
Hook.  Geu.  i.  616  (where  the  radicle  is  inadverteutly  said  to  be 
superior);  Brewer  &  Watson,  Bot.  Cahf.  i.  190.  —  Arizona,  in  the 
arid  desert  region,  especially  along  mountain  water-courses,  Emory, 
Bigelow,  and  various  other  collectors,  in  fruit,  first  collected  in  flower 
by  Palmer,  and  recently  by  Rothrock  in  Wheeler's  Expedition. 

A  genus  of  hitherto  undetermined  affinity.  Dr.  Torrey,  who  knew 
only  the  fruit,  with  calyx  and  filaments  persistent  at  its  base,  compared 
it  with  Eucryphia  ;  upon  which  Beutham  and  Hooker  appended  it,  alono- 
with  that  genus  and  Euplironia,  to  Rosacea:,  tribe  Qalllajece.  What- 
ever may  be  said  of  those  genera,  this  is  certainly  not  Rosaceous. 
Baillon,  the  first  botanist  to  publish  any  thing  upon  the  genus  since 
the  flowers  were  known,  and  who  describes  the  '•  discum  crlandulosum 
incrassatum "  under  the  ovary  (but  wrongly  describes  the  calyx  as 
valvate  and  the  ovules  as  anatropou-),  refers  Canotia  without  question 
to  Celastracece.*  This  is  better  than  Rosacece,  and  the  inferior  radicle 
tells  in  its  favor,  as  against  the  view  which  I  take,  having  now  for  the 
first  time  examined  the  floweis.  But  I  am  confident  that  the  plant 
belongs  to  the  Rutacece.  The  structure  of  the  gynol)ase,  as  I  should 
call  it,  points  strongly  in  this  direction.  This  large  and  fleshy  or,  when 
dry,  rather  corky  body  upon  which  the  ovary  is  mounted  is  broader 
than  the  latter  in  the  blossom,  as  well  as  of  twice  its  height;  and  is 
so  confluent  with  it  that,  upon  superficial  observation,  it  would  be  taken 
for  a  component  part  of  it.  But  it  is  solid  within,  and  has  a  papillose- 
glandular  surface,  unlike  that  of  the  ovary  it  supports,  which  is  smooth. 
Its  likeness  to  that  of  Rue  is  manifest ;  and  in  Thamnosma  the  same 
body  becomes  stipitiform.  I  find  no  trace  in  Canotia  of  a  proper  disk 
around  the  base  of  this,  which  is  conspicuous  in  Thamnosma,  As  the 
fertilized  ovary  enlarges,  it  soon  becomes  broader  than  the  gynobase 
as  well  as  longer  ;  in  the  fruit  the  latter  so  inconspicuous  that  it  has  been 
ovei'looked.  The  wood  and  bark  are  not  bitter  to  the  taste,  in  the 
manner  of  most  Simarubacece  (which  in  a  comprehensive  consideration 
of  relationships  must  be  taken  along  with  Rutacece),  nor  is  the  surface 
at  all  pustulate-  or  tuberculate-glandular  as  in  Thamnosma.  But  in 
the  petals,  and  especially  in  the  sepals  and  minute  bracts  of  the  inflo- 
rescence, I  discern  evident  traces  of  the  Rutaceous  oil-glands.  Faint 
and  few  though  they  be,  they  suffice  to  confirm  the  affinity. 

There  are  four  of  these  spartioid  green-barked  and  raainl}'^  leafless 
shrubs  in  the  dry  Arizonian  region.      Thamnosma  montanum,  Torr., 

*  Adansonia,  x.  18,  &  Hist,  des  Plantes,  vi.  43,  1875. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  161 

which  is  a  jjenuine  Ratacea ;  Holacantha  Emoryi,  Gray,  an  undoubted 
Siinaruhacea ;  Koeberlinia  spinosa,  Zucc,  which  has  been  referred  to  the 
same  order,  but  is  more  anomalous  ;  and  tinally  Caiiotia  holacantha.^ 
which,  if  I  mistake  not,  must  take  its  place  among  the  typical  Rutacece, 
notwithstanding  some  anomalies. 

The  pollen  of  Canotia,  as  pointed  out  to  me  by  Prof.  Rothrock,  who 
has  supplied  the  best  flowering  specimens  we  possess,  is  exactly  repre- 
sented by  Sach's  figure  of  that  of  Epilobium,  viz.,  that  in  his  Lehrbuch, 
fiir.  349. 


a 


SYMPETALEIA,  Nov.  Gen.  Loasaceariim. 

Calycis  tubus  globoso-obconicus ;  limbus  o-partitus,  lobis  tubo 
sequilongis.  Corolla  (alte  gamopetala !)  hypocraterimorpha ;  tubo 
elongato  subclavato  intus  infra  medium  piloso-annulato ;  limbo  5-par- 
tito,  lobis  rotundatis  testivatione  imbricatis.  Stamina  circiter  25, 
corollte  tubo  sub  fauce  ant  inordinate  ant  5-seriatim  inserta :  fila- 
menta  brevissima,  tenuia :  antherse  subreniformes,  uniloculares,  bival- 
ves. Ovarium  uniloculare  :  stylus  filiformis :  stigmata  5,  brevia, 
conniventia.  Ovula  indefinite  plurima,  placentis  5  parietalibus  in- 
serta. Capsula  subglobosa,  apice  tantum  dehiscens.  Semina  per- 
plurima,  oblonga  ;  testa  tenui  conformi  oblique  striato-costulata. 
Embryo  in  albumine  parco  granuloso  axilis,  rectus,  oblongus ;  cotyle- 
donibus  brevibns. 

Sympetaleia  aurea.  Herba  annua,  humilis,  Eucnidis  facie,  vis- 
coso-hirsutala  et  setis  urentibus  Itevibus  hispida ;  foliis  longe-petiolatis 
rotundato-cordatis  crenatis  vel  3-o-lobatis  ;  pedunculis  termiualibus  et 
supra-axillaribus,  fructiferis  elongandis  recurvis ;  corolla  aurea  semi- 
poUicari.  —  Pulpito  Point,  Lower  California,  Dr.  Thomas  H.  Streets, 
U.  S.  N.     Coll.  in  February,  1875  ? 

In  this  we  have  the  anomaly  of  a  Loasaceous  plant  with  a  truly 
gamopetalous  corolla!  In  Eucnide  of  Zuccarini,  —  a  genus  which  had 
been  merged  in  Mentzella,  but  which  Mr.  Watson,  in  the  Botany  of 
California,  has  properly  reinstated,  —  the  petals  are  united  at  the  very 
base  into  a  ring,  which  bears  the  stamens.  Here  they  are  combined 
into  a  long  tube,  and  even  to  the  base  of  the  spreading  limb,  and  the 
stamens  are  borne  in  and  below  the  throat.  The  imbricated  aestivation 
of  the  corolla  is  shared  by  Eucnide,  Mentzelia,  &c. ;  but  the  one-celled 
anthers,  of  the  Malvaceous  pattern,  are  peculiar.  The  tube  of  the 
calyx  is  completely  adnate  to  the  ovary,  which  is  crowned  by  a  flat 
disk ;  and  the  corolla  is  epigynous.     The  habit  of  the  plant  is  wholly 

VOL.  XII.      (n.  S.    IV.)  11 


162  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    ABIERICAN    ACADEMY 

that  of  J^ucnide.     The  name  choseu  for  the  genus  expresses  its  most 
striking  character,  viz.,  the  union  of  the  petals.* 

LEMMONIA,  Nov.  Gen.  Hydrojphyllacearum. 

Corolla  brevi-campanulata,  sepala  angusto-linearia  hand  superans, 
5-loba,  intus  nuda.  Stamina  brevia,  tubo  corollte  brevissimo  a^qualiter 
inserta :  filamenta  siibulata.  ad  insertionem  subito  dilatata,  quasi  ap- 
pendiculata :  antherce  cordato-didjmEe.  Discus  obscurus.  Ovarium 
ovoideum,  pilosum,  biloculare,  stylis  2  brevibus  superatum  :  stigmata 
capitellata.  Ovula  in  loculis  binis,  superposita,  obovata,  auatropa. 
Capsula  ovoidea,  retusa,  4-sperma,  bivalvis ;  valvis  membranaceis 
semisepta  angusta  firmiora  ferentihus.  Semina  ratione  capsulae  magna, 
obovata,  grosse  rariter  ruguloso-impressa ;  testa  tenui  ca^terum  licvi. 
Embryo  cylindricus,  rectus,  albumine  carnoso  paullo  brevier. 

Lemmonia  Californica.  Herbula  annua,  depressa,  dichotoma, 
sericeo-canescens ;  foliis  alternis  basi  apiceque  ramorum  confertis  spathu- 
latis  integerrimis  ;  floribus  cymoso-congestis  et  in  dichotomis  infimis 
solitariis  subsessilibus  ;  sepalis  albo-villosis  angustissirais  apice  noa 
latioribus,  fructiferis  (lineas  2  longis)  capsulam  superantibus  ;  corolla 
lineam  longa  alba  sen  albida.  —  San  Bernardino  Co.,  California,  on 
Bear  Valley  Creek,  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Mohave  River,  May, 
1876,  J.  G.  Lemmon.  This  interesting  little  plant,  which  was  sent  to 
me  in  a  letter  by  Mr.  Lemmon  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  was  passed 
over  by  me  as  a  Coldenia  §  Tiquiliopsis,  which  it  resembles  in  aspect 
and  especially  in  mode  of  growth.  But  it  proves  to  be  the  type  of  a 
new  geiuis,  somewhat  related  to  Draperia  among  the  Pliacelieoe,  yet 
belonging  jjroperly  to  the  Namece.  It  is  distinguished  from  Nama  by  the 
short  campanulate  corolla  and  correspondingly  short  styles  and  subu- 
late filaments  (the  latter  dilated  and  thickened  at  the  very  insertion 
in  such  manner  as  to  form  a  sort  of  annulus  to  the  corolla-tube),  and 


*  In  the  small  but  interesting  collection  of  plants  of  Lower  California,  made 
b}'  the  discoverer  of  this  genus,  occurs  a  new  Hemizotiia,  the  characters  of  which 
are  here  appended  :  — 

Hemizonia  Streetsii.  §  Hartmannin,  H.  angnstifolkB  et  corijmhosce  sat  affinis, 
humilis,  ramosa  e  radice  annua,  pubescens,  eglandulosa;  foliis  linearibus  nunc 
integerrimis  nunc  inciso-4-5-dentatis ;  capitulis  ramos  terminantibus  brevi- 
pedunculatis  ;  ligulis  ultra  12  biseriatis  elongatis  oblongo-spathulatis,  tubo  brevi 
glanduloso  ;  paleis  receptaculi  convexo-conici  circa  flores  disci  plurimos  steriles 
basi  connatis ;  pappi  paleis  fl.  disci  8-10  lineari-lanceolatis  parum  denticulatis 
corolla  paullo  brevioribus  ;  acheniis  radii  Isevibus.  —  San  Benito  Island,  Lower 
California,  Dr.  Thomas  H.  Streets. 


OF   ARTS    AND   SCIENCES.  163 

by  the  single  pair  of  ovules  to  each  cell,  forming  large  seeds.  The 
latter  are  very  like  those  of  Xama  demissa  and  of  Conanthus.  As  to 
PhaceUa,  which  might  be  thought  polymorphous  enough  to  include 
almost  any  plant  of  this  sort,  even  if  we  disregard  the  technical  char- 
acter of  the  distinct  styles,  yet  the  geminate  ovules  and  seeds  in  this 
plant  are  characteristic,  being  superposed,  while  those  of  Phacelia, 
when  reduced  to  single  pairs,  are  collateral. 

Of  late  years  I  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  associate  the  name  of 
Mr.  J,  G.  Lemmon  with  species  of  his  own  discovery  ;  and  I  seize 
with  satisfaction  the  present  opportunity  of  further  commemorating  the 
services  of  a  most  ardent  and  successful  explorer  of  the  Siena  Nevada 
region,  by  naming  in  his  honor  this  interesting  new  genus  which  he 
alone  has  met  with.  By  the  specific  name,  Californica,  I  indicate  the 
principal  field  of  Mr.  Lemmon's  arduous  explorations. 

ECHINOSPERMUM,    Sect.   Echinoglochin. 

Nuculfe  immargiuatse,  ovato-trigonse,  dorso  (medio  carinulato)  undi- 
que  inordinate  aculeolatoe,  aculeis  tota  longitudine  setulis  retrorsis 
armatis  ;  areola  prope  basim  ovata.  Corollas  lobi  convoluto-imbricati. 
Pedicelli  fructiferi  erecti.     Calyx  fructifer  patens,  nee  reflexus. 

ECHINOSPERMUM  Greenei.  EritHcMo  fulvo  sat  similis,  iiltra- 
spithamoeum,  e  radice  annua  laxe  ramosum,  pilis  albidis  striguloso- 
pubescens  ;  foliis  linearibus  obtusis  ;  racemis  solitariis  geminisve 
laxiusculis  hie  inde  (basi  prtesertim)  folioso-bracteatis ;  calyce  fulvo- 
sericeo-hirsuto ;  lobis  oblongo-Iinearibus  obtusis  corollam  albam  sub- 
sequantibus ;  nuculis  (sesquilineam  lougis)  calyce  brevioribus  inter 
aculeas  sparsas  teretes  {^—\  lineam  longas)  tuberculato-scabris  intus 
acute  carinatis.  —  About  Yreka,  Siskiyou  Co.,  in  the  northern  part  of 
California,  1876,  E.  L.  Greene.  An  additional  and  singular  link 
between  Echinospermum  and  Eritrichlum,  but  technically  belonging  to 
the  former,  if  not  worthy  of  generic  distinction  ;  remarkable  for  having 
the  prickles  glochidiately  barbed  not  merely  at  the  apex,  but  for  their 
whole  length,  and  not  at  all  arranged  in  lateral  ranks. 

ECIIIDIOCARYA,  Gray,  char,  reformatum. 

Calyx  o-partitus  ;  segmentis  sub  fructu  parum  apertis.  Corolla 
rotato-hypocraterimorpha ;  tubo  calycem  suba^quante  lobis  rotundatis 
breviore,  plicis  faucialibus  pi.  m.  intrusis.  Filamenta  brevissima  medio 
tubo  inserta  :  antherge  oblonga?,  inclusee.  Stylus  brevis :  stigma  capi- 
tatum.  Nuculae  ovato-trigonse,  obliquie,  cristulato-rugosas,  dorso  ven- 
treque  carinatse,  in  stipitibus  crassis  aut  discretis  aut  per  paria  coalitis 


164  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

(areolis  pi.  m.  cavis  gynobasin  late  conicara  claudentibus)  incurvo- 
adscendentibus.  —  Herbaj  annuaj,  ditfusaj,  Eritrichii  sect.  Plagiohothri- 
dis  facie  ;  foliis  omnibus  alternis  ;  floribus  parvulis  albis  ;  pube  hirsuta. 
—  Gray  in  Benth.  &  Hook.  Gen.  ii.  854,  &  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  xi.  89. 

Two  species  are  now  known,  of  very  similar  aspect ;  and  it  may 
now  be  said  of  the  senus  that  it  should  stand  between  Eritrichium  and 
Antiphytum. 

EcHiDiocARYA  Artzonica,  Gray,  1.  c.  Corolla  fauce  plicis  mini- 
mis fere  evanidis  parum  constricta  ;  nuculis  parce  cristato-muricatis 
apice  compresso-attenuatis  basi  productis  in  stipites  crassos  iisque  tsqui- 
longos  inferne  connatos,  areola  (paris)  excavata  maxima  cava.  — 
This  species  was  founded  on  a  specimen  collected  by  Dr.  Smart,  of 
such  peculiar  character  of  fruit  that  it  might  have  been  thought  to  be 
abnormal.  But  it  is  now  confirmed  by  additional  specimens,  collected 
in  March  of  this  year,  near  Tucson,  Arizona,  by  my  indefatigable  and 
sharp-sighted  correspondent.  Rev.  E.  L.  Greene.*  It  is  also  confirmed 
essentially,  and  the  character  modified,  by  the  detection  of  a  second 
species,  in  which,  however,  each  nutlet  has  a  wholly  separate  stipe. 
This  species  may  be  named 

EcHiDioCARYA  Californica.  Corolla  majore  (lobis  rotundatis 
lineas  circiter  2  longis)  fauce  plicis  validis  puberulis  clausa ;  nuculis 
minoribus  (lineam  longis)  minus  acutatis  dorso  rugoso-alveolatis 
(rugis  acutis  echinulatis),  stipitibus  bi-evibus  compressis  angulo  ventrali 
supra  basim  ortis  discretis,  areola  carunculiformi  parvula  concava.  — 
South-eastern  California,  in  San  Bernardino  Co.,  1876,  Parry  and 
Lemmon. 

LEPTOGLOSSIS,  Benth.,  subgenus  Brachtglossis. 

Corolla  plane  hypocraterimorpha ;  tubo  filiformi  sub  limbo  rotato  in 
faucem  campanulatam  brevem  stamina  claudentem  subito  modiceque 
ampliato.  Anther*  fertiles  4,  superiores  2-3-plo  minores :  filamenta 
quinta  ananthera.  Ovarium  baud  stipitatum,  disco  tenuiter  cupulato 
subtensum.  Stylus  sub  stigmate  angustiuscule  bilobo  bialatus.  Semina 
{L.  Texance)  subreniformia,  grosse  corrugato-rugosa.  Embryo  in  al- 
bumine  earnoso  sublncurvus.  —  Herbaj  Texano-Mexicante,  humiles,  e 
radice  perenni  diffusa^ ;  floribus  majusculis  ut  videtur  albis. 

Leptoglossis  Texana.  Multicaulis  e  basi  firma  ut  videtur  suf- 
fi'utesceute,  viscido-pubescens :    foliis  spathulato-ovalibus  vel  oblongis 

*  At  the  same  station  Mr.  Greene  likewise  detected  the  most  singular  of  all 
our  Borratjinacfv,  viz.  H(irjia<ioneHa  Palincri,  before  known  only  from  Guada- 
lupe Island,  Lower  California. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  165 

acutis  })lerumque  in  petioluin  brevissimum  marginatum  attenuatis : 
calyce  iufuudibuliformi-Ciimpanulato  pedicello  ajqiiilongo  vel  breviore 
5-deutato,  dentibus  latis  acutiusculis ;  stigmatis  lobis  spathulatis  deor- 
snm  in  apicem  styli  alato-decurrentibus.  —  Nierembergia  {Leptoglossis) 
viscosa,  &  BrowalUa  (Leptoylossis)  Texana,  Torr.  Bot,  Mex.  Bound. 
155,  156.  —  Western  Texas,  AVright,  Bigelow.  Adjacent  Mexico,  at 
San  Carlos,  Berlandier,  no.  3194.  The  two  names  above-cited  refer 
to  the  same  plant.  It  was  probably  intended  that  the  hrst  should  be 
cancelled. 

Leptoglossis  Coulteri.  Puberula ;  caulibus  debilibus  laxis  ; 
foliis  ovatis  oblongisve  tenuiter  petiolatis  ;  pedicellis  longioribus  ; 
calycis  lobis  triangulari-lanceolatis  tubo  turbinato  cequilongis ;  corollas 
fauce  subgibbosa  :  stylo  sub  stigmatis  lobis  subito  latissirae  alato. — 
Mexico,  coll.  Coulter,  no.  1346. 

In  habit  and  foliage  these  two  plants  are  not  unlike  Bouchetia,  a 
genus  established  by  Benthara  and  Hooker  upon  one  of  DeCandolle's 
two  species.  The  corolla  is  that  of  Nierembergia,  except  that  the 
limb  is  even  flatter,  or  completely  rotate,  and  the  stamens  are  included 
in  a  short  and  abrupt  but  small  faucial  enlargement  of  the  very 
summit  of  the  tube.  The  five  filaments  are  all  short,  not  far  from 
equal  in  length  ;  the  posterior  destitute  of  anther ;  the  upper  anthers 
small,  but  polliniferous ;  the  lower  pair  with  far  larger  fertile  anthers. 
These  characters  generally  accord  with  Leptoglossis,  Beuth.,  except  ia 
the  shortness  and  comparative  small ness  of  the  throat,  wliich  in  true 
Leptoglossis  is  tubular-funnelform  and  continued  downward  for  con- 
siderable distance,  thus  giving  the  filaments  greater  length  and  lowness 
of  insertion.  In  the  style,  these  plants  partake  of  the  peculiar  charac- 
ter of  the  related  genus  Reyesia,  Clos  {Fteroglossis,  INIiers,  which  I 
know  only  from  the  two  published  figures),  except  that  the  stigma  is 
manifestly  two-lobed.  The  scarious-membranaceous  wing,  which  is 
decurrent  from  these  lobes  down  the  apex  of  the  style,  was  overlooked 
by  Dr.  Torrey  in  our  scanty  flowers  of  the  Texan  species.  Its  breadth 
on  either  side  is  not  quite  equal  to  the  length  of  the  thickish  stigma 
lobe.  But  in  the  allied  Mexican  species  the  whole  wing  is  much 
broader,  and  quadrate  or  slightly  cordate,  not  flabelliform-obcordate  as 
in  Reyesia.  The  latter  genus,  of  a  single  species,  seems  to  be  pretty 
well  marked  in  habit,  the  complete  absence  of  the  fifth  stamen,  &c. 
But  the  two  plants  here  described,  notwithstanding  their  resemblance 
to  Nierembergia  in  general  form  of  the  corolla  and  to  Reyesia  in  the 
winged  apex  of  the  style,  are  probably  best  disposed  of  under  a  sub- 
genus of  Leptoglossis. 


1G6  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


XV. 

OBSERVATIONES  LICHENOLOGIC^,  No.  4. 
OBSERVATIONS   ON  NORTH  AMERICAN  AND   OTHER    LICHENS. 

By  Edward  Tuckerman,  M.A. 

(Continued from  Vol.  VI.  p.  287.) 

Read  May  29,  1877. 

Pyxine.  The  black  hypothecium  of  Physcia  picta  distinguishes  it 
from  the  rest  of  the  geuus,  and  suggests  an  association  with  Pyxine  ; 
to  which,  indeed,  this  Physcia  is  in  other  respects  significantly  similar. 
Pyxine,  thus  enlarged,  falls  into  two  sections  :  — 

1.  DiRiNARiA.  Apothecia  scutellgeform.  Thallus  normally  white 
within,  P.  picta  (S w.).  —  The  species  should  probably  include  Parmelia 
conflaens  (Fr.)  united  by  Nylander  with  the  earlier  P.  cegialita,  Ach. : 
at  least  no  difference  seems  to  be  noted.  —  P.  picta  occurs  now  safi'rou- 
colored  within  (v.  erytkrocardia,  Tuckerm.  in  AYright  Lich.  Guh.  n.  94) 
like  Physcia  ohscura ;  but  also  probably  to  be  compared  in  this  respect 
with  Pyxine  coccinea,  M.  &  V.  d.  B.,  of  the  next  section. 

2.  Pyxine  proper.  Apothecia  (similar  at  first,  in  a  tropical  form, 
to  those  of  the  first  section,  but  finally)  blackening  all  over  and  leci- 
deoid.  Thallus  soon  more  or  less  yellowish  within.  P.  cocoes  (Sw.) 
—  The  other  supposed  species  of  this  section  are  scarcely  well  defined. 
P.  cocoes  V.  Meissneri  {P.  3Ieissneri  of  these  Obs.  1,  in  Proc.  Acad. 
Amer.  4,  p.  400)  might  indeed  often  be  taken,  and  was  taken  by 
Meissner,  for  a  Physcia  ;  but  the  margin  of  the  apothecium  soon  black- 
ens, when  tlie  lichen  is  ill  distinguishable  from  the  oi'iginal  Lichen 
Cocoes  (Sw.  Lich.  Amer.  t.  2).  —  Another  of  the  more  delicate  tropical 
exhibitions  of  Pyxine  is  marked  by  the  reticulate  wrinkling  of  the 
upper  surface  {P.  retirugella  Nyl.  Lich.  exot.)  but  otherwise  is  close 
enough  to  P.  Cocoes.  —  From  this  may  well  seem  more  separable  the 
larger  lichen,  extending  far  northward,  which  furnished  Fries  the  type 
of  the  genus  (v.  sorediata,  Tuckerm.  1.  c),  but  this  differs  only  in  size, 
and  not  always  in  that  respect,  from  forms  easily  included  in  P.  Cocoes. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  167 

—  The  larger  form  just  named  is  not,  however,  confined  to  the  north, 
and  exhibits  in  the  tropics  a  peculiar  luxuriance  in  quadrilocular  spores 
(v.  Esclnceileri,  Mihi  ;  given  in  Wright  Lick.  Cub.  n.  94,  iu  part) 
which  renders  necessary  a  modification  of  the  genus-character,  though 
the  liciien  in  question  (like  Physcia  obscurascens,  Nyl.  Syti.,  as  com- 
jjared  with  Phijscia  obscara)  have  little  claim  to  be  reckoned  a  species. 
And,  lastly,  it  may  be  said  that  Pyxine  coccinen,  M.  &  V.  d.  B.  [Lic/i. 
Jav.  p.  40),  which  is  distinguished,  like  the  last  variety,  from  the  var, 
sorediata  by  rather  larger  and  quadrilocular  spores,  seems  scarcely 
otherwise  to  differ  from  this,  but  as  P.  picta,  v.  erythrocardia,  from 
the  type  of  that  species,  or,  as  Physcia  obscura,  v.  endochrysea,  Ham  p. 
(the  oldest  name  of  a  repeatedly  named  anamorphous  condition)  when 
the  medullary  layer  has  become  red  from  the  same  when  as  yet  it  is 
only  yellow.  Systematic  iXatural  History  is  so  much  a  matter  of  opin- 
ion, that  it  may  sometimes  seem  difficult,  at  this  day,  to  fully  assert  its 
position  in  the  face  of  more  purely  objective  science :  surely,  then,  all 
those  who  love  the  study  of  the  system  will  desire  that  the  term 
"  species "  should  express  something  worth  knowing ;  that  its  value 
should  be  enforced  and  extended  rather  than  diminished  and  frittered 
away. 

U-MBiLiCARiA  Caroliniana,  sp.  nov.:  thallo  membranaceo  Isevigato 
papuloso  rotundato-lobato  mox  polyphyllo  complicatoque  olivaceo-fusco, 
subtus  lacunoso  papillato-granulato  atro,  fibrillis  paucis  hinc  inde  ob- 
sito  ;  apotheciis  subelevatis  mox  plicatis  deinque  papillato-ijroliferis. 
Sporte  (2""^?)  ellipsoidea3,  muriformi- multiloculares,  fuscfe,  longit. 
0,()30-iO'"™-,  crassit.  0,020-23"""-.  —  U.  mammulata,  Tuckerm.  Syn.N.E, 
p.  69,  non  A(A\.Jide  Nyl.  /.  infra  cit.  —  Rocks,  Grandfather  Mountain, 
N.  Carolina,  M.  A.  Curtis.  High  mountains  of  N.  Carolina,  S.  B. 
BucMey.  A  well-marked  Umbilicaria,  but  the  material  before  me  for 
its  illustration  is  small.  The  plant  was  pretty  confidently  referred,  at 
the  place  cited  above,  to  the  North  American  Gyrophora  -mammulata, 
Ach.  Syn.,  both  from  the  diagnosis  and  the  name ;  and  this  judgment 
seemed  to  be  confirmed  by  my  notes  (made  in  1850)  on  a  specimen  then 
preserved  in  the  museum  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Upsal.  But  Dr.  Ny- 
lander  {Lich.  Scand.  p.  115)  says  distinctly,  that  Acharius's  lichen  is 
"  spodochroa,  apotheciis  non  rite  evolutis."  Dr.  T.  H.  Fries  also  refers 
it  {Lich.  Scand.  p.  154)  to  '■'■  spodoch-oa,  rhizinis  erohitis  vel  {maxi- 
mam  partem)  in  tubercula  nigra  ryiutafis  ;  "  and  it  is  evident  that  neither 
of  these  references  is  to  the  North  Carolina  plant.  U.  dictyiza,  Nyl. 
{Flora  Itatisb.  1869,  p.  388)  of  the  same  section  of  the  genus  as  the 
lichen  above  described,  is,  according  to  Stizenberger  {Index  Lich.  Hy- 


168  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

perh.,  p.  22)   from  Newfoundland ;  and  no  description  of  it  is  known 
to  me. 

Sticta  Hallii,  sp.  nov. :  tliallo  coi-iaceo  reticulato-celluloso  snbtiliter 
rimuloso-granulato  sparsimqiie  villosiusculo  cinereo-glaucescente,  laciniis 
rotundatis  subintegris,  subtus  venoso-costato  tomentoso  maculis  pallidi- 
oribus  nudis  notato  ;  apotheciis  sparsis  (latit.  2-3  millim.)  sessilibus, 
excipulo  villoso  integre  marginato,  disro  rufo-fusco.  Sporae  naviculares, 
biloculares,  fnscae,  loiigit.  0,023-36"'™-,  cra^sit.  0,009-14"'™-.  — Trunks, 
Oregon,  E.  Hall,  1871.  Of  the  stock  of  S.  scrobicidata,  and  closely 
approaching  this  species,  from  which  it  yet  differs  in  its  more  or  less 
villous  upper  side,  its  veiny  under  side,  its  villous  apothecia,  and  espe- 
cially in  its  brown,  always  bilocular  spores,  which  are  not  reconcilable 
with  those  of  the  other.  Some  of  the  specimens  show  indications  of 
the  peculiar  sorediation  of  S.  ^scrohiculata,  —  a  feature  characteristical 
also  in  S.  anihraspis,  Ach.,  of  the  same  region.  The  lichen  differs  from 
the  older  species  perhaps  less  in  the  thallus,  than  S.  Oregana  {Mihi  in 
Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  April,  1874)  from  S.  piihnonaria ;  but  more 
in  the  spores.  It  is  dedicated  to  the  discoverer,  my  friendly  corre- 
spondent, P^lihu  Hall. 

Erioderma  velligerum,  sub-sp.  nov. :  thallo  imbricato  cinera- 
scente,  lobis  adscendentibus  rotundatis  sinuato-incisis  margine  subcrispis 
dense  hirsutis,  subtus  sulphureo  ;  apotheciis  (2-4  millim,  latis)  marginali- 
bus  extus  hirsutis,  disco  fuscescente.  SponB  octonaj  rotundato-ellipsoi- 
dete,  simplices,  limbata;,  longit.  0,009-1  G"""-,  crassit.  0,008- 10™"'-,  leviter 
in  thecis  infuscatOB  dein  incolores.  —  Shores  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan, 
Mev.Dr.  Thomas  Hill  (Hassler  exp.  1872).  Not  well  comparable  with 
such  species  as  E.  polycarpum  and  E.  Wrightii,  which  exhibit  the  nor- 
mal Peltigeriue  frond,  but  differing  from  that  exactly  as  some  imbricated 
and  crisped  forms  of  Peltigera  mfescens.  The  hirsute  upper  surface  and 
sulphur-colored  under  side,  as  well  as  the  habit  of  growth,  distinguish 
the  lichen  from  what  I  have  seen  of  Erioderma  Chilense,  but  the  last 
is  very  near,  and  said  by  Montague  to  be  also  imbricate,  as  it  has  simi- 
lar though  more  rounded  spores.  I  cannot  but  still  consider  this  little 
group  as  belonging  to  the  Peltigerei. 

Pannaria  symptychia,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  foliaceo  membranaceo-car- 
tilagineo  ca\spitoso-polyphyllo  livido-fnscescente,  lobis  sinuato-repandis 
flexuosis  complicatis  subtus  nudis  fuscis ;  hypothallo  obsoleto  ;  a|)0the- 
ciis  (latit.  c.  1""")  biatorinis  sessilibus,  margine  tenui  integerrimo  fusco 
discum  convexum  nigrum  opacum  cingente.  Sporre  octonte,  ellipsoidefe, 
simplices,  incolores,  longit.  0,009-16"'™-,  crassit.  0,007-10™'"-,  paraphysi- 
bu.o  incrassatulis  distinctis.  —  On  rocks  (apparently)  island  of  Juan  Fer- 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  169 

nanrlez,  Rev.  T.  Hill  (Hassler  exp.  1872).  Thallus  with  something  of 
the  aspect  of  an  Endocarpon  not  remote  from  E.  miniatum  v.  aquuti- 
cum,  Schjer.,  but  the  internal  structure  of  Pannaria  §  Coccocarpia. 
Collogonidia  disposed  in  short  chains.  Hymeneal  gelatine  becoming 
first  blue,  and  then  wine-red  with  iodine.  I  cannot  compare  the  spe- 
cies witli  any  other.     Spermogones  have  not  occurred. 

Paxxakia  Soxomensis,  sp.  nov. :  tliallo  ^Jarvulo  radiante  olivaceo, 
laciniis  linearibus  ramosis  striatis,  centralibus  teretiusculis  dein  intrica- 
tis,  periphericis  magis  dilatatis  flabellatisque  dichotomo-multifidis,  subtus 
albis  uudis  hypothallo  obsolete ;  apotheciis  minutis  (0,3-0,4  millim. 
latis)  lecanorinis,  margine  iutegro  dein  excluso,  disco  e  rufo-fusco 
nigricante.  Sporte  fusiformes,  curvuh^,  simplices,  incolores,  longit. 
0,020-33"""-,  crassit.  0,002-3'"*-  Hypothecium  pallidum.  Paraphyses 
dein  lax£e.  —  Rocks,  Sonoma,  and  also  in  the  Yosemite  Valley,  Cali- 
fornia, Dr.  H.  N.  Bolander.  Interior  of  the  thallus  compact ;  of  elon- 
gated cells.  Collogonidia  solitary  or  concatenate;  reaching  0,018""°'  in 
length  by  0,009"""'  in  width.  Spores  fusiform  in  the  sense  of  Koerb. 
Syst.  t.  3,  f.  5  ;  and  they  might  be  called  short-acicular.  Belongs  to 
the  same  group  with  P.  Jlabellosa  (Ohs.  Lich.  1.  c.  5,  p.  401)  and  P. 
Petersii  (  Gen.  Lich.  \).  54).  The  resemblance  of  the  interior  structure 
of  P.  jlabellosa  to  that  of  the  lichen  before  us  has  been  well  exhibited 
bv  Schwendener  {Erijrt.  z.  Gonidien-frage,  Flora  Ratisb.  1872,  p.  227, 
t.  4)  in  the  infertile  Yosemite  specimens  sent  to  him  as  "  Pannarice 
affinis."  It  appears  quite  impossible  to  remove  these  plants  from  Pan- 
naria ;  or  to  continue  to  keep  Pterygium,  Nyl.  apart  from  them  in 
genus. 

Paxx'aria  stenophtlla,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  orbicular!  zonatim  ceu' 
trifufo  olivaceo,  laciniis  tereti-compressiusculis,  centro  squamuloso-dirai- 
nutis  delabentibus,  ambitu  radiantibus  ramosis,  subtus  pallidis  nudis 
hypothallo  obsoleto ;  apotheciis  lecanorinis  perminutis  (latit.  0,2-0,3 
millim.)  disco  fusco  margine  tenui  dein  disparente.  Sporge  ex  ellip- 
soideo  oblongaj,  sa^pe  curvul^,  biloculares,  longit.  0,012-20"""-,  crassit 
0.003-5"""-  —  Lime  rocks,  Moulton,  Alabama,  Hon.  T.  M.Peters,  1874. 
Thallus  from  a  quarter  to  little  more  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Structure  of  the  interior  of  the  thallus  as  in  the  last  species  ;  collogo- 
nidia in  chains;  at  length  0,012-20"""-  long,  and  0,010-12  """thick. 
The  lichen  grows  with  and  often  commingled  with  P.  Petersii,  from 
which  it  is  readily  distinguishable  by  its  smaller  size,  lighter  color  both 
of  thallus  and  fruit  and  terete  lobes.  P.  Sonomensis  is  nearer,  but 
exhibits  a  different  habit  of  growth,  and  the  spores  are  quite  irrecon- 
cilable with  those  of  the  Alabama  lichen. 


170  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Synalissa  melambola,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  effuso  rimoso-areolato 
nigro,  areolis  planiusculis  (latit.  deiii  plusquam  1  millim.)  stipitato- 
elevatis  polycarpis  ;  apotheciis  (0,1-0,3  millim.  latis)  iunatis  lecanoriuis 
disco  subpapillato  concolore  margiiiem  teiiuem  persistentem  demum 
superante.  SporaB  octonaj,  ellipsoideas,  simplices,  incolores,  loiigit. 
0,010-12"""-,  crassit.  0,005-8"""-;  paraphysibus  omnino  conglutinatis. — 
Lime  rocks,  Alabama,  Ho7i.  T.  M.  Peters.  Thallus  cellulose ;  the  col- 
logouidia  solitary.  The  reaction  of  the  hymeneal  gelatine  with  iodine 
is  blue.  Plant  noticeable  for  its  large,  flattish,  black  areoles,  which  the 
lens  shows  to  contain  from  two  to  six  or  more  very  minute  but  quite 
regular  apothecia. 

Synalissa  viridi-rufa,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  effuso  granuloso  mox  rimu- 
loso-diffracto  fusco-viridi ;  apotheciis  (latit.  0,2-0,4  millim.,  visis)  leca- 
noriuis adiiatis  subplanis,  disco  rufo,  margine  subpersistente.  Sporae 
octona;,  ellipsoideai,  Hmbatce,  incolores,  longit.  0,016-18""-,  crassit. 
0,008-1 0'""'- ;  paraphyses  conglutiuatte.  —  Lime  rocks,  Texas,  G.  Wright. 
Structure  not  very  different  from  that  of  the  last ;  rounded,  green  cel- 
lules, with  mostly  solitary  collogonidia,  which  reach  a  diameter  of  12-15 
mic.  The  reaction  with  iodine  also  as  in  the  last.  The  lichen  is  marked 
among  our  species  of  this  group  by  its  rather  brighter  colors. 

Ojiphalaria  kansana,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  pulvinato  coriaceo-cartila- 
gineo  atro  e  lobulis  stipitatis  erectis  clavatis  vel  sublobatis  vel  fructu 
dilatato  pileatis  ;  apotheciis  (0,5-0,8  millim.  latis)  terminalibus  con- 
coloribus  mox  convexis  margine  disparente.  Sporse  —  12-"'^  in  thecis 
ventricosis,  ex  ellipsoideo  dein  ovoideo-oblongte,  medioque  constrictie, 
simplices  (tenuiter  demum  uniseptatae  ?)  incolores,  longit.  0,005-8™™-, 
crassit.  0,003-4"'™-,  paraphysibus  bene  distinctis.  —  On  lime  rocks.  Chase 
County,  Kansas,  E.  Hall,  1871.  Reaction  with  iodine,  blue.  Collo- 
gonidia mostly  collected  into  small  clusters  of  3-5,  amidst  anastomosing 
filaments,  which  alone  occupy  the  centre  of  the  thallus  :  the  structure 
of  0.  corallodes  (Mass.)  Nyl.,  with  which  the  Kansas  lichen  appears 
best  to  agree  generally.  The  two  species  differ  from  Omphalaria 
PROPER,  as  here  understood  {Gen.  Lich.  p.  81)  with  umbilicate  thallus, 
in  forming  cushions  of  stalked  lobes,  which  become  more  or  less  lobu- 
late  above.  However  ill  exhibited  this  lobate  or  foliaceous  character, 
it  seems  enough  to  give  these  plants  a  higher  place  in  the  system  than 
that  of  Synalissa  synnphorea.  The  Kansas  lichen  is,  so  far  as  seen,  a 
smaller  species  than  the  European  with  which  it  is  above  compared, 
and  less  evidently  foliaceous.  It  is  characterized  at  sight  by  its  ele- 
vated convex  apothecia,  looking  like  nail-heads. 

Leptogiuji  rivale,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  membranaceo  microphyllino 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  171 

plumbeo,  lobis  imbricatis  linearibus  plauis  repandis  ;  apotheciis  (ostiolis 
indicatis)  iiniuersis.  Sporje  octonaj,  e  fusiformi  ovoide^,  biloculares, 
incolores,  loiigit.  0,01 6-23'""-,  crassit.  OjOOo-S"""-.  Paraphyses  parcse.  — 
"  On  small  pebbles  in  the  bottom  of  a  clear  brook  around  the  Big  Trees, 
Mariposa,"  California  (growing  with  and  on  Hydrothyria,  Russ.)  Dr. 
Bolatider.  Lobes  scarcely  exceeding  0,5  millim.  in  width.  Texture 
of  the  thallus  parenchymatous  throughout ;  an  outer  row  of  polygonous 
cells,  distiusfuishable  from  the  rounder  and  looser  cells  of  the  intei-ior, 
indicating  the  cortex  of  the  present  genus.  Collogonidia  solitary,  or 
in  very  short  chains.  There  is  little  in  the  lichen  to  remind  one  of 
the  equivocal  Gollema  rivulare,  Ach.,  of  Sweden,  which  yet  agrees 
with  the  other  in  the  very  interesting  points  of  an  entirely  cellulose 
texture  and  an  aquatic  habitat.  The  Californian  plant  was  supposed 
to  be  infertile  ;  but  my  friend  Dr.  Schweudener  met  accidentally  with 
an  immersed  apothecium  in  a  section  of  the  thallus  which  he  was 
examining,  and  I  have  since  found  such  fruits  to  be  indicated  externally 
by  a  distinct  ostiolar  margin.  Whether  there  is  ever  any  further  de- 
velopment or  emergence  of  this  apothecium  is  unknown.  The  small 
material  before  me  2:ave  no  indication  of  lichenine  with  iodine. 

Placodium  galactophyllum,  sp.  nov.  :  thallo  crustaceo-adnato 
areolato-squamuloso  ambitu  lobato,  farinoso  lacteo,  detrito  fulvo ; 
apotheciis  (latit.  0,5-0,9  millim.)  zeorinis  sessilibus  plauis  disco  auran- 
tiaco  tenuiter  marginato.  Sporte  octonte,  polari-biloculares,  incolores, 
longit.  0,008-1 4"""-,  crassit.  0,00-4-6"'"'-.  Tuckerm.  Gen.  Lich.  p.  108. 
—  On  lime  rocks,  Chase  Co.,  Kansas,  E.  Hall,  1871.  A  distinctly  lobed 
lichen  with  the  habit  of  Lecanora  muralis  v.  albo-pulverulenta,  Schier. 
{Lich.  Helv.  n.  334)  and  differing  in  this  respect  from  even  the  best 
condition  of  the  European  P.  erythrocarpium  ;  the  spores  of  which  are 
also  larger,  and  not  rarely  measure,  in  my  specimens  Vn^-  ^^^-  Apo- 
thecium of  our  lichen  distinctly  lecanorine,  with  marginate  disk. 

Placodiuji  FERRUGIN0SU5I,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  crustaceo  rimoso-areo- 
lato  aurantiaco,  areolis  subinde  lobulatis,  hypothallo  nigro  ;  apotheciis 
(latit.  0,6-0,9  millim.)  biatorinis  sessilibus  ferrugineis  (nigricantibusque) 
maro-ine  demum  flexuoso.  SporiE  octonas,  polari-biloculares,  incolores, 
lono-it.  0,016-2r"'"-,  crassit.  0,006-9"""-.  —  Volcanic  rocks,  Island  of  Chi- 
loe,  Chili,  Dr.  T.  Hill  (Hassler  exp.  1872).  Almost  P.  cinnaharinum, 
as  respects  the  thallus,  but  with  the  apothecia  almost  of  P.ferrugineum. 

Placodium  ferruginecm  (Huds.)  Hepp,  *  miniaceum  ;  apotheciis 
miniatis.  —  On  buslies,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  C.  Wright.  The  appressed 
apothecia  differing  only,  but  remarkably,  iu  color,  from  Cape  specimens 
of  P.  ferruginemn  (Drege  in  herb.  Sonder ;  Wright),  which  are  uudis- 
tiniruishable  from  the  northern  lichen. 


172  PROCEEDINGS    OP    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEBIY 

Placodium  atroalbum  ;  tliallo  tenui  granuloso  dein  'et  rimoso- 
areolato  luteolo-fuscescente  ;  apotheciis  (latit.  c.  0,3-0,5  mm.)  adnatis 
zeorinis,  margiiie  thalliuo  tenui  demisso  integro  albo  discum  margina- 
tum nigi-um  nudum  cingente,  intus  incoloribus.  Sporoe  octonte,  ellip- 
soidea3,  polari-biloculares  sporobl.  approximatis,  lougit.  0,014-23"""-, 
crassit.  0,005-9"""-,  paraphysibus  filiformibus  fusco-capitulatis  demum  dis- 
tinctis  articulatisque.  —  On  cretaceous  sandstone  and  chalcedony,  North 
Platte,  Rocky  Mountains,  Dr.  Hayden.  Lime  rocks,  Utah,  Mr.  Lapham. 
Of  the  stock  of  P.  variahile  (Pers.)  Nyl.,  which  occurs  with  well- 
marked  distinctness  from  this  in  the  same  region  ;  and  closely  asso- 
ciable  with  the  P.  Agardhianum  of  Anz.  Lich.  Langob.  n.  37.  But 
our  lichen  is  scarcely  as  well  comparable  with  the  P.  Agardhianum  of 
Hepp  {Lich.  exs.  n.  407),  and  differs  still  more  from  the  specimen 
before  me  of  Pyrenodesmia  Agardhiana,  Mass.  (Arn.  in  herb.  Koerb.)^ 
which  is  wholly  lecideoid.  This  last  is  represented  here  by  a  lichen  of 
the  Alabama  lime  rocks  {Judge  Peters).  If  all  these  be  to  be  taken 
for  states  of  the  same  variable  species,  our  Rocky  Mountain  lichen 
above  described  is,  with  little  doubt,  another.  The  polar  type  is  not 
easily  made  out  in  the  spores  of  the  latter  ;  which,  but  for  the  other 
structure  of  the  hymenium,  might  be  supposed  rather  a  Lecanora  akin 
to  L.  erysibe  (Ach.),  Nyl.  There  are  no  reactions  of  the  thallus  with 
potash  or  chloride  of  lime. 

Lkcanora.  Semitensis,  sub-sp.  nov. :  thallo  e  squamulis  glebosis 
stramiueis  mox  crenato-lobatis  subinde  hypothallo  nigro  marginatis  ; 
apotheciis  (0""" ,  7-1"""-  latis)  appressis  plano-convexis  tumentibusque 
congestis,  disco  livido-fuscescente  albido-pruinoso,  margine  demum  sub- 
granulato  vel  excluso.  Hypothecium  incolor.  Sporoe  octonoe  ellip- 
soide£E  simplices  incolores,  longit.  0,011-10"""-,  crassit.  0.005-6"™-.— 
Granitic  rocks,  Yosemite  Valley,  California,  Dr.  Bolander.  Clearly 
a  member  of  the  Saxicola  group,  and  very  close  to  L.  saxicola  v.  dif- 
fracta,  from  which  (largely  exhibited  on  the  Californian  rocks)  the 
present  differs  in  its  scaly  thallus,  which  is  not  radiant,  and  the  ultimate 
development  of  its  fruit. 

Lecanora  glaucovirens,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  crustaceo  orbicular! 
verruculoso-granulato  viridi-glaucescente  versus  ambitum  albido,  hypo- 
thallo incolore;  apotheciis  (latit.  0'""'-,  7-1"""-)  appressis,  disco  mox 
convexo  e  livido-fusco  nigrescente,  margine  integerrimo.  Hypothecium 
pallidum.  Sporaj  octonaj,  ellipsoideoe,  simplices,  incolores,  longit. 
0,014-17'""-,  crassit.  0,006-9,  paraphysibus  conglutinatis.  Spermatia 
acicularia  arcuata. 

On  bark,  Galapagos  Islands,  South  America,  Rev.  T.  Hill  (Hassler 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  173 

Exp.).  Of  the  stock  of  L.  suhfasca,  but  with  rather  the  habit  of 
conditions  of  Rinodina  sophodes.     Patches  about  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Lecanora  dentilabra,  sp.  nov.  :  thallo  crustaceo  tenui  areolato- 
verrucoso  glaucescente ;  apotheciis  (hitit.  0"""-,  5-0"""-,  9)  adnatis,  mar- 
gine  tumidulo  mox  fisso-subcrenato,  disco  fusco  oi)aco  jilano  vel  demum 
tumente  niarginemque  exchidente.  Hypothecium  incolor.  Spor« 
octonie,  ellipsoidese,  simplices,  incolores,  longit.  0,012-25"""-,  crassit. 
0,010-16"™',  paraphysibus  conglutinatis. 

On  bark,  Island  of  Chiloe,  Chili,  and  at  Sandy  Point,  Straits  of  Ma- 
gellan, Rev.  T.  Hill  (Hassler  exp.).  Without  doubt  also  of  the  sub- 
fusca  stock,  the  apothecia  being  characterized  much  as  those  of  the 
rupicoline  L.  ccesio-alba,  Koerb.,  of  Europe. 

Lecanora  orosthea  (Sm.  L.  expcdlens,  Ach.)  var.  Japonica  ; 
apotheciis  (latit.  2-3  millim.)  elevato-sessilibus  flexuoso-lobatis ;  sporis 
longit.  0,020-23™""-,  crassit.  0,008-14™™-.  — On  beech-trunks  in  the 
mountains  near  Hakodadi.  Japan,  C.  Wright  (U.  S.  N.  Pac.  Exp.). 
Closely  associable  with  our  luxuriant  North  American  condition  of  L. 
orosthea,  but  differs  in  the  development  of  the  apothecia  and  the  larger 
spores,  which  I  have  only  seen  in  4'-  and  6'-,  in  the  thekes.  L.  orosthea 
perhaps  deserves  the  rank  of  a  sub-species  under  L.  varia. 

Lecanora  Franciscana  ;  thallo  verruculoso-granuloso  albo-cine- 
rascente ;  apotheciis  (latit.  0,7-1,5  mm.)  pseudo-biatorinis  liberis  e 
fusco-rufo  nigris  mox  couvexis  turgidisque  marginem  concolorem  ex- 
cludentibus.  Hypothecium  subduplex,  superius  incolor,  inferius  cras- 
siusque  fuscescens ;  strato  gonimo  impositum.  Spora3  octonje,  ex 
ellipsoideo  mox  oblongaj,  biloculares,  incolores,  longit.  0,013-23™™-, 
crassit.  0,003-5™™-,  paraphysibus  coalitis.  —  On  sandstone,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal.,  Dr.  Bolander.  A  sub-species  probably  of  L.  erysibe  (Ach.) 
Nyl.  Apothecia  with  the  aspect  of  a  Lecidea  not  very  unlike  a  condi- 
tion of  L.  enteroleuca,  Ach.,  of  the  same  rocks,  but  really  biatorine, 
except  that  the  hypothecium  rests  on  the  gonimous  layer.  The  reac- 
tion of  the  hymeneal  gelatine  with  iodine  is  blue. 

Rinodina  radiata  :  thallo  crustaceo  rimoso-areolato  ambitu  radi- 
oso-lobato  glaucescente,  hypothallo  nigro  ;  apotheciis  (latit.  0,3-0,7  ram.) 
imnatis  deln  emergentibus,  disco  plauo-convexo  tumidove  nigro  albo- 
pruinoso,  margine  thallino  integro  demum  disparente.  Hypothecium 
fusco-nigrum.  Sporte  octonaj,  brevi-ellipsoide^e  obtusas,  biloculares, 
fuscce,  longit.  0,007-12™™-,  crassit.  0,005-7™™',  paraphysibus  congluti- 
natis.—  Buellia  radiata,  Mihi  in  Lich.  Calif,  p.  25. 

b,  thallo  depauperato  hypothallo  radiante  subfimbriato.  Rocks  on 
the  coast  of  California,  Bolander.     Referred  to  Buellia  at  the  place 


174  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

cited,  notwithstanding  the  now  clear  thalline  border,  on  account  of  the 
black  hypotlieciiim,  and  the  evident  resemblance  to  B.  albo-atra.  But 
Rinodina  makes  many  approaches  to  Buellla,  and  the  color  of  the 
hypotliecium  proves  to  be  an  insufficient  criterion.  Nylander,  indeed 
( Obs.  Pijren.  p.  52)  has  referred  BiielUa  albo-atra  to  the  group  now 
before  us  ;  the  reference  being,  however,  determined  by  the  presence 
of  truly  jointed  sterigmas.  I  have  been  unable  myself  as  yet  to  find 
multi-articulate  sterigmas  in  the  specimens  examined  of  this  species, 
or  of  that  described  above,  but  what  might  rather  be  taken  for  sub- 
simple  forms  of  the  organ  in  question  occur  sometimes  with  a  few 
swollen  joints.  As  originally  observed,  this  lichen  appeared  comparable 
rather,  as  respects  thallus,  with  such  effigurate  ones  as  Lecanora  circi- 
nata;  but  the  best  developed  plant  (San  Diego,  Herb  Willey)  has  a 
laciniate  circumference  like  that  of  Placodium  candicans  ;  while  on  the 
other  hand  depauperate  conditions  occur  with  no  trace  of  a  lobulate 
margin. 

Rinodina  thtsanota,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  crustaceo  verrucoso  ambitu 
radioso-lobato  fusco-olivaceo ;  apotheciis  (qu.  visis  0,5-0,7  mm.  latis) 
lecanorinis  sessilibus,  margine  tumidulo  integro  discum  nigro-fuscum 
cingente.  Hypotliecium  pallidum.  Spoi'oe  octonaj,  brevi-elliijsoideae, 
biloculares,  fuscaj,  longit.  0,010-14™"'-,  crassit.  0,005-6'"'"-. 

Rocks,  alt.  7,000  feet,  in  Alpine  County,  California,  /.  A.  Lapham. 
Thallus,  in  the  single  specimen,  differenced  much  as  in  R.  oreirm. 
Reaction  of  the  hymeneal  gelatine  with  iodine,  blue. 

Rinodina  mamillana,  Tuckerm.  Lich.  Hawai.  in  Proceed.  Amer. 
Acad.,  7,  p.  226,  has  been  collected  more  recently  in  the  Galapagos 
Islands,  Rev.  T.  Hill  (Hassler  exp  ).  Apothecia  of  both  lichens  similar 
in  size  (0,3-0,8"™-  wide),  but  the  specimens  of  that  from  the  Galapagos 
not  exhibiting  the  peculiar  protuberance  and  plaiting  of  the  disk  which 
suggested  the  specific  name,  and  their  thalline  margin  at  length  black- 
ening. Hypothecium  in  both  blackish-brown.  Spores,  0,012-20"""- long 
and  0,005-10"""-  thick ;  the  paraphyses  at  length  distinct.  Thallus  higlier- 
or  sulphur-  colored  in  the  South  American  plant. 

Rinodina  ochrotis  :  thallo  crustaceo  granuloso  mox  fatiscente 
furfuraceo  albido  ;  apotheciis  (qu.  visis  circ.  0,5  mm.  latis)  lecanorinis 
sessilibus,  disco  e  livido-carneo  fuscescente,  margine  obtuso  integro. 
Hypothecium  pallidum.  Sporoe  parv^e,  obtuse  ellipsoide«,  biloculares, 
fuscge,  diam.  2-3°  longiores.  —  Lecanora,  Mihi  in  Wright  Lich.  Cub. 
n.  115. 

On  charred  surfaces  of  logs,  IMonte  Verde,  Island  of  Cuba,  G.  Wright. 
The  description  was  reserved  in  hope  of  other  specimens  being  sent. 
In  the  absence  of  such,  I  can  now  add  nothing  to  the  above. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  175 

RixoDiNA  MiLLiARiA,  sp.  iiov. :  tluxllo  ci'ustaceo  teniii  verruculoso 
viridi-fuscescente ;  apotlieciis  perminutis  (latit.  circa  0,2-0,'l:  mm.)  ad- 
natis  lecanorinis,  disco  fusco-nigro  opaco  plano-convexo,  margiue  tenui 
integro  dein  uigricante  vel  excluso.  Hypotlit'cium  fusco-nigrum. 
Spor?e  octona?,  obtuse  ellipsoidea^,  biloculares,  fiisav,  longit.  0,009-1 5"""-, 
crassit.  0,005-8"""',  parapliy!>ibus  demum  distioctis,  fiisco-caiaitulatis. 

A  common  bark-lichen  about  Boston,  and  found  also  at  New  Bed- 
ford, H.  WiUey ;  and  in  Western  New  York,  Miss  Wilson.  It  is 
differenced  from  ordinary  R.  sophodes  v.  exigna  by  its  blackened  hypo- 
tbeciura,  —  a  character,  in  this  place,  of  some  interest.  The  spores 
occur  now  in  twelves  according  to  Mr.  Willey,  a  variation  like  the 
well-known  one  in  the  v.  exigua  (constituting  R.  jiolyspora,  Th. 
Fr.).  But  our  lichen  is  also  curious  as  seeming  to  exiiibit  filiform, 
bowed  spermatia  (0,012-20"™-  long)  on  simple  sterigmas.  This  obser- 
vation has  been  made  repeatedly  both  by  Mr.  Willey  and  myself,  and 
we  are  unable  to  refer  the  black,  papillteform  spermogones  and  contents 
in  question  to  any  other  lichen  than  the  one  upon  whose  thallus  they 
occur,  though  it  appears  quite  inadmissible,  in  present  knowledge,  that 
they  can  belong  to  it. 

Pertusaria  thamnoplaca,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  fruticuloso  cartilagineo 
appresso  dichotomo-ramoso  albido-fuscescente,  ramis  subteretibus  papil- 
lato-verrucosis  subtus  albis  fibrillis  sparsis  concoloribus  ;  apotheciis  de- 
presso-globosis  monothalamis  mox  papillato-coronatis  (latit.  dein  1  mm.) 
ostiolo  punctiformi  nigro.  Sporte  octonte,  ellipsoidece,  simijlices,  inco- 
lores,  longit.  0,0o0-72'"'"-,  crassit.  0,023-38™™-. 

Trunks,  ShoU  Bay,  near  the  western  entrance  of  the  Straits  of  Ma- 
gellan, orrowing  with  and  often  on  the  next,  Rev.  T.  Hill  (Ilassler  exp. 
1872).  Another  illustration  of  the  fruticulose  thallus  in  a  properly  crus- 
taceous  group  ;  and  more  remarkable  than  either  of  those  described  from 
our  own  Pacific  coast  (Lich.  Calif,  in  loc).  Thallus  (reaching  a  diameter 
of  more  than  two  inches)  closely  appressed  and  affixed  by  its  fibrils  to 
the  matrix,  dichotomously  much  branched,  either  terete  or  now  a  little 
compressed,  and  in  the  larger  parts  almost  attaining  a  thickness  of  one 
millimetre.  The  whole  is  besprinkled,  at  length  densely,  with  crowded 
papillie,  which  surround  the  apothecia  with  one  or  more  coronals,  and 
hide  often,  to  a  considerable  degree,  the  branches.  Under  the  micro- 
scope, the  direction  of  the  very  minute  and  confused  network  of  fila- 
ments which  makes  up  the  interior  of  the  thallus  is  seen  to  be  on  the 
whole  longitudinal. 

Pertusaria  colobina  :  thallo  crustaceo  uniformi  papillifero,  papil- 
lis  dein  confertis,  centralibusque  subelevatis ;  apotheciis  ab  iis  P.  tham- 


176  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

noplacce  vix  distinguendis  nisi  sporis  minoribus  longit.  circ.  OjOiG-SG""™ , 
crassit.  0,023-2G™™-. 

With  the  last,  at  Sholl  Bay,  and  also,  on  bark,  in  the  Galapagos  Is- 
lands, ^ey.  T.Hill  (Hassler  exp.  1872).  The  material  does  not  enable 
me  to  explain  the  true  relation  of  this  lichen  to  that  immediately  pre- 
ceding. With  so  much  agreement  in  the  fruit,  the  differences  in  the 
tliallus  are  startling ;  while  yet  specimens  of  each,  well  covered  with 
papillae,  may  be  supposed  at  sight  the  same. 

Pertusaria  ambigens  :  thallo  cartilagiueo  la3vigato  subinde  rugoso- 
veriucoso  glaucescente  ;  apotheciis  lecauorinis  (latit.  0,6-1,8™"'')  sessili- 
bus  vel  subelevatis  1-2-tlialamis,  margine  thallino  lacero-subcrenato 
demum  repetito-duplicato  discum  planum  viridi-Ciesium  cingente. 
Sporaj  octonce,  ellipsoideai,  simplices,  incolores,  0,01 7-23"""-,  longoe, 
0,008-1 2"""'  crassfe ;  paraphysibus  capillaribus.  Lecanora  ambigens, 
Nyl.  Eiium.  Gen.  Lich.  p.  113,  and  Prodr.  Ft.  Nov.  Granat.  p.  40, 
not. 

On  trunks,  Oregon,  at  49°  N.  lat.,  Dr.  Lyall ;  and  elsewhere  in  the 
same  country,  E.  Hall.  The  lichen  does  not  differ  from  a  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  plant  {Zeylier  in  herb.  Sonder),  also  on  bark,  which  is, 
without  doubt,  what  Nylander  has  described  (Prodr.  N.  Granat.)  irom. 
the  same  herbarium.  And,  so  far  as  appears,  it  fully  agrees  also  with 
a  rock  lichen  collected  by  Mr.  AVright  at  the  Cape,  and  long  since  de- 
termined by  Nylander  as  his  Lecanora  ambigens.  The  spore-features 
vary  somewhat  from  the  Pertusaria  type,  and  appear  to  have  influ- 
enced the  first  describer  in  excluding  the  lichen  from  the  genus  to 
which,  however,  he  admits  that  it  perhaps  rather  belongs.  I  can  en- 
tertain no  doubt  of  this.  Nothing  illustrates  so  well  the  very  peculiar 
differentiatiou  of  the  apothecia  as  forms  associable  more  or  less  closely 
with  Pertusaria  velata  ;  and  sjiecimens  of  P.  velata  *  rnidtijmncta  are 
before  me  which  are  hardly,  at  first  sight,  distinguishable  but  by  the 
spores.  These  apothecia  (in  the  Oregon  plant)  present  at  length  much 
the  a-p23earance  in  small  of  a  pile  of  plates;  the  margin  of  the  elevated 
apothecium  gaping  horizontally  into  two,  three,  or  more  margins. 
Spores  enveloped  in  a  halo  in  both  the  American  and  African  lichens. 
The  spores  of  ours  agree  very  well  in  size  with  my  measurements  of 
the  African  {herb.  Sonder),  but  Nylander  (1.  ( .)  gives  rather  larger 
figures,  or  0,023-30""°-  longit.  and  0,010-11"^™-  crassit. 

Pertusaria  flavicunda,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  cartilagiueo  laevigato 
verrucoso-areolato  pallide  sulphureo,  areolis  ambitus  radiose  subconcre- 
scentibus;  apotheciis  depresso-globosis  (latit.  1-1,5  mm.)  monothalamis, 
ostiolo  mox  dilatato  hymenium  nigricantem  pulvere  lutuleuto  adspersum 


OP    ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  177 

exliibente.     Sporte   2-3"*    in  thecis,  ellipsoidece,  simplices,  incolores, 
0,060-80"""-  longis,  0,040-50"""-  crassis. 

Kock.-s,  San  Dietro,  Califoinia,  Dr.  J.  G.  Cooper ;  and  received,  also, 
in  excellent  condition  from  other  collectors  (Herb.   WiUey). 

Pertusaria  euglypta,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  cartilagineo  insculpto- 
rimoso  glauco-cinerascente ;  apotheciis  sub-globosis  (latit.  1-1,8  mm.) 
pleiotlialamis,  circnm  ostiola  punctiformia  nigra  depressis.  Sjiorae  '3- 6"", 
ellipsoidea;,  simplices,  incolores,  longit.  0,(192-138™"'-,  crassit  0,040-60""°-. 

Granitic  rocks,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  C.  Wright.  Comparable  with 
states  of/*,  communis,  Auct.  {pertusa  (L.)  Ach.),  but  diifcring  in  the 
spores,  and  in  its  elegantly  sculptured  crust,  which  reminds  one  of  a 
cuneiform  inscription. 

Pkrtusaria  albinea,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  tenui  rimuloso-areolato 
lacteo  linei^  nigris  decussato  ;  apotheciis  depresso-hemisphajiicis  depla- 
natisque  pleiotlialamis  (latit.  0,5-0,8  mm.)  ostiolis  minimis  punctiformi- 
bus  nigris.  Sporte  octonte,  ellipsoideae,  simplices,  incolores,  longit. 
0,043-58"""-,  crassit.  0,023-40"'"'-. 

On  bark,  Galapagos  Islands,  Rev.  T.  Hill  (Hassler  exp.  1872).  Dis- 
tinguishable from  P.  leioplaca  bv  habit,  and  the  smalliiess  of  its  parts. 

Thelotrema  Californiccji,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  subtartareo  verru- 
culoso  pallide  ochroleuco  ;  apotheciis  lecanoroideis  (longit.  0,3-0,7  mm.) 
adnatis  sub-planis,  excipulo  exteriori  margine  obtuso  integerrimo  thai- 
lino  discura  nigrum  velo  margine  concolore  perforato  subvestitum  in- 
cludente,  demum  flexuoso-irregnlaribus  stellatis  lirellatisqiie.  Sporte 
octon^e,  ex  ellipsoideo  dactyloideae,  4-8-loculares,  loculis  integris,  fuscag, 
longit.  0,020-30'""-,  crassit.  0,005-8"'™-. 

On  bark,  San  Diego,  California,  Dr.  E.  Palmer  (Herb.  AVilley). 
The  whole  of  the  interior  of  the  disk  is  black,  without  distinguishable 
proper  margin,  and  the  general  aspect  is  that  of  Lecanora  ;  but  the 
spores,  and  the  crustaceous  veil,  whicli  is  more  or  less  exhibited,  appear 
to  associate  the  lichen  with  Thelotrema,  tliough  I  know  of  no  species  to 
compare  it  with.  Apothecia  now  suggesting  those  of  Chiodecton  xphce- 
rale.  There  is  no  reaction  of  the  hymeneal  gelatine  with  ioiline;  nor 
of  the  thalline  tissues  with  liquor  potassas  or  hypochlorite  of  lime. 

PiLOPHORUs  acicularis  (Ach.)  Tuckerm.  Gen.  p.  146,  f.  Hallii  ; 
apotheciis  elongatis  (longit.  2-4  mm.,  crassit.  0,5  mm.  —  1  mm.)  pistil- 
liformibus.  —  On  rocks.  Cascade  Mountains,  Oregon,  E.  Hall.  The 
apothecia  of  Pilophorus  pass  from  a  globular,  often  depressed  figure,  as 
in  f.  Fibula,  into  a  slightly  conical  one,  like  an  elevated  skull-cap 
(jiD.og;),  as  in  the  original  f.  acicularis.  And  the  last  is  lengthened  in 
the  present  so  as  to  resemble  a  pestle.     As  comjiaied  with  the  other 

VOL.  XII.  (n.  S.  IV.)  12 


178  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

forms,  the  podetia  of  this  are  short  and  stout,  the  whole  lei)gth  scarcely 
exceeding,  in  the  specimens,  thrice  that  of  the  longest  ajwthecia.  Spores 
of  the  species,  0,016-23™™-  long  and  0,007-8"™-  thick.  —  All  the  known 
forms  of  PUophorus  fall  readily  under  one  species ;  there  are  no  satis- 
factory characters  to  distinguish  them.  But  it  is  more  difficult  to  follow 
Dr.  Th.  Fries  in  his  recent  reference  hither  {Lich.  Scand.  p.  55)  of 
one  of  the  two  states  of  his  Stereocaidon  cereolinum,  Monog.  Stereoc. 
p.  40,  which  is  otherwise  universally  recognized  as  a  Stereocaulon ; 
and,  as  he  says,  is  only  with  extreme  difficulty  ("  cegerrirne,'^  Lich. 
Scand.  1.  c.)  distinguishahle  from  the  other  form.  The  "good"  figure 
of  Ach.  Meth.,  of  the  fertile  condition  of  S.  cereolus,  is  not  cited  in  this 
reference  of  the  plant  to  PUophorus.  It  is  surprising,  if  Acharius 
really  had  PUophorus  fibula  in  fruit,  before  him,  when  he  described  his 
Stereoc.  cereolus,  that  he  should  not  at  once  have  recognized  the  resem- 
blance of  the  former  to  his  Cladonia  acicularis.  Such  mistake  could 
hardly  occur  here,  where  the  PUophorus  is  scarcely  known  but  as 
fertile,  and  the  somewhat  similar,  commonly  sterile,  often  subsimple 
lichen,  with  powdery  heads,  is  most  readily  and  often  certainly  refer- 
able to  the  Stereocaulon.* 

BiATORA  CAULOPHYLLA,  sp.  nov. :  tliallo  6  lobulis  stlpitiformi- 
erectis  compressis  sursum  dilatatis  lobatisque  griseo-virescentibus  in 
crustam  plicatam  subinde  albo-fai-inosam  stipatis  ;  apotheciis  mediocri- 
bus  (dein  et  2  mm.  latis)  margine  obtuso  mox  livescenti-nigro  discum 
planum  rufo-fuscum  uigrumque  cingente.  Sporje  octonas,  ovoideo-ellip- 
soideae,  simplices,  incolores,  longit.  0,007-13™™-,  crassit.  0,004-G™™-,  para- 
physibus  conglutinatis.  —  On  rocks,  mountains  of  California,  Z)/-.  J5c»/an- 
der.  The  erect  lobes  are  at  length  5-7  mm.  long,  and,  in  their  widest 
portions,  2-3  mm.  wide.  This  is  a  pronounced  exhibition  in  the  squa- 
mulose  BiatortB  of  the  extraordinary  modification  of  thallus  in  Lecidea 
vesicular  is  (llotfni.),  Ach.,  and  L.  coiiglomerata,  Ach.  As  in  Lecanora 
thamnoplaca,  Tuckerm.  {Gen.  Lich.  jj.  113)  the  stipitate  lobes  of  the 
lichen  before  us  are  comparable,  in  fact,  with  those  of  L.  7'iibina,  v. 
complicata  (Anz.  Lich.  Ital.  p.  158),  the  type  of  which  is  an  almost 
foliaceous,  and  in  every  way  distinguished  representative  of  the  crusta- 
ceous  thallus.  And,  as  with  the  LecidecB  just  named,  there  is  no  species 
to  which  our  Biatora  should  be  referable  as  a  sub-caulescent  over- 
growth. But  this  is  scarcely  as  clear  in  the  case  of  somt^  other  stipitate- 
lobate  lichens :  L.  thamnina,  noticed  in  Gen.  Lich.  p.  1 20,  being  probably 
inseparable  from  luxuriant  Californian  conditions  of  L.  cerviua  b.  squa- 

*  In  t])e  above  cited  Gen.  Lick.  p.  146,  note,  the  spores  of  the  f.  robuslus 
should  be  said  to  be  0,016-23°'"-  long. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  179 

mttlosa,  Fr.,  and  Lecidea.  canlesrens,  Anz.  (Lich.  Langoh.  n.  139)  as 
close,  in  all  respects,  to  L.  sqitalida  (Sclileich.)  Ach.  Curious  as  it  is 
then,  too  much  stress  should  perhaps  not  be  laid  on  the  systematic 
value  of  the  thallus  we  have  been  considering, 

BiATORA  PETRI,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  e  sqnamis  membranaceo-cartila- 
gineis  ex  orbiculatft-  oblongo-difFormibus  undiilato-lobatis  subimbricatis 
glauco-cinerascentibus  (fuscescentibus)  subtus  ambituque  asceiidente 
mox  fiiscis ;  apotheciis  marginalibus  sessilibus  nitidis  (latit.  1-2  mm.) 
disco  subplano  rufo  (nigro)  margine  flexuoso  nigro  demiim  excluso. 
Sporce  octonse,  ovoideo-ellipsoideae,  simplices,  incoloi'es,  longit. 
OjOOO-ll""-,  crassit.  0,004-o'"™-,  paraphysibus  coalitis. 

On  lime  and  other  rocks,  growing  over  mosses,  Moulton,  Alabama ; 
Hon.  T.  M.  Peters.  The  smooth  scales  at  length  reticulately  rimulose, 
as  common  especially  in  B.  globifera  (Ach.),  Fr. ;  but  the  lichen  is 
readily  distinguished  from  the  species  named,  as  from  B.  Russellli.  and 
B.  hiridella  of  these  papers,  by  the  colors,  and  the  thinness  of  the  loosely 
aopo-reffated  thallus. 

BiATORA  CARNULENTA,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  obsoleto  ;  apotheciis  parvis 
(latit.  0,3-0,6  mm.)  adnatis  convexis  ex  albido  livescenti-carneolis,  mar- 
gine perquam  tenui  demisso  obscurato  vel  stei»ius  evanido.  Hypothe- 
cium  incolor.  Sporge  octona3,  ovoideo-ellipsoideiJe,  simplices,  incolores, 
lou'dt.  0,007-12"""-,  crassit.  OjOOS-o™"-,  paraphysibus  conglutinatis. — 
Dead,  soft  wood  in  the  White  Mountains.  Found  also  on  the  same 
substrate  at  Geneseo,  N.  Y.,  H.  Willey.  Reaction  of  the  hymeneal 
gelatine  with  iodine,  blue. 

BiATORA  PELiASPis,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  tenuissimo  albido  vel  obsoleto  ; 
apotheciis  parvis  (latit.  0,3-0,6  mm.)  sessilibus  subplanis,  disco  livido- 
fuscescente  pruinato,  margine  tenui  nigro  disparente.  Hypothe- 
cium  fusco-nigrum.  Spor*  ellipsoideas,  simplices,  incolores,  longit. 
0,005-11  mm.,  crassit.  0,003-5  mm.,  paraphysibus  conglutinatis.  —  On 
dead,  soft  wood,  South  Carolina,  H.  W.  Ravenel,  &c. ;  Massachusetts, 
H.  Willey.  Very  close  to  this  is  a  minute  lichen  {B.  peliaspi'stes,  Mihi 
herh.)  found  by  me  on  living  hemlock  trunks,  with  leprous-granulose, 
white  thallus  ;  and  on  dead,  soft  wood,  without  thallus,  in  the  White 
Mountains,  in  which  the  ajiothecia  are  always  naked,  and  the  spores 
rather  smaller  (0,005-11  mm.  long,  and  0.0025-35  mm.  thick)  and 
oblong.  Both  lichens  long  represented  with  me  the  old  '' Biatora 
anomala"  of  authors.  Both  exhibit  with  iodine  the  same  blue  re- 
action. 

BiATORA  GLATJCONiGRANS,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  granuloso  giaucescente; 
apotheciis  (latit.  0,2-0,5  mm.)  sessilibus  mox  convexis  e  livido-fusco 


180  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

nigris,  margins  tenuissimo  demisso  mox  nigricante  vel  evanido.  Hypo- 
thecium  nigrum.  Sporae  octon£e,  ex  ellipsoideo  oblongae,  biloculares, 
incolores,  longit.  0,009-15"""-,  crassit.  0,0(»3-4"""-,  parapliysihus  coalitis. 
—  On  the  bark  of  white  pine,  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  Mr.  Willey.  The 
well-developed  crust,  the  hypotliecium,  and  the  paraphyses  distinguish 
this  from  B.  lenticulans  (Acli.),  &c. 

BiATORA  LiviDO-NiGRrcANS,  sp.  Hov.  :  thallo  e  granulis  cartilagi- 
neis  discretis  livido-glaucescentibus  ;  apotheciis  minutis  (latit.  0,2-0,4 
mm.)  sessilibus  plauis  tenuiter  marginatis  fusco-uigris.  Hypoihecium 
pallidum.  S[)or9e  octonjB,  dactyloideas  et  oblongte,  4-o-locuhires,  inco- 
lores, longit.  0,015-23"'™-,  crassit.  0,003-6"™-,  paraphysibus  distinctis, 
capitulatis.  —  On  bark,  Sandy  Point,  Straits  of  Magellan,  Jiev.  T.  Hill 
(Hassler  exp.  1872).  Specnuen  a  very  small  one,  but  the  characters 
sufficient  to  distingnish  the  lichen  from  Lecidea  sororiella,  Nyl.,  of  New 
Grenada  (Lindig  exs.  n.  2838)  as  from  the  Australian  L.  Uvido-fusca, 
Nyl.  (Si/n.  JV.  Caled.  p.  42,  not.)  and  L.  licido-fuscescens,  Nyl.,  of 
Brazil  {Flora,  1869,  p.  122),  all  of  which  are  taken  by  their  author  to 
relate  nearly  to  Blatora  trachona,  Flot.  With  iodine  a  vinous  tint  is 
exhil)ited  by  the  hymeneal  gelatine  of  the  antarctic  lichen,  following 
a  bluish. 

Lecidea  mamillana,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  squamaceo-areolato  viridi- 
glaucescente  (cinerascente  aut  dealbato)  areolis  mox  turgescentibus 
radiatimque  striatulis  ambitu  sublobatis,  discretis  vel  dein  aggregatis  ; 
apotlieciis  in  areolis  innatis  centralibus  minutis  (latit.  0,3-0,7  mm.) 
plano-convexis  nudis  margine  tenui  evanido.  Hypothecium  fuscum. 
Sporse  octon^e,  ellipsoidete,  simplices,  incolores,  longit.  0,009-1 8™™-,  cras- 
sit. 0,005-9""-,  paraphysibus  conglutinatis.  Spermatia  minuta,  recta, 
in  sterigmatibus  simpliciusculis. —  On  lime  rocks,  Alabama,  Judge 
Peters.  Suggests  L.  mammlllaris  (Gouan)  Duf.,  of  the  soutli  of 
Europe ;  but  the  areoles,  for  the  most  part,  are  little  more  than  a 
quarter  of  the  size  of  those  of  the  European  lichen.  Tiiey  occur  now 
in  a  reduced,  glebous  state,  which  is  quite  smooth,  glaucescent,  and 
finally  crowded  into  a  close  crust ;  but  are  more  commonly  discrete, 
when  the  effigurate  margin  is  manifest,  the  color  often  darkens,  and 
the  surface  is  at  length  prettily  marked  with  striae  radiating  from  the 
apothecium,  instead  of  becoming  cancellated,  as  in  the  foreign  plant. 
As  seen  in  section,  no  important  differences  are  observed  in  the  internal 
structure  of  the  apothecium  of  our  lichen  from  that  of  X.  mammilhiris, 
though  the  thinner  hypothecium  of  ours  is  possibly  also  paler.  I  cannot 
recognize  in  either  the  distinctly  twofold  hypothecium  sometimes  at- 
tributed to  this  group  of  Lecidece. 


OP    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  181 

Lectpea  psephota,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  areolato  albo,  areolis  mitiutis 
tumidiilis  discretis,  hypothallo  nigro  ;  apotheciis  perruiuutis  (latit. 
0,2-0,4  mm.)  areolis  plerumqne  immixtis  e  concavo  planis  margine 
tenui  incurvo  persistente,  saepe  angulo.so-difformibus.  Hypothecium 
nigrum.  Sporje  in  tliecis  ventricosis  octonse,  elli[)Soideas,  simplices, 
incolores,  longit.  0,012-20™'"-,  crassit.  0,007-10"""-,  paraphysibiis  con- 
cretis.  —  On  granite  rocks,  shores  of  Straits  of  Magellan,  accompanying 
(in  the  specimen)  BuelUa  petrcea  b.  vulgaris  and  B.  geographica,  Rev. 
T.  Hill  (Hassler  exp.  1872).  The  lichen  itself  not  a  little  resembles 
B.  stellulata  (Tayl.). 

Lecidea  tessellina,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  rimoso-areolato  glaucescente 
(cinerascente  vel  dein  sublutescente)  areolis  planis  Isevigatisque  (rarius 
turgidis)  hypothallo  atro  subinde  marginatis  ;  apotheciis  minutis  (latit. 
0,3-07  mm.)  areolis  immersis  e  concavo  mox  planis  nudis,  margine 
tenui  acuto  subpersistente,  demum  confluenti-difformibus.  Hypothe- 
cium  incolor.  Sporse  octonfe,  ellipsoideae,  simplices,  incolores,  longit. 
0,009-14°""-,  crassit.  0,005-7"""-,  para|)hysibus  coalitis.  —  Common  on 
•various  rocks  throughout  the  Appalachian  range,  and  observed  also 
■westward,  in  Kansas  and  Missouri,  by  E.  Htdl.  A  well-marked  lichen, 
which  I  long  tried  to  consider  a  lecideoid  Lecanora  (§  Aspicilin),  with 
which  group  it  accords,  moreover,  in  its  spermogones  and  staff-shaped 
spermatia  on  subsim[)le  sterigmas.  The  rtniction  of  tlie  thallus  with  K. 
is  yellow  (becoming  in  time  reddish),  and  that  of  the  hymeneal  gelatine 
with  iodine,  blue. 

Lecidea  cyrtidia,  sp.  nov. :  thallo  effuso  tenuissimo  leproso  oli- 
vaceo-virente ;  apotheciis  perminutis  (latit.  0,2-0,4  mm.)  appressis 
mox  conv^exis  immarginatisque.  Hypotliecinm  nigrum.  Sporie  6-8"® 
ovoideo-ellipsoideis,  sim|)lices  nebulosiE  vel  pseudo-biloculares,  incolores, 
longit.  0,006-10""-,  crassit.  0.0025-45""'-,  paraphysibus  coalilis.  —  On 
sandstone,  IMissouri,  B.  Hall ;  Pebbles,  Quincy,  Mass.,  H.  Willey.  A 
very  humble,  but  yet  marked,  lichen. 

APPEXDIX. 

Kerguet.en  Lichens.  A  brief  notice  of  lichens  collected  in  Ker- 
guelen's  Land  by  Dr.  Kidder,  Naturalist  of  the  United  Statt-s  Transit 
Expedition  in  1874-75,  as  of  a  few  others  gathered  previously  in  the 
same  island  by  Dr.  Hooker,  and  now  preserved  in  the  late  Dr.  Thomas 
Taylor's  herbarium  (Herb.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.),  was  prepared  and 
published  by  the  present  writer  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Toney  Bot. 
Club,  Vol.  VI.  No.  10  (Oct.  1875).  In  the  November  following,  a 
note  on  "  New  Lichens  from  Kerguelea  Land,"  joUected  by  the  Rev. 


182  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

A.  E.  Eaton,  of  the  British  Transit  Expedition,  and  determined  by 
Dr.  Nylander,  was  publi.<hed  by  tlie  Rev.  J.  M.  Crombie  in  the  "Jour- 
nal of  Botany,"  and  was  followed  by  a  full  enumeration  of  Mr.  Eaton's 
lichens  by  the  same  gentleman,  with  tlie  same  assistance,  in  the  '•  Jour- 
nal of  the  London  Linnaean  Society,  Vol.  XV.  ;  as  now,  at  length,  by 
a  "  Revision  of  the  Kerguelen  Lichens  collected  by  Dr.  Hooker,"  in 
the  "Journal  of  Botany,"  for  April,  1877.  The  naturalist  of  the  Brit- 
ish expedition  had  much  better  luck  m  collecting,  amid  the  countless 
discouragements  of  the  "  island  of  desolation,"  or  was  less  embarrassed 
by  other  and  higher  branches  of  natural  history,  than  ours  ;  and  Messrs. 
Nylander  and  Ci-ombie  have  tiius  been  able  to  largely  extend  this  cu- 
rious lichen-flora ;  while  a  comparison  with  Dr.  Hooker's  specimens 
(very  few,  indeed,  of  which  could  be  discovered  in  the  herbarium  of 
Dr.  Taylor)  has  enabled  them  to  determine  some  of  the  latter  writer's 
new  species,  fbc  the  determination  of  which  his  own  descriptions  were 
entirely  inadequate.  There  is  also  something  over  a  page,  in  Mr. 
Crombie's  last  paper,  of  observations  on  the  present  writer's  list  of 
Kerguelen  lichens  above  mentioned,  upon  which  it  will  be  proper  to 
make  some  remarks. 

And  first  as  to  what  is  called  the  unfortunate  "  neglect  of  the  chemi- 
cal reactions,"  which,  it  is  said,  renders  the  "  diagnosis  incomplete,  and 
so  far  uncertain."  This  is  simply  a  matter  of  opinion.  I  studied  the 
question  of  the  use  of  certain  chemicals  in  the  systematic  investigation 
of  lichens,  witli  such  care  as  I  could  give  it,  ten  years  ago,  and  have 
since  seen  no  reason  to  change  the  view  then  expressed  (Amer.  Natu- 
ralist, April,  1868).  The  application  to  the  lichen-tissues  of  the  tests 
used  is  not  without  interest,  and  may  give  results  of  some  utility,  so  far 
at  least  as  they  go  ;  but  this  quantum  vidctar  impedes  every  stage  of 
the  inquiry,  and  the  unequivocal  value  assumed  for  the  results  has 
never  been  any  thing  but  an  assumption.  And  opinions  may  also  differ 
as  to  the  value  of  the  chemical  "species"  which  have  resulted  from  the 
"  reactions."  Dr.  Nylander  has  remarked  of  one  of  these  species,  his 
Parmelia  cetrarioides,  that  it  scarcely  differs  from  another  except  chemi- 
cally, — "  vix  differt  nisi  reactione.  .  .  .  a  P.  oUvetorum :  at  distin- 
guenda  est  nomine  propria, Jam  earn  ob  causam"  (Nyl.  Obs.  Lich.  Pyr. 
Orient,  p.  i  6),  and  his  remark  is  applicable  to  not  a  few  others,  whether 
or  not  now  appearing  to  be  supported  by  secondary  lichen-characters. 
I  decline,  for  my  part,  to  receive  such  species.  And  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  tendency  of  this  scrutiny  of  "  the  reactions,"  as  of  another 
now  far  from  unknown  method  <.f  study,  —  the  scrutiny,  that  is,  of  minute 
and  not  seldom  unimportant  differences  of  all  sorts,  to  the  ignoring,  for 


OP   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  183 

the  time  at  least  (whatever  may  be  intended  in  tlie  future),  of  the  more 
difficult  and  important  consideration  in  full  of  the  points  of  agreement 
with  known  forms,  —  is  simply  to  minimize  the  value  of  species;  and 
can  have  but  one  I'esult,  and  that  only  a  disastrous  one,  on  the  future 
of  Licheiiology. 

Usaea  sulplmrea  (Miill.),  Th.  Fr.,  is  the  same  certainly  as  Neuro- 
pogon  meluxanthiis  (Ach.)  Nyl.  But  it  is  not  questioned  that  the 
lichen  named  is  indigenous  to  both  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  zones,  and 
was  first  published  from  the  former  under  the  name  first  cited  above. 
The  fact  that  the  Arctic  condition  is  less  luxuriant  than  the  other  can 
make  no  difference  in  the  application  of  the  universally  recognized  rule 
of  nomenclature,  which  overrides  individual  preferences,  and  is  intended 
to.  But  my  reviewer  continues  tliut  '*  Tuckerman  also  seems  to  imply 
that  Neuropogon  Taylori  (Hook,  fil.)  cannot  rightly  be  discriminated 
from  the  preceding."  It  was,  perhaps,  rather  more  than  implied.  Hav- 
ing, for  many  years,  been  in  receipt  of  specimens  of  the  yellow  Usnea 
of  the  polar  regions,  especially  of  the  antarctic  forms,  it  became  a  matter 
of  some  interest  to  me  to  determine  the  U.  2\(yh>ri,  considered  (it 
should  appear)  by  Dr.  Taylor  to  take  the  [)lace,  in  Kerguelen's  Land, 
of  the  older  species  ;  but  not  likely  to  be  restricted  to  the  island.  The 
endeavor  was  in  vain,  and  even  in  Dr.  Kidder's  large  Kei'guelen  col- 
lection there  was  nothing  that  appeared  separable  from  the  [)l:int  of  the 
Falkland  Islands,  as  there  was  nothing  in  either  Taylor's  or  Nylauder's 
diagnosis  of  U.  Taylori  satisfactorily  to  distinguish  it. 

Pannaria  Taylori,  Tnckerm.  ubi  sup.,  Oct.  187.5,  which  was  de- 
scribed from  a  specimen  without  name  in  the  Taylor  lierbarinm,  is  the 
same,  it  fully  appears,  as  the  P.  placodiopsis,  Nyl,  of  the  ".Journal  of 
Botany,"  of  November  of  the  same  year.  But  Mr.  Cronibie  is  now 
able  t(»  show,  from  Dr.  Hooker's  specimen,  that  the  lichen  is  Lecanora 
dichroa,  Tayl.,  which  would  hardly  be  guessed  from  the  description. 
That  certainly  seems  to  indicate  an  areolate,  oidy  sub-effigiirate  plant, 
of  much  the  type  of  Lecanora  gelida ;  and  by  no  means  this  marked 
Pannaria. 

'^^  Pannaria  glaucella,  Tuck.,  sp.  n.  =  Amphidium  molyhdoplacum, 
Nyl."  I  cite  this  definite  statement  as  it  stands  in  Mr.  Crombie's  paper. 
It  seems,  however,  from  the  evidence  of  the  same  gentleman,  that  there 
is  no  doubt  at  all  that  the  plant  is  new  ;  or  that  it  was  published  by  one 
writer,  under  the  specific  name  glaucella  in  October,  and  by  another 
under  that  of  molyhdoplaca,  in  tiie  following  November.  This  should 
appear  to  settle  the  name  of  the  species  ;  but  what  of  the  g>'nus,  and 
where  is  it  defined  ?     The  only  reference  to  it  that  I  can  discover  is  in 


184  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Dr.  Nylander's  Obs.  Lich.  in  Pijren.  1873,  p.  48,  where  a  "  Leptogmm 
(Ampkidium)  terrenum "  is  described,  and  the  remark  immediately 
follows,  that  this  new  Leptogimn  of  the  new  section  AmphicUum  is  really 
to  be  taken  for  a  new  genus,  —  ^'  genus  novum  quoad  thalluin,  quasi  Pan- 
naria  .  .  .  sed  sporce  solitce  Leptogii  .  .  .  Genus  Amphidium  nnndum 
satis  cognitum."  But  the  Amphidium  of  Kerguelen's  Land  differs  con- 
siderably from  the  Pyrenean  one,  and  the  proposed  genus  seems  as  far 
from  establishment  as  ever.  In  his  full  diagnosis  of  tlie  species  in  Mr. 
Crombie's  "  Enumeration  of  Kerguelen  Lichens,"  cited  above.  Dr.  Ny- 
lander  compares  it  with  Pannaria  elceina.  I  must  still  consider  the 
affinity  of  the  plant  Pannariine  and  not  CoUemeine,  and  continue  to 
call  it  Pannaria  glaucella. 

Placodium  hicolor,  Tuckerm.  uhi  sup.,  is,  without  doubt,  correctly 
referred  by  Messrs.  Nylander  and  Crombie  to  Lecanora  gelida,  v.  late- 
ritia,  Nyl.  I  had  myself  remarked  that  my  plant  was  the  same  with 
the  red  L.  gelida  of  Taylor's  herl)ariiim,  upon  which,  doubtless,  Nylan- 
der founded  his  Squamaria  luteritia  {Enum.  Gen.  Lich.),  but  the  color 
suggested  Placodium,  and  the  spores  seemed  to  look  the  same  way. 
The  polar-bilocular  type  (whicli  is  hardly  well  named  ''  placodiomor- 
phous  ")  is,  indeed,  a  very  distinct  one ;  but  its  exhibition  in  nature,  if 
we  limit  groups  rather  by  the  sum  of  their  characters  than  by  any  par- 
ticular character,  is  now  far  enouujh  from  distinct. 

"  Urceolina  Kergueliensls  *,  Tuck.,  n.  gen.  S^  sp.  =  Lecanora  Ker- 
guelensis  (Tuck.)."  I  cite  once  more  from  Mr.  Crombie's  revision  ; 
and  can  but  repeat  here,  in  reply  to  Dr.  Nylander's  criticism,  what  I 
said  at  first:  "  the  lichen  is  not  referable  to  Lecanora  §  Aspicilia,  and 
is  excluded  by  its  exciple  from  §  Sfpiamaria;"  as,  of  course,  from  the 
section  re|)resented  by  L.  suhfusca.  The  apothecium  certainly  carries 
the  plant  into  the  Urceolariei,  as  these  have  been  understood,  and  is 
irreconcilable  with  the  Lecanorine  type.  It  is  true  that  Nylander  has 
not  recognized  this  sub-family,  referring,  from  the  first,  Gyalecta  to  Le- 
cidea,  Nyl.,  and  proposing  to  unite  even  Urceolaria  with  Lecanora  (in 
fact,  U.  scruposa  really  appears  as  Lecanora  ( Urceolaria)  scruposa, 
Ach.,  Nyl.,  in  Norrlin  Beratlelse  in  Not.  Scilsk.  p.  F.  ^  Fl.  Fork.,  13, 
1873)  ;  but  the  latter  of  these  emendations  of  the  system  is  now  given 


*  A  better  word,  perhaps,  than  eitlier  Kerguehnsis,  which  Messrs.  Nylander 
and  Crombie  have  taken  leave  to  sub.stitute  for  it  in  the  cited  pajier,  or  Kergue- 
lena,  which  tliey  elsewiiere  employ.  It  is  formed  from  Kerguelia,  an  attempt  at 
a  short  latinization  of  the  land  or  island  of  Kerguelen.  Kergudenia  may  be  more 
correct,  and  Kergueleniensis ;  but  hardly  Kerguela. 


OP   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  185 

up,  and  the  former  should  appear  to  be  also,  as  the  learned  author  has 
of  late  described  new  S[)ecies  of  Gyalecta  (Add.  nov.  in  Flora  Ratisb. 
1875,  1876),  though  witliout  any  indication  of  his  present  opinion  of 
the  limits  and  place  of  tlie  genus.  Possibly,  then,  the  new  Urceolarii- 
form  genus  from  Kerguelen's  Land  may  hereafter  come  into  favor. 

To  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  add  that  the  fragment  of  rock  upon 
which  apothecia  of  BuelUa  parnsema,  as  I  certainly  considered  them, 
appeared,  is  no  longer  within  reach.  Dr.  N}  lander  is  of  opinion  that 
they  are  "  probably  to  be  referred  to  "the  closely  related  B.  wyriocarpa, 
which  he  has  recognized  on  other  fragments.  But  the  former  is  a 
cosmopolitan  lichen,  and  may  well  occur  also. 


186  PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 


XVI. 

THEORY  OF  THE  HORIZONTAL  PHOTOHELIOGRAPH, 

INCLUDING  ITS  APPLICATION  TO  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  THE 
SOLAR  PARALLAX  BY  MEANS  OF  TRANSITS  OF  VENUS. 

Br  Professor  William  Harkness,  U.  S.  Navy. 

Presented  March  15th,  1877. 

The  terra  "Horizontal  Photolieliograph "  is  used  to  designate  that 
form  of  Photolieliograph  which,  it  is  believed,  was  first  employed  by 
the  late  Professor  Joseph  Winlock;  and  which  consists  essentially  of 
a  fixed  telescope  whose  optical  axis  is  accurately  horizontal  and  in  the 
meridian,  and  whose  objective  is  directed  toward  the  same  side  of 
the  zenith  as  the  elevated  pole ;  the  sun's  rays  being  reflected  into  the 
telescope  by  a  suitable  heliostat.  The  sensitive  plate  for  the  reception 
of  the  photogra|)hic  image,  is,  of  course,  situated  at  the  chemical  focus 
of  the  telescope ;  the  plane  of  the  plate  being  perpendicular  to,  and  its 
centre  coinciding  with,  the  optical  axis  of  tho  telescope. 

S 


D, 


Fig.  1. 

The  details  of  the  construction  of  the  horizontal  photoheliograph,  in 
60  far  as  they  are  necessary  for  a  proper  understanding  of  the  theory 
of  the  instrument,  are  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

A  is  the  heliostat  mirror,  consisting  of  a  piece  of  highly  polished, 
but  unsilvered  glass,  whose  two  surfaces  make  an  angle  of  about 
sixty  minutes  with  each  other.  The  front  surface  is  worked  as  truly 
plane  as  possible,  and  serves  to  reflect  the  solar  rays  through  the 
objective,  to  the  photographic  plate.  In  working  the  back  surface  no 
particular  pains  are  taken,  and,  on  account  of  its  inclination  to  the 


OP  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


187 


front  surface,  any  light  reflected  from  it  is  thrown  entirely  away  from 
the  photographic  plate.  B  is  the  objective,  wliicl)  is  corrected  for  the 
chemical,  and  not  for  the  visual  rays.  The  distance  between  the 
objective  and  mirror  is  made  as  small  as  possible,  consistently  with 
keeping  the  latter  clear  of  the  shadow  of  the  former.  D  is  the  reti- 
cule, the  construction  and  use  of  which  will  be  ex[)lained  presently. 
C  is  the  photograpliic  plate,  the  sensitive  surface  of  wliich  faces  the 
objective.  Tlie  rays  from  the  sun  S  are  reflected  by  tlie  mirror  A 
through  the  objective  B,  and  after  traversing  the  reticule  D  they  form 
an  image  upon  the  photographic  plate  C. 

The  reticule  consists  of  a  system  of  squares,  formed  by  the  inter- 
section of  two  systems  of  very  fine,  straight  lines,  wbicli  are  drawn 

upon  one  side  of,  and  respectively  paral- 
lel to  the  edges  of,  a  thin,  square  plate 
of  piano-parallel  glass ;  as  shown  in 
Fig.  2.  In  each  of  these  linear  sys- 
tems the  number  of  lines  is  odd,  and 
the  middle  line  is  drawn  through  the 
centre  of  the  plate.  This  reticule  is 
fixed  at  D,  Fig.  1,  with  its  rided  sur- 
face toward,  parallel  to,  and  two  or  three 
millimeters  distant  from,  the  sensitive 
surface  of  the  plate  C.  Moreover,  one 
of  the  two  systems  of  lines  is  set  as 
nearly  as  possible  vertical,  and  its  inclination  is  accurately  deter- 
mined ;  and  as  an  additional  safeguard,  a  plumb  line,  consisting 
of  a  silver  wire  about  0.05  of  a  millimeter  in  diameter,  is  suspended 
between  the  reticule  and  the  photographic  plate,  in  suih  a  position 
that  it  may  hang  freely,  and  at  the  same  time  be  very  nearly  in  the 
vertical  plane  passing  through  the  centres  of  the  reticule  and  objective. 
As  the  light  from  the  objective  traverses  the  reticule  bifore  it  reaches 
the  photographic  plate,  the  shadow,  both  of  the  reticule  and  of  the 
plumb  line,  is  impressed  upon  every  picture  taken  with  the  apparatus  ; 
and  thus  three  different  ends  are  gained  :  Firstly,  by  comparing  the 
squares  of  the  reticule  witli  the  corresponding  ones  upon  the  picture, 
every  thing  relating  to  the  shrinkage  of  the  c'dlddion  can  be  deter- 
mined ;  secondly,  the  impression  of  the  plumb-line,  and  also  that  of 
the  vertical  lines,  furnishes  upon  each  picture  a  fixed  direction  from 
which  to  measure  angles  of  position  ;  and,  thirdly,  the  intersection 
of  the  middle  vertical  with  the  middle  horizontal  line  furnishes  a 
fixed  point,  which  will  hereafter  be  designated  as  the  centre  of  the 


_.pi^. 


Fig.  2. 


188  PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

plate.  To  determine  the  zenith  distance  and  azimuth  of  this  point 
it  is  necessary  to  measure  the  zenith  distance  and  azimuth  of  the 
corresj^onding  point  of  the  reticule,  as  seen  from  tlie  second  principal 
point  of  the  objective.  P'or  that  purpose  the  mirror  A,  Fig.  1,  is 
temporarily  removed,  and  a  transit  instrument  is  set  up  in  front  of 
the  objective  B,  and  in  tlie  prolongation  of  its  axis.  The  objective 
thus  becomes  a  collimator  to  the  transit  instrument,  through  the 
eyepiece  of  which  the  lines  of  the  reticule  may  be  observed  as  if  they 
were  at  an  infinite  distance.  It  should  be  remarked,  however, 
that,  as  the  reticule  is  slightly  inside  the  visual  focus  of  the  objective, 
it  is  not  generally  possible  to  obtain  perfectly  distinct  vision  of  its 
lines  and  of  the  wires  of  the  transit  at  the  same  time.  This  difficulty 
is  obviated  by  mai'king  the  intersection  of  the  middle  vertical  and 
middle  horizontal  lines  of  the  reticule  in  such  a  distinct  manner  that 
the  slight  mal-adjustment  of  focus  does  not  prevent  it  from  being 
seen.  Then,  by  means  of  the  transit,  the  reticule  is  adjusted  so  that 
the  point  in  question  is  very  approximately  in  the  meridian,  and  at 
a  zenith  distance  of  ninety  degrees.  Finally,  the  exact  azimuth  and 
zenith  distance  of  the  point  are  measured. 

If  the  photoheliograf)h  is  employed  to  depict  any  object  whose 
linear  magnitude  is  such  that  it  subtends  an  angle  a  at  the  first 
principal  point  of  the  oljective,  and  if  the  centre  of  the  image 
coincides  with  the  centre  of  the  plate  upon  wliich  it  is  taken  ;  then, 
no  matter  what  may  be  the  solar  focal  distance  of  the  objective,  the 
magnitude  of  the  iuiajje  will  be 

2  tan  la  (Z>  +  E"  —  T)  (1) 

where  D  is  the  distance  between  the  back  surfice  of  the  objective 
and  the  sensitive  surface  of  the  photograi>hic  plates,  E"  the  distance 
from  the  back  surface  of  the  objective  to  its  second  principal  point ; 
and  T  A  correction  due  to  the  thickness  of  the  reticule  plate.  It  is 
thus  evident  that,  in  all  calculations  involving  measurements  of  pic- 
tures taken  with  this  apparatus,  the  value  to  be  employed  as  the  focal 
distance  of  the  objective  is 

D-\-  E"  —  T  (2) 

D  is  obtained  by  direct  measurement,  the  accuracy  of  which  must 
be  such  that  the  uncertainty  of  the  resulting  value  will  not  exceed 
one  part  in  ten  thousand,  and  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  not  ex- 
ceed one  part  in  forty  thousand.     To  obtain  E"  we  put 

n  =  refractive  index  of  crown -jjlass  lens. 

n'  =  refractive  index  of  flint-glass  lens. 


OP   ARTS    AND   SCIENCES. 


189 


ne  =  thickness  of  crown-glass  lens. 

n'e'  =  thickness  of  Hint-jilass  lens. 

s  =  space  between  the  interior  surfaces  of  the   crown 

and  flint  lenses,  measured  along  the  optical  axis. 
()i  —  1)/'     =  radius  of  first  surface  of  crown  lens.     N.  B.  —  This 

is  the  surface  nearest  the  heliostat. 
()i  —  1)/"   =  radius  of  second  surface  of  crown  lens. 
(»i'  —  l)y"  =  radius  of  first  surface  of  flint  lens. 
(n'  —  l)y^  =  raiiius  of  second  surface  of  flint  lens. 


=  focal  distance  of  crown-gla>s  lens. 
=  focal  distance  of  flint-glass  lens. 


Then,  from   the  "Dioptrische  Untersuchungen "  given  ia  "Gauss* 
"Werke,"  Vol.  5,  pp.  262-2G5,  we  derive  the  formulce 


^' 


/'/" 


qp'  = 


yw  fi 


(3) 


And  if  the  objective  is  an  ordinary  double  achromatic,  corrected  either 
for  the  visual  or  chemical  rays, 


t'  =  s  +  '^  + 


(4) 


But  if  it  is  a  single  lens,  then 


f 


(5) 


a 


A'V 


To  find  the  value  of  the  correction  T,  let  abed,  Fig.  3,  be  a  section 
of  the  reticule  plate,  and  let  efhe  a.  ray  of  light  incident  upon  it  in 

the  plane  of  the  paper.  If  this  ray 
suffered  no  refraction,  it  would  emerge 
from  the  plate  at  g ;  but,  owing  to 
refraction,  it  actually  does  emerge  at 
h,  after  which  its  path  is  parallel  to 
ef  produced.  At  k  erect  a  perpen- 
dicular to  be.  It  will  be  intersected 
at  i  by  ef  produced,  and  the  distance 
hi  will  be  the  required  value  of  T. 
Let  t  be  the  thickness  of  the  glass 
composing  the  reticule  plate ;  n  its 
index  of  refraction ;  and  i  the  angle 
of  incidence  of  the  ray  ef.    'Then 


190  PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

n 

and  as  i  oannot  exceed  half  a  degree,  its  cosine  will  be  very  nearly 
unity,  and  it  will  be  sufficiently  accurate  to  write 

T=  '-i^i^  (7) 

If  we  assume  the  reticule  plate  to  be  of  crown  glass,  and  its  refractive 
index  to  be  1.53,  then  T  =:  0.347  t;  and  it  is  evident  that,  in  order 
to  make  7"  small,  the  reticule  plate  should  be  as  thin  as  possible. 

From  the  experience  thus  far  had  with  the  horizontal  photohelio- 
graph,  it  appears  that,  if  the  focal  distance  of  the  objective  is  F,  its 
clear  aperture  should  be  0.0100  i^.  The  clear  aperture  of  the  helio- 
stat  mirror,  which  is  circular  in  form,  should  be  0.0142  i^.  The  plates 
upon  which  the  pictures  are  taken  should  be  square,  and  of  such  a 
size  that  their  sides,  as  seen  from  the  centre  of  the  objective,  may 
subtend  an  angle  of  about  sixty  minutes.  This  should  also  be  the 
size  of  the  reticule  plate,  and  the  distance  between  any  two  consecu- 
tive lines  of  the  reticule  should  subtend  an  an^le  of  about  four  minutes. 
Throughout  the  remainder  of  this  paper  it  will  be  assumed  that  these 
are  the  proportions  of  the  apparatus.  The  actual  focal  distance  of  the 
objectives  of  the  instruments  heretofore  constructed  has  generally  been 
about  twelve  meters. 

To  avoid  repetition,  the  notation  which  will  be  employed  through- 
out the  remainder  of  this  paper  is  here  given.  Let  PA,  Fig.  4,  be 
the  meridian  of  the  place  of  observation;  P  being  the  pole,  and  Z 
the  zenith.  Let  S  be  the  position  of  the  sun  as  seen  from  the  centre 
of  the  earth,  and  S^  its  position  as  seen  from  the  place  of  observation. 
Hereafter,  to  avoid  circumlocution,  S  will  be  designated  as  the  true, 
and  S^  as  the  apparent,  sun.  Let  v  be  the  vertex  of  the  apparent 
sun,  and  V  the  position  of  Venus  as  seen  from  the  centre  of  the  earth. 
Also,  let  M  be  the  point  where  the  normal  to  the  heliostat  mirror 
pierces  the  heavens,  and  V,  S',  S'^,  and  v',  the  positions  of  the  re- 
flected images  of  Venus,  the  true  sun,  the  apparent  sun,  and  the 
vertex  of  the  apparent  sun,  as  seen  from  the  second  principal  point 
of  the  photographic  objective.  Then  the  following  notation  will  be 
adopted :  — 

(^      =  latitude  of  the  place  of  observation. 

cp'     =  co-latitude  of  the  place  of  observation  =  PZ  =  90°  —  gj. 

As  =■  polar  distance  of  true  suu  =  PS. 


OP  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


191 


Fig.  4. 


192  PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

A,.   :^  polar  distance  of  Venus  =  PV. 

a's  =  polar  distance  of  the  reflected  image  of  the  true  sun  =  PS'. 

A'y  =  polar  distance  of  the  reflected  image  of  Venus  =  PV. 

tg       =  hour  angle  of  true  sun  =  APS. 

ty      =  hour  angle,  of  Venus  =  APV. 

t's     =  hour  angle  of  the  reflected  image  of  the  true  sun  =  APS'. 

t'y     =  hour  angle  of  the  reflected  image  of  Venus  ^  APV. 

^g      =  zenith  distance  of  true  sun  =  ZS. 

^'s     =:  zenith  distance  of  the  reflected  image  of  the  true  sun  =  ZS'. 

^"s    =  zenith   distance   of  the    reflected    image   of  the   apparent 

sun  =  ZS'^. 
t,'^,     =  zenith  distance  of  the  reflected  image  of  Venus  =  ZV. 
As    =  azimuth  of  the  true  sun  =  AZS. 

A's   =  azimuth  of  the  reflected  image  of  the  true  sun  =  AZS'. 
A"s  =  azimuth  of  the  reflected  image  of  the  apparent  sun  =  AZS'^. 
A'v    =  azimuth  of  the  reflected  image  of  Venus  =  AZV. 
d       =  the  angle  ZS'^S'. 
r       =.  the  refraction. 

7i'      =  the  parallax  in  altitude.     Hence  r  —  tt'  =  SS^  =  S'S'^. 
§       =  the  angle  ZS'V. 
7       =  the  angle  ZV'S'. 
X       =  the  angle  PS'V. 
Q       =.  the   geocentric   distance  from  centre  of  sun   to   centre  of 

Venus  =  S  V  =  SV. 
CO      =  the  geocentric  position  angle  of  Venus  relatively  to  the  sun's 

centre  =  PSV. 
a       z=  the  angle  PVS. 
^       =.  the  angle  PSS'. 
yj      =  the  angle  PS'S. 

We  have  next  to  show  how  pictures  obtained  vpith  the  horizontal 
photoheliograph  may  be  measured,  and  the  results  expressed  in  terms 
of  some  one  of  the  systems  of  spherical  co-ordinates  usually  employed 
in  astronomy. 

Upon  an  engine  arranged  to  give  polar  co-ordinates,  the  plate  to  be 
measured  is  carefully  adjusted,  so  that  the  centre  of  the  image  of  the 
sun  coincides  as  accurately  as  possible  with  the  origin  of  co-ordinates. 
The  fixed  line,  from  which  the  angles  of  the  co-ordinates  are  to  be 
measured,  is  taken  perpendicular  to  the  image  of  the  plumb  line ;  the 
zero  being  toward  that  edge  of  the  plate  which  was  on  the  right  hand, 
as  viewed  from  the  object  glass,  when  the  picture  was  taken,  and  (the 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  193 

collodion  side  of  the  plate  being  nearest  the  observer)  a  motion  of  the 
radius  vector  iu  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  tiie  hands  of  a  watch 
corresponding  to  increasing  angles.  Then  the  distance  from  tlie  origin 
of  co-ordinates  to  the  sun's  limb  is  measured  at  every  thirty  degrees, 
throughout  the  whole  circumference ;  an<l  the  distances  and  angles  to 
the  centre  of  Venus,  and  to  the  centre  of  the  plate,  are  also  measured. 
Owing  to  the  effect  of  refraction,  the  outline  of  the  sun's  image  will 
not  be  circular,  but  may,  with  sufficient  accuracy,  be  assumed  to  be 
an  ellipse  whose  minor  axis  coincides  with  the  vertical  circle  passing 
through  the  sun's  centre.  To  find  the  position  of  the  image  of  this 
vertical  circle  upon  the  photographic  plate,  we  refer  to  Fig.  4  ;  and 
remark  that,  owing  to  the  equality  of  the  angles  of  incidence  and  re- 
flection, S^M  =  S'^M,  vM  =  v'M,  and  the  angle  S^My  is  equal  to 
the  angle  S'^i^My'.  Hence  t^'S^S'ju  =  ^^S'^v',  and  ZS'^v'  =  ZS'^S^ 
-\-  S^S'^r'  =  ZS'*S^  -|-  ZS^S'^.  But  ZS'^  is  the  direction  of  the 
plumb  line  upon  the  plate,  and  S'^u'  is  the  semi-minor  axis  of  the 
elliptical  image  of  the  sun.  To  find  the  value  of  the  angle  ZS'j^w' 
we  require  the  zenith  distance  and  azimuth  of  the  true  sun,  which 
are  given  by  the  formulae  (8) ;  the  necessary  data  being,  the  exact 
instant  at  which  the  picture  was  taken,  the  right  ascension  and  polar 
distance  of  the  sun,  and  the  latitude  of  the  place  of  observation. 

cot  As 
tan  JU  =  ■ 

cos  tg 


tan  fg  cos  }f 

tan  As  = ^ TTT 

sin  ((^  —  Ji) 


tan  ^a 


tan  {(p  —  M) 
cos  Ag 


(8) 


The  zenith  distance,  ^"s,  and  azimiith  A"g,  of  the  reflected  image 
of  the  apparent  sun,  are  found  by  methods  explained  in  a  subsequent 
part  of  this  paper.  Then,  in  the  spherical  triangle  ZS^S'^^,  the  angle 
S*ZS'«  is  equal  to  Ag  ~  A"s,  ZS'»  =  C"«,  and  ZS,  =  Lg  —  r -\- 7t', 
where  r  and  n'  are  the  refraction,  and  parallax  in  altitude.  Whence, 
putting  the  angle  ZS>'  =  180°  —  0, 

Thus  the  anjrle  upon  the  photographic  plate,  between  the  fixed  line 
of  reference  and  the  major  axis  of  the  image  of  the  apparent  sun,  will 

VOL.  XII.  (n.  S.  IV.)  13 


194 


PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 


be  d ;  and  if  R  and  £  are  the  polar  co-ordinates  of  any  point  of  the 
limb  of  this  ima^e,  its  rectanofiiUxr  co-ordinates,  referred  to  its  axes 
and  approximate  centre  will  be 


y'  =  R  sin  (e  ^  Q) 
x'  =  R  cos  (e  =F  G) 


(10) 


in  which  the  upper  signs  are  to  be  taken  when  the  sun  is  west,  and 
the  lower  when  it  is  east,  of  the  meridian. 

Owing  to  atmospheric  disturbances,  the  image  of  the  sun's  limb  will 
generally  be  more  or  less  irregular,  and  no  matter  liow  carefully  it 
may  be  centred  on  the  measuring  engine,  the  point  from'which  the 
measures  are  made  will  seldom  coincide  quite  accurately  with  the 
centre  of  the  image.  On  this  account,  to  obtain  the  co-ordinates  of 
any  point  of  the  limb  referred  rigorously  to  the  centre  and  axes,  the 
equations  (10)  must  be  corrected  by  the  small  quantities  8y  and  dx, 
and  thus  we  get 


y  =  Rsm  (£  T  6)  +  %' 
X  =  R  cos  (e  =F  ^)  +  ^^ 


(11) 


The  image  of  the  sun's  limb  being  taken  as  an  ellipse,  its  equation 
will  be 

0  =  —  A'B''  +  AY  +  ^x^  (12) 

where  A  and  B  are  respectively  the  horizontal  and  vertical  semi- 
diameters  of  the  sun,  affected  by  refraction  and  parallax.  Putting 
^' =  nJt^  substituting  this  value  in  equation  (12),  and  dividing  by 

A%  we  get 

0  =  —  nA'- -{- f -{- nx^  (13) 

Finally,  substituting  the  values  of  y  and  x  from  the  equations  (11), 
neglectmg  the  squares  of  dy  and  8x,  and  reducing,  we  obtain 

+  1  [sin^  (e  rp  ^)  +  ^  cos'^  (e  ^^  6)]R' 


0  =  <!  _  ^  ^2  +  sin  (fc-  qp  0)  8y 
-\-  n  cos  (s  T  6)  dx 


(14) 


Each  measurement  of  the  sun's  limb,  made  upon  the  photograph, 
gives  one  equation  of  the  form  (14),  and  from  all  the  equations  thus 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  195 

obtained  the  values  of  A,  81/,  and  dx  are  found  by  the  method  of  least 
squares. 

The  contraction  of  the  sun's  vertical  serai-diaraeter  on  account  of 
refraction  will  be  J  (r'  —  r ')  ;  where  r'  and  r"  are  respectively  the 
refraction  of  the  lower  and  upper  limbs.  The  contraction  of  the 
horizontal  semi-diameter  on  account  of  refraction,  for  all  zenith  dis- 
tances less  than  85°,  may  be  taken  as  constant  and  equal  to  0".25. 
Hence,  if  s  represents  the  sun's  semi-diameter,  we  have 


/s-iir'-r")y 


which  is  the  value  to  be  employed  in  equation  (14). 

As  changes  of  refraction  are  not  strictly  proportional  to  changes  of 
zenith  distance,  the  centre  of  the  sun's  image  will  not  coincide  rigor- 
ously with  tlie  image  of  the  sun's  centre.  Let  the  distance  between 
those  two  points  be  8r,  and  let  r'"  be  the  refraction  of  the  sun's  centre, 
r"  and  r'  being  respectively  the  refraction  of  his  upper  and  lower 
limbs,  as  before.     Then 

8r  =  I  {r' -\- r")  —  r'"  (16) 

and  the  co-ordinates  of  the  image  of  the  sun's  centre  are  81/  -\-  8r,  and 
8x.  These  rectangular  co-ordinates  are  transformed  into  polar  co- 
ordinates of  our  original  system  by  means  of  the  formulae 

li=[(8r/+8ry+{8xy]i] 
Sy  +  Sr 

s>n  V  =      ^ 

5.r 
COS  J?  =  - 


(17) 


where  the  double  sign  is  to  be  taken  in  the  same  way  as  in  equa 
tious  (10). 

The  polar  co-ordinates  of  the  image  of  the  centre  of  the  apparent 
sun  have  thus  been  found  ;  and  our  original  measurements  gave  the 
polar  co-ordinates  of  the  centres  of  the  image  of  the  apparent  Venus 
and  of  the  photographic  plate.  Let  i?,  H',  R"  be,  respectively,  the 
radii  vectores,  and  s,  «',  e"  the  angles  of  these  co-ordinates.  Passing 
now  to  a  system  of  rectangular  co-ordinates  whose  origin  is  at  the 
centre  of  the   plate,  and  whose  axis  of  X  is  parallel  to   the   fixed 


196 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


line  of  the  original  system  of  polar  co-ordiuates  ;  we  get  for  the  image 
of  the  centre  of  the  apparent  sun, 


3in  e  —  B"  sin  s"  "i 

JOS  e  —  i?"  cos  s"  ) 


2/  =  i?  sin  e  — 
X  =  R  cos  i 

and  for  the  image  of  the  centre  of  the  apparent  Venus 
y  =  B'  sin  £'  —  B"  sin  s" 
x'  =  R'  cos  e'  —  R"  cos  e" 


(18) 


(19) 


Let  it  be  assumed  that  when  the  picture  was  taken  ^^  and  A^  were 
the  zenith  distance  and  azimuth  of  the  centre  of  the  plate,  as  seen 
from  the  second  principal  point  of  the  ol)jective ;  and  that  i^was  the 
reduced  distance  between  the  latter  point  and  the  sensitive  surface  of 
the  plate,  or  in  other  words, 

F=D-\-  E"  —  T  (20) 

as  given  by  equation  (2).  Further,  let  the  angles  subtended  at  the 
second  principal  point  of  the  objective  by  the  co-ordinates,  _v,  x,y',  a;', 
of  the  equations  (18)  and  (li))  be,  respectively,  d'Qg-,  5A>  5^,-,  8Ay. 
Then,  as  the  plate  was  perpendicular  to,  and  its  centre  coincided 
with,  the  optical  axis  of  the  objective, 

i?  sin  e  —  R"  sin  e" 

tau  ou  = 


tan  bAo  = 


tan  8^v  = 


tan  dAi,  = 


F 

R 

cos  e  - 

— 

R"  cos  e'l 

F 

R' 

sin  e' 

— 

R" 

sin  e" 

F 

R' 

cos  f ' 

— 

R" 

cos  e" 

F 


(21) 


Denoting  by  C"s^  ^"s,  C'V,  A"y,  the  apparent  zenith  distances  and 
azimuths  of  the  reflected  images  of  the  sun  and  Venus,  as  seen  from 
the  second  principal  point  of  the  objective,  we  now  have 


A",  =  A  +  ^^* 

A"y  =  ^0  +  ^^y  J 


(22) 


OP   ABTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


197 


Tlie  next  step  will  be  to  free  these  zenith  distances  and  azimuths 
from  the  effects  of  refraction  and  parallax.  For  that  pur[)ose,  con- 
sider the  spherical  triangle  ZS  S'*,  Fig.  4  ;  but  instead  of  limiting  the 
points  S,  S,j,  S',  S'^,  to  the  sun,  let  them  represent  any  heavenly  body 
whatever.  Then,  ZS'  =  l'  ;  ZS'^  =  ^" ;  S'S'^  =  SS^j^  =  r  —  n' ; 
S'ZS'^it  =  A"  ~  A' ;  and  ZS^^S'  =  d,  the  value  of  which  is  given  by 
equation  (9).     The  relations  subsisting  among  these  parts  are, 


sin  ^  cos  (A"  ~  A')  = 


tan  m  =  tan  (r  —  n')  cos  d 

cos  (;•  —  it')  sin  {C"  —  "0 


cos  III 


sin  ^'  sin  (A"  ^  A')  =  sia  (r  —  n')  sin  d 


(23) 


To  simplify  these  equations  we  remark  that  (r  —  n')  will  rarely 
amount  to  5',  and  as  cos  d  must  always  be  less  than  unity,  we  may 
write  with  all  needful  accuracy 


m  =  (r  —  7i')  cos  d 


(24) 


^  will  never  differ  from  90°  by  so  much  as  30',  and  therefore  its  sine 
may  be  taken  as  unity  ;  while  as  {A"  ~  A')  can  scarcely  amount  to 
5',  and  will  usually  be  far  less,  we  may  write  unity  for  its  cosine,  and 
substitute  the  arc  for  its  sine.     We  thus  find 


C'  =  C"  —  (r  —  7t')  cos  d 
A'  =  A"  q:  (r  —  7t')  sin  6 


(2o) 


As  these  equations  are  perfectly  general,  we  have  only  to  substitute 
in  them,  for  ^"  and  A",  the  apparent  zenith  distances  and  azimuths  of 
the  images  of  the  sun  and  Veuus,  given  by  the  equations  (22),  and 
there  results  the  true  zenith  distances  and  azimuths  of  the  images  of 
these  bodies,  which  are 


Ts  =  Co  —  5C«  —  (^s  Tt's)  cos  ds 

A's  =  ^0  +  ^^s  =F  (r-s  —  n's)  sin  ds 

^^  =  To  —  8Xv  —  (?V  —  Tt'v)  COS  dy 
A'v  =  Jq  -[-  8A„  =F  (r^  —  n'v)  sin  d^  _ 


(26) 


in  which  the  upper  signs  are  to  be  taken  when  the  body  is  west,  and 
the  lower  when  it  is  east,  of  the  meridian.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
value  of  d  will  not  be  the  same  for  Venus  as  for  the  sun,  but  the 


198 


PROCEEDINGS   OP  THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 


difference  will  generally  be  so  slight  that  either  value  may  be  em- 
ployed for  both  bodies. 

The  effect  of  parallax  in  azimuth  in  displacing  Venus  relatively  to 
the  sun's  centre  can  never  exceed  0".08,  and  will  usually  be  much 
less;  but, if  it  is  thought  desirable  to  correct  the  equations  (26)  on 
that  account,  the  mode  of  doing  so  will  be  obvious  wiien  it  is  remem- 
bered that  it  will  be  sufficiently  accurate  to  consider  the  parallax  in 
azimuth  as  acting  perpendicularly  to  the  parallax  in  altitude. 

From  the  zenith  distances  and  azimuths  given  by  the  equations 
(26),  the  corresponding;  polar  distances  and  hour  angles  must  next  be 
found.     The  rigorous  fbrmuliB  for  this  purpose  are 


tan  m  =  tan  ^  cos  A' 

tan  A'  sin  m 

tan  t  =.  

cos  \(f>  —  m) 

cotan  A  =  tan  (g)  —  in)  cos  t  . 


(27) 


but  A'  will  generally  be  so  small  that  its  cosine  may  be  taken  as 
unity,  and  then  we  may  write 


'    tan  t  = 


tan  A'  sin  ^' 


cos  (<p  —  C) 
cotan  A  =  tan  (g)  —  ^')  cos  t 


(28) 


In  the  spherical  triangle  PS'V,  Fig.  4,  we  have  the  relations 


tan  m  =  tan  A  'v  cos  (t's  —  f V) 

cos  aV    .      ,     ,  . 

sm  o  cos  /,  = sm  (As  —  m) 

^  cos  »«  ^      *  ^ 

sin  (»  sin  A  =  sin  A  V  sin  {t's  ~  t'y)    . 


Usually  it  will  be  sufficiently  accurate  to  put  cos  {t's 
and  then  m  =  a'v,  and  these  equations  become 

sin  Q  cos  X  =  sin  {a's  —  A  V) 
sin  p  sin  A  =  sin  A  'v  sin  (t's  ~  t'^) 


(29) 


t'.)  =  1, 


(30) 


from  which  q  and  X  are  obtained.  As  a  check,  q  may  be  computed 
directly  from  the  zenith  distances  and  azimuths  furnished  by  the 
equations  (26),  the  requisite  formulae  being 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


199 


tan  B  ■ 


Q  = 


(.4^,  ~  A'u)  sin  C's 


i  V  f  S 


sin  B  cos  B 

From  the  spherical  triangle  PSS',  Fig.  4,  we  get 

cos  i  (A',  —  A,) 


(31) 


tan  1  (x  +  V)  = 


tan  H;f  —  '^)  =  .7 


cos  i  (A'^  +  A,) 
A.) 


sin  i  {A's  +  AJ 


cot  J  (<'s 
cot   L  (f. 


ts) 


ts) 


(32) 


Referrino-  ao^ain  to  Figf.  4,  it  is  evident  that  SV  is  the  distance,  and 
PSV  the  position  angle  of  Venus  from  the  centre  of  the  sun.  To  find 
the  values  of  these  quantities  we  have 

SV=S'Y'  =  Q  ) 

K33) 

PSV  =  PSS'±S'SV  =  PSS'±SS'V  =  PSS'±PS'S=fPS'V') 

But  PSV  =  w,  PSS'  =  X,  PS'S  =  xp,  PS'V  =  X,  and  thus  we  get 

03  =  (z  ±  V)  T  ^  (34) 

in  which  the  upper  signs  are  to  be  taken  when  PS'S  is  greater  than 
PS'V,  and  the  lower  when  PS'S  is  less  than  PS'V.  If  it  is  assumed 
that  the  pole  which  forms  part  of  the  triangle  PSV  is  always  the 
elevated  one ;  and  also  that  position  angles  are  counted  from  the  north 
around  by  the  east ;  then,  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  when  the  sun 
is  east  of  the  meridian  the  position  angle  will  be  360°  —  w,  wliile 
west  of  the  meridian  it  will  be  w  ;  and  in  the  southern  hemisphere, 
when  the  sun  is  east  of  the  meridian  the  position  angle  will  be 
180°  -|-  w,  while  west  of  the  meridian  it  will  be  180°  —  m. 

Finally,  if  the  polar  distance  of  Venus,  and  the  difference  between 
her  right  ascension  and  that  of  the  sun  are  required,  these  quantities 
may  be  obtained  from  the  spherical   triangle  PSV  by  means  of  the 

formulae 

tan  n  =  tan  q  cos  (o 


tan  A  V  cos  (««  ~  «^)  =  tan  (As  —  n) 

sin  n  tan  a 
tan  A  ^  sin  (««  ~  «^)  = 


(35) 


cos  (A^  —  ii) 

in  which  a,  and  a^  are  respectively  the  right  ascensions  of  the  sun  and 
of  Venus. 


200  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

In  the  preceding  development  of  the  theory  of  the  horizontal 
photoheliograph,  continual  reference  has  been  made  to  the  centres 
of  the  sun  and  Venus,  but  of  course  it  will  be  understood  that  all  the 
equations  apply  equally  well  to  any  other  pair  of  celestial  objects 
which  may  have  been  photographed  with  the  same  apjjaratus. 

As  the  horizontal  photoheliograph  was  much  used  in  observing  the 
last  transit  of  Venus,  it  is  perhaps  desirable  to  give  here  a  direct 
method  of  deducing  the  solar  parallax  from  the  photographs  then 
obtained.  For  that  purpose  consider  the  quadrilateral  PZS'8,  which 
is  composed  of  the  triangles  PZS'  and  PS'S.  In  the  triangle  PZS' 
we  have  the  relation 

sin  A's  cot  B  =z  sin  ^'g  cot  <f'  -(-  cos  ^',  cos  A' 3  (36) 

in  "which  qp' is  the  colatitude,  ZP;  and  £  is  the  angle  ZS'P.     Con- 
sidering all  the  parts,  except  gj',  as  variable,  and  differentiating,  we  get 


dB  = — -  cos  C'i  (cot  flp'  c?l's  +  sin  A's  dA's) 


sill  A'g 


4-  cos  A's  (  - — --  sin  ^'s  d^'s  —  4^^  cos  B  dA's) 
\sm  A'g  sin  A'g  / 


(37) 


To  obtain  approximately  the   maximum  value  of  this  differential, 

we  remark  that  A's  can    never   exceed    ±  13' ;   and  as  sin  B  must 

,  IT  1  •      ^,      sin  S  ,      ,  ,  .  ,  sin'^  B 

always  be  less  than  sin  A's , must  be  less  than  unity ;  and 

sin  A\  •'  sin  A'^ 

must  be  less  than  sin  A's ,  that  is,  it  must  be  less  than  0.004.     ^'s  can 

never  differ  from  90°  by  more  than  ±  13',  and  therefore  its  sine  may 

be  taken  as  unity,  and  its  cosine  cannot  exceed  0.004.     If  the  latitude 

of  the  place  of  observation  is  less  than  50°,  g;'  will  be  greater  than 

40°,  and  its  cotangent  will   be  less  than   1.20.     Substituting   these 

values  in  the  second  member  of  equation  (37),  all  the  terms  except 

the  last  become  evanescent,  and  we  may  write,  without  an  error  of 

one  part  in  ten  thousand, 

dB=  —  dA',  (38) 

But  the  only  way  in  which  A's  can  be  made  to  vary  is  by  varying  the 
adopted  value  of  the  solar  paralkax,  tts.  Hence,  as  ZS'  is  nearly  90°, 
dA's  is  the  resolved  value  of  drts,  and  as  it  can  never  exceed  that 
quantity,  it  is  safe  to  write 

dB  =  —  drts  (39) 


OP  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  201 

In  the  triangle  PSS'  we  have  the  relations 
cos  %-=■  —  cos  T/;  cos  (1^  ~  <'$)  -\-  sin  i/;  sin  (<,  ~  t' ^  cos  A  j 
cos  T/^  =  —  cos  '1^  cos  (i's  ~  t'^  -j-  sin  ;f  sin  (4  ~  i'^)  cos  A '« 


(40) 


Considering  all  the  parts  as  variable,  differentiating,  and  reducing,  we 
get 

di  =  sin  A  's  sin  (ts  ~  t\)  dAs  —  cos  A ', d(t^  ~  t'^)  —  cos  S8'd\p) 

dip  =  sin  A  s  sin  {t^  ~  t't)  dA's  —  cos  A  ^  dQ^  ~  t'j)  —  cos  SS'  dx  ) 

Adding,  this  becomes 

^~^  ^—  l  +  uos  SS'  ^   ^ 

To  obtain  approximately  the  maximum  value  of  this  differential, 
we  remark  tliat  at  the  time  of  the  transit  the  sun's  north  polar  distance 
was  112°  49',  and  therefore  sin  As  =  0.922,  and  cos  As  =  0.388. 
If  the  latitude  of  the  place  of  observation  is  not  greater  than  50°,  the 
value  of  A's  will  lie  between  130°  and  180°;  and  consequently  its 
sine  will  not  exceed  0.766,  and  its  cosine  cannot  be  gi'eater  than 
unity.  Sin  (tg  ~  i's)  cannot  exceed  unity.  Further,  as  the  triangle 
PSS'  can  only  be  varied  by  varying  the  assumed  value  of  the  solar 
parallax,*  of  As  and  dA's  are  the  resolved  values,  and  d  {tg  ~  t'g)  is 
the  sum  of  two  resolved  values  of  dTts.  It  is  therefore  certain  that 
«?As  and  </a's  are  not  greater  than  dTts,  and  that  d{ts^t's)  is  not 
greater  than  2  drCs.  Substituting  these  values  in  equation  (42),  and 
adding  all  the  terms,  without  regard  to  sign,  we  get 

dy^dip=        ^^'^'''  (43) 

^  ~      ^  1  +  C08  SS'  ^       ^ 


*  Strictly  speaking,  although  the  point  S'  can  only  be  varied  by  varying  the 
assumed  value  of  the  solar  parallax,  the  point  S  can  be  varied,  not  only  in  that 
way,  but  also  by  varying  the  tabular  place  of  the  sun.  In  practice  it  will 
probably  be  best  to  neglect  at  first  the  errors  of  the  solar  tables,  and  after- 
wards, when  tiiey  become  known  from  the  solution  of  the  final  equations,  to 
compute  rigorously  the  value  of  dx  +  d\l/  for  each  photograph,  by  means  of 
(42),  and  in  all  cases  where  it  exceeds  two  or  three  seconds,  which  will  rarely 
'happen,  the  corresponding  conditional  equations  of  tlie  form  of  (55)  and  (56) 
may  be  corrected  so  as  to  accord  with  the  new  values  of  the  solar  elements, 
and  a  second  solution  will  give  very  accurate  results. 


202  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

Hence  if  SS'  does  not  exceed  120°  the  value  of  c?/  -f"  ^^  cannot 
be  so  great  as  9  ditg.  Adding  to  this  the  value  of  dB,  fiona  equation 
(39),  we  find  th;it,  under  the  circumstances  specified  above,  the  total 
variation  of  the  sum  of  the  angles  ZS'S  and  PSS'  cannot  be  so  great 
as  10  djts.  But  it  is  not  possible  tliat  the  value  of  the  solar  parallax 
now  generally  adopted  can  be  in  error  by  so  much  as  ()".2,  and  there- 
fore the  value  of  10  d;ts  cannot  be  so  great  as  2"  and  will  probably  be 
less  than  1". 

Referrino^  to  the  fijjure,  it  is  evident  that 

ZS'V  +  PSV  =  ZS'S  +  PSS'    or 

|3  4-  w  =  ZS'S  +  PSS'  (44) 

As  the  angle  ^  must  be  obtained  from  measurements  made  upon  a 
photograph,  it  is  not  probable  that  it  can  be  depended  upon  to  within 
5".  It  has  just  been  shown  that  the  right-hand  member  of  (44)  will 
not  be  vitiated  so  much  as  2"  by  any  possible  error  in  the  adopted 
value  of  the  solar  parallax.  It  therefore  follows  that  the  left-hand 
member  of  (44)  may  be  regarded  as  constant,  within  the  limits  of 
eri'or  of  observation,  and  thus  it  appears  that 

—  d^  =  dco  (45) 

In  the  triangle  ZS'V  we  have 


o 


tan  1  (^  -f  ;/)  =  cot  ^{A's^  A',) 


(46) 


from  which  ^  and  y  are  derived.     In  the  same  triangle  we  also  have 
the  relations 

cos  Q  =  cos  ^'i,  cos  (^'s  -\-  sin  ^'y  sin  ^,  cos  (A's  ~  A' J)  ) 

[   (47) 
sin  (A's  ~  A'y)  cot  ^  =  sin  i^'j  cot  ^y  —  cos  (A's  ^  A'y)  cos  ^'s ) 

Considering   all    the   parts  as  variable,  differentiating  and  reducing, 
we  find 

dQ  =z  sin  ^y  sin  yd(A's  ~  A'y)  -4-  cos  yd^'y  -\-  cos  ^d^g 

— smQd^=sin^'y  cos  y  d(A's  r^  A'y)  —  sin  y  c?  ^^  -)-  cos  p  sin  ^  djs 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 


203 


Reverting  to  the  equations  (2G),  putting  n' i  =  Mrts,  7r'„  =  iV;T„, 
Ks  =  /«;?,.,  where  tt,  and  ;r^  are  respectively  the  equatorial  horizontal 
parallaxes  of  the  sun  and  Venus ;  regarding  jtv  as  the  variable,  and 
difFerentiatiug,  we  get 


dA's  =  ±  »jjj/sin  ds  drty 
d^y  =  -j-  -^  cos  dv  djtv 
dA'y  =  ±  iV"  sin  dy  ditv 


(49) 


Substituting  these  values  in  (48),  writing  unity  for  sin  ^^,  ds  for  ^„, 
and  d(a  for  —  dp,  we  obtain 

dg  =  cos  ds{_±.  {mM±_  N)  sin  y  tan  ds  -j-  -A^cos  y  -\-  mil/cos  ^]  (Ztt^  ) 

cos  e  .  r  (5<^) 

dco=z— — :'[ ±  (mJ/±i\r)cosj'  tan (9^ — iV^sinj'-|-?Mil!/'sin^cos(>](^!7r„ } 

From  an  epheraeris  the  polar  distances  of  the  sun  and  Venus,  and 
the  difference  of  their  right  ascensions  are  taken;  and  thus  two  sides 
and  tiie  iucluded  angle  are  known  in  the  triangle  PSV.  The  remain- 
ing parts  are  given  by  the  formulae 

tan  IX  =  tan  A  v  cos  («j  —  «,,) 
cos  A., 


sin  P(,  cos  cOf,  = sin  (  A  «  —  u) 

cos  fi 

sin  Pq  sin  0)^  =  sin  A  v  sin  («s  —  «,,) 
sin  pg  sin  a  =  sin  A «  sin  (a,  —  «^) 


(51) 


in  which  we  write  p^  and  co^^  to  distinguish  the  quantities  deduced  from 
the  ephemeris  from  the  similar  quantities  q  and  w  obtained  from  the 
photographs  by  means  of  the  equations  (30),  (32),  and  (34). 
Still  considering  the  triangle  PSV,  we  have  the  relations 


cos  Qq  =  cos  A  V  cos  A  J  -|-  sin  Ay  sin  A  $  cos  («,  —  a^) 
sin  («,  —  ciy)  cot  cOq  =  sin  A  s  cot  Av  —  cos  A  j  cos  (a,  —  Uv) 


(52) 


Regarding   all   the    parts   as   variable,   differentiating   and  reducing, 
we  get 


dn^  =  sin  A„  sin  ad(^as  -^  «^)  -{-  cos  adAv  -j-  cos  a)„<?As 
— sinp(,<?(Wo  =  sin  A  vCOsad^Uj  ^  «^) — sincrc?  A  v  -j-  cos^q  sin  w^c?  A  $ 


(53) 


204  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

If  now  «.,  «^,  As,  Avi'^si  and  Tt^  are  the  tabular  values  of  the 
right  ascensions,  polar  distance-*,  and  parallaxes  of  the  sun  and  Venus ; 
and  if  as-\-d<is,  «r -|- rf«;,,  As  -\-  dAs,  Av  -\-  dAv,  rts-^drts, 
nv  -f-  drtv,  are  the  true  values  of  the  same  quantities;  then  we  must 
have 

Q -\- di)  =  Q^ -\-  dn^  ) 

[  (54) 

(o  -\-  d(o  =^  cOq  -\-  c?a)„  ) 

Substituting  the  values  of  dQ,  dQ^,  doo,  and  dco^  from  (50)  and  (53),  we 
obtain  finally 

(  Po  —  P  ~f~  ^'"  ^i>  sin  ""^(tti  ~'  Km)  -1-  cos  (rdAy  -\-  cos  w.dA.  ) 

0  =  ]  [  (55) 

(  —  cos  e^  [J;  {mM  -i-  iV)  sin  y  tan  ©^  +  iV  cos  7  +  ^^^  cos  fijdir^,  ) 

(<l)^)  —  w : — -  [sin  A^  cos  irdla,'^ay) — sin  <rc?A„-j-cos  p^  sin  uodA^]  ) 

^=       cose    ''"'''  (56) 

V ; — -^  [-l-(/ftJ/-J-.iV)cos  7  tan  tf^. — iVsin7-|-'«-3i'siny3cosp]c?iry  ) 

siu  p 

Each  photograph  furnishes  one  conditional  equation  of  the  form  (55), 
and  another  of  the  form  (56),  and  from  all  the  equations  thus  obtained 
the  values  of  6?((iCj  ~.  «^),  dAs,  dAv->  and  rf;Tr^are  found  by  the  method 
of  least  squares,  the  resulting  value  of  the  solar  parallax  being 

ns  -\-  m  drty  (57) 

At  the  time  of  the  last  transit  the  value  of  m  was  0.2684.  Tho 
term  ±  {mM  ±  N)  of  equations  (55)  and  (56)  is  to  be  interpreted 
thus :  When  the  sun  and  Venus  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the  meridian, 
it  will  be  -\-  {mM-\-  N) ;  when  the  sun  and  Venus  are  on  the  same 
side  of  the  meridian,  if  the  sun  is  most  distant  from  the  meridian,  it 
will  be  -|~  (juM —  N)  ;  but  if  Venus  is  most  distant  from  the  me- 
ridian, then  it  will  be  — {mM — N). 

It  will  not  escape  notice  that  those  parts  of  equations  (55)  and  (56) 
which  correspond  to  q^  -\-  do^,  and  w^  -\-  doj^,  of  the  equations  (54), 
are  general  for  the  whole  earth,  and  can  therefore  be  tabulated  at 
suitable  intt-rvals  for  the  period  of  the  transit ;  while  the  terms  which 
correspond  to  p  -f"  ^Qj  and  w  -|-  da,  must  be  computed  specially  for 
each  photograph. 

Washington,  Nov.  15,  1876 


OP  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES.  205 


XVIL 

ON   DIAMIDO-SULPIIOBENZIDE-DICARBONIC   ACID. 
By  Arthur  Michael  axd  T.  H.  Norton. 

Presented  by  E.  N.  Horsford,  May  9th,  1877. 

Of  the  large  number  of  amido-sulpho-benznic  acids  which  are  possi- 
ble according  to  our  present  theories,  but  three  have  been  obtained 
thus  far.  Two  of  tiiese  were  prepared  by  Griess,*  from  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  on  meta-araido-benzoic  acid.  Limpricht  and  Uslarf 
obtained  the  third  by  reduction  of  the  mono-iiitro  derivative  of 
meta-sulpho-beuzoic  acid.  It  seemed  therefore  of  interest  to  us  to 
study  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  ortlio-amido-benzoic  acid  and 
para-amido-benzoic  acids,  not  merely  in  oider  to  increase  the  list  of 
isomeric  amido-sulpho-benzoic  acids,  but  because  of  the  possibility 
that,  by  removal  of  the  amido  group,  the  as  yet  uuliuowu  ortho-sulpho- 
benzoic  acid  could  be  obtained. 

Our  experiments  were  first  directed  to  para-amido-benzoic  acid  ;  and 
here  an  unexpected  character  was  assumed  by  the  reaction,  the  re- 
sults of  which  we  briefly  communicate. 

We  prepared  the  para-amido-benzoic  acid  for  our  purpose  from  the 
solid  para-nitro-toluol,  by  oxidation  and  subsequent  reduction  of  the 
nitro  group.  lu  the  former  operation  it  was  observed  that  much 
better  results  were  obtained  from  treatment  with  potassium  per- 
manganate, than  from  the  methods  hitherto  used  for  this  body, 
viz.,  with  nitric  acid  or  potassium  bichromate  and  sulphuric  acid. 
The  best  proportions  were  found  to  be  2.V  mol.  KMuO^  to  1  mol. 
C6H^(NO^)(CIl3)  in  a  solution  of  40  parts  water  to  I  part  KMnO^. 
The  reduction  was  effected  by  means  of  tin  and  hydrochloric  acid,  in 
proportions  1  part  CaH^(NO^)(COOH)  to  2.15  parts  Su.     In  order 


*  Jour.  f.  prakt.  Cliemie  [21,  5,  214. 
t  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  106,  29. 


206  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

to  remove  the  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid  previous  to  the  precipitation 
of  the  tin,  tlie  sohition  is  evaporated  on  the  water-bath  to  dryness. 
The  temperature  should  not,  however,  go  beyond  this  point,  as  we  had 
opportunity  to  observe  that  even  at  lOC^  small  quantities  of  aniline 
were  formed,  while  at  12t>''  the  para-amido-benzoic  acid  was  decom- 
posed completely  iuto  carbonic  acid  and  aniline.  It  would  be  of 
interest  to  examine  the  action  of  SnClg  on  other  aromatic  acids  under 
the  conditions  mentioned.  The  solution  of  para-amido-benzoic  acid 
was  treated  with  sodium  carbonate,  and  the  acid  precipitated  out  by 
means  of  acetic  acid.  After  a  single  crystallization  in  water,  it 
showed  the  melting  point  18G°. 

The  para-amido-benzoic  acid  obtained  in  this  way  was  placed  in  a 
flask,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  slightly  fuming  sulphuric  acid 
(s.  g.  1.850)  added  to  dissolve  the  mass.  Tiie  flask  was  then  exposed 
to  a  temperature  of  170* — 190",  for  from  three  to  four  hours,  in  a 
paraffine  bath.  After  cooling,  the  contents  of  the  flask  were  removed 
by  means  of  water,  and  barium-carbonate  was  added  to  the  solution 
until  it  was  neutralized.  The  liquid  was  boiled  for  several  hours,  and 
then  filtered.  It  was  necessary  to  heat  the  residue  repeatedly  with 
hot  water  before  a  slight  pinkish  Ime  could  be  removed.  Exactly 
enough  sulphuric  acid  was  added  to  the  filtrate  to  precipitate  the 
baruun,  and  it  was  separated  from  the  barium  sulphate  formed.  By  the 
evaporation  of  this  solution,  groups  of  crystals  separated  out,  showing 
various  shades  of  yellow,  orange,  and  red.  Several  crystallizations 
from  water  freed  tliem  from  small  quantities  of  a  by-product  consisting 
of  minute  red  crystals,  and  after  boiling  with  animal  charcoal  they 
retained  a  faint  pink  color.  The  substance  was  dried  at  110°,  and 
submitted  to  a  series  of  analyses.  The  sulphonic  acid  which  was 
expected  as  the  natural  result  of  the  reaction,  would  have  yielded  the 
following  percentages:  — 


\ 


COOH 


J 


C  —  38.7 
11=  3.3 
S  =  14.5 

LN=    6.4 


The  analyses  showed,  however,  that  we  had  obtained  a  body  of 
an  entirely  diiferent  nature,  and  led  to  the  following  formula :  — 


OP  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  207 

Calculated.  Found  (mean). 

C  =    50.00  50.18 

H  =      3.57  4.20 

N  ==      8.26  8.06 

S  =      9.60  10.10 
O  =    28.57 
100.00 
This  formula  would  naturally  be  resolved  into  the  structural  for- 

^^\  /COOII 


mula, 


''    "XNH, 


■2 


or   diamido-sulphobenzide-dicai-bonic  acid,  the  reaction  being  as  fol- 
lows :  — 


an. 


/NH, 


/NIL  /    '    '\COOH 

2  an/     '    +  H,so,  =  2  H,o  4- SO2  ^^^„ 

'    '\COOH  ^     '      *  \         /COOH 

'    '\NH2 

The  melting  point  of  the  acid  is  above  350°.  It  is  easily  soluble 
in  hot  water,  and  on  cooling  separates  out  in  groups  of  fern-shaped 
crystals.  It  is  much  less  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  their  addition 
to  the  aqueous  solution  causing  the  precipitation  of  the  acid  in  a  white, 
flocculent  mass;  chloroform  dissolves  it  with  difficulty;  while  it  is 
almost  entirely  insolulde  in  carbon  bisulphide  and  benzine.  Sul- 
phuric acid  dissolves  it  easily,  forming  a  compound  which  is  pre- 
cipitated on  the  addition  of  alcohol,  and  is  extremely  soluble  in  water. 
This  compound  awaits  farther  investigation.  In  concentrated  hydro- 
chloric acid  it  is  completely  insoluble.  It  dissolves  easily  in  warm 
nitric  acid,  but  cannot  be  precipitated  by  the  addition  of  alcohol. 

The  new  compound  exhibits  strongly  marked  acid  properties,  and 
dissolves  easily  in  alkalies.  The  neutral  solution  in  ammonia  yields 
on  evaporation  the  ammonium  salt,  in  handsome  laminated  crystals, 
which  are  easily  soluble. 

The  potassium  salt  obtained  in  the  same  way  consists  of  small,  fine, 
colorless  needles. 

The  lead  salt  is  white,  and  nearly  insoluble  in  water. 


208  PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

The  silver  salt  precipitated  from  the  solution  of  the  ammonium 
salt  by  the  addition  of  nitrate  of  silver,  is  obtained  in  the  form  of 
small,  white  laminae,  which  are  tolerably  insoluble  in  water,  and 
gradually  assume  a  brown  color  on  exposure  to  the  sunlight.  The 
analysis  of  this  salt  coincided  closely  with  the  formula 

/    '    '\COOAff 
SO., 


Xntr/ 


an 


COOAff 


o 


6'-^3 


xnh^ 


Calculated.  Found. 

Ag=  37.45  37.62 

The  barium  salt  is  extremely  soluble,  and  not  adapted  for  analysis. 

The  reaction  of  para-amido-benzoic  acid,  just  described,  recalls  the 
analogous  reaction  of  phenol  with  sulphuric  acid.  Glutzt*  and 
Annaheim  t  have  shown  that,  if  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  I )e  avoided, 
oxysulpho-benzide  is  obtained  with  great  ease.  As  in  the  case  of 
oxysulpho-betizide  and  all  members  of  the  snlphine  group,  our  com- 
pound should  also  pass  over  into  the  corresponding  sulphonic  acid, 
by  increasing  the  amount  of  sulphuric  acid  used. 

Unfortunately  we  are  compelled  temporarily  to  interrupt  the  in- 
vestigation, but  hope  at  an  early  date  to  be  able  to  communicate 
farther  experiments  in  the  direction  mentioned. 

Merz  and  Weith  J  obtained  several  years  since  a  dicarboxyl-sulph- 

carbauilid, 

/NHQirCOOH 

XNnCgii^cooii 

a  well-defined  crystalline  compound,  by  the  action  of  carbon  disul- 
phide  on  metamido-benzoic  acid.  We  have  sought  to  prepare  the 
corresponding  derivative  of  para-amido-benzoic  acid,  but  so  far  without 
success.  The  alcoholic  solution  of  carbon  disulphide  and  para-amido- 
benzoic  acid  was  heated  in  an  open  flask  and  in  sealed  tubes  at  various 
temperatures.  In  all  cases  we  obtained  a  yellow,  resinous  mass,  from 
which  no  well-characterized  compound  could  be  separated. 

Berlin,  Univeksitats-Laboratorium,  April,  1877. 


*  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  147,  52.  t  Ann.  Chera.  Pharm.,  172,  28. 

t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Chem.  Gesell.,  3,  812. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  209 


XVIII. 

CONTllIBUTIONS     FROM     THE     CHEAOCAL     LABORATORY 
OF   HARVARD   COLLEGE. 

RESEARCHES   ON   THE    SUBSTITUTED   BENZYL  COM- 
POUNDS. 

By  C.  Lorixg  Jacksox. 

Presented,  June  14th,  1S76. 
INTRODUCTION. 

The  existence  of  the  benzyl  compounds  was  first  established  by 
Cannizaro,*  in  1853  ;  for,  although  Liebig  and  Wohler.t  in  their  clas- 
sical research  on  the  benzoyl  compounds,  obtained  benzylalcohol  as  a 
secondary  product  from  the  action  of  ^lotassic  hydrate  on  benzaldehyd, 
they  merely  spoke  of  it  as  an  oily  liquid,  and  did  not  determine  its 
composition  or  properties.  It  was  also  Cannizaro  t  who,  in  1855, 
showed  that  toluol,  when  treated  with  chlorine,  yielded  a  substance 
identical  with  the  benzylchloride  prepared  fi-om  benzylalcohol  by 
means  of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  nature  of  the  action  of  chlorine  on 
toluol  was  not,  however,  thoroughly  understood  until  Beilsteia  and 
Geituer,§  in  1866,  found  that  chlorine  converted  cold  toluol  into  chlor- 
toluol,  while,  with  boiling  toluol,  it  yielded  benzylchloride.  In  the 
same  paper,  they  predicted  that  pure  chlorbenzylchloride  could  be  pre- 
pared by  the  action  of  chlorine,  either  on  hot  chlortoluol  or  on  cold  ben- 
zylchloride. Both  these  methods  were  tried  successfully  by  Neuhof  ||  in 
the  same  year,  but  the  chlorbenzylchloride  thus  obtained  was  not  the 
first  substituted  benzyl  compound  known,  as  Beilstein  ^  had  already 
obtained  the  chlorbenzylmercaptan,  and  Naquet**  the  chlorbenzyle- 
thylether,  from  the  mixture  of  dichlortoluols,  made  by  acting  upon  toluol 

*  Ann.  Chem.  Pharni.,  88,  p.  129. 
t  lb.,  3,  p.  249. 
t  lb.,  96,  p.  246. 

§  Beilstein  and  Geitner,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  139,  p.  331. 
11  Neuhof,  Zeitschr.  der  Chem.,  '66,  p.  653. 
T  Beilstein,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  116,  p.  346. 
**  Naquet,  ib.,  Sup.  2,  p.  250.     Comptes  Rend.,  56,  p,  129. 

VOL.  XII.  (n.  S.  IV.)  14 


210  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

with  chlorine.  Immediately  after  the  preparation  of  the  pure  chlor- 
benzylchloride  by  Neuhof,  many  of  its  derivatives  were  studied  by 
Beilstein  and  Kuhlberg  and  Neuhof;*  and  the  two  former  extended  their 
investigations  to  the  chlorbenzyl  compounds  containing  more  than  one 
atom  of  chlorine  attached  to  the  benzole  ring.  Since  that  time,  but 
little  attention  has  been  given  to  this  class  of  compounds ;  the  only 
researches  being  those  of  Bohler,t  and  later,  Vogt  and  Henninger,|  on 
the  sulphoacids,  of  Berlin,§  who  obtained  some  curious  results  from 
the  amines,  and  of  Sintenis,||  who  investigated  the  ethers. 

Beside  these  chlorbenzyl  compounds,  only  two  other  classes  of  sub- 
stances lying  within  the  range  of  this  paper  have  been  studied,  the 
nitrobenzyl  compounds,  —  the  first  of  which,  nitrobenzylchloride,  was 
described  by  Beilstein  and  Geitner  in  1866,  in  the  paper  already 
referred  to  ;  IT  its  derivatives  were  further  studied  by  Grimaux,** 
Beilstein,  and  Kuhlberg.ff  Bohler,t$  Strakosch,§§  Czumpelik.|||| 
Radziszewski,1[ir  Henry,***  and  Jackson  ;  fff  and  a  few  amidobenzyl 
compounds,  the  cyanide  prepared  by  Czumpelik,|||  and  the  amines  by 
Strakosch.§§§ 

All  these  substances  belonged  to  the  para  series,  and  no  isomeric 
chlor-  or  nitrobenzyl  compounds  were  known  with  the  exception, 
perhaps,  of  the  monochlorbenzylsulphosalts  described  by  Vogt  and 
Henninger,  {|||{|  and  the  isomeric  nitrobenzylalcohol  obtained   by  Gri- 

*  Beilstein,  KuhlLerg,  Neuhof,  Ann.  Chera.  Pliarm.,  147,  p.  339;  ib.,  150. 
p.  280  ;  ib.,  146,  p.  3iy. 

t  Biihler,  Zeitschr.  Chem.,  1868,  p.  440. 

t  Vogt,  Henninger,  Ann.  Chim.  Pliys.  [4],  27,  p.  130;  Ann.  Chem.  Piiarm., 
165,  p.  362. 

§  Berlin,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  151,  p.  137. 

II  Sintenis,  ib.,  161,  p.  329. 

TF  Beilstein  and  Geitner,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  139,  p.  331. 

**  Grimaux,  Comptes  Rend.,  LXV.,  p.  211 ;  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  145,  p.  46. 

tt  Beilstein,  Kuhlberg,  Neuhof,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  147,  p.  339;  ib.,  150, 
p.  286  ;  ib.,  146,  p.  319. 

U  Bohler,  Zeitschr.  Chem.,  1868,  p.  440. 

§§  Strakosch,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1872,  p.  692. 
nil  Czumpelik,  ib.,  1870,  p.  473. 

ITF  Radziszewski,  ib.,  1870,  p.  198. 

***  Henry,  ib.,  1869,  p.  637. 

ttt  Jackson,  ib.,  1875,  p.  321. 

Jtt  Ozumpelik,  ib.,  1870,  p.  473. 

§§§  Strakosch,  ib.,  1872,  p.  692. 

lijlll  Vogt,  Henninger,  Ann.  Chim.  Phys.  f4J,27,  p.  130;  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm., 
165,  p.  362. 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  211 

maux*  from  uitrobenzaldehyd,  until  Wachendorff,t  in  1875,  described 
the  orthonitrobenzylbromide  aud  chloride.  Soon  after,  iu  a  preliminary 
notice!  of  a  portion  of  the  work  contained  in  these  papers,  the  para-  mela- 
and  orthobrombenzylbromides  were  described  ;  finallj^,  in  1877,Wachen- 
dorff  published  a  very  interesting  paper  §  upon  the  nitrobenzylchlorides 
aud  bromides,  in  which  he  described  the  metanitrobenzylbromide,  and 
called  attention  to  the  striking  foct  that  metanitrobenzylchloride  could 
not  be  obtained  under  conditions  which  gave  without  difficulty  the 
paranitrobenzylchloride,  while  he  had  not  as  yet  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing the  orthonitrobenzylbromide  under  the  conditions  which  furnished 
both  of  its  isomeres ;  he  said,  however,  that  he  did  not  despair  of  ob- 
taining it  by  new'experiments  under  different  conditions  ;  from  this  it 
would  seem  probable  that  the  statements  made  in  his  preliminary 
notice  in  regard  to  orthonitrobenzylchloride  and  bromide,  have  been 
proved  incorrect  by  his  later  exi^eriments. 

The  object  of  these  papers  is  to  add  to  our  knowledge  of  this  little 
studied  class  of  compounds,  and,  also,  to  make  some  comparisons  be- 
tween the  replaceability  of  the  haloid  atoms  in  the  side-chain,  which  it  is 
hoped  may  in  the  future  throw  some  light  upon  the  nature  of  chemi- 
cal attraction.  The  substituted  benzylbromides  have  been  used  as  the 
starting-point  for  each  class  of  compounds,  because  these  substances 
can  be  easily  obtained  by  the  action  of  weighed  amounts  of  bromine 
upou  the  corresponding  substituted  toluols  in  the  state  of  vapor.  This 
action  of  bromine  on  boiling  toluol  was  first  studied  by  Lautli  and  Gri- 
mauxjll  Cannizaro,ir  and  Beilstein,**  who  proved  that  the  substance  thus 
formed  was  identical  with  the  benzj^lbromide  previously  obtained  by 
Kekule  ft  from  benzylalcohol  by  means  of  hj^drobromic  acid. 


FIRST    PAPER. 
OX  CERTAIN   SUBSTITUTED   BENZYLBROMIDES. 

C.  LoKiNG  Jackson. 
p 
Parabromhenzylbromide   {C^H^Br.CH.^Br.). —  Preparation.       First 

Method.     Ten  grammes  of  pure  parabromtoluol,  melting-point  28.5°, 

*  Grimaux,  Comptes  Rend.,  LXV.,  p.  211 ;  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  145,  p.  46. 
t  Wachendorff,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1875,  p.  1101. 

I  Jackson,  ib.,  1876,  p.  931. 

§  Wachendorff,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  185,  p.  259. 

II  Lauth  and  Grimaux,  Bull.  Soc.  Chim.  [2],  VII.,  p.  108. 
II   Cannizaro,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  141,  p.  198. 

**  Beilstein,  ib.,  143,  p.  369. 
tt  Kekule,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  137,  p.  188. 


212  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

either  from  the  factory  of  Kahlbaum,  in  Berlin,  or  of  Schuchardt,  in  Gor- 
litz,  were  heated  to  boiling  in  a  small  flask,  through  whose  cork  passed  a 
return-cooler  and  the  delivery-tube  from  a  flask  containing  10  gr.  of 
bromine,  the  end  of  which  within  the  flask  was  less  than  a  centimeter 
above  the  sui'face  of  the  bromtoluol ;  the  bromine  was  driven  over  in 
the  form  of  vapor  by  heating  the  flask  containing  it  with  a  small  flame 
placed  some  distance  below  at  such  a  rate  that  it  was  completely  de- 
colorized at  a  few  centimeters  from  the  end  of  the  exit-tube :  to  pre- 
vent condensation  of  the  bromine,  the  delivery-tube  was  made  as  short 
as  possible ;  the  heat  was  carefully  regulated  so  that  the  bromtoluol 
boiled  gently,  the  explosive  boiling  with  evolution  of  white  fumes, 
which  was  apt  to  occur  toward  the  end  of  the  process,  being  especially 
avoided.  If  these  precautions  were  observed,  the  liquid  solidified 
almost  completely  on  cooling,  and  the  substance  was  easily  purified  by 
j)ressing  the  crystals  thus  obtained  between  filter-paper  and  recrystal- 
lizing  once  or  twice  from  hot  alcohol.  The  average  yield  from  ten 
grammes  of  parabromtoluol  was  ten  grammes  of  parabrombenzylbro- 
mide,  that  is  about  sixty-eight  per  cent  of  the  theoretical  amount;  but, 
if  more  than  ten  grammes  of  parabromtoluol  were  used  in  one  opera- 
tion, the  yield  was  not  so  large. 

The  substance  was  also  obtained  from  the  mixture  of  para-  and  ortho- 
bromtoluol,*  prepared  by  treating  cold  toluol  with  bromine.  On  cooling 
the  product  of  the  action  of  bromine  on  the  hot  mixture  with  ice  and 
salt,  some  parabrombenzylbromide  separated  out,  and  more  was  ob- 
tained by  distilling  off  a  part  of  the  oil  with  steam,  as  the  orthobrom- 
benzylbromide  distils  more  easily  with  steam  than  the  paracompound. 
This  distillation  is  not  to  be  recommended,  however,  as  under  these  con. 
ditions  a  portion  of  the  bromide  is  converted  into  the  corresponding 
alcohol ;  but  without  doubt  this  difficulty  could  be  I'emoved  by  using 
hydrobromic  acid  in  jilace  of  water.     Compare  p.  214. 

Second  Method.  Benzylbromide  was  treated  in  the  cold  with  an 
equal  weight  of  bromine,  to  which  a  little  iodine  had  been  added  ;  on 
freezing  the  product  of  the  reaction,  a  quantity  of  parabrombenzylbro- 
mide separated  out.  This  method  is  decidedly  inferior  to  that  with 
pure  parabromtoluol,  as  it  not  only  gives  a  smaller  yield,  but  also  there 
is  a  i^ossibility  that  orthobrombenzylbromide  may  be  formed.  The 
composition  of  the  parabrombenzylbromide  was  established  by  the  fol- 
lowing analyses :  — 

0.5934  gr.  of  substance  gave  0.7377  gr.  CO2  and  0.1378  gr.  H^O. 

*  Ann.  Chem.  Pliarm.,  147,  p.  39. 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  213 

0.5679  <rr.  of  substance  gave,  after  ignition,  with  CaO  0.8579  gr. 


AgBr. 


Required  for  C-HgBr^.  Found. 

Carbon                        33.6  33.90 

Hydrogen                     2.4  2.57 

Bi'omine                     64.0  64.28 


100.0  100.75 

Properties. —  Crystallized  from  alcohol,  it  forms  thick,  colorless  nee- 
dles, with  a  brilliant  lustre ;  from  the  oily  mother-liquor  formed  in  its 
preparation  or  from  benzole,  it  sejiarates  on  slow  evaporation  in  well- 
formed  prisms,  apparently  of  the  orthorhombic  system,  often  a  centime- 
ter or  more  long  and  two  to  four  millimeters  thick,  which  have  the 
consistency  of  sublimed  sal-ammoniac.  Its  odor  is  agreeable  and 
aromatic,  but  its  vapor  attacks  the  mucous  membrane  with  very  great 
violence,  causing  tears  and  running  at  the  nose  ;  it  was  observed,  how- 
ever, by  all  who  were  exposed  continually  to  its  action  that  they 
became  much  less  sensitive  to  it  after  a  few  days.  "When  brought  upon 
the  more  delicate  parts  of  the  skin,  it  causes  a  sharp,  stinging  pain,  but 
produces  no  such  effect  on  the  hands ;  the  taste  is  extremely  biting, 
causing  great  pain  to  the  tongue  for  several  minutes ;  it  melts  at  61-^°, 
can  be  distilled  with  steam,  sublimes  in  laeedles,  and  burns  with  a  lumi- 
nous green-bordered  flame.  It  is  almost  insoluble  in  water,  although 
it  imparts  its  odor  to  it;  (the  flat  needles,  mentioned  in  a  preliminary 
paper*  as  separating  from  water  by  spontaneous  evaporation,  were 
undoubtedly  the  more  soluble  parabrombenzylalcohol)  ;  it  is  but  slightly 
soluble  in  cold,  freely  in  hot  alcohol,  very  readily  in  ether,  benzole, 
carbonic  disulphide,  and  glacial  acetic  acid.  On  one  occasion,  it  was 
oxidized  very  rapidly  by  a  mixture  of  potassic  dichromate  and  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  the  action  being  attended  by  flashes  of  light  visible  even 
in  diffused  daylight,  the  product  was  an  acid  melting  in  the  crude  state 
at  239"  to  240^*,  which  must  therefore  be  parabrombenzoic  acid. 

It  seems  highly  probable  that  this  parabrombenzylbromide  is  the 
substance  obtained,  but  not  purified  or  studied  by  Lauth  and  Grimaux,t 
in  1866,  in  the  residue  from  the  distillation  of  bromtoluol ;  since  they 
described  it  as  crystallizing  in  needles,  and  in  the  highest  degree  irritat- 
ing to  the  eyes. 


*  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1876,  p.  931. 

t  Lauth  and  Grimaux,  Bull.  Soc.  Chim.  [2],  V.  p.  347. 


214  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

m 

Metahromhe7izylbromide  (CfR^Br.CH.Br.)  was  made  from  meta- 
bromtoluol,  prepared  by  Wroblevsky's  *  method  (compare  also 
Grete  t)j  as  follows  :  30  gr.  of  the  mixture  of  para-  and  orthoacettoluid, 
obtained  as  a  secondary  product  in  Wroblevsky's  process  for  purifying 
orthotoluidin,  previously  reduced  to  a  granular  condition  by  crystalli- 
zation from  boiling-water,  were  suspended  in  cold  water,  and  45  gr. 
of  bromine  dissolved  in  water  added  in  small  portions  at  a  time^  shak- 
ing until  the  yellow  color  disappeared  after  each  addition  ;  the  acetyl 
group  was  removed  from  the  metabromacettoluid  thus  obtained  by 
boiling  with  fuming  hydrochloric  acid  in  a  flask  with  a  return-cooler  ; 
the  base,  set  free  by  an  alkali,  was  dissolved  in  portions  of  10  gr.  at 
a  time  in  absolute  alcohol,  and  the  amido  group  replaced  by  hydro- 
gen by  Griess's  reaction ;  the  alcohol  was  then  partly  distilled  off  on 
the  water-bath  ;  the  residue  distilled  with  steam,  dried,  and  rectified,  the 
portion  passing  over  from  179°  to  185°,  being  collected.  To  convert 
this  into  metabrombenzylbromide,  10  gr.  of  it  were  heated  to  boiling, 
and  treated  with  12  gr.  of  bromine  in  the  way  described  under  para- 
brombenzylbromide  (see  page  212)  ;  the  slight  excess  of  bromine  over 
the  molecular  proportion  was  taken  to  allow  for  the  loss  in  the  pro- 
cess ;  the  metabromtoluol  took  up  the  bromine  somewhat  more  slowly 
than  the  parabromtoluol.  The  liquid  left  after  the  brorairing  was  fin- 
ished, was  distilled  in  a  current  of  the  vapor  from  hydrobromic  acid 
(boiling-point  125°),  prepared  according  to  Naumann,]:  until  a  con- 
siderable portion  had  passed  over :  the  flask  containing  the  substance 
was  not  heated  for  fear  of  decomposition.  The  hydrobromic  acid 
vapor  cannot  be  replaced  by  steam ;  as  under  these  conditions  some  of 
the  brombenzylalcohol  might  be  foi-med,  although  I  am  inclined  to 
think  that  this  reaction  woul  1  take  place  much  less  readily  here  than 
it  does  in  the  case  of  the  parabrombenzylbromide  (compare  page  212). 
The  residue  left  in  the  flask  was  transferred  to  a  funnel-tube,  closed 
with  a  rubber  stopper  on  a  glass  rod,  and  surrounded  with  ice.  If 
the  distillation  had  been  carried  on  long  enough,  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  oil  solidified  to  a  dark,  j^asty  mass.  The  stopper  was  then  removed, 
and  the  bi'own  oil  sucked  out  as  completely  as  possible  by  means  of 
the  Bunsen  pump.  The  white  scales  left  on  the  funnel  were  boiled 
with  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol ;  the  clear  solution  poured  off  from  the 
undissolved  oil  and  cooled  in  a  corked  flask.    As  soon  as  no  more  oil  was 

*  Wroblevsky,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  168,  p.  153. 

t  Grete,  ib.,  177,  p.  231. 

I  Naumann,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1876,  p.  1574. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  215 

■deposited,  the  clear  liquid  was  decanted  into  another  flask,  and  cooled 
with  ice,  when  crystals  were  formed.  The  same  process  was  repeated 
"with  the  mother-liquor  and  the  residue  until  the  whole  was  converted 
into  crystals  ;  while  another  crop  of  less  pure  metabrombenzylbromide 
was  obtained  by  adding  snow  to  the  mother-liquor  from  the  final  opera- 
tion. The  crystals  were  purified  by  similar  crystallizations  from  hot 
alcohol.  It  was  necessary  that  all  these  operations  should  be  carried 
on  in  corked  flasks,  as  the  metabrombenzylbromide,  when  moistened 
wnth  alcohol,  evaporated  when  exposed  to  the  air  so  rapidly  that  there 
was  a  very  considerable  loss  from  working  with  open  vessels. 

The  composition  of  the  metabrombenzylbromide  was  established  by 
the  following  analyses  :  — 

0.4333  gr.  substance  gave  after  ignition  with  CaO  0.6609  gr.  AgBr. 

Required  for  C-HgBro.  Found. 

Carbon                        33.6         "  34.63 

Hydrogen                      2.4  2.G6 

Bromine                      64.0  63.96 


100.0  101.25 

Properties. — Crystallized  from  alcohol  by  cooling,  it  forms  white  bladed 
needles  or  plates  arranged  in  radiated  groups ;  by  slow  evaporation  of 
its  alcoholic  solution,  it  can  be  obtained  in  flat  prisms  with  square  ends 
sometimes  reaching  a  length  of  3  cm.,  and  a  breadth  of  2  mm.  It  has 
an  agreeable  odor,  aromatic,  but  different  fi-om  that  of  the  parabrom- 
beuzylbromide,  while  its  action  on  the  mucous  membrane  is  even 
more  violent,  perhaps  because  it  is  more  volatile ;  its  taste  and  action 
on  the  more  delicate  parts  of  the  skin  is  similar  to  that  of  the  para 
compound;  it  melts  at  41°,  can  be  distilled  with  steam  only  very 
slowly,  sublimes  in  oily  drops,  and  burns  with  a  luminous  flame 
having  a  green  border.  One  of  its  most  striking  properties  is  that, 
when  moistened  with  alcohol  or  ether,  it  evaporates  very  rapidl}'- ; 
whereas  when  dry  it  is  comparatively  fixed.  It  is  almost  insoluble  in 
water,  but  imparts  its  odor  to  it,  is  freely  soluble  in  cold,  still  more  so 
in  hot  alcohol,  and  very  readily  soluble  in  ether,  benzole,  carbonic 
disulphide,  and  glacial  acetic  acid.  An  oxidizing  mixture  of  potassic 
dichromate  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid  seems  to  be  without  action  on  it ; 
but  the  same  mixture  converts  the  alcohol  derived  from  it  into  an  acid, 
which,  in  a  not  perfectly  pure  state,  melts  at  151° ,  and  must  therefore 
be  metabrombenzoic  acid. 

o 

Ortholromhenzylhromide  {C^^H^Br.CH.Br.).  —  After  several  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  to  obtain  an  orthobromtoluol  free  from  the  para  com- 


216  PROCEEDINGS    OP   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

pound  from  the  mixture  prepared  by  adding  bromine  to  cooled  toluol, 
I  decided  to  insure  a  perfectly  pure  substance  as  my  starting-point,  by 
making  the  orthobi'omtoluol  from  orthotoluidin.  The  first  method 
employed  for  purifying  the  orthotoluidin  was  that  of  Wroblevsky,* 
by  boiling  crude  toluidin  sixteen  hours  with  glacial  acetic  acid ;  but  all 
the  samples  obtained  by  this  process  contained  traces  of  paratoluidin. 
After  I  had  convinced  myself  by  experiment  that  the  methods  of 
Rosenstiehl,t  by  treating  the  oxalates  with  ether ;  and  of  Beilstein 
and  Kuhlberg,J  by  precipitating  an  acetic  acid  solution  of  acettoluid 
with  water,  —  were  almost  impracticable  for  large  quantities,  I  tried  the 
method  of  Schad,§  recommended  by  Kekule,||  which  depends  on  the 
crystallization  of  the  nitrates  and  chlorides,  and  in  this  way  succeeded  in 
obtaining  a  liquid  toluidin  which  with  acetylchloride  gave  an  acet- 
toluid melting  after  one  recrystallization  from  boiling-water  at  107°. 
As  some  previous  attempts  to  convert  orthotoluidin  into  orthobromto- 
luol  by  the  usual  method  through  the  diazoperbromide  had  given  me  as 
unsatisfactory  a  yield  as  that  obtained  by  Wroblevsky,!!  I  treated  this 
according  to  a  new  modification  of  the  process  of  Hiibner  and  Majert** 
for  preparing  parachlortoluol,  which  I  had  found  to  work  admirably 
in  making  that  substance.  This  modification  was  suggested  by  Victor 
Meyer's  ft  method  of  applying  Griess's  reaction,  and  consisted  in  dis- 
solving 20  gr.  of  the  orthotoluidin  in  an  excess  of  hydrobromic 
acid  (boiling-point  125°,  prepared  according  to  Naumann  t|);  the  pasty 
mass  was  then  treated  with  somewhat  more  than  the  calculated  amount 
of  solid  potassic  nitrite,  which  was  thrown  in  in  small  portions  at  a 
time,  the  fiask  being  corked  after  each  addition,  and  shaken  until  all 
the  red  fumes  were  absorbed  ;  after  the  last  portion  of  nitrite  had 
been  added,  the  greater  part  of  the  liquid  was  distilled  off,  and  the  resi- 
due then  treated  again  in  the  same  way.  The  distillate  consisted  of 
dilute  hydrobromic  acid  and  a  heavy  oily  liquid  which  was  separated 
with  a  drop-funnel,  washed  with  potassic  hydrate  solution  until  the  odor 
of  kresole  was  removed,  then  with  water,  and  finally  dried  and  rectified  ; 
in  this  way  40  grammes  of  orthotoluidin  gave  29  grammes  of  crude 

*  Wroblevsky,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharra.,  168,  p.  162. 

t  Rosenstiehl,  Zeitschr.  Chem.,  1868,  p.  557,  666. 

t  Beilstein,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  156,  p.  75. 

§  Schad,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1873,  p.  1361. 

II  Kekule,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1874,  p.  1006. 
IF  Wroblevsky,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  168,  p.  171. 
**  Hiibner  and  Majert,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1873,  p.  794. 
tl  V.  Meyer,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1875,  p.  1074,  note. 
tt  Namnann,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1876,  p.  1574. 


OP   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  217 

orthobromtoluol,  and  24  grammes  of  this  gave  on  the  first  fractioning 
19  grammes  of  a  colorless  liquid  boiling  between  179^  and  182°  ;  that  is, 
about  thirty-six  per  cent  of  the  theoretical  yield,  whereas  the  diazoper- 
bromide  furnishes  under  the  best  conditions  only  ten  per  cent.  The 
new  method  has  the  further  advantages  of  taking  much  less  than  half 
the  time  occupied  by  either  of  the  old  ones,  and  the  product  is  not 
contaminated  with  the  nitro  compounds  which  compelled  Hiibner  and 
Majert  to  reduce  before  rectifying.  Von  Richter  *  has  also  obtained 
tetrabrombenzole  by  the  action  of  nitrous  anhydride  on  a  mixture  of 
tribromaniline  with  hydrobromic  and  glacial  acetic  acids ;  he  ascribes 
the  reaction  to  the  presence  of  the  negative  atoms,  and  announces  his 
intention  of  trying  similar  experiments  with  compounds  containing 
fewer  bromine  atoms  or  nitro  groups  ;  that  the  reaction  is  not  due  to 
the  presence  of  such  negative  radicals  is  proved  by  the  previous 
researches  of  Hiibner  and  Majert,  which  he  seems  to  have  overlooked, 
and  the  results  given  above.  I  should  not  have  intruded  on  Von 
Richter's  field  of  work,  had  it  not  been  necessary  for  me  to  obtain  the 
orthobromtoluol,  but  I  felt  the  less  hesitation  in  doing  so,  as  I  am 
unable  to  see  that  his  method  differs  in  any  essential  particular  from 
that  of  Hiibner  and  Majert,  published  nearly  two  years  before  the 
appearance  of  his  article. 

The  orthobromtoluol  was  converted  into  orthobrombenzylbromide 
by  treatment  with  bromine  in  the  way  described  under  the  para  com- 
pound. The  purification  of  the  substance  was  a  matter  of  some  diffi- 
culty, as  it  seemed  to  be  completely  decomposed  by  rectification,  and 
converted  into  the  alcohol  by  distillation  with  steam ;  the  method 
finally  adopted  was  distillation  in  a  stream  of  the  vapor  from  aqueous 
hydrobromic  acid,  as  described  under  the  metabrombenzylbromide ;  the 
first  fifth  of  the  distillate  was  rejected  to  make  sure  of  the  absence  of 
orthobromtoluol ;  that  which  came  over  later  was  washed  till  it  ceased 
to  give  an  acid  reaction,  and  then  dried  in  vacuo.  In  this  way,  17 
grains  of  pure  orthobrombenzylbromide  were  obtained  from  18  grains 
of  orthobromtoluol. 

Its  purity  was  established  by  the  following  bromine  determina- 
tion :  — 

0.5035  gr.  of  substance  gave  after  ignition  with  CaO  0.7608  gr.  of 

AgBr. 

Required  for  C-HgBro.  Found. 

Bromine  64.0  64.30 

*  Von  Richter,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1875,  p.  1428. 


218  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

A  number  of  bromine  determinations  made  in  products  from 
•distillation  with  steam  gave  invariably  results  which  were  below  the 
theory. 

Properties.  —  It  forms  a  pale  yellow  oil  (the  color  is  undoubtedly 
due  to  a  trace  of  some  impurity),  with  an  agi'eeable  odor,  somewhat 
resembling  that  of  parabrombenzylbromide,  and  an  action  on  the 
mucous  membrane  even  more  violent  than  that  of  the  preceding  com- 
pounds ;  its  boiling-point  seems  to  lie  between  250°  and  260°,  but 
could  not  be  determined  with  accuracy  because  it  is  decomposed  with 
evolution  of  hydrobromic  acid  by  boiling.  A  careful  study  of  the 
action  of  heat  on  this  and  the  allied  substances  is  reserved  for  a  future 
2)aper.  It  does  not  solidify  even  at  — 15°,  can  be  distilled  with 
steam,  burns  with  the  usual  luminous  green-bordered  flame,  and 
does  not  mix  with  water,  although  it  imparts  its  odor  to  it,  but 
mixes  readily  with  absolute  alcohol,  ether,  benzole,  glacial  acetic 
acid,  and  carbonic  disulphide.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  attacked 
by  a  mixture  of  potassic  dichromate  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  but 
the  alcohol  derived  from  it  is  completely  destroyed  by  this  oxidizing 
mixture. 

ParacMorbenzylhromide,G^Hj^ClCH„Br,  was  prepared  from  para- 
chlortoluol ;  melting-jwint,  6°. 5  ;  boiling-point,  lo8°-161'* ;  made  by  the 
modification  of  the  method  of  Hiibner  and  Majert,  already  described  in 
connection  with  orthobromtoluol  (see  page  216);  crude  fuming  hydro- 
chloric acid  took  the  place  of  the  hydrobromic  acid,and  40  gr.  of  paratolu- 
idin  were  used  for  each  operation ;  the  oil,  after  washing  with  potassic 
hydrate,  proved  on  rectification  to  be  almost  absolutely  pure  parachlorto- 
luol,  the  yield  being  about  13  gr.  It  was  converted  into  parachlorbenzyl- 
bromide  in  the  way  already  described ;  the  product  of  the  reaction 
deposited  crystals  on  cooling,  which  were  drained,  and  a  fresh  crop 
obtained  from  the  mother-liquor  by  heating  it  gently  for  a  few  minutes 
in  a  watch-glass  placed  on  a  sand-bath,  and  then  allowing  it  to  stand 
for  some  time.  The  crystals  after  pressing  between  filter-paper  were 
purified  by  crystallization  from  hot  alcohol  in  corked  flasks,  as  the  sub- 
stance is  so  volatile  that  work  in  open  vessels  would  have  been  at- 
tended with  great  loss  ;  upon  cooling  the  solution  with  ice.  a  little  oil 
separated;  and  if  the  liquid  was  then  stirred  it  immediately  became  filled 
with  beautiful  white  needles.  On  one  occasion,  the  substance  was  dis- 
tilled with  steam  in  order  to  obtain  it  perfectly  white,  but  this  is  not  to 
be  recommended,  as  the  water  left  in  the  distillation-flask  deposited  long 
thin  ribbons  melting  at  66°,  and  therefore  evidently  the  jiarachlorbenzyl- 
alcohol,  while  the  supernatant  liquid  contained  hydrobromic  acid.     This 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  219 

observation  furnished  a  very  ueat  and  convenient  way  of  obtaining 
the  corresponding  alcohols  from  the  bromides.  (See  parabrombenzyl- 
alcohol  in  the  next  paper,  p.  221). 

The  composition  of  the  parachlorbenzylbromide  was  established  by 
the  followino;  analvses  :  — 

0.3399  gr.  of  the  substance  gave  after  ignition  with  CaO  0.5580  gr. 
AgBr+AgCl. 

0.4224  gr.  of  substance  gave  0.6779  gr.  AgBr-|-AgCl. 

Required  for  C-HgCl  Br.  round. 

Chlorine  and  Bromine      56-20         57-20         55-94 

Pfoperties.  —  By  slow  evaporation  of  its  alcoholic  solution,  it  can 
be  obtained  in  well-formed  colorless  prisms,  by  cooling  in  radiated 
bunches  of  needles  often  three  centimeters  lonor ;  it  has  an  agreeable 
aromatic  odor,  and  acts  on  the  mucous  membrane  more  violently  than 
any  of  the  other  substances  described  in  this  jjaper ;  it  melts  at  48 i'^, 
sublimes  in  oily  drops,  can  be  distilled  with  steam,  is  Tery  volatile  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  so  that  a  crystal  will  evaporate  completely  if 
exposed  to  the  air  for  a  few  days,  and  burns  with  a  flame  similar  to  that 
of  the  bromine  compounds.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in  water,  easily  soluble 
in  cold,  still  more  so  in  hot  alcohol,  and  very  readily  in  ether,  benzole, 
carbonic  disulphide,  and  glacial  acetic  acid.  It  is  attacked  with  diffi- 
culty, if  at  all,  by  potassic  dichromate  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

Paraiodbenzylbro>mde,0,.H^ICff,,B)\  WAS  made  from  paraiod toluol ; 
melting-point,  35°  ;  prepared  according  to  Koruer*  by  the  action  of 
hydriodic  acid  on  the  nitrate  of  diazotoluol,  this  last  being  obtained 
by  Victor  Meyer's  f  excellent  modification  of  Griess's  reaction.  The 
introduction  of  the  bromine  into  the  side-chain  by  treating  the  boiling 
substance  with  bromine  vapor  was  much  more  difficult  than  in  the 
preceding  cases ;  the  precautions  to  be  observed  were  in  general  the 
same  as  those  given  under  parabrombenzylbromide  ;  but  occasionally,  in 
spite  of  all  possible  care,  a  black  tarry  liquid  was  the  only  result  of  the 
process.  The  conditions  under  which  the  j^araiodbenzylbromide  is 
formed  are  now  undergoing  very  careful  study  by  Mr.  C.  F.  Mabery, 
and  the  results  will  be  published  in  his  paper  upon  the  paraiodbenzyl 
compounds.  It  is  a  very  remarkable  fact  that  in  several  cases,  when 
the  paraiodtoluol  was  not  perfectly  pure,  the  liberation  of  iodine  in 
considerable  quantity  was  observed  during  the  bromiring;  but,  in  spite 
of  this,  the  product  contained  paraiodbenzylbromide,  thus  apparently 

*  Kurner,  Bull.  Acad.  Roy.  Belg.  [2],  24,  p.  157. 
t  V.  Meyer,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1875,  p.  lOl-i,  note. 


220  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

furnishing  an  exception  to  the  general  rule  of  Beilstein  that,  in  pres- 
ence of  iodine,  bromine  goes  into  the  benzole  ring  even  at  high  temper- 
atures. The  product  of  the  reaction,  if  properly  managed,  solidified 
on  cooling,  and  was  best  purified  by  standing  on  paper,  which  sucked 
out  a  quantity  of  black  oil,  and  afterward  by  repeated  crystallizations 
from  boiling  alcohol  with  the  assistance  of  bone-black. 

The  composition  of  the  paraiodbenzylbromide  was  determined  by 
the  following  analyses :  — 

0.3721  gr.  of  substance  yielded  0.3773  gr.  CO,  and  0.0773  gr.  of  H^O. 
0.1774  gr.  of  substance  gave,  according  to  Carius,  0.1285  gr.  of  Ag. 
0.1971  gr.  of  substance  gave  0.2755  gr.  of  AgBr-|-AgI.     There  were 
indications  in  this  analysis  that  the  oxidation  had  not  been  complete. 

Required  for  C^HglBr.  Found. 

Carbon  28-28  "  27-66 

Hydi'ogen  2-03  2-31 

Iodine  and  Bromine  69-69  69-47        68-41 


100-00  99-44 

Properties. — Crystallized  from  alcohol,  it  forms  flattened  needles, 
which  usually  have  a  straw  yellow  color,  but  can  be  obtained  white  by 
repeated  recrystallization  with  boneblack.  It  has  an  aromatic  odor 
and  attacks  the  mucous  membrane  much  less  violently  than  any  of 
the  other  substances  mentioned  in  this  paper  ;  this,  however,  is  very 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  not  readily  volatile  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures ;  it  melts  at  78|°  ;  does  not  distil  with  steam  or  only  with 
great  difficulty ;  sublimes  in  needles  ;  burns  with  a  luminous  green- 
bordered  flame  ;  and  is  insoluble  in  water,  almost  so  in  cold,  much  more 
soluble  in  hot,  alcohol,  but  slightly  soluble  in  glacial  acetic  acid,  freely 
in  ether,  benzole,  and  carbonic  disulphide.  It  is  not  easily  attacked  if 
at  all  by  an  oxidizing  mixture  of  potassic  dichromate  and  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid. 

That  all  the  substances  mentioned  in  this  paper  contain  bromine  in 
the  side-chain  is  proved  by  the  fact  that,  when  boiled  with  alcoholic 
sodic  acetate,  each  one  of  them  yields  the  corresponding  substituted 
beuzylacetate,  from  which  the  alcohol  can  be  obtained  by  heating  with 
aqueous  ammonia  at  150°  to  \Q0°.  The  description  of  these  com- 
pounds, as  well  as  of  certain  other  derivatives  of  these  substances,  will 
be  found  in  the  following  articles  of  this  series.  For  descriptions  of 
the  parachlorbenzyl  compounds  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  papers 
already  cited  in  the  introduction. 


OP  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  2'Al 

SECOND    PAPER. 

ON  PARABROMBENZYL  COMPOUNDS. 
Woodbury  Lowery. 

Parahromhenzylalcohol^  C^JI^Br  CB.,  Off.) —  This  substance  was  most 
easily  prepared  by  boiling  jjarabrorabenzylbromide  with  water,  in  a 
flask  with  a  return-cooler,  for  two  or  three  days,  until  it  no  longer  at- 
tacked the  eyes.  The  reaction  ran  as  follows :  C^H^BrCH^Br-l-H^O 
=:CgH^BrCH.,OH-j- HBr.  The  presence  of  the  hydrobromic  acid 
was  established  by  treating  the  acid  aqueous  filtrate  with  argentic  oxide, 
when  argentic  bromide  was  formed,  and  the  solution  became  neutral. 
This  method  is  analogous  to  that  employed  by  Grimaux  *  for  convert- 
ing tollylenebromide  into  tollyleneglycole,  except  that  Grimaux  heated 
the  haloid  compound  with  water  at  170°  to  180'^,  while  I  obtained  the 
alcohol  by  boiling  in  a  flask  with  a  reverse-cooler.  The  action  of 
water  on  benzylchloride  at  high  temperatures  has  been  very  thoroughly 
studied  :  the  first  research  in  this  field  having  been  undertaken  by 
Limprichtf  as  early  as  1866,  who  by  heating  the  two  substances  to 
190°  obtained  anthracene,  a  hydrocarbon  Cj^Hj^,  later  identified  by 
Van  Dorp  t  as  benzyltoluol,  and  beuzylether,  which  he  supposed  was 
formed  from  benzylalcohol ;  but  neither  he,  nor  Van  Dorji,  nor 
Zincke,  §  who  afterward  made  out  the  theory  of  this  reaction,  men- 
tioned obtaining  benzylalcohol  in  this  way.  The  alcohol  was  also 
obtained  in  the  ordinary  way  by  heating  parabrombenzylacetate  with 
aqueous  ammonia  in  a  sealed  tube  to  160*^.  The  alcohol  in  whichever 
way  prepared  was  25urified  by  crystallization  from  boiling  watei',  and 
its  composition  established  by  the  following  combustion  :  — 

Required  for  C.HeBr.OH.  Pound. 

Carbon  44.92  44.94 

Hydrogen  3.74  3.99 

Properties.  —  It  forms  long  elastic  transparent  colorless  flattened 
needles,  with  a  brilliant  pearly  lustre  and  a  disagreeable  odor;  its  vapor 
does  not  attack  the  eyes.  Melting-point,  69°.  It  burns  with  a  lumi- 
nous green-bordered  flame,  distils  with  steam  although  slowly,  and  is 
very  slightly  soluble  in  cold,  more  freely  in  boiling  water,  easily  soluble 
in  alcohol,  ether,  benzole,  and  carbonic  disulphide. 

*  Grimaux,  Comptes  Rend.,  70,  p.  1363;  Ann.  Chem.  Pharra.,  155,  p.  338. 

t  Limpricht,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  139,  303. 

X  Van  Dorp,  ib.,  169,  207. 

§  Zincke,  Ber.  D.  Cli.  G.,  1874,  276. 


222  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

The  parahromhenzylacetate  (  C^H^Br.  CH,,  C.ylT..  0^)  was  not  obtained  in 
a  condition  pure  enough  for  analysis.  On  adding  water  to  the  alco- 
holic solution  left  after  boiling  parabrombenzylbromide  with  sodic 
acetate  and  absolute  alcohol,  a  more  or  less  dark-colored  oil  which  did 
not  attack  the  eyes  or  nose  was  precipitated :  this  was  dried  and  frac- 
tioued.  In  the  first  rectification  the  greater  part  came  over  at  about 
253°,  but  on  fractioning  again  a  considerable  portion  came  over  at 
lower  temperatures ;  the  ofteuer  it  was  distilled,  the  less  constant 
became  the  boiling-point,  and  after  several  distillations  crystals  ap- 
peared both  in  the  residue  and  distillate,  while  nearly  one  quarter  of 
the  entire  amount  came  over  below  100'^,  and  another  quarter  below 
247° ;  all  these  fractions  attacked  the  eyes  with  great  energy,  whereas 
the  acetate  before  fractioning  did  not  possess  this  property  ;  the  crys- 
tals were  little  white  needles  which  dissolved  readily  in  ammonic 
hydrate,  and  gave  a  silver  salt  which  was  analyzed.  0.2822  gr.  of  the 
salt  gave  0.1009  gr.  of  Ag. 

Required  for  CgH^Br.  COO  Ag.  Found. 

Silver  35.06  35.75 

As  the  acid  melted  at  240°  to  250°,  there  could  be  no  doubt  that  it 
was  parabrombenzoic  acid.  Unfortunately  the  amount  of  parabrom- 
benzylacetate  at  my  disposal  was  so  small  that  it  was  impossible  to 
isolate  the  other  products  of  this  interesting  decomposition,  and  the 
complete  study  of  this  reaction  must  therefore  be  postponed  until  next 
year,  when  it  will  be  undertaken  in  this  laboratory. 

The  acetate  before  fractioning  was  an  oily  liquid  heavier  than  water, 
having  an  agreeable  odor  distantly  resembling  that  of  acetic  ether,  and 
burning  with  a  luminous  green-bordered  flame  ;  the  boiling-point 
could  not  be  determined  with  accuracy  on  account  of  the  decomposi- 
tion described  above,  but  probably  lies  between  250°  and  260°. 

ParabrombenzyJcyaiiide  (GqH^B):  CM^CN),  was  obtained  by  boiling- 
parabrombenzylbromide  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  potassic  cyanide 
as  long  as  potassic  bromide  was  formed  ;  on  addition  of  water  a  yellow 
oil  was  precipitated,  which  deposited  crystals  after  standing  for  some 
time,  and  finally  solidified  completely.  The  crystals  were  drained  on 
filter-paper,  and  j^urified  by  crystallization  from  alcohol.  Their  com- 
position was  determined  by  the  following  volumetric  nitrogen  determi- 
nation :  — 

0.3565  gr.  substance  gave  20  cc.  nitrogen  under  a  pressure  of  742  mm., 
and  a  temperature  of  9^. 

Eequired  for  C^HgBr.CN.  Found. 

Nitrogen  7.10  6.58 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  223 

Properties.  —  The  substance  sepai-ates  from  the  oil  at  first  obtained, 
either  in  flat  truncated  octahedra  with  a  marked  basal  cleavage  belong- 
ing either  to  the  tetragonal  or  orthorhombic  system,  and  having  a  very 
strong  resemblance  to  the  crystals  of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  or  else 
in  flat  twins  imitating  in  a  very  beautiful  manner  the  architectural 
forms  of  the  trefoil  and  quatrefoil.  These  crystals  are  yellowish 
white,  but  the  substance  is  rendered  colorless  by  crystallization  from 
alcohol ;  it  has  a  disagreeable  odor,  does  not  attack  the  eyes,  melts  at 
46*^,  burns  with  a  luminous  green-bordered  flame,  and  is  insoluble  in 
water,  moderately  soluble  in  cold,  freely  in  hot  alcohol,  soluble  in 
ether  and  glacial  acetic  acid,  still  more  readily  in  carbonic  disulphide 
and  benzole  ;  by  boiling  with  alcoholic  potassic  hydrate  or  heating 
in  a  sealed  tube  with  hydrochloric  acid  it  is  easily  converted  into  para- 
bromalphatoluylic  acid.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  chlorbenzyl- 
chloride,  according  to  the  observations  of  Neuhof,*  gave  when  heated 
as  above  with  alcoholic  potassic  cyanide,  the  amide  of  chloralphatoluylic 
acid,  the  cyanide  being  obtained  only  by  heating  the  substances  in  a 
sealed  tube ;  this  difference  in  the  behavior  under  like  conditions  of 
two  substances  so  nearly  related  as  chlorbenzylchloride  and  parabrom- 
benzylbromide  is  interesting. 

Parahromalphatoluylic  Acid  (^C^^H^Br.CH.-^COOH).  This  substance 
was  most  easily  obtained  by  heating  the  cyanide  with  crude  fuming 
hydrochloric  acid  to  100^  in  a  sealed  tube.  On  cooling,  the  liquid 
was  found  to  be  full  of  shining  flattened  needles  of  the  acid,  another 
portion  of  which  had  fused  on  the  side  of  the  tube  ;  this  method  gave 
better  results  more  neatly  than  the  saponification  with  potassic  hydrate  ;. 
the  acid  was  purified  by  recrystallization  from  boiling  water,  and  its 
composition  established  by  analyses  of  its  silver  and  copper  salts. 
(See  bilow.) 

Properties.  —  It  crystallizes  in  white  glistening  flattened  needles 
with  but  little  odor,  melts  at  114.5",  sublimes  above  its  melting-point 
m  little  plates,  and  burns  with  the  usual  luminous  green-bordered 
flame.  It  is  but  slightly  soluble  in  cold,  freely  in  boiling  water,  and  in 
alcohol,  ether,  benzole,  carbonic  disulphide,  and  glacial  acetic  acid. 
Ammouic  and  sodic  hydrates  dissolve  it  at  once,  forming  the  corre- 
sponding salts;  it  seems  to  decompose  carbonates,  but  very  slowly  and 
imperfectly :  potassic  dichromate  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid  convert  it 
with  some  difficulty  into  parabrombenzoic  acid  melting  in  an  impure 
state  near  ■24C. 

*  Zeitschr.  Chem.  1866,  p.  653. 


224  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

In  1869,  Br.  Rarlziszewski  *  obtained  a  substance  which  he  called 
parabromalphatoluylic  acid,  by  the  action  of  bromine  in  the  cold  upon 
alphatoluylic  acid  ;  he  does  not  describe  it  fully,  but  only  says  that  it 
crystallizes  in  prisms  melting  at  76^,  and  gives  baric  and  calcic  salts 
crystallizing  in  warts,  and  easily  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  by 
oxidizing  it  with  potassic  dichromate  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid  he 
obtained  nothing  but  parabrombenzoic  acid  melting  at  251*^.  He  also 
obtained  in  the  same  operation  another  acid  containing  bromine,  which 
melted  at  99^,  and  was  not  further  examined.  The  discrepancy 
between  my  results  and  those  of  Radziszewski,  is  j^robably  due  to  the 
fact  that  he  did  not  obtain  a  pure  parabromalphatoluylic  acid,  but  that 
the  two  acids  observed  by  him  were  mixtures  of  para  and  ortho  com- 
pounds, with  perhaps  some  of  the  phenylbromacetic  acid,  CgH-CHBrC 
OOH,  melting-point  82",  discovered  by  him  in  conjunction  with 
Glaser,t  and  which  he  shows  in  the  paper  under  discussion,  is  formed 
from  the  alphatoluylic  acid  by  the  action  of  bromine  at  150'*.  The 
l^resence  of  a  small  quantity  of  orthobromalphatoluylic  acid  could 
easily  lower  the  melting-point  from  114.^5  to  99°,  or  even  76"  ;  and, 
as  it  would  be  entirely  consumed  by  oxidizing  with  jiotassic  dichromate 
and  sulphuric  acid,  such  a  mixture  would  yield  only  parabrombenzoic 
acid.  On  the  other  hand,  my  acid  being  prepared  from  pure  parabrom- 
beuzyl-bromide,  by  jDrocesses  in  which  the  temperature  never  rose 
above  100°,  must  be  perfectly  free  from  isomeres  ;  and  this  view  is 
confirmed  by  the  fact  that  its  melting-point  is  higher  than  that  of  the 
acid  obtained  by  Radziszewski. 

Amynonic  parahromalphatoluate  obtained  by  dissolving  the  acid  in 
ammonic  hydrate,  and  driving  off  the  excess  of  ammonia  on  the  water- 
bath,  crystallized  in  long  curving  groups  of  colorless  needles  very 
soluble  in  water. 

Argentic  'parahromalphatoluate  (  C^JIJir.  CH.^  CO  OAg.)  was  preci- 
pitated by  adding  the  ammonic  salt  to  argentic  nitrate,  as  a  white 
curdy  mass  similar  in  appearance  to  chloride  of  silver  ;  it  was  washed 
with  cold  water,  and  dried  at  GO". 

0.3106  gr.  of  the  salt  dissolved  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  precipitated 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  gave  0.1375  gr.  AgCl. 

Required  for  C-Br-HgCO.,  Ag.  Found. 

Silver  33.57  33.33 


*  Radziszewski,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G.,  1869,  p.  207. 
t  Zeitschr.  Chem.,  1868,  p.  110. 


or  ARTS    AND   SCIENCES.  225 

It  is  almost  insoluble  in  water,  perhaps  a  little  more  soluble  in  hot 
than  in  cold,  but  it  could  not  be  obtained  crystallized  ;  it  is  readily 
soluble  in  dilute  nitric  acid  ;  it  blackens  slightly  by  exposure  to  the 
light,  and  even  at  a  temperature  of  60°. 

Ciipric parabromalphatoluate,  Cu  (C^H^Br  CH.,COO),,was  precipi- 
tated as  a  flocculent  bluish  green  solid,  on  mixing  cupric  sulphate  with 
the  amnionic  salt. 

0.3028  gr.  of  the  salt  gave  0.05028  CuO. 

Required  for  Cu(r8HeBr.0Jo.  Tound. 

Copper  12.90  13.24 

It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid. 

The  baric  salt,  obtained  by  neutralizing  a  solution  of  the  acid  with 
baryta  water  and  evaporating,  formed  white  indistinctly  crystalline 
crusts  easily  soluble  in  water. 

The  calcic  salt  obtained  in  a  similar  way,  and  also,  although  very 
slowly  from  calcic  carbonate  and  a  solution  of  the  acid,  appeared  in 
the  form  of  white  warts ;  which,  under  the  microscope,  were  seen  to  be 
globular  groups  of  sharp  needles  looking  somewhat  like  a  chestnut- 
bur  ;  it  was  easily  soluble  in  water. 

The  behavior  of  a  solution  of  ammonic  parabromalphatoluate  with 
solutions  of"  the  following  salts  was  also  observed  :  — 

Mercurous  salts,  a  heavy  flocculent  white  precipitate. 

Mercuric  salts,  a  slight  white  precipitate. 

Plumbic  salts,  a  heavy  white  precipitate,  somewhat  soluble  in  boil- 
ing water,  and  separating  from  this  solution  in  crystalline  flocks. 

ferric  salts,  a  pale  yellow  amorphous  precipitate,  while  Chromic, 
Aluminic,  Manganous,  Cobaltous,  Nickelous,  Zincic,  and  Magnesia 
salts  produced  no  precipitate. 

Triparabrombenzylamine,  (  C^H^Br.  CK,)..  N,  was  formed  even  in  the 
cold,  when  alcoholic  ammonia  was  added  to  the  parabrombenzyl- 
bromide ;  the  white  crystals  which  separated  in  large  quantity  were 
washed  with  water,  and  then  recrystallized  repeatedly  from  alcohol ;  in 
this  way  the  triparabrombenzylamine  was  easily  separated  from  its  brom- 
hydrate,  which  is  very  slightly  soluble  even  in  hot  alcohol,  and  two 
sorts  of  crystals  of  the  former  substance  were  obtained,  one  in  irregular 
somewhat  bent  thick  needles,  the  other  in  fan-shaped  groups  of  fine 
needles,  both  had  the  same  melting-point,  seemed  to  be  about  equally 
soluble  in  alcohol,  and  mutually  convertible  under  conditions  which 
could  not  be  determined ;  it  was  therefore  assumed  that  they  were 
identical,  and  this  assumption  seems  to  be  confirmed  by  the  following 
analyses :  — 

VOL.  XII.  (X.  S.  IV.)  15 


226  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

I.  0.5397  gr.  of  the  thicker  needles  gave  12  cc.  nitrogen,  at  757.4  mm., 
and  20°  t. 

II.  0.2664  gr.  of  the  fan-shaped  crystals  gave  5.2  cc.  nitrogen,  at 
763.1  mm.  and  17.°5.  t. 

Eequired  for  (C^HsBrOgN.  Found. 

I.  II. 

Nitrogen  2.67  2.53  2.26 

Owing  to  the  small  amount  of  the  fan-shaped  crystals  which  could  be 
isolated,  I  have  not  been  able  to  establish  its  composition  more  securely 
by  a  second  analysis. 

Properties.  —  It  crystallizes  either  in  thick  irregular  w^hite  prisms 
or  fan-shaped  groups  of  white  needles,  is  odorless,  melts  at  78°-79°, 
burns  with  the  green-bordered  luminous  flame  belonging  to  all  these 
compounds,  and  is  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  cold,  more  so  in  hot 
alcohol,  freely  soluble  in  ether,  benzole,  and  carbonic  disulphide.  All 
attempts  to  obtain  a  salt  with  hydrochloric  acid  alone,  or  in  connection 
with  platinic  chloride  were  unsuccessful. 

Triparabromhenzylamine  bromhydrate,  (C^.II^Br.CII^).^]}^}! Sr,  was 
formed  at  the  same  time  as  the  free  base,  and  separated  from  it  by 
boiling  out  the  product  of  the  reaction,  with  alcohol ;  the  viscous  residue 
left  after  the  removal  of  the  triparabromlieuzylamine  by  this  means 
was  dissolved  in  ether,  from  which  it  crystallized  on  evaporation. 

0.4269  gr.  of  the  substance  gave  8  cc.  nitrogen,  at  767. 7  mm.  and 
17°  t. 

0.4713  gr.  of  substance  gave  0.5818  gr.  AgBr. 

Required  for  (C^HgBr.JaNH  Br.  Found. 

Nitrogen  2.29  2.19 

Bromine  52.54  52.54 

Properties.  —  White  odorless  plates  with  a  pearly  lustre,  melting  in 
the  neighborhood  of  270'-'',  is  insoluble  in  hot  or  cold  water,  almost 
msoluble  in  alcohol  even  when  boiling,  soluble  although  not  very  easily 
in  ether,  gives  no  double  salt  with  platinic  chloride. 

The  tbrmation  of  triparabromhenzylamine  as  the  principal  product 
of  the  reaction  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  as  benzylbroraide  gives  a 
similar  result  when  treated  with  alcoholic  ammonia  (Kekule*).  It  is 
not  impossible,  however,  that  some  di-  or  even  mono-parabrombenzyl- 
amine  bromhydrate  was  formed,  as  this  would  undoubtedly  have  been 

*  Kekule  Ann.  Chem.  Pharai.,  137,  p.  188. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  227 

dissolved  in  washing  tlie  product  of  the  reaction  with  water,  and  this 
wasli-water  was  unfortunately  lost  before  it  was  investigated. 

Parabrombe)izyhulphocija)iate  {C^H^Br.CH.,SCN)  was  obtained  by 
boiling  the  bromide  with  alcoholic  potassic  sulphocyanate,  and  purifying 
by  crystallizing  from  alcohol  at  low  temperatures.  I  have  but  one 
imperfect  sulphur  determination  of  this  substance,  but  have  not  thought 
it  of  sufficient  importance  to  go  through  the  purification  of  a  fresh 
quantity,  which  is  rendered  difficult  by  its  low  melting-point,  in  order 
to  confirm  this  result. 

0.2455  gr.  of  substance  gave  .2339  gr.  of  Ba.SO^. 

Required  for  C^HsBr.SCN.  Found. 

Sulphur  14.03  13.08 

Properties.  —  It  forms  white  ribbons  often  5  cm.  long,  made  up  of 
needles  united  together  laterally,  having  a  strong  odor  similar  to  that 
of  benzylsulphocyanate,  melting  at  25*^,  and  soluble  in  alcohol.  The 
surprisingly  low  melting-point  rendered  the  management  of  the  sub- 
stance very  difficult,  and  preserving  the  crystals  impossible  ;  it  also  —  as 
the  benzylsulphocyanate  melts  at  36°-38°,  according  to  Henry  ;  *  at 
41"^,  according  to  Barbaglia  f  —  throws  doubt  on  the  analysis  given 
above,  and  therefore  on  the  correctness  of  the  formula. 

Tlie  investigation  of  the  pai'abrombenzyl  compounds  will  be  continued 
in  this  laboratory  ;  the  next  portion  of  the  subject  to  be  studied  being 
the  action  of  heat,  superheated  steam,  and  sodium  on  these  bodies. 


*  Henry,  Ber.  D.  Cli.  G.,  1869,  p.  637. 
X  Barbaglia,  Ber.  D.  Ch.  G  ,  1872,  p.  687. 


228  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 


XIX. 

CONTRIBUTION   TOWARDS   THE    HISTORY   OF   THE 
FLUORIDES   OF   MANGANESE. 

By  W.  H.  Melville. 

Presented  by  the  Corresponding  Secretary,  June  14th,  1876. 

The  investigation  described  in  this  jiaper  was  undertaken  with  a 
view  to  the  re-examination  of  the  fluorides  of  manganese.  Many  in- 
vestigations have  been  made  upon  this  subject  during  this  century,  and 
necessarily  a  large  amount  of  fact  has  been  accumulated. 

*  Berzelius  noticed  that,  on  the  evaporation  of  a  solution  of  man- 
ganous  carbonate  in  hydrofluoric  acid,  ill-defined  crystals  were  obtained, 
which  dissolved  in  water  only  when  containing  an  excess  of  acid.  This 
amethyst-colored  substance  he  called  the  proto-fluoride  of  manganese. 
He  furthermore  prepared  a  fluoride  of  manganese  and  potassium  by 
double  decomposition  of  a  solution  of  manganous  sulphate  and  fluoride 
of  potassium.  Similarly  the  soda  salt  was  precipitated.  These  double 
fluorides  were  described  as  white  precipitates,  insoluble  in  water,  and 
soluble  in  acids. 

t  When  hydrated  sesquioxide  of  manganese  is  dissolved  in  hydro- 
fluoric acid  and  the  solution  left  to  evaporate  spontaneously,  dark 
brown  prisms  crystallize  out,  which  dissolve  completely  in  small  quan- 
tities, but  are  decomposed  by  excess  of  water.  When  this  decom- 
position ensue*,  a  basic  salt  is  deposited,  while  an  acid  salt  remains  in 
solution.  A  part  of  the  former  is  redissolved  on  cooling,  if  free  acid 
is  present.  Ammonia  precipitates  pure  hydrated  manganic  oxide. 
(Berzelius.) 

t  A  fluoride  of  manganese  has  been  prepared,  in  which  the  Mu  and 
F  exist  in  the  ratio  1  :  7  respectively.  When  a  mixture  of  two  parts 
potassic  manganate  or  permanganate  and  one  part  fluor-spar  is  digested 

*  Gmelin,  vol.  iv.  Manganese. 

t  Ibid. 

J  WGhler,  Fogg.  9,  619;  Dumas,  Ann.  Chim.  Phys.,  3G,  82. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  229 

with  sulphuric  acid  in  a  platinum  retort,  a  yellow  vapor,  purple  in 
moist  air,  is  evolved.  This  fluoride  having  the  above  ratio  cor- 
rodes glass,  and  in  so  doing  is  resolved  into  (SiFJ  silicic  fluoride  and 
(H^MnoOg)  permanganic  acid.  Chloride  of  calcium  exposed  to  the 
yellow  vapor  evolves  chlorine.  The  compound  is  absorbed  by  water, 
forming  a  purple  solution,  which  contains  hydrofluoric  and  perman- 
ganic acids.  When  the  solution  is  evaporated  in  air,  it  evolves  oxygen 
gas  and  hydrofluoric  acid  vapor,  and  leaves  a  brown  residue  from  which 
water  dissolves  manganous  fluoride,  leaving  a  black  insoluble  basic  salt. 
The  solution  dissolves  copper,  mercury,  and  silver,  with  formation  of 
the  corresponding  fluorides. 

*  The  tetrafluoride  of  manganese,  MnF_,,  is  produced  in  solution : 
(1)  when  hydrofluoric  acid  is  allowed  to  act  on  an  ethereal  solution  of 
MnCl^ ;  (2)  when  the  acid  acts  on  MuOj,  in  which  case  all  the  acid 
employed  cannot  be  neutralized.  The  solution  decolorizes  indigo,  and 
produces  colors  with  anilin  and  naphthylamine ;  but  may  be  preserved 
in  the  presence  of  glucose  and  gum-arabic.  The  substance  dissolves 
in  alcohol ;  decomposes  in  presence  of  much  water,  especially  when  it 
is  alkaline,  peroxide  of  manganese  being  formed.  When  potassic  flu- 
oride is  added  to  the  preceding  solution,  a  rose  precipitate  is  formed, 
which  when  dried  at  100°C  yields  the  formula  MuF^2KF.  Ammonic 
fluoride  yields  a  compound  of  analogous  composition.  The  alkaline 
fluorides  appear  to  give  stability  to  the  tetrafluoride.  The  potash  salt 
melts,  and  after  lengthened  fusion  the  salt  MnF^.iKF  is  obtained. 
The  solution  of  tetrafluoride  precipitates  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
plumbic  acetate.  None  of  these  compounds  are  crystalline.  If  to  a 
boiling  solution  of  potassic  fluoride  or  ammonic  fluoride  perchloride 
of  manganese  is  gradually  added,  a  red  powder  comes  down,  the  consti- 
tution of  which  is  represented  by  the  formula  MnOF,.  This  oxy- 
fluoride  and  the  preceding  tetrafluoride  are  soluble  in  anhydrous  ether. 
Under  the  same  conditions  as  above  the  sesquifluoride  of  manganese 
acts  in  a  similar  manner,  the  properties  of  the  compounds  thus  formed 
being  generally  the  same.  With  K^Mn^O^  and  hydrofluoric  acid,  either 
one  or  other  of  the  following  bodies  is  obtained:  MnF^.  2KF ;  Mn^ 
F,0H-2KF. 

t  When  Mn02  is  treated  with  hydrofluoric  acid,  brown  crystals  are 
sometimes  deposited,  especially  when  the  mixture  has  been  digested 
with  the  aid  of  heat.     The  crystals  when  dried  on  paper  furnish  the 

*  Bull.  Chim.  Soc.  viii.  4.8,  NLkles. 
t  Ibid. 


230  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

formula  MngFg.  lOH^O.  The  substance  is  soluble  in  a  small  quantity 
of  water,  but  decomposed  by  an  excess  into  the  brown  oxide  of  man- 
ganese. Its  solution  forms  a  red  precipitate  with  potassic  fluoride. 
Dissolves  silver,  and  is  decolorized  in  passing  to  the  state  of  proto- 
fluoride. 

*  A  fluosilicate  of  Mn  has  been  artificially  prepared,  represented  by 
MnSiFg.  7H^0.  Crystallizes  in  long  six-sided  prisms,  and  rhombo- 
hedrons.  Color  very  light  red.  When  heated,  it  first  gives  off  seven 
molecules  of  water,  then  gaseous  SiF^,  leaving  MnFg  of  the  same  form 
as  the  original  crystals.     Easily  soluble  in  water. 

Manganous  Fluoride,  MnF\ —  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
mangauous  oxide  free  from  higher  oxides,  it  was  found  more  practi- 
cable to  prepare  this  fluoride  by  dissolving  the  white  manganous  car- 
bonate in  hydrofluoric  acid.  The  resulting  liquid  was  then  evaporated 
on  the  water  bath  to  dryness.  The  fluoride  rendered  anhydrous  by 
drying  at  lOO^C.  gave  by  analysis  : — • 

Found.  At.  Ratio.  Theory. 

Mn  58.G8  LOG  59.14 

F3  40..57  2.13  40.86 


99.25  100.00 

Manganese  and  fluorine  were  separated  by  decomposition  with  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  potassic  hydrate,  the  hydrate  of  Mn  thus  formed 
converted  into  pyrophosphate,  and  the  fluorine  in  the  filtrate  precipi- 
tated as  calcic  fluoride. 

Properties.  —  Color  white,  shading  faintly  into  pink.  Structure  crys- 
talline, but  indistinct.  Insoluble,  or  sparingly  soluble,  in  water  and 
alcohol.  Decomposed  by  the  fixed  alkalis  and  their  carbonates.  Dis- 
solves in  mineral  acids,  but  in  no  case  evolves  hydrofluoric  acid  vajjor  ex- 
cept when  treated  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  (It  may  be  well  to 
notice  once  for  all  that  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  invariably  decom- 
poses fluorides  with  evolution  of  hydrofluoric  acid.)  Dissolves  in  water 
containing  free  HF.  Not  decomjjosed  by  water,  or  by  exposure  to 
air.     At  red  heat  fuses  to  a  dark  brown  mass  with  loss  of  fluorine. 

Manganous  Fluoride  and  Hydrofluoric  Acid,  MnF.^.  2)HF.  ^dH.^0. 
—  When  the  anhydrous  MnFg  is  dissolved  in  aqueous  hydrofluoric 
acid,  and  the  solution  evaporated  in  vacuo  over  snlphuric  acid,  crystals 
containing  free  hydrofluoric  acid  are  deposited.   Also  prepared  directly 

*  Gmelin,  vol.  iv.  Mn.  Berzelius. 


OF   ARTS   AKD    SCIENCES.  231 

from   manganons   carbonate.      The   crystals    freed   from   hygroscopic 
moisture  gave  the  following  numbers :  — 


Found. 

At.  Ratio. 

Theory. 

Mn 

17.90 

.32 

17.46 

F5 

29.16 

1.54 

30.16 

H3 

.96  1 

QH^O 

51.42  i 

52-38 


100.00 

Tlie  salt  was  dissolved  in  water,  the  manganese  precipitated  with  a 
solution  of  sodic  carbonate,  and,  after  filtration,  fluorine  was  thrown 
down  by  calcic  chloride. 

Properties.  —  Colorless,  sometimes  light  pink.  Crystals  are  trans- 
parent long  prisms  of  the  trimetric  system.  Soluble  in  water,  giving 
acid  reaction.  Soluble  in  acids.  Effloresces  in  air ;  when  heated  at 
lOO'^C,  changes  into  the  simple  MnFg. 

Double  Fluoride  of  Manganous  Oxide  and  Potassium,  MnF^.  KF. 
—  On  the  addition  of  an  excess  of  potassic  fluoride  to  a  solution  of 
manganous  chloride,  an  immediate  separation  of  an  insoluble  compound 
results.  A  double  decomposition  ensues,  which  is  expressed  by  the 
reaction  :  — 

MnCl2  +  3KF  =  MnF2.  KF  +  2KC1. 

The  precipitate  collected  on  a  filter  is  washed  with  water,  then  with 
alcohol,  and  subsequently  with  ether.  Alcohol  and  ether  are  employed 
to  remove  the  last  traces  of  water, 
same  result :  — 

Found. 

Mn  36-23 

K  26-06 

Fg  37-71 


Heating 

at 

100°  produces  the 

At.  Ratio. 

Theory. 

-66 

36-40 

•66 

25-87 

1-98 

37-73 

100-00  100-00 

The  method  used  in  analysis  was  based  upon  the  conversion  of  the 
double  fluoride  into  a  mixture  of  sulphates  of  manganese  and  potas- 
sium. The  weight  of  the  sulphates  being  known,  as  also  that  of  the 
manganese  therein  contained,  the  percentages  of  the  metals  were  easily 
calculated,  while  the  fluorine  was  inferred  by  difl^erence. 

Properties.  —  Flesh  colored.  Crystalline.  Insoluble  in  water  and 
alcohol.  Not  decomposed  in  air  and  water.  Dissolves  in  acids.  Fuses 
at  red  heat. 


232  PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

This  fluoride  was  first  prepared  by  Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard,  and 
afterwards  described  by  Berzelius  as  a  compound  of  manganese  and 
potassium ;  but  the  latter  established  no  ratio  between  the  constit- 
uents. 

An  analysis  of  the  soda  salt  which  is  precipitated  under  the  same 
conditions  will  by  analogy  furnish  the  formula  MuFg.  NaF. 

Another  double  fluoride  of  manganese  and  potassium  has  been  ob- 
tained by  adding  potassic  fluoride  to  a  solution  of  MnF.,.  3HF.  A 
white  crystalline  precipitate  is  immediately  thrown  down,  which  anal- 
ysis shows  to  contain  Mn  and  K  in  the  ratio  1  :  4  respectively.  This 
double  fluoride  has  identical  properties  with  the  preceding. 

Tetrajiuoride  of  Manganese,  3LiF^.  AK^O. —  (1)  A  black  oxide  of 
manganese  was  prepared  by  exposing  manganous  carbonate  to  a  dull 
red   heat   for   a  considerable   time.      This   oxide  was  proved  to  be 


Mnp., :  - 

— 

Found. 

At.  Ratio. 

Theory. 

Mn^ 

69.62 

1.26 

69.60 

O3 

30.38 

1.89 

30.40 

100.00  100.00 

This  oxide  dissolves  readily  in  hydrofluoric  acid  with  the  aid  ot 
heat,  and  the  deep  red  solution,  when  evaporated  to  the  crystallizing 
point,  deposits  crystals  on  cooling.  A  larger  crop  of  crystals  is  ob- 
tained by  carrying  the  solution  to  dryness  in  vacuo.  (2)  Pure  per- 
oxide of  manganese  is  dissolved  in  hydrofluoric  acid  under  j^ressure 
with  the  aid  of  heat.  On  evaporating  the  solution  red  crystals  are 
obtained. 

In  the  following  analysis,  Mn  was  estimated,  and  the  combined 
weight  of  fluorine  and  water  inferred  from  the  loss.  The  water  was 
then  determined  in  a  second  portion  of  the  material  by  ignition  with 
plumbic  oxide.     The  fluorine  was  thus  indirectly  ascertained:  — 


Found. 

At.  Ratio- 

Theory. 

Mn 

27.22 

.49 

27-10 

F4 

36.82 

1.94 

37-43 

4H,0 

35.96 

1.99 

35-47 

100-00  100-00 

Properties.  —  Color,  red  by  reflected,  purjile  by  transmitted,  light. 
Crystallizes  in  the  monoclinic  system  in  rather  long,  narrow  prisms. 
These  prisms  consist  in  basal  planes  at  the  end  of  the  ortho  and  klino 


OP   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  233 

diagonals,  and  in  four  jilanes  constituting  a  vertical  dome ;  they  ter- 
minate at  one  end  in  two  planes  which  form  one-half  of  a  klino  dome. 
Partially  decomposed  by  large  quantities  of  water  and  alcohol ;  com- 
pletely by  a  solution  of  a  fixed  alkali  into  the  brown  hydrate  of  man- 
ganese and  fluoride  of  the  alkali.  Soluble  in  acids ;  partially  soluble 
in  anhydrous  ether.  Insoluble  in  benzol  and  toluol.  When  the  solu- 
tion  of  this  fluoride  before  crystallization  is  boiled,  a  dark  brown 
substance  is  deposited,  which  evolves  HF  vapor  with  suliihuric  acid. 
The  crystals  retain  their  crystalline  form,  but  turn  dark  brown  on 
exposure  to  air  or  the  temperature  of  100°C.  This  brown  sub- 
stance is  probably  an  oxyfluoride,  in  which  two  or  a  multiple  of  two 
atoms  of  fluoride  in  the  original  fluoride  are  replaced  respectively  by 
one  or  more  atoms  of  oxygen. 

I  can  account  for  the  formation  of  MnF^  instead  of  Mn^Fy  from  the 
sesquioxide  in  no  way  except  by  assuming  either  that  during  the  pro- 
cess of  evaporation  the  sesquifluoride  breaks  up  into  tetrafluoride,  or 
that  the  existence  of  a  sesquifluoride  is  impossible. 

Double  Fluoride  of  Peroxide  of  Manganese  and  Ijptassium,  3fnF^.  2KF. 
—  To  a  moderately  concentrated  solution  of  MnF^,  potassic  fluoride  dis- 
solved in  water  is  added  in  excess.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  solu- 
tion of  potassic  fluoride  is  concentrated,  otherwise  the  tetrafluoride 
of  manganese  will  be  decomposed.  A  rose-colored  precipitate  imme- 
diately separates,  which  when  dried  at  100°C.  presents  the  following 
composition :  — 


Found. 

At.  Ratio. 

Theory. 

Mn 

22.00 

.40 

22.25 

K, 

31.82 

.81 

31.65 

Fe 

46.18 

2.43 

46.12 

100.00  100.02 

The  analysis  was  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  for- 
mer double  fluorides. 

Properties.  —  Rose  colored.  Under  the  microscope  exhibits  traces 
of  crystalline  structure ;  form  indistinct.  Decomposed  by  water,  but 
not  so  readily  as  the  tetrafluoride.  Soluble  in  acids.  Stable  in  air. 
Fuses  to  a  blue  mass,  which  on  cooling  resumes  its  original  color. 

A  fluoride  of  manganese  was  prepared,  in  which  the  ratio  between 
manganese  and  fluorine  was  found  to  be  1  :  8  respectively.  This  fluo- 
ride, however,  requires  further  study  ;  and  it  is  hoped  that,  if  the  above 
ratio  shall  be  proved  beyond  question  to  exist,  the  exact  relation  and 
disposition  of  the  atoms  will  be  determined. 


234  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Finely  pulverized  K„MnoOg  was  dissolved  in  aqueous  hydrofluoric 
acid,  and  the  solution  subjected  under  pressure  to  the  temperature  of 
100°C  two  or  three  hours.  The  red  solution  was  then  evaporated  in 
vacuo.  Claret-red  prisms  belonging  to  the  trimetric  system  were 
deposited,  in  which  the  ratio  of  the  constituents  —  Mn,  K,  and  F  — 
was  not  determined.  Consequently  this  substance  also  remains  for 
future  investigation. 


OF    ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  235 


XX. 

ON   SOME  ALG^  NEW  TO  THE  UNITED   STATES. 

By  W.  G.  Farlow. 

Presented  May  9,  1877. 

The  present  paper  is  a  supplement  to  one  presented  to  the  Academy, 
March  9,  1875  ;  and  our  object  is  to  com[)lete,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
list  of  marine  algiB  found  in  the  United  States.  We  include  a  number 
of  species  which  were  referred  to  in  a  paper  in  the  "  Report  of  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission"  for  1875,  which  was  intended  to 
serve  as  a  guide  to  the  collection  of  algse  in  the  Government  Building 
at  the  Centennial  Exhibition.  Some  species  of  New  England,  which 
are  soon  to  be  described  at  length  in  another  publication,  are  here 
mentioned  only  by  name. 

Of  the  species  added  to  our  marine  flora,  a  number  were  collected  at 
Key  West  and  the  Tortugas  by  Mr.  F.  W.  Hooper,  in  the  winter  of 
1876.  New  Californian  species  have  been  received  from  Dr.  Anderson, 
of  Santa  Cruz;  Mr.  Cleveland;  Mr.  Hemphill,  of  San  Diego;  and 
Miss  Lennebacker,  of  Santa  Barbara.  Several  interesting  forms  were 
collected  by  Dr.  Edward  Palmer  at  the  island  of  Guadeloupe  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  San  Diego,  and  Prof.  D.  C.  Eaton,  of  New  Haven,  has 
kindly  communicated  species  from  both  east  and  west  coasts. 

FLORIDE^. 

Dasya  subsecunda  Suhr.  K.tz.  Tab.  Phyc,  V.  XIV.,  PI.  78  a.  b. 
D.  CalUthamnion  Harv.  Farlow,  Proc.  Am.  Acad.,  1875,  San  Diego, 
Cleveland  ;  Santa  Barbara,  Dr.  Dimmock.  This  minute  species,  which 
is  not  uncommon  in  Southern  California,  has  the  habit  of  C.  Wurde- 
manni  Bail.,  but  the  ramuli  are  robust  and  more  or  less  secund,  while 
in  C.  Wvrdemanni  they  are  attenuated  and  dichotomous,  bi-anching  at 
wide  angles.  We  formerly  erroneously  referred  this  species  to  D.  Cal- 
Uthamnion Harv.,  being  led  to  that  conclusion  by  tlie  fact  that  a  cross- 
section  of  the  stem  showed  four  cells  around  a  central  cell,  as  was  also 
the  case  with  an  authentic  specimen  of  D.  CalUthamnion  Harv.     Far- 


2C6  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

ther  study  shows,  however,  that  the  number  of  cells  seen  in  cross- 
section  varies  from  four  to  eight ;  and  it  may  be  remarked  that,  in 
most  of  the  species  belonging  to  the  subgenus  Stlchocarpus,  the  number 
of  cells  is  too  inconstant  to  constitute  a  specific  character. 

Dasya  trichoclados  3IerL  var.  Oerstedi,  J.  Ag.  =  Dasya  lopho- 
clados  Mont.,  Ner.  Am.  Bor.  II.  p.  65. 

T^NiOMA  Clevelandii,  n.  sp.  fronde  capillacea  erecto-cpespitosa 
ad  4  pollicares  ;  ramis  flexuosis  irregulariter  pluries  pinnatis,  ramulis 
ad  basem  contractis,  ultimis  subulatis  incurvatis ;  articulis  subcom- 
pressis,  4  siphouiis  fere  ecorticatis,  2  siphoniis  lateralibus  marginatis  ; 
stichidiis  nunierosis  sparsis  vittfeformibus  tetrasporas  oppositas  foven- 
tibus  in  apicem  subacutum  abeuntibus.  —  San  Diego,  Cal.,  INIr.  D.  Cleve- 
land. —  But  two  species  of  this  genus  are  as  yet  known,  T.  perpusillum 
Ag.,  found  by  Liebmann  on  the  west  coast  of  Central  America,  and  T. 
macrourum  Thur.,  found  by  Schousboe  at  Tangier.  We  should  naturally 
expect  the  first-named  species  to  occur  at  San  Diego ;  but,  as  it  is  de- 
scribed by  Agardh  as  closely  resembling  CalUthamnion  Rothii  in  habit 
and  mode  of  growth  and  having  subfesciculate  stichidia,  it  would  hardly 
seem  as  though  the  plant  collected  by  Mr.  Cleveland,  which  has  scat- 
tered stichidia,  is  four  inches  high,  and  has  a  striking  resemblance  to 
Griffithsia  tenuis  Harv.,  could  belong  to  the  same  species.  The 
specimen  sent  by  Mr.  Cleveland  is  unfortunately  broken  off  near  the 
base ;  but,  judging  from  what  was  sent,  there  seems  to  be  no  creeping 
primary  filament.  From  T.  macrourum  the  present  species  differs  in 
having  the  stichidial  branches  terminate  in  a  more  or  less  acute  apex 
instead  of  two  hairs.  When  seen  in  front  view,  the  frond  shows  a 
series  of  articulations,  each  of  which  is  composed  of  three  subequal 
cells  bordered  on  both  sides  by  a  wider  cell.  A  cross-section  is  rather 
narrowly  elliptic,  and  shows  four  subequal  cells  arranged  round  a 
central  cell,  as  in  many  species  of  Polysiphonia  ;  but  each  of  the  cells 
lying  in  the  longer  axis  of  the  ellipse  has  a  cell  in  contact  with  it  on 
the  outer  side  and  of  about  the  same  size  as  itself,  so  that  the  short 
axis  of  the  ellipse  is  composed  of  two,  and  the  long  axis  of  four,  cells 
besides  the  central  cell.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  frond,  the  angles 
between  the  primary  cells  are  filled  with  a  small  but  irregular  number 
of  secondary  cells. 

Polysiphonia  senticulosa  Harv.  This  species,  described  in  the 
Jour.  Proc.  Linn.  Soc,  Vol.  VI.  No.  24,  p.  169,  is  apparently  common 
along  the  whole  Californian  coast.  It  admits  of  question  whether  the 
species  should  not  be  considered  a  variety  of  Pol.  urceolata. 

Polysiphonia  secunda  Ag.     Under  this  species  is  included  by 


OF   AETS   AND   SCIENCES.  237 

Agardh  PoIi/sipJwnia  pecten-  Veneris,  var.  B.  Harv,,  of  the  Ner. 
Am.  Bor.  II.,  p.  4G.  The  question  then  arises,  "VVliat  is  the  plant  de- 
scribed in  the  Ner.  Am.  Bor.  11.,  p.  35,  as  having  but  four  siphons,  and 
referred  to  Pohjsiphonia  secunda  IMont.,  said  by  Montagne  himself, 
Syll.  Crypt,  p.  424,  to  be  the  same  as  P.  seciindn  Ag. 

PoLYSiPHONiA  PENXATA  Ag.  To  this  species  was  doubtfully  re- 
ferred a  small  Polysiphonia  from  San  Diego,  which  seemed  not  uncom- 
mon on  Gelidium  cartilagineum  and  other  large  Floridece.  The 
specimens  should  have  more  properly  been  referred  to  Polysiphonia 
verticillata  Harv.  A  single  specimen  received  from  Mrs.  T.  M.  Allen, 
collected  at  Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  does  not  seem  to  belong  either  to 
P.  verticillata  or  to  P.  dictyurus,  if  the  figure  in  the  Tab.  Phyc.  is  to 
be  trusted,  and  may  belong  to  Pohjsiphonia  pennata. 

Polysiphonia  thyrsigera  J.  Ag.  Key  West,  Mr.  F.  W.  Hooper  ; 
Nassau,  Miss  Minns. 

Polysiphonia  dictyurus  J.  Ag.  San  Diego,  Cal.,  Mr.  D.  Cleve- 
land. A  single  specimen,  which  we  supposed  to  be  new  and  to  which 
we  gave  the  manuscript  name  of  P.  Clevelandii,  seems  to  be  a  variety 
of  P.  dictyurns,  in  which  the  ramuli  are  very  regularly  pinnate,  and 
the  ultimate  ramuli  all  beautifully  recurved.  The  number  of  cells  in 
cross-sections  of  the  larger  branches  is  ten. 

Acanthophora  muscoides  Ag.  The  true  A.  Delilei  has  never 
been  found  in  this  country.  The  species  given  by  Harvey  with  that 
name,  in  the  Ner.  Am.  Bor.,  is  Acanthophora  muscoides,  Ag.  and 
the  name  A.  Delilei  should  have  been  suppressed  in  the  Proc.  Am. 
Acad.,  1875. 

Ricardia  Montagnei  Derbes.  San  Diego,  Cal.,  Mr.  Cleveland ; 
Santa  Barbara,  Miss  Lennebacker.  This  curious  little  plant  is  rarely 
over  quarter  of  an  inch  liigh,  and  grows  in  small  clusters  on  the  con- 
cave tips  of  species  of  Laurencia.  The  Californian  specimens  on 
L.  virgata  resemble,  in  all  I'espects,  those  from  the  Mediterranean, 
except  that  tliey  are  rather  more  luxuriant. 

Laurencia  Brongniartii  J.  Ag.  Key  West,  Mr.  F.  W.  Hooper. 
One  of  the  more  beautiful  species  of  the  genus,  and  which  bears  a 
striking  resemblance  to  Amansia  multijida. 

Laurencia  tuberculosa  J.  Ag.  Prof.  Agardh  regards  Lauren- 
cia gemmifera  Harv.,  as  a  variety  of  this  species. 

Laurencia  intricata  Lam.  Key  West,  Mr.  F.  W.  Hooper.  A 
species  forming  dense  cushions,  and  resembling  closely  the  figure  in 
Kiitz.  Tab.  Phyc,  Vol.  XV.,  tab.  61,  was  collected  by  Mr.  Hooper. 

Laurencia  spectabilis,  Post.  &  Rupr.    Prof.  Agardh  is  inclined 


23,8  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

to  keep  this  sjoecies  distinct  fi-om  L.  pinnatijlda,  with  which  it  was 
united  by  Harvey. 

Erythrocystis  Grevillei  J,  Ag.  Epicr.  =  Lomentaria'?  saccata 
J.  Ag.     Sp.  p.  738. 

Delesseria  Woodii  J.  Ag.  Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  Miss  Lenne- 
backer. 

NiTOPHYLLUM  viOLACEUM,  J.  Ag.  Epicr.  This  is  the  species  de- 
scribed in  the  Ner.  Am.  Bor.  and  Proc.  Am.  Acad.,  1875,  as  Nitcphyl- 
lum  laceratum  Grev. 

NiTOPHYLLDM  LATissiMUM  Harv.  Under  this  species  should  be 
included  Nit.  areolatum  Eaton  mscr.  of  the  Rep.  U.  S.  Fish  Comm., 
1875. 

NiTOPHYLLUM  MULTiLOBUJi  J.  Ag.  Epicr.  Golden  Gate,  Cal., 
Berggren.  We  have  never  seen  this  species,  which,  according  to  Prof. 
Agardh,  differs  from  all  other  species  in  having  large  transverse  sori. 

NiTOPHYLLUM  SPECTABiLE  Eaton.     California. 

EuCHEUMA  ACANTHOCLADUM  J.  Ag.  Epicr.  ^=  Chry^ymenia  acan- 
thocJada  Harv. 

Rhabdonia  ramosissima  J.  Ag.  Epicr.  ==  Chrysymenia  ramosis- 
sima  Harv.,  Ner.  Am.  Bor. 

The  species  of  CoralUnece  found  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States 
are  in  a  state  of  great  confusion,  and  it  will  probably  be  some  time 
before  they  are  clearly  made  out.  One  great  difficulty  in  the  way  is 
the  uncertain  characters  by  which  the  genera  are  at  present  constituted. 
In  this  connection,  we  only  wish  to  call  attention  to  the  forms  found 
on  our  coast,  giving  the  names  under  which  they  are  commonly  de- 
scribed, without  meaning  to  indorse  the  specific  value  assigned  by  dif- 
ferent writers.  We  are  greatly  indebted  to  Dr.  Ed.  Bornet  for  notes 
and  suggestions  with  regard  to  our  species,  especially  the  Gorallineae 
and  Sqnumarice. 

CoRALLiNA  PiSTiLLAETS  Mont.  A  small  Coralline,  nearly  related 
to  this  species,  perhaps  identical  with  it,  has  been  found  at  Santa  Cruz, 
Cal.,  by  Dr.  Anderson. 

Amphiroa  Orbigniana  Harv.  The  common  Amphiroa  from 
California,  which  is  usually  distributed  as  Amphiroa  Californica, 
D.cue.,  does  not,  according  to  Dr.  Bornet,  conform  to  the  type  of 
that  species,  but  more  properly  belongs  to  Ainpk.  Orbigniana.  Harv. 
The  species  is  incorrectly  referred  in  Proe.  Am.  Acad.,  1875,  p.  364, 
to  Arthrocardia  frondescens,  Aresch.,  to  wliich  some  of  the  broader 
forms  have  a  not  very  remote  resemblance. 


OF   ARTS    AND   SCIENCES.  239 

Amphiroa  vertebralis  D.cne.  This  form,  collected  in  Oregon 
by  Rev.  E.  Hull,  in  1871,  resembles  the  species  described  by  Postels 
and  Ruprecht  as  Amph.  tuberculosa,  Illust.  Alg.,  p.  20,  T.  XL.  fig.  100, 
and  it  may  be  asked  whether  it  is  not  really  the  same  species. 

Amphiroa  Tribclus  Lam.  A  West-Indian  species  also  found  at 
Key  West  by  Mr.  F.  W.  Hooper. 

Amphiroa  fragilissima  Lam.  In  the  Ner.  Am.  Bor.,  Harvey 
mentions  both  Amph.  fragilissima  Lam.,  and  Amph.  dehilis  K.tg.,  as 
found  at  Key  AVest.  The  Amph.  debilis  of  Kiitzing  is,  however,  only 
a  synonyme  for  Amph.  fragilissima  Lam.,  while  the  plant  refen-ed  to 
by  Harvey  is  a  much  larger  species,  possibly  Amph.  cuspidata  Lam. 

LiTHOTHKix  AsPERGiLLUM.  J.  E.  Gray.  San  Diego,  Cal.,  Mr. 
Cleveland  ;  Santa  Barbara,  Miss  Lennebacker  ;  Santa  Cruz,  Dr.  Ander- 
son, This  species  seems  to  be  tolerably  common  along  the  California 
coast.  It  was  quoted  in  the  Rep.  U.  S.  Fish  Com.,  1875,  under  the 
name  of  Amphiroa  nodulosa  K.tg.  Judging  from  the  figure  in  the 
Jour.  Bot.,  1867,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  is  the  species  there 
described  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  understand  the  grounds  for  separating 
the  genus  Lithothrix  from  Amphiroa. 

Melobesia  amplexifroxs  Harv.  A  species  which  appears  com- 
mon on  Zostera,  Gelidium  cartilagineum,  and  other  algte  from  Santa 
Cruz,  Cal.,  southward.  The  conceptacles  are  immersed  so  that  the 
frond  appears  punctate. 

Melobesia  Lexormandi  Aresch.  San  Diego,  Cal.,  Mr.  D,  Cleve- 
land. A  Melobesia  occurs  at  Wood's  Hole,  Mass.,  which  is  probably 
also  to  be  referred  to  this  species. 

Melobesia  Lejolisii  Rosanoff.  Common  on  Zostera  at  Nahant, 
Mass. 

LiTHOTHAMXiox  POLYMORPHUM  Aresch.  Very  common  from 
Boston  northward,  forming  purple  crusts  on  the  rocks  in  tide  pools. 
Also  found  at  San  Diego,  Cal.  ^ 

LiTHOTH AMNION  FASCICUL  ATC.M  Aresch.  Dredged  in  several  places 
near  Eastport,  Me. 

Petr'>cklis  cruenta  Ag.  Common  on  rocks  from  Nahant,  Mass., 
northward  ;  also  at  Santa  Cruz,  Cal.  It  has,  as  yet,  been  found  only 
with  tetraspores. 

Peyssonnklia  rubra  (Grev.)  J.  Ag.  Tlie  species  referred  to  in 
the  Rep.  U.  S.  Fish  Comin  ,  1875,  under  the  name  of  P.  atro-purpurea 
Crn.,  belongs  more  properly  to  P.  rubra. 

Peyssonnelia  Dl'byi  Crn.  San  Diego,  Cal.,  Mr.  Cleveland. 
Although   P.  rubra  is  common  at   Key  West,  it  is  douDtful  whether 


240  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

P.  Duhji  occurs  there.  "We  have  also  found  sterile  specimens  of  a 
Peyssonnelia  at  Eastport,  Me.,  which  is  pi'obal}ly  referable  to  P.  Duhyi. 
P.  imbricata,  K.tg.,  in  the  absence  of  fruit,  will  remain  a  doubtful 
species. 

Cruoria  purpurea,  Crn.     San  Diego,  Cal.,  Mr.  Cleveland. 

Cruoriella  armorica,  Crn.     San  Diego,  Cal.,  Mr.  Cleveland. 

Galaxaura  (Microthoe)  lapidescens  Lam.  Key  West,  Mr. 
F.  W.  Hooper. 

Galaxaura  rugosa,  Kiitz.     Key  West,  Mr.  F.  TV.  Hooper. 

Liagora  farionicolor,  and  L.  Cayohuesonica  Melville,  Jour,  of 
Bot.,  Sept.,  1875,  do  not  seem  to  be  admitted  as  species  by  Agardh 
in  his    Epicrisis. 

Nemalion?  Andersgnii,  n.  sp.  frondibus  congregatis  lubrico-car- 
tilagineis  simplicibus  vel  sparse  furcatis  ;  raniis  primura  subcompressis 
solidis  demum  cavis  cylindraceis  ad  6-8  pollicares  altitudine,  plerumque 
subjequalil)us  ramulis  dense  cinctis ;  ramulis  simplicibus  vel  furcatis  ; 
antherozoideis  ad  cellulas  externas  fasciculatis  ;  cystocarpiis  ?  —  Santa 
Cruz,  Cal.,  Dr.  C.  L.  Anderson.  —  This  species,  first  found  by  Dr.  An- 
derson, is  variable  in  appearance.  AYhen  young,  the  fronds  are  solid, 
and  consist  of  an  undivided  axis,  from  which  ai'e  given  off  short  lateral 
branches  in  all  directions.  When  older,  the  main  axis  forks  once  or 
twice,  as  do  also  the  ramuli ;  and,  still  later,  the  main  axis  becomes 
swollen  and  hollow,  and  not  unfrequently  perforated.  The  substance 
is  always  lubricous  and  cartilaginous,  and  the  color  is  a  blackish-purjile. 
The  frond  is  composed  of  closely  interwoven  longitudinal  filaments, 
from  which  are  given  off  at  right  angles  dichotomous  moniliform  fila- 
ments. We  liave  never  found  the  cj^stocarps  or  tetraspores  of  this 
species,  and  consequently  there  must  remain  some  doubt  with  regard  to 
the  genus.  Antherozoids  are  abundant,  and  nearly  cover  the  surface 
of  some  specimens.  As  we  have  not  been  able  to  find  traces  of  cysto- 
carps,  it  is  probable  that  the  present  species  is  dioecious,  and,  in  ihat 
respect,  different  fi-om  other  sjiecies  of  Nemalion.  In  aspect  it  not 
unfrequently  resembles  a  coarse  Ghordaria,  and  in  its  later  stages  bears 
a  certain  resemblance  to  some  forms  of  Halosaccion  rameMaceum.  As 
ordinarily  seen,  it  is  easily  recognized  by  the  rather  thick  main  axis, 
closely  beset  with  short  ramuli  of  nearly  equal  length.  The  ramuli  are 
often  distorted  by  the  parasite  Strehlonema  fasciculatnm  Thuret.  Np- 
malion  virens,  Ag..  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  Mexico,  might  be  expected 
to  occur  in  California.  The  description  of  that  species,  however,  does 
not  at  all  apply  to  the  plant  found  by  Dr.  Anderson. 

Plocamium  violaceum,  n.  sp.  froude  anguste  liiieari  ad  5-6  pol- 


OF   ARTS    AND   SCIENCES.  241 

Hcares  altitudine  irregiilariter  pinnata  ;  ramis  ecostatis  prrecipiie  ad 
apices  Hexuosis  ;  piniiis  alterne  2-4,  plerumque  3,  pinna  inforiori  subuli- 
formi  sxpe  recurvata  pinnas  superiores  decomposito-pinnatas  superante; 
spluerosporis  biseriatim  ad  2-3  furcatos  apices  ordinatis.  Color  pur- 
pureus.  —  Santa  Cruz,  Dr.  C.  L.  Anderson ;  San  Diego,  Mr.  D. 
Cleveland.  —  Tlie  present  species  is  said  by  Dr.  Anderson  to 
inhabit  rather  deep  water.  It  resembles  Plocamium  coccineum  in 
having  the  pinna;  arranged  alternately  in  thi-ees  and  fours,  but  differs 
in  having  the  lower  pinna  larger  than  the  others  and  slightly  recurved. 
In  the  length  of  the  lower  pinna,  the  species  approaches  P.  cornutum 
which,  however,  does  not  have  pinnae  arranged  in  threes  or  fours.  In 
the  flexuous  character  of  the  branches,  the  species  resembles  PI.  coc- 
cineum var.jlexuosum  Harv.,  which  is  considered  by  Agardh  a  variety 
of  PL  lepophyllum  Kiitz.  We  have  compared  the  present  species 
with  specimens  of  PI.  coccineum  var.  Jlexuosum,  named  by  Harvey, 
and  find  it  to  differ  in  color  and  substance  and  in  the  large  lower  pinna. 
The  plant  adheres  slightly  to  paper,  and  is  of  a  dark  purple  color,  un- 
usual in  species  of  the  genus. 

CoRDTLECLADiA  CONFERTA  (Schousb.)  Mont.  San  Diego,  Cal., 
Mr.  Cleveland ;  Santa  Barbara,  Miss  Lennebacker.  jVot  an  uncom- 
mon species  of  Southern  California,  but  sometimes  distributed  as  a 
species  of  Gracilaria. 

Sarcophyllis  Californica  J.  Ag.  In  his  Epicrisis,  Prof.  Agardh 
separates  this  species  from  aS^.  edulis,  to  which  species  California  speci- 
mens had  been  previously  referred. 

Farlowia  crassa  J.  Ag.  Santa  Cruz,  Cal.,  Dr.  Anderson;  Ore- 
gon, Rev.  E.  Hall. 

Farlowia  cojipressa  J.  Ag.  Santa  Cruz,  Dr.  Anderson  ;  Santa 
Barbara,  Miss  Lennebacker ;  San  Diego,  Mr.  Cleveland. 

Cryptosiphonia  Woodii  J.  Ag.     Santa  Cruz,  Cal.,  Dr.  Anderson. 

Kallymenia  Californica,  n.  sp.  fronde  carnosa  radiatim  pro- 
lifera  demum  irregulariter  fissa  inferiori  parte  costata  ;  prolificationibus 
flabelliformibus  in  stipitem  basi  attenuatis  stepe  phyllis  marginalibus 
minutis  fimbriatis  ;  cystocarpiis  in  media  fronde  nuinerosis  immersis. 
—  Santa  Cruz,  Cal.,  Dr.  Anderson. —  This  species  was  found  by  Dr.  An- 
derson thrown  up  from  deep  water  in  company  with  Constantinea 
Sitchensis,  which  it  resembles  in  texture  and  color.  In  fact,  until  the 
tetraspores  have  been  discovered,  it  will  not  be  possible  to  affirm  that 
this  is  not  a  Constantinea,  although  the  absence  of  a  distinct  stipe  would 
lead  one  to  place  the  plant  in  the  genus  Kallymenia  rather  than  Con- 
stantinea.   We  first  supposed  the  plant  to  be  Kallymenia^  phyllophora 

VOL.  XII.  (n.  S.  IV.)  16 


242  PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

J.  Ag. ;  but  having  sent  a  specimen  to  Prof.  Agardh,  he  has  decided 
that  it  is  not  the  species  prevously  sent  him  from  Vancouver's  Island. 
The  fronds  are  fixed  by  a  disk,  from  which  they  rise,  or  more  probably 
expand  out  horizontally,  for  five  or  six  inches.  As  most  commonly 
seen,  they  resemble  a  species  of  Opuntia  with  fan-shaped  or  obovate 
joints,  which  are  usually  fringed  with  small  leaflets  on  the  margin. 
All  tlie  lower  parts  are  distinctly  costate.  The  color  is  a  deep  I'ed, 
which  becomes  very  dark.  The  cystocarps  are  densely  scattered  in 
the  central  part  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  frond.  In  none  of  the 
specimens  which  we  have  received  is  the  fruit  ripe ;  but,  using  the 
common  exjiression  adopted  in  this  order,  there  is  a  compound  nucleus, 
not  a  simple  one,  as  found  in  Prionitis^  Schizymenia,  and  other  allied 
genera. 

Phyllophora  Clevelandii  Farlow.  Tetraspores  in  oval  shaped 
nemathecia  in  the  upper  part  of  frond. 

Gymnogongrus  leptophyllus,  Ag.  California,  Dr.  Anderson. 
Under  this  name  Prof.  Agardh  distinguishes  the  species  commonly 
distributed  as  Gymnogongrus  Griffithsice  of  our  west  coast,  in  which 
the  cystocarps  are  immersed,  or  nearly  so.  There  is  still  another 
Gymnogongrus,  not  uncommon  in  California,  in  which  the  cystocarps 
project  hemispherically  on  one  side  of  the  frond,  and  which,  with  little 
doubt,  is  G.  tenuis,  Ag.  G.  linearis  Ag.  was  accidentally  omitted  from 
the  list  in  Proc.  Am.  Acad.,  1875. 

Chondrus  canaliculatus  Ag.  California  in  several  places.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  G.  qfftnis  Harv.  is  really  distinct  from  this 
species. 

Cryptonemia  obovata  J.  Ag.     Santa  Cruz,  Cal.,  Dr.  Anderson. 

Crytonemia  dichotoma  J.  Ag.  A  single  specimen  of  what  seems 
to  be  this  species  was  collected  by  Mr.  D.  Cleveland  at  San  Diego. 

Prionitis  Andersoniana,  Eaton  mscr.  Santa  Cruz,  Dr.  An- 
derson. 

Prionitis  ?  Clevelandii,  n.  sp.  fronde  coriacea  substipitata  repe- 
tite  flabellatim  prolifera  inferiori  parte  subcostata  demura  irregulariter 
perforata  ;  prolificationibus  a  disco  aut  intra  margiuem  exeuntibus ; 
cystoearpiis — ?  —  San  Diego,  Mr.  D.  Cleveland.  —  Of  this  striking 
species  we  have  seen  but  a  single  steiile  specimen,  from  which  it  is  of 
course  impossible  to  determine  the  genus  with  certainty.  We  at  first 
supposed  it  to  be  the  same  as  the  plant  to  which  we  have  given  the 
name  of  Kalbjmenia  Galifornica.  The  resemblance,  however,  is  only 
external,  for  the  structure  of  the  frond  is  exactly  that  of  Prionitis.  If 
the  fruit  of  the  present  species  should  show  that  it  really  belongs  to 


OF   ARTS   AHB   SCIENCES.  243 

the  genus  Prionifis,  it  may  be  readily  distinguisliefl  by  its  flabellate 
habit.  In  some  respects,  it  resembles  in  form  Iridcea  lacera,  Post,  and 
Rupr.  Ill,  p.  17. 

SciiiZYMEXiA  ?  COCCINEA  Harv.  Santa  Cruz,  Cal.,  Dr.  Anderson  ; 
San  Diego,  Mr.  Cleveland.  To  this  species,  described  in  Jour.  Proc. 
Liunean  Soc,  Vol.  VI.,  No.  24,  is  doubtfully  assigned  several  large 
specimens  from  California. 

Grateloupia  Cutleri^,  Binder.  Santa  Cruz,  Cal.,  Dr.  Anderson  ; 
San  Diego,  Mr.  Cleveland.  This  very  variable  species  has  undoubt- 
edly received  several  specific  names,  and  it  must  be  said  that  even 
Gr.  Gibbesii  Harv.,  of  our  southern  coast,  is  not  decidedly  distinct.  If 
one  is  to  found  species  of  Grateloupia  on  the  outlines  of  the  frond 
alone,  it  will  be  easy  to  make  almost  any  number  of  species  out  of 
Gr.  Cutlerice. 

Haltmenia  decipiens,  J.  Ag.     Key  West,  Mr.  Hooper. 

Nemastoma  Californica,  n.  sp.  fronde  gelatinosa  roseo-purpurea 
tereto-compressa  basi  alternata  irregulariter  pinnata  ;  pinnis  pinnatis  ; 
pinnulis  ultimis  subuliformibus  ;  cystocarpii§  in  corticali  parte  frondis 
numerosis.  —  Santa  Cruz,  Dr.  Anderson  ;  Santa  Barbara,  Miss  Lenne- 
backer.  —  This  plant,  which  we  formerly  referred  to  Halymenia  ligu- 
lata  under  the  name  of  variety  Californica,  differs  in  the  structure  of 
the  cortical  filaments  from. any  species  of  Halymenia ;  and  granting 
that  the  genera  Halymenia,  Nemastoma,  Gloiosipho7iia,and  Calosiphonia, 
are  nearly  related  to  one  another,  the  present  species,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  central  siphon  can  be  traced  only  at  the  tips  of  the  branchlets, 
cannot  well  be  included  in  GloiosipJionia  or  Oalosipho7iia,  nor  in 
Halymenia,  since  the  cortical  filaments  are  not  united  into  a  membrane, 
as  is  more  or  less  the  case  with  the  species  of  that  genus.  In  aspect 
the  plant  resembles  rather  closely  Gloiosiphonia  capillaris,  and  some 
of  the  older  specimens  are  not  very  unlike  narrow  forms  of  Halymenia 
ligulata.  It  seems  to  be  a  connecting  link  between  the  genera  Gloiosi- 
phonia and  Halymenia  as  far  as  the  structure  of  the  frond  is  concerned. 
When  freshly  mounted,  the  species  is  of  an  agreeable  purplish-rose 
color ;  but,  as  usually  received  from  California,  it  is  brownish,  and  dis- 
torted by  too  heavy  pressure. 

Griffithsia  opuntioides   Ag.     Santa  Cruz,  Cal.,  Dr.  Anderson. 

Griffithsia  Bornetiana  Farlow.  In  the  Ner.  Am.  Bor.,  Harvey 
refers  the  common  Griffithsia  of  the  North  American  coast  to  Griffith- 
sia corallina,  Ag.,  with  some  doubt,  and  describes  a  variety  globifera 
and  a  variety  tenuis.  In  his  Epicrisis,  Agardh  adopts  the  manuscript 
name   of   Harvey,    G.  globifera,  to   designate  the  American  species. 


244  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Harvey  states,  however,  that  his  name,  G.  ghhifera,  was  only  intended 
to  apply  to  what  he  afterwards  called  a  variety  of  G.  corallina.  We 
have  ascertained  by  examination  of  the  living  jDlant,  which  is  common 
in  Long  Island  Sound,  that  there  is  but  one  species  which  comprises 
all  the  forms  described  by  Harvey  under  the  name  of  Griffithsia  in  the 
Ner.  Am.  Bor.  The  so-called  var.  ghhifera  is  merely  the  male  plant, 
of  which  the  terminal  cell  is  enlarged  and  globose,  and  has  the  anthero- 
zoids  borne  in  the  form  of  a  cap  on  the  summit,  in  which  respect  it 
differs  from  any  other  species  of  the  genus.  The  male  plant  is  always 
shorter  and  stouter  than  the  female  plant.  The  var.  tenuis  of  Harvey 
is  usually  tetrasporic,  and  the  tetraspores  are  borne  in  whorls  of  sev- 
eral consecutive  joints.  In  another  place  we  shall  have  more  to  say  on 
the  present  species ;  and  we  only  need  remark,  iu  this  connection,  that, 
under  G.  Bornetiana,  we  include  all  the  forms  erroneously  referred  by 
Harvey  in  the  Ner.  Am.  Bor.  to  Griffithsia  corallina,  and  by  Agardh 
in  his  Epicrisis  to  G.  glohifera^  Harv.,  which  was  the  name  applied  by 
Harvey  himself  to  what  is  really  only  the  male  plant. 

Callithajinion  Lejolisea,  n.  sp.  fronde  minuta  repente  ad  nodos 
Amphiroce  parasitica  ;  filis  verticalibus  superne  nudis  in  parte  infe- 
riore  ramulosis  ;  antheridiis  ovalibus  ad  ramos  inferiores  terminalibus ; 
cystocarpiis  (favellis)  ad  ramos  inferiores  terminalibus ;  sphserosporis 
triangiilatim  divisis  in  ramulis  lateralibus  terminalibus.  This  very 
small  species  of  Callithamnion,  which  is  seldom  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
high,  was  found  growing  on  the  joints  of  an  Amphiroa  received  from 
San  Diego,  Cal.  It  is  probably  not  rare  on  the  coast  of  California, 
but  from  its  small  size  escapes  detection.  It  resembles  i:)erfectly,  ex- 
cept in  the  cystocarps,  Lejolisea  Mediterranean  which  grows  upon  Udotea 
Jlahellata.  In  both  species  the  frond  is  procumbent  and  attached  by 
disk-like  cells,  and  the  erect  filaments  give  off  at  the  base  a  few  lateral 
branches,  upon  whose  tips  the  organs  of  fructification  are  borne.  In 
both  species  the  antheridia  are  oval,  and  the  tetraspores  tripartite  and 
more  or  less  clustered.  In  the  one  case,  however,  the  fruit  is  a  true 
favella,  and  the  species  must  be  considered  a  true  Callithamnion,  while 
in  the  other  the  fruit  is  more  complicated,  having  a  sjiecial  covering, 
and  with  the  spores  arranged  not  in  indefinite  masses,  but  around  a 
central  placenta. 

Callithamnion  Dasyoides  J.  Ag.  {Gall,  ptilophora  Eaton  mscr.). 
California. 

Callithamnion  arbdscula,  var.  Paeijiciim.,  Harv.,  Jour.  Proc. 
Linn.  Soc,  Vol.  VI.,  No.  24  =  G.  Pikeanum,  Harv.,  Ner.  Am.  Bor.  11, 
p.  230. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  245 

Callithamnion  heteromorphum  J.  Ag.     Califonia. 
Chantransia  efflorescens,  Thuret.  {Gallithamnion  Ag.).     On 
Rhodymenia.     Gay  Head,  Mass. 


DESCRIPTION   OF   A   NEW   ALGA   OF    CALIFORNIA. 
By  Prof.  Daniel  C.  Eaton,  of  Yale  College. 

NiTOPHYLLUM  SPECTABiLE,  fronde  subsessili,  erecta,  maxima,  eco- 
stata  atque  ut  videtur  avenia,  oblonga,  profunde  pinnati-lobata ;  parte 
media  duple  vel  triple  latitudiue  loborum,  ssepe  in  lobum  terminalem 
magnam  producta ;  lobis  laciniisve  crebris,  patulis,  liguliformibus 
sa-pius  integris,  nunc  apice  lobatis  vel  profundius  partitis,  margiue 
vix  undulata,  rarissime  phylla  minima  obovata  e  margine  vel  e  disco 
emittentibus  ;  soris  et  coccidiis  per  totam  froudem  creberrime  con- 
spersis. 

Hab.  ad  Sanctam  Crucem,  California:  legit  Anderson,  Aug.- 
Sept.    1874. 

Among  the  largest  species  of  the  genus,  often  two  feet  long,  or  even 
longer,  and,  in  the  spread  of  the  lobes,  two-thirds  as  broad.  The  lobes  are 
so  crowded  as  to  overlap  each  other,  and  are  6-8  inches  long  and  about 
an  inch  wide,  lanceolate  or  strap-shaped,  rather  obtuse,  mostly  entire, 
but  now  and  then  two  to  three  forked,  or  slighily  dichotomously  lobed. 
One  specimen  bears  numerous  minute  obovate  prolifications  along  the 
margin,  and  sparingly  on  the  disk,  especially  where  there  has  been 
some  injury.  No  veins  visible.  The  tetraspores  are  in  oblong  or 
irregular  sori,  thickly  scattered  all  over  the  frond ;  and  in  the  fruiting, 
plant  mature  and  young  coccidia  are  sprinkled  with  almost  equal  pro- 
fusion. The  substance  is  rather  firm,  but  thin,  and  not  adhering  very 
well  to  paper,  except  in  the  younger  portions.  I  find  but  two  layers 
of  cells  in  the  sterile  portions  of  the  lamina.  The  color  is  a  dull  pur- 
plish-red, more  rosy  in  the  newer  portions. 


246  PROCEEDINGS   OP   THE   AMERICAN  ACADEMY 


XXI. 


DESCRIPTIONS   OF  NEW   SPECIES   OF   PLANTS,  WITH   RE- 
VISIONS OF  CERTAIN  GENERA. 

By  Sereno  Watson. 

Presented  May  25,  1877. 

Theltpodium  Cooperi.  Annual,  erect  or  ascending,  glabrous 
and  glaucous,  a  foot  high  or  more,  rather  lax  and  slender,  sparingly 
branched  :  leaves  oblong-lanceolate,  an  inch  or  two  long,  sessile,  and 
cordate  or  auricled  at  base,  acutish,  entire  :  flowers  on  very  short 
spreading  or  soon  reflexed  pedicels;  sepals  narrow,  1^-  or  2  lines  long, 
the  narrow  purplish  petals  a  half  longer:  stamens  included;  anthers 
short:  pods  reflexed,  1  to  1^  inches  long,  subterete,  beaked,  on 
pedicels  a  line  or  two  long. — Collected  by  Dr.  J.  G.  Cooper  near 
Fort  Mohave  in  1861,  and  referred  to  in  Bot.  Calif,  i.  38;  more  com- 
plete specimens,  gathered  by  Dr.  Edward  Palmer  last  season  on  the 
Mohave  River,  have  been  distributed  under  the  above  name. 

LYCHNIS,  Linn.  The  American  species  of  this  genus  (conven- 
iently retained  as  distinguished  from  Silene  by  the  increased  number 
of  styles  and  carpels,  though  otherwise  not  to  be  separated  from  it) 
are  more  numerous  than  has  been  supposed.  So  far  as  known  they 
may  be  arranged  as  follows: — 

*  Calyx  clavate-oblong  :  capsule  incompletely  septate,  5-toothed. 

1.  L.  ALPiNA,  Linn.  Biennial  or  perennial,  glabrous,  slender,  2  to 
10  inches  high :  leaves  linear-oblanceolate  :  bracts  somewhat  mem- 
branous :  flowers  small,  in  capitate  cymes :  petals  exserted,  4  or  5 
lines  long,  2-lobed :  capsule  shortly  stipitate. — Greenland  to  Labra- 
dor.    (Eui-ope,  Asia.) 

*  *  Calyx  more  or  less  inflated :  capsule  not  septate,  5-10-toothed :  peren- 
nials. 

-(-  Dwarf  and  cespitose,  alpine  or  arctic  :  stems  1-flowered :  seeds  with  a 
loose  membranous  margin :  capsule  very  shortly  stipitate. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  247 

++  Petals  includeil,  or  nearly  so. 

2.  L.  APETALA,  Linn.  Glandular-pubescent  above  with  short 
spreading  hairs,  sparingly  so  below,  3  to  8  inches  high :  leaves  nar- 
rowly oblanceolate  to  linear,  an  inch  or  two  long :  flower  nodding,  or 
erect  in  fruit :  calyx  much  inflated,  6  to  8  lines  long,  with  short  acut- 
ish  teeth,  strongly  purple-veined :  petals  purple,  the  blade  not  broader 
than  the  claw,  2-lobed  nearly  to  the  middle ;  appendages  very  small ; 
claw  slightly  auricled  (not  1^  lines  wide),  naked, — Aleutian  Islands 
and  about  Behring  Straits  ;  Greenland.     (Europe,  Asia.) 

Var.  GLABRA,  Kegel.  Wholly  glabrous. — Rocky  Mountains  of 
British  America,  by  Bourgeau ;  St.  Paul's  Island,  H.  W.  Elliott.    ' 

3.  L.  MONTANA.  Glandular-pubescent  above  with  short  spread- 
ing hairs,  nearly  glabrous  below,  slender,  2  to  4  inches  high  :  leaves 
linear-oblanceolate,  an  inch  or  two  long,  the  petioles  somewhat  ciliate; 
flowers  erect:  calyx  ovate-campanulate,  5  or  6  lines  long,  with  short 
acute  teeth :  petals  with  the  emarginate  blade  not  broader  than  the 
very  narrow  claw  (not  ^  line  broad)  ;  appendages  very  small :  seeds 
rather  broadly  margined. — L.  opetala,  Gray  in  Am.  Journ.  Sci.  2  ser. 
xxxiii.  405,  and  Proc.  Acad.  Philad.  1863,  58,  in  part ;  Watson, 
King's  Rep.  36.  Mountain  peaks  of  Colorado  (n.  132  Parry,  63  Hall 
&  Harbour),  and  in  the  Uintas  (n.  152  Watson). 

++  ++ Petals  exserted. 

4.  L.  AFFiNis,  Vahl.  Glandular-pubescent  throughout,  3  or  4 
inches  high:  leaves  linear,  an  inch  long  or  less,  ciliate  at  base:  flowers 
erect:  calyx  ovate-campanulate,  4  lines  long,  with  short  acutish  teeth: 
petals  6  lines  long,  the  blade  undulate,  emarginate,  narrowing  from 
near  the  top  (1|^  lines  wide)  to  the  base  of  the  naked  claw;  append- 
ages small,  toothed. — Greenland  to  Labrador.     (Europe,  Asia.) 

5.  L.  KixGii.  Resembling  the  last,  covered  throughout  with  a 
short  spreading  jiubescence :  leaves  linear-oblanceolate,  1  to  1^  inches 
long :  calyx  6  lines  long :  petals  with  the  short  flat  blade  rather  deeply 
emarginate  ;  appendages  entire  or  toothed  ;  claw  ciliate,  rather  broadly 
auricled  :  filaments  ciliate. — L.  Ajanensis  ?,  Watson,  King's  Rep.  37, 
but  quite  distinct  from  that  Asiatic  species.  Peaks  of  the  Uintas  at 
head  of  Bear  River ;  apparently  also  in  Northwestern  Wyoming  (n.  43 
Parry),  but  with  a  shorter  calyx  and  petals,  and  naked  filaments. 

H-  -(-  Flowers  rarely  solitary  :  seeds  tuberculate. 
++  Low,  arctic  or  alpine. 

6.  L.  TRiFLORA,  R.  Brown.  Rather  stout,  glandular-pubescent 
throughout,  2  to  9  inches  high :  leaves  thickish,  narrowly  oblanceolate, 


248  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

an  inch  long :  flowers  usually  2  or  3  together,  nearly  sessile,  erect : 
calyx  much  inflated,  densely  pubescent,  5  or  6  lines  long,  with  short 
rounded  teeth,  2>ui*plish  and  strongly  veined :  petals  light  rose-color, 
7  or  8  lines  long ;  blade  narrowly  obcordate,  nearly  2  lines  broad  ; 
appendages  rather  prominent,  entire  ;  claw  narrowly  auricled. — Green- 
land, from  Polaris  Bay  (Dr.  Bessel)  southward. 

7.  L.  Californica.  Slender,  cespitose,  glandular-puberulent  above, 
nearly  glabrous  below,  2  to  4  inches  high,  deep  green :  leaves  linear 
to  linear-oblanceolate,  an  inch  or  two  long,  ciliate  at  base :  flowers  1  to 
3,  on  slender  pedicels  :  calyx  ovate-campanulate,  4  or  5  lines  long, 
deeply  toothed,  the  teeth  ovate-triangular,  acutish :  petals  about  7  lines 
long,  the  obovate  blade  bifid,  lobed  on  each  side  near  the  base  ;  ap- 
pendages prominent,  entire  or  toothed ;  claw  broadly  auricled,  the 
auricles  prolonged  upward :  capsule  shortly  stipitate  :  styles  sometimes 
only  3  or  4. — In  the  high  Sierra  Nevada;  near  Ebbett's  Pass  (n.  2081 
Brewer),  on  Mount  Dana  (H.  N.  Bolander),  and  in  Sierra  or  Plumas 
County,  J.  G.  Lemmon. 

++  ++  Taller,  not  alpine  nor  arctic. 
=  Petals  included  or  nearly  so. 

8.  L.  Drummondii,  Watson.  Stems  strict  and  rather  stout,  a 
foot  or  two  high,  finely  glandular-pubescent  above  :  leaves  narrowly 
oblanceolate,  2  or  3  inches  long,  erect:  flowers  few,  erect,  on  stout 
often  elongated  strictly  erect  pedicels :  calyx  cylindric,  becoming 
oblong-ovate,  5  or  6  lines  long,  with  short  acutish  teeth  :  petals  rarely 
slightly  exserted,  white  or  purple,  the  entire  or  emarginate  blade  nar- 
rower than  the  auricled  (a  line  wide)  claw ;  appendages  minute :  cap- 
sule nearly  sessile. — King's  Rep.  37  ;  Silene  Drummondii,  Hook.  Fl. 
i.  89  ;  L.  apetala.  Gray,  1.  c,  in  part.  Winnipeg  Valley  and  on  the 
Saskatchewan,  and  in  the  mountains  to  New  Mexico  and  S.  Utah. 

=  =  Petals  long-exserted. 

9.  L.  NUDA,  Watson,  1.  c.  Slender,  finely  pubescent,  a  foot  high : 
leaves  narrowly  oblanceolate,  2  or  3  inches  long :  flowers  on  slender 
pedicels,  nodding,  at  length  erect :  calyx  4  to  nearly  6  lines  long, 
cylindric  becoming  ovate-oblong,  with  rather  narrow  acutish  teeth  : 
petals  white  or  rose-colored,  8  lines  long,  the  broad  limb  2-parted 
with  the  segments  deeply  bifid,  the  lobes  irregular  and  mostly  acute  ; 
appendages  ovate,  entire,  thickish  ;  claw  broadly  auricled,  margined  to 
the  base :  capsule  nearly  sessile. — East  Humboldt  Mountains,  Nevada. 

10.  L.  Parryi.  Slender,  finely  pubescent,  glandular  above,  a 
foot  high  or  less  :  leaves  linear,  an  inch  long  or  more :  flowers  erect 


OF    ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  249 

or  somewhat  nodding,  the  lateral  pedicels  mostly  short :  calyx  inflated, 
ovate-oblong,  6  lines  long,  with  broad  acutish  teeth :  petals  purplish, 
8  lines  long,  the  broad  blade  cleft  to  the  middle  (the  rounded  segments 
entire,  crenate,  or  bifid)  and  with  a  short  narrow  lobe  on  each  side ; 
appendages  quadrate  or  ovate,  thin  and  crenate  ;  claw  broadly  auricled, 
very  narrowly  attenuated  below  :  stipe  of  capsule  a  line  long  or 
more. — Northw^estern  Wyoming,  collected  by  Dr.  C.  C.  Parry  on  the 
expedition  of  Capt.  W.  A.  Jones  to  the  Yellowstone  in  1873. 

11.  L.  ELATA.  Tall  and  slender,  finely  pubescent,  slightly  glan- 
dular above,  1^  feet  high  or  more:  leaves  narrowly  oblanceolate,  2  to 
4  inches  long,  acute  or  acuminate  :  flowers  nodding  or  erect,  on  slender 
pedicels :  calyx  inflated,  ovate-oblong,  6  or  7  lines  long,  with  triangular 
acutish  teeth:  petals  purplish,  9  to  12  lines  long,  the  blade  cleft  to  the 
middle,  with  a  narrow  shorter  lobe  on  each  side  ;  appendages  broad, 
toothed  ;  claw  not  auricled,  attenuate  to  a  t'ery  narrow  base :  stipe 
of  capsule  nearly  2  lines  long. — Collected  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of 
British  America  by  Bourgeau  in  1858,  and  distributed  as  Silene 
Sconleri. 

Lavatera  insularis.  a  stout  perennial,  probably  woody  at  base, 
finely  stellate-pubescent :  leaves  with  a  narrow  sinus,  3  to  6  inches 
broad,  7-lobed  to  the  middle ;  the  lobes  rounded  and  obtuse,  coarsely 
crenate :  flowers  solitary  in  the  axils,  on  stout  deflexed  and  curved 
pedicels  nearly  an  inch  long  and  with  one  or  two  small  bractlets  or 
naked :  involucre  of  three  nearly  distinct  oblong-spatulate  acutish 
bracts,  6  lines  long :  calyx  5-cIeft  to  the  middle  with  broadly  ovate 
acute  lobes,  becoming  an  inch  long  in  fruit :  petals  spatulate  and  un- 
guiculate,  emarginate,  naked  at  base,  apparently  purplish  yellow  with 
the  claw  dai-ker,  1^  inches  long:  styles  not  exserted  :  fruit  half  an 
inch  broad,  slightly  pubescent,  about  10-carpelled,  the  sides  of  the 
carpels  smooth. — Received  from  D.  Cleveland,  Esq.,  of  San  Diego,  and 
collected  on  the  Coronados  Islands,  20  miles  distant  from  that  town. 
Like  the  following,  it  differs  from  the  two  previously  known  California 
species  in  the  nearly  distinct  bracts  of  the  involucre. 

Lavatera  venosa.  Similar  in  habit  to  the  last,  glabrous  or 
nearly  so  :  leaves  3  to  4  inches  broad,  7-cleft  to  the  middle  with  tri- 
ammlar  acutish  lobes:  flowers  two  or  three  in  the  axils,  on  slender' 
ascending  naked  pedicels  1  to  H  inches  long:  involucre  of  3  nearly 
distinct  oblong-ovate  acutish  bracts,  equalling  the  calyx,  3  or  4  (be- 
coming 7)  lines  long:  petals  15  lines  long,  cuneate-obcordate,  deep 
purple  with  darker  veins,  villous  on  each  side  at  base:  styles  long- 
exserted:  fruit  5  lines  broad,  glabrous,  about  10-carpelled:  sides  of  the 


250  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

carpels  strongly  veined. — From  San  Benito  Island,  off  the  coast  of 
Lower  California  ;  collected  by  Dr.  T.  H.  Streets,  U.  S.  N.,  December, 
1875.  This  is  the  fourth  species  of  the  genus  that  has  been  found  on 
the  small  islands  near  the  southern  coast  of  California,  and  is  peculiar 
in  the  prominent  veins  upon  the  sides  of  the  carpels. 

Malvastrum  Palmeri.  A  stout  perennial,  densely  stellate- 
pubescent  and  -hirsute :  leaves  broadly  ovate,  2  or  3  inches  long,  some- 
what 3-o-lobed,  the  lobes  obtusish,  crenately  toothed  ;  stipules  conspic- 
uous, broadly  lanceolate,  acuminate,  nearly  half  an  inch  long:  floral 
bracts  large  and  conspicuous  :  flowers  nearly  sessile,  in  terminal  clus- 
ters, large  (1^  inches  broad),  yellowish  rose-color:  bractlets  linear- 
lanceolate,  8  to  10  lines  long,  nearly  equalling  the  acuminate  calyx- 
lobes  :  carpels  rounded,  somewhat  pubescent. — At  Cambra  in  South- 
ern California,  a  mile  from  the  sea-beach ;  collected  by  Dr.  E.  Palmer 
(n.  50  of  his  distribution),  July,  1876.  Marked  by  its  stout  leafy 
habit  and  by  its  large  floral  bracts  and  calyx. 

LuPiNUS  TRIFIDUS,  Torrey  in  hei'b.  Very  closely  resembling  L. 
micranthus,  but  the  lower  lip  deeply  3-cleft  with  linear  segments :  pod 
narrower  and  shorter  (about  6  lines  long  and  \\  broad),  usually  5-6- 
seeded :  seeds  a  line  broad,  uniformly  mottled :  flowers  3  lines  long 
or  less,  mostly  in  a  single  terminal  whorl. — L.  micranthus,  var.  trijidus, 
Watson,  Rev.  Lup.  535.  Near  Sau  Francisco,  by  various  collectors, 
and  recently  in  fine  specimens  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Vasey.  The  ordinary 
L.  micrant/ms,  besides  the  nearly  entire  lip.  has  a  pod  often  an  inch 
long  and  2k  lines  broad,  6-9-seeded,  and  the  larger  seeds  variously 
mottled,  but  with  a  lighter  spot  around  the  sometimes  dark  eye. 

LuPiNUS  Arizonicus.  Annual,  slender,  erect,  a  foot  high  or  less, 
villous  throughout  with  scattered  spreading  hairs  :  leaflets  6  to  8,  shorter 
than  the  slender  petioles,  linear-oblanceolate,  obtuse  or  acute,  a  half  to 
an  inch  long:  flowers  scattered  in  loose  racemes;  bracts  long  and  some- 
what persistent:  calyx  rather  broad  at  base,  the  lower  lip  trifid:  petals 
4  or  5  lines  long,  deep  purplish  blue  or  sometimes  ochroleucous,  the 
broad  wings  (2|  lines  wide)  exceeding  the  orbicular  standard  :  pod  6 
to  9  lines  long,  3-6-seeded  :  seeds  rounded,  compressed,  with  prominent 
sides  and  rather  thin  margin,  1  ^  lines  broad,  nearly  white. — L.  concin- 
mis,  var.  (?)  Arizonicus,  Watson,  Rev.  Lup.  537.  In  Arizona  and 
South-eastern  California.  The  typical  L.  concinnus,  Agh.,  is  much 
more  densely  villous,  lower  and  of  more  diffuse  habit ;  leaflets  broader ; 
calyx  narrow  at  base,  and  flowers  narrower  (wings  \\  lines  broad,  and 
standard  elliptical),  the  petals  usually  becoming  reddish  purple,  or  the 
standard  yellowish :  pods  3-4-seeded,  but  seeds  similar. 


OF    ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  251 

PsORALEA  Califouxica.  Stems  very  short  and  clustered,  from 
tul)eroiis  (?)  roots :  pubescence  short,  silky,  appressed :  leaves  digi- 
tately  5-foliolate,  the  leaflets  broadly  oblanceolate,  acutish,  9  to  15  lines 
long ;  stipules  lanceolate,  scarious  and  deciduous :  peduncles  shorter 
than  the  petioles  :  flowers  on  slender  pedicels,  in  a  short  raceme  :  calyx 
silky-villous,  half  an  inch  long,  the  linear  acuminate  lobes  a  little  ex- 
ceeding the  persistent  petals :  pod  very  thin,  somewhat  villous,  beaked  : 
seeds  smooth,  compressed  and  rather  thin,  2  to  2.V  lines  long. — At 
McGinuis'  Ranch,  near  head  of  Salinas  River,  25  miles  from  San  Luis 
Obispo,  California;  collected  by  Dr.  Edward  Palmer,  July,  1876,  in 
mature  fruit.      Resembling  in  habit  P.  esculenta  of  the  eastern  plains. 

Lythrum  breviflorum.  Much  branched,  with  the  habit  of  nar- 
row-leaved forms  of  L.  alatum,  the  long  slender  branches  flower- 
bearing  their  whole  length  :  calyx  strongly  striate,  nearly  2  lines  long 
in  fruit,  exceeding  the  narrow  bracts,  shortly  pedicellate :  petals  6,  pur- 
ple, a  line  long  or  more :  stamens  6  or  8 :  seeds  minute,  round-ovate, 
somewhat  compressed. — L.  alatum,  var.  (?)  hrevijiorum.  Gray  in  PI. 
Lindh.  187  (n.  609  Lindheimer,  1847,  in  part).  On  damp  rocks  in 
the  Guadalupe  River,  Texas.  The  seeds  of  L.  alatum  are  linear- 
oblong  and  twice  longer. 

Q^xoTHERA  (Taraxia)  Palmeri.  A  dwarf  cespitose  annual ; 
branches  very  short,  stout,  covered  with  a  loose  white  epidermis : 
leaves  lanceolate  or  oblanceolate,  an  inch  or  two  long,  pubescent, 
ciliate,  entire  or  nearly  so :  calyx-tube  filiform,  nearly  equalling  the 
leaves :  petals  yellow,  2  lines  long :  capsules  crowded,  ovate,  3  or  4 
lines  long,  quadrangular  at  base,  acute  and  strongly  winged  above, 
dehiscing  along  the  truncate  upper  edge  of  the  wings  :  seeds  lanceolate- 
ovoid,  terete,  |  line  long,  nearly  smooth. — Collected  in  Arizona  by  Dr. 
Edward  Palmer,  1876. 

Qj^NOTHERA  TRILOBA,  var.  (?)  PARViFLORA.  Flowers  Very  small, 
not  more  tlian  an  inch  or  two  long,  fertilized  in  the  bud,  and  rarely 
fully  opening :  fruit  abundant,  forming  at  length  a  densely  crowded 
hemispherical  or  cylindrical  mass,  nearly  2  inches  in  diameter  and  often 
2  or  3  inches  high.  —  A  curious  form  of  this  very  va'riable  species,  or 
possibly  distinct,  frequent  in  butfalo-wallows  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Ellis,  Kansas,  where  it  has  been  collected  by  Dr.  Louis  Watson.  It 
is  also  found  in  previous  collections,  and  is  probably  common  on  the 
plains  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  in  like  localities.  Under  cultivation 
in  the  Botanic  Garden,  Cambridge,  it  has  retained  its  peculiarities 
as  respects  the  manner  of  flowering.  It  is  strictly  an  annual,  coming 
early  into  bloom.     The  capsules  are   rarely  over  a  half  inch  long, 


252  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

less  attenuate  above  and  smaller  than  is  usual  in  the  ordinary  large- 
flowered  state  of  the  plant. 

Mentzelia  hirsutissima.  Stout,  erect,  with  ascending  branches, 
very  hirsute  with  spreading  rigid  hairs  in  addition  to  the  usual  barbed 
pubescence:  leaves  linear-lanceolate,  1^  to  3  inches  long,  acuminate, 
irregularly  pinnatifid  with  divaricate  acute  segments  and  teeth  ;  lobes 
of  the  floral  leaves  vei'y  narrow  :  flowers  terminal,  sessile  :  calyx-limb 
deeply  5-cleft,  8  to  12  lines  long,  the  lanceolate  lobes  long-acuminate : 
petals  yellow,  acute,  1^  inches  long:  filaments  very  numerous,  orange- 
colored  above,  shortly  cuspidate  on  each  side  of  the  anther,  nearly  ^ 
inch  long,  shorter  than  the  style:  capsule  oblong,  ^  inch  long. — Angels 
Island,  in  the  Gulf  of  California  ;  Dr.  T.  H.  Streets,  U.  S.  N,,  February, 
1876.  With  M.  tricuspis  forming  a  section  distinct  from  §  Bartonia, 
characterized  by  the  filaments  dilated  and  bicuspidate  above ;  style 
tubular  and  terete,  3-cleft  at  the  summit  (sometimes  twisted)  ;  seeds 
(in  M.  tricuspis)  in  one  row  on  each  thin  jjlacenta,  horizontal,  not  mar- 
gined, irregularly  flattened,  coarsely  and  irregularly  rugose,  opaque 
and  very  minutely  and  densely  tuberculate. 

Elaterium  minimum.  Stems  very  slender,  almost  filiform,  a 
foot  or  two  long,  glabrous  or  nearly  so  :  leaves  thin,  smooth  above, 
white-papillose  and  scabrous  beneath,  triangular-cordate  and  more  or 
less  deeply  hastate-lobed,  1  to  li- inches  broad,  the  lobes  entire  or  some- 
what serrate:  the  sterile  raceme  little  exceeding  the  leaves;  limb  of  the 
flowers  4  lines  broad :  fertile  flowers  on  slender  pedicels  1  to  6  lines  long, 
the  limb  3  lines  broad,  and  the  slender  tube  2  lines  long  :  fruit  very  small 
(4  lines  long),  acute  at  each  end  and  beaked  above  by  the  persistent 
calyx-tube,  echinate  with  spine-like  processes,  2-celled  and  bursting 
irregularly  on  each  side  near  the  top;  cells  3-ovuled,  mostly  1-seeded: 
seeds  oblong-ovate,  1^  lines  long,  compressed,  dark-colored. — Marah 
minima^  Kellogg,  Proc.  Calif.  Acad.  ii.  18.  On  Cerros  Island,  off 
Lower  California  (Dr.  J.  A.  Veatch,  Dr.  T.  H.  Streets),  and  at  Cape 
St.  Lucas,  L.  J.  Xantus. 

Elaterium  Bigelovii.  Very  similar  :  leaves  more  decidedly  has- 
tate, the  middle  segment  lanceolate,  acute  and  cuspidate,  the  lateral 
ones  2-lobed,  all  entire  or  obscurely  sinuate  :  staminate  panicles  shorter 
than  the  leaves:  flowers  smaller;  limb  less  than  2  lines  broad: 
ovary  smooth,  seemingly  1-ovuled:  fruit  unknown. — In  the  Lower 
Colorado  Valley,  Dr.  J.  M.  Bigelow  and  Dr.  E.  Palmer.  Referred 
to  Melolhria  pendula  in  the  Botany  of  California. 

Angelica  leporina.  Tall  and  stout  in  the  manner  of  the  genus, 
glabrous  :  leaves  bipinuate  ;  leaflets  linear-lanceolate,  acuminate,  entire 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  253 

or  coarsely  few-toothed,  1  to  3  inches  long :  umbels  naked,  the  rays 
very  unequal  and  somewhat  scabrous:  fruit  small  (about  1^  lines 
long)  ;  dorsal  ribs  prominent ;  oil-tubes  solitary  or  the  lateral  in 
pairs. — Rabbit  Valley,  S.  Utah ;  collected  by  L.  F.  Ward  on  Col.  J. 
W.  Powell's  Exploring  Expedition.  Distinguished  from  our  only 
other  narrow-leaved  species  (A.  lineariloha,  Gray)  by  the  very  much 
shorter  fruit. 

MiRABiLis  Greenei.  Very  stout,  with  the  habit  of  M.  multijlora, 
somewhat  glandular-puberulent  :  leaves  rather  thick,  ovate,  acute, 
attenuate  to  a  short  stout  petiole,  3  inches  long:  involucre  7— 10-flow- 
ered,  acutely  lobed,  1  to  1^  inches  long  :  perianth  tubular-funnel  form, 
a  half  longer  than  the  involucre,  greenish  purple  :  fruit  ovate-oblong, 
usually  abruptly  contracted  near  the  base,  rather  strongly  5-angled, 
the  sides  somewhat  ridged  longitudinally  and  more  or  less  tuberculate, 
3  lines  long  or  more. — On  mountain  sides  about  Yreka,  California; 
in  flower  and  fruit,  June,  1876;  Rev.  E.  L.  Greene.  The  fruit  ap- 
proaches that  of  an  Oxyhaphus. 

Abronia  micrantha,  Torrey,  Frem.  Rep.  96,  and  Marcy's  Rep. 
t.  18  (as  A.  cycloptera).  Prostrate  :  peduncles  shorter  than  the  petioles  : 
flowers  small  and  inconspicuous,  3  or  4  lines  long,  reddish  green,  the 
limb  scarcely  2  lines  broad :  fruit  orbicular  with  three  thin  wings, 
emarginate  above  and  below,  8  to  10  lines  wide,  the  body  rather  broad 
and  with  a  light  spongy  exterior. — Frequent  on  the  plains  from  the 
Saskatchewan  to  the  Arkansas  and  S.  W.  Colorado,  and  well  repre- 
sented in  the  figure  of  Marcy's  Report,  excepting  the  limb  of  the 
perianth.  A.  cycloptera,  Gray  (Am.  Journ.  Sci.  2  ser.  xv.  319,  excl. 
syn.),  with  which  it  has  been  confounded,  is  a  more  southern  species  of 
Western  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  S.  Colorado,  of  stouter  habit,  and 
with  large  showy  flowers  upon  elongated  peduncles.  The  fruit  has  a 
firmer  and  more  prominently  veined  wing,  emarginate  at  neither  end, 
the  firm  smooth  narrow  body  7  to  12  lines  long  and  usually  3-nerved 
between  the  wings.  The  third  species  of  the  section,  A.  Crux-Maltce, 
Kellogg  (Proc.  Calif.  Acad.  ii.  71,  fig.  16),  of  Western  Nevada,  with 
very  showy  flowers  upon  peduncles  about  equalling  the  leaves,  has 
a  smaller  orbicular-winged  fruit  (5  or  6  lines  in  diameter),  the  ovate 
body  pubescent  and  coarsely  reticulate-pitted. 

RuMEX  occiDENTALis.  Tall  and  rather  slender,  often  3  to  6  feet 
high :  leaves  oblong-lanceolate,  the  lowest  sometimes  ovate,  usually 
narrowing  gradually  upward  from  the  truncate  somewhat  cordate  base, 
not  decurrent  on  the  slender  often  elongated  petiole,  acute,  a  foot  long 
or  more,  scarcely  uudulate :  panicle  narrow,  elongated,  nearly  leafless  : 


254  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

pedicels  filiform,  3  to  6  lines  long,  obscurely  jointed  near  the  base : 
valves  without  grains,  broadly  cordate  with  a  very  shallow  sinus, 
becoming  about  3  lines  in  diameter,  often  denticulate  near  the  base : 
akene  a  line  and  a  half  long.  —  From  Alaska  to  Northern  California, 
eastward  to  the  Saskatchewan  and  Labrador,  and  southward  in  the 
mountains  to  Colorado  and  New  Mexico.  It  has  hitherto  been  referred 
to  R.  longifolius,  DC,  but  that  Old  World  species  has  narrow  and  very 
undulate  leaves,  broadest  near  the  middle,  the  pedicels  with  a  tumid 
joint  below  the  middle,  and  the  valves  more  deeply  cordate. 

ERIOGONUM,  Michx.  During  the  seven  years  that  have  elapsed 
since  the  thorough  revision  of  the  Eriogonece  by  Dr.  Gray,  published 
in  the  eighth  volume  of  these  Proceedings,  so  much  additional  mate- 
rial has  been  collected  and  so  many  new  species  have  been  described 
that  it  seems  not  useless  to  give  again  a  summary  of  the  two  larger 
genera  of  the  group.  Some  modifications  are  made  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  species  in  Eriogonum,  based  mainly  upon  the  characters 
of  the  bracts  and  involucres,  by  which  the  genus  is  divided  naturally 
into  three  princijjal  sections,  as  follows  :  — 

§  1.  Involucres  not  nerved  or  angled,  4-8-toothed  or  -lobed,  more  or  less 
broadly  turbinate  (mostly  2  lines  long  or  more)  :  bracts  foliaceous,  indefinite 
in  number  (2  to  5  or  more),  rarely  somewhat  ternate.  Mostly  perennial. — 
Ederiogonum. 

*  Tall  perennials  with  scarcely  branching  caudex,  more  or  less  villous-pubescent 
or  silky,  with  long  oblanceolate  alternate  leaves  and  alternate  branches, 
loosely  di-  or  trichotomous  above :  bracts  small :  involucres  pedunculate,  soli- 
tary, with  5  erect  teeth :  akenes  large  (2  to  4  lines  long):  embryo  straight 
and  axile. 

H-  Akenes  membranously  winged  :  flowers  not  attenuate  at  base,  nor  much  en- 
larged in  fruit.  —  (§  Alata,  Benth.,  excl.  sp.) 

1.  E.  ALATUM,  Torr.  Loosely  silky-villous  throughout,  or  the 
leaves  nearly  glabrous  except  on  the  margin  and  midrib :  flowers  a 
line  long,  yellow,  nearly  glabrous,  abrupt  at  base :  akene  winged  the 
whole  length,  3  lines  long.  —  Nebraska  to  W.  Texas  and  Arizona. 

2.  E.  TRISTE,  Watson,  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  x.  347.  Similar,  but 
nearly  glabrous :  flowers  deep  purple,  glabrous,  somewhat  narrowed  at 
base:  akene  4  lines  long.  —  S.  Utah. 

3.  E.  HiERACiFOLiUM,  Benth.  Hoary-pubescent  throughout  and 
leaves  usually  tomentose  beneath  :  flowers  pubescent,  yellow  or  rose- 
colored,  1^  lines  long  (or  2  lines  in  fruit),  abruptly  narrowed  at  base  : 
akenes  2^  lines  long,  winged  above  the  middle.  —  W.  Texas  and  Rio 
Grande  Valley. 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  255 

•^  -t-  Akenes  not  winged :    flowers  attenuate  at  base,   enlarging   in   fruit.  — 
(sp.  of  §  Eriantha,  Bentli.,  Torr.  &  Gray.) 

4.  E.  LONGiFOLiUM,  Nutt.  Hoary-pubescent  throughout  and  the 
leaves  tomentose  beneath :  involucres  and  flowers  densely  white-silky  : 
Hewers  mostly  herbaceous,  1  h  becoming  2  or  3  lines  long :  akene  2 
lines  long,  pubescent  above.  —  Indian  Territory  and  Texas  ;  Florida. 

*  *  Tomentose  perennials,  with  radical  leaves,  and  naked  scapelike  stem,  di-  or 

trichotomous  above,  with  large  conspicuous  bracts :  involucres  solitary,  ses- 
sile, with  6  erect  teeth  :  flowers  attenuate  to  a  stipelike  base,  pubescent,  en- 
larging in  fruit :  akene  mostly  smaller  :  embryo  straight  and  axile,  or  nearly 
so.  —  (§  Eriantha,  Benth.,  Torr.  &  Gray,  excl.  sp.) 

5.  E.  TOMENTOSUM,  Michx.  Tall,  herbaceous,  rufous-tomentose : 
radical  leaves  elongated,  oblanceolate-spatulate ;  bracts  elliptical,  ses- 
sile, smooth  above  undulate:  flowers  white,  tomentose,  2  lines  becoming 
4  or  5  lines  long,  the  inner  sepals  largest:  akene  2|  lines  long.  —  S. 
Carolina  to  Florida. 

6.  E.  UNDULATUM,  Benth.  A  little-known  Mexican  species, 
described  as  low  and  cespitose,  woody,  much  branched  and  leafy  : 
leaves  and  bracts  ovate,  petioled,  with  revolute  undulate  margins : 
flowers  much  smaller. 

7.  E.  Jamesii,  Benth.  Eather  slender,  herbaceous,  with  branch- 
ing eaudex,  a  foot  high  or  less,  wdiite-tomentose :  leaves  and  bracts 
oblong-oblanceolate,  the  latter  shortly  petiolate :  flowers  whitish, 
silky,  2  becoming  3  or  more  lines  long :  akene  2  lines  long.  —  Var. 
FLAVESCENS.  Stouter ;  flowers  yellow  or  yellowish.  £.  Jlavi(m,va.r. 
veyetius,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Rev.  156.  —  Colorado  to  New  Mexico  and 
W.  Arizona.  The  variety  is  distinguished  from  the  next  by  the  strictly 
solitary  sessile  involucres. 

*  *  *  Perennials,  more  or  less  tomentose  or  rarely  glabrous,  with  peduncles 

naked  and  scapelike  or  verticillate-bracteate  in  the  middle :  bracts  mostly 
conspicuous  :  involucres  5-8-toothed  or  -cleft,  in  a  simple  or  compound  um- 
bel (rarely  sub-capitate)  or  solitary  :  flowers  mostly  attenuate  to  a  stipelike 
base:  akenes  glabrous  or  nearly  so  (2  lines  long  or  less)  :  embryo  mostly 
somewhat  curved  and  excentric  (as  in  the  rest  of  the  genus).  —  (§  Umbellata, 
Benth.,  in  part.     §§  Umbellata  &  Pseudo-Umbellata,  Torr.  &  Gray.) 

■I-  Teeth  of  involucre  short,  erect  or  nearly  so. 
t-f  Umbel  simple  (compound  in  n.  13),  on  a  naked  peduncle. 
=  Flowers  villous. 

8.  E.  FLAVUM,  Nutt.  Tomentose  throughout,  a  span  high  or  less ; 
eaudex  branching :  leaves  oblanceolate :  umbel  of  3  to  9  rays,  often 
short :  flowers  yellow,  2  or  3  lines  long,  long-attenuate  at  base,  very 


256  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

silky.  —  Washington   Territory  to    the    Saskatchewan   and   south    to 
Colorado. 

9.  E.  ANDROSACEUM,  Bcnth.  Dwarf,  tomentose  throughout  or 
smoother  above ;  caudex  branching :  leaves  oblanceolate :  rays  short, 
slender:  flowers  yellow,  2- or  3  lines  long,  short-attenuate,  sparingly 
villous.  —  Rocky  Mountains  of  British  America. 

10.  E.  PYROL^FOLiUM,  Hook.  Dwarf,  somewhat  villous ;  caudex 
sim^jle :  leaves  ruund-obovate  to  oblong,  thick  :  rays  few,  very  short : 
flowers  rose-color,  2  lines  long,  short-attenuate,  sparingly  villous.  — 
Var.  CORYPH^UM,  Torr.  &  Gray.  More  tomentose,  with  narrower 
leaves  and  smaller  flowers. — Mountains,  N.  California  and  Oregon. 

=  =  Flowers  glabrous :  caudex  diffusely  branched.  —  In  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

11.  E.  INCANUM,  ToiT.  &  Gray.  Somewhat  cespitose ,  tomentose, 
low :  leaves  oblanceolate,  shortly  petioled :  bracts  and  involucres 
small :  flowers  yellow,  often  reddish. 

12.  E.  MARiFOLiuM,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Low  and  very  slender,  dif- 
fusely branched  below,  tomentose :  leaves  ovate  to  oblong :  bracts  and 
involucres  (a  line  long)  small :  flowers  yellow  or  yellowish. 

13.  E.  URSiNUM,  Watson,  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  x.  347.  Taller  and 
stouter,  tomentose,  villous  above:  leaves  ovate:  bracts  elongated: 
umbel  compound  :  involucres  large  :  flowers  whitish. 

•M-  ++  Involucres  solitary :  peduncle  verticillate-bracted  in  the  middle :  dwarf. 

14.  E.  Kelloggii,  Gray,  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  viii.  293.  Very 
slender,  much  branched  at  base,  villous-tomentose  :  leaves  oblanceolate, 
2  to  4  lines  long:  flowers  glabrous,  white  or  rose-colored,  Ij  to  2^ 
lines  long.  —  Mendocino  Co.,  California. 

15.  E.  THYMOiDES,  Benth.  Densely  branching  and  woody,  with 
revolute  linear  leaves  1  to  5  lines  long :  peduncles  slender :  flowers 
densely  villous  with  long  hairs,  purplish,  2  or  3  lines  long,  with  broad 
sepals.  —  Oregon  and  Washington  Territory. 

H-  ^-  Involucres  deeply  lobed  ;  lobes  becoming  reflexed. 

++  Flowers  pubescent :  involucres  solitary  (rarely  umbellate  in  n.  18),  on  verti- 
cillate-bracted peduncles  (naked  in  n.  16) :  low,  cespitose,  with  yellow  flow- 
ers, and  leaves  tomentose  both  sides. 

16.  E.  c^SPiTOSUM,  Nutt.  Dwarf,  densely  matted  :  leaves  ovate- to 
oblong-spatulate,  2  to  6  lines  long :  peduncles  naked.  —  N.  W.  Nevada 
to  Wyoming  Territory. 

17.  E.  DouGLASii,  Benth.  Larger  and  more  diffuse:  peduncles 
with  a  whorl  of  oblanceolate  leaves  in  the  middle.  —  N.  California, 
Oregon. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  257 

18.  E.  SPH^ROCEPHALUM,  Dougl.  Similar,  but  still  more  diffuse  : 
leaves  linear-spatulate,  often  revolute :  the  whorl  of  bracts  on  the 
peduncle  sometimes  subtending  a  2-4-rayed  umbel,  the  lateral  rays 
also  bracteate.  —  N.  California  and  Nevada,  to  Washington  Territory. 

++  -w  Flowers  glabrous:  umbels  simple  or  compound,  on  naked  (rarely  l-braeted) 
peduncles  (verticillate-bracted  in  n.  22):  caudex  diffusely  branched:  leaves 
glabrate  above  or  glabrous,  oblanceolate  or  spatulate. 

19.  E.  UMBELLATCM,  Torrev.  Tomentose:  umbel  simple,  of  3  to 
10  naked  rays.  —  Var.  monocephalum,  Torr.  &  Gray.  A  reduced 
dwarf  alpine  form,  the  naked  or  bracteate  peduncle  bearing  a  solitary 
involucre:  leaves  small.  —  N.  California  and  Oregon  to  Colorado; 
common. 

20.  E.  Torre yanum,  Gray.  Glabrous  throughout :  umbel  of  few 
rays,  the  lateral  rays  bracteate  in  the  middle  and  often  divided :  flow- 
ers large.  —  In  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

21.  E.  stellatdm,  Benth.  Tomentose:  rays  2  to  4,  usually  and 
often  repeatedly  cymosely  divided :  the  nodes  and  lateral  rays  all 
leafy-bracted.  —  £.  elUpticum,  Nutt.  E.  2)oJyantkum,  Benth.,  Torr.  & 
Gray.  —  Var.  bahi^forme.  Umbel  very  compound:  leaves  mostly 
small,  often  densely  tomentose  both  sides.  —  Oregon  to  S.  California 
and  Arizona. 

22.  E.  HERACLEOiDES,  Nutt.  Similar,  but  the  peduncle  usually 
verticillate-bracted :  leaves  narrower,  mostly  somewhat  revolute  or 
undulate:  umbel  about  6-  (1-11-)  rayed,  usually  some  or  all  of  the 
rays  once  or  twice  divided. —  Washington  Territory  to  Utah. 

++++++  Flowers  glabrous :  umbels  usually  compound,  on  naked  peduncles  : 
caudex  short  and  thick  :  leaves  round  to  oblong,  tomentose. 

23.  E.  COMPOSITUM,  Dougl.  Leaves  oblong-ovate,  cordate  :  pedun- 
cle stout  and  tall :  umbel  compound,  of  6  to  10  elongated  rays.  — 
Washington  Territory  and  Idaho  to  N.  California. 

24.  E.  LoBBii,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Leaves  oval  or  rounded :  peduncles 
short,  decumbent :  rays  few,  usually  very  short  and  undivided :  flowers 
less  attenuate  at  base.  — In  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

*  *  *  *  Perennials,  densely  tomentose,  with  naked  peduncles :  bracts  small : 
involucres  with  5  short  erect  teeth :  flowers  small,  abruptly  narrowed  at 
base,  pubescent:  akenes  densely  villous.  —  (Lachnogyna,  Torr.  &  Gray.) 

25.  E.  ACAULE,  Nutt.  Very  dwarf  and  densely  matted :  leaves 
crowded,  2  or  3  lines  long,  oblong:  peduncle  half  an  inch  Iiigh,  bear- 
ing a  head  of  1  to  5  nearly  sessile  involucres.  —  S.  Idaho  to  S.  W.  Col- 
orado. 

VOL.  XII.  (n.  S.  IV.)  17 


258  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

26.  E.  LACHNOGTNUM,  Torr.  Cespitose  :  leaves  oblong-lanceolate : 
the  slender  peduncle  a  foot  high,  sparingly  dichotomous  above  :  invol- 
ucres solitary,  sessile  or  long-pedunculate :  flowers  densely  tomentose  : 
akene  attenuate  above,  2  lines  long.  —  S.  Colorado  and  New  Mexico. 

*****  Perennial,  villous,  dwarf,  with  naked  peduncles  bearing  a  subcapi- 
tate  umbel :  bracts  conspicuous  :  involucres  campanulate,  4-8-parted,  with 
erect  somewhat  unequal  lobes :  flowers  abruptly  attenuate  at  base,  villous : 
akenes  glabrous. 

27.  E.  viLLiFLORUM,  Gray,  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  viii.  630.  Densely 
cespitose,  very  villous  throughout,  the  crowded  oblanceolate  leaves  half 
an  inch  long :  peduncles  slender,  an  inch  high :  bracts  linear :  invol- 
ucres few  in  the  loose  heads,  bracteate  at  base,  the  slender  pedicels  a 
line  long:  flowers  1^  lines  long,  but  little  exserted;  sepals  oblong  and 
nearly  equal,  silky  within  and  without.  —  S.  Utah;  a  very  peculiar 
species. 

******  Annuals,  di-  or  trichotomously  divided,  with  mostly  conspicuous 
leafy  bracts:  involucres  turbinate,  unequally  4-8Iobed  or  parted  (lobes 
erect),  long-pedunculate  or  sometimes  sessile  in  the  forks:  flowers  not  atten- 
uate at  base:  akenes  glabrous.  —  {§  Foliosa,  Benth.,  Torr.  &  Gray.) 

f-  Involucres  rather  large,  deeply  cleft :  flowers  glabrous ;  sepals  broad  and 
cordate  at  base. 

28.  E.  Abertianum,  Torr.  Stout  and  leafy,  often  tall,  silky-vil- 
lous :  leaves  ovate  or  subcordate,  the  bracts  becoming  oblanceolate  or 
linear:  flowers  rose-colored,  the  outer  sepals  round-cordate,  at  length 
2  lines  broad,  the  inner  linear-oblong.  —  E.  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 

29.  E.  pharnaceoides,  Torr.  Tall  and  slender,  loosely  branched 
tomentose  and  villous :  leaves  linear-oblanceolate,  revolute :  flowers 
whitish,  a  line  long  ;  outer  sepals  ovate,  at  length  bigibbous  at  base,  the 
inner  linear-oblong,  retuse.  —  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 

-1-  -(-  Involucres  divided :  flowers  pubescent,  yellow ;  sepals  narrow,  closely 
appressed  to  the  akene. 

30.  E.  SALSUGiNOSUM,  Hook.  Low  and  leafy,  glabrous,  somewhat 
fleshy  :  leaves  spatulate-oblanceolate,  the  bracts  becoming  linear :  akene 
acutely  triangular,  a  line  long.  —  W.  Wyoming  to  S.  Utah  and  S.  W. 
Colorado. 

-I-  4-  H-  Involucres  very  small,  4-cleft  or -parted,  few-flowered :  flowers  pubes- 
cent, minute,  narrow  at  base  :  difl^usel}'  branched  and  very  slender,  glandular : 
bracts  mostly  very  small. 

31.  E.  SPERGULiNUM,  Gray.  Leaves  and  bracts  linear-oblanceolate, 
hirsute :  involucres  1-2-flowered :  flowers  nearly  a  line  long,  slightly 
puberulent.  —  In  the  Sierra  Nevada. 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  259 

32.  E.  HiRTiFLORUM,  Gray  in  herb.  Somewhat  glandular-puberu- 
lent,  6  inches  high  or  less :  bracts  oblong,  hispid :  involucres  half  a 
line  long  or  less,  on  erect  or  nodding  pedicels  1  to  3  lines  long,  or 
sessile  in  the  forks,  3-o-flowered :  flowers  very  hirsute,  reddish,  half  a 
line  long  or  less :  akenes  slightly  exserted.  —  Collected  by  Dr.  Gray, 
1872,  probably  in  the  mountains  of  California. 

§  2.  Involucres  campanulate  or  short-turbinate,  not  angled  or  nerved,  with  5 
rounded  erect  teeth,  pedunculate  in  diffuse  repeatedly  di-  or  trichotomous  pan- 
icles :  bracts  not  foliaceous,  all  ternate,  small  and  mostly  triangular  and 
rigid:  flowers  not  attenuate  at  base:  ovary  glabrous.  Mostly  annuals. — 
Ganysma. 

*  Annuals :  leaves  all  radical  or  nearly  so,  and  mostly  rounded :  involucres, 
flowers  and  akenes  small  (a  line  long  or  less).  —  (§  Pedunculata,  Bentii., 
Torr.  &  Gray,  e.xcl.  sp.) 

■t-  Flowers  glabrous ;  outer  sepals  broad  and  somewhat  cordate  at  base,  the 
inner  much  smaller :  pedicels  very  short,  deflexed :  leaves  floccose-tomen- 
tose. 

33.  E.  BRACHYPODUM,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Low,  depressed,  rather 
rigid,  much  branched  and  glandular:  iuvolucres  campanulate-turbinate, 
^  to  f  line  long,  on  pedicels  less  than  a  line  long.  —  S.  E.  California. 

34.  E.  Parryi,  Gray  in  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  x.  77.  Less  rigidly 
branched :  iuvolucres  rather  narrowly  turbinate,  a  line  long :  pedicels 
slender,  1  to  3  lines  long.  —  S.  Utah. 

35.  E.  DEFLEXUM,  Torr.  Taller  and  more  erect,  glabrous  above 
the  base :  involucres  and  pedicels  as  in  £J.  brachypodum,  but  more 
secund  along  the  branches ;  jjedicels  reflexed,  rarely  a  line  long  or 
more :  outer  sepals  becoming  a  line  long,  the  inner  very  small,  obovate 
and  retuse.  —  Nevada  and  Utah  to  S.  K.  California. 

H-  t-  Flowers  glabrous  ;  outer  sepals  panduriform  or  oblong  and  emarginate  or 
retuse,  the  inner  narrower  :  pedicels  longer  :  leaves  floccose-tomentose. 
++  Pedicels  deflexed  :  outer  sepals  oblong  or  somewhat  broader  above. 

3G.  E.  NUTA:ys,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Low,  sparingly  branched  :  leaves 
small :  pedicels  minutely  glandular :  involucres  campanulate :  outer 
sepals  nearly  obcordate. —  N.  E.  California  and  N.  Nevada. 

37,  E.  Watsoni,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Taller,  more  diffuse,  glabrous : 
leaves  larger,  obtuse,  round,  often  cordate  at  base :  involucres  narrowly 
turbinate  :  outer  sepals  oblong,  often  retuse.  —  N.  Nevada. 

38.  E.  CERNUUJi,  Nutt.  Like  the  last,  but  leaves  broadly  ovate, 
acute :  involuci'es  turbinate-campanulate :  flowers  narrower  at  base, 
the  outer  sepals  broader  above,  retuse.  —  E.  Oregon  to  Colorado  and 
New  Mexico. 


260  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

++  -M.  Pedicels  erect  or  somewhat  spreading :  outer  sepals  much  broader  above. 

39.  E.  Thuebeki,  Torr.  Very  slender,  tomentose  below:  leaves 
small :  pedicels  a  half  to  an  inch  long :  involucres  often  glandular- 
puberulent :  flowers  becoming  a  line  long ;  outer  sepals  with  a  large 
rounded  terminal  lobe,  minutely  pubescent  in  the  centre.  —  S.  Cali- 
fornia and  Arizona. 

40.  H  ROTUNDiFOLiUM,  Benth.  Rather  stouter  and  more  diffuse, 
with  larger  leaves :  pedicels  shorter  and  more  rigid :  flowers  becoming 
\l  lines  long,  the  outer  sepals  very  broadly  dilated  above.  —  New 
Mexico  and  W.  Texas. 

•*--(--(-  Flowers  mostly  minutely  glandular-hispid,  longer  than  the  small  in- 
volucre, the  outer  sepals  mostly  ovate :  pedicels  long  and  filiform,  rarely 
deflexed. 

++  Leaves  floccose-tomentose  :  stem  not  inflated :  pedicels  all  in  the  forks  or 
terminating  the  branches. 

41.  E.  PUSiLLUM,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Often  tall  and  rather  stout: 
leaves  rounded  or  obovate,  usually  less  tomentose  above:  greenish 
bracts  and  involucres  minutely  glandular-hispid  :  involucres  hemispheri- 
cal :  flowers  yellow,  often  reddish :  akene  thick-lenticular.  —  N.  W. 
Nevada  to  Arizona  and  S.  California. 

42.  E.  RENiFORME,  Torr.  Low  and  slender,  glabrous  :  leaves  reni- 
form  or  cordate-orbicular,  densely  white-tomentose  both  sides :  bracts 
smooth,  the  margins  ciliate :  involucres  smooth,  turbinate-campanulate, 
nearly  a  line  long :  flowers  rose-colored,  glabrous  ;  sepals  ovate-oblong. 
—  S.  California. 

43.  E.  SUBRENIFORME.  Sparingly  villous  at  the  nodes:  leaves 
round-reniform  or  -cordate,  tomentose  beneath,  silky-villous  above  : 
involucres  smooth,  turbinate-campanulate,  ^  line  long :  flowers  rose- 
colored,  glabrous,  or  slightly  hispid  ;  sepals  oblong.  —  E.  rem'forme, 
Torr.  &  Gray,  Rev.  184,  in  part.     Arizona,  S.  Utah. 

44.  E.  TuOMASir,  Torr.  Low,  very  slender,  glabrous :  leaves 
rounded  and  ovate,  small :  bracts  minute,  glabrous :  involucres  turbi- 
nate-campanulate, smooth  :  flowers  yellowish,  often  reddish,  slightly 
hispid  or  glabrous ;  outer  sepals  often  much  dilated  below,  the  inner 
Hnear-oblong.  —  S.  California  to  S.  W.  Colorado. 

■M-  ++  Leaves  more  or  less  villous-pubescent  or  glabrous,  not  tomentose :  stem 
often  inflated :  pedicels  often  scattered  and  secund  on  the  branches. 

45.  E.  TRiCHOPODUM,  Torr.  Glabrous,  diffusely  much  branched  and 
very  slender,  the  stem  rarely  inflated  :  leaves  pubescent :  bracts  very 
small:  involucres  minute:  pedicels  3  to  0  lines  long  :  flowers  yellow- 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  261 

ish,  pubescent,  I  line  long ;  sepals  ovate-lanceolate,  acute.  —  S.  Cali- 
fornia to  New  Mexico. 

46.  E.  iNFLATUM,  Torr.  Taller,  less  branched,  the  stem  and  inter- 
nodes  longer  and  often  inflated:  pedicels  6  to  12  lines  long:  flowers 
and  akene  twice  larger.  —  S.  California  to  Nevada  and  Arizona. 

47.  ¥j.  Gordoni,  Bentli.  A  similar  species,  but  glabrous  through- 
out, or  the  petioles  slightly  pubescent:  flowers  glabrous,  light  rose- 
color  :  outer  sepals  ovate,  the  inner  oblong.  —  Colorado. 

48.  E.  GLANDULOSUM,  Nutt.  Beset  with  short-stipitate  glands : 
leaves  small,  obovate,  somewhat  villous :  involucres  glabrous,  half  a 
line  long,  turbinate-campanulate:  flowers  nearly  a  line  long,  slightly 
hispid  ;  sepals  oblong-ovate,  acutish.  —  Collected  only  by  Dr.  Gambel, 
probably  in  New  Mexico. 

49.  E.  SCALARE.  A  peculiar  allied  species,  collected  in  imperfect 
specimens  by  Dr.  T.  H.  Streets,  U.S.N.,  at  Canvas  Point,  on  the  coast 
of  Lower  California.  Main  branches  of  the  inflorescence  slender  and 
glabrous,  a  foot  long,  with  opposite  or  alternate  brauchlets  (sometimes 
in  threes),  divaricate  or  ascending :  bracts  distinct,  linear,  a  line  or  two 
long,  spreading  or  reflexed,  on  the  branchlets  smaller  and  erect :  pedicels 
scattered  on  the  brauchlets,  1  or  2  lines  long,  filiform,  ascending :  in- 
volucres narrowly  turbinate,  f  line  long,  glabrous  :  bracteoles  spatulate, 
naked :  flowers  slightly  pubescent,  a  line  long ;  sepals  oblong,  the  inner 
a  little  narrower. 

*  »  Perennial  or  biennial,  the  peduncles  and  inflorescence  glabrous  and  leafless  : 
involucres  and  flowers  larger,  glabrous:  akene  2  or  3  lines  long.  —  (Spec, 
of  §§  Pedun'cclata  &  Alata,  Bentli.,  Torr.  &  Gray.) 

•f-  Perennial ;  woody  caudex  much  branched  and  leafy  :  densely  white-tomentose. 

50.  E.  TEXELLU3I,  Torr.  Tall;  branches  of  the  caudex  short  and 
crowded  or  elongated  :  leaves  ovate  or  i-ouuded,  tomeutose  both  sides  : 
inrtorQ^ceuce  rather  sparingly  branched  :  flowers  white  or  pinkish,  be- 
coming 1|  lines  long;  outer  sepals  broadly  obovate  or  orbicular,  the 
inner  linear-oblong. —  S.  Colorado  to  W.  Texas  and  New  Mexico. 

■i-  -4-  Biennial  (?) ;  peduncle  very  sparingly  branched  :  leaves  all  radical,  villous. 

51.  E.  ciLiATUii,  Torr.  Leaves  broadly  spatulate,  2  inches  long, 
glabrous  excepting  the  very  villous  margin  and  midrib  :  involucres 
few,  long-pedunculate  :  flowers  deep  red  ;  sepals  ovate,  acute,  the  inner 
narrower.  —  Northern  Mexico. 

52.  E.  ATRORUBENS,  Engelm.  Very  similar:  leaves  narrowly  lan- 
ceolate, 4  inches  long,  on  long  petioles,  villous,  somewhat  tomentose 
beneatli :  peduncle  inflated  :  flowers  deep  red :  akene  somewhat  winged 
above  with  a  thick  narrow  margin.  —  Chihuahua. 


262  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

*  *  *  Annuals  (or  n.  54  perennial),  branching  from  the  base,  with  leaves  devel- 

oped at  the  nodes  in  tlie  axils  of  ordinary  triangular  bracts :  flowers  minutely 
glandular.  —  (§  Substipulata,  Benth.     Pseudo-stipulata,  Torr.  &  Gray.) 

53.  E.  ANGULOSUM,  Benth.  Floccose-tomentose,  the  branches  mostly 
4-6  angled :  lower  leaves  orbicular  to  oblong-ovate,  the  upper  oblong 
to  oblanceolate  :  involucres  hemispherical,  very  many-flowered  :  flowers 
rose-colored  or  greenish,  J  line  long ;  outer  sepals  ovate,  concave,  the 
inner  longer,  lanceolate.  —  California  to  Arizona  and  Utah. 

54.  E.  Greggii,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Apparently  perennial,  puberulent : 
leaves  spatulate,  ciliate  and  somewhat  villous,  smooth  above,  acutish : 
involucres  turbinate-campanulate,  many-flowered  :  flowers  purplish,  the 
sepals  ovate-oblong.  —  N.  Leon,  Mexico. 

55.  E.  DiVARiCATUM,  Nutt.  Low,  greyish  pubescent :  branches 
terete :  leaves  thickish,  all  rounded  or  the  upper  oblong,  petiolulate : 
involucres  very  small  and  few-flowered :  flowers  whitish  ;  sepals  oblong, 
nearly  equal.  —  W.  Wyoming  and  S.  W.  Colorado. 

*  *  *  *  Tall  stout  white-tomentose  annuals,  with  leafy  simple  stems,  naked 

above  :  inflorescence  cymose  :  involucres  turbinate-campanulate,  shortly  ped- 
unculate :  flowers  white,  nearly  glabrous ;  sepals  very  unequal,  the  outer  ovate- 
oblong  or  round-cordate.  —  (Sp.  of  §  Corymbosa,  Benth.,  Torr.  &  Gray.) 

56.  E.  ANNUUM,  Nutt.  Leaves  narrowly  oblanceolate  or  oblong, 
attentiate  to  a  short  petiole,  mostly  flat :  involucres  densely  white-to- 
mentose :  flowers  |-  to  1  line  long ;  outer  sepals  oblong-obovate.  — 
Colorado  to  W.  Texas  and  Northern  Mexico. 

57.  E.  MULTiFLORUM,  Beuth.  Leaves  lanceolate,  sessile  and  some- 
what aiiricled  at  base,  smoother  above  and  margin  undulate :  involucres 
smoother:  flowers  1^  lines  long;  outer  sepals  rounded  cordate. — 
Arkansas,  Louisiana,  and  Texas. 

§  3.  Involucres  cylindric-turbinate,  more  or  less  strongly  5-6-nerved,  and  often 
becoming  costate  or  angled,  with  as  many  short  erect  teeth,  sessile  (rarely 
some  of  tliem  pedunculate)  in  heads  or  clusters,  or  scattered  in  cymes  or  along 
virgate  panicled  branches,  always  erect,  rather  large  (1  to  3  lines  long)  : 
bracts  ternate,  connate  at  base,  usually  short,  acute  and  more  or  less  rigid 
(sometimes  more  or  less  foliaceous)  :  flowers  not  attenuate  at  base  :  akenes 
usually  glabrous.  Mostly  perennials,  sometimes  woody  and  leafy,  more  or 
less  white-tomentose.  — Oeegonium. 

*  Outer  sepals  broad  and  somewhat  cordate,  the  inner  much  narrower :  ces- 

pitose  densely  toraentose  perennials,  with  short  closely  branched  caudex  : 
involucres  in  a  single  head  or  short  cymose  umbel  on  the  naked  peduncle: 
ovary  scabrous  above.  —  (§  Heterosepala,  Torr.  &  Gray,  &  sp.  of  §  Vir- 
GATA,  Benth.,  Torr.  &  Gray.) 

58.  E.  OVALIFOLIUM,  Nutt.  Low,  densely  cespitose  :  leaves  round 
or  rarely  oblong :  bracts  very  small :  involucres  in  a  single  close  head  : 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  263 

flowers  rose-colored,  white,  or  yellow  ;  outer  sepals  oblong,  becoming 
orbitailar,  the  inner  sjxatulate,  often  retuse.  —  Var.  proliferum.  In- 
volucres more  or  less  cjmose-umbellate.  E.  proliferum,  Torr.  &  Gray. 
—  N.  California  to  Colorado  and  British  America  ;  frequent. 

59.  E.  DiCHOTOMUM,  Dougl.  Caudex  more  diffuse  :  leaves  oblan- 
ceolate,  acute  :  lower  bracts  often  foliaceous :  inflorescence  cymose- 
umbellate  ;  the  involucres  mostly  solitary,  about  three  lines  long,  strongly 
toothed:  flowers  white  or  pinkish  ;  outer  sepals  broadly  elliptical,  the 
inner  linear-spatulate.  —  E.  Greenel,  Gray,  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  xii.  83. 
Oregon  and  N.  California. 

60.  E.  NIVEUM,  Dougl.  Like  the  last :  most  of  the  bracts  more  or 
less  foliaceous  and  spreading :  involucres  usually  shorter  and  broader, 
with  some  or  all  of  the  teeth  jjroduced  and  often  recurved  :  outer  sepals 
round-oval,  the  inner  obovate-spatulate.  —  Including  E.  strictum,  var. 
lachnostegia,  Benth.,  referred  to  the  last  in  Torr.  &  Gray,  Rev.  175. 
Washington  Terr,  to  Oregon  and  Idalio. 

*  *  Flowers  narrower  at  base,  the  sepals  similar  and  nearly  equal:   akenes 
smooth  or  nearly  so. 

-!-  Perennials  with  short-branched  caudex,  naked  peduncles,  small  bracts,  and 

capitate  involucres  (rarely  solitary). 
*+  Heads  solitary  (few  and  umbelled  in  n.  66)  :  dwarf  and  cespitose,  alpine  or 

subalpine,  densely  white-tomentose.  —  (§  Capitata,  Torr.  &  Gray,  excl.  sp.) 

61.  E.  Kennedyi,  Porter,  MS.  Dwarf  and  very  densely  matted  : 
leaves  narrowly  oblong,  revolute,  1^^  to  3  lines  long,  densely  tomeutose 
both  sides :  peduncles  very  slender  and  wiry,  glabrous,  2  to  4  inches 
high:  involucres  2  to  10,  somewhat  tomeutose,  thick  and  strongly 
nerved,  with  short  teeth,  1  \  lines  long  :  flowers  glabrous,  wliite,  veined 
with  red,  H  lines  long.  —  In  the  Sierra  Nevada,  Kern  Co.,  California ; 
W.  L.  Kennedy,  1876. 

62.  E.  KixGir,  Torr.  &  Gray,  excl.  var.  Dwarf  and  densely  cespi- 
tose, villous-tomentose  throughout :  leaves  oblanceolate  or  spatulate,  an 
inch  long  or  less,  including  the  slender  petiole :  involucres  thin  and 
scarious,  deeply  toothed,  villous,  in  dense  heads :  flowers  rose-colored, 
glabrous.  —  N.  Nevada. 

63.  E.  PAUCiFLORUM,  Nutt.  Rather  less  densely  cespitose,  tomeu- 
tose throughout,  or  the  linear-oblanceolate  revolute  leaves  (2  inches 
long)  glabrous  above  :  involucres  broadly  turbinate,  nearly  glabrous, 
2  lines  long,  thin,  with  broad  somewhat  scarious  teeth  :  flowers  white, 
glabrous.  —  Colorado. 

64.  E.  ciiuYsoCEPHALUM,  Gray,  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  xi.  101.  Caudex 
more  diffusely  branched,  woody  :  tomeutose  throughout,  the  narrowly 


264  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

oblanoeolate  leaves  (1  to  2  inches  long)  sometimes  glabrate  above : 
involucres  narrower  and  rather  more  firm,  1|  lines  long,  shortly  toothed, 
somewhat  tomentose  :  flowers  yellow,  glabrous.  —  E.  Kingii,  var.  laxi- 
folium,  Torr.  &  Gray,  Rev.  165.      Wahsatch  Mountains. 

65.  E.  MULTicEPS,  Nees.  Densely  white-tomeutose  throughout, 
rather  diffusely  branched  at  base  :  leaves  narrowly  oblanceolate,  1  or  2 
inches  long:  peduncles  2  to  6  inches  high  :  involucres  rigid,  narrowly 
turbinate,  H  to  2  lines  long,  with  very  short  teeth;  one  of  the  bracts 
often  foliaceous:  flowers  rose-colored,  pubescent,  a  line  long.  —  Ne- 
braska and  Colorado. 

66.  E.  SPATHULATUJi.  Gray,  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  x.  76,  Tomentose 
throughout,  somewhat  diffu^e  at  base,  the  stout  peduncles  (8  inches  high) 
usually  bearing  a  simple  few-rayed  umbel :  leaves  linear-oblanceo- 
late,  2  to  4  inches  long:  involucres  rather  broadly  turbinate  and  I'igid, 
2  lines  long,  with  broad  acute  teeth  :  flowers  white,  glabrous,  2  lines 
long.  —  S.  Utah. 

++  ++  Peduncles  mostly  tall  and  stout,  from  a  sparingly  branclied  caudex  :  heads 
solitary  or  few,  in  a  long-jointed  subumbellate  cj-rae  :  flowers  white  or  rose- 
colored. —  (§  Capitellata,  Torr.  &  Gray,  and  §  Capitata,  in  part.) 

67.  E.  LATiFOLiUM,  Smith.  Stout,  tomentose  throughout:  pedun- 
cle not  fistulous  :  leaves  oblong  to  ovate :  involucres  tomentose,  2  lines 
long,  in  large  dense  heads  (solitary,  or  few  in  a  nearly  simple  umbel)  : 
flowers  glabrous.  —  E.  nhlongtfolmm,  Benth. ;  Torr.  &  Gray,  Rev.  167. 
Seashore,  California. 

68.  E.  NUDUM,  Dougl.  More  slender,  mostly  glabrous  above  :  pe- 
duncle fistulous  or  inflated  :  leaves  broadly  ovate  to  oblong,  cordate  or 
abruptly  cuneate  at  base,  glabrate  above :  involucres  glabrous  or  nearly 
so,  2  or  3  lines  long,  in  smaller  and  more  numerous  heads  in  a  sparingly 
branched  panicle  :  flowers  glabrous  or  somewhat  villous.  —  Var.  pau- 
CIFLORUM.  Involucres  solitary  or  occasionally  in  pairs,  much  scattered. 
—  Var.  OBLONGiFOLiUM.  Often  somewhat  tomentose  throughout: 
leaves  oblong,  narrowed  to  a  long  slender  petiole :  bracts  occasioually 
foliaceous  :  flowers  usually  somewhat  pubescent.  E.  affine,  Benth.  — 
Washington  Territory  to  S.  California. 

69.  E.  ELATUM,  Dougl.  Leaves  large,  villous-pubescent,  ovate- 
oblong  to  lanceolate :  peduncle  (fistulous  or  inflated)  and  rigid  panicle 
IJr  to  3  feet  high,  smooth  and  glaucous  :  involucres  glabrous,  in  clusters 
of  2  to  5 :  flowers  somewhat  villous.  —  Washington  Territory  to  N. 
California  and  W.  Nevada. 

•(-  H-  Stout  woody  perennials,  more  or  less  tomentose,  virgately  branched  and 
very  leafy :  leaves  small  (9  lines  long  or  less),  shortly  petioled  and  often 


OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  265 

fascicled:  bracts  mostly  foliaceous :  involucres  capitate  or  fascicled,  the 
clusters  more  or  less  closely  cj'mose-umbellate.  —  (§  Fasciculata,  Benth., 
Torr.  &  Gray.) 

70.  E.  ciNEREUM,  Bentli.  Leaves  round  to  oblong,  obtuse  :  pedun- 
cles elongated,  sparingly  dichotomous,  with  iew  rather  open  heads  : 
bracts  short :  flowers  very  villous.  —  Seacoast,  S.  California. 

71.  E.  PARViFOLiUM,  Smith.  Leaves  broadly  ovate  to  oblong, 
acute:  peduncles  usually  rather  short,  with  few  close  heads:  lower 
bracts  conspicuous  :  flowers  glabrous.  —  Near  the  coast,  S.  California. 

72.  E.  FASCICULATUM,  Benth.  Leaves  narrowly  oblanceolate,  acute, 
usually  revolute,  often  glabrate  above,  much  fascicled  :  peduncles  short 
or  elongated,  bearing  a  short  cymosely  divided  umbel,  often  much  con- 
tracted or  capitate  :  bracts  more  or  less  conspicuous  :  involucres  pubes- 
cent or  glabrate  :  flowers  glabrous  or  often  villous.  —  J^.  ericcefolium, 
Torr.  &  Gray,  Rev.  170.  S.  California  to  Arizona  and  S.  Utah. 
Very  variable. 

^-  4-  -t-  Involucres  mostly  solitary  (terminal  and  alar),  in  a  repeatedly  di-  or 
trichotomous  corj-mb-like  cyme :  leaves  not  fascicled :  bracts  small,  very 
rarely  foliaceous  below. —  (§  Corymbosa,  Benth.,  Torr.  &  Gray,  excl.  sp.) 

•w-  Perennials,  woody  and  diffusely  much-branched,  leafy  below  :  leaves  ovate- 
to  oblong-oblanceolate  or  linear  :  sepals  obovate,  the  inner  emarginate. 

73.  E.  MiCROTHECDM,  Nutt.  Low  and  rather  slender,  more  or  less 
white-tomentose :  leaves  usually  narrow,  revolute,  becoming  glabrate 
above:  involucres  usually  small  (f  to  1|  lines  long),  often  pedun- 
culate: flowers  a  half  to  a  line  long.  —  Var.  effusuji,  Torr.  &  Gray. 
With  very  diffuse  and  repeatedly  divided  inflorescence.  —  Oregon  and 
eastern  base  of  Sierra  Nevada  to  Nebraska  and  New  Mexico ;  the 
variety  eastward. 

74.  E.  C0RYMB0SD>i,  Benth.  Stouter  and  more  rigid,  usually 
densely  tomentose :  leaves  broader  and  less  revolute :  umbel  stifl\, 
broadly  cymose :  involucres  mostly  sessile,  1  to  2  lines  long :  flowers 
a  line  or  two  long.  —  Including  E.  microthecum,  var.  Fendlerianum, 
Benth.,  Torr.  &  Gray.     Of  nearly  the  same  range  and  hardly  distinct. 

++  *+  Perennials,  less  woody  and  more  shortly  branched  at  base :  leaves  mostly 
narrow  :  sepals  nearly  equal. 

75.  E.  Thompsons,  "Watson  in  Am.  Naturalist,  vii.  302.  Stout 
and  rio-id,  erect,  a  foot  high,  yellowish,  glabrous  above  the  tomentose 
base:  leaves  obovate-oblong,  densely  tomentose  beneath,  glabrate 
above,  on  long  petioles :  involucres  2  lines  long :  flowei-s  yellow,  1^ 
lines  long.  —  S.  Utah. 


266  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

76.  E.  BREVICAULE,  Nutt.  More  lax  and  slender,  glabrous  or 
glabrate  above  the  white-tomentose  base :  leaves  linear  to  narrowly 
oblanceolate,  1  to  3  inches  long,  attenuate  to  a  very  short  petiole, 
often  revolute,  sometimes  glabrate  above:  involucres  1|  lines  long, 
nearly  glabrous :  flowers  yellow,  a  line  long.  —  Idaho  and  Wyoming 
to  New  Mexico. 

77.  E.  LONCHOPHYLLUM,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Described  as  taller  than 
the  last  (a  foot  high  or  more),  with  a  loose  panicle-like  cyme ;  leaves 
lanceolate  to  broadly  linear,  3  inches  long  and  attenuate  into  a  petiole 
an  inch  long  or  more :  flowers  white,  few  in  the  involucres.  —  New 
Mexico,  only  by  Dr.  Newberry. 

1-t-  •»-+  ++  Annuals :  leaves  mostly  rosulate  at  the  base,  a  whorl  rarely  subtend- 
ing the  umbel :  peduncle  short. 

78.  E.  TRUNCATUM,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Slender,  a  foot  high  or  less, 
floccose-woolly  throughout :  leaves  oblanceolate,  an  inch  long :  umbel 
leafly-bracted,  of  4  to  6  elongated  once  or  twice  divided  rays  :  involu- 
cres tomentose,  oblong-turbinate,  2  lines  long :  flowers  rose-colored,  a 
line  long.  —  Near  Mount  Diablo,  California  ;  W.  H.  Brewer. 

79.  E.  MoHAVENSE.  Very  slender,  glabrous  except  at  the  base: 
leaves  round  or  ovate,  tomentose,  small :  umbel  naked,  of  3  or  more 
repeatedly  divided  rays :  involucres  glabrous,  broadly  turbinate,  a  line 
long  :  flowers  yellow,  very  small  (scarcely  a  half  line  long),  abruptly 
narrowed  at  base.  —  Mohave  Valley  ;  Dr.  Edward  Palmer,  1876. 

80.  E.  Lemmoni.  Rather  stout,  a  span  high,  more  or  less  hirsute 
with  very  short  spreading  hairs,  not  at  all  tomentose :  leaves  orbicu- 
lar-reniform,  6  to  9  lines  broad,  on  slender  petioles :  peduncle  fistulous 
or  inflated,  bearing  a  naked  3-rayed  narrow  umbel,  twice  or  thrice 
divided:  involucres  glandular-pubescent,  rather  broadly  turbinate,  1^ 
lines  long :  flowers  pale  rose-color,  half  a  line  long,  with  narrow  sejmls. 
—  On  sand  hills  near  Reno,  Nevada;  J.  G.  Lemmon,  1876.  A  very 
peculiar  species. 

-1-  -4-  -I-  ^-  Involucres  sessile  and  solitary  (often  secund)  along  the  ascending  and 
usually  long-virgate  branches  of  the  open  naked  dichotomous  panicle  :  lowest 
bracts  rarely  foliaceous :  flowers  glabrous  (except  in  n.  89).  —  (§  Vikgata, 
Benth.,  Torr.  &  Gray,  excl.  sp.) 

++  White-tomentose  perennials,  leafy  below :  panicle  sparingly  branched,  usu- 
ally virgate  :  involucres  tomentose,  the  teeth  not  margined:  flowers  white 
or  rose-colored. 

81.  E.  Wrightii,  Torr.  Much  branched  and  usually  very  leafy 
at  base,  rather  slender :  leaves  oblong-  to  linear-oblanceoiate,  acute,  an 
inch  long  or  less  :  bracts  all  small,  triangular :  involucres  and  flowers 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  267 

1  to  li  lines  long:  akene  scabrous  above,  very  acute  at  base.  —  Cali- 
fornia to  New  Mexico.  Variable  ;  inflorescence  in  subalpiue  specimens 
at  times  reduced  to  a  very  few  nearly  capitate  involucres. 

82.  E.  SAXATiLE.  Biennial  or  perennial  (?),  sparingly  branched 
and  very  leafy  at  base,  rather  stout,  a  foot  high  or  less  :  leaves  rounded 
or  obovate,  obtuse,  6  to  8  lines  broad  or  less,  cuneate  at  base  upon  a 
short  thick  petiole,  densely  tomentose  both  sides :  branches  of  the 
cymose  panicle  short  and  somewhat  spreading  :  bracts  larger,  subfolia- 
ceous,  triangular  to  acute-oblong:  involucres  and  flowers  1^  to  2  lines 
long:  sepals  apj^ressed  to  the  nearly  glabrous  akene,  which  is  more 
abruptly  narrowed  at  base.  —  On  rocks  above  San  Bernardino  (Dr. 
C.  C.  Parry,  1876),  and  in  the  Santa  Lucia  Mountains,  Dr.  E.  Palmer. 

83.  E.  STRICTUM,  Benth.  Very  slender,  glabrate  above :  branches 
of  caudex  very  short :  leaves  small,  ovate  to  oblanceolate,  on  long 
slender  petioles :  panicle  twice  or  thrice  divided,  with  1  to  3  involucres 
on  the  short  branches  :  bracts  short,  the  lower  somewhat  elongated : 
flowers  and  glabrate  involucres  1^  lines  long.  —  Blue  Mountains, 
Oregon. 

84.  E.  RACEMOSUM,  Nutt.  Sparingly  or  not  at  all  branched  at 
base,  stout,  1  to  3  feet  high:  leaves  large  (1  to  2|-  inches  long),  ovate 
or  oblong,  on  long  petioles :  lower  bracts  somewhat  foliaceous :  invo- 
lucres approximate  upon  the  few  strict  branches  of  the  once  or  twice 
forked  panicle :  flowers  2  lines  long.  —  Utah  to  New  Mexico. 

85.  E.  ELONGATUM,  Benth.  Sparingly  branched  at  base,  a  foot  or 
two  high :  leaves  usually  scattered,  smaller,  lanceolate  to  ovate,  on 
short  petioles :  bracts  rarely  elongated :  involucres  2^  to  3  lines  long, 
obtusely  toothed,  distant  on  the  few  elongated  branches  of  the  panicle. 
—  S.  California,  near  the  coast. 

++  -w-  Perennials,  woody  and  leafy  below :  panicle  diffuse  with  short  and  rigid 
branclilets  :  involucres  short,  with  rounded  and  more  or  less  membranously 
margined  teeth ;  bracts  very  small. 

86.  E.  Heermanni  ;  Dur.  &  Hilg.  A  foot  high,  soon  glabrate  above, 
divaricately  dichotomous,  the  branclilets  somewhat  spinescent :  leaves 
oblanceolate,  ^  inch  long,  on  slender  petioles  :  involucres  few  and  dis- 
tant, campanulate,  a  line  long :  flowers  rose-colored  or  yellowish,  1 J 
lines  long.  —  S.  California,  Nevada. 

87.  E.  Palmeri.  More  tomentose  throughout,  and  usually  taller : 
leaves  oblanceolate,  ^  inch  long,  on  short  petioles :  branches  somewhat 
flexuous,  mostly  alternately  divided,  the  short  branclilets  divaricate  or 
deflexed,  very  short-jointed :  involucres  rather  numerous,  narrowly  tur- 
binate, a  line  long,  nearly  glabrous :  flowers  a  line  long,  reddish  white; 


268  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

outer  sepals  ciineate-obovate,  the  inner  slightly  narrow :  akene  some- 
what pubescent,  —  San  Diego  County,  California,  and  in  S.  Utah; 
Dr.  Edward  Palmer. 

H-c  -w.  -w  Annuals  :  leaves  usually  rosulate  at  tiie  base,  and  occasionally  occur- 
ring at  the  nodes. 

=  Tomentose  throughout :  branches  of  the  panicle  virgate,  sparingly  divided  : 
involucres  narrow,  2  lines  long. 

88.  E.  viRGATUM.  Benth.  A  foot  or  two  high :  leaves  oblanceo- 
late :  branches  elongated,  ascending :  flowers  glabrous,  a  line  long, 
white,  reddish,  or  yellow.  —  California  ;  variable,  verging  upon  JE.  vim- 
ineuiifi. 

89.  E.  DASTANTHEMUM,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Shorter,  more  slender  : 
leaves  rounded,  somewhat  scattered  :  panicle  more  branched,  rather 
diffuse  :  involucres  very  narrow  :  flowers  a  line  long  or  less,  somewhat 
villous.  —  N.  California. 

=  =  More  slender  and  diffuse,  glabrous  or  somewhat  tomentose  :  involucres 
smaller,  narrow  or  turbinate. 

90.  E.  viMiNEUM,  Dougl.  Rather  diffuse,  the  branches  often 
elongated,  usually  somewhat  tomentose,  at  least  below  the  panicle : 
leaves  i-ounded  to  broadly  ovate:  involucres  IJ  lines  long,  narrow  and 
often  contracted  above :  flowers  rose-colored,  or  yellowish,  a  line  long 
or  more.  —  Washington  Territory  to  N.  Nevada  and  S.  California ; 
variable. 

91.  E.  Baileyi,  Watson,  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  x.  348.  Very  diffusely 
much-branched,  glaucous  and  glabrous  :  leaves  round  to  broadly  ovate, 
densely  tomentose  :  involucres  .a  line  long  or  usually  less,  mostly  wider 
above  with  obtuse  teeth :  flowers  |^  to  f  line  long.  —  Var.  tomen- 
TOSUM.  Loosely  tomentose  throughout :  bracts  more  linear :  involucres 
broadly  turbinate,  deeply  toothed.  —  N.  W.  Nevada  to  S.  California 
and  Arizona.  ''■ 

92.  E.  gracile,  Benth,  Usually  more  strict  and  narrowly  pani- 
cled,  more  or  less  tomentose  throughout:  leaves  oblanceolate  or  ob- 
lonor :  bracts  more  or  less  elongated  or  foliaceous,  the  lower  often 
including  one  or  more  leaves:  involucres  a  line  long  or  less,  broader 
above,  with  rigid  acute  teeth:  flowers  f  line  long.  —  S.  California; 
very  variable. 

93.  E.  POLYCLADON,  Benth.  Stouter,  white-tomentose  throughout, 
the  stem  leafy  its  whole  length :  panicle  erect  and  elongated :  leaves 
oblong-lanceolate  :  sepals  narrower  at  base  and  bracteoles  much  more 
villous.  —  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  2Qd 

94.  E.  Plumatella,  Dur.  &  Hilg.  Low,  grayish  tomentose 
throughout:  intrioately  much-branclied  from  the  base,  leaves  rounded: 
involucres  i  line  long  or  less:  flowers  |  to  at  length  11  lines  long, 
the  sepals  broadly  cuiieate-obovate  and  refuse.  —  N.  W.  Nevada  to 
S.  California. 

95.  E.  IXTRICATUM,  Benth.  Leaves  rounded  and  viscid-pubescent : 
panicle  diffuse  with  numerous  short  divaricate  branchlets,  glabrous  or 
glabrate  :  involucres  very  small,  glabrous:  flowers  minute,  sparingly 
pubescent.  —  Lower  California. 

CHORIZANTHE,  R.  Br.  A  polymorphous  genus,  with  which 
it  seems  necessary  to  unite  Centrostegia  as  too  closely  related  to  the 
section  Mucronea  to  be  kept  distinct.  The  character  upon  which  that 
genus  mainly  rested,  the  spurs  at  the  base  of  the  involucre,  is  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  Chilian  Chorizanthe  commissuralis,  which  is 
without  doubt  a  true  Chorizanthe.  Moreover,  the  involucres  and  spurs 
in  the  two  recognized  species  of  Centrostegia  are  very  different  in  char- 
acter, and  in  some  of  the  3Iucronea  species  the  angles  of  the  involucres 
are  frequently  rather  strongly  gibbous  at  base,  showing  a  tendency 
towards  a  like  peculiarity.  The  known  species,  excepting  the  peren- 
nials of  Chili,  are  the  following :  — 

§  1.  Glabrous  or  glandular,  not  villous  or  tomentose,  with  radical  spatulate 
leaves  and  ternate  foliaceous  more  or  less  connate  bracts  :  involucres  in  open 
dichotomous  panicles,  coriaceo  chartaceous,  the  awns  not  uncinate  :  flowers 
6-parted,  soft-pubescent,  on  slender  pedicels :  stamens  9,  inserted  at  the 
base.  —  Mucronea.    S.California. 

*  Involucres  1-3  flowered,  with  3  to  6  mostly  erect  teeth  and  3  to  6  divaricate 
cuspidate  or  awned  spurs  at  base:  bracts  small.  —  (Centrostegia,  Gray.) 

L  C.  Thdrbkri.  Involucres  chartaceous  and  triangular,  with  3  to  5 
broad  short  teeth,  and  3  broad  straight  spurs.  —  Centrostegia  Thurbert, 
Gray. 

2.  C.  LEPTOCERAS.  Livolucres  coriaceous,  deeply  4-6-cleft,  the 
lobes  rigid  and  attenuate,  and  with  as  many  rigid  usually  uncinate  awn- 
like  spurs.  —  Centrostegia  leptoceras,  Gray. 

*  *    Involucres  l-flowered,  with  2  to  5  stout  divergent  teeth,  not  spurred  : 
bracts  conspicuous.  —  (  Mucronea,  Benth.     §  Mucronea,  Torr.  &  Gray. ) 

3.  C.  PERFOLIATA,  Gray.  Sparingly  glandular-hirsute:  bracts  per- 
foliate :  involucres  scattered :  sepals  laciniate. 

4.  C.  Califorxica,  Gray.  More  hirsute :  bracts  unilateral :  in- 
volucres often  cl^astered:  sepals  entire. 


270  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

§  2.  Villous-pubescent  or  hirsute,  not  glandular,  fragile :  bracts  1  to  3,  distinct, 
at  least  the  uppermost  acicular-subulate :  involucres  more  or  less  clustered 
or  capitate,  coriaceous,  1-flowered,  6-angled  and  tootlied,  the  divergent  teeth 
often  uncinate :  flowers  mostly  6-cleft,  nearly  sessile,  glabrous  or  bristly- 
villous  on  the  midveins  (pubescent  in  n.  5)  :  stamens  mostly  9,  inserted 
below  the  middle. — Euchorizanthe,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

*  Involucres  subcapitate  ;  margins  of  the  teeth  mostly  scarious :  stems  more  or 
less  leafy  and  bracts  foliaceous. 

■1-  Teeth  united  by  a  petaloid  margin  (except  in  the  alar  involucres)  :  stems 
erect :  heads  few  and  dense. 

5.  C.  MEMBRANACEA,  Beuth.  Floccose-tomentose,  slender,  leafy : 
leaves  linear  :  scarious  limb  of  the  involucre  at  length  broadly  dilated  : 
flowers  as  in  the  preceding  section ;  the  sepals  spatulate :  stamens  at 
the  base.  —  Mendocino  County  to  San  Luis  Obispo. 

6.  C.  STELLULATA,  Beiith.  Low,  hirsute :  leaves  liuear-oblanceo- 
late,  scattered :  involucres  2  or  3  lines  long ;  margin  of  the  teeth 
narrower :  flowers  glabrous,  sessile,  2^  lines  long,  equally  6-cleft ; 
segments  obcordate.  —  Sacramento  Valley  ;  only  from  Hartvveg. 

7.  C.  DouGLASii,  Benth.  Similar,  but  leaves  in  1  or  2  whorls: 
involucres  1^  lines  long:  flowers  shortly  pedicelled,  a  line  long;  seg- 
ments truncate,  the  outer  cuspidate,  the  inner  shorter  and  retuse.  — 
Near  Monterey  (?)  ;  only  from  Douglas. 

H-  -1-  Teeth  distinct,  scariously  margined  or  herbaceous :  usually  more  diffuse 
and  decumbent,  villous-pubescent,  with  more  numerous  scattered  heads. 
•w-  Slender  and  mostly  decumbent :  involucres  and  flowers  1  to  1^  lines  long. 

8.  C.  DIFFUSA,  Benth.  Leaves  narrowly  spatulate,  an  inch  long  or 
less :  bracts  short,  acerose :  involucres  and  flowers  a  line  long,  the 
teeth  long-awned  and  broadly  scarious :  calyx-segments  oblong,  nearly 
equal,  the  inner  slightly  narrower.  —  Near  Monterey. 

9.  C.  Breweri.  Ascending  or  erect,  2  to  4  inches  high,  softly 
pubescent :  leaves  ovate  or  rounded,  3  to  6  lines  broad,  on  slender 
petioles :  bracts  foliaceous,  linear-oblanceolate,  pungent :  involucres 
and  flowers  1^  lines  long,  the  short  slightly  unequal  teeth  united  at 
base  by  an  inconspicuous  margin,  stout  and  curved,  shortly  awned : 
flowers  glabrous  or  villous ;  segments  broadly  oblong,  the  inner  ones 
shorter :  stamens  at  the  base.  —  On  dry  rocky  hillsides  at  San  Luis 
Obispo  and  in  San  Margarita  Valley ;  collected  by  Prof.  W.  H. 
Brewer. 

10.  C.  PUNGENS,  Benth.  Decumbent  or  at  first  erect:  leaves 
oblanceolate,  mostly  opposite:  bracts  foliaceous:  involucres  1^  to  2 
lines  long,  the  unequal  teeth  usually  margined :  calyx-segments  short, 
equal,  oblong.  —  San  Francisco  and  southward,  common. 


OF    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  271 

++  ++  Stouter,  erect :  bracts  foliaceous :  involucres  and  tiowers  2  to  2^  lines 
long. 

11.  C.  VALiDA.  Mostly  stout,  6  inches  high  or  less,  sparingly 
branched :  leaves  oblanceolate,  an  inch  long,  the  bracts  similar :  in- 
volucres in  rather  close  heads,  2h  to  3  lines  long;  teeth  nearly  equal, 
slightly  si)i'eading  with  straight  awns,  scarcely  margined :  flowers  2^ 
lines  long,  villous  or  glabrous ;  segments  oblong,  very  unequal,  the 
shorter  ones  erose :  stamens  adnate  to  the  middle  of  the  tube  or 
nearly  to  the  top.  —  Specimens  in  herb.  Gray  are  from  the  ''  Rus- 
sian Colony "  (from  herb.  Acad.  St.  Petersb.),  and  also  collected  by 
Rev.  Mr.  Samuels,  probably  in  the  same  region. 

12.  C.  Palmeri.  Stout  and  branching,  a  span  high  or  less:  leaves 
spatulate,  2  inches  long :  bracts  oblanceolate,  conspicuous :  involucres 
in  large  close  cymes,  2  lines  long ;  teeth  not  margined,  slightly  diver- 
gent, one  long-awned,  the  rest  nearly  equal :  flowers  glabrous,  broadly 
lobed ;  outer  segments  rounded,  entire,  the  inner  shorter,  truncate  or 
bifid,  shortly  laciniate :  stamens  near  the  base.  —  Near  San  Luis 
Obispo;  Dr.  Edward  Palmer,  1876  (n.  464). 

»  *   Involucres  at  length  scattered  or  only  loosely  cymosely  clustered ;  teeth 
unequal,  not  margined. 

■t-  Calyx-segments   lanceolate,  fimbriate :   leaves  all  radical :  bracts  not  folia- 
ceous :  villous-pubescent  or  glabrate.  —  S.  California. 

13.  C.  FiMBRiATA,  Nutt.  Segments  coarsely  fringed  below  the 
obtuse  summit. 

14.  C.  LACiNiATA,  Torr.  Segments  long-acuminate,  copiously 
fringed. 

■t-  I-  Calyx-segments  short,  oblong,  entire. 
++  Bracts  not  foliaceous. 

15.  C.  STATICOIDES,  Bentli.  Erect,  often  a  foot  high,  branching 
above:  leaves  oblong,  tomentose  beneath:  involucres  1^  to  3  lines 
long,  alternate  teeth  often  much  enlarged:  flowers  rose-colored,  2  to  2^ 
lines  long,  glabrous ;  segments  oblong,  the  inner  ones  nearly  a  half 
shorter.  —  Monterey  to  San  Diego. 

16.  C.  PROCUMBENS,  Nutt.  Slender,  procumbent,  diffusely  branched 
from  the  base :  leaves  spatulate,  not  tomentose :  involucres  1  to  1  ^ 
lines  long:  flowers  yellowish,  1;^  lines  long,  with  equal  narrowly  oblong 
segments.  —  San  Diego. 

t-f  -w-  Bracts  more  or  less  foliaceous  :  flowers  1^  lines  long:  branched  from  the 
base. 

17.  C.  Parryi.     Small,  villous-pubescent,  leafy:  leaves  narrowly 


272  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

oblanceolate,  not  tomentose,  an  inch  long :  lower  bracts  as  large,  simi- 
lar: tube  of  involucre  a  line  long,  tlie  very  divergent  alternate  teeth 
as  long  or  longer  :  flowers  white  or  pinkish,  villous  ;  segments  recurved, 
somewhat  undulate,  oblong-ovate,  crenate,  acutisli,  the  inner  narrower, 
scarcely  shorter :  stamens  9.  —  Common  on  gravelly  mesas  near  Crof- 
ton,  San  Bernardino  County;  Dr.  C.  C.  Parry,  1876. 

18.  C.  Xanti.  Small,  villous-pubescent  and  tomentose :  the  leaves 
ovate-oblong,  2  to  6  lines  long,  tomentose  beneath  :  lower  bracts  simi- 
lar or  linear-oblanceol  ale :  involucres  tomentose,  in  diffuse  cymes,  the 
tube  2  lines  long ;  teeth  very  divergent,  often  half  as  long  or  more,  the 
alternate  ones  much  smaller :  flowers  rose-colored,  2^  lines  long,  vil- 
lous ;  segments  linear-oblong,  entire,  acutish,  the  inner  a  half  shorter  : 
stamens  6  (rarely  7  or  8.)  —  C.  procumbens,  Gray,  Proc.  Bost.  Soc. 
vii.  148;  referred  to  C  staticoides,  in  Torr.  &  Gray,  Rev.  195.  Near 
Fort  Tejon  (C.  L.  Xantus,  Dr.  Horn) ;  San  Bernardino  and  San  Gor- 
gonio,  on  sandy  washes,  Dr.  C.  C.  Parry. 

19.  C.  Wheeleri.  Small,  villous-pubescent  and  tomentose  :  leaves 
and  bracts  tomentose  beneath,  the  latter  oblanceolate,  an  inch  long  or 
less  :  involucres  in  small  cymes,  nearly  glabrous,  a  line  long,  with  short 
stout  teeth,  the  alternate  ones  smaller:  flowers  rose-colored,  \\  lines, 
long,  glabrous  ;  segments  broadly  oblong,  the  inner  slightly  shorter  and 
broader :  stamens  6.  —  Near  Santa  Barbara ;  Dr.  J.  T.  Rothrock,  on 
Lieut,  G.  M.  Wheeler's  Geogr.  Survey,  1876. 

20.  C.  UNiARiSTATA,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Villous-pubescent :  leaves 
and  bracts  spatulate  or  oblanceolate :  involucres  numerous,  scattered ; 
one  tooth  with  a  long  straight  awn,  the  rest  short  and  uncinate: 
flowers  yellowish,  \\  lines  long;  segments  very  unequal,  the  outer 
obovate,  entire,  the  inner  oblong,  crenate:  stamens  3  or  9. —  S.  Cali- 
fornia; near  New  Idria  (Prof.  Brewer),  and  on  the  Ui^per  Salinas,  Dr. 
Palmer. 

21.  C.  BREVICORNU,  Torr.  Pulverulent  or  nearly  glabrous,  erect 
or  ascending,  very  fragile  at  the  tumid  nodes  :  leaves  and  bracts  broadly 
spatulate  to  linear-oblanceolate :  involucres  scattered,  narrow ;  teeth 
very  short,  uncinate:  flowers  included;  segments  narrowly  oblong, 
nearly  equal :  stamens  3  or  6.  —  N.  W.  Nevada  to  S.  E.  California 
and  S.  Utah.* 

§  3.  Villous-pubescent  and  tomentose,  low,  branching  and  fruiting  from  the 
base :  bracts  2  or  3,  distinct :  involucres  scattered,  coriaceous,  1-flowered, 
unequally  3-5-tootlied  or  -lobed,  triangular  or  C3'iindrical,  transversely  cor- 
rugated :  flowers  tubular,  shortly  and  equally  6-cleft,  glabrous  :  stamens  G  or  9, 
short,  on  the  throat.  —  Acanthogonum,  Torr.  &  Gray. 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  273 

*  Involucres  broadly  triangular  :  bracts  foliaceous  :  flowers  nearly  sessile. 

22.  C.  POLTGONOIDES,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Decumbent,  villoiis-pubes- 
cent:  leaves  and  bracts  narrowly  oblanceolate ;  floral  bracts  very 
short :  involucres  3-costate,  with  3  stout  broad  divergent  uncinate 
teeth, exceeding  the  (1  line  tube)  long.  —  Near  Placerville,  California; 
only  by  Rattan. 

23.  C.  KiGiDA,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Erect,  low,  dense,  becoming  rigid 
and  persistent :  leaves  and  bracts  ovate,  tomentose  beneath ;  floral 
bracts  linear-subulate,  stout  and  spinescent,  6  to  15  lines  long:  in- 
volucres 6-costate,  with  3  very  unequal  lanceolate  carinate  spinescent 
or  pungent  teeth.  —  N.  W.  Nevada  to  S.  E.  California  and  S.  Utah. 

*  *  Involucres  cylindrical :  bracts  not  foliaceous,  subulate-setaceous :  flowers 
on  slender  pedicels  :  leaves  tomentose  beneath  :   low. 

24.  C.  CORRUGATA,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Leaves  ovate :  the  involucres 
strono-ly  corrugated,  8-toothed :  flowers  white,  included :  stamens  on 
the  middle  of  the  tube.  —  Valley  of  the  Lower  Colorado. 

25.  C.  Watsoni,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Leaves  narrowly  oblanceolate : 
bracts  rarely  foliaceous :  the  involucres  obscurely  corrugated,  very  un- 
equally 5-toothed  :  flowers  yellow,  slightly  exserted.  —  N.  Nevada  to 
S.  E.  California. 

OxTTHECA  iNERMis.  Low  and  slender:  leaves  broadly  oblanceo- 
late, glabrous,  with  scabrous-ciliate  margin  :  bracts  linear-oblong,  united 
only  at  base,  acute  without  awns,  2  or  3  lines  long :  involucres  shortly 
pedicelled,  4-parted  nearly  to  the  base,  the  oblong-lanceolate  lobes 
nearly  equal,  acute  without  awns,  a  line  long :  flowers  rose-colored, 
half  a  line  long  ;  sepals  oblong,  the  inner  smaller  and  retuse.  —  Cali- 
fornia, probably  on  Mount  Diablo :  collected  only  by  Miss  M.  J.  Ban- 
croft. Remarkable  for  the  total  absence  of  awns,  but  otherwise  with 
the  characters  of  the  genus,  and  nearly  allied  to  0.  dendroidea,  Nutt. 

Amarantus  (Pyxidium)  blitoides.  Prostrate  or  decumbent,  the 
slender  stems  becoming  a  foot  or  two  long,  glabrous  or  neaily  so : 
leaves  broadly  spatulate  to  narrowly  oblanceolate,  attenuate  to  a  slender 
petiole,  an  inch  long  or  usually  less :  flowers  in  small  contracted  axil- 
lary spikelets :  bracts  nearly  equal,  ovate-oblong,  shortly  acuminate, 
1  to  1^  lines  long,  little  exceeding  the  oblong  obtuse  and  mucronulate 
or  acute  sepals :  utricle  not  rugose,  slightly  longer  than  the  sepals : 
seed  nearly  a  line  broad. —  Frequent  in  the  valleys  and  plains  of  the 
interior,  from  Mexico  to  N.  Nevada  and  Iowa,  and  becoming  intro- 
duced in  some  of  the  Northern  States  eastward.  It  somewhat  resem- 
bles the  A.  Blitum,  Linn.,  of  the  Old  World,  and  has  been  mistaken 

VOL.  XII.  (N.  S.  IV.)  18 


274  ^PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

for  it ;  but  that  species  is  usually  erect,  with  shorter  and  more  scarious 
bracts,  and  a  smaller  seed  more  notched  at  the  hilum.  The  allied 
A.  albus,  Linn.,  also  common  and  indigenous  throughout  the  interior, 
is  distinguished  by  its  usually  erect  dilFusely  branched  habit :  rhachis 
of  the  spikelets  often  somewhat  elongated  (^  to  3  lines  long)  :  bracts 
subulate,  rigid,  pungently  awned,  1  to  2|  lines  long,  the  lateral  ones  very 
much  smaller  or  wanting  :  sepals  oblong-lanceolate,  acuminate,  shorter 
than  the  slightly  rugose  utricle:  seed  smaller  (|  line  broad).  It  is 
very  abundant  on  the  western  prairies,  where  it  is  populai-ly  known  as 
"rolling"  or  "tumble-weed,"  the  stem  breaking  off  at  the  root  when 
dry  and  the  compact  top  rolling  before  the  wind  to  any  distance. 

Amaranths  (Amblogyne)  Pa.lmeri,  Dioecious,  rather  stout, 
erect,  2  or  3  feet  high,  branching,  somewhat  pubescent  above  or  glab- 
rate :  leaves  oblong-rhomboid,  an  inch  or  two  long  and  about  equalling 
the  petiole,  the  upper  linear-lanceolate  :  flowers  in  close  elongated 
linear  spikes,  leafy  at  base :  bracts  solitary,  mostly  twice  longer  than 
the  flowers,  spreading,  subulate  and  rigid,  narrowed  into  a  stout  awn  : 
sepals  of  fertile  flowers  distinct  or  nearly  so,  1  to  1 J  lines  long,  oblong 
and  somewhat  broader  above,  obtuse  or  retuse,  two  or  three  usually 
slightly  larger  and  more  acute  or  setaceously  apiculate :  stigmas 
usually  2 :  utricle  circumscissile.  —  At  Larkin's  Station,  San  Diego 
County,  California,  by  Dr.  E.  Palmer  (n.  323  of  his  collection)  ;  also 
on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande,  by  Berlandier  (n.  2407)  in  1834. 
Staminate  flowers  have  not  been  detected  among  the  fruiting  speci- 
mens, but  what  is  probably  to  be  considered  the  sterile  form  has  been 
found  by  various  collectors  from  the  Rio  Grande  through  Arizona  to 
S.  California  and  Cape  St.  Lucas.  These  accord  in  habit  and  foliage 
with  the  pistillate  plants,  and  have  very  narrowly  acuminate  or  seta- 
ceous pungent  bracts,  equalling  or  usually  exceeding  the  lanceolate 
long-acuminate  sepals.  An  examination  of  all  our  species  of  the  group 
seems  to  fully  justify  the  reference  by  Mr.  Bentham  of  the  genus 
Arnblogyne  (including  Sarratia)  to  Amarantus.  To  the  A.  jimhriatus, 
A.  Torreyi,  &c.,  of  the  same  region,  the  following  species  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  may  be  added :  — 

Amaranths  (Amblogyne)  Greggii.  Dicecious,  erect,  glabrous  or 
nearly  so :  upper  leaves  rhombic-ovate,  an  inch  long  or  less,  on  short 
petioles,  rather  thick  and  somewhat  scabrous  :  spike  elongated,  leafy  and 
interrupted  at  base  :  bracts  solitary,  lanceolate,  acuminate,  scarious,  erect, 
much  shorter  than  the  fruiting  calyx:  sepals  distinct,  \^  lines  long, 
oblong-spatulate,  acute,  the  inner  ones  somewhat  the  narrower  below : 
stigmas  3 :  utricle  a  little  shorter,  thin  and  not  circumscissile :   seed 


OF   AETS   AND   SCIENCES.  275 

^  line  broad.  —  Collected  by  Dr.  Gregg  near  the  mouth  of  the  Eio 
Grande,  in  1848  —  only  pistillate  specimens. 

Amaranths  (Euamarantus)  Wrightii.  Glabrous,  erect  and 
slender,  with  ascending  branches  and  spikes,  2  or  3  feet  high  or  more, 
reddish  :  leaves  small  and  thin,  the  upper  ones  but  an  inch  long,  on 
slender  petioles,  oblong  to  narrowly  lanceolate :  terminal  compound 
spike  erect,  narrow,  and  rather  leafy :  bracts  solitary,  subulate, 
rigid,  attenuate  into  a  pungent  awn,  about  1|^' lines  long:  sepals  ^  to 
nearly  1  line  long,  oblong  to  oblong-spatulate,  obtuse,  sometimes 
emarginate  :  utricle  about  equalling  the  sepals :  seed  orbicular,  h  line 
broad.  —  Collected  at  the  Copper  Mines,  New  Mexico,  by  Mr.  Wright 
(n.  1748,  in  part),  October,  1851 ;  also  in  the  Upper  Arkansas  Valley, 
by  Messrs.  Wolf  &  Rothrock  (n.  275)  in  1873.  Approaching  the 
section  Amhiogyne  in  the  characters  of  the  calyx. 

A5IARAXTUS  (Euamarantus)  obovatus.  Pubescent,  slender, 
erect,  2  feet  high,  reddish,  sparingly  branched:  leaves  small,  1  to  1^ 
inches  long,  lanceolate,  on  short  slender  petioles  :  spikes  erect,  narrow, 
the  terminal  ones  an  inch  or  two  long,  the  axillary  shorter  :  bracts 
subulate,  acuminate  and  pungent,  1^  to  2  lines  long,  much  exceeding 
the  unequal  narrowly  oblong  acute  sepals  :  utricle  equalling  the  calyx  : 
seeds  oblong-obovate,  f  line  long.  —  Also  collected  by  Mr.  Wright  and 
in  the  same  locality,  and  distributed  under  the  same  number ;  referred 
in  Bot.  Mex.  Bound,  to  A.  hybridus.  Remarkable  in  the  shajje  of  the 
seed. 

Atriplex  decumbens.  Decumbent  or  procumbent,  slender  and 
branching  from  the  base,  densely  hoary-scurfy,  the  stems  becoming 
somewhat  woody  below :  leaves  mostly  opposite,  oblong-ovate,  sessile, 
acute  or  acutish,  cuneate  or  obtuse  at  base,  ^  to  1  inch  long  or  less : 
staminate  flowers  in  dense  clusters  in  short  interrupted  terminal  spikes  ; 
calyx  5-cleft:  fruiting  bracts  coriaceous,  compressed,  united  to  above 
the  middle,  triangular-cordate,  acute,  2  lines  long  and  broad,  entire  or 
slightly  denticulate,  not  herbaceously  margined  nor  the  sides  muricate  : 
seed  nearly  a  line  long.  —  Near  San  Diego;  Dr.  E.  Palmer,  1876 
(n.  334).     Allied  to  A.  leiicophylla,  Dietr. 

Corallorhiza  Bigelovii.  Scape  stout,  6  to  15  inches  high: 
sepals  and  petals  oblong,  obtuse,  about  4  lines  long,  twice  longer 
than  the  column,  purple  and  veined  (not  spotted)  ;  lateral  sepals 
oblique  and  with  the  base  of  the  column  strongly  gibbous  over  the 
top  of  the  ovary  ;  lip  entire,  fleshy,  darker  colored  and  strongly  veined, 
deeply  concave,  elliptical,  broad  and  somewhat  auricled  at  base,  with 
two  thick  laminae ;  spur  none :  column  rather  slender,  broadly  margined 


2T6  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

below  :  capsule  oblong-ovate,  6  to  9  lines  long,  shortly  attenuate  to 
a  short  pedicel, —  G.  striata,  Torrey,  Pac.  R.  Rep.  iv.  152,  t.  25.  In 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  mountains  of  N.  California.  Recognized  by 
Dr.  Torrey  as  distinct  from  C.  MacrcBi,  which  is  doubtless  identical 
with  the  original  C.  striata  of  Lindley.  The  figure  cited  fails  to 
represent  the  gibbosity  of  the  perianth.  C.  striata  is  very  similar, 
but  with  the  flowers  still  larger  (often  6  or  7  lines  long)  ;  lip  rather 
less  fleshy,  somewhat  narrower  below,  reflexed  above  the  base,  and 
bearing  the  prominent  laminie  upon  the  arch  :  ranging  from  Washing- 
ton Territory  and  Oregon  to  the  Great  Lakes. 

Habenaria  sparsiflora.  Stem  rather  slender,  a  foot  or  two 
high,  leafy  :  leaves  narrowly  lanceolate,  acutish  or  acute  :  bracts  linear- 
lanceolate,  acuminate,  usually  much  exceeding  the  greenish  flowers, 
which  are  few  (10  to  20)  and  distant :  perianth  thin  and  delicate, 
apparently  spreading:  sepals  3-nerved,  the  lateral  ones  oblong  or 
lanceolate,  2  or  3  lines  long,  the  upper  ovate  and  a  little  shorter :  lip 
several-nerved,  narrow,  linear  or  lanceolate,  3  or  4  lines  long,  nearly 
equalling  the  narrow  sjjur :  anther  emarginate ;  stalks  of  the  pollen^ 
masses  very  slender :  glands  orbicular :  beak  of  stigma  broadly  tri- 
angular :  capsule  oblong,  sessile,  6  lines  long.  —  H.  Thurheri,  var.. 
Gray,  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  vii.  389.  Common  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
mountains  of  Northern  California ;  marked  by  its  peculiar  habit. 
The  typical  H.  Thurheri  is  to  be  referred  to  H.  leucostachys. 

Habenaria  pedicellata.  Stem  leafy  :  raceme  loose,  20-30-flow- 
ered,  with  linear-lanceolate  bracts  shorter  than  the  long-pedicellate 
flowers  :  sepals  3-nerved,  2h  lines  long,  oblong,  the  upper  ovate  ;  lip 
fleshy,  several-nerved,  oblong-lanceolate,  half  broader  at  base,  3  lines 
long ;  spur  filiform,  twice  longer  than  the  sepals :  pollen-masses  at- 
tached to  the  oblong  glands  by  a  short  thick  pedicel:  beak  of  stigma 
ovate-triangular,  prominent :  capsule  ovate-oblong,  4  lines  long,  attenu- 
ate into  a  slender  pedicel  about  as  long. —  A  single  specimen  of  this 
very  distinct  species  was  collected  by  Prof.  W.  H.  Brewer  (n.  1453, 
in  part)  in  the  Shasta  Mountains,  California ;  September. 

Habenaria  Cooperi.  Stout  and  tall  (3  feet  high),  leafy :  flowers 
numerous,  spicate,  yellowish  green :  sepals  and  petals  nerveless,  con- 
nivent  at  base,  rather  thick,  equal,  2  lines  long ;  lateral  sepals  oblong, 
the  upper  ovate ;  lip  ovate,  truncate  at  base,  with  a  broad  claw ;  spur 
short  and  thick  :  glands  orbicular  :  beak  of  stigma  triangular  :  capsule 
oblong,  sessile,  4  or  5  lines  long.  —  On  clay  hills  near  San  Diego,  Cali- 
fornia ;  Dr.  J.  G.  Cooper.  A  strongly  marked  species,  allied  to  H. 
hyperhorea,  R.  Brown.     Of  the  other  western  species  of  this  genus, 


OP   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  277 

H.  Unalaschcensis  (Spiranthes  Unalaschcensis,  Spreng.,and  H.  Schisch- 
mareffiana,  Cham.)  must  include  H.  foetida,  Watson  (Platant/iera, 
Geyer),  and  Gymnadenia  longispica,  Dunind.  Liudley's  Platanthera 
striata  is  to  be  referred  to  H.  gracilis  (^Platanthera  gi-acilis,  Lindl.), 
distinguished  by  its  short  saccate  spur. 

SiSYRiNCHiUM  BELLUM.  Stems  ancipital,  ^  to  2  feet  high  or  more, 
smooth  or  scabrous  on  the  narrow  margins,  of  a  single  node  or  often 
with  2  or  3  nodes,  each  node  bearing  1  to  4  (usually  2)  peduncles : 
leaves  a  line  or  two  wide,  shorter  than  the  stem ;  peduncles  2  to  4 
inches  long,  usually  about  equalling  the  nodal  bract :  spathes  of  two 
mostly  nearly  equal  bracts,  a  half  to  an  inch  long,  scabrous  on  the 
keel,  4— 7 -flowered :  segments  of  perianth  about  6  lines  long,  broad, 
3-toothed  or  sometimes  mucronate,  light  purple,  darker  below  and  yellow 
at  base,  somewhat  pubescent,  as  also  the  ovary :  stamineal  column 
3  lines  long,  purplish,  pubescent  at  base :  capsule  depressed-globose 
or  -obovoid,  2  or  3  lines  long;  cells  about  10-seeded:  seeds  irregularly 
and  obtusely  angled,  roughened,  f  line  in  diameter.  —  Common  through- 
out California  and  to  the  Columbia  River ;  the  western  equivalent  of 
S.  anceps,  Linn.,  in  the  Atlantic  States.  It  strongly  resembles  the 
latter  species,  differing  in  its  generally  stouter  habit,  broader  foliage, 
and  larger  flowers,  in  its  less  mucronate  petals,  and  in  its  twice  larger 
seeds.  It  occasionally  occurs  with  scapelike  stems  bearing  a  single 
spathe,  simulating  the  eastern  S.  mucronatum,  Michx.,  which  is  distin- 
guished by  its  low  and  usually  very  slender  habit,  the  scape  always 
terminated  by  a  single  spathe  sessile  within  the  terminal  longer  bract, 
the  flowers  small  with  segments  setosely  mucronate,  and  capsules  glo- 
bose ;  the  size  of  the  seeds  is  about  the  same  in  both.  The  two  eastern 
species  are  distinct  from  the  Linnean  *S.  Bermudianiun,  as  plainly  ap- 
pears on  comparison  with  specimens  from  the  Bermudas  kindly  furnished 
by  Governor  Lefroy.  These  have  a  very  stout  broadly  winged 
branching  stem,  with  leaves  3  lines  wide,  broad  spathes,  larger  flowers 
(6  to  9  lines  long),  and  obovate  capsules  3  lines  long.  The  Texan 
S.  minus,  Engelm.  &  Gray,  referred  to  S.  Bermitdianum  by  Klatt,  is 
even  more  distinct,  with  its  low  slender  very  branching  habit,  small  red 
flowers,  oblong  capsules,  and  minute  round  seeds.  There  are  indica- 
tions of  other  species  to  be  found  in  Florida  and  the  western  Gulf 
States. 

Erythronium  purpurascens.  Leaves  undulate,  oblong-  to  narrowly 
lanceolate,  4  to  6  inches  long :  scape  low,  often  stout,  occasionally  di- 
vided, racemosely  or  somewhat  umbellately  4-8-flowered  or  more  ; 
pedicels  very  unequal,  the  upper  becoming  2  to  4  inches  long :  flowers 


278  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY. 

light  yellow,  more  or  less  tinged  with  purple,  deep  orange  at  base ;  the 
lanceolate  segments  spreading,  9  to  12  lines  long:  anthers  oblong,  1^ 
to  2  lines  long,  yellow,  on  very  slender  filaments  :  style  thickened 
above,  o-lobed  at  the  summit :  capsule  erect,  narrowly  oblong  and  ob- 
tusely triangular,  faintly  nerved,  1;^  inches  long.  —  E.  grandijlorum, 
var.  multijiormn,  Torrey,  Pac.  R.  Rep.  iv.  90  ;  Baker,  Journ.  Linn. 
Soc.  xiv.  298.  In  the  Sierra  Nevada :  near  Downieville,  Sierra  Co. 
(Dr.  J.  M.  Bigelow),  and  frequent  in  Plumas  Co.,  whence  fine  speci- 
mens have  been  received  from  Mrs.  M.  E.  Pulsifer  Ames  and  from 
Mrs.  R.  M.  Austin.  Abundantly  distinct  from  E.  grandijlorum,  and  a 
very  pretty  species,  well  deserving  cultivation. 


PllOCEEDIXGS. 


Six  hundred  and  ninety-second  Meeting. 

May  30,  1876.  —  Annual  Meeting. 

The  Peesident  in  the  chair. 

The  Corresponding  Secretary  read  letters  from  the  follow- 
ing gentlemen  :  Professor  W.  D.  Whitney,  offering  the  thanks 
of  the  American  Oriental  Society  for  the  use  of  the  hall  of 
the  Academy ;  Dr.  Thomas  Andrews,  expressing  his  thanks 
for  the  gift  of  the  "  Works  of  Rumford ; "  Messrs.  Stewart 
and  Rowland,  accepting  their  election  as  members  of  the 
Academy ;  and  Mr.  George  S.  Hillard  resigning  his  Fellow- 
ship. 

The  Treasurer  presented  his  annual  report,  which  was 
accepted  and  ordered  to  be  entered  on  the  records. 

The  Librarian  jjresented  his  report,  which  was  accepted. 

Professor  Cooke  presented  the  report  of  the  Rumford 
Committee,  which  was  accepted.  In  accordance  with  a  sug- 
gestion contained  in  this  report,  it  was 

Voted,  To  jolace  six  hundred  dollars  ($600)  of  the  Rum- 
ford fund  at  the  disposal  of  the  Rumford  Committee  to  aid 
Professor  H.  A.  Rowland  in  a  determination  of  the  mechan- 
ical equivalent  of  heat. 

The  President  announced  the  death  of  Christian  Lassen, 
Foreign  Honorary  Member. 

On  the  motion  of  the  Treasurer,  it  was 

Voted,  To  appropriate  from  the  general  fund :  — 


280  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

For  general  expenses 12,100 

For  Library  expenses 700 

For  Publications 1,500 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  members  of  the  Acad- 
emy :  — 

William  Edward  Story,  of  Somerville,  to  be  a  Resident  Fel- 
low in  Class  L,  Section  1. 

Bennett  Hubbard  Nash,  of  Boston,  to  be  a  Resident  Fel- 
low in  Class  III.,  Section  2.   ' 

Alfred  Tennyson,  of  Freshwater,  to  be  a  Foreign  Honorary 
Member  in  Class  III.,  Section  4,  in  place  of  the  late  Mar- 
chese  Giho  Capponi. 

Francois  Auguste  Alexis  Mignet  of  Paris,  to  be  a  Foreign 
Honorary  Member  in  Class  III.,  Section  3. 

Ernst  Curtius,  of  Berlin,  to  be  a  Foreign  Honorary  Mem- 
ber in  Class  III.,  Section  3. 

Sir  Henry  Creswicke  Rawlinson,  of  London,  to  be  a  For- 
eign Honorary  Member  in  Class  III.,  Section  2,  in  place  of 
the  late  Christian  Lassen. 

Arthur  Penrhyn  Stanley,  of  Loudon,  to  be  a  Foreign  Hon- 
orary Member  in  Class  III.,  Section  3. 

Eugene  Emmanuel  Viollet-Le-Duc,  of  Paris,  to  be  a  For- 
eign Honorary  Member  in  Class  III.,  Section  4,  in  place  of 
the  late  Joaquim  Jose  da  Costa  de  Macedo. 

Mark  Pattison,  of  Oxford,  to  be  a  Foreign  Honorary  Mem- 
ber in  Class  III.,  Section  3,  in  place  of  the  late  Jean  Baptiste 
Benoist  Eyries. 

Thomas  Hill,  of  Portland,  to  be  an  Associate  Fellow  in 
Class  L,  Section  1. 

George  Mary  Searle,  of  New  York,  to  be  an  Associate 
Fellow  in  Class  L,  Section  2, 

Henry  Larcom  Abbot,  of  New  York,  to  be  an  Associate 
Fellow  in  Class  I.,  Section  4. 

Nathaniel  Holmes,  of  St.  Louis,  to  be  an  Associate  Fellow 
in  Class  III.,  Section  1. 

Richard  Saltonstall  Greenough,  of  Floi'ence,  to  be  an  Asso- 
ciate Fellow  in  Class  HI.,  Section  4. 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  281 

The  annual  election  resulted  in  the  choice  of  the  following 
officers :  — 

Charles  F.  Adams,  President. 

Joseph  Lovering,  Vice-President. 

JosiAH  P.  Cooke,  Jr.,  Corresponding  Secretary. 

Edward  C.  Pickering,  Recording  Secretary. 

Edmund  Quincy,  Treasurer  and  Librarian. 

Council. 
John  B.  Henck,         \ 
WoLCOTT  GiBBs,  \  of  Class  I. 

Charles  W.  Eliot,   ) 

Alexander  Agassiz,  \ 

John  A.  Lowell,         [  of  Class  11. 

Benj.  E.  Cotting,        ) 

George  E.  Ellis,       \ 

Andrew  P.  Peabody,  \  of  Class  III. 

Charles  C.  Perkins,  ) 

Rumford  Committee. 
Morrill  Wyman.  James  B.  Francis. 

WOLCOTT    GiBBS.  JOHN    M.    OrDWAY. 

Edward  C.  Pickering.       Stephen  P.  Ruggles. 
John  Trowbridge. 

Committee  on  Finance. 

Charles  Francis  Adams,  )        ^  . 
„  „  )  ex  officio. 

Edmund  Quincy,  )        *^ 

Thomas  T.  Bouve. 

The  following  Committees  were  appointed  on  the  nomina- 
tion of  the  President :  — 

Committee  on  Publication. 

Alexander  Agassiz.  W.  R.  Goodwin. 

John  Trowbridge. 


282  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY 

Committee  on  the  Library. 

Charles  Deane.  Henry  P.  Bowditch. 

William  R.  Nichols. 

Auditing  Committee. 
Henry  G.  Denny.  Robert  W.  Hooper. 

Voted,  To  adjourn  this  meeting,  at  its  close,  to  the  second 
Wednesday  in  June. 

Professor  Watson  presented  a  continuation  of  his  paper  on 
"  Inland  Navigation." 


Six  liiindred  and  ninety-tliird  Meeting. 

June  14,  1876.  —  Adjourned  Annual  Meeting. 

The  President  in  the  chair. 

The  following  papers  were  read :  — 

On  parachlor  and  paraiodbenzjdbromides,  by  Professor 
C.  L.  Jackson. 

On  derivatives  of  parabronibenzylbromides,  by  C.  L.  Jack- 
son and  Woodbury  Lowery. 

On  methyluric  acid,  by  Professor  H.  B.  Hill. 

On  the  salts  of  methyluric  acid,  by  O.  R.  Jackson. 

The  following  papers  were  presented  by  title  :  — 

On  the  solubility  of  sodic  and  potassic  bromides  in  absolute 
alcohol,  by  J.  H.  Bullard  and  A.  L.  Thomsen. 

On  the  atomic  weight  of  antimony,  by  Professor  J.  P. 
Cooke,  Jr. 

Contribution  towards  the  history  of  the  fluorides  of  man- 
ganese, by  W.  H.  Melville. 

Researches  on  the  substituted  benzyl  compounds,  by  Pro- 
fessor C.  L.    Jackson. 

On  the  effect  of  temperature  on  the  viscosity  of  air,  by 
S.  W.  Holman. 

On  the  characters  of  a  new  genus  of  Papaveraceae,  Canbya; 
also,  of  certain  other  new  Californian  species  of  plants,  by 
Professor  Asa  Gray. 


OF  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  283 

Six  Imndred  and  ninety-fourth  Meeting. 

October  11,  1876.  —  Stated  Meeting. 

The  President  in  the  chair. 

Letters  were  read  from  Messrs.  Curtius,  Le  Due,  Mignet, 
Pattison,  Rawlinson,  Stanley,  Abbot,  and  Searle,  accepting 
their  election  as  members  of  the  Academy  ;  also  from  Messrs. 
Bowen  and  Cabot  resigning  their  membership. 

Voted^  To  place  six  hundred  dollars  ($600)  of  the  income 
of  the  Rumford  Fund  at  the  disposal  of  the  Rumford  Com- 
mittee to  aid  Professor  Langiey  in  his  researches  on  radiant 
energy. 

Professor  A.  G.  Bell,  by  invitation  presented  a  paper  on 
telephony. 

On  the  motion  of  IMr.  Emerson  it  was 

Voted,  To  heartily  congratulate  Professor  Bell  on  his  won- 
derful discovery  in  telephony. 

The  following  papers  were  presented  :  — 

On  the  use  of  glass  circles  for  meridian  instruments,  by 
Mr.  W.  A.  Rogers. 

On  the  suspension  of  a  ball  in  a  jet  of  air  having  an  incli- 
nation of  45°  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Rogers. 

On  a  new  edition  of  Ptolemy's  catalogue  of  stars,  by  Mr. 
C.  S.  Peirce. 

Dr.  Gray  presented,  by  title,  the  following  paper  :  — 

Contributions  to  North  American  Botany. 


Six  hundred  and  ninety-fifth  Meeting. 

November  10,  1876.  —  Monthly  Meeting. 

The  President  in  the  chair. 

The  Corresponding  Secretary  announced  the  death  of 
Nicholas  St.  John  Green,  William  A.  Stearns,  and  Edward 
Wigglesworth,  Fellows  of  the  Academy ;  also  of  Charles 
Davies,  Associate  Fellow,  and  Christian  Gottfried  Ehrenberg, 
Foreign  Honorary  Member.  He  also  read  letters  from  Mon- 
sieur G.  A.  Him  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  the  Works  of 


284  PROCEEDINGS   OP    THE   AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

Count  Rumford,  and  from  Dr.  F.  Garrigou,  requesting  the 
Academy  to  send  him  samples  of  the  principal  American 
thermal  springs.  This  last  was  referred  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution. 

Professor  John  Trowbridge,  on  behalf  of  Professor  J.  D. 
Whitney,  presented  a  paper  on  the  velocity  of  the  shock  of 
the  Hell-Gate  explosion. 

Mr.  W.  A.  Rogers  exhibited  a  series  of  drawings  of  the 
planet  Jupiter,  by  Mr.  L.  Trouvelot ;  he  also  presented,  by 
title,  a  paper,  by  Mr.  L.  Waldo,  on  the  pitch  of  the  screw 
of  the  micrometer  of  the  equatorial  of  the  Harvard  College 
observatory. 

Mr.  S.  P.  Sharpies  presented  the  following  papers  by  title :  — 

On  the  aceto-arsenite  of  copper. 

On  some  further  determinations  of  standard  milk. 


Six    hundred    and   ninety-sixth    Meeting. 

December  13,  1876.  —  Monthly  Meeting. 

The  President  in  the  chair. 

The  President  read  a  letter  from  Mr.  Alfred  Tennyson, 
accepting  his  election  as  Foreign  Honorary  Member  ;  also,  a 
letter  from  Mr.  William  Ferrel,  resigning  his  fellowship. 

The  following  papers  were  presented  :  — 

O'n  the  structure  of  the  chrysalis  of  butterflies,  by  Mr. 
S.  H.  Scudder. 

On  the  two-point  and  three-point  problem  in  surveying,  by 
Professor  E.  C.  Pickering. 

On  the  water  of  the  ponds  of  eastern  Massachusetts,  by 
Mr.  S.  P.  Sharpies. 


Six  hundred  and  ninety-seventh  Meeting. 

January  10,  1877.  —  Stated  Meeting. 

The  President  in  the  chair. 

The  following  papers  were  presented  :  — 

On  the  micrometer  level,  by  Professor  E.  C.  Pickering. 


OP  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  285 

On  vortices,  by  Professor  John  Trowbridge. 

On  tri-iodo-resorcin,  by  A.  J.  H.  Norton,  presented  by  Pro- 
fessor E.  N.  Horsford. 

On  the  mythology  of  the  Noith  American  Indians,  by 
Professor  J.  W.  Powell. 

The  President  announced  the  death  of  Professor  Alexis 
Caswell,  of  Providence. 

Voted,  To  adjourn  this  meeting,  at  its  close,  to  the  second 
Wednesday  in  February. 

On  the  suggestion  of  Professor  F.  W.  Putnam,  it  was 

Voted,  To  refer  to  the  Council  the  question  of  depositing  a 
Mexican  mask  and  a  plate  of  Dighton  Rock  in  the  Peabody 
Museum  of  Archaeology. 


Six  hundred  and  ninety-eighth  Meeting. 

February  14,  1877.  —  Adjourned  Stated  Meeting. 

The  President  in  the  chair. 

Sir  James  Paget,  of  London,  was  elected  a  Foreign  Hono- 
rary Member  in  Class  II.,  Section  4,  in  place  of  the  late 
Gabriel  Andral. 

On  the  motion  of  Professor  Lovering,  it  was 

Voted,  That  a  committee  of  three  be  appointed  to  consider 
and  report  upon  the  expediency  of  memorializing  Congress  to 
pass  a  law  making  it  the  duty  of  postmasters  to  collect  the 
facts  in  regard  to  accidents  to  life  or  property  by  lightning 
which  may  occur  within  the  area  covered  by  their  departments, 
and  communicate  the  same  as  may  hereafter  be  designated. 

A  committee  was  appointed  consisting  of  Messrs.  Lovering, 
Bigelow,  and  Pickering. 

Dr.  Thomas  M.  Brewer  read  a  paper  on  parasitic  birds. 

Professor  A.  Graham  Bell,  introduced  by  the  Recording 
Secretary,  presented  a  description  of  his  further  researches  in 
telephony. 

Dr.  Williams,  on  the  introduction  of  Dr.  B.  E.  Cotting, 
read  a  paper  on  French  verbs. 


286  PKOCEEDINGS    OF    THE    AMERICAN   ACADEMY 

Six  liwnclred  and  ninety-ninth  Meeting. 

March  14,  1877.  —  Stated  Meeting. 

The  President  m  the  chair. 

The  President  announced  the  death  of  Alexander  Braun, 
Wilhehn  Hofraeister,  J.  C.  Poggendorff,  and  Karl  Ernst  Von 
Baer,  Foreign  Honorary  Members;  and  of  C.  H.  Davis, 
Charles  Wilkes,  and  F.  B.  Meek,  Associate  Fellows. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  members  of  the 
Academy :  — 

Alexander  Graham  Bell,  of  Salem,  to  be  a  Resident  Fel- 
low in  Class  I.,  Section  3. 

Jeremiah  Lewis  Diman,  of  Providence,  to  be  an  Associate 
Fellow  in  Class  III.,  Section  3. 

William  Ferrel,  of  Washington,  to  be  an  Associate  Fellow 
in  Class  I.,  Section  1. 

The  Treasurer  read  a  letter  from  the  Hon.  E.  B.  Wash- 
burne,  giving  an  account  of  the  repairs  which  he  had  caused 
to  be  made  at  the  expense  of  the  Academy  of  the  monument 
of  Count  Rumford  at  Paris. 

The  following  papers  were  presented  :  — 

A  mathematical  discussion  of  vortex  rings  in  liquids,  by 
Professor  John  Trowbridge. 

Upon  an  application  of  Lane's  law  of  the  accumulation  of 
solar  heat,  by  Professor  Benjamin  Peirce. 

On  systematic  errors  in  star  declinations,  by  Professor 
E.  C.  Pickering. 

Antigeny  ;  or,  sexual  dimorphism  in  butterflies,  by  Mr.  S.  H. 
Scudder. 

On  a  new  form  of  clock  escapement,  by  Professor  C.  A. 
Young. 

The  following  papers  were  presented  by  title  :  — 

Theory  of  the  horizontal  photoheliograph,  including  its 
application  to  the  determination  of  the  solar  parallax  by  means 
of  transits  of  Venus,  by  Professor  William  Harkness. 

On  a  base  from  the  residues  of  aniline,  by  Professor  C.  L. 
Jackson. 


OF   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES.  287 

On  a  method  of  measuriug  electro-motive  power  by  B.  O. 
Peirce,  Jr. 

A  note  on  tlie  conduction  of  heat  in  a  solid,  by  B.  O. 
Peirce,  Jr. 

Seven  hiindredtli  Meeting. 

April  11, 1877.  —  Monthly  Meeting. 

The  President  in  the  chair. 

The  Corresponding  Secretary  read  letters  from  Messrs. 
Diman,  Ferrel,  and  Paget,  accepting  their  election  into  the 
Academy. 

On  the  motion  of  the  Treasurer  it  was 

Voted,  That  the  thanks  of  the  Academy  be  presented  to 
the  Hon.  E.  B.  Washburne  and  to  Mr.  Riggs  for  their  services 
in  connection  with  the  repairs  of  the  monument  of  Count 
Rumford  in  Paris. 

The  following  papers  were  presented :  — 

On  the  haloid  compounds  of  antimony,  by  Professor  J.  P. 
Cooke,  Jr. 

On  the  temperature  of  a  perfect  gas  which  is  in  convective 
equilibrium,  by  Professor  Benjamin  Peirce. 

The  following  papers  were  presented  by  title :  — 

On  parabrombenzyl  compounds,  by  C.  L.  Jackson  and 
Woodbury  Lowery. 

On  furfurol  formed  in  the  dry  distillation  of  wood  at  low 
temperatures,  with  a  note  on  Scanlan's  pyroxanthin,  by  Pro- 
fessor H.  B.  Hill. 

On  some  new  algse  of  the  United  States,  by  Professor 
W.  G.  Farlow. 

Mode  of  germination  in  the  genus  Megarhiza,  by  Professor 
Asa  Gray. 

Seven  hundred  and  first  Meeting. 

May  9th,  1877.  —  INIonthly  Meeting. 

The  Vice-President  in  the  chair. 

Messrs.  Cooke,  Eliot,  Agassiz,  Ellis,  and  Perkins  were  ap- 
pointed a  committee  on  nominations. 


288  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    AMERICAN   ACADEMY. 

The  Recording  Secretary  declined  to  be  regarded  as  a 
candidate  for  re-election. 

The  following  papers  were  presented  :  — 

On  the  iodides  of  antimony,  by  Professor  J.  P.  Cooke,  Jr. 

On  the  chemical  relations  of  pressure,  by  Professor  T.  S. 
Hunt. 

On  adiabatic  surfaces,  by  Professor  John  Trowbridge. 

On  the  preparation  of  nitrogen  gas,  by  Professor  Wolcott 
Gibbs. 

On  diamido-sulphobenzide-dicarbonic  acid,  by  Arthur 
Michael  and  T.  H.  Norton,  presented  by  E.  N.  Horsford. 

On  paraiodbenzyl  compounds,  by  Professor  C.  L.  Jackson 
and  Mr.  C.  F.  Mabery. 

On  some  new  algse  new  to  the  United  States,  by  W.  G. 
Farlow. 

Descriptions  of  new  species  of  plants  with  synopses  of  cer- 
tain genera,  by  Sereno  Watson. 

The  following  paper  was  presented  by  title  :  — 

Characters  of  some  new,  or  little  known,  genera  of  plants, 
by  Professor  Asa  Gray. 

The  Corresponding  Secretary  presented  the  following 
annual  Report  of  the  Council :  — 


REPORT   OF   THE   COUNCIL. 


Since  the  last  report,  May  10,  1876,  the  Academy  has  lost  by 
death  fifteen  members,  as  follows :  four  Fellows,  Nicholas 
St.  John  Green,  W.  A.  Stearns,  Emory  Washburn,  and 
Edward  Wigglesworth ;  five  Associate  Fellows,  Alexis  Cas- 
well, Charles  H.  Davis,  Charles  Davies,  Fielding  B.  Meek, 
and  Charles  Wilkes;  six  foreign  Honorary  Members,  Braun, 
Ehrenberg,  Hofmeister,  Lassen,  Poggendorff,  and  Von  Baer. 

NICHOLAS   ST.  JOHN   GREEN. 

Mr.  Nicholas  St,  John  Green,  Professor  at  the  Boston  Law 
School,  and  formerly  lecturer  at  the  Harvard  Law  School,  died  at 
Cambridge,  on  the  8th  of  September  last.  Although  his  name  was 
only  beginning  to  be  known  to  the  public,  yet,  to  the  eyes  of  his  asso- 
ciates, he  occupied,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  as  important  a  position  in 
the  field  of  jurisjjrudence  as  did  the  equally  lamented  Chauncey 
Wright  in  that  of  philosophy  ;  and  in  the  sudden  deaths  so  near 
together  of  these  intimate  friends  in  the  prime  of  life,  the  Academy 
has  lost  two  of  its  most  gifted  members. 

In  the  early  practice  of  his  profession,  Mr.  Green  acquired  a  critical 
knowledge  of  the  criminal  law ;  and  he  undoubtedly  started  with  a 
superstitious  respect  for  the  technical  element  which  still  prevails  in 
that  part  of  the  law.  In  fact,  it  would  seem  evident  that,  as  a  younger 
man,  he  must  have  held  a  good  many  of  the  prejudices,  legal  and  polit- 
ical, which  are  natural  to  a  strong  nature  unchastened  by  learning  and 
reflection.  But  his  reason  was  stronger  even  than  his  temperament ; 
and  as  time  went  on,  and  he  became  a  student  of  history,  political 
economy,  psychology,  and  logic,  prejudice  gave  way  to  philosophy,  and 
his  convictions,  without  losing  in  strength,  were  tempered  by  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  other  side  which  powerful  men  do  not  always  acquire. 
VOL.  XII.  (y.  s.  IV.)  19 


290  NICHOLAS   ST.    JOHN   GREEN. 

He  handled  a  question  of  law  not  only  with  tlie  mastery  of  a  logician 
who  easily  reduced  a  case  under  established  principles,  but,  also,  and 
with  equal  jDOwer,  in  the  light  of  the  history  which  explains  those 
principles,  and  the  considerations  of  political  science  and  human  nat- 
ure which  justify  them.  The  evidence  of  his  ability  was  not  confined 
to  the  lecture-room  ;  for  it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  no  man  at  the 
Suffolk  bar  produced  a  greater  effect  upon  the  opinions  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  in  the  cases  which  he  presented,  than  he.  His  arguments,  in 
addition  to  the  qualities  of  substance  which  we  have  mentioned,  had  a 
terseness  and  simple  beauty  of  form  which  it  is  impossible  to  compare 
with  any  less-distinguished  models  than  those  of  Judge  Curtis.  Mr. 
Green  did  not  live  long  enough  to  construct  a  systematic  work  ;  but 
as,  with  him,  theory  was  not  an  excuse  for  ignorance  of  details,  but 
was  based  aS  much  on  exact  and  practical  knowledge  as  it  was  on 
broad  and  careful  study  outside  the  law,  those  who  knew  him  best 
hoped  and  expected  that,  when  he  was  satisfied  with  his  patient  prep- 
aration, he  would  produce  results  worthy  of  his  talents.  A  few  notes 
to  his  two  volumes  of  criminal  cases,  two  or  three  articles  in  the 
"  American  Law  Review,"  and  three  model  volumes  of  reports,  are  all 
that  the  profession  can  judge  him  by;  and  they  are,  perhaps,  enough. 
But  those  who  have  had  the  benefit  of  his  conversation  and  criticism 
know  that,  although  he  had  already  justified  the  opinion  of  his  friends, 
he  gave  promise  of  still  greater  achievements  with  which  he  might 
have  enriched  the  world  and  honored  his  profession  had  he  lived. 

"  He  was  such  a  philosopher  as  needs  a  Diogenes  Laertius  to  por- 
tray him,"  writes,  in  a  private  letter,  one  who  was  familiar  with  his 
modes  of  thought.  "  The  basis  of  his  philosophy  was,  that  every  form 
of  words  that  means  any  thing  indicates  some  sensible  fact  on  the  exist- 
ence of  which  its  truth  depends.  You  can  hardly  call  this  a  doctrine : 
it  is  rather  an  intellectual  tendency.  But  it  was  Green's  mission  to 
insist  upou  it  and  to  illustrate  it.  This  was  his  guide,  I  feel  sure,  in 
the  study  of  law.  Witness  his  essay  on  the  doctrine  of  responsibility. 
And  he  desired  to  apply  the  same  principle  to  other  branches  of  philos- 
ophy, —  to  Logic,  to  Psychology,  &c.  But  these  subjects  he  did  not 
choose  to  follow  out  for  himself  into  detail.  He  cared  for  them  chiefly 
as  fields  to  assert  his  ruling  principle  in  :  beyond  that,  he  was  more  or 
less  out  of  his  province.  He  rather  undervalued  systems  ;  prizing 
more  highly  brochures  which  put  some  single  principle  in  a  strong 
li<i"ht.  Bentham's  refreshina:  manner  of  searchinoj  for  realities,  and 
contemptuously  tossing  aside  formal  doctrines  of  the  law  in  rummag- 
ing down  to  the  very  pleasures  and  pains  which  result  from  different 


WILLIAM    AUGUSTUS    STEARNS.  291 

legal  arrangements,  greatly  pleased  him.  But  he  did  not  much  care 
for  Bentham's  systematic  works  :  it  was  rather  his  horde  of  pamphlets, 
raiding  like  Cossacks  into  the  legal  realm,  which  delighted  him.  So, 
of  political  economists,  he  most  admired  Jean  Baptiste  Say,  perhaps 
because  he  was  a  great  pamphleteer. 

"  Green  carried  the  same  keen  scent  for  sensible  facts  and  contempt 
for  every  thing  else  into  his  affections  and  his  tastes.  He  was  a  most 
warm-hearted  man,  with  an  abounding  sympathy  for  all  sorts  of  people, 
a  great  fondness  for  children,  and  a  love  for  animals.  He  had  also  a 
fine  taste  for  poetry,  of  which  he  had  read  a  great  deal.  But  one  did 
not  at  first  so  much  note  his  delicate  ajipreciation  of  what  was  real,  as 
his  scorn  for  all  that  was  unreal.  He  had  a  quality,  which  was  cer- 
tainly not  roughness,  but  which,  for  want  of  a  better  appellation, 
might  be  called  a  Socratic  coarseness.  It  was  well  fitted  to  be  the 
sturdy  support  of  his  realism,  and  gave  one  a  positive  pleasure  when 
one  knew  him,  as  if  it  had  been  an  artistic  study.  He  had  an  over- 
flowing spirit  of  good-fellowship,  and  a  Rabelaisian  humor,  without  the 
Rabelaisian  cynicism.  I  see  him  now,  as  he  draws  back  from  a  game 
of  whist,  his  genial  nature  shining  through  the  merry  twinkle  of  his 
eye.  But,  as  he  speaks,  one  perceives  that  it  is  not  pure  mirth  that 
moves  him,  but  sympathetic  amusement ;  for  his  talk  is  generally  of 
some  fine  observation  of  human  or  animal  nature.  .  .  .  He  was  wont 
to  take  up  prostrate  or  hopeless  causes  with  a  zeal,  unwise  and  Quix- 
otic from  a  worldly  point  of  view,  but  which  exemplified  some  of  his 
highest  traits." 


o 


WILLIAM  AUGUSTUS   STEARNS. 

The  Reverend  Williasi  Augustus  Stearns,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
President  of  Amherst  College,  died  at  Amherst,  June  8,  1876,  in  the 
seventy-second  year  of  his  age.  The  genealogy  of  Dr.  Stearns  would 
add  another  proof,  were  such  necessary,  to  the  truth  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
transmission  of.moral  and  intellectual  qualities,  and  even  of  tendencies 
towards  particular  pursuits,  by  hereditary  descent.  He  came  by  the  side 
both  of  his  father  and  his  mother  of  lon^  lines  of  Conorre^ational  min- 
isters,  devout  and  learned  men,  not  inexperienced  in  the  ways  of  mankind 
and  the  management  of  worldly  business,  from  the  part  taken  by  the 
ministers  of  the  old  Congregational  Establishment  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  affairs  of  their  parishes  and  often  of  their  parishioners. 
The  Triennial  Catalogue  of  Harvard  College  contains  the  names  of 
graduates,  nomina  Uteris  italicis  exarata,  scattered  along  the  ranks  of 
the  eighteenth  century  and  reaching  back  into  those  of  the  seven- 


292  WILLIAM    AUGUSTUS   STEARNS. 

teenth,  througli  whom  Dr.  Stearns  traced  his  lineage.  The  earliest  of 
all  of  his  cis-Atlautic  progenitors  was  of  a  time  preceding  the  foundation 
of  the  College,  —  the  Rev.  John  Woodbridge,  who  came  to  New  England 
in  the  year  1634,  and  was  the  first  minister  of  Andover  in  this  State. 
Descended  from  ancestors  educated  in  the  best  learning  of  their  times, 
spending  their  lives  in  a  profession  which  involved  responsibilities, 
practical  and  secular,  as  well  as  moral  and  religious,  it  would  have 
been  strange  if  his  mind  and  character  had  not  had  impressed  upon 
them  the  qualities  for  which  he  was  distinguished  during  his  life.  He 
was  in  a  manner  preordained  to  be  a  minister  and  the  head  of  an  insti- 
tution of  learning  from  his  birth. 

The  father  of  Dr.  Stearns  was  the  Rev.  Samuel  Stearns,  who  grad- 
uated at  Cambridge  in  the  year  1794,  and  his  mother  was  the  daughter 
of  the  Rev.  Jonathan  French,  long  the  minister  of  Andover.  Mr. 
French  had  begun  his  active  life  in  the  military  service  of  the  Prov- 
ince, and  was  Sergeant  in  the  garrison  which  was  maintained  at  the 
Castle  in  Boston  harbor,  when  he  was  moved  to  exchange  the  sword 
of  the  flesh  for  that  of  the  spirit ;  and,  after  graduating  in  1771,  he 
was  ordained  minister  of  Andover  as  above.  Mr.  Stearns  was  settled 
over  the  town  of  Bedford,  in  this  State,  with  a  salary  of  three  hundred 
and  thirty-three  dollars  and  thirty-three  cents.  The  town  further 
gratified  him  with  a  loan  of  a  thousand  dollars  without  interest,  which 
probably  enabled  him  to  purchase  a  form  of  twenty  acres  to  help  in 
the  support  of  his  family.  That  some  addition  to  his  meagre  stipend 
was  convenient  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  his  children  were 
thirteen  in  number,  of  whom  eleven  grew  up  to  adult  age.  His  farm 
he  made  a  part  of  the  physical  education  of  his  boys,  and  of  their 
moral  education  as  well,  they  assisting  him,  as  they  successively  at- 
tained the  proper  age,  in  its  cultivation,  which  he  carried  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection.  Notwithstanding  the  narrowness  of  his  means, 
Mr.  Stearns  managed  to  send  four  of  his  five  sons  to  Harvard,  three  of 
whom  were  ministers,  and  eminent  in  their  profession.  Of  the  sons, 
William,  born  March  17,  1805,  was  the  second.  He  showed  an  early 
love  of  study  and  an  extraordinary  power  of  memory,  some  remarkable 
feats  of  which  were  remembered  in  the  family  ;  such  as  his  knowing  the 
Assembly's  Catechism  perfectly  at  six  years  old,  a  curious  example  of 
purely  verbal  memory,  as  it  was  impossible  that  he  should  have  at- 
tached any  meaning  to  most  of  those  doctrinal  apophthegms  at  that 
childish  age.  A  little  later  he  learnt  by  heart  the  Gospel  of  Luke  in 
one  week  in  the  intervals  of  his  farm  work  and  other  occupations.  A 
more  chai'acteristic  attempt  of  his  was  made  on  the  outworks  of  good 


WILLIAM    AUGUSTUS   STEARNS.  293 

learning  by  getting  surreptitious  possession  of  the  Latin  grammar, — 
for  the  good  minister's  means  admitted  of  but  one  for  all  his  sons, 
—  and  secretly  beginning  the  study  of  Latin  by  himself,  an  effort 
which  proved  to  be  quite  beyond  his  boyish  strength. 

When  young  Stearns  reached  the  age  at  which  his  brothers  had 
been  sent  to  Phillips  Academy,  in  Andover,  where  his  father  also  had 
had  his  school  education,  he  naturally  asked  to  be  allowed  to  go  thither 
in  his  turn.  But  his  father,  oppressed  by  the  res  angusta  domi,  replied, 
sadly,  "  My  son,  desirous  as  I  am  of  doing  what  you  ask,  I  do  not  see 
that  Providence  opens  the  door !  "  "I  do  not  iDelieve,  sir,"  replied  the 
boy,  "  that  Providence  will  open  it,  unless  you  knock  !  "  Struck  by  the 
spirit  or  the  good  sense  of  the  answer,  the  father  knocked  in  faith: 
the  door  o^jened  and  remained  open  until  the  sou  had  passed  through 
the  school  and  afterwards  throui2;h  the  college.  It  was  a  favorable 
time  when  the  boy  of  fifteen  took  up  his  abode  in  that  beautiful  town, 
which  Improvement  had  as  yet  spared,  and  where  he  spent  three 
hajjpy  and  profitable  years.  The  academy  was  then  under  the  mas- 
tership of  the  excellent  Principal,  John  Adams.  The  government  of 
this  gentleman  differed  from  that  of  most  masters  of  his  time  and 
before  and  since.  His  rule,  though  firm  and  decided,  was  gentle  and 
kind.  Corporal  punishment  was  almost  unknown,  and  inflicted  only 
in  cases  of  the  grossest  misconduct.  He  did  not  permit  the  principle 
of  rivalship  and  emulation  as  motives  of  action.  There  was  no  head 
and  no  foot  to  classes,  no  medals  or  rewards  of  merit,  no  parts  at  the 
Annual  Exhibition  distinguishing  degrees  of  scholarship.  His  pupils 
were  expected  to  study  because  it  was  their  duty  and  what  they  were  at 
school  to  do.  He  thus  saved  them  from  the  jealousies,  heart-burnings, 
and  disappointments  which  so  cruelly  wring  the  breasts  of  very  young 
persons.  At  the  more  mature  age  of  young  men  in  college,  the  case 
may  be  different,  and  such  contentions  and  prizes  may  be  fitting  prepara- 
tion for  the  conflicts  of  life.  But  for  young  children  we  are  satisfied  that 
Mr.  Adams's  philosophy  is  the  wise  and  true  one.  His  system  justi- 
fied itself  by  its  success.  The  scholarship  of  his  pupils  was  quite 
equal  to  the  best  of  his  time.  We  believe  that  there  was  ne.ver  an 
instance  of  one  of  his  scholars  failing  at  the  examinations  for  admission 
to  college,  and  in  college  they  won  their  fair  share  of  college  distinc- 
tions. In  his  old  age  his  Alma  Mater,  Yale  College,  gave  him  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws,  an  honor  which  she  might  have  gracefully 
bestowed  forty  years  sooner,  when,  besides  being  a  compliment  and  a 
gratification,  it  would  have  been  a  professional  advantage.  For  he  was 
a  most  dutiful  son  of  that  mother  of  his  mind,  and  always  did  what  he 


294  WILLIAM    AUGUSTUS    STEARNS. 

2:)i'operly  could  to  cletennine  the  steps  of  a  questioning  pupil  in  the 
direction  of  her  academic  shades. 

Under  these  gentle  and  gracious  influences,  young  Stearns  spent 
three  diligent  years,  and  at  the  Commencement  of  1823  he  entered 
Harvard  College  to  pass  four  other  diligent  years  of  studious  prepara- 
tion for  his  vv,ork  in  life.  From  the  first  he  took  a  high  rank  among 
his  fellows.  His  preparation  for  the  exercises  of  the  class-room  was 
always  thorough  to  2:)erfection,  and  his  recitations  accurate,  elegant, 
and  fluent,  but  without  any  studied  attempt  at  disj^lay.  Though  not 
recluse,  he  was  retired  in  his  habits,  and  devoted  himself  earnestly  to 
the  work  that  he  was  there  to  do.  Though  his  intimates  were  few, 
there  was  no  man  of  his  time  more  cordially  esteemed  and  respected 
of  all  that  knew  him  than  he.  The  chief  drawback  on  the  happiness 
of  his  well-spent  hours  was  the  narrowness  of  his  circumstances,  which 
more  than  once  threatened  to  cut  short  his  colleire  career.  At  the  most 
critical  moment,  however,  when  he  was  brought  face  to  face  with  this 
cruel  necessity,  he  was  relieved  from  his  distress  by  the  timely  and 
judicious  generosity  of  President  Kirkland.  By  dint  of  keeping  school 
in  the  winter  vacations  and  of  the  most  rigid  economy  he  managed  to 
win  his  way  to  the  end,  and  he  took  his  degree  at  the  Commencement 
of  1827  with  the  third  honor  of  his  year.  If  his  worthy  master,  Mr. 
Adams,  had  entertained  any  fears  —  which  it  is  altogether  probable 
that  he  did  —  that  his  promising  pupil  might  be  shaken  in  his  faith  in 
the  strict  theology  of  his  fathers  through  the  heretical  influences  to 
which  he  was  subjected  at  Cambridge,  he  was  happily  disappointed ; 
for  the  young  Bachelor  of  Arts  issued  from  the  furnace  without  the 
smell  of  fire  upon  his  garments.  Indeed,  we  imagine  that  it  would 
have  been  necessary  for  him  to  court  the  flames  to  have  had  his  gar- 
ments even  singed  by  the  fires  of  heresy.  We  believe  that  there  was 
never  the  slightest  attempt  at  proselytism  made  by  the  heresiarchs  of 
the  college.  Even  attendance  on  the  theological  lectures  of  Dr.  Ware, 
which  were  necessarily  imbued  with  Unitarian  ideas,  was  not  required 
of  students  who  objected  to  their  doctrine.  However  this  may  have 
been,  Mr.  Stearns  remained  faithful  to  the  religious  tenets  he  had 
imbibed  in  youth,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  a  society  of  young  men 
of  Evangelical  views,  which  met  weekly  for  devotional  purposes  and  to 
strengthen  one  another  to  hold  fast  to  the  faith  as  delivered  to  the 
Fathers. 

After  a  year's  interval  of  school-teaching,  Mr.  Stearns  joined  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Andover,  and  went  through  the  regular  course 
of  three  years.     Having  received  his  license  to  preach  in  1831,  and 


WILLIAM   AUGUSTUS    STEARNS. 


295 


gone  forth  into  the  world  to  seek  a  fit  field  for  his  labors,  he  showed 
iu  the  choice  of  one  his  characteristic  wisdom  and  moderation.  He 
was  ambitions  rather  of  doing  effective  work  iu  his  calling  than  of 
winning  the  high  prizes  of  his  profession.  He  preferred  to  build  up 
the  waste  places  rather  than  to  enter  into  the  rewards  of  other  men's 
labors.  Instead  of  continuing  to  preach  as  a  candidate  in  the  expecta- 
tion of  securing  one  of  the  metropolitan  parishes,  which  his  learning, 
his  character,  and  his  gift  of  pulpit  eloquence  would  almost  certainly 
have  procured  for  him,  he  cast  iu  his  lot  at  once  with  a  young  and 
struggling  congregation  in  Cambridgeport,  which  had  little  to  offer 
him  excepting  an  opportunity  for  work  and  friendly  co-operation  in  it. 
His  superiors  in  the  profession,  among  them  at  least  one  of  the  pro- 
fessors at  Andover,  marvelled  at  his  choice,  and  looked  upon  it  as  a 
throwing  away  of  himself  and  his  gifts  and  graces.  And,  indeed,  Cam- 
bridgeport was  not  at  that  time  the  thriving  and  populous  settlement 
that  it  has  since  become.  There  was  little  that  was  inviting  to  the 
eye  or  to  the  taste  in  the  straggling  streets  and  flat  surroundings  of 
that  uninteresting  suburb.  Such  as  it  was,  however,  there  it  was  that 
Mr.  Stearns  set  up  the  staff  of  his  rest  and  entered  upon  what  he  had 
accepted  as  the  business  of  his  life.  His  neighborhood  to  Boston  and 
Cambridge,  it  is  very  likely,  was  a  consideration  which  may  have  had 
some  weisfht  in  his  decision.  He  began  his  ministerial  life  with  a  sal- 
ary  of  seven  hundred  dollars  and  a  proportion  of  the  pew-lettings,  —  a 
provision  scarcely  more  ample,  the  difference  in  the  value  of  money 
considered,  than  the  humble  stipend  which  was  thought  sufficient  for 
the  modest  needs  of  his  father  at  Bedford,  nearly  forty  years  before. 
Here  Mr.  Stearns  remained  for  twenty-three  years,  beloved  of  his 
people,  respected  by  his  neighbors,  and  useful  in  various  directions 
outside  of  his  vocation.  Besides  being  chairman  of  the  School  Com- 
mittee of  the  town,  he  was  a  member  of  the  State  Board  of  Education 
and  an  Overseer  of  Harvard  University  umler  the  charter  as  modified 
in  1810.  The  twenty-three  years  of  the  pastorate  of  Mr.  Stearns 
were  years  of  great  success  in  his  function.  He  built  up  his  congrega- 
tion from  the  feeble  beginnings  of  the  commencement  of  his  ministry 
to  be  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  flourishing  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Boston.  And  he  had  provided  for  himself  a  convenient  and  pleas- 
ant home. 

While  thus  happily  situated  and  usefully  employed,  doing  well  what 
he  loved  best  to  do,  Dr.  Stearns  —  for  his  Alma  Mater  had  given  him 
the  degree  of  Doctor  in  Divinity  the  year  before  —  was  invited  in  the 
year  1854  to  assume  the  Presidency  of  Amherst  College.     The  offer 


296  WILLIAM    AUGUSTUS   STEARNS. 

of  so  important  a  positiou  was  naturally  gratifying  to  him  as  a  testi- 
mony of  the  most  eminent  men  in  his  denomination  to  their  belief  in 
his  qualifications  for  such  a  post,  but  its  consideration  could  not  be 
entertained  without  a  painful  conflict  of  contending  personal  feelings 
and  professional  duties.  The  unwillingness  of  the  congregation  he 
had  so  successfully  built  up  to  part  with  him,  and  his  own  reluctance 
to  leave  a  scene  where  he  had  done  and  enjoyed  so  much,  for  a  new 
and  untried  field  of  labor,  embarrassed  the  decision  of  a  question  so 
material  to  his  future  with  many  conflicting  emotions  and  considera- 
tions. Happily  for  himself  and  the  college,  his  deliberate  judgment 
was  in  favor  of  the  acceptance  of  the  Presidency,  and  he  entered  upon 
its  duties  in  November,  1854.  If  the  governing  authorities  of  the 
college  had  ever  doubted  Dr.  Stearns's  eminent  qualifications  for  the 
wider  field  of  activity  they  had  opened  to  him,  they  very  soon  learned 
from  his  otficial  conduct  how  wise  and  fortunate  their  choice  had  been. 
By  nature,  by  education,  and  by  experience  of  men,  he  was  eminently 
fitted  for  the  oversight  and  direction  of  an  institution  for  the  higher 
education  of  youth.  Learned,  and  a  lover  of  sound  learning,  standing 
by  preference  upon  the  ancient  ways  of  academic  teaching,  but  not 
stubbornly  tenacious  of  them,  he  was  ready  to  consider  and  accept  the 
newer  ideas  and  methods  which  European  influences  and  the  growing 
claims  of  the  physical  sciences  are  urging  upon  the  educators  of  the 
day,  to  the  degree  and  in  the  manner  that  seemed  to  him  best  adapted 
to  the  present  condition  of  education  in  this  country. 

While  he  was  thus  at  once  wisely  conservative  and  judiciously  pro- 
gressive in  his  dealings  with  the  more  recent  theories  of  academic 
instruction,  his  personal  and  official  relations  with  the  undergraduates 
were  of  the  most  kindly  and  paternal  description.  His  native  courtesy 
and  winning  suavity  of  manners  won  for  him  their  afiection  and  confi- 
dence whenever  they  came  into  personal  contact  with  him.  His  weight 
of  character  and  sound  judgment  impressed  them  with  a  sense  of  his 
sagacity  and  wisdom  in  all  his  counsels  and  suggestions.  His  very 
presence  bore  the  stamp  of  perfect  uprightness  and  absolute  truthful- 
ness. He  held  that  to  be  the  best  government  which  governs  the 
least,  and  his  endeavor  was  to  make  his  students  a  law  unto  them- 
selves and  to  teach  them  to  rule  their  spirits  and  their  lives  by  the  laws 
of  self-respect  and  right  reason.  But  when  discipline  was  needed  to 
maintain  the  good  order  or  the  good  reputation  of  the  college,  he  could 
be  as  stern  and  severe  as  Justice  herself.  The  transgressor  found  that 
his  way  was  hard  when  he  had  incurred  the  just  displeasure  and  judicial 
censure  of  the  President.     His  heart's  desire  was  to  prevent  misrule 


WILLIAM    AUGUSTUS   STEARNS.  297 

or  disorder  by  his  moral  influence  over  the  minds  of  his  students,  but 
yet  so  that  they  should  understand  it  to  be  deliberate  wisdom  and  not 
timid  23olicy  that  inspired  his  mild  rule,  and  that  the  severities  of  dis- 
ci[)line  were  at  hand  for  the  vindication  of  the  laws  in  the  last  resort. 
Personal  instruction  of  the  students  in  the  class-rooms  was  not  to  his 
taste,  and  he  had  no  special  gift  in  this  direction,  and  he  largely  left 
that  office  to  those  to  whom  nature  or  experience  had  made  it  easy. 
In  planning,  directing,  and  superintending  the  teaching  of  others,  he 
found  his  more  congenial  and  appropriate  employment  as  the  head  of 
the  college.  In  these  duties,  and  especially  in  the  exercise  of  the  most 
important  function  of  the  president  of  a  college,  that  of  the  selection 
of  the  instructors  and  officers  who  are  to  work  under  his  supervision, 
he  used  his  constitutional  diligence  and  evinced  that  instinctive  knowl- 
edge of  men  and  that  intuitive  discernment  of  spirits  which  leads  to 
the  filling  of  the  right  places  with  the  right  men  at  the  right  time. 

Besides  the  qualities  at  which  we  have  glanced,  which  eminently 
fitted  President  Stearns  for  the  headship  of  an  institution  of  good 
learning,  he  had  others  which  enabled  him  to  do  his  college  most  ma- 
terial service.  He  had  a  natural  turn  for  affairs  and  was  an  admirable 
man  of  business.  Under  his  presidency,  the  funds  of  the  college  were 
very  largely  increased,  the  number  of  students  and  of  teachers  more 
than  doubled.  The  college  buildings  are  twice  as  many  as  at  his 
accession  to  office.  The  departments  of  instruction  have  been  enlarged 
and  extended  in  every  direction.  While  holding  firmly  to  the  sound 
orthodox  faith  that  a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  languages  is  the  indis- 
pensable foundation  of  a  truly  liberal  education,  the  departments  of 
the  modern  languages  and  literatures,  of  theology,  astronomy,  the 
physical  sciences,  of  history  and  philosophy,  and  of  the  science  of  gov- 
ernment, were  all  of  them  reinforced,  and  some  of  them  established 
during  his  incumbency.  The  importance  of  the  fine  arts  and  an- 
tiquities as  a  part  of  education  was  first  recognized  in  his  time,  and  a 
museum  established  for  the  promotion  of  those  elevating  and  refining 
pursuits.  The  long-neglected  but  most  important  study  of  hygiene 
and  the  physical  education  wliich  belongs  to  it  received  under  him  the 
attention  it  deserves,  and  with  excellent  results  in  the  improved  health 
of  the  students.  The  marked  advance  which  Amherst  Colleore  has 
made  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  and  the  high  rank  it  holds 
among  the  academic  institutions  of  the  country  may  be  said,  without 
disparagement  of  his  eminent  predecessors,  to  be  mainly  owing  to  the 
zeal  and  labors  of  President  Stearns.  The  interests  of  his  own  col- 
lege, however,  did  not  absorb  his  attention,  to  the  neglect  of  those  of 


298  WILLIAM    AUGUSTUS    STEAENS. 

education  elsewhere.  He  asfaiu  served  on  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion,  and  it  was  lie  who  first  proposed  the  Annual  Convention  of  Col- 
lege Presidents  to  compare  and  discuss  opinions  as  to  matters  of 
interest  common  to  them  all. 

When  the  civil  war  broke  out,  President  Stearns  was  not  slow  to 
discern  the  needs  and  the  duties  of  that  hour  of  crisis.  Though  he 
calmed  the  first  enthusiasm  of  his  young  men  who  wished  to  answer 
at  once  the  first  call  of  the  country,  yet  as  soon  as  the  urgency  of  the 
case  was  manifest,  and  it  was  clear  that  an  appeal  to  arms  was  inevi- 
table, he  encouraged  the  enlistment  of  his  students,  and  sent  them  to 
the  field  with  his  blessing  and  hearty  God-speed.  And  he  did  not 
withhold  the  sacrifice  of  his  own  son  when  duty  to  his  country  called 
for  it.  His  youngest  son,  Frazar  A.  Stearns,  then  an  undergraduate, 
went  to  the  front  as  Adjutant  of  the  21st  Massachusetts  Regiment. 
After  a  brief  but  brilliant  term  of  service  this  gallant  youth  fell  at  the 
battle  of  Newbern  on  the  l4th  of  March,  1862,  in  the  twenty-second  year 
of  his  age.  His  father  met  this  cruel  calamity  in  a  true  spirit  of 
Christian  patriotism.  His  loyalty  to  the  Union  was  but  strengthened 
and  made  more  active  after  it  was  thus  sealed  by  the  blood  of  his  son. 
He  might  have  said  with  the  old  Duke  of  Ormond  on  losing  his  sou 
the  P^arl  of  Ossory,  "I  would  not  exchange  my  dead  son  for  the  living 
son  of  any  man  in  Europe  ! "  General  Burnside  gave  one  of  tlie  guns 
captured  by  the  men  under  Adjutant  Stearns's  command  to  the  Col- 
lege as  an  expression  of  his  sense  of  the  merit  of  the  young  officer  and 
as  a  fitting  monument  to  his  memory.  This  household  offering  to  his 
country  gave  force  and  touching  energy  to  the  patriotic  words  which 
the  President  never  failed  to  utter  in  the  hour  of  need.  He  never 
failed  to  enforce  the  Christian  duty  of  citizens  to  do  their  part  in  the 
jDolitical  as  well  as  the  military  service  of  the  nation  in  his  Baccalaure- 
ate and  other  addresses  to  the  youth  who  sat  at  his  feet. 

It  will  be  seen,  from  this  impez'fect  sketch  of  the  career  and  the  char- 
acter of  President  Stearns,  that  he  had  been  singularly  fortunate  and 
happy  in  his  life.  And  he  was  equally  happy  and  fortunate  in  his 
death.  He  certainly  died  at  his  post,  if  ever  man  did.  He  was  con- 
ducting the  college  prayers  on  the  morning  of  his  death,  when  ari-ested 
by  the  illness  of  which  he  died  before  the  sun  went  down.  In  the 
fulness  of  his  powers,  in  the  bosom  of  his  family,  with  every  consola- 
tion that  religion,  domestic  affection,  and  friendship  could  afford,  with 
little  pain  and  no  fear,  his  useful  and  honorable  life  came  to  a  tran- 
quil and  happy  close.     It  was  a  true  Euthanasia. 

The   natural    endowments   and   literary  attainments    of   President 


WILLIAM   AUGUSTUS   STEAENS.  299 

Stearns  were  of  a  high  order.  His  sermons  and  occasional  addresses, 
man ,  of  which  have  been  published,  show  great  clearness  of  thought, 
accuracy  of  reasoning,  force  of  illustration,  and  rhetorical  skill.  But 
he  was  even  more  distinguished  as  a  ready  debater  and  brilliant  ex- 
tempore speaker.  He  had  great  quickness  of  thought  and  remarkable 
fluency  and  felicity  of  speech.  It  is  related  of  him  that,  while  yet  at 
Cambridgeport,  he  was  told  while  on  his  way  to  church  of  the  de.tth  of 
Daniel  Webster.  He  at  once  laid  aside  the  sermon  he  had  prepared, 
and  delivered  an  unpremeditated  discourse  upon  the  dead  orator, 
which  his  hearers  regarded  as  not  inferior  to  any  of  the  more  elaborate 
efforts  of  the  eminent  men  who  followed  him  on  the  same  theme.  On 
another  occasion,  at  a  public  meeting  where  Mr.  Webster  and  Mr. 
Everett  had  swayed  the  audience  with  their  words  of  i^ower,  Mr. 
Stearns  was  called  for  after  the  crowd  began  to  disperse,  and  he  held 
them  long  in  eager  attention,  not  less  earnest  and  enthusiastic  than 
that  commanded  by  the  great  speakers  who  had  gone  before  him.  The 
moral  and  personal  qualities  of  President  Stearns,  however,  were  those 
that  endeared  him  most  to  his  friends  and  enabled  him  to  do  the  excel- 
lent work  that  filled  his  days,  and  to  win  the  success  that  crowned  his 
life.  His  personal  and  moral  courage  was  perfect.  He  feared  noth- 
ing but  doing  wrong.  His  success  in  the  various  activities  of  his  life 
was  owing  not  so  much  to  the  preponderance  of  any  one  quality  of  his 
character  as  to  the  balance  and  proportion  of  them  all.  His  soundness 
of  judgment,  his  absolute  integrity  and  perfect  truthfulness,  his  unfail- 
ing common  sense,  all  contributed  to  give  him  that  weight  of  character 
which  made  his  voice  potential  in  all  matters  of  practical  or  academ- 
ical detail.  He  was  firm  and  persevering  in  matters  about  which  he 
had  deliberately  made  up  his  mind,  and  he  generally  carried  his  points  ; 
but  it  was  because  they  were  points  that  ought  to  be  carried.  His 
nature  was  singularly  rounded  and  complete.  His  demeanor  was 
marked  by  a  modest  dignity  which  claimed  what  was  due  to  himself, 
while  giving  to  others  all  that  was  due  to  them.  Courteous  of  speech, 
gentle  and  polished  in  manner,  cheerful  in  conversation,  thinking  and 
speaking  no  evil,  yet  capable  of  sternest  indignation  at  injustice,  cru- 
elty, or  meanness,  President  Stearns  left  to  his  academic  children,  to 
his  friends,  and  to  the  world  an  example  of  a  highly  educiited,  high- 
principled,  high-bred  Christian  Gentleman. 


300  EMORY   WASHBURN. 


EMORY   WASHBURN. 

Emory  Washburn,  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  Professor  in 
the  Harvard  Law  School,  was  born  during  the  first  year  of  the  present 
century,  amid  the  simple  life  of  one  of  the  hill  towns  in  the  interior  of 
the  Bay  State.  He  received  a  collegiate  education  first  at  Dartmouth 
and  afterwards  at  Williams  Colleges,  from  which  he  graduated  iu  1817  ; 
he  studied  law  at  the  Law  School  of  Harvard  College,  and  entered  upon 
the  practice  of  his  profession  in  his  native  town  of  Leicester.  In  a  few 
years,  he  removed  to  Worcester,  where  for  many  years  he  possessed 
the  confidence  of  the  tribunals  and  the  community,  and  had,  perhaps, 
the  largest  practice  in  this,  the  central  county  of  the  State,  at  a  bar 
always  eminent  for  the  character  and  ability  of  its  members.  He  was 
sent  to  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representatives  both  from  Leicester 
and  from  Worcester ;  and  was  subsequently  elected  to  the  State  Senate, 
for  Worcester  County.  Soon  after  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  an  office  which  he  held  for  four  years ;  and 
in  1853  he  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State.  In  1854,  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Laws  was  conferred  on  him  by  his  Alma  Mater,  and  also 
by  Harvard  College.  During  this  period  of  active  life,  in  addition  to 
his  arduous  professional  and  official  duties,  he  gave  freely  of  his  time 
and  support  to  all  the  best  interests  of  society. 

From  such  a  career,  at  the  ripe  age  of  fifty-six,  he  became  a  Professor 
in  the  Law  School  at  Cambridge,  and  remained  in  that  position  for 
twenty  years.  To  it  he  brought  the  fruit  of  a  long  and  ho'iiorable  life  ; 
to  it  he  brought  also  the  character  which  had  made  that  life  so  truly 
honored,  besides  that  warmth  of  the  most  abounding  personal  sympathy, 
and  that  devotion  to  his  work  which  seemed  more  the  prompting  of 
his  nature  than  the  command  of  duty.  These  twenty  years  were  the 
crown  and  glory  of  his  life.  And  when,  a  year  ago,  at  the  ripe  age  of 
seventy-six,  he  resigned  his  chair^ because  he  felt  that  it  might  better  be 
filled  by  a  younger  man,  his  associates  could  discover  no  abatement  of 
force  in  mind  or  body.  And  such  an  active  nature  could  not  remain 
idle  or  be  spared  from  the  public  service.  After  an  interval  of  fifty 
years  since  his  first  election,  he  was  returned  to  the  Legislature  of  his 
native  State  by  his  fellow-citizens  of  Cambridge,  and  there  with  all  the 
vigor  of  a  youth  he  entered  upon  the  arduous  duties  of  Chairman  of  the 
Judiciary  Committee  of  the  House.  While  full  of  activity  in  manifold 
ways,  both  in  public  official  duties,  in  private  life,  and  in  numerous 
associations  for  the  promotion  of  the  best  interests  of  society,  and  amid 
friends  and  home,  he  received  the  last  summons,  and,  through  a  short 


EMORY   WASHBURN.  301 

illness,  passed  into  the  other  life.  Such  is  the  outline  of  his  career ; 
what  work  has  he  left  behind  him  ? 

The  work  of  such  a  man  and  teacher  it  is  difficult  to  trace.  It  has 
mingled  with  the  characters  and  minds  of  his  pupils.  Words  of  sym- 
pathy and 'wisdom,  fitly  spoken,  have  turned  the  current  of  many  a 
life  from  waste  to  blessing.  It  is  the  very  presence  of  his  life  and 
character,  rather  than  his  intellectual  processes,  which  influences  those 
around  such  'a  man  as  Emory  Washburn.  Yet  some  things  may  be 
definitely  said  of  the  result. 

In  the  school  where  the  great  work  of  his  life  was  done,  he  was  ever  so 
free-hearted  in  giving  his  sympathy  and  counsel  to  all  who,  from  year  to 
year,  needed  or  sought  it ;  his  usefulness  in  this  respect  was  so  tran- 
scendent that,  by  universal  consent,  he  is  pronounced  the  best  beloved 
of  all  the  teachers  that  school  has  ever  had.  His  devotion  was  not  to  the 
ideal  entity  of  the  Institution,  whose  being  is  to  live  through  the  cen- 
turies. That  might  secure  the  devotion  of  more  poetic  minds.  His 
labor  of  love  was  with  and  for  the  young  men  who  resorted  to  it,  full 
of  the  mingled  holies  and  fears  that  attend  their  entrance  upon  life,  com- 
ing often  from  the  res  angusta  domi  to  secure  encouragement  and  aid  in 
the  new  and  brief  home  where  he  was  always  found  a  father  and  a  friend. 
Among  the  teachers  of  that  school  who  have  gone  to  their  rest  were 
Ashmun  and  Story  and  Greenleaf  and  Parker  and  Sumner ;  yet  so 
well  known  to  the  living  that  the  name  of  each  is  a  biography.  Of 
those  yet  living,  his  companions  in  instruction,  we  may  not  speak. 
They,  with  the  thousands  of  his  pupils,  will  concur  in  the  inscription 
to  his  memory,  that  he  was  the  best  beloved  of  all  the  teachers  of  this 
school  of  the  law. 

But  a  more  specific  and  definite  work  he  has  done  for  the  country 
at  large,  for  our  English-speaking  race,  for  its  body  of  jurists,  and 
the  administration  of  justice.  His  instructions  in  the  school  were 
chiefly  given  in  the  most  difficult  department  of  the  law,  —  that 
of  real  property;  the  most  difficult  to  us,  because  it  does  not  grow 
out  of  the  convictions  or  practices,  or  needs  of  our  age  or  of  our 
institutions,  alone.  It  comes  to  us  from  other  ages,  from  other  political 
and  social  organizations,  from  other  ideas  of  right,  from  other  views 
of  the  nature  and  obligations  of  property,  and  specially  of  landed 
property.  Its  system  of  rules  is,  therefore,  comjxjsite  and  intricate ; 
and  not  always  reasonable  to  our  minds,  or  even  useful  to  existing 
interests.  The  needs  of  the  present,  and  a  forecast  of  those  of  the 
future,  are  innovating  ui^on  it,  changing  it,  not  always  wisely.  A 
remedy  for  one  evil  often  admits  greater  evils  into  such  ,a  system  of 


802  EMORY    WASHBURN. 

law.  Most  of  the  law  of  personal  property,  on  the  contrary,  is  the 
growth  of  modern  times,  suited  to  the  wants  of  the  present ;  or,  in 
fact,  but  an  adoption  into  the  law  of  the  life  of  the  age.  Its  ideas 
become  action  ;  its  action  becomes  the  law.  The  law  follows  the  fact ; 
becomes  its  transcript  and  record.  Not  so  with  our  law  of  real  property. 
Some  law  of  real  property  is  everywhere  essential :  decisions  upon  it 
following  the  ancient  pi*ecedents,  bending  to  the  emergencies  or  legisla- 
tion of  recent  times,  are  issued  in  scores  of  volumes  with  every  year. 
The  labor  which  will  carefully  study  and  collate  them  all  ;  which  will 
sever  the  essential  from  the  incidental  part  of  each  of  these  decisions  ; 
which  will  collect,  in  two  or  three  volumes,  the  substance  of  all  of 
them ;  which  will  endeavor  to  mould  them  into  a  harmonious  system, 
for  the  guidance  and  instruction  of  the  profession,  the  courts,  and 
the  community,  —  such  labor,  indeed,  requires,  in  the  first  instance,  a 
most  faithful  conscience  in  him  who  has  undertaken  such  a  work. 
That  faithful  conscience  Professor  Washburn  had ;  that  immense  labor 
was  conscientiously  performed.  And  the  result  is  contained  in  his 
work  upon  the  "  Law  of  Real  Property,"  now  in  three  volumes ;  and 
in  the  supplementary  work  on  "  Easements  and  Servitudes."  It  is 
one  of  the  most  useful  works  on  that  subject,  both  for  the  bar  and  for  the 
public;  the  most  useful  practical  work  upon  this  subject  which  exists 
in  the  En£;lish  lansuaste.  The  faithfulness  of  its  citations  saves  an 
amount  of  time  for  those  engaged  in  the  administration  of  justice,  and 
for  those  whose  interests  are  involved  in  such  administration,  which 
exceeds  any  estimate. 

A  more  forcible  and  less  conscientious  hand  might  mould  the  mass 
into  more  symmetrical  form.  Professor  Washburn's  duty  was  not  to 
make  the  law,  but  honestly  to  report  it  as  others  declared  it  to  be. 
"  Blackstone's  Commentaries"  were  written  for  students.  The  clear 
and  easy  flow  of  their  style  is  yet  unexcelled  among  expositions  of  the 
law  ;  for  the  law  deals  not  with  the  graceful  sentiments  of  life.  It  has 
no  eesthetic  side.  It  is  devoted  to  the  stern  demands  of  justice,  and 
to  practical  interests.  Professor  Washburn's  style  in  recording  its 
decisions  was,  like  that  of  most  law-writei's,  — 

"  Subdued 
"  To  tliat  it  works  in,  like  the  dyer's  hand." 

Professor  Washburn's  influence  upon  the  young  men  who  com- 
menced with  him  the  manly  study  of  the  law,  and  who  are  yet  as- 
cending the  paths  of  life ;  the  great  tribute,  rather  than  debt,  which  he 
paid  to  his  profession  and  to  the  cause  of  justice,  which  is  the  first  inter- 


EDWARD   WIGGLESWORTH.  303 

est  of  civilized  society,  —  these  are   the  works  of  his  life.     To   the 
results  of  them  uo  limit  can  be  easily  assigned. 

His  friends  (no  one  could  know  him,  aud  not  call  him  friend)  all 
recognize  that  these  crowning  works  of  his  life  had  their  origin  in  the 
governing  elements  of  his  character,  —  devotion  to  duty  and  good-will 
to  man.  In  him,  wisdom  and  charity  in  its  largest  sense  were  most 
completely  blended.  His  life,  moreover,  was  fully  rounded  and  his 
work  well  done.  As  he  often  expressed  the  wish,  he  died  before  "his 
eye  was  dim  or  his  natural  force  abated."  Never  to  have  known  weari- 
ness during  a  life  of  nearly  fourscore  years,  full  of  usefulness,  honor, 
and  domestic  comfort,  is  as  great  a  blessing  as  ever  falls  to  the  lot  of 
man,  and  this  blessing  Judge  Washburn  fully  enjoyed. 

EDWARD    WIGGLESWORTH. 

Edward  Wigglesworth,  a  Fellow  of  the  Academy  of  Class  IH., 
Section  IV.,  died  at  his  residence  on  Sunday,  October  15, 1876,  in  this 
city,  where  he  was  born,  January  14,  1804.  He  was  in  his  seventy- 
third  year. 

His  ancestral  and  family  name  connects  him  with  individuals  conspic- 
uous and  honored  in  their  several  generations,  from  the  first  settlement 
of  the  country,  for  their  characters  and  services  in  the  various  ranges 
of  life.  His  first  progenitor  in  this  country  was  li^dward  Wigglesworth, 
from  Yorkshire,  in  old  England,  who,  coming  to  Charlestown  in  this 
colony  in  the  summer  of  1638,  removed  in  the  autumn  to  New  Haven, 
where  he  died,  October  1,  1653.  A  stone  in  the  Green  in  that  place, 
marked  with  the  initials  "  E.  W.,"  was  long  supposed  to  designate  the 
grave  of  Colonel  Edward  Whalley,  a  member  of  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  which  condemned  Charles  I. ;  but  it  is  now  reasonably  believed 
to  denote  the  grave  of  the  first  Edward  Wigdeswoi'th.  Among;  the 
children  whom  he  brought  with  him  to  this  country  was  one,  then 
nearly  seven  years,  who,  bearing  the  name  of  Michael  Wigglesworth, 
won  great  distinction  in  this  colony  as  divine,  physician,  and  poet. 
Having  been  trained  by  the  famous  school-master,  Ezekiel  Cheever, 
whose  service  as  a  pedagogue  in  New  England  covered  a  period  of 
nearly  seventy  years,  Michael  became,  in  1647,  one  of  the  earliest  of  the 
students  in  Harvard  College.  Graduating  in  1651,  he  became  a  tutor 
and  a  Fellow  of  the  college,  while  preparing  for  the  ministry.  Having 
labored  for  a  season  in  the  instruction  of  the  Indians  at  INIartha's 
Vineyard,  he  was  ordained  as  pastor  of  the  church  in  Ma'den,  in  this 
colony,  in  August,  1656.     Here,  after  a  long  service,  he  died  in  office, 


804  EDWARD    WIGGLESWORTH. 

June  10,  1705,  Though  he  was  noted  for  his  skill  and  efficiency 
in  the  medical  practice  of  those  days,  he  could  not  explain  the  nature 
of  the  malady  which  made  him  for  most  of  his  life  a  sufferer  from  a 
mysterious  form  of  invalidism  which  interrupted  his  professional  work, 
and  caused  him  to  make  a  voyage  to  Bermuda.  As  the  poet  of  his 
age  and  country,  he  was  the  author,  among  various  other  compositions, 
of  that  which,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Day  of  Doom,"  was  the  classic 
for  children  and  their  parents  for  more  than  half  a  century  in  New 
England. 

Edward,  the  youngest  son  of  Michael  Wigglesworth,  was  inaugu- 
rated in  1722  as  the  first  divinity  professor  in  Harvard  College,  where 
he  had  graduated,  on  the  foundation  of  Thomas  Hollis,  Esq.,  of  Lon- 
don. Dr.  "Wigglesworth  having  held  this  office  for  more  than  forty 
years,  was  succeeded  in  it,  in  1765,  by  his  son,  Dr.  Edward  Wiggles- 
worth,  Jr.,  who,  in  1791,  had,  as  his  successor  in  it,  the  Rev.  Dr. 
David  Tappan,  who  was  a  great-grandson  of  Rev.  Michael  Wiggles- 
worth,  till  1803.  Thus,  for  a  period  of  eighty  years,  descendants  in 
three  generations  from  the  old  Maiden  divine  filled  one  of  the  places 
of  highest  influence  and  responsibility  in  this  colony,  province,  and 
State  of  Massachusetts.  The  second  Prof.  Wigglesworth  was  one  of  the 
original  Fellows  of  the  Academy,  at  its  incorporation.  Papers  con- 
tributed by  him  appear  in  the  earlier  volumes  of  the  Memoirs.  His 
calculations  for  the  consti-uction  of  Life  Tables  were  especially  valued. 
Thomas  Wigglesworth,  a  graduate  of  Harvard  in  1793,  who  studied 
law,  but  afterwards,  in  wide  commercial  business,  became  one  of  the 
most  honored  and  successful  merchants  of  Boston,  was  the  youngest 
son  of  the  second  Professor  Wigglesworth.  The  subject  of  this  Memoir 
was  the  oldest  son  of  Thomas,  by  his  wife,  Jane  Norton,  a  sister  of  that 
eminent  Biblical  scholar,  Prof.  Andrews  Norton  of  Harvard  College. 

From  his  earliest  childhood  Edward  Wiijglesworth  manifested  those 
fine  traits  and  virtues  of  character,  and  that  love  of  the  jjrocesses  of 
thought  and  the  acquisition  of  learning,  which  were  so  marked  in  him 
through  his  whole  life.  Having  been  prepared  for  college  by  the  Rev. 
Ebenezer  Pemberton  of  Boston,  he  completed  his  course  there  in 
1822,  graduating  with  the  highest  honors  of  his  class.  He  pursued 
the  study  of  the  law  in  the  office  of  the  late  Judge  William  Prescott, 
having  there,  as  fellow-students,  the  late  Franklin  Dexter,  and  the  late 
Nathaniel  I.  Bowditch.  Though  he  began  the  practice  of  the  profes- 
sion, it  did  not  prove  to  be  congenial  or  attractive  to  him,  and  he 
abandoned  it  to  enter  his  father's  counting-room,  to  aid  him  in  his  mer- 
cantile aflTairs. 


EDWARD    WIGr.LESWORTH.  305 

Those  who  at  the  time  or  in  later  years  had  a  personal  and  intimate 
acquaintance  witli  Mr.  Wigglesworth,  and  were  thus  appreciative  of  the 
his[h  and  ahnost  morbid  conscientiousness,  and  of  tlie  even  excessive 
tenderness  of  sympathy  and  benevolence,  which  were  so  marked  in  his 
character,  can  answer  only  with  an  assenting  smile  when  told  that  he 
was  not,  either  as  a  lawyer  or  a  merchant,  an  effective  agent  in  the 
collection  of  even  the  most  honest  debts.  When  put  upon  such  errands 
his  frequent  report  was  that  the  creditors  seemed  so  much  in  need,  or  so 
reluctant  to  pay.  that  he  shrank  from  using  any  urgency,  and  so  came 
back  empty.  Still,  he  was  of  service  to  his  father  in  his  business 
affairs,  though  he  never  engaged  in  such  interests  with  partners  or  by 
himself.  He  acquired  sufficient  practical  knowledge  for  the  care  of  a 
paternal  estate,  his  share  in  which  made  him  •affluent.  Intellectual  and 
scholarly  culture,  with  the  oversight  and  administration  of  a  large 
number  of  charitable,  benevolent,  and  humane  societies,  divided  in 
about  equal  measure  the  whole  half-century  of  Mr.  Wigglesworth's 
mature  life.  He  was  a  dil  gent  reader  and  student,  and  acquired  a 
large  amount  of  varied  knowledge,  which  he  aimed  to  have  accurate  and 
thorough.  When,  in  182;),  that  learned  and  laborious  German  scholar, 
Dr.  Fiancis  Lieber,  who  had  become  naturalized  among  us,  undertook 
to  translate,  and  to  adapt  to  the  uses  of  American  readers,  the  volumi- 
nous Encyclopaedia  puldished  by  Brockhaus,  of  Leipsic,  under  the 
title  of  "  Allgemeine  deutsche  Real-p}ncykiopiedie  (Conversations- 
Lexicon),  "  he  found  it  necessary  to  have  efficient  helpers.  The  enter- 
prise was  for  its  time,  a  very  serious  and  important  one,  having  been 
preceded  in  that  form  of  literature  here  only  by  the  republication  of 
the  Loudon  edition  of  Dr.  Rees'  Cyclopaedia.  Dr.  Lieber  was  so  for- 
tunate as  to  secure  the  ready  and  competent  co-o|)eration  of  IMr.  Wig- 
glesworth. as  his  foremost  helper.  In  the  preface  to  the  work,  in 
thirteen  volumes,  published  under  the  title  of  the  ''  Encyclopfedia 
Americana,"  Dr.  Lieber  makes  the  following  recognition  of  the  aid 
which  he  had  received:  ''Above  all,  I  ought  to  acknowled<ie  the  zeal- 
ous  and  al)Ie  co-operation  of  my  friend  and  associate,  Mr.  Wiggles- 
worth,  who  will  not  permit  me  here  to  express  my  obligations  to  him 
in  such  terms  as  my  feelings  would  dictate.  With  him  I  shall  be 
hapj)y  to  share  whatever  approbation  the  public  may  think  the  work 
shall  deserve." 

If  Mr.  Wigglesworth  had  been  prompted  to  devote  his  years  of 
easy  leisure  to  the  examination  and  exposition  of  sotne  single  subject 
in  science  or  literature,  that  he  might  prove  his  claims  as  an  author,  he 
would  undoubtedly  have  produced  one  or  more  works  that  would  have 

VOL.  XII.      (n.  S.   IV.)  20 


o 


06  EDWARD    WIGGLESWORTH. 


secured  for  him  approval,  reputation,  and  fame.  Such  productions 
from  his  pen  as  came  into  print  are  simply  fragmentary,  mostly  in  the 
form  of  brief  sententious  "Reflections,"  having  the  point  and  force 
of  clear  moralizing  and  cast  into  the  compressed  shape  of  proverbs. 
He  had  a  sagacious  discernment,  a  fertility  of  imagination,  and  a 
vivacity  and  sparkle  of  wit  and  humor,  running  with  equal  facility  into 
ppose  or  verse,  which,  however,  he  indulged  in  fulness  only  in  the  fes- 
tive enjoyments  of  a  large  and  happy  family  circle. 

Intervals  of  impaired  health,  making  journeys  and  travels  in  this 
coiHitry  and  in  Europe  occasionally  necessary  for  restoration,  and  a 
genei'al  susceptibility  to  some  depressive  moods,  —  no  doubt  aggravated 
by  his  constant  and  faithful  service  in  agencies  of  ministration  to  the 
sorrows  and  ills  of  humanity,  —  seemed  at  times  to  cloud  the  spirit  of 
Mr.  Wigglesworth.  His  modesty,  diffidence,  and  self-depreciation,  his 
purity  of  heart,  his  gentleness  of  spirit,  and  the  fulness  and  generosity 
of  his  benevolent  sympatiiies,  drew  to  him  the  most  tender  attachment 
of  his  family  and  his  connections,  and  the  profoundest  respect  and 
regard  of  the  whole  community  in  which  he  was  known.  His  name, 
with  a  generous  sum  attached  to  it,  appeared  in  answer  to  all  such 
appeals  as  made  necessary  the  announcement  of  subscriptions  for  the 
purpose  of  drawing  others ;  but  there  was  no  record,  public  or  private, 
of  his  da  ly  alms  or  of  the  secret  channels  of  his  generosity.  The  reli- 
gious sentiment  was  deep  and  strong  in  him  through  life,  and  it  was 
the  most  potent  element  in  the  training  ami  influence  of  his  character. 

For  more  than  thirty  j^ears,  Mr.  Wigglesworth  gave  of  his  means, 
his  time,  and  his  warm  interest,  most  efficient  service  to  that  foremost 
of  the  benevolent  institutions  of  this  city,  "  the  Massachusetts  General 
Hospital ; "  having  been  through  the  whole  of  this  period  a  member  of 
its  corporation,  as  one  of  its  trustees,  or  vice-president,  or  president.  He 
was  also  an  officer  of  the  first  and  best  administered  of  the  now  numer- 
ous corporations  for  similar  purposes  among  us,  "  1  he  Provident  Insti- 
tution for  Savings  in  the  Town  of  Boston."  In  the  discharge  of  this 
responsible  trust,  he  engaged  with  a  constant  and  patient  diligence  and 
fidelity,  examining  investments  and  securities  as  if  he  were  himself  the 
guardian  of  the  frugal  savings  of  each  of  the  depositors.  He  took  en- 
tire charge  of  two  of  the  City  Districts  of  the  Boston  Provident  Asso- 
ciation, and  for  years  supported  them  from  his  own  resources,  making 
no  draught  whatever  upon  the  funds  of  the  Association.  Most  of  the 
other  numerous  charitable  institutions  of  the  city,  and  very  many  of 
its  literary  and  religious  enterprises  found  in  him  a  wise  and  just 
administrator,  and  a  generous  patron.     There  are  many  of  his  associ- 


ALEXIS    CASWELL.  307 

ates  in  one  or  more  of  these  multiplied  fellowships  who  will  long  cher- 
ish in  love  and  respect  the  memory  of  this  upright,  kind-hearted,  and 
thoroughly  good  man,  as  he  came  with  his  modest  presence  to  husiness 
meetings,  sitting  for  the  most  part  in  silence,  but  ready  always,  when 
his  word  and  opinion  were  needed,  to  utter  them  with  a  calm  wisdom 
and  a  gentle  earnestness. 


ALEXIS    CASWELL. 

Ox  the  8th  of  January,  1877,  Rhode  Island  lost,  by  death,  an 
accomplished  man  of  science,  and  one  of  her  best  citizens.  Alexis 
Caswell  was  born  in  Taunton,  Mass.,  on  the  29th  of  January,  1799. 
His  ancestors,  on  the  father's  side,  were  prosperous  farmers,  and  were 
among  the  earliest  settlers  of  Taunton.  Thomas  Caswell,  of  the  fifth 
generation  preceding,  came,  according  to  tradition,  from  Somersetshire, 
England.  His  will  was  admitted  to  probate  in  1697;  only  fifty-eight 
years  after  the  incorporation  of  Taunton.  The  grandfather  of  Alexis 
married  Zibiah  White,  who  was  the  great-granddaughter  of  Peregrine 
"White,  the  first  born  of  the  Pilgrims  in  America  on  board  the  May- 
flower, November,  1 620.  Alexis  Caswell,  after  spending  his  early  years 
upon  the  farm,  was  prepared  for  college  at  tlie  Bristol  Academy  in 
Taunton.  Little  is  known  of  hi->  chara-ter  and  attainments  at  this 
time  ;  but,  if  ihe  child  is  fjither  of  tlie  man,  he  must  have  been  ami- 
able, docile,  and  full  of  a  liiirh  ambition.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he 
entered  Brown  University,  over  which  Dr.  Messer  then  presided.  His 
course  in  college  was  eminently  successful;  and,  at  his  graduation,  in 
1822,  he  received  the  first  honors. 

From  1822  to  1827,  he  was  connected  with  Columbian  College, 
Washington.  D.  C,  as  tutor  or  professor  of  languages;  at  the  same 
time  studying  theology  under  Dr.  Staugiiton,  the  President.  In  the 
autumn  of  1827,  he  went  with  Dr.  Irah  Chase  (professor  in  the  New- 
ton Theological  Seminary  from  1825  to  1843),  to  Halifax  for  the  pur- 
pose of  establishing  the  Granville  Baptist  Church  in  that  place.  His 
plans  were  changed,  in  consequence  of  an  invitation  which  he  receivcMl 
from  the  people  to  remain  among  them.  He  was  ordained  on  the 
7th  of  October,  and  settled  over  them  as  their  pastor.  Having 
preached  to  them  acceptably  for  a  year,  he  received  an  invitation  from 
the  first  Baptist  Church  in  Providence  in  the  summer  of  1828  to 
assist  the  Rev.  S.  Gano,  tlie  pastor  of  that  church.  He  had  been  in 
Providence  only  a  few  weeks,  when  he  was  ai)pointed  Professor  of 
Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  in  Brown  University.     Witli  the 


308  ALEXIS    CASWELL. 

exception  of  the  time  wlien  he  visited  Europe,  in  18G0-61,  he  dis- 
charged the  laborious  duties  of  this  office  for  thirty-five  years,  to  the 
complete  satisfaction  of  the  government  and  the  pupils  of  the  institu- 
tion. Engaging  in  its  instruction  soon  after  Dr.  VVayland's  accession 
to  the  presidency,  he  was  his  strong  support  throughout  an  able  and 
vigorous  administration.  In  many  respects,  one  was  the  fitting  com- 
plement of  the  other,  and  respect  and  confidence  were  felt  equally  on 
each  side.  In  1840,  while  Dr.  AVayland  was  absent  in  Europe,  Pro- 
fessor Caswell  discharged  the  duties  of  President ;  and,  dui'ing  the  last 
three  years  of  President  Wayland's  otfii-ial  term,  Professor  Caswell, 
under  the  title  of  Regent,  relieved  him  from  all  tlie  anxieties  of  disci- 
pline, bringing  to  this  delicate  duty  qualities  of  mind  and  heart  which 
secured  good  order  without  alienating  the  affection  of  the  students. 

When  Dr.  Caswell  resigned  his  professorship  in  1863,  he  was  sixty- 
four  years  of  age  ;  and  had  fairly  earned  the  leisure  and  the  retire- 
ment which  are  the  reward  and  the  luxury  of  old  age.  But  he  was 
still  young  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word;  young  in  his  feelings,  in  his 
habits  of  industry,  in  his  intellectual  faculties,  in  the  good  constitution 
which  he  had  inherited  fi-om  his  father  (who  died  in  1851  at  the 
advanced  age  of  ninety-one),  and  young  in  his  passion  to  serve  his  day 
and  generation  to  the  end.  Accordingly,  he  engaged  in  active  affairs 
with  a  vigor  and  success  which  younger  men  might  well  have  envied. 
Kefreslied  by  five  years,  not  of  repose,  but  of  a  change  in  his  intellec- 
tual diet,  he  again  obeyed  jhe  voice  of  his  Alma  Mater,  which  called 
him,  in  18G8,  to  the  Presidency  of  Brown  University  ;  Dr.  Sears,  his 
predecessor,  having  been  summoned  to  an  urgent  and  difficult  service 
by  the  strong  voice  of  patriotism  and  humanity.  Although  Dr.  Cas- 
well had  been  moving  for  a  few  years  outside  of  the  University 
domain,  his  heart  was  always  there.  He  knew,  better  probably  than 
any  one  else,  the  wants,  the  resources,  and  the  aims  of  the  institution ; 
and,  notwithstanding  that  he  stood  on  the  brink  of  threescore  years 
and  ten,  he  brouglit  to  his  high  position  the  vigor,  the  freshness,  and 
the  hope  of  youth.  Among  the  various  needs  of  the  University 
which  he  pressed  upon  the  attention  of  the  corporation,  in  his  anninil 
reports,  was  the  establishment  of  an  astronomical  observatory,  suffi- 
cient for  the  purposes  of  instruction  if  not  of  research. 

Soon  after  leaving  the  office  of  president,  in  1872,  Dr.  Caswell  was 
elected  into  the  Board  of  Trustees,  and,  in  1875,  he  was  chosen  a 
Fellow  of  the  Corporation.  In  1841,  he  received  the  degree  of 
D.D.,  and,  in  1865,  that  of  LL.D. ;  both  from  his  own  university. 
For  nearly  fifty  years,  he  had  been  associated  with  it,  either  as  student, 


ALEXIS    CASWELL.  309 

teaclier,  president,  trustee,  or  fellow  :  and  in  each  and  all  of  the«e  rela- 
tions he  had  reflected  back  all  the  honors  which  he  had  received  as  a 
favorite  son.  Earnest,  devoted,  and  generous  himself,  he  had  the 
power  and  the  disposition  to  enlist  others,  of  larger  means,  in  the  same 
cause.  None  of  its  distinguished  children  has  exceeded  him,  perhaps 
none  has  equalled  him,  in  length  of  service  and  fidelity  to  its  sacred 

tl"US*S. 

The  special  function  and  the  liiirh  deliiiht  of  Dr.  Caswell  were  those 
of  an  educator.  When  lie  began  his  profession  of  teacher,  he  shared 
the  fate  of  his  contemporaries  in  older  and  richer  universities  in  a  new 
country.  He  was  responsible  for  all  the  instruction  given  in  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy  ;  in  face,  he  alone  represented  the  scien- 
tific side  of  the  institution  to  which  he  was  attached.  Afterwards,  a 
professor  of  chemistry,  and  at  a  much  later  period  professors  of  natu- 
ral pliilosophy  or  mathematics,  were  associated  with  him;  so  that,  in 
1850,  his  own  duties  were  restricted  to  astronomy,  from  1851  to  1855 
to  mathematics  and  astronomy,  and  after  1855  to  natural  philosophy 
and  astronomy.  It  could  not  be  expected  of  any  man  who  was 
required  to  scatter  his  energies  over  a  variety  of  subjects,  which  in  a 
well  appointed  university  would  tax  the  best  efforts  of  half  a  dozen 
professors,  that  he  should  have  much  leisure  or  dispositioii  for  original 
investigation  in  one  direction.  It  was  enougii,  and  more  than  enough, 
for  the  most  laborious  and  ambitious  teacher  tliat  he  should  maintain 
a  high  standard  of  scholarship  in  the  wide  field  which  circumstances 
forced  him  to  cultivate.  Much  has  been  written  durino;  the  last  few 
years  in  regard  to  the  endowment  of  scientific  research.  But  this  is  a 
luxury  of  which  no  one  dreamed  in  Dr.  Caswell's  day ;  and  its  strong- 
est advocates  at  the  present  time  are  not  in  agreement  as  to  the  best 
way  of  accomplishing  the  desirable  result.  Mr.  Huxley  may  be  cor- 
rect in  Iiis  opinion  that  a  moderate  amount  of  teaching  will  not  check 
but  stimulate  the  zeal  of  the  original  explorer.  But  no  one  will  think 
that  a  mind,  wearied  by  excessive  teaching,  distracted  by  a  multiplicity 
of  topics,  and  prevented  from  rising  in  his  instruction  to  tiie  Alpine 
heights  of  science  by  the  dulness  or  indifference  of  the  average  stu- 
dent who  despairs  even  of  reaching  the  table-land,  is  a  congenial  soil 
for  advancing  human  knowledge.  Under  such  circumstances,  one  of  two 
things  must  happen,  —  either  the  work  of  teaching  will  be  neglected, 
or  that  of  original  research  will  be  left  to  men  more  favorably 
placed. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  from  these  remarks  that  Dr.  Caswell  was 
contented  to  remain  stationary.     At  no  time,  since  his  scientific  life 


310  ALEXIS   CASWELL. 

began,  has  it  been  an  easy  task  even  to  keep  in  sight  the  few  who  are 
steadily  advancing  the  outposts  of  science;  and,  of  late,  it  is  quite 
impossible  without  concentration.  Dr.  Caswell's  predilection  was  for 
meteorology  and  astronomy.  During  the  long  period  of  twenty-eight 
aud'a  half  years  (fi'om  December,  1831,  to  May,  1860),  he  made,  with 
few  interruptions,  a  regular  series  of  meteorological  observations,  at 
the  same  spot  on  College  Hill,  in  Providence.  These  observations, 
precise  as  regards  temperature  and  pressure,  and  including  also  much 
information  on  winds,  clouds,  moisture,  rain,  storms,  the  aurora,  &c., 
have  been  published  in  detail  in  Volume  XII.  of  the  "  Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge,"  and  fill  17'.*  quarto  pages. 

In  18-')S,  Dr.  Caswell  delivered  four  lectures  on  astronomy  at  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  in  Washington.  They  were  of  the  highest 
order  of  pojjular  instruction,  and,  on  that  account,  were  thought 
by  Professor  Henry  worthy  of  being  peimanently  preserved  in  his 
printed  report  for  that  year.  Whatever  may  have  been,  or  may  still 
be,  the  conflict  between  science  and  theoh)gy,  there  is  no  conflict 
between  science  and  religion  ;  least  of  all  in  Dr.  Caswell's  mind.  He 
says  in  his  introductory  remarks :  "  The  mechanism  of  the  heavens,  in 
proportion  as  we  comprehend  more  and  more  of  its  vastness  atid  seem- 
ing complexity,  bears  witness  to  the  enduiing  order  and  harmony  of 
the  universe,  and  points  with  unerring  certainty  to  the  superintending 
agency  of  an  intelligent  and  infinite  Creator."  And  again :  •'  We 
spontaneously  pay  the  tribute  of  our  homage  to  all  great  achievements. 
But  in  no  case  is  homage  more  just  or  more  enduring  than  that  which 
all  cultivated  minds  pay  to  him  who  stands  as  the  minister  and  inter- 
preter of  Nature,  and  makes  known  to  us  her  laws  and  her  mysteries. 
Many  such  adorn  the  annals  of  astronomy." 

Dr.  Caswell  joined  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science  at  its  second  meeting,  which  was  held  at  Cand)ridge  iu 
1850.  Although  he  made  no  formal  contribution  to  its  proceedings,  he 
was  a  fi'equent  attendant  upon  the  annual  meetings,  took  part  in  the 
discussions,  and  always  gave  dignity  to  its  deliberations  by  his  character 
and  his  words.  In  1855,  the  Association  had  its  ninth  meeiing  iu 
Providence;  and  the  hospitable  reception  then  given  to  it,  and  the 
hearty  appreciation  felt  for  its  labors,  were  largely  due  to  his  influence. 
The  members  expressed  their  gratitude  for  this  service  by  electing  him 
as  the  vice-president  for  the  next  meeting,  in  Montreal,  But  the 
death  of  the  President  elect.  Professor  J.  W.  Bailey  of  West  Point, 
called  Dr.  Caswell  to  the  chair.  At  this  large  representation  of 
the  science  of  the  Continent  (the  only  meeting  which  has  taken  place 


ALEXIS    CASWELL. 


311 


outside  of  the  limits  of  tlie  United  States),  he  sustained  the  credit  of 
his  country  on  a  foreign  soil,  by  his  dignified  presence  and  his  manly 
eloquence,  to  the  great  .-at i.s faction  of  all  liis  associates.  At  such  a 
time  and  in  such  a  position,  Dr.  Caswell  appeared  to  great  advantage. 
By  his  dignity,  his  address,  and  his  courtesy  he  was  eminently  qualified 
to  he  a  j)residing  officer;  and  he  was  gifted  witli  a  fluency,  a  felicity, 
and  a  weight  of  speech  which  rose  to  tlie  requirements  of  the  occasion. 
At  tiie  next  meeting  of  the  Association  in  Baltimore,  the  president  and 
vice-president  elect  were  absent,  and  every  hand  was  u|)lilted  in  favor 
of  placing  Dr.  Caswell  again  in  the  chair.  Having  been  called  to  pre- 
side over  two  of  the  most  brilliant  gatherings  of  this  scientific  body,  he 
was  ex|)ectetl  to  discharge  the  last  duty  of  a  retiring  president  by  giving 
the  address  at  Springfield.  After  showing  that  science  had  an  intellec- 
tual value  far  transcending  its  practical  use,  he  discussed  the  objects,  the 
opportunities,  and  the  hopes  of  science  in  America ;  drawing  his  illus- 
trations chiefly  from  astronomy,  partly  because  it  was  his  fiivorite 
study,  and  partly  because  it  had  the  start  of  all  others  in  material 
resources.  In  this  excellent  address,  admirable  in  thought,  spirit,  and 
stvle.  Dr.  Caswell  reiterates  his  conviction  that  genuine  science  is  not 
unfriendly  to  religion.  "  We  participate  in  no  such  fear.  We  wish 
explicitly  to  exonerate  this  Association  from  all  suspicion  of  undermin- 
ino',  or  in  any  manner  weakening,  the  foundations  of  that  faith  which 
an  apostle  says  was  once  delivered  to  the  saints.  We  cannot  admit  the 
opinion  that  any  progress  in  science  will  ever  operate  to  the  disparage- 
ment of  that  de\out  homage  which  we  all  owe  to  llim  in  whose  hand 
our  breath  is.  and  whose  are  all  our  ways.  Science,  on  the  contrary, 
lends  its  sanction  and  adds  the  weight  of  its  authority  to  the  sublime 
teachings  of  revelation." 

In  this  connection,  two  other  scientific  publications  of  Dr.  Caswell 
may  be  mentioned:  I.  On  Zinc  as  a  covering  for  building;  "American 
Journal  of  Science,"  1^37.  II.  Review  of  ISichol's  Architecture  of  the 
Heavens;  "Chri.-tian  Review,"  1841.  Dr.  Caswell  was  elected  an 
Associate  Fellow  of  this  Academy  in  1850.  He  was  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  ^National  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  wrote  a 
Memoir  of  that  worthy  pioneer  in  American  Science,  Benjamin  Silli- 
man,  which  has  been  printed  in  one  of  its  volumes  of  Proceedings. 

In  this  retrospect  of  the  life  and  labors  of  Dr.  Caswell,  he  has  been 
seen  almost  exclusively  in  his  professional  relations,  as  the  student  and 
teacher  of  science.  And  here  his  mind  took  more  delight  in  ranging 
over  a  wide  field  than  in  dissecting  some  single  flower  or  tracing  the 
path  of  a  solitary  molecule,  although  that  may  be  a  microcosm  in 


312  ALEXIS   CASWELL. 

itself.  lie  could  not  have  become  one  of  Berkeley's  minute  philoso- 
phers. He  was  no  specialist,  though  he  was  never  superficial.  If  he 
was  not  himself  an  original  discoverer,  he  understood  and  admired  the 
discoveries  of  others,  and  led  others  to  do  likewise.  At  one  time  he 
taught  Butler's  Analogy  at  the  university,  and  with  as  fresh  an  euthu- 
siasm  as  if  that  alone  had  been  the  chosen  work  of  liis  life.  And 
wherever  there  was  a  gap  in  the  means  of  instruction,  he  was  the  per- 
son thounht  to  be  fitted  to  fill  it.  His  whole  nature  revolted  at  the 
suggestion  of  becoming  a  bookworm  or  a  secluded  student.  He  was 
emphatically  a  man  of  the  world,  though  not  of  it.  He  was  inter- 
ested in  trade,  manufactures,  and  finance.  He  was  a  good  citizen, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  promoting  the  industrial,  intellectual, 
and  moi'al  welfare  of  his  city,  his  State,  and  the  whole  country.  His 
sympatliies  were  deep  and  generous.  Always  welcomed  in  the  cir- 
cles of  the  refined  and  educated,  he  will  be  no  less  missed  in  the 
homes  of  the  poor  and  the  unfortunate.  His  heart  and  mind  and 
strength  were  liberally  expended  in  the  administration  of  the  public 
charities  of  the  city  and  State. 

Dr.  Caswell  was  an  earnest  spe^aker,  ami  a  clear,  warm,  and  vigorous 
writer.  To  his  public^itions,  ah'eady  mentioned,  may  be  added : 
I.  <h  B  K  oration  in  1835.  II.  Review  of  Whewell's  Bridgewater 
Treatise;  "Christian  Review,"  1836.  HI.  Article  on  P^mulatiou ; 
"North  American  Review,"  1836.  IV.  Address  at  the  funeral  of 
Rev.  J.  N.  Granger,  1857.  V.  Memoir  of  John  Barstow.  VI.  Ser- 
mon on  the  Life  and  Christian  work  of  Dr.  Francis  Wayland. 

Truly  was  it  said  of  Dr.  Caswell,  at  his  funeral,  that  nature  did 
much  for  him,  but  that  grace  had  done  even  more.  Firm  and  earnest 
in  his  own  religious  convictions,  inflexible  in  his  own  peculiar  theology, 
he  had  no  taint  of  illiberality  in  his  intellect  or  his  heart ;  ever  abound- 
ing in  that  Christian  charity  which  thinketh  no  evil  of  any  who  con- 
scientiously worshipped  the  same  God  from  a  different  altar.  He  had 
mingled  in  the  affaii-s  of  practical  life  more  than  usually  happens  to  an 
academic  career,  but  the  purity,  the  integrity,  ami  the  simplicity  of  his 
character  were  superior  to  its  surroundings ;  and,  to  the  end,  he 
seemed  as  much  in  place  in  the  pulpit  as  if  he  had  never  left  the  pro- 
fession of  his  early  choice.  There  was  no  austerity  in  his  goodness ; 
hence  it  attracted  those  who  could  not  have  been  driven.  Sweet  iu 
temper,  cheerful  in  disposition,  gentle,  affectionate,  affable,  hospitable, 
he  was  happy  in  his  life,  and  even  more  happy  in  his  death.  After  his 
long  day,  in  wliicli  he  had  not  labored  in  vain,  his  sun  went  suddenly 
down  iu  a  cloudless  sky.     And  behold  the  end  of  such  a  man :  it  is  all 


CHARLES   HENRY   DAVIS.  313 

honor,  and  affection,  and  peace.  The  press,  the  university,  the  church, 
and  the  State,  have  borne  witness  to  the  excellence  of  his  character  and 
the  usefuhiess  of  his  life. 

CHARLES    HENRY    DAVIS. 

Charles  Henry  Davis  was  born  in  Boston,  16th  January,  1807. 
His  father  was  the  Hon.  Daniel  Davis,  a  lawyer  of  distinction,  and 
lonsr  the  Solicitor-General  of  Massachusetts.  His  mother  was  born 
Margaret  Freeman,  sister  to  the  Rev.  James  F'reeman,  the  eminent 
mini!«ter  of  the  King's  Chapel.  He  was  admitted  to  Harvard  College 
in  1821  ;  but  left  it  two  years  later,  to  enter  the  naval  profession. 
In  1841,  however,  the  university  conferred  on  him  the  degrees  of 
A.B.  and  A.M.,  and,  in  18()8,  that  of  LL.D.,  and  his  name  stands  iu 
the  triennial  catalosue  iu  the  list  of  members  of  the  class  of  1825. 

His  commission  as  midshipman  bore  date  12th  August,  1823.  For 
some  fifteen  or  twenty  years  after  this  time,  his  life  was  occupied  with 
the  duties  and  pleasures  of  his  profession.  He  became  passed  midship- 
man iu  1829,  and  lieutenant  in  1834.  His  ever  distinct  personality 
outwardly  displayed  itself  chiefly  in  the  gayety,  the  spirit,  and  the 
physical  energy  of  youth.  But  the  activity  of  nature  which  thus 
found  its  expression  was  iu  reality  the  outgrowth  of  the  vigor  and 
brilliancy  of  his  mind  and  character;  and  these  qualities  were  all  the 
time  gaining  maturity  and  tempered  strength  in  reading,  reflection,  and 
intercourse  with  the  world.  His  habits  of  thou<iht  and  feeling  bore  ever 
after  deep  and  pleasant  traces  of  the  education  of  those  earlier  years. 

About  1840,  Lieutenant  Davis  took  up  his  residence  in  Cambridge, 
and  undertook  a  serious  course  of  reading  and  study,  especially  in 
mathematics,  which  he  pursued  under  the  guidance  of  Professor 
Peirce.  In  1842,  he  was  ordered  to  duty  on  the  Coast  Survey,  of 
which  Professor  Bache  was  the  next  year  appointed  superintendent; 
and  he  continued  as  one  of  the  most  valued  officers  in  this  service  till 
1849.  The  department  to  which  he  was  primarily  assigned  was  the 
investigation  of  the  velocity  and  directitm  of  the  tides  and  currents  in 
New  York  Harbor,  in  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Kantucket ;  and  the  efficiency  and  ability  which  he  displayed  in  this 
work  led  to  his  frequent  appointment  on  commissions,  both  then  and 
subsequently,  tx)  examine  the  principal  harbors  of  the  country.  These 
researches  engaged  him  in  the  genei'al  study  of  the  laws  of  tidal  action, 
in  which  he  made  valuable  additions  to  knowledge,  and  was  led  to  the 
adoption  of  new  and  striking  views,   embodied  in  his  "  Memoir  upon 


314  CHARLES    HENRY   DAVIS. 

the  Geolo"-ical  Action  of  the  Tidal  and  other  Currents  of  the  Ocean  " 
(Mem.  Am.  Acad.,  new  series,  vol.  iv.)  and  his  "  Law  of  Deposit  of 
the  Flood  Tide"  (Smithsonian  Contributions,  vol.  iii.).  The  object  of 
these  publications,  which  made  him  known  to  men  of  science  as  an 
hydrogr;ipher  of  the  highest  learning  and  skill,  was  to  exhibit  the  law 
of  connection  between  ilie  currents  of  tlie  st^a  and  the  alluvial  deposits 
on  its  borders  and  in  its  depths,  and  to  show  tliat  this  law  had  con- 
tributed in  past  ages,  in  an  important  degiee,  and  was  still  constantly 
contributing,  to  the  determination  and  modification  of  the  forms  of  the 
continents. 

At  tiie  same  time  with  the  performance  of  this  valuable  scientific 
work,  he  was  rendering  conspicuous  services  to  the  country,  by  labors 
of  more  directly  practical  utility.  His  discovery,  in  the  successive  years 
from  184G  to  1S49,  of  a  series  of  important  shoals,  before  utterly  un- 
suspected, lying  in  one  of  the  most  constantly  traversed  regions  of  the 
ocean,  directly  in  the  track  of  vessels  sailing  between  New  York  and 
Europe,  or  between  Boston  and  West  Indian  or  Southern  ports, 
attracted  public  attention  very  powerfully  to  the  value  of  the  Coast 
Survey,  which  had  not  then  acquired  the  position  it  now  holds  in  the 
confidence  of  the  country.  Several  considerable  wrecks  and  accidents, 
before  unexplained,  were  accounted  for  by  tiiese  discoveries,  which 
called  forth  special  letters  of  acknowledgment  from  merchants  and 
insurance  companies. 

Lieutenant  Davis  was  detached  from  the  Coast  Survey  in  1849, 
and  ordered  to  duty  as  the  first  superintendent  of  the  new  "American 
Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac,"  which  owed  its  foundation  directly 
to  his  efforts.  The  following  extract  from  a  letter  of  Professor  Bache 
to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  dated  17th  July,  1849,  —  a  letter  in  no 
way  called  for  by  any  courtesy  of  custom,  —  shows  the  estimation  in 
which  he  was  held  by  his  eminent  chief:  "  The  official  reports  of  the 
progress  of  the  Coast  Survey  have,  from  time  to  time,  brought  the 
name  and  services  of  Lieutenant  Davis  very  prominently  before 
the  department,  as  marked  by  all  the  (jualities  which  insure  distinction 
in  such  a  work.  The  loss  of  his  services  will  be  deeply  felt.  The 
zeal,  industry,  knowledge,  and  judgment  ripened  by  experience,  which 
he  has  brought  to  the  survey,  cannot  soon  be  replaced.  They  have 
conferred  upon  it  some  of  its  most  decided  claims  to  usefulness  and 
public  approval.  In  parting  with  this  most  valued  officer  for  a  field  of 
duty  alike  honorable  to  him  and  useful  to  the  country,  I  desire  to  place 
on  the  records  of  the  Treasury  Department  the  strongest  expression 
of  my  sense  of  his  merits  in  the  career  which  he  leaves." 


CHARLES    HENRY   DAVIS.  315 

But  while  the  labors  of  our  deceased  associate  in  the  hydrographic 
work  of  the  Coast  Survey  establisiied  his  reputation  as  an  accomplished 
and  able  investigator,  and  were  of  high  public  value,  he  rendered  still 
more  important  benefits  to  his  country  and  to  science  by  his  successful 
organization  and  conduct  of  tlie  '•  American  Ephemeris."  Tlie  establish- 
ment of  this  work  was  urged  by  its  projectors,  and  especially  by  Lieu- 
tenant Davis  (the  prime  mover  in  the  undertaking),  wiih  two  motives: 
first,  to  advance  the  scientific  character  and  standing  of  the  country,  by 
a  publication  of  the  highest  order  fiom  a  scientific  point  of  view  ;  and, 
secondly,  to  promote  the  cause  of  astronomy  itself,  and  render  substan- 
tial services  to  navigation,  by  producing  a  work  on  a  higher  plane  tiian 
the  '•  British  Nautical  Almanac,"  fully  conformed  to  the  latest  develop- 
ments of  knowledge,  and  likely  to  give  an  additional  stimulus  to  pure 
research.  To  carry  out  this  ambitious  plan,  with  the  revision  of  the 
solar,  lunar,  and  planetary  tables,  and  of  various  points  of  astronomi- 
cal theory,  which  it  involved,  it  was  necessary  to  eidist  iu  the  work  the 
ablest  mathematical  astronomers  of  the  country,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  train  up  a  body  of  young  computers,  and  to  inspire  them  not  only 
with  the  spirit  of  numerical  accuracy,  but  with  the  tiiie  love  of  science 
and  desire  to  advance  it.  To  this  arduous  but  most  interesting  task, 
Davis  brought  his  admirable  judgment  and  his  fine  scientific  talents, 
together  with  that  fortunate  temperament  which  easily  united  various 
men  in  loyalty  to  one  enterprise,  and  that  generosity  of  nature  which 
thought  only  of  doing  the  work  in  the  best  manner,  and  gladly  gave 
the  freest  possible  play  to  others'  individuality.  The  first  volume  of 
the  "  E^pliemeris  "  appeared  in  1852,  and  was  very  favorably  received 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic ;  and  it  may  be  safely  said,  that,  except 
the  Coast  Survey,  of  which  the  vast  scope  of  course  gives  it  pre-emi- 
nence, uo  scientific  work  which  has  been  carried  on  in  this  country  has 
redounded  more  largely  to  the  national  credit.  "  The  policy  adopted  in 
the  newly  formed  office,"  writes  one  who  was  familiar  with  it,  and 
whose  judgment  is  authoritative,  "  tliough  not  in  all  respects  to  be  per- 
manently imitated  as  a  piece  of  administrative  machinery,  was  such  as 
to  make  it  a  more  efficient  promoter  of  mathematical  astronomy  in  this 
country  than  any  organization  we  have  ever  had.  Young  men  of 
talent  were  looked  for  from  all  quarters,  were  employed  without  regard 
to  personal  or  political  influence,  were  paid  according  to  their  efficiency, 
and  were  encouraged  to  engage  in  any  branch  of  mathematical  or 
astronomical  research  which  would  tend  to  improve  the  almanac.  In 
the  work  of  th«  office  there  was  a  freedom  from  discij)line  ami  restraint, 
which,  though  it  might  work  badly  under  other  circumstances,  was 


316  CHARLES    HENRY    DAVIS. 

very  favorable  to  the  development  of  a  school  of  mathematicians. 
Besides  men  like  Peiice  and  Walker,  who  had  attained  eminence 
before  becoming  connected  with  his  office,  the  names  of  President 
Runkle,  Professors  VVinlock  and  Newcorab,  Chauncey  Wright,  and 
William  P"'errel,  may  be  cited  as  representatives  of  the  men  who 
were  first  brouirht  out  throu";h  their  connection  with  the  Nautical 
Almanac." 

In  1854,  Davis  attained  the  rank  of  commander;  and,  in  1857,  he 
published  an  English  translation  of  Gauss's  "Theoria  Motils  Corporum 
Ccelestium."  The  period  of  his  superintendency  of  the  almanac  was 
interrupted  by  a  three  years'  cruise  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  cruise 
was  signalized  by  a  striking  exhibition  of  the  decision  of  character 
and  willingness  to  assume  responsibility  for  which  he  was  ever  noted 
in  the  service,  in  his  acceptance,  in  the  name  of  the  United  States,  of 
the  surrender  of  Walker  in  Nicaragua,  —  a  step  which  saved  many 
lives,  and  prevented  serious  complications,  and  which  Davis  took  with- 
out any  explicit  instructions  from  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
squadron. 

In  1861,  soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  Davis  was  made 
a  member  of  a  board  of  officers  assembled  at  Washington  to  inquire 
into  and  report  upon  the  condition  of  the  Southern  coast,  with  a  view 
to  oifeusive  operations  on  the  part  of  the  United  States.  This 
inquiry  led  to  the  organization  of  the  squadron  which  was  placed 
under  the  command  of  Flag-Officer  Du[)ont,  and  of  which  Davis  was 
appointed  fleet-captain  and  chief-of-staff,  and  to  the  capture  of  Port 
Royal,  —  the  first  brilliant  naval  achievement  of  the  war.  Davis  was 
prominently  engaged  in  both  the  planning  and  the  execution  of  this 
magnificent  action  ;  in  which  two  strong  forts,  splendidly  manned,  and 
mounting  forty-three  guns,  nearly  all  of  heavy  calibre,  yielded  in  four 
hours  to  an  attack  as  beautiful  as  it  was  able,  and  one  of  the  largest 
and  noblest  harbors  of  the  South, —  indeed,  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world,  —  with  all  the  surrounding  country,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Federal  Government.  In  Flag-Officer  Dupont's  official  report  of 
11th  November,  1861,  he  says  of  Commander  Davis  :  "  In  the  organiza- 
tion of  our  large  fleet  before  sailing,  and  in  the  preparation  and  system- 
atic arrangement  of  the  details  of  our  contemplateil  work,  —  in  short, 
in  all  the  duties  pertaining  to  the  flag-officer,  —  I  received  his  most 
valuable  assistance.  He  possesses  the  rare  quality  of  being  a  man  of 
science  and  a  practical  officer,  keeping  the  love  of  science  subordinate 
to  the  regular  duties  of  his  profession.  During  the  action,  he  watched 
over  the  movements  of  the  fleet,  kept  the  official  minutes,  and  evinced 


CHARLES   HENRY   DAVIS.  317 

that  calmness  in  dan;i;er,  which,  to  my  knowledge  for  thirty  years,  has 
been  a  conspicuous  trait  in  his  character." 

In  May,  1862,  Davis  (now  captain)  was  appointed  flag-officer  of 
the  Mississippi  flotilla  off  Fort  Pillow ;  and,  one  or  two  days  after 
assuming  command,  he  with  seven  vessels  beat  off  a  squadron  of  eight 
iron-clads  which  had  steamed  up  the  river  and  attacked  him.  The 
action  was  a  spirited  one,  and  lasted  nearly  an  hour.  Three  of  the 
hostile  gunboats  were  disabled,  but  avoided  capture  by  taking  refuge 
under  the  guns  of  the  fort.  On  the  5th  of  June  Fort  Pillow  was 
abandoned  by  the  Confederates,  and  on  the  sixth  Davis  fell  in  with 
their  ironclads  and  rams,  opposite  Memphis.  A  rimning  flght  ensued, 
resulting  in  the  capture  or  destruction  of  all  the  Confederate  vessels 
but  one,  and  the  surrender  of  IMeraphis.  Davis  then  joined  Farragut, 
and  was  engaged  in  various  opei-ations  near  Vicksburg,  and  in  the 
Yazoo  River. 

In  this  year,  the  Bureau  of  Navigation  was  established,  and  Davis 
was  appointed  its  first  chief.  In  186"},  he  received  tlie  thanks  of  Con- 
gress,—  a  distinction  which  entitled  him  to  ten  years  of  active  service 
beyond  the  regular  time  of  retirement,  —  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral.  Two  years  later,  he  became  superintendent  of  the 
Naval  Observatory  at  Washington.  In  186G,  in  compliance  with  a 
resolution  of  the  Senate,  he  prepared  a  valuable  ''  Ueport  on  Inter- 
oceanic  Railroads  and  Canals,"  which  was  revised  and  reprinted  in 
1870,  and  furnished  by  the  Navy  Department  to  Captain  Selfridge  for 
his  instruction  in  making  his  surveys.  In  1867,  he  was  again  ordered 
to  sea,  in  command  of  the  South  Atlantic  Squadron  cruising  in  South 
American  waters. 

In  1868,  while  Admiral  Davis  was  in  command  of  this  squadron,  he 
became  the  object  of  a  bitter  personal  attack,  in  consequence  of  his 
not  acceding  to  the  views  of  the  United  States  Ministers  in  Paraguay 
and  Brazil  as  to  his  proper  action  in  relation  to  the  troubles  then  agi- 
tating the  former  country.  Into  matters  of  controversy  this  is  not  the 
place  to  enter;  but  our  notice  would  be  incomplete  without  a  brief 
recital  of  the  facts  of  the  case.  A  state  of  war  existed  in  Paracruay, 
then  subject  to  the  dictatorship  of  Lopez  ;  and  our  minister,  deeming  his 
position  insecure,  withdrew  from  the  country,  leaving  behind  him  two 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  who  were  arrested  and  imprisoned,  at  the 
moment  of  his  departure,  on  the  charge  of  conspiracy  against  the  Para- 
guayan government.  Admiral  Davis  was  accused  of  delay  in  demanding 
the  release  of  these  prisoners,  and  of  accepting  their  surrender,  when  it 
■was  made,  after  a  parley  with  Lopez  and  under  conditious.    In  fact,  the 


818  CHARLES    HENRY    DAVIS. 

charpje  of  delay  arose  from  his  declining  to  consider  his  squadron  as  under 
the  orders  of  tiie  diplomatic  authorities  :  he  acted  with  as  much  prompt- 
itude as  lie  conceived  to  be  consistent  with  his  duty  of  making  sure  of 
his  ground  in  a  much-debated  case ;  and  the  men  were  given  up  on  a 
peremptory  summons,  accompanied  by  a  proper  display  of  force,  and 
under  no  conditions.  His  line  of  conduct  was  thus  completely  success- 
ful ;  and  it  was  fully  sustained  by  the  State  and  Navy  Departments. 
But  a  vote  of  censure  was  passed  by  the  House  of  Representatives, 
under  the  influence  of  the  hostility  which  had  been  excited  in  certain 
quarters  by  his  independent  course.  The  moral  weight  to  be  attached  to 
this  vote  may  be  estimated  from  the  circumstance,  that  it  joined  in  the 
same  condemnation  Admiral  Godon.  whose  action  had  been  dictated 
by  the  explicit  orders  of  tlie  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  His  reputation 
suffered  nothing  among  those  who  fully  understood  the  merits  of  the 
case.  The  affair  was,  in  truth,  a  conspicuous  instance  of  the  decision 
of  character,  the  soundness  and  reasonableness  of  judgment,  the  con- 
scientious and  noble-minded  patriotism,  and  the  high  sense  of  professional 
res|)onsiliility,  which  always  distinguished  him. 

Admii'al  Uavis  returned  from  his  South  American  cruise  in  1809, 
and  was  for  several  years  in  command  of  the  Navy  Yard  at  Norfolk. 
In  the  winter  of  187o-74,  he  was  again  appointed  to  the  superintend- 
ency  of  the  Naval  Observatory,  in  time  to  take  an  active  part  in  com- 
pleting the  preparations  for  the  expedition  to  observe  the  transit  of 
Venus.  Tn  the  session  of  1874-75,  Congress  made  an  a|)pro|)riation 
for  printing  illustrations  of  the  results  of  the  Polaris  Expedition  to 
the  Arctic  regions,  commanded  by  the  late  Captain  C,  F.  Hall.  The 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  requested  Admiral  Davis  to  prepare  the  work 
and  take  charge  of  its  publication  ;  and  this  labor  formed  the  principal 
occupation  of  the  last  two  years  of  his  life.  He  threw  into  it  an 
interest  which  seemed  to  deepen  at  last  witii  every  chapter;  giving 
assiduous  attention  to  the  least  details  of  the  narrative,  and  l)ringing  to 
bear  on  it  all  the  additional  illustrations  he  could  anywliere  gather  of 
the  character  and  purposes  of  the  conmiander  and  other  officers  of  the 
expedition.  The  work,  which  was  nearly  completed  under  his  hand,  is 
early  expected  ;  and  it  is  believed  that  it  will  be  found  fully  worthy  of 
its  connection  with  his  name. 

For  several  years  his  health  has  somewhat  declined.  But  he 
worked  re<.'ula'-ly  on  the  proofs  of  the  Polaris  narrative  till  the  fourth 
day  before  his  death,  when  he  had  to  abandon  the  effort  and  go  to  bed. 
From  that  time  he  tailed  very  rapidly,  but  without  sulfering,  and  died 
early  in  the  morning  of  Sunday,  18th  February,  lb77. 


CHARLES   HENRY   DAVIS.  319 

"  Notwithstanding  the  active  and  prominent  hfe  wliich  Admiral 
Davis  led,  and  his  energy  and  dash  as  a  naval  commander,"  siiys  one 
w^hose  words  have  been  already  cited,  "his  tastes,  especially  in  his 
later  years,  were  much  more  those  of  the  reiined  gentleman  of  literary 
leisure  than  of  the  active  man  of  the  world.  He  was  little  inclined  to 
mingle  in  general  society,  but  rather  sought  that  of  the  cultivated  few 
whose  tastes  were  congenial  with  his  own.  His  relations  with  the  men 
of  science  who  were  liis  olHcial  subordinates  were  singularly  free  from 
those  complaints,  jealousies,  and  distrusts  which  so  often  arise  when 
military  men  are  placed  iu  charge  of  works  of  a  purely  scientific 
character.  This  arose  from  an  entire  absence  of  every  trace  of  jeal- 
ousy in  his  nature,  combined  with  an  admiration  of  intellectual  supe- 
riority in  others,  which  led  him  to  concede  every  thing  to  it.  He 
combined  independence  of  cliaracter  with  Christian  courtesy,  in  a  way 
that  made  him  a  model  to  the  young  men  by  whom  lie  was  surrounded. 
No  human  being  who  ever  came  into  his  presence  was  too  lowly  to  be 
addressed  with  the  most  kindly  courtes}' ;  and,  when  arroganct-  or  im- 
pertinence became  insufferable,  no  respect  for  position  or  influence 
gloved  the  hand  which  dealt  the  blow." 

"  His  conversation  was  forcible,  full  of  good  sense,  and  most  amus- 
ing," says  another  writer.  "  He  brought  to  bear  on  any  subject  he 
took  up  a  host  of  argument,  illustration,  and  elucidation  ;  and  he  liked 
to  brighten  up  the  dryest  discussion  of  professional  and  scientiflc  mat- 
ters \\ith  his  original  and  vivid  turns  of  expression,  or  with  some  apt 
and  unhackneyed  quotation.  .  .  .  He  was  an  admirable  officer.  He 
had  the  true  spirit  of  command,  —  strong,  dignified,  and  quiet ;  and  one 
that,  not  needing  artificial  support,  was  accom[)anied  by  a  thoroughly 
friendly  relation  to  liis  officers  and  mt^n.  .  .  .  But  that  which  is  felt 
most  det'ply  now  by  those  who  knew  Admiral  Davis  well  is  the  loss  of 
a  man  of  rare  and  noble  character.  He  was  a  charming  companion, 
abounding  to  the  last  in  a  natural  freshness  and  gayety  of  spirit ;  and 
he  hud  one  of  the  most  honorable,  upright,  true,  generous,  and  gentle 
hearts  that  ever  beat.  He  was  a  man  of  marked  cournge,  and  had, 
eminently,  the  courage  of  his  convictions.  At  the  same  time,  he  was 
distinguislied  by  perfect  courtesy,  having  but  one  standard  of  manners 
—  and  that  a  finished,  but  unaffected  standard  —  for  all  classes  of 
men.  .  .  .  He  bore  good-will  to  every  one,  and  was  always  in  a  cor- 
dial vein.  Meanness,  trickery,  and  malice,  indeed,  roused  his  bitter 
contempt.  But  a  salient  characteristic  of  at  least  his  later  years  was 
his  profound  trust  in  human  nature,  his  complete  freedom  from  cyni- 


320  CHARLES    DA  VIES. 

cism,  and  his  faith  in  the  power  of  right  anrl  truth  to  conquer  both  the 
world  and  the  individual  conscience.     He 

"  '  Still  in  his  right  hand  carried  gentle  peace 
To  silence  envious  tongues.' 

.   .  .  We  may  say  of  him,  as  it  was  said  of  Sir  Launcelot,  he  was 
'  the  kindest  man  that  ever  struck  with  sword.' " 

CHARLES   DA  VIES. 

On  the  18th  of  September  died  Professor  Charles  Davies,  of 
Fishkill,  on  the  Hudson.  His  family  was  of  VVcL-h  origin,  settled  in 
Washington,  Litchfield  County,  Connecticut.  Born  in  1797,  he  was 
removed  with  his  father  and  his  family  to  St.  Lawrence  County,  New 
York,  in  the  early  part  of  this  century.  That  region  was  then  almost 
a  wilderness,  on  the  northern  frontier.  There  he  was  a  farmer's  boy, 
inured  to  work,  to  country  habits,  and  to  some  measure  of  hardship. 
With  a  strong  constitution,  quick  mind,  and  impulsive  character,  he 
had  all  the  elements  which  were  necessary  to  sustain  those  habits  of 
study  and  labor  which  made  him  a  successful  stuient  and  a  most  useful 
teacher.  Li  December,  1813,  he  was  appointed  a  Cadet  at  West  Point. 
In  consequence  of  the  rapid  promotions  (it  then  being  war  time),  he 
was  promoted  Second  Lieutenant  of  Artillery  in  December,  1815.  He 
was  only  one  year  in  the  army  proper,  except  being  paymaster  at  West 
Point  from  1841  to  184G.  In  December,  1816,  he  was  appointed  As- 
sistant Professor  of  Mathematics  at  the  Military  Acailemy,  —  a  civil 
officer,  created  by  law  for  the  purpose  of  having  permanent  teachers. 
In  1821,  he  was  appointed  Assistant  Professor  of  Natural  and  Experi- 
mental Philosophy;  and  in  May,  1823,  Professor  of  Mathematics.  In 
this  chair  he  remained  until  May,  1837,  when  he  resigned,  and  removed 
to  Hartford,  Connecticut,  chiefly  with  a  view  of  preparing  and  pub- 
lishing the  series  of  educational  works  which  have  since  made  him  so 
well  known.  The  offi.-e  of  teacher  had,  however,  become  habitual 
and  natural  to  him.  He  loved  it,  and  so  he  continued  in  it  almost  to 
the  last  years  of  his  life.  From  1839  to  1841,  he  was  Professor  of 
Mathematics  in  Trinity  College,  Hartford.  Removing  to  West  Point 
as  paymaster,  and  subsequently  to  Fishkill  on  the  Hudson,  he  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Philosophy  in  the  University 
of  New  York,  in  1848,  and  Professor  of  the  Higher  Mathematics  in 
Columbia  College,  New  York,  in  1857.  There  he  remained  until 
1865,  when  he  retired,  and  was  elected  Emeritus  Professor.  Even 
then  he  did  not  cease  wholly  his  connection  with  teachers  and  teach- 


FIELDING    BRADFORD   MEEK.  321 

ing.  He  was  invited  to  and  often  attended  the  Teachers'  Associations 
and  meetings  throughout  the  country.  In  1844,  he  was  President  of 
the  Teachers'  Association  of  New  York ;  and  in  recent  years,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  "•  University  Convocation  "  of  New  York.  It  was  to  that 
body  that  he  made  his  Report  on  the  "  Metric  System,"  which  was 
published  in  1870.  In  1824,  the  degree  of  A.M.  was  conferred  by  tlie 
College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton)  ;  and  in  1825,  the  same  degree,  by 
Williams  College,  Massachusetts;  and  in  1840,  the  degree  of  LL.D., 
by  Geneva  College,  New  York.  If  his  was  a  life  of  actual  teaching, 
it  was  perhaps  still  more  so  as  the  writer  of  text-books,  and  the  author 
of  methods.  He  began  with  the  translation  of  Legendre's  Geometry. 
It  was  a  capital  book  on  that  subject ;  and  its  success  induced  him  to 
go  on  with  other  works.  Among  them  are  no  less  than  six  different 
grades  of  Arithmetics  ;  Elementary  works  on  Algebra,  Geometry, 
Trigonometry,  Practical  Mathematics,  Surveying  and  Navigation, 
Analytical  Geometry,  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus,  Descriptive 
Geometry,  Shades,  Shadows  and  Perspective.  In  addition  to  these,  he 
wrote  the  Logic  and  Utility  of  Mathematics ;  and,  jointly  with  Profes- 
sor Peck,  the  Mathematical  Dictionary.  The  following  is  a  complete 
list :  Primary  Arithmetic,  Intellectual  Arithmetic,  First  Lessons  in 
Arithmetic,  Elements  of  Written  Arithmetic,  Old  School  Arithmetic, 
School  Arithmetic,  Practical  Arithmetic,  University  Arithmetic,  Ele- 
mentary Algebra,  New  Elementary  Algebra,  University  Algebra, 
Bourdon's  Algebra,  Elements  of  Geometry  and  Trigonometry,  Legen- 
dre's Geometry,  Practical  Mathematics  and  Mensuration,  Elements  of 
Surveying,  Elements  of  Calculus,  Analytical  Geometry  and  Calculus, 
Desfriptive  Geometry,  Shades,  Shadows  and  Perspective,  Foundations 
of  Mathematical  Science,  Grammar  of  Arithmetic,  Outlines  of  Mathe- 
matics, Mathematical  Tables,  The  Metric  System,  Logic  and  Utility  of 
Mathematics,  Mathematical  Dictionary. 

FIELDING  BRADFORD   MEEK. 

Fielding  Bradford  Meek  was  born  in  Madison,  Ind.,  on  Dec. 
10, 1817,  and  died  in  Washington  on  Dec.  21, 1876.  The  circumstances 
of  his  little-eventful  life  are  of  small  intere>t  to  his  fellow-workers  in 
science,  save  in  so  far  as  they  show  the  conditions  under  which  his  pe- 
culiarly acute  perceptions  and  admirable  judgment  became  fitted  for 
his  excellent  scientific  work.  Born  in  a  community  where  science  had 
no  place,  and  urged  by  his  surroundings  to  begin  commercial  ventures 
in  a  frontier  society,  with  little  preliminary  training  of  any  sort,  and 

VOL.  XII.      (n.  S.    IV.)  21 


822  FIELDING    BRADFORD    MEEK. 

with  seemingly  no  inherited  instincts  leading  towards  a  scientific  career, 
we  yet  find  him,  after  one  or  two  unfortunate  essays  in  business,  which 
deprived  him  of  a  small  patrimony,  taking  to  the  study  of  nature  as  by 
an  instinct.  Such  inquiries  as  the  writer  of  this  notice  has  been  able 
to  make  of  his  lamented  fellow-worker,  in  their  infrequent  meetings, 
and  of  his  narrow  circle  of  early  intimate  friends,  have  failed  to  show 
in  any  clear  way  the  steps  which  led  to  his  beginnings  in  science. 
Much  is,  perhaps,  to  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  his  birthplace  and 
the  scene  of  his  last  work  was  in  the  midst  of  a  region  richly  stored 
with  fossil  remains  of  an  extinct  and  peculiar  life ;  remains  that  are  so 
captivating  in  their  very  strangeness  that  they  cannot  fail  to  gain  the 
attention  of  eyes  not  sealed  to  the  great  problems  of  the  earth.  His 
body,  naturally  weak,  —  for  he  inherited  a  malady  of  the  lungs  that 
made  his  life  a  long  struggle  with  disease,  —  may  have  helped  him  to 
that  isolation  of  interests  which  readily  drives  a  mind  of  acute  percep- 
tions into  studious  ways. 

It  is  no  part  of  the  purpose  of  this  notice  to  consider  his  altogether 
admirable  personal  life,  —  that  must  be  left  to  other  and  fitter  hands  ; 
but  there  is  yet  another  circumstance  of  his  labor  which  will  interest 
all  those  who  are  concerned  with  the  question  of  the  circumstances  that 
have  surrounded  those  who  have  done  great  work  in  science  :  for  the 
greater  part  of  his  life,  our  late  comrade  was  cut  off  by  almost  total 
deafness  from  all  ready  contact  with  the  world ;  for  all  the  later  and 
most  studious  years  he  was  absolutely  deaf  to  every  sound.  Yet  it 
should  be  told,  as  a  part  of  his  excellence,  that  this  imprisonment 
within  himself  never  lessened  his  beautiful  kindliness  of  spirit,  nor 
checked  his  ready  sympathy  with  the  life  about  him. 

It  is  Mr.  Meek's  paheontological  labors  which  will  remain  his  fittest 
claim  to  the  gratitude  of  scientific  men.  Extending,  as  they  do,  over  a 
long  term  of  years,  and  concerning  materials  from  all  parts  of  the  geo- 
logical section,  it  is  difficult  to  give  them  any  general  characterization. 
To  them  all  may  be  given  the  highest  praise  for  painstaking  labor  and 
perfect  honesty  of  purpose.  They  nearly  all  belong  to  that  class  of 
works  which  are  done  in  the  interests  of  historical  geology,  ratlier  than 
of  biology.  In  this  method  in  which  his  work  was  done,  he  but  fol- 
lowed the  necessary  course  of  all  those  who  take  part  in  the  great  work 
of  exploring  a  region  unknown  to  science,  describing  facts  as  they  are 
successively  ascertained  without  much  reference  to  general  conclusions. 
His  palajontological  work  was  begun  in  connection  with  the  surveys  of 
Dr.  David  Daleman  iu  Iowa,  Minnesota,  and  Wisconsin,  in  1848. 
After   the  close  of  these  labors,  he  remained  unconnected  with  any 


ADMIRAL   CHARLES   WILKES.  323 

public  work  until  1852,  when  he  became  an  assistant  of  Mr.  James 
Wall  in  his  great  palfeontological  explorations  of  New  York.  From 
this  time  to  his  death  he  was  steadily  occupied  in  that  class  of  govern- 
mental researches  that  forms  so  large  a  part  of  our  American  scientific 
work.  In  the  palseontological  studies  of  the  surveys  in  New  York, 
Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Ohio,  he  had  a  large  share ;  and  in  all  of  them 
has  raised  for  himself  monuments  to  his  painstaking  researches.  His 
most  important  work,  however,  was  done  in  connection  with  tlie  gov- 
ernment surveys  of  the  Territories.  This  work  was  begun  as  an  assist- 
ant of  Mr.  Hall  in  the  study  of  the  then  Territory  of  Nebraska.  The 
principal  results  of  this  labor  were  published  by  this  Academy  in  Vol. 
Y.  of  its  Memoirs,  1855.  The  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  he  was  a 
resident  of  Washington,  and  continually  engaged  in  the  study  of  the 
rich  faunre  of  invertebrate  life  from  the  districts  beyond  the  Mississippi. 
His  reports  on  the  invertebrate  life  of  these  districts,  measured  by  any 
standard,  are  to  be  ranked  with  the  labors  of  the  first  palaeontologists 
in  the  world.  The  very  week  of  his  death,  the  writer  of  this  notice 
received  the  last  and  greatest  of  his  works,  —  a  report  on  the  inverte- 
brate cretaceous  and  tertiary  fossils  of  the  upper  Missouri  country,  — 
a  quarto  volume  of  between  six  and  seven  hundred  pages  of  text  and 
nearly  fifty  plates.  This  work  alone  would  prove  the  fit  basis  of  a 
great  reputation.  It  shows  him  to  have  carried  his  admirable  powers, 
the  unwavering  fidelity,  the  patient  courage,  which  he  had  borne 
through  forty  years  of  bodily  weakness,  unshaken  to  his  end. 

The  peculiar  seclusion  in  which  Mr.  Meek's  life  had  been  passed  will 
not  serve  to  make  his  loss  so  quickly  felt  as  that  of  many  another  stu- 
dent of  nature.  But,  though  he  passes  from  us  leaving  behind  few 
connected  with  him  by  intimate  friendships  or  even  close  acquaintance, 
there  are  few  names  in  the  history  of  American  science  so  sure 
of  a  place  for  the  time  to  come. 

ADMIRAL   CHARLES   WILKES. 

This  distinguished  officer  entered  the  navy  in  1818,  as  a  midshipman. 
In  1826,  he  was  made  a  lieutenant;  in  1843,  commander;  in  1855, 
captain;  in  1862,  commodore;  and  in  1866,  rear-admiral.  His  first 
cruise  was  up  the  INIediterranean ;  the  next  on  the  west  coast  of  South 
America,  under  Commodore  Stewart.  In  1836,  he  surveyed,  in  the 
"  Porpoise,"  George's  Bank,  oflf"  Massachusetts  ;  and,  in  1837,  Tybee 
Bar,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Savannah  River.  In  1838,  he  was  selected 
by  President  Van  Buren  to  command  the  South  Sea  Exploring  Expe- 


324  ADMIRAL    CHARLES    WILKES. 

dition,  which  sailed  from  Norfolk,  August  19  of  that  year,  and  returned 
to  the  United  States,  June  10,  1842.  Many  valuable  contributions 
to  science,  geography,  and  general  physics  resulted  from  this  expedi- 
tion. The  Antai'ctic  Continent  was  discovered  Jan.  19,  1840  ;  and 
several  islands,  reefs,  and  shoals,  before  unknown,  were  placed  on  the 
charts.  In  1861,  he  relieved  Commodore  Dornin  on  the  coast  of 
Africa,  and  took  command  of  the  "  San  Jacinto  ;  "  and  with  her  capt- 
ured the  Rebel  commissioners.  Mason  and  Slidell,  who  were  found  on 
board  of  the  British  mail-steamer  "  Trent."  In  July,  1862,  he  took 
command  of  the  James  River  flotilla,  —  a  large  number  of  vessels, —^ 
and  served  on  that  station  until  the  Federal  troops  were  removed  from 
Harrison  Landing,  September  of  the  same  year.  He  was  immediately 
ordered  to  the  command  of  the  flying  squadron,  and  sailed  without  de- 
lay for  the  West  Indies,  where  his  squadron  did  valuable  service,  capt- 
uring many  vessels,  until  June,  1863,  when  he  was  ordered  home. 
This  was  his  last  sea  service. 

At  an  early  age  he  exhibited  a  remarkable  taste  for  scientific  pur- 
suits, especially  astronomy  and  geodesy.  In  1830,  he  took  charge  of 
the  Department  of  Charts  and  Instruments,  at  Washington,  —  a  new 
bureau.  Under  his  supervision,  a  small  observatory  (the  first)  was 
established  at  Washington  in  1833,  when  the  first  astronomical  obser- 
vations, under  the  auspices  of  the  government,  were  taken  by  him,  with 
fixed  instruments.  In  1835,  he  erected  on  his  own  property,  Capitol 
Hill,  a  small  observatory,  which  was  used  by  the  government  for  sev- 
eral years.  In  1837,  he  was  sent  to  Europe  to  purchase  instruments 
for  the  South  Sea  Exploring  Expedition,  then  fitting  out  under 
command  of  Commodore  Ap  Catsby  Jones,  a  duty  he  w^as  peculiarly 
fitted  for. 

Admiral  Wilkes  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  works.  The 
narrative  of  the  exploring  expedition  —  five  large  quarto  volumes  and 
atlas  —  was  written  by  him.  All  the  charts  of  the  exploring  expedi- 
tion were  constructed  under  his  supervision,  comprising  two  large  folio 
atlases.  He  wrote  the  hydrography  of  the  exploring  expedition.  Vol. 
XXIII.  of  the  series,  —  a  large  quarto  volume,  —  and  produced  a  quarto 
volume  of  tlie  meteorological  observations  made  during  the  voyage,  — 
Vol.  XI.  of  the  series  of  exploring  expedition  works.  He  also  pub- 
lished works  on  "  Western  America,"  the  '"  Theory  of  the  Winds," 
"  Circulation  of  the  Ocean,"  and  "  Zodiacal  Light."  He  was,  with 
others,  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  to  examine  the  iron, 
coal,  and  timber  regions  of  the  Deep  River  District,  N.  C,  and  made 
an  interesting  report  thereon,  which  was   published  by   Congress  in 


ALEXANDER    BRAUN.  32o 

1858,  The  twenty-fourth  volume  of  the  results  of  the  exploring  expe- 
dition, "  General  Physics,"  was  prepared  by  him  (nearly  ready  for  the 
press),  but  was  never  published,  although  money  was  appropriated  by 
Congress  for  that  purpose.  It  was  to  contain  moon  cuhninations  for 
longitude ;  transit  observations  of  the  sun  and  stars,  for  error  and  rate 
of  astronomical  clock  ;  reduced  rates  of  clock  or  chronometer,  by  tran- 
sit of  stars,  &c.,  &c. ;  pendulum  observations  —  not  the  least  valuable 
those  made  on  Mauna  Loa,  Hawaii  ;  magnetic  observations  for  vai'ia- 
tion,  dip,  and  intensity  ;  tides,  heights,  and  a  variety  of  subjects,  prin- 
cipally the  result  of  his  own  observation  and  experience. 

Admiral  Wilkt^s  was  emphatically  a  hard  worker,  never  idle  ;  and  his 
eflforts  in  behalf  of  science  were  fully  appreciated  and  acknowledged 
by  many  learned  societies,  as  were  also  his  nautical  achievements.  He 
was  made  the  recipient  (1848)  of  a  splendid  gold  medal,  awarded  by 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  London,  in  acknowledgment  of  his 
discovery  of  the  Antarctic  Continent.  In  1862,  the  merchants  and 
citizens  of  Boston  presented  him  with  an  elegant  sword,  and  he  was 
complimented  with  honorary  membership  in  several  scientific  associa- 
tions in  this  country  and  abroad. 

It  is  worthy  of  note,  that  Admiral  "Wilkes,  but  a  few  days  after  the 
registering  telegraph  of  Professor  Morse  was  put  in  operation  between 
Washington  and  Baltimore,  in  1844,  by  a  series  of  observations,  having 
a  well-rated  chronometer  at  each  end  of  the  line,  determined  the  differ- 
ence of  longitude  between  the  two  cities. 

ALEXANDER  BRAUN. 

Alexander  Braun,  one  of  the  ablest  botanists  of  our  day,  died  at 
Berlin,  on  the  29th  of  March  last,  after  a  short  illness.  He  was  born 
at  Ratisbon,  May  10,  180-5,  and  therefore  had  not  quite  completed  his 
72d  year.  In  his  childhood  the  family  removed  to  Carlsruhe,  where 
his  father  took  an  appointment  in  the  postal  service,  and  at  length  be- 
came postmaster-general  of  the  Grand-Duchy  of  Baden.  Just  fifty 
years  ago,  Braun  was  a  student  at  the  University  of  Heidelberg  with 
Agassiz,  Carl  Schimper,  and  Engelmann  as  intimate  companions. 
Our  associate.  Dr.  Engelmann,  is  now  the  sole  survivor.  Braun, 
Schimper,  and  Agassiz  soon  went  to  ^luuich,  where  Oken,  Schelling, 
DoUinger,  and  Martius  (just  returned  from  Brazil)  were  teaching:* but 
the  party,  Schimper  excepted,  was  again  united  at  Paris  in  1832.  The 
iiUiance  with  Agassiz  was  cemented  by  the  marriage  of  the  latter  to 
Braun's  sister. 


326  ALEXANDER    BRAUN. 

Braiin's  predilection  for  botany  must  have  developed  early ;  for  the 
long  series  of  his  communications  to  the  scientific  journals  began  in 
1822,  when  he  was  only  seventeen  years  old.  Upon  the  completion  of 
his  university  studies,  he  became  Professor  of  Botany  and  Zoology  in 
the  Polytechnic  School  at  Carlsruhe.  He  was  transferred  to  the 
botanical  chair  at  the  University  of  Freiburg  in  the  Breisgau  in  1846, 
accepted  a  call  to  that  of  Giessen  in  1850  ;  but  in  1851,  upon  the  death 
of  Link  and  Kunth,  he  was  appointe<l  Professor  of  Botany  and  Di- 
rector of  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Berlin,  where  his  useful  life  has  just 
closed.  Although  the  name  of  Braun  is  not  connected  with  any  dis- 
covery of  the  first  order,  yet  he  early  took  and  has  well  maintained  a 
leading  position  in  the  science.  He  was  a  botanist  of  wider  culture 
and  acquirement  than  is  now  common ;  but  his  strength  was  given  to 
morphology  and  to  the  systematic  botany  of  the  higher  and  some  of 
the  lower  Cryptogamia.  His  earliest  contribution  of  considerable 
extent  and  permanent  importance  is  his  memoir  upon  the  arrangement 
of  the  scales  of  pine-cones,  published  in  1830,  which  opened  the  pro- 
lific and  interesting  subject  of  phyllotaxy.  It  is  understood  that  the 
first  steps  in  this  direction  were  taken  by  Braun's  fellow-student,  Carl 
Schimper,  who,  however,  published  nothing  upon  the  subject,  either 
then  or  since :  so  that,  practically,  the  development  of  the  doctrine  was 
left  to  Braun,  whose  memoir  is  classical.  Next  to  this  paper  in  im- 
portance and  extent  is  his  memoir  on  Rejuvenescence  in  Nature, 
especially  as  exemplified  in  the  Life  and  Development  of  Plants,  which 
first  appeared  at  Freiburg,  in  1859,  and  then  at  Leipzig  in  1851  ;  and 
which  was  reproduced  in  1853,  in  an  Englisli  translation,  by  the  Ray 
Society.  This,  and  his  paper  on  the  Individual  in  Plants,  which  ap- 
peared at  Berlin  in  1852,  are  writings  in  which  his  powers  of  philo- 
sophical generalization  as  well  as  of  acute  observation  are  strikingly 
manifested.  His  systematic  work,  ranging  over  a  variety  of  topics, 
is  equally  marked  by  acute  insight,  close  observation,  and  scrupulous 
exactness.  His  investigations  of  3Iarsilia,  Isoetes,  and  their  allies, 
are  most  complete.  Upon  the  Gharacece  his  first  essay  bears  the  date 
of  1834,  and  various  papers  have  followed  from  time  to  time;  but, 
overtasked  by  official  duties  during  all  his  later  years,  his  general 
work  upon  the  subject  has  not  appeared;  yet  we  may  hope  that  it  is 
left  in  a  condition  for  posthumous  publication.  Systematic  botanists 
of  ability  and  experience  nowhere  abound.  In  the  early  part  of 
Braun's  career,  Germany  had  its  full  proportion  ;  but  owing  to  the 
almost  exclusive  preference  for  histology  of  late  years,  there  are  now 
extremely  few,  and  the  loss  of  a  veteran  like  Alexander  Braun  will 
be  sadly  felt. 


CHRISTIAN    GOTTFRIED    EHRENBERG.  327 

CHRISTIAN   GOTTFRIED   EHRENBERG. 

Christian  Gottfried  Ehrenberg  died  June  27,  1876,  in  liis 
eighty-second  year.  He  belonged  among  the  founders  of  our  present 
zoologj',  and  was  the  first  to  treat  in  a  scientific  way  that  mass  of 
minute  beings  formerly  included  in  the  vague  term  "  Infusoria."  With 
the  synchronism  that  often  marks  valuable  discoveries,  it  happened  that 
considerable  improvements  in  the  microscope  were  made  about  the 
time  he  began  his  favorite  investigations,  and  the  demands  of  his  sub- 
ject led  him  ever  to  encourage  and  aid  such  improvements. 

In  1830  appeared  his  great  work  on  living  infusoria,  with  admirable 
plates  from  his  own  hand.  His  interpretation  of  forms  so  novel  was 
naturally  influenced  by  previous  ideas  of  organization  in  the  animal 
kingdom ;  so  that  to  many  of  them  he  attributed  oi-gans  more  or  less 
defined,  and  a  certain  complication  of  structure.  As  microscopy  pro- 
gressed, these  views  were  modified  and  corrected  by  the  observers  he 
had  trained,  or  who  had  been  stimulated  hj  his  example.  The  studies 
of  Schwann  and  Henle  on  the  nature  and  development  of  the  cell  gave 
a  new  interpretation  to  these  microscopic  creatures.  Some  were  found 
to  be  unicellular  plants,  and  others  proved  the  embryos  of  sponges,  and 
to  be  even  of  articulated  or  radiated  animals.  But  all  such  corrections 
were  simply  the  unvarying  steps  that  mark  discovery.  Ehrenberg  it 
was  who  took  the  first  step,  and  who,  to  the  end,  remained  the  master- 
spirit in  this  field. 

In  1840  appeared  his  chief  work  on  the  fossil  infusoria,  which  ex- 
hibited their  extraordinary  part  in  building  geological  formations, 
whether  as  a  fine  sand  (Bergmehl),  or  in  more  compact  forms.  He 
showed  that  some  cretaceous  foraminifera  are  still  living,  and  explained 
in  advance  the  structure  of  portions  of  the  deep-sea  bottom  which  have 
recently  been  examined  by  the  dredge.  The  number  of  these  low  or- 
ganisms, figured  in  his  chief  works  and  in  his  numerous  minor  publica- 
tions, is  so  great  as  to  give  data  for  their  geographical  and  geological 
distribution  over  a  large  portion  of  the  globe. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  Ehrenberg  was  a  specialist  of  the  narrow 
type  which  is,  unfortunately,  so  common  to-day.  He  was  a  man  learned 
in  all  branches  of  natural  history,  and  had  grown  side  by  side  with  the 
science  he  fostered.  Although  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in 
his  native  Prussia,  he  travelled  a  good  deal.  Having  studied  at  first 
theology,  and  afterwards  medicine,  at  Leipzig,  he  moved,  in  1817,  to 
Berlin,  and  there  devoted  himself  to  what  proved  to  be  the  occupation 
of  his  life.    From  1820  to  1825,  he  travelled  with  Hemprich  in  Arabia, 


828  WILHELM    FRIEDBICH   BENEDICT    HOFAIEISTER. 

Egypt,  and  Nubia,  and  brought  back  to  his  patrons  of  the  Berlin 
Academy  a  rich  collection.  He  published  from  it  "  The  Corals  of  the 
Red  Sea,"  a  work  which  gave  him  a  high  reputation.  In  1829,  he  went 
with  Humboldt  to  the  Ural  Mountains;  and,  in  1839,  he  received  the 
appointment  of  professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin. 

Ehrenberg  enjoyed  the  advantage  that  originality  gives.  He  helped 
build  up  zoology,  and  he  created  a  special  department  in  its  study. 
Thus  it  was  easy  for  him  to  keep  on  the  crest  of  the  front  wave.  All 
the  labors  of  his  followers  only  added  to  his  power  and  elevation. 

WILHELM  FEIEDRICH  BENEDICT   HOFMEISTER. 

"WiLHELM  Friedrich  BENEDICT  HoFMEiSTER,  the  distinguished 
vegetable  anatomist,  and  the  successor  of  von  Mohl  in  the  chair  of 
Botany  at  the  University  of  Tubingen,  died  on  the  12th  of  January  last, 
in  the  53d  year  of  his  age.  He  was  born  at  Leipzig,  May  18,  1824, 
where  his  father  was  a  publisher ;  and  the  son  entered  upon  the  same 
profession,  devoting,  however,  his  leisure  to  microscopical  research. 
His  first  memoir,  which  established  his  reputation,  viz.,  that  on  the 
formation  of  the  embryo  in  plants  {Die  Entstehung  des  Embryo  der 
Phanerogamen),  was  published  at  Leipzig  in  the  year  1849.  These 
researches  were  confined  to  the  monocotyledonous  and  proper  dicoty- 
ledonous plants.  It  was  followed,  in  1851,  by  his  still  more  impor- 
tant and  elaborate  researches  upon  the  development  and  fructification 
of  the  higher  Cryptogaraia  and  the  Coniferae ;  and  soon  after  ap- 
peared another  memoir  upon  the  Vascular  Cryptogamia  {Beitrage  ziir 
Kentniss  der  Gefcisskryptogamen).  In  1859  and  1861,  he  brought  out 
the  results  of  his  new  investigations  upon  the  formation  of  the  embryo 
in  phanerogamous  plants.  His  minor  contributions  to  the  journals  of 
the  day  are  numerous,  all  relating  to  vegetable  anatgmy  and  develop- 
ment. Called  now  to  the  chair  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Heidel- 
berg, he  undertook  the  preparation  of  a  text-book,  viz.,  the  Handbuch 
der  Physiologischen  Botanik,  in  connection  with  DeBary,  Jrmisch, 
and  Sachs  ;  each  taking  a  particular  department.  Hofmeister  pub- 
lished the  main  anatomical  part  {Die  Lehre  von  der  PJianzenzelle)  in 
1867,  and  the  morphological  {Allgemeine  Morphologie  der  Gewclchse) 
in  1868.  Since  his  translation  to  Tubingen,  in  the  autumn  of  1872, 
only  minor  papers  have  appeared,  to  testify  that  his  wonderful  energy 
was  not  exhausted.  Hofmeister  was  a  worthy  successor  of  Mohl ;  but 
the  contrast  is  striking.  Mohl  published  far  too  little  ;  but  all  that  he 
wrote  was  clear  and  plain.     Although  the  value  of  Hofmeister's  work 


CHRISTIAN   LASSEN. 


329 


may  be  well  proportioned  to  its  amount,  and  although  his  earlier  writ- 
ings are  not  wanting  in  perspicuity,  it  is  reported  that  his  fellow- 
laborers  among  his  own  countrymen  find  it  difficult  to  understand  his 
later  publications. 

CHRISTIAN  LASSEN. 

Among  the  many  illustrious  scholars  who  have  passed  away  during 
the  last  year,  none  had  achieved  a  higher  or  more  deserved  fame  than 
Christian  Lassen,  of  Bonn.  He  was  a  native  of  Norway,  born  at 
Bergen  almost  with  the  century,  or  late  in  1800;  and  he  died  on  the 
8th  of  May  last.  The  weakness  of  age,  with  a  growing  infirmity  of 
eyesight,  which  rendered  him  during  all  the  last  years  of  his  life  nearly 
blind,  has  withdrawn  him  for  some  time  from  the  ranks  of  the  active 
workers,  and  given  him  the  aspect  of  a  survivor  from  a  past  genera- 
tion. He  belongs,  indeed,  to  the  little  band  of  men  who  inaugurated 
in  Europe  the  study  of  India  through  its  own  sacred  language,  the 
Sanskrit ;  and  he  was  the  last  of  them  yet  left  in  life.  It  is  striking  and 
strange  that  there  should  have  died  so  recently  one  whose  activity  as 
a  scholar  covered  the  whole  history  of  a  branch  of  knowledge  which 
lias  assumed  such  importance  and  prominence,  which  has  yielded  such 
great  results,  and  become  an  acknowledged  necessity  to  an  education 
in  philology.  Lassen  was  led  to  take  up  Sanskrit  by  the  influence  of 
A.  W.  von  Schlegel,  under  whom  he  first  studied  at  Bonn,  becoming 
afterwards  his  collaborator,  and  his  successor.  The  (incomplete)  Rama- 
yana,  the  Bliagavadgita,  and  the  Hitopade^a,  were  the  works  in  whose 
preparation  he  took  more  or  less  part :  the  two  last  of  these,  especially, 
are  still  authoritative,  unsurpassed  in  method  and  merit  of  execution. 
In  1827  appeared  his  first  two  works:  the  celebrated  Essai  sur  le 
Pali,  prepared  in  company  with  Burnouf,  and  a  geographical  and  his- 
torical dissertation  on  the  Penjab,  which  was  the  forerunner  of  his 
gigantic  ladlsche  AlterthumsTcunde,  the  principal  labor  of  his  life. 
This  began  to  appear  in  1847,  and  was  broken  off"  with  the  fourth 
volume  in  1861—62,  by  reason  of  its  author's  physical  infirmities;  al- 
though he  was  still  able  to  produce  a  second  edition  of  the  first  two 
volumes,  rewritten  and  enlarged,  in  1867-74.  It  was  the  misfortune 
of  this  work,  meritorious  as  it  is,  that  it  was  begun  too  soon  for  the 
results  of  the  Vedic  researches  to  be  brought  fully  into  its  early  por- 
tions. The  study  of  India,  indeed,  was  and  still  is  in  too  inchoate  a 
state  to  admit  of  its  results  being  cast  into  any  thing  like  a  permanent 
form.  Apart  from  those  already  mentioned,  Lassen's  principal  con- 
tributions   to    this   department  of  learning   were   an    edition  of   the 


330  JOHANN    CHRISTIAN    POGGENDORFF. 

Gitagovinda,  with  notes  and  Latin  version ;  part  of  the  drama  Malati- 
Madhava ;  a  Sanskrit  Anthology,  with  glossary ;  and  an  elaborate  Prakrit 
grammar :  also,  a  host  of  important  articles  in  Oriental  journals.  Of 
the  Zeitschrift  fur  die  Kunde  des  Morgenlandes  he  was  long  editor  and 
chief  author.  He  by  no  means,  however,  confined  his  studies  to  India. 
His  aid  in  the  decipherment  of  the  Persian  cuneiform  inscriptions  was 
very  important ;  and  he  tried  his  hand  also,  with  effect,  yi])0\x  the 
Umbrian.  The  Zend  and  modern  Persian  were  subjects  included  in 
his  University  lectures. 

Lassen  was  admirable  for  singleness  and  simplicity  of  character, 
freedom  from  affectation  or  pedantry,  and  courtesy  and  helpfulness  to 
his  pupils.  A  contented  cheerfulness  of  disposition,  too,  was  a  striking 
characteristic.  Few  men  have  combined  a  life  so  splendid  in  the  eyes 
of  the  learned  world  with  such  narrowness  of  means  and  such  physical 
trials.  The  failing  of  his  eyes,  probably  brought  on  by  excessive  use 
in  difficult  collations,  began  to  grow  serious  after  1840 ;  and  it  was  fol- 
lowed by  other  weaknesses,  which  compelled  him  to  spend  the  greater 
part  of  his  time  i-eclining  on  a  lounge,  and  to  be  wheeled  about  in  a 
chair.  His  lectures  came  to  an  end  in  1864.  His  last  literary  work 
was  done  by  the  aid  of  his  wife  and  of  a  reader  and  amanuensis.  He 
lost  until  the  very  end  neither  his  memory  nor  his  keen  interest  for 
every  thing  that  bore  upon  the  studies  of  his  life.  He  was  married  in 
1849,  and  leaves  no  children. 

JOHANN   CHRISTIAN  POGGENDORFF. 

The  story  of  the  noble  and  useful  life  of  Johann  Christian  Poggen- 
dorff  may  be  told  in  a  few  words.  He  was  born  at  Hamburg,  Dec.  29, 
1796  ;  received  his  early  education  at  the  Gymnasium  in  that  city  ;  and 
at  the  age  of  sixteen  entered  the  shop  of  an  apothecary,  where  he  re- 
mained eight  years.  In  1821,  he  became  a  student  in  the  University 
of  Berlin,  and  in  the  following  year  published  his  first  paper,  in  which 
he  described  the  galvanometer,  since,  in  its  improved  form,  so  necessary 
an  instrument  of  physical  research.  The  true  work  of  his  life  began  in 
1824,  when  he  issued  the  first  number  of  the  '•  Annalen  der  Pliysik 
und  Chemie  "  as  a  continuation  of  the  "  Annalen  der  Physik  "  of  Gil- 
bert. During  fifty-three  years,  Poggendorff  directed  the  publication 
of  the  "Annalen,"  —  the  noblest  scientific  periodical  which  has  ever 
appeared,  the  one  work  which  is  indispensable  to  the  student  of  physi- 
cal science.  Every  important  memoir  in  any  department  of  physics 
appeared  in  this  journal.    Almost  the  whole  scientific  life  of  Berzelius, 


KARL    ERNST    VON    BAER.  331 

Faraday,  Mellon!,  Magnus,  the  two  Roses,  Mitscherlich,  Regnault,  and 
a  host  of  others,  is  written  in  its  pages,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the 
translations  from  foreiijn  lansjuaores  were  the  work  of  the  editor  alone. 
After  fifty  years  of  his  unassuming  labor,  Poggendorff's  friends  united 
in  contributing  to  a  "  Jubelband,"  or  jubilee  volume,  in  honor  of  the 
anniversary  of  his  connection  with  the  "  Annalen  ; "  and  a  goodly  tome 
filled  with  oriirinal  memoirs  marked  the  besinning  of  the  second  half- 
century  of  his  life-work.  A  short  time  before  his  death,  Poggendorff 
sought  to  give  the  "Annalen"  a  still  wider  range  of  usefulness  by  the 
occasional  publication  of  "  Beibliitter,"  or  supplements,  containing  brief 
abstracts  of  the  work  of  foreign  investiojators.  The  first  number  of  this 
supplement  appeared  only  a  few  days  before  his  death.  It  might  well 
be  thought  that  the  superintendence  of  the  "Annalen"  would  be 
work  enough  for  one  man.  But  Poggendorff  found  time  for  original 
researches  in  several  branches  of  physics,  chiefly  in  electricity  and 
magnetism.  We  owe  to  him  the  invention  of  the  method  of  measuring 
small  angular  variations  by  means  of  a  plane-mirror  telescope  and  scale, 
now  in  constant  use.  To  chemistry  he  contributed  the  method  of  indi- 
rect analysis,  which  is  frequently  of  great  value.  The  list  of  his  pub- 
lished papers  embraces  more  than  one  hundred  and  thirty  titles.  In 
1863,  he  published,  in  two  large  volumes,  the  well-known  "  Biographisch- 
literarisches  Handworterbuch  zur  Geschichte  der  exacten  Wissenchaf- 
ten,"  —  the  worthy  forerunner  of  the  noble  work  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  in  itself  a  monument  of  careful  labor.  In  Berlin,  Poggendortf 
was  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  warmly  attached  friends.  He  was  him- 
self the  type  of  the  German  scientist.  Of  unusual  discrimination  and 
critical  ability,  —  laborious,  jjatient,  untiring,  —  he  worked  in  his  own 
vocation  for  nearly  sixty  years  "  without  haste  and  without  rest."  Per- 
sonally, he  was  kindly,  genial,  and  hospitable,  perfectly  free  from  osten- 
tation, with  the  heartiest  sympathy  for  the  student  of  science,  and 
the  most  cordial  ajjpreciation  of  the  work  of  others.  On  the  24th  of 
January  last,  in  his  eighty-first  year,  he  died,  leaving  a  name  honored 
wherever  science  is  honored,  cherished  and  loved  by  all  who  knew  the 
man. 

KARL   ERNST   A^ON   BAER. 

Karl  Ernst  Von  Baer  was  born  the  29th  Feb.,  1792,  at  Piep,  the 
estate  of  his  father  in  Esthonia,  and  died  at  Dorpat,  aged  eighty-four. 
It  was  a  long  life  devoted  to  intellectual  work,  and,  though  it  included 
active  periods  of  travel  and  exploration,  its  most  memorable  events  be- 
long to  the  laboratory  and  are  to  be  found  in  the  annals  of  scientific 


'832  KARL    ERNST    VON    BAER. 

research  during  two-thirds  of  a  century.  The  opening  and  closing 
scenes  of  liis  life  were  closely  connected ;  fur  at  Dorpat,  in  the  early 
days  of  the  University  (1810-14),  he  received  his  collegiate  education 
and  his  doctor's  diploma,  and  there  he  retired  to  devote  the  quiet  decline 
of  his  old  age  to  his  favorite  studies,  interrupted  only  by  his  death,  Nov. 
28, 1876.  Although  he  graduated  as  a  physician,  he  left  the  university 
at  twenty-one  years  of  age  with  a  strong  bent  for  natural  history,  strength- 
ened by  the  influence  of  the  botanist.  Professor  Ledebour,  and  the 
phjrsiologist,  Burdach.  But  to  the  naturalist  in  those  days,  unless  fortune 
had  made  him  independent,  no  path  was  open  except  that  of  medicine. 
The  study  of  disease,  with  its  accompanying  branches  of  comparative 
anatomy  and  physiology,  was  the  indirect  road  to  the  study  of  nature. 
Yet  the  young  Von  Baer  struggled  manfully  with  his  predilection,  and 
on  his  way  to  Vienna  where  he  went  to  acquire  practical  familiarity  with 
his  profession,  though  keen  to  observe  every  thing  of  interest,  he  himself 
tells  us  tliat  he  avoided  collections,  as  he  would  have  done  "a  consuming 
fire."  At  Vienna,  he  tried,  by  throwing  himself  with  new  ardor  into  his 
professional  work,  to  forget  his  passion  for  natural  history.  To  this  ob- 
ject, however,  his  excursions  in  the  neighborhood,  on  which  he  allowed 
himself  to  botanize  and  geologize  a  little,  were  by  no  means  favorable. 
On  one  of  these  rambles,  somewhere  in  the  environs  of  Salzburg,  he 
fell  in  with  Martius,  the  botanist,  and  this  chance  meeting  proved  a 
turning  point  in  his  career.  Martius  told  him  to  go  and  study  with 
Dollinger  at  Wiirzburg,  and  gave  him  as  an  introduction  a  package  of 
mosses  to  be  delivered  to  him.  One  of  the  most  pleasing  passages  in 
his  autobiography  is  that  in  which  he  describes  himself  as  coming  full 
of  hope  into  the  presence  of  the  professor ;  handing  the  package,  and 
stating  at  the  same  time  his  desire  to  attend  his  course  on  comparative 
anatomy.  "I  do  not  lecture  on  comparative  anatomy  this  term,"  an- 
swered Dollinger,  in  the  quiet,  slow  manner  peculiar  to  him,  at  the  same 
time  opening  the  package  and  examining  the  mosses.  As  the  young  man 
stood  for  a  moment  silent  and  bewildered  in  his  disappointment,  the 
professor  looked  up  again  and  said,  "  Why  lectures  ?  Bring  an  animal 
and  dissect  it  here,  and  then  another."  The  difficulty  was  solved.  The 
young  student  appeared  the  next  morning  with  a  case  of  instruments 
and  a  leech  purchased  at  an  apothecary's  shop.  From  that  time,  his 
table  was  in  the  laboratory  of  Dollinger,  who  was  not  slow  to  recog- 
nize in  his  new  pupil  a  naturalist  of  the  first  order.  A  true  teacher, 
Dollinger  was  lavish  of  his  intellectual  capital,  giving  to  his  pupils 
with  generous  disregard  of  his  own  scientific  riglits,  the  results  of  his 
original  and  unpublished  investigations.     His  unselfishness  was  appre- 


KARL    ERNST    VON    BAER.  '  333 

ciated  by  his  pupils,  and  by  none  more  than  Von  Baer,  wlio  speaks  of 
him  as  his  "  worthy,  well  beloved,  deeply  revered  teacher."  During 
his  stay  at  Wiirzburg,  Von  Baer  became  intimate  with  Pander,  then 
beginning,  under  the  direction  of  Dollinger  and  with  the  assistance  of 
Dalton,  the  great  series  of  embryological  investigations,  in  which  Von 
Baer  afterward  took  so  prominent  a  part,  and  which  has  made  the 
names  of  all  three,  Dollinger,  Von  Baer,  and  Pander,  synonymous 
with  the  science  of  embryology.  Pander's  embryology  of  the  chick 
first  gave  the  clew  to  Kaspar  Friedrich  Wolff's  descriptions,  and  the 
connection  of  Von  Baer  with  Pander's  researches  led  him  to  investi- 
gations long  unnoticed,  and  barely  appreciated  even  now  in  thei/  full 
value  and  significance,  tliough  they  have  gained  for  him  the  title  of 
the  founder  of  modern  embryology. 

The  doubts  as  to  his  future  career  were  happily  solved  at  the  close 
of  his  two  years'  residence  in  Wiirzburg  by  a  letter  from  Burdach  his 
former  professor  in  Dorpat,  offering  him  a  place  as  assistant  in  the 
newly  founded  anatomical  department  in  the  University  of  Kbnigsberg. 
This  he  gladly  accepted,  and,  after  a  winter  spent  in  Berlin  in  prepara- 
tion for  his  new  office,  we  find  him  established  in  1817  at  Konigsberg. 
He  entered  on  his  duties  with  energy  and  success,  cheered  by  seeing 
his  old  professor  amon^  the  regular  attendants  at  his  lectures.  His 
knowledge  of  the  lower  animals  w3s  extensive ;  and,  though  compelled 
to  give  his  time  chiefly  to  human  anatomy,  he  made  a  series  of  prepa- 
rations intended  as  the  basis  of  a  small  museum.  In  1819,  through  the 
influence  of  his  colleague,  Schweigger,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
zoology,  with  an  additional  salary  of  300  thalei's,  and  the  understanding 
that  he  was  to  build  up  a  great  museum  for  the  University  of  Konigs- 
berg. With  his  prospects  thus  improved,  he  now  married  Friiuleiu 
von  ]\Ieden,  and  felt  himself  bound  by  new  ties  to  Konigsberg,  where 
-he  remained  till  1829.  It  was  a  brilliant  period  in  the  life  of  the 
university  when,  beside  Von  Baer,  its  faculty  could  boast  of  men  like 
Schweigger,  Schubert,  Jacobi,  Bessel,  Struve,  Lobech  and  the  older 
Hagea.  On  Schweigger's  death,  Von  Baer  was  made  regular  professor 
of  natural  history  and  zoology,  with  a  considerable  increase  of  salary, 
virtually  diminished,  however,  by  the  necessity  of  purchasing  books  for 
his  department,  which  the  university  found  itself  too  poor  to  supply. 
His  professional  duties,  combining  instruction  to  the  medical  and  zoolo- 
gical students  with  the  care  of  the  museum,  were  now  very  onerous. 
With  all  his  energy  and  devotion,  the  museum  moved  far  too  slowly  for 
his  zeal.  Occasionally,  he  was  cheered  by  donations  or  by  collections 
contributed  from  distant  lands ;  and  he  succeeded  in  enlisting  the  sym- 


834  KARL    ERNST    VON    BAER. 

patliies  of  the  minister  of  public  instruction  and  of  the  professors  of 
the  university.  But  the  very  modest  allowance  he  received  from  the 
university,  spite  of  occasional  aid  from  outside,  forced  upon  him  a  dis- 
couraging economy  in  the  administration  of  the  museum. 

In  the  midst  of  all  these  professional  duties,  he  found  time  for  his  spe- 
cial studies  in  geology,  anthropology,  and  anatomy,  and  continued  his 
systematic  observations  in  embryology.  As  early  as  1818,  he  had  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  great  generalization  on  the  distinct  modes  of  de- 
velopment for  the  four  great  branches  of  the  animal  kingdom,  and  in 
182G  he  published,  in  Burdach's  ''Physiology,"  his  embryology  of  the 
chick  and  frog.  Chiefly  attracted  by  the  development  of  Vertebrates, 
he  first  showed  the  identity  of  the  mammalian  egg,  including  that  of  man, 
with  the  (^gg  of  fishes.  These  results  first  appeared  in  the  memorable 
treatise  entitled  "  De  Ovi  Mammalium  et  Hominis  Genesi,"  in  1827. 
It  was  in  advance  of  the  time,  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  sneering 
comment  on  the  egg  found  by  a  great  man  in  the  ovary  of  a  woman, 
was  hardly  mentioned  in  the  annual  scientific  reports  of  the  day. 
The  light  thrown  upon  this  paper  by  the  writnigs  of  a  later  set  of 
embryologists,  Rathke,  Bischoff",  and  Kolliker,  first  made  known  the 
vast  importance  of  the  theory  of  embryonic  layers  announced  by  Von 
Baer.  It  was  followed  in  1828  by  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Entwicke- 
lungsgeschichte ; "  but  it  was  only  in  1831  that  Von  Baer  was 
rewarded  by  the  French  Academy  with  one  of  its  prizes.  The  Eng- 
lish were  even  slower  to  recognize  his  merit,  and  the  first  English 
translation  of  the  most  important  biological  work  of  the  century,  the 
"  Entwickelungsgeschichte  "  appeared  only  in  1855. 

In  1829,  Von  Baer  was  invited  to  take  charge  of  the  zoological 
department  in  the  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg.  He  had,  however,  a 
certain  distrust  of  the  position  from  the  long-continued  delay  in  the 
publication  of  the  great  work  of  Pallas.  On  this  account,  although 
they  were  inclined  to  grant  all  he  asked,  he  decided  to  remain  at 
Konigsberg,  making  it  a  condition,  however,  that  he  should  have  cer- 
tain facilities  for  his  embryological  investigations.  He  now  devoted 
himself  especially  to  his  investigations  on  the  special  modes  of  devel- 
opment characterizing  the  principal  types  of  the  animal  kingdom,  the 
results  of  which  were  embodied  in  the  second  volume  of  his  "  Ent- 
wickelungsgeschichte." During  the  second  period  of  his  Konigsberg 
life,  the  social  and  ^wlitical  circumstances  became  less  favorable  to  his 
aims,  and  in  1832  he  renewed  his  negotiations  with  St.  Petersburg; 
this  time  with  a  different  result,  for  in  1834  we  find  him  established 
there.     He  now  entered  on  a  life  of  greater  activity  and  variety  than 


KARL    ERNST    VON    BAER.  335 

any  he  had  hitherto  known.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  academy,  he 
made  a  number  of  journeys  first  to  Lapland  and  Nova  Zerabhi,  and 
later  in  the  interests  of  the  fisheries  to  the  Volga,  Lake  Peipns,  and 
the  Caspian  Sea.  He  published  full  reports  of  all  these  explorations, 
and  remained  a  most  active  member  of  the  Academy  till  1862,  when  he 
was  made  an  honorary  member. 

Von  Baer  was  a  strong  believer  in  development,  but  an  uncompro- 
mising opponent  of  Darwinism,  one  of  his  last  papers  being  a  protest 
against  the  assumed  descent  of  Vertebrates  from  Ascidians.  The 
breadth  of  his  culture,  his  great  learning,  his  native  simplicity  of 
character,  are  nowhere  better  shown  than  in  the  volumes  of  his  col- 
lected addresses,  more  popular  essays  and  lectures.  While,  however, 
he  inclines  to  make  knowledge  accessible  to  all,  he  speaks  with  quiet 
contempt  of  the  dilettante  science.  Phytogeny,  —  if  we  may  so  call  it, 
—  which  threatens  to  drown  all  serious  investigations  under  its  fan- 
tastic theories. 

A  few  men  in  every  century  leave  the  tide  line  of  human  knowl- 
edge higher  than  they  found  it.  Von  Baer  was  one  of  these.  Less 
brilliant  perhaps  than  Cuvier,  he  is  equally  identified  with  the  theory 
of  types ;  and  the  fame  of  Von  Baer  may  even  outrun  that  of  his 
great  contemporai-y,  since  to  embryology  rather  than  to  any  other 
science  we  may  look  for  the  elucidation  of  the  prominent  biological 
problems  of  the  day. 


Since  the  last  Report,  the  Academy  has  received  an  acces- 
sion of  eighteen  new  members :  three  Fellows,  A.  Graham 
Bell,  B.  H.  Nash,  W.  E.  Story ;  seven  Associate  Fellows, 
William  Ferrel,  J.  L.  Diman,  Thomas  Hill,  George  Mary 
Searle,  Henry  Larcom  Abbott,  Nathaniel  Holmes,  Richard 
Saltonstall  Greenough  ;  eight  Foreign  Honorary  Members, 
Ei-nst  Curtius,  F.  A.  A.  Mignet,  James  Paget,  jNIark  Pattison, 
H.  C.  Rawlinson,  A.  P.  Stanley,  Alfred  Tennyson,  Viollet- 
Le-Duc.  On  the  other  hand,  by  removal  from  the  State  or 
by  resignation,  the  following  Fellows  have  abandoned  their 
membership :  Francis  Bowen,  Edward  C.  Cabot,  William 
Ferrel,  George  S.  Hillard,  Ira  Remson,  William  E.  Story.  The 
list  of  the  Academy  corrected  to  June,  1877,  is  hereto  added. 
It  includes  181  Fellows,  96  Associate  Fellows,  and  72  For- 
eign Honorary  Members. 


LIST 

OF   THE   FELLOWS   AND   FOREIGN   HONORARY   MEMBERS. 

June  14,  1876. 

FELLOWS.  — 181. 

(Number  limited  to  two  hundred.) 

Class  I.  —  Mathematical  and  Physical  Sciences.  —  58. 


Section  I.  — 

Mathematics. 


7. 


Ezekiel  B.  Elliott, 
Benjamin  A.  Gould, 
Gustavus  Hay, 
Benjamin  Peirce, 
James  M.  Peirce, 
John  D.  Runkle, 
Edwin  P.  Seaver, 


Washington. 

Cordoba. 

Boston. 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 

Boston. 

Boston. 


Section  IT.  —  8. 
Practical  Astronomy  and  Geodesy. 
J.  Ingersoll  Bowditch,  Boston. 


Alvan  Clark, 
Henry  Mitchell, 
Robert  Treat  Paine, 
E.  C.  Pickering, 
William  A.  Rogers, 
L.  Trouvelot, 
Henry  L.  Whiting, 


Cambridgeport. 
Roxbury. 
Boston. 
Cambridge. 
Cambridge. 
Cambridge. 
Boston. 


Section  III.  — 26. 

Physics  and  Chemistry. 

John  Bacon,  Boston. 

A.  Graham  Bell,  Boston. 

John  H.  Blake,  Boston. 

Thos.  Edwards  Clark,  Williamstown. 


W.  J.  Clark, 
Josiah  P.  Cooke,  Jr. 
James  M.  Crafts, 
William  P.  Dexter, 
Charles  W.  Eliot, 
Moses  G.  Farmer, 
Wolcott  Gibbs, 


Amherst. 

Cambridge. 

Boston. 

Roxbui'y. 

Cambridge. 

Newport. 

Boston. 


Augustus  A.  Hayes, 
Henry  B.  Hill,  ' 

Eben  N.  Horsford, 
T.  Sterry  Hunt, 
Charles  L.  Jackson, 
Joseph  Lovering, 
John  M.  Merrick, 
William  R.  Nichols, 
John  M.  Ordway, 
Edward  S.  Ritchie, 
S.  P.  Sharpies, 
Frank  H.  Storer, 
John  Trowbridge, 
Cyrus  M.  Warren, 
Charles  H.  Wiug, 


Brookline. 
Cambridge. 
Cambridge. 
Boston. 
Cambridge. 
Cambridge. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Cambridge. 
Jamaica  Plain. 
Cambridge. 
Brookline. 
Boston. 


Section  IV.  ~17. 
Technology  and  Engineering. 

G.  R.  Baldwin,  Woburn. 

John  M.  Batchelder,  Cambridge. 

C.  O.  Boutelle,  Washington. 

Henry  L.  Eustis,  Cambridge. 

James  B.  Francis,  Lowell. 

John  B.  Henck,  Boston. 

John  C.  Lee,  Salem. 

William  R.  Lee,  Roxbury. 

Hiram  F.  JMills,  Lawrence. 

Alfred  P.  Rockwell,  Boston. 

John  Rodgers,  Washington. 

Stephen  P.  Ruggles,  Boston. 

Charles  S.  Storrow,  Boston. 

John  H.  Temple,  W.  Roxbury. 

William  R.  AVare,  Boston. 

William  Watson,  Boston. 

Morrill  Wyman,  Cambridge. 


FELLOWS. 


337 


Class  II.  —  Natural  and  Physiological  Sciences.  —  66. 


Section  I.  — 11. 

Geology,  Mineralogy,  and  Physics  of 
the  Globe. 


Thomas  T.  Bouve, 
William  T.  Brigham, 
Algernon  Coolidge, 
John  L.  Hayes, 
Charles  T.  Jackson, 
Jules  Marcou, 
Raphael  Pumpelly, 
William  B.  Rogers, 
Nathaniel  S.  Shaler, 
Charles  U.  Shepard, 
Josiah  D.  Whitney, 


Boston. 

Boston. 

Boston. 

Cambridge. 

Boston. 

Cambridge. 

Boston. 

Boston. 

Cambridge. 

Amherst. 

Cambridge. 


Section  n.  — 10. 
Botany. 


Jacob  Bigelow, 
George  B.  Emerson, 
WilHam  G.  Farlow, 
George  L.  Goodale, 
Asa  Gray, 
H.  H.  Hunnewell, 
John  A.  Lowell, 
Chas.  J.  Sprague, 
Edward  Tuckerman, 
Serene  Watson, 


Boston. 

Boston. 

Boston. 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 

Wellesley. 

Boston. 

Boston. 

Amherst. 

Cambridge. 


Section  IIL  — 26. 

Zoology  and  Physiology. 

Alex.  E.  R.  Agassiz,  Cambiidge. 

J.  A.  Allen,  Cambridge. 

Robert  Amory,  Brookline. 

Nath.  E.  Atwood,  Provincetown. 

James  M.  Barnard,  Boston. 

Henry  P.  Bowditch,  Boston. 

Thomas  M.  Brewer,  Boston. 

Samuel  Cabot,  Boston. 


John  Dean,  Waltham. 

Silas  Durkee,  Boston. 

Herrmann  A.  Hagen,  Cambridge. 

C.  E.  Hamlin,  Cambridge. 
Alpheus  Hyatt,  Cambridge. 
Wm.  James,  Cambridge. 
Samuel  Kneeland,        Boston. 
Theodore  Lyman,         Boston. 
John  McCrady,             Cambridge. 
Edward  S.  Morse,         Salem. 
Alpheus  S.  Packard,  Jr.,  Salem. 
Charles  Pickering,        Boston. 

L.  F.  Pourtales,  Cambridge. 

Frederic  W.  Putnam,  Cambridge. 
Samuel  H.  Scudder,     Cambridge. 

D.  Humphi'eys  Storer,  Boston. 
Henry  Wheatland,        Salem. 
James  C.  White,  Boston. 


Section  IV 
Medicine  and 

Samuel  L.  Abbot, 
Henry  J.  Bigelow, 
Henry  I.  Bowditch, 
Edward  H.  Clarke, 
Benjamin  E.  Cotting 
Thomas  Dwight, 
Robert  T.  Edes, 
Calvin  Ellis, 
Richai'd  M.  Hodges, 
Oliver  W.  Holmes, 
R.  W.  Hooper, 
John  B.  S.  Jackson, 
Edward  Jarvis, 
Edward  Reynolds, 
Horatio  R.  Storer, 
John  E.  Tyler, 
J.  Baxter  Upham, 
Charles  E.  Ware, 
Henry  AV.  Williams, 


.  —  19. 
Surgery. 

Boston. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
,  Roxbury. 
Boston. 
Roxbury. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Dorchester. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Boston. 


VOL.  XII.  (x.  s.  iv.) 


22 


338 


FELLOWS. 


Class  III.  —  Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  —  57. 


Section  I.  — 15. 

Philosophi/  and  Jurisprudence. 

George  Beinis. 
George  T   Bigelow, 
Richanl  II.  Dana,  Jr. 
C.  C.  Everett, 
Horace  Gray, 
Frederic  H.  Hedge, 
L.  P.  Ilickok, 
Ebenezer  R.  Hoar, 
Mark  Hopkins, 
C.  C.  Langdell, 
Henry  W.  Paine, 
Theophilns  Parsons, 
Charles  S.  Peirce, 
Benjamin  F.  Thomas, 
Francis  Wharton, 


Sectiox  H.  — 12. 


Philolo[iy  and  ArchcEology . 


Ezra  Abbot, 
William  P.  Atkinson, 
H.  G.  Denny, 
Epes  S.  Dixwell, 
William  Everett, 
William  W.  Goodwin, 
Ephraim  W.  Gurney, 
Bennett  II.  Nash, 
Chandler  Kobbins, 
John  L.  Sil)ley, 
E.  A.  Sophocles, 
Edward  J.  Young, 


Cambridge. 

Boston. 

Boston. 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 

Boston. 

Boston. 

Cambridge . 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 


Section  HI.  — 16. 
Political  Economjj  and  History. 


Boston. 

Chas.  F.  Adams,  Jr., 

Quincy. 

Boston. 

Henry  Adams, 

Boston. 

,  Boston. 

Erastus  B.  Bigelow, 

Boston. 

Cambridge. 

Caleb  Cushing, 

Newburypoi't 

Boston. 

Charles  Deane, 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 

Charles  F.  Dunbar, 

Cambridge. 

Northampton. 

Samuel  Eliot, 

Boston. 

Concord. 

George  E.  Ellis, 

Boston. 

Williams  town. 

E.  L.  Godkin, 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 

WilUam  Gray, 

Boston. 

Cambridge. 

Edward  Everett  Hale 

Boston. 

Cambridge. 

Francis  Parkman, 

Brookline. 

Washington. 

A.  P.  Peabody, 

Cambridge. 

,  Boston. 

Nathaniel  Thayer, 

Boston. 

Cambridge. 

Henry  W.  Torrey, 

Cambridge. 

Robert  C.  Winthrop, 

Boston. 

Section  IV.  — 14. 
Literature  and  the  Fine  Arts. 


Charles  F.  Adams, 
William  T.  Andrews, 
George  S.  Boutwell, 
J.  Elliot  Cabot, 
Francis  J.  Child, 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson 
John  C.  Gray, 
Henry  W.  Longfellow, 
James  Russell  Lowell, 
Charles  Eliot  Norton, 
John  K.  Paine, 
Thomas  W.  Parsons, 
Charles  C.  Perldns, 
John  G.  Whittier, 


Boston. 

Boston. 

Groton. 

Brookline. 

Cambridge. 

,  Concord. 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 

Cambridge. 

Wellesley. 

Boston. 

Amesbury. 


ASSOCIATE   FELLOWS. 


889 


ASSOCIATE     FELLOWS.  — 96. 

(N'limber  limited  to  one  hundred.) 


Class  L  —  Mathematical  and  Pliysical  Sciences.  —  36. 


Section  I.  —  7. 
Mathematics. 


Charles  Avery, 
"William  Ferrel, 
Thomas  Hill, 


Clinton,  N.Y. 
Washington. 
Portland,  Me. 


Simon  Newcomb,  Washington, D. C. 
H.  A.  Newton,      New  Haven,  Conn. 
James  E.  Oliver,  Ithaca,  N.Y. 
T.H.  Safford,  Williamstown,  Mass. 

Sectiox  n.  — 11. 

Practical  Astronomy  and  Geodesy. 

S.  Alexander,        Princeton,  N.J. 

W.H.C.Bartlett,  West  Point,  N.Y. 

J.  H.  C.  Coffin,      Washington, D.C. 


Wm.  H.  Emory, 
J.  E.  Hilgard, 
George  W.  Hill, 
Elias  Looniis, 


Washington, D.C. 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Nyack,  N.Y. 
New  Haven, Conn. 


Maria  ^litchell,  Poughkeepsie,  N.Y''. 
C.  H.  F.  Peters,     Clinton,  N.Y. 
George  M.  Searle,  New  York. 
Chas.  A.  Young,   Hanover,  N.H. 


Section  HI.  — 12. 

Physics  and  Chemistry. 

F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  New  York. 
John  W.  Draper,  New  York. 
Joseph  Henry,       Washington, D.C. 
S.W.Johnson,     New  Haven,  Conn. 
John  Le  Conte,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
A.  M.  Mayer,        Hoboken,  N.J. 
W.  A.  Norton,      New  Haven, Conn. 
Ogden  N.  Rood,    New  York. 
H.  A.  Rowland,    Baltimore. 
L.INI.  Rutherfm'd,  New  York. 
Benj.  Silliman,      Ne-w  Haven, Conn, 
J.  L.  Smith,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Section  IV.  —  6. 

■   Technology  and  Engineering. 

Henry  L.  Abbot,  New  York. 
R.  Delafield,  AVashington.D.C. 

A.A.Humphreys,  "Washington, D.C. 
Wm.  Sellers,         Philadelphia. 
George  Talcott,     Albany,  N.Y. 
W.P.Trowbridge,  NewHaven, Conn. 


Class  II.  —  Natural  and  Physiologiccd  Sciences.  —  29. 


Section  I.  — 13. 

Geology,  Mineralogy,  and  Physics  of 
the  Globe. 

George  J.  Brush,  New  Haven,  Conn. 
James  D.  Dana,  New  Haven,  Conn. 
J.  W.  Dawson,  Montreal,  Canada. 
Edward  Desor,      Neufchatel,  Switz. 


J.  C.  Fremont, 
F.  A.  Genth, 
Arnold  Guyot, 
James  Hall, 
F.  S.  Holmes, 
JosejDh  Leconte, 
J.  Peter  Lesley, 
Wm.  T.  Roepper, 
Geo.  C.  Swallow, 


New  York. 
Philadelphia. 
Princeton,  N.J. 
Albany,  N.Y. 
Charleston,  S.C. 
San  Francisco. 
Philadelphia. 
Bethlehem,  Pa. 
Columbia,  Mo. 


S40 


ASSOCIATE    FELLOWS. 


Section  II.  —  4. 

Botany. 

A.  W.  Chapman,  Aijalachicola,  Fla. 
G.  Engelmann,      St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Leo  Lesquereux,  Columbus,  Ohio. 
S.  T.  Oluey,  Providence,  R.I. 

Section  III.  —  9. 

Zoology  and  Physiology. 

S.  F.  Baird,  Washington,  D.C. 

C.  E.  Brown- Sequard,  London. 
J.  C.  Dalton,        New  York. 


J.  P.  Kirtland,   Cleveland,  Ohio. 
J.  L.  LeConte,  Philadelphia. 
Joseph  Leidy,     Philadelphia. 
O.  C.  Marsh,      New  Haven,  Conn. 
S.  Weir  Mitchell,  Philadelphia. 
St.  JuUen  Ravenel,  Charleston,  S.C. 

Section  IV.  — 3. 

Medicine  and  Surgery. 

W.  A.  Hammond,  New  York. 
Isaac  Hays,  Philadelphia. 

George  B.  Wood,  Philadelphia. 


Class  III.  —  Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  —  31. 


Section  I.  —  7. 

Philosophy  and  Jurisprudence. 

D.  R.  Goodwin,    Philadelphia. 
R.  G.  JIazard,       Peacedale,  R.I. 
Nathaniel  Holmes,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
James  McCosh,     Princeton. 
Noah  Porter,         New  Haven, Conn. 
Isaac  Ray,  Philadelphia. 

Jeremiah  Smith,  Dover,  N.H. 

Section  II.  — 11. 

Philology  and  Archceology. 


A.  N.  Arnold, 

D.  C.  Gilman, 
S.  S.  Haldeman, 
A.  C.  Kendrick, 
Geo.  P.  Marsh, 
L.  H.  Morgan, 
A.  S.  Packard, 

E.  E.  Sahsbury, 


Hamilton,  N.Y. 
Baltimore. 
Columbia,  Pa. 
Rochester,  N.Y. 
Rome. 

Rochester,  N.Y. 
Brunswick,  Me. 
New  Haven, Conu. 


A.  D.  White,        Ithaca,  N.Y. 

W.  D.  Whitney,    New  Haven, Conn. 

T.  D.  Woolsey,     New  Haven, Conn. 

Section  IH.  —  8. 
Political  Economy  and  History. 


S.  G.  Arnold, 
Geo.  Bancroft, 
S.  G.  Brown, 
Henry  C.  Carey, 
J.  L.  Diman, 
Henry  C.  Lea, 
Barnas  Sears, 
J.  H.  Trumbull, 


Newport,  R.I. 
Washington. 
Clinton,  N.Y. 
Philadelphia. 
Providence,  R.I. 
Philadelphia. 
Scranton,  Va. 
Hartford. 


Section  IV.  —  5. 

Literature  and  the  Fine  Arts. 
James  B.  Angell,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 
Wm.  C.  Bryant,    New  York. 
F.  E.  Church,       New  York. 
R.  S.  Greenough,  Florence. 
Wm.  W.  Story,    Rome. 


FOREIGN    HONORARY   MEMBERS. 


341 


FOREIGN    HONORARY    MEMBERS.  — 72. 

(Appointed  as  vaoancies  occur.) 
Class  I.  —  Mathematical  and  Physical  Sciences.  —  25. 


Section  I. 

—  8. 

Section  I 

II.  — 11. 

Mathematics. 

Physics  and 

Chemistry. 

John  C.  Adams, 

Cambridge. 

R.  Bunsen, 

Heidelberg. 

Sir  George  B.  Airy, 

Greenwich. 

E.  Chevreul, 

Paris. 

Brioschi, 

Milan. 

J.  Dumas, 

Paris. 

Arthur  Cayley, 
Chasles, 

Cambridge. 
Paris. 

H.  Helmholtz, 
A.  W.  Hofmaun, 

Berlin. 
Berlin. 

Le  Terrier, 

Paris. 

G.  Kirchhoff, 

Berlin. 

Liouville, 

Paris. 

J.  C.  Maxwell, 

Cambridge. 

J.  J.  Sylvester, 

Woolwich. 

V.  Regnault, 
Balfour  Stewart, 

Paris. 

Manchester 

Section  II 

.—4. 

G.  G.  Stokes, 
F.  Wohler, 

Cambridge. 
Gbttingen. 

Practical  Astronomy 

DoUen, 

H.  A.  E.  A.  Faye, 

and  Geodesy. 

Pulkowa. 
Paris. 

Section  IV.  — 2.     ^ 
Technology  and  Engineering. 

Peters, 

Altona. 

R.  Clausius, 

Bonn. 

Otto  Struve, 

Pulkowa. 

Sir  Wm.  Thomson 

Glasgow. 

Class  II.  —  Natural  and  j 

Section  I.  — 8. 

Geology,  Mineralogy,  and  Physics  of 
the  Globe. 

Barrande,  Prague. 

Charles  Darwin,  Beckenham. 

H.  W.  Dove,  Berlin. 

James  Prescott  Joule,  Manchester. 

AV.  H.  Miller,  Cambridge. 

C.  F.  Rammelsberg,  BerUn. 

A.  C.  Ramsay,  London. 

Sir  Edward  Sabine,  London. 


Physiological  Sciences. 

25. 

Section  II. 

—  6. 

Botany. 

George  Bentham, 

London 

Decaisne, 

Paris. 

Alphonse  de  CandoUe, 

•Geneva. 

Elias  Fries, 

Upsal. 

Oswald  Heer, 

Zurich. 

Joseph  Daltou  Hooker, 

London 

342 


FOREIGN    HONORARY    MEMBERS. 


Section  TIT.  —  S. 

Zoology  and  Pliysiolorjij. 

T.  L.  W.  Bischoff,     Munich. 
Milno-Edwards,  Paris. 

Albrecht  Kiilliker,       "Wiirzburg. 
Rudolph  Leuckart,  Leipzig. 
Richard  Owen,  London. 

C.  Th.  Von  Siebold,  Munich. 


J.  P.  Steenstrup, 
Valentin. 


Copenhagen. 
Berne. 


Section  IV.  —  3. 
Medicine  and  Surgery. 
Sir  James  Paget,         London. 


Rokitansky, 
Virchow, 


Vienna. 
Berlin. 


Class  III.  —  Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  —  22. 


Section  I.  —  4. 
Philosophy  and  Jurisprudence. 


T.  C.  Bluntschli, 
Sumner  Maine, 
James  INIartineau, 
Sclopis  di  Salerano, 


Heidelberg. 
London. 
London. 
Turin. 


Section  II.  —  6. 

Philology  and  Archaeology. 

Pascual  de  Gayangos,  Madrid. 
Benjamin  Jowett,  Oxford. 
Sir  n.  C.  Rawlinson,  London. 
Lepsius,  Berlin. 

Max  Miiller,  Oxford. 

F.  Ritschl,  Leijjzig. 


Section  III.  —  9. 

Political  Economy  and  History. 

Ernst  Cui'tius,  Berhn. 
W.  Ewart  Gladstone,  London. 

Charles  Merivale,  Oxford. 

F.  A.  A.  Mignet,  Paris. 

Mommsen,  Berlin. 

Mark  Pattison,  Oxford. 

Von  Ranke,  Berlin. 

A.  P.  Stanley,  London. 

Thiers,  Paris. 

Section  IV. —  3. 

Literature  and  the  Fine  Arts. 

Gerome,  Paris. 

Alfred  Tennyson,        Isle  of  Wight. 


VioUet-Le-Duc, 


Paris. 


INDEX   TO   YOL.   lY. 


Abronia  Cnix-Maltse,  253. 

cycloptera,  253. 

niicrantha,  253. 
Acanthophora  Delilei,  237. 

luuscoides,  237. 
Acerates,  66,  72. 

angustifolia,  72. 

auiiculata,  72. 

lanuginosa,  73.  , 

longifolia,  73. 

paniculata,  66. 

tomentosa,  73. 

viridiflora,  73. 
Acid,      Diamido-sulphobenzide-di- 
carbonic,  205. 

Parabro m alph atoluylic ,  223 . 
Air,  Effect  of  Temperature  on  Vis- 
cosity of,  41. 
Alga,  Xew,  of  California,  245. 
Algpe,  on  some  new  to  the  United 

States,  235. 
Amarantus  albus,  274. 

blitoides,  273. 

Blitum,  273. 

firabriatus,  274. 

Greggii,  274. 

obovatus,  275. 

Palmeri,  274. 

Torreyi,  274. 

AVrigbtii,  275. 
Amblogyne,  274. 
Ammonic      parabromalphatoluate, 

224. 
Amphidium  molybdoplaciim,  182. 
Amphiroa  Californica,  238. 

cuspidata.  239. 

debilis,  239. 

fragilissima,  239. 

nodulosa,  239. 

Orbigniana,  238. 


Amphiroa  Triliulus,  239. 

tuberculosa,  239. 

vertebralis,  239. 
Amsonia  brevifolia,  64. 

longifiora,  64. 

Palmeri,  64. 

tomentosa,  64. 
Anautherix,  66. 

connivens,  66. 

decumbens,  66. 

paniculatus,  66. 

viridis,  66. 
Angelica  leporina,  252. 
Antigeny,  or  Sexual  Dimorphism, 

in  Butterflies,  150. 
Antirrhinimi  chytrospermum,  81. 

cyathiferum,  81. 
Appropriations,  279,  283. 
Arctomecon,  Character  of,  52. 
Arctostaphylos  Clevelandi,  61. 
A]-gentic    parabromalphatoluate, 

224. 
Arsenite  of   Copper,    Experiments 

upon,  11. 
Asclepias,  65. 

anioena,  67. 

amplexicaulis,  67. 

angustifolia,  70,  71,  72. 

arenaria,  68. 

brachystephaija,  68. 

cinerea,  72. 

Cornuti,  67. 

Coulteri,  71. 

cryptoceras,  67. 

Curassavica,  66. 

debilis,  70. 

Douglasii,  67. 

eriocarpa,  68. 

erosa,  (iS. 

fascicularis,  71. 

Feayi,  72. 

Fremonti,  68. 


344 


INDEX. 


t.. 


Asclepias  galioides,  71. 
glaucescens,  67. 
Hallii,  69. 
humistrata,  67. 
iucarnata,  67. 
involucrata,  69. 
Jamesii,  68. 
lanceolata,  66. 
leucophylla,  68. 
Lin  aria,  71. 
linearis,  70,  71. 
Lindheimeri,  72. 
linifolia,  70. 
longicornu,  72. 
macrophylla,  71. 
macro tis,  69. 
Meadii,  67. 
Mexicana,  71. 
Michauxii,  72. 
nivea,  68,  70. 
niimmularia,  67. 
Nuttalliana,  69. 

nyctaginifolia,  69. 

obovata,  69. 

obtusifolia,  67. 

ovalifolia,  69. 

parviflora,  70. 

paupercula,  66. 

perennis,  70. 

phytolaccoides,  68. 

purpurascens,  67. 

quadrifolia,  70. 

quinquedentata,  71. 

rubra,  67. 

speciosa,  67. 

stenophylla,  72. 

snbulata,  70. 

Sullivan tii,  67. 

Syriaca,  67. 

tomentosa,  68. 

tuberosa,  66,  72. 

variegata,  68,  69. 

verticillata,  71. 

vestita,  68. 

virgata,  70,  71. 

viridis,  66. 

viridula,  72. 
Asclepiodora,  66. 

viridis,  66. 
Astragalus  collinus,  51. 
flavus,  54. 
Haydenianus,  56. 
humillimus,  57. 
Newberryi,  55. 
*  Pattersoni,  55. 

\  subcompressus,  56. 


Astragalus  tricarinatus,  56. 

Wardi,  55. 
Atriplex  decumbens,  275. 

B. 


Benzyl  Compounds,  Researches  on 

the  Substituted,  209. 
Benzylbromides,  on  Certain  Sub- 
stituted, 211. 

Metabrombenzylbromide  ,214. 

Orthobrombenzylbromide,  215. 

Parabrombenzyibromide,  211. 

Paraclilorbeuzylbromide,  218. 

Paraiodbenzylbromide,  219. 
Biatora  carnulenta,  179. 

caulophylla,  178. 

glauconigrans,  179. 

livido-nigricans,  180. 

peliaspis,  179. 

peliaspistes,  179. 

petri,  179. 
Bigelovia  Vaseyi,  58. 
Biographical  notices:  — 

Karl  Ernst  Von  Baer,  331. 

Alexander  Braun,  325. 

Alexis  Caswell,  307. 

Charles  Davies,  320. 

Charles  Henry  Davis,  313. 

Christian  Gottfried  Ehrenberg, 

327. 

Nicholas  St.  John  Green,  389. 
Wilhelm    Friedrich    Benedict 

Hofmeister,  328. 
Christian  Jassen,  329. 
Fielding  Bradfort  Meek,  321. 
Johann  Christian  Poggendorff, 

330. 
William    Augustus    Stearns, 

291. 
Emory  Washburn,  300. 
Edward  Wigglesworth,  303. 
Charles  Wilkes,  323. 
Botany,  Contributions  to,  51,  159, 

246. 
Brickellia  Greenei,  58^ 
Browallia  Texana,  16^5. 
Buellia  parasema,  185. 

radiata,  173. 
Butterflies,  Sexual  Dimorphism  m, 
150. 


Callithamnion  arbuscula,  244. 
Dasyoides,  244. 


INDEX. 


345 


Callithamnion  efflorescens,  245. 

heteromorplium,  245. 

Lejolisea,  244. 

Pikeanum,  244. 

ptilophora,  244. 
Canbya  and  Arctomecon,  51. 
Canbya  Candida,  51. 
Canotia,  159,  160. 
Centrostegia,  269. 

leptoceras,  269. 

Thiu-beri,  269. 
Chantransia  efflorescens,  245. 
Chlorpea  Austin?e,  83. 
Choudi-us  alfinis,  242. 

canaliculatus,  242. 
Chorizantfie,  Revision  of,  269. 

brevicornn,  272. 

Bl•e^Yel•i,  270. 

Califoniica,  269. 

commissuralis,  269. 

corrugata,  273. 

diffusa,  270. 

Douglasii,  270. 

fimbriata,  271. 

laciuiata,  171. 

leptoceras,  269. 

membranacea,  270. 

Palmeri,  271. 

Parryi,  271 

perfoliata,  269. 

polygonoides,  273. 

procumbens,  271,  272. 

pungens,  270. 

rigida,  273. 

staticoides,  271,  272. 

stellulata,  270. 

Thurberi,  269. 

uniaristata,  272. 

valida,  271. 

"Watsoni,  273. 

Wheeleri,  272. 

Xanti,  272. 
Chrysymeuia  acanthoclada,  238. 

ramosissima,  238. 
Chthamalia,  74. 

biflora,  78. 

pubiflora,  77. 
Claytonia  bulbifera,  54. 
Clethra.  61. 

Committees,  281,  285,  287. 
Communications  from  Messrs. 

A.  G.  Bell,  1,  283.  285. 

T.  M.  Brewer,  285 

J.  H.  Billiard,  282. 

J.  P.  Cooke,  Jr.,  113,  124,282, 
287,  288. 


Communications  from  Messrs. 

D.  C.  Eaton,  245. 

W.  G.  Faiiow,  235,  287,  288. 

W.  Gibbs,  288. 

A.  Gray,  51,  159, 282, 283, 287, 

288. 
W.  Harkness,  186,  286. 
H.  B.  Hill,  26,  282,  287. 

E.  R.  Hills,  85. 

S.  W.  Holman,  41,  282. 

T.  S.  Hunt,  288. 

C.  L.  Jackson,  209,  211,  282, 

286,  287,  288. 
O.  R.  Jackson,  36,  282. 
W.  Lowerv,  221,  282,  287. 
C.  F.  Mabery,  288. 
W.  H.  Melville,  228,  282. 
A.  Michael,  205,  288. 

A.  J.  H.  Xorton,  285. 
T.  H.  Norton,  205,  288. 
E.  C.  Pickering,  284,  286. 

B.  Peirce,  286,  287. 

B.  O.  Peirce,  Jr.,  143,287. 

C.  S.  Peirce,  283. 
J.  AV.  Powell,  285. 
W.  A.  Rogers,  283. 

S.  H.  Scudder,  1.50,  284,  286. 

S.  P.  Sharpies,  11,  98,  284. 

A.  L.  Thomsen,  282. 

L.  Trouvelot,  284. 

J.  Trowbridge,  131,  285,  286, 
288. 

E.  Tuckerman,  166. 

L.  Waldo,  284. 

S.  Watson,  246,  288. 

W.  Watson,  282. 

J.  D.  Whitnev,  284. 

Dr.  Williams!;  285. 

C.  A.  Young,  286. 
Copper  Acetate,  Action  of  Arsenic 
Trioxide  on,  85. 

Arsenite  of,  11. 
Corollina  pistillaris,  238. 
Corallorhiza  Bigelovii,  275. 

Macraei,  276. 

striata,  276. 
Criioria  purpurea,  240. 
Criioriella  armorica,  240. 
Cryptonemia  dichotoma,  242. 

obovata,  242. 
Cryptosiphonia  Woodii,  241. 
Cupric  Parabromalphatoluate,  225. 
Cynanchum  Carolinense,  76. 

discolor,  76. 

hirtiim,  76. 

obliquum,  76. 


/ 


346 


INDEX. 


D. 


Dasya  Callithamnion,  235. 

lophoclados,  236. 

subsecunda,  235. 

ti'ichoclados,  236. 

Delessevia  Woodii,  238. 

Diamido-siilphobeiizide-dicarbonic 

Acid,  205. 
Dimorphism,    Sexual,    in    Butter- 
flies, 150. 


E. 

Echidiocarya,  163. 

Arizonica,  164. 

Californica,  164. 
Echiiiospermum,  163. 

Greeuei,  163. 
Elaterium  Bigelovii,  252. 

minimum,  252. 
Electro-motive  forces  of  Batteries, 

Xew   Method  of    Comparing, 

137. 
Epilobium  jucnndum,  57. 
Erioderme  velliq'erum,  168. 
Eriogonum,  Revision  of,  254. 

Abertianum,  258. 

acaule,  2-57. 

affine,  264. 

alatum,  254. 

androsaceum,  256. 

angulosum,  262. 

annuum,  262. 

atrorubens,  261. 

Baileyi,  268. 

brachyiwdum,  259. 

brevicaule,  266. 

cfespitosum,  256. 

cernuum,  259. 

chrysocephalum,  263. 

ciliatum,  261. 

cinereum,  265. 

compositum,  257. 

corymbosum,  265, 

dasyanthemum,  268. 

deflexum,  259. 

dichotomum,  263. 

divaricatum,  262. 

Douglasii,  256. 

elatum,  264. 

ellipticum,  257. 

elongatum,  267. 

ericajfolium,  265. 


Eriogonum,  fasciculatum,  265. 
fiavmu,  255. 
glandulosum,  261. 
Gordoni,  261. 
gracile,  268. 
Greenei,  83,  263. 
Greggii,  262. 
Heermanni,  267. 
heracleoides,  2.57. 
hieracifolium,  254. 
hirtiflorum,  259. 
incanum,  256. 
inflatum,  261. 
intricatum,  269. 
Jamesii,  255. 
Kelloggii,  256. 
Kennedy!,  263. 
Kingii,  263,  264. 
lachnogynum,  258. 
latifolium,  264. 
Lemmoni,  266. 
Lobbii,  257. 
loncho])hy]lum,  266. 
longifolium,  255. 
marifolium,  256. 
Mohavense,  266. 
microthecnm,  265. 
multiceps,  264. 
multiflorum,  262. 
niveum,  263. 
nudum,  264. 
nutans,  259. 
oblongifolium,  264. 
ovalifolium,  262. 
Palmeri,  267. 
Parryi,  259. 
parvifo]iunr,  265. 
pauciflorum,  263. 
pharnaceoides,  258. 
I'lumatella,  269. 
polyanthum,  257. 
polycladon,  268. 
proliferum,  263. 
pusillum,  260. 
pyrolfefolium,  256. 
racemosum,  267. 
reniforme,  260 
rotundifolium,  260. 
salsuginosum,  258. 
saxatile,  267. 
scalare,  261. 
spathulatum,  264. 
sphaeroceplialum,  257. 
spergulinum,  258. 
stellatura,  257. 
strictum,  263,  267. 


INDEX. 


347 


Eriogonum,  siibreniforme,  260. 

tenelluni,  2i)\. 

Thomasii,  2()(). 

Thompsona!,  265. 

Tlmrberi,  260. 

thvinoides,  256. 

toiuentosuin,  255. 

Torreyauuin,  257. 

trichopodum,  260. 

triste,  254. 

truncatuiu,  266. 

unibellatiun,  257. 

iindulatuiu,  255. 

ursiiiiuii,  256. 

villiflorum,  258. 

vimineum,  268. 

virgatum,  268. 

Watsoni,  259. 

Wrightii,  266. 
Evitrichium  holoi)terum,  81. 

setosum,  SO. 
Erythvocystis  Grevillei,  238. 
Erythroniiim  grandiflorum,  278. 

purpurascens,  277. 
Ethers  of  Uric  Acid,  on  the,  26. 
Eucheuma  acauthocladum,  238. 


Farlowia  compressa,  241. 

crassa,  241. 
Fellows,  Associate,  List  of,  339. 
Fellows  deceased :  — 

Alexis  Caswell,  285. 

Charles  Davies,  283. 

C.  H.  Davis,  286. 

Nicholas  St.  John  Green,  283. 

F.  B.  Meek,  286. 

William  A.  Stearns,  283. 

Edward  Wigglesworth,  283. 

Charles  AVilkes,  286. 
Fellows  elected :  — 

Henry   Larcora    Abbott,    280, 
283. 

Alexander  Graham  Bell,  286, 
287. 

Jeremiah  Lewis   Diman,  286, 
287. 

William  Ferrel,  286,  287. 

Richard  Saltonstall  Greenough, 
280. 

Thomas  Hill,  280. 

Nathaniel  Holmes,  280. 

Bennett  Hubbard  Xash,  280. 

George  ^Nlarv  Searle,  280,  283. 

William  Edward  Story,  280. 


Fellpws,  List  of,  336. 

Filtering,  Reverse,  the  Process  and 

its  Application,  121. 
Fluorides  of  ^langanese,  Contribu- 
tions towards  the  History  of, 
228. 
Foreign    Honorary    Members    de- 
ceased: — 
Karl  Ernst  Von  Baer,  286. 
Alexander  Brann,  286. 
Christian  Gottfried  Ehrenberg, 

283,  286. 
Wilhelm  Hofmeister,  286. 
Christian  Lassen,  279,  286. 
J.  C.  Poggendorf,  286. 
Foreign  Honorary  ^Members  elect- 
ed:— 
Ernst  Cnrtius,  280,  283. 
Fran9ois  August  Alexis  Mig- 

net,  280,  283. 
James  Paget,  285,  287. 
JNIark  Pattison,  280,  283. 
Henrv    Creswick     Rawlinson, 

280,  283. 
Arthur  Penrhyn  Stanley,  280, 

283. 
Alfred  Tennyson,  280,284. 
Eugene  Emmanuel  Violet-Le- 
Duc,  280,  283. 
Foreign  Honorary  Members,  List  of, 

341. 
Forestiera  acuminata,  63. 

Xeomexicana,  63. 
Fraxinus  Greggii,  83. 
Schiedeana,  63. 


Gaillardia  spathulata,  59. 
Galax  aphylla,  62. 
Galaxaura  lapidescens,  240. 
Galium  Brandegei,  58. 
Galvanic  Batteries,  New  Method  of 
comparing    the    Electro-mo- 
tive forces  of,  137. 

New  Method  of  ^Measuring  the 
Resistance  of,  137,  140. 
Gilia  brevicula,  79. 

csespitosa,  80. 

Haydeni,  79. 

Parryse,  76. 
Gomphocarpus,  66,  73. 

cordifolius,'73. 

purpurascens,  66. 

tomentosus,  73. 


J 


348 


INDEX. 


Gonolobiis,  74,  75. 

Baldwiuianus,  76,  77. 

biflorus,  78. 

Carolinensis,  76,  77. 

cjmanchoides,  78. 

granulatus,  75,  76. 

hastulatus,  78. 

hirsutus,  76,  77. 

la?vis,  75. 

macrophyllus,  75,  76,  77. 

Nuttallii,  76. 

obliquus,  76. 

parvifolhis,  77,  78. 

parvifloi'iis,  79. 

pi'oductus,  78. 

prostratus,  77,  79. 

pubiflorus,  77. 

reticulatus,  75. 

sagittifolius,  77. 

suberosus,  75. 

tilifefolius,  76. 

viridiflorus,  76. 
Grateloupia  Cutlerite,  243. 

Gibbesii,  243. 
Griffithsia  Bornetiana,  243. 

corallina,  242. 

globifeva,  243. 

opuntioides,  243. 
Gruvelia  pusilla,  81. 
Gymnadeuia  longispica,  277, 
Gymnogongrus  GrifRthsiae,  242. 

leptopiayllus,  242. 

linearis,  242. 

tenuis,  242. 
Gymnolomia  Porteri,  59. 
Gyrophora  mammulata,  167. 

H. 

Habenaria  Cooperi,  276. 

fcetida,  277. 

gracilis,  277. 

pedicellata,  276. 

Schischmareffiaua,  277. 

sparsiflora,  276. 

Thiirberi,  276. 

Unalashcensis,  277. 
Halymenia  decipiens,  243. 

ligulata,  243. 
Harpagonella  Palmeri,  164. 
Heat,  Determination  of  the  Law  of 
Propagation  in  the  Interior 
of  a  Solid  Body,  143. 
Hemizonia  Streetsii,  162. 
Holacautha  Emovyi,  161. 


Horizontal  Photoheliograph,  The- 
ory of  the,  186. 

Hulsea  Parry i,  59. 

Hydrophylhim  appendiculatum,  62. 

Hydric  Sulphide,  on  a  New  Mode  of 
manipulating,  113. 


Isopyrum  stipitatum,  54. 

K. 

Kallymenia  Californica,  241. 
Kerguelen  Lichens,  181. 
Kceberlinia  spinosa,  161. 


Lachnostoma,  74. 

hastulatum,  78. 

parviflorum,  79. 

prostratum,  79. 

tigrinum,  74. 
Laurencia  Brongniartii,  237. 

gemmifera,  237. 

intricata,  237. 

spectabilis,  237. 

tuberculosa,  237. 
Lavatera  insularis,  249. 

venosa,  249. 
Lecanora  ambigens,  176. 

dentilabra,  173. 

dichroa,  183. 

Franciscana,  173. 

gelida,  184. 

glaucovirens,  172. 

Kerguelensis,  184. 

orosthea,  173. 

semitensis,  172. 
Lecidea  cyrtidia,  181. 

mamillana,  180. 

psephota,  181. 

rubina,  178. 

tessellina,  181. 

thamnina,  178. 
Lemmonia,  162. 

Californica,  162. 
Lepidium  dictyotum,  54. 
Leptogium  livale,  170. 

terrenum,  184. 
Leptogiossis,  164. 

Coulteri,  165. 

Texana,  164. 
Lespedeza  angustifolia,  57. 

capitata,  57. 


INDEX. 


349 


Lespedeza  hirta,  57. 

leptostacliya,  57. 
Liagora  Cayohuesonica,  240. 

farioiiicolor,  240. 
Lichens,  Kerguelen,  181. 

Observation  on  Xortli  Ameri- 
can and  other,  166. 
Lithothamnion  fasciculatum,  239. 

polymorphum,  239. 
Lithothrix  Aspergilhim,  236. 
Lobelia  Feayana,  60. 

Ludoviciana,  60. 
Lomentaria  saccata,  238. 
Lupinus  Arizonicus,  250. 

concinnus,  250. 

micranthus,  250. 

trifidus,  250. 
Lychnis,  Revision  of,  246. 

affinis,  247. 

Ajanensis,  247. 

alpina,  246. 

apetala,  247,  248. 

Californica,  248. 

Drummondii,  248. 

elata,  249. 

Kingii,  247. 

montana,  247. 

nuda,  248. 

Parryi,  248. 

triflora,  247. 
Lycium  gracilipes,  81. 
Lysimachia  angustifolia,  63. 

heterophylla,  63. 

hybrida,  63. 

lanceolata,  63. 

longifolia,  63. 

quadriflora,  63. 

radicans,  63. 
Lythrum  alatum,  251. 

breviflorum,  251. 


M. 

Malvastrum  Palmeri,  250. 

Manganese,  the  Fkiorides  of,  Con- 
tributions towards  the  his- 
toi7,_228. 

iMarah  Biinima,  2.52. 

]\Ielinia  angustifolia,  70. 

Melobesia  amplexifrons,  239. 
Lenormandi,  239. 
Lejolisii,  239. 

Melotliria  pendula,  2.52. 

Members,  Foreign  Honorary,  See 
Foreign  Honorary  Members. 


Mentzelia  hirsutissima,  252. 

tricuspis,  252. 
Metastehna  angustifolium,  73. 

Blodgetti,  73. 

parviflorum,  74. 
Methyllantoin,  31. 
Methylparaban,  35. 
Methyluric  Acid,  27. 

oxydation  with  nitric  acid,  33. 

on  some  of  the  salts  of,  36. 

dibaric  methylurate,  37. 

dipotassic  methylurate,  37. 

disodic  methylurate,  39. 

monobaric  methylurate,  39. 

monocalcic  methylurate,  40. 

monopotassic  methylurate,  37. 

monosodic  methylurate,  38. 
Milk  Analyses,  98. 
Mimulus  Palmeri,  82. 
Mirabilis  Greenei,  253. 
Monardella  Palmeri,  82. 

N. 

Nasturtium  trachycarpum,  54. 
Nemacladus  longifolius,  60. 
Nemalion  Andersonii,  240. 

virens,  240. 
Nemastoma  Californicum,  243. 
Neuropogon  melaxanthus,  183. 

Taylori,  183. 
Nierembergia  viseosa,  165. 
Nitophyllum  areolatum,  238. 

laceratum,  238. 

latissimum,  238. 

multilobum,  238. 

spectabile,  238,  245. 

violaceum,  238. 


O. 


Observationes  Lichenologicse,  166. 
Officers  elected,  281. 
Q^^nothera  Palmeri,  251. 

triloba,  251. 
Omphalaria  Kansana,  170. 
Orthocarpus  lasiorhynchus,  82. 
Orthosia  acuminata,  79. 

oblongata,  79. 
Oxytheca  inei-mis,  273. 

tribolata,  83. 

P. 

Palafoxia  Feaja,  59. 
Pannaria  glaucella,  183. 


350 


INDEX. 


Pannaria  placodiopsis,  183. 

Sonomensis,  169. 

stenophylla,  169. 

symptychia,  168. 

Taylori,  183. 
Parabronibeiizyl    Compounds,    on, 
221. 

Parabromalphatoluylic     Acid, 
223. 

Parabrombenzylacetate,  222. 

Parabrombenzylalcphol,  221. 

Parabrombenzylcyanide,  222. 

Pai'abrombenzylsulphocyanate, 
227. 

Triparabrombenzylamine,  22.5. 
Parnielia  fegialita,  166. 

coufluens,  166. 
Pectocarya  pusilla,  81. 

setosa,  81. 
Pentstenion  coman-heniis,  81. 

strictus,  82. 

Wardi,  82. 
Pertusavia  albinea,  177. 

ambi,g:ens,  176. 

colobina,  17.5. 

eviglypta,  177. 

flavicunda,  176. 

thamnoplaca,  175. 

velata,  176. 
Petrocelis  cruenta,  239. 
Peyssonnelia  atro-purpurea,  239. 

Dubyi,  239. 

inibi'icata,  240. 

rubra,  239. 
Phacelia  grisea,  80. 
Philibertia  cynanchoides,  64. 

elegans,  64. 

linearis,  64. 

Torreyi,  64. 

undulata,  65. 

viminalis,  64. 
Photoheliogi*aph,    Theory    of     the 

Horizontal,  186. 
Phyllophora  Clevelandii,  242. 
Physcia  obscura,  167. 

picta,  166. 
Pilopliorus  acicularis,  177. 
Placodium  atroalbura,  172. 

bicolor,  184. 

ferrugineum,  171. 

fen'uginosum,  171. 

galactophylluni,  171. 
Plants,  Description  of  Xew  Species, 

&c.,  246. 
Platanthera  fcptida,  277. 

gracilis,  277. 


Plantanthera  striata,  277. 
Plocamiuni  violaceum,  240. 
Podostigma,  65. 
Polyotus  angustifolius,  72. 
Polysiphonia  dictyurus,  237. 

pecten- Veneris,  237. 
Polysiphonia  pennata,  237. 

secunda,  236. 

senticulosa,  236. 

thyrsigera,  237. 

vei-ticiHata,  237. 
Prionotis  Andersoniana,  2r42. 

Clevelandii,  242. 
Proceedings,  279. 
Psoralea  Calif ornica,  251. 
Ptycanthera  acuminata,  79. 

oblongata,  79. 
Pyrola,  61'. 
Pyxine,  166. 

coccinea,  167. 

Cocoes,  166. 

picta,  166. 

retirugella,  166. 

R. 

Reverse  Filtering,  Process  and  Ap- 
plication of,  124. 
Reyesia,  165. 

Rhabdonia  ramosissima,  238. 
Rhododendron  Chapmanii,  61. 

punctatum,  61. 
Riceardia  INIontagnei,  237. 
Rinodina  mamillana,  174. 

milliaria,  175. 

ochrotis,  174. 

radiata,  173. 

thysanota,  174. 
Rudbeckia  Porteri,  59. 
Rumex  longifolius,  254. 

occidentalis,  2.53. 
Rumford    Committee,    Appropria- 
.  tions,  279,  283. 

Monument,  286,  287. 
Rumford's  Works,  279,  283. 

S. 

Sarcophyllis  Californica,  241. 

eduiis,  241. 
Sarcostemnia  Brownii,  65. 

clausum,  65. 

crassifolium,  65. 

cynanchoides,  61. 

elegans,  64. 


INDEX. 


351 


Sarcostemina  hctei'ophyllum,  Gi. 

iindulatum,  65. 
Saxifraua  elirysautha,  83. 

Hirculu.s,  84. 

serpvllifolia,  84. 
Scheele's  Green,   its  Composition, 

11. 
Schizonotus,  06. 

puipurascens,  66. 
SchizyniPnia  cocciiiea,  243. 
Schweiufurt    Green,    Composition 

of,  85. 
Sexual  Diniorphism  in  Butterflies, 

150. 
Silene  Drummondii,  248. 
SisjTinchium  anceps,  277. 

belluni,  277. 

Bernuidianum,  277. 

minus,  277. 

mucronatum,  277. 
Solar     Parallax,     Application     of 
Horizontal    Photoheliooraph 
to  Determination  of,  186. 
Solidago  sparsifl<')ra,  58. 
Sounds,  produced  electrically,  1,  5. 
Spiranthes  Unalaschcensis,  277. 
Squamaria  lateritia,  184. 
Stachys  Rothrockii,  82. 
Steironenia,  62. 

ciliatum,  63. 

florida,  63. 

heteropliylla,  63. 

lanceolatum,  63. 

lonffifolium,  63. 

radicans,  63. 

revolutum,  63. 
Stereocaulon  cereolinum,  178. 
Sticta  IlalUi,  168. 


Sympetaleia,  161. 

aurea,  161. 
Synalissa  melamhola,  170. 

vii'idi-rufa,  170. 


Tfenioma  Clevelandii,  236. 

macrourum,  236. 

perpusillum,  236. 
Telephone,  Researches  in,  1. 
Tetradymia  comosa,  60. 
Thamnosma  montana,  160. 
Thelotrema  Californicura,  177. 
Thelypodium  Cooperi,  246. 
Transits  of  Venus,  Determination 
of  Solar  Parallax  by,  186. 


u. 

Umbilicaria  Caroliniana,  167. 

dictyiza,  167. 

mammulata,  167. 
Urceolina  Kergueliensis,  184. 
Uric  Acid,  on  the  Ethers  of,  26. 
Usnea  Taylori,  183. 

sulphurea,  183. 


Vincetoxicum  acanthocarpos,  77. 

gonocarpos,  76. 
Viscosity  of  Air,  Effect  of  Tempera- 
ture on,  41. 
Vortex  Rings  in  Liquids,  131. 


Cambridge:  Presa  of  Jolin  Wilson  &  Son. 


r=^ 


X  6'd'l 


MBL  WHOI    LIBRARY 


H    1A7U