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‘
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
AMERICAN ACADEMY
OF
ARTS AND SCIENCES.
νοι. XLV.
FROM MAY 1909, TO MAY 1910.
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY.
1910.
°
Fés κ( )
a7
University {ress : :
Joun Witson AND Son, CAMBRIDGE, U.S. A.
ies le
es ms
III.
VII.
XII.
CONTENTS.
Friction in Gases at Low Pressure. By J.L. Hoga ......
The Quantitative Determination of Antimony by the Gutzeit Method.
By C. R. SANGER AND E. R. RIEGEL .
The Equivalent Circuits of Composite Lines in the Steady State. By
ACH GEININIDI Sipe’ Cn at Panecnial waweice teak ΡΟ Pile. ts ἐμ ον
Περὶ φύσεως. A Study of the Conception of Nature among the
Pre-Socratics. By W. A. HEIDEL
fe kup ον say fe Newco he, αν jie, s pa” 1
A Revision of the Atomic Weight of Phosphorus. First Paper. —
The Analysis of Silver Phosphate. By G. P. BaxTER AND
δι Ἡ ΡΣ καλεῖς ae arin eh taint pr ae eC in ον ea 8
The Reactions of Amphibians to Light. By A.S. PraRsE... .
Average Chemical Compositions of Igneous-Rock Types. By R. A.
Day
On the Applicability of the Law of Corresponding States to the Joule-
Thomson Effect in Water and Carbon Dioxide. By H.N. Davis
Notes on Certain Thermal Properties of Steam. By H. N. Davis .
The Spectrum of a Carbon Compound in the Region of Extremely
Short Wave-Lengths. By TolGyMan ype τὺ. τ΄ ee
Experiments on the Electrical Oscillations of a Hertz Rectilinear
Dsciiatoren bs: Ws: ETRRCWY Get ipa tes wh ce eke st 80.
The Conception of the Derivative of a Scalar Point Function with
Respect to Another Similar Function. By B. O. PEtrcE
29
77
135
156
209
241
265
313
323
337
iv CONTENTS.
PAGE
XIII. The Effect of Leakage at the Edges upon the Temperatures within a
Homogeneous Lamina through which Heat is being Conducted.
By Bi iO. PEIRCE εὐ one nr ees cone men 353
XIV. On Evaporation from the Surface of a Solid Sphere. By H. W.
MorsE Ste Re ey sees ee Sets οὐδν ae ae TA ΟΣ be, 361
XV. Some Minute Phenomena of Electrolysis. By H.W.Morse . . _ 369
XVI. Air Resistance to Falling Inch Spheres. By E.H. Hatt .... 377
XVII. (1.) A preliminary Synopsis of the Genus Echeandia. By C. A.
WeatHERBY; (II.) Spermatophytes, new or reclassified, chiefly
Rubiaceae and Gentianaceae. By B. L. Roptnson; (111.) Amer-
ican Forms of Lycopodium complanatum. By C. A.
Weartuersy; (1V.) Newandlitileknown Mexican Plants, chiefly
Labiatae. By L. M. FernAup; (V.) Mexican Phanerogams. —
Notes and new species. By C. A. WEATHERBY .... ... 385
XVIII. (LIII.) On the Equilibrium of the System consisting of Lime, Carbon,
Calcium Carbide and Carbon Monoxide. By M.D.THompson. 429
XIX. Discharges of Electricity through Hydrogen. BY J.TRowBRIDGE . 453
XX. Buddhaghosa’s Dhammapada Commentary. By E. W. BURLIN-
CEATRIURN As aie Baas Ἐκ tad ee BAT.) Mangere ee 1 ον Siete 405
ΧΕ. α΄ RECORDE OF MEBIINGS: [p25 5 ice ene Na oe tan one ee 551
Orricers AND CommitTersFror 1910-11 ........52-252.4-s 577
List of FELLOWS AND ForREIGN Honorary MEMBERS ........ 579
STATUTES AND STANDING VOTES . ... -.. - 0 «0 et we ee ass 591
RUMFORD PREMLOM "νον. πο ede ον προ Ὁ" 602
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 1.— Aueusrt, 1909.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES.
Bye lee Eloca:
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES.
By J. L. Hoaa.
Presented by John Trowbridge June 29, 1909 ; received June 29, 1909.
Unper the title “Friction and Force due to Transpiration as de-
pendent on Pressure in Gases,” there was published 1 some time ago
an account of some experiments made to determine the relation be-
tween the friction of a gas and the pressure in it, and also the relation
between the force exerted by a lamp on a mica vane, blackened on the
face which is turned towards the lamp, and the mean pressure in the
gas in which the vane is placed. ‘The three-fold purpose of the inves-
tigation was pointed out there, viz.:
First, to investigate the relation between friction and pressure where
the pressures were so small that “slip ᾿᾿ is appreciable; second, to de-
termine the relation of transpiration force in the special form of appa-
ratus described there ; 2 and, third, to make use, if possible, of these two
relations to test the validity of the McLeod gauge measurements of
pressure, and, if these measurements should prove unreliable, to make
use of one of the relations named above to measure gas pressure.
There has been much delay in carrying out the investigation with
the apparatus improved in the manner indicated in the closing para-
graphs of that paper, but now some results have been obtained in so
far as the friction problem is concerned.
As was pointed out in the paper mentioned, the investigation was
defective in two respects. It was found that, in spite of the care which
was taken to exclude mercury vapor from the apparatus, some of this
vapor was undoubtedly present. ‘This no doubt was due to the fact
that the whole apparatus had to be maintained ata high temperature
for long periods to insure drying, and thus the presence of the least
speck of liquid mercury would cause, when evaporation took place, the
diffusion of comparatively large quantities of the vapor through the
1 Proc. Am. Acad., 42, 6 (1906). 2 See p. 129 of that paper.
4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
apparatus. Again, the logarithmic decrement due to the friction in
the suspending fibre was not determined directly by experiment, and
in the discussion of the results obtained its value was calculated.
The details of the method since used to exclude the mercury vapor
and to determine the decrement due to friction in the fibre will ap-
pear later. Meanwhile a summary of what has been accomplished is
given here.
First, the decrement due to the friction in the suspending fibre of
the viscosity apparatus has been determined experimentally.
Second, mercury vapor has been excluded to such a degree that, even
when the whole apparatus, in which the presence of the vapor would
be objectionable, was kept at a temperature of 150° C., the mercury
lines were absent from tbe spectrum of the gas enclosed.
Third, the value of the decrement has been obtained for hydrogen
over a range of pressures extending from atmospheric pressure to
0.000016 mm. as indicated by the McLeod gauge.
Fourth, an equation relating pressure to decrement has been ob-
tained which applies well at all pressures below 0.1 mm. as far as pres-
sures have been measured. ‘The equation, above mentioned, is of the
form of Sutherland’s equation given tentatively in the former paper.
It is
k 1)
SSS ---- 2) ΞΞΞ C.
arr :
In this equation αὶ and ¢ are constants to be determined from the ob-
servations ; ὦ is the decrement due to whatever friction there is in the
gas under examination and to the friction in the fibre ; p is pressure ;
μι is the decrement due to the friction in the fibre. Its value has been
measured directly. The significance of the two slightly differing values
of », namely, μ᾽ = 0.000020 and » = 0.000022, which are found in the
' following table, will appear later when the measurement is discussed in
detail. The first column of the table contains a series of values of
the decrement for hydrogen, each of which corresponds to a definite
pressure in the gas. The various values of the pressure are given
in the second column. ‘The first three of them were obtained from
a manometer. ‘Those which are marked thus,*, were obtained from
measurements made with the McLeod gauge, while the others were
obtained from a curve plotted from the directly observed values of the
decrement and pressure. From two values of p, the corresponding
values of /, and the value of », there are obtained two equations for
the determination of the constants / and ¢ in the above equation.
These determined, it is clear that from any value of /, within the range
HOGG. —FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. 9
TABLE I.
HYDROGEN.
Log, Dec. τὼ | |» 2 Coaleuletea US) μ
0.07942 760.0
0.07937 435.0
0.07927 103.0
0.07768*
0.06902*
0.05423*
0.02861*
0.01140
0.01056
0.00936* 0.0239*
0.00887 0.0225
0.00710 0.0175
0.00620 0.0150
0.09525 0.0125 0.0125
0.00434* 0.0102* 0.0102
0.00426 0.0100 0.00998 0.00998
0.00306* 0.00704* _ 0.00702 0.00702
0.00220 0.00500 0.00497 0.00496
0.00112 0.00250 0.00247 0.00246
0.000459* 0.00098* 0.00097 0.00097
0.000215* 0.00042* 0.00043 0.00043
0.000029* 0.000016* 0.000020 0.000015
6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
indicated above, the corresponding value of p can be obtained from the
formula by a simple calculation. The numbers thus obtained for tbe
various values of / are given in the third and fourth columns.
It would, therefore, seem highly probable that so far as hydrogen is
concerned the McLeod gauge can be relied upon for pressures as low
as the lowest used, and which are recorded in T'able I; and that, in
the case of hydrogen, the measurement of friction can be used as a
convenient and accurate method of measuring pressure, provided care
is taken to exclude mercury vapor. '‘I'his matter will be discussed at
length later.
The details of the methods used to evercome the difficulties named
above follow:
MEASUREMENT OF DECREMENT DUE TO THE FRICTION IN THE FIBRE.
Referring to Figure 1 it will be seen that the tube C is inserted in
such a position that nothing can pass to the viscosity apparatus from the
McLeod gauge, B, or from the pump, which is connected to D, without
passing through it. ‘This tube, C, therefore, replaces the tubes of sul-
phur and silver whose purpose was explained in the earlier paper. ἡ
is filled with granular charcoal, and is so arranged that either a cylin-
drical electrical heater or a long Dewar vessel can enclose it. When
C had been placed in position and sealed in place, the whole apparatus
was exhausted through D by means of the mechanical pump, and then
dry air was allowed to pass in through an opening placed near the
pump. ‘The exhaustion was again performed and the admission of dry
air repeated. ‘This exhaustion and admission of air were carried out
alternately many times for the purpose of removing the comparatively
large quantities of moisture which had been formed in the vessel dur-
ing the process of making the various joints in the construction of the
apparatus. When it was certain that the whole apparatus had been
made fairly dry, the cylindrical electric heater was placed about the
tube C, and while the exhaustion proceeded the tube was raised to a
temperature of about 150° C., to hasten the removal of the gas present
in large quantities in the pores of the charcoal at atmospheric pres-
sure, and which separates from the charcoal rather slowly under re-
duced pressure if the temperature is kept low. When the mercury
pump had been used to secure a fairly high vacuum the other parts of
the apparatus, viz., the McLeod gauge, the viscosity apparatus, and
the connecting tubes were heated to about 150° C., for the purpose of
removing from the glass the occluded gases. After the pumping had
proceeded for some time under these conditions, the heater was re-
HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES.
ὃ PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
moved from © and the Dewar vessel containing liquid air? was substi-
tuted for it, and the other part of the apparatus was allowed to cool
down. The charcoal was allowed to absorb what it would at the tem-
perature of the liquid air. Altogether the liquid air was kept sur-
rounding the charcoal for about eighty hours, and from time to time
during this interval a measurement of the decrement, /, was made. At
first the diminution in the value of the decrement was fairly rapid, but
after the first day the change was very slow. ‘This, no doubt, was due
in part to the slow passage of the gas towards the charcoal through
the somewhat extended form of the apparatus. [Ὁ was, also, probably
due to the fact, which was noted later in the investigation, that at a
given stage of exhaustion the raising of the free surface of the liquid
air in the Dewar vessel surrounding C invariably produced a very
appreciable diminution in the gas pressure in the apparatus, and the
lowering of the free surface as the evaporation of the liquid air pro-
ceeded resulted in a distinct rise in the gas pressure. It is to be un-
derstood that the free surface was never allowed to fall as low as the
top of the tube C, so that all of the charcoal was always below the free
surface of the liquid air.
The following results show how the decrement changed with the
time in the final forty-eight hours :
May 29, 12 M. to 2:53 a. M. Decrement 0.000051
7:15 Pp. M. to 8:58 0.000037
10: 53 p. M. to 1:36 a. M. (May 30) 0.000031
May 30, 1:36 A. M. to 4:48 0.000028
11:11 a. M. to 2:06 P. M. 0.00003 7*
2:06 P. M. to 5:27 0.000024*
5:27 p. M. to 8:21 0.000028*
8:21 Pw to 11:40 0.000022
The smallest value of the decrement obtained was 0.000022, and this
could be measured moderately well. Its error cannot, I think, be as
much as ten per cent. Of course, it is clear that the true value of the
decrement due to the friction in the fibre is somewhat less than this,
for there is still, doubtless, some gas left to offer resistance to the
moving disk, so that the number to be used for » in the above equa-
tion should be somewhat smaller than 0.000022. I have ventured to
3 The liquid air used in this investigation was obtained at the Chemical
Laboratory, Harvard University.
* These were taken in the afternoon when there is considerable jarring of
the apparatus and are probably not so accurate as the others.
HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. 9
make use of the value 0.000020 as the true value to which the decre-
ment will approach as the exhaustion is pushed higher and higher. It
will be seen from Table I that the calculations are carried through not
only with this value, but also with the actually measured value
0.000022. This is done simply to show what effect such a change in
the value of » has on the series of results obtained.
It may be of interest to state that, at the stage of exhaustion when
p = 0.000022 was obtained, the McLeod gauge indicated a pressure
certainly less than 0.000001mm. It is, to be sure, of little value to give
the measurement of a pressure by the gauge where a column of mercury
a fraction of a millimeter high requires to be measured, and especially
is this true where the tube containing the mercury has been heated
and cooled repeatedly. 'The mercury has a habit of sticking to the
glass to such an extent that pressure measurements under the condi-
tions mentioned are surely not reliable. The value of the pressure
given above, then, only indicates the order of magnitude of the pres-
sure. hough the factor of the gauge used was 95813, yet it was
quite inadequate to measure the pressure of the gas in the vessel.
RemMovAL oF WaTeR Vapor AND Mercury VAPOR FROM THE
HypRoGEN IN THE Viscostry APPARATUS.
For this purpose it was necessary to make arrangements by which
no vapor should be carried into the apparatus with the entering gas,
and also all the vapor which was already in the apparatus might be
. taken out. The following arrangement was finally adopted, Figure 2.
E is a U-tube of small bore, and bent so that it may enter the long
Dewar vessel already mentioned. For reasons which will appear later
it was found necessary for the remainder of the investigation to replace
the tube C, Figure 1, by this tube E. F is a tube leading from the
gas generator. It enters G, which is similar to C of Figure 1. It can
be surrounded by a heater or a Dewar vessel as circumstances may re-
quire. A connecting tube leads from G to a point on the tube H,
which connects E to the viscosity apparatus A, Figure 1. I leads to
the pump and McLeod gauge. Anything which proceeds from the
pump or McLeod gauge towards the viscosity apparatus must pass
through E. Moreover, the gas entering from the generator will, with
the given arrangement, retard the diffusion of mercury vapor from the
pump and gauge towards the viscosity apparatus. If there is no vapor
entering with the gas, there can be none entering the viscosity appara-
tus without passing through H, and, since throughout the experiment
this tube was kept surrounded by the liquid air, the pressure of the
10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
vapor due to diffusion from the mercury in the pump or gauge could
never exceed the vapor pressure of mercury at the temperature of the
liquid air. The tube G, when surrounded with the liquid air, was suf-
ficient safeguard against the entrance of water vapor with the gas.
The method of removing all water vapor and mercury vapor already
in the apparatus beyond the tube E was that of repeated exhaustion
and filling with the gas to be exper-
imented with, the whole apparatus
meanwhile being kept at a high
temperature.*
At the first exhaustion, when the
pressure had been reduced to a
few centimeters of mercury, the tube
(Οἱ was surrounded by the electric
heater, and the heat was applied
to the oven in which the viscosity
apparatus is placed. Practically the
whole apparatus, except the gas
generator, was kept hot while the
pumping proceeded. After a fair
vacuum was reached the pump was
stopped and the hydrogen from the
generator was allowed to enter very
slowly, passing first over phosphoric
pentoxide, and then over spongy
platinum, heated in a combustion
tube, before entering the tube G. ‘This filling process was followed ᾿
by another exhaustion under the same conditions. After the appara-
tus had been exhausted and filled a number of times in this way,
when it seemed certain that the apparatus and the pores of the char-
coal were filled with fairly pure hydrogen, the heater was removed
from G, and the vessel containing the liquid air substituted for it.
The same process of alternately exhausting and filling was continued,
great care being taken in filling to allow the hydrogen to pass very
slowly so that the drying process might be complete. Keeping the
apparatus at a temperature of about 150° C. served to promote the evap-
oration of the mercury, which in all probability adhered to the inner
glass surfaces. Comparatively large quantities of pure dry hydrogen
were allowed to pass into the vessel and were then taken out. Hach
exhaustion would assuredly sweep out some vapor if it was present.
H
FIG, 2
* The suspended disk was, of course, lowered before this operation began.
HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. Id
It would naturally collect at E. We shall have evidence as to this
later. After some days of incessant work the expected result was at-
tained, as the character of the spectrum, obtained from the spectrum
tube, S, showed. Even when the temperature of the viscosity appara-
tus was 150°C. the mercury lines were absent. The apparatus was
then very slowly filled with hydrogen. The glass tube connecting G
and H was then sealed off so that there were left no stop-cock joints
to give trouble by leaking.
The Dewar vessel was removed from G, but the one surrounding H
still remained. After the apparatus had cooled down to room temper-
ature the disk of the viscosity apparatus was raised and adjusted as
described in the former paper.®
Meruop or EXPERIMENT.
The investigation of the relation of friction to pressure consists in
measuring, for a given density of the gas, the logarithmic decrement
of the suspended disk which is made to oscillate as a torsion pendulum
between the two fixed plates of the apparatus.6 The method of pro-
cedure was to measure the gas pressure in the apparatus by means of
a manometer when the pressure was large, and by the McLeod gauge
when it was small, and then to set the disk of the apparatus swinging
and measure the decrement. Since the latter can be shown to be pro-
portional to the resistance experienced by the disk, one gets data for
the determination of the relation between friction and pressure.
It may be of interest to state here that in the first arrangement of
the apparatus for the determination of the above relation instead of
the simple bent tube E, a tube containing charcoal, similar to the tube
C, was used. With this arrangement the mercury vapor was removed,
but when observations on the decrement at different pressures were un-
dertaken a difficulty presented itself. Although all of the tube contain-
ing the charcoal was immersed in the liquid air, the surface of which
was always several inches above the top of the charcoal, yet it was
found impossible to obtain a steady condition. As the evaporation of
the liquid air proceeded, sufficient gas was given off from the charcoal
to produce a large increase in pressure ; as much as thirty per cent was
observed. When a fresh supply of the liquid air was added the pres-
sure diminished again. The difficulty became more serious as the
pressure at which the observations were made became smaller.
The phenomenon was probably due to the fact that the fresh supply
of liquid air was richer in nitrogen than it was after the process of
5 See pp. 138, 134. 6 See pp. 124, 125 of former paper.
12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
boiling had proceeded for some hours. The nitrogen is the more vola-
tile, and so the boiling will proceed more vigorously just after a fresh
supply of air has been added than at any other time. Consequently
the temperature of the boiling liquid will be lower at first than it is
later, and the charcoal will thus absorb better at each addition of
liquid air to the Dewar vessel. The charcoal is necessary for the phe-
nomenon, for when the tube E was substituting for the tube containing
the charcoal, the effect disappeared, or became inappreciable.
It was suggested earlier in the paper that there would be adduced
evidence to show that the mercury driven out from the apparatus col-
lected in the tube E. After the measurement of pressure and decre-
ment had proceeded down to the least value given in the table, the
supply of liquid air in the Dewar vessel in which Εἰ was placed was al-
lowed to disappear gradually. As the evaporation proceeded, it was
found that the decrement increased much more rapidly than the
pressure as indicated by the McLeod gauge, showing that vapor was
finding its way into the apparatus.
RESULTS.
In the first and second columns of Table I are contained the corre-
sponding values of the decrement and pressure. Not all the numbers
given in these columns were obtained by actual measurement. Only
those which are marked with an asterisk were obtained in this way.
The others were obtained as follows: A curve was plotted using the
values of the pressure which were measured as abscissas and the corre-
sponding values of the decrement as ordinates. ‘This curve was drawn
on such a scale that the value of the decrement, corresponding to any
arbitrarily chosen pressure, could be obtained from the curve as accu-
rately as it could be measured by the apparatus. ‘he unmarked num-
bers in the first two columns were obtained by choosing arbitrarily a
pressure and reading off from the curve the corresponding value of the
decrement. In no case has this procedure involved an extrapolation.
After failing to obtain an analytical expression for the relation
between the logarithmic decrement and the pressure which would be
applicable over the whole range extending from very small pressures
right up to atmospheric pressure, it was decided to find, if possible, an
expression which would be applicable up to a certain pressure within
the range for which it is known that the McLeod gauge measurements
are quite reliable. Rayleigh? has shown that Boyle’s Law holds down
to 0.01mm. of mercury, and Baly and Ramsay ® found the McLeod
7 Phil. Trans., 196 (1901). 8 Phil. Mgg., 38 (1894).
HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. 13
gauge measurements reliable for hydrogen. Recently Scheel and
Heuse® have applied a membrane manometer, devised by them, to test
Boyle’s Law, and McLeod gauge measurements for air, and they state
that they find both valid down to about 0.0001 mm., provided proper
care is taken in drying the gas.
An examination of the results at pressures less than 0.1 mm. showed
that the equation given above, viz. :
served the purpose exceedingly well, if the experimentally determined
value of » given above was used, and if the constants ὁ and / were
determined by means of values of p between 0.1 mm. and 0.01 mm. of
mercury, and the corresponding values of ὦ.
The pressures chosen for the determination of these constants were
0.0239 mm. and 0.0150 mm., the former of these being a pressure
actually measured by the gauge, while the latter was chosen arbitrarily.
The measurement of ὁ corresponding to the former was 0.00936, while
the value of ὦ corresponding to the latter was 0.00620, and was obtained
from the curve as described above. ‘The values of the constants calcu-
lated from the above data are
Ὁ ΞΞΞ 119}
k = 0.0676.
The equation now takes the form
0.0676
7 — 0.000020 _ 1)» Sresr
How well the equation gives the relation existing between p and / can
be seen by a comparison of the numbers in the second and third columns
of the table. A number in the third column is obtained by choosing
a value of / from the first column, inserting it in the equation and
deducing the value of p, which is then placed in the third column in the
same horizontal row as the chosen value of /. It will be seen that the
various numbers in this column agree very well with the corresponding
numbers in the second column, except at the very lowest pressure,
0.000016 mm. used, when the difference is about twenty-five per cent.
9 Verhandl. d. Deutsch. Physikal. Gesellsch., 11, 1 (1909).
14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
If instead of using the value 0.000020 for μ, we make use of 0.000022,
which was the smallest value of the decrement actually measured, the
values of ὁ and # are
c= 0.1494
k = 0.0677
and the fourth column gives the values of p calculated, in the way
described, from the equation with these values for the constants instead
of those used in the preceding case. ‘This calculation is carried out to
call attention to the magnitude of the change produced by a slight
change in the value of the constant, μ, which is subject to some uncer-
tainty, as has been shown. It will be seen that it is only where the
decrement, /, is very small that the difference between the two results
is appreciable. The smallest value of p in the fourth column is nearer
to the corresponding value of », measured by the McLeod gauge ; but
the measured value is subject to an inaccuracy about as great as the
difference between the measared and calculated values of p.
The results given above make it highly probable that the measure-
ments of pressure by the McLeod gauge are reliable in the case of pure,
dry hydrogen for pressures as low as the smallest pressure recorded
in the table.
It is to be observed that for pressures below, say, 0.01 mm. of
mercury the friction with which we have to do is largely external
friction, and this is proportional to the density of the gas and the mean
molecular speed. ‘The friction, and, therefore, the decrement, corre-
sponding to a given pressure will be smaller for hydrogen than for,
say, oxygen, or mercury vapor. In the case of mercury vapor the
decrement at a given low pressure ought to be about ten times as great
as it is for hydrogen at the same pressure, since the molecular weight
of mercury is about one hundred times that of hydrogen, while the
mean molecular speed is about one-tenth as great as it 15 for hydrogen.
To be sure it does not follow that the decrement of a mixture of
hydrogen and mercury vapor, in such proportions that the partial
pressures of the two are the same, is simply the sum of the two decre-
ments obtained when the gas and vapor are separate. If one accepts
the expression deduced by Meyer 10 for the external friction of a gas,
and applies the same method in considering external friction of mixtures
as he does in dealing with the internal friction of mixtures, he will be
able better to understand how the external friction of a mixture of
10 Kinetic Theory of Gases, p. 210 (Eng. Trans.).
HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. 15
gases depends upon the proportion in which the gases are mixed.
Meyer shows that the coefficient of external friction is given by
1 BmNQ,
where m is the molecular weight of the gas; N is the number of
molecules per unit volume; is the mean molecular speed ; and β is
a constant depending upon the solid surface. He gives some experi-
mental evidence to show that β is independent of the gas.
In the case of a mixture of gases where there are NV; molecules of
one kind and NV, molecules of another, in each unit volume we have,
if NV is the total number of molecules in the unit volume,
N = MN, 4+ N,
and the mean molecular weight is given by
_ Nym, + Nome
ὯΝ Ν
where m, and m, are the molecular weights of the two gases mixed.
Since the temperatures of the two gases are the same,
mQ,” = MQ." = mQ?.
mQ, = m2, V = +- fet
My
Therefore,
If Boyle’s Law holds, which seems a fair inference from the results given
above, then we may write
Oe γι. Me Pa
mM, p°
where 7, and 2 are the partial pressures and p is the whole pressure
under the given conditions. [{ is independent of the nature of the
gas it follows that the ratio of the external friction of the mixture to
the external friction of the gas whose partial pressure is yi, if it were
in the vessel alone, is
Pr Meg pe
Q as
NmQ ag /P 4 Be Be ΕἾ p = EYP 4 MPs Ma Pa
Naini το N oat mM, p
16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Ifthe mixture is one of hydrogen and mercury vapor such that p; = po,
the above ratio becomes about 14. This means that if the pressure is
measured by the McLeod gauge, which takes no account of the mercury
vapor, the friction of the mixture would be about fourteen times as
much as it would be with the same hydrogen pressure as in this case,
but with the mercury vapor absent. If p, = 1000p., the ratio is
about 1.05, and if p, = 10,000ps, it becomes about 1.005.
It might be urged with regard to the method described above for
freeing the hydrogen from mercury vapor that the lowest pressure of
vapor obtainable by the method used is the pressure of mercury vapor
at the temperature of liquid air boiling at atmospheric pressure. ‘This
pressure at 0° C. is about 0.0005 mm., but what it is at the lower
temperature mentioned can hardly even be conjectured. We have
simply to fall back upon the spectroscopic test. The above discussion
shows, however, that if this pressure is less than 0.001 of the pressure
of the hydrogen it will not very seriously affect the results. If it
is as low as 0.0001 of the hydrogen pressure, then the error in
the observations will easily be greater than any error introduced in
this way. Considering the lowest pressure reached, namely, 0.000016
mm., the vapor pressure of mercury at the temperature of liquid
air, boiling under atmospheric pressure, would require to be as low as
0.000,000,016 in order that the ratio of the partial pressures should
be 1:1000.
This case serves to show how important it may be to consider
mercury vapor when we are dealing with these very low pressures.
It indicates that, in all high vacua work where we are considering the
properties of a particular gas, it is important that great care should be
taken to exclude this vapor. The McLeod gauge, of course, takes no
cognizance of it, and in fact serves to introduce the vapor where it is
not wanted. In all cases where the vacuum is high, and it is desirable
to know the pressure in the vessel, and yet keep the gas pure, it would
be desirable to have a gauge which would not introduce any impurity.
If the inference made above as to the validity of the McLeod gauge
measurements on gas pressure is allowed, then we can say that reliance
may be placed upon the measurements of pressure from decrement
measurements in the apparatus used in this investigation. ‘This method
need introduce no mercury vapor, but it takes account of all that is in
the vessel. Moreover, a discussion similar to that used for mercury
vapor will show that in the case of oxygen the decrement, correspond-
ing to a certain gas pressure, will be about four times as great as it is
in the case of hydrogen. In the case of oxygen, therefore, a pressure
of 0.00001 mm. should be measured with an accuracy of from five to
HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. 17
ten per cent. This would indicate an absolute error of less than
0,000,001 mm.
The investigation is now being extended to the case of oxygen and
nitrogen. ‘The data obtained by using these gases, besides showing
whether their behavior is like that of hydrogen, should give some more
information regarding the quantity, 8, which enters the foregoing
discussion.
JEFFERSON PHysIcAL LABORATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, Mass.
VOL. XLV, — 2
SANGER AND RIEGEL.— DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY.
5 OS Or 25) 309s 5 τε 6070
STANDARD ANTIMONY BANDS IN MICROMILLIGRAMS. OF SBeOs
AMMONIA DEVELOPMENT.
Proc. AMER. ACAD. ARTS AND SCIENCES. VOL. XLV.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vout. XLV. No. 2.— OcroseEr, 1909.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF
HARVARD COLLEGE.
THE QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF
ANTIMONY BY THE GUTZEIT METHOD.
By Cuarues RoBert SANGER AND EMILE RAYMOND RIEGEL.
Wir A PuLateE.
ats
λον
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY
OF HARVARD COLLEGE.
THE QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY BY
THE GUTZEIT METHOD.
By Cuarues Rospert SANGER AND EMILE RAYMOND RIEGEL.
Presented August 31,1909. Received August 31, 1909.
THE application of the so-called Gutzeit reactions to the quantitative
determination of arsenic has been studied by Sanger and Black!, who
were able to use the general method of Gutzeit? for the convenient and
reasonably accurate estimation of small amounts of arsenic. In study-
ing the interference of the hydrides of sulphur, phosphorus, and anti-
mony with the reaction of arsine on paper sensitized with mercuric
chloride, the possibility of the quantitative determination of antimony
by this method was apparent.
The action of stibine on mercuric chloride was first investigated by
Franceschi?, who obtained a white body, to which he gave the formula
SbHHg,.Cl,, analogous to the red compound formed by the action of
arsine on mercuric chloride. This substance decomposes easily in
moist air, turning dark, probably from the separation of mercury.
When stibine is allowed to act upon sensitized mercuric chloride paper,
as shown by Sanger and Black, no color is given to the strip from
amounts of antimonious oxide up to about 70 micromilligrams (mmg.).
Hydrochloric acid develops no color. But if the strip is treated with
ammonia, a black band ensues, the length and intensity of which are
proportional to the amount of antimonious oxide present. On this re-
action we have based the following method for the determination of
small amounts of antimony.
1 These Proceedings, 43, 297 (1907); Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 26, 1115
(1907); Zeitsch. f. anorg. Chem., 58, 121 (1907); Suppl. ann. enciclop. chim.,
24, 372 (1907-08).
2 Pharm. Zeitung, 24, 263 (1879). In the original Gutzeit method, the
evolved arsine was allowed to act upon paper containing argentic nitrate.
From Fltickiger in 1889 (Archiv d. Pharm., 227, 1) came the suggestion of
using mercuric chloride.
3 L’Orosi, 18, 397 (1890).
ho
bo
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Tue ΜΈΤΗΟΡ.
The procedure does not vary greatly from that used in the determi-
nation of arsenic as described by Sanger and Black!. Some details,
therefore, of that method are necessarily repeated here.
Sensitized Mercuric Chloride Paper. A smooth filter paper of close
texture, or a Whatman drawing paper of about 160 grams per square
meter, is cut into strips of a uniform width of 4 millimeters. ‘The
strips are sensitized by drawing them repeatedly through a five per
cent solution of recrystallized mercuric chloride until thoroughly
soaked. ‘They are then dried on a horizontal rack of glass tubing, and,
when dry, are at once cut into lengths
of six to seven centimeters. ‘T'he small
pieces are kept in the dark until
needed, in a stoppered bottle over
BG j calcic chloride.
The Reduction Apparatus. (See Figure.) For rea-
" sons that will be explained later, the construction of this
differs slightly from that used in the arsenic method.
It will be easily seen from the figure. The bottle is
of 30 6.0. capacity, closed by a pure rubber stopper with
two holes. The thistle tube, which is constricted at its
lower end to an opening of about 2 mm., passes to the
bottom of the bottle and has a length of 17 to 18 cm.
In the second hole of the stopper is inserted a straight-
walled funnel tube of 17 to 20 mm. bore, carrying a pure
rubber stopper, through which passes a right angle depo-
sition tube, 9 to 10 cm. in length, the inner diameter of
which should be as near 4 mm.as possible, but not less.
Reagents. These are exactly the same as in the arsenic method, and
are entirely free from antimony. ‘The zinc, Bertha spelter, is from the
New Jersey Zinc Company of New York, and has been proved by re-
peated tests to be free from arsenic. he hydrochloric acid, from the Ba-
ker and Adamson Company of Easton, Pennsylvania, contains not over
0.02 milligram of arsenious oxide per liter. The quantity of diluted
acid (one part to six of water) used in the analysis would not contain
over 0.00004 milligram of arsenious oxide, an amount beyond the ab-
solute delicacy of the method as applied to arsenic and hence of no
influence in the determination of antimony.
Moisture Conditions in the Deposition Tube. As in the arsenic
method, the moisture of the evolved hydrogen has an important bearing
on the uniformity of the color bands. While excess of moisture must
SANGER AND RIEGEL. — DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. 23
be avoided in the arsenic method by a cotton wool filter, it is necessary
to have a much greater degree of saturation in order to obtain compact
and uniform deposits on the strips from stibine. If the hydrogen is
partially dried by cotton wool before impinging upon the sensitized
paper, the bands are long, irregular and not comparable. By increasing
the saturation and by making it as uniform as possible we have suc-
ceeded in determining the conditions under which the bands are short,
regular, and perfectly comparable.
To effect this and at the same time to hold back any hydrogen sul-
phide which might be formed in the reduction, we use disks of lead
acetate paper inserted in the straight-walled funnel tube and moistened
with a definite amount of water. These disks are of filter paper of
medium thickness, cut in quantity by means of a wad cutter or cork
borer so as to fit loosely the bore of the funnel tube. They are saturated
with normal lead acetate, dried, and kept in a well stoppered bottle.
Procedure. The deposition tube and funnel tube of the apparatus
~ are cleaned and thoroughly dried. A lead acetate disk is then inserted
in the funnel tube and moistened with one drop of water, delivered on
the centre of the disk, so that the water spreads evenly to the circum-
ference. Three grams of uniformly granulated zinc are placed in the
bottle, a strip of sensitized paper is slipped wholly within the deposi-
tion tube to a definite distance, and the apparatus is put together.
Five or ten cubic centimeters of diluted acid (1 to 6; normality, about
1.5) are then added through the thistle tube and allowed to act for
about ten minutes. ‘The acid is then poured off and fifteen cubic
centimeters of fresh acid added. ‘This procedure ensures a uniform
degree of moisture saturation in the deposition tube, and the absence
of arsenic in the reagents and apparatus is assured. he zinc is also
rendered more sensitive, and a regular flow of hydrogen is quickly ob-
tained on the second addition of acid.
In five minutes after this addition, the solution to be tested is intro-
duced, either wholly or in aliquot part, which may be determined by
weighing or measuring. In case it were necessary from the nature of
the analysis to prove the absolute freedom of the apparatus and
reagents from arsenic and antimony before adding the solution, the
evolution of hydrogen would be continued for a longer time and the
strip developed. ‘'T'he absence of contamination being thus assured, a
fresh strip would be substituted before adding the solution to be tested.
In ordinary work, however, this precaution is quite unnecessary.
After the solution is introduced, the reduction is continued for 30
to 40 minutes. No effect on the sensitized paper is observed unless
the amount of antimony added is above 70 mmg., when a slight gray
24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
color may appear. Larger amounts would turn the paper still darker.
If any color appears, it is an indication that the amount will be difficult
to estimate, and hence another trial should be made with a smaller
portion of the solution, or from less of the original substance.
The strip is now placed in a test tube and covered with normal
ammonic hydroxide, which is allowed to act for five minutes. A black
band is slowly developed, somewhat duller and considerably shorter
than would be obtained from the same amount of arsenic, the latter
difference being chiefly due to the moisture conditions in the deposi-
tion tube. The band is then compared with a set of standard bands.
The amount of antimony in the entire solution follows from that deter-
mined in the aliquot part.
Standard Bands. A standard solution is made from pure, recrys-
tallized tartar emetic, shown to be free from arsenic. 2.3060 grams
are dissolved in water and made up to one liter. This solution (I)
contains 1.0 mg. of antimonious oxide per cubic centimeter. From
this, by dilution, are made two solutions containing respectively 0.01
mg. (II) and 0.001 mg. (III) per cubic centimeter. From definite por-
tions of solutions II or III a series of bands is made by the above
procedure, using a fresh charge of zine and acid for each portion. The
lower half of the Plate shows the actual size and shading of the set of
bands, corresponding to the following amounts of antimonious oxide in
micromilligrams : 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70.
These bands have shown a fair degree of permanency, but fade slowly
on exposure to moisture and light. They may be sealed in glass tubes
with quicklime, if desired, as in the case of the corresponding ammonia-
developed arsenic bands, but we have found it sufficient to mount them
on a dry glass plate, which is covered by a dry plate of the same size.
The two plates are then cemented together and bound with passepar-
tout paper. ‘The set thus mounted, if kept in a desiccator away from
the light, will last for some time. In case a fresh set of standards is
not available, a band may be approximately estimated from the accom-
panying Plate; the more accurate determination being made, if neces-
sary, by comparison with freshly prepared bands from selected
amounts.
ANALytTIcaL Noves.
General Precautions. As in the arsenic method, the solution to be
reduced should contain no interfering organic matter, except that any
oxide of antimony obtained in the preparation for analysis may be
eventually dissolved in tartaric acid. Sulphur in any form reducible
to hydrogen sulphide should be removed as completely as possible, but
SANGER AND RIEGEL. — DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. 25
small quantities of hydrogen sulphide will be completely retained by
the lead acetate disk. There is little danger from phosphine, for phos-
phites and hypophosphites would be oxidized in any treatment of the
substance to be analyzed which would convert the antimony to the
oxide. ‘'T'races of phosphine would be readily recognized in presence of
antimony‘, but are likely to interfere with its estimation. It is obvi-
ous that there must be a very thorough separation from arsenic.
The Evolution of Stibine in the Reduction Bottle. Sanger and Gib-
son® have shown that amounts of antimony under one milligram are
practically all converted to hydride in the presence of zine and hydro-
chloric acid, hence a retention of antimony by precipitation upon the
zine is not to be considered in the estimation of the small amounts pro-
vided for by this method.
Special Precautions. In order to be certain of uniformity in length
and density of bands from the same concentration of solution, the fol-
lowing points must be observed :
1. The reduction bottles must be of equal capacity, and other parts
of the apparatus of equal dimensions.
2. The amount of zinc must always be the same, similarly sensitized,
and the granulation must be uniform.
3. The volume and concentration of the acid must be definite.
4. The moisture conditions in the deposition tube must be carefully
regulated, as explained above.
In the “ Analytical Notes” of the article by Sanger and Black?,
many suggestions will be found which will contribute to a clearer un-
derstanding of this method as well, but which are not included here
for the sake of brevity.
ANALYTICAL DaTa.
The method, as far as it concerns the determination of antimony in
a solution properly prepared for reduction, was tested by the analysis
of solutions containing varying amounts of antimony, which were un-
known to the analyst. See Table, p. 26.
We do not claim for the method a greater accuracy than within ten
per cent.
Tue Deticacy or THE METHOD.
Amounts of antimony as small as five micromilligrams are readily
recognized by use of the 4 mm. strip. Less than this quantity may be
4 See Table II, Sanger and Black’.
5 These Proceedings, 42,719 (1907); Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 26, 585 (1907);
Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem., 55, 205 (1907).
26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
TABLE.
Sb,03 tak- Wt. Diluted
No. of | en. Tar- Solution Reading Sb.03
Analysis.| tar Emetic Diluted taken for |of Band.| Found.
Solution. Solution. Analysis.
mg. gm. gm,
0.06 25.15 4.67
8.62
10.63
bo bo bo
Re bobo
COOTI Moon
Sele Soe ΞΘ Ξ Sa
Average Percentage .
indicated, but the estimation is difficult. By using smaller strips, how-
ever, a more accurate reading of the band may be obtained and the
delicacy of the method increased. These small strips, as in the arsenic
method, are made by cutting the large strip in two and again dividing
SANGER AND RIEGEL. — DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. 2
these pieces lengthwise, giving a piece 2 mm. wide and 35 mm. long.
This is inserted in a tube of 2 mm. diameter, affixed to the usual depo-
sition tube by a rubber connector. A series of standards is then made
of any amounts of the smaller quantities of which it may be desirable
to get an approximate estimate. The upper part of the Plate shows
the bands obtained from amounts of antimony equivalent to 0.5, 0.8,
1.0, 2.0, 5.0, and 10.0 mmg. of antimonious oxide.
The bands obtained from 0.5 and 0.8 mmg. are perfectly distinct, but
not always differentiated with clearness. From amounts below 0.5
mmg. we have not been able to obtain any indication on the 2 mm.
strip. It is safe, therefore, to set the practical limit of the delicacy of
the method at 1 mmg. (0.001 mg.) of antimonious oxide (0.0008 mg.
of antimony). The absolute delicacy, however, is very nearly half of
this amount, — 0.0005 mg. of antimonious oxide, which is equivalent
to 0.0004 mg., or one twenty-five-hundredth of a milligram of an-
timony.
Sanger and Gibson were able to detect and identify by the Berzelius—
Marsh method 0.005 mg. of antimonious oxide, but the deposit in the
tube from 0.001 mg. was faint. It will thus be seen that the “band ”
method is much more delicate than the “mirror” method. It is also
more convenient and accurate, for the bands are subject to no irregu-
larity of formation comparable to the difficulty of obtaining a mirror of
metallic antimony entirely free from oxide. The mirror method, how-
ever, is still of value as a confirmation of the other and a check upon
its results. The two methods can be applied, if desired, to different
portions of the solution which has been prepared for analysis.
The application of the method to the analysis of products containing
antimony is under consideration in this laboratory, but we have con-
tented ourselves for the present with showing that very small amounts
of antimony may be estimated by it in a solution properly prepared for
analysis. A study of its application should include the separation of
small amounts of arsenic or antimony from relatively large amounts
of the other, concerning which we have now no reliable information.
Harvarp University, CAMBRIDGE, Mass.,
U.S. A., August, 1909.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vout. XLV. No. 3.— NovemBeER, 1909.
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE
LINES IN THE STEADY STATE.
By A. E. KenneELLY.
» Κ Ae be] ‘
Be γα SRA
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES IN
THE STEADY STATE.
By A. E. Kenne tty.
Presented October 2, 1909; Received October 4, 1909.
DEFINITIONS AND PURPOSE.
A composite line may be defined as an electrically conducting line
formed of two or more successive sections, each section having its own
length and its own particular uniformly distributed resistance, induc-
tance, capacitance, and leakance. Hach such section, considered sepa-
rately, may be described as a single line. A composite line is, therefore,
a successive connection of single lines which differ in linear constants.
It has been shown by the writer in a preceding paper! that any
uniform single line, operated in the steady state, either by single-
frequency alternating currents or by continuous currents, may be
externally imitated by a symmetrical triple conductor. The triple
conductor which can be substituted for a single line in a steady sys-
tem of electric flow without disturbing the potentials, or currents, at
or outside of the line terminals, may be defined as an equivalent circuit
of the line. A star-connected equivalent circuit, with two equal line
branches and a single leak, may be called an equivalent T; while a
delta-connected equivalent circuit with two equal leaks, and a single
line-resistance or impedance between them, may be called an equiva-
lent Π. It is the object of this paper to extend the laws of equivalent
circuits from single lines to composite lines, with or without loads, and
also to present formulas for the distribution of current and potential
over such composite lines.
Important Practical Application of the Problem.
An important application of this problem is found in telephony.
With given sending and receiving apparatus, the commercial opera-
tiveness of a telephonic metallic circuit apparently depends only on
the strength of alternating current, at a certain standard frequency, in
1 “ Artificial Lines for Continuous Currents in the Steady State.” See
appended Bibliography.
32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
the receiver. ‘That is, it depends on the “receiving-end impedance”
of the circuit, or the ratio of the impressed standard-frequency alter-
nating emf. at the sending end, to the current-strength at the receiving
end. If this receiving-end impedance of the circuit, including the im-
pedance of the receiving apparatus, is not greater than 25,000 ohms
(12,500 ohms per wire), at the angular velocity ὦ = 5000 radians per
second, commercial telephony will readily be possible with the standard
Bell telephone apparatus used in the United States; unless the dis-
tortion of the speech-waves, due to unequal attenuation at different
frequencies, is unusually great. If the circuit receiving-end impedance
exceeds 200,000 ohms (100,000 ohms per wire) at ὦ = 5000 radians per
second, even expert telephonists will ordinarily be unable to converse
with this apparatus over the line.
It is easy, with the aid of formulas given in the above-mentioned
preceding paper, to find the equivalent Π of a simple single telephone
line of given length, uniform linear constants, and assigned terminal
conditions. But for most practical purposes this is not enough. Most
long telephone lines in practical service are not single, but composite.
Consider the case of a subscriber A, in Boston, talking to a subscriber
B, in New York. First there is the terminal apparatus at A ; then,
say, a few kilometers of underground line in Boston. Next comes the
long-distance overhead line from Boston to New York, perhaps con-
sisting of more than one section and size of wire. ‘hen come one or
more sections of underground wire in New York, before we end the
circuit in B’s apparatus. At two or three intermediate exchanges in
this circuit there may also be casual loads, formed by supervisory re-
lays, or other instruments. The critical receiving-end impedance must
not be exceeded in this composite circuit, if the talking is to be of sat-
isfactory quality. Actual trial of the line by conversation will deter-
mine, with a fair degree of precision, whether the limiting permissible
receiving-end impedance has been exceeded by the line. But the de-
signing telephone engineer seeks to know, in advance, whether a certain
projected composite line will, when constructed, fall within the per-
missible limit of receiving-end impedance. If working formulas can be
developed, that are not too lengthy and complicated, for determining
the receiving-end impedance of composite lines, they may help the
designing engineer to decide questions of line construction.
In this paper the discussion will be principally confined to direct-
current composite lines. The formulas thus derived are all easily
presented, grasped, and checked by Ohm’s law, since they involve
only real numerical quantities. In the direct-current case the hyper-
bolic quantities used are all functions of simple real numerics, for which
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 30
published tables are available. Identically the same formulas are, how-
ever, applicable to single-frequency alternating-current cases, by ex-
panding their interpretation from real to complex numbers ; or from
one space-dimension into two, using impedances for resistances and
plane-vectors for potentials and currents. Unfortunately, however,
we have no tables of hyperbolic sines, cosines, and tangents available,
as yet, for complex arguments except for the particular case of semi-
imaginaries,? or plane-vectors of 45° ; so that in working out the alter-
nating-current cases, as, for example, in telephony, the engineer is de-
layed by having to assume the duties of a computer, and to work out
his own hyperbolic sines, cosines, and tangents. However, even thus
handicapped, it is claimed that the formulas here presented will not
be too lengthy for the engineer to use in important cases. If hyper-
bolic tables of complex arguments were worked out and published, the
formulas could, with their help, be applied almost as quickly and con-
veniently to alternating-current cases as they can be applied at present
Figure 1. Uniform line with distributed resistance and leakance.
to direct-current cases. If, however, attempts are made to obtain
alternating-current results of like precision without the use of hyper-
bolic functions, there seems to be no hope of helping the engineer.
Only specially trained mathematicians could handle the long and com-
plex resulting formulas.
PRELIMINARY REVIEW oF SINGLE-LinE ForMULAS.
In order to pass to composite lines, we may first briefly review the
laws of equivalent circuits for single lines. The fundamental formulas
will be given for direct-current (D. C.) and for alternating-current
(A. C.) circuits, in parallel columns.
Let AB, Figure 1, be a uniform single line operated to ground, or
zero-potential, return circuit.
I = the length of the line in kilometers (or miles).
2 See Table appended to ‘The Alternating-Current Theory of Transmission-
Speed over Submarine Cables,” referred to in the Bibliography.
VOL. XLV. — ὃ
34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
r = the linear resistance of the line (ohms per wire km.).
g = the linear leakance of the line (mhos per wire km.).
= the linear inductance of the line (henrys per wire km. ).
ὁ = the linear capacitance of the line (farads per wire km.).
n = the frequency of the impressed emf. at A (cycles per second).
ω = 2 7 ἢ, the angular velocity of the impressed emf. at A (radians
per second).
ὙΠ ΞῚ
lhe attenuation constant of the line is
DiC: a=V/rg a ἈΠῸ a= VF Filo) G+ gen) WPS 2.
(1)
In the D. C. case ais a real numerical quantity which we may, for conven-
ience of subsequent operation, define as a “linear hyperbolic angle,” or
“ hyperbolic angle ” per km. of length. Although it is a simple numeric
per unit length of line, yet, since it forms the basis of argument in hyper-
bolic tables, we may call it a “hyperbolic angle” per unit length of
line, and denote a hyperbolic unit angle asa “‘hyp.” In the A. C. case
a is a plane-vector “‘ hyperbolic angle,” or complex quantity, per unit
length of line.
The hyperbolic angle subtended by the line AB is
ΠΟΥ ΘΙ ΞΞ Κα hyps ; ΘΙ = La hyps Z. (2)
6 is a real numeric for the 1). C. case, and a plane-vector, or numeric at
a definite angle in the reference plane, for the A. C. case. The surge-
resistance, or surge-impedance, of the line is
Dac, ae ae ohms) AziG! py ae ohms Z. (8)
The swrge-impedance of an A. ©. line is the impedance that the line
offers at any point of its length to the propagation of waves of the fre-
quency considered. It is a vector resistance, or impedance, often closely
approximating numerically to fife. The surgesadmittance of a line is
the reciprocal of its surge-impedance.
In wave-propagation theory, and also in the steady-state theory here
considered, 6 and z, the hyperbolic angle and surge-impedance of a line,
are its fundamental characteristics ; while 7, g, ὦ, and ¢ are its sec-
ondary or incidental characteristics.
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 35
Srmncte Line Freep at Distant END.
If the line AB is freed at B, its resistance at A, measured to
ground, is
Rys = 2 coth 0 ohms. (4)
In the D. C. case the hyperbolic angle @ is a simple real quantity, z
is a simple numerical resistance, and coth 6 is the hyperbolic cotangent
of 6, a real numeric, obtainable from tables of hyperbolic functions.
Consequently, #,, is a simple resistance in ohms. In the A. C. case,
however, z is an impedance, or vector resistance, θ is also a vector quan-
tity, and the hyperbolic cotangent of this vector is not ordinarily ob-
tainable from any tables thus far published. It must be computed, say,
with the aid of formula (142). The product of z and this cotangent is,
therefore, a vector resistance, or impedance, F,,. Similarly, all the
remaining formulas of this paper may be regarded as applying either
to D. C. or to A. C. cases; but the D. C. reasoning will be followed, for
simplicity of numerical check.
At any point P (Figure 1) along the line, distant /’ km. from B, its
hyperbolic angular distance from B will be
O00 hyps. (5)
The potential at P is
Up = Uz cosh ὃ volts, (6)
where τέ, is the potential at the far free end B, defined by the condition
Uz = U,s/cosh 6 volts ; (7)
whence
cosh ὃ
ae ay volts, (8)
The curve of potential, or voltage to ground, plotted as ordinates
along the line AB is, therefore, a curve of hyp. cosines, or a cate-
nary. In the A. C. case the curve of vector lengths, or numerical
values, of potential, plotted as ordinates along AB, is a sinusoid
superposed upon a catenary.
The current-strength at the point P is
. Β1Π} ὃ
ἡρξξ οι τ ἢ amperes, (9)
where 7, is the current entering the line at A. The curve of current-
strength plotted as ordinates along AB is, therefore, in the D. C. case,
a curve of hyp. sines, or curve of catenary-slope.
36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
The resistance of the line, at and beyond the point P, measured to
ground is
Rip = z coth 6 ohms, (10)
or
coth 6
Tin = hips Ἐπ: ohms. (11)
SinGLE Line GRouNDED ΑἹ Distant Enp.
If the line, instead of being freed at B (Figure 1), is grounded at B,
its resistance at A is
Ri. = 2 tanh 0 ohms. (12)
Atany point P, angularly distant 6 hyps from B, the line resistance
beyond P, measured to ground, is
Rigr = 2 tanh ὃ ohms, (13)
or
tanh 6
Rap = Ta ΤΠ ohms. (14)
The potential at P, in terms of the potential w, at A, is
sinh ὃ
sinh 6
Up = Uy volts. (15)
The current-strength at P, in terms of the current-strength 7, enter-
ing the line at A, is
cosh 6
ipl ΕΝ ὃ amperes. (16)
For example, consider a line, AB, Figure 1, of Z = 100 km., with a
linear resistance 7 of 20 ohms per wire-km., and a linear leakance g of
20 Χ 10-* mho per wire km. (20 micromhos per km.), corresponding
to a linear insulation-resistance of 50,000 km-ohms. The attenuation-
constant of this line is a= 2 Χ 10~ hyp. per km. by (1), and the
hyperbolic angle subtended by the line is 6=2 hyps. by (2). The
surge-resistance of the line is z= 1000 ohms by (3). Then the re-
sistance offered by the line at A, when freed at B, is, by (4),
Ry, = 1000 coth 2 = 1000 X 1.037315 = 1,037.315 ohms,
and when grounded at B, by (12),
Rs = 1000 tanh 2 = 1000 X 0.964026 = 964.026 ohms.
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 37
EQUIVALENT Circuits oF SincLE LINE.
The equivalent T of this line is a star-connection of three resist-
ances AO, GO, BO (Figure 2), two of which—the line-branches AO, OB,
—are equal ; while OG 15 ἃ leak-
age-resistance to ground. ‘This
equivalent T, when correctly pro-
portioned, has the property of
being able to replace the uni-
formly leaky line AB, without
disturbing in any manner the .
system of potentials and currents
outside the terminals ABG. Let
σ΄ = 1.1 be the conductance of
the leak OG’ ; then
g =y sinhé mbhos, (17)
where y = 1/z mhos, the recipro-
cal of the surge-resistance. We
may call y the surge-conductance
(A. C. surge-admittance).
»! nv’
765-594" Ο F6§-594°
33x10 P1313 107%
| a
b τῶ 0%98929°C
Hy SOCLSLE
qQ
Figure 2. Equivalent T of uniform
line.
Let p’ be the resistance of each line-branch AO, OB; then
ρ΄ =z tanh : =z cohé—- R=R;-— fF wmbhos. (18)
Ἢ »“"Ξῇῷό2 6.56
4) Rolo
mt 7: ἊΝ
zs δι
τῇς. τ
sie
x IS πὶ
8} ε =
3" 2
ES fens
Figure 3. Equivalent ΠΟ of uniform
"
om IEO°ELEL
Thus, for the line above con-
sidered, g’ = 0.001 X sinh 2=
0.001 X 3.62686 = 3.62686 x
162) mho; while = 1/9) =
275.7205 ohms. ρ΄ ΞΞ 1000 coth 2
— 275.7205 = 761.594 ohms.
The equivalent Π of the line
is a delta-connection of three
resistances AB, AG’, BG”
(Figure 3), the two “ pillars” or
leaks AG”, BG”, being equal
conductances of g’’ mhos each,
and the ‘“‘architrave ” AB being
line. the line-resistance ρ΄.
p =z sinhd ohms (19)
and ὉΠ ΞΞῚ ἢ — ἢ tanh 5 mhos
=ycoth@—y’ =G,—y" mhos, (20)
38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
where γ΄ = 1/q” is the architrave conductance, and G, = 1/f, is the
conductance to ground of the line at one end, when grounded at the
other end.
Thus, for the line considered, ρ΄ = 1000 sinh 2 = 3626.86 ohms, and
g’’ = 0.001 coth 2 — 2.757204 x 10:6 =87.6159 Χ 107* mho.
SrycLte LinE CoRRESPONDING TO A SYMMETRICAL T OR [1.
Reciprocally, any star connection of three resistances AO, GO, BO
(Figure 2), having two equal line-branches AO and OB of p’ ohms, with a
leak to ground of 4 = 1/9’ ohms, corresponds to some smooth uniform
line of angle,
— = —1 Tied ς
6 = 2 sinh oR hyps, (21)
and of surge-resistance,
z= vp (ph + 21) ohms. (22)
Likewise, any delta-connection ABG’G” (Figure 3) with two equal
grounded leaks of resistance 2” = 1/9” ohms, connected by an archi-
trave of ρ΄ ohms, corresponds to a smooth uniform line of angle,
“Ἢ ΞῚ ρ΄ ς
ΠΞΞΞ ἃ tanh pas x p” hyps, (23)
and of surge-resistance, ;
z= R” tanh 5 ohms. (24)
EQUIVALENT Crrcuits oF SincLE Line ΙΝ TERMS OF RESISTANCES OF
Live FREE AND GROUNDED.
If the line be first freed and then grounded at one end, say B (Figure
1), and the resistance of the line be measured correctly at the other end
in each case (ὦ, and δὲν respectively), we have for the equivalent T of
the line,
ete (: Ξ- 7 — 1) ἀπο on)
hy;
R= Rg 4/ 1— He ohms. (26)
f
Similarly, we have for the equivalent NM of the line,
." -- ἢ, / Vi = ohms, (27)
Sf
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 39
hin Te, (1 + γ' 1 -- ee ohms. (28)
“
From which
ρ΄ + Re
2
= fy ohms. (29)
r/g = Rp! = Rip" =k, R,=2 (ohms? (30)
é= La ΕΞ ΠΣ hyps. (31)
ap
The last two formulas serve to evaluate z and 6 for any single line,
when the sending-end impedances of that line (#,; and R,) have been
correctly measured.
Loorep on Mertatiic-Return SrnGe Circuits.
If we consider single metallic circuits, like those of wire-telephony,
or of single-phase power-transmission,
Let r,, = the linear resistance (ohms per loop km.).
σιν = the linear leakance (mhos per loop km.).
l,, = the linear inductance (henrys per loop km.).
c,, = the linear capacitance (farads per loop km.).
Then (is PA ohms per km.
a /D, hos per km.
σι = 9/ mhos per km (32)
Li = 2) henrys per km.
Cu 6/2 farads per km.
where 7, g, ἶ, and ¢ are the corresponding linear constants per wire km.
Substituting in equations (1), (2), and (3), we have
rast) hyps per loop km., (33)
G0 hyps, (34)
and Zu Oe ohms. (35)
That is, the attenuation-constant, and the angle subtended by the
looped line, are respectively identical with the attentuation-constant
and angle subtended by one wire only operated to zero potential. The
surge-impedance of the metallic circuit is double the surge-impedance
of one wire to ground, or zero potential. The voltage impressed upon
the loop is, however, double the voltage impressed on each wire singly
40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
worked to zero-potential plane, so that the current-strength in the
circuit is the same with either method of computation.
The above conditions are illustrated in Figure 4, where ABB’A repre-
A 6,= 5.3988 | 46°47 26" Ayps. B
, = 53998 "ΖΞ 4]! 26" ἽΕΙ
Zz.
Z,= 474: Nae 12. aan
A 6736-96 /i56. 55:55"
Ἄγ 0 ες
ὮΝ
Q
PAZ AL\ BHO FEZ
QQ BESTS
6 36-96" /is6" SS. 5" B A 240-747 45°03:37" is Ἢ
Ν
BEATA @960°39b
mSoL' Of
~40,9%,0L
Al 673 6.96"/ 15 5945" ἘΣ A 240. 4] 4στονογ' 240947 Ὠδιοτοσ B’
Figure 4. Equivalent circuits of lines with ground return and
metallic return.
sents a simple metallic-return telephone circuit with a transmitter
induction coil of impedance Z, at A, and a receiver of impedance Z, at
B. One half of this circuit, with only one wire and ground return, is
indicated at AB on the right hand. The length of the circuit has been
taken as Z = 50 km. (31.068 statute miles), and the following linear
constants have been assumed:
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 4]
7 = 55.92 ohms per loop km. (90 ohms per loop-mile) ; σι =0
Z,, = 0.70 Χ 10-* henry per loop km. (1.126 millihenry per loop-mile)
¢,, = 0.049,7 X 107° farad per loop km. (0.08 Χ 10 farad per loop-mile):
values which correspond to
r = 27.96 ohms per wire km.
2= 0.35 Χ 10. henry per wire km.
c = 0.099,4 Χ 10. farad per wire km.
Substituting the above values in (1), (2), and (3), we obtain at ὦ =
5,000 radians per second :
a,, = a = 0.117,976,6 /46° 47’ 26” hyps per loop km., or per wire km.
6,, = 8 = 5.898,83 /46° 47’ 26” hyps for both the double line and the
single line.
2, = 474.755 \48° 12” 34” ohms for the loop circuit.
z = 237.377,5 \43° 12” 34” ohms for the single line.
The equivalent M and T of one wire are indicated at ABGG’ and AOBG
in Figure 4. The architrave impedance AB is 6,736.96/156° 51’ 15
ohms, which is also the receiving-end impedance of each line, exclud-
ing the receiving instrument Z,; because, if we ground the line at B,
the current which will flow to ground at B will be the impressed poten-
tial at A divided by this architrave impedance.
The equivalent circuits of the loop line are indicated at ABB’ A”
and AOBB’O’A’ (Figure 4). The former is a rectangle of impedances,
and the latter an I of impedances. It will be seen that the rec-
tangle ABB’A” is merely a doublet of the single line N, ABG’G;
while the I, AOBB’O’A’ is merely a doublet of the single line T,
AOBG. The receiving-end-impedance of the loop-circuit is evidently
2 X 6,736.96/156° 51’ 15” = 13,473.92/156° 51’ 15” ohms, excluding
the receiving instrument Z,.
Since, then, the equivalent circuits of metallic-circuit or loop-lines
are mere doublets of those for their component single wires, and the
latter are easier to think about and discuss, we will confine our atten-
tion to the latter.
42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
COMPOSITE LINES.
First Case. Sections of the same Attenuation-Constant and of the
same Surge-Impedance.
Ifa line AB (Figure 5) of Z; km. is connected to a line CD of Z, km.,
and each has the same attenuation constant a, and the same surge-
resistance 2 ohms (conditions which imply the same linear constants),
the line angles will be 6, = Zia and 6, = La hyps respectively.
Then, if we free the composite line at D, the resistance at A is
Ry = 2 coth (A, + 62) ohms, (36)
while, if the composite line be grounded at D, the resistance at A is
R, = z tanh (6, + 42) ohms. (37)
- Ses
ἯΙ 6, BIC θ, D
z x
Figure 5. Composite line with sections of the same attenuation-
constant and surge-resistance.
Reciprocally, freeing and grounding the composite line at A, we get
resistances 2, and #, at D, respectively the same as in (36) and (37).
It is evident, then, that the composite line differs in no way, except
in length, from either of the component sections. ‘The angle subtended
by the whole line AD is the sum of the component section line-angles.
Srconp Gass. Sections of different Attenuation-Constant but of the
same Surge-Impedance.
If a section CD (Figure 5) of Z, km. be connected to a section AB of
14. km., and their respective linear constants 72, gz, and 71, g: are such
that their attenuation constants αι, ας differ; while their surge-resist-
ances z are the same, we assign the angles subtended by the sections
6, = [ται and 6, = ἴκας hyps. The angle subtended by the whole
line will then be 6; + 62, as in the preceding case. That is, except
for a disproportionality between the section-angles and their line-
lengths, two sections of different attenuation-constant, but of the
same surge-resistance, connect together like two sections of one and
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 43
the same type of line. This is for the reason that in the unsteady
state, or period of current building prior to the formation of the steady
state here discussed, there is neither wave reflection nor discontinuity
of wave propagation at the junction BC, when the surge resistance or
impedance z is the same on each side thereof.
In order, however, to simplify the transition to complex cases later
on, we may pause to consider the following case of two sections, with
different a but the same z.
L;, = 100 km., 71 = 20 ohms/km., σι = 2 X 10° mho/km.
Lz = 100 km., rz = 10 ohms/km., gz = 10. mho/km.
Whence αι = 0.02 hyp/km., = = 1000 ohms ;
az = 0.01 hyp/km., 22 = 1000 ohms.
Merger Equivalent Circuits ef Composite Lines.
Figure 6 shows the two lines at AB and CD respectively. It also
shows the M and T equivalent circuits of AB at A”B’G’G” and
A’‘OB’G’, likewise of CD at C’D’G’G” and O’OD’G’. If we connect
the sections together at BC, into a composite line AD, we virtually
connect together some one pair of the combinations of equivalent cir-
cuits Maslep, Tasten, Masten, Tas ep. The first two combinations are
shown at ABCDGGG and A’OBCOD’G’G’. If we merge together the
two elements of any such pair by known formulas,? we arrive either at
the equivalent N, ADGG; or the equivalent T, AODG, of the com-
posite line.
The equivalent Π or T of a composite line, computed by the merging of
the Ms or Ts of the component sections, may be called the “merger N”
or ‘merger T” of the line, to distinguish them from the lM or T com-
puted directly from the composite lines by the formulas to be presented
later. The latter may be called, for distinction, the ‘hyperbolic N ”
or T. For a given degree of precision, it will be found much easier to
compute the hyperbolic lM or T of a composite line than to compute the
merger M or T. In all the examples given in this paper the equiva-
lent M and T of the various composite lines considered have both been
derived hyperbolically, but have also been checked by the merging
process.
3 “The Equivalence of Triangles and Three-Pointed Stars in Conducting
Networks,’ A. E. Kennelly, Electrical World and Engineer, Vol. 34, No. 12,
Sept. 16, 1899, pp. 413-414.
44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
A here B ς θ-1: D
Ζ, = 000“ 2, = 1000“
3626-86% Ἐ » 761-594“ Ὁ 761-594“ τὸν Ο' 75.205" ΤΠ" ~ 462-05"
2°75] 205x 10°tm
>.
A
9-313 x JO] 1-313x 0% 2.50918 X10, 246396 xi0 mf 216396XJ0%
$ A
> Pin -
de Ss Ξ BS an |e
S| Bi eiadl de = ale als
- 7 wo ot ..
rar x ΕἸ = x τὸ [eas x]
x o Sie {3 [ΞἸ a e ale
Sle a x 3+ 3 3
“ye ” " ᾿ ’
G G G G G
Ὁ so
a ==
A ἱ θ, Ξ- 32 ΒΟ 8. =f D
Z, = 1000” %,= 1000"
BC
A 3626-26" B "7.5. 207" D A T65-594°O 5223-709" =O) 462-415S~ ps
2-J57205x 10" 4m 8-50918X107 ta ‘4313x503, OGITISExI0, ἢ 216396x0%
Is * Blo eS fod & =
~ | us Ant [δι = = = [5
ala ny - ο- n ~
ἘΠ Siz ΞΙΣ ΕΝ Py rs
Ὁ = 3 Ὡ > o> x ofe
x| > x] € = & πὲ x44
ΕΝ S Ξ τ Ξ
- ry 3* 3 ar
‘
G G G σ᾽
.81“ . 149“ 149"
A 1905]-87 D A 905-149" C) 905-149 D
0-9982525°X 10" "Ὁ 9-9048x 107m | 195048 x 107%
᾿ς ἢ elo S]eo
coi- ol τ
“]|5 a ee Slo
ΠΣ Sle |=
Χ] τ 31" =|"
- a Sire
Py 9"
G G
Ficure 6. Composition of two sections with the same surge-resistance
but with different attenuation-constants.
Equivalent ΓΙ.
In order to compute hyperbolically the equivalent M of the composite
line AD (Figure 6) we proceed as follows:
Ground either end of the composite line AD, say the end D. Assign
the junction-angle 6, at BC. Then the angle subtended by the com-
posite line at A will be 6, = 6, + 6, hyps. The sending-end resistance
of the composite line at A is, by (12) and (37),
Roz = σι tanh δὰ ohms (38)
= 1,000 tanh 3 = 995.055 ohms.
Gos = 1/ Ry, = Coth 6, mhos (39)
= 0.001 x coth 3 = 10.049,7 x 10~* mho.
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 45
Then the architrave resistance AD of the composite ΠῚ will be:
p= ζι sinh.o, ohms (40)
= 1,000 sinh 3 = 10,017.87 ohms.
7 = 1/p” = 0.998:312,5 Χ 10~* mho.
The conductance σ΄, of the leak at A is, by (20),
σ΄, ΞΞ γι Coth ὃ, — γί mho (41)
= 9.051,49 X 10-* mho.
If we ground the composite line at A instead of at D, the angle sub-
tended by the whole line at D will be 6, = 0, + @ = δι. The archi-
trave resistance DA will be the same as that given in (40). The
sending-end resistance Δ.» and conductance Gy will be identical with
Rj, and G4 respectively, by (38) and (39); so that the leak-conduct-
tance g’, at D will be identical with σ΄, by (41). This completes
the hyperbolic N, ADGG of the composite line.
Equivalent T.
To find the hyperbolic equivalent T of the composite line AD (Figure
6), free the line at one end, say D. Then the angle subtended by the
line at A will be, as before, δ, = 6; + 6 hyps.
The sending-end resistance of the line at A will be, by (4),
fi, = 2 coth 6, ohms (42)
= 1,000 coth 3 = 1,004.97 ohms.
The conductance of the leak OG is, by (17),
gf =y sinh 6, mhos (43)
= 0.001 sinh 3 = 10.017,87 x 10 mhos
and its resistance is
R =1/¢ = 99821525 ohms:
The resistance of the AO branch is, then, by (18),
p= Ry — PR ohms (44)
= 1,004.97 — 99.821 = 905.149 ohms.
Similarly, if we free the composite line at A, instead of at D, the angle
subtended by the line at D will be 6,. As before, 6p = 62 + 6: = δὰ
46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
hyps. ‘The sending-end resistance offered by the line at D will then
be, by (4) and (42), identical with that found previously at A. ‘The
conductance of the leak will, by (17) and (43), be the same as that
found from A. Finally, the resistance of the DO line-branch will, by
(18) and (44), be identical with that of the AO branch (905.149*).
This completes the T of the composite line.
We may infer from the above reasoning, and it may be readily dem-
onstrated formally, that when a composite line is composed of sections
differing in linear constants, but having the same surge-impedance, the
angle subtended by the whole line is the same at either end, and
whether the distant end be freed or grounded. Consequently the
equivalent M and T of the composite line will be symmetrical. ‘That
is, the two leaks of the N are equal and the two line branches of the T
are equal.
Conversely, it follows, from equations (21) to (24), that any com-
posite line made up of sections differing in attenuation constant, but
with the same surge-impedance, may be replaced by an equivalent
single line of uniform attenuation and linear constants.
Third and General Case. Sections with Different Surge-Impedances.
Let a section AB of 100 km. (Figure 7) be connected to a section CD
of 300 km., and let their respective linear constants be as follows:
7, = 20 ohms/km. ; g; = 20 X 107° mho/km.
2 = 10 ohms/km. ; gz = 2.5 X 10-* mho/km.
from which
a, = 0.02 hyp/km.; θ1 = 2 hyps; ~ = 1,000 ohms ;
ag = 0.005 hyp/km. ; 62 = 1.5 hyps ; 22 = 2,000 ohms,
so that the surge-resistance of the two sections are unequal. It follows
that the angle subtended by the composite line will differ at the two
ends, and will also differ according to whether the distant end is freed
or grounded.
Equivalent 1.
Let us ground the end A, of the composite line A.D, (Figure 7).
Then by formula (12), the sending-end resistance at B of the section
BA grounded, will be
Ros = 5. tanh 6; ohms (45)
= 1,000 tanh 2.0 = 964.026,5 ohms.
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 47
The angle of the section AB, at its end B, is 6; = 2 hyps. At the
junction BC, however, the line-angle changes abruptly, owing to the
change in surge-resistance, and at C, just across the junction it is
ὃς = tanh” (= tanh 4) = {πῆς (42) hyps. (46)
~2 ~2
θ,- 2 θ. τ 5.5
eo ee
A z= 1000“ B ς Z, Ξ- 2900° D
ee
τ =.
tO tor ed Soy
ῷ Ὡ: ih ΤΩΣ
τῷ x, iS =
«Ὁ ΡΝ 5 tt wh
ou 8 BC po) 8 sia 4 -
᾿ =2 =). 3 : = ; =).
A 1 θ; = 1- 5 D A =2 B 62 Ay D
- Z,=5000° ΖΦ =2000” - 3 Ζ- 000“ 2=2000” 3
ἱ ἜΣ εν
ἐξ Ξ ἰῷ Σ.
“2 : '
re RS
Sj - ΘΟ. ο’
- «ὦ ὁ we s ais «ὦ:
Α 6,=2 ΒΟ 6.=5-5 Ὁ a O,=2 BC. @=5-5:
Ἷ Z, = 1000" 2, = 2000“ : 4 Z= 7000“ z,=2000" ©
A’ 9.4. IES D’ A 934.535" O18 58-11" τ
0-407273x10"tm 10-JOS{X10 m | 5-383) X10 %e
ras
Ὁ ᾿ς fre
τὰ : al
als ἘΠ5 ule
S|; ala S|
wio Golo Kin
. a slo
col x ι ἢ “ἢ
Sle = ole
: 3
5᾽ +
3
G G σ΄
Figure 7. Composition of two sections of different surge-resistances
and different attenuation-constants.
That is, the hyp-tangent of the newangle is the ratio of the sending-end
resistance at B to the surge-resistance of the new section CD. In this
case
964.026,5
ΞΕ. = Ves 10, :
ὃ. ΞΞ tanh ( 00 ) tanh 0.964,026,5 ;
or, by tables of hyperbolic tangents, 5, = 0.525,608 hyp. We mark
this angle opposite to C on the line A.D, (Figure 7). The angle sub-
tended at D. by the composite line is, therefore,
48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
ὃ» ΞΞ 6, + ὃς ΞΞ 2.025,608 hyps.
The sending-end resistance of the grounded composite line is then,
at D2, by (12), (87), (38), and (45),
Ron = % tanh ὃ; ohms (47)
= 2,000 tanh 2.025,608 = 1931.58 ohms,
and the sending-end conductance,
Gop = 7. ΘΟ Π ὃς — 1/ Jigs mhos (48)
= (.000,517,71 mho.
The formula for finding the architrave resistance of the equivalent n
of the line AD is
,
cosh ὃ
p” = 2, sinh ὃ Ξ
cosh ὃς
ohms (49)
cosh 2.0
δὴ inh 2.0 cosh 0.525,608
2,000 sinh 2.025,608 x cosh 0.525,608
= 24,553.55 ohms
and y’ = 1/p” = 0.407,273 X 10-* mho.
Formula (49) differs from the corresponding formula (40) of the pre-
cosh ὃ;
cosh ὃς
cosines of the line-angles across the junction BC.
The formula for finding the conductance of the leak at D is, as before
(20) and (41), '
or the ratio of the
ceding case by the application of the ratio
f'0=Go—y ΞΞῚ7Π,»-- γ΄ mhos (50)
= 4.769,785 Χ 10-* mho.
In order to complete the equivalent N of the line AD hyperbolically,
we must repeat the above process from the opposite end, by grounding
the end D,, as shown at AiD, (Figure 7). The line angle at C is 6-=
1.5 hyps. Across the junction BC this angle changes suddenly to
2. tanh =)
= tanh- 1.810,296.
hyps (51)
This involves at first sight an impossible result ; but in all cases of a
hyperbolic tangent greater than unity, we may resort to the following
formulas:
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 49
sinh (# + 73) = + joosh
cosh (2 + ae = + jsinha
τι numeric. (52)
tanh {| z + j= ) =cothz
coth | # + i=) = tanhz
We thus obtain
hyps (53)
° Zo t h lee
bs — J : == othr (ΞΞ sa Ἢ
Ζι
= coth™ 1.810,296
= 0.621,818 hyp
and 8, = 0.621,818 + is hyp.
This difficulty with seemingly impossible antitangents or anticotangents
is not encountered in the A. C. case.
We inscribe this value of ὃ, opposite B on the line AD. The angle
subtended by the whole line at A will then be
6, + δὲ = δι = 2.621,818 ἘΣ hyps.
The sending-end resistance of the grounded composite line is then at
Ai, by (12), (37), (38), and (47),
Ros = & tanh 6, ohms (54)
— 1,000 tanh (2.621,818 +j ᾿
= 1,000 coth 2.621,618 = 1,010.64 ohms,
and the sending-end conductance, as in (48),
Goa = Yi coth ὃ
7
= γι coth (2.621,818 τε i)
= (0.001 tanh 2.621,818 = 9.894,966 Χ 10." mho.
The architrave resistance, as in (49), is
VOL. XLV. — 4
50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
LA
β΄ = z sinh δὲ: ohms (55)
cosh 1.5
Me h 2.62 " sinh 0.621,818
1,000 cos 621,818 sinh 0.621,818
= 24,553.55 ohms
and yf =1/p = 0:407;273 X 107+ mho.
The conductance of the N leak at A is, as in (50),
Ja = Gy ee γ"
= 9.487,098 Χ 107* mho.
Equivalent T.
To compute the equivalent T of the composite line AD (Figure 7),
free the line at one end, say Ds, and find the sending-end resistance at
C in this condition. It is, by (4), (36), and (42),
Rey = 22 coth 05
= 2,000 coth 1.5 = 2,209.59 ohms.
The line-angle changes abruptly at the junction BC from ὃς = 1.5 to
ὃ, = 0.487,935 hyp, by the condition
ὃ, = coth™ (5559) = coth”™ (4 ) hyps (56)
Ζι :
~
coat b
= coth™ 2.209,59 = 0.487,935 hyp.
The line-angle at the end A, is thus 4, + ὃ, = 2.487,935 hyps.
The sending-end resistance at A; is finally, by (4),
Ry = 21 coth δὰ ohms (57)
= 1,000 coth 2.487,935 = 1,013.897 ohms.
The conductance of the leak OG’ is, by (48),
ph : cosh ὃς
g ΞΞ ψι sinh 6, - saan mhos (58)
cosh 1.5
Pa BAO -8 :
OST τ νἀ ον ἘΠῚ
= (0.001 X sinh 2.487,935 Χ
The resistance of the leak OG’ is, therefore, 2’ =1/g’ = 79.762 ohms.
The resistance of the AO branch is then, by (18) and (44),
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. ol
ρ΄ ΞΞ 1... -- 2 ohms (59)
= 1,013.897 — 79.762 = 934.135 ohms.
In order to complete the equivalent T of the line AD, we must repeat
the above process from the opposite end, by freeing the end A, as shown
at A,D, (Figure 7). The line-angle at B is ὃ, = 2.0. Across the junc-
tion BC this angle changes suddenly to
σι coth =)
Co
~2
ὃς = οοὐμ 1 ( hyps (60)
1037.
= eoth2 (Sa) = coth! 0.518,657,5.
In order to avoid an impossible operation, apply formula (52)
See: Ue = tanh 0.518,657,5 = 0.574,50 hyp
ὃς = 0.574,5 + i hyps.
The line-angle at the end D, is thus 6, + δὲ = 2.074,5 + 7 : hyps.
The sending-end resistance at D, is finally, by (4) and (57),
Ry = 22 coth ὃ» ohms (61)
= 2,000 coth (ποτα 671) = 2,000 tanh 2.074,5 = 1,937.873
2 ohms.
The conductance of the leak OG’ is, therefore, by (43) and (58),
Ace Ra cosh ὃ
σ΄ = ¥2 sinh ὃ» arse: mhos (62)
cosh 2.0
= 0.001 sinh (2.0745 +75) ipa θεν Unies DN
cosh (0.57445 +75)
cosh 2.0
= 0.001 cosh 2.074,5 - sinh 0.574,5
= 12.537,3 Χ 10? mho.
The resistance of the leak OG’ is, therefore, 2’ = 1/g’ = 79.762 ohms.
The resistance of the DO branch is then, by (18) and (59),
ρ΄ ΞΞ ΓΝ — π΄ ohms (63)
= 1,937.873 — 79.762 = 1,858.111 ohms.
This completes the T of the composite line.
52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
It may be inferred from the preceding reasoning that for the case of
a composite line of two sections with different surge-impedances, the
receiving-end impedance of the line in the absence of receiving instru-
ments, which is the architrave of the line-lN, has the same value from
each end of the line. The leak of the composite line-T has also one
and the same value, computed from either end. Both the M and the
T are, however, dissymmetrical. Hach requires two separate computa-
tions and line-angle distributions, one from each end.
Summary of Two-Section Formulas.
If we expand formulas (40) and (49), we obtain for the architrave of
the composite line Π
ρ΄ = κι sinh 4, cosh 6, + 22 cosh sinh 62 ohms (64)
= “7 * sinh (, + 6.) + += sinh (6,— 63) ohms 4 (65)
2 sinh ὃ, ?
= 21 sinh θ᾽ aah ohms (line grounded at A) (66)
SUR te cuales eae ded at A) (67
= fa Be oaliee ohms (line grounded at A) (67)
By eee hms (li ded at D) (68
= 2 8 anne ohms (line grounded at D) (68)
Lie athena nd Ch ded at D). (69
ΞΞ 21 ΑΗ ΠΕ ohms (line grounded at D). (69)
Similarly, if we expand formulas (58) and (62), we obtain
σ΄ = γι sinh 4, cosh 62 + y cosh i sinh 6. mhos (70)
ποτ t 35 sinh (6; + 62) gts De a ΙΒ inh (6; —@,) mhos (71)
τς een hos (ling ποῦ δι τ.
ΞΞ γι sinh θι τ τ ὃς mhos (line freed at A) (72)
on ᾿ cosh 6, F
= yp sinh ὃ; ΠΌΣΗΣ mhos (line freed at A) (73)
4 sinh ὃ :
= yo sinh 6, ἘΠΕ 3, mhos (line freed at Ὁ) (74)
3, cosh ὃ é δι
= γι sinh 3, ἘΠῚ 3, mhos (line freed at D). (75)
# Formulas (64) and (65) were first published as receiving-end impedances
of a two-section composite line by Dr. G. di Pirro. See Bibliography.
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 53
Single Lines Equivalent to a Dissymmetrical 0 or Τ.
It is evident that formulas (21) to (24) apply only to a symmetrical
Mor T. Moreover, it may be seen that no single smooth and uniform
line can correspond to a dissymmetrical or T. This means that, in
general, no single smooth and uniform line can be the counterpart of a
composite line having sections of different surge-resistance. But if we
reduce a dissymmetrical 1 to a symmetrical M and a terminal leak, we
may apply equations (23) and (24) to transform the symmetrical ΠῚ into |
an equivalent single line. It follows that any composite line may be
resolved into one and only one uniform smooth line of the same length
with a leak permanently applied to one end ; or to an infinitude of such
single uniform smooth lines having a leak at each end.
Similarly, the T of a composite line may be reduced to a symmetrical
T plus a line-impedance at one end. By the use of equations (21) and
(22), we may substitute a single smooth uniform line for the symmetri-
cal T. Consequently, any composite line may be resolved into one and
only one uniform smooth line of the same length with a line-impedance
at one end ; or, to an infinitude of such single uniform smooth lines
having a line-impedance at each end.
Composite Line with THREE Sections oF DIFFERENT SURGE-
IMPEDANCES.
A three-section composite line is indicated in Figure 8.
AB has a length 7. of 100 km.
CDs “I, of 300 km.
BBS SE οἵ 50) kin:
The respective linear constants are
γι = 20 ohms/km. ; 72 = 10 ohms/km. ; 75 = 25 ohms/km.
1 = 20, X 107° mho/km: 3495: ="2.5. 10° mho/km: ;
93 = 4 X 10-* mho/km.
a, = 0.02 hyp/km. ; ας = 0.005 hyp/km. ; as = 0.01 hyp/km.
ΠΟ, = 2 hyps; θὰ = 1.5 hyps ; ὅς = 0.5 hyp.
2, = 1000 ohms ; 22 = 2000 ohms; zs = 2500 ohms.
Equivalent 1. First Method.
We proceed to compute the equivalent ΠΟ of the composite line AF
in the same manner as in connection with Figure 7. Ground the end
F', and develop the line-angles towards A;. As before,
δ — tanh (42) and 6, = tanh! (4 ) hyps. (76)
54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
θ, = θ,- 5.5 θ,Ξ 05’
»-----Φ
A {= 1000” B τ- 2000” D ET =e
ee He
τ te «! 5 CH =:
= 1 ὃν ‘2 2S δὶ
oo 2 Gt aD kD Ὡς
δ ὩΣ Sih 5 BS Pe
mes δι ὦ sis ὁ ἐς is 38 ὁ
ase? Bee es DE chp : Β ;
Ἐπ χτ 1000° Z%= 2000" 250] *
960.963"
>,
403963X10'™m
τὰ as
as Sa Yigal
ae +i =
is 212 3!
= Soe
S:4 oo ὃ:
NS ON Se
Ye 2000~ = 422500" τ
Ὁ 2225.3),. Ὁ
ΟΦ 493]60 Χιο Ta
τ} Pls sail ies
pa ὦ ἘΠ ΝΣ
NT =| Ss 9
τὶ ἦε lo τὴν "τὰ
ΚΞ Ἦν ἐᾷ ms ia &
= + S =
, > -
3” 3 8
,
G G G
Figure 8. Composition of three sections of different surge-resistances.
The architrave resistance is then, following (49),
κε ; coshé6- _ cosh 6,
=F sinh ὃ x —_— SSS
3 : “cosh δὲ ΄ cosh 8p
cosh 2.158,924
sinh 0.567,48
1000 cosh 2.567,48 X
= 44,247 ohms.
The sending-end resistance at A is, as in (47),
Ry. = % tanh 4,
1,000 coth 2.567,48 = 1,011.84
The conductance of the M leak at A is, as in (50),
J's = 1/Ry — 1/p”
ohms (77)
cosh 0.5
cosh 0.658,923,6
ohms (78)
ohms
mhos. (79)
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 55
In order to complete the Π, we ground the line at A, (Figure 8), and
develop the line-angles towards F,. The architrave resistance is then
cosh 8p _. cosh ὃ;
coshé, cosh ὃς
= 44,247 ohms.
pf ces Oy, Χ ohms (80)
The sending-end resistance at F is
Ror = ὅς tanh 5; ohms (81)
= 2,500 tanh 1.526,83 = 2,274.71 ohms.
Again, :
J 7=1/R,r—1/p” mhos. (82)
Equivalent 1. Second Method.
An alternative method of arriving at the architrave resistance,
which we may call the second method, is by following (66) and (68).
Grounding at 4.2, we have
sinhé, sinh 6,
72.555 Ϊ . .
p =% sinh, See Ee ohms, (83)
and, grounding at ΕἸ,
fa 3 sinhé, sinh 6,
= 2 sinh 0; ae ἢ ΤᾺ ohms (84)
= 44,247 ohms.
Equivalent T. First Method.
We proceed to compute the equivalent T of the composite line AF
in the same manner as the T in Figure 7. Free the end Εἷς and develop
the line-angles towards A;. As before,
ὃ = coth* (2: ) and ὃ; = coth™ ( =) hyps. (85)
0)
The T leak conductance is then, following (58) and (75),
cosh δὲ cosh 6,
coshd, cosh dp
cosh 1.888,071 cosh 0.5 ἣν
cosh 0.519,860 cosh 0.388,071
g = sinh 6, - mhos (86)
= 0.001 sinh 2.519,86 -
= 19.2016 Χ 107? mho
1’ = 52.079 ohms.
56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
The sending-end resistance at Az, as before, is
Ry ΞΞ 2 coth δὰ ohms (87)
= 1,013.04 ohms.
The AO line branch is therefore Δ. — R’ = 960.961 ohms.
Repeating the process from A, towards F,, we have for the T leak
conductance, as in (80),
cosh 8, coshd,
cosh ὃ» coshd,
g =, sinh ὃν - mhos.(88)
The sending-end resistance at F is likewise
Ry = ὅς coth ὃν ohms (89)
= 2.500 tanh 1.533,091 = 2,277.39 ohms,
from which the resistance of the line branch FO follows.
Equivalent T. Second Method.
The second method of arriving at the T-leak conductance is by fol-
lowing (83) and (84). Freeing at A,, we have
sinh 6, 51Π} ὃ»
σ ΞΞ γι sinh 6, 5 sinh ὃς 5 ἘΠΕ NE mhos, (90)
and freeing at Εἰς, after developing the line angles, we have
: i inh ὃ
g = yz sinh 6, - ee ey ay mhos. (91)
sinh 6p ” sinh dp
Composite Line of n Sections.
To compute the equivalent M of a composite line of m successive
sections, ground the line at the A end and develop the line-angles
towards the opposite end, following the process of (76). Find the
architrave impedance according to formula (80) or (83). This may be
regarded as formula (19) modified by the application of (x — 1) ratios
of cosines in (80), or of (x — 1) ratios of sines in (83). The opposite
end leak admittance will then be the sending-end admittance minus
the architrave admittance. The process must be repeated after ground-
ing the line at the distant end and developing line-angles towards A.
“ΠῸ compute the equivalent T, free the line at the A end and develop
the line-angles towards the opposite end, following the process of (85).
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 57
Find the T-leak admittance by following formula (88) or (90). This
may be regarded as formula (17) modified by the application of n—1
ratios of cosines in (88), or of n—1 ratios of sines in (90) ; that is, one
such ratio for each junction. ‘lhe opposite-end line-branch impedance
will then be the sending-end impedance minvs the leak impedance.
The process must be repeated after freeing the line at the distant end
and developing line-angles towards A.
One complete equivalent circuit, say the n, of a composite line of
n sections calls then for the determination n—1 line-angles first in one
direction and then in the other. The formulas are well adapted to
logarithmic computation. If, however, only the receiving-end impe-
dance of the composite line is required, then we need only develop the
line angles in one direction over the line so as to apply one of the
architrave formulas, and neglect the pillars of the N.
LoapEep Composite LINEs.
Definitions.
Loads in a line may be either regular or casual. Regular loads are
such as are applied at regular intervals, in order to improve the cur-
rent delivery on telephone lines. Casual loads are of an irregular or
incidental character, such as might occur at section-junctions or at
the ends of a composite line. In the former case they would be cnter-
mediate casual loads, and in the latter case, terminal casual loads.
Only casual loads will be here discussed ; because it is easy, with the
aid of formulas already known, to substitute an equivalent smooth
unloaded line for any uniformly loaded line.
Loads may also be divided into two classes; namely, (1) those
applied in series with the line, or impedance loads, such as coils of
impedance or resistance, and (2) those applied in derivation to the line,
or leak loads.
INTERMEDIATE IMPEDANCE Loans.
The case of an intermediate impedance load, of 100 ohms, inserted
at the junction BC in the composite line last considered, is presented
in Figure 9. The system differs from that of Figure 8 only in the
addition of this load.
Equivalent 1. First Method.
To compute the equivalent Π, A” F’GG (Figure 9), hyperbolically,
ground the line at one end, say as at Εἰ, and develop the line-angles
towards A;. The only change in this process affected by the load is at
the junction CB. The sending-end impedance at C is
58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Roo = 25 tanhd, ohms (92)
= 2,000 tanh 2.158,924 = 1,947.385 ohms.
Consequently, if o is the impedance of the load BC in ohms, the
sending-end resistance at B is
Roz = σ + 22 tanh 8, ohms (98)
= 100 + 1,947.385 = 2,047.385 ohms,
ee ἂν» κ᾿
Ἐν = iS x :
Σ “ ig 2 Ξ = 5
a ae Oe By s x 38 &
τ: 21 = a Ὁ + δ φ
iN So ik sss 2 BS = aoe
z B DEa-: γι 6,02 00°C 08 ες DFR Fr
. i) 2,= 1000" aes Z= 2000" Je 2500" ΠΝ
Lt
a a
x ο
™“ w~ a
= ss 5
wt Sree
= + a
τῷ pons) GS
AG s e+ &
ma) ~~ so Ow
s ae STS
Α θ,- 1 Biso0 θεῖς DES
,’
3
οὶ z= 1000"
» 963-32" OG 223036" _,,
£03808 X10'm | 0-¢4836K10%m
7 Ny
p01 K BEISI*G
n6S*SCOs
© 6-0; XS68-6F
altos
G G G'
Figure 9. Three-section composite line with an intermediate
impedance load.
and the new line-angle at B is
ὃς = tanh” (- ) hyps (94)
Ay
2,047.385
1,000
Having established the angle of the whole line at Aj, the architrave
impedance follows by formula (77) without further change. ‘The
A-leak is also obtained by formulas (78) and (79). In order to obtain
the F-leak, and complete the NM, the line is grounded at the other end
as at A, and the line-angles are developed towards 2. At C, we have
= tanh ( ) = 0.584 + i hyp.
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 59
100 + 964.026
og = tanh ( 2.000 ) = 0.592,95 hyp.
Formulas (80), (81), and (82) then apply without change.
Equivalent 1. Second Method.
The alternative method for computing the architrave resistance of
the line when grounded at Az, and developed in angles, is
pe 2 sinh ὃ» sinh 6, ; Rye
ρ΄ =% sinh®6, - ἘΣΤΕ ΤῊ wh, ohms, (95)
and when grounded at Εἰ it is
p” = zs sinh 6; - SUNN UC ohms. (96)
sinhd, sinhd, Ryo
That is, the effect of the load is to increase the architrave impedance
in the ratio of the change of sending-end impedance across the load.
In (95) this ratio is 1,064.026/964.026, and in (96) it is 2,047.385 /
1,947.385.
Equivalent T. First Method.
ΤῸ compute the equivalent T of the loaded line in Figure 9, free the
line at one end, as at Εἷς, and develop the line-angles towards As, as in
(85). The only change effected by the load is in the angles at and
beyond B. The sending-end impedance at C is
Ryo = 2 coth d¢ ohms (97)
= 2,000 coth 1.888,071 = 2,093.82 ohms.
2
The sending-end impedance at B is, therefore,
Ry =o + 2 coth dy ohms (98)
= 100 + 2,093.82 = 2,193.82 ohms. (98)
The new line-angle at B is then
oi eoth™( =) hyps (99)
2,193.82
ἘΞΞΞ oa = h
coth Gran 1,000 as) = 0.492,025 hyp.
60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
The T-leak admittance is now
; : cosh 8, ΟΟΒἢ ὃς Gy
g =m sinhd, - cosh 8, eosin tie mhos (100)
cosh 1.888,071 cosh 0.5 2,193.82
cosh 0.492,025 cosh 0.388,071 2,093.82
= 0.001 - sinh 2.492,025 -
= 19.815 Χ 107? mho.
Formula (87) then applies without change.
Repeating the process from the opposite end of the line, as at A,F,,
we have
ae ᾿ cosh6, coshd, Gy
GF — ya Binhiby = coshd, cosh ὃς Giyc
= 19.815 x 10° mho.
mhos (101)
Formula (89) then applies without change.
The effect of the load on the T-leak admittance formulas (86) and,
(88) is to alter them in the ratio of the impedances or admittances
across the load, applying the said ratio in such a manner as to increase
the result in the direct-current case.
Equivalent T. Second Method.
Formulas (90) and (91) of the alternative method are not altered by
an intermediate impedance load, after the line-angles have been prop-
erly assigned.
Equivalence of Alternating-Current Transformers to Impedance Loads.
It may be observed that since the insertion of a transformer into a
circuit, as, for example, the insertion of a ‘“‘ repeating-coil ” into a tele-
phone circuit, is theoretically equivalent to the insertion of impedance
into the circuit without rupture of continuity, all cases of line trans-
formers are capable of being dealt with by substituting for such trans-
formers their equivalent intermediate impedance loads.®
TERMINAL IMPEDANCE LOADS.
A terminal impedance load is likely to present itself in a composite
line, owing to the presence of terminal apparatus. The architrave im-
pedance of a composite line N, computed without any terminal load,
can only represent the receiving-end impedance of the line when the
5 “On the Predetermination of the Regulation of Alternating-Current
Transformers,” A. E. Kennelly, Electrical World and Engineer, Sept. 2, 1899,
Vol. 34, p. 848.
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 01
receiving apparatus is short-circuited. For example, in the case of
Figure 4, if we short circuit the receiver Z, the receiving-end impe-
dance of each line is 6,736.96/156° 51’ 15” ohms. With the receiver
Z, inserted, the receiving-end impedance is considerably changed, and
this is the condition met with in practice. By applying half the im-
or
ed tetrad τ
+ t,t oS -.-
iS ots us δι
: ~ ‘
SSS iS =
bat) taty Fics "οι Ὁ
Ne Selene orn sis 8
i
6,=2 BC Q= 1-5 θ,-ος
or
6
ο
&
>
a
es
oil
Θ
Θ
ε
εἰ
il
Uw)
ο
oOo .
ο cy
ε
Ὁ.
N 1G Ὶ
πὸ we
et ’
Ἢ
S a Ses
Hea) ml ay on. Lar) τ».
Ξ Ξξ as ἢ
3 Sis NS DS *
J00" 1A 6, = BC Cris DEO:
Z, = 1000” 2,=2000" z:2s00° 2
Pe 48. 619-}" F" , 10δ0.96) Ὅ 2225-35"
5] 0-205613 x 10° *m © 0.94254x10 m| 0-449316 X10 m
wz-01X¥+2881:8
ων 06 xX +O0bI'+
49:9 5:0
ὡς ΧΘΙΟΤ ΟΙ
σ σ α’
Ficure 10. Three-section composite line with a terminal impedance load.
pedance of the receiver as a terminal load to the line, the architrave
of the new equivalent M gives the receiving-end impedance with the
receiver included. If this is the result sought, it becomes unnecessary
to compute the values of the leaks of this N.
Equivalent 0. First Method.
Figure 10 represents the three-section composite line of Figure 8,
with a terminal impedance of 100 ohms applied at A. To compute
62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
the equivalent of the loaded line, ground F, as at F;. Develop the
line-angles towards A in the usual way. No change from the corre-
sponding conditions of Figure 8 occurs until after we have reached 6,.
We then have
Ros ΞΞ δι tanh 6, ohms
= 1,000 coth 2.567,48 = 1,011.607 ohms,
and if o be the impedance of the terminal load at A,,
Roa =o + δι tanh δὰ ohms (103)
=z, tanhd, ohms (104)
= 1,111.84 ohms,
where z, is the apparent surge-impedance of the line at Ay; or
% = 2+ cothd, ohms (105)
ΞΞΞ ΤΣ ΒΒ τ DO) ohms (106)
= 1,098.829 ohms.
The architrave resistance is then, following (77),
cosh ὃς cosh δε
p = 42, sinh 6, - Scalise ΠΡΕΙΤΩΣ, ohms (107)
= 48,619.7 ohms.
The A-leak of the Π, as in the case of Figure (8), is
91 =1/Ry — 1/p” mhos. (108)
To complete the Π, we ground the loaded line at A, as at A,F’,, and
develop the line-angles towards F, commencing with
5, = tanh ( =) hyps (109)
al
να ὦ τς AO Dyin
= tanh τς, 300 ) = 0:100,336 hyp.
The architrave impedance is then
ἐδ IS cosh ὃ» ᾿ cosh 5, cosh 0
avis Τὸ coshég coshd¢ cosh δὰ
= 48,619.7 ohms.
ohms (110)
The F-leak is then computed as in (82).
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 63
Equivalent 1. Second Method.
The alternative method gives
- sinhé, sinhé, sinh ὃ»
p=" cosh 8, sinh ὃς. sinh 8,
with the line grounded at A,, and
P sinh. sinhd, Ryay
; ¢
= 2, sinh @, - ——_—. - —_—_ -
8 >" sinhd, sinhd; Mga
ohms, (111)
ohms, (112)
with the line grounded at F.
Equivalent T.
To arrive at the equivalent T of a composite line loaded with a ter-
minal impedance, all that is necessary is to find the T of the same line
unloaded, by preceding formulas, and then to add the terminal impe-
dance to the proper line-branch of this T.
--Β5..... ΡΕ 442477
A toe BE oe 46 649.5"
e-—$$ $B, 22, 2 DE ie 45-966.5
ee Ee as ego
ep Β0........ ΕΚ λον 46,192"
Figure 11. Diagram showing the influence of the location of an impedance
load on the receiving-end resistance of a three-section composite line.
INFLUENCE OF LocaTION OF AN IMPEDANCE LoapD ΟΝ THE RECEIVING—
Enp ImMpepDANCE oF A Composttre LINE.
It has been shown in a preceding paper that if a single smooth uni-
form line is terminally loaded with a given impedance, the change in
the receiving-end impedance due to the load is the same, whichever
end of the line the load may be applied to; 7. ¢., whether the load is
applied at the sending or at the receiving end. In the case of a com-
posite line, however, this proposition generally fails. The effect of a
resistance coil of 100 ohms on the receiving-end resistance of the three-
section composite line above discussed, is shown in Figure 11. With-
64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
out the load, the receiving-end resistance of the line, or the architrave
of its equivalent M, is, by Figure 8, 44,247 ohms. If the load is added
at the A end of the line, the receiving-end resistance becomes 48,619.7
ohms ; but if added at the F end, it is only 46,192. When the same
coil is inserted as an intermediate load, its influence on the receiving-
end resistance is not so great. In A. C. composite lines, the opportunt-
ties for such variations are more marked. In all cases, however, the
application of a terminal impedance o to a line (single or composite),
increases the receiving-end or architrave impedance of that line in the
ratio fg a ~ ; where , is the sending-end-impedance of the line at
9
the loaded end before the load is applied. This is true whether the
loaded end is made the sending or receiving end of the circuit. For
single lines, #, has the same value at either end, and therefore the
ratio of increase in receiving-end impedance is the same at whichever
end of a single line the load o is applied ; whereas, for composite lines,
we have seen that #, is different, in general, at the two ends.
INTERMEDIATE LEAK Loaps.
Equivalent 0. First Method.
Suppose a leak load to be applied at a junction between sections
such as at DE (Figure 12). We proceed to compute the equivalent 1
of the loaded composite line by grounding one end, as at F;. We
develop the line-angles towards A; On arriving at E we have
Rez = 2 tanh 6; = 1,155.292 ohms. Hence {γεν = 1/R =
8.655,82 Χ 10°* mho. ‘To this sending-end admittance we add the
admittance y of the leak; so that the sending-end admittance at D,
including the leak, is
Gop ΞΞΎ + Gow mhos (113)
ΞΞ 13:659,82¢< 105, πιπΌ:
Consequently the sending-end resistance at D, including the leak, is
Tey ΞΞ ΕΞ ohms, (114)
= 732.289 ohms.
The line-angle at D is then
ὃ = tanh~ (39) hyps (115)
22
= 0.388,964 hyp.
The remaining line-angles are found in the regular way.
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 65
The architrave impedance is then
coshé- coshé, Roz
‘’— χη ginhd, - : : ‘
[ pei δὲ cosh8, coshd, yp pom (ΤῸ
= 60,240 ohms.
The A-leak is computed regularly from (78) and (79).
6, = 2 6-15 6-05
A San ποτ ησοστν τ ΤῈ ς ζ, -- 2000~ D Esa
He ἐσ
= ie +
+ :
Ξ aS =
δ Ss rae
ἐδ 8 o's oo «4
~ 6, 22 B 6,215 DED
AS 1
-
ΖΞ 2000
is
SoS Sai a
tee Wo ἢ
See τὸς δὰ
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Figure 12. Composite line of three sections with intermediate leak load.
To complete the M, ground the line at the opposite end, as at Ag,
and develop the line-angles towards "δ, in the same manner as above.
The architrave impedance is then
rhe ; _ cosh Op cosh δα Rap
p = 2s sinh ὃ» cosh ὃν Tansee as ohms (117)
= 60,240 ohms.
The F-leak is computed regularly from (81) and (82).
VOL. XLV. — 5
66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Equivalent 1. Second Method.
In the alternative method we have the regular formulas (83) and
(84), unchanged by the intermediate leak load.
Equivalent T. First Method.
ΤῸ complete the equivalent T, free one end of the line, say F, as at
F; (Figure 12), and develop the line-angles towards As. At the loaded
junction DE we have
Go =y+t+ Ga mhos, (118)
= 6.848,47 Χ 10: mho,
and, following (114) and (115),
δὲ = coth™ Cy hyps, (119)
= 0,928,914 τς hyp.
The remaining line-angles follow regularly. The T-leak conductance
also follows from (86) without change, and the line-branch AO is com-
puted regularly by (18), (57), (59), and (87).
ΤῸ complete the T, free the other end of the line as at Ay, and pro-
ceed, as above, to develop the line-angles towards Fy. ‘The T-admit-
tance must then conform to (88), and the line-branch impedance FO
to (89).
Equivalent T. Second Method.
The alternative method of arriving at the T-leak admittance is by
following (83) and (84). Freeing at A, (Figure 12), we have
sinh ὃ» sinh ὃ» Gye
sinhdc sinhdg Gy
g =% sinh 6, - mhos, (120)
and similarly, freeing at F, we have
ae : sinhd. sinhd, Gp
g = y, sinh 65 ani | eae ee mhos. (121)
TermMiInaAL Leak Loans.
Equivalent 1.
To arrive at the equivalent M of a composite line loaded with a termi-
nal leak, such as that represented at AF in Figure 13, first compute
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 67
the equivalent of the same line unloaded, by preceding formulas, and
then to the proper leak of the [1 add the terminal load leak, numerically
in the D. C. case, vectorially in an A. C. case.
Equivalent T. First Method.
ΤῸ compute the equivalent T, free one end of the line, say Εἰ, as at
F; (Figure 13), and develop the line-angles towards A. We commence
with
- 0,=2 6, = ἘΞ 8, 2-5,
A Zs 1000” B σ 4= 2000° D E pesto
ἘΠ gn
we ἐς ππτὸν
te, $e as 2 ee pacha) δ
Ἐπ ‘3 Be τ ie Sas
‘t 28 xe δὲ : sib Se
ie aes Sie δὶ τς is a =
τὰ θ, BC 96θ),-"5 me 4 8, =2 BC 6θ,-1: Hip
3 Z,< 1000" ΖΞ 2000 y=2500" * 2," 5000~ Z=2000" 42500) Ὁ
xB 8
“al re
3
& 44.419 τ’
0-226004 x10» | 2
o
2) +5
a ole
a -|9
Ὁ aye
- * Rs
2S Sits
τῇ a t
3
G G
Figure 13. Composite line of three sections with terminal leak load.
1/
dy = coth™ (: y hyps (122)
23
= 1.098,6 τὸ hyps,
where y is the admittance of the load in an A. C. case or conductance
of the load in the D. C. case (mhos).
The T-leak admittance is then
te : cosh8< coshé, coshd
PSE ATEN. & cosh 8, coshdp cosh dy
= 41.066 Χ 10-* mho,
and the line-branch impedance AO follows at once from (87).
mhos (123)
68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
To complete the T, the line is freed at A, as at A, (Figure 13), and
the line-angles are developed toward F. We then have for the sending-
end admittance at F,
Gyr = ys tanh ὃν mhos. (124)
The sending-end conductance at F,, including the leak admittance
Gym = y + ys tanh ὃ», mhos. (125)
The apparent surge-admittance y, at I’, is defined by the condition,
Gym = Yo tanh dp mhos, (126)
whence
Yo = Ys + y coth ὃν mhos. (127)
The T-leak admittance will then conform to
cosh ὃ» cosh 8,
cosh ὃς coshdc
g =Y sinh ὃ» - mhos (128)
cosh ὃ» cosh ὃ; Gym
coshéz coshdc Gyr
and the line-branch impedance FO follows at once from (89).
= ys sinh ὃ» - mhos, (129)
Equivalent T. Second Method.
By the alternative method, the T-leak admittance, when the line is
freed at A, is
po! ; sinhd8, sinhd, Gry
g ΞΞ γι sinh 4, πε rahe ce mhos (130)
= 41.066 Χ 10-* mho.
Similarly, when the line is freed at F, (Figure 13), and the correspond-
ing line-angles are set,
sinh 8, sinh ὃς sinh δὰ
cosh 6, sinhdéd, sinhd,
J ΞΞ ἢ: mhos. (131)
The line-branch impedances are determined in the regular way.
RksumE oF RvuLES APPLYING TO CasuaL Loaps In Composite LINEs.
In the accompanying ‘able the changes effected by loads in the
formulas for p” and σ΄ are collected together as an aid to computation.
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 69
It will be seen that there is a certain symmetry in these changes that
assists their application. Moreover, it is possible, after consulting the
Table, to select in some particular case a method which avoids addi-
tional computation. ‘Thus, in dealing with an intermediate leak, the
first method calls for the application of the impedance ratio across the
leak, to the formula for ρ΄ ; whereas the second method calls for no
change in its formula.
TABLE SHOWING CHANGES MADE BY CASUAL LOADS IN THE COMPOSITE-LINE
FORMULAS FOR THE HQUIVALENT TI-ARCHITRAVE AND
EQUIVALENT T-LEAK.
Change in the Formula for ρ΄. Change in the Formula for g’.
Nature of Load.
By First By Second By First By Second
Method. Method. Method. Method.
Intermediate
impedance None Τρ Ray Gyu/Gyw None
incr ediate Rika None None Gyu/Gyy
Terminal
impedance: Subst. :
: inh 6y—
At far end cosh 0/cosh dy sin ba
cosh dy
for sinh 0y
Ryao/Rya OY
At near end ἜΤ Ae Fgao/ ρα
Terminal leak: Subst. :
sinh 6y_4
cosh dy
for sinh 0y
At far end cosh 0/cosh dy
Grao/Gra OF
At near end τον Ὁ ὩΣ Yy Gy40/Gya
The ratios R,x/R,y and G,x/G,y denote respectively the ratios of sending-
end impedance and sending-end admittance across the load, the ratio being
taken in each case such that in the D. C. case it is greater than unity.
The far end is in all cases the end of the composite line which is to be con-
sidered as freed or grounded for the purposes of the computation, and the
near end is the opposite end, or the end towards which the line-angles are
developed.
It has been assumed for the purposes of the Table that the A end of the
line happens to be the near end in all cases, and the N end the far end.
70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
PLuRALITY oF Loaps.
When several casual loads exist simultaneously in a composite line,
each requires to be considered separately in the formulas for ρ΄ and g’,
although no special treatment is involved thereby in computing g” or
΄
p. A particular case of this kind is shown in Figure 14, where the
0, =2 + 0,=15 8-05"
2, = 1000 Z= 2000 2,= 2500"
Ἐπὶ Ξ
= fee eee
2 Sa RS Seo,
“Ὁ aay Ra Εἰς § Ξ
59 =e ὧ ὁ Go οἱ
re 6,=2 EB 300° 6-15 DES
%,= 1000”
2, - 2000"
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> ea te
ink ao τ᾿ - wie ee ~
z See δὶ 2 Sa SS
ta Rasta. ἢ . so we Ss Sgt
: Im er 2 eed Sis) Se
Ὁ; 9 Ser ἘΝ 2 Rte iss ὧν
- ΩΣ fA - s 4 “Ὁ Ons ete ey
B c ἶ θ,- 2 B Ὁ 8.315 ΤΕ ΤΕ οὐ"
Z,= 2000" Z=2500
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Fiaure 14. Composite line of three sections with two terminal and
one intermediate load.
composite line of Figure 8 is loaded with an intermediate resistance of
100 ohms at the junction BC, a terminal resistance of 200 ohms at F
and also with a terminal leak of 5000 ohms at F. ‘The presence of the
terminal resistance GH, however, converts the leak into an intermediate
leak so far as concerns the process of computation.
Equivalent 1. First Method.
In order to compute the equivalent NM, ground the line at one end,
as at Δ. (Figure 14), and develop the line-angles towards H by preced-
ing formulas. Referring to the Table, we have (a) one intermediate
impedance at BC ; (Ὁ) one intermediate leak at FG, and (6) one termi-
nal impedance at the near end H, the distant end being grounded.
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 71
Consequently, so far as concerns the first method, we should make no
change in the formula for ρ΄ on account of (a), but introduce the ratio
Με yg for (Ὁ) and substitute z, for zs on account of (c). Conse-
quently, following (77) with these changes,
coshé, coshd, δὲν»
Pein ae one fs OEE τυ 9
Ρ ap AD δα coshéz, coshdc Ryg quits 2)
cosh 2.092,95 cosh 2.0 1809.74
cosh 1.035,31 cosh 0.592,95 1565.14
= 1,936.87 sinh 1.535,312 -
= 51,615 ohms.
The H-leak is then found in the usual way.
Equivalent 1. Second Method.
Similarly, by reference to the Table, for changes in the ρ΄ formula
under the second method, we should introduce the ratio R,./R,» for
(a), make no change for (Ὁ), but introduce the ratio R,x/L,¢ for (0).
Consequently, following (83) with these changes,
Stal Op) west eh rece li
sinh 6, sinhd, A,» Rye
== DL ΟἿ ohms,
The A-leak is then computed in the regular manner.
If now we ground the line at the H-end, we obtain similarly, by the
first method,
p = % sinh 6, - ohms (133)
cosh ὃς cosh ὃς ; cosh 0 Roe
coshd, coshép coshé, Rp
== 51,015 ohms,
and by the second method,
7, Soho, sinhd- sinhd, yx Gyr
Cie Sink dee ΤΡ eee Goa
p. ==12) Sino, - ohms (134)
ohms. (135)
Equivalent 7. First Method.
Freeing the line at H, as at A;H (Figure 14), we have
ΘΟΒἢ ὃς coshd, coshd, Gye
cosh$, coshd, cosh ὃν Giz
cosh 2.233,54 cosh 1.049,31
cosh 0.504,81 cosh 0.733,54 —
1 2,146.46
cosh 0.549,31 2,046.46
g =m sinh 6, - mhos (136)
= 0,001 - sinh 2.504,81 -
= 28.851,7 X 107 mho,
72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
and freeing the line at A, as at Ay, we have
coshé, coshd; Gy, Gyr
Θ΄ = Y sinh dy - poy (SMR Ns Gin mhos. (137)
Equivalent T. Second Method.
Freeing at H, we have
Y= ahd snhSy sake, Ὠ BOS (188)
and freeing at A,
Ae gente NP sinhd, sinhd, Gyg πον, (BS)
Β1Π} ὃς sinhdg Gyr
MeErHops oF CoMPUTATION ADAPTED TO ALTERNATING-CURRENT CASES.
There is especial need for brief methods of computation when
A. ΟἹ cases are dealt with,® owing to the complexity of the vector
arithmetic. In practice, the degree of precision desired will usually be
much lower than that aimed at in the arithmetical examples of this
paper, where the numerical values have been carried to six significant
digits. Graphical methods may be frequently used with advantage,
especially in the vector addition of complex hyperbolic angles. 'Tray-
erse Tables as used by navigators may also be used with advantage
for the resolution of vectors into complex quantities.
The following formulas are also useful:
cosh (p + jg) = V cosh? p — sin?g /+ tan“(tanhp:tang) (140)
sinh (p + jg) = Vsinh*? p + sin?g /+ tan“(cothp-tang) (141)
sinh 2 p : sin 2q
cosh 2 p + cos 24 J cosh 2 p + cos2q
_,fitp i (=
πέσε: a—tan7 -- -“ Ἰ--ἰαη 1} --
Hie ey τ ΕΘ ΙΑ ΞΕ ὅτι
tanh™(p+jq) = ἐ]ορ, gy ara 9
tanh (p + jq) = (142)
(143)
6 A table of hyperbolic tangents of a vector variable or of tanh r/0, is
being prepared by the writer for values of r between 0 and 6,by steps of 0.1
or less; and for virtually all angles θ, by steps of one degree.
>
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 73
CONCLUSIONS.
Any composite line of any number of sections, with or without loads
of any kind, operated in the steady state either by a direct current, or
by an alternating current of one frequency, has the same receiving-end
impedance from each end ; so that, if one volt be applied to each end
in turn, the current strength received at the other end will be the
same.?
The equivalent circuits of such lines may always be computed either
for the D. C. or A. C. case by the formulas given in this paper. ‘That
is, any such line may always be replaced by one delta connection or by
one star connection of impedance, without disturbing the electrical
conditions outside of the line.
Notation Employed
α, @,, 41, dg, a, - - . - attenuation-constants of a single line, of a
loop-line, and of different sections of a
composite line (hyps. per km.).
Ὁ, Ὁ,» Cy Ca C3. + + + + linear capacitance of single line, loop-line,
and sections (farads/km.).
δ, δι, Sz). + + « + » « the hyp. angles.of points on a line (hyps).
G, Gy Goa Gy Gy... the sending-end admittance (D. C. conduc-
tance) of a line, the admittance beyond a
point on the same, when the far end is
grounded, and when the far end is free
(mhos).
9s Gin Gr» 95») Ys + + + + linear conductance of single line, loop-line,
and sections (mhos/km.).
g =1/F’ .... . .« conductance of leak of a T (mhos).
gf’ =1/R". . . -ς « conductance of leak of a n (mhos).
ys. +++ ++ + + « conductance of a leak load (mhos).
i,i4 ip ++. +. + ~ Current strength, at the sending-end, and at
a point on the line (amperes).
Pa is ok yep
1, 1,, h; ls, lg . . . + ~ linear inductance of single line, loop-line, and
sections (henrys/km.).
L, In, In, I, » » . » » length ofa line and of sections (km.).
7 An exception should be noted in the case of any part of the composite
line not obeying Ohm’s law, as, for example, a fault in the insulation; so that
the current through the fault is not proportional to the potential at the same.
PIG ey Sa! -w J6 4) Fetter
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
CAs fee me ..9
ea se, το ον τὶ Wied ἴοι Ψ
ὙΠ ΞΞ ee ee ae ee
Ti alg hee τ
Pitas Ve Chet ah cee
(oem τὴν
Ose) an ame eet
6, 0, Or On, Oe
(Rema WSR ae aera Pt Me
WON pg αι MehrenP eck eas vee
ἢ = ΠΡ may eee eee
ὉΠ νὰ; Alip) a1 we eee ee
OTIS, Στ i Mag Meare
. distance of a point on a line from its far end
(km.).
frequency of single A. C. (cycles per second).
. angular velocity of A. C. (radians per second).
cartesian coérdinates of a point in a plane.
linear resistance of a single line, loop-line,
and sections (ohms/km.).
. resistance of a line beyond a point on the
same, the resistance when the far end is
grounded, and when the far end is free,
A. C. impedance (ohms).
resistance (A. C. impedance) of leak of a T
(ohms).
. resistance (A. C. impedance) of leak of a Π
(ohms).
resistance (A. C. impedance) of line-branch of
T (ohms).
resistance (A. C. impedance) of architrave of
ΠῚ (ohms).
. resistance (A. C. impedance) of impedance
load (ohms).
. hyperbolic angle subtended by a single line,
loop-line, and sections (hyps).
surge-admittance (D. C. conductance) of a
line (mhos).
admittance (D. C. conductance) of a line-
branch of a T (mhos).
admittance (D. C. conductance) of architrave
of Π (mhos).
potential, at the sending-end, and at a point
on the line (volts).
impedance of a terminal receiver, of terminal
sending apparatus (ohms).
. surge-impedance of a line, a loop-line, and
sections (ohms).
apparent surge-impedance of a line to which
an impedance load is prefixed (ohms).
KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 75
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
O. Heaviside. Electrical Papers, ii, 248. London, Macmillan & Co.,
1892.
M. 1. Pupin. Propagation of Long Electrical Waves. Trans. Amer.
Inst. Electr. Engrs., 1899, xvi, 93.
Wave Transmission over Non-Uniform Cables and Long-Dis-
tance Air-Lines. Trans. Amer. Inst. Electr. Engrs., 1900,
xvii, 445.
Wave Propagation over Non-Uniform Conductors. Trans. Amer.
Math. Soc., 1900, i, 259.
ΜΙ. Leblanc. Formula for Calculating the Electromotive Force at any
Point of a Transmission Line for Alternating Current. ‘Trans.
Amer. Inst. Electr. Engrs., 1902, xix, 759.
G. A. Campbell. Loaded Lines in Telephonic Transmissions. Phil.
Mag., 1903, ser. 6, v, 313.
G. Roessler. Die Fernleitung von Wechselstrémen. Berlin, Julius
Springer, 1905.
G. Di Pirro. Sui Circuiti non uniformi. Atti dell’ Assoc. Elettrotech.,
1909, xii, No. 6; La Lumiére Electrique, 1909, ser. 2, vii,
227.
A. E. Kennelly. A Contribution to the Theory of Telephony. Electr.
World, 1894, xxiii, 208.
Resonance in Alternating Current Lines. Trans. Amer. Inst.
Electr. Engrs., 1895, xii, 133.
Electric Conducting Lines of Uniform Conductor and Insulation
Resistance in the Steady State. Harv. Eng. Journ., 1903, ii,
135.
The Alternating Current Theory of Transmission Speed over
Submarine Cables. ‘Trans. Internat. Electr. Cong. of St.
Louis, 1904, i, 66.
High-Frequency Telephone Circuit Tests. Trans. Internat.
Electr. Cong. St. Louis, 1904, iii, 414.
The Distribution of Pressure and Current over Alternating
Current Circuits. Harv. Eng. Journ., 1905, iv, 149.
The Process of Building up the Voltage and Current in a Long
Alternating Current Circuit. These Proceedings, 1907, xlii,
701.
Artificial Lines for Continuous Currents in the Steady State.
These Proceedings, 1908, xliv, 97.
Harvarp UNIvEerRsITy, CAMBRIDGE, Mass.,
September, 1909.
λ ie 7 + i
AOD Ae
Date an) ees
a) “aa Ἀν
᾿ τω ὴ μ AY x
aR
- ᾿ + < AY
LW bg ΟΝ ΩΝ '
al fa) ‘kot a ἊΝ δ aL δὲ
>’ , me i Tel ᾿ tings oe.
bes ΣΙ ΛΩΝ δὶ a8 Δ,
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ἡ Na λῶν
DoD tae tyt oe th iyi
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 4.—January, 1910.
Περὶ Φύσεως.
A STUDY OF THE CONCEPTION OF NATURE AMONG THE
PRE-SOCRATICS.
By Wiui1am ArtTHuR HEIDEL,
PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY.
γιὸ
i
Περὶ Φύσεως.
A STUDY OF THE CONCEPTION OF NATURE AMONG THE
PRE-SOCRATICS.1
By Wituram Artuur HErIDeE..
Presented by M. H. Morgan, October 13, 1909; Received November 3, 1909.
Proressor John Burnet says :2 “So far as I know, no historian of
Greek philosophy has clearly laid it down that the word used by the
early cosmologists to express this idea of a permanent and primary sub-
stance was none other than φύσις ;3 and that the title Περὶ φύσεως, so
commonly given to philosophical works of the sixth and fifth centuries
B. C.,4 means simply Concerning the Primary Substance. Both Plato
and Aristotle use the term in this sense when they are discussing the
1 This paper was begun in the spring of 1908, and was read in substance before
the Classical Club of Princeton University, Dee. 17, 1908.
2 Early Greek Philosophy, 24 ed., 1908, p. 12 foll.
3 Burnet, ibid., p. 13 foll., p. 57, n. 1, rejects the traditional view that Anaxi-
mander so used ἀρχή, which, he says, ‘‘is in this sense purely Aristotelian.” This
statement, and the other that ‘‘To Anaximander ἀρχή could only have meant begin-
ning,” are open to question ; ep. Hippocrates, II. νούσων, 51 (7, 584 Littré) ὑπὸ τῶν
ἀρχῶν διίσταται ὧν εἴρηκά of πάντα, and ibid. (7, 590 Littré) ὅκως ἐργάζονται ai ἀρχαὶ
τὴν θέρμην καὶ τὴν ταραχὴν τῷ ὑγρῷ ὑπάγουσαι ἐς νοῦσον. Cp. Philolaus, fr. 6 ἐπεὶ δὲ
ταὶ ἀρχαὶ ὑπᾶρχον οὐχ ὁμοῖαι οὐδ᾽ ὁμόφυλοι ἔσσαι, fr. 8 ἡμῖν μονὰς ὡς ἂν ἀρχὴ οὖσα
πάντων, fr. 11 ἀρχὰ καὶ ἁγεμών, though I lay no stress on these, believing that all the
so-called fragments of Philolaus, excepting fr. 16, which occurs in the Eudemian
Ethics, are spurious. Cp. also note 166, below. This use of ἀρχή = causal principle
may well have been old ; cp. πηγή and ῥίζωμα = στοιχεῖον. The ‘ Aristotelian’ sense
of ἀρχή occurs in Plato, Zim. 48 B; cp. Diels, Elementwm, p. 20. Burnet also
says (p. 56) ‘‘That Anaximander called this something [i.e. his “Aetpov] by the
name of φύσις, is clear from the doxographers.” This statement likewise may fairly
be challenged.
4 Burnet here adds in a note: ‘‘I do not mean to imply that the philosophers
used this title themselves ; for early prose writings had no titles. The writer men-
tioned his name and the subject of his work in the first sentence, as Herodotus, for
instance, does.” As the titles were, in all probability, added later it is interesting
to note the words of Galen, de Hlem. sec. Hippocr. τ. 9, p. 487 Kiihn: τὰ yap τῶν
παλαιῶν ἅπαντα περὶ φύσεως ἐπιγέγραπται, τὰ Μελίσσου, τὰ Παρμενίδου, τὰ Ἔμπεδο-.
κλέους, ᾿Αλκμαίωνός τε καὶ Τοργίου, καὶ Προδίκου, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἁπάντων. It was there-
fore, as we shall see, a sort of blanket-title.
80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
earlier philosophy,® and its history shows clearly enough what its origi-
nal meaning must have been. In Greek philosophical language, φύσις
always means that which is primary, fundamental, and persistent,
as opposed to what is secondary, derivative, and transient ; what is
‘given,’ as opposed to that which is made or becomes. It is what is
there to begin with.”
‘“‘ here is one important conclusion,” says Professor Burnet,® “ that
follows at once from the account just given of the meaning of φύσις,
and it is, that the search for the primary substance really was the thing
that interested the Ionian philosophers. Had their main object been,
as T'eichmiiller held it was, the explanation of celestial and meteorolog-
ical phenomena, their researches would not have been called? Περὶ
φύσεως ἱστορίη, but rather Περὶ οὐρανοῦ or Περὶ μετεώρων.
Considering its source, this declaration is of sufficient importance to
justify an extended examination for its own sake, especially as it has
not been adequately met by students of Greek thought ; 8 but the pur-
pose of this study is somewhat different. The words quoted from Pro-
fessor Burnet serve, therefore, chiefly as a point of departure. It is
proposed to consider three subjects, which are of importance in relation
to the works entitled Περὶ φύσεως : (1) the historical relation of the
studies so entitled to mythology and poetry ; (2) the senses in which
φύσις was employed before 400 8. 0. ; (3) the probable connotation of
the title Περὶ φύσεως, judging by the direction of interest of the writers .
as indicated by the problems they raised.
Before proceeding to the consideration of these questions, however,
it may be proper to touch briefly on several subjects suggested by the
5 Burnet here refers to Arist. Phys. 193 a 21 foll. and to Plato, Legg. 892 C
φύσιν βούλονται λέγειν γένεσιν τὴν περὶ τὰ πρῶτα. Here he interprets γένεσιν with
τὸ ἐξ οὗ γίγνεται. Though this use of γένεσις is as old as Homer (= 201, 246), and
though Plato could employ it in allusion to Homer (7 λεαοί. 180 D), it would be ill-
chosen to explain φύσις. Ast in his ed. (vol. mr. 158) has, as it seems to me, cor-
rectly rendered the words: ‘‘Volunt illi naturam dici generationem eorum, quae
primum orta sint,” unless one prefers ‘‘quae prima sint.” Cp. ὑπὲρ τῆς τῶν στοιχείων
φύσεως, Diels, Vorsokr. 11.511, 15. Burnet might have referred with more propriety
to Plato, Legg. 891 C, but it is to be noted that φύσις is singular.
6 bid. p. 14.
7 Burnet here refers to Plato, Phaedo 96 A and Eurip., fr. 910. We may add
Theophrastus, Ph. O. fr. 5 (Diels, Dox. 480, 7) and fr. 9 (ibid. 485, 1). In the latter
case 7 7. φύσεως ἱστορία is opposed (speaking of Plato) to ἡ πραγματεία περὶ τῆς
πρώτης φιλοσοφίας. Cp. n. 206, below. From Theoplirastus the phrase was passed
on to the doxographers. Thus Simplic. in Phys. (p. 23. 29 Diels) says: Θαλῆς δὲ
πρῶτος παραδέδοται τὴν περὶ φύσεως ἱστορίαν τοῖς Ἕλλησιν ἐκφῆναι.
8 Burnet’s view has been briefly criticised by Professor Millerd, On the Interpreta-
tion of Empedocles, Chicago, 1908, pp. 18 foll.
΄
HEIDEL. --- Περὶ φύσεως. 81
words quoted from Professor Burnet. It is probably true that early
prose writings had no formal titles ; but our information on this point
is really too scanty to admit of dogmatic statement.® It is reasonably
certain that philosophical works were familiarly quoted as bearing the
title Περὶ φύσεως some time before the close of the fifth century, as we
may see from the works of Hippocrates ; 19. and from the time of Xeno-
phon, Plato, and Aristotle 11 onwards it must have been the accepted
designation. In regard to the scope of the title epi φύσεως and Pro-
fessor Burnet’s attempt to limit it narrowly to the meaning Concerning
the Primary Substance, and to distinguish it, as if codrdinate, from
such titles as Περὶ οὐρανοῦ and Περὶ μετεώρων, we shall be in better posi-
tion to decide at the conclusion of our inquiry. But, while it is clearly
impossible, without writing a history of Greek philosophy, to refute his
9 Besides Herodotus, we have incorporated titles from Hecataeus (fr. 332 Miiller),
Antiochus of Syracuse (fr. 3 Miiller), Alemaeon (fr. 1), and Thucydides. It is possi-
ble that the Μικρὸς Διάκοσμος of Democritus had such a title ; ep. Diog. Laert. rx. 41.
We have, however, what are said to be the opening words of other works, but mention
neither the name of the author nor the subject ; 6. g. Heraclitus, fr. 1; Archytas,
fr. 1; Anaxagoras, fr.1; Protagoras, fr. 1 and 4; Diogenes of Apollonia, fr. 1. For
those who hold the fragments attributed to him to be genuine I may add, Philolaus,
fr. 1. One may, of course, assume that the incorporated title was in these cases
disregarded, either because a formal title had been substituted for it, or because it
was considered negligible. The works of Hippocrates, however, do not have incor-
porated titles naming the author ; but have in some cases an introductory sentence
which announces the subject: 6. g. IL. γυναικείης φύσιος (7, 312 Littré) περὶ δὲ τῆς
γυναικείης φύσιος Kal νοσημάτων τάδε λέγω ; similarly Democritus, fr. 165 λέγω τάδε
περὶ τῶν ξυμπάντων. Cp. also Hippocrates (Littré) 8,10; 8, 408; 8, 466; 8, 556;
8, 512.
10 Hippocer. Π. ἀρχ. ἰητρικῆς, 20 (1, 620 Littré) τείνει δὲ αὐτοῖς ὁ λόγος ἐς φιλοσο-
φίην, καθάπερ ᾿Εμπεδοκλῆς ἢ ἄλλοι οἱ περὶ φύσιος γεγράφασιν. ἔγὼ δὲ τοῦτο μέν, ὅσα
τινὶ εἴρηται ἢ σοφιστῇ ἢ ἰητρῷ ἢ γέγραπται περὶ φύσιος, ἧσσον νομίζω τῇ ἰητρικῇ τέχνῃ
προσήκειν ἢ τῇ Ὑραφικῇ. IL. σαρκῶν, 15 (8,604 Littré) καὶ εἰσί τινες οἱ ἔλεξαν φύσιν
ξυγγράφοντες ὅτι ὁ ἔγκέφαλός ἐστιν ὁ ἠχέων. In Hippocrates we find such titles as
Il. φύσιος ὀστέων, IL. φύσιος παιδίου, Il. φύσιος ἀνθρώπου, Il. φύσιος γυναικείης. The
meaning of these titles will be seen, I trust, in the sequel. It may excite com-
ment that I quote Hippocrates indiscriminately. I do so because to do otherwise
were to prejudge a question not yet settled — hardly even fairly put. I incline to
the opinion that the works of the Corpus Hippocratewm (with possibly one or two
exceptions) belong to the fifth century ; at any rate, the conceptions and points of
view they present show few traces of the influence of Socratic thought.
11 Xen. Mem. 1. 1, 14 τῶν τε περὶ τῆς τῶν πάντων φύσεως μεριμνώντων ; Plato,
Legg. 891 C; Phaedo 96 A (see above, note 7) ἔγὼ γάρ, ἔφη (sc. ὁ Σωκράτης), νέος ὧν
θαυμαστῶς ws ἐπεθύμησα ταύτης τῆς σοφίας ἣν δὴ καλοῦσι περὶ φύσεως ἱστορίαν, which is
of great importance since in this connexion Plato most clearly defines the relation
of the Socratic-Platonic philosophy to that of the φυσικοί ; for Aristotle it is hardly
necessary to do more than refer to Bonitz’s Zndex under the expressions οἱ φυσικοί, οἱ
περὶ φύσεως, οἱ φυσιολόγοι, φυσιολογεῖν.
VOL. XLV. — 6
82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
further statements that “the search for the primary substance really
was the thing that interested the Ionian philosophers” and that “ Greek
philosophy began, as it ended, with the search for what was abiding in
the flux of things ;” it must be said that so to define the scope of Greek
philosophy were to reduce it to terms which are well-nigh nugatory.
Greek philosophy did, indeed, seek the permanent amid the flowing ;
but, as the first determined effort of the human mind to frame a sci-
ence, it sought an explanation of the fleeting phenomena. This ex-
planation it found ultimately in that which abides, and gave to it
various names: but it was not the permanence, but the causality, of
the ὑποκείμενον to which, as scientists, the Greek philosophers devoted
their chief attention.12 Aristotle was clearly right in refusing to regard
the Eleatics, in so far as they adhered to their metaphysical principles
which excluded causality and motion, as φυσικοί,
I.
“One may say that primitive man has only religious apperceptive
masses.” ‘No matter what historical phenomenon we may trace to
a remote past, we come at last to religion. All human conceptions, so
far as they fall within the intellectual horizon of a pre-scientific age,
have developed out of mythical conceptions ; but religious ideas con-
stitute the content, or at least, the garb of myth.” 'These words from
the pen of the lamented Professor Usener 13 strike the key-note of this
portion of our study.
As later Greek philosophy, so far as it was a philosophy of nature,
grew out of the teachings of the pre-Socratics with only here and there
a clearly marked infusion of metaphysics, ultimately derived from So-
crates: so Greek philosophy as a whole was not a creation e nihilo.
Long before the dawn of philosophy, properly so-called, the reflective
thought of the Greeks had busied itself with many of the problems
which later engaged the attention of the philosophers.14 Even if we
had no evidence to prove it, we should still have to assume it as a fact.
We are not, of course, in position to trace even in the most general
12 In my study, The Necessary and the Contingent in the Aristotelian System,
Chicago, 1896, pp. 7-10, I gave a brief analysis of the movement of pre-Socratic
thought in logical terms. Somewhat more at length a similar study appeared in The
Logie of the Pre-Socratie Philosophy, published as Chapter IX. of Studies in Logical
Theory, by John Dewey, Chicago, 1903.
13 Vortrdge und Aufsdtze, pp. 43 and 45.
14 There is much philosophy held in solution in Greek mythology ; but it is
impossible to utilize it for historical purposes, because the early history of the myths
is unknown. Unfortunately this is likely always to be the case.
HEIDEL. — ἸΤερὶ φύσεως. 83
outlines the stages in the process of organizing the confused mass of
primitive human experience into a unified world of thought. We may
be sure, however, that there never was a time when the human mind
held even two wholly unrelated experiences ; and there will never come
a time when all human experiences shall constitute a perfect κόσμος.
Somewhere between these limits history moves, the mind now energeti-
cally striving to achieve a synthesis, now supinely acquiescing in “the
cult of odds and ends.”
When the curtain of history rises on the Greeks, we find in Homer
a strange condition. In the foreground there is a relatively well or-
dered society of gods and men ; while in the shadows of the background
lurk remnants of an ancient barbarism. Politically society is in unsta-
ble equilibrium, momentarily held together by a common cause : par-
ticularism clearly preceded, particularism follows. One can with
difficulty banish the thought that the union of the Greeks under the
suzerainty of Agamemnon was only a poet’s dream, —an ideal never
realized and perhaps never to be realized. Homeric religion is in much
the same case: Zeus is king of all the gods, but even after his vic-
tory over the turbulent sons of Earth, his rule is precarious. The
Titans fume ; and the wife of his bosom nurses thoughts of treason.
As for the occurrences of daily life, they are the expression of divine
powers 45 lurking everywhere and acting more or less capriciously. Noth-
ing that occurs occasions much surprise, 16 and a ready explanation for
even the most unexpected event is suggested by the inscrutable oper-
ations of the gods. This is not the atmosphere which surrounds and
stimulates the birth of philosophy. But while Homer, on the whole,
writes for entertainment and tells such tales as may fitly cheer a pleas-
ant feast, there are not wanting in the ας passages which show that
the Greeks of that age sometimes thought in a less light-hearted vein.
Two portions in particular, the Διὸς ᾿Απάτη 17 and the Θεομαχία, 18 con-
tain unmistakable vestiges of earlier theogonic and cosmogonic poems.
The tendency here appearing in Homer finds increasing favor with
Hesiod and the cosmogonists of the eighth and seventh centuries B.c.
For reasons hardly intelligible to me it has become common to dis-
15 Cp. Adam, The Religious Teachers of Greece, p. 22. If Thales said πάντα πλήρη
θεῶν͵ it was a survival of ‘ Homeric’ thought out of harmony with the new philo-
sophical movement. Such survivals, however, are common in all ages.
16 Cp. Adam, ibid., p. 24.
SIT. RIVE
18 77, xx, xx. That this passage is cosmological was seen by Theagenes in the
sixth century, B.c. (see Schol. 71. B on T, 67), and emphasized by Murray, Rise of
the Greek Epic, p. 239 ff., and by Gilbert, Die meteorologischen Theorien des qriechi-
schen Altertums, p. 25, n. 2.
84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
tinguish these interesting early thinkers from the illustrious company
of the philosophers, headed by Thales, as if they belonged to different
orders of existence. Certain it is that Aristotle was not aware of any
such fundamental difference. ‘‘ Even a lover of myth,” he says,19 “is
in a sense a philosopher.” Thales he calls the founder of the school of
philosophy which inquires into the material cause of things ; but he
adds,2° almost in the same breath, that “some think that the ancients
who lived long before the present generation, and first framed accounts
of the gods, had a similar view of nature.” By late writers no distine-
tion whatever is made between the two classes of thinkers; thus Hip-
polytus says,21 “The poet Hesiod himself declares that he thus heard
the Muses speak Hepi φύσεως. Plato, on the other hand, says in a
playful vein of the early philosophers,2? “Each appears to me to re-
count a myth for our entertainment, as if we were children. One says
that the things that are are three in number, and that certain of these
somehow go to war with one another from time to time; then again
they become reconciled, contract marriages, beget children, and rear
their offspring. Another says there is a pair, — Moist and Dry, or
Hot and Cold,—and gives away the bride and lets the pair cohabit.
The Eleatic tribe out our way, however, going back to Xenophanes and
even farther, recounts its tales as if all beings, so called, were one.”
However we may interpret the passage in detail, it is obvious that
Plato notes and emphasizes the fundamental identity in point of view
between the early cosmogonists and the golden tribe of philosophers.
He shows how easy it is to state philosophical conceptions in mytho-
logical terms, and suggests by implication that the opposite procedure
is equally easy.
Aristotle also clearly correlates θεολόγοι and θεολογία with φυσιολόγοι
and φυσιολογία in such sort as to show that in his view words and
concepts run alike parallel.28 He likens the earliest philosophy toa
lisping child,24 and makes repeated attempts to restate in more accept-
able form the opinions of his predecessors.25 He would doubtless have
19 Met, 982° 18.
20 Met. 983% 20 and 27 foll., transl. Ross. It is noteworthy that, though Aris-
totle does not expressly assent to the interpretation of the myth, he evidently has
no thought of refuting it.
21 Philos. 26 (Diels, Dox. 574, 14).
22 Plato, Soph. 242 C. For this passage see Diels, Vorsokr.,? 40, ὃ 29.
23 Cp., e.g., Met. 1071” 26 foll., 1075” 26 foll.
24 Met. 993° 15 foll. Cp. the interesting prelude to the myth, Plato, Polit. 268 E.
This conception powerfully stimulated the tendency to allegorical interpretation, and
accounts for Aristotle’s freedom in reinterpreting his predecessors.
25 J directed attention to several instances of somewhat violent reinterpretation
HEIDEL. — Περὶ φύσεως. 85
offered a like apology, only with larger charity, for the still earlier cosmog-
onists. Theophrastus 26 in the same spirit remarked upon the ‘ poetic’
diction of Anaximander because he referred to the mutual encroach-
ment of the elements as ‘injustice.’ Indeed, the mythical cast of much
of the earlier philosophy is so marked as to constitute a serious prob-
lem to the historical student, who desires to interpret fairly the thought
of the age. ‘This fact, duly considered, throws light in both directions.
It shows, on the one hand, that theogonists and cosmogonists em-
ployed the names of divinities to designate philosophical, or at any
rate, quasi-philosophical concepts ; but it also shows that the philoso-
phers were not themselves conscious of a complete break with the past.
Thus, while the theogonists pictured the origin and operations of the
world in terms of the history and behavior of mythical characters,
often so vaguely and imperfectly conceived 27 as at once to betray their
factitious nature, the philosophers applied to their principles and ele-
ments names and epithets proper to the gods.28 This course was,
indeed, extraordinarily easy and natural to the Greeks, whose religion
was in its higher phases essentially a worship of Nature.29 But this
very worship of Nature in her more significant aspects was in itselt
one of the chief influences which predisposed the Greeks to a philoso-
phy of Nature.
There are certain picturesque effects of this intimate historical con-
nexion of speculation on nature with theology (in the Greek sense),
which are perhaps worth noting. Aristotle repeatedly uses the ex-
pression κόσμον γεννᾶν alongside κοσμοποιεῖν OT κοσμοποιία in reference
of his precursors in my study, Qualitative Change in Pre-Socratice Philosophy (Archiv.
fiir Gesch. der Philos., 1906). There seem still to remain a few scholars who, even
after the illustrations of this tendency noted by Natorp (e. g., Philos, Monatshefte,
Xxx. 345) and Burnet, are unaccountably blind to it.
26 Apud Simpl. Jn Phys. I. 2, p. 24, 20 (Diels).
27 See, e.g., Diels, Parmenides Lehrgedicht, p. 10; Rohde, Psyche, τι. 114 and
115, n. 2; Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des Altertums, I, a (2d ed.), p. 100 foll.; Burnet,
Early Greek Philosophy, (2d ed.) p. 74 foll.
28 Cp. Otto Gilbert, Jonier und Eleaten, Rh. M., N. F., 64, p. 189. Empedocles
deifies the Sphere, the elements, and the efficient causes, Love and Strife. The practice
continues throughout Greek thonght. The question is where religious belief ends
and metaphor begins: see Millerd, On the Interpretation of Empedocles, p. 84. I do
not doubt that Professor Millerd, as well as Gilbert (1. c. and Meteorol. Theorien, etc.,
p. 110, n. 1) and Adam, The Religious Teachers of Greece, pp. 184-190, 248, 250, go
too far in accepting as sober belief what was in fact ‘ poetic’ metaphor. See Burnet,
p. 74 foll., p. 288 foll. Rohde says (Psyche 11. 2) ‘*‘ Wer unter Griechen wnsterblich
sagt, sagt Gott: das sind Wechselbegriffe.” This statement certainly requires quali-
fication ; but this is not the place to discuss the matter at length.
29 Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des Altertums, I, a (2d ed.), pp. 97-100, distinguishes, —
aside from purely magical beings, —two classes of gods: I. universal gods, con-
86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
to philosophical accounts of creation ; 30 and derivative forms of exis-
tence are called ἔκγονοι or ἀπόγονοι Of the elements.34 In other words,
the philosophers were in effect giving the genealogy of the world.3?
ceived as presiding over certain spheres of the (physical or intellectual) world every-
where and for all men; II. particular gods, having locally or tribally circumscribed
spheres. There is, of course, a certain overlapping. The gods of the first class exist
as permanent beings by reason of the eternally identical activities proceeding from
them ; those of the second class attain permanence and personality by reason of the
institution of a fixed cult. Many gods of the first class possess little or no cult, but
stand as representatives of natural laws. ‘‘No one,” says Professor Burnet, p. 75,
n. 1, ‘‘ worshipped Okeanos and Tethys, or even Ouranos.” Since the superior gods
of Greece are largely of this class, it is not difficult to see how religion proved a
schoolmaster to lead the Greeks to philosophy.
30 For examples see Bonitz’s Jndex, 1605 7 foll. Cp. such expressions as γεννῶσι
δὲ [παθητικαὶ δυνάμεις] τὸ θερμὸν καὶ ψυχρὸν κρατοῦντα τῆς ὕλης, Metcor. 379° 1; μετὰ
δὲ τούτους καὶ τὰς τοιαύτας ἀρχάς, ὡς οὐχ ἱκανῶν οὐσῶν γεννῆσαι τὴν τῶν ὄντων φύσιν,
Met. 9840 8. Cp. Plato, Theaet. 153 A.
31 Similar expressions abound, as, e.g. τὰ δὲ ἄλλα ἐκ τούτων. See my article,
Qualitative Change in Pre-Socratic Philosophy, notes 36 and 41.
32 Fn this connexion it is proper to refer to the beginnings of Greek historiography
—both are ἱστορίαι. In each case it is the desire of the ἵστωρ to go back to first
principles. Professor Millerd speaks of Empedocles’ Περὶ φύσεως as a ‘* world story ;”
such in truth it is. History appears to have grown up among the Greeks in con-
nexion with Genealogy, dealing with κτίσεις and other similar events. In Xeno-
phanes, according to tradition, the two interests of ἱστορία were naturally united.
His physical derivation of the present world constituted his natural philosophy ;
on the historical side, he is reported to have composed poems on the founding of
Colophon and the colonization of Elea. While this latter statement may be ques-
tioned (see Hiller, Rh. M., N. F. 38, 529) on external grounds, it is not per se
improbable. The Book of Genesis similarly unites interest in creation and the
derivation and early history of a people. It seems to be natural to the human
mind to put explanation in the form of a story; even where it is a question of
explaining how present phenomena occur, it is usual to cast the answer into the
form of origines. This tendency has misled historians of Greek philosophy at many
points into the vain endeavor to distinguish between the current cosmic processes
and the story of creation. Another matter of much interest is the relation of
creation-story and genealogy, which are thus united in ἱστορίη περὶ φύσεως, to the
religious ἱερὸς λόγος or gospel. Of this I have spoken incidentally in another con-
nexion; but it is obvious, even at a glance, that in Genesis, for example, they are
virtually identical. In later schools of Greek philosophy the natwrae ratio was
clearly and consciously felt to be a gospel. It is therefore interesting to note that
of the four Christian Gospels, three in various ways link the gospel story proper
with the story of creation. Mark, the ‘‘human Gospel,” omits this essential link.
The later Gospels supply it: Matthew is content to trace the genealogy of Jesus to
Abraham, from which point the story was familiar ; Luke carries it back to Adam,
“‘the son of God;” John goes back to the ‘‘beginning” and finds the Λόγος, or
Gospel Incarnate, with God before, and preparatory to, creation. Hence he can
dispense with a genealogy. One must bear in mind the supposed compelling force
of genealogy in prayers. Among many peoples we find the practice of addressing
HEIDEL. ---- Περὶ φύσεως. 87
The intimate connexion of physical philosophy with theogony and
cosmogony has thus been emphasized because it appears fundamental
to any intelligent inquiry into the meaning and nature of the former ;
yet no one would deny that there is a distinction to be drawn between
these cognate forms of speculation on the origin and operations of the
world. ‘The important point to determine is just wherein the essential
difference consists.
In Plato there is a clear distinction drawn between μῦθος and λόγος ;
with him μυθολογία is associated with ποίησις, and, when contrasted
with λόγος or ἱστορία, denotes that which is fictitious as opposed to
sober truth. Herein Plato reflects the spirit of the sixth and fifth cen-
turies, B. c., which brought science to the birth. Of that period Xeno-
phanes is an interesting representative. We have seen that he com-
bined the various interests of ἱστορία, and he naturally found himself
in hostility to Homer 33 and all for which Homer stood. Homer stood
for epic poetry, and epic poetry stood for μῦθος. To the mind of Xeno-
phanes the myths of Titans, Giants, and Centaurs are πλάσματα τῶν
προτέρων... Toa οὐδὲν χρηστὸν ἔνεστι. Indeed, what could such fic-
tions profit an age that was busily engaged in sweeping the mists from
the crest of Olympus to let in the dry light of reason? Hecataeus, an-
other child of the sixth century and a λογογράφος or devotee of ἱστορία,
in the introductory sentence of his Genealogies, says :24 “I write the
following as it seems to me in truth; for the tales (λόγοι) of the Greeks
are many and, as I think, absurd.” He employs the term λόγοι where
a later writer would probably have said μῦθοι: for he refers to Greek
mythical genealogies. Yet λόγος had even in his day come to mean
prose 35 as opposed to epic composition, and Hecataeus proposed to use
the new vehicle of artistic expression in the service of sober truth or
ἱστορία.35 It is noteworthy that he criticises the stories of “the
the gods in prayer and enforcing the fulfilment of the request by giving the genealogy
(or as Herodotus, 1. 132 says, the θεογονίη) of the divinities. This is in turn con-
nected with the magical procedure, which consists in “assigning the cause” and
telling how that which, 6. σ., produced the wound (say, iron) originated, thus con-
trolling the cause and effecting a cure. On this see Stewart, The Myths of Plato,
p- 10 foll., who calls this the ‘‘ aetiological myth.”
33 See Diels, Parmenides Lehrgedicht, p. 10.
34 Tr. 332, Miiller.
35 What the substitution of prose for verse meant to philosophical thought can be
best appreciated, perhaps, in connexion with Parmenides and Empedocles. Par-
menides tried to write verse like a philosopher, and was ridiculed as a shabby poet ;
Empedocles tried to write philosophy like a poet, and is regarded as a fifth-rate
thinker for his pains.
36 For ἱστορίη see Stein on Hdt. 1. 1; for λόγος, zbid., τ. 21. For the whole
matter, see Bury, Ancient Greek Historians, p. 16.
88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Greeks,” 37 finding them utterly ridiculous. The new era of travel and
research had brought to light many an evidence that things were not
what they seemed, at least that much which passed for true and un-
questionable among the Greeks was differently conceived or otherwise
done in other lands.38 The age of the Sophists merely made common
property what had for a hundred years exercised the wits of the great
leaders of the new thought.
We have seen that Greek religion in the Homeric age harbored two
conceptions which contained the promise of disintegration, though they
still dwelt peacefully side by side. According to the one conception
every event was equally divine and so equally “natural,” occasioning
no surprise; according to the other, certain provinces of the world,
physical and intellectual, were apportioned to the “wide-ruling gods”
of Olympus. The former tended to dull the faculty of curiosity, the
latter to stimulate it. For, in a sense, the Olympians were personified
laws of Nature. With the increasing organization of experience came
greater emphasis upon the “Gitterstaat ” and overlordship of Zeus, who
assumed more and more the title of θεός par excellence and subordinated
the lesser gods to himself, reducing them in the end to expressions of
his sovereign pleasure. But back of Zeus, even in Homer, lurks the
mysterious power of Μοῖρα, before whose might even the “pleasure ”
of Zeus avails little. As Zeus subdues the lesser gods, so Fate or Law
subdues Zeus to her inexorable will. But the bright patterns woven
into Greek mythology, based as they were upon personal caprice and
37 Bernays, Abh. der Berl. Akad., 1882, p. 70, refers to Anaxagoras (fr. 17 Diels:
τὸ δὲ γίνεσθαι καὶ ἀπόλλυσθαι οὐκ ὀρθῶς νομίζουσιν οἱ “ENAnves), to Hecataeus (fr. 332),
Philodemus (Π. εὐσεβείας p. 84, Gomp.: ὅσους φασὶν οἱ ἸΠανέλληνες θεούς) and adds:
ςς Ris ist die vornehme Art der Philosophen von dem Volk zu reden.” Compare also
Empedocles, fr. 8 and 9 (Diels). The feeling is deeper than mere pride: it marks the
exaltation of the philosophical λόγος, as the statement of φύσις, over the popular
λόγος which stands for νόμος and μῦθος. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians, p. 51, n. 2,
remarks that when Herodotus quotes and criticises of Ἑλληνες he is contrasting the
Greek tradition with that of Phcenicians, Persians, or Egyptians, and ‘‘is really
quoting criticisms of Hecataeus on οἱ Ἕλληνες, that is, on the current mythology of
epic tradition.”
38 It would be foolish to claim for any one cause the determining influence in
giving direction and scope to the nascent rationalism of the sixth century. Travel
and research could furnish the content and supply the materials for reflective thought ;
but both presuppose the divine curiosity which is the parent of philosophy. Many
influences conspired to produce the revolution in thought ; but travel may well have
contributed most to convert curiosity into astonishment. The curious collections of
strange and shocking customs, of which we find echoes in Herodotus, Hippocrates,
the Διαλέξεις, ete., clearly originated in the sixth century, and supplied the arsenal of
the militant Sophists.
HEIDEL. — Περὶ φύσεως. 89
anthropomorphic passions, ill comported with the growth of reason
which demanded submission to universal law. Greek religion experi-
enced the inevitable conflict between the imagination, the flowering of
the capricious faculties of youth, and the reflective reason, in which the
maturing powers assert their right to fixed habits of thought.
Now φυσιολογία is simply λόγος or ἱστορία περὶ φύσεως, --- the child
of the maturing age which set itself to discard or disregard childish
things and to see things as they are. Thus λόγος περὶ φύσεως succeeds
μῦθος περὶ θεῶν. The transition is natural ; but it involves an element
of opposition which could not help but be painful and even bitter as
the extent and bearings of the inevitable conflict came to consciousness.
The history of pre-Socratic philosophy is the history of this conflict ;
but the opposition was not final. The strain of conflicting ideals re-
sulted in a new synthesis. Plato and Aristotle sought to effect such
a synthesis, and the endeavor to perfect it is the characteristic of
the main current of post-Aristotelian philosophy from the Stoics to
Plotinus.
Gibbon’s saying,39 “‘ Freedom is the first step to curiosity and knowl-
edge,” nowhere finds fuller application or illustration than in the history
of Greek philosophical thought ; and nowhere did the early Greek
thinkers so much feel the need of asserting their freedom as in the
sphere of opinion where there was an actual or possible clash with the
received theology in the guise of μῦθος. From the first, philosophers
had broken with it in intention, however much haunted they might
have been individually or collectively by presuppositions formulated in
their mythology. It should occasion no surprise to find inconsisten-
cies and lapses from their principles ; for such are common in all ages,
because of the imperfect fluidity of the mental content, which refuses
to be reshaped at a cast. Nor should we expect to find the principles
operating to the regeneration of thought explicitly stated at the be-
ginning : it is the rule that the clear enunciation of principles follows,
often tardily, the tacit application of them. Plato speaks of the ancient
feud between poetry and philosophy ; and the point of contention con-
cerns pidos.49 Plato also well expresses the fundamental difference be-
tween the two. ΤῸ him the poet is a θεῖος ἀνήρ, 43 a seer who works by
inspiration ; 42 the philosopher must follow the argument, even against
39 Decline and Fall, ch. 66.
40 Repub. 607 B. See Adam’s note ad loc. and The Religious Teachers of Greece,
p. 2 foll., 401 foll.
41 Repub. 368 A (with Adam’s note).
42 Apol. 22 A foll., etc.
90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
his inclination: 6 yap λόγος ἡμᾶς ἥρει, he says of himself 38. in apol-
ogizing for expelling Homer from the ideal state of the philosopher-
king.
In the Epicurean Epistle to Pythocles #4 a distinction is drawn be-
tween such phenomena as admit of but one rational explanation and
such as admit of several explanations equally consonant with the data
of sense. In the former, the conclusion must be categorically affirmed ;
in regard to the latter, one must suspend judgment: “for one must
conduct investigations into the operations of nature, not in accordance
with vain dogmas and ex-cathedra pronouncements, but according as the
phenomena demand. . . . But when one fails to state one possible ex-
planation and rejects another that is equally consonant with the data
of sense, it is evident that one falls wholly outside the breastworks of
science and lapses into μῦθος. £5
From the first φυσιολογία or ἱστορία περὶ φύσεως 15 characterized by
the fact that it wholly disregards religious authority 4° (νομοθεσία of
43 Repub. 607 B. Following the lead of the argument is a commonplace in Plato :
ep. Euthyph. 14C, Theaet. 172 D, Gorg. 527 E, Phaed. 82D, 115 B, Repub. 365 D,
394 D, 415 D, Legg. 667 A.
#4 Diog. Laert. x. 86-87.
45 The fear of μῦθος was ever-present to Epicurus and his followers. See my
Epicurea (American Journal of Philology, xx111. p. 194) and compare Κύριαι Δόξαι,
ΧΙ.--ΧΙΠ. and Lucretius 1. 68 foll., 102 foll., 151 foll., v. 1183 foll. See also Zeller,
Phil. der Griechen, 111. (a), 397, n. 2. Epicurus was, however, herein only following
Democritus, fr. 297 (Diels): ἔνιοι θνητῆς φύσεως διάλυσιν οὐκ εἰδότες ἄνθρωποι, συνειδήσει
δὲ τῆς ἐν τῷ βίῳ κακοπραγμοσύνης, τὸν τῆς βιοτῆς χρόνον ἐν ταραχαῖς καὶ φόβοις ταλαιπω-
ρέουσι, ψεύδεα περὶ τοῦ μετὰ τὴν τελευτὴν μυθοπλαστέοντες χρόνου. Rohde, Psyche, τι.
171, n. cast suspicion on the genuineness of this fragment; but it has been well
discussed by Nestle, Philol. 67, 548. Epicurus required that one judge concerning
what cannot be seen (τὰ ἄδηλα) on the analogy of that which is visible. In this also he
followed the pre-Socratics. See Sext. Emp., vir. 140 Διότιμος δὲ τρία κατ᾽ αὐτὸν (i. 6.
Democritus) ἔλεγεν εἶναι κριτήρια * τῆς μὲν τῶν ἀδήλων καταλήψεως τὰ φαινόμενα " “ ὄψις
γὰρ τῶν ἀδήλων τὰ φαινόμενα," ὥς φησιν ᾿Αναξαγόρας (fr. 21a, Diels), ὃν ἐπὶ τούτῳ An-
μόκριτος ἐπαινεῖ. The same injunction was given to the physician ; see Hippocrates,
Il. διαίτης ; τ. 12 (6, 488 Littré). Epicurus was ridiculed for offering explanations which
were foolish : ep. the delectable skit in Usener’s Epicurea, p. 354, 27 foll., where he is
taunted with believing a μυθαρίῳ ypawder. But the charge was disingenuous, since the
explanation in question was only one of several among which he allowed his followers
to choose, since the matter was not one of which strict account was required of the "
faithful.
46 It would be impossible to prove this without showing in detail — what is easy
but requires more space than can be allotted to it here — how the conclusions of phi-
losophers ran from the first counter to the fundamental assumptions of the received
theology. The philosophers therefore came to be regarded as a godless crew: cp.
Plato, Apol. 18 BC, 19 B, 23D; Xen. Mem. 1. 2, 81; Plut. Pericles, c. 32 (law of
Diopithes, 432 8. c.).
HEIDEL. — Ilepl φύσεως. 91
Epicurus) and prejudice (δεισιδαιμονία), 41 and endeavors to explain
natural phenomena on the basis of well considered facts and analo-
gies,48 assuming the constancy of nature and the universal reign of
law.49 Aristotle says that the early philosophers did not believe in
chance,59 and we find objection raised even to the conception of spon-
taneity,®1 which is made relative to human ignorance.
If one would catch the spirit of that age one must read the priceless
repository of fifth century thought contained in the Hippocratean cor-
pus and the fragments of the Sophists. So little remains to us of the
47 Rohde, Psyche 11. p. 90 draws attention to the conscious opposition of philos-
ophers to the magicians, ete. The same opposition developed among the philosophical
and practical physicians, whence they also have been traditionally denounced as a
godless crew. An interesting document in this regard is Hippocrates II. ἱερῆς νούσου,
quoted below, n. 138. See also I. παρθενίων (8,468 Littré) : τῇ ᾿Αρτέμιδι ai γυναῖκες
ἄλλα τε πολλά, ἀλλὰ δὴ Kai τὰ πουλυτελέστατα τῶν ἱματίων καθιεροῦσι τῶν γυναικείων,
κελευόντων τῶν μάντεων, ἐξαπατεώμεναι. IL. εὐσχημοσύνης, 5 (9, 284, Littré): The
author says one must carry philosophy into medicine, and vice versa. The difference
between the two disciplines is slight: among other things they have in common is
ἀδεισιδαιμονίη ; but medicine is not disposed to try to dethrone the gods— each in
its own sphere !
48 See Rohde, Psyche, τι. 137. The pre-Socratic literature (including Hippo-
erates) is a remarkable repository of interesting observations and analogies, including
a few carefully considered experiments.
49 See Rohde, Psyche, 11. 188; Milhaud, ZLecons swr les Origines de la Science
Grecque, p. 11 foll. Aristotle says Phys. 261 25: φυσικὸν yap τὸ ὁμοίως ἔχειν ἐν
ἁπάσαις. Hippocr. Il. φύσιος ἀνθρώπου, 5 (6, 42 Littré) in order to prove that some-
thing is κατὰ φύσιν says: καὶ ταῦτα ποιήσει σοι πάντα πᾶσαν ἡμέρην καὶ νύκτα Kal
χειμῶνος καὶ θέρεος, μέχρις ἂν δυνατὸς ἣ τὸ πνεῦμα ἕλκειν ἐς ἑωυτὸν καὶ πάλιν μεθιέναι,
δυνατὸς δὲ ἔσται €or ἄν τινος τουτέων στερηθῇ τῶν ξυγγεγονότων. Who could give a
better statement of the constancy of natural law applied to a given case? II. διαίτης
I. 10 (6, 486 Littré) πῦρ, ὅπερ πάντων ἐπικρατέεται, διέπον ἅπαντα κατὰ φύσιν. Leu-
cippus (fr. 2 Diels) : οὐδὲν χρῆμα μάτην γίνεται, ἀλλὰ πάντα ἐκ λόγου τε καὶ ὑπ᾽ ἀνάγκης.
Hippocr. Π. ἀέρων, 22 (1, 66 Kiihlewein): γίνεται δὲ κατὰ φύσιν ἕκαστα. Epicurus
and Lucretius (1, 150) regard the dictum “ nullam rem e nilo gigni divinitus umquam ”
as the cornerstone of a rational view of the world : Aristotle repeatedly affirms that it
was the common postulate of the early philosophers. Once (de Gen. et Corr. 317 » 29)
he hints that the intervention of the gods was to be thereby excluded : ὃ μάλιστα
φοβούμενοι διετέλεσαν οἱ πρῶτοι φιλοσοφήσαντες, τὸ Ex μηδενὸς γίνεσθαι προὐπάρχοντος.
50 Arist., Phys. 1965 ὅ-11. This means, of course, that the philosophers believed
their principles sufficient to account for things. When later writers charge the
Atomists, for example, with having recourse to chance, this is said from the point of
view of teleology: a purely physical cause was thought to be no cause at all. On the
practical side, chance is luck. The physicians thought they could dispense with it ;
see below, n. 152 and 153.
51 Hippocr. Π. τέχνης, 6 (6, 10 Littré) τὸ αὐτόματον οὐ φαίνεται οὐσίην ἔχον οὐδεμίην,
ἀλλ᾽ ἢ οὔνομα μοῦνον. Cp. II. τροφῆς, 14 (9, 102 Littré) αὐτόματοι καὶ οὐκ αὐτόματοι,
ἡμῖν μὲν αὐτόματοι, αἰτίῃ δ᾽ οὐκ αὐτόματοι. In the popular sense τὸ αὐτύματον is
allowed, II. νούσων, A, 7 (6, 152 Littré), Il. χυμῶν, 6 (5, 486 11{{π6}.
92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
authentic utterances of the philosophers of the sixth and fifth centu-
ries B.C., that we should study with especial interest the body of liter-
ature emanating in great part from the pamphleteers who assimilated
and disseminated the teachings of the great masters. The latter were,
as is the wont of true men of science, more reserved than the motley
crowd of pseudo-scientists who caught up their half-expressed conclu-
sions and published them in the market places to eager laymen, for
whom the scientists entertained only an ill-concealed contempt.5?
No opinion was so well established that they would not sap its roots ;
no question was too obscure to baffle explanation. A certain decorous
respect was still shown for the gods ; but they had in fact become su-
pernumeraries so far as concerned the explanation of the world. Thus
Hippocrates 53 says: “ [ἢ matters human the divine is the chief cause ;
thereafter the constitutions and complexions of women” ; but while the
divine is then dismissed, the constitutions and complexions of women
are considered at length and made to account for everything. In other
cases, as, 6. g., in the treatise II. ἱερῆς νούσου, the gods are definitely
ruled out as a particular cause, and only the elemental substances, which
rule in the human frame, are recognized as divine.54 Thus the divine
working becomes another name for the operation of Nature.
A good illustration of this procedure is found in Hippocrates, Π. ἀέρων
ὑδάτων τόπων. After remarking that the Scythians worship the eunuchs
because they attribute their estate to a god and fear a like fate for
themselves, the author says:55 “I myself regard this as divine, as
well as everything else. One is not more divine nor human 56 than
another ; but all are on the same level, and allare divine. Yet every
one of these things has its natural cause, and none occurs without a
natural cause. I will now explain how in my opinion this comes about.”
Whereupon the author proceeds to give a purely naturalistic explana-
tion. You will note here the words ἕκαστον . . . ἔχει φύσιν τὴν ἑαυτοῦ 57
52 See above, n. 87. For the physicians, see Hippocr. Il. ἄρθρων, 67 (4, 280
Littré), Προρρητικόν, 2 (9, 10 Littré), Π. τέχνης, 1 (6, 2 Littré).
3 IL. γυναικείης φύσιος, 1 (7, 312 Littré). Similarly ΠΙρογνωστικόν, 1 (2, 112 Littré)
it is required that the physician study the nature of the disease to see whether it is
too powerful for the strength of the body, ἅμα δὲ καὶ εἴτι θεῖον ἔνεστι ἐν τῇσι νούσοισι,
καὶ τουτέου τὴν πρόνοιαν ἐκμανθάνειν. Yet, the main business of the physician is with
the disease and its natural causes, which he must combat.
54 Hippocr. II. ἱερῆς νούσου, 18 (6, 394 Littré): ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐστὶ θεῖα, ὥστε μηδὲν
διακρίνοντα τὸ νούσημα θειότερον τῶν λοιπῶν τουσημάτων νομίζειν, ἀλλὰ πάντα θεῖα καὶ
ἀνθρώπινα πάντα ' φύσιν δὲ ἔχει ἕκαστον καὶ δύναμιν ἐφ᾽ ἑωυτοῦ. For the last phrase
see n. 57.
55 Ch. 22, p. 64 Kiihlewein. 56 Cp. n. 54.
57 Natorp, Philos. Monatshefte, 21, 581 detects in these words a protest against
teleology. I think he is in error: it is rather a protest against the supposition of
HEIDEL. --- Περὶ φύσεως. 93
Kal οὐδὲν ἄνευ φύσιος γίνεται. --- “ Every thing has its natural cause and
nothing occurs without a natural cause.” Nature has usurped the
power of deity. Lest any should fail to catch his meaning, the writer,
after detailing his naturalistic explanation, repeats: “but as I said
above, this is equally divine with other things ; but everything occurs
in accordance with natural law.” Elsewhere 58 Hippocrates suggests
that it is ignorance alone which inclines the vulgar to regard epilepsy
as a divine visitation. Itis in keeping with this view that teleol-
ogy is excluded ; even where a modern scientist would involuntarily
slip into modes of expression which imply final causes, the pre-Socra-
tics, though at a loss for a satisfactory explanation, offer no such sug-
gestion.59 ΤῸ the Socratics it was a scandal that Anaxagoras made no
teleological use of his Novs.6°
When nature was thus interpreted, it is clear that the gods must
suffer. One recourse was to attribute the organization of the world to
them, and then to have done with them. This is suggested by Hip-
a direct intervention of the gods in the regular course of nature. The scientific
assumption of proximate, special causes is perhaps an outgrowth of the suppositions
of magic, for which see Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des Altertums, τ. (a) p. 97. Heraclitus,
fr. 1 (Diels) διαιρέων ἕκαστον κατὰ φύσιν καὶ φράζων ὅκως ἔχει appears to mean that
the philosopher proposes to give in his philosophical λόγος both the general law or
cause (for φύσις includes both; ep. Il. ἱερῆς νούσου, 1 (6, 352 Littré) φύσιν μὲν ἔχει
(epilepsy) ἣν καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ νουσήματα, ὅθεν γίνεται " φύσιν δὲ αὐτῇ Kal πρόφασιν κτλ.)
and the proximate, particular cause. This latter promise he failed, of course, to
keep ; but that is true of every philosophy that has been, or ever will be, devised.
58 II. ἱερῆς νούσου, 1 (6, 352 Littré) κατὰ μὲν τὴν ἀπορίην αὐτοῖσι τοῦ μὴ γινώσκειν
τὸ θεῖον αὐτῇ διασώζεται. The similarity of this case with that of τύχη and τὸ αὐτό-
ματον (see above, n. 50 and 51) is at once apparent. Science can dispense with
chance and God, in proportion as it apprehends the proximate causes of things.
The religious bearings of this position need not be developed.
59 Cp. Hippocrates, II. φύσιος παιδίου, 19, 21 (7, 506 and 510 foll. Littré) in
regard to the nails on fingers and toes, and in regard to the rising of milk to the
breasts of the mother at parturition. Almost countless other examples might be
cited. The significance of this fact is made clear when one thinks of the constant
opposition of τὸ οὗ ἕνεκα to τὸ ἀναγκαῖον by Aristotle (Hist. Animal., Partt. Animai.,
etc.) and Galen (De Usu Partt.), the latter being the point of view of the pre-Socrat-
ics, the former that of the Socratic. Plato, Tim. 46 C foll. regards physical causes
as mere συναίτια, οἷς θεὸς ὑπηρετοῦσιν χρῆται τὴν τοῦ ἀρίστου κατὰ TO δυνατὸν ἰδέαν
ἀποτελῶν. ῖ
60 See Diels, Vorsokratiker, Anaxagoras, ὃ 47. Rohde, Psyche 11. 192, n. 1 gives
the impression that Anaxagoras employed teleology. Such a statement would he
absurd. Our sources are explicit on this head. Proclus ad Tim. (ed. Diehl. 1. 1)
says: “Avaé., ὃς δὴ δοκεῖ καθευδόντων τῶν ἄλλων τὸν νοῦν αἴτιον ὄντα τῶν γιγνομένων
ἰδεῖν, οὐδὲν ἐν ταῖς ἀποδόσεσι προσχρῆται τῷ νῷ. Tadd the passage because
it is omitted by Diels. Cp. Gilbert, Avristoteles und die Vorsokratiker, Philol., 68,
392-395.
94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
pocrates,®1 and was, apparently, the réle assigned by Anaxagoras to his
Νοῦς. Disguise it as he might, Aristotle could find no better solution
of the problem. Plato 6% puts the question sharply as between God
and Nature, and says that the majority favor the latter. Such, indeed,
was for the moment the logical outcome of the pre-Socratic movement
of thought. It might be allowed that the idea of God was innate ; 68
but, like all other ideas, it was more likely to be regarded as having a
history, and as requiring explanation along with the other immediate
(φύσις) or mediate (νόμος) products of nature. Thus, among others,
Critias 4 explained belief in the gods as a deliberate fiction concocted
by a clever statesman to enforce morality beyond the reach of the law,
supporting it with the natural fears inspired in man by τὰ μετέωρα. It
is not necessary here to rehearse the familiar story of rationalism as
applied to religion in the fifth century, B.c.; 5 but it is not too much
to say that philosophy had deliberately enthroned Nature in the place
of God.
But nature, thus completely depersonalized, could not so remain
indefinitely. Conceived as the power that brings to pass all the events
constituting the sum of experience, nature became in fact a Creator
and Governor, only deprived of reason and purpose, and identified
with the sum of existence.66 The Greek mind, with its plastic imagin-
ation, was not likely, however, permanently to acquiesce in this imper-
sonal view of nature, although Φύσις was extremely late in attaining
personification as a deity.67 Yet, as we shall see,68 a good beginning
was made in the pre-Socratic period. The transfer of the functions
and attributes of the ancient gods to Φύσις by the philosophers of the
61 TI. διαίτης, 1. 11 (6, 486 Littré) φύσιν δὲ πάντων θεοὶ διεκόσμησαν.
62 Soph. 265 C faa δὴ πάντα θνητὰ καὶ δὴ καὶ φυτά. . . μῶν ἄλλου τινὸς ἢ θεοῦ
δημιουργοῦντος φήσομεν ὕστερον γίγνεσθαι πρότερον οὐκ ὄντα ; 7) τῷ τῶν πολλῶν δόγματι
καὶ ῥήματι χρώμενοι. . . τὴν φύσιν αὐτὰ γεννᾶν ἀπό τινος αἰτίας αὐτομάτης καὶ ἄνευ
διανοίας φυούσης, 7) μετὰ λόγου τε καὶ ἐπιστήμης θείας ἀπὸ θεοῦ γιγνομένης ;
63 Hippocrates, II. εὐσχημοσύνης, 6 (9, 234 Littré) καὶ γὰρ μάλιστα ἡ περὶ ᾿θεῶν
εἴδησις ἐν νόῳ αὐτὴ ἐμπλέκεται.
68 In the Satyr drama Sisyphus, fr. 25 (Diels).
65 See Decharme, La Critique des Traditions Religieuses chez les Grecs,1904.
66 Cp. n. 62. With the necessary additions drawn from that passage the follow-
ing definition of φύσις by Iamblichus (Stobaeus, 1. 80, 9 Wachsmuth) well expresses
the conception of the pre-Socratics: φύσιν δὲ λέγω τὴν ἀχώριστον αἰτίαν τοῦ κόσμου
καὶ ἀχωρίστως περιέχουσαν τὰς ὅλας αἰτίας τῆς γενέσεως. Cp. also Hermes (Stobaeus
I. 289, 26 Wachsmuth) ἡ φύσις πάντων, φύουσα τὰ γιγνόμενα, φυὴν (= φύσιν) παρέχει
τοῖς φυομένοις.
67 See K. Preisendanz, Philologus, xtv1t1. (1908) pp. 474-5. Φύσις is worshipped
in the tenth Orphic Hymn.
68 See below, notes 106 foll.
HEIDEL. --- Περὶ φύσεως. 95
sixth and fifth centuries eventually so charged Nature with personal-
ity that the Socratic teleology was a foregone conclusion. From Plato
onwards, with few exceptions, philosophers proceed with the synthesis:
the gods act according to the laws of nature, and Nature assumes the
divinity of the gods.
II.
After thus sketching the setting of those works which by common
consent bore the title Hepi φύσεως, it is proposed in this section to con-
sider the use of the term φύσις among the Greeks of the pre-Socratic
period. Although this study is based upon a collection of passages
nearly if not quite complete, it is not intended to treat the subject ex-
haustively, classifying each occurrence of the term. Such an exhibit,
if carefully and intelligently made, would serve a valuable purpose ; its
main uses would, however, be lexicographical rather than historical
and philosophical. The purpose of this section is the more modest one
of determining somewhat roughly the range of the term φύσις, in the
period under discussion, as an index of the scope of the conception of
Nature. While the chief emphasis will properly fall on works to be
dated before 400 B.c., we shall have occasion to use, with proper pre-
cautions, also certain writings of later date, such as those of Plato and
Aristotle. Indeed, the careful student is not likely to be greatly mis-
led in this matter by any text of ancient Greek literature. ‘The reason
is already clear. The philosophy of the Greeks prior to 400 B.c., with
the sole exception of that of Socrates, may all be properly described as
concerning itself περὶ φύσεως. As such it is sharply contrasted with
the later systems, the main interest of which, with few and relatively
unimportant exceptions, lies elsewhere : to wit, in the spheres of logic,
ethics, and metaphysics. This new interest did not date from Socra-
tes, but had, like all conceptions, an interesting history. If we were
here concerned with this history we should have to retrace our steps,
beginning once more with Homer and the popular notions of the
Greeks embodied in religion, mythology, and moral precepts. But all
this would yield at most a Vorgeschichte ; for the method, which alone
is of importance in philosophy proper, was created by Socrates.
There are, strictly speaking, only two periods in the history of occi-
dental philosophy, the pre-Socratic and the Socratic. The first took
external Nature as its point of departure, and fixed for all time the
fundamental conceptions of physical processes. Even where it con-
sidered biological and intellectual processes, it started with mechanical
notions and arrived in the end at materialistic conclusions. We may,
if we choose, speak of the ethics or metaphysics of the pre-Socratics ;
96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
but every careful student will be conscious of a fundamental difference.
Socrates, by introducing the logical method of definition, based upon
induction and employed in the interest of deduction, discovered a
new order of existence, which was subject not to mechanical, but to
teleological laws. ‘T'eleological facts were known from the beginning of
time, and, as we have seen, Nature herself became, in the latter part
of the pre-Socratic period, charged with personality in a measure
which made a new interpretation of her operations a foregone conclu-.
sion; but teleology, considered as a method of explanation, was a dis-
covery of the Socratics.
The significance of this fact can hardly be measured ; certainly it
has not been appreciated hitherto by historians of philosophy. Among
the pre-Socratics conceptions have been found which were certainly
alien to their range of thought; and the fundamental significance of
the revolution wrought by Socrates still awaits the appreciation which
is its due. Henceforth the world is definitively divided into two spheres,
one subject to mechanical, the other subject to final, causes. The
latter alone is really “intelligible” ; of the other we may say ὅτι, not
διότ. The later Greek systems owe their basic physical concepts ulti-
mately, and almost exclusively, to the pre-Socratics: where these con-
ceptions were in any way modified, the reasons for the change are
commonly to be sought in obviously logical or metaphysical considera-
tions traceable to the Socratics. Hence the two discrete streams of
philosophical thought, though externally united, flow in the main
peacefully side by side, clear and transparent everywhere save at the
line of contact, where they become a.trifle turbid. Plato and Aristotle
constantly betray their dependence upon the predecessors of Socrates
for their physical concepts ; and where the post-Aristotelians departed
from the specifically Platonic-Aristotelian doctrines, they harked back
frankly to one or another of the pre-Socratics for their physical theories.
In the following synopsis the attempt has been made to classify the
uses of the word φύσις in such sort as to suggest their relations one to
another and to the root-meaning, which is assumed to be “growth.”
The scheme makes no claim to finality or completeness, being intended
primarily as a means of displaying in a more or less logical order the
chief connotations of the term. The inner history of the semasiology
may be left to others whose interests incline them to such studies.®9
69 | recret to say that I have not been able to obtain Der Begriff der Physts in der
griechischen Philosophie, 1 Theil, von E. Hardy, Berlin, 1884. I knowit only at second
hand, chiefly through the reviews of Natorp (in Philosophische Monatshefte, 21 (1885),
pp. 572-593) and of Lortzing (in Bursian’s Jahresbericht, 96 (1899), pp. 223-225).
There is a brief study of φύσις in Ch, Huit, La Philosophie de la Nature chez les
HEIDEL. --- Περὶ φύσεως. 97
Synopsis of the Uses of φύσις.
A. in the concrete: growth as a phenomenon or fact
I. φύσις as a (φύσις = yeveots)
process. B. in the abstract : growth as a law, principle or ‘ force’
of nature.
Π. φύ A. the starting point of the process considered imperson-
4 ἔην 8 | ally as physical element, original condition, or place
the begin- of origin. (Aristotle’s ‘‘ material cause.’’)
ning of a er Ἄ
B. regarded as a person or originator. Natura ογοαΐγϊα,
process. Ξ ἘΣ
(Aristotle’s ‘‘ efficient cause.’’)
1. individual, = φυή, ἀκμή, (Aris-
A. regarded from totle’s ἐντελέχεια).
without, as the " ἥ ne
; 2. specific or generic, = ἰδέα, γέννα,
φύσις : external frame
agent Ill. φύσις as esi γένος.
primary ἮΝ ΘΝ ὡς or constitution. 4
none Me un 3. universal, = κόσμος.
ey result of a : j Α
growth. process. 1. physical: ‘chemically’ defined
(Aristotle’s or analyzed into its constituent
final elements in pre-Socratic times,
mu: regarded with reference to its
cause, ish : : 5
which, in open : (by the Socratics defined
the com- B. regarded from He ΟΠ ΕΊΡΒΗ ΥᾺ Ὧν reference to
“—— . 5 Ss © δ
plete circle within, as char- 5
is identified acter or consti- a. regarded positively,
with the tution. as power, talent, in-
“* efficient stinet, native endow-
SPD
cause. 2. mental ment,
b. regarded negatively,
as natural limita-
tions.
Let us now turn to the uses of φύσις, following the order of the syn-
opsis and noting the implications involved in them. Etymologically
φύσις means “growth:” as an abstract verbal its first suggestion (I.)
is that of a process. The process of growth may be regarded concretely
Anciens, Paris, 1901, pp. 65-69. Somewhat fuller is Woodbridge, The Dominant
Conception of the Harliest Greek Philosophy, Philos. Rev., 1901, pp. 359-374, which
was brought to my attention, after this article was in the hands of the printer, by
Lovejoy, The Meaning of φύσις in the Greek Physiologers, Philos. Rev. (July),
1909, pp. 369-383. Professor W. A. Merrill's study of The Signification and Use
of the Word Narurna by Lucretius (Proceedings of the American Philol. Ass’n,
July, 1891, vol. 22, pp. xxxii-xxxiv) will serve as an interesting illustration of the
influence of pre-Socratic usage. The same may be said of the articles nature, kind,
_ and kin, in the Oxford English Dictionary. One cannot overlook the lexicographical
studies of φύσις found in Aristotle’s Phys. B, 1 (and in briefer form, Jfet. A, 4).
Reference will be made to his distinctions at the proper points in the survey. There
are several words of similar origin and meaning which should be studied in connex-
ion with φύσις if a really exhaustive account of the word is to be given from a lexi-
cographieal point of view. Among them may be mentioned φυή and γέννα. Of
course φύειν in all its uses is of the utmost importance ; but, for our present purpose,
these may be disregarded, except for occasional illustration.
VOL. XLV.— 7
98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
(I. A) as a fact or phenomenon. This conception was to the Greeks
so obvious 7° that the fact of natural growth lay at the foundation of
their thought. Growth implies life, and life implies motion. This is
true of Greek thought always. The growth denoted by φύσις refers to
animal as well as to vegetable life; wherefore φυτόν appears originally
to have applied to the former as well as to the latter. It is noteworthy
that φύσις, as implying motion, seems always to denote a process or a
phase of such process; that is to say, specifically the process itself,
taken as a whole,7! or its beginning, progress, orend. It does not lend
itself, therefore, to use as an absolute ἀρχή : it is consequently always
opposed, or subordinated to, creative force as such.72 These ideas
clearly hark back to the pre-Socratic period. In Empedocles we find
φύσις, in the sense of absolute origination, denied ;73 in Aristophanes 74
we find φύσις in the sense of origin. It is difficult to classify certain
uses of φύσις, where it may be rendered birth, descent, age, lineage,
etc., but they may be set down here for convenience.75
But φύσις, as a process, may be viewed abstractly (I. B) as natural
70 Arist. Phys. 1935 3 ὡς δ᾽ ἔστιν 7 φύσις πειρᾶσθαι δεικνύναι γελοῖον. These words
apply to φύσις as a whole, which, according to Aristotle, is a process.
71 There is an interesting passage in Plato’s Phaedo 71 E foll., where he is apply-
ing to the soul the principles of the pre-Socratics : οὐκ ἀνταποδώσομεν τὴν ἐναντίαν
γένεσιν, ἀλλὰ ταύτῃ χωλὴ ἔσται ἡ φύσις ; ἢ ἀνάγκη ἀποδοῦναι τῷ ἀποθνήσκειν ἐναντίαν
τινὰ γένεσιν; . .. τὸ ἀναβιώσκεσθαι. Here φύσις is the circular process as a whole.
72 Thus Arist. can say 7 δημιουργήσασα φύσις, De Partt. Anim. 645°9, but that is
said metaphorically ; habitually φύσις is opposed to δύναμις and τέχνη, in that they
operate from without, whereas φύσις resides within : De Cael. 301° 17 ἐπεὶ δὲ φύσις
μέν ἐστιν h ἐν αὐτῷ ὑπάρχουσα κινήσεως ἀρχή, δύναμις δ᾽ ἡ ἐν ἄλλῳ ἣ ἄλλο. Cp. Met.
1049°8. Met. 1070° 7 ἡ μὲν οὖν τέχνη ἀρχὴ ἐν ἄλλῳ, ἡ δὲ φύσις ἀρχὴ ἐν αὐτῷς As
the Stoics regarded God as immanent, they could speak of Ζεὺς τεχνίτης. In Plato,
Tim. 41 Ο even the θεοὶ θεῶν are bidden: τρέπεσθε κατὰ φύσιν ὑμεῖς ἐπὶ τὴν τῶν
ζῴων δημιουργίαν. Without discussing whether Plato’s δημιουργός was regarded as ἃ
creator merely κατ᾽ ἐπίνοιαν or not, it is clear that nature is supposed to proceed
according to her own laws, and ‘ creation’ is not ἁπλῆ γένεσις.
73 Fr. 8 (Diels); φύσις οὐδενός ἐστιν ἁπάντων | θνητῶν, οὐδέ τις οὐλομένου θανατοῖο
τελευτή, | ἀλλὰ μόνον μίξις τε διάλλαξίς τε μιγέντων | ἐστί, φύσις δ᾽ ἐπὶ τοῖς ὀνομάζεται
ἀνθρώποισιν. Aristotle, Met. 101 4Ὁ 8ὅ curiously misinterprets φύσις here, equating it
with πρώτη σύνθεσις, possibly because he misquoted ἐόντων for ἁπάντων, quoting (as
usual) from memory. The slavish commentators do not correct him. Empedocles
implies that laymen understand φύσις as ἁπλῆ γένεσις, which the philosophers one
and all denied. Aristotle recognizes φύσις = γένεσις, Phys. 193°12 ἔτι δ᾽ ἡ φύσις ἡ
λεγομένη ws γένεσις ὁδός ἐστιν eis φύσιν (= εἰς οὐσίαν, ep. Met. 10037). Met. 101416
φύσις λέγεται... . ἣ τῶν φυομένων γένεσι.
7 Av, 691 φύσιν οἰωνῶν γένεσίν τε θεῶν. This occurs in the so-called ‘ Orphic
cosmogony..
75 Cp. Soph. Ant. 726 of τηλικοίδε καὶ διδαξόμεσθα δὴ | φρονεῖν im’ ἀνδρὸς τηλικοῦδε
τὴν φύσιν ; 0. C. 1295 ὧν φύσει νεώτερος, Trach. 379 ἢ κάρτα λαμπρὰ καὶ κατ᾽ ὄνομα
HEIDEL. — Περὶ φύσεως. 99
law, principle, or force. As we have seen, φύσις and φύειν seemed to
imply a growth from within, directed not by an external force or power,
but obedient to its own laws. The importance of this conception can-
not easily be measured. It expresses succinctly the opposition of ἱστορία
περὶ φύσεως and μῦθος περὶ θεῶν. As Aristotle well puts it, Phys. 192°
8: τὰ μέν ἐστι φύσει, τὰ δὲ Ov ἄλλας αἰτίας. That which is φύσει is auto-
nomous, or, as the Socratics would say, αὐτόματον. The pre-Socratics,
when they use τὸ αὐτόματον strictly, deny its existence in nature, since
every thing has its cause, though we may be ignorant of it. The law
of nature is an inner constraint or ἀνάγκη.15 Hence φύσις, besides be-
ing the embodiment of all natural laws, is also the mode 77 of operation,
or τρόπος, and so comes to mean the customary.78 Indeed habit becomes
a “second-nature,” 79 and thus approaches vdj0s.89 It was apparently
καὶ φύσιν. Probably the last (= lineage) should be classed under III. A, 2, but
many cases present difficulties.
76 Eurip. Troad. 886 Ζεύς, εἴτ᾽ ἀνάγκη φύσεος εἴτε νοῦς βροτῶν. Here, as often,
it is difficult to distinguish whether it is the mode or the force which predominates in
the conception of law. The conception of φύσις as comparable to ἀνάγκη is neatly
shown in Hippocr. II. διαίτης, A, 28 (6, 502 Littré) ψυχὴ μὲν οὖν αἰεὶ ὁμοίη καὶ ἐν μέζονι
καὶ ἐν ἐλάσσονι ob γὰρ ἀλλοιοῦται οὔτε διὰ φύσιν οὔτε δι’ ἀνάγκην" σῶμα δὲ ovde-
κοτε τωὐτὸ οὔτε κατὰ φύσιν οὔθ᾽ ὑπ᾽ ἀνάγκης. As has been already said, the
Socratics did not really understand what the pre-Socratics meant by saying that ἃ
phenomenon occurs ἀνάγκῃ ; as it was opposed to what occurs according to design, it
was rashly described almost indifferently as due to no cause at all, to τύχη, or to
τὸ αὐτόματον. Cp. such popular phrases as ἡ ἀναγκαία τύχη, Soph., At. 485.
77 Hippocrates, II. ὀστέων φύσιος, 18 (9, 194 Littré) ἡ δὲ ἐκ τῶν ἀριστερῶν φλέψ...
τὴν αὐτὴν φύσιν ἐρρίζωται τῇ ἐν τοῖσι δεξιοῖσιν. If one compares the analogous use of
δύναμιν, e.g. Hippocrates, II. διαίτης, A, 10 (6, 484 Littré) θαλάσσης δύναμιν, and the
common adverbial use-of δίκην, one is naturally struck by the circle of ideas from
which the usage springs. The comparison shows the need of caution in inferring
etymology from particular senses of a word. Cp. Soph., Phil., 164 f. βιοτῆς φύσιν
(= τρόπον).
78 The association of φύσις with τὸ εἰωθός is common ; see, e.g. Hippocrates, II. ἱερῆς
νούσου, 14 (6, 888 Littré) ἤ τι ἄλλο πεπόνθη πάθος παρὰ τὴν φύσιν ὃ μὴ ἐώθει. IIpo-
γνωστικόν, 2 (2, 112 ff. Littré).. It is the best sign in regard to the symptom, εἰ ὅμοιόν
ἐστι τοῖσι τῶν ὑγιαινόντων, μάλιστα δὲ εἰ αὐτὸ ἑωυτέω. οὕτω yap ἂν εἴη ἄριστον, τὸ δὲ
ἐναντιώτατον τοῦ ὁμοίου, δεινότατον. (For τὸ φύσει in relation to likeness, see Proclus
in Platon. Crat., pp. 7, 18 ff., Pasquali.) Ibid. passim τὸ ξύνηθες is regarded as κατὰ
φύσιν. [Arist.] Probl. 949931 τὸ πάλιν εἰς τὰ εἰωθότα ἐλθεῖν σωτηρία γίνεται αὐτοῖς
ὥσπερ εἰς φύσεως κατάστασιν. Thucyd. τι. 45, 2 (advice to women) τῆς τε γὰρ ὑπαρ-
χούσης φύσεως μὴ χείροσι γενέσθαι ὑμῖν μεγάλη ἡ δόξα.
79 Democritus, fr. 33 ἡ φύσις καὶ ἡ διδαχὴ παραπλήσιόν ἐστι. καὶ γὰρ ἡ διδαχὴ
μεταρυσμοῖ τὸν ἄνθρωπον, μεταρυσμοῦσα δὲ φυσιοποιεῖ, [Arist.] Probl. 9495 27 μέγα
μέν τι καὶ τὸ ἔθος ἐστὶν ἑκάστοις - φύσις γὰρ ἤδη γίνεται. Theophrastus, C. P. 1. 5, 5
τὸ γὰρ ἔθος (referring to plant life) ὥσπερ φύσις γέγονε. Cp. Nauck, Poet. Trag. Fr.
Adespota, 516; Xen. Lacon. 3, 4.
80 The fact that the pre-Socratics contrasted φύσις and νόμος is instructive. They
100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
on the analogy of such words as avayKy,81 νόμος, αἰτία, δίκη, λόγος, ete.,
that the ubiquitous constructions κατὰ φύσιν, παρὰ φύσιν, φύσει, φύσιν
ἔχειν, 82 were built. Though they often connote other notions, such as
cause, their fundamental reference seems to be to what we call law.
The frequency of such phrases is significant of the prevailing suggestion
which φύσις had for the investigators περὶ φύσεως. There is here a
marked contrast between the implicit and explicit signification of terms.
Such phrases as παρὰ φύσιν have no proper sense except in relation to
a teleological interpretation of nature ;83 but it is obvious that the
pre-Socratics were not aware of this implication. They built up a
structure of conceptions which of necessity led to teleology, but it was
felt instinctively the parallelism of human and physical law, but the latter was con-
sciously their point of departure. Yet in trying to interpret physical law, they
necessarily imported conceptions derived from human law, as, e.g. the δίκη of Anax-
imander and Heraclitus. When Simonides said ἀνάγκᾳ δ᾽ οὐδὲ θεοὶ μάχονται he
meant much the same as the (intermittent) tyranny of Μοῖρα in Homer. I can-
not but think that Pindar (Plato, Gorg. 483 C, 484 B) νόμος ὁ πάντων βασιλεὺς θνατῶν
τε καὶ ἀθανάτων --- ἄγει δικαιῶν τὸ βιαιύτατον ὑπερτάτᾳ χειρί meant the same thing :
cp. also the overruling God of Heraclitus, who is also Δίκη. So, at any rate, Plato
interpreted the saying (Gorg. 483 C, Legg. 714), as did Hippocrates, II. γονῆς, 1
(7, 470 Littré) νόμος μὲν πάντα κρατύνει, and the Anonymus Iamblichi (Diels,
Vorsokr.? 632, 31 foll.). Of course, in an age when φύσις and νόμος were contrasted,
the opposite interpretation would also be found ; ep. Plato, Protag. 337 C foll., Hdt.,
ll. 38, v1. 104, Critias, fr. 25 (Diels). Cp. Galen, De Usu Partiwm, xt. 14 (11.
905 f. Kiihn), and Nestle, Neue Jahrb. fiir ἃ. klass. Altert., 1909, p. 10 foll. Zeller,
Ueber Begriff u. Begriindung der sittlichen Gesetze, Abh. ἃ. Berl. Akad., 1882, cites
some interesting phrases characteristic of the blending of φύσις and νόμος. Cp. Arist.
Cuel. 268°13, Arius Did. (Diels, Dox. 464,24 ff.). The latter, speaking of the Stoics,
says κοινωνίαν δ᾽ ὑπάρχειν πρὸς ἀλλήλους διὰ τὸ λόγου μετέχειν, ὅς ἐστι φύσει νόμος.
The common possession of reason is here the basis of law : conversely in Hippocrates,
Il. ἑπταμήνου, 9 (7, 450 Littré) the possession of a common physical composition is
the foundation of the inexorable law that all must die: καί ye ὁ θάνατος διὰ τὴν
μοίρην ἔλαχεν. ὥστε παράδειγμα τοῖς πᾶσιν εἶναι, ὅτι πάντα φύσιν ἔχει, ἐκ τῶν αὐτέων
ἐόντα, μεταβολὰς ἔχειν διὰ χρόνων τῶν ἱκνουμένων. Here μοῖρα has become expressly
a physical law inhering in matter.
81 Cp. Thueyd. v. 105 ἡγούμεθα yap τό τε θεῖον δόξῃ τὸ ἀνθρώπειόν Te σαφῶς διὰ
παντὸς ὑπὸ φύσεως ἀναγκαίης, οὗ ἂν κρατῇ, ἄρχειν - καὶ ἡμεῖς οὔτε θέντες τὸν νόμον
κτλ. Cp. Plato, Gorg. 483E; Eurip., Τγοαά. 886; Hippocrates, Il. σαρκῶν, 19
(8, 614 Littré) τῆς δὲ φύσιος τὴν ἀνάγκην, διότι ἐν ἑπτὰ τούτεων ἕκαστα διοικεῖται, ἔγὼ
φράσω ἐν ἄλλοισιν. II. διαίτης, A, ὅ (6, 476 [01]. Littré) πάντα γίνεται δι’ ἀνάγκην θείην
is said from the point of view of Heraclitus.
82 With φύσιν ἔχειν one should class such uses as ἔφυ, Soph. Elect. 860, where it
states a natural law. One also meets ἀνάγκην ἔχειν ὥστε c. inf.
83 Natorp, Philos. Monatsh. 21, p. 575 rightly refers to this fact ; but he fails to
observe that the pre-Socratics did not draw the obvious inference. In Aristotle, of
course, the thought is clearly expressed, e.g. Phys. 1995 982 ὥσπερ τέχνη λέγεται τὸ
κατὰ τέχνην, οὕτω καὶ φύσις TO κατὰ φύσιν λέγεται.
HEIDEL. — Ilepl φύσεως. 101
the Socratics who seized the import of their labors, and, by introducing
the teleological method, reconstituted philosophy. Even in the post-
Socratic period teleology, because seen essentially from the pre-Socratic
point of view, became, for example among the Stoics, an idle play-thing,
being purely external.84
The step is short and easy from φύσις, regarded as a process eventu-
ating in a result, to φύσις considered as the author or source of that
which so results (11.). The distinction must lie in the degree of em-
phasis laid upon the beginning of the process as distinguished from its
end, and, by consequence, in the degree of disruption visited upon the
process as a whole. Such a separation is the result of analysis, and
the relative prominence of the members into which the unitary process
falls may reasonably be supposed to indicate the direction of interest
of those who used the terms. This is, however, a point extraordinarily
difficult to determine in a satisfactory way. It is safe to say that the
layman is chiefly mterested in φύσις, the result of the nature-process :
he takes it for granted — his not to question why. It must, therefore,
occasion no surprise that by far the most numerous uses of φύσις belong
to this class (IIL). The philosopher, also, must begin with the finished
product and from it reason back to its source. In a peculiar way φύσις
in this sense (II.) will occupy his attention ; but it is obvious that the
distinction between cause and law must be difficult to draw. Even in
the philosophical and scientific literature of our day it is almost im-
possible to maintain a sharp distinction between them. We may be
inclined to lay this to the charge of the Aristotelian usage; but this
solution would fall short of historical truth. As we shall see, the four-
fold causation of Aristotle, united in φύσις, is rooted in pre-Socratic
usage, though Aristotle reinterpreted the pre-Socratic λόγος μίξεως, or
chemical definition, converting it into a λόγος οὐσίας as the result of
logical definition, and at the same time made explicit the unconscious
teleology of the pre-Socratics by recognizing in the logical definition
the final cause.
Touching the beginning of the process, the philosophers were chiefly
interested in what Aristotle styled the “material cause” (II. A).
There is no reason to doubt that the pre-Socratics used φύσις in this
sense.85 Aristotle speaks of Thales as the founder of the philosophy
8% From certain points of view modern philosophy, from Kant onwards, may
be said to be the attempt to interpret the world in terms of teleology consciously
conceived as the method of human thought. At bottom Pragmatism is hardly any-
thing more than an effort to do this consistently, leaving no Absolute outside the
teleological process.
85 It is one of the many services of Burnet (see above, n. 3) that he directed
102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
which deals with the material cause,8® and says that the majority of
the first philosophers regarded material causes as the sole causes of all
things.87 Empedocles 88 uses φύσις of the substance contributed by
the parents to the birth of their offspring, and Hippocrates 89 does so
likewise in the same connexion. In another passage Hippocrates well
illustrates this force of φύσις. He is engaged in a polemic against the
monists, who assert that all is one, and makes the point that a living
being does not arise from even a multiplicity of substances unless they
are mixed in the right proportions,9® and hence ἃ fortiori, could not
arise from a single substance. He then proceeds : 91 “Such being the
attention to this usage, though I cannot but differ from him in the interpretation of
individual texts. It would serve no useful purpose to specify further instances. But
it should be noted that φύσιες in this sense means ‘natural kind,’ and hence is proba-
bly derived from 111. A, 2. Cp. ἐδέαι, n. 89, and εἴδεα, n. 113.
86 Jfet. 983" 20, interpreted by 983° 7 foll.
87 Met. 9837: τῶν δὴ πρώτων φιλοσοφησάντων ol πλεῖστοι τὰς ἐν ὕλης εἴδει μόνας
φήθησαν ἀρχὰς εἶναι πάντων. Proclus in Tim. (Diehl, I. p. 1) says to the same effect
οἱ μὲν πολλοὶ τῶν πρὸ τοῦ Πλάτωνος φυσικῶν περὶ τὴν ὕλην διέτριψαν. Cp. Gilbert,
Aristoteles und die Vorsokratiker, Philol. 68, 368 foll.
88 Fr. 63 ἀλλὰ διέσπασται μελέων φύσις - ἡ μὲν ἐν ἀνδρός. Diels renders : ‘‘ der
Ursprung der Glieder liegt auseinander ;” Burnet: ‘‘the substance of (the child’s)
limbs is divided between them, part of it in the man’s and part in the woman’s
(body).” Here I agree in the main with Burnet. The phrase μελέων φύσις occurs
also in Parm., fr. 16, 3, where Burnet gives it the same sense, whereas Diels renders :
“416 Beschaffenheit seiner Organe.” In this case I agree with Diels.
89 IT. γονῆς, 11 (7, 484 Littré) ἐπὴν δέ ri οἱ νόσημα προσπέσῃ καὶ τοῦ ὑγροῦ αὐτοῦ,
ἀφ᾽ οὗ τὸ σπέρμα γίνεται, τέσσαρες ἰδέαι ἐοῦσαι, ὁκόσαι ἐν φύσει ὑπῆρξαν, τὴν γονὴν οὐχ
ὅλην παρέχουσιν, κτλ.
90 TI. φύσιος ἀνθρώπου, 3 (6, 38 Littré). There is much in this discussion which
applies the reasoning of Empedocles, for the interpretation of whose thought it is of
extreme importance. It clearly presupposes and combats the theory of Diogenes
of Apollonia (ep. espec. fr. 8, beginning). For the interpretation of Empedocles the
statements regarding fit conditions of mixture for γένεσις are of especial interest,
since they imply definite proportions and the admixture of all four elements. The
intimate relation of Empedocles to the medical schools should be constantly borne in
mind. Medicine, so far as it consisted in the ministration of medicaments, was
essentially the art of interfering in the microcosmic πόλεμος, which reproduced in
miniature the cosmic πόλεμος, and of preventing ἐπικράτεια of the several elements by
combatting the overbearing and assisting those which were in danger of succumbing.
One might be misled into supposing that Greek prescriptions were not precise, because
few such are found in Hippocrates. The reason, I believe, is that Hippocrates
insisted on a minute study of the individual case, for which precise prescriptions for
general distribution would be unsuitable. That prescriptions were given by formula
we know: ep. Hippocrates, Π. εὐσχημοσύνης, 10 (9, 238 Littré) προκατασκευάσθω δέ
ool... ποτήματα τέμνειν δυνάμενα ἐξ ἀναγραφῆς ἐσκευασμένα πρὸς Ta γένεα.
These are classified prescriptions.
91 TI. φύσιος ἀνθρώπου, 3 (6, 38 Littré).
HEIDEL, — Περὶ φύσεως. 103
constitution (φύσις) of the universe and of man, it follows of necessity
that man is not one substance, but each ingredient contributed to his
birth keeps the self-same force (δύναμις) in the body that it had when
contributed.92 And each must return again to its natural kind (εἰς τὴν
ἑωυτοῦ φύσιν), When man’s body ceases to be, — the moist to the moist,
the dry to the dry, the hot to the hot, and the cold to the cold. Such
is the constitution (φύσις 33) of animals and of all things else ; all things
originate in the same way, and all end in the same way ; for their con-
stitution is composed of the aforesaid substances and terminates in the
same in the aforesaid manner, —whence it sprung into existence,
thither also does it return.”
Here we find peacefully side by side two uses of φύσις, (1) that of
elemental constituent and (2) that of the resultant constitution. Among
the strict monists there would be no real distinction, and thus there
would be a show of reason for Professor Burnet’s main contention if
one limited its application to the Ionians and insisted on a strictly
monistic interpretation of their thought ; 94 but where a multiplicity of
elemental constituents are recognized, the two uses must differ at least
92 This is interesting and important in view of its evident dependence upon
Empedocles. Those who incline to regard Empedocles as a shifty and inaccurate
pseudo-philosopher and decline to take seriously his doctrine of μίξις, as does Profes-
sor Millerd, On the Interpretation of Empedoeles, p. 39 foll., should reckon with
Hippocrates instead of relying entirely on scraps of his philosophical poem, espe-
cially when Aristotle agrees with Hippocrates. The fact that Aristotle found Em-
pedocles’ doctrine of the elements inconsistent with Aristotle’s own misinterpretation
of Empedocles’ ‘‘ union into one” (Millerd, p. 40) means absolutely nothing to those
who know how prone the Stagirite was to find his own ‘‘indeterminate matter” in
his predecessors. (See my essay Qualitative Change, etc., and Burnet, 2d ed. p. 57.)
The fact is, and it ought to be emphasized, that the significance for the pre-Socrat-
ics of a knowledge of Hippocrates has been too much neglected even by scholars
otherwise competent. The study of Qualitative Change which I published in 1906
would have gained immensely in value if I had then realized the evidential value of
the Hippocratean corpus and of general Greek literature for these subjects and had
incorporated the materials drawn from these sources which were then at my command.
This is not, however, the proper occasion for a rehandling of that whole question,
and it must therefore be postponed.
93 This passage well illustrates the fact that while the philosopher does speak of
the elemental substance as φύσις, when he uses the term in a general way, as, e.g.
the φύσις of a man or the φύσις of the universe, he means the ‘‘ constitution” οἵ
things. This agrees well with the conclusion of Professor Millerd, On the Interpre-
tation of Empedocles, p. 20.
94 Such an interpretation I cannot accept for the Ionians (see my Qualitative
Change, etc.), since strict monism implies the interpretation of τὸ ἕν as τὸ ὅμοιον,
which appears distinctly first in the Eleatics. Even Diogenes is not to be regarded
as a consistent monist, since he admitted distinctions in his One.
104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
in this, that in the second sense φύσις is a collective comprising the
individual φύσεις 95 of which it is the sum.96
It is probable that Democritus also spoke of the atoms as φύσις in
the sense of elemental constituents of things, though this is not alto-
gether certain.97 Burnet likewise discovers this meaning in a frag-
ment 98 of Diogenes of Apollonia, though as a would-be consistent
monist Diogenes could ill distinguish. Closely allied to this force of
φύσις is that in which φύσις appears as the natural or original place
or condition of a thing. ‘Thus Hippocrates 99 speaks of a joint, in
dislocation, as leaving, and on being replaced, as returning to, its
φύσις. It will be recalled that, according to Aristotle, each element
has its οἰκεῖος τόπος to which it betakes itself as naturally as a cat
returns home. ‘Thus we find ἡ ἀρχαία φύσις denoting the original form
or condition in Plato,19° and φύσις coupled with ἀρχαία κατάστασις ;
but these turns lead naturally, if indeed they do not belong, to the use
of φύσις as constitution.
95 The plural φύσεις, in this sense, is rare, ep. Arist., Met, 987°17 ; [Arist.], De
Mundo, 39614; Philodem., De Morte (Diels, Vorsokr.,2 385, 17). [Plato], Epin.
981 D, uses the singular, not the plural, as one might gather from Diels, Hlementum,
Ρ. 22.
96 The recognition of this is common; e.g. Hippocrates, Π. φύσιος ἀνθρώπου, 4
(6, 38 [01]. Littré) τὸ δὲ σῶμα τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἔχει ἐν ἑωυτῷ αἷμα καὶ φλέγμα καὶ χολὴν
ξανθήν τε καὶ μέλαιναν, καὶ ταῦτ᾽ ἐστὶν αὐτέῳ ἡ φύσις τοῦ σώματος, καὶ διὰ ταῦτα ἀλγέει
καὶ ὑγιαίνει. Cp. also Plato, Phil. 29 A.
97 Democr. fr. 168. But the words of Simplicius are a comment on Arist., Phys.
265° 24 διὰ δὲ τὸ κενὸν κινεῖσθαί φασιν" καὶ yap οὗτοι (the Atomists) τὴν κατὰ τόπον
κίνησιν κινεῖσθαι τὴν φύσιν λέγουσι, and may have no other warrant. But τὴν φύσιν
in the Aristotelian passage means, almost certainly, ‘‘ Nature,” as Prantl renders it.
On the other hand, Epicurus calls τὸ κενόν (which differs from τὸ ναστόν, according
to Democritus, only as μηδέν from δέν) by the name of ἀναφὴς φύσις, though this
may only be a periphrasis for τὸ dvagés. But see Arist., Met., 985° 4 foll.
98 Fr. 2 ἕτερον ὃν τῇ ἰδίᾳ φύσει. This Burnet renders: ‘‘by having a substance
peculiar to itself ;” Diels says ‘‘anderes in seinem eigenen Wesen,” which is probably
the true meaning, implying constitution (composition ?).
99 II. ἄρθρων, 30 (4, 144 Littré) ; ibid. 61 (4, 262 Littré).
100 Symp. 191 A. ἡ φύσις δίχα ἐτμήθη; 191 C ἔστι... ὁ ἔρως ἔμφυτος ἀλλήλων
τοῖς ἀνθρώποις καὶ τῆς ἀρχαίας φύσεως συναγωγεὺς καὶ ἐπιχειρῶν ποιῆσαι ἕν ἐκ δυοῖν καὶ
ἰάσασθαι τὴν φύσιν τὴν ἀνθρωπίνην ; 192 E ἡ ἀρχαία φύσις ; 193 C εἰς τὴν ἀρχαίαν ἀπελ-
θὼν φύσιν. Cp. Repub. 547 B ἐπὶ τὴν ἀρχαίαν κατάστασιν. In Democritus, fr. 278 we
find ἀπὸ φύσιος καὶ καταστάσιος apxains. Protagoras (Diels, Vorsokr. 11. 527, 1) is
reported to have written a work Π. τῆς ἐν ἀρχῇ καταστάσεως (perhaps a sort of
Il. φύσεως ἀνθρώπου) from which Nestle, Neue Jahrb. fiir klass. Altert., 1909, p. 8,
thinks Plato freely transcribed the myth in the Protag. 320 ©, foll. Hdt. virt. 83
says ἐν ἀνθρώπου φύσι καὶ κατάσασι. Here belongs also Aristotle’s πρώτη σύνθεσις
(see n. 73) and Hippocrates’ ἡ ἐξ ἀρχῆς σύστασις, Il. διαίτης, A, 2 (6, 468 Littré).
HEIDEL. ---- Περὶ φύσεως. 105
We have seen that in the world of Homeric thought every event was
regarded as due to the activity of the gods, and that, as the conception
of Nature replaced that of the gods as a basis of explanation, φύσις
was conceived as the source of the manifold activities of the world.
The phenomena of life, cosmic and microcosmic, seeming to occur
spontaneously and without external cause 191 and direction, naturally
engrossed the attention of the philosopher and might well make it
appear possible to dispense with a special cause of motion. Aris-
totle 192 complains that the first philosophers did not concern them-
selves with this question, confining themselves to the investigation of
the material cause ; and such anticipations of his efficient cause as he
finds in the early cosmogonists and cosmologists bear the stamp of
vital and psychic agencies, hardly distinguishable from the persontfica-
tions of mythology. From these facts divergent conclusions have been
drawn, some assuming that the mythical conceptions continued essen-
tially unchanged, others finding a refined animism to which they give
the name of bylozoism or hylopsychism. The first conclusion is shown
to be false by the mechanical interpretation put upon the activities of
the mythically named agencies ; 19? the second presupposes distine-
tions which developed only at a later period. 194 In general the phil-
osophers appear to have contented themselves with the recognition of
the autonomy of nature, assigning no ground for her activity, since she
seemed herself to be the sufficient explanation of events. The strict
exclusion of divine agency not unnaturally suggests a conscious effort
to eliminate such interference, though this inference might be wrong ;
on the other hand the habit of saying that certain phenomena occur
“of themselves” or “of necessity” or “by chance” gave, as we have
seen, great offense to the teleological Socratics. A modern philoso-
pher, conscious of the difficulties presented by an attempt to define
causality and necessity, would judge these early thinkers with less
severity. But the constant criticism of pre-Socratic philosophers
by their Socratic successors, due to the teleological prepossessions of
101 Spontaneous generation of animal life, for example, seems to have been gener-
ally accepted for lower forms. As philosophy advanced the higher forms of life were
included, at least at the beginning of the world.
102 Aristotle, Met. 984" 18-985 22. Cp. Gilbert, Aristoteles und die Vorsokratiker,
Philol., 68, 378 foll.
103 In Empedocles this is obvious to all who regard him as a philosopher and
consider the evidence ; it is equally clear in regard to Parmenides. Cp. my Quali-
tative Change, τι. 89, and see also ibid. un. 55 and 65.
104 For this see Burnet, ed. 2, p. 15 foll.
106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
the latter,1°5 is suggestive of the tardiness with which they came to
consider the implications of causality and the laws of nature.
The use of φύσις, with more or less personification, as the author of a
process (II. B), appears relatively late, as we should expect.1°¢ Hip-
pocrates speaks of Nature as arranging the vitals in the inner
parts ; 107 says of the auricles of the heart that they are instruments
by which she takes in the air, adding that they seem to be the handi-
work of a good craftsman ;198 refers to the vis medicatrix naturae,
Nature having discovered the methods without understanding and un-
taught ; 199 she makes glands and hair ; 110 she can prepare the way
for and offer resistance to instruction ;112 she is all-sufficient ; 112 she
105 Τῇ is perhaps unnecessary to cite passages, but the intrinsic interest of the
following may justify one in quoting it. Arist. De Partt. Animal. 641° 20: οἱ δὲ τῶν
μὲν ζῴων ἕκαστον φύσει φασὶν εἷναι καὶ γενέσθαι, τὸν δὲ οὐρανὸν ἀπὸ τύχης Kal τοῦ αὐτο-
μάτου τοιοῦτον συστῆναι, ἐν ᾧ ἀπὸ τύχης καὶ ἀταξίας οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν φαίνεται. πανταχοῦ δὲ
τόδε τοῦδε ἕνεκα, ὅπου ἂν φαίνηται τέλος τι πρὸς ὃ ἡ κίνησις περαίνει μηδενὸς ἐμποδίζον-
τος. ὥστε εἷναι φανερὸν ὅτι ἔστι τι τοιοῦτον, ὃ δὴ καὶ καλοῦμεν φύσιν. οὐ γὰρ δὴ ὅτι
ἔτυχεν ἐξ ἑκάστου γίνεται σπέρματος, ἀλλὰ τόδε ἐκ τοῦδε, οὐδὲ σπέρμα τὸ τυχὸν ἐκ τοῦ
τυχόντος σώματος. ἀρχὴ ἄρα καὶ ποιητικὸν τοῦ ἐξ αὐτοῦ τὸ σπέρμα. φύσει γὰρ ταῦτα.
φύεται γοῦν ἐκ τούτου. ἀλλὰ μὴν ἔτι τούτου πρότερον τὸ οὗ τὸ σπέρμα - γένεσις μὲν yap
τὸ σπέρμα, οὐσία δὲ τὸ τέλος. Cp. Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Altert. τ. (a), p. 106:
ἐς Vielleicht noch verbreiteter (than the belief that divinities reside in inanimate ob-
jects, such as stocks and stones) ist der Glaube, dass die Gotter in Tieren ihren
Wohnsitz haben. Die Tiere sind lebendige Wesen, die eine willenstarke Seele haben
wie der Mensch ; nur sind sie nicht nur an Kraft dem Menschen vielfach iiberlegen,
sondern vor allem viel geheimnisvoller, unberechenbarer und dabei zugleich durch
ihren Instinkt viel sicherer und zielbewusster in ihrem Auftreten als der Mensch :
sie wissen vieles, was der Mensch nicht weiss. Daher sind sie fiir die primitive
Anschauung recht eigentlich der Sitz geheimnisvoller gottlicher Machte.” These
same qualities of animals, as we shall see, shared in the development of the idea of
φύσις which took the place of that of the gods for purposes of explanation.
106 Not all the passages cited emphasize the agency of Nature, and the degrees of
personification differ ; but personification in any degree implies or suggests agency,
and for convenience, if for no other reason, the uses should be considered together.
107 IT. ἀνατομῆς, 1 (8, 538 Littré) τὰ μὲν ἕξ ἀνὰ μέσον ἐντὸς φύσις ἐκοσμήθη. Cp.
Bonitz, Index Arist. 836% 25.
108 I]. xapdins, 8 (9, 84 Littré) ἔστι δὲ ὄργανα τοῖσι ἡ φύσις ἁρπάζει τὸν ἠέρα. καί-
τοι δοκέω τὸ ποίημα χειρώνακτος ἀγαθοῦ.
109 ᾿Επιδημ. VI. 5, 1 (5, 314 Littré) νούσων φύσιες ἰητροί. ἀνευρίσκει ἡ φύσις αὐτὴ
ἑωυτῇ τὰς ἐφόδους, οὐκ ἐκ διανοίης, οἷον τὸ σκαρδαμύσσειν, καὶ ἣ γλῶσσα ὑπουργέει, καὶ
ὅσα ἄλλα τοιαῦτα. ἀπαίδευτος ἡ φύσις ἐοῦσα καὶ οὐ μαθοῦσα τὰ δέοντα ποιέει. II,
τροφῆς, 39 (9, 112 Littré) φύσιες πάντων ἀδίδακτοι. II. διαίτης, A, 15 (6, 490 Littré)
ἡ φύσις αὐτομάτη ταῦτα ἐπίσταται. Cp. π. 117.
110 TT, ἀδένων, 4 (8, 558 Littré) ἡ γὰρ φύσις ποιέει ἀδένας καὶ τρίχας.
111 Νόμος, 2 (4, 638 Littré) πρῶτον μὲν οὖν πάντων δεῖ φύσιος (talent, natural apti-
tude) * φύσιος γὰρ ἀντιπρησσούσης, κενεὰ πάντα " φύσιος δὲ ἐς τὸ ἄριστον ὁδηγεούσης,
διδασκαλίη τέχνης γίνεται.
112 ΤΙ, τροφῆς, 15 (9, 102 Littré) φύσις ἐξαρκέει πάντα πᾶσιν.
HEIDEL. — ἸΤερὶ φύσεως. 107
produces natural species and legislates language; 113 in disease she
may withhold signs, but may be constrained by art to yield them ; 114
the means employed by her are likened to the means m use in the
arts.115 Such is the picture we find drawn of φύσις at the close of the
pre-Socratic period. In the earlier writers such expressions are rare.
Heraclitus 116 says that “nature loves to play at hide-and-seek,” and
Epicharmus 117 says “‘ Eumaeus, wisdom is not confined to one place,
but all living things have intelligence. The tribe of hens, if you will
note sharply, does not bring forth living offspring but hatches eggs and
causes them to acquire a living soul. This bit of wisdom — how this
comes about — Nature alone doth know; she was self-taught.”
Aside from such utterances as these 118 we are reduced to inferences
from the general doctrines of philosophers, but it is not our plan to
pursue this subject here. It may not be amiss, however, to remark
that the type of pantheism found in Xenophanes, 119 vaguely anticipat-
113 TT. τέχνης, 2 (6, 4 Littré) οἶμαι δ᾽ ἔγωγε καὶ τὰ ὀνόματα αὐτὰς (sc. τὰς τέχνας)
διὰ τὰ εἴδεα λαβεῖν - ἄλογον γὰρ ἀπὸ τῶν ὀνομάτων τὰ εἴδεα ἡγεῖσθαι βλαστάνειν, καὶ
ἀδύνατον - τὰ μὲν γὰρ ὀνόματα φύσιος νομοθετήματά ἐστι, τὰ δὲ εἴδεα οὐ νομοθετήματα,
ἀλλὰ βλαστήματα. Cp. Plato’s Cratylus. It is noteworthy that νόμος is here de-
rived from φύσις, its products as only in a secondary degree accounted the result of
Nature. Alongside this view ran the other which distinguished sharply between
φύσις and νόμος, though here also νόμος is secondary. Hippocrates, II. διαίτης, A, 11
(6, 486 Littré) says: νόμος yap καὶ φύσις, οἷσι πάντα διαπρησσόμεθα, οὐχ ὁμολογέεται
ὁμολογεόμενα > νόμον γὰρ ἔθεσαν ἄνθρωποι αὐτοὶ ἑωυτοῖσιν, οὐ γινώσκοντες περὶ ὧν ἔθεσαν "
φύσιν δὲ πάντων (doubtless including man) θεοὶ διεκόσμησαν - ἃ μὲν οὖν ἄνθρωποι ἔθεσαν,
οὐδέκοτε κατὰ τὠυτὸ ἔχει οὔτε ὀρθῶς οὔτε μὴ ὀρθῶς - ὁκόσα δὲ θεοὶ ἔθεσαν, ἀεὶ ὀρθῶς ἔχει.
114 ΤΙ͵ τέχνης, 12 (6, 24 Littré) ὅταν δὲ ταῦτα μὴ μηνύωνται, μηδ᾽ αὐτὴ ἡ φύσις
ἑκοῦσα ἀφίῃ, ἀνάγκας εὕρηκεν (sc. ἡ τέχνη), How ἡ φύσις ἀζήμιος βιασθεῖσα μεθίησιν.
115 TT. τέχνης, 8 (6, 14 Littré) ὧν γάρ ἐστιν ἡμῖν τοῖσί τε τῶν τεχνέων ὀργάνοις
ἐπικρατέειν. II. διαίτης is full of comparisons between the operations of nature and
those of the arts.
116 Fr, 123 φύσις κρύπτεσθαι pire?.. I interpret this saying as referring to the
game called κρυπτίνδα, and regard it as parallel to fr. 52 αἰὼν παῖς ἐστι παίζων, πετ-
τεύων * παιδὸς ἣ βασιληίης. Bernays (Abh. der Akad. Berl., 1882, p. 43) said of the
latter: ‘‘H. hatte seinen Zeus, insofern er unabliassig Welten baut und Welten
zerstort, ein ‘spielendes Kind’ genannt; der tiefsinnige Naturphilosoph wahlte
dieses Bild, um das Wirken der Naturkriafte allen menschlichen Fragen nach dem
Zwecke zu entriicken.” Heraclitus probably had little reason to fear teleological
interpretation of nature. Perhaps the αἰών is playing a game of solitaire or playing
against a dummy, now winning (κόρος), now losing (λιμός). Cp. Stein on Hadt. τι.
122, 8, On similar lines one might explain the game of κρυπτίνδα.
117 Fr, 4 (Diels). Cp. n. 109, above, and Ar., Vesp., 1282. The genuineness of
the fragment is not above suspicion.
118 Cp. Eurip. fr. 920 ἡ φύσις ἐβούλεθ᾽, ἣ νόμων οὐδὲν μέλει.
119 Cp, Burnet, 24 ed., p. 141 and Adam, The Religious Teachers of Greece, p.
209 foll. I incline to think that Adam somewhat overemphasized the degree of
108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
ing that of the Stoics, inevitably contributed indirectly to the develop-
ment of the conception of Nature as of a power more or less personally
conceived but devoid of definite anthropomorphic attributes. ‘This
view of Nature was henceforth to prevail in ever-widening circles.
We now turn to consider φύσις regarded as the end of the process
(III.). As has already been said the number and variety of cases which
fall under this head are very great compared with the foregoing. In
most respects there is little occasion for special remark in this connex-
ion, since the usage of the pre-Socratic period coincides in the main
with that of later times. Yet there are implications involved in
this same usage which were drawn out and made explicit only in the
Socratic age. Most interesting of all, perhaps, is the complete inver-
sion of the conclusions of homely common sense and common usage in-
troduced by the doctrine of Aristotle. Thus, e. g., he says : 129 “From
what has been said, then, it is plain that φύσις, in the primary and
strict sense, is the substantial entity (οὐσία = φύσις III.) of things which
have in themselves, as such, a source of movement; for the matter is
called φύσις (11. A) by reason of having a capacity to take this on, and
the processes of becoming and growing (φύσις I.), by reason of being
derived from it.” In the circular process of the Socratic the end has
become the beginning ; that which the pre-Socratic called the reality
has become a bare potentiality. Neither premise nor conclusion of
this view would have been acceptable or even intelligible to the pre-
Socratic, although, with one exception, the conceptions upon which the
new view rests were common property. Yet that one exception is the
corner-stone of Socratic philosophy.
When the pre-Socratic asked what a thing was, the answer he desired,
if given with ideal completeness, would have presented its chemical
formula. Now a formula is, I suppose, in origin and intention, a pre-
scription. In the pre-Socratic schools, closely associated as they were
with the schools of medicine, this procedure was natural : furthermore
it was adequate, since the “things” they sought to define were ma-
terial. But, as we have already seen, the Nature which the philosopher
studied became at the end of the pre-Socratic period so charged with
spiritual meaning, and in particular in the kingdom of νόμος, the son
of φύσις, there was so much, non-material in character, which called
for analysis, that a method of definition suited to the new objects of
study became an urgent necessity. If the old method sought a defini-
personality with which the θεός of Xenophanes is invested, especially as the negation
of the popular view of the gods is so pronounced. What remains after the denials,
while containing elements of personality, appears shadowy.
120 Afet, 1015* 19 foll., transl. of Ross, modified.
HEIDEL. — Ilep\ φύσεως. 109
tion of the material thing, yielding, as its final result, the formula of
its production or origin with a view to its possible reproduction, the new
method proposed to define the ‘dea of the thing. Henceforth it mat-
tered little whether the thing was material or not; nor did it matter
whether it was actually or only “ potentially ” existent. These distinc-
tions did not and could not arise until the new method supplanted that
of the pre-Socratics.121_ The thing itself has a beginning, a source, and
a history : it is transient. The idea of the thing (for the Socratic) had
no relation to beginnings or history: it is eternal. The ¢dea of a key,
for example, is totally different from the key itself. The key is of brass
or of iron: that is to say, it is defined with reference to its material
source : the definition of the idea of a key, however, looks inevitably
to its purpose, or end. hus the limits of the process of φύσις, erected
by this two-fold method of definition, are polar opposites. In either
direction the quest was for the truly existent, and, the human mind
being constituted as it is, the ultimate existence must be the first cause.
To the Socratic the first cause must be the end or purpose ; but, since
historically this conception was a cadet and could not wholly supplant
the first-born, the end must be in the beginning, even if it be only
“potentially” present there. Like most Socratic ideas, the conception
of the causality of φύσις, as the end of a process, was involved in many
pre-Socratic expressions, though their significance was not realized.
Attention was directed above to instances of personification (involving
agency) of φύσις in the sense of constitution, talent, etc., falling under
III. The same implication belongs to πέφυκε and φύσιν ἔχει with the
infinitive. Nature thus becomes, as it is by Aristotle expressly re-
garded, a circular process, in which the end of one cycle is the begin-
ning of another: ἄνθρωπος ἄνθρωπον γεννᾷς, The κύκλος γενέσεως thus
established is, however, for the pre-Socratic a real process, with a clear
history, comparable to the Orphic cycle, in which the immortal soul
experiences the vicissitudes incident to sin. In Aristotle, where the
process as a whole is all in all, the single moment tends to assume the
guise of something having a reality only for the theorist, —a kind of
psychologists’ fallacy.
121 Hippocrates, II. τέχνης, 2 (6, 2 foll. Littré) is an interesting discussion of the
‘‘existence” of arts, which could not have taken the form it actually takes if the
Aristotelian distinctions had been current. ‘‘ Potentiality” and ‘‘actuality”” have
no significance in relation to things which have a real history; the terms acquire
meaning only in relation to an ideal construction, such as we find in the Aristotelian
system, where the definition of the οὐσία of a thing has reference to its realization of
an end as seen from without. Teichmiiller, strangely enough, imported these con-
ceptions into the pre-Socratics.
110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
It has already been said that the practical man is concerned chiefly
with the product, which he takes roughly for granted without too much
curiosity as to its origin ; but he is intensely interested in its uses, what-
ever they may be. He does not reflect upon even this circumstance,
however, proceeding in his pragmatic way to do the work in hand.
When therefore he speaks of φύσις it is generally some aspect of nature
as it is that he has in view. From this attitude springs the common
usage of philosophical and quasi-philosophical circles, which regards
chiefly things as things, without too much implication of further ques-
tionings. In so far as there is a suggestion of further questions, they
concern the ‘“‘constitution” of the thing — that is, “what it is” ex-
pressed in terms of “what it is made of.” This is the regular sense
of the phrase περὶ φύσεως as applied in titles of the works of Hippo-
crates,122 and there is no reason to think that it bore a different sense
when used as a title of distinctively philosophical writings.
. If it were our purpose to treat fully of the uses of φύσις we should
have to gather and discuss here the multitudinous meanings of the term
which fall under the third head. This we could not do, however, with-
out unduly and unprofitably increasing the bulk of this study ; for most
developments of φύσις, regarded as the end of the process (III.), are of
slight interest for the particular purposes of our inquiry. We may
therefore here content ourselves with a summary glance at the ramifica-
tions of this main branch, adding such observations as may serve to
throw light on philosophical and scientific conceptions.
We may then regard φύσις, as the end of the process, from without
or from within. As seen from without it is the outward constitution
or frame of a thing (III. A) ; viewed from within, it is its inner consti-
tution or character. Under the former head we may distinguish (1)
the individual frame,123 (2) the specific or generic,12# (3) the uni-
122 See above, n. 10 and n. 93. The titles of Hippocrates are probably not origi-
nal, since in many instances they are in doubt, some works that bear specific titles
being clearly parts of larger wholes. This is in keeping with the facts mentioned
below, n. 204, relative to philosophical works. But in the case of Hippocrates the
title in most cases merely reproduces in abbreviated form the subject as stated in the
body of the work ; and the invariable meaning of φύσις, when used by Hippocrates
in reference to the subject-matter of discourse, is ‘‘ constitution.”
123 Τῇ the individual, φύσις denotes primarily the (perfect) stature attained, els
ἄνδρα τέλειον, eis μέτρον ἡλικίας, as Paul says, Eph. 4, 13. This is Aristotle’s
ἐντελέχεια, for which the whole creation groaneth. Aesch., Pers, 441 ἀκμαῖοι φύσιν
shows that this association of ideas was popular.
124 This head includes φύσις in the sense of ‘birth,’ ‘lineage,’ ‘family,’ and
φύσις as sex; for sex is a γένος. It also embraces θνητὴ φύσις, Democritus, fr. 297,
Soph., 0. 7. 869, fr. 515, and Aesch., Ag. 633 χθονὸς φύσιν, ‘earth’s brood.’ As
(a) under this head should be classed φύσις denoting not the γένος itself but the
HEIDEL. — Περὶ φύσεως. ἘΠῚ
versal 125 frame of things. Difficult, and in some cases impossible, it
is to distinguish clearly between the outward frame or constitution and
the inner constitution or character of things (III. B). Each φύσις or
frame has its inner constitution corresponding to it, which will of course
vary according as the φύσις in question is individual, generic, or uni-
versal. Description or definition of the φύσις relates the individual or
generic to the universal. Of course the crude methods of description
and definition in use in the pre-Socratic period were not consciously
generalized ; but there was an evident desire, manifested most clearly
in the parallel drawn between the microcosm and the cosmos, to find
the universal in the particular. In accordance with the chemical mode
of definition in vogue this desire assumed the form of the postulate
that the constitution of individual things was the same as that of the
world as a whole. We may, if we choose, denounce this procedure as
crude logic, but it was instinctive logic, or logic in the making, for
all that. The differentiae specificae were found chiefly in the propor-
tions of the λόγος μίξεως, although this method was to a limited extent
supplemented, though perhaps nowhere wholly supplanted, by the
differentiation introduced in the universal through rarefaction and con-
densation, or — what practically amounts to the same thing — through
heat and cold. As to the universal, the wide-spread conviction that
each thing shares the attributes, or rather the constituents, of the world
one and all in varying proportions, served as a bond of union, making
things, on the physical side, capable of interaction, and, on the intel-
lectual side, capable of being comprehended. The motive that inspired
the postulation of a common principle for the explanation of the mani-
fold data of sense is particularly evident in the case of the Pythagor-
eans, whose postulate that all is at bottom number or numerical relation
has no meaning except that of rendering phenomena intelligible. This
is clear even without accepting the so-called fragments of Philolaus, in
which it is expressly stated. ΤῸ Aristotle this principle descended in
two forms. For physical theory, it provided a basis of interaction,
specific differentiae, of which we have an early example in Hom. Od. 10, 303, the
φύσις of the plant “adv pointed out to Odysseus by Hermes ; later we find, in the
same class, φύσις denoting the characteristic differentiae of sex. Under (2) we might
likewise include many uses in which φύσις = δύναμις, since the μέτρα of φύσις and
δύναμις are specific differentiae. Cp. n. 85 above and n. 118, where natural kinds are
called φύσιος βλαστήματα.
125 Jn this sense Φύσις practically = κόσμος. For the uses of κόσμος see Bernays,
Abh. der Akad. Berlin, 1882, p. 6 foll. In this universal sense φύσις = τὰ φυόμενα,
φύσις τῶν ὅλων, etc. For instances see Archytas, fr. 1; Eurip. fr. 910; Critias, fr.
19 (Diels); Δισσοὶ Λόγοι (Dialexeis), Diels, Vorsokr. 11. 647, 15; Hippocrates,
II. apxains ἰητρικῆς, 20 (p. 24 foll., Kiihlewein).
He PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
since, in order to interact, things must, according to his theory, be
generically alike, though specifically they may be opposite or neutral
in character. For logical theory, again, the universal is the foundation
of the intelligible world.
It was said above that while the inquiry περὶ φύσεως regarded pri-
marily the constitution of the world, viewed as a given fact, it did
naturally imply a question as to its constituents and hence as to its
origin. To this we have now added that this implied question in-
volved for nearly all philosophers of early Greece the conception of φύσις
as a λόγος pi€ews.126 In effect we had already adverted to this fact in
referring to the chemical definition of things as a congener of the med-
ical prescription. In a curious passage 127 Aristotle dimly perceives
that the λόγος μίξεως, which he appears to recognize only in Empedo-
cles, is intimately related to logical definition, though he seems more
fully aware of their differences than of their fundamental likeness.
Chemical definition seeks to determine what matter entered into the
making of the thing. Whether this matter is of one or more kinds
makes little difference ; since even the monist must somehow give
variety to his unitary substance, and the Greek monists in particular
appear to have conceived of concrete things as ‘blends’ of the deriva-
tive forms of matter. Logical definition, on the other hand, aims to
discover what meanings or marks (teleologically interpreted) constitute
the idea of the thing. Each method arrives at a λόγος : the first at a
λόγος μίξεως ; the second, at a λόγος ovcias.128 In the Aristotelian
scheme φύσις, as the λόγος οὐσίας, is the “ formal cause.” Among the
pre-Socratics, the λόγος μίξεως of the cosmos was the object of scienti-
fic inquiry; and it was φύσις in this sense which, as we have seen,
appears in the titular Περὶ φύσεως.
Thus far we have considered chiefly the physical φύσις or constitu-
tion (III. B, 1); but we must not overlook the fact that with the
126 Op. n. 90 above. For φύσις involving λόγος μίξεως see Parmenides, fr. 16 and
Epicharmus, fr. 2. The latter fragment, whether rightly or wrongly attributed to
Epicharmus, clearly reflects the thought of Heraclitus, a supposed monist. On this
subject see my study of Qualitative Change.
127 De Partt. Animal. 6425 2-31. The passage is too long to transcribe, but
will well repay study.
128 1 cannot help feeling that the periphrastic use of φύσις is a by-product of
logical definition and hence essentially peculiar to the Socratic period. The presence
of such phrases as ἁ τῶ ἀριθμῶ φύσις, τᾶς τῶ ἀπείρω καὶ ἀνοήτω καὶ ἀλόγω φύσιος
alongside ἀριθμὸς καὶ ἁ τούτω οὐσία and τᾷ τῶ ἀριθμῶ γενεᾷ (fr. 11), in Philolaus
casts grave suspicion on the supposed fragments ; for οὐσία in the pre-Socratics
means not ‘essence,’ but ‘reality.’ Natorp, to be sure, in Philos. Monatshefte,
21, pp. 577, 582, finds a deep significance in these same phrases.
HEIDEL. — Περὶ φύσεως. 113
growth of interest in the microcosm φύσις as the mental constitution
(III. B, 2) assumed considerable importance. Now φύσις (like its great
rival, νόμος) ὁρίζει ; and every delimitation implies a positive claim as
well as a restrictive limitation. Thus φύσις positively regarded (III.
B, 2 a), is as (native) endowment, talent, instinct, power, etc., opposed
to (acquired) virtue, art, experience, wisdom ;129 negatively con-
ceived (III. B, 2b), φύσις marks the bounds set by nature to every
creature, beyond which it may not pass.13°
III.
A glance at the survey just given of the uses of φύσις will satisfy
anyone that the conception of Nature in the pre-Socratic period was
developed to a point at which little remained to be added. Certainly
little was added in the course of subsequent Greek thought. Already
our conclusion as to the connotation of φύσις when used as a compre-
hensive term has been stated ; but it is desirable that this conclusion
be confirmed by a consideration of the questions raised by those who
wrote Περὶ φύσεως. Many a word having a wide range of meanings in
the course of its development receives at different times an emphasis
129 Examples of native endowment, talent, or power, are exceedingly common ; cp.
Protagoras, fr. 9 ; Epicharmus, fr. 40; Critias, fr. 9; Democritus, fr. 21, 33, 176,
183, 242, ete. Of φύσις = instinct we have an instance in Democritus, fr. 278. In
Democritus, fr. 267 φύσις means “ birthright.’
130 “The metes and bounds of providence” furnish a favorite theme to singers
and sages of all ages and peoples. Cp. for example, Psalm 104. Greek mythology
found a text in the extravagance of the elemental water and fire respectively in the
flood and in the conflagration of the world due to the escapade of Phaethon. Anaxi-
mander and Heraclitus called in the cosmic δίκη to curb such transgression.
Xenophanes also recognized this principle in the periodicity of cosmic processes.
With later philosophers it wasa common theme. Democritus, fr. 3, couples δύναμις
and φύσις ; ep. also Archytas, fr. 1, and Herodotus, 8, 83. In Herodotus, 7, 16 a,
it is said that the winds do not suffer the sea φύσι τῇ ἑωυτῆς χρᾶσθαι, which is
explained afterwards by reference to ὕβρις. On this see my review of Hirzel, Themis,
Dike, und Verwandtes, in A. J. P., xxrx, p. 216 foll. In Thucydides, 2, 35, 2
ὑπὲρ τὴν φύσιν is set definitely in relation to φθόνος, which opens up the kindred
subject of the jealousy of the gods visited upon a!l who transgress their proper μέτρα,
as we find it developed in the tragedians and Herodotus. In fact all things have
their limitations, even God, according to the Greeks. There is an interesting pass-
age in Hippocrates, II. τέχνης, 8 (6, 12 Littré), where, after rebuking unreasonable
critics of the art of medicine, the author says: εἰ γάρ τις ἢ τέχνην, és ἃ μὴ τέχνη,
ἢ φύσιν, és ἃ μὴ φύσις πέφυκεν, ἀξιώσειε δύνασθαι, ἀγνοεῖ ἄγνοιαν ἁρμόζουσαν pavin
μᾶλλον ἢ ἀμαθίῃ. ὧν γάρ ἐστιν ἡμῖν τοῖσί τε τῶν φυσίων τοῖσί τε τῶν τεχνέων ὀργάνοις
ἐπικρατέειν, τουτέων ἐστὶν ἡμῖν δημιουργοῖς εἶναι, ἄλλων δὲ οὔκ ἐστιν. As limitation
and definition are the basis of intelligence and the guaranty of sanity, the Greeks had
an antipathy to all extravagance. This appears most clearly in their aversion to the
ἄπειρον in all forms. ;
VOL. XLV. — 8
114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
falling now on one meaning, now on another, according to the direction
of interest from time to time. We have had occasion to note this
tendency in regard to φύσις and have seen, for example, that the per-
sonification of Nature has a clear history, arriving at the close of the
pre-Socratic period at a stage that rendered the subsequent teleologi-
cal interpretation of the world a foregone conclusion. It behooves us,
therefore, to inquire what were the principal questions asked concern-
ing Nature in the pre-Socratic period, in order, if possible, to deter-
mine the direction of interest upon which depends the selection of
meanings attached to the term φύσις.
We may prosecute this inquiry in either of two ways. First, we
may study the fragmentary remains of the literature of pre-Socratic
philosophy and extract from its implicit logic the answer to our ques-
tion. Or we may approach the matter indirectly, asking what were
the ideals of science in that age as we find them reflected in the non-
philosophical or only quasi-philosophical literature of the time and
of the following period which received its inspiration from the pre-
Socratics. Strictly both methods should be followed conjointly ; for
only thus could we arrive at a conclusion that might be justly regarded
as definitive. But amoment’s thought will convince any reader that
the limits of such a study as this could not possibly be made to yield
to a detailed examination of the individual systems with a view to
deducing from them the interests of their propounders. So compre-
hensive a review must be undertaken in connexion with a history of
early Greek philosophy, which is not, and cannot be, the scope of this
study. Our attention shail, therefore, be directed to the second
means of approach, with only an occasional glance at the systems of
the pre-Socratie philosophers themselves. We may pursue this course
with the better conscience because it is self-evident that the scientific
ideals of the age were, or soon became, common property, to the defini-
tion and development of which every man of science contributed what
he had to offer. Nowhere does the unity of pre-Socratic thought
more clearly appear than in this field, where philosophers and medical
theorists cobperated in laying broad and sure foundations.
Hippocrates gives us the best glimpse of the scientific ideals of the
age ; and it will prove worth our while to pause for a moment to learn
what he has to teach us. The true physician is called the child of his
art ;131 he is disinterested in his devotion to it, since the love of one’s
art involves necessarily a love of mankind.132 The charlatan was
131 ἸΤαραγγελίαι, 7 (9, 260 Littré) ἰητρὸς ἀγαθὸς... . ὁμότεχνος καλεόμενος.
132 Among the virtues which the physician is said to possess in common with
the philosopher in II. εὐσχημοσύνης, 5 (9, 232 Littré) is ἀφιλαργυρίη. IL. ἰητροῦ, 1 (9,
HEIDEL. — Περὶ φύσεως. 115
particularly despised, and his histrionic deportment decried.133 The
physician who desires to appear in public and address the people, should
refrain from quoting the poets: such a procedure merely argues inca-
pacity for honest work.134 In public speech or writing, however, one
must begin by laying down a proposition to which all may assent.135
204 Littré) the physician is bidden τὸ δὲ 400s εἶναι καλὸν καὶ ἀγαθόν, τοιοῦτον δ᾽ ὄντα
πᾶσι καὶ σεμνὸν καὶ φιλάνθρωπον. ἹἸΠαραγγελίαι, 5 (9, 258 Littré) τίς γὰρ ὦ πρὸς Διὸς
ἠδελφισμένος (called brother, because belonging to the fraternity: ep. Isocr. 19, 30)
ἰητρὸς ἰητρεύειν πεισθείη ἀτεραμνίῃ ; The brotherhood of the fraternity leads to the
fraternity of man! bid. 6, ἣν δὲ καιρὸς εἴη χορηγίης ξένῳ τε ἐόντι καὶ ἀπορέοντι,
μάλιστα ἐπαρκέειν τοῖσι τοιουτέοισιν. ἣν γὰρ παρῇ φιλανθρωπίη πάρεστι καὶ φιλοτεχνίη.
Xen. Mem. 1. 2, 60 refers to Socrates’ refusal to receive remuneration for his informal
instruction as evidence that he was φιλάνθρωπος and δημοτικός. In like manner Plato,
Luthyph. 3 D, explains his lavish expenditure of wisdom as due to φιλανθρωπία, Which
would not only refuse to accept remuneration but would even display itself in paying
the listener to boot. It seems evident that the exalted and even extravagant disinter-
estedness of Socrates reflects, though it doubtless carried beyond the common practice,
the teaching of the medical schools, and possibly also of .the early philosophical
schools. In the medical Ὅρκος (4, 628 foll., Littré) the physician swears to regard
his teacher as a father, sharing with him his substance, and his teacher’s sons as his
brothers ; if they desire to learn medicine, he swears διδάξειν τὴν τέχνην ταύτην...
ἄνευ μισθοῦ καὶ ξυγγραφῆς. Socrates, like Paul, was a debtor to all men: he could
receive pay from none; for Socrates is the first great cosmopolitan. That the
Sophists departed from this custom was one of Plato’s severest charges against them.
They were like the men of whom Xen. J/em. I. 2, 60 complains, who departed from
the philanthropic and demotic way: οὐδένα πώποτε μισθὸν τῆς συνουσίας ἐπράξατο,
ἀλλὰ πᾶσιν ἀφθόνως ἐπήρκει τῶν ἑαυτοῦ" ὧν τινες μικρὰ μέρη Tap ἐκείνου (Socrates)
προῖκα λαβόντες πολλοῦ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἐπώλουν, καὶ obK ἦσαν ὥσπερ ἐκεῖνος δημοτικοί. Cp.
Hippocrates, II. εὐσχημοσύνης, 2 (9, 226 Littré) πᾶσαι γὰρ αἱ μὴ μετ᾽ αἰσχροκερδείης
καὶ ἀσχημοσύνης (sc. τέχναι) καλαί. These are the truly ‘‘liberal”’ arts.
133 JI. inrpod, 4 (9, 210 Littré) ; Π. ἱερῆς νούσου, 1 (6, 354 Littré) ἐμοὶ δὲ δοκέουσιν
οἱ πρῶτοι τοῦτο τὸ νόσημα ἀφι:ερώσαντες τοιοῦτοι εἶναι ἄνθρωποι οἷοι Kal νῦν εἰσι μάγοι τε
καὶ καθάρται καὶ ἀγύρται καὶ ἀλαζόνες, ὁκόσοι δὴ προσποιέονται σφόδρα θεοσεβέες εἶναι
καὶ πλέον τι εἰδέναι " οὗτοι τοίνυν παραμπεχόμενοι καὶ προβαλλόμενοι τὸ θεῖον τῆς ἀμηχα-
νίης τοῦ μὴ ἴσχειν ὅ τι προσενέγκαντες ὠφελήσουσιν, ὡς μὴ κατάδηλοι ἔωσιν οὐδὲν ἐπιστά-
μενοι, ἱερὸν ἐνόμισαν τοῦτο τὸ πάθος εἶναι, καὶ λόγους ἐπιλέξαντες ἐπιτηδείους τὴν ἴησιν
κατεστήσαντο ἐς τὸ ἀσφαλὲς σφίσιν αὐτοῖσι, καθαρμοὺς προσφέροντες καὶ ἐπαοιδάς, κτλ.
(With this passage ep. Plato, Repub. 364 B foll.). 7014., 18 (6, 896 Littré). Cp.
also the portrait of the spurious philosopher, II. εὐσχημοσύνης, 2 (9, 226 foll., Littré).
Cp. n. 47, above.
134 ἸΤαραγγελίαι, 12 (9, 266 foll., Littré). I read φιλοπονίης with the vulgate ;
Littré reads φιλοπονίη.
135 ΤΙ σαρκῶν, 1 (8, 584 Littré) ἐγὼ τὰ μέχρι τοῦ λόγου τούτου κοινῇσι γνώμῃσι
χρέομαι ἑτέρων τε τῶν ἔμπροσθεν, ἀτὰρ καὶ ἐμεωυτοῦ. (Littré misinterprets this: it
means that he shares the common assumption of his predecessors !) ἀναγκαίως γὰρ ἔχει
κοινὴν ἀρχὴν ὑποθέσθαι τῇσι γνώμῃσι βουλόμενον ξυνθεῖναι Tov λόγον τόνδε περὶ τῆς τέχνης
τῆς ἰητρικῆς, KT. Cp. II. φύσιος ἀνθρώπου, 1 (6, 32 Littré) for the common assump-
tion of the predecessors of whom he speaks at length in what follows. II. τέχνης. 4
(6, 6 Littré) ἐστὶ μὲν οὖν μοι ἀρχὴ τοῦ λόγου, ἣ Kal ὁμολογηθήσεται παρὰ πᾶσιν. Cp.
116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
The physician will not indulge in useless dialectics,13® but if he
knows his art he will prefer to show it by deeds rather than
words.137 Life is fleeting, art is long, 138 and a cure may depend
upon the moment.139 Hence the physician must not restrict his
attention to rational inference but must resort to the rule of rote to-
gether with reason ; 14° he must therefore have a knowledge of prac-
tice as well as of theory.141 The main object of medicine is to effect
a cure; 142 above all the physician should avoid making much ado and
accomplishing nothing.14% The. art of medicine is not, however, a
mere routine ; a good share of the ability of the physician is shown in
his capacity to judge correctly touching what has been written ; +4* for
science is constituted by observations drawn from every quarter and
brought into a unity.145 An art or science attests its reality by what
it accomplishes.146 The art of medicine cannot always arrive at
absolute certainty ; but far from disputing the reality of medicine as
an art or science because it does not attain strict accuracy in all things,
one ought to praise it because of its desire to approximate it and to
admire it because from extreme ignorance it has proceeded to great
discoveries well and rightly made, and not by chance.147
Diog. of Apollonia, fr. 1: λόγου παντὸς ἀρχόμενον δοκεῖ μοι χρεὼν εἶναι τὴν ἀρχὴν
ἀναμφισβήτητον παρέχεσθαι, τὴν δὲ ἑρμηνείαν ἁπλῆν καὶ σεμνήν. The latter ideal com-
ports with the portrait of the true philosopher, Il, εὐσχημοσύνης, ὃ (9, 228 Littré)
εὐεπίῃ χρώμενοι, χάριτι διατιθέμενοι. P
136 IT, εὐσχημοσύνης, 1 (9, 226 Littré).
137 II. τέχνης, 13 (6, 26 Littré).
138 ᾿Αφορισμοί, 1 (4, 458 Littré).
139 Παραγγελίαι, 1 (9, 250 Littré).
140 Παραγγελίαι, 1 (9, 250 Littré) δεῖ ye μὴν ταῦτα εἰδότα μὴ λογισμῷ πρότερον
πιθανῷ προσέχοντα ἰητρεύειν, ἀλλὰ τριβῇ μετὰ λόγου. Plato and Aristotle oppose
τριβή to τέχνη ; but this τριβή is not drexvos (Plato, Phaedr. 260 FE), but μετὰ λόγου.
141 JT, ἄρθρων, 10 (4, 102 Littré) οὐκ ἀρκέει μοῦνον λύγῳ εἰδέναι τὴν τέχνην ταύτην,
ἀλλὰ καὶ ὁμιλίῃ ὁμιλέειν.
142 IT, ἄρθρων, 78 (4, 312 Littré).
143 JI, ἄρθρων, 44 (4, 188 Littré) αἰσχρὸν μέντοι καὶ ἐν πάσῃ τέχνῃ Kal οὐχ ἥκιστα ἐν
ἰητρικῇ πουλὺν ὄχλον, καὶ πολλὴν ὄψιν, καὶ πουλὺν λόγον παρασχόντα, ἔπειτα μηδὲν
ὠφελῆσαι.
144 IT, κρισίμων, 1 (9, 298 Littré). Cp. Π. διαίτης, A, 1 (6, 466 Littré).
145 Παραγγελίαι, 2 (9, 254 Littré) οὕτω yap δοκέω τὴν ξύμπασαν τέχνην ἀναδειχθῆναι,
διὰ τὸ ἐξ ἑκάστου τοῦ τέλους τηρηθῆναι καὶ εἰς ταὐτὸ ξυναλισθῆναι.
146 IT. τέχνης, 5 and 6 (6, 8 foll. Littré). We even find a suggestion of definition
in terms of the purpose of an art, II. τέχνης, 8 (6, 4 Littré) καὶ πρῶτόν γε διοριεῦμαι
ὃ νομίζω ἰητρικὴν εἶναι, τὸ δὴ πάμπαν ἀπαλλάσσειν τῶν νοσεόντων τοὺς καμάτους, κτλ.
This and several other matters incline me to the opinion that II. τέχνης belongs to
the fcurth century, though its general value for our purposes is not thereby appreci-
ably affected.
147 II, ἀρχαίης ἰητρικῆς, 12 (1, 596 Littré) οὐ φημὶ δὴ διὰ τοῦτο δεῖν τὴν τέχνην ws
HEIDEL. — ἸΤερὶ φύσεως. 117
“There be,” we read,148 “who have reduced vilifying the sciences to
a science, as those who engage in this pursuit opine. I think not so;
but they are giving an exhibition of their own learning. To me it ap-
pears that to make a discovery, that were better made than left undis-
covered, is the desire and function of understanding, and to advance
to completion that which is half-finished, likewise ; but to essay with
ungentle words to shame the discoveries of others, oneself bettering
nothing, but casting reproach upon the discoveries of those who know
before those who do not know, this appears to me not the desire and
function of understanding, but argues natural depravity even 149 more
than want of science.” Another interesting passage is the following : 15¢
“Medicine has long had an established principle and a method 15! of
its Own invention, in accordance with which the many excellent discov-
eries were made in the long lapse of time and in accordance with which
also the rest will be made, if one, having proper capacity and a knowl-
edge of past discoveries, shall take these as the point of departure for
his quest. But whoso, casting these aside and rejecting all, shall essay
to investigate after another method and in other fashion, and shall say
that he has discovered aught, is deceived and deceives others ; for that
is impossible.” Elsewhere we are assured 152 that the science of medi-
cine has nothing left it to discover, since it now teaches everything,
characters as well as proper seasons. He who has learned its teachings
will succeed with or without the favor of fortune.153
From this it will be seen that the ancient art or science of medicine
had not only developed the spirit of science and formulated in general
its ideals, but that in some minds it had attained to a position of such in-
dependence that it might lay claim to finality. The fact that the claim
οὐκ ἐοῦσαν οὐδὲ καλῶς ξητεομένην τὴν ἀρχαίην ἀποβαλέσθαι, εἰ μὴ ἔχει περὶ πάντα ἀκρι-
βίην, ἀλλὰ πολὺ μᾶλλον, διὰ τὸ ἐγγύς, οἶμαι, τοῦ ἀτρεκεστάτου ὁμοῦ δύνασθαι ἥκειν
λογισμῷ, προσίεσθαι, καὶ ἐκ πολλῆς ἀγνωσίης θαυμάζειν τὰ ἐξευρημένα, ὡς καλῶς Kal
ὀρθῶς ἐξεύρηται, καὶ οὐκ ἀπὸ τύχης.
148 TI. τέχνης, 1 (6, 2 Littré).
149 J read ἔτι μᾶλλον, and ἀτεχνίης.
150 TI. ἀρχαίης ἰητρικῆς, 2 (1, 572 Littré).
151 Cp. II. εὐσχημοσύνης, 2 (9, 226 Littré), and above, n. 147, καὶ οὐκ ἀπὸ τύχης.
152 TT, τόπων τῶν κατὰ ἄνθρωπον, 46 (6, 842 Littré) ἐητρικὴ δή μοι δοκέει ἤδη dvev-
ρῆσθαι ὅλη, ἥτις οὕτως ἔχει, ἥτις διδάσκει ἕκαστα καὶ τὰ ἔϑεα καὶ τοὺς καιρούς. ὃς γὰρ
οὕτως ἰητρικὴν ἐπίσταται, ἐλάχιστα τὴν τύχην ἐπιμένει, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἄνευ τύχης καὶ ξὺν
τύχῃ εὐποιηθείη ἄν. βέβηκε γὰρ ἰητρικὴ πᾶσα, καὶ φαίνεται τῶν σοφισμάτων τὰ κάλλι-
στα ἐν αὐτῇ συγκείμενα ἐλάχιστα τύχης δεῖσθαι " ἡ γὰρ τύχη αὐτοκρατὴς καὶ οὐκ ἄρχεται,
οὐδ᾽ ἐπ᾽ εὐχῇ ἐστιν αὐτὴν (an αὐτῆς ἢ) ἐλθεῖν " ἡ δὲ ἐπιστήμη ἄρχεταί τε καὶ εὐτυχής
ἐστιν, ὁπόταν βούληται ὁ ἐπιστάμενος χρῆσθαι, κτλ.
153 Cp. Π. τέχνης, 4 and 6 (6, 6 and 10 Littré). IL. εὐσχημοσύνης, 7 (9, 258
Littré) the charlatans are said to depend on luck.
ns PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
was preposterous must not be allowed to obscure the significance of its
being made; for at any time, past, present, or future, such assurance
must be essentially subjective, based upon the sense of inner congruity
or harmony of the world of thought organized and interpreted by the
system. It was just this feeling of independence to which we attributed
the growing sense of the autonomy of Nature that made it possible for
philosophers to dispense with the intervention of the gods. The scien-
tific movement in philosophy and medicine runs parallel courses with
constant interaction. How constant and important this reaction of one
upon the other really was we can never know. In the present state of
our knowledge it would be foolish even to attempt to say ; but that it is
a fact, and a fact of large significance, none will deny. The physicians
could not overlook the relation of the individual human organism to
the world. ‘They devoted themselves with keen intelligence to the study
of atmospheric and climatic conditions 154 affecting the health of man,
and in so doing could not avoid trenching on the domain of the physi-
cal philosopher. In countless other ways subjects of prime importance
to the philosopher came within the purview of the writer on medicine.
For all these questions the works of Hippocrates are for us an imex-
haustible source of information, though they rarely enable us to refer
an opinion to its responsible author. It is therefore a matter of interest
to see the intimacy of the relation between these kindred disciplines
recognized by the physicians.
The Hippocratean treatise On Decorum 155 sketches in ideal por-
traiture the man of science (especially the physician) and the philoso-
pher and contrasts with them the charlatan, who appears in the colors
familiar to all in the Platonic portraits of the Sophists. There the
physician is called a god-like philosopher,156 since he combines theory
and practice of all that is true and beautiful. Philosopher and physi-
cian have the same virtues ; their differences are slight.157 Elsewhere,
however, a distinction is drawn between the physician and the physical
philosopher in respect to method. ‘There are those,” we are told,158
“who have essayed to speak or write concerning medicine, basing their
argument on the hot or the cold, on the moist or the dry or any thing
154 Cp, especially the treatise II. ἀέρων, ὑδάτων, τόπων (2, 12 foll. Littré; 1, 33
foll. Kiihlewein).
155 TI. εὐσχημοσύνης (9, 226 foll. Littré).
156 7014. c. 5 (9, 232 Littré) διὸ δεῖ. . . μετάγειν τὴν σοφίην és τὴν ἰητρικὴν καὶ
τὴν ἰητρικὴν ἐς τὴν σοφίην. ἰητρὸς yap φιλόσοφος ἰσόθεος.
157 Thid. οὐ πολλὴ γὰρ διαφορὴ ἐπὶ τὰ ἕτερα " καὶ γὰρ ἔνι τὰ πρὸς σοφίην ἐν ἰητρικῇ
πάντα, ἀφιλαργυρίη, ete. -
158 II. ἀρχαίης ἰητρικῆς, 1 (1, 570 foll. Littré ; 1, 1 foll. Kiihlewein).
HEIDEL. — Περὶ φύσεως. “110
else they choose, reducing the causes of human diseases and death to a
minimum, one and the same for all, basing their argument on one or
two; but in many of the novelties they utter they are clearly in the
wrong. ‘This is the more blameworthy, because they err touching an
actual art which all men employ in the greatest emergencies and in
which they honor most the skillful practitioners. Now there are prac-
titioners, some bad, some excellent ; which would not be true if medi-
cine were not actually an art, and no observations or discoveries had
been made in it. All would be equally unskilled and ignorant of it,
and the cure of diseases would be wholly subject to chance. Asa matter
of fact, it is not so; but, as artisans in all other arts excel one the other
in handicraft and knowledge, so also in medicine. Therefore I main-
tained that it had no need of vain hypotheses, as is the case in matters
inaccessible to sense and open to doubt. Concerning these, if one es-
say to speak, one must resort to hypothesis. If, for example, one should
speak and entertain an opinion touching things in the heavens or under
the earth, it would be clear neither to the speaker nor to those who
heard him whether his opinion was true or false ; for there is no appeal
to aught that can establish the truth.” While the resort to hypothesis
in medicine is here denounced there are instances of such use in the
works of Hippocrates, notably in Περὶ φυσῶν.:59
One more passage 169 relating to philosophy we may properly quote
here. ‘‘ Whoso is wont to hear men speak concerning the human con-
stitution beyond the range of its bearing upon medicine, will find the
following discourse unprofitable ; for I do not say that man is wholly
air, nor fire, nor water, nor earth, nor any thing else that is not clearly
present inman. This I leave for whoso wills to say. Yet I think that
those who say this are in error; for they agree in point of view, but
not in statement. Nevertheless the argument in support of their
point of view is the same ; for they say that all that exists is one. This
is the One and All; but they give it different names. One calls the
One and All air; another, fire; a third, water; still another, earth. And
each supports his argument with proof and evidence, which amounts to
nothing. For, seeing that they are all of one mind, but say, one man
this thing, another that, it is clear that they have no knowledge of the
159 Littré 6, 90 foll. The treatise is a Sophistic exercise, intended to prove that
air, particularly the air in the body, is the cause of all diseases, and employs hypoth-
esis avowedly. Cp. ὁ. 15 (p. 114 Littré), The treatises Π. φύσιος ἀνθρώπου and
IL. dpxains ἰητρικῆς aim their polemic at such exercises, as Littré justly observes,
6, 88.
160 ΤΙ͵ φύσιος ἀνθρώπου, 1 (6, 32 foll. Littré). Littré, 6, 88, thinks the author of
this treatise had definitely in mind, among others, the essay Π. φυσῶν.
120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
matter. Of this one would be most thoroughly convinced if one at-
tended their disputations; for when the self-same men dispute with
one another in the presence of the self-same auditors, the same man
never thrice in succession prevails in argument; but now one prevails,
now another, and again he who has the most flowing speech before the
mob. Surely it is fair to demand that he who claims to have the
right opinion about things should cause his argument always to pre-
vail, assuming that his opinion is true and that he properly sets it
forth. As for me, I think that such men for want of understanding
refute one another by the terms of their very argument and establish
the contention of Melissus.”
If, now, we recall to mind those ideals and conceptions anticipated
above in the first section of this study, we shall have a fair notion of
science as it was conceived among the Greeks of the fifth century B. ©.
But we have still to inquire just what questions the scientist addressed
to nature; and to this quest we may now turn.
Science essays to determine the facts and to explain them. The one
thing depends upon the other. If you find a rock and ask what it is,
it becomes necessary to discover whether it is in position or not. It
proves to be a boulder, and examination shows that it is metamorphic
in character: finally it is identified as Laurentian, and its presence
here is explained by reference to glacial action. The definition of the
fact involves the explanation; but explanation is the motive of the sci-
entific study of the fact, in contrast to the practical interest which leads
merely to classification. The curious child, no less than the philoso-
pher, asks the question, Why? But, while almost any answer, judi-
ciously framed, will satisfy the child, the philosopher knows that the
question may receive very different answers according to its specific
intention. ΤῸ ask why is to demand an explanation ; and ‘cause’ is
our generic name for explanation. Different as individual attempts at
explanation may be, they are reducible to a few kinds. We are famil-
iar with the four-fold causal principle of Aristotle, and with the fact
that, while recognizing four kinds of causation and insisting that in ex-
planation one should adduce all causes, he did not find it possible to
reduce all to one, but was compelled to content himself in the ultimate
analysis with two.1&1
This is, of course, not the place to discuss matters of metaphysics
except so far as they pertain or contribute to our purpose ; but there
is here a point of some interest for us. We have noted that of Aris-
totle’s causes, the material points to the past. It is that which is
161 Cp. Ritter-Preller, §§ 395-396.
HEIDEL. — Περὶ φύσεως. 121
there to begin with. “In the beginning,” says the materialist, “was
matter.” ‘ No,” replies the theist, ‘‘in the beginning God created
matter ;” and thusa preface is placed before the beginning. The tele-
ologist and the pragmatic explain all with reference to the end, which
justifies the means. All alike endeavor to define the fact in the hope
of explaining it ; but it remained for a Socratic to detect the teleologi-
cal import of logical definition and hence practically to identify it with
the final cause. We have referred to the principal classes of philoso-
phers with the exception of the positivist. If the materialist defines
things with reference, so to speak, to the past, and the teleologist, with
reference to the future, the positivist asks neither whence nor whither,
but how. Definition for him becomes description, and description in
universal, timeless terms. Such at least is the logic of his position.
The reason why Aristotle did not find it possible to reconcile his ulti-
mately two-fold causation in his ‘formal’ cause is that historically he
was the heir of the pre-Socratic and the Socratic methods, of which
the former deified the material, the latter the final, cause.162 The
degree of advancement in the formulation of the positivist attitude
was not such as to compel a recognition in logic and metaphysics,
although it would not be unfair to say that there was much of the pos-
itivist spirit in the scientific thought of the fifth century. Apparently
it was the concreteness of Greek thinking, more than anything else,
that obscured the significance of the scientific impulse as such. Every
process, as we have seen, no matter how abstract, assumed in the
thought of the Greeks the form of a series in time, or of a history with
a proper beginning. How much of this was conscious device, how
much instinctive procedure, we shall never know. Even the ideal con-
struction of the world in Plato’s Timaeus was, however, taken as an
intended vera historia by the literal-minded Aristotle.
Accordingly we are not surprised to find that Aristotle sets down the
pre-Socratics as mentioning only the material causes of things. This
means, however, as we may now see, that they did not bring forward
efficient causes — that is, chiefly, God —nor formal causes — that is,
definitions or descriptions — nor final causes, as sufficient principles of
explanation. It does not mean that they were not interested in the
processes of nature as such or in their precise methods and laws.
This no one would deny ; but it is a point of prime importance, whose
significance is frequently overlooked. What Hippocrates says of the
monists is true of them all. “They agree in point of view, but not in
statement.” Why the difference in language? Because one kind of
162 The logical aspect of this situation I sought to set forth in my essay on The
Necessary and the Contingent in the Aristotelian System.
122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
primal matter seemed to lend itself better than another to the explan-
ation of phenomena. ‘The elements were interesting only as means to
anend. It was the regularities of phenomena more than anything
else that drew the attention of the philosopher ; presumably it was this
aspect of nature which counted most strongly in favor of a single pri-
mary substance. But the tendency to simplify was indulged too far
and led ultimately to the opposite extreme.
Science, then, in attempting to explain things, assigns the cause
and interprets the facts in accordance with analogies drawn from expe-
rience. In Hippocrates, Π. φυσῶν, ὁ. 15 we read: ‘“ Airs, then, have
been shown to be most mischievous in all diseases : other causes are
only accessory and ancillary, but this has been shown to be the real
cause of diseases. I promised to declare the cause of diseases, and 1
have shown that wind (πνεῦμα) lords it over other things and particu-
larly over the bodies of living beings. I have applied the reasoning
to known maladies, and in them the hypothesis has been shown to be
true.” “It is the function of the same intelligence to know the causes.
of diseases and to know how to treat them with all the resources of the
art of healing.”163 What applies to the microcosm,!® is equally
true of the cosmos. ‘The causes must be sought everywhere ; for as
Plato says,1§5 citing Hippocrates as his authority, one cannot know
the nature of man without knowing the nature of the whole. We are
accustomed to think that strict science, based upon the knowledge of
causes, dates from the age of Plato and Aristotle, but such is not the
case.166 In the Republic 167 Plato suggests that in the effort to read
163 Hippocrates, II. τέχνης, 11 (6, 20 Littré).
164 The comparison is old (cp. Anaximenes, fr. 2), though the expression only
occurs later ; ep. Democritus, fr. 84.
165 Phaedr. 270 B foll.
166 Cp. Arist. De Partt. Animal. 640° 4 foll. ; De Sensu, 4805 1ὅ καὶ ζωὴ καὶ θάνα-
Tos * περὶ ὧν θεωρητέον Ti Te ἕκαστον αὐτῶν, καὶ διὰ τίνας αἰτίας συμβαίνει. φυσικοῦ dé
καὶ περὶ ὑγιείας καὶ νόσου τὰς πρώτας ἰδεῖν ἀρχάς (cp. Hippocrates, Π. ἀρχαίης ἰητρικῆς,
τὴν ἀρχὴν τῆς αἰτίης. .. νούσων τε καὶ θανάτου) " οὔτε γὰρ ὑγίειαν οὔτε νόσον οἷόν τε
γίνεσθαι τοῖς ἐστερημένοις ζωῆς. διὸ σχεδὸν τῶν τε περὶ φύσεως οἱ πλεῖστοι καὶ τῶν
ἰατρῶν οἱ φιλοσοφωτέρως τὴν τέχνην μετιόντες, οἱ μὲν τελευτῶσι εἰς τὰ περὶ ἰατρικῆς, οἱ
δὲ ἐκ τῶν περὶ φύσεως ἄρχονται περὶ τῆς ἰατρικῆς. De Gener. Animal. 109" 6 εἰρήκασι
δέ τινες τῶν φυσιολόγων καὶ ἕτεροι (the medical writers) περὶ τούτων, διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν ὅμοια
καὶ ἀνόμοια γίγνεται τοῖς γονεῦσι. Op. De Partt. Animal. 641" 7; Met. 1069" 25 μαρ-
τυροῦσι δὲ καὶ οἱ ἀρχαῖοι ἔργῳ " τῆς γὰρ οὐσίας ἐζήτουν ἀρχὰς καὶ στοιχεῖα καὶ αἴτια;
Ibid. 9885 22 ὅσοι μὲν οὖν ἕν τε τὸ πᾶν καὶ μίαν τινὰ φύσιν ὡς ὕλην τιθέασι, καὶ ταύτην
σωματικὴν καὶ μέγεθος ἔχουσαν, δῆλον ὅτι πολλαχῶς ἁμαρτάνουσιν... . καὶ περὶ γενέσεως
καὶ φθορᾶς ἐπιχειροῦντες τὰς αἰτίας λέγειν κτλ. It is evident that Aristotle is here
enlarging upon the criticism of the monists contained in Hippocrates, II. φύσιος
ἀνθρώπου, c. 1, quoted above, p. 119 foll.
167 368 D foll.
HEIDEL. — Περὶ φύσεως. 123
the character of justice one may perhaps gain some advantage from
contemplating it as writ large in the history and constitution of the
state and noting how it originated.168 There were others who pre-
ferred to reverse the procedure, hoping to throw light on general nature
by studying the nature of man. Of these we have an example in Hip-
pocrates, Περὶ ἀρχαίης ἰητρικῆς. ‘‘ Certain physicians and philosophers, ”
he says,1®9 “assert that one cannot know the science of medicine
without knowing what man is, how he originally came into existence,
and of what substances he was compounded in the beginning ; and this
he who would properly treat men must be thoroughly cognizant of.
Now the contention of these men really looks to philosophy, as do
Empedocles and others who have written Περὶ φύσεως. ΑΒ for me, I
consider that what a philosopher or physician has said or written epi
φύσεως has less relevancy to medicine than to painting ; and I am of
opinion that, so far as concerns knowledge Περὶ φύσεως, one can know
nothing definite about it except from medicine ; but this may be thor-
oughly learned when men go about it rightly. Hitherto, it seems to
me, we are far from it: far, that is to say, from having a scientific
knowledge of what man is (that is to say, what his constitution is),
and to what causes he owes his origin and the rest, in any exact sense.
Now so much at least it is indispensable that the physician should
know Περὶ φύσεως and should greatly concern himself to know, if he is
to do any part of his duty; to wit, what a man is (i. e. what his con-
stitution is) relative to meat and drink, and what he is relative to the
rest of his mode of life, and what results follow for the individual from
particular things, and all this not merely in general terms, as e. g.,
‘cheese is unwholesome food, for it distresses one who eats plentifully
of it’; but what particular distress it causes, and for what reason, and
to what ingredient of the man’s constitution it is unsuitable.” The
168 Op. also the myth in Plato’s Protagoras, 320 C foll., where the virtues are
illustrated by the story of their origin. An interesting contrast is presented by
Aristotle, De Gener. Animal. 778* 16 foll., where he discusses the cases in which
biological phenomena are to be interpreted teleologically or physically ; γένεσις is for
the sake of οὐσία, and οὐσία is the cause of γένεσις. The ancient physiologers thought
otherwise ; hence they recognized only material and efficient causes, not even discrim-
inating between them. He states his own view thus : οὐ διὰ τὸ γίγνεσθαι ἕκαστον
ποιόν τι, διὰ τοῦτο ποιόν τι ἐστίν, ὅσα τεταγμένα καὶ ὡρισμένα ἔργα τῆς φύσεώς ἐστιν,
ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον διὰ τὸ εἶναι τοιαδὶ γίγνεται τοιαῦτα. The opposite argument is presented
in Plato, Zuthyphro, 10 A foll. The latter clearly represents the common logical
procedure, based upon the common usage of the Greeks as established in the pre-
Socratic period, though, strictly speaking, the former conforms perfectly to the teleo-
logical logic of the Socratics. This is another illustration of the inner contradiction
of the Aristotelian logic.
169 C, 20 (1, p. 24 Kiihlewein).
124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
writer then proceeds to say that the physician must study the particu-
lar food-stuff and its physiological action as well as the individual con-
stitution, determining which of the humors is πλείων ἐνεὼν καὶ μᾶλλον
ἐνδυναστεύων ἐν τῷ σώματι, and then knowing which humor is inimical 179
to the particular food-stuff and is roused to hostility by it, he can pre-
scribe a suitable diet.
Here we find set up an ideal that science is still far from realizing.
Only a year or two ago an eminent physician stated that the specific
physiological action of drugs still remained undiscovered, with the
possible exception of two or three. Even for foods a bare beginning
has been made. We may recall that Hippocrates elsewhere 171 insists
that each phenomenon has its own φύσις or natural cause (law?) and
that Heraclitus likewise proposed to explain each thing according to
its own law, thus aspiring to meet the two-fold requirement of science
which aims to discover both the proximate causes of events and the
ultimate statement of universal law. ‘There is, moreover, a further
interest attaching to the passage just quoted at length. It formulates
three questions raised by philosophers and by physicians philosophi-
cally inclined: (1) what man is; (2) how he originated; and (3) of
what he is composed. ‘The first and third questions, as we have seen,
practically coincide ; the second agrees with its fellows, except that it
regards the process rather than the result, which is, however, only an
analysis read backward and cast into the time-form. Hippocrates does
not object to the questions, as such; he merely regards them as too
general and, therefore, as premature, considering the stage of advance-
ment attained by positive science in histime. His attitude is instruc-
tive, however, since it is obviously that of a scientist of knowledge and
discernment looking with critical eye upon the venturesome undertak-
ings of less mature minds ; for science naturally proceeds from the gen-
eral to the particular.172 /
The same position is taken in the essay Περὶ διαίτης: 173 “1 say that one
170 In the microcosm we thus have a picture in miniature of the cosmic πόλεμος
of elemental forces, in which one element prevails (ἐπικρατεῖ) at one time, a second
at another. It is the function of the physician to support (βοηθεῖν) the losing ele-
ment and so to restore the harmony of a proper balance of powers. Cp., for example,
II. ἱερῆς νούσου, 18 (6, 394 foll. Littré) χρὴ δὲ καὶ ἐν ταύτῃ τῇ νούσῳ Kal ἐν τῇσι ἄλλῃσιν
ἁπάσῃσι μὴ αὔξειν τὰ νουσήματα, ἀλλὰ σπεύδειν τρύχειν προσφέροντα τῇ LOUD TO πολε-
μιώτατον ἑκάστῃ, καὶ μὴ TO φίλον καὶ σύνηθες.
171 See above, n. 57, and Plato, Phaedr. 270 B quoted below, n. 175.
172 There is an interesting parallel to the procedure of Hippocrates in Aristotle’s
discussion of the winds, Meteor. 360°27 and the comments of Olympiodorus. See
Gilbert, Die meteorologischen Theorien des griechischen Altertums, p. 524, n. 2.
173 A 2 (6, 468 Littre).
HEIDEL. — Ilep\ φύσεως. 125
who is to write a proper treatise on human dietetics must first of all know
the constitution of man, — know and distinguish: he must know of
what he was constituted in the beginning and distinguish (in the in-
dividual case) by what constituents he is ruled. Unless he knows his
original composition, he will not be able to know the results that flow
from it; unless he distinguish 174 the ruling constituent in the body,
he will not be capable of administering what is beneficial to the man.
This, then, the writer must know; but he must have learned, in addi-
tion, the action — whether due to nature or to human constraint and
art — that each kind of meat and drink has which we employ by way
of diet.” ΤῸ these, or similar, words of Hippocrates Plato refers in
the Phaedrus 115 with cordial approval. [Ὁ thus becomes a common-
place that distinction and, above all; analysis of a complex whole into
its parts, are necessary to clear philosophical thought ; 116. and that, in
order to make clear the nature of anything, it is desirable by an act of
imaginative synthesis to reconstitute the fact thus analyzed.
The boy who takes his watch to pieces and tries to put it together
again, — usually with scant success, because synthesis lags far be-
hind analysis, — indulges an ideal, rather than a practical, instinct.
He has no thought of making watches, but wants to understand his
time-piece. At the beginning of the Politics177 Aristotle puts the
matter clearly: “As in other departments of science, so in politics,
the compound should always be resolved into the simple elements or
least parts of the whole. We must therefore look at the elements of
which the state is composed. . . . He who thus considers things in
their first growth and origin, whether a state or anything else, will
174 T read διαγνώσεται for γνώσεται.
175 270 B ἐν ἀμφοτέραις (sc. medicine and rhetoric) δεῖ διελέσθαι φύσιν, σώματος
μὲν ἐν τῇ ἑτέρᾳ, ψυχῆς δὲ ἐν τῇ ἑτέρᾳ, εἰ μέλλεις, μὴ τριβῇ μόνον Kal ἐμπειρίᾳ ἀλλὰ τέχνῃ,
τῷ μὲν φάρμακα καὶ τροφὴν προσφέρων ὑγίειαν καὶ ῥώμην ἐμποιήσειν. .. ψυχῆς οὖν
φύσιν ἀξίως λόγου κατανοῆσαι οἴει δυνατὸν εἶναι ἄνευ τῆς τοῦ ὅλου φύσεως ; Εἰ μὲν Ἵππο-
κράτει γε τῷ τῶν ᾿Ασκληπιαδῶν δεῖ τι πιθέσθαι, οὐδὲ περὶ σώματος ἄνευ τῆς μεθόδου
ταύτης. .. Τὸ τοίνυν περὶ φύσεως σκόπει τί ποτε λέγει Ἱπποκράτης τε καὶ ὁ ἀληθὴς
λόγος ᾿ ἂρ οὐχ ὧδε δεῖ διανοεῖσθαι περὶ ὁτουοῦν φύσεως + πρῶτον μέν, ἁπλοῦν ἢ πολυειδές
ἐστι οὗ πέρι βουλησύμεθα εἶναι αὐτοὶ τεχνικοὶ καὶ ἄλλον δυνατοὶ ποιεῖν, ἔπειτα δέ, ἂν μὲν
ἁπλοῦν ἢ, σκοπεῖν τὴν δύναμιν αὐτοῦ, τίνα πρὸς τί πέφυκε εἰς τὸ δρᾶν ἔχον ἤ τίνα εἰς τὸ
παθεῖν ὑπὸ τοῦ, ἐὰν δὲ πλείω εἴδη ἔχῃ, ταῦτα ἀριθμησάμενον, ὅπερ ἐφ᾽ ἑνός, τοῦτ᾽ ἰδεῖν ἐφ᾽
ἑκάστου, τῷ τί ποιεῖν αὐτὸ πέφυκεν ἢ τῷ τί παθεῖν ὑπὸ TOD; Κινδυνεύει.
176 Cp, Plato, Tim. 57 D διὸ δὴ συμμειγνύμενα αὐτά τε πρὸς αὑτὰ καὶ πρὸς ἄλληλα
τὴν ποικιλίαν ἐστὶν ἄπειρα * ἧς δὴ δεῖ θεωροὺς γίγνεσθαι τοὺς μέλλοντας περὶ φύσεως
εἰκότι λόγῳ χρήσεσθαι. But to study the ποικιλία of things requires that the crazy-
patchwork be set in order by analysis.
177 12528 24 foll., transl. Jowett. Aristophanes, Thesmoph. 11 foll. affords a
good example of φύσις = ‘ constitution,’ which at once suggests ‘ origin.’
126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
obtain the clearest view of them.” Quite apart from the obvious debt
of Aristotle in this matter to Plato 178 and Hippocrates, it must be
clear that this method of procedure has no relevancy to the distinct-
ively Socratic doctrine of definition in terms of the end or purpose ; it
is a survival from the naturalistic or mechanical mode of thought, de-
veloped in the pre-Socratic age, which explains things in terms of their
origin and physical constituents.
Socrates, the originator of the teleological method, could not under-
stand this procedure. "Ὁ his mind it belonged not to theory, but to
the sphere of the practical arts. There is an extremely interesting
passage touching this matter in Xenophon’s Memorabilia.179 «ΝΟΥ
did he (Socrates) converse,” we are told, “about the constitution of
the world (περὶ τὴς τῶν πάντων φύσεως), as the majority of the philoso-
phers do, inquiring how that which the philosophers call the cosmos
originated 18° and by what mechanical forces 181 (ἀνάγκαις) the phe-
nomena of the heavens are brought about, but he even declared that
they who worry their heads about such matters are fools.” ... “He
inquired also concerning the philosophers, asking whether, in like man-
ner as they who learn the human arts 182 think that they shall be able
to make what they may learn either for themselves or for whomsoever
they please, so also they who study things divine think that when they
have learned by what mechanical forces they severally come about, they
shall at their pleasure make winds and rains 183 and whatever of the
178 Especially Repub. 368 D foll., Phaedr. 270 C foll. Cp. Plato’s summary of
the Republic in Tim. 17 C χθές που τῶν ὑπ᾿ ἐμοῦ ῥηθέντων λόγων περὶ πολιτείας ἣν τὸ
κεφάλαιον ola τε καὶ ἐξ οἵων ἀνδρῶν ἀρίστη κατεφαίνετ᾽ ἄν μοι γενέσθαι. For the
thought that to understand a thing one should see it put together, cp. Tim. 27 Ὁ,
28 B, 90 E, etc.
179 y, 1, 11 and 15.
180 The MSS vary between ἔφυ and ἔχει. The former emphasizes the process of
origination ; the latter implies it in the question as to the truth about phenomena
(πῶς ἔχει). Cp. Parmen. fr. 10. In Hippocrates ws ἔχει is often used in relation to
φύσις = constitution.
181 Where the physical philosopher inquired τίσιν (φυσικαῖς) ἀνάγκαις γίγνεται,
Socrates asked, if at all, 7 ἕκαστα ὁ θεὸς μηχανᾶται, Xen. Mem. tv. 7, 6. Cp. ibid.
1. 4, 14 where φύσει = θεοῦ προνοίᾳ: φύσις has become the mechanism of God’s
providence.
182 Cp. Aristoxenus, fr. 31 (Miiller, F. H. G., τι. 281) φησὶ δ᾽ ᾿Α. ὁ μουσικὸς
Ινδῶν εἶναι τὸν λόγον τόνδε "᾿Αθήνησι yap ἐντυχεῖν Σωκράτει τῶν ἀνδρῶν ἐκείνων ἕνα
τινά, κἄπειτα αὐτοῦ πυνθάνεσθαι, τί ποιῶν φιλοσοφοίη " τοῦ δ᾽ εἱπόντος, ὅτι ζητῶν περὶ τοῦ
ἀνθρωπίνου βίου, καταγελάσαι τὸν ᾿Ινδόν, λέγοντα μὴ δύνασθαί τινα τὰ ἀνθρώπινα κατιδεῖν
ἀγνοοῦντά γε τὰ θεῖα. Compare the opinion of those who held that one cannot know
the φύσις of man without knowing the φύσις τοῦ ὅλου.
183 One is tempted to regard this as a hit at Empedocles; cp. fr. 111. Because
of this expression Empedocles has been set down as a charlatan; but in the present
HEIDEL. — Ilepl φύσεως. 127
sort they may desire, or whether they do not even conceive such a hope,
but are content merely to know how these phenomena occur.” ‘The
difference between the physical and the teleological points of view is
beautifully illustrated by the story told by Plutarch in his Life ef Per-
icles: 184 “Tt is related that on a certain occasion the head of a goat
with a single horn was brought from the country to Pericles, and that
Lampon, the seer, when he saw the strong, solid horn growing out of
the middle of the forehead, said that, there being in the city two rivals
for power, Thucydides and Pericles, the power would come to the one
to whom the sign was given. Anaxagoras, however, cutting open the
skull, showed that the brain was not fully developed at the base, but
shrunken from its integument and coming somewhat to a point, egg-
like, at the spot where the horn sprouted. At the time Anaxagoras
was applauded by those who were present ; but Lampon’s turn came
shortly afterwards, when the power of Thucydides was broken and the
affairs of the people came steadily under the direction of Pericles.
There was nothing, however, so far as I can see, in the way of the phy-
sical philosopher and the seer 185 being equally in the right, the one
state of his poem we are not in position to judge. The promise of fr. 2 is sufficiently
modest (cp. Parmenides, fr. 10 and 11). I incline to think that fr. 111 belongs to
the concluding passage of his philosophical poem, and voices the high hopes of the
author that the secrets of nature will soon be laid bare. The age of Empedocles
was intoxicated with the new wine of science and regarded nothing as too difficult
to explain. Once the principles were fully understood, as in certain sciences (e.g.
medicine, as we have seen) they were by some even then thought to be, it was not
strange that men should hope to perform wonders of science equal to the most
ambitious miracles of magic.
184 0. 6.
185 It is certain that the Socratic teleology, whether suggested by Socrates’
reverence for μαντική or not, came to the rescue of divination at a time when it was
in a bad way, as we may see from Thucydides. The identity of the two points of
view is apparent: the question remains whether teleology is immanent in the process
of nature or imposed on it from without. In a way μαντική differs from ἱστορίη
chiefly in this that the latter attempts to know the present by reconstructing the
past, while the former seeks to infer the future from the present. Hence the words
of Pindar, Pyth. 9, 48 ff. are interesting: κύριον ὃς πάντων τέλος | οἶσθα (Apollo) καὶ
πάσας κελεύθους. . . χὥῶ τι μέλλει, χὠπόθεν ἔσσεται, εὖ Kafopgds. Knowledge of the
end,implies teleology : 6 τι μέλλει is ὅ τι ἔστι thrown into the future, and ὁπόθεν
ἔσσεται refers to the κέλευθοι, as Gildersleeve rightly says. Compare the praise of
(Anaxagorean ?) physical philosophy in Eurip. fr. 910 (the text of Diels, Vorsokr.
299, 23) ὄλβιος ὅστις τῆς ἱστορίας | ἔσχε μάθησιν | μήτε πολιτῶν ἐπὶ πημοσύνην | μήτ᾽
εἰς ἀδίκους πράξεις ὁρμῶν, ἀλλ᾽ ἀθανάτου καθορῶν φύσεως κόσμον ἀγήρων, ἥ τε
συνέστη] χῶπῃ χώπως. What and how are the main questions; the latter
includes the story, and hence the beginnings. Compare Plato, Phaed. 97C εἰ οὖν
τις βούλοιτο τὴν αἰτίαν εὑρεῖν περὶ ἑκάστου ὅπῃ γίγνεται ἢ ἀπόλλυται ἢ ἔστι with 96 A
ὑπερήφανος yap μοι ἐδόκει (sc. 7 σοφία, ἣν δὴ καλοῦσι περὶ φύσεως ἱστορίαν), καὶ
εἰδέναι τὰς αἰτίας ἑκάστου, διὰ τί γίγνεται ἕκαστον καὶ διὰ τί ἀπόλλυται καὶ διὰ τί ἔστι.
128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
well singling out the physical cause (τὴν αἰτίαν) the other the purpose
(τὸ τέλος) ; for the former was, by hypothesis, inquiring from what phy-
sical conditions it sprung and how it came about in the course of nature
(ἐκ τίνων γέγονε καὶ πῶς πέφυκε), whereas the latter was predicting to
what purpose it came about and what it signified ” (πρὸς τί γέγονε καὶ τί
σημαίνει).
Democritus is reported to have said that he would rather make one
contribution to the causal explanation of things than be made King of
the Persians.18¢ Surely this does not mean that he wanted to discover
an atom; he was in search of the causal nexus in whatever form, and
his atoms and void were only the last link in the chain. Men knew
what it meant to explain: they did not confuse explanation with de-
scription, although they might content themselves with the latter, in
default of the former. This was often the attitude of the physician,
aware of his ignorance of the real cause. The words of Thucydides
about the great plague well illustrate this point. “As to its probable
origin,” he says,187 “or the causes which might or could have produced
such a disturbance of nature, every man, whether a physician or not,
may give his own opinion. But I shall describe its actual course, and
the symptoms by which any one who knows them beforehand may
recognize the disorder should it ever reappear.”
It would be easy to multiply witnesses proving that the pre-Socratic
philosophers aimed at nothing short of a complete understanding of the
world in terms of its physical causes ; but enough has been said. ‘There
is, however, one passage in Plato to which reference should be made.
In the Phaedo 188 Socrates sets forth, as only Plato could do it, the
difference in point of view between the Socratic and the pre-Socratic
philosophies. No contrast could be more clearly or sharply drawn : on.
the one hand we find an explanation of things begmning with matter
and operating with mechanical causes, for which Socrates declares him-
self by nature unfitted ; on the other stands the teleological conception
of the world for which Socrates is sponsor. Socrates tells how eagerly
he took up the book of Anaxagoras in the hope of finding a real antici-
pation of his view, but only to meet with utter disappointment. Plato
does not often touch directly upon the earlier philosophies, but here he
has drawn a picture of their aims and methods which leaves nothing
to be desired. Perhaps its full significance is hardly realized.
280, 118.
187 τι, 48, 3, transl. Jowett. In Hippocrates, especially in the works which may
be classed as note-books, explanation commonly yields to description of the disease
and its symptoms.
188 96 A foll.
HEIDEL. — Περὶ φύσεως. 129
It may be assumed, then, that in the conception of Nature developed
by the pre-Socratics all the main senses of the term φύσις were com-
bined ; that is to say, Nature meant to them not only that out of
which things grew or of which, in the last analysis, they are consti-
tuted ; this was one of its meanings, but only one, and that not the
most important. Certainly it would not be true to say even of the Ioni-
ans that they restricted themselves to the question as to the primary
substance of the world. Nature (and φύσις) meant more than this : it
included the law or process of growth exemplified in all things. Aris-
totle and Theophrastus suggest that Thales was led to the assumption
that water was the primary substance by observations connected with
evaporation and precipitation ; be that as it may, it is certain that his
successor Anaximander was more interested in the cosmic process of seg-
regation than in his colorless Infinite, and thenceforward cosmic pro-
cesses and laws occupy the attention of philosophers more and more.
The main sense of Nature was, however, the sum of things as consti-
tuted by the elements and the cosmic laws and processes. ‘This it was,
the Natura Rerum, to the understanding of which the philosopher im-
mediately addressed himself ; and it was in this sense that the term φύσις
occurs in the titular phrase Περὶ φύσεως. Yet, as we have seen, while
the inquiry or ἱστορίη περὶ φύσεως concerned the question ‘what is it’
(67 ἐστί), the answer at once carried the inquirer to the further ques-
tions ‘of what is it constituted’ and ‘how did it come about.’ There
is nothing startling in this conclusion. It is just what we might have
expected, knowing the operations of the human mind. ,It is, however,
not without a certain interest that we thus discover the ideals of pres-
ent-day science informing and impelling the fathers of all science.
Science, however, merely formulates in the hierarchy of its ideals the
interests of the plain man who goes about his daily business with no
particular predilection for matters theoretical. The common mind is
chiefly concerned with results, neither asking nor greatly caring how
they were obtained. As for the underlying causes, material or efficient,
which produced the results, they are relatively unimportant, except for
the purpose of attaining the same object either actually or by way of
ideal construction or verification. Thus every one has heard of the
latest invention, say the aeroplane, and accepts it as a fact of interest.
Many, though by no means all, know the names of the inventors; the
human interest in personalities of distinction contributes not a little to
the attitude of mind which fixes attention upon the author. Even
smaller is the number of those who know of what materials the machine
is constructed. That is a question of importance chiefly to the practical
experimenter. Fewest of all are those who concern themselves about
VOL. XLV. —9
130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
the natural laws involved in the attempt to navigate the air, of which
the inventor must take advantage in the deft adjustment of his me-
chanical contrivance to the attainment of his cherished object. Many
an experimenter even will be found to be lacking in a knowledge of
these principles which absorb the attention of the theorist. The natural
philosopher, however, will devote himself to the determination and for-
mulation of the laws involved ; from his point of view the inventor is
of no consequence, and in his calculations the materials used in the
contrivance will figure as a plus or minus quantity.
It remains for us to speak briefly of Professor Burnet’s dictum 189
concerning the scope of the early Greek researches Iepi φύσεως. Since
he himself holds that the title is not original and finds it first men-
tioned in Euripides,19° it is fair to judge it by the conceptions of the
fifth century. But we may reasonably go farther and assert that the
usage of the fifth and fourth centuries B.c. merely reflects the ideals of
Greek science as they were gradually developed from the beginning.
In the Metaphysics 191 Aristotle says: ‘ It is owing to their wonder
that men both now begin and at first began to philosophize ; they won-
dered originally at the obvious difficulties, then advanced little by little
and stated difficulties about the greater matters, e. g. about the phe-
nomena of the moon and those of the sun, and about the stars and
about the genesis of the universe.” It is clear that the “obvious diffi-
culties,” which are said to have originally excited the wonder of men,
belong rather to the stages of preparation for technical philosophy, and
that philosophy proper begins for -Aristotle with the investigation of the
phenomena of the heavens and of the origin of the universe. Accord-
ing to Plato 192 also it was the observed regularities of heavenly phe-
nomena that begot the research into the nature of the universe. ‘They
were the θεῖα par excellence,193 and wonder born of the observation of
them was supposed to have produced the belief in the existence of
gods.194 It*can hardly be doubted that in the early stages of philoso-
phy the researches of investigators might have been almost indifferently
characterized as περὶ μετεώρων or περὶ φύσεως ἱστορί. Speaking of the
distinction and elevation in oratory conferred upon Pericles by his fa-
miliarity with the lofty speculations of Anaxagoras, Plato says 195 πᾶσαι
ὅσαι μεγάλαι τῶν τεχνῶν προσδέονται ἀδολεσχίας καὶ μετεωρολογίας φύσεως
189 Quoted above, p. 80.
190 See above, ἢ, 7.
191 Met. 982° 12-17, transl. Ross.
192 Tim. 47 A. Cp. Epin. 990 A and Repub. 5380 A-531 A.
193 Cp. n. 182 above.
194 By Democritus, cp. Diels, Vorsokr. 365, 22 foll.
195 Phacdr, 269 EH.
HEIDEL. — Ilep\ φύσεως. . 131
πέρι; and even Aristotle comprehended in the term perewpodoyéa his
philosophy of nature as a whole.19* His Physics is rather the metaphy-
sical consideration of the principles involved in the explanation of
Nature. In the Hippocratean treatise Περὶ σαρκῶν occurs an instruc-
tive passage. “Concerning τὰ peréwpa,” we read,197 “1 do not want
to speak except to show, in regard to man and the other animals, how
they came about in the course of nature, and what the soul is, what is
health and disease, what it is that produces health and disease in man,
and from what cause he dies.” ‘The author, while professing to speak
περὶ τῶν μετεώρων, proceeds to sketch the origin of things, giving in fact
a miniature discourse Hept φύσεως after the manner of the philosophers,
in the course of which he describes the segregation of the cosmic ele-
ments and then turns abruptly to tell of the origin of the various parts
of the human organism. Each subject is introduced with the laconic
but significant phrase, ὧδε ἐγένετο. 198
We are thus brought face to face with the second sphere of interest
included in the researches of early philosophy ; for, however much the
cosmos engaged the attention of the investigator, the microcosm soon,
if not immediately, made good its claims. We have repeatedly re-
marked upon the intimate connexion of medicine, so far as it con-
cerned physiology, with inquiries περὶ φύσεως, We need not now
enlarge upon this theme. It is sufficient to call attention to the fact
that it was recognized by Aristotle 199 as well as by the pre-Socratics.
But while the philosopher may have devoted the greater part of his
attention to these two fields, nothing lay outside the sphere of his in-
terest. Thus it is not improbable that the study of mathematics was
associated with philosophy from the beginning and included in the
scope of ΠΕερὶ φύσεως ἱστορίῆ. Aristotle, whose empirical method of
determining what does and what does not belong to the subject matter
of the several sciences is well known, says in the Metaphysics : 200
196 See Gilbert, Die meteorol. Theorien des griechischen Altertums, p. 14.
197 II, σαρκῶν, 1 (8, 584 Littré) περὶ δὲ τῶν μετεώρων οὐδὲ (read οὐδὲν !) δέομαι
λέγειν, ἢν μὴ τοσοῦτον és ἄνθρωπον ἀποδείξω καὶ τὰ ἄλλα ζῷα, ὁκόσα (read ὅκως !)
ἔφυ καὶ ἐγένετο, καὶ ὅ τι ψυχή ἐστιν, καὶ ὅτι τὸ ὑγιαίνειν, καὶ ὅτι τὸ κάμνειν, καὶ ὅτι
τὸ ἐν ἀνθρώπῳ κακὸν καὶ ἀγαθόν, καὶ ὅθεν ἀποθνήσκει. This little treatise has been
unduly neglected and deserves especial attention because of its intimate relation to
pre-Socratic philosophy. Its date is hard to determine. Diels, Elementum, p. 17,
n. 2, would assign it to the first half of the fourth century, B.c.
198 Compare Arist., De Partt. Animal. 641°7 οὕτως yap καὶ οἱ φυσιολόγοι τὰς γενέ-
σεις καὶ τὰς αἰτίας τοῦ σχήματος λέγουσιν " ὑπὸ τίνων γὰρ ἐδημιουργήθησαν δυνάμεων.
Ibid. 647°9 foll. ; [Arist.] Probl. 8925 28 foll.
199 Cp. Arist., De Longev. 464) 88 ff. ; De Partt. Animal. 6895" 8 foll. ; De Sensu,
436° 17 foll. ; De Respir., 480° 22 foll,
200 1005*19 foll., transl. Ross,
3s PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
“We must state whether it belongs to one or to different sciences to
inquire into the truths which are in mathematics called axioms, and
into substance. Evidently the inquiry into these also belongs to one
science, and that the science of the philosopher . . . And for this rea-
son no one who is conducting a special inquiry tries to say anything
about their truth or falsehood, — neither the geometer nor the arithme-
tician. Some natural philosophers (φυσικοί) indeed have done so, and
their procedure was intelligible enough ; for they thought that they alone
were inquiring about the whole of nature and of being” (περί τε τῆς ὅλης
φύσεως καὶ περὶ τοῦ ὄντος). In like manner Plato 201 refers to the
philosophers as those “who discourse and write about nature and the
universe” (of περὶ φύσεως τε καὶ τοῦ ὅλου διαλεγόμενοι καὶ γράφοντες).
Again 292 he pictures Hippias enthroned in the chair of philosophy at
the home of Callias with a crowd of admiring students at his feet, who
“appeared to be plying him with certain astronomical questions about
nature and the phenomena of the heavens” (ἐφαίνοντο δὲ περὶ φύσεως τε
Kal τῶν μετεώρων ἀστρονομικὰ ἄττα διερωτᾶν). Here περὶ φύσεως gives
the general subject, which includes τὰ μετέωρα, and this in turn com-
prehends ἀστρονομικὰ drra.203 We may, therefore, safely say that
Περὶ φύσεως was the general title 294 by which the comprehensive philo-
sophical works of the early philosophers were called because they were
devoted to the universal Rerwm Natura.2°5 For this reason also Περὶ
201 Lysis, 214 B. 202 Protag., 215 C.
203 This seems also to be the interpretation put upon the passage by Gilbert, Die
meteorol. Theorien des griechischen Altertums, p. 3, n. 3, although he emphasizes the
(undoubted) fact that in many cases περὶ μετεώρων and περὶ φύσεως were used inter-
changeably.
204 See Gilbert, 0. c., p. 6, n. 1: ‘Es haben deshalb Anaximenes und Anaxi-
mander, Xenophanes und Parmenides, Empedokles und Anaxagoras jeder in einem
Werke die Metaphysik, Physik, und Meteorologie gleichmiassig behandelt. Auch des
Diogenes von Apollonia angefiihrte Schriften μετεωρολογία und περὶ ἀνθρώπου φύσεως
waren wohl nur Teile seines Werkes 7. φύσεως. Erst Demokrit, der auch hierin
epochemachend erscheinty hat—neben der Darstellung seines Gesamtsystems — in
einer Menge von Specialschriften seine Forschungen niedergelegt.” Diels, Vorsokr,
Ῥ. 333, is of the same opinion regarding the titles attributed to Diogenes. It was
the common tradition in after times that II. φύσεως was the general title ; ep. D. L.
1X. 5 (of Heraclitus) τὸ δὲ φερόμενον αὐτοῦ βιβλίον ἐστὶ μὲν ἀπὸ τοῦ συνέχοντος ἹΠερὶ
φύσεως, διήρηται δὲ εἰς τρεῖς λόγους, εἴς τε τὸν περὶ τοῦ παντὸς καὶ πολιτικὸν καὶ θεολο-
γικόν. Hippolytus, Philos. 2 (Diels, Dox. 555, 17) says of Pythagoras : καὶ οὗτος δὲ
περὶ φυσικῶν (= περὶ φύσεως) ζητήσας ἔμιξεν ἀστρονομίαν καὶ γεωμετρίαν καὶ μουσικὴν
καὶ ἀριθμητικήν. Cp. ibid. 1. 24: εἶτα ἐπειδὰν... περὶ ἄστρων καὶ φύσεως φίλοσο-
φήσωσι, κτλ. Philolaus, fr. 6, περὶ φύσειος καὶ ἁρμονίας ὧδε ἔχει. To the Pythago-
reans, we are told, ἱστορία meant γεωμετρία ; cp. Nichomachus, apud Iamblichus,
Vita Pythag. 89.
205 It is therefore not surprising to find in Plato uses of φύσις corresponding to
HEIDEL. — Ilepl φύσεως. 135
φύσεως ἱστορία was set in sharp contrast 296 to the ethical and method-
ological studies of Socrates which resulted in the logic and metaphysics
of Plato and Aristotle.
It is not surprising that science, sprung from the bosom of religion,
and fostered by a spirit of reverence for truth in an age when the
crumbling ruins of ancient beliefs testified to a loss of respect for the
traditional gods, should have become in a measure itself a religion.
Attention was called above to the fact that the philosophical system
became in time invested with sanctity and was handed down as a ἱερὸς
λόγος. In the Greek mysteries, even in the fifth century, and possibly
in the sixth, ἐποπτεία, the final stage of initiation, included a vision of
that most divine spectacle, the stellar universe. In Orphic and Py-
thagorean conventicles there was undoubtedly some consideration of
its meaning, though one cannot say how much. Much nonsense is
reported of the secrets of the Pythagoreans, but it probably had some
basis in fact. The religion of the time tended more and more to be-
come a matter of the individual, though the public forms were ob-
served. Science, competing with religion and in educated circles to a
considerable extent supplanting it, naturally appropriated its forms.
The “ Law” of Hippocrates 297 ends thus : “Things holy are revealed
to holy men ; to the profane it is forbidden, before they are initiated
into the Mysteries of science.” We are familiar with the beatitude
pronounced by the poets upon those who were initiated in the Myste-
ries of Eleusis,2°% for they should see the gods and dwell with them,
released from the distressing cycle of birth and death. Not unlike it is
the inspired utterance of Euripides 299 in praise of the philosopher of
nature: “Blessed is he who hath got knowledge of science, bent
neither on harm to his neighbors nor on ways of injustice ; but, con-
templating the ageless order of undying nature, knoweth what it
is and how. ‘To such men there never cleaves desire for deeds of
shame.”
WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY,
MIppLetTown, Conn., July 10, 1909.
the Lucretian phrases in rerum natura and in rebus; thus, Phaedo 103 B οὔτε τὸ ἐν
ἡμῖν οὔτε τὸ ἐν τῇ φύσει, and Parm. 132 D τὰ μὲν εἴδη ταῦτα ὥσπερ παραδείγματα
ἑστάναι ἐν τῇ φύσει.
206 Arist., Met. 98701 [01]. Οὐ. π. 7, above.
207 Hippocrates, 4, 642 Littré. Cp. also the Ὅρκος (4, 628 foll. Littré).
208 Cp. especially Pindar, fr. 114 (Bergk) ὄλβιος ὅστις ἰδὼν | Kev’ io’ ὑπὸ χθόν᾽"
οἷδε μὲν βίου τελευτάν, | οἷδεν δὲ διόσδοτον ἀρχάν.
209 Fr. 910. The text is quoted above, π. 185.
oan)
esike
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vout. XLV. No. 5.— January, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF
HARVARD COLLEGE.
A REVISION OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF
PHOSPHORUS.
FIRST PAPER.—THE ANALYSIS OF SILVER PHOSPHATE.
By Grecory Paut BAXTER AND GRINNELL JONES.
‘oO
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a 7 7 ve
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Le oe % Teas) Us 2) oe To a
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF
HARVARD COLLEGE.
A REVISION OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS.
FIRST PAPER.—THE ANALYSIS OF SILVER PHOSPHATE.
By Grecory Paut BaxTER AND GRINNELL JONES.
Presented September 28, 1909. Received November 12, 1909.
AttHouGH phosphorus is one of the best known and most important
elements, present knowledge concerning its atomic weight is somewhat
inadequate. The early determinations of this constant by Dulong,?
Pelouze,? Berzelius,? and Jacquelain* are widely discrepant and have
no particular significance. Those by Schrétter, Dumas, van der Platts,
and Berthelot, on the other hand, all give values not far from 31.0, and
this value has been selected by the International Committee on Atomic
Weights. Although these investigations have already been critically
discussed by Clarke,° Brauner,® and others, a few of the more important
sources of error are briefly pointed out here.
Schrotter,7 the discoverer of red phosphorus, converted weighed
quantities of this substance into phosphorus pentoxide by combustion
in a stream of oxygen. As the mean of ten determinations which
varied from 30.94 to 31.06, he obtained 31.03 for the atomic weight of
phosphorus. ‘The oxygen used was slightly moist, as Brauner has
pointed out, since, although it was dried by phosphorus pentoxide, it
was finally passed through a tube containing calcium chloride! The
phosphorus pentoxide formed during the combustion must have re-
tained this small amount of water, which would make the atomic
weight of phosphorus appear too low. Schrétter admits that the com-
bustion was incomplete, and since this error would tend to raise the
atomic weight of phosphorus, he concludes that the true value is
31.00. °
1 Ann. Chim. Phys. 1816, 2, 149. 2 C. R., 1845, 20, 1053.
3 Lehrbuch, 5th Ed., 1845, 3, 1188. *1@ Ey. pl Gol. 55.009.
5 A Recalculation of the Atomic Weights, Smith. Mise. Coll., 1897.
6 Abegg, Handb. der anorg. Chem., 1907, vol. 3, part 3, p. 366.
7 Ann. Chim. Phys., (3), 1853, 38, 131.
138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Dumas 8 titrated the trichloride of phosphorus against silver after
decomposing the trichloride with water. Since the sample used did
not boil at constant temperature, but distilled between 76° and 78°, it
must have been impure. If it contained oxychloride, as Clarke has
suggested, the atomic weight of phosphorus would be found too high.
Dumas overlooked the solubility of silver chloride and therefore used
the wrong end-point in these titrations. Furthermore no precautions
are mentioned either for preventing access of water to the material
before weighing or for preventing the reduction of the silver salt by
the phosphorous acid formed in the decomposition of the trichloride
with water. Recalculated on the basis of the atomic weight of silver
as 107.88, his five analyses give results which vary between 30.99 and
31.08. The average is 31.03.
Van der Platts? made two determinations by each of three different
methods. He obtained the values 30.90 and 30.97 by the precipitation
of silver from silver sulphate solution with phosphorus. His results
from the analysis of silver phosphate were 31.08 and 30.95. He gives
no details of the method of preparing and analyzing this substance,
merely making the statement, “It is difficult to be sure of the purity
of this salt.” Finally, by the combustion of yellow phosphorus in
oxygen he obtained the results 30.99 and 30.96. The very meagre
descriptions of these experiments preclude criticism.
Using Ledue’s data for the densities and compressibilities of phos-
phine and oxygen, Daniel Berthelot 1° has calculated, by the method of
limiting densities, the molecular weight of phosphine to be 34.00 and
the atomic weight of phosphorus to be 30.98.
Very recently Gazarian 11 has obtained a considerably lower value for
the molecular weight of phosphine, 33.93. This value was calculated
from the experimentally determined weight of the standard liter by the
four methods of molecular volumes (Leduc), limiting densities (Berthe-
lot), critical constants (Guye), and “indirect” limiting densities
(Berthelot). The different methods give essentially identical results,
except in the case of the direct method of limiting densities. By the
latter method a value six-hundredths of a unit higher is obtained, but
Gazarian rejects the result on the basis of inaccurate knowledge of the
compressibility of phosphine. It is highly desirable to obtain more
certain knowledge of the compressibility of phosphine, since the
8 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 1860, 113, 28.
5. C_R., 1885, 100, 52.
10 C. R., 1898, 126, 1415.
11 Jour. de Chim. Phys., 1909, 7, 337.
BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 139
method of limiting densities is the most reliable of all the methods for
applying the correction to the densities made necessary by deviations
from the laws of a perfect gas.
The other methods are burdened with arbitrary assumptions and
empirical constants, and furthermore Baume? has shown that both
the method of molecular volumes and the method of critical constants
Cc
4P
give correct results only with gases for which the ratio
is nearly 1,
ec
whereas for phosphine this ratio is 1.26.
If the molecular weight of phosphine be assumed to be 33.93, the
atomic weight of phosphorus is 30.91. In the light of this low result
it is unfortunate that Gazarian prepared phosphine by only one
method, and that he did not determine the purity of the gas, i. e. by
absorption. Gazarian used the method of Matignon and Trannoy 13
which consists in heating calcium phosphate and aluminum together
until they react, and then treating the product of this reaction without
further purification with water in a gas generator. Matignon and
Trannoy show that the gas prepared in this way by them contained
about three per cent of hydrogen, probably derived from calcium con-
tained by the phosphide. In this case some calcium nitride would be
formed, since the phosphide was made in air ; and this would produce
ammonia as an impurity in the phosphine. Although the gas was
purified by fractional distillation, according to Gazarian’s statements
hydrogen is difficult to eliminate, and a proportion of only four-tenths
of one per cent would be sufficient to lower the atomic weight of phos-
phorus one-tenth of a unit. Ammonia would be even more difficult to
remove, since its boiling point is only 50° higher than that of phos-
phine. The effect of a given percentage of impurity is, however, much
less with ammonia than with hydrogen, although in the same direction.
From the preceding brief summary it is evident that the uncertainty
in the atomic weight of phosphorus is as great as one tenth of a unit,
and that, as Brauner remarks at the conclusion of his review of the
subject, “a revision of the atomic weight of phosphorus with modern
means is urgently necessary.”
The analysis of silver phosphate was selected as one of the most
promising methods of attacking the problem, since the percent of silver
can be determined exactly by a method which has been carefully
studied, especially in this laboratory. The accuracy of the result will
therefore depend primarily upon the success attained in preparing
12 Baume, J. Chim. Phys. 1908, 6, 76 and 86.
13 (, R., 1909, 148, 167.
140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
silver phosphate in a perfectly definite and pure state. The greater
part of the following research was devoted to the solution of this prob-
lem which van der Platts found so difficult.
The analysis of the halogen compounds of phosphorus offers certain
difficulties owing to the ease with which these substances are decom-
posed by water, and to the necessity for oxydizing the phosphorous acid
resulting from the decomposition of the halogen compounds with water
before the addition of silver nitrate. An investigation upon the tri-
bromide of phosphorus is now in progress in this laboratory. Phospho-
nium compounds were found utterly unsuited for exact analysis on
account of their instability.
PURIFICATION OF MATERIALS.
Water. All the water used in this research was made from the
laboratory supply of distilled water by distillation, first from an alka-
line permanganate solution, and then, after the addition of a trace of
sulphuric acid, through a block tin condenser.
Ammonia. 'The best commercial ammonia was distilled into the
purest water.
Nitric Acid. The best commercial concentrated acid was twice
fractionally distilled through a platinum condenser, with the rejection
of the first third of the distillate. Every sample was shown to be free
from chloride by careful nephelometric tests.
Hydrochloric Acid. The best commercial C. P. acid, diluted with an
equal volume of water, was distilled through a platinum condenser.
Hydrobromic Acid. This substance was prepared in conjunction
with Mr. F. B. Coffin, who was engaged in a parallel research upon the
atomic weight of arsenic.14 Commercial bromine was converted into
potassium bromide by addition to recrystallized potassium oxalate.
In a concentrated solution of this bromide, in a distilling flask cooled
with ice, bromine was dissolved, and distilled from the solution into a
flask cooled with ice. A portion of the purified bromine was then con-
verted into potassium bromide with pure potassium oxalate as before,
and the remainder of the bromine was distilled from solution in this
pure potassium bromide. ‘The product obtained was thus twice dis-
tilled from a bromide, the bromide in the second distillation being
essentially free from chlorine. This treatment has already been proved
sufficient to free bromine from chlorine.1®
14 Baxter and Coffin, These Proceedings, 1909, 44, 179.
15 Baxter, These Proceedings, 1906, 42, 201.
BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 141
Hydrobromic acid was synthesized from the pure bromine by bub-
bling hydrogen gas (made by the action of water on “hydrone”’)
through the bromine warmed to 40°-44° and passing the mixed gases
over hot platinized asbestos in a glass tube. The apparatus was con-
structed wholly of glass. ‘The hydrogen was cleansed by being passed
through two wash bottles containing dilute sulphuric acid, and through
a tower filled with beads also moistened with dilute sulphuric acid.
The hydrobromic acid gas was absorbed in pure water contained in a
cooled flask. In order to remove iodine the solution of hydrobromic
acid was diluted with water and twice boiled with a small quantity of
free bromine. ‘Then a small quantity of recrystallized potassium per-
manganate was added to the hydrobromic acid solution, and the bro-
mine set free was expelled by boiling. Finally the acid was distilled
with the use of a quartz condenser, the first third being rejected. It
was preserved in a bottle of Nonsol glass provided with a ground-
glass stopper.
The purity of the hydrobromic acid was tested by a quantitative
synthesis of silver bromide. The silver used, which was kindly fur-
nished by Mr. G. 8. Tilley, had been prepared with all the necessary
precautions for work on the atomic weights of silver and iodine.16
The procedure used by Baxter +’ for the synthesis of silver bromide
from a weighed amount of silver was followed in detail. In this experi-
ment 6.02386 grams of silver yielded 10.48627 grams of silver bromide ;
hence, silver bromide contains 57.4452 per cent of silver, while Baxter
found as the mean of 18 determinations 57.4453 per cent. The hydro-
bromic acid was evidently pure.
Silver Nitrate. Crude silver nitrate was reduced with ammonium
formate, made by passing ammonia gas into redistilled formic, acid.
The reduced silver was washed with the purest water, until the wash
waters no longer gave a test for ammonia with Nessler’s reagent, and
was fused on sugar charcoal. The buttons were then scrubbed with
sea-sand and thoroughly cleansed with ammonia and nitric acid.
They were then dissolved in redistilled nitric acid, in a platinum dish.
After the silver nitrate solution had been evaporated on a steam bath
until saturated, an equal volume of redistilled nitric acid was added
and the solution was cooled. 'The precipitated silver nitrate was very
completely drained in a centrifugal machine, provided with platinum
Gooch crucibles to retain the salt.48 A similar recrystallization fol-
16 Baxter and Tilley, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1909, 31, 201.
17 Baxter, These Proceedings, 1906, 42, 208.
18 Baxter, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1908, 30, 286.
142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
lowed. ‘The final product was preserved in Jena glass vessels under a
bell-jar.
Disodium Phosphate. One kilogram of Merck’s best disodium phos-
phate was dissolved in hot water in a porcelain dish and hydrogen
sulphide passed into the solution for several hours. After standing
for twenty-four hours, the solution was again heated, saturated with
hydrogen sulphide and filtered. ‘lhe filtrate was slightly green, owing
to the presence of iron. The solution was boiled to expel the hydro-
gen sulphide and a small amount of green precipitate filtered out.
The filtrate was still distinctly green. The sodium phosphate was
then crystallized fifteen times, five times in porcelain with centrifugal
drainage of the crystals in a large porcelain centrifugal machine, ten
times in platinum vessels with centrifugal drainage of the crystals in
platinum Gooch crucibles. The green color concentrated in the first
mother liquor.
When tested by means of the Marsh test, this material was found to
contain only a mere trace of arsenic, which was estimated to be 0.01
mg. in ten grams of the salt. This small amount could have no effect
on the analytical results, especially since the percentage of silver in
silver arsenate is nearly the same as in silver phosphate. By means of
the nephelometer it was proved that this material contained no chlo-
ride or other substances which could be precipitated by silver nitrate
in the presence of dilute nitric acid.
Sodium Ammonium Hydrogen Phosphate. The best commercial
microcosmic salt was recrystallized four times in platinum vessels. It
was tested for arsenic by Marsh’s method with negative results and
gave no opalescence visible in the nephelometer when tested with silver
nitrate and dilute nitric acid.
PREPARATION OF TRISILVER PHOSPHATE.
Silver phosphate was prepared by mixing dilute solutions of silver
nitrate with solutions of sodium and ammonium phosphates. Since it
is not feasible to purify silver phosphate by recrystallization, the con-
ditions of precipitation must be so chosen that a pure product will be
obtained at once.
In order to avoid inclusion and occlusion of silver nitrate, sodium
nitrate, sodium phosphate, or mono- or disilver phosphate, all of the
solutions for precipitation were made about 0.03 N. All samples after
precipitation were thoroughly washed and allowed to stand in water for
at least twenty-four hours, in order to convert occluded acid phos-
phates into trisilver phosphate. Qualitative tests for nitrate with
BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 143
diphenylamine and for sodium by the spectroscope showed that all of
the first three substances named could be completely washed out.
Joly 19 states that disilver phosphate is stable in the presence of
phosphoric acid containing 40 per cent (11.8 N) of phosphoric anhy-
dride, but is transformed into trisilver phosphate if the acid contains
38 per cent (11.0 N) or less of phosphoric anhydride. Since all the solu-
tions used for the preparation of silver phosphate were nearly neutral,
it is evident that the precipitation of disilver phosphate as a distinct
phase in equilibrium with the solution is not to be feared.
It is, however, not such a simple matter to prove the absence of
occluded disilver hydrogen phosphate or monosilver hydrogen phos-
phate. Much light is thrown on this point in a recent paper by
Abbott and Bray 2° upon the dissociation constants of the three hydro-
gens of phosphoric acid, which were found to be 1.1 Χ 10~*, 1.95 x 107
and 3.6 Χ 10. 5 respectively. Since the phosphate ion (PO,=) is almost
completely hydrolyzed to the monohydrophosphate ion (HPO,=), even
in slightly alkaline solutions, and since in slightly acid solutions the
dihydrophosphate ion (H,PO,) acquires an appreciable concentration,
the possibility of occlusion must be examined with especial care.
The concentrations in the following table are either taken directly
from a table given by Abbott and Bray or calculated from these num-
bers with the help of the values of the dissociation constants of phos-
phoric acid. ‘The values are expressed in formular weights per liter,
the total concentration of the salt being in each case 0.05.
NaNH,HPO, Na,NH,PO,
ELLOS 0.001184 21 0.000002 22
jEURO = 0.03265 21 0.03219 21
PoO= 0.0000016 22 0.001123 21
OH- 0.00000079 21 0.000502 21
Ht 0.0000000075 22 0.000000000012 22
It will be noted that the replacement of the remaining hydrogen in
sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate by sodium decreases the concen-
19 C. R., 1886, 103, 1071.
20 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1909, 31, 755.
21 These values are taken directly from the table of Abbott and Bray.
22 These values are calculated from the others in the above table by the
aid of the following equations:
(H*+)(OH-) = 0.59 X 10-14
(ΠΕ
ΒΕ ΤΟΣ —13
90 X 10 (H,PO-)
(H*)(PO,*)
(HPO,>)
els ΧΟ 1
144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
tration of the hydrogen ion to 0.16 percent of its value in the microcosmic
salt solution and decreases the concentration of the dihydrophosphate
ion to 0.2 percent of its former value. The concentration of the mono-
hydrophosphate ion remains essentially unchanged, while the concen-
tration of the phosphate ion is increased seven hundred times.
Disodium phosphate doubtless takes a position intermediate between
the other two solutions in this regard, since it is more alkaline than
microcosmic salt and less so than disodium ammonium phosphate.
The numbers given above refer to solutions which are five times as
strong as those used in this research, but the conditions in the more
dilute solutions must be very similar. Furthermore, the exact values
have no great importance, as the concentrations of the various ions change
continuously during precipitation. It is evident from the figures given
above and from the value of the dissociation constant of the second
hydrogen of phosphoric acid that if the concentration of hydrogen ion
increases above its value in a microcosmic salt solution, the concentra-
tion of the dihydrophosphate ion must increase greatly at the expense
of the monohydrophosphate ion. If there is any tendency for the
occlusion of disilver hydrogen phosphate or monosilver hydrogen phos-
phate, the amounts of these salts occluded would be expected to depend
on the concentration of the undissociated molecules of these salts in
the solution, and therefore on the concentration of the silver ion and
on the concentration of the monohydrophosphate or dihydrophosphate
ion respectively.
The exact concentrations of the ions during the precipitation cannot
be calculated, since the solubility of silver phosphate in slightly acid
solutions and the solubility-product of silver phosphate are not known.
It is, however, easy to understand from a study of the conditions under
which the various samples of silver phosphate were precipitated, that
these concentrations must have varied greatly in the preparation of the
different samples and therefore constancy of composition gives a strong
presumption that there is very little or no tendency for the occlusion
of the undesired acid salts.
Samples N and O. A 0.03 normal solution of silver nitrate was
slowly poured into a 0.03 normal solution of disodium hydrogen phos-
phate with frequent shaking. This reaction may be roughly consid-
ered to take place in two stages represented by the equations
3 AgNO; +2 Na,-HPO, = AgsPOx, + ΝΗΡ; +3 NaNO;
3 AgNO; + NaH.PO, = AgsPO, + NaNO; a6 HNO,
At the beginning of the precipitation the solution is very slightly
alkaline and remains very nearly neutral during the addition of the
BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 145
first half of the silver nitrate. The concentration of the silver ion is
kept very low by the excess of phosphate and, therefore, little occlu-
sion of the acid salts is to be expected in spite of the fact that the
solution contains appreciable concentrations of the monohydrophos-
phate and dihydrophosphate ions. The precipitate during this stage
is very finely divided and does not settle well and, therefore, no
attempt was made to collect it separately.
During the addition of the second half of the silver nitrate the
solution becomes slightly acid and the solubility of the silver phos-
phate increases rapidly. ‘The precipitate settles readily. During the
second stage the conditions are more favorable for the occlusion of
the acid phosphate, but only a small amount of silver phosphate is
precipitated during this stage.
After standing a short time the mother liquor was decanted from
the precipitate, and exactly the calculated amount of redistilled
ammonia, diluted to one liter, was added to neutralize the excess .
of acid and complete the precipitation. Since this sample was evi-
dently produced from a solution which was slightly acid at the be-
ginning of the precipitation, although very nearly neutral at the end,
and since it contained a considerable amount of silver, the conditions
were favorable for the formation of acid salts.
Both precipitates were transferred to a large platinum dish and
washed many times by decantation with the purest water. This
washing was prolonged over more than twenty-four hours in order
to give time for all soluble matter to be leached out. When the
precipitates were tested for nitrate with diphenylamine, negative
results were obtained. Sodium was found to be absent by spectro-
scopic tests. The precipitates were drained as far as possible in a
platinum centrifugal machine, and the drying was completed by heat-
ing in platinum crucibles in an electric air bath for several hours, first
at 90° and finally at about 130°. The dried lumps of silver phosphate
were then gently ground in an agate mortar. The samples were pre-
served in platinum crucibles over sulphuric acid in the dark. All of
the operations were performed in a dark room.
The sample prepared by pouring silver nitrate into disodium phos-
phate is designated Sample N, and the sample prepared by adding
ammonia to the mother liquors is designated Sample O.
Sample P. A 0.03 normal solution of disodium ammonium phos-
phate was prepared by dissolving a weighed amount of disodium hy-
drogen phosphate and then adding the calculated amount of redistilled
ammonia. The solution was then slowly poured into a 0.03 normal
solution of silver nitrate. By this method of precipitation the solu-
VoL. xLv.— 10 -
146 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
tion is maintained as nearly neutral as is possible, because the excess
of silver prevents the concentration of phosphate in solution from
exceeding a very small value, so that neither can the solution become
alkaline by hydrolysis nor can the concentration of hydrophosphate
attain an appreciable value. The absence of the hydrophosphate
ions would be expected to prevent the formation and occlusion of
acid silver phosphate in this sample, whereas in Sample N the same
result is probably brought about by the absence of the silver ion.
Unfortunately both of these favorable conditions cannot be combined
in one precipitation, as will be shown later. This precipitate settled
readily. The washing, testing, and drying were carried out as al-
ready described for Samples N and Ὁ. ‘This sample is designated
Sample P.
Sample R. A 0.03 normal solution of sodium ammonium hydrogen
phosphate was slowly poured into a similar solution of an equivalent
amount of silver nitrate. Under these conditions the solution con-
tains an excess of silver, which tends to produce occlusion of acid
phosphates, since the solution becomes more and more acid as the pre-
cipitation proceeds, and as the precipitation is therefore far from
complete, the concentrations of the two hydrophosphate ions ‘gradually
approach a very considerable value. At no stage could the solution
become alkaline by hydrolysis. It should be noticed that the pro-
cedure differs from that used in preparing Sample N in that the
precipitate is formed in the presence of an excess of silver nitrate
instead of an excess of phosphate, and that this difference in the
method of mixing greatly changes the conditions of precipitation.
The precipitate, which was designated Sample R, coagulated and
settled quite readily. The washing and drying were completed as
usual.
It will be shown that samples of silver phosphate prepared under
these various conditions have nearly, if not exactly, the same composi-
tion. Further proof of the absence of acid phosphate in these samples
is given by experiments to be described later which show that no
water is given off when this material is fused.
An attempt to prepare a sample by pouring silver nitrate into di-
sodium ammonium phosphate yielded unsatisfactory results. Since
the disodium ammonium phosphate solution was alkaline, owing to
hydrolysis, it contained free ammonia, which prevented the precipita-
tion of silver phosphate at first. Nearly one-quarter of the silver
nitrate was added before a permanent precipitate was produced. At
the end of the precipitation the solution was of course essentially
neutral. Even after standing for four days the precipitate had not
BAXTER AND JONES.— ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 147
appreciably settled. Since the coagulation of the precipitate seems
to occur much more readily in the presence of excess of silver, a
considerable amount of silver nitrate in solution was added. ‘The
precipitate coagulated and settled immediately. It was washed and
dried as usual. This sample was somewhat darker in color than the
other samples and gave a large amount of insoluble residue when
treated with dilute nitric acid. ‘The analysis showed that it contained
about two hundredths per cent too much silver. This method of
preparation is evidently unsatisfactory.
Three unsuccessful attempts were made to prepare silver phosphate
from trisodium phosphate. The samples obtained in this way did not
appear homogeneous after being dried and contained considerable
sodium in spite of protracted washing. ‘'T'wo of these samples were
found by analysis to contain, respectively, 4.4 and 4.1 per cent less
silver than pure trisilver phosphate. The third of these samples
was so unsatisfactory in appearance and in its behavior during its
preparation that it was not analyzed. This method of preparing
silver phosphate is evidently not suitable for our purpose. ‘Time was
lacking to investigate further this anomalous behavior.
Method of Analysis.
Unfortunately, owing to the high melting point of silver phosphate,
it was not feasible to fuse the silver phosphate before its analysis in
order completely to eliminate all water. Instead it was heated in a
platinum boat, in a current of pure dry air, at a temperature of about
400° for seven hours, and then by means of bottling apparatus 2? it
was inclosed in its weighing bottle without coming in contact with the
moist air of the laboratory. During this heating the access of light to
the sample was prevented. The continuous current of air which passed
over the silver phosphate during the heating was driven by a water
pump successively through an Emmerling tower containing beads
moistened with silver nitrate solution, through a tower containing
small pieces of fused caustic potash, then through three towers con-
taining beads drenched with concentrated sulphuric acid, and finally
through a long tube containing phosphorus pentoxide which had been
resublimed in a current of air. The hard glass tube containing the
platinum boat was surrounded by blocks of aluminum 2* which were
jacketed with asbestos on the top and sides and heated directly from
23 Richards and Parker, These Proceedings, 1896, 32, 59.
24 Baxter and Coffin, These Proceedings, 1909, 44, 184.
148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
below by a large burner. The platinum boat was not attacked in the
least, as was shown by the fact that its weight remained constant.
It was feared that in spite of this prolonged heating the silver
phosphate still retained a trace of water, but by making the conditions
in the different experiments as nearly uniform as possible it was hoped
that the amount of water retained would be constant. Proof will be
given later that the drying was highly efficient.
The salt thus prepared for analysis was allowed to stand over night
in a desiccator covered with a black cloth in the balance room, and
was then weighed in its glass-stoppered bottle by substitution, with the
use of another weighing bottle of very similar surface and volume as a
counterpoise,
The balance was a nearly new No. 10 Troemner balance. It was
easily sensitive to 0.02 mg. ‘The weights had already been used
in an investigation of the atomic weight of sulphur,?> and were re-
standardized with a very gratifying result. None of the corrections
found differed by as much as 0.02 mg. from those found a year before,
and only a few by 0.01 mg. The balance was provided with a few
milligrams of radium bromide of radioactivity 10000 to dispel electri-
cal charges generated during the handling of the weighing bottles
with cork-tipped pincers.
The platinum boat containing the silver phosphate was transferred
to an Erlenmeyer flask of ‘‘non-sol” glass of one liter capacity and
treated with about 30 cubic centimeters of 5 normal nitric acid.
Solution took place rapidly. The solution was not perfectly clear,
however, owing to a very slight insoluble residue which sometimes
settled out on standing. The solution was then heated on a steam
bath until the residue dissolved completely. Upon the addition of
about one liter of cold water a very slight opalescence was produced,
which was visible only when the solution was carefully examined in a
very favorable light. The solution was again warmed until it became
perfectly clear. The water and nitric acid used in these processes did
not give an opalescence visible in the nephelometer when treated
with silver nitrate. The nature of this residue will be discussed more
in detail after describing the remainder of the analytical process.
About eight hundred cubic centimeters of water was placed in a
large glass-stoppered precipitating flask and a very slight excess of
hydrobromic acid was added from a burette. The silver phosphate solu-
tion was then very carefully poured into the hydrobromic acid solution.
This method of precipitation gives less opportunity for the occlusion
25 Richards and Jones, Pub. Car. Inst., 1907, No. 69, 69.
BAXTER AND JONES.— ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PEL.PHORUS. 149
of silver phosphate or nitrate than the reverse method. The occlusion
of hydrobromic acid can dono harm. The flask was shaken for twenty
minutes and was allowed to stand for several days until the precipitate
had completely settled. Then the precipitate was collected upon a
weighed Gooch crucible after many rinsings with pure water. In order
to protect the mat of the Gooch crucible from disintegration, it was
covered by a circular disk of thin platinum foil, perforated with many
small holes. ‘The precipitate was dried in an electrically heated air
bath for several hours at 90°, then for seme time at 130°, and finally
for at least eight hours at 180°. After the crucible containing the
precipitate had been weighed, the silver bromide was transferred
to a porcelain crucible and the loss on fusion determined. ‘The
presence of the platinum disk covering the mat makes it possible
to transfer very nearly all the silver bromide to the porcelain crucible
without contamination with asbestos and therefore it is unnecessary to
correct the loss on fusion for the small amount of silver bromide which
is not fused. The loss on fusion, which represents water remaining
in the silver bromide, was subtracted from the weight of the silver
bromide. The asbestos shreds carried away by the wash waters and
any silver bromide which may have escaped the Gooch crucible were
collected by passing the filtrate through a very small filter paper.
The paper was then burned and the residue, after treatment with a
drop of nitric and hydrobromic acids to convert any reduced silver
into silver bromide, was again gently heated and finally was weighed.
The weight of the asbestos, corrected for the ash of the paper, was
added to the weight of the silver bromide. In order to determine the
soluble silver bromide, the filtrate was evaporated until most of the
excess of nitric acid was driven off. The precipitating flask and all
the flasks which had held the filtrate were rinsed with strong ammonia
and the rinsings added to the evaporated wash water. Enough
ammonia was added to make the solution alkaline and it was then
diluted to one hundred cubic centimeters in a graduated flask. The
amount of silver bromide present was determined by comparison in
the nephelometer with a very similar solution containing a known
amount of silver bromide. Both precipitates were dissolved in ammo-
nia and reprecipitated at the same time and under precisely similar
conditions 26 in the nephelometer tubes by a slight excess of nitric
acid. The amount found in this way was added to the weight of the
silver bromide.
In order to determine whether silver phosphate is occluded by silver
26 See Richards and Staehler, Pub. Carnegie Institute, No. 76, p. 20.
150 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
chloride, about six grams of silver phosphate were dissolved in nitric
acid and the solution was diluted and poured into an excess of hydro-
chloric acid. After standing until the supernatant liquid was clear,
the precipitate was washed very thoroughly with water and then dis-
solved in redistilled ammonia. The solution was diluted to one liter
and the silver chloride was reprecipitated with nitric acid. The
precipitate was filtered out and the filtrate evaporated in a platinum
dish until concentrated. A little sodium carbonate was added and
the dish was heated to expel all volatile ammonium salts. The residue
was dissolved in about three cubic centimeters of water and treated
with an excess of ammonium molybdate reagent with gentle warming.
After standing for three days, not the slightest precipitate or yellow
color had appeared, showing that no phosphate had been occluded by
the silver chloride. Although not tested experimentally, it is reason-
able to suppose that silver bromide also does not possess the property
of occluding appreciable quantities of silver phosphate or phosphoric
acid.
INSOLUBLE RESIDUE.
The presence of a slight residue or opalescence, after dissolving the
dried silver phosphate in dilute nitric acid, proved the most perplexing
difficulty which was encountered. he effort to discover the nature
of this insoluble matter and eliminate it consumed a large part of the
time devoted to this research. In an effort to make sure that it was
not due to some unknown impurity, nineteen different samples of
silver phosphate were prepared, the source of material, method of
purification, and precipitation being varied. Disodium phosphate,
trisodium phosphate, and sodium ammonium phosphate were carefully
purified and converted into silver phosphate under varying conditions
without appreciable effect upon the amount of the residue. Phospho-
rus oxychloride was twice fractionally distilled, converted into phos-
phorie acid, and then into disodium phosphate by means of sodium
hydroxide made from sodium amalgam. The product was crystallized
three times. Silver phosphate made from this material gave a slight
residue, very similar to that obtained from the best samples made in
other ways. Unfortunately, it was necessary to reject the analytical
results obtained with this specimen because it was found to contain a
small amount of metaphosphate. We did not succeed in preparing
a sample of silver phosphate entirely free from the residue.
In the meantime attention had been devoted to the residue itself.
The small amount of material available rendered this part of the inves-
BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. [δῖ
tigation difficult. The silver phosphate, after its precipitation and
washing, but undried, dissolves in dilute nitric acid, giving a solution
which is perfectly clear to the naked eye, although some samples gave
a barely visible opalescence in the nephelometer. ‘The opalescence
was much too small to have any effect on the analytical results. The
dried,samples invariably gave an opalescence.
Dry silver phosphate is very slowly darkened in color by the action
of light. 'This effect is even more pronounced when silver phosphate
is exposed to the light in the presence of water. ‘These darkened sam-
ples gave a much greater residue than the undarkened material. The
residue was insoluble in ammonia, slowly soluble in dilute nitric acid,
especially when heated, and readily soluble in strong nitric acid. The
addition of hydrochloric acid to these nitric acid solutions gave a pre-
cipitate of silver chloride, while ammonium molybdate indicated the
presence of phosphate.
In order to determine whether or not a loss of weight occurs during
the darkening by light, a sample of silver phosphate was dried and
weighed as usual and found to weigh 3.01901 grams. It was then
exposed to the direct action of bright sunlight for a day, while con-
tained in a weighing bottle which was placed in a desiccator over sul-
phuric acid. It was found to have darkened slightly in color and to
weigh 3.01903. ‘The gain of 0.02 milligram is within the limit of error
in the weighing. This sample, when treated with dilute nitric acid,
gave a much larger residue than usual, which weighed 1.8 milligrams.
This is much more residue than was usually found in samples contain-
ing from four to eight grams of silver phosphate. It is estimated that
the samples which had been protected from the action of light as
much as possible, except when unavoidably exposed to diffused day-
light while being weighed or transferred to the furnace and solution
flask, contained about one one-hundredth of a per cent of this residue.
‘'wo analyses were made of the residue obtained by exposing silver
phosphate wnder water to the action of light for several days, then
dissolving the excess of silver phosphate in dilute nitric acid and thor-
oughly washing and drying the residue. 0.02674 gram of this residue
yielded 0.03551 gram of silver chloride, which indicates that the res-
idue contained 99.9 per cent of silver. In the case of another sample
of the residue prepared and analyzed in the same way, 0.04320 gram
of residue yielded 0.05747 gram of silver chloride, which indicates that
the residue contained 100.1 per cent of silver. The mean of the two
analyses is 100.0 per cent of silver. ‘These analyses prove conclusively
that when silver phosphate is acted on by light in the presence of
water, it is so altered (perhaps by the formation of a subphosphate
152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
similar to subchloride), that when treated with very dilute nitric acid
metallic silver remains.
It does not follow, however, that it would be a correct procedure to
determine the per cent of this residue obtained from the samples used
for analysis and apply a correction on the assumption that the material
consisted of pure silver phosphate and a small amount of pure silver.
This procedure would assume that the other product of decomposition
is eliminated and not weighed. There are two facts which show that
this assumption would be incorrect. In nearly every analysis, when
the solution was diluted, after bringing the residue into solution by
heating on the steam bath, a slight opalescence was produced. Care-
ful tests of the water used showed that this opalescence was not due
to impurity in the water. It seems probable that the substance which
caused this opalescence was derived in part from the phosphate radical
during the decomposition which produced the residue. ‘The other fact
is that dry silver phosphate does not lose weight when darkened by
exposure to sunlight, although this treatment increases the amount of
residue. The conclusion in regard to this residue may be summarized
as follows : The washed moist silver phosphate was free from residue
and contained silver and phosphoric acid combined in atomic propor-
tions. During the drying and weighing a slight decomposition took
place, undoubtedly owing in part at least to the action of light. It
seems probable that during this decomposition no loss in weight took
place, and therefore the sample contained the proper percentage of
silver. When this slightly darkened silver phosphate is treated with
cold dilute nitric acid, the unchanged silver phosphate and perhaps
also a portion of the altered material dissolve, leaving a slight opales-
cence, which in some cases is deposited as a very slight residue on
standing. This residue is estimated to be about 0.01 per cent of the
weight of the silver phosphate. When the solution is warmed until
perfectly clear, and then diluted, a very slight opalescence is usually
produced which could be again cleared up by warming the solution.
This opalescence is probably caused by the presence of the altered
phosphate anion. If this explanation is correct, the presence of the
residue cannot influence the result, and no correction need be applied.
Until the exact nature of the decomposition products can be deter-
mined, there must remain some uncertainty in regard to whether or
not any correction is necessary.
The uncertainty from this cause is, however, not very great. Even
if all the phosphorus and oxygen corresponding to the residue of silver
is removed before the weighing, the correction would be only twenty-
three per cent of the weight of the residue. If the residue amounts to
BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 153
0.01 per cent, as’ has been estimated, the maximum correction would
be 0.002 per cent. If part of the oxygen is lost, but_the phosphorus
remains, the correction would of course be smaller. If there is no loss
in weight by the action of light on the dry silver phosphate, no correc-
tion need be applied. From the evidence so far obtained the latter
assumption seems rather more probable than any of the others, and
therefore no correction has been applied.
THe DETERMINATION OF WATER IN THE Driep SitverR PHOSPHATE.
In order to find out how efficient the drying of the silver phosphate
had been, experiments were made to determine the amount of water
retained by silver phosphate which had been dried for analysis as
described above. (See page 147.) The water was determined by
fusing the dried phosphate in a current of dry air and collecting the
moisture set free in a weighed phosphorus pentoxide tube. Since the
melting point of pure silver phosphate is considerably above the soft-
ening point of hard glass, it was found advantageous to lower the
melting point of the phosphate by the use of silver chloride as a flux.
About fifteen grams of silver phosphate were placed in one end of a
large silver boat and in the other end about twelve grams of previously
fused silver chloride. The boat was then inserted in a hard glass tube
and dried under the same conditions as prevailed in preparing the
samples for the determination of the silver content. After the silver
phosphate had been heated for seven hours in a current of purified air
dried by phosphorus pentoxide, the air passing over the boat in the
furnace was conducted through a weighed U-tube containing resub-
limed phosphorus pentoxide for one half hour. This was done to make
sure that all the water which had been liberated from the silver phos-
phate without fusion had been swept out of the apparatus. In no case
was there a gain in weight during this process of more than 0.05 mg.,
which is about the limit of error in weighing the phosphorus pentoxide
tubes. The backward diffusion of moisture was prevented by a second
tube containing pentoxide.
The carefully weighed phosphorus pentoxide tube was again attached
to the tube containing the silver boat with its charge of silver phosphate
and silver chloride. The latter tube was then heated hot enough to
fuse the silver chloride, which flowed down to the silver phosphate and
readily caused the entire charge to fuse completely. The liberated
water was swept into the phosphorus pentoxide tube by a current of
dry air for about thirty minutes. ‘The tube was then reweighed to
determine the water evolved by the fusion of silver phosphate. ‘The
pentoxide tube was weighed by substitution for a very similar counter-
154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
poise tube, one stop-cock of each tube being open during the weighing.
Before being weighed both tubes were wiped with a damp cloth and
allowed to stand near the balance for at least thirty minutes.
The following table gives the results of these experiments :
Saari | Weight of Sil- Weight of Per Cent
pample. | ver Phosphate. Water. of Water.
0.00012
0.00007
0.00005
0.00003
Average
The amount of water evolved is hardly greater than the probable
error in weighing the phosphorus pentoxide tubes, and is less than the
probable error in determining the amount of silver in the salt. We
are therefore justified in concluding that the material which was used
for the determination of silver was essentially free from water and that
no correction need be applied to the results for inefficient drying.
This result also furnishes evidence that the samples are free from
acid phosphates, which, owing to conversion into pyro- or metaphos-
phate, would evolve water when fused, although it is possible that
occluded acid phosphates might have been converted into pyro- or
metaphosphates during the drying. Sample O, which was prepared
under conditions most favorable for the formation of the acid silver
phosphate, does not appear to contain more water than Sample P,
which was prepared under conditions which were unfavorable to the
formation of acid phosphate. Since these two samples, which differed
most widely in their method of preparation, showed no difference in
the amount of water retained, it seemed unnecessary to test the other
samples also. Unfortunately this method of detecting acid phosphate
is not very sensitive, owing to the unfavorable relation of the atomic
weights involved, — one molecule of water corresponding to a deficiency
of two atoms of silver.
BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 155
Tue Speciric GRAVITY OF SILVER PHOSPHATE,
In order that the apparent weight of the silver phosphate might be
corrected to the vacuum standard, the specific gravity of this salt was
found by determining the weight of toluol displaced by a known quan-
tity of salt. The specific, gravity of the toluol at 25° referred to water
at 4° was 0.8633. Great care was taken to remove air from the salt
when covered with the toluol by warming the pycnometer, then placing
it in a vacuum desiccator and boiling the toluol under reduced pres-
sure. The salt and toluol were mechanically stirred to assist the
escape of air bubbles. ‘This process was repeated several times.
Weight of Weight of
Silver Phosphate Displaced Toluol
in Vacuum, in Vacuum.
_ Volume of Density of
Silver Phosphate. | Silver Phosphate.
grams grams. 6.6. 25°/ 4°.
22.955 3.113 3.606 6.566
16.942 2.295 2.658 6.374
IWCa ries ghee re eS ru nr ee ee CG,
Therefore the apparent weight of silver phosphate was corrected to the
vacuum standard by adding 0.000044 gram per gram of salt. Similarly
0.000041 gram was added for every gram of silver bromide.
Tur ADSORPTION OF AIR BY SILVER PHOSPHATE.
Since the silver phosphate was in a very finely divided condition
and since many fine powders have the power of adsorbing appreciable
quantities of air or other gases, the possibility of the adsorption of air
by silver phosphate was investigated. The method of experimenting
and the apparatus were very similar to that used by Baxter and Tilley
for investigating the behavior of iodine pentoxide.
“Two weighing bottles were constructed with long, very well ground
stoppers which terminated in stop-cocks through which the tubes could
be exhausted. These tubes were very closely of the same weight and
very nearly the same internal capacity. The tubes were first exhausted
and compared in weight by substitution. Next they were filled with
dry air and again weighed, the weighing being carried out with stop-
cocks open. Both steps were then repeated with essentially the same
results.” 27
27 Baxter and Tilley, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1909, 31, 214.
156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
In these two experiments, when air was admitted, the counterpoise
gained 0.00028 and 0.00021 gram respectively (average 0.00025) more
than the tube which was later to contain the silver phosphate. After
22.69 grams of pure dry silver phosphate had been placed in the tube,
the tube and its counterpoise were exhausted and the difference in.
weight determined. When dry air at 25° C. nd 766 mm. was admitted
to both the tube containing the silver phosphate and the counterpoise,
the counterpoise gained 0.00443 gram more than the tube. Therefore
the air displaced by the silver phosphate was 0.00443 — 0.00025 =
0.00418 gram. Since 22.69 grams of silver phosphate of density 6.37
have a volume of 3.56 ¢.c., the volume of pure air displaced at 25° C.
and 766 mm. should weigh 0.00425 gram.?8
The experiment was then repeated. After the air had been ex-
hausted from the tube and its counterpoise, the tube containing the
silver phosphate was heated gently. No gas was evolved. The tube
and its counterpoise were then weighed by substitution. When dry
air at 24.5° and 767 mm. was admitted to both, the counterpoise
gained 0.00445 grams more than the tube containing the silver phos-
phate. Therefore the air displaced by the silver phosphate was
0.00445 — 0.00025 =0.00420 grams, whereas the weight of air dis-
placed, calculated from the density of the salt, is 0.00426 gram.
The agreement between the experimental results and those caleu-
lated from the density of silver phosphate on the assumption that no
adsorption takes place is close enough to show that no significant
amount of adsorption occurs.
Discussion OF THE RESULTS.
.
The following table contains all of the analyses not vitiated by a
known impurity in the sample or by an accident during the analysis.
One feature of this table requires further explanation. In Analysis 5
the silver was determined by precipitation as chloride instead of
bromide. For every gram of silver phosphate there was obtained
1.02707 grams of silver chloride. Since Baxter found AgBr : Ag Cl=
1.31017 : 1.00000,29 this analysis indicates that one gram of sample N
is equivalent to 1.02704 X 1.31017 = 1.34560 grams of silver bromide.
This result is placed in the table for comparison with the other analyses
and is used in the computation of the mean.
28 Rayleigh’s value for the density of air at 0° and 760 mm., 1.293 grams
per liter, is used. Proc. Roy. Soe., 53, 147.
29 These Proceedings, 1906, 42, 213.
BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 157
Series I,
3 AgBr : AgsPO,
Weight Gernected
re Ratio
Went | 1055 | Dissolved) Weight | 3.) Ἐς
Oo on
eT Seer ae Ss AgBr. Sebo
Asbestos. | Fusion. Ags3PO,4
Sample
of
AgsPO4
grams ν 58 gram gram gram
6.20166 | 8.34427 | 0.00036 | 0.06034 | 0.00007
6.35722 | 8.55386 | 0.00041 | 0.00003 | 0.00011 | 8.55419
5.80244 | 7. 2 | 0.00029 | 0.00005 | 0.00007 | 7.80819
Fay ay NOV)
5.05845 0.00019 | 0.00020 | 0.00012 | 6.80685 | 1.34564
(AgCl)
3.34498 | 3.45514 | 0.00029 | 0.00009 | 0.00008 | 3.43544 | 1.34560]
7.15386 | 9.62648 | 0.00046 | 0.00013 | 0.00013 | 9.62694 | 1.34570
7.20085 | 9.68929 | 0.00023 | 0.00005 | 0.00010 | 9.68947 | 1.34560
6.20182 | 8.34466 | 0.00041 | 0.00027 | 0.00012 1.54561
N
Nf
Je
R
R
5.20683 | 7.00543 | 0.00029 | 0.00040 | 0.00007 | 7.00605
Average
Per cent of Ag in Ag,PO,
A careful study of these results shows that the composition of silver
phosphate is very nearly, if not quite, independent of the changes in
the acidity of the solutions from which it is precipitated. Samples Ὁ
and R were prepared under slightly more acid conditions than Sam-
ples N and P. The average amount of silver bromide obtained from
one gram of Samples O and R is 1.34558 (77.297 per cent of silver),
whereas the average from Samples N and P is 1.34564 (77.301 per
cent of silver). This difference, if real and significant, is probably due
to a very slight occlusion of disilver hydrogen phosphate. It does not
seem probable that any basic salt was present in Samples N and P,
because silver shows little tendency to form basic salts and the condi-
tions of precipitation were not favorable for the formation of basic
salts.
The difference.between composition of the samples is so slight, both
in absolute amount and by comparison with the differences between
158 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
different analyses of the same sample, that in the present state of our
knowledge it does not seem justifiable to reject the analyses of Samples
N and O. This conclusion is supported by the fact that the water
determinations failed to show a difference between these samples.
The results, however, indicate that the average ratio 1.34562 (77.300
per cent of silver) may be very slightly too low, owing to the presence
of disilver hydrogen phosphate. The ratio 1.34562, assuming the
atomic weight of silver to be 107.88, and assuming that silver bromide
contains 57.4453 per cent of silver, leads to an atomic weight of
31.043 for phosphorus, whereas the ratio 1.34564 derived from Sam-
ples N and P gives the value 31.037. The rounded-off value, 31.04,
may be considered to be essentially free from error from this source.
We are greatly indebted to the Carnegie Institution of Washington
for generous pecuniary assistance in pursuing this investigation ; also
to the Cyrus M. Warren Fund for Research in Harvard University for
many pieces of platinum apparatus.
SUMMARY.
1. A careful study has been made of the conditions necessary for
the preparation of pure trisilver phosphate.
2. It is found that silver phosphate can be almost completely dried
without fusion by heating in a current of dry air.
3. The density of silver phosphate is found to be 6.37.
4. It is found that silver phosphate does not adsorb a significant
amount of air.
5. Nine analyses, made with four different samples, show that one
gram of silver phosphate yields 1.34562 grams of silver bromide, whence
the per cent of silver in silver phosphate is 77.300.
Therefore,
If Ag= 107.88 P=31,02
If Ag=107.87 P=31.03
If Ag = 107.86 P2102
CAMBRIDGE, Mass., November 12, 1909.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 6.— January, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORY OF
THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY AT HARVARD
COLLEGE, E. L. MARK, DIRECTOR.—No. 206.
THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT.
By A. 5. PEARSE.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORY OF
THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY AT HARVARD
COLLEGE. E. L. MARK, DIRECTOR. NO. 206.
THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT.
By A. S. PEARSE.
Presented by Εἰ. L, Mark, December 8, 1909. Received November 24, 1909.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
EIN DRODUCEION τ a te Sa RD ON Abt wee eh Cn aS 162
AC ISTORICAT ME πον ae oes ἄν ean FO Me ΡΥ ΣΎ SLE ee OP
Bree Min PHODSi ese eae. Ὁ ee ola re ews eet se ον Ls tts τ ΠΟ
OR STR VACDLON Sit ate Peete pe Suu στε ae ular walle
A. THe PuHotic Reactions oF NorMAL AMPHIBIANS COMPARED
WITH THOSE FROM WHICH THE HYES HAVE BEEN REMOVED 168
(@) me Nectinustmaciulosis ne Fee IEG Ns wks ae ΘΒ
(Ὁ) Cryptobranchus allegheniensis . . . . .. eee oe i lO
(c) Amblystoma απο Ned sca ae ted Peete Ἐς ine
(d) Plethodon cinereus erythronotus ...... ay Re cer eh lee epanl fe
(e) Diemyctylus viridescens ...... ΣΦ ἘΠῚ κύνες Pian ey τ Mie oc IR
(να εἴα πα plat tiie coy Seles) ne aioe hee! eh este 175
CG) AA SIU ACO ck Geel ke Nahas iis es 4} 70
(Gwe Bujo americanus and B. fowlert: . ee eee a sa trea tlre"
ONS CORLL ATES ne GE. ee CGR a a cn ee 177
B. THE INFLUENCE OF MECHANICAL STIMULATION ON THE ΕΟ ο
ἘΠΕ ACTIONS s ORI ΠΟΛΛΌΝ ἐπ, οτος ἀρ alc ee) ap ek ls 177
C. THe REACTIONS OF THE TOAD TO PHOTIC STIMULATION THROUGH
ΕΓ RSV ES ATONE MEY eM dete geet roy Ὁ ΡΝ Ν᾽ ἐν 178
D. Tue Reactions or Eyetess Toaps τὸ UNILATERAL STIMULA-
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E. Tae EFrects ΟΕ ILLUMINATING SMALL AREAS OF SKIN ON EYE-
MESS LOADS <j ied: eid y πον FE ates 183
F. Tue Errrect or Previous ConpitTions oF LicgntT STIMULATION
ONS PHOTIC MRE ACTIONS 2 sta urs bse ny pa Ge ee ee ecu Sp 184
G. THe Reactions oF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHTS OF DIFFERENT
CORORS) ὁπ ὙΠ ἀν τ’ το Ὁ Meter ais Sis,
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(OV SOT OGTO) SAMS Se Naira ase MAS eet ee ies eee ee ete cwe, LOL
VOL. xLy.— 11
162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
H. CoMPARISON OF THE REACTIONS OF EYELESS Toaps To HEAT
AND τὸ LAGHD .( ἘΣ ee etapa nee © thee 192
I. EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE INFLUENCE OF THE CENTRAL
NERVOUS ORGANS ON THE PHoTIC REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS 195
ΤΠ DISCUSSION snp“ CONCEUSIONS» (oo. ὑπ σο..-- 199
TV? SUMMARY | = SSA ieee eee eee ee Sar oe LN pets τς, pees tae 205
V. - BIBLIOGRAPHY. =} = Pity-S eee Ae Oy ee 206
I. INTRODUCTION.
A. HISTORICAL.
CoNSIDERABLE interest has lately centred itself in the study of the
behavior of animals under the influence of light, and the results of
such studies have been largely used in formulating the various theories
which attempt to account for the reactions of organisms after they
have been subjected to external stimulation. Among vertebrates the
amphibians offer particularly favorable material for such study, as
the various species may be used for experimentation in or out of the
water ; they are, as a rule, very responsive to photic stimulation and
are able to withstand severe operations without serious interference
with their reactions. A large amount of work by a number of observers
has already been done in the study of light responsiveness, and in the
next few pages an attempt is made to summarize the results of those
studies, so far as they apply to amphibians. For the sake of clearness
this material will be considered from a comparative standpoint rather
than in an historical order.
Amphibians react to light by giving motor responses. This motor
reaction to illumination was first recorded by Configliachi and Rusconi
(19).1 They observed that Porteus anguinus, the blind cave sala-
mander of Europe, became restless when exposed to light, and this
observation has been confirmed by later observers (Semper, ’81 ;
Dubois, 90 ; Beer, :01).1 Since that time responsiveness to light has
been noted in the following genera: Triturus, or Triton (Graber, ’83, ’8¢ ;
Willem, ’91), Necturus (Cope, ’89, Reese, :06), Cryptobranchus (Reese,
:06, B. G. Smith, :07), Diemyctylus (Jordan, ’93), Spelerpes (Banta and
MecAtee, :06), Rana (Kiihne, "78"; Loeb, ᾽90 ; Parker, :03°; Torelle,
03, Yerkes, :03, 6: Dickerson, :06; Holmes, :06; Cole, :07), Acris
1 The numbers in parentheses indicate the year of publication of the
article referred to, the title of which is given in full in the “ Bibliography ”
at the end of the paper. An apostrophe indicates an omitted 18; a colon, an
omitted 19.
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 163
(Cole, :07), Bufo (Graber, 84). As these are representative genera, it
seems evident that photic stimulation exerts an influence of wide range
among the amphibians.
Many amphibians show a marked tendency to orient the body and to
move toward or away from the source of light. Configliachi and Rus-
coni (’19) observed that Proteus tended to go to the side of an enclosure
farther from the light and remain there. Since then a number of ob-
servations have been made concerning the phototropism of amphibians.
Thus, the following have been claimed to be positively phototropic:
Rana sp. ? (Holmes, :06 ; Dickerson, :06), R. temporaria (Plateau, ’89),
R. clamata (Torelle, 03; Yerkes, :03, :06; Cole, :07), R. pipiens
(Parker, 03°; Torelle, :03), Acris gryllus (Cole, :07), Bufo clamita
(Plateau, ’89); and the five following negatively phototropic: Proteus
anguinus (Configliachi and Rusconi, 19; Dubois, ’90), Necturus (Cope,
’89 ; Reese, :06 ; B. G. Smith, :07), Spelerpes maculicaudus (Banta and
McAtee, :06), Rana (Loeb, ’90). It will be seen from this list that the
photic reactions of the Caudata are negative, while those of the Sali-
entia are positive, with the exception of the observations by Loeb (90),
which do not agree with those of other writers.
Some amphibians show a tendency to come to rest in the shade. We
would perhaps expect such a reaction in species which are normally
negative in their phototropism, but Torelle (03) has shown that the
frog, which is strongly positive, will also go toward a shaded area and
come to rest in it, though the animal then faces toward the light.
Graber (’83, 84) had previously found that Triturus, Rana, and Bufo
tended to come to rest in shadow.
The eyes are not essential for the light reactions, that is, such reactions
may be brought about by stimulation through the skin. Configliachi and
Rusconi (19) ascribed the photic reactions of Proteus to the pain-
ful effect of light upon the skin, but Kohl (’95) showed that, while the
eyes of this species are rudimentary, they might nevertheless be effec-
tive photoreceptors. It remained for Dubois (’90) to show that the
reactions of Proteus might take place through the skin alone. He
blackened the eyes and obtained a reaction from an individual in
which only the tip of the tail was illuminated. Graber (’83, ’84) ob-
served reactions in T'riturus, which were like those of normal indi-
viduals, after the eyes had been removed and the orbits filled with
black wax. More recently Parker (030) has shown that Rana is
positively phototropic with and without the eyes; and Cole (:07),
besides corroborating Parker’s observations, has obtained like results
from Acris. Kordnyi (’93) observed reflex leg movements in a frog,
which had been rendered particularly sensitive by treating the brain
164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
with meat extract, when he threw a strong beam of light on its back.
Reese (:06) found that when only the tip of the tail was illuminated in
Cryptobranchus or Necturus, the individuals thus stimulated moved
out of the lighted area.
The reactions brought about by stimulating the eye alone agree, in
kind, with those brought about through the skin. Parker (:03") found
that frogs in which the skin was covered but the eyes were exposed, were
positively phototropic, like individuals in which the eyes had been re-
moved. ‘Torelle (:03) made an observation which bears indirectly on
the same point. She found that frogs which had one eye covered with
black cambric went toward the light at an angle or made circus move-
ments with the uncovered eye towards the centre.
The positive phototropism of amphibians is apparently a reaction to-
ward a greater intensity of illumination; or, with the eyes, toward a
greater illuminated area. Plateau (’89, p. 88) observed that Rana
and Bufo, when placed in a box having two openings, went toward the
larger aperture even though it was covered with a grating. Cole (:07)
showed that when Acris was placed between two lights of the same
quality and intensity but of different areas, it went toward the larger
area, but when individuals in which the optic nerves had been cut
were placed in the same situation, they went toward either light an
approximately equal number of times. Rana also showed the same
reaction toward the larger area when it was in normal condition.
Torelle (:03) found that the direction of the illumination made no
difference in photic responses, as frogs went toward the lighter end of
a box when the illumination was from below, and Reese (:06) has
made similar observations on Cryptobranchus and Necturus. — Dicker-
son (:06, p. 32) says, “Frogs do not distinguish between a lighted
space and a white solid. They will turn toward a white card or
paper and try to jump through it, and they may struggle at the im-
possible task of working their way into the solid white surface made
by the leaf edges of a closed book.”
Torelle(:03) noted that frogs, when they were confined in a small
space with an opening above, pointed the head upward toward the
opening, and she supposed this to be evidence for the directive action
of the rays. Objection may be made to this view on the ground that
the opening offers the only opportunity for escape, and the animal,
seeing the opening with its eyes, points its head toward it. If she had
shown the same reaction with eyeless individuals, the evidence would
have been more conclusive.
The rays toward the violet end of the spectrum are apparently most
potent in producing photic reactions, and the rays toward the opposite
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 165
end approach in their effects the conditions brought about by dark.
Graber (’83, 84) found that T'riturus did not come to rest in the colors
toward the violet end of the spectrum when there was equal oppor-
tunity to remain in those nearer the opposite end. This was true of
blinded as well as normal animals. He also (84) found that Rana
and Bufo reacted in much the same way. He states that his results
could not have been due to the effect of temperature, as he performed
experiments in which he used a heat screen for the blue and none for
the red light, and the results were the same. Kiihne (’78*) had _pre-
viously observed that normal frogs went from green toward blue light,
while blinded individuals did not. Loeb (90) states that the less re-
frangible rays do not affect light reactions to such an extent as those
of greater refrangibility, and in this connection he remarks that a frog
will jump towards a red cloth. (He found Rana to be negatively pho-
totropic.) Torelle (03) in speaking of the frog recorded in a stronger
positive phototropism for blue light than for red, yellow, or green; and
this was the same when the light was reflected, transmitted, or both.
The individuals she used were indifferent to red light. Reese (:06)
found blue to be most potent in causing reactions in Necturus and
Cryptobranchus. Yerkes (:03, p. 586) suggested that the frog might
be able to distinguish between red and white backgrounds, but, as he
says (:06, p. 548), there is nothing to show that these reactions might
not have been due to intensity differences. Holmes (:06, p. 350) in
speaking of frogs sums up the whole matter by stating that “in general
it may be said that where they are able to go toward one of two colors,
of equal intensity, they move to the color lying nearest the violet end
of the spectrum.”
The phototropie reactions of amphibia are apparently not due to the
direct stimulation of the central nervous system by light. Parker (:03°)
found that eyeless frogs responded positively when only the lower part of
the body was illuminated from the side in such a manner that the central
nervous organs were in shadow. ‘The experiments of Dubois (:90) on
blinded Proteus, and Reese (:06) on Cryptobranchus and Necturus
offer additional evidence on this point. These animals reacted to a
beam of light thrown on the tail, and hence beyond the limits of the
central nervous organs.
Various internal and external factors may influence the responses of
amphibians to light. It is probable that there are many factors which
exert such a modifying influence. Those which are enumerated in the
following paragraphs are known to alter the photic responses of certain
amphibians by producing changes in their physiological states.
Breeding season. Jordan (:93, p. 271), in speaking of Diemyctylus,
166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
says they “usually conceal themselves under fallen leaves and among
the tangle of water weeds. On warm, sunny days in early spring,
however, they bask openly in the sunshine along the shore.” Another
instance is given by B. G. Smith, (:07, p. 6), who remarks that “ Cryp-
tobronchus comes forth but seldom in the daytime except during the
breeding season,” and (p. 32) “with the close of the breeding season,
becomes more shy, avoids the light and is seldom seen in the open.”
Temperature. Torelle (:03, p. 475) stated that the positive photo-
tropism of the frog increased as the temperature was raised. If, how-
ever, the temperature rose above 30° C., these animals were indifferent
to light, and if it fell below 8°C., they became negative. Cole (:07,
p. 401) has shown conclusively that conditions of temperature influ-
ence the photic responses in Rana. As has been stated, his method
was to place the animals between two lights of equal intensities but
different areas. When a frog has been cooled to from 6° to 10°C., it
went toward the smaller illuminated area, but after it became warm its
reactions were uniformly toward the larger area.
Previous photic stimulation. Configliachi and Rusconi (:19) noticed
that after Proteus had been exposed to light for some time, its reac-
tiveness to that stimulus decreased. Reese (:06, p. 94), in experi-
menting with Cryptobranchus and Necturus, found that “ the responses
to light were much more marked for the first ten or a dozen stimula-
tions.” ‘Tiorelle (:03, p. 47), on the other hand, observed that, after
five to eight hours’ exposure to light, frogs exhibited the same positive
phototropism as before.
Stereotropism. Eigenmann and Denny (:00, p. 34) in speaking of
Typhlotriton, say that “it seems probable that sterotropism rather than
negative heliotropism accounts for the presence of this species in caves.
Torelle (:03, p. 477) found that Rana was strongly stereotropic below
8° C. This stereotropism was associated with a change from positive
to negative phototropism, and, as Holmes (:06, p. 349) has pointed
out, may have been responsible for such change.
Age. Banta and McAtee (06, p. 71) in their experiments with the
cave salamander found that “all larvee are very much more responsive
to light stimulus than the adults, the young larve more so than the
older.”
Surrounding medium. Torelle (:03, p. 473) has shown that frogs
will go toward the light under water as well as in air. The change in
surrounding medium, and from walking to swimming, apparently does
not alter the reactions.
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 167
B. Mertnops.
The experiments described in the present paper have been devoted
(1) to extending the range of our knowledge of photic reactions among
the amphibians, (2) to ascertaining more fully the nature of the photo-
receptors involved, and (3) to determining how great a part the central
nervous system takes in these reactions. It gives me great satisfaction
to express my indebtedness to Professor G. H. Parker, under whose
direction the work was accomplished.
All the experiments which are described in the succeeding pages were
carried on in a dark room, the temperature of which usually varied
between 17° C. and 21° C. The source of the light was a six-glower
Nernst lamp, and as the amount of light it gave out varied under dif-
ferent conditions, the intensity used is given under the descriptions of
the various experiments. Allthe amphibians used were collected in the
vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts, with the exception of Necturus,
which came from Venice, Ohio; Cryptobranchus from Oil City, Penn-
sylvania, and, through the kindness of Professor A. M. Banta, from
Marietta, Ohio; and Diemyctylus from Jaffrey, New Hampshire. The
aquatic species were kept in a large aquarium tank, four meters long
by one and a half wide, in a cool basement room. The terrestrial
forms were kept in cages, the floors of which were covered with earth
and dead leaves, and individuals upon which operations had been per-
formed were placed on a bed of moist excelsior in glass jars. Little
trouble was experienced in keeping the animals in good condition.
The frogs and toads were fed with meal worms, which they ate readily
throughout the winter. The other species were not fed, though Cryp-
tobranchus may have eaten frogs, which were kept for other purposes
in the aquarium with it; and as one of those animals lived for twe
years, it is not improbable that it obtained such food from time to
time. The experiments were carried out in the autumn and winter
months (October 1 to April 1) of two different years.
Of the aquatic species used, Cryptobranchus was the most reactive.
For experimental purposes Bufo was the most satisfactory of the land
forms, both on account of its extreme activity and its greater ability to
withstand dryness, Both Bufo fowleri and B. americanus were used,
but the experiments on the two species were not kept separate. Dr.
L. J. Cole informs me that Acris is much better than Bufo for work
of this nature, but I have not had an opportunity to try it. The term
“amphibians” in this paper does not include caecilians, whose reac-
tions to light are, so far as I know, unstudied.
168 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
II. OBSERVATIONS.
A. Tue Puotic Reactions oF ΝΌΒΜΑΙ, AMPHIBIANS COMPARED
WITH THOSE FROM WHICH THE EYES HAVE BEEN REMOVED.
In order to compare the reactions of amphibians in which both the
skin and eyes acted as photoreceptors with those in which only the
skin was open to stimulation, individuals were tested both in normal
condition and after the eyes had been excised. 'The eyes were usually
removed by making a single transverse cut as near the anterior edge
of the ear drums as possible. The whole front of the head, including
the olfactory lobes and a
part of the cerebral hemi-
spheres, was removed by
this method of procedure
(Figure 1). In Necturus
and Cryptobranchus, how-
ever, only the eyes were
excised. All the species
stood the operation well
and subsequently gave typ-
ical reactions, except Pleth-
odon and _ Diemyctylus,
which were apparently much
weakened by it and were
indifferent to light after the
eyes had been removed. As
a rule individuals were not
Ficure 1. Dorsal view of toad’s head
showing the position of the brain. The dotted
line indicates the plane of the cut used in
removing the eyes. 6, eye; 7, ear. used for experimentation
until the day after the oper-
ation.
The species studied fall naturally into two groups, aquatic and
terrestrial. The former group included Necturus maculosus and Cryp-
tobranchus allegheniensis, and the terrestrial species studied were
Amblystoma punctatum, Plethodon cinereus, Diemyctylus viridescens,
Rana clamata, R. sylvatica, Bufo fowleri, ‘and B. americanus. The
reactions of each species will be considered separately.
(a) Necturus maculosus.
The first experiments with this species were intended to show what
influence light had upon its movements. Four individuals were
placed successively in the centre of a large aquarium, which was illu-
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 169
minated from one end in such a way that the light had an intensity
of about 220 candle-meters at its centre. Under these conditions an
individual usually went at once to the end of the aquarium farther
from the light. It then wandered about from one end to the other for
some time, but finally came to rest as far as possible from the light.
If the lamp was then changed to the opposite end of the aquarium, the
animal again moved to the end which was farther from the light and
came to rest.
In order to test the reactions of Necturus to light and shadow, the
lamp was moved to the side of the aquarium and a movable screen
interposed in such a way that one half of the aquarium was in shadow
and the other half in light (220 candle-meters at the centre of the
aquarium). Two animals were successively introduced. One of
these, after wandering back and forth from one end to the other,
came to rest in the shaded end of the aquarium. When the screen
was changed to the opposite half, the animal moved again into the
shaded area, and this action was repeated for five successive trials on
two different occasions. The other individual remained at the side
of the aquarium nearer the light, and in two experiments it kept going
back and forth from light to shadow for more than one hour. It ap-
parently did not avoid the light, but, by comparing the time it spent
in the light with that spent in shadow during half an hour, it was
found that three-fifths of that period had been passed in the shaded
part of the aquarium. The first individual, then, invariably came to
rest in the shadow, and the second one, while it continued to move
actively, spent somewhat less time in the light than in the shadow.
The most decisive reactions shown by Necturus were brought about
by illuminating a small area at its anterior or posterior end. The
apparatus was in the same position as for the experiments just de-
scribed, except that a screen was arranged in such a manner that a
vertical band of light about five centimeters wide could be suddenly
thrown on different regions of the body. Four individuals were used
for these experiments and all of them behaved in essentially the same
manner. After an animal had remained quiet in the dark for five
minutes, it was suddenly illuminated, and a reaction usually took
place within a few seconds. When the light fell on the tail, the
animal moved forward, but when it was allowed to fall on the head,
the movement was usually backward. Since the animals were never
tested with the light until they had been quiet in the dark for five
minutes, these reactions were without doubt due to the illumination,
for they took place within a few seconds of the time when the light
was thrown on the animals.
170 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
In order to discover whether the skin of Necturus was sensitive to
light or not, the eyes were removed from two individuals and they
were then tested by local stimulation as described in the last para-
graph. ‘Their reactions were similar to those of animals with eyes
except in one particular. The average time which elapsed before the
individuals with eyes moved out of the lighted area was shorter when
the head was stimulated than when the light fell upon the tail, but
the eyeless animals, on the contrary, reacted more quickly when the
tail was stimulated. The results with normal animals agree with
those of Reese (:06, p. 96) in his experiments on Necturus. He
ascribed the shorter reaction time for the head to greater sensitiveness
in that region, and he believed it to be due to stimulation received
through the eyes. The present experiments with eyeless animals
give support to his views, as the posterior end of the individuals
tested was apparently more sensitive to photic stimulation after the
eyes had been excised. The decreased sensitiveness of the head
region may, however, have been due to the injury incident to the
removal of the eyes, instead of the mere loss of the eyes themselves.
From the experiments described it is evident that Necturus is nega-
tively phototropic and that it comes to rest in shaded areas. Both
the skin and eyes act as photoreceptors, and the stimulation of either
brings about negative reactions.
(ὁ) Cryptobranchus allegheniensis.
The arrangement of the apparatus for the experiments with Crypto-
branchus was the same as for those with Necturus. The reactiveness
of this species to light was very marked. Seven individuals were
placed successively in the middle of the aquarium, the illumination
being from one end, whereupon they moved immediately to the end far-
ther from the light. When the lamp was carried to the opposite end
of the aquarium, they usually changed their position at once and again
came to rest in the end farther from the light. In these reactions they
were much more responsive than Necturus, though, as Reese (: 06,
p. 94) has observed, they often failed to respond readily after the first
few reactions.
The reactions of Cryptobranchus to conditions of light and shadow
were also pronounced. In testing these, half the aquarium was shaded
by a screen which was changed from one end to the other at five
minute intervals. An individual was placed in the aquarium and the
screen changed ten times. It never failed to move at once to the
shaded part of the aquarium, and furthermore it rested quietly in
the shadow in the intervals between the changes.
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. ΤῊ
The illumination of a small area at the anterior or posterior end of
an individual produced the same reactions as in Necturus, but in
Cryptobranchus they took place more quickly.
To test the sensitiveness of the skin to light, the eyes were removed
from one individual and it was stimulated alternately on the head and
tail by the same method as that used for Necturus. This animal
usually responded within a few seconds to such illumination. In a
series of fifty reactions it was found that the average time required
for the animal to move out of the illuminated area was more than
twice as great when the light fell upon the head as when the tail was
illuminated inthe same manner. The skin of Cryptobranchus is, then,
a photoreceptor and the sensitiveness seems to be greater at the pos-
terior than at the anterior end. Reese (:06, p. 94) has stated that,
even with the eyes present, this species shows the greatest sensitive-
ness to light in the caudal region.
This eyeless individual was strongly photokinetic. It was placed in
a flat porcelain dish about a meter below an ordinary gas burner, and
after it had been allowed to remain in the dark for about an hour, the
gas was suddenly lighted. There was an unfailing response to this
illumination within a few seconds, the animal moving restlessly about
in the dish. As the light was non-directive, and the animal often
remained quiet for hours in the dark, this uniform response to sudden
illumination showed this species to be strongly photokinetic. In this
respect it was quite different from Necturus, which often did not re-
spond to such stimulation for some time, even when the light intensity
was 220 candle-meters.
In summarizing the results of the experiments upon Cryptobranchus,
it may be said that it is negatively phototropic, that it comes to rest in
shaded areas and is strongly photokinetic. These reactions apparently
take place as readily when only the skin is stimulated by light as when
the eyes are also affected.
The terrestrial amphibians were found to be much more satisfactory
subjects for experimental work than the aquatic species. Not only
was it easier to arrange the apparatus for the land forms, but more
accurate results were obtained, as it was possible to orient the animals
with a perfectly uniform relation to the light before each reaction. In
all the experiments with terrestrial forms the apparatus shown in Fig-
ure 2 was used. After this apparatus had once been arranged, it was
a simple matter to test one species after another, and to compare the
reactions of normal animals with those of individuals without eyes. It
will be seen from the figure that the two side screens (s’) were placed
172 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
at the edge of the shadow made by the light that passed through the
heat screen (a). ‘Thus the greatest open space was away from the
light, and, as far as the animal was able to see, the best chance for
escape lay in that direction. An individual was not, then, subjected to
the same conditions as one placed in a small box having a single
opening. It does not seem improbable that any animal with eyes,
after being handled and shut up in a small enclosure, would endeavor
to escape by the most apparent opening ; and the reactions could not
in that case be interpreted as being due to the influence of light alone.
The apparatus shown in Figure 2 is not open to such an objection.
h
Figure 2. Plan of apparatus in which the reactions of terrestrial amphib-
ians to light were tested. a, heat screen filled with water; ὃ, screen for
head of observer; c, lamp; ἢ, screen extending to ceiling; s, s’, screen 25 cm.
high.
The method of experimentation was to place an individual at a
distance of seventy centimeters from the light (where the intensity
was 225 candle-meters) and watch it through a small hole in the screen
b, until a definite movement had taken place. After a reaction of this
kind, the animal was held for a few seconds outside the screen s, where
it could not see the light, in order to eliminate any directive effect
produced by that stimulus, and it was then replaced ready for another
reaction. ΤῸ counteract the effects of compensatory movements, the
animals were always turned in a clockwise direction between the re-
actions, and were placed with the right and left sides alternately to-
ward the light, the long axis of the body being at right angles to the
direction of the rays. ΤῸ avoid effects due to fatigue, no more than
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 173
twenty reactions were, as a rule, recorded from an individual on any
one day. As the method of procedure was the same in all cases, and,
as the only object in view was to compare the reactions of eyeless and
normal animals, the discussion under each species will be limited
mostly to the results obtained.
(c) Amblystoma punctatum.
Four individuals were used in the experiments upon this species.
After the eyes had been excised, the two smaller animals, which
measured about seven centimeters in length, did not survive more
than a day or two. The two adult individuals, however, were ap-
parently little affected by the operation, and one of them lived for
forty-seven days after it. The results of the experiments are given
in Table I. This species is shown to be negatively phototropic, both
TABLE 1.2
PuHotic REACTIONS oF AMBLYSTOMA PUNCTATUM, WITH AND
WITHOUT EYES.
| Condition of individuals Normal Eyeless
Direction of movement
Number
Reactions {
Per cent
in the normal and eyeless condition. As might be expected, there were
more movements without reference to the light after the eyes had been
excised, but this may have been due to the effects of the operation.
Whether this is true or not, the fact remains that the animals were
able to respond negatively to light received through the skin.
(d) Plethodon cinereus erythronotus.
This species manifested the same negative phototropism as the last,
when in normal condition, but it did not stand the operations well.
2 In the tables which appear throughout this paper the following signs
are used: “+ ” indicates a decided movement toward the light, “ -- ”’ is
used for a similar movement away from the light, and “Ὁ ”’ signifies that the
individual remained still for fifteen minutes or made a movement without
apparent reference to the light.
174 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
This may have been due to the small size of the animal, which ren-
dered it less able to withstand the unfavorable conditions in its en-
vironment after the eyes had been excised. ‘The reactions summarized
in Table II. show that the species was negatively phototropic when in
TABLE II.
’PHotic REACTIONS OF PLETHODON CINEREUS ERYTHRONOTUS,
WITH AND WITHOUT Eyes.
Condition of individuals Normal Eyeless
Direction of movement
Number
Reactions
Per cent
normal condition. After the eyes had been excised, however, the move-
ments were without apparent reference to the light. This indifference
may, nevertheless, have been due to the effects of the operation rather
than to lack of photic sensitiveness in the skin.
(e) Diemyctylus viridescens.
Like Plethodon, this species did not stand the operation well and
gave no reactions which were manifestly due to light after the eyes had
been removed. ‘Ten individuals were used, and the eyes were excised
from eight of them. None of the latter lived more than twelve days
after the operation. The results given in Table III. bring out the fact
TABLE III.
Puotic REACTIONS OF DIEMYCTYLUS VIRIDESCENS, WITH AND
WITHOUT EyYEs.
Condition of individuals Normal Eyeless
Direction of movement
Number
Reactions
Per cent
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. {75
that this species is positively phototropic ; a condition which is not,
so far as I know, found in any other caudate amphibian. All the in-
dividuals used were of the orange type of coloration, and it is possible
that animals of this species having the green phase might give different
results.
(f) Rana clamata.
Although the eyes were not excised from any individual of this spe-
cies, the reactions observed are given in Table IV. for comparison with
TABLE IV.
PuHotic REAcTIONS oF RANA CLAMATA.
Direction of movement
Number
Reactions |
Per cent
the next form. They agree essentially with those described by Parker
(:03>) and Torelle (:03) for R. pipiens and R. viridescens. Five indi-
viduals were tested, and they all proved to be positively phototropic.
(g) Rana sylvatica.
This frog was more active than the last species, and some individuals
gave more decided phototropic reactions than did any member of the
TABLE V.
Puotic REACTIONS OF RANA SYLVATICA, WITH AND WITHOUT EYEs.
Condition of individuals Normal
Direction of movement
Individual No. 1
Individual No. 2
Individual No. 3
Individual No. 4
Total Ϊ Number
Reactions Batcont
176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
preceding species. ‘There were, however, such differences in the re-
actions of the four animals used that they are tabulated separately.
Individual No. 1 never failed to move straight toward the light. No. 2
was not as persistently positive after the eyes had been excised as be-
fore this operation, thovgh it continued to give a majority of positive
reactions. As individuals 3 and 4 were apparently indifferent to the
light in their normal conditions, their eyes were not removed. The
reactions of animals 1 and 2 were, however, strongly positive, and this
condition remained even after the eyes had been excised ; hence their
skins served as photoreceptors as well as their eyes.
(Δ) Bufo americanus and B. fowleri.
Both these species were used for experimentation, but, as the records
were not kept separate, their reactions cannot be distinguished and
are given together in Table VI. The results include experiments with
TABLE VI.
Puotic Reactions or NoRMAL AND EYELESS ToapDs.
Condition of individuals Normal Eyeless
Direction of movement
Number
Reactions
Per cent
twenty normal animals and six in which the eyes had been excised. In
removing the eyes from another individual, the head was cut diagonally
so that the left ear was injured. This animal turned continually to the
right, regardless of the direction of the light, and its reactions were
therefore not included in the table. Although most of the individuals
were adults, a few were immature, but none of them measured less than
two centimeters in length. The results show the species to be positively
phototropic in response to stimulation received through the skin as well
as through the eyes.
It was also possible to show that the phototropic reactions of eyeless
toads were not due to the effect of light upon the exposed ends of the
optic nerves. On two occasions, after an individual had given ten
successive positive responses, it was immediately oriented in such a
manner that the anterior end of the body pointed away from the light.
In both instances the animals turned at once and went directly toward
=
PEARSE. ——THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 177
the light, and this reaction was repeated on five successive trials.
These reactions could not have been due to the direct stimulation of
the optic nerves by light, as they were not exposed to such stimulation.
The results are in agreement with those of Graber (’83), who filled the
orbits of 'I'riturus with black wax, and of Dubois (’90), who covered
the eyes of Proteus with a mixture of gelatine and lampblack. Both
these observers obtained phototropic reactions by stimulating the skin.
(ἢ Conclusions.
From the experiments described it may be said that photic sensi-
tiveness is general in the skin of amphibians. While there is consid-
erable variation in the phototropism of different species, and even
of individuals of the same species, the reactions brought about by
stimulation through the skin alone are like those produced when both
the skin and eyes act as photoreceptors.
B. Tue INFLUENCE oF MECHANICAL STIMULATION ON THE PHOTIC
REACTIONS OF THE TOAD.
In the experiments with terrestrial amphibians and light the obser-
vations were always made after the animals had been handled by the
experimenter, and, though the response was decided in most cases and
of such a nature as to attribute it to light, it is not impossible that
mechanical stimulation through handling may have been responsible
for more or less of it. In order to test this matter five toads which
were known to be positively phototropic were placed successively in a
box, the floor of which measured thirty-eight by ninety centimeters.
The sides and floor of this box were of slate, and the ends were closed
by glass heat-screens containing a layer of water 3.75 centimeters
thick. The roof consisted of a coarsely woven black cloth stretched
on a wooden frame, and the observations were made through the meshes
of this cloth. A lamp giving a light intensity of 220 candle-meters
was changed from one end to the other at five-minute intervals for a
period of fifteen minutes. Four of the individuals when first placed in
the apparatus went toward the light, and then wandered back and
forth without evident reference to it, and apparently tried to escape
from the enclosure. The fifth animal sat in the centre of the box,
turning from one side to the other for three minutes, and then went
away from the light. When the lamp was changed from one end of
the apparatus to the other, only one of the individuals turned imme-
diately and went toward it; the other four were apparently indifferent.
In a later experiment, however, two toads were observed to be persist-
VOL. XLV. — 12
178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
ently positive, and they tried for as much as five minutes to move
through a heat screen to the light.
Six toads were next placed together in a rectangular glass vessel
(the floor of which measured twelve by twenty centimeters) and were
subjected to approximately the same light conditions as in the last
experiment. In jumping about they stimulated each other in a me-
chanical way. During fifteen minutes all the individuals remained
mostly facing the light and making vain attempts to reach it, and only
occasionally did one of them try to escape on the opposite side of
the jar.
It is evident from these two experiments that mechanical stimulation
exerts an influence on the phototropism of the toad by enforcing the
effect of light, or, it could perhaps better be said, that the mechanical
stimulation furnishes the impulse to locomotion, while the light is
effective in determining the direction of the movement after locomotion
has been established. For the purpose of the present paper, however,
it makes no difference whether the responses obtained were due solely
to the influence of light or whether they were reactions to light after
mechanical stimulation. In either case the fact remains that both the
skin and eyes of amphibians act as photoreceptors, and that definite
reactions take place as a result of stimulation through either.
C. Tue Reactions oF THE Toap To PHoric STIMULATION
THROUGH THE EYES ALONE.
Experiments have been described in this paper which show that
various amphibians react in the same way when either the skin alone
is stimulated or when both the skin and eyes are affected. The next
question which naturally arises is whether animals will react in the
same way when the stimulation is received through the eyes alone.
That such responses take place in Rana pipiens has been shown by
Parker (:03», p. 33), who found this species to be positively phototro-
pic when its entire surface was covered, with the exception of the eyes.
In order to test the toad in a similar manner the apparatus shown in
Figure 3 was used. Light was allowed to pass through a small open-
ing (e) in a screen, which could be adjusted so that only a small area
around the eye of the animal was illuminated. As an additional pre-
caution against light reception through the skin, the individuals used
were covered, except the eyes and feet, by a tight-fitting suit of soft
leather. As might be expected, the movements of the two animals
used in the experiments were slow. Each of these individuals was
placed with its right and left side alternately toward the light, the
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 179
long axis of the body being at right angles to the direction of the rays.
The movements which resulted from this method of stimulation are
summarized in Table VII. The results show that the toad gives the
B
Ficure 3. A, section of apparatus to test reactions of toads to stimu-
lation through the eyes alone; δ, ground plan. a, screen; c, lamp; d, heat
screen; e, aperture for light; /, chimney for carrying away heat; g, slate
upon which the animals were placed; J, source of light; s, screen,
same sort of positive reactions when the eyes are stimulated as when
the skin is illuminated.
If the reactions of the two individuals just described were due to
unequal stimulation of the eyes, it ought to be possible to produce
180 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
circus movements by stimulating only one eye. In order to obtain
such unilateral stimulation, a flap was fastened in the leather suit used
TABLE VII.
Puotic REActTIONS oF ToaDs STIMULATED THROUGH THE
EYES ALONE.
Direction of movement
Individual No. 1
Individual No. 2
Number
Reactions
Per cent
in previous experiments so that it could be made to cover either eye.
The individuals were placed so that they faced the light with only the
area about the uncovered eye illuminated. Under these circumstances
seventy per cent of the movements (‘T'able VIII.) were not toward the
light but toward the side bearing the uncovered eye. ‘These reac-
TABLE VIII.
Puotic Reactions oF Two Toaps FAcING TOWARD THE LIGHT
AND STIMULATED THROUGH ONLY ONE EYE.
Condition of individuals} Right eye covered Left eye covered
Direction of movement Right | Left ΞῈ
Individual No. 3 63 16
Individual No. 4 66 29
Number 35
Reactions {
Per cent 18
tions are what might be expected from a positively phototropic species
like the toad, as similar responses have been observed in many other
animals. For example, circus movements have been noted in several
arthropods after one eye had been blackened over or excised, by
Holmes (:01, :05), Parker (:03*), and Radl (:03). No observations
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 181
of exactly this kind have been made on amphibians, although Torelle
(:03, p. 474) found that a frog went toward the light with the long
axis of the body oblique to the direction of the rays, or made circus
movements, after one eye had been covered. She made no attempt,
however, to stimulate the eye without also affecting the skin.
Figure 4. A, front sectional view through the middle of the apparatus
for testing eyeless frogs under unilateral stimulation; B, sectional view from
the side. a, wooden support for heat screen, which contained an oblong
opening; c, adjustable screen of blackened sheet iron; J, source of light;
s, black cardboard screen; w, glass dish containing water.
From these experiments it is apparent that the photic reactions of the
toad, which are brought about by stimulation through the eyes, are due
to intensity differences in the illumination of the two eyes, and the
direction of the light rays is apparently of no significance.
182 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
D. Tue Reactions or Eyeress Toaps ΤῸ UNILATERAL STIMULATION
BY LIGHT FROM ABOVE.
The last experiments described showed that a toad would turn toward
the illuminated side when only one eye was stimulated, even when such
a movement did not take it into a region of greater light intensity.
The next question which suggested itself was whether eyeless indi-
viduals would make similar movements when only one side was stimu-
lated. In solving this problem, the apparatus shown in Figure 4 was
used. It consisted of a wooden box (sixty centimeters high, forty-five
wide, and twenty-eight deep) which was lined throughout with two
layers of black cloth, except the floor, which was of slate. Light com-
ing from above (J) passed through oblong openings in two screens (a, 8)
so that an area a little larger than a toad was illuminated on the floor
of the apparatus, where the light intensity was 413 candle-meters.
Each toad was so placed that the right and left sides were alternately
illuminated, and an accurate unilateral division of light and shadow was
secured by using a small movable screen (c) of blackened sheet iron.
In preparing individuals for these and subsequent experiments, a
different method was used for excising the eyes from that followed
heretofore. Instead of removing the whole upper jaw, a horizontal cut
was made just above the nostrils, which met a vertical cut behind the
eyes. The roof of the mouth was thus left intact, and there was conse-
quently no interference with the respiratory movements. The plan
followed in experimenting was to orient the individual facing the ob-
server before each of the first ten reactions, while for the last ten it was
faced in the opposite direction. Before and after the tests with light
from above, each toad was tested ten times with light of the same in-
tensity (413 candle-meters) from the side. The results of the reactions
(Table IX.) with the light from above show a turning toward the side
illuminated in seventy per cent of the cases, and, while the positive
phototropism of the same individuals was slightly greater when they
were illuminated from one side, the difference does not amount to
enough to be significant. It may therefore be said that the positive
phototropism of eyeless toads is due to intensity differences on the two
sides of the body.
Payne (:07) has performed experiments of the same kind with the
blind fish, Amblyopsis spelaeus, after the eyes had been excised, and
obtained similar results. Apparently the direction of the light rays, as
distinguished from intensity differences, has no influence on the reac-
tions of either of these species.
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 183
TABLE IX.
Reactions oF Six Hyevess Toaps To VERTICAL AND
Horizontau Licur.
Light
from side
Light
from side
Direction of light
Light from above
Light on right | Light on left
Regions illuminated ade
Direction of movement
Reactions
Per cent
E. Tue Errects oF [ntuminatina SmMaLti AREAS OF SKIN ON
Eyeess Toaps.
In order to test the reactions of eyeless toads to local stimulation by
light in various regions of the skin, individuals were placed two centi-
meters behind a screen containing a circular opening 3.2 millimeters in
diameter, through which a horizontal beam of light passed. ΤῸ render
the rays of light as nearly parallel as possible a large condensing lens
Figure 5. Toad, viewed from right side. The dotted areas indicate the
regions illuminated.
was interposed between the screen and the light. A small area of skin
could thus be strongly stimulated by light ; the light used had an in-
tensity of 474 candle-meters. The three regions shown by the dotted
areas in Figure 5 were stimulated, and they may be designated as the
regions of the front leg, the hind leg, and the back. Before each of
184 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
the tests the individuals were tried in light of lesser intensity, but ap-
plied to the whole surface of the body, to see that they were positively
phototropie.
TABLE X.
Locat Skin ILLUMINATION oF E1GgHT EyYELEsS Toaps.
Regions illuminated |Wholebody| Front leg
Direction of movement +
Number 74
Reactions
Per cent Ξ Di 64 | 18] 18} 56) 31/13
The experiments (Table X.) showed the toad to be positively photo-
tropic in response to stimulation received through each of the regions
tried, and there was no reason to assume that one region was more
sensitive to such stimulation than another.
TABLE XI.
SuMMARY OF Datty Series oF Twenty Reactions BY ELEVEN Toaps
AFTER PREVIOUS EXPOSURE IN THE LIGHT OR IN THE DARK.
Previously in dark | Previously in light
Direction of reaction ....
Number
First reaction
Per cent
Number
First 5 reactions
Per cent
Number
Last 15 reactions
Per cent
Number
Total reactions
Per cent
Payne (:07) has shown a similar condition in Amblyopsis. He states
(p. 323) that these fishes “seem to be equally sensitive on all parts of
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 185
the body,” after the eyes have been excised. Parker (:05°, p. 419) and
Reese (:06, p. 94) have, on the other hand, found the tail to be the most
sensitive region in Ammoccetes and Cryptobranchus respectively. hese
few observations indicate that the comparative sensitiveness of the skin
to photic stimulation varies indifferent species of vertebrates.
F. Tue Errect or Previous Conpitions oF Ligut STIMULATION oN
Puotic REACTIONS.
It had been noticed in a general way during the preceding experi-
ments that when a toad was placed near a strong light the first reac-
tion was more often away from the light than any of the subsequent
responses were, and that the first reaction was usually slower than
those which followed. G. Smith (05) has shown that, when Gam-
marus is exposed to light, a pigment migration takes place toward
the proximal ends of the retinula cells, and that as this migration pro-
gresses the animal changes its reactions from indifferent to strongly
positive. As a pigment migration, as well as other changes, takes
place when the eyes of amphibians are exposed to light, it was thought
that there might be a similar influence on the reactions in this case,
and experiments were accordingly carried out to test this question.
In these experiments toads were placed in the centre of a box which
was ninety centimeters long and thirty-eight wide. ‘The floor and
sides were of slate, and both ends were closed by glass heat-screens
which contained a layer of water 3.75 centimeters thick. Light, which
had an intensity of 220 candle-meters at the spot where the toads were
exposed to it, was admitted from one end, and before each reaction the
individuals were placed with the right and left sides alternately toward
the source of light. Eleven toads were kept first in the dark for five
days and then in the light (three candle-meters) of a gas jet for an
equal period of time. The eyes were thus exposed continuously to
uniform light or dark, except when the animals were removed for the
experiments, which occupied about half an hour daily. By taking
twenty records from each individual each day, an attempt was made
to get a series of a hundred reactions from each individual under the
two conditions of previous exposure to light and to dark. In all but
three cases these attempts were successful.
The results in Table XI. show that the first reaction in a series of
twenty has the least tendency to be positively phototropic and that
subsequent reactions are increasingly positive. There is, however, no
great difference between the responses of individuals previously exposed
to light and those previously in the dark. In Table XII. the reactions
186 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
of each animal are shown, and it will be seen that the individuals often
vary widely in their different reactions. For example, toad No. 13
was negatively phototropic after being in the dark, but strongly posi-
tive after exposure to light. Although the effect of previous stimula-
TABLE XII.
REACTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL TOADS PREVIOUSLY IN THE LIGHT
OR IN THE DARK.
Condition Previously in dark Previously in light
Direction of movement
Individual No. 11
Individual No. 12
Individual No.
Individual No.
Individual No.
Individual No.
Individual No.
Individual No.
Individual No.
Individual No.
Individual No.
Total Number 763
reactions Per cent : Ἶ 81.6 12.9
tion is marked in some individuals, yet when we consider the total
number of reactions, almost the same percentage of positive photo-
tropism is shown after prolonged exposure to the light as after a similar
period in the dark. These results agree with those of Torelle (:03), who
found that eight hours of exposure to light did not change the positive
phototropism of the frog.
Table XIII. shows the times which elapsed before the reactions
recorded in Table XII. took place. No records were included which
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 187
did not show twenty successive reactions on the day considered.
Under (a) sixty such sets of daily records are included, and under (ὁ),
forty-three sets. The toads reacted more slowly after having been
kept in the dark than after they had been exposed to light. The
difference is not great and cannot be considered very significant in
showing optic influence. The results may, however, be interpreted as
indicating that prolonged exposure to light renders the toad more
photokinetic.
G. Tue Reactions or AMPHIBIANS TO Liguts oF DIFFERENT
CoLors.
In testing the reactions of animals to lights of different wave lengths
the apparatus shown in Figure 6 was used. Animals were placed in
the position shown in the figure, and after each reaction they were
rotated clockwise through 180°. The right and left sides were thus
brought alternately toward the light, which had an intensity of 612
candle-meters (for white light) at the point where the animals were
placed. he different colors were obtained by passing the white light
of a Nernst lamp through colored screens. These screens were
solutions of various substances held in rectangular glass jars which
could be easily interchanged.* The colors used were red, yellow, green,
and blue, and, though they were not perfectly monochromatic, they
did not overlap significantly in the spectrum.
3 The substances used in making the solutions and the ranges of the
colors obtained from them, as determined by an Engelmann spectroscope,
were as follows:
_Amount Wave-
in grams. length in μ.
Colors. Substances.
Red Fuchsin 0.10 0.605—0.608
Yellow and
Copper sulphate 15.00
Potassium bichromate 63.00
\ 0.540-0.605
0.460-0.530
“Lichtgriin ἢ aa
and
Copper sulphate 5.00
“Bleu de Lyon ” 0.15 0.430-0.485
188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
TABLE XIII.
AVERAGE Reaction Times ΙΝ MINUTES OF TOADS PREVIOUSLY
IN THE LIGHT OR IN THE Dark.
Number of the reaction
(a) Previously in dark
(b) Previously in light
Number of the reaction
(a) Previously in dark
(b) Previously in light
(a) Normal Individuals.
For the experiments with animals in normal condition, Rana
palustris was used. Six individuals were successively tested with the
colors in the following order, blue, green, yellow, red, and then this
FicureE 6. Plan of apparatus for testing the reactions of toads to colored
lights. A, position of observer; a, heat and color screen; b, screen 25 cm.
high; J, light; 8, 8, s, 8) screen extending to ceiling; 1, t, ἐ, t, table.
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 189
order was reversed. The plan followed was to test all the individuals
in one color and then to change the screen and test them again in the
same order but with the next color; ten reactions being taken from
each individual in every color. Each animal was thus actually subject
to experiment for about one hour out of the six which were required to
complete the series. A second half-dozen of frogs was tested in the
same manner, except that the colors were used in the order red, yellow,
green, blue, and then the order was reversed.
TABLE XIV.
REACTIONS OF RANA PALUSTRIS TO COLORED LiGHTs.
Color of lights
Direction of movement
First six
individuals 96] 13 |11} 80] 14 26] 69
Second six
Reactions individuals 81) 2514] 68] 3814] 55
Number [177] 38 Ι26148] 52 |401]124
Per cent | 74) 16 [10] 62) 22 |16] 52
Total
Ave. reaction time in minutes 2.83
The results (Table XIV.) show that blue is apparently the most
effective in the production of positively phototropic reactions, and that
there is a regular graduation from blue to red, both in the percentage
of positive reactions and in the rapidity with which the movements
took place. Other observers (p. 165) have obtained similar results in
experiments with other species of amphibians. It is probable that
these differences in the reactions are due to differences of the wave
lengths, but they may be due to intensity differences.
(Ὁ) Hyeless Individuals.
The blue end of the spectrum is known to be more potent in affect-
ing changes in the eyes of many animals, and in some species the
sensitiveness to red is apparently lacking altogether. For example,
Abelsdorff (:00, p. 562) observed that the pupil of the owl’s eye
190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
enlarged in red light but contracted rapidly when it was exposed to
blue light of low intensity. It therefore seemed not improbable that
the differences in the frog’s reactions to lights of different colors might
have been due to stimulation received through the eyes; therefore
another set of experiments was undertaken to ascertain if like results
could be obtained through the stimulation of the skin alone.
As toads had been found to be more responsive than frogs after the
eyes had been excised, they were used in testing the light reactions
through the skin. The same apparatus (Figure 6) was used as in the
experiments with normal animals, except that the light was passed
through a square aperture, 2.7 centimeters on a side, and had an
intensity of 874 candle-meters for white light at the point where the
animals were placed. The method used for removing the eyes was the
TABLE XV.
REACTIONS OF THREE Eyetess Toaps To CoLtorep LiGuts.
Color of lights White
Direction of movement | +
Number
Reactions '
Per cent | 96
same as in previous experiments (p. 182). Three individuals were
tested successively with white, red, yellow, green, and blue light in the
order given. The next day two of the animals were tested again with
the same colors but in the inverse order.
It will be seen (Table XV.) that these toads gave about seventy-five
per cent of positively phototropic reactions with every color. Appar-
ently all the colors were equally effective in inducing photic responses.
This fact is the more striking when we remember that the same color
screens were used as in the experiments with normal amphibians
(Table XIV.), in which case the blue was most potent. The reactions
to white light, in the present instance, showed an almost perfect posi-
tive phototropism, and it seemed possible that the lesser degree of
reactiveness shown in the responses to colored lights might have been
due to differences in intensity, as the color-screens undoubtedly cut
off much light. To ascertain if any difference would be manifest in
the responses if the intensity were lowered, a diaphragm, having a
circular aperture 2.8 millimeters in diameter, was interposed and
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 191
experiments performed in which eyeless toads were placed at a distance
of 275 centimeters from the lamp, where the intensity was 1.44 candle
meters for white light. The colored screens cut the light down to
what must have been considerably less than a candle-meter. The
results obtained from seven toads not previously tested are shown in
Table XVI.
TABLE XVI.
REACTIONS OF SEVEN EyrEtess Toaps To CoLorED LIGHTS
oF Low INTENSITY.
Color of lights White Red Yellow
Direction of movement | + |-- 0) + |—/0 | + ]—] 0
Number 84] 6 {10} 56 260] 28 | 7618] 16
Reactions
Per cent | 84] 6/10) 50 25] 27 | 0817 15
Although the “ positive percentages ” in every color were lower than
when light of greater intensity was used (‘Table XV.), the eyeless toads
again showed positive phototropism in all the colors. There was also,
in this case, a greater number of positive reactions when white light
was used than when any of the colors were substituted for it. It is,
then, apparent that in a decreased light intensity the number of
positive reactions decreased, but no especial potency was shown by one
color as compared with another as a means of inducing such reactions.
The slight differences between the number of positive reactions
produced by lights of different colors, as shown in the table, may be
accounted for as being due to intensity differences. The colors, as
judged by the human eye, could be arranged from more to less intense .
in the following order, yellow, green, red, blue ; and it will be seen that
the largest number of positive reactions was brought about by the most
intense light, thus judged.
(c) Summary.
The results of the reactions of amphibians to colored lights may be
briefly summarized as follows : normal animals were positively photo-
tropic in all the colors tried, but there were more positive reactions
toward the violet end of the spectrum than toward the red end ; eyeless
individuals were also positively phototropic in all the colors, but there
was no difference in number between the positive reactions to the several
colors. These results do not agree with those of most other observers.
192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
In fact, Loeb (’88) has stated as a general law, that the more primitive
the photoreceptor, the greater is its sensitiveness to the rays toward the
violet end of the spectrum, as compared to those toward the opposite
end. Graber (’83, p. 225) stated that in the phototropic responses of
Triturus the rays became more and more like darkness in their effects
as the red end of the spectrum was approached ; and that this was true
of eyeless individuals as well as those in normal condition. Dubois
(90, p. 358) observed that blue was more effective than red in produc-
ing responses from a blinded Proteus when only the tail was illumi-
nated. Opposed to these observations are those of Kiihne (’78',
p. 119), who found that, while normal frogs rested in green when there
was equal opportunity to rest in blue, blinded individuals showed no
such reactions. The results described in the present paper agree with
those of Kiihne, and it seems to be evident that the photoreceptors in
the skin of the frog and toad have little or no sensitiveness to color
differences, as such.
H. CoMPARISON OF THE REACTIONS oF EyELESS Tioaps To Heat
AND TO LIGHT.
It has long been known that the skin of amphibians could be stimu-
lated by heat, and the opinion has been expressed that there are recep-
tors which are open to stimulation by either heat or light. Kordnyi
(93) showed that heat, as well as light, might produce motor reactions
when it was applied to the skin of a frog. Parker (:03°, p. 34) says:
“Tt is conceivable that in the lower vertebrates, like the frog, the end
organs of the skin are stimulated by radiant energy of a wide range,
including what is for us both radiant heat and light, and that the de-
scendants of these organs in the skins of higher vertebrates are more
restricted in function and are ordinarily sensitive to radiant heat and
its effects.” Washburn (:08, p. 142) also says, “ While, then, the nerve
endings in the human skin are sensitive only to the slowest of these
vibrations, the heat rays, those in the skin of the frog, may respond to
the whole series.”
During the experiments with eyeless toads the question arose as to
whether the supposed photic reactions might not, after all, be due to
the influence of heat. And, although a heat screen containing water
was used in all experiments, there was a possibility that the light was
converted into heat as it was absorbed by the skin, and that the sensi-
tiveness was to heat rather than light. Furthermore, the part of the
apparatus containing the lamp was warmed somewhat during a series
of experiments and gave off a small amount of heat. A crude test as
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 193
to the effect of this heat from the apparatus was made in the following
way: On two occasions when a toad had gone successively ten times
toward the light, an opaque screen was interposed in such a way
that the light was cut off but the radiating heat from the apparatus
was allowed to reach the toad. In both instances the individuals
gave ten reactions without apparent reference to the heated appa-
ratus, thus showing that the reactions had not been brought about
by heat.
In order to test the sensitiveness of the toad to increased tempera-
ture, two eyeless individuals were suspended in such a way that the
hind legs could be dipped into water. Neither of these animals made
any movement under this method of treatment when the water was at
room temperature (20° C.). The temperature of the water was then
raised five degrees at a time, and there was no response until a temper-
ature of 40° C. to 45° C. had been reached, when the animals quickly
withdrew their legs from the hot water. It was evident, from these
results, that the toad did not respond readily to increase in tempera-
ture. Reese (:06) found that Cryptobranchus also was comparatively
insensitive to changes in the temperature of the surrounding medium,
but, if the temperature was raised above 40° C., violent motor reactions
occurred.
While these observations showed that amphibians might not be
very sensitive to thermic stimulation, the possibility was not excluded
that the assumed photic reactions might in reality be due to stimula-
tion of the skin receptors by heat. If the positively phototropic
reactions of blinded toads were due to the stimulation of such recep-
tors, it ought to be possible to obtain similar reactions through the
use of radiant heat instead of light. ΤῸ ascertain if this were possible,
an apparatus was arranged in which steam was passed through a verti-
cal brass pipe which measured seven millimeters in diameter. The
eyeless toads were placed near this pipe, and their reactions tested in
the same manner as had previously been done with light. All these
experiments were performed in the dark, but before and after the heat
experiments each individual was tested with light (1.24 candle-meters)
to ascertain whether it was positively phototropic or not. The
method of experimenting in the dark was to orient the toad by using
a mark at a known distance from the source of heat; then to listen
until a movement was heard ; after which the position of the animal
was ascertained by feeling for it with the hand. In Table XVII. the
signs +, —, and 0 are used to indicate movements in relation to the
steam pipe as a source of heat, as they have previously been used for
sources of light. As this table shows, toads placed near (10 to 20 cm.)
VOL. XLv. — 13
194 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
the heated pipe showed a slight tendency to move away from it, but
beyond twenty centimeters they were apparently indifferent.
The amount of heat given off by the steam pipe as compared to that
given off by the light apparatus was determined by means of a pair of
thermometers. ‘These thermometers were mounted in a wooden box
(Figure 7), blackened inside and out and divided into two freely com-
TABLE XVII.
Reactions oF Four Eyeitess Toaps to LicuT AND TO ΒΑΡΙΑΝῚ Heat.
Nature of
: : Distances fr i in centimeters
Seman sta tances from a hot pipe, i
30 40
Direction of
movement an 0
16| 34) 10):
30 | 54) 16
Nature of
: Distances from a hot pipe, in centimeters
stimulation
60
Direction of
movement
πὰ 13| 9
ὦ
oa}
®
iam
: ἰ Per ct. 1298
municating compartments in each of which the blackened bulb of one
of the thermometers (A, 2) was enclosed. One of these compart-
ments was permanently closed, while the other could be opened or
closed at will by a slide (d). This apparatus was placed in such a
position that the radiant heat to be measured fell directly upon the
bulb of the thermometer B when the slide was out. After reading
the thermometers at intervals and allowing the apparatus to become
adjusted to the surroundings for two hours, the difference between the
two thermometers was observed at one-minute intervals for twenty
minutes while the compartment was open to receive the light or heat
to be tested, and then for a like period of time with it closed. The
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 195
average difference between the two thermometers, when placed before
the steam pipe was 0.064° C. while that for the light apparatus was
0.025° C. The amount of heat received by a thermometer at a distance
of thirty centimeters from the heated pipe was therefore more than
twice that received when the light apparatus was tested. As the
toads were strongly positively phototropic to this light, and as the
same individuals were indifferent when placed near the steam pipe, it
is safe to conclude that thermo- and photo-reception are distinct
processes in the toad’s skin, and that, in this animal at least, heat
does not give rise to tropic reactions unless there is very strong
stimulation.
Figure 7. Plan of thermometer box. _A and B, thermometers; c, c,
positions of two of the ten circular openings between the two compartments;
d, slide.
I. EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE INFLUENCE OF THE CENTRAL NER-
vous ORGANS ON THE Puotic REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS.
Parker (:05) succeeded in obtaining photic responses from one of the
lower fishes (Ammocetes) after the entire brain had been removed, and
he believed that such reactions were brought about by stimulation re-
ceived through skin receptors and transmitted through the spinal nerves.
To ascertain if similar reactions could be obtained from amphibians,
experiments were undertaken with four species. The first to be tested
was Rana pipiens. A sharp scalpel was inserted through the dorsal
wall of the cranium and a transverse cut was made through the dien-
cephalon ; this was followed by another cut behind the second vertebra
which separated the cord from the myelencephalon. After such indi-
viduals had been tested, they were killed and hardened in alcohol.
Subsequent dissection showed that the cuts had been successfully
made in ten of the twelve individuals upon which operations had
196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
been performed. This method of procedure separated the cord from
the brain, but did not interfere with the vital centres in the latter nor
with the sympathetic system. These frogs were tested several times,
for the two or three days during which they lived, by suspending
them at the anterior end in such a way that the hind legs could be
subjected to various stimuli, All of these individuals flexed the legs
when they were touched with a brush which had been moistened
in ten per cent acetic acid, and four of them reacted in the same
manner when the light and heat from a Nernst lamp was thrown on
the skin, a lens being used to bring the light to a focus; but not a
single individual reacted to light from this lamp when the heat rays
were cut off by interposing a flat-sided jar filled with water.
Ten toads were tested by the same methods as those used for the
frogs, and, though they reacted to acid and the light with heat, no
reactions were obtained when light alone was used.
As no photic reactions had been obtained from spinal frogs or toads,
it was thought that such responses might be induced if the animals
were rendered more sensitive; and experiments were accordingly
undertaken in which the diencephalon and cord were transected in
nine toads and 0.001 grain of strychnine inserted into the dorsal lymph
space through a small slit in the skin. The individuals which had been
treated in this manner were extremely sensitive to tactual stimuli, and
the slightest jar of the table on which they were supported sufficed to
throw their limbs into a state of spasmodic extension. When, however,
a beam of light was focussed on the hind leg of such an individual, no
indubitable responses were obtained.
Since the attempts to induce photic reactions in terrestrial am-
phibians had met with no success after the brain had been separated
from the cord, I next turned my attention to the available aquatic
species. ‘The eyes were removed from a single Cryptobranchus, and
its cord was cut behind the first vertebra. This individual was then
placed in an aquarium, and light from a Nernst lamp was focussed
upon its skin in various regions ; and, although it had been found
to be extremely responsive to light after the eyes had been removed,
no such responses were obtained from it after the cord had been cut.
It nevertheless continued to respond to tactual stimulation, and when
the side was stroked gently with the finger, it jerked its legs and drew
its tail away from the stimulated region. Chemical stimulation was
also effective after the cord had been cut, for when a pellet of cotton
moistened with ten per cent acetic acid was placed so that it touched
the tail, the body was bent away from the stimulated area.
As the experiments with Cryptobranchus had given only negative
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 197
results, it was determined to make cuts in various regions of the cord
in different animals and determine whether the individuals thus treated
would show differences in their behavior. he eyes were accordingly
removed from four specimens of Necturus, and the cord was cut behind
the fourth, ninth, eleventh, and twentieth vertebre in the respective
individuals. All these animals gave marked reactions to light when
the illumination was anterior to the cut in the cord, but no responses
were obtained from the region posterior to this cut, even when a strong
beam of light was focussed on the skin. The regions posterior to the
cut were, however, influenced by certain forms of stimulation, and re-
sponded by making withdrawing movements when they were stroked
with a brush, or when cotton saturated with ten per cent acetic acid
was placed in the water near them. All the individuals seemed to stand
the operation well; the gill movements continued in a normal manner,
and walking was carried on by the front legs, while the posterior part
of the body dragged behind. All these animals lived more than five
days, and one of them (with its cord cut behind the eleventh vertebra)
lived thirty-six. This particular individual was extremely active, and
when the front part of the body was in motion the hind legs also made
walking movements, though they had a slower rate than that of the
front legs. Furthermore, by gently pinching the tail the hind legs
could be induced_to walk when the front legs were quiet. In swim-
ming, however, the trunk muscles of the whole body moved together.
Loeb (:03) noted similar correlated swimming movements in Ambly-
stoma larvee after the cord had been transected. Notwithstanding
such correlated movements, it may be said of the four specimens of
Necturus that the parts of the body in front of and behind the cut
in the cord carried on reactions more or less independently, and that
the regions anterior to this cut responded to a greater range of
stimuli.
As none of the spinal amphibians tested showed sensitiveness to
light, even when reactions were easily induced by other forms of
stimulation, it seems reasonable to conclude that their Jack of sensi-
tiveness to photic stimulation was not due to the absence of receptive
or motor power, but to the fact that the ultimate control (centres or
essential portions of reflex arcs) of these reactions lies in the brain and
therefore anterior to the spinal cord.
In order to discover what parts of the brain were essential for the
photic responses, experiments were carried out in which certain regions
were excised and observations made of the deficiency phenomena thus
brought about. The method followed was to excise all parts of the
brain anterior to a certain region, and to carry the regions excised
198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
progressively backward in successive operations; the light reacticns
being tested at each step. On account of the large size of their
brains, Necturus and Cryptobranchus were used for these experiments.
The individuals were wrapped in a damp cloth, the head being allowed
to protrude ; and a ‘T-shaped incision was then made in the skin on the
dorsal side of the head, the stem of the 1" being toward the anterior
end ; after this the muscles were cut away and the bony roof of the
cranial cavity carefully picked away with a pair of strong forceps.
The brain was then cut across with a pair of scissors or a sharp
scalpel and the parts anterior to the cut removed. The flaps of skin
were drawn over the wound and stitched together with silk thread.
The success of such operations was verified by subsequent dissection.
The method used in testing photic reactions was to throw a vertical
band of light (which had an intensity of about 220 candle-meters at the
point where the animals were placed) upon the anterior or posterior end
of an individual, and to observe the responses which took place. As
such responses were like those previously described (p. 169), they need
not be discussed in detail.
For a preliminary test as to the effect of such an operation as has
just been described, aside from the actual cutting of the brain itself,
the roof of the cranial cavities was removed from four individuals and
the brain was left exposed-to the water in which they were kept. ‘These
individuals seemed to be little affected by the operation, as they swam
and walked in a normal manner; and when (twenty-four hours later)
light was thrown on the anterior or posterior end of any one of them,
it reacted in the same manner as an individual in which only the eyes
had been excised. The exposure of the brain had, then, no obvious
effect on the photic reactions of Necturus.
The eyes and telencephalon were next removed from six individuals,
and five of them gave marked responses to light on the day after the
operation. ‘he other individual, which lived for fifteen days, gave no
photic responses until the third day after the cerebral lobes had been
excised, though it had apparently recovered from the operation before
that time. ‘These animals could doubtless have been kept alive for a
long time if it had not been for the Saprolegnia which grew abundantly
around the cut surfaces, and, even with this handicap, one of them
lived for fifty days. The cerebral lobes are not, then, essential for
the photic reactions of Necturus.
Owing to the scarcity of material, the number of operations had to
be limited in the remaining experiments. The portions of the brain
anterior to the mesencephalon were, therefore, excised in only one
Necturus. ‘'lhis individual lived for twelve days and gave character-
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 199
istic reactions when it was touched gently on the foot or tail, or when
cotton which had been moistened in ten per cent acetic acid was placed
in the water near 10. When it was turned on its back, the righting
reaction occurred, though this was accomplished with some difficulty.
Light, however, called forth no response, even when a condensing lens
was used to bring the rays to a focus on the skin. The investigations
of Schrader (87) and Loeser (:05) have demonstrated the fact that the
mesencephalon exerts an inhibitory influence on those reflex actions
that take place through the spinal nerves. ‘These observers found
that frogs were more responsive to external stimulation after the brain
had been excised so as to leave only the myelencephalon than when
such an operation did not include the mesencephalon. In other words,
the midbrain had an inhibitory action on the reflexes controlled by the
portions of the brain posterior to it, and when the more anterior brain
regions (which originate the “spontaneous” reflexes) had been re-
moved it rendered the frogs unusually sluggish. It is probable that
the mesencephalon exerts a similar influence in other amphibians,
and that the lack of responsiveness in Necturus was due to inhibition
rather than lack of ability to respond to light. he following experi-
ments support this view.
The portions of the brain anterior to the metencephalon were re-
moved in two specimens of Cryptobranchus. Both these individuals
were restless and usually continued to move about slowly for some time
after locomotion had once been induced by any form of stimulation.
When either of them was kept in dim light for an hour or two, however,
it became quiet, and, if it was afterwards suddenly illuminated (with
light having an intensity of about a thousand candle-meters), there
was in most cases an active locomotor response and the movement
continued for some time, even after the light had been shut off.
As the metencephalon is poorly developed in all amphibians, and as
it has been shown to exert little, if any, influence on their ability to
perform locomotor reactions, it is safe to conclude that the myelenceph-
alon and the cord are the only portions of the central nervous system
which are essential for the photic responses.
III. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS.
Photice responsiveness is a quality which is probably present in all
amphibians, for the sixteen species which have been found to give re-
actions to light include representatives of most of the families of the
class. Light has an orienting influence on all the species which have
been studied; the Caudata are mostly negative in their phototropism,
200 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
while the Salientia are positive. Such reactions are easily conceived
to be of benefit to the different species under their ordinary conditions
of environment, but whether the different types of reactions have
arisen as the result of natural selection in the development of each
species, or whether they are due to structural peculiarities which limit
each species to certain stereotyped reactions and have hence caused
it to frequent a particular habitat, or whether they have been brought
about by other factors, are open questions. The negatively photo-
tropic reactions of the nocturnal species would serve to bring them into
places of concealment during the day. The positive reactions of the
more diurnal forms would lead them toward the water (a large illum-
inated area) and thus facilitate their escape from pursuing enemies, or
would take them into the bright sunlight, where insests were abun-
dant and their hunger would be satisfied.
Under artificial conditions light has been shown to have a directive
influence on the movements of all the amphibians which have been
made the subject of experiment, but it does not follow that the pres-
ence of light will zzduce motor reactions in all these species, and there
is, in fact, great variation between the different forms in this respect.
For example, Cryptobranchus is strongly photokinetic and becomes
restless when suddenly illuminated, while Necturus is comparatively
indifferent to such stimulation. This photokinetic quality is appar-
ently little developed in frogs and toads, though they are strongly
phototropic. Generally speaking, there seems to be no correlation
between the photokinesis and the phototropism of amphibians.
A given individual of any species is seldom consistently positive or
negative in its phototropism, even when the conditions of light stimu-
lation are uniform. This may be due to the influence of internal
factors which bring about changes in the physiological state of the
animal, or to external stimuli other than light which exert a modifying
influence. Some of these modifying factors will be briefly considered,
as far as they apply to the amphibians. Broadly speaking, the habits
of the different forms are correlated with their phototropie responses
and the species which are most truly terrestrial (Bufo americanus and
Rana sylvatica) are most strongly positive, while the typical aquatic
forms (Cryptobranchus allegheniensis and Necturus maculosus) are as
decidedly negative. Therefore any variation from the conditions
found in the normal habitat of a species might involve changes which
would alter its ordinary phototropic responses. Previous exposure in
light or dark does not usually exert a marked influence on the photic
reactions of the toad, but some individuals were found to be positive
after having been in the light, though they were negative after passing
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 201
a similar period in the dark. Mechanical stimulation serves to initiate
reactions which are directed by light, but it produces no marked
changes in phototropism. Fatigue makes the photic responses more
difficult to induce in some cases (e. g. Cryptobranchus), but does not
alter their character. These few examples are typical and will serve
to illustrate the influence of many factors on the photic reactions of
amphibians. In general it may be said that, while various factors may
give rise to changed phototropic responses in some individuals, the
same factors may be without apparent influence in others. No stimu-
lus, with the possible exception of decreased temperature (‘Torelle,
:03) has been demonstrated to produce uniform changes in the light
responses of amphibians. The internal causes which produce negative
reactions in one species, or even in one individual of a species, while
the same external conditions call forth positive reactions in other
species or individuals, is practically an untouched field as far as the
amphibians are concerned. The careful study of such a form as Die-
myctylus, which undergoes marked changes in habitat during its life,
ought to throw light on at least one aspect of this matter.
The next subject that deserves consideration is the nature of the
photoreceptors upon which the sensitiveness of amphibians to light
depends. There are at least two sets of nerve terminations which are
open to photic stimulation, those of the retina and those of the skin.
The investigation of the responses produced by light received through
these two sets of endings is involved in considerable difficulty, for we
are obliged to refer constantly to judgments formed through the
human eye. We are able to form opinions as to the direction, inten-
sity and color of light, and to judge the form, size, color, position, and
movement of illuminated objects as they appear through our own eyes,
but we have no conception of how these things appear when they are
seen through the eyes of an amphibian, except as we can interpret its
actions, and the problem becomes even more difficult when we attempt
to consider the reception of light through the skin. There is some
evidence that nervous connections exist in amphibians between these
two kinds of photoreceptors and this complicates the matter still
farther. Englemann (’85) observed that retinal changes were induced
in the eyes of frogs by illuminating the skin. Furthermore, Fick (90)
found that the same changes took place after the optic nerves had been
cut, and connections, if they exist, must therefore take some other
course, in part at least, than that through the second nerve.
The eyes of amphibians are adapted for use in both air and water,
and are hence not finely adjusted for visual discrimination in either
medium. Binocular vision cannot be present, as the eyes are placed
202 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
laterally, so that there is probably no overlapping in the fields. Nor is
any definite image formed, as Beer (98) has shown that the eye cannot
be accommodated to any extent, and amphibians therefore depend
upon motion rather than the form of objects to warn them of danger or
to enable them to capture food. A frog or toad will allow a worm to
lie in full view as long as it is quiet, but as soon as the worm moves
it is devoured. The vision of amphibians is therefore limited to rather
ill-defined outlines of the surrounding objects, and the comparative
brightness or dulness, or possibly the colors, of objects will have con-
siderable importance in determining the nature of the responses of an
individual. The reactions brought about when the eyes alone are
illuminated are similar to those which take place when such stimula-
tion affects both the skin and eyes. When only one eye is stimulated
by light coming from in front of a toad, the individual usually does
not go toward the light but turns toward the stimulated side. These
facts indicate that the eyes in their relations to objects in the field of
vision serve more as direction eyes than as camera eyes. Cole has
recently given additional support to this view by showing that am-
phibians placed between two lights of equal intensity but of different
areas go toward the larger area ; thus demonstrating that the size of
the area illuminated is of importance in the visual processes. Kiihne
('78") has shown that the eye of the frog is sensitive to light rays from
the whole range of the visible spectrum, and the results described in
the present paper, as well as those of other observers (p. 165), indicate
that the rays toward the violet end are most effective in producing
photic responses. ‘These apparent differences in sensitiveness to what
appear to the human eye as colors may, however, be only differences in
intensity when received by the frog’s eye.
The skin is known to act as a photoreceptor in ten representative
species of amphibians, and individuals show tropic reactions which are
like those of animals in normal condition after their eyes have been
excised. There is no great differentiation shown in the structure of
the nerve endings in amphibians’ skins, and Parker (:03* p. 34) has al-
ready been quoted as saying, “it is conceivable that in the lower verte-
brates, like the frog, the end organs of the skin are stimulated by
radiant energy of wide range, including what is for us both heat and
light.” There seems to be no doubt, however, that the amphibian
skin is sensitive to light as such, and no tropic responses are induced
by radiant heat having the same energy value as the light which does
induce marked tropic reactions. Our knowledge of the comparative
sensitiveness of the skin in different regions of the body is rather
limited, but it shows that there is no uniformity among different am-
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 203
phibians in this respect. Cryptobranchus is most responsive when the
tail region is illuminated, but the skin of the toad is equally sensitive
on all parts of the body.
The fact that both the skin and eyes act as photoreceptors in fishes
as well as amphibians has led to considerable speculation concerning
the origin of the retina in higher vertebrates. Various theories have
been put forward, but only two of them have direct relation to the
field included in the present paper. Willem (91) advanced the view
that in its primitive condition light sensitiveness was distributed over
the whole skin and that it had become gradually localized in the eyes
of higher forms. Parker (:08) has pointed out an objection to this
view in the fact that photic sensitiveness is lacking in the skin of the
most primitive member of the vertebrate series (Amphioxus), though
it possesses direction eyes which are closely connected with the central
nervous organs. He believes that the development of photoreceptive
power in the skins of vertebrates has been a separate process from that
of the development of the retinas, which first arose in intimate connec-
tion with the central nervous system. This question cannot be re-
garded as definitely settled, and the results of the experiments
described in the present paper throw little light upon it. The fact
that photic sensitiveness is present in such a wide range of amphib-
lans seems to support Willem’s view, as the different forms have
developed along extremely diverse lines.
Not only do the photoreceptive organs constitute important factors
in a consideration of the photic reactions of amphibians, but variations
in the light itself are important. Differences in intensity are signifi-
cant in the reactions of the toad, for the percentage of positively pho-
totropic responses decreases and the number of indifferent reactions
increases when the light intensity is decreased. The direction of the
incident rays of light which impinge on the photoreceptor is, however,
of no apparent consequence. A toad in which only one eye is illumi-
nated by light from in front turns toward the stimulated side instead
of going toward the light, and an eyeless toad subjected to unilateral
stimulation by light from above turns toward the illuminated side
without regard to the direction of the rays. In general, then, the
photic reactions of amphibians are brought about by intensity differ-
ences on the two sides of the body. Concerning the influence of the
quality of the light, it may be said that both the skin and eyes of am-
phibians are open to stimulation by light rays which include the whole
range of the visible spectrum. When the light is received through
both the eye and skin receptors, the rays toward the violet end of the
spectrum are most effective in producing tropic responses, but when
204 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
the light is received through the skin alone, no such potency is shown
by the more refrangible rays. The differences observed in the first
case may therefore be interpreted as being due to stimulation received
through the eyes, and we may conclude that the power of color per-
ception, as distinct from light perception, is present in the eyes but
absent in the skin. It is not certain, however, that these differences,
which are supposedly due to differences in wave length, are not, after
all, brought about by intensity differences.
Generally speaking, the parts of the central nervous system are
segmentally arranged throughout the vertebrate series. Hach neural
segment is, however, capable of carrying on only the comparatively
simple reflex actions which are concerned with the somatic segment
which it controls. The complex reactions which involve correlated
movements in different regions of the body depend upon correlation
centres, and, the higher we go in the vertebrate scale, the more these
centres become localized toward the anterior end of the nervous tube.
A spinal eel is able to swim in a normal manner (Bickell, ’97), but in
the higher vertebrates spinal reactions show less correlative power, and
there is a correspondingly greater importance attached to those reac-
tions which are controlled through the brain. The fact that spinal
fishes react to light (Parker, :03»), while spinal amphibians do not, is
therefore perhaps to be expected and may be interpreted as new evi-
dence of the progressive anterior localization of functions in the nervous
system of vertebrates. However, Sherrington (:06, p. 9) has called
attention tothe fact that only stimuli of a particular kind will evoke
certain reflexes. He was easily able to induce the croak reflex in a
spinal frog by certain forms of stimulation, but he could not evoke it by
others, and he also found that the scratch reflex could be called forth
in spinal dogs by certain forms of tactual stimulation only. It is
therefore possible that spinal amphibians may yet be induced to give
photic reactions under some new method of stimulation. As far as
the present evidence goes, however, the myelencephalon, as well as
the cord, is essential for photic responses in which the skin is the
receptor.
In the reactions of many organisms the ultimate direction of
locomotion is determined by making many random movements and
following such of them as lead away from conditions unfavorable to
the organism or into conditions better adapted to its existence. Other
organisms do not make great use of this method, but usually move
directly toward or away from the source of stimulation, and Loeb (’90)
has given the name of tropism to such responses. ‘The light reactions
of amphibians are characteristically tropic in nature, and, as has been
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 205
stated, they are apparently brought about by unequal stimulation on
the two sides of the body. This tropic character applies to the reac-
tions whether they are induced by stimulation through the skin or
eyes or through the simultaneous stimulation of both. In general, it
may be said that the photic responses are of a typically reflex character
and show little evidence of powers of association.
IV. SUMMARY.
(1) The following amphibians were found to be positively photo-
tropic: Diemyctylus viridescens, Rana clamata, R. palustris, Bufo
fowleri, B. americanus ; and the negatively phototropic species studied
were: Necturus maculosus, Cryptobranchus allegheniensis, Ambly-
stoma punctatum, Plethodon cinereus erythronotus.
(2) Most of the species mentioned under (1), after the removal of
their eyes, gave photic responses which were like those of normal
individuals.
(3) The photic reactions of eyeless amphibians are not due to the
direct stimulation of the central nervous system or the exposed ends
of the optic nerves by light, but to the action of the skin as a
photoreceptor.
(4) Mechanical stimulation (handling) does not change the charac-
ter of the photic reactions, though it makes them more evident by
inducing locomotion.
(5) Toads which are stimulated by light through the eyes alone
react in the same manner as individuals stimulated through the skin
or through both the skin and the eyes.
(6) The movements of eyeless toads stimulated unilaterally by light
from above are toward the illuminated side; and toads stimulated
through one eye only by light from in front do not go toward the light
but turn toward the illuminated side. The photic reactions are there-
fore due to differences in light intensity on the two sides of the body
and the direction of the rays is ineffective.
(7) After the eyes have been removed, Cryptobranchus and Nec-
turus are most responsive when the tail is illuminated, but the skin of
the toad is apparently of equal sensitiveness on all parts of the body.
(8) A prolonged period of time passed in light or dark had no
effect on the nature of the phototropic responses of the toad.
(9) Cryptobranchus is strongly photokinetic, but in the other am-
phibians tested this quality was not strongly developed.
(10) When normal amphibians were used, blue light was the most
effective in the production of tropic responses, but when eyeless indi-
206 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
viduals were tested with the same colored lights, the rays toward the
blue end of the spectrum showed no such potency as compared with
those nearer the opposite end. It may be said that, while both the
skin and eyes are sensitive to the whole range of the visible spectrum,
color sensitiveness is present only in the latter. It is possible, how-
ever, that the supposed color sensitiveness is due to the effects of what
are intensity differences to the amphibian eye.
(11) A decrease in the intensity of the light brings about a corre-
spondingly smaller number of positively phototropic responses and an
increase in the number of indifferent reactions.
(12) The phototropic responses of eyeless toads are not due to
the stimulation of heat-receiving organs in the skin. Thermo- and
photo-reception are separate processes, and the former does not readily
give rise to tropic reactions.
(13) Spinal amphibians gave no photic responses, but such reactions
were induced in animals in which the brain anterior to the meten-
cephalon had been excised.
V. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
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Banta, A. M., anp McATesr, W. L.
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Ὁ. Die Accommodation des Auges bei den Amphibien. Arch. f. ges.
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‘01. Ueber primitive Sehorgane. Wiener klin. Wochenschr., Jahrg.
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BIcKEL, A.
7. Ueber den Einfluss der sensibelen Nerven und der Labyrinthe auf
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Cote, L. J. ᾿
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Core, E. Ὁ.
’89. The Batrachia of North America. Bull. U.S. Nat. Museum, No. 34,
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ConFicLiaculI, P., = Ruscont, M.
19. Del Proteo Anguino di Laurenti Monographia. Pavia. (Known to
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Dickerson, M. C.
06. The Frog Book. New York, xvii + 253 pp., 112 pls.
PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 207
Dusors, R.
’90. Sur la perception des radiations lumineuses par la peau, chez les
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’90. Ueber die Ursachen der Pigmentwanderung in der Netzhaut.
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’83. Fundamentalversuche tiber die Helligkeits- und Farbenempfind-
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Hourmss, S. J.
01. Phototaxis in Amphipoda. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. 5, pp. 211-
234.
05. The Reactions of Ranatra to Light. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and
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ὍΘ. The Biology of the Frog. New York, x + 370 pp.
JoRDAN, E. O.
8. The Habits and Development of the Newt (Diemyctylus viri-
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Kont, Ὁ.
95. Rudimentire Wirbelthieraugen. Dritter Theil. Bibliotheca Zoolog-
ica, Heft 14, pp. 181-274.
KorAnyt, A. v.
8. Ueber die Reizbarkeit der Froschhaut gegen Licht und Warme.
Centralbl. f. Physiol., Bd. 6, pp. 6-8.
Ktune, ὟΝ.
’78*. Ueber den Sehpurpur. Untersuch. physiol. Inst., Heidelberg, Bd. 1,
Heft 2, pp. 15-103, Taf. 1.
’78». Das Sehen ohne Sehpurpur. Untersuch. physiol. Inst., Heidelberg,
Bd. 1, Heft 2, pp. 119-138.
Loss, J.
’88. Die Orientirung der Thiere gegen das Licht. Sitzb. physik.-med.
Gesellsch. z. Wiirzburg, Jahrg. 1888, Nr. 1, pp. 1-5.
’90. Der Heliotropismus der Thiere und seine Ubereinstimmung mit
dem Heliotropismus der Pflanzen. Wiirzburg, 118 pp.
:03. Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative Psychology.
New York, xii + 309 pp.
Logser, W.
05. A Study of the Functions of Different Parts of the Frog’s Brain.
Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. 15, No. 5, pp. 355-373.
208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Parker, G. H.
:03*. The Phototropism of the Mourning-cloak Butterfly, Vanessa an-
tiopa Linn. Mark Anniversary Volume, No. 23, pp. 453-469, pl. 33.
03°. The Skin and the Eyes as Receptive Organs in the Reactions of
Frogs to Light. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 28-36.
:05*. The Functions of the Lateral-line Organs in Fishes. Bull. U. 5.
Bureau of Fisheries, 1904, Vol. 24, pp. 183-207.
05°. The Stimulation of the Integumentary Nerves of Fishes by Light.
Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. 14, No. 5, pp. 413-420.
:08. The Sensory Reactions of Amphioxus. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci.,
Vol. 43, No. 16, pp. 415-455.
PAYNE, F.
07. The Reactions of the Blind Fish, Amblyopsis spelaeus, to Light.
Biol. Bull., Vol. 13, No. 6, pp. 317-323.
PLATEAU, F.
89. Recherches expérimentales sur la vision chez les arthropodes.
Mém. cour. Acad. sci., lettres et beau-arts Belgique, tom. 43, pp.
1-93.
RAopt, ἘΝ.
09. Untersuchungen tiber den Phototropismus der Thiere. Leipzig,
vill + 188 pp.
Reese, A. M.
:06. Observations on the Reactions of Cryptobranchus and Necturus to
Light and Heat. Biol. Bull., Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 93-99.
ScHRADER, M. E. G.
81. Animal Life as Affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence.
New York, xvi + 472 pp.
SHERRINGTON, C.S.
:06. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. New York, xvi +
411 pp.
Situ, B. G.
07. The Life History and Habits of Cryptobranchus allegheniensis.
Biol. Bull., Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 5-39.
SMITH, G.
:05. The Effect of Pigment-migration on the Phototropism of Gammarus
annulatus 8. I. Smith. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. 13, pp. 205-216.
TorRELLE, E.
09. The Response of the Frog to Light. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. 9,
No. 6, pp. 466-488.
WasHpurn, M. F.
:08. The Animal Mind, a Text-book of Comparative Psychology. New
York, x + 333 pp.
WILLE, V.
1. Sur les perceptions dermatoptiques. Bull. Sci. France et Belgique,
tom. 23, pp. 329-346.
YerxKeEs, R. M.
:03. The Instincts, Habits, and Reactions of the Frog. Harvard Psychol.
Studies, Vol. 1, pp. 579-638.
ὍΘ. The Mutual Relations of Stimuli in the Frog, Rana clamata Daudin.
Harvard Psychol. Studies, Vol. 2, pp. 545-574.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vout. XLV. No. 7.— January, 1910.
AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF
IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES.
By Recinautp ALpworTH DaALy.
AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK
TYPES.
By Recinatp ALpworTH DALY.
Presented December 8, 1909; Received December 4, 1909.
ConTENTS.
Introduction: Purpose-ofthe Paper... 056) oe le fe 211
Me thodrome ale mlationwewa tedsny che ties ital niet tie orteamert lel beh ela ney yma Ot 213
PROC OMEME ALE LOM TU Arne τον πον last ake τ δα Ἐπ TBA 8 214
Average Specific Gravities of Certain Types ............ 235
PIER PATS ICA UIOUS Poe talib) Satan an amie ne IMG habe ad cles ba \Se'® a y « 235
InTRODUCTION: PURPOSE OF THE PAPER.
THE study of the igneous rocks has hitherto largely consisted in an
analysis of their mineralogical and chemical composition, with the
special intent to produce a satisfactory nomenclature and classification
of the rocks as they occur throughout the world. This systematic
petrography, though still pursued by a great number of workers, is
now rivaled in interest and excelled in importance by its own offshoot,
petrogeny. The science of the origin and history of the igneous
rocks is reacting on the more purely descriptive subject, and at present
petrologists are feeling their way toward a genetic classification of
this great series of rock-types. Meantime, the much more numerous
class of workers engaged on the problems of economic and general
geology, of geochemistry and cosmogony, are raising highly important
questions which belong to the field of petrogenesis. The problems
thus raised are as fundamental as they are complex and difficult. For
many of their solutions recourse must be had to the more modern
geological reports and maps. With ever increasing skill and accuracy
the distribution and relations of the rocks composing the earth’s crust
are being recorded by government officers and by geologists working in
private capacity. For some thirty years past, as at present, the great
body of geologists have mapped and described the igneous rocks in
terms of what may be called the German system of nomenclature and
definition. In particular, Rosenbusch’s monumental treatises on the
212 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
eruptive rocks have been, for a generation, the usual guide to the many
authors who have described their findings among the igneous terranes
of the world.
In view of these facts it is clear that a student in petrology who
wishes to use the maps and memoirs should have a good conception of
the rock-types recognized by Rosenbusch and by his hundreds of dis-
ciples among the field-geologists. It is true that in some details the
usages of master and followers as regards names and classification have
varied, but in a broad way Rosenbusch’s definitions of the principal
families and species of massive rocks have been used for maps and
reports in all regions where modern work on igneous geology has been
done. Just as the general sequence of the stratified rocks as first de-
scribed in England, France, and Germany has been found to be closely
paralleled in the rest of Europe and in the other continents, so the
system of igneous rocks as at first developed from material largely
collected in Europe has been nearly sufficient for the mapping of those
rocks elsewhere. In the field as in the library the geologist soon
learns that there is a persistent recurrence of types in the larger divi-
sions of the earth’s surface. The usefulness and objective character
of Rosenbusch’s classification are, therefore, proved by its adaptability
in all the continents and islands.
Rosenbusch and his followers recognize some latitude of variation in
the composition of each rock-type. ‘The variation is both mineralog-
ical and chemical, two rock specimens referred to a type showing
differences in the proportions of the chemical elements found by analy-
sis of the two rocks. In fact, no two analyses of granite, andesite, or
any other one type have ever given precisely the same proportions of
the dozen or more oxides which regularly make up an igneous rock.
It is obvious that the student of map and memoir should, for many
problems, have at hand the actual figures showing the most typical
chemical composition of the rock-types to which his study is directed.
In numerous cases an analysis of a single specimen is not so useful as
that which could be made from a thorough mixture of specimens of the
same rock-variety from all places on the globe where that variety
occurs.
For obvious reasons such ideal analyses have never been made. In
their stead the writer believes that the investigator of petrogenic and
other world-problems may well use the averages calculated from the
many excellent chemical analyses of rocks made since Rosenbusch’s
system of naming and classification has been in general use. It may,
indeed, be argued that such averages would more nearly represent the
chemistry of Rosenbusch’s types than any of the respective single
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 213
analysis which he has published in his treatise. These averages would
be chemical “‘center-points ” in his system of classification as actually
applied to the terranes of the world.
So far as the writer is aware, the preparation of these averages has
not hitherto been attempted to such an extent as to cover the chief
families and species of igneous rocks. An approximation to the
desired results is offered in the following tables.
The work of computing the averages has been lessened very greatly
by the publication of Osann’s “ Beitrige zur chemischen Petrographie ”
(2nd part, Stuttgart, 1905). This remarkable book contains, in con-
venient arrangement, the statement of most of the eruptive-rock
analyses (over 2400 in number) published in the interval between
1883 and 1901. The period of seventeen years lies within that during
which systematic petrography has been dominated by Rosenbusch’s
names and definitions. In general, the number of analyses for each
rock-species is so large that their average would be but slightly modi-
fied by the inclusion of the analyses made since 1900. In many cases,
therefore, the extended labor required to search out from the literature
the additional analyses, has not been considered necessary for the
preparation of useful averages. For other averages it was necessary
to include analyses published since 1900. The sources of such infor-
mation are indicated below. Fortunately for the purpose, nearly the
entire period since 1884 has seen the application of more or less re-
fined methods of analysis ; so that errors of observation for the leading
oxides are relatively small.
MeEtHoD oF CALCULATION.
The method of computation used is essentially like that employed
by Washington and Clarke in their respective calculations of the
“average composition” of all igneous rocks. In general, only the
twelve more important oxides (including MnO) are recognized in
the following tables. Distinctly “inferior” analyses were not consid-
ered. In each case the average was computed according to the actual
numbers of determinations made by the analysts. Table I. shows
these numbers for the respective rock-types, each column being headed
by a key-number which corresponds with the named types of Table II.
For some of the rocks BaO and SrO were computed. Their sum
appears in the averages for CaO, as indicated in the tables. Similarly
CO, and Cr.03 were sometimes averaged and entered with H.O and
Fe,0; respectively. As expected from the method employed, the
average totals nearly always ran well over one hundred per cent. All
214 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
averages were reduced to 100.00 per cent and entered in Table II.
Each average analysis was then recalculated to 100.00 per cent after
H.0O (and CO.) had been subtracted. The results are also given in
Table II., in which plutonics and corresponding effusives are grouped
together. Magmatic relationships are often less obscured if these
volatile oxides, which may be wholly or in part of exotic nature, are
excluded. Finally, in order to facilitate -reference to the tables, an
index to the different rock-types was prepared and may be found
below Table II.
It will be observed that certain rock-types have been omitted from
the tables. The large class of “‘aschistic”’ dike-rocks is not represented
because of their chemical similarity to the corresponding plutonic
species. Other named varieties are omitted since their analyses are
too few to give useful averages. In a few cases the mineralogical and
chemical variations within each variety are so great that it has not
seemed advisable to regard their averages as worthy of entry. Many
other subordinate varieties of rock, though given special names, are
chemically almost identical with the more important types entered in
the tables and therefore have been excluded.
Sources oF INFORMATION.
The immediate sources of the analytical statements used in the
computations are as follows : —
1. Beitriige zur chemischen Petrographie, zweiter Teil, by A. Osann.
Stuttgart, 1905.
2. Chemical Analyses of Igneous Rocks published from 1884 to 1900,
by H. S. Washington. Prof. Paper, No. 14, U. 8. Geological
Survey, 1903.
3. Elemente der Gesteinslehre, 2nd edition, by H. Rosenbusch.
Stuttgart, 1901.
4. Lehrbuch der Petrographie, 2nd edition, by F. Zirkel. Leipzig,
: 1893.
5. Studien iiber die Granite von Schweden, by P. J. Holmquist. Bull.
Geol. Institution, University of Upsala, Vol. 7, 1906, p. 76.
6. Some Lava Flows of the Western Slope of the Sierra Nevada, Cal-
ifornia, by F. L. Ransome. Amer. Jour. Science, Vol. 5, 1898,
p. 355.
7. Matériaux pour la Minéralogie de Madagascar. Nouv. Archives
du Muséum, (4), Vol. 5, Paris, 1903.
8. Geology of the Yellowstone National Park, by A. Hague and
others. Petrography by J. P. Iddings. Monograph No. 32,
Part 2, U. 8. Geological Survey, 1899.
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 215
9. Analyses of Rocks from the Laboratory of the United States Geo-
logical Survey, 1880 to 1903, by F. W. Clarke. Bulletin 228
of the Survey, 1904.
10. Geological and Petrographical Studies of the Sudbury Nickel Dis-
trict, by T. L. Walker, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. 53, 1897,
p- 40.
11. Petrography and Geology of the Igneous Rocks of the Highwood
Mountains, Montana, by L. V. Pirsson. Bull. 237, U. 8. Geo-
logical Survey, 1905.
12. Geology of the North American Cordillera at the Forty-ninth
Parallel, by R. A. Daly (forthcoming ; analyses by M. F. Con-
nor and M. Dittrich used in calculating some averages).
The sources of the analyses used in each average are indicated by the
authors’ names at the head of the corresponding columns in Table II.
216 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
TABLE I.
SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SEPARATE DETERMINATIONS USED IN COMPUTING
THE AVERAGE QUANTITY OF EACH OXIDE IN EACH ROCK-TYPE.
12 |13 1415 | 16
ey SY fey ten en eo rs ES Sy το
CON Ὁ ὦ ὦ ῷ ὧν = CON δ ὋΣ δι Ὁ
ES αὶ τ ον SS rls πὰ τὰ Ὁ.
ὥ
24 | 25 | 26 | 27 29 | 30 | 31
43 4|8 30 | 20 | 89
eS)
15| 16] 71
30 | 20 | 89
24 | 18 | 86
24 | 18 | 86
14 | 11 | 66
30 | 20 | 89
30 | 20 | 89
30 | 20 | 85
30 | 20 | 85
30 | 17 | 47
15|15|71
30
43
30
30
30
41
43
43
43
ῶ ὦ ὦ οὐ ῶὐ οὐ ὧὐ w w
5 ὦ ὦ ὦ οὐ ὧὐ Ὁ www w
SS ES PS SS τ Ὁ Ὁ ἢς
δὼ ὦ Ὁ ὦ ὦ δ ᾿ὸῷ' ὦ
14
217
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES.
Continued.
TABLE I.—
4
24 10] 5
2417] 5
24 [16] 5
2816] 5
6) θ᾽)
5| 9 |21)15] 5
δ] 212) 5) 4
4| 7
14
14} 5) 8 }21)15) 5
1
20|17}11| 9 |2417
3 | 11
41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48
161 [20117|11| 9 |24)17) 5
113 |13|) 6) δ] 8 |16}10| 4
160
146 | 18
146 | 18
96 [18] 6] 2 4/15/13] 4
160 |20|17)11)| 9
161 |20|17/|11)| 9
154 | 20/16/11} 9
154 | 20/16/11) 9
27 | 16
116 | 14) 6) 49 [1611 4
57 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64
49
198
55
4
28 | 108
9} 6 | 27} 135
24 [10] 6 | 41] 197
18/10) 7 |36| 174
2410] 7 |41} 198
4
3
20
20 | 24/10} 7 | 40) 197
99
25 [18
ior)
(2
fee]
0
>
oo
ice)
oD
ιῷ
on
st
oD
oD
on
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
87 | 33 | 20; 24)10) 7 | 41
SiO,
TiO,
51/16/13/13| 9] 6 [26] 132
87
71
71 | 25 / 18/18/10} 7 | 36) 173
44/16/14] 8| 6] 6
87 | 33
87 | 33 | 20
84 | 32 | 20 | 22/10} 7 40] 190
84 | 32 | 20 | 22/10; 7 |39| 190
57| 5/18|24/10] 6 [17
47 |14|13/ 11
2712... 4 48.1.4} 8
2) 4
4
49 50 ,.51 52 | 53 | 54|55| 56
Al,O,
Fe,0,
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
K,O
τὸ
ΡΟ,
H.
SiO,
TiO,
7 il ral ae: SW: 572} 2
2/10 | 4) 4) 3
2/10 | 4} 4] 3
Al,O,
Fe,O,
FeO
2)12}4/4/3|,4)]3
212 4/4) 3) 4
2/12 | 3); 2/3
2,}12 | 2/1
MgO
CaO
Na,O
K,0
218
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
TABLE I.— Continued.
μι μι Se Se Be Be ee eS μα
72 | 73 | 74 | '75 | 76
8 ee bd bw
ESS PES FESS SSS SESS PSS ES ἢ ey SS ass Go Geo. ©
ta ee ee ee
INS τ ὧτ ὑπ ee Gr ΝΟ Gr
ΟΣ ὧν ὧν δι an fF ὧδ FP ὧι WwW ὧι
see pe GO ὦ OO) OD) OO. ὍὯδ᾽ “οὐ OO
ee ee Fe Ke ee Le 5
Cio) One ὧτ ΝΣ Ouest Ow Or 5 Or Ὁ»
SHOWING THE AVERAGE COMPOSITIONS CALCULATED
No. of
Analyses.
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES.
TABLE II.
IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES.
GROUP I.
PLUTONICS.
μ
including 16 Analyses
of Swedish Types
Pre-Cambrian Granites,
(Osann ).
510,
TiO,
Al,O, »
Fe,O,
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
K,O
H,O
P,O,
bo
{1}
ΠΝ
of Sweden (Holmquist).
Granites younger than
Liparite, including 40
Rhyolites (Osann).
the Pre-Cambrian
(Osann and Clarke).
(Osann and Clarke).
Pre-Cambrian Granites
219
FOR THE PRINCIPAL
EFFUSIVES.
Liparites, as named by |
authors (Osann).
Rhyolites, as named by
authors (Osann).
2! Granite of all Periods
ΤῊΝ
f=)
25
13.77
1.29
90
12
28
1.43
3.55
4.09
1.53
07
Quartz Porphyry
(Osann).
72.62 | 72.36
.99
14.17
1.55
1.01
.09
52
1.38
2.85
4.56
1.09
09
70.33
54
13.86
2.19
1.89
70.47 | 73.72
39 .30
14.90 } 14.10
1.63 1.45
1.68 83
13 12
98 40
2.17} 1.34
3.31 | 3.59
4.10 | 4.09
24 06
Each sum = 100.00.
1 Includes .08% BaO and .01% SrO.
2 Includes .06% BaO and .02% SrO.
3 Includes .06% BaO and .02% SrO.
220
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
GROUP II.
PLUTONICS.
EFFUSIVES.
TiO,
Al,O,
Fe,O,
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
K,O
P.O;
Calculated as Water-free.
16.93
1.09
2.73
1.56
5.80
5.66
62.55
1.00
17.23
2.37
3.40
-09
1.39
3.44
4.69
3.84
62.46
«0
18.07
2.24
2.31
08
ADF
2.57
5.58
5.02
14
60.90
68
16.47
2.77
9.92
.14
2.52
4.35
4.03
4.54
28
10 1 12 13 14 15 16
ὲ E
ὌΦ =v tis
ΤΕ mee gl eae ae eet ae
BENS), lost SRO, Vee Ue, ΞΕ Ξ
= 3 ΕΞ ΞΞ BR αὶ =e Bs ~—% ir)
ΘΗ OR | seh asec es of | 85 ΞΕ
ge | τε | og πῆ π | 8 See Mae Φ 5
a8 26 Sig oo oF i 25 a, m2
BF ΤΎΠΩΙ | Sa eee | ees | Be | Se ee
Bo | oe | ες ἡ eeeen |) See alge | Pees
No. of ΞΟ ΔῈ ae ZDA Hen Ban om a δ΄:
Analyses.| 7 5 8 23 50 48 i ς
510, 64.36 | 61.86 | 61.96 61.99 60.19 | 60.68 | 61.51 | 75.45
TiO, 45 15 .99 «0 67 «98 45 edi
Al,O, 16.81 | 19.07 | 17.07 17.93 16.28 | 17.74 | 17.871 13.11
Fe,0, 10850 2'65.). 235, 292 2.74 | 2.64] 1.92| 1.14
FeO 2.71 1.49 | 3.37 2.29 3.28 2.62 | 3.35 -66
MnO 15 ΟἹ .09 08 14 06 O1 29
MgO 12 -55| 1.38 96 2.49 WANA) LAG, 34
CaO 1.55 1.47) 3.41 2.55 4.30 3.09 | 1.08 83
Na,O 5.76 6.45] 4.65 5.54 3.98 4.435) 5.23 5.88
K,O 5.62 5.75 | 3.80 4.98 4.49 5.74 | 5.29 1.26
H,O «(τὸ AT 93 «(τὸ 1.10
P,O,; 09 | .08 14
Each sum = 100.00.
13.20
1.15
-66
29
.94
.84
5.92
1:27
18
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 221
GROUP III.
PLUTONIC. EFFUSIVE. PLUTONIC.
17
18 19 20
Monzonite Latite (Ran-
(Osann and some and
Washington).} Daly).
Laurvikite Rhomb-porphyry
(Osann ). (Washington).
No. of Analyses. 3 7 12 10
Si0,
2
TiO, ee Lee 60 1.00
41,0, 21.11 19.53 16.53 16.68
Fe,0, 2.89 Hoe 3.03 2.29
FeO 2.39 4.37 4.07
MnO gee ἫΝ 15 10
MgO 1.06 1.28 4.20 3.22
CaO 4.10 3.11 7.19 5.741
Na,O 5.89 6.35 3.48 3.59
K,0 3.87 4.46 4.11 4.39
EO τον 70 1.35 66 912
P.O;
Calculated as Water-free.
SiO, 57.85 58.24 55.62 58.18
TiO, ΓΞ ἍΝ 60 1.01
ALO, 21.26 19.79 16.64 16.84
Fe,0, 2.91 ἘΠΕ [ 3.05 2.31
FeO 2.41 4.40 4.11
MnO Lit ae 15 10
MgO 1.07 1.30 4.28 8.25
CaO 4.13 3.15 7.24 5.79}
Na,O 5.93 6.44 3.50 3.62
K,O 3.90 4.52 4.14 4.43
P.O; 54 Ἴ ἢ 43 36
Each sum = 100.00.
1 Includes .16% BaO and .07% SrO.
2 Includes .14% CO,.
222
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
GROUP IV.
PLUTONICS.
22 23
bo
μ᾿
Foyaite (Osann and
Rosenbusch).
Laurdalite (Osann),.
Nephelite syenite
29) Urtite (Osann).
oo
42 22
64
tb
σι
Phonolite (Osann, Clarke,
and Lacroix).
Calculated as Water-free.
45.80 | 54.48 | 55.38
Foe 1.30
27.88 | 20.03
5.68 Ὁ 2.80
50 | 2.59
15 18
40° 17
1.74 ἢ (2.07
16:32 1 8.30
3.74 | 4.99
64
Each sum = 100.00.
58.65
42
21.03
2.40
1.05
13
ol
1.53
9.02
5.34
12
EFFUSIVEs.
26
(Osann and Washing-
Leucite Phonolite
ton).
>
tN
.-3
Leucitophyre (Washing-
ton and Rosenbusch).
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 220
GROUP 'V.
Pu. Er. PLUTONICS EFFUSIVES.
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
ἐπε = Ἧ 2 fa 2 wu =
o DM « 5 > 2 i!
an a ΘΞ eye 9": Ξ x a a
8 3 =o ΠῚ wo 2 o q g ο
= o τ = (S, ~~ o —
ἘΣ Εἰ“ + tp oA aa a “A x -- ©
ἘΞ ae eg (oe eh pay hh ΡΞ
za] $2 || S24 Sen CS at 2 S 35 ῷ
S| | KON SN ἀξ aCe Φ aa | SA | ass] Ὁ
Sg Nato} Ἐς τ ὦ .ῷ -Ξ ΠῚ Ae Yad q
Bq oA NS One Spe q oq Cid ΕΞ ΕΙ a
O83 ~ oO + = wa es oa fos]
an Capt ΤΩΣ Arg HO Eo < “ow n Bog 3
3 ie) 8 o:= O-m ae o0 ΕΒ alta °
BO | Aa ii $a | 59 | cal = | #2 | ge | gsc! =
No. of Ξ
Analyses.| 12 30 20 89 70 87 33 20 24 10
510, 65.10 }66.91 || 59.47 | 58.38 | 56.77 [59.59 | 57.50 | 59.48 | 61.12 | 62.25
ΤΙΟ, .84] .88 Ὁ ΕΘ ΘΙ a ZO) AS. .29) 109
Al,O; 15.8216.62 || 16.52 | 16.28 | 16.67 | 17.31 | 17.33 | 17.38 | 17.65 | 16.10
Fe,O, 1.64] 2.44)| 2.63] 2.98) 3.16] 3.33] 3.78] 2.96| 2.89] 3.62
FeO 2.66] 1.33 |} ἘΠῚ 4.11] 4.40] 3.13] 3.62] 3.67] 2.40] 2.20
MnO 05] .04 ADSM Maral es] 15] ΞΡ ee) leg U5 1h me a |
MgO 2.17] 1.22 3.75| 3.88] 4.17] 2.75| 2.86] 8528) 2.44] 2.03
CaO 4.66] 5.27) 0.24 6.38] 6.74] 5.80] 5.83] 6.61] 5.80) 4.05
Na,O 9.82} 4.13 || 2.98) 3.34] 3.39] 3.58] 3.53] 3.41] 3.83] 3.55
K,O 2.29] 2.50|} 1.93] 2.09) 2.12] 2.04] 2.36] 1.64] 1.72| 2.44
H,O 1.09} 1.13]| 1.39] 1.37] 1.36] 1.26] 1.88] .74| 1.43] 1.50
JEM Oe 16} .08 20), 0 25] 20. 90} P20) v.15), 9.40
Calculated as Water-free.
SiO, 65.82 | 67.67 || 60.31 | 59.19 | 57.56 | 60.35 | 58.65 | 59.92 |62.01 | 63.20
TiO, .80] .99 Goi) 81} 80) 78} 80. | 4B) 5] 1:67
Al,O, |16.99}16.81 16.75616.51 | 16.90 | 17.54 | 17.67 | 17.51 | 17.91 | 16.35
He,O, 1.66] 2.47 || 2.67] 3.02] 3.20] 3.37| 3.85] 2.98] 2.93] 3.67
FeO 2.69] 1.95] 4.17] 4.17| 4.46] 3.17] 3.69] 3.70| 2.44] 2.23
MnO 05] .04 O8 |) 5} :195] Ὁ 15}. 29:5} OAS 21
MgO 2.19] 1.23]} 3.80} 3.93] 4.23] 2.78] 2.90] 3.31] 2.48] 2.06
CaO 4.71] 3.31]| 6.33] 6.47] 6.83] 5.87] 5.92] 6.66] 5.88] 4.11
Na,O 3.86] 4.18 || 3.02} 3.39] 3.44] 3.63] 3.60] 3.44] 3.88] 3.61
ΚΘ 2:32] 2.53 || 1.90] 2.12] 2.15] 2.07| 2.40] 1 5) 1.74| 2.48
R02 16] .08 “26 fo θ᾽ 25> 26) SON ae ZOib LS AL
Each sum = 100.00.
224 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY
GROUP VI.
PLUTONICS. EFFUSIVES.
Basalts, 17 Olivine Dia-
bases, 11 Melaphyres,
Authors (including also
Anamesite, Tachylite,
and 9 Dolerites (Osann).
ete.) (Osann).
All Basalt, including 161
Basalt, as named by
Melaphyre (Osann).
μι
μι
Analyses.
SiO,
TiO,
ALO, | 18.51 ; : 15.85
ΕΟ, 1.88 : ἶ Biot
FeO 9.29 : : 6.34
MnO 14 Ξ £ .29
MgO 5.97 ; : 6.03
>
oo
ἣν
σι
δε
i>
cor
CaO 7.90 : : 8.91
Na,O | 2.72 3.18
K,0 1.63
H,0 6: 1.76
PO; : ; 2 AT
Caleulated as Water-free.
S10, : 49.87 49.65 1.1}
TiO, : ; 1.38 1.41 1.44
Al,O, ὃ 15.96 16.13 15.99
Fe,O, 3) 5.47 5.47 4.64
6.47 6.45 6.86
92 30 DR
6.27 6.14 5.96
9.09 9.07 8.97
3.16 3.24 3.01
1:55 1.66 1.41
46 AS .98
Each sum = 100.00.
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 225
GROUP VII.
PLUTONICS.
48
aS
o
σι
(=)
&
(Osann ).
(Osann). _
Olivine Norite
(Osann and
Walker).
(Osann ).
and Washington).
Gabbro, excluding
Olivine Gabbro
Olivine Gabbro
Norite, excludin
Olivine Norite
Anorthosite (Osann
No. of
Analyses.
iw)
NSS
510,
TiO;
Al,O,
Fe,0O,
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
K,O
H,O
ἜΠΟΣ
510,
TiO;
Al,O,
Fe,O,
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
K,O
POF
VOL.
a)
ἮΝ
46.49 |
{7
17.73
3.66
6.17
17
8.86
11.48
2.16
18
1.04
29
Calculated as Water-free.
50.08
1.44
18.62
2.35
8.87
11
6.22
7.89
2.53
1
1.01
17
XLV. — 15
46.97
1.18
17.92
3.70
6.24
Ae
8.96
11.60
2.18
Each sum
50.60
1.45
18.81
2.37
8.96
lll
6.28
7.97
2.56
12
ally
100.00.
226 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
GROUP VIII.
PLUTONICS.
σι
[ον
σι
Ne)
σι
[5]
σι
Η»
σι
σι
σι
(ep)
Lherzolite (Osann).
Harzburgite, includ-
ing Saxonite (Osann
and Washington).
Dunite (Washing-
Pyroxenite (Osann).
ton).
All Peridotite
=| Websterite (Osann).
(Osann).
w| Wehrlite (Osann).
>
ΤῊΝ
ΤῊΝ
oOo
μι
ΤῊΝ
(=r)
Caleulated as Water-free.
48.93 44.99 41.10
88 Aste Bie tke
6.61 5.13 «δ
2.04 2.01
11.92 6.46
08 12
21.36 37.92
6.27 2.77
17
.59
15
Each sum = 100.00.
1 Loss on ignition.
w | Picrite (Osann).
DALY. —- COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 227
GROUP IX.
PLUTONIC.
59
σὺ
[Ὁ]
Essexite (Osann and
Rosenbusch),
Trachydolerite
(Rosenbusch),
Augitite (Osann,
Washington, and
Rosenbusch),
No. of
Analyses.
510, 54.81
TiO, : 42
Al,O, 20.01
Fe,0, 3.98
FeO 1.93
MnO Boat
MgO 2.32
CaO 5.60
Na,O 5.86
K,O 3.13
H,O 1.46
EO; ὲ .48
~1 | Limburgite (Zirkel).
ἮΝ
Calculated as Water-free.
siO, 55.62 42.69
TiO; 43 .68
Al,O, 20.31 15.18
Fe,O, 4.04
FeO 1.96
᾿ 15.48
MnO : sents 2
Μρο 2.35
CaO 5.68 12:37
Na,O 5.94 3.58
κ,ὸ 3.18 1.19
PO: Ἷ .49 .15
8.85
Each sum = 100.00.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
GROUP X.
PLUTONICS. EFFUSIVES.
No. of
Analyses.
63
Theralite
(Osann )
Shonkinite
(Pirsson )
All Tephrite.
24
67
68
fer)
©
All Basanite.
phrite (Osann).
Nephelite Te-
4
Leucite Tephrite
(Osann and
Washington).
Nephelite Basa-
nite (Osann).
Leucite Basanite
(Osann and
Washington).
SiO,
TiO,
ALO,
Fe,O, ~
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
ΚΘ
H,O
PFO:
SiO,
TiO,
Al,O,
Fe,O,
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
κ,ὸ
ΡΟΣ:
49.14 |
1.00
16.57
3.65
6.68
30
3.98
9.88
2.57
3.39
2.00 |
84
LS)
| ©
i
μαι
μ-
ΤΑΝ oad eg Bele
σι
σ9-
46.91 |
1.81
15.25
7.70
4.06
1.43
2.95
9.36
4.25
2.63
2.51
1.14
Calculated as Water-free.
50.15
1.02
16.90
3.72
6.82
.91
4.00
10.08
2.15} 2.02
5.23 | 3.46
1.08 86
10.62?
45.51
1.60
16.20
4.78
5.99
14
8.41
10.37
3.90
2.43
67
48.12
1.86
15.65
7.89
4.16
1.47
3.02
9.60
4.36
2.70
a7
Each sum = 100.00. -
1 Includes .40% BaO and .09% SrO.
2 Includes .41% BaO and .09% SrO.
No. of
Analyses.
510,
ΤΙΟ,
Al,O,
Fe,O,
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
K,O
H,O
12M @)-
SiO,
FiO:
Al,O,
Fe,0,
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
K,O
PO;
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES.
PLUTONICS.
GROUP XI.
EFFUSIVES.
PLUTONIC.
229
EFFUSIVES.
71
Fergusite (Pirs-
son).
1
51.70
23
14.50
5.07
3.08
O1
4.55
7.40 }
2.93
7.60
2.25
18
52.89
24
14.83
5.18
3.66
O1
4.65
2:51."
9.00
ea
18
72
Missourite (Pirs-
son and Daly).
bo
44.27
1.37
10.73
3.63
5.87
-06
13.05
11.46 ?
1.07
4.43
3.23
83
73
Leucite Basalt
Rosenbusch).
(Osann and
74
Leucitite (Osann
and Rosen-
busch).
-ἡ
75
ox | Ijolite (Osann).
~J
for)
Nephelinite (Ros-
enbusch).
9
is
i
ao aI
ι bo
A7
43.51
1.07
19.54
3.07
3.88
16
2.94
9.89
10.58
2.26
86
1.54
41.17
1.35
16.83
7.61
6.64
16
3.72
10.12
6.45
2.49
2.42
1.04
Nephelite Basalt
(Osann).
Calculated as Water-free.
45.75
1.41
11.09
3.75
6.07
-06
13.49
11.85 ὅ
1.10
4.57
86
47.58
1.36
16.35
6.11
4.37
ΟἹ
6.01
10.79
1.73
4.94
15
48.45
.«δ9
18.47
4.81
3.96
06
3.50
7.38
4.58
7.78
48
Each sum = 100.00.
1 Includes .30% BaO and .07% SrO.
3 Includes .29% COg.
43.89
1.08
19.71
9.80
9.91
.10
2.97
9.98
10.67
2.28
1.55
42.19
1.38
17.25
7.79
6.81
"7
3.81
10.37
6.61
2.55
1.07
40.77
1.53
13.88
6.86
6.57
21
10.73
12.65
3.94
1.90
96
2 Includes .48% BaO and .18%SrO.
4 Includes .31 % BaO and .07 % SrO.
5 Includes .50% BaO and .197% SrO.
230 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
GROUP XII.
PLUTONICS.
78 79 80
° Diorite of Malignite
(Gnas Electric Peak (Osann and
: (Rosenbusch). Daly).
No. of Analyses. 10
.60
80
13
Calculated as Water-free.
76.87 62.71
omar i) 60
13.10 16.58
2.55
2.92
02
3.35
5.00
3.55 3.91
4.83 2.23
01 13
Each sum = 100.00.
1 Includes .07% Li,O.
2 Includes .05% Cl and .05% SO,.
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 231
GROUP XIII.
EFFUSIVES.
oO
rag
bo
ies)
o
lowstone Park
Basalt of Hawaii
Rhyolite of Yel-
(Iddings).
(Osann ),
Shoshonite
(Osann )
Absarokite
(Osann )
Leucite Absaro-
kite (Osann).
Banakite
Melilite Basalt
4
52.04 53.56
76
17.65 17.88 .
4.66 4.51
2.75 3.05
13 07
9.99 9.02
5.11 6.45
4.10 3.41
ioe)
on
bo
ioe)
Φ
On
©
μι
μ-
On
5.03 3.76
3.74 2.32
70 «δ
Caleulated as Water-free.
48.57 54.06 54.84
66 19 .84
15.47 18.94 18.31
6.51 4.84 4.62
10.11 2.85 3.12
80 14 07
4.21 3.46 3.70
8.73 5.31 6.60.
3.00 4.26 3.49
1.31 5.22 3.85
28 73 06
Each sum = 100.00
1 Includes 2.85 % Cr2Oz. 2 Includes .02 % Li,O and .23 % SOs.
3 Loss on ignition. 4 Includes 2.47 % Cr.Os3.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
GROUP XIV.
DIKE-ROCKS.
No. of
| Analyses.
©
o
89
&
and Washing-
senbusch and
Washington).
ton).
Washington).
(Osann and
Grorudite (Osann
Granite-aplite
Bostonite (Ro-
or
co
part
Soélvsbergite
(Osann and
Washington).
oo
Je)
to
and Washing-
ton).
Tinguaite (Osann
510,
πιῶ;
Al,O,
Fe,O,
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
K,O
H,O
P.O;
oo
©
3
t% | So
-
O1
46
1.45
5.75
4.94
1.31 20
Calculated as Water-free.
>
bo
—
or)
62.14 71.09
90 A8
18.67 11.53
3.89 4.59
1.62 1.89
ΟἹ .99
AT sii
39
Each sum = 100.00.
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 295
GROUP: XV.
DIKE-ROCKS.
95 96
ie)
[0]
{19
as
©
=
Minette (Osann
and Clarke).
Kersantite
(Osann and
Rosenbusch).
20
Vogesite
(Osann).
Camptonite
(Osann )
μ᾿
On
Alnoite (Osann
and Washing-
Monchiquite
ton).
(Osann ),
50.79
1.02
15.26
3.29
5.54
07
6.33
5.73
3.12
2.79
ὅ.11 5
39
14.86
3.60
4.18
84
8.55
5.86
3.21
2.83
2.70
21
40.70
3.86
16.02
5.43
7.84
16
5.43
9.36
3.23
1.76
5.59 3
62
510,
TiO,
Al,O,
Fe,O,
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
Keo
EO.
50.99
1.27
14.86
3.50
5.17
13
8.53
6.95
2.62
4.84
1.14
Caleulated as Water-free.
53.87
1.08
16.18
3.48
5.88
07
6.71
6.09
3.31
2.96
oO
54.08
56
15.28
3.70
4.29
.86
8.79
6.02
3.30
2.90
22
43.10
4.09
16.97
5.76
8.30
16
5.76
9.92
3.42
1.86
66
Each sum = 100.00.
1 Includes .61% CO,.
3 Includes 2.97% CO,.
2 Includes 2.61% ΟΟ,.
* Includes 4.35% ΟΟ,.
234
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
InpEx To Taste II.
Absarokite
Akerite
Alaskite
Alndite
Amphibole andesite
Andesite (all)
Anorthosite
Augitite Aeris
Banakites:Weacecaisruci see menses
Basalt (all) .
Basalt as named by authors
Basalt of Hawaiian Islands .
Basanite (all)
Bostonite
Camptonite
Dacite
ID YEW OS eter ee rn os γον ἡ: ς
Diorite, including quartz diorite .
Diorite, excluding quartz diorite .
Diorite of Electric Peak
Dolerite
Dunite
Eleolite syenite
Essexite
Fergusite
Foyaite
Gabbro (all)
Gabbro, excluding olivit ine “gabbro
Granite of all periods : 2
Granite younger than the Pre-
Cambrian
Granites (Pre-Cambrian, ‘includ-
ing 16 analyses of Swedish
types) . .
Granites
Sweden)
Granite-aplite
Granodiorite
Grorudite
ἘΠῚ ΤΡ προ, ρον
Hornblende andesite
Hypersthene andesite
MOLISE eh eck 87 2, hac est Ss
Keratophyre
Kersantite
Latite
Din ei cet fed ‘e,» ta A fe
ὐπὸ δ γ}5 ὧν
Ds δ᾽ πο ἐ αὐν. οὐ τον hae
αν ον δόσαν ὁ, eh te) το τε λυ»
ἢν νῷν γα 0) esas
ou re Stel ἡ ον, 8) kerr: eye le
αἰ τὴν νος, Dero tal, ae aey ere:
Ὁ Se ir ie? αν δ Led ere eile
ec oy [even cen ΠΥ eelanen 1a
(Pre-Cambrian, ain of
ὰ Lisi mOk Oe) fe,))\' emule
we) (wh ἰῶν te) Yon,
oi FC pen Wer, te) "er. het Wea 3
wees (an We yet ἐπ ΩΣ er ue Mie,
i Kev ΡΥ ἈΠ Seles: el δ΄ te Hey 6 Ὁ
er ee lent Bly oe, phe. 6 sens. οι tre
Laurvikite
Leucite absarokite
Leucite basalt
Leucite basanite
Leucite phonolite . .
Leucite tephrite
ΤΙ ΒΟ ΘΙ 2 Ws weaver
Leucitophyre
Lherzolite :
imibuneitey.) τ τὸς
Liparite (all) . ον
Liparite, as named ‘by authors
Malignite
Melaphyre .
Melilite basalt
Mica andesite
Minette
MASSOUTIGC! 2) von cits ae
Monchiquite
Monzonitetpan re a rec suis treo
Nephelite basalt
Nephelite basanite
Nephelite syenite . .
Nephelite tephrite
Nephelinite.......
Nordmarkite ....
Norite (all) : 4
Norite, excluding olivine norite :
Olivine diabase . .
Olivine gabbro
Olivine norite
Peridotite (all)
Phonolite. Ἐς τ
Picrite: $6.) -% sks ewan
Pulaskite
Pyroxenite. . .
Quartz diorite ἘΚ be
Quartz keratophyre . .. .
Quartz porphyry ‘
Rhomb-porphyry . . :
Rhyolite, as named by authors 4
Rhyolite of Yellowstone Park .
Saxonite ΠΣ Δ ite
Shonkinite
Shoshonite
Sélvsbergite
Syenite (all)
Syenite (alkaline)
Tephrite (all)
Theralite
ate trite re
mee Nee: fe . he! gen). “ὦ
hy ICME CAV ee
madp eT Fires! την ἘΠ ΗΝ Is,
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 290
AW eT bye ON! CO eNO Uae ae θτν ΘΟ VORESIEC A Un anip rials! dsistecns set. ck 95
Pre layGoleriney wees \'s!)e. Pid) valves ve 60." Wiebateritens aria tapes at a) 52
ΠΝ ΒΟ es Mn la ce απ: at lis 6 ΕΣ ΘΙ iran can Spin ytclbe ia) istae's) °e 53
ΠΠΕ eS Sn ee ee 22
AVERAGE SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF CERTAIN ΤΎΡΕΒ.
The average specific gravities of holocrystalline types have been
calculated, with result shown in the following accessory table. Most
of the determinations were taken from Osann’s book.
Number of Speci- Average Specific
mens averaged. Gravity.
2.660
2.740
Syenite 2.773
Monzonite 2.805
Nephelite syenite .... 2.600
Diorite 2.861
Gabbro 2.933
Olivine gabbro 2.948
Anorthosite 715
3.176
2.862
2.917
2.884
Some APPLICATIONS.
The uses to which the averages may be put are diverse and, in cer-
tain instances, direct and important. A brief note in this place will
indicate something of the range of the considerations affected.
1. The writer has found from personal experience that the averages
have been of decided benefit in showing the chemical individuality and
true nature of the igneous-rock types as actually mapped. ΤῸ student
and investigator alike such averages are, for many purposes, more
valuable than single analyses. They help to show that eruptive rocks
236 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
do not form an infinite series, but that the varieties cluster about
“center-points.” Osann’s great compilation proves that Rosenbusch’s
classification is an objective and “natural” one to a highly useful
degree.
2. The obvious error involved in computing “the average composi-
tion of the primitive crust of the earth,” or “the average igneous
rock,” or ‘‘the mean composition of the accessible parts of the earth’s
crust,” by averaging a large number of analyses compiled at random, has
not deterred a goodly number of authors from using such results as
those deduced by Clarke, Washington, and Harker. These averages
are bound to breed further errors when used as a basis for quantitative
studies in geology or oceanography. The discovery of “the average
igneous rock” is of the highest importance for many problems such as
the chemical denudation of the lands and the chemical evolution of
the ocean. ‘The mean composition of the accessible crystalline rocks
of the globe must ultimately be obtained by taking account of the
relative volumes of the different rock-types. In computing the mean
the average analyses for the principal individual species must be em-
ployed. Since the only approach to success is through the quantita-
tive study of geological maps and memoirs, it is clear that for many
years to come the averages for the types recognized in Rosenbusch’s
system are to be basal to the calculation.
A glance at Table II. shows, however, that this new world-average
will differ little from the earlier world-averages with respect to one
oxide, namely, soda. For each of the areally and volumetrically im-
portant rock-types the average soda never departs far from a mean
of about three and one half per cent. The soda in the averages of
Clarke, Washington, and Harker (calculated as water-free) is, respec-
tively, 3.63 per cent, 3.34 per cent, and 3.90 per cent.1 The agree-
ment is fortunate, since, for example, the quantitative problem relative
to the sodium in the ocean can be pursued without waiting for the
close determination of ‘the average igneous rock.” Incidentally, it
may be remarked that the estimates of Joly? and Sollas% regarding
the age of the ocean, as determined by the sodium content, need revis-
ion, since neither author has allowed for the great variations in the
area of the lands during geological time.
3. The recurrence of the main types of igneous rock in every conti-
nent shows that general processes of differentiation have been at work
1 F. W. Clarke, Bull. 228, U. 5. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 16.
2 J. Joly, Sci. Trans. Roy. Dublin Society, 7, 23 (1899).
3 W. J. Sollas, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Presidential Address, 65, p. Ixxix
(1909).
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 237
from the earliest recorded time. There is no reason to doubt that the
diorite or the nephelite syenite of the pre-Cambrian periods have
generally owed their origin to the same physico-chemical reactions as
those responsible for the Mesozoic or Tertiary diorite or nephelite
syenite. If this be true, the world-averages for the different principal
types should be so many tests of theoretical conclusions as to the causes
of the differentiation of those types. The question as to the derivation
of augite andesite from basalt through fractional crystallization has
been thus tested, with, so far as this test goes, an affirmative answer.*
Sometimes the averages themselves suggest lines of thought. For
example, the average granite analysis (calculated water-free ; 236 analy-
ses) is close to the average of four analyses of the glassy base of
augite andesite (calculated as water-free). The comparison may be
made from the following table :
Granite of all Ground-mass (base)
Periods. of Augite andesite.
No. of Analyses 236 4
per cent. per cent.
SiO, 70.47 69.31
TiO, .39
Al,O,
Fe,O;
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO (BaO and SrO)
Na,O
KO
E20;
The exact meaning of the correspondence between the two averages
may not be discussed here ; but it does suggest an explanation of the
4 Journal of Geology, 16, 401 (1908).
238 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
common association of granites (and liparites) with andesites (and
diorites) in nature. ‘The question is open as to whether the primitive
granite-liparite magma was not a polar differentiate of an andesitic
magma, preferably by a settling-out of the phenocrystic constituents
(in solid or liquid phases)from the andesitic magma.
Other related questions are raised by the comparison of the mean of
average granite and average basalt with average diorite (including
quartz diorite).
ἽΣ 2. 3. 4.
Average Average Mean of 1 Average
Granite. Basalt. and 2. Diorite.
No. of Analyses 236 161 89
per cent.
49.65
1.41
per cent.
60.06
per cent.
59.19
81
per cent.
510, 70.47
TiO, 39
Al,O, 14.90
Fe,O, 1.63
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
κὸ
ΡΟΣ
1 Tncludes .06% BaO and .02% SrO.
Is basalt the basic pole, granite the acid pole, of a primitive differ-
entiation of diorite magma? Is diorite the product of mixture of
primitive, granitic crust and primary basalt still molten beneath?
Though the averages give no answer, they tend to keep these funda-
mental queries before the eye of the petrologist.
4. The averages have been arranged so as generally to place
16.13
5.47
6.45
.30
DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 239
together those of plutonics and the corresponding effusive rocks. The
comparisons show the truth of Rosenbusch’s statement that the
effusives are, on the whole, somewhat higher in silica and alkalies
and lower in iron oxides, lime, magnesia, etc., than the respective
plutonics.
The importance of this rule is at least two-fold. It proves the
value of Rosenbusch’s primary division into the deep-seated types and
the surface lavas. It shows therewith one of the reasons why the
Norm 5 Classification of igneous rocks is largely a failure so far as either
the field-geologist or the student of petrogeny is concerned.
Secondly, the rule suggests clearly that at volcanic vents there is a
general cause for the removal of iron, magnesium, and calcium oxides
from the magmatic columns and that the cause is more effective in vol-
canic vents than in the average plutonic body. The cause is most
probably to be found in the gravitative settlement of part of the ferro-
magnesian and other constituents of early crystallization. These con-
stituents may settle out either as solid crystals or as liquid fractions
immiscible near the consolidation point of the magma. Since, on the
average, the column of fluid magma is taller in an active volcanic
vent than in a plutonic mass, the overlying phase of the splitting
magma should be, in general, slightly more acid and alkaline than the
corresponding pole of differentiation in a deep-seated mass. In the
nature of the case the more acid-alkaline pole is the one most liable to
flow out at the surface. Though volcanic vents are much narrower
than plutonic chambers and therefore subject to quicker chilling, with
a resulting check to differentiation, this tendency is largely counter-
balanced by the passage of very hot gases through vents. The mere
agitation in the vents facilitates the separation. Whatever additional
considerations are necessary to complete the comparison, it must here
suffice to note that, as a rule, the laws of solution as applied to
magmas seem to demand a differentiation with slow cooling, whereby
a surface lava is less basic and ferromagnesian than the plutonic body
feeding the vent of that lava. The corroboration of Rosenbusch’s
above-mentioned rule through the world-averages appears, therefore, to
be of use in illustrating one of the world-wide influences controlling
the origin of igneous rocks.
Some special conclusions regarding classification may be noted.
From the averages it is evident that dacite is the effusive correspond-
ent of granodiorite and not of quartz diorite. The contention of
5 Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks, by W. Cross, J. P. Idd-
ings, L. V. Pirsson, and H. 8. Washington, Chicago and London, 1903.
240 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
American geologists that the vast development of granodiorite in the
Cordilleras of North and South America should alone give the name a
primary place in rock classification, is again justified. The many
occurrences of dacite throughout the world represent just so many
additional masses of cooled magma which were chemically identical
with, or closely related to granodiorite. In volumetric importance, as
in mineralogical and chemical individuality, the granodiorite type
should rank as of the same order as granite itself.
Quartz porphyry, liparite, and rhyolite show that essential identity
of composition which has long been apparent from more qualitative
comparison.
5. There is little noteworthy chemical difference between the aver-
age pre-Cambrian granite and the average granite of later periods.
How far the differences in alumina and potash (columns 1, 2, and 3)
are due to the relative fewness of analyses of pre-Cambrian types
cannot be stated. In spite of any such uncertainties the stability of
the chemical type represented by granite throughout geological time
is manifest. The explanation of the fact may well be found in Vogt’s
idea that granite is an “‘anchi-eutectic,” a crystallized mother-liquor,
a nearly extreme product of magmatic differentiation. It is possible
that some of the older pre-Cambrian granite represents the differentia-
tion of primeval magna. For many reasons it seems probable that
most, if not all, post-Cambrian granites are differentiates from syntec-
tic magma, chiefly composed of primary basaltic magma which has
locally redissolved the ancient, acid shell overlying. In such case the
splitting of the syntectic would ultimately give an acid differentiate
similar to that formed in the primitive time. In general, differentia-
tion in batholiths, when well advanced, restores the condition tempo-
rarily disturbed by magmatic assimilation. On this (confessedly
hypothetical) view one may feel no surprise in noting a fairly steady
composition in the granites from the average oldest type to the
average youngest.
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
Boston, January, 1910.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vout. XLV. No. 8.— Marcu, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
ON THE APPLICABILITY OF THE LAW OF CORRE-
SPONDING STATES TO THE JOULE-THOMSON
EFFECT IN WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDE.
By Harvey N. Davis.
yO URN
Tah,
Veal
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM .THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
ON THE APPLICABILITY OF THE LAW.OF CORRESPOND-
ING STATES TO THE JOULE-THOMSON EFFECT IN
WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDE.
By Harvey N. Davis.
Presented by John Trowbridge, December 8, 1909; Received December 30, 1909.
In the classical plug experiments of Joule and Kelvin certain gases
were forced by pressure through a porous plug under circumstances
which permitted the accurate measurement of any small resulting
change in their temperature. It can easily be shown that a perfect
gas woald show no such change. As a matter of fact, hydrogen was
found to be slightly warmer on the low pressure side of such a plug
than on the high pressure side, while air, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
dioxide were slightly cooler. The ratio of the observed drop in tem-
perature to the drop in pressure in such a plug has ever since been
called the Joule-Thomson coefficient.
The results of such experiments afford the best known means of
computing corrections for reducing the temperature scale of a gas
thermometer to Kelvin’s absolute thermodynamic scale. For this pur-
pose one must know the Joule-Thomson coefficient of the gas in the
thermometer at all temperatures between 0° Οὐ. and the ¢° C. at which
the correction is desired. Unfortunately, none of the experiments
either of Joule and Kelvin or of any of their successors are at temper-
atures other than between 0° C. and 100° C., except for certain inver-
sion points of Olschewsky obtained under circumstances not yet fully
understood. These are not enough to give a direct determination of
the absolute thermodynamic scale above 100°. In order to get one
indirectly, it has been customary to assume that, at least in the five
gases, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and air, the Joule-
Thomson effect obeys the law of corresponding states. That is, it is
assumed that if the coefficient for each gas is expressed in terms of the
critical pressure and temperature of that gas as units, and if the
results are plotted against the temperature expressed in the same
244 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
“reduced” units, the resulting curves will be identical for all five
gases. ‘The observations at ordinary temperatures on hydrogen, whose
critical temperature is very low, will then correspond to observations
at very high temperatures on other gases, and will afford a useful
though precarious extrapolation of their curves to above 1000° C.
1.2
EERE
ial Sa
ΠΩ ΚΠ ΕΠ
mee AR EE EH
SUT ea [τὲ [ἢ ΠΝ ΠΣ (δ 15: et a τ
μι Pe ΕΙ ἘΣ Ὁ Ὁ Ee
ΕΠ ΕἾ ΒΕ ΚΕ ΗΕ ἘΣ ἘΜῈ a ὦ ΕΠ ΕΣ )Ὲ 55 ΕἾ ΣΙ ὩΣ ἘΠ 5 1"
ΒΕ ἘΣΠΙ Bs OP Τὸ τ ΚΕ Τ᾿ τὶ
ΒΕ ΕΒ τ στσὸ τ ΒΙΕΒΙΕΕΙ͂Ν
PGE 4τ|α]αῆ
ΚΕἸ ΝΗ ΕἸ ΕΣ τ
ΒΕ ἘΕΒΕΣ δὲ
ΚΠ ΕΠ ΕΗ ΠΕ ΠΕ τὸ
ks cea pea a
PE ]ω Ὁ] δ]
ἸἘΞΞ ΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΞΙ
ὁπητον 1 τ EEE
τὰ ΞΞΗ:
ὙΠ ἡ ἢ ee ea
13 1 ei Re a
ἘΒΕ ΕΝ ee H+ |
pee me
pas al ene
cleus, 1. Reduced Joule-Thomson coefficient, μ', plotted against reduced
temperature. From Buckingham’s paper in the Bulletin of the Bureau of
Standards, May, 1908. (See the note at the end of this paper.)
The experimental justification of this use of the law of correspond-
ing states is, as yet, meager. Figure 1, which is taken from a recent
paper by Buckingham, represents the available data. It will be seen
that neither the hydrogen nor the carbon dioxide observations overlap
those on the other three gases, and that the points for each of these
DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES. 245
three gases show such discrepancies among themselves as to make un-
certain any judgment as to their agreement with each other. What
evidence there is, is in favor of the validity of the law of corresponding
states ; but an accurate verification of it, especially for two substances
with very different critical temperatures, would put the whole subject
on a much more satisfactory basis.
In this paper it will be shown that this law is verified for carbon
dioxide and water within the limit of error of the available observa-
tions on water. ‘This limit of error is unfortunately quite as great as
that of the oxygen, nitrogen and air observations plotted in Figure 1.
Nevertheless, a multiplication of evidence, even of an inferior sort, is
often valuable, and in this case there is an added interest because, if
water, which is known to be anomalous in many ways through associa-
tion, is found to obey the law of corresponding states as to its Joule-
Thomson effect, it is probable that the permanent gases will also obey
that law.
There are four sets of experiments on water which can be used. They
were all undertaken for the purpose of determining the variation of
the specific heat of superheated steam with pressure and temperature,
an investigation which has since been more satisfactorily accomplished
in other ways. Of the four observers, Griessmann? used a porous
plug very much like that of Joule and Thomson, while the other three,
Grindley, 2 Peake? and Dodge,* used what engineers call a throttling
or wiredrawing calorimeter. The essential part of this instrument is a
small orifice through which the steam flows tumultuously from one
chamber into another, the high velocity of the steam being subse-
quently destroyed by friction at the surfaces of the walls of the second
chamber and within the steam itself. During this process the kinetic
energy of the steam is transformed into heat, all of which, if the
thermal insulation is perfect, goes back into the steam. If this trans-
formation is complete, the throttling calorimeter is exactly equivalent
to a porous plug. ΤῸ ensure this completeness, one of the three ob-
servers (Peake) puta quantity of wire gauze in the path of the
steam from the orifice, and another (Dodge) used at times four small
orifices instead of one larger one without noticeable change in the
results. Grindley took no especial precautions of this sort, but the
1 Zeitsch. Ver. d. Ing., 1903, 47, 1852 and 1880; also Forschungsarb., Ver.
d. Ing., 1904, 13, 1.
2 Phil. Trans., 1900-1, 194A, 1.
3 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1905, A, 76, 185.
4 Jour. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 1907, 28, 1265; and 1908, 30, 1227.
246 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
fact that his results agree with those of Peake and of Griessmann
shows that none were necessary in his apparatus.
This agreement is in many other ways a significant one, for it is
inconceivable in view of the great differences in almost every respect
between the details of the three sets of apparatus, that any serious
systematic errors should have been present in any one of the sets of
results without completely destroying the agreement between them.
This is particularly true in the matter of heat insulation, where the
precautions taken by the three observers had almost nothing in com-
mon except effectiveness. In Dodge’s work also this point was care-
fully considered but the results are not so satisfactory. They will be
discussed and a correction computed on page 262.
In all four cases the thermometry is the weakest part of the work.
It is especially unfortunate for the present purpose that the original
aim of the experiments did not require or suggest that the difference
between the temperatures before and after the expansion be measured
as such, as by a thermocouple or a differential resistance thermometer.
The subtraction which must now be made of one reading on a mercury
thermometer from another reading on another thermometer, to give
a small difference, is not a particularly accurate method of getting
that difference. The same is true of the determination of the pressure
drop. The individual measurements were comparatively good, being
made in three of the cases with carefully calibrated Bourdon or spring
gauges, and in the fourth case by an extra measurement of the temper-
ature of resaturation of the low side steam, but the differences needed
in this paper must inevitably be subject to comparatively large errors.
The reader must therefore be prepared for much lack of self-consistency
in the results. It is hoped that the errors are largely incidental errors
such as can be eliminated by averaging.
Grindley’s experiments were performed in England during the winter
of 1897-8. His data are given in full in his paper and are plotted in
his Diagram 5 reproduced here as Figure 2. It will be observed that in
every case his steam drops several pounds in pressure before it leaves
the saturation line. ‘This he explained by means of a curious and now
discredited “heat of gasification.” A better explanation is that his
steam was initially slightly wet. Since this source of error affects
the high side data of every one of his experiments, it might seem that
all of his work must be rejected. It will be noticed, however, that his
experiments are grouped into runs; that is, if in a certain experiment
steam in a certain initial condition has been throttled to a certain low
side pressure and temperature, then in later experiments of the same
group, steam in the same initial condition is more and more throttled
DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES. 247
to lower low side pressures and temperatures, which when plotted
together form the throttling curves of Figure 2. Since it is character-
istic of throttling that the total heat, H, of the steam is the same on
the high and low sides, it follows that H is constant along the whole
of any throttling curve, and that any two low side points of a ran may
be taken, one as describing the high side conditions and the other as
describing the low side conditions of a possible throttling experiment.
: iE Ca ee
SEE EEE EEE EE EE eri
ΞΙ
ia
Ξ
ΚΞ
ΒΗ
a
ΒΥ
\
ἢ
NSS
Bene
etl dal ele
Ξ
is]
εἰ
Pa
aN
CMe enNes
mie
Figure 2. Grindley’s throttling curves. Abscissae are pressures in lbs.
per sq.in. Ordinates are Fahrenheit temperatures. From his paper in the
Philosophical Transactions.
In other words, the slope of a throttling curve at any point is a value
of the Joule-Thomson coefficient under corresponding conditions. It
is therefore possible, even while rejecting all of Grindley’s high side
points together with that one of the low side points which is obviously
affected by the same error, to use the remaining low side points in
pairs. There were 101 of them in all, lying on seven throttling curves.
They were first grouped so as to give 29 average points, the averaging
being justified by the fact that for a range of not more than 5°, a
throttling curve can be considered straight. ‘These means were then
taken two by two consecutively to give 22 values of the Joule-Thomson
248 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
coefficient, each of which is assumed to correspond to the mean of the
high and low side temperatures from which it was obtained. The
values of the coefficient have been “reduced” by multiplying by 2.56,
TABLE I.
SUMMARY OF GRINDLEY’S THROTTLING EXPERIMENTS.
Average Pressure Average Temperature Reduced
Joule-
Thomson
ee per Reduced. Fahr. Reduced. |Coefficient.
141.6 0.0480 E 0.714
121.7 0.0412 3. 0.708
101.6 0.0344 ὃ 0.703
81.7 0.0277 D: 0.697
61.0 0.0207 32. 0.690
0.0137 922. 0.082
0.0077 315. 0.675
|
NNR oe
Nie: ee Tcl
Se ees
Ree ΟΟ 00
μιΘιθϑιθϑ συ Obl
0.0296 “ 0.685
0.0253 21. 0.680
0.0197 3. 0.673
0.0137 ). 0.667
0.0086 : 0.002
1
1
2-1
1-3
3-1
1-2
3
5
Ὡς
0.0172 : 0.651
0.0127 S1. 0.645
0.0082 : 0.640
0.0042 ‘ 0.634
a
0.0089 le 0.633
0.0042 : 0.020
0.0082 : 0.620
0.0043 : 0.018
0.0041 : 0.600
0.0039 28. 0.600
Column 2 indicates the number of observations involved in each
of the two means used in each case. Thus 6-7 indicates that the mean
used as the high side point of the pair included 6 of the points plotted
in figure 2, while that used as the low side point involved 7.
a factor which is the ratio of the critical pressure of water expressed in
pounds per square inch (2947 lbs. per sq. in. or 200 atmospheres 5) to
its critical temperature in Fahrenheit degrees absolute (1149° F. abs.
or 365° ©. ord.5). The results are summarized in Table I, which gives
δ Cailletet and Colardeau, Jour. de Phys., 1891, 10, 333.
DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES. 249
also the corresponding “‘reduced ” pressures and temperatures. These
values of the coefficient are plotted as open circles in Figure 6.
The experiments of Griessmann were performed in the mechanical
engineering laboratory of the “Technische Hochschule” in Dresden,
and were published in 1903. They were primarily undertaken to test
the heat of gasification hypothesis already mentioned, and are a critical
ξ΄
Sle ΚΕ ΕΙΠΕ ΠΣ ΕΊΣΙΗ
Fe
aN |
ES ee
NU
ie
Be Nw
ANNE
RN
ἊΝ
a
eee lee
Siecle
NG
WW
aN
SaaS)
[|
[SJ
[sj
be]
RENAN
ὲ
εἰσ aT
S
aS
les
Figure 3. Griessmann’s throttling curves. Abscissae are pressures in kg.
persq.cm. Ordinates are Centigrade temperatures. From his paper in the
Forschungsarbeiten.
repetition of Grindley’s work. The data are given in full in the paper
in the Forschungsarbeiten, and are plotted in his Figure 7, which is
reproduced here as Figure 3. He records 13 runs with 87 sets of low
side observations, which with the 13 high side observations give 100
points on his diagram. Of these, three points on curve 2, one point
on curve 7, three points on curve 8, and three points on curve 9 lie so
far off the smooth curves determined by the neighboring points that
they have arbitrarily been omitted from these calculations. The re-
maining 90 points, lying on 11 curves, have been grouped in 44 means
250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
TABLE II.
SuMMARY OF GRIESSMANN’S OBSERVATIONS.
Average Pressure Average Temperature Reduced
No. of Joule-
Points. Thomson
kgs./sq. em. Reduced. Cent. Reduced. | Coefficient.
Curve.
0.0106
0.0066
bo ie
Re bo
- μὰ
bo bh
ie
μ 00
0.0138
0.0069
me bo μι bo
= CO we
το σὺ “10
Go Oo
aired
μὰ μαὶ
— μαὶ
μ -1
H= o>
0.0144
0.0088
ee
bo bo
ἘΞ 5
ο ὦ
--ἱ
μι μι
oo 09
ip bo
ONS GNH BO
0.0210
0.0138
0.0071
|
SOR
|
bo
{την
H OO OO
on
aa
Ce
σι wo bo
0.0199
0.0122
0.0074
Routes
μα
μι τὸ.
one
NO Oe
μα
CO μὰ
by ὃ bo
2
—3
0.0260
0.0202
0.0144
0.0079
μος σι
Se ὦ
5» ὦ σ9
WS er)
eee
mone
2
2
9-4
4
|
bo
0.0219
0.0176
|
Co bo
τι 59 He Ho Or Or
bo bo
- μὰ
=O
μι CO
0.0308
0.0237
ee
me bo
|
ao!
me Or
0.0313
0.0180
0.0071
eae
mee bo
pet Men © WD OD σι
lor ὦ σ9 on He >
eee
Cog 59 59
ιυοο OF
0.0398
0.0243
0.0125
0.0075
NOR R OAS
ln peas
eRe bo
me boo 0
oon by
Cobh bo
μα
(3) ὧι 55 -
0.0438
0.0547
0.0268
0.0188
0.0120
0.0074
Tees
ΟΝ ΩΝ A)
ἘΞ Deer ΟΣ Ue
σιρ Ook ©
NwWOWN
DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES. 251
which have been used as above to give the 33 values of the Joule-
Thomson coefficient which are presented in the following table. They
are plotted as circles with diagonal crossbars in Figure 6. The re-
duction factor in this case is 0.324, Griessmann’s pressures being in
kilograms per square centimeter and his temperatures in Centigrade
degrees.
at AST
360
ΠΝ Oe
350
Ὁ ΠΗ Se
340 5 S
CO RS ee δὲ
350
“ει τ τ ΠΙΠΓ
ὙΠ a Eee BP ΤῊ
aS aliped
ACD cB e791 ΒΉΡΕ ΠΕ ΡΥ κὉ ἘΠῚ ΜῈ ΠΣ Μ᾿
Ξ ra rT |
ΟΞ ΕΞ Och ae Eee
τ ΠΕ Ce oct ΕΗ
Εν Ὁ {ΠΡ πε OD
Bui 14 7 ET RS ee a ἣν ΜΕ [ἢ
ἘΠ 1 Ἐπ ἘΠῚ OD OF ΤῚ
5 ae 1 ἢ Ὁ Δ ΔΙ ἘΠ ΠῚ ΤΟ ς
ΠΗ totais a ἢ ΣΦΕ ΙΣ ΤΝ
seep - τ τ ----- --τ- - -
(RTA ΠΩ ΠΝ ΠΕ ἣν ἘΠΒΗ͂ δὴ Π ἩΒ ΠΝ Ρὴ ΜΠ ΜΕ ΜΗ ΠΝ ΔΝ
(Sn ππ ππ τ
o 0 oO HO I 150 160 170 180 190 200 20 220
Absolute pressure in Ibs. per square inch.
Ficure 4. Peake’s throttling curves. From his paper in the Proceedings
of the Royal Society.
Peake’s experiments were carried out in the engineering laboratory
of Cambridge University in England and were begun in the fall of
1898. The appearance in 1900 of Grindley’s work along almost iden-
tical lines at first inclined Peake to discontinue his investigation, but
a careful examination of Grindley’s data as compared with his own,
led him to the discovery in both of the heat of gasification error already
mentioned and to its true explanation, and his experiments were con-
tinued with this particular point in view. His apparatus was there-
fore redesigned so as to bring the steam as quickly as possible from the
boiler to the orifice to avoid condensation on the way, and he, like
252 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
TABLE III.
SUMMARY OF PEAKE’s THROTTLING EXPERIMENTS.
Average Pressure Average Temperature Reduced
Joule-
Te ae oC) τὰ In| CR SEI Thomson
mm.of Ηρ. Reduced. a Reduced. /|Coefficient.
bh ib vo do to do oo
ΘΟΟςς
ἢ 9 C9 Ὁ ἧς
Nwnywo
5 55 55: 1
“ἰῷ Ὁ Θὰ
-- anw ors GS Or Co τὸ
= OOO
|
SCHHOHO CONDDD Ὁ ὃ Ὁ Ὁ Ὁ Ὁ ὃ
σι οῦθιο ὦ Corunna AN PNOF Ot
2-2
2-2
2-1
1Ξ1
1-1
1-1
Oo -ΔΟ ο ὦ ὦ
μα
ἢ
~J
DAR ARAAQAGD
|
πε δ τι το πο πὸ rere
ee De Re μοὶ μὰ μὶ
Bee ee μα
σιϊο πα αι ἢ Ὁ
WOON οι
πὴ
ee
AD
a
1 All of Peake’s pressures were computed from suitable temperature
measurements by means of Regnault’s steam table. As a special pre-
caution they have been recomputed with the new table of Holborn and
Henning, and are therefore left in the metric units in which they were
thus found. The “reduction factor ” to give μ' is 238.
DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES. 253
Griessmann, practically eliminated the effect which Grindley had found.
His results are plotted as his Figure 4 which is reproduced as Figure 4
of this paper. He records 10 runs with 68 low side observations,
making 78 points in all. πο of the high side points and two of
the low side points still show traces of the wet steam effect and have
therefore been rejected. ‘he other low side points are much more
Ficure 5. Dodge’s throttling curves. Plotted from the original data
sheets.
self-consistent than Griessmann’s. The ten runs correspond to only
six throttling curves. The 74 satisfactory points were grouped into
33 means, giving the 27 values of the Joule-Thomson coefficient which
are presented in Table III and are plotted as circles with horizontal
crossbars in Figure 6.
Dodge worked in the laboratories of the General Electric Company
at Schenectady, N. Y., from 1901 to 1906. His data were not given
at all in his first paper and were published only in part in his second
254 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
paper. What follows is based on a study of the original records, the
generous loan of which for this purpose is very gratefully acknowledged.
On his advice, the first 26 of his 92 runs were disregarded as prelimin-
ary, and 9 other runs were rejected, either because of experimental
mishaps, or because the log did not show satisfactorily steady condi-
tions. ‘The data selected were corrected for probable radiation and
conduction losses in the way explained in the appendix of this paper
(page 262).
Of the 47 selected tests, 14 were like those already discussed, except
that the temperatures were much higher, the high side steam being
superheated instead of saturated. The results of these 14 tests are
plotted in Figure 5. It will be noticed that in every case a smooth curve
through the low side points runs considerably below the corresponding
high side point, just as did Grindley’s curves. In Grindley’s case this
was because the entering steam carried water in suspension, the pres-
ence of which made the true total heat of the incoming mixture less
than its apparent total heat regarded as homogeneous saturated steam,
and dropped all the low side points onto throttling curves lower than
those on which they apparently belonged. A similar phenomenon may
be in evidence in Dodge’s case, for although the incoming steam was
superheated, it may still have been carrying in suspension a part of the
water which had been sprayed into it for temperature regulation just
before it reached the high side chamber.6 It must, however, be ad-
mitted that if this explanation is to account for the whole of the dis-
crepancy in Dodge’s results, an extraordinarily large amount of water
in suspension must have reached the high side chamber — from one to
one and a half per cent of the whole weight present. It is therefore
probable that there is another source of error not yet discovered.
Nevertheless, if the high side points are disregarded and the low side
points are taken together in pairs as in Grindley’s case, it is probable
that the resulting values of the Joule-Thomson coefficient will be
trustworthy.
Each of the 14 runs was handled separately. It did not seem best
to take consecutive points together as in the other cases, because, at the
very high temperatures here dealt with, the temperature difference be-
tween consecutive points is much smaller than at lower temperatures,
and so an error in either observation would make much more difference
in the coefficient. Furthermore, the throttling curves are more nearly
straight in this range than at lower temperatures. ‘The lowest point
of a run has therefore been taken with the point just beyond the middle
6 See the work of Knoblauch and Jakob, Forschungsarb., 1906, 34, 109.
70 ὃ
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Average Pressure Average Temperature Reduced
Joule-
προς
Ibs. per sq. in. Reduced. Fahr. Reduced. Coefficient.
36.5 0 563 0.892 ΟΖ
57.6 0.0196 569 0.895 .o9
85.2 0.0289 572 0.899 36
54.2 0.0184 476 ὰ 0.816 08
73.0 0.0248 479 0.818 46
36.5 0.0124 356 0.711 τ
Seo 0.0195 362 0.716 62
84.9 0.0288 369 0.722 75
36.5 0.0124 521 0.855 30
57.4 0.0195 523 0.857 .20
36.7 0.0125 418 0.765 .δὅ
52.4 0.0178 424 0.770 48
84.8 0.0288 248 0.774 44
54.0 0.0183 522 0.856 32
72.6 0.0246 527 0.860 27
102.2 0.0347 530 0.863 32
84.3 0.0286 373 0.726 8
114.6 0.0389 381 0.733 2
DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES. 255
TABLE) IV:
Summary orf DopGe’s THrotrLtinc Curve TEstTs.
127.3 0.0432 534 0.866
101.0 0.0343 527 0.860
200.6 0.0681 547 0.877
225.6 0.0765 551 0.881
57.5 0.0195 568 0.895
105.0 0.0356 576 0.902
142.0 0.0482 580 0.906
57.9 0.0196 527 0.860
105.0 0.0356 539 0.867
142.0 0.0482 548 0.878
90.7 0.0308 535 0.867
120.4 0.0409 539 0.870
152.0 0.0516 ’ 543 0.874
184.4 0.0626 548 0.878
90.3 0.0306 484 0.822
120.3 0.0409 489 0.826
152.0 0.0516 495 0.832
184.0 0.0625 501 0.837
90.3 0.0306 434 0.779
120.3 0.0409 441 0.785
152.0 0.0516 447 0.790
184.0 0.0625 452 0.795
SSSS9 S999 S995 SSS SSS SS SS SS 999 ‘S999 Se οϑθϑ So SOO
ἘΝ σισισῦι BRR WWWR Ro Www Bao ἰοῦ ON
NNRNN πο ARO NSCS GANG KO AN
213.5 0.0724 458 0.800
*9]BOS OPBISI}UID 91} UO UIA4S 10} 59104 θιθατπ91 Surpuodso1109 901 UOAIT ΘΙ U10}}0q 90} 20
‘ginyeraduiey ῬΘΌΠΡΘΙ surese ΡΟγ10] ΘΡΙΧΟΙΡ ΠΟΟΙΌΟ ΡΓΒ τπῈ915 IO} JUATOYJooo ποβίποι7,-9]Π0Ὸ ῦ psonpeyY *9 TANI]
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
256
999
$I
of6F
«θ6»
τ
0998
DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES. Zt
of that run, and so on, no point being used more than once. The 4i
values of the coefficient obtained in this way are summarized in Table
IV, and are plotted as small open circles in Figure 6. ‘They lie in the
range between 0.8 and 0.9 reduced temperature, filling a gap of con-
siderable importance in that figure.
The remaining 33 of the selected runs cannot be handled in the same
simple way, because the experiments which make up each of these runs
are not so related as to give throttling curves, but are related in an-
other way much better suited to the original purpose of the work, but
much less suited to the present purpose. Nevertheless the gap be-
tween 0.7 and 0.9 in Figure 6 is so important that it is desirable to
use every bit of information about it that can be obtained. These 33
additional runs have therefore been discussed at some length in the
appendix of this paper, and, suitable corrections for the high side tem-
peratures having been applied, the more favorable of them have been
used to get the 77 values of the Joule-Thomson coefficient which are
presented in Table ΓΝ. These values are plotted in Figure 6 as small
black dots. They are more self-consistent than the values in Table IV
above, but their trustworthiness is more uncertain as each involves two
uncertain corrections of the original data instead of one. They are
nevertheless valuable corroborative evidence.
Figure 6 is nowcomplete. The 82 values of the coefficient which are
summarized in Tables I., II., and IIL., lie in the range between 0.6 and
0.7 units of reduced “Tne snd form a broad but reasonably well
defined band, within which there is no evident tendency for either of
the three sets of points to separate themselves from the others. The
118 values of the coefficient which were computed from Dodge’s data,
and which are presented in Tables [V. and V., lie between 0.7 and 0.9 and
form a satisfactory continuation of the band. Above 0.9 are five large
circles with diagonal crossbars representing on the same scale the origi-
nal observations of Joule and Thomson on carbon dioxide, six large
circles without crossbars representing Kester’s 7 experiments, and one
large circle with a horizontal crossbar representing Natanson’s 8 result.
These circles form a surprisingly good continuation of the curve sug-
gested by the band of steam points. The law of corresponding states is
therefore verified for carbon dioxide and water within the limits of error
of the observations on the two substances.
The various values in Tables I to V have been grouped according to
temperature and averaged. For this purpose a number was assigned
7 Phys. Zeitsch., 1905, 6, 44; repeated and revised in Phys. Rev., 1905, 21,
260.
8 Wied. Ann., 1887, 31, 502.
' VOL. XLV. — 17
258 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
TABLE V.
Summary oF Dopan’s Main Series oF Tests (CorREcTED AS DESCRIBED).
Average Pressure Average Temperature Reduced
Test Joule-
: Thomson
Ibs. per sq. in. Reduced. Fahr. Reduced. Coefficient.
28 328 0.112 558 0.886 0.48
ἐν y 534 0.865 0.50
ng 503 0.839 0.52
ἱ τι τ 450 0.775 0.55
ie f 463 0.804 0.56
ef τ 574 0.901 0.49
29 380 0.129 568 0.895 0.42
ἐς τ δ44 0.875 0.42
Ἢ Ὄ 20 0.859 0.45
δ: τ 483 0.821 0.49
re μὴ 400 0.809 0.54
ἐς vi 504 0.839 0.51
δ τι δ98 0.869 0.45
91 990 0.112 511 0.846 0.41
εἶ τ 474 0.819 0.48
ch τ 441 0.785 0.47
32 379 0.129 558 0.886 0.38
he i 540 0.871 0.40
τ ἧς 524 0.857 0.42
a Ἢ 507 0.842 0.45
ng τ 493 0.830 0.48
; Ἢ oe 469 0.809 0.54
ἐξ ᾿ 444 0.787 0.58
36 385 0.131 563 0.891 0.39
τε 4 539 0.870 0.41
τ Ἢ 516 0.850 0.44
es τ 491 0.829 0.48
“ τ 400 0.801 0.54
97 998 0.115 571 0.898 0.39
τ bi 545 0.875 0.40
δ, ἐς 516 0.850 0.43
rs 480 0.819 0.50
ὰ τ 456 0.798 0.54
41 205 0.070 562 0.890 0.36
τ τ 527 0.860 0.40
4 a 462 0.803 0.50
ce ὡς 492 0.777 0.59
42 255 0.087 565 0.893 0.37
ΓΗ 7 540 0.871 0.40
τ τ 515 0.850 0.43
i ἐς 492 0.829 0.46
ss ef 459 0.800 0.53
ἢ τ 457 0.781 0.55
DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES. 259
TABLE V — (continued).
Average Pressure Average Temperature Reduced
Joule-
| Thomson
Ibs. per sq. in. Reduced. Fahr. Reduced. Coefficient.
0.103
Ξὰ 0 Ὁ Ὁ Meer)
Ω -α- COO We oS GO
Owonmnatoo
Noe Pi ΗΝ
OPIN We
ὰ ῦ Ὁ
ori oo
OS CO
Crore ev
σις “Ὁ Ὁ C1? CO ὦ ong
I on) Wom oo
SI co OMAN wm
3
0
τ
4
0
5
7
9
6
8
0
9
0
Wier} φῷ ὦ ὦ ὁὉ
WW or H= CO
8
8
8
7
8
8
8
7
8
8
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
S2999 SS S959 SSS οροοοο S55 οοοοοοσ
Θ
-ι
SSS S99 29995 SS S959 S959 τος S559 Ξε:
σοι ON ANERRER BW OUR OO
NON lop ὁὉ σ9 HH OH Re
to each of the values in Tables I, IJ, and III equal to the product of the
total number of observations involved at both ends of the determina-
tion of the coefficient and the corresponding temperature drop meas-
ρος PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
ured in Centigrade degrees ; proportional integral weights from 1 to
6 were then used in forming the weighted means in Table VI. The
relative weights of the means themselves which are given in the last
column of lable VI are proportional to the square roots of the sums of
the above products which entered into each mean; they are given
“TABLE VE
SuMMARY OF WEIGHTED MEANS FROM TABLES 1 To V.
Temperature
Observer. Reduced Weicke
Cent. Reduced.
| Grindley sp hh es 9. 0.600
2. 0.620
0.633
0.645
0.676
0.705
WP OO
Griessmann . 0.628
5 5
“IND eo
De Doe HR Or Or bo
9
“ὦ
off
0
6
9
oll
0
| Dodge
MablewWVs.5 τ cage ; i (16) ὁ
ee. f 38 (25) 2
ΠΑ σένα, woes: Ane 7! BAS (34) :
ek 86 432 (43) :
1 These are not weights comparable with those above. They give
simply the number of observations involved in the corresponding means.
merely as a rough guide for anyone who may wish to use these means
for other purposes. If weights had been assigned to Dodge’s means on
the same basis, they would have been misleadingly large because all
the temperature differences retained were large (see the Appendix).
The numbers in parentheses in the last column of Table VI are the
number of separate coefficients involved in each of the means.
The small figure in the upper corner of Figure 6 is Buckingham’s
figure (Figure 1 of this paper) replotted on a different scale with the
MERA 58 ἘΠΕῚ
RN Te a ene See
REA τ --- pasa PST Taal
SnRmGuue
Ti eae ee πΉ:1:
aa | ff
τ ΔΙ ΕΠ ΕΝ,
ΠῚ 2 ΜΈ ΒΗ ΜΡ ΞΕ ΣΤῊ δ’ ΜΗ ΘΈ] 5Ὲ ee
Se Ss ee ee ee ἘΞ] “τ ἢ
pa -τὸο-- ΕἸ
(Ei oN a ΒΗ ΚΙ ΠΗ ΡΗ ΣῈ ΠΗ͂Ι [πον ΠῚ ΒΩ ΔΠ 9} ΣΡ ΣΙ ΠΕΙ ἘΠΕ ΤΙ ---
CEASE Se Se ee
Ἐπ Bee eae --
apa a
100 °C 400°
Figure 7. Joule-Thomson coefficient in ΚΣ units. In the lower part
of the figure these are Centigrade degrees for a pressure drop of | kg. per sq.
em. (scale at left). In the upper part they are Fahrenheit degrees for a pres-
sure drop of 1 |b. per sq. in, (scale at right).
18 means of T'able VI added as large circles. The six small circles near
t=1 are Kester’s carbon dioxide points, the other carbon dioxide points
being omitted for clearness. ‘I'he other points in the figure are easily
recognizable on comparison with Figure 1.
262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Figure 7 shows the smooth curve that best represents the band of
Figure 6, translated back from “reduced” to ordinary units, both
Centigrade and Fahrenheit. This curve has proved useful in several
unexpected ways. For example, it will be made the basis of a dis-
cussion of the specific heat of very highly superheated steam in a
later paper (see page 292 of these proceedings). It has also made
certain cumbersome and uncertain computations in continuous flow
calorimetry unnecessary (see “‘ Power,” June 2, 1908, page 871). It
is hoped that the various scales of Figure 7 are open enough to make
the curve useful to others.
All of the observations discussed in this paper have been examined
with considerable care, both arithmetically and graphically, for traces of
a systematic variation of the Joule-Thomson coefficient with pressure
at constant temperature, without success. If such a variation exists
even close to the saturation line, it is within the limit of error of
the data.
APPENDICES.
Discussion of Dodge's Data.
In Dodge’s apparatus the low side chamber was protected against
loss of heat to its surroundings chiefly (although not wholly) by an
independently heated steam jacket made in one piece with the wall of
the chamber, and kept as nearly as possible at the same temperature
as the low side steam. ‘Thermometers were placed in this jacket and
their temperatures recorded with the other routine data of each run.
As a matter of fact, the jacket temperatures usually ran somewhat
lower than the low side steam temperatures, so that some loss of heat
by conduction through the chamber wall was to be expected. ‘The
high temperatures employed would also tend to make probable some
loss of heat by radiation. The possibilities were tested in six special
runs numbered 83 to 88, in which the partition between the high and
the low side chambers, with its orifice, was completely removed. It
was found that the low side thermometers in these tests did read
somewhat lower than the high side thermometers although there was
no throttling. The 27 observed differences can be fairly well repre-
sented by the empirical equation
__ 12 (low side temp. — jacket temp.) + 4 (high side temp.)
ce flow in lbs. per hour
The forms of the two terms in the numerator were intended to cor-
respond to the two sorts of heat loss mentioned above. Corrections
corresponding to this formula were accordingly applied to the main
DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES. 263
tests. The corrections in the tests summarized in able IV averaged
2.4° Τὸ, and only occasionally amounted to 4°. Those in the tests
summarized in T'able V averaged 2.9° F. and only occasionally
amounted to 5°.
The second set of corrections which are involved in Table V but not
in Table ΓΝ are much more uncertain. As has been stated, the ex-
periments of the runs of Table V could not be grouped into throttling
curves whose various low side points could be combined with each
other, all the high side observations being ignored except as indicating
constancy of initial conditions, as was done in preparing Table IV. If
the data were to be used at all, each low side point had to be taken
with its own high side point. When this was done with only the
radiation and conduction corrections made, the resulting values of the
Joule-Thomson coefficient were not at all self-consistent, the values in
each run which corresponded to small temperature drops and therefore
to high mean temperatures being abnormally high. This tendency of
the points near 0.9 in Figure 6 to swoop upward was unmistakable, and
indicated clearly the presence in the tests of Table V of the same “ wet
steam” error shown in Figure 5 for the tests of Table IV.
The necessary corrections were obtained from the tests of Table IV.
It seemed that they alone gave enough of a verification of the law
of corresponding states to justify the drawing of a tentative curve like
those of Figure 7, and this curve was then used to compute what
correction would have to be applied to each of the high side tempera-
tures of the tests of Table IV to make them self-consistent. These
corrections were surprisingly constant. They were examined for
systematic variations with mean pressure, with pressure drop and with
quantity of steam discharged, without success. There seemed, how-
ever, to be a slight variation with the mean temperature and the
following scheme was adopted :
If the mean reduced decrease the high
temperature is side temperature by
0.9 14°
0.85 len
0.8 125
0.75 Ai
It should be noticed that these corrections were deduced wholly
from the 14 throttling curve tests of Table IV. When they were
applied to the tests of Table V, the resulting values of the coefficient
showed none of their previous tendency to run high near 0.9, and were
264 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
in general much more self-consistent. Further, they now agreed very
definitely with the tests of Table IV in verifying the law of correspond-
ing states and lay close along the tentative curve previously drawn.
These facts, particularly the disappearance of the tendency to swoop
near 0.9, seem to show that this reasoning is not a “circular fallacy,”
and that the values in Table V are a real corroboration of those in
Table IV.
As a precaution against using these corrections too freely im cases
where they might, perhaps, not apply, it seemed best to include in
able V only such of the 33 selected tests of the type in question as
resembled the tests from which the corrections were determined in
having comparatively large steam flow (more than 80 lbs. per hour).
Furthermore, all tests or parts of tests were rejected for which the
observed temperature drop was not as great as five times the correc-
tion, as the application of any correction amounting to more than 20
per cent of the quantity involved seemed unsafe. The 33 tests were
thus reduced to 19, and these, corrected as above, gave the 77 values
of the coefficient in Table V.
Note on the Vertical Scale of Figure 1.
The numerical values of the ordinates in Figure 1 are not the
“reduced ” Joule-Thomson effect in the ordinary sense, because Buck-
ingham, in computing them, used 100 in. of mercury as his unit of
pressure, but nevertheless expressed his critical pressures in atmos-
pheres. The true reduced values of μ΄ are those indicated in the
upper corner of Figure 6.
JEFFERSON PHysicAL LABORATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, Mass.,
December, 1909.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vout. XLV. No. 9.— Marcu, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
NOTES ON CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES
OF STEAM.
By Harvey N. Davis.
hoe ὦ
OS ai es me?)
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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
NOTES ON CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM.
By Harvey N. Davis.
Presented by John Trowbridge, December 8, 1909; Received December 30, 1909.
ΜΙ ΓΟ ΠΟ ΟΠ τὴν Race i Reel ele τα crn τα 207
§ 2. On the ὦ values available for the present purpose ....... 269
§ 3. On the total heat of saturated steam
ΔῈ bicweverminatione Ol tego vs ee lice ec! πὴ Be 272
men cky al ΠΟΙ pyaar as mene eres mamestee δ ἡ che eee er. eat. SO
C. Extrapolation formule for EPA ATIC eg me ean AS Orc 281
§ 4. Discussion of the specific heat of superheated steam, including
A recomputation of Regnault’s values .......2.2.2.. - 285
Computations based on the Joule-Thomson effect ....... 289
Computations with Planck’s equation τ. . 6... es 1 we 295
§ 5. Clausius’ “Specific heat of saturated steam”. ......2.2.. 303
MGam Me lentical VOUMMeOl WHET tn) ich δ. γῦρο vee! ν 305
Summary of the'results im this paper *.. 0°... 6.02 2 6 6) e 310
1. InrTRopDUCTION.
Ir is the purpose of this paper to collect and correlate certain
material on the thermal properties of steam. A part of this material
was published in a technical journal a year ago.1 Other parts of it
have been contributed as discussion of papers by others in that journal
and elsewhere. Still other parts of it have been used in a recent book.2
The rest appears here for the first time. It all centers around a new
determination of the total heat of saturated steam.
The previous determinations of the total heat of steam (17), and of
the closely related latent heat of evaporation (Z), will first be summa-
rized. The most famous of them was published by Regnault in 1847.
His experiments were so numerous, covered such a wide temperature
range, and were characterized by such perfection of detail as to be
accepted as the foundation of the engineering practise of the world,
1 Jour. Am. Soc. of Mech. Engs., 1908, 30, 1419.
2 Marks and Davis, Steam Tables and Diagrams.
268 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
and to remain standard for sixty years. He himself deduced from
them the well-known linear formula
H = 606.5 + 0.305 ¢ calories.
Others have represented them by second degree formule with negative
second degree terms.
The more modern experimental work began in 1889 with a measure-
ment of ἢ at 0° C. by Dieterici.2 He was followed by Griffiths,* Joly ®
and Smith,® working at various temperatures between 0° and 100° Ὁ,
and finally in 1906 by Henning,’ of the Reichsanstalt, who published
an excellent series of values covering the range from 30° to 100° C.
The results of all these observers are in excellént agreement and show
that Regnault’s formula for H gives values which are much too high
near 0° and somewhat too low near 100°.
In 1908 the formula which is the basis of this paper was presented
to the American Physical Society 8 and to the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers.? It was based on the results of certain throttling
experiments by Grindley,!° Griessmann 11 and Peake.42 These experi-
ments were originally undertaken for the purpose of computing, with
the help of Regnault’s total heats, the variation with pressure and
temperature of the specific heat, C,, of superheated steam. This
attempt was unsuccessful, because the total heats entered into the
computations in such a way as to cause the errors in them to be
tremendously magnified in the results. The desired information about
C, has since been obtained in other more direct ways, and the throt-
tling experiments have been ignored. It is, however, possible, by
reversing the computation processes of Grindley, Griessmann and
Peake, to proceed from the recently determined values of C, which
were to have been their goal, back to a new determination of the
values of H which were their starting point. The very sensitiveness
of their procedure to errors in H ensures the insensitiveness of the
Wied. Ann., 1889, 37, 494.
Phil. Trans., 1895, 186 A, 261.
In an appendix to Griffiths’ paper, page 322.
Phys. Rev., 1907, 25, 145.
Wied. Ann., 1906, 21, 849.
Phys. Rev., 1908, 26, 407.
Journal, loe. cit.
10 Phil. Trans., 1900, 194 A, 1.
11 Zeit. Ver. d. Ing., 1903, 47, 1852, and 1880; also Forschungsarb., 1904,
aly, ie
12 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1905, 76 A, 185.
oan nan ee ὦ
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 269
present procedure to errorsin C,. The result of such a reversal of their
reasoning is the formula which was suggested two years ago, namely,
H = Hy + 0.3745 (ἐ — 100) — 0.000990 (t — 100).
This formula belongs only to the range between 100° and 190° Ὁ.
Within this range its accuracy is believed to be of the order of one
tenth of one per cent.
When the new formula was announced, there were no direct experi-
mental determinations of H or ZL above 100° by which it could be
checked except Regnault’s, but more recently Henning 1% has published
a continuation of his admirable research to 180°. The extent of the
agreement of this with the formula will be discussed later.
As has been indicated, the computations leading to the new formula
involve two different sorts of experimental data. The first of these,
namely, the throttling experiments of Grindley, Griessmann and Peake,
have been sufficiently discussed in a previous paper. The second,
the direct determinations of C, mentioned above, will be discussed in -
the next section.
2. On THE C, VALUES AVAILABLE FOR THE PRESENT PuRPOSE.
There are three direct calorimetric determinations of the variation of
Οὐ, with pressure and temperature, namely, those of Lorenz,15 of Knob-
lauch and Jakob 16 and of Thomas.17_ That of Lorenz was the earliest
of the three and was, as he himself says, a preliminary survey for the
sake of those engineers who could not afford to wait for more accurate
work. It is not ordinarily considered comparable with Knoblauch’s.
Both Knoblauch’s and Thomas’ results were obtained by determin-
ing the electrical energy necessary to increase by a known amount the
temperature of previously superheated steam. In Knoblauch’s appa-
ratus the original superheating took place in an electrical preheater.
The steam was then still further heated in a separate calorimeter, the
energy added being the object of a direct measurement. In Thomas’
case the separate preheating and calorimetric coils of Knoblauch’s
apparatus were replaced by a single coil, by means of which initially
wet steam was brought, first just to dryness, and in a later experiment
13 Wied. Ann., 1909, 29, 441.
14 These Proceedings, page 241.
15 Zeitsch. Ver. d. Ing., 1904, 48, 698; Phys. Zeitsch., 1904, 5, 383; and
Forschungsarb., 1905, 21, 93.
16 Zeitsch. Ver. d. Ing., 1907, 51, 81 and 124; Forschungsarb., 1906, 35, 109.
17 Proc. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 1907, 29, 633.
270 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
to a high superheat. The amount of energy necessary for the super-
heating was then found by a subtraction. It is, therefore, liable to a
percentage error much greater than that in either of the observed
components. Knoblauch’s method is obviously preferable to Thomas’
in this respect.
His experimental arrangements also seem superior to Thomas’. In
his separate calorimeter there were only small temperature differences
between the inlet and outlet pipes ; in Thomas’ combination calori-
meter there were very large differences. In Knoblauch’s case the heat
losses through these pipes were determined ; in Thomas’ case they
Figure 1. Knoblauch’s Cp. diagram.
were ignored. Furthermore, although both calorimeters were very
carefully lagged, Knoblauch determined his radiation losses in each
experiment, while Thomas, in the final form of his apparatus, relied on
eliminating them, a difficult thing to be sure of. Finally, Knoblauch’s
thermometry is apparently more refined than Thomas’. It is there-
fore probable that wherever the two sets of results disagree, Knob-
lauch’s are to be preferred.
As a matter of fact, the two sets of results agree fairly well in the
region of moderate superheats, as will be seen in Figures 1 and 2, but
disagree fundamentally in exactly that part of the diagram which will
be most used in what follows, namely, the region of moderate pressures
and very low superheats (the lower left-hand corner of Figure 1). The
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 271
sudden rise in Thomas’ curves near saturation indicates, according to
his interpretation, that a comparatively large amount of heat is re-
quired to change dry steam into slightly superheated steam. But it
may also indicate that what he believed to be dry steam really carried
a small amount of water floating as a mist. This would have to be
evaporated at the expense of some extra heat in addition to that re-
quired for the actual superheating, and C, would come out too large.
Ficure 2.
That this explanation is a reasonable one is shown by a comparison of
his apparatus with Knoblauch’s. The latter’s preheater, mentioned
above, was a pipe made up of 15 sections each 20 cms. in diameter and
20 ems. long, each filled with a dense grid of constantan ribbons which
ensured thorough mixing of the passing steam. All of the heat neces-
sary for the desired superheating was ordinarily put in in the first one or
two sections, and the sole purpose of the rest of the preheater was to
bring the resulting mixture of highly superheated steam and floating
272 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
mist into a homogeneous state. Knoblauch and Jakob say that traces
of moisture were observable through several of the mixing sections,
and it is easy to show that even if ‘‘ several’ means as few as two, and
even if the steam in these sections had always had the greatest specific
volume which it ever had, the floating mist must have persisted for a
time which was never less than a second and averaged more than two
seconds, and this after all of the heat necessary for the high superheat
had been put in. In Thomas’ apparatus, on the other hand, the evapora-
tion and superheating had to take place in 24 quarter-inch holes in a
soapstone block something like 5 inches long, and in a small chamber
just above it, and a similar computation shows that even if the specific
volume of the steam had never been greater than that of the original
saturated steam, it must have passed the thermocouple, always within
nine tenths of a second, sometimes within a thirtieth of a second, and
on the average within less than half a second of the time when the
jirst of the superheating heat was put in. [Ὁ 1s, therefore, very proba-
ble that Thomas’ ‘“‘saturated steam” was slightly wet, and that the
percentage of moisture passing the thermocouple decreased from ex-
periment to experiment as the final superheat was increased, giving
too high values of C,, near saturation. Knoblauch’s values have there-
fore been used in preference to ‘Thomas’ in this work. Confirmations
of this decision will be found on pages 287, 298 and 302.
3. Tue Tota Heat or Saturatep STEAM.
A. The determination of
leh = JER RM —A part of the fol-
lowing account of the method
by which the total heat of satu-
rated steam has been computed
is reprinted with minor changes
from the Proceedings of the
American Society of Mechan-
ical Engineers.
Let Figure 3 represent a
he 3: Riven ἯΙ: throttling curve of the sort
Showing how the Total Heat Curve DUD ene analey Gros
abcd’ is obtained from a Throttling M40 OF Peake. Supposedly
Curve ABCD. dry and saturated steam at
the pressure and temperature
corresponding to the point A is first throttled to lower pressure and
temperature corresponding to the point B; then in a later experiment
DAVIS. —- CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. Ze
in the same run, it is throttled from exactly the same initial condition
A to the condition C; then to D and so on. ‘The well-known law of
throttling is that the total heat in the condition B, or C, or D, is equal
to that in the initial condition A.
The point B represents superheated steam at the pressure pg; the
point Β΄ represents saturated steam at the same pressure; and the
amount of superheat at B is the measured temperature there minus
the temperature at Β΄, which can be taken from a steam table. Also,
by definition, the total heat at B equals that of saturated steam at the
same pressure (point Β΄) plus the amount of heat required to superheat
it at constant pressure from Β' to B. This is the integral of C, from
B‘ to B, or simply the mean C, from saturation multiplied by the
known superheat. If (, is known, this integral, or increment in the
total heat between B‘ and B, 1s easily evaluated.
This integral is not only the difference between the total heat of
saturated steam at B‘ and that of superheated steam at B; it is also
the difference between the total heat of saturated steam at Β' and that
of saturated steam at A; that is, between the two corresponding ordi-
nates of the curve that gives the total heat of saturated steam as a func-
tion of the temperature, the curve sought in this paper. ΤῸ draw a
piece of this curve, one chooses arbitrarily some horizontal line such as
ay in Figure 4, and lays off below it, at the proper temperatures, the
distances bb‘, cc', dd', etc., which represent on the desired H-scale the
integrals or total heat differences between Β' and B, C/ and ©, θ΄ and
D, ete. The curve ab‘c'd' is an isolated piece of the true curve of total
heat against temperature. The relative height of its points, that is, its
shape, is accurately determined ; the absolute height above the usual
zero of total heats, namely, that of water at 0°C., is as yet wholly un-
known. The experiments of Grindley gave seven independent sample
pieces of this sort, one for each throttling curve, their temperature
ranges being known and greatly overlapping ; similarly Griessmann’s
data gave eleven such sample pieces, and Peake’s six.
As was explained in the preceding paper on the Joule-Thomson
effect, Grindley’s incoming steam (point A), and occasionally Peake’s,
was not quite dry, so that its total heat was not determined by its
pressure and temperature. Whenever this seemed to be the case, the
points A and a of Figures 3 and 4 were left out of consideration alto-
gether. BCD would still be a curve of constant total heat, provided
only that the quality of the incoming steam at A remained constant
during a run, and b‘c'd' would still be a useful piece of the desired
total heat curve. |
All sample pieces of any one observer were then plotted carefully on
VOL. XLV. — 18
274. PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
very thin transparent rice paper, with vertical guide-lines at certain
standard temperatures, which enabled these plots to be accurately ori-
ented as far as rotation and horizontal displacement were concerned,
but left them free to slide up and down over each other. The sheets
were then piled on top of one another on a transparent table lighted
from below, each one placed so as to make its piece of curve coincide
most satisfactorily with the overlapping pieces already laid down. The
exact relative displacements of the sheets were then carefully measured.
This process was repeated for each of the three observers’ sets of sheets
independently, four different times for each set, in two very different
orders and in those orders reversed, on different days, all with the ob-
ject of avoiding as far as possible any routinizing effects of memory or
habit which might disturb the real independence of the four determina-
tions. ‘The means of the measured displacements were then used to
reduce each of the pieces of curve in any one of the sets to a zero com-
mon to all the curves of that set. The results are marked Gy, G's, and
P in Figure 5. They are plotted separately for clearness, but they
are simply different experimental determinations of exactly the same
real curve. ‘I'he vertical scale of each is that indicated at the side of
the diagram, but the height of each above its true zero is still unknown.
Each of the circles represents at least one independent throttling ob-
servation, and some of them two or three independent observations
that happened to coincide. It will be noticed that no one of the curves
is more than a fifth of a scale division, or four tenths of a calorie, wide
between centers. Lach is, therefore, a self-consistent determination of
the true curve within two tenths of a calorie, or about three hundredths
of one per cent.
The next step was to establish a comparison between the three
curves. The points of each were first divided into groups, each includ-
ing some 20° of temperature range, and the mean point of each group
was used to represent the group. ‘This procedure is justified by the
fact that so short a section of the total heat curve can be considered
straight without serious error. There were eighteen such means, seven
representing Grindley’s points, five Griessmann’s and six Peake’s,
These means were then plotted on three more sheets of rice paper, the
resulting curves were superposed in the way already described, and a
determination was made of the corrections necessary to reduce all three
sets of means to a common but still arbitrary zero.
In the meantime successive means from each of the three curves
taken separately were used to compute the values of the derivative
dH/dt which are plotted with large circles in Figure 6. It is evident
that the results from the three sources agree with each other in deter-
o
670)
650
640
630
62
i=]
50°
Ficurt 5.
Curves Gy, Gs, and P were obtained from the throttling data of
Grindley, Griessmaon, and Peake by the method proposed in this
paper. The scale of each curve is that indicated along both mar-
gins of the figure; the actual numerical values along each curve are
not given. At tho bottom of the figure Regnault’s observations are
plotted on the same scale (curve R) for comparison. His numerical
values are indicated at the right.
In the upper part of the figure the more reliable determinationg
of H have been plotted together on the same scale, their numerical
values being indicated in the left-hand margin. The four curves below
aro represented in this main curve only by the means of the groups
into which their points have been divided.
The meaning of the symbols in the figure is as follows:
1 Regnault, @ Dieterici, The small
O Grindley, 6 Smith, circle at 100°
© Griessmann, 90 Griffiths* is the observa-
® Peake, "ὁ Henning* tion of Joly.
* The smaller symbol is used for such observations as seemed
doubtful to the observer himself.
50°
200°
670
630
vr
ΜῈ
ΤΡ
“ue
2)
|
“.
2) Ae Ole
ΓΝ
ee
5
me? ee
>
ΝΝ a ee
2
ae’
+
=
Our
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. PAT
mining a straight line as the graph of dH/dt against t. The total heat
curve itself can therefore be represented in the range between 100° and
190° by an equation of the second degree in ¢, within the limit of error
of the available data. The form selected is
H=Morta (¢ — 100) --- ὁ (ἐ - 100).
The eighteen means, reduced to a common but still arbitrary zero, were
0 90 100 150 4 200
Ficure 6. dH/dt plotted against ¢. The symbols refer to the same
authorities as in Figure 5.
used to give a least squares determination of the constants Mio, ὦ and
b and of their probable errors, with the following results ;
yoo = arbitrary + 0.03,
a@ =0.8745 + 0.0014,
56 +=0.000990 + 0.000020.
The agreement of the eighteen individual means with this formula is
shown in the upper part of Figure 5, the curve being drawn to represent
the formula as accurately as possible. It is also shown by the smallness
of the three probable errors. Even if these errors are combined in the
most unfavorable way, the change in the computed value of H at 200°C.
is only 0.37 calories, or about one eighteenth of one per cent of / itself ;
at lower temperatures the change would be still less.
276 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
The value of Ho. which was obtained from the least squares process
is entered in the above table as ‘“‘arbitrary” because it is measured
from an arbitrary zero. This value of Ho) was next subtracted from
each of the eighteen means, giving new values for these means on a new
scale whose zero 1s Ho. In other words, these means now represent
the true values of H — Hioo. The resulting values are given in Table
I, and are represented within their limit of error by the formula
H — Hy = 0.3745 (¢ — 100) — 0.000990 (¢ — 100).
TABLE I.
Vatures or H; — H,, AND or H;.
H,*
Gundley 5. 67.56
82.70
101.80
109.27
123.82
139.92
161.55
|
μ-
NINDS CWHWODW
NOONMOS
625.88
652.31
659.82
642.42
647.47
652.57
658.37
Doe Ww to NID τὸ
— Re
639.14
646.00
652.05
657.09
661.59
Griessmann ... 99.61
119.80
139.18
156.01
172.60
DH ke ὦ CO DOD =O WwW
Nee
102.88 ele 640.26
120.22 - 646.27
138.41 2.8 651.98
157.56 “ 657.47
173.60 22.2: 661.53
186.33 24. 663.88
* These values of H; are computed from H; — H,,, on the assump-
tion that H,,, = 639.11 mean calories (see page 281). They are inserted
here for the convenience of the reader, but the values of ἢ, — Hy. are
the significant part of this table and indeed of the whole paper.
This formula gives, in mean calories, the total heat of saturated steam
at any temperature between 100° and 190° (Ὁ. in terms of that at
100° C. A value for the fundamental constant Hic) will presently be
chosen from those available in the literature of the subject, but it should
be remembered that even if this choice is wrong, or if new and different
data near 100° are hereafter published, whatever merit the above equa-
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. Paes
tion may have will be wholly unaffected by the necessary change in
Ho.
It is interesting to compare the self-consistency of this work, as
represented by the narrowness of the bands of plotted points, with
that of Regnault’s observations, which are plotted at the bottom of
Figure 5.48 His band is at least eight or ten times as wide as any of
TABLE II.
HENNING’S MEASUREMENTS oF ἢ.
Value of L. Variation from
Temp.
First Second }
As
Reduced. mean. mean.
reported.
(579.0) |(579.5) | 30.1 |(609.6)
πο ἢ τη 4909) GlOuG | Wek fees aie
559.47 | 559.98 | 64.77 | 624.75 39 | 639.14 | —0.19 | —0.12
552.47 | 552.97] 77.27 | 630.24 .99| 639.23 | —0.10 | —0.03
545.76 | 546.26 | 89.24 | 635.50 .13| 639.63 | +0.30 | +0.37
538.25 | 538.74 | 100.59 | 639.33 221 639.11 |!—0.22 | —0.15
536.93 | 537.42 | 102.35 | 639.77 5 638.90 | —0.43 | —0.36
025.32 | 525.90 | 121.02 | 646.92 .7.36 | 639.56 | +0.23 | +0.30
509.60 | 510.06 | 141.62 | 651.68 3. 9 8 0} SAME |) oe oe
495.95 | 496.40 | 161.80 | 658.20 : 6359.14 | —0.19
481.99 | 482.43 | 182.78 | 665.21 : 641.42 | +2.09
Meant ὉΠ ΠΝ τὺ ee ae nes 99:35. 0:49
Meaniotshtst sian aes) tae vel ens G3926
The values of Z in the second column are in terms of Henning’s
“15° Calorie ”’ of 4.188 international Joules; those in the third column
are reduced to mean calories of 4.1842 Joules. The heat of the liquid
in the fourth column is from the steam tables of Marks and Davis. The
probable error of each mean is 0.845 times the corresponding average
error.
those above it. It should also be noticed that something evidently
happened to his apparatus at 178° C., and that allowing for this, his
band shows unmistakably the same curvature as those above it. The
observations above 178° Οὐ. were, as a matter of fact, the last he made,
and he speaks definitely of serious trouble with his apparatus at the
18 The large circle at the boiling point, 100° C., represents the mean of 38
points, of which only the highest and lowest are plotted.
278 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
very point at which the jump occurs; in fact, he had to renew many of
its parts, and to watch it continually thereafter, so that his conditions
may well have been somewhat changed. This discontinuity in his
curve has been noticed by many writers, one of whom attributes it to
a leak in his distributing valve, remedied at this point ; but this is not
definitely mentioned in the memoir.
The recent publication by Henning of his measurements of between
100° and 180° gives a valuable test of the new formula. All his
values in both papers are collected in the second column of able II.
They are expressed in terms of a calorie of 4.188 19 international
Wattseconds. It is probable that the mean calorie (0° to 100°) is
about 4.184(2) international Wattseconds, for the fine work of Rey-
nolds and Moorby 2° by a mechanical method, leads, according to
Smith,2! to the value 4.1836, while the equally good work of Barnes 22
by an electrical method must now 2? be regarded as leading to the
value 4.1849. Each of Henning’s numbers should therefore be multi-
plied by 4.188 / 4.1842 = 1:00091. ‘The results are given in the third
column of Table II. ‘They lead to the values of H in the fifth column.
In the sixth and seventh columns are given the values at the cor-
responding temperatures of
HI — Hy = 0.3745 (¢ — 100) — 0.000990 (¢ — 100)”.
and of Ajo itself. The latter is practically constant as it should be if
the new formula is true. It will be noticed that the probable error of
the mean value of H is only one thirteenth of one per cent of that
mean, and that this agreement is within the one tenth of one per cent
which Henning claims for his observations. It will further be noticed
that practically all of the discrepancy is in two of the last three values.
If all three of these values are omitted, so that the range of the test is
cut down to that between 65° and 121°, the probable error of the new
mean is only + 0.19 calories, or one thirty-fourth of one per cent.
In estimating the significance of the comparatively great disagree-
ment between Henning’s value at 180° and the new formula it should
be remembered that Henning himself says, “Bei der héchsten 'lem-
peratur von 180° konnten nur an zwei tagen Versuchen angestellt
werden ” (instead of on four days as at most of the other temperatures).
19 This is Jager and von Steinwehr’s value for the 15° calorie. The justi-
fication for it has not yet been published.
20 Phil. Trans., 1897, 190 A, 301.
21 Monthly Weather Review, 1907, 35, 458.
22 Phil. Trans., 1902, 199 A, 149.
23 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1909, 82 A, 390.
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 279
“Zu Beginn des dritten Tages versagte der Apparat seinen Dienst und
es war infolge der durch die starke Hitze eintretenden allmihlichen
Verinderungen des Materials und inbesondere infolge der Abnutzung
des Hahnes H nicht wieder der erforderliche Grad der Dichtheit zu
erreichen.” Ifa small leak of the same sort had been present without
being noticed on the two days on which observations were made, its
effect would have been to make the observed J too large, just as it
seems to be. At any rate, the point at 180° is not entitled to nearly
as much weight as the others. The point at 140° was, however, as far
as Henning could judge, as good as any of the rest.
One other aspect of Henning’s paper tends to minimize the signifi-
cance of the disagreement at the two high temperatures. He is led by
his points at 140° and 180° to the conclusion that the curve ἢ, = /(t)
is a straight line between 120° and 180°. Now, of course, it is pos-
sible that he and Regnault are both right in finding unexpectedly
high values near 180°, and that, because of changing polymerization
or some other disturbing condition, the character of the curve L = 71)
between 120° and 180° is very different from that which it is known
to have below 120° and from that which it must begin again to have
somewhere above 180°, if it is to come vertically to zero at the critical
temperature as is commonly supposed. ‘This is, however, not probable,
and until Henning’s 180° point is definitely verified by observations
with unquestionable apparatus, the writer will still believe that the
formula proposed in this paper is nearer the truth than is Henning’s
straight line. The excellence of the confirmation between 65° and
121° and also at 160° seems more significant than the disagreements
at 140° and 180°.
Another check of the new H formula can be obtained by computing
from it the specific volume of saturated steam by means of Clapyron’s
equation
L 1
o=v4+JI5,———.
T (ἀρ ἀν) gat.
This check has been carried through independently by Peabody 2* and
by the writer.25 In both cases the necessary values of dp/dt were taken
from the recent paper of Holborn and Henning on the saturation pres-
sures of steam,?6 and the values of Z were based on the formula pro-
posed in this paper. The choice of a suitable value for Hioo and of
suitable values for the heat of the liquid which has to be subtracted
24 Proc. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 1909, 31, 595.
25 Marks and Davis, Steam Tables.
26 Wied. Ann., 1908, 26, 833.
280 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
from H to give 7, was in each case accomplished independently of, and
to a minor extent in disagreement with, the judgment of the other,
but in each case the greatest difference between the computed values
and those actually observed by Knoblauch, Linde, and Klebe 27 was
under two tenths of one per cent, and in each case the average of the
deviations was about one tenth of one per cent and they were nearly
equally divided between plus and minus. It is probable that some of
these deviations may properly be attributed to errors in the observed
values.
The accuracy of the new H formula can now be estimated. It has
been pointed out that the self-consistency of the computed points indi-
cates a precision of the order of a twentieth of one per cent. ‘The
actual error is probably larger than this because of systematic errors
in Knoblauch’s specific heats. It is possible that these will ultimately
be raised enough to make Hy) a tenth or even a sixth of one per cent
larger. Inasmuch, however, as the other two tests which have been
applied, based on Henning’s direct measurements of /7 and on Knob-
lauch, Linde, and Klebe’s volume measurements, have both led to an
estimated accuracy of a tenth of one per cent or better, a part of the
outstanding disagreement in each case being furthermore reasonably
attributable to possible errors on the observed as well as on the com-
puted side of the comparison, it would seem that a claim of a tenth of
one per cent for the accuracy of the new H formula between 100° and
190° is justified.
B. The value of Hoo. — In what is to follow a suitable value for H1oo
will be necessary. Henning’s work has already been shown to lead to
the value
Hoo = 639.26 mean calories (Henning).
Another available value is that of Joly 28 who compared the latent
heat of steam at 99.96° with the mean specific heat of water between
11.89° and 99.96°. The latter number is 0.99949 according to the
curve used in the steam tables already mentioned. ‘The resulting value
of Ἢ 100 is
Hy = 638.82 mean calories (Joly).
In this determination of Hio0 Regnault’s measurements will not be
considered at all. They show unmistakable evidence of running
lower than they should, probably for the same reason that makes
27 Forschungsarb., 1905, 21, 33.
28 Loc. cit., on page 268.
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 281
Thomas’ values of C, at saturation correspondingly too high. Only
recently has it become evident how difficult it is to remove the last
traces of moisture from apparently dry steam, and if any remained in
Regnault’s steam, it would have made his results too low, just as they
seem to be.
The mean of Henning’s and J oly’ s values of Hi) is 639.04 if both
are weighted alike, or 639.11 if Henning’s has (as it seems to deserve)
twice the weight of Joly’s. The final formula for / is, therefore,
H = 639.11 + 0.38745 (¢ — 100) — 0.000990 (¢ — 100)? mean calories.
The steam table of Marks and Davis, which was computed before
the appearance either of Henning’s second paper or of Barnes’ revision
of his value of J, was based on HZ 1.) = 639.08, which, as it happens, is
between the two means just found, and nearer to either of them than
the limit of error of the work demands. The values of H, Z and L/T
in that table will be used in the rest of this paper as representing the
best available data.
C. Hxtrapolation formule for H and L.—The range within which
the new # formula holds has been set as from 100° to 1905. Above
the latter temperature no observations are available. It is often
important, however, both in scientific and in technical work, to have at
least reasonably accurate steam tables at considerably higher tempera-
tures. It is, therefore, desirable to develop as safe an extrapolation
formula as possible for either H or L.
For this purpose the second degree H formula proposed above is
wholly unsuited. Within the range for which it is proposed, it happens
to be an unusually good three term Taylor’s series development of the
true function but it cannot be extrapolated safely either up or down.
That it cannot be used near 0°, is seen from Figure 6, where the
small circles, not previously mentioned, represent values of the deriva-
tive of H with respect to ¢, obtained from the five sets of experimental
values mentioned on page 268. It is evident that the graph of dH/dt
against ¢ is not a straight line over the whole range from 0° to 200°.
No second degree formula that fitted the observations above 100°
could be expected to reproduce those near 0° also.
That a second degree formula is no less unsatisfactory for a extrapo-
lation to high temperatures can be shown as follows. Let it be as-
sumed that the top of the steam dome on either the p v or the T N
(temperature-entropy) plane is round like Figure 7a and not pointed
like Figure 76.29 This is the usual assumption, and it is corroborated
29 It follows from the Clapyron equation that if the dome is round on
either plane, it will be on both.
282 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
by the work of a number of observers.2° Now according to a familiar
equation of thermodynamics
dH = TdN + vdp
for any transformation, and in particular for one along the saturation
line. Dividing by αὐ and passing along that line to the critical temper-
ature as a limit, gives
; d dN dp
Slim ree — lim a ) ---
7 -Ξ- Τε ( 7) L’. lias ( dt ; ἐν τ (Ζ Ἢ crit.
=— οὐ + constant.
Ο Τ 2 N 0 Τ 2 Ν
FIGURE 7a. Figure 70.
The steam dome on the temperature-entropy plane. The full lines are
drawn to scale; the dotted lines show two possible shapes near the critical
point, of which the first is almost certainly right.
That is, 7 must not only pass a maximum below the critical tempera-
ture, but must approach that temperature with so sharp a turn down-
ward as‘to reach it with a vertical tangent. The H curve is throughout
a curve not only of constantly changing slope but also of constantly
increasing curvature as is shown in the upper part of Figure 8, and it is
only in very limited regions that the first three terms of a ‘Taylor’s
development can be expected to represent it with sufficient exactness.
It might be possible to invent a function having the general properties
indicated by Figure 8, if one knew the value of H at the critical
30 See for example papers by Cailletet and Mathias, C. R., 1886, 102, 1202,
and 1887, 104, 1563; by Amagat, C. R., 1892, 114, 1093; and by Young,
Phil. Mag., 1900, 50, 291. See also the diagrams for normal pentane on pages
166 and 167 of Young’s book on Stoichiometry, Longman’s (1908).
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 283
temperature. Inasmuch as nothing is known about that final value
of A... such an empirical treatment gives no promise of significance.
In the case of Z, on the other hand, one learns from an inspection of
figure 8, not only that dL/dt = — at the critical point, but also that
L=0Othere. This led Thiesen in 1897, to the fortunate suggestion
800
H
600
200
10 300 t 400
Fiaure 8. The steam dome on the Ht plane, showing the relationship
between the graphs representing the “total heat of saturated steam” and
the ‘heat of the liquid.”” The former (the upper boundary of the steam
dome) is the curve that Regnault believed to bea straight line. It obviously
passes a maximum and reaches the critical point with a negatively infinite
derivative.
that if the known values of Z at ordinary temperatures can be repre-
sented by a formula of the form
L=AC颗t% n<1,
one could also be sure that it gave correct values both for Z and for
dL/dt at the critical point, so that the use of the formula for other high
temperatures would be, in a sense, an interpolation rather than an
extrapolation. The constants can be determined and the formula
tested in the range of the known L’s by writting it in the logarithmic
form
31 Verh. Phys. Gesch., Berlin, 1897, 16, 80.
284 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN’ ACADEMY.
log L = n log (¢. — t) + log A.
That is, if log Z is plotted against log (ἐς — ¢) one should get a straight
line. This turns out to be remarkably near the truth. Thiesen origi-
nally suggested ἢ = 1/3; Henning 3? showed that his observations
below 100° could be represented by putting ἢ = 0.31249 and A =
94.21; a careful plot, a year ago, of the values available before the
appearance of Henning’s work above 100°, but including the values in
Table I. in this paper, led to m = 0.3150 and A = 92.93. The work
has been carefully repeated this fall. Including Henning’s new work
and the values in this paper, 37 values of Z are available. They were
TABLE III.
No. of deviations. A
Algebraic average of
deviations in fractions
of one per cent.
0°— 70°
70°—130°
130°—190°
* This includes Henning’s point at 181° with a deviation
of +0.167% (see page 278); if this one point is omitted, the
last value in the above table would be —0.018%.
plotted logarithmically on a large scale, and the slope of the line that
best represented them was determined graphically by stretching a thread
among the points. This was done several times by each of two
different people, their results being closely accordant. The average
of their values of m was then used to compute A arithmetically. The
result is exactly the same as that of a year ago, namely,
L = 92.93 (365 — ὃ..5150
The average of the numerical values of the differences between the 37
observed values of Z and the numbers computed by means of the
above formula is one fourteenth of one per cent, which is less than the
probable accuracy of the measurements. It is true that there is some
evidence of regularity among the deviations as the above table shows.
32 Wied. Ann., 1906, 21, $70.
DAVIS. —- CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 285
These average deviations are, of course, very small, but the larger
deviations in each group tend to cluster and to approach the limit
of accuracy of the measurements, so that the systematic variation may
be real. In any case, its amplitude is so small that it deserves but
little consideration at this time.
4. Discussion oF THE SpecrFric Heat or SUPERHEATED STEAM.
It is the purpose of the rest of this paper to collect and revise such
useful computations of other thermal properties of steam as are
affected by a change in the accepted values of the total heat of
saturated steam, together with such other results as are valuable for
comparison with them. Section 4 will be concerned with the specific
heat of superheated steam. Many papers on this subject have been
published during the last ten years, especially in the technical press.
They can be roughly classified under the following heads.
A. Direct experimental determinations.
B. Indirect experimental determinations and computations from
other data.
a. Throttling experiments. Ϊ
Ὁ. Computations based on characteristic equations or on volume
measurements. ὃ
6. Computations based on the Joule-Thomson effect.
d. Computations along the saturation line based on Planck’s
equation.
e. Other computations.
C. Resumes and discussions.
Each of these possible sources of information will be discussed in turn,
with the object, not so much of reviewing previous papers, as of getting
by each method the best information that the new material in this and
in the preceding paper makes possible.
A. Direct experimental determinations. —Three of the papers that
belong in this subsection have already been discussed in Section 2.
The conclusion there reached was that of the three, that of Knoblauch,
Linde and Klebe was the most reliable. Their results will therefore
be used as the point of departure of this section, it being the object
of each subsection, either to test the justice of the decision that their
work is preferable to Thomas’, or to determine what changes should
be made in their curves to bring them nearer to the truth.
The most famous of all contributions to this subject is Regnault’s
direct experimental determination of C, in 1862.33 Τὸ seems not to be
33 Mem. Inst. de France, 1862, 26, 167.
286 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
generally known that his computations involve one step which modern
work has shown to be erroneous. He made four sets of experiments,
all at atmospheric pressure, and all covering about the same range of
superheat. In each experiment, first slightly superheated steam, and
later highly superheated steam at the same pressure, was condensed in
a water calorimeter. he heat released per gram of stéam in the first
process was then subtracted from that released per gram of steam in
the second process and the difference divided by the difference in
superheat to give C,. ‘The results which he deduced from his experi-
ments will be found in the third column of T'able IV. below.
The error which he made was in the determination of the quantity
TABLE IV.
A RECOMPUTATION OF REGNAULT’S VALUES OF Cp.
Temp. range R’s value New value Kn’s value
(Coy of Cp. of C;
Series 1 7-231. (0.46881) *
Series 2 37.7—225. 0.48111
Series 3 24.3-210. 0.48080
Series 4 22.8-216. 0.47963
Mean of last three ... 0.48051 0.4762
* “" νος les résultats de la premiére série, qui m’inspirent moins de
2)
confiance que les autres. .. .”’ Regnault, p. 178.
of water in his calorimeter. This he accomplished, not by weighing,
but by a volumetric measurement in a sheet iron tank filled each time
to a scratch on the glass tube that formed its neck. Regnault knew
that the coefficients of expansion of the water and of the tank were
such that the tank would hold fewer grams of water at the room
temperatures at which he worked than at 0°, the temperature at
which he had calibrated the tank. But he supposed that he also knew
the specific heat of water to be an increasing function of the tempera-
ture at room temperatures as well as above 100° where he had care-
fully studied it. He therefore neglected both temperature changes,
thinking that. they neutralized each other, and used at all room
temperatures the weight that would have filled the tank at 0°, and
the specific heat 1.
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 287
We now know that the specific heat of water decreases with in-
creasing temperature from 0° to above 25°. ‘There is some difference
of opinion between Barnes and Dieterici, the two leading investigators
of the subject, as to the exact shape of the curve of variation, but it
is near enough to the truth to take, as in the steam tables already
mentioned, a mean curve between that of Barnes and that of Dieterici,
giving the former twice the weight of the latter.
Regnault’s values of C, have been recomputed from the data in his
memoir, using his own value for the coefficient of expansion of sheet
iron, modern data for the density of water, and the mean curve just
mentioned for the specific heat of water. ‘The new results are given in
the fourth column of Table [V. ‘hey are somewhat lower than his
original values and are thereby brought nearer to the corresponding
values obtained by Knoblauch and Jakob, which are given in the fifth
column of the table.
In the present unsettled state of our knowledge of C,, Regnault’s
work should have considerable weight.
The only other important direct experimental determination of C, is
that of Holborn and Henning.3* Their work, like Regnault’s, was only
at atmospheric pressure, but, unlike his, it covered a very wide temper-
ature range, reaching 1400° C. It is certainly to be regarded as standard
in the region of high superheats. It shows that in that region C, in-
creases with increasing temperature, but not as rapidly as Knoblauch’s
curves would indicate.
In a “ Memorandum by the Chief Engineer for the year 1906 to the
Executive Committee of the Manchester Steam Users Association,” 35
the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, England, is said to
have found C, = 0.532 at saturation at 4.3 atmospheres (147° C.).
This value lies remarkably close to Knoblauch’s saturation curve.
Ba. Throttling experiments. —'The failure of even the best throt-
tling experiments to give satisfactory values of C, by the ordinary
methods has already been mentioned. A new method elaborated by
Dodge 56 is much more promising, but no thoroughly reliable results
have yet been obtained by it.
Bb. Characteristic equations : — If a sufficiently accurate character-
istic equation, / (p, v, t) =0, were known for superheated steam, much
useful information about C, could be obtained from Clausius’s equation
(5) --- of),
Op 7: Ot? 7Σ
34 Ann., 1907, 23, 809. 35 Manchester, June 4, 1907.
36 Proc. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 1907, 28, 1265 and 1908, 30, 1227.
288 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
At the present time this is not a good way to get information about
Οὐ, for two reasons. In the first place, all of the most reliable set of
volume measurements yet made (Knoblauch, Linde and Klebe) lie
close to the saturation line, not one of them reaching either 50° of
superheat or 190° of temperature. No characteristic equation based
on them can be depended on at points far out in the superheated
region. And in the second place, Clausius’ equation involves a second
derivative of the observed quantity v, and even the first derivative of
an empirically determined function is liable to relative errors much
AS
+44 -
100 200 300 t 400
Figure 9. Knoblauch and Jakob’s measurements of Cp, reduced to a
pressure of 1 kg. per sq. em. by means of Clausius’ equation, using the char-
acteristic equation developed by Linde to represent the volume measurements
of Knoblauch, Linde, and Klebe. The smallest circles correspond to the
highest original pressure (8 kg.), the next smallest to 6 kg., and so on. The
progressive departure from a single curve with increasing pressure is
marked,
larger than any in the observed quantity itself, while a second deriva-
tive is still more uncertain. This is illustrated by the fact that a
characteristic equation of ''umlirz’s form, which was shown by Linde
to represent Knoblauch’s volume measurements within four fifths of
one per cent throughout their range, leads through Clausius’ equation
to the startling result that C, does not vary at all with pressure at
constant temperature, whereas it is known to vary within that same
range by something like 60 per cent of its initial value.
The contention that even the best possible representation of Knob-
lauch’s volume measurements is still too inaccurate to give reliable
values of C,, through Clausius’ equation, can be further substantiated
by an examination of the experimental data already described. Knob-
lauch and Jakob made observations on (ᾧ at four pressures, all greater
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 289
than one atmosphere. If these are all “reduced” to one atmosphere
by means of Clausius’ equation, using Linde’s best characteristic equa-
tion to represent the volume measurements, the results, plotted in
Figure 9, show deviations from a common curve that increase with the
pressure. ‘I'he same is more strikingly true in Thomas’ case. If his
results, so recomputed 97 as to partly eliminate the wet steam error
already mentioned (see page 271), are similarly reduced to one atmos-
phere by means of Clausius’ thermodynamic equation and Linde’s
best characteristic equation, the progressive departure with increasing
pressure from the probable curve for one atmosphere is very marked,
the 500 lb. and 600 Ib. values disappearing beyond the bottom of the
diagram altogether. That is, although Linde’s second best equation
gave no variation of C, with pressure at all, his best one gives alto-
gether too much. The experimental evidence is thus wholly against
the reliability of any C, values obtained by means of Clausius’ equation
from any volume measurements as yet available.
Be. The Joule-Thomson effect. — There are three ways in which
C,, can be connected with the Joule-Thomson coefficient ». The first of
these was suggested almost simultaneously by Linde and by Planck.38
It is thermodynamically rigorous, except for the assumption of the
form of an analytical ea δέρῃ for » as a function of ὁ. The one
they used, namely,
__ Const.
pan
was proposed by Joule and Thomson in their original memoir on air,
and is not at all accurate, especially for steam. If it is replaced by a
more complicated expression, the integration of the partial differential
equation, to which the reasoning of Linde and Planck leads, is
impossible.
A second equation connecting C, with μι is used by Griessmann 39
in the discussion of his throttling experiments. It is not a thermody-
namic equation in the true sense because it does not involve either
of the two laws of thermodynamics; it is merely a manipulative
identity that can be proved by the laws of partial differentiation —
that is a truism. It says that at any point in any thermodynamic
plane
37 Davis Proc. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 1908, 30, 1433.
38 Linde, Sitzungsber, bays. Akad., Math. K1., 1897; Planck, “ Vorlesungen
iiber Thermodynamik,” 1897, 117; Eng. ed., 1903, 124.
39 Forschungsarb., 1904, 13, 7 and 46.
VOL. XLv. — 19
290 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
(ΗΜ δὼ
τ p@p/et)
provided only that both derivatives are taken in the same direction
from the point. Griessmann uses the equation over the whole plane,
but makes certain experimentally deduced assumptions which do not
now seem to be justified.
The equation is likely to be most useful along the saturation line
where dH/dt and ἀρ ἀξ are both well known. Unfortunately μ is not
as yet well known at such low temperatures, and it will be interesting
to see whether, in the development of the subject, Griessmann’s truism
turns out to be more useful for the computation of C, at saturation
from p or of » from (.
The only use that will be made of the equation in this paper is to
deduce from it the well-known theorem, usually attributed to Rankine,
that at ordinary temperatures C, at saturation must be numerically
greater than dH.,/dt.4° At most temperatures this condition is so
overwhelmingly fulfilled as to be of no value. At 0°C. it requires
that C, at saturation be as great as 0.44. Now if Knoblauch’s satura-
tion curve is continued to temperatures below 100° C., this condition
will be found to require, either that the curve passes a minimum
between 100° and 0°, or that it must lie somewhat higher between
100° and 150° so as to approach smoothly the right value at 0°. The
existence of such a minimum has several times been suspected as a
result of other indirect computations, and its experimental verification
would be a matter of some interest ; in the mean time the other alter-
native seems more probable, especially as
it brings Knoblauch’s values of C, at
d atmospheric pressure into better, agree-
ment with Regnault’s. Additional con-
ς firmation of this decision will be found on
pages 293 and 300.
The third of the methods referred to
4 above for connecting C, with μ is appar-
ently new. It involves an equation which,
Ῥ pap like Griessmann’s, is merely a manipula-
tive identity or truism. It can be devel-
oped as follows. In Figure 10, let ab and
cd be parts of two throttling curves on the usual ¢p diagram, the corre-
sponding values of the total heat being H and H+ AH. Then at
the pressures p and p + Ap we have
FiGurReE 10.
ESO Na EE oa So . ἔθεσι ο΄ -----
40 This follows at once from the fact that both μ and C, are known to be
positive.
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 291
: AH :
1
C= AH=0 Fay and σ ἜΑΡ — ΔΗ͂Σ
from which
Cp+ap as ΞΞ wii Ld Ae |
C, AH = Ὁ tg tart ἔν :
Now, except for terms of higher order than AH and Ap,
t=, + pap,
ta =t. + E Ξε ey Ce t. | Ap,
(ὦ -- ἐ) Ξε (ὦ, -- ἐὼ) [1 + ea) ay |.
Substituting this above gives
Op
— {| — A
Cp+ap ἘΠ Cp ia ae. (. i: ᾿
Cp 1+ i) Ap
»
and the limit sign is no longer necessary. Dropping it, dividing by
Ap, and then letting Ap ek zero, gives
ac, ey
= Op Ci)
Integrating this at constant Μ΄ πὶ as the final equation #1
Si), te
Cp =Cp,€ Ὁ
41 The differential form of this equation can also be proved analytically as
follows: For any three related quantities p, t, and H, one has the identity
(2 i gE Ee
at) x \oH), yi
But
and therefore
1 ΔΗ
Cs Ξ- -- -- :(Ξ in (1)
But for any function such as Cz ‘Aine can be expressed in terms of any two
of the variables p, ἐ, and H, one has a second identity
ma (22) (2h) (ee
a) Op t Op) x ot 2 Op) x
292 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
This formula has the disadvantage, as compared with Griessmann’s,
of involving the derivative of the inaccurately known function p.
This prohibits its use at the low temperatures close to saturation where
pis scarcely known at all, but makes much less difference at very high
temperatures where the CO, points of Figure 5 of the preceding paper
help to place the « =/(¢) curve with great definiteness. ‘his method
of computation is therefore at its best where many others fail completely.
The use of the new equation at ordinary temperatures is a matter
requiring patience and much labor. First one computes and plots
against ὁ the derivative of the » = / (¢) curve of the preceding paper.
Next one computes from the curve of p itself the progress of some
curve of constant H across the p ¢ plane ; this is necessary so as to be
able to express @u/é¢ as a function of p in the integral. Then the
integral has to be evaluated, either by replotting @u/éet against p for
the particular H curve in question and using an integraph, or by a
step by step numerical process. ‘The results are the Naperian loga-
rithms of the desired ratios.
This process has been carried through for four curves in the region
of moderate superheats. ‘I'he results, which are presented in the first
part of Table V., are in general in substantial agreement with the corre-
sponding ratios computed from Knoblauch’s curves, which are given in
Or aC. “3) Ἵ -(: 2) Ἐκ “2, (2)
Now from the definition of Cs
ean °
(᾿ : Nopf: \ ot}, odpot’
and from (1)
OC 1 053Π OH\, 1 (=)
LA) 2 CESS —}). 4
Ci ), ere) μὲ λοὶ 72 (4)
Substituting (3) and (4) in (2) and using (1) gives the desired equation.
Neither of the laws of thermodynamies has been used.
The differential form of the equation can also be deduced immediately
from the equation
(52), - -(
2p
which Grindley proves on pages 31 and 32 of his paper in the Philosophical
Transactions. His proof depends twice over on each of the two laws of
thermodynamics, but it need not have, as the above derivations show. The
use which he makes of his form of the equation is quite different from that
here proposed.
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 293
the last of each set of columns. The chief disagreement is along
curve 1 where Knoblauch’s curves are too condensed. ‘This means
either that his curve at atmospheric pressure should be lower, or that
the lower part of his saturation curve, with the constant pressure
curves near it, should be higher. The first of these possibilities would
mean even less agreement between Knoblauch and Regnault than at
present, and may therefore be rejected. ‘The remaining possibility has
already been suggested by the result obtained from Griessmann’s
truism (see page 290). Furthermore, it will be corroborated again in
the next section (see page 300). It may therefore be accepted the
more readily here.
At very high superheats, where the method is most valuable, the
TABLE V.
Cp RATIOS OBTAINED FROM THE JOULE-THOMSON EFFECT.
Curve 1. Curve 2. Curve 3.
Press.
kg./sq.
cm
Temp. | Cp/Cp,.| Kn. | Temp. | Cp/Cp,.| Kn. | Cp/ Cp,
121.3 | 0.946 | 0.97 | 149.0 | 0.960 | 0.98 0.984
123.3 | 0.970 |0.98 | 150.5 | 0.979 | 0.99 0.991
125.8 | 1.000 | 1.00 | 152.3 | 1.000 | 1.00 1.000
128.2 | 1.080 | 1.02 | 154.0 | 1.020 | 1.02 1.009
130.6 | 1.060 | 1.03 | 155.8 | 1.041 | 1.03 1.018
1229 et OOUM ey letodso) 71 02 i aay. 1.026
135.1 | 1.120 | 1.07 | 159.1 | 1.082 | 1.06 1.034
LSE 2m 1:|0 0, OO lie inlet OQ τς 1.043
aoe τος 162.3 | 1.122 | 1.10 1.051
160 5:9.) MSIE) eG 5 1.067
168.5 | 1:200 | 1.17 1.084
ΤΑ | I el ea ΤΌΘ:
174.3 | 1.264 | 1.25 | 2 1.118
710 ESOS) 16 σὸς 1.135
179.7 | 1.344 | 1.34 1.151
ἈΝ ἐδ ape 1.183
1.215
1.246
1.277
1.307
1.337
1.567
1.596
1.424
0.1
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
Lo Oe ed Ow) μα μα
294 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
TABLE V — continued.
(dled pall μα
0.1
1.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
NOnNhwhvy
computation is simpler for two reasons. In the first place, » and
Opn/0t are both so small that the temperature can be assumed constant
along a curve of constant 7. ¢y/éet is then constant in the integra-
tion. And in the second place @u/ét can be computed from Bucking-
ham’s 42 equation for »’ against ¢’, both in reduced units, namely,
7 0.209
This is corrected for the fact that although, in his paper, 100 inches of
mercury is taken as the unit of pressure, his critical pressures are ex-
pressed in atmospheres. It was shown in the preceding paper that
this equation can safely be assumed to hold for steam at very high
superheats, since it is known to hold for the other gases which Buck-
ingham discusses, and they are known to be connected with steam by
a law of corresponding states.
This simpler process has been carried through for the four very high
temperatures mentioned in the last part of Table V, with the results
there presented. These results are the basis of the high superheat
part of the Steam Tables of Marks and Davis.
#2 Bul. Bureau of Standards, 1907, 3, 263.
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 295
Bd. Planck’s equation : — There remains the most interesting of all
the indirect attacks on Οὐ, at ordinary temperatures. In 1897 Planck
published in his thermodynamics the equation
Ὁ ΕΒ ΤΠ)
ie dt fy ζω δὲ P(steam) ot P(water)
This equation holds only along the saturation curve. For its deriva-
tion the reader is referred to the English translation of Planck’s
book4 or to Griessmann’s paper.** The two partial derivatives must
be such as to describe the behavior of superheated steam and of water,
both close to the steam dome, not of steam within the steam dome.
In practise, the second of these derivatives is always negligible in
comparison with the first.
Two sorts of experimental material are necessary for computations
with this equation, a set of total heat values (those proposed in this
paper will be used), and a set of values of (θυ δέ), for superheated
steam close to saturation. The latter can be based on the volume
measurements of Knoblauch, Linde and Klebe,** or on those on Ram-
say and Young,*® or on those of Battelli.47
These three sources will be considered in
turn.
In the experiments of Knoblauch, Linde,
and Klebe, the volume was held constant
while the pressure and temperature were
varied. Their results, when plotted on the
p t plane, gave isochors or lines of constant
volume. These turned out to be straight
lines within the limit of error of the meas-
urements. Their slopes are entered with
other data in the main table of the original
paper. ‘These slopes are values of (ép/ét),
and some manipulation is necessary to get
from them the desired values of (@v/@t),. Figure 11
Let Figure 11 represent a portion of the
p t plane drawn, like an analytical geometry figure, with the same unit
of length along each axis. Then
#3 Treatise on Thermodynamics, 1903, 147.
44 Forschungsarb., 1904, 13, 8.
45 Forschungsarb., 1905, 21, 33. #6 Phil. Trans., 1893, 183 A, 107.
47 Mem. di Torino, 1893, 48, 63; condensed in Ann. Chim. et Phys., 1894,
3, 408.
296 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
op
tan (a + B) = (2)
This derivative is well known from the work of Holborn and Henning.48
Also
sat.
tan 8 = (ὃ δὲ)...
This is the derivative given by Knoblauch, Linde, and Klebe, as just
explained. Along OB, vis constant ; along OD, which is perpendicular
to OB, v increases most rapidly. The following equations can then
be verified, “Grad. v” being the space rate of v’s increase along OD.
Hl V4 aan %
sina O4
Grad. v = —
ev im Ve — V um OC Grad.v- sin B
eee At ae, a Ye Te
The last term of Planck’s equation can then be written in the form
(%) p(t) (2) aan (te), snes Bsn
UW \.Ct ] ες dt } sr, \ Ot } Chie sin a
In this transformation use has been made of the familiar Clapyron
equation and of the definition of tan (2 + 8). ‘The computations are
carried through by determining (a + £) and # from their tangents and
getting a by subtraction. The necessary values of the differential
coefficient (θυ δὲ)... were formed from the values of » in the Steam
Tables of Marks and Davis by the usual finite difference formula
dv = Av—} Awt+....'.
’
The results of the computation are summarized in the first part of
Table VI., and are plotted as black dots in Figure 12.
48 Wied. Ann., 1908, 26, 835.
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 297
The necessary values of (@/#), can also be obtained by differentiat-
ing the complicated characteristic equation which Linde has developed
TABLE VI.
VALUES OF Cp AT SATURATION FROM PLANCK’s EQuaTION, USING:
a. KNOBLAUCH, LINDE, AND KLEBE’s ὃ. Linpn’s CHARACTERISTIC
EXPERIMENTAL Data. EQuatTIoN.
Cp.
Knoblauch.*| Thomas.*
101.4 0.46 140.9 0.54 0.484 0.519
102.4 0.55 143.0 0.65 0.506 0.533
108.1 0.44 143.2 0.52 0.560 0.585
110.7 0.56 144.1 0.52 0.615 0.634
112.4 0.49 149.8 0.58 0.722 0.737
114.8 0.40 150.2 0.54 0.794 0.808
115.3 0.36 153.7 0.56 0.875 0.885
119.1 0.50 154.2 0.60 0.956 0.966
119.3 0.52 157.6 0.56 1.067 1.075
122.1 | 0.49 159.6 0.58 1.179 1.184
122.6 0.53 163.7 0.64 1.293 1.298
126.3 0.49 166.0 0.59
131.5 0.53 170.0 0.58
131.9 0.51 174.6 0.62
133.0 0.47 180.8 0.64
139.1 0.53 183.0 0.66
* The column headed “ Knoblauch ”’ is based on the H formula of
this paper. That headed “Thomas ”’ is based on a modified H formula
derived from his values of Cp. It is inserted only for comparison with
the preceding one (see page 299). In both columns values above 200°
involve a doubtful extrapolation of Linde’s equation beyond its proper
range. All temperatures are on the centigrade scale.
298 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
TABLE VI — continued.
VALUES OF Cp AT SATURATION FROM PLANCK’s EQUATION, USING:
c. RAMSAY AND YOUNG’S
| ARNE RR LE HO d. Batrevul’s “Tasie M.”
to represent the same data. ‘This alternative computation seems
worth while, partly because of the automatic smoothing effect which
the use of an equation based on all the observations necessarily has,
but more because it means a redistribution of the dependence of the
computed values of C,, on the volume measurements on the one hand
and the new #7 formula on the other. The results of eleven computa-
tions of this kind are summarized in the second part of Table VI, and
five of them are plotted as circles in Figure 12.
Two conclusions can be drawn from Figure 12. In the first place,
both sets of points agree in confirming the conclusion reached on
page 272, that Knoblauch’s saturation curve is nearer the truth than
Thomas’. It will probably be argued this confirmation is simply a
circular fallacy, inasmuch as the H formula of this paper was based
on Knoblauch’s values of C, and might therefore be expected to lead
back to them in the end. ‘This is true only in a very small measure.
The dependence of H on C, is such that comparatively large changes
in the Οὐ curves used at the beginning of this paper would have made
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 299
only small changes in the H formula, C, being a factor, not of Hf itself,
but only of AH. And in the second part of the computation, the re-
dependence of C, on # is again insensitive to errors in the assumed
function, which this time is H. All this can be strikingly illustrated
as follows. It is easy to compute approximately by the method of
Section 3 of this paper a value of AH near 140° and one near 180°
using Thomas’ values of C, instead of Knoblauch’s. These, with
«40
100 120 140 160 180 t 200
Figure 12. Values of Cp computed by Planck’s method. The dots are
based on the original volume measurements of Knoblauch, Linde and Klebe;
the circles are based on Linde’s characteristic equation. The lower curve is
Knoblauch’s saturation line; the upper one is Thomas’.
AH = 0 at 100°, give a new second degree equation for H = /(#) based
wholly on Thomas’ values. Finally this new H equation can be used
with Linde’s characteristic equation to compute, by means of Planck’s
equation, a set of values of C, at saturation which are exactly com-
parable with those in the second part of Table VI., except that Knob-
lauch’s C, work is wholly replaced by Thomas’. If there is a circular
fallacy in the confirmation mentioned at the beginning of this para-
graph, the new results ought to confirm Thomas’ C, values at satura-
tion just as definitely as the old ones did Knoblauch’s. As a matter
of fact, this is not at all the case. The new results are compared with
the old in Figure 13, and agree strikingly in confirming Knoblauch’s
saturation curve. In other words, no matter which set of C, values
.Ψ
300 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
one starts with, one is led by this method of successive approximations
to something much like Knoblauch’s curve in the end.
The second conclusion that can be drawn from Figure 12 is that
the true saturation curve, although close to Knoblauch’s curve, prob-
ably runs somewhat higher in the range covered by these computations.
1.4
Cp
1.0
ke
+6
4
100 200 + 300
Figure 13. Values of Cp computed by Planck’s method from Linde’s
characteristic equation. The circles come from an H formula based wholly
on Knoblauch’s Cp measurements, the crosses from a similar H formula
based wholly on Thomas’ Cp measurements. Both confirm Knoblauch’s
saturation curve (K) rather than Thomas’ (7).
It will be remembered that the same conclusion was reached in two
different ways in the last subsection (pages 290 and 293), and that it
is further confirmed by the fact that Regnault’s values near saturation
at atmospheric pressure are higher than Knoblauch’s.
The volume measurements of Ramsay and Young and of Battelli are
not so conveniently arranged for the purposes of this particular compu-
tation. In both cases the temperature was held constant while the
pressure and volume were varied. In the case of Ramsay and Young
it is possible to rearrange the data so as to give approximate isochors
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 301
which can then be reduced to suitable absolutely constant volumes by
interpolation. ‘The curves thus obtained are, however, irregular, and
furthermore they show unmistakable evidences of a phenomenon ex-
actly analogous to the wet steam error into which Thomas is believed
to have fallen. The presence of this error, which took the form of
surface condensation in the experimental bulb as saturation was
approached, is specifically mentioned by the authors, but no attempt
was made to eliminate it on the ground that, “ however interesting
740
100 120 140 160 180 ‘p .200
Figure 14. Values of Cp computed by Planck’s method from the volume
measurements of Ramsay and Young (circles) and of Battelli (dots).
from a theoretical point of view the absolute expansion of water-gas
may be, in practise it is always in contact with a surface; and an
indication of the behavior of steam in contact with giass cannot fail to
be of use in considering the practical case of steam in contact with
iron.” It is therefore interesting to find that the values of C, which
have been computed from the data of Ramsay and Young and which
are plotted as circles in Figure 14, run close to Thomas’ saturation
curve. This agreement is an indication that both are subject to the
same error.
Battelli was also troubled by surface condensation, but was at great
pains, in discussing his results, to eliminate its effects. It has there-
fore seemed best to work not from his data, but from a table near the
302 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
end of his memoir (‘Table M ”), in which are given certain graphically
determined values of the coefficients in the formula
p=bitta,
which he, like Knoblauch, Linde, and Klebe, uses to represent his
isochors. The coefficient ὦ in this formula is the same as the (ὃ 0),
in the main table of Knoblauch’s paper, and can be used in the same
way. ‘The values of C, computed from Battelli’s table M with con-
densation effects eliminated, run even lower than Knoblauch’s satura-
tion curve throughout the range of Figure 14. This indicates that
Battelli rather more than eliminated the condensation errors in his
discussion of his data.
The contrast between the values obtained from Ramsay and Young’s
work, where the wet steam error is known to exist, and those obtained
from Battelli’s work, where it is known to have been consciously
eliminated, is so much like the contrast between 'homas’ saturation
curve and Knoblauch’s as to be a striking verification of the conclusion
reached on page 272.
It is not probable that either of the three sets of volume measure-
ments are reliable enough to make the results computed in this section
worthy of much consideration as new determinations of C,. Their
value is chiefly as corroborative evidence on one side or the other of
the various doubtful points that have been mentioned.
Be. Other indirect computations. —
C. Resumes and discussions. —
might be listed under Be or C are such as to be improvable by the use
of the new material in this and in the preceding paper, or to be of im-
portance in the present connection. They will not be discussed in
detail.
Summary of this C, discussion : —
1. Knoblauch’s curves in general, and his saturation curve in
particular, are much nearer the truth than Thomas’. he evidence for
this is to be found on pages 287 and 298 to 302.
2. Knoblauch’s saturation curve runs somewhat too low at low
temperatures (see pages 290, 293 and 300).
3. The low temperature end of Knoblauch’s 1 kg. curve should be
somewhat raised, not only because of conclusion 2 above, but also so
as to agree better with Regnault’s recomputed results (see page 286).
4. Knoblauch’s 1 kg. curve should be relocated at high superheats
so as to agree with that of Holborn and Henning.
5. The spacing at high superheats of the curves corresponding to
pressures higher than 1 kg. is best determined by a new method
involving the Joule-Thomson coefficient (see pages 290 to 294).
| None of the papers which
DAVIS. —— CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 303
6. The reconciliation, through Clausius’ thermodynamic relation, of
the accepted volume and specific heat measurements in the superheated
region is impossible. This is probably the most important of the out-
standing problems in this field.
All these conclusions have been embodied in the @, diagram which is
the basis of the Steam Tables already mentioned,*® and it is partly for
the purpose of gathering in one place all of the underlying evidence
that justifies those tables, much of it unsuitable for presentation there,
that this section of the present paper has been written. The C, curves
which were used were as faithful a translation and extrapolation of
Knoblauch’s curves as possible, except for the differences stated above.
In particular they reproduced the tremendous rise of his saturation
curve at even moderately high pressures and temperatures. It is
probable that this feature of Knoblauch’s curves, although near enough
to the truth to satisfy the present needs of engineering practise, will
have to be revised later. It is, however, the only rational guess yet
published, and it is not worth while to cumber the literature with any
more “harmonized” sets of C, values at high pressures until there is
something definite to build on. ‘The problem of determining the true
course of the high pressure end of the saturation curve on the C, dia-
gram is second in importance only to that mentioned at the end of
the summary just above.
5. Craustus’ “Spreciric Heat or Saturatep Steam.”
This section will be devoted to a revision of a computation first
made by Clausius, which, although no longer of especial importance,
is usually of considerable interest to students of thermodynamics. In
the sixth chapter of the first volume of his ‘‘ Mechanical Theory of
Heat” he defines the specific heat of saturated steam as the quantity
of heat that must be added to saturated steam at any temperature to
turn it into saturated steam one degree hotter, account being taken of
the fact that it will have to be compressed to keep it saturated. For
steam and for most other substances it is negative at ordinary tempera-
tures, because the work of compression is more than enough to provide
the corresponding increase in the internal energy. But in the case of
most substances including steam it is at ordinary temperatures an
increasing function of the temperature and may, therefore, pass
through zero and become positive if tlfe temperature is sufficiently
raised. This Clausius found to be actually the case for ether at
ordinary temperatures and for chloroform above 130°, and the ex-
#9 See page 97 of the Tables.
304 * PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
periments of Cazin and of Hirn confirmed this result. For such
substances, the top of the temperature-entropy diagram must have
the curious shape shown in Figures 15a and 150.
800
100
0 el 2 0
Figure 15a. Temperature-en- Fiaure 156. Temperature-
tropy diagram for ether. entropy diagram for chloroform.
The extrapolation formula for Z in sub-section 3C enables one to
compute this specific heat of saturated steam from Clausius’ equation.
dL L
Cust. =F dt ic T
with the following results.
TABLE VII.
Tue Speciric Hear of SATURATED STEAM.
Same acc. to
Clausius.
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 305
The necessary values of the specific heat of water, c, are taken from
Marks and Davis’ Steam ‘T'ables. Above 100° they are based on the
experiments of Dieterici which run to 303°. The Table shows that
Οὐ... passes its maximum below 250° without becoming zero or positive,
and that at 300° it is already well on its way toward the value minus
infinity which it has at the critical point. The temperature-entropy
diagram for steam (see Figure 7a) is, therefore, fundamentally differ-
ent in shape from that of ether or chloroform.
6. Tue CriticaL VoLUME oF WATER.
The extrapolation formula for Z also makes possible a computation
of the critical volume of water by the method of Cailletet and Mathias.
These investigators announced in 1886 50 their well-known “law of
the straight diameter,” according to which, if the densities of a liquid
and its saturated vapor are plotted against the corresponding tem-
peratures to form a steam dome, the mid-points of the horizontal
chords of the dome lie in a straight line. This law has been tested by
a number of observers,®! but particularly by Young, who proved that
the diameter is accurately straight only in the case of a few “normal”
substances of which normal pentane is the best known example, but
that it is always nearly straight and can almost always be represented
within the limit of error of the observations by a second degree
equation in ¢.. In certain cases, notably acetic acid and the alcohols,
a third degree equation is necessary. All departures of the diameter
from perfect straightness are commonly attributed to association in
the liquid.
If the equation of the diameter is known, the substitution in it of the
critical temperature gives the critical density with an accuracy far
surpassing that of any known method of direct measurement. This
accuracy is greatly increased by the fact that the diameter is always
so nearly parallel to the ¢ axis that even a considerable error in the
critical temperature makes very little difference in the critical volume.
In applying this method to the determination of the critical density
of water, one finds available in the third (1905) edition of Landolt
and Bornstein’s “Physikalische Tabellen” a satisfactory set of values
60 C. R., 1886, 102, 1202.
51 Mathias, Ann. de la Fac. des Sci. Toulouse, 1892, 6, M1; C. R., 1892,
115, 35; Mém. Soc. Roy. des Sci., Liege, 1899, 2; Journ. de Phys., 1899, 8, 407;
and 1905, 4,77; Young, Journ. Chem. Soc., trans., 1893, 63, 1237; Phil. Mag.,
1892, 34, 503; and 1900, 50, 291; Guye, Archives des Sci. Phys. et Nat., 1894,
31, 43; Tsuruta, Phys. Rev., 1900, 10, 116. See also Young’s “Stoichiome-
try,” 1908, 165.
VOL. XLv. — 20
306 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
of the density of water up to 320°C. Furthermore, the pressure of
saturated steam has been observed up to the critical point itself by
a number of observers, of whom Cailletet and Colardeau 52 seem the
most trustworthy. From their values and the extrapolation formula
for L, one can compute the change of volume during vaporization up
.9 8 1.0
FiaurE 16. The steam dome on the temperature-density plane, with
the ‘‘straight diameter”’ of Cailletet and Mathias, and the critical point
according to Nadejdine (N), Battelli (B), Dieterici (D), and the present writer.
to 320° and indeed up to the critical point itself. The sum of these
values and the volumes of the liquid mentioned above are the volumes
of saturated steam up to 320°. The results are tabulated below and
are plotted in Figure 16. The diameter is seen to be, as usual, nearly
but not quite straight. It is not possible to represent the whole of it
even by a third degree formula in ¢, because of the peculiar behaviour
of the density of water at low temperatures. The 20 points above
52 Journ. de Phys., 1891, 10, 333; also Ann. Chem. et Phys., 1892, 25,
519; also Physik. Rev., 1892, 1, 14; also a short note in C. R., 1891, 112,
563; see also Risteen, The Locomotive, 1907, 26, 219.
DAVIS. —- CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 307
TABLE VIII.
THe LAW OF THE STRAIGHT DIAMETER FOR STEAM.
Density of
Water.
0.9999
0.9997
0.9982
0.9957
0.9922
0.9881
0.9832
0.9778
0.9718
0.9655
0.9584
0.9510
0.9454
0.9352
0.9264
0.9173
0.9075
0.8973
0.8866
0.8750
0.8628
Density of
Steam.
0.000005
0.00005
0.00008
0.00013
0.0002
0.0003
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
0.0011
0.0015
0.0020
0.0026
0.0033
0.0041
0.0052
0.0064
0.0079
0.010
0.012
0.014
0.017
0.020
0.024
0.029
0.03(4)
0.03(9)
0.04(6)
0.05(5)
0.06(5)
Mean
Density.
0.5000
0.4999
0.4991
0.4978
0.4961
0.4941
0.4917
0.4890
0.4860
0.4828
0.4795
0.4759
0.4722
0.4684
0.4642
0.4599
0.4554
0.4507
0.4459
0.4407
0.4354
0.430
0.424
0.419
0.413
0.407
0.402
0.397
0.39(2)
0.38(0)
0.37(3)
0.36(8)
0.36(2)
Formula.
+ 0.0004
+ 0.0002
0.0000
— 0.0002
—0.0003
—0.0005
— 0.0004
— 0.0003
+0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
—0.001
—0.002
—0.00(4)
+0.00(2)
+0.00(2)
0.00(0)
0.00(0)
120° can, however, be represented with an average deviation of about
one ninth of one per cent by the formula
85 = 0.4552—0.0004757 (t— 160) —0.000000685 (t—160) 2 gr./em.?
It should be noticed, in judging of the reliability of the formula, that
comparatively large relative errors in the density of steam make only
308 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
very small relative errors in the mean of the densities. Thus in the
most unfavorable case, at 320°, if an error in either dp/dt or in the
extrapolated value of Z made the computed change of volume wrong
by five per cent, the resulting error in the mean of the densities would
be less than half of one per cent.
The substitution of Cailletet and- Colardeau’s value for the critical
temperature of water, ¢. = 365°C., in the equation of the diameter gives
8. = 1/0, = 0.329 gr./cm.%,
from which it follows that the critical volume is
ως = 3.04 cm.*/gr.
There are three previous determinations with which this can be com-
pared, two of which are direct measurements. ‘These are
V, = 2.33 em*/gr. (Nad.),
found by Nadejdine 5? in 1885, and
υς = 4.812 cm.*/gr. (Batt.),
found by Battelli5* in 1890. In both cases a known weight of water
was enclosed in a steel tube and heated at constant volume until the
contents became homogeneous. If there was too little liquid, this oc-
curred when it was all evaporated ; if too much, when it had so ex-
panded as to fill the tube ; if just enough, at the critical point. ‘The
last case they hoped to recognize because of its corresponding to a
higher temperature than either of the others. Such a method gives an
excellent determination of the critical temperature, but it can hardly
be expected to give an accurate determination of the critical volume. |
It amounts to trying to find the highest point of the steam dome by
selecting experimentally its longest ordinate on the v ¢ plane. The ex-
tremely flat top of the steam dome makes this almost impossible, and
it is interesting to notice that both Nadejdine and Battelli fell within
the nearly flat region, one at one end and one at the other. The present
determination lies between theirs and should be much more accurate
than either.
53 Universitataikija Investia Kiew., 1885, 6, 32; Mel. Phys. et Chim. tirés
du Bull. de l’Ac. de St. Pétersb., 1885, 12, 299; Chem. CBI., 1885, 17, 401.
5@ Mem. dell. Ac. di Torino, 1891, 41, 76; Physikal. Rev., 1892, 2, 1.
DAVIS. = CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 309
The third published value of the critical volume,
υς = 4.025 em.?/gr. (Diet.),
was computed by Dieterici5> in 1904, from the empirical law of
Young 56 that, for “normal” substances, the ratio of the actual te the
gas-law density at the critical pressure and density is 3.8. Dieterici’s
belief that water becomes a “normal” substance at high temperatures,
even though it is known to be very abnormal at ordinary temperatures,
is based on the fact that the ratio of the change of internal energy dur-
100 200 300 2 400
Ficure 17. The polymerization factor for liquid water as a function of
the temperature. The small circles below 150° are Ramsay’s earlier values;
the large circles below 150° are his revised values; the circle at 365° is the
value indicated by the critical volume.
ing evaporation to the whole heat of evaporation, LZ, seemed to ap-
proach a value which he had predicted for “normal” substances. The
present determination of v. shows that water is, as one would have ex-
pected, still abnormal at the critical point. If interpreted in the usual
way, it would indicate a polymerization factor of 1.3. Figure 17 shows
how well this number fits a smooth curve through Ramsay’s earlier
large values of the polymerization factor at ordinary temperatures ; 57
55 Wied. Ann., 1904, 15, 864.
56 Phil. Mag., 1892, 34, 507, and Jour. Chem. Soc., Papers, 1893, 63, 1251.
57 Phil. Trans., 1893, 184A, 647; translated in Zeitsch. Phys. Chem., 1893,
12, 433; second paper in Jour. Chem. Soe., 1893, 63, 1089; translated in
Zeitsch. Phys. Chem., 1893, 12, 458.
310 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
there seems, however, to be little chance of reconciling it with his later .
“corrected” values.°8 This is an example of the uncertainty that
seems to characterize the whole subject of polymerization in liquids,
especially on its quantitative side.
The equation of the mean diameter which has just been obtained
can also be used for the computation of a rough but useful extension of
certain columns of the ordinary steam tables up to the critical point.
As was mentioned on page 306, the extrapolation formula for L of Sec-
tion 3 determines the change of volume during evaporation at all tem-
peratures between 320° and the critical temperature. .From these and
the mean densities given by the equation of the diameter, it is easy to
compute each of the densities separately, and to fill in the rest of the
steam dome on the ¢ 8 (temperature-density) planes. The results are
shown by the dotted lines in Figure 16, and are given in detail at the
end of Table I in the Steam ables already mentioned. Any values
obtained in this way are, of course, only rough approximations to the
truth and should not be too much relied on.
SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS IN THIS PAPER.
1. It presents a new set of values for the difference between the
total heat of saturated steam at certain temperatures between 65° and
190°C. and its value at 100°.
2. It shows that these differences can be represented within their
limit of error by the first three terms of a T'aylor’s series, but that such
a development should not be extrapolated far in either direction. The
best direct measurements of HW indicate that its value at 100° is 639.11
mean calories. If this be accepted, the proposed formula for // is
H = 639.11 + 0.3745 (ἐ — 100) — 0.000990 (¢ — 100)? mean calories.
The last two terms of the formula are the real contribution of this
paper, and may still be valid, even if the first term is later found to be
wrong.
3. Thiesen’s formula for Z with recomputed constants is shown to
represent satisfactorily all of the reliable values of ZL, including those
in this paper. It is believed to be the safest known means of extrapo-
lating to high temperatures.
4. The literature on the specific heat of superheated steam is sys-
tematically discussed and revised in the light of the new values of H
58 Third paper; Proe. Roy. Soc., 1894, 56, 171; translated in Zeitsch.
Phys. Chem., 1894, 15, 106.
DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. BAT
and of the Joule-Thomson coefficient presented in an earlier paper. In
particular the choice of Knoblauch’s values of C, as the foundation of
the determination of H in this paper is justified.
5. It is shown that Clausius’ specific heat of saturated steam
passes its maximum without becoming zero or positive, so that the
temperature-entropy diagram for steam must be essentially simpler
than that for either ether or chloroform.
6. The extrapolation formula for Z mentioned in 3 above is made
the basis of a determination of the critical density of water by the
method of Cailletet and Mathias. The result is
V, = 3.04 em*/er.
The specific volumes of water and of saturated steam at other high
temperatures have also been computed and embodied in a steam table
running up to the critical temperature.
JEFFERSON PuysicAL LABORATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, Mass.,
December, 1909.
iat Me
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 10.— Marcu, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
THE SPECTRUM OF A CARBON COMPOUND IN THE
REGION OF EXTREMELY SHORT WAVE-LENGTHS.
By THEeopore LyMan.
᾿ ; Vig,
ὦ δ . Or Pele Vat
ha! ΝΣ (alive τ)
Εν.
Dh Ane TY “τ
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
THE SPECTRUM OF A CARBON COMPOUND IN THE
REGION OF EXTREMELY SHORT WAVE-LENGTHS.
By THrEoporEe Lyman.
Presented December 8, 1909. Received January 3, 1910.
In the region of extremely short wave-lengths discovered by
Schumann the spectra of two gases only are easily obtained ; the one
is due to hydrogen, the other to some compound of carbon.t The
hydrogen spectrum consists of a great number of fine lines extending
from A 1675 to A 1030; the wave-lengths of the most prominent of
these lines have been determined.2 The carbon spectrum consists
of a considerable number of bands extending from the less refrangible
end of the Schumann region to the neighborhood of 2 1300. “The
purpose of the present investigation was to measure the position of
these bands.
The results are chiefly valuable because the bands in question fill
the gap between A 1854 and X 1675 and form convenient standards of
wave-length in a region which up to this time has lacked points of
reference.
The appearance of the spectrum is shown in Plate VIII, Volume 13,
of the Memoirs of this Academy. It is marked “ Air.” The bands
are most intense in the less refrangible region, but they are all of the
same general type with heads directed toward the region of shorter
wave-length. ‘lhe strongest bands are evidently double. The system,
at least throughout its less refrangible part, forms a continuation of
the “Fourth group” as described by Deslandres in his paper, “ Spectre
de bandes ultra-violet des composés hydrogénés et oxygénés du car-
bone.” The spectrum under investigation is thus related to the
series of bright bands in the visible and ultra-violet attributed to car-
bon monoxide and often observed in ill-prepared vacuum tubes.
1 Smithsonian Contributions, 1903, 29, No. 1413.
2 Lyman, Memoirs of this Academy, 1906, 13, 125.
3 Comptes Rendus, 1888, 106, 842.
316 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
It is only too easy to obtain the bands in the region of short wave-
lengths, for, to quote Schumann himself,* they are “the unwelcome
attendants of all my spectra.” In order to determine the cause of the
phenomenon, however, experiments were made with both carbon mon-
oxide and carbon dioxide and with a variety of conditions in the dis-
charge tube. ‘The results of these experiments may be stated as fol-
lows: Exactly the same bands are obtained when carbon monoxide is
used as when carbon dioxide is employed, but in the former case the
strength of the whole spectrum is considerably greater than in the
latter. With increased current strength from a transformer, between
five and twenty milliamperes the intensity of the bands increases in
a uniform manner throughout the extent of the spectrum. Whena
spark gap is placed in series with the tube and a condenser is intro-
duced in such a way as to produce a disruptive discharge, the spectrum
at first weakens and then vanishes altogether. ‘The effect is accom-
panied by a very marked decrease in pressure in the tube and by the
formation of a dark deposit on the walls of the capillary. When
precautions are taken to exclude the introduction of carbon monoxide
or prevent its formation, the spectrum is greatly weakened if it does
not vanish altogether.
These data go to confirm the results of Schumann, as they show that
the spectrum is due to carbon monoxide. The occurrence of the bands
when carbon dioxide is present may be explained by the fact that this
gas is known to be transformed into carbon monoxide under the influ-
ence of light and the electric discharge. The disappearance of the
spectrum with the disruptive discharge is due to the destruction of
the carbon monoxide. The oxygen set free by the reaction seems to
combine with the electrodes, while the carbon is deposited. This
property of a condenser discharge is useful, since it permits the spec-
troscopist to free his apparatus of an annoying impurity. The decrease
in pressure which accompanies this reaction is often a striking and
important phenomenon.
In making measurements in the region between ἃ 1880 and A 2080
a concave grating of six foot radius with 15028 lines to the inch was
employed. Schumann plates were used throughout the work. For
the experiments in the region on the more refrangible side of 1880
the writer’s vacuum spectroscope was employed § in the same manner as
when the hydrogen spectrum was under investigation. An improve-
ment in the discharge tube, however, has been introduced. The nature
Ze lioct cits Pp. Lo:
5 Herchefinkel, Comptes Rendus, 1909, 149, 395.
6 See note 2,
=I)
LYMAN. — THE SPECTRUM OF A CARBON COMPOUND. 31
of the change will be understood by consulting the illustration on page
90 of volume 27 of The Astrophysical Journal. The brass collar A is
no longer provided with a screw thread as shown in the illustration,
but it is now made to fit into the cup B air tight by means of a cone
joint 2.8 cm. long. The discharge tube itself is no longer cast into the
collar A with Khotinski cement, but is blown on a platinum tube
3.5 em. long by 1.5 cm. in diameter. This tube is soldered into the
collar A. By this arrangement the gas does not come in contact with
grease in the joints, and the danger of leak is considerably reduced.
Measurements in the region between ἃ 1850 and ἃ 1675 where no
fiducial lines exist were made by the two slit method.7 In the region
from A 1675 to A 1300 direct comparison was made with the spectrum
of hydrogen.
The values of refer to the heads of bands, and they are accurate to
0.3 of an Angstrém unit. In the class of the double bands marked
“dq” the wave-length given is for the stronger component. ‘The inten-
sities are represented on a scale of ten. The absorption of fluorite,
which begins to make itself felt near the end of the spectrum, renders
the relative intensities of the most refrangible bands rather uncertain.
As usual, the wave-lengths and frequencies are in vacuum.
In addition to their value as standards of wave-length, the results
are of some theoretical importance. Deslandres in the paper just
quoted 8 has used his measurements of the carbon spectrum to test his
Laws. As the spectrum under discussion seems to form a continuation
of that described by Deslandres, it is interesting to see if its bands also
show the numerical relations described by the earlier investigator.
In making the comparison, however, it will be necessary to confine the
attention to those relations which deal with the heads of the bands, |
for the dispersion employed does not permit of the study of the lines
of which each band is composed. It must also be remembered that
the region of high frequencies is not perfectly adapted to such a test,
since a small error in the wave-length is magnified in relations which
deal with frequencies.
The laws under discussion are two in number: first, that a group of
bands may be broken up into sets of series such that the differences in
frequency of the heads of the bands in any one series form an arith-
metical progression ; second, that all the series are similarly constructed.
The first rule may obviously be stated in another way, —the second
differences of the frequencies of the heads of the bands in any one
series are constant. .
T See note 2.
8 Loc. cit.
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
318
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LYMAN. — THE SPECTRUM OF A CARBON COMPOUND. 319
Deslandres has analysed his Fourth Group into five series, character-
ized by small and not very regular second differences. ‘The writer has
TABLE II.
FourtTH GROUP.
DESLANDRES. LYMAN.
First Differences. First Differences.
Series VII Vill IX
been able to follow the arrangement into the region between A 2000 and
X 1600 and has added seven new series of the same type. Table I.
320 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
shows these new members. They are numbered from VI. to XI; series
IV. and V. of Deslandres’ are included in the table for the sake of com-
parison. ‘The first two bands in the fifth series were measured by the
writer. When it is remembered that the errors of observation make
the fifth place in the frequencies very doubtful, it will be seen that the
law of constant second differences is fairly well obeyed.
TABLE III.
FirtaH Group.
Series
. 169266} .
116 |68852
66765) 132 |68320
. (66194) . . (67659) .
Table II., which gives the first differences for each series, is arranged
to show the similarity which exists among the members. It will be
observed that the second rule is obeyed, for the series resemble each
other. An exact similarity is not demanded by the rule as has been
recently pointed out by Deslandres himself. The arrangement of the
series, however, does not permit of the “second progression ” 19 men-
tioned by Olmsted and others.
In addition to the series VI. to XI. there appear to exist two others,
in the region near A 1800. These show larger second differences than
the first type. They have not been included in the tables.
9 Comptes Rendus, 1904, 138, 317.
10 Comptes Rendus, 1902, 134, 748; Zeits. f. Wiss. Photographie, 1906; 4,
255.
LYMAN. — THE SPECTRUM OF A CARBON COMPOUND. 9521]
TABLE IV.
1615.1
1623.4
1629.6
1630.3
1648.2
1655.:
1666.7
1669.9
1685.5
1688.5
1698.8
1705.3
1712.2
1723.9
1729.5
1743.5
1747.3
1774.9
1785.1
1792.6
1801.9
1804.9
1811.0
1825.7
1830.1
1837.2
1841.3
1846.7
1849.4
1859.6
1870.3
1878.5
1891.2
1898.0
1914.0
1918.2
1931.5
1933.6
1950.4
1951.7
1959.0
1970.1
1991.0
2007.2
2012.6
2026.4
2031.7
2035.1
2047.0
2068.4
= =
Q
COOPRKNTOMNHONNEPNONRFOHOWOKRN ὦ καὶ ὦ -ὰὦ Ο οὐ τ᾽ Ὁ σ9 ὦ -ἰ ὁ Οὐ σ9 -1 σὺ μὶ μπὶ μὶ σὺ μὶ ῷὰ σι σὺ οὐ μα Db
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
3
2
1
1
1
9
9
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
3
1
2
9
2
5
3
5
4
1
3
1
3
VOL. XLY. — 21
.
322 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
On the more refrangible side of A 1600 matters are not very satis-
factory. The bands must be arranged into series showing very large
second differences which are only approximately constant. These
series, which are numbered from 1 to 7 go to make up the Fifth Group.
Their frequencies together with the second differences are given in
Table III. No attempt has been made to adopt an arrangement which
would show the similarity between the members of the group. In fact
these series fall in with the second rule only to a limited degree ; 1 and
5 resemble each other, as do 2 and 6, and 3 and 7, but the relations
are not exact.
‘The writer makes no claim that the arrangements given in this Fifth
Group are the best possible, they are only the most obvious.
The spectrum contains a great many bands which are either too
feeble to measure or whose positions are made uncertain by the tails
of stronger bands; if these could be included in the series a better
system would probably result.
It is to be remembered that although relations similar to Deslandres’
laws have been proved to hold within the limit of error of observation
for the distribution of lines within a band, no such accuracy of agree-
ment has been found when the laws of the distribution of the heads of
the bands themselves have been tested. In fact, the rule of constant
second differences as applied to the heads of bands must be looked
upon as a first approximation only. The work which has just been
described indicates that the approximation holds even in the region of
extremely short wave-lengths.
In conclusion the writer wishes to point out that the important re-
sults of the investigation are the values of the wave-lengths contained
in Table IV.
JEFFERSON PuysicaAL LABORATORY,
CamBRIDGE, Mass.,
December, 1909.
11 vy. Carlheim-Gyllenskéld, K. Svensk. Vetenskaps-Akad., Handl., 1907,
42, No. 8.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 11.— Marcu, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
EXPERIMENTS ON THE ELECTRICAL OSCILLATIONS
OF A HERTZ RECTILINEAR OSCILLATOR.
By Georce W. PIERCE.
Oe Ὁ" 4)
τ τὴν" WA
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
EXPERIMENTS ON THE ELECTRICAL OSCILLATIONS OF
A HERTZ RECTILINEAR OSCILLATOR.
By GrorGe W. PIERCE.
Presented December 8, 1909. Received January 3, 1910.
WHILE engaged in calibrating a wavemeter for electric waves, I have
made a series of measurements of the wave-length produced by a long
Hertz rectilinear oscillator, consisting of two oppositely extending hori-
zontal wires with a spark-gap between. By varying the length of the
oscillator, wave-lengths from 16 to 63 meters were obtained. The ex-
periments were conducted in a long room in the third story of the
laboratory, so that the oscillator was at a height of 10 meters above
the surface of the earth, and represents approximately the conditions
that exist when the oscillator is alone in free space.
The experimental results, which give a relation of the wave-length
to the length of the oscillator, may be not without interest ; because of
the existence of numerous very thorough mathematical discussions
of the problem.
Apparatus and Plan of the Experiment.— A general idea of the
experiment may be had by a reference to Fig. 1, ae shows in ground
plan the arrangement of the apparatus.
The wavemeter, shown at the left of the gaat consists of a variable
condenser C in series with a loop of heavy wire L and a high-frequency
electrodynamometer I. The loop of wire L is in the form of a square
30 cm. on a side. The condenser consists of two sets of semicircular
plates — one set fixed and the other set movable by rotation about a
vertical axis so as to permit variation of capacity by bringing a greater
or less area of the two sets of plates into an interlapping position. A
scale carried by the top movable plate passes under a fixed pointer, so
that the position of the movable plates with respect to the fixed plates
can be read after any adjustment of the apparatus.
The high-frequency dynamometer I is of the form previously em-
ployed by me in a series of experiments on resonance in wireless tele-
326 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
graph circuits,2 and consists of a disc of silver, suspended by a quartz
fibre, so as to hang near a small coil of a few turns of wire, with the
axis of which the plane of the disc makes an angle of 45°, as is shown
in Fig. 2. The disc is at M; and the coil, which in
this experiment consisted of five turns of wire wound O
on a vulcanite tube, is shown at C, Fig. 2. ‘The ter-
minals from the coil are connected to binding posts
by which the coil is put into the wavemeter circuit.
The front of the disc M carries a small mirror, ena-
bling the deflections of the disc to be measured by
means of a telescope and scale.
Ficure 1. Wavemeter circuit and
Hertz oscillator.
The mounting of the instrument is shown in Fig. 3. G
The disc is suspended in the vertical vulcanite tube,
which stands on a base provided with leveling screws ;
the support of the coil is inserted in the side of the
vertical tube, and is arranged to be moved in and O
out by a micrometer screw. This delicate motion
of the coil in or out brings the coil nearer to or farther from the
suspended silver disc so as to vary the sensitiveness of the instru-
ment to make it suitable for measuring small or large oscillating
currents.
1 Phys. Review, 1904, 19, 196; 1905, 20, 220; 1905, 21, 367; 1906, 22, 159;
1907, 24, 152.
PIERCE. — OSCILLATIONS OF A HERTZ OSCILLATOR. oar
The action of the instrument is as follows : Oscillations in the coil
induce oscillations in the disc, and between these two sets of oscilla-
tions there is a force which causes the
disc to tend to set itself at right angles
to the plane of the coil. A mathemati-
cal theory of the instrument, together
with some experiments showing that the
deflections of the dise are proportional
to the square of the current in the coil,
is given by me in volume 20, page 226,
of the Physical Review for 1905.
In place of the dynamometer, a
Geissler tube, connected to the two sides
of the condenser, was used in some of
the experiments.
Figure 2. Coil and suspended
dise of the high-frequency dy-
The Calibration of the Wavemeter.— yamometer.
For wave-lengths greater than 350
Figure 3. Mounting of
dynamometer with variable
sensitiveness.
meters, I have a set of standard oscillators
whose periods have been determined by
spark-photographs taken with the revolv-
ing mirror.2_ These could, however, not
be employed in the present experiments,
where the greatest length of oscillator
that could be set up in the room had a
wave-length of only 63 meters. It was,
therefore, necessary to use another method
of calibrating the wavemeter of Fig. 1;
namely, by tuning it to resonance with
an oscillator consisting of various lengths
(4 to 17 meters) of two parallel wires,
1 mm. in diameter and 8 cm. apart. It
was assumed that the wave-length of such
a parallel-wire oscillator is four times the
length of one of the wires. This assump-
tion is on the supposition that there is a
loop of potential at the free end of the
oscillator, and that the velocity of the
waves on parallel wires is equal to the
velocity of light.
In regard to the loop at the free end, Bumpstead 38 has shown that
this loop of potential for a parallel-wire oscillator is really beyond the
2 Phys. Review, 1907, 24, 152. 3 Am. Jour. Sci., 1902, 14, 359.
328 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
free end by an amount a little less than half the distance apart of the
wires. ‘This correction, applied to my experiments, amounts to less than
one per cent in the case even of the shortest parallel-wire oscillator used
in the calibration, and has been taken into account.
That the velocity of the waves on the wires is equal to the velocity
of light has its theoretical basis in the fact that for rapid oscillations
guided by parallel wires, the self-induction per unit of length multiplied
by the capacity per unit of length is the reciprocal of the square of the
velocity of light. That the velocity of propagation on the parallel
wires is the velocity of light has been shown experimentally by Trow-
bridge and Duane 4 and by Saunders.® Recently also Diesselhorst θ of
the Reichsanstalt has made some experiments which indicate that the
wave-length on the parallel wires differs from the wave-length in air
by less than one-third of one per cent when the parallel wires are not
more than 100 meters long.
Wave-length of the Wave Produced by the Hertz Oscillator. — If now
we take the two parallel wires, separate them, and extend them out
oppositely so as to form a Hertz oscillator, the capacity per unit of
length diminishes, while the inductance per unit of length increases.
Does the wave-length remain the same; namely, four times the length
of the half-oscillator, or 4 = 2/, where ὦ is the length of the whole
oscillator? Some theoretical writers (Abraham,7 Rayleigh 8) say that
it does remain very approximately the same (if the diameter of the wire
isa small fraction of the length) ; while, on the other hand, Macdonald 9
has concluded that A is equal to 2.53 /, and he is supported in this con-
clusion by Pollock and Close.1°
Experimental tests of the question have heretofore usually been
made with very short vibrating systems, to which the theoretical de-
ductions are not directly applicable. A. D. Cole! finds A = 2.52 J,
for a Klemencic receiver 7 to 8 cm. long and 3.1 mm. in diameter.
This is in good agreement with Macdonald’s theoretical relation. It is
doubtful, however, if Macdonald’s equation, which was derived by con-
sidering the oscillator or receiver to be indefinitely thin in comparison
with its length, was intended to apply to the relatively thick receivers
of Cole’s experiment.
Another very admirable set of measurements with short oscillators
has recently been published by Webb and Woodman.!2 With an un-
4 Am. Jour. Sci., 1895, 49, 297. 5 Phys. Review, 1896, 24, 152.
6 Rlektrotech. Zeits., 1908, 29, 703. 7 Wied. Ann. 1898, 66, 435.
8 Phil. Mag., 1904, 8, 105. 9 Electric Waves, 111.
10 Phil. Mag. 1904, 7, 635. 11 Phys. Review, 1905, 20, 268.
12 Phys. Review, 1909, 29, 89.
PIERCE. — OSCILLATIONS OF A HERTZ OSCILLATOR. 329
tuned receiver they have made measurements of the wave-length pro-
duced by rod oscillators of various lengths between 2 and 10 cm., and
various diameters between 0.2 and 1.3 cm., and have obtained the
wave-length a linear function of the length when the ratio of diameter
to length is kept constant, and also the wave-length is a linear func-
tion of the ratio of diameter to length when the length is kept con-
stant. By extrapolation from their measured values they find the
limiting value of the ratio of the wave-length to the vibrator length,
as the diameter approaches zero, to be 2.24.
Coming now to the experiments that have been made with the longer
oscillators, I find two measurements mentioned by Drude 195. in which
he obtains for a wire 1 mm. in diameter and 4 meters long the wave-
length 8.42 meters, and for a wire 2.5 meters long the wave-length
5.24. These two experiments give \ = 2.10 1.
Also there is a series of measurements by F. Conrat ΤῈ for rectilinear
oscillators 2 to 6 meters long (1 mm. diameter). These measurements
are presented in Table I., and show the average relation X = 2.12 1.
TABLE 1.
Conrat’s VALUES FOR RELATION OF ἃ TO ἴ.
λ
l.
Length of real
Oscillator Wave ἐπε
in Meters. :
4.20
8.00
8.40
12.00
Average
My measurements, extending the experimental records in the direc-
tion of the longer waves, are given in 'l'able II. ‘The diameter of the
wire employed was 1 mm. ‘The result obtained is that the wave-length
of the oscillator is 2.094 times its length. 'This is in good agreement
with the results obtained by Drude and in fair agreement with those
of Conrat. -
13 Ann. d. Physik, 1903, 11, 965. 14 Ibid., 1907, 22, 670.
330 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Taking the present observation together with those of Drude and
of Conrat it appears that the wave-length of a Hertz rectilinear is very
close to 2.10 times the length of the oscillator, provided the oscillator
is not less than two meters long and is of comparatively small diam-
eter. The influence of the diameter in determining the wave-length
was not tested further than by a single observation, in which it was
found that an oscillator made of two brass tubes, each 6 meters long
and 22 mm. in diameter, had a wave-length 2.14 times its length.
TABLE II.
RESULTS OBTAINED IN PRESENT EXPERIMENT.
Wave-length
th
Length of Oscillator AS
in Meters.
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
22.0
24.0
26.0
28.0
30.0
Average .
Comparison of the Result with Abraham’s Theoretical Relation. —
The value obtained theoretically by Abraham, as a second approxima-
PIERCE. — OSCILLATIONS OF A HERTZ OSCILLATOR. 331
tion for the wave-length of a thin rod in terms of its length and
diameter, is
N= 21(1 - 5.6 εἢ,
where
+0 1
PAE
4 log. ΗΒ
in which 7 is the length of the whole oscillator, and d its diameter.
The formula was derived by applying Maxwell’s equations to a long,
perfectly conductive ellipsoid of revolution, and taking the limit ap-
proached by A when the square of the minor axis of the ellipsoid
vanishes in comparison with the square of the major axis. Under
these conditions the major axis becomes the length of the rod-oscil-
lator and the minor axis its diameter.
_ To show the size of the 5.6 €? term of Abraham’s formula, the follow-
ing table (‘Table III.) has been computed for various values of //d, cov-
ering the range of the experiments by Webb and Woodman and those
by Conrat and by me.
TABLE III.
CoMPUTATION OF THE 5.6e2 TERM oF ABRAHAM’S FORMULA.
Webb and Woodman.
} Conrat.
| Writer.
It is seen that in the range of my experiments, the 5.6 €? term raises
the theoretical value of the wave-length to 2.0067, and in Conrat’s
range to 2.01 4. This term is, therefore, entirely inadequate to account
for the 5 per cent excess of the experimental values over the theoretical
values of Abraham. ἰ
332 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Also the presence of the spark-gap in the oscillator seems to be
without influence, as the values of Conrat were obtained for rods
without a gap.
In discussing the question, raised by Pollock and Close,!® as to
whether a result obtained for an infinitely thin ellipsoid can be applied
to an infinitely thin rod of uniform section, Lord Rayleigh 1® says :
“Tt appears therefore that the wave-length of the electrical vibration
associated with a straight terminated rod of infinitesimal section is
equal to twice the length of the rod, whether the shape be cylindrical
so that the radius is constant, or ellipsoidal so that the radius varies
in a finite ratio at different points of the length, and that this conclu-
sion remains undisturbed, even though the shape be not one of revolu-
tion.” Lord Rayleigh, however, raises the question whether a sufficient
reduction of the diameter of the rod to comply with Abraham’s ap-
proximation is experimentally possible without too greatly diminishing
the conductivity, which is assumed perfect in the theoretical discussion.
In reply to this note by Lord Rayleigh, Macdonald 17 expresses the
view that the rate of damping of the free vibration associated with the
terminated straight wire is very large, and in fact not far removed from
the order of magnitude of the known result for a spherical vibrator.
This large damping, if it exists, and especially if it is due to a large
radiation from the wire near the ends, would account for a distortion
of the current distribution in the conductor so as to give a wave-length
larger than twice the length of the conductor.
Since the question of the conductivity of the wire and the damping
of the oscillations has a bearing on the question of its period, it is pro-
posed to give the results of a measurement made on the damping of
one of the oscillators used in the present experiments.
Damping. —The damping factor of a rectilinear oscillator 14 meters
long, consisting of two oppositely-extending horizontal wires 7 meters
long and 1 mm. in diameter, was determined by a method recently
given by K. E. F. Schmidt.18 The spark-gap was 3 mm. long.
Schmidt’s method consists in determining the average square current
in a low resistance wavemeter circuit for various adjustments of the
wavemeter in the neighborhood of resonance. ΤῸ get the mean square
current in the wavemeter circuit the dynamometer shown in Figs. 2
and 3 was employed. The deflections of this instrument have been
shown to be proportional to the square of the current. The values ob-
tained are recorded in T'able IV, which gives the wave-length adjust-
15 Loc. cit. 16 Loc. cit.
17 Phil. Mag., 1904, 8, 276. 18 Phys. Zeits., 1908, 9, 13.
PIERCE. — OSCILLATIONS OF A HERTZ OSCILLATOR.
33d
ment of the wavemeter and the corresponding relative deflections of
the dynamometer.
TABLE IV.
For DrtTERMINING DAMPING.
Adjustment of
Wavemeter.
Ain Meters.
D/Dnm. Ἷ
Deflection relative
to Maximum.
.99
.58
These results are plotted in the curve of Fig. 4, in which the abscis-
sas are A/A,,, and the ordinates D/D,,..
Schmidt’s method of getting the damping from this curve consists
in determining the width between the two branches of the curve at
ordinates .55, .70, and .85, and then making use of a decrement dia-
gram which he has computed and plotted in his original paper, to which
the reader is referred. This method applied to the present case gives
the values in T'able V.
TABLE V.
DECREMENT BY ScHMIDT’Ss METHOD.
Width of Res.
Curve, reduced to
Proper Scale.
Ordinate.
88
64
40
334 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
The last column of this table gives the logarithmic decrement per
complete oscillation. ‘The value .32, including the Joulean decrement
Be Se bee
CEE ene
Be eS se A+}
RELATIVE DEFLECTION.
Ss
Baer aie ss Coe
DEES a ct BE
ASAm -00 110
Figure 4. Resonance curve used in obtaining logarithmic decrement.
as well as the radiation decrement, is 40 per cent higher than the
logarithmic decrement due to radiation alone, as computed by
Abraham’s formula for the decrement, which is
9.74
4 log. 2
Se}
y=
The value of the decrement is, however, too small to produce a change
in the measured value of the wave-length by more than a small fraction
of one per cent.
Summary of Results. — Assuming that the wave-length produced by
the parallel-wire oscillator is four times the length of one of the wires,
the wave-length produced by the fundamental electrical vibration of a
long, thin, rectilinear Hertz oscillator was found to be 2.094 times the
PIERCE. — OSCILLATIONS OF A HERTZ OSCILLATOR. 335
total length of the oscillator, for oscillators of length between 8 and
30 meters.
This result is 4.5 per cent higher than Abraham’s theoretical value
computed by the formulas
h=2U1+5.6 2)
1
21
4 log, aii
The results obtained in the present experiments are in approximate
agreement with two measurements given by Drude and with a series of
measurements obtained by Conrat, both using oscillators of length
between 2 and 6 meters.
JEFFERSON PuHysicaL LABORATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, MaAss.,
December, 1909.
. ΤῊΝ
ἣν
7
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 12.—Apriu, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
THE CONCEPTION OF THE DERIVATIVE OF A
SCALAR POINT FUNCTION WITH RESPECT
TO ANOTHER SIMILAR FUNCTION.
By B. Oscoop PEIRCE.
: “™ Hay ? ; ne
7 γ' era
ῳ 5 i
δος
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
THE CONCEPTION OF THE DERIVATIVE OF A SCALAR
POINT. FUNCTION WITH RESPECT, TO ANOTHER
SIMILAR FUNCTION.
By B. Oscoop PEIRcE.
Presented December 8, 1909. Received January 5, 1910.
In modern treatises on Mathematical Physics it is customary to de-
fine the derivative of a scalar function, taken at a given point in space
in a given direction, in a manner which emphasizes the fact that this
derivative is an invariant of a transformation of codrdinates. Accord-
ing to this definition,! if through the point P a straight line be drawn
in a fixed direction (s), if on this line a point P” be taken near P so that
PP’ has the direction s, and if u,, wu» be used to represent the values
at these points of the scalar point function w, then if the ratio
Up! aay Up
PP (1)
approaches a limit as P’ approaches P, this limit is called the derivative
of wu, at P, in the direction 5. If w happens to be defined in terms of a
system of orthogonal Cartesian codrdinates, x, y, z, and has continuous
derivatives with respect to these codrdinates everywhere within a
certain region, the limit just mentioned exists in this region and its
value is
du du du
ay Cos (ὦ, 8) + ay cos (7, 5) + ὃς 98 (,, 9). (2)
1 Hamilton, Elements of the Theory of Quaternions; Tait, Elementary
Treatise on Quaternions; Gibbs, Vector Analysis; Maxwell, Treatise on
Electricity and Magnetism; Webster, Dynamics of Particles and of Rigid,
Elastic, and Fluid Bodies; Jeans, Mathematical Theory of Electricity and
Magnetism; Lamé, Legons sur les Coordonnées Curvilignes; Peirce, Theory
of the Newtonian Potential Function; Generalized Space Differentiation of
the Second Order; Czuber, Wienerberichte, 101,, 1417 (1892); Boussinesq,
Cours d’ Analyse Infinitésimale; H. Weber, Die Partiellen Differential-Gleich-
ungen der Mathematischen Physik.
340 ; PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Of all the numerical values which the derivative of w can have at a
given point, the greatest is to be found by making s normal to the level
surface of w which passes through the point. This maximum value,
du\? Ou? Ow \2 13
Le) * Gr) +) | 4
is usually regarded as the value at the point of a vector point function
called the gradient vector of w, the lmes of which cut orthogonally the
level surfaces of w, and the components of which parallel to the codrd-
inate axes are
Ow Ou Ou
Sag anes (4)
This vector is, of course, lamellar.
The value of the tensor of the gradient vector is often called simply
the “gradient” of w and is denoted by ,. If at any point a straight
line be drawn in the direction (x) normal to the level surface of w,
in the sense in which w increases, and if a length h, be laid off on this
line, the projection,
hy- cos (n, 8), (5)
of this length on any other direction (s) is numerically equal to the
derivative of τι in the direction 5.
Most physical quantities — such as temperature, barometric pres-
sure, density, inductivity — present themselves to the investigator as
single valued point functions, which, except perhaps at one or more
given surfaces of discontinuity, are differentiable in the sense just
considered.
It is often desirable to differentiate a scalar function, w, at a point,
in the direction in which another scalar function, v, increases fastest,
and if (w, Ὁ) represents the angle between the gradient vectors of w and
v at the point, the derivative is evidently equal to
hy+ cos (u, 9). (6)
It frequently happens that in a question of maxima and minima,
one wishes to determine the greatest (or the smallest) value which a
quantity {7 may have, subject to the condition that another quantity
V shall have a given value (V,). If these quantities can be represented
by point functions, the problem geometrically considered requires one
to find the parameter of a surface of the constant U family, which is
tangent to the surface of the V family upon which V is everywhere
PEIRCE. — DERIVATIVE OF A SCALAR POINT FUNCTION. 341
equal to V,; but at the point of tangency, the derivative of the function
U in any direction in the tangent plane of the V surface is zero, that
is, the normals to the U and V surfaces coincide, so that
Ou Ou Ou
aah ig woe
Oo 50 ἢ 9.
dr dy dz
(7)
and these familiar equations usually furnish some general information
about the problem independent of the value of V,. As an extremely
{ΠπῈ
᾿ΕΝ
S|
to
i Q
Figure 1.
simple example we may take the familiar problem concerning the rela-
tive dimensions of an open tank of square base (x Χ a) and height y,
which shall hold a given quantity (V=.«?.y) of water and have the small-
est wet surface (V=2?+4y). Here we have the curve ἢ of the V
family, which has the given parameter, "70, and are required to find that
member of the P, Q, #, S family which touches D. The equation (7)
becomes in this case 2y=, and it appears (Figure 1) that the curves
of the two families which pass through any point of the line OJ/ are at
that point tangent to each other.
It is sometimes necessary to differentiate a point function, w, at a
point P, in the direction of the line through the point, along which
342 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
two other point functions, v, w, are constant ; that is, along the line
=) 0p, w= we. It
av ὃὺ av ar av av
dy dz Zz Ox Ov Oy
pee en wie (8)
ano δι ano ὃν aur ane
dy Oz Oz Ox Ox Oy
and if R? = 7? + M? + N*—which is equal to hy? - ho’, if » and w
are orthogonal — this direction is defined by the cosines L/#, J//R,
N/f, and the derivative required is
1 Ou Ou Ou
-- Ἐπ - ἘΜ. -- ἜΣ. -- -.
Rh (u Ox ash oy i “ἢ
If the maxima and minima of the function vw Ξξ " (z, y, 2) are to be
found under the condition that the functions v, w shall have given
numerical values, the derivative of w taken in the direction in which Ὁ
and w are constant must be made to vanish. Thus, if
μ Ξε ἢ Ὁ γῇ -ἰ 2,
and if the conditions are
ὟΣ ΞΞ ΟΣ and 2+ 7 —d,
equation (9) yields immediately the required relation
(ay + 2*) ὦ -- 4) =0.
When /’ (w) is positive, the direction of the gradient vector of / (w)
coincides with that of the gradient vector of w itself: these directions
are opposed when ,/’ (w) is negative. ‘The tensors of both vectors are
always positive. If
w=f(u), ἥν ΞΞΙ ()/} -h.7, and ~cos (w, s) = cos @% 8):
in particular, when
w=1/u, hy =h,/u? and cos (wv, s) = — cos (ὦ, 8),
so that
PEIRCE. — DERIVATIVE OF A SCALAR POINT FUNCTION. 949
If w is the distance (7) to a point on a curve (s) from a fixed point
outside the curve,
or
δι 71 cos (5, 7)
7 = + ον 6,9, 2 ( \=- G9.
7 7
Any function of the complex variable (ax + by + izW/a? + 6”) has a
gradient identically equal to zero, but every differentiable real point
function has a gradient in general different from zero. The gradient of
a function may be constant throughout a region of space: if the
gradient of w is constant, the surfaces upon each of which w is constant
form a parallel system. If the gradient of a function, w, is either con-
stant or expressible in terms of w, any differentiable function of w has
a gradient either constant or expressible in terms of vw. If the gradient
of w is expressible in terms of w alone [/,, =f (w) ], it is possible to form
a function, a Hf ae of w the gradient of which shall be constant. If
h,,is neither constant nor expressible in terms of w, no function of ὦ
exists the gradient of which is expressible in terms of w. The functions
u=sin (ὦ -᾿ ψ -Ὁ 2), v= sin (ὦ + 2y — 82), w=sin (5a — 4y — 2)
illustrate the fact that the gradient of each of three orthogonal point
functions may be expressible in terms of the function itself.
If the gradient of each of two orthogonal point functions, w, Ὁ, were
expressible as the product of a function of w and a function of v, so that
hy, = U,- Vi, and h, = U,- V2, it would be possible to form two func-
tions | a o] of w alone and of v alone, respectively, the
gradient of each of which would be expressible in terms of the other.
If the gradient vectors of two functions have the same direction at
every point of space, one of these functions is expressible in terms of
the other. If the gradients of two real functions, w, v, are everywhere
equal while the directions of their gradient vectors are different,
du+v) u—v) , Wut) Iu—v) δίῳ -Ἑ Ὁ) u—v) _
ax eee ay ay ae ae ee (10)
and the functions [w +], [w— Ὁ] are orthogonal, as are F’(u + 9),
J(u — v), where 27 and / are any differentiable functions. If w and v
are orthogonal functions, the functions [Δ΄ (ω) + f(v)], [ζ΄ (ω) —/(e)]
have gradients numerically equal to each other at every point.
Two scalar point functions, the level surfaces of which are neither
coincident nor orthogonal, may have gradients each of which is ex-
344 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
pressible in terms of the other: the gradient of υ = $a? — 4.27? is
equal at Eneny point of the ay plane to the square of the gradient of
w=2*—y’, If wu and v are orthogonal functions of # and y, the
product of their gradients is equal to the Jacobian,
Ou Ov. Ou dav
da Oy ly doy Ox
The differential equation
SnOnOn:
which leads to systems of parallel surfaces, is of standard form. Its
complete integral is
ψ Ξε αἱ -ἰ ὃν - τ ν 12 -- α --- ὁ Ὁ ἃ,
where a, ὦ, d are arbitrary constants, and from this the general
integral may be obtained in the usual manner.
If a direction s be determined at every point of a given region, 7,
by some law, the derivative of the function w becomes itself a scalar
point function in 7’, and if this is differentiable, it may be differentiated
at any point in any direction, say s. It is usually convenient to
define s by means of three scalar point functions, J, m, ἢ, the sum of
the squares of which is identically equal to unity, and which represent
the direction cosines of s. In this connection it is well to notice that
if s has the direction at P of the tangent of a continuous curve which
passes through the point, if P’ be a point near P on the tangent and
P" a point near P on the curve, and if {7 is any differentiable scalar
point function,
Upy — Up Up — Up
Pre PY
have the same limit, as P’ and P” approach P, that which has been
defined as the derivative of U at P in the direction s. If, then,
ih is differentiable
= = {5 Ὁ νεύειν ἐν 905
= ae may Ζ
-ἰϑ ων O7u ἣν 07u du Ol . Ou om du On
gt” an ay" ax-dz δῷ δ; Oy Ox Oz da”
(11)
and
oe = δ nt tot οἰ oe im seat? sa +2 ες
(donor deG( ttn Gon)
ΟΣ ay” a) (12)
If s’ is a direction defined i the cosines /’, m’, η΄,
O7u 07u , Ou 07u
——_ = J]. —— +. mm’ - — +nn’-—
ds’ - ds 0x? τῇ "ἢ Ὁ az?
+ (η΄ -Ἐ Um Yee apt (σιν: min) 50 a
τ {Ὁ nl) =
duf,, al ᾿ = al dul, Om inh, om ge am
ἐπί τ ἐπ το ne ae ἫΝ ὭΣ;
+3 (rota ano), (13)
and it is clear that the order of differentiation is usually not com-
mutative. Derivatives of this kind are often found in differential
equations of orders higher than the first which define functions in
terms of simple curvilinear coérdinates.
If for instance spherical coérdinates are to be used, the second
derivative of w taken in the direction in which @ increases fastest is
Oru
Ox”
6" ς Ou τς 0? :
-c0s76 cos" + a -cos"6 sin? y + = -sin?6+ aN cos” @ sin ᾧ cos φ
Ox - OY
ONG Nae AREY ated? aa" F a abe
ae sn Oconee eh: : θ Shh ΟΡ ο
ae ae sin@ cos θ cos } eae sin 6 cos@ sin ᾧ dg 518 cosh
ONY i 8 iy est a ἢ (14)
r- oy r+ Oz
and this, which contains derivatives of the first order, is in sharp con-
trast to the second derivative of w taken in the direction 7, which is,
07
Lhe Ὡς : Pu
== sin? 6 cos’ + ay sin? sin’ + rr os’6 +=
ἘΣ -sin?6 sing cosd
FO... > 2 ὃ
il ER
ἘΠ ay oe sin cos sin + 5 —-
- sin 8 cos θ᾽ cos ¢. Ugclo)
346 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Sometimes 5 and s’ are fixed directions so that J, m, n, {΄, m’, η΄, are
constants throughout 7. and in this case the coefficients of dw/dz,
du/dy, δι δ: in (12) and (13) vanish. The mutual potential energy W,
of two magnetic elements, 27, 17’, of moments, m, m’, can be written
in the form
ἂν δ
m-m Sl) (16)
where 7 is the distance J/W’ and 5, s’ are the directions of the axes
οἵ the elements. ‘The force (due to the second magnet) which tends
to move the first magnet in the direction of its own axis is then
ἢ ὁ 1
Ξ--- 7}. ως er asa (:) (17)
and these differentiations assume that the direction cosines of s and
s’ are constants.
In general, if s is the direction perpendicular to the level surface of
μι, and if Δ is the scalar point function which gives the value of du/ds,
aru dh Ou δὴ Ou δὴ du ξ
Os (55 i ay ay ele te)
In the case of oblique Cartesian codrdinates in a plane, 2 increases
fastest in a direction which is not perpendicular to the line along
which it is constant. If the angle between the codrdinate axes is ὦ,
Ou Ou Ou
ata h,- cos (a, hy), ay = h,,-cos (y, h,,), πὰς h,- cos (s, hy),
du _ dw sin (y, 8), dw sin (2, 8) (19)
ds dx sinw dy sino
‘
It is frequently necessary to differentiate one point fanction, U, with
respect to another, w, and the process usually appears in the form of a
kind of partial differentiation. [ for instance, {7 is to satisfy a differ-
ential equation in terms of a set of orthogonal curvilinear coérdinates
of which w is one, the derivatives of 7 with respect to w are to be taken
on the assumption that the other codrdinates remain constant. This
large subject bas been treated exhaustively in the many works on
PEIRCE. — DERIVATIVE OF A SCALAR POINT FUNCTION. 347
orthogonal coérdinates which have been published since Lamé’s clas-
sical treatise 2 appeared.
Given a function, w, it is, however, not generally possible to find a
system of orthogonal functions of which w shall be one, and it is often
convenient for a physicist to differentiate a physical function, UV, with
respect to another, w, without considering the existence of any other
related functions. A physical point function has a value at every point
in space which is not altered by changing the system of codrdinates
which fix the position of the point, and it is well to define the deriva-
tive of {7 with regard to w in a manner which shall emphasize the fact
that the derivative is an invariant of a change of codrdinates and which
shall not assume that two functions (v, w) can be found orthogonal to
each other and to w. When U and w are considered by themselves and
not regarded as codrdinated of necessity with other similar quantities,
it is usually, if not always, the case that a “normal” derivative? is
required.
The normal derivative, at any point, P, of the differentiable scalar
point function U, with respect to the differentiable scalar point function
u, may be defined as the limit, when PP’ approaches zero, of the ratio
Ue We (20)
up’ — UP
where P’ is a point so chosen on the normal at P of the surface of con-
stant wu which passes through P, that wp:— wp shall be positive. If
(U, w) denotes the angle between the directions in which {7 and w in-
crease most rapidly, the normal derivatives of U with respect to w and
of ὦ with respect to U may be written
hy hy,
—-cos(U,u) and =“-cos(U, uw). (21)
li hy
If ho=h, these derivatives are equal. An example of this is the
equality of dn/0r and dr/dn in a familiar application of Green’s
Theorem, where » and 7 represent the normal distance from a given
surface and the distance from a given fixed point respectively. If U
and w happen to be expressed in terms of a set (z, y, z) of orthogonal
2 Lamé, Lecons sur les Coordonnées Curvilignes et leur Diverses Appli-
cations; Salvert, Mémoire sur l’Emploi des Coordonnées Curvilignes; Dar-
boux, Lecons sur les Systémes Orthogonaux et les Coordonnées Curvilignes;
Goursat, Cours d’Analyse Mathématique.
3 Peirce, Short Table of Integrals, Theory of the Newtonian Potential
Function; Generalized Space Differentiation of the Second Order.
348 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Cartesian codrdinates, the normal derivative of U with respect to w
can be written
aU, (cu δ aU du i aU du
Ox δὲ Oy ψ ay | Oz az
Di τὰ (22)
and it is easy to see that this is equal to the ratio of the derivatives of
{7 and w taken in the direction in which w increases most rapidly.
It is occasionally instructive to use the conception of normal differ-
entiation in studying some of the general equations of Physics: thus
in the uncharged dielectric about an electric distribution, the potential
function, V, is connected with the inductivity of the medium, μ, by the
familiar equation
a ay = ( aV
δαὶ" ax ΠΝ ἥν
in which μι is to be regarded as a point function discontinuous in gen-
eral at each of a given set of surfaces at every point of which an equa-
tion of the form
Wo) = 0, (23)
aV aV
ἀν] any ies Ong ms Ge
is satisfied. Now (23) may be put into the form
dlogu . V?V
av hy?
=0, (25)
and according to Lamé’s condition, the second term is a function of V
only, if the level surfaces of V are possible level surfaces of a harmonic
function.
It is easy to make from (25), by inspection, such simple deductions
as those which follow in this paragraph. If V is harmonic, either the
dielectric is made up of homogeneous portions separated from one an-
other by equipotential surfaces, or the level surfaces of « and of V are
everywhere perpendicular to each other. If V, though not harmonic,
satisfies Lamé’s condition [V?( V)/ hf,” = F'(V )] the level surfaces of the
inductivity are equipotential ; and if the level surfaces of V and μ are
identical, V satisfies Lamé’s condition. If when the plates of a con-
denser are kept at given potentials, the level surfaces of the inductivity
of the dielectric are equipotential, the value of the potential function in
PEIRCE. — DERIVATIVE OF A SCALAR POINT FUNCTION. 349
the dielectric would be unchanged if » were changed to Q.p, where Ὦ is
any scalar point function orthogonal to V. If the continuous dielectric
of a condenser in which the level surfaces of the inductivity, μ, are
equipotential be changed so as to make the new potential function
between the plates a function [V’=/ (V)] of the old, the new induc-
tivity must satisfy an equation of the form p’=OQ.u//’(V). If the V
and the μ᾿ surfaces are neither coincident nor orthogonal, V cannot be
harmonic, and if V is given and one value of the inductivity found, no
other value of the inductivity with the same level surfaces as this can
be found except by altering the old value at every point in a constant
ratio. If V does not satisfy Lamé’s condition, a new value of the
inductivity found by multiplying the old value by any point function
orthogonal to V, will yield the same value of V, but the level surfaces
of the inductivity will be altered. Ifthe V and the » surfaces are not
coincident, no change of the inductivity which leaves its surfaces un-
changed can make these surfaces equipotential.
If a mass of fluid, the characteristic equation of which is of the form
p=/J(p, T), is at rest under the action of a conservative field of force
the components of which are _X, Y, Z,
It follows immediately from these equations that p and V must be
colevel, and the normal derivative of p with respect to V shows that
equilibrium is impossible unless the distribution of temperature is such
that the equipotential surfaces are also isothermal.
If the scalar point function, W, is expressed in terms of the three
orthogonal point functions, w, v, w, the square of the gradient of W is
well known to be equal to
aw? aw \? aw?
EY) Sec ἘΣ Cae {τ eh
fy (= + hy (OEY τῶν ee ἷ
-If the vector point function @ is expressed in terms οἵ w, v, w, the
divergence of Q is equal to
0 a3 0 ον ἴοι Qw
aa [ἕ 3] yi τα : ow nei
If the normal derivatives of w and v with respect to w be denoted by
D,yu and D,yv, it follows from the definition that
350 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Dy (ὦ + v) = Dyu + Dye, Dyur = n-ur— - Dyu,
πα aa
υ ye ’
Do fu) = FU): Do):
The normal derivative of « with respect to v is a scalar function
which, if differentiable, has a normal derivative with respect to v, and
since by definition
Dy
Dn ] Ὧι (27)
ly
1 (0h, Ov, Ohy Ov , Ohy AV Ἶ
hi -- hy | dx δὲ dy dy Gz Oz (28)
we may write
D,? w= δ | ᾿ς a (ge) τὸ o*u a (5) ἘΠ (ξ an
a 074 dv dv oer dv dv du dv dv
aE: dx-dy Ox dy ὃη ὃς Ay ὃς Oz-dx Oz da
Bae, εἷς διε (dh, 9 ὃὉ dhy he du Oh, v3 9 2 hy
Ve ΠΝ 2 oe av dy\ oy dy dv
dv Oh,
πω 29
1 (8 dw dv , Pu dw dv δ᾽ dw dv
hhy? | da dx ὃ; Oy? dy dy OZ dz a
ms 1 | du (dw dv om) Pu (dw (00. Sips dv
ho? hy? | dx-dy\dy dx! Ox dy) ᾿ dy-dz\'0z dy dy dz
0’u (Ow dv . Ow =)
ΤΣ =
ax-dz\0z δὼ Ox dz
1 { 0» Ow Ov dw Ov Ow
hy? -h
da\ ax? dx dy Oa oy RE Ox ὃ: ὃ:
2 du dv[dhy ow dh, Ow . Ohy Ow
hy Ox dx\ dx dx * dy “ay Oz az
1 Cul dv Ow ὃν ιν ὃν Ow
oe ae rene Δ.)
2 du oe ( She Ow . dh, Ow dh, Iw
hy Oy Oy
Oy dy Oz ὃς | Ox ax
PEIRCE. — DERIVATIVE OF A SCALAR POINT FUNCTION. 901]
1 AS 070 Ow 0% dw Ov Ow
ae dz? dz | Ow-dz Ox dz-dy dy
2 dw dvfdhy Ow . Oh, Ow . Ohy Ow
DE Nias Parkash : ; (30)
hy δὲ Oz dz Oz | Ow ὃ: dy dy
It is evident that D,D,u is usually quite different from DyD,u.
In the transformation of a partial differential equation from one set of
independent variables to another set which does not form an orthogonal
system, derivatives occur which are not normal in the sense of the last
paragraphs. Ifa mass of fluid is in motion under the action of given
forces, it is usually convenient either to express the orthogonal coérdi-
nates of a particle which at the time ὁ has the position (a, y, 2) in terms
of ¢ and the codrdinates 2, 70» %, which the same particle had at the
origin of time, or to express 2%, 4%, 2%, a8 functions of x, y, 2, ἡ.
Xo i (; Y, 2, t), Yo =/S. [2 Y, 2. t), Bm=S; (a, Yy, 2, t). (31)
In this case, it frequently happens that the level surfaces of A, A, /:,
are not orthogonal. According as we use the “historical” or the “sta-
tistical” method of studying the motion, we shall express the pressure
and the density in terms of 2, Yo, 20» ¢, or in terms of 2, y, z, ὁ. Sup-
pose the second method to have been chosen, and dp/ dr to have
been found by the aid of Euler’s Equations of Motion and the Equation
of Continuity, and suppose that dp / dz, is needed. We shall then have
Op ΒΝ ὃ ὃρ dy , Op dz
az, ὃν; ἜΤ dy ax, τῇ 02 ay (22)
If with the help of (31) we find the values of the determinants
ὅν Oo ὅγυ Oo ὃν Yo
Oy dz dz Ov Ox Oy
L= , M= ee 5 (33)
0% IZ, 02, 02, 0% AZ
dy dz dz Ox Ox Oy
and put
a a,
Q=L-— + MS Ξε- τ Ν.
R= 1? + M+ NY
B52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
we may write the results of differentiating all the equations of (31)
with respect to 7, Yo, %, in the form
OD) cE? Op. a TOs niall
du, ἢ dx, Q? 9x ἢ ae
so that
L op Mop ΟΝ op
Op koe Rk oy f % 35
δα, Ly δὲς ΔΙ dary ΔΝ diy’ ue
R dx" R δὴ * R a
and this is evidently equal to (9), the ratio of the directional deriva-
tives of p and zy taken in the direction (s) in the (2, y, 2) space in which
both y, and z, are constant. If (s, p), (s, ) represent the angles between
s and the directions of the gradient vectors of p and x respectively,
ap _ hy-008 (6, 9)
Oe τ Wey CONS) is)! τ
It is convenient, therefore, to define the derivative of a scalar point
function, w, with respect to another scalar point function, v, at any
given point in any direction (s), as the ratio of the directional deriva-
tives of w and v taken at the point in the direction 8.
Derivatives of this kind which frequently appear in two dimensional
problems in Thermodynamics and in Hydrokinematics, usually involve,
as has been said, a transformation from one set of codrdinates to an-
other which is not orthogonal.
JEFFERSON PuysicaAL LABORATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, Mass.
December, 1909.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
Vout. XLY. No. 13.—Aprit, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
THE EFFECT OF LEAKAGE AT THE EDGES UPON
THE TEMPERATURES WITHIN A HOMOGENEOUS
LAMINA THROUGH WHICH HEAT IS BEING
CONDUCTED.
By B. Oscoop ΡΕΙΒΟΕΒ.
re Ay,
Ae
Oa hay
Can .
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
THE EFFECT OF LEAKAGE AT THE EDGES UPON THE
TEMPERATURES WITHIN A HOMOGENEOUS LAMINA
THROUGH WHICH HEAT IS BEING CONDUCTED.
By B. Osacoop PErRcr.
Presented December 8, 1909. Received January 5, 1910.
In many of the determinations of thermal conductivity which have
been made during the last few years, the so called “wall method” has
been employed. That is, one face of a plate or wall of the material to
be experimented upon has been kept at one constant temperature for
a long time while the opposite face has been maintained at another
constant temperature, and the quantity of heat per square centimeter
of either face, which under these circumstances has passed per second
from one face to the other, has been measured in some convenient
way.
In practice such a plate is of limited dimensions, and although it is
easy to insure that the temperatures of the faces shall be nearly uni-
form, it 1s comparatively difficult to maintain a steady gradient from
face to face at the edges so that the heat flow within the slab shall be
the same as if the faces were infinite in extent. If, however, the faces
of the specimen to be used are small enough, it is possible to prevent
almost entirely the escape of heat at the edges by surrounding the
periphery by an arrangement like a Dewar flask. This is impracticable
when for any reason the plate has to be large, and in this case it is
necessary to make the thickness of the wall so small compared with the
dimensions of the faces that the lines of flow of heat from face to face
in the central portion of the slab shall not be appreciably distorted by
loss of heat through the edges of the wall.
Some time ago, in an attempt to obtain an accurate average value
of the conductivity of a given stratum in a certain deep mine, I had
occasion to apply the wall method to some blocks of stone which were
not perfectly homogeneous, and in order to represent the material fairly
it seemed best to use a slab eight centimeters thick for each determina-
tion. ‘The slabs were square and the edges were covered with lagging
356 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
to make the loss of heat through them as small as possible. Under
these circumstances there was a very rough approximation to a uniform
temperature gradient from the warm face to the cold one, at each edge,
but it was difficult to measure the edge temperatures accurately and the
areas of the faces were therefore made so large that the temperatures of
points on the axis of the slab (that is, the line which joins the centres
of the faces) would surely be the same within one one hundredth of a
degree of the centigrade scale, in the final state, whether the whole of
each edge was kept at the temperature of the warmer face or at the
temperature of the colder face.
In anticipation of some further work of the same kind, I have been
led to compute the final axial temperatures in a square slab (a X a X ©)
of thickness c, when one face is kept at temperature 7) while the other
face and all the edges are kept at the lower temperature 7;. ‘The work
is straightforward enough, but the computation when the slab is rela-
tively broad is very laborious, and in view of the practical importance
of the wall method in determinations of the conductivities of poor con-
ductors of heat, it seems well to record some of the results.
The problem just stated is solved (71 -- WT, + WT) when one
has found} a solution (W) of the equation
OW wo, yf OY
da? as dy? i ° (1)
which is equal to unity when z= 0, and to zero when z = ὁ for all
positive values of 2 and y not greater than a; and which vanishes
when x = 0, or y = 0, or a ΞΞ ὦ, or y = ὦ; for all positive values of z
not greater than c.
A convenient normal solution of (1) is
= = MTe nr
Ae) Ξ- τ Ὁ πο. (2)
where 12 = m? + πῇ, and it is evident that
W (a, γ, 2) =
> ae 16 pee εἰ SE 2) πῶ ΝΗ a (3)
m=1n=1 whe a fy
7*mn sinh —
a
where m and are odd integers.
1 Byerly, Fourier’s series, etc., p. 127.
PEIRCE. — TEMPERATURES WITHIN A HOMOGENEOUS LAMINA. 357
The function
V=1—W(a,y,c— 2), (4)
which satisfies (1), is equal to unity when z = 0, and also for all posi-
tive values of z not greater than c, when 2 = 0, or y = 0, or 2 ΞΞ ὦ, or
y =a. It vanishes when z = ¢, and the function
TAR Wr TYA Vin T) (5)
or
DG tee) a Mah than ae — eda dee) (6)
gives the temperatures in the slab if one face is kept at the temperature
TABLE I.
70, the other face at 71, and the edges at 7”. In an infinite slab of
thickness c, the faces of which are kept at 70 and 7;, the temperatures
are given by the expression
ὕω =(Ti—Tr)=+ Te (7)
so that the difference between the values of the temperature at any
point in the slab in the ideal case and the real case is
(TT) [Z-W eye) + (CT) Wey,2) + Wleype—2)—1),
6)
358 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
The last factor of this expression has its maximum value at the
middle point of the axis where z = 4c.
~~
Ficure 1. The ordinates of the curve show the temperatures, for dif-
ferent values of a, of a point Q in the centre of the axis (OS) of a square slab
(a X a X e) of given thickness c, when one face (a X a) is kept at the tem-
perature 100° while the other face and the edges are kept at 0°. The hori-
zontal unit is c, and it appears that when a = 5c, the temperature (49.9° +)
of Q differs only slightly from the temperature (50°) which it would have if
a were infinite. The shaded area above indicates the section of the slab for
different values of a.
The value of W for the centre of the axis of the slab is given for
several different values of a in Table I. When the ratio of a to c is
large, the double series which defines W converges very slowly. Thus
to obtain the last number in the table more than one hundred and fifty
terms of the series were needed.
Figure 1 represents the numbers of Table I. graphically.
It is interesting to compare these results with similar ones for cir-
cular disks which Professor R. W. Willson and I obtained? several
years ago.
2 These Proceedings, 1898, 34, 1.
PEIRCE. — TEMPERATURES WITHIN A HOMOGENEOUS LAMINA. 909
TABLE II.
ΕἾΝΑΙ, AxtaALn TEMPERATURES IN A Homogmnrous Disk or DIAMETER d
AND THICKNESS 6, WHEN ONE Face (Ζ = 0) 15 KEPT AT 100° C., THE
OTHER Facr (2 - 6) at 0° C., aND THE EpGrE ΑἹ THE UNIFORM TEM-
PERATURE @.
᾿ Ὁ eS
μαι eS
pho ke I Ot
""
ἢ
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
6
6
6
-
Θ
μ-
ς
μο ἡ π᾿ πὶ ἡ πὸ 9. τα
μ᾿
Θ
360 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Figure 2. The curves show the final temperatures on the axis (OS) of
a circular disk of given thickness (c) and of diameter d, when one face is kept
at the temperature 100° and the other face and the rim at 0°. In A, B, C, Ὁ,
and Εἰ, the diameter has the values } ὁ, c, 3c, 2c, ὃ 6, respectively.
JEFFERSON PHysIcAL LABORATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, Mass.,
December, 1909.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 14.—Aprin, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
ON EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE OF
A SOLID SPHERE.
By Harry W. Morse.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
ON EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE OF A
SOLID SPHERE.
PRELIMINARY NOTE.
By Harry W. Morse.
Presented by John Trowbridge, February 9, 1910. Received January 3, 1910.
THE micro-balance of Salvioni and Nernst permits of following small
changes in weight with considerable accuracy, provided the body under
investigation has a mass not greater than a few milligrams. This bal-
ance consists merely of a fibre of quartz or glass, firmly held in a nearly
horizontal position by being secured at one end, and provided at the
other end with some means of attaching the object to be weighed. The
weight is then, within quite wide limits of deflection, proportional to
the deflection, and the balance is easily calibrated by means of small
riders of known weight. JDeflections are followed by means of a cathe-
tometer or a microscope with micrometer eyepiece. Differences of 0.01
millimeter or even less are easily determined, and if the fibre be so
chosen that a weight of 1 milligram gives a deflection of about a centi-
meter, there is no difficulty in detecting and measuring changes of
weight of 0.001 milligram or less.
With such a balance the change of weight of small spheres of iodine
has been followed at approximately constant temperature. Evapora-
tion was allowed to go on in a large box with glass sides, and the two
side doors of the case were left open before each series of readings to
allow free circulation of air. It may therefore be assumed that the
partial vapor pressure of iodine in the atmosphere about the evaporat-
ing spheres was constant. ‘The temperature was constant within about
0.3° during each run.
After many attempts to obtain definite geometrical form by casting,
fairly accurate spheres were made by pouring molten iodine into water.
There is no difficulty in obtaining in this way approximately spherical
pieces with radii varying from 1 millimeter down to 0.2 millimeter.
364 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
It was thought possible that there might be a change in the character
of the surface as evaporation proceeded. ‘The spheres were hard on
the surface, and quite smooth as they came from the water, but they
undoubtedly consist of a mass of very small irregular crystals and any
roughening that might appear during the course of the experiment
would lead to a considerable increase in surface. ‘That such changes
do not occur in disturbing amount is shown by the fact that the deter-
minations made with small spheres fresh from formation fall accurately
on the curve of measurements on spheres which have been evaporating
for some hours. Microscopic examination corroborates this and shows
also that the spherical shape is maintained practically unchanged until
the sphere finally disappears completely.
In these experiments the spheres were supported on a nearly flat
scale-pan of thin glass. This may introduce a variation in the surface
exposed to the air, due to difference in the surface of contact between
sphere and glass, and especially to be expected if the particles are not
closely spherical. This factor is also shown to be negligible by the
closeness with which the spherical form is kept during evaporation and
also by the fact that turning the particle over has no measurable effect
on the rate of evaporation.
Measurements on three spheres of different radii are given below.
These observations are plotted in the curve of Figure 1.
There is plenty of evidence that in any system made up of smaller
and larger particles of the same substance, whether solid or liquid, the
smaller particles are relatively unstable. So far, however, all of our
knowledge about solids is of a purely qualitative nature, and no definite
relation has ever been obtained based on vapor pressure or surface ten-
sion, and expressing quantitatively the change of vapor pressure or
surface tension with change of radius. It has been many times noticed
that, in a sealed tube containing iodine crystals of various sizes, the
larger crystals grow at the expense of the smaller ones, which gradually
disappear. In a few days this can be clearly proved, and the same
effect has been noticed for water drops and for camphor and other
rather volatile substances.
In the ease of liquids it is possible to set up a definite relation be-
tween vapor pressure and curvature of drop. This has been done for
water and a few other liquids, and the theory has been tested with some
accuracy by experiments on the formation of fog by the expansion of
saturated water vapor. For water the difference in vapor pressure be-
tween a drop of radius 0.001 millimeter and a flat surface is of the
order of 0.001 mm. of mercury, so that the effect becomes almost in-
sensible for drops of any size.
MORSE. — EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE. 365
It was therefore expected that any influence of the size of the particle
of iodine on the rate of evaporation would only appear for very small
Sphere 1. Sphere 2. Sphere 3.
Weight. Time. Weight. Time. Weight.
mgms. min. mgms, min. mgms.
1.880
1 1179
1.600
1.420
1.310
1.260
1:210
1.140
1.100
1.050
1.000
0.638
0.590
0.557
0.512
0.482
0.376
0.233
0.192
0.157
0.135
0.104
spheres indeed and that for all particles of sensible dimensions the rate
would be proportional to the surface, so that
or since the change in mass is being followed
366 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
dm
— — = km.
dt
The measurements show that this relation does not hold, even for
spheres of radius 0.5 millimeter or more. The observed values do,
WEIGHT IN PUILLIGRAMB
300
MINUTES:
Ficure 1. Evaporation from small spheres of Iodine. Small circles,
observed values. Large circles, calculated values.
however, agree accurately with the assumption that the rate of evapora-
tion is proportional to the surface and at the same time inversely as
the radius, so that
dm... 8 τὴ dm
dt r dt
= km.
In the figure the large circles have been placed according to the
formula
m3 — mes ὁ
le — ty Ἢ
MORSE. — EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE. 367
and the curve has been drawn through the points thus determined.
The constant was calculated from the mean of all the observations and
shows a probable error of a little less than 0.5 per cent. The results
of the observations are given as smaller circles. In putting in the re-
sults for the smaller spheres or for those in which a full run down to
‘zero of weight was not carried out, the original value of the mass of the
sphere was placed on the curve and the times of the other observations
on the same sphere were taken from this point. It is very probable
that this method of choosing the highest weight has somewhat decreased
the accuracy of the calculated constant, for it has been invariably ob-
served that a measurable time elapses before a sphere falls into its
regular rate of evaporation. It begins slowly, sometimes at not more
than half its full rate, and several minutes elapse before it reaches its
maximum value. It is probable that better agreement would have
been obtained if a point farther along in the observations had been
chosen and calculations made in both directions from this.
It seems clear that for spheres of iodine of mass ranging from 2 milli-
grams to very small values, the rate of evaporation is quite accurately
proportional to the radius.
Before taking up any theory of this surprising result it will be best
to have data on evaporation from masses having other geometrical
shapes, and especially for a flat surface. It is expected that data on
these points will be presented to the Academy in the near future.
JEFFERSON PHysicaAL LABORATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, Mass.,
December, 1909.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 15.—Apriz, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
SOME MINUTE PHENOMENA OF ELECTROLYSIS.
By Harry W. Morse.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
SOME MINUTE PHENOMENA OF ELECTROLYSIS.
By Harry W. Morse.
Presented by John Trowbridge, December 8, 1909. Received January 6, 1910.
As the process of electrolysis is usually carried out there is very
little opportunity to get any insight into its more minute mechanism.
We are accustomed to think of each metal by having its own solution
pressure, and by this we mean that it tends to go into solution under
an impetus which varies with its position in the electro-motive force
series. It 15 possible to calculate an osmotic pressure which would be
just sufficient to balance this solution pressure and which would, if
applied, cause equilibrium at the electrode. Under ordinary condi-
tions electrochemical reactions are quite perfectly coupled. Equiva-
lent amounts are dissolved at the anode and precipitated at the
kathode, and it is not infrequent to state Faraday’s Law in terms of
the amounts thus dissolved and precipitated. But cases are well
known where much more care must be taken in the statement of this
law, as for example, where the air enters into reaction with one or both
of the electrodes, or where the electrolyte itself attacks them. Very
frequently a reaction of the form
MRS Minetal Sey 2M
causes a loss or gain not proportional to the amount of current which
has passed through the electrolytic cell.
In the case of silver electrodes in a solution of silver nitrate it is
usual to sum up the process as follows: —
During any unit of time after the circuit is closed
(1) An equivalent amount of silver dissolves at the anode.
(2) Silver migrates (as silver ion) toward the kathode and nitrate
ion migrates toward the anode, each carrying its share of the current
in proportion to its migration velocity.
(3) An equivalent amount of silver separates as metal at the
kathode.
372 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
In the case of silver electrodes in pure water we might expect during
each unit of time :
(1) At the anode, the formation of oxygen, or an oxide of silver, or
the solution of silver, the sum total making one equivalent.
(2) The transfer of hydrogen ion (and later of silver ion if this is
formed) toward the kathode, and of either or both of the ions ΟἿ and
OH toward the anode.
(3) At the kathode, evolution of hydrogen, and later precipitation
of metallic silver, the two together making up one equivalent.
A case has recently come to my attention in which some of the
more minute phenomena which accompany electrolysis are evident and
in which lack of equivalence at the electrodes is especially evident. So
far only qualitative observations have been made, but the data secured
seem worthy of consideration.
JE ΖΕ — Xe
Figure 1. Electrolysis on microscopic slide between silver electrodes.
If pure water be electrolysed between small silver electrodes at vol-
tages ranging from 1.40 to about 3.8 volts, and the space between and
about the electrodes be observed under the microscope with powers of
50 or so, the following series of minute phenomena are visible : —
(1) A very short time after the circuit is closed a cloud of brownish
particles, very small and in violent Brownian movement, is formed in
the neighborhood of the anode. If silver foil is used as anode it can
be seen to dissolve rapidly and a dark film of silver oxide remains.
The particles first make their appearance at a slight distance from the
anode, and appear to be due to the formation of a silver compound
produced from the silver which has dissolved and one of the constitu-
ents of the water.
(2) This cloud consists of approximately spherical particles of diam-
eter 0.3 to 1.0 mikron. It is readily soluble in very dilute acetic acid
and slightly soluble in water, forming an alkaline solution. The par-
ticles appear to be silver oxide.
(3) Ifa cell of form similar to that shown in Figure 1 is used for the
electrolysis, the particles move along the floor of the cell toward the
kathode. During their migration toward the kathode they follow
the current lines, and Figure 2 shows drawings made about half a
minute apart, indicating the general appearance under a low magni-
fying power. ‘The masses which move in this way are not the single
MORSE. — SOME MINUTE PHENOMENA OF ELECTROLYSIS. 373
particles, which would not be visible at this magnification, but are
clumps each containing a great many individual grains.
(4) While the above is occurring in the neighborhood of the anode
a thin cloud of totally different appearance may appear about the
kathode. The particles of this cloud are metallic in appearance, and
they later disappear suddenly and completely when the growth of
metallic silver begins at the front of the kathode. The kathode cloud
seems to be effected by external conditions in greater degree than that
Figure 2. Minute phenomena of electrolysis between silver electrodes.
from the anode. It is a function of the separation of the electrodes
and the character of the kathode surface.
(5) The above described effects appear in the purest obtainable
water and they are most evident in the best conductivity water, which
has been recently prepared in quartz vessels and kept carefully from
contact with air.
Electrolytes in very small ὐνοθεϑθδῃ prevent the effect completely
and cause the appearance of the usual gas bubbles at the anode and
kathode. The following brief eee shows how a few electrolytes
behave in this respect.
374 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Sodium Hydroxide 0.015 N Cloud.
.020 Δ very slight cloud and bubbles
at anode.
above .020 N Only bubbles at anode.
Sodium Chloride 0.0005 Δ᾽ brown cloud, soluble in drop of
acetic acid.
brown brown soluble
001 Ὁ το Ϊ σους nite insoluble
above .001 ΔΝ white cloud only.
(6) While the above effects are making their appearance in the
electrolyte at slight distances from the electrodes nothing whatever
happens at the kathode itself. The space between the electrodes may
be active for several minutes without the appearance of either a
bubble of gas or a crystal of silver. If very thin silver foil is used for
electrodes solvent action on the anode is very evident and it is rapidly
dissolved. A thin silver foil kathode shows signs of dissolving at the
edges during the first minute or so of the passage of the current, but
the action ceases immediately.
(7) There seems to be a limiting voltage below which these phe-
nomena do not make their appearance. ‘his is very close to 1.41
volts for electrodes 1 mm. apart. ‘The upper limit of voltage, above
which gas appears at the electrodes, is about 3.8 volts.
(8) Even in purest distilled water the phenomena are much more
complicated than those so far described. The anode and kathode
clouds are quite different in their behavior. That from the kathode
appears to be composed of particles shot off at random, and these
particles do not take any definite path after leaving the neighborhood
of their parent electrode. The anode cloud, on the contrary, sticks
closely together, and if the electrodes are at the mouth of a deep test-
tube filled with water the anode cloud travels to the very bottom of
the tube in such close coherence that it looks like a thin brown thread.
(9) The effect of a magnetic field on the behavior of these particles
has been tried without definite result. ‘They are relatively so large,
and they move so slowly that an effect is hardly to be anticipated.
Attempt has been made to follow the changes in weight at each
electrode during the electrolysis. The micro-balance was adapted for
this purpose as shown in Figure 8. It is of course quite impossible to
use any arrangement in which a fibre passes through the liquid sur-
face. The effect of surface tension is far too great. But by placing
both fibres and conducting wires under the surface of the electrolyte
MORSE. — SOME MINUTE PHENOMENA OF ELECTROLYSIS. 9375
the difficulty is easily overcome. he balance loses but a small per-
centage of its sensitiveness when used with a heavy metal like silver
or copper.
The fibres used were of quartz and about 8 cm. long. The conduct-
ing wires were of platinum about 0.04 mm. in diameter, and these were
welded to small pieces of silver wire and held fast in hooks at the end
of the fibres, so that the silver electrodes were presented to each other
at a distance of about 1.5 mm. ‘The sensitiveness was such that a
0.1 mg. rider at the end of either fibre caused a deflection of more
than a centimeter. One of the (large) divisions of the micrometer
Figure 3. Microcoulometer.
eyepiece of the observing microscope corresponds to a change in weight
of about 0.0001 mg., and a fraction of a division is easily read.
With this instrument the following qualitative changes were
noticed.
(1) Immediately on closing the circuit a very slight decrease in the
weight of each electrode. ‘This change was observed in four of six
experiments and must therefore be classed as doubtful until further
proof is obtained of its correctness.
(2) Thereafter for several minutes an increase in the weight of each
electrode, the anode gaining much faster than the kathode. ‘This
effect is quite certain and considerable. It is accompanied by a
change in color at the anode, which turns dark, and probably repre-
sents the formation of silver oxide or peroxide. The increase in
weight at the kathode is seen to be due to the deposition of silver.
(3) From then on decrease in weight at the anode, and increase at
the kathode, finally approaching proportionality.
The most important point which has been brought out in this pre-
liminary exploration seems to be that of the complete lack of equiva-
376 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
lence at the two electrodes. As observed under a high power, the
entire anode may be eaten away, and the electrolyte space filled with
masses of silver oxide, in some cases without a visible change at the
kathode. Not even a bubble of gas makes its appearance. If plati-
num is used as kathode in place of silver, not the smallest amount of
current can be sent through the cell without the appearance of streams
of minute bubbles.
JEFFERSON PuysicAL LABORATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, Mass.,
December, 1909.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 16.— May, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
AIR RESISTANCE TO FALLING INCH SPHERES.
By Epwin H. Haut.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
AIR RESISTANCE TO FALLING INCH SPHERES.
By Epwin H. Hatt.
Presented January 12, 1910; Received January 12, 1910.
In 190311 published an account of experiments which I had made
with falling bronze spheres, one inch in diameter, in the tower of the
Jefferson Physical Laboratory. 'The especial object of these experi-
ments was to look for a southerly deviation, from the plumb line
vertical, of the course of the falling balls, several observers, from the
time of Hooke, 1680, to Rundell, 1848, having reported finding
such a deviation, though Gauss and Laplace, both of whom discussed
the matter theoretically about 1803, could find no cause for the
phenomenon.
The general mean of the deviations observed by myself in the
north and south plane in the experiments referred to, experiments
much more careful and extensive than those which any one else had
made in this matter, was a southerly movement of about 0.005 em. in
a fall of about 23m. The probable error was about 0.004 cm., and 1
should have regarded the case as practically closed in favor of the
negative if my predecessors had not, almost without exception, reported
a considerable southerly excursion. On the whole I was disposed to
try the question further, and accordingly applied in 1904 for permis-
sion to make experiments for this purpose in the great monument at
Washington, D. C., where a sheer fall of about 165 τη. is possible.
The monument is in the care of the War Department, and at first the
authorities applied to acted favorably upon my petition. A few months
later, and before I had made any overt preparations for the work pro-
posed, some change of management or of mind occurred in the Depart-
ment, and the permission previously granted me was courteously but
firmly withdrawn, “for the reason that the monument was designed
as a memorial to General Washington.” I have long since come to
1 Physical Review, 1903, 17, 179 and 245; These Proceedings, 1904, 39,
339.
380 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
the conclusion that this action was a fortunate one for me, as the
investigation would certainly have been tedious and expensive and
would probably have been inconclusive.
But the easterly deviation also was, incidentally, measured in my
experiments at the Jefferson Laboratory, and the general mean value
found for it was 9.149 cm., whereas the value given by the theoretical
formula,
y =k gucosd X ἐδ,
where w is the angular velocity of the earth’s rotation, A is the latitude,
and ¢ is the time of fall in seconds, is 0.177 2 em. for the case in
hand. The probable error of the observed general mean is perhaps
greater than that for the southerly deviation, but is not great enough
to account for the difference between the observed and the theoretical
easterly value. I did not give in any of my previous papers on this
subject the formula of Gauss or that of Laplace for the easterly devia-
tion of a body falling in air, though I had given considerable attention
to their treatment of the effect of air resistance, but closed my discus-
sion of the matter thus : “The mean easterly deviation actually found
in these experiments, 0.149 cm., differs 0.03 cm. from this theoretical
value, —a quantity too large to be accounted for by the resistance of
the air. I attach but little significance to this discrepancy, as the con-
ditions for determining the easterly deviation in my work were plainly
not so good as those for determining the southerly deviation.”
Thus the matter stood till last April, when I received from Professor
Hagen of the Vaticana Specola Astronomica the suggestion that I should
make some experiments to find out how much the resistance of the air
really amounted to, in order to see whether it might not after all go
some distance toward explaining the discrepancy between the observed
and the calculated easterly deviation. Father Hagen puts the state-
ment of Gauss concerning the effect of air resistance so clearly, that I
shall copy his words, changing, however, the nomenclature slightly.
He writes : '
“Gauss puts the height of the fall, determined by linear measure,
=f, and 4g? =/+ 8, determined from the observed time of the fall.
The difference δ is owing to the resistance of the air. Then
Deviation y = 2 cosAut (f — $8).”
It was easy to carry out the suggestion thus given, and accordingly
in October I reéstablished the releasing part of my apparatus at the top
2 I have given this previously as 0.179, but 0.177 is more nearly correct.
HALL. — AIR RESISTANCE TO FALLING INCH SPHERES. 381
of the Laboratory tower and had a new cloth tube suspended for the
balls to drop through. This tube, like the old one, which had wasted
away, was about 35 cm. in diameter, and the balls fell along its axis.
At the bottom of the tower the receiving apparatus was now a hori-
zontal plate of brass, fastened at one end but free at the other, so as
to be capable of up and down motion. Near the free end of this plate
a square hole, about 5 em. on each side, was cut. Over this hole was
placed in some cases a sheet of lead somewhat narrower than the hole
but long enough to be clamped fast to the brass plate at each end.
Later a thin sheet of wood was placed over the hole before each fall.
In either case the ball, after falling from the top of the tower, would
strike the cover of the hole and break through it, the first shock of its
impact pulling the brass plate down far enough to break the contact
which made part of an electrical circuit including a chronograph. At
the top of the tower the release of the ball broke the same electrical
circuit, which was, however, closed a fraction of a second later. It
is hardly necessary to give further details of the apparatus except
this, that the chronograph, which was driven by an electric motor at
the rate of about 3 cm. per second, was not under the best of control,
and it was accordingly necessary to make a greater number of trials
than would otherwise have been required in order to determine the
time of fall with sufficient accuracy. It should be added that the rate
of the clock giving the second signals at the chronograph was not very
accurately known, as it varied somewhat from day to day, probably
because of changes of temperature. Its error may have been as much
as half a minute per day, but was probably less than this. An error
of this magnitude is not serious for our present purpose, and the clock
was in my calculations assumed to be correct.
On the 16th of October 17 balls were dropped with such success as
to give usable records. ‘I'he mean time of fall was 2.176 seconds, with
a probable error about 0.002 second.
On the 25th of October I made another series of trials, dispensing
with the protecting cloth tube. In this series records were obtained
from 15 balls, the mean time of fall being 2.174 seconds, with a prob-
able error about 0.004 second. It appears, then, that the presence of
the tube has little if any influence on the time of fall.
The latitude of Cambridge being 42° 22’, very nearly, and the eleva-
tion above sea level very slight, we find that, according to the general
formula for g as a function of A, its value here is, to the first decimal
place, 980.4. Accordingly we have as Gauss’s /+ 6, the distance a
body would fall in vacuum in 2.176 seconds,
7: δ.:-ΞΞ 2 X 980.4 X 2.176? = 2321 cm.
382 ~ PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
The distance /; the actual length of the fall, as measured by a steel
tape which was tested by a Brown and Sharpe steel meter rod, was
2285 cm. Accordingly ὃ = 36 cm., and the easterly deviation should
be, according to Gauss,
6.2 28
yj = £cos42> 22! K ——
ae 86400 *
X 2.176 (2285 — 18) = 0.177 em.,
that is, to the third place of decimals the value of the easterly deviation
is not in our case affected by the resistance of the air, if I have cor-
rectly understood and used the formulas of Gauss.
CoEFFICIENT OF AIR RESISTANCE.
It is perhaps worth while, since observations on the air resistance
offered to the motion of spherical bodies are not over numerous, to
work out from the data here at hand the coefficient of this resistance
for the spheres here used, —bronze spheres, one inch in diameter,
ground to a smooth surface, but left in a slightly greasy condition by
their experience of being dropped into beds of tallow in their use six
years ago.
The mere buoyant effect of air on bronze may properly be neglected
in this discussion, as it is very small.
If we assume that the resistance of the air is proportional to the
square of the velocity of the falling sphere, within the moderate range
of velocity here considered, we have, as the net accelerating force on a
ball of m grams, (mg — kv?) dynes, where / is the constant coefficient
of resistance. Accordingly, writing ὁ for m + ἢ, we find as the incre-
ment of velocity
dy = (0 _ =) dt , (1)
whence
—— = -- ele (2)
This equation, integrated for » between the limits 0 and τ, and for
t between the limits 0 and 2.176 (the observed value), gives
a ἢ on VE ΕΒ [=a 72 log GOED Eee (3)
2/ gc i igen να —v
HALL. — AIR RESISTANCE TO FALLING INCH SPHERES.
We have further, if s is the distance fallen, from (2)
FAR SE)
ay
ara
383
(4)
Integrating this equation for s between the limits 0 and 2285 (the ob-
served value) and for » between 0 and v, we get
8. = 2285 =~ 5) tog (o* — ge) | = = Sloe (1 -
2 0 2
Writing now (8) in the form
γε pone £302V0
Vgc — 0
v aS (ι Ξε ἘΠ Ὁ
and substituting for » in (6), we get
and (5) in the form
4570
Ve (; εἰς γι Sas ) εὐ Αϑον
τ wee |
or
__ 4570 ες:
fe γ 1 en ie 4.355 9
r 4570 τ ’
1 -- 1 -- ε c
or
/ __ 1984.726
Vee A) ο 1.89005 980-4
ee)
γ __1984.726
1 0) €
(7)
(8)
The value of ¢ which satisfies this equation I find to be about 48000.
The value of 4, the coefficient in question, is m, the mass of the ball,
which is about 73.8 gm., divided by c.
k = 73.8 + 48000 = 0.00154.
384 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
In Alger’s “ Exterior Ballistics ” I find the following passage :
“Expressing the retardation caused by the resistance of the air in
2
the form A τ ἴα which d is the diameter of the projectile in inches,
w its weight in pounds and v its velocity in f. 5., Mayevski’s equations *
are as follows:”
“» between 790 f. 5. and 0 f. 5.,
—=—A,—v log A; = 5.669 ... (— 10).
“The coefficient A depends on the shape of the projectile. In
Mayevski’s calculations the ‘ogival’ form [the shape of an ordinary
artillery ‘shell’] is assumed, the ‘ogival’ heads having two calibers
radius. A would be greater with hemispherical heads.”
Mayevski’s formula is equivalent to
Resistance (poundals) = — w - = Ad* κου:
Taking this formula for the case in which d is one inch, the diameter
of the bronze balls, and the velocity is 1 cm. per second, we get for the
“ogival” form,
Resistance (poundals) = A + 3 5,
τ (dynes) =A + 30.5 X (453 x 30.5) = 0.00069.
This is about 45 per cent of the value, 0.00154, found above for / in
the case of spherical one inch balls.
JEFFERSON PHysiIcAL LABORATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, Mass.,
January, 1910.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 17.— May, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE GRAY HERBARIUM
OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
New Series. —No. XXXVIII.
I. A preliminary Synopsis of the Genus Echeandia. By Ὁ. A.
WEATHERBY.
II. Spermatophytes, new or reclassified, chiefly Rubiaceae and
Gentianaceae. By B. L. Roprnson.
Ill. American Forms of Lycopodium complanatum. By C. A.
WEATHERBY.
IV. New and little known Mexican Plants, chiefly Labiatae. By
M. L. Frrnaxp.
V. Mexican Phanerogams— Notes and new Species. By C. A.
WEATHERBY.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE GRAY HERBARIUM OF HARVARD
UNIVERSITY.—NEW SERIES, NO. XXXVIII.
Presented by B. L. Robinson, January 12, 1910. Received February 15, 1910.
I, A PRELIMINARY SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS
ECHEANDIA.
By C. A. WEATHERBY.
Tre genus Lcheandia, founded on Anthericum reflerum Cavy., was
proposed by Ortega in his Novarum Plantarum Decades in 1798, and
has been generally maintained by botanists since. Kunth, in 1843,
recognized three species under it. Baker, monographing the A nther-
iceaé in 1877, could find no clear lines of demarcation between these
species and referred all the material known to him to the original
species. Hemsley, though suspecting that more than one species was
concerned, retained Baker’s treatment because of insufficient material
for a satisfactory revision. Since the date of his work, the increasingly
thorough floristic exploration of Mexico has revealed a number of
obviously distinct forms, several of which have been singly described
by various botanists. The genus can hardly yet be considered as
thoroughly understood ; but a brief synopsis, which shall contrast the
characters of the different species and bring together the existing
information concerning them, may be of service, even though it can
lay no claim to finality. The following is an attempt at such a
synopsis.
Echeandia is, so far as known, a strictly American genus and chiefly
confined to Mexico and Central America. The material at hand shows
one species collected in Venezuela. he genus is very closely related
to Anthericum L., from which, indeed, it is separated by only one
constant character —its connate anthers. Although the American
species of Anthericum are more numerous than those of Hcheandia,
the two groups show a distinctly parallel development, both con-
taining species with smooth and with roughened filaments, smooth
and scabrous stems and ovoid and oblong capsules. In particular,
Δ. macrocarpa and A. stenocarpum, and E. Pringlei and A. tenue are
nearly indistinguishable except by the characters of their anthers.
388 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
I have preferred, at least for the present, to regard plants which
differ only in comparatively superficial foliar and habital characters as
varieties of a single species, rather than specifically distinct. I have,
however, made an exception in the group of forms closely related to
E. refleca. ere, because of imperfect material of Δ. reflexa and
E. paniculata and of certain puzzling specimens from Yucatan, I have
not been able to arrive at a wholly clear conception of the relationships
of the different forms ; and I have allowed described species to stand
as such, rather than make new combinations which later might have to
be withdrawn.
For the loan of specimens, and for other kindly assistance in the
preparation of this paper, I am indebted to Captain John Donnell
Smith, to Mr. Brandegee of the University of California, Dr. Rose of
the National Herbarium, and Dr. Greenman of the Field Museum.
All specimens cited are in the Gray Herbarium, unless otherwise
specified,
ECHEANDIA Ort. Perianth rotate, spreading or reflexed in flower,
after anthesis the withered segments cohering above the ovary and
persistent until pushed off by the expanding capsule; segments 6,
distinct, three-nerved, about equal in length, the inner often broader.
Stamens 6, hypogynous, shorter than the perianth ; filaments filiform
or clavate, smooth or more or less papillose- or crispate-roughened ;
anthers linear, hastate at base, the filament attached in the sinus,
usually equalling or longer than the filaments, connate in a cylindrical
tube which surrounds the style, introrse. Ovary sessile, three-lobed ;
style filiform, a little longer than the tube of anthers; stigma small,
capitate. Capsule ovoid or oblong, triangular, loculicidal. Seeds
numerous, angulate-compressed, black, minutely papillose.— Roots
fibrous, clustered, often thickened or fusiform. Leaves basal or rarely
the lower part of the stem leafy. Stem scapiform, bracted, simple or
branched above, the branches virgate. Flowers yellow or white, on
usually slender jointed pedicels in clusters of 1-4 on the stem and its
branches, in the axils of chartaceous bracts, each pedicel subtended by
a similar smaller bractlet ; the clusters in virgate racemes.
a. Filaments smooth; leaves strictly basal, not sheathing the stem, b.
Ὁ: Stem scabrous, 1-4-bracted . ..... . . . 1 parviflora.
b. Stem smooth, 6—9-bracted, ce.
c. Leaves spreading, faleate,15cem.orlesslong . . 2. E. brevifolia.
c. Leaves erect, narrowed at base, more than 15 cm. long, d.
d. Leaves Badal PA {HIM OMIA 5 5 me Fea eH OdOsae
d. Leaves narrow, not over 1 cm. ida 3, E. nodosa, var. lanceolata.
WEATHERBY. —- SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS ECHEANDIA. 389
a. Filaments more or less crispate- or papillose-roughened, e.
e. Leaves broad, 0.8-3.5 em. wide, membranous in drying, soft, the prin-
cipal nerves usually connected by conspicuous cross-veinlets, /.
jf. Stem smooth; flowers chiefly yellow, as far as known, 4.
g. Capsule ovoid or short-oblong, 6-9 mm. long, ὅ-- 7 mm. broad; inner
perianth-segments oblong-lanceolate, little broader than the
outer, h.
h. Leaves lanceolate or even ovate-lanceolate, 20-25 em. long, 2.8—5
cm. wide, not more than 8 times as long as wide.
4. E. macrophylla.
h. Leaves linear or narrowly lanceolate, 24-42 em. long, 1.2-2.3 em.
wide, at least 12 times as long as wide.
4. Ε΄. macrophylla, var. longifolia.
9. Capsule oblong, 1-1.8 em. long, 4-6 mm. wide; inner perianth-
segments ovate or ovate-lanceolate, often much broader than the
outer, 7.
i. Leaves for the most part sheathing the stem but confined to its
base; stem about 2-bracted, 7.
7. Leaves narrow, 8-13 mm. wide, k.
k. Leaves usually several (6-10), suberect . 5. E. macrocar pa.
k. Leaves few (2-4), spreading, short in proportion to the stem.
5. EH. macrocarpa, var. formosa.
1: Leaves broader, 1.5-2cm.wide. . . .. . 6.E. refleza.
zt. Stem leafy for about a third of its height, the leaves passing grad-
ually into 38-6 reduced bracts . . . . . 7. E. paniculata.
f. Stem scabrous, at least below; flowers white. . . . 8. E. albiflora.
e. Leaves narrow, 2-5 mm. wide or less, firm, closely and prominently
veined, mostly without visible cross-veinlets, 1.
l. Leaves 2-5 mm. wide, minutely scabrous beneath; stem 2-bracted;
inflorescence mostly branched. . . . . . . . 9. E. flexuosa.
l. Leaves 2 (—2.5) mm. wide or less, seabrous-ciliate on the margins, else-
where smooth; stem 3-6-bracted; inflorescence mostly simple.
10. EZ. Pringlei.
1. E. parvirtora Baker. Leaves membranous, linear, not very
prominently nerved, 4-8 mm. wide, 6-22 cm. long, suberect or some-
what spreading and falcate ; stem scabrous or hirtellous at least below,
simple or sometimes with as many as 5 branches ; pedicels rather short
and stout, in fruit 6-8 mm. long, jointed below the middle or toward
the base; filaments smooth; capsule (seen on the Pringle specimen
only) broadly oblong, 3.5-5 mm. wide, 6-9 mm. long. — Engl. Bot.
Jahrb. vill. 209 (1887). — GuaTeMALA: Santa Rosa, alt. 900 m., May,
1892, John Donnell Smith, Pl. Guat., no. 3528. Mexico: Mt. Orizaba,
Cordoba, 830 m., Aug. 20, 1891, Henry E. Seaton, no. 485, in part.
State of Guerrero, dry hillsides, near Iguala, alt. 915 m., July 29, 1907,
Pringle, no. 10,388.
2. E. BreviroLtia Watson. Leaves membranous, with cross-veinlets,
390 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
short, 12-15 cm. long, 6 mm. wide, acuminate, spreading and some-
what falcate, not sheathing the stem; stem about 6 dm. tall, smooth,
6-bracted, with few (3-4) branches ; pedicels slender, in fruit 11-14
mm. long, jointed below the middle ; filaments smooth ; capsule short-
oblong, 4-4.5 mm. wide, 7-8 mm. long. — Proc. Am. Acad. xxi. 441
(1886). — Mexico: State of Chihuahua, Hacienda San Miguel near
Batopilas, Sept., 1885, Padmer, no. 229.
3. E. noposa Watson. Leaves membranous, with cross-veinlets,
linear-lanceolate, narrowed at base, not sheathing the stem, 18—40 cm.
long, 2-2.7 cm. wide ; stem smooth, 6—9-bracted, with 6-7 branches,
which rarely branch again ; pedicels slender, jointed below the middle,
in fruit 11-14 mm. long; filaments smooth, shorter than the anthers ;
capsule oblong, 3.5-4 mm. wide, 8-9 mm. long. — Proc. Am. Acad.
xxvi. 156 (1891). % Phalangium ramosissimum Presl, Rel. Haenk. 1. 127
(1825). %Anthericum ramosissimum R. & Ὁ. Syst. vil. 469 (1829).
1 Echeandia Haenkeana Kunth, Enum. iv. 629 (1843).— Mexico :
State of Jalisco, near Guadalajara, 12 Nov., 1888, Pringle, no. 2151.
Dry rocky bluffs of barranca near Guadalajara, 23 Sept., 1891, Pringle,
no. 3870. — Flowers apparently small as in 4. macrophylla, the peri-
anth-segments narrow, whitish in drying. From Presl’s description it
seems highly probable that this plant is the same as his Phalangiwm
ramosissimum. In the absence of authentic material, however, I hesi-
tate to make the new combination required by the transfer of Presl’s
species to Echeandia.
Var. lanceolata, n. var., a forma typica recedit habitu graciliore,
foliis angustioribus 6-10 mm. latis, pedicellis 1 em. longis, capsulis min-
oribus 3.5 mm. latis 5-6 mm. longis.— Mexico: State of Sinaloa,
Copradia, Oct. 20, 1904, Brandegee, type (in Herb. Univ. Cal., sheet
no. 119,863). Ymala, Sept. 28 to Oct. 8, 1891, Palmer, no. 1677.
Culiacan, Sept. 17, 1904, Brandegee (in Herb. Univ. Cal., sheet no.
119,856). — The name Janceolata was applied to this plant, on. her-
barium labels, by Mr. Brandegee, who at that time was inclined to
regard it as a good species. It seems, however, hardly specifically
distinct from 1. nodosa. The specimen on sheet no. 119,856 of the
University of California Herbarium has broader leaves than the other
two plants cited and may be regarded as a transitional form between
the extreme development of the variety and typical Μ΄. nodosa.
4. E. macrophylla Rose, in hb., foliis omnino radicalibus caulis
basin vaginantibus lanceolatis 20-25 cm. longis 2.8-5 em. latis in
apicem acuminatum angustatis, caule 7 dm. alto glabro 2-bracteato,
ramis 5-6 saepe 2 ex axilla unica, pedicellis infra medium vel prope
basin articulatis, floribus parvis, perianthii segmentis 1-1.3 em. longis
WEATHERBY. — SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS ECHEANDIA. 391
lineari- vel oblongo-lanceolatis latitudine subaequalibus, interioribus
paulum latioribus acutis, exterioribus obtusiusculis, filamentis clavatis
modice crispatis in floribus (novellis) visis quam antherae duplo brevi-
oribus, capsulis ovoideis 7 mm. longis 5 mm. latis. — Mexico: State of
San Luis Potosi, grassy slopes, Las Canoas, 16 June, 1890, Pringle,
no. 3183.
Var. longifolia, n. var., foliis late linearibus 24-42 em. longis
1.2—2.3 em. latis saepius solum radicalibus, caule 6.2—9 em. alto, ramis
paucis (1-3), pedicellis 1-2 em. longis, filamentis antheras aequantibus
vel eis brevioribus, capsulis ovoideis vel breviter oblongis 7-9 mm.
longis 5-6 mm. latis, ceteris praecedentis. —? μ΄, terniflora Lindley, Bot.
Reg. xxv. Mise. no. 144 (1839), not Ort. &. terniflora Baker, Journ.
Linn. Soc. xv. 288 (1877), in part, not Ort.; Hemsl. Biol. Cent.-Am.
Bot. 111. 376, in part, not Ort. — Mexico: State of Oaxaca, vicinity of
Choapam, alt. 1150-1406 m., July 28 & 29, 1894, Nelson, no. 910,
type (in U. S. Nat. Herb.). State of Vera Cruz, Zacuapan, dry sunny
fields, Nov., 1908, Purpus, no. 3761. Orizaba, Botteri, no. 1185.
Ibid., Cordoba, 830 m., Aug. 20, 1891, H. 4. Seaton, no. 485, in part.
Vallée de Cordova, 23 Avril, 1865-66, Bowrgeau, no. 2307. VENE-
ZUELA: prope coloniam ‘Tovar, 1854-55, Hendler, no. 1549. The Bour-
geau plant has entirely the habit and the fruit of this species, but the
filaments are nearly smooth. It seems somewhat transitional between
this and the preceding group. — Flowers yellow according to Lindley’s
description ; white with yellow anthers according to a note on Fendler’s
label. The plant seen by Lindley was possibly {αὶ refleva, but from his
description, seems rather to belong here.
5. E. MAcRocARPA Greenman. Leaves chiefly basal, suberect, rather
narrowly linear, (6) 8-15 mm. broad, membranous, the cross-veinlets
usually prominent, long in proportion to the stem, usually 6-10 in
number ; stem 1—2-bracted, glabrous, simple or few-branched ; pedicels
jointed below the middle, rather stout, in fruit 1-1.7 cm. long ; flowers
apparently rather large, the perianth-segments 1.5-1.7 cm. long, the
inner ovate-lanceolate ; filaments moderately roughened, equalling or
slightly longer than the anthers ; capsules oblong, 1-1.8 cm. long, 4—6
mm. wide. — Proc. Am. Acad. xxxix. 73 (1903). #. terniflora Hemsl.
Biol. Cent.-Am. Bot. iii. 3876, in part, not Ort.— Mexico: State of
San Luis Potosi, near T'ancanhuitz, May 2, 1898, Nelson, no. 4393,
type; region of San Luis Potosi, alt. 1850-2450 m., Parry & Palmer,
no. 890. “Mexico,” no locality, Ehrenberg, no. 31. ‘Chiapas, ete.,”
Ghiesbreght, no. 875. Vallée de Mexico, Santa Fé, 6 Juillet, 1865-66,
Bourgeau, no. 413. Guanajato, 1880, A. Dugés. State of Oaxaca,
vicinity of Cerro San Felipe, alt. 3000-3400 m., 1894, Nelson, no. 1056
392 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
(in U. S. Nat. Herb.).—A specimen from Mt. Orizaba, 3000 m.,
Aug. 5, 1891, H. H. Seaton, no. 180, is probably a reduced form of this
species. — Flowers yellow according to Ghiesbreght’s label. Difhcult
to separate from 46. reflewa, except by purely habital characters.
Var. formosa, n. var., foliis paucis (circa 4) caulis basin extremam
vaginantibus patulis caule duplo brevioribus late lmearibus circa 1 em.
latis summum 2 dm. longis, caule simplice, pedicellis gracilibus, flori-
bus magnis aureis, ceteris formae typicae. — Mexico: State of Chiapas,
near San Christobal, alt. 2100-2500 m., Sept. 18, 1895, Nelson, no.
3143 (in U.S. Nat. Herb. Sheet no. 233,087). — Flowers “rich yellow ”
according to Nelson’s note.
6. E. REFLEXA (Cav.) Rose. Leaves rather closely sheathing the
base of the stem, broadly linear, 27-40 cm. long, 1.5-2.2 em. wide,
acuminate, membranous, the cross-veinlets prominent ; stem about 7 dm.
tall, smooth, rather slender, bearing 2-- foliaceous bracts, in the single
specimen seen with two branches; pedicels jointed below the middle,
in fruit 1.4-1.7 em. long ; perianth-segments broad, 1.5 em. in length ;
filaments strongly roughened, at least in the young flower shorter
than the anthers ; capsule (immature) oblong, 1 em. long, 4 mm. wide.
—Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. x. 93 (1906). Anthericum reflecum Cav. Ie.
Pl. iii. 21, t. 241 (1795); Willd. Sp. Pl. τ. 140 (1799). Echeandia
terniflora Ort. Nov. Pl. Dec. 90, 135, & 136, t. 18 (1798) ; Redouteé,
Lil. vi. t. 813 (1812); Kunth, Enum. iv. 627 (1843); Baker, Journ.
Linn. Soc. xv. 288 (1877), in part; Hemsl. Biol. Cent.-Am. Bot. 11.
376 (1885), in part. Phalangium reflecum Poir. Encycl. Meth. Bot. v.
249 (1804). Conanthera Echeandia Pers. Syn. i. 370 (1805) ; Link ἃ
Otto, Ic. Pl. Rar. 5, t. 3 (1828). — Mexico: State of Morelos, ledges,
Sierra de Tepoxtlan, near Cuernavaca, alt. 2300 m., August 22, 1906,
Pringle, no. 10,289. — Although the form represented by Mr. Pringle’s
plant here cited was the first of the genus to be collected, it seems not
to be common. His specimen is the only one I have seen which, in its
combination of broad leaves, few-branched stem, yellow, rather broad
perianth-segments, strongly roughened filaments and oblong capsules,
agrees well with Cavanilles’s and Ortega’s plates.
7. E. pantcutata Rose. Stem tall, with 6-7 panicled branches,
leafy above the base for about a third of its height, the leaves passing
gradually into 3-6 reduced bracts; leaves membranous, with cross-
veinlets, linear, long-attenuate at apex, up to 5 dm. long, 1.5-3 cm.
wide; flowers rather large, yellow; perianth-segments 1.5 cm. long,
the outer oblong-linear, the inner ovate, 6 mm. wide; filaments cla-
vate, strongly roughened, about equalling the anthers ; capsule not seen.
— Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. x. 93 (1906). — Mexico : State of Morelos,
WEATHERBY. — SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS ECH#ANDIA. 393
near El Parque, Sept. 21, 1903, Rose & Painter, no. 844 (in U.S.
Nat. Herb., sheets nos. 454,954 & 454,955). — No fruit of this species
has been preserved, but its floral characters place it clearly very near
Μὰ refleca. So far as the material at hand shows, it differs from that
species only in its more leafy stem and more branched inflorescence and
may very probably prove to be no more than a variety οἵ it. — Here are
doubtfully placed the specimens from two collections of C. #. Gaumer
namely from Yucatan, Izamal, Sept., 1895, no. 843 and Chicankanab,
no. 1995 (the latter in Herb. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., sheet no. 58,793).
These specimens have neither fruit nor good flowers and in their absence
can hardly be placed definitely. They have mostly a much-branched
inflorescence, several(7—8)-bracted stem and the leaves pass abruptly
into the much reduced bracts. In this respect they differ from
EF. paniculata; and the branches of the inflorescence are more
slender and the flower-buds smaller than in either that species or
4. reflexa, although the plants are quite as robust.
8. E. aupirtora (Schlecht. & Cham.) Mart. & Gal. Leaves basal,
several, lanceolate-linear, narrowed to an acute apex, the principal
nerves united by transverse veinlets, membranous, glabrous, about 36
em. long, 1.8—2 cm. wide ; stem scabrous or hirtellous below ; inflor-
escence paniculate ; pedicels slender, 10 mm. long, jointed below the
middle ; flowers white ; perianth-segments lanceolate ; filaments re-
trorsely papillose-crispate, equalling the anthers; capsule ?— Bull.
Acad. Brux. ix. 886 (1842) ; Kunth, Enum. iv. 628 (1843). Conan-
thera albiflora Schlecht. & Cham. Linnaea, vi. 50 (1831). Echeandia
leucantha Klotzsch, fide Kunth, |. c.—I have seen no material refera-
ble to this species. The above description is taken chiefly from that
of Kunth.
9. E. rLexvosa Greenman. Leaves firm, closely and prominently
veined, suberect, minutely scabrous beneath, 2-5 mm. wide, variable
in length (reaching 8 dm.), long-acuminate ; stem 9 dm. high or less,
smooth, 2—3-bracted, the lower bract sometimes elongated and seta-
ceous, reaching 15 cm. in length ; pedicels jointed near or below the
middle, rather stout, in fruit 12-16 mm. long; flowers rather large
with lanceolate perianth-segments ; filaments moderately roughened,
shorter than or nearly equalling the anthers ; capsule oblong, 6-9 mm.
long, 3-4 mm. wide. — Proc. Am. Acad. xxxix. 73 (1903). — Mexico :
State of Oaxaca, Mts. of Jayacatlan, alt. 1400 m., 10 Sept., 1894,
Lucius C. Smith, no. 188. State of Jalisco, Rio Blanco, July, 1886,
Palmer, no. 185 ; bluffs of the barranca of Guadalajara, 1400 m., 19
July, 1902, Pringle, no. 11,197.
10. E. Priveter Greenman. Leaves firm, closely and prominently
394 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
veined, scabrous-ciliate on the margins, elsewhere smooth, 1.5—-2 (2.5)
mm. wide, 1-3 dm. long; stem 2.7-6 dm. high, slender, glabrous,
simple, bearing 8-6 bracts ; pedicels jointed near the base, in fruit
10-14 mm. long; filaments moderately roughened, shorter than the
anthers ; capsule oblong, 3-3.5 mm. wide, 7 mm. long. — Proce. Am.
Acad. xl. 28 (1904). — Mexico : State of Jalisco, dry calcareous hills
above Etzatlan, 2000 m., 24 Oct., 1904, Pringle, no. 8812; grassy
plains near Guadalajara, 1500 m., 4 Oct., 1903, Pringle, no. 11,715 ;
hillsides of Zapotlan, alt. about 1500 m., Aug. 8, 1905, P. Goldsmith,
no. 122; near Etzatlan, Oct. 2, 1903, Rose & Painter, no. 7544 (in
U.S. Nat. Herb.).
EXCLUDED SPECIES.
E.. eleutherandra K. Koch, Ind. Sem. Hort. Berol. App. 4 (1861)=
Anthericum echeandioides, ace. to Baker.
E. graminea Mart. & Gal. Bull. Acad. Brux. ix. 387 (1842)=
Anthericum leptophyllum.
E. leptophylla Benth. Pl. Hartw. 25 (1840) = Anthericum leptophyl-
lum.
E. scabrella Walp. Ann. iii. 1010 (1853) = Anthericum scabrellum.
E. pusilla Brandegee, Univ. Cal. Pub. Bot. 11: 377 (1909) = form of
Anthericum leptophyllum.
II. SPERMATOPHYTES, NEW-OR RECLASSIFIED, CHIEFLY
RUBIACEAE AND GENTIANACEAE.
By B. L. Rosinson.
Ranunculus trisectus Eastwood, n. sp.,1 glaber vel paulo pilosus
1-2 dm. altus simplex vel 2—3-ramosus, ramis ascendentibus; foliis
radicalibus orbicularibus trisectis, diametro 2-3 em., basi reniformi-
bus cum sinu saepissime angusto ; segmentis approximatis, medio late
cuneato, lateralibus inaequaliter bipartitis, superiore parte trilobata
majore ; omnibus lobulis similibus oblongis 2-3 mm. latis duplo longi-
oribus, apice et basi callosis, sinubus obtusis; petiolis striatis basi
membranaceis dilatatis et persistentibus ; foliis caulinis 1-3 sessilibus
vel breviter petiolatis 3—5-sectis, segmentis integris vel lobatis, ultimis
lobulis oblongo-linearibus ad apicem et sinum callosis, basi petiolorum
vel folioruam membranaceo amplexicauli; pedunculis altis, fructiferis
1 This species, elaborated by Miss Alice Eastwood from material in the
Gray Herbarium, is here published at her request.
ROBINSON. — SPERMATOPHYTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED. 395
saepe 5-6 mm. longis, floriferis multo brevioribus ; sepalis purpura-
scentibus orbiculatis 6-7 mm. latis et longis, concavis, cum pilis canis
et sericeis parce investis ; petalis aurantiacis cuneatis 5-15 mm. latis,
sepala multo superantibus, apice undulatis rotundatis, basi cum squa-
mula hemicycla supra brevem unguem ; staminibus numerosis, loculis
antherarum separatis, dorso filamentis planis ; acheniis spicatis, recep-
taculo subulato albo membranaceo pilosello ; stylis purpureis vel flavis
rectis vel curvatis et divaricatis, apice saepe deciduis. — Alpine Wal-
lowa mountains, eastern Oregon, altitude 2745 m.. growing at base of
cliffs, William C. Cusick, 16 August, 1907, no. 3200 (type, in Gray
Herb.). Under the same species are included with some doubt the fol-
lowing, all collected by Mr. Cusick at the same locality :—no. 3188,
strong growing plants, some with smooth, others with hairy akenes
but otherwise identical ; 3325 d, with akenes all hairy ; 3326 with both
hairy and smooth akenes. Among the older specimens in the Gray
Herbarium are 3219a collected in 1907 with heads of akenes more
globular and hairy, styles purplish, 1513 of 1888 and 2006 of 1898.
These all show great variability in size of flowers and height of stems
but the plants have an individuality which makes them appear quite
distinct from R. Suksdorfii with which they have been confused. In
general this species differs from 10. Suksdorfii in having more orbicular
leaves with more deeply cut divisions, narrower basal sinus, the ulti-
mate lobules obtuse and narrowing slightly to the base thus making
the dividing space rounded rather than acute. The akenes are not
angled, hairy instead of smooth, and the style curves outward more
noticeably and is less strongly subulate.
Tococa Peckiana, n. sp., fruticosa 3-6 m. alta ; ramis valde com-
pressis brunneis fistulosis parce praesertim nodos versus glanduloso-
hispidulis ; foliis late ovatis modice disparibus membranaceis 5-nerviis
supra appresse setulosis rugosis siccitate nigrescentibus subtus tomen-
tellis fiavidi-viridibus margine integriusculis hispidulis apice angustis-
sime caudato-attenuatis, majoribus 1.4—2.2 dm. longis 7-12 em. latis,
petiolo crasso hispidulo 2-2.5 em. longo prope apicem vesciculifero,
vesciculis ovoideis subcoriaceis 1—-1.2 cm. longis; foliis minoribus
1.2—1.5 dm. longis ab vesciculis destitutis ; panicula terminali peduncu-
lata ca. 8 cm. longa, ramis patentibus dichotomo-cymiferis ; floribus
sessilibus; calycis tubo subgloboso 4-5 mm. diametro parce glandu-
loso-hispidulo, limbo brevissimo membranaceo obscure 5-lobato ; petalis
ovatis subcoriaceis minute papillosis. — ΒΒΙΤΙΒῊ Honpuras, in thick-
ets, near Manatee Lagoon, 16 July, 1905, Prof: Morton E. Peck, no.
68 (type, in Gray Herb.). A species of the § Hypophysca and related
apparently to 7. guyanensis Aubl., from which, however, it may be
396 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY,
readily distinguished by its less unequal, more nearly entire leaves,
smaller, thicker-walled vescicles, and especially by its sessile flowers.
Cynoctonum oldenlandioides (Wall.), n. comb. Mitreola olden-
landioides Wall. Cat. no. 4350 (1828), without description ; G. Don,
Syst. iv. 172 (1837), where distinctions are slightly indicated ; A.DC.
Prod. ix. 9 (1845), where described and distinguished chiefly by the
widely divergent lobes of the fruit; Hook. len t. 827 (1852), where
admirably figured. The change from J/itreola to Cynoctonum becomes
necessary under the Vienna Rules, though it is certainly to be re-
gretted that the well established J/ctrecla was not included in the list
of nomina conservanda.
Cynoctonum paniculatum (Wall.), n. comb. Mitreola paniculata
Wall. Cat. no. 4349 (1828), without description; G. Don, Syst. iv.
171 (1837); A.DC. Prod. ix. 9 (1845); Progel in Mart. Fl. Bras. vi.
pt. 1, 266, t. 71 (1868).
Cynoctonum pedicellatum (Benth.), n. comb. Mitreola pedicel-
latw Benth. Jour. Linn. Soe. i. 91 (1857).
Centaurium Beyrichii (Torr. & Gray), n. comb. EHrythraea tri-
chantha B angustifolia Griseb. in DC. Prod. ix. 60 (1845). Μ΄. Beyrichir
Torr. & Gray ex Torr. in Marcy, Expl. Red Riv. 291 (1853).
Centaurium cachanlahuen (Molina), n. comb. (entiana Cachan-
lahuen Molina, Sagg. Chil. 147 (1782); also in the German edition
by Brandis, 310 (1786). G. peruviana Lam. Encyel. 11. 642 (1786).
Chironia chilensis Willd. ἫΝ Pl. 1. 1067 (1798). Erythraea chilensis
Pers. Syn. i. 283 (1805). Δ Cachanlahuan Roem. & Schultes, Syst.
iv. 167 (1819).
CenrauRiuM cALycosuM (Buckl.) Fernald, var nana (Gray), n. comb.
Erythraea calycosa, var. nana Gray, Syn. ΕἸ. 11. pt. 1, 113 (1878).
Centaurium floribundum (Benth.), n. comb. LHrythraea floribunda
Benth. Pl. Hartw. 322 (1849).
Centaurium macranthum (Hook. & Arn.), n. comb. Erythraea
macrantha Hook. ἃ Arn. Bot. Beech. 438 (1841). FE. mewicana
Griseb. ex Hook. & Arn. 1. ὁ. 302, 438. Gyrandra_ chironioides
Griseb. in DC. Prod. ix. 44 (1845). Erythraea chironioides Torr.
Bot. Mex. Bound. 156 (1859), in part.
Centaurium madrense (Hemsl.), n. comb. Hrythraea madrensis
Hemsl. Biol. Cent.-Am. Bot. τ. 346 (1882). Gyrandra chironioides
Griseb. in Seem. Bot. Herald. 318 (1856), not Griseb. in DC. Prod. ix.
44 (1845).
Centaurium micranthum (Greenm.), n. comb. Hrythraea mi-
crantha Greenm. Proc. Am. Acad. xxxix. 83 (1903).
Centaurium multicaule, n. sp., verisimiliter bienne multicaule
ROBINSON. — SPERMATOPHYTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED. 397
caespitosum 5-10 cm. altum basi densissime foliatum ; radice simplice
2-6 cm. longa ; caulibus 4-22 subsimplicibus 4-angulatis gracilibus apice
1-2(rarius 3)-floris, ramis 1-2 erectis ; foliis radicalibus rosulatis obo-
vato-spatulatis 1-2 em. longis 4—8 mm. latis apice rotundatis basi in
petiolum attenuatis ; foliis caulinis 3-4-jugis lineari-oblongis vel
linearibus 8-10 mm. longis 1-2.7 mm. latis 1-nerviis crassiusculis ;
pedunculis 1.5-4 cm. longis erectis nudis unifloris ; floribus penta-
meris ; calycis lobis linearibus attenuatis 6 mm. longis margine scari-
Osis quam tubus corollae paulo brevioribus ; corolla 1.5 cm. longa
tubo constricto flavido, limbi lobis ellipticis 6 mm. longis 2 mm. latis
apice rotundatis ; filamentis antheras subaequantibus gracilibus ; stig-
mate capitato-subbilobo. — Mexico : most meadow, Hacienda of St.
Diego, Chihuahua, 2 June, 1891, C. V. Hartman, no. 717 (type, in
Gray Herb.). This plant of somewhat striking tufted habit was dis-
tributed as Erythraea calycosa, but differs from that species rather
markedly in its lower stature, much smaller flowers, and clustered
chiefly 1-flowered stems.
Centaurium nudicaule (Engelm.), n. comb. Lrythraea nudicaulis
Engelm. Proc. Am. Acad. xvii. 222 (1882).
Centaurium paucificrum (Mart. & Gal.), n. comb. Lrythraea
pauciflora Mart. & Gal. Bull. Acad. Brux. xi. 873 (1844).
Centaurium Pringleanum (Wittr.), n. comb. rythraea Pring-
leana Wittr. Bot. Gaz. xvi. 85 (1891).
Centaurium quitense (HBK.), n. comb. LErythraea quitensis
HBK. Nov. Gen. et Spec. 11. 178 (1818). Cicendia quitensis Griseb.
Linnaea, xxi. 33 (1849). Hrythraea divaricata Schaffner ex Schlecht.
Bot. Zeit. xi. 920 (1855). Hrythraea chilensis Benth. Pl. Hartw. 89
(1842), non Pers. Centaurium divaricatum Millsp. & Greenm., Field
Columb. Mus. Bot. Ser. 11. 809 (1909).
Centaurium retusum (Rob. & Greenm.), n. comb. Hrythraea retusa
Rob. & Greenm. Proc. Am. Acad. xxxii. 38 (1896).
Centaurium setaceum (Benth.), n. comb. Lrythraea setacea
Benth. Bot. Sulph. 128 (1845).
Centaurium tenuifolium (Mart. & Gal.), n. comb. Lrythraea
macrantha 8 major Hook. ἃ Arn. Bot. Beech. 438 (1841). δὶ tenutfolia
Mart. & Gal. Bull. Acad. Brux. xi. 372 (1844). Gyrandra speciosa
Benth. Bot. Sulph. 127, t. 45 (1845).
Centaurium trichanthum (Griseb.), n. comb. Erythraea tri-
cantha Griseb. Gen. et Spec. Gent. 146 (1839).
Centaurium venustum (Gray), n. comb. EHrythraea chironioides
Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 156, t. 42 (1859), not Gyrandra chironioides
Griseb. Erythraca venusta Gray, Bot. Calif. 1. 479 (1876).
398 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
LISIANTHUS CUSPIDATUS Bertoloni, Nov. Comm. Bonon. iv. 408, t. 38
(1840). Letanthus cuspidatus Griseb. in DC. Prod. ix. 82 (1845).
This species is reduced to a synonym of Leianthus nigrescens (Cham.
& Schlecht.) Griseb. by Hemsley, Biol. Cent.-Am. Bot. 1. 845 (1882)
and of Lisianthus nigrescens Cham. & Schlecht. by Miss Perkins in
Engl. Jahrb. xxxi. 493 (1902). An examination of Bertoloni’s excellent
plate of his Lisianthus cuspidatus leads to the belief that it represents
a species markedly distinct from L. nigrescens. Conspicuous ditffer-
ences are to be found in the following features. In LZ. cuspidatus the
leaves are narrowed to a subcuneate base, the corolla is much more
deeply lobed, the lobes distinctly surpassing the pistil, while in L.
nigrescens the leaves are rounded to a somewhat amplexicaul base
and the corolla-lobes are only 4-11 mm. long being somewhat over-
topped by the stigma. A specimen, τον in the Sapoti Barranca
near the City of Guatemala by Sutton Hayes, July, 1860, and now in
the Gray Herbarium, corresponds in all respects to the plate of Berto-
loni, and fully justifies the separation of the species. The lobes of its
corolla are 1.7 cm. in length. Lisianthus nigrescens Hook., in Curt.
Bot. Mag. t. 4043, would appear to be L. cuspidatus Bert.
Lisianthus oreopolus, n. sp., suberectus 7 dm. vel ultra altus
perennis ; caule tereti (juventate solum plus minusve tretragono)
levissime basi lignescenti; foliis sessilibus lanceolato-oblongis acumi-
natis membranaceis 8-11 em. longis 1.5—-2.4 cm. latis basi amplexicauli-
bus biauriculatis subtus pallidioribus internodia multo superantibus ;
panicula laxa 3 dm. longa 2 dm. diametro ; ramis ramulisque ascen-
denti-patentibus saepius alternis ; pedicellis propriis (supra bracteolas)
brevibus 1-2 mm. longis saepe curvatis ; calyce graciliter ovoideo
acutiuscule angulato 1 cm. longo fere a basi 5-lobo, lobis tenuibus at-
tenuatis corollae appressis ; corolla infundibuliformi 4 em. longo gla-
berrima flava, tubo proprio gracili, faucibus longiusculis gradatim
ampliatis, lobis 1.4-1.6 em. longis lanceolatis acutissimis late paten-
tibus; et staminibus et stylo exsertis; stigmate peltato margine
revoluto. — Mexico: Temperate region, mountain of Chiapas, flow-
ering in June, Ghiesbreght, no. 702bis (type, in Gray Herb.). A
species in habit similar to 1. nigrescens Cham. & Schlecht., but dif-
fering in its yellow corolla with considerably longer and much more
widely spreading lobes.
Lisianthus viscidifiorus, n. sp., erectus 1-1.2 m. altus floribus
exceptis glaberrimus ; caule subtereti levissimo angulis parvis promi-
nulis 2 e costis mediis foliorum decurrentibus paululo ancipitali ;
internodiis inferioribus brevissimis 8-12 mm. longis, intermediis 2-6
em. longis, superioribus ad 19 cm. longis; foliis lanceolato-oblongis
ROBINSON. — SPERMATOPHYTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED. 399
sessilibus amplexicaulibus 7-12 cm. longis 1-2.2 em. latis acutis
crassiusculis basi biauriculatis ; panicula laxissima 3 dm. longa 2-3
dm. diametro, ramis patenti-ascendentibus infra nudis apice saepissime
trichotomis 3-5-floris, ramulis lateralibus saepius 2-3.5 cm. longis
1-floris apicem versus saepissime arcuatis bibracteolatis ; floribus vis-
cosis; calyce herbaceo breviter subcylindrico basi turbinato, lobis
juventate acutis mox apice ‘erosis maturitate obtusissimis viscidis ;
corolla 3-3.5 cm. longa, tubo rectiusculo verisimiliter atrorubenti,
limbo ca. 1 cm. diametro viscidissimo, dentibus deltoideis 3 mm. longis
viridescentibus ; staminibus inclusis ; stigmate modice exserto peltato.
—QGUATEMALA: Coban, Dept. Alta Verapaz, alt. 1350 m., August, 1907,
H. von Tuerckheim, no. 11. 1308 (type, in Gray Herb.). Distributed as
Leianthus brevidentatus Hemsl., a species described as having dense
inflorescence, short pedicels, shorter corolla with lobes scarcely 2 mm.
long, very acute calyx-lobes appressed to the corolla, etc., differences
which would certainly appear to be of specific value. It is, further-
more, scarcely likely that the viscidity which is such a conspicuous
feature of the present species could have been present in L. breviden-
tatus in like degree and have escaped mention.
Schultesia Hayesii, n. sp., annua erecta gracilis 3-4 dm. alta gla-
berrima supra ramosa ; radice fibrosa ; caule subtereti leviter 6-angu-
lato foliato ; foliis linearibus, inferioribus brevibus, superioribus 4-5 cm.
longis 2-3 mm. latis angustissime attenuatis basi paulo angustatis
sessilibus 3-nerviis subtus pallidioribus ; ramis patenti-ascendentibus
simplicibus saepissime alternis apice 2-bracteolatis et 1-floris ; bracteo-
lis anguste linearibus 3 cm. longis ; floribus supra bracteolas sessilibus
4-meris ; calyce anguste ovoideo 3-3.6 cm. longo, tubo castaneo levis-
simo evenio; alis semilanceolatis 3 mm. latis viridibus venosis sur-
sum in dentes calycis subsetaceos gradatim attenuatis ; corolla 4 cm.
longa verisimiliter purpurea, lobis late ovatis breviter acuminatis 1 cm.
longis ; ovario 4 angulari 1.4 cm. longo 4 mm. lato. — Panama: Rio
Grande Station, Panama railway, 13 December, 1859, Sutton Hayes,
no. 160 (type, in Gray Herb.). This species is closely related to δ.
heterophylla Miq. but differs in several points. The stems are percep-
tibly 6-angled ; the leaves are decidedly longer and relatively narrower
than in S. heterophylla and the middle ones equal or often exceed the
internodes, while in S. heterophylla they are much exceeded by the
internodes. Finally the lobes of the corolla are only 1 cm. long, i. e.
one third the length of the tube, those of S. heterophylla on the other
hand being 1.6 cm. long, i. e. more than half the length of the tube.
Schultesia Peckiana, n. sp., decumbens, verisimiliter annua, ha-
bitu S. /istanthoidi similis 6-7 dm. alta laxe ramosa glaberrima ; caule
400 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
tereti laevissimo ; foliis lanceolati-ovatis tenuibus sessilibus acutissimis
basi rotundatis ; cymis laxe etiam atque etiam dichotomis ; floribus in
dichotomis solitariis 1.5 em. longis erectis ; pedicellis 8-30 mm. longis
rectis nudis; calycis lobis 4 anguste lanceolatis acutissimis in media
parte herbaceis margine scariosis vix carinatis ex alatis ; corolla rubes-
centi vel purpurascenti fere ad mediam partem 4-secta; lobis ovatis
acutis; filamentis gracilibus, basi exappendiculatis ; antheris mucro-
natis. — British Honpuras: about plantations and in the openings
of the forests, near Manatee Lagoon, 27 January, 1906, Prof. Morton
E. Peck, no. 318 (type, in Gray Herb.). A species considerably resem-
bling S. lisianthoides (Griseb.) Benth. *& Hook. ἢ, but readily distin-
guished by its pedicelled flowers.
Evolvulus sericeus Sw., var. glaberrimus, n. var., ubique gla-
berrimus gracillimus, caulibus a basi patenti-ramosis suberectis 2.5-3
dm. altis ; calyce etiam glaberrimo, aliter formae typicae simillimus. —
British Honpuras: low pine ridge near Manatee Lagoon, 28 March,
1906, Prof. Morton E. Peck, no. 372 (type, in Gray Herb.). A form
remarkable for the complete absence of the silky pubescence, which is
to some extent present in all other specimens examined, even those of
the form glabratus Chod. &. Hassl., which has decidedly silky-villous
calyces.
Schwenkia oxycarpa, n. sp., perennis erecta suffrutescens scoparia
5-6 dm. alta; radice fibrosa; caulibus teretibus cortice fusco-griseo
obtectis ; ramis gracillimis ascendentibus vel erectis viridibus teretibus ;
foliis linearibus acutis sessilibus crassiusculis subglabris 5-7 mm.
longis vix 1 mm. latis saepissime curvatis vel tortis 1-nerviis; inflo-
rescentia ca. 1 dm. longa gracillima spiciformi; floribus fasciculatis
sessilibus parvis ; calyce turbinato ca. 1.3 mm. longo obscure strigilloso,
dentibus lanceolatis acutis tubum subaequantibus ; corolla 4 mm. longa
atrocyanea rectiuscula, limbi dentibus 5 clavellatis quam sinuum lobi
obovati crassiusculi subbipartiti vix longioribus ; staminibus fertilibus
4 didynamis tubo corollae inclusis ; capsula lanceolato-ovoidea acuta
2 mm. longa firmiuscula minute papillosa. — British Honpuras: open
damp ground, near Sibune River, 4 May, 1906, Prof. Morton E.. Peck,
no. 417a (type, in Gray Herb.). This noteworthy species, through some
accident associated with no. 417 (an Angelonia), is clearly of § Brachy-
helus and most nearly approaches the east Brazilian S. fasciculata
Benth. It differs, however, in its essentially glabrous stem and rha-
chises, its never fascicled leaves neither perceptibly cuneate at the base
nor revolute on the margin, and finally in its lance-ovoid capsule.
Angelonia ciliaris, n. sp., caulibus gracilibus inaequaliter 4-angu-
latis in angulis conspicue ciliatis ; foliis sessilibus oblongo-lanceolatis
ROBINSON. — SPERMATOPHYTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED. 40]
acutis basi vix angustatis rotundatis 2-2.5 cm. longis ca. 5 mm. latis
serratis supra laxe villosis margine ciliatis subtus in costa media solum
longiuscule ciliatis aliter glabris; foliis floralibus late ovatis acutis
subcordatis conspicue longeque ciliatis, inferioribus ca. 1 cm. longis
pedicellum subaequantibus, superioribus ca. 3 mm. longis pedicello
triplo brevioribus ; ramis inflorescentiae ca. 1. dm. longis racemiformi-
bus, pedicellis oppositis ascendenti-patentibus filiformibus ca. 1 em.
longis apice nutantibus ; calycis segmentis lanceolatis acuminatis 3.5
mm. longis ; corolla ca. 1 em. diametro, sacco lato, appendice interiori
ca. 0.7 mm. longa; capsula depresse globosa 5 mm. diametro. —
British Honpuras: on open damp ground, near Sibune River, 4 May,
1906, Prof. Morton Μ΄. Peck, no. 417 (type, in Gray Herb.). This
species differs from A. angustifolia Benth. in its conspicuously ciliated
stem and leaves, broader-based bracts, and smaller flowers; from
A. salicuriaefolia H. & B. it may be readily distinguished by its
smaller flowers and much more sparing pubescence of much longer
non-glandular hairs.
Isidorea pungens (Lam.), n. comb. Lrnodea pungens Lam. Il.
1. 276 (1791). #. pedunculata Poir. Encye. Suppl. ii. 581 (1811).
Isidorea amoena A. Rich. Mém. sur les Rubiacées, 204, t. 15, f. 1
(1829), and Mém. Soc. Hist. Nat. Par. v. 284, t. 25 (1834).
Bikkia campanulata (Brong.), n. comb.. Grista campanulata
Brong. Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. xii. 406 (1865).
Bikkia Pancheri (Brong.), n. comb. Bikkiopsis Pancheri Brong.
l. c. 405.
Bikkia retusifiora (Brong.), n. comb. Grisia retusiflora Brong.
. c. 407.
Houstonia mucronata (Benth.), n. comb. AHedyotis mucronata
Benth. Bot. Sulph. 19 (1844). Houstonia fruticosa Rose, Contrib.
U. S. Nat. Herb. i. 132 (1890), 239 (1893); Greenman, Proc. Am.
Acad. xxxii. 292 (1897).
Houstonia umbratilis, n. sp., herbacea repens multicaulis ramosa
obscure strigillosa ; caulibus gracillimis interplexis subquadrangularibus
foliosis, nodis radicantibus, internodiis 2-9 mm. longis ; foliis parvis
ovatis membranaceis acutiusculis brevissime petiolatis utrinque strigil-
losis subtus paululo pallidioribus uninerviis obscure reticulato-venosis
2.5-4 mm. longis 1.8-3 mm. latis, stipulis brevissimis; pedunculis
filiformibus 1.5 cm. longis terminalibus 1-floris ; calyce basi turbinato,
tubo lobos ovato-lanceolatos acutiusculos anthesi aequante; corolla
infundibuliformi in siccitate nigrescenti, tubo 5 mm. longo, lobis ovatis
patentibus ; staminibus 4 (eis speciminis observati exsertis, antheris
lineari-oblongis filamenta aequantibus) ; fructu seminibusque ignotis.
VOL, XLV. — 26
402 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
— Mexico: ae cliffs of mountains, near Monterey, Nuevo Leon,
25 April, 1906, C. G. Pringle, no. 13,877 (type, in Gray Herb.). An
attractive little ea plant with the habit of H. serpyllifolia Michx.
and H. serpyllacea (Schlecht.) C. L. Sm. but differing from the former
in its more shortly petioled, more acute leaves, and much smaller
flowers, and from the latter in its membranaceous strigillose but
unciliated leaves, more filiform stems, etc. ‘The absence of fruit and
seeds naturally throws a slight doubt upon the generic position, but
the general habit, as well as such technical traits as are manifest, are
those of Houstonia.
Neurocalyx calycinus (R. Br.), n. comb. Argostemma calycinum
R. Br. in Bennett, Pl. Jav. Rar. 97 (1838). Neurocalyx Wightit Arn.
Ann. Nat. Hist. iii. 22 (1839). NV. Hookeriana Wight, Ic. i. t. 52
(1840).
Rondeletia leptodictya, n. sp., fruticosa 2 m. alta; ramis gra-
cilibus rubro-brunneis flexuosis teretibus mox glabratis ; foliis oppositis
obovato-oblongis acuminatis basi modice angustatis tenuibus supra
viridibus tenuiter (sub lente) reticulatis glabris vel subglabris subtus
juventate griseo-tomentosis 6-11 cm. longis 2.5-5 em. latis; petiolis
gracilibus 5-12 mm. longis pubescentibus; stipulis ovato-lanceolatis
acutis brunneis 4 mm. longis erectis ; pedunculis terminalibus 4—5.5 em.
longis gracilibus arachnoideis; floribus sessilibus dense capitatis ;
calycis tubo albo-lanato subgloboso 1.8 mm. diametro, lobis limbi
4 vix inaequalibus oblanceolatis viridibus vix 2 mm. longis; corolla
sanguinea, tubo gracili sursum vix ampliato 1.4 cm. longo griseo-’
arachnoideo, lobis limbi 4 patentibus 2-3 mm. longis, ore nudo; stylo
exserto. — Mexico: banks of the Rio Petatlan near the boundary
between Michoacan and Guerrero, alt. 500 m., 24 November, 1898,
E.. Langlassé, no. 666 (type, in Gray Herb.). Near 20. elongata Bartl.,
but with calyx-lobes much shorter (scarcely a fifth the length of the
corolla-tube), the limb of the corolla smaller, and the stipules much
shorter than the petioles.
Rondeletia rufescens, ἢ. sp., fritioaey ramis teretibus tarde
glabratis cortice griseo tectis, ramulis et pedunculis et petiolis dense
rufo-tomentosis ; ἘΠῚ lanceolato-oblongis 9-15 em. longis 3.2-5 em.
latis apice basique acuminatis tenuibus supra obscure reticulatis et
molliter puberulis subtus albido-tomentosis, nerviis lateralibus ca.
10-jugis ; inflorescentiis terminalibus thyrsoideis flexuosis ca. 1.5 dm.
longis rufo-tomentosis ; cymulis superioribus subsessilibus inferioribus
2-12 mm. longe pedicellatis bracteis lineari-subulatis ca. 3 mm. longis
suffultis multifloris ; floribus brevissime pedicellatis aut sessilibus ;
calycis tubo subgloboso minute hirsuto, lobis 4 linearibus inaequalibus
ROBINSON. —- SPERMATOPHYTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED. 403
intus glabris ; corollae tubo gracillimo in fauces distincte ampliato
appresse griseo-puberulo vel arachnoideo 1 cm. longo; limbi lobis
4 suborbicularibus 1 mm. longis extus rufo-hispidulis intus et ore
nudis ; stylo paulo exserto, apice bifido nigro. — Rondeletia J. D. Sm.
Enum. Pl. Guat. 1. 16 (1889). 10. villosa J. D. Sm. 1. ο. ii. 94 (1891),
not Hemsl. —Guaremata : Coban, Depart. Alta Verapaz, alt. 1475 m.,
March, 1881, 1. von Tuerckheim, no. 582 of Mr. J. Donnell Smith’s dis-
tribution (type, in Gray Herb.). This plant is clearly distinct from
£. villosa Hemsl., which has considerably broader (ovate) stipules and
a very different closely matted white pubescence on the lower surface
of the leaves, a more slender and denser inflorescence, etc.
Var. ovata, n. var., minus rufescens ; foliis ovatis brevioribus 7-9 em.
longis basi rotundatis, aliter formae typicae similis. —R. villosa,
forma strigosissima J. D. Sm. Enum. Pl. Guat. vii. 15 (1905), nomen. —
GuaTEMALA : Tactic, Depart. Alta Verapaz, alt. 550 m., March, 1903,
H. von Tuerckheim, no. 8401 of Mr. J. Donnell Smith’s distribution.
Rondeletia secundifiora, n. sp., arborescens ; ramulis gracilibus
teretibus dense griseo-strigillosis ; foliis ovato-lanceolatis apice basique
acuminatis tenuissimis 7-9 cm. longis 2-3.5 cm. latis utrinque appresse
pilosiusculis subtus paulo pallidioribus, nerviis ca. 8-jugis; petiolo
gracili 4-6 mm. longo griseo-piloso ; stipulis a basi deltoidea subulatis
2 mm. longis ; inflorescentiis 6-8 cm. longis spiciformibus plus minusve
recurvis valde secundis, rhachi hirsutulo, cymulis parvis subsessilibus
paucifloris numerosis ; floribus deflexis ; calycis tubo subgloboso dense
patentimque sordido-hirsuto, lobis 4 modice inaequalibus minus dense
indutis 1.4-2 mm. longis erectis spatulato-linearibus vel anguste
lanceolatis ; corolla 9 mm. longa extus strigillosa, tubo gracili cylin-
drica, limbo 4-lobo, lobis suborbicularibus patulis 1.3 mm. diametro,
ore nudo.— GUATEMALA: in woods, along the road from Patin to
Esquintla, 21 July, 1860, Dr. Sutton Hayes (type, i Gray Herb.).
This species is obviously related to 2. capitellata Hemsl. but may be
readily distinguished by the shaggy-hirsute tube and lance-linear or
spatulate lobes of the calyx.
Rondeletia septicidalis, n. sp., fruticosa; ramis teretibus plus
minusve flexuosis griseo-brunneis; foliis oppositis ovatis vel lan-
ceolato-ovatis apice basique acuminatis firmiusculis 11-16 cm.
longis 2-7 em. latis utrinque Viridibus subtus pallidioribus supra
glaberrimis subtus basin versus obscure pilosulis, nerviis lateralibus
ca. 8-jugis, petiolo 1-2.3 em. longo glabro vel glabriusculo; stipulis
anguste lanceolatis glabris 5 mm. longis acutis; inflorescentiis in
axillis superioribus spiciformibus 1-1.5 dm. longis, pedunculo 1.5-
3.5 em. longo gracili tereti, rhachi simillimo obscure arachnoideo ;
404 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
cymulis vulgatim 2-3-floris breviter pedicellatis bracteolis linearibus
suffultis; calyce anguste campanulato basi turbinato, tubo griseo
arachnoideo, lobis 4 lanceolato-linearibus deflexis modice inaequalibus
tubum subaequantibus glabriusculis; corolla coccinea, tubo gracili
subeylindrico sursum paulo ampliato basin versus glabriusculo supra
cum limbo patente plus minusve arachnoideo ca. 17 cm. longo, lobis
4 orbicularibus ca. 3 mm. diametro tenuiter margine crispulis; ore
nudo; staminibus 4 in ore affixis paulo exsertis, antheris lineari-
oblongis ; capsula subglobosa ca. 4 mm. diametro septicidalt, valvis
bifidis. — Mexico: Chicharras, Chiapas, alt. 920-1840 m., E. W. Δι οί-
son, no. 3755 (type material in U. 8S. Nat. Mus. and Gray Herb.).
This plant possesses so precisely the habit and -most of the technical
features of a Fondeletia that it seems best to refer it to this genus,
though it will form an exception among the known species in the fact
that its fruit is septicidal.
Hymenodictyon floribundum (Hochst. & Steud.), n. comb.
Kurria floribunda Hochst. & Steud. Flora, xxiv. pt. 1, Intell. 28
(1841), name only ; ibid. xxv. 234 (1842), with description. Hymeno-
dictyon Kurria Hochst. Flora, xxvi. 71 (1843).
Bouvardia gracilipes, n. sp., fruticosa ; ramis gracilibus teretibus
cortice griseo tectis glabris, ramulis valde compressis, internodiis lon-
giusculis glabris, nodis stipulisque puberulis ; foliis oppositis breviter
petiolatis tenuibus ovatis acuminatis basi rotundatis 5-7 cm. longis
2-3.5 em. latis supra laete viridibus glabris subtus pallidioribus in
costa venisque obscure puberulis ; petiolo 2 mm. longo sordide tomen-
tello ; ocreis pallidis ca. 1 mm. longis marginem versus tomentellis
cum appendicibus filiformibus breviter pubescentibus ca. 2 mm. longis
munitis ; inflorescentiis terminalibus laxis 8—12-floris glabris ; pedun-
eulis 2-4 em. longis trichotomis, bracteis linearibus 1-3 mm. longis,
ramulis lateralibus 3-4 cm. longis vicissim trichotomis ; pedicellis fili-
formibus 1.5-2 cm. longis apice denique uncinatis ; calycis dentibus
4 linearibus 1 mm. longis erectis in fructu inflexis persistentibus ;
corolla non visa; fructu 6 mm. lato 4.5 mm. alto pallide viridi sub
lente albido-lineato quasi strigilloso. — Mexico: Tepic, 5 January to
6 February, 1892, Dr. Μ΄. Palmer, no. 1971 (type, in Gray Herb.).
Although this species is described from fruiting material and without
knowledge of the corolla, it is believed that the unusually loose inflor-
escence with filiform at length hooked pedicels yields characters suffi-
ciently distinctive for ready recognition.
BovvVARDIA LONGIFLORA (Cav.) HBK., var. induta, n. var., foliis
ovato-rhomboideis acutis supra scabriusculo-puberulis subtus tomen-
tosis; corolla extus tomentella.— Mexico: “Chiapas, etc.” Dr.
ROBINSON. — SPERMATOPHYTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED. 405
Ghiesbreght, the specimen associated in the Gray Herbarium. with
Ghiesbreght’s nos. 108 and 692 which, however, represent the more
typical form of the species, being nearly glabrous. Forms to some ex-
tent intermediate in their pubescence and somewhat peculiar in their
thinnish mostly obtusish leaves are shown by Langlassé’s no. 1049 from
near the boundary of Michoacan and Guerrero, as well as by Purpus’s
no. 1249 from 'l'ehuacan, Puebla.
BouVARDIA TERNIFOLIA (Cav.) Schlecht., var. angustifolia (HBK.),
ἢ. comb. 25. angustifolia HBK. Nov. Gen. et Spec. 11. 384 (1818).
B. triphylla, var. angustifolia Gray, Syn. Fl. 1. pt. 2, 24 (1884). Al-
though B. angustifolia HBK. has been treated as an independent species
in various works of recent date, an increasingly complete series of in-
tergrading specimens leaves no doubt that Dr. Gray was right in re-
garding this plant as merely a variety. Priority of the specific name
of Cavanilles requires the new combination.
Lygistum ignitum (Vell.) Ktze, var. micans (K. Schum.), n.
comb. Janettia ignita, var. micans K. Schum. in Mart. ΕἸ. Bras. vi.
pt. 6, 171 (1889).
Lygistum Rojasianum (Chod. & Hass.), n. comb. Manettia
Rojasiana Chod. & Hass. Bull. Herb. Boiss. ser. 2, iv. 91 (1904).
Lygistum Smithii (Sprague), n.comb. anettia Smithii Sprague,
Bull. Herb. Boiss. ser. 2, v. 267 (1905).
Gonzalagunia bracteosa (J. D. Sm.), n. comb. Gonzalea brac-
teosa J. D. Sm. Bot. Gaz. xxxill. 252 (1902).
Gonzalagunia leptantha (A. Rich.), n. comb. Gonzalea leptan-
tha A. Rich. Fl. Cub. Fanerog. ii. 16 (1853).
Gonzalagunia ovatifolia (J. D.Sm.),n. comb. Gonzalea ovatifo-
lia J. D. Sm. Bot. Gaz. xxvii. 336 (1899).
Gonzalagunia Petesia (Griseb.), n. comb. Gonzalea Petesia
Griseb. Mem. Amer. Acad. new ser. viii. 504 (1863). Gonzalagunia
hirsuta y Petesia Ktze. Rev. Gen. i. 284 (1891).
Gonzalagunia thyrsoidea (J. D.Sm.), n. comb. Gonzalea thyrsoi-
dea J. D. Sm. Bot. Gaz. xiii. 188 (1888).
Tarenna mollis (Wall.), n. comb. fondeletia? mollis Wall. Cat.
no. 8454 (1847). Webera mollis Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. iii. 104
(1882).
Tarenna mollissima (Hook. & Arn.), n. comb. Cupia mollissima
Hook. ἃ Arn. Bot. Beech. 192 (1833). Stylocorine mollissima Walp.
Rep. 11. 517 (1843). Webera mollissima Benth. ex Hance, Jour. Linn.
Soe. xiii. 105 (1873).
Tarenna odorata (Roxb.), n. comb. Webera odorata Roxb. Hort.
Bengal. 15 (1814), and Fl. Ind. i. 699 (1832). Cupia odorata DC.
406 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Prod. iv. 394 (1830). Webera macrophylla Roxb. Hort. Bengal. 85
(1814), and ΕἸ. Ind. 1. 697 (1832). Cupia macrophylla DC. 1. ο.
Casasia nigrescens Wright in herb. Randia nigrescens Griseb.
Cat. Pl. Cub. 123 (1866), where the combination Casasia nigrescens
Wright is implied though not definitely made. Randia nigrescens
Wright & Sauvalle, Fl. Cub. 60 (1873). Randia nigricans K. Schum.
in Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenf. iv. Abt. 4, 77 (1891), by obvious
clerical error.
Hamelia hypomalaca, n. sp., fruticosa ramosa; ramis curvatis
teretibus cortice brunneo-griseo lenticellifero tectis; ramulis dense ᾿
tomentellis ; foliis ternis ovalibus obtuse acuminatis basi brevissime
acuminatis saepe inaequilateralibus 6.5-9 cm. longis 4-5.5 cm. latis
membranaceis supra laete viridibus obscure puberulis subtus multo
pallidioribus molliter griseo-tomentellis vel denique glabrescentibus ;
petiolo gracili ca. 2 cm. longo tomentello; cymis terminalibus ca. 9-floris
modice laxis tomentellis, ramis recurvis, pedicellis 2-9 mm. longis ;
floribus pro genere majusculis ; calyce tomentello, dentibus brevibus
subulatis ; corolla flava 4 em. longa, tubo proprio brevi, faucibus longis
ampliatis, limbi lobis 5 late ovatis acuminati-mucronatis ; fructu im-
maturo ca. 8 mm. longo. — Mexico: State of Durango, 15 August,
1897, Dr. J. N. Rose, no. 2304 (type, in U. 8. Nat. Mus. and Gray
Herb.). Closely related to H. ventricosa Sw., but readily distinguished
by its tomentulose leaves, loose inflorescence, and somewhat smaller
flowers.
Hoffmannia Conzattii, n. sp., fruticosa glabra ; ramis subteretibus
obsolete solum et obtuse subtetragonis apicem versus foliatis deorsum
longe floriferis ; foliis obovato- vel oblanceolato-oblongis breviter cau-
dato-acuminatis basi longe attenuatis tenuiter membranaceis utrinque
glaberrimis supra in siccitate nigrescentibus subtus pallidioribus viri-
dibus 11-16 em. longis 8.ὅ-- em. latis ; costa media supra impressa,
nerviis lateralibus ca. 8-jugis oppositis vel alternis ; petiolo 1.8—2.5 em.
longo glabro; stipulis ovatis caducis ; cymis subsessilibus oppositis
lateralibus numerosis subapproximatis ca. 6-floris ; pedicellis calycem
subaequantibus ; tubo calycis subgloboso 2.5 mm. longo, limbo brevi-
ter patentimque 4-dentato ; corolla ca. 6 mm. longa ad mediam partem
4-fida, lobis anguste oblongis saepissime patentibus ; antheris anguste
oblongis exsertis ; fructu ignoto. — Mexico: Colonia Melchor Ocampo,
Canton de Cérdoba, Vera Cruz, alt. 1200 m., Prof. C. Conzatti, 19 June,
1896, no. 168 (type, in Gray Herb.). This species in foliage closely
resembles H. calycosa J. D. Sm., but is readily distinguished by its ex-
ceedingly short calyx-lobes. From H. Ghiesbreghtii (lem.) Hemsl. it
differs in its subterete wingless branches. 77. longepetiolata Polak.
ROBINSON. — SPERMATOPHYTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED. 407
appears by its description to have longer petioles and considerably
larger flowers.
Hoffmannia cuneatissima, n. sp., fruticosa ; ramis teretibus gri-
seis etiam in lignescentia cum pilis brevibus crispis rufescentibus deni-
que sparsis inconspicuisque tectis ; foliis oppositis vel ternis deflexis
tenuibus acuminatis oblanceolatis 1-1.6 dm. longis 8--4. em. latis basi
longissime cuneatis supra glabriusculis subtus paulo pallidioribus
praesertim in nerviis venisque crispe puberulis; cymis axillaribus
pedunculatis 4—8-floris ; pedunculis ad ca. 1 em. longis ascendentibus
gracilibus rufo-pubescentibus ; pedicellis 1-2 mm. longis ; calyce turbi-
nato-subtereti 2 mm. longo crispe pubescenti, limbi dentibus 4 lanceo-
lati-deltoideis primo suberectis denique patentibus ca. 1.2 mm. longis
cum denticulis 4 minimis glandulosis alternantibus ; corolla flavida
extus puberula ca. 1 cm. longa ad mediam partem 4-fida; lobis
oblongis obtusiusculis in media parte crassiusculis dorso carinatis
carina crispe puberula ; bacca nigrescenti 5 mm. diametro ; seminibus
numerosis brunneis compressiusculis foveolatis. — Mexico; mountain
cafion near Cuernavaca, alt. 200 m., 29 May, 1898, C.G. Pringle, no. 7662
(type, in Gray Herb.); and previously in the same locality, 20 Nov., 1895,
C. G. Pringle, no. 7075 (Gray Herb.) and 31 July, 1896, C. G. Pringle,
no. 7248 (Gray Herb.). This species belongs clearly to the same
groupas 17. affinis Hemsl. and H. lenticellata Hemsl., but with its thin,
thoroughly membranaceous leaves and rufous-pubescent branches can-
not well be placed in either of these species.
Hoffmannia Rosei, ἢ. sp., fruticosa 3 τη. alta ; ramis flexuosis dense
pulverulo-puberulis et obscure strigillosis, internodiis brevibus 5-12
mm. solum longis; foliis oppositis oblanceolatis membranaceis acumi-
natis basi longe attenuatis 6-12 cm. longis 3.4—5 cm. latis utrinque
obscure strigilloso-puberulis vel supra glabriusculis subtus in costa et
nerviis lateralibus dense minuteque pulverulo-puberulis; cymis axil-
laribus oppositis graciliter pedunculatis 5—9-floris subcircinatis ; pedun-
culis 1-1.3 cm. longis pulyerulis rubescentibus ; pedicellis similibus ca.
2 mm. longis ; calyce ovoideo strigilloso, dentibus 4 brevibus anguste
deltoideis cum glandulis 4 parvis alternantibus ; corolla alba 7 mm.
longa pulverula ad partem paulo infra mediam 4-fida, lobis limbi
oblongis acutis tenuibus nec carinatis nec pubescentibus. — Mexico :
along a brook near Pedro Paulo, Tepic, 3 August, 1897, Dr. J. N.
Rose, no. 1968 (type, in U.S. Nat. Mus. and Gray Herb.). Very near
H. cuneatissima, described above, but with opposite leaves, mere
puberulence instead of pubescence, and unkeeled corolla-lobes.
Antirrhoea chinensis (Champ.), n. comb. Guettardella chinensis
Champ. in Hook. Kew. Journ. Bot. iv. 197 (1852).
408 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Timonius polygamus (Forst.), n. comb. Lrithalis polygama
Forst. Prod. 17 (1786). δὶ obouata Forst. 1. ὁ. 98, mere mention
in index. Timonius Forstert DC. Prod. iv. 461 (1830); Drake del
Castillo, Ill. Fl. Ins. Pacif. 193 (1890), which see for further
synonymy.
Stylocorine alpestris (Wight), n. comb. Pavetta ? lucens R. Br. in
Wall. Cat. no. 6168 (1828), name only. Coffea alpestris Wight, Ic. t.
1040 (1848-1856). Webera lucens Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 11. 106
(1882), as to var. 1. Stylocorine breviflora Schlecht. ex Hook. f., 1. e. —
Foliis oblanceolatis. Var. grumelioides (Wight), n. comb. Coffea
grumelioides Wight, Ic. Ὁ. 1041 (1848-1856). Webera lucens Hook.
f., 1. 6. as to var. 2. — Foliis obovatis.
Stylocorine longifolia (G. Don), n. comb. Lvora macrophylla Τὶ.
Br. in Wall. Cat. no. 6165 (1828), name only, not Bartl. Lzvora longi-
folia G. Don Syst. ii. 573 (1834). Pavetta longifolia Miq. Fl. Ind.
Bot. iii. 275 (1856-1859). Webera longifolia Hook. f. ΕἸ. Brit. Ind.
iii. 105 (1882).
Rudgea crassiloba (Benth.), n. comb. Coffea crassiloba Benth. in
Hook. Jour. Bot. iii. 233 (1841). Rudgea Schomburgkiana Benth.
Linnaea, xxiii. 459 (1850).
CEPHAELIS ELATA Sw. Prod. 45 (1788). Here apparently belongs Ceph-
aleis punicea Vahl., Eclog.i. 19 (1796)and consequently Uragoga punicea
K. Schum. in Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenf. iv. Abt. 4, 120 (1891), a
name which, through apparent clerical error, has been cited by Durand
& Jackson, Ind. Kew. Suppl. 1, 445 (1906), as “ Uragoga phoenicea
K. Schum,” a combination said by them to equal “ Palicowrea punicea
R. & P.” However, Ruiz & Pavon do not appear to have created any
such binomial, though DeCandolle’s Palicourea punicea (Prod. iv. 526,
1830) was based upon Psychotria punicea R. & P. Fl. Per. 1. 62, Ὁ.
212 fig. a (1799), a species obviously not of Cephaelis. Schumann’s
““Uragoga phoenicea,’ which seems never to have been published by
its supposed author, appears to have given rise to Cephaelis phoenicea
J.D. Sm. Pl. Guat. v. 39 (1899), which as to plants cited is clearly
C. elata Sw.
Cephaelis sphaerocephala (Muell. Arg.), n. comb. Psychotria
sphaerocephala Muell. Arg. Flora, lix. 550, 553 (1876).
Nertera Arnottianiana (Walp.), n. comb. Leptostigma Arnottia-
num Walp. Rep. 11. 463 (1843). Hedyotis repens Clos in Gay, ΕἾ. Chil.
iii, 208 (1847). Coprosma calycina Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. iv. 306
(1860).
Coprosma australis (A. Rich.), n. comb. Ronabea? australis A.
Rich. Voy. Astrolabe Bot. 1. 265 (1832). Coprosma grandifolia Hook.
ROBINSON. — SPERMATOPHYTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED. 409
Ε Fl. N. Ζ. 1. 104 (1853). Pelaphia grandifolia Banks & Soland. ex
Hook. f., 1. ¢.
Coprosma quadrifida (Labill.), n. comb. Canthium quadrifidum
Labill. Nov. Holl. Pl. i. 69, t. 94 (1804). Marguisia Billardier A.
Rich. Mém. sur les Rubiacées, 112 (1829), ἃ Mém. Soe. Hist. Nat.
Par. v. 192 (1829). Coprosma Billardieri Hook. f. in Hook. Lond.
Jour. Bot. vi. 465 [bis] (1847). Coprosma microphylla A, Cunn. ex
Hook. f., 1. ¢.
Richardia muricata (Griseb.), n. comb. Richardsonia muricata
Griseb. Cat. Pl. Cub. 143 (1866). Spermacoce (Borreria) richardsoni-
oides Wright in Sauv. ΕἸ. Cub. 73 (1873).
Crusea hispida (Mill.), n. comb. ~Crucianella hispida Mill. Dict.
ed. 8, no. 4 (1768). Spermacoce rubra Jacq. Hort. Schonb. in. 3, t.
256 (1798). Crusea rubra Schlecht. & Cham. Linnaea, v. 165 (1830).
Borreria asperifolia (Mart. & Gal.), n. comb. Diphragmus scaber
Presl, Bot. Bemerk. 81 (1844), not Borreria scabra (Schum. & Thonn.)
Κ΄. Schum. Spermacoce asperifolia Mart. & Gal. Bull. Acad. Brux. x1.
pt. 1, 132 (1844).
Borreria nesiotica n. sp., suffrutescens glaberrima 4 dm. vel ultra
alta ramosa; ramis ascendentibus subteretibus parte superiori 4-angu-
latis basim versus foliosissimis saepe purpurascentibus ; foliis oppositis
anguste lanceolatis basi apiceque attenuatis laevissimis etiam ad mar-
ginem paulo revolutum 2-4.5 cm. longis 3-12 mm. latis modice venosis
subtus paululo pallidioribus axillis saepe proliferis ; verticillis plerisque
4 distantibus 9-12 mm. diametro hemisphaericis a bracteis 2 majoribus
oppositis 1-2 em. longis ovato-lanceolatis obtusiusculis basi ampliato
setoso-dentatis et ca. 4 minoribus ovatis obtusis 5 mm. longis suffultis ;
ealyce glabro breviter et subaequaliter 4-lobato cum dentibus interme-
diis brevissimis; corolla glabra; staminibus exsertis; stigmate bre-
vissime bilobato ; seminibus papillosis nigris non transverse sulcatis. —
Spermacoce (Boneria), sp. Vasey & Rose, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. xiii.
148 (1890). Spermacoce sp. Brandegee, Zoe, v. 27 (1900). — Socorro
Istanp (of the Revillagigedo Group), A. W. Anthony, 1897 (type, in
Gray Herb.) ; previously collected by Οἱ H. Townsend, March, 1889 ;
and later by /. Μ΄. Barkelew, 27 May to 3 July, 1903, no. 208. In
habit somewhat resembling B. verticillata (L.) α. F. W. Mey., but
readily distinguished by its 4-lobed calyx. Also somewhat like forms
of the highly variable B. tenella (HBK.) Cham. & Schlecht., but hav-
ing much shorter calyx-lobes (about one third the length of the tube),
glabrous foliage, etc.
Borreria rhadinophylla, ἢ. sp., gracillima ramosa prostrata, caul1-
bus elongatis valde flexuosis obsolete quadrangularibus foliosis tenuiter
410 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
patenteque pubescentibus plus minusve rubescentibus fere filiformibus
sed basim versus induratis et lignescentibus, nodis hirsutulis ; foliis
anguste linearibus subfiliformibus 1-nerviis glabris margine revolutis
apice acutissimis 1-2 cm. longis; vaginis brevissimis pauci- (saepius
2-) setis; verticillis remotis plerumque 2 subglobosis ca. 1 cm. dia-
metro; calyce longe 2-lobato, lobis lanceolato-linearibus acutissimis
herbaceis sursum fimbriato-ciliatis, dentibus intermediis multo brevi-
oribus scariosis ; corolla alba hypocraterimorpha 4-loba 2.5 mm. longa,
lobis ovato-oblongis apicem versus hispidis, tubo intus basim versus
pubescente ; staminibus 4 in summa parte tubi affixis, leviter exsertis ;
fructu et seminibus non visis. — British Honpuras, on dry sandy
pine ridges, 23 October, 1905, Prof Morton EF. Peck, no. 180 (type,
in Gray Herb.). From its 2-lobed calyx this species would seem to
stand near the polymorphous B. verticillata (HBK.) Cham. & Schlecht.
but with all due recognition of the extraordinary variability of that
species, it does not seem possible that this delicate filiform plant
should be included among its forms. Among the distinctions noted
is the form of the stigma, which in B. verticillata is barely lobed, but
in B. Peckiana distinctly bifid with short but actually filiform lobes.
BoRRERIA VERTICILLATA ([.) G. F. W. Mey., var. thymiformis, n.
var., pumila 6-8 cm. alta subglabra; caulibus multis gracilibus laxis
flexuosis a caudice crassa nigrescente oriuntibus ; foliis ovato-ellipticis
7-11 mm. longis 2-5 mm. latis; capitibus parvis ca. 8 mm. diametro
terminalibus. — Mexico: about 29 km. southwest of the city of
Oaxaca, alt. 2300-2900 m., 10-20 September, 1894, &. W. Nelson,
no. 1410 (type, in Gray Herb. and Herb. U. S. Nat. Mus.). This
plant, although maintaining all the floral traits of the species, is so
strikingly different from the usual forms as to be well worthy of varietal
distinction. Were it not connected with the more typical forms by
such intermediates as L. C. Smith’s no. 40 from the Cuilapan Moun-
tains, it could certainly pass as a distinct species.
Erigeron Deamii, n. sp., suffruticulus gracillimus pumilus 1 dm.
altus irregulariter a basi ramosus, ramis teretibus strigosis foliosissimis
ascendentibus saepius 1-capitatis; foliis linearibus (infimis anguste
oblanceolatis) ca. 1 em. longis ca. 1 mm. latis utrinque strigilloso-
hispidulis 1-nerviis saepe in axillis proliferis ; pedunculis filiformibus
ca. 3 cm. longis rectis vel apicem versus plus minusve nutantibus
1-capitatis subappresse pubescentibus ;. capitibus hemisphaericis ca.
8 mm. diametro ; involucri squamis argute linearibus attenuatis sub-
aequalibus media parte viridibus hirsutulis margine pallidis scariosis
ca. 4 mm. longis; flosculis disci numerosis, corollis 2.3 mm. longis
apicem versus flavidulis, achaeniis compressis sparse hirsutulis 1.3 mm.
ROBINSON. — SPERMATOPHYTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED. 411
longis, pappi setis ca. 12 tenuibus albis 2.4 mm. longis; flosculis
liguliferis ca. 40, ligulis angustis albis vel purpureo-tinctis tubo sub-
aequilongis apice saepissime bidentatis, achaeniis et pappi setis eis
flosculorum disci similibus. — GUATEMALA : growing on rocks in bottom
of canon, Fiscal, Guatemala, alt. 1130 m. 3 June, 1909, Charles C.
Deam, no. 6159 (type, in Gray Herb.). This species is obviously of the
affinity of 45. mucronatus DC., Μ΄. exilis Gray, and H. Karwinskianus DC.
rom the first of these it differs in having narrower (linear rather than
lanceolate) leaves, smaller heads, and relatively as well as absolutely
shorter rays (exceeding the disk scarcely by one third). Αἱ evilis Gray
has the involucral bracts and peduncles very much more closely and
finely puberulent, and Μ΄, Karwinskianus DC. is described as having
the leaves glabrous on both surfaces.
Verbesina medullosa, n. sp., frutescens 1.2-1.8 m. alta; cauli-
bus crassiusculis teretibus foliosis medullosis omnino exalatis juventate
tomentellis serius subglabratis ; foliis alternis ovatis majusculis 1.2-1.5
dm. longis 4-6 cm. latis crenato-serratis penninerviis supra scabris puber-
ulis viridibus subtus griseo-tomentellis apice attenuatis caudato-acumi-
natis basi in petiolum alatum biauriculatum sensim angustatis, alis
petioli transverse valde rugosis margine integriuscula revoluta ; capi-
tulis numerosis parvis 9 mm. altis in corymbis compositis planiusculis
bracteatis dispositis ; involucri subturbinati squamis villoso-tomen-
tellis pallide viridibus apicem versus purpurascentibus ; flosculis disci
ca. 20, corollis albidis 4 mm. longis tubo extus puberulo dentibus
limbi suberectis brevibus deltoideis, flosculis liguliferis ca. 3 fertili-
bus, ligulis ovalibus parvis albis tubo vix longioribus ; achaeniis valde
immaturis obovatis valde compressis margine sursum ciliolatis apice
biaristatis. -— GuaTeMALa.: along railway, Fiscal, alt. 1130 m., 9 June,
1909, Charles C. Deam, no. 6250 (type, in Gray Herb.). This species
differs in its wingless stem and branches from such forms of V. turba-
censis HBK. as have unlobed leaves. From V. sublobata Benth., it
may be distinguished by its more bluntly toothed (crenate-serrate)
unlobed leaves which are more. gradually narrowed to the winged
petiole.
Trixis Deamii, n. sp., fruticosa 1.5 m. alta laxe ramosa; ramis
exalatis teretibus gracilibus griseis glabratis ; ramulis striatulis viridi-
bus tomentellis foliosis ; foliis rhomboideo-obovatis acute acuminatis
basi subabrupte angustatis subintegris tenuibus supra atroviridibus pilo-
siusculis planis subtus griseo-sericeis 3.5-7:cm. longis 1.5-3 em. latis
nullo modo decurrentibus ; petiolo ca. 4 mm. longo gracili villosulo sub-
tus carinato ; capitulis prope apicem ramulorum aggregatis ca. 2 cm.
longis 12-floris a foliis longioribus plus minusve excessis et obscuratis ;
412 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
bracteis involucri exterioris ca. 4 elliptico-lanceolatis alternis acumi-
natis ca. 12 mm. longis tenuibus foliis similibus; squamis involucri
proprii 8 lanceolati-linearibus attenuatis ca. 14 mm. longis dorso glan-
duloso-puberulis medio herbaceis margine subscareosis demum stellato-
patentibus divaricatis apice falcatis ; corollis ca. 1 cm. longis laete
flavis ; achaeniis 5 mm. longis columnaribus papilloso-setulosis ; pappi
setis albo-fulvescentibus ca. 9 mm. longis. — GUATEMALA : along river,
alt. 230 m., Zacapa, 19 June, 1909, Charles C. Deam, no. 6359 (type,
in Gray Herb.). This shrub differs from such related species as
T. megalophylla Greenman, 7’. silvatica Robinson & Greenman, 7. Nel-
sonii Greenman, and 7. rugulosa Robinson & Greenman, in its much
thinner, flatter, softer, and essentially entire leaves of rhombic-obovate
form. From 7. j/rutescens P. Browne and its relatives the present
plant is readily distinguished by its larger outer involucre, the silky
under surface of its leaves, ete.
Chaptalia semifloscularis (Walt.), n. comb. Perdicium semiflos-
culare Walt., Fl. Car. 204 (1788). Chaptalia tomentosa Vent. Desc.
Jard. Cels, t. 61 (1800). Tussilago integrifolia Willd. Sp. Pl. im.
1964 (1804). Gerbera Walteri, Sch. Bip. in Seem. Voy. Herald. 313
(1856). Thyrsanthema semijlosculare (Walt.) Ktze. Rev. Gen. 1. 369
(1891).
III. AMERICAN FORMS OF LYCOPODIUM
COMPLANATUM.
By C. A. WEATHERBY.
Lycopodium complanatum L. occurs in the western hemisphere in
two distinct and geographically isolated areas. In the north, it
ranges from Newfoundland to Alaska, and southward to northern
Idaho and (in its variety flabelliforme) to the mountains of North
Carolina. It is apparently entirely absent from the United States
south of these points ; but it reappears in south-central Mexico and
extends thence through Central America to Bolivia and southern
Brazil. It has also been reported from the West Indies. Specimens
_ from these areas show, on examination, four more or less well-marked
variant tendencies — two (one with a subsidiary variation) in the
north, and in the south, two others, separable from each other and
from both of the northern forms.
The northern forms have been clearly distinguished by Prof. Fer-
nald.1 The two southern (one chiefly Mexican, the other chiefly
1 Rhodora, iii. 280 (1901).
WEATHERBY.— AMERICAN FORMS OF LYCOPODIUM COMPLANATUM. 413
South American) are connected by various intermediates, but, in
their extreme development, are sufficiently diverse to warrant varie-
tal distinction. Indeed, since Humboldt and Bonpland described their
Lycopodium thyoides in 1810, it has been recognized by most botanists
that some, at least, of the tropical material differed from typical Z.
complanatum of northern Europe and North America; and L. thy-
oides has been rather generally maintained as a variety, differently
defined by different authors. Neither its relation to the northern
forms, however, nor its exact identity in regard to the other tropi-
cal form seems to have worked out with entire clearness. Lloyd and
Underwood, in their Review of the North American Species of Lyco-
podium,? called attention to the habital difference between Mexican
and Central American, and northern specimens ; but, partly owing, no
doubt, to their reluctance to describe varieties, carried their studies no
further. Dr. Christ,? in a brief but clear note, has pointed out the
distinctions between the two southern forms; but he seems to be in
error in referring the prevailing South American form to typical L. com-
planatum. The plant of northern Europe and America which, as Prof.
Fernald has shown, should be regarded as the type of the Linnaean
species, is low, and habitally as well as in the characters of its branchlets
and their leaves, quite different from the taller South American plant.
Dr. Christ seems also to have been in error in identifying the other tropi-
cal extreme, which has broad branchlets and long leaves with con-
spicuously spreading tips, with L. thyoides H. & B. The original
description of this species in Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 18, emphasizes rather
strongly the appressed leaves. In view of the facts that the type
specimens were from Venezuela, and that the appressed-leaved form is
apparently much the more common throughout South America, it
seems best to follow the first diagnosis, and to restrict LZ. thyoides
to that form.
In spite of their complete geographic separation, there is nothing to
warrant the segregation of the tropical forms as separate species. The
characters which distinguish them are of too little importance in them-
selves and too inconstant. They are rather to be considered as ex-
treme developments of tendencies which are traceable also in occasional
specimens of the northern plant, but are there not so strongly developed.
The earliest varietal designation of the South American plant and that
which, under the Vienna Rules, it should bear, is L. complanatum,
B tropicum Spring, based on L. thyoides H. & B. The other, prevail-
ingly Mexican, extreme seems to be without an available name.
2 Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xxvii. 165 (1900).
3 Bull. Herb. Boiss., sér. 2, ii. 707 (1902). # “ foliis semper adpressis.”’
414 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
The following synopsis will serve to define these American tenden-
cies of LZ. complanatum, as understood by the writer. The specimens
cited are all in the Gray Herbarium.
* Branchlets ascending, or, if spreading, lax and irregular; ultimate branch-
lets often more or less elongated.
-- Ultimate branchlets comparatively broad, 2-5 mm. wide, conspicuously
flattened, usually ascending and only moderately elongated; their leaves
3-5 mm. long.
LycopopiuM comPLANaTUM L. Branches mostly not over 3 dm.
long ; peduncles bearing 1-2(-4) spikes; tips of the lateral leaves
usually appressed or incurved. — Sp. Pl. 1104 (1753), excl. citation of
Dill. Muse. t. 59 ἢ 3. — NortaH America: Newfoundland to Alaska,
south to Maine and northern Idaho. Also in Eurasia.
Var. validum, nom. πον. More robust ; branches usually 3-4.5 dm.
long ; peduncles bearing 4-6(-9) spikes; tips of the lateral leaves
conspicuously spreading. — LZ. complanatum Fourn. Enum. Pl. Mex. i.
146, at least in part, not L.; Hemsl. Biol. Cent.-Am. Bot. 111. 701, at
least in part, not L. L. complanatum, var. thujoides Christ, Bull. Herb.
Boiss. sér. 2, 11. 707 (1902), not L. thyoides H. & B. — Mexico: Chia-
pas; Bergwald zwischen San Cristobal Las Casas und Huitztan, C. Φ᾽ 0.
Seler, no. 2273; Chiapas “‘etce.,” Ghiesbreght, no. 600; Oaxaca, Cerro
San Felipe, alt. 2000 m., Gonzalez & Conzatti, no. 889; region d’Ori-
zaba, Bourgeau, no. 3159, in part; Hidalgo, Trinidad, C. G. Pringle,
no. 11,856 (a form with the ultimate branchlets lax, elongated, and
somewhat attenuate at tip). No. 3196 in John Donnell Smith’s Plants
of Guatemala shows a form intermediate between this and the following
variety.
+ + Ultimate branchlets narrow, not more than 2 mm. wide, less conspicu-
ously flattened, somewhat convex above, sometimes much elongated (to
12 cm.) and loosely spreading; their leaves 2-3 mm. long, the tips usually
closely appressed.
Var. TROPICUM Spring in Mart. ΕἸ. Bras. i. pt. 2, 116 (1840). LZ. thyoi-
des H. & B. in Willd. Sp. Pl. v.18 (1810) ; ? HBK. Nov. Gen. et Sp. i.
38 (1815); Presl, Rel. Haenk. 77 (1825) ; Raddi, Fil. Bras. 80 (1825),
at least in part. ZL. complanatum B adpressifolium Spring, Monog.
Lycopod. i. 102 (1842), excl. syn. LZ. anceps Wallr. L. complanatum,
“var. L. thuyoides HBK.” Baker, Handb. of the Fern Allies, 28 (1887).
L. complanatum, var. thyoides Hieron. Engl. Bot. Jahrb. xxxiv. 576
(1905). — Cotomp1a: Moritz; Santa Marta, Purdie. Eouapor: in
Andibuas quitensibus, Jameson ; Andibus, Spruce, no. 5412 (a doubtful
plant which seems to have suffered some injury to its leaves). PrERU :
FERNALD. — LITTLE KNOWN MEXICAN PLANTS. 415
Andes, Jameson. Bottvia: Yungas, Bang, no. 395. Braz: Riedel ;
Claussen ; Herb. U. 8. So. Pac. Expl. Exp., no. 27; Prov. Minas Ge-
raes, Widgren, no..9843. Burchell’s no. 2223, from Brazil, of which
the specimen in the Gray Herb. shows only the tip of a stem, is per-
haps referable to var. validum.
ἘΠῚ Branchlets spreading or recurved, forming a regular flabelliform spray;
ultimate branchlets usually short, 0.5 to 4 em. long, broad as in L. com-
planatum but with shorter leaves.
Var. FLABELLIFORME Fernald. Peduncles usually bearing 4 spikes.
— Rhodora, i. 280 (1901). ZL. complanatum Amer. auth. in part. —
Nortu America: Nova Scotia to the mountains of North Carolina,
Kentucky, Iowa, and Minnesota.
Var ΊΒΒΕΙ Haberer. Peduncles 1-spiked. — Rhodora, vi. 102
(1904). Norra America: northern Vermont and central New York.
IV. NEW AND LITTLE KNOWN MEXICAN PLANTS,
CHIEFLY LABIATAE.
By M. L. FEerRna.p.
Juncus albicans, n. sp., caespitosus ; caulibus 5-7 dm. altis tenu-
ibus striatis albido-viridibus; vaginis basilaribus laxis albicantibus
demum fuscis, auriculis cartilagineis, laminis subteretibus anguste
canaliculatis ; inflorescentiis decompositis 2-6 cm. longis, ramis sub-
erectis, floribus subremotis vel aggregatis; bractea infima frondosa
inflorescentiam plerumque superante ; floribus 4-5 mm. longis albido-
stramineis ; bracteolis tenuibus albicantibus ; sepalis petalisque subae-
quilongis patentibus lanceolatis apice subulatis anguste membranaceo-
marginatis ; staminibus 6 sepalis circa dimidio brevioribus, antheris
filamentisque aequantibus; fructibus trigono-ellipsoideis truncatis
breve mucronatis 3-4 mm. longis pallide stramineis nitidis ; seminibus
0.5 mm. longis oblique ellipsoideis brevissime albo-caudatis. — Cut-
HUAHUA: vicinity of Chihuahua, altitude about 1300 m., May 1-21,
1908, Edward Palmer, no. 161 (type, in Gray Herb.). [It should be
noted that two plants have been distributed under no. 161, but, as the
other belongs in the Cruciferae, little confusion is likely to result. ]
Nearly related to J. dichotomus Ell. of the southern and eastern United
States. Differing in its very pale color, the softer texture of the pro-
phylla, perianth, and capsule, and the distinctly white-caudate longer
seeds.
Palmer’s no. 253, collected May 28-31, 1906, at Tobar, Durango, is
provisionally placed with Juncus albicans, though it may eventually
416 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
prove to be distinct. It has less cartilaginous auricles, smaller flowers,
and more ascending sepals, but the material at hand is over-mature
and has lost all its seeds.
Juncus Pringlei, n. sp., dense caespitosus ; caulibus erectis graci-
libus rigidis 1.5-2.5 dm. altis sulcatis ; cataphyllis basilaribus mucro-
niferis stramineis, supremis laminigeris lamina 4-10 cm. longa ; inflore-
scentia densa 3—7-flora a bractea infima vix superata; floribus 4.5-5
mm. longis ; sepalis lanceolatis petala subaequantibus apice subulatis
dorso crassis viridibus lateribus castaneis marginibus membranaceis
pallidis ; staminibus 6, antheris linearibus flavidis quam filamentum
longioribus ; fructibus trigono-ellipsoideis mucronatis nitidis pallide
castaneis vel olivaceis 5-6 mm. longis; seminibus 0.4 mm. longis elli-
psoideis mucronatis. — Oaxaca: Cuesta de San Juan del Estado, alti-
tude 2125 meters, August 31, 1894, C. G. Pringle, no. 5818 (type, in
Gray Herb.). An interesting addition to the little group of species,
J. Drummondii E. Meyer, J. Parryi Engelm., and J. Halli Engelm.,
all of which are confined to the cordillera of western North America.
J. Pringlei closely simulates J. Hallii of Colorado and Utah, but
differs in its blunt-pointed, not retuse, capsule ; and, unlike any of its
three allies, it has mucronate instead of caudate-appendaged seeds.
Scutellaria spinescens, ἢ. sp., fruticosa 1-2 dm. alta ; caule crasso
tortuoso cortice cinereo, ramis implicatis rigidis spinescentibus cinereo-
hirtellis, pilis minutis; foliis ellipticis vel oblongis integris breve
petiolatis rugosis cinereo-hispidulis, majoribus 1 cm. longis; floribus
axillaribus; pedicellis 5 mm. longis; calyce 2.5-3 mm. longo glanduloso-
hispido; corolla curvata pilosa 2 cm. longa flava vel rubella, tubo
anguste cylindrico.—Coanvita: by a brook in San Lorenzo Cafion,
near Saltillo, September 21-23, 1904, Hdward Palmer, nos. 392 (type, in
Gray Herb.) and 394. A characteristic dwarf shrub closely simulating
S. suffrutescens Watson, which, however, has very minutely pulverulent
glandless branches, leaves, and calyx. ‘The corolla of S. spinescens, as
shown by Dr. Palmer’s material, is very variable in color (as is that of
S. suffrutescens) ; the material under no. 392 having the corolla canary-
yellow passing to salmon, with the galea reddish ; while no. 394 has
the corolla of various shades of red, with yellow ἐπὶ on the sides of
the galea.
Satvia Sancorag-LucraE Seem. Bot. Herald, 327 (1856). In the
writer’s synopsis of Mexican Salvias (Proc. Am. Acad. xxxv. 514), this
plant was placed in the Vulgares and was taken to be the same as a
plant of that section collected by Dr. Edward Palmer in Tepic. Sub-
sequently the writer has studied Seemann’s original material at Kew and
it proves to be, not a plant of the Vaulgares as stated by Seemann in the
FERNALD. — LITTLE KNOWN MEXICAN PLANTS. 417
original description, but a characteristic member of the Membranaceae.
It is identical with the Tepic plant which the writer has described as
S. cladodes (Proc. Am. Acad. xxxv. 497).
Salvia (Membranaceae) Langlassei, n. sp., suffruticosa; caule
gracile duro flexuoso obtuse quadrangulato, ramis sordido-villosis ;
foliis ramorum membranaceis lanceolatis vel anguste ovatis basi rotun-
datis apice acuminatis 3-4.7 cm. longis 1.3-1.8 cm. latis acute serratis
supra strigosis venis subtus pilosis, petiolis 5-10 mm. longis ; racemo
elongato ; verticillis 9-14-floris demum 2-2.5 em. distantibus ; bracteis
reniformibus acuminatis 6-9 mm. longis glabris lucidis purpurascenti-
bus ; pedicellis 4 mm. longis glanduloso-hispidis ; calyce campanulato
purpurascente glanduloso-hispido fructifero 8 mm. longo, labiis subae-
qualibus, superiore late ovato 1.5 mm. longo, inferiore cum lobis ovatis
mucronatis ; corolla violacea. — MrcHoacan or GUERRERO: in argilla-
ceous soil of the Sierra Madre at 1700 meters altitude, January 27,
1899, Langlassé, no. 805 (type, in Gray Herb.). Closely related to
S. Sanctae-Luciae Seem., but with slender stems said by M. Langlassé
to be “volubile,” thinner leaves with very different pubescence, and
with shorter, broader calyx-lobes.
Salvia (Angustifoliae) urolepis, n. sp., herbacea circa 1 τη. alta ;
caulibus gracilibus retrorse pubescentibus, pilis brevibus cinereis ; foliis
late lanceolatis vel anguste ovatis basi subcuneatis apice acutis 3.5—5
(-.9) em. longis crenato-serratis supra viridibus puberulis subtus albo-
pannosis, petiolis gracilibus 1-2 cm. longis pilosis ; racemis gracilibus,
primariis 1.2 demum 8 dm. longis ; bracteis lanceolato-attenuatis 9-13
mm. longis deciduis ; verticillis 12-floris demum 3-3.5 cm. distantibus ;
calyce tubuloso-campanulato fructifero 6—7 mm. longo caerulescente
albido-piloso, labiis subaequalibus, superiore late ovato mucronato,
inferiore cum lobis deltoideo-ovatis subaristatis ; corolla azurea 12-16
mm. longa, tubo exserto, galea oblonga 4—6 mm. longa pilosa, labio in-
feriore 6—9 mm. longo cum lobo medio valde majore ; stylo piloso. —
Nuevo Leon, by brooks of the Sierra Madre above Monterey, August
25, 1903, September 4, 1904, and September 19, 1907, C. G. Pringle,
nos. 11,906, 13,281, and 13,978 —all collected from the same colony
(type, in Gray Herb.). Apparently most nearly related to S. oblongi-
folia Mart. ἃ Gal., which differs in its narrower glabrous leaves,
shorter and broader bracts, and the greener somewhat viscid puberu-
lence of the calyx.
SALVIA LAVANDULOIDES HBK., var. LATIFOLIA Benth. Pl. Hartw. 21
(1839), and in DC. Prodr. xii. 303 (1848) as nomen nudum; Fernald,
Proc. Am. Acad. xxxv. 506 (1900). A fine collection of this plant,
made by Mr. E. W. Nelson at an altitude of 2125-3040 m. on Mt.
VOL. XLV. — 27
418 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Patamban, Micuoacan, January 28-31, 1903 (mo. 6575), exactly
matches Hartweg’s no. 171 which is the type of the variety. In study-
ing the variety in the light of this more adequate material an impor-
tant character is noted in the glabrous or glabrate lower surface of the
leaves, those of typical S. lavanduloides being canescent-tomentose
beneath.
Salvia (Angustifoliae) moniliformis, n. sp., caulibus altis minute
pilosis ; ramis elongatis valde ascendentibus ; foliis ramorum lanceo-
latis utrinque acutis 3-4 cm. longis crenato-serratis supra viridibus tri-
gosis subtus pallidis pilosis; racemis spiciformibus demum 3-4 dm.
longis ; verticillis 10-40-floris demum 8-9 cm. distantibus ; bracteis
lanceolato-ovatis attenuatis caeruleis albido-pilosis deciduis ; pedicellis
1-2 mm. longis ; calyce cylindrico albido-caeruleo piloso costato fructi-
fero 8 mm. longo, labiis subaequalibus lanceolato-attenuatis 3 mm.
longis ; corolla caerulea circa 8 mm. longa, tubo paulo exserto, galea
puberula, labio inferiore multo longiore. — Mexico: open woods on
hillside at 2735 meters altitude, Iztaccihuatl, January, 1906, C. A.
Purpus, no. 1720 (type, in Gray Herb.). Distributed as S. lavandu-
loides HBK., but more nearly related to S. remota Benth., which, how-
ever, has much smaller calyces (in maturity 4 mm. long) which are less
prominently bilabiate.
Salvia (Vulgares) lilacina, n. sp., herbacea 1-1.5 m. alta; cauli-
bus minute puberulis valde sulcatis purpurascentibus ; foliis ovatis
acuminatis basi rotundatis 4-6 cm. longis serratis supra minute stri-
gosis venis subtus strigosis, petiolis 5-10 mm. longis; racemis
gracilibus permultis 6.5-12.5 em. longis; verticillis 10-20-floris
approximatis demum 1 cm. distantibus ; bracteis lanceolato-aristatis
1.5 mm. longis caducis ; pedicellis 2-3 mm. longis ; calyce purpurascente
tubuloso-campanulato 3-3.5 mm. longo strigoso, labio superiore
ovato acuminato 1 mm. longo, labio inferiore cum lobis subaristatis ;
corolla lilacina 12 mm. longa pilosa, tubo ventricoso exserto, galea
labiam inferiorem subaequante; stylo piloso.— MicHoacan: near
Uruapan, October 15, 1904, C. G. Pringle, no. 13,279 (type, in
Gray Herb.). Closely related S. Ghiesbreghtii Fernald, which has
the midrib of the leaf densely lanate beneath, the puberulence of the
branches coarser, and the few racemes more elongate.
Salvia (Vulgares) uruapana, n. sp., herbacea annua, 7 dm. alta;
caule gracile minute piloso, pilis retrorsis appressis, internodiis 3.5-10
em. longis ; foliis ovatis subcordatis acuminatis 4-5 cm. longis 2.6-3.5
em. latis crenato-serratis supra pallide viridibus minute puberulis vel
glabratis subtus cinereis minute pilosis vel glabratis, margine piloso-
ciliato ; racemis elongatis, primariis 3 dm. longis ; verticillis 3—-10-floris
FERNALD. — LITTLE KNOWN MEXICAN PLANTS. 419
demum 3 ecm. distantibus; bracteis lanceolato-caudatis demum 7—10
mm. longis ; pedicellis demum 6-7 mm. longis tenuibus albido-pilosis ;
calyce tubuloso-campanulato fructifero9 mm. longo 3 mm. diametro
cinereo-piloso valde bilabiato, labio superiore oblongo acuminato 2.5
mm. longo, inferiore rectiusculo 4 mm. longo cum lobis lanceolato-
aristatis ; corolla azurea 12 mm. longa, tubo vix exserto, galea brevis-
sima pilosa, labio inferiore multo longiore ; stylo glabro. — Micnoacan :
lava fields, Uruapan, October 16, 1904, C. G. Pringle, no. 13,280
(type, in Gray Herb.). Strongly simulating S. /eptostachys Benth., from
which it differs in its much longer, more slender, and unequally cleft
greener calyx, the longer, more pubescent pedicels, and the more
copiously pilose leaf-margin.
Salvia (Vulgares) lenta, n. sp., caulibus lentis gracilibus 5 dm. altis
pilosis, pilis cinereis nodulosis; foliis ovatis acuminatis basi subcu-
neatis 6.5-9 em. longis 3.5—4 cm. latis argute serratis utrinque pilo-
sis ; petiolis 1-1.5 em. longis ; racemo elongato 2 dm. longo ; verticillis
8-12-floris demum 1.ὅ-- cm. distantibus; bracteis lanceolato-ovatis
acuminatis pilosis deciduis ; pedicellis demum 2-3 mm. longis pilosis ;
calyce tubuloso-campanulato circa 4 mm. longo dense piloso, pilis
albidis nodulosis, labio superiore ovato obtuso 1 mm. longo, inferiore
breviore cum lobis deltoideis acutis ; corolla caerulea minute pilosa
1 cm. longa, tubo exserto, labiis subaequalibus ; stylo piloso. — Mr-
CHOACAN or GUERRERO: in granitic soil, at 1100 meters altitude,
Real de Guadelupe, September 10, 1898, Langlassé, no. 343 (type, in
Gray Herb.). Nearly related, apparently, to S. Warszewicziana Regel,
which has broad cordate acuminate bracts, a secund inflorescence, and
the lips of the corolla very unequal, the upper glandular.
Salvia (Vulgares) fallax, n. sp., fruticosa; ramis gracilibus elon-
gatis lignosis brunnescentibus juventate dense sordido-villosis, pilis
nodulosis ; foliis ovatis acuminatis basi subcuneatis 6-11 cm. longis
3.5-6 em. latis argute serratis utrinque pilosis, pilis albidis nodulosis ;
petiolis gracilibus villosis 2-5 cm. longis ; racemis gracilibus 1-1.5 dm.
longis ; verticillis 3—6-floris demum 1 cm. distantibus ; bracteis atro-
purpureis anguste ovato-caudatis deciduis ; pedicellis demum 2 mm.
longis ; calyce atro-purpureo tubuloso-campanulato hirsuto fructifero
5-6 mm. longo, labio superiore ascendente ovato acuminato, labio -
inferiore rectiusculo 1.5 mm. longo cum lobis deltoideo-aristatis ;
corolla azurea 9 mm. longa, tubo vix exserto, galea villosa, labio
inferiore paulo breviore; stylo piloso.—S. Sanctae-Luciae Fernald,
Proc. Am. Acad. xxxv. 514 (1900), not Seemann. —TeEpic: near
the town of Tepic, January and February, 1892, Hdward Palmer,
no. 1964 (type, in Gray Herb.). Closely related to S. lenta Fernald
420 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
and apparently also to δ. Warczewicziana Regel. In the writer’s
synopsis of Salvia published in 1900 he mistook this plant, from the
description alone, for S. Sanctae-Luciae Seem.; but he has since exam-
ined Seemann’s type and finds that it is not this plant but a species
of the Membranaceae (see above).
Salvia (Scorodoniae) rupicola, n. sp., fruticosa ; ramis gracilibus
subteretibus lignosis albescentibus cortice fibrilloso, juventate brunne-
scentibus glanduloso-pilosis ; foliis oblongis vel anguste ovatis crenatis
utrinque obtusis 1-2 cm. longis supra rugosissimis viridibus hispidis
glandulosisque subtus pallidis glanduloso-pilosis, petiolo 2-3 mm.
longo; racemis gracilibus 4.5-9 cm. longis; rhachi purpurascente
glanduloso-hispidulo ; verticillis circa 8-floris remotis demum 1.5-2
cm. distantibus; bracteis ovatis 2 mm. longis; pedicellis 2 mm. longis ;
calyce tubuloso-campanulato livido fructifero 6 mm. longo glanduloso-
hispido, labio superiore obtuso 1.5 mm. longo, labio inferiore obtuso
vix 1 mm. longo ; corolla circa 1 em. longa, tubo ventricoso exserto ;
galea, pilosa, labio inferiore paulo breviore ; stylo piloso. — Hipateo:
on rocks, Ixmiquilpan, 1903, C. A. Purpus, no. 431 (type, in Gray
Herb.). In habit similar to S. fruticulosa Benth., which has the branch-
lets, lower leaf-surfaces, calyces, etc., stellate-pannose ; nearer related,
apparently, to S. Gonzalezii Fernald, which is less fruticose, with darker
branches, glandless softer pubescence, broad-ovate leaves, and larger
calyx.
Salvia (Scorodoniae) tepicensis, n. sp., caulibus gracilibus obtuse
angulatis dense piloso-hispidis, pilis viscidis ; [0118 oblongo-ovatis ob-
tusis supra viridibus rugosis setosis subtus albo-villosis 3-3.5 em.
longis basi subcordatis, petiolo brevi gracili viscido-hispido ; racemis
simplicis elongatis 1.5 dm. longis; verticillis 6-10-floris remotis
demum 2.5-3 cm. distantibus ; bracteis lanceolato-ovatis acuminatis
dentatis 4 mm. longis ; calyce azureo anguste campanulato fructifero
7-8 mm. longo valde costato, costis glanduloso-setulosis, labio superi-
ore obtuso 3 mm. longo, inferiore obtuso 2 mm. longo ; corolla azurea
1.5 cm. longa, tubo paulo ventricoso exserto, galea pilosa, labio inferiore
multo longiore ; stylo villosissimo.— ΤΈΡΙΟ : near the town of Tepic,
January 5-February 6, 1892, Hdward Palmer, no. 1984 (type, in
Gray Herb.). Related to δ. Gonzalezii Fernald and S. rupicola
Fernald. From the former distinguished by its characteristic glandu-
lar spreading pubescence, the long lip of the corolla, and the villous
style ; from the latter by its more herbaceous character, its much
longer pubescence (of branches, leaves, and calyx), its larger promi-
nently costate calyx, and the longer corolla with a comparatively long
lip.
FERNALD. —- LITTLE KNOWN MEXICAN PLANTS. 421
Salvia (Scorodoniae) dasycalyx, n. sp., fruticosa 1.5 m. alta;
ramis gracilibus valde quadrangulatis superne decussatim bifariam pi-
losis ; foliis ramorum lanceolatis acuminatis basi subcuneatis 3.5—5.5
cm. longis paulo rugosis utrinque glabris vel venis supra pilosis venis
subtus albidis, petiolis 2-5 mm. longis pilosis; paniculis densis thyr-
soideis, secundariis 3.5-5 cm. longis; bracteis lanceolato-attenuatis
3-4 mm. longis; calyce turbinato circa 3 mm. longo purpurascente
dense villoso, pilis albidis planis, lobis brevissimis latis ; corolla vio-
lacea 7-8 mm. longa, tubo incluso, galea pilosa labiam inferiorem sub-
aequante. — MicHoacaNn or GUERRERO: in argillaceous soil at 1800
meters altitude, Sierra Madre, January 23, 1899, Langlassé, no. 779
(type, in Gray Herb.). Closely simulating S. thyrsifora Benth., from
which it differs in its glabrous leaves and smaller shaggy-villous
calyces.
Salvia (Cyaneae) umbratilis, n. sp., fruticosa 1 m. alta; ramis
gracilibus puberulis; foliis membranaceis glabris rhomboideo-ovatis
acuminatis basi cuneatis 8 cm. longis crenato-serratis, dentibus mucro-
natis ; petiolis gracilibus 1.5-3.5 em. longis ; racemo 1.5 dm. longo ;
verticillis 2—-6-floris demum 2 em. distantibus ; bracteis ovato-acuminatis
2 mm. longis subpersistentibus ; pedicellis filiformibus 5-6 mm. longis
divergentibus minute hispidis; calyce campanulato demum 11 mm.
longo valde 9-costato costis setulosis, labio superiore ascendente late
deltoideo mucronato, labio inferiore 4 mm. longo cum lobis porrectis
anguste deltoideis aristatis ; corolla cyanea 2.5-3 em. longa pilosa ree-
tiuscula, tubo paulo ventricoso, galea 7 mm. longa, labio inferiore
paulo breviore ; stylo glabro.— Mrcnoacan or GUERRERO: in argil-
laceous soil of damp forests, at 1200 meters altitude, Sierra Madre,
February 19, 1899, Langlassé, no. 904 (type, in Gray Herb.). Nearest
related to S. phaenostemma Donnell Smith, which has the leaves more
rounded at base, the calyx longer and purberulent (with subequal
lobes), and the pedicels ascending.
Salvia (Tubiflorae) arbuscula, n. sp., arborea vel fruticosa circa
2.5 m. alta ; ramis lanatis, pilis brunneis ; [0115 ovatis oblique subcor-
datis acuminatis circa 1 dm. longis crenato-serratis supra viridescenti-
bus tomentosis cum pilis stellatis subtus albido-pannosis cum pilis
stellatis ; petiolis 1-1.5 cm. longis stellato-tomentosis ; racemis densis
primario 2.5 dm. longo ; verticillis 20—30-floris demum 3 em. distanti-
bus ; bracteis minutis deciduis; calyce tubuloso-campanulato valde
costato 5 mm. longo albido-lanato, labio superiore late deltoideo cuspi-
dato 1 mm. longo, inferiore cum lobis anguste deltoideis mucronatis ;
corolla purpurea curvata 2.5-3 cm. longa vix ventricosa villosa, galea
rectiuscula 7 mm. longa, labio inferiore 4 mm. longo ; stylo glabro. —
422 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Micuoacan or GUERRERO: at 1500 metres altitude in the Sierra
Madre, January 20, 1899, Langlassé, no. 767 (type, in Gray Herb.).
A handsome species nearest related to δ. Fosei Fernald, but abun-
dantly distinct in the pubescence of its branches, calyx and corolla,
as well as the small calyx and the glabrous style.
Hyptis (Hypenia § Longiflorae) Langlassei, n. sp., fruticosa circa
2m. alta; ramis glabris rufescentibus ; foliis crassis coriaceis glabris
lanceolatis acuminatis basi subcuneatis, superioribus 1-1.7 dm. longis
2-3.5 em. latis acute dentatis ; panicula trichotoma ramis 1.5—-2.7 dm.
longis cymulas item semel vel bis trichotomas 2—7 cm. longas laxe
patentes gerentibus, rhachi glanduloso-puberulo ; bracteis ovato-lanceo-
latis acuminatis integris puberulis, inferioribus 2.5 cm. longis, supe-
rioribus 1 cm. longis; pedicellis demum 4-11 mm. longis; calyce
campanulato anthesi 4-5 mm. fructifero 8-9 mm. longo glanduloso-
puberulo et glanduloso-hispido, pilis brevibus albidis squamosis ; labiis
patentibus lanceolato-aristatis ; corolla sanguinea puberula 2 cm. longa,
tubo infundibuliforme, galea 2-3 mm. longa lobis rotundis labiam inferi-
orem subaequante; staminibus stiloque exsertis glabris. — MicHoacan
or GUERRERO : in granitic soil at 1800 m. altitude, Sierra Madre, Feb-
ruary 10, 1899, Langlassé, no. 854 (type, in Gray Herb.). Closely re-
lated to H. Nelsoni Fernald, of the mountains of Jalisco, which has the
leaves broad and clasping at base, the pubescence much finer (that of
the calyx merely a fine puberulence), and the hardly aristate calyx-lobes
much shorter.
V. MEXICAN PHANEROGAMS— NOTES AND
NEW SPECIES.
By C. A. WEATHERBY.
Anthericum tenue, n. sp., gracillimum scaposum, radicibus fasci-
culatis nonnullis apice nonnullis basin versus tuberoso-incrassatis, foliis
marcidis in collo laxe fibroso 3 em. longo supra radicem persistentibus
foliis suberectis pluribus radicalibus subulatis duris glabris marginibus
minute ciliolatis exceptis 1.5-2.8 dm. longis circa 1 mm. latis caule
paulum brevioribus in apicem longum acicularem productis, caulibus
gracilibus glabris 6—9-bracteatis ex speciminibus visis simplicibus 2.8—
3.6 dm. altis, floribus in bractearum axillis 2—3-fasciculatis, pedicellis
7-10 mm. longis infra medium articulatis, perianthii segmentis 1 cm.
longis albis (fide Nelsonii), staminibus quam perianthium tertiam
partem brevioribus, antheris 3 mm. longis liberis, filamentis 4 mm.
longis muricatis, capsulis immaturis ovoideis quam perianthium mar-
WEATHERBY. — MEXICAN PHANEROGAMS. 423
cescens duplo brevioribus. —GurERRERO: between Ayusinapa and
Petatlan altitude 1500-2000 m., Dec. 14, 1894, Melson, no. 2120 (in
hb. U. S. Nat. Mus.). Near A. leptophyllum Baker, from which it
differs in its even more slender habit, narrower-eand longer leaves,
and several-bracted stem. Very similar also to Echeandia Pringlei
Greenman, but with free anthers.
Anthericum uncinatum, n. sp., scaposum, radicibus medio in-
crassatis, collo radicis dense fibroso, foliis (6-7) 8-12 cm. longis
6-10 mm. latis pallide viridibus saepius patentibus valdeque fal-
catis in siccis conduplicatis membranaceis marginibus manifestis albis
cartilagineis ciliolatis lente nervatis, caulibus circa 3 dm. altis simplici-
bus scabris vel hirtellis 1—2-bracteatis bracteis setaceo-acuminatis
chartaceis, pedicellis floriferis 5-7 mm. longis infra medium articu-
latis, perianthii flavi (?) segmentis 8-12 mm. longis, filamentis papil-
loso-crispatis circa 5 mm. longis antheris longioribus, capsulis immatu-
ris brevibus ovoideis. —Duranco: Otinapa, July 25-Aug. 5, 1906,
Palmer, no. 437. Near A. scabrellum Baker, from which it differs in
its cartilaginous-margined and strongly falcate leaves; similar to those
of A. drepanoides Greenman. From the latter species it differs in
its scabrous stem, smaller size, and fewer, chartaceous bracts. In A.
drepanoides the bracts are about 5, and the lower are foliaceous and
falcate, like the root-leaves.
Nemastylis (ὃ Chlamydostylus) latifolia, n. sp., bulbo ovoideo
tunicis brunneis friabilibus, caule simplici subflexuoso in speciminibus
visis circa 4.5 dm. alto folium unicum erectum bracteamque vaginan-
tem gerente, folio radicali uno lineari-lanceolato longe acuminato apice
setaceo 3 dm. longo 1—1.5 em. lato plicato valde nervato, folio caulino
simili inflorescentia breviore vel eam aequante ejus vagina 3-3.5 cm.
longa scariosi-marginata, bractea acuminata scariosi-marginata 7.5—-8.5
cm. longa, spatha 5.3 cm. longa valvis acuminatis aequilongis vel ex-
teriore paulum longiore, floribus in spatha 4, pedicellis filiformibus
spatham aequantibus vel exsertis, perianthiis albis marcescentibus
paulum caerulescentibus 3 cm. (?) latis, filamentis brevissimis minus
quam 1 mm. longis, antheris 1 em. longis connectivis angustis, styli
ramis filiformibus antheras subaequantibus parte indivisa circa 1 mm.
longa, fructu non viso.— GuERRERO: hills, near Iguala, alt. 915 m.,
July 29, 1907, Pringle, no. 10,391. Distinguished from all the other
Mexican species hitherto described by its very short, almost obsolete
filaments. In this respect it resembles some of the South American
species, but is not satisfactorily referable to any of them.
Quercus (§ Erythrobalanus) rysophylla, n. sp., arborea magna,
cortice nigricante aspera vel profunde sulcata, foliis integris ovato-
424 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
lanceolatis 14-21 cm. longis 4.5—-8 cm. latis basi cordatis vel rarius
truncatis in apicem acutum sensim angustatis apice (in foliis imma-
turis) arista gracili 3-4 mm. longa munitis coriaceis glabris vel subtus
in axillis nervorum barbatis pallide viridibus subnitidis valde reticu-
lato-rugosis nervis supra impressis subtus prominentibus marginibus
leviter incrassatis durisque sicut nervis marginalibus, petiolis 5-7 mm.
longis crassis supra planis tomentosis vel glabratis, stipulis persistenti-
bus linearibus 1.2—1.5 em. longis, floribus femineis 2—4 [0111 in axilla
singula sessilibus, cupulae immaturae squamis late ovatis obtusis
glabris vel minute furfuraceis, glandibus non visis. —Nvrvo Leon :
Sierra Madre, Monterey, Pringle, nos. 10,225, 10,226, 10,379. A well-
marked species, nearest Q. nectandraefolia Liebmann.
Mirabilis Pringlei, ἢ. sp., caulibus herbaceis circa 1 m. altis ramosis,
ramis dense glanduloso-puberulentibus, foliis late ovatis vel suborbi-
culatis 7-10 cm. longis 5-9 cm. latis integris cordatis acutis vel
breviter acuminatis ciliolatis praeter nervos glanduloso-puberulentibus
subtus sparse et minute pubescentibus pilis brevibus adpressis, in-
florescentiae foliis parvis subsessilibus, inflorescentia divaricato-cymosa
non congesta, cymis breviter pedunculatis, involucris unifloris campan-
ulatis glandulosis ejus laciniis ovatis obtusis in anthesi tubam subae-
quantibus, perianthiis pallide roseis 2.5—3 cm. longis cylindraceis basi
paulum dilatatis et quam ovarium latioribus limbo angusto, stam-
inibus 5 longe exsertis perianthii tubo duplo longioribus, anthocarpiis
glabris tuberculatis circa 7 mm. altis 5 mm. latis pentagonis in angulis
costatis basi late truncatis. — GUERRERO: under limestone cliffs, Iguala
Cafion, alt. 915 m., July 23, 1907, Pringle, no. 10,384. Near M. exserta
Brandegee, from which it differs in its tuberculate, five-ribbed antho-
carp and in the shape of its perianth which, at base, is broader than the
ovary. From J/. Jalapa and its immediate allies it differs, as does
M. easerta, in its long-exserted stamens and style and in its more open
inflorescence.
OXYBAPHUS GLABER Watson. The type material of this species con-
sisted only of a portion of the panicle. The following amplified descrip-
tion, drawn up largely from the specimen of Mr. Pringle’s cited below,
may, therefore, be of service.
Perennial ; stem stout, glabrous, 8 dm. high, simple below, branch-
ing above, the lower internodes numerous and short (2 cm. long) ;
leaves linear, 4-8 cm. long, 3-6 mm. wide, thick, glabrous ; panicle
large and open, its branches opposite and strictly glabrous ; involucres
somewhat campanulate, 4-8 mm. high, about 1 cm. across when
mature, glabrous or minutely strigillose with short yellow hairs, on
slender glabrous pedicels 4-8 mm. long ; flowers cleistogamous (?),
WEATHERBY. — MEXICAN PHANEROGAMS. 425
the perianth inconspicuous, equalling or shorter than the involucre ;
fruit lance-ovate in outline, acute at the apex, narrowed at the base,
with five narrow but prominent smooth ribs, the space between more or
less strongly tuberculate, glabrous or minutely strigillose between the
ribs.— Am. Nat. vil. 302 (1873). — Kanab, South Utah, drs. A. P.
Thompson. Curavanva: sand hills near Paso del Norte, Sept. 20,
1886, Pringle, no. 1126. A specimen from Kansas, sand hills, Kearny
Co., Aug. 29, 1897, A. S. Hitchcock, no. 421b perhaps belongs here
also.
There is in the Gray Herbarium a plant clearly referable to this
species, but differing from the typical form in its pubescent pedicels
and involucres. It seems worthy of recognition as: var. recedens,
n. var., a forma typica differt pedicellis involucrisque pubescentibus. —
CHIHUAHUA: between Casas Grandes and Sabinal, altitude 1550-
1700 m., Sept. 4-5, 1899, Nelson, no. 6351.
In the course of a recent attempt to rearrange, with the aid of
Mr. Standley’s excellent monograph, the Mexican specimens of
Vyctaginaceae in the Gray Herbarium, it became apparent that, under
the Vienna Rules, several new combinations in the genus Oxybaphus
were required. ‘They are accordingly proposed here, as follows :
Oxybaphus texensis (Coult.), n. comb. Adlionia corymbosa, var.
tevensis Coult. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 11. 351 (1894). Allionia texensis
Small, Fl. Southeast. U. ὃ. 406 (1903). — Coulter’s no. 912, from
Mexico, but without more definite locality, should apparently be
referred here.
Oxybaphus coahuilensis (Standley), n.comb. Allionia coahuilen-
sis Standley, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. xii. 347 (1909).
Oxybaphus melanotrichus (Standley), n. comb. AJllionia melano-
tricha Standley, 1. c. 351. The following, not cited by Mr. Standley,
belongs here: CuimvAHUA : mountains near Pilares, 23 Sept., 1891,
C. V. Hartman, no. 743.
Oxybaphus pseudaggregatus (Heimerl), n. comb. Mirabilis
pseudaggregata Heimerl, Ann. Cons. et Jard. Genév. v. 183 (1901).
Allionia pseudaggregata Standley, 1. c. 356. — The following specimens
belong here: San Luis Porost: alt. 1850-2500 m., 1878, Parry ὁ
Palmer, no. 768 ; in montibus San Miguelito, 1876, Schaffner, no. 177.
Vallée de Mexico, Guadelupe, ler Aofit, 1865, Bowrgeau, no. 651.
Urvillea biternata, n. sp., fruticosa 1-2 m. alta glabra vel ramulis
minute pulverulentibus, ramis 3—5-costatis costis obtusis interdum
rubris inter costas planiusculis vel leviter sulcatis, foliis biternatis,
foliolis membranaceis glabris vel subtus praeter nervos sparse pubes-
centibus punctis lineisque pellucidis minute punctatis ovatis subtus
426 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
pallidioribus, terminalibus 11-15 em. longis 4.5-5.5 cm. latis obtuse
acuminatis mucronulatis supra medium paucis dentibus crenatis basi
abrupte angustatis sicut in petiolulam alatam 1-2 cm. longam, laterali-
bus similibus minoribus interdum obliquis acumine breviore, inflores-
centiae paniculis angustis axillaribus longe (ad 8 em.) pedunculatis
2-cirrhosis, sepalis 5, 3 mm. longis concavis obtusis late ovatis minute
pubescentibus duobus exterioribus paulum minoribus, petalis 4, 3 mm.
longis obovatis vel suborbiculatis unguiculatis rotundatis, duobus supe-
rioribus squamas gerentibus latas cucullatas apice in appendicem longam
deflexam productas appendice et marginibus barbatas summo dorso
crista dilatata subflabelliforme instructas, duorum inferiorum squamis
minoribus margine barbatis summo dorso cuspidatis, disci glandis duobus
oblongis basi latioribus et callosis inter callos concavis, staminibus 8,
filamentis crassis extra sparse villosis, antheris introrsis, fructu trialato
subobovato 1.8 em. longo 1.3 cm. lato apice leviter emarginato vel
rotundato basi subacuto. — GuERRERO: Iguala Cafion, alt. 915 m., July
24, 1907, Pringle, no. 10,380. An anomalous species, distinguished
from all the other species of Urvillea by its biternate leaves. In habit
it resembles some species of Serjania, but has the fruit of Urvillea.
Euphorbia (§ Anisophyllum) chalicophila, n. sp., erecta annua (?)
basi ramosa, caulibus teretibus gracilibus 38.5-4 dm. altis dichotome
ramosis pilis albis crispatis dense vestitis, foliis oppositis lanceolatis
basi valde obliquis subcordatis falcatis acutis vel obtusiusculis brevissime
petiolatis ab apice fere ad basin serrulatis pilosis, caulinis 15-19 mm.
longis 3-5 mm. latis, involucris brevissime pedicellatis in cymosulas
paucifloras bracteatas ad apices ramulorum congestis turbinatis
0.6 mm. altis extus glabris intus hirtellis non fissis, lobis ovato-
lanceolatis pectinatis, glandulis transverse ellipticis 0.5 mm. longis sub-
concavis appendice rubra vel rubella 0.5 mm. lata integra vel emar-
ginata, capsulis 1.5 mm. altis brevipedunculatis glabris vel sparse
pilosis, seminibus laevibus griseis ovatis haud angulatis 1 mm. longis.
— Jauisco: gravelly banks of gullies near Guadalajara, alt. 1525 m.,
October 12, 1903, Pringle, no. 11,846. In habit and in the characters
of the involucre very like narrow-leaved forms of /. brasiliensis Lam.,
but differing in being pilose throughout and in its smooth seeds.
Euphorbia (§ Anisophyllum) chamaecaula, n. sp., perennis rube-
scens, caulibus ex apice radicis pluribus prostratis ramosis compressis
infra nodos paulum dilatatis glabris, foliis oppositis brevissime petio-
latis late ovatis basi subcordatis obliquis apice obtusis integris glabris
vel facie superiore sparse pilosis, caulinis 6-8 mm. longis 4.5-6 mm.
latis, ramulinis minoribus, involucris in axillis foliorum solitariis vel
apicibus ramulorum in cymosulas paucifloras aggregatis pedicellatis
WEATHERBY. — MEXICAN PHANEROGAMS. 427
campanulatis extus intusque glabris, lobis parvis ovatis fimbriatis,
glandulis ellipticis 0.6 mm. longis, appendice conspicua alba flabelli-
forme integra vel crenulata 0.5 mm. lata, pedicellis 2.5 mm. longis vel
brevioribus, capsulis 2 mm. longis 1.5 mm. latis subacute carinatis
omnino glabris, seminibus pallidis oblongis apice apiculatis quadrangu-
laribus inter angulos subtransverse vel irregulariter rugosis. — JALISCO :
gravelly plain near Guadalajara, Oct. 14, 1903, Pringle, no. 11,848.
Near Μ΄. prostrata, from which it differs as follows: Μ΄, prostrata, plant
green, leaves strictly oblong, abruptly rounded at apex, capsules hairy
on the angles, glands with very short or no appendages. /. chamae-
caula, leaves mostly ovate, tapering somewhat to the obtuse apex,
plant reddish, capsule entirety glabrous, glands with conspicuous white
fan-shaped appendages.
Manihot intermedia, n. sp., fruticosa erecta 1-2 m. alta omnino
glabra, foliis orbiculatis palmatis non peltatis fere ad petiolam pro-
funde 7—8-lobatis, supra viridibus subtus pallidis venis albis reticula-
tis, lobis medianis foliorum inferiorum lanceolatis sinuata-lobatis infra
apicem late et abrupte rhombeo-dilatatis apice setaceo-mucronatis,
duobus lobis lateralibus parvis lanceolatis integris, lobis medianis foli-
orum superiorum leviter sinuatis nec lobatis nec rhombeo-dilatatis,
petiolis limbo brevioribus vel eum subaequantibus glaucis, racemis
brevibus 3-4 cm. longis 3-4 ad apicem ramulorum fasciculatis patulis,
bracteis pedicellas aequantibus vel paulum superantibus lineari-seta-
ceis, pedicellis 5-10 mm. longis saepe bracteas duas oppositas parvas
infra medium gerentibus, floram masculorum perianthiis gamophyllis
5-lobatis campanulatis circa 15 mm. altis basi rotundatis extus glauco-
caerulescentibus intus flavescentibus venosis extus intusque glabris,
laciniis deltoideis tubo triplo brevioribus, staminibus longioribus peri-
anthium aequantibus, capsulis glabris globosis in siccitate rugosis, semi-
nibus laevibus ellipticis latere interiore planis vel obtusissime angulatis
exteriore convexis. — GUERRERO ; limestone cliffs of Iguala Cafion, alt.
915 m., July 29, 1907, Pringle, no. 13,938. Intermediate between 77.
carthaginensis and M. acutiloba, having nearly the foliage of the former
but the flowers of the latter; and apparently differing from both in
its bracted pedicels.
Ipomecea (§ Pharbitis) igualensis, n. sp., volubilis tota papilloso-
hirsuta pilis plus minusve flavescentibus 2-3 mm. longis vel caulibus
glabrescentibus, marginibus foliorum bractearum sepalorumque pilis
similibus dense papilloso-ciliatis, foliis longe petiolatis (ad 2 dm.) ovato-
orbiculatis cordatis breviter acuminatis 7.5-12 cm. longis 7-13 cm. latis,
pedunculis petiolos subaequantibus vel superantibus 3-floris, inflore-
scentia capitata congesta, ejus bracteis duabus late ovatis cuspidatis
428 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
venosis membranaceis 17 mm. longis pedicellas brevissimas floriferas
sicut involucrum includentibus et occultantibus, sepalis circa 13 mm.
longis acutis, duobus exterioribus latioribus ovatis 5 mm. iatis intus
circa 10-nervatis, tribus interioribus lanceolatis 2-2.5 mm. latis, corolla
5 cm. longa pallide purpurea tubo angusto infundibuliforme, tubo et
plicis dense pilosis, limbo glabro, capsulis non visis. — GUERRERO ;
Iguala Cafion, alt. 760 m., September 21, 1905, Pringle, no. 10,054.
Apparently near 7. hirtiflora Mart. & Gal., from which it differs in its
almost setose pubescence.
JUSTICIA PACIFICA (Oerst.) Hemsl. Mr. Pringle’s no. 10,145, from
Balsas in the state of Guerrero, agrees excellently with Oersted’s de-
scription. The original specimens were in fruit only and the species
was doubtfully referred to Justicia by Hemsley. Mr. Pringle’s plant
shows a glabrous corolla 2.5 em. long with the short tube and broad
limb characteristic of Justicia. The species would seem, then, to be
certainly a Justicia and allied to J. furcata, but differing from all
forms of that species in its grayish-puberulent stem, spicate inflores-
cence, ciliate bracts and in the very broad white margins of its calyx-
lobes.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 18. — May, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ROGERS LABORATORY
OF PHYSICS, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY.
LUI.—ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM
CONSISTING OF LIME, CARBON, CALCIUM CAR-
BIDE AND CARBON MONOXIDE.
By M. DeKay THompson.
INVESTIGATIONS ON LigHT AND HEAT MADE AND PUBLISHED, WHOLLY OR IN PART, WITH APPROPRIATION
FROM THE RumForD FUND.
Mg |
.Ἡ
ἡ ' ΗΝ
bh ete Ata yy ANE
yh ag Ad Jar,
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ROGERS LABORATORY
OF PHYSICS, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY.
LII.— ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM CONSISTING
OF LIME, CARBON, CALCIUM CARBIDE AND
CARBON MONOXIDE.
By M. peKay THompson. %
Presented by H. M. Goodwin, February 9, 1910. Received February 20, 1910.
1. IntTRopUCTION.
Wurte the author of the following paper was working on the subject
indicated in the title above, an article dealing with the same matter
appeared in the Electrochemical and Metallurgical Industry.1 The
present writer’s results did not agree with those in the article referred
to, and it was therefore thought best to publish a preliminary paper on
the subject, which was accordingly presented at the October meeting
of the American Electrochemical Society in New York. As the work
has now been brought to a close, the following article will be made
complete, including all of the preliminary publication that is necessary
_ for clearness.
According to the Phase Rule 2 the substances taking part in the re-
action CaO + 80 --Ξ CaC, + CO form a monovariant system, that is to
say, for any given temperature there is a definite pressure of carbon
monoxide which will preserve equilibrium. In order that equilibrium
can exist the reaction must be reversible. The fact that this reaction
is reversible has been shown by Rothmund ? and others.4 Rothmund
also attempted to measure the temperature of formation of carbide by
heating to different temperatures lime and carbon, and testing the
charge immediately afterwards to see if it reacted with water, giving
off acetylene. ‘he furnace used consisted of a carbon tube through
1 C. A. Hansen, Electrochem. Met. Ind. 1909, 7, 427.
2 See Findlay, ‘‘The Phase Rule,”’ p. 16.
3 Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem. 1902, 31, 136.
4 A. Frank, Zeitschr. f. angew. Chem. 1905, 44, 1733.
432 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
which an electrical current was passed. The assumption that must be
made with regard to the partial pressure of the carbon monoxide is
that it is constant and is due to oxygen of the air acting on the carbon
tube, giving one-third of an atmosphere.® Unless the temperature is
raised above that corresponding to one-third of an atmosphere, no car-
bide would be found. By repeated trials this temperature could be
located within certain limits, if the above assumption is true. In this
way Rothmund found 1620° C. as the temperature of formation. Sim-
ilar experiments were repeated later by Rudolphi,® who found the tem-
perature of formation to lie between 1800 and 1819° C., that is, about
200° higher than Rothmund’s value. ‘The temperature measurements
were made by an optical method, as were also Rothmund’s. Finally,
Lampen,’ by a method similar to the above, using a Wanner pyrometer
for temperatufe measurements, found 1725° C. for the temperature of
formation. It seemed evident, from the poor agreement of these results,
all obtained by the same method, that some other method would have
to be used in which the pressure of the carbon monoxide could also be
measured, as these differences might be due simply to different values
of this quantity. It was the object of the following investigation to
make these measurements.
2. ΜΕΤΗΟΡ AND RESULTS.
The method decided on was to heat the charge in a vacuum furnace
connected with a mercury manometer and to measure the temperature
of the charge and pressure of the carbon monoxide when equilibrium is
reached. A small Arsem 8 vacuum furnace, made by the General Elec-
tric Company, was the apparatus used. It consists of a cylindrical”
bronze casting 24 centimeters in inside diameter and 39 centimeters in
length. Parallel to the axis in the center of the casting and fastened
to the lid, is a graphite helix, 27 centimeters in length, 5.1 in outside
diameter and 0.5 in thickness of wall. The helix is clamped at each
end by water-cooled electrodes. The lid is fastened to the casting with
a number of cap-screws and a lead washer. The whole furnace is im-
mersed in water with the exception of a tower projecting from the center
5 Rothmund erroneously assumes the pressure of the carbon monoxide to
be 1/5 atmosphere, probably because this is the partial pressure of oxygen in
the atmosphere. Taking into consideration that every mole of oxygen pro-
duces two of carbon monoxide, 1/3 atmosphere is the result obtained.
6 Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem. 1907, 54, 170.
7 Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 1906, 28, 864.
8 Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 1906, 9, 163.
THOMPSON.—_ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 99
of the lid containing a mica window, making it possible to see the hot
material held in the center of the spiral. The support for the crucible
is a graphite rod held by the lower electrode, but insulated by lava
rings. ‘he lid also contains a pipe by which the furnace may be ex-
hausted. A Geryk oil pump was used for obtaining the vacuum. The
pressure could be read by a wooden scale divided in millimeters on a
mercury gauge completely evacuated and sealed off at one end, thus
SL ETS cit εἰ
ἘΠῚ ee A Net
ΤΣ ee ὡς ΠΕ ΡΗ Σ ἐ ἢὉ
-- ee Rana
1600
1400
eae
SS
eer
Raed
=
bo
Θ
Oo
True Temperature
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1000.
Temperature Indicated
Figure 1. Calibration of Thermoelectric Junction.
making a siphon barometer. he temperature of the gas contained in
the furnace is not constant, but all that determines the equilibrium
besides the pressure is the temperature of the solid substances and of
the gas in contact with it. Of course the pressure must be constant
throughout the furnace.
In the first experiments the temperature was measured by a Wanner
pyrometer, which rendered it necessary to replace the mica window by
one of glass clamped between rubber and sealed up with paraffin. In
calibrating the pyrometer a similar piece of glass was placed between
the amylacetate standard and the instrument. The Wanner was found
VOL. XLV. — 28
434 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
TABLE I.
CALIBRATION OF THERMOELECTRIC JUNCTION.
Temperature read directly from
True Temperature.
seale.
Melting point of Gold . . 1065° Ὁ. 1075° C.
Melting point. of Aluminum δῦ" C. 650° C.
Boiling Sulphur . . . . 445°C. 440° Ὁ.
to be unreliable, however, apparently due to inconstancy in the amyl-
acetate standard.2 he furnace was therefore calibrated by means of a
platinum platinum-rhodium junction, that is, the temperature of the
crucible was measured while the power was held constant. ‘The tem-
TABLE II.
CALIBRATION OF FURNACE.
Kilowatés:, 7 ΚΡ ΒΕΡΕΣΑ ΤΕ by Baa Remarks.
3.60 968°
7.03 1185° ;
8.98 1325° 1st spiral
et 1308"
3.12 925°
4.99 1062°
7.10 1180° 2d spiral
8.03 1225"
9.00 1262°
9.81 1325 2d spiral
7.68 1180° repeated on
6.15 1100° following day
perature was then subsequently determined by measuring the power
applied. Heating was furnished by an alternating current with a fre-
quency of sixty cycles per second. This was taken from a transformer-
switchboard so arranged that the voltage could be varied in steps of
about twelve volts. For the finer regulation a carbon plate rheostat, in
which current regulation could be obtained by varying the compres-
9 The temperatures measured in the former article on this subject are ac-
cordingly from 100° to 150° too low, but the general conclusions there reached
are not affected.
THOMPSON. —ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 435
sion on the plates was found satisfactory. The terminals were copper
boxes filled with water.
Figure 1 gives the calibration of the junction. The galvanometer
Degrees
Kilowatts
Figure 2. Calibration of Furnace.
was a Siemens and Halske instrument made for this special purpose,
but which did not read as high as the melting point of platinum.
In Table II and Figure 2 the calibration of the furnace is given. The
power was obtained from voltmeter and ammeter readings. The am-
meter scale read to five amperes and was connected to a current trans-
former with a ratio of 60 to 1. This instrument was not calibrated.
436 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Two voltmeters with scales from 0-65 and 40 to 160 were used. These
were calibrated so as to make them comparable with each other. ‘The
alternating current instruments were of the Thomson type made by
the General Electric Company.
In calibrating the furnace the wires of the pyrometer were protected
by fused silica tubes which extended up into the tower in the lid of the
furnace. ‘The tubes were covered at the junction by a short graphite
tube. This projected through a hole in the cap of the crucible con-
taining the charge and rested in the charge. The bare wires were
brought out of the furnace at the top of the tower between rubber
washers ; the furnace was then evacuated and the calibration taken.
TABLE III.
VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE IN CRUCIBLE.
Distance of junction from Temperature.
bottom of crucible.
0.0 cm. 1220°
0.6 1220°
1.8 225
9.0 ΠΡῸΣ
4.0 12207
4.4 [9155
4.8 ΠΡ
The power was 8.36 kilowatts.
The carbon shield surrounding the spiral was not used in these ex-
periments on account of the fact that carbon absorbs a large amount of
gas which is not easily removed. It will be evident from the method
of experimenting described below that its use would not be permissible.
In the figure a circle is put around those points taken with the first
spiral. It is evident from this figure that this method of obtaining the
temperature is not as accurate as the Wanner pyrometer would be
were it in good condition.
It will be seen that there is no regular difference in the calibration
of the two spirals, except that all the points of the first coil le on the
upper dotted line, while some of the points for the second coil lie on
the upper as well as the lower. This is probably due to the fact that
the second spiral was calibrated more than once. It was thought best
under the circumstances to draw the solid line midway between the
two extremes and take this for estimating the temperature.
A further test was made to see how constant the temperature was
throughout the length of the crucible. For this purpose the junction,
THOMPSON. —ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 437
protected by silica tubes, was lowered through the window in the tower
into the crucible and the furnace heated without pumping out the air.
There was no lid on the crucible in this experiment. The results are
given in T'able III.
It is seen that without the lid and with no charge in the crucible
the temperature is quite constant, which would be improved, if any-
thing, when the charge is in the crucible and the lid in position.
The carbide used in the following experiments was made from Merk’s
lime and Acheson graphite powder in the form of turnings from
graphite electrodes. Carbide was made by heating a mixture of the
two in an arc furnace consisting of a graphite electrode and graphite
crucible. By the loss in weight method 1° it analyzed 78 per cent
pure. he impurities must have been carbon and lime which were not
harmful for these experiments.
The first experiments were carried out at from 1700° to 2000°, but
no consistent results could be obtained. After a run at these temper-
atures it was found that the walls of the furnace were always lined
with a white powder, whether lime and carbon were heated alone or
when carbide was in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide. It was
found when carbide was heated in carbon monoxide to about 1800°
only graphite was left in the crucible and the white powder was formed
on the walls. When carbide was heated alone in a vacuum the walls
of the furnace were lined with a thin sheet of calcium, which easily
peeled off and took fire when brought in contact with moisture.
Graphite was left behind in the crucible. These two facts taken
together show that calcium reduces carbon monoxide according to the
equation :
Ca + CO = CaO + C.
Therefore, if carbide is to be produced, it must either be below the
temperature where it breaks up into its elements, or the velocity of
the reaction
CaO + 3 C = δὺς + CO
must be greater than the velocity of the preceding reaction. The
latter is evidently the state of affairs in the manufacture of carbide,
but equilibrium measurements could hardly be made under this
condition.
10 Lunge, Chemische—technische Untersuchungs Methoden, 5te Auflage,
Band II, 711. The drying tube contained a layer of P.O; besides one of
Ca Clz, which the escaping gas had to pass first.
438 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
From a number of experiments, which it is not necessary to repro-
duce here, it seemed that 1500° C. was about the highest temperature
at which equilibrium could be measured. ‘This conclusion was based
on the quantity of white powder found on the walls of the furnace after
runs at different temperatures. Some further experiments at about
this temperature showed that it would be impossible to differentiate
between the pressure of carbon monoxide and occluded gases that
came out of the carbon spiral and the charge on heating in a vacuum.
It was therefore decided to heat the charge in some indifferent gas,
which could be drawn off and analyzed for the amount of carbon mo-
noxide present. Hydrogen was of course the only gas available. Ni-
trogen could not be used on account of the fact that it is absorbed by
calcium carbide forming calcium-cyanamide. Hydrogen would have
no action on carbide,1 but it does enter into an equilibrium with
carbon monoxide according to the reaction
Η,0 + C= H, + C0
which is the reaction of water-gas formation. If an appreciable quan-
tity of water were produced from hydrogen and carbon monoxide this
would react with the carbide and form acetylene and in analyzing for
carbon monoxide by absorption in cuprous chloride solution, acetylene
would be mistaken for the former. It can be shown, however, that the
quantity of water vapor formed is too small to have any effect. The
free energy of this reaction is given by the equation 12
AF = — 27950 + 31.76 Τ' -- 4.58 T log πο.
Poo Pau,
where 7’ is the absolute temperature and the p’s are partial pressures.
At equilibrium A¥ = 0, therefore placing the right-hand side of the
equation equal to zero, and substituting for 7 its value 1773° absolute,
we find that for 1500° C.
PHO _ 9,990324,
PooPu,
If pu equals about 90 centimeters of mercury as it does in the follow-
ing experiments,
p
0 — 6 0029
Poo
a ein ly PORE TY eS ee ee ee 8ε ε
11 Moisson, “‘The Electric Furnace,” p. 211.
12 Bodlinder, Zeitschr. f. Elektrochem. 1902, 8, 833.
THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 439
or pH,0 = 0.003 poo, which is a negligible quantity. The tempera-
ture of the gas, however, is not all at 1500°, but falls off to the tem-
perature of the water cooled walls of the furnace. At 1000° C. przo
= .063 pco which is still a relatively small amount. What actually
happens is that at the higher temperatures where the velocity of the
reaction is great, the equilibrium varies uniformly with the tempera-
ture, but as the gas reaches the cooler portions of the furnace, due to
convection currents, it suddenly becomes chilled to a point where the
reaction practically stops, leaving the concentrations at values corre-
sponding to the higher temperatures.
EHaperiment 1.
The charge consisted of lime, carbon, and calcium carbide mixed to-
gether. A loosely fitting lid with a quarter-inch hole in the center
covered the crucible. The mixture was placed in the furnace, the
furnace was evacuated, and the charge heated to 1000° for an hour to
drive off gases that invariably come off on the first heating, and par-
ticularly to get rid of any water contained as hydrate of calcium. If
this were not done water would come off during the run and react with
the carbide present. The furnace was then evacuated to a pressure of
0.05 centimeters of mercury and carbon monoxide let in to 1.25 centi-
meters. ‘This was generated from strong sulphuric acid and potassium
ferrocyanide and was washed with two drying towers of soda lime and
a phosphorous pentoxide tube. Hydrogen was then admitted to a
final pressure of 63.6 centimeters. This was generated from hydro-
chloric acid and zinc and was purified by two bottles of permanganate,
a hot copper gauze, two towers of soda lime, and a phosphorus pen-
toxide tube. The furnace was filled with hydrogen in three quarters
of an hour. The volume of the furnace, after allowing for the solids
present during a run was 19.9 liters. The run began at 9.45 a. M. and
lasted till 4.00 p.m. The power was held constant at 12.0 kilowatts
corresponding to 1485° C. The following table gives the analysis for
carbon monoxide, made by drawing off 100 cubic centimeters into a
Hempel burette and absorbing with acid cuprous chloride solution.
Time. Per cent Carbon Monoxide.
9.45 A.M. Sample taken as furnace 1.05
warmed up.
1.42 P. M. Less than 0.1
It was evident from this result that the quantity of gas corresponding
to equilibrium at this temperature could not be analyzed by a Hempel
440 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
apparatus. ‘The experiment was continued till 4.00 p. m. to make sure
equilibrium had been reached. ‘The method used to determine the
small quantity of carbon monoxide present in this and all the following
experiments was to draw about half the gas in the furnace through
two Liebig bulbs sealed together and filled with cuprous chloride solu-
tion. ‘These were tilted at an angle so the gas bubbled through the
liquid on leaving each of the five spheres of which a Liebig bulb is
composed. The gas then passed a column seven centimeters long of
soda lime and another similar one of phosphorous pentoxide. This
whole apparatus was made entirely of glass closed by two glass stop-
cocks. The bulbs, in which the air was displaced by hydrogen, were
hung in the balance case by a platinum wire the day before the final
weight was taken. The air in the balance case was dried by two
beakers of sulphuric acid and the temperature was read from a ther-
mometer in the case. The volume of the bulbs was determined by the
bottle method for specific gravity, in which a large desiccator took
the place of the bottle. This was necessary in order to be able to
reduce the weighings to vacuo. From the total weight in grams of
carbon monoxide absorbed the number of moles is formed by dividing
by 28, the molecular weight of the gas. This, however, gives only a
fraction of the total amount in the furnace. The total amount is cal-
culated as follows. If 2, = the total number of moles in the furnace
‘before any gas is removed, m2 the number after a certain amount had
been drawn off through the absorption bulbs, ρὲ = the pressure in the
furnace when the absorption began and p, the pressure at the end,
then
pw = mRT,
pv = n2RT,
where Ὁ equals the volume of the furnace. The temperatures were
equal to those of the water surrounding the furnace and were made
equal to each other at the start and finish.
ny 4
Therefore Lee ει
7). p2
also Ny — Ὥς =m
if m — the number of moles absorbed.
m
aay
fy
Solving (v=
THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 441
If ps; =the total pressure during the run, which is greater than p on
account of the higher temperature, the pressure in millimeters of carbon
monoxide is computed by the formula
__m X .0821 X T X 760 X pz
τῇ 19.9 Χ pr
in which 7' is the absolute temperature of the gas in the furnace at the
beginning and at the end of the absorption.
At the end of the absorption the pressure of hydrogen in the absorp-
tion bulbs was only about half an atmosphere, consequently enough
hydrogen had to be let in to bring the-pressure to one atmosphere,
after which the bulbs were again hung in the balance case and weighed
the following day. The variation due to temperature and pressure
change in the weight of hydrogen filling the bulbs was negligible. All
weighings given in the following are reduced to vacuo. ‘he data thus
obtained after the above run were the following :
Initial weight bulbs 175.3392 grams
Final os i 170 es te Ie Ge
Gain in weight 0.0090)» “
The time taken for absorbing the gas was 6 hrs.
pi = 68.5 cm. of mercury
po τος 38.6 (ς (ς ce
pe BOO ay rae
Ἶ ΠΟ 00074 Χ .0821 Χ 285 ΧΊΘΟ x 89
Pe eet. 19.9 X 68.5
= 0.86 mm. of mercury.
On opening the furnace white powder was found on the lid.
Experiment 2.
The same charge as used in Experiment 1 was ground up and re-
placed in the crucible. Part was tested with water and gave off acet-
ylene vigorously. It was heated for an hour to 1000° and evacuated
to a pressure of 0.05 centimeter of mercury. No carbon monoxide was
admitted. Hydrogen was let in to 6.72 centimeters in 1 hr, 40 min.
442 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Duration of run : 6 hrs.
Power: 11.7 K. W.
Temperature : 1465° C.
Initial weight bulbs 182.5989 grams
Final “ rf 182.6061‘
Gain 0.0072 “
Time taken for absorption 43 hours.
pi = 67.2 em. of mercury
p2 ==Stohl! “ i ‘“
Ps — 91.8 ce ({ ce
_ -000589 X .0821 Χ 288 Χ 760 Χ 91.8 _
co ~ 19.9 X 67.2 che aa
On opening the furnace somewhat more white powder found on the
walls than in Experiment 1.
This experiment was carried out with the idea of approaching the
equilibrium from the side which generates carbon monoxide. ΤῸ decide
whether this had been done in the above experiment it was necessary
to see whether the bulbs would gain no weight if the furnace were filled
with hydrogen and part then drawn through the bulbs. he following
blank experiment was therefore carried out. ‘The furnace was evacu-
ated to a pressure of 0.15 centimeter of mercury, hydrogen was let in
to 1 centimeter and again evacuated to 0.15. ‘This operation was re-
peated and hydrogen then let in to 67.6 centimeters. ‘The final filling
took 1 hr. 40 min.
The gas then drawn through the weighed bulbs for 3 hrs. 45 min.
pi = 67.1 em. of mercury
Pe =— 38.1 [7] ςς ({
Initial weight reduced 182.606 grams
Final a3 182:627- Ὁ
Gain 0021.
If the whole amount of gas could have been drawn through the gain in
weight would have been 0.049 gram. ‘This gain in weight must have
been due to oxygen, which might not have been removed or which
might have gotten in while filling the furnace. ‘This would have been
converted to carbon monoxide by the hot carbon spiral giving too high
a pressure for equilibrium. Equilibrium in Experiment 2 was therefore
“THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 443
approached from the same side as in Experiment 1. ‘This remark holds
good for all the following experiments.
Haperiment 3.
As the previous experiments agreed fairly well, it was thought desir-
able to try a lower temperature, to make sure that the gain in weight
of the absorption bulbs was really due to carbon monoxide and not to
some impurity in the hydrogen.
The charge consisted of fresh carbide, lime and carbon. The furnace
was evacuated to 0.15 centimeter and was heated to 1000° till the
occluded gases coming off gave a pressure of 6 centimeters, which re-
quired about ten minutes. It was then evacuated to 0.15 centimeter
with the furnace still at 1000°. Hydrogen was let in to 2.4 centimeters
and evacuated to 0.15. The furnace was then cooled and filled with
hydrogen to a pressure of 67.0 in 1 hr. 40 min.
Power : 8.24 K. W.
Temperature : 1250°
Duration of run: 6 hrs.
The solution of cuprous chloride had been used in a previous ex-
periment.
Initial weight of absorption bulbs 183.6340 grams
Gain 0.0032 “
pi = 67.2 cm. of mercury
ρὲ = 34.8 ce iT ce
ps — 90.4 ςς (ς (
__ 9.000248 X .0821 Χ 286 Χ 760 Χ 90.4
co 19.9 X 67.2 =e ig At
Experiment 4.
The charge was the same material as in the previous experiment
with some lime and carbon added and mixed up with the rest.
The furnace was evacuated to a pressure of 0.2 centimeter and heated
to 900° for two hours. It was then evacuated to 0.15 centimeter, hy-
drogen was admitted to 2.4 and again evacuated to 0.15. It was finally
filled with hydrogen to 67.3 centimeters in 1 hr. 40 min.
444 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Power : 8.8 K. W.
Temperature : 1270°
Duration of run: 7 hrs. 10 min.
The absorption bulbs were refilled.
Initial weight 182.9303 grams
Final τι 18.) 9 Gey fs
Gain 0.0013 “
pi = 66.8 cm. of mercury
pr Ξ-Ξ- 37.2 ({ ce “
Ps — 90.3 “ ‘73 cc
_ 0.000103 Χ .0821 Χ 285 x 760 Χ 90.3
π᾿ 19.9 Χ 66.8 ee oe
. Poo
Experiment 5.
The object of the following experiment was to see if measurements
might not be carried out at a somewhat higher temperature where
the pressure would be greater and the determination therefore more
accurate.
The charge was the same carbide used in experiment 4 to which
about one half as much lime and carbon, previously heated to redness,
was added. ‘The furnace was then evacuated to 0.2 centimeter and
heated to 900° for 14 hours. It was then evacuated to 0.2 centimeter
and hydrogen let in to 2.3; again evacuated to 0.12 centimeter and
filled with hydrogen to 67.7.
The charge was then heated 7 hours with 10.0 kilowatts, correspond-
ing to 1370°. This must have established equilibrium at this tem-
perature. The power was then raised to 12.6 kilowatts corresponding
to 1525° for 41 hours.
The cuprous chloride was the same used in Experiment 4.
Initial weight 182.9243 grams
Fimal |" ¢ 182927 ὦ
Gain 00034).
Time taken for absorption 3 hrs.
pi = 66.3 cm. of mercury
p= Sad “ “ {ς
p= IO At ys
a
THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 445
__ 000280 X .0821 Χ 285 x 760 X 90.0
‘Poo — 19.9 x 663 SN eee
On opening the furnacea larger amount of powder than any other
experiments here given was found on the walls. his, taken in con-
nection with the small pressure found and the experiments referred to
in the Introduction seem to indicate that at this temperature the car-
bon monoxide was removed by calcium coming from the decomposition
of carbide.
It is true that this equilibrium was really approached from the side
of too little carbon monoxide, but as the velocity of the reaction is the
same in both directions at equilibrium, this cannot account for the low
pressure of carbon monoxide.
Experiment 6.
The hydrogen used in the following experiments was generated
electrolytically on platinum electrodes dipping into sulphuric acid
of 1.2 specific gravity. The cathodes were contained in a porous cup
closed at the top by a cork stopper covered with paraffin, through
which projected glass tubes, into which the electrodes were sealed.
There was also a tube through which hydrogen could escape. ‘The
porous cup stood in a small battery jar. The hydrogen tube was con-
nected to a mercury manometer so that the pressure in the cathode
compartment could be kept from 0.1 to 1.0 centimeter above the
atmosphere, thereby preventing air from leaking in. In Experiment 6
only one such electrolytic cell was used, but for the last two experi-
ments another cell was connected in series with the first, thus requir-
ing only half the time for filling the furnace. The hydrogen first
passed through a soda lime tube, then the hot copper gauze used in
the previous experiments, then two soda lime towers and phosphorous
pentoxide tube. Hydrogen was passed over the hot copper for at
least half an hour before any was let into the furnace, in order to
sweep out the air in the tube. The object in using electrolytic hydro-
gen was to show that the above gains in weight were not due to im-
purities in the hydrogen generated from zine and hydrochloric acid.
The carbon monoxide used in the following experiments was gen-
erated by allowing formic acid to drop from a separatory funnel into
concentrated sulphuric acid.
In order to see if all the carbon monoxide was absorbed by the two
Liebig bulbs containing cuprous chloride in the following experiments
a second absorbing apparatus similar to the above was used with one
Liebig bulb in place of two. This was filled with a 3 per cent solution
446 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
of neutral gold chloride. This has been found to oxidize carbon
monoxide to dioxide without affecting hydrogen.1®= Gold chloride in
an excess of potassium hydrate is even more sensitive to carbon mo-
noxide, but it was found that hydrogen reduced the gold in the alkaline
solution to a black powder if left in contact with the solution over
night.
The charge consisted of about equal portions of powdered carbide
and a mixture of lime and carbon. It had been used in a previous
run.
The cuprous chloride in the Liebig bulbs had been used in the three
previous experiments, but as a little was tested with water and gave a
heavy white precipitate it was not thought necessary to change the
solution.
The furnace was evacuated to a pressure of 0.28 centimeter and
hydrogen was let in to 1.0 centimeter; then evacuated to 0.1 and
carbon monoxide let in to 0.3 centimeter. Hydrogen was then ad-
mitted to 67.3 centimeters requiring three hours with a current of
about 14 amperes.
Duration of run: 6} hours.
Power: 11.8 K. W.
Temperature: 1475°
Initial weight cuprous chloride bulbs 173.1312 grams
Final Potssa. τς
Gain 0.0073 “
Initial weight gold chloride bulb 116.8119 grams
Final a τ 11106:8158. Ὁ
Gain 0.0036) τὸ
Total gain 00110 > "=
The gain in the gold chloride bulbs was relatively large, probably on
account of the cuprous chloride having taken so much carbon monoxide
into solution that it was not so good an absorber as when fresh.
pi = 65.7 em. of mercury
ge = oe ee i
Ὅς: ΞΘ ἣν
0.000703 X 0.0821 Χ 287 X 760 Χ 92
SEO 19.9 X 65.7 == Cee a
13 Phillips, Am. Chem. Journ. 1894, 16, 273.
THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 447
Eaperiment 7.
The charge consisted of powdered carbide with some coarser pieces
on top. It was heated in the furnace at 1050° for an hour and a
quarter and evacuated to 0.1 centimeter. Hydrogen was then let in
to a pressure of 1.6 centimeters, the furnace was evacuated to 0.10 and
carbon monoxide let in to 0.25 centimeter. Finally hydrogen was let
in to 68.3 centimeters requiring one hour and a half with 14 amperes.
Duration of run: 6 hours
Power: 11.8 K. W.
Temperature: 1475°
The cuprous chloride bulbs were refilled, but not the gold chloride.
Initial weight cuprous chloride bulbs 173.7646 grams
Final Ἢ φ 4 if ιν γος
Gain 0.0049 =“
Initial weight gold chloride bulb 116.8121 ee
Final . nS P τς 116.8126
Gain οὐ ιϑθῦδ, ὁ“
Total gain 0.005 “
Time required for absorption, 3 hours.
_ 0.00065 x 0.0821 x 291 Χ 760 X 95 _ 9 3) sam
- 19.9 x 69.3 ahi,
Experiment 8.
The charge was the same material as used in Experiment 7.
The furnace was evacuated and heated for an hour and fifty minutes
at 1050°. It was then evacuated to a pressure of 0.12 centimeter and
hydrogen let in to 2.0, again evacuated to 0.15 and carbon monoxide
let in to 0.28 centimeter. Hydrogen was then admitted to 77.6 centi-
meters requiring an hour and a quarter.
‘Duration of run: 6 hours, 10 minutes.
Power: 11.4 K. W.
Temperature: 1445° Ὁ.
The cuprous chloride bulbs were refilled.
Initial weight of cuprous chloride bulbs 167.4274 grams
Final Ape ἢ ἧς ΠΟ ΠΣ ὦ
0.0038 “
448 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
The tube previously used for gold chloride was filled with cuprous
chloride.
Initial weight of second cuprous chloride tube 119.3358 grams
Final 73 “cc ( (73 “cc “c 119.3363 a3
Gain 0.0005 “
Total gain 0.0043
px = 67.1 cm of mercury
Ho τ ἣν
Ps = 92.7 “ “
The time taken for absorption was 3} hours.
__ .000350 X 0.0821 X 287 X 760 X 92.7
Peleg 19.9 X 67.1 i ae
3. Discussion oF RESULTS.
For convenience the results obtained above are collected in the
following table.
TABLE IV.
Time Initial
ressure] Pressure
Gain in Gain in | taken for Ῥ
Weight of |Weight of| Absorp-
Ist Bulb. | 2d Bulb. tion in
Hours.
In all of these experiments, even at 1250°, there was some white
powder on the walls of the furnace. Whether a slight decomposition
of carbide into its elements takes place at this temperature could not
be decided by this means, as the white powder may have been due to
THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 449
two causes, both the decomposition of carbide and to volatilization of
some impurity in the lime or carbon. ‘The best evidence that the car-
bide does not break up at 1475° and does break up at 1525° is that
equilibrium could be measured at the former but not at the latter
temperature. Attention was called-to the possibility of lime itself
being somewhat volatile at 1500°, since a piece of Merk’s lime heated
at the melting point of platinum for an hour also produced a layer of
white powder on the walls of the furnace.
As Experiments 1 and 2 were carried out at temperatures equally
above and below the temperature in experiments 6 and 7, the average
of these four may be taken, with the result
Poo at 1475°C. = 0.82 + .02 mm.
Through these results were obtained from the same side of the equilib-
rium, different amounts of carbon monoxide were present at the
beginning in each case, which makes the evidence that equilibrium had
been reached conclusive.
From this result, the pressure obtained in Experiment 8 at a tem-
perature 30° lower may be checked by the integrated van’t Hoff
equation :
4.57 logio ge Q (τ =)
where 2 and p; and the pressures of carbon monoxide corresponding
to the absolute temperatures 7; and 7’, and (ἡ is the heat absorbed by
the reaction, when it proceeds from left to right. @ has been calcu-
lated 14 to be 121000 calories at room temperature, with a negative
temperature coefficient of 3.3 calories per degree.
Therefore Q@ = 121000 — 3.3 ἐ,
where ¢ equals centigrade degrees above room temperature, which for
high temperatures may be considered as degrees above zero. For
1460° C. Q therefore equals 116000 calories. Substituting in the
above equation the absolute temperatures corresponding to 1475°
and 1445°, the value of ei comes out 1.79. The ratio between the
1
pressures found by experiment is 1.86, which is very satisfactory
agreement.
If the pressure at 1270° is calculated from that at 1475°, using the
value of Q corresponding to the mean temperature 1370°, the result is
14 Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 1909, 15, 197.
VOL. XLV. — 29
450 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
0.0093 millimeter, that is, it is below a measurable quantity. The
fact that in one case 0.13 and in another 0.3 millimeters were found
is due to the insufficient time allowed to absorb this very small amount
of carbon monoxide.
From the value of the equilibrium pressure obtained at 1475° it is
possible by the above formula to calculate the pressure at higher tem-
peratures and see approximately what is the shape of the pressure tem-
perature curve. The value of Q corresponding to the mean of each
set of temperatures is used. 1475° is always taken as the lower temper-
ature. The results of this computation are given in ‘l'able IV and
Figure 3.
TABLE V.
PRESSURES OF CaRBON MoNOXIDE COMPUTED FROM THE VALUE
DETERMINED AT 1475°.
Equilibrium Pressure of Carbon Monoxide in
Centimeters.
Temperature
Degrees Centigrade.
I II Ill
Lower Limit. Mean. Upper Limit.
0.05 0.08 0.13
0.31 0.50 0.79
1.54 2.53 4.00
6.6 10.7 17:
25.0 40.5 64.
81. 133.0
It is evident that the error in this curve is due practically entirely
to the error in the temperature measurements, for while the value of
px is accurate to 2.5 per cent, the temperature is uncertain by 25°, and
the value 0.82 millimeters might correspond to 1500° or 1450° as the
two extremes. This would mean the true value at 1475° might be
1.3 or 0.5 millimeters as the two extremes. If now the curve be com-
puted first with the value 1.3 in place of 0.82, and again with 0.5, the
values under 1 and III in Table V are obtained. ‘The values are plotted
in Figure 3 in broken curves. From these curves it is seen the tem-
perature corresponding to 1/3 of an atmosphere lies between 1800° and
THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 451
1875°, with which Rudolphi’s values agrees the best of all the three
referred to in the Introduction.
ΒΝ Fe ed ΕΝ
Ee a a ΝΜ κ
Pressurein Centimeters
oo
oOo
ὍΝ Oe
ES a ΜΝ ἢ
CAS Bo a? ca
Ce de
1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Temperature
20
Figure 3. Pressure of Carbon Monoxide Computed from the Value Deter-
mined at 1475° C.
‘The free energy increase of the reaction taken from left to right at
14757 C: is
760
Wd
= RT log ΠΣ ΞΩ
4.57 X 1748 logy, 927
-+ 23700 calories
As the temperature rises A /’ decreases till at 1920°, where the equi-
librium pressure equals an atmosphere, A "= 0. Above 1920° A 4
becomes negative.
452 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
SumMMARY OF RESULTS.
1. The equilibrium pressure of carbon monoxide in the reaction
CaO + 3 Ὁ Ξ CaC, x CO
was measured at 1475° and 1445°. ‘The results were in good thermo-
dynamic agreement.
2. A little below 1445° C. the pressure becomes too small to meas-
ure; a little above 1475° decomposition of calcium carbide int6 its
elements prevents measurement of equilibrium.
3. With the aid of the heat of the reaction the vapor pressure curve
at higher temperatures was computed which cannot be realized experi-
mentally on account of the decomposition of calcium carbide.
4, 'The free energy increases of the reaction
CaO + 3 C = (δὺς + CO
at 1475° is +23700 calories.
Evecrrocuemican Lasoratory, Rogers LABORATORY oF PHysics,
Massacuuserts Institut or TECHNOLOGY,
Boston, Mass.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vout. XLV. No. 19.— May, 1910.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
DISCHARGES OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH
HYDROGEN.
By JoHn TROWBRIDGE.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL
LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
DISCHARGES OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH HYDROGEN.
By JoHn TROWBRIDGE.
Presented December 8, 1909. Received February 24, 1910.
1. Reflection of cathode rays. hl toe say lay edie MR emg Pr als
2. δύσι : a Ta Ai Na να ἐς ΠΝ φὐλ ἐπε ZN (3415/0)
3. The Doppler CCE τον ΣΟ ea ae eee
4. Conclusions : PRION ΣΝ ACh io lae stg knee tus ee aren SERA,
1. REFLECTION oF CATHODE Rays.
In the course of this paper I shall refer to certain hydrodynamical
analogies which the discharges of electricity through gases present ;
not with the conviction that in these discharges we have to deal with
questions of flow alone. ‘The complicated phenomena give large scope
both to theories of flow and molecular theories: the hydrodynami-
cal analogies are more striking in discharges through gases at com-
paratively high pressures;
while molecular theories
apply best in highly rare-
fied gases. There seems
to be a certain continuity
here similar to that be-
tween motions of matter
in the liquid state and in
the gaseous state, when
such matter is subjected to forces which can produce movement or
flow of the particles.
The conditions of electrical discharges in a tube represented in Fig-
ure 1 remind one of the flow of a fluid interrupted by a plane lamina.
A is a cathode, K an anode, D a diaphragm, P a plane lamina which
can be moved about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the paper,
Figure 1 being a plan of the discharge tube. P can also serve as an
anode.
At the striz stage the electrical conditions in the tube are very
little modified by turning the lamina through small inclinations to the
Figure 1.
456 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
line of discharge. The striz remain practically unaffected in shape
and position until the angle between the normal to the lamina and the
axis of flow reaches 50°. ‘This phenomenon is analogous to the case
of a lamina subjected to the flow of a liquid (Lamb’s Hydrodynamics,
pages 94 and 111). It is also analogous to the conditions presented
by the impact of wind on vanes.
By means of a side adjunct a thermo pile, 'l', was introduced in
order to measure the heat excited by the reflection of the cathode
rays passing through the diaphragm D and reflected from the lamina,
Figure 2.
when the latter was inclined to the axis of the cathode rays at varying
angles. Here also there was an action similar to the reflection of a
stream of liquid from the lamina, proceeding in the direction of the cath-
ode rays. ‘The angle between the normal to the lamina and the axis
of flow or discharge could vary largely without affecting the amount
of heat from the reflected cathode beam shown by the thermopile.
2. STRIA.
The strize, or stratifications, in Geissler tubes constitute a very beau-
tiful and mysterious phenomenon of the discharge of electricity
through gases, and if one could follow the mechanism involved per-
fectly one could feel sure of having penetrated far into questions of
the method of propagation of electricity. There seems no reason to
doubt that the striz are phenomena of ionization ; but the regularity
Σ
|
TROWBRIDGE. — DISCHARGES OF ELECTRICITY. 457
of the strize leads one to ask if this regularity could arise from some pul-
sation or rhythmical action, — the ionization being, so to speak, on top
of such a rhythmical action. When the striz are excited by a storage
battery, they are perfectly steady, and when one is sure that there are
no breaks in the circuit, a telephone introduced into the circuit is
silent ; moreover, self-induction included in the circuit does not affect
the striz.
Under certain conditions
the current from a storage
battery oscillates or pul-
sates, but such oscillations
or pulsations do not seem
to modify the appearance
of the stratifications. If, on
the other hand, there is a
flow from the cathode which
pulsates at a different rate from a supposititious flow from the anode,
one might expect striz, or accumulation of ionic disturbances at regular
intervals. An hydrodynamical analogy is afforded by the motion of
two pistons moving against each other at different rates in a channel
filled with water.
Figure 2 represents an apparatus by means of which two pistons
driven in opposite directions by a motor cause waves in a trough
filled with water.
FiGURE 3.
FIGURE 4.
Figure 3 shows the arrangement, in plan, by means of which the
ripples are studied. M is a mercury lamp of the Cooper Hewitt form.
This is placed directly behind the trough containing the pistons. The
surface of the water, totally reflecting the light, forms a dark line which
under the motion of the pistons undulates in waves, which can be stud-
ied by instantaneous photography. P and P’ are the pistons, and D is
a diaphragm with a rectangular orifice. Figure 4 represents a case in
which P moves twice as fast as P’. The waves are formed nearer the
slower-moving piston.
All who have worked in the field of discharge of electricity through
gases must recognize the suggestiveness Of the theory of ionization by
collision, especially in reference to striz; but one who was ignorant
of this theory, in seeing the action of the cathode rays in apparently
458 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
driving the striz into the anode, might attribute this action to an
actual repelling force arising from the cathode. When this suppositi-
tious force is diverted by a magnet, the striz reappear and
more current flows. One ignorant, too, of the many facts of
ionization by collision might further suppose that heavier
particles of slower motion might be held back by swifter
particles issuing from the cathode. These views of a mind
not biased by ionization theories would appear to be sup-
ported by the phenomena presented by the tube represented
in Figure 5.
One branch of this tube is at right angles to the other
branch. There are two anodes,
A and A’, and two perforated
cathodes, K and Κ΄. Whena
multiple circuit is formed by
leading in the current to the Fiaure 5.
two anodes and out by one
cathode, K, striz form in the branch A’K’ after they disappear in
the branch AK; and they persist in the branch A’K’ when the
branch AK appears to be nearly at the
X-Ray stage. One looking at the branch
A’K’ would suppose that the rarefication
of the entire tube was low, and gazing at
the branch AK would think it very high.
The bend in the tube acts like a magnet
in allowing the striz to emerge from the
anode A’; and it does this by enfeebling
by reflection the effect of the cathode rays
(ΟΣ -- in the branch A’K’.
The function of the cathode beam seems
D to be twofold: it forces back the striz,
and at higher exhaustions it ionizes the
gas ; for the current ceases to flow at high
exhaustions when the cathode beam is
strongly diverted by a magnet. These
functions are illustrated by the phenom-
ena in a tube represented in Figure 6.
Between the anode A and a cathode D
the glass tube is constricted. ‘The cathode D is a circular disc with
an orifice a little larger than the glass orifice. The cathode rests upon
the ground walls of this orifice, presenting no metallic surface toward the
anode A. The cathode beam produces an orange fluorescence toward
FIGURE 6.
TROWBRIDGE. — DISCHARGES OF ELECTRICITY. 459
D’, and is marked in the direction toward A by a white beam which
produces hardly a perceptible fluorescence. The latter beam does not
come from the metallic surface of the cathode, but seems to come
from the gas in the region DD’. At comparatively high exhaustions
this latter portion of the cathode beam ceases to ionize the gas and
the current ceases ; the potential between A and D rises to the full
potential of the battery — indicating an open circuit. When, how-
ever, D’ is made the cathode, the current is immediately re-estab-
lished and the cathode beam from D’ ionizes the gas between D’ and
A. The tube acts as a rectifier ; for when D is made the anode and A
the cathode, a current
passes; on reversal of
the current, when at the
same exhaustion, no cur-
rent passes in the op-
posite direction.
It is interesting to
observe the effect of ἡ
a transverse magnetic
field on the discharge
in this tube when A is
made a cathode and D
an anode, and striz ap-
pear in the portion DD’. see ἢ
The magnetic field -
placed near A diverts the cathode beam and striz advance in the
portion DD’. While this field is still on, another transverse mag-
netic field placed near D’ diverts the strive independently of the action
of the field at A. This indicates the well known fall of potential
from striz to striz.
The rectification observed under proper conditions in the tube ( Fig-
ure 6 ) suggests other forms of tubes by which rectification can be pro-
duced. Even with a straight cylindrical tube the current can be stopped
at high exhaustions by touching the outside of the tube with the fin-
ger, thus diverting the cathode beam by electrostatic action ; while it
readily passes when the current is reversed. The phenomenon of rec-
tification is shown in a practical way in the U-shaped tube represented
in Figure 7. It is provided with two anodes, A and A’, and two cath-
odes, D and D.’ The cathodes have orifices at their centres. ‘he
two anodes are connected together, and the two cathodes — the tube
forming a multiple circuit. A transverse magnetic field can be so
placed near one cathode that no current will pass in the branch of the
460 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
tube of which it is a part, while the current passes freely in the other
branch of the U tube. This form of tube rectifies an alternating
current.
The apparent repelling or driving back action of the cathode beam
on 5 11 is shown in a suggestive manner in a straight cylindrical tube
when a diaphragm is inserted between the anode and the cathode.
We will take for illustration one branch of the U-shaped tube (Figure
FIGURE 8.
7), and suppose that the current is led into the tube at A and out at D.
A metallic diaphragm with a small hole at its centre is inserted in the
tube about one third of the distance beween A and D, measured from
the anode A —the latter also having an orifice at its centre. The
strie are slowly driven back by the cathode rays as the exhaustion
proceeds. At a definite stage of this exhaustion a stria takes refuge
behind the diaphragm nearer the anode, where it is protected from
the driving back action of the cathode rays ; finally at higher exhaus-
tions this stria is driven through the orifice in the anode and shelters
itself behind the anode.
TROWBRIDGE. — DISCHARGES OF ELECTRICITY. 461
At a still higher state of rarefaction a stria issues from the orifice in
the anode, and this also shelters itself behind the diaphragm on the
side toward the anode. 'I'here are, thus, three definite stages of strati-
fication in this form of tube. Ata pressure of four centimetres fine
strize appear on the side of the orifice in the diaphragm opposite to the
anode. ‘These soon disappear with increasing rarefaction. At a pres-
sure of approximately 3 mm. a large stria shelters itself behind the
diaphragm. ‘This fades into the orifice in the anode with diminishing
pressure ; and at a pressure of approximately .15 mm. a large stria
wells up out of the orifice in the anode and takes a similiar place near
the diaphragm. When the state of canalstrahlen is reached, all strize
have been driven into the anode. Can we regard these strahlen as a
stratification which cannot be driven back by the cathode rays ? In this
form of tube we find evidence of successive states of stratification which
may depend upon positive rays of different velocity.
When we turn from our observation of stratification in the neighbor-
hood of the cathode instead of in the neighborhood of the anode, we
find that a stratification always takes place on the glass wall close to
the entrance of the cathode, or to its sealing in place. It can be pro.
duced equally well by causing the cathode to approach the wall of
the tube opposite to this sealing in place. Figure 8 represents the
phenomenon in a tube with a dome-shaped chamber near the electrode.
We seem to have two dissected striz: one on the wall of the tube
nearest to the cathode, which provides a beautiful light blue cathode
beam thrown into the dome; and another stria on the opposite wall of
the dome. The original cathode beam excites both positive and nega-
tive rays in these striz. In considering these detached striz it seems
that the cathode rays in striking the glass walls can excite both posi-
tive and cathode rays.
When a spark gap is inserted in a circuit containing a discharge
tube which is properly exhausted to the striz stage, the latter appar-
ently disappear —the light of the tube becomes more brilliant and
fluorescence is generally manifested. his is also the case when a con-
denser is discharged through the tube. The eye cannot perceive any
evidence of stratifications ; for the brightness of the pilot spark, to-
gether with the fluorescence both of the gas and of the glass walls effect-
ually shield any striz of lesser radiance which might be present. It
is not possible to employ a revolving mirror. The only method which
seemed to promise any results in detection of possible stratifications
was the employment of a portrait lens of large aperture — four inches
—in photographing single discharges. Accordingly a discharge tube
was filled with hydrogen and exhausted to the striz stage. A con-
462 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
denser of .02 m f capacity was charged to a difference of potential of
100.000 volts and discharged through the rarefied tube by flat copper
bands of inappreciable self-induction. The photographs showed un-
mistakable striz, superposed upon the general illumination of the
tube. It is difficult to reproduce the photographs by half tones.
With an anode consisting of a ring of wire placed in a cylindrical
tube .5 mm. internal diameter, a striation is formed at a short distance
from the anode by condenser discharges, and there are traces of
similar striations at greater distances along the tube. If these stria-
tions are formed by ionization by collision, the time of ionization 15
that of the duration of the pilot spark, a time which at present is
beyond our power of measurement.
3. DoprpLER EFFECT.
When two anodes and two cathodes are employed in the form of
tube represented in Figure 7, there are two canalstrahlen which ema-
nate from orifices in the cathodes in opposite directions. One might
suppose that the Doppler effect would be modified by collision of
the particles in these rays and that the effect would certainly be less
than when only one anode and one cathode were employed — the cur-
rent thus passing through but one branch of the U tube. It is true
that the difference of potential is less between A and D when the
tube is coupled in multiple circuit than when only one branch of the
tube is connected to the battery; but this difference in the case I
studied was comparatively small. With both branches of the tube
constituting a multiple circuit there were two strong canalstrahlen
passing through the orifices in D which were undistorted and which
gave the same Doppler effect which was obtained when only one
branch of tube was excited ; it seems difficult to reconcile this result
with any theory of collision.
4. CONCLUSIONS.
1. The striz in Geissler tubes are analogous to waves set up in
narrow channels by opposing pulsations of different periods.
2. Strize are greatly influenced by the direction of cathode rays.
Certain forms of tubes, described in this article, can imitate the action
of a transverse magnetic field in apparently increasing the conducti-
bility of the rarefied gas and restoring the condition of stratification.
3. Striz can be formed by condenser discharges; and such striz
lead one to suppose a time of ionization beyond our power of measure-
TROWBRIDGE. — DISCHARGES OF ELECTRICITY. 463
ment. By means of a suitably placed diaphragm successive stages in
stratification can be produced.
4. By modification of the form of discharge tubes rectification of
alternating discharges is possible.
5. The Doppler effect in hydrogen is not modified by causing two
canalstrahlen to oppose each other.
JEFFERSON PuysicaAL LABORATORY, HARVARD
UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MAss.,
December, 1909.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vou. XLV. No. 20.— Jung, 1910.
BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY,
and the Titles of its three hundred and ten Stories, together with
an Index thereto and an Analysis of Vaggas I-IV.
By ΕΘΕΝΕ Watson BURLINGAME,
Harrison FELLOW, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
il Aas) > ai ον pnd Ε᾿
a
Pal
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bi
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Ὶ a ea? he were ac sf
BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY.
By EuGenge Watson BuRLINGAME.
Presented by Charles R. Lanman, December 8, 1909. Received February 5, 1910.
Prefatory Remarks. — My interest in Hindu Folk-tales was first
aroused by Professor Morris Jastrow, Jr., of the University of Pennsyl-
vania, who introduced me to the famous Arabian classic Kalila wa
Dimna, giving me generously of his time, and granted me the privilege
of collaborating in the preparation of an English translation of the
recently published Cheikho recension of the text. Professor Morton
W. Easton, of the same University, to whom I am no less indebted for
valuable assistance in my work, then induced me to make a serious
study of the corresponding Sanskrit collections, Paficatantra and
Hitopadega, and encouraged me to prosecute researches in the closely
related Pali collections. When, therefore, Provost Harrison of the
University of Pennsylvania, the giver of the Harrison Foundation,
granted me leave of absence from the University for this purpose, I
placed myself under the direction of Professor Charles R. Lanman, of
Harvard University. It was at his suggestion that I undertook the
task upon which, under his most wise and kindly guidance, I am at
present engaged, that of translating into English the important Bud-
dhist work entitled Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Dhammapada.1
Divisions of the Buddhist Texts.—JIn order to give the reader
a clear idea of the relation in which Buddhaghosa’s Dhammapada
Commentary stands to the Buddhist Canon, it will be necessary to
describe briefly the principal divisions of the Buddhist Scriptures.
They fall into three principal divisions called Pitakas (Baskets) ; first,
the Sutta Pitaka; secondly, the Vinaya Pitaka; thirdly, the Abhi-
1 Several years ago my attention was first attracted to this fascinating
collection of stories by reading a brief description of it in Professor Rhys
Davids’s American Lectures on Buddhism. The passage that caught my eye
occurs on page 69, and closes as follows: ‘‘Cannot some one undertake a
translation for us into English of these strange and interesting old-world
stories about a collection of verses so widely popular among Buddhists, and
now attracting so much attention in the West?’’ Nevertheless, it is due
wholly and entirely to Professor Lanman that I am able to answer “ Yes.”
468 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
dhamma Pitaka. Speaking broadly, the first relates to Doctrine ; the
second, to Discipline; the third, to what we may call Psychology.
The first two Pitakas alone concern us. Each of the Pitakas falls into
several subdivisions. ‘The Sutta Pitaka consists of five groups, called
Nikayas ; namely, Four Nikayas the Greater, and One Nikaya the
Less. The first four Nikayas are called the Agamas, and are as
follows : (1) Digha ; (2) Majjhima ; (3) Sanyutta ; (4) Anguttara. The
Digha and Majjhima consist of Dialogues of the Buddha, arranged
somewhat after the manner of the Dialogues of Plato ; the Sanyutta
and Anguttara contain sayings of the Buddha, arranged according to
subject and length respectively. These four Nikayas are the oldest
parts of the Canon, and are the source of most of our knowledge of the
tenets and history of primitive Buddhism. The Lesser Nikaya, called
the Khuddaka, consists of fifteen books, grouped in three pentads. Of
these fifteen books, perhaps the most famous are the Thera- and Theri-
gatha (or Hymns of the Monks and Nuns), the Sutta Nipata (a very
old collection of poetical dialogues and epic pieces), the Udana (or
Solemn Utterances of the Buddha), the Jatakas, and the Dhammapada.
As the above-given titles indicate; the Lesser Nikaya is a miscella-
neous, but none the less exceedingly important, collection. It is not
relevant to our purpose to consider the subdivisions of the Vinaya.
Suffice it to say that it contains a number of highly interesting stories,
designed to explain the circumstances under which various rules and
ceremonies were established.
The Dhammapada and its Commentary. — The Dhammapada, then,
is one of fifteen books belonging to the Khuddaka Nikaya, which latter
is the fifth division of the Sutta Pitaka ; and the Sutta Pitaka is one
of the three major divisions of the Sacred Scriptures of the Buddhists.
The Dhammapada is an anthology of about 423 stanzas uttered by the
Buddha on a great variety of religious subjects. Many such anthol-
ogies were current in the early ages of Buddhism, and so great was
the popularity they acquired that in addition to the anthology included
in the Buddhist Canon other similar collections have come down to us.
For example, in 1878, Samuel Beal published a translation of a Chinese
Dhammapada; in 1898, Emile Senart deciphered and published part
of a Kharosthi Ms. of the Dhammapada, the fruit of the mission of
Dutreuil de Rhins; and Richard Pischel, shortly before his death,
brought out specimens of a Central Asiatic Dhammapada. The precise
relation between the Dhammapada of the Buddhist Canon and the
other collections has not yet been determined ; nor is it important for
our immediate purpose. It is sufficient to say that by a fortunate
circumstance one of these anthologies was included in the Buddhist
BURLINGAME, — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 469
Canon. This Anthology consists of twenty-six parts, or books (vaggas),
the arrangement of the stanzas being by subjects, such as Heedfulness,
The Fool, The Wise Man, The Buddha, Pleasure, Anger, and so on.
The relation between the Anthology and its Commentary will at once
become clear from an example. Suppose we had a collection of detached
sayings of Christ ; such as, for example, “ Labor not for the meat which
perisheth ;” or, “He that is without sin among you, let him first cast
a stone at her.” The Commentary bears much the same relation to
the Sacred Stanzas as the Gospel narrative to the Sacred Sentences.
The parallel is not a perfect one, for the Commentary does not rank as
canonical ; besides which, there are certain other important differences.
The Commentary consists of upwards of three hundred stories (vat-
thus), distributed in twenty-six books (vaggas), corresponding to the
parts of the Dhammapada described above. Ordinarily each story
consists of eight subdivisions, as follows: (1) quotation of the stanza
(gatha) to illustrate which the Buddha told the story; (2) a brief
statement of the occasion and the person or persons about whom the
story was told; (3) the story proper ; or, more strictly, the Story of
the Present (paccuppanna-vatthu), closing with the utterance of
(4) the stanza or stanzas; (5) word-for-word commentary or gloss on
the stanza ; (6) a brief statement of the spiritual benefits which accrued
to the hearer or hearers; (7) the Story of the Past; or, more accu-
rately, the Story of Previous Existences (atita-vatthu); (8) identification
of the personages of the Story of the Past with those of the Story of the
- Present. Sometimes the Story of the Past is omitted, together with the
accompanying Identification; but it is so much expected as a matter
of course, that at the end of the story of Nanda the Herdsman (iii. 8),
where none occurs, the author is at some pains to say that, as no one
asked the ‘Teacher about Nanda’s deed in a previous existence, the
Teacher said nothing about it. It will readily be seen that the Dham-
mapada Commentary closely resembles, both in form and content, the
commentary on the famous Jataka collection ; indeed, so close is the
connection between the two that it would not be inappropriate to call
the Commentary a supplement to the Jataka. The Commentary
constantly refers to the Jataka, every now and then borrows a story
from it, sometimes showing interesting variants, and as often gives a
different version of some familiar Jataka story. The stories of the
Dhammapada Commentary stand in precisely the same relation to
the stanzas of the Dhammapada as the Jataka stories do to the Jataka
stanzas. The Dhammapada Commentary has sometimes been referred
to as a sort of Buddhist Acta Sanctorum ; it would perhaps be more
appropriate to speak of it as a Collection of Stories about Buddhist
470 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Saints and Sinners, designed to illustrate the maxim, “ Whatsoever a
man soweth, that shall he also reap.”
Editions of the Dhammapada Commentary.—JIn 1855, extracts
from the Commentary were published by Fausbdll in his edition of the
Dhammapada. The second edition of this work, published in 1900, con-
tains only the text and translation of the Dhammapada. In 1906-9
appeared the first two instalments of the Pali Text Society edition
of the Commentary, edited by Professor H. C. Norman of Benares.
These two parts together make up Volume I, and contain the first
four vaggas. Since the publication of Fausbdll’s first edition of the
Dhammapada, editions of the Commentary, in whole or in part, printed
in Burmese or Cingalese letters, have appeared; and at present H.
R. H. Prince Vajira-fiana is engaged in publishing an edition of the
work at Bangkok. The editions which form the basis of my work are
as follows : (1) Pali Text Society, Vol. I, Parts 1-2, London, 1906-9 ; (2)
Burmese, edited by U Yan, Rangoon, 1903; (3) Cingalese, edited by
W. Dhammananda Maha Thera and M. Nanissara Thera, Colombo,
1898-1908.
Translations of parts of the Commentary. — Only a few of the
stories have ever been translated into any European language. Such
of the Jataka stories as are identical with stories contained in the
Commentary, or similar to them, will be found in the Cambridge trans-
lation of the Jataka. An English version of three of the stories will
be found in Warren’s Buddhism in Translations: Patipijika (iv. 4),
pp. 264-7; Visakha (iv. 8), pp. 451-481; Godhika (iv. 11), pp.
380-3. Four more stories were translated into French by Godefroy de
Blonay and Louis de la Vallée Poussin under the title Contes Boud-
dhiques, and were published in the Revue de I’ Histoire des Religions.
Volume xxvi (1892) contains two of these stories: Cakkhupala (. 1),
pp. 180-193; and Matthakundali (i. 2), pp. 193-200; Volume xxix
(1894), the two others: Kosambika bhikkht (i. 5), pp. 329-337 ;
Vididabha (iv. 3), pp. 195-211. In 1870, Captain T. Rogers pub-
lished, under the title Buddhaghosha’s Parables, an English translation
of a late Burmese version of a few of the stories. References to the
Jatakas and to Rogers’s Parables are given in the Analysis.
Purpose of this paper.— The purpose of this paper is two-fold.
First, it is hoped, by means of a Table giving the titles of the stories,
and by an Alphabetic Index to those titles, to render the work in its
entirety more accessible to scholars. In particular, it is hoped that
the proper names of eminent Buddhists and the information about
them may prove of special value as material for the Buddhist
onomasticon of Professor Rhys Davids. That the contents of the last
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 471
two thirds of the Commentary are virtually almost inaccessible to
Occidental students is a fact that deserves especial emphasis as an
ample justification of the present paper. Norman’s edition of the
first third is of course easily had ; but it may well be doubted whether
there are more than two or three copies of the Cingalese edition in the
western hemisphere, or more than one copy of the Burmese. And
there is probably not one bookseller in the United States who would
even attempt to procure directly such rare exotics. And even if a
considerable number of copies were to be found in the great libraries
of America, it is still true that the Burmese and Cingalese letters are
so troublesome that very few Occidentals, even among the students
of Pali, have learned to read these native editions with facility.
Secondly, it is hoped, by means of an Analysis of the first third of
the work, to afford some idea of its structure, contents, and style, not
only to professed students of Sanskrit and Pali, but also to students
of Comparative Literature, and to the general reader as well.
In case the paper shall subserve, to however small a degree, the
purpose for which it is intended, a large share of the credit belongs,
not to me, but to my friend and teacher, Professor Lanman, who, in
the midst of pressing duties, has given me unreservedly of his time
and labor, and has assisted me in countless ways. I wish to thank
him most heartily for his many kindnesses to me during the progress
of my work.
Note on the Table of Contents and Alphabetical Index. — Unfor-
tunately, Fausbéll has numbered the stanzas of the Dhammapada from
the beginning continuously ; and this bad example has been followed
by the Burmese edition; and, to make a bad matter worse, its
numeration (from 163 to 208, and from 416 to 424) disagrees with
that of Fausbéll. The Cingalese edition does not number the gathas.
In the following table, the numbers of the gathds are given in heavy
type and in square brackets immediately after the title of the
story : first, the number of the gatha as counted from the beginning
of its vagga?; second, the number as counted continuously from the
beginning. If, for the latter numeration, on account of the disagree-
ment just mentioned, more than one number has to be given, or if,
on account of variation in the titles, more than one title has to be
given, they are distinguished by a prefixed F (meaning Fausbill), or B
(meaning Burmese), or C (meaning Cingalese). The stories are
numbered from the beginning of each book. The number as counted
2 This is the only proper method. To ignore such important and histori-
cally significant native divisions is extremely reprehensible and unpractical.
472 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
continuously from the beginning to the end of the work is ignored
of a purpose and upon principle. In the columns at the right are
given the numbers of the pages on which the stories begin (not end).
PTS means Pali Text Society, B Burmese, C Cingalese. In the
Alphabetical Index, the stories are cited by book (vagga: in Roman
numerals) and story (vatthu: in Arabic). hus, xiv. 3 means the
third story of the fourteenth book. Exponential numbers indicate
imbedded stories. Thus, in ii. 1 are imbedded ii. 1°, 1», 1°, 14, 18, 11.
TITLES OF STORIES OF THE DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY.
Yamaka-vagga = Book I.
Story PTS Β' Ὁ
1. Cakkhupala thera [1 = 1] 3:4 44, al
2. Matthakundali [2 = 2] 25 58 12
8. Tissa thera (B) = Thulla Tissa thera (PTS and C)
[3-4 = 3-4] 37 67 18
4, Kali yakkhini [5 = 5] 45 72 22
5. Kosambika bhikkhi [6 = 6] BS! εὐ oh
6. Cilla Kala and Maha Kala [7-8 = 7-8] 006 84 ὃ:
7. Devadatta [9-10 = 9-10] 7 A pre) aa
8. Aggasavaka (PTS and Ὁ) = Sariputta thera (B)
[11-12=11-12] 83 95 41
9. Nanda thera [13-14 = 13-14] 115... 116. 88
10. Cunda stikarika [15 = 15] 125 123 64
11. Dhammika upasaka [16 = 16] 129 125 66
12. Devadatta [17 = 17] 133 128 68
13. Sumana devi [18 = 18] 151 159 77
14. Dve sahayaka bhikkhii [19-20 = 19-20] 154 141 78
Appamada-vagga = Book II.
Story PTS B σ
1. Udena (PTS and C) Samavati (Β) [1-3=21-23] 161 145 81
1* Udena-uppatti 161 145 81
10 Ghosaka-setthi-uppatti 169 150 85
15 Samavati-uppatti 187 162 95
1: Vasuladatta 191 166 97
le Magandiya 199 170 101
1! Marana-paridipaka 203 179 108
2. Kumbhaghosaka setthi [4 = 24] 231 190 116
8, Cilla Panthaka thera [5 = 25] 239 195 120
4, Bala-nakkhatta-ghuttha [6-7 = 26-27] 256 205 128
5. Maha Kassapa thera [8 = 28] 258 207 180
6. Dve sahayaka bhikkhi (PTS) = Pamatt-appamatta dve
sahayaka bhikkht (B and C) [9=29] 260 208 181
7. Mahali-pafiha (PTS and C) = Magha (B) [10 = 30] 263 210 132
8. Afiiatara bhikkhu [11 = 31] 281 221 140
9. Nigamavasi Tissa thera [12 = 32] 283 222 141
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 473
Story
ib
2.
3.
4,
δ.
6.
Citta-vagga = Book III.
Meghiya thera [1-2 = 33-34]
Aifatara bhikkhu [3 = 35]
Ukkanthit-aiifiatara-bhikkhu (PTS and C) = Afifiatara
ukkanthita bhikkhu (B) [4 = 36]
Bhagineyya-saigharakkhita thera (PTS and C) = Safigha-
rakkhita-bhagineyya thera (B) [5 = 37]
Cittahattha thera [6-7 = 38-39]
Paiicasata vipassaka bhikkht (PTS and C) = Pajicasata
bhikkhu (B) [8 = 40]
. Putigatta Tissa thera [9 = 41]
. Nanda gopala [10 = 42]
. Soreyya thera [11 = 43]
Puppha-vagga = Book IV.
. Pathavi-katha-pasuta paficasata bhikkht [1-2 = 44-5]
. Marici-kammatthanika thera [3 = 46]
- Vidudabha (PTS and C) = Vitatiibha (B) [4 = 47]
. Patipajika (PTS and C) = Patipajika kumarika (B)
[5 = 48]
. Macchariya Kosiya setthi [6 = 49]
. Pathikajivaka (PTS and C) = Paveyyakajivaka (B)
[7 = 50]
. Chattapani upasaka [8-9 = 51-52]
. Visakha [10 = 53]
. Ananda-thera-pafiha [11-12 = 54-55]
. Maha-Kassapa-thera-pindapata-dinna [13 = 56]
. Godhika-thera-parinibbana [14=57]
. Garahadinna [15-16 = 58-59]
Bala-vagga = Book V.
1. Kumuduppalatita-duggata-sevaka (C) = Afifiatara
purisa (B) [l=
Maha-Kassapa-thera-saddhiviharika [2 = 61]
Ananda setthi [3 = 62]
. Ganthi-bhedaka cora [4 = 63]
. Udayi thera [5 = 64]
Bhadda-vaggiya(C) = Tinsa-matta-paveyyaka bhikkhii (B)
[6 =
. Suppabuddha kutthi [7 = 66]
Kassaka [8 = 67]
. Sumana mala-kara [9 = 68]
Uppalavanna theri [10 = 69]
. Jambukajivaka (C) = Jambuka thera (B) [11 = 70]
. Ahipeta [12 = 71]
. Satthikiita peta [13 = 72]
. Sudhamma thera (C) = Citta gahapati (B) [14-15 = 73-4]
. Vanavasi Tissa thera (C) V. T. sdmanera (B) [16 = 75]
3 The Colombo edition has no page 153.
PTS
287
290
297
300
305
313
319
822
825
PTS
333
890
337
362
366
376
380
384
420
423
431
434
60]
65]
B σ
224 143
220 145
202 149
243 1513
36 154
241 158
245 160
248 162
249 164
Story
_
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Pandita-vagga = Book VI.
Radha thera [1 = 76]
Assaji-punabbasuka [2 = 77]
Channa thera [3 = 78]
Maha Kappina thera [4 =79]
Pandita simanera [5 = 80]
Lakuntaka-bhaddiya thera [6 = 81]
Kana-mata [7 = 82]
Vighasada dosa-vutta paficasata bhikkhut (C) = Paiicasata
bhikkhi (B) [8 = 83]
Dhammika thera [9 = 84]
Dhamma-savana [10-11 = 85-86]
. Agantuka paficasata bhikkhi (C) = Paficasata agantuka
bhikkhi (B) [12-14 = 87-89]
Arahanta-vagga = Book VII.
Jivaka-pafiha [1 = 90]
Maha Kassapa thera [2 = 91]
Belattha-sisa thera [3 = 92]
Anuruddha thera [4 = 93]
Maha Kaccayana thera [5 = 94]
Sariputta thera [6 = 95]
Kosambivasi-Tissa-thera-samanera [7 = 96]
Sariputta-thera-pafiha-vissajjana [8 = 97]
Khadiravaniya Revata thera [9 = 98]
Aiifiatara itthi [10 = 99]
Sahassa-vagga = Book VIII,
Tamba-dathika-cora-ghataka [1=100]
Daru-ciriya thera (Ὁ) = Bahiya-daru-ciriya thera (B) [2=101]
Kundala-kesi-theri [3-4 = 102-3]
“Anattha-pucchaka brahmana [5-6 = 104-5]
Sariputta-therassa matula-brahmana [7 = 106]
Sariputta-therassa bhagineyya [8 = 107]
Sariputta-therassa sahayaka brahmana [9 = 108]
Dighayu kumara (C) = Ayuvaddhana kumira (B) [10 =109]
Sankicca-simanera [11 = 110]
Khanu-kondafifia thera [12 = 111]
. Sappa-dasa thera [13 = 112]
Patacara theri [14 = 113]
Kisa Gotami [15 =114]
Bahu-puttika theri [16 = 115]
Papa-vagga = Book IX.
Cileka-sataka brahmana [1 = 116]
. Seyyasaka thera [2 =117]
Laja devadhita [3 = 118]
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY.
4, Anathapindika setthi [4-5 -- 119-120]
Story
τὴ
o
3 μὰ μὰ
oo bo κα
τῇ ὦ σι
Ὁ ὦ -ἰ Ὁ σι PONE
. Asaniiata-parikkhara bhikkhu [6 = 121]
. Bilala-padaka setthi [7 = 122]
. Mahadhana vanija [8 = 123]
Kukkuta-mitta-nesada [9 = 124]
. Koka-sunakha-luddaka [10 = 125]
Manikara kulipaga Tissa thera [11 = 126]
. Tayo bhikkht (C) = Tayo jana (B) [12 = 127]
. Su-ppabuddha Sakya [13=128]
Danda-vagga = Book &.
. Chab-baggiya [1 = 129]
. Chab-baggiya [2 = 130]
. Sambahula kumaraka [3-4 = 131-2]
. Kundadhana thera [5-6 = 133-4]
Visakhadinan upasikanayn uposatha-kamma [7=135]
. Ajagara peta [8 = 136]
. Maha Moggallana thera [9-12, 137-140]
. Bahubhandika thera (C) = B. bhikkhu (B) [13 = 141]
. Santati mahamatta [14 = 142]
Pilotika-thera (Ὁ) = -Tissa-thera (B) [15-16 = 143-4]
. Sukha samanera [17 = 145]
Jara-vagga = Book XI.
Visakhaya sahayika [1 = 146]
. Sirima [2 = 147]
. Uttara theri [3 = 148]
. Adhimanika bhikkht (C) = Sambahula adhimanika
bhikkhi (B) [4 = 149]
. Janapada-kalyani-ripa-nanda theri [5 = 150]
. Mallika devi [6 = 151]
. Laludayi thera [7 = 152]
. Ananda-therassa udana-gatha [8-9 = 153-4]
. Mahadhana setthi-putta [10-11 = 155-6]
Atta-vagga = Book XII.
. Bodhi rajakumara [1 = 157]
. Upananda Sakyaputta [2 = 158]
. Padhanika Tissa thera [3 = 159]
Kumara Kassapa thera (Ὁ) = Kumara-Kassapa-matu-
theri (B) [4 = 160]
. Maha Kala upasaka [5 = 161]
. Devadatta [6 = 162]
. Saiigha-bheda-parisakkana * [P7, BC7-8 = F163, B163-4]
548
550
554
555
556
559
561
564
565
B
568
571
573
574
578
579
580
475
4 This story is told in connection with the stanzas beginning ‘“ Sukaran
sadhuna sadhuy
but Fausb6ll omits the first.
7)
and ‘‘Sukarani asadhini.” B and C give both stanzas,
Cp. Dh. (1900), p. 38.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
. Kala thera [F8, BCS = F164, B165]
. Cula Kala upasaka [F9, BC1O = F165, B166]
. Atta-d-attha thera [F10, BC11 = F166, B167]
Loka-vagga = Book XIII.
Afifiatara dahara bhikkhu [1 = F167, B168]
. Suddhodana-raja (B) = Suddhodana (C) [2-3 = F168-9,
B169-170]
3. Paficasata vipassaka bhikkha [4 = F170, B171}
So σι
ς Οὐ
Story
oR CON eR
Abhaya rajakumara [5 = F171, B172]
. Sammufijani thera(C) = Sammajjana thera (B) [6 = F172,
B173]
. Angulimala thera [7 = F173, B174]
. Pesakara-dhita [8 = F174, B175]
Tinsa bhikkhi [9 = F175, B176]
. Cinca manavika [10 = F176, B177]
. A-sadisa-dina [11 = F177, B178]
. Kala nama Anathapindika-putta (C) = Anathapindika-
putta Kala (B) [12 = F178, B179]
Buddha-vagga = Book XIV.
. Mara-dhitaro (C) = Magandiya (B) [1-2 = F179-180,
B180-181]
. Yamaka-patihariya (C) = Dev-orohana (B) [3 = F181, B182]
. Erakapatta nagaraja [4 = F182, B183]
. Ananda-thera-uposatha-pafha [F5—7, C5-65 = F183_5,
B184-6]
. Anabhiratibhikkhu [F8-9, C7-8 = F'186-7, B187-8]
. Kosala-rafifio purohita Aggidatta-brahmana (Ὁ) = Aggidatta-
brahmana (B) [F10-14, C9-13 = F188-192, B189-193]
. Ananda-thera-pucchita-pafiha [F15, C14 = F193, B194]
. Sambahula bhikkht [F16, C15 = F194, B195]
. Kassapa-dasabalassa suvanna-cetiya [F17—-18, C16—-17 =
F195-6]
Sukha-vagga = Book XV.
. Nati-kalaha-vipasamana [1-3 = F197-9, B196-8]
. Mira [4 = F200, B199]
. Kosala-rafifio parajaya [5 = F201, B200]
. Aiifiatara kuladarika [6 ='F202, B201]
. Gonattha upasaka (B) = Afifiatara upasaka (Ὁ) [7 =F 203,
B202]
5 C omits the stanza beginning ‘‘ Khanti paraman tapo titikkha ”’ (F184).
* B omits the stanzas beginning “‘ Pijarahe pijayato” and {‘Te tadise pija-
yato,”’ and the story connected therewith.
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 477
Story
6. Pasenadi-Kosala raja [8 = F204, B203]
7. Tissa thera (B) = Afinatara bhikkhu (C) [9 = F205, B204]
8. Sakka devaraja (C) = Sakkupatthana (B) [10-12, Β10-18 =
F206-208, B205-208 °]
Piya-vagga = Book XVI.
wm
ct
[9]
4
<
. Tayo jana pabbajita (B) = Tayo bhikkhut (Ὁ) [1-3 = 209-211]
. Afifiatara kutumbika [4 = 212]
. Visakha [5 = 213]
. Licchayi [6 = 214]
Anitthigandha-kumara [7 -- 215]
Afiatara brahmana [8 = 216]
. Paficasata daraka [9 = 217]
. Anagami thera [10 = 218]
. Nandiya [11-12 = 219-220]
Kodha-vagga = Book XVII.
. Rohini khattiya-kanna [1 = 221]
. Aniiatara bhikkhu [2 = 222]
. Uttara upasika [3 = 223]
. Maha-Moggallana-thera-pafiha-pucchita [4 = 224]
Saketaka-brahmana (C) = Buddha-pitu-brahmana (B) [5 = 225]
Punna nama Rajagaha-setthi-dasi [6 = 226]
. Atula upasaka [7-10 = 227-230]
Chab-baggiya-bhikkhti [11-14 = 231-234]
Mala-vagga = Book XVIII.
Go-ghataka-putta [1-4 = 235-8]
Afifiatara brahmana [5 = 239]
Tissa thera [6 = 240]
. Laludayi thera [7 = 241]
Afifiatara kulaputta [8-9 = 242-3]
Sariputta-therassa saddhi-viharika (C) = Cila Sari (B)
[10-11 = 244-5]
m
os
5
m
ct
ΕΙ
-
Oe σι μὰ 99 BO τα
7. Paficasata upasaka [12-14 = 246-8]
8. Tissa dahara [15-16 = 249-250]
9. Pafica upasaka [17 = 251]
10. Mendaka setthi [18 = 252]
11. Ujjhana-safifii thera [19 = 253]
12. Subhadda paribbajaka [20-21 = 254-5]
6 B divides F207-8 into three stanzas, thus:
B206 Balasangatacari hi digham addhana socati
Dukkho balehi sanvaso amitteneva sabbada
B207 Dhiro ca sukhasanvaso fatinan va samagamo
Tasma hi: Dhiran pafifiafii ca bahussutafi ca dhorayha
B208 Silay vatavantam ariyan tan tadisan sappurisan
Sumedhay bhajetha nakkhattapathan va candima.
7 Pages 522-529 of the Colombo edition are numbered (by a
error) 122-129.
B σ
048 473
650 474
711 5227
712 522
printer’s
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Dhammattha-vagga = Book XIX.
1. Vinicchaya-mahamacca [1-2 =256-7]
2. Chab-baggiya-bhikkhu [3 = 258]
8. Ekidana-thera-khinasava (B) = Ekuddana-khinasava-thera (C)
[4 = 259]
. Lakuntaka-bhaddiya-thera [5-6 = 260-261]
. Sambahula bhikkht [7-8 = 262-3]
. Hatthaka [9-10 = 264-5]
. Titthiya [13-14 = 268-9]
. Balisika (C) = Ariya-balisika (B) [15 = 270]
B10 C9.
4
5
6
7. Afifatara brahmana [11-12 = 266-7]
8
9
0
. Sambahula bhikkhu (Ὁ) = Sambahula siladi-sampanna
bhikkhu (B) [16-17 = 271-2]
Magga-vagga = Book XX.
Paficasata bhikkhi [1-4 = 273-6]
Paficasata bhikkhu (Ὁ) = Anicca-lakkhana (B) [5 =277]
Paficasata bhikkht (C) = Dukkha-lakkhana (B) [B6,
[ C6-7 § = B278]
Anatta-lakkhana [B7 = B279]
Padhana-kammika Tissa thera [8 = 280]
Sutkara-peta [9 = 281]
Potthila thera [10 = 282]
Pafica mahallaka thera [11-12 = 283-4]
Suvannakara thera [13 = 285]
Mahadhana vanija [14 = 286]
Bll C10. Kisi Gotami [15 = 287]
B12 Cll. Patacara [16-17 = 288-9]
m
or
°
4
COE COI Οὐ SS ROU
Story
Pakinnaka-vagga = Book XXI.
Gafigarohana (C) = Attano pubba-kamma (B) [1 = 290]
. Kukkutanda-khadika [2 = 291]
. Bhaddiya bhikkhi [3-4 = 292-3]
Lakuntaka-bhaddiya thera [5-6 = 294-5]
Daru-sakatika-putta [7-12 = 296-301]
Vajji-puttaka bhikkhu [13 = 302]
. Citta gahapati [14 = 303]
Ciila Subhadda [15 = 304]
Eka-vihari thera [16 = 305]
Niraya-vagga = Book XXII.
1. Sundari paribbajika [1 = 306]
2. Duccarita-phalanubhavana-satta [2 = 307]
3. Vaggu-muda-tiriya-bhikkhi [3 = 308]
8 In the Colombo edition the story entitled ‘‘ Dukkha-lakkhana”’ is told
in connection with stanzas 6-7, and the story entitled ‘‘ Anatta-lakkhana”’ is
omitted.
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY.
Story
τὰ
δ᾽
4
. Anathapindika-bhagineyya-Khemaka-setthi-putta (B) =
Khema (C) [4-5 = 309-310]
. Dubbaca bhikkhu [6-8 = 311-313]
. Issa-pakata itthi [9 = 314]
. Sambahula agantuka bhikkht [10 = 315]
. Nigantha [11-12 = 316-317]
. Titthiya savaka [13-14 = 318-319]
Naga-vagga = Book XXIII.
. Attinan drabbha kathita [1-3 = 320-322]
. Hatthacariya-pubbaka bhikkhu [4 = 323]
. Parijinna-brahmana-putta (B) = Afinatara-brahmana-
putta (C) [5 = 324]
. Pasenadi-Kosala [6 = 325]
Sanu samanera [7 = 326]
. Paveyyaka hatthi (B) = Baddheraka hatthi (Ὁ) [8 =327]
. Sambahula bhikkht (B) = Paficasata disa-vasi bhikkht (C)
[9-11 = 328-330]
. Mara [12-14 =331-333]
Tanha-vagga = Book XXIV.
1. Kapila-maccha [1-4 = 334-7]
Bee ἣν NS
Story
Ὁ OAD συ μα COD γα
μ᾿ μα μὰ
Noro
. Sikara-potika [5-10 — 338-343]
Vibbhanta bhikkhu [11 = 344]
Bandhanagara [12-13 = 345-6]
Khema theri [14 = 347]
Uggasena-setthi-putta [15 = 348]
Cula Dhanuggaha pandita (B) = Daharaka bhikkhu (C)
[16-17 = 349-350]
Mara [18-19 = 351-2]
Upakajivaka [20 = 353]
. Sakka-pafha (B) = Sakkadevaraja (Ὁ) [21 = 354]
. Aputtaka setthi [22 = 355]
Ankura [23-26 = 356-9]
Bhikkhu-vagga = Book XXV.
. Pafica bhikkhi [1-2 = 360-361]
Haysa-ghataka bhikkhu [3 = 362]
. Kokalika [4 = 363]
Dhammarama thera [5 = 364]
Vipakkha-sevaka bhikkhu [6-7 = 365-6]
. Pafic-aggadayaka brahmana [8 = 367]
. Sambahula bhikkhi [9-17 = 368-376]
. Paficasata bhikkhi [18 -- 377]
. Santakaya thera [19 = 378]
. Nafigala-kula thera [20-21 = 379-380]
. Vakkali thera [22 = 381]
. Sumana samanera [23 = 382]
B
767
769
770
771
772
773
B
775
111
717
782
783
786
787
790
479
480 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Brahmana-vagga = Book XXXVI.
Story B Cc
1. Pasdda-bahula-brahmana [1 = 383] 854 633
2. Sambahula bhikkhi [2 = 384] 855 633
3. Mara [3 = 385] 855 634
4. Afifatara brahmana [4 = 386] 856 634
5. Ananda thera [5 = 387] : 8517 635
6. Afifiatara brahmana pabbajita [6 = 388] 858 63
7. Sariputta thera [7-8 = 389-390] 858 63
8. Maha Pajapati Gotami [9 = 391] 860 638
9. Sariputta thera [10 = 392] : 861 638
10. Jatila brahmana [11 = 393] 862 639
11. Kuhaka brahmana [12 = 394] 863 65
12. Kisa Gotami [13 = 395] 865 641
13. Eka brahmana [14 = 396] 865 641
14. Uggasena-setthi-putta [15 = 397] 866 6429
15. Dve brahmana [16 = 398] 867 642
16. Akkosalabharadvaja [17 = 399] 867 643
17. Sariputta thera [18 = 400] 869 644
18. Uppalavanna theri [19 = 401] 870 645
19. Afiiatara brahmana [20 = 402] 871 645
20. Khema bhikkhuni [21 = 403] 871 646
21. Pabbharavasi Tissa thera [22 = 404] 872 646
22. Afifiatara bhikkhu [23 = 405] 874 648
23. Samanera (B) = Cattaro samanera (C) [24 = 406] 876 649
24. Maha Panthaka thera [25 = 407] 878 651
25. Pilindavaccha thera [26 = 408] 879 651
26. Afifiatara thera [27 = 409] 880 652
27. Sariputta thera [28 = 410] 881 653
28. Maha Moggallana thera [29 = 411] 881 653
29. Revata thera [30 -- 412] 882 654
30. Candabha thera [31 = 413] 883 654
31. Sivali thera [32 = 414] 885 656
92. Sundara-samudda-thera [33 = 415] 887 657
33. Jatila thera [34 = 416] 890 660
33°. Jotikassa uppatti 890 660
33°, Jatila thera 899 667
34. Jotika thera [34 = F416, B417 10] 905 671
35. Nata-puttaka thera (B) =Nata-pubbaka (C) [35 =P417, B418] 906 672
56, Nata-puttaka thera [36 = F418, B419] 907 672
57. Vangisa thera [37-38 = F419-420, B420-421] 907 673
38. Diammadinna theri [39 = F421, B422] 909 674
39. Angulimala thera [40 = F422, B423] 911 675
40. Devahita brahmana (B) = Devangika brahmana (C)
[41 = F423, B424] 911 676
9 Pages 642-677 of the Colombo edition are numbered (by a printer’s error)
624-659.
10 Story 34 repeats the stanza of Story 33.
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY.
481
ALPHABETIC INDEX TO THE TITLES OF THE STORIES OF
THE DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY.
Akkosalabharadvaja, xxvi. 16.
Agegadayaka brahmana, see Pafic a. Ὁ.
Aggasavaka (PTS and C) = Sariputta
thera (B) i. 8.
Aggidatta brahmana (B) = Kosalarafifio
purohita Aggidatta brahmana (C),
xiv. 6.
Ankura, xxiv. 12.
Angulimala thera, xiii.6; xxvi. 39,
Ajagara peta, x. 6.
Afiiatara ukkanthita bhikkhu (B) =
Ukkanthita afiiatara bhikkhu (PTS
and C), iii. 3.
Afifiatara upasaka (C) = Gonattha upa-
saka (B), xv. 5.
Afinatara kutumbika, xvi. 2.
Afifatara kulaputta, xviii. 5.
Aiiiatara thera, xxvi. 26.
Afinatara dahara bhikkhu, xiii. 1.
Afilatara purisa (B) = Kumuduppala-
tita duggata sevaka (C), v. 1.
Aiifatara brahmana, xvi. 6; xviii. 2;
ἘΝ; ©. 610 HEC: St ©-6'0 10.
Afiiatara brahmana pabbajita, xxvi. 6.
Afilatara brahmana-putta (C) = Pari-
jinna brahmana-putta (B), xxiii. 3.
Afiiatara bhikkhu, ii. 8; iii. 2; xvii. 2;
xxvi. 22; (C) = Tissa thera (B), xv. 7.
Afifiatara itthi, vii. 10.
Aiinatard kuladarika, xv. 4.
Atula upasaka, xvii. 7.
Attadattha thera, xii. 10.
Attano pubbakamma (B)
hana (C), xxi. 1.
Attanan arabbha kathita, xxiii. 1.
Anatta lakkhana (lacking in C), xx. B4.
Anattha-pucchaka brahmana, viii. 4.
Anabhiratibhikkhu, xiv. 5,
Anagami thera, xvi. 8.
Anathapindika-putta Kala (B) = Kala
nama A.-p. (C), xiii. 11.
Anathapindika - bhagineyya-Khemaka-
setthi-putta (B) = Khema (C), xxii. 4.
Anathapindika setthi, ix. 4.
Anicca-lakkhana (B) = Paiicasata bhik-
khii (C), xx. 2.
Anitthigandha-kumara, xvi. . δ.
Anuruddha thera, vii. 4.
VOL, XLV. — 31
= Gaiigaro-
Aputtaka setthi, xxiv. 11.
Abhaya rajakumara, xiii. 4.
Asaniiata-parikkhara bhikkhu, ix. 5.
Asadisadana, xiii. 10.
Assaji-punabbasuka, vi. 2.
Ahipeta, v."12.
Agantuka paiicasata bhikkhu (0) =
a. bh. (B), vi. 11.
Ananda thera, xxvi. 5.
Ananda-thera-udana-gatha, xi. 8.
Ananda-thera-pafiha, iv. 9; xiv. 4; xiv. 7.
Ananda setthi, v. 3.
Ayuvaddhana kumara (B)
k. (C), viii. 8.
Itthi, see Afiftatara itthi.
Issa-pakata-itthi, xxii. 6.
Ukkanthit-afifiatara-bhikkhu (PTS and
€) = A. αὐ bhi (B), iii: 3:
Uggasena-setthi-putta, xxiv. 6;
14,
Ujjhana-safiiii thera, xviii. 11,
Uttara upasika, xvii. 3.
Uttara theri, xi. 3.
Udayi thera, ν. 5.
Udena, ii. 1
Udena-uppatti, ii. 15.
Upakajivaka, xxiv. 9.
Upananda Sakyaputta thera, xii. 2.
= Dighayu
XXVi.
Upasaka, see Afifiatara-, Pafica-, and
Paficasata-u.
Uppalavanna theri, v. 10; xxvi. 18.
Eka kukkutanda-khadika, xxi. 2.
Eka brahmana, xxvi. 13.
Ekavihari thera, xxi. 9.
Ekuddana-khinasava-thera (C) = Eki-
dana-th.-kh. (B), xix. 3
Erakapatta nagaraja, xiv. 3.
Kaccayana, see Maha K.
Kapila maccha, xxiv. 1.
Kappina, see Maha K.
Kassaka, v. 8.
Kassapa, see Kumara K. and Maha K.
Kassapa-dasabalassa suvanna cetiya
(lacking in B), xiv. 9.
Kana-mata, vi. 7.
Kala, see Cala K. and Maha K.
Kala thera, xii. 8.
482 PROCEEDINGS OF THE
Kala nama Anathapindika-putta (C) =
A.-p.-K. (B), xiii. 11.
Kali yakkhini, i. 4.
Kisa Gotami,!! viii. 18; xx.11; xxvi. 12.
Kukkutanda-khadika, see Eka k.-kh.
Kukkuta-mitta-nesada, ix. 8.
Kutumbika, see Afifatara k.
Kundadhana thera, x. 4.
Kundala-kesi-theri, viii. 3.
Kumara Kassapa thera (Ὁ) = K.-K.-
matu-theri (B), xii. 4.
Kumuduppalatita-duggata-sevaka
= Afniatara purisa (B), v. 1.
Kumbhaghosaka setthi, ii. 2.
Kuladarika, Kulaputta, see Ainatara, -a.
Kuhaka brahmana, xxvi. 11.
Kita peta, see Satthi-k. p.
Koka-sunakha-luddaka, ix. 9.
Kokdalika, xxv. 3.
Kondadhana thera, see Kundadhana
thera.
Kosambika bhikkhi, i. 5.
Kosambivasi-Tissa-thera-samanera, vil.
Ue
Kosala-rafiio parajaya, xv. 3.
Kosala-raiiio purohita Aggidatta-brah-
mana (C) = A.-b. (B), xiv. 6.
Khadiravaniya Revata thera, vii: 9.
Khanu-kondafiia thera, viii. 10.
Khema (C) = Anathapindika-bhagi-
neyya-Khemaka-setthi-putta (B), xxii.
(C)
Khema theri, xxiv. 5.
Khema bhikkhuni, xxvi. 20.
Gafigarohana (C) Attano pubba-
kamma (B), xxi. 1.
Ganthi-bhedaka cora, v. 4.
Garahadinna, iv. 12.
Goghataka putta, xviii. 1.
Gotami, see Kisa G. and Maha Paja-
pati G.
Godhika-thera-parinibbana, iv. 11.
Gonattha upasaka (B) = Afinatara upa-
saka (Ὁ), xv. 6.
AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Ghosaka-setthi-uppatti, ii. 1°.
Cakkhupala thera, i. 1.
Cattaro samanera (Ὁ) = Samanera (B),
XXvi. 29.
Candabha thera, xxvi. 90.
Cifica manavika, xiii. 9.
Citta gahapati (B) = Sudhamma thera
(C), v. 14.
Citta gahapati, xxi. 7.
Cittahattha thera, ili. δ.
Cunda stkarika, i. 10.
Cula Kala upasaka, xii. 9.
Cila Kala and Maha Kala, i. 6.
Cula Dhanuggaha pandita (B) = Daha-
raka bhikkhu (C), xxiv. 7.
Cila Panthaka thera, ii. 3.
Cuila Sari (B) = Sariputta-therassa sa-
ddhiviharika (C), xviii. 6.
Cula Subhadda, xxi. 8.
Cilaka-sataka-brahmana, ix. 1.
Chab-baggiy4, x. 1; x. 2; xvii.8; xix. 2.
Chattapani upasaka, iv. 7.
Channa thera, vi. 5.
Janapada-kalyaniripa-nanda theri, xi.5.
Jatila thera, xxvi. 83 and 33°.
Jatila brahmana, xxvi. 10.
Jana, see Tayo jana.
Jambuka thera (B) = Jambukajivaka
(Οὐ νἼΔἹ:
Jivaka-panha, vii. 1.
Jotika thera, xxvi. 94.
Jotika-uppatti, xxvi. 33%.
Nati-kalaha-vapasamana, xv. 1.
Tamba-dathika-cora-ghataka, viii. 1.
Tayo jana (B) =Tayo bhikkhw (6), ix.
11.
Tayo jana pabbajita (B) = Tayo bhi-
kkha (6), xvi. 1.
Tayo bhikkhi, ix. 11; (C) = Tayo jana
pabbajita (B), xvi. 1.
Tinsa bhikkhi, xiii. 8.
Tinsa-matta-paveyyaka bhikkhi, ν. 6.
Titthiya, xix. 8.
Titthiya savaka, xxii. 9.
11 Miller, in his Glossary of Pali Proper Names (JPTS. 1888), gives only
one Kisa Gotami, as does also Kern in his Manual of Indian Buddhism (page
16, note 3).
But are not the virgin of the Warrior caste who greeted the
Buddha from the roof of her palace (Ja. i. 60°61"), and the frail widow,
daughter of a poverty-stricken house, described in these passages as sorrowing
over the loss of her first-born son, two entirely different persons?
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY.
483
Tissa thera, i.8; xv.7; xviii.3; see also | Pafica upasaka, xviii. 9.
Kosambivasi Tissa, vil. 7;
Nigamavasi T., ii. 9;
Padhana-kammika T., xx. Bd, C4;
Padhanika T., xii. 3;
Pabbharavasi T., xxvi. 21;
Manikara kuluipaga T., ix. 10;
Vanavasi T., v. 15.
Tissa dahara, xviii. 8.
Thulla Tissa, see Tissa thera.
Thera, passim; see Afnnatara thera.
Daharaka bhikkhu (C) = Ctla Dhanu-
ggaha pandita (B), xxiv. 7.
Daraka, see Pancasata d.
Daru-ciriya thera (C) = Bahiya-d.-c.-th.
(B) viii. 2.
Daru-sakatika-putta, xxi. 5.
Disa-vasi-bhikkhu, see Paficasata d.-v.-
bh.
Dighayu kumara (C) = Ayuvaddhana
kumara (B), viii. 8.
Dukkha lakkhana (B) = Paficasata bhi-
kkhiti (6), xx. 3.
Duccarita-phalanubhavana-satta, xxii. 2.
Dubbaca bhikkhu, xxii. 5.
Devaigika-brahmana (C) = Devahita
brahmana (B), xxvi. 40.
Devadatta, i. 7; 1. 12; xii. 6. ᾿
Devahita brahmana (B) = Devaigika
brahmana (C), xxvi. 40.
Dev-orohana (B) = Yamaka-patihariya
(C), cxiv. 2.
Dve brahmana, xxvi. 15.
Dve sahayaka-bhikkhu, i. 14; Pamatt-
appamatta d. s.-bh. (B and C), ii. 6.
Dhana-, see Maha-dhana- and Cula-
dhana-.
Dhammadinna theri, xxvi. 98.
Dhamma-savana, vi. 10.
Dhammarama thera, xxv. 4.
Dhammika upasaka, i. 11.
Dhammika thera, vi. 9.
Naiigalakula thera, xxv. 10.
Nanda gopala, ili. 8.
Nanda thera, i. 9.
Nandiya, xvi. 9.
Nata-puttaka thera (B) = Nata-pubbaka
(C), xxvi. 35.
Nata-puttaka thera, xxvi. 36.
Nigantha, xxii. 8.
Nigamavyasi Tissa thera, ii. 9,
Pafic-aggadayaka brahmana, xxv. 6.
Pafica bhikkhi, xxv. 1.
Pantea mahallaka thera, xx. 8.
Paficasata agantuka bhikkhu (B) = A.
p. bh. (C), vi. 11.
Paficasata upasaka, xviii. 7.
Paficasata daraka, xvi. 7.
Paficasata disavasi-bhikkha (C) -Sam-
bahula bhikkht (B), xxiii. 7.
Pancasata bhikkhu, xx. 1, 2,3; xxv. 8.
Paficasata bhikkha (B) = Pajficasata
vipassaka-bhikkhu (C), iii. 6.
Paficasata bhikkhu (B) = Vighasada
dosa-vutta p. bh. (C), vi. 8.
Paficasata vipassaka-bhikkhii (C) = P.
bh. (B), iii. 6.
Paficasata vipassaka-bhikkhi, xiii. 3.
Pajapati Gotami, see Maha P. G.
Patipujika kumarika (B) = Patipujika
(PTS and C), iv. 4.
Pathavi-katha-pasuta paficasata bhik-
khi, iv. 1.
Padhana-kammika Tissa thera, xx. Bd,
C4.
Padhanika Tissa thera, xii. 3.
Panthaka, see Cula Panthaka and Maha
Panthaka.
Patacara theri, viii. 12; xx. 12.
Pandita-samanera, vi. 5.
Pabbharavasi Tissa thera, xxvi. 21.
Pamatt-appamatta dve sahayaka-bhik-
khu (B and C) = Dve s.-bh. (PTS),
ii. 6.
Parijinna brahmana-putta (B) = Anna-
tara brahmana-putta (C), xxiii. 3.
Pasada-bahula-brahmana, xxvi. 1.
Pasenadi Kosala, xxiii. 4.
Pathikajivaka (PTS and C) = Pavey-
yakajivaka (B), iv. 6.
Paveyyakajivaka (B) = Pathikajivaka
(PTS and C), iv. 6.
Paveyyaka hatthi (B) = Baddheraka
hatthi (C), xxiii. 6.
Pilindavaccha thera, xxvi. 25.
Pilotika thera (Ὁ) = Pilotika Tissa thera
(B), x. 10.
Punna nama Rajagaha-setthi-dasi, xvii.
6.
Putigatta Tissa thera, iii. 7.
Pesakara-dhita, xiii. 7.
484 PROCEEDINGS OF THE
Potthila thera, xx. B7, C6.
Baddheraka hatthi (C)
hatthi (B), xxiii. 6.
Bandhanagara, xxiv. 4.
Bahuputtika theri, viii. 14.
rea ἢ ΠΡῚΝ bhikkhu {8}.
thera (Ὁ),
δ᾿ κε οἴ Πρ τῆν ποσὶ ii. 4,
Balisika, xix. 9.
Bahiya-daru-ciriya thera (B)
(C), viii. 2.
Bilala-padaka setthi, ix. 6.
Buddha-pitu-brahmana (B) = Saketaka
brahmana (C), xvii. 5.
Belattha-sisa thera, vii. 3.
Bodhi rajakumara, xii. 1.
Brahmana, passim; see Afifiatara and
Eka brahmana and Dve brahmana.
Bhadda-vaggiya (C) = Tinsa-matta-pa-
veyyaka-bhikkht (B), v. 6.
Bhaddiya bhikkhu, xxi. 3.
Bhagineyya-sangharakkhita thera (PTS
and Ὁ) = §8-bh. th. (B), iii. 4.
Bhikkhu, passim; see Afifatara-, Tayo-,
Tinsa-, Pafica-, and Paficasata-bh.
= Paveyyaka
B.-bh.
= D.-c. th.
Magha (B)= Mahali-patha (PTS and
Ὁ)» 1 1:
Macchariya Kosiya setthi, iv. 5.
Matthakundali, i. 2.
Manikara-kulipaga Tissa thera, ix. 10.
Matta-paveyyaka bhikkhu, see Tinsa
matta-paveyyaka bh.
Marana-paridipaka, ii. 1’,
Marici-kammatthanika thera, iv. 2.
Mahallaka thera, see Paftca m. th.
Mallika devi, xi. 6.
Maha Kaccayana thera, vii. 5.
Maha Kappina thera, vi. 4.
Maha Kassapa thera, ii. 5; vii. 2.
Maha-Kassapa-thera- pindapata-dinna,
iv. 10.
Maha-Kassapa-thera-saddhiviharika, v.2.
Maha Kala, see Cula Kala.
Maha Kala upasaka, xii. 5.
Mahadhana vanija, ix. 7; xx. 10.
Mahadhana setthi-putta, xi. 9.
Maha Panthaka thera, xxvi. 24,
Maha Pajapati Gotami, xxvi. 8.
Maha Moggallana thera, x. 7; xxvi. 28.
Maha-Moggallana-thera-paiha, xvii. 4.
AMERICAN ACADEMY.
mys (PTS and C) =
ΒΕ
Magandiya, ii. 19; = Mara-dhitaro (Ὁ),
Klive ols
Mara, ἀντ Ὡ: ΧΧΙ Oe eXxlVvao 3) XXV1: a.
Mara-dhitaro (Ὁ) = Magandiya (B), xiv.
1
Magha
Meghiya thera, iii. 1.
Mendaka setthi, xviii. 10.
Moggallana, see Maha Moggallana.
Raja Pasenadi Kosala, xv. 6.
Radha thera, vi. 1.
Revata thera, xxvi. 29;
diravaniya R. th., vii. 9.
Rohini khattiya- kana, xvii. 1.
Lakuntaka-bhaddiya thera, vi. 6; xix.
ΦΧ ΧΙ ἂν
Lakkhana, see xx. 2. 3. 4.
Laja devadhita, ix. 5.
Laludayi thera, xi. 7; xviii. 4.
Licchavi, xvi. 4.
Vakkali thera, xxv. 11.
Vaggiya, see Chab-baggiya and Bhadda-
vaggiya.
Vaggumudatiriya bhikkhi, xxii. 3.
Vangisa thera, xxvi. 87.
Vajji-puttaka bhikkhu, xxi. 6.
Vanavasi Tissa thera (C) = V.-y. T.
samanera (B), v. 16.
Vasuladatta, ii. 14.
Vighasada dosa-vutta paficasata bhik-
kha (C)=P. bh. (B), vi. 8.
Vitatibha (B)= Vidudabha (PTS and
C), see next.
Vidiadabha, iv. 3.
Vinicchaya-mahamacca, xix. 1.
Vipakkha-sevaka bhikkhu, xxv. 5.
Vipassaka bhikkhi, see Paiicasata v. bh.
Vibbhanta bhikkhu, xxiv. 3.
Visakha, iv. 8; xvi. 3.
Visakhadinan upasikanayn uposatha-
kamma, x. 5.
Visakha-sahayika, xi. 1.
Vihari-thera, see Ekavihari thera.
see also Kha-
Sakka deva-raja (C) =Sakka-pafha (B),
xxiv. 10.
Sakka deva-raja (C)= Sakk-upatthana
(B), xv. 8.
Sankicca samanera, viii. 9.
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY.
Satigha-bheda-parisakkana, xii. 7.
Sangharakkhita-bhagineyya thera (B)
= Bh.-s. th. (PTS and C), iii, 4.
Santakaya thera, xxv. 9,
Santati mahamatta, x. 9.
Satthikita peta, v. 13.
Sappadasa thera, viii. 11.
Sambahula adhimanika bhikkhu (B) =
Adhimanika bh. (C), xi. 4.
Sambahula agantuka bhikkhi, xxii. 7.
Sambahula kumaraka, x. 38.
Sambahula& bhikkhi, xi. 4; xiv. 8; xix.
Ho sip NP Sod Hp ΧΕΙ (5 Seay. (6b
Xxvi. 2.
Sambahula siladi-ssampanna bhikkhu
(B) =Sambahula bh. (C), xix. 10.
Sammajjana thera (B)=Sammufjani
th. (C), xiii. 5.
Sahayaka bhikkht, see Dve s. bh.
Sataka brahmana, see Ciula s. b.
Sanu samanera, xxiii. 5.
Samanera (B)=Cattaro s. (C), xxvi. 23
Samavati (B) = Udena (PTS and Ὁ),
51;
Samavati-uppatti, ii. 1°.
Sari, see Cula Sari.
Sariputta thera (B) = Aggasavaka (PTS
and C), i. 8.
Sariputta thera, 1. ὃ ; vii. 6.8; viii. 5.6.7;
NVA. Ole KK ...9..17}}97-
485
Sariputta-thera-pafiha-vissajjana, vii. 8.
Sariputta-thera-bhagineyya, viii. 6.
Sariputta-thera-matula brahmana, viii.
8.
Sariputta-thera-saddhiviharika, xviii. 6.
Sariputta-thera-sahayaka brahmana,
viii. 7.
Sirima, xi. 2.
Sivali thera, xxvi. 31.
Sukha samanera, x. 11.
Suddhodana raja, xiii. 2.
Sudhamma thera, v. 14.
Sundara-samudda thera, xxvi. 32.
Sundari paribbajika, xxii. 1.
Su-ppabuddha kutthi, v. 7.
Su-ppabuddha Sakya, ix. 12.
Subhadda paribbajaka, xviii. 12.
Subhadda, see Cula S.
Sumana malakara, v. 9.
Sumana samanera, xxv. 12.
Sumana devi, i. 15.
Suvannakara thera, xx. B9, C8.
Stkara peta, xx. B6, C5.
Sukara-potika, xxiv. 2.
Seyyasaka thera, ix. 2.
Soreyya thera, iii. 9.
Hansa-ghataka bhikkhu, xxv. 2.
Hatthaka, xix. 6.
Hatthacariya-pubbaka bhikkhu, xxiii. 2.
ANALYSIS OF THE STORIES OF THE DHAMMAPADA COMMEN-
TARY, BOOKS I-IV.
Ayan pan’ ettha saiikhepo.
Book I. Story 1. Cakkhupdla Elder. 1?
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 1 = 1.
Mahasuvanna, a rich householder of Savatthi, made a vow to a tree-
spirit, whereby he became the father of two sons.
Since the tree had
been protected (palitan) by him, he named them Maha Pala}? and
-Culla Pala.
When they reached manhood, their parents set them up
in households of their own.14 (3-4)
12 Cf. Rogers, pp. 1-11.
13 Called Cakkhupala after he wins Arahatship by sacrificing his eyes.
Cakkhu is the Pali word for “ eye.”
14 The numbers printed in heavy type and in parentheses at the end of
each paragraph indicate the pages of Norman’s text which are summarized
in the paragraph concerned.
486 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
At this time the Teacher was in residence at Jetavana monastery.
(He spent one rainy season at Banyan-tree monastery, erected by his
relatives ; nineteen at Jetavana, erected by Anathapindika; six at
Kastern-grove, erected by Visakha.) Anathapindika and Visakha went
to the monastery twice each day with the usual offerings. One day
the former refrained from asking questions for fear of wearying the
Teacher. Knowing this, Buddha preached with such vehemence that
fifty of the seventy million inhabitants of Savatthi became noble dis-
ciples. The noble disciples performed two duties daily: before break-
fast, they dispensed alms ; after breakfast, bearing the usual offerings,
they went to hear the Law. (4-5)
Mahapala followed them one day and was so affected by the dis-
course that he asked Buddha to make him a monk. ‘aking leave of
his brother, who did his utmost to dissuade him, he was admitted and
professed. After five years had passed, he came to Buddha and asked
him how many were the Burdens of the Religious Life. On being told
that there were two, namely, the Burden of memorizing and preaching
the Scriptures, and the Burden of the development of Spiritual Insight
by ascetic practices and meditation, he chose the latter as being better
suited to his advanced years. ‘The Teacher instructed him in the
ascetic practices leading to Arahatship, and he set out with sixty dis-
ciples. (5-8)
The inhabitants of a village 120 leagues distant received them hos-
pitably, obtained the privilege of entertaining them during the rainy
season, and built them a monastery. <A physician also offered his
services. Mahapala, on learning that the monks purposed to avail
themselves of the four postures (walking, standing, sitting, and reclin-
ing), announced that he should content himself with the first three,
and vowed not to stretch his back in repose. After encouraging each
other to be vigilant, they entered upon the observance of the rainy
season. (8-9)
At the end of the first month Mahapala’s eyes began to trouble him.
The physician treated him, but as he never lay down to rest, the treat-
ment did him no good. However, he resolutely kept his vow, until
finally, one night at the end of the middle watch, he lost simultane-
ously his eyesight and the Depravities, and became an Arahat. The
monks and villagers, learning that he had lost his eyesight, expressed
their sympathy, and assured him that they would take care of him.
At the end of the rainy season, the monks also attained Arahatship.
(9-13)
When the monks expressed a desire to see the Teacher, Mahapala,
knowing that there was a forest on the way haunted by evil spirits, and
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 487
fearing that he would be a hindrance to the monks, sent them on ahead,
directing them to ask his brother to send some one to lead him, and to
greet Buddha and the eighty abbots in his name. After taking leave
of the villagers, who were reluctant to part with them, they went and
did their master’s bidding. Cullapala sent his nephew Palita, first
admitting him as a monk, that he might escape the dangers of the
journey. (13-15)
Palita, after waiting upon Mahapala for a fortnight, led him to the
village. In spite of the protests of the inhabitants, they continued on
their journey until they reached the forest, where the youth, hearing
the voice of a woman, left his uncle and broke the vow of chastity.
Returning, he confessed his sin, removed his yellow robes, and assumed
the garb of a householder. But Mahapala would have nothing more to
do with him, and he departed in tears. (15-17)
So intense was Mahapala’s morality that Sakka’s throne showed
signs of heat. Looking about, he beheld the Elder. Fearing that if
he failed to go to his assistance, his head would split into seven pieces,
he disguised himself as a wayfarer, went to him, and offered to lead
him to Savatthi. Shortening the distance by his magic power, Sakka
brought him to his destination that very evening. Cullapala cared for
him tenderly and gave him two novices to wait on him. (17-19)
One night after a heavy rain Cakkhupala took a walk in the cloister
and trampled many insects to death. Some visiting monks reported
the matter to the Teacher, who replied that as Cakkhupala did not see
the insects, he was innocent of offense. The monks then asked how
it was that the Elder, though destined to attain Arahatship, became
blind. Buddha replied that it was because of a sin he committed in a
previous existence. The monks asked the Teacher to tell them about
it, and he did so. (19-20)
Story of Cakkhupala’s sin in a previous existence. A woman of
Benares promised a physician that she and her children would become
his slaves in case he succeeded in curing her of an affection of the eyes.
He did so; but she, repenting of her bargain, attempted to deceive him
by telling him that her eyes were worse than ever. He discovered that
she was deceiving him, and got revenge by giving her an ointment
that made her blind. That physician was Cakkhupala. (20-21)
The Teacher, warning his hearers to take the lesson to heart, pro-
nounced Stanza 1, at the conclusion of which, thirty thousand monks
attained Arahatship. (21-4)
488 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Book I. Story 2. Matthakundalli. 16
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 2=2.
At Savatthi lived a Brahman of a disposition so niggardly that peo-
ple called him Adinnapubbaka (Never-gave-a-farthing). He had an
only son, whom he dearly loved. Desiring to give the boy a pair of
earrings, but at the same time to avoid unnecessary expense, he beat
out the gold himself, made him a pair, and gave them to him ; where-
fore people called the boy Matthakundali (‘The-boy-with-the-burnished-
ear-rings). When the boy was sixteen years old he had an attack of
jaundice. The mother wished to have a physician called, but the
father demurred at the thought of paying him his fee, inquired of
various physicians what remedies they were accustomed to prescribe
for such and such an ailment, and treated him himself. The boy grew
steadily worse and was soon at the point of death. Realizing this, and
fearing that those who came to see his son would also see the wealth
the house contained, the Brahman carried his son.outside and laid him
down on the terrace. (25-6)
That very morning the Exalted One, arising from a Trance of Great
Compassion, and surveying the world with the eye of a Buddha, beheld
Matthakundali lying on the terrace at the point of death. Foreseeing
that Matthakundali, and through him many others, would attain the
Fruit of Conversion, Buddha visited him on the following day. The
youth made an Act of Faith in Buddha, died, and was reborn in
the world of the Thirty-three. (26-8)
Adinnapubbaka, after having the body of his son cremated, went daily
to the cemetery and bewailed his loss. Matthakundali, desiring to
convert his father, assumed the form he had borne upon earth, and
went and wept also. ‘he Brahman asked the youth why he was weep-
ing. ‘The latter replied: “I need a pair of wheels for my chariot.
The sun and moon are just what I want, and I weep because I cannot
get them.” The Brahman told him he was a fool. ‘“ But which of us
is the bigger fool,” said the youth, “I, who weep for what exists, or
you, who weep for what does not exist?” The youth then told him
that he was his son, and that he had attained his present glory by
making an Act of Faith in the Buddha. Thereupon the father sought
refuge in the Buddha, the Law, and the Order, and took upon himself
the Five Precepts. The son, after urging his father to visit the
Buddha, disappeared. (28-33)
The Brahman invited Buddha and his monks to dine with him.
15 Cf. Rogers, pp. 12-17.
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 489
Buddha accepted the invitation. The Brahman asked him whether it
was possible to attain rebirth in heaven by a simple Act of Faith.
Buddha instanced the case of Matthakundali, and then said: “It is
not one hundred, or two hundred, — there is no counting the number
of those who have attained rebirth in heaven by making an Act of
Faith in me.” ‘T'o convince the bystanders, he summoned Mattha-
kundali, who appeared in all his glory and confirmed the Buddha’s
words. Buddha then dwelt upon the importance of a right attitude of
the thoughts and of a believing heart, and pronounced Stanza 2.
(33-5)
At the conclusion of the stanza eighty-four thousand persons
obtained Comprehension of the Law. The god Matthakundali was
established in the Fruit of Conversion ; likewise Adinnapubbaka, who
devoted his great wealth to the religion of Buddha, (37)
Book I. Story 3. Tissa the Fat, Eider. 16
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 3-4 = 3-4.
Tissa, a son of the sister of Buddha’s father, became a monk late in
life. He lived well on the Buddha’s alms, and spent most of his time
sitting in smoothed garments in the Buddha’s own room. He grew to
be fat and well-liking. One day he so far presumed on his kinship
with the Buddha as to snub some monks who came to pay their re-
spects. ‘The monks resented this; whereupon the Elder, informing
them who he was, threatened to extirpate their whole race, and went
and complained to the Buddha. The latter, after asking him a few
questions about his behavior, told him that he was in the wrong, and
directed him to apologize to the monks. This he refused to do. ‘he
monks remarked that he was strangely obstinate and intractable ;
whereupon the Buddha, informing them that it was not the first time
he had so conducted himself, related the following story of the past:
37-9)
Devala and Narada. Once upon a time, when Brahmadatta reigned
at Benares, two ascetics, Devala and Narada, obtained lodging for the
night in Potter’s Hall. After Narada had lain down, Devala, in order
to start a quarrel, lay down in the door-way. Narada, having occasion
to go out during the night, trod on Devala’s matted locks. Devala
then changed his posture, putting his head where his feet had been.
When Narada returned, he trod on his neck. In spite of Narada’s
protests that it was all an accident, Devala cursed him, saying, “ When
16 Cf, Rogers, pp. 18-24.
490 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
the sun rises to-morrow may your head split into seven pieces.”
Narada then pronounced the curse, “ When the sun rises to-morrow
may the head of the guilty person split into seven pieces ;” but fore-
seeing that the curse would fall upon Devala, he took pity on him and
by his supernatural power prevented the sun from rising. (39-41)
The people, who were unable, by reason of the darkness, to pursue
their wonted occupations, went to the king and begged him to make
the sun rise for them. The king, after surveying his own actions and
perceiving that he had been guilty of no sin, concluded that the dark-
ness must have been caused by a quarrel of the monks. He learned
the circumstances of the quarrel from Narada, who told him that
Devala might escape the consequences of the curse by begging his
pardon. The king pleaded with Devala to do this; but the latter
obstinately refused until finally the king, losing his patience, forcibly
compelled him to do so. Narada forgave him, but said to the king,
“Since this man did not beg my pardon of his own free will, take him
to the pond near the city, place a lump of clay on his head, and make
him stand in the water up to his neck. He then said to Devala, “I
will send forth my magical power and cause the sun to rise; at that
moment duck in the water, rise, and go your way.” As soon as the
sun’s rays touched Devala, the lump of clay split into seven pieces ;
whereupon he ducked in the water, rose, and made his escape. (41-3)
“ At that time,” said the Teacher, “ Ananda was the king, Tissa was
Devala, and I was Narada. At that time too he was just as obsti-
nate.” And admonishing Tissa, he spoke Stanzas 3-4. At the con-
clusion of the discourse, a hundred thousand monks obtained the
Fruits. The multitude derived profit from the instruction given, and
the obstinate Elder became amenable to discipline. (43-5)
Book I. Story 4. Kali, the Ogress.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 5=).
The only son of a widow did all the farm and household work, and
cared for his mother to boot. One day the mother proposed to pro-
cure him a wife. The son protested that he was able to care for his
mother himself, but finally told her of a young woman that suited him
and allowed her to bring her home and install her in the house. She
turned out to be barren. Thereupon the mother proposed to procure
him another wife. The son objected. The barren wife overheard the
discussion, and fearing that she might be supplanted by a wife of their
selection, procured him another wife herself. (45-6)
It then occurred to the barren wife that if her rival bore a child she
BURLINGAME.— BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 491
would become sole mistress of the household. Accordingly she said to
the new wife, “As soon as you ve conceived, let me know.” ΤῸ this
the other agreed, and when she conceived, told the barren wife. The
latter mixed a drug in her rival’s food, and caused an abortion. After
this had happened twice, the new wife, on the advice of the women of
the neighborhood, held no further communication with her fellow.
The latter, suddenly discovering that her rival was great with child,
employed the same tactics as before, with the result that she killed
both child and mother. (46-7)
Just before the mother died, she uttered the prayer that she might
be reborn as an Ogress, able to devour the children of her persecutor.
Thereafter, in three successive existences, the fruitful and the barren
wife returned hatred for hatred. (47)
The Fruitful Wife was first reborn as a Cat. The Barren Wife was
reborn as a Hen. ‘The Cat ate the eggs of the Hen, who prayed that
in her next existence she might be able to devour the offspring of her
enemy. (48)
The Barren Wife, at the end of her existence as a Hen, was reborn
as a Leopardess. The Fruitful Wife, at the end of her existence as a
Cat, was reborn as a Doe. Thrice the Doe brought forth young, and
thrice the Leopardess went and devoured the Doe’s offspring. The
Doe prayed that in her next existence she might be able to devour the
offspring of her enemy. (48)
The Fruitful Wife, at the end of her existence as a Doe, was reborn
as an Ogress. The Barren Wife, at the end of her existence as a
Leopardess, was reborn at Savatthi as an Heiress. The Ogress de-
voured the first and the second child of the Heiress ; but when the latter
was about to be delivered of her third child, she eluded her enemy by
retiring to the house of her father. Here she was safely delivered of a
son. A few days later, while the mother was sitting in the grounds of
the Monastery, suckling the child, she saw the Ogress approaching.
The terrified mother, seizing the child in her arms, fled, closely pursued
by the Ogress, into the very presence of the Teacher. (48-50)
When the Teacher learned the circumstances of the quarrel, he said
to the Ogres : “Why do you return hatred for hatred? Love your
enemies ;” and he pronounced Stanza 5, at the conclusion of which the
Ogress was established in the Fruit of Conversion. (50-51)
The Teacher said to the mother, “Give your child to this Ogress.”
“T am afraid to, Venerable sir.” “Be not afraid ; you have nothing to
fear from her.” ‘The mother obeyed. The Ogress kissed the child,
caressed him, returned him to the arms of his mother, and began to
weep. The Teacher, learning that she had suffered greatly in the
492 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
past, comforted her, and directed the Heiress to take her home with
her and care for her tenderly. henceforth they befriended each other
in every possible way. It was Kali who established the Eight Ticket-
Foods, which are kept up even to this day. (51-3)
Book I. Story 5. The Monks of Kosambi. 17
a
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 6=6.
Two monks with a retinue of five hundred monks each resided at
Kosambi ; one a student of the Vinaya, the other, of the Suttas. One
day the latter committed the sin of leaving water standing in the bath-
room, for which he was reproved by his brother, who, however, on
being informed that the offense was unintentional, assured him that he
was guiltless. ‘The Vinaya scholar then proceeded to tell his pupils
that the Sutta scholar had committed sin and had no conscience about
it. ‘lhe latter, hearing of this, declared the former to be a liar, and
was shortly thereafter excommunicated. ‘Then ensued a quarrel in
which monks, nuns, unconverted persons, and deities from the lowest
heaven to the highest were involved. (53-4)
The circumstances of the quarrel among the monks were reported to
Buddha, who sent word to them to patch up their differences. ‘Twice
he did this, and twice the answer came back that they would not.
Then he went in person, pointed out to both factions the wrong in-
volved in their actions, and laid down rules of conduct for their
observance. Hearing that they were quarrelling again, he went to
them the second time, urged them to be united, and spoke to them
long and earnestly on the unprofitableness of discord, illustrating his
remarks by telling the Latukika Jataka, the Sammodamana Jataka,18
and the story of Brahmadatta, Dighati, and Dighavu.19 But in spite
of his best efforts, he was unable to restore harmony. (54-6)
Disheartened by his failure to reconcile their differences, he left
them, went quite alone to the village of Balaka the salt-maker, where
he discoursed to the Elder Bhagu on the solitary life ; thence to East-
ern Bamboo Deer-park where he discoursed to the three noble youths
on the bliss to be found in the sweets of concord ; and from there to
Protected Forest, where he spent the rainy season pleasantly, attended
by the elephant Parileyyaka. (56-7)
17 Cf. Ja. ili. 486-490.
18 The text says simply ‘“ Vattaka-jataka,” i. e., ‘Quail Jataka,” of
which there are several.
19 Vinaya i. 342-349 (translated SBE. xvii. 293-305).
_ BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 493
The lay brethren of Kosambi, learning the reason of the Teacher’s
departure, snubbed the monks until they came around to a proper view
of things and asked to be pardoned. ‘This the laymen declined to do
until the monks apologized to the Teacher. But as the rainy season
was then at its height, they were unable to go to the Teacher, and had a
very unpleasant time as a result. The 'eacher, however, spent the
time pleasantly, attended by an elephant. (57)
Buddha, the Elephant, and the Monkey. A noble elephant named
Parileyyaka, who had left his herd on account of the excessive annoy-
ances to which he had been subjected, came to Protected Forest, paid
obeisance to the Teacher, swept the ground with the branch of a tree,
gave the T'eacher water to drink, heated water for his bath, and
brought him wild fruits. When the Teacher went to the village to
collect alms, the elephant took his bowl and robe, put them on the top
of his head, and accompanied him as far as the village. Then he gave
him his bowl and robe, and waited right there until he returned ;
whereupon he advanced to meet him, took his bowl and robe as before,
deposited them in his place of abode, performed the usual courtesies,
and fanned him with the branch of a tree. During the night he
paced back and forth in the interstices of the forest with a big club in
his trunk, protecting the Teacher from attacks of beasts of prey.
(Thus the forest came to be called Protected Forest.) At sunrise he
gave him water to rinse his mouth with, and in the same manner
performed all the other duties. (57-9)
The elephant’s courteous attentions to the Teacher excited in a
monkey the desire to do likewise. One day he found some honey and
presented it to the Teacher. The latter accepted it, but refrained
from eating it. It turned out that there were some insects’ eggs in it.
These the monkey carefully removed ; the Teacher then ate the honey.
The monkey was so delighted that he leaped from one branch to
another and danced about in great glee. A branch broke, down he fell
on the stump of a tree, and a splinter pierced his body. So he died.
But because of his faith in the Teacher he was reborn in the world of
the Thirty-three. (59-60)
When it became known that the Teacher was living there, Anatha-
pindika and others requested Ananda to procure for them the privi-
lege of hearing the Teacher. Ananda, accompanied by five hundred
monks, went to the forest. Not knowing how Buddha would feel
about receiving so many visitors, he left the monks outside, and
approached the Teacher alone. Parileyyaka assumed a threatening
attitude, but abandoned it at the command of his master. Learning
that Ananda had come with five hundred monks, Buddha instructed
494 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
him to ask them to come in. He then spoke to them in praise of the
solitary life, pronouncing Stanzas 328-330, at the conclusion of which
all were established in Arahatship. Ananda announced the request of
Anathapindika and the others, and Buddha bade the monks take bowl
and robe and set out. (60-62)
Parileyyaka went and stood cross-wise on the road. ‘The Teacher,
knowing that he wished to give alms to the monks, ordered them to
wait. ‘The elephant went into the forest, gathered a great quantity of
fruit, and presented it to the monks. When they had finished eating,
Buddha took bowl and robe and set out. The elephant again went
and stood cross-wise on the road. Buddha, knowing that he wished to
hinder his departure, reproved him. . The elephant thrust his trunk in
his mouth and retreated weeping. When they reached the village,
Buddha ordered the elephant to go no farther. As Buddha passed out
of sight the elephant’s heart broke, and he died; but because of his
faith in the Teacher he was reborn in the world of the Thirty-three.
(62-3)
When the Teacher arrived at Savatthi, the monks of Kosambi went
thither to beg his pardon. The king of Kosala and Anathapindika
threatened to keep them out, but were dissuaded from so doing. Bud-
dha humiliated the quarrelsome monks by assigning them places sepa-
rate from the others ; and when they threw themselves at his feet and
begged for pardon, he reproved them for their sinful conduct, related
the story of Brahmadatta, Dighati, and Dighavu 2° once more, and
pronounced Stanza 6, at the conclusion of which the assembled monks
were established in the Fruits. (63-5)
Book I. Story 6. Cila Kala and Maha Kala. 21
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 7-8 = 7-8.
Cala Kala, Majjhima Kala, and Maha Kala, were three brothers
who lived in Setavya. Cula Kala and Maha Kala, the youngest and
oldest respectively, drove a caravan, and Majjhima Kala sold the wares.
One day the caravan halted between Savatthi and Jetavana, and
Maha Kala, leaving the wagons in charge of Cila Kala, went and
listened to the Teacher. He was so affected by the discourse that he
resolved to become a monk, turned over his property to Cala Kala,
and in spite of the latter’s protests carried out his resolution. Cila
20 See note 19, p. 492. The text calls this story ‘‘ Devakosambika-jataka ;”
another instance of the loose use of titles.
21 Cf. Rogers, pp. 25-31.
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 495
Kala also became a monk, but with the intention of leaving the Order
and taking his brother with him. (66-8)
After Maha Kala had been professed, he inquired of the Teacher
how many were the Burdens of the Religious Life, and upon being told
that there were two: namely, the Burden of Study and the Burden ot
Insight, he chose the latter as being better suited to his advanced
years. He had the Teacher instruct him in the ascetic practices that
one performs in a cemetery, and at the end of the first watch, while
the others were asleep, he went to the cemetery and spent the night in
meditation, returning to the monastery before the others had risen.
(68)
For some time Maha Kala followed the routine laid down for him by
the cemetery-attendant without success. Meanwhile Cila Kala won-
dered at his brother’s perseverance and pined for son and wife.
Finally Maha Kala attained Arahatship by contemplating the destruc-
tion by fire of the corpse of a beautiful girl. (68-71)
At this time the Teacher, accompanied by the Congregation of
Monks, visited Setavya. Maha Kala sent Cila Kala to attend to the
seating arrangements. Cila Kala’s wives subjected him to such
ridicule that he then and there left the Order. Maha Kala’s wives
then laid plans to recover their husband. Now Cila Kala had only
two wives, while Maha Kala had eight. The monks therefore openly
expressed the opinion that Maha Kala would succumb to their wiles.
The Teacher, however, told them that they were wrong ; and compar-
ing Cula Kala to a feeble tree standing on the edge of a precipice, and
Maha Kala to a rocky mountain, pronounced Stanzas 7-8. Maha
Kala escaped from the clutches of his wives by soaring through the
air. At the conclusion of the stanzas, the assembled monks were
established in the Fruits. (71-7)
Book I. Story 7. Devadatta.
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 9-10 = 9-10.
One day the Venerable Sariputta preached a sermon on the two-fold
duty of giving alms and urging others to do likewise. Thereupon a
lay brother invited him to bring his retinue of a thousand monks and
take a meal with him. Sariputta accepted the invitation ; and the lay
brother, with the assistance of the inhabitants of Rajagaha, each of
whom responded to his request to give alms according to his ability,
entertained the monks handsomely. Now a certain householder had
given the lay brother a costly robe, with the understanding that if the
supply of food proved insufficient, he was to sell it and buy more food
496 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
with the proceeds; otherwise he might give it to whomsoever he
wished. It turned out that there was an ample supply of food, and
the question arose what to do with the robe. The Jay brother sub-
mitted the question to popular vote, with the result that as between
Sariputta and Devadatta there was a majority of four in favor of the
latter. But as soon as Devadatta put on the robe everybody remarked
that it was not at all becoming to him, and would have suited Sari-
putta much better. This incident was reported to the Teacher, who
replied that it was not the first time Devadatta had worn unbecoming
robes, and then told the following story of the past: (77-80)
The Elephant Hunter and the Noble Elephant. Once upon a time,
when Brahmadatta reigned at Benares, there lived an elephant hunter
who made his living by killing elephants and selling their tusks. One
day he saw thousands of elephants go into a forest and fall on their
knees before some Private Buddhas. Concluding that it was the
yellow robe that inspired their reverence, he went to a pond where a
Private Buddha was bathing, stole his robes, and went and sat down
on the elephant path with spear in hand and upper robe drawn over
the head. The elephants, supposing that he was a Private Buddha,
made obeisance to him and went on their way. The last elephant to
come he killed with a thrust of his spear; then, removing the tusks,
he buried the rest of the carcass, and departed. (80-81)
A little while later, the Future Buddha was born as a young ele-
phant, and in the course of time he became the leader of the herd.
The hunter was still engaged in his nefarious business. ‘The noble
creature, observing the diminution of his herd, and suspecting who
was at the bottom of it, sent the other elephants on ahead and brought
up the rear himself, walking with a long, slow stride. ‘The hunter
threw his spear at him and darted behind a tree. The elephant re-
sisted the temptation to encircle man and tree with his trunk and
crush the offender, and contented himself with saying, “ Why did you
commit so grievous a sin? You have put on robes suited to those
that are free from the Depravities, but unbecoming to you.” (81-2)
“At that time,” said the Teacher, “ Devadatta was the elephant
hunter, and I was the noble elephant. This is not the first time he
has worn unbecoming robes.” Then he pronounced Stanzas 9-10, at
the conclusion of which many of his hearers were established in the
Fruits. (82-3)
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 497
Book I. Story 8. The Chief Disciples.
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 11-12 =11-12.
The Future Buddha, after receiving recognition at the hands of
twenty-four Buddhas beginning with Dipaiikara, and after fulfilling the
Perfections, was reborn in the 'l'usita heaven. Urged by the deities to
save the world, he made the Five Great Observations, was born of
Queen Maya, passed his youth in the enjoyment of great magnificence
in three mansions suited to the three seasons, beheld the Four Omin-
ous Sights, resolved to become a monk, renounced son and wife, was
greeted by Kisa Gotami, made the Great Retirement and the Great
Struggle, defeated the hosts of Mara, and attained omniscience under
the Bo-tree. At the request of Brahma he proclaimed the Law and
converted the Five Monks, Yasa and Fifty-four Companions, the Thirty
Young Nobles, and the Three Brothers ; after which he visited King
Bimbisara and accepted from him the grant of Bamboo Grove monas-
tery, where he took up his abode and Sariputta and Moggallana came
to him. (83-8)
Upatissa (Sariputta) and Kolita (Moggallana) were born on the
same day and brought up in great luxury. ‘They acquired a sense of
the impermanence of things while witnessing Mountain-top festivities,
and were for a time disciples of Safijaya. Desiring something more
than he could give them, they travelled about India listening to vari-
ous teachers, and were converted to the religion of Buddha by Assaji.
After making an unsuccessful attempt to persuade Safijaya to accom-
pany them, they went to the feet of Buddha, who admitted and pro-
fessed them as members of the Order and made them his chief
disciples. (88-96)
The other disciples accuse Buddha of showing favoritism in bestow-
ing the highest dignity on new-comers and passing over what they
allege to be the prior claims of the Five Monks, Yasa and his Fifty-
four Companions, the Thirty Young Nobles, and the Three Brothers.
Buddha denies the charge and declares that it is his wont to bestow on
every man that for which he has made his wish. By way of illustra-
tion he relates the following stories of the past: (96-7)
Maha Kala and Cila Kala. Afifiakondafifia in his existence as
Cilla Kala bestowed the gift of first-fruits nine times on the Buddha
Vipassi and for seven days bestowed great largess on the Buddha
Padumuttara, making the wish that he might be the first to compre-
hend the Law. The fact of his attaining this distinction was no proof
of favoritism, but rather the fruit of that earnest wish. (97-9)
VOL, XLV. — 32
498 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Yasa and his Fiftyfour Companions performed many meritorious
deeds in the dispensation of a previous Buddha, making the wish that
they might thereby attain Arahatship. In a later dispensation they
banded themselves together for the performance of good works, and
went about caring for the dead bodies of paupers. One day they came
upon the dead body of a pregnant woman. ‘hey carried the body to
the cemetery, Yasa and four others undertook the duty of cremating it,
and the rest returned to the village. While Yasa was engaged in
turning the body over and over, he acquired a sense of the impurity of
the body. This he communicated to the four others, who in turn
communicated it to the rest. Yasa also went and communicated it to
his mother, his father, and his wife. It was due entirely to this that
Yasa obtained in the women’s apartments, the disposition of mind re-
quisite to Conversion and that he and the others developed Specific
Attainment. (99-100)
The Thirty Young Nobles made their wish to attain Arahatship
under previous Buddhas and performed works of merit. In a later dis-
pensation they gave themselves up to the pleasures of sense, but on
hearing the admonition addressed to Tundila they kept the Five
Precepts for seventy thousand years. (100)
The Three Brothers, Uruvela Kassapa, Nadi Kassapa, and Gaya
Kassapa, entertained the Buddha Phussa, their oldest brother, and
made the wish to attain Arahatship thereby. After undergoing rebirth
as gods during ninety-two cycles of time, they obtained the fulfilment
of their wish. (At that time Bimbisara was their superintendent, the
lay brother Visakha their steward, and the three ascetics with matted
locks were the three royal princes.) ‘Their serving men had a very
different experience. The latter diverted to their own use the food
they had been ordered to bestow in alms. After undergoing rebirth as
ghosts during four Buddha-intervals, they came and begged food and
drink of the Buddha Kakusandha, who referred them to the Buddha
Konagamana, who referred them to the Buddha Kassapa, who com-
forted them with the assurance that, in the dispensation of his suc-
cessor Gotama, their kinsman Bimbisara would be king, and would
obtain relief for them by transferring to them the merit he would earn
by giving alms to the Teacher. Thus at last they obtained celestial
food, drink, and robes, and became gods. (100-104)
Sarada and Sirivaddha. Sariputta and Moggallana were born as
Sarada and Sirivaddha respectively at the time when the Buddha
Anomadassi appeared in the world. Sarada retired from the world
with seventy-four thousand followers, entertained Anomadassi, and
held the flower parasol over him for seven days, making the wish that
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 499
he might thereby become the chief disciple of a Buddha. Upon receiv-
ing assurance that his wish would be fulfilled, he sent word to Siri-
vaddha to make his wish for the place of second disciple. ‘Thereupon
Sirivaddha entertained Anomadassi and made his wish. So what
Sariputta and Moggallana obtained was only that for which they had
made their wish under Anomadassi. (104-112)
Sariputta and Moggallana then related their experiences from the
Mountain-top festivities to their final interview with Safijaya. Buddha
then contrasted the attitude of Safijaya with that of his own faithful
followers, and pronounced Stanzas 11-12, at the conclusion of which
many of his hearers were established in the Fruits. (113-114)
Book I. Story 9. Nanda, Elder, 22
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 13-14 = 13-14.
After the events related in the last story, Buddha visited his father
Suddhodana and established him in the Fruits of the First T'wo Paths
by pronouncing Stanzas 168-169. On the following day, while the fes-
tivities connected with Nanda’s marriage were going on, Buddha went
into the house to collect alms, placed his bowl in Nanda’s hands,
wished him happiness, and then went out without taking the bowl.
So profound was Nanda’s reverence for the Teacher that he did not
dare ask him to take the bowl ; but, expecting that the Teacher would
ask for it sooner or later, he followed him first to the head of the stairs,
then to the foot of the stairs, then to the court-yard. Here Nanda
wished to turn back. But the Teacher went straight ahead, and
Nanda, much against his will, followed. When Nanda’s bride, Country
Beauty, learned what had happened, she ran after him as fast as she
could, with tears streaming down her face and hair half combed, and
begged him to return. ‘his caused a quaver in Nanda’s heart, but
the Teacher still gave no indication that he wished to have the bowl
returned, and Nanda kept right on. When they reached the Monas-
tery, the Teacher said: “ Nanda, would you like to become a monk ?”
That was the last thing in the world Nanda wanted to do just then ;
but his reverence for the Teacher was so profound that he promptly
said “Yes.” Thereupon the Teacher admitted him to the Order.
(115-116)
After receiving his son Rahula into the Order, and establishing his
father in the Fruit of the Third Path, the Teacher, accompanied by the
Congregation of Monks, went into residence at Jetavana. By this time
22 Cf. Ja. ii. 92-4.
500 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Nanda had become thoroughly dissatisfied with the Religious Life,
and one day he told his brethren that he was going to return to the
World. When this was reported to the Teacher, he asked Nanda
what was the matter. Nanda told him that he was so deeply in
love with Country Beauty that he could not keep his mind ow his re-
ligious duties. ‘The Teacher, taking him by the arm, led him to a
burnt field, and showed him a singed monkey that had lost ears, nose,
and tail, sitting on a charred stump ; then, by his supernatural power,
conducting him to the world of the Thirty-three, he showed him five
hundred pink-footed celestial nymphs. Then said the Teacher:
“Nanda, which do you regard as being the more beautiful, Country
Beauty or these five hundred pink-footed celestial nymphs?” Nanda
replied : “ Venerable sir, Country Beauty is as far inferior to these
nymphs as she is superior to that singed monkey.” “Cheer up, Nanda ;
I guarantee that you will win these nymphs if you only persevere in
the Religious Life.” The Teacher allowed it to become generally
known that he had made this promise to Nanda ; whereupon the latter
was subjected to such intense ridicule by his brethren that he returned
to his religious duties with redoubled energy. In a short time he at-
tained Arahatship; whereupon he went to the ‘Teacher and said,
‘Venerable sir, I release the Exalted One from his promise.” ‘“ But,”
said the Teacher, ‘when you attained Arahatship, at that moment 1
was released from my promise.” (116-121)
One day Nanda told the other monks that he no longer had any
desire to go back to the life of a householder. ‘The monks reported
this statement to the Teacher, who compared Nanda’s former state to
that of an ill-thatched house, and his latter state to that of a well-
thatched house, and pronounced Stanzas 13-14, at the conclusion of
which many of his hearers were established in Fruits. (121-2)
The monks were amazed at the Teacher’s complete success in win-
ning Nanda’s obedience by employing the nymphs as a lure. But the
Teacher said: “This is not the first time Nanda has been won to
obedience by the lure of the opposite sex. ‘The same thing happened
once before.” And he told the following tale of the past: (122-3)
Kappata and the Donkey. Once upon a time, when Brahmadatta
reigned at Benares, there lived in that city a merchant named Kap-
pata; and he had a donkey. Every day the merchant loaded the
donkey down with pottery and made him go at least seven leagues.
One day he made a trip to Takkasila; and while he was engaged in
disposing of his wares, he let the donkey run loose. The donkey, see-
ing a female of his species, went up to her. She greeted him in a
friendly way and said, “ Where have you come from?” ‘“ From Ben-
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA 'S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 501
ares.” ‘On what errand?” ‘On business.” “How big a load do
you carry?” “A big load of pottery.” ‘How many leagues do you
go, carrying a big load like that?” “Seven leagues.” ‘In the vari-
ous places you go to, do you have anybody to rub your feet and back ?”
“No.” “If that’s the case, you must have a mighty hard time.”
(Of course animals don’t have anybody to rub their feet and back ; she
talked the way she did simply to strengthen the bonds of love between
them.) As the result of her talk, he became dissatisfied with his job.
After the merchant had disposed of his wares, he returned to the
donkey, and said, ‘“‘Come, Jack, let ’’s be off.” ‘ You go yourself ; I’m
not going.” The merchant tried without success to persuade him, and
then said, “I will beat you till I break every bone in your body; think
that over.” Said the donkey, “If you beat me, I will plant my fore
feet, and let fly with my hind feet, and knock out your teeth; think
that over.” The merchant was at a loss to account for the donkey’s
conduct, until he saw the female. Then he changed his tactics and
said, “If you will go with me, I will bring you home a mate like that.”
“In that case,” said the donkey, “1 11 go home with you and travel
fourteen leagues a day hereafter.” And off he went. (123-5)
“ At that time,” said the Teacher, “Country Beauty was the female
donkey, Nanda was the donkey, and I was the merchant. In former
times, too, Nanda was won to obedience by the lure of the female sex.”
(125)
Book I. Story 10. Cunda, the Pork-butcher.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 15 = 15.
Cunda, the pork-butcher, was a selfish, brutal, irreligious man.
After a course of evil conduct lasting fifty-five years, he was attacked
by a frightful disease, and while he yet lived, the Avici hell yawned
before him. He went stark mad, and began to crawl about the house
on his hands and knees, squealing and grunting like a pig. His kins-
men ran out of the house, barricaded the doors, and mounted guard.
After he had raved for seven days he died, and was reborn in the
Avici hell. (125-7)
Some monks who passed the house during his madness thought that
preparations for a big entertainment were in progress, and so reported
the matter to the Teacher. The latter told them the real facts of the
case, remarked that the irreligious man sorrows both here and here-
after, and pronounced Stanza 15, at the end of which many were
established in the Fruits. (127-9)
502 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Book I. Story 11. The Faithful Lay Brother.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 16 = 16.
A certain lay brother distinguished for his benefactions and religious
zeal, was attacked by mortal illness, and desiring to hear the Law, re-
quested the Teacher to send him some monks. Just as the monks
were beginning the recitation, a host of deities drove up in their chari-
ots and said, “ We would take you with us.” The layman, wishing to
hear the Law, said to the deities “‘ Hold ;” whereupon the monks, mis-
taking his meaning, arose and departed. The layman’s children, to
whom the deities were invisible, began to weep ; whereupon the lay-
man, to confirm their faith, performed a miracle, urged them to follow
the example he had set in performing good works, and then, stepping
into a celestial chariot, was reborn as a deity. (129-131)
When the monks told the Teacher that the layman had refused to
hear the Law, he informed them of the real facts of the case, assured
them that the religious man rejoices both here and hereafter, and pro-
nounced Stanza 16, establishing many in the Fruits. (131-2)
Book I. Story 12. Devadatta.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 17 = 17.
The story of Devadatta from the time he retired from the world to
the time he was swallowed up by the earth is related in detail in the
Jatakas ; 38 the following is an abridgment of it: (133)
When the Future Buddha lived at Anupiya Mango-grove, eighty
thousand kinsmen observed on his person the marks and characteristics
of a T'athagata, and each dedicated a son to his service. In the course
of time, all of these young men became monks, with the exception of
Bhaddiya, Anuruddha, Ananda, Bhagu, Kimbila, and Devadatta. One
day Anuruddha’s brother Mahanama went to Anuruddha and said,
“There is n’t one of our family that has become a monk ; you become a
monk, and [1] follow your example.” (133)
(Now Anuruddha had been brought up in softness and luxury, and
had never heard the word isn’t. Once the six princes engaged in a
game of ball, wagering a cake on the result. Anuruddha lost and sent
word to his mother to send him a cake, which she did. This happened
three times. he fourth time his mother sent word: “There isn’t
cake to send.” ‘The son replied, “Send me some isn’t cake.” The
mother, in order to teach her son a lesson, sent him an empty bowl
23 Jo. vi. 129-131; v. 333-7; iv. 158-9.
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 503
covered with another empty bowl. The tutelary deities of the city
. filled the bowl with celestial cakes. The mother found out what had
happened, and thereafter, whenever her son sent for cakes, sent him an
empty bowl, which the deities filled with celestial cakes. How could a
youth who was ignorant of the meaning of the word 7s n’t, be expected
to know the meaning of mons?) (133-5)
Anuruddha replied to Mahanama: “What does this word monk
mean?” Mahanama told him. Anuruddha replied that he was too
delicate to become a monk. “ Well then,” said Mahanama, “learn
farming, and adopt the life of a householder.” Anuruddha replied,
“What does this word farming mean?” (135-6)
(How could you expect a youth to know the meaning of farming
who didn’t know where rice comes from? Once a discussion arose
among the three princes Kimbila, Bhaddiya, and Anuruddha, as to
where rice comes from. Kimbila thought it came from the granary ;
Bhaddiya, from the kettle ; Anuruddha, from the golden bowl.) (136)
Mahanama explained to Anuruddha what was implied by the term
farming ; whereupon Anuruddha, aghast at the endless routine of
manual labor, said, ‘‘ Well then, live the householder’s life yourself; I
have no use for it.” He went to his mother and said, ‘“ Mother, give
me your permission to become a monk.” “ All right, if your friend
King Bhaddiya will do the same.” Anuruddha had no little difficulty
in persuading Bhaddiya to do this; but finally the latter agreed to
retire from the world in seven days. Then Bhaddiya, Anuruddha,
Ananda, Bhagu, Kimbila, and Devadatta, together with the barber
Upali, set out with four-fold array, and crossed over into foreign terri-
tory. Here the six princes sent back the army, took off their orna-
ments, made a bundle of them, gave them to Upali, and ordered him
to return. When Upali had gone a little way, he was overcome with
fear that the fierce Sakyans, thinking that he had put their princes to
death, would retaliate by killing him; accordingly he untied the
bundle, hung the ornaments up on a tree, and returned to his masters.
Then the six princes, taking Upali with them, went to the Teacher,
and said : “ We, Venerable sir, are proud Sakyans ; this man has been
a servitor of ours for a long time ; admit him to the Order first ; to him
first we will offer respectful salutations ; so will our pride be humbled.”
Thereupon the Teacher first admitted Upali to the Order, and after
him the others. Bhaddiya attained Threefold Knowledge, Anuruddha
Supernatural Vision, afterwards Arahatship, Ananda was established
in the Fruit of Conversion, and Bhagu and Kimbila by the develop-
ment of Insight attained Arahatship. Devadatta attained the lower
grade of Magic Power. (136-8)
504 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
When the Teacher and the monks went into residence at Kosambi
great numbers of people flocked thither and said, “ Where is the
Teacher? Where is Sariputta? Moggallana? Kassapa? Bhaddiya ?
Anuruddha? Ananda? Bhagu? Kimbila?” But nobody said, “‘ Where
is Devadatta?” ‘Thereupon Devadatta said to himself, “I retired
from the world with these monks; I, like them, belong to the Warrior
caste ; but unlike them, I am the object of nobody’s solicitude. With
whom can I make common cause, that I may obtain gain and honor
for myself? Bimbisira? He will have nothing to do with me. The
king of Kosala? Neither will he. What about Bimbisara’s son
Ajatasattu? He doesn’t know anybody’s virtues or vices. He’s the
very man!” (138-9)
Accordingly Devadatta assumed the form of a child girded about
with snakes, and descending from the sky, sat in Ajatasattu’s lap.
Perceiving that he was frightened, Devadatta told him who he was,
and resumed his proper form. Ajatasattu bestowed all manner of
attentions upon Devadatta, until there arose in the latter’s mind, over-
mastered by gain and honor, the evil thought, “It is I who ought to
run the Congregation of Monks.” Thereupon he went to the Teacher
and said: “Venerable sir, the Exalted One is stricken in years; let
him live a life of ease in this world; I will run the Congregation of
Monks; make over the Order to me.” But the Teacher repulsed De-
vadatta, called him a “lick-spittle,” and caused proclamation to be
made concerning him at Rajagaha.2 ‘Thereupon Devadatta cherished
resentment against the Teacher, and resolved to make trouble for him.
(139-140)
So Devadatta went to Ajatasattu and said: “ Youth, aforetime men
were long-lived, but nowadays they don’t live long; this makes it
probable that you won’t live long. You kill your father and become
king, and 11 kill the Buddha and become Buddha.” When <Aja-
tasattu was established in the kingdom,?° Devadatta made three
attempts on the life of the Buddha. First he hired some men to kill
him, but they deserted their posts and obtained the Fruit of Conver-
24 Oldenberg, relying on Fausbéll’s faulty text, says regarding this procla-
mation (SBE. xx. p. 239, note 2): ‘It is not referred to by the Dhammapada
commentator.’’ Norman, however, gives the same reading as the Vinaya.
25 It is interesting to note that this account does not say that Ajatasattu
killed his father. The Vinaya says (ii. 190-191) that Ajatasattu’s designs
were discovered and that Bimbisara abdicated in favor of hisson. The Jataka
(vi. 129, lines 20-22) refers to the section of the Vinaya quoted above, and
then goes on tosay that Ajatasattu killed his father! In the Digha (i. 85 *"*)
Ajitasattu confesses to the Buddha that he killed his father.
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 505
sion. ‘Then he climbed to the top of Vulture Peak and hurled down a
rock, but succeeded only in wounding the Teacher. Last of all he des-
patched the elephant Ndalagiri against the Teacher, but Ananda stood
in the breach and the Teacher subdued the elephant. Buddha in-
formed the monks that this was not the first time Ananda had risked
his life for him, and related the Culahansa, Mahahansa, and Kakkata
Jatakas. (140-141)
After that neither the people nor the king would have anything
more to do with Devadatta. Then the latter went to Buddha and
made the Five Demands, but was again repulsed. Finally Devadatta
caused a schism in the Order by persuading five hundred monks to
make common cause with him, but Sariputta and Moggallana convinced
them of the error of their ways by preaching and performing miracles
before them, and returned with them through the air. When the
Teacher saw Sariputta returning with this splendid retinue, he re-
marked that this was not the first time he had done so, and related
the Lakkhana Jataka.26 (141-4)
During the Teacher’s residence at Rajagaha, he related many Jata-
kas about Devadatta’s evil deeds in previous existences. For example
when the monks told him that Devadatta was imitating him, he related
the Viraka, Kandagalaka, and Virocana Jatakas ; with reference to his
ungratefulness, he related the Javasakuna Jataka ; commenting on his
wickedness, he told the Kuruiiga Jataka; hearing the remark that
Devadatta had renounced the joys of the householder’s life only to
fall away from the estate of a monk, he told the Ubhatobhattha Jataka.
The Teacher then retired from Rajagaha to Savatthi and took up his
residence at Jetavana Monastery. (144-6)
Devadatta suffered from sickness for nine months, at the end of
which, realizing that his end was near, he was overwhelmed with re-
morse, and resolved to make his peace with the Teacher. So he caused
himself to be carried on a litter to Jetavana. The Teacher refused to
see him. When Devadatta raised himself from the litter and assumed
a sitting posture with both feet resting on the ground, the earth gave
way under his feet, and slowly swallowed him up. As his jaws touched
the earth, he cried out, “I seek refuge in Buddha;” whereupon the
Teacher made him a monk, prophesying that at the end of a hundred
thousand cycles of time he would be reborn as a Private Buddha named
Atthissara. After the earth had swallowed up Devadatta, he was re-
26 Ja. i. 142. Chalmers remarks: ‘‘ Unlike this Jataka, the Vinaya ...
gives a share of the credit to Moggallana.’’ But elsewhere (Ja. iv. 158,
lines 3-4) the Jataka distinctly says that it was Sariputta and Moggallana.
506 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
born in the Avici hell, where he suffered excruciating tortures, being
encased in an iron shell and impaled on iron stakes. (146-8)
When the monks commented on what had happened to Devadatta,
the Teacher told them that Devadatta had suffered similar experiences
in previous existences, and related the Silavanaga, Khantivadi, and
Culla Dhammapala Jatakas. When the multitude rejoiced at his
death, the Teacher told them that the same thing had happened before,
and related the Mahapiigala Jataka. Finally the monks inquired
where he had been reborn. The Teacher replied, “ In the Avici hell ;”
and reminding them that irreligious men suffer both here and hereafter,
he pronounced Stanza 17, at the end of which many were established in
the Fruits. (148-150)
Book I. Story 13. Sumana.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 18 = 18.
Anathapindika and Visékha were so intimately acquainted with the
needs of the monks that they were much sought after to accompany
those who desired to carry alms to the monks. When Visakha left her
house, she appointed a granddaughter to dispense alms in her place.
Anathapindika assigned a similar duty to his oldest daughter. The
latter attained the Fruit of Conversion, married, and was succeeded by
a younger sister. She also attained the Fruit of Conversion, married,
and was succeeded by the youngest daughter Sumana. (151)
Sumana attained the Fruit of the Second Path, but remained un-
married. Thereat she sickened, would eat nothing, and sent for her
father. When the latter asked her what was the matter, she addressed
him as “youngest brother,” and died. Anéathapindika, unable to quiet
his grief, went to the Teacher and told him what had happened.
“Why do you grieve?” said the Teacher. ‘ Know you not that death
is certain for all?” “1 know that, Venerable sir; but my daughter
talked incoherently when she died, addressing me as ‘ youngest
brother.’” “She spoke quite correctly,” replied the Teacher, “for she
had attained the Fruit of the Second Path, while you have attained
only the Fruit of Conversion.” 27 Thereupon the ‘Teacher informed
Anathapindika that Sumand had been reborn in the Tusita heaven,
and pronounced Stanza 18, at the conclusion of which many were
established in the Fruits. (151-4)
27 Compare the story of Kavi in Manu, ii. 150 (Lanman’s Reader, 61 15).
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 507
Book I. Story 14. The Two Brethren.
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 190-20 = 19-20.
Two noble youths who had been friends retired from the world to-
gether. ‘The older of these assumed the Burden of Insight and attained
Arahatship ; the younger assumed the Burden of Study, acquired the
Tipitaka, and became renowned as a master of the Law. One day the
younger monk learned from some pupils of his older brother that
the latter knew only one Nikaya and one Pitaka, and that of the four-
lined Stanzas he knew none at all. Becoming greatly puffed up at the
thought of his own superior learning, he resolved to seize the first
opportunity to-ask his older brother some embarrassing questions.
(154-5)
Somewhat later the older monk came to pay his respects to the
Teacher. The latter, knowing what was in the mind of the younger
monk, anticipated his designs, and asked both monks several questions.
The younger monk answered all the questions about the T'rances and the
Eight Attainments, but failed to answer a single question the Teacher
asked him about the Paths. ‘The older monk, however, answered all the
the questions correctly. The Teacher praised the older monk highly,
and pronounced Stanzas 19-20, at the end of which many were
established in the Fruits. (155-9)
Book II. Story 1. Udena.28
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 1-3 = 21-23.
la. Rise and Career of Udena.
Once upon a time two kings named Allakappa and Vethadipaka,
who had been friends since boyhood, retired from the world and be-
came forest hermits. One day Vethadipaka died and was reborn as a
powerful spirit. Desiring to see his brother, he disguised himself as a
wayfarer and paid him a visit. Allakappa told him that the elephants
were giving him a lot of trouble; whereupon Vethadipaka gave him a
lute to charm elephants with, and taught him the proper spells.
“Twang this string and utter this spell,” said he, “and the elephants
will run away without so much as taking a look behind them; twang
this string and utter this spell, and they will retreat, eyeing you as
they go; twang this string and utter this spell and the leader of the
herd will come up and offer you his back.” Vethadipaka then departed,
28 Cf. Rogers, pp. 32-60.
508 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
and after that Allakappa got along famously with the big beasts.
(161-4)
At this time Parantapa was king at Kosambi. One day the king
and the queen were sitting out in the open air sunning themselves.
The queen, who was great with child, was wearing the king’s scarlet
blanket ; and as they chatted together the queen removed the king’s
signet ring from his finger and slipped it on her own. Just then a
monster vulture, mistaking the queen for a piece of meat, swooped
down, caught up the queen in his talons, carried her off to the forest,
and deposited her in the fork of a banyan tree. The following morn-
ing she gave birth to a son, whom she called Udena. (164-5)
Now the banyan tree was not far from the hermitage of Allakappa.
The latter, discovering mother and child, escorted them to the hermit-
age and cared for them tenderly. After a time, the mother, fearing
that if the hermit went away she and her child would be left alone in
the ferest to die, tempted the hermit to break his vow of chastity.
The latter yielded to the temptation, and thereafter the two lived
together as man and wife. (465-6)
One day Allakappa read it in the stars that the king of Kosambi
was dead. He told the queen, and the latter burst into tears. Then
said the hermit, “ Why do you weep?” ‘Because he was my hus-
band.” ‘ Weep not; death is certain for all.” “1 know, sir.” “But
why do you continue to weep?” “Because of my son; if he could
only be there, he would be crowned king.” ‘‘Cease weeping; I will
arrange all that.” Thereupon the hermit gave the boy the lute to
charm elephants with and taught him the proper spells. The her-
mit then said to the mother, “Give your son the necessary instruc-
tions, that he may go hence and become king.” The mother told the
boy that he was the son of Parantapa, king of Kosambi ; that a monster
bird had carried her off just before he was born; that he was to go
forth and claim his kingdom ; and that in case the ministers refused to
believe him, he was to show them his father’s scarlet mantle and signet
ring. ‘Then the prince bade farewell to his father and mother, mounted
the back of the oldest elephant of the herd, and whispered in his ear,
“ΝΥ lord, I am the son of Parantapa, king of Kosambi ; obtain for me
the kingdom of my father.” The elephant trumpeted, saying, “ Let all
the hosts of the elephants assemble ;” and immediately all the hosts of
the elephants assembled. Then the elephant trumpeted again, saying,
“Let the old elephants retire, and the young elephants withdraw ;”
and immediately the old elephants retired, and the young elephants
withdrew. So Udena set out with a prodigious host of warrior ele-
phants, and going to the gates of Kosambi, cried out with a loud voice,
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 509
“Give me battle or my kingdom.” ‘Then he cried out again, “I am
the king’s son ;” and held up the mantle and the ring, that all might
see them ; whereupon the citizens opened the gates, and hailed him as
their king. (166-9)
10. Rise and Career of the Treasurer Ghosaka.
Once upon a time there was a famine in the kingdom of Ajita, and a
certain man named Kotihalaka took his wife and infant son and set
out for Kosambi in search of food. When the provisions for the jour-
ney failed, the father proposed to the mother to cast the child away,
but the mother protested vigorously, and suggested that they carry
the child by turns. While the father was carrying the child in his
arms, the child fell asleep ; whereupon the father, allowing the mother
to precede him, laid the child on a couch of leaves under a bush, and
went on his way. When the mother discovered what had happened,
she begged her husband to restore the child to her, and hedid so. (In
consequence of having cast his child away on this occasion, Kotihalaka
was himself cast away seven times in a later existence. Let no one
regard a sinful deed as a small matter.) (169-170)
Continuing on their journey, they arrived at the house of a herds-
man. One of the herdsman’s cows had just calved, and a festival was
being held in honor of the event. The herdsman received the visitors
hospitably, set abundant food before them, and then sat down to eat
his own meal. Kotthalaka watched the herdsman feed a bitch that
lay under his stool, and thought to himself: “‘ How fortunate is that
bitch to get food like that to eat!” During the night Kotihalaka
died of indigestion, and was conceived in the womb of the bitch whose
lot he envied. (170-171)
Now a Private Buddha was accustomed to take his meals in the
house of the herdsman; and Kotihalaka’s widow, realizing what an
opportunity she had to store up merit for the future, bestowed alms on
him faithfully every day. By and by the bitch gave birth to a single
pup. The herdsman reserved the milk of one cow for the pup, and in
a short time the latter grew to bea fine big dog. The Private Bud-
dha fed him every day with his own hand, and the dog became so fond
of the Private Buddha that he performed all manner of services for
him. Some time later the Private Buddha took leave of the herdsman,
and setting his face towards Gandhamadana, soared into the air.
Thereupon the dog set up a howl of grief, and when the Private Bud-
dha passed out of sight, his heart broke, and he died. (Dogs, they
say, are straightforward ; men think one thing with their heart, but say
510 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY
another with their lips.) The dog was reborn in the world of the
Thirty-three with a retinue of a thousand celestial nymphs. (If you
ask, “Of what was this the consequence?” it was because he barked
so affectionately at the Private Buddha.) (171-3)
In consequence of having devoted himself to sensual pleasures, he
fell from the world of the Thirty-three, and was conceived in the womb
of a harlot of Kosambi. When the child was born, and the harlot
learned that it was a boy, she had him cast away on a dust-heap. A
man who happened to pass by took a fancy to the child, and saying to
himself, ‘‘I have gained a son,” took him home with him. (173-4)
That day there was a conjunction of the moon with a certain lunar
mansion ; and a treasurer of Kosambi, meeting an astrologer, asked
him what the sign betokened. ‘The astrologer said, “This day is born
in Kosambi a child who will become the principal treasurer of the
city.” It so happened that the treasurer’s wife was at that very time
great with child; and he immediately sent word to find out whether
she had been delivered or no. When the messenger brought back
word that she had not, the treasurer summoned a female slave and
said to her, ‘“‘ Here are a thousand pieces of money ; scour the city and
find a boy that was born to-day and bring him hither to me.” The
slave returned with the foundling. The treasurer thought to himself :
“Tf a daughter is born to me I will marry her to this boy and make
him treasurer ; but if a son is born to me, I will kill this boy.” <A few
days later his wife gave birth toa son. The treasurer then set about
to carry out his plan. (174-5)
(The reader will bear in mind that the adopted son of the treasurer
was none other than the harlot’s son who had been cast away on the
dust-heap, and that he must needs be cast away six times more in
consequence of the evil deed he committed when, in his existence as
Kotihalaka, he cast away his own son; that he must needs be rescued
through the effect of the merit he earned in his existence as a dog by
barking so affectionately at the Private Buddha; and that, inasmuch
as all the hosts of heaven and earth cannot interfere with the operation
of the law of cause and effect, the astrologer’s prophecy concerning ,
him was at last to be fulfilled. The boy’s name was Ghosaka.]
First the treasurer had Ghosaka laid at the door of the cattle-pen,
hoping that he would be trampled to death. But the bull stood over
him, allowing the cows to pass out on either side of him, and the herds-
man took him home. (175)
The treasurer recovered Ghosaka, and then had ἜΝ placed on the
caravan trail, expecting that he would either be trampled by the oxen,
or crushed by the wheels of the carts. But when the oxen saw the
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 511
boy, they stopped with one accord, and the whole caravan stood stock
still until its leader discovered what was the matter and rescued the
boy. (176)
Ghosaka was recovered by the treasurer, who then had him cast
away under a bush in the cemetery. Along came a goatherd with his
goats. ‘The goatherd’s suspicions were aroused by the peculiar actions
of a she-goat; whereupon he made an investigation, discovered the
boy, and rescued him. (176-7)
(thosaka was again recovered by the treasurer and thrown down a
precipice. He fell into a clump of bamboo, and a basket-maker rescued
him, (177)
In spite of the treasurer’s attempts on his life, Ghosaka lived and
thrived and grew to manhood. He was a thorn in the flesh of the
treasurer, who could not look him straight in the face. Finally the
treasurer resorted to desperate measures. He went to a potter, gave
him a thousand pieces of money, and said to him, “I have a job for
you.” “What isit?” “I have a base-born son; Ill send him to
you to-morrow ; get him into a room, take a sharp razor, cut him into
bits, and throw them into the chatty.” “Allright.” The next day
the treasurer said to Ghosaka, “ Go and tell the potter to finish up the
job I gave him yesterday.” “Very well,” said Ghosaka ; and started
out. When he had gone a little way, the treasurer’s own son, who
was playing ball with some other boys, stopped him and said to him,
“Where are yougoing?”” Ghosaka told him. “ Let’s change places,”
said the treasurer’s son ; “these boys have won a lot of money from me,
and you ’re such a good ball-player that you can easily win it back for
me.” So Ghosaka took his foster-brother’s place in the game, and the
treasurer’s own son carried his father’s message to the potter. That
night the despised Ghosaka returned home ; the treasurer’s son did not.
The treasurer cried out, “ Woe is me! ” and rushed to the potter, who
said to him, “‘ Master, make no noise; I have done the job.” The
wicked treasurer was overwhelmed with sorrow and grief at the thought
that he had shed innocent blood, even as Buddha says in Stanzas
137-140. (177-9)
The treasurer made one more attempt on Ghosaka’s life. He wrote
a letter to the superintendent of his estate, saying, “This is my base-
born son; kill him, and I will do what is right for you ;” pinned it to
the hem of Ghosaka’s clothing, and ordered Ghosaka, to carry it to the
superintendent. (The treasurer had never taught Ghosaka to read,
for he expected sooner or later to kill him.) When Ghosaka remarked
that he needed provisions for the journey, the treasurer said, ‘““Not at
all; in such and such a village lives a friend of mine who is a treasurer ;
512 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
he will give you something to eat.” When Ghosaka stopped at the
village treasurer’s house, the treasurer’s wife took a fancy to him, and
the daughter of the household fell madly in love with him. (It was
she that had been his wife in his former existence as Kotthalaka, and
it was through the merit she acquired by bestowing alms on the Private
Buddha that she was reborn as the treasurer’s daughter. No wonder
that her old passion for him returned!) When the treasurer’s daugh-
ter discovered that Ghosaka was carrying his death-warrant, she
secretly removed it and substituted another letter of her own compo-
sition, which read as follows: ‘This is my son Ghosaka. Bestow
treasure upon him; prepare for the festival of his marriage to the
daughter of the village treasurer; build him a splendid palace; and
provide him with a strong guard of soldiers. When you have so done,
send me word, saying, ‘I have done this and that.’” When the
superintendent read the letter he immediately did as he was told.
(180-182)
When the treasurer learned how miserably his last attempt had
failed, he cried out, “ What I would do, that I do not; what I would
not do, that I do,” sickened, and was soon at the point of death.
Ghosaka and his bride visited him in his last moments. Just as the
treasurer was about to die, he lifted up his voice, intending to say,
“These my treasures shall never be Ghosaka’s ;” but by a slip of the
tongue said instead, “These my treasures shall ever be Ghosaka’s.”
King Udena confirmed Ghosaka in his inheritance and made him the
principal treasurer of the city. When the treasurer Ghosaka learned
from his wife how narrow had been his escape from death, he resolved
to forsake the life of Heedlessness, and to live the life of Heedfulness,
and thereafter he dispensed a thousand pieces of money daily in alms
to the poor. (182-7)
le. Rise and Career of SAmavati.
At this time the treasurer Ghosaka learned from some merchants
who had lately returned from Bhaddavati that there lived in that city
a merchant of great wealth and high standing, named Bhaddavatiya ;
and desiring to be friends with him, Ghosaka sent him a present.
Bhaddavatiya returned the compliment; and thus, though they had
never seen each other, they became fast friends. A little later a pesti-
lence broke out in Bhaddavatiya’s city ; and the treasurer, taking his
wife and daughter, set out for Kosambi, intending to ask Ghosaka to
help them. After a hard journey they reached Kosambi, and secured
lodgings in a hall near the city gate. Bhaddavatiya told his wife that
Ghosaka was accustomed to dispense a thousand pieces of money daily
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 513
in alms to the poor, and suggested that they send their daughter to
him to procure food until they recovered sufficient strength to pay him
a visit. (187-8)
So it happened that the daughter of a wealthy house accompanied
poor folk to Ghosaka’s hall for alms. ‘“ How many portions will you
have?” “Three.” That night her father died. ‘“ How many portions
will you have?” “Two.” That night her mother died. ‘“ How
many portions will you have?” “One.” A householder named
Mitta, who remembered that she had taken more on the two previous
days, said to her, “I suppose that is all you can hold to-day.” This
cruel remark cut her to the quick, and she said, ‘“‘Sir, don’t think I
took more for myself; before we were three, yesterday two, to-day I am
left alone.” She then told him the whole story, whereupon he took
pity on her and adopted her as his oldest daughter. She rendered
such valuable assistance in the administration of the hall where Gho-
saka’s alms were distributed as to attract the attention of Ghosaka
himself, who, upon learning that she was the daughter of Bhadda-
vatiya, gave her a retinue of five hundred women and made her as his
own oldest daughter. One day King Udena saw her, fell in love with
her, and married her. She became one of his queen-consorts, and the
women of her retinue ladies-in-waiting. (188-191)
ld. Vasuladatta.
Another of Udena’s queen-consorts was Vasuladatta, daughter of
Candapajjota, king of Ujjeni. Udena gained possession of her in the
following way: (191-2)
One day King Candapajjota said to his ministers, “Is there any
other monarch so powerful asl am?” “Of course not,” said they ;
“but yet King Udena of Kosambi is pretty powerful.” ‘‘ Well then,
let’s take him prisoner.” “It can’t be done; he understands how to
charm elephants, and has more elephants at his disposal than any other
king.” “TI suppose it can’t be done.” ‘“ Well, if your heart is set on
doing it, you might try this stratagem: Have a wooden elephant
made, and send it out somewhere near him; he will go a long way
after a good mount, and you can take him prisoner as he approaches.”
“That is a stratagem!” (192)
Thereupon Candapajjota had a mechanical elephant made of wood,
and turned it loose where Udena would be sure to see it. It looked
exactly like a real elephant; moreover, it was fitted with mechanical
appliances worked from the inside, so that it moved hither and thither
just like a real elephant; its belly held sixty men, who worked the
mechanism, and every now and then dumped out a quantity of ele-
VOL, XLV. — 33
514 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
phant dung. Udena immediately mounted his elephant and started
out in pursuit. Candapajjota posted an ambuscade. Udena tried to
charm the wooden elephant by twanging his lute and uttering spells,
but the wooden elephant paid no attention to him, and only made off
faster than ever. Udena, unable to keep up with the wooden elephant,
mounted his horse, left his army behind, and started out alone.
‘Thereupon he was drawn into the ambuscade and captured. (192-3)
Candapajjota kept Udena in prison for three days, and then offered
to release him if Udena would divulge the charm. “1 will do so,”
said Udena, “provided you will pay me homage.” ‘That I will not
do,” replied Candapajjota ; “but will you divulge it to another, if the
other will pay you homage?” ‘ Yes.” ‘ Well then, there is a hunch-
backed woman in this house; I will have her sit inside a curtain ; you
remain outside and teach her the charm.” “Very well.” Canda-
pajjota then went to his daughter, the beautiful Princess Vasuladatta,
and said to her, “There is a leper who knows a priceless charm ; you
sit inside a curtain ; he will remain outside, and teach you the charm ;
then tell me what it is.” (Candapajjota employed this stratagem to
protect his daughter’s chastity.) (193-4)
One day Udena repeated the charm over and over again to Vasula-
datta, but the latter was unable to reproduce it correctly. ‘Thereupon
Udena lost his patience, and cried out, “ What’s the matter with you,
you thick-lipped hunchback?” Vasuladatta retorted angrily, “ How
dare you speak thus? do I look like a hunchback?” Udena raised
the curtain, and immediately they both knew why Candapajjota had
deceived them. Vasuladatta yielded her chastity to Udena ; and after
that there were no more lessons. ‘The king frequently asked his
daughter, “ How are you getting along with your lessons ?” and always
received the answer, “ Very well.” (194-5)
One day Udena said to Vasuladatta, “If you will save my life, I will
make you queen-consort and provide you with five hundred ladies-in-
waiting.” “ Very well,” replied Vasuladatta ; and she went and said to
her father, “ Father, in order that I may perfect myself in this charm,
it will be necessary for me to dig a certain medicinal root in the dead
of night at a time indicated by the stars; therefore please have one
door left open, and put an elephant at my disposal.” (195-6).
(Now King Candapajjota, in consequence of having bestowed alms
on a Private Buddha in a previous existence as a slave, was possessed
of the five conveyances: a female elephant, which could travel 50
leagues a day; a slave, who could travel 60 leagues ; two horses, 100
leagues ; and an elephant named Nalagiri, 120 leagues.) (196-8)
One day, when Candapajjota was absent, Udena filled several big
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 515
leather sacks with gold and silver, put them on the back of the female
elephant, assisted Vasuladatta to mount, and away they went. As
soon as Candapajjota learned what had happened, he sent out a force
in pursuit. Udena opened the sacks and scattered coins along the
route ; Candapajjota’s men delayed pursuit to pick them up; so Udena
easily escaped. It was thus that Vasuladatta came to be one of King
Udena’s queen-consorts. (198-9)
le. Magandiya.
Magandiya was another of Udena’s queen-consorts. She was the
daughter of a Brahman named Magandiya, who lived in the Kuru
country. Magandiya was the name of her mother, and she had an
uncle named Magandiya. She was as beautiful as a celestial nymph.
One after another the sons of the most prominent families presented
themselves as suitors for her hand ; but the Brahman refused them all,
telling them that they were not worthy of her. (199)
One day the Teacher, knowing that the Brahman and his wife were
capable of attaining the Fruit of the Third Path, went to the place
where the Brahman was tending the sacred fire. The Brahman was so
impressed with the majestic appearance of his visitor that he then and
there offered him his daughter in marriage. The Teacher said nothing.
The Brahman went home in great haste, told his wife that he had
found a husband for their daughter, caused the latter to be dressed in
gala attire, and then all three went to the Teacher. (199-200)
By this time the Teacher had moved away from the place of his in-
terview with the Brahman, leaving a foot-print. ‘ Where can he have
gone ?” said the Brahman ; and then, seeing the foot-print, he said to
his wife, “There is his foot-print.” Now the Brahman’s wife was well
versed in the Three Vedas; and after considering the foot-print, and
turning over in her mind the texts relating to foot-prints, she said,
“ Husband, that is not the foot-print of one who follows the Five Lusts.”
“ Hush, wife, you’re always seeing alligators in the water-vessel and
thieves hiding in the house.” ‘hen the Brahman saw the Teacher and
said, “There is the man.” The Brahman immediately went to him
and said, “I bestow my daughter upon you; cherish her tenderly.”
The Teacher replied, “ Brahman, I have something to say to you;”
and then told him that from the time of the Great Retirement to the
time of the Session under the Banyan-tree Mara had pursued him re-
lentlessly, only to be defeated at every point, that Mara’s daughters
had then tempted him in various forms without exciting in him the
lust of the flesh, and that nothing would induce him to touch the
maiden who stood before him with so much as the sole of his foot.
516 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Thereupon the Brahman and his wife were established in the Fruit of
the Third Path. Magandiya, however, cherished the most bitter
hatred of the Teacher ever after. (200-202)
The Brahman and his wife entrusted Magandiya to the care of her
uncle, who adorned her with all the adornments and presented her to
King Udena. The king immediately fell in love with her and married
her, making her queen-consort and giving her a retinue of five hundred
ladies-in-waiting. (202-203)
lf. Death of Samavati.
At this time there were living in Kosambi three treasurers, Ghosita,
Kukkuta, and Pavariya. At the beginning of the rainy season five
hundred monks returned from the Himalaya country and went about
the city collecting alms. The three treasurers saw them and provided
them with food during the four rainy months. When the rains were at
an end the monks took leave of their hosts and retired to Himalaya,
promising to return the following year. And this became an estab-
lished custom. Several years later, the monks on their return from
Himalaya teok up their abode in the forest under a gigantic banyan
tree. The oldest monk thought to himself: ‘This tree must be ten-
anted by a very powerful tree-spirit ; I wish he would give us some
water to drink ;” and immediately the spirit gave them water to drink.
Then the monk thought, “I wish he would give us some water to bathe
in;” and immediately the spirit gave them water to bathe in. Then
the monk thought of food, and there it was! ‘ Well!” said the monk,
“this spirit gives us everything we think of; let’s have a look at him.”
Immediately the tree split open, and out came the spirit. Said the
monks, “Spirit, you have great power; what did you do to get it?”
But it was a very modest spirit; and so said, “Don’t ask me.”
“Please tell.” After considerable urging, the spirit told his story.
(203-204)
It seems that the spirit had once been a servant of Anathapindika.
One fast-day Anathapindika, on learning that his servant had not been
told the significance of the day, ordered a meal to be prepared for him.
The servant observed that no one else was eating, learned why, and
followed suit. He then went out and did his day’s work, was taken
sick, and died that very night. ‘“ My master,” said the spirit, “ was
devoted to Buddha, the Law, and the Order ; and it was through him
and in consequence of the fast I observed that I was reborn as a tree-
spirit.” (204-206)
Thereupon the monks sought refuge in Buddha, the Law, and the
Order, and on the following day, after conferring with the three treas-
ee νυ π ρναν
—s
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 517
urers, visited the Teacher, attained Arahatship, and were admitted to
the Order. A little later Ghosita, Kukkuta, and Pavariya came to
the Teacher, bearing rich offerings, and were established in the Fruit
of Conversion. For two weeks the treasurers remained with the
Teacher, giving generously of their store, and then, after obtaining
the Teacher’s promise to visit them, returned to Kosambi. Here they
erected Ghosita, Kukkuta, and Pavariya monasteries, and here the
Teacher visited them, dividing his time equally among the three.
After the treasurers had entertained the Teacher for some time, their
gardener Sumana asked and received permission to entertain him for a
single day. (206-208)
Now at this time King Udena was in the habit of giving Queen
Samavati eight pieces of money every day to buy flowers with. ‘T'his
money the queen turned over to a female slave, Khujjuttara, who went
regularly to the gardener Sumana’s and bought flowers. On the day
appointed for the Teacher’s visit Sumana said to her: “To-day I ex-
pect to entertain the Teacher, and shall have use for my flowers ; wait
and listen to the Law, and then, if there are any flowers left, you may
have them.” Khujjuttara harkened to the Law, and was established
in the Fruit of Conversion. Now hitherto it had been Khujjuttara’s
practice to spend only four pieces of money on flowers, and to pocket
the rest. That day, however, she spent the entire amount on flowers,
and returned with so many that the queen’s curiosity was aroused, and
the whole story came out. From that time on Khujjuttara stole no
more ; but becoming as it were a mother to Samavati, went regularly
every day to hear the Teacher, and returned and preached the Law to
the queen and her retinue exactly as she had heard it. She soon
knew the Tipitaka so well as to win from the Teacher the title of
“‘Pre-eminent.” Queen Samavati and her retinue were established in
the Fruit of Conversion. (208-210)
One day Samavati expressed to Khujjuttara a desire to see the
Teacher. Khujjuttara said, “It’s a serious matter to live in a king’s
palace ; once in, you can’t get out.” The queen begged her to arrange
it in some way. Khujjuttara then told her to make holes in the walls
of the palace and to render homage to the Teacher from within.
Magandiya came to know of this. (210-211)
Now Magandiya had cherished the most bitter hatred of the Teacher
and his followers ever since the Teacher refused to marry her; and as
soon as she learned that Samavati and her attendants were making a
practice of rendering homage to the Teacher through holes in the walls
of the palace, she said to herself, “ I know what’s to be done to him ;
I know what’s to be done to them.” Thereupon Magandiya went to
518 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
King Udena and told him that Samavati was planning to kill him, and
had made holes in the walls of the palace for that purpose. ‘The king,
however, refused to believe her; and when he learned what the real
facts were, had the holes sealed up and windows made in the upper
storey. (Upper-storey windows came in at this time, we are told.)
(211)
Magandiya then determined to drive the Teacher out of the city,
and to this end employed ruffians to follow him about and heap abuse
upon him. Ananda proposed to the Teacher that they should go else-
where ; but this the 'l'eacher declined to do, and comparing himself to
an elephant engaged in the fray, pronounced Stanzas 320-322. After
seven days the uproar ceased; and Magandiya, perceiving that she
could do nothing against the Teacher, renewed her determination to
destroy the women who were his supporters. (211-213)
Magandiya then procured from her uncle eight live cocks and eight
dead cocks, and presented the live cocks to Udena, suggesting that he
ask Samavati to cook them for him. Udena did so, and Samavati re-
plied, “1 and my followers do not take life.” ‘“ Now,” said Magandiya,
“see whether she will cook them for the hermit Gotama.” Magandiya
then substituted the dead cocks for the live cocks, and Samavati imme-
diately obeyed directions. ‘See,” said Magandiya, “ they won't do it
for the like of you, but they'll do it readily enough for outsiders.”
The king, however, still refused to believe her. (213-215)
Now the king was accustomed to divide his time equally among his
three consorts, spending a week at a time in the apartment of each.
Magandiya, knowing that the king would go to Samavati’s apartment
on the following day, carrying with him, as was his custom, the lute
Allakappa had given him, procured a snake from her uncle and placed
it in the cavity of the lute, stopping the end of the lute with a bunch
of flowers. Then she said to him, “ Whose apartment do you visit to-
day?” The king told her. ‘Don’t do it,” said she; “last night I
had a bad dream, and I fear that something will happen to you.” But
the king went, just the same, and Magandiya, much against his wishes,
followed after. The king placed the lute beside his pillow and lay
down on the bed. Magandiya secretly removed the bunch of flowers
from the lute, and out came the snake. Magandiya screamed as if in
terror, and after reproaching the king for disregarding her warning,
turned to Samavati and her attendants and reviled them, saying,
“You wretched scoundrels, what do you hope to gain by killing your
most gracious sovereign?” The king was consumed with anger, and
now believed all that Magandiya had said. (215-216)
Samavati urged her attendants to remain true to the principles of
BURLINGAME, — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 519
their religion, and to cherish no bitter feelings toward the king or
Magandiya. The king took his bow, which required a thousand
soldiers to string, and shot a poisoned arrow at Samavati’s breast.
But so great was the power of Samavati’s love that the arrow turned
back and, as it were, penetrated the king’s heart. Thereupon the king
threw himself at Samavati’s feet and cried out, “ Be thou my refuge.”
Samavati replied, “In whom I have myself sought refuge, in him do
thou also seek refuge.” ‘Then the king sought refuge in Buddha and
thereafter was a most generous benefactor of the Order. (216-220)
Magandiya thought to herself: ‘‘ Everything I do turns out badly ;
what shall I do next?” Finally she resorted to the desperate expedi-
ent of directing her uncle to fire Samavati’s palace. Her uncle wrapped
the palace in cloths saturated with oil, barred the doors, set fire to the
building in several places at once, and Samavati and her five hundred
attendants perished in the flames. By devoting themselves to earnest
meditation on the element of pain, some of the victims obtained the
Fruit of Conversion, others the Fruit of the Second Path, still others
the Fruit of the Third Path. (According to a passage in the Udana,
the monks reported to the Teacher what had happened and questioned
him regarding the future state of the victims. The Teacher assured
them that none failed to obtain a suitable reward, and warned them
that all beings are constantly experiencing both happiness and misery.)
(220-222)
When the king learned what had happened, he was overwhelmed
with grief, and at once perceived that Magandiya was at the bottom of
it. But knowing that he could not intimidate the latter, he resorted
to artifice and said to his ministers, ‘‘ Now that Samavati is dead, I
can sleep in peace ; whoever did this deed must have loved me greatly.”
Magandiya overheard this remark and said triumphantly, “It was I”
“Well,” said the king, “I am delighted. Send for your relatives, and
I will reward you properly.” The king bestowed handsome presents
on Magandiya and her relatives ; whereupon many persons who were in
no way related to her came forward and claimed relationship. When
the king had caught them all, he had them subjected to excruciating
tortures and put to death. (222-4)
One day the Teacher overheard the monks remark that the cruel
death of Samavati and her attendants was undeserved. ‘“ Quite
right,” said the Teacher, “if you regard only this existence ; but their
sad end was the result of an evil deed committed in a previous exist-
ence ;” and he went on to tell them that in a previous existence Sama-
vati and her attendants had once attempted to burn a Private Buddha
to death. (224-5)
520 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Then the monks asked the Teacher: “How did Khujjuttaraé come
to be a hunchback? how did she become so wise? how did she obtain
the Fruit of Conversion? how did she come to be an errand-girl ?”
The Teacher told them that she became a hunchback through mocking
a Private Buddha, that she acquired wisdom by waiting on some
Private Buddhas, and the Fruit of Conversion by giving them her
bracelets, and that she became an errand-girl because she once asked a
nun to do a menial service for her. (225-7)
Again the monks asked the Teacher : ‘‘Samavati and her attendants
perished by fire and Magandiya and her kinsfolk by torture ; which of
these live and which of these are dead?” ‘The ‘Teacher replied :
“They that are heedless, though they live a hundred years, yet are
they dead ; they that are heedful, be they dead or alive, yet are they
alive. Magandiya, while she yet lived, was dead already ; Samavati
and her attendants, though they be dead, yet are they alive; the
heédful never die.” Then he pronounced Stanzas 21-23, at the conclu-
sion of which many were established in the Fruits. (227-231)
Book II. Story 2. Kumbhaghosaka.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 4 = 24,
A pestilence once broke out in Rajagaha and a certain treasurer and
his wife were attacked by the disease. Realizing that they were about
to die, they bade farewell to their son Kumbhaghosaka, directing him to
bury their treasure in the earth, flee for his life, and return later and
dig it up again. Kumbhaghosaka buried the treasure, fled to a jungle,
and after twelve years returned. No one recognized him; and this
made him fear that if he dug up the treasure, he might be subjected
to annoyance; therefore he decided to make his own living, and
obtained a position as a cart-driver. (231-2)
One day King Bimbisara heard the sound of Kumbhaghosaka’s voice,
and immediately exclaimed, “That is the voice of some richman.” A
female slave heard the remark, made an investigation, and reported to
the king that it was only a cart-driver. The king refused to believe
her ; whereupon she said, “ Give me a thousand pieces of money, and I
will make you master of his wealth.” The king complied with her
request. (232-3)
Now the female slave had a daughter whom she resolved to employ
in the accomplishment of her design. Accordingly she obtained. lodg-
ing for herself and her daughter in Kumbhaghosaka’s house, and con-
trived to seduce Kumbhaghosaka to violate her daughter. When she
had so far succeeded in her purpose, she contracted a marriage between
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 521
Kumbhaghosaka and her daughter, and Kumbhaghosaka was obliged
to dig up some of his money to defray the expenses of the wedding fes-
tivities. In this way the whole story came out; but the king, instead
of confiscating Kumbhaghosaka’s wealth, praised him for his industry,
confirmed him in his inheritance, and gave him his daughter in
marriage. (233-8)
When the Teacher heard this story, he commented on it and
pronounced Stanza 24, establishing many in the Fruits. (238-9)
Book II. Story 3. Little Roadling.29
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 5 = 25,
The daughter of a rich treasurer of Rajagaha yielded her chastity to
a slave, and fearing that she would be discovered, fled with her lover to
a distant place. When the time of her delivery was near at hand she
expressed a desire to return home ; but her lover, fearing to accompany
her, put her off from one day to another, until finally she took matters
into her own hands and started out alone. The pains of travail came
upon her by the way, and she was delivered of a son. Just then her
lover, who had learned her destination from the neighbors, arrived on
the scene, and found her quite willing to go back with him. As the
child had been born by the road, they agreed to call him Roadling.
After a time the same thing happened again, and ayain they called
the second child Roadling, distinguishing between the two by calling the
older “‘ Big Roadling,” and the younger “ Little Roadling.” (239-241)
One day Big Roadling heard some other boys talking about their
uncles and grandfathers, and said to his mother, “ Have n’t we any ?”
“Oh, yes!” said she; ‘‘ you have a grandfather who is a rich treasurer,
living at Rajagaha, and many other relatives there besides.” ‘ Why
don’t we go and see them?” The mother evaded the question, and
spoke of the matter to her husband. ‘ Why won’t you take the chil-
dren to their grandfather’s? You don’t suppose my parents are going
to eat you alive, do you?” “I should never dare to face them, but I
am willing to take them as far as the city.” “That will do; all I want
is to have them see their grandparents.” So all four started out for
Rajagaha, and when they reached the city, the mother sent word to
her parents that she had returned. Her parents refused to see her,
but sent her a sufficient sum of money for her support, and told her
that she might go with her husband and live wherever she desired.
The children, however, they consented to receive into their house ; and
29 Cf. Ja. i. 114-120. Rogers, pp. 61-71.
522 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
that is how Big Roadling and Little Roadling came to be brought up
in their grandfather’s house. (241-2)
Big Roadling used to accompany his grandfather to hear the Teacher
preach the Law, and one day told his grandfather that he would like
to become a monk. His grandfather was greatly delighted, and took
him to the Teacher, who received him as a monk, and somewhat later
professed him. After atime Big Roadling attained Arahatship, and
desiring to have his brother attain what he had attained, went to his
grandfather and asked permission to receive Little Roadling into the
Order. The grandfather readily gave his consent, and so Little
Roadling also became a monk. (242-4)
Now in a previous existence under the Buddha Kassapa, Little
Roadling had once made fun of a dullard monk ; and in consequence of
this act, he was now unable to master a single stanza in the course ot
four whole months. Big Roadling was so disgusted that he expelled
him from the monastery. Little Roadling, however, was greatly
attached to the religion of Buddha, and did not give up the monastic
life. (244)
One day Jivaka Komarabhacca went to Big Roadling and asked him,
“How many monks are there under the Teacher?” ‘Five hundred.”
“1 invite them all to take a meal with me to-morrow.” ‘“'The layman’
Little Roadling is a dullard ; I accept the invitation for everybody but
him.” When Little Roadling heard his brother speak thus, he decided
to give up the monastic life on the morrow. The ‘Teacher became
aware of his intention, led him into his own perfumed chamber, gave
him a piece of cloth, and said to him, “ Little Roadling, face towards
the East, rub this cloth, and say as you do so, ‘Removal of Impurity,
Removal of Impurity.’” The Teacher then went, accompanied by the
monks, to Jivaka’s house. (244-6)
After Little Roadling had rubbed the cloth for a time, he perceived
that it had become soiled, and a sense of the impermanence of things
came to him. At that moment an apparition of the Teacher appeared
before him and pronounced the Stanzas beginning with the words,
“Impurity is Lust . . . Impurity is Hatred . . . Impurity is Infatu-
ation.” At the conclusion of the Stanzas Little Roadling attained
Arahatship, acquired Four-fold Knowledge, and became a master of
the Three Pitakas. (This was because, in a former existence as a
king, he gained a sense of impermanence by contemplating a cloth
which had become soiled with the sweat of his brow.) (246-7)
When Jivaka offered the Water of Donation to the Teacher, the
latter placed his hand over the vessel, and said, ‘Are there no
monks in the monastery?” Big Roadling replied, “No, indeed.”
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 523
The Teacher said, “Yes, there are.” Jivaka sent a servant to
find out. At that moment Little Roadling, aware of what his
brother had said, exercised his supernatural power and filled the
Mango-grove with a thousand monks. Jivaka’s servant returned and
said, “The whole Mango-grove is full of monks.” The Teacher said
to him, ‘Go and tell Little Roadling to come hither.” The servant
went to the grove and called out, “Little Roadling, come hither.”
Thereupon the cry went up from a thousand throats, “Here I am!
Here lam!” The servant went back to the Teacher and said, “They
all say they ’re Little Roadling.” ‘‘ Well, then,” said the Teacher, “go
back and take by the hand the first one who says he’s Little Roadling,
and the rest will vanish.” ‘The servant did as he was told and soon
returned with his man. (247-8)
After the meal Little Roadling returned thanks, and the Teacher,
accompanied by the monks, withdrew. When the monks assembled in
the evening, they discussed Little Roadling’s expulsion from the mon-
astery and subsequent attainment of Arahatship, and were loud in
their praises of the Buddha. All of a sudden the Buddha appeared
in their midst and said to them, “This is not the first time Little
Roadling has shown himself a dullard ; aforetime, too, he was a dullard.
Nor is it the first time I have assisted him ; aforetime, too, I assisted
him, and by my assistance he attained no less success in the things of
this world than he has just attained in higher things.” “Tell us all
about it,” said the monks ; whereupon the ‘Teacher began the following
story of the past: (248-250)
The World-renowned Teacher, the Young Man, and the King of
Benares. A young man of Benares once went to 'l'akkasila and became
a pupil of a World-renowned Teacher. He was most faithful in the
performance of his duties as a pupil, but such a dullard was he that
after a long term of residence he was unable to repeat a single Stanza.
Finally he became discouraged, and went to his Teacher and told him
that he was going to give it up as a bad job and go back home. The
Teacher had by this time become much attached to his pupil by reason
of the latter’s dutifulness to him; so he took him to the forest and
taught him a charm, telling him that it would insure him a living, and
impressing it upon him that he must recite it over and over again to
avoid the possibility of forgetting it. And this is the way the charm
went : “ You’re at it, you’re at it; why are you at it? J know what
you re at.” When the young man had mastered the charm he
returned to Benares. (250-251)
It so happened just at this time that the King of Benares made a
careful examination of his thoughts, words, and deeds, for the purpose
524 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
of discovering in what particulars he might have failed. So far as he
could see, his conduct had been quite correct ; but then he reflected,
“A person never sees his own faults ; it takes another person to see
them.” Accordingly, he decided to find out just what was the candid
opinion of his subjects ; and after nightfall he put on a disguise, and
went about the streets eavesdropping. (251-2)
The first house the king came to was'that of the young man who had
just returned from lakkasila. The king observed that some robbers
were in the act of breaking into the house ; so he took his stand in the
shadow of the house and awaited developments. The robbers made
such a noise effecting an entrance that they woke up the young man;
whereupon the latter began to recite his charm: ‘“ You re at it, youre
at it; why are you at it? 7 know what you’re at.” The robbers ex-
claimed, “ We ’re discovered ; run for your lives!” dropped their spoils,
and fled. The next day the king sent for the young man, got him to
teach him the spell, and presented him with a thousand pieces of
money. (252-3)
That very day the Prime Minister went to the royal barber, presented
him with a thousand pieces of money, and said, “The next time you
go to shave the king, cut his throat with a razor; then you shall be
Prime Minister, and I shall become king.” “Agreed,” said the barber.
A day or two later the barber went in to shave the king; and as he
sharpened his razor, he said to himself, “One stroke, and it’s all done.”
Just at that moment the king began to recite the charm: “ You’re at
it, you re at it; why are you at it? J know what you’re at.” Beads
of sweat stood out on the forehead of the barber; he threw his razor
away in terror, and flung himself at the feet of the king. Now kings
know a thing or two; and the King of Benares immediately exclaimed,
“Villain, you thought I did n’t know.” ‘Sire, spare my life.” ‘ Have
no fear; only tell me the truth.” “It was the Prime Minister that
put me up to this.” Thereupon the king banished the Prime Minister,
and appointed in his place the young man who taught him the spell.
(253-4)
“At that time,” said the Teacher, “Little Roadling was the young
man, and I was the World-renowned Teacher. Aforetime, too, Little
Roadling was a dullard, and I helped him.” The Teacher closed his
discourse by telling the Calakasetthi Jataka and identifying the births.
On a later occasion the monks commented on Little Roadling’s deter-
mination never to give up; whereupon the Teacher assured them that
the highest rewards are within reach of the persevering disciple, and
pronounced Stanza 25, establishing many in the Fruits. (254-5)
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 525
Book II. Story 4. When Foolish Folk Made Holiday.
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 6-7 = 26-27.
On a certain occasion the foolish, ignorant people of Savatthi used
to smear themselves with cow-dung, and give themselves up to license
for a period of seven days. They went about the city insulting every-
body they met, even their own kinsmen, and persons devoted to the
religious life ; and would desist only on the payment of a forfeit. Dur-
ing this period of disorder the Teacher and the monks remained within
the walls of the monastery. When the noble disciples told him of the
insults to which they had been subjected, he expressed his disapproval
of the misconduct of the foolish folk, and pronounced Stanzas 26-27,
at the conclusion of which many were established in the Fruits.
(256-8)
Book II. Story 5. Kassapa the Great, Elder.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 8=28.
On a certain occasion, during the time when the Elder Kassapa was
living in Pipphali Cave, he went to Rajagaha to collect alms ; and after
he had eaten his meal, he sat down and endeavored to obtain by Su-
pernatural Vision a comprehension of Birth and Rebirth. The Teacher,
seated at Jetavana, exercised Supernatural Vision, and at once per-
ceived what Kassapa was about. “That is beyond your range, Kas-
sapa,” said he; “only a Buddha is able to comprehend the Totality of
Existences.” Then the Teacher sent forth an apparition of himself,
which went to Kassapa and pronounced Stanza 28. At the conclusion
of the Stanza, many were established in the Fruits. (258-260)
Book II. Story 6. The Two Brethren.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 9 = 29.
Two brethren obtained a subject of meditation from the Teacher,
and retired to the forest. One of them was heedful and zealous, and
in a short time attained Arahatship. The other was heedless and lazy.
When the two brethren returned to the Teacher, and the latter learned
how they had spent their time, he compared the zealous monk to a race-
horse and the lazy monk to a hack, and pronounced Stanza 29, estab-
lishing many in the Fruits. (260-263)
σι
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Book II. Story 7. Mahali’s Question.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 10 = 80.
One day a Licchavi prince named Mahili, who had heard the Sut-
tanta entitled Sakka’s Question recited by the Teacher, went to the
latter and asked him, “ Did you ever see Sakka?” ‘Oh, yes,” replied
the Teacher. ‘It must have been a counterfeit of Sakka,” returned
Mahali, “for it is a difficult matter to get a look at Sakka.” ‘‘ Never-
theless,” said the Teacher, “I am well acquainted with Sakka; and
what is more, I know all about the meritorious deeds by means of
which he rose to the lordship of the gods.” Then the Teacher enum-
erated Sakka’s meritorious deeds in his human existence as Magha.
“Tell me all about Magha,” said Mahali. ‘‘ Well, then, listen,” replied
the Teacher, and then told the following story of the past: (263-5)
Magha.30
Once upon a time a youth named Magha went about his native vil-
lage in the kingdom of Magadha doing all manner of good works ; and
in the course of time gathered others about him, until finally there
were thirty-three persons in the village keeping the Five Precepts and
doing works of merit. The village headman observed their actions,
and said to himself, “If these men would only drink strong drink and
do as other men do, I should get something out of it.” Accordingly
he said to them, ‘‘ What’s this you’re doing?” ‘Treading the Heavy-
enly Path.” ‘“That’s no occupation for householders ; why don’t you
eat fish and flesh, drink strong drink, and have a good time?” Magha
and his companions rejected his suggestion ; whereupon he determined
to destroy them, (265-7)
The village headman went to the king and told him that there was
a band of robbers in the village. The king immediately ordered them
to be trampled to death by elephants. But the elephants refused to go
near them. When this was reported to the king, he concluded that
there must be a reason for it; accordingly he had the thirty-three
youths summoned before him, told them the charge the village head-
man had brought against them, and listened to their story. The result
was that he begged their pardon for having so misunderstood them,
made the village headman their slave, gave them an elephant to ride
on, and placed the entire resources of the village at their disposal.
(267-8)
At this the youths rejoiced greatly and resolved to abound yet more
8 Cf. Ja. i. 199-206.
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 527
in good works. So they summoned a carpenter, and had him erect a
rest-house for the multitude at the junction of four highways. As
they had lost all desire for women, they would not allow women to
share in the work. (268-9)
Now there were four women living in Magha’s house, Joy, Thought-
ful, Goodness, and Wellborn. One day Goodness bribed the carpenter
to give her the chief share in the erection of the hall. The carpenter
made a pinnacle, cut this inscription on it, “This Hall is named for
Goodness,” wrapped the pinnacle in a cloth, and laid it aside. When
the hall was nearly completed, the carpenter said to his masters, ‘“ We
have forgotten something.” ‘“ What is it?” saidthey. ‘A pinnacle.”
“Let ’s get one.” “But it’s too late taseason the wood.” “Well,
what és to be done?” “Perhaps we might find one ready-made.”
The carpenter immediately procured the pinnacle he had made for
Goodness ; and thus Goodness obtained the chief share in the erec-
tion of the hall. (269-270)
The thirty-three youths prepared thirty-three wooden seats, and
entertained visitors handsomely, the elephant going out to meet each
arrival and performing the usual courtesies. Magha planted an Ebony-
tree near the hall, and under the tree set up a stone seat. Joy
provided a lotus tank, and Thoughtful a flower garden. Wellborn,
thinking that it was a sufficient distinction to be a cousin of Magha,
did nothing but adorn herself. Magha, having fulfilled the Seven
Injunctions, was at the end of his allotted term of life reborn in the
world of the Thirty-three as Sakka, king of the gods; Magha’s com-
panions were also reborn there, as was also the carpenter, who became
Vissakamma. (270-272)
Now at this time there were Asuras dwelling in the world of the
Thirty-three ; and when they became aware that some entirely new
gods had been born in their midst, they prepared strong drink to wel-
come them. Sakka forbade his companions to touch it, and they
obeyed him; but the Asuras got very drunk. Then Sakka gave the
signal, and his companions picked up the Asuras by the heels, and
flung them down into the abyss. Thereupon there sprang up at the
foot of Mount Sineru the Palace of the Asuras and the Tree that is
called Pied Trumpet-flower. And when the conflict between the Gods
and the Asuras was over, and the Asuras had been defeated, there
sprang into existence the City of the Thirty-three, crowned with a
magnificent palace called the Palace of Victory. A Coral-tree sprang
up to correspond with the Ebony-tree Magha had planted, and at the
foot thereof, to correspond with the stone seat he had set up, stood
Sakka’s Yellowstone Throne. The elephant was reborn as the god
528 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Eravana ; since there are no animals in the world of the Thirty-three,
whenever Eravana wished to go into the garden to play, he would lay
aside his godhead and become an elephant for the time being. Eravana
created gigantic water-pots for each member of Sakka’s retinue.
Each vessel held seven tusks; each tusk, seven tanks ; each tank,
seven lotus plants; each plant, seven flowers; each flower, seven
leaves ; each leaf, seven celestial nymphs, who danced unceasingly.
For Sakka he created a water-pot much larger than the others. Above
hung a canopy with a fringe of bells whose sound was as the music of
the celestial choir. Beneath it was a jewelled couch, where Sakka
reclined in state. Such was the splendor in the enjoyment of which
Sakka lived. (272-4)
When Goodness, Joy, and Thoughtful died, they were reborn in the
world of the Thirty-three ; and through the effect of their respective
benefactions there arose a mansion named Goodness, a lotus tank
named Joy, and a creeper-grove named Thoughtful. When Wellborn
died, she was reborn as a crane in a mountain cave. (274-5)
Sakka surveyed his handmaidens, and desiring that Wellborn should
be reborn as one of them, went to her in disguise, conducted her to the
world of the Thirty-three, let her see her friends, and assured her that
she could attain equal happiness by keeping the Five Precepts. ‘This
she promised to do. After a few days Sakka, desiring to test her
sincerity, lay down on the sand in the form of a fish. The crane,
thinking that it was dead, seized it in her beak. Just as she was
about to swallow it, it wiggled its tail, whereupon the crane dropped it.
Three times Sakka tried this stratagem, and three times the crane, dis-
covering that the fish was alive, refused to eat it. Then Sakka re-
sumed his proper form, praised the crane, and departed. (275-7)
At the end of her existence as a crane, Wellborn was reborn at
Benares as the daughter of a potter. Sakka disguised himself as a
peddler, filled a cart with precious jewels disguised as cucumbers, went
to the city, and cried out, “ Cucumbers in exchange for Five Precepts.”
The inhabitants of the city brought kidney-beans, and when the peddler
refused them, they said, “ What are these ‘precepts’ like? are they
black or brown?” ‘ Neither,’ said the peddler. “Oh,” said they,
“we have heard a potter's daughter say, ‘I keep the precepts ;’ you
might try her.” So Sakka went to the potter's daughter, revealed
himself to her, gave her the jewels, praised her, and departed. (277-8)
At the end of her existence as a potter’s daughter, Wellborn was
reborn in the world of the Asuras as the daughter of Vepacitti, king of
the Asuras, a bitter enemy of Sakka. One day Vepacitti assembled all
the hosts of the Asuras, and giving his daughter a wreath of flowers,
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 529
directed her to choose a husband. At that moment Sakka, disguised
as an aged Asura, sat down in the outer fringe of the assembly. The
maiden immediately threw the wreath of flowers over his head and
chose him for her husband. He took her by the hand, shouted out,
“1 am Sakka,” and flew up into the air. The Asuras cried out, “We
have been fooled by old Sakka,” and started up in pursuit. (278-9)
Sakka’s charioteer, Matali, brought up the chariot Victory, and Sakka,
after assisting Wellborn to mount, set out for the city of the gods.
When they reached the Forest of the Silk-cotton Trees, the fledglings
of the Garula birds, fearing that they were going to be crushed to
death, shrieked aloud ; whereupon Sakka said to his charioteer, “ Let
not these creatures perish on my account; turn back the chariot.”
At this the Asuras concluded that reinforcements must have come up, -
and abandoned the pursuit. Sakka bore Wellborn to the city of the
gods and made her chief among twenty-five millions of celestial
nymphs. ‘Thereafter, when the Asuras made preparations to attack
Sakka, the latter placed at the gates of his city images of Indra bear-
ing the thunderbolt. When the Asuras saw the images, they invariably
concluded that Sakka was no longer there, and departed. (279-280)
The Teacher extolled Magha’s earnestness, and pronounced Stanza
30, at the conclusion of which Mahali was established in the Fruit of
Conversion, and many others were established in the Three Fruits.
(280-281)
BookII. Story 8. A Certain Monk.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 11=381l. «
A certain monk had the Teacher instruct him in the ascetic practices
which lead to Arahatship, and retired to the forest to meditate. In
spite of his best efforts, he was unable to attain Arahatship ; therefore
he decided to return to the Teacher and ask him to assign him a
specific subject of meditation. On the way he caught sight of a forest
fire ; whereupon he hastily climbed a bare mountain, and as he watched
the fire, concentrated his mind on the following thought: “ As this
fire goes its way consuming all obstacles both great and small, so also
ought I to go, consuming all obstacles both great and small with the
fire of knowledge of the Noble Path.” (281-2)
As the Teacher sat in his Perfumed Chamber, he became aware of
what the monk was doing, and sent forth an apparition of himself,
which went to the monk and pronounced Stanza 31. At the conclu-
sion of the Stanza, the monk attained Arahatship. (282-3)
VOL. xLv.— 34
530 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Book II. Story 9. Tissa of the Market Town, Elder.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 12=32.
A certain noble youth who was born and brought up in a market
town not far from Savatthi, was received into the Order by the
Teacher, and was thereafter known as Tissa of the Market Town,
Elder. He wanted little, was satisfied with what he had, and lived
an active, blameless life. All his life long he remained within the
borders of his native village, in spite of the fact that in near-by
Savatthi, Pasenadi Kosala, Anathapindika, and others were bestowing
alms, the like of which had never been seen before. One day the
Teacher sent for him, and said to him, “ Monk, it is no wonder that
you, who have such a one as I am for your Master, should want little.”
When the other monks asked the Teacher to explain himself, the
latter told them the following story of the past : (283-4)
Sakka and the Parrot.3! Once upon a time a great many parrots
lived in a grove of fig-trees in the Himalaya country. The king-parrot,
when the fruit of the tree in which he lived had come to an end, ate
whatever he could find, drank the water of the Ganges, and being very
happy and contented, stayed where he was. In fact, he was so happy and
contented that the abode of Sakka began to shake. Thereupon Sakka
decided to put him to the test, and by his supernatural power withered
up the tree. When Sakka perceived that this made no difference at
all to the parrot, he decided to give the parrot his choice of a boon ;
whereupon, taking the form of a royal goose, and preceded by Well-
born in the form a an Asura nymph, he went to the parrot and asked
him why his heart delighted in a tree that was withered and rotten.
(This story is identical with the Mahasuka Jataka, which will be found
in the Tenth Nipata ;32 only the setting is different. The Jataka goes
on to say that the parrot replied, “This tree has been good to me in
the past; why should I forsake it now?” Thereupon Sakka caused
the tree to bloom anew, and to bear ambrosial fruit.) (284-5)
“ At that time,” said the Teacher, “ Ananda was Sakka, and I was
the parrot. It is no wonder that Tissa wants little, having found a
Teacher like me.” Then he pronounced Stanza 32, at the end of which
Tissa attained Arahatship, and many others were established in the
Fruits. (285-6)
31 Cf. Ja. iii. 491-4.
Ἢ 32 Norman calls attention to the fact that it actually occurs in the Ninth
ipata.
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 501
Book III. Story 1. Meghiya, Elder.
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 1-2 = 33-34. ἢ
According to a story, the details of which will be found in the Sut-
tanta entitled Meghiya, the Elder Meghiya made little progress in
wrestling with the flesh until the Teacher impressed upon him the im-
portance of bringing the thoughts into subjection, by pronouncing
Stanzas 33-34; whereupon Meghiya was established in the Fruit of
Conversion, and many others in the Three Fruits. (287-9)
Book III. Story 2. A Certain Monk.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 3 = 35.
Seventy monks once had the Teacher instruct them in the ascetic
practices which led to Arahatship, and went to a certain village named
Matika in the kingdom of Kosala to collect alms. A lay sister, mother
of the owner of the village, offered them hospitality, and provided
them with food and lodging during the three rainy months. At her
request the monks instructed her in the ascetic practices, which she
performed with such diligence that in advance of her instructors she
attained the Three Paths and Fruits and the Supernatural Faculties.
As she was thus enabled to know the precise needs of the monks,
thereafter she ministered to them so successfully that in a short time
they too attained Arahatship. At the close of the rainy season they
took leave of their hostess and returned to the Teacher. When the
latter remarked, “ You look as if you had fared well,” the monks
replied, “ We did, indeed ; our hostess knew the secret desires of our
hearts, insomuch that no sooner did we think of our needs than she
immediately supplied them.” (290-293)
A certain monk heard this and was immediately seized with a desire
to enjoy so pleasant an experience. Accordingly he had the Teacher
instruct him in the ascetic practices, went to the house of the lay
sister, and accepted her offer of food and lodging. He found every-
thing exactly as the monks had represented it. But then the thought
occurred to him, “If I should entertain a sinful thought, she would
doubtless seize me by the top-knot, and treat me as people treat
thieves; I had best get away from here.” So he returned to the
Teacher and told the latter what had made him change his plans.
The Teacher admonished him to control his thoughts, pronounced
Stanza 35, thereby establishing many in the Fruits, and sent the monk
back to the house of the lay sister. The latter ministered to the needs
of the monk so successfully that in a short time he attained Arahat-
532 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
ship. One day, while the monk was experiencing the bliss of the Path
and the Fruit, he was filled with gratitude towards the lay sister, and
became curious to know whether she had befriended him in previous
existences. So he called up before his mind ninety-nine previous ex-
istences, and to his horror perceived that in each of these existences
she had murdered him. ‘‘Oh, what a sinner she has been!” thought
he. At the same moment the lay sister, sitting in her own chamber,
became aware of what was passing through his mind. “Call up one
more existence,” said she. By the power of Supernatural Audition the
monk immediately heard what she said ; whereupon he called up before
his mind the hundredth existence, and perceived that in that existence
she had spared his life. Then he rejoiced greatly, and straightway
passed into Nibbana, (293-7)
Book III. Story 3. A Certain Discontented Monk.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 4 = 36.
The son of a certain treasurer of Savatthi performed the duties of
a layman so faithfully as to win the appellation “ Faithful.” But after
he had become a monk he grew discontented over the multitudinous
duties imposed upon him, and said so to the T'eacher. The latter
replied, “You have only one duty to perform; and that is to guard
your thoughts ; if you do that, you have done all.” he Teacher then
pronounced Stanza 36, at the conclusion of which the discontented
monk was established in the Fruit of Conversion, and many others
were established in the Three Fruits. (297-300)
Book III. Story 4. Sangharakkhita’s Nephew, Elder.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 5 = 37.
A certain noble youth of Savatthi retired from the world, was ad-
mitted to the Order, and in a short time attained Arahatship. His
name was Sahgharakkhita. About this time a son was born to his
youngest sister and named after him. When Saigharakkhita’s nephew
reached the age of manhood, he followed his uncle’s example and
entered the Order. At the beginning of the rainy season the younger
monk procured two sets of monastic robes, intending to present one of
them to his uncle, and for this purpose set out for his uncle’s quarters.
When he arrived at his destination, he discovered that the older monk
had not yet returned ; so he swept the place carefully, procured water
for washing the feet, prepared a seat, and sat down, awaiting his uncle’s
return. When he saw his uncle coming he went out to meet him, took
his bowl and robe, seated him, fanned him with a palm-leaf fan, gave
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 533
him water to drink, washed his feet, brought him the set of robes he
had procured for him, formally presented them to him, and then, taking
the palm-leaf fan into his hands, resumed fanning him. Said the older
monk, “‘ Nephew, I have a complete set of robes ; use these yourself.”
The younger monk pleaded with his uncle to reconsider his answer, but
the older monk remained obdurate. ‘The younger monk was so bitterly
disappointed that he then and there decided to give up the monastic
life and return to the life of a householder. So as he stood there beside
the older monk, swinging the palm-leaf fan to and fro, he pondered in
his mind ways and means of earning a living. Finally the following
thought occurred to him: (300-302)
“T will sell this set of robes, and buy me a ewe ; ewes are very pro-
lific ; every lambkin the ewe drops [1 will sell; in this way I shall be
able to accumulate a lot of money. When I have done that, I will
procure me a wife. She will bear mea son, whom I will name after
my uncle. I will put myson in a go-cart, and taking son and wife
along, go and pay my respects to my uncle. As I journey by the way
I will say to my wife, ‘Just hand me my son; I wish to carry him.’
She will reply, ‘ What ’s the need of your carrying the boy? go ahead
and push this go-cart ;’ then she will take the boy into her arms and
say, “111 carry him myself ;’ whereupon, finding the child too heavy
for her, she will let him fall. Then I will say to her, ‘You would n’t
let me carry the child, in spite of the fact that you could n’t carry him
_ yourself ;’ and having thus said, I will bring down my stick on her
back” . . . At that moment the younger monk swung his fan with
great force, and brought it down on the head of his uncle.33
(302-303)
The older monk considered within himself, “ Why did my nephew
strike me on the head?” and immediately became aware of what was
passing through his nephew’s mind. So he said, “ Nephew, you did n’t
succeed in hitting the woman; but why should an aged Elder suffer
for it?” The younger monk was so ashamed of himself that he
immediately threw his fan away and started to run off. But the
novices and young monks ran after him, caught him, and brought him
before the Teacher, who said to him, “Be not disturbed ; only guard
your thoughts hereafter,” and pronounced Stanza 37, establishing the
young monk in the Fruit of Conversion, and many others in the Three
Fruits. (303-305)
. 33 Compare the story of the Brahman and his Jar, in the Pajicatantra,
Hertel’s ed., v. 7.
534 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Book III. Story 5. Cittahattha, Elder.2*
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 6-7 = 38-39.
A noble youth of Savatthi once became a monk for no other reason
than to obtain an easy livelihood. After a few days he tired of the
monastic life and returned to the world. Six times he became a monk,
and as many times returned to the life of a householder ; wherefore his
brethren called him Cittahattha (Thought-controlled). In the mean-
time his wife became great with child. Once more he decided to
become a monk, and entered the inner chamber of his house to pro-
cure his yellow robe. ‘here on the bed lay his wife asleep. Her
garments were in disarray, saliva was flowing from her mouth, she was
snoring, her mouth was wide open. Her appearance reminded him of
a bloated corpse. At that moment he obtained a sense of imperma-
nence, and taking the yellow robe, left the house and went to the
monastery. A short time after this, his seventh reception into the
Order, he attained Arahatship. The Teacher, contrasting Cittahattha’s
former and latter states, pronounced Stanzas 38-39. The monks said,
“How could a youth destined to Arahatship abandon the monastic
life six times?” ‘Easily enough,” said the Teacher ; “1 did the same
thing myself.” Then he told the following story of the past : (305-311),
Kuddala and his Spade. Once upon a time, when Brahmadatta
reigned at Benares, a Pandit named Kuddala was admitted to a cer-
tain heretical Order, but after a few months renounced the monastic
life, all because of his attachment for a blunt spade with which he used
to till the ground. ‘This happened six times. Finally Kuddala made
up his mind to put temptation out of his way ; so he took the spade to
the bank of the Ganges, closed his eyes, and threw it into the water.
As he did so he shouted as loud as he could, “I have conquered!”
At that moment along came the King of Benares, returning from a
successful expedition. When the King heard Kuddala’s exclamation
of victory, he went up to him and asked him what he meant by it.
Kuddala replied, “Those whom you have conquered will have to be
conquered again; but I have conquered myself for good and all.” At
that moment Kuddala attained Specific Attainment by gazing on the
water; whereupon he sat cross-legged in the air and instructed the
king in the Law. ‘The King of Benares then and there retired from
the world with all his followers, and shortly afterwards his royal enemy
followed his example. (311-313)
‘At that time,” said the Teacher, “I was the Pandit Kuddala.”
(313)
34 Cf. Ja. i. 311-318.
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 535
Book III. Story 6. How Five Hundred Monks Attained Insight.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 8=40.
Five hundred monks once had the Teacher instruct them in the
ascetic practices that lead to Arahatship, and retired to a certain
forest. In this forest lived a great many powerful tree-spirits, who took
a dislike to the monks and determined to get rid of them. Accord-
ingly the spirits caused the monks to see bodiless heads and headless
trunks, to hear the voices of demons, and to catch all manner of
diseases. After a time the monks returned to the T'eacher and related
their experiences. “I will provide you with a weapon,” said he;
whereupon he rehearsed the Sutta entitled Metta, and told them to
return to the forest and do the same. When they did so, the hearts
of the spirits were suffused with love, and the monks quickly attained
Insight. The Buddha, seated in his Perfumed Chamber, became aware
of what had happened in the forest, and sent forth an apparition of
himself, which went to the monks and pronounced Stanza 40. At the
conclusion of the Stanza the five hundred monks attained Arahatship,
and returned, praising the golden body of the Teacher. (313-318)
Book III. Story 7. Tissa of the Diseased Body, Elder.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 9=41.
A noble youth of Savatthi once became a monk and was thereafter
known as lissa. As time went on, he was attacked by boils, and his
condition grew steadily worse until finally his brethren, unable to do
anything for him, abandoned him and left him to his fate. Now the
Buddhas are wont, twice a day, to survey the world ; at early dawn, from
the Rim of the World to the Perfumed Chamber ; and in the evening,
from the Perfumed Chamber to the outer world. One evening, accord-
ingly, as the Tathagata surveyed the world, Tissa of the Diseased
Body appeared within the net of his knowledge. He immediately
went to him, and, assisted by the monks, bathed him with warm water,
alleviating his suffermgs. Then the Teacher pronounced Stanza 41, at
the conclusion of which Tissa attained Arahatship and passed into
Nibbana, and many of the bystanders were established in the Three
Fruits. When the monks expressed. surprise that a noble youth
destined to attain Arahatship should have been visited with such an
affliction, the Teacher told them that it was no more than he deserved,
and related the following story of the past: (319-321)
The Cruel Fowler. In the dispensation of the Buddha Kassapa,
*“Tissa was a fowler. In order that the birds he caught might not be
536 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
able to escape, he was in the habit of breaking their legs and wing-
bones and throwing them all together in a heap. ‘This was the cause
of his suffering in a later existence. One day, however, he bestowed
alms on a monk, saying, ‘May I obtain the highest Fruits of the
religion you profess.” In consequence of this meritorious deed he
was enabled to attain Arahatship in a later existence. (822)
Book III. Story 8 Nanda the Herdsman.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 10 = 42.
Nanda was a herdsman of Anathapindika. One day he went to his
master’s house to listen to the Teacher and was established in the
Fruit of Conversion. He entertained the Teacher for seven days, and
when the latter departed, accompanied him on his way for a consider-
able distance, and finally bidding him farewell, turned back. He had
not gone far when he was shot and killed by the stray arrow of a
hunter. The monks reported the incident to the Teacher, and re-
marked that if the latter had not gone to visit Nanda, Nanda would
not have died. ‘“‘ You are greatly mistaken,” said the Teacher ; “there
is no such thing as escape from death.” Then the Teacher solemnly
warned them that ill-regulated thoughts do a man much more harm
than external enemies, and pronounced Stanza 42, at the conclusion
of which many were established in the Fruits. (No one asked the
Teacher about Nanda’s deed in a previous existence; therefore the
Teacher said nothing about it.) (322-5)
Book III. Story 9. Soreyya, Elder.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 11 = 43.
When the Teacher was in residence at Savatthi, there was a treas-
urer’s son named Soreyya living in the city of Soreyya. One day,
accompanied by a friend, he entered a splendid carriage, and, surrounded
by a considerable retinue, drove out of the city for a dip in the swim-
ming-pool. As they passed out of the city gate Soreyya caught sight
of the Elder Maha Kaccayana in the act of putting on his monastic
robes. The golden hue of the Elder’s body attracted the attention of
Soreyya, who immediately exclaimed, “ Would that this Elder were
my wife; or else that the hue of my wife’s body were like the hue of
his body.” In consequence of this wicked wish Soreyya was instantly
transformed into a woman. Soreyya, much embarrassed, immediately
left the carriage, joined a caravan-train bound for Takkasila and was
eventually married to the son of a treasurer of that city, becoming the
mother of two sons. (325-7) ;
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 537
(There are no men who have not been women at some time or other ;
and no women who have not, at some time or other, been men. For
example, men who commit adultery endure punishment in hell for a
hundred thousand years, and on returning to human estate at the end
of that period, have to spend a hundred existences as women. Even
the Elder Ananda, who fulfilled the Perfections for a space of a hun-
dred thousand cycles of time, once committed adultery in an existence
as a blacksmith, and as a result was obliged to spend fourteen exis-
tences as a woman, and seven existences more before the effect of his
evil deed was completely exhausted. Women may obtain rebirth as
men by such works of merit as almsgiving, ready obedience to their
husbands, and so on.) (327)
So Soreyya, who, as a treasurer of Soreyya, was already the father
of two sons, became, as the wife of a treasurer of Takkasila, the mother
of two more, making four children in all. Now just at this time,
Soreyya’s carriage-companion paid a visit to Takkasila; and Soreyya,
who happened to see him from the window, invited him to the house
and entertained him handsomely. ‘“ Madam,” said the guest, “I never
saw you before; why is it that you have been so kind to me? do you
know me?” Soreyya then told him the whole story. ‘Oh,’ said the
guest, “it is easy enough to remedy all this; the Elder Maha Kac-
cayana lives near by; just beg his pardon, and everything will be
all right again.” Soreyya did so, and immediately became a man
again. Maha Kaccayana admitted him to the Order, and Soreyya,
after committing his two youngest sons to the care of the treasurer of
Takkasila, went back to Savatthi with Maha Kaccayana. (327-330)
When the natives learned what had happened, they were much ex-
cited, and went to Soreyya and said, “This is a strange state of affairs ;
you are the mother of two sons, and the father of two more; which
pair of children have you the stronger affection for?” Soreyya replied,
“For the pair of which I am the mother.” After a time Soreyya
attained Arahatship. The next time he was asked this question he
replied, “ My affection is set nowhere.” When Soreyya’s latest reply
was reported to the Teacher, the latter remarked that Soreyya, having
now obtained mastery over his thoughts, was accomplishing for others
what neither father nor mother had power to accomplish. The Teacher
then pronounced Stanza 43, at the conclusion of which many were
established in the Fruits. (330-332)
538 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Book IV. Story 1. The Monks who talked about tilling the Soil.
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 1-2 = 44-45.
One evening five hundred monks who had accompanied the Teacher
on his rounds began to talk about the varieties of soil they had seen.
The Teacher told them that they might better be occupied with
tilling’ the soil of their hearts, and pronounced Stanzas 44-45,
at the end of which all five hundred monks attained Arahatship.
(333-5)
Book IV. Story 2. The Elder who contemplated a Mirage.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 3 = 46.
A certain monk who had made little progress in the practice of
meditation once saw a mirage. He immediately concentrated his
mind upon the following thought: “Just as this mirage appears sub-
stantial to those that are far off, but vanishes on nearer approach, so
also is this existence.” Then, seeing a waterfall, he thought, “Just
as this spray is dissipated and no more seen, so also is this existence.”
The Teacher, sitting in his Perfumed Chamber, became aware of the
monk’s Attainment, and pronounced Stanza 46; whereupon the monk
attained Arahatship and returned, praising the golden body of the
Teacher. (335-7)
Book IV. Story 3. Vidiidabha.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 4 = 47.
At Savatthi, lived Prince Pasenadi, son of the King of the Kosalans ;
at Vesali, a prince of the Licchavi line, named Mahali; at Kusinara,
Prince Bandhula, son of the King of the Mallas. ‘These three princes
resorted to a world-renowned teacher at T'akkasila for instruction, and,
chancing to meet in a hall outside of the city, became warm friends.
After acquiring the various branches of learning, they took leave of
their teacher, departed together, and went to their several homes.
Pasenadi’s father was so pleased with his son’s attainments that he
made him king. Mahali devoted himself to the task of educating the
Licchavi princes, but over-exerting himself, lost the sight of his eyes ;
whereupon the princes erected a gate for him, and ever afterwards
remained his most devoted and loyal pupils. Bandhula received a
slight at the hands of the Malla princes, which made him so angry
that he determined to kill them and seize the throne. When he in-
formed his mother and father of his plan, they told him that it was
bound to fail, inasmuch as the kingdom of the Mallas was an heredi-
a ...
BURLINGAME.—BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 539
tary kingdom. ‘Thereupon he decided to go to Savatthi and live with
his friend Pasenadi. King Pasenadi received him with distinguished
honors, and made him Commander-in-chief of his army. Bandhula
sent word to his mother and father to come and live with him, and
they did so. (337-9)
One day King Pasenadi saw from his terrace a great company of
monks passing along the street. ‘‘ Where are they going?” said he.
One of his retinue replied, ‘‘Sire, every day two thousand monks go
to the house of Andthapindika to obtain food, medicine, and the other
requisites ; five hundred, to Cala Anathapindika’s ; a like number to
Visakha’s and to Suppavasa’s.” “I, too, will serve the Congregation
of Monks,” thought the king; and immediately went to the ‘Teacher
and asked to be allowed the privilege. For seven days the king enter-
tained Buddha and the monks, and when he bade farewell to the
Teacher, he invited the latter to come regularly to his house thereafter.
The Teacher declined the invitation, however, on the ground that
many other persons desired his presence, and sent Ananda in his
place. For seven days the king served Ananda and the monks in
person ; during the three following days he was so remiss in the per-
formance of his duty to the monks that the latter dropped off, one by
one, until finally Ananda was the only one left. The king was so
provoked at the conduct of the monks that he went to the Teacher
and complained. ‘The Teacher exonerated the monks from blame, and
told the king that the monks lacked confidence in him. (339-341)
“«Α family must possess nine distinctive marks,” said the Teacher,
“to be entitled to the privilege of entertaining monks. They must
rise courteously to meet them ; greet them pleasantly ; seat them com-
fortably ; conceal not what they possess ; possessing much, give much ;
possessing good things, give good things ; present their offerings with
deference ; sit to hear the Law; speak in an agreeable tone of voice.
It was doubtless because you failed in your duty to the monks that
they left your house. Just so the wise men of old time went to a
place where they felt secure.” The Teacher then told the following
story of the past : (341-2)
Kesava, Kappa, Narada, and the King of Benares.34 Once upona
time, when Brahmadatta reigned at Benares, a hermit named Kesava,
accompanied by his following, accepted the offer of the King to enter-
tain them during the rainy season. ‘he monks were so annoyed by
the cries of elephants, however, that they dropped off, one by one, un-
til finally Kesava was left alone with his faithful pupil Kappa. After -
84 Cf Ja. ili, 142-145.
540 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
a time even Kappa was unable to stand the noise any longer, and left
his master. ‘Thereupon Kesava fell sick, and begged the King to send
him back to his followers. ‘The King immediately did so, sending
Narada and three other ministers with him. As soon as Kesava was
restored to his companions he recovered his health, and was soon well
and happy. When Narada asked him how he liked a hermit’s fare
after enjoying the hospitality of a king, Kesava replied that he was
now completely happy since, after all, a sense of security and confi-
dence was the main thing. (342-4)
“ At that time,” said the Teacher, “the King was Moggallina ;
Narada was Sariputta ; the pupil Kappa was Ananda ; while the hermit
Kesava was I myself.” (344-5)
Thereupon King Pasenadi bethought himself how he might regain
the confidence of the monks, and concluded that the best way would
be to take to himself as wife the daughter of some kinsman of the
Buddha. Accordingly he sent ambassadors to the Sakyans, request-
ing one of their daughters in marriage. The King of the Sakyans,
fearing that he would incur the enmity of King Pasenadi by refusing
his request, put the matter before his nobles. Mahanama said, “I
have a daughter by one of my slave-women, and she is very beauti-
ful ; why not send her?” Accordingly the King of the Sakyans sent
Mahanama’s daughter to King Pasenadi, and the latter married her.
Her name was Vasabhakhattiya. (845-6)
In due time Vasabhakhattiya became the mother of ason. Pasenadi
sent to his grandmother, asking her to give the child a name. She
selected the name Vallabha (Beloved); but the messenger, being a
little deaf, understood her to say Vidudabha, and so reported to the
King of Kosala. Accordingly the child was named Vididabha. When
Vididabha was seven years old, he said to his mother, ‘ Mother, the
other boys get presents from their maternal grandfathers ; why is it
that I don’t get any? haven’t you any mother or father?” “Oh,
yes!” said she; “ your grandparents are Sakyan kings ; but they live
a long way off, and that’s the reason why you don’t get any presents.”
When Vidadabha was sixteen years old, he expressed one day a desire
to visit his grandparents. At first Vasabhakhattiya demurred at his
request ; but afterwards she consented to let him go, taking the pre-
caution, however, to send the following letter ahead of him: “I am
happy where I am ; for the sake of my husband, say nothing to him.”
So Vididabha took leave of his father and, accompanied by a large
retinue, set out. (346-7)
When the Sakyan princes learned of Vididabha’s approaching visit,
they decided not to render homage to him, and therefore sent away
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 54]
all the princes who were younger than he. Vididabha rendered
homage to his grandfather and the other princes, but noticed that no
one rendered homage to him. When he spoke of this it was explained
to him that all those about him were his seniors ; and this explanation
satisfied him. One day, however, a female slave, while engaged in
scrubbing the seat on which Vididabha was wont to sit, remarked,
“‘ Here ’s where the son of the slave-woman Vasabhakhattiya sits!” <A
soldier happened to overhear what she said, and in a short time the
remark became common gossip. When it came to the ears of Vidi-
dabha, he swore the following oath, “Just as these Sakyans now wash
my bench with water, so also, when I am king, will I wash my bench
with their blood.” (347-8)
When Vididabha returned to Savatthi, and the King of Kosala
learned that Vasabhakhattiya was really the daughter of a slave-
woman, he was filled with rage at the King of the Sakyans, and de-
graded Vididabha and his mother to the position of slaves. About
that time the Teacher went to visit the King of Kosala ; and upon
learning that the truth had leaked out, said to the king, “ What does
the family of the mother matter? the family of the father is the only
thing worthy of consideration.” Thereupon King Pasenadi restored
Vidudabha and Vasabhakhattiya to their former rank. (348-9)
Just at this time Bandhula, the Commander-in-chief of King Pase-
nadi’s army, dismissed his wife Mallika on the ground of barrenness.
The Teacher bade her return to her husband, and Bandhula took her
back ; whereupon she conceived a child in her womb. One day the
longing of pregnancy came upon her, and she said to her husband, “ I
long to bathe in the lotus tank of Vesali, and to drink the water
thereof.” ‘Very well,” said Bandhula. So he took his bow, which
required a thousand men to string, assisted Mallika to mount the
chariot, and drove to Vesali, entering the city by the gate erected in
honor of Mahali. Now Mahali lived near this gate; and when he
heard the rumble of Bandhula’s chariot, he said to himself, ‘There is
trouble brewing for the Licchavi princes.” Now the lotus tank was
guarded within and without by strong guards, and fenced in with an iron
grating the meshes of which were so fine that not even birds could get
through. Bandhula alighted from his chariot, drove the guards away,
tore down the grating, and admitted his wife to the tank. So Mallika
bathed in the lotus tank of Vesali, and drank the water thereof.
Then Bandhula assisted her to mount the chariot, and drove back by
the way he came. (349-351)
The guards reported Bandhula’s insolence to the Licchavi princes,
who were exceedingly angry, and immediately mounted their chariots,
542 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
five hundred strong, and set out to capture Bandhula. Mahali warned
them that Bandhula would slay them all, but the princes paid no at-
tention to his warning. Bandhula waited until the file of chariots was
so straight that but one chariot-front appeared to view; and then,
stringing his mighty bow, he let an arrow fly. The arrow passed
through the body of every one of the five hundred men. Not realizing
what had happened, they continued the pursuit ; but Bandhula imme-
diately stopped his chariot and cried out, “ You are all dead men ; I
will not fight with the dead.” ‘Do we look like dead men?”
“Loosen your girdles.” ‘They did so, and the instant they did so, five
hundred dead men lay on the ground. (351-3)
Bandhula returned to Savatthi with Mallika. Sixteen times Mallika
bore twin sons to Bandhula, and all of them became mighty men.
Bandhula by his upright conduct incurred the hostility of the unjust
judges, who went to the king and falsely accused him of designs on
the throne. Thereupon the king ordered Bandhula and his sons to
proceed to the frontier and put down an insurrection, and at the same
time suborned men to lie in wait for them on their return, kill them,
and bring back their heads. Bandhula and his sons quickly put the
marauders to flight, and were murdered on their return. News of
the murder was brought to Mallika on the morning of the day on
which she had invited the Chief Disciples to be her guests. As she
was entertaining the monks, one of the servants dropped a dish and
broke it. Sariputta said to her, “Heed it not.” Mallika drew from
the folds of her dress the letter she had received that morning, and
replied, “If I heed not the murder of my husband and two and thirty
sons, I am not likely to heed the breaking of a mere dish.” After the
departure of the monks Mallika addressed her sons’ wives, assuring
them that their husbands, having lived blameless lives, had obtained
only the fruit of deeds in previous existences, and urged them to
cherish no bitter feelings against the king. ‘The king soon learned
that the charges brought against Bandhula were false ; whereupon he
made amends to Mallika, and at her request permitted her to return
to her family, and to send back her sons’ wives to theirs. (353-5
King Pasenadi appointed to the post of Commander-in-chief a
nephew of Bandhula, Dighakarayana by name. Dighakdrayana did
not forget that Pasenadi had caused his uncle to be murdered, and
waited for a chance to get even. Now at that time the Teacher was
residing in a village near-by ; and Pasenadi, being greatly troubled in
spirit, set out with a small body-guard to pay him a visit. As Pas-
enadi was about to enter the Perfumed Chamber, he handed the royal
insignia to Dighakaraéyana, who immediately hurried back to Savatthi
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 543
and proclaimed Vididabha king. That night Pasenadi died, and
when the news was brought to Vididabha, the latter ordered the
funeral rites to be performed. (355-6)
Vididabha remembered the oath he had sworn against the Sakyans,
and set out with a large force, intending to kill them all. The Teacher,
aware of the impending destruction of his kinsmen, seated himself
under a small tree near Kapilavatthu. Vidtidabha was surprised to
see him there, and said to him, “ Why do you sit here rather than
under the great banyan tree that grows in my kingdom?” ‘The
shade of my kinsmen refreshes me,” replied the T'eacher. Then
Vidtidabha knew that the Teacher had gone there to protect his
kinsmen, and immediately returned to Savatthi. The Teacher rose
and returned to Jetavana. Three times this happened. ‘Then the
Teacher, realizing that his kinsmen must needs be slain through the
effect of the evil deed they committed in a previous existence when
they threw poison into the water, went no more to the tree. So
Vidadabha went forth to slay his enemies. The Sakyans, as kinsmen
of the Buddha, were unwilling to kill any of their enemies, and there-
fore made only a show of resistence, with the result that Vidiidabha
destroyed them utterly, and washed his bench with their blood.
(357-9)
Mahanaima, rather than eat with Vididabha, attempted suicide ;
but such was the effect of the merit he had accumulated, that he
was translated to the palace of the Nagas, where he remained for
twelve years. Vididabha searched for him in vain, and then set out
on his return journey. At nightfall Vididabha pitched his camp in
the bed of the river Aciravati ; during the night a violent storm arose;
the river bed was filled with a raging torrent, and Vididabha and his
retinue perished in the waters. (359-360)
When the monks referred to the destruction of the Sakyans, the
Teacher told them that it was the effect of their throwing poison into
the river in a previous existence. When they commented on the fact
that Vididabha was swept away in the height of his glory the Teacher
pronounced Stanza 47, establishing many in the Fruits. (360-362)
BookIV. Story 4. Patipijika.
. ILLUSTRATING STANZA 5 = 48.
Once upon a time, while the god Malabhari was amusing himself in
the company of a thousand celestial nymphs in the Garden of the
Thirty-three, one of the nymphs fell from that existence, and was
reborn in a noble family of Savatthi. Remembering her former es-
544 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
tate, she made the wish that she might be reborn as Malabhari’s wife,
and her life abounded in good works. When she married, her devo-
tion to her husband was so conspicuous that she became known as
Patipwjika (Husband-honorer). On her death she was reborn, accord-
ing to the wish she had made, as Malabhari’s wife. It was now even-
ing in the world of the Thirty-three. When she told the other nymphs
that men lived only a thousand years, they were greatly surprised,
but when she added that in spite of the shortness of human life, men
were heedless and sluggish, they hardly credited her words. The
Teacher, drawing a lesson from Patipajika’s history, warned the monks
of the shortness of human life, and pronounced Stanza 48, at the con-
clusion of which many were established in the Fruits. (362-6)
Book IV. Story 5. Kosiya, the Niggardly Treasurer.2°
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 6 = 49.
There once lived not far from Rajagaha a treasurer named Kosiya,
who was as niggardly as he was wealthy ; and that was saying a great
deal. So niggardly was he, in fact, that on a certain occasion he com-
pelled his wife to carry her cooking implements up to the seventh
storey of the house to prepare a cake for him, for fear that otherwise he
might have to share his treat with the neighbors. The Teacher, aware
of what was going on, bade Moggallana transport the treasurer, his wife,
and the cake to Jetavana. Suddenly the treasurer saw Moggallana,
poised in theair, looking in through the window. Moggallana indicated
that he wished to have something to eat. After a good deal of hesi-
tation, the treasurer said to his wife, “ Cook him just one tiny little cake,
and let’s get rid of him.” One after another, the cakes they baked
grew to an enormous size, until finally, out of sheer desperation, the
treasurer presented them all to Moggallana. The latter then preached
the Law to the treasurer and his wife, dwelling on the importance of
almsgiving, after which he transported them, together with the cakes,
to Jetavana. ‘he cakes provided an ample meal for the whole Con-
regatior of Monks. After the meal the Teacher delivered his custom-
ary d‘scourse, at the end of which the treasurer and his wife were
established in the Fruit of Conversion. ‘The treasurer then devoted
his entire wealth to the religion of Buddha. The latter, referring to the
subject in the course of a conversation with the monks, gave high
praise to Moggallana for his share in the conversion of the niggardly
treasurer, and pronounced Stanza 49, establishing many in the Fruits.
Cf. Ja. i. 345-349.
a
BURLINGAME, — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 545
Continuing his discourse, the Teacher informed the monks that this
was not the first time Moggallana had converted the treasurer, and
then related the Illisa Jataka. (366-376)
Book IV. Story 6. Pathika, the Naked Ascetic.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 7 = 50.
The wife of a certain householder of Savatthi was accustomed to
give food to a naked ascetic named Pathika. One day she expressed
a desire to go and hear the Teacher ; but the ascetic, desiring to retain
his place, urged her not to do so. Accordingly she decided to invite
the Teacher to be her guest, and sent her young son to deliver the
message. Pathika found out where the boy was going, and told him
to give the Teacher wrong directions, saying that in case the latter
failed to come, he and the boy would have all the more to eat. The
boy did as the ascetic told him; but the Teacher, knowing the way
himself, came at the appointed time. The ascetic was greatly pro-
voked, reviled his benefactor, and left the house. The Teacher, ob-
serving that the mind of his hostess was agitated, and learning the
reason why, urged her to pay no attention to the sins of others, but
rather to heed her own shortcomings ; and pronounced Stanza 50, at
the conclusion of which she was established in the Fruit of Conversion.
(376-380)
Book IV. Story 7. Chattapani, Lay Disciple.
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 8-9 = 51-52.
Chattapani was a lay disciple of Savatthi who had entered upon
the Third Path. When King Pasenadi Kosala came to pay his re-
spects to the Teacher, Chattapani, out of respect for the Teacher,
withheld homage. This irritated the king, but the Teacher justified
Chattapani’s conduct, and the king said no more about it. One day
the king saw Chattapani pass through the courtyard with a parasol in
his hand and sandals on his feet. He caused Chattapani to be sum-
moned ; whereupon Chattapani laid aside his parasol and sandals, and
came into the king’s presence without them. ‘The king said, ‘“‘ Why
did you lay aside parasol and sandals?” Chattapani replied, ‘‘ Be-
cause I was summoned into the presence of a king.” “Oh,” said the
king, “so at last you know that I am aking.” “I always did,” replied
Chattapani. ‘ Why, then, did you withhold homage from me on the
day I went to see the Teacher?” “Out of respect for the Teacher.”
“Very well ; we'll let the past rest.” The king then requested Chat-
tapani to preach the Law in the palace, but Chattapani, not being a
VOL. XLV. — 35
546 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
monk, declined. Then King Pasenadi sent word to the Teacher, say-
ing, “ Mallika and Vasabhakhattiya of the Royal Household desire to
hear the Law.” The Teacher deputed Ananda to preach the Law in
the palace. Somewhat later Ananda reported to the Teacher that
Vasabhakhattiya, unlike Mallika, had made little progress; where-
upon the ‘Teacher, contrasting their attitudes, pronounced Stanzas
51-52, establishing many in the Fruits. (380-384)
Book IV. Story 8. Visakha.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 10 = 58.
Visakha was the daughter of Dhanafijaya, a treasurer of the city of
Phaddiya in the kingdom of Bengal. Dhanafijaya’s father, Mendaka,
was one of five persons of limitless wealth living in Bimbisara’s terri-
tory. Now King Bimbisara was a connection by marriage of King
Pasenadi Kosala, and one day received a request from the latter to
move one of the families of limitless wealth to the kingdom of Kosala.
Since this was too great an undertaking, Bimbisadra did the next best
thing, and sent Dhanafijaya. So Dhanafijaya, accompanied by his fam-
ily and following, removed to the kingdom of Kosala, and settled in a
place called Saketa, seven leagues from Savatthi. By this time Visakha,
who was established in the Fruit of Conversion at the early age of seven,
had grown to womanhood. (384-7)
At this time there was living in the neighboring city of Savatthi a
young man named Punnavaddhana, son of the treasurer Migara, who
had agreed to marry a girl possessed of the Five Beauties, if such could
be found. Hight Brahmans devoted themselves to the task of finding
him a wife, and one day noticing Visaékha, and discovering that she was
possessed of the Five Beauties, they went to her father, Dhanafijaya,
and asked him to give her in marriage to their master, Punnavaddhana.
Dhanaiijaya consented, and the Brahmans hastened to inform Migara.
Thereupon Migara the treasurer and King Pasenadi Kosala, accompa-
nied by their retinues, paid a visit to the treasurer Dhanafijaya. In
the meantime Dhanafijaya caused a magnificent trousseau to be made
for his daughter, and provided her with a splendid dowry. (387-397)
When it was time for Visakha to go, her father enjoined upon her
the observance of ‘l’en Injunctions, which were as follows : The in-door
fire is not to be carried outside ; the out-door fire is not to be carried
inside ; give only to him that gives; give not to him that gives not;
give both to him that gives, and to him that gives not; sit happily ;
eat happily ; sleep happily ; tend the fire ; honor the household divin-
ities. Migdra happened to be sitting in the next room, and overheard
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 547
all that Dhanafijaya said. Dhanajijaya then appointed eight sponsors
for Visakha, and directed them to try her in case any charges were
brought against her. He then entrusted his daughter to the care of
King Pasenadi and the treasurer, who returned with her to Savatthi.
So Visaikha, arrayed in a magnificent parure, and accompanied by a
splendid retinue, entered Savatthi in the train of the King, and imme-
diately won the hearts of all the inhabitants. (397-9)
That night Visakha’s thoroughbred mare gave birth to a foal ; where-
upon Visakha arose, went to the stable, and bathed the mare. When
her father-in-law learned that she had left the house at night, he was
much displeased, but refrained from making further inquiries. Now
Migara was much attached to a certain sect of naked ascetics, who,
when they learned that a disciple of Gotama had become the wife of
his son, urged Migara to put her out of the house. Somewhat later,
at the close of a day on which Migara had entertained the naked as-
cetics, he overheard Visaékha remark that he was eating “stale fare.”
Migara then and there ordered her out of the house. Visakha, how-
ever, claimed the right of being tried before her eight sponsors ; accord-
ingly Migadra had the sponsors summoned, and brought three charges
against his daughter-in-law : first, that she had accused him of eating
what was unclean; secondly, that she had left the house at night;
thirdly, that she performed the work of menials. Visakha cleared her-
self of guilt on the first count by explaining that all she meant to say
was that her father-in-law was living on stale merit instead of acquir-
ing fresh merit; then she explained that she had left the house at
night for no other purpose than to care for her mare ; the third charge
was withdrawn. (399-402)
Migara then asked Visakha to explain the hidden meaning of the Ten
Injunctions. “The first,” said Visikha, “means that I must not speak
of the faults of my mother-in-law, or father-in-law, or husband, to
others ; the second, that if I hear others speak of their faults, I must
not tell them what I have heard; the third, that I should give to those
only who return borrowed articles; the fourth, that I should not give
to those who fail to return borrowed articles ; the fifth, that I should
give to anyone in needy circumstances, whether or not he is able to
repay me; the next three mean that I must not sit or eat or sleep until
I have first attended to the needs of my mother-in-law, father-in-law,
and husband ; the ninth means that I must look upon them as upon a
flame of fire ; the tenth, that I must look upon them as my divinities.”
(402-404)
Thereupon Migara, finding no fault in Visikha, asked her to pardon
him. She did so, but told him that now she should leave the house of
548 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
her own accord. She consented to stay, however, on the condition that
she should be allowed to entertain the Buddha. On the occasion of the
T'eacher’s first visit, Migara and his wife were established in the Fruit
of Conversion. Visakha’s life abounded in good works ; and she lived
to be an hundred and twenty years old. She endeavored to sell her
magnificent trousseau, intending to devote the proceeds to the work
of the Order; but finding that no one else was rich enough to buy it,
made up the price herself; and erected a splendid monastery. ‘The
'eacher informed the monks that Visakha’s noble life was the fruit of
good works performed in the dispensations of Padumuttara and Kas-
sapa, and then pronounced Stanza 53, establishing many in the Fruits.
(404-420)
Book IV. Story 9. The Elder Ananda’s Question.
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 11-12 = 54-55.
Once upon a time the Elder Ananda pondered the following thought
in his mind: “The Exalted One possesses three kinds of perfumes ;
but each of these goes with the wind. [5 there, perhaps, a kind of per-
fume that goes against the wind?” So he went to the ‘Teacher and
put the question to him. The Teacher replied, “ Certainly there is a
kind of perfume that goes against the wind.” “ Which kind is it?”
“The perfume of good works.” hen the Teacher pronounced Stan-
zas 54-55, at the conclusion of which many were established in the
Fruits. (420-423)
Book IV. Story 10. Sakka bestows Alms on Maha Kassapa.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 13 = 56.
Sakka’s five hundred wives once endeavored to obtain the privilege
of bestowing alms on Maha Kassapa, but the latter refused them the
privilege, on the ground that he preferred to allow the poor to accumu-
late merit by so doing. When Sakka learned of this, he disguised
himself as an old, broken-down weaver, transformed Wellborn into an
old woman, and had no difficulty at all in persuading Kassapa to
accept his alms. When Kassapa discovered that it was Sakka from
whom he had accepted alms, he reproached him for deceiving him and
defrauding the poor. But Sakka explained that he hoped by the per-
formance of this and similar works of merit to make his own lustre
equal to that of three other deities who had hitherto outshone him.
The T'eacher, becoming aware of what had happened, pronounced
Stanza 56, at the conclusion of which many were established in the
Fruits. (423-430)
BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA’S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 549
Book IV. Story 11. How the Elder Godhika attained Nibbana.
ILLUSTRATING STANZA 14 = 57.
The Elder Godhika found himself so impeded in the practice of
ecstatic meditation by a disease which had attacked him that he drew
a razor and cut his throat, passing at once to Nibbana. Mara searched
everywhere in hope of discovering where he had been reborn ; but the
Teacher informed him that he was engaged in a futile task, and pro-
nounced Stanza 57, establishing many in the Fruits. (431-4)
Book IV. Story 12. Garahadinna.
ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 15-16 = 58-59.
At Savatthi once lived two friends, Sirigutta and Garahadinna; the
former, a lay disciple of the Buddha; the latter, an adherent of the
Naked Ascetics. ‘These heretics used to say to their disciple Gara-
hadinna, “Go and ask your friend Sirigutta why he visits the hermit
Gotama, and what he expects to get out of him, and see if you can’t
persuade him to transfer his allegiance to us.” So Garahadinna used
to ask his friend Sirigutta why he visited the hermit Gotama, and what
he expected to get out of him, and tried with all his might to persuade
him to transfer his allegiance to the Naked Ascetics. After a time
Sirigutta became very weary of hearing this sort of talk, and one day
said to Garahadinna, “ What do your masters know, anyway?” ‘Oh,
sir, don’t talk that way; there is nothing my masters don’t know.
They know all about the past, the present, and the future. They
know everybody’s thoughts, words, and actions. They know just what
is going to happen, and just what is not going to happen.” “ You
don’t say.” “Indeed I do.” “ Well, if that’s the case, pray convey
my compliments to your masters, and tell them that I should like to
have the privilege of entertaining them.” The heretics at once
accepted. (434-6)
Sirigutta had a long ditch dug, and had it filled with dung and slime.
Then he had cords stretched across, rugs laid on the cords, and the
seats so placed with one edge resting on the ground and the other on
the cords, that the instant the heretics sat down, they would be tipped
over backwards and precipitated into the mass of filth at the bottom
of the ditch. In order that the rugs might not be smeared with filth,
Sirigutta stationed men all along the line with orders to pull the rugs
out from under when the heretics sat down. He didn’t take the
trouble to provide any food or drink for his guests. Thought he, “If
550 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Garahadinna’s masters really know just what is going to happen, they Il
stay away from here.” (436-7)
But Garahadinna’s masters came, just as Sirigutta expected they
would. Sirigutta told them to sit down all at once, and when they did
so, they were immediately tipped over backwards, and precipitated
into the mass of filth at the bottom of the ditch. As they crawled out,
Sirigutta’s men belabored them with clubs until they were glad
enough to escape with their lives. Garahadinna had Sirigutta haled
before the king and asked the king to give him the full extent of the
aw; but when the king investigated the matter, he decided that it was
Garahadinna, rather than Sirigutta, who deserved to be punished, and
therefore had Garahadinna beaten soundly. (437-9)
Garahadinna cherished deep resentment against Sirigutta for a long
time, and finally determined to serve Buddha and his monks somewhat
as Sirigutta had served the Naked Ascetics. He employed much the
same stratagem, except that instead of filling the ditch with filth, he
had it filled with glowing coals. But the Buddha caused an enormous
lotus-flower to spring up from the bed of coals, whereon he sat, sur-
rounded by his five hundred monks. By a second miracle he created
an abundant supply of food, whereof all partook. ‘Then he pronounced
Stanzas 58-59, at the end of which the multitude obtained clear com-
prehension of the law, and Garahadinna and Sirigutta attained the
Fruit of Conversion. In the evening, referring to a similar experience
he had in a previous existence, he related the Khadirangara Jataka.
(439-447)
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vout. XLV. No. 21,—Srpremper, 1910.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS, 1909-1910.
OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1910-1911.
LIST OF THE FELLOWS AND FOREIGN HONORARY
MEMBERS.
STATUTES AND STANDING VOTES.
RUMFORD PREMIUM.
INDEX.
(Titte Pace anp TABLE oF ConTENTS.)
RECORDS OF MEETINGS.
Nine hundred ninety-first Meeting.
OcTroBeR 13, 1909.— Sratep MEETING.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.
There were thirty-four Fellows present.
The Corresponding Secretary announced that letters had been
received from F. J. Furnivall and Hermann Jacobi, accepting
Foreign Honorary Membership; from F, G. Benedict, Arthur
W. Ewell, J. H. Ropes, W. W. Fenn and G. M. Lane, accepting
Resident Fellowship; from W. J. Spillman, American Secretary
of the Universal Scientific Association, suggesting the establish--
ment of technical vocabularies in the international language,.
Esperanto, for the various sciences ; from Mrs. Simon Newcomb:
and family, announcing the death on July 11th, 1909, of Simon
Newcomb; from Harvard University, requesting the presence:
of a delegate at the inauguration of Abbott Lawrence Lowell, as.
its President ; from the Nobel Prize Committees, inviting compe-
tition for the Nobel prizes of 1910; from Dr. J. Zavodny, en-
closing a pamphlet of the Export-verein fiir Béhmen, Mahren
und Schlesien, in Prag, and requesting admission into the Acad-
emy as Corresponding member; from Anaboli Pavlov, a theory
of numbers (in Russian); from H. G. Wadlin, E. A. Filene
and C. Bertrand Thompson, suggesting an exhibit at the “1915”
Boston Exposition to be held Nov. 1-27, 1909; from Carlos A.
Hesse, suggesting changes in the Calendar; from the Aero Club
of America, inviting the Academy to take part in the proceedings
at the presentation of medals to Messrs. Wilbur and Orville
Wright, as discoverers of the art of flying; from the American
Philosophical Society, requesting the Academy to co-operate
with other scientific societies in urging the government of the
/
554 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
United States to send a vessel to explore and survey the coast
of Wilkes Land and other parts of Antarctica.
The following deaths were announced by the Chair: —
John M. Ordway, Associate Fellow in Class I, Section 3;
Simon Newcomb, Associate Fellow in Class I, Section 1.
On motion of E. L. Mark, it was
Voted, that a committee be appointed to investigate the ques-
tion of co-operation with other scientific societies in urging the
Government to send a vessel to explore the coast of Wilkes
Land.
The question of an exhibit at the Boston “1915” Exposition
was referred to the Librarian, with full power.
President Trowbridge gave a paper entitled “The Future of
Aeroplanes.”
The following papers were presented by title : —
“The Principle of Relativity and Non-Newtonian Mechanics.”
By Gilbert N. Lewis and Richard C. Tolman. Presented by
C. R. Sanger.
“ Friction in Gases at Low Pressures.” By J. L. Hogg. Pre-
sented by John Trowbridge.
“The Quantitative Determination of Antimony by the Gut-
zeit Method.” By Charles Robert Sanger and Emile Raymond
Riegel.
“The Preparation and Properties of Pyrosulphuryl Chloride
and Chlorsulphonic Acid.” By Charles Robert Sanger, Emile
Raymond Riegel and Lawrence Haines Whitney.
“ A Revision of the Atomic Weight of Phosphorus.” By
Gregory P. Baxter and Grinnell Jones.
“The Equivalent Circuits of Composite Lines in the Steady
State.” By A. E. Kennelly.
“Tlept Φύσεως. A Study of the Conception of Nature among
the Pre-Socratics.” By William A. Heidel. Presented by Mor-
ris H. Morgan.
Nine hundred ninety-second Meeting.
NovemBer 10, 1909.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.
There were thirty-seven Fellows present.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 555
The Corresponding Secretary read the following letters: an
invitation from the Museum of Fine Arts, to the opening of its
new building; from the Secretary of the International Congress
of Americanists, a notification of the 17th Congress.
The Committee on the proposed action regarding Antarctic
exploration reported as follows : —
“We believe that it is fitting for governments to take part in ex-
ploration. Our government has already done it in moderate measure ;
other governments have done more.
We believe, also, that it is fitting for learned societies to take part in
promoting government exploration by making recommendations to this
end.
We find that the particular plan under consideration deserves our
support, because the work proposed is well worthy of investigation ; it
touches a region in which our previous national exploration gave good
results but left much to be done. ‘There is abundant room for co-
operative exploration in the Antarctic regions by various countries.
We therefore recommend that favorable action be taken by the Acad-
emy on the communication from the American Philosophical Society.”
W. M. Davis.
A. LawrENcE Rorcn.
On motion of the Corresponding Secretary it was
Voted, That the Academy take favorable action on the com-
munication from the American Philosophical Society.
The following letter from Alexander Agassiz regarding his
presentation of a new building to the Academy was read by the
President : —
October 16 [1909].
My dear Mr. ΤΒΟΥΤΒΕΙΡΘΕ,
I have at last bought the house adjoining the Academy’s building
on Newbury Street, — No. 26, so that on my return from the West
I shall be ready to make my proposition to the Academy for their con-
sideration and decision. The house is let for 2 years but I fancy we
could obtain possession earlier. In meanwhile the architects can per-
fect the plans. It will be necessary while building, for the Academy
to get shelter from the Historical Society or Natural History Society
and to hire a room for their office for say 18 months. As the Acad-
emy will have ample room, I think we could increase the number of
members by 150 or 200, which would pay for increased expense of run-
506 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
ning the building when completed. With the great increase in num-
ber of Professors at Tufts, Boston University, Institute of Technology,
and Harvard, there ought to be no difficulty in filling our number.
I leave for the West the 22d, not to return till Nov. 12th. In mean-
time, you will perhaps get one of our lawyer members to look over our
Statutes, By-laws and Charter, and make out a plan for us to submit
to the Members at a properly called meeting to decide on my sugges-
tions or such modifications of them as are advisable. I propose to
deliver the building complete to the Academy and hope that increase
of new members will pay running expenses. The building will have
1 large Meeting Room 42 x 46 I
arrey ΠΡ ΒΟ ΠΡῊ | Us tees oe II
Janitor’s quarters and bed room 3. III
Basement Hall 1, 2 rooms for Committee meetings.
The stack or shelf room of I, II and basement will give room for 10
M. additional books without a new stack.
As I go off for the winter the 13th of December, I hope we can have
the meeting of the Academy before that time and appoint a committee
to examine the plans and report to the Academy what action they think
best for the Academy.
The location is excellent — near all electric cars, near the Natural
History Society, the Institute, Tufts Medical School and Boston Uni-
versity, and I hope the building may become a scientific and literary
club while remaining the domicile of the Academy.
Yours very truly,
A. AGASSIZ.
After discussion, on motion of Professor Wolff, it was
Voted, That a committee of three be appointed by the Presi-
dent to consider the general plan suggested by Professor
Agassiz.
On motion of Professor Webster it was unanimously
Voted, That the Academy expresses its hearty thanks to Ere.
fessor Agassiz for his very generous proposition.
The Plone communication was given by Professor Kit-
tredge, ‘* Moot Points about Chaucer.”
RECORDS OF MEETINGS. DOT
Nine hundred ninety-third Meeting.
DECEMBER 8, 1909.
The ῬΒΕΒΙΡΕΝΤ in the chair.
There were fifty-six Fellows present.
The Corresponding Secretary read the following letters :—from
the President of the 8th International Zoological Congress, in-
viting delegates to the congress; from the family of Henry
Charles Lea, announcing his death ; from the Comité Géologique
de la Russie, announcing the death of M. Serge Nikitin; from
the Koniglich Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, an-
nouncing the death of Phil. Dr. Karl Domalép.
The death of Henry Charles Lea, an Associate Fellow in Class
ΠῚ... Section 38, was announced by the Chair.
On motion of E. C. Pickering the following Resolution was
passed: Resolved, That the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences desires to express its entire approval of the recom-
mendations of the President of the United States, in his annual
message to Congress, regarding the administration of the Naval
Observatory. The Academy believes that the scientific work of
the Observatory should be under the direction of a scientific
man, and that in this way its efficiency will be greatly increased.
Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to
the President of the United States, by the Secretary.
On motion of Mr. Webster it was
Voted, To give the above Resolution to the public press.
It was suggested by the Corresponding Secretary, that Stand-
ing Vote No. 10 precluded giving the above Resolution to the
public press.
On motion of Mr. Bowditch, it was
Voted, That in the opinion of the Academy, Standing Vote
No, 10 does not apply to making public the vote just passed.
The President read the names of the Committee appointed at
the last meeting to consider the general plan suggested by Pro-
fessor Agassiz, viz.: Dr. H. P. Walcott, Professor John C. Gray,
and President A. Lawrence Lowell.
The President re-read the letter of Professor Agassiz, read at
the last meeting of the Academy, and after considerable discus-
sion the following votes were passed : —
558 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
On motion of A. G. Webster, it was
Voted, That the Academy accepts with profound gratitude the
very generous gift of Professor Agassiz.
Voted, That a committee on Policy be selected to consider all
questions relating to the enlarged functions of the Academy.
On motion of C. P. Bowditch it was
Voted, That in the opinion of the Academy an increase of
membership is desirable.
Voted, That the committee on the general plan suggested by
Professor Agassiz be authorized to apply to the Legislature for an
amendment to the charter which will permit such increase.
Professor Derr exhibited some lantern photographs taken in
the Yellowstone National Park.
The following papers were presented by title : —
‘*¢ Buddha-ghosa’s Commentary on the Dhammapada, an Analy-
sis of the First Four Books of the Buddhist Acta Sanctorum in
Pali, with an Index to the 304 Stories of the Burmese Edition.”
By Eugene Watson Burlingame. Presented by C. R. Lanman.
““The Effect of Leakage at the Edges upon the Conduction of
Heat in a Homogeneous Lamina.” By B. O. Peirce.
“ΠῚ Resistance of the Air to a Swinging Magnet.” By
B: Ὁ Peirce,
‘‘The Differentiation of Scalar Point Functions with Respect
to Other Similar Functions.” By B. O. Peirce.
‘“The Spectrum of a Compound of Carbon in the Region of
Extremely Short Wave-Lengths.” By Theodore Lyman.
‘¢ Average Chemical Compositions of Igneous-Rock Types.”
By Reginald A. Daly.
‘‘Experiments on the Electrical Oscillations in a Hertz
Rectilinear Oscillator.” By George W. Pierce.
«(ἢ the Applicability of the Law of Corresponding States to
the Joule-Thomson Effect in H,O and CO,.” By Harvey N.
Davis. Presented by John Trowbridge.
“‘ Notes on Certain Thermal Properties of Steam.” By Harvey
N. Davis. Presented by John Trowbridge.
‘Discharge of Electricity through Gases.” By John
Trowbridge.
‘‘Measurement of Pressure and Density in Gases with the
Micro Balance.” By H. W. Morse. Presented by John
Trowbridge. ᾿
RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 559
‘¢‘Some Minute Phenomena of Electrolysis.” By H. W.
Morse. Presented by John Trowbridge.
‘¢The Reactions of Amphibians to Light.” By Arthur Sperry
Pearse. Presented by E. L. Mark.
Nine hundred ninety-fourth Meeting.
JANUARY 12, 1910. —Sratep MEETING.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.
There were twenty-nine Fellows present.
In the absence of the Corresponding Secretary, the President
read the following : —a letter from B. Beernaert, Minister of State
of Belgium, sending three hundred and seventy-five copies of a
manifesto against criticism of Belgium concerning its African
possessions; circulars from the committee of the Third Inter-
national Congress of Botany to be held at Brussels, May 14-22,
1910; a circular from the Committee of the First International
Congress of Entomology, to be held at Brussels, August 1-6,
1910 ; from the Museo Nacional, Mexico, sending the felicitations
of the new year ; an announcement from the Société d’ Emulation
d’Abbeville, of the death of M. P.-C.-E. Prarond ; an announce-
ment from the Société Royale Norvégienne des Sciences of
Trondhjem of the death of M. M. H. Foslie.
The following deaths were announced :—James Barr Ames,
Resident Fellow in Class III., Section 1; F. W. Maitland, Foreign
Honorary Member in Class III., Section 1.
The following gentlemen were elected members of the
Academy : —
Arthur Fairbanks, of Boston, as Resident Fellow in Class II.,
Section 4.
William Arthur Heidel, of Middletown, as Associate Fellow
in Class III., Section 2.
On motion of B. L. Robinson, it was
Voted, That Professor W. G. Farlow be appointed delegate to
the International Botanical Congress to be held at Brussels, May
14 to 22, 1910.
On motion of C. R. Cross, it was
Voted, To appropriate the sum of five hundred dollars ($500)
560 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
from the unexpended balance of the income of the Rumford
Fund, to be applied at the discretion of the Committee.
The President announced that, in pursuance of the vote at the
last meeting of the Academy, he appointed the following gentle-
men a Committee on Policy, to consider all questions relating to
the enlarged functions of the Academy : Messrs. Webster, Rotch,
Ernst, Lyman, Walcott, W. M. Davis and Trowbridge.
The following communication was given by Dr. D. G. Lyon:
“ Harvard Explorations in Samaria.”
The following papers were presented by title : —
“Air Resistance to Falling Inch Spheres.” By Edwin H.
Hall. τ
« Contributions from the Gray Herbarium of Harvard Univer-
sity. New Series No. XXXVIII.” I. A preliminary synopsis
of the Genus Echeandia. By C. A. Weatherby. 11. Sperma-
tophytes, new or reclassified, chiefly Rubiaceae and Gentianaceae.
By B. L. Robinson. II. American Forms of Lycopodium com-
planatum. By C. A. Weatherby. IV. New and little known
Mexican Plants, chiefly Labiatae. By M. L. Fernald. V. Mex-
ican Phanerogams — Notes and New Species. By ΟἹ A. Weath-
erby. Presented by B. L. Robinson.
Nine hundred ninety-fifth Meeting.
Fepsruary 9, 1910.
The PresIDENT in the chair.
There were present thirty-four Fellows.
The Corresponding Secretary read the following: —a circular
from the American Philosophical Society, with Resolutions
adopted, urging upon Congress the establishment of a National
Bureau of Seismology; a letter from Arthur Fairbanks, accept-
ing Resident Fellowship; a letter from William A. Heidel, ac-
cepting Associate Fellowship; a circular from the Kéniglich
Boéhmische Gesellschaft, announcing the death of Dr. Ottokar
Hostinsky ; two letters from the “ Boston 1915 Committee”; a
letter from A. Biddlecombe, showing “ proof of the truth of his
theory that electricity is material motion in a special condition,
ete.”; a circular from the President and Fellows of Harvard
University, announcing the inauguration of Abbott Lawrence
a 0
RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 561
Lowell as President; a letter from President Taft in answer to
Resolutions forwarded to him by the Academy relative to the
Naval Observatory, requesting that copies of the Resolutions be
sent to the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the
House of Representatives.
On motion of Professor Webster it was
Voted, To send copies of the Resolutions regarding the Naval
Observatory to the President of the Senate and the Speaker of
the House of Representatives.
Voted, That the Librarian be appointed a delegate to the
Boston 1915 Directorate conference to be held March 8, 1910.
Professor W. M. Davis gave a paper entitled: —
“The Italian Riviera Levante: a study in Geographical
Description.”’
Dr. Percival Lowell exhibited and described transparencies
of photographs of Mars and Saturn, taken at the Lowell
Observatory.
The following papers were presented by title : —
« Kvaporation from the Surface of Small Solid Spheres.” By
H. W. Morse. Presented by John Trowbridge.
“ On the Equilibrium of the System Consisting of Lime, Car-
bon, Calcium Carbide, and Carbon Monoxide.” By M. de Kay
Thompson. Presented by H. M. Goodwin.
“ A Study of the Greek Epigram before 300 8. ο.) By Flor-
ence Alden Gragg. Presented by H. W. Smyth.
Nine hundred ninety-sixth Meeting.
Marcu 9, 1910.— Statep MEETING.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.
There were thirty-nine Fellows present.
The Corresponding Secretary read the following: —a letter
from William H. Niles, resigning Fellowship; a letter from
H. G. Chase, announcing the death of Professor A. Εἰ. Dolbear ;
a letter from Dr. Edward Kohlrausch, announcing the death of
W. F. Kohlrausch ; a circular from Senator Augusto Righi, Presi-
dent of the Royal Academy of Science, Bologna, announcing the
competition for the Elia De Cyon prize in 1911; a circular from
G. Spiller, Secretary, announcing the Universal Race Congress
562 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
to be held in London in July, 1911; a circular from Signor Vito
Volterra, announcing the publication of the mathematical works
of Count Julius Charles of Fagnano.
The following deaths were announced by the Chair: —
William Sellers, Associate Fellow in Class I., Section 4;
Samuel W. Johnson, Associate Fellow in Class I., Section 3;
William Frederick Kohlrausch, Foreign Honorary Member in
Class I., Section 2.
The President announced that the Massachusetts Legislature
had complied with the request of the Academy and had passed
the following amendment to the Charter of the Academy : —
[Chapter 129. ]
CoMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.
In the year One Thousand Nine Hundred and Ten.
An Act relative to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in Gen-
eral Court assembled and by the authority of the same, as follows : —
Section 1. Section four of chapter forty-six of the acts of the year
seventeen hundred and seventy-nine, passed May fourth, seventeen
hundred and eighty, which incorporated the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, is hereby amended by striking out in the proviso
at the end of said section, the word “two” before the word “hun-
dred,” and inserting in place thereof the word : — three, — so as to
read as follows :—Sxcrion 4. That the fellows of the said academy, may
from time to time, elect such persons to be fellows thereof, as they shall
judge proper ; and that they shall have full power and authority from
time to time to suspend, expel, or disfranchise, any fellow of the said
academy, who shall by his conduct render himself unworthy of a place
in that body, in the judgment of the academy ; and also to settle and
establish the rules, forms, and conditions of election, suspension, ex-
pulsion, and disfranchisement : provided, that the number of the said
academy who are inhabitants of this state, shall not at any one time,
be more than three hundred, nor less than forty.
Section 2. Said chapter forty-six is hereby further amended by
striking out Section six and inserting in place thereof the following : —
Section 6. That the fellows of the said academy may, and shall,
forever, hereafter, be deemed capable, in the law, of having, holding,
and taking, in fee simple or any less estate, by gift, grant, devise, or
RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 563
otherwise, any lands, tenements, or other estate, real and personal :
provided, that the said real estate shall not exceed in value the sum
of one hundred thousand dollars, and the said personal estate shall not
exceed in value the sum of three hundred thousand dollars; all the
sums mentioned in the preceding section of this act to be valued in
silver, at the rate of six shillings and eight pence by the ounce; and
the annual interest and income of the said real and personal estate,
together with the fines and penalties aforesaid, shall be appropriated
for premiums, to encourage improvements and discoveries in agricul-
ture, arts, and manufactures, or for other purposes consistent with the
end and design of the institution of the said academy, as the fellows
thereof shall determine.
Section 3. This act shall take effect upon its passage.
House oF REPRESENTATIVES, February 25, 1910.
Passed to be enacted. JosepH WALKER, Speaker.
In Senate, February 28, 1910.
Passed to be enacted. ALLEN T’. TrEADWway, President.
February 28, 1910.
Approved. Espen 8. Draper.
Office of the Secretary,
Boston, March 1, 1910.
A true copy.
Witness the Great Seal of the Commonwealth.
Isaac H. Epeert,
[Seal. ] Deputy and Acting Secretary of the Commonwealth.
The following gentlemen were elected Members of» the
Academy : —
Clifford Herschel Moore, of Cambridge, as Resident Fellow
in Class III., Section 2 (Philology and Archaeology ).
Charles Pomeroy Parker, of Cambridge, as Resident Fellow
in Class III., Section 2 (Philology and Archaeology).
Voted, That the sum of four hundred dollars from the unex-
pended balance of the appropriation for publication from the
income of the Rumford fund be transferred to the amount avail-
able for use at the discretion of the Committee.
The Chair appointed the following Councillors to serve as
Nominating Committee : —
564 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
John E. Wolff, of Class IT.
Henry P. Talbot, of Class I.
George L. Kittredge of Class ITI.
The following gentlemen were appointed a Committee to
revise the Statutes : —
Charles R. Lanman.
Charles R. Cross.
Frederic J. Stimson.
The following communication was given : —
“Some New Factors in Determining the Location of Wineland
the Good.” By M. L. Fernald.
Mr. Henry H. Edes gave an account of “ Some Lacunae in the
Archives of the Academy.” These Lacunae were letters written
to the Academy by the following : —
George Washington, March 22, 1781; Count Rumford, Feb-
ruary 15, 1797; Marquis de Chastellux, five letters in 1781 and
°82: Chevalier de la Luzerne, March 20,1781; Peter Wargentin,
March 20, 1781; Marquis de Marbois, May 20, 1781; Richard
Price, three letters in 1781 and ’83; J. J. L. Delalande, Novem-
ber 80, 1781; J. L. D’Alembert, December 11, 1781; Leonardus
Euler, March 11,1782; Count de Gébelin, June 24,1782; E.S.
Jeaurat, three letters in 1782 and ’83; Thomas Brand Hollis,
two letters in 1783; Joseph Priestley, June 23, 1785; John C.
Lettsom, February 1, 1793; J. F. Blumenbach, November 29,
1795; Nathaniel Bowditch, August 28, 1797, and were pro-
cured from the descendants of Joseph Willard, former Secre-
tary and Vice President of the Academy.
On motion of Professor Webster, it was
Voted, That in view of the unusual nature of the Communi-
cation, the Academy depart from its usual custom of not express-
ing an opinion on communications presented to it, and give a
hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Edes for his success in restoring
to the Academy these valuable documents.
It was then
7oted, That the thanks of the Academy be given to the de-
scendants of Dr. Joseph Willard, its first Corresponding Secre-
tary, for restoring to its files a collection of papers, mostly
letters accepting Fellowship in the Academy.
i i ii i ee i κϑας. ἀν... ..
RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 565
Nine hundred ninety-seventh Meeting.
ἌΡΕΙ, 19, 1910.
Vice-President THomson in the chair.
There were thirty-six Fellows and three guests present.
The Corresponding Secretary read the following : —letters
from Charles P. Parker and Clifford H. Moore, accepting Resi-
dent Fellowship; aletter from V. M. Slipher, accepting Associate
Fellowship; a letter from John Ritchie, Jr., resigning Fellow-
ship; a card from the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, re-
questing the presence of the President at the opening of the
New Hall of the Society ; a letter and circulars from the Argen-
tine Scientific Society, concerning the International American
Scientific Congress to be held in Buenos Aires in July, 1910,
commemorating the Centenary of the Revolution of May, 1810;
circulars of the World’s Congress of International Associations
to be held under the patronage of the Belgian government, in
May, 1910; circulars of the eleventh International Geological
Congress and the second International Agrogeological Confer-
ence to be held in Stockholm in 1910; a circular from the Bos-
ton-1915 Director, announcing the publication of ‘‘ The Chronicle
of Boston-1915.”
The Chair announced the death of Alexander Agassiz, Resi-
dent Fellow in Class II., Section 3, and President of the Academy
from 1895 to 1903; of Morris Hicky Morgan, of Class III.,
Section 2; and of William Graham Sumner, Associate Fellow
in Class III., Section 8.
On motion of the Corresponding Secretary, it was
Voted, To refer the appointment of delegates to the three
International Congresses, to the President.
Vice-President Thomson announced that the Rumford Prem-
ium had been awarded to Professor Robert Williams Wood for
his discoveries in light, and particularly for his researches on
the optical properties of sodium and other metallic vapors.
The two medals were then presented to Professor Wood, who
expressed his appreciation of the honor conferred upon him.
He then gave an address on “ Photography with Invisible Rays.”
VOLE ΘΟ
566 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Nine hundred ninety-eighth Meeting.
May 11, 1910.— AnnuaL MEETING.
The ῬΒΕΒΙΡΕΝΤ in the chair.
Thirty-six Fellows and one guest present.
The Corresponding Secretary read the following :—a notice
of the death of Alexander Agassiz from The Faculty of the
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy; a notice from the clerk
of the Probate Court of the City of Newport, that the Academy
is named as a beneficiary under the will of Alexander Agassiz ;
a circular from the Association des Ingénieurs Electriciens
sortis de I’ Institut électrotechnique Montefiore, giving the
conditions of a triennial prize; a circular announcing papers
to be given at the 17th Congress of Americanists at Buenos
Aires; a circular from the Secretary of the International Hy-
giene exhibition to be held in Dresden, 1911.
The following report of the Council was read : —
Since the last report of the Council the deaths of eleven mem-
bers have been noted: three Resident Fellows,—James Barr
Ames, Morris Hicky Morgan, Alexander Agassiz; six Associate
Fellows,— John Morse Ordway, Simon Newcomb, Henry Charles
Lea, William Sellars, Samuel William Johnson, William Gra-
ham Sumner; two Foreign Honorary Members,—Frederic
William Maitland, Wilhelm Friedrich Kohlrausch.
Two Resident Fellows have resigned
New members elected are: Resident Fellows, 8; Associate
Fellows, 2; Foreign Honorary Members, 2.
The roll of the Academy therefore now includes 191 Resident
Fellows, 84 Associate Fellows, and 61 Foreign Honorary
Members.
The annual report of the Treasurer was read, of which the
following is an abstract : —
a ee
a oa
RECORDS OF MEETINGS.
GENERAL Funp.
Receipts.
ΒΝ ΠΤ 66: April .90, 1909. os FS ie $507.57
Meme SUING tate ence. ay Tas uo ee a, DB O4SGES
ΠΥ ΘΠΕΘΕΘΤ ΠΟΤ ΓΗ το Se ys ge ee atk. eee? 870.00
MT τ τ ΟΣ Tas GF Εν ΝῊ eS. hes hee 80.00
JAG ARS Gch OUR Ss oe ee Sere ae το: 756.58
pee TOD HOOK pistes nse l2e sk a ih 7: 265.00
Expenditures.
Deas h House. ce oe Ae BI 858-10
pense Of baurany iy. lw. tse ee a) & 2,691.59
Pspiouse.of Meetings: 2 ks So Sos 141.54
Treasurer. . ΡΟΝ alae 1915
Income Ganstaed ᾿ ΠΣ κεὴ ἜΣ ew 224.38
Balance, April 30, 1910 .
Rumrorp Funp.
Receipts.
Balance, April. 90: 1909 τὶ ss rw $2,155.19
Investments. . . Meee takin Se ote τ ΟΠ ΌΤΙ
Sale of publications . . Ds eae at ὦ 19.00
Unexpended balance ἘΞ Ὴ Ν peek Sys Rc 55.95
Expenditures.
Research . . eee ay Tt id NDT CORO
Periodicals and παν Tas airy e ah eae ee 2 Nae 232.75
Bogus ena Mindings. og acl eae ve ak ee 50.69
Ἐπ P AOU τ mags ee cot were ve τν ων 388.48
ME τ τς es eob ce, witht kU Seek met vie esol OS 350.00
Sundries . . . Be seca 287.80
Income transferred 2 eer Sd Ar aN Oe 142.54
Balance April 30, 1910
C. M. Warren Funp.
Receipts.
Balance, April: 30,1909-—~. iG ee $8495
Wamentments roi sb oe eat ee So Fee 406.41
567
$5,522.98
$4,547.35
975.83"
$5,522.98
$5,186.57
$3,827.26
1,359.31
$5,186.57
$951.36
568 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Expenditures.
Research . .
Vault rent (part) ; 4
Income transferred to principal
Charged to reduce premium on bonds
Balance, April 30, 1910
PUBLICATION Funp.
Receipts.
Balance, April 30, 1909 :
Appleton Fund investments .
Centennial Fund investments
Sale of publications
Expenditures.
Publication ΕΟ oe
Vault rent (part)
Income transferred to ἘΠ ἢ
Balance, April 80, 1910 .
$100.00
4.00
$692.99
618.82
2,312.17
402.43
$2,545.02
12.50
146.94
The following reports were also presented : —
REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN.
$167.88
783.48
$951.36
$4,026.41
$2,704.46
1,321.95
$4,026.41
The work of cataloguing the library has progressed during the past
year, and is now almost completed. Το alcoves of Society pub-
lications, half the dictionaries and the bibliography, only, remain
uncatalogued.
There is now no more room for books in the stack-building, and if
we remain in this house, shelving must be put up in the house —
which is not fire-proof — or another story must be added to the stack-
building.
The number of bound volumes in the library at the last report was
29,911.
1105 volumes have been added during the past year, making
the number of bound volumes now on the shelves 31,016. The num-
ber of volumes added includes 990 gifts and exchanges, 70 purchased
by the General Fund, and 48 by the Rumford Fund.
86 volumes have been borrowed from the library by 30 persons,
including 19 Fellows.
All books borrowed during the year have been returned, except 11,
δον οὐδ νων, δ ...«
a
RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 569
5 of which were borrowed within two weeks ; and of the 8 remaining
out at the last report, all have been returned except 3.
The expenses charged to the library are as follows: Miscellaneous,
$506.70 (which includes $153.13 for cataloguing) ; Binding, $738.25
General, and $84.55 Rumford, Funds; Periodical subscriptions,
$446.64 General, and $164.68 Rumford, Funds; making a total of
$1184.89 for the General, and $249.23 for the Rumford, Funds, as the
cost of subscriptions and binding.
Of the appropriation of $50 from the Rumford Fund, plus $68.86,
the unexpended balance from last year, $50.69 has been paid for Books
and binding.
A. Lawrence Rotcu, Librarian.
May 11, 1910.
ΒΈΡΟΒΤ OF THE RumFoRD COMMITTEE.
The following grants in aid of researches on light and heat have
been made by the Rumford Committee during the year 1909-10 : —
June 9, 1909. Professor W. W. Campbell of the Lick Observa-
tory, for the purchase of certain parts of a quartz spectrograph $300
Professor M. A. Rosanoff, of Clark University, in further aid
of his research on the fractional distillation of binary mixtures. 200
October 13, 1909. Professor L. R. Ingersoll, of the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin, for the continuation of his work on the opti-
cal constants of metals, additional . . 300
December 8, 1909. Professor Joel Stebbing: ie the Diver.
sity of Illinois, in further aid of his researches with the selenium
photometer. . 300
Professor W. W. Campbell, of the Lick Oicarvatary. 4 in τ
therance of his researches on the polariscope study of the solar
corona by means of a Hartmann photometer, additional. . . 125
February 9, 1910. Professors C. E. Mendenhall, of the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, and Augustus Trowbridge, of Princeton .
University, in aid of their research on ether drift upon the inten-
sity of radiation . . . 250
Professor C. E. Mendenhall, in retorts of a ickeaeh on
free expansion of gases, additional . . 250
Mr. Frank W. Very, for the purchase of Sede hie glass
plates of the spectrum from George Higgs, London, a sum not
toexceed . 50
Professor M. De K. Thompson, of the Massachusetts Tastifute
of Technology, in aid of his research on the high temperature
equilibrium of the system of materials employed industrially in
the carbide process for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. . 100
570 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
It was voted on February 9, 1910, that the sum of $250 be granted
to Professor Gilbert N. Lewis, in aid of the preparation of abstracts
of publications on light and heat for the forthcoming International
Physico-chemical Tables.
On March 9, 1910, it was voted to appropriate the sum of $100 for
the purchase and binding of periodicals for the library, a consider-
able number of back volumes of several periodicals including a complete
set of the Physikalische Zeitschrift having been secured : this sum to
be paid from the amount available for use at the discretion of the
Committee.
The following papers have been published in the Proceedings of the
Academy during the present year at the expense of the Rumford
Fund.
Vol. 45, No. 8. ‘On the Applicability of the Law of Corresponding
States to the Joule-Thomson Effect in Water and Carbon Dioxide.”
By Harvey N. Davis.
Vol. 45, No. 9.“ Notes on Certain Thermal Properties of Steam.”
By Harvey N. Davis.
Vol. 45, No. 10. ‘The Spectrum of a Carbon Compound in the
Region of Extremely Short Wave-Lengths.” By Theodore Lyman.
Vol. 45, No. 18. “On the Equilibrium of the System consisting of
Lime, Carbon, Calcium Carbide and Carbon Monoxide.” By Maurice
De K. Thompson.
Reports of the progress of researches which have been aided by
grants from the Rumford Fund have been received from Messrs P. W.
Bridgman, W. W. Campbell, A. L. Clark, W. J. Fisher, E. B. Frost,
L. R. Ingersoll, N. A. Kent, F. E. Kester, C. E. Mendenhall, R. 8.
Minor, J. A. Parkhurst, M. A. Rosanoff, F. A. Saunders, J. Stebbins,
Ἐν A. Very.
At a meeting of the Committee held on February 9th, it was unan-
imously voted for the first time, and at a meeting held on March 9th,
for the second time, to recommend to the Academy, the award of the
Rumford Premium to Charles Gordon Curtis for his improvements in
the utilization of heat as work in the steam-turbine.
CHARLES R. Cross, Chairman.
May 11, 1910.
Report oF THE ©. M. WARREN COMMITTEE.
The C. M. Warren Committee beg leave to report that grants have
been made during the past year to the following persons, in aid of the
researches specified : —
ES
|
|
RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 571
Dr. J. Elliott Gilpin, Johns Hopkins University, for the
study of the nature and source of petroleum. . LAU of LOD
Dr. E. W. Washburn, University of Illinois, for the coueoat!
tion of an adiabatic calorimeter for the measurement of heats of
dilution and of solution. . EDO
The research by Professor A. Υ͂. ‘Foote, Ἢ Yale uae on the
“ Nature of Precipitated Colloids,” in aid of which a grant of $300 was
made by the Warren Committee in 1909, has been published.
Reports of progress have been received from Dr. Frederic Bonnet,
Jr., and from Dr. J. Elliott Gilpin in regard to researches for which
money has been contributed from the Warren Fund, and the results of
both these investigations it is hoped will be published during the com-
ing year.
Lronarp P. Kinnicutt, Chairman.
May 11, 1910.
REPORT OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE.
Between May 1, 1909, and May 1, 1910, there were published nine
numbers of Volume XLIV. (Nos. 18-26) and fifteen numbers of Vol-
ume XLV. of the Proceedings. In Volume XLIV. there were included
two biographical notices. ‘The total publication amounted to 714 + v
pages, with four plates, of which three numbers (Nos. 8, 9, 10 of
Volume XLV.) have been paid for by the income of the Rumford Fund.
Five numbers of the Proceedings are in press, of which one number
(No. 18) has been authorized by the Rumford Committee to be
published at the expense of the Rumford Fund.
There was available for the use of the Committee on Publication an
unexpended balance from last year of $110.96, an appropriation of
$2500, and an amount of $378.55 from the sale of publications up to
March 4, 1910, —3in all $2989.51 from the Publication Fund. Bills
against this fund to the amount of $2545.02 have been approved by
the Chairman of the Committee, and have been submitted to the
Treasurer. This leaves an unexpended balance of $444.49.
Bills aggregating $388.48, incurred in publishing Rumford papers,
have been forwarded to the Rumford Committee.
G. W. Pierce, Acting Chairman.
May 11, 1910.
Report oF THE House CoMMITTEE.
During the year 1909-10 the House has been occupied as heretofore
with the exception of the first floor, which has been vacant since
δ. PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
November 17th. It has not been let because tenants could not be
given a lease of any length of time.
On the first of May, 1909, there was a balance of $109.45 to the
credit of the House Expenses appropriation, and at the annual meeting
of May 12, 1900, $1450 was appropriated, making an amount of
$1559.45 for use during the year.
Of this amount, $1358.10 has been expended for current expenses,
leaving a balance of $201.36 toward the expenses of the coming year.
The woodwork on the outside of the house should be painted, and
the windows re-puttied and painted, if the building is to be occupied
another winter. In anticipation of the gift of Mr. Agassiz, this was
not done last autumn as it should have been.
Wiiiam R. Ware, Chairman.
May 11, 1910.
FINANCIAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
The income for the year 1910-11, as estimated by the Treasurer, is
as follows : —
G Ε Investinents ς- - τ... wo SL, 66094
ENERAL UND) Agcosswienta.<.- 5-1. ..n2.. 1,800.00. $3460.95
Appleton Fund . . . . $614.82
PUBLICATION FUND) Centennial Fund . . . 2,312.17 $2,926.99
Rumrorp Funp Investments “3. {τ 02). ~ 2 ig SaaS
Warren Funp Investments . . ὩΣ $329.78
The above estimates, less 5 per τ Ε he aaded to the capital,
leave an income available for appropriation as follows : —
[Income : - + $3,287.90
General Fund Unagerapeated 1909- 10 ἜΣΕΙ 440.08
ἐθιρχράι δά ει ενδ᾽ tion, 1909-10 534.95 $4,263.53
Publication: Fund.* > je 5 sc Sik τ ες Cae, eee
ἘΠ ΟΣ ΗΝ τ ie J a a ee eee
WarrensPund? “05 ὦ 8 eo Bee 5 ot eee 313.29
The following appropriations are recommended : —
GENERAL Funp.
Honse:expenses(: os So teen ete ee eile
Library expenses . cee eS er eas ΚΤ, Τ᾽
Books, periodicals, and aiding: δ τὰ bey tal 900
Expenses ‘of. nieetih gs. πολιοῦ 32% chy ie tee 150
Treasurer’s.ofiee: Ὁ o> LAS ΣΑΣ eel ey aoe 150 $3,800
— ee ee ee
—_—-
ee
RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 573
Pusiication Funp.
Publication SO Nay et Ee So $2,500
Rumrorp Funp.
Promaanchiy: 0c. ihe ne art ce. oe et oe δε δ ἢ OOO
Pemouiesls and: DINGS ay aks He) es 150
aoscanduaindingas, | aly πρὸ ee it ss 50
LED SGI TOM Re Re a ΡΝ 700
To be used at discretion of Committee .... . 800
To be used at discretion of Committee, the unex-
pended balance of 1909-10 . , . . . .. 350 $3,050
Warren Funp.
Eee SET Ale Rian PA AHN She Δ τ κόρ ν Tt Po κότος: $300
In accordance with the recommendation in the foregoing
report it was
Voted, To appropriate for the purposes named the following
sums : —
From the income of the General Fund, $3800.
From the income of the Publication Fund, $2500.
From the income of the Rumford Fund, $3050.
From the income of the Warren Fund, $300.
On motion of the Treasurer, it was
Voted, That the assessment for the ensuing year be ten
dollars ($10).
On the recommendation of the Rumford Committee, it was
Voted, To award the Rumford Premium to Charles Gordon
Curtis for his improvements in the utilization of heat as work
in the steam-turbine.
The annual election resulted in the choice of the following
officers and committees : —
JOHN TROWBRIDGE, President.
Evisu THOMSON, Vice-President for Class I.
Henry P. Watcort, Vice-President for Class II.
JOHN C. GRAY, Vice-President for Class III.
EpwINn H. HALL, Corresponding Secretary.
ΠΑΝ Watson, Recording Secretary.
CHARLES P. BownitcH, Treasurer.
A. LAWRENCE ΒΟΤΟΗ, Librarian.
574 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
Councillors for Three Years.
Hammonp V. Hayes, of Class I.
Merritt L. FERNALD, of Class II,
Henry H. Eps, of Class III.
Finance Committee.
JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
Euiot C. CLARKE,
FRANCIS BARTLETT,
- Rumford Committee.
CHARLES R. Cross, ARTHUR G. WEBSTER,
EDWARD C. PICKERING, ELigu THoMson,
Erasmus D Leavitt, THEODORE W. RICHARDS,
Louis BELL.
O. M. Warren Committee.
LEONARD P. Kinnicutt, THroporEe W. RICHARDS,
Henry P. Tabor, ARTHUR A. NOYES,
CHARLES R. SANGER, GeEoRGE D. Moors,
JAMES Εἰ. Norris,
The following Standing Committees were chosen: —
Publication Committee.
Gerorce W. Pierce, of Class I.
Wa rer B. Cannon, of Class IT.
ALBERT A. Howarp, of Class III.
Library Committee.
Harry M. Goopwin, of Class I.
SamucL HENsHAW, of Class II.
Henry W. Haynes, of Class III.
Auditing Committee.
Henry H. Epes, FREDERIC J. STIMSON.
ii i i i tk i
RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 575
House Committee.
ArtHuR G. WEBSTER, A. LAWRENCE ΕΟΤΟΗ,
Louis Derr.
The following gentlemen were elected Fellows of the
Academy : —
Roland Burrage Dixon, of Cambridge, as Resident Fellow in
Class III., Section 2 (Philology and Archeology).
Archibald Cary Coolidge, of Boston, as Resident Fellow in
Class III., Section 3 (Political Economy and History).
Worthington Chauncey Ford, of Boston, as Resident Fellow
in Class III., Section 3 (Political Economy and History).
Edward Caldwell Moore, of Cambridge, as Resident Fellow in
Class III., Section 4 (Literature and the Fine Arts).
Sir David Gill, of London, as Foreign Honorary Member in
Class I., Section 1 (Mathematics and Astronomy).
At his request, Robert Wheeler Willson, of Cambridge, Resi-
dent Fellow in Class I, Section 2, was transferred to Class I.,
Section 1.
On motion of E. C. Pickering the nominations for Associate
Fellowship were referred back to the Council.
Professor Robert W, Willson gave a communication on Halley’s
Comet.
The following papers were presented by title : —
“On the Magnitude of an Error which usually Affects the
Results of Magnetic Tests upon Iron and Steel Rings.” By
B. O. Peirce.
“The Effects of Sudden Changes in the Inductances of Certain
Forms of Electric Circuits and their Mechanical Analogies.” By
B. O. Peirce.
“The Influence of the Magnetic Characteristics of the Iron
Core of an Induction Coil upon the Manner of Establishment of
a Steady Current in the Primary Circuit.” By B. O. Peirce.
“The Effect of the Damping due to the Surrounding Medium
upon the Form of the Oscillations of a Swinging Body.” By B.O.
Peirce.
“ Some Illustrations of the Effects of Sudden Changes in the
Resistances of Inductive Circuits.” By B. O. Peirce.
576 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
“The Forms of the Magnetic Diagrams for Low Fields of Cer-
tain very Pure Kinds of Soft Iron which at very High Excita-
tions show extraordinarily Large Values of I.” By B. O. Peirce.
“ The Reactions of Earthworms to Acids.” By 8S. H. Hurwitz.
Presented by E. L. Mark.
“On the Electromagnetic and the Thermomagnetic Effects in
Soft Iron.” By Edwin H. Hall and L. L. Campbell.
att cided ee
——- wee
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR ΙΟ010-11.
PRESIDENT.
JOHN TROWBRIDGE.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
Class I. Class II. Class III.
ELIHU THOMSON, HENRY P. WALCOTT, Joun Ὁ. GRAY.
CORRESPONDING SECRETARY.
EpwIn H. HALL. )
RECORDING SECRETARY.
WILLIAM WATSON.
TREASURER.
CHARLES P. BOWDITCH.
LIBRARIAN.
A. LAWRENCE ROTCH.
COUNCILLORS.
Class I. Class II. Class III.
WILLIAM L. ΗΟΟΡΕΚ, HAROLD C. ERNST, FREDERIC J. STIMSON.
Terms expire 1911.
WILLIAM R. LIVERMORE, THEOBALD SMITH, CHARLES R. LANMAN.
Terms expire 1912.
HAMmMonpD V. Hays, MERRITT L. FERNALD, Henry H. EDEs.
Terms exptre 1913.
COMMITTEE OF FINANCE.
JOHN TROWBRIDGE, EvioT C. CLARKE, FRANCIS BARTLETT.
RUMFORD COMMITTEE.
CHARLES R. Cross, Chairman,
Erasmus Ὁ. LEAVITT, EDWARD C. PICKERING, ELIHU THOMSON,
ARTHUR G. WEBSTER, THEODORE W. RICHARDS, Louis BELL.
Cc. M. WARREN COMMITTEE.
LEONARD P. KINNICUTT, Chairman,
HENRY P. TALBOT, THEODORE W. RICHARDS, GEORGE D. Moore,
CHARLES R. SANGER, ARTHUR A. NOYES, JAMEs F. Norris.
COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION.
GEORGE W. PIERCE, of Class I, Chairman,
WALTER B. CANNON, of Class IT, ALBERT A. HOWARD, of Class III.
COMMITTEE ON THE LIBRARY.
A. LAWRENCE ROTCH, Chairman,
Harry M. Goopwin, of Class I, SAMUEL HENSHAW, of Class II,
Henry W. Haynes, of Class III,
AUDITING COMMITTEE.
Henry H. EDEs, FREDERIC J. STIMSON.
HOUSE COMMITTEE.
ARTHUR G. WEBSTER, Chairman.
A. LAWRENCE ROTCH, Louis DERR.
ie Sst
OF THE
FELLOWS AND FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.
(Corrected to July 20, 1910.)
RESIDENT FELLOWS.—195.
(Number limited to two hundred.)
Crass I.— Mathematical and Physical Sciences. — 79.
Section I. — Mathematics and Astronomy. — 13.
Solon Irving Bailey .
William Elwood Byerly
Seth Carlo Chandler
Cambridge
Cambridge
. Wellesley Hills
Percival Lowell : Boston
Edward Charles Pickering Cambridge
William Henry Pickering Cambridge
Arthur Searle . ἜΤ Cambridge
William Edward Story . Worcester
Henry Taber . : Worcester
Harry Walter Tyler Boston
Oliver Clinton Wendell Cambridge
Robert Wheeler Willson Cambridge
Paul Sebastian Yendell Dorchester
Section II. — Physics. — 27,
Alexander Graham Bell
. Washington
Louis Bell . Ser Boston
Clarence John Blake Boston
Francis Blake . sae Weston
George Ashley Campbell New York
Harry Ellsworth Clifford . Newton
Charles Robert Cross Brookline
580 RESIDENT FELLOWS.
Louis Derr ὃ
Alexander Wilmer Dutt
Arthur Woolsey Ewell
Harry Manley Goodwin
Edwin Herbert Hall
Hammond Vinton Hayes .
William Leslie Hooper
William White Jacques
Frank Arthur Laws
Henry Lefavour .
Theodore Lyman
Charles Ladd Norton .
Benjamin Osgood Peirce .
George Washington Pierce
Abbott Lawrence Rotch
Wallace Clement Sabine .
John Stone Stone
Elihu Thomson .
John Trowbridge :
Arthur Gordon Webster .
Section ILI. — Chemistry. — 21.
Gregory Paul Baxter
Arthur Messinger Comey .
James Mason Crafts
Charles William Eliot .
Henry Fay
Charles Loring J aoe
Walter Louis Jennings
Leonard Parker Kinnicutt
Gilbert Newton Lewis.
Charles Frederic Mabery .
George Dunning Moore
James Flack Norris
Arthur Amos Noyes
Robert Hallowell Richards
Theodore William Richards .
Charles Robert Sanger
Stephen Paschall Sharples
Francis Humphreys Storer .
Henry Paul Talbot .
William Hultz Walker
Charles Hallet Wing
. Brookline
. Worcester
. Worcester
Roxbury
Cambridge
Cambridge
Somerville
Newton
. Boston
- Boston
. Brookline
. Boston
Cambridge
Cambridge
. Boston
. Boston
. Boston
Swampscott
Cambridge
- Worcester
Cambridge
. Chester, Pa.
. Boston
Cambridge
. Boston
Cambridge
. Worcester
. Worcester
. Boston
. Cleveland
Worcester
- Boston
. Boston
Jamaica Plain
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
. Boston
Newton
Newton
. Boston
————O τὴς ὴνδο
RESIDENT FELLOWS.
581
Section IV. — Technology and Engineering. — 18.
Comfort Avery Adams
Alfred Edgar Burton .
Eliot Channing Clarke
Heinrich Oscar Hofman .
Ira Nelson Hollis
Lewis Jerome Johnson
Arthur Edwin Kennelly .
Gaetano Lanza . :
Erasmus Darwin Leavitt .
William Roscoe Livermore .
Hiram Francis Mills
Cecil Hobart Peabody .
Andrew Howland Russell
Albert Sauveur .
Peter Schwamb .
Henry Lloyd Smyth
George Fillmore Swain
William Watson
Cambridge
- Boston
. Boston
Jamaica Plain
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
. Boston
Cambridge
New York
. Lowell
. Brookline
Paris
Cambridge
. Arlington
Cambridge
- Boston
. Boston
Crass 1]. -- Natural and Physiological Sciences. — 60
Section I. — Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe. — 16.
Henry Helm Clayton .
Algernon Coolidge .
William Otis Crosby
Reginald Aldworth Daly .
William Morris Davis .
Benjamin Kendall Emerson .
Oliver Whipple Huntington .
Robert Tracy Jackson .
Thomas Augustus Jaggar, Jr. .
Douglas Wilson Johnson .
Charles Palache .
John Elliott Pillsbury .
Robert DeCourecy Ward
Charles Hyde Warren
John Eliot Wolff
Jay Backus Woodworth .
- Milton
. Boston
Jamaica Plain
Cambridge
Cambridge
Amherst
Newport
Cambridge
. Brookline
Cambridge
Cambridge
Washington
Cambridge
Auburndale
Cambridge
Cambridge
582 RESIDENT FELLOWS.
Section II. — Botany. — 11.
Frank ‘Shipley’Colling 940.9% 0.. 3.026. 2 at eee len
William ‘Gilson Farlow. ὦ io 302 4 3 52 oe oe eee ΘΟ ΑΥΠΒΡΙσΒ
Charles :Edward Faxon ὁ 5025205) τ τὖ So ce Ὁ areca
Merritt Lyndon Fernald . . . . - - +--+ =. - + + «= Cambridge
George Lincoln Goodale . . . . . . +--+ + + + + + Cambridge
John.George Jack f->. 5 SS ss 4 oe +s Ss 3 Samaies Flam
Edward Charles Jeffrey ὁπ πὶ 8-2. 2.2...) (7) (Cambridge
Benjamin Lincoln Robinson . - .... τ - + . Cambridge
Charles Sprague Sargent. . : τς .. -. . =. - - Brookline
Arthur Bliss Seymour ; ὁ ς aoa be Sa oe oe Or ee απο
Roland Dhaxter: πὲ oe eet Gwe, Oe een
Section III. — Zodlogy and Physiology. — 23.
Bohert Amory τς τὺ © ls Ὁ Στὸν ae © ie ἘΥΒΘΝΠΩΝ
Francis Gano Benédiet= - τὺὖ ὉΠ ποτ πὸ το τ τς τ ΒοΒυΘε
Henry Pickering Bowditch . . . . . - . τς οὖς Jamaica Plain
William Browster τ <a. 275 0 se oe Wen Ge nee ne ee
Louis Cabot . . . de Tage ape ρὸν τὸ es CO
Walter Bradford ἐπ στ ὩΣ ΡΣ RE gh ose OE Te
William Ernest Castle< 24 S22) « Gere ee το Cambridge
Samuel Fessenden Clarke ΄. ... - . 2% «5 % ... \2*- Williamstown
William Thomas ΟΠ ΠΟΙ πῆ ss. <->. sc <3 ie pe ee
Harold-Clarence Ernst. . 2-203 < >. so eis OS ἀλη ΒΙ απ
Sammel.blenshaw’: τς τότ΄. eso ee ee ee
Edward. Lanrens Mark <2.) 6 0406 « 2 20S) sas). απ
Charles Sedgwick Minot... 29. 2. ss ho ee a 0
Edward Sylvester Morse. . 20625 2 Fe, 4 DE se ee πἰστ
George Howard Parker... - 9. 250. 3. 3 Gambrigee
James Jackson Putian sic cos Se es i oe ie ee ee
Herbert Wilbur Rand. ὁ <2... 3 66%) 6 5.5 a , Cambados
Samuel Hubbard’'Scudder ...°. .-~ . 2.4 < 5 | = Cambriage
‘William Thompson Sedgwick . . 2. τοῦ 15s. 52) 43>.) a nn
‘William. Morton Wheeler 9. Ss 3 “2 τ ee
James Clarke Whute-..< e060 5 PS a ee ee
Harris Hawthorne Wilder . . . . . . . . =. =. . Northampton
William McMichael Woodworth . ... - - . . . . Cambridge
Section IV.— Medicine and Surgery.—10.
Edward Hickling Bradford .. . . 1. . « « «:% « » ss Boston
Agthun Tracy Cabot: e201. srs) yf fet ee ee en ae τ 5 πε τ
Reginald Heber Pitz 0°30 Fe τἰς ee ee os ea ere
RESIDENT FELLOWS.
Samuel Jason Mixter .
William Lambert Richardson
Theobald Smith aelee
Oliver Fairfield Wadsworth .
Henry Pickering Walcott
John Collins Warren .
Francis Henry Williams .
583
. Boston
. Boston
Jamaica Plain
. Boston.
Cambridge
. Boston:
- Boston
Crass III.— Moral and Political Sciences. — 56.
Section I.— Philosophy and Jurisprudence. —7.
Joseph Henry Beale
John Chipman Gray
Francis Cabot Lowell .
Hugo Miinsterberg
Josiah Royce :
Frederic Jesup Stimson
Samuel Williston
Cambridge
. Boston
. Boston:
Cambridge
Cambridge
Dedham
Belmont
Section II. — Philology and Archeology. — 19.
Charles Pickering Bowditch .
Lucien Carr . meas
Franklin Carter .
Roland Burrage Dixon
Jesse Walter Fewkes .
William Watson Goodwin
Henry Williamson Haynes
Albert Andrew Howard .
Charles Rockwell Lanman
David Gordon Lyon
Clifford Herschel Moore .
George Foot Moore .
Charles Pomeroy Parker .
Frederick Ward Putnam .
Edward Robinson F
Edward Stevens Sheldon .
Herbert Weir Smyth .
Franklin Bache Stephenson .
John Williams White .
Jamaica Plain:
Cambridge
New Haven
Cambridge
Washington
Cambridge
. Boston
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
New York
Cambridge
Cambridge
. Boston
Cambridge
584 RESIDENT FELLOWS.
Section III.— Political Economy and History. —12.
Charles Francis Adams
Thomas Nixon Carver
Archibald Cary Coolidge .
Andrew McFarland Davis
Ephraim Emerton . :
Worthington Chauncey F ma
Abner Cheney Goodell
Henry Cabot Lodge
Abbott Lawrence Lowell .
James Ford Rhodes
Charles Card Smith
Frank William Taussig
Section IV.— Literature and the Fine Arts. —18.
Francis Bartlett .
Arlo Bates “Pte 4
Le Baron Russell Bago :
Henry Herbert Edes
Arthur Fairbanks .
William Wallace Fenn -
Kuno Francke
Edward Henry Hall
Thomas Wentworth Higginson
George Lyman Kittredge
Gardiner Martin Lane
William Coolidge Lane
Edward Caldwell Moore .
James Hardy Ropes
Denman Waldo Ross .
William Robert Ware
Herbert Langford Warren
Barrett Wendell
Lincoln
Cambridge
- Boston
Cambridge
Cambridge
- Boston
. Salem
Nahant
Cambridge
. Boston
- Boston
Cambridge
. Boston
. Boston
Cambridge
Cambridge
. Boston
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
. Boston
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
- Milton
Cambridge
. Boston
585
ASSOCIATE FELLOWS.
ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. — 80.
(Number limited to one hundred.)
Crass I.— Mathematical and Physical Sciences. —31.
Section I.— Mathematics and Astronomy. — 12.
Edward Emerson Barnard
Sherburne Wesley Barnham
George Davidson Ξ
Fabian Franklin
George William Hill
Edward Singleton Holden
Emory McClintock .
Williams Bay, Wis.
Williams Bay, Wis.
San Francisco
. Baltimore
. West Nyack, N. Y.
West Point
Morristown, N. J.
Eliakim Hastings Moore . Chicago
Charles Lane Poor . New York
George Mary Searle . Washington
Vesto Melvin Slipher . . Flagstaff, Ariz.
John Nelson Stockwell . Cleveland
Section II. — Physics. —6.
ΠΗ τιν se. τῷ νὴ ὑπ af Providence
George Ellery Hale Pasadena, Cal.
Thomas Corwin Mendenhall Worcester
Albert Abraham Michelson . Chicago
Edward Leamington Nichols . Ithaca
Michael Idvorsky Pupin . New York
Section III. — Chemistry. — 7.
Frank Austin Gooch : New Haven
Eugene Waldemar Hilgard . Berkeley
John William Mallet .
Edward Williams Morley
Charlottesville, Va.
. West Hartford, Conn.
Charles Edward Munroe. . ... . Washington
John Ulric Nef . Chicago
Ira Remsen Baltimore
586 ASSOCIATE FELLOWS.
Section IV. — Technology and Engineering. — 6.
Henry Larcom Abbot... 9.) το 5 se eee eee Oambridse
Cyrus Ballou Comstock . . . - - +... . s . « -. New York
William-Price Craighill) τ τ πΠ ον μαι δι τς Wa Va.
ΒΗ, ΕἸ τος ae αν eee beuhlehemmplaas
Frederick Remsen Hatton ol he στρ ik Dm pS ie Ne Gea Cole toe
Robert Simpson Woodward... . + . »« « τ . « « +» New York
Crass II.— Natural and Physiological Sciences. — 31.
Section I. — Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe. — 9.
CleyelandAbbe , x. <.. τυ τ το. a τὴν ct ΟΠ ΡΟΝ
George Jarvis Brush . -. Pye Be Os ek ae 0 ae eae
Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin ΟΣ ek ke A es ee
Edward Salisbury Dana... . 9. 6 % ¢ . τ «ep NewlHaven
Walter Gould Davis. js) = es sw oo. 8) US ροῦν ares
Samuel Franklin Emmons . . ...- -. . + + + ~- - Washington
Grove KarliGilbort.. 2... Sa a a oe ee oe
Raphael Pumpelly 15-048 28s es ek one oe ee
Charles Doolittle Waleoté . . . . » . - . s ~ » τ Washington
Section II. — Botany. —6.
Liberty Hyde Bailey . . πο tae tas SR RS aes el ie a
Douglas Houghton Campbell on i tw τ οὗ ede boca ng, δ το ἐν ΠΟ Δ Ι9
John Μοδ ΟΟΌ ΕΠ... 0 -0ὍὙὍ7πὦΨοὁΠ[ἐρτ τς Se eee eae
Cyrus Guernsey Pringle . . . . τς + ++ + ~- + Charlotte, Vt.
John: Donnell Smith: (70... ws τς eb ΟΣ eae
William Drolease, <.0p2, 4 τὴς, >. le eee Ue ws) wh pee es We a
Section III. — Zodlogy and Physiology. — 8.
‘
Joel*Asaph’ Allen 9:5. 2. τ τὺ ey ee ; °.. Wew York
Charles Benedict Davenport . . - - - - Cold 1 Spring Harbor, N. Y.
Franklin Paine’ ΜΆΠ τ > ὐπὸ τ κυ ον . a.) ΒΆΙΠΠΙΟΙΒ
Silas. Weir! ΜΙ ΟΠΕΙΝ τοῖς τ a Te ee ree) Rina ἜΣ
Henry Fairfield Osborn +... 2. oe. wn ES) Pe τυ:
Addison Emory Verrill . . . . . ... + + + + + New Haven
Charles Otis Whitman: *2..< 520°) 5-02 eke ew Sot oes ee
Edmund Beecher ‘Wilson «. . 0.007 40. Sore ae, oe eon
ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. 587
Section IV.— Medicine and Surgery. — 8.
ΠΗ 5 ΠΑ ΒΡ] ΠΡ, sve fee eee Sons ae iw ei oh π atin) SNe On
VWolliam- Stewart Halsted <6. 6. J) so) Se sen ον, Baltimore
MCAD AI ACO Ri mmm eomior er rar hs) πο ΑΗ Silane Tey ay τὸ fale ΝΟ COLE
Walligm Williams Keen ν΄. τ π᾿ se Philadelphia
Wihant Osler... ΠΑ Ds Gea So Ved “sk τ ORO
Theophil Mitchell Pr nation τι τι Dias | CNY One
Minivan Henry Welch! a. si. ma τι: oh is us ke) Baltimore
Horahio Cartis Woodie eo. Segre er eee sw Philadelphia
Crass ΠῚ. ---- Moral and Political Sciences. — 18.
Section I. — Philosophy and Jurisprudence. — 4.
Joseph Hodges Choate . ... . akon ath ene a he. Nowe orks
WalliamaWirteHowey- sae teks cet oe sls, ser ya cae New Orleans
Charlesusanderspbeircem.) een ote) eae Tacs a Sones oe eee Maltordsskas
Secor ec WinALOneeeppen+ st be tak ars. a, Mees | ot 0) Lo adladelphia
Section II. — Philology and Archeology. — 6.
ΠΟΥ wight." cee 2 cecfed eps es wee a ees τον τ New Haven
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Section III. — Political Economy and History. —4.
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Section IV. — Literature and the Fine Arts. —4.
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588 FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.
FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.—6l1.
(Number limited to seventy-five.)
Crass I.— Mathematical and Physical Sciences. — 18.
Section I. — Mathematics and Astronomy. — 7.
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Section II. — Physics. — 4.
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Section III. — Chemistry. — 5.
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Section LV. — Technology and Engineering. — 3.
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Crass II.— Natural and Physiological Sciences. — 22.
Section I. — Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe. — 4.
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FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.
Section Il. — Botany. — 6.
Jean Baptiste Edouard Bornet
Adolf Engler -
Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker
Wilhelm Pfeffer
Hermann, Graf zu τὰ ἜΣ
Eduard Strasburger .
Section ΠῚ. --- Zoology and Physiology. — 5.
Ludimar Hermann
Hugo Kronecker . ἌΝ
Sir Edwin Ray Lankester .
Elias Metschnikoft
Magnus Gustav Retzius .
Section IV. — Medicine and Surgery. —7.
Emil von Behring
Sir Thomas Lauder Bunions ae
Angelo Celli :
Sir Victor Alexander Faden Horsey
Robert Koch ste
Joseph Lister, Baron Lister
Friedrich von Recklinghausen
589
. Paris
Berlin
Sunningdale
Leipsic
Strassburg
Bonn
. Konigsberg
. Bern
London
> Panis
Stockholm
. Marburg
London
. Rome
London
Berlin
London
. Strassburg
Criass III. — Moral and Political Sciences. — 20.
Section I. — Philosophy and Jurisprudence. — 4.
Arthur James Balfour
Heinrich Brunner
Albert Venn Dicey
Sir Frederick Pollock, Bae.
Section II. — Philology and Archeology. —7.
Ingram Bywater
Friedrich Delitzsch
Hermann Diels
Wilhelm Dorpfeld
Henry Jackson
Hermann Georg Jacobi .
Gaston Camille Charles Maspero.
. Prestonkirk
Berlin
Oxford
London
London
Berlin
Berlin
Athens
. Cambridge
. Bonn
. Paris
590 FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.
Secrion III. — Political Economy and History. — 5.
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Section IV. — Literature and the Fine Arts. —4.
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STATUTES AND STANDING VOTES.
STATUTES.
Adopted May 30,1854: amended September 8, 1857, November 12, 1862,
May 24, 1864, November 9, 1870, May 27, 1873, January 26, 1876,
June 16, 1886, October 8, 1890, January 11, and May 10, 1893, May
9, and October 10, 1894, March 18, April 10, and May 8, 1895, May
8, 1901, January 8, 1902, May 10, 1905, February 14 and March 14,
1906, January 13, 1909.
CHAPTER I.
Or FELLows AND -FOREIGN HoNnoRARY MEMBERS.
1. The Academy consists of Resident Fellows, Associate Fellows, and
Foreign Honorary Members. ‘They are arranged in three Classes, ac-
cording to the Arts and Sciences in which they are severally proficient,
viz.: Class I. The Mathematical and Physical Sciences ;— Class II.
The Natural and Physiological Sciences ;— Class III. The Moral and
Political Sciences. Each Class is divided into four Sections, viz. :
Class I., Section 1. Mathematics and Astronomy ;— Section 2. Physics ;
—Section 3. Chemistry ;— Section 4. Technology and Engineering.
Class IT., Section 1. Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe ;—
Section 2. Botany; Section 3. Zodlogy and Physiology ;— Section 4.
Medicine and Surgery. Class III., Section 1. Theology, Philosophy,
and Jurisprudence ; — Section 2. Philology and Archeology ; — Sec-
tion 3. Political Economy and History ;— Section 4. Literature and
the Fine Arts.
2. The number of Resident Fellows residing in the Commonwealth
of Massachusetts shall not exceed two hundred, of whom there shall not
be more than eighty in any one of the three classes. Only residents in
the Commonwealth of Massachusetts shall be eligible to election as Resi-
dent Fellows, but resident fellowship may be retained after removal from
.
592 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY
the Commonwealth. Each Resident Fellow shall pay an admission fee
of ten dollars and such annual assessment, not exceeding ten dollars,
as shall be voted by the Academy at each annual meeting. Resident
Fellows only may vote at the meetings of the Academy.
3. The number of Associate Fellows shall not exceed one hundred,
of whom there shall not be more than forty in either of the three classes
of the Academy. Associate Fellows shall be chosen from persons resid-
ing outside of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. They shall not be
liable to the payment of any fees or annual dues, but on removing within
the Commonwealth they may be transferred by the Council to resident
fellowship as vacancies there occur.
4. The number of Foreign Honorary Members shall not exceed
seventy-five; and they shall be chosen from among persons most eminent
in foreign countries for their discoveries and attainments in either of the
three departments of knowledge above enumerated. There shall not be
more than thirty Foreign Members in either of these departments.
CHAPRERS ΤΙ
OF OFFICERS.
1. There shall be a President, three Vice-Presidents, one for each
Class, a Corresponding Secretary, a Recording Secretary, a Treasurer,
and a Librarian, which officers shall be annually elected, by ballot, at
the annual meeting, on the second Wednesday in May.
2. There shall be nine Councillors, chosen from the Resident Fellows.
At each annual meeting, three Councillors shall be chosen, by ballot,
one from each Class, to serve for three years; but the same Fellow shall
not be eligible for two successive terms. The nine Councillors, with the
President, the three Vice- Presidents, the two Secretaries, the Treasurer,
and the Librarian, shall constitute the Council. Five members shall
constitute a quorum. It shall be the duty of this Council to exercise a
discreet supervision over all nominations and elections. With the con-
sent of the Fellow interested, they shall have power to make transfers
between the several sections of the same Class, reporting their action to
the Academy.
3. The Council shall at its March Meeting receive reports from the
Rumford Committee, the C. M. Warren Committee, the Committee on
Publication, the Committee on the Library, the President and Record-
OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 593
ing Secretary, and the Treasurer, proposing the appropriations for their
work during the year beginning the following May. The Treasurer at
the same meeting shall report on the income which will probably be
received on account of the various Funds during the same year.
At the Annual Meeting, the Council shall submit to the Academy,
for its action, a report recommending the appropriations which in the
opinion of the Council should be made for the various purposes of the
Academy.
4. If any office shall become vacant during the year, the vacancy shall
be filled by a new election, at the next stated meeting, or at a meeting
called for this purpose.
CHAPTER: If.
Or NOMINATIONS OF OFFICERS.
1. At the stated meeting in March, the President shall appoint a
Nominating Committee of three Resident Fellows, one for each Class.
2. It shall be the duty of this Nominating Committee to prepare a list
of candidates for the offices of President, Vice- Presidents, Corresponding
Secretary, Recording Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian, Councillors, and
the Standing Committees which are chosen by ballot; and to cause this
list to be sent by mail to all the Resident Fellows of the Academy not
later than four weeks before the Annual Meeting.
3. Independent nominations for any office, signed by at least five
Resident Fellows, and received by the Recording Secretary not less than
ten days before the Annual Meeting, shall be inserted in the call for the
Annual Meeting, which shall then be issued not later than one week
before that meeting.
4. The Recording Secretary shall prepare for use, in voting at the
Annual Meeting, a ballot containing the names of all persons nominated
for office under the conditions given above.
5. When an office is to be filled at any other time than at the Annual
Meeting, the President shall appoint a Nominating Committee in accord-
ance with the provisions of Section 1, which shall announce its nomina-
tion in the manner prescribed in Section 2 at least two weeks before
the time of election. Independent nominations, signed by at least five
Resident Fellows and received by the Recording Secretary not later
than one week before the meeting for election, shall be inserted in the
call for that meeting.
594 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY
CHAPTER: IV.
ΟΕ THE PRESIDENT.
1. It shall be the duty of the President, and, in his absence, of the
senior Vice-President present, or next officer in order as above enumer-
ated, to preside at the meetings of the Academy; to direct the Recording
Secretary to call special meetings; and to execute or to see to the execu-
tion of the Statutes of the Academy. Length of continuous membership
in the Academy shall determine the seniority of the Vice-Presidents.
2. The President, or, in his absence, the next officer as above enumer-
ated, shall nominate members to serve on the different committees of the
Academy which are not chosen by ballot.
3. Any deed or writing to which the common seal is to be affixed
shall be signed and sealed by the President, when thereto authorized
by the Academy.
ΘΑ ν.:
Or STANDING COMMITTEES.
1. At the Annual Meeting there shall be chosen the following Stand-
ing Committees, to serve for the year ensuing, viz. : —
2. The Committee on Finance to consist of three Fellows to be
chosen by ballot, who shall have, through the Treasurer, full control and
management of the funds and trusts of the Academy, with the power of
investing and of changing the investment of the same at their discretion.
3. The Rumford Committee, to consist of seven Fellows to be chosen
by ballot, who shall consider and report to the Academy on all applica-
tions and claims for the Rumford premium. They shall also report to
the Council in March of each year on all appropriations of the income of
the Rumford Fund needed for the coming year, and shall generally see
to the due and proper execution of the trust. All bills incurred on ac-
count of the Rumford Fund, within the limits of the appropriation made
by the Academy, shall be approved by the Chairman of the Rumford
Committee.
4. The C. M. Warren Committee, to consist of seven Fellows to be
chosen by ballot, who shall consider and report to the Council in March
of each year on all applications for appropriations from the income of the
C. M. Warren Fund for the coming year, and shall generally see to the due
’
on he δι
OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 595
and proper execution of the trust. All bills incurred on account of the
C. M. Warren Fund, within the limits of the appropriations made by the
Academy, shall be approved by the Chairman of the C. M. Warren
Committee.
5. The Committee on Publication, to consist of three Fellows, one
from each class, to whom all communications submitted to the Acad-
emy for publication shall be referred, and to whom the printing of the
Proceedings and Memoirs shall be entrusted. This Committee shall re-
port to the Council in March of each year on the appropriations needed
for the coming year. ll bills incurred on account of publications, within
the limits of the appropriations made by the Academy, shall be approved
by the Chairman of the Committee on Publication.
6. The Committee on the Library, to consist of the Librarian ex
officio, and three other Fellows, one from each class, who shall examine
the Library and make an annual report on its condition and management.
This Committee, through the Librarian, shall report to the Council in
March of each year, on the appropriations needed for the Library for the
coming year. All bills incurred on account of the Library, within the
limits of the appropriations made by the Academy, shall be approved by
the Librarian.
7. The House Committee to consist of three Fellows. This Com-
mittee shall have charge of all expenses connected with the House,
including the general expenses of the Academy not specifically assigned
to other Committees. ‘This Committee shall report to the Council in
March in each year on the appropriations needed for their expenses
for the coming year. All bills incurred by this Committee within the
limits of the appropriations made by the Academy shall be approved by
the Chairman of the House Committee.
8. An auditing Committee, to consist of two Fellows, for auditing the
accounts of the Treasurer, with power to employ an expert and to ap-
prove his bill.
9. In the absence of the Chairman of any Committee, bills may be
approved by a member of the Committee designated by the Chairman
for the purpose.
CHAPTER VI.
OF THE SECRETARIES,
1. The Corresponding Secretary shall conduct the correspondence of
the Academy, recording or making an entry of all letters written in its
name, and preserving on file all letters which are received; and at each
596 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY
meeting he shall present the letters which have been addressed to the
Academy since the last meeting. Under the direction of the Council,
he shall keep a list of the Resident Fellows, Associate Fellows, and
Foreign Honorary Members, arranged in their Classes and in Sections
in respect to the special sciences in which they are severally proficient ;
and he shall act as secretary to the Council.
2. The Recording Secretary shall have charge of the Charter and
Statute-book, journals, and all literary papers belonging to the Academy.
He shall record the proceedings of the Academy at its meetings; and
after each meeting is duly opened, he shall read the record of the pre-
ceding meeting. He shall notify the meetings of the Academy, apprise
officers and committees of their lection or appointment, and inform the
Treasurer of appropriations of money voted by the Academy. He shall
post up in the Hall a list of the persons nominated for election into the
Academy ; and when any individual is chosen, he shall insert in the
record the names of the Fellows by whom he was nominated.
3. The two Secretaries, with the Chairman of the Committee of
Publication, shall have authority to publish such of the records of the
meetings of the Academy as may seem to them calculated to promote
its interests.
4. Every person taking any books, papers, or documents belonging to
the Academy and in the custody of the Recording Secretary, shall give a
receipt for the same to the Recording Secretary.
CHAPTER VII.
OF THE TREASURER.
1. The Treasurer shall give such security for the trust reposed in
him as the Academy shall require.
2. He shall receive all moneys due or payable to the Academy and
all bequests and donations made to the Academy. He shall pay all bills
due by the Academy, when approved by the proper officers (except those
of the Treasurer’s office, which may be paid without such approval).
Ile shall sign all leases of real estate in the name of the Academy. All
transfers of stocks, bonds, and other securities belonging to the Academy
shall be made by the Treasurer with the written consent of one member
of the Committee of Finance. He shall keep an account of all receipts
and expenditures, shall submit his accounts annually to the Auditing
OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, 597
Committee, and shall report the same at the expiration of his term of
office or whenever called on so to do by the Academy or Council.
3. The Treasurer shall keep separate accounts of the income and
appropriation of the Rumford Fund and of other special funds, and
report the same annually.
4. The Treasurer may appoint an Assistant Treasurer to perform his
duties, for whose acts, as such assistant, the Treasurer shall be responsi-
ble ; or the Treasurer may employ any Trust Company, doing business
in Boston, as agent to perform his duties, the compensation of such As-
sistant Treasurer or agent to be paid from the funds of the Academy.
CHAPTER VIII.
OF THE LIBRARIAN AND LIBRARY.
1. It shall be the duty of the Librarian to take charge of the books,
to keep a correct catalogue of them, to provide for the delivery of books
from the Library, and to appoint such agents for these purposes as he
may think necessary. He shall make an annual report on the condition
of the Library.
2. The Librarian, in conjunction with the Committee on the Library,
shall have authority to expend such sums as may be appropriated, either
from the General, Rumford, or other special Funds of the Academy, for
the purchase of books, periodicals, etc., and for defraying other necessary
expenses connected with the Library.
3. To all books in the Library procured from the income of the
Rumford Fund, or other special funds, the Librarian shall cause a stamp
or label to be affixed, expressing the fact that they were so procured.
4. Every person who takes a book from the Library shall give a
receipt for the same to the Librarian or his assistant.
5. Every book shall be returned in good order, regard being had to
the necessary wear of the book with good usage. If any book shall
be lost or injured, the person to whom it stands charged shall replace
it by a new volume or set, if it belongs to a set, or pay the current
price of the volume or set to the Librarian ; and thereupon the remain-
der of the set, if the volume belonged to a set, shall be delivered to the
person so paying for the same.
6. All books shall be returned to the Library for examination at
least one week before the Annual Meeting.
598 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY
7. The Librarian shall have custody of the Publications of the
Academy. With the advice and consent of the President, he may effect
exchanges with other associations.
CHAPTER IX.
Or MEETINGS.
1. There shall be annually four stated meetings of the Academy ;
namely, on the second Wednesday in May (the Annual Meeting), on
the second Wednesday in October, on the second Wednesday in January,
and on the second Wednesday in March. At these meetings, only, or at
meetings adjourned from these and regularly notified, or at special meet-
ings called for the purpose, shall appropriations of money be made, or al-
terations of the statutes or standing votes of the Academy be effected.
Special meetings shall be called by the Recording Secretary at the re-
quest of the President or of a Vice-President or of five Fellows. Notifi-
cations of the special meetings shall contain a statement of the purpose
for which the meeting is called.
"2. Fifteen Resident Fellows shall constitute a quorum for the trans-
action of business at a stated or special meeting. Seven Fellows shall
be sufficient to constitute a meeting for scientific communications and
discussions.
3. The Recording Secretary shall notify the meetings of the Academy
to each Resident Fellow; and he may cause the meetings to be adver-
tised, whenever he deems such further notice to be needful.
CHAPTER X.
OF THE ELECTION OF FELLOWS AND HoNoRARY MEMBERS.
1. Elections shall be made by ballot, and only at stated meetings.
2. Candidates for election as Resident Fellows must be proposed by
two Resident Fellows of the section to which the proposal is made, in
a recommendation signed by them; and this recommendation shall be
transmitted to the Corresponding Secretary, and by him referred to the
Council. No person recommended shall be reported by the Council as a
es δὰ
OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, 599
candidate for election, unless he shall have received the approval of at
least five members of the Council present at a meeting. All nominations
thus approved shall be read to the Academy at any meeting, and shall
then stand on the nomination list until the next stated meeting, and until
the balloting. No person shall be eleeted a Resident Fellow, unless he
shall have been resident in this Commonwealth one year next preceding
his election. If any person elected a Resident Fellow shall neglect for
one year to pay his admission fee, his election shall be void; and if any
Resident Fellow shall neglect to pay his annual assessments for two
years, provided that his attention shall have been called to this article,
he shall be deemed to have abandoned his Fellowship ; but it shall be in
the power of the Treasurer, with the consent of the Council, to dispense
(sub silentio) with the payment both of the admission fee and of the
assessments, whenever in any special instance he shall think it advisable
so to do. In the case of officers of the Army or Navy who are out of
the state on duty, payment of the annual assessment may be waived
during such absence if continued during the whole official year and if
notification of such absence be sent to the Treasurer.
3. The nomination and election of Associate Fellows shall take place
in the manner prescribed in reference to Resident Fellows.
4. The nomination and election of Foreign Honorary Members shall
take place in the manner prescribed for Resident Fellows, except that
the nomination papers shall be signed by at least seven members of the
Council before being presented to the Academy.
5. Three-fourths of the ballots cast must be affirmative, and the
number of affirmative ballots must amount to eleven to effect an elec-
tion of Fellows or Foreign Honorary Members,
6. If, in the opinion of a majority of the entire Council, any Fellow —
Resident or Associate — shall have rendered himself unworthy of a
place in the Academy, the Council shall recommend to the Academy
the termination of his Fellowship; and provided that a majority of two-
thirds of the Fellows at a stated meeting, consisting of not less than
fifty Fellows, shall adopt this recommendation, his name shall be stricken
off the roll of Fellows.
CHAPTER ΧΙ.
Or AMENDMENTS OF THE STATUTES.
1. All proposed alterations of the Statutes, or additions to them, shall
be referred to a committee, and, on their report at a subsequent stated
meeting or a special meeting called for the purpose, shall require for
600 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY
enactment a majority of two-thirds of the members present, and at least
eighteen affirmative votes.
2. Standing votes may be passed, amended, or rescinded at a stated
meeting, or a special meeting called for the purpose by a majority of two-
thirds of the members present. ‘They may be suspended by a unanimous |
vote.
CHAPTER ΧΗ.
Or LITERARY PERFORMANCES,
1. The Academy will not express its judgment on literary or
scientific memoirs or performances submitted to it, or included in its
publications.
OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 601
STANDING VOTES.
1. Communications of which notice has been given to the Secretary
shall take precedence of those not so notified.
2. Associate Fellows, Foreign Honorary Members, and Resident
Fellows, who have paid all fees and dues chargeable to them, are en-
titled to receive one copy of each volume or article printed by the
Academy on application to the Librarian personally or by written order
within two years of the date of publication. Exceptions to this rule
may be made in special cases by vote of the Academy.
3. The Committee of Publication shall fix from time to time the price
at which the publications of the Academy may be sold. But members
may be supplied at half this price with volumes which they are not
entitled to receive free, and which are needed to complete their sets.
4. Two hundred extra copies of each paper accepted for publication
in the Memoirs or Proceedings of the Academy shall be placed at the
disposal of the author, free of charge.
5. Resident Fellows may borrow and have out from the Library six
volumes at any one time, and may retain the same for three months, and
no longer.
6. Upon special application, and for adequate reasons assigned, the
Librarian may permit a larger number of volumes, not exceeding twelve,
to be drawn from the Library for a limited period.
7. Works published in numbers, when unbound, shall not be
taken from the Hall of the Academy, except by special leave of the
Librarian.
8. Books, publications, or apparatus shall be procured from the
income of the Rumford Fund only on the certificate of the Rumford
Committee that they, in their opinion, will best facilitate and encourage
the making of discoveries and improvements which may merit the Rum-
ford Premium; and the approval of a bill incurred for such purposes
by the Chairman shall be accepted by the Treasurer as proof that such
certificate has been given.
9. A meeting for receiving and discussing scientific communications
may be held on the second Wednesday of each month not appointed for
stated meetings, excepting July, August, and September.
10. No report of any paper presented at a meeting of the Academy
shall be published by any member without the consent of the author,
and no report shall in any case be published by any member in a news-
paper as an account of the proceedings of the Academy.
602 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.
RUMFORD PREMIUM.
In conformity with the terms of the gift of Benjamin, Count Rumford,
granting a certain fund to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
and with a decree of the Supreme Judicial Court for carrying into effect
the general charitable intent and purpose of Count Rumford, as ex-
pressed in his letter of gift, the Academy is empowered to make from
the income of said fund, as it now exists, at any Annual Meeting, an
award of a gold and a silver medal, being together of the intrinsic value
of three hundred dollars, as a premium to the author of any important
discovery or useful improvement in light or in heat, which shall have
been made and published by printing, or in any way made known to
the public, in any part of the continent of America, or any of the
American islands; preference being always given to such discoveries
as shall, in the opinion of the Academy, tend most to promote the good
of mankind; and to add to such medals, as a further premium for such
discovery and improvement, if the Academy see fit so to do, a sum of
money not exceeding three hundred dollars.
— i -
INDEX.
Acids, The Reactions of Earthworms
to, 576.
Aero Club of America, Invitation
from, 553.
Aeroplanes, The future of, 554.
Agassiz, Alexander, Letter from, 555;
Death of, 565.
Air, Resistance of, to a Swinging
Magnet, 558.
Air Resistance to Falling Inch Spheres,
377, 560.
American Philosophical Society, Let-
ter from, 553, 560.
American Scientific Congress, 565.
Ames, J. B., Death of, 559.
Amphibians, The Reactions of, to
Light, 159, 559.
Antimony, The Quantitative Deter-
mination of, by the Gutzeit
Method, 19, 554.
Antarctic exploration, 554, 555.
Assessment, Annual, Amount
573. :
Association des Ingénieurs Electri-
ciens sortis de l'Institut electro-
technique Montefiore, circular
from, 566.
Atomic Weight of Phosphorus, A Re-
vision of the, 135, 554.
of,
Beernaert, A., Letter from, 559.
Baxter, G. P., and Jones, G., A Re-
vision of the Atomic Weight of
Phosphorus. First Paper. — The
Analysis of Silver Phosphate, 135,
554.
Benedict, F. G., accepts Resident
Fellowship, 553.
Biddlecombe, A., Letter from, 560.
Boston £1915” Director, Circular
from, 565.
Boston “1915 Directorate Confer-
ence, 561.
Boston ‘1915’? Committee, Circular
from, 553, 560.
Bowditch, C. P., Report of Treasurer,
566.
Burlingame, E. W., Buddhaghosa’s
Dhammapada Commentary, and
the Titles of its three hundred and
ten Stories, together with an Index
thereto and an Analysis of Vaggas
I-IV., 465, 558.
Calcium Carbide. On the Equi-
librium of the System consisting of
Lime, Carbon, Calcium Carbide
and Carbon Monoxide, 429, 561.
Campbell, L. L. See Hall, Edwin H.,
and Campbell, L. L. ᾿
Carbon. On the Equilibrium of the
System consisting of Lime, Car-
bon, Calcium Carbide and Carbon
Monoxide, 429, 561.
Carbon Compound, The Spectrum of
a, in the Region of Extremely
Short Wave-Lengths, 313, 558.
Carbon Dioxide, On the Applicability
of the Law of Corresponding States
to the Joule-Thomson Effect in
Water and, 241, 558.
Carbon Monoxide. On the Equilib-
rium of the System consisting of
Lime, Carbon, Calcium Carbide
and Carbon Monoxide, 429, 561.
Charter, Amendment of, 558, 562.
Chaucer, Moot Points about, 556.
Chemical Compositions, Average, of
Igneous-Rock Types, 209, 558.
Chemical Laboratory of Harvard
College, ‘Contributions from, 19,
135.
604 INDEX.
Chlorsulphonic Acid, The Prepara-
tion and Properties of, 554.
Circuits, The Equivalent, of Com-
posite Lines in the Steady State,
29, 554. :
Committees, Standing, appointed,
574; List of, 577.
Congress of Americanists, Seven-
teenth, 566.
Coolidge, A. C., elected Resident
Fellow, 575.
Council, Report of, 566; Financial
Report of, 572.
Cross, C. R., Report of the Rumford
Committee, 569.
Curtis, Charles - Gordon, awarded
Rumford Premium, 573.
Daly, R. A., Average Chemical Com-
positions of Igneous-Rock Types,
207, 588. :
Davis, H. N., Notes on Certain Ther-
mal Properties of Steam, 265, 558.
On the Applicability of the Law of
Corresponding States to the Joule-
Thomson Effect in Water and
Carbon Dioxide, 241, 558.
Davis, W. M., The Italian Riviera
Levante, 561.
Derr, L., Photographs of Yellowstone
National Park, 558.
Dhammapada Commentary, Buddha-
ghosa’s, 465, 558.
Dixon, R. B., elected Resident Fel-
low, 575.
Dolbear, A. E., Death of, 561.
Domalép, K., Death of, 557.
Earthworms, The Reactions of, to
Acids, 576.
Echeandia, A Preliminary Synopsis of
the Genus, 387, 560.
Edes, H. H., Some Lacunae in the
Archives of the Academy, 564.
Electric Circuits and their Mechani-
cal Analogies, The Effects of
Sudden changes in the Induc-
tances of Certain Forms of, 575.
Electrical Oscillations of a Hertz
Rectilinear Oscillator, Experiments
on the, 323, 558,
Electricity, Discharges of, through
Hydrogen, 458, 558.
Electrolysis, Some Minute Phenom-
ena of, 369, 559.
Elia De Cyon prize, 1910, 561.
Evaporation from the Surface of a
Solid Sphere, On, 361, 561. -
Ewell, A. W., accepts Resident Fel-
lowship, 553.
Fairbanks, Arthur, elected Resident
Fellow, 559; accepts Resident
Fellowship, 560.
Farlow, W. G., Delegate to Inter-
national Botanical Congress, 559.
Fellows, Associate, deceased, —
S. W. Johnson, 562.
H. C. Lea, 557.
Simon Newcomb, 554.
J. M. Ordway, 554.
W. Sellers, 562.
W. G. Sumner, 565.
Fellows, Associate, elected, —
W. A. Heidel, 559.
Fellows, Associate, List of, 585.
Fellows, Resident, deceased, —
Alexander Agassiz, 565.
J. B. Ames, 559.
M. H. Morgan, 565.
Fellows, Resident, elected, —
A. C. Coolidge, 575.
R. B. Dixon, 575.
Arthur Fairbanks, 559.
W. C. Ford, 575.
C. H. Moore, 563..-
E. C. Moore, 575.
C. P. Parker, 563.
Fellows, Resident, List of, 579.
Fenn, W. W., accepts Resident Fel-
lowship, 553.
Fernald, M. L., New and little known
Mexican Plants, chiefly Labiatae,
415, 560; Some New Factors in
Determining the Location of Wine-
land the Good, 564.
Ford, W. C., elected Resident Fellow,
575.
Foreign Honorary Members, de-
ceased, —
W. F. Kohlrausch, 562.
F. W. Maitland, 559.
ee eee eee
INDEX.
Foreign Honorary Members, elected, —
Sir David Gill, 575.
Foreign Honorary Members, List of,
588.
Foslie, M. H., Death of, 559.
Furnivall, F. J., accepts Foreign
Honorary Membership, 553.
Gases, Friction in, at Low Pressures,
1, 554.
Gases, Measurement of Pressure and
Density in, with the Micro Bal-
ance, 558.
General Fund, 567, 572; Appropria-
tions from the Income of, 573.
Gentianaceae, Spermatophytes, new
or reclassified, chiefly Rubiaceae
and, 394, 560.
Gill, Sir David, elected Foreign Hon-
orary Member, 575.
Gragg, F. A., A Study of the Greek
Epigram before 300 8. c., 561.
Gray Herbarium of Harvard Uni-
versity, Contributions from, 385.
Greek Epigram, A Study of the, be-
fore 300 8. c., 561.
Gutzeit Method, The Quantitative
Determination of Antimony by
the, 19, 554.
Hall, Edwin H., Air Resistance to
Falling Inch Spheres, 377, 560.
Hall, Edwin H., and Campbell, L. L.,
On the Electromagnetic and the
Thermomagnetic [Effects in Soft
Tron, 576.
Harvard College.
versity.
Harvard University, Invitation from,
553; Announcement of, 560.
Harvard University. See Chemical
Laboratory, Gray Herbarium, Jef-
ferson Physical Laboratory, and
Zoological Laboratory.
Heidel, W. A., elected Associate Fel-
low, 559; accepts Associate Fel-
lowship, 560.
Heidel, W. A., Περὲ Φύσεως, A Study
of the Conception of Nature
among the Pre-Socratics, 77, 554.
Hesse, C. A., Letter from, 553.
See Harvard Uni-
605
Historical Society of Pennsylvania,
Letter from, 565.
Hogg, J. L., Friction in Gases at Low
Pressures, 1, 554.
Hostinsky, O., Death of, 560.
House Committee, Report of, 571.
House expenses, Appropriations for,
572.
Hurwitz, S. H., The Reactions of
Earthworms to Acids, 576.
Hydrogen, Discharges of Electricity
through, 453, 558.
Inductive Circuits, Some Illustrations
of the Effects of Sudden Changes
in the Resistances of, 575.
International Agrogeological Confer-
ence, Second, 565.
International American Scientific Con-
gress, 565.
International Congress of American-
ists, 17th Congress, 555.
International Congress of Botany,
Third, 559.
International Congress of Entomol-
ogy, First, 559.
International Geological Congress,
Eleventh, 565.
International Zodlogical Congress,
Eighth, 557.
Iron, Soft, The Forms of the Magnetic
Diagrams for Low Fields of Certain
very Pure Kinds of, which at very
High Excitations show extraordi-
narily Large Values of I., 575.
Iron, Soft, On the Electromagnetic and
the Thermomagnetic Effectsin, 576.
Italian Riviera Levante, The, 561.
Jacobi, H., accepts Foreign Honor-
ary Membership, 553.
Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Con-
tributions from, 1, 241, 265, 313,
323, 337, 353, 361, 369, 377, 453.
Johnson, 5. W., Death of, 562.
Jones, G. See Baxter, ἃ. P., and
Jones, G.
Joule-Thomson Effect in Water and
Carbon Dioxide, On the Applica-
bility of the Law of Correspond-
ing States to the, 241, 558.
606 INDEX.
Kennelly, A. E., The Equivalent Cir-
cuits of Composite Lines in the
Steady State, 29, 554.
Kinnicutt, L. P., Report of C. M.
Warren Committee, 570.
Kittredge, G. L., Moot Points about
Chaucer, 556.
Kohlrausch, W. F., Death of, 562.
Labiatae, New and little known Mexi-
can Plants, chiefly, 415, 560.
Lacunae in the Archives of the Acad-
emy, 564.
Lamina, Homogeneous, The Effect of
Leakage at the Edges upon the
Temperatures within a, through
which Heat is being conducted,
353, 558.
Lane, ἃ. M., accepts Resident Fel-
lowship, 553.
Lea, H. C., Death of, 557.
Leakage, The Effect of, at the Edges
upon the Temperatures within a
Homogeneous Lamina through
which Heat is being conducted,
_ 858, 558.
Lewis, G. N., and Tolman, R. C., The
Principle of Relativity and Non-
Newtonian Mechanics, 554.
Librarian, Report of, 568.
Library, Appropriation for, 572.
Light, The Reactions of Amphibians
to, 159, 559.
Lime, On the Equilibrium of the
System consisting of Lime, Carbon,
Calcium Carbide and Carbon
Monoxide, 429, 561.
Lines, Composite, The Equivalent
Circuits of, in the Steady State,
29, 554.
Lowell, Abbott Lawrence, Inaugura-
tion, invitation to, 553; Announce-
ment of, 560.
Lowell, P., Photographs of Mars and
Saturn, 561.
Lycodpodium complanatum, Ameri-
can Forms of, 412, 560.
Lyon, D. G., Harvard Explorations
in Samaria, 560.
Lyman, Theodore, The Spectrum of a
Carbon Compound in the Region
of Extremely Short Wave-Lengths,
313, 558.
Magnet, The Resistance of the Air to
a Swinging, 558.
Magnetic Diagrams, The Forms of the,
for Low Fields of Certain very Pure
Kinds of Soft Iron which at very
High Excitations show extraordi-
narily Large Values of I., 575.
Magnetic Tests upon Iron and Steel
Rings, On the Magnitude of an
Error which usually affects the
Results of, 575.
Maitland, F. W., Death of, 559.
Mars'and Saturn, Photographs of, 561.
Massachusetts Instituteof Technology.
See Rogers Laboratory of Physics.
Mexican Phanerogams, Notes and
new Species, 422, 560.
Mexican Plants, New and _ little
known, chiefly Labiatae, 415, 560.
Micro Balance, Measurement of Pres-
sure and Density in Gases with
the, 558.
Moore, C. H., elected Resident Fel-
low, 563; accepts Resident Fel-
lowship, 565.
Moore, E. C., elected Resident Fel-
low, 575.
Morgan, M. H., Death of, 565.
Morse, H. W., Measurement of Pres-
sure and Density in Gases with
the Micro Balance, 558.
Morse, H. W., On Evaporation from
the Surface of a Solid Sphere, 361,
561; Some Minute Phenomena of
Electrolysis, 369, 559.
Museo Nacional, Mexico, 559.
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy,
Notice from Faculty of, 566.
Museum of Comparative Zodélogy at
Harvard College. See Zodlogical
Laboratory.
Museum of Fine Arts, Invitation
from, 555.
Nature, A Study of the Conception of,
among the Pre-Socratics, 77, 554.
Naval Observatory, Resolution con-
cerning, 557.
INDEX.
Newcomb, Simon, Death of, 554.
Newport, Probate Court, Notice from,
566.
Nikitin, Serge, Death of, 557.
Niles, W. H., resigns Resident Fellow-
ship, 561.
Nobel Prize, 1910, 553.
Nominating Committee, appointed,
563.
Non-Newtonian Mechanics, The Prin-
ciple of Relativity and, 554.
Officers, elected, ; 573 List of, 577.
Ordway, J. M., Death of, 554.
Oscillations of a Swinging Body, The
Effect of the Damping due to the
Surrounding Medium upon the
Form of the, 575.
Oscillator, Experiments on the Elec-
trical Oscillations of a Hertz
Rectilinear, 323, 558.
Parker, C. P., elected Resident Fel-
low, 563; accepts Resident Fel-
lowship, 565.
Pavlov, A., Letter from, 553.
Pearse, A. S., The Reactions of Am-
_ phibians to Light, 159, 559.
Peirce, B. O., The Conception of the
Derivative of a Scalar Point Func-
tion with Respect to Another Simi-
lar Function, 337, 558; The Effect
of Leakage at the Edges upon the
Temperatures within a Homo-
geneous Lamina through which
Heat is being Conducted, 353, 558;
The Effect of the Damping due to
the Surrounding Medium upon
the Form of the Oscillations of a
Swinging Body, 575; The Effects
of Sudden Changes in the induc-
tances of Certain Forms of Electric
Circuits and their Mechanical
Analogies, 575; The Forms of the
Magnetic Diagrams for Low Fields
of Certain very Pure Kinds of Soft
Tron which at very High Excita-
tions show extraordinarily Large
Values of I., 575; On the Magnitude
of an Error which usually affects
the Results of Magnetic Tests upon
607
Iron and Steel Rings, 575; The
Resistance of the Air to a Swing-
ing Magnet, 558; Some L[llustra-
tions of the Effects of Sudden
Changes in the Resistances of In-
ductive Circuits, 575.
Περὶ Φύσεως, A Study of the Concep-
tion of Nature among the Pre-
Socratics, 77, 554.
Phanerogams, Mexican — Notes and
New Species, 422, 560.
Phosphorus, A Revision of the Atomic
Weight of, 135, 554.
Pierce, G. W., Experiments on the
Electrical Oscillations of a Hertz
Rectilinear Oscillator, 323, 558;
Report of the Publication Com-
mittee, 571.
Policy Committee, 560.
Pre-Socratics, A Study of the Concep-
tion of Nature among the, 77, 554.
Publication, Appropriation for, 573.
Publication Committee, Report of,
571.
Publication Fund, 568; Appropria-
tion from, 573.
Pyrosulphuryl Chloride and Chlor-
sulphonic Acid, The Preparation
and Properties of, 554.
Records of Meetings, 553.
Relativity and Non-Newtonian Me-
chanics, The Principle of, 554.
Riegel, E. R. See Sanger, C. R., and
Riegel, E. R.
Riegel, E. R. See Sanger, ΟΣ R.,
Riegel, E. R., and Whitney, L. H.
Ritchie, John, resigns Resident Fel-
lowship, 565.
Robinson, B. L., Spermatophytes,
new or reclassified, chiefly Rubia-
ceae and Gentianaceae, 394, 560.
Rocks, Igneous, Average Chemical
Compositions of, 209, 558.
Rogers Laboratory of Physics, Con-
tributions from, 429.
Ropes, J. H., accepts Resident Fel-
lowship, 553.
Rotch, A. L., Report of Librarian,
568; Delegate to Boston ‘ 1915”
Conference, 561.
608 INDEX.
Rubiaceae and Gentianaceae, Sper-
matophytes, new or reclassified,
chiefly, 394, 560.
Rumford Committee, Report of, 569,
Reports of Progress to, 570.
Rumford Fund, 567; Appropriations
from the Income, 559, 563, 573;
Papers published by Aid of, 570.
Rumford Premium, 602; Award of,
573; Presentation of, 565.
Samaria, Harvard Explorationsin, 560.
Sanger, C. R., and Riegel, E. R., The
Quantitative Determination of An-
timony by the Gutzeit Method,
19, 554.
Sanger, C. R., Riegel, E. R., and Whit-
ney, L. H., The Preparation and
Properties of Pyrosulphuryl Chlo-
ride and Chlorsulphonie Acid, 554.
Saturn and Mars, Photographs of, 561.
Sealar Point Function, The Concep-
tion of the Derivative of a, with
Respect to another Similar Func-
tion, 337, 558.
Sellers, W., Death of, 562.
Silver Phosphate, The Analysis of,
135, 554.
Slipher, V. M., accepts Associate Fel-
owship, 565.
Spermatophytes, new or reclassified,
chiefly Rubiaceae and Gentian-
aceae, 394, 560.
Sphere, Solid, On Evaporation from
the Surface of a, 361, 561.
Spillman, W. J., Letter from, 553.
Standing Committees, appointed, 574;
List of, 577.
Standing Votes, 601.
Statutes, 591; Committee on Amend-
ment of, 564.
Steam, Notes on Certain Thermal
Properties of, 265, 558.
Sumner, W. G., Death of, 565.
Taft, President, Letter from, 561.
Thompson, M. De K., LIII.— On
the Equilibrium of the System
consisting of Lime, Carbon, Cal-
cium Carbide and Carbon Monox-
ide, 429, 561.
Tolman, R. C. See Lewis, G. N., and
Tolman, R. C.
Treasurer, Report of, 566.
Trowbridge, John, Discharges of Elec-
tricity through Hydrogen, 453, 558;
The Future of Aeroplanes, 554.
Universal Race Congress, 561.
Vaggas I-IV., An Analysis of, 465,
558.
Volterra, V., Letter from, 562.
Ware, W. R., Report of House Com-
mittee, 571.
Warren (C. M.) Committee, Report
of, 570.
Warren (C. M.) Fund, 567; Appro-
priations from the Income of, 573.
Water and Carbon Dioxide, On the
Applicability of the Law of Cor-
responding States to the Joule-
Thomson Effect in, 241, 558.
Wave-Lengths, The Spectrum of a
Carbon Compound in the Region
of Extremely Short, 313, 558.
Weatherby, C. A., American Forms
of Lycopodium comp'anatum, 412,
560; Mexican Phanerogams —
Notes and new Species, 422, 560;
A Preliminary Synopsis of the
Genus Echeandia, 387, 560.
Whitney, L. H. See Sanger, C. R.,
Riegel, E. R., and Whitney, L. H.
Wine and the Good, Some New Fac-
tors in Determining the Location
of, 564.
Wood, R. W., Presented Rumford
Medals, 565; Photography with
Invisible Rays, 565.
World’s Congress of International
Associations, 565.
Yellowstone National Park, Photo-
graphs of, 558. .
Zavodny, J., Letter from, 553.
Zoological Laboratory of the Museum
of Comparative Zoélogy, Contribu-
tions from, 159.
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