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HARVARD    UNIVERSITY. 


LIBRARY 

OF   THE 

MUSEUM  OF  COMPARATIVE  ZOOLOGY. 


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PROCEEDINGS 


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AMERICAN   PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY 


HELD  AT  PHILADELPHIA 


FOR 


PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


Vol.  XXXV. 


JANUARY  TO  DECEMBER,  1896. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 

THE  AMERICAN  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY 

1896. 


v 


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"-'  >'  /,  (. 


PROCE  EDINGS 

'-f-tZ/J^  0  OF  THE 

AMERICAN    PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY 

HELD  AT  PHILADELPHIA  FOR  PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 

Vol.  XXXV.  •        January,  1896.  No.  150. 

TABLE  OF*  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Stated  Meeting,  January  3,  1S98 1 

Stated  Meeting,  January  17,  1S96 3 

Stated  Meeting,  February  7,  1S96 6 

Stated  Meeting,  February  21,  1S96 12 

Adjourned  Meeting,  I^ebruary  28,  .1896 13 

Demonstration  of  the  Rontgen  Ray  (with  one  plate) 17 

Remarks  by  Prof.  Goodspeed 17 

Remarks  by  E.  J.  Houston .    24 

Remarks  by  Julius  F.  Sachse 28 

Remarks  by  Johii  Oarbutt 33 

Remarks  by  Dr.  Wm.  Pejyper 34 

Eucalyptus  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  from  an  hygienic  and  climalo- 

logical  point  ot  view.     By  Dr.  Edward  Pepper 39 

On  the  Remains  of  the  Foreigners  Discovered  in  Egypt  by  Mr. 
Flinders-Petrie,  1895,  now  in  the  Museum  of  the  University  of 

Pennsylvania  (with  three  plates).     By  Mrs.  Cornelius  Stevenson.  .  56 
The  Identification  of  Colored  Inks  by  their  Absorption  Spectra  (with 

one  plate).     By  Charles  A.  Doremus 71 

Discussion  of  the  Factors  of  Organic  Evolution  from  the  Embryo- 
logical  Standpoint.     By  Prof.  E,  G.  Conklin 78 

Factors  of  Organic  Evolution  from  a  Botanical  Standpoint  (the  sur- 
vival of  the  unlike).     By  Pi'of.  L.  H.  Bailey  88 

Stated  Meeting,  March  6,  1896 36 

Stated  Meeting,  March  SO,  1896 65 

Stated  Meeting,  April  10,  1896 68 

Stated  Meeting,  April  17,  1896 74 

Stated  Meeting,  May  1,  1896 76 

It^"  It  is  requested  that  the  receipt  of  this  number  be  acknowledged. 
•  llt^"  In  order  to  secure  prompt  attention  it  is  requested  tliat  all  corre- 
spondence be  addressed  simply  "To  the  {Secretaries  of  the   American 
Philosophical  Society.  104  S.  Fifth  St.,  Philadelphia." 


Published   for    the   Society 

BY 

MacCALLA  &  COMPANY  INC., 

NOS.    237-9    DOCK    STREET,    PHILADELPHIA. 


EXTRACT  FROM  THE  LAWS. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


OF  THE  MAGELLANIC  FUND. 


Section  1.  John  Hyacinth  de  Magellan,  in  London,  having  in  the  year 
1786  offered  to  the  Society,  as  a  donation,  the  sum  of  two  liundred  guineas, 
to  b6  by  tliem  vested  in  a  secure  and  permanent  fund,  to  the  end  that 
the  interest  arising  therefrom  sliould  be  annually  disposed  of  in  pre- 
miums, to  be  adjudged  by  them  to  the  author  of  the  best  discovery,  or 
most  useful  invention,  relating  to  Navigation,  Astronomy,  or  Natural 
Philosophy  (mere  natural  history  only  excepted) ;  and  the  Society 
having  accepted  of  the  above  donation,  they  hereby  publish  the  condi- 
tions, prescribed  by  the  donor  and  agreed  to  by  the  Society,  upon  which 
the  said  annual  premiums  will  be  awarded. 

CONDITIONS  OF  THE  MAGELLANIC  PREMIUM. 

1.  The  candidate  shall  send  his  discovery,  invention  or  improvement, 
addressed  to  the  President,  or  one  of  the  Vice-Presidents  of  the  Society, 
free  of  postage  or  other  charges-;  and  shall  distinguish  his  performance 
by  some  motto,  device,  or  other  signature,  at  his  pleasure.  Together 
with  his  discovery,  invention,  or  improvement,  he  shall  also  send  a 
sealed  letter  containing  the  same  motto,  device,  or  signature,  and  sub- 
scribed with  the  real  name  and  place  of  residence  of  the  author. 

2.  Persons  of  any  nation,  sect  or  denomination  whatever,  shall  be  ad- 
mitted as  candidates  for  this  premium. 

3.  No  discovery,  invention  or  improvement  shall  be  entitled  to  this 
premium,  which  hatli  been^llready  published,  or  for  which  the  author 
hath  been  publicly  rewarded  elsewhere. 

4.  Tlie  candidate  shall  communicate  his  discovery,  invention  or  im- 
provement, either  in  the  English,  French,  German,  or  Latin  language. 

5.  All  such  communications  shall  be  publicly  read  or  exhibited  to  the 
Society  at  some  stated  meeting,  not  less  than  one  month  previous  to  the 
day  of  adjudication,  and  shall  at  all  times  be  open  to  the  inspection  of 
»uch  members  as  shall  desire  it.  But  no  member  shall  carry  home  wvth 


JUL  20  189§ 

Jan.  3,  1806.1  -*- 

PKOCE  EDINGS 

OF   THE 

AMERICAN    PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY 

HELD  AT  PHILADELPHIA  FOR  PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 

Vol.  XXXV.  January,  1896.  No.  150. 

Stated  Meeting^  January  3^  1896. 
Mr.  W.  V.  McKean  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  27  members. 

Eeports  of  the  Clerks  and  Judges  of  the  election  were  read 
and  the  report  of  the  election  was  submitted  : 

President. 
Frederick  Fraley. 

Vice-Presidents. 
E.  Otis  Kendall,  J.  P.  Lesley,  Wm.  Pepper. 

Secretaries. 

George  F.  Barker,  George  H.  Horn,  Persifor  Frazer, 
Patterson  Du  Bois. 

Curators. 
J.  Cheston  Morris,  E.  Meade  Bache,  Benj.S.  Lyman. 

Treasurer. 
J.  Sergeant  Price. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  A.      PRINTED  APRIL  13,  1896. 


■^  [Jan.  3, 

Councilors. 

Wra.  A.  Ingham,  Chas.  S.  Wurts,  Robert  Patterson,  Henry 

Hartshorne,  Isaac  J.  Wistar,  in  place  of  Bicbard  Vaux, 

deceased. 

Oq  motion,  tbe  thanks  of  the  Society  were  tendered  to  Judge 
Edmunds  and  bis  associates  for  their  services  on  the  board  of 
election. 

Letters  of  envoy  from  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  Cal- 
cutta ;  Naturwissenschaftlichem  Vereine,  OsnabrUck,  Prussia  ; 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  London,  Eng.;  Direccion  General  de 
Estadistica,  Mexico,  Mex. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  the  Linnean  Society  of  N. 
S.  Wales,  Sydney  (143,  146);  Geological  Survey  of  India,  Cal- 
cutta (147);  M.  G.  Tschermak,  Vienna,  Austria  (147);  Natur- 
wissenschaftl.  Gesellscbaft  '•  Isis,"  Dresden,  Saxony  (147); 
Societa  Italiana  d'Igiene,  Milan,  Italy  (143,  146) ;  Societa  Afri- 
cana  d'ltalia,  Naples,  Italy  (147) ;  R.  Accademia  di  Scienze, 
Lettere,  etc.,  Padua,  Italy  (143) ;  R.  Comitato  Geologic©  d'ltalia, 
Rome  (147);  Dr.  Charles  S.  Wurts,  Philadelphia  (147);  Cali- 
fornia Academy  of  Sciences,  San  Francisco  (144,  145). 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  Schweiz. 
Naturfor.  Gesellscbaft,  Schaflfhausen  ;  Thiiringische  Geschichte 
nnd  Altertumskunde,  Jena,  Germany ;  Mr.  Horatio  Hale, 
Ottowa,  Canada ;  Dr.  Samuel  A.  Green,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Dr. 
C.  A.  M.  Fennell,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  Prof.  E.  J.  James,  Mr.  B. 
S.  Lyman,  Philadelphia;  U.  S.  National  Museum,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.;  Academy  of  Sciences, 
Department  of  Public  Works,  Chicago,  111.;  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Ames,  la.;  Dr.  Jesus  Diaz  de  Leon, 
Aguascalientes,  Mexico ;  Sociedad  Cientifica,  "  Antonio 
Alzate,"  Mexico,  Mex. 

Tbe  stated  business  of  the  meeting  being  the  nomination  of 
Librarian,  J.  Sergeant  Price  nominated  George  H.  Horn,  and 
E.  D.  Cope  nominated  Benj.  S.  Lyman. 

Prof.   Cope    made    a    verbal    communication    on    certain 


1896.]  ^ 

types  of  Saurians  in  completion  of  a  former  paper  on  the 
same  subject. 

Pending  nominations  1382  to  1334  were  read. 

Mr.  Wm.  A.  Ingham  moved  to  amend  Chapter  viii,  Section 
8  of  the  Laws,  by  striking  out  "  from  10  a.m.  to  1  P.M.,"  and 
inserting  "  at  such  hours  as  the  Society  may  by  resolution  from 
time  to  time  direct."     Laid  over  under  the  laws. 

The  Judges  of  election  reported  the  receipt  of  a  paper  ques- 
tioning the  eligibility  of  a  candidate.  As  they  deemed  the 
question  beyond  their  jurisdiction  the  paper  was  referred  to 
the  Society  for  action.  On  motion,  the  President  was  re- 
quested to  appoint  a  committee  of  three  to  investigate  and 
report  upon  it. 

After  reading  the  rough  minutes,  the  Society  was  adjourned 
by  the  presiding  member. 


Stated  Meeting,  January  17,  1896. 

President,  Mr.  Fraley,  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  36  members. 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows : 

Invitation  from  the  Socidte  Imperiale  Rasse  de  Geographic, 
St.  Petersburg,  to  attend  the  Fiftieth  Anniversary  of  its  foun- 
dation, February  2  (January  21),  1896. 

Letter  from  Mr.  Thomas  Meehan,  offering  to  take  in  hand 
the  labeling  of  the  South  American  plants  from  Dr.  Barton's 
collection  belonging  to  the  Society,  and  suggesting  that  they 
be  deposited  in  the  herbarium  of  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences,  Philadelphia. 

A  communication  from  the  Librarian  of  the  University  of 
Virginia,  Charlottesville,  stating  that  their  complete  set  of  the 
A.  P.  S.  Proceedings  was  destroyed  by  fire,  October  27, 18y5, 
was  referred  to  Secretaries  with  power  to  act. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  (148)  were  received  from  the  Wag- 


^  [Jan.  17, 

rer  Free  Institute,  Franklin  Institute,  Historical  Society  of  Penn- 
sylvania, College  of  Physicians,  Numismatic  and  Antiquarian 
Society,  Gen.  I.  J.  Wistar,  Hon.  Mayer  Sulzberger,  Profs.  John 
Aghhurst,  Jr.,  F.  A.  Genth,  Jr.,  H.  D.  Gregory,  James  Mac- 
Alister,  James  Tyson,  M.D.,  Drs.  John  H.  Brinton,W.  C.  Cattell, 
Samuel  G.  Dixon,  Ed,  A.  Foggo,  George  H.  Horn,  Morris 
Longstreth,  Charles  A.  Oliver,  Charles  Schiiffer,  D.  K.  Tuttle, 
William  H.  Wahl,  Messrs.  R,  Meade  Bache,  Henry  C.  Baird, 
George  Tucker  Bispham,  Lorin  Blodget,  Arthur  E.  Brown, 
Jacob  B.  Eckfeldt,  Benjamin  Smith  Lyman,  Theodore  D. 
Rand,  J.  G.  Rosengarten,  F.  D.  Stone,  Philadelphia  ;  Mr.  Heber 
S.  Thompson,  Pottsville,  Pa.;  Dr.  W.  H.  Appleton,  Svvarth- 
more,  Pa.;  Dr.  John  Curwen,  Warren,  Pa.;  Prof.  J.  T.  Roth- 
rock,  West  Chester,  Pa.;  Prof.  Ira  Remsen,  Baltimore,  Md.; 
University  of  Virginia,  Prof.  J.  W.  Mallet,  M.D.,  Charlottes- 
ville. 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  Institut 
Egyptien,  Cairo;  Academic  Imp.  des  Sciences,  St.  Petersburg, 
Russia;  Friesch  Genootschap  van  Geschied,  etc.,  Leuwarden, 
Netherlands ;  Academic  des  Sciences,  Cracow,  Austria  ;  K,  K. 
Geologische  Reichsanstalt,  Vienna,  Austria  ;  Gesellschaft  fiir 
Anthropologic,  Ethnologic,  etc.,  BerUn,  Prussia;  Gartenbau- 
verein,  Darmstadt,  Germany  ;  K.  Siichs.  Gesellschaft  der  Wis- 
senschaften,  Leipzig ;  Nassauischen  Vereine  fiir  Naturkunde, 
Wiesbaden,  Prussia  ;  Biblioteca  N.  C,  Firenze,  Italia  ;  Soci^te 
de  Geographic,  Lille,  France ;  Redaction  Cosmos^  Le  Mqs.  de 
Nadaillac,  Paris,  France ;  Meteorological  Office,  R.  Geographical 
Society,  Editors  of  Nature^  R.  Microscopical  Society,  Editors  of 
The  Geological  Mayazine,  London,  Eng.;  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Durham,  N.  H.;  Mass.  Historical  Society,  Bos- 
ton, Mass.;  Astronomical  Observatory  of  Harvard  College, 
Cambridge,  Mass.;  Essex  Institute,  Salem,  Mass.;  R.  I.  His- 
torical Society,  Providence;  Editors  of  The  American  Journal 
of  Science,  Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Conn.;  Editor  of  The 
Popular  Science  Monthly^  Academy  of  Sciences,  Editor  of 
The  World,  New  York,  N.  Y.;  College  of  Pharmacy,  Franklin 
Institute,    Amer.  Society    for  the   Extension  of  University 


1896.]  ^ 

Teaching,  Mr.  Wharton  Barker,  Drs.  Persifor  Frazer,  Edmund 
J.  James,  Hon.  Samuel  W.  Pennypacker,  Philadelphia ; 
Oberlin  College  Library,  Oberlin,  O. 

A  photograph  for  the  Society's  Album  was  received  from  Mr. 
Thomas  cfarke,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

The  death  of  Mr,  Henry  Hazlehurst,  of  Philadelphia,  on 
January  11,  1896,  aet.  49,  was  announced,  and  the  President 
was  requested  to  appoint  a  member  to  prepare  an  obituary 
notice. 

Prof,  Cope  read  an  obituary  notice  of  Prof,  John  A.  Ryder, 
The  stated  business  of  the  meeting  being  the  choosing  of  a 
Librarian,  a  ballot  was  taken,  and  on  count  of  the  vote  the 
Tellers  announced  the  election  of  George  H,  Horn, 

The  choosing  of  Standing  Committees  being  in  order,  Mr, 
Prime  moved  that  they  be  appointed  by  the  President,  Car- 
ried unanimously. 

The  Special  Committee  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
eligibility  of  candidates  and  electors  at  the  late  election  made  a 
report  which  was  received  and  the  Committee  discharged. 

Prof.  Hilprecht  presented  his  paper  on  "  Old  Babylonian 
Inscriptions,"  which  on  motion  was  referred  to  a  Special  Com- 
mittee to  examine  and  report.  The  President  appointed  Tal- 
cott  Williams,  Patterson  DuBois  and  J,  Sergeant  Price,  the 
Committee, 

Pending  nominations  Nos,  1332  to  1334  and  new  nomina- 
tions Nos.  1335  to  1345  were  read. 

On  motion  of  Dr.  Morris,  the  nominations  of  non-residects 
were  referred  to  Council, 

On  motion  of  Mr,  Price,  the  Society  authorized  the  Treas- 
urer to  receive  payment  for  loan  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia 
now  due  and  payable. 

The  letter  of  Mr,  Meehan  regarding  South  American  plants 
in  our  cabinet  was  referred  to  the  Curators  to  report  at  the 
next  meeting. 

On  motion  of  Dr,  Frazer,  amended  by  Dr.  Brinton,  the 
Secretaries  were  directed  to  print  a  revised  list  of  surviving 
members  with  their  addresses. 


6 


[Feb. 


The  amendment  to  the  Laws  offered  at  last  meeting  vas  con- 
sidered.    The  Librarian  gave  proof  of  advertisement. 

By  the  requisite  vote,  Chap,  viii.  Sec.  3,  was  amended  by 
striking  out  "  10  A.M.  to  1  P.M.,"  and  inserting  "  at  such  hours 
as  the  Society  may  fix  by  resolution  from  time  to  time." 

The  rough  minutes  were  then  read,  and  the  Society  was 
adjourned  by  the  President. 


Stated  Meeting^  February  7,  1896. 

Present,  16  members. 

President,   Mr.  Fraley,  in  the  Chair. 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows  : 

A  letter  from  Prof.  George  H.  Smith,  Los  Angeles,  Cal., 
expressing  grateful  appreciation  of  the  honor  conferred  upon 
liim  by  the  Society,  in  publishing  his  essay,  and  presenting 
him  with  two  hundred  and  fifty  copies. 

A  letter  from  Mr.  Benjamin  Sharp,  Philadelphia,  requesting 
for  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  the  privilege  of  having 
a  microscopical  examination  made  of  two  pieces  of  Jade,  de- 
jDOsited  in  the  Museum  of  the  Academy.  On  motion,  this  re- 
quest was  referred  to  the  Curators. 

Acknowledgments  were  received  from  the  Institut  Egyp- 
tien,  Cairo  (147);  K.  K.  Bergakademie,  Leoben,  Austria 
(92-107,  110,  111,  113-120,  125-133,  135-147);  K.  K. 
Zoolog-botanische  Gesellschaft,  Vienna,  Austria  (147) ; 
Scblesische  Gesellschaft  fiir  vaterl.  Cultur,  Breslau,  Prussia 
(147) ;  Naturhistorische  Gesellschaft,  Hannover,  Prussia 
(147) ;  Naturhistorische  Gesellschaft,  Niirnberg,  Bavaria 
(147);  Yerein  fiir  Naturkunde,  Offenbach-a.-M.,  Germany 
(143,  143,  147);  K.  Geodatisclies  Institut,  Potsdam,  Prussia 
(147);  Biblioteca  N.  C,  Firenze,  Italia  (147) ;  R.  Istituto 
di  Scienze,  etc.,  Milan,  Italy  (143,  146);  Observatorio  di 
Torino,  Torino,  Italia  (147,  and  Trans. ^  xviii,  2);  Prof.  G. 
Sergi,  Rome,  Italy  (147);   Commission  des  Annales  des  Mines 


1896.]  • 

(147  and  Trans. ^  xviii,  2);  Mus^e  Guimet,  Paris,  France 
(147) ;  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  Liverpool,  Eng. 
(147,  and  Trans.  ^  xviii,  2) ;  Mass.  Historical  Society,  Boston, 
Mass.  (147) ;  Prof.  Edward  S.  Morse,  Salem,  Mass.  (147) ; 
Newberry  Library,  Chicago,  111.  (147)  ;  Museo  Nacional, 
Buenos  Ayres,  Argentine  Republic  (147). 

Acknowledgments  (148)  were  received  from  Dr.,  Alfred 
R.  C.  Selwyn,  Geological  Survey,  Ottawa,  Canada ;  Laval 
University,  Hon.  J.  M,  Le  Moine,  Quebec,  Canada;  Bowdoin 
College  Library,  Brunswick,  Me.;  IST.  H.  Historical  Society, 
Concord;  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  Mass.;  Histori- 
cal Society,  Boston  Athenaeum,  Mass.  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy, State  Library  of  Massachusetts,  Dr.  Samuel  A.  Green, 
Boston,  Mass.;  Museum  of  Comparative  Zolocigy,  Profs. 
Alexander  Agassiz,  N.  W.  Goodwin,  F.  W.  Putnam,  Dr. 
Justin  Winsor,  Mr.  Robert  N.  Toppan,  Cambridge,  Mass.; 
Essex  Institute,  Prof.  Edward  S.  Morse,  Salem,  Mass.;  Prof. 
Elihu  Thomson,  Swampscot,  Mass.;  Marine  Biological  Labo- 
ratory, Woods  Holl,  Mass.;  American  Antiquarian  Society, 
Worcester,  Mass.;  Brown  University,  Providence  Franklin 
Society,  R.  I.  Historical  Society,  Providence ;  Mr.  George  F. 
Dunning,  Farmington,  Conn.  ;  Conn.  Historical  Society,  Hart- 
ford ;  Prof,  H.  A.  Newton,  New  Haven,  Conn.;  Prof.  James 
Hall,  Albany,  N.  Y.;  Society  of  Natural  Science,  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.;  Prof.  Edward  North,  Clinton,  N.  Y.;  Profs.  J.  M. 
Hart,  W.  T.  Hewett,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.;  Historical  Society,  N. 
Y.  Hospital,  Columbia  College,  N.  Y.  Academy  of  Medicine, 
N.  Y.  Academy  of  Science,  Astor  Library,  Amer.  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  Hon.  James  C.  Carter,  Messrs.  Thos.  C. 
Clarke,  James  Douglas,  Profs.  Isaac  H.  Hall,  J.  J,  Steven- 
son, New  York,  N.  Y.;  Vassar  Brothers'  Institute,  Pough- 
keepsie,  N.  Y.;  Geological  Society  of  America,  Rochester, 
N.  Y.;  Prof.  W.  Le  Conte  Stevens,  Troy,  N.  Y.;  Oneida 
Historical  Society,  Utica,  N.  Y.;.  U,  S.  Military  Academy, 
West  Point,  N.  Y.;  Free  Public  Library,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.; 
Prof.  Robert  W.  Rogers,  Madison,  N.  J.;  Natural  History 
Society,  Trenton,   N.  J,;    Dr.   R.   H.   Alison,  Ardmore,  Pa.; 


8 


[Feb.  7, 


Prof.  Martin  H.  Boye,  Coopersburg,  Pa.;  Amer.  Academy 
of  Medicine,  Dr.  Traill  Green,  Prof.  J.  W.  Moore,  Eev.  Thos. 
C.  Porter,  Easton,  Pa.;  Mr.  John  Fulton,  Johnstown,  Pa.; 
Prof.  L,  B.  Hall,  Haverford,  Pa.;  Linnean  Society,  Lancas- 
ter, Pa.  ;  Eev,  J.  W.  Pobins,  Merion,  Pa.  ;  Library  Company, 
Prof.  H.  Y.  Hilprecht,  Drs.  Edward  Foggo,  Persifor  Frazer, 
Sara  Y.  Stevenson,  Messrs.  H.  Clay  Trumbull,  Joel  Cook, 
Patterson  Du  Bois,  Eobert  Patterson,  Benjamin  Sharp, 
Charles  Stewart  Wurts,  Ellis  Yarnall,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  ; 
Eev.  F.  A.  Muhlenberg,  Eeading,  Pa.  ;  Mr.  Thos.  S.  Blair, 
Tyrone,  Pa.  ;  Mr.  Philip  P.  Sharpies,  West  Chester,  Pa.  ; 
Wyoming  Historical  Society,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.;  Col.  Henry 
A.  Du  Pont,  Winterthur,  Del.;  Maryland  Institute,  Balti- 
more, Md.;  Mr.  T.  L.  Patterson,  Cumberland,  Md.;  U.  S. 
Artillery  Staff,  Fort  Monroe,  Ya.  ;  Hon.  J.  E.  Tucker,  Lex- 
ington, Ya.;  Mr.  Jed.  Hotchkiss,  Staunton,  Ya.  ;  Ga.  Histor- 
ical Society,  Savannah ;  Cincinnati  Observatory,  Cincinnati, 
O.;  Ohio  State  Archeeological  and  Historical  Society,  Col- 
umbus, O.;  Editors  of  Journal  of  Comparative  Neurology^ 
Granville,  O.  ;  Oberlin  College,  Oberlin,  O.  ;  Prof.  J.  L. 
Campbell,  Crawfordsville,  Ind.;  University  of  Illinois,  Cham- 
paign, 111.;  Field  Columbian  Museum,  Newberry  Library, 
Chicago,  111.;  Geological  Survey  of  Missouri,  Jefferson  City, 
Mo.;  State  Historical  Society  of  Wisconsin,  University  of 
Wisconsin,  Madison ;  la.  Masonic  Library,  Cedar  Eapids ; 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Davenport,  la.;  State  Histori- 
cal Society,  Iowa  City,  la.  ;  Editor  of  the  Kansas  University 
Quarterly^  Lawrence,  Kans.;  Academy  of  Science,  Wash- 
burn College,  Topeka,  Kans.;  University  of  California,  Prof. 
Joseph  Le  Conte,  Berkeley,  Cal.;  Lick  Observatory,  Mt. 
Hamilton,  Cal.;  State  Mining  Bureau,  Cal.  Historical  Society, 
Prof.  George  Davidson,  San  Francisco,  Cal.  ;  Prof.  J.  C. 
Branner,  Stamford  University,  Cal.  ;  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Stations,  Kingston,  E.  I.;  Storrs,  Conn.;  Experiment, 
Ga.;  Knoxville,  Tenn.;  Agricultural  College,  Mich.;  Man- 
hattan, Kans.;  Lincoln,  Neb.  ;  Fort  Collins,  Colo.;  Tucson, 
Arizona. 


1896.]  " 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Japan,  Yolvohama;  Soci^te  Physico-Mathematique, 
Kasan,  Eussia  ;  Societe  Imp,  des  Naturalistes,  Moscow,  Rus- 
sia ;  Society  des  Naturalistes  de  la  Nouvelle  Eussie,  Odessa ; 
Comity  G^ologique,  Imp.  Eussian  Geographical  Society, 
St.  Petersburg ;  Statistika  Central  BjTans,  Stockholm,  Swe- 
den ;  Societe  E.  des  Antiquaires  du  Nord,  Copenhagen,  Den- 
mark ;  Academic  E.  des  Sciences,  etc.,  Etat  Independant  du 
Congo,  Bruxelles,  Belgique  ;  Societe  Hongroise  de  Geogra- 
phic, Budapest;  K.  K.  Zool.-botanische  Gesellschaft,  Oester- 
reichische  Touristen-Club,  Vienna ;  Physiologische  Gesell- 
schaft, Verein  zur  Befcirderung  des  Gartenbaues,  Berlin, 
Prussia  ;  K.  Sachs.  Meteorologisches  Institut,  Chemnitz ; 
Naturforschende  Gesellschaft,  Emden,  Prussia ;  Naturfor- 
schende  Gesellschaft,  Freiburg-i.-B.,  Baden;  Deutsche 
Seewarte,  Hamburg,  Germany;  M.  Henri  de  Saussure,  Gene- 
va, Switzerland  ;  Societe  des  Sciences  Phys.  et  Naturelles, 
Bordeaux,  France;  Societe  Historique,  Litteraire  etc.,  du 
Clur,  Bourges,  France ;  Societe  N.  des  Sciences  Nat.  et 
Mathematiques,  Cherbourg,  France  ;  Society  de  Borda, 
Dax,  France,  ;  Union  Geographique  du  ISTord  de  la  France, 
Douai,  France ;  Society  des  Sciences  Nat.  et  Archeeologique 
de  la  Creuse,  Gueret,  France;  Societe  Languedocienne  de 
Geographic,  Montpellier,  France  ;  Societ^s  Gdologique  de 
France,  de  Geographic,  de  I'Enseignement,  de  Physique, 
d' Anthropologic,  Musee  Guimet,  Directeur  de  la  Eedaction 
Melusine^  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  Ministre  des 
Travaux  Publics,  Paris,  France ;  M.  Ed.  Piette,  Eumigny, 
France ;  Socidtd  des  Antiquaires  de  la  Morinie,  St.  Omer, 
France ;  Society  de  Geographic,  Toulouse,  France ;  E.  Acad- 
emia  de  la  Historia,  Madrid,  Spain ;  Philological  Society, 
Cambridge,  Mass.;  E.  Astronomical  Society,  Eoyal  Society, 
London,  Eng.;  Geological  Society,  Manchester,  Eng.;  E. 
Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Ireland ;  Commissioner  of  Public 
Eecords,  Chief  of  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  Labor,  Mass.  Insti- 
tute of  Technology,  Boston,  Mass.;  Museum  of  Comp. 
Zoology,  Harvard  University,    Cambridge,  Mass.;    Travelers' 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  B.      PRINTED  APRIL  13,   1896. 


1^  [Feb.  7, 

Insurance  Co.,  Hartford,  Conn,;  Meteorological  Observatory, 
Amer.  Mathematical  Society,  Amer.  Institute  of  Electrical 
Engineers,  Amer.  Geographical  Society,  New  York,  N.  Y.; 
Mr.  R.  P.  Potts,  Camden,  N.  J.;  Free  Public  Library,  Jersey 
City,  N.  J.;  Penna.  Board  of  Charities  and  Committee  on 
Lunacy,  Harrisburg ;  Engineers'  Club,  Maritime  Exchange, 
Hon.  Gr.  F.  Edmunds,  Dr.  Walter  M.  James,  Philadelphia ; 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  Editors  of  Chemical  Journal  and 
American  Journal  of  Philology^  Baltimore,  Md.;  Anthropo- 
logical Society,  Smithsonian  Institution,  Departments  of  the 
Interior  and  State,  Washington,  D.  C;  Academy  of  Science, 
St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Editors  of  Journal  of  Comparative  Neurology^ 
Granville,  O.;  College  Library,  Oberlin,  0.;  State  Board  of 
Health,  Nashville,  Tenn.;  University  of  California,  Berkeley; 
Field  Columbian  Museum,  Academy  of  Sciences,  Historical 
Society,  Chicago,  111.;  Geological  and  Natural  History  Sur- 
vey of  Minnesota,  St.  Paul  ;  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, Amherst,  Mass.;  Ithaca,  N.  Y.;  State  College,  Pa.; 
Newark,  N.  J.;  Lafayette,  Ind.;  Minneapolis,  Minn.;  Observ- 
atorio  Meteorl.  Central,  Observatorio  Astron.  N.  de  Tacu- 
baya,  Mexico,  Mex.;  Observatorio  Meteorl.  Central  del  estado 
de  Veracruz  Llave,  Xalapa,  Mex. 

A  photograph  for  the  Society's  Album  was  received  from 
Dr.  Edward  A.  Foggo,  Philadelphia, 

Mr.  Sachse  presented  two  pictures.  The  one  is  a  copy  of  a 
pencil  sketch  of  the  Hall  of  the  Philadelphia  Academy,  in 
which  this  Society  held  its  meetings  for  many  years,  drawn 
to  scale  by  Pierre  E.  du  Simiti^re.  The  other  picture  is  a 
print  published  in  1790  of  the  present  Hall  of  the  Society  as 
it  was  at  that  time. 

On  motion,  the  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Mr. 
Sachse  for  his  gift.  The  Special  Committee  on  Prof.  Hil- 
precht's  Paper  on  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  reported  favorably, 
and  the  Publication  Committee  also  reported  recommending 
its  Dublication,  On  motion,  the  paper  was  ordered  to  be 
published. 

On  behalf  of  the  Curators,   Dr,  Morris  reported  that  they 


1896.]  J-J- 

hacl  met  and  considered  tlie  letter  of  Mr.  Meelian  with  refer- 
ence to  the  botanical  collections  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  and 
other  collections  such  as  those  of  Muhlenberg,  Burton,  Bet- 
tors and  Short,  now  in  the  museum  of  the  Society,  and  had 
passed  a  resolution  recommending  their  deposit  on  the  usual 
conditions  with  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  ;  but  after 
further  examination  of  them  Mr.  Meehan  had  written,  stating 
that  unless  they  could  be  given  to  the  Academy  they  had 
better  remain  where  they  now  are,  and  expressing  a  desire 
that  the  Society  should  at  some  future  time  establish  a  herba- 
rium of  its  own,  to  which  he  thought  the  Academy  of  Natu- 
ral Sciences  would  gladly  contribute  some  of  its  duplicates. 

Dr.  Morris  moved  the  discharge  of  the  Curators  from  fur- 
ther consideration  of  the  matter  at  present. 

The  death  was  announced  of  the  Eev.  William  H.  Furness, 
D.D.,  on  January  30,  1896,  set.  93  ;  and  the  President  was 
requested  to  appoint  a  member  to  prepare  an  obituary  notice. 

The  President  announced  that  he  had  appointed  Dr.  Brin- 
ton  to  prepare  the  obituary  of  Henry  Hazlehurst,  and  F.  D. 
Stone  that  of  "William  John  Potts,  and  that  the  appointments 
had  been  accepted. 

Prof.  Cope  made  a  communication  illustrating  by  black- 
board sketches  the  structure  of  heads  of  certain  Cetaceans. 

Pending  nominations  1832  to  1342  and  1344  and  1345  were 
read. 

Dr.  Brinton  asked  the  decision  of  the  Chair  as  to  whether 
any  action  could  be  taken  on  the  report  of  the  Special  Com- 
mittee which  was  read  at  the  last  meeting. 

The  President  decided  that  the  matter  was  finally  con- 
cluded. 

Dr.  Green  moved  that  the  report  of  the  Committee  be  en- 
tered in  full  on  the  minutes.     Adopted. 

There  being  no  further  business,  the  rough  minutes  were 
read  and  the  Society  adjourned  by  the  President. 


1^  [Feb.  21, 

Stated  Meeting,  February  21,  1896. 

Present,  51  members. 

The  President,  Mr.  Fraley,  in  the  Chair. 

After  the  meeting  had  been  called  to  order.  Dr.  Frazer 
moved  that  the  regular  order  of  business  be  suspended  until 
after  the  demonstration  of  the  Eontgen  ray,  and  that  the  Pres- 
ident be  authorized  at  his  discretion  at  the  close  of  the  dis- 
cussion to  declare  the  meeting  adjourned  until  February  28. 

The  motion  having  been  carried  by  the  requisite  affirma- 
tive vote.  Dr.  Goodspeed  was  given  the  floor,  and  presented 
the  entire  subject  in  detail. 

Prof.  Houston  followed  with  a  discussion  of  the  subject 
from  its  electrical  side. 

Mr.  Sachse  followed  in  its  photographic  relations,  and  gave 
his  experiences  with  different  styles  of  plates. 

Prof.  Robb  stated  that  he  had  in  his  laboratory  repeated 
the  Riintgen  experiments  and  found  that  a  Crooke's  tube  was 
not  essential. 

Mr.  Carbutt  gave  his  experience  in  the  manufacture  of 
].)lates,  dwelling  on  the  probable  utility  of  those  with  a  cellu- 
loid basis. 

Mr.  Jos.  Wharton  exhibited  a  tube  containing  argon,  and 
showed  its  action  under  the  induction  current. 

Dr.  Pepper  exhibited  photographs  from  Prof.  John  Cox,  of 
McGill  University,  one  of  which  illustrated  the  method  of 
obtaining  a  confirmation  of  the  suspected  position  of  a  bullet 
between  the  tibia  and  fibula. 

The  papers  of  these  speakers  will  be  found  in  the  Proceed- 
ings, in  extenso,  together  with  the  discussion  which  ensued. 

Dr.  Frazer  moved  the  thanks  of  the  Societv  to  the  Electric 
Storage  Battery  Renting  Co.  for  their  loan  of  a  storage  bat- 
tery for  the  present  demonstration. 

At  10.30  the  President  declared  the  meeting  adjourned  un- 
til Friday,  February  28. 


1896.]  ^'^ 

Adjourned  Meeting,  February  28,  1896. 
The  Yice-President,  Dr.  Pepper,  in  tlie  Chair. 

Letters  of  envoy  from  the  Verein  fur  Schlesische  Insekten- 
kunde,  Breslau,  Prussia;  K.  Sachsische  Gesellschaft  der  Wis- 
senschaften,  Leipzig  ;  Societe  des  Sciences  Physiques  et  Nat- 
urelles,  Bordeaux,  France ;  Universite  de  Lyon,  France  ; 
Facultd  des  Sciences,  Marseilles,  France ;  Meteorological 
Oifice,  British  Association  for  Advancement  of  Science,  E. 
Statistical  Society,  London,  Eng.;  Field  Columbian  Museum, 
Chicago,  111.;   State  Librarian,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  were  received  from  the  South 
African  Philosophical  Society,  Cape  Town  (143,  146,  147) ; 
Eoj'al  Society  of  Victoria  (143,  146) ;  Eoyal  Mint,  Melbourne, 
Australia  (143,  146) ;  K.  Norske  Yidenskabers  Selskab, 
Throndhjein,  Norway  (147) ;  Eoyal  Society  of  Sciences, 
Upsal,  SAveden  (143,  146,  147,  and  I'rans.,  xviii,  2);  E. 
Danske  Videnskabernes  Selskab,  Copenhagen  (147,  and 
Trans.,  xviii,  2);  Verein  der  Freunde  der  Naturgeschichte, 
Mecklenburg,  Germany  (147) ;  E.  Istituto  Lombardo  di  Sci- 
enze  e  Lettere,  Milan,  Italy  (147) ;  Accademia  E.  delle  Sci- 
enze,  Torino,  Italia  (147) ;  Academic  des  Sciences  et  Belles- 
Lettres,  Angers,  France  (143,  147) ;  Socidte  N.  des  Sciences 
Nat.  et  Mathematiques,  Cherbourg,  France  (143,  144,  146)  ; 
Universite  de  Lyon,  France  (147) ;  Nova  Scotia  Society  of 
Natural  Science,  Halifax  (148) ;  Public  Library,  Boston,  Mass. 
(148) ;  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.  (148)  ;  Free 
Public  Library,  New  Bedford,  Mass.  (148) ;  Mercantile 
Library  (148),  Mrs.  Helen  Abbott  Michael  (148),  Mr.  Wil- 
liam A.  Ingham  (147,  148),  Hon.  James  T.  Mitchell,  Dr.  C. 
N.  Peirce,  Messrs.  Coleman  Sellers,  Samuel  Wagner,  Phila- 
delphia (148) ;  Lackawa.  Institute  of  History  and  Science, 
Scranton,  Pa.  (148) ;  Maryland  Historical  Society,  Baltimore 
(148);  Smithsonian  Institution  (452  packages),  U.  S.  Geolog- 
ical Survey  (147,  148,  and  Trans.,  xviii,  2),  U.  S.  Naval 
Observatory,  U.   S.  Patent   Office,   Surgeon-General's  Office, 


14:  [Feb.  28, 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  Dr.  AY. 
J.  Hoffman,  E.t.  Eev.  Jolin  J.  Keane,  Prof,  Charles  A. 
Schott,  Washington,  D.  C.  (148);  Prof.  E.  W.  Claypole, 
Akron,  O.  (147) ;  Prof.  G.  W.  Hough,  Evanston,  111.  (148) ; 
Editor  of  Kansas  University  Quarterly^  Lawrence  (145,  146, 
147) ;  University  of  Wyoming,  Laramie  (148)  ;  Agricultural 
Experiment  Stations,  Ealeigh,  N.  C.  (148)  ;  Auburn,  Ala. 
(148)  ;  Agricultural  College,  Michigan  (145) ;  Observatorio 
Astronomico  de  Tacubaya,  Mexico  (148) ;  Mariano  Barcena, 
Mexico,  Mex.  (148) ;  Observatorio  Meteorologico  Central, 
Xalapa,  Mexico  (148). 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  Royal 
Society  of  S.  Australia,  Adelaide  ;  Acaddmie  R.  des  Sciences, 
etc.,  Copenhagen,  Denmark;  JSTederland,  Maatschappij  bevor- 
dering  Nijverheid,  Amsterdam  ;  Geschichtsvereins,  Aachen, 
Prussia;  Naturhist.  Yerein  der  Preuss.  Rheinlande,  etc., 
Niederrhein.  Gesellschaft,  Bonn,  Prussia;  Yerein  far  Schle- 
sische  Insektenkunde,  Breslau,  Prussia ;  Oberlausitz.  Gesell- 
schaft der  Wissenschaften,  Gorlitz,  Prussia;  Mr.  Augustus 
R.  Grote,  Hildesheim,  Prussia ;  K.  Sachsische  Gesellschaft 
der  Wissenschaften,  Leipzig ;  Deutsche  Gesellschaft  fiir 
Anthropologic,  etc.,  Munich,  Bavaria  ;  R,  Accademia  di  Sci- 
enze,  etc.,  Modena,  Italy;  Societa  R.  di  Napoli,  Italia;  R. 
Accademia  dei  Lincei,  Rome,  Italy  ;  R.  Accademia  delle  Sci- 
enze,  R.  Osservatorio,  Turin,  Italy;  University  de  Lyon, 
France  ;  Facultd  des  Sciences,  Marseilles,  France ;  Prof. 
Gabriel  de  Mortillet,  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  France ;  R.  Sta- 
tistical Society,  British  Association  for  Advancement  of  Sci- 
ence, Society  of  Arts,  Zoological  Society,  Meteorological 
Council,  Society  of  Antiquaries,  London,  Eng.;  Royal  Geo- 
logical Society  of  Cornwall,  Penzance,  Eng.;  Nat.  History 
and  Philosophical  Society,  Belfast,  Ireland  ;  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh,  Scotland  ;  Philosophical  Society,  Glasgow,  Scot- 
land ;  Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  Ottawa ;  Athena3um, 
Boston,  Mass.;  Public  Library,  Salem,  Mass.;  Amer.  Chem- 
ical Society,  Amer.  Museum  Nat.  History,  New  York,  N. 
Y.;     Central    Library,    Syracuse,     N.    Y.;     Historical     and 


1S9C.1  -'-'-' 

Library  Association,  Yonkers,  N.Y.;  Amer. Chemical  Society, 
Amer.  Academy  of  Medicine,  Easton,  Pa.;  Penna.  Society  to 
Prevent  Cruelty  to  Animals,  Girard  College,  Historical  Socie- 
ty of  Pennsylvania,  Mercantile  Library,  Penna.  Forestry  Asso- 
ciation, Messrs.  Guy  Hinsdale,  William  A.  Ingbam,  Edmund 
J.  James,  J.  G.  Rosengarten,  Julius  F.  Saclise,  Philadelphia ; 
Enoch  Pratt  Free  Library,  Peabody  Institute,  Baltimore, 
Md.;  Department  of  Labor,  Washington,  D.  C;  Universi- 
ty of  Virginia,  Prof.  J.  W.  Mallet,  Charlottesville,  Va.; 
Artillery  School,  Fort  Monroe,  Va.,  Elisha  Mitchell  Scien- 
tific Society,  Chapel  Hill  ;  Mr.  Charles  Gildehaus,  St.  Louis, 
Mo.;  Michigan  Mining  School,  Houghton;  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Stations,  Kingston,  R.  I.;  Albany,  N.  Y.;  Geneva, 
N.  Y.;  Jacksonville,  Fla.;  Agricultural  College,  Miss., 
Knoxville,  Tenn.;  Denison  University,  Granville,  O.; 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Lexington,  Ky.;  Iowa 
State  Historical  Societ}^,  Iowa  City ;  Kansas  University, 
Lawrence;  Agricultural  College,  etc.,  Cheyenne,  Wyo.; 
Colorado  Scientific  Society,  Denver  ;  Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations,  Fort  Collins,  Colo.;  Tucson,  Ariz.;  Asociacion 
de  Ingenieros,  etc.,  Observatorio  Meteorologico  Central, 
Instituto  Geologico,  Mexico,  Mex.;  Observatorio  Astro- 
nomico,  Quito,  Mex.;  Sociedad  Cientifica  Argentina,  Buenos 
Ayres,  Argentine  Republic,  S.  A.;  Museo  de  La  Plata, 
Argentine  Republic,  S.  A. 

A  circular  letter  from  the  Naturhistorisch.  Vereine  der 
Preussischen  Rheinlande,  Westfalens  und.  des  Regierungsbe- 
zirks  Osuabriick,  Prussia,  announced  the  death  of  its  Secre- 
tary, Prof.  Dr.  Philipp  Bertkau. 

The  Council  reported  that  at  the  meeting  held  February  14 
the  Committee  on  Premiums  had  been  named,  to  consist  of 
Messrs.  Pepper,  Frazer,  Ingham,  DuBois,  Morris,  Wistar 
and  Tatham. 

Propositions  for  membership  1332  and  133-1  were  recom- 
mended to  be  postponed  for  farther  information,  and  1335 
and  1344:  were  recommended  for  approval. 

It  was  recommended  that  the  first  meetings  in  February, 


16 


I  Feb.  28, 


May  and  November  be  designated  for  tlie  presentation  and 
free  discussion  of  subjects  of  broad  philosopbic  interest,  and 
that  a  Committee  of  five  be  appointed  to  make  the  necessary 
preparations  therefor. 

The  recommendations  of  the  Board  of  Officers  and  Council 
were  approved  and  the  Chairman  referred  the  appointment 
of  the  Committee  to  the  President  of  the  Society. 

The  following  deaths  were  announced  : 

Hon.  Henry  Eeed,  Philadelphia,  February  23,  1896,  set.  49, 

Dr.  Owen  Jones  Wister,  Philadelphia,  February  2-i,  1896, 
c^t.  70. 

The  President,  by  letter,  announced  that  he  had  appointed 
J.  G,  Rosengarten  to  prepare  the  obituary  of  Rev.  W.  H. 
Furness,  D.D.,  and  that  the  appointment  had  been  accepted. 

The  stated  business  of  the  meeting  being  the  election  of 
members,  the  nominations  were  spoken  to,  and  the  ballots 
cast,  Secretaries  Frazer  and  DuBois  acting  as  Tellers, 

The  following  papers  were  presented  for  publication  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Society  : 

An  essay  on  ' '  The  Development  of  the  Mouth  Parts  of 
Certain  Insects,"  by  J.  B.  Smith,  Sc.D. 

"A  New  Method  of  Determining  the  Perturbations  of  the 
Minor  Planets,"  by  Wm.  McKnight  Ritter,  M.A." 

On  motion,  referred  to  Committees  for  examination  and 
report. 

The  Tellers  being  prepared  to  report,  announced  that 

2278.  Dr.  A.  E.  Kennelly,  Philadelphia  ; 

2279.  Wm.  Pitts  Mason,  Troy,  N.  Y.; 

2280.  Rev.  H.  C.  McCook,  Philadelphia  ; 

2281.  Henry  Pettit,  Overbrook,  Pa.; 
had  been  elected. 

The  Society,  on  motion,  adjourned. 


17 

1896.]  -•-  ♦ 

Remarks  made  at  the  Demonstration  of  the  Rontgen  Ray, 
at  Stated  Meeting,  February  21,  1896. 

Prof.  Goodspeed  describes  his  apparatus  as  follows  : 

In  order  to  economize  time  it  may  be  worth  wliile  for  me  to  call  your 
attention  very  briefly  to  the  apparatus  that  we  will  use  to-night,  before 
beginning  the  reading  of  the  regular  paper.  We  have  here  two 
terminal  wires  which  are  supplied  with  the  electric  current  from  several 
storage  batteries  which  are  behind  a  screen.  The  electro-motive  force 
IS  about  sixteen  volts.  This  induction  coil  which  is  to  furnish  the  cur- 
rent to  stimulate  the  tube  has  a  primary  resistance  of  about  three-tenths 
ohm.  The  resistance  of  the  secondary  coil  is  about  3300  ohms,  dead 
resistance.  By  passing  the  primary  current  through  the  small  resist- 
ance coil  and  interrupting  it  frequently,  as  you  all  know,  we  produce 
an  induced  current  in  the  high  resistance  secondary  coil.  It  is  the  dis- 
charge of  this  induced  current  through  the  Crookes  tube  which  you  see 
here  that  produces  the  green  phosphorescence  and  secondarily,  prob- 
ably, produces  or  sets  up  the  form  of  energy  with  which  we  are  to  deal 
this  evening. 

In  order  to  make  a  test  case  I  will  place  this  little  pocketbook,  with 
a  couple  of  coins  and  an  iron  key  inside  it,  upon  a  sensitive  photo- 
graphic plate,  which  is  placed  upon  the  table  wrapped  in  several  thick- 
nesses of  light-tight  paper.  The  plate,  as  you  will  see,  is  three  or  four 
inches  below  the  lower  end  of  the  tube.  The  tube  is  much  larger  than 
is  usually  seen  ;  and  for  that  reason,  probably,  is  more  efficient.  The 
internal  pressure  is  probably  about  one  one-millionth  of  an  atmosphere. 
The  exposure  may  continue  during  the  reading  of  the  paper.  Subse- 
quently we  will  have  the  plate  developed. 

The  Roxtgex  Phenomena. 

Gentlemen  : — Never  before  in  the  history  of  science  has  a  new  discovery 
commanded  such  intense  and  universal  interest  as  that,  some  of  the 
features  of  which  we  have  met  here  to-night  to  witness.  Less  than 
two  months  ago,  the  civilized  world  was  startled  at  the  unofficial  an- 
nouncement that  Prof.  Eoutgen,  of  Wiirzburg,  had  discovered  a  form 
of  energy  probably  related  to  radiation,  which  would  pass  through 
many  substances  that  were  opaque  to  known  forms  of  ether  energy. 
An  interesting  point  in  this  connection  was  that  glass,  ordinarily  so 
transparent  to  light,  seemed  to  be  quite  opaque  to  the  new  energy. 
Since  the  original  paper  of  Rontgen  has  appeared,  we  have  learned  that 
the  discovery  referred  to  resulted  from  a  series  of  experiments  on  fluo- 
rescence. The  important  pieces  of  apparatus  that  were  used,  and  which 
we  have  before  us  this  evening,  consist  of  an  inductorium  with  its 
secondary  coil  connected  to  a  well-exhausted  Crookes  tube.  A  high 
degree  of  exhaustion  is  noted  by  the  absence  of  a  bluish  halo  about  one 

PROC.  AMEK.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  C.      PRINTED   MAY  25.  1896. 


18 


[Feb.  21, 


or  both  of  the  terminals.  The  internal  pressure  is  about  one  one-mil- 
lionth of  an  atmosphere.  The  earliest  form  of  vacuum  tube,  constructed 
nearly  fifty  years  ago,  was  exhausted  to  about  one  one-hundredth  of  an 
atmosphere,  and  on  the  passage  of  an  electric  discharge,  glowed 
throughout  its  length  with  a  purplish-blue  color.  As  the  efficiency  of 
the  pump  increased,  higher  vacuum  became  easy  and  the  phenomenon 
of  the  dark  space  about  the  cathode  was  described  and  exhibited  to  the 
British  Association  by  Crookes  in  1879.  As  the  exhaustion  is  increased 
the  dark  space  may  enlarge  so  as  to  extend  throughout  the  length 
of  the  tube.  Under  these  conditions,  the  position  of  the  anode  is  of  little 
consequence,  and  under  the  action  of  the  discharge  the  whole  bulb 
becomes  fluorescent  with  green  or  blue  according  to  the  kind  of  glass. 

"Cathode  rays  "  is  a  term  applied  to  the  disturbance  which  seems  to 
start  at  the  cathode  within  the  tube,  and  extend  in  straight  lines  to  the 
opposite  side.  These  rays  are  capable  of  being  deflected  by  a  magnet, 
and  were  supposed  by  Crookes  to  consist  of  the  molecules  of  the  resi- 
dual gas  projected  with  great  speed  from  the  cathode  terminal  and 
Impinging  upon  the  walls  of  the  tube.  In  the  language  of  molecular 
kinetics,  it  may  be  said,  then,  that  the  mean  free  path  of  the  molecule 
in  one  of  these  highly  exhausted  tubes,  has  become  greater  than  the 
length  of  the  tube.  It  was  discovered  in  1890  by  Hertz  that  these 
cathode  rays  can  pass  through  some  solid  substances,  e.  g.,  aluminum, 
while  others  he  found  to  be  opaque.  Lenard,  the  assistant  of  Hertz, 
in  1894,  passed  the  cathode  rays  outside  the  tube,  through  a  small 
aluminum  window,  placed  in  the  wall  of  the  tube  opposite  the  cathode. 
This  window  had  to  be  very  thin  to  facilitate  the  issue  of  the  rays,  and 
yet  thick  enough,  compared  with  its  size,  to  withstand  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere.  Consequently,  the  area  was  very  small.  Lenard  also 
obtained  shadow  records  on  photographic  plates  by  interposing,  between 
the  aluminum  window  and  the  plate,  opaque  bodies. 

The  cathode  rays  wlien  impinging  upon  the  Lenard  window  do  not 
issue  in  a  direction  collinear  with  their  former  direction  ;  but  seem  to 
spread  in  all  directions  like  a  beam  of  light  passing  beyond  a  very  small 
aperture.  The  transparency  of  substances  for  these  rays  seemed  to  be 
closely  related  to  their  density.  For  example,  in  the  case  of  gases, 
hydrogen  was  found  to  behave  like  oxygen  if  it  were  compressed  until 
its  density  became  equal  to  that  of  the  oxygen.  Transparency  to  these 
rays  seemed  to  have  no  relation  to  electric  conductivity. 

With  reference  to  leaving  out  the  aluminum  window  and  replacing  it 
by  merely  the  glass  of  the  tube,  Lenard  said  {Electrician,  Vol. 
xxxii,  p.  576)  :  "On  replacing  the  aluminum  window  by  one  of  glass, 
it  was  found  "possible  to  repeat  all  the  essential  experiments  with  equal 
success.  But  the  aluminum  remains  the  more  suitable,  not  that  it  is 
the  more  transparent,  but  because  aluminum  is  opaque  to  light,  and 
more  easily  manipulated  than  glass  of  equal  thickness."  So  we  see  that 
Lenard  actually  obtained  results  in  about  the  same  way  that  we  are  ex- 


1896.] 


19 


perimenting  now.  Dr.  Oliver  Lodge,  of  Liverpool,  tried  two  years  ago 
to  repeat  this  very  experiment,  with  a  tube  of  rather  thick  glass, 
"Failing,"  to  use  his  own  words,  "simply  by  reason  of  insufficient 
pertinacity. ' '  This  is  doubtless  the  case,  since  Lodge  has  lately  repeated 
Rbntgen's  experiment  with  that  same  tube,  obtaining  results  "through 
a  quarter  inch  of  wood  and  a  sheet  of  aluminum,  provided  something 
like  a  half  an  hour's  exposure  is  allowed"  {Electrician,  Vol.  xxxvi, 
p.  438). 

Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  the  rays  used  by  Lenard  were  the  same 
as  those  producing  the  Rontgen  phenomena.  As  has  been  said, 
cathode  rays  are  deflected  by  a  magnet,  while  the  Rontgen  rays  seem 
not  to  be.  The  Lenard  rays,  also,  were  shown  to  be  capable  of  deflec- 
tion by  a  magnet  under  certain  conditions.  Roiitgen,  himself,  is  of  the 
opinion  that  the  new  energy  is  some  form  of  ether  wave  motion  per- 
haps longitudinal,  and  Lord  Kelvin,  I  think,  maintains  the  same  views. 
Other  English  authorities  seem  to  be  divided  between  the  ultra-violet 
theory  and  the  longitudinal  wave  theory. 

Dr.  Lodge  in  ajecture  before  the  Liverpool  Physical  Society,  January 
27,  1896,  expressed  himself  as  rather  favoring  the  opinion  that  the 
Rontgen  rays  are  highly  electrified  material  particles,  traveling  with 
very  great  velocity.  In  a  recent  article  {Electrician,  Vol.  xxxvi,  p. 
430),  Lodge  says,  that  "He  permits  himself  to  doubt  and  inclines  to  a 
sort  of  electrolytic  impulsive  propagation,  through  and  by  means  of 
ordinary  matter  ;  in  spite  of  the  immensely  important  fact  that  Prof. 
Rontgen  can  detect  in  his  rays  no  magnetic  deflectibility  whatever." 
In  concluding  the  article  referred  to,  Lodge  says,  "Meanwhile,  the 
possibility,  even  the  probability,  that  in  these  rays  we  have  a  new  kind 
of  radiation,  even  though  it  be  only  ultra-violet,  so  high  up  as  to  be 
comparable  to  the  size  of  molecules,  lends  to  these  experiments  a 
prodigious  interest  in  the  eyes  of  physicists,  far  surpassing  the  obvious 
practical  applications  which  have  gained  the  ear  of  the  general  public." 

Since  writing  the  above.  Lodge  has  himself  repeated  the  magnetic 
experiment  with  very  great  care,  finding  no  deflection  {Electrician, 
Vol.  xxxvi,  p.  471),  and  expresses  himself  as  follows  :  "Consequently, 
the  hypothesis  of  a  stream  of  electrified  particles  is  definitely  dis- 
proved, as  no  doubt  had  already  been  done  in  reality  by  Prof.  Rontgen 
himself." 

It  seems  that  Lenard  had  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  he  was  deal- 
ing with  two  classes  of  rays,  as  regards  their  deflectibility  by  a  magnet. 
The  question  may  still  arise  then.  May  not  the  Rontgen  rays  be  the  un- 
deflectible  Lenard  rays  ? 

The  ultra-violet  theory  is  said  to  be  favored  by  Professors  Schuster 
and  Fitzgerald.  One  difficulty  is,  that  some  electrical  conductors  are 
practically  transparent  to  the  new  radiation.  To  waves  of  light  of 
every  kind  they  ought  to  be  opaque  according  to  Maxwell's  theory. 
However,  the  fact  that  gold  and  some  other  metals,  when  excessively 


20 


[Feb.  21, 


thin,  are  translucent  has  long  presented  a  clifSculty,  -which  is  only  par- 
tially overcome  bj'  the  assumption,  that  "the  structure  is  not  infinitely 
fine-grained,  with  respect  to  the  size  of  the  light  waves."  It  may  not 
be  too  much  to  suppose  that  these  new  waves  are  comparable  in  size 
with  the  molecules,  or  even  the  atoms,  of  matter. 

The  theory  of  Prof.  Roatgen,  already  referred  to,  that  the  new 
energj"  is  longitudinal  ether-wave  motion,  surely  must  not  be  ignored, 
especially  as  it  seems  to  be  supported,  among  others,  by  the  dis- 
tinguished mathematical  physicist,  Prof.  Boltzmann,  of  Vienna.  There 
are  difficulties  in  supposing  the  ether  to  be  compressible,  yet  it  must 
assume  the  etfects  of  compressibility,  if  it  is  to  transmit  a  periodic  dis- 
turbance with  finite  speed. 

Rontgen's  own  theory  seems  well  supported  by  Q.  Jaumann  (Wiede- 
mann's Annalen,  January,  1896),  who  has  shown  in  a  recent  article 
that  by  a  little  change  in  Maxwell's  equations,  to  satisfy  the  conditions 
of  high  rarefaction,  which  is  met  with  in  a  Crookes  tube,  longitudinal 
ether  waves  are  possible,  which  would  possess  many  of  the  properties 
of  the  new  rays. 

That  the  new  energy  does  not  consist  of  cathode  rays  alone,  seems  to 
be  proved  by  the  remarkable  experiment  of  J.  J.  Thomson,  who  placed 
a  protected  plate  inside  the  vacuum  tube,  exposed  to  the  direct  cathode 
stream,  and  got  no  result  (Lodge,  Electrician,  Vol.  xxxvi,  p.  473). 
The  same  experimenter  has  suggested  an  eificient  and  quick  way  of  de- 
tecting the  presence  of  Routgen  rays.  An  insulated  metal  plate  elec- 
trically charged,  either  positivelj^  or  negativelj',  quickly  loses  its  charge 
when  in  the  presence  of  the  rays.  This  occurs  even  when  the  plate  is 
entirely  embedded  in  the  best  insulators.  It  follows,  then,  that  all  sub- 
stances become  electrical  conductors,  when  under  the  influence  of  the 
Rontgen  discharge. 

Should  the  longitudinal  ether-wave  theory  be  demonstrated  to  be  the 
true  one.  Prof.  Rontgen's  discovery  would  be  the  greatest  of  the  age, 
and  will  open  up  a  vast  new  field  for  experimental  research,  and  will 
likely  lead  to  more  definite  views  concerning  the  nature  of  the  luminif- 
erous  ether. 

Soon  after  the  announcement  of  this  wonderful  discovery,  we  began 
to  experiment  in  the  Physical  Laboratory  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, at  first  rather  skeptically  and  quite  in  the  dark  as  to  the  exact 
method  of  procedure.  As  the  earlier  statements  implied  the  necessity  of 
two  induction  coils,  the  primary  of  one  connected  to  the  secondary  of 
the  other,  we  were  somewhat  embarrassed  as  we  did  not  have  two  that 
could  be  efficiently  joined  in  that  way.  To  show  the  importance  at- 
tached to  this  point  by  early  imitators  of  Rontgen  abroad,  let  me  quote 
a  statement  by  A.  A.  C.  Swinton,  who,  I  am  told,  was  the  first  in  Eng- 
land to  repeat  some  of  Rontgen's  experiments.  He  says  (Nature,  Vol. 
liii,  p.  377),  "So  far  as  our  own  experiments  go,  it  appears  that,  at  any 
rate,  without  very  long  exposures,  a  sutticieutly  active  excitation  of  the 


1896.] 


21 


Crookes  tube  is  not  obtained  by  direct  connection  to  an  ordinary 
Rhumkorfif  induction  coil,  even  of  a  large  size.  So  called  'high  fre- 
quency currents,'  however,  appear  to  give  good  results,  and  our  own 
experiments  have  been  made  with  a  tube  excited  by  current,  obtained 
from  the  secondary  circuit  of  a  Tesla  oil  coil  through  the  primary  of 
which  were  continually  discharged  twelve  half  gallon  Leyden  jars, 
charged  with  an  alternating  current  of  about  twenty  thousand  volts 
pressure,  produced  by  a  transformer  with  a  spark  gap  across  its  high- 
pressure  terminals." 

Having  no  such  apparatus  as  this  at  the  University,  and  thinking  that 
possibly  some  indication  might  be  obtained  from  a  simpler  arrange- 
ment, w^e  left  out  the  second  coil  and  joined  the  tube  directlj'  to  the 
secondary  of  the  tirst  coil.  The  coil  we  are  using  was  constructed  by 
Apps,  of  London.  It  has  a  primary  resistance  of  about  0.3  of  an  ohm, 
and  a  secondary  resistance  of  about  3200  ohms.  The  Crookes  tube 
which  is  one  of  the  collection  in  the  physical  cabinet  at  the  University, 
is  a  shadow  tube  nearly  twenty-flve  centimeters  long  and  eleven  centi- 
meters in  diameter  at  its  larger  end. 

The  first  result  that  was  unmistakably  a  success  was  obtained  on 
"Wednesday,  February  5.  A  small  slip  of  glass  and  a  piece  of  sheet 
lead,  together  with  a  wedge  of  wood,  were  held  in  place  upon  a  sensi- 
tive photographic  plate  by  elastic  bands,  and  the  whole  enclosed  light 
tight  in  an  ordinary  plate  holder.  This  was  placed  horizontally  upon  a 
table,  eight  or  ten  centimeters  below  the  large  end  of  the  Crookes  tube. 
An  exposure  of  twenty  minutes  produced,  upon  development,  a  sharp 
impression  of  the  objects,  the  glass  and  lead  appearing  opaque,  while 
the  portion  of  the  plate  covered  by  the  wood  was  hardly  less  affected 
than  the  parts  entirely  unprotected.  The  sight  was  startling  at  first  as 
every  experimenter  who  gets  the  result  for  the  first  time  can  testify. 
This  experiment  was  immediately  followed  by  an  attempt  to  obtain  a 
skeleton  view  of  the  hand,  the  result  of  which  will  be  shown  by  the  first 
slide. 

From  that  time  until  the  present,  many  experiments  of  a  varied 
nature  have  been  tried,  the  object  being  to  investigate  substances  with 
reference  to  their  transparency  ;  to  detect,  if  possible,  refraction  or  re- 
flection ;  to  determine  the  action  of  various  crystals  cut  in  different 
ways  with  reference  to  the  optic  axis  ;  and  a  few  experiments  to  test 
the  possible  efficiency  of  a  special  method  of  treating  the  sensitive  film. 

Early  associated  with  the  w^-iter  was  Dr.  H.  W.  Cattell,  who  obtained 
some  very  curious  cases  of  malformation  of  the  hand  and  fingers,  and 
produced  results  which  have  proved  extremely  interesting  from  a  surgi- 
cal point  of  view. 

Our  experiments  on  crystals  have  not  resulted  in  much  that  is  inter- 
esting, except,  perhaps,  in  one  case  which  I  will  refer  to  presently. 
One  plate  exposed  had  upon  it  a  tourmaline,  a  double  image  prism,  a 
Nicol  prism,  an  amethyst,  an  irregular  quartz  crystal,  some  mica  discs. 


^^  [Feb.  21, 

aud  some  quartz  plates  with  parallel  sides.  These  all  seemed  to  be 
rather  opaque,  though  I  think  the  exposure  was  probably  too  short. 
We  shall  experiment  in  this  line  at  another  time. 

The  second  slide  shows  the  skeleton  of  a  lady's  hand,  which,  as  far 
as  I  know,  is  the  first  that  has  been  produced. 

The  third  slide  illustrates  the  difference  in  the  density  of  the  nega- 
tive caused  by  times  of  exposure  on  the  four  quarters  of  the  plate  of  five, 
ten,  twenty,  forty -five  minutes  respectively.  During  the  exposure  of 
each  quarter,  the  rest  of  the  plate  was  protected  by  metallic  screens. 
The  test  objects  on  the  plate,  are  :  a  circular  piece  of  cork  ;  a  gold  coin  ; 
a  strip  of  magnesium  tape  ;  a  piece  of  glass,  and  a  piece  of  aluminum. 
The  distance  of  the  tube  from  the  plate  was  about  ten  and  a  half  centi- 
meters during  all  four  exposures. 

The  fourth  slide  shows  the  skeleton  of  a  mouse,  taken  laid  flat  upon 
its  back  ;  the  legs  being  stretched  out  and  brought  as  near  the  plate  as 
possible. 

Slide  No.  5  shows  the  density  of  the  negative  produced  by  five- 
minute  exposures,  at  distances  of  two  and  a  half  centimeters,  five  cen- 
timeters, seven  aud  a  half  centimeters,  ten  centimeters  aud  twelve  and 
a  half  centimeters  respectively.  The  plate  was  protected  by  a  screen 
of  copper  having  a  circular  aperture  about  one  centimeter  in  diameter. 

Slides  No.  6  and  7  show  the  density  produced  at  a  distance  of  two  and 
a  half  centimeters,  with  exposures  of  one  to  five  minutes.  These  slides 
were  also  prepared  to  demonstrate  the  efficiency  of  a  plate  especially 
sensitized  by  Mr.  John  Carbuttof  this  city  for  this  work.  He  conceived 
the  idea  that  the  photographic  plate  might  be  rendered  more  sensitive 
to  this  energy,  if  the  film  were  treated  with  some  fluorescent  substance. 
Mr.  Carbutt  very  kindly  placed  in  our  hands  some  of  the  special 
plates,  and  your  attention  is  directed  to  a  comparison  between  a  very 
rapid  ordinary  plate  (Seed's  No.  27),  and  the  one  especially  prepared. 
The  treatment  throughout  was  precisely  the  same.  The  prepared  plate 
seems  to  have  been  considerably  more  sensitive  than  the  other. 

Slides  Nos.  8  and  9  show  the  results  of  tests  to  demonstrate  the  pos- 
sibility of  reflection  or  refraction,  by  means  of  two  large  diamonds  set 
in  a  ring.  First  the  diamond  ring  was  enclosed  in  a  flat  purse  with 
some  coins,  and  certainly  the  result  is  very  interesting,  though,  per- 
haps, it  would  be  premature  to  say  that  anything  new  is  proved  by  it. 
The  ring  was  next  placed  open  directly  upon  the  covered  plate,  aud  ex- 
posed in  two  positions. 

Slide  No.  10  shows  a  possible  application  of  the  Riintgen  process. 
"Wishing  to  test  the  value  of  the  method  for  detecting  flaws  in  metals, 
the  writer  requested  one  of  his  associates.  Dr.  Richards,  to  have  pre- 
pared three  aluminum  plates,  four  or  five  millimeters  thick,  with  hidden 
holes,  plugs,  or  any  flaws  that  might  seem  desirable.  Dr.  Richards  was 
asked  further  to  prepare  a  detailed  description  of  the  plates,  to  sign  and 
seal  it,  and  to  bring  it  with  him  this  evening.     The  aluminum  plates 


1896.]  "^^ 

have  been  examined  by  means  of  the  Routgen  process,  and  it  may  be 
interesting  if  one  of  your  members  will  open  the  envelope  and  compare 
the  description  therein,  with  the  one  that  will  now  be  detailed.  The 
picture  tells  its  own  story  pretty  well,  even  to  the  uninitiated.  No.  1 
seems  to  have  three  circular  holes,  plugged  up  with  some  substance, 
doubtless  aluminum,  having  the  same  radiographic  density  as  the 
material  of  the  plate.  No.  3  appears  to  be  perfect.  No.  3  has  two 
holes  similar  to  those  of  No.  1,  and  a  third  stopped  up  through  a  por- 
tion of  its  length  by  some  substance  les?  transparent  than  the  aluminum, 
perhaps  a  piece  of  copper  or  iron  wire  (Dr.  Richards'  Description  of 
Aluminum  Plates). 

Our  experiments  during  the  last  two  weeks  have  been  made  at  all 
times  of  the  day  and  evening,  sometimes  in  full  daylight,  and  often 
with  no  light  at  all,  except  that  emitted  by  the  tube.  The  presence  or 
absence  of  luminous  radiation  seems  not  to  make  the  least  ditference  in 
the  results.  We  early  learned  that  sharper  outlines  could  be  obtained 
by  omitting  the  usual  plate  holder,  and  wrapping  the  plate  in  several 
thicknesses  of  orange  paper.  By  this  means  actinic  light  was  excluded, 
and  the  objects  were  brought  nearer  to  the  sensitive  film.  During  this 
series  of  experiments,  the  writer  has  received  much  assistance  and  man}' 
valuable  suggestions  from  his  associates  in  the  department,  Dr.  H.  C. 
Richards,  Dr.  R.  R.  Tatnall  and  Mr.  G.  C.  McKee. 

In  connection  with  this  subject,  it  is  desired  to  direct  the  attention  of 
the  gentlemen  present  to  a  remarkable  coincidence  which  can  hardly 
fail  to  excite  interest.  In  the  fall  of  1889,  the  writer  received  a  letter 
from  a  prominent  gentleman  in  Philadelphia,  asking  him  to  call  at  a 
convenient  and  early  date,  to  be  presented  to  a  friend  who  was  desirous 
of  obtaining  facilities  for  some  experiments  in  electric  spark  photog- 
raphy. On  the  occasion  referred  to,  the  writer  had  the  pleasure  of 
meeting  Mr.  W.  N.  Jennings,  of  Philadelphia,  who  for  many  years  has 
been  much  interested  in  the  photography  of  lightning.  It  was  Mr. 
Jennings'  wish  to  photograph  electric  sparks  from  various  forms  of  ap- 
paratus, in  order  to  compare  the  results  with  the  lightning  pictures 
which  he  had  already  obtained.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  series  of 
experiments,  begun  at  that  time,  have  been  continued  to  the  present,  as 
occasion  and  opportunity  have  made  it  convenient. 

The  particular  meeting  of  interest  occurred  on  the  evening  of  Feb- 
ruary 32,  1890.  Slides  11  to  14  show  the  result  of  some  of  our  experi- 
ments on  that  evening.  We  photographed  the  brush  from  a  large  in- 
duction machine,  by  holding  the  uncovered  plate  in  various  positions 
near  the  poles.  We  also  placed  coins  and  brass  weights  on  the  plates, 
sparking  them  by  means  of  the  Apps  induction  coil  in  various  ways. 
After  finishing  the  experiments  of  this  sort,  the  writer  brought  out  from 
the  cabinet  quite  a  variety  of  Crookes  tubes,  and  showed  them  to  Mr. 
Jennings  simply  for  his  pleasure  and  amusement.  The  desirability  of 
getting  Mr.  Ives  to  reproduce  some  of  the  color  effects  by  means  of  his 


24 


[Feb.  21, 


beautiful  method  was  suggested.  A  few  days  later,  Mr.  Jennings  an- 
nounced the  results  of  the  evening's  work  and  mentioned  that  several 
of  the  plates  that  had  not  been  exposed  directly,  but  which  were  de- 
veloped along  with  the  others,  were  found  to  be  fogged.  He  also  men- 
tioned one,  upon  Avhich  had  appeared  a  mysterious  disc,  that  he  was 
quite  unable  to  account  for  as  the  character  of  the  impression  was  en- 
tirely different  from  those  that  had  been  obtained  in  the  regular  way. 

The  matter  was  forgotten  until  about  ten  days  ago,  when  the  writer 
asked  Mr.  Jennings  to  look  over  the  records  of  our  early  experiments, 
to  see  if  we  ever  exposed  a  plate  entirely  covered  in  the  plate-holder. 
He  immediately  did  so,  and  found  the  plate  upon  which  had  appeared 
the  mysterious  disc.  A  very  reasonable  explanation  now  is  suggested. 
The  disc  is  doubtless  the  shadow  picture  of  one  of  the  coins  made  while 
we  were  viewing  the  Crookes  tubes.  To  add  still  more  weight  to  this 
theory,  we  repeated,  a  few  days  ago,  the  experiment  in  the  same  way 
that  it  must  have  been  made,  if  at  all,  on  that  interesting  evening.  The 
original  plate  and  the  result  of  the  recent  experiment,  we  have  the 
honor  of  showing  you  here.  Now,  gentlemen,  we  wish  it  clearly  un- 
derstood that  we  claim  no  credit  whatever  for  what  seems  to  have  been 
a  most  interesting  accident,  yet  the  evidence  seems  quite  convincing 
that  the^As^  Routgen  shadow  picture  was  really  produced  almost  ex- 
actly six  years  ago  to-night,  in  the  physical  lecture  room  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania. 

Arthur  W.  Goodspeed. 

University  op  Pennsylvania,  February  31,  1896. 

Prof.  Edwin  J.  Houston's  Eemarks  were  as  follows: 

It  is  unquestionably  the  fact  that  although  natural  truths  cry  aloud  to 
the  scientific  inquirer,  yet  they  may  long  remain  unrecognized.  We 
have  heard  to-night,  in  the  excellent  paper  Prof.  Goodspeed  has  read, 
that  although  the  apparatus  Ave  have  just  seen  was  in  the  possession  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  although  it  undoubtedly  long  ago 
produced  the  Rontgen  effects,  yet  they  were  undetected.  I  had  myself 
a  similar  apparatus  in  the  philosophical  cabinet  of  the  Central  High 
School ;  and  the  Rontgen  rays  were  unquestionably  produced  by  it, 
but  they  were  not  recognized.  Many  a  case  of  a  curious  shadow  pho- 
tograph, appearing  mysteriously  upon  a  plate  believed  to  be  good, 
strange  shadows  coming  out,  the  cause  of  which  could  not  be  detected, 
wei'e  most  probably  some  of  these  Rontgen  photographs. 

The  paper  we  have  heard  has  reviewed  in  so  able  a  manner  the  com- 
paratively few  facts  that  are  known  concerning  this  peculiar  form  of 
radiant  energy,  that  I  may,  in  my  remarks,  be  forced  to  repeat  some  of 
its  statements,  but  it  may,  nevertheless,  be  of  interest  to  you  if  I  do  so 
in  other  language. 

The  term  cathode  rays  is  applied  to  the  stream  of  electrified  molecules 


1896.] 


25 


that  pass  in  a  rectilinear  direction  from  the  negative  electrode,  or 
cathode,  of  a  suitably  exhausted  vacuum  tube.  This  peculiar  eft'ect  is 
not  observed  to  any  marked  degree  until  the  residual  atmosphere  in  the 
tube  has  a  tension  or  pressure  of  but  about  the  one-millionth  of  an 
atmosphere,  or  until  that  peculiar  condition  of  matter  in  the  tube  is  ob- 
tained, for  which  Crookes  proposed  the  name  of  the  ultra-gaseous,  or 
radiant  state.  It  appears  that  wherever  (he  cathode  rays  strike  the 
walls  of  the  tube,  or  any  suitable  substance  contained  therein,  they 
excite  fluorescence.  The  cathode  rays  are  deflected  by  magnetic  flux. 
Indeed,  they  must  be  so  deflected  if  they  consist  of  streams  of  electri- 
fied molecules  ;  for,  their  deflection  by  magnetic  flux  is  a  phenomenon 
allied  to  the  deflection  of  a  voltaic  arc  by  a  magnet,  or  the  deflection 
of  the  active  wires  on  an  electromagnetic  motor,  by  the  flux  from  the 
field  magnets. 

Reviewing  briefly  the  history  of  the  Rontgen  discovery,  we  will  find 
some  of  the  facts  to  be  as  follows;  viz.,  Hertz  showed  that  thin  metallic 
films  are  transparent  to  the  cathode  rays.  Lenard,  an  assistant  of 
Hertz,  who  afterwards  took  up  the  investigation  both  in  connection 
with  Hertz  and  individually,  placed  an  aluminum  window  in  the  tube 
so  that  the  cathode  rays  impinged  on  it.  You  probably  noticed,  in 
looking  at  the  radiation  from  the  tube  shown  by  Prof.  Goodspeed,  that 
the  rays  did  not  light  up  the  entire  surface  of  the  tube,  but  that  a  spot 
directly  opposite  the  cathode  was  markedly  excited  by  the  phos- 
phorescence. That  is  the  spot  where  a  peculiar  kind  of  radiation,  called 
the  Lenard  rays,  or  the  Roatgen  rays,  was  observed  ;  the  Lenard  rays 
in  one  condition  of  the  vacuum,  and  the  Rontgen  rays  in  another  con- 
dition of  the  vacuum.  Assuming,  that  the  cause  of  the  Lenard  or 
Roatgen  rays  is  the  impact  of  a  molecular  stream  of  electrified  particles, 
most  iDrobably  molecules,  we  may  inquire  as  to  their  origin.  They  are 
evidently  either  disengaged  from  the  substance  of  the  negative  elec- 
trode or  cathode,  or  they  are  simply  the  molecules  of  residual  gas  in  the 
highly  exhausted  tube.  Inasmuch  as  Pupin  has  shown  that  electrode- 
less  Crookes  tubes,  that  is,  tubes  not  provided  Avith  interior  electrodes, 
produce  the  same  effect,  it  would  seem  fair  to  believe  that  botht  he 
Lenard  and  the  Rontgen  efi'ects  may  be  due  to  molecular  bombardment 
of  the  molecules  of  the  residual  atmosphere.  In  these  electrodeless 
tubes,  pieces  of  tinfoil  are  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  tube,  and  the 
terminals  of  the  Ruhmkorflf  coil  being  attached  to  them,  discharges  are 
produced  by  electrostatic  induction  corresponding  to  the  discharges  of 
the  secondary  of  the  Ruhmkorff  coil,  and  all  the  eff'ects  of  either  the 
Lenard  or  the  Rontgen  rays  are  produced. 

Lenard  states  that  his  rays  are  faintly  visible  to  the  eye  outside  the 
tube.  They  are,  however,  rapidly  absorbed  by  the  air,  so  that  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  tube  they  cease  to  be  visible.  The  Roatgen 
rays,  on  the  contrary,  are  invisible  to  the  eye.  Both  the  Lenard  and 
the  Rontgen  rays  produce  phosphorescence  in  phosphorescent  materials 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  D.      PRINTED  MAY  25,  1896. 


26 


[Feb.  21, 


on  which  they  impinge  ;  they  both  traverse  opaque  films  of  metal  ; 
they  both  produce  actinic  effects  on  photographic  plates.  That  the 
Rontgen  rays  are  something  different  from  the  Lenard  rays  is  proved, 
I  think,  by  the  fact  that  they  are  not  by  any  means  so  absorbable  bj'  air. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  know  how  Rontgen's  original  eii'ects  were 
obtained.  He  took  an  ordinary  Crookes  tube,  or  at  least  a  tube  con- 
taining the  proper  vacuum,  and  completely  covered  it  with  blackened 
pasteboard  so  as  to  render  it  light  tight  to  ordinary  light.  He  took  a 
paper  screen  which  he  painted  with  a  substance  capable  of  being  ex- 
cited by  fluorescence,  a  solution  of  barium-platino-cyanide.  He  then 
found  that  wherever  this  screen  was  impinged  on  by  the  Rontgen  rays, 
it  fluoresced. 

Rontgen  found,  that  his  rays,  like  the  Lenard  rays,  possess  the  strange 
power  9f  passing  through  many  substances  opaque  to  ordinary  light. 
It  is  generally  believed  that  the  source  of  the  Rontgen  rays  is  the  por- 
tion of  the  glass  tube  which  receives  the  bombardment  of  the  molecules 
shot  off  from  the  negative  electrode.  In  other  words,  the  Rontgen 
rays  are  caused  by  the  cathode  rays.  That  they  are  not  the  cathode 
rays  themselves  is  evident  from  a  brief  review  of  some  of  their  charac- 
teristics. 

1.  The  Rontgen  rays  are  invisible  to  the  eye. 

2.  They  excite  fluorescence.  (In  this  respect,  however,  they  agree 
with  the  cathode  rays  and  the  Lenard  raj^s.) 

3.  They  produce  actinic  effects.  In  this  respect  they  agree  with  the 
Lenard  rays,  but  are  entirely  differentiated  from  the  cathode  rays.  A 
photographic  plate  has  been  placed  inside  a  Crookes  tube  and  the 
cathode  rays  have  been  caused  to  impinge  on  it.  They  failed  to  pro- 
duce any  actinic  effects.  There  are  clearly  then  these  differences  ;  the 
Rontgen  rays  produce  actinic  effects  ;  i.  e.,  they  possess  the  power  of  de- 
composing a  photographic  salt  placed  on  a  sensitive  plate,  and  are  not 
deflected  by  a  magnet.  This  latter  point  has  been  confirmed  recently 
by  some  very  careful  experiments  made  by  Dr.  Oliver  Lodge.  The 
apparatus  would  have  detected  any  deflection  had  it  existed. 

There  is,  however,  a  marked  similarity  between  the  Lenard  and  the 
Rontgen  rays.  The  source  of  both  is  believed  to  be  the  cathode  rays. 
Thej"  each  produce  fluorescence  ;  each  possess  the  power  of  passing 
through  substances  ordinarily  opaque,  the  opacity  increasing  appa- 
rently with  the  density,  thou^gh  not  in  direct  proportion  with  the  den- 
sity. The  Rontgen  rays,  however,  difler  in  the  valuable  property  of 
not  being  so  readily  absorbed.  The  Lenard  rays,  though  not  deflected 
by  a  magnet,  in  free  air,  are  deflected  by  a  magnet  when  they  are 
caused  to  enter  a  highly  exhausted  chamber — at  least,  so  Lenard  states. 
It  is  said  that  Prof.  Wright,  of  Yale,  a  careful  student  and  one  whose 
opinion  is  to  be  regarded,  does  not  think  that  the  Rontgen  rays  difler 
from  the  cathode  rays.  He  rather  looks  on  the  Rontgen  rays  as 
strained  cathode  rays. 


1896.] 


27 


That  the  Rontgen  rays  possess  three  characteristics  of  ordinary  light  ; 
viz.,  rectilinear  propagation,  as  shown  by  their  ability  to  cast  shadows  ; 
the  power  of  producing  fluorescence  ;  and  the  power  of  effecting  chemical 
decomposition  in  a  sensitive  photographic  plate.  They  difter  from  light, 
however,  in  nearly  all  other  respects.  If  they  are  ether  waves  they  may 
be  transverse  waves,  which  we  know  of;  or  they  may  bethelong-looked- 
for  longitudinal  waves.  They  are,  however,  apparently  incapable  of  re- 
flection, refraction  or  interference,  all  characteristic  of  transverse  vibra- 
tions. If  they  are  transverse  vibrations  they  belong  to  some  part  of  the 
spectrum  that  we  have  not  hitherto  studied.  In  the  opinion  of  some  phys- 
icists they  belong  to  a  region  considerably  below  the  red  ;  in  the  opinion 
of  others  they  are  exceedingly  short  wave  lengths,  possibly  approaching 
atomic  or  molecular  dimensions. 

I  have  used  in  connection  with  my  colleague,  Dr.  Kennelly,  in  the 
study  of  the  Rontgen  effect,  both  the  character  of  apparatus  described  by 
Prof.  Goodspeed,  as  well  as  other  apparatus.  Dr.  Kennelly  and  I,  charge 
a  battery  of  Leyden  jars  with  the  discharge  of  a  large  Ruhmkorft'  coil ; 
we  get  a  spark  discharge  and  a  spark  gap,  and  then  use  that  spark  dis- 
charge, which  is  an  oscillatory  discharge,  through  the  primary  of  a  Tesla 
coil.  We  thus  obtain  in  the  secondary  coil  an  exceedingly  high  discharge 
and  use  this  to  excite  the  Crookes  tubes.  The  Tesla  coil  was  immersed 
in  rosin  oil.  It  seems  from  the  experiments  we  have  made  that  these 
very  rapid  oscillations  are  not  so  apt  to  injure  the  tube  and  apparently 
produce  better  results.  However,  in  sharp  opposition  to  this,  I  hear  a 
rumor,  though  it  is  only  a  rumor,  that  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University 
they  are  working  in  the  opposite  direction  ;  viz.,  with  very  few  oscilla- 
tions of  the  primary  per  second.  I  hope  Prof.  Rowland,  who  is  conduct- 
ing these  experiments,  will  soon  let  us  know  what  he  is  doing. 

Mr.  Edison  has  been  a  tireless  investigator  in  this  field  of  physical  re- 
search. 

Prof.  Schuster  is  decided  in  his  opinion  that  the  Rontgen  rays  are  not 
the  cathode  rays.  He  agrees  that  the  point  of  origin  is  where  the  stream 
of  negatively  charged  molecules  strikes  the  glass.  Prof.  Whiting  finds 
gum  to  be  the  most  transparent  and  rock  salt  the  most  opaque  substance 
to  the  action  of  the  rays.  Prof.  J.  J.  Thompson  states  that  the  cathode 
rays  are  incapable  of  affecting  sensitive  photographic  plates.  We  all  know 
that  the  ultra-violet  rays,  which  some  think  are  the  same  as  the  Rdutgen 
rays,  will  effect  the  discharge  of  a  negatively  excited  body.  Prof  J.  J. 
Thompson  has  shown  that  the  Rontgen  rays  will  effect  the  discharge  of 
either  a  negatively  or  a  positively  excited  body,  and  this  whether  or  not 
the  body  is  surrounded  by  the  highest  insulating  substances  known  to  the 
electrician,  like  vulcanite  or  parafine.  Of  course,  I  know  that  most  of 
you  will  know  what  this  means  ;  viz  ,  that  a  leak  takes  place  in  those 
substances  ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  while  the  Rontgen  rays  are  passing 
through  these  substances  they  become  conductors  of  electricity. 


28 


[Feb.  21, 


Mr.  Carbutt :  Do  I  understand  j^ou  to  say  that  no  positive  results  have 
been  obtained  yet  at  the  bell  of  the  receiver  of  the  exhaust  pumps? 

A.  I  say  that  I  understand  that  no  sensitive  plate  has  yet  been  obtained, 
■which,  placed  in  the  Crookes  tube,  will  have  any  aclinic  effect  produced 
on  it  by  the  cathode  rays.  "When  they  pass  outside  the  tube  they  are  no 
longer  cathode  rays. 

Q.  But  if  placed  on  the  bell  of  the  receiver  of  an  exhaust  pump? 

A.  I  have  not  tried  that. 

Q.  Just  to-day  I  made  the  experiment  of  exposing  a  pair  of  steel 
scissors  ;  and  in  five  minutes  obtained  a  strong  negative  effect,  getting  my 
rays  from  the  negative  pole. 

Q.  Then  they  went  through  the  glass  of  your  receiver  ? 

A.  No,  sir  ;  they  struck  right  on  the  metal  scissors. 

Q.  Where  had  you  your  photographic  plate? 

A.  On  a  bell  receiver.  I  used  no  Crookes  tube,  nothing  but  just  the 
rays  as  they  came  down  from  the  negative  pole.  The  plate  w^as  lying  on 
a  little  table  as  connected  with  the  positive  pole  and  the  rays  were  seen 
traveling  down  on  the  plate  on  which  were  laid  tiie  scissors. 

A.  I  think  you  had  an  effect  very  mucli  like  the  electric  discharge 
effects  shown  on  the  screen  to-night.  I  believe  that  a  great  many  state- 
ments made  concerning  the  ability  of  other  sources  of  light  to  produce 
Rontgen  rays  are  due  either  to  heat  effects,  or  to  electric  effects. 

Dr.  J.  Cheston  Morris  asked  if  Edison  was  experimenting  with  celluloid 
plates.     Prof.  Houston  said  he  did  not  know. 

Eemarks  by  Mr.  Julius  F.  Saclise  were  as  follows  : 

So  far  as  the  photographic  properties  of  the  new  X  rays  of  Rontgen  are 
concerned,  it  is  yet  a  question  whether  they  will  ever  be  of  any  practical 
value  or  use  for  photographic  purposes,  as  the  term  is  usually  understood. 

The  fact  that  these  rays  can  neither  be  refracted,  condensed  nor  dis- 
persed, is  a  fatal  objection  to  their  application  to  photograpliy. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  all  of  the  registered  or  permanent  results  obtained 
and  shown  here  this  evening  are  by  no  means  photographs  in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  word;  they  are  merely  fixed  shadows  or  "sciographs" 
obtained  by  the  interposition  of  a  sensitive  gelatine  plate. 

I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  depreciating  this  new  factor  in 
physics,  nor  to  appear  skeptical  as  to  any  practical  results  that  may  be 
forthcoming  in  the  future.  It  is  now  certain  that  a  great  discovery  has  been 
made  by  Prof.  Rontgen,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  these  identical 
rays  have  been  produced  thousands  of  times,  in  nearly  every  physical 
laboratory  in  the  world,  and  that  it  only  needed  the  neighborhood  of  a 
luminous  film  to  reveal  them,  and  to  do  this  was  Prof.  Riiutgen's  oppor- 
tunity. The  step  to  substitute  a  sensitive  plate  to  register  the  shadow 
was  a  short  one,  and  we  have  here  to-night  a  practical  demoDstration  of 
the  results. 


1836.1 


29 


I  now  wish  to  call  your  attention  to  another  peculiarity  of  the  new 
P.ontgen  rays,  that  has  just  come  to  my  notice,  and  had  time  permitted,  I 
should  have  had  the  specimens  here  to  illustrate  my  remarks. 

The  most  exhaustive  series  of  photographic  experiments  thus  far  made 
in  connection  with  the  Rontgen  rays  are  the  investigations  at  the  Im- 
perial experimental  institution  at  Vienna  (K.  K.  Lehr-  und  Versuchs- 
anstalt  fur  Photographic  in  Wien).  Thus  fiir  no  results  have  been 
obtained  greater  than  the  original  skeleton  hand  of  Prof.  Rontgen.  Scien- 
tifically, however,  the  curious  fact  has  been  learned  that  the  actinic  action 
of  the  so-called  X  rays  is  dependent  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  medium  or 
support  that  holds  the  haloid  salts  in  suspension. 

It  appears  that  for  some  reason  as  yet  unknown  the  new  Rontgen 
rays  have  a  peculiar  affinity  for  a  sensitive  plate  whose  support  consists 
of  animal  matter  or  gelatine.  Now  if  we  take  a  plate  of  equal  sensitive- 
ness, but  substitute  collodion  for  gelatine,  and  expose  it  to  the  action  of 
the  X  rays,  no  effect  whatever  is  produced.  The  rays  seem  to  be  abso- 
lutely inert  the  moment  any  medium  is  substituted  for  the  animal  support 
of  the  ordinary  commercial  drj'plate. 

This  series  of  experiments  at  Vienna  consisted  in  testing  the  ordinary 
bromo-argentic  gelatine  dry  plates  of  different  degrees  of  sensitiveness 
together  with  argentic-iodide  collodion  (wet)  plates — bromide  collodion 
emulsion,  and  moist  eosine  bromo-collodion  (Albert  emulsion)  and 
argentic  chloro-bromide  collodion  plates,  the  latter  developed  with  an 
alkaline  solution. 

The  result  of  this  series  of  experiments  was  that  the  Rontgen  rays  made 
little  or  no  impression  upon  any  variety  of  the  collodion  plates  whether 
wet  or  dry,  while  upon  the  contrary  every  variety  of  gelatine  plate,  no 
matter  whethersensitized  with  argentic  bromide,  iodide  or  chloride,  proved 
a  ready  recorder  for  the  Rontgen  rays.  The  most  effective  plates  were 
what  are  known  in  Germany  as  the  "  Schleusner  Rapid  "  bromo-gelatine 
dry  plate  ;  they  are  equal  in  rapidity  to  our  American  plates  "  Sensomiter 
23." 

It  appears  from  this  series  of  experiments  that  the  most  marked  diflfer- 
ence  was  found  in  the  comparison  of  a  chloro-bromo-gelatine  dry  plate 
with  a  collodion  wet  plate,  both  of  which  were  carefully  tested  as  to  their 
equal  sensitiveness  by  daylight  prior  to  being  exposed  to  the  effect  of  the 
X  raj^s.  Where  the  dry  plate  with  alkaline  development  proved  a  suc- 
cess, the  wet  plate  with  an  acid-iron  development  was  an  absolute  failure. 

Another  peculiarity  shown  was  that  an  alkaline  development  in  every 
case  gave  better  results  than  a  neutral  or  acid  one.  Then  again  when  a 
dry  plate  of  the  kind  giving  the  best  results  was  moistened  or  dampened 
before  exposure,  the  sensitiveness  for  the  X  rays  was  greatly  diminished. 

Here  perhaps  we  may  find  a  solution  to  the  problem  why  it  is  that  none 
of  the  American  results  obtained  by  use  of  the  X  rays  thus  far  have  been 
equal,  either  in  distinctness  of  outline  or  reproduction  of  detail,  to  the 
German  sciographs.     It  may  be  to  the  humidity  of  our  atmosphere,  more 


30 


[Feb.  21, 


than  to  the  quality  and  character  of  our  photographic  dry  plates,  or  the 
lack  of  skill  of  our  experimenters,  that  we  have  to  look  for  either  cause  or 
failure. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  many  new  factors  enter  into  the  photographic 
development  of  the  new  forces.  Conditions  seem  to  arise  at  every  turn 
that  are  entirely  foreign  to  those  encountered  when  we  work  with  either 
solar  or  artificial  light,  and  this  independent  from  the  optical  features 
which  I  have  mentioned. 

Now  the  question  naturally  presents  itself  as  to  which  kind  of  sensitive 
plate,  or  medium,  should  be  used  to  obtain  the  maximum  results  of  the 
actinic  action  of  the  X  rays,  or  in  other  words,  by  what  means  can  we  ob 
tain  the  best  permanent  Photo-Sciographs? 

As  to  the  difference  between  the  action  of  the  X  rays  upon  gelatine  and 
collodion  I  would  venture  the  theory  that  if  these  results  are  confirmed  by 
experiments  here,  that  it  is  due  to  the  fact  that  while  gelatine  arrests  the 
X  rays,  they  pass  through  or  penetrate  the  collodion  film.  It  this  should 
prove  to  be  the  case,  it  would  indicate  the  use  of  double-coated  plates,  or 
of  a  stripping  film  upon  a  support  impervious  to  the  X  rays,  such  as  a 
sheet  of  lead.  By  such  means  perhaps  photographic  results  of  still  greater 
value  might  be  obtained.  I  will  here  state  incidentally  that  the  Schleus- 
ner  plate  used  in  the  German  experiments  is  coated  somewhat  heavier 
than  the  average  American  plate. 

I  now  come  to  another  aspect  of  the  possible  development  of  the  photo- 
graphic properties  of  the  new  forces ;  an  experiment  thus  far  untried  in 
.connection  with  the  Rontgen  rays.  For  this  purpose  I  will  turn  back- 
ward and  take  recourse  to  the  original  principles  of  heliography,  and 
suggest  a  series  of  experiments  wherein  we  substitute  for  the  gelatine  dry 
plate  a  highly  polished  sheet  of  metal,  subjecting  it  to  the  action  of  the 
X  rays  in  the  usual  manner,  and  then  seeking  to  develop  the  impinged 
image,  if  there  be  one,  with  the  fumes  or  vapor  of  mercury  or  iodine,  or 
the  two  in  combination,  a  process  well  known  to  photo  experts  of  the  old 
school . 

Tests  should  also  be  made  upon  the  silvered  copper  plate  coated  with 
the  vapor  of  iodine  and  bromine  and  developed  with  the  fumes  cf  mer- 
cury (the  old  daguerreotype  process)  ;  or  upon  plain  sheets  of  polished 
copper,  silver  or  tin,  and  developed  either  with  vapor,  or  by  the  applica- 
tion of  heat  to  the  reverse  side  of  the  plate  ;  a  process  known  as  "  Hunt's 
Thermography." 

The  above  experiments  are  well  worthy  of  a  trial  in  connection  with  the 
development  of  what  may  be  called  "photo-sciography." 

In  conclusion  I  will  call  your  attention  to  a  curious  coincidence.  It 
was  in  this  room  just  fifty-three  years  ago  during  the  centennial  celebra- 
tion of  this  Society  (May  29,  1843)  than  an  almost  identical  topic  formed 
the  theme  for  discussion,  viz.:  Moser's  theory  of  "Invisible  photographic 
rays,"  a  theory  which  was  then  attracting  great  attention  in  scientific 
circles  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.     Remarks  upon  the  subject  were 


1896.] 


31 


made  by  a  number  of  members  present,  among  whom  may  be  named  Dr. 
Paul  Beck  Goddard,  Joseph  Saxton,  Prof.  Henry  and  Prof.  James 
Rodgers,  all  names  that  are  still  held  in  high  esteem  in  the  scientific 
world. 

While  upon  the  subject  of  Moser's  theory,  I  will  state  that  therfe  have  of 
late  come  to  my  notice  several  cases  which  seem  to  confirm  his  theory  of 
latent  light,  or  invisible  photographic  rays.  The  most  marked  instance 
was  where  a  number  of  platinum  prints  were  packed  away  and  laid  un- 
disturbed in  the  dark  for  several  months,  and  in  several  cases  had  repro- 
duced themselves  or  formed  a  reverse  positive  picture  upon  the  surface  of 
the  white  plate  paper  mount  which  laid  immediately  over  the  print  I 
merely  mention  tliis  matter  at  this  time  so  as  to  place  it  upon  record,  as  I 
expect  to  bring  it  before  the  Society  in  a  more  formal  way  in  the  near 
future.  As  a  fitting  close  to  this  paper  I  will  quote  the  language  of 
Robert  Hunt,  used  in  connection  with  Moser's  theory  and  read  here  half 
a  century  ago,  as  it  will  apply  with  equal  force  to  the  theory  of  the  un- 
known waves  known  as  the  X  rays  of  Roatgen  :  "  As  a  subject  of  pure 
scientific  interest  this  discovery  promises  to  develop  some  of  those  secret 
influences  which  operate  in  the  mysterious  arrangements  of  the  atomic 
constituents  of  matter,  to  show  us  the  road  into  the  hidden  recesses  of 
nature's  works,  and  enable  us  to  pierce  the  mists  which  at  present  envelope 
some  of  its  most  striking  phenomena.  It  has  placed  us  at  the  entrance  of 
a  great  river  flowing  into  a  mighty  sea,  which  mirrors  in  its  glowing 
waters  some  of  the  most  brilliant  stars  which  beam  through  the  atmos- 
phere of  truth." 

Referring  to  the  paper  read  by  Mr.  Julius  F.  Sachse,  Mr. 
Joseph  Wharton  asked: 

Q.  Will  the  gentleman  please  explain  more  fully  what  is  the  action  of 
the  X  rays  upon  the  more  sensitive  gelatine  film  as  contrasted  with  their 
action  upon  the  collodion  ? 

A.  I  have  not  had  the  time  to  verify  it  by  experiment  ;  but  as  the  case 
stands  at  present  I  cannot  explain  it  except  that  the  rays  pass  through  the 
collodion  film :  they  fail  to  arrest.  That  is  the  only  explanation  I  can 
give  at  the  present  moment. 

Q.  That  seems  to  be  somewhat  at  variance  with  many  of  the  observa- 
tions that  we  have  had  set  before  us  to  night :  namely,  that  a  number  of 
so-called  colloid  bodies  seem  to  be  pervious  to  the  ray  ;  while  a  number 
of  the  crystalloid  bodies  seem  to  be  impervious.  Here  are  pitch,  gum, 
leather  and  several  other  bodies  which  are  pervious  to  the  ray  (all  col- 
loids) ;  while  quartz,  rock  salt  and  other  crystals  (the  speaker  naming 
several)  all  appear  opaque  to  the  ray.  It  may  be  worth  while  to  bear  in 
mind,  in  future  investigations,  the  question  whether  there  may  be  a  line 
drawn  between  colloids  and  crystalloids  in  transparency  for  the  new  ray, 
and  if  so  to  search  for  the  reason  of  that  distinction. 


32 


I  Feb.  21, 


Eemarks  of  Prof.  Robb,  of  Trinity  College,  Hartford: 

We  are  all  indebted  to  Prof.  Goodspeed  for  a  very  interesting  paper  and 
must  congratulate  him.  There  is  certainly  a  great  deal  of  interest  in 
those  slides.  The  first  thing  that  attracted  our  attention  in  Hartford 
about  our  dry  plates  was  the  fact  that  on  a  great  many  of  them  we 
noticed  second  images  which  were  clearly  defined,  but  fainter  than  the 
first,  having  decidedly  the  appearance  of  the  ordinary  halo  images  of 
ordinary  photography.  At  first  glance  one  might  thick  that  was  due  to 
reflection.  I  am  sure  it  was  not  due  to  any  movement  that  occurred  in 
the  plate  ;  and  I  am  sure  it  was  not  due  to  a  violet  region  of  photograph.  I 
think  exposures  in  bright  light  are  a  very  dangerous  thing.  It  is  very 
possible  to  get  shadow  photographs  through  any  of  the  commercial  plate 
colors  ;  but  in  a  great  deal  of  our  work  where  we  have  worked  in  the 
ordinary  light  we  have  taken  the  precaution  of  using  an  aluminum  cover 
of  over  a  thirty-second  of  an  inch  ;  and  we  get  second  images  to  the  same 
extent  using  the  aluminum  cover.  Of  course  there  are  various  explana- 
tions of  it.  It  might  be  from  fluorescence  or  other  things  that  may  sug- 
gest themselves  to  you. 

With  reference  to  Prof.  Moser's  slow  plates  giving  better  effects  than 
rapid  plates,  that  has  not  been  our  experience.  We  gave  up  the  most 
rapid  plate.  We  experimented  with  the  most  rapid  plate  that  we  could 
get,  and  we  found  some  twenty  of  the  plates  were  apparently  light-struck  ; 
and  finally  we  settled  the  question  they  were  not  light-struck  ;  they 
were  electric-struck  by  the  brush  discharge  at  the  lower  end  of  our 
Crookes  tube. 

One  thing  is  very  apparent  to  all  of  us  that  have  b3en  doing  much  work 
in  this  line — that  the  induction  coil  needs  improvement.  For  as  at  present 
constructed  they  are  not  made  to  run  continuously  for  twelve  hours. 
They  are  all  right  to  run  for  a  few  moments  for  showing  off  Crookes 
tubes  ;  but  platinum  terminals  soon  wear  out  or  become  hot ;  and  we 
have  to  put  on  new  ones.  In  that  connection  I  have  a  very  good  idea,  due 
to  a  mechanic  who  does  a  great  deal  of  work  for  me,  which  I  will  show  by 
a  sketch.  The  platinum  point  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long  ordinarily 
and  is  attached  to  the  end  of  a  tube  having  a  thread  on  it  and  gradually 
wears  away.  Instead  of  fastening  that  piece  of  platinum  directly  under 
the  tube  we  take  a  piece  of  platinum  wire  four  or  five  inches  long  and 
place  it  on  the  end  of  a  second  metal  rod  which  screws  into  the  first.  In 
that  way,  instead  of  having  simply  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  platinum  to 
wear  off,  we  have  some  four  or  five  inches  at  our  disposal  ;  and  in  the 
next  place  the  heat  is  dissipated  long  before  it  gets  to  the  soldered  joint. 

I  think  in  connection  with  these  photographs,  there  are  shadow  photo- 
graphs ;  but  it  is  remarkable  what  an  amount  of  detail  we  can  see  on 
some  of  it.  I  have  a  photograph  of  a  razor  taken  inside  of  the  case  which 
is  interesting  to  see.  When  we  looked  at  it,  it  was  very  briglit  in  the 
middle  of  the  razor — more  light  coming  through  there  than  at  the  edge. 


1896.]  ^^ 

One  of  my  students  said  it  must  be  a  hollow-ground  razor  ;  and  so  we  found 
it  upon  measurement.  The  photograph  that  we  saw  on  the  screen  by 
Prof.  Goodspeed  of  the  aluminum  plates  with  various  holes  bored  in  them 
was  interesting,  both  as  showing  what  can  be  done  in  the  case  of 
aluminum  and  what  may  be  done  in  the  case  of  other  metals.  From  any- 
thing we  know  now  as  to  the  Rontgen  rays,  it  will  be  impossible  to  tell 
much  about  armor-plating  or  anything  of  the  kind  ;  or  about  the  molec- 
ular construction  of  any  considerably  thick  pieces  of  the  more  opaque 
metals  ;  but  it  does  seem  as  though  we  can  discover  forms  of  ether  vibra- 
tion that  will  go  through  aluminum  and  go  through  hard  rubber,  and  other 
forms  that  will  go  through  pitch  and  things  of  that  kind,  and  that  cer- 
tainly some  day  we  are  going  to  discover  some  form  of  ether  vibration  to 
which  iron  may  be  transparent.  Of  course  we  can  all  see  what  a  tre- 
mendous application  that  would  have  in  the  mechanic  arts. 

We  have  one  or  two  rather  interesting  photographs  from  a  medical 
standpoint,  showing  its  possibilities.  Two  or  three  of  the  students  in 
photographing  their  hands  discovered  differences.  One  case  of  sesamoidal 
bone  is  very  apparent,  between  the  thumb  and  fore-finger  of  one  of  the 
students'  hands  ;  and  then  just  two  or  three  days  ago  we  had  a 
laboring  man  who  was  out  of  work  from  an  injured  hand  ;  had  been 
injured  in  a  runaway  accident  and  had  gone  to  a  local  physician  who  has 
quite  a  reputation  for  doing  poor  work  ;  had  his  hand  treated  ;  and  it  was 
never  getting  well ;  and  we  put  it  under  the  Crookes  tube  and,  sure 
enough,  there  was  a  partial  dislocation  and  a  fracture  which  had  never 
been  attended  to  properly.  Of  course  he  was  very  glad  to  have  us  point 
out  how  to  remedy  it. 

We  have  experimented  slightly  with  a  very  interesting  Crookes  tube. 
We  made  a  Crookes  tube  out  of  au  ordinary  lemonade  shaker — whisky 
shaker — I  don't  know  what  you  call  it  down  here — with  a  hard  rubber 
end  in  it ;  and  the  results  have  been  very  negative.  We  have  never 
gotten  any  shadow  photographs  with  it.  We  have  simply  taken  three  or 
four  photographs  with  it. 

Mr.  John  Carbutt's  remarks  were  as  foUoAvs : 

My  interest  in  the  new  Rontgen  rays  has  been  from  the  first  reading  of 
them.  Being  so  interested  in  photography,  when  reading  of  the  wonder- 
ful results  produced  by  Prof.  Rontgen,  I  naturally  saw  that  there  was 
going  to  be  a  much  larger  outlet  for  dry-plates.  Outside  of  its  commer- 
cial value  I  naturally  took  an  interest  in  its  scientific  aspect  ;  and  the  first 
thing  that  struck  me  was  the  great  length  of  time  for  which  the  objects 
had  to  be  exposed  to  the  Rontgen  rays.  I  therefore  made  it  my  business 
to  investigate  and  to  see  whether  or  not  a  plate  could  not  be  produced 
which  should  be  more  sensitive  to  the  Rontgen  rays  ;  and,  as  mentioned 
by  Prof.  Goodspeed,  I  experimented  with  the  fluorescent  substances,  hav- 
ing experimented  with  numerous  dies  in  the  making  of  anthochromatic 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  E.      PRINTED  MAY  26,  1896. 


"*  [Feb.  21, 

plates.  I  knew  that  several  of  them  gave  off  a  great  deal  of  fluorescence. 
I  have  only  produced  plates  printed  on  glass  ;  but  I  shall  take  up  a  line 
of  experiments  at  once  by  producing  some  on  thin  celluloid  ;  because, 
for  the  physician  and  others  that  have  cases  to  tend  where  the  flat  plate 
would  be  very  diSicult  to  use,  the  celluloid  can  be  enclosed  in  an  envelope 
— sufficiently  opaque  to  ordinary  light — and  can  be  bound  around  the 
elbow  or  the  shoulder  or  any  part  sufficiently  round  where  a  plate  would 
have  to  lie  flat ;  and  I  think  it  would  find  in  that  case  several  uses.  I 
have  been  experimenting  with  some  professors  (which  matter  I  am  not  at 
liberty  just  now  to  mention)  when  I  made  a  sciograph  negative  of  a 
woman's  hand  in  twenty  minutes,  plates  as  large  as  14  x  17  being  used. 
A  film  of  the  same  size  could  be  bound  around  the  back,  for  instance  ; 
and  I  think  in  that  way  that  possibly  the  celluloid  film  (it  is  ^^g-ths 
thick)  may  possibly  come  in  use.  As  it  has  been  mentioned  that  Mr. 
Edison  has  been  using  slow  to  quick  plates,  I  have  not  as  yet  experi- 
mented with  anything  slower  than  a  very  rapid  plate  and  am  inclined 
to  increase  its  sensibility  ;  and  I  think  that  in  a  measure  I  have  succeeded, 
as  Prof.  Goodspeed  has  shown  you.  Since  the  sensibility  of  these  rays  is 
a  subject  that  requires  both  study  and  experiment,  I  do  not  propose  at  the 
present  moment  to  say  that  I  fully  understand  all  of  its  requirements ; 
and  it  is  in  its  experimental  stage.  I  shall  not  let  the  matter  drop  ;  I  find 
it  very  difficult  to  find  any  tubes  that  are  giving  the  proper  X  rays.  The 
one  that  Prof.  Goodspeed  is  using,  so  far  as  I  have  seen,  is  the  best  one 
that  I  have  come  across.  I  have  been  using  one  to-day  with  which  I  gave  a 
full  half-hour's  exposure  and  got  no  results.  The  reason  was  explained 
to  me  to-night  in  the  remarks  that  were  made  that  when  a  blue  or  a 
purple  color  comes  from  the  negative  or  cathode  end  of  the  Crookes  tube  it 
is  not  efficient  in  giving  off"  the  X  rays.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  great 
many  professors  who  are  trying  these  experiments  and  getting  negative 
results  are  working  with  inefficient  Crookes  tubes. 

Eemarks  of  Dr.  William  Pepper  were  as  follows : 

I  rise  only  to  occupy  the  attention  of  the  Society  for  a  single  moment. 
In  pursuance  of  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Minis  Hays  to  me,  we  owe  very 
much  of  the  pleasure  of  this  evening's  discussion,  he  having  suggested 
that  I  write  to  some  friends  in  Canada  ;  and  as  a  result  of  it,  I  present 
from  Prof.  Cox,  of  the  MacDonald  Physics  Building  at  McGill  Univer- 
sity, Montreal,  this  brief  note,  accompanied  by  these  four  verj'-  excellent 
photographs  illustrating  the  application  of  this  method  to  surgical 
diagnosis. 

"  The  MacDonald  Physics  Building, 
"McGiLL  University, 

"Montreal,  February  18,  1896. 

"Dear  Sir : — Dr.  Shepherd  has  sent  tome  your  letter  expressing  a  wish 
to  have  some  of  our  photographs  for  the  meeting  of  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society  on  the  21st. 


1896.]  ^'^ 

"  Our  results  have  been  in  no  way  peculiar  except  that  we  were  fortunate 
in  making  a  successful  application  to  surgery  almost  at  the  start.  I  have 
nothing  to  describe  in  the  way  of  new  methods.  In  fact  there  seems  at 
this  moment  to  be  nothing  known  or  tried  that  was  not  suggested  in 
Rontgen's  original  paper. 

"I  am  forwarding  as  likely  to  be  of  most  interest  a  proof  of  the  nega- 
tive showing  the  revolver  bullet  between  the  tibia  and  fibula  of  a  man's 
leg.  This  was  obtained  on  February  7,  four  days  after  my  first  photo- 
graph. The  print  shows  a  copper  wire  fastened  around  the  leg  above  as  a 
fiducial  mark  ;"  (here  Dr.  Pepper  interpolated  as  follows  to  the  closing  of 
this  parenthesis  :  "  then  on  the  Rontgen  sciograph  should  be  seen  between 
the  tibia  and  fibula  both  in  the  positive  and  negative  the  small  darker 
shaded  area  indicating  the  position  of  the  bullet")  "and  the  flattened 
bullet  between  the  bones.  The  latter  was  extracted  next  day  ;  and 
the  patient  is  now  nearly  well  enough  to  leave  the  hospital.  The  bullet 
was  two  inches  deep  in  the  flesh  and  had  been  flattened  into  a  ragged-edged 
disc  with  a  groove  where  it  was  lying  against  the  bone.  It  had  been  in 
the  leg  since  Christmas  night.  Its  position  was  guessed  at ;  but  the  photo- 
graph converted  a  surmise  into  a  certainty.  On  the  same  night,  February 
7,  we  obtained  the  hand  of  which  I  send  a  copy.  It  was  interesting  not 
only  for  its  good  definition  (for  a  fourth  attempt),  but  because  it  shows 
the  rare  sesamoid  bones  on  the  thumb  and  little  finger.  It  belongs  to  a 
champion  canoeist. 

"The  main  ideas  I  have  found  time  to  try — increasing  the  sensitiveness 
of  the  plate  by  (1)  placing  a  fluorescing  screen  inside  the  holder  in  con- 
tact with  it :  (2)  soaking  the  plate  in  the  fluorescing  substances — I  now 
see  have  been  successfully  carried  out  by  Geissler,  of  Bonn  ;  so  that  I 
have  nothing  new  to  interest  your  Society. 

"  Believe  me, 

"Very  truly  yours, 

"John  Cox." 

"The  idea  was  to  excite  sympathetic  fluorescence  and  gain  intensity  by 
resonance." 

Dr.  Pepper,  continuing  with  original  remarks  : — As  to  Mr.  Carbutt's 
remark  as  to  obtaining  flexible  discs  for  curved  surfaces  and  this  (from 
Prof.  Cox)  interesting  contribution  as  regards  the  diagnosing  of  internal 
conditions,  I  would  say  tlie  excitement  has  spread  the  world  over : 
every  day  I  am  receiving  numerous  letters,  telegrams,  visits  from 
people  at  a  distance,  coming  to  ask  whether  it  has  yet  reached  a 
point  to  become  an  aid  to  internal  diagnosis.  I  will  not  at  this  late  hour 
occupy  the  attention  of  the  Society  by  calling  their  thoughts  to  the 
obvious,  the  very  great  difliculties  of  this  method.  The  tissues  which  are 
inaccessible  to  the  hand  in  palpation  are  guarded  so  often  by  bony  sur- 
faces that  the  danger  of  shadows  existing — whicli  will  be  almost  more  con- 
fusing than  the  difliculties  which  surround  our  present  means  of  diagnosis 


*^^  [March  6, 

— is  very  obvious.  The  field  of  investigation  is  of  enormous  proportions. 
Tlie  assistance  of  Prof.  Houston  and  his  associate,  Dr.  Kennelly,  is 
promised  in  entering  on  an  elaborate  series  of  investigations  in  this  direc- 
tion. Whatever  may  be  the  result,  we  promise  ourselves  the  pleasure  of 
submitting  them  at  a  later  period  to  the  attention  of  the  Society. 

I  have  also  here  a  few  photographs  of  Dr.  Henry  Cattell  ;  but  as  most 
of  them  have  been  published  before  I  do  not  know  whether  he  would 
care  to  show  them  at  present.  i 

Mr.  Wliarton  exhibited  a  tube  contaiuing  argon  produced 
by  Lord  Ea^deigh,  which  was  presented  by  him  to  Dr.  Theo- 
dore Wm.  Richards,  of  Harvard  University.  This  tube  being 
arranged  for  sparking  was  iutroduced  into  the  current  of  a 
Euhmlvorff  coil,  where  it  made  a  tine  display  of  color. 

A  number  of  the  members  examined  this  with  a  spectro- 
scope provided  by  Dr.  Goodspced,  and  thus  observed  very 
clearly  the  characteristic  lines  of  aro-ou. 


Stated  Meeting,  March  6,  1896. 

President,  Mr.  Fraley,  in  the  Chair, 
Present,,  24  members. 

!Mr.  Henry  Pettit,  a  newl}"  elected  member,  Avas  presented 
and  took  his  seat. 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows : 

Letters  accepting  membership  from  Dr.  A.  E.  Kennelly, 
Philadelphia;  Prof.  William  Pitts  Mason,  Troy,  N.  Y.;  Dr. 
Henry  C.  McCook,  Philadelphia ;  ^Mr.  Henry  Pettit,  Over- 
brook,  Philadelphia. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  Prof.  A.  E.  Xordens- 
kiold,  Ph.D.,  Stockholm,  Sweden  (l-iS,  146);  R.  Accademia 
di  Scienze,  etc.,  Modena,  Italy  (143,  144,  145,  146);  Buffalo 
Library,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  (148);  Dr.  Albert  P.  Brubaker, 
Philadelphia  (147,  148) ;  Hon.  J.  D.  Cox,  Cincinnati,  0. 
(148) ;  Colorado  Scientific  Society,  Denver  (148);  Bishop 
Crescendo  Carrillo,  Merid:i,  ^'ucatan  (148). 

Accessions  to  the  Library  Avere  re])orted  from  the  Linncan 
Society  of  N.  S.  Wales,  Sydney  ;  Societe  Ilollandaisc  des  Sci- 


iS9C.]  '^  * 

ences,  Haarlem,  Holland ;  Iv.  D.  Geograpliische  Selskab, 
Copenhagen;  Societe  R.  de  Geograpliie  d'Anvers,  Belgiqne  ; 
Gesellscliaft  flir  Erdkunde,  Berlin,  Prussia  ;  K.  Gesellschaft 
der  Wissenscliaften,  Gcittingen,  Prussia  ;  Societa  R.  di  ISTapoli, 
Italia  ;  Dr.  E.  T.  Hamv,  Paris,  France ;  Philosophical  So- 
cietv,  Cambridge,  Eng.  ;  Theological  Seminary,  Andover, 
Mass.;  Academy  of  iNatural  Sciences,  Indian  Eights'  Associa- 
tion, Prof.  Wiiham  F.  Norris,  Philadelphia ;  U.  S.  Naval 
Institute,  Annapolis,  Md.;  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations, 
Atlanta,  Ga.;  Las  Cruces,  IST.  M.;  Historical  Society,  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.;  Observatorio  Central,  Xalapa,  Mexico;  M. 
Alberto  Sanchez,  San  Salvador,  C.  A. 

A  crayon  portrait  (framed)  of  Hon.  Eli  K.  Price  was  pre- 
sented to  the  Society  by  J.  Sergeant  Price,  Esq. 

The  committees  ai>pointed  to  examine  the  papers,  "A  'New 
Method  of  Determining  the  Perturbations  of  the  Minor  Plan- 
ets," by  Wm.  McK.  Ritter,  M.A.,  and  "  On  the  Develop- 
ment of  the  Mouth  Parts  of  Certain  Insects,"  by  John  B. 
Smith,  reported  in  favor  of  their  acceptance,  and  on  motion 
they  were  referred  to  the  Publication  Committee  for  action. 

Dr.  Frazer  then  read  a  paper  by  Dr.  Ed^y.  Pepper,  entitled 
*'  Eucalyptus  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia  from  an  Hygienic  and 
Climatological  Point  of  Yiew." 

The  subject  was  further  discussed  by  Prof.  Houston,  Dr.  Brin- 
ton.  Dr.  AVm.  Pepi^er,  Dr.  Frazer,  Prof.  Cope  and  Dr.  Morris. 

Dr.  Morris,  on  behalf  of  the  Curators,  acknowledged  the 
receipt  of  the  shadow  })icture,  and  the  photograph  from  it, 
taken  by  Prof.  Goodspeed  during  his  demonstration  on  Feb. 
21,  and  by  permission  of  the  Society  was  alloAved  to  present 
his  views  on  the  subject. 

It  seems  to  me  that  such  pictures  should  be  called,  not  skiagraphs,  or 
photographs,  but  electrographs  ;  as  they  may  be  produced  under  various 
circumstances  involving  absence  of  light,  but  always  the  presence  of 
some  form  of  electrical  energy — such  as  frictional  electricity  from  the 
driving  belt  of  a  wheel,  or  a  magnet  (as  has  been  done  in  Baltimore), 
or  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  in  the  presence  of  substances  opaque  to 
light  and  heat. 

It  seems  also  to  me  that  Ave  have  evidence,  apparently  convincing  to 
our  senses,  of  a  current  or  flow  of  a  stream  of  some  sort  through  the 


38 


[March  6, 


Crookes  tube,  e.  g.,  the  rapid  rotation  of  the  radiometer  when  exposed 
to  it.  This  current  or  stream,  of  whatever  it  may  be  composed,  is 
striking  with  great  intensity  and  velocity  more  than  four  hundred 
million  times  per  second  against  a  thin  film  of  glass  which  is  not  in  a 
normal  condition  of  equal  pressure  on  both  sides — on  one  side  is  a 
vacuum  more  or  less  perfect,  on  the  other  the  w^hole  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere.  Such  rapid  blows  cannot  do  otherwise  than  place  the 
glass  in  an  electrically  excited  condition — precisely  like  that  of  the  plate 
of  an  ordinary  electrical  machine.  As  the  exciting  cause  in  this  case  is  a 
current  of  negatively  electrified  molecules  of  air,  the  inner  surface  would 
be  negative,  and  the  outer  intensely  positive,  and  this  would  induce  cor- 
responding conditions  in  all  neighboring  bodies.  The  current  might  be 
very  small,  but  of  very  high  potentialitj^ ;  hence  would  penetrate 
deeply  these  surrounding  bodies,  but  would  also  produce  in  them  all 
the  phenomena  of  induction.  To  this  excited  condition  of  the  glass 
film  of  the  Crookes  tube  we  may  refer  the  phenomena  of  phosphores- 
cence, fluorescence  and  heating,  which  ensue  by  the  transmutation  of 
forces — ^just  as  when  a  stone  is  thrown  into  a  pond  waves  of  various 
size  and  frequency  will  be  seen  to  be  propagated  and  interfere  with  each 
other.  That  induction  is  the  cause  of  the  formation  of  the  picture  is 
rendered  probable  by  the  fact  that  the  reduction  of  the  silver  salt  takes 
place  next  to  the  glass  of  the  photographic  plate,  and  not  on  the  free  or 
gelatin  surface  ;  and  I  would  suggest  as  worth}'  of  experiment  whether 
the  same  efl'ect  would  not  be  produced  through  a  series  of  similar  plates 
and  not  only  on  the  uppermost  one.  Prof.  McFarlan,  of  Easton,  has 
shown  beautiful  results  proving  the  radiation  of  the  energy  from  the 
cathode  of  the  tube,  which  also  accord  with  the  induction  lij'pothesis. 
"With  regard  to  the  useful  applications  of  these  rays,  they  seem  to  me  to 
aftord  a  rational  explanation  of  some  of  the  benefits  of  the  currents  of 
induced  electricity  on  nutrition  and  other  vital  functions,  which  those 
of  us  who  have  emploj-ed  it  in  our  medical  practice  have  often  observed 
Avithout  being  able  fully  to  explain,  and  which  we  can  therefore  use 
more  intelligently  and  beneficially  hereafter.  So  also  with  the  ettects 
of  the  direct  sun-rays,  or  sun-bath,  known  from  ancient  times. 

The  plate  shows  the  edge  of  the  coins  and  other  metallic  bodies  not 
clearly  defined,  but  surrounded  as  if  with  a  shadow,  or  shading  off; 
this,  when  examined  closely,  seems  to  be  composed  of  fine  lines  radiat- 
ing from  the  coin  or  metal. 

I  therefore  believe  that  the  phenomena  in  question  will  be  found  to 
be  due  to  an  induction  of  statical  electricity,  in  great  measure  if  not 
entirely. 

It  may  be  well  also  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  while  sound,  heat 
and  light  can  be  reflected,  refracted,  transmitted  or  absorbed,  no  similar 
phenomena  have  as  yet  been  shown  as  to  electric,  galvanic  or  mag- 
netic forces. 

NcAV  nomination  for  mcnihcrsliip  lo-tG  Avas  reaJ. 


1896.]  «^*^  [Pepper. 

The  President  announced  that  he  had  appointed  Dr. 
Pepper,  Dr.  Frazer,  Mr.  Ingham,  Mr.  Jos.  C.  Fraley  and  Dr. 
Hays  the  Committee  for  the  special  meetings  agreed  upon  at 
the  last  meeting  of  the  Society. 

The  Society  was  adjourned  by  the  President. 


Eucalyptus  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  from  an  hygienic  and  cUmatological 
point  of  view. 

Bij  Dr.  Edward  Pepper. 

{Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  'Society,  March  6,  1S96.) 

INDEX. 

(hap.     I.  Division  of  Algeria  and  Tunisia  into  tliree  zones,  as  regards  climate,  water, 

trees,  healtli  and  population. 
Chap.    II.  Chronological  facts  relating  to  the  growing  of  eucalypti   in  Algeria   and 

Tunisia. 
Chap.  III.  General  and  special  advantages  of  these  trees.    Limitations  of  their  uses,  and 

objections  to  them. 
Chap.  IV.  Species  and  varieties  most  serviceable  in  Tunisia  and  Algeria. 
Chap.    V.  When,  where  and  how  to  grow  them. 
Chap.  VI.  Commercial  value  of  eucalypti. 

I. 

Divisiox  OP  Algeria  and  Tunisia  into  Three  Zones  as  Regards 
Climate,  Water,  Trees,  Health  and  Population. 

Algeria   and    Tunisia   are   properly   divided    into 

Division    of      three  zones  as  regards  climatological,  liydrological 

Algeria      and      and  botanical,  as  well  as  hygienic  and  etlmographic 

Tunisiaintothree        conditions.* 

zones    as    above  _,,  ,  m,        n    i  •     • 

indicated.  ^^^^  southern  zone,  ihe   hahara,  consisting  gener- 

ally of  a  vast  area  of  sand,  moving  and  j^et  in  parts 
solidified  as  by  petrifaction  (hamada),  inhabited  by  semi-barbarous  and 
roving  tribes  ;  and  of  oases  of  date-palms,  inhabited  hy  settled  and  less 
barbarous  communities. 

The  middle  zone  comprises  the  high  plateaux,  or  steppes,  covered 
with  a  wild  vegetation  (herbaceous,  fructiferous  and  rarely  arborescent) 

*  As  regards  purely  hydrographical  conditions,  these  countries  are  divided  into  only 
two  zones  :  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  and  that  of  the  desert,  all  water  not  flowing 
in  the  one  flowing  In  the  other  direction.  But  as  regards  practical  hydrology  or 
hydroscopy  and  its  influence  on  the  climate,  these  colonies  are,  as  stated,  properly 
divided  into  three  zones  here  described. 


Popper.]  ^"  '  [March  6, 

and  sustaining  numerous  flocks  of  sheep  and  camels  ;  also  sparsely  in- 
habited. 

Finally  the  northern  zone,  or  coast  region,  El  Tell,  is  generally  culti- 
vated and  much  better  watered  and  wooded,  and  has  both  plains  and 
valleys,  hills  and  mountains.  Here  the  European  population  of  thi'ee 
or  four  hundred  thousand  only  slowly  increases  by  birth  as  well  as  by 
immigration,  among  three  or  four  million  more  prolific  lowland  Arabs 
and  Kabyle  mountaineers. 

The  Algerian  and  Tunisian  year  has  but  two  sea- 

The  year  lias  sons  :  the  dry  and  the  wet.  The  former  or  summer 
but  two  seasons.  comprising  three  rainless  months,  July-October,  and 
the  latter  or  winter  months,  October-March,  ofiering 
generally  short  and  frequently  heavy  showers  and  rains,  and  four 
months  of  showers  lighter  and  fewer  as  the  season  draws  to  its  close. 
The  transition  between  these  seasons  is  often  sudden,  an  almost  vertical 
sun  radiating  great  heat  over  the  land  as  soon  as  the  cloud-screens  have 
disappeared  from  the  atmosphere. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  coast  region  (the  Tell)  is  the 

Local  climates  diversity^  of  the  local  climates  (in  most  cases  im- 
abound  in  the  i)roperly  called  artificial)  due  to  geological  and 
coast  region.  geographical  conditions,   such  as  the   nature,   con- 

formation and  lay  of  the  land  as  regards  the  higher 
hills  and  mountains,  valleys  and  rivers,  the  sea,  lakes,  etc.;  and  also 
to  orographical  characteristics,  such  as  the  height  of  the  mountains,  the 
depth  of  these  valleys,  etc.;  as  well  as  to  hydrological  facts,  such  as  the 
presence,  absence,  abundance  or  scarcity  of  the  waters,  flowing  or 
stagnant,  either  above  or  underground.  These  local  climates  also  de- 
pend on  the  extent  of  the  surface  cultivated,  and,  to  a  lesser  degree,  on 
the  nature  of  the  plants  grown.  A  soil  left  to,  or  returning  to  nature, 
such  as  that  of  the  most  northern  Africa  after  the  Arab  conquest,  is  ever 
harmful  ;  the  Corsican  maquis,  the  Indian  jungle,  the  African  brush, 
the  Australian  bush,  etc.,  are  among  the  strongholds,  and  so  to  say 
the  lairs  of  disease,  especially  of  malarial  disease. 

Moreover,  the  winds  that  blow  over  a  country  exercise  the  greatest 
of  all  influences  on  climate  and  vegetation,  and  consequently  on  health. 
There  are  parts  of  northern  Africa,  as  of  Asia,  of  America  and  of  Aiis- 
tralia,  and  even  limited  parts  of  Europe,  where  a  progressive  popu- 
lation can  never  dwell,  while  the  physical  causes  actually  at  work 
exist. 

In  the  coast  region  of  Algeria  the  same  communes,  nay  even  tlie 
same  towns  frequently  exhibit  diff'erent  climates  in  their  ditt'erent  i)arts. 
Thus,  Algiers  itself  has  distinctly  two  local  climates  :  that  of  the  Bab- 
eloiied  and  Marengo  quarter  is  more  bracing,  that  of  the  Bab-Ozouu 
and  Isly  more  relaxing.  These  difl^erences  are  of  great  importance  to 
the  sojourners  generally  and  especially  to  invalids  passing  the  winter 
in  Algiers ;    and  they  are  even  more  marked  in   the   suburbs  of  St. 


IS'.iO.]  4-L  [Pepper. 

Eugene  with  its  northeastern  and  of  Mustapha  witli  its  exposure  south- 
eastern, the  hxtter  being  under  the  predominating  influence  of  the  ex- 
tensive Bay  of  Algiers. 

The  mountains  of  tliis  region  have  generally  a  drj-  and  Ijracing  air, 
with  severe  cold  in  winter  in  the  higher  altitudes,  Avhcre  snows  last 
through  many  months,  and  where  e\'en  cases  of  frozen  extremities 
are  not  rare.  These  highlands  would  in  summer  have  great  attractions 
and  advantages  as  climate  stations  if  they  possessed  suitable  accommoda- 
tion for  sufferers  from  the  heat,  debility,  or  malaria,  prevalent  in  so 
many  parts  of  the  lowlands.  Such  sanataria  would,  in  many  cases,  do 
aAvay  with  the  necessity  of  the  yearly  trip  to  Europe,  habitual  with  an 
ever-increasing  class  of  the  population. 

The  general  climate  in  this  region,  as  elsewhere,  is 

General  cii-  ij^t  the  sum  of  local  climates,  with  their  differences 
mate  the  sum  of      ^j.  ^^^^^   ^^^^^  ^^^^^  dampness.     As  to  the  latter,  it  is 

tlie     local     c  1 1  -  . 

mjjtg^_  noticeable  that  the  atmosphere  is  almost  saturated 

on  and  near  the  seashore  during  the  sitmmer,  except- 
ing when  the  wind  blows  from  the  desert  lying  to  the  south  and  princi- 
pally to  the  southeast ;  the  dampness  being  at  its  maximum  when  the 
northeast  wind  blows  ;  while  further  inland  the  dampness  diminishes 
and  finally  disappears.  Thus,  on  the  seashore  and  in  its  proximity  the 
air  contains  less  moisture  in  winter,  although  it  is  the  rainy  season  then 
and  the  moisture  is  most  manifest  ;  that  of  summer  being  more  per- 
fectly dissolved  in  the  air,  and  (excepting  when  the  northeast  winds 
bloAv)  being  recognized  more  readily  by  the  hygrometer.  The  rainy 
winter  months  are  naturally  the  damp  months  in  the  interior. 

In  the  prosperous  days  of  old,  Algeria  and  Tunisia 
Algeria      and      were  relatively  thickly  wooded,  as  were  most  of  the 
Tunisia    were       countries   bathed   by  the   Mediterranean,  and  they 
•well-u'ooded  and.  i       i  ^i  t        iii       ^i  mi 

,^,.  .         were  doubtless  more  healthy  than  now.     The  moun- 

h  e  a  1 1  h  1  e  r     111  •' 

ancient  times.  tains  and  hill-sides,  the  plains  and  alluvial  levels  of 

the  Tell,  as  well  as  some  parts  of  the  high  plateaux, 
have  appropriate  soil  for  trees,  which  in  the  former  region  would  still 
abound  if  not  systematically  ruined  by  the  fires  kindled  by  the  Arabs,* 
and  the  abuse  of  pasturage,  their  almost  universal  waste  of  wood, 
resins  and  l)arks,  among  which  may  be  cited  valuable  cork  and  tannin 
barks. 

Actually  the  fourteen  million  hectares  of  the  Tell 

Extentofwoods      have  less  than  fourteen  hundred  thousand  hectares 

remaining  as      of  forests  left,  offering  scrub  or  brush,  and  less  fre- 

comparedtotiiat  ^^^j      although  there  are  fine  exceptions,  forest 

ot  trance.  i  j>  »  .,.,,.„ 

trees  ;  as  compared  to  the  seven  or  eight  million  of 

*  And  yet  new  growths  frequently  spring  np  from  the  ashes  of  these  fires,  under  the 
teeth  of  "the  cattle,  so  to  speak ;  but  only  to  be  tired  again  to  produce  new  pasturage, 
until  finally  in  this  w(^akly  and  intermittent  existence  the  beneficial  influence  exercised 
on  the;climate  by  trees  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  F.      PRINTED  MAY  26,   1896. 


Pepper.]  'i'^  [March  6, 

hectares  of  generally  better  woods  remaining  in  France,  with  its  surface 

of  about  fifty  million  hectares. 

The  above  fact  is  (^uite  sufficient  to  justif}^  the  alarm-cry  of  the  Ligue 

clu  Reboisement,  which,  alas,  has  so  far  been  "vox  clamantis  in  de- 

serto." 

Consequences  This   ruthless   destruction   of  forests,   groves  and 

of   the    ruthless       frequently  of  scattered  trees  is  still   going  on  and  is 

destruction      of      the  main  cause  of  the  diminution  of  the  rainfall,  the 

trees  which  is       exhaustion   of  the  soil   and  of  the  consequent    un- 
still  going  on.  ^ 

healthiness  of  many  sections. 

Other  causes  of  agricultural  decadence  and  of  un- 
Othercausesof      healtliiuess  have  manifestly  been  at  work  in  north- 
agricuiturai  de-      ^^,^^  Africa  slnce  the  Arab  conquest,  such  as  the  waste 
cadence  and  un- 

healthiness.  ^'-  Di'^iiure,  which  is  left  to  breed  disease  around  the 

gourbis  and  douars,  the  Avant  of  proper  alternation 
in  crops,  the  superficial  mode  of  tilling  and  the  always  incomplete  culti- 
vation of  even  the  small  surfiice  that  the  Arab  deems  strictlj'  necessary 
for  the  maintenance  of  his  family  and  domestic  animals,  his  calculations 
(?)  being  based  on  an  average  crop. 

This  is  not  true  of  the  Kabyle  mountaineers,  a  dift'erent  and  thrifty 
race,  comparatively  progressive  and  who,  like  the  Swiss,  cultivate  in  a 
primitive  way,  it  is  true,  yet  very  generally,  all  their  soil. 

To  sum  up,  of  all  countries,  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  so 
Urgent  reasons  sparsely  inhabited  as  compared  even  with  the  less 
treer*'^**"""^  **^  densely  populated  nations  of  Europe,  require  to  be 
well  provided  with  wood  on  account  of  the  general 
dryness  of  the  climate  (except  on  or  near  the  seashore),  the  unequal 
distribution  of  the  rain-fall,  which  occurs  only  during  the  cooler  months 
of  the  year,  when  the  heavy  downpours  are  in  a  great  measure  wasted 
by  the  impermeable  nature  of  the  soil  on  the  Tell,  where  the  head- 
waters are  torrents,  and  the  lower  and  more  level  parts  of  the  small 
rivers  lose  by  evaporation  much  or  sometimes  even  all  of  the  water  re- 
tained for  any  length  of  time  in  summer  ;  woods  are  needed  also  on 
account  of  the  great  variations  in  temperature  and  dampness  before 
mentioned,  and  which  in  the  middle  and  southern  zones  produce  nycthe- 
meral  differences  of  as  much  as  forty  and  even  fifty  degrees  (centi- 
grade), while  in  the  northern,  the  hygrometer  attains  its  extreme  re- 
cording limits,  now  under  the  influence  of  winds  immediately  laden 
with  the  moisture  of  the  sea,  anon  subjected  to  the  parching  action  of 
the  desert.  Not  only  should  woods  be  protected  in  these  colonies,  but 
as  many  trees  as  possible  should  be  grown  ;  for  is  it  not  an  axiom  in 
climatology  that  (except  in  countries  lying  in  the  path  of  damp  winds) 
a  large  proportion  of  woods  is  indispensable  to  that  equable  distribution 
of  heat,  cold  and  dampness  which  produces  successful  agriculture,  a 
lioalthy  climate  and  general  prosperity  ? 


1896.]  ^^  [Pepper. 

II. 

Chronological  Facts  as  to  the  Growing  of  Eucalypti  in 
Algeria  and  Tunisia. 

The  first  seeds  of  eucalypti  consigned  to  the  earth  in 
Date  of  intro-      northern  Africa  were  sown  in  the  Jardin  d'Essai  of 
diictionof  Euca-      Algiers  in  1862,  by  Mr.  Hardy,  director  of  the  botani- 
lypti  into  nortii-      cal  garden  thus  named,  and  in  the  same  year  by  the 
ern  Africa.  Comte  de  Belleroche,  who  procured  them  from   the 

director  and  sowed  them  in  his  property  in  the  Com- 
mune of  El  Biar,  four  miles  from  town.* 

These  experiments  having  succeeded,  the  trees  were 

Successive    ex-      soon    grown   to  prevent  malaria,    still   so   prevalent 

penmen ts    in      throughout   northern  Africa,    and   which  made  most 

growinsf  them  as  ,  .       .,         .     ,  ^nnr^         i  -.n^n        ,  ., 

a  preventive  of  cruel  ravages  m  Algeria  between  1867  and  1876,  while 
malaria.  immigration  and  the  development  of  the  colony  were 

receiving  their  greatest  impulse. 

The  importance  of  preserving  the  public  health  where  satisfactory,  and 
of  improving  it  in  the  more  numerous  districts  where  conditions  and  cir- 
cumstances were  against  it,  was,  at  this  time,  more  generally  recognized 
by  the  government  and  the  people.  The  "Fonts  et  Chaussees,"f  the  im- 
portant companies  and  societies,  corporations,  municipalities  and  many 
private  individuals  grew  eucalypti  in  the  principal  settlements  infested 
by  the  disease,  believing  that  they  had  at  last  discovered  a  panacea 
against  the  evil. 

In  1868  Mr.  Ernest  Lambert,  inspector  of  the  forests  of  Algeria,  sowed 
a  grove  on  the  Bouzareah  mountain,  above  Algiers,  where  now  is  the 
forest,  or  rather  wood  of  Baihneu.  Then  Dr.  Mares,  atBoufarik,  planted 
a  grove  on  his  farm,  reporting  to  the  Societe  d' Agriculture  seven  years 
later  that  the  health  of  his  neighborhood  was  satisfactory.  Malaria  in 
its  worst  forms  had  constantly  prevailed  there  until  then  and  until  the 
land  Jiad  been  successfully  drained. 

During  the  two  succeeding  years,  the  Societe  Algerienne  planted  100,- 
000  eucalypti  near  Ain-Mokra,  a  village  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Fetzara. 

The  mining  company  of  the  Mokta  soon  followed  with  many  still 
larger  plantations  in  the  same  region,  where  the  public  health  improved 
towards  1875,  the  mines  being  thenceforth  worked  during  the  summer, 
an  impossibility  until  then,  owing  to  the  excessive  mortality  among  the 
workmen,  due  principally  to  pernicious  forms  of  malaria. 

The  latter  plantations  remain  among  the  most  extensive  in  Algeria,  and 
offer  a  striking  instance  of  the  frequently  great  aid  given  by  eucalypti 
against  malaria.  Thick  curtains  of  the  trees  were  grown  between  the 
lake  and  the  village,  while,  at  the  same  time,  a  draining  canal  was  cut  in 

*  Now  known  as  El-Afla,  and  belonging  to  the  author. 

t  Government  engineers,  entrusted  with  the  construction  and  repairing  of  roads  and 
bridges,  and  the  buoying  of  harbors. 


Pepper.]  ^"i  [March  G, 

the  shallow  bed  of  the  lake,  sufficiently  deep  and  wide  (so  thought  the 
engineers)  to  carry  off  the  stagnant  waters  and  dry  up  the  swamp.  This 
result,  however,  was  not  attained,  but  yearly  thenceforth  the  waters  of 
the  lake  were  emptied  early  enough  in  the  spring,  and  before  the  summer 
heats,  for  the  spongy  shores  to  be  covered  with  an  herbaceous  vegeta- 
tion offering  here  and  there  comparatively  fair  pasturage.  The  coincidence 
of  this  partial  draining  with  the  planting  of  eucalypti  does  not  permit 
the  conclusion  that  the  improved  sanitary  condition  of  Ain-Mokra  is 
wholly  due  to  these  trees. 

At  Maison  Carree,  Cardinal  Lavigerie  and  the  white  Fathers,  as  well 
as  MMs.  Sauliere,  Cordier,  Trottier  and  others  sowed  and  planted,  the 
first  large  the  last  small,  groves  of  eucalypti,  with  a  marked  improve- 
ment on  the  health  of  the  community,  which,  however,  still  remains  far 
from  good. 

These  enterprises  were  rapidly  followed  by  many  others,  and  now  most 
Algerian  villages,  especially  if  in  malarial  districts,  have  more  or  less 
extensive  groves  or  avenues  of  eucalypti,  and  many  farms  are  also  well 
provided  with  these  trees. 

in. 

General  and  Special  Advantages  Claimed  for  Eucalypti.     Limi- 
tations AS  TO  THE  Uses  of  and  Objections  to  Them. 

Among  the  advantages  of  trees  in  general,  shared 
Advantages  of      to  a  certain  extent  by  eucalypti,  is  the  grateful  shade 
trees  hi  general,      procured  in  hot  countries  to  dwellings,  and  to  cattle, 
including    euca-      ^^^|  ^^jj^^  domestic  animals. 

lypti:     shelter,  _,  ■,.-,■,.  ,.  .<.,  , 

good    effect    on  Trees  also,  mcludmg  eucalypti,  gratify  the  eye,  and 

the  morale  and  the  latter  have  totally  changed  the  aspect  of  the  plain 
on  health.  of  the  Isser  river,  since  they  have  been  grown  around 

its  villages  and  farms.  This  is  not  merely  an  festhetic 
result.  The  fact  has  its  practical  importance  as  acting  directly  on 
the  morale  and  therefore  indirectly  on  the  physical  state  of  the  colonist. 
For  trees  form  in  the  barren  regions  almost  the  only  objects  on  which  the 
eye  rests  with  pleasure,  recalling  the  triumph  of  man  over  desolate 
nature,  diminishing  in  the  heart  of  the  pioneer  that  terrible  longing  for 
less  stern  realities  and  cherished  scenes  in  the  past,  which,  if  not  checked 
in  time,  opens  the  door  to  disease,  even  in  the  most  robust  constitutions.* 
Another  general  advantage  of  trees,  particularly  of 
Forests  cause  eucalypti,  is  that  forests,  like  mountains  and  other 
the  winds  to  barriers,  as  is  vv^ell  known,  when  opposed  to  the  wind 
ascend  and  pro-  ^^^^^  j^  ^^  ^.jg^^  dilate  and  cool  in  the  higher  and  more 
duce  rain.  ./,-,■,  ^    ,  ,  ,  , . 

rarified  layers  of  the  atmosphere,  whence  result  con- 

*  We  remark  incidentally  that  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia  trees  are  not  more  numerous 
than  at  the  time  of  the  French  conquest ;  they  are  fewer  in  fact.  But  trees,  csiiecially 
eucalypti,  have  been  grown  judiciously,  where  most  serviceable  to  health.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  the  viae  has  also  acccjmplished  much  good,  more  even  than  eucalypti,  because  so 
much  more  extensively  jilanted. 


1896.] 


45 


[Pepper. 


Special  advan- 
tages of  euca- 
lypti. Rapid, 
gi'outh. 


densation,  saturation  of  the  diffused  aqueous  vapors  and  finally  rain. 
If,  as  Miguet  says:  "A  forest  is  worth  a  mountain  to  produce  rain," 
then  the  higher  and  more  numerous  the  trees,  as  the  higher  and  more 
extensive  the  mountain,  the  greater  the  precipitation  of  water,  ceteris 
paribus*  Scrub  growths  seem  to  exercise  little  or  no  influence  on 
the  rainfall,  as  witnessed  in  Greece,  northern  Africa  and  elsewhere, 
where  this  wild  vegetation  is  principally  composed  of  lentisci  and 
dwarf  palms,  while  we  observe  that  the  few  million  trees  grown  in  Egypt 
under  Mehemet  Ali  and  his  successors  have  brought  back  rains  unknown 
for  ages.  This  is  doubtless  a  fair  inference  and  not  merely  a  coincidence 
due  to  other,  such  as  cosmic  causes. 

Among  the  special  advantages  of  eucalypti,  one  of 
the  most  important  for  the  colonist,  who  can  ill  afford 
to  wait  long  for  a  result  from  his  labors,  is  their  rapid 
growth,  as  compared  to  that  of  other  trees  suitable  to 
this  climate,  excepting  perhaps  some  acaciis  mimoste, 
as  shown  by  the  following  table  approximately  correct 
for  an  average  appropriate  soil  and  exposure  : 

Age,  Years.  Height,  Metres.  Cikcumference,  Metre. 

1  3  0.10 

2  5  0.15 

3  7  0.30 

4  10  0.40 

5  18  0.55 

6  15  0.75 

7  17  0.90 

8  19  1.10 

22  1.45 

25  1.60 

Moreover  the  trees  thrive  where  no  others  will,  in 
the  bad  lands  of  these  colonies,  generally  resisting 
great  heat,  and  several  species  withstanding  relative 
cold  and  even  slight  frosts  and  snows,  as  in  Austra- 
lia. 

To  their  balsamic  odorf  is  perhaps  due  an  antimias- 
matic  action  on  the  surrounding  atmosphere  ;  and 
certainly  the  constant  evaporation  through  their  leaves 
of  the  dampness  taken  up  by  the  roots  is  a  most  im- 
portant agent  of  improvement  for  soils  needing  to  be  drained,  while  these 

*  Bare  mountains  lying  in  the  path  of  damp  winds  naturally  produce  torrents  and 
landslides  instead  of  the  useful  rains  occasioned  by  wooded  mountains. 

tThis  balsamic  exhalation  from  the  young  shoots,  twigs,  the  leaves  and  fruit  is  due  to 
an  essential  oil  similar  to  that  of  cajeput,  which  being  oxidized  by  the  air,  produces 
ozone,  and  which,  when  refined,  gives  eucalyptol,  a  sort  of  camphor  in  composition  and 
chemical  properties,  most  serviceable  as  a  febrifuge,  tonic  stimulant,  aseptic  and  anti- 
septic. 


9 
10 


Resistance  to 
lieat  aud  to  .sliglit 
frost. 


Antiuiiasuiatic 
action. 


Pepper.]  ^^  [:March  6, 

trees  have  not  the  inconveniences  of  some  other  hardy  trees  of  a  slightly 
less  rapid  growth,  but  also  useful  for  draining,  such  as  plane  trees,  to 
which  are  ascribed  (?)  many  cases  of  conjunctivitis  and  keratitis,  preva- 
lent in  Algeria,  Tunisia  and  throughout  the  East  generally.* 

Frequently  malaria  is  not  due  to  the  soil  on  which  a  village  or  farm 
is  built,  but  to  the  neighborhood.  In  this  case  a  heavy  curtain  of  euca- 
lypti interposed  is  always  useful  and  often  sufficient  to  arrest  the  disease. 
Of  course  the  swamp,  or  whatever  be  the  nature  of  this  infectious  soil, 
must  not  be  too  extensive  or  pestilential,  and  the  curtain  must  be  of  suffi- 
cient extent  and  thickness. 

The  eucalypti  form  open  forests,  free  from  under- 

Thev  form  open         ,  ,      ,,  ^   ^  ^    i.         ^      ^,        ■  t  i_ 

forests  brush,  that  great  temptation  to  the  mcendiary  shep- 

herd, who  sacrifices  health  and  well-being  to  a  scant 
resource  in  actual  pasturage  for  his  flocks  (see  above  the  eflfect  of  burn- 
ing down  trees).  If  the  subsoil  be  compact,  the  roots  return  to  the  sur- 
face ;  if  permeable,  they  remain  sometimes  deep  enough  to  allow  a  few 
scant  and  coarse  grasses  to  grow  between  and  under  their  shade,  if  the 
trees  are  ftir  enough  apart. 

The  seeds  are  light  and  fertile  and  readily  dissemi- 
Their  seeds  pro-       nated  by  the  wind,  thus  propagating  their  species  and 

extending  plantations. 
A  permanent  The  foliage  is  perennial ;  its  benefit  to  the  atmosphere 

ijenefit  to  tiie  (hygrometrically,  electrically  and  antimiasmatically) 

atmosphere. 

is  permanent. 
Tiiev  are  killed  Besides,  many  species  are  killed  with  difficulty,  and 

with  difficulty.  when  destroyed  above  ground  by  axe  or  saw  send  out 

numerous  shoots  from  the  stump  ;  at  first  easily  broken 
ofi",  but  finally  firmly  fixed,  and  during  the  first  three  years  or  so  giving 
leaves  similar  to  those  of  j^oung  trees  of  their  age  ;  that  is,  lighter  in  color, 
more  flexible,  sticky,  cordiform,  etc.,  and  possessed  of  greater  antimias- 
matic  virtue  than  the  leaves  of  older  trees. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  protection  of  land  against 

A  great  protec-        wind  by  an  obstacle  interposed  between  it  and  the 

'"linstwind  wind  is  directly  proportional   to  the  height  of   the 

obstacle  and  approximately  to  twenty  times  that 
height.  Therefore,  eucalypti  protect  a  much  wider  tract  than  most  other 
trees  against  strong  or  otherwise  harmful  winds,  such  as  the  blighting 
sirocco.  With  a  height  of  forty  metres  thej'  protect  a  strip  of  four  fiftlis  of 
a  kilometre  in  width,  the  highest  indigenous  trees  not  protecting  more 
than  half  this  surface.  The  height  to  which  eucalypti  rapidly  attain  is, 
therefore,  a  sufficient  reason  for  preferring  them  to  other  trees,  except  some 
Acacitc,  Mimosoe,  to  protect  land  against  winds.  Alternate  rows  of  euca- 
lypti of  appropriate  species  can  be  judiciously  cut  down  near  the  ground 

*At  Boufarik  the  great  improvement  in  public  healtli  is  due  to  plane  trees,  and 
mainly  to  the  thorough  draining  of  the  marsh  on  wliich  the  village  is  built,  and  where 
hundreds  of  colonists  lie  buried. 


1893.]  ^*  [Pepper. 

and  kept  trimmed,  so  as  to  afford  protection  by  the  branches  sprouting 
from  their  mutilated  stumps  ajicainst  wind  passing  between  them  and  the 
higher  trunks  of  the  rows  left  uncut. 

Finally,     ashes    of    the    eucalypti    contain    more 
.'hes'in^  otasii         potasli  than  those  of  most  European  or  North  Amer- 
.     lean  trees. 
A  resource  as  ^ov  kindling  and  firewood,  as  fully  described  fur- 

ther on,  most  eucalypti  offer  no  advantages,  although 
serviceable  when  other  woods  are  scarce  and  dear,  and  constituting  a 
precious  resource  in  these  colonies  against  the  ever-increasing  price  of 
fuel.* 

Necessary  limi-  Naturally  eucalypti  have  their  limitations,  as   has 

tations  to  their  every  useful  plant  in  nature,  and  it  is  a  well-known 
ciimatoiogicai  fact  that  they  have  not  materially  improved  the  uu- 

and  hygienic  ad-  favorable  conditions  of  disease-breeding  soil  and  atmos- 
^  "  phere  in  the  oases,  where  the  former  remains  undrained 

and  indeed  iindrainable,  except  at  the  sacrifice  of  fruitful  vegetation,  lost 
as  are  these  favored  spots  in  the  immense  desert  of  ever-heated  sands. 
Again,  even  the  most  extensive  forests  of  eucalypti  cannot  neutralize  the 
poison  of  very  large  swamps  or  of  tlatlands  inundated  only  throughout  the 
winter,  as  is  the  bottom  land  containing  Lake  Fetzara,  already  men- 
tioned, where  the  trees  cannot  be  planted  with  success,  either  on  account 
of  the  excessive  moisture  of  the  ground  or  by  reason  of  iis  brackishness 
resulting  from  the  great  evaporation.! 

It  would,  indeed,  be  expecting  too  much  from  eucalypti  to  count  upon 
their  counteracting  in  Northern  xifrica  all  the  evil  influences  at  work  in 
many  parts,  and  which  in  other  countries  they  have  been  vainly  expected 
to  overcome. 

The  Italian  reports  are  not  generally  favorable  to 

Italian  reports  ,         .  ,  .  ■,      .  .  .  ,        .  i 

conflicting.  eucalypti,    nothmg  decisive,    it  seems,    havmg    been 

ascertained  as  to  their  superiority  over  all  other  trees 
in  rendering  less  unhealthy  the  immense  swamps  of  the  Roman  Cam- 
pagna.  It  must  be  conceded  that  the  climate  of  Italy  is  less  favorable  to 
these  trees  than  that  of  the  Algerian  and  Tunisian  coast  regions.  How- 
ever, as  noted  by  De  Pielra  Santa,:):  "Malaria  remains  prevalent  and 

*  Mr.  E.  Lambert,  before  quoted,  claims  other  special  advantages  for  the  eucalypti,  such 
as  their  immunity  from  the  mandibles  of  the  locusts,  who  devour  other  vegetation  and 
even  linen  ;  and  he  mentions  the  protection  their  shade  would  afltbrd  to  the  thrush,  black 
birds  and  other  locust-eating  birds  if  these  trees  were  more  extensively  grown  in  the 
barren  i>lains.  He  also  claims  that  their  foliage  and  bloom  would  feed  the  honey  bee,  as 
iu  Australia,  whereas  apiculture  is  now  generally  confined  to  the  mountains,  which  are 
better  wooded  and  less  parched  in  summer,  when,  in  spite  of  the  heat,  the  insects  remain 
active  in  this  climate. 

t  "  Eu.  restrata  lives  in  water  containing  as  much  as  1  per  cent,  of  chloride  of  sodium, 
but  with  as  much  as  1.50  per  cent,  good  results  are  rare  "  (Dr.  Trabut,  Professor  of  Na- 
tural History  at  School  of  Medicine  of  Algiers). 

t  Pietra  Santa,  "Assainissement  de  la  Campagne  Romaine,"  Journal  d'Hygcine,  1881- 
1883.    Also  Genie  Civil,  May,  18S3,  Vol.  iii,  p.  312. 


Pepper.]  40  [March  6, 

severe  in  the  very  districts  of  the  Campagna  of  all  others  where  it  was 
expected  that  the  disease  would  have  been  stamped  out,  so  to  speak,  by 
the  general  planting  of  eucalypti,  especially  when,  as  was  the  case  in  many 
of  these  places,  vigorous  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  added  to  their  expected 
action." 

If  now  we  turn  to  Australian  reports,  we  remark,  as 
Australian   re-      recognized    years  ago  by    Prof.     Liversidge,  of   the 

ports      prove      a        _^    .  .  1^.,  ,.,..,.,- 

limited  antimias-  University  of  Sidney,  that :  "  Malaria  is  far  from  rare 
matic  action  in  the  vast  forests  of  eucalypti  of  Australia."  Al- 
against  powerful  though  without  doubt  these  trees  have  always  a  bene- 
causes  of  ma-  g^jg^j  action,  this  is  not  sufficient,  as  previously  stated, 
to  overcome  the  powerful  causes  of  unheallhiness  that 
are  at  work  in  many  places.  Referring  to  this  point,  Tomasi  Crudeli* 
justly  remarks  that :  "If  all  malarial  soils  had  the  same  chemical  compo- 
sition and  were  similar  topographically  (and  we  may  add  if  they  had  the 
same  climate),  then,  perhaps,  these  trees  could  be  expected  to  improve  the 
unhealthy  soils,  so  as  greatly  to  attenuate  or  even  to  eradicate  the  disease, 
if  at  the  same  time  all  the  diverse  modes  of  improvement  which  have  suc- 
ceeded in  rendering  some  of  them  healthy  were  applied  ;  at  least,  we  could 
only  be  justified  under  such  circumstances  in  expecting  a  good  result. 
Unfortunately,  malaria  is  bred  in  very  dissimilar  soils,  and  we  even  recog- 
nize its  presence  on  the  granitic  plateau  of  Castille.  So  that  systems  of 
soil  improvement  applicable  to  some  malarial  regions  are  useless  in  others. 
Until  now  we  have  proceeded  empirically  wherever  we  have  introduced 
eucalypti,  and  such  will  be  the  case  until  a  long  series  of  scientific  obser- 
vations and  researches,  combined  with  practical  experiments,  shall  have 
furnished  exact  information  as  to  each  distinct  variety  of  soil  which  pro- 
duces malarial  poison." 

If  such  be  really  the  fact,  let  us  trust  that  the  dawn  is  breaking,  and 
that  each  ray  of  light  thrown  on  the  subject  even  by  such  short  papers  as 
this  (be  the  ray  never  so  weak)  may,  when  collected  into  a  beam,  aid  us 
in  seeing  where  the  truth  lies. 

Objections  have  been  and   are   still  urged  against 

Ob.jections  to  e^^caiyptj,  "vVe  will  only  refer  to  them  here,  adding  a 
eucalypti   as  l>e-  •'  ^  •' 

ing  ugly,  as  being      word  or  two  of  refutation.     This  first  objection  is  that 

d e  fi  c  i  e  n  t   in      they  are  ugly.     This,  however,  is  only  relative,   and 

shade,  as  twist-      does  not  extend  to  all  species,  some  being  quite  orna- 

ing  their  fibre  to      j^gQ^^l.  The  second  is  that  their  leaves  hang  vertically 

T'lic    iciLj    cIpS    not  _  ^ 

growing  with  and  gi^e  incomplete  protection  against  sun  or  rain. 
other  trees  and  But  such  protection  is  preferable  to  none,  surely.  An- 
as not  being  re-  other  is  their  strong  tendency  to  twist  to  the  left.f 
muuera  i\e.  which  greatly  interferes  with   their  being  sawed  into 

*  Tomasi  (Yudeli,  "  La  malaria  do  Rome  et  I'ancicn  drainage  des  collines  Komaines." 
Lecrosnier,  18M. 

tTliis  levogyration,  wliich  constitutes  the  main  objection  to  eucalypti,  after  the  consid- 
eration that  thi'V  are  unromunerative,  has  never,  as  far  as  I^hdwu,  been  exphiined  satis- 
factorily. It  is. 'however,  niueh  less  manifested,  as  liere  noted,  in  close  and  extensive 
plantations,  and  there  is  a  marked  difference  amons  tlie  sjieeies  as  to  twisting.  But  why 
is  this  twisting  ever  to  the  left,  without  regard  to  the  direction  of  the  wind? 


4Q 

1896.]  ^^  Ll'epper. 

planks  ;  but  this  twisting  can  be  lessened  in  many  cases  by  growing 
the  trees  in  close  and  extensive  plantations,  which  gives  most  of  them 
proper  protection  against  the  winds.  Yet  another  objection  is  that  euca- 
Ij'pti  will  not  thrive  generally  when  iutergrown  with  other  trees,  and  will 
interfere  with  the  other  trees  and  even  kill  them  off;  or,  more  rarely  in 
these  colonies,  that  they  will  be  injured  by  the  other  trees.  Both  of  these 
facts  can  be  prevented  by  leaving  sufficient  space  between  eucalypti  and 
the  other  trees. 

The  principal  and  insuperable  objection  to  eucalypti  requires  also  but  a 
simple  mention  here  :  there  is  no  money  to  be  made  from  them,  or,  at 
least,  such  is  the  experience  of  the  growers  until  now,  the  trees  having 
been  introduced  into  Algeria  and  Tunisia  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury ago.  Those  who  recommended  their  being  grown  by  others  for  a 
large  profit  have  benefited  by  being  prematurely  rewarded  by  the  govern- 
ment for  their  zeal. 

Alas  !  that  favorable  prophecies,  with  all  the  calculations  to  support 
them,  should  have  proved  fallacious. 

IV. 

Species  and  Varieties  of  Eucalypti  Most  Serviceable  ix  Tunisia 

AND  Algeria. 

Among  the  very  numerous  species  and  varieties  of  eucalypti,  our  choice 
is  founded  on  the  recent  study  and  actual  knowledge  of  the  trees.  Eu. 
globulus  (blue  gum)  grows  well  enough  in  generally  dry  soils,*  and  yet  is 
especially  suited  to  damp  subsoils;  its  leaves  and  fruit  are  rich  in  essential 
oil  and  it  is  abundant  in  its  indigenous  soil,  Australia.  We  owe  the  fact 
of  its  being  the  first  species  introduced  into  northern  Africa  to  these  ad- 
vantages, as  mentioned  in  our  second  chapter  ;  also  to  the  fact  that  there 
was  at  the  time  a  relative,  if  not  absolute,  ignorance  of  the  merits  of  the 
more  valuable  and  equally  hardy  or  even  hardier  species  (which  are 
still  not  sufficiently  known  in  these  colonies).  But  its  wood  is  inferior 
for  any  purpose,  as  is  fully  stated  elsewhere,  and  the  red  gums  have  been 
generally  preferred  within  the  last  few  years. 

We  refer  at  length  in  our  last  chapter  to  the  many  qualities  of  E2i.  mar- 
ginata,  w^hich  is  as  yet  so  extremely  rare  as  to  be  scarcely  noticeable  in  a 
practical  nomenclature  of  species  found  here. 

Among  the  most  remarkable  species  of  red  gums  grown  here  are  Eu. 
rostrata  and  Eu.  resinifera,  and  numerous  hybrids  or  crosses  of  these 
species.  The  former,  when  extensively  grown  from  the  seed  and  planted 
out,  furnishes  a  good  wood,  withstands  the  dryness  of  the  summer  in  the 
interior,  seems  to  be  one  of  the  most  resistant  of  trees,  and  reproduces  it- 
self spontaneously  in  the  coast  region  (where,  probably,  it  will  soon  be- 

*  Nevertheless  it  sometimes  dies  suddenly  witliout  apparent  cause  after  attaining  a 
considerable  size. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  G.      printed  JUNE  5,  1890. 


Pepper.]  '^^  [March  6, 

come  acclimated).     The  latter  withstands  intense  drought  and  requires 
deep  and  dry  soil. 

Besides  the  above  species,  among  the  most  robust  and  advantageous  to 
northern  Africa,  according  to  Dr.  Trabut,  are  the  following:  * 

Eu.  tereticornis. 

Eu.  amigdalina. 

Eu.  botryoides. 

Eu.  colossea  (Eu.  diversicolor). 

Eu.  cornuta. 

Eu.  corinocalyx  (dry  soils). 

Eu.  gompJiocephala  (still  rare,  but  most  useful). 

Eu.  goniocalyx. 

Eu.  leucoxylon  (Eu.  sideroxylon) . 

Eu,  maculata. 

Eu.  mulleri. 

Eu.  occidentalis. 

Eu.  polyanthema  (Shaw),  Eu.  populnea  of  Miiller,    Eu.   populifoha   of 

Hook,  etc. 
Eu.  rostrata  (brackish  swamps). 
Eu.  robusta. 
Eu.  romeliana  (hybrid  from  Eu.  botryoides  and  Eu.  rostrata,  leafy  and 

strong,  obtained  by  Dr.  Trabut). 
Eu.  rudis  (large  capsules). 
Eu.  soUgna. 
Eu.  mminalis. 


V. 

Where,  Whek  and  How  to  Grow  Eucalypti  in  These 
Colonies. 

Eucalypti,  like  Acacia,  Mimosm,  and  plane  trees,  thrive 
Where  to  grow        .  .  .  ,  ,  -,    ^       -, 

iiieoi.  ^^  countries  where  there  are  but  two  denned  seasons  ; 

yet  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia  they  are  only  to  be  grown 

in  the  coast  region,  especially  in  the  larger  valleys  and  on  the  hillsides. 

Neither  the  extreme  cold  of  winter  on  the  high  plateaux  of  the  central 

zone,  nor  the  extreme  heat  of   the  southern  or  Saharan   zone  and  the 

changes  between  the  temperatures  of  day  and  night,  are  suitable  to  them. 

Adaptable  to  widely  different  conditions  of  temperature,    according   to 

species  and  to  the  composition,  depth,  dryness  or  dampness  of  the  soils  in 

different  parts,  yet,   in  the  words  of  Sir  Lambert  Play  fair,  f  it  would  be 

*  Dr.  Trabut,  Professor  of  Botany  at  the  Ec61es  Superieures,  Algiers. 
tSir  Lambert   Playfair,  Consul  General  of  Great  Britain  at  Algiers,  Report  ou  thi' 
planting  of  Eucalypti  in  Algeria,  May  16, 1877,  No.  21. 


1896.  r  "-'-  [Pepper. 

"  as  useless  to  attempt  to  grow  tliem  in  the  Tropics  as  it  would  be  in  the 
north  of  Scotland." 

For  species  suitable  to  special  soils  see  preceding  chapter.  Generally 
speaking,  eucalypti  should  be  grown  throughout  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  pref- 
erably in  swampy  localities,  on  the  shores  of  lakes,  arovind  ponds  either 
shallow  or  brackish  and  partly  dry  in  summer,  in  damp  bottom  lands,  on 
the  banks  of  water  courses  which  are  sluggish  or  frequently  changing 
their  beds  (as  are  most  north  African  rivers,  which  often  ruin  whole  valleys 
that  might  be  fertile  under  other  conditions),  in  places  exposed  to  land- 
slides or  slips,  for  they  are  generally  not  on  a  large  scale,  although  fre- 
quent on  account  of  the  abundant  clay  of  the  coast  region.  We  have 
seen  also  that  they  aid  in  protecting  villages  and  farms  against  noxious 
winds,  sun  and  the  malaria,  whether  bred  in  locis  or  in  the  neighborhood. 
Finally  eucalypti  are  advantageously  grown  in  any  appropriate  soil  of 
little  value  for  other  purposes,  if  a  judicious  choice  be  made  among  the 
species.  Whatever  be  the  locality  chosen,  the  surface  soil  must  be  perme- 
able and  otherwise  suitable  ;  the  subsoils,  if  compact,  force  the  roots  to 
spread  out  mesh-like  to  considerable  distances,  sixty  metres  as  we  have 
measured,  in  the  direction  of  water  or  of  deeper  and  better  or  damper 
soil. 

Without  a  ditch  of  a  couple  of  metres  in  depth  be- 

wiiere  not  to  ing  dug  as  a  separation  between  eucalypti  and  the 
grow  them,  other  more  valuable  plant,  no  eucalypti,  particularly 

not  Eu.  globulus,  should  be  grown  near  these  plants 
(orange  or  other  fruit  trees,  vines,  flowerbeds,  etc.),  nor  too  close  to  a 
spring  (always  most  precious  in  these  colonies),  a  well,  a  reservoir,  a 
building  or  any  useful  wall,  as  eucalypti  send  out  roots  which  absorb  the 
nourishment  of  other  plants,  and  sometimes  ruin  constructions  even  of 
cement. 

Eucalypti  are  grown  from  seed,  either  sown  in  loco, 

Three  modes  of  in  the  open  field  where  the  trees  are  to  remain,  or,  pref- 
propagation.  erabl}'  in  Algeria   and   Tunisia,   the  seed  should   be 

sown  in  pans,  the  young  trees  being  planted  out  prop- 
erly and  at  the  proper  time  ;  or  they  are  grown  from  young  trees. 

The  seeds  take  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days  to  germinate,  according  to 
soil  and  season.  They  are  small,  light  and  generally  fertile.  They 
should  nowhere  be  covered  by  more  than  a  centimetre  of  finely  divided 
earth. 

Water  is  generally  scarce  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  and  artificial  irriga- 
tion being  expensive,  cannot  be  attempted,  if  the  plants  are  to  be  grown 
on  a  large  scale. 

For  both  sowing  and  planting,  the  ground  should 

Preparation  of      ^^  prepared  several  months  before  the  seeds  or  the 

the   ground    for      trees  are  consigned  to  it.  The  soil  should  be  broken  up 

sowing      and      by  a  subsoil  plough  to  a  depth  of  0.05  metre  or  more, 

planting.  when  possible,  and  all  foreign  growths  removed. 


5Q 
^^,.,.^..j  — ■  [March  6, 

Shortly  before  sowing  in   tlie  open,    the    ground 
should  be  ploughed  crosswise,  that  is  in  both  direc- 
Sowing  in  tiie       tions,  and  reploughed  lightly  in  furrows  1.5  metres 
open.  apart.     The  seeds  should  be  carefully  deposited  every 

two  steps  (or  at  intervals  of  1.5  metres)  and  covered 
with  a  thin  layer  of  fine  earth.  Of  course,  this  entails  irregularities  in 
the  interspacing  of  the  shoots,  as  manj'  seeds  do  not  germinate,  being 
blown  or  washed  away  or  washed  under,  and  the  young  plants  of  the 
same  species  grow  more  or  less  rapidly,  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
surface  soil,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  to  the  nature  of  the  subsoil  in  various 
places  in  the  same  localities,  and  moreover  the  growth  is  less  rapid  for 
some  time  than  when  young  shoots  are  planted.  This  sowing  in  the  open, 
which  should  take  place  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season,  appears  to 
be  cheaper  than  sowing  in  pans  and  planting  out  the  young  trees  a  few 
mouths  old,  the  labor  being  so  much  less,  but  in  the  end  it  is  dearer  as 
so  many  seeds  do  not  germinate,  and  the  sowing  has  to  be  renewed  fre- 
quently. 

The  seeds  are  preferably  sown  in  pans  or  boxes,  and 
Sowing  in  pans      the  young  trees  planted  out  at  the  proper  age  and 
to  plant  out  the       season. 

siioots.  "Prepare  a  compost  of  vegetable  mould  and  river 

sand  very  finely  sifted.  Fill  the  pots  of  0.15  metre  in 
diameter,  press  the  earth  lightly  and  evenly  with  a  small  zinc  cylinder  of 
about  the  same  diameter  as  the  pot.  Scatter  the  seed  on  the  surface  so  as 
nearly  to  cover  the  whole  of  it,  then,  with  a  very  fine  sieve,  which  may 
be  a  zinc  cylinder  similar  to  the  other  but  perforated  with  very  minute 
holes,  sift  just  enough  of  the  compost  on  the  seed  to  cover  them  and  no 
more.  Press  this  surface  again  lightly  with  the  first  cylinder  and  water 
with  a  watering  pot,  the  rose  of  which  is  perforated  with  the  smallest 
holes  which  it  is  possible  to  make.  This  should  be  done  in  early  May,  so 
that  the  trees  may  be  planted  out  at  the  first  rains  of  autumn  when  the 
ground  is  moist.  Within  fifteen  or  twenty  days  tlie  seeds  will  have 
germinated,  and  in  about  six  weeks  the  plants  will  be  ready  to  put  out. 
Weed  off  as  soon  as  the  trees  have  produced  four  leaves,  and  transfer  to 
other  pans  of  0.1  metre  in  diameter,  to  be  kept  in  a  shady  place  for  the 
first  day  or  two,  and  tlien  transfer  to  a  sunny  position  ;  water  during 
the  summer  just  sufliciently  to  prevent  them  from  dying.  The  great  ob- 
ject is  to  retard  their  growth  during  the  summer  so  as  to  keep  them  small 
and  prevent  their  roots  from  becoming  matted  inside  of  the  pans. 

A  second  sowing  may  take  place  about  the  middle  of  September,  so 
as  to  obtain  young  plants  ready  to  be  put  into  the  ground  about  the  be- 
ginning of  spring.  In  some  respects  this  plan  is  preferable  to  the  other, 
and  it  is  always  so  when  the  plants  can  be  Avatered  in  summer.  The 
young  trees  have  a  shorter  time  to  remain  in  the  pans,  and  their  roots 
run  less  chance  of  becoming  matted  ;  but  often,  when  the  rains  cease 
early  in  the  year,  they  have  not  become  gutficientlj-  rooted  in  the  open 


1890]  Od  [Pepper. 

to  enable  them  to  resist  tlie  heat  of  summer  without  occasional  irriga- 
tion. 

"The  Eucalyptus  is  a  plant  that  does  not  stand  being  kept  long  in  a 
pan  ;  its  roots  grow  with  as  great  rapidity  as  the  rest  of  the  tree,  and, 
if  they  are  allowed  to  be  contorted  round  the  inside  of  the  pan,  the  tree 
does  not  recover  from  this  unnatural  condition  of  things  and  seldom 
grows  straight  and  healthy." 

As  previously  stated,  as  soon  as  the  ground  (which 

Planting  in  the  has  been  broken  up  and  freed  from  other  growths, 
open  on  a  large  ]ate  in  the  winter  or  early  in  the  spring  while  wet) 
**'''  *''  becomes  again  impregnated  with  the  rains  of  autumn, 

plough  and  plant  out  the  young  trees  of  three  to  five 
months'  growth  (which  have  often  five  to  eight  leaves  each),  at  inter- 
spaces of  four  metres  in  trenches,  and  as  thej'  increase  in  height,  pro- 
gressively fill  in  the  trenches,  till  in  six  months  they  have  entirely  dis- 
appeared, and  instead  of  a  depression,  the  earth  becomes  piled  up  round 
the  stem  of  the  young  trees  ;  this  serves  not  only  to  keep  the  roots 
moist,  but  to  prevent  the  slender  stem  fi'om  being  blown  over  by 
heavy  Avinds  against  which  eucalyptus  should  always  be  protected  as 
much  as  possible  to  prevent  twisting  and  a  slow  growth. 

It  is  well  to  give  each  plant  a  good  watering  when  put  into  the 
ground,  but  they  will  generally  not  require  another  (?).*  The  soil 
should  be  kept  free  from  weeds  and  open  for  the  first  two  or  three 
years,  which  may  be  conveniently  done  by  passing  a  cultivator  between 
them  in  each  direction  once  or  twice  a  year.  After  the  third  year  they 
may  be  left  to  themselves  and  will  require  no  further  care. 

"Weakly  specimens  are  eliminated  wherever  necessary  and  their 
places  filled  with  hardy  plants,  until  a  full  plantation  of  trees  is  ob- 
tained from  four  to  five  metres  apart." 

"When  eucalypti  are  to  be  planted  on  quite  a  small 

Planting  on  a      scale,  instead  of  trenches,  holes  of  a  cubic  capacity 

small  scale.  of  0.5  metre  may  be  made;    but   this  is    not  to  be 

recommended  in  the  open  field,  as  the  heavy  rains 

are  apt  to  fill  up  the  holes  with  earth  and  smother  the  plant,  instead  of 

being  carried  otf  hj  the  open  trenches  above  described. 

"By  judicious  management   plantations   can    be 

Definite  aspect      obtained  in  which  the  trees  are  about  four  metres 
of  a  plantation.         apart,  and  after  ten  years  or  so,  every  alternate  row 
in  its  entiretj'  may  be  cut  down,  leaving  the  remain- 
ing trees  at  eight  metres  apart." 

*  It  sometimes  happens,  when  the  rains  cease  early  m  the  year,  that  ihe  young 
■eucalypti  have  not  become  sufficiently  rooted  during  their  short  sojourn  in  the  open 
ground  to  enable  them  to  resist  the  heat  of  summer  without  occasional  irrigation. 


Pepper.]  O"*  [March  6, 

VI. 

Commercial  Value  of  Eucalypti  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia. 

The  retail  price  of  Eu.  globulus,  much  the  most 
Pecuniary  profit  abundant  among  eucalypti  in  Algeria,  ^vhen  cut  up 
fi-oin  tiie  trees  for  fuel  and  sold  in  Algiers  is  $0.50  a  quintal  (100 
genera  y.  kilogrammes  =  220  pounds),  and  yet  we  have  been 

offered  by  the  trade  for  full-grown  trees  the  same 
sum,  all  expenses  of  cutting  down,  sawing  and  splitting  into  hearth -logs, 
as  well  as  of  carting  to  town  being  assumed  by  the  buyer.*  The  road 
to  town  is  good,  down  hill  and  only  four  miles  long,  and  the  cost  of 
transportation  is  estimated  at  about  ten  cents  a  quintal.  If  the  road  to 
market  is  not  very  short  and  good,  the  trade  will  not  hnj  standing 
eucalypti  at  any  price,  as  there  is  no  profit,  and  frequently  a  positive 
loss  in  the  transaction,  and  in  the  immediate  proximity  to  any  good 
market  the  purchaser  has  to  pay  too  high  a  price  for  his  land  to  grow 
eucalypti  for  sale. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  business  scarcely  exists  at  all  on  any  scale  worth 
a  longer  notice  here.  And  yet  firewood  is  generally  wretched  in  the 
coast  region,  good  wood  being  procurable  only  in  the  mountains  where, 
with  the  exception  of  the  several  military  roads  which  are  admirable, 
the  roads  are  few  and  bad.  All  fuel  is  therefore  relatively  dear,  because 
until  now  no  coal  mines  have  been  worked,  although  several  are  said 
to  exist  in  the  colonies. 

In  the  towns  and  even  in  xllgiers  old  boxes,  rafters  from  torn-down 

houses  and  ragged  roots  of  leutiscus  areoftered  and  bought  as  fire  wood. 

Counting  800  trees  to  the  hectare  (2  acres  1  rood  35 

Details  as  to  perches)  left  after  ten  or  twelve  years,  if  the  trees  are 
expenses  of  grow-     ^\^q^  marketable  (as  they  rarely  are  under  the  most 

ingthe  trees,  and         -  ,  ,  ■,...  ,      .  .  ^  ,  , 

*•     .       ~        ^^      favorable  conditions  and  circumstances),  we  have,  at 

margin  of  iirofit  ' 

or  loss.  say  50  cents  each,  $200  for  the  product  of  an  hectare 

for  ten  years,  or  S20  a  year,  that  is,  about  $9  a  year  for 
the  acre.  From  this  sum,  if  we  subtract  the  cost  of  growing  the  trees  in 
the  most  economical  way,  which  is  one-twentieth  if  the  trees  are  grown 
from  the  seed  planted  in  loco  (as  previously  noted),  and  which  may  be 
estimated  at  $4  a  year  per  acre  ;  and  the  interest  on  the  price  of  the  land 
and  other  incidental  expenses,  we  find  no  profit  left,  or  even  a  pecuniary 
loss,  unless  we  start  with  very  cheap  or  free  land,  most  favorably  and  ex- 
ceptionally well  situated  and  with  2000  trees  per  acre,  to  be  weeded  out 
during  the  first  five  or  six  years  :  and  unless  we  can  sell  these  younger 
trees,  which  is  a  very  rare  occurrence,  the  trades  preferring  other  woods 

♦These  trees  were  thirty  years  old,  but  uiuler  the  most  favorable  couditions  the  trees 
would  possibly  have  brought  the  same  i)rice  at  lil'teen. 


1806.]  5o  [Pepper. 

for  the  numerous  uses  to  which  eucalypti  are  put  in  Australia,  doubtless 
for  want  of  better  wood.* 

Not  only  is  there,  generally,  no  profitable  market  for 

A  small  market     the   wood   of  eucalypti  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia,    but 

for  the  accessory     ^^^^^  j^  ^  ^        ^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^  undoubtedly  important 

products  of  euca- 
lypti^ accessory  products  of  these  trees. 

From  the  leaves,  twigs  and  fruits,  giving  the  essen- 
tial oil,  there  is  still  a  little  profit.  For  the  oil  when  produced  by  the 
colonist  the  demand  is  relatively  small  compared  to  what  it  should  be, 
high  prices  being  asked  for  it  by  the  retail  dealers. f  As  to  the  tannin,  it 
is  not  used  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  nor  in  France,  as  it  is  in  Spain  and 
Portugal  for  the  tanning  of  leather  ;  while  the  tannin  of  Mimosfe,  or  mimo- 
tannic  acid,  is  recognized  as  a  most  efficient  aseptic  and  antiseptic,  ren- 
dering valuable  services  in  therapeutics,  and  successfully  used  in  diphtheria 
by  Dr.  Bourlier,  the  discoverer,  and  others,  as  prepared  by  C.  Brenta,  of 
Algiers. 

Perhaps  some  choice  species  of  eucalypti,  such  as  Eu. 
Possibility     of      marginata,  Eu.  leucoxylon  (the  black  variety),  will  re- 
some  choice  .si>e-      deem  the  reputation  of  the  trees  as  a  source  of  pecu- 
cies  being  pecu-      QJary  profit,  when  grown  under  the  most  favorable  con- 

llarly    profitable         ,.  .  '  °  tt      ., 

in  the  future.  dilions  and  Circumstances.  Until  now,  however,  noth- 

ing worth  recording  has  been  accomplished  with  this 

*Ia  Australia,  as  stated  by  M.  Ernest  Lambert,  ex-Inspector  of  Forests  in  Algeria, 
eucalypti  are  in  general  use  for  manufacturing  such  implements  as  pitchforks  from 
young  trees  two  years  old,  whip  handles,  the  handles  of  spades,  hoes,  sledgehammers 
and  other  articles  of  daily  use.  Three-pronged  pitchforks,  always  relatively  dear,  are 
readily  procured  from  the  young  trees,  the  stem  of  which  is  broken  off  or  cut  off  and  the 
leaves  of  which  are  stripped  from  the  two  side  branches  of  such  trees,  or  a  branch  is 
pinched  so  as  to  distribute  the  sap  as  regularly  as  possible  in  the  three  forks  thus 
obtained.  At  three  and  four  years  old  the  trees  make  carriage  poles  or  shafts,  ladder 
poles,  fence  poles  and  rails,  wheel  spokes  and  other  articles  too  numerous  to  be  recapitu- 
lated here.  At  five  years  telegraph  poles  are  obtained,  which  the  above-named  author 
and  others  affirm  to  be  more  durable  than  pine  poles,  and  not  to  need  to  be  injected  by  a 
preservative  substance  to  enable  them  to  last.  The  pine  poles  are  only  procurable  from 
trees  of  twenty-five  years'  growth,  during  which,  say  the  above-mentioned  authors, 
eucalypti  give  five  fine  poles  to  one  tree.  For  supports  in  mines  eucalypti  have  also 
their  places  well  defined,  as,  indeed,  for  railway  sleepers,  five  or  six  of  which  are  to  be 
had  from  trees  of  seven  or  eight  years  of  age.  At  nine  they  serve  as  piles  for  docks  and 
quays.  When  cut  up  at  this  age  they  are  serviceable  for  wheel  naves,  carriage  brakes 
and  drays  and  what  not,  according  to  the  same  panegyrists. 

t  This  oil  is  worth  about  $3  a  kilogramme  at  Grasse,  France.  The  parts  of  eucalypti 
employed  in  its  manufacture  yield  2  per  cent,  in  weight,  while  10,000  kilogrammes  of  the 
petals  of  roses  and  700  kilogrammes  of  those  of  geranium  yield  but  a  kilogramme  of  these 
more  valuable  oils. 

Many  products,  of  doubtful  origin,  actually  used-  in  perfumery  under  fanciful  names, 
of  supposed  Japanese  and  other  origins,  seem  to  have  no  other  merit  (when  they  are  not 
positively  oflfensive  to  the  sense  of  smell)  than  their  supposed  scarcity  and  consequent 
expensiveness.  Eacalyptol,  if  rare  or  still  supposed  to  be,  would  doubtless  be  sought  by 
the  extravagant  public  as  an  agreeable  exotic  perfume.  It  would  have  the  merit  of  being 
a  clean  product  of  great  virtue  for  the  toilette,  which  is  more  than  can  be  said  of  any  of 
these  so-called  perfumes— and,  united  in  due  proportions  with  pure  white  vaseline  and 
good  toilette  soap,  it  should  be  extensively  used  for  toilet  purposes. 


Stevenson.]  5b  [>rarch  20, 

species,  excepting  the  interesting  experiment  made  by  Dr.  Bourlier  on  his 
farm  near  Reghaia,  where  a  few  of  this  species  have  been  successfully 
grown,  conjointly  with  clivers  Acacite  and  especially  with  Mimosaj. 

A  fine,  strong,  inexpensive  wood,  almost  uninflamma- 
Desirabuu.y  of       ble  and  resisting  decay,  fit  for  barn  and  ship  building, 
the  propagation      railway  ties,    piles,   telegraph   poles,    paving   blocks, 
of  sucii  tine  spe-      flood-gates,  carpenter's  work  and  even  cabinetmaking, 
cies    as   Eu.   mar-  ,  tt-  .,      .1  1  i  a       .     t 

„in^f^  such  as  liu.  margmata,  the  yarrah  wood  or  Australian 

mahogany  is  claimed  to  be,  would  indeed  be  a  boon  to 
Algeria  and  Tunisia,  which  have  so  far  not  been  blessed  with  any  such 
treasure.* 

It  is  a  pity  that,  with  the  exceptions  mentioned  in 

Alleged   blind-  ,  .  '     -;  .         ,    .         , 

ness  of  the  pub-  ^'^'®  paper,  the  very  many  merits  claimed  years  ago, 
lie  and  market  and  Still  claimed  by  some,  for  eucalypti  in  general, 
to  the  merits  of  should  remain  unrecognized  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia  hy 
eucalypti  in  gen-  those  who  have  been  induced  to  make  the  experiment  of 
growing  eucalypti  for  profit.  Either  the  public  and  the 
market  are  blind  to  the  merits  of  eucalypti,  or  else  the  numerous  services 
rendered  by  these  trees  are  still  better  rendered  by  others  at  present  in  use 
for  agricultural  and  industrial  purposes,  as  well  as  for  fuel.  It  is  needless 
to  mention  which  of  these  suppositions  is  the  most  likely. 


On,  the  Remains  of  the,  Foreigners  Discovered  in  Egypt  by  Mr. 

Flinders -Petrie,  JS95,  now  in  the  Museum  of  the 

University  of  Pennsylvania. 

By  Mrs.  Cornelius  Stevenson. 

{Read  before  the  American  Philosojjhical  Society,  March  SO,  1S96.) 

Before  entering  upon  my  subject,  I  must  explain  that  what  information 
I  have  with  regard  to  this  remarkable  collection  is  mainly  derived  from 
private  letters  received  from  Mr.  Flinders-Petrie  last  winter  at  the  time 
of  this  most  brilliant  of  all  his  brilliant  discoveries,  and  at  intervals  since 
then.     Very  little  has,   as  yet,  been  published  concerning  them.     The 

♦  Like  the  reed  of  the  fable,  Eu.  marginata  is  flexible  and  bends  readily  without  break- 
ing. A  block  of  0.5  metre  in  length  and  offering  a  square  section  of  0.25  metre  bears, 
before  breaking,  a  weight  of  1400  kilogrammes  suspended  from  its  middle,  POO  kilo- 
grammes being  the  breaking  weight  of  a  ruler  of  oak  of  the  same  dimensions.  The  resist- 
ance of  Ea.  marginata  to  crushing  in  the  same  condition  is  also  greater  than  that  of  oak 
(both  woods  having  the  same  density),  and  is  350  kilogrammes  to  the  S(iuare  centimetre 
of  bearing  surface ;  its  tensile  strength  is  remarkable,  S'JO  kilogrammes  to  the  square  centi- 
metre. Its  resistance  to  parasites  is  very  great,  even  the  terrible  white  ant  cannot  per- 
forate its  grain,  nor  does  the  Teredo  navalM  cause  its  prompt  destruction,  as  is  the  case 
with  other  woods  used  in  naval  constructions,  for  Ea.  margmata  has  been  known  to  with- 
stand the  action  of  the  shi])  worm  for  thirty  and  forty  years  (E.  Lambert,  above 
quoted). 


189(1,1  ^ '  [Stevenson. 

report  has  not  yet  appeared,  and  the  only  sources  of  information  available 
are  a  catalogue  of  the  objects  exhibited  at  University  College  in  London 
last  July  ;  some  short  articles  published  by  Mr.  Flinders-Petrie  in  the 
Times  and  in  the  London  Academy  and  reproduced  in  the  American 
Journal  of  ArcJueology,  and  a  leaflet  issued  by  the  "  Egyptian  Research 
Account"  as  a  brief  preliminary  report  to  its  subscribers.  These  with 
the  private  letters  above  referred  to  form  the  basis  of  this  paper. 

You  are  aware  that  last  winter  Mr.  Flinders-Petrie,  whilst  working  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  villages  of  Dallas  and  Nagada— that  is  some 
thirty  miles  north  of  Thebes  (near  the  twenty-sixth  parallel)  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  river  and  on  the  edge  of  the  desert — made  some 
remarkable  discoveries. 

In  this  locality  were  some  Mastaba-tombs  of  the  old  empire  (IVth  to 
Vlth  dynasties)  and  a  ]\Iastaba-like  pyramid,  similar  in  form  to  that  of 
Sakkara,  with  a  sepulchral  chamber  scooped  out  of  the  sand  bed  below, 
but  entirely  constructed  of  natural  blocks,  selected  for  size,  and  in  no 
way  tooled  or  even  broken,  and  therefore  probably  one  of  the  earliest  of 
such  structures. 

The  Mastaba-tombs  likewise  offered  interesting  peculiarities  :  access  to 
them  was  obtained  through  a  stepped  passage,  which  sloped  down  frqm 
the  north  as  in  a  pyramid.  Nearly  all  these  tombs  had  been  anciently 
plundered,  and  little,  save  a  large  number  of  stone  and  alabaster  vases, 
w^as  found  belonging  to  their  original  occupants. 

In  some  of  these  ancient  tombs,  however,  were  discovered  burials  of 
strange  intruders,  the  evidences  of  w^hose  general  culture,  beliefs  and 
funeral  customs  show  them  to  have  been  strangers  :n  the  Nile  valley. 
Not  a  single  detail  of  their  culture  did  they  hold  in  common  with  the 
Egyptians.  Moreover,  their  number,  which  was  found  to  have  spread 
over  a  considerable  portion  of  upper  Egypt,  from  Abydos  to  Gebelen, 
over  one  hundred  miles,  whilst  their  influence  was  observable  from 
Tenneh  to  Hieraconpolis,  i.  e.,  over  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and 
the  absolute  control  of  the  region  which  they  assumed  and  which  is 
shown  by  the  total  absence  of  any  object  recalling  Egyptian  civilization, 
show  them  not  only  to  have  been  invaders,  but  invaders  Avho  once  had 
swept  over  the  region  and  who,  settling  down,  had  lived  there  for  a  con- 
siderable period,  borrowing  little  or  nothing  of  the  people  whose  land 
they  occupied.  As  Mr.  Petrie  wrote  in  the  first  outburst  of  enthusiasm 
following  upon  his  great  discovery:  They  form  "a  grand  new  puzzle 
and  might  as  well  have  been  found  in  Siberia  or  in  France  for  aught  of 
their  connection  with  regular  Egyptian  antiquities." 

This  complete  wiping  out  for  a  time  of  the  Egyptian  civilization  is  one 
of  the  most  striking  features  of  this  remarkable  episode,  and  gives  point  to 
Mr.  Flinders-Petrie's  discovery.  In  the  large  number  of  burials  opened 
"nota  god,  notascarab,  not  a  hieroglyph,  notan amulet,  notan  Egyptian 
bead  was  found."  These  people  were  great  potteiy  manufacturers,  and 
yet,  altliough  they  settled  in  a  land  where  the  potter's  wheel  had  long 

PEOC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  ir)0.   H.      PRINTED  JUNE   5,   1890. 


Stevenson.]  "tJ  [March  20, 

been  in  common  use,  all  their  pottery  is  hand-made  and  of  form  and  deco- 
ration peculiar  to  themselves. 

An  Egyptian  town  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  yielded — in  different 
strata — pottery  of  the  IVth,  Xllth,  XVIIIth  and  XlXth  dynasties,  and 
presented  not  one  single  link  with  the  peculiar  manufactures  of  the 
intruders.  What,  then,  had  become  of  the  Egyptians  on  this  extensive 
tract  of  territory  and  during  the  considerable  period  represented  by  the 
layers  containing  variations  of  the  original  industries  of  the  invaders? 

The  kings  of  the  Vth  dynasty  who  ruled  over  united  Egypt  were  said 
by  Manetho  to  have  come  from  Elephantine,  and  vestiges  of  their  power 
and  of  that  of  their  successors  (Vlth  dyn.)  have  been  found  from  the 
southern  frontier  of  Egypt  to  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  Even  recently, 
fragments  of  papyri  have  been  found  at  Elephantine  bearing  the  names 
of  Rameri  and  of  Noferkara  which  must  be  added  to  the  weight  of  evi- 
dence already  gathered  to  show  the  extent  of  their  empire  (London 
Acad.,  March  14,  1896).  They  were  powerful  monarchs,  and,  like  all  of 
Egypt's  strong  rulers,  they  were  active  in  their  building  enterprises  and 
have  left,  written  on  stone,  eloquent  testimony  of  their  power. 

Of  their  successors,  the  Memphite  kings  of  the  Vllth  and  Vlllth 
dynasties,  however,  nothing  remains  save  a  few  scarabs  bearing  names 
that  can  be  identified  with  some  of  those  given  in  the  Egyptian  lists  for 
that  obscure  period.  Indeed  the  silence  of  the  monuments  is  so  complete 
as  to  become  positively  eloquent.  It  is  evident  that  some  national 
catastrophy  occurred  about  that  time  which  caused  the  dismemberment  of 
the  great  empire  of  the  pyramid  builders  and  reduced  the  power  of  their 
Memphite  successors  to  comparative  insignificance. 

Manetho  gives  five  kings  for  the  Vllth  Memphite  dynasty  and  twenty- 
seven  for  the  Vllllh.  The  Turin  fragments  give  eighteen,  and  the  tablets 
of  Abydos  give  a  selection  of  fifteen.  No  doubt  can  exist,  therefore,  as 
to  their  reigns  having  occupied  a  considerable  period  of  time.  There  is 
evidence  that  during  the  IXth  and  Xth  Herakleopolitan  dynasties,  Upper 
Egypt,  which — as  far  as  the  monumental  evidence  is  concerned — seemed 
to  have  been  wiped  out  of  existence,  reappeared  upon  the  scene  of  history, 
and  that  the  princes  of  Thebes  began  to  assert  themselves  and  to  grow  in 
power.  Some  important  inscriptions  found  by  Mr.  Griffith  in  the  tombs 
of  the  feudal  princes  of  Siut  cast  a  flash  of  useful  light  upon  this  obscure 
period.  These  princes,  loyal  to  the  kings  of  the  Herakleopolitan  dynasty, 
fought  on  their  side  in  their  wars  against  tlie  Thebau  princes,  whose  in- 
creasing pretensions  threatened  the  power  of  their  liege  lords.  These 
facts  are  now  all-important  in  restricting  the  limits  in  which  must  be 
placed  the  episode  of  the  foreign  intrusion  just  brought  to  light  by  ^Mr. 
Petrie's  genius.  It  seems  obvious  that  such  an  intrusion  could  not  have 
taken  place  had  the  Theban  princes  been  as  powerful  as  they  appear  to 
have  been  under  the  IXth  and  Xth  dynasties. 

That  the  foreigners  entered  Upper  Egypt  after  the  great  period  of  the 
pyramid  builders  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  ^lastaba-tombs  referred  to 


1896.J  OJ  [Stevenson. 

above  were  usurped  by  them  to  bury  their  own  dead.  Moreover,  in  the 
step-passage  of  a  Mastaba,  a  burial  of  the  Xllth  dynasty  was  found  super- 
imposed upon  the  remains  of  the  strangers.  Here  were  therefore  three 
well-deSned  epoch-marking  layers,  and  the  fact  that  briclc  tombs  of 
the  Xlltli  dynasty  were  constructed  over  the  ruins  of  a  town  occupied  by 
these  people,  conclusively  proves  that  their  presence  in  Egypt  preceded 
the  Middle  empire. 

Four  necropoles  and  two  mud-brick  towns  extending  over  an  area  of 
five  miles  yielded  the  same  result  as  to  strata  and  relative  occupancy.  It 
is  therefore  reasonable  to  see  in  this  intrusion  of  a  strange  race,  spreading 
over  so  considerable  a  portion  of  the  Egyptian  territory,  which  it  held  for 
so  long  a  period  of  time  exactly  coinciding  with  the  raonume'ntal  break 
in  Egyptian  history,  if  not  the  explanation  of  at  least  an  important  fact 
connected  with  that  break ;  and  to  venture  upon  the  assertion  that  a 
migratory  movement  of  some  magnitude  took  place  about  3400  B.C.,  of 
which  the  people  whose  remains  have  just  come  to  light  formed  a  portion, 
and  by  which  the  first  united  Egyptian  empire  was  weakened  and  brought 
to  an  end. 

Mr.  Petrie,  assisted  by  Mr.  Duncan,  pursued  his  investigations  at 
Nagada,  whilst  Mr.  Quibell,  working  for  the  "  Egyptian  Research  Ac- 
count," explored  the  burials  near  Ballas,  both  exploring  parties  continuing 
their  researches  until  over  2000  burials  were  opened  and  their  contents 
examined  and  secured.  These  made  it  evident  that  the  invaders  liad  long 
retained  their  peculiar  customs  and  beliefs  :  Instead  of  cutting  their 
tombs  in  the  solid  rock  as  did  the  Egyptians,  they  dug  their  graves  in 
shoals  of  gravel  in  the  dry  water  courses  of  the  desert  edge  ;  tliese  graves 
are  open  square  pits  of  the  type  of  those  found  at  Mycenaj  ;  they  were 
roofed  over  with  wood,  and  their  average  dimensions  are  about  0x4  and 
5  feet  in  depth.  Their  size  varies,  however,  from  half  to  double  those 
here  mentioned.  Unlike  the  Egyptians  who  mummified  their  dead  and 
laid  them  stifliy  stretched  out  upon  their  backs,  the  body,  reduced  to  a 
skeleton,  here  lay  in  a  contracted  position  turned  upon  its  left  side,  facing 
the  west,  with  the  head  to  the  south.  Every  body,  or  ninety-nine  out  of 
a  hundred,  was  found  with  the  head  taken  off  or  removed.  Short,  oblong 
coffins  of  coarse  pottery,  with  a  lid  and  resembling  a  chest,  were  used.  The 
bodies  showed  evidence  of  having  been  mutilated  before  burial.  In  one 
fine  tomb,  the  bones  were  heaped  in  the  centre,  whilst  other  bones,  the 
ends  of  which  had  been  broken  off  and  scooped  out  as  though  for  marrow, 
were  placed  around  them.  This  led  Mr.  Petrie  to  suggest  that  they  must 
have  been  ceremonial  cannibals.  In  other  graves  the  bones  were  sepa- 
rated and  sorted  out. 

Large  bowls  of  coarse  pottery,  such  as  those  exhibited  with  the  coffin, 
contained  ashes,  probably  of  the  funeral  feast,  and  Mr.  Petrie  aptly 
quotes  with  reference  to  this  custom  2  Chron.  xvi.  14,  xxi.  19,  and  Jere- 
miah xxxiv.  5,  referring  to  a  great  burning  made  at  every  funeral — a  cus- 
tom probably  Amorite.    These  were  placed  at  the  foot,  and  other  jars,. 


Stevenson.]  ^^  [March  20, 

such  as  may  here  be  seen,  and  whicli  originally  contained  liquids — beer, 
■water,  etc. — were  placed  along  the  sides.  As  many  as  eighty  vases  have 
been  found  in  one  grave,  and  few  interments  were  provided  with  less 
than  ten  or  a  dozen.  Among  these  were  sometimes  found  a  vase  of  black 
incised  ware,  evidently  imported. 

Jars  of  pottery  with  wavy  handles,  containing  scented  fat  or  its  Nile- 
mud  substitute,  were  placed  along  the  head  end,  with  a  rough  pointed 
brown  jar  in  the  middle.  This  type  of  pottery,  Avhich  was  very  common 
and  which  gave  rise  to  varieties  of  forms  and  uses  during  the  sojourn  of 
these  people  in  the  Nile  valley,  must  be  regarded  as  part  of  their  indus- 
trial equipment,  and  is  so  specialized  as  to  have  led  Mr.  Petrie  to  suggest 
that  these  men  were  related  to  the  Amorites  of  Palestine,  who  used 
similar  pottery  and  who,  he  thought,  might  be  another  branch  of  the 
stock  to  which  these  invaders  of  Egypt  belonged. 

In  bringing  these  objects  to  your  notice,  1  am  laboring  under  serious 
disadvantages  and  I  must  claim  your  indulgence  should  it  so  happen  that 
I  cannot  make  all  points  of  detail  clear  to  you.  Although  the  collection 
reached  here  early  in  the  winter,  lack  of  proper  space  to  work  it  up  and 
to  display  it  with  safety,  prevented  my  unpacking  it  until  now,  and  I  have 
not  had  a  chance  to  study  each  specimen  as  it  should  be  studied.  This  is 
all  the  more  to  be  regretted  as  the  material  is  quite  new,  and  as,  for  the 
first  time  in  the  course  of  our  much  more  than  satisfactory  relations,  Mr. 
Flinders-Petrie,  owing  to  pressure  of  business,  was  unable  personally  to 
superintend  the  packing,  so  that  I  have  had  very  little  to  guide  me  in  my 
identifications  save  my  own  limited  experience  and  the  general  indications 
furnished  in  Mr.  Petrie's  letters.  The  types  peculiar  to  these  strangers 
are,  however,  as  a  rule  readily  recognized. 

The  main  difficulty  has  been  with  the  alabaster  and  stone  vessels,  of 
which  we  have  a  great  quantity.  These  are  principally  derived  from  the 
Mastaba  tombs  of  the  old  empire,  and  in  sorting  them  there  lies  therefore 
some  danger  of  confusion,  especially  where,  as  in  the  later  layers  of  the  in- 
vaders, a  certain  overlapping  took  place.  I  have,  however,  onlj^  brought 
here  those  specimens  of  Libyan  stone  work  as  to  the  origin  of  which  I  can 
entertain  no  doubt  :  Elongated  vases  of  various  dimensions  with  useless 
ledge  like  feet  too  small  for  use,  intended  to  be  suspended  by  means  of 
long  tubular  handles,  a  frog  of  breccia,  and  various  other  types  which 
have  no  Egyptian  equivalents.  These  stone  vessels  are  hand-worked  and 
show  no  trace  of  the  turning-lathe.  The  material  whicli  I  have  not  been 
able  to  determine  with  certainty  must  remain  until  Mr.  Petrie's  full  illus- 
trated report  is  pul)lished,  when  each  group  of  objects  in  our  collection 
will,  no  doubt,  find  its  proper  place. 

Most  of  the  flint  implements  now  before  you  are  from  the  invaders — 
these  are  oval  in  shape  and  eciually  worked  on  both  sides.  There  are, 
however,  a  few  dark  weathered  flints  found  upon  the  top  of  tlie  limestone 
plateau,  some  1400  feet  above  the  Nile— all  of  which  show  signs  of  a 
longer  exposure  than  that  to  which  were  subjected  those  flints  to  which 


189(3.]  ^^  [Siovcnsou. 

we  know  can  be  assigned  more  than  5000  years  of  existence  under  similar 
conditions.  These  are  regarded  by  their  discoverer  as  Palfeolithic  ;  among 
them  are  two  whitened  flints  of  the  pointed  type,  thickly  patinated,  also 
regarded  by  Mr.  Petrie  as  Palseolithic. 

The  stone  work  of  these  people  was,  as  may  be  seen,  of  the  verj'-  highest 
order.  We  have  here  some  flint  bangles,  one  of  which  is  perfectly  cut  to 
less  than  the  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Some  of  the  finest  blades 
excel  not  only  anything  done  in  that  line  by  the  Egyptians,  but  are  unsur- 
passed by  any  ancient  neolithic  workmen.  The  exquisite  regularity  of 
the  surface  flaking  and  the  fine  serrated  edge  of  some  of  their  tools  is 
startling  in  its  perfection.  Some  forked  stone  lances  used  in  hunting 
the  gazelle  are  both  carious  and  beautifully  executed,  and  their  numbers 
show  their  owners  to  have  been  great  huntsmen. 

It  is  more  than  probable  that  some  fine  specimens  of  similar  workman- 
ship found  in  Egypt  from  time  to  time  and  which  have  been  brought  into 
various  museums  were,  in  reality,  relics  of  these  people.  Mr.  Petrie  has 
already  called  attention  to  a  fine  blade  belonging  to  General  Pitt-Rivers' 
collection  and  which  is  set  in  a  handle  of  undoubted  Egyptian  manufac- 
ture.    This  is  certainly  the  adaptation  of  an  older  blade. 

These  interlopers  also  used  copper  tools.  Other  metals  such  as  gold, 
silver  and  lead  were  apparently  known  to  them,  although  valued  as  rare 
products. 

In  their  pottery  they  seem  to  have  often  aimed  at  reproducing  the  stone 
forms  common  among  them,  and  even  at  imitating  the  very  substance, 
such  for  instance  as  the  limestone  breccia,  which  they  copied  in  splashed 
pottery,  of  which  we  have  here  a  beautiful  specimen. 

The  red  polished  and  the  black  and  red  polished  wares  are  the  most 
common  manufactures.  Animal  forms  and  curious  devices  were  produced. 
The  black  and  red  is  very  distinctive.  This  is  of  the  sam  e  material  as  the 
plain  red,  but  is  harder  and  is  given  a  higher  polish.  The  forms  also 
differ,  and  are  generally  remarkable  for  the  elegance  of  their  proportions. 
According  to  Mr.  Petrie,  the  black  color  is  due  to  the  "  deoxidizing  action 
of  the  wood  ashes  in  the  kiln,  reducing  the  red  peroxide  to  a  black  mag- 
netic oxide  of  iron.  The  brilliant  lustre  of  the  black  is  probably  due  to 
the  solvent  action  of  carbonyl,  due  to  imperfect  combustion,  which  enables 
the  magnetic  oxide  to  rearrange  in  a  continuous  surface." 

The  effect  of  this  process  seems  identical  with  that  observed  on  certain 
vessels  found  by  Dr.  Richter  in  the  lowest  stratum  of  the  copper-bnmze 
age  in  Cyprus  and  approximately  placed  by  him  sometime  between  4000 
and  3000  B.C.  In  the  collection  which  we  purchased  from  him  some 
years  ago  and  which  contains  a  part  of  the  results  of  his  own  excavations  in 
Cyprus,  there'  is  a  round  bowl  to  which  th«  above  date  is  assigned,  and 
which  is  identical  in  coloring,  polish  and  general  effect  to  this  black  and 
red  ware  ;  the  form,  however,  is  different  from  that  of  any  vessel  in  this 
collection,  and  a  small  perforated  handle  for  suspension  on  one  side 
would  in  itself  draw  attention  to  a  difference  in  the  manufacture.     It 


Stevenson.]  ^— '  ]  March  20, 

would  seem  from  this,  however,  that  the  deoxidizing  process  as  systemati- 
cally applied  to  red  pottery  for  purposes  of  decoration  was  a  widespread 
fashion  at  that  remote  period. 

Some  of  the  pottery  of  these  strangers  was  decorated  with  crude  figures 
of  ostriches,  antelopes,  etc.,  often  represented  in  long  lines,  in  brown  on 
buff  and  in  red  upon  a  lighter  red.  A  very  common  decorative  motive  is 
a  long  boat  with  two  cabins,  an  ensign  pole  and  many  oars;  sometimes  the 
figure  of  a  man  is  added.  The  red  polished  ware,  decorated  in  while 
lines,  "dents  de  loup,"  plants  and  flowers,  etc.,  is  imported  from  the 
Mediterranean  region.  It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Petrie  to  occur  only  in  a 
limited  range  of  the  territory  occupied  by  the  foreigners,  and  it  gave  rise 
to  no  varieties  of  type.  The  shapes  of  these  vases  are  also  peculiar,  espe- 
cially the  specimens  in  which  two  or  three  tall,  straight  stems  or  necks 
arise  from  one  base. 

The  black  incised  bowls,  with  white  decoration,  in  lines  and  "dents  de 
loup,"  are  also  imported.  No  such  pottery  is  known  of  Egyptian  make, 
although  in  later  times,  during  the  Middle  empire,  a  style  of  pottery  sim- 
ilar, though  much  finer,  appears.  A  near  approach  to  it  is  found  in  the 
later  Neolithic  stations  of  Italy,  Spain  and  in  the  lower  strata  of  Ilissarlik. 

In  a  paper  read  before  the  Anthropological  Section  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation— a  notice  of  which  was  published  in  the  Academy  (September  28, 
1895)  and  in  L'  Anthropologie  (October-December,  1895,  p.  590)  —  mention 
is  made  of  a  Neolithic  station  near  Butmir,  in  Bosnia,  recently  studied 
and  described  by  Mr.  Radminsky,  where  pottery  was  found  offering  a 
great  variety  of  decoration,  among  which,  by  the  way,  appears  a  spiral 
ornament.  Figurines  showing  some  artistic  aspirations  were  also  recov- 
ered. In  the  discussion  that  followed  Mr.  John  Evans  expressed  the 
opinion  that  this  station  probably  belonged  to  the  transition  period  from 
the  Neolithic  to  the  bronze  age.  Certain  holes  cut  in  the  clay  reminded 
Mr.  Petrie,  who  was  present,  of  the  sand  pits  dug  in  Egypt.  He  said  that 
the  pieces  of  black  pottery  exhibited  by  Mr.  Radminsky  were  absolutely 
identical  with  pieces  found  by  himself  in  Egypt  and  by  others  at  Hissarlik 
and  in  Spain,  and  that  he,  therefore,  would  date  such  a  settlement,  bj' 
this  black  pottery,  from  3300  to  3000  B.C..  when  it  was  generally  manu- 
factured {Anthrop.,  October-December,  1895,  p.  560). 

Among  the  small  objects  in  our  collection  are  a  number  of  bone  combs 
and  tools,  one  of  which,  a  puncher,  has  just  been  identified  by  Prof.  Cope 
as  the  metatarsal  of  a  gazelle.  We  have  also  a  series  of  slate  pallets  upon 
which  Malachite,  etc.,  was  ground  probably  for  tattooing  purposes.  These 
are  in  the  shape  of  the  turtle  and  fish,  besides  more  simple  forms,  such  as 
squares  and  rhombs  ;  but  a  larger  variety  of  animal  forms  has  been  found, 
and  Mr.  Petrie  mentions  the  ibex,  elephant  and  birds  among  those  in  his 
collection. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  taste  for  sj-^mmetry,  which  prompted  the 
introduction  of  the  double-headed  bird  design  among  so  many  ancient  and 
modern  peoples,  was  already  developed  among  these  men,  as  may  be 


1896.1  [Stevenson. 

seen  by  the  handle  of  a  bone  implement.     Here,  however,  the  double- 
headed  bird  is  no  eagle  but  an  ostrich. 

Where  was  the  centre  of  this  culture — whence  did  these  men  come  into 
the  Nile  valley  ?  This  must  now  be  the  problem  which  archteologists 
have  to  solve.     It  is  the  last  riddle  propounded  by  the  Egyptian  Sphinx. 

They  were  a  tall,  robust  race,  with  strongly  marked  features  and  a 
hooked  nose.  They  wore  a  long  pointed  beard  and  had  brown  wavy 
hair,  as  shown  by  their  representations  of  the  human  figure.  Altogether 
they  closely  approached  the  type  of  the  Libyans  and  the  Amoriles,  and 
probably  belonged  to  the  same  stock.  Mr.  Flinders-Petrie  calls  them 
Libyans,  and  Messrs.  Evans  and  Boyd  Dawkins  corroborate  this  opinion. 
By  Libyan  here  is  meant  a  people  inhabiting  some  as  yet  undetermined 
region  of  northern  Africa,  and  representing  a  branch  of  the  Neolithic  cul- 
ture of  southern  Europe,  although  these  particular  Libyans  were  just 
emerging  from  the  Neolithic  stage  when  they  invaded  Egypt. 

The  connections  which  can,  through  them,  be  traced  with  the  con- 
temporary Mediterranean  civilization  are  of  immense  value.  Not  only  do 
their  importations  from  the  Mediterranean  region  give  us  interesting 
glimpses  of  the  active  intercourse  of  nations  inter  se  in  those  early  days 
and  reveal  it  to  us  as  much  the  same  in  character  and  degree  as  it  appears 
in  subsequent  ages,  but  they  furnish  us  with  the  means  of  approximately 
dating  certain  typical  Mediterranean  products.  As  we  find  these  asso- 
ciated in  the  Mediterranean  region  with  the  transition  period  of  the  Neo- 
lithic culture,  it  seems  that  we  are  more  or  less  safe  in  regarding  3500  as 
the  likely  period  of  the  introduction  of  metals  into  the  western  Mediter- 
ranean region. 

Not  only  has  Mr.  Petrie's  splendid  discovery  filled  up  what  has  long 
seemed  a  hopeless  blank  in  Egyptian  history,  but  it  has  furnished  science 
with  a  solid  foundation  upon  which  the  prehistoric  period  of  Europe  may 
stand  whilst  like  a  coral  reef  it  builds  its  way  up  in  an  eflort  to  reach  the 
surface  of  history. 

Before  closing  my  remarks,  I  beg  to  take  advantage  of  this  opportunity 
to  acknowledge  Mr.  Flinders-Petrie's  disinterested  kindness  and  liberality 
in  helping  us  to  develop  in  this  city  a  museum  which  must  prove  an  edu- 
cational instrument  of  the  highest  value  to  our  people.  At  a  time  when 
we  are  indebted  to  him  for  this  priceless  collection,  it  is  but  proper  I 
think  to  publicly  recognize  the  constant  interest  which  Mr.  Petrie  has 
shown  in  our  efibrt. 


Dr.  D.  G.  Brinton  sajd  : 

The  chipped  flints  which  have  been  exhibited  appear  to  be  of  widely 
iiiflferent  ages,  those  from  the  tombs  showing  scarcely  any  patina,  while 
the  two  from  the  surface  of  the  plateau  are  covered  with  a  thick,  white, 
weather-wearing.     Of  course,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  constant 


Stevenson.]  ^^  [March  i20, 

exposure  of  tlie  latter  and  the  protected  condition  of  the  former.  But 
this  is  not  sufficient  to  account  for  the  marked  differences.  Moreover, 
the  shape  of  the  plateau  implements  is  distinctly  "  palseolithic."  They 
are  not  Intended  to  be  hafted,  but  to  be  held  in  the  hand  when  in  use. 
What  is  further  noteworthy  about  them  is  that  obviously  both  are  adapted 
to  be  held  in  the  left  hand  only.  So  far  as  they  go,  they  support  the 
theory  advanced  by  some  writers  that  primitive  man  was  less  right- 
handed  than  later  generations. 

The  pottery  and  stone  articles  from  the  tombs  of  the  so-called  "  new 
race  "  near  Abydos  are  good  examples  of  their  arts.  I  speak  of  this  with 
some  knowledge,  as  early  last  August  I  examined  with  much  care  Prof. 
Flinders-Petrie's  immense  collection  in  London,  and  had  the  advantage 
of  his  personal  explanations.  The  article  that  I  published  in  reference  to 
it,  in  Science  (August,  1895),  was  I  believe  the  first  original  report  on  the 
subject  in  any  American  periodical.  That  the  "new  race  "  was  supposed 
by  Prof.  Petrie  to  be  Libyan,  that  is,  Berber,  attracted  me,  as  the  ethnog- 
raphy of  that  stock  has  been  a  special  study  with  me. 

This  identification,  I  believe,  will  finally  be  established.  If  we  examine 
the  configuration  of  the  Nile  valley  and  its  surroundings,  no  other  theory 
is  tenable,  providing  the  Libyan  stock  extended  that  far  south  of  the 
Mediterranean  at  a  date  8000  B.C.  We  know  they  did,  and  much  earlier, 
from  their  very  early  presence  in  east  Africa.  The  invading  "  new  race  " 
could  not  have  come  from  the  east.  The  natural  highways  from  the  Red 
Sea  to  that  portion  of  the  Nile  valley  centime  at  Koptos,  and  there  few  or 
no  specimens  of  this  peculiar  art  have  been  exhumed.  They  must  neces- 
sarily have  entered  from  the  west,  and  a  study  of  the  ancient  and  modern 
caravan  routes  leads  inevitabl}^  to  the  conclusion  that  their  last  previous 
station  must  have  been  the  so-called  "Oasis  magna"  of  the  Libyan 
desert.  This  consists  of  a  series  of  arable  depressions  in  the  calcareous 
Libyan  plateau,  which  here  rises  to  an  average  height  of  about  1200  feet. 
The  central  portion  of  the  Oasis  is  about  130  miles  westerly  from  Abydos, 
and  to  it  a  number  of  caravan  routes  converge  from  the  north,  south  and 
west.  So  far  as  history,  archajology  and  linguistics  teach  us,  this  group  of 
cases,  as  well  as  the  "Oasis  parva,"  opposite  the  Fayoum,  andthatof.Tupiter 
Ammon,  still  farther  north,  have  alwa3's  been  peopled  by  the  Libyans. 
This  stock  has  not  been  shown  to  be  connected  in  culture  with  the  Neo- 
lithic peoples  of  western  Europe,  and  no  positive  traces  of  the  Berber 
language  remain  there,  though  it  is  probable  that  the  word  "Iberian" 
(fromlberus)  indicates  their  presence  in  the  peninsula  of  that  name.  The 
conclusion  which  I  urge,  therefore,  is,  that  the  correlatives  of  the  art  of 
the  "new  race"  will  be  found  in  the  "Oasis  magna."  That  some  of 
the  tombs  contain  Egyptian  and  even  ftlediterranean  relics  is  readily  ex- 
plained by  the  commerce  which  it  is  evident  from  the  figures  of  their 
boats  they  soon  established  on  the  Nile. 


1:896.]  "^ 

Stated   Meeting,  March  20,  1896. 

Yice-President,  Dr.  Peppee,  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  22  members. 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows  : 

Letter  of  envoy  irom  Mr.  Robert  N.  Toppan,  Cambridge, 
Mass. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  the  Royal  Society  ol  New 
Sonth  Wales,  Sydney  (143-146);  K.  B.  Astron.-meteorolo- 
gische  Observatorinm,  Triest,  Austria  (142-147)  ;  Prof.  Dr. 
F,  Muller,  Vienna,  Austria  (147) ;  Oberhessische  Gesellschaft 
fiirlSTatur-  und  Heilkunde,  Giessen,  Germany  (147);  K.  Sachs. 
Gesellschaft  d.  Wissenschaften,  Leipzig  (143,  146,  147)  ;  Mar- 
quis Antonio  De  Gregorio,  Palermo,  Italy  (147) ;  Prof.  E.  D. 
Cope  (147,  148),  Mr.  F.  Prime,  Philadelphia  (147);  Prof. 
John  F.  Carll,  Pleasantville,  Pa.  (148) ;  Lieut.  A.  b'.  Wyck- 
off,  IST.  Yakima,  Washington  (148). 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  (149)  from  the  Laval  University, 
Quebec,  Canada  ;  Canadian  Institute,  Toronto,  Canada ; 
Bowdoin  College  Library,  Brunswick,  Me.;  N.  H.  Historical 
Society,  Concord  ;  Vermont  Historical  Society,  Montpelier  ; 
Amherst  College  Library,  Mass.;  Mass.  Historical  Society^ 
Boston  Athenaeum,  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  Dr. 
Samuel  A.  Green,  Boston,  Mass.;  Museum  of  Comparative 
Zoology,  Harvard  College,  Profs.  W.  W.  Goodwin,  F.  W. 
Putnam,  Mr.  Robert  N.  Toppan,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  Essex 
•Institute,  Salem,  Mass.;  Amer.  Antiquarian  Society,  Worces- 
ter, Mass.;  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Kingston,  R.  I.; 
Providence  Franklin  Society,  Brown  University  Library, 
Providence,  R.  I.;  Mr.  George  F.  Dunning,  Farmington, 
Conn.;  Conn.  Plistorical  Society,  Hartford;  Buffalo  Library,, 
Society  of  Natural  Sciences,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.;  Prof.  Edward 
North,  Clinton,  N.  Y.;  Profs.  T.  F.  Crane,  J.  M.  Hart,, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.;  Astor  Library,  N.  Y.  Academy  of  Medicine, 
Columbia  College,  Plistorical  Society,  Amer.  Museum  of  Na- 
tural History,  N.  Y.  Hospital,  Prof.  Joel  Asaph  Allen,  Hon. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  I.      PRINTED  JULY  3,  1890 


t>b  [March  20, 

Charles  P.  Daly,  Mr.  J.  Douglas,  Dr.  Daniel  Draper,  New 
York,  N.  Y.;  Prof.  Eobert  W.  Rogers,  Madison,  N.  J.; 
Profs.  W.  Henry  Green,  Charles  W.  Shields,  Princeton,  N.  J.; 
Dr.  Robert  H.  Alison,  Ardmore,  Pa.:  Prof.  Thomas  C.  Por- 
ter, Easton,  Pa.;  Mr.  John  Fulton,  Johnstown,  Pa.;  Linn^ean 
Society,  Lancaster,  Pa.;  Dr.  James  W.  Robins,  Merion,  Pa.; 
Historical  Society,  Apademy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Engineers' 
Club,  Franklin  Institute,  Library  Co.  of  Philadelphia,  Penn- 
sylvania Hospital,  Wagner  Free  Institute,  Numismatic  and 
Antiquarian  Society,  Profs.  John  Ashhurst,  E.  D.  Cope,  F. 
A.  Genth,  Henry  D.  Gregor}^,  Lewis  M.  Ilaupt,  James  Mac- 
Alister,  Benjamin  Sharp,  Drs.  W.  G.  A.  Bon  will,  John  H. 
Brinton,  Edward  A.  Foggo,  Persifor  Frazer,  George  II.  Horn, 
Frank  W.  Lewis,  Morris  Longstreth,  John  Marshall,  George 
R.  Morehouse,  Charles  A.  Oliver,  William  Pepper,  Charles 
Schaffer,  Charles  Stewart  Wurts,  Messrs.  R.  Meade  Bache, 
Henry  C.  Baird,  Cadwalader  Biddle,  George  Tucker  Bispham, 
Joel  Cook,  Jacob  B.  Eckfeldt,  Charles  C,  Harrison,  William 
A.  Ingham,  Benjamin  Smith  Lyman,  Franklin  Piatt,  J.  Ser- 
geant Price,  Theodore  D.  Rand,  J.  G.  Rosengarten,  Julius  F. 
Sachse,  Coleman  Sellers,  F.  D.  Stone,  W.  P.  Tatham,  Joseph 
Willcox,  Philadelphia  ;  Mr.  Heber  S.  Thompson,  Potts ville. 
Pa.;  Rev.  F.  A.  Muhlenberg,  Reading,  Pa.;  Dr.  W.  II.  Ap- 
pleton,  Swarthmore,  Pa.;  Mr.  Thomas  S.  Blair,  Tj^rone,  Pa.; 
Philosophical  Society,  Mr.  Philip  P.  Sharpies,  West  Chester, 
Pa.;  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Newark,  Del.;  Mary- 
land Institute  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Mechanic  Arts,  Enoch 
Pratt  Free  Library,  Prof.  Ira  Remsen,  Baltimore,  Md.;  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  Charlottesville  ;  West  Virginia  Univer- 
sity, Morgautown  ;  Georgia  Historical  Society,  Savannah ; 
Athena3um,  Column bia,  Tenn.;  Newberry  Library,  Chicago, 
111. 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  Comity 
de  Conservation  des  Monuments  de  1' Art  Arabe,  Cairo,  Egypt ; 
Koloniaal  Museum,  Haarlem,  Holland ;  Bataafsch  Genoot- 
schap  der  Proefondervindelijke  Wijsbegeerte,  Rotterdam, 
Holland  ;    Magyar  Tudomanyos  Akadcmia,  Budapest,  Hun- 


1896.] 


67 


gary  ;  Wiirttembergisclie  Kommission  fiir  Landesgeschiclite, 
Stuttgart ;  //  Nuovo  Gimento^  Pisa,  Italy  ;  Bibliotheque  de 
la  Faculte  des  Sciences,  Marseilles,  France  ;  Prof.  Gabriel  de 
Mortillet,  St.  Germain-en-Laje,  France  ;  Mr.  Charles  Sedel- 
meyer,  Paris,  France ;  R.  Academia  de  Ciencias  j  Artes, 
Barcelona,  Spain;  R.  Academia  de  Ciencias,  etc.,  Madrid, 
Spain  ;  R.  Meteorological  Society,  London,  England ;  Mr. 
Robert  Noxon  Toppan,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  General  Alumni 
Society  of  University  of  Pennsylvania,  College  of  Physi- 
cians, Profs.  E.  D.  Cope,  Theopliilus  Parvin,  Philadelphia  ; 
Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D,  C;  Western  Society 
of  Engineers,  American  Humane  Association,  Prof.  Ed- 
mund J.  James,  Chicago,  111.;  Bishop  Crescencio  Carrillo, 
Meri da,  Yucatan  ;  Instituto  Medico  Nacional,  Mexico,  Mex.; 
Agricultural  Experiment  Stations,  Lake  City,  Fla.,  Fay- 
ettesville.  Ark.,  Manhattan,  Ivans.,  Corvallis,  Oreg.,  St.  An- 
thony Park,  Minn. 

Mr.  J.  G.  Rosengarten  read  an  obituary  notice  of  Rev.  W. 
H.  Furness,  D.D. 

Mrs.  Stevenson  read  a  paper  on  the  recent  discovery  in 
Egypt  of  non-Egyptian  remains.  Numerous  specimens  were 
exhibited,  principally  pottery,  showing  various  shapes  of  de- 
velopment. These  belonged  to  a  race  which  had  invaded 
Egypt  3500  or  2800  B.C.,  bringing  its  customs  without 
adopting  much  from  the  country  occupied  by  it. 

Dr.  Frazer  moved  the  thanks  of  the  Society  to  Mrs.  Ste- 
venson for  her  address.     Adopted. 

Dr.  Brinton  objected  to  the  identification  of  the  Libyans 
with  the  neolithic  tribes.  In  his  view  they  were  near  relatives 
of  the  triljes  now  known  as  Berbers.  In  his  opinion  the  in- 
vaders descended  on  Abydos  from  the  Oasis  Magna. 

Pending  nomination  13-16  and  new  nomination  13-17  were 
read. 

Dr.  Greene  offered  a  resolution  of  inquiry,  why  certain 
omissions  were  made  in  the  records  of  the  proceedings. 

The  Secretaries  explained  that  the  communication  was  in- 
formal and  without  motion  and  seemed  to  have  no  place  in 
the  minutes. 


^O  [April  10, 

On  the  resolution  being  put  to  vote,  the  yeas  and  nays  being 
called,  it  was  lost  by  12  nays  to  5  ayes. 
Dr.  Brinton  offered  the  following  : 

Resolved,  That  papers  by  non-members  be  read  by  title  only,  except 
when  the  author  is  present,  or  by  unanimous  consent  of  the  SocietJ^ 

The  resolution  was  referred  by  consent  of  mover  to  Council. 
The  rough  minutes  were  read,  and  the  Society  adjourned. 


April  3  being  Good  Frida}"  and  a  legal  holiday,  the 
meeting  was  postponed,  by  direction  of  the  President,  until 
April  10. 

Stated  Meeting^  April  10,  1896. 

Vice-President,  Dr.  Pepper,  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  18  members. 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows : 

Acknowledgments  of  election  to  membership  from  M.  G. 
Bertin,  Paris,  France,  March  15, 1896  ;  Mr,  Henry  A.  Pilsbry, 
Philadelphia,  March  30,  1896, 

Circular  letter  from  the  Principal  and  Yice-Cliancellor  of 
the  University  of  Glasgow  and  the  Lord  Provost  of  Glasgow, 
on  behalf  of  the  Committee  of  Arrangements  of  Jubilee  of 
the  Right  Hon.  Prof.  Lord  Kelvin,  on  the  completion  of  the 
fiftieth  year  of  his  tenure  of  the  Chair  of  Natural  Philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  requesting  the  Society  to 
appoint  a  representative  to  take  part  in  the  celebration,  Jane 
15  and  16,  1896. 

An  invitation,  on  parchment,  from  the  University  of  Prince- 
ton, N,  J.,  to  attend  its  one  hundred  and  fiftieth  anniversary. 

On  motion,  these  letters  were  referred  to  the  President,  with 
power  to  appoint  representatives. 

Letters  of  envoy  from  the  K.  K.  Astronomisch-Meteoro- 
logische  Observatorium,  Triest,  Austria ;  K.  Leopoldinisch- 
Carolinische  Deutsche  Akademie  der  Naturforscher,  Halle 
a.  S,,  Prussia;    R.  Accademia  di    Scienze,    Lettere   ed    Arti, 


1896.]  ^y 

Modena,  Italy  ;  Ministero  di  Pabblica  Istruzlone,  Rome,  Italy ; 
Mr.  James  Douglas,  New  York,  N.  Y. ;  Field  Columbian  Mu- 
seum, Chicago,  111. ;  Museo  de  la  Plata,  Provincia  de  Buenos 
Aires,  S.  A. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  the  Vogtlandische  Alter- 
lumsforschende  Verein,  Hohenleuben,  Saxony  (143,  146,  147); 
I.  R  Accademia  degli  Agiati,  Rovereto,  Austria  (142-147) ; 
K.  Leopoldinisch-Carolinische  Deutsche  Akaderaie  der  Natur- 
forscher,  Halle  a.  S.,  Prussia  (146,  147,  and  Trans.^  xviii,  2) ; 
Academy  of  Science,  Rochester,  IST.  Y.  (148);  Prof.  Charles 
A.  Young,  Princeton,  N.  J.  (148) ;  Mr.  L.  A.  Scott,  Philadel- 
phia (148). 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  (149)  from  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey, Ottawa,  Canada ;  Manitoba  Historical  and  Scientific 
Society,  Winnipeg ;  Public  Library,  State  Library,  Boston, 
Mass.;  Prof  C.  H.  Hitchcock,  Hanover,  N.  H.;  Prof.  James 
Hall,  Albany,  N.  Y. ;  Editor  of  Poimlar  Science  Monthly, 
Profs.  C.  F.  Chandler,  Isaac  H.  Hall,  J.  J.  Stevenson,  New 
York,  N.  Y. ;  Vassar  Brothers'  Institute,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.; 
Academy  of  Science,  Geological  Society  of  America,  Roch- 
ester, N.  Y. ;  Oneida  Historical  Society,  Utica,  N.  Y. ;  New 
Jersey  Historical  Society,  Newark ;  Prof.  Charles  A.  Young, 
Princeton,  N.  J. ;  Prof,  Martin  H.  Boyd,  Coopersburg,  Pa. ; 
American  Academy  of  Medicine,  Prof.  J,  W.  Moore,  Easton, 
Pa. ;  State  Library  of  Pennsylvania,  Harrisburg ;  Hon.  James 
T.  Mitchell,  Rev.  H.  Clay  Trumbull,  Drs.  C.  N.  Peirce,  Wm. 
H.  Wahl,  Messrs.  Samuel  Dickson,  Patterson  Du  Bois,  Philip 
C.  Garrett,  L.  A.  Scott,  Frank  Thomson,  C.  Tower,  Jr.,  Phila- 
delphia ;  Lackawanna  Institute  of  History  and  Science,  Scran- 
ton,  Pa. ;  AVeather  Bureau,  U.  S.  Naval  Observatory,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  U.  S.  Patent  Office,  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey,  "War  Department,  Dr.  W.  J,  Hoffman,  Prof.  Chas.  A. 
Schott,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Mr.  T.  L.  Patterson,  Cumberland, 
Md. ;  Mr.  Jedediah  Hotchkiss,  Staunton,  Va. ;  Elisha  Mitchell 
Scientific  Society,  Chapel  Hill,  N.  C. ;  South  Carolina  College, 
Columbia ;  University  of  Alabama,  University  P.O.;  Univer- 
sity of  California,  Prof.  Joseph  Le  Conte,  Berkeley,  Cal. ;  Lick 


70 


[April  10, 


Observatory,  Mt.  Hamilton,  Cal. ;  Historical  Society,  State 
Mining  Bureau,  San  Francisco,  Cal, ;  Prof,  J,  C.  Branner,  Stan- 
ford University,  Cal. ;  Geological  Survey  of  Missouri,  Jefiferson 
City ;  Oberlin  College,  Oberlin,  0. ;  Cincinnati  Observatory, 
Cincinnati,  0. ;  Prof.  J.  L.  Campbell,  Crawfordsville,  Ind. ; 
Prof.  G.  W.  Hough,  Evanston,  111. ;  University  Library, 
Champaign,  111. ;  Dr,  M,  D.  Ewell,  Chicago,  111, ;  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences,  Davenport,  la. ;  State  Historical  Society  of 
Iowa,  Iowa  City ;  University  of  Wisconsin,  State  Historical 
Society,  Madison,  Wis. ;  Kansas  University  Quarterly^  Law- 
rence ;  Academy  of  Science,  Washburn  College  Library,  To- 
peka,  Kans, ;  Colorado  Scientific  Society,  Denver  ;  Agricultural 
Experiment  Stations — Geneva,  N.  Y. ;  Auburn,  Ala. ;  Michi- 
gan Agricultural  College,  Ingham  Co. ;  Ames,  la. ;  Lincoln, 
Neb. ;   Corvallis,  Oreg. ;  Tucson,  Ariz. 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  Geological 
Survey  of  India,  Calcutta ;  Linnean  Society  of  New  South 
Wales,  Sydney ;  Soc.  Finno  Ougrienne,  Helsingfors,  Finland ; 
Ministerie  van  Binnenlandsche  Zadun,  s'  Gravenhage,  Nether- 
lands ;  Osservatorio  Astron.  Meteorol., Tri est,  Austria;  Akad. 
der  Wissenschaften,  K.  Friedlander  und  Sohn,  Berlin,  Prussia  ; 
K.  Leopold.-Carol.  Akademie,  Halle  a.  S.,  Prussia ;  Ba3'er. 
Numismat.  Gesellschaft,  Miinchen ;  R.  Ministero  della  Instru- 
zione  Publica,  Padova,  Italia ;  R.  Accad.  di  Scienze,  etc.,  Mo- 
dena,  Italia  ;  Ecole  Nat'l  Supt.  des  Mines,  Mr.  Georges  Bertin, 
Paris,  France ;  Geographical  Society,  Manchester,  Eng. ;  Ca- 
nadian Institute,  Ontario  Archaeological  Museum,  Mr.  J.  M. 
Clark,  Toronto,  Canada ;  Mr.  George  M.  Whitaker,  Boston, 
Mass.;  Academy  of  Sciences,  Araer.  Museum  Nat.  History, 
Mr.  James  Douglas,  New  York,  N.  Y. ;  Free  Public  Library, 
Jersey  City,  N.  J. ;  Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Pa. ;  Pepper 
Laboratory  of  Clinical  Medicine,  Dr.  Charles  A.  Oliver, 
Messrs.  Wharton  Barker,  Frederick  Prime,  Maxwell  Sommer- 
ville,  Philadelphia;  Lighthouse  Board,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Prof.  Albert  S.  Gatschet, 
Washington,  D.  C. ;  University  of  California,  Berkeley  ;  State 
Historical  Society,  Madison,  Wis.;    State  Historical  Society, 


71 

1896.]  •  ■*•  [Dorcmus. 

Iowa  City,  la. ;  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations — College 
Park,  Pa. ;  Lexington,  Ky. ;  Columbia,  Mo, ;  Agricultural 
College,  Michigan  ;  Madison,  Wis. ;  Denver,  Colo. ;  Berkeley, 
Cal. ;  Institute  Medico  Nacional,  Laminas,  Mexico. 

Photograph  for  the  Society's  Album  was  received  from  Dr. 
W.  G.  A.  Bonwill,  Philadelphia. 

The  following  death  was  announced :  Hon.  William  Strong, 
Washington,  D.  C,  August  19,  1895. 

A  paper  was  read  on  the  "  Identification  of  Colored  Inks  by 
the  Absorption  Spectra,"  by  Dr.  C.  A.  Doreraus,  of  New  York. 

Prof.  Cope  made  some  remarks  on  the  figures  of  men  and 
animals  on  a  tablet  from  Nippur,  and  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  men  were  of  the  pure  white  race  and  not  mixed. 

Dr.  Brinton  followed,  corroborating  the  views  of  Prof.  Cope. 

Pending  nominations  1346  and  1317,  and  new  nominations 
1348  to  1362,  were  read.  On  motion,  the  nominations  of  non- 
residents were  referred  to  Council. 

The  Curators  reported  on  the  collections  of  coins  and  medals 
formerly  deposited  with  the  Numismatic  Society,  but  at  present 
deposited  in  the  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Indus- 
trial Art.  All  the  articles  had  been  accounted  for  with  but 
two  exceptions. 

The  report  was  received,  and  the  Curators  discharged  from 
further  consideration  of  the  subject. 

The  rough  minutes  were  then  read,  and  the  Society  ad- 
journed. 


The  IdenUficatio7i  of  Colored  Inks  by  their  Absorption  Spectra. 

By  Charles  A.  Dor  emus. 

From  the  committee  appointed  by  the  Society  to  investigate  the  various 
methods  for  the  examination  of  documerits. 

(Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  April  10,  1896.) 

The  substitution  of  aniline  dyes  for  other  coloring  matters  in  the  pre- 
paration of  colored  inks,  especially  red,  necessitates  the  adoption  of  means 
for  their  recognition. 


Doremus.]  *^  (April  10, 

A  characteristic  feature  of  the  aniline  colors  is  a  surface  iridescence, 
distinguishable  even  in  the  thinnest  layers. 

The  beetle  bronze  is  unmistakable.  The  iridescence  is  frequently  com- 
plementary to  that  of  the  color — thus  green  to  red. 

Many  of  these  inks  also  show  fluorescence.  This  is  especially  developed 
in  very  dilute  solutions.  Highly  attenuated  solutions  of  fluorescein 
behave  differently  to  light  from  concentrated  ones.  The  dichroism  of 
concentrated  solutions  is  quite  distinct  from  the  fluorescence  obtained  by 
dilution. 

Concentration  appears  to  destroy  fluorescence.  This  is  also  true  of 
glass.  Glass  containing  ten  per  cent,  of  uranium  oxide  would  not  be 
recognized  as  the  uranium  glass  whose  greenish  yellow  fluorescence  is  so 
well  known. 

The  writer  was  led  to  investigate  many  of  tliese  properties  in  connec- 
tion with  a  case  tried  in  New  Jersey  in  1891.*  The  circumstances  were 
briefly  as  follows  :  Mr.  George  P.  Gordon,  of  printing  press  fame,  left  a 
large  estate  by  a  will  dated  1873.  This  will  was  rejected  because  the  sub- 
scribing witnesses  would  not  swear  to  the  execution  of  it.  Tlie  case 
became  one  of  intestacy  and  was  taken  in  charge  by  the  Public  Adminis- 
trator of  Brooklyn.  Tlie  estate  was  then  settled  with  the  parties  named 
in  the  will.  The  widow  and  a  daughter  by  a  first  wife  were  the  chief 
beneficiaries.  The  daughter  died  in  1890  and  her  will  was  off'ered  for 
probate  in  New  York  city.  A  contest  took  place.  The  contesting  attor- 
neys received  a  letter  from  a  party  stating  that  he  had  seen  a  notice  of  the 
contest  in  the  daily  press  and  that  they  would  hear  something  to  their  ad- 
vantage should  they  communicate  with  him.  This  led  to  the  finding  (?) 
in  a  garret  of  a  will  purporting  to  have  been  executed  by  George  P.  Gor- 
don in  1868.  The  subscribing  witnesses  to  this  document  were  all  dead. 
The  wife  and  daughter  had  also  died  before  this  alleged  will  was  brought 
to  light.  This  document  was  proved  ex  parte  in  New  Jersey  and  ancillary 
probate  was  allowed  in  New  York.  The  instrument  was  also  filed  in 
Trenton.  The  legal  representatives  of  the  heirs  of  the  wife  and  daughter 
contested  the  genuineness  of  this  will.  The  proponents  were  parties  con- 
testing the  daughter's  vpill  to  whom  was  joined  Henry  C.  Adams,  who 
claimed  to  have  drawn  the  will  and  who  would  be  benefited  should  it  be 
established.  For  a  time  the  litigation  was  conducted  on  the  part  of  the 
contestants  in  attempts  to  prove  by  the  handwriting  that  tlie  signature  of 
tlie  testator  was  a  forgery.  The  case  to  this  point  rested  entirely  upon 
expert  testimony,  when  Adams  brought  forward  a  draft  of  the  will  pur- 
porting to  have  been  made  in  July,  1868,  and  offered  it  in  evidence.  This 
draft  was  interlineated  and  amended  with  red  ink.  When  submitted  to 
expert  chemists  they  pronounced  the  ink  one  of  some  aniline  color  and 
from  general  appearances  eosine.     The  controversy  then  centred  on  the 

*The  Prerogative  Court  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey  in  tlie  matter  of  tlic  Probate  in 
solemn  Form  and  the  Last  Will  and  Testament  of  George  P.  Gordon,  deceased.  Jersey 
€ity  News  Press,  1S91. 


1896.1  *"  [Doromus. 

question  cas  to  whether  the  ink  was  cosine  or  not.  Experts  were  called 
for  both  sides  and  the  writer  was  among  those  retained  by  the  executors. 
As  the  right  to  use  reagents  on  the  document  was  denied  all  the  preliminary 
tests  had  to  be  of  a  physical  character,  though  they  were  afterwards  veri- 
fied by  chemical  tests  in  court.  My  attention  had  been  called  several 
years  previously  to  the  black  appearance  of  the  lips  of  players  using 
rouge,  one  kind  of  which  I  knew  to  be  eosine.  Eosine  is  irresponsive  to 
yellow  rays  and  seems  almost  black  in  the  glare  of  the  footlights.  Carmine 
and  other  reds  retain  more  of  their  red  color.  Experiments  were  there- 
fore made  with  different  red  inks,  as  carmine,  aniline  red,  safrauine,  and 
eosine,  and  their  appearance  noted  under  monochromatic  illumination  of 
,  a  sodium  flame. 

The  results  were  not  as  pronounced  as  desired.  Recourse  was  then  had 
to  comparing  the  various  inks  in  strong  daylight  behind  differently  colored 
glasses.  The  eflects  were  very  striking,  especially  with  the  aniline  inks 
since  they  possess  iridescence. 

Colored  glasses  also  greatly  aid  in  the  discovery  of  their  fluorescent 
qualities. 

The  ink  on  the  document  presented  a  lustre  when  illuminated  through 
green  glass  which  was  quite  different  from  that  of  carmine  and  various 
aniline  inks. 

The  fluorescence  of  eosine  may  also  be  enhanced  by  the  use  of  blue  or 
purple  glass. 

These  experiments  induced  the  writer  to  try  a  spectroscopic  examination 
of  inks,  both  in  solution  and  in  form  of  writing. 

A  Zeiss  micro-spectroscopic  eye-piece  and  low-power  lens  were  used  at 
first,  then  a  higher  power.  This  test  is  especially  valuable  since  the  docu- 
ment is  uninjured. 

It  requires  the  brightest  sunlight  as  a  source  of  illumination.  The  ink 
is  viewed  by  transmitted  light  and  an  absorption  spectnim  is  obtained. 
When  mapped  the  spectra  are  found  to  vary. 

This  means  of  identification  was,  however,  not  sufficiently  developed  to 
enable  it  to  be  used  in  court,  nor  could  it  be  shown  because  of  the  absence 
of  proper  facilities. 

At  court  the  preliminary  examination  of  the  experts  was  strengthened 
by  chemical  tests  applied  to  the  ink  on  the  document  and  prominently 
the  action  of  hydrochloric  acid  which  produced  a  yellow  color  and  by  the 
greenish  yellow  fiuorescent  nature  of  a  solution  of  the  ink. 

The  opinion  of  the  experts  for  the  defense  that  the  ink  was  eosine  was 
corroborated  by  several  ink  manufacturers  and  a  well-known  importer  of 
aniline  dyes. 

In  rebuttal  it  was  claimed  that  the  ink  was  aurine. 

It  was  necessary  to  breaVi  the  evidence  going  to  prove  the  ink  to  be 
eosine  since  that  color  was  not  discovered  until  1874,  eight  years  after  the 
date  of  the  will.     Aurine  was,  however,  in  commercial  use  in  1865,  and 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.   150.  J.      PRINTED  JULY  2,  1896. 


74 


[April  17 


as  per  patent  of  Henry  Ellis,  Great  Britain,  No.  2267.  It  was  not  shown, 
however,  that  it  was  purchasable  as  ink  in  this  country  in  1868. 

The  decision  of  the  Chancellor  in  favor  of  the  contestants  was  sustained 
in  1894  by  the  Court  of  Errors  and  Appeals. 

While  an  alkaline  aurine  solution  produces  an  ink  very  similar  to 
cosine  in  many  properties  and  reactions,  it  differs  widely  in  others  and  es- 
pecially in  not  having  greenish  yellow  fluorescence  of  eosine  in  diluted 
solution  and  in  not  showing  the  same  absorption  spectrum  and  derivative 
spectra. 

The  accompanying  maps  show  the  spectra  observed  with  thin  layers  of 
various  inks.  A  Donne  lactoscope  proved  very  useful  in  varying  the 
thickness  of  the  layer  until  the  most  characteristic  appearance  was  obtained. 
The  same  absorption  bands  were  afterwards  recognized  when  pen  marks 
made  with  these  inks  were  examined  under  a  microscope  to  which  a  Zeiss 
spectroscopic  eye- piece  was  adjusted. 

The  spectroscopic  examination  of  the  ink  while  on  the  document  should 
be  followed  whenever  allowed  by  observations  of  the  spectra  produced 
when  the  ink  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  chemicals. 

Very  marked  changes  occur,  and  since  even  colorless  solutions  may 
show  absorption  bands  this  means  of  identification  possesses  the  double 
advantage  of  an  accurate  physical  test  without  injury  to  the  document 
together  with  a  combined  chemical  and  physical  test  where  the  application 
of  reagents  is  permitted. 


Stated  Meeting^  April  17^  1S96. 

President,  Mr,  Fraley,  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  20  members. 

Mr.  Georges  Bertin,  a  newly  elected  member,  was  presented 
and  took  his  seat. 

Minutes  of  meeting  of  April  10  were  read  and  approved. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  were  received  from  the  Public 
Library,  Wellington,  N.  Z.  (147);  Universitatis  Lundensis, 
Lund,  Sweden  (147);  Profs.  Friedrich  MUller,  Edward  Suess, 
Vienna,  Austria  (148) ;  Naturforschende  Gesellschaft,  Bam- 
berg, Bavaria  (147) ;  K.  Sachs.  Meteorol.  Institut,  Chemnitz 
(148) ;  Yerein  fiir  Erdkunde,  Dresden,  Saxony  (147, 148) ;  Wet- 
terauische  Gesellschaft,  Hanau,  Germany  (147);   Verein   fiir 


1896.]  *^ 

Kunst  und  Alterthum,  Ulra,  Germany  (143, 146, 147) ;  R.  Acca- 
demiadi  Scienze  Lett.  Arti,  Modena,  Italy  (147);  Texas  Acad- 
emy of  Science,  Austin  (149) ;  Kansas  State  Historical  Society, 
Topeka  (148) ;  Observatorio  Estado  de  Vera  Cruz,  Jalapa 
(144,  147,  149) ;  Don  Mariana  Barcena,  Observatorio  Meteoro- 
logico,  Mexico,  Mex.  (149). 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  Genoot 
schap  van  Kunsten  en  Wetenschappen,  Batavia,  Java  ;  Neder 
landsche  Maatschappij  ter  bevordering,  etc.,  Amsterdam 
Netherlands;  K.  Universitetet,  Lund,  Sweden;  Roemer  Mu 
seum,  Hildesheira,  Prussia ;  Deutsche  Geologische  Gesell 
schaft,  Berlin,  Prussia  ;  Academic  des  Sciences,  Paris,  France 
Prof,  Henry  Wilde,  Manchester,  Eng.;  Hon.  J.  M.  LeMoine 
Quebec,  Canada ;  Amer.  Antiquarian  Society,  Worcester 
Mass.;  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Mr.  A.  E.  Outerbridge 
Philadelphia;  U.  S.  Senate,  U.  S.  Dep't  of  Agriculture 
Washington,  D.  C;  California  Academy  of  Sciences,  San 
Francisco. 

On  behalf  of  the  special  committee  in  charge  of  the  quar- 
terly meetings.  Dr.  Pepper  reported  the  details  of  that  to  occur 
May  1. 

Dr.  Brinton  then  read  an  obituary  of  the  late  Henry  Hazle- 
hurst. 

Prof.  Cope  gave  a  brief  account  of  his  investigation  of  the 
remains  found  at  Port  Kennedy,  the  result  so  far  being  mam- 
malia, 38  ;  birds,  3  ;  reptiles,  6. 

In  reply  to  Dr.  Brinton,  Prof  Cope  stated  that  the  general 
term  Plistocene  is  applied  to  the  age  of  the  deposit.  It  is 
part  of  Cenozoic  times,  beginning  with  a  depression  of  probably 
2200  feet,  its  middle  corresponding  with  an  elevation  which 
had  much  to  do  with  the  preservation  of  the  continental  ice- 
cap. After  this  was  a  period  of  subsidence  leaving  but  little 
land  above  the  water. 

In  reply  to  Prof.  Prime,  Prof.  Cope  stated  that  Prof, 
Spencer  had  observed  the  depression  along  the  New  England 
coast. 

Prof.  Prime  thought  that  no  great  depression  could  have 


*^  IMayl, 

occurred  in  Pennsylvania,  as  the  terminal  moraine  in  North- 
ampton county  is  but  650  feet  above  sea-level  and  is  practically 
unchanged. 

Pending  nominations  1346  to  1362  were  read. 

The  Library  Committee  reported  through  Dr.  Greene  and 
asked  for  an  appropriation  for  the  purchase  of  books  and  the 
filling  of  lacuna. 

On  motion  duly  seconded  the  following  was  adopted  : 

Resolved,  That  an  appropriation  of  $500  be  made  to  the  Committee  on 
Library  for  expenses  during  the  year  1896. 

The  rough  minutes  were  read,  and  the  Society  adjourned. 


Stated  Meeting^  May  i,  1896. 

Vice-President,  Dr.  Pepper,  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  39  members. 

Correspondence  was  submitted. 

The  death  of  Jean  Baptiste  Leon  Say,  on  April  21,  was 
announced. 

A  letter  was  read  by  the  Chairman  from  Dr.  J.  S.  Minot, 
regretting  his  inability  to  be  present  and  take  part  in  the  dis- 
cussion. 

A  letter  from  the  President  announced  that  he  had  ap- 
pointed Hon.  Craig  Biddle  to  represent  this  Society  at  the 
sesqui-centennial  of  Princeton  University,  and  Dr.  J.  Cheston 
Morris  at  the  semi-centennial  jubilee  of  Lord  Kelvin,  at  the 
University  of  Glasgow. 

Prof.  Cope  was  then  called  upon  and  opened  the  discussion 
of  the  "  Factors  of  Organic  Evolution,"  from  the  Palaeontologi- 
cal  standpoint. 

Prof.  Conklin  followed,  presenting  the  subject  from  an  Em- 
bryological  point  of  view. 

Prof.  L.  D.  Bailey,  of  Cornell,  presented  the  subject  from  its 
Botanical  aspect. 


-896. 


77 


Dr.  D.  G.  Brinton  then  presented  his  views  of  the 
subject. 

The  three  original  speakers  were  then  called  upon  and  each 
supplemented  his  remarks  bj  thoughts  suggested  by  the 
others. 

In  the  course  of  his  remarks,  Prof.  Cope  exhibited  two 
specimens  illustrative  of  generalized  types  of  Yertebrata.  One 
of  these  was  a  cast  of  a  species  of  the  genus  Phenacodus,  from 
the  Eocene,  which  represents  the  family  from  which  all  the 
Ungulate  Placental  Mammalia  have  descended.  The  other 
was  a  part  of  the  skeleton  of  a  reptile  from  the  Permian,  of 
the  new  genus  Otocoelus.  This  genus  is  the  type  of  a  new 
family  of  the  order  Cotylosauria.  This  order  approaches 
most  nearly  of  all  the  Reptilia  to  the  class  Batrachia.  It  is 
also  the  most  generalized  of  the  Reptilia,  and  from  it  all  other 
orders  of  the  class  have  probably  descended  by  modifications 
in  different  directions.  The  particular  family  Otocoelid^  dif- 
fers from  the  other  families  of  Cotylosauria  in  the  possession 
of  a  meatus  auditorius  externus  and  of  an  osseous  carapace. 
From  it  were  probably  descended  the  orders  of  Pseudosuchia 
and  Testudinata,  which  first  appear  in  the  Trias.  A  descrip- 
tion of  this  family  and  the  species  it  includes  will  be  given  in 
an  early  number  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society. 

Nominations  13-1:6  to  1362  were  read. 

The  Society  was  then  adjourned. 


The  meeting  of  the  first  of  May  having  been  designated  as 
that  on  which  a  discussion  of  the  theme,  "  Factors  of  Organic 
Evolution,"  should  be  held.  Prof.  Cope,  to  whom  the  Special 
Committee  in  charge  of  the  preparations  for  this  meeting  had 
confided  the  task  of  opening  the  discourse,  presented  an  epi- 
tome of  the  subject  as  it  exists  to-day  from  the  standpoint 
of  paleontology.* 

*  [Prof.  Cope,  being  umvilling  to  furnish  the  Society  with  the  text  of  his  remarks,  or  to 
have  the  stenographic  copy  printed  in  the  Proceedings,  his  part  of  the  joint  discussion 
must  be  necessarily  omitted.— Secretaries.] 


Conklin.l  *^  [May  1, 

Discussion  of  the  Factors  of  Organic  Evolution  from  the  Embryological 

Standpoint. 

By  Frof  E.  G.  Conklin. 

{Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  May  1,  1SD6.) 

Up  to  the  beginning  of  this  decade  embryology  was  largely  domi- 
nated by  the  phj^logeny  idea.  Individual  development  was  generallj' 
studied,  as  the  paleontologist  studies  his  fossils,  with  a  view  to 
deciphering  the  evolutionary  record  in  the  various  stages.  It  is  now 
generally  recognized,  however,  that  embryology  is  but  little  fitted  for 
the  service  into  which  it  was  so  long  forced,  viz.,  the  determining  of 
phylogenies.  The  only  safe  guide  in  this  matter  is  comparative  anatomy 
of  both  living  and  extinct  forms.  On  the  other  hand,  our  knowledge 
of  the  mechanics  of  evolution  must  always  depend  in  large  part  upon 
the  study  of  individual  development.  More  than  any  other  discipline, 
embryology  holds  the  keys  to  the  method  of  evolution.  If  ontogeny  is 
not  a  true  recapitulation  it  is,  at  least,  a  true  type  of  evolution,  and  the 
study  of  the  causes  of  development  will  go  far  to  determine  the  factors 
of  phylogeny. 

The  causes  and  methods  of  evolution  are  intimately  bound  up  with 
those  general  phenomena  of  life  such  as  assimilation,  growth,  differen- 
tiation, metabolism,  inheritance,  and  variation ;  and  the  evolution 
problem  can  never  be  solved  except  through  a  study  of  these  general 
phenomena  of  life  itself.  Our  great  need  at  present  is  not  to  know 
more  of  the  course  of  evolution,  but  to  discover,  if  possible,  the 
causes  of  growth,  differentiation,  repetition,  and  variation.  All  these 
general  phenomena  are  most  beautifully  illustrated  in  the  develop- 
ment of  individual  organisms,  and  because  they  are  fundamental 
to  any  theory  of  evolution  I  shall  dwell  upon  them  rather  than  upon 
the  evidences  for  the  Lamarckian  or  the  Darwinian  factors. 

I  call  your  attention  very  brieflj^  to  the  following  propositions  :  1. 
Development,  and  consequently  evolution,  is  the  result  of  the  interac- 
tion of  extrinsic  and  intrinsic  causes.  2.  Intrinsic  causes  are  dependent 
upon  protoplasmic  structvire.  3.  Inherited  characters  must  be  prede- 
termined in  the  structure  of  the  germinal  protoplasm.  4.  Germinal, 
as  compared  with  somatic,  protoplasm  is  relatively  stable  and  contin- 
uous, but  not  absolutely  so  as  maintained  by  Weismann  ;  therefore, 
extrinsic  causes  may  modify  both  germinal  and  somatic  protoplasm. 
5.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  determine  whether  or  not  extrinsic  factors 
have  modified  the  structure  of  the  germinal  protoplasm.  This  is  illus- 
trated by  some  of  the  evidences  advanced  for  the  inherited  efi'ects  of 
(1)  diminished  nutrition,  (2)  changes  in  environment,  (8)  use  and 
disuse.  6.  Experiment  alone  can  furnish  the  crucial  test  of  these 
Lamarckian  factors. 


1896.]  *"  [Conklin. 

1.  The  causes  of  developmeut  in  general  are  usually  recognized  as 
twofold,  extrinsic  and  intrinsic.  As  examples  of  extrinsic  causes  may 
be  mentioned  gravit}',  surface  tension,  light,  heat,  moisture,  and  chem- 
ism  in  general  ;  examples  of  intrinsic  causes  are  the  uon-exosmosis  of 
salts  from  living  bodies  in  water,  the  pouring  of  a  glandular  secretion 
or  the  sap  of  plants  into  a  cavity  under  high  pressure,  the  active 
changes  in  shape  and  position  on  the  part  of  cells,  assimilation,  growth, 
division,  etc.  There  is  not,  however,  a  uniformly  sharp  and  distinct 
line  of  demarcation  between  these  two  factors  of  development.  Phe- 
nomena once  supposed  to  be  due  entirely  to  intrinsic  causes  are  now 
known  to  be  the  result  of  extrinsic  ones,  and  it  is  practically  certain 
that  this  will  be  found  true  of  still  other  phenomena.  But  although  it 
is  not  possible  to  draw  any  hard  and  fast  line  between  these  two  classes 
of  causes,  one  can,  in  general,  recognize  a  very  marked  ditference 
between  them.  Extrinsic  causes  may,  in  large  part,  supply  the  stim- 
ulus and  the  energy  for  development,  and  may  more  or  less  modify  its 
course  ;  the  intrinsic  causes  are  of  a  much  more  complex  character  than 
the  extrinsic  ones,  they  are  inherent  in  the  living  matter  and  in  large 
part  predetermine  the  course  of  developmeut.  In  one  form  or  another 
the  distinction  between  these  two  classes  of  causes  is  recognized  by  all 
naturalists.  His  calls  the  intrinsic  causes  "the  law  of  growth,"  the 
extrinsic  ones  the  conditions  under  which  that  law  operates.  These 
designations  correspond,  at  least  in  part,  to  Prof,  Cope's  Anagenesis 
and  Katagenesis,  and  to  Roux's  "simple  and  complex  components"  of 
developmental  processes. 

While  it  is  necessary  to  emphasize  the  diflerences  between  these 
two  classes  of  causes,  it  is  not  intended  thereby  to  dogmatically  assert 
their  total  dift'erence  in  kind.  It  may  well  be  that  these  extrinsic  and 
intrinsic  causes  are  totally  different  in  kind,  but  in  our  present  state 
of  ignorance  it  would  be  unjustifiable  to  affirm  it.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  would  be  just  as  unwarrantable  to  dogmatically  affirm  that  there  is  no 
difference  in  kind  between  these  two  classes  of  causes,  and  that,  there- 
fore, all  vital  phenomena  are  only  the  manifestations  of  heat,  light,  elec- 
tricity, attraction,  repulsion,  chemism,  and  the  like.  It  may  be  that 
this  is  true,  but  there  is  as  yet  no  sufficient  evidence  for  it,  and  to  at- 
tempt, as  certain  dynamical  and  mechanical  hypotheses  do,  to  refer  all 
vital  phenomena  directly  to  such  simple  components  as  those  named 
above  is  practically  to  make  impossible  at  present  any  explanation  of 
vital  phenomena.  "If  we  would  advance  without  interruption,"  fays 
Roux,*  ''we  must  be  content,  for  many  years  to  come,  with  an  analysis 
into  complex  components." 

2.  We  need  not  now  further  concern  ourselves  with  an  explanation 
of  extrinsic  causes  or  simple  components,  since  this  subject  properly 
belongs  to  chemistry  and  physics.  If,  however,  we  examine  more 
closely  some  of  the  intrinsic  causes  or  complex  components,  we  will  lind 

*  Wilhelm  Roux,  Einleitung.  Archiv  fiir  Enturicklungsmechanik  der  Organismen. 


Conklin.j  ^^  [May  1, 

that  they  are  always  associated  with  more  or  less  complex  structures; 
in  fact,  that  they  are  dependent  upon  structure. 

The  smallest  and  simplest  mass  of  protoplasm  that  can  manifest  all 
the  fundamental  phenomena  of  life,  such  as  assimilation,  growth, 
division,  and  metabolism,  is  an  entire  cell,  nucleus  and  cytoplasm, 
and  probably  centrosome.  The  cell  is  composed,  as  microscopic  study 
plainly  reveals,  of  many  dissimilar  but  perfectly  coadapted  parts,  each 
performing  its  specific  function,  and  it  may  therefore  properlj'  be  called 
an  organism.  Some  phenomena  of  cell  life  may  be  directly  referred  to 
the  various  visible  constituents  of  the  cell,  but  many  of  them  are  evi- 
dently connected  with  structures  ivhich  we  cannot  see,  structures 
which  may  perhaps  never  be  seen,  and  yet  which  must  be  vastly  more 
complex  than  the  most  complex  molecules  known  to  chemistry,  and 
yet  much  more  simple  than  the  microsomes,  centrosomes,  and  chromo- 
somes which  are  visible  in  the  cell.  With  these  ultra-microscopical 
particles  many  of  the  most  fundamental  phenomena  of  life  are  asso- 
ciated, viz.,  assimilation,  growth,  metabolism,  and  probably  differentia- 
tion, repetition,  and  variation.  These  functions  are  so  coordinated  that 
there  can  be  no  question  that  the  ultra-microscopical  structure  is  an 
organization,  with  part  coadapted  to  part.  The  organization  of  the 
cell,  therefore,  does  not  stop  with  what  the  microscope  reveals,  but 
must  be  supposed  to  extend  to  the  smallest  ultimate  particles  of  living 
Blatter  which  manifest  specific  functions.  These  are  the  vital  units  so 
generally  postulated,  the  "smallest  parts"  of  living  matter,  as  they 
were  called  by  Briicke,  who  first  demonstrated  that  they  must  exist  \. 
the  "physiological  units"  of  Spencer,  the  "gemmules"  of  Darwin, 
the  "micella-groups"  of  Nageli,  the  "pangenes"  of  De  Yries,  the 
"plasomes"  of  Wiesner,  the  "idioblasts"  of  Hertwig,  the  "bio- 
phores "  of  Weismann.  Such  ultimate  units  have  been  found  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  explain  those  most  fundamental  of  all  vital  phe- 
nomena, assimilation  and  growth,  while  many  other  phenomena,  espe- 
cially particulate  inheritance,  the  independent  variability  of  parts,  and  the 
hereditary  transmission  of  latent  and  patent  characters,  can  at  present 
only  be  explained  by  referring  them  to  ultra-microscopical  units  of 
structure.  To  deny  that  there  are  such  units  does  not  simplify  the 
problem,  as  some  seem  to  suppose,  but  renders  it  impossible  of^ip- 
proach.  A  corpuscular  hypothesis  of  life,  like  that  of  light,  may  be 
only  a  temporary  makeshift,  but  it  is  better  than  nothing. 

Whitman*  well  says  :  "Briicke's  great  merit  consists  in  this  that  he 
taught  us  the  necessity  of  assuming  structure  as  the  liasis  of  vital  phe- 
nomena, in  spite  of  the  negative  testimony  of  our  imperfect  micro- 
scopes. That  function  presupposes  structure  is  now  an  accepted  axiom, 
and  we  need^only  extend  Briicke's  method  of  reasoning,  from  the  tissue 
cell  to  the  egg  cell,  in  order  to  see  that  tliere  is  no  escajK'  from  the 

*  C.  O.  Whitmun,  The  Inadequacy  of  the  CcU-Theonj  of  Dcvclvpiiunt,  Biological  Lectures, 
1893. 


1S96.J  ol  [Conklin. 

conclusion  that  the  whole  course  of  developmental  phenomena  must  be 
referred  to  organization  of  some  sort.  Development,  no  less  than  other 
vital  phenomena,  is  a  function  of  organization." 

3.  A  study  of  the  phenomena  of  development,  as  well  as  the  prin- 
ciple of  causality,  make  it  certain  that  all  the  characters  of  the  species 
are  predetermined  within  the  protoplasm  of  the  fertilized  egg  cell. 
From  a  frog's  egg  only  a  frog  will  develop,  from  an  echinoderm  egg 
only  an  echinoderm,  and  the  course  of  the  development  is,  under 
normal  circumstances,  definitely  marked  out  in  each  case,  even  down 
to  the  minutest  details.  All  the  results  of  experiment,  as  well  as 
observation  and  induction,  only  serve  to  render  this  conclusion  the 
more  certain.  It  should  be  observed  that  to  affirm  that  characters  are 
pi'edetermined  is  a  very  different  thing  from  saying  they  are  preformed. 
The  one  merely  asserts  that  the  cause  of  the  transformations  which 
lead  from  one  step  to  another  in  the  development  is  determined  by  the 
initial  conditions  of  the  fertilized  egg  cell ;  the  other  affirms  that  those 
transformations  have  already  taken  place. 

The  absolute  determinism  of  development  depends  primarily  upon 
the  constant  structure  of  the  egg  cell,  but  also  to  a  certain  extent  upon 
a  definite  relation  to  extrinsic  factors.  Since,  however,  these  extrinsic 
factors  may  be  exactly  the  same  in  two  cases,  and  yet  the  result  of  de- 
velopment be  very  different  (e,  g.,  the  egg  of  the  starfish  and  that  of 
the  sea  urchin),  we  can  only  conclude  that  while  ontogenetic  difi'erences 
may  be  caused  by  a  disturbance  of  the  extrinsic  factors,  inherited  char- 
acters are  always  the  result  of  a  definite  structure  of  the  germinal  pro- 
toplasm, and  that,  therefore,  development  is,  in  the  words  of  Prof. 
Whitman,  "a  function  of  organization." 

Inheritance  and  variation  are  general  terms  which  include  a  great 
many  different  kinds  of  phenomena,  many  of  which  seem  to  be  due  to 
entirely  different  factors.  A  great  many  phenomena  of  inheritance 
seem  to  be  due  entirely  to  extrinsic  forces,  but  a  more  careful  inquiry 
always  reveals  the  fact  that  they  are  invariably  due  to  the  reaction  of 
certain  extrinsic  causes  on  a  perfectly  definite  living  structure.  As 
examples  may  be  mentioned  the  following  : 

(1)  The  tiger-like  striping  of  the  egg  of  Fundulus,  which  is  very 
characteristic  and  would  certainly  be  regarded  as  an  inherited  char- 
acter, has  been  shown  by  Loeb*  to  be  due  entirelj'  to  the  position  of 
the  blood  vessels  of  the  blastoderm.  The  pigment  cells  are  at  first 
uniformly  distributed,  but  when  the  blood  vessels  are  formed  they 
gather  around  them,  probably  through  chemotropic  action,  and  thus 
the  characteristic  banded  appearance  is  produced.  Graf  has  since 
shown  that  the  color  paterns  of  leaches  are  produced  in  the  same  way. 
It  is  not  necessary,  therefore,  to  assume  that  the  color  paterns  in  these 
cases  are  specifically  represented  in  the  germinal  protoplasm  ;  it  maj^ 

*  Jacques  Loeb,  Some  Facts  and  Principles  of  Plnjsiological  Morphology,  Biological  Lec- 
tures, 1893. 

PhOC.  AMEIi.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  K.       PRINTED  JULY  7,  1896. 


Q9 

Conklin.]  *^^  [May  1, 

even  be  that  the  position  of  the  blood  vessels  is  not  so  represented,  but 
there  must  be  some  ultimate  cause  back  in  the  germinal  plasm  itself 
•which  determines  the  series  of  causes  which  finally  produces  the  color 
paterns.  In  short,  this  feature,  like  most  others,  was  predetermined 
from  the  beginning. 

(2)  Herbst  *  has  shown  in  a  series  of  interesting  experiments  that  bj^ 
tlie  use  of  various  chemical  substances  the  development  of  echinoderms 
may  be  profoundly  modified.  For  example,  in  sea  water  deficient  in 
calcium-chloride,  or  in  which  there  is  an  excess  of  potassium-chloride, 
the  pluteus  larva,  instead  of  developing  calcareous  spicules  and  the  long 
ciliated  arms  which  give  the  normal  larva  an  angular,  easel-shaped 
appearance,  remains  rounded  in  shape  much  like  the  larva  of  Balano- 
glossus,  in  which  no  spicular  skeleton  is  developed.  The  withdrawal, 
therefore,  of  certain  normally  present  substances  from  the  environment 
may  profoundly  modify  the  end  result.  But  in  this  case,  as  in  the 
other,  it  is  absolutely  certain  that  the  calcareous  spicules  were  prede- 
termined in  the  egg  cell,  although  in  the  absence  of  calcareous  matter 
from  the  water  those  spicules  could  not  be  built — the  plan  was  there, 
but  the  building  material  was  lacking. 

Such  modifications  resulting  from  unusual  conditions  of  pressure, 
temperature,  density,  nutrition — in  fact,  any  alteration  of  the  chemical 
or  physical  environment — may  appear  in  any  stage  of  development 
from  the  unsegmented  egg  to  the  adult  condition,  but  it  must  not  be 
supposed  that  the  entire  development  can  be  reduced  to  such  factors. 
Loeb  argues  that  we  do  not  inherit  our  body  heat  from  our  parents 
))ecause  it  depends  upon  certain  chemical  processes,  but  is  it  not  abso- 
lutely certain  that  we  inherit  a  certain  protoplasmic  structure  which 
determines  those  chemical  processes,  and  hence  the  body  temperature ': 
To  assume  that  extrinsic  causes  determine  whether  there  shall  hatch 
from  an  egg  a  chicken  or  an  eagle  is  the  sheerest  nonsense.  The  study 
of  extrinsic  factors  in  relation  to  inheritance  will  serve  to  simplify  some 
of  the  intricate  problems  to  be  explained,  but  surely  no  one  believes 
that  development  can  ever  be  referred  entirely  to  such  factors.  The 
lact  is  that  determinism,  which  is  the  most  fundamental  characteristic 
of  inheritance,  is  manifested  at  every  step  of  development,  and  there  is 
certaiily  no  escape  from  the  conclusion  that  this  determinism  depends 
upon  protoplasmic  structure,  and  that  this  structure  it  is  which  is  trans- 
mitted from  generation  to  generation  and  which  forms  the  physical 
basis  of  inheritance. 

All  really  inherited  characters  must,  therefore,  be  represented  in 
the  structure  of  the  germinal  protoplasm,  and  must  consequently  be 
])resent  from  the  beginning  of  development.  "  We  must  consider  it  as 
a  law  derivable  from  the  causality  principle,"  saysllatschek,t  "that  in 

*Zeit.  wiss.  ZooL,  Bd.  Iv. 

t  Berthold  Hatschek,  Vcber  die  EntuickluJigsgtschichlc  von  Teredo,  Arb.  Zool.  Inst., 
Wicn,  18S0. 


1896.]  ^^  [Conklin. 

the  phylogenetic  alterations  of  an  animal  form  the  end  stages  are  not 
alone  altered,  but  the  entire  series  from  the  egg  cell  to  the  end  stage. 
Every  alteration  of  an  end  stage  or  addition  of  a  new  one  must  he 
caused  by  an  alteration  of  the  egg  cell  itself."  Nageli*  has  expressed 
a  similar  view  in  the  following  famous  sentence  :  "Egg  cells  must  con- 
tain all  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  species  as  perfectly  as  do 
adult  organisms,  and  hence  they  must  difter  from  one  another,  no  less 
as  egg  cells  than  in  the  fully  developed  state.  The  species  is  con- 
tained in  the  egg  of  the  hen  as  completely  as  in  the  hen,  and  the  hen's 
egg  difl'ers  as  much  from  the  frog's  egg  as  the  hen  from  the  frog." 

4.  The  remarkable  tenacity  of  inheritance,  as  shown  especially  in 
reversions  and  the  preservation  of  useless  and  embryonic  characters 
through  many  hundreds  or  thousands  of  generations,  and  amid  the 
most  diverse  circumstances,  bears  strong  testimony  to  the  great  stability 
of  that  living  structure  which  is  the  basis  of  inheritance.  On  the  other 
hand,  all  experience  goes  to  prove  that  the  living  substance  of  the  body 
cells  in  general  is  readily  modified,  and  that  in  a  surprisingly  short 
time.  The  fact  of  this  great  difference  cannot  fail  to  be  recognized  ;  its 
cause  is  at  present  merely  a  matter  of  conjecture. 

Weismann  at  one  time  supposed  the  cause  of  this  to  be  an  absolutely 
stable,  absolutely  separate,  and  perpetually  continuous  germ  plasm. 
However,  there  is  the  most  convincing  and  abundant  evidence  that 
although  the  germ  plasm  is  relatively  very  stable  and  continuous,  it 
does  not  possess  those  divinely  perfect  characters  ascribed  to  it.  More 
recently  Weismann  has  expressly  abandoned  each  and  all  of  these 
characters,!  and  now,  like  a  good  Lamarckian,  finds  "the  cause  of 
hereditary  variation  in  the  direct  eflects  of  external  influences  on  the 
biophores  and  determinants." 

The  outcome  of  the  whole  matter,  then,  is  that  we  find  ourselves 
much  in  U^e  same  position  as  we  were  before  Weismann  denied  the 
possibility  of  the  inheritance  of  acquired  characters.  All  hereditary  va- 
riations are  caused  by  the  action  of  extrinsic  forces  on  the  germinal  proto- 
plasm, producing  changes  in  its  structure.  Strangelj^  enough,  this  propo- 
sition was  admitted  as  a  logical  necessity  by  one  who  undertook  by 
rigorous  logic  to  prove  the  reverse.  Since  almost  the  only  objection  to 
this  position  was  the  one  raised  by  Weismann,  it  may  now  be  considered 
as  definitely  settled,- and  the  only  question  before  us,  then,  is  :  How  can 
extrinsic  causes  modify  the  structure  of  the  germinal  protoplasm? 

Since  by  his  own  admissions,  as  Romanes  has  shown,  the  most  char- 
acteristic features  of  Weismann 's  system,  both  as  to  inheritance  and 
evolution,  have  been  virtually  abandoned,  it  seems  to  some  that  his 
theories  have  been  of  no  real  value,  and  that,  like  an  ignis  fatuus,  they 
have  only  served  to  lead  biologists  astray  far  from  the  path  of  science 
into  the  dangerous  quagmires  of  speculation.     I  do  not  share  any  such 

*  Nageli,  Mechanisch-physiologwche  Theorie  der  Abstanunungslehre,  1884. 
t  See  Romanes'  Examination  of  Wcismannism,  18t)3. 


Coukliiw]  ^i  [Miiy], 

opinion.  Apart  from  his  splendid  observations  and  the  great  stimulus 
to  investigation  which  Weismann's  theories  have  furnished,  there  re- 
main many  elements  of  permanent  value  in  his  work. 

Osborn *  tliinks  that  "Weismann's  most  "permanent  service  to  biology 
is  his  demand  for  direct  evidence  of  the  Lamarckian  principle."  It 
seems  to  me  that  his  greatest  service  consists  in  the  emphasis  which  he 
has  laid  upon  the  intrinsic  factors  of  development  and  evolution  as 
opposed  to  the  extrinsic  factors,  a  thing  which  he  has  indeed  over- 
emphasized, but  which  has  sadly  needed  a  strong  defender  in  these  later 
years.  Largely  as  an  outcome  of  his  work,  we  now  recognize  the  pos- 
sibilities and  the  limitations  of  the  selection  Iheory  as  never  before,  and 
we  also  recognize  that  many  of  the  evidences  which  were  adduced  in 
support  of  the  Lamarckian  factors  are  not  conclusive,  while  the  method 
of  securing  conclusive  evidence  is  clearly  marked  out.  Whatever  we 
may  think  of  his  theories,  this  certainly  is  no  slight  service. 

5.  It  is  by  no  means  an  easy  task  to  determine  whether  the  influence 
of  extrinsic  forces  has  really  reached  the  germinal  protoplasm  and 
modified  its  structure ;  much  more  difficult  is  it  to  determine  how  that 
modification  takes  place.  I  believe  it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  majority  of 
the  cases  which  are  supposed  to  prove  the  inheritance  of  acquii-ed  char- 
acters prove  only  that  characters  are  acquired,  not  that  they  ai'e  inher- 
ited. There  is  great  need  of  caution  against  supposing  that  any  char- 
acter is  inherited  unless  it  repeats  itself  under  manj^  and  difiereut  con- 
ditions. Apart  altogether  from  inheritance,  similar  conditions  may 
produce  similar  results,  and  consequently  this  source  of  error  must  be 
eliminated  if  we  would  be  certain  that  the  structure  of  the  germinal 
protoplasm  has  really  been  modified.  Many  of  the  alleged  cases  of  the 
inheritance  of  mutilations,  ot  the  direct  influence  of  the  environment 
and  of  use  and  disuse  fall  away  under  this  precaution. 

The  general  evidence  for  the  inheritance  of  mutilations  is  so  noto- 
riously bad  that  I  pass  it  by  altogether,  and  select  for  consideration  a 
few  cases,  chosen  from  a  recent  work  on  the  subject,!  which  have  bj' 
various  writers  been  alleged  as  showing  the  direct  influence  of  environ- 
ment in  modifying  species  and  also  the  inherited  ettects  of  use  and 
disuse. 

(1)  It  is  well  known  that  certain  gasteropods,  if  reared  in  small 
vessels,  are  smaller  than  when  grown  in  large  ones,  and  this  case  has 
been  cited  as  showing  the  influence  of  environment  in  modifying 
species.  There  is  good  evidence,  however,  that  this  modification  does 
not  affect  the  germinal  protoplasm,  for  these  same  gasteropods  will 
grow  larger  if  placed  in  larger  A^essels.  It  seems  very  probable  that 
the  diminished  size  of  these  animals  is  due  to  deficient  food  supply,  but 
this  has  so  little  modified  the  somatic  protoplasm  that,  although  thej' 
may  be  fully  developed  as  shown  by  sexual  maturity,  they  at  once 

*  0.sborn,  Tlie  Unknown  Factors  of  Evolution,  Biological  Lectures,  1S9-1. 
t  K.  D.  Cope,  The  Primary  Factors  aj  Organic  Evolution,  1890. 


1895.]  ^^  [Coiikliu. 

increase  in  size  as  soon  as  more  abundant  food  is  provided,  and  tliis 
takes  place  by  the  active  growtli  and  division  of  all  the  cells  of  the 
body.  In  higher  animals,  once  maturity  has  been  reached,  there  is 
little  chance  for  groAvth,  apparently  because  many  of  the  cells  are  so 
highly  ditferentiated  that  they  can  no  longer  divide.  Consequently 
the  growth  is  limited,  and  hence  the  size  of  the  adult  may  depend  in 
part  upon  the  amount  of  nutriment  furnished  to  the  embryo.  This 
limitation  of  growth  is  due  to  the  high  degree  of  differentiation  of  the 
somatic  cells.  But  as  the  germ  cells  are  not  highly  differentiated  and 
are  capable  of  division,  it  follows  that  Ihey  Avould  not  be  permanently 
modified  by  starving.  It  may  be,  as  Prof.  Brewer  argues,  that  long 
continued  starving  and  consequent  dwarfing  of  animals  may  leave  its 
mark  on  the  germinal  plasm  ;  but,  as  he  also  remarks,  this  influence 
must  be  very  slight  as  compared  with  the  cumulative  effects  of  selec- 
tion in  breeding,  and  it  is  safe  to  assert  that  there  is  no  such  wholesale 
and  immediate  modification  of  the  germinal  plasm  due  to  the  influence 
of  nutrition  as  some  people  seem  to  suppose. 

(2)  The  interesting  experiments  of  Schmankewitsch  in  transforming 
one  species  of  Artemia  into  another  by  gradually  increasing  the  salinity 
of  the  water,  or  in  transforming  Artemia  into  another  genus,  Branchi- 
necta,  by  decreasing  the  salinity  of  the  water  are  Avell  known,  and  are 
often  cited  as  illustrations  of  the  fact  that  specific  and  even  generic 
differences  may  suddenly  be  produced  under  the  influence  of  the 
environment.  The  very  fact,  however,  that  these  changes  are  sud- 
denly produced,  and  that  they  can  at  will  be  quickly  modified  in  one 
direction  or  the  other  is  evidence  that  they  are  not  represented  in  the 
structure  of  the  germinal  plasm,  and  the  fact  that  definite  extrinsic 
causes,  sucl^is  salt  or  fresh  water,  acting  upon  this  plasm  produces 
results  which  are  constantly  the  same  is  the  best  evidence  that  the 
internal  mechanism,  i.  e.,  the  structure  of  the  germinal  plasm,  is  con- 
stantly the  same.  The  same  can  be  said  of  many  artificially  produced 
modifications,  such  as  the  exogastrulas  and  potassium  lai-vse  of  Herbst, 
all  of  which  profound  changes  are  due  entirely  to  extrinsic  and  not  to 
intrinsic  causes,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  disappear  as  soon  as 
the  immediate  extrinsic  cause  is  withdrawn.  The  same  thing  is  shown 
in  Poulton's  experiments  on  the  colors  of  Lepidopterous  larva;,  and  in 
this  case  also  it  is  known  that  the  changes  are  not  inherited,  at  least 
during  the  limited  period  through  which  the  experiments  were  con- 
ducted ;  and  it  should  be  observed  that  to  assume  that  this  would  take 
place  at  the  end  of  an  indefinite  number  of  generations  is  simply  to  beg 
the  question. 

Very  many  other  cases  of  a  similar  character  might  be  instanced 
under  this  head  if  time  permitted,  but  I  hasten  on  to  another  class  of 
evidence. 

Under  the  subject  of  the  inherited  effects  of  use  and  disuse  the  fol- 
lowing cases  may  be  mentioned  as  showing  how  inconclusive  much  of 
this  evidence  is  : 


Conklin.]  ^^  [May  1, 

(1)  In  the  first  place,  this  whole  line  of  argument  starts  with  the 
assumption  that  the  indiyitlual  habits  of  an  animal  are  inherited,  and 
that  these  habits  ultimately  determine  the  structure — an  assumption 
which  really  begs  the  whole  question  ;  for,  after  all,  the  substratum  of 
any  habit  must  be  some  physical  structure,  and  if  modified  habits  are 
inherited  it  must  be  because  some  modified  structure  is  inherited.  I 
take  an  example  which  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  a  whole  class  : 
Jackson*  says  that  the  elongated  siphon  of  Mya,  the  long-necked 
clam,  is  due  to  its  habit  of  burrowing  in  the  mud,  or  to  quote  his  words  : 
"It  seems  very  evident  that  the  long  siphon  of  this  genus  was  brought 
about  by  the  effort  to  reach  the  surface,  induced  by  the  habit  of  deep 
burial."  It  certainly  would  be  pertinent  to  inquire  where  it  got  this 
habit,  and  how  it  happened  to  be  transmitted.  It  is  surely  as  difficult 
to  explain  the  acquisition  and  inheritance  of  habits,  the  basis  of  which 
we  do  not  know,  as  it  is  to  explain  the  acquisition  and  inheritance  of 
structures  which  are  tangible  and  visible.  Such  a  method  of  procedure, 
in  addition  to  begging  the  whole  question,  commits  the  further  sin  of 
reasoning  from  the  relatively  unknown  to  the  relatively  known  ! 

This  case  is  but  a  fair  sample  of  a  whole  class,  among  which  maj-  be 
mentioned  the  following  :  The  derivation  of  the  long  hind  legs  of  jump- 
ing animals,  the  long  fore  legs  of  climbinganimals,  and  the  elongation 
of  all  the  legs  of  running  animals  through  the  influence  of  an  inherited 
habit.  All  such  cases  are  open  to  the  very  serious  objection  mentioned 
above. 

(2)  Another  whole  class  of  arguments  may  be  reduced  to  this  propo- 
sition :  Because  necessary  mechanical  conditions  are  never  violated  bj- 
organisms,  therefore  modifications  due  to  such  conditions  show  the  iu- 
lieritance  of  acquired  characters.  Plainly,  the  alternative  proposition 
is  this  :  If  acquired  characters  are  not  inherited,  organisms  ought  to  do 
impossible  things. 

(3)  Many  of  the  arguments  advanced  to  prove  the  inheritance  of 
characters  acquired  through  use  or  disuse  seem  to  me  to  prove  entirely 
too  much.  For  example.  Prof.  Cope  argues  very  ably  that  bones  are 
lengthened  by  both  stretch  and  impact,  and  that  modifications  thus  pro- 
duced are  inherited.  Even  granting  that  this  is  true,  how  would  it  be 
possible  fortius  process  of  lengthening  to  cease,  since  in  active  animals 
the  stretch  and  impact  must  be  continual?  Prof.  Cope  answers  that 
the  growth  ceases  when  "equilibrium"  is  reached.  I  confess  I  cannot 
understand  this  explanation,  since  the  assumed  stimulus  to  growth 
must  be  continual.  But  granting  again  that  growth  may  stop  when  an 
animal's  legs  become  long  enough  to  "satisfy  its  needs,"  how  on  this 
principle  are  we  to  account  for  the  shortening  of  legs,  as,  for  example, 
in  the  turnspit  dog  and  the  ancon  sheep  and  numberless  cases  occurring 
in  nature?  If  any  one  species  was  able,  by  taking  thought  of  mechan- 
ical stresses  and  strains,  to  add  one  cubit  unto  its  stature,  how  could 
the  same  stresses  and  strains  be  invoked  to  decrease  its  stature? 

*  R.  T.  Jackson,  Memoirs  Boston  Soc.  Nal.  Ilist.,  1890. 


1896  ]  ^7  [Conkliu. 

These  evidences  are,  I  know,  not  the  strongest  ones  which  can  l)c 
adduced  in  support  of  the  Lamarckian  factors.  There  are  at  present  a 
relatively  small  number  of  such  arguments  which  seem  to  be  valid  and 
the  great  force  of  which  I  fully  admit.  But  the  cases  which  I  have 
cited  are,  I  believe,  fair  samples  of  the  majority  of  the  evidences  so  far 
presented,  and  in  the  face  of  such  "evidence"  it  is  not  surprising  that 
one  who  is  himself  a  profound  student  of  the  subject  and  a  convinced 
Lamarckian  praj'^s  that  the  Lamarckian  theory  may  be  delivered  from 
its  friends.* 

6.  Another  line  of  evidence,  and  by  far  the  most  promising,  is  that  of 
direct  experiment.  So  far  most  of  the  experiments  which  have  been 
carried  on  to  determine  this  question  have  been  carried  only  half  way 
to  a  conclusion — they  have  shown  that  characters  are  acquired,  they 
have  usually  failed  to  show  that  they  are  transmitted  to  descendants. 
Among  animals  one  of  the  best  known  cases  is  the  inheritance  of 
epilepsy  and  other  disorders  in  Guinea  pigs,  due  to  certain  nervous 
lesions  of  the  parents.  But  Romanes,!  who  spent  much  time  in  trying 
to  corroborate  these  results,  concludes  as  follow^s :  "On  the  whole, 
then,  as  regards  Brown-Sequard's  experiments,  it  will  be  seen  that  I 
have  not  been  able  to  furnish  any  approach  to  a  full  corroboration." 

Among  plants,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  more  and  better  experi- 
mental evidence,  but  it  is  not  by  any  means  as  full  or  satisfactory  as 
could  be  wished.  Of  one  thing  we  may  be  certain  :  a  satisfactory  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  can  be  reached  only  by  experiment.  The  mere 
observations  and  inductions  of  the  morphologist,  while  affording  valu- 
able collateral  evidence,  can  never  furnish  the  crucial  test.  As  long 
as  we  deal  mereh'  with  probabilities  of  a  low  order  there  will  be  pro- 
found differences  of  opinion  :  e.  g.,  Cope  believes  in  all  the  Lamarckian 
factors;  Romanes  rejects  use  and  disuse,  but  believes  in  the  others; 
Weismann  rejects  all  of  them.  Why?  Is  it  because  each  does  not  know 
the  facts  upon  which  the  others  build?  Certainly  not.  Those  so-called 
facts  are  merely  probabilities  of  a  higher  or  lower  order,  and  to  one 
man  they  seem  more  important  than  to  another.  'No  conviction  based 
even  upon  a  high  degree  of  probability  can  ever  be  reached  in  this  way. 
There  is  here  a  deadlock  of  opinion,  each  challenging  the  other  to  pro- 
duce indubitable  proof.  This  can  never  be  furnished  by  observation 
alone.  Possibly  even  experiment  may  fail  in  it,  but  at  least  it  is  the 
only  hope. 

Conclusion. 

On  the  whole,  then,  I  believe  the  facts  which  are  at  present  at  our 
disposal  justify  a  return  to  the  position  of  Darwin.  Neither  Weismann- 
ism  nor  Lamarckism  alone  can  explain  the  causes  of  evolution.  But 
Darwinism  can  explain  those  causes.     Darwin  endeavored  to  show  that 

*  H.  F.  Osbom,  Evolulion  and  Hrredily,  Biological  Lectures,  1890. 
tG.  J.  Romaue-,  Post- Darwinian  Questions,  1893. 


Bailey.]  *^^  [May  1, 

variations,  perhaps  even  adaptations,  were  the  result  of  extrinsic  factors 
acting  upon  tlie  organism,  and  that  these  variations  or  adaptations  were 
increased  and  improved  by  natural  selection.  This  is,  I  believe,  the 
only  ground  which  is  at  present  tenable,  and  it  is  but  another  testimonj'^ 
to  the  greatness  of  that  man  of  men,  that,  after  exploring  for  a  score  of 
years  all  the  ins  and  outs  of  pure  selection  and  pure  adaptation,  men 
are  now  coming  back  to  the  position  outlined  and  unswervingly  main- 
tained by  him. 

Finally,  we  ought  not  to  suppose  that  we  have  already  reached  a 
satisfactory  solution  of  the  evolution  problem,  or  are,  indeed,  near  such 
a  solution.  "We  must  not  conceal  from  ourselves  the  fact,"  says  Roux, 
"that  the  causal  investigation  of  organism  is  one  of  the  most  difficult, 
if  not  the  most  difficult,  problem  which  the  human  intellect  has  at- 
tempted to  solve,  and  that  this  investigation,  like  every  causal  science, 
can  never  reach  completeness,  since  every  new  cause  ascertained  oul}" 
gives  rise  to  fresh  questions  concerning  the  cause  of  this  cause." 


The  Factors  of  Organic  Evolution  from  a  Botanical  Standpoint. 

By  Prof.  L.  U.  Bailey. 

(Read  before  tlie  American  PhilosopJucal  Society,  May  1,  1S96.) 

THE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  UNLIKE. 

We  all  agree  that  there  has  been  and  is  evolution  ;  but  we  probably 
all  disagree  as  to  the  exact  agencies  and  forces  which  have  been  and  are 
responsible  for  it.  The  subject  of  the  agencies  and  vehicles  of  evolution 
has  been  gone  over  repeatedly  and  carefully  for  the  animal  creation,  but 
there  is  comparatively  little  similar  research  and  speculation  for  the  plant 
creation.  This  deficiency  upon  the  plant  side  is  my  excuse  for  calling 
your  attention,  in  a  popular  way,  to  a  few  suggestions  respecting  the  con- 
tinuing creation  of  the  vegetable  world,  and  to  a  somewhat  discursive 
consideration  of  a  number  of  illustrations  of  the  methods  of  advance  of 
plant  tj'pes. 

1.  Nature  of  the  Divergence  of  the  Plant  and  Animal. 

It  is  self-evident  that  the  development  of  life  upon  our  planet  has  taken 
place  along  two  divergent  lines.  These  lines  originated  at  a  common 
point.  Tliis  common  life-plasma  was  probably  at  first  more  animal  like 
than  plant-like.  The  stage  in  which  this  life-plasma  first  began  to  assume 
plant-like  functions  is  closely  and  possibly  exactly  preserved  to  us  in  that 
great  class  of  organisms  which  are  known  as  mycetozoa  when  studied  by 
zoologists  and  as  myxomycetes  when  studied  by  botanists.     At  one  stage 


1896.J  ^^  [Bailey. 

of  their  existence,  these  organisms  are  amcebi-like,  that  is,  animal-like, 
but  at  another  stage  they  are  spnriferous  or  plant  like.  The  initial  diver- 
gencies in  organisms  were  no  doubt  concerned  chiefly  in  the  methods  of 
appropriating  food,  the  animal-like  organisms  apprehending  their  food  at 
a  more  or  less  definite  point,  and  the  plant-like  organisms  absorbing  food 
throughout  the  greater  or  even  the  entire  part  of  their  periphery.  It  is 
not  my  purpose  to  trace  the  particular  steps  or  methods  of  these  diver- 
gencies, but  to  call  your  attention  to  what  I  believe  to  be  a  fundamental 
distinction  between  the  two  lines  of  development,  and  one  wliich  I  do 
not  remember  to  have  seen  stated  in  the  exact  form  in  which  it  lies  in  my 
mind. 

Both  lines  probably  started  out  with  a  more  or  less  well-marked  circu- 
lar arrangement  of  the  parts  or  organs.  This  was  consequent  upon  the 
peripheral  arrangement  of  the  new  cells  in  the  development  of  the  mul- 
ticellular organism  from  the  unicellular  one.  A  long  line  of  animal  life 
developed  in  obedience  lo  this  peripheral  or  rotate  type  of  organization, 
ending  in  the  echinoderms  and  some  of  the  mollusks.  This  line  long  ago 
reached  its  zenith.  No  line  of  descent  can  be  traced  from  them,  accord- 
ing to  Cope.  The  progressive  and  regnant  type  of  animal  life  appeared 
in  the  vermes  or  true  worms,  forms  which  are  characterized  by  a  two- 
sided  or  bilateral,  and  therefore  more  or  less  longitudinal,  structure.  The 
animal-like  organisms  were  strongly  developed  in  the  power  of  locomo- 
tion, and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  rotate  or  centrifugal  construction  would 
place  the  organism  at  a  comparative  disadvantage,  because  its  seat  of  sen- 
sation is  fartliest  removed  from  the  external  stimuli.  But  the  worm- like 
organisms,  "being  longitudinal  and  bilateral,"  writes  Cope,  "one  ex- 
tremity becomes  differentiated  by  first  contact  with  the  environment." 
In  other  words,  the  animal  type  has  shown  a  cephalic,  or  head-forming, 
evolution  in  consequence  of  the  bilateralism  of  structure.  The  indi- 
vidual has  become  concentrated.  Out  of  tliis  vvorm-form  type,  theie- 
fore,  all  the  higher  ranges  of  zootypic  evolution  have  sprung,  and  one  is 
almost  tempted  to  read  a  literal  truth  into  David's  lamentation  that  "I 
am  a  worm  and  no  man." 

If,  now,  we  turn  to  plants  we  find  the  rotate  or  peripheral  arrangement 
of  parts  emphasized  in  all  the  higher  ranges  of  forms.  The  most  marked 
bilateralism  in  the  plant  world  is  amongst  the  bacteria,  desmids,  and  the 
like,  in  which  locomotion  is  markedly  developed  ;  and  these  are  also 
amongst  the  lowest  plant  types.  But  plants  soon  became  attached  to  the 
earth,  or,  as  Cope  terms  tliem,  they  are  *' earth  parasites."  They  there- 
fore found  it  to  their  advantage  to  reach  out  in  everj'  direction  from  their 
^upport  in  the  search  for  food.  Whilst  the  centrifugal  airrangement  has 
strongly  tended  to  disappear  in  the  animal  creation,  it  has  tended  with 
equal  strength  to  persist  and  to  augment  itself  in  the  plant  creation.  Its 
marked  development  amongst  plants  began  with  the  acquirement  of  ter- 
restrial life,  and  with  the  consequent  evolution  of  the  asexual  or  sporo- 
phytic  type  of  vegetation.     Normally,  the  higher  type  of  plant  bears  its 

PUOC.  AMEK.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  L.      FEINTED  JULY  7,  1896. 


Bailey.]  '^^  [May  1, 

parts  more  or  less  equally  upon  all  sides,  and  the  limit  to  growth  is  still 
determined  by  the  immediate  environment  of  the  given  individual  or  of 
its  recent  ancestors.  Its  evolution  has  been  acephalic,  diffuse,  or  head- 
less, and  the  individual  plant  or  tree  has  no  proper  concentration  of  parts. 
For  the  most  part,  it  is  filled  with  unspecialized  plasma,  which,  when 
removed  from  the  parent  individual  (as  in  cuttings  and  grafts),  is  able  to 
reproduce  another  like  individual.  The  arrangements  of  leaves,  branches, 
the  parts  of  the  flower,  and  even  of  seeds  in  the  fruit,  are  thus  rotate  or 
circular,  and  in  the  highest  type  of  plants  the  annual  lateral  increments 
of  growth  are  disposed  in  like  fashion  ;  and  it  is  significant  to  observe 
that  in  the  compositse,  which  is  considered  to  be  the  latest  and  highest 
general  type  of  plant-form,  the  rotate  or  centrifugal  arrangement  is  most 
emphatically  developed.  The  circular  arrangement  of  parts  is  the  typi- 
cal one  for  higher  plants,  and  any  departure  from  this  form  is  a  speciali- 
zation and  demands  explanation. 

Tiie  point  I  wish  to  urge,  therefore,  is  the  nature  of  the  obvious  or  ex- 
ternal divergence  of  plant-like  and  animal-like  lines  of  ascent.  The 
significance  of  the  bilateral  structure  of  animal-types  is  well  understood, 
but  this  significance  has  been  drawn,  so  far  as  I  know,  from  a  compari- 
son of  bilateral  or  dimeric  animals  with  rotate  or  polymeric  animals.  I 
want  to  put  a  larger  meaning  into  it,  by  making  bilateralism  the  symbol 
of  the  onward  march  of  animal  evolution  and  circumlateralism  (if  I  may 
invent  tlie  term)  the  symbol  of  plant  evolution.  The  suggestion,  however, 
applies  simply  to  the  general  arrangement  of  the  parts  or  organs  of  the 
plant  body,  and  lias  no  relation  whatever  to  functional  attributes  or  pro- 
cesses. It  is  a  suggestion  of  analogues,  not  of  horaologues.  "We  may, 
therefore,  contrast  these  two  great  lines  of  ascent,  which,  with  so  many 
vicissitudes,  have  come  up  through  the  age?",  as  Dipleurogenesis  and  Cen- 
trogenesis. 

The  two  divergent  directions  of  the  lines  or  phyla  of  evolution  have 
often  been  the  subject  of  comment,  but  one  of  the  sharpest  contrasts 
between  the  two  was  made  in  1884  by  Cope,  when  he  proposed  that  the 
vegetable  kingdom  has  undergone  a  degenerate  or  retrogressive  evolu- 
tion. "  The  plants  in  general,"  he  then  wrote,  "in  the  persons  of  their 
protist  ancestors,  soon  left  a  free-swimming  life  and  became  sessile. 
Their  lives  thus  became  parasitic,  more  automatic,  and,  in  one  sense, 
degenerate."  The  evolution  of  the  plant  creation  is,  therefore,  held  to 
be  a  phenomenon  of  catagenesis  or  decadence.  This,  of  course,  is  merely 
a  method  of  stating  a  comparison  with  the  evolution  of  the  animal  line  or 
phylum,  and  is  therefore  of  the  greatest  service.  For  myself,  however,  I 
dislike  the  terms  retrogressive,  catagenetic,  and  the  like,  as  applied  to  the 
plant  creation,  because  they  imply  intrinsic  or  actual  degeneracy.  True 
retrogressive  or  degenerate  evolution  is  the  result  of  loss  of  attributes. 
Cope  holds  that  the  chief  proof  of  degeneracy  in  the  plant  world  is  the 
loss  of  a  free-swimming  habit,  but  it  is  possible  that  the  first  life-plasma 
was  stationary  ;  at  any  rate,  we  do  not  know  that  it  was  motile.     Degen- 


1896.]  *^^  [Bailey. 

eracy  is  unequivocally  seen  in  certain  restricted  groups  where  the  loss  of 
characters  can  be  traced  directly  to  adaptive  clianges,  as  in  the  loss  of 
limbs  in  the  serpents.  Retarded  evolution  expresses  the  development  of 
the  plant  world  better  than  the  above  terms,  but  even  this  is  erroneous 
because  plant  types  exhibit  quite  as  complete  an  adaptation  to  an  enor- 
mous variety  of  conditions  as  animals  do,  and  there  has  been  rapid  prog- 
ress towards  specialization  of  structure.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  vege- 
table world  does  not  exhibit,  as  a  whole,  any  backward  step,  any  loss  of 
characters  once  gained,  nor  any  stationary  or  retarded  periods  ;  but  its 
progress  has  been  widely  unlike  that  of  the  animal  world  and  it  has  not 
reached  the  heights  which  that  line  of  ascent  has  attained.  The  plant 
phylum  cannot  be  said  to  be  catagenetic,  but  suigenetic.  Or,  in  other 
words,  it  is  centrogenetic  as  distinguished  from  dipleurogenetic. 

The  hearer  should  be  reminded,  at  this  point,  of  the  curious  alternation 
of  generations  which  has  come  about  in  the  plant  world.  One  genera- 
tion develops  sexual  functions,  and  the  product  of  the  sexual  union  is  an 
asexual  generation,  and  this,  in  turn,  gives  rise  to  another  sexual  gen- 
eration like  the  first.  In  the  lowest  sex-plants,  as  the  algse,  the  sexual 
generation — or  the  gametophyte,  as  it  is  called — generally  comprises  the 
entire  plant  body,  and  the  asexual  generation — or  sporophyte — develops 
as  a  part  of  the  fructifying  structure  of  the  gametophyte,  and  is  recog- 
nizable as  a  separate  structure  only  by  students  of  special  training.  In 
the  fungi,  which  are  probably  of  catagenetic  evolution,  alternation  of 
generations  is  very  imperfect  or  wanting.  In  the  true  mosses,  the 
gametophyte  is  still  the  conspicuous  part  of  the  plant  structure.  It  com- 
prises all  that  part  of  the  moss  which  the  casual  observer  recognizes  as 
"the  plant."  The  sporophytic  generation  is  still  attached  to  the  per- 
sistent gametophyte,  and  it  is  the  capsule  with  its  stem  and  appendages. 
In  the  ferns,  however,  the  gametophytic  stage  is  of  short  duration.  It  is 
the  inconspicuous  prothallus,  which  follows  the  germination  of  the  spore. 
Therefrom  originates  "the  fern,"  all  of  which  is  sporophytic,  and  the 
gametophyte  perishes.  With  the  evolution  of  the  flowering  plants,  the 
gametophyte  becomes  still  more  rudimentary,  whilst  the  sporophyte  is 
the  plant,  tree  or  bush,  as  we  see  it.  The  gametophytic  generation 
is  associated  with  the  act  of  fertilization,  the  male  prothallus  or  gameto- 
phyte developing  from  the  pollen  grain  and  soon  perishing,  and  the 
female  prothallus  or  gametophyte  developing  in  the  ovule  and  either  soon 
perishing  or  persisting  in  the  form  of  the  albumen  of  the  seed.  The  great 
development  of  the  sporophyte  in  later  time  is  no  doubt  a  consequence  of 
the  necessity  of  assuming  a  terrestrial  life  ;  and  with  this  development 
has  come  the  perfection  of  the  centrogenic  form. 

2.   The  Origin  of  Differences. 

The  causes  which  have  contributed  to  the  origin  of  the  differences  which 
we  see  in  the  organic  creation  have  been  and  still  are  the  subjects  of  the 


Bailey.]  "■"  [>ray  1, 

most  violent  controversy.  Those  persons  who  conceive  these  differences 
to  have  come  into  existence  full-formed,  as  they  exist  at  the  present  time, 
are  those  who  believe  in  the  dogma  of  special  creations,  and  they  usually 
add  to  the  doctrine  a  belief  in  design  in  nature.  This  doctrine  of  special 
creation  receives  its  strongest  support  when  persons  contrast  individual 
objects  in  nature.  Certainly  nothing  can  seem  more  unlike  in  very  fun- 
damental character  than  an  insect  and  an  elephant,  a  star-fish  and  a  potato, 
a  man  and  an  oak  tree.  The  moment  one  comes  to  study  the  genealo- 
gies of  these  subjects  or  groups,  however,  he  comes  upon  the  astonishing 
fact  that  the  ancestors  are  more  and  more  alike  the  farther  back  they  are 
traced.  In  other  words,  there  are  great  series  of  convergent  histories. 
Every  naturalist,  therefore,  is  compelled  to  admit  that  differences  in  na- 
ture have  somehow  been  augmented  in  the  long  processes  of  time.  It  is 
unnecessary,  therefore,  that  he  seek  the  causes  of  present  differences 
until  he  shall  have  determined  the  causes  of  the  smallest  or  original 
differences.  It  is  thus  seen  that  there  are  two  great  and  coordinate  prob- 
lems in  the  study  of  evolution,  the  causes  of  initial  differences,  and  the 
msans  by  which  differences  are  augmented.  These  two  problems  are  no 
doubt  very  often  expressions  of  the  same  force  or  power,  for  the  augmen- 
tation of  a  difference  comes  about  by  tiie  origination  of  new  degrees  of 
difference,  that  is,  by  new  differences.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  origi- 
nal genesis  of  the  differences  is  often  due  to  the  operation  ot  the  very 
same  physiological  processes  which  gradually  enlarge  the  difference  into 
a  gulf  of  wide  separation. 

In  approaching  this  question  of  the  origin  of  unlikene&ses,  the  inquirer 
must  first  divest  himself  of  the  effects  of  all  previous  teaching  and  think- 
ing. We  have  reason  to  assume  that  all  beings  came  from  one  original 
life-plasma,  and  we  must  assume  that  this  plasma  had  the  power  of  per- 
petuating its  physiological. identity.  Most  persons  still  further  assume 
that  this  plasma  must  have  been  endowed  with  the  property  of  reproduc- 
ing all  its  characters  of  form  and  habit  exactly,  but  such  assumption  is 
wholly  gratuitous  and  is  born  of  the  age-long  habit  of  thinking  that  like 
produces  like.  We  really  have  no  right  to  assume  either  that  this  plasma 
was  or  was  not  constituted  with  the  power  of  exact  reproduction  of  all 
its  attril)utes,  unless  the  behavior  of  its  ascendants  forces  us  to  the  one  or 
the  other  conclusion.  Inasmuch  as  no  two  individual  organisms  ever  are 
or  ever  have  been  exactly  alike,  so  far  as  we  can  determine,  it  seems  to  me 
to  be  the  logical  necessity  to  assume  that  like  never  did  and  never  can 
produce  like.  The  closer  we  are  able  to  approach  to  plasmodial  and  un- 
specialized  forms  of  life  in  our  studies  of  organisms,  the  more  are  we  im- 
pressed with  the  weakness  ot  the  hereditary  power.  Every  tyro  in  the 
study  of  protoplasm  knows  that  the  amoeba  has  no  form.  The  shapes 
which  it  assumes  are  individual,  and  do  not  pass  to  the  descendants.  To 
my  mind,  therefore,  it  is  a  more  violent  assumption  to  supjiose  that  this 
first  uuspecialized  plasma  should  exactly  reproduce  all  its  minor  features 
than  to  suppose  that  it  had  no  distinct  hereditary  power  and  therefore,  by 


1800  ]  «J^  [Bailey. 

the  very  nature  of  its  constitution,  could  not  exactly  reproduce  itself. 
The  burden  of  proof  has  been  thrown  upon  those  who  attempt  to  explain 
the  initial  origin  of  differences,  but  it  should  really  be  thrown  upon  those 
who  assume  that  life-matter  was  originally  so  constructed  as  to  rigidly 
recast  itself  iuto  one  mould  in  each  succeeding  generation.  I  see  less 
reason  for  dogmatically  assuming  that  like  produces  like  than  I  do  for 
supposing  that  unlike  produces  unlike. 

I  advanced  this  proposition  a  year  ago  in  my  Plant- breeding  (pp,  9, 
10),  and  I  am  now  glad  to  find,  since  writing  the  above  paragraph, 
that  H.  S.  Williams  has  reached  similar  conclusions  in  his  new  Geological 
Biology.  Pie  regards  mutability  as  the  fundamental  law  of  organisms, 
and  speaks  of  the  prevalent  notion  that  organisms  must  necessarily  repro- 
duce themselves  exactly  as  "one  of  the  chief  inconsistencies  in  the  preva- 
lent conception  of  the  nature  of  organisms."  "While  the  doctrine  of 
mutability  of  species  has  generally  taken  the  place  of  immutability,"  he 
writes,  "the  proposition  that  like  produces  like  in  organic  generation  is 
still  generally,  and  I  suppose  almost  universal!}',  accepted.  It  therefore 
becomes  necessary  to  suppose  that  variation  is  exceptional,  and  thatsome 
reason  (or  the  accumulation  of  variation  is  necessary  to  account  for  the 

great  divergencies  seen  in  different  species The  search  has  been 

for  some  cause  of  the  variation  ;  it  is  more  probable  that  mutability  is  the 
normal  law  of  organic  action,  and  that  permanency  is  the  acquired  law." 
I  do  not  suppose  that  Professor  Williams  makes  definite  variation  an  inhe- 
rent or  necessary  quality  of  organic  matter,  but  that  this  matter  had  no 
original  herediiary  power  and  that  its  form  and  other  attributes  in  suc- 
ceeding generations  have  been  moulded  into  the  environment,  and  that 
the  burden  of  proof  is  thrown  upon  those  who  assume  that  life-matter 
was  endowed  with  the  property  that  like  necessarily  produces  like.  At 
till  events,  this  last  is  my  own  conception  of  the  modification  of  the 
streams  of  ascent. 

In  other  words,  I  look  upon  heredity  as  an  acquired  character,  the  same 
as  form  or  color  or  sensation  is,  and  not  as  an  original  endowment  of 
mailer.  The  hereditary  power  did  not  originate  until  for  some  reason  it 
was  necessary  for  a  given  character  to  reproduce  itself,  and  the  longer  any 
form  or  character  was  perpetuated,  the  stronger  became  the  hereditary 
power. 

It  is  now  pertinent  to  inquire  what  determined  the  particular  diflferen- 
ces  which  we  know  to  have  persisted.  The  mere  statement  that  some 
forms  became  sessile  or  attached  to  the  earth,  and  that  others  became 
or  remained  motile,  is  an  assumption  that  these  differences  were  direct 
adaptations  to  environment.  Every  little  change  in  environment  incited 
a  corresponding  change  in  the  plastic  organization  ;  and  the  greater  and 
more  various  the  changes  in  the  physical  attributes  of  the  earth  with  the 
lapse  of  time,  the  greater  became  the  modifications  in  organisms.  I  be- 
lieve, therefore,  that  the  greater  part  of  present  diflerences  in  organisms 
are  the  result  directly  and  indirectly  of  external  stimuli,  until  we  come 


Bailey]  ^4  piay  ], 

into  those  higher  ranges  of  being  in  which  sensation  and  volition  have 
developed,  and  in  which  the  effects  of  use  and  disuse  and  of  psychologi- 
cal states  have  become  increasingly  more  important  as  factors  of  ascent. 
The  whole  moot  question,  then,  as  to  whether  variations  are  definite  or 
multifarious,  is  aside  from  the  issue.  They*  are  as  definite  as  the  changes 
in  the  environment,  which  determine  and  control  their  existence.  More 
differences  arise  than  can  persist,  but  this  does  not  prove  that  those  which 
are  lost  are  any  the  less  due  to  the  impinging  stimuli.  Those  who  write 
of  definite  variation,  usually  construe  the  result  or  outcome  of  some  par- 
ticular evolution  into  a  measure  of  the  variation  which  is  conceived  to 
have  taken  place  in  the  group.  Most  or  all  of  the  present  characters  of 
any  group  are  definite  because  they  are  the  survivals  in  a  process  of  elimi- 
nation ;  but  there  may  have  been,  at  various  times,  the  most  diverse  and 
diffuse  variations  in  the  very  group  which  is  now  marked  by  definite 
attributes.  As  the  lines  of  ascent  developed,  and  generation  followed 
generation  in  countless  number,  the  organization  was  more  and  more  im- 
pressed with  the  features  of  ancestral  characters,  and  these  ancestral 
characters  are  the  more  persistent  as  they  have  been  more  constant  in  the 
past.  But  these  characters,  which  appear  as  hereditary  or  atavistic  varia- 
tions in  succeeding  generations,  were  no  doubt  first,  at  least  in  the  plant 
creation,  the  offspring,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  environment  reacting 
upon  the  organism.  As  life  has  ascended  in  the  time-scale  and  has  become 
increasingly  complex,  so  the  operation  of  any  incident  force  must  ever 
produce  more  diverse  and  unpredictable  results.  What  I  mean  to  say  is 
that,  in  plants,  some  of  the  variations  seem  to  me  to  be  the  resultants  of 
a  long  line  of  previous  incident  impressions,  or  have  no  immediate  inci- 
ting cause.  Such  variation  is,  to  all  appearances,  fortuitous.  It  is,  there- 
fore, evident  that  the  study  of  the  effects  of  impinging  environments  at 
the  present  day  may  not  directly  elucidate  the  changes  which  similar  con- 
ditions may  have  produced  in  the  beginning. 

Whilst  the  steadily  ascending  line  of  the  plant  creation  was  fitting 
itself  into  the  changing  moods  of  the  external  world,  it  was  at  the  same 
time  developing  an  internal  power.  Plants  were  constantly  growing 
larger  and  stronger  or  more  specialized.  The  accumulation  of  vital  energy 
is  an  acquired  character  the  same  as  peculiarities  of  form  or  structure 
are.  It  is  the  accumulated  result  of  every  circumstance  which  has  con- 
tributed to  the  well-being  and  virility  of  the  organism.  The  gardener 
knows  that  he  can  cause  the  plant  to  store  up  energy  in  the  seed,  so  that 
the  resulting  crop  will  be  the  larger.  Growth  is  itself  but  the  expression 
or  result  of  this  energy  which  has  been  picked  up  by  the  way  through 
countless  ages.  Now,  mere  growth  is  variation.  It  results  in  differences. 
Plants  cannot  grow  without  being  unlike.  The  more  luxuriant  the 
growth,  the  more  marked  the  variation.  Most  plants  have  acquired  or 
inherited  more  growth-force  than  they  are  able  to  use  because  they  are 
held  down  to  certain  limitations  by  the  conditions  in  which  they  are  neces- 
sarily placed  by  the  struggle  for  existence.     I  am  convinced  that  many  of 


1S96.]  *^«-'  [Bailey. 

the  members  of  plants  are  simply  outgrowths  resulting  from  this  growth- 
pressure,  or  as  Bower  significantly  speaks  of  them  ("A  Theory  of  the 
Strobilus  in  Archegoniate  Plants,"  Annals  of  Botany,  viii,  358,  359), 
the  result  of  an  "eruptive  process."  The  pushing  out  of  shoots  from  any 
part  of  the  plant  body,  upon  occasion,  the  normal  production  of  adventi- 
tious plantlets  upon  the  stems  and  leaves  of  some  begonias  (especially 
Begonia  phyllomaniaca),  bryophyllum,  some  ferns,  and  many  other  plants, 
are  all  expressions  of  the  growth-force  which  is  a  more  or  less  constant  in- 
ternal power.  This  growth-force  may  give  rise  to  more  definite  variations 
than  impinging  stimuli  do  ;  but  the  growth- force  runs  in  definite  direc- 
tions because  it,  in  its  turn,  is  the  survival  in  a  general  process  of  elimi- 
nation. Many  of  the  characters  of  plants  which — for  lack  of  better  ex- 
planation— we  are  in  the  habit  of  calling  adaptive,  are  no  doubt  simply 
the  result  of  eruption  of  tissue.  Very  likely  some  of  the  compounding 
of  leaves,  the  pushing  out  of  some  kinds  of  prickles,  the  duplication  of 
floral  organs,  and  the  like,  are  examples  of  this  kind  of  variation.  We 
know  that  the  characters  of  the  external  bark  or  cortex  upon  old  tree 
trunks  are  the  result  of  the  internal  pressure  in  stretching  and  splitting 
it.  This  simply  shows  how  the  growth-force  may  originate  characters  of 
taxonomic  significance  when  it  is  expressed  as  mere  mechanical  power 
acting  upon  tissue  of  given  anatomical  structure.  This  power  of  growth 
is  competent,  I  think,  to  originate  many  and  important  variations  in 
plants.  I  suppose  my  conception  of  it  to  be  essentially  the  same  as  that 
of  the  bathmism  of  Cope,  and  the  "  Theory  of  the  Organic  Growth  "  of 
Eimer. 

We  have  now  considered  two  general  types  of  forces  or  agencies  which 
start  ofl"  variations  in  plants — purely  external  stimuli,  and  the  internal 
acquired  energy  of  growth.  There  is  still  a  third  general  factor,  cross- 
ing, or,  as  Eimer  writes  it,  "sexual  mixing."  The  very  reason  for  the 
existence  of  sex,  as  we  now  understand  it,  is  to  originate  diflerences  l>y 
means  of  the  union  of  two  parents  into  one  offspring.  This  sexual  mix- 
ing cannot  be  considered  to  be  an  original  cause  of  unlikenesses,  however, 
since  sex  itself  was  at  first  a  variation  induced  by  environment  or  other 
agencies,  and  its  present  perfection,  in  higher  organisms,  is  the  result  of 
the  process  of  continuous  survival  in  a  conflict  of  differences. 

The  recent  rise  of  Lamarckian  views  seems  to  have  been  largely  the 
result  of  an  attempt  to  discover  the  vera  causa  of  variations.  Darwin's 
hypothesis  of  natural  selection  assumes  variability  without  inquiring  into 
its  cause,  and  writers  have  therefore  said  that  Darwin  did  not  attempt  to 
account  for  the  cause  of  variations.  Nothing  can  be  farther  from  his  views. 
Yet  some  of  our  most  recent  American  writings  upon  organic  evolution 
repeat  these  statements.  Cope,  in  his  always  admirable  Primary  Factors 
of  Organic  hvolution,  writes  that  "  Darwin  only  discussed  variation  after 
it  came  into  being."  Yet  Darwin's  very  first  chapter  in  his  Origin  of 
Species  contains  adiscusbion  of  the  "Causes  of  Variability,"  and  the  same 
subject  is  gone  over  in  detail  in    Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  Under 


Bailey.]  ^^  [Mayl, 

Domestication.  Darwin  repeatedly  refers  the  cause  or  origin  of  varia- 
tion to  "clianged  conditions  of  life,"  whicli  is  essentially  the  position 
maintained  by  the  Lamarckians,  and  he  as  strenuously  combats  those  who 
hold  that  definite  variation  is  an  Innate  attribute  of  life.  "  But  we  must, 
I  think,  conclude  .  .  .  ."  writes  Darwin  in  the  latter  book,  "that  organic 
beiugs,  when  subjected  during  several  generations  to  any  change  what- 
ever in  their  conditions,  tend  to  vary."  He  discussed,  at  length,  the  par- 
ticular agencies  which  he  considered  to  be  most  potent  in  inducing  varia- 
bility, and  enumerated,  amongst  other  factors,  the  kind  and  amount  of 
food,  climate  and  crossiog.  "Changes  of  any  kind  in  the  conditions  of 
life,"  he  repeats,  "even  extremely  slight  changes,  often  suffice  to  cause 
variability.  Excess  of  nutriment  is  perhaps  the  most  efficient  single  ex- 
citing cause."  Cope,  in  his  discusfeion  of  the  "Causes  of  Variation," 
starts  out  with  the  proposition  "to  cite  examples  of  the  direct  modifying 
effect  of  external  influences  on  the  characters  of  individual  animals  and 
plants,"  and  he  closes  with  this  paragraph:  "I  trust  that  1  have  ad- 
duced evidence  to  show  that  the  stimuli  of  chemical  and  physical  forces, 
and  also  molar  motion  or  use  and  its  absence,  are  abundantly  sufficient 
to  produce  variaticms  of  all  kinds  in  organic  beings.  The  variations  may 
be  in  color,  proportions,  or  details  of  structure,  according  to  llie  condi- 
tions whicli  are  present."  This  is,  in  great  part,  the  thesis  to  which 
Darwin  extended  the  proofs  of  a  most  laborious  collection  of  data  from 
gardeners  and  stock-breeders  and  from  feral  nature.  It  has  been  the 
great  misfortune  of  the  interpretation  of  Darwin's  writings  that  his  hy- 
pothesis of  natural  selection  has  so  completely  overtopped  everything 
else  in  the  reader's  mind  that  oilier  important  matters  have  been  over- 
looked. 

Whilst  the  one  central  truth  in  the  plant  creation  is  the  fact  that  diflfer- 
ences  arise  as  a  result  of  variations  in  environment,  there  are  nevertheless 
many  exceptions  to  it.  There  are  various  types  of  differences  which  are 
merely  incidental  or  secondary  to  the  main  stem  of  adaptive  ascent.  Some 
of  these  are  such  as  arise  from  the  cessation  of  the  constructive  agencies, 
and  others  are  mere  correlatives  or  accompaniment  of  type  diM'erences. 
As  an  example  of  the  former,  we  may  cite  the  behavior  of  tlie  potato. 
By  high  cultivation  and  careful  breeding,  the  plant  has  been  developed 
to  produce  enormous  crops  of  very  large  tubers,  so  heavy  a  crop  that  the 
plant  has  been  obliged  to  spare  some  of  its  energy  from  the  production  of 
pollen  and  berries  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the  subterranean  pro- 
duct. It  is  evident  that  this  high  state  of  amelioration  can  be  maintained 
only  by  means  of  high  cultivation.  The  moment  there  is  a  let-down  in 
the  factors  which  have  bred  and  maintained  the  plant,  there  is  a  tendency 
towards  a  breaking  up  and  disappearance  of  the  higli  bred  type.  Tiiis  is 
an  illustration  of  the  phenomenon  of  panmixia,  as  outlined  by  Weismann, 
except  that  the  force  which  has  ceased  to  act  is  human  selection  rather 
than  natural  selection.  "This  suspension  of  the  preserving  influence  of 
natural  selection,"  Weismann  writes,    "may  be  termed  Panmixia."     In 


1896.]  "*  [Bailey. 

his  opinion,  "the  greater  number  of  those  variations  which  are  usually 
attributed  to  the  direct  influence  of  external  conditions  of  life,  are  to  be 
attributed  to  panmixia.  For  example,  the  great  variability  of  most 
domesticated  animals  and  plants  essentially  depends  upon  this  principle." 
In  other  words,  certain  differences  are  preserved  through  the  agency  of 
natural  selection,  and  certain  differences  are  lost ;  if  the  organism  is 
removed  from  this  restraining  and  directing  agency,  all  variations  have 
the  chance  of  asserting  themselves.  "All  individuals  can  reproduce 
themselves,"  Weismann  explains,  "  and  thus  stamp  their  characters  upon 
the  species,  and  not  only  those  which  are  in  all  respects,  or  in  respect  to 
some  single  organ,  the  fittest."  I  am  convinced  that  this  term  expresses 
a  very  important  truth,  and  one  which,  as  Weismann  says,  is  particularly 
apparent  in  domestic  animals  and  plants  ;  but  panmixia  does  not  express 
an  incident  force.  If  new  differences  arise  in  consequence  of  the  cessation 
of  the  directive  agency  of  natural  selection,  it  is  because  they  were  first 
impressed  upon  the  organization  by  some  unaccountable  agency  ;  or,  if 
there  is  simply  a  falling  away  from  accumulated  characters,  the  residuary 
or  secondary  features  which  appear  are  probably  the  compound  and  often 
deteriorated  result  of  various  previous  incident  forces.  In  short,  panmixia 
is  a  name  for  a  class  of  phenomena,  and  it  cannot  be  considered  as  itself 
an  original  cause  of  variation.  It  is,  to  my  mind,  largely  the  unrestrained 
expression  or  unfolding  of  the  growth-force  consequent  upon  the  removal 
of  the  customary  pressure  under  which  the  plant  has  lived. 

3.    The  Survival  of  the  Unlike. 

The  one  note  of  the  modern  evolution  speculations  which  has  resounded 
to  the  remotest  corner  of  civilization,  and  which  is  the  chief  exponent  of 
current  speculation  respecting  the  origin  and  destiny  of  the  organic 
world,  is  Spencer's  phrase,  "the  survival  of  the  fittest."  This  epigram 
is  an  epitome  of  Darwin's  law  of  natural  selection,  or  "  the  preservation, 
during  the  battle  for  life,  of  varieties  which  possess  any  advantage  in 
structure,  constitution  or  instinct."  In  most  writings,  these  two  phrases 
— "natural  selection"  and  "the  survival  of  the  fittest" — are  used 
synonymously  ;  but  in  their  etymology  they  really  stand  to  each  other  in 
the  relation  of  process  and  result.  The  operation  of  natural  selection 
results  in  the  survival  of  the  fittest.  One  must  not  be  too  exact,  however,, 
in  the  literal  application  of  such  summary  expressions  as  these.  Their 
particular  mission  is  to  aftbrd  a  convenient  and  abbreviated  formula  for 
the  designation  of  important  principles,  for  use  in  common  writing  and 
speech,  and  not  to  express  a  literal  truth.  Darwin  was  himself  well! 
aware  of  the  danger  of  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  epigrahi  "  natural 
selection."  "The  term  'natural  selection,'  "  he  writes,  "is  in  some 
respects  a  bad  one,  as  it  seems  to  imply  conscious  choice  ;  but  this  will  be 
disregarded  after  a  little  familiarity."  This  technical  use  of  the  term 
"  natural  selection  "  is  now  generally  accepted  unconsciously;  and  yet 
there  have  been  recent  revolts  against  it  upon  the  score  that  it  does  not 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  M.      PRINTED  JULY  9,  1896. 


Bailey.]  ^'^  [May  1, 

itself  express  a  literal  principle  or  truth.  If  we  accept  the  term  in  the 
sense  in  which  it  was  propounded  by  its  author,  we  are  equally  bound  to 
accept  "  survival  of  the  fittest "  as  a  synonymous  expression  because  its 
author  so  designed  it.  "By  natural  selection  or  survival  of  the  fittest," 
writes  Spencer,  "by  the  preservation  in  successive  generations  of  those 
whose  moving  equilibria  happen  to  be  least  at  variance  with  the  require- 
ments, there  is  eventually  produced  a  changed  equilibrium  completely  in 
harmony  with  the  requirements." 

It  should  be  said  that  there  is  no  reason  other  than  usage  why  the  phrase 
"  survival  of  the  fittest "  should  not  apply  to  the  result  of  Lamarckian  or 
functional  evolution  as  well  as  of  Darwinian  or  selective  evolution.  It 
simply  expresses  a  fact  without  designating  the  cause  or  the  process. 
Cope  has  written  a  book  upon  the  "  Origin  of  the  Fittest,"  in  which  the 
argument  is  Lamarckian.  The  phrase  implies  a  conflict,  and  the  loss  of 
certain  contestants  and  the  salvation  of  certain  others.  It  asserts  that  the 
contestants  or  characters  which  survive  are  the  fittest,  but  it  does  not 
explain  whether  they  are  fit  because  endowed  with  greater  strength, 
greater  prolificness,  completer  harmony  with  surroundings,  or  other 
attributes.  I  should  like  to  suggest,  therefore,  that  the  chiefest  merit  of 
the  survivors  is  unlikeuess,  and  to  call  your  attention  for  a  few  minutes 
to  the  significance  of  the  phrase — which  I  have  used  in  my  teaching  dur- 
ing the  last  year — the  survival  of  the  unlike. 

This  phrase — the  survival  of  the  unlike — expresses  no  new  truth,  but  I 
hope  that  it  may  present  the  old  truth  of  vicarious  or  non-designed  evolu- 
tion in  a  new  light.  It  defines  the  fittest  to  be  the  unlike.  You  will 
recall  that  in  this  paper  I  have  dwelt  upon  the  origin  and  progress  of  dif- 
ferences rather  than  of  definite  or  positive  characters.  I  am  so  fully  con- 
vinced that,  in  the  plant  creation,  a  new  character  is  useful  to  the  species 
because  it  is  unlike  its  kin,  that  the  study  of  diff"erence  between  individuals 
has  come  to  be,  for  me,  the  one  absorbing  and  controlling  thought  in  the 
contemplation  of  the  progress  of  life.  These  differences  arise  as  a  result 
of  every  impinging  force — soil,  weather,  climate,  food,  training,  conflict 
with  fellows,  the  strain  and  stress  of  wind  and  wave  and  insect  visitors — 
as  a  complex  resultant  of  many  antecedent  external  forces,  the  eflfects  of 
crossing,  and  also  as  the  result  of  the  accumulated  force  of  mere  growth  ; 
they  are  indefinite,  non-designed,  an  expression  of  all  the  various 
influences  to  which  the  passive  vegetable  organism  is  or  has  been  exposed  ; 
those  difl'erences  which  are  most  unlike  their  fellows  or  their  parents  find 
the  places  of  least  conflict,  and  persist  because  they  thrive  best  and  there- 
by impress  themselves  best  upon  their  off'spring.  Thereby  there  is  a  con- 
stant tendency  for  new  and  divergent  lines  to  strike  ofi",  and  these  lines, 
as  they  become  accented,  develop  into  what  we,  for  convenience  sake, 
have  called  species.  There  are,  therefore,  as  many  species  as  there  are 
unlike  conditions  in  physical  and  environmental  nature,  and  in  propor- 
tion as  the  conditions  are  unlike  and  local  are  the  species  well  defined. 
But  to  nature,  perfect  adaptation  is  the  end  ;  she  knows  nothing,  pe)'  se, 


18%.]  ^'^  [Bailey. 

as  species  or  as  fixed  types.     Species  were  created  by  Joliu  Ray,  not  by 
the  Lord  ;  they  were  named  by  Linnoeus,  not  by  Adam. 

I  must  now  hasten  to  anticipate  an  objection  to  my  phi-ase  which  may 
arise  in  your  minds.  I  have  said  that  when  characters  are  unlike  existing 
characters  they  stand  a  chance  of  persisting  ;  but  I  do  not  desire  to  say 
that  they  are  useful  in  proportion  as  ihey  are  unlike  their  kin.  I  want  to 
express  my  conviction  that  mere  sports  are  rarely  useful.  These  are  no 
doubt  the  result  of  very  unusual  or  complex  stimuli,  or  of  unwonted 
refrangibility  of  the  energy  of  growth,  and  not  having  been  induced  by 
conditions  which  act  uniformly  over  a  course  of  time,  they  are  likely  to 
be  transient.  I  fully  accept  Cope's  remark  that  there  is  "no  ground  for 
believing  that  sports  have  any  considerable  influence  on  the  course  of 

evolution The  method  of  evolution  has  apparently  been  one  of 

successioual  increment  and  decrement  of  parts  along  definite  lines." 
Amongst  domestic  animals  and  plants  the  selection  and  breeding  of  sports, 
or  very  unusual  and  marked  variations,  has  been  a  leading  cause  of  their 
strange  and  diverse  evolution.  In  fact,  it  is  in  this  jjarticular  thing  that 
the  work  of  the  breeder  and  the  gardener  are  most  unlike  the  work  of 
nature.  But  in  feral  conditions,  the  sport  may  be  likened  to  an  attribute 
out  of  place  ;  and  I  imagine  that  its  chief  effect  upon  the  phylogeny  of  a 
race — if  any  efiect  it  have — is  in  giving  rise  in  its  turn  to  a  brood  of  less 
erratic  unlikenesses.  This  question  of  sports  has  its  psychological  signifi- 
cance, for  if  the  way  becomes  dark  the  wanderer  invokes  the  aid  of  this 
ignusfafuus  to  cut  short  his  difficulties.  Sir  William  Thompson  supposes 
that  life  may  first  have  come  to  earth  by  way  of  some  meteor,  and  Brinton 
proposes  that  man  is  a  sport  from  some  of  the  lower  creation.  It  is  certainly 
a  strange  type  of  mind  which  ascribes  a  self-centred  and  self-sufficient 
power  to  the  tree  of  life,  and  then,  at  the  very  critical  points,  adopts  a 
wliolly  extraneous  force  and  one  which  is  plainly  but  a  survival  of  the 
old  cataclysmic  type  of  mind  ;  and  it  is  the  stranger,  too,  because  such 
type  of  explanation  is  not  suggested  by  observation  or  experiment,  but 
simply  by  what  is  for  the  time  an  insuperable  barrier  of  ignorance  of 
natural  processes.  If  evolution  is  true  at  all,  there  is  reason  to  suppose 
that  it  extends  from  beginning  to  finish  of  creation,  and  the  stopping  of 
the  process  at  obscure  intervals  is  only  a  temporary  satisfaction  to  a  mind 
that  is  not  yet  fully  committed  to  the  eternal  truth  of  ascent.  The  tree  of 
life  has  no  doubt  grown  steadily  and  gradually,  and  the  same  forces, 
variously  modified  by  the  changing  pliysical  conditions  of  the  earth,  have 
run  on  with  slow  but  mighty  energy  until  the  present  time.  Any  radical 
change  in  tlie  plan  would  have  defeated  it,  and  any  mere  accidental  cir- 
cumstance is  too  trivial  to  be  considered  as  a  modifying  infiuence  of  the 
great  onward  movement  of  creation,  particularly  when  it  assumes  to 
account  for  the  appearing  of  the  very  capstone  of  the  whole  mighty 
structure. 

Bear  with  me  if  I  recite  a  few  specific  examples  of  the  survival  of  the 
unlike,  or  of  the  importance,  to  organic  types,  of  gradually  widening  dif- 


Bailey.]  1^^  [May  1, 

ferences.  Illustrations  might  be  drawa  from  every  field  of  the  organic 
creation,  but  I  choose  a  few  from  plants  because  these  are  the  most 
neglected  and  I  am  most  familiar  with  them.  These  are  given  to  illus- 
trate how  important  external  stimuli  are  in  originating  variation,  and  how 
it  is  that  some  of  these  variations  persist. 

Let  me  begin  by  saying  that  a  good  gardener  loves  his  plants.  Now,  a 
good  gardener  is  one  who  grows  good  plants,  and  good  plants  are  very 
unlike  poor  plants.  They  are  unlike  because  the  gardener's  love  for 
them  has  made  them  so.  The  plants  were  all  alike  in  November ;  in 
January,  the  good  gardener's  plants  are  strong  and  clean,  with  large 
dense  leaves,  a  thick  stem,  and  an  abundance  of  perfect  flowers  ;  the  poor 
gardener's  plants  are  small  and  mean,  with  curled  leaves,  a  thin  hard 
stem,  and  a  few  imperfect  flowers.  You  will  not  believe  now  that  the 
two  lots  were  all  from  the  same  seed-pod  three  months  ago.  The  good 
gardener  likes  to  save  his  own  seeds  or  make  his  own  cuttings  ;  and  next 
year  his  plants  will  be  still  more  unlike  his  neighbor's.  The  neighbor 
tries  this  seed  and  that,  reads  this  bulletin  and  that,  but  all  avails  noth- 
ing simply  because  he  does  not  grow  good  plants.  He  does  not  care  for 
them  tenderlj^  as  a  fond  mother  cares  for  a  child.  The  good  gardener 
knows  that  the  temperature  of  the  water  and  the  air,  the  currents  in  the 
atmosphere,  the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  all  the  little  amenities  and  com- 
forts which  plants  so  much  enjoy,  are  just  the  factors  which  make  his 
plants  successful  ;  and  a  good  crop  of  anything,  whether  wheat  or  beans 
or  apples,  is  simply  a  variation. 

And  do  these  unlikenesses  survive?  Yes,  verily  !  The  greater  part  of 
the  amelioration  of  cultivated  plants  has  come  about  in  just  this  way, — by 
gradual  modifications  in  the  conditions  in  which  they  are  grown,  by 
means  of  which  unlikenesses  arise ;  and  then  by  the  selection  of  seeds 
from  the  most  coveted  plants.  Even  at  the  present  day,  there  is  com- 
paratively little  plant-breeding.  The  cultivated  flora  has  come  up  with 
man,  and  if  it  has  departed  immensely  from  its  wild  prototypes,  so  has 
man.  Tlie  greater  part  of  all  this  has  been  unconscious  and  unintended 
on  man's  part,  but  it  is  none  the  less  real. 

As  an  illustration  of  how  large  the  factors  of  undesigned  choice  and 
selection  are  in  the  amelioration  of  the  domestic  flora,  let  me  ask  your 
attention  to  the  battle  of  the  seed-bags.  In  the  year  1890,  the  census 
records  show,  for  the  first  time,  the  number  of  acres  in  the  United  States 
devoted  to  the  growing  of  seed.  I  give  the  acreage  of  three  representa- 
tive crops,  and  these  figures  I  have  multiplied  by  the  average  seed-yields 
per  acre  in  order  to  arrive  at  an  approximate  estimate  of  the  entire  crop 
produced,  and  the  number  of  acres  which  the  crop  would  plant.  I  have 
used  low  averages  of  yields  in  order  to  be  on  the  safe  side,  and  I  have 
likewise  used  liberal  averages  of  the  quantity  of  seed  required  to  plant  an 
acre  when  making  up  the  last  column  : 


1396.]  101  [Bailey, 


Average 

Approximate 

Acres. 

yield  per 
acre. 

crop. 

Would  plant. 

Cabbage, 

1,2G8 

200  lbs. 

253,600  lbs. 

1,014,400  acres, 

Cucumber, 

10,219 

120    " 

1,226,280    " 

613,140      " 

Tomato, 

4,356 

80    " 

368,480    " 

1,473,920      " 

The  last  column  in  this  table  has  particular  interest  because  it  shows 
the  enormous  acreage  which  these  seeds,  if  all  planted,  would  cover. 
We  are  now  curious  to  know  if  such  areas  really  are  planted  to  these 
species,  and  if  they  are  not,  it  will  be  pertinent  to  inquire  what  becomes 
of  the  seeds.  Unfortunately,  we  have  no  statistics  of  the  entire  acreages 
of  these  various  truck-garden  crops,  but  the  same  census  gives  the  statis- 
tics of  the  commercial  market  gardens  of  the  country.  Inquiry  of  seed- 
merchants  has  convinced  me  that  about  one-fourth  of  all  the  seeds  sold  in 
any  year  go  to  market  gardeners.  I  have  therefore  multiplied  the  census 
figures  of  market  gardens  by  four  for  the  purpose  of  arriving  at  an  esti- 
mate of  the  total  acreage  of  the  given  crops  in  the  United  States  ;  and  I 
have  introduced  the  last  column  from  the  above  table  for  purposes  of 
comparison  : 

Probable 
Acreage  of  market  total  There  are  seeds  enough 

gardens.  acreage.  to  plant  Difference. 

Cabbage,  77,094  308,376  1,014,400  acres.       706,024  acres. 

Cucumber,        4,721  18,884  613,140     "  594,256      " 

Tomato,  22,802  91,308  1,473,920     "         1,382,712      " 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  there  are  enough  cabbage  seeds  raised  in  this 
country  each  year — if  the  census  year  is  a  fair  sample — to  plant  nearly 
three-quarters  of  a  million  acres  more  than  actually  are  planted;  about 
the  same  surplus  of  cucumber  seeds  ;  and  a  surplus  of  tomato  seeds  suffi- 
cient to  plant  over  one  and  a  quarter  million  acres.  It  is  possible,  of 
course,  that  the  figures  of  actual  acreage  of  these  crops  are  too  low  ;  but 
such  error,  if  it  occur,  must  be  much  overbalanced  by  the  large  quanti- 
ties of  home-grown  and  imported  seeds  which  are  used  every  year.  These 
startling  figures  would  not  apply  so  well  to  many  other  crops  which  are 
detailed  in  the  census  bulletin.  For  instance,  the  peas  raised  in  this 
country  would  plant  only  about  46,000  acres,  whilst  there  are  over  100,000 
acres  actually  grown  ;  but  this  discrepancy  is  probably  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  the  larger  part  of  the  seed  peas  are  grown  in  Canada  and 
therefore  do  not  figure  in  our  census.  There  is  a  somewhat  similar  dis- 
crepancy in  the  watermelon,  but  in  this  crop  the  seeds  are  very  largely 
home-saved  by  the  heavy  planters  in  the  South  and  West.  I  do  not  give 
these  figures  for  their  value  as  statistics,  but  simply  for  the  purpose  of 
graphically  expressing  the  fact  that  many  more  seeds  are  raised  by  culti- 
vators each  average  year  than  are  ever  grown  into  plants,  and  that 
the  struggle  for  existence  does  not  necessarily  cease  when  plants  are  taken 
under  the  care  of  man. 


Bailey.]  ^^^  [Mayl, 

What,  now,  becomes  of  this  enormous  surplus  of  seeds  ?  Let  us  take  a 
rough  survey  of  the  entire  seed  crop  of  any  year.  In  the  first  place,  a 
certain  percentage  of  the  seeds  is  laid  aside  by  the  seedsman  as  a  surety 
against  failure  in  the  year  to  come.  Much  of  this  old  stock  never  finds  its 
vray  into  the  market  and  is  finally  discarded.  We  will  estimate  this  ele- 
ment of  waste  as  twenty  per  cent.  Of  the  eighty  per  cent,  which  is 
actually  sold,  perhaps  another  ten  per  cent,  is  never  planted,  leaving 
about  seventy  per  cent,  which  finds  its  way  into  the  ground.  These  two 
items  of  loss  are  pure  waste  and  have  no  effect  upon  the  resulting  crop. 
Now,  of  the  seeds  which  are  planted,  not  more  than  seventy -five  per  cent, 
can  be  expected  to  germinate.  That  is,  there  is  certainly  an  average  loss  of 
twenty-five  per  cent,  in  nearly  all  seeds — and  much  more  in  some — due  to 
inherent  weakness,  and  seventy-five  per  cent,  represents  the  survival  in  a 
conflict  of  strength.  We  have  now  accounted  for  about  half  of  the  total 
seed  product  of  any  year.  The  remaining  half  produces  plants  ;  but  here 
the  most  important  part  of  the  conflict  begins.  In  the  crops  mentioned 
above,  mucli  less  than  half  of  the  seeds  which  are  grown  ever  appear  in 
the  form  of  a  crop.  We  must  remember,  moreover,  that  in  making  the 
estimate  of  the  number  of  acres  which  these  seeds  would  plant,  I  have 
used  the  customary  estimates  of  the  quantity  of  seeds  required  to  plant  an 
acre.  Now,  these  estimates  of  seedsmen  and  planters  are  always  very 
liberal.  Every  farmer  sows  from  five  to  twenty  times  more  seeds  than  he 
needs.  Some  years  ago,  I  sowed  seeds  according  to  the  recommendation 
of  one  of  our  best  seedsmen,  and  I  found  that  peas  would  be  obliged  to 
stand  four-fifths  of  an  inch  apart,  beets  about  twenty  to  the  foot,  and  other 
vegetables  in  like  confusion.  I  suppose  that  of  all  the  seeds  which 
actually  come  up,  not  more  than  one  in  ten  or  a  dozen,  in  garden  vege- 
tables, ever  give  mature  plants.  What  becomes  of  the  remainder?  They 
are  thinned  out  for  the  good  of  those  which  are  left. 

This  simple  process  of  thinning  out  vegetables  has  had  a  most  powerful 
eff"ect  upon  the  evolution  of  our  domestic  flora.  It  is  a  process  of  unde- 
signed selection.  This  selection  proceeds  upon  the  difl"erences  in  the 
seedlings.  The  weak  individuals  are  disposed  of,  and  those  which  are 
strongest  and  most  vinlike  the  general  run  are  preserved.  It  is  a  clear 
case  of  the  survival  of  the  unlike.  The  laborer  who  weeds  and  thins 
your  lettuce  bed  unconsciously  blocks  out  his  ideas  in  the  plants  which 
he  leaves.  But  all  this  is  a  struggle  of  Jew  against  Jew,  not  of  Jew 
against  Philistine.  It  is  a  conflict  within  the  species,  not  of  species 
against  species.  It  therefore  tends  to  destroy  the  solidarity  of  the  specific 
type,  and  helps  to  introduce  much  of  that  promiscuous  uulikeness  which 
is  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  domestic  plants. 

Let  us  now  transfer  this  emphatic  example  to  wild  nature.  There  we 
shall  find  the  same  prodigal  production  of  seeds.  In  the  place  of  the 
gardener  undesignedly  moulding  the  lines  of  divergence,  we  find  the 
inexorable  i)hysical  circumstances  into  which  the  plastic  organisms  must 
grow,  if  they  grow  at  all.     These  circumstances  are  very  often  the  direct 


1896.]  J- 03  [Bailey. 

causes  of  the  iinlikenesses  of  plants,  for  plants  ■which  start  like  when  they 
germinate  may  be  very  unlike  when  they  die.  Given  time  and  constantly 
but  slowly  changing  conditions,  and  the  vegetable  creation  is  fashioned 
into  the  unlikenesses  which  we  now  behold.  With  this  conception,  let 
us  read  again  Francis  Parkman's  picturesque  description  of  the  forest  of 
Maine  in  his  Half  ■Century  of  Conflict:  "For  untold  ages  Maine  had 
been  one  unbroken  forest,  and  it  was  so  still.  Only  along  the  rocky 
seaboard,  or  on  the  lower  waters  of  one  or  two  great  rivers  a  few 
rough  settlements  had  gnawed  slight  indentations  into  this  wilderness  of 
woods,  and  a  little  farther  inland  some  dismal  clearing  around  a  block- 
house or  stockade  let  in  the  sunlight  to  a  soil  that  had  lain  in  shadow 
time  out  of  mind.  This  waste  of  savage  vegetation  survives,  in  some 
part,  to  this  day,  with  the  same  prodigality  of  vital  force,  the  same 
struggle  for  existence  and  mutual  havoc  that  mark  all  organized  beings, 
from  men  to  mushrooms.  Young  seedlings  in  millions  spring  every  sum- 
mer from  the  black  mould,  rich  with  the  decay  of  those  that  had  preceded 
them,  ci'owding,  choking  and  killing  each  other,  perishing  by  their  very 
abundance  ;  all  but  a  scattered  few,  stronger  than  the  rest,  or  more  fortu- 
nate in  position,  which  survive  by  blighting  those  about  them.  They  in 
turn,  as  they  grow,  interlock  their  boughs,  and  repeat  in  a  season  or  two 
the  same  process  of  mutual  suftocalion.  The  forest  is  full  of  lean  saplings 
dead  or  dying  with  vainly  stretching  towards  the  light.  Not  one  infant 
tree  in  a  thousand  lives  to  maturity  ;  yet  these  survivors  form  an  innumer- 
able host,  pressed  together  in  struggling  confusion,  squeezed  out  of  sym- 
metry and  robbed  of  normal  development,  as  men  are  said  to  be  in  the 
level  sameness  of  democratic  society.  Seen  from  above,  their  mingled 
tops  spread  in  a  sea  of  verdure  basking  in  light  ;  seen  from  below,  all  is 
shadow,  through  which  spots  of  timid  sunshine  steal  down  among  legions 
of  dark,  mossy  trunks,  toadstools  and  rank  ferns,  protruding  roots,  matted 
bushes,  and  rotting  carcases  of  fallen  trees.  A  generation  ago  one  might 
find  here  and  there  the  rugged  trunk  of  some  great  pine  lifting  its  verdant 
spire  above  the  indistinguished  myriads  of  the  forest.  The  woods  of 
Maine  had  their  aristocracy ;  but  the  axe  of  the  woodman  has  laid  them 
low,  and  these  lords  of  the  wilderness  are  seen  no  more." 

In  such  bold  and  generalized  examples  as  this,  the  student  is  able  to 
discern  only  the  general  fact  of  progressive  divergency  and  general  adap- 
tation to  conditions,  without  being  able  to  discover  the  particular  direc- 
tive forces  which  have  been  at  the  bottom  of  the  evolution.  It  is  only 
when  one  considers  a  specific  example  that  he  can  arrive  at  any  just  con- 
clusions respecting  initial  causes  of  modification.  Of  adaptive  modifica- 
tions, two  general  classes  have  been  responsible  for  the  ascent  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  one  a  mere  moulding  or  shaping  into  the  passive  physical 
environments,  the  other  the  direct  result  of  stress  or  strain  imposed  upon 
the  organism  by  wind  and  water  and  by  the  necessities  of  a  radical  change 
of  habit  from  aquatic  to  terrestrial  life,  and  later  on  by  the  stimuli  of  in- 
sects upon  the  flowers.     One  of  the  very  best  examples  of  the  mere  pas- 


Bailey.]  iU4  [May  1 

sive  ascent  is  afforded  by  the  evolution  of  the  root  as  a  feeding  organ  ; 
and  a  like  example  of  development  as  a  result  of  strain  is  aflbrded  bj^  the 
evolution  of  the  stem  and  vascular  or  fibrous  system.  Our  present  flora, 
like  our  present  fauna,  is  an  evolution  from  aquatic  life.  The  first  ses- 
sile or  stationary  plants  were  undoubtedly  stemless.  As  the  waters  in- 
creased in  depth  and  plants  were  driven  farther  and  farther  from  their 
starting  points  by  the  struggle  for  place  and  the  disseminating  influence 
of  winds  and  waves,  the  plant  body  became  more  and  more  elongated. 
Whilst  the  plant  undoubtedly  still  absorbed  food  throughout  its  entire 
periphery,  it  nevertheless  began  to  difl"erentiate  into  organs.  The  area 
chiefly  concerned  in  food-gathering  became  broadened  into  a  thallus,  a  con- 
stricted or  stem-like  portion  tended  to  develop  below,  and  the  entire 
structure  anchored  itself  to  the  rock  by  a  hold-fast  or  grapple.  This  hold- 
fast or  so-called  root  of  most  of  our  present  sea-weeds  is  chiefly  a  means 
of  holding  the  plant  in  place,  and  it  probably  absorbs  very  little  food. 
As  plants  emerged  into  amphibian  life,  however,  the  foliar  portion  was 
less  and  less  thrown  into  contact  with  food,  and  there  was  more  and  more 
demand  upon  the  grapple  which  was  anchored  in  the  soil.  The  foliage 
gradually  developed  into  organs  for  absorbing  gases  and  the  root  was 
forced  to  absorb  the  liquids  which  the  i^lant  needed.  I  do  not  mean  to 
say  that  there  is  any  genetic  connection  between  the  sea-weeds  and  the 
higher  plants,  or  that  the  roots  of  the  two  are  homologous  ;  but  to  simply 
state  the  fact  that,  in  point  of  time,  the  hold-fast  root  developed  before 
the  feeding  root  did,  and  that  this  change  was  plainly  one  of  adaptation. 
Specialized  forms  of  flowering  plants,  which  inhabit  water,  still  show  a 
root  system  which  is  little  more  than  an  anchor,  and  the  foliage  actively 
absorbs  water.  The  same  environmental  circumstances  are  thus  seen  to 
have  developed  organs  of  similar  physiological  character  in  widely  remote 
times  and  in  diverse  lines  of  the  plant  evolution.  "As  the  soil  slowly 
became  thicker  and  thicker,"  writes  King  in  his  book  upon  The  Soil,  "as 
its  water-holding  power  increased,  as  the  soluble  plant  food  became  more 
abundant,  and  as  the  winds  and  the  rains  covered  at  times  with  soil  por- 
tions of  the  purely  superficial  and  aerial  early  plants,  the  days  of  sunshine 
between  passing  showers,  and  the  weeks  of  drought  intervening  between 
periods  of  rain,  became  the  occasions  for  utilizing  the  moisture  which  the 
soil  had  held  back  from  the  sea.  These  conditions,  coupled  with  the  uni- 
versal tendency  of  life  to  make  the  most  of  its  surroundings,  appear  to 
have  induced  the  evolution  of  absorbing  elongations,  which,  by  slow  de- 
grees and  centuries  of  repetition,  came  to  be  the  true  roots  of  plants  as 
we  now  know  them."  Some  aquatic  flowering  plants  are,  as  we  have 
seen,  still  practically  rootless  and  they  absorb  the  greater  part  of  their 
food  directly  by  the  foliar  parts  ;  but  the  larger  number  of  the  higher 
plants  absorb  their  mineral  food  by  means  of  what  has  come  to  be  a  sub- 
terranean feeding  organ,  and  the  foliar  jiarts  have  developed  into  gas- 
absorbing  organs  and  they  take  in  water  only  when  forced  to  do  so  under 
stress  of  circumstances. 


1896.]  ^^^  [Bailey. 

But  as  a  mere  feeding  organ,  the  root  requires  no  fibrous  structure.  It 
is  still  a  hold-fast  or  grapple  and  its  mechanical  tissue  has  developed 
enormously,  along  with  that  of  the  stem,  in  order  to  preserve  the  plant 
against  the  strain  of  the  moving  elements  and  to  maintain  its  erectness  in 
aerial  life.  When  this  self-poised  epoch  arrives,  the  vegetable  world  be- 
gins its  definite  and  steady  ascent  in  ceutrogenic  form.  Whilst  the  ani- 
mal creation  leaves  its  centrogenic  arrangement  earlj'  in  its  own  time- 
scale,  the  plant  creation  assumes  such  arrangement  at  a  comparatively 
late  epoch  in  its  time-scale. 

Perhaps  the  best  illustration  which  I  can  bring  you  of  the  origin  of  the 
unlike  by  means  of  environmental  conditions  and  the  survival  of  some 
of  this  unlikeness  in  the  battle  for  life,  is  the  development  of  the  winter 
quiescence  of  plants.  What  means  all  this  bursting  verdure  of  the  liquid 
April  days?  Why  this  annually  returning  miracle  of  the  sudden  expan- 
sion of  the  leaf  and  flower  from  the  lifeless  twigs  ?  Were  plants  always 
so  ?  Were  they  designed  to  pass  so  much  of  their  existence  in  the  quies- 
cent and  passive  condition  ?  No.  The  first  ph'ints  had  no  well-defined 
cycles,  and  they  were  born  to  live,  not  to  die.  There  were  probably  no 
alternations  of  seasons  in  the  primordial  world.  Day  alternated  with 
night,  but  month  succeeded  month  in  almost  unbroken  sameness  age  after 
age.  As  late  as  the  Carboniferous  time,  according  to  Dana,  the  globe  "  was 
nowhere  colder  than  the  modern  temperate  zone,  or  below  a  mean  tem- 
perature of  60^  F."  The  earth  had  become  wonderfully  diverse  by  the 
close  of  the  Cretaceous  time,  and  the  cycads  and  their  kin  retreated  from  the 
poles.  Plants  grew  the  year  round  ;  and  as  physical  conditions  became 
diverse  and  the  conflict  of  existence  increased,  the  older  and  the  weaker 
died.  So  a  limit  to  duration,  that  is,  death,  became  impressed  upon  the  indi- 
viduals of  the  creation  ;  for  death,  as  seen  by  the  evolutionist,  is  not  an 
original  property  of  life-matter,  but  is  an  acquired  character,  a  result  of 
the  survival  of  the  fittest.  The  earth  was  perhaps  ages  old,  even  after 
life  began,  before  it  ever  saw  a  natural  death  ;  but  without  death  all 
things  must  finally  have  come  to  a  standstill.  When  it  became  possible 
to  sweep  away  the  old  types,  opportunity  was  left  for  new  ones  ;  and  so 
the  ascent  must  continue  so  long  as  physical  conditions,  wiiich  are  not 
absolutely  prohibitive  of  life,  shall  become  unlike. 

Species  have  acquired  different  degrees  of  longevity,  the  same  as  they 
have  acquired  difterent  sizes  and  shapes  and  habits — by  adaptation  to  their 
conditions  of  life.  Annual  plants  comprise  about  half  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  and  these  are  probably  all  specializations  of  comparatively  late 
time.  Probably  the  greater  part  of  them  were  originally  adaptations  to 
shortening  periods  of  growth,  that  is,  to  seasonal  changes.  The  gardener, 
by  forceful  cultivation  and  by  transferring  plants  towards  the  poles,  is 
able  to  make  annuals  of  perennials.  Now,  a  true  annual  is  a  plant  which 
normally  ripens  its  seeds  and  dies  before  the  coming  of  frost.  Many  of 
our  garden  plants  are  annuals  only  because  they  are  killed  by  frost.  Thej^ 
naturally  have  a  longer  season  than  our  climate  will  admit,  and  some  of 

PKOC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  150.  N.      PRINTED  JULY  9,  1896. 


Bailey.]  -^-^^  [May  1, 

them  are  true  perennials  in  their  native  liomes.  These  plants  are,  with 
us,  plur-annuals,  and  amongst  them  are  the  tomato,  red  pepper,  eggplant, 
potato,  castor  bean,  cotton,  Lima  bean  and  many  others.  But  there  are 
some  varieties  of  potatoes  and  other  plants  which  have  now  developed  into 
true  annuals,  normally  completing  their  entire  growth  before  the  approach 
of  frost.  It  is  all  the  result  of  adaptation  to  climate,  and  essentially  the 
same  phenomenon  is  the  development  of  the  annual  and  biennal  flora  of 
the  earth  from  the  perennial.  An  interesting  example  of  the  eflFect  of 
climate  upon  the  seasonal  duration  of  plants  is  the  indeterminate  or  pro- 
longed growth  of  plants  in  England  as  compared  with  the  same  plants  in 
America.  The  cooler  summer  and  very  gradual  approach  of  winter  in 
England  develop  a  late  and  indefinite  maturity  of  the  season's  growth. 
When  English  plants  are  grown  in  America,  they  usually  grow  until 
killed  by  fall  frosts  ;  but  after  a  few  generations  of  plants,  they  acquire 
the  quick  and  decisive  habit  of  ripening  which  is  so  characteristic  of  our 
vegetation.  I  once  made  an  extended  test  of  onions  from  English  and 
American  seeds  (Bull.  31,  Mich.  Agric.  College),  and  was  astonished  to 
find  that  nearly  all  of  the  English  varieties  continued  to  grow  until  frost 
and  failed  "to  bottom,"  whilst  our  domestic  varieties  ripened  up  in  ad- 
vance of  freezing  weather.  This  was  true  even  of  the  Yellow  Danvers 
and  Red  Wethersfield,  varieties  of  American  origin  and  which  could  not 
have  been  grown  very  many  years  in  England.  Every  horticulturist  of 
much  experience  must  have  noticed  similar  unmistakable  influences  of 
climate  upon  the  duration  of  plants. 

A  most  interesting  type  of  examples  of  the  quick  influence  of  climate 
upon  plants — not  only  upon  their  duration  but  upon  habit  and  structural 
characters— is  that  associated  with  the  growing  of  "stock  seed"  by 
seedsmen.  Because  of  uncertainties  of  weather  in  the  Eastern  States,  it 
is  now  the  practice  to  grow  seeds  of  onions,  Lima  beans  and  other  plants 
in  California  or  other  warm  regions  ;  but  the  plants  so  readily  acquire  the 
habit  of  long-continuing  growth  as  to  be  thereafter  grown  with  dilficully 
in  the  Northeastern  States.  It  is,  therefore,  necessarj'  tliat  the  seedsman 
shall  raise  his  stock  seed  every  year  in  his  own  geographical  region,  and 
this  seed  is  each  year  sent  to  California  for  the  growing  of  the  commer- 
cial seed  crop.  In  other  words,  the  seed  of  California-grown  onions  is 
sold  only  for  the  purpose  of  growing  onion  bulbs  for  market,  and  is  not 
planted  for  the  raising  of  a  successive  crop  of  seed.  This  results  in  grow- 
ing only  a  single  generation  of  the  crop  in  the  warm  country.  Onion  seed 
from  stock  which  has  been  grown  in  California  for  several  years  pro- 
duces onions  which  do  not  "bottom"  well,  much  as  I  found  to  be  the 
case  with  the  English  onion  seed. 

But  many  plants,  in  geologic  time,  could  not  thus  shorten  up  their  life- 
history  to  adjust  themselves  to  the  oncoming  of  tlie  seasons.  They 
ceased  their  labors  with  the  approach  of  the  cold  or  the  dry,  tucked  up 
their  tender  tissues  in  buds  and  resigned  themselves  to  the  elements.  If 
a  man  could  have  stood  amongst  those  giant  mosses  and  fern  forests  of 


189(3.]  -Lv*  I^Ba  cy. 

the  reeking  Carboniferous  time,  and  could  have  known  of  the  refrigera- 
tion which  the  earth  was  to  undergo,  he  would  have  exclaimed  that  all 
living  things  must  utterly  perish.  Consider  the  effects  of  a  frost  in  May. 
See  its  widespread  devastation.  Yet,  six  months  hence  the  very  same 
trees  which  are  now  so  blackened,  will  defy  any  degree  of  cold.  And 
then,  to  make  good  the  loss  of  time,  these  plants  start  into  activity  rela- 
tively much  earlier  in  spring  than  the  same  species  do  in  frostless  climates. 
This  very  day,  when  frosts  are  not  yet  passed,  our  own  New  York  hill- 
sides are  greener  with  surface  vegetation  than  the  lands  of  the  Gulf 
States  are,  which  have  been  frostless  for  two  months  and  more.  The 
frogs  and  turtles,  the  insects,  the  bears  and  foxes,  all  adjust  themselves 
to  a  climate  which  seems  to  be  absolutely  prohibitive  of  life,  and  some 
animals  may  actually  freeze  during  their  hibernation,  and  yet  these  April 
days  see  them  again  in  heyday  of  life  and  spirits  !  What  a  wonderful 
transformation  is  all  this  !  This  enforced  period  of  quiescence  is  so  im- 
pressed upon  the  organization  that  the  habit  becomes  hereditary  in  plants, 
and  the  gardener  says  that  his  begonias  and  geraniums  and  callas  must 
have  a  "rest,"  or  they  will  not  thrive.  But  in  time  he  can  so  far  break 
this  habit  in  most  plants  as  to  force  them  into  activity  for  the  entire  year. 
These  budding  days  of  April,  therefore,  are  the  songs  of  release  from 
the  bondage  of  winter  which  has  come  on  as  the  earth  has  grown  aged 
and  cold. 

I  must  bring  still  one  more  illustration  of  the  survival  of  the  unlike, 
out  of  the  abundance  of  examples  which  might  be  cited.  It  is  the  fact 
that,  as  a  rule,  new  types  are  variable  and  old  types  are  inflexible.  The 
student  of  fossil  plants  will  recall  the  fact  that  the  liriodendrons,  gink- 
gos, sequoias,  sassafrasses  and  other  types  came  into  existence  with 
many  species  and  are  now  going  out  of  existence  with  one  or  two  species. 
Williams  has  considered  this  feature,  for  extinct  animal  forms,  at  some 
length  in  his  new  Geological  Biology.  "Many  species,"  he  writes, 
"which  by  their  abundance  and  good  preservation  in  fossil  state  give 
us  sufficient  evidence  in  the  case,  exhibit  greater  plasticity  in  their  char- 
acters at  the  early  stage  than  in  later  stages  of  their  history.  A  minute 
tracing  of  lines  of  succession  of  species  shows  greater  plasticity  at  the 
beginning  of  the  series  than  later,  and  this  is  expressed,  in  the  systematic 
description  and  tabulation  of  the  facts,  by  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
the  species."  "When  species  are  studied  historically,  the  law  appears 
evident  that  the  characters  of  specific  value  ....  present  a  greater 
degree  of  range  of  variability  at  an  early  stage  in  the  life-period  of 
the  genus  than  in  the  later  stages  of  that  period."  So  marked  is  this 
incoming  of  new  types  in  many  cases  that  some  students  have  supposed 
that  actual  special  creation  of  species  has  occurred  at  these  epochs.  It 
should  be  said  that  there  is  apt  to  be  a  fallacy  in  observation  in  these 
instances,  because  the  records  which  are,  to  our  vision,  simultaneous  in  the 
rocks  may  have  extended  over  ages  of  time  ;  but  it  is  nevertheless  true 
that  some  important  groups  seem  to  have  come  in  somewhat  quickly  with 


Baik'y.]  J-^O  [jlay  1, 

many  or  several  species  and  to  have  passed  out  with  exceeding  slow- 
ness. 

To  my  mind,  all  this  is  but  the  normal  result  of  the  divergence  of 
character,  or  the  survival  of  the  unlike.  A  new  type  finds  places  of  least 
conflict,  it  spreads  rapidly  and  widely,  and  thereby  varies  immensely.  It 
is  a  generalized  type,  and  therefore  adapts  itself  at  once  to  many  and 
changing  conditions.  A  virile  plant  is  introduced  into  a  country  in  which 
the  same  or  similar  plants  are  unknown,  and  immediately  it  finds  its 
opportunity  and  becomes  a  weed,  by  which  we  mean  that  it  spreads  and 
thrives  everywhere.  Darwin  and  Gray  long  ago  elucidated  this  fact. 
The  trilobites,  spirifers,  conifers,  ginkgos,  were  weed-types  of  their  time, 
the  same  as  the  composites  are  to-day.  They  were  stronger  than  their 
contemporaries,  the  same  as  our  own  weeds  are  stronger  than  the  culti- 
vated plants  with  which  they  grow.  After  a  time,  the  new  types  outran 
their  opportunity,  the  remorseless  struggle  for  existence  tightened  in  upon 
them,  the  intermediate  unlikenesses  had  been  blotted  out,  and  finally  only 
one  or  two  tj^pes  remained,  struggling  on  through  the  ages,  but  doomed 
to  perish  with  the  continuing  changes  of  the  earth.  They  became  spe- 
cialized and  inelastic  ;  and  the  highlj^  specialized  is  necessarily  doomed  to 
extinction.  Such  remnants  of  a  vanquished  host  remain  to  us  in  our 
single  liriodendron,  the  single  ginkgo  and  sassafras,  and  the  depleted 
ranks  of  the  conifers. 

My  attention  was  first  called  to  this  line  of  thought  by  contemplating 
upon  the  fact  that  cultivated  plants  difter  widely  in  variability,  and  I  was 
struck  by  the  fact  that  many  of  our  most  inextricably  variable  groups — as 
the  cucurbits,  maize,  citrus  and  the  great  tribes  of  composites — are  still 
unknown  in  a  fossil  state,  presumably  because  of  their  recent  origin. 
Many  other  variable  genera,  to  be  sure,  are  well  represented  in  fossil 
species,  as  roses  (although  these  are  as  late  as  the  Eocene),  pyrus,  pru- 
nus  and  musa  ;  but  absolute  age  is  not  so  significant  as  the  comparative 
age  of  the  type,  for  types  which  originated  very  far  back  may  be  yet  in 
the  comparative  youth  of  their  development.  The  summary  conclusions 
of  a  discussion  of  this  subject  were  presented  to  the  American  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science  two  j'ears  ago.*  A  modification  of 
these  points,  as  I  now  understand  them,  would  run  something  as  follows  : 

1.  There  is  a  wide  difference  in  variability  in  cultivated  plants.  Some 
Bpecies  vary  enormously,  and  others  very  little. 

3.  This  variability  is  not  correlated  with  age  of  cultivation,  degree  of 
cultivation,  or  geographical  distribution. 

3.  Variability  of  cultivated  plants  must  be  largely  influenced  and 
directed,  therefore,  by  some  antecedent  causes. 

4.  The  chief  antecedent  factor  in  directing  this  variability  is  probably 
the  age  of  the  type.  New  types,  in  geologic  time,  are  polymorphous; 
old  types  are  monomorphous  and  are  tending  towards  extinction.  The 
most  flexible  types  of  cultivated  plants  are  such  as  have  probablj'  not  yet 

*  Proc.  A.A.A.S.  189-1,  255  ;  Botanical  Gazette,  xix.  3S1. 


189G.]  ^^'^  [Bailey. 

passed  their  zenith,  as  the  cucurbits,  composites,  begouias  and  the  lilve. 
The  varieties  of  cereals,  which  are  old  types,  are  so  much  alike  that  expert 
knowledge  is  needed  to  distinguish  them. 

5.  New  types  are  more  variable  and  flexible  because  less  perfectly 
moulded  into  and  adjusted  to  the  circumstances  of  life  than  the  old  types 
are.  They  have  not  yet  reached  the  limits  of  their  dissemination  and 
variation.     They  are  generalized  forms. 

The  reader  will  please  observe  that  I  have  here  regarded  the  origin  and 
survival  of  the  unlike  in  the  plant  creation  in  the  sense  of  a  plastic 
material  which  is  acted  upon  by  every  external  stimulus  and  which  must 
necessarily  vary  from  the  very  force  of  its  acquired  power  of  growth,  and 
the  unlikenesses  are  preserved  because  they  are  unlike.  I  have  no  sym- 
pathy with  the  too  prevalent  idea  that  all  the  attributes  of  plants  are  direct 
adaptations  or  that  they  are  developed  as  mere  protections  from  environ- 
ment and  associates.  There  is  a  type  of  popular  writings  which  attempts 
to  evolve  many  of  the  forms  of  plants  as  a  mere  protection  from  assumed 
enemies.  Perhaps  the  plant  features  which  have  been  most  abused  in 
this  manner,  are  the  spines,  prickles  and  the  like,  and  the  presence  of 
acrid  or  poisonous  qualities.  As  a  sample  of  this  type  of  writing,  I  will 
make  an  extract  from  Massee's  Plant  World  : 

"Amongst  the  most  prominent  and  general  modes  of  protection  of 
vegetative  parts  against  the  attacks  of  living  enemies  may  be  mentioned 
prickles,  as  in  roses  and  brambles,  which  may  either  be  straight,  and  thus 
prevent  the  nibblings  of  animals,  or,  in  more  advanced  species,  curved, 
thus  enabling  the  weak  stem  to  climb  and  carry  its  leaves  out  of  harm's 
way.  Spines,  that  are  sharp-pointed  abortive  branches,  serving  the  same 
purpose  as  prickles,  as  in  the  common  sloe  or  blackthorn  (Prunus  spinosa). 
Rigid  hairs  on  leaves  and  stem,  as  in  the  borage  {Borago  officinalis),  and 
comfrey  {Symphytum  officinale).  Stinging  Jiairs,  as  in  the  common  net- 
tles {Urtica  dioica,  and  TJ.  urens).  In  these  cases  the  stinging  hairs  are 
mixed  on  the  leaves  and  stem  with  ordinary  rigid  hairs,  of  which  they 
are  higher  developments,  distinguished  by  the  lower  or  basal  swollen 
portion  of  the  hair  containing  an  irritating  liquid  that  is  ejected  wlien  the 
tip  of  the  hair  is  broken  off.  Bitter  taste,  often  accompanied  by  a  strong 
scent,  as  in  wormwood  (Artemisia  vulgaris),  chamomile  {Anthemis  nohilis), 
and  the  leaves  and  fruit  of  the  walnut  (Juglans  regia).  Poisonous  alka- 
loids, as  in  the  species  of  Strychnos,  which  contain  two  very  poisonous 
alkaloids,  strychnine  and  brucine,  in  the  root  and  the  seeds  ;  decoctions 
of  species  of  Strychnos  are  used  by  the  Javanese  and  the  natives  of  South 
America  to  poison  their  arrows.  Some  of  the  species,  as  Strychnos  nux- 
vomica,  are  valuable  medicines,  depending  on  the  strychnine  they  contain, 
which  acts  as  a  powerful  excitant  of  the  spiijal  cord  and  nerves  ;  thus  the 
most  effective  protective  arrangements  evolved  by  plants  can  be  turned 
to  account,  and  consequently  lead  to  the  destruction  of  the  individuals 
they  were  designed  to  protect.  Our  common  arum  (Arum  maculat2im), 
popularly  known  as    'Lords  and  Ladies,'    has  an  intensely  acrid  sub- 


Bailey.]  J-1"  [Mayl, 

stance  present  in  the  leaves,  which  effectually  protects  it  from  the  attacks 
of  mammals  and  caterpillars,  but  not  from  the  attacks  of  parasitic  fungi, 
which  appear  to  be  indifferent  to  all  protective  contrivances  exhibited  by- 
plants,  nearly  every  plant  supporting  one  or  more  of  these  minute  pests, 
the  effects  of  which  will  be  realized  by  mentioning  the  potato  disease, 
'  rust '  and  'smut '  in  the  various  cereals,  and  the  hop  disease,  all  due  to 
parasitic  fungi." 

Now,  this  is  merely  a  gratuitous  and  ad  captandruvi  species  of  argu- 
ment, one  which  is  designed  to  please  the  fancy  and  io  satisfy  those  super- 
ficial spirits  who  are  still  determined  to  read  the  element  of  design  into 
organic  nature.  It  does  not  account  for  the  facts.  These  particular 
attributes  of  plants  are  specialized  features,  and  it  is  always  unsafe  to 
generalize  upon  specializations.  Each  and  every  one  of  such  specialized 
features  must  be  investigated  for  itself  Probably  the  greater  number  of 
spinous  processes  will  be  found  to  be  the  residua  following  the  contraction 
of  the  plant  body  ;  others  are  no  doubt  mere  correlatives  of  the  evolution 
of  other  attributes  ;  and  some  may  be  the  eruptions  of  the  growth-force  ; 
and  the  acrid  and  poisonous  properties  are  quite  as  likely  to  be  wholly 
secondary  and  useless  features.  The  attempt  to  find  a  definite  immediate 
use  and  office  for  every  attribute  in  the  creation  is  superficial  and  per- 
nicious. There  are  many  attributes  of  organisms  which  are  not  only  use- 
less, but  positively  dangerous  to  the  possessor,  and  they  can  be  under- 
stood only  as  one  studies  them  in  connection  with  the  long  and  eventful 
history  of  the  line  of  ascent. 

The  thought  which  I  want  to  leave  with  you,  therefore,  is  that  unlike- 
nesses  are  the  greatest  facts  in  the  organic  creation.  These  unlikenesses 
in  plants  are  (1)  the  expressions  of  the  ever-changing  environmental 
conditions  in  which  plants  grow,  and  of  the  incidental  stimuli  to 
which  they  are  exposed  ;  (2)  the  result  of  the  force  of  mere  growth  ;  (3) 
the  outcome  of  sexual  mixing.  They  survive  because  they  are  unlike, 
and  thereby  enter  fields  of  least  competition.  The  possibility  of  the  entire 
tragic  evolution  lay  in  the  plasticity  of  the  original  life-plasma.  The 
plastic  creation  has  grown  into  its  own  needs  day  by  day  and  age  by  age, 
and  it  is  now  just  what  it  has  been  obliged  to  be.  It  could  have  been 
nothing  else. 

Eemarks  by  Prof  L.  H.  Bailey . 

Prof.  Cope  has  given  us  three  general  proofs  or  series  of  proofs  of  evo- 
lution. In  the  first  place  he  says  there  is  variation  ;  in  the  second  place 
succession  ;  and  in  the  third  place  we  have  the  proof  of  embryology.  I 
might  subdivide  them  and  might  add  two  or  three  more  proofs  which 
appeal  to  me  with  particular  force.  It  seems  to  me  that  we  must  accept 
the  truth  of  evolution  on  the  mere  f\ict  that  the  earth  from  its  beginning 
has  undergone  wonderful  physical  changes,  affecting  the  organisms  living 
upon  it,  and  which  must  have  adapted  themselves  to  the  changes  by  them- 


1S96.]  -L-l-L  [Bailey— Brintou. 

selves  changing.  In  the  second  place,  we  know  that  there  must  be  an  in- 
tense struggle  for  existence  amongst  all  forms  of  life  ;  that  the  result  of 
this  struggle  for  existence  must  be  adaptation  to  the  organic  environment. 
Again,  another  line  of  proof  that  evolution  is  true  is  the  classiflcatory 
verification.  The  very  fragment  of  the  tree  of  life  whicli  Prof.  Cope  has 
put  upon  the  board  is  an  evidence  that  there  are  converging  histories  of 
animals,  or,  in  other  words,  that  there  are  relationships.  But  tlie  proof 
which  appeals  to  me  most  stronglj'  is  the  fact  that  gardeners  and  breeders 
have  it  in  their  power  to  make  new  forms  and  that  they  have  been  making 
them  since  man  began  to  deal  with  plants  and  animals.  The  palseontolo- 
gical  and  embryological  records  do  not  appeal  to  me  with  such  force  as 
the  experiences  of  breeders  and  gardeners,  who  for  ages  have  been  modi- 
fying plants  and  animals  almost  to  suit  their  will.  This,  of  course,  sug- 
gests that  I  am  not  skilled  in  the  sciences  of  paleontology  and  embryology; 
but  have  given  more  attention  to  gardening. 

I  assume  that  you  all  believe  in  evolution.  Heredity  is  not  a  necessary 
attribute  of  the  theories  of  evolution.  It  is  a  matter  for  the  physiologists 
and  the  embryologists  to  discuss  rather  than  for  one  who  looks  broadly  at 
nature  and  tries  to  discover  some  of  the  general  and  fundamental  facts 
which  have  determined  the  onward  progress  of  creation.  I  wish  to  call 
your  attention  to  the  facts  of  the  origin  of  differences.  I  speak  of  differ- 
ences rather  than  of  variations. 

Dr.  D.  G.  Brinton  made  the  following  remarks : 

We  have  listened  with  interest  to  this  able  exposition  of  the  principles 
of  evolution  from  three  eminent  scholars  approaching  it  from  different 
points  of  view.  The  question  proposed,  however,  was  one  which  was 
intended  to  go  beyond  the  mere  facts  of  natural  science.  Facts  are  not 
factors.  The  word  means  something  more,  something  deeper.  When  we 
have  these  series  of  facts  laid  before  us,  however  interesting  they  may  be, 
they  do  not  themselves  express  the  primary  law  of  evolution,  but  are 
merely  a  number  of  incidents  illustrative  of  it.  Therefore  I  think  that  the 
first  speaker  in  his  clear  descriptions  of  the  palceontologic  evolutionary 
claims  gave  us  little  information  as  to  the  factors  which  brought  them 
about. 

We  shall  no  doubt  grant,  as  was  urged  by  the  second  speaker,  that 
there  are  extrinsic  and  intrinsic  factors  of  evolution  ;  but  what  he 
advanced  as  extrinsic  factors  were  again  series  of  external  facts,  and  his 
intrinsic  factors  were  series  of  Internal  facts  or  processes.  The  law  by 
virtue  of  which  they  acted  upon  organic  forms  so  as  to  produce  a  varying 
morphology  was  not,  it  seems  to  me,  definitely  stated. 

By  the  third  speaker  the  doctrine  of  evolution  has  been  put  forward  as 
a  sort  of  religious  dogma  of  the  scientific  church.  For  myself,  I  cannot 
look  upon  it  in  that  light.  I  believe  I  caught  his  words  correctly  when  I 
quote  him  as  saying  that  evolution  holds  good  "  from  beginning  to  finish 


Brinton.]  -*■-'-"  [May  1, 

of  creation."  I  cannot  see  that  any  known  facts  justify  such  a  statement. 
Evolution  is  a  matter  of  the  past  not  of  the  future.  We  have  nothing  to 
do  with  the  "finish  of  creation,"  and  it  is  not  likely  that  we  know  any- 
thing about  it.  Such  a  dogma  has  no  place  in  scientific  bodies.  All  we 
know  is,  that  of  the  many  millions  of  organized  species  a  few  have  devel- 
oped into  higher  forms,  while  the  immense  majority  have  perished  utterly. 
We  have  no  guarantee  but  that  evolution  has  reached  its  acme  and  may 
cease  to-night.  Let  us  hold  it,  therefore,  as  a  fact  of  past  time,  not  as  a 
dogma  of  faith  regarding  the  future. 

Turning  now  to  the  question  of  the  evening.  What  are  the  ultimate 
factors  or  primary  causes,  so  far  as  we  can  trace  them,  which  liave  influ- 
enced and  do  influence  the  development  of  organic  forms?  For  an 
answer  I  turn  to  an  expression  once  used  by  my  teacher,  Prof.  James  D. 
Dana,  whose  name  is  a  household  word  to  every  man  of  science.  His  sug- 
gestive expression  was,  "The  whole  of  Nature  is  bound  in  a  straight- 
jacket  of  mathematics."  It  means  that  we  must  go  back  to  the  purely 
mechanical  forces  of  the  universe,  if  we  would  find  the  primary  factors 
of  organic  variation.  The  last  speaker  well  said  that  mutability, 
change,  not  permanence,  is  the  law  of  organic  life.  He  developed  it 
admirably  in  his  references  to  the  like  and  the  unlike,  and  in  his  state- 
ment that  unlikeness  is  really  the  secret  of  advance.  This  theory,  as 
doubtless  some  will  remember,  was  that  brought  forward  with  force  and 
beauty  by  the  late  eminent  Dr.  Pasteur  in  his  remarkable  papers  on 
Asymmetry  as  the  source  of  change  in  both  the  organic  and  inorganic 
worlds.  Unquestionably  he  was  right.  Change  is  the  law  of  the  uni- 
verse. It  is  no  new  perception  of  the  thinking  mind.  Nigli  two  thou- 
sand years  ago  the  philosopher  Heraclitus  of  Ephesus  laid  down  the 
principle,  "All  is  flowing,"  ravra  pet.  No  two  organic  forms  are 
alike,  or  can  be  alike.  The  son  is  never  the  image  of  his  father ; 
the  plant  never  finds  in  its  product  the  precise  reproduction  of  itself. 
You  remember  how  Leibnitz  amused  the  ladies  of  the  court  by  liaving 
them  try  to  find  two  leaves  of  an  oak  which  were  alike.  They  tried  in 
vain.  Never  anywhere  is  uniformity  or  identity  ;  everywhere  is  indefi- 
nite, infinite  variability. 

What  is  the  explanation  of  this? 

I  ask  your  attention  again  to  the  mechanical  principles  of  nature.  To 
them  alone  must  we  return  when  we  search  for  primary  agencies  of 
change.  All  organic  and  inorganic  substances  are  constantly  subject  to 
the  innumerable  forces  which  play  upon  them  from  all  parts  of  the  uni- 
verse. Every  atom  of  earth  is  influenced  by  each  distant  star.  Con- 
stantly each  atom  is  bombarded  by  thousands,  by  millions  of  forces,  and 
its  changes  are  the  resultants  of  these. 

The  primary  laws  of  motion  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  the  Principia 
of  Newton  are  also  the  primary  causes  both  of  the  permanence  and  the 
variability  of  organic  forms.  His  first  law — that  motion  would  continue 
forever  in  the  same  direction  unless  interfered  with  by  other  motion  in 


-I  1  o 

Iggfi.]  1.  ifJ  [Brinton— Bailey. 

another  direction — gives  us  tlie  stability  of  species,  the  potent  tendency 
of  the  individual  to  transmit  the  specific  characteristics,  the  maintenance 
of  traits  by  tiie  aierminal  protoplasm,  as  brought  out  by  the  second 
speaker.     It  is  the  conaius  in  se  perseverare  of  Spinoza. 

The  second  law  of  motion  is  the  basis  of  all  change  and  variation  It 
is,  as  doubtless  you  remember,  that  change  of  motion  is  proportional  to 
force  and  takes  place  in  the  line  of  the  force.  Infinite  forces  infinitely 
different  in  power  are  forever  acting  on  every  atom,  and  its  changes  are 
the  resultants  of  them  all. 

These  ceaseless  changes  are  purely  mechanical,  and  mechanical  laws 
produce  their  results  absolutely  without  regard  to  future  aims,  absolutely 
indifferent  to  the  quality  of  results,  whether  towards  evolution  or  degen- 
eration. For  that  reason.  I  repeat  that  any  dogmatic  assumption  of  evo- 
lution as  a  law  of  nature  is  unscientific.  Of  a  million  changes,  a  few  may 
act  in  so  strengthening  the  energy  of  the  primary  and  permanent  char- 
acters that  they  will  resist  the  deterrent  or  subversive  action  of  other 
forces  So  far  as  we  know,  this  is  mere  chance.  Purely  mechanical 
forces  decide  the  progress  of  a  species  or  its  extinction.  Beyond  such 
mechanical,  raathematical  laws,  natural  science  has  no  right  to  go. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  say  a  few  words  in  reference  to  "sports,"  a 
topic  introduced  by  the  last  speaker.  These  sudden  and  exteoeive 
changes  received  the  careful  attention  of  Darwin,  who  in  his  work  on  the 
Domestication  of  Animals  and  Plants,  refers  to  it  by  the  term  "spontane- 
ous variation  .  .  .  ."  He  pointed  out  that  in  some  cases  it  is  extraordi- 
narily great  and  also  permanent,  as  in  the  instance  of  the  niata  cattle  in 
La  Plata.  In  the  vegetable  world,  Mr.  Meehan  has  illustrated  this  form 
of  change  by  numerous  and  striking  examples.  The  last  speaker  men- 
tioned that  the  lines  of  species  had  not  been  traced  through  sports.  I 
would  call  attention  to  the  obvious  fact  that  the  origin  of  what  are  called 
specific  peculiarities  from  a  sport  would  be  likely  to  cause  the  scientific 
investigator  to  lose  the  trail  at  that  point.  Darwin  says  that  nothing  but 
the  record  would  reconcile  us  to  believing  that  such  sports  as  some  he 
describes  issued  from  the  species  to  which  they  belong. 

How  unconsidered  then  is  the  remark  of  the  last  speaker  in  reference 
to  those  who  have  suggested  that  man  himself  may  have  owed  his  specific 
peculiarity  to  such  an  origin  !  There  is  nothing  impossible  in  this,  noth- 
ing incredible,  nothing  absurd.  When  our  ancestors  ascended  from  the 
plane  of  the  beast  to  that  of  reasoning  intelligence,  a  part  of  the  path 
may  have  been  won  by  one  of  those  bounds  which  have  been  called  salta- 
tory evolution.  There  is  nothing  in  this  contrary  to  either  theory  or 
observation.  It  is  supported  by  both  ;  and  having  once  gained  that 
higher  plane,  they  would  not  willingly  have  forfeited  its  advantages. 

Farther  remarks  by  Prof.  L.  H.  Bailey: 

Dr.  Brinton  has  quoted  me  as  saying,  "  From  beginning  to  finish  of 
creation,  evolution  is  true."     He  quoted  me  correctly.     That  fs  my  own 


Bailey.]  ^  ^^  [Mayl.  1S9G. 

conviction.  I  have  no  proof.  I  have  no  proof  that  the  sun  will  rise  to- 
morrow. But  the  greater  the  collection  of  facts  and  of  data  which  we 
make  respecting  the  evolution  of  the  world  in  the  past,  the  more  are  tlie 
clianges  seen  to  be  continuous  and  gradual  ;  and  it  seems  to  me  that  if 
evolution  has  taught  us  anything  it  has  been  to  show  that  there  is  a  law 
of  evolution,  continuous  throughout  time.  I  believe,  myself,  that  evolu- 
tion is  true  from  beginning  to  finish  of  creation  ;  and  if  we  could  not 
prophesy  that  our  race  has  nobler  possibilities  for  the  future  I  should  lose 
my  zest  to  live. 

Spontaneous  variations  are  not  necessarily  sports  in  the  sense  in  which 
I  refer  to  them.  Sports  are  those  forms  of  variation  which  appear  to  lie 
outside  the  general  or  customary  type  of  variation  of  the  species — or  phy- 
lum— with  which  we  are  dealing.  They  are  those  forms  which  are  so 
unusual  as  to  be  ordinarily  considered  to  be  a  taxonomic  variety  or  divi- 
sion or  subspecies.  Tiie  causes  of  sports  are  unknown  to  us,  as  are  also 
the  causes  of  all  spontaneous  differences  whicli  may  be  of  much  less 
moment.  The  fact  that  Darwin  dwelt  upon  the  origin  of  sports  in  domes- 
tic animals  is  a  matter  which  I  discussed  in  my  paper  and,  I  believe,  it  is 
the  chief  line  of  effort  in  which  man's  work  differs  from  nature's — the  fact 
that  he  does  save  the  sports  and  breed  them  up.  I  have  no  evidence 
that  nature  does  the  same  ;  and  so  far  as  the  plant  creation  is  concerned, 
I  am  more  and  more  convinced  that  sports  have  had  but  comparatively 
small  influence  upon  the  phylogenies  of  our  present  types. 

I  wish  to  add  just  one  word  in  reference  to  a  matter  which  Prof.  Conk- 
lin  introduced.  He  took  issue  with  Prof.  Cope  with  respect  to  the  doc- 
trine of  natural  selection  and  the  notion  that  Darwin  did  not  attempt  to 
account  for  variation.  The  doctrine  of  natural  selection  itself  does  not  ac- 
count for  variation.  It  has  been  the  misfortune  of  Darwin's  writings  that 
his  doctrine  of  natural  selection  has  been  so  emphasized  as  to  overshadow 
everything  else  which  he  did.  Amongst  the  causes  of  variability  which 
Darwin  enumerates  are  external  stimuli,  soil,  weather,  food,  climate  and 
other  impinging  factors  ;  so  that  Darwin  conceived  the  idea  that  imping- 
ing stimuli  were  the  causes  of  variations  which,  when  they  have  arisen, 
have  been  bred  up  by  natural  selection. 


him  the  communication,  description,  or  model,  except  tlie  officer  to 
whom  it  shall  be  entrusted ;  noi  shall  such  officer  part  with  the  same 
out  of  his  custody,  without  a  special  order  of  the  Society  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

6.  The  Society,  having  previously  referred  the  several  communica- 
tions from  candidates  for  the  premium,  then  depending,  to  the  consid- 
eration of  the  twelve  counsellors  and  other  officers  of  the  Society,  and 
havmg  received  their  report  thereon,  shall,  at  one  of  their  stated  meet- 
ings in  the  month  of  December,  annually,  after  the  expiration  of  this 
current  year  (of  the  time  and  place,  together  with  the  particular  occa- 
sion of  which  meeting  due  notice  shall  be  previously  given,  by  public 
advertisement)  proceed  to  final  adjudication  of  the  said  premium ;  and, 
after  due  consideration  had,  a  vote  shall  first  betaken  on  this  question, 
viz. :  "Whether  any  of  the  communications  then  under  inspection  be 
worthy  of  the  proposed  premium  V  If  this  question  be  determined  in 
the  negative,  tlie  whole  business  shall  be  deferred  till  another  year; 
but  if  in  the  affirmative,  the  Society  shall  proceed  to  determine  by 
ballot,  given  by  the  members  at  large,  the  discovery,  invention  or  im- 
provement most  useful  and  worthy;  and  that  discovery,  invention,  or 
improvement  which  shall  be  found  to  have  a  majority  of  concurring 
votes  in  its  favor  shall  be  successful;  and  then,  and  not  till  then,  the 
sealed  letter  accompanying  the  crowned  performance  shall  be  opened, 
and  the  name  of  the  author  announced  as  the  person  entitled  to  tlit 
said  premium. 

7.  No  member  of  the  Society  who  is  a  candidate  for  the  premiua. 
then  depending,  or  who  hath  not  previously  declared  to  the  Society, 
that  he  has  considered  and  weighed,  according  to  the  best  of  his  judg- 
ment, the  comparative  merits  of  the  several  claims  then  under  consid- 
eration, shall.sit  in  judgment,  or  give  his  vote  in  awarding  the  said  pre- 
mium. 

8.  A  full  account  of  the  crowned  subject  shall  be  published  by  the  So- 
ciety, as  soon  as  may  be  after  the  adjudication,  either  in  a  separate  pub- 
lication, or  in  the  next  succeeding  volume  of  their  Transactions,  or  in 
both. 

9.  The  unsuccessful  performances  shall  remain  under  consideration, 
and  their  authors  be  considered  as  candidates  for  the  premium  for  five 
years  next  succeeding  the  time  of  their  presentment ;  except  such  per- 
formances as  their  authors  may,  in  the  meantime,  think  fit  to  withdraw. 
And  the  Society  shall  annually  publish  an  abstract  of  the  titles,  object, 
or  subject  matter  of  the  communications,  so  under  consideration ;  such 
only  excepted  as  the  Society  shall  think  not  worthy  of  public  notice. 

10.  The  letters  containing  the  names  of  authors  whose  performances 
shall  be  rejected,  or  which  shall  be  found  unsuccessful  after  a  trial  of 
five  years,  shall  be  burnt  before  the  Society ,  without  breaking  the  seals. 

11.  In  case  there  should  be  a  failure,  in  any  year,  of  any  communi- 
cation worthy  of  the  proposed  premium,  there  will  then  be  two  pr>s- 
miums  to  be  awarded  the  next  year.  But  no  accumulation  of  premiums 


shall  entitle  the  author  to  more  than  one  premium  for  any  one  discov- 
ery, invention  or  improvement. 

12.  The  premium  shall  consist  of  an  oval  plate  of  solid  standard  gold 
of  the  value  of  ten  guineas.  On  one  side  thereof  shall  be  neatly  en- 
graved a  short  Latin  motto  suited  to  the  occasion,  together  with  the 
words:  "  The  Premium  of  John  Hyacinth  de  Magellan,  of  London, 
established  in  the  year  178(3 ;"  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  plate  shall  be 
engraved  these  words:     "Awarded  by  the  A.  P.  S.  for  the  discovery 

of A.D. ."    And  the  seal  of  the  Society  shall  be  annexed 

to  the  medal  by  a  ribbon  passing  through  a  small  hole  at  the  lower 
edge  thereof. 

Section  2.  The  Magellanic  fund  of  two  hundred  guineas  shall  be 
considered  as  ten  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  and  shall  be  invested  sepa- 
rately from  the  other  funds  belonging  to  or  under  the  care  of  the  So- 
ciety, and  a  separate  and  distinct  account  of  it  shall  be  kept  by  the 
treasurer. 

The  said  fund  shall  be  credited  with  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars, 
LO  represent  the  two  premiums  for  which  the  Society  is  now  liable. 

The  treasurer  shall  credit  the  said  fund  with  the  interest  received  on 
the  investment  thereof,  and,  if  any  surplus  of  said  interest  shall  remain 
after  providing  for  the  premiums  which  may  then  be  demandable,  said 
surplus  shall  be  used  by  the  Society  for  making  publication  of  the 
terms  of  the  said  premium,  and  for  such  purposes  as  may  be  authorized 
by  its  charter  and  laws.     ; 

The  treasurer  shall,  at  the  first  stated  meeting  of  the  Society  in  the 
month  of  December  annually,  make  a  report  of  the  state  of  said  fund 
and  of  the  investment  thereof. 


f^W  Members  who  have  not  as  yet  sent  their  photographs 
to  the  Society  will  confer  a  favor  by  so  doing ;  cabinet  size 
preferred. 

m^"  Members  will  please  communicate  any  change  of  address  or  inac- 
curacy in  name. 

IW  A  few  sets  of  the  Society's  Transactions,  New  Series,  1818  to  1893, 
XVIII  vols.,  4to,  can  be  obtained  from  the  Librarian.     Price  $90.00. 


PEOCEEDINGS 

OF    THE 

AMERICAN    PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY, 

HELD  AT  PHILADELPHIA,  M  PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 

Vol.  XXXV.     Lf^U^     August,  1896.  No.  151. 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Stated  Meeting,  May  15,  1896 115 

The  Joly  Process  of  Color  Photography  (with  one  plate).   By  Julius 
F.  Sachse 119 

Second  Contribution  to  the  History  of  the  Cotylosanria  (with  four 
plates).     By  E.  D.  Cope 123 

Sixth  Contribution    to  the  Knowledge  of  the  Marine  Miocene 
Fauna  of  North  America  (with  two  i^lates).    By E.  D.  Cope.  •    139 

Notes  on  the  Osteology  of  the  White    River   Horses    (with  one 
plate).   By  Marcus  8.  Farr 147 

On  Natural  Selection  and  Separation.      By  Arnold  E.    Ortmann    175 


"It  is  requested  that  the  receipt  of  this  number  be  acknowledged. 
i^^In  order  to  secure  prompt  attention  it  is  requested  that  all  corre- 
spondence be  addressed  simply  "To  the  Secretaries  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  104  S.  Fifth  St.,  Philadelphia." 


Published   for    the    Society 

BY 

MacCALLA  &  COMPANY  INC., 

NOS.    237-9    DOCK    STREET,    PHILADELPHIA. 


EXTRACT  FROM  THE  LAWS. 


CHAPTEK  XII. 


OF  THE  MAGELLANIC  FUND. 


Section  1 .  John  Hyacinth  de  Magellan,  in  London,  having  in  the  year 
1786  offered  to  the  Society ,  as  a  donation,  the  sum  of  two  hundred  guineas, 
to  be  by  them  vested  in  a  secure  and  permanent  fund,  to  the  end  that 
the  interest  arising  therefrom  should  be  annually  disposed  of  in  pre- 
miums, to  be  adjudged  by  them  to  the  author  of  the  best  discovery,  or 
most  useful  invention,  relating  to  ISJ'avigation,  Astronomy,  or  Natural 
Philosophy  (mere  natural  history  only  excepted)  ;  and  the  Society 
having  accepted  of  the  above  donation,  they  hereby  publish  the  condi- 
tions, prescribed  by  the  donor  and  agreed  to  by  the  Society,  upon  which 
the  said  annual  premiums  will  be  awarded. 

CONDITIONS  OF  THE  MAGELLANIC  PREMIUM. 

1.  The  candidate  shall  send  his  discovery,  invention  or  improvement, 
addressed  to  the  President,  or  one  of  the  Vice-Presidents  of  the  Society, 
free  of  postage  or  other  charges ;  and  shall  distinguish  his  performance 
by  some  motto,  device,  or  other  signature,  at  his  pleasure.  Together 
witli  his  discovery,  invention,  or  improvement,  he  shall  also  send  a 
sealed  letter  containing  the  same  motto,  device,  or  signature,  and  si;b. 
scribed  with  the  real  name  and  place  of  residence  of  the  author. 

2.  Persons  of  any  nation,  sect  or  denomination  whatever,  shall  be  ad- 
mitted as  candidates  for  this  premium. 

3.  No  discovery,  invention  or  improvement  shall  be  entitled  to  this 
premium,  which  hath  been  already  published,  or  for  which  the  author 
hath  been  publicly  rewarded  elsewhere. 

4.  The  candidate  shall  communicate  his  discovery,  invention  or  im- 
provement, either  in  the  English,  French,  German,  or  Latin  language. 

5.  All  such  communications  shall  be  publicly  read  or  exhibited  to  the 
Society  at  some  stated  meeting,  not  less  than  one  month  previous  to  the 
day  of  adjudication,  and  shall  at  all  times  be  open  to  the  inspection  of 
sucli  members  as  shall  desire  it.  But  no  member  shall  carry  home  Muth 


SEP  ;^^  1896 

May  1.3,  l>m.]  -*--L^ 

PROCEEDINGS 

OF    THE 

AMERICAN    PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY 

HELD  AT  PHILADELPHIA  FOR  PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


Vol.  XXXV.  August,  1896.  Xo.  1.51. 

/Stated  Meeting,  May  15,  1896. 

The  Treasurer,  Mr.  Price,  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  52  members. 

Minutes  of  May  1  were  read  and  approved. 

Letters  of  envoy  from  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  Cal- 
cutta ;  Observatoire  Physique  Central,  Socidt^  Imperiale  Eusse 
de  Geographic,  St.  Petersburg,  Russia;  Societas  pro  Fauna  et 
Flora  Fennica,  Helsingfors,  Finland  ;  Universite  Royale,  Lund, 
Sweden  ;  K.  Sachsische  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften, 
Leipzig ;  Bath  and  West  and  Southern  Counties  Society, 
Bath,  Eng ;  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  Eng.;  Meteoro- 
logical Office,  R.  Statistical  Society,  London,  Eng.;  Missouri 
Geological  Survey,  Jefferson  City. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  R.  Zoologisch  Gesellschaft 
"  Natura  Artis  Magistra,"  Amsterdam,  Netherlands  (148) ; 
Zool.  Botan,  Society,  The  Hague,  Holland  (148) ;  Colonial 
Museum  (148) ;  Fondalionde  P.  Teyler  van  der  Hulst,  Harlem, 
Holland  (148,  and  7rans.  xvi,  1,  2) ;  Maatschappij  der  Neder- 
landsche  Letterkunde,  Leiden,  Holland  (148)  ;  Universite 
Royale,  Lund,  Sweden  (147) ;  Prof.  Japetus  Steenstrup,  Copen- 
hagen, Denmark  (148) ;  M usee  Royal  d'Histoire  Naturelle  de 
Belgique,  Bruxelles  (148) ;  R.  and  T.  Observatory,  Prague, 
Austria  (148) ;  Dr.  H.  Rollett,  Baden  bei  Wien  (143,  146-148); 
K.  K.  Central  Anstalt,  flir  Meteorologie  und  Erdmagnetismus. 

riJOC.  AlIEE.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  lol.  O.       PRINTED  AUGUST  12,   1890. 


11^  [May  15, 

(148) ;  Dr.  Aristides  Brezina  (145) ;  Prof.  Gustav  Tschermak, 
Vienna,  Austria  (142,  144) ;  Anthropologische  Gesellschaft, 
Prof.  Dr.  Eeuleaux,  Berlin,  Prussia  (148) ;  Vogtlandische  Alter- 
tumsforschenden  Verein,  Hohenleuben,  Saxony  (148) ;  Dr.  0. 
Bohtlingk,  Prof.  I.  Victor  Carus,  Leipzig,  Saxony  (148);  K. 
Sternwarte  (148),  Dr.  Paul  Thyse,  Munich,  Bavaria  (147, 148)  ; 
K.  Geodatische  Institut,  Potsdam,  Prussia  (148);  Institut  de 
France,  Dr.  E.  T.  Hamy,  Profs.  Gaston  Maspero,  Leon  de  Rosny, 
Paris,  France  (148) ;  Mr.  Samuel  Timmins,  Arley,  Coventry, 
Eng.  (148);  Profs.  C.  A.  M.  Fennell,  R.  T.  Glazebrook,  J.  P. 
Postgate,  Cambridge,  Eng.  (148) ;  Phil,  and  Lit.  Society,  Leeds, 
Eng.;  Royal  Society,  Victoria  Institute,  R.  Astronomical 
Society,  R.  Meteorological  Society,  R.  Geological  Society, 
Royal  Institution,  R.  Geographical  Society,  Society  of  Antiqua- 
ries, R.  Statistical  Society,  Sir  Henry  Bessemer,  Col.  William 
Ludlow,  Sir  James  Paget,  Prof.  W.  C.  Unwin,  London,  Eng. 
(148);  Geographical  Society,  Manchester,  Eng.  (148);  Lit. 
and  Phil.  Society,  New  Castle-on-Tyne,  Eng.  (148) ;  Radcliffe 
Observatory,  Prof.  James  Ligge,  Oxford,  Eng.  (148);  R 
Geological  Society  of  Cornwall,  Penzance,  Eng.  (148) ;  Dr 
Isaac  Roberts,  Stariield,  Crowborough,  Sussex,  Eng.  (148) 
Nat.  Hist,  and  Phil.  Society,  Belfast,  Ireland  (148);  Ro_yal 
Society,  Prof.  James  Geikie,  Edinburgh,  Scotland  (148) 
Society  of  Natural  History,  Portland,  Me.  (148,  149} ;  Mass 
Agricultural  College,  Amherst  (149);  Prof.  Alpheus  Hyatt 
Dr.  Justin  Winsor,  Cambridge,  Mass.  (149) ;  Amer.  Antiqua 
rian  Society,  Worcester,  iSIass.  (149);  Amer.  Mathematical 
Society  (148),  Amer.  Institute  Electrical  Engineers,  New 
York,  N.  Y.  (149),  Prof.  Lyman  B.  Hall,  Haverford,  Pa. 
(149) ;  Prof.  John  F.  Carll,  Pleasantville,  Pa.  (149) ;  Philoso- 
phical Society,  West  Chester,  Pa.  (148);  U.S.  Naval  Insti- 
tute, Annapolis,  Md.  (148,  149) ;  Maryland  Historical  Society, 
Baltimore  (149);  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 
(144,  145,  146);  N.  C.  Experiment  Station,  Raleigh  (149); 
Ohio  State  Archaeol.  and  Hist.  Society,  Columbus  (149) ; 
Prof.  H.  T.  Eddy,  Minneapolis,  Minn.  (147-149);  Kansas  His- 
torical Society,  Topeka  (149) ;  Observatorio  Astronomico  Mex- 


1896.] 


117 


icano,  Tambaya,  Mexico  (149) ;  Rt.  Rev.  Crescencio  Carrillo, 
Merida,  Yucatan  (149);  Societd  Scientifique  du  Chili,  Santiago 
(141). 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  [Transactions)  from  the  Museum 
of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  Amer.  Antiqua- 
rian Society,  Worcester,  Mass.;  Yale  University,  New  Haven, 
Conn.;  The  Buflfalo  Library,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.;  Historical  Society, 
Astor  Library,  New  York,  N.  Y.;  U.  S.  Military  Academy, 
West  Point,  N.  Y.;  Haverford  College,  Haverford,  Pa.; 
Academy  Nat.  Sciences,  Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania, 
Library  Company,  Philadelphia  (xviii,  3) ;  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  Baltimore,  Md.  (xvi,  2,  3 ;  xvii,  1,  2,  3 ;  xviii,  1, 
2,3). 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  Societe 
des  Naturalistes,  Kieff,  Russia ;  Socidte  des  Naturalistes,  Mos- 
cow, Russia ;  K.  Russische  Geog.  Gesellschaft,  Phys.  Central 
Observatoriums,  K.  Mineralogische  Gesellschaft,  St.  Peters- 
burg, Russia  ;  Societas  pro  Fauna  et  Flora  Fennica,  Helsingfors, 
Finland ;  I.  R.  Accad.  di  Scieuze,  Lettere,  etc.,  Degli  Agratis 
Roveredo,  Austria;  K.  P.  Meteorol.  Institut,  K.  Museums fiir 
Volkerkunde,  Gesellschaft  fiir  Anthropologic,  Ethnologic,  etc.; 
Prof.  A.  Bastian,  Berlin,  Prussia;  Direcgfio  Trabalhos  Geo- 
logicos  de  Portugal,  Lisboa ;  Instituto  y  Observatorio  de 
Marina,  San  Fernando,  Spain ;  Bath  and  West  and  Southern 
Counties  Society,  Bath,  Eng.;  Royal  Observatory,  Green- 
wich, Eug.;  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  Liverpool, 
Eng.;  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  Manchester,  Eng,; 
Hon.  J.  M.  Lemoine,  Quebec,  Canada;  Free  Library,  Boston, 
Mass.;  Zoological  Society,  Mr.  William  A.  Ingham,  Phil- 
adelphia ;  Chief  of  Engineers,  Committee  to  Establish  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  United  States,  Department  of  Labor,  Prof.  Alex- 
ander Graham  Bell,  Washington,  D.  C;  Missouri  Geological 
Survey,  Jefferson  City  ;  University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor ; 
Agricultural  Experiment  Stations,  Lafayette,  Ind.;  Brookings, 
S.  Dak.;  Observatorio  Meteorol.,  Leon,  Mexico ;  Direccion 
General  de  Estadistica,  Guatemala,  C.  A,;  Museo  Biblioteca  de 
Filipinas,  Manilla. 


118 


[May  15, 


Dr.  Morris,  of  the  Curators,  called  attention  to  photographs 
presented  by  Mrs.  Stevenson  of  the  relics  found  in  Egypt. 

Also,  on  behalf  of  Robert  Patterson  Field,  he  presented  a  por- 
trait in  oil  of  Dr.  Robert  M.  Patterson. 

The  Report  of  Council  was  read,  in  which  nominations  1332, 
133-i,  1357,  were  recommended  to  be  postponed  for  written 
information. 

The  resolution  presented  at  the  meeting  of  March  20  was 
recommended  for  approval,  amended  to  read  as  follows : 

Resolved,  That  papers  "by  noa-members  presented  to  the  Society  shall 
be  read  by  title  only,  except  when  the  author  is  present  or  by  consent  of 
two-thirds  the  members  present. 

Prof.  A.  H.  Smyth  then  read  an  obituary  notice  of  Henry 
Phillips,  Jr. 

The  stated  business  being  the  election  of  members.  Secretary 
DuBois  and  Dr.  Hays  were  made  Tellers.  The  names  were 
read  and  spoken  to  and  the  ballots  cast. 

The  following  papers  were  then  read  by  title  and  referred 
to  the  Secretaries : 

"  Second  Contribution  to  the  History  of  the  Cotylosauria  "  by 
E.  D.  Cope  ;  "  Sixth  Contribution  to  the  Knowledge  of  the 
Marine  Miocene  Fauna,"  by  E.  D,  Cope ;  "  On  Natural  Selec- 
tion and  Separation,"  by  Arnold  E.  Ortman  ;  "  Notes  on  the 
Osteology  of  the  White  River  Horses,"  by  Marcus  S.  Farr. 

Dr.  Frazer  announced  that  Mr.  Barkley  had  brought  from 
New  York  specimens  of  results  of  color  photography  accord- 
ing to  the  system  of  Mr.  Joly,  and  had  placed  them  in  Mr. 
Sachse's  hands. 

Mr.  Sachse  then  explained  the  system  and  exhibited  the 
specimens. 

Dr.  Frazer  then  advocated  the  reproduction  in  facsimile  of 
our  signature  book  for  distribution  among  the  members,  and 
the  matter  was  referred  to  the  Secretaries  with  power  to  act. 

The  Tellers  reported  the  result  of  the  ballot,  and  the  follow- 
ing were  declared  elected  : 

2282.     Edward  S.  Dana,  New  Haven,  Conn. 


1896.]  11 J  [Sachse. 

2283.  C.  Hanford  Henderson,  Ph.D.,  Philadelphia. 

2284.  Chas.  Sedgwick  Minot,  Harvard  Univ.,  Mass. 

2285.  L.  H.  Bailej,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

2286.  Wm.  H.  Welch,  M.D.,  Baltimore,  Md. 

2287.  T.  Mitchell  Prudden,  M.D.,  New  York  City. 

2288.  John  Trowbridge,  Harvard  Univ.,  Mass. 

2289.  Nikola  Tesla,  New  York  City. 

2290.  Arthur  W.  Wright,  Ph.D.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

2291.  Prof.  Henry  A.  Rowland,  Baltimore,  Md. 

2292.  Prof.  Arthur  W.  Goodspeed,  Philadelphia. 

2293.  Prof.  Michael  I.  Pnpin,  New  York  City. 

2294.  Thos.  A.  Edison,  Orange,  N.  J. 

2295.  Edw.  C.  Pickering,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

2296.  Frank  H.  Cashing,  Washington,  D.  C. 


The  Joly  Process  of  Color  Photography. 

By  Julius  F.  Sachse. 

{Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  May  15,  1S96.) 

I  have  the  honor  to  present  to  j'our  notice  this  evening,  by  courtesj- 
of  Mr.  Richard  Barkley,  of  New  Yorlv,  a  series  of  specimens  illustra- 
ting the  so-called  "Joly  "  process  of  color-photography. 

They  are  the  same  as  were  lately  shown  before  the  Royal  Society  of 
England,  and  excited  considerable  attention. 

This  process,  although  it  depends  upon  the  three  primary  color  sen- 
sations, differs  materially  from  all  others  thus  far  brought  to  the  notice 
of  the  public,  because  but  a  single  photographic  manipulation  is  required, 
and  no  apparatus  is  needed  other  than  such  as  is  used  in  ordinary 
every-day  photographj-. 

This  process  consists  in  making  a  negative  through  a  closely-lined 
screen,  ruled  in  three  colors,  viz.,  orange,  yellow-green  and  blue-violet. 
The  screens  used  in  the  specimens  here  shown  were  made  with  an  ordi- 
nary ruling  pen,  such  as  is  used  by  draughtsmen,  and  the  lines  number 
about  two  hundred  to  the  inch.  A  finer  ruling  in  the  future  will  make 
the  lines  which  we  now  see  in  the  specimens  before  us  less  prominent. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  Prof.  Joly,  in  his  "taking"  screen,  which  is 
here  before  you,  has  substituted,  for  the  usually  accepted  primary  color 


Sachse.]  ^'^^  [May  15, 

sensations,  red,  green,  blue,  the  colors  orange,  yellow-green  and  blue- 
violet.  Experience  lias  taught  him  that  not  onlywere  the  former  colors 
unsuitable  for  the  purpose,  but  that  to  reproduce  the  effect  of  natural 
colors,  a  somewhat  different  screen  must  be  used  over  the  resultant 
positive  image.  For  this  purpose  Prof.  Joly  rules  a  screen  in  pure  red, 
green  and  blue-violet.      This  he  calls  his  viewing  screen. 

[For  the  red-selecting  lines  of  the  "taking"  screen.  Prof.  Joly  uses 
a  spectrum  color,  such  as  that  to  be  found  at  one-sixth  of  the  distance 
from  the  line  D  to  the  line  C  ;  for  the  green-selecting  lines  he  uses  a 
color  coi'responding  to  that  of  the  spectrum  at  about  one-third  of  the 
distance  from  the  E  line  to  the  D  line ;  and  for  the  blue-violet-selecting 
lines  he  uses  a  color  corresponding  to  the  spectrum  color  near  the  F  line, 
but  toward  the  G  line.  On  comparison  of  the  "taking"  screen  with 
the  spectrum,  these  colors  can  be  called  a  red-orange,  yellow-green,  and 
a  violet-blue.  For  the  colors  of  the  "viewing"  screen  he  uses  a  pure 
red  not  far  from  the  C  line  ;  a  green  near  the  E  line  ;  and  for  the  blue- 
violet  lines  he  takes  a  spectrum  color  between  Gr  and  H,  the  object 
being  in  the  "viewing"  screen  to  transmit  fundamental  color  sensa- 
tions only,  and  to  let  the  eye  do  its  own  mixing  ;  the  eye  is  assisted  by 
the  depth  of  light  and  shade  in  the  linear  areas  of  the  positive  ;  for 
instance,  if  the  full  amount  of  light  of  two  adjacent  red  and  green 
lines  be  transmitted,  the  eye  sees  a  yellow  ;  if  now  some  of  the  green 
be  obstructed  or  shut  out  by  the  positive  over  it,  then  the  eye  will  see 
an  orange  ;  and  if,  on  the  other  hand,  some  red  be  shut  out  by  the  posi- 
tive, then  the  eye  sees  a  yellow-green,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  one  can 
run  all  the  colors  from  pure  red  to  pure  green  by  the  varying  amounts 
of  the  red  or  green  lines  shut  out  by  the  positive.] 

The  first  specimen  we  have  here  is  a  negative  of  a  china  plate  and 
jug,  photographed  through  the  "taking"  sci-een. 

The  next  one  is  a  glass  positive  printed  in  contact  from  the  above 
negative.  It  will  be  noticed  that  neither  of  these  specimens  differ  from 
ordinary  photographic  results  except  that  lines  due  to  the  use  of  the 
screen  are  somewhat  prominent. 

The  third  specimen  is  a  positive  similar  to  the  one  just  shown,  phiced 
in  register  with  a  "viewing  "  screen  ;  and  by  holding  it  up  to  the  light, 
and  viewing  it  through  the  ruled  grating,  we  see  the  china  plate  and 
jug  in  the  bright  colors  of  the  original  objects. 

The  next  subject  is  a  male  portrait  from  life  ;  this  illustrates  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  process  in  its  application  to  professional  portraiture. 

We  now  have  a  portrait  of  an  "Irish  peasant  girl,"  not  from  life,  it 
is  true,  but  from  a  water  color,  which  is  here  before  us.  The  specimen 
labeled  No  7  is  placed  in  contact  with  a  "viewing  "screen.  The  original 
is  here  offered  for  comparison,  so  that  you  may  judge  of  the  fidelity  of 
the  reproduction  to  the  colors  of  the  original.  To  prove  the  correctness 
of  his  theory,  Prof.  Joly  here  presents  another  specimen  of  the  same 
subject.  No.  13.     This  is  taken  and  placed  in  contact  with  the  same 


1896.]  l-jl  [Sachse. 

("taking  ")  screen.     The  great  ditierence  and  the  falsity  of  the  color 
rendering  will  at  once  be  noted  by  comparison  with  the  original. 

The  next  specimen  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  one  of  all,  on 
account  of  being  an  almost  instantaneous  picture.*  It  represents  a 
military  band  in  the  Park  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  bright  reds  of  the  uniform  coats  are  exceptionally  well  ren- 
dered. Further,  this  example  indicates  a  possible  application  of  this 
method  of  color  reproduction  to  snap-shot  photography. 

I  now  wish  to  call  your  attention  to  an  interesting  feature  of  this 
process,  viz.,  the  necessity  for  having  the  photograph  and  screen  in 
exact  register,  and  viewing  it  in  a  normal  position.  Viewed  direct,  this 
transparency  shows  the  colors  of  nature  :  the  brilliant  red  hue  of  the 
coats  is  especially  noticeable.  Now  if  we  turn  the  transparency  so  as 
to  view  it  at  a  slight  angle,  we  at  once  note  a  change  of  the  colors,  and^ 
in  this  particular  instance,  an  apparent  change  of  the  nationality  of  the 
subjects  :  in  place  of  English  soldiers  in  bright  red  coats,  we  see  a  body 
of  men  dressed  in  brilliant  green  :  in  short,  the  Englishman  appears  to 
have  been  turned  into  an  Irishman  of  the  most  pronounced  type. 

The  next  subject  is  a  perfect  representation  of  a  green  fluorescent 
bowl  made  of  uranium  glass. 

We  now  come  to  another  interesting  specimen — a  photograph  of  a 
bunch  of  wall  flowers,  executed  in  two  color  sensations  only,  viz.,  the 
red  and  green  sensations.  This  picture  derives  an  additional  interest 
from  the  fact  that  it  was  made  by  Prof  Joly  at  the  request  of  Lord 
Kelvin,  to  show  the  effect  of  "violet  blindness,"  an  extremely  rare 
variety  of  color-blindness. 

I  now  present  to  your  notice  two  pliotographs  of  the  solar  spectrum 
from  nature — the  first  one  made  through  a  "taking"  screen,  and  seen 
through  a  "viewing"  screen,  which,  as  you  will  perceive,  shows  some 
of  the  principal  lines  ;  the  other  one,  both  taken  and  viewed  through 
the  "viewing  "  screen,  shows  a  false  color  rendition.  The  j^ellow  pass- 
ing through  the  red  lines  only,  is  almost  entirely  represented  hj  pure 
red.  The  incorrectness  of  the  result  is  evident  on  comparing  it  with 
the  first  specimen  or  with  nature. 

I  now  come  to  the  commercial  part  of  this  process.  I  have  here  for 
your  inspection  a  specimen  of  three-color  printing  :  the  original  photo- 
graph consists  of  a  single  negative  ;  the  printing  was  done  from  three 
separate  half-tone  blocks  or  plates — red,  yellow  and  blue. 

This  result  is  obtained  by  making  three  positives  in  the  camera  from 
the  original  negative  in  the  following  manner  :  A  sp<ecial  screen  is  pre- 
pared with  black  lines  twice  the  width  of  those  upon  the  taking  screen, 
the  intervening  space  being  the  width  of  a  single  line.  This  screen, 
when  placed  in  register  with  the  original  negative,  it  will  be  observed, 
exposes  only  every  third  line  of  the  negative.  Now  it  will  be  obvious 
that  if  this  screen  be  moved  the  width  of  a  single  line  before  each 

♦Actual  time  about  three  seconds. 


Cope.]  1^2  [May  15. 

exposure,  we  shall  obtain  three  positives,  each  showing  but  one-third 
of  the  original  negative,  and  at  the  same  time  representing  a  ditfereut 
color  sensation.  An  ordinary  half-tone  plate  is  now  made  from  each 
positive,  in  the  usual  manner,  and  then  printed  successively  in  yellow, 
red  and  blue  inks,  the  same  as  in  the  ordinary  chromo-typographic  or 
three-color  process. 

In  the  case  under  consideration  you  will  note  the  almost  perfect 
result,  without  the  presence  of  the  objectionable  mathematical  cross- 
line  hatch-work. 

This  latter  adaptation  of  the  Joly  process,  I  am  informed,  is  the  inven- 
tion of  two  j'oung  men  in  this  country  ;  and  should  it  prove  practical 
and  give  certain  results,  it  will  without  doubt  be  a  great  step  forward 
in  chromo-tjqjography,  and  also  have  commercial  value. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  foundations  of  the  interesting  processes  I 
have  described  are  based,  and  depend  for  their  ultimate  success,  upon 
the  ruling  machine — an  invention  of  Joseph  Saxton.  a  former  member 
of  this  Society,  specimens  of  whose  early  photo-mechanical  reproduc- 
tions, made  in  1841,  are  still  in  our  possession. 

In  conclusion,  I  will  state  that  the  one  great  advantage  which  this 
process  seems  to  ofter  over  other  schemes  in  heliocliromy  or  the  three- 
color  process,  is  the  fact  that  but  a  single  negative  is  required,  which  is 
obtained  by  the  ordinary'  methods  of  photography,  so  tbat  all  special  or 
intricate  apparatus,  with  uncertain  results,  are  obviated.  It  will  be 
further  noted  that  the  specimens  shown  here  to-night  are  among  the 
earliest  ones  made,  with  crude  appliances  as  to  the  ruling  of  the  screens 
and  the  pigments. 


Second   C'ontrihiition  to  the  History  of  the   Cotylosaitria.* 
By  E.  D.  Co2)e. 

(Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  3/ay  15,  ISOG.) 

The  examination  of  new  material  derived  from  tlie  Permian  tormatKui 
of  Texas  enables  me  to  make  some  important  additions  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  Cotylosaurian  Reptilia,  as  set  forth  in  my  synopsis  i)ublis]R'd  in 
these  Proceedings  for  November,  1895  (p.  437). 

In  the  first  place,  I  have  to  describe  a  type  new  to  the  oidcr.  and  wiiirh 
resembles  nothing  hitlicrto  found  in  \\\v  Peiiuiaii  brds  of  Xorlh  America, 
or  apparently  elsewhere.  It  must  be  referred  to  a  new  Ihniiiy  with  the 
fcdlowiiig  name  and  eliaraeters. 

*  Read  bofore  the  V.  S.  National  Academy  of  Scioaces  April.  ISiH!. 


1896.  J  1-^*^  [Cope. 

OTOCCELID.E. 

Posterior  border  of  temporal  roof  excavated  laterally  by  the  meatus 
auditorius  externns.  Teeth  present  in  a  single  row,  not  transversely 
expanded.  Ribs  immediately  overlaid  by  parallel  transverse  dcrmoossi- 
fications  which  form  a  carapace. 

In  the  presence  of  the  meatus  auditorius  this  family  diifers  from  the 
other  members  of  the  Cotylosauria.  In  the  latter  the  vestibular  space  is 
enclosed  by  the  lateral  part  of  the  temporal  roof,  and  has  no  distal  inferior 
bounding  Avail.  The  meatus  results  in  the  Otoccelidse  not  merely  from 
the  excavation  of  this  roof  but  also  from  the  excavation  of  the  posterior 
border  of  the  suspensorium.  In  Conodectes  this  excavation  is  not  great, 
but  in  Otocoelus  it  is  very  considerable,  the  proximal  extremity  of  the 
suspensorium  having  the  anterior  position  seen  in  the  Loricata  and  Tes- 
tudinata.  It  resembles  the  quadrate  of  the  latter  order  in  the  decurva- 
ture  of  the  proximal  extremity  into  a  descending  hook,  which  partialh' 
bounds  the  meatus  posteriorly. 

This  meatal  excavation  constitutes  an  approximation  in  the  Cotylo- 
sauria to  other  and  later  orders  of  Keptilia,  where  it  is  nearly  universal. 
It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  it  precedes  in  time  the  division  of  the 
roof  into  longitudinal  bars  by  perforation,  in  the  series  of  which  the 
Otoco?lidie  form  a  part.  This  fact  renders  it  probable  that  it  is  from  this 
family  that  the  order  of  the  Testudinata  has  descended.  It  may  also  be 
found  that  the  Pseudosuchia  have  the  same  origin.  The  carapace  of  the 
Otocoelidfe  approaches  nearly  that  of  tlie  genus  Typothorax*  Cope,  of 
the  Trias ;  where  each  rib  is  expanded,  and  bears  above  it  a  distinct 
dermosseous  band  of  equal  width,  with  a  sculptured  surface.  This 
genus  probably  belongs  to  the  Pseudosuchia,  whose  type  genus  Aetosau- 
rus  Fraas,  lias  a  carapace  consisting  of  transverse  bands  of  osseous 
plates  in  mutual  contact.  The  transverse  segmentation  of  the  carapa- 
cial  bands  of  Otoccelns  would  produce  such  a  structure.  The  same  char- 
acter is  found  in  the  genus  Episcoposaurus  Cope  of  the  Trias,  where  the 
cranium  is  unknown.  A  reduction  of  the  number  of  the  transverse 
bands  of  the  Otoccelidge  would  approximate  the  carapace  to  that  of  the 
Testudinata.  The  arrangement  of  the  clavicles  and  episternum  is  quite 
like  that  of  the  corresponding  elements  in  the  anterior  lobe  of  the  plas- 
tron in  the  tortoises.  The  median  and  posterior  part  of  the  abdominal 
wall  of  the  Otoccelidai  is  unknown.     The  teeth  are  quite  insignificant, 

*Iu  the  last  edition  of  Dana's  Geology,  1895,  p.  758,  it  is  inaccurately  stated  that  "A 
large  Crocodilian  of  the  genus  Belodon  has  been  described  by  Cope  ....  under  the 
name  of  Typothorax  coccinaruvi."  The  fact  is,  that  two  animals  were  included  in  the 
description,  which  I  afterwards  determined  to  belong  to  different  genera.  The  one  for 
which  I  reserved  the  name  Typothorax  does  not  belong  to  the  genus  Belodon.  See  Pi-oc. 
Amer.  Philos.  Soc,  1887,  p.  200.  Plate  I,  where  the  genus  and  species  are  defined.  Recently 
Marsh  has  described  {Amei:  Jouni.  Sci.  Arts,  July,  1896,  p.  61)  the  cast  of  a  similar  rep- 
tile from  the  Trias  of  Connecticut,  to  which  he  gives  the  name  Stegomus  arciiatiis.  He 
does  not  distinguish  the  supposed  new  genus  Stegomus  from  Typothorax. 

PROC.   AMER.  PHILOS.   SOC.   XXXV.   151.   P.       PRIKTED    AUGUST  12,   1806. 


Cope.]  J--'*  [May  15. 

and  their  loss  would  bring  us  again  to  the  Testudinata  type.  Their 
implantation  in  deep  alveoli  is  reptilian  in  character. 

I  have  pointed  out  that  the  notch  in  the  posterior  border  of  the  cranial 
table  in  the  stegocephalous  Batrachia  was  probably  covered  by  a  mem- 
branum  tympani,  since  the  stapes  terminates  there.  This  notch  is  the 
first  appearance  of  a  meatus  auditorius  in  the  Vertebrata,  and  it  is  not 
present  in  all  Stegocephalia.  It  seems  that  the  members  of  the  Cotylo- 
sauria  differ  among  themselves  similarly,  some  presenting  the  meatus, 
and  others  lacking  it.  In  Conodectes  the  character  approaches  tliat  of 
the  Stegocephalia  more  nearly  than  it  does  in  OtocQ?lus. 

In  tlie  American  Naturalist  for  1885,  p.  247,  I  publislied  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  Testudinata  were  descended  from  the  Theromora.  In  my 
system  at  that  time  the  Theromora  included  the  Cotylosauria.  In  1892 
{Trans.  Amer.  Philos.  Soc,  p.  24),  I  distinguished  the  Cotylosauria  as 
the  primitive  source  of  the  Testudinata.  The  discovery  of  the  Otocffilidse 
renders  it  almost  certain  that  this  anticipation  was  correct. 

In  this  family  the  slight  posterior  concavity  of  the  quadrate  region  of 
the  Diadectidie  is  extended  forwards  to  a  great  distance,  and  the  osseous 
tympanum  is  produced  further  outwards.  The  position  of  the  parts  is 
difierent  from  that  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Stegocephalia,  where 
the  tympanic  notch,  when  present,  is  superior,  owing  to  the  much  greater 
length  of  the  suspensorium.  The  dental  characters  also  distinguish  this 
family  from  the  Diadectidte.  No  ossicula  auditus  were  found  in  the  tym- 
panic cavity. 

Two  genera  of  this  family  are  known,  and  are  characterized  as  follows: 

Mandible  articulated  much  anterior  to  cranial  Ijorder;  nostrils  opening 
vertically Otoco'lus  Cope. 

Mandible  articulated  posteriorly  and  on  line  of  posterior  border  of 
skull ;  nostrils  opening  horizontally Conodectes  Cope. 

Two  species  of  Otocoelus  and  one  of  Conodectes  are  known  from  the 
Permian  bed. 

Otoccelus  testudineus,  Amer.  Naturalist,  1896,  399. 

Char.  gen. — Teeth  with  simple  subconic  crowns.  3Iandibular  ramus 
not  produced  posterior  to  quadrate.  Superior  cranial  bones  strongly 
sculptured. 

This  genus  is  established  on  a  skull  from  which  the  muzzle  anterior 
to  the  orbits  has  been  broken  off.  On  its  under  side,  pushed  forwards 
out  of  place,  are  a  considerable  part  of  the  shoulder-girdle,  the  head  of 
the  humerus  and  a  bone  of  the  forearm.  On  anotlier  block,  which  was 
found  with  it,  is  a  part  of  the  carapace,  two  vertebr;v,  numerous  ribs 
and  both  hind  legs,  lacking  the  tarsus  and  digits.  The  legs  and  vertebne 
were  not  found  attached  to  the  foreleg  and  the  skull,  but  the  actual  con- 
tact of  the  corresponding  parts  is  found  in  the  type  specimen  of  another 
species,  tlie  0.  iniineticus. 


.  1896.]  -^-"-^  [Cope. 

There  is  considerable  resemblance  between  several  parts  of  this  animal 
and  those  of  the  stegocephalian  Batrachia.  This  is  seen  in  the  forms  of 
the  femur  and  of  the  shoulder-girdle,  which  are  similar  to  those  which  I 
have  referred  to  Eryops.  The  close  approximation  of  the  huge  auricular 
meatus  to  the  orbit  is  only  seen  elsewhere  in  the  anurous  Batrachia. 
The  teeth  on  the  other  hand  are  of  strictly  reptilian  type  in  their  mode 
of  implantation,  and  the  lack  of  dentinal  inflections  distinguishes  them 
from  those  of  many  of  the  genera  of  Stegocephalia.  There  is  nothing 
in  the  shoulder-girdle  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Cotylosauria,  and  the 
humerus  so  far  as  preserved  is  of  the  type  of  that  order.  It  is  impossible 
to  get  at  the  occipital  condyles  without  destroying  important  parts  of 
the  specimen.     The  vertebrae  are  amphicoelous. 

It  is  probable  that  in  life  the  species  of  this  genus  had  an  enormous 
tj'mpanic  drum. 

The  tabular  part  of  the  skull  is  large  as  compared  with  the  facial  part. 
Its  posterior  border  is  broken  in  the  0.  testudineus,  but  it  is  continued  to 
a  transverse  line  posterior  to  the  auditory  meatus.  It  was  not  probably 
produced  into  horn-like  processes.  The  suspensorial  part  of  the  quad- 
rate is  directed  posteriorly  below.  The  mandibular  ramus  has  a  hori- 
zontal expansion  of  the  inner  side  just  anterior  to  the  short  angle. 

The  clavicles  have  the  distal  expansion  overlapping  the  episternum 
characteristic  of  the  order.  The  shaft  makes  an  obtuse  angle  with  the 
expanded  portion,  and  is  compressed.  Its  proximal  extremity  is  ex- 
panded into  a  rounded  disc,  whose  plane  is  horizontal  and  at  right  angles 
to  that  of  the  shaft.  Between  the  shaft  and  the  mandibular  angle  the 
edge  of  the  pterygoid  is  visible.  The  episternum  has  the  posterior  part 
broken  off.  The  part  preserved  is  a  transverse  plate,  which  has,  like  the 
clavicles,  a  smooth  surface.  The  scapula  lacks  the  proximal  end.  Dis- 
tally  it  presents  a  strong  longitudinal  ridge  which  extends  to  the  cora- 
coid.  Anteriorly  the  shaft  expands  into  a  procoracoid  laminar  exten- 
sion in  its  plane.  The  coracoid  is  small  and  has  a  convex  internal  bor- 
der, which  is  not  notched  as  in  the  Pelycosauria.  It  may  be  coossified 
with  the  scapula.  The  humerus  has  a  greatly  expanded  head  and  a 
narrow  shaft. 

The  femur  is  longer  than  the  tibia,  and  displays  the  condyles  charac- 
teristic of  the  Cotylosauria  and  Pelycosauria.  They  are  unequally  pro- 
duced posteriorly.     There  is  a  long  and  strong  anterior  crest. 

Two  vertebral  centra  are  only  moderately  well  preserved.  They  are 
probably  anterior  dorsals.  They  are  wider  than  long  and  are  separated 
by  a  large  and  protuberant  intercentrum.  A  free  intercentrum  of  the 
same  shape  lies  at  one  side.  It  is  probable  that  a  rather  short  neural 
spine  rises  to  the  inferior  side  of  the  carapace.  Only  tire  part  next  the 
carapace  can  be  seen  in  the  specimen. 

The  ribs  are  much  expanded,  but  do  not  touch  each  other.  The  cara- 
pacial  bands  alternate  with  them  above,  resting  on  their  adjacent 
edges    and  separated  by   narrow  interspaces.     Towards  the   supposed 


Cope.]  J--^  [May  15, 

anterior  part,  the  superior  costal  surfaces  rise  between  the  carapacial 
bands  to  the  plane  of  the  latter,  forming  a  closer  surface  tlian  poste- 
riorly. 

This  genus  forms  a  remarkable  example  of  homoplastic  resemblance 
to  the  rhachitomous  genus  Dissorhophus,  which  I  described  in  the 
American  Naturalist  for  IS'ovember,  1890.  The  superficial  resemblance 
is  very  great,  and  it  is  only  after  an  examination  of  the  constitution  of 
the  carapace  that  the  difference  of  this  part  of  the  structure  in  the  two 
genera  is  observed.  In  the  batrachian  genus  the  ribs  are  free  from  and 
not  in  contact  with  the  carapace,  and  the  inferior  stratum  of  the  latter 
consists  of  the  expanded  neural  spines.     (See  Plate  X.) 

Char,  specif. — Muzzle  verj'  short  and  In-oadly  rounded.  Top  of  head 
between  and  posterior  to  orbits  flat.  Orbits  directed  principally  up- 
wards, lutertympanic  width  2.5  times  interorbital  width.  Table  of 
skull  posterior  to  orbits  about  as  long  as  wide.  Postorbital  width 
(longitudinal)  half  as  great  as  interorbital  width,  which  is  equal  trans- 
verse diameter  of  orbit.  Long  diameter  of  orbit  obliquely  directed  out- 
wards and  forwards.  Malar  bar  narrow.  Quadratojugal  surface  i)os- 
tei'iorly  overhanging  border  of  maudi])le  a  little,  and  these  contracted 
to  an  apex  overhanging  angle  of  mandible  posteriorly.  Mandibular 
angle  undivided.  The  superior  surfaces  of  the  skull  have  a  strongly 
impressed  honej'comb  sculpture,  the  ridges  between  the  pits  being  fre- 
quently interrupted.  The  sculpture  extends  to  the  inferior  border  of  the 
mandible.  The  pits  average  2  mm.  in  diameter.  The  sculpture  is 
present  on  the  external  surface  of  the  posttympanic  hook,  where  the  de- 
curved  border  is  concave.  The  median  parts  of  the  frontal  and  parie- 
tal l)ones  are  smooth,  but  whether  this  is  normal  or  is  the  result  of 
weathering  I  do  not  know. 

The  mandibular  ramus  presents,  a  short  distance  anterior  to  the  angle, 
a  horizontal  expansion  with  convex  border  directed  inwards  and  in  con- 
tact with  the  pterygoid. 

The  crowns  of  the  teeth  are  acute  and  smooth.  They  overlap  the 
edge  of  the  lower  jaw  and  are  separated  by  interspaces  equal  to  their 
own  diameter.     They  are  of  quite  small  size. 

The  articular  face  of  the  humerus  extends  doAVnwards  on  the  inner 
border  of  the  head  ;  perhaps  it  is  restricted  to  this  part  of  the  latter. 
The  section  of  the  shaft  is  semicircular. 

The  fragment  which  contains  the  vertebra^,  hind  leg  and  carapace, 
does  not  fcn-m  a  fit  with  any  fractured  face  of  the  mass  containing  the 
skull.  As,  howcA'er,  everytliing  al)out  tlie  two  l)locks  is  harmonious, 
and  as  they  were  found  close  together,  I  have  no  doubt  of  their  i)erti- 
nence  to  the  same  skeleton.  The  second  block  is  split  longitudinally,  so 
that  only  one-half  of  the  carainice  is  preserved;  but  at  the  supposed 
proximal  end  enough  of  tlie  middle  portion  remains  to  include  the  two 
vertebne  already  described.  A  portion  of  one  hind  leg.  including  the 
distal  ])ar1  of  tlie  femur  with   tlic  tibia  and  lihula.  lie  over  tlie  earapace 


189G.]  J--'^  [Cope. 

externally,  while  the  three  principal  elements  of  the  other  leg  lie  on  the 
interior  side  of  the  carapace.  Both  legs  are  extended  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, i.  e.,  forwards. 

The  shaft  of  the  femur  has  a  triangnlar  section,  the  external  face  con- 
cave owing  to  the  prominence  of  the  anterior  crest.  The  external  con- 
dyle is  produced  further  posteriorly  than  the  internal,  and  is  a  continu- 
ation of  the  general  distal  surface  and  is  not  reflected  on  the  posterior 
face  as  in  so  many  of  the  Pelycosauria.  The  anterior  fiice  is  flat  above 
and  shallowly  concave  at  the  condylar  border  below.  Tlie  head  of  the 
tibia  is  expanded  and  the  shaft  narrowed,  as  in  Pelycosauria.  It  is 
straight,  while  the  flbula  presents  towards  it  a  concave  outline  ;  and  the 
two  extremities  of  the  latter  are  about  equally  expanded. 

The  surfaces  of  the  vertebral  centra  are  slightly  concave  anteroposte- 
riorly.  The  intercentra  are  somewhat  swollen  and  knob-like  on  the  in- 
ferior face.  It  is  probable  that  the  ribs  are  less  closely  adherent  to  the 
carapacial  bars  posteriorly  than  anteriorly.  As  already  remarked,  ante- 
riorly the  ribs  emerge  between  the  bars  to  form  part  of  the  surface  ; 
medially  the  ribs  are  below  the  bars  but  touch  them.  Further  poste- 
riorly a  cross  section  displays  a  rib  which  does  not  touch  a  bar,  except 
perhaps  at  the  extremity,  as  the  curvature  would  indicate  ;  but  this  part 
is  broken  off.  The  superior  surfaces  of  the  carapacial  elements  are  of 
dense  bone  marked  with  coarse  and  fine  fossae  and  intervening  ele- 
vations irregularly  distributed. 

Tlie  size  of  this  animal  is  about  that  of  the  adult  of  the  larger  Japanese 
salamander,  Megalobatrachus. 

Measurements. 

MM. 

Width  of  skull  between  meatus  auditorius To 

"         "       "  "         orbits ol 

"         "       "  "         orbit  and  meatus 15 

•  •  orbit,  transversely 27 

Length  of  skull  above  posterior  to  orl)its fio 

Depth  of  malar  bone  at  middle  of  orbit 13 

"        "mandible       "       "       "       "     14 

Length  of  tooth  exterior  to  alveolus o 

"        "  clavicle  (chord) 78 

/  liroximal 22 

Widths  of  clavicle  •■  median 4 

^distal 21 

m  Til  ^  head 35 

Transverse  diameters  humerus  •' 

(  shatt o 

Length  of  femur C)7 

.     ^  ,     •       T        *        ce  ^  proximally 23 

Anteroposterior  diameter  ot  temur  -]  \. 

^  i  distally 20 

Length  of  tibia 51 


1  90, 

Cope.]                                                            ■^^'^  [May  15. 

3Ieasin'emcnts. 

MM. 

Long  diameter  of  head  of  do 17 

"          "           "  distal  end  of  do 13 

Lengtli  across  ends  of  six  ribs 75 

' '         of  part  of  carapace  preserved 105 

Width  of  a  posterior  carapacial  bar 10 

"an  anterior         "            "    8 

T^.        ,          n           .1       ^anteroposterior 8 

Diameters  of  a  vertebra  <  ' 

c  transverse lb 


Diameters  of  iutercentrum 


anteroposterior 6 

transverse 13 


Otoccelus  mimeticus,  sp.  nov. 

This  species  is  represented  by  a  sknll  with  hnver  jaw  in  ph^ce,  Avhicli 
is  connected  by  a  band  of  matrix  to  a  carapace,  and  some  of  the  bones 
of  one  of  the  limbs.  Greater  and  smaller  parts  of  thirteen  bands  of  the 
carapace  are  preserved. 

The  sknll  is  short  and  wide.  The  superior  surface  is  nearlj'  flat  from 
the  posterior  border  to  between  the  nostrils.  The  muzzle  does  not  pro- 
ject beyond  the  mouth  border.  The  orbits  and  nostrils  are  not  superior 
in  direction,  although  the  superior  orbital  border  is  excavated.  The 
nostrils  are  directed  forwards  and  a  little  laterally  ;  thej'  are  separated  ])y 
a  space  equal  to  the  transverse  diameter  of  each.  The  auricular  meatus  is 
large  and  is  directed  outwards  and  not  upwards.  The  posterior  hooks  of 
the  quadrate  project  on  each  side  beyond  the  slightly  concave  posterior 
horder  of  the  cranial  table.  Interorbital  region  flat,  considerabl)^ 
wider  than  the  diameter  of  the  orbit. 

The  carapace  commences  at  a  point  about  as  far  posterior  to  the  skull 
as  the  posterior  border  of  the  latter  is  behind  the  orbits.  The  anterior 
baud  has  an  obtuse  anterior  border  like  that  of  the  anterior  border  of  the 
carapace  of  an  armadillo.  The  bands  are  gently  convex  from  side  to 
side,  and  they  become  narrower  anteroposteriorly  as  we  pass  backwards. 
The  state  of  the  specimen  is  such  that  neither  ribs  nor  vetebr*  can  be 
discovered. 

As  compared  with  the  0.  testudineus  the  following  differences  appear. 
The  table  of  the  skull  projects  beyond  the  posterior  hook  of  the  quadrate 
in  the  former  ;  not  so  far  in  the  latter.  The  auricular  meatus  and  orbit 
present  more  laterally  in  the  0.  mimeticus,  more  vertically  in  the  0.  tes- 
tudineus.     The  size  of  the  two  species  is  not  very  dift'ercut. 

3Ie<(SHrernents. 

MM. 

Length  of  skull  on  middle  line 120 

Width     "        "     at  posterior  liorder  of  orbits 90 

"       "     between  orbits 38 

nostrils 22 


1896.]  -L^J  [Cope. 

Measurements. 

MM. 

Length  of  skull  (median)  to  anterior  l)order  of  ovl)its   .  .   78 

Distance  from  skull  to  carapace 65 

Length  of  thirteen  carapacial  bands 155 

Anteroposterior  diameter  of  first  band 17 

"  "  "  seveuth  Ijand 12 

The  species  is  named  to  express  the  superficial  reseml)lance  to  the 
Dissorhoph us  articula t us. 

CoKODECTES  FAVosus,  gen.  et  sp.  nov. 

Cluir.  gen. — Quadrate  bone  extending  posteriority  so  that  the  mandi- 
bular articulation  is  opposite  the  posterior  border  of  the  cranial  table. 
Meatus  audit orius  small,  connected  with  a  meatal  notch.  Xostrils 
directed  upwards  and  a  little  outwards.  Teeth  conic,  acute,  increasing  in 
length  to  the  middle  of  the. maxillary  region. 

This  genus  is  of  much  interest,  as  it  displays  the  character  of  the 
family  in  a  less  pronounced  degree  than  the  genus  Octocoelus,  and  thus 
approximates  more  nearly  the  other  forms  of  Cotylosauria.  Its  structure 
illustrates  how  the  meatus  auditorius  has  arisen  by  the  emargination  and 
excavation  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  cranial  roof  of  the  Cotylosauria. 
In  the  other  families  the  access  of  the  internal  ear  to  the  external 
median  is  closed  by  the  thin  temporal  roof. 

Char,  specif. — Established  on  a  cranium  with  lower  jaw  in  place, 
which  lacks  the  left  half  posterior  to  the  orbit,  and  a  piece  from  the 
middle  of  the  right  side.  Both  nostrils  and  a  part  of  the  border  of  the 
left  orbit  are  preserved,  together  with  the  teeth  as  far  posteriorly  as  the 
orbit,  the  premaxillaries  imperfectly.  A  large  part  of  the  palate  is  pre- 
served. The  teeth  ])reserved  show  that  the  premaxillary  teeth  are  small 
as  in  the  Isodectes  megalops,  and  that  they  increase  in  length  posteriorly. 
The  maxillopalatines  are  excavated  on  the  median  line  so  as  to  present 
two  parallel  ridges  which  continue  as  far  as  the  posterior  border  of  the 
internal  nares.  These  ridges  probably  continue  on  the  palatine  bone 
and  they  support  each  a  tooth  near  the  posterior  extremity.  In  Isodectes 
megalops  the  i)alatines  support  numerous  small  teeth  on  their  inner 
borders.  I  find  no  trace  of  the  interior  rows  of  maxillarj'  and  mandi- 
bular teeth  which  are  characteristic  of  the  PariotichidiTe.  Some  such 
teeth  may,  however,  have  existed,  as  a  portion  of  the  maxillaiy  bone  is 
wanting  from  both  sides  of  the  skull. 

This  species  is  seven  or  eight  times  the  linear  dimensions  of  the 
Isodectes  megalops,  and  a  little  smaller  than  the  Otocmlus  testudineus. 
The  skull  is  as  wide  posteriorly  as  it  is  long,  and  is  rather  depressed,  so 
that  the  orbits  and  nares  liaA'e  a  vertical  as  well  as  a  lateral  presentation. 
The  muzzle  is  flat  and  projects  beyond  the  lower  jaw,  and  it  is  rounded 
in  outline,  and  not  narrowed  and  portuberant  as  in  most  of  the  species 
of  Pariotichus.     The  internareal  and   interorbital  regions  are  flat.     The 


Cope.]  i-Oy)  [May  15, 

narrower  brain  case  is  continued  between  the  orbits,  and  its  lateral 
walls  are  robust.  The  palatine  bones  extend  from  the  raaxillaries,  and 
approximate  each  other  nearly  on  the  median  line,  where  they  are 
separated  medially  by  a  groove,  which  becomes  wider  posteriori}'.  Xo 
teeth  can  be  discerned  in  the  specimen,  excepting  the  large  anterior  one 
already  mentioned.  The  surface  of  the  bone  is,  however,  not  in  good 
condition.  The  plate  of  the  pterygoid  extends  to  the  jugal  on  each  side, 
and  its  posterior  border  is  but  little  deflected,  and  is  at  right  angles  to 
the  long  axis  of  the  skull,  with  indications  of  teeth.  The  posterior 
branch  of  the  pterygoid  is  slender.  The  occipital  region  is  injured.  The 
superior  surface  of  the  skull  is  sculptured,  on  the  posterior  frontal  region 
in  a  coarse  honeycomb  pattern,  the  ridges  occasionally  forming  small 
tubercles. 

The  teeth  are  conic,  acute,  and  with  a  round  section.  In  this  respect 
they  differ  from  those  of  most  of  the  species  of  Pariotichus,  where  the 
crowns  are  obtuse.  They  are  rather  closely  placed,  and  they  increase 
in  length  to  below  the  anterior  border  of  the  orbit.  Their  character 
posterior  to  this  point  cannot  be  ascertained.  The  single,  large  palatine 
tooth  is  similar  to  the  maxillaries  in  form,  and  equals  in  dimensions  the 
maxillary  tooth  which  is  below  the  posterior  border  of  the  nostril.  The 
posterior  border  of  the  internal  nostril  marks  a  point  half  way  between 
the  posterior  border  of  the  anterior  nostril  and  the  anterior  border  of 
the  orbit. 

Measurements.  >im. 

Total  length  of  skull 158 

Width  posteriorly 153 

Width  between  nostrils 30 

Length  from  end  of  muzzle  to  posterior  border  of  pterygoid 

plate 103 

Width  between  summits  of  ridges  of  vomer 10 

Length  from  posterior  border  of  nostril  to  anterior  border 

of  orbit 41 

Length  of  longest  maxillary  tooth 10 

Diameter  of  longest  maxillary  tooth  at  l)ase o.5 

A  part  of  the  muzzle  of  a  second  individual  was  found  at  the  same 
locality. 

DIADECTID.E. 

[  am  now  able  to  make  some  additions  to  the  family  of  the  Diadecti- 
<1:l'.  I  omitted  also  in  my  recent  synopsis*  of  the  genera  to  inchuk\the 
genus  Plianerosaurus  Von  Mej^er,  from  the  Permian  of  Germany,  which 
I   had   previously  referred  to  this   family. f     A  revision  <»1'  the  species 

* Proc.  Amer.  Pliilos.  Soe.,  1895,  DecembLT,  p.  -1-11. 
t  rransac.  Amer.  Philos.  Soc,  1892,  p.  13. 


1896.1  Idl  [Cope. 

indicates  a  somewhat  different  generic  reference  to  that  which  I  have 
hitherto  adopted,  as  the  generic  characters  have  only  now  become  clear 
to  me.  The  following  are  the  generic  characters  as  I  now  understand 
them  : 

I.  Posterior  maxillary  teeth  transverse,  depressed,  molariform,  the 
heel  (external  above,  internal  below)  broad  and  flat. 

Skull  without  dermal  or  osseous  sutures Empedias  Cope. 

II.  Posterior  maxillary  teeth  compressed,  transverse,  with  non-molari- 
form  edge  or  apex,  except  on  wear. 

a  Teeth  with  an  external  heel,  besides  the  apical  cusp. 
Cranial  bones  coossified  ;  dermal  scuta  few  or  none Diadectes  Cope. 

aa  Teeth  with  a  cusp  only. 

Adult  cranium  sutureless Bolhodon  Cope. 

Cranium  with  osseous  but  no  dermal  sutures Phanerosaurus  V.  M. 

Cranium  with  both  osseous  and  dermal  sutures Cliilonyx  Cope. 

The  species  of  these  genera  are  the  following  : 

Empedias  fissus  Cope. 

"         molaris  Cope. 
Diadectes  sideropelims  Cope. 

"         phaseoUnus  Cope. 

"         latibuccatus  Cope. 
hiculminatus  Cope. 
Bolhodon  tenuitectus  Cope. 
Phanerosaurus  naumannii  Von  Meyer. 

"  pugnax  Gein.  u.  Deiclim. 

Chilonyx  rapidens  Cope. 

The  above  species  are  from  the  Permian  bed  of  Texas,  excepting  the 
two  species  of  Phanerosaurus,  which  are  from  the  corresponding  horizon 
in  Germany.  This  genus  displays  the  hyposphen-hypantrum  articula- 
tion in  a  less  perfect  degree  than  it  appears  in  the  American  genera 
where  it  is  known,  but  it  is  nevertheless  present.  It  presents  conspicu- 
ously other  characters  of  the  family  in  the  broad  closely  articulating 
neural  arches,  and  short,  robust  neural  spines 


PROC.  AMEI?,  PHILOS.   SOC.  XXXV.  151.  Q.      PRINTED  AIGUST  13,  1896. 


Cope  ] 


132 


[May  15, 


The  molar  teeth  of  three  of  these  genera  are  represented  in  the  accom- 
panying figures.  Nos.  1  and  4  are  superior  molars,  and  Nos.  2  and  3 
are  inferior  molars.     Their  parts  are  reversed  in  the  two  jaws. 


1.   Bolhodon   teauitectns.      2.  Diadectes  pltaseoUnus.     3.  Diadectes  bi- 
culminatus.     4.  Emju'dias  fissiis. 

a.  Posterior  view. 
h.   End  view. 

The  new  forms  of  the  family  are  as  follows  : 
Diadectes  biculminatus,  sp.  nov. 

As  this  species  is  represented  l)y  a   fragment  of  a  mandilile  tlic  ciiar- 
acters  can  be  drawn   from  the  teeth  only.     These  are    reniarkaMe    for 


1896.]  -L^'J  [Cope. 

their  compressed  form,  and  for  the  unequal  elevation  of  the  grinding 
surface.  There  is  a  median  cusp  much  elevated  above  an  external  heel, 
which  is  at  the  base  of  the  crown  ;  and  there  is  an  internal  cusp  which 
is  fused  to  the  median  cusp,  and  reaches  a  similar  elevation.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  there  are  any  interalveolar  walls,  as  the  teeth  are 
closely  placed. 

The  internal  cusp  is  a  little  more  elevated  tlian  the  median,  and  its 
apex  is  separated  from  that  of  the  latter  by  a  shallow  notch.  The  outer 
wall  of  the  median  cusp  is  vertical,  while  the  inner  wall  of  the  inner  cusp 
is  convex  both  verticallj'  and  anteroposteriorly.  The  worn  section  of  the 
two  is  unequally  dumbbell-shaped.  The  external  face  of  the  median 
cusp  exhibits  a  median  rib,  with  a  groove  on  each  side,  besides  finer 
grooves,  which  are  also  present  on  the  anterior  faces  of  the  crown  near 
the  external  border.  Internal  to  these,  the  median  cusp  sends  shallow 
grooves  obliquely  inwards  and  downwards,  which  do  not  reach  the  base 
of  the  internal  cusp.  The  transverse  diameter  of  the  crowns  diminishes 
gradually  posteriorly,  so  that  the  alveolus  of  the  last  one  of  the  series  is 
small  and  round. 

The  groove  which  separates  the  teeth  from  the  external  parapet  of  the 
jaw  is  half  as  wide  as  the  width  of  the  molars.  Its  edge  is  roughened 
with  projections  which  separate  fossae  and  foramina  of  difi'erent  sizes. 
The  external  surface  of  the  jaw  is  roughened  with  innumerable  wrinkles 
and  tubercles  separated  by  grooves,  fossaj  and  foramina. 

Measurements.  mm. 

Length  of  series  of  nine  teeth 46 

Width  of  crown  of  largest  molar 13 

Elevation  of  external  heel 5 

"  internal  cusp 11 

Anteroposterior  diameter 5 

Width  of  mandibular  ramus  at  do 26 

The  specimen  by  which  this  species  is  known  was  found  by  Mr.  J.  C. 
Isaac  in  1878.     It  is  the  "No.  2  "  of  mj^  description  of  Diadeetes  sidero-' 
pelicus  of  the  Proc.  Amer.  Philos.  Soc,  1878,  p.  505. 

DiADECTES   SIDEROPELICUS  Cope,   loC,  cU. 

T^iis  species  is  represented  by  a  left  maxillarj-  bone  which  contains 
three  molar  teeth  in  place  and  spaces  for  five  or  six  others.  A  simple 
tooth  at  its  anterior  part  is  larger  than  is  usual  in  the  species  of  this  fam- 
ily. I  have  accordingly  defined  the  genus  Diadectes  as  characterized  by 
the  presence  of  a  canine  tooth.  It  is,  however,  not  possible  to  determine 
whether  the  other  simple  teeth  may  not  have  been  of  equal  proportions, 
as  they  are  represented  by  alveoli  in  the  specimen.  I  therefore  define 
the  genus  by  the  molar  characters,  which  are  distinct.  In  this  respect 
the  species  D.  latibuccatus  and  D.  phaseolinus  agree  with  it.    In  the  last- 


Cope.]  164:  [May  15, 

named  the  lieel  of  the  molars  is  larger  than  in  the  two  others,  approach- 
ing remotely  the  genus  Empedias.  The  D.  latibuccntus  difiers  from  the 
D.  sideropelicus  in  the  smaller  number  of  molar  teeth,  and  smaller  and 
more  numerous  caniniform  teeth. 

BOLBODON  TENUITECTUS,  gen.  et  sp.  nov. 

Char.  gen. — Molar  teeth  without  external  heel,  and  with  one  median 
cusp.  Cranial  bones  coossified  ;  no  grooves  indicating  the  sutures  of 
dermal  scuta.  Internal  borders  of  palatine  bones  in  mutual  contact, 
and  dentigerous. 

The  dentition  of  this  genus  is  not  diiferent  from  that  of  Phanerosau- 
rus,  as  described  and  figured  by  Geinitz  and  Deichmiiller.*  In  that 
genus,  according  to  these  authors,  the  cranial  elements  are  distinct, 
the  sutures  being  persistent.  In  Bolbodon  the  cranial  elements  are 
entirely  coossified,  excepting  only  the  tabular  bone,  which  is  distinguish- 
able. The  nostril  is  large,  and  a  turbinal  bone  is  visible  within  it  as  in 
Pariotichus.  The  lateral  and  inferior  bones  of  the  brain  case,  and  the 
mandible,  are  not  preserved. 

Char,  specif. — This  species  is  represented  by  a  portion  of  the  cranium, 
which  includes  nearly  the  entire  right  side,  and  a  portion  of  the  median 
part  of  the  superior  wall  from  the  tabular  border  to  the  premaxillary 
inclusive.  The  vomer  and  the  middle  portions  of  the  palatines,  with  the 
right  premaxillary  and  maxillary  bones,  are  preserved. 

From  the  middle  line  at  the  apex  of  the  vomer  to  the  posterior  ex- 
tremity of  the  maxillary  bone  there  are  alveoli  for  seventeen  teeth.  Of 
these  six  only  are  occupied  by  teeth,  which  are  numbers  5,  7,  10,  12,  13, 
16.  Of  these  only  numbers  5,  13  and  16  have  perfect  crowns.  The 
skull  has  been  somewhat  distorted  by  pressure,  so  that  the  longer  axis  of 
the  roots  and  crowns  are  somewhat  oblique  to  their  correct  positions. 
The  roots  of  numbers  5  and  7  are  wide-oval  in  section,  and  the  long  axis 
becomes  longer  posteriorly  up  to  the  number  16,  in  which  it  is  a  little 
contracted,  and  where  the  entire  dimensions  are  smaller.  The  crown  of 
number  5  is  caniniform  and  acute,  is  curved  backwards  as  to  its  anterior 
face,  and  has  a  worn  posterointernal  face  due  to  the  opposing  tooth  of 
the  inferior  series.  In  number  13  the  crown  is  much  more  expanded 
transversely,  and  the  external  vertical  border  is  convex  medially  and 
incurved  above  and  below.  Curved  shallow  grooves  radiate  from  the 
external  apex  downwards  and  inwards.  The  crown  of  the  sixteenth 
tooth  is  cordiform,  with  the  acute  apex  upwards.  Shallow  grooves  de- 
scend from  the  latter.  Like  the  maxillary  teeth  the  palatines  are  widely 
spaced.  The  sections  of  their  crowns  are  a  wide  oval  placed  longi- 
tudinally ;  apices  lost. 

The  nostril  is  large  and  is  rounded  subquadrate.  The  orbit  is  large 
and  is  subround,  and  its  border  is  not  notched  as  in  the  Diadectes  lati- 
huceatus,  nor  the  superior  border  dei)ressed  as  in  D.  phaseoUiius.     Tlie 

*^ittheiliingen  min.- gcol.  a.  prxhist.  Museum  of  Dresden,  1882,  p.  10. 


135 


[Cope 


Diameters  of  nostril 


Diameters  of  orbit 


interorbital  space  is  gentlj'  convex,  and  is  wider  than  tlie  diameter  of 
the  eye,  bnt  how  much  wider  the  state  of  the  specimen  leaves  un- 
certain. The  jugal  bone  is  quite  narrow  below  the  orbit,  its  vertical 
diameter  equaling  two-fifths  that  of  the  latter.  The  surface  of  the 
cranium  is  rather  minutely  wrinkled,  and  does  not  display  the  grooves 
seen  in  the  Diadectes  latibuccatus.  The  tabular  bone  forms  a  rounded 
and  narrowed  cap  of  the  posterolateral  angle  of  the  skull,  and  is 
much  less  prominent  than  in  the  genus  Chilonyx,  but  more  so  than  in 
Diadectes,  where  it  is  not  distinguishable  by  suture. 

Measurements.  mm. 

Total  length  of  cranium  from  premaxillary  border  to 

OS  tabulare  inclusive 384 

vertical  25 

transverse 33 

Distance  from  nostril  to  orbit 78 

vertical 53 

transverse 54 

Interorbital  width  (posterior  to  middle) 70 

Length  of  dental  series  (chord) 150 

!  longitudinal 15 

anteroposterior 7 

transverse 10 

f  longitudinal 13 

Diameters  m.  xii  }  anteroposterior 6.5 

'  transverse 13 

!  longitudinal 10 

anteroposterior 5 

transverse 8.5 

The  dimensions  of  this  skull  are  equal  to  those  of  the  Diadectes 
;phaseolinus,  and  about  one-fourth  larger  than  those  of  the  D.  latibuccatus. 
The  bones  of  the  cranium  are  thinner  and  lighter  than  those  of  any 
other  species  of  the  famil}'  that  has  come  under  my  observation. 

PARIOTICHID^. 
Pariotichus  adxjncus,  sp.  nov. 

Represented  by  a  cranium  of  which  the  muzzle  and  right  side,  with 
the  right  ramus  of  the  mandible,  are  preserved,  together  with  some  other 
fragments,  of  one  individual ;  and  by  a  distorted  cranium  of  a  second. 

The  species  is  intermediate  in  size  and  characters  between  the  type  of 
the  genus  P.  brachyops  and  the  larger  P.  agiiti,  besides  presenting  a 
number  of  peculiarities  of  its  own.  The  elongate  maxillary  teeth  are 
graded  in  size  to  the  smaller,  and  the  sixteenth  from  behind,  the  largest, 


Cope.]  1-^^  [May  15, 

is  nearer  the  anterior  border  of  the  orbit  than  to  the  nostril.  In  front  of 
it  are  three  teetli  which  are  preceded  by  an  interval.  There  are  three  and 
perhaps  four  incisors  on  each  side,  of  which  the  external  two  are  small 
and  the  internal  two  very  large,  the  inner  the  largest.  The  mandibular 
teeth  increase  regulurl}-  in  length  anteriorly.  The  nostrils  are  lateral 
and  absolutely  terminal.  The  premaxillary  bones  are  recurved  so  that 
the  alveolar  edge  is  in  vertical  line  with  the  posterior  border  of  the  nos- 
tril. Thus  this  recurvature  exceeds  that  seen  in  any  other  species  of  the 
genus,  and  the  symphysis  mandibuli  is  correspondingly  posterior.  The 
orbits  are  larger  than  in  any  other  species,  exceeding  the  interorbital 
width  considerably,  and  equaling  the  length  of  the  muzzle  from  the  orbit 
to  the  middle  of  the  nostril.  The  muzzle  is  wide  above  in  proportion 
to  its  length.  It  is  probable  that  the  width  of  the  skull  behind  does 
not  exceed  the  length  from  the  posterior  border  to  the  front  of  the  orbit, 
though  this  measurement  is  uncertain  owing  to  the  mutilated  condition 
of  the  right  side. 

The  surface  is  sculptured  with  shallow  pits  separated  by  rather  thick 
ridges.  The  nasal  bones  send  back  a  short  angle  of  the  external  margin 
to  meet  the  inferior  prefrontal  siiture,  about  halfway  between  the  orbit 
and  nostril. 

Measurements.  mm. 

Length  of  skull  to  end  of  os  quadratum 54 

"         "      posterior  to  orbit 18 

orbit , 15 

Length  from  orbit  to  nostril 12 

Width  of  muzzle  at  middle 15 

"      interorbital  space 10 

' '      internareal      "       8 

Length  of  recurved  part  of  premaxillary 7 

' '     premaxillary  I,  1 5 

' '     longest  maxillary  tooth 4 

Depth  of  mandible  at  middle  of  orbit G 

From  the  Permian  formation  of  Texas. 

?  PARIASAURID.E. 

Labidosaurus  hamatus  Cope,  gen.  nov.     Parioticlius  hamatus  Cope, 
ProG.  Amer.  Philos.  Soc,  1895,  p.  448,  PI.  viii.  Figs.  1  and  2. 

Char.  gen. — One  series  of  pleurodont  maxillary  teeth  slightly  unequal 
in  size.  Internal  incisor  much  enlarged,  conic,  acute,  and  directed  back- 
wards. No  teeth  on  the  maxillopalatines  ;  teeth  on  the  palatines  small, 
subcouic,  in  one  row.     Nostrils  lateral. 

Better  specimens  of  the  above  species  show  that  it  has  but  one  row  of 
maxillary  teeth,  which  are  pleurodont,  so  that  it  is  clearly  a  meml)er  of 
a  genus  distinct  from  Pariotichus.     If  the  character  I  have  assiii'ned  as 


1S96.]  1^'  [Cope. 

definitive  of  the  Pariotichiclfe  be  the  true  one,  the  genus  Labidosaurus 
must  be  referred  to  a  dilTerent  one,  and  I  know  of  no  character  at  present 
to  separate  it  from  the  Pariasauridte  of  which  the  known  species  are  so 
far  as  known  up  to  the  present  time  restricted  to  South  Africa.  It  differs 
from  the  known  genera  of  that  family  in  the  greatlj^  elongate  premaxil- 
lary  teeth,  and  in  the  simple  conic  dental  crowns. 

Char,  specif. — Specimens  since  received  display  numerous  character- 
istic peculiarities  not  preserved  in  the  type.  The  sculpture  of  the  cra- 
nial surfaces  is  in  shallow  fossae  with  rather  thick  partitions,  of  smaller 
size  than  in  the  Pariotichus  aguti,  which  resembles  it  most  nearly.  Thus 
there  are  a  dozen  ridges  between  the  orbits  on  the  front  in  the  latter, 
while  there  are  fifteen  to  seventeen  in  the  L.  hamatus.  The  maxillary 
teeth  are  relatively  smaller  than  in  any  of  the  species  of  Pariotichus 
known,  and  they  extend  only  to  below  the  middle  of  the  orbit.  The 
orbit  is  subround  ;  in  the  type  it  is  oval,  perhaps  owing  to  pressure. 
Its  diameter  is  about  half  the  length  of  the  skull,  both  anterior  and  pos- 
terior to  it,  and  equals  the  interorbital  width.  The  nostril  is  anteropos- 
teriorly  oval,  and  the  apex  of  the  elongate  incisor  tooth  is  below  its 
anterior  part.  Thus,  though  the  muzzle  is  more  elongate  than  in  any  of 
the  species  of  Pariotichus,  it  does  not  project  so  far  bej'ond  the  premax- 
illary  border.     Length  of  skull  of  new  specimen  155  mm. 

APPENDIX  ON  A  SPECIES  OF  TRIMERORHACHIS. 
Trimerorhachis  conangulus,  sp.  uov. 

Size,  the  least  of  the  species  of  the  genus.  Angle  of  the  mandible 
produced,  conic.  Orbits  rather  large,  the  posterior  border  nearer  the  line 
of  the  end  of  the  muzzle  than  to  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  mandi- 
bular angle,  but  not  so  near  as  to  the  posterior  border  of  the  tabular 
bone.  External  nares  half  way  between  orbit  and  end  of  muzzle.  In- 
terorbital width  equal  diameter  of  orbit. 

Teeth  small,  the  crowns  elongate  and  acitte.  Twenty-two  may  be 
counted  from  the  posterior  end  of  the  series  to  a  point  opposite  the  an- 
terior border  of  the  orbit.  A  much  larger  tooth  is  situated  on  the  ex- 
ternal border  of  the  maxillopalatine  ("vomer"),  a  little  distance  in  front 
of  the  choanse,  while  an  equally  large  one  is  situated  directly  on  the  pos- 
terior border  of  the  latter.  Another  tooth  of  equal  size  is  situated  ex- 
ternal to  the  posterior  tooth,  near  the  maxillary  border,  and  the  base  of 
a  smaller  one  is  visible  beneath  the  two. 

The  mandibular  ramus  becomes  quite  slender  anteriorly-.  Posteriorlj^, 
the  sittures  of  the  angular,  articular,  dentary  and  splenial,  are  distinct. 
The  symphysis  projects  beyond  and  turns  up  in  front  of  the  premax- 
illarjr  border.  The  angle  projects  considerably  beyond  the  quadrate, 
and  is  rounded  below  and  at  the  sides.  The  extremity  is  verticalljr 
grooved,  but  whether  accidentally  or  normally  I  cannot  determine. 

The  elements  composing  the  cranial  roof  are  mostly  distinguishable. 


Cope.]  I'JO  [May  15, 

The  supraoccipitals  have  considerable  extent  on  the  superior  face  of  the 
skull.  The  largest  bones  are  the  parietals,  whose  median  suture  is 
interrupted  by  the  foramen  at  about  the  middle.  The  next  largest 
bone  is  the  tabular,  which  extends  half  the  length  of  the  parietal  for- 
wards. The  supramastoid  is  pyriform  and  is  rather  small,  and  its  anterior 
angle  is  wedged  in  between  the  posterior  parts  of  the  postfrontal  and  post- 
orbital.  The  postfrontals  separate  the  frontals  from  the  orbital  border. 
The  frontals  are  distinct,  and  their  posterior  border  is  about  in  the  line 
of  the  posterior  borders  of  the  orbits.  The  supratemporal  region  is  in- 
jured, and  only  the  suture  between  the  quadratojugal  and  jugal  is  visible. 
The  sculpture  consists  of  radiating  ridges  from  some  point  in  each 
bone  to  its  circumference.  This  point  may  be  near  the  centre  or  one  of 
the  borders  of  the  bone.  The  ridges  maj'  be  more  or  less  interrupted 
and  inosculating.  They  are  present  on  the  lower  jaw  as  well  as  the 
upper. 

Measurements.  mm. 

Length  of  skull  on  base  including  symphj'sis 40 

Width  of  skull  at  quadrate  articulations 36 

Length  of  mandibular  angle  from  do 6 

Transverse  diameter  of  orbit 5 

Length  from  posterior  border  of  skull  to  orbit. ........  18 

Width  between  nostrils 10 

From  the  Permian  bed  of  Texas. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 

Pl.\te  YII. 

Otocmlus  testudi/ieus  Cope  ;  parts  of  skull  and  skeleton  with  carapace, 
from  above  ;  two-thirds  natural  size. 

Plate  YIII. 

Otocoelus  testmUneus  Cope  ;  specimen  figured  on  preceding  plate,  from 
below  ;  two-thirds  natural  size. 

Plate  IX. 

Fig.  1.  Otocoelus  mimeticus  Cope  ;  skull  and  part  of  carapace  in  con- 
tinuous relation  in  the  matrix,  from  above  ;  three-tifths  nat- 
ural size. 

Fig.  2.  Otocoelus  testudineus  Cope  ;  broken  edge  of  typical  specimen 
representing  sections  of  ribs  and  carapacial  bands  near  the 
vertebral  column  :  two-thirds  natural  size. 


1896.]  lOJ  [Cope. 

Plate  X. 

Dissorhophus  articulatus  Cope,  American  Naturalist,  1895,  p.  998;  por- 
tion of  skeleton,  five-sixths  natural  size. 
Fig.  1.     Carapace  from  above. 

Fig.  2.     Vertebral  column  ribs  and  carapace  from  below  ;  stime  speci- 
men as  Fig.  1. 
Fig.  3.     Anterior  extremity  of  same  specimen. 

Lettering. 
Q.,  Quadrate  bone,  Md.,  Mandible;  Pg.,  Pterygoid;  MA.,  Meatus 
auditorius  externus  ;  C7.,  Clavicle  ;  ^s.,  Episternum  ;  a'?!?..  Scapula  ;  Co., 
Coracoid  ;  GL.  Glenoid  cavity;  H.,  Humerus;  Cu.,  Cubitus;  Ce.,  Cen- 
trum; Ic,  Intercentrum  ;  Pc,  Pleurocentrum  ;  Ns.,  Neural  spine;  E., 
Eib  ;   Ca.,  Carapace;  Fe.,  Femur;   T.,  Tibia;  Fi.,  Fibula. 


Sixth  Contribution  to  the  Knowledge  of  the  Marine  Miocene  Fauna  o/ 
North  America. 

By  E.  D.  Cope. 

{Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  May  15,  1S96.) 

The  fifth  contribution  was  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society 
for  189o,  p.  13.1,  and  the  fourth  in  the  same  for  1870,  p.  270. 

Syllomus  crispatus  Cope,  gen.  et  sp.  nov. 

Char.  gen. — Order  Testudinata  ;  family  probably  Cheloniida?.  Costal 
bones  developed  beyond  rib  extremities,  and  uniting  with  marginals  by 
suture.  Surface  sculptured  with  grooves  and  ridges.  Humerus  with 
entepicondylar  foramen  enclosed,  and  flattened  shaft.  Radial  process 
remote  from  head. 

This  is  the  only  definable  form  of  Testudinata  yet  discovered  in  the 
Yorktown  bed  of  the  Chesapeake  region.  It  is  quite  rare,  as  I  have  met 
w^ith  it  at  one  time  and  place  only.  The  carapace  is  more  fully 
developed  than  in  Chelone  and  Argillochelys,  and  it  dift'ers  from  these 
and  from  Lytoloma  in  the  sculpture  of  the  surface.  From  all  of  these 
genera  and  from  Peritresius  it  ditl'ers  in  the  union  of  the  marginal  bones 
with  the  costoids  by  suture. 

A  few  fragments  of  a  species  of  Lytoloma  have  been  found  in  the  same 
formation. 

Char,  specif. — This  tortoise  is  known  to  me  from  two  incomplete 
costal  bones  and  a  humerus.  One  costal  fi-agment  is  distal,  and  the 
other  is  proximal.  The  humerus  has  the  deltoid  crest  broken  off  at  the 
base. 

The  carapacial  bones  are  very  thin  and  consist  of  a  thicker  superior 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  1.51.  R.      PRINTED  AUGUST  13,  1896. 


Cope.]  140  [jlay  15, 

dense  laj^er,  a  light  spongy  layer,  and  a  very  thin  inferior  dense  layer. 
There  were  no  horny  scuta,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  were  any 
dermal  sutures.  The  surface  is  marked  with  numerous  tuliercles  which 
are  of  elongate  form,  and  run  in  various  directions,  frequently  inoscu- 
lating and  separating  generally  narrow  fosste.  They  are  finer  and  more 
nearly  parallel  on  the  distal  part  of  the  costal  than  on  the  proximal,  and 
they  turn  at  right-angles  to  the  intercostal  sutures.  The  proximal  part 
of  the  costal  is  crossed  by  an  angular  keel  which  runs  parallel  to  the 
middle  line  of  the  carapace.  It  is  smooth,  interrupting  the  sculpture. 
There  are  therefore  two  low  parallel  keels  on  the  superior  part  of  the 
plastron.  AVhether  there  is  a  median  keel  cannot  be  determined,  as  no 
vertebral  bone  is  preserved.  At  one  side  of  this  keel  ('?proximad)  is  a 
smooth  shallow  groove,  which  may  represent  the  border  of  a  vertebral 
scutum.     Not  enough  of  it  is  preserved  to  demonstrate  its  nature. 

The  shaft  of  the  humerus  is  flat  in  the  plane  of  the  distal  extremity 
and  is  nearly  straight,  except  that  it  bends  a  little  downwards  proximad 
of  the  distal  extremity  of  the  deltoid  crest.  The  latter  descends  low  on 
the  shaft  marking  one-third  the  leugth.  Its  inferior  portion  is  recurved 
inwards  towards  the  head.  The  long  axis  of  the  head  is  at  right  angles 
to  that  of  the  shaft.  The  radial  process  is  prominent,  and  marks  two- 
fifths  the  length  of  the  shaft  from  the  head  on  the  internal  edge.  The 
straight  line  of  the  axis  of  the  humerus  reaches  the  distal  extremity  be- 
tween the  condyles  and  the  entepicondylar  foramen.  Thus  the  con- 
dyles are  turned  slightly  ectad.  The  internal  portion  of  the  condyle  has 
a  greater  anteroposterior  diameter  than  the  external,  and  though  the 
articular  surface  is  convex  anteroposteriorly,  transversely  there  are 
three  shallow  concavities,  one  external  and  two  internal.  The  internal 
epicondyle  is  wide  and  flat,  and  equals  the  condyles  in  transverse 
diameter.  The  external  epicondyle  is  little  prominent.  The  entepicon- 
dylar canal  is  oblique,  entering  nearer  the  inner  margin  l)elo\v,  and 
issuing  at  about  the  middle  above. 

Meusurements.  mm. 

Proximal  width  of  costal  1 47 

Thickness  of  do.  at  margin 7 

Width  of  costal  2,  at  distal  end GO 

Thickness  of  do.  at  distal  margin 3 

Leugth  of  humerus 100 

-p..         ,  ,. ,       T  (  anteroposterior 32 

Diameters  ol  head  ■  '■ 

i  transverse 1  < 

"Width  of  humerus  distally 41 

Transverse  extent  of  condyles 22 

Length  from  radial  process  to  distal  end 53 

I  obtained  the  specimens  al)ove  described  from  a  Neocene  bed  on  the 
Pamunky  river,  Virginia.  It  was  associated  with  the  Mesocetus  siphun- 
culus  Cope,  and  various  species  (jf  Plalanistid;e,  and  a  S(pialodon. 


1896.]  ,141  [^Cope. 

3IETOPOCETUS  DURiNASus,  geii.  et  sp.  nov. 

Char.  gen. — Lateral  occipital  crests  continuous  with  anterior  temporal 
crests  which  diverge  forwards.  Frontal  bone  elongate,  not  covered 
posteriorly  by  the  maxillary,  coossified  with  the  nasals.  Xasals  short, 
coossified  with  each  other,  not  projecting  anterior  to  frontals. 

Accompanying  the  cranial  fragment  on  which  this  genus  is  founded 
is  a  piece  of  a  premaxillarj"  bone  of  appropriate  size,  which  presents  the 
character  of  that  of  a  whalebone  Avhale.  The  true  position  of  this 
genus  is  probably  between  Cetotherium  and  Agorophius.  It  is  probably 
a  mysticete  which  approximates  the  ancestral  zeuglodont  type  which  is 
represented  in  our  present:  knowledge  by  the  genus  Agorophius.  It  is 
connected  with  Cetotherium  by  the  new  genus  Cephalotropis,  Avhich  is 
described  below.  The  three  genera  form  a  group,  which  may  be 
properly  referred  to  the  BalsenuUe,  which  is  characterized  by  the  elonga- 
tion of  the  frontal  and  parietal  bones  on  the  superior  walls  of  the  skull. 
They  differ  as  follows  : 

A  temporal  ridge  ;    maxillaries  little  produced   posteriori}'  ;   nasals  not 
produced  beyond  frontal,  coossified  with  the  frontal  and  with  each 

other Metopocetus  Cope. 

A  temporal   ridge  ;  maxillaries  much  i)roduced  posteriorly  ;    nasals  free 

from  frontals  and  from  each  other,  produced  well  anteriorlj' 

Cephalotropis  Cope 
No  temporal  ridge  ;  maxillaries  much  produced  posteriorly  ;    nasals  free 

from  frontals  and  from  each  other,  well  produced  forwards 

Cetotherium  Brandt. 

The  specimen  on  which  the  genus  Metopocetus  is  founded  is  quite 
mature  so  that  the  sutures  are  coossified.  The  frontomaxillary  and 
froutopremaxillary  sutures  are  however  distinct,  as  they  appear  to  me, 
and  they  are  remarkable  for  their  position.  They  extend  but  little 
posterior  to  the  external  nareal  openings.  The  latter  are,  in  relation  to 
the  supraoccipital  crest,  anterior,  but  in  relation  to  the  position  of  the 
nasals,  posterior.  The  nasals  are  short  for  a  Bal^enid,  although  they 
enter  wedge-like  into  the  frontals  for  a  considerable  distance. 

The  position  of  the  genera  Metopocetus  and  Cephalotropis  may  be 
similar  to  that  of  the  genera  Ulias  and  Tretulias,  which  are  known  from 
mandibular  rami  only.  One  or  both  of  the  former  may  be  identical  with 
one  or  both  of  the  latter  ;  but  of  this  there  is  as  yet  no  evidence. 

Char,  specif. — The  specimen  which  represents  the  Metopocetus  duri- 
nasus  is  a  cranium  posterior  to  the  nares,  lacking  the  left  exoccipital  and 
squamosal  regions,  and  the  right  zygomatic  process.  Both  occipital 
condyles  are  preserved,  and  the  basicranial  region  as  far  as  the  anterior 
nares. 

The  supraoccipital  extends  well  forwards  and  its  lateral  crests  present 
a  moderate  concavity  outwards  and  forwards.  Its  apex  is  represented 
by  a  semicircular  mass,  posterior  to  which  it  is  deeply  concave,  and  the 
concavity  is   divided   by  a   longitudinal   median   crest.     The  temporal 


<'ope.]  14^  [^jlay  15, 

fossse  approach  near  together  on  the  median  line,  forming  a  short  sagit- 
tal crest,  which  is  about  as  wide  as  it  is  long.  From  this  the  temporal 
ridges  diverge  abruptly,  and  these  extend  in  a  nearly  straight  line  for- 
wards, diverging  from  the  line  of  the  axis  of  the  skull  at  an  angle  of 
about  twenty-five  degrees.  Between  it  and  the  lateral  occipital  crest 
the  temporal  fossa  is  concave  to  the  line  of  the  anterior  border  of  the 
squamosal  bone.  At  the  latter  point  the  line  of  the  suture  presents  an 
angle,  which  extends  downwards,  outwards  and  forwards.  Between 
it  and  the  posterior  temporal  crest  the  surface  is  concave  above. 

The  exoccipital  is  flat  vertically,  and  extends  a  little  posterior  to  the 
transverse  line  of  the  occipital  condyles.  The  postglenoid  face  of  the 
squamosal  is  vertical,  and  it  projects  laterally  beyond  the  exoccipital. 
The  postglenoid  crest  is  not  conspicuous,  and  the  glenoid  cavity  presents 
downwards,  and  very  little  forwards.  The  posterior  temporal  crest 
bounds  a  groove  of  the  superior  face  of  the  part  of  the  squamosal  that  lies 
posterior  to  it.  The  latter  face  is  quite  wide,  and  its  external  bounding 
angle  is  a  right  angle.  It  is  continued  as  the  superior  face  of  the  zj'go- 
matic  process. 

The  petrous  bone  has  a  peculiar  form.  Its  mastoid  portion  presents 
externally  a  nearly  discoid  outline  between  the  exoccipital  and  squam- 
osal. Its  inferior  portion  descends  as  a  process  which  forms  the  short 
stem  of  a  half-tubular  horizontal  portion,  which  opens  dowuAvards 
and  posteriorly,  forming  a  partial  meatus  auditorius. 

The  lateral  descending  borders  of  the  basioccipital  are  so  prominent 
as  to  enclose  a  deep  groove  between  them.  The  posterior  nares  are 
about  opposite  to  the  anterior  border  of  the  foramen  lacerum. 

The  frontal  region  at  its  posterior  apex  is  convex  from  side  to  side. 
As  it  widens  it  presents  three  subequal  faces,  two  lateral  and  one 
median.  The  median  plane  is  separated  from  the  laterals  by  a  shallow 
groove  on  each  side,  which  become  deeper  anteriorly,  and  turn  abruptly 
outwards  at  tlie  nareal  border.  They  appear  to  be  the  outlines  of  the 
nasal  bones.  Anteriorly  the  lateral  planes  become  thickened  longitudi- 
nally just  external  to  these  grooves.  The  entire  anterior  portion  of  the 
external  planes  is  a  sutural  surface,  with  longitudinal  grooves  for  a 
length  averaging  40  mm.  This  surface  can  relate  to  nothing  but  the 
premaxillary  and  maxillary  elements.  This  point  of  attachment  is,  how- 
ever, anterior  to  that  of  any  known  genus  of  Mj'sticete  ;  and  is  anterior 
to  that  in  tlie  Agoropliius  pygmceus  Miill.  In  not  extending  so  far  pos- 
teriorly as  the  nasal  bones,  it  leaves  the  frontals  to  embrace  the  latter 
anteriorly  to  an  unusual  extent.  This  is  on  the  supposition  that  the 
indistinct  grooves  on  each  side  of  the  middle  line  really  represent  the 
lateral  borders  of  the  nasal  bones,  which  is  not  certain,  except  as  to 
tlieir  anterior  portions. 

Measurements.  mm. 

Widtii  of  skull  at  exoccipitals 406 

"         "      "  postglenoid  angles 570 


1896.]  143  [Cope. 

3Ieasureinents.  mm. 

Width  of  occipital  condyles 150 

' '      foramen  magnum 65 

' '      sagittal  crest 17 

"      anterior  border  of  nasal  bones 90 

"      skull  at  sagittal  crest 170 

"      sphenoid  at  middle  of  for.  lacerum 135 

Anteroposterior  diameter  of  glenoid  surface 115 

Length  of  nasal  canal 350 

"        from  occipital  condyles  to  anterior  nares 450 

"            "      foramen  magnum  to  posterior  end  of  sag- 
ittal crest  (oblique) 210 

Length  of  sagittal  crest 15 

"         from  "  to  anterior  nares 195 

This  specimen  was  obtained  hj  Prof.  Arthur  Bibbins  from  a  Miocene 
marl  from  near  the  mouth  of  the  Potomac  river,  in  Maryland.  I  am 
under  much  obligation  to  the  Rev.  John  T.  Goucher,  President  of  the 
Woman's  College,  of  Baltimore,  for  the  opportunity  of  studying  the 
specimen,  which  belongs  to  that  institution. 

Cephalotropis  coronatus,  gen.  et  sp.  nov. 

Char.  gen. — Parietal  bone  separating  supraoccipital  and  frontal  by  a 
considerable  space  and  presenting  a  sagittal  crest.  Frontal  extensively 
overlapped  by  the  maxillaries,  premaxillaries  and  nasals.  Nasals  elon- 
gate, distinct  from  the  adjacent  elements.  Frontal  presenting  divergent 
temporal  angles. 

This  genus  differs  from  Cetotherium  in  the  presence  of  temporal 
ridges  or  angles.  It  difters  from  Metopocetus  in  the  free  elongate  nasal 
bones. 

Char,  specif. — The  specimen  M'hich  represents  this  species  is  a  portion 
of  the  cranium  which  includes  the  elements  which  surround  the  brain 
except  the  occipital,  the  superior  part  of  the  latter  remaining  ;  together 
with  the  posterior  parts  of  the  maxillaries,  premaxillaries  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  nasals,  and  the  basisphenoid  and  presphenoid  in  part, 
and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  left  temporal.  The  sutures  distin- 
guishing the  several  elements  are  distinct,  so  that  the  boundaries  of  the 
latter  can  be  readily  distinguished.  In  describing  this  fragment  I  will 
compare  it  especially  with  the  Metopocetus  durinasus  and  Cetotherium 
megalophysutn,  where  the  corresponding  parts  are  preserved. 

The  supraoccipital  angle  is  produced  further  anteriorly  than  in  either 
of  the  species  named,  and  the  sagittal  crest  is  longer  than  in  either. 
The  summit  of  the  smooth  occipital  surface  forms  a  transverse  border, 
which  cuts  off  the  apex  of  the  occiput,  thus  bounding  posteriorly  a  tri 
angular  area,  of  which  the  sides  are  a  little  longer  than  the  base.  This 
triangle  has  a  low,   median  keel,  on  each  side  of  which  the  surface  is 


Cope.]  1^4:  pjay  15^ 

concave,  and  is  marked  with  numerous  irregular  fossa?.  The  surface 
has  been  evidently  the  seat  of  the  insertion  of  something  ;  hut  whether 
it  was  entirely  of  a  ligamentous  character  or  whether  some  tegumentary 
structure  had  its  basis  there  I  do  not  know.  The  superior  border  of  the 
temporal  fossa  is  regularly  concave  towards  the  middle  line,  and  regard- 
ing the  sagittal  crest  as  restricted  to  the  parietal  bone,  its  truncate  edge 
is  wider  at  the  extremities  than  at  the  middle.  The  narrowest  portion 
of  the  crest  is  nearer  the  frontoparietal  than  the  parietooccipital  suture. 
The  temporal  ridge  is  in  regular  continuation  of  the  edge  of  the  sagittal 
crest,  and  becomes  transverse  in  direction  towards  the  orbital  border  of 
the  frontal  bone.     This  border  is  broken  ofl". 

The  vertical  temporoparietal  suture  does  not  run  along  a  ridge  as  in 
the  31.  dur  in  as  us,  hut  its  superior  portion  is  on  a  low,  obtuse  angle. 
The  frontoparietal  suture  extends  posteriorly  from  the  sagittal  crest 
downwards,  much  posterior  to  the  direction  it  presents  in  the  C.  megalo- 
pliysum,  where  its  direction  on  each  side  is  a  trifle  anterior  to  transverse. 
Across  the  front  the  suture  is  coarsely  serrate,  difl'ering  from  the  sutures 
of  the  anterior  border  of  the  frontal  bone,  which  are  closely  and  deeph* 
interdigitate,  as  in  the  G.  7negalop7iysum.  The  superficial  median  part 
of  the  frontal  is  about  one-third  as  long  as  the  corresponding  part  of  the 
parietal.  The  nasomaxillary  suture  with  the  frontal  is  short  in  the 
transverse  direction,  not  reaching  the  temporal  ridge  on  each  side.  The 
frontomaxillary  suture  then  becomes  nearly  longitudinal  for  a  distance 
of  50  mm.  and  then  turns  outwards  for  25  mm.  On  the  opposite  side 
the  posterior  border  of  the  maxillary  is  more  oblique,  and  extends  from 
the  transverse  m.edian  portion  divergent  from  the  line  of  the  temporal 
ridge,  forwards  and  outwards.  The  latter  is  probably  the  normal  direc- 
tion of  the  suture.  The  nasal  bones  are  very  narrow,  but  expand  grad- 
ually anteriorl3^  They  do  not  terminate  posteriorly  in  an  acute  angle  as 
they  do  in  the  C.  megalopJiysum  and  M.  durinasus  (apparently),  but  are 
truncate.  The  premaxillaries  are  also  narrow  at  this  point.  Their  pos- 
terior extremities  are  broken  off.  The  glenoid  cavity  presents  down- 
wards. The  prespheuoid  is  plane  below  antcTOposteriorly  and  trans- 
versely posteriorly,  but  is  slightly  convex  below  anteriorly.    It  is  hollow. 

Measurements.  mm. 

Length   of   supraoccipital    triangle   to   occipitoparietal 

suture 80 

Length  of  parietal  on  middle  line 60 

frontal     "         "         "    35 

Width  of  supraoccipital  at   base  of  suj)ra()ccii)ital   tri- 
angle   124 

Width  of  base  of  cranium  opposite  supraoccipital  tri- 
angle   115 

"      sagittal  crest 18 

nasals  at  base 28 

"  "      140  mm.  anterior  to  base 50 


1896.]  14:5.  [Cope. 

In  the  interstices  of  the  specimen  portions  of  matrix  remain  which 
have  the  color  and  character  of  the  material  of  the  Yorktown  forma- 
tion. Embedded  in  this  at  certain  points  are  fragments  of  Molhisca  of 
the  genera  Pecten,  Lncina  and  Turritella.  It  was  probablj^  derived  from 
the  Chesapeake  region.  The  fragment  belongs  to  the  museum  of  Johns 
Hopkins  Universitj'.  oi^  Baltimore,  and  I  am  under  many  obligations  to 
Prof.  William  B.  Clark,  State  Geologist  of  jVIarjdand,  for  the  opportu- 
nity of  studying  it. 

Rhegnopsis  pal^^atlanticus  Leidy.  Balcena  paUeatlantica,  Proceeds. 
Academy  Phila.,  1851,  p.  308.  Bulmnoftera  jjalceatlantica  Cope, 
Proceeds.  Academy  PMla.,  1868,  p.  193.  I^'otobala>na  palmatlantica 
Leidy,  Extinct  Mamm.  Dakota,  Nebraska,  1869,  p.  440. 

The  typical  and  only  specimen  of  this  species  is  a  fragment  of  a  lower 
jaw  from  the  Yorktown  bed  of  S.  E.  Virginia.  Its  specific  characters 
ditier  from  those  of  other  BalaMiidne  referred  to  in  this  and  preceding 
papers  by  me,  and  it  displays  in  addition  a  character  which  Leidy  has 
described,  and  which  is  very  conspicuous.  That  is,  the  presence  of  a 
Meckelian  fissure,  which  extends  deeply  into  the  mandibular  ramus.  I 
agree  with  Leidy  that  this  feature  should  be  regarded  as  generic,  and  so 
define  the  genus  as  follows,  under  the  name  Rhegnopsis.  Roof  of  dental 
canal  perforated  by  gingival  tubes  ;  a  ]\Ieckelian  fissure.  Dr.  Leidy's 
name  Protobahtna  is  preoccupied  by  Van  Benedeu  (1867). 

Cetotherium  leptocentrum.  Eschrichtius  leptocentrus  Cope,  Pro- 
ceeds. Academy  Phila.,  1867,  p.  147.  Cetotherium  leptocentrum  Cope, 
American  Naturalist,  1890,  p.  (iKi.  Cetotherium  crassangulum  Co\ie, 
Proceeds.  American  Philosoj)hical  Society  1895,  ji.  148. 

After  the  latest  description  of  this  species  was  published  I  visited 
the  locality  at  which  it  was  discovered,  in  companj^  with  Prof.  Arthur 
Bibbins,  of  Baltimore.  I  found  a  ]iart  of  a  mandibular  ramus  which 
coincides  in  all  respects  so  closelj'  with  the  portions  which  are  still 
adherent  to  the  skull  that  I  have  no  doubt  that  they  pertain  to  the  same 
species,  and  probably  to  the  same  individual.  One  character  in  which 
this  fragment  agrees  with  the  other  portions  of  the  rami  is  the  presence 
of  coarse  cancellous  bony  tis.sue  throughout  the  gingival  dental  canal. 
This  reduces  the  diameter  of  the  latter  to  that  of  the  large  external 
gingival  canals.  The  form  of  the  middle  part  of  the  ramus  as  indicated 
by  the  fragment  is  very  different  from  that  of  any  other  whalebone 
whale  known  to  me.  The  internal  face  is  nearly  flat  and  vertical,  while 
the  external  face  is  convex  only  at  the  superior  portion.  For  a  short 
distance  exterior  to  the  superior  angle  it  is  subhorizontal  ;  it  then 
gradually  decurves,  and  is  then  entirely  flat  to  the  inferior  sul)acute 
edge.  Tlie  section  is  then  subtriangular,  with  the  base  superior  and  the 
apex  inferior.  The  interior  gingival  foramina  continue  very  small,  and 
they  are  not  connected  by  a  groove.     Distance  between  two  of  them, 


Cope.]  -L4b  [May  15, 

45  mm.    The  external  foramina  are  quite  large  ;  distance  between  two  of 
them,  165  mm. 

A  third  cervical  vertebra  was  picked  up  on  the  James  River,  Virginia, 
by  Prof.  Bibbins,  a  few^  miles  below  the  locality  from  which  the  type  speci- 
men of  the  G.  crassangultim  was  derived,  and  kindl}'  presented  by  him  to 
me.  It  belongs  to  an  adult  animal,  and  considerable  parts  of  one  of  the 
parapophj^ses  and  neurapophyses  are  preserved.  The  former  are  directed 
downwards  at  an  angle  of  about  25°,  and  therefore  much  less  steeply 
than  in  the  C.  cephalus.  The  form  of  the  centrum  is  a  transverse  parallel- 
ogram and  therefore  similar  to  that  of  the  two  individuals  previously 
described.  The  diameters  are  :  transverse  below  middle  140  mm. ;  ver- 
tical 97  mm.;  anteroposterior  at  base  84  mm.  The  dimensions,  while  less 
than  those  of  the  type  C.  crassangulum,  are  appropriate  to  a  smaller  in- 
dividual of  that  species. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 
Plate  XI. 

Fragmentary  crania  of  Baltenidae  of  the  Yorktown  epoch,  one-sixth 
natural  size. 

Fig.  1.  Cetotherium  megnlophysum  Cope,  from  above.  ColL  .Johns 
Hopkins  University. 

Fig.  2.  Cephnlotropis  coronatus  Cope,  from  above.  Coll.  Johns  Hop- 
kins University. 

Fig.  3.  Metopocetus  durinasus  Cope,  from  above.  Coll.  Woman's  Col- 
lege, Baltimore. 

Plate  XII. 

Diagrams  of  sections  from  near  the  middle  of  the  mandibular  rami  of 
extinct  BaliEnidiB,  one-half  natural  size. 

Fig.   1.      Cetotherium  leptocerUruia  Cope  ;  Virginia. 

Fig.  2.     Getotherimn  cephalus  Cope  ;  Maryland  ;  section  i)ro\imad  of  the 

middle. 
Fig.  3.     Getotherium  cephalus  Cope,  same  jaw  as  Fig.  2.  distad  of  the 

middle. 
Fig.  4.     Getotherimn  davidsonii  Cope  ;  California. 
Fig.  5.     Bhegnopsis  paUeatlanticus  he'idy  ;  Virginia. 
Fig.  6.     Mesocetus  siphunculus  Cope  ;  Virginia. 

No.  1,  Coll.  Woman's  College,  Baltimore;  2,  8,  4.  5.  Coll.  .\cademy 
Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia  ;  6,  Coll.  E.  D.  Cope. 

Lettering. 
So.,  Supraoccipitalbone  ;  Sq.,  Squamosal  ;  Z.,  Zygomatic  :  P..  Parietal  ; 
F.,   Frontal;  N.,  Nasal;  Na.,   External   Nares  ;  M.v.,   Maxillary;  Pin.r., 
Premaxillary  ;    7'.  R.,  Temporal  Kidge. 


1896.]  -•-*<  [Farr. 

JVotes  on  the   Osteology  of  the  White  River  Horses^. 

By  Marc^is  8.  Farr. 

{Read  before  the  American  PhilosopJiical  Society,  May  15,  1S96.) 

MESOHIPPUS. 

Although  nearly  half  a  century  has  elapsed  since  MesoJiip^ms  hairdi 
was  first  described  by  Leidj',*  our  knowledge  of  its  osteology  has 
remained  comparatively  incomplete,  all  the  known  material  being  lim- 
ited to  foot  bones  and  more  or  less  complete  skulls.  Most  all  of  the 
skeletons  that  were  found  were  badly  broken  up  and  only  the  larger 
and  more  perfect  bones  were  saved.  Modern  methods  of  collecting, 
essentially  those  introduced  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Hatcher,f  have  revolutionized 
all  this  and  now  even  the  most  delicate  bones,  though  badly  broken  up, 
are  preserved  as  easily  as  the  large  bones  were  before  collecting  was 
done  in  a  scientific  manner. 

Fortunate  discoveries  of  more  complete  skeletons  during  the  last  three 
years  have  given  us  very  much  better  material  and  now  enable  us  to 
supplement  the  accounts  of  M.  bairdi  that  have  already  been  given,  to 
add  many  new  points  on  the  osteology  of  the  species  and  to  oft'er  a 
restoration  which  is  an  improvement  on  those  heretofore  oft'ered. 

Several  species  of  Mesohippus  have  already  been  made  on  material 
fi"om  Nebraska,  Dakota  and  Colorado.  These  have  either  been  founded 
on  a  few  teeth  presenting  peculiarities  or  on  foot  bones  not  associated 
with  teeth.  These  species  have  not  been  generally  accepted,  and  the 
founding  of  species  on  such  limited  material  especially  in  such  a  genus 
as  Mesohippus  which  presents  such  a  marked  degree  of  individual  varia- 
tion does  not  seem  justifiable  and  merelj^  burdens  science  with  useless 
synonyms.  I  have  not  seen  the  types  upon  which  the  various  species, 
31.  exoletum,X  M.  agrestis,%  M.  cu)ieatns,\\  M.  celer,^  etc.,  have  been  estab- 
lished, but  from  the  study  of  the  individual  variations  in  the  many** 
specimens  of  M.  bairdi  studied  by  the  writer  it  seems  very  evident  that 
the  species  are  not  well  grounded  and  that  the  peculiarities  may  be 
accounted  for  by  the  factor  already  mentioned. 

The  discovery  of  the  Protoceras  beds  and  their  recognition  as  a  dis- 
tinct subdivision  of  the  White  River  formationsf  f  marks  a  stage  in  the 
development  of  the  palaeontology  of  this  epoch. 

*Leidy  first  described  this  species  as  Palxotherium  bairdi,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sd.,  1810, 
p.  122. 

+  Curator  of  Vertebrate  Palaeontology  in  the  College  of  New  Jersey. 

tCope,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  of  the  Teiritwies,  1873. 

§Leidy,  Kept.  U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.  Terrs.  (4to),  i,  p.  251,  PI.  vii. 

II  Cope,  Palseontl.  Bull.,  No.  16,  p.  7,  August  20,  1873. 

H  Marsh,  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  and  Arts,  1874,  p.  251. 

•*  Remains  of  nearly  one  hundred  individuals  have  been  studied  by  the  writer. 

+t  Wortman,  On  the  Divisions  of  the  White  River,  Ball.  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  v,  pp.  95- 
100. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  151.  S.      PRINTED  SEPT.  2,   1896. 


Farr.]  ^-^^  [May  15, 

The  fauna  of  the  Protoceras  beds  is  unique  in  many  ways,  especially 
in  the  number  of  new  and  bizarre  forms  that  come  in,  some  evidently 
by  migration,  while  others  are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  species  of 
the  underlying  Oreodon  beds. 

These  strata  are  interesting,  as  they  form  a  transition  to  the  later  John 
Day  beds,  their  fauna  being  intermediate  between  the  latter  and  that  of 
the  Oreodon  beds. 

A  new  species  of  horse  has  been  found  in  this  formation  which  helps 
very  greatly  in  explaining  the  individual  variations  of  31.  bairdi,  as 
many  of  these  are  seen  to  be  attempts  in  the  direction  of  M.  intermedius, 
which  is  undoubtedly  the  direct  descendant  of  the  former.  Besides 
these  two  species  which  are  seen  to  stand  in  the  direct  relation  of  ances- 
tor and  descendant  there  is  another  species,  M.  copei,  which  occurs  first 
in  the  strata  of  the  Oreodon  beds  and  is  represented  in  the  Protoceras 
beds  by  larger  individuals. 

Geological  succession  of  the  species  : 

Protoceras  beds  :  M.  bairdi,  M.  copei,  M.  intermedius. 

Oreodon  beds  :  M.  bairdi,  M.  copei. 

Titanotherium  beds  :  M.  bairdi. 

The  genus  Mesohippus  occurs  then  in  all  the  different  horizons  of  the 
White  River  beds.  In  the  Titanotherium  beds  it  is  usually  represented 
only  by  fragmentary  remains,  which,  however,  are  unmistakably  those 
of  M.  bairdi. 

The  Oreodon  beds  have  yielded  most  of  the  best  material.  Through 
the  whole  extent  of  the  fossiliferous  strata  of  these  beds,  a  vertical  thick- 
ness of  at  least  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet,  remains  of  3/.  bairdi  are 
fairly  abundant.  However,  the  remains  are  not  well  preserved,  groups 
of  teeth  and  the  larger  limb  bones  are  common,  while  well-preserved 
portions  of  the  skeleton  are  rare — a  perfect  skull  has  never  yet  been 
found.  Beside  M.  bairdi  Ave  get  in  the  upper  Oreodon  beds  a  new  spe 
cies  which  has  been  described  as  M.  copei.*  The  Protoceras  beds  have 
yielded  only  fragmentary  remains  of  M.  bairdi.  This  species  does  not 
represent  the  main  line  of  descent  during  this  epoch,  but  it  is  here  taken 
up  by  M.  intermedius  while  the  former  still  persists  as  a  side  line.  We 
also  get  M.  copei,  which  continues  on  from  the  Oreodon  beds  and  is  now 
represented  by  larger  individuals. 

Of  3/.  bairdi  ne-dv\y  the  entire  skeleton  is  represented  by  material  in 
the  Princeton  collection. 

The  skull  has  been  quite  fully  described  by  Leidy,f  and  the  skeleton 
has  been  the  subject  of  an  exhaustive  paper  by  Prof.  Scott, :|:  but  when 
this  paper  was  written  the  entire  skeleton  had  not  yet  been  found  and 
the  incisor  teeth  of  upper  series  are  the  result  of  explorations  of  the 
summers  of  1894  and  18()o,  so  some  points  in  the  description  will  be  new. 

*Osborn  and  Wortman,  I'ldl.  Am.  Mtis.,  Vol.  vii,  pp.  850-35^. 

+  Tilt  Extinct  Mammalian  Fauna  t if  Dakota  and  Htbraska,  Philadelphia,  ISO'.'. 

XJourn.  oj  3I<M-i)holo(jy,  Vul.  v,  No.  o,  Dfceniber,  1891. 


1896.]  14  J  [Farr. 

Moreover  the  description  of  this  species  de  novo  is  justifiable  because  we 
wish  to  trace  the  steps  in  the  evolution  of  the  horse  as  they  can  be  fol- 
lowed in  the  horizons  of  the  White  River  strata  and  must  therefore  have 
a  description  of  one  species  as  a  standard  for  comparison. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  add  some  new"  iwints  on  the  osteology 
of  M.  hairdi  and  to  give  a  new,  more  accurate  and  more  complete  restora- 
tion ;  to  give  a  short  description  of  M.  intermedins  and  M.  capei,  and  to 
show  their  relation  to  each  other  and  to  M.  hairdi. 

I  must  acknowledge  my  very  great  indebtedness  to  Prof.  Scott,  who 
has  given  me  so  much  assistance  in  the  way  of  suggestion  and  criticism 
and  whose  kindly  interest  in  my  Avork  has  ever  been  an  inspiration  dur- 
ing my  three  years  of  graduate  study  in  Princeton.  To  Mr.  J.  B. 
Hatcher  I  am  also  very  much  indebted  for  free  access  to  collections  and 
for  kindlj'  criticism  and  help  and  for  much  information  on  White  Itiver 
mammals. 

I  must  also  extend  my  thanks  to  Prof.  H.  F.  Osborn  and  Dr.  J.  L. 
Wortman,  of  the  American  Museum,  for  permission  to  study  some  of 
their  very  beautiful  material  ;  also  to  the  latter  for  valuable  suggestions. 

The  drawings  are  by  Mr.  R.  Weber,  and  add  materially  to  the  value  of 
the  paper. 

The  Dentition 

The  dental  formula  is  I.  f,  C.  \,  Pm.  |,  M.  f.  The  dentition  is  thus 
seen  to  be  unreduced,  and  the  specialization  or  modernization  consists  in 
the  complexity  of  the  last  three  premolars  which  are  molariforni  and 
Pm.  2  is  beginning  to  assume  the  elongate  character,  so  marked  in  the 
living  horse  by  the  elongation  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  external  half 
of  the  tooth.  The  characters  of  the  permanent  teeth  have  already  been 
described  by  Leidy,*  Osborn, f  and  Scott, ^  but  very  little  has  been 
Avritten  concerning  the  milk  dentition  and  the  superior  incisors  have 
only  very  recently  been  found.  Only  tAvo  skulls  are  known  bearing  the 
upper  incisors,  nearly  all  the  skulls  that  are  discovered  having  the  end 
of  the  very  narrow  snout  broken  oft". 

The  inferior  canine  is  the  smallest  of  all  the  teeth  ;  it  is  suberect  and 
conical,  and  there  is  a  wide  diastema  between  it  and  Pm.  1.  The  lower 
incisors  are  spatulate  or  chisel  shaped  and  do  not  show  any  indication  of 
a  depression  or  pit.  They  have  sharp  cutting  edges,  and  their  inner  sur- 
faces are  strongly  concave.  The  first  incisor  is  the  longest  (i.  e.,  highest 
above  alveolar  border)  and  also  the  widest  of  the  incisor  series.  I.  2  is 
smaller  than  I.  1,  while  I.  3  is  the  smallest  of  the  incisor  series.  There 
is  thus  a  decrease  in  size  and  length  of  incisors  outwardly  towards  the 
canine.     The  six  incisors  form  an  unbroken  row. 

*  Ancient  Fauna  of  Nebraska,  pp.  70,  71 ;  Extinct  Mam.  Fauna  of  Dah  and  Nth.,  pp.  3C5- 
309,  1869. 

^  Bull,  of  Must,  of  Comp.  Zoijl.,  Vol.  xvi,  pp.  88,  89. 

J"Obteology  Of  Metohippusaud  Leptomeryx,"  Journ.  of  Morph.,  Vol.  v,  No.  3,  pp.  303-305. 


Farr.l  150  [May  15, 

The  anterior  border  of  the  mandible  is  rounded  and  tlie  teeth  are  ar- 
ranged in  the  segment  of  a  circle. 

The  fourth  lower  premolar  is  wider  transversely  than  any  of  the  other 
teeth,  while  the  posterior  half  of  Pm.  3  is  wider  proportionately  than  any 
of  the  remaining  teeth,  with  the  exception  of  the  former.  Pm.  4  has  a 
massiveness  not  seen  in  the  other  lower  teeth.  Sometimes  this  is  so 
marked  that  if  the  teeth  were  not  found  together  they  would  in  all 
probability  be  attributed  to  a  larger  individual.  It  had  long  been  sup- 
posed that  the  superior  incisors  were  not  pitted.  Prof.  Scott  *  has  sepa- 
rated Mesohippus  from  Miohippus  on  the  character  of  the  upper  incisors. 
A  skull  in  the  Princeton  collection  shows  the  upper  incisors  which  seem 
to  be  pitted,  but  as  they  are  so  much  worn  a  determination  of  their 
character  is  not  possible.  Osborn  and  Wortmau  f  have  just  described 
these  teeth  and  through  the  kindness  of  these  gentlemen  I  have  been 
permitted  to  examine  this  beautifully  preserved  skull.  The  two  outer 
pairs  of  incisors  show  a  distinct  invagination,  which  is  not,  however, 
present  on  I.  1.  Upper  Pm.  1  is  a  small  single-coned  tooth,  which  has 
two  distinct  roots.  The  ciugulum  is  well-developed  on  the  inner  side, 
enclosing  a  deep  pocket.  Anteriorly  there  is  a  tiny  accessory  ccnule. 
The  corresponding  tooth  of  the  lower  jaw  is  very  small  and  inserted  by 
only  a  single  fang.  Pm.  4  of  the  upper  series  is  wider  transversely  than 
any  of  the  other  teeth. 

Succession  of   the  Teeth. 

From  all  that  can  be  observed  the  three  large  deciduous  molars  first 
appear  simultaneously  in  both  jaws.  The  next  tooth  to  appear  is  that 
Avhich  represents  Pm.  1  of  the  permanent  set.  Nothing  is  known  as  to 
the  time  of  appearance  of  the  incisors  and  canines,  but  judging  from 
analogy  we  may  presume  that  they  appear  as  early  as  the  milk  molars. 
A  mandible  of  Mesohippus  (No.  11107),  with  milk  dentition  and  M.  1 
of  the  permanent  set,  shows  alveoli  for  the  three  incisors  and  c.  :ne. 
The  next  tooth  to  appear  (after  persistent  Pm.  1)  is  M.  1,  which  is  suc- 
ceeded by  M.  3.  Next  the  temporary  molars  are  replaced  by  the  perma- 
nent premolars. 

In  the  upper  jaw  these  are  replaced  in  the  following  order:  Pm.  4,  Pm.  3, 
Pm.  2  (Pm.  1  persisting  in  both  jaws).  One  specimen  shows  Pm.  4  almost 
ready  to  erupt,  while  Pm.  3  is  very  much  smaller  and  the  germ  of  Pm.  2  is 
very  feebly  developed.  The  mode  of  succession  in  the  lower  jaw  seems 
to  follow  the  same  order.  In  specimen  No.  10995,  M.  1  and  M.  2  have  ap- 
peared, and  the  germs  of  the  permanent  teeth  are  seen  by  picking  away 
the  bone  and  exposing  roots  of  teeth,  where  the  germ  of  Pm.  4  is  seen  to 
be  better  developed  than  that  of  Pm.  3.     This  also  accords  with  the  rate 

*  Ti-ann.  Amcr.  Phil.  Soc,  1883,  p.  79.  In  the  light  of  present  knowledge  it  seems  be.st 
to  abandon  tlie  genus  Miohippu.s  and  to  make  the  genus  Mesohippus  include  the  John 
Day  equines  as  well  as  tlie  White  Kiver  forms. 

t  IhiU.  Am.  Mas.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  vii,  p.  o53. 


1896.] 


151 


[Farr. 


of  wear  of  teeth,  as  Pm.  4  is  usually  more  worn  by  attrition  than  Pm.  ;i. 
After  the  deciduous  teeth  are  replaced  by  those  of  the  permanent  set, 
M.  3  appears  in  both  jaws. 

It  is  not  possible  to  tell  from  available  material  whether  the  incisors 
and  canines  are  replaced  or  are  persistent.  In  the  later  horse  from  the 
Equus  beds,  the  incisors  were  certainly  replaced,  and  the  germ  of  canine 
is  seen  piercing  the  jaw\  The  foramen,  through  which  it  is  growing,  is 
large,  but  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  whether  it  had  a  predecessor  or 
represents  a  permanent  canine  which  does  not  appear  until  the  other 
teeth  are  developed.  Chauveau*  makes  the  statement  that  the  canine 
persists  and  is  not  replaced  in  the  horse.  However,  judging  from 
analogy,  we  are  quite  safe  in  presuming  that  in  M.  hairdi  both  the  in- 
cisors and  canines  had  predecessors  in  the  milk  series. 


The  Milk  Dentition. 

The  temporary  dentition  may  be  given  in  the  following  formula  : 
I.  f,    C.  \,  D.  J.     See  Fig.  1. 

The  tooth  which  represents  Pm.  1  of  the  adult  skull  is  not  a  true  milk 
tooth,  as  it  does  not  appear  until  the  other  teeth  of  the  milk  set  are  fully 
developed,  and  is  not  replaced  as  are  the  teeth  of  the  temporary  series. 
It  may  be  considered  a  persistent 

milk  tooth,  as  it  has  no  predeces-  ^*^'     ' 

sor,  and  then  the  dental  formula 
will  be  as  given  above.  If  consid- 
ered one  of  the  permanent  set,  as 
there  are  ample  reasons  for  doing, 
the  molar  formula  will  be  :  D.f. 

The  differences  between  the  de- 
cidu(ms  teeth  and  those  of  the  per- 
manent set  are  not  due  to  any  ad- 
dition or  reduction  in  the  number 
of  elements  entering  into  the  forma- 
tion of  the  teeth,  but  are  due  to  the 
difl'erence  in  the  relative  develop- 
ment of  the  elements  in  the  two 
sets.  The  differences  can  best  be  described  by  instituting  a  comparison 
between  the  two  sets,  and  to  do  this  it  will  be  best  to  describe  those  of 
the  permanent  set  and  then  show  how  the  deciduous  molars  differ  from 
them.  The  last  two  of  the  temporary  set  differ  only  in  minute  detail 
from  the  corresponding  teeth  of  the  later  set,  but  there  is  a  fundamental 
difference  between  Pm.  2  of  the  permanent  set  and  its  predecessor  in  the 
milk  series. 

All  of  the  premolar  teeth,  with  the  single  exception  of  Pm.  1,  are 
molariform.     Pm.  2   of  both  jaws   presents   some  points  of  difference 


Milk  Molaes  of  M.  baiedi,  \. 
a,  superior  series. 
6,  inferior  series. 


*  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Domesticated  Animals. 


Fair.]  ±02i  [May  15, 

from  the  other  teeth,  while  the  simple  character  of  Pm.  1  has  already 
been  sufRciently  commented  upon.  The  last  lower  molar,  as  in  so 
many  forms,  difl'ers  from  the  others  in  the  presence  of  an  additional 
less  well-develo])ed  lobe  situated  posteriorly.  The  lower  molars  and 
Pms.  3  and  4  have  oblong,  quadrate  crowns,  with  an  outer  pair  of  fore 
and  aft  principal  lobes,  and  an  inner  pair  of  secondary  lobes  connate 
with  them.  "The  principal  lobes  of  the  crown  are  slightly  oblique  in 
their  relative  position,  angularly  convex  and  sloping  externallj%  con- 
cavely  excavated  internally  and  are  acutely  crescentoid  at  their  summit. 
Of  the  inner  secondary  lobes,  the  anterior  is  much  the  larger,  and  is 
pyramidal  in  form  with  a  twin  pointed  summit."  This  character  is 
observable  only  in  teeth  that  are  not  worn  excessively  and  disappears  as 
the  summits  of  the  crown  are  worn  off  in  mastication.  "The  antero- 
internal  cusp  springs  from  the  crown  at  the  conjunction  of  the  principal 
lobes  and  is  continuous  with  their  contiguous  crowns.  The  posterior  of 
the  secondarj'  lobes  is  conical  and  springs  from  the  crown  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  back  horn  of  the  posterior  principal  lobe.  The  front  horn 
of  the  anterior  principal  lobe  curves  inward,  downward  and  backward 
to  the  base  internally  of  the  anterior  secondary  lobe.  A  basal  ridge  (or 
cingulum)  nearly  continuous  bounds  the  crowns  of  the  lower  molars 
externally.  Posteriorly  it  rises  inward  and  terminates  in  a  tubercle 
springing  from  the  conjunction  of  the  two  posterior  lobes."  Pm.  2 
deserves  a  slight  mention  in  passing.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  posterior 
half  of  this  tooth  is  an  exact  copy  of  the  corresponding  part  of  anj-  of 
the  succeeding  premolars  or  molars.  One  half  of  the  antero-internal 
lobe  is  present  as  usual,  but  this  alone  forms  all  of  what  corresponds  to 
this  lobe  in  the  succeeding  teeth.  Anterior  to  this  and  externally  there 
is  another  lobe  more  nearly  median  in  position.  This  is  connected  Avith 
the  former  by  a  ridge  and  the  two  together  form  a  lobe  which  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  any  of  the  others.  Anterior  to  this  and  connate  with  it  is  a 
small  lobe  on  the  internal  surface  of  the  tooth.  The  deciduous  tooth 
differs  from  the  permanent  one  in  that  in  the  former  the  two  anterior 
lobes  are  more  distinct  from  each  other  and  from  the  other  lobes,  so  that 
we  seem  to  have  five  lobes  in  this  tooth.  Again  in  the  earlier  set  this 
tooth  has  a  greater  antero-posterior  extent  than  any  of  the  other  teeth, 
almost  equaling  in  length  M.  3  of  the  permanent  set,  which  has  the 
additional  lobe.  In  the  permanent  set  Pm.  2  is  even  shorter  antero-pos- 
teriorly  than  the  succeeding  tooth  in  the  premolar  series.  In  the  milk 
set  D.  4  has  the  posterior  half  narrower  than  the  anterior  half.  In  D.  3 
both  halves  of  tooth  are  of  approximately  the  same  width,  while,  in  the 
permanent  premolar  series  the  posterior  half  of  the  tooth  is  always  the 
wider,  while  in  the  molar  series  the  reverse  condition  obtains.  The  cin- 
gulum is  not  so  well  developed  on  the  deciduous  molars  as  on  the  corre- 
sponding teeth  of  the  permanent  set.  It  is  not  developed  on  the  external 
surface  of  the  posterior  lobe  as  in  the  permanent  tooth,  but  is  present  on 
the  posterior  border  of  tooth  where  it  ends  in  a  tubercle.     The  cingulum 


1896.]  153  [Farr. 

is  well  developed  on  the  antero-external  lobe  of  Ds.  3  and  4,  even  better 
than  on  the  corresponding  permanent  tooth.  It  has  lately  been  called 
to  my  attention  that  the  cinguliim  varies  in  the  individual  with  the 
nourishment,  well-nourished  individuals  having  it  better  developed  than 
those  poorly  nourished,  but  the  recurrence  in  many  individuals  of  the 
character  as  given  above  precludes  the  possibility  of  its  being  an  indi- 
vidual variation.  The  antero-internal  cusp  is  wider  antero-posteriorly 
in  the  temporary  teeth  than  in  the  permanent  set  and  the  bifid  character 
of  this  cusp  is  more  marked  in  the  former.  All  the  lower  milk  teeth  are 
narrower  and  longer  antero-posteriorly  than  the  permanent  teeth.  Both 
the  upper  and  lower  molars  of  the  deciduous  set  are  of  not  nearly  so 
great  vertical  length  as  those  of  the  later  series. 

The  Upper  Molars. 

Premolars  2,  3  and  4  are  molariform  and  Pm.  2  is  beginning  to  assume 
the  elongate  character  which  is  so  much  emphasized  in  the  living  horse. 
The  six  molars  (t.  e.,  molars  and  molariform  premolars)  are  nearly  alike 
in  size  and  form.  "They  have  square  crowns,  wider  transversely  than 
broad  antero-posteriorly  and  both  these  measurements  greatly  exceed 
the  length.  The  crowns  consist  of  three  pairs  of  lobes — an  outer  and 
an  inner  pair  of  principal  lobes  and  a  much  smaller  pair  situated 
between  them,  the  secondary  or  accessory  lobes.  The  outer  lobes  are 
demi-conoidal  and  form  at  their  junction  a  narrow  buttress  externally. 
A  stronger  buttress  bounds  the  fore  part  of  the  anterior  of  the  two 
lobes.  A  tendency  to  the  development  of  a  buttress  is  seen  also  at  the 
back  part  of  the  posterior  of  these  lobes.  The  buttresses  expand  and 
are  conjoined  at  the  bottom  of  the  crown,  forming  together  a  pair  of 
arches  bounding  the  external  surfaces  of  the  outer  lobes.  These  sur- 
faces are  nearly  flat  and  are  divided  by  a  conspicuous  median  ridge. 
The  inner  surfaces  of  the  outer  lobes  are  prominently  or  almost  angu- 
larly convex.  The  inner  lobes  of  the  crown  are  simply  conical,  wider 
transversely  than  fore  and  aft  and  with  the  anterior  slightly  larger  than 
the  posterior.  The  median  lobes  are  not  more  than  half  the  size  of  the 
principal  ones  and  appear  as  prominent  folds  curving  outwardly  from 
the  inner  lobes  to  the  anterior  face  of  the  outer  lobes.  Elements  of  a 
basal  ridge  exist  at  the  fore  and  aft  parts  of  the  crown  and  at  the  outlet 
of  the  valley  separating  the  inner  lobes.  In  the  interval  posteriorly 
between  the  back  inner  and  outer  lobes  there  exists  a  tubercle  which  in 
association  with  the  contiguous  portions  of  the  basal  ridge  assumes  the 
dignity  of  a  sublobe."  In  Pm.  1  the  anterior  buttress  is  more  distinct 
or  separate  than  in  the  other  molars,  though  it  is  not  so  large.  The 
anterior  of  the  median  cusps  is  larger  than  the  posterior,  except  in  Pm.  2, 
which  is  peculiar  in  this  as  in  so  many  other  respects. 

The  teeth  of  the  temporary  set  present  the  following  differences  from 
those  of  the  permanent  set  described  above  : 

1.  The  cusp  situated  between  the  outer  and  inner  posterior  lobes,  the 


Farr.l  ib^  [May  15, 

so-called  hypostyle,  is  less  well  developed  in  the  deciduous  molars  than 
in  those  of  the  permanent  set. 

2.  D.  2  is  much  larger,  more  elongate  antero-posteriorly,  more  com- 
plex, the  antero-external  buttress  being  much  larger  and  more  distinct 
in  the  earlier  set.  It  is  so  large  that  it  might  almost  be  considered  a  fifth 
principal  lobe. 

3.  The  median  accessory  lobes  (5  and  6)  are  more  conical  than  in  the 
permanent  set,  where  they  are  somewhat  appressed.  These  lobes  in  the 
early  set  are  separated  by  a  distinct  notch  from  the  internal  lobes. 

4.  The  transverse  ridges  are  more  nearly  confluent  with  the  outer  wall 
of  tooth  in  most  of  specimens  in  the  temporary  set.  There  is,  however,, 
great  individual  variation  in  regard  to  this  character. 

5.  In  the  adult  skull  all  the  molars  and  molariform  premolars  are 
much  wider  transversely  than  antero-posteriorlj'.  The  deciduous  teeth 
are  more  nearly  square,  the  two  diameters  being  subequal. 

6.  The  buttress  on  the  antero-external  lobe  of  tooth,  the  parastyle,  is 
better  developed  in  the  milk  set. 

7.  D.  3  is  the  longest  tooth  of  the  milk  series  and  is  beginning  to 
assume  the  elongate  character  of  this  tooth  in  the  modern  horse,  while 
the  corresponding  tooth  of  the  permanent  set  is  smaller  than  any  of 
the  other  molar  teeth. 

8.  All  the  temporary  teeth  are  shorter  in  vertical  height  than  those  of 
the  permanent  set. 

The  Vertebral  Column. 

The  cervical  and  dorsal  vertebrae  have  already  been  minutely  de- 
scribed. The  lumbar  vertebrae  are  almost  certainly  five  in  number. 
The  centra  are  large  and  are  renifoi-m  in  shape,  being  wide  transversely 
and  not  having  the  more  nearly  circular  outline  of  the  median  dorsal 
vertebrae.  All  of  the  lumbars,  with  the  exception  of  the  last,  have  their 
centra  strongly  keeled.  The  centra  are  moderately  opisthoccelous.  The 
interlocking  character  of  the  vertebrae  through  the  zygapophyses  is 
marked.  The  neural  spines  are  long,  transversely  compressed  and 
narrow  and  have  considerable  antero-posterior  extent.  They  are  all 
directed  forward  at  an  angle.  The  transverse  processes  are  well  devel- 
oped and  widely  expanded.  The  intervertebral  foramina  perforate  the 
bases  of  the  neural  arches,  and  are  not  merely  notches  in  the  ends  of 
the  neural  arch  as  they  are  in  the  anterior  vertebra  of  the  column.  The 
last  two  lumbar  vertebrae  have  their  transverse  processes  expanded 
almost  as  widely  as  those  of  the  fli'St  sacral  itself,  and  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  fourth  lumbar  abut  against  those  of  the  fifth,  while  the 
latter  bears  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the  transverse  processes  deep 
concavities  for  the  corresponding  surfaces  of  the  anterior  end  of  sacrum. 
An  analogous  condition  is  seen  in  Equus,  and  in  old  individuals  the  last 
two  lumbars  are  very  frequently  immovably  coossified.  The  last  lumbar 
has  the  spine  more  nearly  erect  than  that  of  the  penultimate  lumbar 
vertebra. 


1896.] 


155 


[Farr. 


Fig. 


A  very  remarkable  character  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  is  that  they  have 
spines  which  are  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  high  as  those  of  the  anterior 
dorsal  region,  which  in  the  horse  are  so  much  elongated.  In  the  latter 
the  lumbars  have  spines  which  are  lower,  more  nearly  erect,  of  more 
considerable  antero-posterior  extent  proportionately  and  are  much  less 
compressed  transversely. 

The  Sackum. 

The  sacrum  of  M.  baircli,  as  in  most  of  the  Ungulata,  consists  of  one 
broad  vertebra  joining  the  ilia,  followed  by  a  series  of  narrower  ones, 
gradually  diminishing  in  width  anchylosed  to  it  behind.  These  latter 
diminish  in  width  very  gradually.  In  living  Ungulates  the  number  of 
vertebrte  entering  into  the  formation  of  the  sacrum  varies  with  the  age 
of  the  individual  and  also  varies  in  individuals  of 
the  same  age. 

In  the  specimen  which  belongs  with  the  pelvis 
described  below  there  are  six  vertebrse.  This  is 
the  most  perfect  sacrum  of  M.  hairdi  yet  found, 
and  the  component  vertebra  are  fortunately  well 
preserved  and  hardly  crushed  at  all  (see  Fig.  2 
and  Plate  xiii). 

The  first  or  true  sacral  vertebra  is  greatly  ex- 
panded transversely  and  bears  large  articular  sur- 
faces for  the  ilia. 

Anteriorly  there  are  large  convex  facets  which 
fit  into  the  corresponding  concavities  in  the  trans- 
verse processes  of  the  last  lumbar  vertebra.  The 
first  sacral  has  a  low  and  comparatively  wide  cen- 
trum. The  spine  is  very  high,  very  much  com- 
pressed laterally,  as  are  all  the  spinous  processes  of 
the  vertebras,  and  is  directed  strongly  forward,  while  in  the  modern 
horse  it  is  almost  vertical.  The  five  succeeding  vertebras  have  trans- 
verse processes  which  are  not  so  widely  expanded,  the  centra  are  very 
much  depressed  and  the  neural  arches  are  low  and  gradually  decrease 
in  height  posteriorly.  This,  of  course,  conditions  the  size  of  the  neural 
canal,  which  in  this  region  is  very  much  attenuated.  The  expanded  trans- 
verse processes  of  the  contiguous  vertebrae  are  all  united,  so  that  they 
form  a  narrow  elongate  plate.  The  spine  of  the  second  sacral  is  gone,  but 
the  others  are  all  preserved.  That  of  the  third  is  almost  vertical,  while 
the  spines  of  the  three  posterior  sacrals  all  slope  backward  at  a  decided 
angle.  There  is  thus  a  very  abrupt  transition  in  the  direction  of  the  incli- 
nation of  the  spines  from  the  first  in  which  the  spine  projects  forward 
to  three  in  which  the  process  is  almost  vertical.  The  plate  formed  by 
the  anchylosis  of  the  centra  and  transverse  processes  of  the  vertebras  is 
concave  inferiorly  or  curves  downward  posterior  to  first  sacral.  The 
sacrum  presents  inferiorly  the    foramina    for  the  five  pairs  of   sacral 

PROC.  AMER.    PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  151.  T.      PRINTED  SEPT.  2,   1896. 


Sacrum  of  M.  baiedi, 
Inferior  view. 


Farr.]  J  ^^  [May  15, 

nerves,  the  inferior  sacral  foramina,  while  above  "we  also  find  laterally 
between  the  uenral  arches  of  the  contiguous  vertebrae  the  five  pairs  of 
the  superior  sacral  foramina. 

3feasurements  of  the  Sacrum.  >nr. 

Length IIG 

Extreme  width 64 

Width  third  sacral 23 

Width  fourth  do 21.5 

Width  fifth       do 20 

The  Caudals. 

The  few  caudal  vertebrae  preserved  are  sufficient  to  give  us  a  general 
idea  of  the  character  of  the  tail.  The  first  caudal  has  very  widely  ex- 
panded transverse  processes  similar  to  those  of  the  posterior  sacral  re- 
gion ;  the  centrum  is  oval  and  the  neural  arches  arise  at  a  very  great 
angle  enclosing  a  high  and  very  narrow  neural  canal.  The  transverse 
processes  are  of  considerable  antero-posterior  extent,  but  do  not  equal 
the  length  of  the  centrum  in  width  as  they  do  in  the  posterior  vertebrse 
of  the  sacral  region.  It  is  not  possible  to  determine  how  many  of  the 
caudal  vertebra^  had  complete  arches,  because  of  incomplete  material. 
In  Equus*  the  spine  of  the  neural  arch  is  bifid  in  the  second  caudal  and 
the  arches  are  incomplete  on  the  third.  The  transverse  processes  gradu- 
ally become  shorter,  the  neural  arches  more  rudimentary  and  are  finally 
lost,  and  all  we  have  is  a  cylinder  of  bone  with  very  rudimentary  pro- 
cesses which  gradually  diminish  in  size.  Among  the  caudals  preserved 
is  one  of  these  last,  in  which  all  the  processes  are  very  feebly  developed. 
All  the  vertebrae  of  the  tail  are  in  general  like  those  of  the  horse,  and  in 
them,  as  in  most  all  of  the  anatomical  features,  we  see  a  foreshadowing 
of  what  the  future  horse  is  going  to  be. 

The  Sternum. 

With  the  almost  complete  skeleton  figured  in  the  restoration  of  M. 
bairdi  in  Plate  xiii  are  preserved  three  segments  of  the  sternum.  These 
are  the  xiphisternum  and  two  segments  of  the  mesosternum.  The 
former  is  very  much  more  elongate  and  not  so  high  as  the  other  divisions 
of  the  sternum.  Anteriorly  it  is  about  twice  as  broad  as  high,  while 
posteriorly  it  is  very  much  flattened.  The  free  border  is  thin  and 
rounded  with  irregular  surface,  showing  where  cartilage  was  attached. 
Laterally  tlie  body  of  this  segment  as  of  all  the  other  is  concave.  The 
superior  border  is  almost  plane,  while  the  inferior  is  slightly  concave,  or 
the  free  end  may  be  said  to  project  slightly  downward. 

The  next  segment  in  front  of  the  above  that  is  preserved  is  very  evi- 
dently the  penultimate  segment  of  the  mesosternum.  This  is  very  differ- 
ent in  shape  from  the  xiphisternum.     The  posterior  portion  is  wide  and 

*  No.  33?,  rriuccton  Coll. 


1896.] 


157 


[Farr, 


low,  while  anteriorly  it  is  much  narrower  and  higher.  Both  superior  and 
inferior  surfaces  are  plane  and  the  sides  are  very  strongly  concave.  The 
third  segment  is  evidently  the  first  division  of  the  mesosternum,  and  is 
high  and  long  and  almost  trihedral  in  cross-section.  These  separate 
segments  of  the  sternum  are  not  coossified,  and  the  surfaces  for  the  articu- 
lation of  the  sternal  cartilages  of  ribs  are  not  well  shown.  From  the  por- 
tions of  sternum  described  above  we  are  safe  in  assuming  that  there  were 
at  least  six  segments  in  the  sternum  of  M.  bairdi. 

The  Scapula. 

The  nearly  complete  skeleton  from  which  the  restoration  given  here- 
with is  made  fortunately  has  the  scapula  very  well  preserved,  and  this 
reveals  quite  an  unexpected  character,  viz.,  the  presence  of  a  distinct 
acromion.  The  only  other  Perissodactyl  known  to  have  retained  this 
process  is  Pachynolophus  (Orohippus)  of  the  Bridger  Eocene.  Marsh  * 
has  described  it  in  this  genus  as  follows  :  "The  scapula  has  a  prominent 
acromial  process,  which  is  com- 
pressed and  decurved  as  in  some  Fig.  3. 
Carnivora."  Mesohippus  is  the 
only  Perissodactyl  known  to  have 
retained  this  process  until  Oligo- 
cene  times,  and  it  has  thus  been 
retained  longer  by  the  horses  than 
by  any  other  family  of  this  order. 
It  is  possible  tliat  future  discoveries 
may  also  reveal  the  presence  of  a 
clavicle  in  Mesohippus,  as  it  has 
been  discovered  in  the  contem- 
porary Oreodon  eulbertsoni,\  and  in 
the  latter  genus  it  persists  until 
Deep  River  times,  where  it  has 
been  found  by  Prof.  Scott  J  in  the 
form  which  he  has  called  Mesoreo- 
don.  The  possession  by  both 
Mesohippus  and  Pachynolophus  of 
this  process  would  seem  to  justify 
us  in  regarding  the  latter  as  the 
Bridger  ancestor  of  the  horse  line 
of  which  Mesohippus  is  the  White 
River  representative.  The  scapula 
is  wider  in  proportion  to  its  height 
than  that  of  Equus.  The  anterior 
margin  is  very  thin  and  strongly 

*Amer.  Jour.  Sc.  and  Arts,  Series  3,  Vol  via,  1874,  p.  247 

+  A  specimen  in  tlie  museum  of  the  University  of  Chicago  reveals  the  presence  of  the 
clavicle. 
I  Trans.  Amer.  Philos.  Soc,  Vol.  xvii,  p.  136. 


Scapula  of  M.  bairdi,  %. 
a,  from  outride. 
6,  from  behind. 
c,  from  below. 


Farr.]  l^O  [May  15, 

convex,  while  the  posterior  border  is  only  slightly  rounded  and  is  very 
much  thickened,  a  character  that  has  been  retained  by  the  Equidas,  Tylo- 
poda,  Pecora  and  Suina,  but  has  been  lost  in  the  Tapiridge  and  Rhinocer- 
otidse.  The  spine  of  the  scapula  is  very  high  and  seems  to  extend  nearly  or 
quite  to  the  vertebral  border.  It  is  much  nearer  to  the  anterior  border  than 
the  posterior,  thus  making  the  prescapular  fossa  much  smaller  than  the 
postscapular. 

The  spine  becomes  gradually  more  prominent  towards  the  middle  por- 
tion, at  which  point  it  seems  to  have  been  highest  and  the  edge  was  here 
strongly  retroverted  as  in  Tapirus  and  Rhinoceros.  From  this  point  it 
decreases  in  height  towards  the  vertebral  border. 

The  acromion  is  styliform  in  shape,  is  compressed  antero-posteriorly 
and  extends  outward  and  downward,  but  does  not  quite  reach  the  level 
of  the  glenoid  cavity.  It  resembles  in  shape  that  of  the  camel  and 
llama,  but  diflt'ers  from  these  in  that  they  are  more  slender,  more  nearly 
perpendicular  and  extend  nearly  or  quite  to  the  level  of  the  glenoid 
cavity.  The  process  gradually  tapers  towards  the  free  end,  which  is 
somewhat  rounded.  The  neck  of  the  scapula  is  very  much  constricted 
and  is  comparatively  long.  The  glenoid  cavity  is  quite  deeply  ex- 
cavated, is  very  slightly  elongate  antero-posteriorly  and  has  a  well-de- 
fined rim. 

The  coracoid  process  is  strong,  curves  inwardly  and  is  slightlj^ 
retroverted. 

Measurements  of  Scapula.  mm. 

1.  Extreme  length 136 

3.  Width  of  neck 18 

3.  Width  of  distal  end 32 

4.  Extreme  width T-l 

5.  Width  at  highest  point  of  spine 74 

6.  Width  of  supra-spinous  fossa  here  25 

7.  Width  of  infra-spinous  fossa  here 45 

Measurements  of  Scapula  of  Equus*  mm. 

1.  Extreme  length 414 

2.  Width  of  neck 73 

3.  Width  of  distal  end 107 

4.  Extreme  width 18G 

5.  Width  at  highest  point  of  spine 140 

G.  Width  of  supra-spinous  fossa  here '48 

7.  Width  of  infra-spinous  fossa  here 93 

These  measurements  show  the  scapula  of  M.  hairdi  to  have  been  pro- 
portionately more  expanded  superiorly  than  that  of  the  horse  and  at  the 
same  time  the  neck  is  proportionately  more  contracted  than  in  the  latter. 

*  No.  338,  Princeton  Coll. 


1898.] 


159 


[Farr. 


Fis.  4. 


Pelvis  of  M.  bairdi,  ^. 


The  Pelvis  (No.  11376). 

The  pelvis  is  equine  in  all  its  characters  and  very  much  like  that  of  the 
modern  horse  with  some  characteristic  points  of  difference.  The  speci- 
men described  below  is  the  first  pelvis  of  Mesoliippus  bairdi  that  has  ever 
been  found  showing  all  the  characters,  being  almost  perfect.  See  Fig. 
4,  and  Plate  xiii.  It  was  discovered  by 
Mr.  J.  W.  Gidley  during  the  past  sum- 
mer in  the  lower  Oreodon  beds. 

The  most  striking  difference  between 
the  pelvis  of  M.  bairdi  and  that  of  the 
horse  is  that  the  former  is  narrower  in 
proportion  to  its  length  than  that  of 
Equus. 

The  great  breadth  of  the  pelvis  an- 
teriorly in  the  latter  is  owing  to  the  very 
great  lateral  expansion  of  the  ilia,  while 
in  the  earlier  genus  they  are  propor- 
tionately less  widely  expanded.  The  ilia 
directly  in  front  of  the  acetabulum  are 
slender  in  their  proportions  and  expand 
more  gradually  than  in  the  horse,  so  that 
they  are  longer  in  proportion,  to  their 
width  than  in  the  latter.  The  bone  is 
widely  expanded  superiorly  and  the  angle  above  the  point  of  articulation 
of  the  ilium  with  the  sacrum  curves  upward  and  outward,  and  the  free 
end  is  thickened  and  somewhat  rugose.  This  upward  and  outward  ex- 
pansion of  angle  makes  the  external  border  of  superior  aspect  of  the 
ilium  concave.  The  crest  is  more  slender  and  elongate  comparatively 
than  in  Equus  and  is  strongly  everted.  The  border  of  the  ilium  between 
the  angle  and  the  crest  is  very  thin  and  strongly  concave.  The  whole 
anterior  expanded  portion  is  thin  except  along  the  outer  or  lower 
border.  The  posterior  border  of  the  angle  above  the  point  of  articula- 
tion of  the  sacrum  is  also  slightly  thickened.  The  sacral  border  of  the 
ilium  is  large  and  extends  high  above  the  articular  facet  for  the  sacral 
vertebrae  forming  the  angle.  The  ilia  as  well  as  the  long  axis  of  pelvis 
are  directed  downward  at  an  angle  from  the  vertebral  column.  The 
acetabulum  is  an  elongate  oval  in  shape  and  its  borders  are  elevated  and 
well-defined.  The  border  is  incomplete  below  owing  to  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  pit  for  the  ligamentum  teres  on  the  acetabular  fossa.  This 
is  less  emphasized,  however,  than  in  the  horse.  The  pit  for  the  liga- 
mentum teres  is  quite  deep. 

The  ischium  is  straight  and  on  a  line  with  the  long  axis  of  the  ilium. 
The  bone  curves  outwardly  posteriorly,  but  does  not  curve  upward  as  in 
the  horse.  The  posterior  border  is  expanded  and  thickened  outwardly 
where  it  ends  in  a  stout  process,  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium.  The  in- 
ternal border  posteriorly  is  deflected  towards  the  median  line  and  meets 


Farr.]  1^^  [May  15, 

its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side  at  this  point  forming  part  of  the  symphysis. 
Above  the  acetabulum  the  border  of  bone  is  high  and  rounded,  but  is  not 
sharp  and  angular  as  in  the  horse.  The  obturator  foramen  in  the  pelvis 
of  the  latter  is  rounded  and  shorter  in  proportion  to  its  width  than  in 
M.  bnirdi,  being  only  slightly  elongate,  while  in  the  species  under  con- 
sideration the  foramen  is  narrow  and  very  much  elongated,  the  length 
equaling  twice  the  breadth.  This  conditions  the  shape  of  the  posterior 
portion  of  ischium,  which  in  M.  hairdi  does  not  extend  far  back  of  the 
posterior  border  of  obturator  foramen,  while  in  Equus  the  ischium  forms 
a  large  expanded  plate  posterior  to  the  obturator  foramen. 

The  pubis  is  elongate,  flattened  from  above  downward  and  irregularly 
triangular  in  shape.  The  portion  of  pubis  nearest  the  acetabulum  is 
almost  round  in  cross-section,  while  in  the  horse  the  corresponding  por- 
tion, as  in  fact  the  entire  pubis,  is  very  much  more  flattened.  It  meets 
its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side  in  the  median  line  forming  the  anterior 
part  of  the  symphysis  with  the  bases  of  the  triangles  applied  together 
The  symphysis  is  formed  by  both  pubes  and  ischia  conjointly,  the  former 
constituting  the  anterior  and  larger  part  while  the  ischia  form  the  poste- 
rior part.  Fusion  of  the  pubes  is  so  complete  that  no  trace  of  a  suture 
remains,  while  the  ischia  are  not  anchylosed  together.  The  anterior 
part  of  the  symphysis  is  flattened  in  the  form  of  a  large  plate,  which 
bears  inferiorly  in  the  median  line  a  prominent  spine.  All  the  processes 
for  muscular  attachments  are  less  strong  and  rugose  than  in  the  horse. 
The  pelvic  foramen  (or  cavity)  is  longer  in  proportion  to  the  breadth  in 
M.  hairdi  than  in  the  horse,  being  a  little  longer  than  broad,  while  in 
the  latter  the  pelvic  outlet  is  broader  than  long.  In  Mesohippus  the 
length  (or  vertical  height)  is  about  65  mm.  and  the  breadth  60  mm., 
while  in  the  horse  the  reverse  condition  obtains  and  we  find  a  length 
of  only  174  mm.  as  compared  with  a  width  of  199  mm.* 

Other  measurements  of  the  pelvis  are  as  follows  : 

MM. 

1.  Extreme  length 309 

2.  Length  of  acetabular  cavity 26 

3.  Length  of  symphysis 63 

4.  Extreme  width  of  ischia 74 

5.  "Width  at  acetabulum 102 

6.  From  top  of  angle  to  outer  point  of  crest 89 

7.  From  anterior  border  of  acetabulum  to  point  midway 

between  angle  and  crest 74 

Restoration  of  M.  bairdi  (Pl.  xiii). 

In  1879,  Prof.  Marsh, f  in  giving  the  genealogy  of  the  horse,  brought 
out  the  fact  that  the  chief  moditications  through  which  the  horse  passes 
in  its  evolution  are  the  following  : 

1.   Progressive  increase  in  the  length  of  teeth  and  in  their  complexity, 

*  (G/s  X  7/b  inches)  Chauveau  loc.  cit.  ^  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  Vol.  xvii,  p.  497. 


18%.]  lv)l  [Farr. 

from  a  very  short-crowned  tooth  with  distinct  roots,  to  one  with  very 
long  crown  in  w^hich  roots  are  not  formed  till  animal  becomes  adult. 
3.  The  gradual  lengthening  of  the  limb  bones  with  the  suppression  of 
the  lateral  digits  and  the  concentration  of  the  growth  force  in  metapo- 
dial  iii,  producing  ultimately  a  monodactyl  foot  from  a  pentadactyl 
ancestor. 

3.  The  continued  reduction  of  ulna  and  fibula  and  their  ultimate 
coalescence  witli  the  radius  and  tibia. 

4.  Gradual  increase  in  size  from  an  animal  not  larger  than  a  fox  up  to 
the  modern  horse. 

Mesohijypus  hairdi  is  an  interesting  intermediate  stage  in  the  evolution 
of  the  horse  ;  though  primitive  in  many  respects,  it  had  already  made 
considerable  advance  over  its  Uinta  predecessor. 

The  restoration  here  given  is  made  from  a  nearly  perfect  skeleton 
which  enables  us  to  make  some  improvements  on  the  one  already  given,* 
which,  however,  was  as  good  as  could  be  made  with  the  material  then 
available. 

The  lumbar  vertebrae,  sacrum,  pelvis  and  a  few  of  the  posterior  dor- 
sals are  from  another  individual  reduced  to  proportion.  Part  of  the 
skull  is  also  restored  from  another  specimen. 

Mesoliippus  occupies  a  position  about  midway  in  the  line  of  descent  of 
the  horse  series.  It  presents  the  following  advances  over  its  Bridger 
predecessor,  Pachynolophus. 

1.  The  teeth  are  longer  (vertically)  and  more  complex,  the  interme- 
diate cusps  are  better  developed,  and  the  transverse  ridges  are  likewise 
better  developed  and  more  nearly  confluent  with  outer  wall  of  tooth. 

2.  The  lateral  metapodials  are  more  reduced  comparatively,  and  meta- 
podial  iii  is  much  larger.  In  the  Bridger  form  the  phalanges  of  the 
fifth  digit  are  present,  but  M.  bairdi  has  lost  these. 

3.  Both  the  ulna  and  fibula  are  more  reduced  than  in  the  earlier  form 

4.  In  M.  bairdi,  Pms.  2-4  are  molariform,  while  in  Pachynolophus 
Pm.  4  only  is  molariform  and  is  smaller  than  true  molars.  Epihippus, 
the  Uinta  representative  of  the  series,  has  Pms.  3  and  4  molariform,  and 
this  is  the  only  generic  distinction  between  the  Bridger  and  Uinta 
genera. 

The  orbit  is  commencing  to  retreat,  though  it  is  still  over  the  molars, 
the  anterior  border  being  directly  over  the  posterior  half  of  M.  1.  In  the 
horse  it  is  situated  posterior  to  molar  series,  and  we  can  trace  a  gradual 
transition  in  the  position  of  orbit  up  through  the  different  genera  from 
Mesohippus  to  Equus.  This  shifting  backward  of  the  orbit  brings 
about  a  gradual  elongation  of  the  facial  region  of  the  skull.  The  alve- 
olar border  of  the  maxillaries  is  low,  this  of  course  being  associated  with 
low-crowned,  short-rooted  teeth. 

From  the  character  of  the  teeth  we  may  judge  of  the  life  habits  of 
the  animal.     The  teeth  of  the   modern  horse   have   very  long  crowns 

*Journ.  o/Morph.,  Vol.  v,  No.  3.  p.  337. 


Farr.]  1^^  [May  15, 

(hypsodont),  grow  from  persistent  pulps  and  do  not  form  distinct  roots 
until  the  animal  is  quite  old,  not  until  a  length  of  crown  is  attained 
which  under  normal  conditions  will  aflford  sufficient  grinding  surface  for 
an  average  lifetime.  As  the  teeth  wear  off  by  attrition  the  loss  is 
replaced  by  growth,  and  growth  and  w^ear  proceed  pari-passu  until  the 
animal  becomes  adult. 

The  little  Mesohippus,  with  its  short-crowned  (brachyodont)  teeth, 
inserted  by  distinct  roots,  must  therefore  have  fed  on  succulent  plants 
that  grew  in  swampy,  marshj'  land — as  if  subjected  to  w^ear  necessitated 
by  the  mastication  of  the  hard,  silicious  grasses  of  Miocene  times,  the 
teeth  would  soon  have  worn  out  entirely  and  the  animal  would  have 
succumbed  to  starvation.  In  most  of  the  specimens  found  the  teeth  are 
only  moderately  abraided. 

The  feet,  too,  being  tridactyl  are  adapted  to  progression  along  the 
oozy  shore  of  rivers  or  to  swampy,  marshy  ground  as  the  toes  would 
spread  and  thus  support  the  animal  in  the  mud,  while  the  mouodactyl 
foot  of  the  horse  is  preeminently  adapted  for  rapid  locomotion  over  the 
grassy  plains.  This  would  seem  to  prove  that  the  life  habits  of  the  ani- 
mal have  changed  very  greatly  during  its  evolution.  Many  of  the 
White  River  animals  were  adapted  by  their  anatomical  structure  to  life 
in  swamps.  Some  were  at  least  semi-aquatic  in  their  habits,  as  is  denoted 
by  the  position  of  the  posterior  nares,  which  in  some  forms  are  removed 
very  far  backward,  e.  g.,  Ancodus. 

The  skull  is  equine  in  its  characters,  but  is  still  quite  small  and  the 
facial  region  is  short.     The  orbit  is  not  enclosed  behind. 

The  neck  is  long,  and,  as  in  the  horse,  these  vertebrae  are  larger  than 
those  of  the  dorsal  region  of  the  column.  The  processes  are  not  so  mas- 
sive as  in  Equus,  but  are  quite  as  complex  and  are  very  well  developed. 
The  spines  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  are  not  so  high  as  w^e  should  expect, 
and  very  evidently  M.  hairdi  did  not  have  any  great  elevation  of  the 
anterior  dorsal  region.  T'le  modern  horse  is  much  higher  at  the  withers 
than  at  the  haunches.  'L'.ie  spines  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  are  very 
high  and  incline  forward  at  quite  an  angle.  There  is  a  very  abrupt 
transition  in  height  of  spines  from  the  first  sacral,  which  has  a  verj' 
high  spine  to  third  sacral,  which  has  a  very  much  lower  spine, 
though  it  is  still  much  compressed  laterally.  Six  vertebra;  take  part 
in  the  formation  of  the  sacrum.  The  centra  of  the  first  few  caudals 
are  flat  with  wide  transvei'se  processes,  but  these,  as  well  as  all  the  other 
processes,  gradually  become  suppressed  and  the  neural  arches  disappear 
so  that  the  lower  caudals  are  merely  cylinders  of  bone.  It  is  impossible 
to  determine  the  exact  number  of  vertebrae  taking  part  in  the  formation 
of  the  tail,  but  it  is  fair  to  imagine  that  it  had  one  at  least  as  long  pro 
portiouately  as  the  horse. 

The  scapula  is  remarkable  for  the  persistence  of  the  acromion  process, 
in  which  character  it  is  unique  among  all  Perissodactyls,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Pachynolophus  (Orohippus)  of  the  Bridger.     The  spine  is  better 


1896.]  ibo  [Farr. 

developed,  the  bone  is  lower  and  broader,  the  neck  is  more  constricted 
proportionately  than  in  the  horse.  In  the  latter  the  anterior  border  of 
the  scapula  is  not  rounded  as  in  Mesohippus.  The  ulna  is  very  much 
reduced  in  AT.  bairdi,  and  the  radius  is  enlarged  to  sustain  the  weight  of 
body.  The  ulna  is  distinct  from  the  radius  through  the  whole  of  its  ex- 
tent, the  two  bones  not  being  coossified  even  in  old  individuals.  Below 
the  proximal  half  the  bone  is  much  compressed  and  tapers  rapidly  to- 
ward the  distal  end.  This  gives  it  a  frail  character  so  that  it  is  almost 
always  broken  away  in  fossilization,  and  only  recently  have  specimens 
been  found  which  permit  an  accurate  determination  of  its  character. 
The  distal  end  is  not  compressed  as  it  is  higher  up,  but  is  round  in  cross- 
section  and  bears  a  facet  for  the  cuneiform.  A  rudiment  of  the  fifth  meta- 
carpal persists.  All  the  metacarpals  and  their  phalanges  are  somewhat 
shorter  and  less  massive  than  the  metatarsals  and  the  phalanges  of  the 
hind  foot.  The  pelvis  is  thoroughly  equine  and  yet  differs  in  many 
minor  characters  from  that  of  the  horse.  It  is  narrower  in  proportion  to 
its  length  than  that  of  the  latter.  The  ilia  expand  less  abruptly,  the  crest 
is  narrower  and  more  elongate  proportionately,  and  the  ischia  do  not 
bend  upward  posteriorly  as  in  the  horse,  but  are  in  a  straight  line 
with  the  long  axis  of  the  ilia.  The  obturator  foramen  is  more  elongate 
and  narrower  transversely,  and  the  pelvic  outlet  is  higher  and  narrower 
proportionately  than  in  the  modern  equine. 

The  fibula  was  complete  in  M.  bairdi  ;  was  very  much  reduced  in  size 
and  was  coossified  with  the  tibia.  The  proximal  end  is  quite  small,  the 
shaft  is  filiform,  while  the  distal  end  alone  is  quite  large  and  forms  the 
external  malleolus  articulating  with  the  astragalus,  and  in  extreme  ex- 
tension of  the  foot  also  with  the  calcaneum.  The  fibula  remains  com- 
plete until  John  Day  times,  for  in  Mesohippus  (Anchitherium)  prcestans 
Cope  from  this  formation  it  is  retained  in  its  entirety. 

The  hind  limbs  are  much  longer  than  the  fore  limbs,  more  so  propor- 
tionately than  in  the  horse,  so  that  the  rump  must  have  been  much  ele- 
vated above  the  withers  if  the  different  elements  of  the  limb  were  not 
very  much  more  flexed  on  each  other  than  would  seem  justifiable,  judg- 
ing from  recent  animals.  Many  of  the  White  River  animals  had  a  curved 
arched  back  instead  of  a  straight  back  as  in  the  horse,  e.  g.,  Hyoenodon, 
Leptomeryx,  etc.  This  is  shown  by  the  character  of  the  centra  of  the  ver- 
tebrae. The  great  individual  variations  met  with  in  M.  bnirdi  have  been 
noticed  by  every  investigator  who  has  studied  a  series  of  specimens  of 
this  species.  These  variations  are  principally  in  the  limbs  and  teeth. 
Some  of  these  have  already  been  noted.  In  several  individuals  the 
three  cuneiforms  of  tarsus  are  all  coossified  into  a  single  compound 
cuneiform.     Usually  the  ento-  and  meso-cuneiforms  are  united. 

There  is  usually  a  moderately  large  contact  of  metatarsal  iii  with 
the  cuboid,  this  latter  usually  extending  below  the  level  of  the  ecto- 
cuneiform,  so  that  all  contact  of  metatarsal  iii  with  cuboid  is  lateral. 
In  some  specimens  there  is  a  slight  extension  outwardly  of  the  proximal 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  151.  U.      PRINTED  SEPT.  5,  1896. 


Farr.]  ±K)^  [May  15, 

end  of  M.  iii  and  the  cuboid  is  slightly  shorter,  so  that  it  articulates 
■with  the  distal  end  of  cuboid  instead  of  being  confined  to  mere  lateral 
contact.  The  antero-internal  angle  of  cuboid  is  accordingly  somewhat 
modified  in  shape  to  correspond  with  the  changed  outline  of  metapodial 
iii.  This  is  a  tendency  in  the  direction  of  M.  intermedms  of  the  Pro- 
loceras  beds,  and  a  foreshadowing  of  the  condition  in  the  modern  horse 
which  has  such  a  large  facet  on  the  cuboid  for  the  widely  expanded  proxi- 
mal end  of  metatarsal  iii.  Between  this  condition  and  that  where  there 
is  only  lateral  contact  with  the  cuboid,  we  find  all  the  intermediate 
stages.  Again,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  variation  in  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  the  lateral  digits  to  each  other,  and  in  the  relation  they  bear  to  the 
median  digit.  Sometimes  the  lateral  digits  are  not  much  reduced  and 
are  subequal  in  size,  while  again  we  find  tlie  lateral  digits  very  much 
reduced,  and  Mt.  iv,  at  least  proximally,  is  usually  larger  than  Mt.  ii. 

In  31.  bairdi  usually  there  is  no  confluence  of  posterior  transverse 
crest  Avith  the  outer  wall  of  tooth,  usually  separated  from  it  by  a  large 
interval,  but  occasionallj^  we  get  an  individual  in  which  there  is  actual 
confluence,  and  we  get  all  stages  intermediate  between  these  two  ex- 
tremes. We  get  individuals  where  the  interval  between  outer  end  of 
transverse  crest  and  outer  wall  is  less,  and,  again,  others  in  which  there 
is  a  small  process  jutting  inwaitl  from  the  point  of  union  of  outer  lobes, 
toward  the  transverse  crest,  these  separated  by  a  verj-  small  interval, 
and  then  we  get  complete  confluence.  These  highly  specialized  forms 
were,  of  course,  not  ancestral,  but  were  prematurely  modernized  and 
left  no  descendants.  However,  these  individuals  most  specialized  occur 
highest  up  in  the  beds,  showing  that  these  variations  are  attempts  in  the 
way  of  evolution. 

Mesohippus  Copei. 

This  is  a  new  species  of  horse  from  the  White  River,  wliich  has  just 
been  described  by  Osborn  and  Wortman.*  In  their  description  of  the 
type  no  specific  characters  other  tlian  those  of  size  are  given,  by  wliich 
it  may  be  distinguished  from  the  two  other  species  from  this  liorizon. 
Tliis  species  was  founded  upon  a  complete  half  of  a  pelvis,  femur,  tibia 
and  part  of  a  hind  foot,  together  with  a  median  metatarsal  and  one  lat- 
eral metatarsal  of  another  individual,  a  collateral  type.  "These  re- 
mains indicate  an  animal  of  much  larger  size  than  those  of  M.  interme- 
dius,  and,  so  far  as  we  know,  is  the  largest  horse  of  the  White  River 
epoch,  even  larger  than  Mesohippus  {Anchitherium)  prtestans  of  the 
John  Day."  The  species  is  undoubtedly  well  founded,  but  the  material 
in  the  Am.  Museum  did  not  permit  the  establishment  of  good  siiecific 
characters.  I  have  studied  carefully  the  material  upon  which  the  species 
is  founded  and  have  been  able  to  refer  some  material  in  the  Princeton 
Collection  to  this  species.     Tliis  material  consists  of  the  distal  end  of  a 

*  Bull  Am.  Mus.,  Vol.  vii,  pp.  352-35S. 


1896.]  165  [Farr. 

femur,  tibia  and  almost  complete  liind  foot,  and  enables  me  to  give  some 
further  characters  of  the  species.  M.  copei  differs  from  M.  hairdi  in  the 
following  respects  :  (1)  The  lateral  metapodials  curve  outwardly  quite 
sharply  distally  and  the  toes  were  thus  more  spreading  than  in  AI.  bairdi 
(see  Fig.  5).  (2)  The  meso-cuneiform  is  proportionately  less  deep  than 
the  ecto-cuneiform  than  in  M.  hairdi.  (3)  The  carina  or  median  keel  of 
the  distal  end  of  metatarsal  iii,  which  in  the  smaller  species  is  almost 
entirely  confined  to  the  plantar  surftxce  of  the  bone,  in  M.  copei  extends 
far  up  in  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  distal  end  of  the  bone.  (4)  The  lat- 
eral metapodials  are  comparatively  shorter  than  the  median  metapodial, 
so  much  so  that  the  ungual  phalanges  could  scarcely  have  been  func- 
tional at  all,  and  this  form  had  progressed  tarther  toward  monodactylism 
than  any  other  known  form  from  the  White  River.  (5)  The  combined 
depth  of  the  navicular  and  ecto-cuneiform  w^as  greater  than  in  M.  bairdi, 
and  greatly  exceeded  that  of  M.  intermedius.  (6)  The  cuboid  did  not 
extend  below  the  level  of  the  ecto-cuneiform.  Metatarsal  iii  was  borne 
by  the  latter  alone  and  did  not  extend  over  on  the  cuboid,  so  that  ante- 
riorly there  is  no  contact  of  these  two  bones  either  lateral  or  distal  as  in 
both  the  other  species. 

The  tibia  is  about  one  and  one-half  times  as  long  as  that  of  M.  bairdi, 
and  is  proportionately  much  stouter. 

The  shaft  is  very  long,  even  longer  than  that  of  the  John  Day  species, 
but  is  more  slender,  and  seen  from  the  side  it  presents  the  characteristic 
sigmoid  curve.  The  cnemial  crest  is  very  high,  curves  slightly  outward 
and  has  the  usual  tendinal  sulcus  on  its  outer  border.  It  extends  farther 
down  on  the  shaft  than  in  M.  bairdi.  The  proximal  surface  is  very  much 
more  rugose  than  in  the  latter.  The  femoral  facets  slope  downward  and 
backward  at  quite  an  angle.  The  outer  facet  is  convex  antero-pos- 
teriorly  and  concave  transversely.  The  inner  facet  is  concave  antero- 
posteriorly  and  convex  transversely.  The  distal  end  of  tibia  is  turned 
slightly  outward.  The  distal  end  of  tibia  and  fibula  together  are  pro- 
portionately wider  than  those  of  M.  bairdi.  The  facets  for  the  trochlear 
surface  of  astragalus  are  deeply  incised,  are  oblique  in  position  and  are 
separated  by  a  high  intertrochlear  ridge. 

The  proximal  end  of  the  fibula  is  not  preserved,  but  the  very  large 
distal  end  and  a  portion  of  the  shaft  persists.  Eugosities  on  the  outer 
border  of  tibia  indicate  that  it  was  complete  and  closely  applied  to  the 
latter.  The  portion  of  the  shaft  preserved  is  very  much  reduced.  The 
expanded  distal  end  forms  the  external  malleolus  and  bears  the  two 
usual  facets. 

The  tarsus  presents  striking  differences  from  that  of  M.  bairdi,  and 
can  best  be  described  by  instituting  a  comparison  between  it  and  the 
latter. 

The  calcaneum  is  stouter  and  more  massive,  but  has  about  the  same 
relative  proportions  as  in  M.  bairdi.  The  tuber  calcis  is  large  and  rugose 
for  the  insertion  of  the  tendo  Achillis.     The  tuberosity  is  quite  high 


Fdrr.] 


166 


[May  15, 


Fig.  5. 


with  its  inferior  border  slightly  convex.  The  upper  border  is  broken 
away.  The  tuberosity  is  much  thicker  and  more  mas- 
sive than  in  the  smaller  species,  where  all  the  bones 
are  gracefully  shaped.  The  sustentaculum  is  very 
strongly  developed  and  bears  a  large  facet  for  the  as- 
tragalus, which  facet  is  elongately  oval  in  shape.  The 
crest  formed  by  the  superior  or  ectal  astragalar  facet 
is  broken  off  so  that  its  character  cannot  be  deter- 
mined. There  is  a  slight  prolongation  of  this  facet  an- 
tero-externally  which  is  somewhat  more  emphasized 
than  in  the  smaller  species.  The  inferior  facet  is 
near  the  distal  end,  and  is  the  smallest  of  all  the 
facets  of  calcaneum,  and  does  not  extend  far  back 
from  the  distal  end — elongate  in  shape.  The  facet  for 
the  cuboid  is  large,  occupying  all  the  distal  end  of  the 
bone  which  is  more  obliquely  truncated  than  usual. 
The  shape  is  triangular  with  the  apex  towards  the 
sustentaculum. 

The  astragalus  is  merely  an  enlarged  copy  of  that 
of  M.  hairdi  with  some  differences  of  detail.  It  is  pro- 
portionately broader.  The  trochlea  is  more  widely 
open  and  the  condyles  are  higher  and  thicker.  The 
neck  is  of  about  the  same  relative  proportions  as  in 
M.  bairdi.  The  internal  condyle  as  usual  is  the 
longer  of  the  two  and  anteriorly  slightly  overhangs 
the  navicular  facet  while  in  the  .smaller  species  it  does 
not  quite  reach  it.  The  outer  cond3'le  is  very  much 
shorter  than  the  inner  and  is  separated  from  the  navi- 
cular facet  by  quite  an  interval. 

The  navicular  is  a  flat  bone,  is  wide  transversely 
and  seems  proportionately  higher  than  in  M.  bairdi. 
articular  surface  is  stronglj^  concave  antero-poste- 
riorly  for  the  corresponding  surface  of  astragalus.  Posteriorly  there 
are  two  elevations  on  the  inner  and  outer  borders  respectively,  be- 
tween which  is  a  wide  and  shallow  depression  for  the  projection  on 
the  inferior  margin  of  distal  surface  of  the  astragalus.  The  exter- 
nal margin  of  this  latter  projects  strongly  downward,  extending 
around  the  outer  edge  of  navicular.  These  two  characters  make 
a  very  close  interlocking  joint  so  that  there  is  scarcely  any  direct  lateral 
movement  possible.  This  interlocking  is  not  quite  so  complete,  how- 
ever, as  in  M.  bairdi,  as  in  this  latter  the  external  margin  of  inferior  sur- 
face of  astragalus  extends  tarlher  down  on  outside  border  of  navicular. 
This  outside  projecting  border  is  in  the  form  of  a  crest  which  is  placed 
obliquelj'  on  bone  and  limits  the  direction  of  the  movement  of  the  two 
bones  taking  part  in  this  articulation  on  each  other  to  an  oblique  motion. 
The  distal  surface  of  bone  presents  a  large  triangular  facet  for  ecto-cunei- 


Left  Foot  of 
M.  CoPEi,  %. 

The     proximal 


1896.]  167  fFarr. 

form.  Coalescing  with  apex  of  above  is  a  facet  extending  up  on  posterior 
border  of  bone,  wliicli  articulates  with  cuboid.  On  the  proximal  surface 
there  is  a  small  facet  on  the  antero-external  corner  of  bone,  which  articu- 
lates with  the  calcaneum  by  a  small  facet  just  above  the  inferior  astraga- 
lar  facet  and  which  seems  to  be  a  part  of  the  latter,  but  on  close  exami- 
nation proves  to  be  a  distinct  facet.  In  M.  bairdi  the  navicular  just 
touches  the  calcaneum,  but  does  not  have  such  distinctly  marked  facets. 
This  character  is  seen  in  some  individuals,  but  in  all  observed  specimens 
the  contact  is  smaller. 

The  ecto-cuneiform  is  high  and  massive,  the  breadth  being  twice  the 
height.  The  proximal  facet  for  navicular  is  concave,  both  antero-pos- 
teriorly  and  transversely.  The  inferior  (or  distal)  facet  is  concave  in 
both  these  directions.  On  the  external  side  it  abuts  against  the  cuboid, 
and  this  latter  seems  to  have  been  just  equal  in  length  to  the  combined 
length  of  ecto-cuneiform  and  navicular.  It  bears  no  facet  either  lateral 
or  proximal  for  metatarsal  iv. 

The  coossified  ento-  and  meso-cuneiforms  show  an  emphasized  condition 
of  that  of  M.  bairdi,  in  that  the  tendency  of  the  distal  row  of  tarsal  bones 
to  form  a  closed  circle  is  more  marked  here.  The  portion  representing 
meso-cuneiform  bears  most  all  of  the  proximal  end  of  metatarsal  ii.  The 
ento-cuneiform  is  high  and  compressed  transversely  and  curves  strongly 
backward  and  around  towards  the  other  side  of  foot.  On  its  inferior 
surface  it  bears  a  facet  at  its  point  of  contact  with  metatarsal  ii. 

The  metatarsus  of  J/.  5a«ir(Z4  exhibits  the  following  characters  :  (1)  The 
cuboid  which  bears  metatarsal  iv  extends  down  below  the  external 
cuneiform  which  bears  M.  iii.  (2)  The  meso-cuneiform  does  not  quite 
reach  to  level  of  the  ecto-cuneiform.  From  this  it  results  that  M.  iv 
does  not  quite  reach  up  to  level  of  M.  iii,  while  M.  ii  reaches  above  the 
latter.  In  M.  copei,  M.  iv  extends  quite  up  to  the  level  of  JVI.  iii,  while 
the  meso-cuneiform  is  not  so  deep  proportionately  as  in  the  smaller 
species.  Metatarsal  iv  is  proximally  much  less  reduced  than  M.  ii,  but 
tapers  to  about  the  same  size  distally.  It  is  borne  entirely  by  cuboid. 
The  disproportion  in  size  of  the  proximal  ends  of  the  two  lateral  meta- 
podials  can  hardly  be  more  than  an  individual  character,  as  we  find  all 
degrees  of  difference  in  the  relative  sizes  of  the  two  lateral  digits  in  the 
smaller  species. 

In  some  specimens  the  two  lateral  digits  are  of  the  same  size,  in  others 
subequal  with  the  ivth  slightly  the  larger  and  in  others  this  digit  is 
very  much  larger  than  ii.  One  individual  exhibits  the  very  peculiar 
character  of  having  the  lateral  metapodials  of  the  same  size  on  one  foot, 
while  in  the  opposite  foot  the  fourth  metatarsal  is  much  larger  than  the 
second. 

Metatarsal  ii  is  slightly  less  reduced  than  in  the  average  individual  of 
M.  bairdi.  Proximally  it  bears  a  large  concave  facet  for  the  meso-cunei- 
form and  posteriorly  there  is  a  small  facet  by  which  it  abuts  against  the 
inferior  retroverted  edge  of  the  ento-cuneiform.     This  latter  extends 


Farr.l  1^^  [May  15, 

botli  above  and  below  the  nieso-cuneiform  and  conditions  the  shape  of 
the  head  of  M.  ii,  about  one-half  of  the  proximal  surface  being  sup- 
ported by  the  meso-cuneiform.  Posterior  to  this  facet  the  proximal  sur- 
face slopes  abruptly  downward  and  presents  the  above-mentioned  facet. 
About  two-fifths  of  the  internal  surface  of  ecto-cuneiform  is  taken  up 
with  a  facet  for  metatarsal  ii,  which  in  M.  hairdi  extends  upward  pro- 
portionately less  on  the  ecto-cuneiform.  The  shaft  is  of  about  the  same 
dimensions  proportionately  as  in  M.  bairdi  and  was  closely  applied  to 
M.  iii  proximally,  but  both  the  lateral  metapodials  curve  outward  dis- 
tally.  The  distal  end  is  merely  an  enlarged  copy  of  that  of  the  smaller 
species,  is  high  and  compressed  and  the  median  keel  is  strongly  devel- 
oped. Metatarsal  iii  bears  about  the  same  relation  to  the  lateral  meta- 
tarsals in  size  as  in  M.  bairdi.  In  the  latter  we  have  a  distinct  facet  on 
M.  iii,  either  lateral  or  proximal  for  the  cuboid,  but  in  the  new  species 
M.  iii  does  not  touch  the  cuboid  and  the  only  facet  on  exterior  surface 
of  the  proximal  end  is  that  for  M.  iv.  It  is  borne  entirely  by  the  ecto- 
cuneiform  and  is  quite  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  lateral  digits 
and  supports  nearly  all  the  weight  and  receives  most  of  the  impacts  and 
strains  of  the  foot.  The  distal  end  is  somewliat  wider  than  the  proximal 
end.  M.  iii  is  quite  a  little  longer  than  the  lateral  metatarsals,  more 
so  than  in  M.  bairdi.  All  the  phalanges  are  slightly  more  massive  pro- 
portionately than  in  the  smaller  species. 

The  pelvis  in  the  Am.  Mus.  Collection  referred  to  M.  copei,  I  do  not 
regard  as  Mesohippus  at  all  because  it  is  too  much  specialized  in  its  own 
way  to  belong  to  a  White  River  equine.  It  diflers  very  much  from  tliat 
of  M.  bairdi  and  in  some  respects  is  more  specialized  tlian  that  of  the 
modern  horse.  If  the  reference  to  M.  copei  is  correct,  we  have  in  this 
species  a  very  aberrant  side  line  of  the  horse  series.  The  pelvis  under 
discussion  differs  from  that  of  M.  bairdi  in  the  following  respects  : 
(1)  The  ilium  expands  very  abruptly,  almost  directly  in  front  of  the  acet- 
abulum, while  in  M.  bairdi  it  expands  very  gradually  and  begins  its  ex- 
pansion a  long  way  in  front  of  the  acetabulum  (see  PI.  XIII  and  Fig.  4). 

(3)  The  angle  of  the  ilium  in  M.  bairdi  and  of  all  the  known  equines  is 
sharp,  but  in  this  specimen  it  is  very  much  rounded.  (3)  The  crest  is 
broad  and  stout  instead  of  being  narrow  and  elongate  as  in  M.  bairdi. 

(4)  The  border  between  angle  and  crest  is  very  much  less  concave  than 
in  M.  bairdi  and  the  horse.  (5)  The  border  of  bone  above  acetabulum 
is  drawn  out  into  a  sharp  crest  even  more  pronounced  than  in  tlie  recent 
horse.  (6)  The  acetabulum  is  round  as  in  Hyracodon,  not  elongate  as 
in  M.  bairdi  and  the  horse.  (7)  The  obturator  foramen  is  broader  in 
proportion  to  its  length  than  in  M.  bairdi.  (8)  The  ischia  turn  upward 
at  an  angle  posteriorly  almost  as  much  as  in  the  horse,  wliile  in  M.  bairdi 
the  ischium  is  in  a  straiglit  line  with  the  long  axis  of  the  ilium  and  does 
not  turn  up  posteriorly.  In  view  of  these  great  differences  I  cannot 
regard  the  reference  to  M.  copei  as  correct. 

In  the  American  Museum  there  are  a  series  of  lumbar  vertebraj  which 


1896.]      ■  l^J  [Farr. 

are  too  large  for  M.  '  intermtdius,  and  their  provisional  reference  to 
M.  copei  is  justifiable.  These  are  very  like  those  of  M.  hairdi,  but  much 
larger  and  more  massive.  The  provisional  reference  of  the  two  pre- 
molars described  with  the  type  is  also  justifiable,  as  they  are  too  large 
to  pertain  to  any  other  known  species  of  horse  from  the  White  River. 
Leaving  the  pelvis  out  as  questionable,  we  may  say  that  the  remains  in- 
dicate a  very  large  equine  agreeing  with  M.  bairdi  in  most  of  its  charac- 
ters and  yet  specialized  in  its  own  way  so  that  it  is  a  little  oft'  the  line  of 
equine  descent  though  most  probably  developed  from  M.  bairdi. 

Measurements  of  M.  copei. 

MM.         MM. 

Tibia 398        ;31:3 

Calcaneum,  length 83 

Calcaneum,  extreme  width 30 

Astragalus,  length 46          50 

Astragalus,  width  of  neck 81          37 

Height  of  navicular 11 

Height  of  ecto-cuueiform 11 

Length  of  M.  iii 177        189 

Femur,  distal  end  width 51 

Width  of  patellar  surface 29 

Extreme  length  of  first  phalanx  of  M.  iii 24 

"          "      second           "         "     11 

"          "      ungual           "         "     29 

Length  of  M.  iv 155 

Phalanx  1  of  M.  iv 14 

2  "          9 

3  "          '*'>■ 


■vv 


Mesohippus  intermedius  O.  and  W. 

M.  intermedius,  as  the  name  indicates,  stands  intermediate  between 
M.  bairdi  of  the  Oreodon  beds  and  Mesohippus  {AnchitJieriurn)  prcestans 
of  the  John  Day.  It  occurs  in  the  Protoceras  beds.  It  is  a  strange  and 
interesting  fact  that  M.  bairdi  continued  on  into  the  time  of  the  Protoceras 
beds  after  having  given  rise  to  the  two  species.*  A  careful  study  of  the 
principal  characters  of  M.  intermedius  brings  out  very  strongly  its  rela- 
tion to  the  preceding  and  succeeding  species.  In  all  these  points  it  is 
seen  to  stand  directly  intermediate  between  M.  bairdi  and  Mesohippus 
(Anehitherium)  prtestans  of  the  John  Day.  In  the  light  of  present 
knowledge  there  can  ])e  no  doubt  that  M.  bairdi  is  the  direct  ancestor  of 
the  modern  horse,  and  by  the  study  of  the  individual  variations  of  the 

*  A  remarkable  instance  of  the  persistence  of  an  ancestral  type  is  seen  in  the  Loup 
Fork.  Here  Protohippus,  a  form  with  long-crowned,  cement-covered  molars,  repre.sents 
the  main  line  of  equine  descent,  while  right  alongside  of  it  there  is  a  much  smaller  spe- 
cies of  M.  bairdi  tyi>e  which  Cope  has  called  Andutherium  ultimum.  This  form  hus  short- 
crowned  molars,  without  cement. 


Farr.]  ^*^  [May  15, 

former  we  can  trace  a  tendency  toward  the  establishment  of  the  31.  in- 
termediiis  type. 

The  skull  of  Jif.  intermedins  is  much  more  equine  in  character  than 
that  of  if.  hairdi.  It  presents  the  following  differences  which  may  be 
looked  upon  as  modernizations  :  (1)  Increase  in  length,  size  and  in  gen- 
eral proportions.  The  largest  skull  of  if.  6cnV(Zi  observed  measures  218 
mm.,  while  that  of  M.  intermedins  measures  280  mm.  (2)  The  upper 
incisors  are  all  pitted  (see  Fig.  0),  while  in  the  smaller  species  only  the 
p.    J.  two  outer  pairs  have  the  enamel  invagination. 

(3)  The  facial  region  of  the  skull  is  more  elon- 
gate and  the  orbit  is  shifted  backward.  In  M. 
hnirdi  the  anterior  border  of  orbit  is  over  M.  1  ; 
in  M.  intermedins  it  is  over  interA-al  between 
Ms.  2  and  3.  (4)  The  diastema  between  Pm.  1 
and  the  canine  is  proportionately  greater  in  the 
larger  species. 

/%  1^  "^^^^  canine  has  a  well-developed  cingulum  on 

\^  ^        its  internal  surface.     This  is  the  foreshadowing 

„  ^  of  the  cupping,  as  the  pit  in  an  incisor  tooth  is 

Superior  Incisors  and  i  i      »>  i 

Canine  OF  M.  inter-  formed  by  the  cingulum,  which  rises  up  on  the 

MEDius,  J.  internal  border  of  the  tooth  to  enclose  the  de- 

pression. Teeth  have  been  observed  from  the  lower  Oreodon  beds  which 
have  a  strongly  developed  cingulum  anticipating  the  development  of  the 
pit.  (5)  The  occiput  is  slightly  more  overhanging  in  the  larger  species. 
(6)  The  aveolar  border  of  the  jaw  is  better  developed  and  higher  in  M.  in- 
termedins. This,  of  course,  is  correlated  with  larger  teeth,  with  longer 
roots.  (7)  The  postorbital  processes  are  better  developed,  more  nearly 
enclosing  the  orbit.  (8)  There  is  in  31.  intermedins  a  large  deep  ant- 
orbital  fossa  or  depression  occupj'ing  nearly  all  of  the  lateral  wall  of 
skull  and  extending  forward  almost  to  Pm.  1.  (9)  Tlie  teeth  of  the 
molar  series  are  much  larger,  longer  and  more  specialized  than  those  of  i/. 
bairdi.  These  diflFerences,  which  have  been  given  by  Osborn  and  Wort- 
man  in  their  description,  are:  {a)  "The  internal  cingulum  of  Pm.  1  is 
more  strongly  developed  and  a  distinct  basin  is  formed.  (6)  In  the  sec- 
ond upper  premolar,  the  parastyle  or  antero-exterual  buttress  is  consider- 
ably larger  than  in  3f.  bairdi  and  gives  to  the  crown  an  incipient  trian- 
gular shape.  (<■)  The  midrib  of  the  external  lobes  is  better  developed 
than  in  31.  bnirdi,  and  the  postero-transverse  crest  is  more  nearly  con- 
fluenced  with  outer  wall  of  tooth." 

Length   of  3folar-P)-emolar  Series. 
31.  bairdi ... .  73.5     31.  intermedins....  97     3f.  prastans....  112.5 

Molar  Series. 
23  46  51 

Pi'emolar  Series. 
42  53  61 


1896.]  1»  1  [Farr. 

The  Milk  Dentition. 

In  the  Princeton  Collection  there  is  a  skull  bearing  the  temporary  den- 
tition (No.  11168).  In  the  young  skull  the  anterior  border  of  the  orbit 
is  just  between  D.  4  and  M.  1,  so  that  as  growth  takes  place  the  orbit  is 
forced  to  retreat  by  the  elongation  of  the  facial  region  of  the  skull,  as  in 
the  adult  skull  the  anterior  border  of  the  orbit  is  over  the  interval  be- 
tween molars  2  and  3.  The  milk  teeth  agree  in  all  essential  points  with 
those  of  M.  hairdi. 

Measurements  of  the  Superior  Milk  TeetJi.        mm. 

Length  milk  series 57 

D.  1 10 

"  2 18 

"  3 16.5 

"  4 17 

The  lower  teeth  of  the  deciduous  set  agree  in  all  their  characters,  ex- 
cept size,  with  those  of  M.  bairdi. 

There  is  nothmg  noteworthy  about  the  vertebrae  except  their  increase 
in  size  over  those  of  M.  bairdi.  The  limbs  bear  the  same  general  pro- 
portions as  in  the  smaller  species.  The  scapula  is  higher  and  narrower 
proportionately  than  in  M.  hairdi.  All  the  limb  bones  are  characterized 
by  being  much  longer  than  in  the  smaller  species.  The  ulna  is  not  more 
reduced  distally  than  in  M.  bairdi,  and  is  distinct  from  the  radius  through- 
out. The  shaft  is  compressed  laterally  and  is  very  slender,  but  distally 
it  is  stouter  and  has  a  large  facet  for  the  cuneiform.  Proximally  the 
olecranon  is  more  massive  than  in  M.  bairdi.  The  radius  is  very  large 
and  is  fast  becoming  the  important  bone  of  foi-earm.  The  carpus  pre- 
sents no  important  differences  from  that  of  the  smaller  species.  It  is 
still  high  and  narrow.  A  rudiment  of  the  fifth  metacarpal  still  persists, 
but  is  not  so  elongate  as  in  M.  bairdi,  but  is  shorter  and  stouter  and  on 
the  way  to  disappearing.  The  lateral  digits  are  usually  more  flattened 
than  in  the  smaller  species  but  are  not  more  reduced,  the  distal  ends 
being  even  more  massive  proportionately.  The  ungual  phalanges  of 
the  lateral  digits  are  long,  narrow  and  sharply  pointed  at  the  ends. 
That  of  metacarpal  iii  is  proportionately  wider  than  that  of  M.  bairdi. 

MM. 

Length  of  ]M.  iii 155 

M.  iv 188 

M.  ii 143 

The  ribs  are  characterized  by  their  length  and  extreme  slenderness, 
those  of  the  median  dorsal  region  being  especially  long,  not  much  flat- 
tened, being  almost  round  in  cross-section.  The  pelvis  presents  few 
characters  that  are  new.  The  ilia  expand  even  more  gradually  than  in 
M.  bairdi.     The  angle  rises  up  in  a  pointed  process.     The  crest  is  partly 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  151.  V.      PRINTED  SEPT.  5.  1896. 


Farr.l  1 '  2  [May  15, 

broken  away  so  that  all  its  characters  cannot  be  determined.  The  bor- 
der of  bone  above  the  acetabulum  is  rounded  and  not  sharp.  The 
ischia  turn  upward  slightly  posteriorly  and  form  more  of  a  plate  poste- 
rior to  the  obturator  foramen  posteriorly  than  in  the  smaller  species.  The 
sacrum  has  five  vertebrae  entering  into  its  formation.  The  spines  of  the 
lumbars  are  still  very  high,  but  they  have  a  more  considerable  antero- 
posterior extent  proportionately  than  in  M.  bairdi.  The  femur  has  a 
massive  proximal  end,  the  great  trochanter  being  lower  and  more  mas- 
sive than  we  usually  see  it  in  Mesohippus,  but  this  may  in  part  be  due 
to  the  fact  that  our  skeleton  is  of  a  young  animal.*  The  tibia  of  M.  inter- 
medins is  somewhat  stouter  in  proportion  to  its  length  than  that  of  M. 
hairdi.  The  cnemial  crest  is  strong  and  well  developed.  As  usual, 
there  is  a  large  fossa  external  to  the  cnemial  crest.  The  fibula  is  still 
complete  and  is  distinct  from  tibia.  The  proximal  end  is  quite  small 
and  the  shaft  is  very  much  reduced,  while  the  distal  end  is  quite  large, 
forming  the  external  malleolus  to  articulate  with  astragalus  and  with 
calcaneum  in  extreme  extension.  Both  proximal  and  distal  ends,  as  well 
as  the  shaft,  are  closely  applied  to  the  tibia,  but  are  not  coossified  with 
it.  The  tarsus  of  M.  intermedius  is  more  modern  than  that  of  M.  hairdi 
in  that  the  tarsus  is  wider  and  lower,  which  is  a  step  in  the  direction  of 
the  modern  horse.  The  calcaneum  is  very  long,  the  tuber  proportion- 
ately longer  than  in  M.  bairdi,  and  is  quite  stout  with  an  expanded  free 
end.  The  cuboidal  facet  is  long  and  narrow,  almost  crescentic  in  shape 
and  extends  downward  and  inward  to  the  sustentaculum.  There  is 
quite  a  large  fibular  facet.  The  astragalus  is  broader  and  the  trochlea  is 
not  so  deeply  incised  as  in  M.  bairdi,  though  it  is  distinctly  equine  in 
pattern.  The  two  condyles  of  the  astragalus  are  very  unequal  in  size. 
The  inner  almost  always  overlaps  the  navicular  facet,  while  the  external 
is  separated  from  it  by  a  long  interval.  In  M.  bairdi  the  internal  con- 
dyle never  reaches  the  navicular  surface.  The  navicular  is  much  flatter 
and  lower,  as  is  also  the  ecto-cuneiform,  than  in  M.  bairdi.  The  cuboid 
is  also  shortened,  just  equaling  the  height  of  the  two  contiguous  bones, 
metatarsal  iii  extends  over  on  cuboid. 

This  is  another  modernization.  There  is  a  distinct  facet  on  the  cal- 
caneum for  the  navicular.  There  is  a  much  more  complete  interlocking 
of  the  tarsal  bones  in  M.  intermedius  than  in  any  other  White  River 
horse.  The  ento-cuueiform  as  usual  is  high,  extending  both  above  and 
below  the  meso-cuneiform  which  is  still  not  so  deep  as  the  ecto-cunei- 
form. On  its  posterior  surface  it  bears  a  distinct  facet  for  the  cuboid 
with  which  it  unites  in  forming  the  small  facet  for  M.  iv.  Metatarsal  iv 
is  usually  less  reduced  proximally  than  M.  ii,  but  tapers  to  about  the 
same  size  distally.  This  demonstrates  the  manner  in  whicli  the  reduc- 
tion of  digits  takes  place  in  the  family.  We  know  from  M.  bairdi  that 
M.  i  first  disappeared  and  afterward  M.  v.  The  condition  in  M.  inter- 
medius indicates  that  M.  ii  would  next  become  rudimentary,  and  then 
M.  iv.     In  the   horse  where   the  lateral   metapodials  are   mere   splint 

*  This  may  also  account  for  the  fact  that  fibula  is  not  coossified  with  tibia. 


1896.] 


173 


[Farr. 


bones  and   closely  applied    to  M.  iii,  M.  iv  is  still   larger   than   M.  ii 
proximally. 

The  inter-relationships  of  these  three  species  may  be  expressed  by  the 
following  diagram  : 


Protoceras  Beds. 


M.  bairdi.       M.  intermedins.  M.  copei. 


Oreodon  Beds.  /   M.  bairdi. 


M.  copei. 


Titanotherium  Beds.       /   M.  bairdi. 


The  phylogeny  of  the  horse  series  as  it  is  now  generally  understood 
may  be  given  as  follows  : 


Pliocene  to  Recent 


Loup  Fork 


Deep  River 


Equus 


Hippidium 


Protohippus  Hipparion 


Desmatippus  Anchitherium 


John  Day 


White  River 


Uinta 


Bridger 


Wasatch 


Mesohippus 


Mesoiiippus 


Epihippus 


Pachynolophus 


Hvracotherium  Palseotherium 


Puerco  Condylarthra 

l  Represents  the  line  of  descent. 


Protogonia 
Protogonodon 


Farr.]  ^*^  [May  15, 


Literature. 

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2.  Cope,  E.  D. :  Tertiary  Vertebrata.     Rep.  U.  S.  Geo!,  and Geog.  Survey 

of  the  Terrs.,  Vol.  iii. 

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Llano  Estacado.     Geol.  Survey  of  Texas,  4th  Ann.  Rept. 

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5.  The  Hard  Parts  of  the  Mammalia.     Journal  of  Morphology, 

Vol.  iii,  pp.  137-277. 

6.  The  Perissodactyla.     American  Naturalist,  1887,  p.  985. 

7.  Report  on  the    Vertebrate   Palaeontology  of  Colorado.     U.  S. 

Geol.  Survey  of  the  Terrs.,  1873. 

8.  Dana,  J.  D.:  Manual  of  Geology.     New  York,  1894. 

9.  Flower,  W.  H.:  Osteology  of  the  Mammalia.     London,  1885. 

10.  Flower,  W.  H.,  and  Lydekker,  R.:  Mammals  Living  and  Extinct. 

London,  1891. 

11.  Hatcher,  J.  B.:    The  Titanotherium  Beds.      American   Naturalist, 

1893. 

12.  Huxley,  T.  H.:  Anatomy  of  the  Vertebrated  Animals.     New  York 

(London),  1871. 

13.  Kowalewsky,  W.:  Sur  I'Anchitherium  Aurelianense  et  sur  I'histoire 

palaeontologique    des   Chevaux.      Mem.    de    I'Ac.     imp.    St. 
Petersb.,  xx,  1873. 

14.  Leidy,  Jos.:    Ancient  Fauna   of  Nebraska.      Smithson.     Contrib., 

1852. 

15.   Extinct  Mam.  Fauna  of  Dak.  and  Neb.     Philadelphia,  1869. 

1(5.  Contributions  to  the  Extinct  Vertebrate  Fauna  of  the  "Western 

Territories.     P.  251,  PI.  vii,    Rep't  L    U.   S.    Geol.    Survey 
Terrs. 

17.  ^Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  1850,  p.  122. 

18.  Marsh,  O.  C:    Polydactyle   Horses,  Recent  and   Extinct.     Amer. 

Journ.  Sc,  1879,  Vol.  xvii. 

19.  Recent  Polydactyle  Horses.     Amer.  Journ.  Sc,  1892,  Vol.  xliii. 

20.  Notice  of  New  Equine  Mammals  from  the  Tertiary.     Amer. 

Journ.  Sc,  vii,  1874,  p.  247. 

21.  Notice  of  New  Tertiary  Mammals.     Amer.  Journ.  Sc,  Vol.  ix. 

pp.  239-250. 

22.  Introduction   and   Succession   of   Vertebrate  Life  in  America. 

Amer.  Journ.  Sc,  Vol.  xiv,  p.  337. 

23.  Osborn,  H.  F.:  TheRiseof  the  Mammalia  in  North  America.     Proc 

Amer.  Asso.  Adv.  Sc,  Vol.  xlii,  1893. 

24.  Preliminary  Account  of  the  Fossil  Mammals  from  the  White 

River  and  Loup  Fork  Formations.      Bull.  Museum    Comp. 
Zool.  Cambridge,  Vol.  xvi. 


189C.1  175  [Ortmann. 

25.  Mammalia  of  the  Uinta  Formation.   Pt.  iii :  Tlie  Perissodactyla. 

Ft.  iv  :  The  Evohition  of  the  Uugulate  Foot.     Trans.  Amer. 

Philos.  Soc,  1889. 
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Miocene  White  River  Beds.     Bull.  Am.  Mus.,  Vol.  vi,  pp. 

199-288. 

27.  Perissodactyls  of  the  Lower  Miocene  White  River  Beds.     Bull. 

Am.  Mus.,  Vol.  vii,  pp.  343-375. 

28.  Schlosser,  M.:  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Stammesgeschichte   der 

Hufthiere.     Morphologisches  Jahrbuch,  1886,  Bd.  xii. 

29.  Scott,  W.  B.:    On  the  Osteology  of  Mesohippus  and  Leptomeryx. 

Jouru.  of  Morph.,  Vol.  v,  No.  3. 

30.  Evolution  of  the  Premolar  Teeth  in  Mammals.     Proc.  Acad. 

Nat.  Sci.,  Philadelphia,  1892. 

31.  Mammalia  of  the  Deep  River  Beds.     Trans.  Amer.  Philos.  Soc, 

Vol.  xvii. 

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33.  Zittel,    K. :    Handbuch  der  Palseontologie.     Band   iv :    Mammalia. 

Miinchen  und  Leipzig,  1893. 


On  Natural  Selection  and  Separation. 

By  Arnold  E.  Ortmann. 

{Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  May  15,  1S96.) 

1.  It  is  generally  understood  that  the  chief  merit  of  Darwin  in  creating 
his  theory  of  the  origin  of  species  is  the  establishment  of  the  principle  of 
Natural  Selection,  and  that  by  the  introduction  of  this  principle  the  pro- 
cess of  development  of  organic  nature  from  the  conditions  existing  in 
former  times  to  the  present  may  be  made  intelligible,  and  mostly  it  is  also 
understood,  that  natural  selection  is  only  one  of  the  factors  playing  a 
part  in  the  formation  of  species.  But  the  proper  line  of  action  of  natural 
selection,  as  conceived  by  Darwin,  is  estimated  by  some  other  authors 
very  differently.  I  refer  especially  lo  Weismann,  who  calls  natural 
selection  "all-sufficient,"  which  implies  that  it  is  the  only  factor  that 
forms  species ;  but  I  regard  this  expression  only  an  exaggeration,  since 
Weismann  contradicts  himself  in  this  respect.*  The  assertion,  however, 
stands,  that  natural  selection  of  itself  may  form  different  species.  On 
the  other  hand,  Eimer  maintains,  in  opposition  to  Weismann,  that  there  is 

*  See  Ortmann,  Qrundziige  der  marinen  Tiergeographie,  1896,  p.  30. 


Ortmann.]  170  [May  15, 

no  formation  of  species  by  natural  selection,  but  that  the  only  action  of 
this  factor  consists  in  the  preserving  of  existing  species.*  This  opinion  is 
as  erroneous  as  that  of  Weismann,  but  in  the  opposite  direction. 

So  far,  however,  Darwin's  definition  of  natural  selection,  as  the  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest,  was  not  altered,  only  the  efficacy  was  regarded  differ- 
ently. But  recently  Pfefferf  has  given  another  conception  of  natural 
selection,  differing  from  Darwin's.  According  to  the  latter,  by  the 
struggle  for  existence  the  fittest  are  selected  (hence  the  term  "selec- 
tion "),  while  all  others  are  destroyed.  Pfeffer,  however,  says  that 
there  is  no  selection  of  particularly  good  variations,  but  the  struggle  for 
existence  destroys  indiscriminately  fitted  and  not  fitted  individuals,  and 
certainly  it  destroys  all  the  not  fitted.  Thus  the  surviving  remainder 
(according  to  Darwin's  terminology  the  selected  part)  consists  of  a 
number  of  good  and  better  individuals,  which  show  a  good  average.  The 
struggle  for  existence  continued  in  this  way  during  many  generations — 
destroying  all  the  bad  individuals — effects  little  by  little  that  this  good 
average  improves  from  generation  to  generation.  Pfeffer  calls  this  pro- 
cess "Transformation  of  species  by  sel f- regulation  "  ("Umwandlung 
der  Arten  durch  Selbststeuerung  "). 

This  conception  of  natural  selection  differs  only  slightly  from  that  of 
Darwin,  and  one  could  say,  that  only  the  form  of  expression  is  different, 
while  the  effect  in  both  cases  is  the  same.  But  we  shall  see  below,  that 
the  form  used  by  Darwin  is  in  some  respect  inferior  to  that  used  by 
Pfeffer,  and  although  Darwin's  meaning  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
Pfeffer,  we  shall  have  some  advantage  in  accepting  Pfeffer's  phrase, 
especially  in  maintaining,  that  not  the  fittest,  but  good  individuals  sur- 
vive, and  that  the  change  effected  is  an  extremely  slow  one. 

Recently  I  have  pointed  out,^:  that  this  "  transformation  of  species  "  is 
nothing  else  than  the  well-known  "mutation"  of  palaeontologists,  a 
term,  the  differences  of  which  from  "  variation  "  are  first  shown  by 
Waagen  and  Neumayr,  and  subsequently  most  vigorously  maintained  by 
W.  B.  Scott. §  These  differences  are  neglected  by  many  zoologists, 
although  the  "comparatively  lawless  and  uncontrolled  character  "||  ol 
the  variations  and  the  "directness  of  advance  towards  the  final  goal  "H 
of  the  mutations  differ  strikingly.  Scott  says  :**  "While  variations  are 
dtie  to  the  union  of  changing  hereditary  tendencies,  mutations  are  the 
effect  of  dynamical  agencies  acting  long  in  a  uniform  way  and  the  results 

*  Eiraer  {Die  Arlbildung  und  Verwandtschaft  bei  Schmetterlingen,  ii,  1^95,  p.  33)  uses  even 
the  expression  :  "Inefficiency  of  Natural  Selection"  ("  Ohnmacht  der  Naturziiclitung") 

tP.oflfjr,  '-Die  U.nvvaniling  der  Arten,  ein  Verging  functioneller  Selbstgestaltung,' 
Verhandl.  Naturw.  Ver.  Hamburg  (3)  i,  1894. 

X  Grundzilge  der  marinen  Tiergeographie,  p.  31. 

g Scott,  "On  Variations  and  Mutations,"  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  4S,  1894,  pp.  355-374. 
II  i.  c,  p.  370. 

IT^.  c,  p.  360. 

** This  sentence  is  first  given  in  the  paper  "On  the  Osteology  of  Mesohippus  and  Lcp- 
to:iierys,"  Journ.  Morplwl.,  v,  1891,  p.  38S,  and  repeated  l.  c,  p.  372. 


1896.]  li<  [Ortmann. 

controlled  by  natural  selection."  If  thus  mutation  is  influenced  by  nat- 
ural selection,  it  implies,  that  any  particular  mutation  must  advance  in  a 
direction  advantageous  for  the  respective  species,  and,  indeed,  many 
examples  of  mutation  known  among  fossil  animals  are  apparently  due  to 
the  advantage  produced  by  the  change.*  I  must  add  here,  however 
that  probably  not  all  mutations  (in  a  palaeontological  meaning)  are  due 
to  natural  selection,  but  that  many  do  not  imply  an  actual  improvement. 
In  this  respect  Elmer's  investigations  of  the  Papilionidoe  are  important. 
The  variations  in  the  colors  of  the  wings,  on  which  Eimer  exclusively 
relies,  are  apparently  neither  useful  nor  injurious,  yet  they  are  caused 
most  likely  by  external  conditions,  for  example,  by  warmth  or  cold  dur- 
ing the  development  of  the  imago  from  the  larva.  Eimer  points  out, 
that  in  his  butterflies  a  distinct  direction  of  variation  is  evident,  which  he 
calls  "  Orthogenesis."  We  shall  see  below  that  this  is  a  process  of  inher- 
itance. By  the  constant  action  of  certain  external  causes  upon  subse- 
quent generations,  and  the  repeated  inheritance  of  the  characters  thus 
acquired,  a  certain  tendency  of  variation  in  a  distinct  direction  may 
develop.  If  this  tendency  does  not  bear  on  utility,  the  degree  of  varia- 
tion in  the  single  individuals  difl'ers  considerably,  and  even  individuals 
varying  in  other  directions  are  preserved.  Thus  a  gradual  transition 
results  from  the  less  to  the  more  changed  individuals.  But  altogether, 
from  generation  to  generation,  the  variation  in  that  direction  increases, 
and  the  changed  individuals  may  become  the  most  numerous,  thus  effect- 
ing a  slow  change  of  the  average  characters  of  the  species,  which  looks 
exactly  like  a  mutation.  We  may  call  this  latter  mutation,  produced  by 
accumulative  inheritance,  by  Eimer's  term  "orthogenesis,"  in  contrast 
to  the  "mutation"  produced  by  natural  selection.  "  Orthogenetic 
mutations  "  are  also  known  among  fossil  animals,  and  I  referf  especially 
to  the  group  of  Ammonites  whose  mutations  have  been  first  studied. 
Here  most  of  the  characters  advancing  in  certain  lines,  ornaments  and 
form  of  the  shell,  etc.,  are  apparently  not  subject  to  natural  selection.  Of 
course,  we  do  not  know,  in  most  of  the  cases,  whether  a  particular  trans- 
formation is  useful  or  not,  and  in  many  cases,  where  we  cannot  recognize 
any  advantage,  the  latter  is  pre&ent  nevertheless.  But  since  Eimer's 
investigations  have  amply  proved  that  such  changes,  indifferent  as 
regards  utility,  are  certainly  present  in  living  animals,  they  must  also 
have  been  present  in  fossil  animals  X 

*  I  mention  only  the  example  of  the  transformation  of  the  structure  of  the  extremities 
in  the  horse-phylum,  as  discussed  by  Scott  (I.  c,  p.  368).  With  the  change  of  one  char- 
acter in  a  useful  direction  the  change  of  others  may  be  connected,  which  are  in  correla- 
tion with  tlie  first.    This  would  be  an  indirect  action  of  natural  selection." 

t  A  very  illustrative  example  of  "  Orthogenesis  "  is  the  transformation  of  the  Miocene 
and  Pliocene  Fulgur  contrarius  into  the  Pliocene  and  Recent  Fulgurperversuf.  See  Leidy, 
"  Remarks  on  the  Nature  of  Organic  Species,"  Trans.  Wagner  Free  Inst.  Sci.,  ii,  18S9, 
p.  51fr.,  Pis.  9  and  10. 

J  Weismann  indeed  denies,  even  in  respect  to  Eimer's  butterflies,  that  there  are  any 
u.seless  variations,  but  tliis  is  one  of  his  many  assertions,  which  he  does  not  even  try  to 
establish  properly  (comp.  "Germinal  Selection,"  The  Mmiist,  Vol.  6,  No.  2,  Jan.,  1896, 


Ortmann.]  lliD  [May  15, 

We  cannot  say,  however,  that  animals  subject  to  orthogenesis  are  not 
at  all  under  the  influence  of  natural  selection  :  the  latter  must  necessa- 
rily act  also  upon  them,  since  all  injurious  variations  are  destroyed  and 
cannot  be  transmitted  and  give  cause  to  orthogenetic  mutations.  Natural 
selection  does  not  invariably  imply  mutation,  but  often,  especially  if  the 
external  conditions  are  unchanged,  it  efi'ects  only  a  preservation  of  an 
existing  species  :  by  destroying  all  bad  individuals  it  maintains  the  good 
standard  of  the  characters  of  the  survivors,  and  only  if  there  is  any  advan- 
tage in  any  variation,  this  standard  will  be  improved  in  a  direction  indicated 
by  this  advantage.  Thus  we  may  say  that  natural  selection  gives  origin  to 
mutation  in  a  useful  direction,  but  that  this  mutation  is  very  slow,  and 
often  so  inflnitesimal,  that  it  amounts  almost  to  nothing,  that  is  to  say, 
only  the  good  standard  is  saved.  This  action  of  natural  selection  effects 
besides  the  general  adaptation  of  each  animal  form  :  the  surviving  indi- 
viduals comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  surrounding  conditions  of 
life. 

We  have  no  reason  to  look  upon  natural  selection  as  a  factor  of  minoi 
importance,  as  Eimer  is  inclined  to  do.  Even  the  preserving  of  a  good 
standard  is  all-important.  Natural  selection  is  a  factor  which  cannot  be 
left  aside,  and  which  is  a  necessary  one  in  the  development  of  all  beings, 
and  it  is  a  grave  mistake  to  abate  its  value  in  favor  of  any  other  factor 
cooperating  in  the  formation  of  species. 

II.  Yet  the  value  of  natural  selection  has  not  only  been  underrated  by 
some  authors,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  has  been  overrated,  especially  by 
Weissman.  The  latter  believes  that  natural  selection  does  form  species. 
One  can  hardly  understand  on  what  grounds  he  is  induced  to  allege  this 
action,  and  why  he  even  believes  that  it  is  the  only  factor  in  the  formation 
of  species,  since  he  himself  accepts  Darwin's  conception  of  this  factor, 
namely,  that  it  acts  selectively  upon  the  best  variations,  and  destructively 
upon  all  the  others,  thus  inducing  only  a  change,  a  transformation  of  one 
existing  form  or  species  into  one  other,  but  never  causing  the  origin  of 
divergent  forms  or  species.  This  point  is  so  plain,  and  so  beyond  any 
doubt,  that  only  a  great  logical  mistake,  and  a  complete  misapprehension 
of  Darwin's  theory  on  the  part  of  Weismann  can  explain  this  error.  Yet 
it  is  perhaps  a  little  difficult,  to  say  precisely,  where  the  fallacy  is  hidden, 
and  it  would  be  interesting  to  examine  this  point  more  closely. 

I  have  no  doubt  that  this  wrong  interpretation  of  natural  selection  is 

p.  254).  Weismann's  argument  as  respects  this  point  is  the  following  :  Eimer  believes  to 
have  shown,  that  there  are  no  advantages  for  the  respective  species  visible  in  the  uif- 
lerent  colors  of  the  butterflies:  but  since  I  (Weismann)  have  propounded  the  theory, 
that  all  characters  are  due  to  natural  selection,  the  latter  must  have  produced  these 
color  markings  also,  and  we  must  assume,  that  they  are  or  were  nevertheless  advantage- 
ous !  Comp.  Spencer  (  Ttie  Inadequacy  «f  Natural  Selection,  1893,  p.  49)  :  "  He  ( Weismann) 
practically  says:  Propound  your  hypothesis  ;  compare  it  with  the  facts  ;  and  if  the  facts 
do  not  agree  with  it,  then  assume  potential  fulfillment,  where  you  see  uo  actual  fultill- 
ment," 


1896.]  1  <  *)  [Ortmaiiii. 

due  to  the  form  in  which  Darwin  has  given  the  definition  of  tliis  term.  I 
am  confirmed  in  tliis  belief,  as  the  same  error  is  committed  again  and 
again.  Still  very  recently,  at  the  last  meeting  of  the  German  Zoological 
Society,  in  the  discuss^ion  following  Elmer's  discourse,  Ziegler*  expressed 
his  opinion  tliat  no  important  difference  exists  between  Darwin's  natural 
selection  and  Pfeffer's ;  that  it  is  irrelevant  whether  one  says  that  the 
fittest  is  selected,  or  that  the  not  fitted  are  destroyed:  both  processes  have 
the  same  or  nearly  the  same  result,  as  may  be  at  once  uoderstood  by  an 
example  he  quotes  from  the  breeding  of  races  in  domesticated  animals. 

But  even  this  reference  to  man's  selection  in  domesticated  animals,  and 
the  unconditional  comparison  of  it  with  natural  selection,  is  the  weak 
point,  and  apparently  the  term  "selection"  used  by  Darwiuf  induced 
this  error.  I  shall  demonstrate  here,  that  both  processes,  the  natural  and 
the  artificial,  are  certainly  not  identical,  although  apparently  similar,  and 
especially  that  the  final  results  of  both  are  entirely  different.  It  is  true, 
Darwin  himself  avoided  this  mistake,:]:  but  it  was  certainly  made  by  sub- 
sequent authors,  and  especially  Weismann  must  have  fallen  into  it,  since 
his  odd  misinterpretation  of  natural  selection  could  otherwise  hardly  be 
intelligible. 

Weismann  apparently  has  reasoned  in  the  following  manner.  Natural 
selection  etfects  that  individuals  possessing  certain  useful  characters  are 
preserved  ia  the  struggle  for  existence,  and  man's  selection  in  domesti- 
cated animals  has  a  similar  eflfect,  preserving  individuals  provided  with 
certain  characters  desired  by  the  breeder.  Consequently  both  processes 
are  completely  identical,  with  the  only  modification,  that  in  the  first  the 
principle  of  utility  is  ruling,  in  the  second  the  wishes  of  man.  Fartiier, 
since  in  domesticated  animals  a  great  number  of  varieties  or  races  are 
often  obtained  from  a  single  original  species,  and  since  these  races  do  not 
differ  in  their  morphological  differentiation  from  natural  species,  and 
indeed  are  perfectly  analogous  to  the  latter  as  regards  their  relation  to  the 
ancestral  forms,  it  was  believed  that  the  natural  species  originated 
exactly  in  the  same  manner,  that  is  to  say,  since  under  domestication 
different  races  are  obtained  by  man's  selection,  iu  nature  different  species 
are  formed  by  natural  selection.  By  this  argument,  I  believe,  Weismann 
came  to  the  view,  that  species  are  formed  by  natural  selection  alone,  and 
although  this  opinion  of  the  complete  parallelism  of  natural  and  man's 
selection  is  nowhere  explicitly  given  in  his  writings,  we  have  to  infer  it.§ 

*See  Verhandl.  deutsch.  Zoolog.  Qeselisch.,  1.895,  p.  129. 

t  Darwin,  Origin  of  Species,  6th  ed.,  1878,  p.  49  :  "I  have  called  this  principle,  by  which 
each  slight  variation,  if  useful,  is  preserved,  by  the  term  Natural  Selectiou,  in  order  to 
mark  its  relation  to  man's  power  of  selection."    Comp.  also  p.  65,  ibid. 

t  It  is  well  to  be  noted  that  Darwin  did  not  commit  this  mistake,  and  that  he  always 
regarded  natural  selection  only  as  taking  part  in  the  formation  of  species,  but  not  as 
the  only  cause  of  it.  This  is  already  amply  demonstrated  by  Romanes  ("  The  Darwinism 
of  Darwin  and  the  Post-Darwinian  Schools,"  The  Monist,  Vol.  6,  Xo.  1,  October,  1895,  p.3ff.,. 

g  I  do  not  know  whether  I  have  succeeded  in  trying  to  fbllow  Weismann's  thoughts, 
but  I  confess  fieely  :  if  he  did  not  reason  as  I  have  conjectured  above,  I  am  at  a  loss  to 
understand  him  at  all  ou  this  point.  But  if  the  latter  is  the  case,  I  do  not  think  it  is  a 
fault  of  mine. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  151.  W.      PRINTED  SEPT.  4,   1896. 


Ortmann.]  -1-^^  [May  15, 

But  if  we  analyze  the  action  of  man  iu  breeding,  we  shall  find  that  it  does 
not  correspond  to  natural  selection,  but  is  more  complex,  and  that 
accordingly  the  final  result  obtained  by  man  is  different  from  that  in 
nature. 

The  breeder  selects  from  a  certain  species  a  number  of  individuals 
fitted  for  his  particular  intentions.  The  whole  number  of  individuals  of 
this  species  is  thus  divided  into  two  parts  :  the  selected  and  the  rejected. 
By  natural  selection  also  the  individuals  of  a  species  are  divided  into  two 
parts:  Ww  fitted  ?ind  ihe  unfitted.  There  seems  to  be  complete  analogy, 
but  this  is  not  the  case.  In  natural  selection,  as  we  have  seen  above, 
the  fitted  survive,  and  the  unfitted  are  destroyed.  But  iu  man's  selection 
there  is  a  difference:  of  course,  the  selected  corresponding  to  the  fitted 
survive,  but  the  rejected  corrresponding  to  the  unfitted  are  not  invariably 
destroyed.  On  the  contrary,  they  survive  too,  at  least  a  great  number  of 
them.  It  is  not  at  all  in  the  breeder's  power  to  kill  all  the  individuals 
not  wanted  of  the  species  under  domestication  ;  he  may  kill  of  a  particu- 
lar litter,  perhaps  of  all  his  stock  those  not  corresponding  to  his  wishes, 
he  may  continue  this  killing  during  a  series  of  generations,  but  he  never 
can  succeed  in  destroying  all  the  rejected  individuals  of  the  original  spe- 
cies with  which  he  deals.  On  the  contrary,  this  original  species  will  pro- 
pagate, and  will  continue  to  exist  beside  the  new  race  obtained  from  it. 
The  result  of  the  breeder's  art  is  a  new  race  coexisting  with  the  original 
species. 

See  the  difference.  Natural  selection  preserves  only  a  number  of  indi- 
viduals possessing  a  certain  number  of  useful  characters,  while  all  the 
others  are  destroyed:  it  preserves  the  good  standard  of  the  species  or  may 
even  improve  it.  Man's  selection,  however,  gives  origin  to  a  new  race 
branching  off"  from  the  original  species,  which  is  preserved,  too,  and  may 
be  subject  for  itself  to  the  action  of  natural  selection  or  may  be  domesti- 
cated and  subject  to  breeding  again.  Therefore,  it  is  easily  understood, 
that  it  is  certainly  incorrect  to  look  upon  natural  selection  and  the  art 
of  the  breeder  as  analogous  processes,  and  natural  selection  cannot  be  the 
cause  of  the  origin  of  different  species. 

We  may,  however,  safely  say  that  the  races  obtained  by  the  breeder 
are  analogous  to  natural  species,  and  we  are  to  examine  by  what  addi- 
tional lactors  the  complete  parallelism  of  the  breeding  of  races  and  the 
formation  of  different  species  in  nature  is  accomplished. 

Recently*  I  have  endeavored  to  demonstrate  that  we  are  to  imagine 
natural  selection  supplemented  by  the  process  of  Separation  (or  Isola- 
tion), in  order  to  understand  the  development  of  coexisting  different  spe- 
cies from  one  original  species.  The  main  point  in  separation  is  the  action 
of  different  conditions  of  life  in  different  localities  separated  from  each 
other.  The  descendants  of  one  ancestral  form,  if  separated  under  different 
conditions,  tend  to  develop  separately,  and  the  directions  of  either  muta- 
tion or  orthogenesis  become  different  in  each  separated  group  :  another 

*  Qrandzugc  der  marinen  Ticrgeographie,  pp.  31,  32. 


189C.]  181  [Ortmann. 

average  fitted  for  the  particular  conditions  of  life,  or  another  direction  of 
orthogenesis  prevails  among  the  surviving  individuals  of  each  group,  and 
after  ^permanent  separation  during  a  series  of  generations  the  changes  in 
each  separated  group  amount  to  what  is  called  specific  diflTerences. 

If  we  compare  in  this  respect  the  origin  of  species  in  nature  with  the 
art  of  the  breeder,  we  see  at  once  that  separation  is  implied  in  the  action 
of  man.  The  breeder  not  only  selects  his  material— in  so  far  he  complies 
with  the  requirement  of  natural  selection— but  he  isolates  it  from  the 
other  individuals,  and  farther  on,  his  chief  occupation  is  the  repeated 
application  of  the  same  principle  in  the  separated  stock  of  animals  and 
their  descendants,  namely,  the  selection  only  of  individuals  answering 
his  wishes.  This  action  corresponds  exactly  to  natural  selection  in 
isolated  localities.  Thus  the  breeder  clearly  unites  two  difi'erent  actions. 
(1)  The  selection  of  particular  individuals  possessing  certain  desired 
characters  corresponds  to  natural  selection.  But  the  breeder  cannot,  or 
cannot  completely,  destroy  the  rejected  remainder.  (3)  Accordingly  he 
directs  his  chief  attention  to  the  isolation  of  the  selected  material,  in  order 
to  secure  control  over  the  true  breeding  in  subsequent  generations.  Since 
the  organisms  kept  under  domestication  are  mostly  amphimixotic,*  the 
breeder  must  exclude  especially  the  possibility  of  interbreeding  with  the 
outsiders.  This  latter  point,  although  clearly  understood  by  Darwinf 
himself,  has  been  overlooked  generally.  It  was  forgotten,  that  beside  the 
material  used  for  breeding,  there  exists  other  "  raw  "  material,  and  that 
the  preservation  of  the  latter  constitutes  a  very  important  difference  from 

*  As  regards  the  origin  of  races  as  well  as  of  species  it  matters  nothing,  whether  the 
respective  organism  is  amphimixoiic  or  not  (see  Grundziige,  etc.,  p.  32).  Amphimixis, 
tliat  is  to  pay  propagation  by  crossing  effects  equality,  the  fusion  of  dififerent  characters, 
and  not,  as  Weisraann  asserts,  the  appearauee  of  new  variations.  This  law  is  not  only 
logically  evideut,  but  is  amply  demonstrated  by  facts.  Comp.  Darwin,  Variation  of  Ani- 
mals and  Plants  under  Domestication,  2d  ed.,  ii,  1S76,  p.  62ff.,  where  numerous  examples  of 
the  equalizing  power  of  crossing  are  recorded.  This  question  is  to  be  looked  upon  as 
finally  settled  already  by  Darwin  and  no  doubt  in  the  most  convincing  manner,  namely, 
by  well-established  facts.  It  is  extremely  unintelligible  how  Weismann  could  throw 
oside  all  the  proofs  carefully  collected  by  Darwin  and  substitute  his  own  ill-founded  con- 
ception of  Amphimixis.  I  may  add  here  that  between  the  action  of  Amphimixis  and 
that  of  Panmixia  as  accepted  by  Weismann,  there  exists  a  grave  logical  error.  Amphi- 
mixis is  the  simple  process  of  crossing  occurring  but  once,  Panmixia  is  the  same  process 
repeated  often  and  in  difTerent  directions :  the  effects  of  both  can  only  differ  in  quantity. 
According  to  Weismann,  however,  Amphimix  of  different  animals  results  in  new  differ- 
ences, Panmixia  of  different  animals  in  the  disappearance  of  existing  differences  (vari- 
ations without  value  for  selection  are  absorbed).  This  remains  an  insurmountable  con- 
tradiction until  Weismann  demonstrates  that  his  Amphimixis  and  Panmixia  are  concep- 
tions contradictory  to  each  other.  Eimer  {Eatstehung  der  Arten,  i,  1888,  p.  48)  says. 
Amphimixis  may  produce  new  things  by  uniting  different  things.  That  is  true  in  so  far 
as  the  offspring  is  different  from  either  parent.  But  this  is  the  first  step  in  uniting  the 
characters  of  the  parents.  The  single  individuals  resulting  from  the  same  or  similar  cross- 
ings are  more  alike  to  each  other  than  the  parents  were  to  each  other. 

t  Darwin  (  Variation  under  Domestic,  ii,  p.  62)  says  :  "  The  prevention  of  free  crossing, 
and  the  intentional  matching  of  individual  animals,  are  the  cornerstones  of  the 
breeder's  art,"  and  "Xo  man  in  his  senses  would  expect  to  improve  or  modify  a  breed 

.  .  .  unkss  he  separated  his  animals." 


Ortmann.]  XO^  [May  15, 

the  process  of  natural  selection,  where  such  a  remnant  corresponding  to 
the  "raw"  material  does  not  survive — unless  a  separation  by  natuial 
conditions  is  added. 

III.  The  principle  of  Separation  or  Isolation,  first  conceived  by  M. 
Wagner,  is  considered  by  nearly  all  authors*  as  a  factor  of  minor  import- 
ance, although  nearly  all  have  conceded,  that  its  occasional  action  cannot 
be  denied.  It  was  looked  upon  as  an  additional  factor  now  and  then 
favoring  the  formation  of  species,  but  not  as  a  necessary  one.  In  the 
original  theory  of  Darwin  isolation  is  not  contained  as  a  particular  factor, 
although  Darwin  recognized  the  value  of  it  very  well,  but  he  understood 
it  in  a  purely  geographical  sense. f  As  regards  the  formation  of  different 
species  he  believes:j;  it  to  be  explained  by  the  principle  of  divergence : 
divergence  is  useful,  and  if  there  are  any  divergent  variations  within  one 
species,  he  says  (p.  87):  "They  will  be  better  enabled  to  seize  on  many 
and  widely  diversified  places  in  the  polity  of  nature,  and  so  be  enabled  to 
increase  in  numbers."  The  introduction  of  this  principle,  however,  is  a 
mere  circumlocution  of  "differentiation  of  species,"  not  an  explanation  : 
we  want  to  know,  what  are  the  causes  of  the  divergence?  If  we  peruse 
Darwin's  writings  in  this  respect,  we  fiud  that  he  was  very  near  to  recog- 
nizing that  separation  actually  eflects  the  divergence,  §  but  since  he  under- 
stood separation  only  in  a  strictly  geographical  sense,  he  failed  to  put  this 
factor  in  its  proper  place.  Darwin's  principle  of  divergence  is  nothing 
else  than  the  result  of  separation,  and  if  we  substitute  the  latter  for  the 
former  we  shall  complete  Darwin's  theory  in  a  very  important  point. 

Even  Wagner,  in  introducing  the  principle  of  separation,  did  not  give  it 
its  correct  place  within  Darwin's  theory,  but  tried  on  the  contrary  to 
replace,  at  least  partly,  selection  by  separation,  and  farther,  he  conceived 
the  latter  almost  entirely  in  a  purely  geographical  sense.  Besides,  he  laid 
much  stress  upon  the  prevention  of  the  crossing  of  the  separated  groups 
of  animals,  which  is  not  at  all  the  chief  peculiarity  of  the  action  of  sepa- 
ration. So  have  all  other  aulliors||  in  discussing  this  principle.  But  as 
we  have  seen,  separation  acts  chiefiyin  the  line,  that  each  separated  group 
is  subject  to  different  conditions  of  life,  and  that  thus  the  variations,  the 
directions  of  inheritance  and  natural  selection  become  different.  It  does 
not  act,  however,  always  in  this  manner,  since  separation  is  possible 

*  I  am  to  mention  that  G.  Baur  is  almost  the  only  author  who  estimate  s  correctly  the 
value  of  this  principle.  See  the  references  to  his  papers  :  Gruudziige,  etc.,  p.  i;9,  footnote, 
and  Science,  March  6,  1896.  p.  361. 

t  Origin  of  Species,  Gliaps.  xii  and  xiii. 

I  Ibid.,  p.  86fr. 

§  Darwiu  {Orir/in  of  Species,  pp.  98-100)  u.ses  even  the  words  "confined  or  peculiar  sta- 
tions," and  "  isolated  stations."  On  p.  169  he  answers  the  question:  "How  ....  can  a 
variety  live  side  by  side  with  the  parent  species  ?  "  by  the  following  :  '•  If  both  have  become 
fitted  for  slightly  different  habits  of  life  or  conditions,  they  luiglit  live  together"  and  "  tlie 
more  permanent  varieties  are  generally  foiuid,  as  far  as  1  can  discover,  inhabiting  distinct 
stations." 

|]  For  example,  Haeckcl  and  Wcismanu  :  see  Grumhiii/e,  etc.,  p.  31,  footnote. 


1896.]  ^C)6  [Ortmami. 

without  a  cbange  or  differentiation  of  external  conditions  of  life  :  then  a 
differentiation  of  species  does  not  result,  but  we  shall  have  the  same  spe- 
cies in  separated  localities.  We  call  such  species  "  relicts"  from  a  former 
continuous  distribution.* 

Eiraer,  although  he  appreciates  the  value  of  geogi-aphical  separation, 
names  other  causes  besides:  but  what  he  calls  " genepistasis "  and 
"  kyesamechania  "  are  nothing  else  than  particular  actions  of  separation. 

But  for  a  plain  understanding  we  should  examine  Elmer's  theories  more 
closely. f 

Eimer:}:  defends  the  opinion  that  variations  are  caused  by  external  con- 
ditions,  but  that  variability  is  not  an  indefinite  one,  but  that  the  varia- 
tions are  comparatively  few,  and  take  place  only  in  distinct  directions. 
There  is,  according  to  him,  no  "fortuitous"  or  "irregular"  variability,  but 
a  variability  in  certain  few  and  distinct  lines  :  he  calls  this  the  principle  of 
Orthogenesis,  and  believes  that  it  is  contrary  to  Darwin's  alleged  supposition 
of  unlimited  and  "  fortuitous  "  variability.  I  can  hardly  see  that  this  differ- 
ence from  Darwin  exists  at  all.  It  is  true  Darwin  uses  the  words  "indefi- 
nite variability,"  but  certainly  not  in  the  sense  as  interpreted  by  Eimer 
("zufal'ig,"  "regellos").  Darwin  says  ;g  "  All  such  changes  of  struc- 
ture, whether  extremely  sliglit  or  strongly  marked,  which  appear  amongst 
many  individuals  living  together,  may  be  considered  as  the  indefinite 
effects  of  the  conditions  of  life  on  each  individual  organism,  in  nearly  the 
same  manner  as  a  chill  affects  different  men  in  an  indefinite  manner,  accord- 
ing to  their  state  of  body  constitution,"  etc.  That  is  certainly  not  a  varia- 
bility subject  to  casuality,  but  a  variability  governed  by  external  causes, 
which  may  differ  only  according  to  the  disposition  of  the  individuals,  and 
this  opinion,  that  "the  nature  of  the  organism  and  the  nature  of  the  con- 
ditions "||  are  connected  in  the  formation  of  variations,  is  also  upheld  by 
Eimer.^ 

Further,  he  lays  much  stress  upon  the  fact  that  variability  advances  in 
a  definite  direction  (orthogenesis),  but,  I  think,  he  confounds  here  two 
actions,  that  of  variation  and  that  of  inheritance.  Orthogenesis  is  varia- 
tion, which  is  transmitted,  and  which  is  accumulated  by  the  repeated 
action  of  the  same  external  causes  upon  a  series  of  descendants.  We  can 
hardly  decide,  whether  a  variation  lends  to  advance  in  a  distinct  direction, 
unless  we  see  that  again  and  again  specimens  vary  in  the  same  direction, 

*Grundzilge,  etc.,  p.  34  and  p.  86. 

+ 1  go  more  iuto  details  here  than  seems  perhaps  necessary,  because  I  consider  Elmer's 
investigations  as  very  important,  especially  as  regards  the  facts  collected.  But  we  shall  see 
that  Elmer's  views  do  not  differ  considerably  from  Darwin's,  and  that  the  chief  differences 
are  ouly  differences  of  terminology. 

X  Eimer,  Die  Entstehung  der  Arten  aiif  Grund  von  Vererbung  erworhener  Eigensehaflen  naeh 
den  Gesetzen  organischen  Wachsens,  i,  1888. 

§  Origin  of  Species,  p.  6. 

\\  Ibid.,  p.  6. 

yComp.  I.  c,  p.  5.  Variation  is  effected  by  "  Weehselwirkung  zwisohen  der  stofflichen 
Zusammensetzung  des  Korpers  und  iiusseren  Einfliissen." 


Ortmann.]  *  lo4:  [May  15^ 

and  if  we  see  the  same  variation  present  in  different  degrees  in  a  large 
number  of  individuals,  we  have  reason  to  suppose  that  inheritance  plays 
a  part,  since  the  amount  of  change,  if  often  inherited,  must  on  the  one 
hand  increase,  and  since,  on  the  other  hand,  the  force  of  inheritance  is 
generally  different  in  each  individual.  Thus  orthogenesis,  variation  in  a 
distinct  direction,  is  the  result  of  the  combined  action  of  variation  and  inher- 
itance :  but  it  is  "perhaps  advantageous  to  accept  Eimer's  term,  because, 
as  we  have  seen  above,  it  is  important  as  regards  the  transformation  of 
species. 

Orthogenesis  results  in  series  of  variations  consisting  each  of  a  number 
of  individuals  varying  in  the  same  direction  but  in  a  different  degree  :  it 
unites  the  single  variations  into  varieties,  that  is  to  say,  into  groups  of 
animals  showing  the  same  tendency  of  variation.  This  grouping  of  vari- 
ations into  varieties  is  especially  due  to  inheritance. 

Eimer  tries  farther  to  find  out  the  causes  of  the  breaking  up  of  any 
series  of  variations  into  species,  and  reaches  the  conclusion  that  species 
are  formed  when  a  certain  group  of  individuals  within  a  series  "loses  its 
connection  with  its  other  allies."*  This  breaking  up  of  a  series  of  varia- 
tions in  consequence  of  lost  connection  he  calls  " genepistasis."^  Under 
this  head  come,  according  to  him,  Oeograpliical  Separation,  Ilalviatogcn- 
esis,  and  Kyesamechaina.X 

If  we  direct  our  attention  to  the  general  definition  of  " genepistasis" 
given  by  him,  that  it  is  the  losing  of  connection  of  certain  groups,  we  see 
at  once  that  genepistasis  is  exactly  the  same  as  separation,  and  under 
the  same  head  comes  kyesamechania.^.  The  latter  term  means  that  a 
sexual  crossing  between  animals  of  more  or  less  different  characters  is 
rendered  impossible  by  morphological  or  physiological  causes.  This  im- 
possibility of  crossing  is  certainly  not  the  first  cause  of  difference,  but  it 
is  the  result  of  already  existing  differences  produced  by  beginning  separa- 
tion, and  as  respects  the  formation  of  species,  kyesamechania  can  never 
be  a  primary  cause  of  the  origin  of  different  species,  but  it  is  the  result  of 
the  beginning  differentiation,  and  may  develop  an  additional  factor  accel- 
erating the  process  of  specific  differentiation. 

As  regards  Balmatogenesis,  which  means  the  sudden  appearance  of  any 
new  variation,  Eimer  explains  this  process  by  correlation  :|  but  this 
explanation  is  insufficient.  If  any  character  changes,  other  characters 
connected  by  correlation  with  it  change  also,  but  if  the  change  of  the  first 
is  slow,  certainly  the  changes  of  the  others  are  so  also,  and  a  sudden 
change  of  characters  by  correlation  presumes  a  sudden  change  of  the 
leading   character.     Tlius    correlation    cannot    explain    balmatogenesis. 

*SeeZ.  c,  p.  26  :  "  Wenn  ....  eiue  Gruppe  von  Individuen  ....  auf  irgend  eiue  Weise 
die  Verbindung  iiiit  den  iibrigen  Verwandten  verloreu  liat  ....  spriLlit  uiun  von  Arton." 

fSee  /.  c,  p.  30ff. 

1 1  cannot  make  out  with  certainty  what  Einipr  thinks  as  to  tlic  logical  relations  of  these 
terms  to  each  other,  hut  I  hope  I  have  quoted  him  correctly. 

g  See  Eimer,  Die  Artbildung  und  Venvandtschaft  bei  den  Schmetterlingen,  ii,  1895,  p.  14ft". 

II  See  Enlslehung,  etc.,  p.  5:i. 


1896.]  LoD  [Ortmaun. 

But  we  do  not  need  this  at  all.  Halmatogenesis  is  a  well-known  process 
of  inheritance,  and  comes  under  different  heads  in  that  chapter.  For 
example,  accumulative  inheritance  (even  orthogenesis)  may  effect  a 
sudden  rise  of  the  degree  of  development  of  a  certain  character,  or  char- 
acters remaining  latent  during  one  or  more  generations  may  come  sud- 
denly into  reappearance,  or  farther,  atavism  may  effect  the  same.  Hal- 
matogenesis does  not  at  all  play  a  part  in  the  breaking  up  of  a  "  chain  of 
organisms,"  but  it  takes  part  only  in  the  formation  of  varieties. 

Therefore,  of  Eimer's  new  terms,  only  Oenepintasis  and  Kyesamecliania 
may  form  different  species,  and  both  are  nothing  else  than  Separation,  or 
as  Eimer  himself  says  :  "the  interruption  of  connection." 

i3y  this  brief  sketch  of  Eimer's  views  we  see  that  there  is  no  consider- 
able difference  from  Darwin's  theor3%*  except  that  he  considers  natural 
selection  to  be  of  minor  importance.  Tliis  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
he  has  investigated  chiefly  characters  not  at  all  subject  to  natural  selec- 
tion. He  forgets,  however,  that  even  upon  animals  provided  with  indif- 
ferent characters  natural  selection  must  necessarily  act  in  order  to  main- 
lain  the  good  standard  of  all  the  other  characters.  All  the  principles 
introduced  by  Eimer :  Orthogenesis  and  halmatogenesis  as  forming  varie- 
ties in  a  distinct  direction,  genepistasis  and  kyesamechania  as  forming 
species,  are  onl}-  new  words  for  old  ideas,  which  indeed  have  been  set 
forth  already  by  Darwin.  And  farther,  these  new  terms  are  mostly 
results  of  well-known  laws  and  not  the  primary  causes  of  the  formation 
of  varieties  or  species,  and  they  do  not  give  us  a  better  knowledge  than 
before  of  the  respective  processes,  in  some  cases,  indeed,  they  may  even 
induce  confusion. 

As  respects  sepamtion  we  have  seen  that  Eimer  considers  it  only  as  an 
additionalt  factor  causing  specific  differentiation,  but  farther  we  have 
seen  that  his  genepistasis  is  also  separation.  Like  all  the  other  authors 
he  apparently  has  conceived  separation  only  in  a  purely  geographical 
sense.  I  have,  however,  demonstrated:}:  that  we  are  to  conceive  the  term 
separation  in  a  bionomical  sense,  that  is  to  say,  that  any  causes  "effecting 
a  permanent  interruption  of  the  bionomical  continuity  between  certain 
groups  come  under  the  head  of  separation.  Separation  keeps  particular 
groups  permanently  under  particular  conditions,  and  thus  they  are  pre- 
vented from  migrating  from  one  station  of  definite  conditions  of  life  into 
others  with  other  conditions." 

*  Eimer  identifies  Darwin's  tlieory  witli  tlie  "  Darwinism  after  Darwin  "  (comp.  Arthildung 
und  Vencandtscfiafl  bei  Schmetlerlingen,  ii,  1895,  Preface,  p.  v),  in  supposing  tliat  Darwin's 
theory  alleges  that  species  are  formed  by  natural  selection.  But  we  know  that  this  is  an 
entirely  unwarranted  imputation. 

\See  Artbildung,  etc.,  1895,  p.  9.  I  should  like  here  to  point  out  an  apparent  error  in 
Eimer's  arguments  for  the  origin  of  new  species  in  the  middle  of  the  range  of  the  original 
form  :  he  says  (ibid.,  p.  11)  that  the  group  of  Papilio  asterias  originated  from  amidst  the  pro- 
vince of  distriluition  of  the  group  of  P.  machaon.  A  glance  at  his  tables  (PI.  vi-viii), 
however,  shows  that  this  is  not  the  case. 

X  See  Grundzilge,  etc.,  p.  31,  and  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  p.  63,  et  seq  ,  189G. 


Ortmann.]  J-"^  [May  15, 

This  prevention  of  migration  is  very  important.  Migration  (as  under- 
stood by  M,  Wagner)  is  an  accessory  factor,  often  cooperating  with  sepa- 
ration, and  often  working  against  it.  Each  species,  which  originated  in 
a  limited  area,  tends  to  occupy  other  territories  :  it  is  a  well-lsnown  fact 
that  each  animal  form  possesses  its  peculiar  "means  of  dispersal,"  and  by 
such  means  it  migrates.  Migrating  species  occupy  new  territories,  which 
have  either  the  same  or  slightly  different  conditions  of  life  :  in  the  latter 
case  migration  by  itself  may  induce  new  variations  in  consequence  of  the 
slightly  modified  action  of  the  external  conditions  of  life.  Further, 
migration  is  often  slow,  or  only  possible  under  peculiar  circumstances, 
often  it  is  accidental,  and  only  a  few  individuals  can  transgress  the  orig- 
inal limits  on  rare  occasions  :  then  even  migration  acts  as  a  means  of 
separation.  The  few  individuals  occupying  a  new  locality  are  afterwards 
practically  separated  from  the  original  stock  remaining  in  their  native 
country,  and  thus  they  may  develop  separately  into  a  different  species, 
even  in  the  case  that  immigration  from  tlie  OHginal  stock  is  not  altogether 
impossible,  since  any  rare  individuals  of  the  latter,  reaching  the  new  col- 
ony from  time  to  time,  are  soon  absorbed  by  the  new  form  and  their  char- 
acters disappear  J)y  the  continuous  crossing  with  the  modified  individuals 
and  by  the  transfbrming  power  of  the  external  conditions.  Separation, 
however,  is  not  always  connected  with  migration  :  the  original  "centre 
of  origin  "  of  a  species  may  be  broken  up  again  into  parts,  thus  inducing 
the  origin  of  new  species,  if  the  external  conditions  favor  it. 

Separation  in  any  form  may  be  more  or  less  complete,  and  since  between 
complete  continuity  and  complete  separation  intermediate  steps  are  inter- 
posed, also  a  complete  differentiation  of  species  is  reached  by  degrees. 
Tiiis  corresponds  exactly  with  what  we  see  in  nature.  We  know  of 
many  groups,  the  species  of  which  are  very  insufficiently  limited  and  pass 
gradually  into  each  other  :  in  such  cases  the  formation  of  species  is  not 
yet  accomplished.  It  is  an  incomplete  separation,  if  a  species  occupying 
a  large  area  is  divided  into  different  varieties,  which  are  locally  more  or 
less  limited,  and  differ  in  most  remote  localities  considerably,  while  in 
intermediate  places  intermediate  forms  are  present.  The  distinct  varieties 
on  the  most  extreme  limits  of  the  range  are  certainly  under  different  con- 
ditions of  life,  but  in  the  intermediate  area  transitions  are  present :  a  com- 
plete difterentiation  of  species  is  not  yet  reached  here,  and  we  have  to 
regard  these  forms  still  as  varieties. 

Of  course,  it  is  possible,  that  nearly  allied  species,  which  originated 
separately,  may  occupy  by  migration  the  same  territory  and  come  into 
competition  with  each  other.  If  their  morphological  and  physiological 
peculiarities  are  not  sufficiently  fixed,  there  may  result  by  hybridization  a 
new  species.  But  if  llie  characters  are  well  fixed  by  iniieritance,  espe- 
cially if  there  is  "kyesamechania,"  they  may  live  together  or  the  stronger 
may  suppress  the  weaker.  But  I  may  safely  say,  that  it  is  very  improbable 
that  two  closely  allied  species  ever  lived  precisely  under  the  same  condi- 
tions in  the  same  locality.     I  refer  in  this  respect  to  the  example  of  four 


1896.]  187  [Ortmann. 

species  of  the  Derapod  genus  Gelasiinus  on  the  East  African  coast 
recorded  by  me.*  These  four  species  lived  in  a  particular  locality  com- 
pletely separated,  although  often  only  a  few  yards  from  each  other,  and 
a  collector  less  careful  would  have  put  them  all  together  in  one  jar.  Yet 
as  a  rule  collectors  are  well  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  particular  spe- 
cies are  to  be  sought  for  in  particular  localities. 

IV.  I  may,  I  think,  conclude.  I  have  amply  demonstrated  that  only 
separation  can  effect  differentiation  of  sp«cies,  and  that  all  the  principles 
created  by  other  authors  for  this  particular  effect  come  under  the  head  of 
separation,  i.  e  ,  the  breaking  up  of  a  number  of  individuals  into  groups, 
each  subject  to  particular  conditions  of  life.  Some  authors,  indeed, 
have  not  understood  at  all  that  the  whole  process  ending  in  the  formation 
of  species  is  composed  of  a  series  of  distinct  factors,  only  the  last  of 
which  is  separation.  But  I  wish  to  say  here  expressly  that  already  Darwin 
conceived  those  different  factors  correctly,  and  distinguished  them  well 
according  to  their  particular  line  of  action.  The  only  change  of  Darwin's 
views  that  I  should  like  to  propose  is  to  substitute  for  his  "  principle  of 
divergence"  that  of  "separation."  Besides,  it  would  be  well  to  con- 
ceive the  terra  "Natural  Selection"  in  a  modified  sense,  as  Pfeffer  has 
proposed,  and  we  have  seen  that  there  is  some  advantage  in  so  doing. 
And  farther,  Elmer  has  pointed  out  that  not  all  the  characters  of  each 
animal  form  are  subject  to  natural  selection  :  there  are  many  which  do 
not  bear  on  utility,  but  are  indifferent  in  this  respect.  But  since  such 
characters  are  probably  also  due  to  the  influence  of  external  conditions, 
they  may  be  transmitted  and  may  increase,  giving  origin  to  a  distinct 
direction  of  variation, f  to  a  "mutation,"  which  is  independent  of  natu- 
ral selection,  and  may  be  called  by  Elmer's  term  "Orthogenesis." 

For  the  rest,  the  whole  of  Darwin's  theory  stands,  and  none  of  those 
"  Darwinists  after  Darwin  " — I  venture  to  say — have  been  able  to  weaken 
any  of  his  ideas  in  the  least  degree.     Especially  Weismann  has  not,  since 

*See  Grundzilge,  etc.,  p.  33,  footnote.  Compare  also  the  following  sentences  of  Petersen 
{Del  Videnskabelige  Udbytte  af  Kanonbaadens  Ifauchs  Togler,  1893,  p.  45.5)  :  "  Each  species 
seems  to  be  distributed  according  to  certain  rules,  which  ....  can  be  brought  in  relation 
to  one  or  several  ....  natural  conditions,"  and  (p.  457)  :  "  no  species  is  found  everywhere 
in  our  seas,"  and  farther :  F.  Dahl,  "  Vergleicheude  Untersuchuugen  Uber  die  Lebensweise 
wirbelloser  Aasfresser,"  Silz.  Ber.  Akad.  Wist.  Berlin,  January,  1896,  pp.  29,  30. 

t  Already  Darwin  holds  the  same  opinion  and  concedes  {Origiruof  Species,  ■p\>.  110,111), 
that  there  are  variations  which  appear  to  be  of  no  service  whatever  to  their  possessors.  This 
passage  is  the  more  interesting,  since  he  talks  of  the  "  laws  of  growth,"  which  are  apparently 
identical  with  Elmer's  "  Gesetzen  organischeu  Wachsens."  Comp.  farther,  ibid.,  p.  175: 
"  When  from  the  nature  of  the  organism  and  of  the  conditions;  uiodiflcations  have  been 
induced  which  are  unimportant  for  the  welfare  of  the  species,  they  may  be  and  appa- 
rently often  have  been  transmitted  ....  to  numerous  ....  descendants,"  and  p.  176  : 
"  Morphological  differences,  which  we  consider  as  unimportant  ....  first  appeared  .... 
as  fluctuating  variations,  which  sooner  or  later  became  constant  through  the  nature  of  the 
organism  and  the  surrounding  conditions."  (In  the  last  jiassage  the  word  I  have  italicized 
stands  originally  as  important,  but  according  to  the  foregoing  and  following  sentences  this 
is  no  doubt  a  misprint  ) 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  151.  X.      PRINTED  SEPT.  4,  1896. 


Ortmann.]  J-^^  [May  15, 

it  is  now  demonstrated  by  the  ablest  scientists  explicitly,*  and  by  many 
olliers  incidentally,  that  his  theories  are  without  any  proper  foundation. 
As  regards  Eimer's  theories,  I  have  endeavored  in  the  above  to  show, 
that  the  alleged  opposition  in  certain  points  to  Darwin  does  not  exist, 
except  as  Eimer  creates  new  scientific  terms  for  old  ideas,  and  as  he  does 
not  distinguish  properly  between  cause  and  effect. 

To  sum  up,  we  have  to  d'lsiingnMi  four  factor  s\  accomplishing  the  diver- 
sity, developracLt  and  differentiation  into  species  of  organic  beings  :  we 
may  call  conveniently  this  whole  process  :  origin  of  species. 

1.  All  organic  beings  vary.  There  exists  an  "inherent  tendency  to 
vary,":}:  but  this  tendency  is  manifested  only  by  the  influence  of  external 
causes  upon  the  respective  organism.  The  faculty  of  variation  is  an 
unlimited  one,§  but  the  actual  variation  is  limited,  namely  by  the  external 
conditions  of  life.  Variations  coming  into  existence  are  modifications 
"  directly  due  to  the  physical  conditions  of  life,"  which  "in  this  sense 
are  supposed  not  to  be  inherited. "||  ^1  variation  is  impossible  without 
external  conditions  producing  it. 

2.  These  variations  may  be  transmitted  to  descendants.^  Inheritance  is 
due  to  the  process  of  propagation,  which  may  be  either  by  one  parent  or 
by  two  parents  (Amphimixis).  By  inheritance  acquired  ciiaracters  are 
transmitted  from  the  parent  to  the  descendants,  and  thus  the  consangu- 
inity becomes  morphologically  visible,  and  individuals  of  common  descent 
are  more  closely  connected  by  morphological  characters  with  each  other 
than  with  any  other  group  of  individuals.  By  inheritance  the  unsteady 
and  temporary  variations  are  transformed  into  varieties,  that  is  to  say, 
into  groups  of  individuals  having  the  same  ancestors  and  resembling  each 
other  more  or  less.** 

*I  refer  to  the  followiug  names  :  Eimer,  Haacke,  Haeckel,  O.  Hertwig,  Pfeffer,  Romanes, 
Spencer,  and  others.  I  would  especially  mention  O.  Hertwig's  book,  Zeil-  und  Streit-Fragen 
tier  Biologie,  Heft  i,  "  Praeformation  oder  Epigenesis."  I  recommend  this  masterjoiece  of 
criticism  for  study,  not  only  because  it  refutes  completely  Weismann's  fantastic  germ-plasma 
theory,  but  because  the  exposition  of  this  theory  given  in  that  work  is  much  more  intelli- 
gible than  that  given  by  Weismann  himself.  In  his  latest  paper  ("Germinal  Selection," 
pp.  282,  285  and  286)  Weismann  refers  to  Hertwig's  criticism  :  but  his  remarks  are  entirely 
aside  from  the  question,  since  they  do  not  touch  the  chief  point,  and,  partly  (p.  282),  attri- 
bute to  Hertwig  an  opinion  which  the  latter,  according  to  his  own  express  statement,  did 
not  entertain  (see  pp.  10  and  11  of  Hertwig's  book). 

fSee  Crrundziige,  etc.,  p.  32. 

J  Darwin,  Var.  and  Domes.,  p.  2. 

?  Unless  checked  by  inheritance  ! 

II  Darwin,  Orig.,  p.  33. 

1[  The  transmission  of  acquired  characters  is  denied  by  many  competent  naturalists  and 
cannot  be  regarded  as  demonstrated.  In  the  problems  of  geographical  distribution  one  is  con- 
tinually brought  back  to  this  as  a  probable  assumption,  and  I  propound  it  here  as  a  "  work- 
ing hypothesis." 

=** Darwin,  Orig.,  p.  33:  In  "the  term  variety  ....  community  of  descent  is  ...  .  im- 
plied." 


1896]  loJ  [Ortmann. 

The  process  of  inheritance  is  most  obscure.*  We  Icnow  nothing  of 
the  causes  of  inlieritauce  or — perhaps  it  is  better  to  say — of  non-inheritance 
often  occurring.  Weismann's  theory  of  inheritance,  even  if  we  accept  it 
(as  I  do  not),  does  not  explain  the  essence  of  heredity  :  it  merely  refers 
inheritance  to  minute  processes  in  fertilization.  But  this  knowledge  that 
heredity  is  due  to  the  peculiarities  in  propagation  is  a  very  old  one,  as 
old  as  modern  zoology  and  perhaps  even  older,  and  more  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  the  minute  details  in  propagation,  and  their  arbitrary  augmenta- 
tion by  supposed  complications  does  not  promote  our  understanding  of 
heredity.  Yet  we  do  not  know  how  the  "tendencies  of  inheritance  "  of 
the  germs  (or  parts  of  the  germs)  are.  transferred  to  the  "soma"  of  the 
descendants;  we  do  not  know  how  the  germs  get  these  "tendencies" 
from  the  "soma"  of  the  parents  ;  we  do  not  know  why  certain  "tenden- 
cies "  become  visible  in  the  descendants,  while  others  do  not ;  we  do  not 
know  what  a  "tendency  of  inheritance  "  is  like  anyhow. f  A  theory  of 
inheritance  has  to  endeavor  to  answer  the  questions  put  here,  otherwise 
it  does  not  explain  anything,  and  the  essence  of  heredity  continues  to  be 
as  obscure  as  before. 

By  inheritance  and  repeated  action  of  particular  external  conditions  a 
distinct  direction  of  variation  may  be  induced  :  certain  animal  forms  tend 
again  and  again  to  vary  in  the  same  direction,  and  the  degree  of  the  varia- 
tions is  thus  increased.  This  process  is  what  Eimer  calls  orthogenesis, 
and  if  the  action  of  the  external  conditions  as  well  as  of  inheritance  is 
not  a  steady  one,  but  interrupted  and  irregular,  we  have  his  halmatogen- 
esis.  Both  terms  clearly  come  under  the  head  of  inheritance.  Ortho- 
genesis and  halmatogenesis  can  eft'ect  "  mutations,"  but  we  must  bear  in 
mind  that  here  no  principle  of  utility  comes  into  play. 

It  is  well  to  be  noted  that  the  two  factors  mentioned,  variation  and 
inheritance,  act  only  upon  single  individuals.  They  act  often  upon  a 
number  of  individuals  in  the  same  or  analogous  manner,  but  each  individ- 
ual can  vary  and  inherit  without  regard  to  others.  The  tw^o  following 
principles  (natural  selection  and  separation)  can  only  act  upon  a  multi- 
tude of  individuals  simultaneously,  and  their  action  becomes  conspicuous 
only  by  the  comparison  of  many  individuals. 

3.  Upon  the  material  produced  by  variation  and  inheritance  acts  a  third 
factor:  Natural  Selection.  By  this  principle  all  variations  injurious  in 
the  struggle  for  existence,  all  the  forms  not  fitted  for  existence  under  a 

*See  Osborn  ("The  Hereditary  Mechanism  and  the  Search  for  the  Unknown  Factors  of 
E%'olution,"  £iV.  Led.  Mar.  Biol.  Lab.,  Wood's  Holl,  1895):  "  If  acquired  variations  are 
transmitted  tliere  must  be  some  unknown  principle  in  heredity." 

fOf  course,  Weismann  has  tried  to  answer  these  questions,  at  least  partly,  by  his  "  theo- 
ries," but  such  questions  cannot  be  explained  at  all  by  "  theories,"  the  very  foundations  of 
which  are  either  disputable  or  arbitrary,  or  even  illogical  and  contrary  to  the  known  facts. 
On  the  whole,  Weismann's  arguments  run  in  a  perfect  circulus  viliosus.  His  theory  of  inher- 
itance is  founded  upon  the  belief  that  acquired  variations  are  not  transmitted,  and  tlie 
demonstration,  that  acquired  variations  are  not  transmitted,  is  founded  upon  the  belief 
that  his  theory  is  correct  (comp.  Keue  Gedanken  zur  Vererhungsfrarje,  1895,  pp.  11  and  21). 


Ortmann.]  IJU  [May  15, 

certain  sum  of  conditions  of  life  are  destroyed.  The  remnant  left  is  fit 
for  existence,  and  all  the  individuals  surviving  are  able  to  live  and  propa- 
gate. There  may  be  slight  differences  between  them,  especially  as  regards 
characters  not  bearing  on  utility,  but  a  certain  average  of  good  characters 
is  present.  Natural  selection  at  least  preserves  this  good  average,  and  if 
there  arise  any  useful  characters,  a  smaller  percentage  of  the  individuals 
possessing  the  latter  is  destroyed,  and  thus  the  better  individuals  may 
gain  little  by  little  the  preponderance  in  number  :  the  average  is  displaced 
slowly  in  a  distinct  direction,  namely,  toward  the  better.  This  latter 
"mutation"  is  distinguished  from  the  mutation  by  orthogenesis  by  the 
advantage  connected  with  the  particular  line  in  which  the  change 
advances.  Natural  selection  effects  a  general  adaptation  of  the  whole 
number  of  the  surviving  individuals  to  particular  conditions  of  life. 

4.  But  natural  selection  does  not  form  species  ;  it  only  preserves  or 
transforms  already  existing  species.  If  we  suppose,  however,  that  of  tlie 
individuals  surviving  in  natural  selection  difterent  groups  are  separated 
from  each  other  under  different  conditions,  and  that  this  separation 
cannot  be  overcome,  so  that  each  group  must  remain  under  the  constant 
action  of  particular  conditions,  the  difference  of  the  latter  effects,  that 
each  group  tends  to  develop  its  characters  in  a  different  direction.  It  is 
true,  if  upon  each  separated  group  the  same  external  conditions  act  in  the 
same  manner,  there  would  be,  of  course,  no  separation  of  the  directions 
of  development.  But  differentiation  of  the  external  conditions  by  bio- 
nomic  separation,  and  the  splitting  into  groups  of  individuals  living  for- 
merly under  the  same  conditions  wiU  give  origin  to  different  characters  in 
each  group,  and  animals  distinguished  by  the  constant  presence  of  differ- 
ent  characters  we  call  species.  Different  species  are  formed  hy  bionomie 
separation  ;  separation  does  not  always  imply  differentiation  of  the  condi- 
tions of  life,  and  accordingly  does  not  always  form  new  species  ;  but  if  there 
is  a  differentiation  into  species,  it  is  always  due  to  separation  under  different 
bionomie  conditions. 

In  the  above  the  particular  action  of  each  of  the  four  chief  factors  play- 
ing a  part  in  the  evolution  and  diversification  of  the  organic  world  is 
properly  limited.  We  have  seen  that  the  two  last-named  factors,  selec- 
tion and  separation,  are  imitated  by  man  in  the  breeding  of  domesticated 
animals.  Both  nature  and  man  use  the  material  furnished  by  variation, 
and  the  success  of  both  is  warranted  under  the  condition  that  the  acquired 
characters  maj^  be  fixed  by  hereditary  transmission.  The  four  factors 
named,  variation,  inheritance,  selection  and  separation,  must  work 
together,  in  order  to  obtain  different  species,  and,  indeed,  they  do  so 
always;  it  is  impossible  to  think  that  one  of  them  should  work  by  itself, 
or  that  one  could  be  left  aside. 

The  proper  action  of  each  of  these  factors  was  recognized  almost  cor- 
rectly by  Darwin,  only  as  respects  the  <lifterentiation  of  species,  which  he 
attributes  to  the  principle  of  divergence,  he  was  not  quite  satisfied.*    But 

*  Darwin,  Origin,  p.  87  :  "  Though  it  was  a  long  time  before  I  saw  how." 


1896.]  lyi  [Ortmann. 

most  of  the  successors  of  Darwin,  especially  those  who  pretended  to 
have  modified,  corrected  or  enlarged  his  views  in  any  respect,  have  not 
understood  his  theory  correctly  :  generally  the  origin  of  variations,  vari- 
eties and  species  has  been  hopelessly  confused,  and  the  latter  is  especially 
true  of  the  writings  of  Weismann,  in  which  the  origin  of  species  and  vari- 
eties, and  the  origin  of  the  adaptive  characters  of  life  are  mixed  up  con- 
stantly.* 

In,  conclusion  I  should  like  to  add  that  the  principle  of  separation,  as 
set  forth  above,  bears  very  importantly  on  the  definition  of  the  systematic 
term  Species,  and  indeed,  that  it  alone  enables  us  to  give  a  correct  defini- 
tion of  it.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  proper  and  logical  definition  of  any 
term  depends  largely  on  the  knowledge  of  the  genesis  of  the  object,  and 
in  the  present  case  we  may  say  that  if  the  process  of  the  formation  of 
species  is  properly  understood,  we  can  derive  from  this  knowledge  a  defi- 
nition of  the  term  species.  In  my  book  often  above  referred  to,  I  have 
propounded  the  following:!  "  W^  designate  as  Species  such  forms  as  in 
consequence  of  separation  differ  sharply  and  constantly  by  morphological 
character  s  from  allied  coexisting  forms.  "  It  is  not  necessary  that  separa- 
tion should  be  still  evident  in  all  the  existing  species  :  the  separating 
causes  have  often  disappeared,  while  their  result,  tlie  difterent  species, 
still  exist.  But  then  the  separation  in  the  past  must  have  been  sufiicient 
to  modify  and  difi"erentiate  the  respective  forms  in  such  a  degree  that 
the  characters  are  fixed  by  inheritance,  so  tliat  changed  external  condi- 
tions cannot  influence  them  again,  and  farther,  there  must  be  kyesame- 
chania,  which  prevents  hybridization.  The  possibility,  however,  of 
hybridization  by  artificial  means  cannot  be  always  regarded  as  a  proof 
against  the  value  of  the  respective  forms  as  species  :  if  two  species  live 
separated  they  do  not  interbreed  in  nature,  and  if  they  are  forced  to  do 
so,  this  possibility  cannot  affect  their  value  as  species  under  normal 
and  natural  conditions. 

As  separation  is  reached  by  degrees,  distinct  species  must  have  devel- 
oped gradually,  and  such  must  still  develop.  We  know  numerous 
examples  of  so-called  "polymorphous"  genera,  where  apparently  the 
process  of  formation  of  species  is  beginning  or  not  yet  accomplished.  It 
is  true,  variations,  varieties,  and  species  pass  gradually  into  each  other, 
but  this  does  not  imply  that  these  three  terms  shall  be  treated  alike, 
and  that  there  is  no  difference  at  all  between  them.  A  tree  is  not  a 
shrub,  although  there  are  intermediate  growths.  So  we  can  give  a 
correct  definition  of  variety  and  species,  although  there  are  intermediate 
forms,  which  may  be  doubted,  wliether  they  belong  to  the  one  or  the 
other. 

*This  confusion  of  Weismann's  ideas  is  most  evident  in  the  two  last  pages  of  his  latest 
publication  ("  Germinal  Selection,"  The  Monist,  Vol.  6,  No.  2,  January,  1896,  pp.  292,  29.3). 
This  whole  paper  is  devoted  to  the  demonstration  of  the  action  of  natural  selection  as  eflfect- 
ing  adaptation,  and  though  he  saj-s  that  "  the  mode  of  formation  of  the  living  world  as  a 
whole  "  may  be  understood  by  this  principle  ! 

t  See  I.  c,  p.  32. 


Ortmaun.]  1 -^^  [May  15,  1896. 

The  principle  of  constant  difference  is  practically  applied  generally  'bj 
systematists,  and  I  hope  I  have  given  above  a  logical  foundation  of  this 
principle.  In  many  cases,  indeed,  the  constancy  of  dift'erence  is  the 
only  means  by  which  species  can  be  distinguished,  if  the  former  or  the 
actual  separation  of  the  respective  forms  cannot  be  made  out  with 
certainty.  But  in  all  cases,  where  an  actual  separation  is  evident,  we 
should  consider  the  respective  forms,  if  morphologically  distinct,  as 
species,  not  as  varieties.  Under  the  new  definition  of  the  term  species 
given  here,  many  of  the  so-called  local  varieties  become  species,  since 
such  are  often  distinguished  only  because  the  ditt'erences  from  "good  " 
species  are  only  slight  ones  and  are  not  considered  as  important  enough 
to  create  a  distinct  species.  But  this  standpoint  is  not  correct :  any 
dift'erence  in  characters,  however  slight,  constitutes  a  distinct  species,  if 
constant  and  due  to  separation. 


him  the  communication,  description,  or  model,  except  the  officer  to 
.  whom  it  shall  be  entrusted ;  noi  shall  such  officer  part  with  the  same 
out  of  his  custody,  without  a  special  order  of  the  Society  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

6.  The  Society,  having  previously  referred  the  several  communica- 
tions from  candidates  for  the  premium,  then  depending,  to  the  consid- 
eration of  the  twelve  counsellors  and  other  officers  of  the  Society,  and 
having  received  their  report  thereon,  shall,  at  one  of  their  stated  meet^ 
ings  in  the  month  of  December,  annually,  after  the  expiration  of  this 
current  year  (of  the  time  and  place,  together  with  the  particular  occa- 
sion of  which  meeting  due  notice  shall  be  previously  given,  by  public 
advertisement)  proceed  to  final  adjudication  of  the  said  premium ;  and, 
after  due  consideration  had,  a  vote  shall  first  betaken  on  this  question, 
viz. :     Whether  any  of  the  communications  then  under  inspection  be 

^worthy  of  the  proposed  premium  ?  If  this  question  be  determined  in 
the  negative,  the  whole  business  shall  be  deferred  till  another  year; 
but  if  in  the  affirmative,  the  Society  shall  proceed  to  determine  by 
ballot,  given  by  the  members  at  large,  the  discovery,  invention  or  im- 
provement most  useful  and  worthy ;  and  that  discovery,  invention,  or 
improvement  which  shall  be  found  to  have  a  majority  of  concurring 
votes  in  its  favor  shall  be  successful;  and  then,  and  not  till  then,  the 
sealed  letter  accompanying  the  crowned  performance  shall  be  opened, 
and  the  name  of  the  author  announced  as  the  person  entitled  to  the 
said  premium. 

7.  No  member  of  the  Society  who  is  a  candidate  for  the  premiun. 
then  depending,  or  who  hath  not  previously  declared  to  the  Society, 
that  he  has  considered  and  weighed,  according  to  the  best  of  his  judg- 
ment, the  comparative  merits  of  the  several  claims  then  under  consid- 
eration, shall. sit  in  judgment,  or  give  his  vote  in  awarding  the  said  pre- 
mium. 

8.  A  full  account  of  the  crowned  subject  shall  be  published  by  the  So- 
ciety, as  soon  as  may  be  after  the  adjudication,  either  in  a  separate  pub- 
lication, or  in  the  next  succeeding  volume  of  their  Transactions,  or  in 
both. 

9.  The  unsuccessful  performances  shall  remain  under  consideration, 
and  their  authors  be  considered  as  candidates  for  the  premium  for  five 
years  next  succeeding  the  time  of  their  presentment ;  except  such  per- 
formances as  their  authors  may,  in  the  meantime,  think  fit  to  withdraw. 
And  the  Society  shall  annually  publish  an  abstract  of  the  titles,  object, 
or  subject  matter  of  the  communications,  so  under  consideration ;  such 
only  excepted  as  the  Society  shall  think  not  worthy  of  public  notice. 

10.  The  letters  containing  the  names  of  authors  whose  performances 
shall  be  rejected,  or  which  shall  be  found  unsuccessful  after  a  trial  of 
five  years,  shall  be  burnt  before  the  Society,  without  breaking  the  seals. 

11.  In  case  there  should  be  a  failure,  in  any  year,  of  any  communi- 
cation worthy  of  the  proposed  premium,  there  will  then  be  two  pr«- 
miums  to  be  awarded  the  next  year.  But  no  accumulation  of  premiums 


shall  entitle  the  author  to  more  than  one  premium  for  any  one  discov- 
ery, invention  or  improvement. 

- 12.  The  premium  shall  consist  of  an  oval  plate  of  solid  standard  gold 
of  the  value  of  ten  guineas.  On  one  side  thereof  shall  be  neatly  en- 
graved a  short  Latin  motto  suited  to  the  occasion,  together  with  the 
words:  "  The  Premium  of  John  Hyacinth  de  Magellan,  of  XOndon, 
established  in  the  year  1786 ;"  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  plate  shall  be 
engraved  these  words:     "Awarded  by  the  A.  P.  S.  for  the  discovery 

of A.D. ."    And  the  seal  of  the  Society  shall  be  annexed 

to  the  medal  by  a  ribbon  passing  through  a  small  hole  at  the  lower 
edge  thereof. 

Section  2.  The  Magellanic  fund  of  two  himdred  guineas  shall  be 
considered  as  ten  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  and  shall  be  invested  sepa- 
rately from  the  other  funds  belonging  to  or  under  the  care  of  the  So- 
ciety, and  a  separate  and  distinct  account  of  it  shall  be  kept  by  th^ 
treasurer. 

The  said  fund  shall  be  credited  with  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars, 
to  represent  the  two  premiums  for  which  the  Society  is  now  liable.. 

The  treasurer  shall  credit  the  said  fund  with  the  interest  received  on 
the  investment  thereof,  and,  if  any  surplus  of  said  interest  shall  remain 
after  providing  for  the  premiums  which  may  then  be  demandable,  said 
surplus  shall  be  used  by  the  Society  for  making  publication  of  the 
terms  of  the  said  premium,  and  for  such  purposes  as  may  be  authorized 
by  its  charter  and  laws. 

The  treasurer  shall,  at  the  first  stated  meeting  of  the  Society  in  the 
month  of  December  annually,  make  a  report  of  the  state  of  said  fund 
and  of  the  investment  thereof. 


iW  Members  wlio  have  not  as  yet  sent  theii*  photographs 
to  the  Society  Avill  confer  a  favor  hy  so  doing ;  cabinet  size 
preferred. 

lE^"  Members  will  please  communicate  any  change  of  address  or  inac- 
curacy in  name. 

I^W  A  few  sets  of  the  Society's  Transactions,  New  Series,  1818  to  1893, 
XVIII  vols.,  4to,  can  be  obtained  from  the  Librarian.     Price  $90.00. 


9> 

PROCE  EDINGS 


*f-^^0  OP    THE 

AMERICA^NT    PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY, 

HELD  AT  PHILADELPHIA,  FOR  PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


Vol.  XXXV.  Novembeb,  1896.  No.  152. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Stated  Meeting,  September  4,  1S96 193 

Stated  Meeting,  September  18,  1896 v) 

Vocabulary  of  llie  Noanama  Dialect  of  the  Choco  Stock.    By  Daniel, 
G.  Brinton,  M.D 202 

On  the  Second  Abdominal  Segment  in  a   Few  Libellnlid;ie  (witli 
two  plates).     By  Martha  Freeman  Ooddard 205 

Marine  Fossils  from  the  Coal   Measui-es  of  Arkansas   (with   nine 
plates).    By  James  Perrin  Smith 213 

Stated  Meeting,  October  2,  1896 286 

'^Wlt  is  requested  that  the  receipt  of  this  number  be  acknowledged. 

Il^"In  order  to  secure  prompt  attention  it  is  requested  that  all  corre- 
spondence be  addressed  simply  "To  the  Secretaries  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  104  S.  Fifth  St.,  Philadelphia." 


Published   for    the    Society 

BY 

MacCALLA  &  COMPANY  INC., 

NOS.    237-9    DOCK    STREET,    PHILADELPHIA. 


EXTRACT  FROM  THE  LAWS. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


OF  THE  MAGELLANIC  FUND. 


Section  1 .  John  Hyacinth  de  Magellan,  in  London,  having  in  the  year 
1786  offered  to  the  Society ,  as  a  donation,  the  sum  of  two  hundred  guineas, 
to  be  by  them  vested  in  a  secure  and  permanent  fund,  to  the  end  that 
the  interest  arising  therefrom  should  be  annually  disposed  of  in  pre- 
miums, to  be  adjudged  by  them  to  the  author  of  the  best  discovery,  or 
most  useful  invention,  relating  to  Naviga^iion,  Astronomy,  or  Natural 
Philosophy  (mere  natural  history  only  excepted) ;  and  the  Society 
having  accepted  of  the  above  donation,  they  hereby  publish  the  condi- 
tions, prescribed  by  the  donor  and  agreed  to  by  the  Society,  upon  which 
the  said  annual  premiums  will  be  awarded. 

CONDITIONS  OF   THE  MAGELLANIC  PREMIUM. 

1.  The  candidate  shall  send  his  discovery,  invention  or  improvement, 
addressed  to  the  President,  or  one  of  the  Vice-Presidents  of  the  Society, 
free  of  postage  or  other  charges ;  and  shall  distinguish  his  performance 
by  some  motto,  device,  or  other  signature,  at  his  pleasure.  Together 
with  his  discovery,  invention,  or  improvement,  he  shall  also  send  a 
sealed  letter  containing  the  same  motto,  device,  or  signature,  and  sub- 
scribed with  the  real  name  and  place  of  residence  of  the  author. 

2.  Persons  of  any  ]iation,  sect  or  denomination  whatever,  shall  be  ad- 
mitted as  candidates  for  this  premium. 

3.  No  discovery,  invention  or  improvement  shall  be  entitled  to  this 
premium,  which  hath  been  already  published,  or  for  which  the  author 
hath  been  publicly  rewarded  elsewhere. 

4.  The  candidate  shall  communicate  his  discovery,  invention  or  im- 
provement, either  in  the  English,  French,  German,  or  Latin  language. 

5.  All  such  communications  shall  be  publicly  read  or  exhibited  to  the 
Society  at  some  stated  meeting,  not  less  than  one  month  previous  to  the 
day  of  adjudication,  and  shall  at  all  times  be  open  to  the  inspection  of 
sucli  members  as  shall  desire  it.  But  no  member  shall  carry  home  with 


JAN    8    1897^ 

Sept.  4,  1896.]  1"*^ 

PKOCE  EDINGS 

OF   THE 

AMERICAN    PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY 

HELD  AT  PHILADELPniA  FOR  PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


Vol.  XXXV.  November,  1896.  No.  152. 

Stated  Meeting^  Septemhsr  4,  1896. 

Curator,  Dr.  J.  C.  Morris,  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  9  members. 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows  : 

Letters  of  acceptance  of  membership  from  C.  S.  Minot, 
Cambridge,  Mass.;  John  Trowbridge,  Cambridge,  Mass.; 
Edward  C.  Pickering,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  Edward  S.  Dana, 
New  Haven,  Conn.;  Arthur  W.  Wright,  New  Haven,  Conn.; 
L.  H.  Bailey,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.;  M.  I.  Pupin,  New  York,  N.  Y.; 
Nikola  Tesla,  New  York,  N.  Y.;  Thomas  A.  Edison, 
Orange,  N.  J.;  Arthur  Willis  Goodspeed,  Philadelphia  ;  C. 
Hanford  Henderson,  Philadelphia  ;  Henry  A.  Rowland,  Bal- 
timore, Md.  ;    William  H.  Welch,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Letter  declining  membership  from  T.  Mitchell  Prudden, 
New  York,  N.  Y. 

An  invitation  from  the  President  of  the  Soci^t<^  Physico- 
Mathematique  de  Kasan,  Russia,  to  the  inauguration  of  a 
monument  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  N.  J.  Lobatchefsky, 
the  celebrated  Russian  geometrician,  to  take  place  September 
13,  1896. 

A  circular  letter  from  General-Major  M.  Rykatchew,  an- 
nouncing his  election  by  the  Academic  Impdriale  des  Sciences, 
St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  to  the  post  of  Directeur  of  the  Obser- 
vatoire  Physique  Central  de  St.  Petersburg. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.   152.  Y.      PRINTED  NOVEMBER  16,   1896. 


-l-^'*  [Sept.  4, 

Letters  of  envoy  from  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ijiclia, 
Calcutta  ;  Naturfbrsclier-Gesellschaft,  Dorpat,  Kussia  ;  Mus^e 
Teyler,  Harlem,  Holland ;  Maatschappij  der  Nederland- 
sclie  Letterkunde,  Leiden,  N.  Holland ;  Academic  E,.  des 
Sciences,  Stockholm,  Sweden ;  JSTaturforschende  Yerein, 
Briinn,  Austria  ;  K.  Geologische  Landesanstalt  und  Berga- 
kademie,  Berlin,  Prussia  ;  ISTaturwissenschaftliche  Verein  fiir 
Schleswig-Holstein,  Kiel,  Prussia ;  Wiirttembergische  Ver- 
ein fiir  Handelsgeographie,  Stuttgart ;  P.  Accademia  di 
Scienze,  Lettere  ed  Arti,  Modena,  Italy ;  Faculte  des  Sci- 
ences, Marseilles,  France  ;  Societe  Philologique,  Bureau  des 
Longitudes,  Paris,  France ;  Zoological  Society  of  London, 
Meteorological  Ofl&ce,  London,  Eng.;  Radcliffe  Observatorj^, 
Oxford,  Eng.;  Poyal  Dublin  Society,  Royal  Irish  Academy, 
Lublin,  Ireland;  Mr.-  T.  W .  Higginsou,  Dublin,  IST.  H.; 
Meteorological  Observatory,  ISTew  York,  N.  Y.;  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology, 
U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C;  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Stations,  Madison,  Wis.,  St.  Anthony 
Park,  Minn.,  Brookings,  S.  Dak.;  Museo  Nacional,  Buenos 
Aires,  S.  A.;  Instituto  Fisico-Geografico  Nacional,  San  Jos6 
de  Costa  Rica,  C.  A. 

Acknowledgments  for  Transactions  (N.  S.)  xviii,  3,  from 
the  Mus(^e  Teyler,  Harlem,  Holland ;  K.  K.  Stern warte, 
Prag,  Bohemia ;  K.  Bibliothek,  Berlin,  Prussia ;  Literarj^ 
and  Philosophical  Society,  Manchester,  Eng.;  Royal  Society, 
Edinburgh,  Scotland  ;  Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  Ottawa  : 
State  Library  of  Pennsylvania,  Harrisburg  ;  Franklin  Insti- 
tute. Philadelphia ;  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington, 
D.  C;  University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor ;  Kansas  Acad- 
emy of  Science,  Topeka. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  the  Ro^^al  Geographical 
Society  of  Australasia,  Brisbane,  Queensland  (1-13,  1-16) ;  Mr. 
Samuel  Davenport,  Adelaide,  S.  Australia  (1-13,  146);  Royal 
Society  of  Victoria,  Melbourne  (147) ;  Geological  Survey  of 
India,  Calcutta  (148) ;  Tokyo  Library,  Tokyo,  Japan  (148, 
149) ;  Societas  pro  Fauna  et  Flora  Fennica,  Ilelsingtors,  Fin- 


1896.] 


195 


land  (148) ;  Central  Physical  Observatory,  Russian  Physical 
Chemical  Society,  St.  Petersburg,  Russia  (148,  149) ;  Tash- 
kent Observatory,  Tashkent,  Russia  (148,  149) ;  Universitets- 
Biblioteket,  Lund,  Sweden  (149) ;  Statistika  Central  Byran 
(148,  149),  Prof.  A.  E.  Nordenskiold,  Stockholm,  Sweden 
(148) ;  K.  Zoologisch  Botanisch  Genootschap;  The  Hague, 
Holland  (149);"Musee  Teyler,  Harlem,  Holland,  (149); 
Maatschappij  der  Nederlanilsche  Letterkunde,  Leiden, 
N.  Holland  (149) ;  K.  D.  Yidenskabernes  Selskab,  Copen- 
hagen (148) ;  Soci^te  R.  de  Geographic,  Antwerp,  Belgium 
(148);  K.  B.  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften,  Prag  (142, 
144,  145,  147) ;  K.  K.  Central- Anstalt  f.  Meteorologie  und 
Erdmagnetismus  (149),  Section  f.  Naturkunde  des  0.  T.  C. 
(148,  149),  K.  K.  Geologische  Reichsanstalt  (148),  K.  B.  Geo- 
graphische  Gesellschaft  (149),  Dr.  Aristides  Brezina  (148, 
149),  M.  Franz  v.  Hauer  a49).  Dr.  Friedr.  S.  Krauss  (148, 
149),  Prof  J.  Szombathy,  Vienna,  Austria  (148,  149) ;  Natur- 
forschende  Gesellschaft  des  Osterlandes,  Altenburg  (148, 
149) ;  K.  BibUothek  (149),  Anthropologische  Gesellschaft 
(149),  Redaction  der  Naturwissenschaftlichen  Wochenschrift 
(149),  Gesellschaft  flir  Erdkunde,  Berlin,  Prussia  (148) ; 
JSTaturwissenschaftlicher  Yerein,  Bremen,  Germany  (148,  149) ; 
K.  Sachs.  Meteorol.  Institut,  Chemnitz,  Saxony  (149) ;  Yer- 
ein fiir  Erdkunde,  K.  Sachs.  Alterthumsverein,  Naturwis- 
senschaftliche  Gesellschaft  "  Isis,''  Dresden,  Saxony  (149); 
JSTaturforschende  Gesellschaft,  Emden,  Prussia  (148) ;  Societas 
Physico-Medica,  Erlangen,  Bavaria  (148,  149) ;  Senckenber- 
gische  Naturforschende  Gesellschaft,  Frankfurt  a.  M., 
Germany  (148);  Naturwissenschaftlicher  Yerein,  Frankfurt 
a.  0.,  Prussia  (148,  149);  Oberhessische  Gesellschaft  f. 
ISTatur-  und  Heilkunde,  Giessen,  Germany  (148)  ;  Deutsche 
Seewarte,  Geographische  Gesellschaft,  Hamburg,  Germany 
(149) ;  Geographische  Gesellschaft,  Hannover,  Prussia  (147- 
149) ;  Roemer  Museum,  Hildesheim,  Germany  (149) ;  Yogt- 
liindischer  AltertumsforscheDder  Yerein,  Hohenleuben,  Sax- 
ony (149) ;  Prof.  E.  Hceckel,  Jena,  Germany  (134,  147) ;  M. 
Otto  Bohtlingk,  Profs.  I.  Yictor  Carus,  W.  Wundt,  Leipzig, 


196 


[Sept.  4, 


Saxony  (149) ;  K,  Stern warte,  Dr.  George  Ebers,  Munich, 
Bavaria  (149) ;  K.  Geodatisclies  Institut,  Potsdam,  Prussia 
(149) ;  K.  Universitaits  und  Landes-Bibliotliek,  Strassburg, 
Germany  (136-149) ;  Societe  d'Histoire  et  d'Arcb^ologie, 
Clialon-sur-Saone,  France  (149) ;  Societe  Geologique,  S.  Nor- 
mandie,  Le  Havre,  France  (147,  149) ;  Ecole  Polytecliniqne 
(148);  Musee  Guimet  (148,  149),  Society  d' Anthropologique 
(148),  Eedaction  Cosmos  (149),  Profs.  G.  A.  Daubree  (148), 
M.  A.  des  Cloiseaux  (148),  E.  Mascart  (148,  149),  Marquis  de 
Nadaillac  (148),  Dr.  Edward  Pepper  (148,  149),  Dr.  Paul 
Topinard  (148),  Prince  Eoland  Bonaparte,  Paris,  France 
(148,  149) ;  M.  H.  de  Saussure,  Geneva,  Switzerland  (149)  ; 
Prof.  E.  Kenevier,  Lausanne,  Switzerland  (149) ;  R.  Accademia 
di  Scienze  Lettere  ed  Arti,  Modena,  Italy  (148);  Societa 
Africana  d' Italia,  Naples  (148,  149);  P.  Accademia  di 
Scienze,  Lettere,  etc.,  Padua,  Italy  (146-148);  Prof.  G.  Sergi, 
Rome,  Italy  (148,  149);  R.  Osservatorio,  Turin,  Italy  (148); 
Marquis  Antonio  di  Gregorio,  Palermo,  Sicily  (148) ;  Mr. 
Samuel  Timmins,  Arley,  Coventry,  Eng.  (149) ;  L^niversity 
Library,  Dr.  C.  A.  M.  Fennell,  Mr.  R.  T.  Glazebrook,  Cam- 
bridge, Eng.  (149) ;  Sir  William  G,  Armstrong,  Cragside, 
Rotlibury,  Eng.  (149);  Britisli  Museum  (147-149),  R. 
Meteorological  Society,  R.  Institution  of  G.  B.,  R. 
Geographical  Society,  R.  Astronomical  Society,  Victoria 
Institute,  Geological  Society,  Linntean  Society,  Royal 
Society,  Meteorological  Office,  Society  of  Antiquaries 
(149),  Sir  Henry  Bessemer  (148,  149),  Sir  James  Paget, 
Dr.  William  Iluggins,  Mr.  C.  Juhlin  Dannfelt,  London, 
Eng.  (149) ;  Geographical  Society,  Literary  and  Philosophical 
Society,  Manchester,  Eng.  (149) ;  Natural  History  Society, 
New  Castle-on-Tyne,  Eng.  (149) ;  Sir  Lowthian  Bell, 
Northallerton,  Eng.  (149) ;  Radcliffe  Library,  Profs.  James 
Legge,  F.  Max  Miiller,  Oxford,  Eng.  (149) ;  R.  Geographical 
Society  of  Cornwall,  Penzance,  Eng.  (149) ;  Dr.  Isaac  Roberts, 
Stariield,  Crowborough,  Sussex,  Eng.  (149) ;  Yorkshire  Geo- 
logical and  Polytechnic  Society,  Hopton,  Mirfield,  Eng.  (126, 
129,  133-135,  137-141,  148,  149) ;  Natural  History  and  Philo- 


1896.] 


197 


sophical  Society,  Belfast,  Ireland  (1-19) ;  E.  Dublin  Society, 
Dublin,  Ireland  (l-tO) ;  Royal  Society  (149),  Prof.  J.  Geikie 
(11:9),  Royal  Observatory,  Edinburgh,  Scotland  (147-14:9); 
Geological  Society,  GlasgoAv,  Scotland  (149) ;  Public  Library, 
Boston,  Mass.  (149) ;  Drs.  Henry  Hartsliorue,  Samuel  P.  Sadt- 
ler,  Philadelphia  (149) ;  Wisconsin  Academy  of  Science,  etc., 
Madison  (148,  149) ;  Museo  Nacional,  Buenos  Aires,  S.  A.  (148, 
149) ;  Museo  de  la  Plata,  La  Plata,  S.  A.  (143,  146,  147) ; 
Societe  Scientifique  du  Chili,  Santiago  (147-149);  M.  E.  im 
Thurn,  British  Guiana,  S.  A.  (148);  Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations,  New  Haven,  Conn.  (149),  Knoxville,  Tenn.  (149), 
Manhattan,  Kans.  (149),  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn.  (138-141). 
Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  Societe 
de  Geographic,  Alger,  Africa  ;  South  African  Philosophical 
Society,  Cape  Town  ;  Observatory,  Adelaide,  Australia  ;  R 
Geographical  Society,  Melbourne,  Australia  ;  Tokyo  Library 
Tokyo,  Japan ;  Observatory,  Madras,  India ;  Societe  Ron 
maine  de  Geographic,  Bukarest ;  M.  Enzio  Renter,  Helsing- 
fors,  Finland ;  Naturforscher  Gesellschaft,  Dorpat,  Russia 
Naturforscher  Verein,  Riga,  Russia  ;  Societe  de  Geographic 
St.  Petersburg,  Russia ;  K.  Nordiske  Oldskrift  Selskab 
Lieut.-Col.  Axel  Staggemeier,  Copenhagen,  Denmark ;  K 
Svenska  Yetenskaps  Academic,  Stockholm,  Sweden  ;  Musee 
Teyler,  Harlem,  Holland ;  Nederlandsche  Letterkunde 
Maatschappij,  Leiden,  Holland;  K.  Bibliotheek,  's  Graven- 
hage,  Z.  Holland ;  Societe  Entomologique  de  Belgique, 
Societe  Beige  de  Geologic,  de  Pal^ontologie,  etc.,  Bruxelles, 
Belgique  ;  JSTatuiforschender  Verein,  Briinn,  Austria  ;  Sieben- 
4  biirgische  Yerein  f.  ISTaturwissenschaften,  Hormannstadt, 
.  V4  Austria  ;  Naturhistorische  Landes- Museum  in  Karnten, 
^Klagenfurth;  K.  K.  Sternwarte,  K.  B.  Gesellschaft  d.  Wis- 
senschaften,  Prag,  Bohemia  ;  I.  R.  Accademia  degli  Agiati, 
Roveredo,  Tyrol ;  K.  K.  Central  Anstalt  f.  Meteorologie,  K. 
B.  Gesellschaft  d.  Wissenschaften,  Yienna,  Austria  ;  Physi- 
kalische-Technische  Reichsanstalt,  K.  P.  Geologische  Lan- 
desanstalt,  Physiologische  Gesellschaft,  Association  G^odes- 
ique  Internationale,  etc.,  Berlin,  Prussia  ;  JSTaturwissenschaft- 


198 


[Sept.  i, 


liclie    Verein,     Bremen,    Germany ;     ISTaturwissenscliaftliche 
Gesellscliaft    "  Isis,"    Dresden,   Saxony;    Verein   f.    die    Ge- 
schiclite    nnd    Altertliumskunde,    Erfnrt,    Prussia ;    Verein 
f.   Geograpliie    imd     Statistik,    Frankfurt    a.    M.,  Germany ; 
Naturwissenschaften   Verein  f.    d.    Reg.   Bez.,  Frankfurt  a. 
O.,    Prussia ;  Verein    der    Freunde   der    Naturgescliichte    in 
Mecklenburg,    Giistrow ;     Naturwissenscliaftliche    Verein   f. 
Sclileswig-Holstein,     Kiel,    Prussia ;     Institut    Grand-Ducal, 
Luxembourg,  Germany  ;  Bayerisclie  Botaniscbe  Gesellscliaft, 
Miinchen  ;    Wiirttembergisclie   Verein  f.  Handelsgeograpliie. 
Stuttgart ;    Verein  f.  Kunst  und  Alterthum,  Ulm,  Wiirttem- 
berg ;    Mittelschweizerische   Geograpliisch-Commercielle  Ge- 
sellscliaft,  Aarau,    Switzerland;    Geograpliisclie  Gesellscliaft, 
Berne,  Switzerland ;  Societe  Vaudoise  des  Sciences  Naturelles, 
Lausanne,  Switzerland  ;  Societe  Neucliateloise  de  Geograpliie, 
Neucliatel,  Switzerland ;  Naturwissenscliaftliche  Gesellscliaft. 
St.  Gall,  Switzerland ;  Naturforscliende  Gesellscliaft,  Zurich, 
Switzerland ;  R.  Instituto  di   Studi  Superiori,   Practice,  etc.. 
Firenze,  Italia  ;    Societa  Toscana  di  Scienze  Naturali,   Pisa, 
Italy  ;  E.  Comitato  Geologico  d'ltalia,  Roma  ;    R.  Accademia 
delle  Scienze,  Torino,  Italia  ;    R.  Instituto  Veneto  di  Scienze, 
etc.,  Venice,  Italy;     Society  Linneene,    Bordeaux,    France; 
Academic  JST.  des  Sciences,  Caen,  France  ;    Societe  d'Histoire 
et  d'Archeologie,   Clialon-sur-Saone,   France  ;    Universite  de 
Lyon,    Lyon,    France ;     Societe    de    Physique,    Bureau   des 
Longitudes,    Societe   Philologique,    Societe   Zoologique     de 
France,    Societe   de   Geographic,   Minist^re   de    I'lnstruction 
Publique,     Paris,     France ;     Cambridge    University,     Cam- 
bridge, Eng.;   R.   Cornwall  Polytechnic  Society,  Falmouth, 
Eng.;    Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  Victoria  Institute, 
London,    Eng.;     Radcliife    Observatory,    Oxford,    Eng.;    R. 
Irish  Academy,   R.  Dublin  Society,  Observatory  of  Trinity 
College,     Dublin,     Ireland ;     N.     S.    Institute    of    Science, 
Halifax ;      Natural    History    Society,     Montreal,     Canada  ; 
Society     of    Natural     History,     Boston,     Mass.;      Peabody 
Museum,  Mr.  T.   II.  Iligginson,   Cambridge,   Mass.;    Ameri- 
can Association  for  Advancement  of  Science,  Salem,  Mass.; 


1896.]  IVV 

E.  I.  Historical  Society,  Dr.  Albert  Leffingwell,  Providence, 
R.  I.;  Connecticut  Historical  Society,  Hartford;  Yale 
University,  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  Brooklyn  Library,  Brook- 
lyn, ]Sr.  Y.;  Buffalo  Library,  Historical  Society,  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.;  Historical  Society,  Academy  of  Sciences,  Mr.  Thomas 
A.  Davies,  New  York ;  Geological  Society  of  America, 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Rochester,  N.  Y.;  Rev.  Thomas 
C.  Porter,  Easton,  Pa.;  Pennsylvania  Geological  Survey, 
Harrisburg,  Pa.;  Wagner  Free  Institute,  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Diocese  of  Pennsylvania,  American  Medical  Association, 
Drs.  D.  G.  Brinton,  Persifor  Frazer,  Charles  A.  Oliver, 
Messrs.  John  F.  Lewis,  Julius  F.  Sachse,  Philadelphia  ;  Amer- 
ican Historical  Association,  'U.  S.  Fish  Commission,  U.  S, 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Washington,  D.  C;  Tulane  Univer- 
sity^" of  Louisiana,  New  Orleans  ;  Missouri  Botanical  Garden, 
St.  Louis ;  Iowa  Geological  Survey,  Des  Moines ;  State 
University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City ;  University  of  California, 
Sacramento  ;  Kansas  Historical  Society,  Kansas  Academy  of 
Sciences,  Topeka  ;  University  of  Wyoming,  Laramie  ;  Rt. 
Rev.  Bishop  Crescendo  Carrello,  Merida,  Yucatan ;  Instituto 
Medico  Nacional,  Mexico,  Mex.;  Museo  Nacional,  Oficina 
Meteorologica  Argentina,  Buenos  Aires,  S.  A.;  Society  Sci- 
entifique  du  Chili,  Santiago  ;  Instituto  Fisico-Geografico  N. 
San  Jose  de  Costa  Rica,  C.  A.;  Museo  Paulista,  S.  Paulo, 
C.  A.;  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations,  Burlington,  Vt., 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  Storrs,  Conn.,  Blacksburg,  Va.,  Raleigh, 
N.  C,  Lincoln,  Neb.,  Las  Cruces,  N.  M. 

A  photograph  for  the   Society's  album  from  Dr.  P.  Topi- 
nard,  Paris,  France. 

The  following  deaths  Avere  announced  : 

Prof.  Dr.  Ernest  Curtius,  Berlin,  Prussia,  July  11,  1896. 

Prof.  Gabriel  Auguste  Daubree,    Paris,    France,    May  29, 
1896,  set.  81. 

Prof.  Abel  Hovelacque,  Paris,  France. 

Sir  William  Robert  Grove,  London,  Eng.,  August  2,  1896, 
«et.  85. 


200 


[Sept.  18^ 


Sir  Joseph  PrestAvicli,  Slioreham,  near  Sevenoaks,  Kent, 
Eng.,  June  25,  189(3. 

Prof.  Josiali  D.  Whitney,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  August  19, 
1896,  xt.  77. 

Mr.  Lewds  A.  Scott,  Philadelphia,  August  11,  1896,  set. 
77. 

Mr.  Henry  D.  Wireman,  Philadelphia,  May  30,  1896,  set. 
50. 

Prof.  Hubert  Anson  Newton,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  August 
12,  1896,  a?t.  66. 

The  President  was  requested  to  appoint  members  to  prepare 
obituaries  of  L.  A.  Scott,  H.  D.  Wireman  and  Gabriel 
Auguste  Daubree. 

A  letter  from  Prof.  Branner  was  read  transmitting  a  paper 
on  the  "  Marine  Fossils  of  the  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas," 
by  Dr.  J.  P.  Smith. 

On  motion  the  paper  was  referred  to  a  committee  for  exam- 
ination and  report. 

Pending  nominations  1332,  1334,  1357,  and  new  nomina- 
tions 1358  and  1359  were  read. 

On  motion  of  Mr.  Tatham,  the  President  was  requested  to 
appoint  a  representative  of  this  Society  at  the  International 
Congress  of  Geologists,  to  be  held  in  St.  Petersburg,  Russia, 
in  1897. 

On  motion,  Dr.  D.  G.  Brinton  was  appointed  the  represen- 
tative of  this  Society  at  the  International  Congress  of  Ameri- 
canists in  Havre  in  1897. 

The  rough  minutes  were  read  and  approved,  and  the  meet- 
ing adjourned  by  the  presiding  member. 


Stated  Meeting,  September  18,  1896. 

Curator,  Dr.  J.  C.  Morris,  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  9  members. 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows  : 

From  the   President,  appointing  Messrs.  Cope,  Lyman  and 


1896.] 


201 


Prime  a  Committee  to  examine  the  paper  on  "The  Fossils  of 
the  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas  ;"  Dr.  G.  R.  Morehouse  to  pre- 
pare an  obituary  of  L.  A.  Scott ;  Prof.  J.  P.  Lesley  that  of 
Gabriel  Aug.  Daubree. 

Dr.  Frazer  was  appointed  to  represent  this  Society  at  the 
International  Congress  of  Geologists  to  be  held  in  St.  Peters- 
burg in  1897. 

Letters  of  envoy  from  the  Academic  P.  Suedoise  des 
Sciences,  Stockholm  ;  Soc.  R.  de  Geographic,  Anvers,  Bel- 
gique  ;    Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  the  Royal  Society  of  N, 
S.  W.,  Sydney  (148,  149)  ;  Public  Library,  Wellington,  New 
Zealand  (148,  149) ;  Geological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta 
(149) ;  Hungarian  Academy  of  Science,  Budapest  (143,  146- 
149) ;  K.  K.  Sternwarte,  Prag,  Bohemia  (149) ;  Gesellschaft 
fiir  Erdkunde,  Berlin,  Prussia  (149) ;  Library  of  Bonn,  Prus- 
sia (149) ;  Geographical  and  Statistical  Soc,  Frankfurt  a.  M. 
(143-14(3,  149) ;  K.  Leop.  Carol.  Akademie,  Halle  a.  S.  (149) ; 
Kolonial  Museum,  Haarlem,  Holland  (149) ;  A'erein  f.  Thiir- 
ingische  Geschichte  u.  Alterthums,  Jena,  Germany  (149) ; 
Phys.  Okon.  Gesell.,  Konigsberg  (148) ;  R.  Instituto  di  Studi 
Superiori,  Firenze,  Italia  (148,  149) ;  Prof.  E.  Levasseur  (148, 
149),  Marquis  de  JSTadaillac,  Paris,  France  (149) ;  Meteoro- 
logical Office,  London,  Eng.  (149) ;  Prof.  A.  Agassiz,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.  (149). 

Accessions  to  the  library  were  reported  from  the 
Observatoire  Imperial,  Constantinople,  Turkey ;  Anthro- 
j)ological  Society,  Tokyo,  Japan ;  Ponasang  !  Missionary 
Hospital,  Foochow,  China ;  Dr.  Aristides  Brezina,  Vienna, 
Austria  ;  K.  P.  Meteorologische  Institut,  Berlin  ;  Mr.  A.  C. 
Tannert,  Neisse,  Prussia ;  Phj-sikalisch-Oekonomische  Ge- 
sellschaft, Konigsberg,  Prussia  ;  R.  Accademia  di  Belle  Arti, 
Milan,  Italy ;  Institut  International  de  Statistique,  Rome, 
Italy  ;  Miuistre  des  Travaux  Publics,  Dr.  E.  T.  Hamy,  Paris, 
France  ;  R.  Academia  di  Cieucias  y  Artes,  Barcelona,  Spain  ; 
Linnean  Society,  Cobden  Club,  Meteorological  Office,  London, 
Eng.;    Universite    Laval,    Quebec ;    Mr.    Wharton    Barker, 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  152.  Z.      PRINTED  NOVEMBER  16,  1896. 


Brinton.]  ^0^  [Sept.  18, 

Prof.  E,  D,  Cope,  Pliilaclelpliia ;  Commissioner  of  Labor, 
Washington,  D.  C;  Oliio  Archgeological  and  Historical  Soci- 
ety, Columbus ;  Society  of  Natural  History,  Cincinnati,  0. 

The  death  of  Prof.  Gr.  Brown  Goode,  Director  of  the  U.  S. 
National  Museum,  Washington,  D.  C,  September  6,  1896,  set. 
46,  was  announced. 

Dr.  Brinton  read  a  paper  on  the  ' '  Vocabulary  of  the  Noan- 
ama  Dialect  of  the  Choco  Stock." 

Dr.  Horn  spoke  of  the  difficulties  of  reporting  these  unwrit- 
ten dialects  o^^ing  to  the  absence  of  a  standard  of  pronuncia- 
tion. He  also  adverted  to  the  evident  use  of  the  "  r  "  sound, 
which  was  absent  in  the  Indian  dialects  of  western  America. 

Dr.  Frazer  suggested  the  use  of  the  symbols  made  by  the 
phonographic  stylus,  as  he  had  described  them  in  a  paper 
read  before  this  Society,  April  5,  1878. 

Pending  nominations  1332,  1334,  1357,  1358,  1359  and  new 
nominations  1360  and  1361  were  read. 

The  rough  minutes  were  read  and  approved,  and  the  Society 
adjourned  by  the  presiding  member. 


Vocabulary   of  the  Noanama  Dialect  of  the  Choco  Stock. 

By  Daniel  G.  Brinton,  M.D. 

{Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  Sept.  i8,  i8g6). 

In  the  Proceedings  of  this  Society  for  November  last  (Vol.  xxxiv, 
pp.  401,  402),  I  presented  a  short  vocabulary  of  the  Andagueda 
dialect  of  the  Choco  stock,  obtained  by  Mr.  Henry  Gregory 
Granger  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Atrato  river,  Colombia,  South 
America. 

During  the  summer  of  the  present  year,  Mr.  Granger  visited  the 
west  coast  of  Colombia,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  San  Juan  (N. 
lat.  5°)  met  a  tribe  of  about  fifty  Indians,  who  spoke  an  idiom, 
said  not  to  be  understood  by  those  of  the  interior  or  the  other  coast 
tribes.  They  are  still  rather  primitive  in  culture  and  have  the 
peculiarity  of  piercing  their  ears  to  form  apertures  about  half  an 
inch  in  diameter,  in  which  they  insert  bunches  of  sweet-smelling 
herbs. 


1896.] 


203 


[Brinton, 


Mr.  Granger  took  occasion  of  an  enforced  delay  at  their  hamlet 
to  collect  some  words  of  their  language,  which  he  sent  me  for  ex- 
amination. On  comparison  it  proves  to  be  a  dialect  of  the  Choco 
stock,  evidently  the  Noanama,  that  being  the  name  of  the  tribe 
which,  in  recent  years,  was  located  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Rio 
San  Juan. 

The  statement  that  it  is  unintelligible  to  their  neighbors  need 
cause  no  surprise,  as  this  is  apt  to  be  asserted  of  closely  related  dia- 
lects of  the  same  family.  From  this  habit,  the  old  writers  were  ac- 
customed to  believe  that  in  America,  especially  South  America,  as 
Cieza  de  Leon  averred,  each  day's  journey  brought  them  into  a 
totally  different  language.  In  fact,  the  modern  studies  of  South 
American  tongues  are  rapidly  diminishing  the  linguistic  stocks  of 
that  continental  area.  This  vocabulary  is  valuable,  therefore,  not 
only  for  itself  but  as  dispelling  another  delusion  of  this  nature. 


Man, 

em  cbyddJi . 

Woman, 

boedah. 

Sun, 

ehdow. 

Fire, 

eggdow. 

Water, 

daugh. 

Head, 

pbro. 

Eye, 

dote  (as  English  "now  '"). 

Ear, 

kdtcJiee. 

Mouth, 

e  (as  in  English"). 

Nose, 

kayoh"^  (in  one  sjilable). 

Tongue, 

mayungkunah. 

Teetli. 

kuyehrdh. 

Hand. 

hooah. 

Foot, 

hen  (as  in  French  beiirre). 

House, 

dee. 

Boy, 

emcdydum. 

Girl, 

ooedvm. 

Hot, 

■paitclike. 

Cold, 

nemheitcJiaga. 

Day, 

assdowwah. 

Night, 

ehdarrah. 

Fisli, 

kiioorah. 

Sea, 

ixwassah  (the  picas  verj'  nasal) 

Canoe, 

liappakkali. 

Comments. 

Man,  Woman. — In  all  the  Choco  dialects  these  are  compound 
words,  having  the  same  second  element  {eda,  era,  ena,  ira),  which 


Brinton.]  ^t)4  [Sept.  IS, 

must  be  generic  for  "  human  being,"  preceded  by  an  element  indi- 
cating sex,  emu  {emo,  umu,  ';«//,  uma,  itn)  for  the  masculine,  and 
ue  {ui,  aue)  for  the  feminine.  These  have  analogies  in  neighbor- 
ing stocks.  The  words  for  boy  and  girl,  given  above,  are  the  same 
as  for  man  and  woman,  with  a  suffixed  in,  indicating  diminutive 
size  {di'im  =ddh-m). 

Sun,  Moon. — Mr.  Granger  does  not  give  the  word  for  moon,  but 
other  vocabularies  show  that  it  is  the  same  as  for  sun,  edau,  the  dis- 
tinction being  made  by  adding  night,  or  some  such  term.  This  is 
common  in  American  languages.  The  similarity  between  the 
words  for  sun  and  fire  is  accidental,  and  is  not  borne  out  by  other 
dialects  of  the  stock. 

Water. — The  word  given  daugh  (otherwise  do)  properly  means 
"river."     The  Choco  word  for  water  in  general  ispania. 

Tongue. — Other  vocabularies  give  mcuhina. 

Foot. — Another  vocabulary  gives  bo-pidi.  The  first  syllable  is 
evidently  identical. 

Day,  Night. — Evidently  compounds,  the  second  element  dowwah 
or  darrah  being  the  same,  the  prefixes  ass  and  eh  (or  probably  ehd') 
distinguishing  the  concepts.  The  latter  seems  to  be  the  same  as  in 
ehdow,  sun  or  moon. 

Sea. — This  is  the  usual  Choco  word,  puscha. 

Canoe. — The  Choco  term  is  hampua,  of  which  happakah  is  prob- 
ably a  variant. 

The  words  given  for  hot,  cold,  fish,  are  those  not  found  in  my 
vocabularies  of  other  dialects.  They  may  be  synonyms  or  bor- 
rowed expressions. 

The  numerals,  as  given  by  Mr.  Granger,  are  : 


One, 

aanibaJi. 

Two, 

noome. 

Three, 

tanlioopali. 

Four, 

Iiayydppah. 

Five, 

Juramhah. 

Ten, 

hirapputumah. 

Twenty, 

07'riudnambah. 

Thirty, 

orrmonahharraJi. 

Forty, 

orrmdnnoo)m. 

The  system  is  evidently  vigesimal ;  orrmon-ambah  =  one  twenty, 
20  X  1  J  orrmon-noome,  20  X  2,  etc.  In  the  usual  Choco  it  is 
quinary,  as  iua  soma,  5  ;  ome  jua  soma,  2  X  5  =  10 ;  guimane  Jua 
soma,  4  X  5  ^  20,  etc. 


1896.]  -^^5  [Godrtard. 

On  the  Second  Abdominal  Segment  in  a  Feio  LibellulidcB. 

By  Martha  Freeman  Goddard. 

{Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,    October  2,  1S96) 

In  the  spring  of  1892,  I  made,  in  connection  with  my  work  in  the 
zo51ogical  department  in  Wellesley  College,  a  somewhat  careful  study 
of  the  second  abdominal  segment  and  the  penis  in  a  few  male  Libel- 
lulinse.  Though  I  was  unable  to  do  all  that  I  had  planned,  it  seems 
worth  while  to  publish  my  results  in  spite  of  their  fragmentariness, 
since  they  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  work  of  some  one  else. 

I  wished  to  learn  the  details  of  external  structure  in  this  part  of  the 
body  and  to  determine  as  far  as  possible  the  homologies  of  the  various 
parts.  Tlie  species  studied  were  Diplax  rubicundula  and  vicina  ;  Celi- 
themis  elisa ;  Libellula  pulchella,  quadrupla  and  exusta ;  Plathemis 
trimaculata.  I  will  begin  by  a  full  description  of  Diplax,  rubicundula, 
and  then  follow  this  by  a  brief  statement  of  the  more  important  respects 
in  which  the  other  species  studied  ditfer  from  this  one. 

The  second  abdominal  segment,  like  most  of  the  others,  consists  of  a 
narrow  ventral  piece,  and  a  broad  dorsal  piece  covering  both  back  and 
sides  of  abdomen.  The  first  is  the  sternum;  the  second,  the  tergum. 
The  tergum  (Fig.  1)  is  made  up  of  three  sclerites  which  form  a  longi- 
tudinal series.  The  suture  between  the  first  and  the  second  is  present 
only  on  the  dorsal  half  of  the  segment,  becoming  obsolete  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  sides  ;  that  between  the  second  and  third  is  distinct  for  its 
entire  extent.  Each  side  of  the  second  sclerite  is  produced  caudo- 
laterally  into  a  rounded  process  called  the  genital  lobe  («).  The  third 
sclerite  is  shorter  than  either  of  the  others  ;  it  ends  abruptly  at  the  base 
of  genital  lobe.  The  sternum  {e,  Fig.  2)  consists  of  but  one  sclerite. 
This  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  first  tergal  one  and  lies  ventrad  of  it,  the 
cephalic  edge  a  little  caudad  of  the  cephalic  edge  of  the  tergum.  The 
cephalo-lateral  angles  are  produced  into  wing-like  processes  (/)  which 
underlie  the  tergum  and  serve  for  the  attachment  of  muscles.  Caudad 
of  the  sternum  is  a  long  extent  of  membrane  which  lies  ventrad  of  the 
caudal  part  of  the  tergum,  and  where  it  meets  the  sternum  is  so  infolded 
as  to  make  a  recess  over  which  the  latter  projects  like  a  pent-house  roof. 
Indeed,  excejit  at  its  very  cephalic  edge,  the  whole  sternum  bulges  out 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree  from  the  rest  of  the  segment. 

On  the  membranous  surface  directly  caudad  of  the  sternum  lie  a  pair 
of  stout  appendages  {(j)  called  hamules,  readily  to  be  seen  with  the 
naked  eyes.  Each  is  a  thick,  laterally  compressed  and  somewhat 
elongated  organ  which  is  cleft  distally  into  two  divisions  ;  a  short,  strong 
spur  ending  in  an  incurved,  strongly  chitinized  tip  (A),  and  a  truncate 
shorter  portion  {i)  having  the  face  turned  towards  the  spur  concave. 
The  liamule  projects  ventrad  and  the  lobes  lie  cephalad  and  caudad  ;  the 


Goddard.J  ^^'O  [Oct.?, 

truncate  lobe  is  the  more  caudal.  The  divisions  varj^  greatly  in  length 
and  shape  in  different  species,  though  they  generally  form,  as  in  Diplax 
rubicuiulula,  about  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  entire  appendage. 
From  the  point  of  bifurcation,  a  ridge  extends  for  a  considerable  distance 
towards  the  base  of  the  liamule.  The  mesal  face  of  the  organ  is  largely 
membranous,  especially  at  the  base,  so  that  the  hamule  can  be  flexed 
freely  towards  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side. 

The  hamules  are  borne  by  a  chitinous  framework  {k).  in  shape 
roughly  resembling  a  U,  and  attached  by  its  tips  to  the  inner  face  of  the 
ventral  sclerite.  It  seems  to  arise  as  a  local  chitinization  of  the  mem- 
brane which  lies  caudad  of  this  sclerite.  Projecting  from  either  side  of 
the  framework  just  caudad  of  the  sclerite  is  a  short  rod  (/«)  to  which  is 
attached  one  of  the  hamules.  On  the  median  part  of  the  framework  is 
borne  a  triangle  (Fig.  3,  n).  Its  apex  points  cephalad  ;  its  cephalo- 
lateral  sides  are  chitinized,  though  elsewhere  it  is  membranous  ;  and  its 
base  projects  more  or  less  caudad  of  the  frramework.  The  basal  angle  of 
either  side  forms  a  second,  posterior  point  of  attachment  for  the  hamule 
of  that  side. 

Another  conspicuous  structure  is  attached  just  caudad  of  the  frame- 
work on  the  median  line  (Fig.  2).  When  extended  as  in  the  diagram, 
its  tip  points  cephalad,  but  the  distal  end  is  ordinarily  flexed  upon  the 
proximal  part.  The  organ  consists  of  an  enlarged  basal  portion,  the 
genital  bladder,  and  of  a  slender,  rodlike  distal  part,  the  penis.  The 
genital  bladder  is  a  somewhat  hemispherical  body.  The  caudal  half  of 
its  dorsal  surface  is  attached  for  nearly  its  entire  width  to  tlie  under- 
lying part  of  the  abdomen  and  the  rest  of  the  dorsal  face  is  chitinized. 
The  ventral  face  is  imperfectly  chitinized,  the  chitin  being  deposited  in 
three  triangles  ;  a  median  caudal  one  {lo)  and  two  cephalo-lateral  ones 
{o  and  r),  all  separated  from  one  another  by  band-like  membranous  in- 
terspaces, which,  evidently,  afford  opportunity  for  variations  in  the  size 
of  the  bladder.  This  mode  of  attachment  of  the  bladder  causes  the 
structure  of  which  it  constitutes  tlie  base  to  appear  as  an  appendage  of 
the  second  segment  ;  it  does  really,  however,  belong  to  the  third,  as  is 
clearly  seen  in  OeUthemis  elisa. 

The  penis  consists  of  three  segments  ;  the  first  two  are  very  simple, 
but  the  third  is  extremely  complicated.  The  first  is  chitinized  continu- 
ously on  its  dorsal  surfiice,  but  the  second,  though  in  the  main  chitinous 
on  this  aspect,  is  membranous  on  the  dorso- mesal  line.  Both  arc  mem- 
branous ventrally  and  this  condition  is  evidently  correlated  with  the 
fact  that  in  the  position  of  rest  this  portion  is  covered  bj'  the  reflexed 
tip  of  the  penis.  What  we  have  called  the  third  segment  consists  of 
two  entirely  distinct  sclerites  and  of  a  cluster  of  appendages,  some  mem- 
branous and  some  chitinous,  borne  at  the  extreme  tip  of  the  organ.  The 
lai'ger  and  more  proximal  sclerite  (1)  constitutes  the  dorsal  aspect  of  the 
segment.  It  is  somewhat  shield-shaped,  but  the  distal  angles  are  pro- 
longed and  curved  around  to  the  ventral  side  where  thev  almost  meet. 


1896.]  ^^)*  [Goddard. 

For  convenience  we  shall  term  it  the  shield.  When  the  penis  is  flexed, 
the  distal  part  is  protected  by  the  overlying  hamules  so  that  this  sclerite 
is  the  only  portion  exposed.  The  point  of  flexion  is  just  proximad  of  it, 
which  accounts  for  its  very  limited  extent  on  the  ventral  aspect.  The 
second  sclerite  (2)  is  narrower  than  the  first,  is  irregularly  ring-shaped 
and  lies  just  distad  of  the  shield.  We  shall  call  this  the  ring.  As  will 
be  seen  later,  it  encircles  most  but  not  all  the  divisions  of  the  penis-tip. 
Distad  of  the  ring  on  the  dorso-mesal  line  is  a  chitinized  body  (5),  which 
divides  into  slender,  tapering  horns  ;  it  is  recognizable  by  its  honey- 
yellow  color  and  Ave  shall  call  it  the  fork.  Arising  from  nearly  the 
same  place  are  two  membranous  lobes  (4),  with  transverse  rows  of 
closely  set  chitinous  hairs.  These  may  be  contracted  into  roundish 
masses  which,  because  of  the  brown  hair,  seem  on  first  appearance  to  be 
chitinized.  When  extended,  as  in  the  plate,  they  appear  bannerlike, 
and  we  shall  term  them  the  banners.  Near  the  base  of  each  is  a  small 
cluster  of  long,  stout  bristles.  Laterad  of  the  banners  are  two  blunt 
lobes  (6),  somewhat  membranous  proximally  but  strongly  chitinized 
toward  their  distal  end.  As  these  are  in  many  species  somewhat  twisted, 
we  have  termed  them  the  twists.  Pressure  on  the  genital  bladder  causes 
them  to  rotate  laterad  and  ventrad  ;  they  may  possibly  serve,  therefore, 
to  retain  the  hold  of  the  penis-tip  within  the  vulva.  Ventrad  of  all  the 
others  lies  a  large,  membranous  lobe  which  somewhat  resemliles  the 
shape  of  a  monk's  hood  and  which  we  have  called  the  hood  (3).  With 
a  view  to  possible  homologies  it  is  well  to  note  the  relative  position  of 
these  sti'uctures.  The  penis  viewed  from  the  tip  presents  a  depression 
or  pit  guarded  above  by  the  fork,  below  by  the  hood,  laterad  by  the 
banners  and  these  again  are  guarded  laterad  by  the  twists.  The  ring 
lies  entii'ely  dorsad  of  the  hood  and  does  not  encircle  it.  According  to 
Rathke,  there  is  in  i.  (enea  a  minute  opening  at  the  penis-tip. 

In  Diplax  vidua,  the  ventral  sclerite  is  deeply  emarginate,  and  its 
caudo-lateral  angles  are  strongly  chitinized.  The  hamules  are  small  and 
inconspicuous  (Fig.  5,  g).  The  basal  portion  is  short  and  the  two  lobes 
are  of  about  equal  length.  The  tip  of  the  anterior  lobe  is  strongly 
chitinized  and  very  markedly  incurved. 

The  last  division  of  the  penis  consists  of  but  one  sclerite  in  addition 
to  the  cluster  of  appendages  at  the  tip.  This  sclerite  is  long  on  the  dor- 
sal and  short  on  the  ventral  aspect,  where  its  edges  nearly  but  not  quite 
meet.  Its  general  shape  would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  is  formed  by  the 
fusion  of  the  shield  and  ring  ;  moreover  it  bears  a  pair  of  short  trans- 
verse ridges  which  look  like  the  indications  of  such  fusion.  But  as  the 
sclerite  encloses  the  hood  as  well  as  the  other  part  of  the  penis-tip,  it 
seems  probable  that  no  part  of  it  corresponds  to  the  ring,  but  that  this 
sclerite  is  entirely  wanting  in  the  present  specimen.  The  penis-tip  is 
divided  into  a  dorsal  and  a  ventral  portion.  The  ventral  part  is  a 
rounded  lobe,  thickly  beset  with  hairs  ;  the  dorsal  part  forms  a  mem- 
branous base  from  which  arise  three  pairs  of  appendages.     Beginning 


Goddard.]  208  [Oct.  2, 

at  the  most  proximal,  these  appendages  are  a  pair  of  horns,  twisted  at 
the  base; 'a  pair  of  membranous  lobes,  thickly  beset  with  hairs  irregu- 
larly arranged  ;  and  lastly  two  slender  horns  (Fig.  6). 

We  appear  to  have  in  Diplax  vicina  a  more  primitive  condition  than 
in  Diplax  ruhicundula,  in  that  the  base  which  bears  the  appendages  at 
the  penis-tip  is  elongated  so  that  they  arise  in  succession  instead  of 
forming  a  clump.  The  inner  horns  are  very  probably  the  result  of  the 
division  of  the  fork  of  D.  ruhicundula,  and  the  other  parts  appear  to  be 
homologous  respectively  with  the  hood,  the  twists  and  the  banners  of 
that  insect. 

In  Celithemis  elisa,  the  mesal  part  only  of  the  caudal  edge  of  the  ven- 
tral sclerite  is  emarginate.  The  hamules  are  inconspicuous,  being  but 
little  larger  than  the  genital  lobes  ;  their  basal  part  is  membranous  or 
but  slightly  chitinized  and  the  lobes  are  long,  stout,  and  of  nearly  equal 
length.  The  framework  which  bears  the  hamules  is  strongly  chitin- 
ized ;  its  lateral  projections  (Fig.  8,  m)  are  long  and  stout ;  the  part  of 
the  median  triangle  (n)  cephalad  of  the  framework  is  short,  but  the 
triangle  extends  caudad,  farther  than  in  other  forms. 

In  the  genital  bladder  the  two  latero-cephalic  triangles  of  the  ventral 
face  are  replaced  by  a  single  sclerite,  somewhat  cleft  mesally,  which 
apparently  corresponds  to  the  two  united.  The  bladder  is  attached 
only  by  a  small  proximal  neck  and  the  dorsal  aspect  bears  a  tapering 
triangular  sclerite  (Fig.  9,  s),  each  basal  angle  of  which  is  attached  to 
one  side  of  the  sclerite  (w). 

As  to  the  distal  segment  of  the  penis,  the  shield  is  a  broad  sclerite, 
bearing  lateral  hornlike  projections  which  point  ventrad.  The  rmg  is 
of  smaller  diameter,  but  is  very  long,  and  has  in  general  much  the  shape 
of  a  boddice  ;  its  edges  meet  on  the  dorsal  lin^  but,  so  far  as  I  can  make 
out,  do  not  unite.  These  edges  are  prolonged  distad  into  two  rodlike 
pieces  (2).  The  fork  is  represented  by  a  thick  yellow  sclerite,  somewhat 
bifid,  which  lies  close  beneath  but  is  quite  free  from  these  pieces  (5). 
Laterad  and  proximad  of  the  fork  are  a  pair  of  tiny  membranous  lobes 
apparently  corresponding  to  the  banners  (4).  The  hood  is  a  large  mem- 
branous lobe,  thickly  beset  with  hairs  (3). 

In  this  species,  the  twists  of  D.  rubicundula  appear  to  be  entirely  want- 
ing. It  is  just  possible,  of  course,  that  they  maj'  have  moved  dorsad 
and  fused  with  the  ring  forming  the  rodlike  projections  of  the  sclerite. 
I  have,  however,  no  evidence  tending  to  show  that  this  has  taken  place, 
and  in  the  absence  of  such  evidence  it  cannot  be  assumed.  We  must 
suppose,  therefore,  that  the  twists  are  absent  and  that  these  rodlike 
projections  are  new  developments.  The  advantage  of  having  the  gen- 
ital bladder  provided  with  three  sclerites  seems  evident,  so  that  C.  elisa 
is  probably  primitive,  since  retrogression  is  hardly  likely  to  be  accom- 
plished by  fusion.  There  seems  some  slight  reason  for  believing  also 
that  the  condition  of  the  fork  found  in  this  species  is  the  original  one, 
and  that  the  two  horns  found  in  B.  vicina  have  arisen  bv  the  division  of 


1896.]  ^UJ  [Goddard. 

■what  was  originally  a  single  sclerite,  while  the  condition  in  D.  rubicun- 
dula  represents  an  intermediate  stage. 

The  relation  of  the  parts  in  these  three  species  are,  in  the  main,  toler- 
ably clear.  But  when  we  turn  to  Libellula  the  problem  is  much  more 
complicated.  Not  only  have  I  not  been  able  to  liomologize  the  parts 
found  in  Diplax  and  tliose  of  this  genus,  but  I  have  also  found  it  impos- 
sible to  determine  the  relations  of  the  parts  found  in  different  species  of 
Libellula.     I  can  therefore  give  little  more  than  a  bare  description. 

We  may  begin  with  Libellula  exusta.  The  general  arrangement  is 
much  as  in  Diplax.  The  genital  lobes  are  short  and  stout.  The  ventral 
sclerite  is  wide,  short,  and  only  slightlj'  emarginate  caudally  (Fig.  11,  e). 
The  lateral  parts  of  the  free  edges  are  somewhat  undulate.  The  hamules 
are  stout  and  are  membranous  proximally,  and  the  tip  of  the  spur  is  very 
strongly  incurved.  The  framework  is  wide  and  strong.  The  lateral 
rods  are  connected  for  their  entire  length  to  that  part  of  the  framework 
caudad  of  them  by  feebly  chitinized  triangles  (x).  The  triangle  («) 
borne  by  the  middle  part  of  the  framework  is  very  long  ;  its  apex  lies 
under  the  free  edge  of  the  ventral  sclerite. 

The  cephalic  part  of  the  bladder  is  chitinized  in  a  single  sclerite  with 
a  mesal  cleft.  The  last  segment  of  the  penis  is  made  up  mainly  of  a 
single  large  sclerite  (Fig.  13,  p^),  much  longer  on  the  dorsal  than  on 
the  ventral  surface.  Its  edges  approach  but  do  not  quite  meet  on 
the  ventrimeson.  There  is  a  curious  dorsal  hump  on  the  distal  part 
of  the  sclerite  and  the  distal  edge  bears  ventrally  a  pair  of  small, 
spine-like  projections.  If  this  sclerite  is  the  result  of  the  fusion  of  the 
shield  and  the  ring  there  is  no  indication  of  the  fact.  As  to  the  distal 
part  of  the  segment,  it  projects  only  slightly  beyond  this  sclerite;  it 
consists  of  two  pairs  of  appendages  rising  from  a  full  membranous  base. 
The  median  and  dorsal  pair  are  sigmoid  rods  curved  towards  the  dorsal 
surface  at  their  distal  ends  (u).  The  second  pair  are  membranous  at 
base  but  strongly  chitinized  distally  (y). 

I  would  suggest  the  following  as  the  possible  homologies  of  some  of 
these  parts  :  the  large  sclerite  corresponds  to  the  shield  ;  the  ring  is 
wanting  ;  the  hood  is  represented  in  a  much  less  differentiated  state 
than  in  Diplax,  by  the  full  membranous  portion  of  the  penis-tip.  As 
to  the  homologies  of  the  other  parts  I  am  entirely  uncertain. 

In  Libellula  pulchella,  the  blunt  division  of  the  hamule  lies  almost 
laterad  instead  of  caudad  of  the  spur  ;  it  is  moreover  reduced  nearly  to 
a  knob.     The  spur  is  long  and  strong  and  its  point  turns  laterad. 

The  dorsal  aspect  of  the  genital  bladder,  though  normally  united  for  a 
considerable  portion  of  its  extent  with  the  abdomen,  separates  readily 
therefrom  after  maceration  in  caustic  potash.  In  the  penis,  the  first  seg- 
ment is  extremely  long  and  bears  a  dorsal  terminal  tubercle  ;  the  second 
segment  is  very  small  and  triangular  ;  the  third  bears  distally  a  large 
dorsal  upgrowth.  The  edges  of  this  sclerite  do  not  quite  meet  ventrally, 
and  between  the  angles  projects  a  small  membranous  lobe  which  per- 

PROC.  AMEB.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  152.  2  A.      PRINTED   DEC.  18,  1896. 


Coddard.]  -1^  [Oct.  2, 

haps  corresponds  to  tlie  hood  of  Diplax.  Attached  to  the  hase  of  this 
structure  on  either  side  is  a  tiny,  membranous,  finger-lil^e  lobe.  The 
tip  of  the  penis  is  formed  by  a  great  mass  of  membrane  which  projects 
from  the  distal  end  of  the  third  sclerite  described  above.  This  mem- 
brane is  covered  with  scattered  chitinized  papillse  and  is  chitinized  in 
such  a  way  as  to  form  a  pair  of  irregularly  shaped  sclerites,  somewhat 
like  a  moose's  antlers,  narrow  at  the  base,  broadening  distally  and 
uniting  dorsally  and  ventrally  so  as  to  form  a  ring  which  divides  the 
membrane  into  a  proximal  and  a  distal  division.  This  arrangement 
will  be  made  clear  by  a  glance  at  the  diagram  (Fig.  14).  At  the  base  of 
these  sclerites  on  either  side  is  a  small  piece  visible  after  the  removal  of 
the  shield  ;  these  pieces  appear  to  be  rudiments  of  structures  much 
more  developed  in  L.  quadruj)la. 

In  L.  quadrupla,  the  general  appearance  is  much  the  same  as  in  the 
species  last  described  ;  there  are,  however,  one  or  two  interesting  differ- 
ences in  the  penis-tip.  The  hood  is  bi-lobed  and  so  far  as  I  could  dis- 
cover, there  are  no  such  lobes  laterad  of  it  as  in  L.  pulchella.  The  mem- 
branous tip  of  the  penis  is  not  chitinized  in  any  part,  but  the  chitinous 
papillfE  with  which  it  is  beset  are  much  more  closely  placed  in  a  region 
which  corresponds  with  that  part  which  in  L.  pulchella'i?,  chitinized.  It 
seems  possible  that  this  massing  of  papill*  is,  so  to  speak,  an  attempted 
adaptation  to  certain  unkown  conditions  and  that  the  chitinization  is  a 
more  satisfactory  adaptation  to  the  same  conditions.  The  dorsi-mesal 
portion  of  the  membrane  is  largely  free  from  papillae  and  is  extended 
into  a  long,  finger-like,  membi'anous  tip. 

Plathemis  trimaculata  is  in  several  respects  a  most  interesting  species. 
The  first  abdominal. segment  bears  on  its  ventral  aspect  a  pair  of  chitin- 
ous lobes  ;  these  structures  have  a  position  on  the  first  segment  exactly 
corresponding  to  that  which  the  hanlules  occupy  on  the  second,  and 
their  form  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  undivided  hamules  found  in  many 
kinds  of  Libellulinse.  They  are,  however,  continuous  with  the  abdomi- 
nal wall  instead  of  being  jointed  to  it  as  are  the  hamules. 

In  the  second  segment,  the  sternum  is  short ;  it  bears  on  its  free  edge  a 
small  median  lobe  which  is  indented  on  the  mesalline  so  as  to  form  two 
scallops  (Fig.  16).  The  hamules  show  only  very  slightditierentiation  into 
lobes.  The  cephalic  lobe,  Avhich  corresponds  to  the  spur  of  the  ordi- 
nary hamule,  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  man's  boot,  the  toe  of  the  boot 
being  turned  towards  the  caudal  lobe.  The  toe  alone  is  free,  but  from 
the  point  of  division  between  the  two  lobes  a  membranous  band  ex- 
tends towards  the  base  of  the  hamule  ;  if  this  membrane  were  unfolded 
the  condition  found  in  the  other  Libellulinsie  would  be  produced.  The 
caudal  lobe  is  deeply  grooved  at  its  tip  so  that  it  appears  almost  bi- 
lobed.     I  am  unable  to  describe  the  penis. 

This  species  seems  to  me  to  give  us  some  reason  to  believe  that  the 
hamules  are  the  survivors  of  the  series  of  abdominal  appendages  jiresent 
in  the  ancestor  of  the  insects.     And  in  this  connection,  I  would  suggest 


1896.]  ^11  [Goddard. 

the  possibility  that  the  penis  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  fused  and  greatly 
modiiied  abdominal  appendages  of  the  third  abdominal  segment.  The 
hamules  of  Plathemis  also  afford  us  a  suggestion  of  the  way  in  which 
the  branched  maj^  have  arisen  from  the  simple  condition. 

Conclusion  :  While  my  work  has  been  mainly  description,  there  are  a 
few  general  suggestions  which  may  be  thrown  together  here.  1.  There 
seems  some  reason  for  believing  that  the  hamules  are  homologues  of 
abdominal  appendages.  2.  Various  stages  are  observed  between  the 
ordinary  bifid  condition  of  the  hamules  and  the  uniramous  condition  of 
other  subfamilies.  As  we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  abdominal 
appendages  were  originally  biramous,  we  must  suppose  the  condition  in 
Libellulinse  a  secondary  one.  3.  It  has  been  impossible  to  homologize 
the  appendages  of  the  penis- tip,  though  there  seems  some  reason  to 
think  that  wider  study  might  enable  one  to  do  it.  4.  The  resemblance 
between  these  appendages  in  Diplax  vicina  and  ruMcundula  is  very 
close  ;  Celithemis  elisa  is  quite  different  in  some  respects.  This  species 
was  formerly  jslaced  in  the  genus  Diplax  ;  the  marked  difference  and 
the  general  similarity  of  the  penis-tip  is  what  we  should  expect  in  two 
genera  so  closely  related  as  to  have  been  formerly  classed  as  one  and 
leads  us  to  believe  that  the  study  of  this  organ  may  prove  to  be  of  sys- 
tematic importance.  In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  acknowledge  the  valuable 
aid  given  me  by  Prof.  M.  A.  "Willcox  in  the  preparation  of  this  paper, 
both  in  general  suggestion  and  revision.  I  have  found  no  literature 
which  was  of  value  save  Rathke's  paper,  "De  Libellarum  Partibus 
Genitalibus." 

Desckiption  of  Diagrams,  Plates  XIV  akd  XV.* 

Diplax  ruMcundula. 

Fig.    1.  One-half  of  tergum. 

Fig.    2.  Second  segment — ventral  view. 

Fig.    3.  Framework,  triangle,  and  hamules. 

Diplax  meiiia. 

Fig.    4.  Second  segment — -ventral  view. 

Fig.    5.  Framework,  triangle,  hamules,  and  sternum. 

Fig.    6.  Genital  bladder  and  side-view  of  penis, 

■Celithemis  elisa. 

Fig.    7.  Second  segment — ventral  view. 

Fig.    8.  Framework,  triangle,  hamules,  and  sternum. 

Fig     9.  Genital  bladder  and  penis — dorsal  view. 

Lihellula  exusta. 

Fig.  10.  Second  segment — ventral  view. 

Fig.  11.  Framework,  triangle,  hamules,  and  sternum. 

Fig.  12.  Genital  bladder  and  side-view  of  penis. 

*  The  scale  by  wliich  drawings  were  made  differs,  but  as  size  in  mm.  is  given,  there 
need  be  no  misunderstanding. 


Goddard.]  212  [Oct.  2,. 

Lihellula  pulcJiella. 

Fig.  13.  FrameAvork,  triangle,  hamnles,  and  sternum. 
Fig.  14.  Genital  bladder  and  side  view  of  penis. 

Libellula  quadrupla. 

Fig.  15.  Genital  bladder  and  penis — side  view. 

PlatJiemis  trimaculata. 

Fig.  16.  Framework,  triangle,  liamules,  and  sternum 
Fig.  17.  Genital  bladder  and  penis — ventral  view 
Fig.  18.  Penis — dorsal  view. 

In  the  above  diagrams,  the  letters  stand  for  organs  as  follows  : 

a.  Genital  lobe.  &.  First  segment  of  tergum.  c.  Second  segment  of 
tergum.  d.  Third  segment  of  tergum.  e.  Sternum.  /.  Triangular 
appendage  of  sternum,  g.  Hamule.  h.  Spur  of  hamule.  i.  Truncate 
lobe  of  hamule.  k.  Framework,  m.  Lateral  rod  of  framework,  n.  Tri- 
angle. 0.  Left  cephalic  triangle  of  genital  bladder,  p^,  p^,  p^.  Seg- 
ments of  penis,  r.  Right  cephalic  triangle  of  genital  bladder,  s.  Dorsal 
triangle  in  genital  bladder  of  Celitliemis  elisa.  t  and  p.  appendages  of 
l)ems  of  PlatJiemis  ti'imaculata.  «  and  «.  Appendages  of  penis  of  Libel- 
lula exusta.  w.  Caudal  triangle  of  genital  bladder,  x.  Membranous 
appendage  of  framework  in  Libellula  exusta.  1.  Shield  of  third  seg- 
ment of  penis.     3.  Ring.     3.  Hood.     4.  Banner.     5.  Fork.     6.  Twist. 


1896.]  ^Id  [Smith. 

Marine  Fossils  from  the  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas.* 

By  James  Perrin  Smith. 

{Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  October  2,  1S96.) 

Contents.  page. 

Preface  by  J.  C.  Branner 214 

Introduction 314 

Localities  Discovered  by  the  Survey 215 

Lower  Coal  Measures 316 

Upper  Coal  Measures 219 

Fayetteville  Shale 321 

Comparison  with  the  Permo-Carbouiferous  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  321 

Relations  to  the  Texas  Upper  Carboniferous 323 

Comparison  with  Foreign  Upper  Carboniferous 223 

The  Lo-ping  Fauna  of  China 223 

The  Salt  Range  Beds  of  India 224 

The  Itaituba  Fauna,  Brazil 225 

Classification  and  Age  of  the  Arkansas  Coal  Measures 225 

Provisional  Classification 225 

The  Lower  Coal  Measures 226 

The  Upper  Coal  Measures 226 

Paleobotanic  Evidence 237 

The  Pacific  Carboniferous  Sea 228 

Revolution  in  Devonian  Times 228 

The  Carboniferous  Sea 229 

Upper  Carboniferous  in  the  West 230 

The  Pawhuski  Limestone 230 

Intercliange  of  Life  between  East  and  "West 331 

Replacement  of  Limestones  by  the  Coal-bearing  Formations 

in  Western  Europe 333 

Land  Areas  in  the  West 332 

The  Permian  Pacific  Ocean 232 

The  Triassic  Pacific  Ocean 233 

Time  of  the  Ouachita  Uplift 233 

Correlation  Table  of  the  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas 234 

Descriptions  of  the  Coal  Measure  Marine  Fossils 235 

Tabulated  List   of  the   Marine   Fossils   of  the   Coal   Measures   of 

Arkansas 274 

Explanation  of  Plates 283 

Plate  xvi.  Plate  xxi.. 

Plate  xvii.  Plate  xxii. 

Plate  xviii.  Plate  xxiii. 

Plate  xix.  Plate  xxiv. 

Plate  XX. 

*  An  abstract  of  this  paper  was  published  in  Journal  of  Geology,  V  ol.  li,  No.  2,  pp.  187. 
204. 


Smith.]  ^14  [Oct.  2, 

Preface. 

The  Coal  Measures  cover  an  area  of  14,700  square  miles  in  the  State 
of  Arkansas.  The  greater  part  of  this  area  lies  in  the  geosyncline  of 
the  Arkansas  Valley.  Tlie  total  thickness  of  the  sediments  in  this 
geosyncline  is  enormous — 24,000  feet.  These  conditions,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  occurrence  in  these  sediments  of  both  land  plants 
(coal  beds)  and  of  marine  fossils  seem  to  show  that  the  beds  were  de- 
posited upon  a  subsiding  (for  the  most  part)  floor,  and  that  the  land 
stood  near  the  sea  level,  below  which  it  occasionally  sank. 

The  marine  fossils  from  the  Coal  Measures  area,  so  far  as  they  were 
collected  by  the  Geological  Survey  of  Arkansas,  are  listed  and  described 
in  the  following  paper  kindly  prepared  at  my  request  by  Dr.  J.  P. 
Smith,  of  Stanford  University.  It  is  volunteer  work  done  origin- 
ally for  the  State  Survej^  and  was  to  have  been  published  in  a  volume 
upon  the  paleontologj'  of  Arkansas.  Upon  the  abolition  of  the  Survey 
by  the  Legislature  in  1893  several  volumes  of  reports  were  left  unpub- 
lished, and  among  them  one  on  the  paleontology  of  the  State. 

John  C.  Branner, 

Late  State  Geologist  of  Arkansas. 
Stanford  University,  California,  July  10,  1896. 

Introduction. 

Marine  fossils  afford  the  best  means  of  correlating  strata  of  different 
regions,  but  in  the  Coal  Measures  they  are  usually  rare,  and  therefore  of 
especial  interest  and  \^alue  when  found. 

Of  all  the  Paleozoic  systems  the  Carboniferous  is  most  subject  to 
facies  variations,  which  make  it  difficult  and  often  impossible  to  recog- 
nize with  certainty  the  minor  subdivisions  at  any  great  distance  from 
the  place  where  they  were  first  established.  This  is  true  even  of  the 
Mississippian  formation,  whose  limestones  were  deposited  under  com- 
paratively uniform  conditions,  so  that  one  would  expect  the  fauual  rela- 
tions to  be  the  same  over  the  whole  area  where  the  Mississippian  facies 
prevails.  But  the  American  Coal  Measures  were  formed  under  condi- 
tions not  favorable  to  uniformitj^  either  of  rock  character  or  of  life, 
hence  the  correlation  of  tliese  strata  becomes  more  difficult.  And  in 
these  geologists  have  been  more  prone  to  rely  on  lithologic  charac- 
ters and  unaided  stratigraphy.  Such  correlations  have  only  a  local 
value,  and  cannot  be  extended  over  any  wide  scope  of  territory.  For 
this  reason  no  divisions  of  the  Coal  Measures  into  zones  has  every  been 
carried  out,  nor  can  it  be  done,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge. 

Previous  to  the  collections  made  by  the  Geological  Survey  of  Arkan- 
sas, marine  fossils  were  known  from  but  a  single  locality  in  the  Coal 
Measures  of  Arkansas.  Dr.  David  Dale  Owen,  in  his  Geological 
Eeco?inoissance  of  Arkansas,  Yo].  i,  p.  68,  says:     "Three  miles  north- 


1896.]  ■^-L«^  [Smith. 

west  of  Searcy,  at  a  'bald  point,'  in  the  vicinity  of  the  widow  Gilbert's 
farm,  sixty  feet  of  shaly  strata  are  exposed,  dark  or  nearly  black,  in  its 
lower  i"»art,  and  reddish  yellow  and  ferruginous  towards  the  top.  The 
shale  includes  numerous  segregations  of  carbonate  of  iron  and  carbon- 
ate of  lime  ;  the  latter  containing  several  fossil  marine  shells,  amongst 
which  the  Nautilus  ferratus  was  discovered,  a  species  which  occurs  in 
the  ferruginous  shales  of  Nolin,  in  Edmonson  county,  Ky."  The  local- 
ity mentioned  is  now  known  to  be  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures,  and  is 
situated  not  three  but  thirteen  miles  northwest  of  Searcy. 

F.  B.  Meek,  in  the  Fined  Report  of  the  U.  8.  Geological  Survey  of 
Nebraska,* mentions  Hydreinocrinus  (Zeacrinus)  mucrospinosus  McChes- 
ney,  from  the  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas,  but  he  does  not  cite  any 
authority  for  the  statement,  nor  does  he  say  he  has  seen  this  fossil  from 
Arkansas,  or  give  any  locality.  In  all  the  other  literature  where  this 
species  is  mentioned,  nothing  is  said  about  Arkansas.  It  is,  therefore, 
concluded  that  this  species  was  never  found  in  the  State.  It  was,  how- 
ever, found  by  the  Geological  Survey,  in  strata  of  the  Upper  Coal  Meas- 
ures, on  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory,  two  miles  west  of  the  line 
of  Scott  county,  Arkansas. 

Featherstonhaughf  mentioned  a  "new  species  of  pentremite  in  the 
old  red  sandstone  of  Maunielle."  The  strata  of  Maumelle  mountain, 
Pulaski  county,  are  of  Lower  Coal  Measure  age,  and  it  is  not  likely 
that  a  pentremite  was  ever  found  there,  since  the  systematic  searches  of 
the  Survey  failed  to  tiud  any  fossils  in  this  region. 

Localities  Discovered  by  the  Survey. 

Marine  Coal  Measure  fossils  were  found  by  the  Survey  at  twenty-one 
different  places,  besides  that  mentioned  by  Owen.  These  extend  from 
Independence  county  westward  to  Indian  Territory,  giving  a  total  of 
forty-eight  genera  and  ninety  species,  forty-eight  in  the  Lower  Coal 
Measures,  and  fifty-two  in  the  Upper,  with  ten  species  common  to  both. 
It  is  not  thought  that  this  small  number  of  species  represents  the  entire 
fauna,  or  that  only  ten  species  are  common  to  the  two  divisions,  for  the 
collections  were  much  too  scattered  and  meagre  to  exhaust  the  possi- 
bilities. But  the  fauna  is  a  poor  one,  such  as  one  would  expect  to  wan- 
der in  from  deeper  waters  whenever  a  slight  subsidence  made  the  shal- 
low waters  a  little  more  habitable.  The  faunas  could  not  become  well 
established,  because  the  conditions  soon  reverted  to  their  okl  state,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  the  seas  were  forced  to  migrate  or  be  exterminated. 

There  is,  therefore,  in  this  region  no  gradual  transition  from  the  fauna 
of  the  Lower  Carboniferous  limestone,  and  the  fossils  of  the  Lower 
Coal  Measures  are  just  as  different  from  those  of  the  Lower  Carbonifer- 
ous as  are  those  of  the  Upper  Coal  Measures. 

It  is  not  attempted  to  carry  the  division  further  than  into  Upper  and 

*0p.  cit.,  p.  149. 

t  Geolog.  Rep.  Elevated  Country  between  the  Missouri  and  Red  Rivers,  p.  61. 


Smith.]  -^It)  [Oct.  2, 

Lower  Coal  Measures,  and  even  this  division  is  often  uncertain,  for  in 
most  cases  the  relations  of  the  fossiliferous  beds  to  each  other  could  not 
be  determined  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  Also  in  most  of  this  region 
the  stratigraphy  is  difficult ;  the  rocks  vary  so  little,  and  are  so  folded 
and  faulted  that  by  stratigraphy  alone  it  was  often  impossible  to  locate 
a  bed  within  several  hundred  feet. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  number  of  the  siiecies  is  usually  too  small, 
and  their  character  too  indecisive  to  enable  one  to  say  with  certainty  to 
which  division  the  strata  belonged.  Therefore,  in  enumerating  the  lo- 
calities there  are  given  onlj^  the  character  of  the  rocks,  the  fossils  found 
in  them,  and  the  place  in  the  section  where  these  strata  are  thought  to 
belong. 

Loicer  Coed  Measures. 

Of  these  localities  there  were  seventeen  discovered,  and  they  will  be 
given  in  order  from  east  to  west. 

No.  1.  Independence  county,  11  N.,  5  W.,  section  9,  centre  of  the 
section.  Soft  brownish  sandstone  with  Eaomphalus  {Straparollus)  sp.; 
near  the  middle  of  the  Lower  Coal  Measures.  Collector,  J.  C.Bran- 
ner. 

No.  2.  White  county,  8  N.,  7  W.,  section  26,  Bee  Rock  on  Little  Red 
river.  Massive  yellowish  sandstone,  over  one  hundred  feet  exposed, 
nearly  horizontal ;  at  the  top  with  marine  fossils,  at  the  bottom  with 
plants.  Near  the  base  of  the  Lower  Coal  Measures.  Collector,  J.  P. 
Smith. 

Crinoid  stems. 

Productus  semireticulatus  Martin. 

Spirifer  rocky montanus  Marcou. 

Aviculopecten  carhoniferus  Stevens. 

BelleropJwn  sp. 

Plant  remains,  undetermined. 

No.  3.  White  county,  8  N.,  7  W.,  section  33,  east  half  of  southeast 
quarter,  south  of  Norton's  field,  on  the  road  from  Searcy  to  Griffin 
Springs.  Hard  yellowish  and  in  places  ferruginous  sandstone,  with  a 
dip  of  about  30°  south.  Horizon  same  as  tlic  last  locality.  Collector, 
J.  P.  Smith. 

Fenestella  sp. 

Orthis  conf.  resupinoides  Cox. 

Productus  semireticulatus  Martin. 

Rhynchonella  sp. 

Spirifer  rockymontanus  Marcou. 

Schizodus  conf.  amplus  Meek  and  Worthen. 

Bellerophon  sp. 

No.  4.  White  county,  9  N.,  4  W.,  section  G.  Soft  pinkish  sandstone. 
Near  middle  of  Lower  Coal  Measure.     Collector,  J.  C.  Branner. 


1S9G.]  ^^*  [Smith. 

PJdlUpsia  {Griffithides)  scitula  Meek  and  Wortlien. 

Euomphalus  {Straparollus)  suhquadratus  Meek  and  Wortlien. 

AtJiyris  subtilita  Hall. 

PresticicMa  sp.  or  a  new  genus  closely  allied  to  PrestwicMa. 

No.  5.  White  county,  9  N.,  5  W.,  section  1.  Soft  reddish  sandstone, 
similar  to  that  of  locality  No.  4,  containing  also  PhilUpsia  (Griffithides) 
scitula  Meek  and  Worthen.     Collector,  J.  C.  Branner. 

No.  6.  Lonoke  countj',  4  N.,  10  W.,  section  12,  southeast  quarter  of 
northwest  quarter.  Gray  quartzite  conglomerate  seen  in  a  well  by  the 
roadside  to  dip  45'^  south.  Towards  base  of  Lower  Coal  Measure.  Col- 
lector, J.  P.  Smith. 

Crinoid  stems,  undetermined. 

No.  7.  Conway  country,  6  N.,  16  W.,  section  29,  southwest  quarter  of 
southwest  quarter,  on  east  bank  of  Arkansas  river,  about  one  mile  below 
the  Old  Lewisburg  ferrj^.  A  brown  ferruginous  shale  near  the  top  of 
the  Lower  Coal  Measures  and  probably  a  few  hundred  feet  above  the 
shales  of  locality  No.  8.     Collector,  J.  F.  Newsom. 

Productus  punctatus  Martin. 

Derbyia  crassa  Meek  and  Haj'den. 

OrtJiis  peeosii  Marcou. 

Spirifer  cameratus  Morton. 

Spiriferina  cristata  Schlotheim. 

Athyris  subtilita  Hall. 

Terebratula  hastata  Sowerby. 

Aviculopecten  occidentalis  Shumard. 

No.  8.  Conway  county.  5  N.,  16  W.,  section  17,  two  hundred  yards 
west  of  the  centre  of  northwest  quarter,  west  of  the  Arkansas  river, 
and  four  miles  south  of  Morrilltou.  The  horizon  is  near  the  top  of  the 
Lower  Coal  Measures.  Reddish  ferruginous  shale.  Collector,  J.  F. 
Newsom. 

PhilUpsia  {Griffithides)  ornata  Yogdes. 

Zaphrentis  sp. 

Nueula  parva  McChesney. 

Nucula  ventricosa  Hall. 

Macrodon  carbonarius  Cox. 

Conocardium  aliforme  Sowerby. 

Aviculopecten  occidentalis  Shumard. 

Aviculopecten  carboniferus  Stevens. 

Pleurophorus  oblongus  Cox. 

Bellerophon  carbonarius  Cox. 

Bellerophon  crassus  Meek  and  Worthen. 

Pleurotomaria  sp. 

Macrocheilus  (Soleniscus)  conf.  primigenius  Conrad. 

Macrocheilus  conf.  fusiformis  Hall. 

Goniatites  {Paralegoceras)  iowensis  Meek  and  Worthen. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  152.  2  B.      PRINTED   DEC.    18,    1896. 


Smith.]  ^18  [Oct.  2-, 

Nautilus  {E2')Mppioceras)  ferratus  Cox. 
Nautilus  {Endolobus)  missouriensis  Swallow. 

No.  9.  Conway  county,  7  N.,  16  W.,  section  8,  northeast  quarter  of 
northeast  quarter,  about  two  hundred  yards  east  of  the  centre  ;  one 
hundred  yards  northw^est  of  the  iron  bridge.  Ferruginous,  porous  sand- 
stone, full  of  poorly  preserved  casts  of  fossils,  that  could  not  be  speci- 
fically identified.  This  horizon  lies  about  one  thousand  feet  below  that 
of  locality  No.  7,  near  Old  Lewisburg,  and  is  probably  the  same  as  that 
of  locality  No.  10,  Cook's  quarry,  near  Hattieville.  Collector,  .T.  F. 
Newsom. 

Zaphrentis  (?), 

Grinoid  stems. 

Spirifer  sp. 

Eiiomphalus  sp. 

No  10.  Conway  county,  8  N.,  17  W.,  section  33,  northeast  quarter  of 
northeast  quarter,  Cook's  quarry,  near  Hattieville.  Hard  yellowisli 
sandstone.  Upper  part  of  Lower  Coal  Measures.  Collector,  J.  F. 
Newsom. 

Orthoceras  sp. 

Astartella  newherryi  Meek. 

Aviculopecten  occidentalis  Shumard. 

Edmondia  unioniformis  Phillips. 

Schizodus  icheeleri  Swallow. 

ScJdzodus  cuneatus  Meek. 

Belleroplion  carbonarias  Cox. 

Pleuroto7naria  hatii  S.  A.  Miller. 

Pleurotomaria  sp. 

Euomphalus  sp. 

Orthoceras  sp. 

Ortliis  resupinoides  Cox. 

Orthis  sp. 

Terebratula  hastata  Sowerby. 

No.  11.  Pope  county,  10  N.,  20  W.,  section  8,  southeast  quarter  of 
northwest  quarter.  Ferruginous  shale  like  tliat  near  Morrillton.  Col- 
lector, H.  E.  Williams. 

Crinoid  stems. 

Pleurotomaria  sp. 

Goniatites  ( Gastrioceras)  excelsus  Meek. 

No.  12.  Johnson  county,  11  N.,  24  W.,  section  2fi.  southwest  (luaitcr 
of  southwest  ([uarter.  Brownish  ferruginous  sandstone.  CoUec-tor, 
A.  G.  Taff. 

Phillipsia  sp. 

No.  13.   Franklin  county,  11  N.,  27  W.,  section  4,  southeast  (iiiartcr  of 


1896.]  ^iJ  [Smith. 

northeast  quarter.     Weathered  ferruginous  sandstone.     Collector,  A.  G. 
TafF. 

Crinoid  stems. 

Spirifer  sp. 

No.  14.   Franklin  county,  10  N.,  26  W.,  section  2,  southeast  quarter  of 
southeast  quarter.     Ferruginous  sandstone      Collector,  A.  G.  Taft'. 
Bellcrophoii  carbonarius  Cox. 

No.  15.  Franklin  county,  11  N.,  28  W.,  section  27,  northeast  quarter 
of  southeast  quarter      Ferruginous  sandstone.     Collector,  A.  Gr.  Tafl". 
Pleurotomaria  sp. 

No.  16.  Crawford  county,  12  N.,  30  W.,  section  17,  northeast  quarter 
of  southeast  quarter.  Brownish  sandstone,  very  like  that  of  Bee  Rock, 
White  county.     Collector,  E.  C.  Buchanan. 

Spirifer  rockymontanus  Marcou. 

No.  17.  Carroll  county,  17  N.,  19  W.,  northeast  corner  of  section  18  ;. 
Pilot  mountain,  three  and  a  half  miles  southwest  of  Valley  Springs. 
Millstone  grit,  about  sixty  feet  above  a  brownish  limestone  supposed  to 
represent  the  Chester  horizon.     Collector,  Stuart  Weller. 

Gastrioceras  branneri  n.  sp.  J.  P.  Smith. 

Pronorites  cyclolobus  Phillips,  var.  arkansiensis  nov.  var.  J.  P.  Smilli. 

Upper  Coal  Measures. 

In  the  Upper  Coal  Measures,  three  localities  were  discovered  by  the 
Survey,  giving  fifty-two  species,  of  which  thirty -two  were  found  on 
Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory. 

No.  1.  Scott  county,  1  N.,  28  W.,  section  4,  southeast  quarter  of  south- 
east quarter.  Yellow  ferruginous  shale,  with  fossils  in  hard  nodules. 
Tliis  horizon  is  probably  equivalent  to  the  Canyon  division  of  Texas, 
lower  part  of  Upper  Coal  Measures,  since  many  similar  fossils  were 
found  in  that  horizon  by  the  Geological  Survey  of  Texas.  Collector, 
C.  E.  Siebenthal. 

Cyathocrinus  {?). 

Conularia  conf.  crustula  White, 

Naticopsis  sp. 

Nuculana  afF.  belUstriata  Stevens. 

Pleurophorus  sp. 

Goniatites  ( Gastrioceras)  sp.  indet. 

Goniatitcs  {Gastrioceras)  globu.losus  Meek  and  Worthen. 

Goniatites  (  Gastrioceras)  marianus  Verneul. 

Goniatites  {Pronorites)  sp. 

Orthoceras  conf.  rushense  McChesney. 

While  the  stratigraphy  seems  to  place  these  beds  in  the  Lower  Coal 
Measures,  the  fossils  are  decidedly  Upper  Coal  Measure  forms,  and  are 
characteristic  of  that  horizon  in  Texas,  Kansas,  etc. 


Smith.]  ^-^O  [Oct.  2, 

No.  3.  Crawford  county,  10  N.,  30  W.,  section  10,  southeast  quarter  of 
northwest  quarter.     Soft  ferruginous  shale.     Collector,  C.  E.  Siisbenthal. 
Zaphrentis  sp. 
RhyncJioneUa  sp.  ' 
Macrodon  sp. 

JDentaliuvi  conf.  meekianum  Geinitz. 
PolypJiemopsis  inornatus  Meek  and  Worthen. 
PJeurotomaria  modesta  Keyes. 
Ndutilus  sp. 

No.  3.  Sebastian  county,  8  N.,  32  W.,  section  12.  Ferruginous  shale 
near  Mr.  Wilson's  house.  High  up  in  Upper  Coal  Measures.  Collec- 
tor, Arthur  Winslow. 

CHnoid  stems. 

Fistulipora  noduUfera  Meek. 

AtJiyris  subtilita  Hall. 

Productus  splendens  Norwood  and  Pratten. 

Retzia  mormonii  Marcou. 

Spirifer  earner atus  Morton. 

Spiriferina  eristata  Schlotheim. 

Macrodon  ohsoletus  Meek. 

JVucula  parva  McChesney. 

Bellerophon  carbonarius  Cox. 

Bellerophon  marcouanus  Geinitz. 

Naticopsis  nana  Meek  and  Worthen. 

Pleurotomaria  sp. 

No.  4.  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory,  two  miles  west  of  the  Scott 
•county,  Arkansas,  line,  on  the  east  fork  of  Sugar  creek,  150  feet  below 
the  southern  crest  of  the  mountain.  The  fossiliferous  bed  is  a  soft  gray 
shale  about  four  inches  thick.  About  1000  feet  of  shales  lie  above  this, 
but  no  fossils  were  found  in  them.  The  fossiliferous  bed  is  several  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  highest  bed  of  coal  known  in  that  region. 

The  following  fossils  were  collected  here  by  C.  E.  Siebenthal : 

LophophyUiim  proliferum  McChesney. 

Erisocrinus  (C'eriocrinus)  inflexus  Geinitz. 

Ilydreinocrinus  mucrospinosus  McChesney. 

Poteriocrinus  (?). 

Orthis  pecosii  Marcou. 

Derhyia  crassa  Meek  and  Hayden. 

Productus  cora  d'Orbigny. 

P.  splendens  Norwood  and  Pratten 

Phync?ionella  iita  Marcou. 

Terebratula  Jiastata  Sowerby. 

Petzia  radialis  Phillips. 

Athyris  subtilita  Hall. 

jSpir^er  cameratiis  Morton. 


991 

1896.]  ■^-"-  |S;nith. 

Spiriferina  cristata  Schlotheim. 

FistuUpora  nodulifera  Meek. 

Rhombopora  lepidendroides  Meek. 

Septopora  Mserialis  Swallow. 

Aviculopeeten  coxanus  Meek  and  Wort  hen. 

A.  germanus  Miller  and  Faber. 

Lima  retifera  Shumard. 

Macrodon  carionarius  Cox. 

31.  tenuistriatus  Meek  and  Worthen. 

M.  ohsoletus  Meek. 

Astartella  vera  Hall. 
A.  newberryi  Meek. 

Edmondia  nehrascensis  Geinitz. 

Pleurotomaria  tenuicincta  Meek  and  Worthen. 

P.  conf.  speciosa  Geinitz. 

Ortlwceras  cribrosum  Geinitz. 

Phillipsia  diftonensis  Shumard. 

Calamites  sp. 

A  fauna  of  proba])ly  the  same  age  has  been  described  from  the  upper 
part  of  the  Wyoming  Valley  limestones  of  the  Upper  Productive  Coal 
Measures  of  Pennsylvania.* 

Fayetteville  Shale. 

In  Scott  county,  3  N.,  29  W.,  section  36,  near  the  centre,  C  E.  Sie- 
benthal  and  J.  F.  Xewsom  discovered  a  bed  of  brown  thinly  laminated 
shale,  with  some  sandy  layers,  containing  pyritiferous  nodules  in  which 
Ooniatites  ( GlypMoceras)  conf.  spJimricus  Martin  was  found  in  a  good 
state  of  preservation.  In  the  shale  itself  were  found  many  poorly  pre- 
served specimens  of  the  Ooniatites  conf.  spJimricus,  and  countless  speci- 
mens ot  Posidonomya  {Lunulicardium)  couf.  fragosum  Meek,  also  many 
specimens  of  OrtlioMra&  sp. 

These  were  at  first  thought  to  belong  to  the  Coal  Measures,  but  a  very 
similar  bed  of  shale,  with  the  same  fossils  in  the  identical  state  of  pre- 
servation, were  found  at  Moorefield,  Independence  county,  in  the  Fay- 
etteville  shale,  which  probably  corresponds  to  the  Warsaw  group  of  the 
Lower  Carboniferous. 

Comparison  with  the  Permo-Carboniferous  of  Kansas  and 
Nebraska. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  fauna  of  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of 
Arkansas  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  that  of  the  youngest  Paleozoic 
beds  of  Nebraska,  described  as  Permian  by  Prof  Geinitz  in  his  mono- 
graph, "  Carbonformation  and  Dyas  in  Nebraska." 

F.  B.  Meekf  redescribes  this  fauna,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion  that 

*Penna.  Qeol.  Survey  Ann.  Rep.,  1886,  pp.  437-158,  C.  A.  Ashburner  and  A.   Heilprin,^ 
"  Report  on  the  Wyoming  Valley  Limestone  Beds." 
■f  Final  Report  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  Nebraska,  p.  128,  et  seq. 


Smith.]  ^^^  [Oct.  2, 

tlie  rocks  iu  question  are  not  to  be  referred  to  the  Permian,  because  lie 
can  find  no  paleontologic  or  stratigrapliic  break  in  the  series.  He  finds 
sixteen  genera  cliaracteristic  of  the  Carboniferous  and  seven  genera  not 
lliouglit  to  antedate  tlie  Permian  in  Europe,  but  associated  with  genera 
not  thought  to  occur  later  than  the  Carboniferous.  Meek*  says  that 
Fusulina,  which  occurs  in  great  numbers  in  tlie  Upper  Coal  Measures  of 
Nebraska,  is  considered  in  Europe  to  be  mainly  a  Lower  Carboniferous 
genus.  In  this,  however,  he  was  mistaken  ;  his  opinion  dates  from  the 
time  when  geologists  were  inclined  to  place  all  Carboniferous  limestone 
in  the  Lower  Carboniferous.  But  it  is  now  known  that  Carboniferous 
limestone  occurs  in  the  Upper  Carboniferous  about  as  often  as  in  the 
Lower,  and  that  the  Fusulina  limestones  of  Sicilj'  and  Russia  grade 
over  into  beds  of  undoubted  Permian  age. 

This  is  also  true  of  corresponding  beds  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Car- 
boniferous of  Texas,  since  the  line  between  Permian  and  Coal  Measures 
is  purely  arl)itrary. 

Although  undoubtedly  believing  in  continuity  of  life  and  formations, 
Meek  seems  to  have  based  his  reasoning  somewhat  upon  the  old  idea  of 
catastrophies,  since  he  thought  that  the  absence  of  a  paleontologic  or 
stratigrapliic  break  was  a  sufficient  reason  for  calling  the  beds  in  ques- 
tion Upper  Coal  Measures  rather  than  Permian.  A  large  majority  of  the 
genera  and  species  are  characteristic  of  the  Carboniferous,  and  this 
Meek  thinks  sufficient  to  off'set  the  fact  that  several  genera  previously 
considered  tj'pical  of  Permian  are  present.  But  some  of  these  doubtful 
strata  have  at  last  been  acknowledged  to  be  Permianf  by  Williams  and 
Tschernyschew,  and  Prof.  Hyatt  has  described  in  tlie  Fourth  Annual 
Report  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Texas  several  cephalopods  that  are 
common  to  the  Permian  of  Texas  and  of  Kansas. 

In  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas,  out  of  fifty -two  species,  there 
are  twenty -five  in  common  with  the  doubtful  strata  of  Nebraska,  and 
eleven  other  species  are  common  to  the  Nebraskan  Permo-Carboniferous 
and  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas,  but  have  not  yet  been  found 
in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  the  latter  state.  But  of  the  genera  men- 
tioned by  Meek  as  being  not  considered  to  antedate  the  Permian  of 
Europe  only  two  are  found  in  the  Arkansas  strata,  namely,  SynodndiaX 
and  Lima. 

There  is  not  sufficient  reason  for  classing  the  Poteau  mountain  beds 
with  the  Permian,  but  their  fauna,  as  well  as  stratigrapliic  position,  place 
them  very  high  in  the  Coal  Measures,  since  they  are  like  the  fauna  and 
position  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  Upper  Coal  Measures. 

These  beds  derive  an  additional  interest  from  the  fact  that  on  Poteau 

*  P.  133,  op.  dl. 

t  Trans.  Kansas  Acad.  ScL,  Vol.  xiii,  p.  38. 

X  Waiigen  has  shown  iu  Pal.  Indica,  Sail  Range  Fossils  i,  Pmductus  Limestone  Fossils,  p. 
802,  that  Synocladia  is  not  found  in  America,  the  species  described  by  Swallow  as  Synoc- 
India  biserialis  being  a  Scptopura.  There  is  also  some  doubt  as  to  whether  Lima  relifera  is 
;i  true  Lima. 


1896.]  223  [Smith. 

mountain,  1000  feet  of  shale,  in  which  no  fossils  were  sought  for,  lie 
above  the  thin  layer  from  which  the  entire  collection  was  taken  ;  thus 
the  chances  of  fiudiug  true  Permian  beds  in  that  region  are  verj'  good. 

Relations  to  the  Texas  Upper  Carboniferous. 

The  most  philosophical  presentation  of  the  Permian  problem  in 
America  has  been  given  by  Dr.  C.  A.  White.*  He  finds  the  fauna  of 
tlie  upper  Paleozoic  beds  of  northern  Texas,  discovered  by  Prof.  W. 
F.  Cummins,  to  be  analogous  to  that  of  the  Fusulina  Limestone  of 
Sicily,  the  Artinsk  stage  of  Russia,  and  the  upper  Productus  Limestone 
of  the  Salt  Range  in  India.  These  strata  all  show  that  peculiar  com- 
mingling of  ordinary  Coal  Measure  fossils  with  ammonite  genera,  such 
as  Popanoceras,  Medlicottia  and  Waagenoecras,  which  seems  to  be  char- 
acteristic of  open  sea  facies  of  the  Permian. 

None  of  the  characteristic  ammonite  genera  were  found  in  the 
xVrkansas  region,  but  nearly  every  fossil  found  in  these  Coal  Measures 
was  also  found  in  Texas.  And  in  the  Texas  Permian  nearly  all  the 
species  excepting  the  ammonites  were  found  in  the  underlying  Upper 
Coal  Measures.  This  makes  the  analogy  between  the  Upper  Coal 
Measures  of  the  two  regions  very  strong. 

Nearly  all  these  fossils  are  also  found  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  etc.,  in  beds 
that  have  never  been  thought  to  be  other  than  Coal  Measures. 

"We  are,  therefore,  safe  in  concluding  that  while  some  of  the  beds  in 
western  Arkansas  are  very  high  up  in  the  Coal  Measures,  none  that  be- 
long above  them  are  as  yet  certainly  known,  and  the  Poteau  mountain 
syncline,  across  the  line  in  Indian  Territory,  is  the  only  place  where 
there  is  any  likelihood  of  finding  Permian  deposits.  These  beds  may 
turn  out  to  be  the  equivalents  of  the  Wichita  division  of  the  Texas 
Permian,  which,  as  Prof.  W.  F.  Cummins  has  told  the  writer,  contains 
the  exact  fauna  of  his  Albany  division.  The  Albany  beds  were  for- 
merly thought  to  be  Coal  Measures  ;  and  Prof.  Cummins'  work  in  de- 
termining them  by  paleontology  as  well  as  stratigraphy  to  be  the 
equivalents  of  the  Wichita  division  will  be  of  great  help  in  the  study  of 
the  doubtful  so-called  uppermost  Coal  Measure  strata  all  over  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley.  Many  of  these  strata  are  very  probably  the  homotaxial 
equivalents  of  the  Albany  division,  and  of  the  Artinsk  stage  of  the  Ural 
mountain  region. 

Comparison  with  Foreign  Upper  Carboniferous. 

T/ie  Lo-piiKj  Fauna  of  China. 

The  descriptions  of  the  fauna  of  this  Lo-ping  district  of  China  by 
Prof.  E.  Kayserf  throw  great  light  on  the  relations  of  American  Car- 
boniferous faunas  to  those  of  Asia.     Near  Lo-ping,  in  eastern  China,  are 

*  Bulletin  77,  V.  .S.  Geol.  Siu-vey. 
t  Richtofen's  China,  Vol.  iv. 


Smith.]  ^^4  [Oct.  2, 

found  in  beds  overlying  the  coal  beds  numerous  marine  fossils  of 
Upper  Coal  Measure  age.  Kayser  has  described  fifty -five  species,  ten 
not  specifically  identified,  fifteen  cosmopolitan  species,  and  eleven  forms- 
that  are  typically  American,  and  belong  chietly  to  the  Upper  Coal 
Measures. 

MacTocJieilus  anguUferus. 

Sehizodus  wJieeleri. 

Macrodon  carbonarius. 

Aviculopecten  maccoyi. 

Retziiv  compressa. 

Orthis  pecosii. 

Producti/s  mexicanus. 

Bhomhopora  lepidendroides. 

Lophop)]iyllum  proliferum. 

Lophopliyllitm  proliferum  var.  sauridcns. 

Fusulina  cylindrica  var.  gracilis. 

Also  the  Nautilus  orientalis  Kayser  is  most  closely  related  to  N.  occi- 
dentalis  Swallow,  and  Nautilus  mingsTianensis  Kayser  resembles  the- 
same  American  species.  Myalina  trapezoidalis  Kayser  finds  its  neai-est 
representative  in  M.  subquadrata  Shumard.  The  fifteen  cosmopolitan 
species  are  also  nearly  all  found  in  the  American  Upper  Coal  Measures, 
so  that  of  the  entire  Lo-ping  fauna  nearly  all  the  species  are  either 
found  in  America,  or  they  have  their  nearest  relatives  there.  The  two 
regions  belong  to  the  same  zoological  province,  the  Pacific  Carboniferous 
sea. 

Many  of  these  species  that  are  very  common  in  America  and  Asia  are 
unknown  or  rare  in  Europe,  which  fact  would  tend  to  prove  a  connec- 
tion with  Asia  by  water,  and  the  separation  of  the  European  and  the 
American  Upper  Coal  Measure  deposits  by  a  land  barrier. 

The  Carboniferous  plants  collected  by  Baron  von  Richthofen  num- 
bered about  forty  species,  and  are  nearly  all  identical  with  European 
Carboniferous  plants.  The  natural  inference  is  that  in  those  times  Asia 
was  connected  by  laud  with  Europe,  while  the  sea  opened  out  to  the  east. 

Prof.  J.  S.  Newberry  *  described  a  small  collection  of  Carboniferous 
plants  from  China,  and  found  nearly  all  of  them  to  belong  to  well- 
known  European  species.  This  is  in  perfect  agreement  with  the  con- 
clusions drawn  above. 

The  Salt  Range  Beds  of  India 

In  the  Salt  Range,  in  northwest  India,  are  found  Upper  Carboniferous, 
deposits,  some  of  which  resemble  those  of  Lo-ping,  China,  and  the 
Lower  Productus  Limestone  of  India  is  probably  of  the  same  age  as 
the  beds  of  Lo-ping,  and  the  western  American  Uppermost  Coal  Meas- 
ures.     These    deposits    and    their    fauna  are   described    by   Prof.    W. 

*  American  Journal  of  Science,  Vol.  cxxvi,  1883,  p.  123  ct  seq. 


1896.]  ^^^  [Smith. 

Waagen,  in  the  Paleontologia  Indica,  and  in  the  volume  on  Geolo(jicnl 
Results  he  draws  some  very  interesting  parallels  between  the  faunas  of 
the  Upper  Carboniferous  in  different  countries.  Many  of  the  American 
species  that  are  found  at  Lo  ping  are  also  found  in  the  Salt  Range  beds. 
This  same  type  of  Carboniferous  is  found  on  Sumatra,  where  it  has  been 
described  1)y  Ferd.  Roemer,*  and  on  Timor,  where  it  was  described  by 
E.  Bey  rich,  t 

This  is  the  furthest  southward  that  the  Indian  or  northern  type  of 
Upper  Carboniferous  is  known,  and  indeed  the  deposits  of  Sumatra  and 
Timor  begin  to  show  already  a  greater  affinity  for  the  Australian  or 
southern  deposits. 

Waagen:f  divides  the  Carboniferous  into  two  types — the  northern,  or 
Asiatic,  and  the  southern,  or  Australo-African.  The  northern  type  is 
found  in  western  Europe,  Russia,  the  Himalayas,  China,  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  North  America.  The  southern  type  is  developed  in  South 
Africa  and  Australia,  and  extends  into  Peninsular  India  and  Afghan- 
istan. Brazil  probably  belongs  to  this  type,  but  is  to  a  certain  extent 
transitional. 

The  Itnituha  Fauna,  Brazil. 

A  comparison  of  the  Brazilian  Upper  Carboniferous  fauna,  as  described 
by  Prof.  O.  A.  Derby, §  shows  that  of  twenty-seven  species  of  Brachio- 
poda  twelve  are  identical  with  American  forms,  although  most  of  these 
are  cosmopolitan.  The  genus  Strophalosia  is  common  in  these  beds,  and 
as  Prof.  Derby  II  says,  the  species  shows  affinity^  with  the  Permian. 
Many  of  the  new  species  are  closely  related  to  European  forms.  Prof. 
W.  Waagen, T[  says  that  the  beds  of  Itaituba  are  of  the  same  age  as  the 
Middle  Productus  Limestone  of  India,  that  is  of  the  Permo-Carboniferous 
transition  beds.  The  Brazilian  Strophalosia  is  closely  related  to  Austra- 
lian forms,  indicating  a  closer  connection  with  the  Australian  or  southern 
Carboniferous  region  than  with  the  Pacitic  province. 

Cl.vssificatton  and  Age  op  the  Arkansas  Coal  Measures.** 

Pi'ovisional  Classification . 

The  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas  have  been  temporarily  classified  by 
the  Survey,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  as  Upper  or  Productive,  and 
Lower  or  Barren  Coal  Measures.     The   division    is  not  based  on  any 

*  Palseontographica,  Vol.  xxvii,  1880. 

\  Abhandlungen  dcr  Berliner  AkacUmie  der  Wissenschoften,  1865. 

X  Salt  Range  Fossils,  Geological  Results,  p.  239. 

I  Bulletin  Cornell  University,  Vol.  i,  No.  2,  and  Journal  GeoL,  Vol.  ii,  pp.  480-.501. 

II  loc.  tit ,  p.  60. 

If  i>aft  Range  Foisils,  Geological  Residts,  p.  207. 

**The  writer  is  greatly  indebted  to  Messrs.  E.  T.  Bumble  and  W.  F.  Cummins  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Texas,  for  their  kindness  and  courtesy  to  him  in  the  Texas  Museum, 
a  Ifo  for  valuable  aid  in  the  correlation  of  the  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas  and  Texa.s. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  152.  2  C.      PRINTED  DEC.  3,    1896. 


Smith.]  ^^^  [Oct.  2, 

paleontologic  or  stratioTapliic  break,  but  merely  on  the  oecurrence  or 
non-occurrence  of  coal. 

The  divisions  that  are  recognized  in  Pennsylvania  could  not  be  recog- 
nized in  Arkansas,  but  the  strata  of  the  two  sections  arc  correlated  as 
far  as  possible,  with  the  scanty  data  now  at  hand. 

The  Lower  Coal  Measures. 

Of  the  age  of  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  we  have  only  stratigraphic 
evidence,  their  position  above  the  limestones  of  the  Lower  Carboniferous 
and  below  the  coal-bearing  beds  of  the  L^pper  Coal  Measures  being 
unmistakable.  But  their  known  fauna  and  flora  have  been  too  limited 
and  indecisive  to  enable  us  to  correlate  the  stages  with  those  of  other 
Carboniferous  areas,  since  collections  have  been  made  in  but  few  places, 
and  these  chiefly  in  sandstones,  where  the  preservation  of  fossils  is 
usually  unsatisfactory,  and  the  determination  uncertain. 

But  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  correspond  in  a  general  waj-  to  the 
Strawu  and  the  lower  part  of  the  Canyon  division  of  Texas,  to  the  Potts- 
ville  Conglomerate  series,  the  Lower  Productive  Coal  Measures,  and 
part  of  the  Lower  Barren  Coal  Measures  of  Pennsylvania.  The  series 
corresponds  in  the  main  to  the  Middle  Carboniferous  limestone  of  eastern 
Eussia. 

The   Ujyper  Coal  Measures. 

The  Arkansas  Upper  Coal  Measures  corresj^ond  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  Canyon  and  the  whole  of  the  Cisco  division  of  Texas,*  and  below 
the  transitional  Permo-Carboniferous  or  Artinsk  stage,  to  which  latter 
age  the  lower  part  of  the  Wichita  and  Albany  divisions  of  Texas 
belong.  The  Lower  Permo-Carboniferous  beds  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska 
iire  also  probably  to  be  correlated  with  the  Artinskf  stage,  although 
AVaagen:}:  classes  the  entire  series  with  the  ammonite-bearing  beds  of 
northern  Texas,  described  by  Dr.  C.  A.  White,  in  Bulletin  77  of  the 
U.  S.  Geological  Smwey.  Most  of  the  latter  Texas  beds  belong  rather 
above  the  Artinsk  stage,  and  in  the  true  Permian,  and  are  probably  of 
the  same  age  as  the  Middle  and  Upper  Productus  Limestone  of  the  Salt 
Eange. 

Waagen,  in  Salt  Range  Fossils,  Geological  Eesults,  p.  238,  gives  a  com- 
parative table,  showing  the  relationship  of  the  upper  Paleozoic  strata 
all  over  the  world.  While  the  position  assigned  some  of  the  American 
deposits  does  not  agree  with  that  accepted  by  most  American  geologists, 
still  the  table  is  very  useful  for  comparison,  and  it  has  been  freely  used 
In  compiling  the  comparative  table  accompanying  this  paper. 

*The  writer,  in  Journal  Geology,  Vol.  ii,  p.  194,  following  Karpinsky,  plaoed  the  Popa- 
noceras  parkcri  bed.s  iu  the  lower  Permian  or  Artinsk,  but  in  this  he  was  mistaken.  Prof. 
W.  F.  Cummins  told  the  writer  that  these  beds  arc  not  in  the  I'pper  Cisco,  but  in  the 
Strawn  division,  and  therefore  are  Lower  Coal  Measures. 

t  Karpinsky,  Anwionren  der  Artinsk- St  life,  p.  '.'>'2. 

I  Salt  Range  Fossils,  flcological  Results,  p.  201. 


1896.]  227  [Smith. 

The  beds  of  Poteau  mouiitaiu,  ludiau  Territory,  are  probably  of  the 
age  of  the  Lo-piiig  strata,  while  the  yellow  shales  of  Scott  comity, 
Arkansas,  1  IST.,  28  W.,  section  4,  southeast  quarter  of  southeast  quarter, 
are  probably  of  the  age  of  the  Upper  Carboniferous  Limestone  of  Mos- 
cow, and  the  west  slope  of  the  Urals,*  if  we  can  judge  by  the  occurrence 
of  Gastrioceras  conf.  marianum  and  Pronorites  in  them.  This  would 
make  them  older  than  the  Poteau  mountain  shales,  which  is  very  likely 
the  case.  They  are  the  prol)able  equivalents  of  the  Canyon  division  of 
Texas. 

P(( Icobota )i  it'  Ee iden ce. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  paleobotanj'  of  the  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas 
has  been  up  to  the  present  time  very  limited,  depending  almost  entirely 
on  the  publications  of  Lesquereux  in  the  Second  Annual  Be2)ort  of  a 
Geological  Reconnoissance  of  the  Middle  and  Southern  Counties  of 
Arkansas,  1860,  and  in  the  Second  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania, 
"Report  of  Progress,  P.  Description  of  the  Coal  Flora  of  the  Carbonif- 
erous Formatio)!  in  Pennsylvania,  and  throughout  tlie  United  States," 
1884. 

The  joint  monographf  of  H.  L.  Fairchild  and  David  White  on  tlie 
Fossil  Flora  of  the  Coal  Mc<(sur€s  of  Arkansas  throws  much  new  light 
on  the  stratigraphic  and  regional  distribution  of  species,  and  has  been  of 
material  aid  in  correlating  the  Arkansas  strata  with  those  of  other 
regions.  They  prove  that  all  the  Coal  Measure  plants:]:  published  from 
Arkansas  belong  to  the  horizon  of  the  Upper  or  Productive  Coal  Meas- 
lu-es.  The  Van  Buren  plant  l)ed  is  thought  from  paleobotanic  evidence 
to  belong  above  the  horizon  from  whicli  most  of  the  coal  of  Arkansas  is 
obtained,  that  of  the  Ouita  coal,  and  this  agrees  with  the  evidence 
given  by  the  stratigraphy  and  the  marine  fossils.  The  Van  Buren  plant 
bed  occurs  below  the  Poteau  mountain  marine  beds,  and  above  those  in 
8  N.,  33  "W.,  section  12,  Sebastian  county,  near  Fort  Smith  ;  and  these 
latter  marine  beds  occur  above  the  horizon  of  the  Ouita  coal. 

The  Poteau  mountain  marine  beds  are  of  about  the  same  age  as  the 
Wyoming  Valley  limestouesg  of  the  Upper  Productive  Coal  Measures  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  these  belong  below  the  Dunkard  creek  series  of  the 
Upper  Barren  Coal  Measures.  The  Dunkard  creek  beds  have  lately 
been  proved  by  Prof  I.  C.  White ||  to  be  of  the  same  age  as  the  Permian 
of  northern  Texas,  on  the  basis  of  plant  remains  that  occur  towards  the 
top  of  the  Texas  beds  in  which  marine  Permian  fossils  were  found. T[ 
But  the  paleobotanic  evidence   aids  in   establishing  the  age  of  the 

*  C2  of  Tschernischew,  Mim.  Com.  Gcot.  Bussie,  Vol.  iii.  No.  4,  p.  :>)3. 
t  -\ii  unpublished  report  of  the  Geol.  Survey  of  Arkansas. 

J  The  work  of  the  Survey  shows  that  the  plants  described  by  Lesquereux  from  Wash- 
ington county  as  Subconglomerate  belong  to  the  Lower  Carboniferous. 
i  Upper  part  of  C2,  Tschemischew,  Man.  Com.  Gi  I.  I^iissie,  Vol.  iii,  No  4,  p.  353. 
li  Bull.  Geol.  Sac.  America,  Vol.  iii,  p.  217. 
1|  Bull.  77,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


Smith.]  ^28  [Oct.  2, 

Uj)per  Coal  MoassurL'S  only  ;  i)lants  are  not  reported  <mi  iVoin  any  hori- 
zons of  the  Lower  Coal  Measures,  although  they  are  known  from  a  few- 
localities. 

Owen*  mentions  Stujmaria  ficoides  as  occurring  at  Patterson's  mill, 
near  Bee  Rock,  on  Little  Red  river,  White  county.  In  August,  1892,  a 
few  plants  w^ere  found  by  the  Survey  in  the  Bee  Rock  sandstone  near 
tlie  base  of  the  series  and  below  most  of  the  marine  fossils,  but  none  of 
these  could  be  identified. 

Mr.  D.  McRae,  of  Searcy,  informed  the  Survey  that  in  7  N.,  7  W., 
section  4,  White  coiTnty,  were  found  shales  containing  numerous  Lcpi- 
dodenclra  and  ferns.     These  shales  are  above  the  Bee  Rock  sandstones. 

In  a  well  at  Dr.  Griffin's,  5  N.,  10  W.,  section  5,  near  El  Paso,  White 
county,  specimens  of  Lepidodendron  were  collected  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Bran- 
ner,  in  micaceous  flaggy  sandstone,  thought  to  be  of  about  the  same 
age  as  the  shales  of  Searcy.  About  fifty  feet  al)ove  the  flaggy  sand- 
stone was  found  a  thin  bed  of  coal,  and  thirty  feet  higher  was  another 
coal  bed  with  numerous  ferns  and  Calamitcs. 

C.  S.  Prosserf  mentions  plants  supposed  to  be  of  Lower  Carbonifer- 
ous age,  from  Shinall  mountain,  in  2  N.,  14  W.,  section  17  ;  also  from 
section  20  of  the  same  township. 

In  quarries  in  the  sandstones  of  Big  Rock,  near  the  city  of  Little 
Rock,  are  found  plant  remains  of  indeterminable  character.  The 
stratigraphy  of  the  Survey  places  the  three  last  localities  in  the  Lower 
Coal  Measures,  and  probably  above  the  fossiliferous  sandstones  of  Bee 
Rock,  on  Little  Red  river. 

The  Pacific  Cahboniperous  Sea. 
Bevolution   in  Bevonian  Time. 

In  Paleozoic  times  there  have  been  many  revolutions  and  alterna- 
tions of  continents  and  seas,  and  consequent  readjustment  of  their 
inhabitants  to  new  surroundings.  One  of  the  greatest  of  these  revolu- 
tions was  that  which  broke  up  a  large  zoological  province,  and  put  in 
direct  connection  regions  that  before  were  separated. 

Dr.  A.  Ulrich:}:  has  shown  that  in  Lower  and  Middle  Devonian  tin- 
faunas  of  Bolivia,  Brazil,  the  Falkland  Islands  and  South  Africa  were 
very  similar  to  those  of  North  America,  and  that  they  were  very  difter- 
ent  from  the  fiiunas  of  Europe  and  Asia.  This  state  lasted  until  the 
end  of  the  Middle  Devonian,  when  the  revolution  began.  Prof.  II.  S. 
Williamsg  has  shown  that  with  the  beginning  of  the  Upper  Devonian 
in  America  there  came  in  a  fauna,  many  sjjecies  of  which  were  not  the 
direct  descendants  of  those   immediately    ])reccding   them.     This    new 

*  Second  Geol.  Reconn.  Ark.,  Vol.  i,  p.  68. 
fArk.  Gcol.  Survey  Ann.  RejJ.,  Vol.  iii,  1890,  p.  423. 

XBeitrdge  zur  Geoloi/ie  und  Palaont.  Siidamerika,  I,  "  I'aUiozoischo  Versteinoningcii  aiis 
Bolivien." 
g  Bull.  Geol.  Soc.  Amer.,  Vol.  i,  "  The  Cuboides  Zone  and  Its  Fauna." 


1896.]  .^29  [Smith. 

fauna  was,  however,  closely  related  to  forms  known  in  Europe  and 
Asia,  but  unlike  those  of  the  southern  regions.  Prof.  AVilliams*  after- 
wards elaborated  this  theory  and  followed  out  closely  the  changes  that 
were  inaugurated  towards  the  close  of  the  Devonian.  The  culmination 
of  these  changes  produced  the  Pacificf  Carboniferous  sea. 

The  Carhoniferous  Sea. 

From  Chapter  v,  in  Suess'  AntUtz  der  Erde,  Vol.  ii,  we  get  many 
valuable  suggestions  as  to  the  outlines  of  tlie  Pacific  Carboniferous 
ocean.  The  Subcarbouiferous  Avas  the  time  of  greatest  transgression  of 
sea  over  the  present  land  areas,  while  the  sea  in  which  the  FusuUna 
beds  of  Europe  and  America  were  formed  was  more  circumscribed. 

The  Waverly  group  when  tra<;ed  towards  the  west  gradually  takes  on 
the  character  of  deep  water  fonnations  ;  it  is  persistent  through  Nevada 
and  California,:!:  and  has  been  shown  hj  the  writer  §  to  have  a  similar 
fauna  in  these  tw'o  states.  The  Waverly  probably  persisted  much 
longer  in  the  west  than  in  the  east,  for  in  northern  Missouri  Dr.  C. 
R.  Keyes||  has  obseiwed  that  in  the  midst  of  an  undoubted  Burlington 
fauna  a  well-marked  Kinderhook  or  Waverly  fauna  reappears.  This 
lie  explains  by  Barrande's  theory  of  colonies.  It  is  probablj^  an  in- 
cursion of  the  inhabitants  of  a  deeper  western  sea,  where  the 
Waverly  had  persisted  longer,  into  the  shallower  eastern  waters.  The 
work  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Arkansas  shows  that  a  similar  phe- 
nomenon occurs  in  that  state.  The  Fayetteville  shale,  which  is  of 
Warsaw  or  St.  Louis  age,  contains  a  fauna  that  differs  markedly  from 
those  of  the  limestones  above  and  below  it.  A  recent  jjaper  by  Prof. 
Henry  S.  WilliamsT[  shows  the  occurrence  in  the  Fayetteville  shale  of 
several  species  that  occur  in  a  doubtful  U])per  Devonian  or  Lower  Car- 
boniferous black  shale  in  the  White  Pine  district,  Nevada.  Along  with 
these  Devonian  or  Waverly  species  occur  others  that  belong  much 
higher,  as  Productus  semireticulatus  and  Goniatites  conf.  sphwricus. 
Below  the  Fayetteville  shale  is  the  Boone  chert,  which  at  the  base  con- 
tains a  decided  Burlington  fauna,  and  at  the  top  probably  belongs  to 
the  Warsaw.  This  has  been  observed  in  so  many  places  that  there  is  no 
possibility  of  mistake  in  the  sequence  of  the  strata. 

We  have  therefore  in  Arkansas  an  incursion  similar  to  that  in  Mis 
souri,  except  that  in  Arkansas  the  incursion  came  considerably  later. 
This  is  evidence  that  somewhere  in  the  west  the  Waverly  fauna  per- 
sisted throughout  the  Osage  and  possibly  a  part  of  the  St.  Louis.     This 

*  Proc.  Amer.  Assoc.  Adv.  ScL,  1892,  Section  E,  Address,  "The  Scope  of  Paleoutology 
and  Its  Value  to  Geologists." 

t  See  also  Tschernischew,  Man.  Com.  Geol.  Rtissie,\o\.  iii,  No.  4,  p.  .364,  on  the  physi- 
•cal  geographic  changes  that  occurred  in  Europe  towards  the  end  of  the  Carboniferous. 

J  Zoe,  Vol.  iii,  p.  274,  Proc.  Calif.  Acad.  ScL,  Oct.  17,  1892. 

^Journ.  Geo/.,  Vol.  ii.  No.  6,  Metamorphic  Series  of  Shasta  County,  California. 

11  American  Journal  of  Science,  December,  1892,  p.  447. 

•^  Amer.  Journal  qf  Science.  Vol.  xlix,  ls95,  pp.  94-101. 


Smith.]  ^'^^  [Oct.  2^ 

is  in  accordance  ■with  tlie  phenomenon  described  by  Prof.  C.  D.  Wal- 
cott  in' Monograph  viii,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  from  the  Eureka  dis- 
trict, Nevada,  where  a  Waverly  fauna  occurs  three  thousand  feet  above 
the  base  of  the  Carboniferous  formation.  The  same  thing  has  been  ob- 
served by  the  writer  in  the  Carboniferous  of  Sliasta  county,  California.* 
The  Lower  Carboniferous  limestones  can  be  traced  all  through  the 
West  and  the  Mississippi  vallej',  to  the  base  of  the  Appalachian  moun- 
tains, where  they  are  replaced  by  conglomerates  and  other  coarse 
sediments. 

Upper  Carboniferous  in  the  West. 

Of  the  Upper  Carboniferous  all  that  we  know  west  of  Indian  Ter- 
ritory takes  on  a  decidedly  marine  character,  contaiaiing  thick  beds  ot' 
limestones.  There  are  however  some  thin  beds  of  coal  in  Texas,  and 
some  carbonaceous  seams  with  a  few  land  plants  in  New  Mexico  and 
Nevada.  The  coal  \i\  Texas  was  probabl}^  deposited  near  the  southern 
shore  line  of  the  Carboniferous  sea,  and  the  carbonaceous  seams  in  the 
far  West  probably  belong  to  the  insular  areas.  The  fossils  described 
from  the  western  Carboniferous  are  all  marine,,  with  the  slight  excep- 
tion that  Walcottf  mentions  a  few  specimens  of  pulmonate  Gasteropoda 
that  were  found  along  with  brachiopods,  corals  and  land  plants,  evi- 
dently washed  in  from  a  distance,  since  no  terrestrial  Carboniferous  de- 
posits are  known  near  the  Eureka  district. 

llie  Pawltu^ki  Limestone.. 

In  the  the  eastern  part  of  Indian  Territory  are  found  large  deposits  of 
coal  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures,  but  further  west  the  same  horizon  is 
represented  by  mtirine  limestone.  In  1893,  Mr.  H.  C.  Hoover,  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Arkansas,  found  at  the  Government  lime-kiln, 
three  miles  northwest  of  Pawhuski,  Oklahoma  Territory,  Osage 
agency,  a  bed  of  massive  limestone  about  100  feet  thick,  lying  horizon- 
tally on  heavily  bedded  sandstones.  The  limestone  is  fossiliferous,  but 
the  sandstones  are  not.  The  fossils  collected  were  placed  at  my  dis- 
posal, and  on  examination  they  proved  to  be  ;. 

Spirifer  cameratus  Morton. 

Athyris  suhtilita  Hall  sp. 

Productus  seniireticulatus  Martin,  sp.. 

Productus  nebrascensis  Owen. 

Productus  splendens  Norwood  and  Prat  ten. 

Derbyia  erassa  Meek  and  Hay  den. 

These  are  plainly  of  Upper  Carboniferous  age.  Tlic  limestones  cap 
the  hills  in  that  region,  and  spread  over  a  gi'cat  area,  but  fossils  were- 
collected  at  this  place  only. 

*  Journal  of  Geology,  Vol.  ii,  Xo.  6,  pp.  588-(".r-'. 
t  Mon.  viii.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survei/,  p.  262.. 


189f..]  -"^1  [Smith. 

Tnterch<uige  of  Life  Between  East  and  West. 

The  many  beds  of  marine  fossils  in  the  Productive  Coal  Measures  are 
simply  transgressions  from  the  western  sea,  and  reach  no  further  east 
than  Pennsj'lvania  and  West  Virginia.  The  Appalachian  system  was 
the  western  border  of  the  ancient  Atlantis*  which  separated  the  Euro- 
pean from  the  Pacific  waters,  while  the  great  Indo-Australianf  conti- 
nent bounded  the  Pacific  ocean  on  the  south.  This  ocean  must  have 
stretched  from  the  American  Coal  Measures  to  Eastern  China,  the  Bait 
range  in  India,  the  Ural  mountains  on  the  borders  of  Russia,  and  into 
the  Arctic  regions,  for  we  find  related  faunas  in  all  these  places.  "What- 
ever we  have  of  western  European  Coal  Measure  species  must  have 
migrated  from  this  direction,  since  on  tlie  east  there  was  no  direct  com- 
munication with  European  waters.  An  example  of  this  is  Productus 
giganteusX  Martin,  which  is  common  in  Europe,  and  is  found  in  the 
Lower  Carboniferous  of  the  McCloud  river,  Shasta  county,  but  is  not 
found  east  of  that  place,  unless  P.  latissimus  Sowerby,  from  Montana, 
west  of  the  main  chain  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  be  an  equivalent. 
Another  example  is  Omphalotrochus  wMtiwyi  Meek,  which  was  first  de- 
scribed from  the  Carboniferous  limestone  of  Shasta  county,  California, 
but  is  also  very  common  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measure  limestone  (C2)  of 
eastern  Russia.^ 

On  the  other  hand,  many  species  seem  to  be  confined  to,  or  character- 
istic of,  this  ocean  ;  among  them  may  be  mentioned  Productus  corn 
d'Orbigny,  which  Waagen||  says  is  not  found  in  Europe,  its  nearest  rep- 
resentative being  Productus  riparius  Trautschold  ;  it  was  however  first 
described  from  South  America. 

Goniatltes  marianus  Verneul  is  found  in  the  Artinsk  region  of  the 
Urals  and  in  Arkansas.  The  genus  Pronoriles,  while  found  in  western 
Europe,  is  rare  in  it,  and  is  much  more  common  in  the  Pacific  region. 
Pronoritcs  is  found  in  the  Artinsk  region  and  in  Arkansas,  while  the 
ammonite  genus  Medlicottia,  the  direct  descendant  of  Pronorites,  is 
found  in  the  Permo-Carboniferous  strata  of  Sicily,  the  Urals,  the  Salt 
range,  and  Texas. 

It  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  the  same  genus  and  species  originated 
at  different  localities,  and  since  we  have  both  ancestors  and  descendants 
in  places  so  widely  separated,  we  can  only  suppose  that  there  was  free 
interchange  of  life  between  those  places  at  that  time,  or  in  other  words 
an  open  sea,  on  the  borders  of  which  these  fossiliferous  deposits  were 
laid  down,  and  along  the  margin  of  which  the  cephalopods  and  other 
marine  animals  could  migrate. 

*  Sucss,  Antlitz  der  Erdc,  ii,  p.  17. 
tSuess,  Ibid.,  ii,  p.  316. 

X  See  Annual  Report  U.  S.  Geog.  and  Geo!.  Surv.  Terr.,  1883,  Part  i,  p.  132,  and  Bull.  Geog. 
and  Geol.  Surv.  Terr.,  Vol.  ii,  No.  -1,  p.  354. 
g  See  Journal  Grol.,  Vol.  ii,  No.  6,  pp.  59,S-600. 
11  Pal.  Indica,  Salt  Range  Fossils,  Brachiopoda,  p.  677. 


Smith.]  232  [Oct.  2, 

Replacement  of  Limestones  hy  Cocd-hearincj  Formations  in  Western 

Euroiie. 

On  tracing  the  Upper  Carljoniferous  deposits  of  the  Ural  region  to- 
wards the  west,  we  find  the  limestones  thinning  out,  and  the  Coal  mea- 
sitres  and  Culm  formations  taking  their  places  ;  we  find  also  that  the 
transgression  of  marine  on  terrestrial  deposits  takes  place  from  the  east, 
just  the  reverse  of  Avhat  is  seen  in  America. 

Land  Areas  in  the  West. 

It  is  not  thought  that  the  Pacific  Carboniferous  sea  was  an  un- 
broken expanse  of  water  in  western  America  ;  on  the  contrary  there 
are  many  evidences  of  large  isolated  land  areas  and  archipelagos. 
Dr.  Joseph  Le  Conte*  has  argued  that  the  Basin  range,  during  much 
of  Paleozoic  and  Mesozoic  time,  was  a  continent,  oflf  the  western  shores 
of  which  the  sediments  that  afterwards  became  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
Coast  range  w^ere  laid  down.  Clarence  Kingf  thought  that  the  great 
thickness  of  Paleozoic  littoral  deposits  in  the  Great  Basin  region  proved 
the  existence  of  a  large  body  of  land  further  west ;  he  thought  that  the 
eastern  shore  of  this  continent  was  in  Nevada,  and  east  of  this  stretched 
the  Carboniferous  sea,  which  covered  all  but  the  island  chain  of  the 
llocky  Mountain  region.  King:]:  further  concluded  that  the  Carbonifer- 
ous in  California,  west  of  the  old  shore  line,  indicated  shallow  bays  that 
permitted  the  western  extension  of  the  upper  Paleozoic  deposits,  while 
the  bulk  of  them  was  stopped  by  the  bold  coast.  There  are  evidences 
of  land  areas  in  the  Eocky  mountains,  Wahsatch  mountains.  New  Mex- 
ico, and  Nevada,  but  from  the  facts  now  known  it  seems  more  probable 
that  these  were  large  islands  or  archipelagos,  rather  than  continents. 

The  Permtan  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  outlines  of  the  great  western  ocean  can  be  traced  in  Permian 
times  also,  but  with  much  more  circumscribed  limits.  Open-sea  deposits 
of  this  age  are  known  in  Texas,  in  the  Salt  range,  on  the  west  slope  of 
the  Urals,  on  the  island  of  Sicily,  and  in  scattering  places  in  Central 
Asia.  In  all  these  the  genera  are  nearly  the  same,  except  that  the  Ar- 
eestes  types  are  confined  to  the  more  southern  regions.  This  similarity 
indicates  plainly  a  connection  of  these  deposits. 

Suessg  argues  that  the  open-sea  Permian  fauna  wandered  in  from  the 
south,  and  that  the  Mesozoic  types  of  ammonites  were  foreign  to  the 
northern  regions.  Karpinsky,  ||  on  the  contrary,  holds  that  they  were 
autochthonous,  at  least  in  the  Ural  region,  since  he  could  trace  the  de- 
scent of  all  the  ammonites  except  the  Popamwcrata  from  goniatites  that 

*  American  Journal  of  Science,  iii,  Vol.  16,  p.  lOS. 

t  U.  S.  Gcol.  Explor.  Fortieth  Parallel,  Vol.  i,  p.  5o-l. 

:J:  Oi>.  at.,  p.  5S5. 

§  Antlitz  der  Erde,  ii,  p.  316. 

1!  Ammoiieen  der  Artinsk-Stnfe,  p.  86. 


1896.]  ^^^  [Smith. 

were  found  iu  the  uuderl^-iiig  Carbouiferous.  As  lias  been  already  men- 
tioned, the  ammonite  genus  Medlicottia  is  not  a  foreigner  on  this  side  of 
the  Permian  Pacitic  ocean,  because  its  ancestor,  Pronorites,  is  found 
here  too. 

The  Triassic  Pacific  Ocean. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  Triassic  Pacific  ocean  is  based  on  the  work  of 
Mojsisovics,  ArktiscJie  Triasfaunen.^  We  find  that  in  this  period  the 
American  part  of  the  great  western  ocean  has  mostly  become  land,  and 
only  on  the  westei'n  border  of  ximerica  do  we  find  marine  Triassic  beds, 
in  Nevada,  California,  Idaho,  and  along  the  coast  region  in  widely  sep- 
arated places,  from  Alaska  through  British  xlmerica  to  Peru. 

Tliese  deposits,  with  similar  faunas,  can  be  traced  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Pacific  from  jSTew  Zealand,  Timor,  New  Caledonia,  to  Japan,  and 
Siberia.  This  sea  stretched  out  on  one  side  over  the  Himalayas  to  the 
eastern  Alps,  forming  what  Neumayrf  called  the  "central  Mediter- 
ranean sea."  On  the  other  side  the  sea  stretched  up  to  Spitzbergen, 
but  did  not  reach  the  Atlantic  region.  The  Triassic  was  a  continental 
period  for  the  greater  part  of  the  present  continents.:}:  After  the  Trias 
the  outlines  of  the  western  ocean  had  changed  entirely,  and  no  resem- 
blance to  the  original  boundaries  can  be  traced. 

Time  op  the  OcAriiiTA  Uplift. 

The  youngest  rocks  known  to  take  part  iu  the  Ouachita  Mountain 
system  belong  to  the  Upper  Coal  Measures,  and  the  disturbance  must 
have  taken  place  at  the  border  l)etween  Carboniferous  and  Permian. 
Still,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  deposits  of  Permo-Carboniferous  age  may 
yet  be  found  at  some  places  in  the  region. 

Another  fact  that  makes  this  time  for  the  uplift  probable  is  that  the 
Permo-Carboniferous  beds  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  are  not  of  the  open- 
sea  type,  but  belong  to  the  northern  European  or  Zechstein  type  of  de- 
posits. The  beds  of  Texas,  presumably  of  nearly  the  same  age,  are  of 
the  Artinsk  or  open-sea  facies,  and  are  characterized  hy  the  occurrence 
of  ammonites,  commingled  with  ordinary  Upper  Coal  Measure  fossils. 

This  uplift  may  be  of  the  same  age  as  that  movement  in  the  Appa- 
lachiausg  which  cut  off  the  Upper  Barren  Coal  Measures  of  Pennsylva- 
nia and  West  Virgiuia|i  entirely  from  the  western  sea  ;  in  those  deposits 
no  marine  fossils  are  found,  but  only  land  plants  and  fresh-water  Crus- 
taceans, T[  and  a  few  fresh-water  mollusks. 

*  Mem.  Acad.  Imper.  Sci.  St.  Petersbourg,  Tome  33,  No.  6. 

■\  Denkschrift  Wiener  Akad.,  1885,  ''Die  geographische  Verbreitung  der  Juraformation." 

I  Suess,  Antlitz  der  Erde,  ii,  p.  147. 

I  Penna.  Second  Geol.  Smvey,  P.  P.,  p.  120. 

II  I.  C.  White,  Bull,  mh  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  p  41. 

^  Penna.  Second  Geol.  Survey,  P.  P.,  Permian  Flora,  \V.  M.  Fontaiue  and  I.  C.  White,  p. 
116. 

PROC.  AMEK.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.   152.  2  D.      PRINTED  DEC.  3,  1890. 


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1896.]  ^<j5  [Smithv 

Descriptions  of  the  Coal  Measure  Marine  Fossils. 

The  lists  of  fossils  given  above  establish  beyond  question  the  age  of 
the  species  described  in  this  paper,  and  enable  us,  even  without  the  aid 
of  stratigraphy,  to  assign  them  to  their  proper  horizon,  by  a  study  of 
the  accompanying  faunas.  Of  the  goniatites  only  one,  Oastrioceras 
branneri  5 .  P.  S.,  is  thought  to  be  a  new  species,  although  all  are  new 
to  Arkansas.  Oastrioceras  marianum  Verneul,  and  Pronorites  eyclolobus 
Phillips,  have  never  before  been  found  outside  of  Europe  ;  Oastrioceras 
globulosum  Meek  and  Worthen  is  found  here  for  the  first  time  outside  of 
Illinois  ;  Oastrioceras  excelsum  Meek  is  found  for  the  first  time  outside 
of  Kansas;  Paralegoceras  iowense  Meek  and  Worthen  is  found  here  for 
the  third  time,  being  known  elsewhere  only  in  Iowa  and  in  Texas,  and 
shows  on  the  Arkansas  specimen  the  internal  lobes,  features  that  have 
never  before  been  seen  in  this  species  and  genus. 

Both  stocks  or  families  are  represented  in  the  collection,  and  genera 
that  probably  were  the  ancestors  of  important  genera  and  families  in  the 
Permian  and  the  Mesozoic,  and  thus  as  transitional  forms,  or  links  in 
genetic  series,  they  command  especial  interest.  All  species  described  in 
this  paper  are  deposited  in  the  geological  museum  at  Stanford  Uni- 
versitj',  except  the  originals  of  Oastrioceras  brnnneri  J.  P.  S.,  and  Pro- 
norites cyclolobxis  Phillips,  var.  arkansiensis  J.  P.  S.,  which  are  depos- 
ited in  the  U.  S.  National  Museum. 

Subkingdom  Coelenterata. 
Class  Anthozoa. 
Genus    Fistulipora,    McCoy.     Fistidipora    nodnlifera    Meek,    U.    8. 
Oeol.  Survey  Nebraska,  p.  143,  PI.  v.  Fig.  5. 

This  species,  whicli  is  common  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of 
Nebraska,  Iowa,  Illinois,  etc.,  Avas  found  in  corresponding  strata  on 
Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory. 

Genus    Lophophyllum,    Milne-Edwards  and    Haime.     Lo2)hophyllum 
proliferiim  McChesney  sp.,  McChesney,  Descript.  Neic  Pal.  Foss., 
1860,  p.  75  ;  F.  B.  Meek,  U.  S.  Oeol.  Survey  JSTebraska,  p.  144. 
Several  specimens  agreeing  with  the  typical  L.  proliferum  were  found 
in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of   Poteau  mountain,  Indian   Territory. 
Specimens  closely  resembling  this  species  were  also  found  in  tlie  Boone 
Chert,  Lower  Carboniferous,  of  Boone  county,  17  N.,  19  W.,  section  2,  near 
Valley  Springs.     The  latter  specimens  are  more  like  LophophyUum  pro- 
liferum var.  saiir ideas  White,  C.  A.   White,    U.   S.  Oeog.   Su7-v.  W.   of 
100th  Meridian,  iv,  p.  101,  PL  vi.  Fig.  4,  from  Carboniferous  strata,  New 
Mexico  and  Colorado. 

Genus  Zaphrentis,  Rafinesque.     Zaphrentis,  sp.  indet. 

In  Crawford  count  j',  10  N.,  30  W.,  section  10,  southeast  quarter  of  north- 
w^est  quarter,  in  strata  of  the  Lower  Coal  Measures,  and  in  the  same 


Smith.]  ^'^^  [Oct.  2, 

formation  in  Couwa}'  county,  5  N.,  16  W.,  section  IT,  near  centre  of  tlie 
north  half,  were  found  specimens  of  this  genus,  too  poorly  preserved  to 
allow  the  species  to  he  determined. 

Suhkingdom  Echinodekmata. 

Class  Crinoidea. 

Glenus  Cyathocrixus,  Miller. 

In  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territorj- 
were  found  a  great  many  stems  that  seem  to  helong  to  Cyathocrinus, 
but  no  other  parts  w'ere  found,  to  make  the  identification  more  certain. 

Genus  Erisocriki's,  3Ieek  and  Worthen.  Erisoerinus  (Ceriocrinus) 
inflexus  Geinitz,  sp.  Cyathocrinus  inflexus  Geinitz,  Carh  on  forma- 
tion unci  Dyns  in  Nebraska,  p.  62.  Poteriocrinus  liemisphcericus 
Shumard,  Trans.  St.  Louis  Acad.  Sci.,  i,  p.  221.  Scap/iioci'inus 
hemisplmricus  Shumard,  sp.,  F.  B.  Meek,  U.  8.  Geol.  Survey 
Nebraska,  p.  147.  Erisoerinus  (Ceriocrinus)  i/iflexus  Geinitz,  sp., 
C.  A.  White,  Twelfth  Ann.  Rept.  Hayden's  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey 
Wyoniiny  and  Idaho,  Part  i,  p.  128,  PI.  xxxiv.  Fig.  9. 

This  species  which  is  common  in  the  Coal  Measures  of  Nebraska, 
Utah,  etc.,  was  found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Poteau  mountain, 
Indian  Territory. 

Genus  Hydreikocuixus,  De  Koninck.  Hydreinocrinus  mucrospinosus 
McChesney,  sj).  Zeacrinus  mucrospinosus  McChesney,  Descr.  New 
Pal.  Foss.,  p.  10.  nydrei7iocrinus  mucrospinosus  McChesne3%  F.  B. 
Meek,  TJ.  S.  Geol.  Survey  Nebraska,  p.  149.* 

Found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Ter- 
ritory. 

Genus  Poteriocrinus,  Miller.     Poteriocrinus,  sp.  indet. 

In  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory, 
were  found  numerous  crinoid  stems  that  seem  to  belong  to  Poteriocrinus. 

Crinoidea,  genus  undetermined. 

In  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  White  county,  8  N.,  7  W.,  section  33, 
southeast  quarter,  and  section  26,  southeast-  quarter,  and  in  beds  of  the 
same  age  in  Pope  county,  Point  mountain  spur,  10  N.,  20  W.,  sections, 
southeast  cpiarter  of  northwest  quarter,  wei-e  found  numerous  crinoid 
stems,  wliich  could  not  be  identified  since  tliey  were  mostly  in  tlie  form 
of  moulds  or  casts. 

*  Meek  cites  this  species  from  Arkansas,  Ixit  gives  no  locality,  or  authority  for  the 
statement. 


1896.]  ^'^7  fSmith. 

Subkingdom  Molluscoidea. 
Class  Bryozoa. 

Genus  Fenestella,  Lonsdale.  FeiiestcUa  shumio'di  Frovit.,  Trans.  St.. 
Louis  Ac.  8e.,  i,  p.  232  ;  F.  B.  Meek,  U.  S.  Geol.  Surcey  NebrasJ^-a, 
p.  153,  PL  vii,  Fig.  3. 

This  species  was  found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Poteau  mountain, 
Indian  Territory,  and  one  very  closely  resembling  it,  if  not  identical, 
was  found  in  the  Boone  Chert,  Lower  Carboniferous,  at  several  places 
in  northwestern  Arkansas. 

Genus  Rhombopora,  Meek.  Rhombopora  l&pidendroides,  F.  B.  Meek, 
U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  Nebraska,  p.  141,  PI.  vii.  Fig.  2  ;  C.  A.  ;jVhite, 
U.  S.  Oeol.  Survey  W.  of  100th  Meridian.,  iv,  p.  99,  PI.  vi,  Fig.  5. 

This  Bryozoan  is  common  and  characteristic  in  the  Upper  Coal 
Measures  of  Nebraska,  and  is  found  in  the  same  horizon  in  Utah  and 
Arizona,  and  was  also  found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Poteau 
mountain,  Indian  Territory.  The  same,  or  a  very  similar  species,  occurs 
in  the  Boone  Chert,  Lower  Carboniferous,  of  northern  Arkansas. 

Genus  Weptopora,  Prout.  Septopora  biserialis  Swallow,  sp.  Synoela- 
dia  biserialis  Swallow,  Trans.  St.  Louis  Ac.  Sci.,  i,  p.  179  ;  F.  B. 
Meek,  U.  S.  Oeol.  Survey  Nebraska,  p.  156,  PI.  vii,  Fig.  5  ;  C.  A. 
"White,  Survey  W.  of  100th  Meridian,  iv,  p.  107,  PI.  vii,  Fig.  3. 

This  species  is  common  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures,  or  Permo-Car- 
boniferous,  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  and  in  the  true  Coal  Measures  of 
Illinois,  and  in  the  Upper  Carboniferous  of  Arizona.  It  has  also  been 
found  in  the  Chester  and  the  St.  Louis  Limestone,  Lower  Carbonif- 
Bjfous,  of  Illinois.  Waagen  *  says  that  the  true  genus  SynoclaOia  has 
not  been  found  in  America,  and  that  in  Europe  or  Asia  it  is  characteris- 
tic of  the  Permian.  He  refers  the  American  forms  to  the  genus  Sep- 
topora of  Prout. 

Class  Brachiopodu. 

Genus  Orthis,  Dalman.  Ortlds  pecosii  Marcou,  Geol.  North  Amer.,  p. 
48.  0.  carbonaria  Swallow,  Trans.  St.  I^ouis  Ac.  Sci.,  i,  p.  218. 
0.  carbonaria  Meek,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  Nebr.,  p.  173.  0.  pecosii 
Marcou,  C.  A.  White,  U.  S.  Oeol.  Survey  W.  of  100th  Merid.,  iv,  p. 
125,  PI.  ix,  Fig.  5.  Orthis,  sp.  indet..  Meek,  Pal.  Cal.,  I  p.  10,  PL 
ii.  Fig.  5,  a,  b,  c. 

A  single  specimen  was  found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Poteau 
mountain,  Indian  Territory  ;  it  agrees  best  with  Dr.  C.  A.  White's- 
figures.  The  species  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Upper  Coal 
Measures  of  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Illinois,  Texas  and  in  the  Uppei- 

*  Pal.  Indica,  Salt  Range  Fo.ssils,  I.  Productus  Limestone  Fossil?,  p.  802. 


Smith.]  "^^O  [Oct.  2, 

Carboniferous  of  New  Mexico,  and  in  the  Lower  Carboniferous  of  Cali- 
fornia. Dr.  C.  A.  White*  mentions  a  small  Orthis,  similar  to  this 
species,  from  the  Keokuk  of  Iowa  and  Illinois.  In  the  Boone  Chert, 
Lower  Carboniferous,  of  northern  Arkansas,  probably  Keokuk,  was 
also  noticed  a  small  Orthis  of  this  type,  but  the  preservation  was  not 
good  enotigh  for  the  identification  to  be  certain. 

Oi'tJds  conf.  resuplnoides  Cox,  Geol.  Siirv.  Kentucky,  Vol.  iii,  p.  .570,  PL 
ix.  Fig.  1  ;  C.  A.  White,  U.  8.  Geog.  Survey  West  of  100th  Merid., 
Vol.  iii.  Appendix,  p.  23,  PI.  iii.  Fig.  2. 

This  type  of  Orthis  is  exceedingly  rare  in  the  Carboniferous,  being 
rather  characteristic  of  the  Devonian.  0.  i^esiqnnoides  is  found  in  the 
Coal  Measures  of  Kentttcky  and  the  Upper  Carboniferous  of  New  Mexico. 
Dr.  C.  A.  White  compares  the  species  to  Orthis  iowensis  Hall,  0.  tul- 
liensis  Vanuxem  and  0.  •propinqua  Hall  of  the  Devonian. 

A  few  poorly  preserved  specimens  were  found  in  White  county,  8  N  , 
7  W.,  section  33,  southeast  quarter,  east  half,  in  the  Lower  Coal  Meas- 
Tires  ;  also  in  Conway  county,  8  N.,  17  W.,  section  33,  northeast  qitarter 
of  northeast  ciuarter. 

Genus  Dekbyia,  Waagen.  Derbyla  crassa  Meek  and  Haydeu.  Orthi- 
sina  crassa  M.  and  H  ,  Proc  Ac.  Nat.  Sci.  Phil.,  1858,  p.  260. 
Streptorhynchus  crussus  M.  and  H.,  F.  B.  Meek,  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv. 
Nebraska,  p.  174.  Derbyia  crassa  M.  and  H.,  Waagan,  Salt  Itange 
Fossils,  Brachiopodu,  p.  592. 

This  species  is  widelj"  distribttted  in  the  Coal  Measures  of  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Illinois,  Texas,  etc.,  and  was  fotiud  in  the  Upper  Coal  Meas- 
ures of  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory,  and  in  the  Lower  Coal 
Measures  of  Conway  county,  Arkansas,  6  N.,  16  W.,  section  29,  south- 
west quarter  of  southwest  quarter.  It  is  also  very  common  in  the  Lower 
Carboniferous  of  the  Mississippi  valley. 

Genus  Productus,   Sowerby.     Productus   cora  d'Orbigny,  Puleont.    de 
I'Amer.  Merid.,  1842,  p.  48.     P.  cora  d'Orbigny,  C.  A.  White,  Geol. 
Survey  Indiana,  1883,  p.  126,  PI.  xxvi.  Fig.  1,  2,  3,  ^P.  prattenianus 
Norwood. 
This  species  is  almost  world-wide  in  its  distribution  in  the  Coal  Meas- 
ures, and  is  also  found  in  the  Productus  Limestone  of  the  Salt  Range, 
India.     Waagen,  in  Paleontologia  Indica,  Salt  Range  Fossils,  Brachio- 
poda,  p.  677,  says  that  the  true  Productus  cora  is  probably  not  found  in 
Europe,  its  nearest  representative  being  P.  riparius  Trantschold. 

In  America  the  typical  species  is  very  common  in  both  Coal  Measures 
and  Lower  Carboniferous.  It  was  found  in  tlic  former  liori/.on  on 
Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory,  and  in  the  latter  in  numerous 
places;  Fayetteville  shale,  probably  Warsaw,  Independence  county,  13 

*  U.  S.  Oeoj.  Surveii  W.  of  lOOtli  Merid.,  iv,  p.  126. 


1896.]  ^'^'^  [Smith. 

N.,  6  W.,  section  18,  southeast  quarter  of  southeast  quarter,  near  Moore- 
iield  ;  Marshall  shale,  probably  Warsaw  division,  Independence  county, 
13  N  ,  6  W.,  section  12,  and  Stone  county,  Blue  mountain,  14  N.,  11  W.; 
Archimedes  Limestone,  probably  of  St.  Louis  age.  Independence  county, 
13  N.,  6  W.,  section  14. 

Marcj'  (Expl.  Red  River  of  Louisiana,  p.  187)  cites  this  species  from 
Subcarboniferous  limestone  of  Washington  and  Crawford  counties,  but 
does  not  give  the  localities. 

Productus  (Jlarginifera)  splendens  Norwood  and  Pratten.  Productus 
splendens  Norwood  and  Pratten,  Jour.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phil.,  1854, 
Vol.  iii,  p.  11,  PI  i.  Fig.  5.  P.  loabashensis  Norwood  and  Pratten, 
Jour.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phil.,  1854,  p.  13,  PI.  i.  Fig.  6.  P.  longisjnnus 
Meek  (non  SoAverbj'),  Final  Report  U.  S.  Oeol.  Survey  Nebraska,, 
p.  IGl.  Margi/iifera  splendens  N.  and  P.,  Waagen.  Palceontologia 
Indica,  Salt  Range  Fossils,  Productus  Limestone  Fossils,  Brachio- 
poda,  p.  714. 

This  typical  Upper  Coal  Measure  and  Permian  species  is  a  probable 
■descendant  of  Productus  longispinus  Sowerby,  and  so  closely  are  these 
two  related,  that  for  many  j'ears  they  were  considered  identical.  But 
the  Marginifera  type  of  Productus  seems  to  be  confined  to  the  Upper 
Carboniferous  and  Permian,  while  P.  longispinus  Sow erhj  is  also  found 
in  the  Lower  Carboniferous.  The  Arkansas  specimens  agree  perfectly 
with  specimens  from  Indiana  and  Illinois.  This  species  is  very  common 
in  the  Coal  Measures  and  Permian  of  North  America,  and  probably 
occurs  also  in  Asia  A  very  similar  small  species  occurs  in  the  Lower 
Carboniferous  limestone.  Stone  county,  14  N.,  11  W.,  on  Blue  moun- 
tain, but  this  lacks  the  ventral  sinus,  and  has  fewer  spines,  and  there 
fore  probably  belongs  to  the  true  P.  longispinus  Sowerby. 

P.  {Marginifera)  splendens  N.  and  P.  was  found  in  the  Upper  Coal 
Measures  of  Sebastian  coianty,  Arkansas,  8  N.,  88  W.,  section  12,  and 
on  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory,  in  strata  that  are  either  of  upper- 
most Coal  Measure  or  of  Lower  Permian  age. 

Productus  pnnctatus  Martin.  Anoinites  panctatus  Martin,  Petrif.  Derh., 
PI.  37,  Fig.  6.  Productus  punctatus  Martin,  Davidson,  J/on.  Brit. 
Garb.  Brachiopods,  p.  172. 

This  species  is  cosmopolitan  in  the  Coal  Measures  and  Lower  Carbon- 
iferous, although  more  common  in  the  latter  horizon.  It  is  very  sel- 
dom that  the  shell  is  so  preserved  that  the  internal  characteristics  can 
be  seen.  In  the  figured  specimen  the  arm  impressions,  adductor  muscle 
scars,  median  septum,  and  the  cardinal  process  are  all  perfectly  pre- 
served. 

The  dorsal  valve  is  somewhat  squarer  than  those  figured  by  Davidson 
{Mon.  Brit.  Garb.  Brach.,  PI.  44,  Figs.  9-17).  but  the  internal  markings 
are  the  same  in  every  detail,  except   that  Davidson's  figure  makes  the 


Smith.!  240  [Oct.  2, 

cardinal  process  a  little  longer.  The  internal  characteristics  are  imper- 
fectly illustrated  by  McChesney  {Trans.  Chicago  Acad.  Sci.,  PI.  i,  Figs. 
10,  11). 

Occurrence. — Productus  punetatus  was  found  in  great  numbers  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county,  G  N.,  IG  W., 
section  29,  on  the  east  bank  of  Arkansas  river,  about  one  mile  below  the 
Old  Lewisburg  ferry.  It  was  also  found  in  the  Lou'er  Carboniferous  at 
several  places  in  the  State. 

Productus  semireticulatus  Martin,  sp.,  Pctrifacta,  Derhiensln,  p.  7. 

This  well-known  cosmopolitan  species  was  found  in  the  Barren  or 
Lower  Coal  Measures  in  White  county,  8  N.,  T  W.,  section  33,  south- 
east quarter,  and  in  section  26,  southeast  quarter.  It  was  also  found  in 
the  Lower  Carboniferous,  in  the  Fayetteville  shale,  probably  Warsaw, 
in  Searcy  county,  16  N.,  17  W.,  section  1,  southwest  quarter  of  south- 
west quarter ;  in  the  Boone  Chert,  upper  Burlington  or  lower  Keokuk, 
in  Searcy  county,  17  N.,  18  W.,  section  28,  and  at  various  other  places 
in  northern  Arkansas ;  in  the  Marshall  shale,  probably  Warsaw,  in 
Stone  county,  on  Blue  mountain,  14  N.,  11  W.,  south  of  Mountaiu 
View. 

Genus  Rhynchonella,  Fischer  de  Waldheim.  RhynchoneUa  xita  Mar- 
con.  Terehratala  uta  Marcou,  Geol.  of  N.  Amer.,  p.  58.  Rhynchn- 
nella  osagensis  Swallow,  Trans.  St.  L.  Ac.  Sci.,  1858,  p.  219.  E/ii/n- 
chonella  osagensis,  F.  B.  Meek,  U.  8.  Geol.  Sure.  Nebraska,  p.  179. 
Rhynchomlla  uta  Marcou,  C.  A.  White,  U.  S.  Geol.  E.rpl.  W.  of  V.i'ith 
Me  rid.,  iv,  p.  128. 

This  characteristic  Coal  Measure  species,  found  in  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Texas  and  South  America  (V),  was  found  in  the 
Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Sebastian  county,  8  N.,  32  W.,  section  12;  also 
in  the  same  horizon  on  the  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory. 

RJiynclionella,  sp.  indet. 

In  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  White  county,  8  X.,  7  W.,  section  33, 
southeast  quarter,  and  of  Crawford  county,  10  N.,  30  W.,  section  10, 
southeast  quarter  of  northwest  quarter,  were  found  several  Phyncho- 
nellas  that  could  not  be  specifically  determined. 

Genus  Terebkatula  Lhwyd.  Tcrehratnhi  haatata  Sowerh}',  Mineral 
Coneliology,  Vol.  v,  p.  446.  Terebratula,  bocidens  Morton,  Am. 
Journ.  8c. ,  Vol.  xxix,  p.  150.  Terebratula  bocidens,  F.  B.  Mefi<, 
U.  S.  Geol.  Suro.  Nebraska,  p.  187,  PI    i,  Fig.  7. 

Meek  {loc.  rit.)  speaks  of  the  strong  resemblance  of  T.  bocidens  to  7'. 
elongata  Schlotheim,  sp.,  and  T.  hastata  Sowerby,  sp.,  but  is  strongly 
inclined  to  believe  in  the  specific  difierence.  Davidson  {Monograph  Brit. 
Garb.  Brach.,  Appendix,  p.  22G)  is  inclined  to  unite  T.  elongata,  T.  Ims- 
tata  and    T.  sujjlata.     If  Dielasnia   bocidens  is   really   identical   with    7'. 


1896.]  -^4:1  [Smith. 

hastatn,  it  is  an  example  of  one  species  ranging  from  the  Devonian  up 
into  the  Permian.  Tliis  species  ranges  tlirougli  the  Coal  Measures  in 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  Illinois,  Texas,  New  Mexico,  etc.  It  is  very  com- 
mon in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory, 
and  was  also  found  in  the  Fayetteville  shale,  Lower  Carboniferous,  pi-ob- 
ably  Warsaw,  of  Independence  county,  13  N.,  6  W.,  section  18,  southeast 
corner,  near  Mooretield  ;  also  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway 
county,  8  N.,  17  W.,  section  33,  northeast  quarter  of  northeast  quarter. 

Genus  Athyris,  McCoy.  Athyris  suhtilita  Hall.  Terebratula  suhtilita 
Hall,  Stansbitry' s  Exjyl.Gt.  Salt  Lake,  p.  409.  AtJii/ris  si/htilifa  Hall, 
sp.,  F.  B.  Meek,  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Nehraska,  p,  180,  PI.  i,  Fig.  12, 
PI.  viii.  Fig.  4. 

This  species  is  found  nearly  all  over  the  world  in  the  Coal  Measures. 
It  is  also  found  in  various  places  in  the  Lower  Carboniferous,  as  in  Eng- 
land and  India 

It  was  found  to  occur  frequently  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Se- 
bastian county,  8  N.,  32  W.,  section  12,  and  of  Poteau  mountain,  Indian 
Tei'ritory  ;  in  the  Boone  Chert,  Burlington  or  lower  Keokuk,  of  Stone 
county,  14  N.,  10  W.,  section  9,  northwest  quarter. 

Marcy  (Expl.  Bed  River  of  Louisiana,  p.  189)  cites  Athyris  subtilita 
from  the  Subcarboniferous  limestone  of  Washington  county. 

Genus  Retzia,  King.  Retzia  radialis  Phillips.  Terrehratula  mormonii 
Marcou,  Oeol.  N.  Amer.,  p.  51,  PI.  vi.  Fig.  1.  Retzia  punctilifera 
Shuniard,  Trans.  St.  Louis  Ac.  Set.,  i,  p.  220.  Retzia  suhglohosa. 
McChesney,  New  Pal.  Foss.,  p.  45,  PI.  i,  Fig.  1.  Retzia  compressa 
Meek,  Pal.  Calif.,  i,  p   14,  PI.  ii.  Fig.  7. 

R.  radialis  is  common  in  the  Western  Coal  Measures  and  Lower  Car- 
boniferous ;  it  was  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures 
of  Sebastian  county,  8  N.,  32  W.,  section  12,  and  of  Poteau  mountain, 
Indian  Territorj-. 

Genus  Spiripetj,  Sowerby.  Spirifer  earner atus  Morton,  Am.  Journ.  Sc, 
Vol.  xxix,  p.  150.  Spirifer  meusibachianus  Rcemer,  Kreidebildung 
lion  Texas,  p.  88.  Spirifer  triplicatus  Hall,  Stansbury's  Expl.  Ot. 
Salt  Lake,  p.  410.  Spirifer  cameratus  Morton,  C.  A.  White,  U.  S. 
Expl.  W.  of  100th  Merid.,  iv,  p.  132,  PI.  x,  Fig.  1. 

This  species  is  distributed  throughout  the  Coal  Measures  from  Penn- 
sylvania and  West  Virginia  to  Arizona  ;  it  is  also  found  in  the  Permo- 
Carboniferous  of  Kansas  ;  *  Meek,  in  Oeol.  Exp)l.  4.0  Parallel,  iv,  p.  8, 
cites  the  species  from  the  Upper  Carboniferous  of  the  White  Pine 
Mining  district  of  Nevada.  It  was  found  in  great  numbers  in  the 
Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Sebastian  county,  8  N.,  32  W.,  section  12,  and 
of  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory  ;  also  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures 
*  F.  B.  Meek,  V.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Nebraska,  p.  184. 

PROC.  AMEK.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  152.  2  E.      PRINTED  DEC    9,  1896. 


Smith.]  ^^2  [Oct.  2, 

of  Conway  county,  G  X.,  IG  W.,  section  29,  sotithwcst  quarter  of  south- 
west quarter. 

Spirifer  rocky montamis  Marcou,  Geol.  of  N.  Amer.,  p.  50,  PI.  vii,  Fig.  4. 
Spirifer  opima  Hall,  Oeol.  Surv.  Iowa,  Yo].  i,  Part  ii,  p.  711.  Spir- 
ifer suhventricosa  McChesney,  Besc.  New  Pal.  Foss.,  p.  44.  Spirifer 
rockymontanus  Marcou,  C.  A.  White,  JJ.  S.  G.  Erpl.  W.  of  100th 
Merid.,  iv,  p.  134,  PI.  xi.  Fig.  9. 

S.  rockymontanus  occurs  in  the  Upper  Carboniferous  from  Pennsylva- 
nia to  New  Mexico. 

It  was  found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  White  county,  8  N., 
7  W.,  section  33,  southeast  quarter,  in  the  form  of  well-preserved  casts, 
also  in  section  2G,  on  Bee  Rock  ;  also  in  the  same  horizon,  Crawford 
county,  12  N.,  30  W.,  section  17.  These  specimens  agree  with  Dr. 
White's  figures  and  descriptions  so  well  that  no  fitrther  description  is 
necessary. 

Genus  Spiriferina,  d'Orbigny.  Spiriferina  cristata  Schlotheim.  Ter- 
ebratulites  eristatus  Schlotheim,  Beitrage  Nut.  Verst.  Muenchen, 
PL  i.  Fig.  3.  Spiriferina  kentuckensis  Shumard,  Oeol.  Surv.  Mis- 
sotiri,  1858,  p.  203.  Spirifer  octoplicatus  Hall,  Stansbury' s  Expl.  Gt. 
Salt  Lake,  p.  409,  PI.  xi.  Fig.  4.  Spirifer  laminosus  Geinitz,  Car- 
bonformation  und  Byas  in  Nebraska,  p.  45,  PI.  iii.  Fig.  11.  Spir- 
iferina kentuckensis  Shumard,  sp.,  F.  B.  Meel^,  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv. 
Nebraska,  p.  185,  PI.  vi.  Fig.  3,  PI.  viii.  Fig.  11. 

Dr.  C.  A.  AVliite.  in  U.  S.  Geog.  Expl.  W.  of  100th  Merid.,  iv,  p.  140, 
egards  S.  octoplicatus  Hall  and  S.  kentuckensis  Shumard  as  distinct 
species.  C.  D.  Walcott,  Pal.  Eureka  Bistrict,  p.  218,  regards  them  both, 
as  well  as  S.  spinosa  Norwood  and  Pratten,  as  synonyms  of  S.  cristata 
Schlotheim,  sp.  If  this  reference  is  correct,  then  the  species  ranges 
from  the  Upper  Devonian  of  the  White  Pine  Mining  district  into  the 
Upper  Carboniferous  of  the  Eureka  district. 

Davidson  {Monograph  Brit.  Garb.  Brach.,  p.  207)  regards  Spiriferina 
octoplicata  Sowerby,  sp.,  as  synonymous  with  S.  cristata  Schlotheim,  sp., 
which  ranges  from  the  Carboniferous  into  the  Permian.  Taken  in  these 
broader  limitations,  the  species  ranges  from  the  Devonian,  through  the 
Lower  Carboniferous  of  the  West,  and  tlirough  the  entire  Coal  ]Meas- 
ures  from  Kentucky  to  Nevada. 

Hall  (Geol.  Survey  Iowa,  Vol.  i.  Part  ii,  p.  706,  PI.  xxvii,  Fig.  5)  de- 
scribes and  figures  Spiriferina  spiiwsa  N.  and  P.  from  tlie  Kaskaskia 
group  of  Iowa.  He  states  that  S.  spinosa  differs  from  *S.  kentuckensis  in 
being  more  robust  and  in  possessing  the  tubular  spines. 

But  specimens  of  S.  kentuckensis  from  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of 
Arkansas  are  equally  robust  and  possess  the  spines  tliat  are  thought  to 
be  characteristic  of  S.  spinosa. 

A  comparison  of  specimens  from  the  Upper  Coal   Measures  of  Sdias- 


1896.]  "'^'^  [Smith. 

tian  county,  8  N.,  33  W.,  section  13,  shows  the  perfect  resemblance 
between  the  two  so-called  species.  There  are  live  distinct  but  rather 
rounded  plications  on  each  side  of  the  mesial  fold  and  sinus,  but  no 
concentric  striations  or  lamellae  were  observed.  The  entire  surface  is 
thickly  covered  with  short  spines,  which  seem  to  be  unusually  well 
preserved. 

This  species  was  found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county, 
6  N.,  16  W.,  section  39,  southwest  quarter  of  southwest  quarter,  and  in 
the  Upper  Coal  Measures  at  the  locality  mentioned  in  Sebastian  county; 
also  on  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory  ;  in  the  Lower  Carbonifer- 
ous, Boone  Chert,  upper  Burlington  or  lower  Keokuk,  at  St.  Joe,  in 
Searcy  county. 

Subkingdom  Mollusca. 

Class  Lamellibran cMata. 

Genus  Aviculopecten,  McCoy.  Aviculopecten  curhoniferus  Stevens, 
Amer.  Journ.  Sc,  Vol.  xxv,  p.  361. 

Two  imperfect  specimens  from  the  Lower  Coal  Measures,  White 
county,  8  N.,  7  W.,  section  36,  southeast  quarter,  agree  fairly  well  with 
the  figures  and  descriptions  of  this  species.  Another  specimen  was 
found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county,  5  N.,  16  W.,  sec- 
tion 17,  northwest  quarter. 

Aviculopecten  coxanus  Meek  and  Worthen,  Proc.  Aaid.  Ndt.  Sc.  Phil., 
1860,  p.  453  ;  Geol.  Surv.  Ill,  ii,  p.  336,  PL  xxvi.  Fig.  6  ;  F.  B.  Meek, 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Nelrasica,  p.  196,  PL  ix.  Fig.  3. 

This  species  is  found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Illinois  and  Ne- 
braska, and  was  also  found  in  the  same  horizon  on  Poteau  mountain,. 
Indian  Territory. 

Aviculopecten  germanus  Miller  and  Faber,  Journ.  Cin.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,. 
July,  1893,  p.  79. 

This  species  was  described  from  the  Coal  Measures  of  Elkhorn  creek„ 
Kentucky,  and  was  compared  by  tlie  authors  to  A.  rectilaterarius  Cox 
sp.,  Geol  Surv.  Kentucky,  iii,  p.  571,  PI.  ix.  Fig.  3,  but  it  resembles; 
more  closely  A.  eclwardsi  "Worthen,  Bull.  2  State  Mus.  Nat.  Hist,  of  111., 
p.  33  ;  both  species  were  founded  on  left  valves,  the  right  being  un- 
known. They  are  both  very  similar  to  A.  segregatus  McCoy,  British 
Pal.  Fossils,  p.  489,  PI.  iii,  E,  Fig.  1,  of  the  Carboniferous  limestone  of 
Northumberland,  although  the  latter  has  from  two  to  three  secondarv 
intermediate  ribs,  instead  of  one. 

A  single  small  left  valve  was  found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of 
Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory.  It  agrees  in  the  main  points  with 
Miller  and  Faber's  description,  except  that  the  intermediate  rib  is  some- 
times obsolete,  and  distinct  concentric  lines  of  growth  are  seen  on  the 
shell. 


Smith.]  ^"^  [Oct.  2, 

The  beak  is  sharp,  and  projects  beyond  the  cardinal  margin  ;  the  ribs 
number  about  twelve,  and  are  rather  coarser  than  those  shown  iu  Miller 
and  Faber's  figures. 

Aviculopeeten  occidentalis  Shumard,  Geol  Survey  Missovri,  1855,  Part 
ii,  p.  307,  PI.  C,  Fig.  18. 

This  species  is  very  common  in  the  Coal  Measures  from  Pennsylvania 
to  Arizona  ;  in  Arkansas  it  was  found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of 
Conway  county,  5  N.,  16  W.,  section  17,  northwest  quarter  ;  about  four 
miles  southeast  of  Morrillton,  and  6  N.,  16  W.,  section  29,  east  bank  of 
Arkansas  river,  about  one  mile  below  the  Old  Lewisburg  ferry,  in  the 
Lower  Coal  Measures. 

Genus  Lima.  Lima  renf era  ^hwiiVavH.  Lima  retif era '^\i\\i\\ay(\,  Trans. 
St.  Louis  Ac.  Sc,  i,  p,  314.  Crenipecten  retiferus  Shumard,  sp.,  S. 
A.  Miller,  If.  Amer.  Geol.  and  Pal.,  1889,  p.  473. 

Lima  retifera  is  characteristic  of  the  Coal  Measures  in  Kansas,  Illi- 
nois, Nebraska,  Texas,  etc.,  and  was  also  found  iu  the  Upper  Coal 
Measures  of  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory. 

Genus  Macrodon,  Lycett.  Macrodon  carhonarius  Cox,  sp.  Area  car- 
bonaria  Cox,  Geol.  Sure.  Kentucky,  iii,  p.  567,  PL  viii,  Fig.  5.  Ma- 
crodon carhonarius  Cox  sp.,  F.  B.  Meek,  Pal.  Ohio,  ii,  p.  384. 

This  species  resembles  so  closely  M.  obsoletns  Meek,  Pal.  0/iio,  ii, 
p.  334,  PI.  xix,  Fig.  9,  as  to  raise  doubts  as  to  their  being  different 
species.  They  are  both  found  in  the  Coal  Measures,  in  the  upper  part 
of  which  several  specimens  of  M.  carhonarius  were  found  on  Poteau 
mountain,  Indian  Territory.  This  species  was  also  found  in  the  Lower 
Goal  Measures  of  Conway  county.  Ark.,  5  N.,  16.  W.,  section  17,  north- 
west quarter. 

Macrodon  obsoletus  Meek,  Pr/?.  Oliio,  ii,  p.  334,  PI.  xix.  Fig.  3. 

This  species,  which  is  found  in  the  Coal  Measures  of  West  Virginia 
and  Ohio,  also  occurs  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Sebastian  county, 
8  N.,  33  W.,  section  13,  and  on  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory. 

Macrodon  tenuistriutus  Mt'vk  and  Wortheu,  Proc.  Clncitijo  Ac.  Sc.,  i.  j).  17. 
Area  striata  Geinitz,  Carh.  u.  Dyas  in  Nebraska,  p.  20,  PI.  i.  Fig. 
32.  Macrodon  tenuistriatus  M.  and  W.,  F.  B.  Meek,  U.  S.  Geol. 
Surv.  Nehraska,  p.  207,  PI.  x.  Fig.  30. 

This  is  a  characteristic  LTpper  Coal  ^Measure  species,  being  found  in 
that  horizon  in  Nebraska,  Illinois  and  Iowa  ;  it  is  (juite  common  in  the 
Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory. 

Macrodon  sp. 

In  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Crawford  county,   10  N  ,  30  W.,  sec- 


1896.]  245  [Smith. 

tion  10,  southeast  quarter  of  northwest  quarter,   were  found  specimens 
oi  Macro  don  too  poorly  preserved  to  be  identified  witlx  any  species. 

Genus  Nucula,    Lamarclv.     Nucula  parra  McCliesney,  Proc.    Chicago 
Ac.   Sc  ,  i,  11.  39,  PI.  ii,  Fig.  8.     Nuciila  parva  McChesney,  Meek 
and  Worthen,   Geol.  Sitrv.  Illmois,  v,  p.  589. 
This  diminutive  Nucula,  which  is  found  in  tlie  Coal  Measures  of  Illi- 
nois, was  found  in  the  form  of  casts  in  ferruginous  shale  of  the  Lower 
Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county,  5  N.,  16  W.,  section  17,  centre  of  the 
north  half,  and  in  similar  strata  of  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  in  Craw- 
ford county,  10  N".,  30  W.,  section  10,  northwest  quarter. 

Nucula  veiitru'osa  Hall,  Geol.  Surcei/  loica,  Vol.  i.  Part  ii,  p.  71(5,  PI.  29, 
Figs.  4  and  5. 

This  species  is  common  in  both  Lower  and  Upper  Coal  Measures  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Texas.  In  Arkansas  it  was  found  in  the  Lower  Coal 
Measures  in  Conway  county,  5  N.,  16  W.,  section  17,  northwest  quarter, 
about  four  miles  southeast  of  Morrillton. 

Genus  Nuculaxa,  Link.     Nuculana  aff.  helUstriata  Stevens, 

This  specimen,  found  in  the  form  of  a  mould,  showing  very  distinctly 
the  hinge  teeth  and  the  surface  markings,  resembles  in  general  form 
Nuculana  belUsti-iata  Stevens,  Am.  Joui'n.  8c. ,  1858,  Vol.  xxv,  p.  261,  but 
differs  from  it  in  having  the  concentric  ribs  much  coarser  and  less 
numerous. 

Locality,  Scott  county,  1  N.,  28  W.,  section  4,  southeast  (piarter  of 
southeast  quarter,  in  the  L'pper  Coal  Measures. 

Genus  Schizodus,   King.     Schizodus  cuneatus  Meek,  PI.  xxii.  Fig.  3. 
ScMzodus  cuneatus  Meek,  Pal.    Ohio,  Vol.  ii,  p.  336,  PL  xx.  Fig.  7. 

An  internal  cast  from  the  L^pper  Coal  Measures  of  Crawford  county, 
10  N.,  30  W.,  section  10,  southeast  quarter  of  northwest  quarter,  agrees 
in  shape  with  the  species  described  by  Meek  from  the  Lower  Coal 
Measures  of  Ohio.  The  strongly  elevated  beak  without  any  backward 
curve  is  very  characteristic.  It  being  an  internal  cast,  the  obscure  lines 
of  growth  seen  on  the  specimens  from  Ohio  do  not  show,  but  the  muscle 
scar  is  distinct,  and  indications  of  tlie  hinge  teeth  can  also  be  seen.  In 
Paleontolofjy  of  Ohio,  Vol,  ii,  p.  337,  Meek  mentions  a  similar  ScMzodus 
from  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Nebraska,  but  thinks  it  is  probably  a 
distinct  species,  on  account  of  the  small  size,  more  nearly  central  beaks 
and  more  prominent  central  and  anterior  margins.  The  specimen  from 
Arkansas  really  agrees  better  with  this  description  than  it  does  with  the 
undoubted  ScJiizodus  cuneatus,  but  the  Nebraska  specimen  was  never 
figured  and  named.  Schizodus  cuneatus  was  also  found  in  the  Lower 
Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county.  8  N.,  17  W..  section  33.  northeast 
quarter  of  northeast  quarter.  « 


Smith.]  ^4^  [Oct.  2, 

Schizodus  icIieeUri  Swallow,  PI.  xxii,  Fig.  4.  CypricarcUa  (?)  wheeleri 
Swallow,  Trans.  St.  Louis  Acad.  Sci.,  Vol.  i,  p.  96.  Sehkodus 
wlieeleri  Swallow,  F.  B.  Meek,  Final  Rept.  U.  8.  Geol.  Survey 
Nebraska,  p.  209. 

This  species  is  very  common  in  the  Coal  Measures  from  Pennsylvania 
to  New  Mexico,  in  both  Upper  and  Lower  Coal  Measures.  It  has  been 
figured  and  described  so  often  that  nothing  new  can  be  added.  Our 
specimens  agree  best  with  those  from  Iowa,  described  by  F.  B.  Meek, 
Final  Report  of  the  IT.  S.  Geological  Survey  Nebraska,  p.  209,  PL  x. 
Fig.  1,  c. 

Occurrence. — Several  specimens,  both  right  and  left  valves,  were  found 
in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county,  8  N.,  17  W.,  section  33, 
northeast  quarter  of  northeast  quarter,  at  Cook's  stone  quarry,  near 
Hattieville.  This  horizon  is  in  the  so-called  Millstone  Grit,  and  near 
the  middle  of  the  Lower  Coal  Measures.  All  the  fossils  in  these  strata 
are  preserved  in  the  form  of  casts. 

ScMzodus  conf.  amplus  Meek  and  Worthen,  Proc.  Ac.  Nat.  Sci.  Phil., 
1870,  p.  41  ;   Geol.  Surrey  Illinois,  Vol.  v,  p.  579,  PL  xxvii.  Fig.  6. 

Tliis  large  Schizodus  is  found  in  the  Coal  Measures  of  Pennsylvania 
and  Illinois,  and  an  imperfect  specimen,  probably  belonging  to  the  same 
species,  was  found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  White  county,  8  N., 
7  W.,  section  33,  east  half  of  the  southeast  quarter,  in  ferruginous  sand- 
stone, on  the  road  from  Searcy  to  Griffin  Springs. 

Genus  Astartella,  Hall.  Astartella  neioberryi  Meek,  Pal.  Ohio,  ii,  p. 
340,  PI.  xix.  Fig.  1. 

This  characteristic  species  is  common  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of 
Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territorj',  and  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures 
of  Conwa}"  county,  Arkansas,  8  N.,  17  W.,  section  33,  northeast  quarter 
of  northeast  quarter. 

Astartella  vera  Hall,  Geol.  Surrey  Iowa,  i.  Part  ii,  p.  715,  PI.  xxix.  Fig.  1. 

This  species  occurs  in  the  Coal  Measures  of  Iowa,  Indiana,  Illinois 
and  Pennsylvania,  and  was  found  in  the  upper  division  of  the  same 
series  on  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory. 

Genus  Pleurophorus,  King.  Plcnrophorus  oblongusMeek,  JJ.  S.  Geol. 
Surv.  Nebraska,  p.  212,  PI.  x,  Fig.  4. 

This  was  described  by  Meek  from  tlic  Upper  Coal  Measures  of 
Nebraska,  and  was  found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conwaj' 
county,  5  N.,  16  W. ,  section  17,  centre  of  the  north  half. 

Pleurophorus.  sp.,  C.  A.  White,  BuU.  77  U.  S.  Geol.  Surrey,  p  27,  PL  iv, 
Figs.  5-10. 

This  Pleurophorus  was  described  and  figured  1)ut  not  named  by  Dr. 


189G.]  247  [Smith. 

C.  A.  White  (loc  cit.),  from  the  Permian  of  Texas.  No  analogous  form 
was  found  in  the  true  Coal  Measures  of  Texas,  which  is  not  at  all  sur- 
prising, since  their  fauna  is  so  little  known.  In  the  Upper  Carboniferous* 
beds  of  Scott  county,  Arkansas,  1  N.,  28  W.,  section  4,  northeast  quarter 
'of  southeast  quarter,  was  found  a  single  specimen  that  agrees  perfectlj' 
with  the  PUuroi^horiis  of  Dr.  White.  It  is  nothing  unusual  to  find  a 
Permian  species  in  the  Carboniferous,  but  the  identification  is  uncertain, 
owing  to  the  poor  preservation  of  Dr.  White's  original  and  of  the 
Arkansas  specimen. 

Genus  Conocardium  Bronn.  ConocarcUum  aliforme  Sowerby,  sp.,  PI. 
xxii,  Figs.  1  and  2.  Cardium  aliforme  Sowerby,  Miii.  Conch.,  Vol. 
vi,  p.  100,  Table  552,  Fig.  2.  Conocardium  aliforme  Sowerby,  sp., 
Bronn,  Leth.  Geocjii.,  i,  p.  420,  PI.  iii.  Fig.  9.  Pleurorhynchus  mi- 
nax  Phillips,  Geol.  of  Yorkshire,  p.  210,  PI.  t.  Fig.  27. 

This  genus  is  rare  in  the  American  Carboniferous,  and  especially  so 
in  the  Coal  Measures,  being  represented  there  by  only  two  other  species, 
C.  ohUqvum  Meek  and  Wortheu,  Geol.  Surv.  Illinois,  Vol.  vi,  p.  529,  and 
C.  parrisld  Worthen,  Geol.  Surv.  Illinois,  Vol.  viii,  p.  112.  The  former 
is  more  nearly  related  to  C.  aliforme,  but  difi"ers  from  it  in  its  much 
smaller  size,  greater  obliquity  of  the  shell,  and  shorter  hinge  line.  The 
surface  of  C.  oliquum  is  marked  by  narrow  radiating  ribs,  while  those  of 
C.  aliforme  are  wider  tlian  the  depressions  between  them. 

The  intermediate  spaces  are  occupied  by  a  secondary  rib  only  on  the 
rounded  anterior  side  of  C.  aliforme,  while  the  same  thing  occurs  even 
on  the  posterior  side  of  C.  ohliqimm.  C.  aliforme  also  has  the  hinge 
line  longer,  and  the  space  between  the  incurved  beaks  wider  ;  also  the 
ribs  on  the  anterior  cordate  space  are  much  finer,  and  this  area  is 
bounded  by  a  rather  distinct  carina,  being  slightly  concave  near  the 
rounded  border,  and  rising  toward  the  anterior  rostrum,  which  is  pre- 
served on  some  of  our  specimens.  Tlie  shell  has  its  greatest  convexitj^ 
at  the  anterior  end,  wliere  tlie  broad  carina  cuts  off  the  cordate  area. 
Behind  this  is  a  distinct  furrow,  Avhich  shades  off  into  the  posterior  com- 
pression of  the  shell,  and  dies  out  in  a  gentle  curve  toward  the  rounded 
gaping  margin.  Tlie  ribs  are  broader  and  the  concentric  growth  lines 
more  distinct  towards  the  posterior  end.  The  concentric  lines  are  not 
visible  on  the  cordate  area.  The  posterior  portion  of  the  shell,  next  to 
the  hinge  line,  is  not  ribbed,  but  marlied  with  fine,  radial  lines. 

Goldfuss,  in  PetHfacta  Germaniw,  Part  ii,  p.  203,  PI.  cxlii,  Fig.  1. 
describes  and  figures  Conocardium  aliforme,  but  according  to  McCoyf 
he  has  confused  two  species,  one  of  which  is  a  Devonian  species  from 
the  Eifel.  The  true  0.  aliforme  is  that  described  by  Phillips,  Geol.  of 
Yorkshire,  Vol.  ii,  p.  210,  PI.  v,  Fig.  2,  as  Pleurorhynchus  minax,  of  the 
Carboniferous  Limestone,  and  by  Goldfuss,  PI.  cxlii,  Fig.  1,  e,  f,  h,  i,  I, 

*By  the  stratigraphy  these  beds  are  Barren  Coal  Measures,  but  the  fossils  sh  ow  close 
relations  to  the  Tipper  Coal  Measures, 
t  British  Palseozoic  Fossils,  p.  517. 


Smith.]  -jiO  [Oct.  2, 

and  m,  the  others  under  Fig.  1  belonging  to  the  Devonian  species, 
which  McCojr  proposes  should  retain  the  name  C.  Jiystericum  Schlot- 
heim.  Phillips*  proposed  to  transfer  the  name  G.  aliforme  to  the  Devo- 
nian species,  but  the  type  originally  described  by  Sowerbj'  under  that 
name  is  undoubtedly  the  Carboniferous  species. 

This  species  is  found  all  over  Europe,  in  the  Carboniferous,  chiefly 
Mountain  Limestone,  but  owing  to  the  confusion  that  exists  on  the  Con- 
tinent one  cannot  usually  tell  whether  this  means  Upper  or  Lower  Car- 
boniferous or  both. 

Nine  specimens  were  found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway 
county,  5  N.,  10  W.,  section  17,  centre  of  the  north  half.  They  were 
found  in  a  ferruginous  shale,  and  although  in  the  form  of  casts  they 
show  the  sculpture  of  the  surface  with  unusual  clearness,  even  the  deli- 
cate, wavy  growth  lines  being  as  sharply  defined  as  on  the  original 
shell.  The  specimens  all  had  a  length  of  more  than  one  inch,  the 
dimensions  of  the  largest  being  :  length,  1.30  inch  ;  diameter,  0.88  inch  ; 
width  of  the  cordate  area,  0.62  inch. 

Genus  Edmondia  de  Koninck.  EdmoncUa  neirascensls  Geinitz,  Meek, 
U.  8.  Geol.  Survey  Nebraska,  p.  214,  PI.  x.  Fig.  8.  Astarte  nehras- 
censis  Geinitz,  Garbon.  und  Dyas  in  Nebraska,  p.  16,  PL  i,  Fig.  25. 

A  few  poorly  preserved  specimens  from  the  Tipper  Coal  Measures  ot 
Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory,  seem  to  belong  to  Meek's  Nebraska 
species. 

Edmondia  unionif or  mis  VlnWi^^,  Geol.  Yorkshire,Yo\.\\,'\).'iO^.    Edmon- 
dia unioniformis  (?)  Meek  and  Worthen,  Paleont.  Illinois,  Vol.  ii,  p. 
346,  PI.  xxvii,  Fig.  6. 
An  imperfect  cast   from  the  Upper   Coal   Measures  of  Illinois  was 

doubtfully   referred  by  Meek  and  Worthen  to   the  European   species. 

The  Arkansas  specimens  agree  fairly  well  with  Meek's  figures  and  much 

better  with  his  descriptions,  except  that  they  have  the  concentric  ribs 

coarser. 

Occurrence. — Numerous  casts  were  found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures, 

"Millstone  Grit,"  of  Conway  county,  8  N.,  17  W.,  section  33,  northeast 

quarter  of  northeast  quarter  at  Cook's  stone  quarry. 

Class  Olossophora. 
Subclass  Scaphopoda. 

Genus  Dentalium  Liuntcus.  Dentalimn  conf.  meekianum,  Geinitz, 
Carbon,  u.  Dyas  in  Nebraska,  p.  13. 
This  species  was  described  from  the  Permo-Carboniferous  of  Nebraska, 
and  was  also  found  in  the  undoubted  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Illinois. 
Imperfect  specimens  were  also  found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of 
Crawford  county,  Arkansas,  10  N.,  30  W.,  section  10,  southeast  quarter 
of  northwest  quarter. 

*  Pal.  Foss.  Cornwall,  Devon,  and  M'est  Somerset,  p.  33. 


1896.]  ^4J  [Smith. 

Subclass  Oastro'poda. 

Genus  Bellerophon.  Bellerophon  carhonarhis  Cox,  Geol.  Surv.  Ken- 
tucky, Vol.  iii,  p.  574,  PI.  x.  Fig.  2.     B.  urii  C.  R.  Keyes,  Proc.  Ac. 

Nat.  8c.  Phila.,  July  31,  1888,  p.  14. 

In  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county.  Ark.,  5  N.,  16  W., 
section  17,  centre  of  north  half,  were  found  specimens  of  this  charac- 
teristic Coal  Measure  species,  but  poorly  preserved.  Better  ones  were 
found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county,  6  N.,  16  W.,  sec- 
tion 29,  southwest  quarter  of  southwest  quarter. 

BelleropJion  crassus  Meek  and  Worthen,  Geol.  Surv.  Illinois,  ii,  p.  385, 
PI.  xxxi.  Fig.  16. 

This  species  is  found  in  the  Upper  and  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  In- 
diana, in  the  Subcarboniferous  and  the  Coal  Measures  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  Upper  Carboniferous  limestone  of  Nevada,  etc.  Good  speci- 
mens of  it  were  found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county. 
Ark.,  5  N.,  16  W.,  section  17,  centre  of  the  north  half 

Bellerophon  marcouanus  Geinitz,  Carbon,  u.  Dyas  in  Nebraska,  p.  7. 

This  species  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Kansas,  Nebraska  and 
Iowa,  in  the  Coal  Measures  of  Illinois  and  West  Virginia,  and  was  found 
in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Sebastian  county.  Ark.,  in  8  N.,  32  W., 
section  12. 

Bellero-phon  sp. 

In  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  White  county,  8  N.,  7  W.,  section  33, 
southeast  quarter,  and  section  26,  southeast  quarter  in  the  massive 
sandstone,  were  found  several  large  imperfect  specimens  of  a  Bellero- 
phon that  resembles  B.  crassus,  but  it  is  probably  a  diflerent  species  ;  it 
is  too  imperfectly  known  for  specific  identification  and  description. 

Genus  Pleukotomaria,  Defrance.  Pleurotomaria  modesta  Keyes,  Proe. 
Ac.  Nat.  8c.  Phila.,  1888>  p.  238,  PI.  xii,  Fig.  2.  P.  depressa  Cox, 
Geol.  8urv.  Kentucky,  iii,  p.  569,  PI.  viii,  Fig.  10. 

A  single  specimen  of  this  exceedingly  delicate  and  beautiful  species, 
showing  all  the  markings,  was  found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of 
Crawford  county,  Ark.,  10  N..  30  W.,  section  10,  southeast  quarter. 

Pleurotomaria  conf  speciosa.  Meek  and  Worthen,  I^'oc.  Ac.  Nat.  8ei. 

Phila.,  1860,  p.  459;   Geol.  Surv.  Illinois,  Vol.  ii,  p.  352,  PL  xxviii. 

Fig.  5. 
One  small  imperfect  specimen  from  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Po- 
teau  mountain,  Indian  Territory,  shows  the  characters  of  the  Illinois 
species,  although  very  much  smaller.  The  well-defined  suture  and  fine 
ornamentations  are  similar  on  both  and  serve  to  make  their  identity 
probable. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC,   XXXV.  152.  2  F.      PRIXTED  DEC.  9,   1896. 


Smith.]  250  [Oct.  2, 

Pleui'otomaria  tenuicincta  Meek  and  Worthen,  Proc.  Ac.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila., 
1860,  p.  459  ;   Geol.  Stirv.  Illinois,  Vol.  ii,  p.  355,  PL  xxviii,  Fig.  3. 
This  species  was  described  from  tlie  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Illinois, 
and  a  similar  specimen  was  found  in  the  same  horizon  on  Poteau  moun- 
tain, Indian  Territory. 

Pleurotomaria  liarii  S.  A.  Miller,  Seventeenth  Annual  Report  State  Geol- 
ogist of  Indiana,  p.  693,  PI.  xiv.  Figs.  3,  4. 

This  species  was  recently  described  from  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of 
Kansas  City,  Mo  ,  and  until  now  has  not  been  found  anj'where  else.  It 
is  a  very  striking  form  and  easily  recognized.  The  rather  rounded 
whorls  are  about  five  in  number  and  marked  with  numerous  rather 
coarse  revolving  ribs,  which  show  traces  even  on  the  cast. 

A  single  cast,  and  mold  showing  the  surface  markings,  was  found  in 
the   Lower  Coal   Measures,    so-called    "Millstone    Grit,"    of    Conway 
county,  8  N.,  17  W.,  section  33,  northeast  quarter  of  northeast  quarter, 
at  Cook's  quarrj^  near  Hattieville. 
Pleurotomaria  sp. 

In  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county,  5  N.,  16  W.,  section 
17,  centre  of  the  north  half;  in  Franklin  county,  12  N.,  28  W.,  section 
27,  southeast  quarter  of  northwest  quarter ;  and  in  Pope  county,  on 
Point  mountain,  10  N.,  20  W.,  section  8,  southeast  quarter  of  northwest 
quarter,  were  found  numerous  specimens  of  Pleurotomaria,  that  while 
they  seem  to  belong  to  several  distinct  species  could  not  be  more  accu- 
rately identified.  They  are  all  preserved  as  casts  and  usually  badly 
weathered. 

Genus   EuoxrHALrs,  Sowerby.     Euoviphalus  (StraparoUus)  suhquad- 

ratus  Meek  and  Worthen,  Geol.  Surv.  Illinois,  Vol.  v,  p.  605,  PI. 

xxix.  Figs.  12,  13. 

This  very  common  species  was  found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of 

White  county,  xVrk.,  in  9  N.,  4  W.,  section  6,  and  9  N.,  5  W.,  section  1, 

in  a  soft  pinkish  sandstone,  along  with  Phillipsia  {Grifflthides)  scitula 

Meek  and  Worthen. 

Euomphalus  (StraparoUus)  sp. 

In  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  In(lci)endcnce  county.  Ark.,  11  X., 
5  W.,  centre  of  section  9,  was  found  a  specimen  of  Euomphalus  that 
seemed  to  be  different  from  E.  subquadratus  but  could  not  be  determined 
with  certainty. 

Genus  Natk^opsis,  McCoy.  Naticopsis  nana  Meek  and  Worthen.  Platy- 
ostonia  nana  Meek  and  Worthen,  Pror.  Ac.  Nat.  Sc.  Phila.,  1860, 
p.  463.  Natacopsis  nana  Meek  and  Worthen,  Geol.  Surv.  III.,  ii, 
p.  365,  PI.  xxxi.  Fig.  4.  Naticopsis  nana  Meek  and  Worthen,  C.  A. 
White,  U.  S.  E.rpl.  W.  of  100th  Merid  ,  iv,  p.  159,  PI.  xii,  Fig.  4. 
This  characteristic   Upper  Carboniferous  siiecies   is  distributed  from 


251 


[Smith. 


Illinois  to  Nevada  ;  it  was  found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Sebas- 
tian county,  Ark.,  8  N.,  33  W.,  section  12,  associated  with  numerous 
otlier  fossils  characteristic  of  tlie  same  horizon. 

Nntkopsis  sp. 

In  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Scott  county.  Ark.,  1  N.,  28  W.,  sec- 
tion 4,  southeast  quarter  of  southeast  quarter,  was  found  a  specimen  of 
Natiropsis  that  resembles  somewhat  N.  slmmardi  McChesney,  found  by 
Dr.  White  in  the  Permian  of  Texas,  Bull.  77,  IT.  S.  Geol.  Sun.,  p.  24, 
PL  iii,  Fig.  11,  but  it  is  too  imperfect  to  justify  a  reference  to  this  species. 

Genus  Macrocheilus,  Phillips.  MacrocTieilus  conf  fusiformis  Hall, 
Geol.  Surr.  Lma,  i,  Part  ii,  p.  718,  PL  xxix;  Fig.  7. 

In  the  ferruginous  slialc  of  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway 
county,  Ark.,  5  X.,  16  W.,  section  17,  centre  of  the  north  half,  were 
found  a  few  specimens  that  probably  belong  to  Hall's  Coal  Measure 
species. 

MacrocJu'ilus  (Solcniseus)  primigenius  Conrad,  Hall,  Geol.  Sui'v.  lotca, 
Vol.  i.  Part  ii,  p.  720,  PL  xxix.  Fig.  11. 

This  species  is  widelj^  distributed  in  the  Coal  Measures  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  states,  and  was  also  found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures,  in 
Conway  county.  Ark.,  5  IS".,  16  W.,  section  17,  centre  of  the  north  half. 

Genus  Polyphemopsis,  Portlock.  Polyphemopsis  inornata  Meek  and 
Worthen,  sp.  Loxonema  inornata  Meek  and  Worthen,  Proc.  Ac. 
Nat.  Sc.  PMla.,  1860,  p.  463.  Polyphemopsis  inornata  M.  and  W., 
Geol.  Surv.  Illinois,  li,  p.  374,  PL  xxxi,  Fig.  8. 

This  species,  originally  described  from  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of 
Illinois,  was  found  in  the  same  horizon  in  Crawford  county.  Ark.,  10 
N.,  30  W.,  section  10,  southeast  quarter  of  northwest  quarter. 

Subclass  Pteropoda. 

Genus  Conularia,  Miller  (Sowerby).  Conularia  conf .  cj'ustulaWhite, 
XII  Am.  Rep.  U.  S:  Geol.  and  Geog.  Surv.  of  Terr.,  1878,  p.  170, 
PL  xlii.  Fig.  4;  U.  S.  Expl.  W.  of  100th  Merid..  iii,  Appendi.x,  p. 
28,  PL  iii,  Fig.  4. 

The  genus  Conularia  is  not  common  in  the  Lower  Carboniferous,  but 
is  exceedingly  rare  in  the  Coal  Measures,  so  much  so  that  Dr.  White 
mentions  this  species  as  being  the  only  representative  in  that  series. 
Dr.  White  found  it  in  the'Coal  Measures  near  Kansas  City,  and  also 
near  Taos,  N".  M.  The  species  has  been  found  in  the  Coal  Measures 
of  Texas,  and  also  in  the  Coal  Measures  of  Scott  county,  Ark.,  1  N., 
28  W.,  section  4,  southeast  quarter  of  southeast  cpiarter. 


Smith.]  ^5-^  [Oct.  2, 

Class  Cephalopoda. 

Order  TetrahrancTdata. 

Suborder  Nautiloidea. 

Genus  Endolobus,  Meek  aud  Worthen.  E/ulolobus  {Nautilus)  vds- 
souriensis  Swallow,  sp.,  PL  xxi,  Figs.  1-8.  Nautilus  missouriensis 
Swallow,  Trans.  St.  Louis  Ac.  Sc,  1857,  p.  198.  Endolobus  missourien- 
sis Swallow,  sp.,  C.  A.  White,  Indiana  Geol,  Survey,  1883,  p.  Ui6, 
PI.  XXXV,  Figs.  1,  2. 

This  species  resembles  very  closely  Endolobus  spectabilis  Meek  and 
Worthen,  Geol.  Siirv.  Illinois,  u,  p.  308,  PI.  xxv,  Fig.  18,  and,  as  Dr.  C.  A. 
White*  remarks,  almost  the  only  reason  for  regarding  them  as  distinct 
species  is  their  occurrence  in  such  ditlerent  horizons  as  the  Chester  Lime- 
stone of  the  Subcarboniferous,  and  the  Coal  Measures.  Also  Dr.  White's 
specimen  was  i)oorly  preserved,  and  he  thought  it  might  possibly  have 
had  the  nodes  originally.  It  is  really  impossible  to  recognize  the  species 
by  Swallow's  imperfect  original  description,  but  Dr.  White's  description 
is  very  useful  in  determining  this  species,  which  in  the  Coal  Measures 
of  Arkansas  does  not  have  nodes  on  the  sides  of  the  shell ;  the  difference 
is  all  the  more  probable,  because  in  the  Fayetteville  shale,  Lower  Car- 
boniferous, of  Independence  county,  near  Mooretield,  was  found  an 
Eiidolobus,  with  very  strongly  marked  nodes,  resembling,  if  not  identi- 
cal with,  E.  spectabilis. 

This  species  also  resembles  Endolobus  {SolenocJieilus)  indianensis 
Worthen,  Geol.  Surv.  Illinois,  viii,  p.  150,  PI.  xxviii,  Fig.  1,  but  on  the 
Arkansas  specimens  the  whorls  are  more  embracing,  are  broader  and 
not  so  high. 

In  E.  gibbosus  Hyatt,  Second  An.  Rept.  Geol.  Survey,  of  I'exas,  p.  353, 
the  whorls  are  much  more  flattened,  and  the  umbilicus  is  narrower, 
and  the  umbilical  shoulder  subangular,  while  in  E.  missouriensis  the 
shoulders  are  round.  In  both,  as  in  E.  spectabilis,  in  adult  specimens 
the  outer  whorl  embraces  nearly  one-half  of  the  next  inner  whorl.  The 
septa  are  like  those  of  E.  spectabilis,  and  are  far  apart,  genth'  sinuous 
and  deeply  concave.  The  internal  lobe  is  deep  and  funnel-shaped. 
The  siphon  is  slightly  nearer  the  internal  than  the  external  side,  and  is 
slender. 

The  casts  are  smooth,  but  some  specimens  have  the  shell  parti}'  pre- 
served. It  is  ornamented  Avith  tine,  sharp,  spiral  lines  crossed  by  finer 
lines  of  growtli,  about  one-half  as  far  apart  as  the  spiral  lines,  giving  a 
finely  reticulated  appearance  to  the  shell  ;  these  transverse  lines  bend 
sharply  backward  on  the  outside  of  the  whorl. 

In  our  collections  are  septate  fragments  of  specimens  that  must  luive 
been  at  least  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  body  chamber  would  have 
added  about  one-half  of  another  revolution,  so  this  species  altaliied  a 
diameter  of  not  less  than  six  inches. 

*  Geol.  Surv.  Indiana,  1883,  p.  166. 


1896.]  -^5d  [Smith. 

The  best  preserved  specimens  are  small,  being  only  the  inner  whorls 
of  large  individuals,  since  the  body  chamber  is  not  seen  on  any  of  them. 
Dimensions  of  a  small  specimen,  ligured  on  PI.  xxi,  Fig.  2  : 

Dimensions.  mm. 

Diameter 28 

Height  of  the  last  whorl  from  umbilicus 19 

Height  of  the  last  coil  from  the  top  of  the  inner  whorl.  .   11 

Position  and  Localiti/. — Several  specimens  of  this  species  were  found 
in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county,  Ark.,  5  N.,  16  W.,  sec- 
tion 17,  centre  of  the  north  half. 

Oenus  Ephippioceras,  Hyatt.  Ephippiocerasf erratum  Cox.  Nautilus 
ferratus  Cox,  Oeol.  Surr.  Kentucky,  iii,  Fig.  574,  PI.  x,  Fig.  2. 
Ephippiocerasf  erratum  Cox,  A.  Hyatt,  Proc.  Boston  Soe.  JVat.  Hist., 
1883,  p.  290. 

A  single  large  specimen  that  probably  belongs  to  this  species  was 
found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county.  Ark.,  5  N., 
16  W.,  section  17,  centre  of  the  north  half.  Owen,  in  his  Report  on  a 
Geol.  Reeon.  Arkansas,  Vol.  i,  p.  68,  cites  NaMtilus  ferratus  from  a  bold 
point  three  (?)  miles  nortliAvest  of  Searcy,  "White  county.  The  rocks  of 
that  region  are  now  known  to  belong  to  the  Lower  Coal  Measures. 

Nautilus  sp. 

In  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Crawford  county,  Ark.,  10  N.,  30  W., 
section  10,  southeast  quarter  of  northeast  quarter,  were  found  frag- 
ments of  a  Nautilus  too  imperfect  even  for  reference  to  any  of  the 
genera  into  which  the  old  genus  Nautilus  has  been  split  up. 

Genus  Ortiioceuas,  Breynius.  Ortliocevas  crihrosum  Geinitz,  Carbon. 
«..  Dyas  in  Nebraska,  p.  4.  Orthoceras  cr-ibrosum  Geinitz,  Meek,  V. 
8.  Oeol.  Surv.  Nebraska,  p.  234,  PI.  xi.  Fig.  18. 

In  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Territory, 
were  found  specimens  of  Orthoceras,  showing  the  peculiar  indentations 
of  surface  supposed  to  be  characteristic  of  this  species.  The  markings 
seem  to  be  due  to  the  growth  of  a  bryozoon  on  the  shell,  for  when 
magnified  they  show  six-sided  cells.  Meek,  op.  cif.,  p.  234,  stated  his 
belief  that  this  marking  is  accidental. 

OHhoceras  conf.  rushense  McChesney,  New,  Pal.  Foss.,  p.  08.  Orthoceras 
rushense,  C.  A.  White,  Bull.  77,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  p.  22,  PL  ii, 
Figs.  14-16. 

This  species  was  described  originally  from  the  Coal  Measures  of 
Indiana  and  Illinois,  and  Dr.  C.  A.  White  found  it  in  the  Permian  of 


Smith.]  ^54  [Oct.  •_>, 

Texas.  Some  imperfect  specimens  that  probably  belong  here  were 
found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Scott  county,  Ark.,  1  N.,  28  W., 
section  4,  southeast  quarter  of  southeast  quarter. 

Orthoceras  sp. 

A  long  slender  form  Avith  very  close  chamber  walls  could  not  be 
identified  with  any  species  known  from  the  Carboniferous,  but  the 
specimens  found  were  not  perfect  enough  for  specific  description. 

Locality. — This  species  was  found  in  the  Lower  Coal  Pleasures  of 
Conway  county,  8  N.,  17  W.,  section  33,  northeast  quarter  of  northeast 
quarter,  at  Cook's  quarry,  near  Hattieville. 

Sul)order  Am monoidea. 

Tlie  Gephalopoda  alone,  of  all  animals,  preserve  in  the  individual  a 
complete  record  of  their  larval  and  embryonic  history,  the  protoconch 
and  early  chambers  being  enveloped  and  protected  by  the  later  stages 
of  the  shell.  And  by  breaking  oft"  the  outer  cliambers  the  naturalist 
can  in  effect  cause  the  shell  to  repeat  its  life  liistory  in  inverse  order,  for 
each  stage  of  growth  represents  some  extinct  ancestral  genus.  These 
genera  appeared  on  the  scene  in  the  exact  order  of  their  minute  imita- 
tions in  the  larval  history  of  tlieir  descendants,  and  by  a  stud}'  of  adult 
forms  in  the  order  of  their  appearance  the  naturalist  finds  tlie  key  to  tlie 
stages  of  growtli  of  later  forms,  and  is  thus  enabled  to  arrange  species 
and  genera  in  genetic  series.  Studied  in  this  way,  paleontology  becomes 
a  biologic  science. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  the  goniatites  were  the  ancestors  of  the 
ammonites,  and  the  researclies  of  Branco,  Hyatt  and  Karpinsky  have 
traced  out  these  lines  of  descent  in  many  cases,  by  studying  the  succes- 
sive genera  of  adult  shells  in  comparison  with  stages  of  growth  in  the 
individual.  Eacli  ammonite  is  known  to  begin  its  life  as  a  goniatitc. 
and  only  by  gradually  increasing  complication  to  reach  the  amnion  it  ic 
stage.  This  advance  took  place  in  some  stocks  much  earlier  than  in 
others,  since  some  show  ammonitic  characteristics  even  in  the  Carl)()n- 
iferous,  while  others  persist  in  their  goniatitic  characteristics  even  in  the 
Trias.  In  the  great  majority  of  eases,  Iiowever,  the  transition  was  made 
near  the  end  of  Paleozoic  time,  that  is,  somewhere  during  the  Carbon- 
iferous or  Permian. 

Cldssifituitioii  of  Goiiiafitcs. — The  goniatites  have  been  dixidcd  into 
two  great  stocks  or  families,  Goitiatif Ida'  and  Prolecanittda',  l)oth  of  whicii 
persist  from  the  Devohian  to  the  Permian.  This  classification,  while 
the  best  at  present  possible,  is  by  no  means  satisfactory,  for  it  is  certain 
that  some  of  the  forms  ascribed  to  the  ProUca/tifida'  descended  from 
genera  classified  as  Gonuititidic 

The  Qoniatitidm  of  the  Carboniferous  consist  of  the  genera  Brauvo 


1896.]  -^^^  [Smith. 

ceras,  Gli/pJiioceras,  Gastrioceras,  Paralegoceras,  Nomhmoeeras,  Pericy- 
clus,  Dimorpltoceras,  with  numerous  subgenera.  They  comprise  many 
rough-shelled  species,  and  on  this  account  they  are  thought  by  Stein- 
mann*  to  have  given  rise  to  the  trachyostracan  Ceratitidm  and  Tropi- 
tidcE  of  the  Trias.  In  this  opinion  also  concurs  Dr.  K.  A.  von  Zittel.f 
as  far  as  the  TropiUdce.  are  concerned,  for  these,  he  thinks,  liave  been 
developed  out  of  Gastrioc-eras  and  Pericyclas. 

The  Prolecanitidce  of  the  Carboniferous  comprise  the  genera  Prole- 
canites,  Pronorites.  Agathieeras;  all  of  which  live  on  into  the  Permian 
and  branch  out  during  that  period  into  a  number  of  genera  and  sub- 
genera. Some  of  these  genera  live  on  into  the  Trias,  and  branch  out 
during  that  i^eriod  into  numerous  f\imilies,  whose  Jurassic  and  Creta- 
ceous descendants  made  up  the  bulk  of  the  cephalopod  faunas. 

Besides  the  Goniatitidcn  and  the  Prolecanitida  of  the  Carboniferous, 
the  Ammonoidea  are  represented  already  in  the  Coal  Measures  of 
America  by  the  fiimilies  Arcestida,  in  Popmioceras  parkeriX  Heilprin,  of 
the  StraAvn  division,  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Texas. 

In  the  European  Coal  Measures  the  TropiUdce  are  represented  by 
Thalassoceras  looneyi  Phillips.  Thalassoceras  Avas  described  by  Gem- 
mellarog  to  include  certain  species  of  the  Carboniferous  and  Permian, 
and  referred  to  the  TropiUdce  ;  thi^  genus,  along  with  ParacelUtes  Gem- 
mellaro,  Gastrioceras,  and  some  Permian  forms  referred  to  GlypMoce- 
ras,  are  said  by  Mojsisovics||  to  he  the  Paleozoic  representatives  of  the 
TropiUdce. 

Family  GoniaUtidce  von  Buch  (Zittel). 
Subfiimily  GlyphioceraHdce  Hyatt. 

This  group  includes  a  series  of  forms  that  range  from  the  Upper  De- 
vonian into  the  Permian.  The  older  members  have  the  siphonal  lobe 
undivided,  thus  showing  their  relationship  to  the  older  ProlecaniUdcB. 
The  form  may  be  compressed  and  discoidal  as  in  Brancocerus  of  the  De- 
vonian and  Carboniferous  ;  or  broadly  rounded  and  involute,  with 
semilunular  cross-section,  as  in  most  species  of  Glypldoceras  ;  or  evo- 
lute,  with  wide  umbilicus,  trapezoidal  cross-section,  and  umbilical  I'ibs, 
as  in  most  species  of  Gastvioeeras.  The  sutures  are  simple,  consisting 
of  a  siphonal  lobe,  which  may  or  may  not  be  divided  by  a  secondary 
siphonal  saddle,  and  one  or  two  pairs  of  lateral  lobes,  which  are  some- 
what pointed,  also  usually  a  pair  of  short  lobes  on  the  umbilical  shoul- 
ders.    The  internal  lobes  consist  of  a  long  and  rather  pointed  antisi- 

*  Elemente  der  Palaeontulooie,  1890,  p.  393. 

t  Qrundziige  der  Palxonlologk,  1895,  ]>.  405. 

X  The  writer,  in  Journ.  GeoL,  Vol.  ii,  No.  2,  p.  194,  following  Karpinsky  in  Ammoneen  d. 
Artinsk-Stufe,  p.  92,  referred  the  Popanoceras  parkeri  beds  to  the  Artiusk  stage,  but  Prof. 
W.  F.  Cummins,  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Texas,  has  pointed  out  to  the  writer  the 
true  horizon  of  this  species. 

§  Oio)~nale  Sci.  Nat.  Econom.,  Vol.  xix,  1888,  p.  67. 

II  Das  Gebirge  um  Hallsladt,  Bd.  ii,  p.  10 


Smith.]  ^5^  LOct.  2, 

plioiial  lol)e,  and  a  pair  of  pointed  lateral  lobes.  The  saddles,  both 
external  and  internal  are  usually  rounded,  although  even  thej'  may  be- 
come angular,  as  in  old  specimens  of  GlypMoceras  sphcericum  Martin. 
The  surface  in  most  of  the  older  members  of  the  group  is  ornamented  only 
with  strife,  but  in  many,  especially  the  later  members,  umbilical  ribs  are 
developed,  which  in  Pericyclus  cross  the  abdomen.  Periodic  constric- 
tions, or  varices,  representing  temporary  cessations  of  growth,  are 
found  on  most  of  the  genera. 

Hyatt  *  says  that  the  GlypJiioceratidai  are  derived  directly  from  the 
group  Magnosellaridm,  as  represented  by  Pavodkeras  of  the  Devonian. 
And,  in  fact,  the  development  of  Glyphoceras  diadema  Goldfuss,  as 
worked  out  by  Branco.f  shows  at  2.25  millimetres  diameter  a  decided 
resemblance  to  the  adult  sutures  of  Tornoceras.  The  younger  larval 
sutures  of  this  form  show  derivation  from  a  radicle  like  Anarcestes. 
PI.  xix.  Fig.  5,  shows  the  development  of  Tornoceras  (Parodiceras)  re- 
trorsum  Buch,  after  Branco,  in  PalmontograpMca,  Vol.  xxvii,  PI.  v.  Fig. 
7.  We  thus  have  probably  the  complete  genealogy  of  the  Glyphiocera- 
tidce  in  the  larval  stages  of  the  two  genera,  GlypMoceras  and  Torno- 
ceras. PI.  xix.  Fig.  4,  shows  the  development  of  GlypMoceras  diadema 
Goldfuss,  after  Branco,  in  PaliBontogrupMea,  Vol.  xxvii,  PI.  iv.  Fig.  1. 

Oenus  Gastrioceras,  Hyatt. 

This  genus  was  originally  established  by  Hyatt  (Proc.  Boston  Soc,  Nat. 
Hist.,  Vol.  xxii,  1883,  p.  327)  to  include  evolute  species  with  open  um- 
bilicus, trapezoidal  or  semilunular  cross-section,  and  usually  ribs  or  tuber- 
cles on  the  sides  ;  the  species  included  by  Hyatt  in  this  genus  all  have 
prominent  siphonal  saddles,  first  lateral  saddle  broadly  rounded,  second 
lateral  saddle  broad  but  inclined  to  be  pointed  ;  the  siphonal  lobes  are 
long,  narrow  and  pointed,  and  the  lateral  lobes  broad  and  pointed.  In 
all  the  species  cited  by  Hyatt  (loc.  cit.)  as  belonging  to  Gastrioceras 
there  is  but  a  single  pair  of  lateral  lobes  visible,  that  is,  on  the  sides  of 
the  shell ;  and  in  the  Second  Annual  Report  Geol.  Survey  of  Texas,  1891, 
p.  355,  Hyatt  limits  Gastrioceras  to  forms  with  a  single  pair  of  lateral 
lobes  and  with  the  second  pair  on  the  umbilical  shoulders.  Hyatt  (loc. 
cit.)  refers  G.  russiense  Zwetajew  to  liis  genus  Paralegoceras,  because 
that  species  has  the  second  pair  of  lateral  lobes  on  the  sides  of  the  shell 
and  not  on  the  umbilical  shoulders.  But  Gastrioceras  russiense  has  just 
the  same  number  of  lobes  as  all  other  known  species  of  Gastrioceras, 
namely  nine  in  all,  and  lacks  the  lobe  on  the  umbilical  border,  which  is 
characteristic  of  Paralegoceras.  Another  species,  Gastrioceras  baylor- 
ense  White  (Bull.  77,  U.  S.  Geol  Survey,  p.  19,  PI.  ii,  Figs.  1-3),  also 
has  two  pairs  of  lateral  lobes.  White's  figures  and  description  do  not 
show  whether  the  umbilical  lobe  is  present  or  not ;  if  it  is,  G.  baylorense 
rightfully  belongs  with  Paralegoceras,  but  it  most  probablj^  belongs  in 

*Proc..  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  xxii,  1883,  p.  322. 
t  Palxontographica,  Vol.  xxvii,  PI.  iv,  Fig.  1. 


1896.]  -^^7  [Smith. 

the  same  group  as  G.  russiensc.  Dr.  K.  von  Zittel,  in  Griidzilge  der  Pal- 
leontologie,  1895,  p.  :599,  confines  Gastrioceras  to  forms  with  a  single  pair 
of  lateral  lobes.  But  tlie  relations  of  Gastrioceras,  Glyphioceras  and 
Paralegoce.ras  have  been  best  worked  out  by  Karpinsky,*  who  shows 
that  there  is  no  marked  distinction  between  Glyphioceras  and  Gastrio- 
ceras ;  that  both  have  the  same  number  of  lobes  and  saddles — nine  of 
each  ;  that  the  second  pair  of  lateral  lobes  may  be  on  the  umbilical 
shoulders  or  on  the  sides  of  the  shell,  thus  differing  from  Paralegoceras, 
in  which  the  third  pair  of  lateral  lobes  is  on  tlie  umbilical  shoulders. 
Gastrioceras  usually  has  a  trapezoidal  cross-section  and  umbilical  ribs; 
but  some  species  lack  the  ribs,  as  G.  glohulosum  M.  and  W.,  Avhile  some 
species  of  Glyphioceras  have  umbilical  ribs  and,  in  their  youth,  also  the 
elliptical  cross-section,  as  Glyphioceras  cliadema  Goldfuss.  But  the  two 
extremes  are  widely  separated  from  each  other,  as  Gastrioceras  jossce 
Verneul  and    Glyphioceras  sphcericum  Martin. 

This  genus  has  been  looked  upon  by  Steinmannf  as  the  ancestor  of  the 
trachyostracan  families  of  the  Trias,  the  Ceratiiidm  and  the  Tropitidve. 
Dr.  K.  von  Zittel  %  agrees  with  this  opinion  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Trop- 
itido',  but  thinks  the  Geratitidm  developed  out  of  the  Prolecanitidte. 

Gastrioceras  hranneri  sp.  nov.  J.  P.  Smith,  PI.  xxiii,  Figs.  1-6. 

The  adult  shell  is  discoidal,  with  low,  narrow  wliorls  of  semilunular 
cross-section  ;  the  adult  whorl  is  very  evolute,  embi-acing  not  more  than 
a  third  of  the  preceding  one,  and  the  increase  in  height  and  breadth  is 
extremely  slow.  The  young  whorls  are  proportionally  broader  and 
more  involute,  so  that  the  umbilicus  of  the  younger  part  of  the  shell  is 
deeper,  but  widens  rapidly  with  age,  as  the  involution  decreases. 
G.  branneri  is  the  most  evolute  species  of  Gastrioceras  known  in  the 
Carboniferous,  and  approaches  the  narrow  evolute  Permian  type, 
described  by  Gemmelarog  from  Sicily  ;  but  the  Sicilian  form  still  retains 
the  strong  constrictions,  and  has  also  acquired  the  spiral  striaj  tliat  are 
characteristic  of  Permian  Gastrioceras. 

Dimensions.  mm. 

Diameter 39.5 

Height  of  last  whorl 10.5 

Width  of  umbilicus 19.0 

Breadth 15.0 

Height  of  last  whorl  from  top  of  preceding 8.0 

The  specimen  shows  nine  whorls  at  the  diameter  of  89.5  mm. 
Sutures. — The  sutures  consist   of  three  external  lobes  and  as  many 

*  Mem.  Acad.  Impcr.  Sei.,  St.  Petersburg,  vii  Ser.,  Tome  xxxvii,  No.  2,  "  Ammoneen  d> 
Artinsk-Stufe,"  pp.  45-48. 

t  Elemente  d.  Palxontologie,  1890,  p.  393. 

X  Grundzilge  d.  Palxontologie,  189J,  p.  405. 

§  Giorn.  Sci.  Nat.  ed.  Scan.,  Vol.  xx,  1890,  p.  31,  PL  D,  Figs.  21-20,  Gastrioceras  waageni 
Gemm. 

PHOC.  AMER.  ririLos.  soc.  XXXV.  152.  2g.     pkixted  dec.  9,  1896. 


Smitli.]  -08  [Oct.  2. 

Siuklles.  The  siphonal  l()])es  are  lono-,  narrow,  and  pointed  ;  the  first 
lateral  broadly  pointed,  and  on  the  nmbilical  slioulder  is  another  shallow 
lolie,  broad  and  pointed.  Tlie  siphonal  saddle  is  narrow,  with  the  usual 
indentation  at  the  end  ;  the  first  lateral  saddle  is  broadly  rounded  and 
deep,  the  second  lateral  saddle  shallow  and  inclined  to  be  pointed.  The 
inner  lobes  ai"e  three  in  number,  a  long,  narrow,  pointed  antisiphonal 
lobe,  and  a  pair  of  sliorter,  pointed  lateral  lobes  ;  the  four  internal  sad- 
dles are  rounded.  The  figures  on  PL  xxiii,  Fig.  5,  a  and  h,  show  the 
sutures  to  be  characteristic  of  Gnstriocer'as  ;  but  the  second  lateral  lobe, 
while  on  the  i;mbilical  shoulders,  is  plainly  visible  from  the  outside. 
Thus  the  species  might  be  referred  to  the  genus  Paralefjoceras  of  Hyatt  ; 
but  it  has  onlj'  nine  lobes  and  nine  saddles,  while  Paralcgoceras  has 
eleven  of  each.  For  a  discussion  of  this  see  p.  256  under  description  of 
the  genus  G(fstriocer<(s. 

Surface  Characters. — The  shell  is  preserved  on  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  specimen,  but  the  cast  shows  the  generic  and  specific  characters 
quite  as  well.  Obscure  and  somewhat  doubtful  constrictions  were 
observed,  but  the  preservation  is  such  that  their  interval  could  not  be 
ascertained.  The  umbilical  shoulders  are  marked  with  rather  weak 
nodes  or  ril)s,  whicli  on  the  outer  whorls  reach  uj)  nearly  to  the 
abdomiinil  shoulders  ;  on  the  young  shell  they  are  relatively  much 
stronger. 

Affinities. — Gastrioceras  hrainieri  belongs  to  the  group  of  6r.  lister l 
^lartin,  G.  jossee  Verneul,  and  G.  maricmum,  all  characterized  by  trape- 
zoidal cross-section,  umbilical  ribs,  pointed  lobes  and  rounded  saddles, 
and  evolute  whorls.  From  the  above-mentioned  species  G.  hraimeri 
differs  in  the  narrowness  of  its  whorls,  and  wide,  shallow  umbilicus  ;  it 
seems  to  depart  further  from  the  Glyp]iiocer(ts  stock  than  any  other 
Carboniferous  species  of  the  genus  Gastriocrrax. 

Occnrrence. — Gastrioceras  hranneri  was  found  along  with  Pronorites 
eyclolohiis  Phillips,  var  arkansiensis  J.  P.  Smith,  in  Arkansas,  on  Pilot 
mountain,  Carroll  county,  three  and  a  half  miles  southwest  of  Valley 
Springs,  in  17  N.,  19  W  ,  section  18,  northeast  corner,  in  the  Lower  Coal 
]Measures,  so-called  "Millstone-Grit"  (AlO  of  Prof.  H.  S.  Williams' 
section).  About  fifty-five  feet  below  this  horizon  lie  coarse,  reddish 
brown,  fossiliferous  limestone  supposed  to  be  the  Chester  beds  of  the 
Lower  Carboniferous. 

The  tj^pe,  for  the  use  of  wliieh  the  writer  is  indel>1ed  to  Prof.  H.  S. 
Williams,  is  the  property  of  the  LT.  8.  Geological  Survey  (National 
Museum),  catalogue  number  Sta.  1275. 

Gastrioceras  (ih)hidosiim^\vi'\\;\\\i\^\i)Y\\\v\\.    PI.  xviii.  Figs.  !-(>.   Gonia- 
titesglohulosiis  Meek  and  Worthen,  J'roc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sri.  Phila..  1800, 
p.  47.    Goiriatitcs  (jlobulosas  Meek,  Geol.  Sin'r.IUiitois,  ii,  p.  300,  PI 
XXX,  Fig.  2.      Gastrioceras  (jlobulosam  M.  and   W.,   sp  ,  A.    Hyatt, 
P-oc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  1888,  p.  827. 

Tliis  species  resembles  Gmtiatit-s  (Gastrimu  ra.s)  hai/lmu  /i.si.-<  ^VIlite,  of 


18%.]  ZbJ  [Smith. 

the  Texas  Permian,  but  the  lobes  of  the  latter  are  alone  sufficient  to  sep- 
arate the  species,  exceeding  by  one  the  number  on  the  sides  of  G.  globu- 
losiim.  The  Texas  species  also  has  the  umbilicus  much  wider  and  more 
open,  and  is  not  so  globose. 

The  angle  of  the  umbilicus  is  45°,  which  remains  constant  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  shell  grows  more  involute  with  age,  being  in 
its  youth  a  comparatively  open  coil.  In  youth  the  whorls  are  flattened, 
but  with  age  they  become  more  rounded,  until  the  shell  reaches  almost 
the  form  of  Glyphioceras  sphmriciim  Martin.  As  many  as  six  whorls  are 
known. 

The  deeply  marked  constrictions,  that  are  so  common  in  tlie  family  of 
the  Glyphioceratida',  are  seen  on  the  casts,  about  four  to  a  whorl. 

Sutures. — The  sutures  show  nine  lobes  and  nine  saddles  ;  the  siphonal 
lobes  are  narrow  and  pointed,  the  first  lateral  lobe  is  broad,  but  pointed, 
and  on  the  umbilical  shoulder  is  a  small,  pointed  "suspensive"  lobe. 
There  are  three  pointed,  internal  (concealed  by  the  involution)  lobes, 
of  which  the  antisiphonal  (dorsal)  is  the  longer. 

The  siphonal  saddle  is  rather  deeply  notched,  long  and  narrow  ;  the 
tw^o  lateral  saddles  are  broad  and  rounded.  The  two  internal  saddles 
are  rather  pointed  and  long,  as  is  the  case  with  most  species  of  this 
genus.  The  internal  lobes  and  saddles  have  never  been  seen  before  in 
this  species. 

The  septa  are  exactly  like  those  figured  by  Meek  and  Worthen,  so 
that  no  further  description  of  them  is  necessary  ;  they  are  typical  of  tlie 
genus  Gastrioceras,  as  characterized  by  Hyatt,  although,  as  Karpinsky* 
remarks,  the  sutures  alone  are  not  sufficient  to  separate  the  genera  Gly- 
phioceras, and  Gastrioceras,  since  a  comparison  of  the  sutures  of  Gastri- 
oceras  jossm  Verneul  and  Glyphioceras  diadema  Verneul  (not  Goldfuss) 
shows  the  almost  perfect  similarity  of  the  two. 

The  surface  of  the  shell  was  unknown  to  Meek  and  Worthen,  but 
some  of  the  Arkansas  specimens  have  the  shell  partially  preserved.  It 
is  marked  with  fine,  sharp,  doubly  arcuate,  sickle-shaped  stri*  or  ribs, 
with  the  sinus  on  the  ventral  portion  pointing  backwards.  This  surface 
ornamentation  resembles  that  of  Glyphioceras  ohtusuin  Pliillips,  Geol.  of 
Yorkshire,  ii,  p.  285,  PI.  xix,  Figs.  10-13,  but  the  form  is  much  more 
globose,  and  the  lobes  unlike  those  of  Phillips'  species. 

Dimensions. — One  of  tlie  fragments  shows  a  diameter  of  over  two 
inches  ;  on  this  onlj'  the  body  whorl  was  seen,  it  being  at  least  one  coil 
in  length. 

Bi/iicnsions  of  the  Largest  Figured  Specimen. 

MM. 

Diameter 36 

Breadth 27 

Height  of  last  whorl 14 

*"Ueber  die  Ammoneen  der  Artinsk-Stufe,"  Man.  Ac.  Inper.  Sci.  St.  Petersburg,  vi 
Series,  Tome  xxxvii,  No.  2,  p.  46. 


Smith.]  ^bO  [Oct.  2, 

MM. 

Height  of  last  whorl  from  centre  of  umbilifus 19 

Heiffht  of  last  whorl  from  top  of  the  inner  one 8 

Width  of  umbilicus    9 

These  measurements  show  the  adult  shell  to  be  verj'  globose. 

Position  and  Locality. — Several  specimens  of  this  very  interesting  spe- 
cies were  found  in  the  Upper  Carboniferous  of  Scott  county,  Arkansas,  1 
X.,  28  W.,  section  4,  southeast  quarter  of  southeast  quarter,  in  beds  sup- 
posed to  belong  to  the  Barren  Coal  Measures  ;  but  from  this  and  asso- 
ciated fossils  seem  more  likely  to  belong  to  the  Upper  Coal  Measures. 
This  species  is  also  found  in  the  Cisco  division  of  the  Texas  Upper  Coal 
Measures. 

Oastrioceras  exeelsum  Meek,  PI.  xvii,  Fig.  1.  Ooniatites  globulosus  var. 
excelsus  Meek,  Bull.  U.  8.  Geol.  and  Geog.  Survey  Terr.,  No.  6, 
second  series,  p.  445.  Goniatites  globulosus  Meek  and  AVorthen 
(pars),  Geol.  Sure.  Illinois,  Vol.  ii,  p.  390,  Fig.  38. 

This  species  was  originally  described  from  the  Upper  Coal  Measures 
of  eastern  Kansas,  from  Osage,  associated  with  Spirifer  cameratus 
Morton,  and  Athyris  subtilita  Hall,  and  other  species  characteristic  of 
that  horizon. 

It  resembles  closely  in  everything  but  size  Gastrioceras  globulosum 
Meek  and  Worthen  of  the  Upper  Coal  Measvires  of  Illinois,  and  we 
know  too  few  specimens  of  the  latter  species  to  say  that  it  did  not  grow 
to  the  immense  size  of  the  Kansas  species. 

In  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Pope  county,  Arkansas,  10  N.,  20  W., 
section  8,  southeast  quarter  of  northwest  quarter,  was  found  a  large  sep- 
tate fragment  of  a  specimen  that  must  have  been  five  or  six  inches  in 
diameter,  since  the  body  chamber  is  at  least  one  coil  in  length  on  all 
nearly  related  species.  The  ventral  (external)  portion  of  the  shell  is 
higher  and  not  so  rounded  as  in  G.  globulosum,  but  as  has  already  been 
noticed  on  that  species  the  coil  becomes  with  age  rounder  and  more  ele- 
vated, and  this  may  be  only  an  advanced  stage  of  growth  not  seen  on 
any  of  the  smaller  specimens.  The  lobes  are  almost  exactly  like  those 
of  the  small  Gastrioceras  globulosum  of  Meek  and  Worthen. 

Gastrioceras  marianum  Y erne\x\,  PI.  xvi.  Figs.  1-5.  Goniatites  mariamis 
Verneul,  Geol.  of  Russia,  ii,  p.  369,  PI.  xxvii,  Fig.  2.  Goniatites 
jossce  Verneul  (pars),  Eichwald,  Let?i.  Boss.,  i,  p.  1324.  Goniatites 
listeri  Martin  (pars),  var.  7Mario?,  Gurow,  Abhandl.  d  naturf.  Gesell. 
Charcoio,  1873,  p.  87.  Gastrioceras  ■marianum  Verneul ;  Karpinsky, 
Ammoneen  der  Artinsk-Stiife,  p.  49. 

This  is  easily  distinguished  from  all  other  American  species  l)y  its  low, 
broad  whorl,  wide  and  deep  umbilicus,  and  the  strong  ribs  on  the  umbil- 
ical shoulders.     These  together  with   its   sutures  make  it  a  most  typical 


189C,]  ^^i  ^  [Smith. 

representative  of  the  genus  Gastnoceras.  But  there  are  species  of  Oas- 
trioceras  tliat  are  globose  and  not  flattened,  and  without  the  umbilical 
ribs  or  nodes  ;  also  certain  species  have  their  sutures  very  angular.  On 
the  other  hand  certain  species  of  Glyphioceras  have  weak  umbilical 
nodes  and  rounded  sutures. 

This  species  is  so  closely  related  to  Oastrioceras  lister i  Martin,  sp., 
Petrif.  Derb.,  PI.  xxxv.  Fig.  3,  that  they  have  been  united  by  Gurow. 
Others  still  are  inclined  to  unite  it  with  Glyphioceras  diadema  Goldfuss, 
while  many  would  join  it  with  Oastrioceras  jossm  Verneul. 

From  G.  josscB  it  differs  in  the  almost  total  absence  of  spiral  ribs  or 
striae,  and  in  the  wider  and  more  angular  umbilicus,  but  they  are  so 
similar  that  G.  marianum  may  be  considered  the  ancestor  of  G.  jossce. 

The  best  mark  of  sejiaration  from  G.  listeri  is  the  greater  number  of 
coils  which  G.  marianum  has,  as  many  as  seven  being  known  on  a 
specimen  of  less  than  one  inch  in  diameter. 

G.  kingii  Hall  and  Whitfield,  U.  8.  Expl.  Fortieth  Parallel  iv,  p.  279, 
PL  vi,  Fig.  9-14,  is  a  closely  related  form,  but  diff'ers  in  having  the 
umbilical  slope  a  little  more  gentle,  the  angle  with  the  axis  of  the  shell 
being  40-45°,  while  that  of  G.  marianum  is  about  37°.  G.  kingii  has 
fewer  whorls  to  the  same  diameter.  G.  marianum  also  has  the  external 
saddle  not  so  deeply  divided,  and  the  two  siphonal  lobes  are  wider  and 
become  somewhat  broadened  at  the  ends.  The  ribs  on  the  sides  of 
G.  marianum  are  much  stronger.  Weak  spiral  strife  are  seen  on  the 
inner  whorls. 

The  transverse  lines  of  growth  form  incipient  undulations  on  the 
ventral  portion  of  the  shell.  Strong  constrictions  occur  both  on  the 
cast  and  on  the  shell,  on  the  body  chamber,  as  well  as  on  the  rest  of 
the  chambers,  becoming  weaker  with  age  ;  their  number  is  about  three 
to  a  whorl,  and  the^^  curve  forward,  with  a  gentle  sinus  pointing  back- 
ward. 

The  ribs  are  strong  on  the  sides,  forming  sharp  nodes  or  tubercles, 
and  are  continued  across  the  ventral  portion  by  fine  undulations. 
Towards  the  centre  or  umbilicus  the  ribs  weaken  very  suddenly.  The 
sutures  are  like  those  figured  by  Verneul,  but  show  also  the  small 
"suspensive"  lobe  on  the  umbilical  border,  as  described  and  figured 
by  Karpinsky. 

The  body  chamber  is  at  least  one  coil  in  length. 

Dimensions. — Some  fragments  indicate  a  size  of  not  less  than  two  and 
a  half  inches  in  diameter.  The  most  perfect  specimen  has  the  follow- 
ing dimensions  : 

MM. 

Height  of  last  whorl 9 

Diameter , 30 

Width  of  umbilicus 14 

The  breadth  of  the  last  whorl  is  about  two-thirds  of  the  diameter  of 


Smith.]  262  [Oct.  2, 

the   shell.     Angle  of  umbilicus  with  the  axis  of  the  shell   about   87^^. 
These  measurements  agree  very  Avell  with  those  given  by  Karpinsky. 

The  smallest  of  the  Arkansas  specimens  gave  the  following  dimen- 
sions : 

MM. 

Diameter 8.5 

Height  of  last  whorl "2.5 

Width  of  umbilicus 4.5 

Breadth  of  last  Avhorl li.O 

These  measurements  agree  closely  with  the  measurements  Karpinsky 
gives  of  small  specimens  from  the  Urals.     The  proportions  would  be 

Diameter 1.00 

Height  of  last  whorl  ....    0.29 

Width  of  umbilicus 0.53 

Breadth  of  last  whorl 0.70 

These  proportions  agree  very  well  with  those  given  by  de  Verneul, 
Geol.  Russie  cV Europe  et  des  Mont,  de  V  Oural,  Vol.  ii,  p.  369. 

Occurrence. — This  species  was  originally  described  by  Verneul  from 
the  Upper  Carboniferous  limestone  of  Schartymka  in  eastern  Russia, 
C2,  and  does  not  occur  in  the  Artinsk  or  Lower  Permian  deposits, 
although  it  has  been  confused  by  many  authors  with  Gustrioceras 
jossce,  which  is  characteristic  of  those  strata.  Karpinsky,  in  his  mono- 
graph on  the  Ammoneen  der  Artinsk- Sti/fe,  pp.  50  and  51,  describes  the 
differences  that  separate  G.  marianum  from  G.  jossce  and  G.  listeri; 
the  most  striking  of  these  distinctions  is  that  on  G.  mariamim  the  con- 
strictions have  a  weak  sinus  pointing  backward,  while  on  the  others  it 
is  forward. 

We  have  therefore  at  least  some  evidence  of  an  Upper  Carboniferous 
sea,  stretching  from  the  Ural  mountains  eastward  to  the  Mississippi 
valley.  This  would  help  to  explain  the  fact  that  our  marine  Carbonifer- 
ous fa\ma  has  more  analogy  to  the  Asiatic  than  to  the  western  European 
fauna  of  the  same  age. 

G.  marianum  was  found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  in  Scott  county, 
Ark.,  1  N.,  28  W.,  section  4,  southeast  quarter  of  southeast  quarter. 
This,  or  a  very  closely  related  species,  occurs  also  in  the  Cisco  division 
of  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Texas. 

Gastrioceras,  sp.  indet.     PI.  xx.  Fig.  1. 

In  the  young  stages  this  species  resembles  closeh'  G.  marianum  Ver- 
neul, bnt  the  umbilicus  is  nariower.  The  young  whorl  has  also  a 
trapezoidal  cross-section,  each  succeeding  whorl  becoming  more  highly 
arched,  until  all  resemblance  to  the  Ural  species  is  lost  in  the  adult 
stage. 

The  coil,  too,  sliows  decidedly  the  plienouKMion  calK'd  by  ^lojsisovics 


18%.]  ^^'^  [Smith. 

"agression,"  ])y  wliicli  is  meant  a  clianiie  in  the  (lireetion  of  the  spiral 
iic:;()mpauied  by  widening  of  tlie  umbilicus,  so  tliat  witli  age  it  Hares 
open.  Even  witli  the  wide  umbilicus  of  the  adult  stage,  this  species  is 
easily  distinguished  from  (r.  iiKiriarmm  by  its  narrower  and  more  highly 
ai'clied  whorls. 

The  sides  of  tiie  whorl  are  ornamented  with  strong  tubercles,  which 
on  the  young  stages  are  like  those  of  G.  mariunum,  but  on  the  adult 
form  ribs  reach  halfway  from  the  umbilical  shoulders  to  the  ventral  por- 
tion of  the  shell. 

Constrictions  are  seen  on  the  cast,  aljout  three  or  four  to  a  revolution. 
The  surface  of  the  shell  is  not  known.  The  sutures  arc  like  those  of 
G.  maridnum,  but  the  siphonal  or  external  lobes  are  somewhat  l)roader, 
and  the  lateral  lobes  are  longer,  narrower  and  more  pointed. 

Tlie  lateral  saddle  is  broad,  rounded  and  considerably  shorter  than 
the  lateral  lobes.  There  is  also  a  small  auxiliary  or  "sttspensive  "  lobe 
on  the  uml)ilical  shoulders,  like  that  of  G.  marianiim.  The  sutures 
resemble  still  more  closely  those  of  GlypMocer'as  diadema  Goldfuss  as 
figured  and  described  by  DeKoninck  in  Description  des  Animaux  Fos- 
siles  Terr.  Garhoiiif.  Behjiqne,  p.  574,  PI.  1,  Fig.  1,  e.  But  the  Belgian 
species  is  considerably  more  involute,  has  a  lower  whorl,  and  propor- 
tionally narrower  umbilicus.  Also  the  umbilical  ribs  are  much  weaker 
than  on  the  Arkansas  species. 

Verneul,  in  Geol.  Eiissie  d' Europe  et  des  Mont.  Oural,  Vol.  ii,  p.  367, 
has  described  a  goniatite  as  G.  diadema,  bitt  this  form  is  less  like  the 
Arkansas  species  than  the  Belgian  form.  In  addition  to  this,  there  is 
no  likelihood  that  all  the  forms  referred  to  G.  diadema  are  really  one 
species  It  is  cxuite  possible  that  the  Arkansas  species  may  be  identical 
with  one  of  the  many  varieties  ascribed  to  G.  diadema,  but  at  present  it 
is  impossible  to  prove  this. 

Occurrence. — Several  badly  broken  casts  and  moulds  were  found  in 
the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Scott  countj',  Arkan.sas,  1  N.,  28  W.,  sec- 
lion  4,  southeast  qtiarter  of  southeast  quarter,  associated  with  Gastrio- 
ccras  tiKirianum  Verneul,  G.  (jlohulosum  Meek  and  Worthen,  Pi'o- 
noritcs  sp.,  etc. 

Genus  Pabalegocekas,  Hyatt.  Paralegoceras  iotoense  Meek  and 
Worthen,  PI.  xix.  Figs.  1-B.  Goniatites  iowensis  Meek  and  Worthen  ; 
Geol.  Surv.  of  Illinois,  Vol.  ii,  p.  392,  PI.  xxx,  Fig.  3.  Paralego- 
ceras iowense  M.  and  W  ,  Hyatt,  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol. 
xxii,  1883,  p.  327.  Paralegoceras  ioicense  M.  and  W.,  Hyatt, 
Geol.  Survey  of  Texas,  Fourth  Ann.  Report,  1893,  p.  474,  Figs.  52- 
55.  Goniatites  missouriensis  Miller  and  Faber,  Journ.  Cincin.  Soc. 
Wat.  Hist.,  Vol.  xiv,  p.  164,  PL  vi,  Fig.  1. 

The  genus  Paralegoceras  is  extremely  rare,  being  known  lieretofore 
only  from  the  Coal  Measures  of  Iowa,  the  Upper  Carboniferous  and 
Artinsk  beds  of  Russia,  and  the  Bend  Formation  of  Texas,  and  in  the 
Upper  Coal  Measures  near  Kansas  City,  Missouri. 


Smith.]  -^"4:  [Oct.  2, 

The  Arkansas  specimen  is  a  septate  east  that  when  complete  must 
have  heen  at  least  four  inches  in  diameter.  The  whorl  is  broader  and 
rounder  than  on  the  Iowa  specimen,  but  this  is  to  be  expected  on  a 
young  individual  since  the  evolution  of  most  of  these  forms  takes  place 
after  this  manner.  The  whorls  are  quite  Involute  and  the  umbilicus  is 
narrow  on  the  young  shell,  becoming  wider  as  the  shell  grows  older. 
The  surface  of  the  cast  is  smooth,  no  constrictions  or  other  ornamenta- 
tions appearing  on  the  older  shell.  But  on  the  younger  shell  the  um- 
bilical shoulders  show  faint  ribs,  that  shade  off  into  tine  undulations  on 
the  sides.  Hyatt  has  shown  the  same  thing  in  Geol.  Survey  Texas,  Sec- 
ond Ann.  Beiiort,  p.  355.  But  in  Texas  specimen  the  ribs  persist  to  a 
much  later  stage  than  on  that  from  Arkansas. 

Dimensions. — Although  the  specimen  was  not  well  preserved,  the 
measurements  of  the  entire  form  could  be  taken.     They  were  as  follows  : 

MM. 

Diameter 55.5 

Height  of  last  whorl  from  umbilicus 25.5 

Height  of  last  whorl  from  top  of  inner  whorl 17.0 

Width  of  umbilicus 13.5 

An  inner  coil  taken  out  of  the  same  specimen  gave  the  following 
measurements  : 

JIM. 

Diameter 28.5 

Height  of  last  whorl  from  umbilicus 12.0 

Height  of  last  whorl  from  toji  of  inner  whorl 7.5 

Width  of  umbilicus 0.0 

These  show  the  inner  coils  to  be  much  lower,  less  highly  arched,  and 
less  embracing  than  the  outer  ones. 

Surface  Markings. — On  the  inner  whorls  a  trace  of  the  shell  is  pre- 
served, and  is  like  that  figured  by  Hyatt.  The  undulating  stria'  are  like 
those  common  on  the  Glyp/iioceratida'. 

Sutures. — The  sutures  are  like  those  figured  by  Meek  and  W^orthen, 
but  the  siphonal  saddle  is  notched  by  a  small  siphonal  lobe.  The  three 
external  lateral  saddles  are  broadly  rounded,  while  the  lobes  are  sharply 
pointed.  The  lobes  are  eleven  in  number,  three  on  each  side,  one  on 
each  umbilical  shoulder  (suspensive  lobe)  and  three  internal,  that  is, 
covered  by  the  involution.  The  interior  lateral  lobes  and  the  antisiph- 
onal  lobe  (dorsal;  are  very  sharp  and  long.  These  have  not  been  seen 
before  on  this  species.  The  sutures  approach  very  closely  to  those  of 
Gastrioccras  russiense  Zwetajew,  but  Paralegoceras  ioicenseh^s,  one  more 
pair  of  lobes  than  the  Russian  species  and  has  also  a  suspensive  lobe  on 
the  umbilical  shoulders.  In  the  latter  characteristic  Paralegoceras 
iowense  resembles  P.  tschernyschcici  Karpinsky  (Ammoneen  der  Artinsk- 
Stufe,  p.  62,  PI.  iii.  Fig.  1).     Karpinsky  {loc.  cit.),  has  emended  Hyatt's 


1896.]  '^t)0  [Smith. 

genus  to  embrace  tlioso  forms  with  two  lateral  lobes  and  a  "suspen- 
sive" lobe  on  the  umbilical  shoulders.  Hyatt,  in  the  Geological  Survey 
-of  Texas,  Second  Annual  Report,  1891,  p.  355,  emended  the  genus  Paral- 
^goceras  to  include  those  forms  with  the  second  lateral  lobe  on  the 
iiimbilical  shoulders,  and  he  included  in  it  GastiHoceras  russiense  Zweta- 
jew.  But  the  Russian  species  has  the  suspensive  lobe  on  the  side  and 
has  onl}'  nine  lobes  in  all,  and  thus  ought  to  remain  in  the  group  char- 
acterized as  Gastrioceras. 

In  the  Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Texas,  1893, 
p.  474,  Hyatt  has  described  under  the  name  of  Paralegoceras  iowense 
Meek  and  Worthen,  a  goniatite  from  the  Bend  Formation  of  Texas. 
But  the  lobes  are  not  exactly  like  those  of  the  Iowa  Coal  Measures  spe- 
cies, the  third  lateral  saddle  is  on  the  umbilical  shoulders,  and  the 
young  shell  is  marked  with  ril)s  which  form  well-defined  tubercles,  even 
on  the  older  shell.  These  difierences  were  explained  by  the  supposition 
that  the  Texas  specimen  was  the  young  of  Paralegoceras  iowense,  and 
might  thus  naturally  show  them.  But  since  the  Arkansas  specimen  is 
a  young  one  and  still  shows  all  the  characteristics  of  the  adult,  it 
I)ecomes  very  likely  that  the  Texas  specimen  belongs  to  another  species. 

There  is  also  another  reason  why  this  is  probable.  The  Bend  Forma- 
tion is  called  Coal  Measures  by  the  Geological  Survey  of  Texas,  but  its 
fauna  seems  to  be  identical  with  that  of  the  Fayetteville  shale  of 
Arkansas,  which  belongs  to  the  Lower  Carboniferous,  and  probably  to 
the  Warsaw  or  St.  Louis  division.  Species  that  are  almost  certainly 
identical  with  Glyphioceras  incisuni  Hyatt  and  G.  cumminsi  Hj^att  have 
been  collected  in  the  Fayetteville  shale  of  Arkansas.  And  since  these 
goniatites  have  unusually  only  a  limited  stratigraphic  range,  it  is  very 
probable  that  the  species  from  the  Bend  Formation  is  not  identical  with 
that  from  the  Coal  Measures. 

Occurrence  — A  single  specimen  oi  Paralegoceras  ioicense  was  found  in 
Arkansas,  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Conway  county,  5  N.,  16  W., 
section  17,  near  centre  of  north  half.  The  species  was  originally 
described  from  the  Coal  Measures  of  Iowa  and  since  then  has  not  been 
cited  from  any  other  locality  up  to  the  present  occurrence,  unless  the 
Texas  species  of  Hyatt  should  be  the  same.  There  can,  however,  be 
very  little  doubt  that  Goniatites  misso uriensis  Miller  and  Faber  {Journ. 
Cincinnati  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  xiv,  p.  164,  PI.  vi.  Fig.  1),  from  the 
Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Missouri,  near  Kansas  City,  is  identical  with 
Paralegoceras  iowense  Meek  and  Worthen. 

Family  Prolecanitidce  Hyatt. 

The  Prolecanitida',  as  originally  described  bj^  Hyatt,*  included  cer- 
tain elements  that  do  not  belong  to  this  stock  ;  but,  as  revised  by  Kar- 
pinsky,f  it  forms  the  most  perfect  genetic  series  known,  radiating  from 

*  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  xxii,  p.  331. 
■^Ammoneen  der  Artinsk-Stufe,  pp.  41-45. 

PKOC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  152.  2  H.      PRINTED  DEC.  9,  189G. 


Smith.  I  ^Ob  [Ot-t.  2. 

the  common  radicle,  Ibergiceras,  in  several  parallel  series  or  subfamilies, 
including  the  Medlicottinm,  the  NoritinK,  and  the  Lecanitince  of  the 
Permian  and  Trias,  the  Piiiacoceratidiv  of  the  Trias,  and  the  Amolthei- 
d(K  of  the  Trias,  Jura  and  Cretaceous. 

Dr.  K.  von  Zittel*  says  that  this  family  jirobahly  also  gave  rise  to  llie 
Ceratitidxe  of  the  Permian  and  Trias. 

Genus  Pronorites,  Mojsisovics. 

In  the  adult  stage  Pronorites  is  discoidal,  has  high,  narroAv  whorl, 
with  nearly  parallel  sides,  is  very  involute,  and  has  narrow  umbilicus. 

The  siphoual  lobe  is  three-pointed,  the  first  lateral  lobe  divided  into 
two  or  three  parts  by  secondary  sinuses.  In  addition  to  these  there  are 
several  auxiliary  lateral  lobes,  three  to  six,  all  slightly  pointed,  while 
all  the  saddles  are  rounded.  No  constrictions  or  other  surface  ornamen- 
tations are  known,  except  that  on  the  adult  body-chamber  faint  ribs 
liave  been  observed. 

The  first  septum  of  Pronorites  is  latisellate,  and  the  broad  sinus  is  soon 
divided  by  a  siphonal  lobe  into  two  lateral  sinuses  (PI.  xxiii,  Fig  7). 
This  is  the  end  of  the  embryonic  stage,  in  which  the  shell  is  seen  to 
belong  to  an  ammonoid  cephalopod,  but  the  familj'  is  not  yet  indicated. 

In  the  next  stage  the  lateral  sinuses  are  subdivided  hy  broad,  rounded 
lobes  ;  the  sutures  then  resemble  those  of  Goiiiatites  (Ihergiceras)  tetrti- 
goitus  Roemer  of  the  Upper  Devonian,  and  the  shell  is  in  the  beginning 
of  the  larval  or  nepionic  stage  (PI.  xxiv,  Fig.  9ft)  ;  a  little  further  on  the 
sutures  are  like  those  of  a  Prolec/inites  (P.  serpentinus  Phillips),  and 
the  larval  stage  is  approaching  its  end. 

In  the  following  or  neanic  stage  the  siphonal  lobe  becomes  three- 
pointed,  and  the  shell  corresponds  to  Paraprolecauites  Karpinsky.t  and 
its  familj^  affinities  are  beyond  doubt  (PI.  xxiv,  Fig.  db). 

With  the  adult  or  ephebic  stage  the  first  lateral  lobe  becomes  divided 
into  two  or  three  parts  (PI.  xxiv,  Fig.  9c-/).  With  this  stage  the  genus 
Pronorites  stops.  But  C4emmellaro:j:  has  described  from  the  Permian  of 
Sicily  a  further  development  of  this  form  in  the  genus  Ptirapronorites, 
in  which  the  double  latei-al  lobe  and  some  of  the  simple  ones  become 
serrated. 

Another  line  of  develojiment  of  Pronorites  has  been  described  by 
Gemmellaro  (oj).  cit.)  as  SicDifes,  in  which  all  the  lateral  lol)es 
become  double  like  the  first  one.  The  next  higher  stages  are  given  by 
Medlirottin  Waagen,  in  which  the  siphonal  saddles  become  indented  and 
ammonitic.  Karpinsky§  shows  that  Jledlicottia  in  its  development 
goes  through  the  Ibergiceras,  Prolecanites,  Pnriiprolecdiiiten,  Pronorites. 
Sicanites  and  Promcdlicottia  stages. 

*  Grundzuge  der  Palxontologie,  1S95,  p.  400. 

\  Ammoneen  der  Artinsk-Stiife,  p.  7. 

I  Fauna  Calc.  Famlinn  d.  Valle  d.  Jium  Sosio,  1S'^7,  \i.  (JO. 

§  Amiiiimcen  der  Artiiisk-Stiifi ,  p.  41.  • 


267 


[Smith. 


Thus  the  finding  of  Pronorites  in  Arkansas  is  of  great  importance, 
since  it  is  tlie  ancestor  of  a  form  Medlieottia,  which  tliougli  unknown 
in  Arkansas,  has  been  found  at  no  great  distance  away  in  the  Texas  Per- 
mian.*    Pronorites,  on  the  otlier  liand,  lias  not  yet  been  found  in  Texas. 

These  occurrences  lielp  to  prove  the  continuity  of  life  from  the  Car- 
boniferous into  the  Permian,  and  to  show  that  the  same  conditions 
existed  here  as  in  the  Artinsk  region  of  the  Ural  mountains,  where  the 
Carboniferoiis  beds  contain  the  goniatites  out  of  which  most  of  the  Per- 
mian ammonites  were  developed. 

Pronorites  <\i/rlolotjus  Phillips,  variety  arkiinsiensis  J.  P.  Smith,  PI.  xxiv, 
Figs.  1—4.  Oonidtites  cydolobus  Phillips,  Geol.  Yorkshire,  Vol.  ii, 
p.  237,  PI.  XX,  Figs.  40^2.  Goniatites  cydolobus  Phillips,  Verneul, 
Geol.  Russia  and  the  Ural  Mountains,  Vol.  ii,  p.  370,  PL  xxvi,  Fig.  4. 
Goniatites  cydolobus  Phillips,  Roemer,  Palceontographica,  ix,  p. 
167,  PI.  xxvii,  Fig.  1.  Goniatites  cydolobus  Phillips,  DeKoninck, 
Faune  calc.  Carh.  Belcj.,  Vol.  ii,  p.  121,  PI.  1,  Figs.  5,  6.  Pronorites 
cydolobus  Phillips,  (variety  tiralensis)  Karpinskj',  Mem.  Acad.  Iin- 
per.  Set.  St.  Petersbourg,  vii  series.  Tome  37,  No.  2,  p.  8,  PI.  i.  Fig.  4. 

Phillips'  original  description  of  Goniatites  cydolobus  is  as  follows  : 
"Discoid,  sides  flat,  back  broad,  inner  whorls  half  concealed,  septa 
with  four  round  lateral  lobes,  a  small  double  dorsal  lobe,  and  small 
acute  dorsal  sinuses,  the  first  lateral  sinus  double,  the  others  simple,  all 
round." 

This  description  is  too  meagre  to  be  of  more  than  generic  value,  and 
also  the  term  "dorsal  "  is  used  where  now  "abdominal  "  is  in  common 
use. 

The  shell  is  smooth,  discoidal,  very  involute.  The  sides  are  nearly 
parallel  and  the  breadth  increases  very  slowly  ;  the  abdominal  shoul- 
ders are  nearly  square,  and  the  abdomen  flat.  The  whorls  are  deeply 
embracing  and  increase  rapidly  in  height.  The  umbilical  shoulders  are 
square,  the  umbilicus  narrovr  and  deep,  and  increases  slowly  in  diame- 
ter. 

Dimensions. — The  specimen,  Avhich  was  septate  throughout,  gave  the 
following  dimensions  : 

MM 

Diameter 34.0 

Height  of  last  whorl  from  umbilical  shoulders 17.5 

Breadth 10.0 

Width  of  umbilicus 7.0 

This  gives  the  proportions:  1:  0.5:  0.29:  0.20  :  which  agree  almost 
exactly  with  Karpinsky's  figures,  1  :  0.5  :  0.30  :  0.20.  On  the  Arkansas 
specimen  the  involution  is  shown  by  the  height  of  the  last  whorl  from 
the  top  of  the  next  inner  one,   12.5  mm.   as    compared  with   ihe  total 

*C.  A.  White,  Bull.  71  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  p.  21. 


Smith.]  -"OO  [Oct.  2, 

height  of  the  whorl  which  is  17.5  mm.  No  measurements  of  this  rela- 
tion were  shown  on  the  Russian  specimen. 

This  description  applies  onlj"  to  the  adult  shell,  the  relative  measure- 
ments of  the  nepionic  and  neanic  shells  being  very  ditferent.  The 
Arkansas  specimen  showed  onlj-  the  last  whorl,  but  the  young  stages 
have  been  worked  out  by  Karpiusky,*  from  whose  work  the  following 
description  is  translated  :  "Around  the  cylindrical  embryonic  chamber 
(PI.  xxiii,  Fig.  8)  are  coiled  very  evolute  whorls,  whose  involution 
increases  gradually,  but  at  first  only  in  slight  measure  (PI.  xxiv.  Fig.  8)- 
So,  for  example,  the  fourth  whorl  embraces  at  the  beginning  only  about 
one-fourth  of  the  preceding  ;  thus  the  height  of  the  evolute  portion  of 
this  fourth  whorl  is  six  or  seven  times  as  great  as  that  of  its  own  invo- 
lute portion. 

With  later  stages  of  growth  the  involution  increases  so  that  the 
whorls  become  finally  completely  embracing,  and  probably  conceal  a 
portion  of  the  umbilicus.  Because  of  this  mode  of  growth  the  umbili- 
cus appears  at  first  broad,  and  increasing  rapidly,  then  only  gradually, 
and  finally  not  at  all,  while  the  whorl  continues  to  grow  in  height  with 
great  rapid  it  j'.  Thus,  at  a  diameter  of  the  whorl  of  four  or  five  milli- 
meters, the  umbilicus  is  about  one-half  of  the  total  diameter,  and  at 
thirty  mm.  only  about  one-fifth.  The  first  and  second  whorls  have  a 
broad  elliptical  cross-section  (PI.  xxiv.  Fig.  8),  while  that  of  the  succeed- 
ing whorls  becomes  higher,  with  the  long  elliptical  axis  vertical  (PI.  xxiv, 
Fig.  6),  and  then  finally  the  fianks  are  bounded  bj'  almost  parallel  lines 
and  the  siphonal  side  is  only  slightly  arched." 

Ontogeny.  According  to  Karpinsky,f  the  first  or  typembryonic  stage  is 
latisellate,  that  is  the  suture  consists  of  a  broad  abdominal  saddle  ;  this 
saddle  is  next  divided  by  a  broad  siphonal  lobe  (PL  xxiii.  Fig.  7  k 

The  next  stage  corresponds  to  the  genus  Ibergiceras  Karpinsky,  of  which 
Oon.  tetragonus  Roemer,  of  the  Upper  Devonian,  is  the  type  ;  in  this 
the  whorls  are  broad,  low  and  only  slightly  embracing,  the  umbilicus 
wide  and  shallow.  The  sutures  consist  of  a  long  rather  narrow  sipho- 
nal lobe,  and  two  bi'oadly  rounded  lateral  lobes.  This  is  the  nepionic 
or  larval  stage  (PI.  xxiv,  Fig.  9a).  In  the  continuation  of  this  stage  the 
whorls  become  higher,  and  the  lobes  more  complicated,  corresponding 
to  the  genus  Frolecanites,  of  which  Gon.  henslotci  Phillips  and  Gon. 
serpentinus  Phillips  are  types. 

In  the  next  stage  the  shape  of  shell  does  change  materially,  but  the 
siphonal  lobe  becomes  three-pointed  (PL  xxiv,  Fig.  9&);  this  is  the 
neanic  or  youthful  stage,  and  corresponds  to  the  genus  Puraprolecanites 
Karpinsky,  of  which  the  type  is  Gon.  mixolohus  Sandberger  (not  Phil- 
lips) (Verstein,  Rhein.  Schichten-Systein  in  Nassau,  p.  07,  PL  iii,  Fig. 
13?;  PI.  ix,  Fig.  6). 

The  further  development  consists    in   the  division  of  the  first   lateral 

*  Ammoiicen  der  Artinsk-Stvfe,  p.  8. 
t  Oji.  cit.,  p.  4  et  seq. 


1896.J  -t)J  [Smith. 

lobe  by  a  secondary  saddle  ;  the  shell  is  then  in  the  ephebic  or  adult 
stage,  and  in  Pronorites  gets  no  higher  in  its  development. 

The  sutures  are  then  constant  in  shape,  and  consist  of  a  three-pointed 
siphonal  lobe,  a  tirst  lateral  lobe  deeply  divided  by  a  secondary  saddle 
and  five  secondary  lateral  lobes  outside  the  umbilical  border,  and  one 
on  the  umbilical  shoulder.  All  the  lobes  are  pointed,  and  the  saddles 
rounded.     The  inner  lobes,  covered  by  the  involution,  are  unknown. 

The  sutures,  as  figured  on  PI.  xxiv,  Fig.  4,  show  some  difterences  from 
those  figured  by  Phillips,  PI.  xxiii,  Fig.  9,  and  by  Karpinsky,*  PI.  xxiv, 
Fig.  9/.  On  the  Arkansas  specimen  the  three-pointed  siphonal  lobe  is 
longer  than  on  the  type  of  Phillips,  or  the  variety  P.  cyclolobus,  variety 
uralensis  Karpinsky,  the  secondary  sinus  on  the  first  lateral  lobe  is  deeper, 
and  the  second  lateral  lobe  is  proportionally  longer.  In  this  the  Arkan- 
sas specimen  does  not  depart  further  from  the  type  than  the  variety 
uralensis.  But  if  this  difference  should  be  thought  to  be  of  sufficient 
importance  to  characterize  a  new  variety,  the  name  P.  cyclolobus  Phil- 
lips, variety  arkansiensis  is  proposed. 

Surface  Markings. — The  shell  is  smooth  and  devoid  of  constrictions 
or  other  ornamentation,  but  on  the  body  chamber  of  the  adult,  Kar- 
pinskyf  observed  weak  ribs,  that  are  stronger  on  the  abdomen  and  grow 
A\  eaker  towards  the  umbilicus. 

Affinities. — Tliis  species  is  certainly  a  variety  of  Pronorites  cyclolobus 
Pliillips  ( Geol.  Yorkshire,  Vol.  ii,  p.  237,  PI.  xx,  Figs.  40-42),  but  is  more 
involute  at  the  corresponding  diameter,  and  has  a  narrower  umbilicus 
and  a  greater  number  of  lateral  lobes.  Specimens  described  by  De 
KoninckJ  from  Belgium,  and  by  Roemerg  from  the  Hartz  mountains  in 
Germany,  agree  perfectly  with  the  type  of  Pi'onorites  cyclolobus ;  the 
English,  Belgian  and  German  beds,  in  which  the  species  was  found,  are 
all  older  than  the  Lower  Coal  Measure  horizon  in  Arkansas  in  which  it 
was  found,  and  considerably  older  than  the  Upper  Carboniferous  lime- 
stone, in  which  it  was  found  in  the  Ural  mountains  From  this  Kar- 
pinsky ||  thinks  the  variety  uralensis  represents  a  mutation  from  the  type 
of  the  species. 

The  form  from  the  Pyrenees  described  by  Barrois^  as  Pronorites 
cyclolobus  Phillips  has  been  shown  by  Karpinsky**  to  be  a  new  species, 
P.  barroisi  Karpinsky.  This  form  is  more  evolute  than  even  the  type 
of  P.  cyclolobus,  and  its  lobes  and  saddles  are  broader  and  also  less 
numerous. 

Occurrence. — Pronorites  cyclolobus  Phillips,  variety  arkansiensis  J.  P. 
Smith,  was  found  with  Oastrioceras  branneri,  sp.,  nov.  J.  P.  Smith,  in 

*  Ammoneen  der  ArUnsk-Stufe,  PI.  I,  Fig.  4  1. 
t  Op.  cil.,  p.  9,  PI.  I,  Fig.  4  c  and  d. 

I  Faune  dii  Calc.  Carbon  Belgique,  Vol.  ii,  p.  121,  PI.  1,  Figs.  5  and  6. 
^,  Pahtonlngraphica,  Vol.  ix,  p.  167,  PI.  xxvii,  Fig.  1. 

II  Ammoneen  d.  Artinsk-Shi/e,  p.  10. 

^  Re.'  Ii'i-clie.-;  s.  I.  ten:  anc.  d'Asturies  ei  de  la  Gallce,  1S82,  p.  295,  PI.  xiv,  Fig.  2. 
♦*  L'/c.  eil. 


Smith.]  -^'^  [Oci.  2, 

Arkansas,  on  Pilot  mountain,  Carroll  count}',  three  and  a  half  miles 
southwest  of  Valley  Springs,  in  17  N.,  19  W.,  section  18,  northeast 
corner,  in  the  Lower  Coal  Measures,  so-called  "Millstone  Grit."  The 
beds  are  called  A  10  in  Prof  H.  S.  Williams'  section  ;  below  them  lie 
fifty-five  feet  of  micaceous  sandstones  and  shales  (A  9  of  the  section), 
and  below  that  coarse,  reddish-brown  fossiliferous  limestone,  supposed 
to  represent  the  Chester  horizon  of  the  Lower  Carboniferous. 

The  type  figured  on  PI.  xxiv,  Figs.  1-4,  is  the  property  of  the  Ignited 
States  Geological  Survey  (National  Museum),  catalogue  number  Sta. 
13To.  The  writer  is  indebted  to  Prof.  H.  S.  Williams  for  the  use  of  the 
type. 

Other  Localities  — Pronorites  cyclolobus  has  been  found  in  England  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  Mountain  limestone  ;  in  Belgium  in  the  limestone 
of  Vise  ;  in  the  Kohlenkalk  of  the  Hartz,  in  Germany,  and  the  variety 
urnlensis  has  been  found  in  Russia  in  the  Upper  Carboniferous  lime- 
stone of  the  Ural  mountains  in  C  2  of  the  section. 

Froiiorites,  sp.  indet.,  PI.  xx.  Fig.  2. 

In  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  beds  of  Scott  county,  Arkansas,  1  N.,  28  W., 
section  4,  southeast  quarter  of  southeast  quarter,  wasf<mnd  a  single  frag- 
ment that  seems  to  belong  to  this  genus.  It  is  septate,  and  must  have 
belonged  to  an  individual  about  two  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter.  The 
sides  are  smooth  and  little  embracing  and  almost  parallel  ;  the  coil  is 
thin  and  discoidal,  and  the  ventral  or  external  portion  seems  to  be  only 
slightly  arched.  From  the  umbilicus  towards  the  ventral  portion  are 
seen  five  lateral  lobes  that  are  long  and  pointed,  the  saddles  being  some- 
what rounded.  The  siphonal  lobe  and  part  of  the  first  lateral  lobe  are 
not  seen,  that  part  of  the  shell  being  worn  so  that  they  cannot  be  made 
out,  l)ut  enough  of  the  first  lateral  lobe  is  visible  to  show  the  secondary 
sadtUe  that  divides  it.  The  septa  are  very  close  together,  as  seems  to  be 
the  case  on  all  species  of  this  genus. 

The  nearest  known  relative  is  Pronorites  cyclolobus  Phillips,  var. 
nralensis  Karpinsky,  Die  Ammoneen  der  Artinsk-Stufe,  p.  8,  PI.  i.  Fig.  4. 
The  lobes  figured  on  PI.  i.  Fig.  4,  of  Karplnsky's  monograph  are  very 
like  those  of  the  specimen  from  Scott  county,  and  the  general  shape  of 
the  coil,  the  height  and  the  amount  of  the  involution  are  about  the  same 
on  both. 

Class  Crustacea. 

Order  Trilohiti^. 

Genus  PuiLLirsiA,  Portlock      Phillipsia  cliftonensis  Shumard,  PI.  xxii^ 

Fig.  5.     Phillipsia  cliftonensis  Shumard,  I'rans.  St.  L.  Ac.  lSci.,\o\. 

i,  ]).  22G.     Compare  Phillipsia    scitula    Meek   and   Worthen,    F.   B. 

Meek,   U.  >S'.  Geol.  Surv.  Mbra.s/,a,  j).  2:58,  PI.  vi,  Fig.  9. 

A     single   well-preserved    pygidiuni    seems   to    belong  to   Shumard's 


271 


[Smilli. 


specie?.  It  is  longer  than  wide,  semi-elliptical.  The  axis  is  very  promi- 
nent, has  from  thirteen  to  fourteen  segments,  and  tlie  furrows  on  each 
side  are  deep.  The  segments  on  the  lateral  lobes  are  sharply  defined 
and  are  eight  in  number ;  Shumard  mentions  only  seven  on  his  speci- 
men, but  that  slight  difference  is  no  obstacle  to  identity  of  species,  since 
the  number  varies  with  age.  These  lateral  segments  do  not  reach  the 
border,  but  terminate  in  a  lateral  furrow  whicli  surrounds  the  pygi- 
dium.  The  species  is  closely  related  to  P.  stitula  Meek  and  Worthen, 
but  that  species  has  only  eleven  axis  segments  and  seven  on  the  sides. 
]\Ieek  Avas  of  the  opinion  that  the  specimen  described  as  P.  scitnla  in 
U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Nebraska,  p.  238,  might  very  possibly  belong  to 
P.  cUftoiwnsis,  but  Shumard  had  seen  only  a  pygidium  and  had  no 
means  of  characterizing  the  rest  of  the  body. 

Phillijisid  major  Shumard,  figured  by  Meek  in  U.  jS'.  Geol.  Sure. 
JVebrrfska,  PI  iii,  Fig.  2,  grows  much  larger  than  our  specimen,  and  has 
twenty-two  to  twenty-three  segments  on  the  axis  and  twelve  to  thir- 
teen on  the  sides.  These  end  abruptly  at  the  lateral  furrow,  which  is 
much  wider  than  that  on  P.  cliftonensis. 

Occarrence  and  Locality. — A  single  well-preserved  p^'gidium  was 
found  in  the  Upper  Coal  Measures  of  Poteau  mountain,  Indian  Terri- 
tory, associated  with  a  fauna  similar  to  that  of  the  Upper  Coal  Measures 
or  Permo-Carboniferous  of  Nebraska. 

P/iilUpsia  {GriffithkJeH)  «ct7/;?rt  Meek  ami  Worthen,  Proc.  Ae  Scl.  PJtila., 
1865,  p.  270,  and  Paleont.  111.,  Vol.  v,  p.  612,  PI.  xxxii.  Fig.  ?>. 
A  pygidium  from  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  White  county,  Arkan- 
sas, 9  N.,  4  W.,  section  6,  and  another  from  similar  strata  in  9  N.,  5  W., 
section  1,  show  the  characteristics  of  this  species,  but  are  too  imperfect 
to  figure 

PJdlUpsia,  sp. 

In  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  Johnson  county,  Arkansas,  11  X.,  24 
W.,  section  26,  southeast  quarter  of  southwest  quarter,  was  found  a 
pygidium  of  Phillipsia  that  could  not  be  identified  with  certainty, 
although  it  probablj'  belongs  to  one  of  the  known  species. 

Phillipsia  (Grijfithides)  ornata  A.W.Vogdes,  PI.  xxii.  Fig.  6.  Grifflthides 
ontata  A.  W.  Vogdes,  Proc.  Cal.  Acad.  Sci.,  Ser.  ii,  Vol.  iv,  p.  589, 
"Notes  on  Palaeozoic  Crustacea,  No.  4.  On  a  New  Trilobite  from 
Arkansas  Lower  Coal  Measures,"  by  A.  W.  Vogdes. 
The  following  description  is  copied  from  an  advance  sheet  kindly  fur- 
nished by  Capt.  Vogdes  : 

"The  only  specimen  of  this  new  species  was  discovered  in  Conway 
county,  Arkansas,  and  consists  of  a  head  shield  which  is  unfortunately 
not  quite  perfect,  only  exhibiting  the  right  side  and  part  of  the  glabella, 
witli  portions  of  the  thorax  and  an  entire  pygidium  ;  but  it  shows  suffi- 
cient new  characters  to  authorize  us  in  considering  it  as  a  new  species. 


smith. J  ^i^  [Oct.  2, 

"  The  head  shows  that  the  latero-posterior  augles  are  produced  into 
short  spines  extending  to  about  the  third  segment  of  the  thorax,  the 
glabella  is  pyriform,  gibbous  in  front,  and  destitute  of  lateral  furrows  ; 
basal  lobes  prominent  The  posterior  border  of  the  glabella  has  two 
small,  round  nodes.  The  cervical  lobe  is  broad  and  well  marked,  much 
broader  than  the  axial  lobes. 

"The  thorax  exhibits  imperfectly  parts  of  the  pleura'  and  also  the  axis. 
Thorax  with  nine  segments.  The  axis  shows  a  series  of  nodes  running 
through  the  centre  of  each  ring.  The  pleurae  are  smooth,  each  pleural 
groove  extending  slightly  beyond  the  fulcral  point  ;  the  extremities  are 
probably  rounded,  but  this  is  not  indicated  by  the  imperfect  specimen 
now  before  us. 

"Thepygidium  exhibits  both  in  the  axis  and  lateral  lobes  distinct 
segmentation.  The  axis  does  not  extend  to  the  posterior  margin.  The 
entire  pygidium  is  surrounded  by  a  marginal  border,  which  widens  out 
slightly  anteriorly. 

"The  tail  is  parabolic  in  form,  very  convex  and  not  as  broad  as  the 
head,  measuring  on  its  anterior  border  12  mm.  The  axis  is  broad,  con- 
ical and  prominent,  occupying  a  little  less  than  one-third  the  width  of 
the  tail  on  the  anterior  margin.  It  is  marked  with  eleven  rings  ;  these 
become  smaller  and  smaller  and  end  in  an  obtuse  point.  Each  ring  is 
distinctly  ornamented  along  the  centre  by  a  series  of  nodes,  arranged 
into  three  double  rows  of  two  each.     The  sides  of  the  axis  are  smooth. 

"  The  lateral  lobes  are  slightly  flattened  on  top  to  the  fulcral  point. 
They  are  marked  with  seven  pleurae  ;  the  grooves  between  the  pleurse 
are  deep  and  distinct,  each  being  rounded  on  top  and  ornamented  with 
a  single  node  at  the  fulcral  point;  here  they  bend  suddenly  and  join 
the  marginal  border. 

''Locality  and  Position.— hovi-er  Coal  Measures,  T.  5  N.,  R.  16  W., 
section  17,  near  centre  of  northwest  quarter  of  the  section,  Conway 
county,  Arkansas.  From  the  collection  of  the  Geological  Survey  of 
Arkansas. 

"Affinities  and  Differences. — This  species  in  some  of  its  features  resem- 
bles Phillipsia  rcemeri  WoWer  (Ueber  die  Trilobiten  Steinkohlenformatioti 
des  Ural,  PI.  ii.  Fig.  17),  especially  in  the  markings  of  the  tail,  which 
shows  seven  pleunt  ornamented  by  a  single  node  at  the  fulcral  joint, 
but  it  difters  in  form  and  especially  in  the  marking  of  tlie  axial  lobe,  so 
much  so  that  it  could  not  be  placed  under  ]VI611er's  species.  There  is 
also  a  resemblance  of  this  species  with  Phillipsia  {Griffithides)  scitula 
Meek  and  Worthen,  from  the  Illinois  Coal  Measures.  It  has  the  same 
number  of  rings  in  the  axis  of  the  tail,  and  the  same  characteristic 
pleurae  and  ornamentation,  but  the  Arkansas  species  difters  greatly  in 
size  and  also  in  the  number  of  pleurae,  seven  instead  of  six.  The  axis 
is  not  as  wide  as  in  Griffithides  scitula  and  not  distinctly  flattened  on 
each  side.  The  limb,  although  moderately  wide  and  smooth,  is  not 
depressed  or  nearly  flat,  but  convex.     Secondly,  the  ornunicntation  of 


1896.]  -"'^  [Smith. 

the  axis  is  entirely  different,  so  much  so  that  it  would  not  warrant  its 
reference  to  the  Illinois  species. 

"It  is  doubtful  in  our  present  state  of  knowledge  whether  PhilUpsia 
(  Griffithides)  scitula  M.  and  W.  should  not  be  referred  to  the  older  name 
of  PhilUpsia  cliftonensis  Shumard,  from  the  Upper  Coal  Measures, 
Clifton  Park,  Kansas,  described  from  a  pygidium.  Dr.  Shumard  says 
that  the  axis  has  from  thirteen  to  fourteen  subgranulose  rings  and  seven 
side  segments.  A  thorough  study  of  all  these  allied  sj^ecies  may  neces- 
sitate their  reference  to  the  older  name  ;  but  for  the  present  it  would  be 
advisable  to  give  the  Arkansas  species  a  new  name  on  account  of  the 
ornamentation  of  its  tail." 

Class  Arachnoidea. 
Order  XipJwsura. 

Genus  undetermined.      Prestwichia  '? 

In  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of  White  county,  Arkansas,  9  N.,  4  W., 
section  6,  was  found  the  mould  of  a  part  of  the  body  of  a  crustacean 
that  seems  to  belong  to  the  family  of  the  Hemiaspidw,  and  yet  differs 
from  all  known  genera  of  this  family  in  being  armed  with  two  rows  of 
spines  instead  of  only  one. 

Too  little  of  the  body  is  known  for  a  generic  description. 


PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXY.  152.  2  I.      PRINTED  DEC.  17,  1896. 


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PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XX.XV.  152.  2  J.      PRINTED  DEC.  17,  1896. 


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1896.]  ^o6  1  Smith. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES.* 
Plate  XVI 

Fig.  1.     Gi'strioccras  mnrian urn  Verneul 200 

1  a.   Side  view. 

1  h.  Kear  view. 

Fig.  2.      G.  marinnum,  artificial  cast,  magnified  twice. 

2  (I..  Front  view. 

2  5.  Side  view. 

Fig.  o.      G.  marianum,  largest  specimen. 
8  n.  Side  view. 

3  &.   Cross  section  ofwhorL 
Fig.  4.     G.  marianum,  artificial  cast. 

Fig.  5.  a,  b,  e.      G.  'marinnum,  showing  the  development  of  the  sutures. 

Plate  XVII. 

Fig.  1.     Gastrioceras  cicelsum  Meek 2G0 

1  a.  Side  view. 

1  b.   Cross  section  of  whorl. 

1  c.  Sutures. 

Plate  XVIII. 

Fig.  1.      Gastrioceras  globulosum  Meek  and  Worthen 258 

1  a.  Side  view  of  small  specimen. 

1  b.  Front  view  of  small  specimen. 
Fig.  2.      G.  globulosum,  artificial  cast  from  a  mould. 

2  a.  Side  view. 
2  b.  Front  view. 

Fig.  ;J.      G.  globulosum,  sutures,  enlarged  twice. 
Fig.  4.      G.  globulosum,  cast  showing  surface  markings. 
Fig.  5.      G.  globulosum,  small  glohose  specimen  doubtfully  referred  to 
this  species. 
5  (t.  Front  view. 

5  b.  Side  view. 

Fig.  G.      G.  globulosum,  small  specimen  showing  the  low  flattened  whorl. 

6  a.   Side  view. 
6  b.  Front  view, 

Plate  XIX. 

Fig.  1.     Paralegoceras  iowense  Meek  and  Worthen 263 

1  a.  Side  view,  partly  restored. 
lb.  Front  view. 

Fig.  2.     P.  iowense,  inner  whorl  taken  out  of  the  large  specimen  shown 
in  Fig.  1. 

2  a.  Side  view. 

2  b.  Front  view. 

♦Where  not  otherwise  stated  the  figures  are  all  natural  size. 


Smith.J  ^^*  [Oct.  2, 

Fig.  3.     P.  iowense,  sutures. 

3  a.  Sutures  taken  from  the  inner  wliorl  of  25   millimeters 

diameter. 
3  b.  Sutures  on  the  outer  Avhorl. 
Fig.  4.      Glyphioceras  diadema  Goklfuss,  showing  development  of  the 
sutures  (after  Branco,  Palceontographka,  Vol.  xxvii,  PI. 
ix,  Fig.  1). 

4  a.  First  suture. 

4  b.  Second  suture. 

4  c.  Third  suture. 

4  d.  At  1.25  millimetres  diameter. 

4  e.  At  2.25  millimetres. 
4/.  Adult. 

Fig.  5.     Tornoceras  retrorsum  v.  Buch  (after  Branco). 

5  a.  First  suture. 

5  b.  Second  suture. 

5  c.  At  1.75  millimetres  diameter. 

5  d.  At  2.50  millimetres. 

5  e.  At  10  millimetres,  adult. 


Plate  XX. 

Fig.  1.      Gastrioceras,  sp.  indet 2(52 

1  a.  Side  view  of  a  composite  artificial  cast,  from  three  speci- 
mens. 
1  b.  Side  view  of  a  septate  fragment. 
1  c.  Cross  section  of  whorl. 

1  d.  Sutures. 

Fig.  2.     Pronorites,  sp 270 

2  a.  Side  view  of  septate  fragment. 
2  b.  Cross  section  of  whorl. 

2  c.  Sutures. 

Plate  XXI. 

Fig.  1.     Endolohus  missouviensis  Swallow 252 

1.  Side  view  of  large  specimen. 
Fig.  2.     Endolobns  missouriensis  Swallow. 

2  «.  Side  view  of  small  specimen. 

2  b.  Rear  view  of  small  specimen. 

2  c.  Front  view  of  small  specimen,  twice  enlarged 
Fig.  3.     Endolobus  missotii'iensis  Swallow. 

3  a.  Dorsal  view,  shewing  internal  lobe 
3  6.  Concave  side  of  chamber. 

3  c.  Convex  side  of  chamber. 
3  d.   Chamber,  from  the  side. 


1896.]  ^y*^  ISinilh. 

Plate  XXII. 

Fig.  1 .     Conocardium  aliforme  Sowerby 347 

1  a.  Side  view,  natural  size. 

16.   Side  view  of  anotlier  specimen,  twice  enlarged. 
Fig.  2.     Conocardium  aliforme  Sowerby. 

3  a.  Another  specimen,  from  aliove. 

2  b.  From  front, 

3  c.  From  side. 

Fig.  3,     Schizodus  cuneatus  Meelv 245 

3  a.  Side  view. 

3  b.  Front  view. 

Fig.  4.     Schizodus  wheelcri  Swallow 246 

Fig.  o.     Phillipsia  cliftonensis  Shumard 370 

5  a.  From  above,  twice  enlarged. 

5  b.  Side  view,  twice  enlarged. 
Fig.  6.     Phillipsia  {Griffithidcs)  ornata  Vogdes,  twice  enlarged 371 

Plate  XXIII. 

Gastrioceras  branneri,  sp.  nov.,  J.  P.  Smith 257 

Fig.  1.  Side  view. 

Fig.  2.  Front  view. 

Fig.  3.  Rear  view. 

Fig.  4.   Cross  section. 

Fig.  5.  Sutures  of  adult,  twice  enlarged. 

Fig.  6.  Sutures  at  diameter  33  millimetres,  twice  enlarged. 
Pronorites  prmpermictis  Karpiusky  (to  show  the  young  stages.     After 
Karpinsky,  Ammonecn  d.Artinsk-Stufe,  PI.  i.  Fig.  3  e,  f,g). 

Fig.  7.  First  two  sutures. 

Fig.  8.  Embryo-chamber. 
Pronorites  cyclolobus  Phillips  (Geol.  Yorkshire,  Vol.  ii,  PL  xx,  Fig.  42). 

Fig.  9.  Sutures,  twuce  enlarged. 

Plate  XXIY. 

Pronorites  cyclolobus  Phillips  (variety  arkansiensis  J.  P.  Smith) ....  267 
Fig.  1.  Side  view,  Arkansas  specimen. 
Fig.  2.  Rear  view,  Arkansas  specimen. 
Fig.  3.  Front  view,  Arkansas  specimen. 
Fig.  4.  Sutures,  Arkansas  specimen. 
Fig.  5.  Side  view  of  Ural  Mountains  specimen  (after  Karpinsky,  Am- 

moneen  d.  Artinsk- Stiife,  PI.  i,  Fig.  4  a,  b). 
Fig.  6.  (After Karpinsky,  Ammoneen  d.  Artiiisk-Stufe,  PI.  i.  Fig,  An.) 
Fig,  7.   (xifter  Karpinsky,  Ammoneen  d.  Artinsk-Stufe,  PI.  i.  Fig.  4  m,) 
Fig,  8,   (After  Karpinsky,  Ammoneen  d.  Artinsk-Stufe,  PL  i,  Fig.  4  e,  /. ) 
Fig.  9.  Showing  development  of  the  sutures,  from  the  Ibergiceras  to 
the  Pronorites  stage,  after  Karpinsky  (PL  i,  Fig.  4  g-l). 


^86  [Oct.  2, 

Stated  Meeting,  October  ;?,  1896. 

The  President,  Mr.  Fraley,  in  tlie  Cliair. 

Present,  13  members. 

]\[inutes  of  meeting  of  September  18  read  and  ap})roved. 
The  following  correspondence  was  submitted  : 
Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  the  Geological  Survey, 
Ottawa,  Canada  (150) ;  Laval  University,  Quebec,  Canada 
(150,  151) ;  University  of  Toronto,  Canadian  Institute,  To- 
ronto, Canada  (151) ;  Historical  and  Scientific  Society,  Win- 
nipeg, Man.  (150) ;  Bowdoin  College,  Brunswick,  Me.  (150, 
151) ;  Society  Natural  History,  Portland,  Me.  (150,  151) : 
New  Hampshire  Historical  Society,  Concord  (150,  151) ; 
Prof.  C.  H.  Hitchcock,  Hanover,  N.  H.  (150) ;  Hon.  E.  J. 
Phelps,  Burlington,  Vt.  (150) ;  Athemeum  (150),  State 
Librarian  (150,  151),  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  (150, 
151),  Public  Library  (150,  151),  Massachusetts  Institute  Tech- 
nology (150),  Boston  Society  Natural  History  (151),  Mr.  Stephen 
P.  Sharpies (150),  Boston  Mass.;  Museum  Comparative  Zoology 
(150),  Prof.  Alpheus  Hyatt  (150),  Prof.  F.  W.  Putnam,  (150, 
151),  Mr.  Robert  N.  Toppan  (150,  151),  Dr.  Justin  Winsor, 
Cambridge,  Mass.  (150,  151);  Free  Public  Library,  New 
Bedford,  Mass.  (151) ;  Essex  Institute,  Prof.  E.  S.  Morse, 
Salem,  Mass.  (150,  151);  American  Antiquarian  Society, 
"Worcester,  Mass.  (151) ;  Rhode  Island  Historical  Society 
(150,  151),  Brown  University,  Providence,  P.  I.  (151) ;  Con- 
necticut Historical  Society,  Hartford  (150,  151) ;  Yale  Uni- 
versity (150,  151),  Prof.  William  Gibbs  (150,  151),  Prof. 
Arthur  W.  Wright,  New  Haven,  Conn.  (150) ;  Mr.  James 
Hall,  Albany,  N.  Y.  (150,  151);  Buffalo  Librarj^  Society 
Natural  Sciences,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  (150,  151) ;  Prof.  Edward 
North,  Clinton,  N.  Y.  (150),  Profs.  J.  M.  Hart  (150,  151), 
B.  G.  Wilder,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  (151);  American  Geographical 
Society  (151),  New  York  Academy  Science  (151),  New  York 
Hospital  Library  (150,  151),  American  Museum  Natural 
History   (150,    151\    New    York    Historical     Society   (Lji)), 


1896.1 


287 


Meteorological  Observatory  (loO),   Drs.   J.    A,    Allen  (151), 
Daniel  Draper  (151),  Prof.  J.  J.  Stevenson,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
(150,  151) ;   Vassar  Brothers'  Institute,  Pouglikeepsie,  N.  Y. 
(150,  151) ;   Geological  Society  of  America  (150)  ;    Academy 
of  Science, '  Eochester,  N.  Y.  (151) ;  Prof.  William  Pitt   Ma- 
son, Troy,  N.  Y.  (150,  151) ;  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy, West  Point,  N.  Y.  (151) ;  Free  Public  Library,  Jersey 
City,   N.   J.   (150,    151) ;     New   Jersey   Historical   Society, 
Newark  (151)  ;   Dr.  W.  Henry  Green,  Princeton,  N.  J.  (151) 
Dr.  C.  B.  Dudley,  Altoona,  Pa.  (150) ;    Prof.   T.  M.    Drown 
Soutli  Bethlehem,  Pa.    (151)  ;    Dr.  C.  F.  Hines,  Carhsle,  Pa 
(150) ;    Prof.  Martin  H.  Boyei,  Coopersburg,  Pa.  (150,  151) 
American    Academy    of    Medicine,    Profs.    J.    W.     Moore 
Thomas  C.  Porter,   Easton,  Pa.  (150,  151) ;    Mr.  Andrew  S 
McCreath,  Harrisburg,  Pa.  (150) ;    Mr.   John  Fulton,  Johns 
town.  Pa.  (150,  151) ;   Linnean  Society,  Lancaster,  Pa.  (150 
151) ;    College  of  Pharmacy  (151),  Franklin  Institute  (151) 
Mercantile  Library   (151),   Engineers'    Club  (150),    Pennsyl- 
vania Hospital  (150),  Numismatic  and  Antiquarian  Society 
(150,    151),    Wagner   Free   Institute    (150,    151),    Academy 
Natural  Sciences  (150,  151),   Library  Company  of  Philadel- 
phia (150,  151),  College  of  Physicians  (150,  151),  Historical 
Society  of  Pennsylvania  (150,  151),   Messrs.  John  Ashhurst, 
Jr.   (150,  151),  E.  Meade  Bache  (150,  151),   Henry  C.  Baird 
(150),  Clarence  S.   Bement  (150),   Cadwalader  Biddle  (151), 
John  H.  Brinton  (150),   Arthur  E.  Brown  (150),  Joel  Cook 
(150),    Edward   D.    Cope   (150),    Charles   H.    Cramp   (151), 
Samuel  Dickson   (150),    Patterson  DuBois  (151),    Jacob  B. 
Eckfeldt  (151),  George  F.  Edmunds  (150,  151),  Ed.  A.  Foggo 
(150,  151),  Persifor  Frazer  (151),  Phihp  C.  Garrett  (150),  F. 
A.  Genth,  Jr.  (150,    151),    A.   W.   Goodspeed  (151),    H.  D. 
Gregory  (150,  151),  H.  V.  Hilprecht  (151),  George  H.   Horn 
(151),  Edwin  J.  Houston  (151),  Francis  Jordan,  Jr.  (150),  W. 
W.  Keen  (150),  J.  P.  Lesley  (150,  151),    Morris  Longstreth 
(150),  Benjamin  Smith  Lyman  (150,  151),  James  T.  Mitchell 
(150,  151),  J.  Cheston  Morris  (150),  Charles  A.  Ohver  (150, 
151),  C.  M.   Pierce  (150),    William   Pepper  (151),  Franldin 


288 


[Oct. 


Piatt  (150,  151),  Theodore  D.  Rand  (151),  Julius  F.  Sachse 
(151),  Samuel  P.  Sadtler  (150),  Charles  Schaffer  (150),  Cole- 
man Sellers  (150),  F.  D.  Stone  (150,  151),  ^Y.  P.  Tatham 
(151),  H.  Clay  Trumbull  (151),  Wilham  li.  Wahl  (151), 
Talcott  AYilhams  (150,  151),  Joseph  M.  Wilson  (151),  Theo- 
dore G.  Wormley  (150),  EUis  Yarnall  (151),  Philadelphia, 
Pa.;  Prof.  John  F.  Carll,  Pleasantville,  Pa.  (150,  151);  Mr. 
Heber  S.  Thompson,  Pottsville,  Pa.  (151) ;  Rev.  Fred.  A. 
Muhlenberg,  Reading,  Pa.  (150,  151) ;  Lackawanna  Insti- 
tute, Scranton,  Pa.  (150,  151)  ;  Mr.  Thomas  S.  Blair, 
Tyrone,  Pa.  (150)  ;  Dr.  Horace  Howard  Furness,  Walling- 
ford.  Pa.  (151) ;  Dr.  John  Curwen,  Warren,  Pa.  (150,  151) ; 
Philosophical  Society,  AYest  Chester,  Pa.  (150,  151) ;  Wyom- 
ing Historical-Geological  Society,  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.  (150) ; 
United  States  Naval  Institute,  Annapolis,  Md.  (150) ;  Mary- 
land Institute  (150,  151),  Mar^dand  Historical  Society  (150, 
151),  Enoch  Pratt  Free  Library  (150,  151),  Prof.  William  H. 
Welch,  Baltimore,  Md.  (151)  ;  Smithsonian  Institution  (-loS 
pks.),  United  States  Naval  Observatory  (150),  United  States 
Department  Agriculture  (150),  Profs.  S.  F.  Emmons,  Charles 
A.  Schott,  AVashington,  D.  C.  (150)  ;  Journal  United  States 
Artillery,  Fort  Monroe,  Va.  (151)  ;  Leander  McCormick 
Observatory  (150),  University  of  Virginia  (150,  151),  Prof. 
J.  W.  Mailet,  University  of  Virginia  (150,  151) ;  South 
Carolina  College,  Columbia  (151)  ;  Georgia  Historical  Soci- 
ety, Savannah  (150) ;  Cincinnati  Observatory  (150,  151), 
University  of  Cincinnati  (150),  Society  Natural  History, 
Cincinnati,  O.  (150) ;  Ohio  State  Archaeological  and  Histori- 
cal Society,  Columbus,  0.  (150,  151) ;  Denison  Scientific  Asso- 
ciation, Granville,  0.  (150)  ;  Athena3um  Librarv,  Columbia, 
Tenn.  (151) ;  Geological  Survey  of  Missouri,  Jeiferson  City 
(151) ;  Michigan  State  Library,  Lansing  (151) ;  Wisconsin 
State  Historical  Society  (150,  151),  Academy  Sciences,  etc. 
(150),  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison  (151);  Field  Co- 
lumbian Museum  (150,  151),  Western  Society  of  Engineers, 
Chicago,  111.  (151)  ;  Academy  Natural  Sciences,  Davenport, 
la.    (151) ;     State    Historical    Society   of    Iowa,    Iowa    City 


1896.] 


289 


(151) ;  American  Arcliseological  and  Asiatic  Association, 
Nevada,  la.  (151) ;  Kansas  University  Quarterly,  Lawrence 
(150) ;  Wasliburn  College  Library  (150,  151),  Academy  of 
Science,  Topeka,  Kans.  (150) ;  University  of  California, 
Berkeley  (150,  151) ;  Lick  Observatory,  Mt.  Hamilton,  Cal. 
(150) ;  Free  Public  Library  (150),  Academy  of  Sciences 
(150),  Historical  Society  (150),  Dr.  George  Davidson,  San 
Francisco,  Cal.  (150) ;  Prof.  J.  C.  Branner,  Stanford  Univer- 
sity, Cal.  (150) ;  Central  Meteorological  Observatory  (150), 
Observatorio  Astron.  de  Tacubaya  (150),  Scientific  Society, 
"Antonio  Alzate  "  Mexico,  Mex.  (150);  Meteorological 
Observatory,  Xalapa,  Mex.  (150) :  Bisk  op  Crescendo  Carrillo, 
Merida,  Yucatan  (150) ;  Agricultural  Experimental  Stations, 
Kingston,  R.  I.  (150),  Newark,  Del.  (151),  Raleigh,  N.  C. 
(150),  Agricultural  College,  Mich.  (151),  Lexington,  Ky. 
(151),  Knoxville,  Tenn.  (150,  151),  Manhattan,  Kans.  (151), 
Lincoln,  Neb.  (150,  151),  Laramie,  Wyo.  (150),  Tucson,  Ariz. 
(150,  151),  Fargo,  N.  Dak.  (151). 

Accessions  to  the  library  were  reported  from  the  Magyar 
Tudom.  Akad.,  Budapest,  Hungary;  Physikalisch-Technische 
Reichsanstalt,  Berlin,  Prussia ;  Direzione  Generale  della 
Statistica,  Rome,  Italy  ;  Royal  Society  of  Canada,  Montreal  ; 
Scientific  Alliance,  New  York,  N.  Y.  ;  Pennsylvania  Hos- 
pital, Pennsylvania  State  Board  of  Health,  Philadelphia ; 
Lackawanna  Institute  of  History  and  Science,  Scranton,  Pa. ; 
United  States  Naval  Observatory,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  committee  appointed  to  examine  the  paper  on  the 
"  Fossils  of  the  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas,"  by  J.  P.  Snuth, 
reported  in  favor  of  its  ])ublication  and  the  Society  by  vote 
so  ordered. 

The  following  paper  was  read  and  referred  to  the  Secreta- 
ries for  action  :  ' '  On  the  Second  Abdominal  Segment  in  a 
few  Libellulida>,"  by  Martha  Freeman  Goddard. 

Prof.  Cope  then  made  some  comments  on  a  recent  paper, 
"  On  the  Evolution  of  the  Teeth  of  Mammalia,"  by  Flor- 
entino  Ameirhino. 


290 


[Oct.  2,  1896. 


Pending  nominations  18;3'2,  1884,  1857,  1858,  1859,  1360, 
1861,  and  new  nominations  1862  and  1368  were  read. 

Mr.  Price,  from  the  Hall  Committee,  reported  the  comple- 
tion of  the  furnishing  of  the  adjoining  room. 

The  Librarian  reported  that  we  were  now  in  possession  of 
a  complete  catalogue  of  all  the  publications  of  the  Society 
now  in  stock. 

Dr.  Hays  moved  that  the  Librarian  be  authorized  to  pur- 
chase at  a  reasonable  price  any  odd  numbers  to  fill  deficien- 
cies in  the  above  list.     Adopted. 

Dr.  Pepper  from  the  Committee  on  Special  Meetings, 
reported  the  program  for  that  to  be  held  November  6. 

The  rough  minutes  were  then  read  and  approved,  and  the 
Society  was  adjourned  by  the  President. 


him  the  communication,  description,  or  model,  except  the  officer  to 
wliom  it  shall  be  entrusted ;  nor  sliall  such  officer  part  with  the  same 
out  of  his  custody,  without  a  special  order  of  the  Society  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

6.  The  Society,  having  previously  referred  the  several  communica- 
ticJis  from  candidates  for  the  premium,  then  depending,  to  the  consid- 
eration of  the  twelve  counsellors  and  other  officers  of  the  Society,  and 
having  received  their  report  thereon,  shall,  at  one  of  their  stated  meet^ 
ings  in  the  month  of  December,  annually,  after  the  expiration  of  this 
current  year  (of  the  time  and  place,  together  with  the  particular  occa- 
sion of  which  meeting  due  notice  shall  be  previously  given,  by  public 
advertisement)  proceed  to  final  adjudication  of  the  said  premium ;  and, 
after  due  consideration  had,  a  vote  shall  first  betaken  on  this  question, 
viz. :  AYhether  any  of  the  communications  then  under  inspection  be 
worthy  of  the  proposed  premium  ?  If  this  question  be  determined  in 
the  negative,  the  whole  business  shall  be  deferred  till  another  year; 
but  if  in  the  affirmative,  the  Society  shall  proceed  to  determine  by 
ballot,  given  by  the  members  at  large,  the  discovery,  invention  or  im- 
provement most  useful  and  worthy ;  and  that  discovery,  invention,  or 
improvement  which  shall  be  found  to  have  a  majority  of  concurring 
votes  in  its  favor  shall  be  successful;  and  then,  and  not  till  then,  the 
sealed  letter  accompanying  the  crowned  performance  shall  be  opened, 
and  the  name  of  the  author  announced  as  the  person  entitled  to  tht 
said  premium. 

7.  No  member  of  the  Society  who  is  a  candidate  for  the  premiuoL 
then  depending,  or  who  hath  not  previously  declared  to  the  Society, 
that  he  has  considered  and  weighed,  according  to  the  best  of  his  judg- 
ment, the  comparative  merits  of  the  several  claims  then  under  consid- 
eration, shall  sit  in  judgment,  or  give  his  vote  in  awarding  the  said  pre- 
mium. 

8.  A  full  account  of  the  crowned  subject  shall  be  published  by  the  So- 
ciety, as  soon  as  may  be  after  the  adjudication,  either  in  a  separate  pub- 
lication, or  in  the  next  succeeding  volume  of  their  Transactions,  or  iu 
both. 

9.  The  unsuccessful  performances  shall  remain  under  consideration, 
and  their  authors  be  considered  as  candidates  for  the  premium  for  five 
years  next  succeeding  the  time  of  their  presentment ;  except  such  per- 
formances as  their  authors  may,  in  the  meantime,  think  fit  to  withdraw. 
And  the  Society  shall  annually  publish  an  abstract  of  the  titles,  object, 
or  subject  matter  of  the  communications,  so  under  consideration ;  such 
only  excepted  as  the  Society  shall  think  not  worthy  of  public  notice. 

10.  The  letters  containing  the  names  of  authors  whose  performances 
shall  be  rejected,  or  which  shall  be  found  unsuccessful  after  a  trial  of 
five  years,  shall  be  burnt  before  the  Society ,  without  breaking  the  seals. 

jl.  In  case  there  should  be  a  failure,  in  any  year,  of  any  communi- 
cation worthy  of  the  proposed  premium,  there  will  then  be  two  pr«- 
miums  to  be  awarded  the  next  year.  But  no  accumulation  of  premiums 


shall  entitle  the  author  to  more  than  one  premium  for  any  one  discov- 
ery, invention  or  improvement. 

12.  The  premium  shall  cwisist  of  an  oval  plate  of  solid  standard  gold 
of  the  value  of  ten  guineas.  On  one  side  thereof  shall  be  neatly  en- 
graved a  short  Latin  motto  suited  to  the  occasion,  together  with  the 
words:  "  The  Premium  of  John  Hyacinth  de  Magellan,  of  London, 
established  in  the  year  1786 ;"  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  plate  shall  be 
engraved  these  words:     "Awarded  by  the  A.  P."S.  for  the  discovery 

of A.D. ."    And  the  seal  of  the  Society  shall  be  annexed 

to  the  medal  by  a  ribbon  passing  through  a  small  hole  at  the  lower 
edge  thereof. 

Section  2.  The  Magellanic  fund  of  two  hundred  guineas  shall  be 
considered  as  ten  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  and  shall  be  invested  sepa- 
rately from  the  other  funds  belonging  to  or  under  the  care  of  the  So- 
ciety, and  a  separate  and  distinct  account  of  it  shall  be  kept  by  the 
treasurer. 

The  said  fund  shall  be  credited  with  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars, 
10  represent  the  two  premiums  for  which  the  Society  is  now  liable. 

The  treasurer  shall  credit  the  said  fund  with  the  interest  received  on 
the  investment  thereof,  and,  if  any  surplus  of  said  interest  shall  remain 
after  providing  for  the  premiums  which  may  then  be  demandable,  said 
surplus  shall  be  used  by  the  Society  for  making  publication  of  the 
terms  of  the  said  premium,  and  for  such  purposes  as  may  be  authorized 
by  its  charter  and  laws. 

The  treasurer  shall,  at  the  first  stated  meeting  of  the  Society  in  the 
month  of  December  annually,  make  a  report  of  the  state  of  said  fund 
and  of  the  investment  thereof. 


IW  Members  who  bave  not  as  yet  sent  their  photographs 
to  the  Society  will  confer  a  favor  by  so  doing- ;  cabinet  size 
preferred. 

Ilt^~  Members  will  please  communicate  any  change  of  address  or  inac- 
curacy in  name. 

J^"  A  few  sets  of  the  Society's  Transactions,  New  Series,  1818  to  1893, 
XVIII  vols.,  4to,  can  be  obtained  from  the  Librarian.     Price  $90.00. 


PEOCE  EDINGS 

S'-  P        1         13S7  OF   THE 

AMEmCA:N^    PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY, 
HELD  AT  PHILADELPHIA,  FOR  PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


Vol.  XXXV.  ^%Ht        December,  1896.  No.  153. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Stated  Meeting,  October  16,  1S96 391 

Stated  Meetiny,  November  6,  1896 294 

Stated  Meeting,  November  20,  1896 296 

New  Physical  Phenomena  of  the  X-Ray  (with  a  cut).  By  Charles 
Lester  Arnold,  A.M.,  M.B 298 

Stated  Meeting,  December  4,  1896 302 

On  Genesis  xi.  1-9  as  a  Poetic  Fragment.  By  J.  Clieston  Morris, 
M.D 305 

Stated  Meeting,  December  18,  1896 307 

Glimpses  of  Borneo.     By  William  Henry  Furness,  3d,  M.D 309 

A  Brief  Report  of  a  Journey  up  the  Rejang  River  in  Borneo.  By 
H.  M.  Miller,  3I.D 321 

Exploration  of  Ancient  Key  Dwellers'  Remains  on  the  Gulf  Coast 
of  Florida  (with  eleven  plates).     By  Frank  Hamilton  Cusldng  . .  329 

Discussion.  By  D.  G.  Brinton,  M.D.,  Prof.  F.  W.  Putnam  and 
F.  H.   Gushing 433 


philadelphia  : 

The  American  Philosophical  Society, 

104  South  Fifth  Street, 

1897. 


It  is  requested  that  all  correspondence  be  addressed 

To  THE  Secretaries  of  the 

AMERICAN  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY, 
104  South  Fifth  Street, 

Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


Members  will  please  communicate  to  the  Secretaries  any 
inaccuracy  in  name  or  address  as  given  on  the  wrapper  of  this 
number. 


It  is  requested   that   the   receipt   of  this    number   of   the 
Proceedings  be  acknowledged  to  the  Secretaries. 


Members  who  have  not  as  yet  sent  their  photographs  to  the 
Society  will  confer  a  favor  by  so  doing  ;  cabinet  size  preferred. 


Oct.  16,  1»96.] 


^^^    1    1397 
291 


PROCEEDINGS 

OF    THE 

AMERICAN    PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY 

HELD  AT  PHILADELPHIA  FOR  PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 

Vol.  XXXV.  December,  1896.  No.  153. 

Stated  Meeting,  October  16,  1896. 

Vice-President  Dr.  Pepper  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  30  members. 

Mr.    Frank    L.    Gushing,    a   newly  elected  member,    was 
introduced  and  took  his  seat. 

Minntes  of  meeting,  October  2,  read  and  adopted. 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows  : 
'     A  letter  from  the  Society  of  Colonial  Wars  inviting  us  to 
participate  in  a  memorial  meeting  to  Dr.  G.  Brown  Goode  was 
referred  to  the  President  with  power  to   appoint  the  Com- 
mittee. 

Letter  of  envoy  from  the  Facultt^  des  Sciences,  Marseilles, 
France, 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  Major  Richard  C.  Temple, 
Port  Blair,  Andaman  Islands  (148,  14:9) ;  Linnean  Soc.  of 
N.  S.  Wales,  Sydney  (148,  149) ;  R.  Society  of  Victoria, 
Melbourne  (92) ;  Observatoire,  Athens,  Greece  (143,  146- 
149)  ;  Geographical  Society,  Tokyo,  Japan  (148,  149)  ;  Soc. 
pro  Fauna  Flora  Fennica  (149),  Dr.  Otto  Donner,  Helsingfors, 
Finland  (148,  149) ;  Physico-Math.  Society,  Kasan,  Russia 
(148,  149)  ;  Profs.  Serge  Nikitin,  John  Pomialowsky,  St. 
Petersburg,  Russia  (148,  149);  Acad.  R.  des  Scien-es, 
Amsterdam,  Netherlands  (147-149,  and  Trans.,  xviii,  2,  3); 
Soc.  R.  de  Geographic,  Antwerp,  Belgium  (149) ;  I.  R. 
Accad.    degli    Agiati,    Rovereto,    Austria    (149) ;    Profs.    F. 

FROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2  K.      PRINTED  APRIL  20,  1897. 


^^^  [Oct.  IC, 

Muller  (14:9,  150),  E.  Siiess  (149).  J.  Szombatliy,  Yienna, 
Austria  (150) ;  Dr.  Albin  AYeisbach,  Freiberg,  Saxonj 
(149) ;  Yerein  f.  Yaterland.  ISTaturkunde,  Wiirttemberg, 
Stuttgart  (143,  146-149,  and  Trans.  ^  xviii,  2);  Osservatorio, 
Torino,  Italia  (149) ;  Prince  Eoland  Bonaparte,  Paris,  France 
(149)  ;  Universit}^  Library,  Dr.  C.  A.  M.  Fennell,  Cambridge, 
Eng.  (150)  ;  Eoyal  Society  {Trans.,  xviii,  3),  Yictoria  Insti- 
tute, Geol.  Society,  R.  Astron.  Soc,  R.  Meteorological 
Society,  Linnean  Society,  Societ}^  of  Antiquaries,  Messrs.  C. 
J.  Dannefeldt,  William  Huggins,  Charles  G.  Leland,  Sir 
James  Paget,  London,  Eng.  (150) ;  Geological  Society,  Liter- 
ary and  Phil.  Society,  Manchester,  Eng.  (150) ;  Eadcliffe 
Observatory  (Trans.,  xviii,  3);  Prof.  J.  Legge,  Oxford,  Eng. 
(150) ;  E.  Geological  Society  of  Cornwall,  Penzance,  Eng. 
(150) ;  Dr.  Isaac  Roberts,  Starlield,  Crowborough,  Sussex, 
Eng.  (150) ;  Nat.  Hist,  and  Phil.  Society,  Belfast,  Ireland  (150) ; 
R.  Dublin  Society,  Dublin,  Ireland  (150) ;  Eoj^al  Society, 
Edinburgh,  Scotland  (150) ;  Geological  Society,  Philosophical 
Society,  Glasgow,  Scotland  (150);  Bowdoin  College,  Bruns- 
wick, Me.  (142) ;  Athenteum,  Boston,  Mass.  (151) ;  Museum 
Comparative  Zoology  (151),  Profs.  G.  L.  Goodale  (151),  J.  D. 
Whitney,  Cambridge,  Mass.  (150) ;  Prof.  E.  S.  Morse,  Salem, 
Mass.  (147,  149) ;  Prof.  Elihu  Thomson,  Swampscott,  Mass. 
(151) ;  Providence  Franklin  Society,  Providence,  R.  I.  (150, 
151);  Prof.  W.  T.  Hewett,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  (149);  Oneida 
Historical  Society,  Utica,  N.  Y.  (150,  151) ;  Mr.  M.  H.  Mess- 
chert,  Douglassville,  Pa.  (150,  151) ;  Dr.  J.  H.  Brinton  (151), 
Mrs.  Helen  Abbott-Michael  (150,  151),  Mr.  Julius  F.  Sachse 
(148),  Dr.  James  Tyson,  Philadelphia  (150)  ;  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  (151),  United  States  Naval  Observatory 
(151),  United  States  Geological  Survey  (150,  151,  and  Trans., 
xviii,  3),  Prof.  Charles  A.  Schott,  Washington,  D.  C.  (151), 
Historical  Society,  Savannah,  Ga.  (151) ;  Prof.  E.  W.  Clay- 
pole,  Akron,  O.  (151) ;  University  of  Cincinnati,  Cincinnati, 
O.  (151) ;  Denison  Scientific  Association,  Granville,  O.  (151)  ; 
Lick  Observatory,  Mt.  Hamilton,  Cal.  (151) ;  Historical  Soci- 
ety, Dr.  George  Davidson,  San  Francisco,  Cal.  (151) ;  Prof.  J. 


1896.]  ^'^^ 

C.  Branner,  Stanford  University,  Cal.  (151) ;  Kansas  Univer- 
sity Quarterly,  Lawrence,  Kans.  (151) ;  Kansas  State  Histori- 
cal Society,  Toj)eka  (151) ;  Colorado  Scientific  Society;, 
Denver  (151)  ;  University  of  Wyoming,  Laramie  (151) ; 
Museo  de  la  Plata,  La  Plata,  Argentine  Republic  (149). 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  K.  Akad. 
van  Wetenscliappen,  Amsterdam,  Netherlands ;  Yerein  f. 
Chemnitzer  Geschichte,  Chemnitz,  Saxony;  Pbysikal.-Med- 
icin.  Soc,  Erlangen,  Bavaria ;  Vogtl.  Altertumsfors. 
Verein,  Hohenleuben,  Saxony ;  Naturwissenschaftliche 
A^erein,  Regensburg,  Bavaria ;  Verein  f.  Vaterland.  Natur- 
kunde,  Stuttgart,  Wiirttemberg ;  Observatorj",  Greenwich, 
Eng. ;  JSTat.  Hist.  Society  of  Northumberland,  Durham,  etc., 
New  Castle-on-Tyne,  Eng. ;  American  Congregational  Asso- 
ciation, Boston,  Mass.;  Surgeon-General's  Office,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. ;  Public  Library,  Cincinnati ;  Michigan  Board  of 
Agriculture,  Lansing;  Societe  Scientihque  du  Chili,  Santiago. 

Announcement  of  deaths  : 

Joseph  B.  Townsend,  Philadelphia,  October  11,  1896, 
set.  75. 

Dr.  Friederich  Miiller,  Rostock,  Germany. 

The  stated  business  of  meeting  being  the  election  of  mem- 
bers, Secretaries  Frazer  and  Dubois  acted  as  Tellers. 

Nominations  1332,  1334:,  1357  were  referred  to  Council  on 
motion  of  Dr.  Frazer. 

Pending  nominations  were  then  spoken  to  and  the  ballots 
cast. 

The  Tellers  then  reported  the  election  of 

2297.  Harrison  Allen,  M.D.,  Philadelphia. 

2298.  Edson  S.  Bastin,  Philadelphia. 

An  invitation  to  the  members  of  this  Society  to  be  present 
at  the  opening  of  the  new  Museum  Hall  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences,  Tuesday,  October  20,  at  3  p.m.,  was  read. 

The  rough  minutes  were  then  read,  and  the  Society 
adjourned. 


294  (Nov.  6, 

Stated  Meeting^  November  6,  IS 90. 

President,  Mr.  Fraley,  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  3-i  members. 

Minutes  of  meeting,  October  16,  were  read  and  ajDproved. 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows  : 

Acceptance  of  membership  from  Harrison  Allen,  M.D., 
October  23,  1896  ;    Edson  S.  Bastin,  A.M.,  October  24,  1896. 

An  invitation  from  the  Societd  Hongroise  de  Geographic, 
Budapest,  to  its  twenty-fifth  anniversary,  October  18,  1896. 

Communication  from  the  Museo  Nacional  de  Buenos  Aires 
requesting  the  supply  of  certain  deficiencies  in  its  set  of 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.  From 
Mechanics'  Library,  of  Altoona,  asking  for  deficiencies. 

Letters  of  envoy  from  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  Cal- 
cutta ;  Acad,  des  Sciences,  Cracow,  Austria  ;  Gesellschaft  z. 
Beforderung  der  gesammten  Naturwissenschaften,  Marburg, 
Prussia  ;  Central  Bureau  der  Internat.  Erdmessung,  Potsdam, 
Prussia  ;   E,.  Statistical  Society,  London,  Eng. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  the  Asiatic  Society  of 
Japan,  Tokyo  (148,  149) ;  Koyal  Society  of  N.  S.  Wales, 
Sydney  (147) ;  E.  Acad,  of  Sciences,  Stockholm,  Sweden 
(150) ;  K.  Danish  Geographical  Society,  Prof.  Japetus  Steen- 
strup,  Copenhagen,  Denmark  (150) ;  E.  Zool.  Society,"  Natnra 
Artis  Magistra,"  Amsterdam,  Netherlands  (149);  Public 
Museum,  Moscow,  Eussia  (149)  ;  Imperial  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, St.  Petersburg  (150) ;  M.  Franz  Eitt.  v.  Hauer,  Yienna. 
Austria  (150) ;  Naturforscbende  Gesellschaft,  Bamberg,  Ba- 
varia (142,  150) ;  K.  Bibliothek,  Berlin,  Prussia  (150) ;  K. 
Geodiitisches  Institut,  Berlin-Potsdam,  Prussia  (150) ; 
Naturwissenschaftl.  Verein,  Bremen,  Germany  (150) ;  Natur- 
wissenschaftl.  Gesell.  "  Isis,"  Dresden,  Saxony  (150) ;  JSTatur- 
forschende  Gesell.,  Em  den,  Prussia  (149) ;  Oberhessiche 
Gesell.   f.    Natur-  und  Ilcilkundc,   Giessen, ^Germany  (149) ; 


1896.] 


295 


Naturwissenscliaftl.  Verein,  Kiel,  Prussia  (150)  ;  Dr.  0. 
Bolitlingk,  Prof.  J.  Victor  Carus,  Leipzig,  Saxony  (150)  ; 
Gesell.  zur  Beforderung  der  gesammten  Naturwissenschaften, 
Marburg,  Prussia  (142) ;  E.  Institute  Lombardo,  Milan,  Italy 
(148,  149) ;  Soc.  d' Agriculture  et  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  Lyon, 
France  (147-149) ;  Eedaction  Cosmos^  Prince  Eoland  Bona- 
parte, Paris,  France  (150) ;  Phil,  and  Lit.  Societj^,  Leeds, 
Eng.  (150) ;  The  Eoyal  Society,  Geographical  Society, 
London,  Eng.  (150) ;  Eoyal  Observatory  (148,  150,  and 
Trans. ^  xviii,  3),  Prof.  James  Geikie,  Edinburgh,  Scotland 
(150);  State  Library,  Albany,  N".  Y.  (147-151,  and  Trans., 
xviii,  3) ;  Prof.  B.  G.  Wilder,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  (144) ;  Prof. 
Lewis  M.  Haupt  (151),  Messrs.  Philip  C.  Garrett  (151),  Wil- 
liam W.  Jefferis  (149-151),  Coleman  Sellers  (151),  Joseph 
Willcox,  Philadelphia  (151) ;  Historical  Society  of  Southern 
California,  Los  Angeles  (150,  151) ;  Kansas  Academy  of 
Science,  Topeka  (151) ;  University  of  Kansas,  Lawrence 
(148) ;  Observatorio  Astronomico  de  Tacubaya,  Mexico, 
Mex.  (151) ;  Bishop  Crescendo  Carrillo,  Merida,  Yucatan, 
(151) ;  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations,  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Ealeigh,  N.  C.  (151). 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  E.  Geo- 
logical Society  (Queensland  Branch),  Brisbane,  Queensland  ; 
Academia  Letterarvin,  Cracow,  Austria ;  K.  K.  Militar. 
Geog.  Institutes,  Vienna,  Austria  ;  Verein  f.  Erdkunde, 
Cassel,  Prussia  ;  Naturwissenschaftl.  Gesell.  "  Isis,"  Dres- 
den, Saxony  •  Senckenbergische  Naturforschende  Gesell., 
Frankfurt  a.  M.;  Gesell.  z.  Beforderung  der  gesammten 
JSTaturwissen.,  Marburg,  Prussia  ;  Soc.  Geol.  de  Normandie, 
Havre,  France  ;  Soc.  des  Science  JSTaturelles,  La  Eochelle, 
France ;  Soc.  d' Agriculture  Sciences  et  Industrie,  Lyon, 
France  ;  Soc.  des  Antiquaires,  Soc.  de  I'Histoire  de  France, 
Ecole  Polytechnique,  Paris,  France. 

Mr.  Frank  H.  Gushing  then  made  a  communication  on  the 
' '  Eecent  ArchsBological  Explorations  on  the  Shell  Kej^s  and 
Gulf  Coast  of  Florida,"  illustrated  by  numerous  specimens, 
photograplis  and  diagrams. 


296 


[Nov.  20, 


Further  discussion  of  the  subject  was  made  by  Dr.  D.  G. 
Brinton  and  Prof.  F.  W.  Putnam. 

The  hour  of  ten  having  been  passed,  the  Society  was 
adjourned. 


Stated  Meeting,  November  SO,  1896. 

President,  Mr.  Fraley,  in  the  Chair.  ^ 

Present,  -Itt  members. 

Minutes  of  meeting,  November  6,  were  read  and  approved. 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows  : 

A  letter  from  Hon.  Mayer  Sulzberger,  accepting  the  duty 
of  preparing  an  obituary  notice  of  the  late  Joseph  B.  ToAvn- 
send,  Esq. 

Letters  of  envoy  from  the  Akad.  dcr  AVissenschaften, 
Vienna,  Austria  ;  Schlesische  Gesell.  f,  Vaterlandische  Cul- 
tur,  Breslau,  Prussia ;  K.  Sachsische  Gesell.  der  Wissen- 
schafteu,  Leipzig. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  the  Koyal  Society  of  Vic- 
toria, Melbourne  (148,  149) ;  Physico-Math.  Society,  Kasan, 
Eussia  (150) ;  Library  of  Marine  Ministry,  Prof.  Serge  Niki- 
tin,  St.  Petersburg,  Eussia  (150) ;  K.  K.  Sternwarto,  Prague, 
Bohemia  (150);  K,  K.  Central- Anstalt  f.  Meteorologie,  etc., 
Dr.  Friederich  S.  Krauss,  Vienna,  Austria  (150) ;  Naturfor- 
schende  Gesell.  des  Osterlandes,  Altenburg,  Prussia  (150) ; 
Gesell.  f,  Erdkunde,  Berlin,  Prussia  (150) ;  K.  Siiclis.  Mete- 
orol.  Institut,  Chemnitz  (150);  Verein  f.  Erdkunde  (150), 
Mrs.  Zelia  Nuttall,  Dresden,  Saxony  (147-150) ;  Prof.  E.  W. 
Bunsen,  Heidelberg,  Germany  (150)  ;  K.  Sachs.  Gesell.  d. 
Wissenschaften,  Leipzig  (148-150) ;  Verein  f.  Erdkunde, 
Metz,  Germany  (149) ;  K.  Stern warte,  Munich,  Bavaria  (150); 
Verein  f.  Vaterlandische  Naturkundo  in  WUrttemborg,  Stutt- 
gart (150) ;  E.  Accad.  di  Scienze,  etc.,  Modena,  Italy  (149) ; 
Acad,-  des  Sciences  et  Belles-Lettres,  Angers,  France  (148) ; 
Soc.    des    Sciences    Nat.    ct   Archcol.  do  la   Crease,   Gut^ret^ 


1896.]  -^J* 

France  (l-iS) ;  Soc.  Geologique  (149,  150),  Prince  Roland 
Bonaparte  (149),  Dr.  Edward  Pepper,  Paris,  France  (150) ; 
Mr.  Samnel  Timmins,  Arley,  Coventry,  Eng.  (150) ;  Prof.  I. 
Legge,  Oxford,  Eng.  (150) ;  Gen.  H.  L.  Abbot,  Cambridge, 
Mass.  (151);  Geological  Society  of  America,  Ptocliester, 
N.  Y.  (161) ;  Oneida  ^Historical  Society,  Utica,  N.  Y.  (150) ; 
Lackawanna  Institute  of  History  and  Science,  Scranton,  Pa. 
(122,  135,  139,  141,  142,  145,^  148) ;  Texas  Academy  of 
Science,  Austin  (151) ;  Iowa  Masonic  Library,  Cedar  Rapids 
(149-151) ;  Meteorological  Observatory,  Xalapa,  Mex.  (151)  ; 
Comite  Geolog.  de  Russie  (148,  149). 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  R.  Society 
of  S.  Australia,  Adelaide ;  Akad.  der  Wissenschaften, 
Vienna,  Austria ;  Schlesische  Gesell.  f.  Vaterland.  Cultur, 
Breslau,  Prussia  ;  Naturhist.  Gesellschaft,  Niirnberg,  Bava- 
ria ;  Prof.  G.  de  Mortellet,  Paris,  France  ;  R.  Society  of  An- 
tiquaries of  Ireland,  Dublin ;  Royal  Society,  London,  Eng.; 
American  Academy  Arts  and  Sciences,  Boston,  Mass.;  Dr. 
Charles  A.  Oliver,  Philadelphia  ;  AVyoming  Historical  and 
Geological  Society,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.;  Leander  McCormick 
Observatory,  Charlottesville,  Va.;  Department  of  State, 
American  Anthropological  Society,  Washington,  D.  C;  Min- 
isterio  de  Fomento,  Dr.  Nicolas  Leon,  Mexico,  Mex.;  Lick 
Observatory,  Mount  Hamilton,  Cal. 

A  copy  of  the  bronze  medal  issued  by  the  Kings  County, 
N.  Y.,  Medical  Society  in  commemoration  of  Dr.  Jenner. 

Prof.  Dr.  H.  V.  Ililprecht  made  a  preliminary  and  informal 
statement  concerning  his  latest  researches  in  early  Babylonian 
civilization  and  chronology  and  exhibited  a  number  of  im- 
portant antiquities  recently  acquired  by  him  for  the  Archaeo- 
logical Department  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  during 
his  stay  in  Constantinople  and  Asia  Minor.  He  laid  before  the 
Society  the  earliest  written  record  from  Babylonia  so  far  as 
known.  This  document,  according  to  Prof.  Hilprecht,  was 
written  in  the  sixth  millennium  B.C.  Its  ideograms  and 
phonograms  are  still  hieroglyphs.  The  only  document  of  a 
hitherto   unknown   South   Babylonian  king,  Engeyal  of  the 


Leonard.]  ^9o  [Xov.  20, 

fifth,  millenuium,  was  next  treated.  A  number  of  the  ex- 
tremely rare  Kappadohian  tablets,  of  which,  more  than  sixty 
have  been  obtained  for  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  through. 
Dr.  Hilprecht's  efforts  during  the  last  four  years,  a  historical 
document  of  the  time  of  King  Nabonidus  and  a  marble  vase 
of  King  Artaxerxes  witli  four  inscriptions  in  Persian,  Median, 
Babylonian  and  Egyptian  languages  were  likewise  exhibited 
and  partly  interpreted. 

Dr.  Charles  L.  Leonard  then  read  a  paper  on  a  "  Xew 
Physical  Property  of  the  X-Ray." 

Dr.  Frazer  reported  that  the  preparation  of  the  plates  for 
the  reproduction  of  the  signature  book  would  require  an  addi- 
tional appropriation  of  $80, 

On  motion  of  Mr.  McKean,  the  appropriation  was  made. 

Mr.  Goodwin  then  moved  that  the  Secretaries  be  instructed 
to  prepare  from  the  plates  now  made  250  copies,  to  be  sold 
only  to  members  at  cost,  not  more  than  one  copy  to  be  pur- 
chased b}^  any  one  member  until  further  orders  from  the 
Society.     Carried. 

Dr.  Morris  moved  that  the  Society  present  to  the  "Wistar 
Institute  a  bust  of  Franklin  and  one  of  Dr.  Wistar,  these 
being  in  duplicate.     Carried. 

The  rough  minutes  were  then  read,  and  the  Society 
adjourned. 


New  Physical  Pheno^nena  of  the  X-Ray. 

By    Charles    Lester    Leonard,  A.M.,  M.D. 

{Bead  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  November  20,  1S96.) 

The.  pli^ysical  plienomena  connected  with  the  x-ray  arc  at  present 
limited  to  those  announced  by  their  discoverer,  Prof.  "\Tilhelm  Konrad 
Rontgen.  They  are  their  power  to  penetrate  substances  formerly  con- 
sidered opaque,  their  chemical  action  exhibited  upon  the  photographic 
film  and  fluorescent  screen,  and  their  power  of  discharging  electrified 
bodies  whether  positively  or  negativelj^  charged. 

The  simple  experiments  which  I  conducted  at  the  Pepper  Laboratory 


1896.] 


299 


[Leonard. 


of  Clinical  Medicine  seem  to  prove  that  another  physical  characteristic 
of  the  x-ray  is  now  known. 

In  heating  a  double-cathode  x-ray  tube  of  the  focus  type,  while  it 
was  energized  by  an  alternating  current,  the  following  phenomenon  was 
noted. 

When  the  alcohol  lamp  was  held  at  a  point  midway  between  the  ca- 
thodes and  at  a  distance  varying  from  one-half  to  three  inches  from  the 
reflectors,  the  x-ray,  as  shown  in  the  fluoroscope,  and  the  fluorescence 
within  the  tube  were  seemingly  extinguished. 

This  was  true  in  tube  A,  and  in  no  other  tube  of  the  double  cathode 
focus  type. 

What  was  the  form  of  interference  which  the  lamp  exerted,  and  why 
did  it  apply  to  one  tube  and  not  to  all  of  that  type  ? 

These  queries  led  to  the  following  experiments  in  which  I  was  assisted 
bv  Mr.  Alfred  Watch. 


Diagram  of  X-Ray  Tubes.    Cathode  Rays  • 


X-Rays 


Basing  our  experiments  upon  the  theory,  that  it  was  the  aqueous 
vapor,  produced  by  the  combustion  of  the  alcohol,  which  caused  this 
phenomenon,  we  substituted  for  the  alcohol  lamp  a  small  piece  of  filter 
paper  saturated  with  water,  and  obtained  the  same  result.  There  was 
no  ettect  upon  the  other  tubes,  the  discharge  of  x-rays  and  the 
fluorescence  remaining  unaltered.  On  approaching  the  wet  paper  to 
the  cathode  a  streaming  of  electricity  was  observed  from  the  paper  or 
lamp  vapor  towards  the  cathode  through  the  wall  of  the  tube  and  was 
observed  to  diminish  in  quantity  as  the  paper  was  carried  towards  the 
point  midway  between  the  cathodes  and  opposite  the  reflector,  and  when 
it  reached  this  point  the  x-ray  and  fluorescence  ceased.  At  all  points 
outside  the  tube  a  grounded  wire  drew  a  spark  from  the  burner  of  the 
lamp,  or  from  the  moistened  paper.  This  experiment  seems  to  show 
that  there  can  be  established  outside  of  the  x-ray  tube  a  connection 
between  one  cathode  and  the  other  capable  of  modifjdug  the  effect  of 
the  electrical  discharge  within  the  tube. 

This  was  proved  by  using  a  piece  of  wet  paper  so  shaped  that  it  ex- 

PROC.  AMER.  rillLOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2li.      PRINTED  APRIL  20,   1897. 


Leonard.]  dUU  ^^oy_  oq, 

tended  from  cathode  to  cathode  outside  the  tube.  The  x-raj-s  and 
fluorescence  were  seemingly  destroyed  in  this  manner  in  all  forms  of 
double  cathode  tubes  used  with  the  alternating  current. 

The  form  of  interference  which  was  first  observed  was  therefore  the 
establishment  of  a  path  for  the  conduction  of  the  electricity  from 
cathode  to  cathode  outside  the  x-ray  tube,  or  in  other  words  the  com- 
pletion of  a  short  circuit  between  the  cathodes  in  the  induced  electric 
field  outside  the  tube. 

But  why  was  it  possible  to  complete  this  short  circuit,  in  one  tube,  bj- 
introducing  the  aqueous  vapor  at  a  single  point  opposite  the  reflector 
and  midway  between  the  cathodes,  and  impossible  to  do  it  in  any  other 
tube  of  the  same  type?  Is  there  any  reasonable  theory  which  will  logi- 
cally explain  this  difference  '? 

A  critical  examination  of  two  tubes  of  this  type  shows  that  in  tube  A 
the  cathodes  are  in  such  relation  to  the  planes  of  the  reflector  that  light, 
obeying  the  law  of  reflection,  and  emanating  from  the  cathodes,  would 
be  reflected  at  such  an  angle  as  to  leave  a  wedge-shaped  area  beneath 
the  reflectors  and  between  tlie  two  bundles  of  rays,  free  from  their  in- 
terference. 

An  examination  of  tube  B  shows  that  no  such  area  would  be  formed, 
and  that  the  two  bundles  of  rays  Avould  be  united  in  the  median  line. 

The  fluoroscope  shows  that  this  median  area  is  the  area  of  most  in- 
tense fluorescence,  as  x-rays  enter  it  from  both  reflectors. 

Suppose  the  rays  obeying  the  law  of  reflection  within  the  tube  are  the 
cathode  rays,  which  become  the  Lenard  rays  outside  the  tube. 

In  tube  A  they  would  be  reflected  from  the  median  line  and  leave  a 
field  of  x-rays  free  from  their  interference.  We  have  then  here  a 
purer  field  of  x-rays,  which  w^ould  easily  account  for  the  greater 
rapidity  and  sharpness  of  definition  which  this  tube  has  exhibited,  as 
illustrated  by  the  unintensified  half-minute  exposure  negatives  of  the 
hand  and  other  objects,  and  the  six-minutes  exposure  of  the  normal 
trunk  of  a  five-year-old  boy. 

Would  this  supposition  account  for  the  absence  of  a  conductive  area 
midway  between  the  two  cathodes,  which,  when  supplied  by  the  aqueous 
vapor,  results  in  the  extinguishing  of  the  x-ray  and  fluorescence '?  It 
would,  if  we  consider  the  Lenard  rays  to  be  capable  of  conducting 
electricity  while  the  x-raj^s  are  not.  Under  these  conditions  the 
aqueous  vapor  between  the  bundles  of  Lenard  rays,  in  the  case  of  tube 
A,  would  form  the  connecting  link  in  the  short  circuit  between  the 
cathodes.  But  how  about  tube  B — if  this  theory  is  correct,  how  can  avc 
explain  the  difference  in  the  phenomenon  observed  in  it '! 

In  this  tube  we  saw,  that  the  bundles  of  reflected  Lenard  rays  occupied 
the  median  field  beneath  tlie  reflectors  and  were  continuous,  while  llic 
areas  of  non-conduction  lay  between  the  cathodes  and  the  bundles  of 
Lenard  rays. 

By  placing  two  small   ]>i('ces  of  moistened  ])aper  in   these  two  non- 


1896.  J  OUi  [Leonardo 

conductive  areas,  and  tlius  supplying  the  conductor,  the  theory  is 
proved  to  be  correct,  for  the  x-rays  and  fluorescence  are  seemingly  extin- 
guished and  we  have  established  the  short  circuit  in  both  tubes  through 
the  medium  of  the  Lenard  rays  and  the  aqueous  vapor. 

The  following  conclusions  may  be  drawn  from  these  experiments  : 

1 .  From  the  fact  that  a  short  circuit  may  be  established  between  the 
cathodes  in  an  induced  electric  field  outside  the  tube,  by  placing  an 
electrical  conductor  in  certain  positions  outside  the  tube,  not  occupied 
by  the  Lenard  rays,  but  occupied  by  the  x-rays,  we  may  conclude  that 
the  Lenard  rays  are  conductors  of  electricity,  while  the  x-rays  are  not. 
This  would  also  account  for  the  difl'erence  in  the  action  of  magnetic 
fields  upon  the  cathode  or  Lenard  rays  and  the  x-rays,  and,  conversely, 
that  action  would  confirm  the  deduction  regarding  the  conductivity  and 
non-conductivity  of  the  two  rays. 

This  deduction  is  also  compatible  with  the  phenomena  observed  in  the 
discharge  of  electrified  bodies  by  the  x-ray,  the  ultra-violet  rays,  and 
other  forms  of  light  rays. 

2.  From  the  condition  found  to  be  present  in  tube  A,  that  is,  the 
presence  of  an  area  which  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity  and  is  free 
from  Lenard  rays,  and  yet  is  the  area  of  most  intense  x-rays,  we  may 
conclude  that  the  x-ray  emanates  from  the  surface  of  the  reflector  in 
this  type  of  tube,  and  is  not  due  to  the  bombardment  of  the  wall  of  the 
tube  by  the  cathode  rays,  as  no  cathode  rays  strike  the  wall  of  the  tube 
in  the  area  from  which  we  find  the  greatest  fluorescence. 

Further,  from  the  fact  that  the  x-ray  is  a  non-conductor  and  is  not 
influenced  by  a  magnetic  field,  while  the  Lenard  rays  are  conductors 
and  are  infiueuced  by  magnetic  fields,  it  would  seem  probable  that 
these  two  forms  of  radiant  energy  difli'er  essentially  in  their  character, 
the  x-ray  presenting  most  of  the  phenomena  chai'acteristic  of  light, 
while  the  Lenard  raj^s  present  the  phenomena  of  radiant  matter. 

3.  From  the  difference  in  the  rapidity  of  the  action  of  the  two  tubes 
on  the  sensitive  film  we  may  conclude,  that  the  presence  of  Lenard 
rays  in  an  x-ray  field  interferes  with  the  photographic  action  of  the 
x-ray  :  consequently  a  tube  of  the  greatest  efficiency  would  be  one  so 
constructed,  that  the  Lenard  rays  would  be  reflected  entirely  outside  of 
the  most  intense  x-ray  field. 

It  would  seem  probable  that  the  efficiency  of  the  focus  type  of  x-ray 
tube  is  in  a  measure  due  to  such  a  reflection  of  the  Lenard  rays,  as  many 
of  those  working  with  the  single  cathode  focus  tube  have  found,  that 
the  point  of  greatest  intensity  of  the  x-ray  is  not  at  the  point  where 
rays  of  ordinary  light  would  be  reflected  if  they  emanated  from  the 
cathode,  that  is,  the  point  to  which  the  Lenard  rays  are  reflected,  but  is 
at  a  point  perpendicular  to  the  focal  point  of  the  cathode  rays  upon  the 
platinum  reflector. 


oOJi  [Dec.  4, 

Stated  Meeting,  December  4,  1896. 

The  President,  Mr.  Fraley,  in  the  Chair. 

Present,  27  members. 

Minutes  of  meeting  of  November  20  read  and  approved.- 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows  : 

Invitation  from  the  Chicago  liistorical  Society  to  attend  the 
exercises  at  the  opening  of  its  new  building,  Tuesday, 
December  15,  1896. 

Letters  of  envoy  from  the  Yerein  f.  Schlesisclie  Insekten- 
kunde,  Breslau,  Prussia  ;  Soc.  Italiana  delle  Scienze,  Bome  ; 
Department  of  State,  Washington,  D.  C;  Prof  E.  W.  Clay- 
pole,  Akron,  O. ;  Observatorio  Astronumico,  Cordoba,  Pe- 
publica  Argentina. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  from  Mr.  Samuel  Davenport, 
Adelaide,  S.  Australia  (14:8,  149) ;  Observatoire  phys.  Cen- 
tral de  Russie,  St.  Petersburg  (150) ;  Societas  pro  fauna  flora 
fennica.  Dr.  Otto  Donner,  Helsingfors,  Finland  (150) ;  Univer- 
sitats-Biblioteket,  Lund,  Sweden  (150)  ;  Musee  Teyler,  Har- 
lem, Holland  (150,  151) ;  Prof.  Edward  Suess,  Vienna,  Austria 
(150) ;  Redaction  der  Naturwissenschafllichen  Wochen- 
schrift  (150),  Bot.  Verein  der  Prov.  Brandenburg  (l-lo.  146, 
148),  Prof.  A.  Bastian,  Berlin,  Prussia  (150) ;  Phys.-Tech- 
nische  Reichsanstalt,  Charlottenburg,  Prussia  (150) ;  Natur- 
forscheude  Gesell.,  Emdeu,  Prussia  (150) ;  Soc.  Phys.-Medica, 
Erlangen,  Bavaria  (150) ;  Verein  f.  Geog.  u.  Statistik,  Frank- 
furt a.  M.,  Germany  (150);  Oberhessische  Gesell.  f.  Natur- 
und  Heilkunde,  Giessen,  Germany  (150) ;  Verein  f. 
Erdkunde,  Metz,  Germany  (148) ;  Philosophical  Soc,  Cam- 
bridge, Eng.  (148,  146-150,  and  Trans.,  N.  S.,  xviii,  2  and  3); 
American  Antiquarian  Society,  Worcester,  Mass.  (151) ;  Soc. 
Cientifica,  "Autonit)  Al/ate,"  01)s.  Mcteorol.  Magnet.  Central, 


1896.] 


303 


Mexico,  Mex.  (lol) ;  Obs.  Meteorol.  Magnet.  Central,  Xalapa, 
Mex.  (151) ;  Soc.  Cientifica  Argentina,  Buenos  Aires  (148, 
149). 

Accessions  to  the  library  were  reported  from  the  R.  Society 
of  N.  S.  Wales,  ',^Sydney,  Australia  ;  Bot.  Yerein  der  Prov. 
Brandenburg,  Berlin,  Prussia ;  K.  Sachs.  Verein  f.  Alter- 
thiimer,  Dresden ;  Deutsche  Seewarte,  Hamburg,  Prussia ; 
Yerein  f.  Erdkunde,  Metz,  Germany ;  K.  Geod.  Instituts, 
Potsdam,  Prussia  ;  R.  Institiito  Lombard©,  Milan,  Italy  ;  Soc. 
Italiana  delle  Scienze,  Rome  ;  R.  Acad.  Ciencias  y  Artes, 
Barcelona,  Spain  ;  Philosophical  and  Literary  Society,  Leeds, 
Eng.;  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  Manchester,  Eng.; 
American  Oriental  Society,  New  Haven,  Conn.;  American 
Museum  Natural  History,  New  York,  N.  Y.;  Capt.  H.  H. 
Bellas,  Germantown,  Phila.;  Board  of  Trustees  of  Drexel 
Institute,  Mr.  F.  J.  Dreer,  Dr.  Frederick  D.  Stone,  Philadel- 
phia ;  Acad.  Mex.  de  Ciencias  Exactes  Fis.  y  Nat.,  Obs. 
Meteorol.  y  Yulcano  del  Seminario  de  Colima,  Mexico,  Mex.; 
Obs.  Nacional  Argentino,  Buenos  Aires. 

Photograph  was  received  for  the  Society's  Album  from 
Prof.  E.  W.  Claypole,  Akron,  O. 

Mr.  F.  D.  Stone  read  an  obituary  notice  of  William  John 
Potts. 

The  following  deaths  were  announced  : 

Sir  Benjamin  Ward  Richardson,  London,  Eng.,  November 
21,  1896,  get.  68. 

Dr.  Benjamin  Apthorp  Gould,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Novem- 
ber 27,  1896,  get.  72. 

Dr.  Y^illiam  Pepper  exhibited  a  collection  of  Mexican  pre- 
historic objects  of  terra-cotta,  obtained  by  him  on  his  recent 
visit  to  the  city  of  Mexico.  They  comprised  a  series  of 
miniature  clay  heads  from  Teotihuacan,  embracing  a  great 
variety  of  types,  which  were  classified  by  him,  for  the  purpose 
of  exhibition,  in  accordance  with  the  scheme  published  by  a 
member  of  the  Society,  Mrs.  Zelia  Nuttall,*  in  1886.     He 

*  "The  Terracotta  Heads  of  Teoti7iuacaii,"  Ainerican  Journal  of 
Archceologi/,  Vol.  ii,  Nos.  2  and  3. 


^^^  [Dec.  4, 

■exliibited  iu  connection  witli  tlieni  some  painted  clay  heads 
for  small  images  from  Canton,  China,  from   the   Museum  of 
Archasology  and  PahTeontolog)'  of  the  University  of  Pennsjd- 
vania,  pointing  out  the  striking  analogy  between  the  Mexican 
heads  and  those  froin  China.     The  latter 
are    mounted   upon    bodies   of  perishable 
material — of  plaited  rattan — which  is  gilded 
and    painted    in    brilliant     colors.     They 
represent    personages  of  the  theatre,  the 
emj^eror,    ministers,    generals,    fairies,  etc. 
;  ^T^SM  ii         The  heads  are  attached  to  a  neck  consist- 
ing  of  plaited    bamljoo    in  the  form    of  a 
tube,  and  have  a  variety  of  ornamental  head  dresses  of  various 
materials.     Among  the  Mexican  heads   shown  was  one  re- 
presenting    a    man  with    a    beard,    of  much    strength    and 
beauty   of    design.     The    features    were    apparently    those 
of  a  European.     The  general  object  of  the  exhibition  was 
to  illustrate  a  parallel  usage   with  that  indicated    by  Mrs. 
Nuttall   in   reference   to    the    Mexican    heads,   and    to    pro- 
voke a   discussion   of  the    extremely   interesting    questions 
that   underlie   them.       In    addition.    Dr.    Pepper   exhibited 
some    very  perfect   and   fragile    objects  of   terra-cotta  from 
Vera  Cruz,  of  a  uniformly  fine  light  clay  ;    comprising  among 
others  a  craw  fish  and  a   cup  (censer?)  with  a  tall  conical 
cover. 

Dr.  Brinton  expressed   the    view  that   these  were   votive 
■offerings  representing  symbolic  burial. 

Dr.  Allen  referred  to  the  figures  as  a  representation  of  life 
form  in  art. 

Dr.  J.  Cheston  Morris  made  a  commanication  "  On  Gene- 
sis xi.  1-9  as  a  Poetic  Fragment." 

Pending  nominations  1332,   133-1,   1357,  1358,  1362,  1363, 
and  new  nominations  1364  and  1365  were  read. 

The  report  of  the  Treasurer  was  then  read  and  referred  to 
the  Finance  Committee  for  examination  and  report. 

Kough  minutes   were   then   read    and    approved,   and    the 
Society  was  adjourned. 


1896.]  ^05  [Morris. 

On   Oenesis  xi.  1-0  as  a  Poetic  Fragment. 
By  J.  Chesion  Morris,  M.D 

(Read  before  the  American  PhilosopMcal  Society,  December  4,  ISDG.) 

It  was  with  great  interest  and  pleasure  that  I  listened  to  Dr.  Hil- 
precht's  account  of  his  explorations  and  discoveries  recently  at  Nippur, 
and  to  his  lucid  statement  of  his  views  as  to  the  Sumerian  and  Accadian 
races  and  their  civilization,  and  of  what  he  has  learned  of  their  history. 
Especially  I  regard  as  important  what  he  had  to  say  of  "the  land  of 
Shinar  "  or  Sungir.  On  March  6,  1891,  I  communicated  to  the  Society 
some  notes  on  Hebrew  Phonetics,  accompanied  with  a  transliteration  in 
accordance  with  them  of  Genesis  x,  rendering  "Shinar"  by  "Xnor, " 
V.  10 — and  am  still  disposed  to  adhere  to  the  clue  which  ,1  think  may 
thus  be  found  to  the  further  elucidation  of  the  history  and  possibly  of 
the  migrations  of  the  ancient  peoples.  When  we  read  of  the  building 
of  Babel  in  the  land  of  Shinar  (Genesis  xi)  by  a  people  that  "had 
bricks  for  stones  and  slime  (bitumen)  had  they  for  mortar,"  we  may 
well  think  of  a  race  inhabiting  an  extensive  plain  or  prairie  such  as  that 
lying  between  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  building  in  a  different 
manner  from  that  familiar  to  the  collator  of  the  account,  who  was  proba- 
bly of  a  different  race — perhaps  one  of  the  Semites.  His  religion  too  was 
different,  for  he  speaks  of  a  conference  among  the  gods  whom  he  wor- 
shipped, ending  with  "let  us  go  down  and  overthrow  the  tower."  A 
little  examination  of  this  account  will,  I  think,  show  that  it  is  in  the 
form  of  a  Hebrew  poem,  as  is  also  that  of  the  creation  in  Genesis  i.  If 
so,  this  account  may  be  that  of  a  victory  by  a  Semite  race  ascribed  to 
the  act  of  their  protecting  deity,  and  the  subjugation  and  dispersion  of 
these  lowland  people.*  Did  they,  or  some  of  them,  migrate  to  Egypt 
and  found  an  empire  there — building  with  bricks  as  they  had  done  in 
Shinar?  Were  they  the, people  whose  remains  were  recently  described 
at  a  meeting  of  this  Society  by  Mrs.  Stevenson  as  having  been  discov- 
ered by  Prof.  Petrie  ?  And  eventually  having  been  driven  thence  by 
the  Hamites  whom  they  had  temporarily  displaced,  did  they  again 
migrate  to  the  southwest  and  inhabit  the  country  which  to-day  we  call 
Senaar  ?  In  the  Septuagint  this  is  the  transliteration  given  of  1J?Jty. 
Nor  is  this  inconsistent  with  the  softening  which  must  occur  in  peoples 
of  other  races  of  the  guttural-nasal  vowel  ngain. 

I  may  remark  that  in  the  cabinet  of  the  Society  are  four  wooden  locks 
made  by  the  negroes  of  St.  Domingo  a  hundred  years  ago.  On  showing 
these  some  time  ago  to  Dr.  Hilprecht  he  remarked  to  me,  "  Why  those 
are  just  such  as  every  Arab  sheik  has  to-day  on  his  treasure-chest  or 
■on  the  door  of  his  house  in   the  valley  of  the  Euphrates."     I  had  no 

*  For  migrations  of  the  brick-builders  see  McCausland's  Builders  of  Babel,  London,  1871. 


Morris.]  ^^^  [Dec.  4, 

doubt  then,  that  the  negroes  had  learned  to  make  them  from  their  Arab 
captors  and  masters  in  Central  Africa  and  had  brought  the  art  with 
them  to  the  West  Indies.  But  may  it  not  be  that  their  ancestors  had 
brought  the  art  with  them  from  the  plains  of  Babylonia,  having  migrated 
thence  ages  ago,  as  I  have  surmised  above  ?  If  so  we  ought  to  be  able 
to  trace  among  the  industries,  languages  and  traditions  of  Central  Africa 
some  remnants  of  this  early  civilization  in  the  plain  of  Babylon. 
I  translate  from  the  Septuagint  version  of  Gen.  xi.  1-9  as  follows  : 

And  all  the  earth  was  (of)  one  lip, 

And  one  utterance  to  all. 
And  it  happened,  as  they  moved  from  the  east. 

They  found  a  plain  in  the  land  of  Shinar. 

And  they  dwelt  there  ; 

And  a  man  said  to  his  neighbor, 
Come,  let  us  make  bricks. 

And  let  us  burn  them  with  fire. 

And  the  bricks  were  to  them  for  stone, 
And  the  asphalt  was  to  them  for  mortar. 

And  they  said.  Come  let  us  build  ourselves  a  city. 

And  a  tower  whose  top  shall  be  to  heaven  ; 
And  let  us  make  ourselves  a  name, 

Before  we  be  scattered  on  the  face  of  all  the  earth 

And  Jehovah  descended  to  see  the  city 

And  the  tower  which  the  sons  of  men  builded. 
And  Jehovah  said.  Behold  the  race  is  one. 

And  there  is  one  lip  to  all  ; 
And  this  have  they  begun  to  do, 

And  now,  nothing  will  fail  them 
Whatever  they  may  plan  to  do. 

Come,  and  descending,  let  us  confuse  their  tongue 

That  they  hear  not  each  one  the  utterance  of  his  neighbor. 

And  Jehovah  scattered  them  thence  over  the  face  of  all  the  earth, 

And  they  ceased  building  tlie  city  and  the  tower. 
Therefore  its  name  was  called  Confusion, 

Because  there  Jehovah  confused  the  lips  of  all  the  earth. 
And  thence  Jehovah  scattered  them 

On  the  face  of  all  the  earth.  ^ 


1896.]  'j'-'* 

Stated  Meeting^  December  18^  1806. 
Vice-President,  Dr.  Pepper,  in  the  Cliair. 
Present,  3-i  members. 

On  motion  the  regular  order  of  business  was  suspended  and 
Drs.  W.  H.  Furness  and  Hiller  gave  an  account  of  their  re- 
cent journey  in  Borneo  and  the  Loo-Choo  Islands. 

Minutes  of  December  4  read  and  approved. 

Correspondence  was  submitted  as  follows  : 

Letter  from  the  President  of  the  Geological  Society  of 
Washington,  requesting  the  cooperation  of  this  Society  with 
the  Pasteur  Monument  Committee  of  the  United  States  in 
collecting  subscriptions  for  the  erection  of  a  monument  at 
Paris,  to  Pasteur. 

Letter  from  the  Observatorio  Meteorl.  y  Astron.,  San 
Salvador,  C.  A.,  announcing  the  death  of  its  Director,  Dr. 
Don  Alberto  Sanchez. 

Circular  letter  from  M.  Julian  Aparicio,  announcing  his 
appointment  to  succeed  Dr.  Don  Alberto  Sanchez  as  Director 
of  the  Observatorio  Meteorl.  y  Astron.,  San  Salvador,  C.  A. 

Letter  of  resignation  from  Mr.  E.  A.  Barber,  West  Chester, 
Pa.,  December  9,  1896,     Resignation  accepted. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  {Trans. ^  N.  S.,  xix,  1),  from 
the  Public  Library,  Boston,  Mass.;  American  Antiquarian 
Society,  Worcester,  Mass.;  Yale  University,  New  Haven, 
Conn.;  Buffalo  Library,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.;  Historical  Society, 
New  York,  N.  Y.;  Academy  Natural  Sciences,  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  Historical  Society,  Philadelphia ;  State 
Historical  Society  of  Wisconsin,  Madison ;  Kansas  Academy 
of  Science,  Topeka. 

Letters  of  acknowledgment  of  Proceedings  from  the 
Naturf.  Gesellschaffc,  Dorpat,  Russia  (149) ;  Tashkent  Obser- 
vatory, Tashkent,  Russia  (150) ;  R.  Zool.  Society,  "  Natura 
Artis  Magistra,"  Amsterdam,  Netherlands  (150,  151); 
Colonial  Museum,  Haarlem,  Holland  (150,  151)  ;  K.  K. 
Naturhist.  Hofmuseum,    Vienna,   Austria   (150) ;    K.   Leop. 

PKOC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2  M.      PRINTED  APRIL  20,  1897. 


*^^0  [Dec.  18, 

Carol.  Akad.  cler  Naturforsclier,  Halle  a.  S.  (150)  ;  Dr.  Paul 
Hejse,  Munich,  Bavaria  (150)  ;  Prof.  Paolo  Montegazza, 
Florence.  Italy  (147) ;  Soc.  Geologique  de  jSTormandie, 
Havre,  France  (150) ;  Soc.  Fran^aise  de  Physique,  Soc. 
Philologique,  Comte  de  Charencey,  Paris,  France  (150)  ;  E. 
Acad,  de  Ciencias  y  Artes,  Barcelona,  Spain  (143,  145-149); 
Academy  of  Sciences,  New  York,  N.  Y.  (136) ;  Dr.  Charles 
Schaffer,  Philadelphia  (151). 

Accessions  to  the  Library  were  reported  from  the  Exhibi- 
tion Trustees,  Melbourne,  Australia ;  Acad.  Sciences, 
Cracow,  Austria  ;  K.  P.  Geodat.  Institutes,  Berlin  ;  Yerein 
f.  Erdkunde,  Halle  a.  S.,  Prussia  ;  K.  Sachs.  Meteorl.  Insti- 
tut,  Chemnitz  ;  K.  B.  Akad.  der  Wissenschaften,  Munich, 
Bavaria  ;  Soc.  de  Physique,  Paris,  France ;  Literary  and 
Philosophical  Society,  Manchester,  Eng.;  Mr.  Edward 
"Waldo  Emerson,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  American  Museum 
Natural  History,  New  York,  N.  Y.;  Yassar  Brothers'  Insti- 
tute, Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.;  American  Academy  Political 
and  Social  Science,  First  Unitarian  Church,  Philadelphia  ; 
Pennsylvania  State  College  ;  Columbian  LTniversity,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C;  Colorado  College  Scientific  Society,  Colorado 
Springs  ;    Institute  of  Jamaica,  Kingston. 

The  Wistar  Institute  acknowledges  the  gifts  of  busts  of 
Dr.  Franklin  and  Dr.  Caspar  Wistar. 

The  President  announced  by  letter  that  he  had  appointed 
Mr.  F.  H.  Cushing,  Dr.  Thomas  N.  Gill  and  Dr.  D.  G.  Briu- 
ton,  to  represent  this  Society  at  a  meeting  to  be  held  in 
Washington  in, memory  of  G.  Brown  Goode. 

A  letter  from  Mr.  Cassell  gives  the  following  information  : 
Benjamin  Kittenhouse,  brother  of  David,  died  August  31, 
1825,  Ninth  street  above  Yine,  in  this  city,  and  was  buried 
September  2,  in  St.  James'  Cemetery,  at  Evansburg,  Mont- 
gomery county,  Pa. 

The  Committee  appointed  to  arrange  for  the  quarterly 
meetings  at  which  subjects  of  broad  philosophic  interest 
were  to  be  discussed  made  a  report  of  their  doings  for  the 
year. 


1896.]  'Jv)y  [Furness. 

The  Finance  Committee  made  report  that  they  had 
examined  the  Treasurer's  accounts,  and  found  them  correct. 
The  appropriations  for  the  coming  year  were  recommended, 
and  on  motion  approved  bj  the  Society. 

The  pending  nominations  were  then  read  and  spoken  to, 
and  the  ballots  cast. 

New  nominations  1364  to  1369  were  then  read. 

Mr.  ]^rice  then  offered  a  resolution  directing  the  printing  of 
the  ballots  for  the  election  to  be  held  January  1. 

The  Tellers  then  reported  that  : 

2299.  William  Francis  Magee,  Princeton,  N.  J.; 

2300.  a.  Albert  Lewis,  Philadelphia  ; 

2301.  Benjamin  W.  Frazier,  Bethlehem,  Pa., 
had  been  elected  to  membership. 

The  rough  minutes  were  then  read  and  the  Society 
adjourned. 


GUmj)ses  of  Borneo. 

By  William  Henry  Furness,  3rd,  31. D. 

{Read  before  The  American  Philosophical  Society,  December  IS,  1896.) 

The  island  of  Borneo,  lying  directly  under  the  Equator,  is  the  second 
in  size  in  the  world  (if  we  exclude  Australia,  to  which,  I  believe,  is  gen- 
erally given  the  dignity  of  being  called  a  continent),  Papua,  or,  as  it  is 
now  called,  New  Guinea,  being  the  largest,  with  an  area  of  306,000  square 
miles,  while  Borneo  has  an  area  of  286,000  square  miles,  or  about  that  of 
France.  Along  the  coast,  and  indeed  for  many  miles  inland,  the  country 
is  flat  and  marshy,  covered  with  a  dense  tangle  of  undergrowth,  made  up 
of  thorny  palms,  ferns,  and  creepers  of  all  sorts,  including  the  beautiful 
variegated  Nepenthes,  or  pitcher  plant ;  above  this  undergrowth, 
which  is  dense  to  a  height  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  rise  lofty,  straight 
Camphor,  Gutta,  Durian  and  Tapang  trees,  whose  foliage,  at  least  from 
a  distance,  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  the  common  trees  of  our  own 
woods  and  forests  ;  perhaps  the  only  features  which  distinguish  the  Bor- 
nean  jungle,  seen  at  a  distance,  from  our  ordinary  forests  are  the  top- 
most tufts  of  the  Rattan  palm,  which  is  a  creeper  and  forms  a  crown 
on  the  tree  top,  whereof  the  unexpanded  central  leaf  creates  the  sus- 
picion that   the   indefatigable  lightning-rod    agent    had    paid   a   visit 


^10 

Furness.J  ^-^^  [Dec.  18, 

to  the  primeval  forest.  Palms  as  a  rule  do  not  enter  into  the  landscape  ; 
being  of  low  growth,  they  are  hidden  by  the  lofty  trees.  Toward  the 
centre  of  the  island  there  is  a  broken  range  of  mountains  and  of  high 
hills  running  from  North  to  South,  the  longest  diameter  of  the  island  ;  of 
these  mountains,  according  to  our  present  knowledge,  Kina  Balu  in  the 
North  is  the  highest,  and  is  13,680  ft.  high,  but  not  snow-capped.  Other 
mountains  in  the  chain  vary  from  3000  to  10,000  ft.  in  height. 

It  is  in  this  central  range  of  highlands  and  mountains  that  all  the 
numerous  rivers  rise  and  form  the  highways  and  by-ways  of  the  island, 
rendering  it  traversable  in  almost  every  direction. 

The  government  of  the  island  is  divided  between  the  Dutch  in  the 
South  and  East,  The  British  North  Borneo  Company  in  the  North,  the 
small  Sultanate  of  Brunei  on  the  west  coast,  and  below  this  the  inde- 
pendent territory  of  Sarawak,  governed  by  Eajah  Brooke,  in  whose  ter- 
ritory the  greater  part  of  my  time  was  spent. 

In  almost  every  book  on  Borneo  the  people  are  included  under  the  name 
of  Dyaks,  either  Sea-D3faks  or  Land-Dyaks.  This  is  an  error.  There 
are  many  distinct  tribes  or  possibly  races,  scattered  throughout  the  hills 
and  on  the  rivers  of  Borneo  ;  they  speak  a  dift'erent  language,  and  have 
different  customs  of  burial,  of  marriage,  of  naming  children,  of  boat  build- 
ing, etc.,  etc.  Some  show  a  decidedly  Chinese  influence,  while  others 
are  clearly  of  the  Malay  type  and  have  adopted  the  Mohammedan  relig- 
ion in  a  somewhat  modified  form  ;  others  again  are  nomadic,  and,  in  ap- 
pearance, are  stronger  and  slightly  taller  than  the  Dyaks,  and  are  not 
Head-hunters,  which  is  another  custom  erroneously  attributed  to  all  the 
inhabitants  of  Borneo. 

Borneo  is  a  subject  so  large  that  to  give  a  reallj'  clear  idea  of  all  the  in- 
tricacies of  the  manners  and  customs  of  its  people  would  occupy  far  more 
time  than  one  short  evening's  talk.  Let  me  rather  recount  to  you  what 
it  will  be  probably  impossible  to  find  in  books. 

Dr.  Hiller  and  myself  had  the  rare  opportunity,  through  the  kindness 
of  Mr.  Charles  Hose,  one  of  the  Rajah's  most  energetic  Residents, 
of  spending  five  weeks  among  the  natives,  in  the  household  of  Tamabu- 
lan,  one  of  the  most  powerful  chiefs  of  the  Kayans  and  Kenniahs,  on 
the  river  Baram. 

Tliis  chief  had  come  down  the  Baram  about  two  hundred  and  fifty 
miles,  with  a  hundred  of  his  men,  more  or  less,  to  attend  a  Meeting  of 
Peace  and  Reconciliation  with  the  Dyaks  and  other  tribes  living  on  the 
Baram.  The  Rajah  talked  to  them  all  most  impressively  on  the  evils 
attending  constant  warfare,  and  at  the  end  of  his  speech,  given  in  Ma- 
lay— the  court  language — Tamabulau  was  the  first  to  step  forward  and 
heartily  shake  hands  with  the  Rajah  and  express  his  willingness  to  do 
all  he  could  to  maintain  the  peace  ;  which  was  duly  ratified  on  the  mor- 
row by  the  slaughter  of  a  pig  and  the  examination  of  tlie  omens  as  inter- 
preted from  the  colorations  of  its  liver ;  yet  this  same  Tamabulan  only 
three  years  ago   was   one  of  the  most  rebellious  up-river  chiefs  and 


1896.]  ^^J-J-  [Fumess. 

had  goue  on  the  war-path,  without  the  sanction  of  the  Rajah,  and  had 
taken  heads,  and  had  barely  refrained  from  killing  Mr.  Hose  who  had 
gone  up  to  put  a  stop  to  his  marauding. 

He  is  a  man  of  about  forty-five,  well  built,  but  not  muscular  in  ap- 
pearance, about  five  feet  six  inches  tall,  his  face  is  broad,  the  cheek- 
bones somewhat  high,  the  eyes  wide  apart — owing  perhaps  to  his  hav- 
ing his  eyebrows  shaved,  they  appear  very  wide  apart  ;  his  lips  are 
thin  and  his  mouth  large  but  well  shaped,  and  when  he  smiles  it 
reveals  two  rows  of  regular  but  blackened  teeth.  His  ears,  according  to 
the  custom  of  his  people,  are  pierced  in  the  lobes,  and  by  means  of  a 
copper  ring,  inserted  in  early  childhood,  are  so  elongated  that  the  lobe 
almost  touches  the  shoulder ;  his  ears  are  also  perforated  in  the  upper 
part  to  permit  the  insertion  of  a  wild  cat's  tooth  ornamented  ;  this  is,  how- 
ever, only  inserted  for  full  dress  ;  on  ordinary  occasions  he  wears  therein 
a  plug  of  wood  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  looped  and  perfo- 
rated ears  serve,  in  the  absence  of  clothes,  the  purpose  of  pockets,  and 
are  used  to  carry  cigarettes  or  even  boxes  of  matches.  His  hair  is 
straight  and  black,  shaved  in  a  straight  line  from  his  temples  round  his 
head,  but  allowed  to  grow  long  at  the  back ;  it  is  not  unlike  a 
Chinaman's  queue  unbraided.  The  skin  of  the  Kayans  and  Kenuiahs, 
two  closely  allied  tribes,  is  not  yellow,  but  somewhat  darker  than  a 
Chinaman's,  and  they  have  none  of  the  characteristics  of  either  the  thick- 
lipped  African  negro  nor  the  bushy,  krinklj^  hair  of  the  Papuans,  nor 
have  they  the  almond  eyes  of  the  Mongolians. 

As  for  costume,  on  ordinary  occasions  they  wear  nothing  but  a  loin 
cloth  either  of  bark  fibre  or  of  red  or  white  cotton,  bought  from  the 
Chinese  traders  in  the  Bazaar  (the  Malay  name  for  a  trading  post). 
On  their  heads  they  wear  a  close-fitting  pointed  cap  made  of  thin  strips 
of  rattan  (or  rotan,  as  they  call  it)  or  bamboo  dyed  red  and  black  and 
woven  into  pretty  checkered  patterns ;  when  they  are  exposed  to  the 
blazing  sun  they  often  exchange  this  skull  cap  for  a  broad  flat  disc  made 
of  dried  palm  leaves  and  tied  to  their  head. 

I  describe  Tamabulan  thus  somewhat  at  length  because  he  is  a  full- 
blooded  and  typical  Kenuiah,  and  as  he  is,  so  are  most  of  his  people. 
They  almost  universally  depilate  the  hairs  of  the  face,  and  only  occasion- 
ally are  mustaches  or  beards  to  be  seen  ;  when  they  are  allowed  to 
grow  they  are  more  than  likely  to  be  restricted  to  one  side  of  the  face,  in 
charming  irregularity. 

When  the  peace  meeting  was  over,  and  the  pigs'  livers  had  determined 
omens  propitiously  (I  think  that  Tamabulan  in  his  inmost  heart  thought 
that  the  whole  thing  was  foolish  and  unnecessary,  but  then  the  Dyaks 
were  impressed  and  he  was  conscious  that  in  any  event  he  was  able  to 
overpower  them,  so  on  the  whole  he  was  well  pleased),  we  returned  to 
Mr.  Hose's  house,  which  is  a  low  one-storied  frame  building,  thatched 
with  palm  leaves  and  surrounded  with  a  broad  veranda,  whereon  are  scat- 
tered in  confusion,  characteristic  of  a  naturalist,  all  sorts  of  specimens, 


Furness.]  diZ  [Dec.  18, 

snakes,  fish,  scorpions,  and  animals  in  jars  of  alcohol ;  dried  turtles, 
skulls  of  wild  pigs  and  of  rhinoceroses  on  the  tables  and  chairs  ;  orna- 
mented war  shields  and  sun  hats  of  the  natives  decorating  the  walls.  The 
house  stands  in  a  clearing  on  a  blutf  about  forty  or  fifty  feet  above  the 
Baram  river  (pronounced  Berrem),  which  at  this  point  is  about  250 
yards  wide,  fairly  clear  and  sleepily  sluggish  when  not  disturbed  by 
freshets. 

An  inspiriting  shout  from  below,  and  the  rhythmical  click  of  the  pad- 
dles on  the  sides  of  the  boats  proclaimed  to  us  that  the  Father  of  the 
Moon  (which  is  the  signification  of  Tamabulan)  and  his  men  had  come 
up  from  the  landing  at  the  Bazaar  and  were  waiting  for  us  by  the  river 
bank  below  Mr.  Hose's  house.  Our  store  of  provisions  and  the  few  articles 
for  trading  and  for  ingratiating  ourselves  with  the  natives,  such  as  three 
or  four  bolts  of  cotton  cloth,  sixty  pounds  of  Java  tobacco,  some  bars 
of  steel,  etc.,  were  soon  carried  down  to  the  canoe  and  stored  away,  and 
in  the  sixty -foot  dug-out  canoe  we  were  given  the  vacant  space  amid- 
ships about  seven  feet  long  by  five  feet  wide,  wherein  to  spread  our 
mats  and  make  our  abode  till  the  end  of  the  trip.  The  black  hard-wood 
paddles  glistened  in  the  sunlight  for  a  moment  and  then  sent  the  water 
gurgling  and  eddying  along  the  sides  of  the  boat  as  the  six  men  in  front 
of  us  and  the  four  in  the  stern,  abaft  Tamabulan  and  his  goods  and 
chattels,  gave  a  shout  and  pulled  out  into  the  stream.  There  are  doubt- 
less quite  a  number  of  Europeans  who  have  made  trips  into  the  interior 
of  Borneo,  without  reckoning  the  Residents  of  the  Dutch  and  English 
companies,  but  I  am  sui-e  that  no  American,  and  probably  no  European, 
has  gone  further  therein  than  Dr.  Hiller  and  myself  or  under  similar 
circumstances.  We  went  up  the  river  as  the  guests  of  the  Chief  to  be 
present  at  the  ceremonies  and  feasting  to  be  given  in  honor  of  the  Nam- 
ing of  his  only  son  and  heir,  and  during  our  five  weeks  there,  we  livetl 
intimately  enough  with  these  jungle-people  to  get  thoroughly  into  their 
life  and  understand  their  trials  and  sympathize  with  them  in  their  joys 
and  sorrows. 

Our  canoe,  as  I  mentioned  before,  was  about  sixty  feet  long  and  about 
five  feet  wide  amid-ships,  hewn  out  of  a  single  log,  but  deepened  con- 
siderably by  the  addition  of  planks  along  the  sides  bound  on  with  rotans 
and  caulked,  thus  giving  about  six  inches  additional  free  board.  The 
men  while  paddling  sit  cross-legged  on  a  flooring  of  bamboo  strips 
tied  together  and  placed  over  thwarts  about  two-thirds  up  the  side 
of  the  boat.  They  seem  to  be  able  to  keep  up  an  almost  mechanical 
stroke  from  daylight  till  dark  without  showing  the  least  fatigue,  aud 
this,  too,  on  two  meals  a  day,  consisting  mainly  of  rice  and  a  little  dried 
fish. 

Toward  dusk  of  the  first  day  we  halted  at  a  sloping  sand  bank  en- 
closed on  three  sides  by  a  thick  hedge  of  wild  sugar-cane,  full  of  myste- 
rious rustlings,  and  stretching  far  over  the  Ioav  ground  to  the  beginning 
of  the  jungle.     The  other  boats  of  our   party,  numbering  eight,  were 


1896.]  di-ii  [Furness. 

already  tied  up  to  the  shore,  and  the  brown-skinned  men  in  their  scarlet 
waist-cloths  were  bustling  about  gathering  fire-wood  and  building  cranes, 
whereon  to  hang  their  little  pots  of  rice.  Soon  a  row  of  fires  started  and 
the  short  twilight  of  the  tropics  deepened  into  darlv,  and  the  dancing 
tires  cast  giant  shadows  on  the  gray-green  leaves  of  the  wild  sugar-cane 
and  lit  up  the  intent  faces  of  the  natives  with  their  glistening  eyes  and 
brass-studded  teeth  as  they  squatted  beside  the  fires  and  stirred  their  pots 
of  rice.  When  the  evening  meal  was  ended  and  they  had  smoked  their 
long  cigarettes  of  Java  tobacco,  rolled  in  a  piece  of  dried  wild  banana 
leaf,  the  moon  came  up  and  the  embers  of  the  fire  were  scattered.  To  be- 
come more  intimate  with  them  we  entered  into  contests  in  broad  jumping, 
high  jumping  and  tugs  of  war,  and,  alas  for  me,  I  was  indiscreet  enough 
to  turn  a  hand  spring  for  them  and  also  walked  on  my  hands.  (Ever  after 
I  was  introduced  by  Tamabulan  to  his  friends  with  a  complimentary  re- 
mark that  I  could  walk  on  my  hands  and  turn  over,  and  be  it  on  muddy 
bank  or  hard  floor  I  was  always  obliged  to  repeat  the  performance. )  Then 
the  chief  retired  to  his  boat  for  the  night,  and  it  was  a  general  signal  for 
the  breaking  up  of  the  entertainment.  Grass  mats  were  brought  out  from 
the  boats  and  spread  on  the  sand,  whereon  the  men  flung  themselves 
for  the  night  in  the  soft  light  of  the  tropical  moon,  and  were  soon  lulled 
to  sleep  by  the  constant  drone  and  chirp  of  nocturnal  insects.  Early 
the  next  morning  we  awoke  and  saw,  by  the  light  of  the  setting  moon, 
the  men  shaking  out  their  mats  and  making  preparations  for  starting  off 
again.  We  were  soon  under  way  once  more,  and  between  waking  and 
sleeping  we  were  conscious  of  the  click  of  the  paddles  and  an  occasional 
shout  from  Tamabulan  ordering  his  men  to  paddle  faster. 

To  give  in  detail  all  the  long  days  of  our  trip  up  the  river,  and  our  visits 
to  the  different  houses,  would  be  wearisome  to  you,  as,  even  now  and 
then,  I  must  confess,  it  somewhat  was  to  us.  I  will  abbreviate  by  say- 
ing that  there  were  many  hard  times.  Three  men  died,  of  a  disease 
prevalent  even  here,  the  Grippe,  which  then  seemed  to  be  epidemic  on 
the  Baram  river.  Unfortunately  these  deaths  were  attributed  to  our 
presence,  and  a  council  was  held  and  we  were  requested  to  return, 
but  having  already  come  so  far,  we  begged  to  be  allowed  to  go 
on.  We  distributed  tobacco  and  medicine  and  held  large  clinics  in 
our  boat  for  the  treatment  of  an  inflammatory  disease  of  the  eyes, 
which  was  probably  due  to  constant  bathing  in  the  muddy  river  and 
to  not  closing  the  eyes  when  under  the  water.  The  rains  descended 
and  the  floods  came,  and  for  five  days  we  were  tied  up  to  the  bank,  unable 
to  proceed  on  account  of  the  force  of  the  current  and  the  immense  logs 
which  were  constantly  floating  down  stream.  Then  the  birds,  who  are 
the  guides  and  guardians  of  these  people,  were  harangued  and  threat- 
ened, and,  at  one  time,  an  attempt  was  made  to  fool  them.  The  whole 
party  pulled  up  to  the  bank  and  disembarked  with  their  spears  and 
parangs,  and  made  quite  a  circuit  through  the  jungle,  so  as  to  make  the 
birds  think  that  they  were  not  going  home  but  were  on  an  ordinary 


Furness.]  Ol^  [Dec  ^^^ 

hunting  expedition.  On  another  occasion,  Dr.  Hiller  and  myself 
were  spriulvled  witli  water  thrown  on  us  from  a  sticlv  cut  into  sliavings 
at  the  end  and  held  on  the  blade  of  a  parang.  Finally,  we  began  the 
ascent  of  the  Pata  river,  one  of  the  large  tributaries  of  the  Baram,  and, 
after  three  daj^s  of  hard  boating  over  rapids  which  necessitated  our  dis- 
embarking twice  and  carrying  our  boat  and  all  our  belongings  overland 
for  a  short  distance,  we  arrived  within  one  turn  of  the  river  from  Tama- 
bulan's  house.  Here  a  short  halt  for  final  purification  was  made,  and 
an  arch  about  five  feet  high,  built  of  branches,  was  erected  on  the 
beach.  Beneath  this  arch  a  fire  was  made,  and  then  Tamabulan,  hold- 
ing a  young  chicken,  which  he  vi'aved  and  brushed  over  all  parts  of  the 
arch,  addressed  the  evil  spirits  which  had  been  following  us  and  forbade 
them  to  follow  us  further  through  the  fire.  The  chicken  was  then  killed 
and  its  blood  sprinkled  over  the  archway  and  in  the  fire,  and,  led  by 
Tamabulan,  the  whole  croM'd  filed  under  the  arch,  and  as  they  stepped 
over  the  fire  each  one  spit  in  it  and  immediately  took  his  place  in  the 
boats.  A  half  hour  more  brought  us  to  the  huge  log  which  served  for 
a  landing  along  the  shore  below  the  house,  900  feet  long,  of  Tamabulan. 
The  houses  of  the  tribes  who  live  on  rivers  are  always  built  on  high 
ground  above  the  banks  so  that  they  are  out  of  danger  from  the  frequent 
freshets  which  occur  during  the  rainy  season,  and  also  that  they  may  ob- 
serve the  approach  of  enemies  or  friends  coming  down  or  ascending  the 
river  ;  to  get  into  the  houses  you  have  to  walk  up  a  log  about  ten  inches 
in  diameter,  notched  so  as  to  form  rough  steps.  Let  me  here  briefly  de- 
scribe the  tribal  and  household  life  of  the  Kenniahs  and  Kayans,  which, 
in  almost  every  respect,  are  similar  The  inmates  of  a  "long-house  "  are 
a  collection  of  about  fifty  or  sixty  families  banded  together  for  mutual 
protection  and  support,  and  since  there  must  be  a  centre  to  every  circle 
one  among  them  is  selected  as  chief,  either  an  old  man  skilled  in  war 
or  one  rich  in  worldly  goods,  which  are  estimated  by  the  number  of 
heads  he  owns  (these  are  not  marketable  but  bring  good  luck),  and  also  by 
the  number  of  brass  gongs  and  cannons  which  pass  for  money  ;  this  wealth 
may  be  accumulated  by  successful  raids,  or  by  sales  of  rotan  or  gutta  to 
the  Chinese  traders  in  the  bazaar  ;  one  of  the  Baram  chiefs  has  become 
rich  by  the  possession  of  a  cave  wherein  the  swallows  that  build  edible 
nests  abound.  Sometimes  the  government  of  a  household  is  hereditary. 
All  the  minor  details  of  the  conduct  of  the  house  are  controlled  by  the 
Orang  Tuah,  or  the  Orang  Kaya  (the  old  man  or  the  7'ie7i  man),  as  the  case 
may  be  ;  but  the  aftairs  of  the  tribe,  such  as  the  advisability  of  their  going 
on  the  war-path,  etc.,  are  left  to  the  Penghulu,  who  is  responsible  only 
to  the  Rajah  or  to  his  officers.  There  are  but  five  Penghulus  in  the  Baram 
district,  but  there  are  as  many  Orang  Kayas  and  Orang  Tuahs  as  there 
are  houses.  The  long-houses  are  in  point  of  fact  small  villages  built  in 
a  straight  line,  on  high  piles,  for  protection  and  elevation  above  the 
damp  ground.  Tambulan's  is  about  350  paces  long  and  rests  on  piles 
about  fifteen  feet  high  made  of  magnificent  trunks  of  the  Billian  tree, 


1896.]  oi-b  [Fumess. 

Otherwise  known  as  Iron-w^ood  ;  some  of  these  posts  are  at  least  eigh- 
teen inches  in  diameter  stripped  of  their  bark.  To  enter  the  house  you 
must  ascend,  as  I  have  said,  by  a  notched  log  worn  smooth  by  the  passage 
of  many  bare  feet,  and  slippery  from  the  constant  wetting  of  heavy  dews 
"and  frequent  rains  ;  there  is  no  railing.  At  the  top  of  this  rude  ladder 
you  enter,  under  the  eaves  of  the  house,  the  long,  wide,  general  living- 
room,  or  street,  where  most  of  the  life  goes  on,  and  where  there  is  a  con- 
stant haze  of  smoke  and  a  smell  which  is  a  mixture  of  wet  dog  and  musty 
garret.  The  floors  of  Tamabulan's  house  are  famous,  in  that  they  are 
made  of  unusually  large  hewn  planks  of  Billian,  some  of  them  being  five 
feet  wide,  placed  rather  loosely  over  the  cross  beams  underneath  ;  quite 
a  number  of  the  ordinary  houses  have  floorings  made  of  flat  strips  of  the 
bark  of  the  Nibong  Palm. 

No  nails  are  used  in  the  construction  of  the  houses,  the  joists  being 
either  notched  to  fit  each  other,  and  then  pegged,  or  bound  with  rotan  ; 
the  roofing  is  either  composed  of  small  shingles  of  Billian  tied  in  place, 
or  it  is  made  of  a  thatch  of  palm  leaves  ;  here  and  there  are  trap  doors 
in  the  roof  which  can  be  raised  by  poles  to  admit  more  light  and  air. 
The  eaves  extend  down  to  within  four  feet  of  the  floor  and  from  them  to 
the  floor  is  built  a  grating  of  poles  laid  lengthwise.  This  space  admits  light 
and  air  throughout  the  length  of  the  house.  Along  this  opening  in  several 
places  are  platforms  raised  about  eighteen  inches  and  covered  with  mats 
made  of  woven  grasses  or  strips  of  rattan.  On  these  the  men  sit  and  talk 
or  form  interested  groups  round  one  of  their  companions  skilled  in  play- 
ing on  the  Kaluri  (one  of  their  most  musical  instruments,  constructed  on 
the  principle  of  the  bag-pipe,  except  that  a  long-necked  gourd  takes  the 
place  of  the  dog-skin  bag).  These  verandas  or  streets  are  not  cheerful 
places,  except  close  to  the  opening,  where  there  is  plenty  of  light ;  the 
eaves  come  down  so  low  that  a  few  feet  away  from  the  opening  it  is  rather 
dark  and  the  beams  of  the  house  and  the  floor  are  so  smoked  that  all  the 
light  is  lost  in  the  high  roof,  where  hang  hundreds  of  long  bunches  of 
ripening  bananas  and  dusty  old  rattan  traps,  like  long  round  baskets,  for 
catching  fish,  small  dug-out  canoes  warped  out  of  shape,  and  numerous 
other  native  articles,  stowed  away,  doubtless,  with  the  same  idea  that 
many  an  American  housekeeper  has  that  they  will  be  useful  to  some  one 
some  day,  but  that  day  never  arrives  and  they  occupy  their  place  in  the 
order  of  things  as  "dust  catchers."  Oiiposite  to  the  open  ventilation- 
space  is  a  straight  partition  running  the  whole  length  of  the  house  and 
dividing  the  private  familj-  rooms  from  the  general  thoroughfare  ;  the 
openings  into  the  rooms  are  about  twenty  feet  apart  and  are  about  three 
feet  six  inches  high  by  two  feet  wide,  at  a  distance  of  two  feet  from  the 
floor  ;  to  enter  you  must  step  over  this  threshold  two  feet  or  more  high 
and  the  door  is  pulled  to  wath  a  weight  The  object  of  this  high  thresh- 
old is  to  keep  the  young  children  in,  and  to  keep  the  ubiquitous  dog 
out,  neither  of  which  purposes  is  attended  with  success. 

The  living-rooms  are  even  more  dingy  and  smoky  than  the  public  pas- 

PROC.   AMER.  I'HILOS.  SOC.  XXXY.  153.  2  N.      PRINTED  APRIL  20,  1897. 


Fumess.]  dlD  |-j)ec.  is, 

sage-way.  On  entering  Tamabulan's  room  I  was  always  in  fear 
lest  in  the  darkness  I  should  tread  on  a  baby  or  a  puppy  or  slip  down 
through  the  flooring.  Once  inside  the  room,  however,  and  over  near  the 
light,  everything  was  all  right,  and  Bulan,  the  eldest  child  of 
Tamahulan,  and  from  whom  the  chief  takes  his  name,  (in  that  country 
the  child  is  father  of  the  man  in  cognomen)  received  us  with  all  the 
dignity  befitting  her  station,  for  in  point  of  birth  she  was  a  full-blooded 
princess,  although  she  did  only  wear  one  scant  garment  extending  from 
her  hips  to  a  little  below  her  knee,  and  even  this  garment  was  split  down 
one  side.  She  was  certainly  a  most  dignified  girl,  possibly  about 
eighteen,  with  a  mild  gentle  look  in  her  eyes  which  she  opened  and 
shut  with  an  impressive  solemnity  ;  her  teeth  of  course  were  blackened, 
but  well  shaped  and  regular ;  her  hair  was  glossy  black,  parted  in  the 
middle  and  brought  down  low  over  her  forehead  and  kept  in  place  by  a 
fillet  of  plaited  rotan  around  her  head  ;  her  eyebrows  had  either  been 
shaved  or  depilated.  The  only  blot  upon  her  beauty  was  one  of  her 
ears  ;  her  over-ambitious  parents  had  put  in  too  heavy  weights  when  she 
was  young,  and,  alas,  one  of  her  beautiful  ear  lobes  had  given  way  ;  it 
had  been  patched,  but  the  patch  showed  plainly  and  an  ugly  lump  re- 
sulted. Indeed,  how  true  in  all  climes  is  it  that  11  faut  souffrir  pour 
etre  belle.  I  showed  Her  Highness,  Princess  Bulan,  some  pictures  of  Amer- 
ican women  in  Harper's  Weekly,  which  I  had  brought  from  Baram  to 
while  away  the  hours  in  the  boat,  and  she  laughed  much  at  the  funny 
custom  of  squeezing  in  waists,  which  I  was  obliged  to  tell  her  was  done 
by  means  of  steel  bands  laced  tightly  about  them.  This  seemed  in- 
comprehensible to  her,  and  such  sufi'ering  intolerable.  In  every  picture 
I  had  to  tell  her  which  were  the  women  when  only  the  head  and 
shoulders  were  shown  ;  there  seemed  to  be  no  difference  to  her  in  the 
faces  except  of  course  where  either  beard  or  mustache  marked  the  men. 
The  room  in  which  the  Tamabulan  family  lived  was  much  like  all  the 
rest ;  it  was  large  and  square  with  three  small  closet-like  rooms  parti- 
tioned off ;  these  were  the  sleeping  apartments  for  the  young  girls  and 
for  Tamabulan  and  his  two  Avives,  and  the  third  was  for  his  slave  and  his 
family  ;  they  were  not  neat  little  rooms  with  warm  tropical  breezes 
wafting  in  the  delicate  odors  of  orchids  from  the  jungle,  but  black  little 
cubby  holes,  with  nothing  but  a  mat  for  a  bed  and  the  small  smoking 
coal-oil  lamp  made  of  tin,  or  a  lump  of  damar  gum  sputtering  and  smok- 
ing on  a  scooped-out  stone,  for  a  light.  Bulan 's  room  was  pathetic  in 
that  she  had  made  an  attempt  at  making  it  a  little  more  dainty  by  fasten- 
ing a  piece  of  bright  calico  upon  the  wall  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  the 
darkened  wood  ;  she  had  also  arranged  some  pretty  black  and  yellow 
bead-work  baskets  in  one  corner  ;  these  were  her  wealth.  In  the  corner 
between  Tamabulan's  room  and  that  of  his  slave  was  the  fireplace, 
merely  a  flat  cake  of  clay  over  a  few  stones  laid  down  on  the  flooring. 
There  was  no  chimney  and  the  smoke  had  to  find  its  way  up  to  the  roof 
or  out  of  the  window  in  the  back  wall  of  the  house,  where  there  was  not 


1896.]  Oi-i  [Furness. 

the  continuous  opening  between  the  eaves  and  the  floor  as  at  the  front 
of  the  house,  but  where  it  was  boarded  up  and  light  and  air  were  admit- 
ted eitlier  through  small  windows  or  through  the  trap  doors  in  the  roof. 
From  most  of  the  rooms  there  was  also  a  door  and  a  flight  of  steps,  or 
rather  a  notched  log,  leading  down  to  the  rice  storehouses  behind  the 
house,  where  the  women  were  occupied  every  morning  pounding  the 
husks  oft'  of  the  rice  and  winnowing  the  chafi".  In  all  of  the  Kayan  houses 
the  rice,  or  paddi,  as  they  call  it,  is  pounded  in  the  house,  but  the  fine 
flying  chafi"  is  not  only  irritating  to  the  nostrils  but  sometimes  produces 
an  itching  eruption  on  the  skin,  so  Tamabulan  very  wisely  has  all  this 
work  done  out  of  doors.  Everywhere  in  the  house  roam  most  persist- 
ently ravenous  dogs  of  the  most  mongrel  type  ;  no  one  seems  to  like 
them  and  a  chance  is  never  neglected  to  thump  them  or  hit  them  with  a 
stick.  We  were  warned  beforehand  by  Mr.  Hose  to  tie  our  boots  up  to 
the  rafters  at  night  lest  the  dogs  sliould  eat  them.  What  their  true  use 
is  I  never  could  find  out.  The  men  told  me  they  were  for  hunting,  but 
I  never  saw  them  taken  out  in  the  jungle  nor  did  they  appear  to  have  any 
master  in  particular.  Beneath  the  house  where  the  boats,  not  in  actual 
use,  are  stored,  pigs  forage  for  any  stray  scraps  of  food  which  may 
drop  through  the  flooring  above  ;  and  at  the  back  of  the  house  where 
the  paddi  is  beaten  out  was  always  a  flock  of  chickens,  kept  partly  for 
food  and  partly  for  sacrifice  ;  thus  in  most  of  the  surroundings  there  is 
an  element  of  farm  life. 

While  we  were  off  on  a  visit  of  five  days  to  a  Kayan  chief  on  the 
Apoh  river,  Tamabulan  had  a  cozy  little  room  partitioned  ofl"  for  us, 
arkd  when  we  returned  he  led  us  up  to  it  with  pride  and  told  us  that  he  had 
made  the  door  to  fasten,  so  that  the  children  could  not  annoy  us,  but 
even  as  he  spoke  there  was  a  line  of  beady  little  eyes  peering  at  us 
through  a  crack,  and  we  thought  of  the  small  boys  -who  lift  the  canvas 
of  the  circus  tent.  The  small  boys  were  our  chief  friends,  and  head  of 
them  all,  although  not  by  any  means  the  oldest,  was  the  rascally  little 
Adom.  There  was  no  feasting,  there  was  no  mourning,  in  fact  no  inci- 
dent of  interest,  complete  witliout  the  face  of  Adorn  peering  from  his 
perch  on  a  rafter  or  beaming  out  from  among  the  stack  of  long  bamboo 
water  jugs  standing  in  a  rack  in  the  corner.  Like  the  mongoose,  in 
Kipling's  Jungle  Book,  his  motto  seemed  to  be  :  "  Run  and  find  out !  " 

Let  me  finish  by  giving  you  an  account  of  one  day  as  a  specimen  of 
all  days  spent  beneath  the  hospitable  roof  of  Tamabulan.  Would  that  I 
could  only  give  it  to  jow  with  all  the  distinctness  that  the  mere  recount- 
ing brings  out  in  my  mind  ! 

We  a-\voke  with  the  first  crow  of  the  cock,  which  breaks  the  silence  of 
the  night  and  dies  away  in  the  jungle  without  the  far-oflf  response  from 
neighboring  farms,  to  w^hich  we  are  accustomed  in  the  country  here 
at  home.  Then  a  dog  rouses  up,  yawns  and  stretches  and  shakes  off 
the  ashes  of  the  fireplace  where  it  had  been  sleeping  and  begins  the  daily 
round  of  quarrels  witli  its  companions.     Then  the  daylight  gradually 


Furness.i  *^J-"  [Dec.  18, 

creeps  in  and  a  door  slams  with  a  bang  at  the  far  end  of  the  house, 
where  the  poorer  and  hard-working  people  live,  and  a  woman  with  a 
bundle  of  bamboo  water  vessels  slung  on  her  back  hurries  along  to  the 
stairway  down  to  the  river.  She  looks  just  the  same  as  when  she  went 
to  sleep.  Her  dress  is  the  same  and  her  hair  is  in  a  disordered  tangle, 
and  as  she  walks  her  feet  come  down  heavily  on  the  warped  planks 
and  make  them  rattle,  no  doubt  to  Avake  the  lazy  men,  who  sleep  on 
and  let  tlie  women  make  the  fire  and  get  the  water  while  they  snooze. 
Soon  she  comes  back,  her  hair  dripping  and  glossy  and  little  drops  of 
water  still  clinging  to  her  skin.  By  this  time  there  is  quite  a  procession 
of  women  going  down  to  bathe  and  get  the  cooking  water  from  the 
river,  and  there  is  a  slamming  of  doors  and  a  few  wails  from  the  children, 
and  laments  from  the  dogs  when  they  get  a  thump  from  a  warrior  who 
wakes  to  find  that  he  has  been  sleeping  with  his  face  close  to  the 
dog's  mangey  back.  Then  the  men  who  have  been  sleeping  on  the 
raised  platform  in  front  of  the  long  slatted  window,  unroll  them- 
selves from  their  shroud-like  coverings  of  cotton  cloth,  once  white, 
and  a  little  hum  of  conversation  springs  up,  possibly  a  comparison 
of  dreams,  the  interpretation  of  which,  as  in  all  uneducated  classes, 
has  great  bearing  on  their  daily  life.  The  mother  who  comes  out  with 
her  babies  in  her  arms,  or  sitting  astride  of  her  hips,  knows  nothing 
of  our  custom  of  caressing  with  a  kiss,  but  in  her  maternal  bursts  of  affec- 
tion she  buries  her  face  in  the  neck  of  the  child  and  draws  in  a  long 
breath  through  her  nostrils  ;  in  fact,  she  smells  it.  In  their  language  the 
verbs  to  smell  and  to  kiss  are  the  same.  Then  down  she  goes  to  the 
river  and  takes  the  morning  bath  with  her  child  in  her  arms,  some- 
times holding  it  by  the  hands  and  letting  it  kick  out  its  legs  like  a  frog 
— the  first  lessons  in  swimming.  One  by  one  the  men  straggle  off  to 
bathe  in  the  river  and  never  miss  the  opportunity^  of  telling  us  that  they 
were  going  to  bathe,  and  when  they  returned  they  were  also  most  punc- 
tilious in  telling  us  that  they  had  bathed.  With  all  this  bathing,  how- 
ever, they  are  not  a  clean  people.  Soap  is  unknown  to  them  and  they 
never  use  hot  water,  consequently  their  skins  have  not  the  soft  velvety 
appearance  that  constant  bathiug  usually  produces.  We  gave  some  of 
the  girls  cakes  of  Pears'  soap,  but  they  ate  them. 

After  bathing  there  is  a  lull  in  the  activity  of  the  house,  while 
the  married  women  and  young  girls  cook  the  morning  meal  of  boiled 
rice  and  dried  salted  fish.  (By  the  way,  their  method  of  obtaining 
salt  is,  perhaps,  peculiar.  They  burn  the  stalk  of  the  Nipa  palm,  which 
grows  in  salt  or  brackish  water,  and,  by  soaking  the  ashes  and  allowing 
them  to  settle,  they  get  a  very  coarse  and  dirty  quality  of  salt,  of  which 
they  are  very  fond.)  In  eating  they  use  neither  plate  nor  chop- 
sticks ;  but,  like  the  Malays,  they  eat  with  their  fingers,  cramming 
their  mouths  as  full  as  they  can  at  one  time  and  then  taking  a  pinch  of 
the  finely  crumbled  dried  salt  fish.  Tliey  do  not  eat  from  one  common 
dish  as  do  the  Chinese,  but  each  person  lias  his  allotted  share  piled  upon 


1896.]  •jU  [Furness. 

a  thick  sheet  of  the  inner  bark  of  a  tree  (I  think  it  was  tlie  tough  inner 
layers  of  the  stalk  of  a  banana),  and  his  portion  of  fisli  is  placed  on 
another  smaller  leaf,  or  if  the  family  is  of  the  "  Four  Hundred  "  they 
may  have  a  pressed  glass  bowl.  The  daily  meals  in  the  houses  (there 
are  usually  only  two  meals  a  day)  are  somewhat  private  affairs,  but  they 
always  informed  us  when  they  were  going  to  eat,  probably  so  that  we 
should  not  pay  them  a  visit  at  that  time.  They  likewise  always  left  us 
to  ourselves  Avhen  we  ate.     We  carried  with  us  a  Chinese  cook. 

After  breakfast  there  were  always  parties  of  men  and  women  setting 
out  for  the  clearings  where  the  rice  was  planted,  and  armed  with  a 
billiong  (^the  adze-Jike  axe,. which  they  use)  and  their  parang,  and  their 
spear,  the  men  go  down  and  get  the  boat  ready,  and  the  women  follow 
after  with  the  paddles,  and  hampers  to  bring  back  bananas  or  bunches 
of  tender  young  fern  fronds,  which  they  make  into  a  stew.  Then  the 
house  settles  down  to  the  ordinary  tasks  of  weaving  cloth  or  pounding 
the  husks  off  the  paddi  by  the  women,  and  sharpening  spears  or  deco- 
rating parangs  by  the  men  industriously  inclined  ;  but  the  latter  are  rare. 
They  usually  spend  their  time  in  silly  chatter  witli  their  companions  or 
merely  sit  and  think,  aided  l)y  long  draughts  of  smoke  drawn  deep 
into  their  lungs  from  the  strong  Java  tobacco  cigarettes,  which  they  roll 
for  themselves  out  of  banana  leaves.  Men,  women,  and  children  all  smoke 
tobacco,  which  they  grow  for  themselves,  in  part,  and  in  part  bring 
from  a  bazaar  far  down  the  river.  The  boys,  ever  ready  for  sport,  we 
used  to  arm  with  butterfly  nets  and  send  them  out  in  search  of  insects 
of  all  kinds.  They  knew  their  haunts  much  better  than  we  did,  and 
chasing  butterflies  in  the  tropics  is  not  the  best  fun  in  the  world.  We 
much  preferred  to  sit  in  the  shade  of  the  house  and  fold  the  insects, 
when  caught,  in  paper  and  pack  them  away  in  our  tins. 

Morning  wore  into  afternoon,  and  then  we  would  sit  on  the  river  bank 
and  watch  from  a  high  blufl'  the  young  girls  taking  their  bath  and  recrea- 
tion. Here  let  me  say  a  word  in  favor  of  their  modesty.  We  never  saw 
the  faintest  conscious  immodesty.  We  used  to  sit  lost  in  admiration  at 
their  skill  in  swimming.  It  was  a  sort  of  game  of  tag  they  were  always 
playing,  only,  instead  of  one  chasing  all,  all  chased  one,  and  this  one 
would  get  off  some  little  distance  from  the  crowd  and  then  suddenlj'- 
disappear  under  water.  Then  the  chase  began.  All  swam  as  fast  as 
they  could  to  the  spot  where  she  had  vanished,  some  swimming  with 
a  rapid  overhand  stroke,  while  others  swam  entirely  under  the  water. 
Then,  possibly  still  in  front  of  them,  possibly  far  behind  them,  up 
bobbed  the  girl  who  was  "  it,"  shaking  the  water  from  her  eyes  and  giv- 
ing a  shout  of  derision  at  her  pursuers.  Down  she  went  again  and  the 
chase  was  renewed,  all  under  water,  so  long,  sometimes,  that  the  sur- 
face of  the  river  became  perfectly  smooth,  and  no  one  would  have  im- 
agined that  in  another  moment  it  would  be  again  bubbling  up  and 
dashed  into  spray  by  a  crowd  of  laughing,  shouting,  black-haired  savage 
girls.     (We  never  saw  the  boys  play  in  the  water.)     Back  and  forth, 


Furness.]  ^^-^^  [Dec.  18, 

up  and  down,  they  splashed  from  one  side  of  the  river  to  the  other,  un- 
til one  of  the  men  called  to  them  from  the  house  to  stop  their  sport  lest 
they  rouse  a,  sleeping  crocodile.  This  put  an  end  to  the  fun.  Another 
thing,  which  was  quite  new  to  us,  was  the  way  in  which  they  could  play 
a  sort  of  tune  by  splashing  their  hands  in  the  water  and  flapping  their 
arms  to  their  sides.  They  stood  in  a  group,  and  by  sinking  their  hands 
back  downward  in  the  water  and  then  clapping  them  above  the  water 
and  slapping  their  elbows  to  their  sides,  they  produced  a  series  of  differ- 
ent sounds,  like  that  of  a  large  stone  dropping  into  a  deep  pool,  with  a 
rhythm  that  was  perfect  and  very  pleasing. 

Afternoon  deepened  into  dusk,  and  the  workers  from  the  fields  came 
home  and  trudged  wearily  up  the  bank  and  disappeared  through  the 
little  doorways.  Small  flickering  lamps  were  lit  here  and  there,  and  the 
fire  on  the  hearth,  where  our  Chinese  cook  was  preparing  our  rice  and 
tinned  meats,  disseminated  a  cheery  glow  and  a  smell  of  frying  ham 
throughout  the  long  corridor,  and  I  am  sure  that  if  the  ghastly  row  of 
human  skulls  above  our  fireplace  had  had  chops  to  lick  they  would  have 
licked  them.  At  night,  according  to  Tamabulan's  orders,  no  women  are 
allowed  out  in  the  public  thoroughfare.  So  if  we  wanted  social  life  we 
went  round  visiting  in  the  evening.  A  girl  named  Sara  seemed  to  be 
the  belle  of  the  house,  but  why  I  do  not  know,  unless  it  was  her  powers 
•of  conversation,  which,  being  foreigners,  we  could  barely  appreciate.  She 
•certainly  was  not  pretty.  We  much  preferred  the  society  of  Mujan  and 
her  sister  Lishun,  who  always  had  a  good  store  of  cigarettes,  and  whose 
stock  of  Burok,  or  home-brewed  arrack,  was  above  reproach.  Mujan 
gave  me  her  ear-rings  before  I  left,  and  in  return  I  gave  her  a  cake  of 
soap  and  a  piece  of  yellow  cloth  to  tie  round  her  head. 

Then  the  household  quiets  down  for  sleep,  and  we  secluded  ourselves 
in  our  little  pen  and,  stretched  out  on  our  mats,  dozed  off,  scarcely  realiz- 
ing that  we  were  in  the  heart  of  the  Bornean  j.ungle  in  the  house  of  a 
band  of  savage  head-hunters. 

Thus  the  days  passed,  and  the  day  of  our  departure  was  hastened 
somewhat  by  the  unexpected  change  of  a  festival  into  a  funeral,  by  the 
sudden  death  of  a  young  married  woman.  Unfortunately  this  death 
was  also  attributed  to  our  presence,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  staunch 
friendship  of  Tamabulan  and  some  of  his  men  our  heads  would  now  be 
decorating  the  fireside  of  a  Kayan  long-house.  "We  did  not  know  until 
a  while  after,  when  we  saw  Tamabulan  again,  what  great  danger  we 
had  been  in  that  night.  However,  "All's  well  that  ends  well,"  and 
by  the  time  we  were  ready  to  start  on  our  return  we  were  again  in  good 
favor,  and  after  a  hearty  hand-shake  all  round  we  bade  farewell  to  dear 
old  Tamabulan  and  pushed  out  into  the  river  amid  waving  of  big  hats 
and  white  cloths,  and  the  long  drawn  "  Tabe,  Tuan,  Tabe  "  followed 
after  us  and  echoed  in  the  juugle,  even  after  we  had  rounded  the  turn 
and  lost  sis;ht  of  our  Bornean  friends  for  ever. 


189G.]  oAl  [Hiller. 

A  Brief  Report  of  a  Journey  up  the  Rejang  Ricer  in  Borneo. 

By  H.  M.  Hiller,  M.D. 

{Read  before  The  American  Philosophical  Society,  December  IS,  1S9G.) 

The  Rejang  is  the  largest  river  in  the  north  and  west  side  of  Borneo 
— if  not  of  the  entire  island.  Rising  in  the  unknown  mountains  called 
Apoh  Byang,  it  falls  in  rapids  and  torrents  until  the  Belaga  adds  its 
waters  ;  from  here  it  courses  a  level  table  land  until  the  cliffs  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Balleh  are  reached  and  it  channels  its  way  through,  or 
dashes  over  the  rocks  in  a  series  of  rapids  and  cascades.  The  stream, 
from  this  point  influenced  by  the  tide,  finds  its  sluggish  way  to  the  sea, 
confined  by  low  jungle-covered  banks,  which  farther  on  degenerate  into 
mangrove  swamp — and  hedges  of  nipa  palms,  whose  frond-like  leaves 
reach  often  a  height  of  thirty  feet.  The  general  course  of  the  river  is 
from  east  to  west,  and,  roughly  estimating,  it  is  about  270  miles  to  Belaga 
— beyond  which  the  distances  have  not  been  computed.  At  Sibu  the 
mile-wide  channel  breaks  into  a  delta  whose  mouths  extend  along  the 
■coast  for  fifty  mdes.  Foreign  timber  ships  enter  the  deep  waters  of  the 
delta,  while  trading  schooners  and  vessels  of  light  draught  ascend  to 
Sibu  and  even  to  Kappit,  a  distance  of  150  miles — beyond  the  latter 
place  onljr  canoes  are  possible  and  these  ascend  often  with  great  difli- 
culty,  but  away  in  the  mountains  the  Malay  and  Chinese  trader  venture 
in  their  small  canoes. 

Sibu  is  the  second  town  of  importance  in  the  province  of  Sarawak. 
Consisting  of  a  Malay  village,  a  Chinese  bazaar,  a  fort  and  the  homes  of 
the  officers,  it  guards  the  upper  river  from  inroads  from  the  sea. 
Kanowit  and  Song  are  unimportant  trading  stations.  Kappit  has  the 
added  dignity  of  a  wooden  stockade,  and  protects  the  people  between 
the  falls  and  the  delta  from  the  maurauding  excursions  of  the  hill  tribes. 
While  the  detached  fortress  at  Belaga  ineffectually  keeps  the  peace  be- 
tween the  warlike  mountain  tribes  whose  houses  extend  as  far  as  the 
river's  source. 

Between  the  strongholds  are  the  habitations  of  Dyaks,  Kanowits, 
Tanjongs,  Punans,  Kayans  and  other  tribes,  their  houses  being  built 
close  to  the  bank  of  the  stream  that  acts  as  a  highway.  Almost  every 
tributary  stream  is  a  branch-road  leading  back  to  some  settlement  where 
the  natives  have  gone  in  search  of  virgin  jungle  wherein  they  make 
•clearings  for  their  rice  fields. 

Crocodiles  infest  the  muddj'  banks  and  terrorize  the  natives,  whose 
efforts  at  cleanliness  are  often  rudely  ended  by  the  sudden  rush  of  the 
treacherous  animal.  Deer,  wild  pig  and  wild  cattle  roam  the  jungle 
almost  undisturbed,  for  the  natives  are  farmers  rather  than  hunters  and 
the  duties  of  rice  cultivation  and  the  gathering  of  gutta  and  rattans 
leave  little  time  for  the  chase.     Yet  the  presence  of  many  dogs,  the 


Hiller.]  ^^2  [Dec.  18, 

antlers  of  deer  and  the  horns  of  cattle  decorating  their  houses,  testify  to 
an  occasional  hunting  excursion. 

Their  methods  of  cultivation  are  crude,  and  often  before  the  planting- 
season  arrives  they  find  their  store  of  rice  is  ended  ;  then  they  must 
seelt  in  the  jungle  for  their  food  ;  roots,  ferns,  fruits  and  any  stray  animal 
or  bird  that  crosses  their  path  fall  to  the  blow -gun  or  spear  and  finds  the 
way  to  their  cooking  pots.  But  rice  is  the  all-important  food,  and  to 
secure  a  full  supply  all  their  best  eftbrts  are  given.  Preparatory  festi- 
vals are  arranged,  field  sites  are  selected  and  the  omen-birds  are  con- 
sulted, for  all  the  tribes  are  more  or  less  influenced  1)j'  the  omens  ;  birds, 
animals  and  snakes  being  the  chief  objects  consulted.  In  fact, 
scarcely  anything  of  importance  is  undertaken  without  first  consulting 
the  birds  and  they  abide  by  their  decision  no  matter  what  the  cost. 
Half-cleared  fields  are  abandoned,  a  completed  new  house  is  deserted, 
or  a  war  expedition  even  is  turned  back,  if  some  insignificant  bird 
whistles,  or  a  frog  is  seen  at  some  especial  time  or  place.  The  subject 
is  intricate,  deep  and  absorbing,  and  shapes  their  lives  as  much  as  any  re- 
ligion could.  But  when  favorable  omens  are  once  secured  the  clearing  of 
forests  goes  rapidly  forward  and  the  heavy  laj^er  of  ashes  obtained  bj' 
firing  the  brushwood  and  logs  acts  as  a  splendid  and  ready  fertilizer. 
A  new  field  is  cleared  each  year  and  the  old  one  left  to  return  to  jungle 
again.  The  grain  is  planted  amongst  the  stumps  and  half-burned  logs 
and  under  the  influence  of  the  warm  moist  climate  soon  springs  into  a 
rich  harvest.  Yet  it  is  a  long  and  weary  way  from  the  planting  to  the 
granary,  for  the  beasts  and  birds  levy  their  tribute  and  the  insects  often 
destroy  the  remainder  and  the  poor  cultivator  enters  upon  a  season  of 
starvation,  or  of  debt  to  the  traders,  who  import  rice  from  .Java.  For- 
tunately the  sago  palm  grows  throughout  the  island,  and  though  a  poor 
food  still  helps  to  sustain  life  until  the  return  of  the  planting  season. 

One  planting  season  a  Kayan  chieftain  conceived  the  brilliant  idea  of 
planting  biscuits.  He  prepared  an  exceptional  field,  secured  good 
omens,  strewed  Huntly  and  Palmer's  best  brand  in  among  the  stumps 
and  then  marveled  that  the  rare  and  novel  grain  did  not  spring  into 
abundant  harvest. 

The  festivals  preparatory  to  the  harvest  and  following  it  are  usually 
the  occasions  for  great  revelry.  All  the  neighbors  come  in  their  boats 
for  fifty  and  sixty  miles,  or  even  further  ;  great  quantities  of  rice-spirit 
(arrack)  having  been  preparing  for  a  month  or  more.  Huge  piles  of 
rice  are  cooked  and  many  pigs  are  slaughtered.  They  eat  and  drink, 
then  have  a  series  of  dances,  then  eat  and  drink  again  ;  by  this  time 
some  of  the  men  usually  require  sleep,  so  they  crawl  to  one  side  of  the 
veranda  or  street,  while  dancing,  drinking  and  feasting  continue. 

I  remember  three  old  men  dancing  together  after  many  others  had 
succumbed  ;  shaking  a  brush  in  front  of  them  with  one  hand,  a  naked 
parang  (or  sword)  in  the  other,  they  brushed  out  the  spirits  from  all  the 
dark  corners  and  hewed  and  hacked  their  imaginary  forms.     I  often 


1S96.]  o2o  [Hiller. 

wondered  if  it  was  an  orthodox  dance,  or  a  mild  form  of  delirium 
tremens.  When  they  are  performing  their  rites  and  omens  they  sug- 
gest insanity  to  us.  It  was  at  the  same  feast  we  saw  Dyak  women  in 
all  their  best  clothes — gaudy,  cheap  silk  or  satin  sarongs ;  a  brass 
cutrass,  polished  for  the  occasion,  which  confined  their  supple  waists  and 
extended  over  their  hips  ;  wonderful  caps  of  rattan  frame-work  covered 
with  beads  which  branched  in  all  directions,  resembling  rare  insects. 
One  belle,  in  addition,  wore  a  wide  piece  of  cloth  falling  from  her  neck 
down  her  back  to  her  heels— a  modified  Wateau  plait — and  the  bottom 
was  hung  with  a  lot  of  old  brass  bells  that  banged  and  jangled  against 
her  bare  heels  at  every  step.  But  with  all  this  play  they  do  not  forget 
the  birds,  and  we  helped  fill  the  baskets  with  food  which  were  later 
hung  near  the  new  clearings  and  the  birds  come  and  feed  thereon  and 
feel  more  kindly  to  the  tillers. 

In  the  lower  Rejang  the  Dyaks  have  become  successful  farmers, 
primarily  because  the  soil  is  more  fertile  than  in  the  mountains  and 
also  because  the  government  forts  protect  them  from  the  neighboring 
warlike  tribes. 

Below  Belaga  they  can  plant  their  paddi  or  gather  their  gutta  with- 
out fear,  while  above  this  fort  at  no  time  are  they  ever  safe,  and  they 
always  carry  their  weapons  and  keep  on  their  guard  lest  thej^  be  mas- 
sacred by  the  marauding  bands  from  over  the  Dutch  border  Also  in 
traveling  they  have  the  same  advantage — where  the  river  is  influenced 
by  the  tide  you  see  single  small  canoes  going  to  and  fro,  while  in  the 
upper  waters  lliey  go  in  parties  of  five  or  six  large  boats  for  mutual  pro- 
tection, and  also  for  mutual  aid  in  ascending  the  rapids  ;  for  it  often  re- 
quires their  united  eftorts  to  haul  a  boat  around  a  cascade. 

You  may  ascend  as  far  as  Kappit  in  the  small  government  steamers 
that  occasionally  go  up  to  the  fort  for  jungle  produce,  i.  e.,  gutta  and 
rattan.  Here  j'ou  must  secure  a  canoe  and  a  crew  of  ten  or  a  dozen  men  ; 
Tanjongs  or  Kayans  are  best.  In  a  few  hours  you  pass  the  mouth  of 
the  Balleh,  and  a  short  distance  above  this  enter  the  swift  rapids 
where  paddles  are  useless.  Poles  are  substituted  to  push  the  boat  over 
the  shallows,  while  some  of  the  men  wade  in  the  stream  or  walk  along 
the  bank  pulling  at  the  long  rattan  which  serves  as  a  painter. 

This  method  of  progression  fails  when  the  falls  of  the  Rejang  are 
reached — a  series  of  small  waterfalls  with  intervening  rapids  down 
which  the  waters  rush  with  irresistible  force.  Great  black  rocks  or  huge 
wooded  islands  stand  in  midstream  around  the  bases  of  which  the  water 
swirls  and  eddies.  Long  buttresses  resembling  walls  of  masonry  thrust 
themselves  almost  across  the  stream  and  the  pent-up  current  rushes  around 
the  end  as  through  a  broken  dam — or  again  the  rocks  rising  like  a  wall 
form  an  effectual  barrier  over  which  the  water  tumbles  in  a  number 
of  small  cascades.     Around  these  obstructions,  or  over  them,  the  boats 

FROO.  AMEK.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2o.      PRINTED,  MAY  25,   1897. 


Hiller.]  «^'^'*  [Dec.  18, 

must  be  lianled,  for  they  are  too  heavy  to  be  carried.  This  labor  takes 
a  day  at  least  and  often  two  are  consumed  before  tranquil  water  permits 
of  the  use  of  the  paddle.  It  requires  about  two  days  to  traverse  the 
table-land  that  reaches  as  far  as  Dian's  house,  and  nothing  breaks  the 
monotony  of  low  jungle-lined  shore  save  an  occasional  hawk  or  mon- 
key, nor  the  intense  quiet  of  the  day  save  the  regular  click  clack  of  the 
paddles  against  the  boat's  side  as  they  fall  in  the  measured  stroke. 

When  the  second  rapids  are  reached,  the  scenery  improves  ;  the  low 
hills  are  backed  by  higher  hills,  and  along  the  reaches  of  the  river  the 
mountains  in  the  interior  raise  their  purple  peaks  many  thousand  feet 
against  the  sky,  rocky  banks  succeed  the  low  muddy  shores  and  habita- 
tions become  more  frequent.  But  the  ascent  becomes  more  and  more  diffi- 
cult, and  every  mile  brings  its  rapids  or  small  cascade,  nor  is  there  any  im- 
provement the  fiirther  one  ascends,  and  before  the  last  houses  are  reached 
the  canoes  must  be  abandoned,  yet  the  way  still  leads  up  the  bed  of  the 
stream.  The  descent,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  accomplished  in  one- 
third  the  time — Avliere  you  ascended  onlj^  by  the  utmost  exertion,  haul- 
ing by  rattans,  poling  or  even  clinging  on  with  the  hands  to  the  stones 
and  branches,  you  can  shoot  down  at  a  terrific  gait.  A  steersman  stand- 
in  g  in  the  stern  and  one  in  the  prow  guide  the  boat  in  and  out  among 
the  rocks — avoiding  the  cliff's  against  whose  bases  the  current  seems  sure 
to  drive  them,  or  holding  the  canoe  straight  as  it  leaps  the  small  cas- 
cades. Few  sports  are  more  exhilarating,  though  many  are  less  dan- 
gerous, and  the  "  r-i-p  "  a  jagged  rock  makes  when  the  boat  plunges  on 
it,  is  not  the  most  musical  sound  in  the  world,  even  to  an  old  boatman, 
and  it  is  almost  certain  death  to  be  upset  on  the  rapids. 

We  secured  eleven  Kayans  to  take  us  from  Kappit  to  Belaga — all  young 
men  ranging  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years  old,  yet  from  their  life-long 
experience  on  the  river  they  were  skillful  boatmen.  We  had  in  addi- 
tion one  child  of  seven  or  eight  years  old,  for  you  seldom  see  a  boat 
without  these  nimble  and  useful  assistants.  They  act  as  servants  to  all, 
in  fetching  and  carrying  and  are  never  treated  as  children,  but  are  made 
to  do  a  man's  part,  to  suffer  and  endure  as  far  as  their  youtli  and 
strength  will  allow.  Yet  they  are  not  abused,  and  one  and  all  assist  or 
help  them  the  moment  they  get  into  difficulties.  The  eldest  of  the 
party  usually  acts  as  head  man,  deciding  on  the  camping  ground,  urging 
the  men  on  to  work  when  they  grow  lazy  or  sleepy,  and  calling  them 
back  into  stroke  when  the  paddles  fail  to  fall  in  time.  There  is  usually 
a  wag,  who  keeps  them  all  merry  and  often  relieves  the  tedium  of  the 
long  afternoons  by  reciting  deeds  of  valor,  anecdotes  or  even  jests,  while 
at  the  end  of  each  line  the  otliers  join  in  a  chorus  and  for  the  time 
fatigue  is  forgotten  and  the  paddles  fall  in  rhythm. 

There  are  others  who  say  but  little,  yet  who  move  to  the  prow  and 
stern  as  steersmen  when  the  dangerous  places  are  reached.     Some  are 


189fi.]  ^^5  [Hiller, 

friendly,  lending  a  hand  at  fire  making,  wood  gathering  or  fastening 
the  boats,  while  others  look  out  for  themselves  alone.  You  soon  come 
to  know  them  all — their  names,  Lejau,  Blari,  Deng,  Terluat  and  Leshon  ; 
their  peculiarities,  and  their  worth,  and  the  fact  of  their  being  untaught 
savages,  negligent  of  dress,  careless  of  life,  be  it  yours  or  theirs,  fades, 
and  they  enter  into  j'our  life,  as  did  your  early  playmates  or  your 
college  friends.  One  youth  soon  attracted  our  attention,  on  account  of 
his  happ}^  disposition  and  his  utter  unselfishness,  and  we  could  always 
recognize  him  by  his  red  flannel  jacket  cut  in  the  Eton  style,  the  abbre- 
viated skirt  of  that  time-honored  garment  being  still  further  reduced  so 
that  it  fell  but  a  short  distance  below  his  shoulders.  We  were  a  party 
of  half  a  dozen  boats,  in  one  of  which  were  some  Punans  suffering  from 
malaria.  The  Eton  boy  constituted  himself  nurse  and  cook  for  them, 
though  they  were  utter  strangers.  Our  own  cook  was  a  Chinaman,  and 
all  day  he  suffered  from  teasing  at  Deng's  hands,  yet  when  camping 
time  arrived  the  celestial  found  his  wood  collected  and  fire  already 
started  by  his  never-tiring  friend. 

If  possible  we  camped  near  a  house,  and  in  the  evening  we  would  visit 
the  head  man  and  make  a  small  exchange  of  presents,  usually  a  chicken 
on  his  part  and  some  Java  tobacco  on  ours,  but  more  often  sundown 
found  us  tied  up  to  a  bank,  if  possible  near  a  small  brook.  In  no  time  a 
dozen  small  fires  Avould  be  blazing  over  which  each  man's  small  pot  of 
rice  was  suspeudec",  each  person  squatting  near  by  tending  his  fire  and 
waiting  for  the  pot  to  boil  ;  even  the  child  had  his  individual  pot,  while 
the  Chinaman  usually  required  two  or  three  for  his  more  elaborate 
efforts.  We  usually  sat  apart  on  a  log  or  stone  watching  them,  listening 
to  their  chatter,  to  the  vesper  songs  of  the  birds,  the  good-night  of  the 
argus  pheasant,  or  the  fluttering  of  the  jungle  fowl  as  it  flew  into  the 
trees  to  roost.  I  heard  also  the  awakening  of  the  night  chorus  of  cicades, 
frogs  and  birds  while  watching  the  sunset  in  all  its  golden  splendor.  As 
the  twilight  deepened  into  night  the  colors  faded  and  the  stars  came  out 
like  lights  in  the  sky,  and  the  southern  cross  hung  high  over  the  trees. 
The  Malay  trader  spread  his  mats  and  facing  Stamboul  muttered  his 
prayers  as  the  sun  went  down.  The  Kayau  child  early  curled  up  in  the 
boat  to  sleep,  and  one  by  one  the  boatmen  wrapped  themselves  in  their 
thin  cotton  sarongs  and  stretching  ovat  on  the  stony  bank  slept  the  sleep 
of  tired  men.  The  river  added  its  gentle  murmur  to  the  night  chorus, 
and  ever  and  anon  the  "night-jar"  raised  its  plaintive  notes  to  tell 
that  it  kept  its  vigil  while  the  jungle  slept. 

Beyond  Belaga  it  was  considered  dangerous  to  venture  on  account  of 
the  war  between  two  great  rival  tribes,  but  finding  a  friendly  chief  re- 
turning home  we  took  advantage  of  the  occasion  and  accompanied  him. 
A  day's  journey  we  came  to  the  long-house  of  a  former  king,  now 
practically  deserted  because  of  the  planting  season,  and  the  men  and 


Hiller.]  ^^^  [Dec.  IS, 

women  were  then  living  in  temporary  houses  near  their  distant  fields. 
Even  the  king's  apartments  were  vacant,  for  with  the  changes  war  and 
disease  ever  bring,  no  heir  is  left  and  another  dynasty  has  ended.  In 
front  of  his  door  a  great  slab  from  the  tapang  tree  indicates  his  former 
dias.  Quaint,  characteristic,  Kayan  carvings  decorate  the  empty  dwell- 
ing and  the  dogs  now  go  in  and  out  without  hindrance  or  molestation. 

Oyang  Usa's  house  was  the  farthest  point  reached  on  the  Rejang,  per- 
haps 300  miles  from  the  sea,  and  in  the  distance  the  blue  mountains 
mark  the  foot  hills  of  the  range  where  the  river  takes  its  source.  Xo 
white  man  has  3'et  visited  the  spot . 

As  we  descended  the  river  we  fell  in  Avith  some  of  the  warriors  return- 
ing, and  in  course  of  time  elicited  some  facts  concerning  the  recent  ex- 
pedition ;  tales  that  rivaled  the  Indian  stories  of  our  childhood.  They 
showed  us  their  trophies,  their  plunder  and  their  fast  drying  heads,  and 
lastly  with  a  petition  for  food  they  produced  a  two-year-old  captive 
child  whose  mouth  watered  as  hungry  children's  do,  when  we  offered  it 
a  bit  of  food.  We  floated  down  the  river  side  by  side  for  several  hours, 
and  before  we  left  that  baby  had  a  generous  half  of  our  stores  at  its 
command. 

Captives,  however,  stand  second  in  rank  among  the  spoils  of  Avar  ;  a 
dried  and  charred  head  perhaps  yielding  to  no  other  object,  especially 
when  at  the  feasting  and  drinking  that  folloAvs  the  return  of  an  expedi- 
tion the  women  take  down  the  heads  from  over  the  fireplace  and,  danc- 
ing up  and  down  the  A'eranda,  hey  sing  of  the  courage  of  the  successful 
and  taunt  those  who  from  want  of  skill  or  valor  returned  empty- 
handed.  Then  too  they  often  get  quantities  of  mats,  of  old  Chinese 
jars,  by  which  they  set  great  store,  of  Aveapons  of  all  sorts,  and  occasion- 
ally a  rare  find  in  the  shape  of  a  string  of  dingy  beads 

These  curious  old  glass  beads  have  fictitious  A^alues  in  their  eyes,  a 
single  small  bead  called  by  them  a  "  Lukut  Sekali  "  may  cost  as  much 
as  a  slave,  or  if  you  ask  the  price  of  a  necklace  it  goes  beyond  their 
powers  of  computation,  and  the  person  after  thinking  for  a  while  will 
usually  saj^  it  is  Avorth  more  than  a  long-house.  They  are  supposed  to 
be  Venetian  beads,  brought  to  the  east  by  Mohammedan  traders  and  sold 
by  the  Malays  and  Chinese  to  the  Kayans.  The  Chinese  have  tried  in 
vain  to  counterfeit  these  beads  as  Avell  as  the  old  jars,  but  the  Kayan  is 
an  antiquarian  of  no  mean  skill  in  the  matter  of  glass  and  porcelain  and 
the  Celestial  has  not  yet  succeeded. 

On  this  same  expedition  some  of  the  Dyaks  found  the  "  safe  de- 
posit"  of  a  friendly  chief,  but  thinking  it  the  hiding  place  of  their 
enemies  they  raided  it.  At  the  request  of  the  government  they  returned 
the  property  to  the  owners,  and  on  this  occasion  we  saAv  for  the  first  time 
the  "tebuku  "  or  memory  knots  common  to  many  untaught  people.  In 
this  instance  a  bundle  of  rattan  strips  tied  in  knots  recording  the  various 


1896.]  327  [Hiller. 

gongs,  spears,  sliields,  mats,  etc.,  were  strung  together  in  a  hopeless 
tangle,  but  when  the  chief,  squatting  on  his  mat  before  the  officer, 
gradually  untangled  the  various  pieces,  each  knot  recalled  a  definite 
object  to  him,  and  he  detailed  the  hundred  or  more  articles  without  once 
faltering. 

The  Punans  are  an  interesting  people  and  differ  in  many  respects  from 
their  neighbors.  Many  travelers  consider  them  the  aborigines  of  Borneo. 
They  are  mostlj^  strong,  lithe  and  active,  even  distancing  the  strongest 
Kayan  or  Kenniah  in  traversing  the  jungle.  They  are  nomads,  living 
but  a  few  days  in  one  place,  making  a  shelter  that  cannot  be  called  a 
house  and  abandoning  it  as  soon  as  jungle  produce  or  game  proves  scarce, 
for  they  are  hunters  and  not  farmers,  and  in  this  respect  they  differ  from 
almost  all  the  other  tribes.  To  them  also  is  attributed  the  first  use  of  the 
blow-gun  and  poisoned  arrows,  and  thej^  still  can  excel  the  other  races, 
who  have  adopted  this  effective  weapon.  A  piece  of  tough  wood  about 
seven  or  eight  feet  long  is  drilled  by  means  of  an  iron  rod  so  that  a  per- 
fectly straight  tube  is  made  having  a  diameter  of  about  half  an  inch.  If 
there  should  be  any  curve  an  iron  spear  head  of  the  proper  weight  is 
bound  on  one  end  by  means  of  rattans  so  that  the  weight  springs  the 
shaft  into  a  perfect  line,  and  they  now  have  a  spear  and  blow-gun  com- 
bined. The  dart  of  about  one  foot  in  length  is  made  from  the  tough 
nibong  palm  and  another  palm  furnishes  the  pith  with  which  the  head 
of  the  dart  is  finished,  it  being  just  a  shade  smaller  than  the  calibre  of 
the  tube.  The  sharpened  end  of  the  dart  is  then  dipped  in  the  inspissated 
juice  of  the  upas-tree,  and  one  of  the  most  deadly  and  at  the  same  time 
silent  weapons  is  prepared  for  use.  A  short  quick  puft"  and  a  man  at 
seventy -five  yards  distance  feels  a  prick  in  his  side,  he  plucks  the  dart 
away  or  plays  idly  and  foolishly  with  the  broken  shaft,  gradually 
his  motions  become  more  and  more  incoordinate  and  he  falls  to  the 
ground  unconscious,  and  a  few  convulsive  movements  ends  his  career. 

They  are  no  less  adept  in  the  use  of  the  spear  or  the  parang,  as  they 
call  their  substitute  for  a  sword,  than  their  rivals.  Yet  sickness,  famine 
and  war  are  rapidly  thinning  their  ranks,  and  unless  they  are  fostered 
by  the  government  it  will  be  but  a  few  years  until  the  nomad  Punau 
is  forgotten. 

They  are  the  only  people  in  Borneo  who  practice  polyandry.  The 
Ukits  are  a  similar  tribe  and  can  be  distinguished  by  the  singular  shield- 
shaped  breast  tattooing.  They,  too,  live  in  a  very  primitive  dwelling, 
usually  built  against  the  buttress  of  a  big  tree,  which  scarcely  keeps 
them  dry  during  the  rains. 

The  story  of  Bululuk  Sabon's  misfortunes  will  give  you  an  idea  of  how 
uncertain  and  dangei-ous  life  can  be  in  a  Kayan  house  near  the  border. 
Bululuk  was  a  small  man,  but  gained  great  credit  among  the  people 
and  eventuallj^  became  their  chief.     When  Mr.  Lowe  suddenly  appeared 


Hiller.]  328  [Dec.  18, 

in  the  head-waters  of  the  Rejaug,  he  shamed  the  people  because  their 
houses  were  poor.  So  Sabon  built  a  new  one  that  strangers  might 
admire.  That  was  many  years  ago,  and  Mr.  Lowe's  visit  remains  the 
first  and  last,  but  the  house  decorated  with  carvings  and  having  hewn 
board  floors  still  stands  expectant.  In  the  meantime,  while  many  of  the 
men  and  their  chief  were  away  down  the  river,  the  Kenniahs  came  over 
and  killed  all  the  old  and  verj^  young  who  could  not  escape  into  the 
jungle.  Seven  doors  remained  closed  thereafter.  Not  satisfied  with 
this  success  they  came  a  second  time.  His  wife,  his  mother  and  his  child 
fell  in  the  night  attack,  and  he,  with  his  ten-year  old  daughter  Liban, 
made  his  escape.  A  few  more  doors  were  rendered  useless  after  this 
depletion.  Gathering  all  the  fighting  men  he  could  command  he  joined 
hands  with  the  Dj'aks  in  their  recent  raid  and  endeavored  to  wipe  out 
the  score.  When  we  saw  him  again  returning  to  his  almost  deserted 
house  his  little  daughter  accompanied  him.  He  was  very  poor  ;  must 
even  sell  his  best  blow-gun  to  obtain  food.  But  nothing  daunted,  he 
was  going  back  to  tend  his  rice  fields,  and,  if  by  any  chance  he  found  an 
opportunity,  he  would  take  a  few  more  Kenniah  heads  to  avenge  his 
people. 

By  contrast  the  life  in  a  Dj-ak's  house,  or  in  a  Malay  village,  may  be 
as  tranquil  as  in  our  own  country,  and  there  the  petty  annoyances  of 
every-day  life  assume  as  large  proportions  as  do  the  struggles  for  exist- 
ence at  the  sources  of  the  rivers.  They  feast  and  dance  and  make  merrj^, 
while  Bululuk  Sabon  keeps  watch  and  ward  over  his  half-emptied  house. 

If  we  dared  prophesy  as  to  the  future  of  the  Rejang's  people,  we  should 
say,  that  in  proportion  as  the  sturdy  hill  people  dwindle  away,  the  more 
fortunately  situated  coast  tribes  would  bear  their  advancing  civilization 
towards  the  mountains,  and  as  the  country  becomes  more  and  more  set- 
tled, when  tribal  wars  are  ended,  and  a  better  knowledge  of  rice  culture 
prevails,  the}'  should  become  a  prosperous  people. 


1896.]  oZJ  [Gushing. 

Exploration  of  Ancient  Key  Binellers'  Bemains   on   the  Oalf   Coast  of 

Florida. 

Plates  XXV— XXXV. 

By  Frank  Hamilton  CusMng. 

{Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  November  G,  1S9G. ) 
Introductory. 

Early  in  the  spring  of  1895,  Captain  W.  B.  Collier,  of  Key  Marco, 
southwestern  Florida,  found,  while  digging  garden-muck  from  one  of 
the  little  mangrove-swamps  (Section  14,  Plate  XXXI)  that  occur,  like 
filled-up  coves,  among  the  low-lying  shell-banks  surrounding  his  shore- 
island  home,  several  ancient  wooden  articles  and  some  pieces  of  netted 
cordage.  He  did  not  recognize  as  of  artificial  origin  the  first  found  of  these 
objects — so  softened  were  they  hy  decay,  so  like  the  water-soaked  frag- 
ments of  rotten  timber  and  rootlets  everywliere  encountered  in  the 
muck.  But  the  twine-like  appearance  of  some  of  the  seeming  root- 
strands  that  clung  to  his  digging  tools,  and  the  discovery,  a  little  later, 
of  a  beautifully  shaped  and  highly  polished  ladle  or  cup  made  from 
the  larger  portion  of  a  whelk-,  or  conch-shell,  led  him  to  believe  that 
the  strands  were  actual  cordage,  and  that  a  noticeably  curious  block  of 
wood,  which  had  been  sliced  through  by  his  spade  and  cast  aside,  was 
really  an  article  fashioned  by  man. 

A  few  days  later,  Mr.  Charles  Wilkins,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  chanced 
to  sail  down  that  way  from  the  little  winter  resort  of  Naples,  some 
fifteen  miles  north  of  Key  Marco,  to  seek  for  tarpon,  and  thus  to  hear 
of  this  find. 

Another  guest  at  Naples,  a  traveler  of  wide  experience  and  an  accom- 
plished scholar  withal,  Lieutenant-Colonel  C.  D.  Durnford,  of  the  Brit- 
ish Army,  had  organized,  a  few  days  previously,  an  amateur  expedition 
to  explore  an  ancient  canal  and  several  small  burial  mounds  near  by. 
In  this  expedition,  Mr.  Wilkins  had  joined.  He  was  therefore  much 
interested  in  what  he  heard  at  Marco,  and  passed  a  day  in  digging 
there  on  his  own  account.  He  found  close  to  the  place  that  had  been 
opened  by  Captain  Collier  and  his  men,  other  remains,  including  por- 
tions of  two  wooden  cups — one  of  them  somewhat  charred — another 
shell  ladle,  several  pierced  conch  tool-heads,  and  a  fairly  well-preserved 
animal  figure-head  of  carved  wood.  When  told  by  him  of  these  finds. 
Colonel  Durnford,  accompanied  by  his  courageous  wife,  immediately 
set  forth  for  Marco.  He  had  two  small  excavations  made  (in  Sections 
32,  33,  Plate  XXXI)  as  close  to  those  that  had  previously  been  made 
as  was  possible — for  these  holes  were  now  flooded  with  water.  Therein, 
he  found  a  piece  of  rope,  more  netting,  fragments  of  gourd-shell,  a 
couple  of  well-worked  little  blocks,  and  a  tray  of  wood,  some  pegs 
fastened  together  with  string,  two  billets,  what  he  regarded  as  reni- 
nants  of  a  "fish-bone  necklace,"  and  a  neatly  pierced  bivalve  shell. 


Gushing.]  ^^"  [Nov.  6, 

His  antiquarian  curiosity  regarding  these  things  was  thoroughly  aroused . 
But  believing  them  to  be  the  remains  possibly  of  some  old-time  wreck- 
age, or  more  probably  of  some  casual  deposit  made  by  ancient  fisher- 
men and  never  recovered,  and  finding  work  in]  the  water-soaked,  foul- 
smelling  muck  most  diflicult  to  pursue,  he  discontinued  his  researches 
on  the  second  day.  In  order,  however,  to  ascertain  whether  the  relics 
he  had  secured  and  in  part  brought  away  were  historic  or  prehistoric — 
that  is  of  the  Spanish  or  of  a  purely  aboriginal  period^ — he  called  at  the 
Museum  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  when  passing  through 
Philadelphia  some  weeks  later,  to  see  the  Curator  of  the  American  Sec- 
tion of  the  Archaeological  Department,  Mr.  Henry  C.  Mercer,  whom  he 
had  met  in  southern  Europe  a  year  or  two  previously.  Mr.  Mercer  was 
absent,  but  it  chanced  that  during  the  same  hour  I,  too,  called  at  the 
Museum  to  pay  a  brief  visit  to  my  friend  there,  the  Director,  Mr.  Stew- 
art Culin.  Thus  I  was  so  fortunate  as  to  hear  Colonel  Durnford's 
account  of  the  finds.  I  was  also  privileged  to  accompany  the  President  of 
the  Department,  Dr.  William  Pepper  (for  I  was  at  the  time  on  sick-leave 
and  under  his  care),  when,  in  response  to  a  courteous  note  of  invita- 
tion, he  called  on  Colonel  and  Mrs.  Durnford,  at  the  Bellevue  Hotel. 
With  him  I  saw  some  of  the  Marco  relics,  the  piece  of  rope,  the  tray 
and  one  of  the  worked  blocks  or  billets  of  wood.  I  observed  that  the 
rope  had  been  slightly  charred  at  one  point,  and  that  the  billet  was  an 
unfinished  object.  This,  with  Colonel  Durnford's  remarkably  clear 
memoranda  and  description  of  the  place  whence  these  relics  had  been 
derived,  led  me  to  infer  that  it,  the  place,  was  not  of  an  isolated  charac- 
ter. The  relics  themselves  were  indubitably  Indian  and  pre-Colum- 
bian. To  me  they  evidenced  remote  aboriginal  occupation,  residence 
that  is  of  the  actual  site  in  which  they  had  been  found,  rather  than  of 
merely  the  neighboring  shell-banks.  I  believed,  indeed,  that  their  con- 
dition and  their  occurrence  beneath  the  peaty  deposits  of  muck  might 
even  betoken  some  such  phase  of  life  in  southern  Florida  as  that  of  the 
Ancient  Lake  Dwellers  of  Switzerland,  or  of  the  Pile  and  Platform 
Builders  of  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  or  the  Bayous  of  the  Orinoco  in 
Venezuela. 

I,  therefore,  did  not  hesitate  to  assure  Dr.  Pepper  and  Col.  Durnford 
of  my  opinion  that  the  find  to  which  he  had  drawn  our  attention  would,, 
if  fully  enough  followed  up,  lead  to  the  most  important  archaeological 
discovery  yet  made  on  any  of  our  coasts.  Dr.  Pepper  also  attached  great 
significance  to  the  find.  He  straightway  expressed  the  wish,  indeed,  that 
in  the  interest  of  the  Department  he  represented,  a  reconnaissance  of  the 
place,  as  well  as  of  the  surrounding  region,  might  immediately  be  under- 
taken, with  a  view  to  still  further  explorations  another  year,  in  case  my 
conclusions  as  to  the  typical  nature  of  the  field  were  thcrcb_v  borne  out. 
As  Mr.  Mercer  was  loath  to  leave  other  and  pressing  work,  I  eagerly 
volunteered — liealth  being  equal  and  consent  of  my  Director  in  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Major  J.  W.  Powell,  being  granted — to 


1896.]  ^^1  [Gushing, 

undertake  such  a  reconnaissance.  With  that  rare  public  spiritedness, 
instant  foresight  and  promptitude  for  which  he  is  so  distinguished, 
your  honored  Vice-President,  Dr.  Pepper,  fortliwith  provided  funds 
and  otherwise  arranged  for  this  preliminary  survey  by  me. 

Thus,  and  through  the  kind  offices  of  the  late  Hamilton  Disston,  Esq., 
and  Col.  J.  M.  Kreamer  and  their  associates,  I  succeeded  in  securing,  from 
the  Clyde  Steamship  Company  and  from  those  courteous  gentlemen  of 
Jacksonville,  Col.  J.  K.  Leslie  and  Major  Joseph  H.  Durkee,  passes  all 
the  way  from  New  York  to  Jacksonville,  and,  by  way  of  the  St.  John's 
river  to  Sanford,  and  thence  by  rail  diagonally  down  through  the  pine 
lands  and  the  tropic  lowlands  of  Florida,  and  found  myself,  within  less 
than  a  fortnight,  at  the  little  town  of  Punta  Grorda,  near  the  mouth  of 
Pease  river,  a  deep  tidal  inlet,  on  the  gulfward  side  of  that  State. 

First   Hecoxnaissance. 

Description  of  the  Ancient  Keys  or  Artificial  Shell  Islands. 

I  was  not  much  delaj'ed  in  securing  two  men  and  a  little  fishing  sloop, 
such  as  it  was,  and  in  sailing  forth  one  glorious  evening  late  in  May, 
with  intent  to  explore  as  many  as  possible  of  the  islands  and  capes  of 
Charlotte  harbor,  Pine  Island  Sound,  Caloosa  Bay  and  the  lower  more 
open  coast  as  far  as  Marco,  some  ninety  miles  away  to  the  southward. 

The  bright  waters  of  these  connected  bays  and  sounds  formed  a  far- 
reaching  and  anon  wide-spreading,  shallow  inland  sea.  It  was  hemmed 
in  to  the  westward  by  a  chain  of  long,  narrow,  nearly  straight,  palmetto 
and  forest-clad  reefs  or  islands,  just  visible  on  the  horizon  ;  but,  as  I 
later  learned,  all  of  sand,  save  only  for  occasional  capes  or  promontories 
of  shell  that  here  and  there  jutted  forth  into  the  wide  mangrove  swamps 
that  everywhere  closely  invested  their  inner  shores.  The  shores  of  the 
opposite  mainland  and  of  Pine  Island  too — which,  intervening,  hid 
them  for  miles — were  even  more  widely  skirted  by  these  tangled  tidal 
swamps. 

All  around,  and  apparently  all  over  the  many  islets  that  darkly  dotted 
the  shimmering  expanse  of  this  shoreland  sea — somewhat  as  is  shown  in 
Plate  XXVI — grew  also,  straightway  from  the  tide-line  upward,  these 
clustering  deep  green  mangroves,  so  closely  and  evenly  that  they  seemed, 
when  seen  from  afar,  like  gigantic  clumps  of  box  in  some  inundated 
olden  garden.  They  grew  so  loftily,  too,  that  from  the  level  of  the 
channel  near  even  the  largest  islets,  naught  of  their  inner  contours 
could  be  seen. 

The  astonishment  I  felt,  then,  on  penetrating  into  the  interior  of  the 
very  first  encountered  of  these  thicket-bound  islets,  may  be  better  im- 
agined than  described,  when,  after  wading  ankle  deep  in  the  slimy  and 
muddy  shoals,  and  then  alternately  clambering  and  floundering  for  a 
long  distance  among  the  wide-reaching  interlocked  roots  of  the  man- 
groves— held  hip-high   above  the   green   weedy   tide-wash   by  myriad 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2  P.      PRINTED  MAY  25,   1897, 


Cushiug.]  «^^-'  [Nov.  G, 

ruddy  fingers,  bended  like  the  legs  of  centipedes — I  dimly  beheld,  in  the 
sombre  depths  of  this  sunless  jungle  of  the  waters,  a  long,  nearly 
straight,  but  ruinous  embankment  of  piled-up  conch-shells.  Beyond  it 
were  to  be  seen — as  in  the  illustration  given  on  Plate  XXVII, — other 
banks,  less  high,  not  always  regular,  but  forming  a  maze  of  distinct  en- 
closures of  various  sizes  and  outlines,  nearlj^  all  of  them  open  a  little  at 
either  end  or  at  opposite  sides,  as  if  for  outlet  and  inlet. 

Threading  this  zone  of  boggy  bins,  and  leading  in  toward  a  more 
central  point,  were  here  and  there  open  ways  like  channels.  They 
were  formed  by  parallel  ridges  of  shells,  increasing  in  height  toward  the 
interior,  until  at  last  they  merged  into  a  steep,  somewhat  extended 
bench,  also  of  shells,  and  flat  on  the  top  like  a  platform.  Here,  of 
course,  at  the  foot  of  the  platform,  the  channel  ended,  in  a  slightly 
broadened  cove  like  a  landing  place  ;  but  a  graded  depression  or  patii- 
way  ascended  from  it  and  crossed  this  bench  or  platform,  leading  to, 
and  in  turn  climbing, over,  or  rather  through,  another  and  higher  plat- 
form a  slight  distance  beyond.  In  places  off  to  the  side  on  either  hand 
were  still  more  of  these  platforms,  rising  terrace-like,  but  very  irregu- 
larly, from  the  enclosures  below  to  the  foundations  of  great,  level-top- 
ped mounds,  which,  like  worn-out,  elongated  and  truncated  pyramids, 
loftily  and  imposingly  crowned  the  whole,  some  of  them  to  a  height  of 
nearly  thirty  feet  above  the  encircling  sea. 

All  this  was  not  by  any  means  plain  at  first.  Except  for  mere  patches 
a  few  feet  in  width,  here  and  there  along  the  steepest  slopes,  these  ele- 
vations, and  especially  the  terraces  and  platforms  above  the  first  series, 
were  almost  completely  shrouded  from  view  under  net  only  a  stunted 
forest  of  mulberry,  papaya,  mastich,  iron-wood,  button-wood,  laurel, 
live  oak  and  other  gnarly  kinds  of  trees,  mostly  evergreen,  and  all  over- 
run and  bound  fast  together  from  top  to  bottom  by  leafy,  tough  and 
thorny  vines,  and  thong-like  clinging  creepers,  but  also  by  a  rank  tan- 
gle below,  of  grasses,  weeds,  brambles,  cacti,  bristling  Spanish  bayo- 
nets and  huge  spike-leaved  century  plants,  their  tall  sere  flower  stalks 
of  former  years  standing  bare  and  aslant,  like  spars  of  storm-beached 
shipping  above  this  tumultuous  sea  of  verdure. 

The  utmost  heights  were,  in  places,  freer  ;  but  even  there,  grew  weeds 
and  creepers  and  bushes,  not  a  few,  and  overtopping  them  all,  some  of 
the  most  fantastic  of  trees — the  trees  par  excellence  of  the  heights  of 
these  ancient  keys,  the  so-called  gumbo  limbos  or  West  Indian  birches — 
bare,  skinny,  livid,  monstrous  and  crooked  of  limb,  and,  compared  with 
surrounding  growth,  gigantic.  To  the  topmost  branches  of  these  weird- 
looking  trees,  brilliant  red  grosbeaks  came  and  went  as  I  climbed.  Long 
ere  I  saw  them,  I  could  hear  them  trilling,  in  plaintive  flute-like  strains, 
to  mates  in  far-away  trees,  perhaps  on  other  groups  of  mounds — whence 
at  least  answers  like  faint  echoes  of  these  nearer  songs  came  lonesomely 
calling  back  as  though  across  void  hollows. 

The   bare   patches  along   the  ascents  to  the  mounds  were,  like  the 


1896.]  OOO  [Gushing. 

ridges  below,  built  up  wholly  of  shells,  great  conch-shells  chiefl}%  black- 
ened by  exposure  for  ages  ;  and  ringing  like  thin  potsherds  when  dis- 
turbed even  by  the  light  feet  of  the  raccoons  and  little  dusky  brown  rab- 
bits that  now  and  then  scuttled  across  them  from  covert  to  covert  and 
that  seemed  to  be,  with  the  ever-present  grosbeaks  above,  and  with 
many  lizards  and  some  few  rattlesnakes  and  other  reptiles  below,  the 
principal  dwellers  on  these  lonely  keys — if  swarming  insects  may  be  left 
unnamed  ! 

But  everywhere  else  it  was  necessary  to  cut  and  tear  the  way  step  by 
step.  "Wherever  thus  revealed,  the  surface  below,  like  the  bare  spaces 
themselves,  proved  to  be  also  of  shells,  smaller  or  much  broken  on  the 
levels  and  gentler  slopes,  and  mingled  with  scant  black  mold  on  the 
wider  terraces,  as  though  these  had  been  formed  with  a  view  to  cultiva- 
tion and  supplied  with  soil  from  the  rich  muck  beds  below.  Here  also 
occurred  occasional  potsherds  and  manj'^  worn  valves  of  gigantic  clams 
and  whorls  of  huge  univalves  that  appeared  to  have  been  used  as  hoes 
and  picks  or  other  digging  tools,  and  this  again  suggested  the  idea  that 
at  least  the  wider  terraces — many  of  which  proved  to  be  not  level,  but 
filled  with  basin -shaped  depressions  or  bordered  by  retaining  walls — had 
been  used  as  garden  plats,  some,  perhaps,  as  drainage  basins.  But  the 
margins  of  these,  whether  raised  or  not,  and  the  edges  of  even  the  lesser 
terraces,  the  sides  of  the  graded  ways  leading  up  to  or  through  them, 
and  especially  the  slopes  of  the  greater  mounds,  were  all  of  unmixed 
shell,  in  which,  as  on  the  barren  patches,  enormous  nearly  equal-sized 
whelks  or  conch-shells  prevailed. 

Such  various  features,  seen  one  by  one,  impressed  me  more  and  more 
forcibly,  as  indicating  general  design — a  structural  origin  of  at  least  the 
enormous  accumulations  of  shell  I  was  so  slowly  and  painfully  travers- 
ing, if  not,  indeed,  of  the  entire  key  or  islet.  Still,  my  mind  was  not, 
perhaps,  wholly  disabused  of  the  prevalent  opinion  that  these  and  like 
accumulations  on  capes  of  the  neighboring  mainland  were  primarily  stu- 
pendous shell  heaps,  chiefly  the  undistributed  refuse  remaining  from  ages 
of  intermittent  al)original  occupation,  until  I  had  scaled  the  topmost  of 
the  platforms.  Then  I  could  see  that  the  vast  pile  on  which  I  stood, 
and  of  which  the  terraces  I  had  climbed  were,  in  a  sense,  irregular  stages, 
formed  in  reality  a  single,  prodigious  elbow-shaped  foundation,  crowned 
at  its  bend  by  a  definite  group  of  lofty,  narrow  and  elongated  mounds, 
that  stretched  fan-like  across  its  summit  like  the  thumb  and  four  fingers 
of  a  mighty  outspread  hand.  Beyond,  moreover,  were  other  great 
foundations,  bearing  aloft  still  other  groups  of  mounds,  their  declivities 
thicklj'  overgrown,  but  their  summits  betokened  by  the  bare  branches 
of  gumbo  limbos,  whence  had  come,  no  doubt,  the  lone-sounding  songs 
of  the  grosbeaks.  Thej'  stood,  these  other  foundations,  like  the  sun- 
dered ramparts  of  some  vast  and  ruined  fortress  along  one  side  and  across 
the  farther  end  of  a  deep  open  space  or  quadrangular  court  more  than 
an  acre  in   extent,  level  and  as  closely  covered  with  mangroves   and 


dishing.]  ^'J  J=  [Nov.  6, 

otlier  tidal  growths  at  the  bottom  as  were  the  outer  swamps.  It  was 
apparent  that  this  had  actually  been  a  central  court  of  some  kind,  had 
probably  been  formed  as  an  open  lagoon  by  the  gradual  upbuilding  on 
attollike  reefs  or  shoals  around  deeper  water,  of  these  foundations  or 
ramparts  as  I  have  called  them,  from  even  below  tide  level  to  their  pres- 
ent imposing  height.  At  anj^  rate  they  were  divided  from  one  another 
by  deep  narrow  gaps  that  appeared  as  though  left  open  between  them 
to  serve  as  channels,  and  that  still,  although  filled  now  with  peaty  depos- 
its and  rank  vegetation,  communicated  w^ith  the  outer  swamps,  and,  in 
some  cases,  extended,  between  parallel  banks  of  shell  like  those  alreadj" 
described,  quite  through  the  surrounding  enclosures  or  lesser  outer 
courts,  to  what  had  evidently  been,  ere  the  universal  sand  shoals  had 
formed  and  mangrove  swamps  had  grown,  the  open  sea. 

The  elevation  I  had  ascended,  stood  at  the  northern  end  and  formed 
one  corner  of  this  great  inner  court,  the  slope  to  which  from  the  base 
of  the  mounds  was  unbroken  by  terraces,  and  sheer.  But  like  the  steep- 
est ascents  outside,  it  was  composed  of  large  weather-darkened  conch- 
shells  and  was  comparatively  bare  of  vegetation.  Directly  down  the 
middle  of  this  wide  incliu'e  led,  from  between  the  two  first  mounds,  a 
broad  sunken  pathway,  very  deep  here  near  the  summit,  as  was  the 
opposite  and  similarly  graded  way  I  had  in  part  followed  up,  but  gradu- 
ally diminishing  in  depth  as  it  approached  the  bottom,  in  such  manner 
as  to  render  much  gentler  the  descent  to  the  edge  of  the  swamp.  Here 
numerous  pierced  busycon  shells  lay  strewn  about  and  others  could  be 
seen  protruding  from  the  marginal  muck.  A  glance  sufficed  to  show  that 
they  had  all  been  designed  for  tool  heads,  hafted  similarly,  but  used  for 
quite  various  purposes.  The  long  columnellse  of  some  w^ere  battered  as 
if  they  had  once  been  employed  as  hammers  or  picks,  while  others  were 
sharpened  to  chisel  or  gouge-like  points  and  edges.  Here,  too,  sherds  of 
pottery  were  much  more  abundant  than  even  on  the  upper  terraces. 
This  struck  me  as  especially  significant,  and  I  ventured  forth  a  little  way 
over  the  yielding  quagmire  and  dug  between  the  sprawling  mangrove 
fingers  as  deeply  as  I  could  with  only  a  stick,  into  the  water-soaked  muck. 
Similarly  w^orked  shells  and  sherds  of  pottery,  intermingled  with  char- 
coal and  bones,  were  thus  revealed.  These  w^ere  surprisingly  fresh,  not 
as  though  washed  into  the  place  fi'om  above,  but  as  though  they  had 
fallen  and  lodged  where  I  found  them,  and  had  been  covered  with  water 
ever  since. 

I  suddenly  realized  that  the  place,  although  a  central  rather  than  a 
marginal  court  or  filled-up  bayou,  was  nevertheless  similar  in  general 
character  to  the  one  Col.  Durnford  had  described,  and  that  thus  soon  my 
conclusions  relative  to  the  typical  nature  of  the  Collier  deposit,  were, 
in  a  measure,  borne  out.  Here  at  least  had  been  a  w^ater-court,  around 
the  margins  of  which,  it  would  seem,  places  of  abode  whence  these 
remains  had  been  derived — houses  rather  than  landings — had  clustered, 
ere  it  became  choked  Avith  debris  and  vegetal  growth  ;  or  else  it  Avas  a 


1896.]  OOb  [Cashing. 

veritable  haven  of  ancient  wharves  and  pile-dwellings,  safe  alike  from 
tidal  wave  and  hurricane  within  these  gigantic  ramparts  of  shell,  where, 
through  the  channel  gateways  to  the  sea,  canoes  might  readily  come 
and  go. 

It  occurred  to  me,  as  I  made  my  way  thrcmgh  one  of  these  now  filled- 
up  channels,  that  the  enclosures  they  passed  were  probably  other  courts 
— marginal,  but  artificial  bayous,  some  of  them  no  doubt  like  the  one  at 
Key  Marco — and  that  perhaps  the  largest  of  them  had  not  only  been  in- 
habited also,  but  that  some  were  representative  of  incipient  stages  in  the 
formation  of  platforms  or  terraces,  and  within  these,  as  the  key  was  thus 
extended,  of  other  such  inner  courts  as  the  one  I  have  here  described.  It 
seemed  reasonable  to  expect  that  the  islets  visible  in  numbers  farther  on, 
which  my  skipper  described  as  almost  exactly  like  this,  would  reallj^  prove 
to  be  not  only  shell  kej^s,  that  is,  of  artificial  origin,  but  also,  that  in  them 
I  would  find  the  essential  structural  features  of  this  one,  as  such,  repeated. 

Possessed  by  this  idea,  I  became  doubly  anxious  to  proceed  with  the 
explorations,  and  forthwith  returned  to  the  boat  and  sailed  down  to  a 
point  about  midway  between  the  northern  and  southern  ends  of  Pine 
Island,  which  lay  some  two  and  a  half  miles  off  to  the  eastward.  There 
stood,  near  where  we  anchored,  upon  rough  and  barnacle-encrusted 
stilts  or  piles,  two  dilapidated  platforms,  placed  end  to  end,  but  at  an 
angle  to  one  another.  Upon  these  were  perched  a  couple  of  old  and 
weather-beaten  huts  which  had  been  formerly  used,  I  was  told,  as 
fishermen's  stations. 

As  evening  fell  and  the  tiile  went  down,  there  appeared  with  startling 
suddenness,  black,  in  the  foam  of  the  receding  waters, — much  as  in 
the  illustration  on  Plate  XXVI, — the  scattered  crags  of  two  or  three 
series  of  parallel  and  concentric  oyster  reefs  or  bars.  Some  of  them 
reached  directlj^  toward  us  from  close  to  the  old  fishing  stations, 
while  others  extended  off"  to  the  right,  semi-circularly  around  ns, 
in  a  long  succession  of  level,  broken  masses,  thus  enclosing  quite 
half  an  acre  of  deeper  water,  at  the  entrance  of  which  we  lay.  It  was 
in  the  shallows,  between  the  widest  of  these  bars,  at  the  corner  or  blunt 
angle  formed  by  the  two  main  lines  of  the  reefs,  that  the  platforms 
stood.  Hither  now  flocked  hundreds  of  cormorants  and  pelicans,  fol- 
lowed by  a  few  cranes  and  curlews  and  by  many  gulls — these  continu- 
ally on  the  wing.  But  the  cormorants  and  pelicans  settled  on  the  plat- 
forms and  along  the  uniform  inner  edges  of  the  reefs  in  close  ranks. 
They  seemed  to  have  come  hither  from  the  neighboring  bird-kej^s  or  man- 
grove rookeries, — where  they  nested  in  common  by  thousands, — simply 
to  rest  and  dress  their  plumage  ;  until,  out  in  the  channel  appeared,  swiftly 
rushing  in  toward  the  shoals,  an  enormous  school  of  fish,  fleeing  noisily 
before  several  puffing  porpoises  and  two  or  three  monster  sharks,  whose, 
sharp  dorsal  fins  cut  the  water  swiftly  hither  and  thither  in  the  wake  of 
their  affrighted  prey.  Then  of  a  sudden  the  cormorants  and  many  of 
the  pelicans  took  wing,  joined  forces  behind  the  on-coming  fugitive  hosts 


Gushing.]  ^^t)  [Xov.  6, 

of  the  sea,  and  diving  down  in  a  great  semi-circle,  beat  the  waves  with 
their  wings  as  though  in  play,  until,  as  they  closed  in  rapidly  toward  the 
reefs,  the  sound  made  by  them  and  the  now  wildly  leaping  lish  was  as 
that  of  an  approaching  storm.  Thus  thousands  of  the  smaller  fish  were 
driven  in  beyond  reach  of  the  sharks  and  porpoises  over  the  shoals  and 
into  the  bayous  formed  by  the  succession  of  reefs,  and  there  cormorants 
and  pelicans  alike  made  short  work  of  securing  their  evening  meals. 
The  cormorants  flew  off  singly  or  in  swift  irregular  companies,  but  the 
pelicans  marched  more  deliberately  awaj'',  in  orderly  and  single  aereal 
files,  so  to  say,  behind  heavy-winged,  gray-headed  old  leaders,  evenly, 
just  over  the  line  of  the  waves,  to  their  tree-built  island  homes. 

I  have  dwelt  on  this  singular  behavior  of  the  birds  because,  in  con- 
nection with  the  observations  of  the  day,  and  with  the  picture  formed 
by  the  concentric  reefs,  the  lagoon  they  encircled,  the  old  half-ruined  pile- 
houses  standing  above  them  out  there  in  the  midst  of  the  waters,  and 
the  distant  dark-green  islands — which  I  now  knew  had  been  the  homes 
of  sea-dwelling  men  centuries  before — disappearing  beyond  in  the  dusk, 
it  all  suggested  to  me  in  a  vivid  and  impressive  manner  how  the  ancient 
builders  of  the  key  I  had  only  this  afternoon  reconnoitred  had  probably 
l)egun  their  citadel  of  the  sea  and  why  there,  so  far  away  from  the  shore, 
they  had  elected  to  make  so  laboriously  their  homes  ;  why  they  had 
from  the  beginning  kept  free  within  their  reef-raised  sea-walls  of  shell, 
the  central  half-natural  lagoons  or  lake-courts,  where  the  first  few  of 
their  stilted  houses  had  doubtless  been  planted,  and  why  ever,  as  their 
hand-made  island  extended,  they  had  kept  it  surrounded  Avith  the  many 
channeled  enclosures,  Tlie  key  had  been,  so  to  say,  the  rookery,  the  chan- 
nels and  lesser  enclosures  the  fish-drives  and  fish-pools  of  these  human 
pelicans  !  Like  the  pelicans,  like  even  the  modern  fishermen,  they  had 
at  first  merely  resorted  to  low  outlying  reefs  in  these  shallow  seas  as 
fishing  grounds,  but  ere  long  had  built  stations  there,  little  shelters, 
probably,  on  narrow  platforms  held  up  by  clumsy  piles,  but  similar 
somewhat  to  the  huts  that  stood  here  before  me.  The  shells  of  the  mol- 
lusks  they  had  gathered  for  food  had  naturally  been  cast  down  beside 
these  lengthy  platforms,  until  they  formed  long  ridges  that  broke  the 
force  of  the  waves  when  storms  swept  by.  Thus,  I  fancied,  these  first 
builders  of  the  keys  had  been  taught  liow  to  construct  with  special  pur- 
pose sea-walls  of  gathered  shells,  how  to  extend  the  arms  of  the  reefs, 
and  to  make  other  and  better  bayous  or  fish-pounds  within  them  by  form- 
ing successive  enclosures,  ever  keeping  free  channels  throughout  for  the 
driving  in  of  the  fish  and  the  passage  of  their  canoes.  And  when  the  in- 
nermost of  the  enclosures  became  choked  by  drift  and  other  debris  thej' 
had  filled  them  with  shell  stutf  and  mud  from  the  surrounding  sea,  and 
so  of  some  had  made  drainage-basins  to  catch  rain  for  diinking  water, 
and  of  others,  in  time,  little  garden  plats  or  fields. 

Thus  it  was  that  the  erstwhile  stations  had  become  better  and  better 
fitted  as  places  of  longer  abode  ;  and  yet  others  of  the  enclosures  or 


1896.]  <^«^'  [Gushing. 

courts  farthest  in  had  become  filled,  and  were  in  turn  wrought  into 
basins  and  gardens  to  replace  the  first  that  had  been  made  ;  for  these 
were  now  covered  over  and  piled  higher  to  form  wide  benches  where- 
upon the  long  mounds  or  foundations  might  be  erected.  Finally,  aloft 
on  these  greater  elevations  strong  citadels  of  refuge  alike  from  foe  and 
hurricane;  storehouses,  dwellingsof  chiefs  or  leaders,  and  assembly-places 
and  temples  had  been  builded,  when  at  last  these  old  people  of  the  sea 
came  to  abide  there  continually.  This  to  me  appeared  to  have  been  the 
history  in  brief  of  the  first  development  of  such  a  phase  of  life  as  the  an- 
cient key  I  had  examined  that  afternoon  still  plainly  represented  ;  nor 
did  I  find  reason  later  to  greatly  modify  these  views.  On  the  contrary, 
of  the  many  other  shell  keys  that  I  examined  during  the  following  few 
days,  all  still  further  illustrated,  and  some  seemed  strikingly  to  confirm, 
even  the  most  fanciful  of  these  visions. 

This  was  especially  true  of  three  ke,ys  which  I  explored  the  next  day. 
The  first  was  known  as  Josselyn's  Key.  It  had  been  cleared  and  culti- 
vated as  a  fruit  and  vegetable  garden  many  years  before,  but  was  now 
abandoned  and  desolate  and  again  overrun  by  brambles  and  weeds  and 
vines,  with  some  few  massive  gumbo  limbos  and  rubber  trees  standing 
on  its  heights.  The  feature  of  special  interest  in  this  key  was  its  cen- 
tral court,  which,  while  comparatively  small — less  than  half  an  acre  in 
extent — was  remarkably  regular.  Five  very  high  and  steep,  mound- 
capped  elevations,  sharply  divided  by  deep,  straight  channels,  that  led 
forth  from  the  court  divergingly  toward  the  sea,  formed  its  western  side 
and  southern  end,  while  its  opposite  side  and  end  were  formed  by  two 
extensive  platforms,  also. exceedingly  steep  within,  and  nearly  as  high 
as  the  elevations,  and  divided  from  these  and  from  each  other  by 
straight  canals  that  led  forth  in  northwardly  directions,  far  out  through 
the  mangrove-covered  enclosures  down  toward  which  the  platforms 
were  terraced. 

The  court  was  very  deep  and  so  regular  that  it  resembled  the  cellar  of 
an  enormous  elongated  square  house.  It  was  marshy  and  overgrown 
by  cane-brakes,  tall  grasses,  and  green-barked  willows.  Near  the 
mouth  of  the  principal  canal,  leading  forth  from  the  southeastern  corner 
of  this  court,  and  still  invaded,  as  were  two  or  three  others  of  the  canals, 
by  high-tide  water,  my  skipper  and  I  dug  a  deep  square  hole.  The  exca- 
vation rapidly  filled  with  water ;  not,  however,  before  we  had  found  in 
the  yielding  muck  a  shapely  plummet  or  pendant  of  coral-stone  and 
two  others  of  shell,  many  sherds  of  pottery,  worked  bones,  charcoal, 
and,  more  significant  than  all,  a  pierced  conch-shell,  still  containing  a 
portion  of  its  rotten  wooden  handle.  Again  here,  the  relics  were  more 
abundant  than  on  the  heights  above,  and  the  structural  nature  of  the 
entire  key  was  abundantly  evident. 

From  this  place  it  was  somewhat  more  than  a  mile,  still  east-south- 
eastwardly,  to  the  second  islet,  which  was  known  as  Demorey's  Key. 
It  also  had  been  cleared  to  a  limited  extent,  by  the  man  whose  name  it 


Cashing.]  ^^"  [Nov.  6, 

bore,  but,  like  the  first,  had  long  been  abandoned  and  was  even  more 
overgrown  by  vine-smothered  trees  and  brambles — among  them  many 
pitiful  limes  and  a  few  pomegranates  run  wild,  but  still  faithfully  bear- 
ing fruit — so  that  here,  too,  the  knife  was  constantly  requisite. 

It  was  in  some  respects  the  most  remarkable  key  encountered  during 
the  entire  reconnaissance.  Its  elevations  formed — as  maj^  be  seen  by  ref- 
erence to  plan  and  elevation  on  Plate  XXVIII, — an  elongated  curve  five 
hundred  yards  in  length,  the  northward  extension  of  which  was  nearly 
straight,  the  southward  extension  bending  around  like  a  hook  to  the 
southeast  and  east,  and  embracing  within  its  ample  circuit  a  wide 
swamp  thickly  overgrown  Avith  high  mangroves,  which  also  narrowly 
fringed  the  outer  shore,  so  that  the  whole  key,  when  seen  from  the 
water,  presented  the  appearance  of  a  trim  round  or  oval,  and  thickly 
wooded  island.  Tlie  lower  end  or  point  of  this  key  consisted  of  an 
imposingly  massive  and  symmetrical  sea  wall,  of  conch-shells  chiefly, 
ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  and  as  level  and'  broad  on  top  as  a  turnpike. 
This  wall  had  evidently  once  encircled  the  entire  lower  bend  of  the  kej', 
but  was  now  merged  in  the  second  and  third  of  a  series  of  broad,  com- 
paratively level  terraces,  that  rose  one  above  the  other  within  it,  from  a 
little  terminal  muck-court,  westwardly  to  the  central  and  widest,  although 
not  highest,  elevation  of  the  key,  at  the  commencement  of  its  northward 
extension.  Occupying  a  point  midway  along  the  inner  curve  of  this 
elevation,  that  is,  directly  up  from  the  mangrove  swamp  it  encircled  on 
the  one  hand,  and  from  the  terraces  outside  on  the  other,  stood  a  lofty 
group  of  five  elongated  mounds.  These  mounds  were  divided  from  the 
embracing  terraces  by  a  long,  deep,  and  very  regularly  graded  way, 
which  led,  in  straight  sections  corresponding  to  the  inner  margins  of  the 
first  three  successive  terraces,  up  from  a  canal  formed  by  shell  banks  or 
ridges  in  the  swamp,  to  the  highest  of  the  terraces — the  one  forming  the 
wide  central  elevation.  Another  and  much  steeper  and  shorter  graded 
way  led  up  from  yet  another  parallel  canal  farther  within  the  swamp,  to 
between  the  two  highest  mounds,  down  from  them  again,  and  joined 
this  longer  graded  way  near  the  point  of  its  ascent  to  the  high  central 
terrace.  This  foundation,  for  it  proved  to  be  such,  arose  very  steeply 
from  the  here  sharply  curved  edge  of  the  mangrove  swamp,  to  an  almost 
uniform  height  of  about  twenty -three  feet ;  was  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
yards  wide,  and  thence  sloped  more  gentlj^  toward  the  outer  or  western 
shores.  The  northern  extension  of  the  key  was  occupied  by  two  or  tliree 
elevated  and  comparatively  inconsiderable  mounds,  beyond  which  it  was 
terraced  off  toward  the  extreme  point,  as  was  the  lower  point — though 
less  regularly — to  a  short,  similar  sea-wall  extension  eastwardly,  that 
partly  enclosed,  not  a  muck-court,  but  a  low,  bordered  garden-plat,  con- 
taining two  or  three  round  sinks  or  basins. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  of  this  key  was  a  flat,  elongated  bench, 
or  truncated  pyramid,  that  crowned  the  middle  elevation.  I  discovered 
ihis  merely  by  accident.     In  order  to  gain  a  general  idea  of  the  key, 


1896.]  o6v  [Gushing. 

which  was  almost  as  much  overgrown  with  luxuriant  and  forbidding 
vegetation  as  had  been  the  wilder  key  first  explored,  I  climbed  high  up 
among  the  skinny  and  crooked  limbs  of  a  gigantic  gumbo  limbo  that 
grew  directly  from  the  inner  edge  of  this  elevation.  Luckily,  great  fes- 
toons of  tough  vines  clung  to  the  lower  limbs  of  this  tree,  for  in  shifting 
my  position  I  slipped  and  fell,  and  was  caught  by  these  vines,  to  the  sal- 
vation of  my  bones  probably,  since  by  the  force  of  the  fall  some  of  the 
vines  were  torn  away,  revealing  the  inner  side  of  this  platform  and  the 
fact  that  it  was  almost  vertically  faced  up  with  conch-shells  ;  their 
larger,  truncated  and  spiral  ends,  laid  outward  and  in  courses  so  regular, 
that  the  effect  was  as  of  a  mural  mosaic  of  volutes.  I  hastily  tore  away 
more  of  the  vines,  and  found  that  this  faced-up  edge  of  the  platform 
extended  many  feet  in  either  direction  from  the  old  gumbo  limbo.  I 
may  say  here,  that  on  occasion  of  two  later  visits  I  cleared  the  facade 
of  this  primitive  example  of  shell  architecture  still  more  ;  was  enabled, 
indeed,  when  I  last  visited  the  place — since  I  was  then  accompanied  by 
a  considerable  force  of  workmen — to  entirely  expose  its  inner  side 
and  its  southern  end.  Thus  was  revealed — even  more  completely  than 
is  shown  in  Plate  XXIX, — a  parallelogrammic  and  level  platform, 
some  three  and  a  half  feet  high  and  twelve  yards  in  width,  by  nearly 
thrice  as  many  in  length.  It  was  approached  from  the  inner  side  by  a 
graded  way  that  led  obliquely  along  the  curved  ascent  up  from  the  man- 
grove swamp,  to  a  little  step-like,  subsidiary  platform  half  as  high  and 
some  twelve  feet  square,  which  joined  it  at  right  angles,  just  beyond 
the  point  shown  at  the  extreme  right  of  the  picture  here  given.  The  top 
of  this  lesser  step,  and  the  approaches  to  either  side  of  it,  were  paved 
with  very  large,  uniform-sized  clam-shells,  laid  convex  sides  upward,  and 
as  closely  and  regularly  as  tiles.  The  lower  or  southern  end  of  the  main 
platform  was  rounded  at  the  corners,  and  rounded  also  on  either  side  of 
the  sunken  ascent  midway,  in  which  the  longer  of  the  graded  ways  I  have 
described  terminated.  Contemplating  the  regularity  of  this  work,  its 
central  position,  and  its  evident  importance  as  indicated  by  the  several 
graded  ways  leading  to  it  from  distant  points,  I  could  not  doubt  that  it 
had  formed  the  foundation  of  an  imposing  temple-structure,  and  this 
idea  was  further  carried  out  by  the  presence  at  its  northern  end  of  two 
small,  but  quite  prominent  altar-like  mounds. 

Descending  from  the  end  of  the  platform  down  along  the  main 
graded  way — the  one  which  divided  the  terraces  from  the  central  group 
of  high  mounds — I  found  that  at  more  than  one  point,  the  sides  of  this 
deep,  regular  path,  had  also  been  faced  up  with  conch-shells,  though 
none  of  the  courses  were  now,  to  any  extent,  in  place. 

At  the  foot  of  the  inner  and  parallel  sided,  sunken  or  graded  way — 
the  one  descending  from  between  two  of  the  great  central  mounds — I 
caused  an  excavation  to  be  made  between  the  two  straight  banks  or  ridges 
of  shell  that  extended  thence  far  out  into  the  mangrove  swamp,  in  order 
to  ascertain  whether  this  supposed  canal  had  really  been  such  ;  that  is, 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2  Q.      PRINTED  JUNE  2,  1897. 


Cushin,?.]  «j40  [Xov.  6, 

an  open  way  or  channel  to  tlie  sea  for  canoes.  It  became  evident  that 
it  had  been  this,  for  we  were  able  to  excavate  through  vegetal  muck 
and  other  accumulated  debris  to  a  depth  of  more  than  four  feet,  although 
mucli  inconvenienced  hj  intlowing  water.  I  thus  found  that  the  shell- 
banks  had  not  only  been  built  up  with  a  considerable  degree  of  regular- 
ity, but  that,  well  defined  as  these  ridges  were,  the  portions  of  them  visi- 
ble above  the  muck  wei'e  merely  their  crests.  The  excavation  was  made 
near  what  may  thus  be  regarded  as  having  formed  the  original  landing, 
and  in  it  we  found  a  considerable  number  of  quite  well-preserved  relics, 
similar  to  those  I  had  found  in  the  court  on  Josselyn's  key.  Another 
excavation  made  near  the  termination  of  the  two  embankments,  how- 
ever, revealed  fewer  artificial  remains,  other  than  blackened  and  water- 
worn  sherds  of  pottery.  But  I  found  that  here  also,  the  artificial  banks 
or  walls,  so  to  call  them,  had  been  built  up  with  equal  regularity,  almost 
vertically,  from  a  depth  of  between  four  and  five  feet.  In  extending 
this  excavation,  an  interesting  feature  of  the  original  foundations  of 
these  outworks  was  revealed.  It  consisted  of  a  kind  of  shell  breccia 
formed  of  the  first  layers  of  shells  that  had  been  placed  there — that 
Avere  composed  of  conchs,  some  of  which  had  been'  driven  or  wedged, 
smaller  ends  first,  into  the  original  reef  or  bar,  and  had  apparentl}"  been 
further  solidified  by  a  filling  or  packing  in  of  tough  clay-like  marl,  now 
so  indurated  that  shell,  sherds  of  pottery,  and  here  and  there  bits  of  bone 
and  charcoal  formed,  with  it,  a  solid  mass  well  progressed  toward  fossili- 
zation.  Indeed,  wheu  large  fragments  of  this  time-hardened  cement  were 
pried  up  and  broken  open,  the  shell,  sherds  of  pottery  and  bones  con- 
tained in  them  appeared  already  like  fossils.  I  found  by  making  yet  other 
excavations  in  the  contiguous  and  almost  untraceable  courts  or  enclos- 
ures, that  they,  too,  had  been  built  up  from  an  equal  depth,  as  though  to 
serve  rather  as  fish-pounds  than  as  breakwaters  or  as  courts  to  the  quays 
and  houses,  for  the  crests  of  these  enclosures  so  slightly  protruded  above 
the  surface  of  the  muck  and  weedy  carpeting  of  the  mangrove  swamp  in 
Avhich  they  occurred,  that  I  had  at  first  quite  fiiiled  to  observe  them.  Thus 
it  appeared  that  this  half-enclosed  swamp,  no  less  than  the  swamps  sur- 
rounding the  first  key  I  had  examined,  contained  similar  sorts  of  enclo- 
sures, only  these  had  been  lower  originally,  or  else  had  since  been  more 
filled  in  with  muck,  vegetal  growth  and  tide-wash.  The  low-bordered 
terrace  or  garden  plot,  the  margin  of  which  faced  this  swamp  within 
the  northern  end  of  the  key,  was  wide  and  comparatively  level,  except 
that  in  one  or  two  places  toward  the  slopes  of  the  terraces  next  above  it, 
there  occurred  in  it  the  circular  lioles  I  have  mentioned  as  basins,  one 
of  which  looked  almost  like  a  well.  The  like  of  these  I  later  encountered 
on  many  others  of  the  keys,  and  they  seemed  to  be  catch-basins  for  rain  or 
places  for  water  storage,  artificial  (.'cnotes,  as  it  were,  like  the  spring-holes 
or  sink-holes  on  the  mainland  aud  in  Yucatan.  Moreover,  the  surround- 
ing plot,  like  the  terraces  at  the  lower  end  of  tlie  ke3^  and  like  those  I 
had  found  on  the  first  island  I  had  explored,  was  scantily  supplied  with 


1396.]  0±L  [Gushing. 

black  soil  intermixed  with  the  shells,  and  here  I  observed  that  although 
relics  of  other  sorts  were  comparatively  rare,  fish-bones  formed  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  this  soil,  as  though  fish  or  the  refuse  of  fi.sh  had 
been  used  here  for  fertilizing  purposes.  All  these  observations,  taken  in 
connection  with  the  liighh'  finished  condition  of  the  crowning  platform, 
of  the  beautifully  paved  approaches  to  it,  of  the  walls  or  sides  of  the 
long-graded  path,  and  of  the  terminal  sea-walls  themselves,  clearly 
demonstrated  the  artificial  origin  of  not  only  such  portions  of  the  key  as 
stood  above  low-tide  level,  but  also,  the  highly  structural  character  of  the 
whole  work — as  I  now  considered  it  to  be, — of  the  island  in  its  entirety. 

Visible  from  Demorey's  key,  a  mile  and  a  half  or  two  miles  away  in  a 
northeasterly  direction,  stood  a  promontory,  island-like  in  appearance, 
on  account  of  its  relative  boldness.  Learning  from  mj'  sailor  that  it  was 
reallj^  on  Pine  Island,  and  that  there  also  were  extensive  shell  accumu- 
lations, and  that  in  the  depths  of  the  pine  lands  beyond  were  other  and 
larger  mounds  of  quite  ditferent  character,  I  paid  a  hasty  visit  to  the 
place. 

It  was  known  as  Battey's  Landing,  although  the  "landing  "  had  to  be 
approached  by  wading  a  long  way,  for  the  tide  was  low.  And  as  we 
neared  it  we  were  greeted  by  the  barking  of  a  small  colony  of  hounds  and 
other  dogs.  A.  solitary  man  appeared,  who  occupied  one  of  two  small 
huts  that  stood  some  way  up  from  the  shore.  His  name  was  Kirk,  and  he 
was  most  hospitable  and  helpful  to  me.  He  and  his  partner.  Captain 
Rhodes,  Avorked  the  place  as  a  vegetable  farm,  and  were  now  again  most 
profitably  cultivating  its  ancient  gardens.  However,  I  soon  saw  that  it 
had  once  been  like  the  outer  islets — an  artificial  key — but  so  much  closer 
in-shore,  even  originally,  that  it  had  become  connected  with  the  main 
part  of  Pine  Island  bj'  extensive  sand  flats,  still  so  low  as  to  be  washed 
by  high  tides.  The  foundations,  mounds,  courts,  graded  ways  and  canals 
here  were  greater,  and  some  of  them  even  more  regular,  than  any  I  had 
yet  seen.  On  the  hither  or  seaward  side  many  enclosures,  overgrown 
of  course  by  mangroves,  flanked  wide  benches  or  garden  platforms, 
through  or  over  which  led  paths,  mostly  obliterated  by  cultivation 
now.  The  same  sorts  of  channel-ways  as  occurred  on  the  outer  keys 
led  up  to  the  same  sorts  of  terraces  and  great  foundations,  with  their  cor- 
onets of  gigantic  mounds.  The  inner  or  central  courts  were  enormous. 
Nearly  level  with  the  swamps  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the  sand  flats 
on  the  other,  these  muck-beds  were  sufficiently  extensive  to  serve  (hav- 
ing been  cleared  and  drained  as  far  as  possible)  as  rich  and  ample  gar- 
dens ;  and  they  were  framed  in,  so  to  say,  by  quadrangles  formed  bj' 
great  shell  structures  which,  foundation  terraces,  summit-mounds  and 
all,  towered  above  them  to  a  height  of  more  than  sixty  feet. 

There  were  no  fewer  than  nine  of  these  greater  foundations,  and 
within  or  among  them  no  fewer  than  five  large,  more  or  less  rectangular 
courts  ;  and,  beyond  all,  to  the  southward,  was  a  long  series  of  lesser 
benches,   courts  and  enclosures,  merging  oft"  into  scarce  visible  frag- 


Gushing.]  64:Z  [Nov.  6, 

merits  in  the  white,  bare  stretches  of  sand  flats.  Suffice  it,  if  I  say,  that 
this  settlement  had  an  average  width  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  extended 
along  the  shore  of  Pine  Island — that  is  from  north  to  south — more  than 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  ;  that  its  high-built  portions  alone,  including  of 
course,  the  five  water  courts,  covered  an  area  of  not  less  than  seven tj'- 
five  or  eighty  acres.  The  inner  courts  were  all,  except  one,  furnished 
with  outlets  that  had  originally  opened  through  short  canals  into  the  strait 
that  had  separated  the  key  from  the  main  island.  The  single  exception 
referred  to  was  notable.  The  midmost  of  these  inner  courts,  which  was 
too  low  to  be  made  use  of  as  a  garden,  and  was  therefore  still  overgrown 
with  enormous  mangrove,  button-wood  and  other  trees,  was,  or  had  been, 
connected  with  the  sea  by  a  canal  that  led  into  it  between  two  long, 
very  high  shell  elevations,  which  flanked  it  on  either  side  of  the  western 
end.  From  the  opposite  end  of  the  court  another  canal  led  directly 
eastward  into  the  pine  lands.  JSTot  to  pause  with  a  further  account  of  this 
greatest,  except  one,  of  all  the  monuments  of  the  ancient  key  builders  on 
the  Florida  coast,  save  to  say  that  in  the  court  of  the  canals  I  found  the 
finest  and  best  preserved  relics  I  had  j^et  discovered,  I  will  only  describe 
this  landward  canal  and  the  gigantic  mounds  and  other  inland  works  to 
which  it  led.  It  extended  in  a  straight  line  almost  due  eastwardly  across 
the  sand  flats,  that  were,  at  this  point,  very  narrow,  and  heavily  over- 
grown with  canebrakes  and  high  grasses  ;  while  beyond,  palmettos  and 
yuccas  covered  the  entire  plain  far  into  the  pine-lands.  It  was  uniformly 
al)out  thirty  feet  wide,  and  though  of  course  now  much  tilled,  especi- 
ally between  the  shell-made  levees  that  crossed  the  flats,  it  still  main- 
tained an  even  depth  of  between  five  and  six  feet.  A  few  yards  beyond 
where  it  entered  the  higher  level  of  the  pine  lands,  there  was  a  little 
outlet  from  its  southern  side,  which  led  straight  to  what  had  been  an 
enormous  artificial  pond  or  oval  lake,  that  was  still  so  boggy  I  could 
not  traverse  it.  From  the  opposite  end  of  this  lake,  in  turn,  led  for 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  further,  in  a  generally  southeastern  direction, 
but  not  in  a  straight  line,  another  and  lesser  canal.  It  terminated  in 
another  artificial  lake,  that  extended  east  and  west,  and  in  the  middle  of 
this  stood,  crosswise,  a  gigantic  and  shapely  mound.  This  mound 
was  oval  in  outline,  fifty-eight  feet  high,  some  three  hundred  and 
seventy-five  feet  in  length  and  a  little  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  in  the  width  at  its  base.  A  graded  way  wound  around  it  spirally 
from  the  southern  base  to  the  summit,  which  was  comparatively  narrow, 
but  long  and  level  like  the  tops  of  the  shell  mounds  on  the  keys.  As- 
cending this  mound,  I  found  that  it  had  been  built  up  of  sand  and  thin 
strata  of  sea-shells  alternately,  and  that  to  the  presence  of  these  strata 
of  shells  had  been  due,  probably,  the  remarkable  preservation  of  its 
form.  Potsherds  of  fine  quality,  chalky  remains  of  human  bones, 
broken  shell  ladles — their  bottoms  significantly  punctured — all  demon - 
tnitud  the  fact  that  this  mound,  which  obviously  had  been  used  as  the 
foundation  of  a  temple  structure,  had  also  served  as  a  place  of  burial. 


1896.]  d4d  [Gushing. 

Due  northeast  from  it,  half  a  mile  farther  in,  might  be  seen  another 
and  even  larger  mound,  double,  not  single-crested,  like  this      The  great 
canal,  a  branch  of  which  opened  mto  the  encircling  lake  of  this  mound 
also,  led  on  directly  past  it,  and  could  be  plainly  traced,  even  from  this 
distance,   through    the    palmetto-covered   plain   beyond.     Again,   in   a 
southwest  direction,  not  quite  so  far  away,  I  could  discern  among  the 
scattered  pines  a  hummock,  comparatively  low  and  small,  but  regular 
and  overgrown  thickly  with  palmettos  and  brambles.     It,  too,  proved 
to  be  a  mound,  mostly  of  shell,  but  probably  built  for  burial  purposes, 
yet  furnished  like  these  two  larger  ones,  with  a  contiguous  lake  or  pond 
hole,   from   which   also   led   a   slight   canal   to  the  near-by  sand   flats, 
lieturning  to  the  greater  canal  and  following  it  out  to   the  point  of  its 
connection  with  the  lake  of  the  double  mound,  I  found  that  the  eastern 
end  of  this  lake  was  large,  rather  square  than  round,  and  that  it  formed 
really  a  water-court  fronting  the  mound  and  more  or  less  surrounded 
originally  with  embankments — of  sand  chiefly — but  like  the  characteristic 
shell  embankments  of  the  keys  in  form,  as  if,  indeed,  made  purposely  to 
resemble  them.     From  this  excavated  lake-court,  a  graded  way  had  also 
once  led  up  the  eastern  side  of  the  double  mound,  its  terminus  forming, 
in  fact,  the  saddle  between  its  two  summits — that  reached  an  altitude  of 
more  than  sixty-three  feet.  In  all  these  regards  it  exactly  resembled  one  of 
the  great  shell  foundations — crowning  mounds  and  all — of  the  outer  keys, 
and  I  could  not  but  be  impressed  with  the  apparent  significance  of  this,  es- 
pecially as  I  found  by  slight  excavation  that  the  mound  had  been  com- 
posed, like  the  other,  of  shell  strata  in  part,  and  that  it  was  erected  verit- 
ably as  a  foundation,  since  there  was  no  evidence  that  it  had  been  used  to 
any  great  extent  as  a  burial  place.    Moreover,  the  great  canal,  turning  a 
little  to  the  southeast,  led  on  again  in  a  straight  line  into  the  interior.     I 
followed  it  for  more  than  a  mile,  and,  although  it  lessened  in  width,  it 
was  distinctly  traceable  still  beyond,  and  I  was  told  that  it  extended 
quite  across  the  island  to  similar  works  and  shell   elevations  on  the 
other  side.     I  later  learned  that  the  canal  and  mounds  on  Naples  Island 
were   not  unlike    these,   although   smaller,   and  that  equally   gigantic 
works  occurred  far  up  the  great  rivers  of  the  coast,  as  far  up  the  Caloo- 
sahatchee,  for  instance,  as  Lake  Okeechobee  and  the  Everglades.  Every- 1 
where,  too,  these  inland   works  resembled,  with  their  surroundings — | 
embankments,  court  or  bayou-like  lakes,  canals,  graded  ways,  etc  — the| 
works  of  the  keys.     And  I  have  been  led  to  infer  that  they  actually  rep- 
resent the  first  stage  of  a  later  and  inland  phase  of  key-dweller  modes  of 
building,  and  furnish  a  hint  that,  perhaps  not  only  other  inland  mounds 
of  Florida,  but  also  the  great  and  regular  mounds  and  other  earth-works 
occurring  in  the  lowlands  of  our  Southern  and  Middle  Western  States, 
and  celebrated  as  the  remains  of  the  so-called  mound-builders,  may  like- 
wise also  be  traced,  if  not  to  this  beginning,  at  least  to  a  similar  begin- 
ning in  some  seashore  and  marshland  environment,     I  shall  therefore 
recur  to  the  subject  specifically  in  later  paragraphs. 


dishing.]  Otti  [Nov.  6, 

Immediately  after  completing  this  examination  of  what  I  regarded  as 
one  of  the  most  recent  and  highly  developed  works  of  the  ancient  key- 
builders,  I  proceeded  down  the  Sound  to  St.  James  City,  at  the  south- 
ern end  of  Pine  Island.  Fortunately  I  bore  friendly  letters  of  introduc- 
tion from  Colonel  J.  M.  Kreamer,  of  Pliiladelphia,  to  Captain  E.White- 
side, the  principal  resident  of  the  little  city.  He  welcomed  me  most 
hospitably,  and  extended  to  me  whatever  help  it  was  possible  for  him 
to  give. 

Curiously  enough,  the  three  or  four  places  next  examined  by  me  after 
my  arrival  at  St.  James  City,  were  as  illustrative  of  the  heyinriirKjs  of 
the  key-dweller  modes  of  life  as  had  been  the  remains  I  had  last  ex- 
plored, of  their  later  development. 

At  the  extreme  southeastern  point  of  Pine  Island  occurred  the  first  of 
these.  It  consisted  chiefly  of  a  single  long  and,  throughout  the  lower 
portions  of  its  course,  double-crested  shell  embankment,  from  four  to 
nine  feet  high.  I  was  at  once  struck  by  the  fact  that  this  great  shell 
ridge,  which  was  more  than  thirty -five  hundred  feet  in  length,  was  made 
up  in  parts,  or  comparatively  short,  straight  sections,  placed  end  to  end, 
so  that  its  general  contour  was  more  or  less  polygonal,  for  it  partially 
encircled  a  wide  mangrove  swamp  on  its  inner  or  landward  side,  within 
which  could  be  faintly  seen  here  and  there  low  shell-bank  enclosures 
such  as  I  have  so  frequently  described  heretofore.  I  have  said  that  this 
shell  ridge  was  in  some  places  doiible,  or  rather  double-crested.  These 
double  or  parallel  crests  along  its  summit  were  here  and  there  still  so 
sharp  that  they  distinctly  appeared  to  have  been  formed  by  deposition 
from  above.  This  suggested  to  me  that  in  the  beginning,  a  series  of 
straight,  narrow  platforms  or  scaffolds  had  been  erected  end  to  end 
over  the  curved  outlying  reef  here,  and  that  shells — perhaps  mere  refuse 
at  first,  precisely  as  I  had  imagined  when  looking  at  the  old  Fishing 
Station,  above — had  been  cast  down  along  either  side  of  these  platforms 
until  a  nucleus  of  the  ridge  was  thus  formed.  At  two  points, 
however,  the  works  had  I)een  widened  and  more  regularly  built  up,  as 
though  at  these  points  the  beginnings  of  characteristic  terraces  and  of  at 
least  one  foundation  had  been  made.  But  nowhere  else  was  there  evi- 
dence that  this  ancient  structure  had  progressed  much  beyond  its  earliest, 
its  fishiug-station-stage  of  construction.  It  appeared  to  me  that  ere  it 
had  been  possible  for  the  ancient  builders  to  carry  their  work  here 
further  towards  making  a  permanent  home,  some  hurricane  or  great 
tidal  wave  had  overwhelmed  them,  or  had  so  far  destroyed  their  station 
or  incipient  settlement  as  to  render  its  further  completion  undesirable 
or  impossible  ;  and  that  thus  we  had  preserved  to  us  in  this  place  an 
evidence  of  their  modes  of  beginning  such  stations  or  settlements. 
Again,  at  the  opposite  or  southwestern  point  or  corner  of  Pine  Island 
had  stood  another  great  shell  ridge,  higher,  wider,  generally  curved 
also,  and  a  little  further  progressed  towards  formation  as  a  i)ernia- 
nent  settlement  ;  for  at  its  upper  end  there  remained  evidence  tliat  it 


1S96.]  ^"i«^  [dishing. 

had  possessed  narrow  terraces  aud  two  or  three  considerable  founda- 
tions. The  greater  portion  of  this  work,  however,  liad  been  removed 
by  Captain  Whiteside — at  a  cost  of  more  tlian  ten  tliousand  dollars — for 
use  in  the  construction  of  a  boulevard  around  the  end  of  the  island  and 
of  crossroads  through  the  marshy  space  it  enclosed.  Miles  of  shell- 
road — the  most  beautiful  in  southwestern  Florida — had  thus  been  made, 
yet  still  the  shell  material  of  this  one  old-time  beginning  merely,  of  a 
key,  had  not  thereby  been  wholly  exhausted.  Few  relics,  other  than  a 
couple  of  skeletons  and  numerous  shreds  of  pottery  and  fragments  of 
bx'oken  shell  tools,  had  been  encountered  during  the  demolition  of  the 
structure  ;  yet  it  was  plain  that  it  had  been  built  on  low  encircling 
reefs  up  from  the  very  level  of  the  water  as  had  all  the  others. 

Another  work,  quite  similar  to  this,  but  still  undisturbed,  was  found 
by  me  straight  across  Carlos  Bay, — as  the  body  of  water  to  the  south  and 
west  of  Pine  Island  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Caloosahatchee  river  was 
called — on  one  of  the  inner  marginal  reefs  of  Sanybel  Island,  the  lower 
end  of  which  formed  here  a  great  loop  around  the  bay  aud  entrance  re- 
ferred to.  At  this  point  the  ancient  key -builders  had  succeeded  in  progress- 
ing a  stage  or  two  further  in  the  construction  of  one  of  their  settlements 
ere  they  had  been,  evidently  in  like  manner  as  at  the  other  places,  over- 
whelmed by  some  catastrophe.  Such  portions  of  the  work  as  were 
left — for  some  part  of  it  had  been  destroyed  and  washed  away  by  suc- 
cessive storms — formed  more  of  an  enclosure  of  mangrove  swamp  than 
did  either  of  those  last  described.  It  had  been  considerably  widened 
and  built  up,  at  its  middle,  and  again  towards  its  western  end.  Well- 
defined  canals  led  in  from  among  shell-bank  enclosures  within  the  man- 
grove swamp  to  both  of  these  built-up  points,  the  westernmost  termina- 
ting in  a  diminutive  inner  court.  At  both  pomts,  too,  the  foundations  of 
mound-terraces  had  been  begun.  Digging  in  towards  the  middle  of  one 
of  these  incipient  terraces  from  the  outer  shore  line,  I  encountered  not 
only  numerous  relics,  but  also  large,  flat  fragments  of  breccia-like 
cement.  Further  up,  on  the  more  level  portion  of  this  tei'race,  I  found 
that  the  cement  was  continuous  over  a  considerable  space,  but  that  the 
bed  thus  formed  abruptly  ended  along  a  line  parallel  with  the  western 
edge  or  end  of  the  elevation.  At  almost  regular  intervals  along  this 
line  occurred  holes  in  the  compact  substratum  of  shell.,  formed  by  the 
decaying  of  stout  posts  that  had  been  set  therein — as  was  shown  by  lin- 
gering traces  of  rotten  wood  that  occurred  in  each.  Thus  it  appeared 
that  this  flat  bed  of  cement  had  once  formed  a  thin  vertical  wall,  or 
rather  the  plastering  of  a  timber-supported  wall,  probably  the  end  of 
some  large  building  which  had  crowned  the  terrace,  and  that  had  fallen 
in  under  the  stress  of  some  storm  or  as  a  result  of  other  accident. 

To  ascertain  whether  the  w^orks  here  were,  like  the  outworks  of 
Demorey's  key,  originally  founded  upon  a  shallow  or  submerged  reef, 
I  caused  a  trench  several  feet  long  to  be  excavated  down  to  between 
eighteen  inches  and  two  feet  below  mean  tide-level.     I  thus  ascertained 


Gushing.]  ^"^^  [Nov.  6, 

that  here,  as  on  Demorey's  key,  the  whole  structure  had,  indeed,  been 
built  up  on  a  shoal  or  reef;  a  solid  foundation  of  very  large  conch-shells 
having  first  been  driven  into  the  original  reef,  but  not  apparently  here 
reinforced  with  clay -marl;  smaller  shells  of  many  kinds  having  then,  in 
turn,  been  piled  on  this,  and  that  finally — as  shown  by  the  talus  of  uni- 
form-sized conclis  around  the  base  of  the  terrace — the  outer  and  inner 
faces  of  the  whole  elevation  had  been  covered  over  or  faced  up  with 
courses  of  these  beautiful  shells.  The  examination  of  the  mere  begin- 
ning of  a  station  or  a  settlement  at  the  southern  end  of  Pine  Island,  then 
of  this  further  advanced  remnant  of  ancient  work,  demonstrated  to  me 
the  correctness  of  the  inference  I  ventured,  prematurely  perhaps,  to 
mention  in  an  earlier  portion  of  this  paper.  The  finding  here,  also,  of  what 
was  almost  unmistakably  the  outer  coating  or  plastering  of  a  temple  or 
some  other  kind  of  large  building  upon  one  of  the  flat  terraces  or  mounds, 
such  as  I  have  so  often  described  as  found  on  the  upper  keys  in  more 
perfected  condition,  seemed  also  to  indicate  as  unmistakably  that  these 
mounds,  wherever  found,  had  been  designed  as  the  foundations  of  such 
buildings  of  a  more  or  less  permanent  and  probably  public  or  tribal 
character. 

A  long,  very  low  sand-spit,  comparatively  narrow,  and  covered  with 
mangroves,  extended  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  curved  inner  shores 
of  Sanybel  Island,  from  very  near  the  end  of  this  ancient  settlement  to 
almost  the  end  of  the  island  itself.  This  low-  bar,  joined  by  another  that 
put  out  from  the  oppositely  curved  shore  of  the  island,  enclosed  a  round 
body  of  water  known  as  Ellis'  Bay.  I  heard  that  Captain  Ellis,  the 
long-time  resident  of  the  place,  had  found  near  his  quaint  palmetto  huts 
on  its  southern  shore,  a  few  days  previously,  some  human  bones.  I 
visited  his  place.  I  would  fain  describe  it  in  all  its  picturesqueness, — 
the  thatched  houses  irregularly  set  on  the  low  flat  stretch  of  sand,  amid 
clumps  of  native  palmettos  and  luxuriant  groves  of  lime,  orange,  and 
other  tropical  fruit  trees  ;  but  can  only  pause  to  make  due  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  whole-souled  courtesy  and  helpfulness  during  the  prosecu- 
tion of  my  hasty  excavations  there.  Behind  his  little  assemblage  of  huts, 
the  land  rose  gradually  to  a  considerable  height,  consisting  almost  whollj' 
of  sea  sand,  that  had  been  drifted  over  from  the  opposite  beaches  of  the 
gulf.  This  sand  drift  had  in  the  course  of  centuries  quite  buried  a  low  but 
extensive  ancient  shell  settlement.  A  drainage  canal,  that  had  recently 
been  dug  by  settlers  living  farther  up  the  island,  revealed  to  me  the  pre- 
viously unsuspected  presence  of  this  settlement,  and  the  fact  that  it,  like 
all  the  others  I  have  described,  had  been  built  up  originally  from  reefs 
or  shoals.  From  it,  a  sort  of  causeway  of  conch-shells  had  once  led  out 
towards  a  nearly  round,  enclosed  space,  closer  to  the  present  shore,  and 
oft"  to  the  westward  side  of  Ellis'  place.  This  enclosure  was  now,  of 
course,  filled  with  boggy  muck  and  overgrown  ;  l)ut  it  surrounded  a 
somewhat  extensive,  low  mound,  composed  in  part  of  shells  and  in  part 
of  black  soil.     The  mound  (or  hammock,  as  such  mounds  in  lowlands 


1896.]  «J4:^  [Cushiug. 

are  universally  called  in  that  section  of  tlie  country)  was  under  cultiva- 
tion as  a  vegetable  and  fruit  garden  ;  and  it  was  in  the  attempt  to  re- 
move from  it  the  roots  of  a  large  stump,  that  Captain  Ellis  had  made  the 
find  of  human  bones  I  had  heard  of.  In  excavating  near  by,  I  discov- 
ered that  the  whole  heap  was  permeated,  so  to  say,  with  broken  human 
remains  ;  large  bones  and  small,  many  of  which  had  been  split  or  shat- 
tered, mingled  with  skulls,  some  few  fortunately  still  entire,  although 
very  fragile.  I  succeeded  in  securing  eleven  of  these  skulls  before  leav- 
ing. Few  relics  of  any  other  sort,  save  now  and  then  punctured  shell 
ladles,  were  encountered  ;  but  it  was  perfectly  obvious  that  the  place  had 
been  a  true  bone-heap,  established  on  a  slight  artificial  elevation  in  the 
midst  of  an  ancient  enclosed  pond  or  water  court,  and  it  was  also  evi- 
dent that  the  human  remains  therein  deposited,  had  been  dismem- 
bered before  burial,  for  ceremonial  purposes  probably — had  been  even 
broken  up  in  some  cases.  I  later  learned  that  this  place  was  typical  of 
the  ossuaries  or  lake-enclosed  cemetries  almost  invariably  found  on  the 
ancient  keys,  and  came  to  look  upon  these  curious  little  mortuary  lakes 
or  water  courts,  with  their  overfilled  central  islets,  as  having  been  thus 
framed  and  fashioned  to  be,  as  it  were,  miniature  Keys  or  Shell  Settle- 
ments of  the  Dead  Key  Dwellers  buried  therein. 

I  believe  I  have  now  described  sufiiciently  typical  examples  of  the 
-ancient  artificial  shell  islands — or,  as  I  like  better  to  call  them,  "  Keys  " — 
of  these  inland  seas  of  the  southwestern  coast  of  Florida. 

Ere  passing  on  to  the  scene  of  our  long  continued  and  more  thorough 
examination  of  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  characteristic  of  these,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  well  for  me  to  mention  that  there  were,  in  Charlotte 
Harbor,  Pine  Island  Sound,  Caloosa  Entrance  and  Matlatcha  Bay  alone, 
more  than  seventy -five  of  them.  Forty  of  this  number  were  gigantic, 
the  rest  were  representative  of  various  stages  in  the  construction  of  such 
villages  of  the  reefs.  No  doubt  a  more  searching  exploration  of  these 
waters,  and  of  the  wide  and  forbidding  mangrove  swamps  on  contiguous 
shores  of  Sanybel,  and  of  others  of  the  outer  islands,  and  of  Pine 
Island,  as  well  as  of  the  mainland  itself,  would  reveal  manj^  others  ;  but 
the  amount  of  work  represented  even  by  the  number  I  have  already 
named  is  so  enormous  and  astounding,  that  it  cannot  be  realized  or 
appreciated  by  means  of  mere  spoken  description  or  statement. 

Beyond  the  incurving  lower  point  of  Sanybel  Island,  it  was  necessary 
to  make  the  rest  of  my  journey  through  the  open  Gulf  ;  not  that  another 
series  of  narrower  inland  seas  did  not  lie  within  similar  narrow,  sandy 
islands,  but  because  I  could  not  pause  to  examine  their  islet-studded 
reaches.  I  stopped  at  oulj^  two  places  on  ray  way  to  Kej'  Marco,  which 
was  still  between  fortj'  and  forty-five  miles  further  to  the  southward.  One 
was  at  Mound  Key  or  Johnson's  Key,  as  it  was  variously  called.  I  make 
mention  of  mj"  visit  to  the  place  principally  because  of  its  great  extent. 
It  consisted  of  a  long  series  of  enormous  elevations  crowned  by  imposing 
mounds  that  reached  an  average  altitude  of  over  sixty  feet.     They  were 

PKOC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2  R.      PRINTED  JUNE  2,  1897. 


Gushing]  d4o  [Xov.  6. 

interspersed  with  deep  inner  courts,  and  widely  surrounded  with  en- 
closures tliat  were  threaded  by  broad,  far-reaching  canals,  so  that  this 
one  key  included  an  area  of  quite  two  hundred  acres,  within  which  area 
may  be  reckoned  only  such  surface  as  had  been  actually  reclaimed  by 
the  ancient  key  builders  from  this  inland  or  shore-land  sea.  I  was  told 
by  Mrs.  Johnson,  wife  of  the  owner  of  the  place,  to  whom  good  Mrs.  Ellis 
had  kindly  given  me  a  characteristic  letter  of  introduction,  that  burial 
mounds,  not  unlike  the  one  on  the  Ellis  place,  but  larger,  occurred  in  the 
depths  of  the  wide  mangrove  swamps  that  lay  below  towards  the  main- 
land, and  that  here  on  the  heights,  many  Spanish  relics  had  been  found — 
Venetian  beads,  scraps  of  sheet  copper,  small  ornaments  of  gold  and 
silver,  and  a  copper-gilt  locket.  She  showed  me  this.  It  contained  a 
faded  portrait,  and  a  still  more  faded  letter,  written  on  yellow  parchment, 
apparently  from  some  Spanish  Grandee  of  about  two  hundred  years  ago 
to  a  resident  colonist  of  that  time. 

Whether  these  relics  indicated  tliat  here  the  ancient  key  dwellers  or 
their  mixed  descendants  had  lingered  on  into  early  historic  times,  and 
that  the  Mission  that  these  things  betokened,  had  been  established  among 
them,  or  among  alien  successors,  could  not,  of  course,  be  determined  ; 
but  around  the  lower  courts,  and  on  the  old  garden  terraces,  I  found 
abundant  specimens  of  shell  and  coarse  pottery,  characteristic  of  the  key 
dwellers  proper  who  had  ancientlj"  built  this  island,  and  since  returning 
I  have  carefully  examined  an  interesting  series  of  both  kinds  of  relics 
gathered  here  by  your  fellow-member.  Mr.  Joseph  Wilcox,  Avhich  offer 
even  better  evidence  of  this,  and  are  now  I  am  happy  to  say  preserved 
in  the  University  museum. 

I  made  only  a  brief  stop  at  Na^jles  City.  Captain  Large  of  that 
place,  to  whom  I  bore  a  letter  of  introduction,  received  me  most 
courteously,  and  showed  me,  nearby,  the  mouth  of  the  ancient  canal,  of 
which  I  had  already  heard  from  Col.  Durnford.  Except  that  it  once 
opened  in  directly  from  the  Gulf  and  had  evidently  been  designed  as  a 
canoe  pass  across  the  island,  it  was  in  many  respects  like  the  one  I  had 
examined  on  Pine  Island,  although  deeper  and  at  the  same  time  nar- 
rower. I  was  told  by.  Captain  Large  that  like  mounds,  too,  occurred 
near  its  outlet  on  the  farther  side,  and  that  it  ter;ninated  in  front  of 
some  ancient  shell  works  out  in  the  inner  bay  beyond,  similar,  I  judged, 
to  those  at  Battey's  Landing. 

From  Naples  City  the  sail  to  Marco  was  short  ;  fen-  squalls  were  rising 
out  over  the  Gulf,  making  its  opalescent  waters  tumultuous  and  mag- 
nificent, but  to  my  sailors,  terrible,  driving  us  now  and  anon  furiously 
fast  through  the  rising  billows,  what  though  our  sails  were  reefed  low. 
Big  Marco  Pass  opened  tortuously  between  two  islands  of  sand ;  the 
northern  one  narrow,  long  and  straight,  backed  by  mangrove  swamps  ; 
the  southern  one  broad,  generally  flat  but  undulating,  and  covered  with 
tall,  lank  grasses,  scattered,  scrubby  trees,  and  stately  palmettos.  The 
mangrove  swamps,  sundered  by  numerous  inlets   on  tiie   one  side,  this 


ISre.]  OttJ  [dishing. 

wide,  straight-edged  sandy  island  on  the  other,  bordered  tlie  inlet  that 
led  straight  eastward  a  mile  or  more  to  the  majestic  cocoannt  grove  that 
fronted  Collier's  Bay  and  Key  Marco.  I  will  not  describe  the  key 
greatly  in  detail,  for  an  admirable  contour  map  of  it,  made  with  great 
care  by  Mr.  Wells  M.  Sawyer,  artist  of  the  expedition  I  later  conducted 
to  the  place,  is  furnished  herewith.  The  key,  like  Battey's  Landing, 
like  Johnson's  key,  and  many  other  places  of  the  kind,  was  now  more 
or  less  connected  with  contiguous  land  ;  yet  obviously,  when  built  and 
occupied,  it  had  stood  out  in  the  open  waters.  It  was  not  even  yet 
joined  to  Caxunbas  Island,  at  the  northwestern  angle  of  which  it  stood, 
save  by  a  wide  and  long  mangrove  swamp  that  was  still  washed  daily 
by  high  tide.  As  may  be  seen  by  the  plan, — on  Plate  XXX, — 
a  number  of  long,  straight  and  narrow  canals,  terminating  in  little 
court-like  landings  and  short  graded  ways,  stretched  in  from  the 
Avestern  side,  the  lower  end  of  which  was  enclosed  and  extended 
by  a  massive,  level-topped  sea-wall,  now  used  as  a  wagon  road, 
reaching  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  into  the  mangrove  swamps,  and 
indicating  that  w'hen  it  was  Imilt,  this  had  been  the  stormward  side, 
which  it  had  therefore  been  necessary  to  protect.  There  were 
other  indications  that  the  extensive  sand  bank  or  island  which  now 
fronted  the  key  across  Collier's  Bay  on  this  gulf-w^ard  side,  as  Avell 
as  the  long  reaches  of  mangrove  swamp  to  the  southAvard,  had  all 
been  formed,  in  the  main,  since  the  date  of  its  occupancy.  This  Avas 
notably  the  case  Avith  many  other  keys  in  the  neighborhood  of  Key  Marco, 
which  keys  formed,  with  the  intermediate  mangrove  islets, — mere  seg- 
regated sections  of  swamp  they  appeared,  scarcely  rising  above  the  tide 
level, — the  northernmost  of  the  great  archipelago  of  the  Ten  Thousand 
Islands.  Explorations  among  these  border  islands,  within  a  radius  of 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  miles  around  Key  Marco,  demonstrated  the  fact 
that  on  an  average  about  one  in  every  five  of  them  was  an  ancient 
shell  settlement  or  key  proper  like  Marco  and  the  others  already 
described,  and  that  the  loAv-lying  intermediate  islets  had  mostly  been 
formed  on  shoals  caused  by  drift,  around  and  betAveen  these  obstructions 
built  by  man,  smce  the  time  of  their  occupation.  Again,  around  each 
one  of  these  more  southerly  shell  keys  or  settlements,  the  fringe  of  the 
mangrove  SAvamps  Avas  far  deeper,  or  wider,  than  around  the  more 
northerly  keys,  indicating  that  a  much  greater  time  had  elapsed  since 
their  abandonment  ;  time  enough  for  the  formation  of  many  miles  of 
sand  bank,  and  the  growth  thereon  of  the  mangrove  sAvamps  around 
and  batween  them.  Marco  inlet,  or  the  eastAvard  and  southward  exten- 
sion of  Big  Marco  Pass,  formed  to  the  northeast  and  east  of  Key  Marco 
a  comparatiA^ely  wide,  deep  bay.  The  edge  of  the  key  along  this  bay 
had  evidently  been  worn  aAvay  to  some  extent,  so  that  its  eastern  face 
afforded  in  places  sectional  views  of  its  structure  that  told  the  same 
story  with  regard  to  this  key  that  my  excavations  had  told  with  regard 
to  Demorey's  and  the  little  keys  in  the  neighborhood  of  St.  James  City  ; 


Cusliiiig.]  ^50  [Nov.  6, 

namely,  that  although  far  more  extensive  and  quite  loftj-,  this,  no  less 
than  they,  had  been  built  from  the  very  sea  level  upward.  Two  or 
three  straight,  deep  and  regular  canals  led  in  from  this  side  also,  one  in  par- 
ticular, directly  through  the  loftier  terraces  here,  to  the  central  eleva- 
tion of  the  place.  This  reached  a  height  of  only  eighteen  or  nineteen 
feet,  yet  it  was  still  remarkably  regular,  nearly  parallelogrammic,  flat- 
topped,  and  upon  its  level  summit  stood— in  place,  probably,  of  the 
ancient  temple  that  once  surmounted  it  (for  there  occurred  here,  as  on 
the  pyramid-platform  of  Demorey's  key,  an  altar-like  mound  near  the 
northern  end) — the  house  now  occupied  by  Captain  Cuthbert,  part  owner, 
Avith  Captain  Collier,  of  Key  Marco.  A  graded  way  descended  slant- 
ingly across  the  lower  end  of  this  eminence,  into  what  had  first  been  a 
central  court,  like  the  one  on  Josselyn's  key.  This,  however,  had  in 
course  of  time  been  filled  purposely,  and  the  canal  that  had  led  straight 
into  it  from  the  south  had  been  filled  in  too,  so  as  to  form  a  prolongation 
of  the  graded  way  down  to  the  edge  of  the  great  court  or  muck-filled 
bayou  that  was  embraced  within  the  two  lateral  and  southern  extensions 
of  the  key.  In  the  southeastern  portion  of  these  broad  flat  canal- 
seamed  extensions,  might  be  seen  still  two  or  three  remarkably  regular 
and  deep  circular  tanks  or  (jenotes,  as  I  have  called  them,  whence  straight 
sunken  ways  led  up  to  the  easternmost  of  the  series  of  broad  foundations 
and  mounds  that,  with  other  filled-in  garden  courts  between,  flanked  the 
central  eminence  or  temple-pj'ramid  on  either  side.  Just  inside  of  the 
sea  wall  that  protected  the  southwestern  edge  of  the  key  occurred  the 
little  triangular  muck-court  which  had  been  dug  into  first  by  Captain 
Collier,  Mr.  Wilkins,  and  Colonel  Durnford. 

I  was  most  courteously  received  by  Captain  Collier  ;  both  he  and  his 
neighbor.  Captain  Cuthbert,  gave  me  entire  freedom  to  explore  where- 
soever I  would,  and  in  whatsoever  manner.  As  may  be  seen  by  the 
accompanying  plan  of  the  "Court  of  the  Pile  Dwellers,"  (thus  I  later 
named  this  place)  I  caused  an  excavation  to  be  made  to  one  side  of  and 
just  beyond  those  that  had  been  made  by  the  gentlemen  mentioned 
(see  plan,  Plate  XXXI,  Sections  84,  44).  A  single  day's  work  in  this 
boggy,  mangrove-covered,  water-soaked,  muck  and  peat  bed,  revealed 
not  only  other  such  relics  as  I  had  found  in  the  keys  above,  but  a  con- 
siderable number  of  well-preserved  objects  of  wood,  including  more 
of  the  kind  I  had  seen  in  Colonel  Durnford's  possession,  and,  what 
was  especially  significant,  the  remains  of  short  piles,  of  slight  timbers, 
of  a  long,  beautifully  finished  spruce-wood  spar,  of  charcoal,  and 
fragments  of  indurated  material  that  had  once  formed  the  heat- 
hardened  plaster  of  hearths.  There  were  also  small  masses  of  much 
decayed  thatch,  apparently  for  house-roofing  or  siding,  I  judged,  and 
not  a  few  unfinished  objects,  to  say  nothing  of  abundant  refuse  of 
meals.  All  which  indicated  that  my  inference  in  regard  to  the  na- 
ture of  this  place  as  an  actual  site  of  former  residence  was  as  tenable 
as   had   been  the  more    general  conclusion  that  it    was  not  a  solitary 


ISOfi.]  OO-L  [Cuf5hing. 

example  of  its  kind.  Key  Marco,  water-courts,  canals,  elevations, 
central  mounds,  cistern  holes,  garden  terraces  and  all,  was,  that  is, 
but  another  such  as  were  tlie  keys  further  north.  I  scarcely  paused 
in  this  preliminary  reconnaissance  to  do  more  than  determine  this 
most  significant  point,  but  prosecuted  the  excavation  only  during  a 
portion  of  the  following  day,  then  packed  vip  my  already  considerable 
collection,  and  securing  permission  from  Captain  Collier,  to  bring  men 
and  more  thoroughly  excavate  the  place  another  year,  returned  to  St. 
James  City. 

There,  with  Captain  Whiteside's  ready  help,  I  secured  the  services  of 
an  intelligent  and  interested  Scotchman,  Alexander  Montgomery  by 
name,  and  of  Johnny  Smith,  an  active  and  bright  young  pilot  of  the  place. 
With  them,  I  reexamined  and  excavated  to  some  extent,  in  the  keys  I 
had  already  seen,  and  in  some  others  around  Pine  Island  ;  finding  only 
more  and  more  reason  to  regard  them  as  of  such  kind  as  I  have  already 
described. 

The  rainy  season  had  set  in.  The  heat  was  excessive,  although  it  was 
only  early  June.  The  mosquitoes  and  sand  flies  swarmed  forth  from  the 
mangroves  in  such  clouds  that  wherever  we  dug,  except  on  one  or  two 
of  the  comparatively  barren  and  lofty  keys,  it  was  necessary  for  us  to 
build  smudge-fires  all  around  us  and  bi'eathe  their  pungent  smoke  in 
order  to  be  free  from  these  irritating  creatures.  I  mention  this,  not  be- 
cause I  was  forced  to  abandon  work  thereby,  but  since  it  offered  one 
more  explanation — an  important  one,  it  seemed  to  me — of  the  causes 
that  had  led  to  the  building  and  occupation  of  these  ancient  keys  so  far 
out  in  the  shallow  but  open  waters,  where,  ere  the  mangroves  grew, 
men  were  comparatively  free  from  these  pests  of  life  in  southern  Florida 

These  additional  explorations  quite  convinced  me  that  in  those  yet 
unnumbered  tropic  islands  lay  a  vast,  comparatively  new  and  very 
promising  field  for  archaeological  research,  and  with  this  thought  and 
its  warrant  in  the  way  of  collections,  I  hastened  back  to  Philadelphia 
and  made  report  to  Doctor  Pepper. 

Organization  of  the  Pepper-Hearst  Archaeological 
Expedition. 

I  am  happy  to  say  that  Dr.  Pepper,  with  the  ready  aid  of  several  of 
his  friends  and  associates,  immediately  planned  to  fit  out  under  my  di- 
rection, during  the  following  winter,  an  expedition  for  the  more  com- 
plete exploration  of  this  interesting  region.  At  a  meeting  held  soon 
after  my  return,  Mr.  Jacob  Disston  generously  volunteered  not  only  to 
make  a  contribution — as  did  several  other  Associates  of  the  Archa:ologi- 
cal  Department  of  the  University,  whom  I  would  fain  mention — but, 
also,  to  turn  over  for  our  use  his  schooner,  the  Silver  Spray,  belong- 
ing to  a  fleet  of  sponging  vessels  at  Tarpon  Springs,  some  twenty -five 
miles  north  of  Tampa,  on  the  west  coast  of  Florida.     Almost  as  speedily. 


dishing.]  dO-j  [Soy.  6, 

too,  Major  J.  W.  Powell,  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethuologj-, 
provisionallj^  granted  me  leave,  and  promise  of  official  recognition  and 
assistance  in  the  conduct  of  this  proposed  expedition  in  the  joint  interest 
of  the  Bureau  itself,  and  of  the  Department  of  Archteology  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania. 

Funds  were  placed  at  my  disposal  by  Dr.  Pepper  late  in  November, 
1896,  and  happily  I  was  able  to  secure  the  volunteer  services  of  Mr. 
AVells  M.  Sawj^er,  to  be  Artist  and  Photographer  of  the  expedition  ;  of 
Mr.  Irving  Sayford,  of  Harrisburg,  to  be  its  Field  Secretary  ;  and,  for  a 
small  salary,  of  Mr.  Carl  F.  W.  Bergmann,  previously  trained  as  a 
Preparator  of  Collections,  in  the  United  States  National  Museum. 

The  Clyde  Line  Steamship  Company  again  laid  us  under  obligation 
by  furnishing  passes  for  all  of  these  gentlemen,  from  New  York  City  to 
Jacksonville  and  Sanford.  They  left  Washington  on  the  fourth  day 
of  December.  Two  daj's  later,  Mrs.  Cushing  and  I  left  overland,  and 
joined  them  at  Jacksonville.  Without  delay  we  proceeded  thence  via 
Sanford,  to  Tarpon  Springs. 

Explorations  in  the  Region  ok  Takpon  Springes. 

Unfortunately  I  found  that  the  Silver  Spray  had  but  recently  been 
sent  away  on  another  sponging  cruise,  and  that  I  could  not  expect  her 
return  for  some  time.  Anxious  as  I  was  to  proceed  with  the  explora- 
tion of  the  shores  and  keys  further  to  the  southward,  nevertheless,  it 
became  necessarj"-,  in  order  that  time  be  not  lost,  to  prosecute  investiga- 
tions in  the  less  novel,  but  still,  archseologically  rich  fields  around  Tar- 
pon Springs  and  in  the  region  of  the  x\nclote  river, — ^upon  a  bayou  of 
which  this  beautiful  little  winter  resort  was  situated. 

Since  Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore,  of  this  city,  has  for  a  number  of  years 
conducted,  with  rare  skill  and  great  success,  explorations  among  mounds 
and  the  ancient  camp  sites  of  other  more  easterly  portions  of  Florida 
and  since  the  collections  he  has  gathered  there,  more  or  less  resem- 
ble those  that  we  were  able  to  gather  in  the  burial  mounds  and  camp 
sites  of  the  Tarpon  Springs  region,  and  have  been  admirably  illus- 
trated to  the  world  in  his  various  monographs,  I  will,  in  this  paper, 
pass  over  the  results  of  our  explorations  there  very  lightly. 

We  met  helpful  friends  at  Tarpon  Springs.  Messrs.  Cheyney  and 
Marvin  assigned  to  us  comfortable  quarters  in  one  of  their  hotel  cot- 
tages and  subsequentlj'  aided  us  in  many  ways  ;  and  it  was  my  especial 
good  fortune  to  meet  Mr.  Leander  T.  Satibrd,  adopted  son  of  the 
founder  of  Tarpon  Springs,  and  to  be  conducted  bj'  him,  on  the  very 
day  of  our  arrival,  to  an  ancient  burial  mound  lying  at  the  foot  of  the 
village,  on  land  belonging  to  the  Satford  Estates.  This  little  mound 
was  low  and  apparently  unimportant,  for  it  had  been  superficially  hon- 
eycombed by  relic  hunters  ;  yet  a  few  scattered  fragments  of  bone, 
associated  with  mortuary  potsherds,  indicated  to  nu'  not  onlj'  that  it  iiad 
been  extraordinarily  rich  in  l)urials,  l)ut,  also,  that  in  its  depths  many  of 


18%.]  ^'^O  [Gushing. 

the  interments  still  remained  undisturbed.  Accordingly  I  forthwith 
engaged  workmen  to  excavate  it  systematically  and  thoroughly — a  labor 
that  occupied  several  weeks.  During  its  progress,  however,  we  encoun- 
tered the  remains  of  more  than  six  hundred  skeletons.  These,  with 
notable  exceptions — probably  those  of  chiefs  and  head  men — had  been 
dismembered  previouslj^  to  interment,  but  were  distributed  in  distinct 
groups  that  I  regarded  as  communal  or  totemic  and  phratral,  and  of 
exceeding  interest  ;  for  they  seemed  to  indicate  that  the  burial-mound 
had  been  regarded  by  its  builders  as  a  tribal  settlement,  a  sort  of  "Little 
City  of  their  Dead,"  and  that  if  so,  it  might  be  looked  on  as  still,  in  a 
measure,  representing  the  distribution  and  relations  of  the  clans  and 
phratries  in  an  actual  village  or  tribal  settlement  of  these  people  when 
living.  Moreover,  in  the  minor  disposition  of  the  skeletons  that  had 
not  been  scattered,  but  had  been  buried  in  packs,  or  else  entire  and 
extended,  in  sherd-lined  graves  or  wooden  cists  within  and  around  each 
of  these  groups,  it  seemed  possible  to  still  trace  somewhat  of  the  relative 
ranks  of  individuals  in  these  groups,  and  not  a  few  of  the  social  customs 
and  religious  beliefs  of  the  ancient  builders.  This  possibility  was  still 
further  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  with  the  skeletal  remains  were  associ- 
ated, in  ditiering  ways,  many  superb  examples  of  pottery  and  sacrificial 
potsherds,  and  numerous  stone,  shell  and  bone  iitensils,  weapons,  and 
ornaments.  That  the  SafFord  mound  was  tj'pical  was  conclusively 
shown  when  we  were  permitted  hj  Captain  Hope,  of  Anclote,  to  exca- 
vate a  similar,  although  larger  and  higher  mound,  on  land  of  his  at 
Finley  Hammock,  some  nine  miles  to  the  northwestward  of  Tarpon 
Springs,  and  when  we  found  there  also,  abundant  similar  interments 
and  relics  of  like  kinds,  similarly  distributed. 

Of  all  the  art  remains  we  recovered  from  these  two  mounds,  none 
possessed  greater  interest  than  the  pottery.  Considerable  numbers  of 
unusual  forms  were  found,  including  terra-cotta  drums,  tall,  very  ornate 
cups  or  vases,  and  small  flat -bottomed  bowls,  decorated  by  means  of 
etched  and  carved  lines,  some  of  these  carved  designs  being  maskoidal 
in  character,  and  obviously  derived,  as  were  the  stamped  and  otherwise 
wrought  surface  designs  on  countless  sherds  in  the  collection,  from 
woodenware  forms  and  designs.  By  far  the  most  interesting  class  of 
this  pottery  was,  however,  such  of  it  as  had  been  decorated  by  puncta- 
tion— literally  by  tattooing — not  merely,  I  judged,  in  imitation  of  tat- 
tooed totemic  designs  on  the  persons  of  those  who  had  made  and  used 
it, — but  in  an  effort  to  veritably  transfer  or  reproduce  these  designs  ; 
so  that  in  studying  them  I  recognized  much  in  regard  to  the  totemic 
organization,  and  still  more  in  relation  to  the  mythic  concepts  of  their 
makers.  I  also  perceived  in  these  significances  and  designs,  some  of 
Avhich  correlated  perfectly  with  those  shown  on  the  paintings  of  Florida 
Indians  given  me  by  my  lamented  friend,  the  late  Doctor  G.  Brown 
Goode,  and  reproduced  from  water  colors  made  by  the  Limner  of  Lau- 
donnier's  Expedition  to  Florida  more  than  three  hundred  years  ago — 


Gushing.]  tJ^*  [Nov.  6, 

the  first  clear  evidence  thus  far  known  to  us,  of  that  kind  of  personifica- 
tion-transfer by  means  of  tattoo  or  paint,  with  which  primitive  artists 
seem  ever  to  have  sought  to  animate  tlieir  own  particular  utensils — food 
and  water  vessels  especially — and  to  thus  relate  them  personally  to 
themselves.  And  I  can  safely  say  that  a  prolonged  study  of  these  col- 
lections, so  strikingly  and  unusually  suggestive  in  this  respect,  would 
throw  more  light  upon  primitive  decorations,  as  being  in  the  nature  of 
symbolic  investures,  not  primarily  of  artistic  and  aesthetic  expression, 
than  any  others  yet,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  gathered. 

There  was  a  feature  in  connection  with  these  Tarpon  Springs  and 
Anclote  burial-mounds,  that  was  more  specifically  significant  to  me.  All 
of  them  were  surrounded  by  what  at  first  appeared  to  be  moats.  Exca- 
vation made  it  evident,  however,  that  in  case  of  at  least  the  Saft'ord  and 
Hope  mounds,  these  encircling  depressions  were  rather  the  borders  of 
artificial  basins,  which  had  been  not  only  purposely,  but  also  most 
laboriously,  hollowed  out,  and  in  the  midst  of  which,  it  was  clear, 
the  mounds  had  been  built,  not  at  once,  but  in  stages,  corresponding  to 
successive  periods  of  interment ;  for  they  were  distinctly  stratified,  and 
moreover  the  remains  in  the  lowermost  stratum  occurred  at  a  depth 
greater  than  that  of  the  muck-filled  bottoms  of  the  moat-like  depressions 
surrounding  them.  This  lake-mound  kind  of  burial  seemed  to  indicate 
survival  of  key -dweller  modes  of  burial — hence  its  specific  significance 
to  me.  That  is,  I  looked  upon  it  as  probably  being  a  later,  an  inland 
form  of  bone  deposition  in  an  enclosed  water-,  or  lake-court — here  imi- 
tative, no  doubt — such  as  I  had  examined  at  Ellis'  Place  on  Sanybel 
Island.  Moreover,  the  "Hammocks"  or  inland  shell-heaps  or  camp- 
sites, associated  with  these  burial-mounds  of  the  Tarpon  Springs  and 
Anclote  region  likewise  possessed  key-dweller  features  ;  in  the  earth- 
works, graded  w^ays,  artificial  lakes  or  pond-holes,  and  canals  usually 
contained  within  or  around  them  ;  as  though  these,  in  turn,  were  survi- 
vals of  or  were  copied  from  key-dweller  modes  of  settlement — the  works 
of  successors  or  descendants  of  the  key  dwellers  following  out  here  in 
the  marshes  of  the  mainland,  their  characteristic — and  erstwhile  neces- 
sary— modes  of  building  and  settlement  in  the  shallow  seas.  From  all 
this  and  from  evidence  of  similar  survival  in  art  shown  abundantly  by 
the  collections  we  gathered  from  these  mounds  and  camp-sites  of  the 
northerly  Gulf  region,  I  believed  that  a  bridge,  alike  in  time  and  in  art 
and  cultural  development,  might  be  established  between  the  pristine 
key  dwellers  of  the  South,  as  exemplified  by  their  great  sliell  structures, 
fish  courts,  mound  terraces,  and  works  in  wood  and  shell,  and  the  liis- 
toric  mound-building  Indians  not  only  of  northern  Florida,  but  also,  pos- 
sibly even  of  our  nearer  Southern  States — as  pictured  by  the  early 
chroniclers — who  describe  them  as  having  been  settled  in  lowland 
villages  clustering  around  mounds  or  pyramids  of  earth  that  were  sur- 
mounted by  temples  and  otlicr  public  buildings,  approached  by  canoe 
channels  and  graded  ways,  provided  with  fish-ponds  or  lakes,  and  with 
temples  of  the  dead  sequestered  in  nearby  deep  Ibrests  or  swamps. 


1896.]  OOb  [Gushing. 

The   Cruise   to   the   Ten  Thousand   Islands    and    Preliminary 
Operations  at  Key  Marco. 

The  Silver  Spray  was  tardy  iu  returning,  and,  withal,  had  to  be  over- 
hauled. Thus  it  was  not  until  late  in  February  that  we  were  able  to 
fully  equip  her  and  get  under  way  for  the  southern  keys — explorations  in 
which  had  been  from  the  beginning,  the  main  object  of  the  Expedition. 
We  were  provided  with  provisions  for  two  months,  and  with  a  working 
outfit  which,  although  the  best  I  could  purchase  on  the  west  coast  of 
Florida,  would  have  proven  all  too  inadequate  but  for  the  kindness  of 
friends  before  mentioned,  and  in  particular,  of  a  resident  of  your  city 
and  member  of  your  University  Archieological  Association,  Mrs  Richard 
Levis,  who,  with  her  friend,  Mrs.  George  Inness,  was  passing  the  winter 
in  her  charming  place  at  Tarpon  Springs,  and  who  insisted  on  adding 
needed  supplies  to  our  limited  store,  and  little  comforts  to  our  else 
rather  barren  cabins.  We  had  reason  enough  to  be  grateful  to  them 
during  our  long  continued  stay  in  the  more  inaccessible  waters  of  the 
farther  South. 

In  addition  to  Mrs.  Gushing,  myself,  and  Messrs.  Sawyer,  Say  ford  and 
Bergmann,  my  crew  consisted  of  Antonio  Gomez,  Sailing-Master ; 
Thomas  Brady,  Mate  ;  Alfred  Hudson,  Robert  Clark  and  Frank  Barnes, 
Sailors  and  Excavators ;  George  Gause,  Chief  Excavator ;  George 
Hudson  (colored).  Cook;  George  Dorsett  (colored),  Steward;  and  I 
later  employed  John  Calhoun  continuously,  and  other  workmen,  from 
time  to  time,  to  assist  .in  the  excavations.  I  make  mention  of  the  names 
of  these  men  in  order  to  express  appreciation  of  the  faithful  and  patient 
manner  iu  which  they  performed  their  duties  and  assisted  me  throughout 
many  trying  days  of  labor  in  the  water-soaked,  foul-smelling  muck  and 
peat  beds  of  Marco  and  neighboring  keys.  My  acknowledgments  are 
especially  due  to  Gause,  young  Hudson,  and  Clark,  who  continually 
worked  in  the  muck  holes  side  by  side  with  Mr.  Bergmann  and  myself, 
and  to  whose  painstaking  care  and  attention  it  is  due  that  many  a  fragile 
treasure  was  saved  from  destruction. 

Tlie  voyage  from  Tarpon  Springs  to  Marco,  including  a  stop  at  Pine 
Island  for  mail  and  for  taking  in  of  fuel  and  water,  occupied  less  than 
three  days,  and  as  there  was  a  steady  Gulf  breeze  and  the  tides  were 
unusually  high,  we  were  able  to  make  the  difficult  pass  into  Marco  Inlet 
without  hindrance.  There,  just  to  the  northeast  of  the  key,  we 
anchored  at  a  sufficient  distance  off  shore  to  protect  us  measurably  from 
the  mosquitoes,  and  there  our  little  craft  rode  at  anchor  during  the  two 
months  occupied  in  the  excavations  and  in  my  various  expeditions  to 
surrounding  keys — for  these  were  made  in  a  liglit-draught,  double- 
sailed  sharpie,  that  had  been  fitted  up  and  generously  turned  over  for 
our  use  by  Mr.  Cheney. 

Immediately  on  arriving  at  Key  Marco,  I  made  arrangements  with 
Captain  Collier  whereby,  in  return  for  saving  such  muck  as  we  should 

PROC.  AMEH.  PHIL08.  SOC.  XXXV.  158.  3  S.      PRINTED  JUNE  5,   1897. 


Cushi-ng.]  dob  [Nov.  6, 

turn  over  in  our  excavations,  I  would  be  permitted  to  retain  all  objects 
discovered,  and  if  desirable,  to  exploit  the  little  triangular  "  Court  of  the 
Pile  Dwellers"  from  border  to  border.  It  lay,  as  I  have  said,  close 
alongside  the  sea-wall  at  the  southwestern  edge  of  the  key  and  just 
below  a  succession  of  shell  benches,  themselves  formerly  abandoned 
and  filled-up  courts  of  a  similar  character.  The  side  opposite  the  sea- 
wall, that  is  on  the  east,  was  formed  by  an  extended  ridge — scarcely 
less  high  than  the  sea-wall  itself,  and  likewise  composed  of  well-com- 
pacted shells.  Around  the  upper  end,  and  down  the  outer  side  of  this 
ridge,  led— as  indicated  in  plan,  Plate  XXXI — an  inlet  canal,  bordered 
by  similar  ridges  beyond,  and  joined  by  an  outlet  canal  at  the  lower 
end — that  continued  through  various  low-banked  enclosures  in  the  man- 
grove swamps  toward  the  south,  quite  down  to  the  terminus  of  the  sea- 
wall itself. 

The  entire  court  was  thickly  overgrown  with  mangrove  trees,  under- 
neath which  also  thickly  grew,  to  a  uniform  height  of  six  or  eight  inches, 
bright  green  aquatic  weeds  and  mangrove  shoots.  Since  the  interior  of 
this  artificial  and  filled-up  bayou  was  still  not  above  the  level  of  the 
surrounding  tide-swept  mangrove  swamps  through  which  the  canals  led, 
it  lay  almost  continually  under  water,  and  its  excavation  looked  at  first 
to  be  almost  impossible,  and  at  best  a  most  formidable  undertaking.  It 
would  be  necessary  to  cut  away  and  uproot  the  mangroves  and  in  some 
way  to  remove  the  water  that  filled  to  overflowing  the  excavations  which 
had  formerly  been  made,  and  thus  covered  the  entire  court.  To  begin,  I 
had  a  few  of  the  trees  cleared  away  fi'om  the  outer  and  southwesterly  cor- 
ner, and  opposite  my  old  excavation  in  sections  34,  44,  had  a  trench  cut 
through  the  sea-wall  to  as  great  a  depth  as  possible  without  letting  water 
in  from  the  bay  outside.  I  then  had  a  long  trough  of  ship  planks  con- 
structed and  placed  on  stakes  driven  deep  into  the  muck  bed,  so  that  one 
end  rested  over  the  excavation  and  the  other,  lower  end,  in  the  mouth  of 
the  sluice-way  through  the  sea-wall.  Then  laying  heavy  planks  over  the 
boggy  surface  to  furnish  foothold  for  the  men,  I  set  them  at  work  baling 
out  the  old  excavation  with  buckets.  It  was  at  first  like  trying  to  bale 
out  the  sea  itself,  for  water  flowed  in  as  fast  as  taken  out ;  but  after  two  or 
three  hours  of  steady  work,  it  began  to  lower,  not  only  in  the  excavation, 
but  over  the  entire  court,  and  toward  evening  it  became  possible  to  even 
begin  the  extension  of  this  original  excavation  in  the  direction  of  the 
cleared  corner  of  the  court.  On  the  following  morning,  however,  there 
was  almost  as  much  water  in  the  excavation  thus  enlarged,  and  else- 
where, as  on  the  previous  day  ;  but  it  was  much  sooner  disposed  of  by 
baling  and  by  the  banking  up  of  the  place  last  excavated,  and  I  soon 
found  that  by  thus  proceeding  each  morning  for  a  couple  of  liours  more 
or  less,  the  water  could  be  kept  sufficiently  low  to  enable  us,  working  in 
sections,  or  bins  as  it  were  (roughly  corresponding  to  tliose  sliown  in  the 
plan),  to  excavate  the  entire  place.  Yet,  even  thus,  mucii  of  our  search 
in  the  lower  depths  had  to  be  made  merely  by  feeling  with  the  fingers. 


1896.]  ODi  [Gushing. 

I  deem  it  unnecessary  to  give  further  details  of  our  operations,  save  to 
say  that  three  or  four  of  us  worked  side  by  side  in  eacli  section,  digging 
inch  by  incli,  and  foot  by  foot,  horizontally  through  the  muck  and  rich 
lower  strata,  standing  or  crouching  the  while  in  puddles  of  mud  and 
water  ;  and  as  tims  went  on  we  were  pestered  morning  and  evening  by 
swarms  and  clouds  of  mosquitoes  and  sand-flies,  and  during  the  midhours 
of  the  day,  tormented  by  the  fierce  tropic  sun  heat,  pouring  down,  even 
thus  early  in  the  season  into  this  little  shut-up  hollow  among  the  breath- 
less mangroves.  After  the  first  day's  work,  however,  I  was  left  no  longer 
in  doubt  as  to  the  unique  outcome  of  our  excavations,  or  as  to  the  desir- 
ability of  searching  through  the  entire  contents  of  the  court,  howsoever 
difficult  the  task  might  prove  to  be ;  for  relics  not  only  of  the  kind  already 
described,  but  of  new  and  even  more  interesting  varieties,  began  at  once 
to  be  found,  and  continued  to  be  found  increasingly  as  we  went  on  day 
after  day,  throughout  the  entire  five  weeks  of  our  work  in  this  one  little 
place.  I  may  be  permitted  to  add  that  never  in  all  my  life,  despite  the 
sutt'e rings  this  labor  involved,  was  I  so  fascinated  with  or  interested  in 
anything  so  much,  as  in  the  finds  thus  daily  revealed.  Partaking  of  my 
enthusiasm,  the  men,  too,  soon  became  so  absorbed  that  they  actually 
hated  to  see  the  sun  go  down  and  to  thus  be  compelled  to  abandon  their 
work  even  until  the  coming  of  another  da}'. 

As  the  northwesterly  half  of  the  court  became  cleared  of  its  contents, 
and  the  bottom  was  thus  more  and  more  revealed,  we  found  that  it  was 
generally  concave,  or  perh  ips  I  may  say,  tray-shaped;  that  is,  compara- 
tively shallow  at  the  sides — not  more  than  from  eighteen  inches  to  three 
feet  deep — but  throughout  the  middle  and  thence  toward  the  mouths  of 
the  two  canals,  from  four  and-a-half  to  five-and-a-half  feet  deep. 
Extending  along  the  bottom,  in  toward  this  central  deeper  portion,  from 
both  the  southwesterly  and  northwesterly  margins  at  about  equidistant 
intervals  of  twenty  feet,  were  several  straight,  low  benches  or  tongues, 
of  compacted  shell  and  tough  clay-marl  (shown  in  plan,Plate  XXXI),  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  long  and  ft-om  eight  to  twelve  feet  wide,  level 
on  top  and  built  to  a  height  gradually  increasing  from  a  few  inches, 
where  they  joined  the  boundary  banks,  to  nearly  two  feet  at  their  rounded 
ends,  so  as  to  form  low,  originally  submerged,  slightly  inclining  piers,  as 
it  were.  Along  the  opposite  or  eastcn  side  was  a  similar,  although  con- 
tinuous bench,  uniformly  some  fifteen  feet  wide  from  its  rounded  upper 
end  just  below  the  mouth  of  the  inlet  canal,  to  a  point  about  thirty  feet 
below,  whence  it  gradually  narrowed  to  a  width  of  less  than  eight  feet 
at  its  lower  end  near  the  mouth  of  the  outlet  canal.  Finally,  across  the 
extreme  upper  end  or  corner  of  the  court,  that  is  just  to  the  left  of  and 
above  the  mouth  of  the  same  inlet  canal,  extended  a  like,  although  slightly 
wider  and  shorter  bench.  Thus  the  whole  central  portion  of  the  court, 
as  well  as  the  spaces  between  the  tongues  or  benches,  liad  been  left 
open  and  deep,  as  if  for  the  free  passage  of  canoes.  Along  the  sides  and 
around  the  ends  of  these  in-reaching  benches  of  shell  and  clay,  occur- 


Cnshiiig.]  Obo  I  ^^y  6_ 

red  numerous  piles  ot  various  lengths,  all,  however,  comparatively  short, 
blunt-pointed  at  their  lower  ends,  and  either  squared  or  else  rudely 
notched  at  their  upper  ends — some  of  them  slantingly  bored  down  the 
sides — and  there  occurred  also  many  stakes  and  timbers ;  as  though  these 
benches  had  been  built  to  serve  actuality  as  piers  or  the  foundations  for 
long,  pile-supported  quays  or  scatfolds  ;  upon  which,  I  concluded — from 
the  character  of  many  lesser  remains  that  we  continually  found — had 
been  constructed,  side  by  side  all  around  the  court,  comparatively  long, 
narrow,  and  low,  thatched  and  latticed  houses.  At  any  rate  it  was  over 
and  around  these  benches  that  the  principal  finds,  inclusive  of  numerous 
household  articles,  were  made. 

The  surface  deposit  throughout  the  entire  court  consisted  of  a  stratum 
of  spongy  black  or  dark  brown  muck,  permeated  by  both  rotting  and 
living  rootlets.  It  was,  as  shown  in  section  on  Plate  XXXI,  thin  at  the 
margins,  but  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  thick  throughout  the  middle. 
Below  this  was  a  somewhat  thicker  stratum  of  brownish  gray  peaty  marl, 
soft,  tremulous,  exceedingly  foul-smelling,  and  rich  in  the  best  preserved 
relics  we  discovered.  This  stratum  directly  overlaid  and  surrounded  the 
benches  I  have  described.  Finally  underneath  it,  between  the  benches 
and  throughout  the  middle  of  the  court,  was  a  less  well-defined  laj'cr  of 
less  peaty  marl,  intermixed  with  shells  and  other  debris,  and  also  with 
abundant  ancient  remains — which,  indeed,  we  continued  to  encounter 
even  in  the  underlying,  comparatively  firm  shell  and  claj'-marl  bottom. 
This,  however,  although  nearly  a  foot  and  a  half  thick,  we  could  not 
venture  to  excavate,  since  the  slightest  opening  made  through  it  into 
the  sandy  reef  below  let  in  a  steady  stream  of  water  from  the  sea. 

The  objects  found  by  us  in  these  deposits  were  in  various  conditions 
of  preservation,  from  such  as  looked  fresh  and  almost  new,  to  such  as 
could  scarcely  be  traced  through  or  distinguished  from  the  briny  peat 
mire  in  which  they  were  embedded.  They  consisted  of  wood,  cordage 
and  like  perishable  materials  associated  with  implements  and  ornaments 
of  more  enduring  substances,  such  as  shell,  bone  and  horn — for  only  a 
few  shaped  of  stone  were  encountered  during  the  entire  search. 

Articles  of  wood  far  outnumbered  all  others.  I  was  astounded  to  soon 
find  that  many  of  these  had  been  painted  with  black,  white,  gray-blue, 
and  brownish-red  pigments  ;  and  that  while  the  wood  itself  was  so 
decayed  and  soft  that  in  many  cases  it  was  ditflcult  to  distinguish  the 
fibre  of  even  large  objects  of  it,  either  by  sight  or  by  touch,  from  the 
muck  and  peat  in  which  they  were  unequally  distributed,  but  now  more 
or  le«s  integrated  ;  yet  when  discoverable  in  time  to  be  cautiously  uncov- 
ered and  washed  off"  by  the  splashing  or  trickling  of  water  over  them 
from  a  sponge,  their  for.ns  appeared  not  'only  almost  perfect,  but  also 
deceptively  well  preserved,  so  that  I  at  first  thought  we  might,  Avith 
sufficient  care,  recover  nearly  all  of  them  uninjured.  This  was  especi- 
ally true  of  such  as  had  been  decorated  with  the  pigments  ;  for  owing  to 
the  presence  in  these  pigments  of  a  gum-like  and  comparatively  insolu- 


1896.]  Ob.f  [OuShing. 

ble  sizing,  the  coatings  of  color  were  often  relatively  better  preserved 
than  the  woodj^  substance  they  covered,  and  enabled  us  the  more  readily 
to  distinguish  the  outlines  of  these  painted  objects— when  else  some  had 
been  partially  destroyed  or  altogether  missed — and  also  enabled  us  to  take 
them  up  on  broad,  flat  shovels,  and  to  more  deliberately  divest  them  of 
the  muck  and  peat  that  so  closely  cliiug  to  them. 

Some  of  the  things  thus  recovered  could  be  preserved  by  very  slow 
drying,  but  it  soon  became  evident  that  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
them  could  not  be  kept  intact.  No  matter  how  perfect  they  were  at  first, 
they  warped,  shrunk,  split,  and  even  checked  across  the  grain,  like  old 
charcoal,  or  else  were  utterly  disintegrated  on  being  exposed  to  the  light 
and  air  if  only  for  a  few  hours.  Thus,  despite  the  fact  that  after  remov- 
ing the  surface  muck  from  the  sections,  we  dug  only  with  little  hand- 
trowels  and  flexible-pronged  garden  claws — and,  as  I  have  said  before, 
with  our  fingers — yet  fully  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  these  ancient  articles 
in  wood  and  other  vegetal  material  were  destroyed  in  the  search  ;  and 
again,  of  those  found  and  removed,  not  more  than  one-half  retained 
their  original  forms  unaltered  for  more  than  a  few  days. 

Unique  to  archfieology  as  these  things  were,  it  was  distressing  to  feel 
that  even  by  merely  exposing  and  inspecting  them,  we  were  dooming  so 
many  of  them  to  destruction,  and  to  think  that  of  such  as  we  could  tem- 
porarily recover  only  the  half  could  be  preserved  as  permanent  examples 
of  primitive  art. 

I  sought  by  every  means  at  our  disposal  to  remedy  these  difficulties, 
but  I  soon  found  that  the  time  thus  required,  and  the  cost  of  additional 
preservatives — if  such  could,  indeed,  be  found,  for  ordinary  glue,  shellac, 
and  silicate  of  soda,  proved  to  be  comparatively  inefficient — would 
increase  the  cost  of  our  operations  considerably  beyond  my  original 
estimates  upon  which  appropriation  had  been  made. 

In  this  extremity  I  wrote  to  Major  Powell,  asking  for  suggestions  as  to 
methods  for  preserving  our  finds,  and  at  the  same  time  to  Doctor  Pepper, 
urging  an  additional  appropriation.  I  was  loath  to  do  this,  being  well 
aware  that  the  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  Department  he  represented 
were  already  overtaxed  by  the  many  explorations  progressing  under  his 
direction  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  My  relief  of  mind  may  be  better 
imagined  than  described,  when  I  say  that  as  speedily  as  the  mails  could 
bring  a  letter  from  Doctor  Pepper,  he  assured  me  that  my  operations 
looking  toward  the  proper  completion  of  our  excavations  and  preserva- 
tion of  our  collections  Avould  be  supported  to  the  extent  required.  It 
was  not  until  afterward  that  I  learned  how  a  friend  whom  to  know  is  to 
honor  and  revere,  a  friend  to  education  and  scientific  research  and 
human  need  wherever  found,  Mrs.  Phebe  A.  Hearst,  had,  as  a  member 
of  the  Department  of  Archteology  and  Palaeontology,  come  to  our  res- 
cue. The  gratification  I  feel  in  announcing  the  augmented  success  of 
our  researches,  thenceforward,  is  enhanced  by  the  thought  that  I  may 
here  say  how  much  this  success  was  due  to  her  instant  recognition  of  the 
promise  and  significance  of  our  finds. 


dishing.]  dbO  [Xov.  6, 

Whilst  I  was  still  awaiting  replj'  from  my  Director,  Major  J.  W. 
Powell,  and  wonclering  as  to  the  possible  outcome  of  our  undertakings — 
as  to  whether  the  extent  of  the  field  we  had  opened  could,  wilh  such  rel- 
atively imperfect  results  as  I  then  looked  for,  be  sufficiently  represented  to 
the  scientific  world  to  command  due  recognition  of  its  significance  eth- 
nographically,  I  was  happily  honored  by  au  unannounced  visit  from 
Major  Powell  himself.  Instead  of  replying  to  my  letter,  he  had  imme- 
diately set  out  to  visit  us,  in  order  to  aid  personally  and  on  the  spot  in 
devising  means  for  the  preservation,  if  not  of  the  collections,  at  least  of 
a  full  and  adequate  record  of  our  finds  and  discoveries.  I  had,  there- 
fore, the  combined  pleasure  and  advantage  of  exhibiting  to  him,  alike 
the  field  of  my  observations  and  the  results  of  our  researches  therein, 
and  of  gaining  from  him  the  approval  of  his  trusted  judgment  as  to  not 
only  these  results,  but  also  as  to  the  methods  whereby  they  had  been 
achieved. 

At  this  time,  however,  the  season  of  rain  and  excessive  heat  had  set 
in,  rendering  it  certain  that  the  days  of  the  expedition  in  that  section 
were  numbered.  Therefore  after  carefully  inspecting  our  collections. 
Key  Marco,  and  other  typical  shell  settlements  in  that  portion  of  the 
Ten  Thousand  Islands,  Major  Powell  urgently  counseled  me  to  confine 
operations  thenceforward  to  the  completion  of  excavations  in  this  one 
little  court  of  the  pile  dwellers,  and  therewith  to  close  for  the  season  a 
work  which  he  again  assured  me  was  of  unusual  architologic  significance 
and  capable,  he  believed,  of  indefinite  extension. 

Thus  aided  and  encouraged  by  my  superiors,  I  persisted,  notwithstand- 
ing the  more  or  less  destructive  nature  of  our  researches,  if  only  in  order 
that  we  might  secure  the  fullest  possible  data.  Fortunately  we  were  in 
the  end  able  not  only  to  enlarge  and  complete  our  collections  of  photo- 
graphic records,  sketches,  surveys  and  other  field  memoranda,  but  also 
to  secure  and  bring  away,  in  measurably  good  condition,  more  than  a 
thousand  of  these  precious  examples  of  prehistoric  art  in  perishable 
materials,  not  to  mention  many  hundreds  of  examples  in  more  durable 
substances  such  as  shell,  bone  and  horn. 

I  must  further  state  that  the  various  ancient  artifacts  we  found  in  the 
muck,  occurred  at  unequal  depths  and  in  all  sorts  of  positions  and  rela- 
tions. There  were  a  few  groups  of  utensils,  for  example,  that  obviously 
belonged  together,  like  mortar  cups  and  pestles,  and  sets  of  tools  that 
were  still  associated  ;  and  there  were  also  some  few  bundles  or  packs  of 
ceremonial  objects,  apparently,  which  when  found  still  remained  almost 
intact;  that  is,  their  wrappings  of  reed  matting,  or  neat  swathings  of 
flag  or  palmetto  leaves  still,  looked  fresh,  actually  green,  in  some  cases; 
but  on  close  examination  they  proved  always  to  be  pulpy  with  decay 
and  impossible  of  removal.  These  packs  and  assemblages  or  bunches  of 
related  things,  however,  did  not  present  the  appearance  of  deliberate 
deposition.  They  looked  as  though  they  had  fallen  and  sunken  where 
we  found  them — some  being  upside  down — as  though   they  had  been 


1896.]  obi  [Cushiug. 

hanging,  or  else  lying,  tucked  away  in  the  houses  or  on  the  scaffolds 
above,  and  had  been  washed  out  from  or  off  of  them  into  the  water 
alongside  and  below,  had  become  water-logged  and  had  gradually  been 
covered  by  mud  and  other  debris  and  by  the  vegetal  and  other  deposits 
w^e  found  them  in. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  objects  were,  however,  promiscuously 
scattered — although,  as  I  have  said,  more  abundant  between  and  around 
the  ends  or  along  the  edges  of  the  low,  submerged  benches  I  have 
described,  than  elsewhere.  Not  a  few  of  them — and  this  was  especially 
the  case  w^ith  long  and  originally  more  or  less  fragile  articles  like  spear- 
shafts  and  stays — appeared  to  have  been  broken  in  falling.  Occasionally 
we  found  fragments  separated  by  considerable  distance  which,  when 
brought  together,  fitted  perfectly.  Not  a  few  of  the  piles  were  thus 
broken,  and  many  of  the  lesser  timbers  ;  while  larger  timbers,  like  the 
comparatively  gigantic  sill,  which  lay  along  the  edge  of  the  northern 
bench  (in  sections  29,  39,  40),  were  absolutely  intact.  They  were  ex- 
cellent examples  of  primitive  joinery  ;  yet  so  soft  and  pulpy,  as  a  rule, 
that  on  account  of  their  great  size  and  weight,  we  were  unable  to  bring 
them  away,  or  even,  without  destroying,  to  disturb  them.  Some  of  the 
broad,  flc.t,  notched  staves — which  I  judged  from  considerations  later 
offered  had  been  used  as  symbolic  ancestral  tablets,  probably  attached  to 
the  gables  of  houses,  or  set  up  in  altars — were  lying  on  their  edges; 
while  flat  boards  sometimes  stood  on  end,  and  other  long,  slender  articles, 
stood  slantingly  upward,  the  lowermost  ends  or  edges  firmly  stuck  in 
the  clay-marl  of  the  bottom.  This  was  the  case,  for  example,  with  the 
beautifully  shaped  and  pointed  paddle  which  we  found  near  the  mouth 
of  the  upper  or  inlet  canal.  Its  sharp  point  was  slantingly  and  deeply 
embedded  in  the  mud,  while  its  long  handle  reached  obliquely  up  nearly 
to  the  surface  of  the  muck,  and  was  there,  as  may  be  seen  by  examina- 
tion of  the  specimen  itself  (or  of  Fig.  8,  in  Plate  XXXII),  burned  oft 
slantingly  on  a  line  that  must  have  corresponded  to  the  original  level  of 
the  water,  for  at  this  point  other  charred  specimens  occurred,  as  though 
here  fire  had  added  its  destructiveness  to  the  storm  that  demolished  the 
buildings  or  scaffolds  from  which  all  these  things  seemed  to  have  fallen. 

From  the  fact  that  many  of  the  objects  lay  suspended,  as  it  were,  in 
the  mud  above  the  bottom,  I  judged  that  when  these  remains  w^ere 
thrown  down  into  the  little  water  court,  the  spaces  between  the  house- 
benches  and  around  the  borders  of  the  quays  at  least,  must  have  been 
already  choked  up  somewhat  with  debris  or  refuse  and  slime  or  mud  ; 
for  out  in  the  middle  of  the  court  where  the  deep  open  space  occurred 
throughout  the  channel  between  the  two  canals,  little  was  found  in  the 
way  of  art  remains,  except  such  as  lay  directly  upon,  or  very  near  to,  the 
bottom. 

It  may  be  seen  that  by  a  study  of  the  distribution  of  these  remains  it 
was  easy  to  determine  what  had  been  the  original  average  depth  of  the 
water  within  the  court,  or  at  any  rate,  its  depth  at  the  time  when  these 


Gushing.]  OO^  [Xov.  6, 

things  found  their  way  into  it,  and  to  determine  also  many  other  fea- 
tures of  the  place,  interesting  as  details  and  important  too,  as  substanti- 
ating various  inferences  I  have  ventured  to  give  above.  But  as  a  careful 
study  of  the  collections  themselves  repeats  to  a  great  extent  this  story 
of  our  field  observations,  I  will  make  haste  to  present  a  descriptive 
account  of  the  various  classes  of  these. 

Anciekt  Artifacts  from  the  Court  of  the  Pile  Dwellers. 

Piles,  Timbers,  etc. — None  of  the  piles  found  by  us  exceeded  six  and 
a  half  feet  in  length.  Indeed,  the  greater  number  of  them  were  less 
than  three  and  a  half  feet  long.  These  shorter  piles  were  nearly  always 
made  of  palmetto  wood,  were  not  round,  but  broad,  or  somewhat  flat- 
tened, although  the  edges  were  rounded.  They  were  tapered  toward  the 
bottom  and  bluntly  pointed,  rudely  squared  or  hollowed  out  at  the  tops 
as  though  to  support  round,  horizontal  timbers  ;  and  they  were  bored  or 
notched  slantingly  here  and  there  through  the  edges,  as  though  for  the 
reception  of  rounded  braces  or  cross-stays  of  poles  or  saplings,  abundant 
pieces  of  which  were  found.  Some  of  the  piles  were  worn  at  the  points 
or  lower  ends,  as  though  they  had  rested  upon,  but  had  not  been  driven 
into,  the  solid  shell  and  clay-marl  benches.  They  had  apparently,  on 
the  contrary,  been  quite  rigidly  fastened  to  the  horizontal  timbers  or 
frameworks  of  the  quays  or  scatfolds  they  held  up — by  means  of  the  staj'^- 
sticks — like  pegs  or  pointed  feet,  so  that  as  long  as  the  water  remained 
low,  they  would  support  these  house  scaffolds  above  it,  as  well  as  if 
driven  into  the  benches,  but  when  the  waters  rose,  the  entire  structures 
would  also  slightly  rise,  or  at  any  rate  not  be  violently  wrenched  from 
their  supports,  as  would  inevitably  have  been  the  case  had  these  been 
firmly  fixed  below.  The  longer  piles  were,  on  the  contrary,  round. 
They  were  somewhat  smaller,  quite  smoothly  finished,  and  had  been,  if 
one  might  judge  by  their  more  pointed  and  yet  roughened  or  frayed 
appearance  at  both  ends,  actualh'  driven  into  the  bottom.  It  therefore 
appeared  to  me  that  they  had  been  made  so  as  to  be  thus  driven  into 
the  edges  of  the  benches  at  either  side  of  the  peg-supported  platforms, 
in  order  to  keep  these  from  swerving  in  case  an  unusual  rise  in  the 
waters  caused  them  to  float.  There  were  other  pieces  equally  long,  but 
broken  off  near  their  points.  They  w^ere  slightly  grooved  .at  the  upper 
ends  and  tied  around  with  thick,  well-twisted  ropes  or  cabies  made  of 
cypress  bark  and  palmetto  fibre,  as  though  they  had  served  as  mooring- 
posts,  probably  for  the  further  securing  of  the  ends  of  the  partially 
movable  platforms — else  they  had  not  been  so  violently  wrenched  as  to 
break  them  at  the  points — for  some  of  them  were  more  than  four  inches 
in  diameter,  and  were  made  of  tough  mangrove  and  buttonwood  or  iron- 
wood.  The  side-posts  or  stay-stakes  were,  on  the  contrary,  of  spruce 
or  pine,  and  were,  as  I  have  said,  finished  to  a  nicety,  as  though  to 
offer  no  resistance  to  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  big,  partially  floating  quays 
between  them.     Around  the  great  log  or  sill  of  cypress,  mentioned  as. 


189o.]  363  [Cashing. 

lying  along  the  edge  of  the  northern  bench  (it  was  uniformly  nine 
inches  in  diameter,  fourteen  feet  eleven  inches  in  length,  carefully 
shaved  to  shape  and  finished  evidently  with  shark-tooth  blades  and  shell 
scrapers,  and  was  moreover,  like  the  piles,  socketed  and  notched  or 
bored  along  its  sides)  were  many  of  these  piles,  both  short  and  long; 
and  overlying  the  sill,  as  well  as  on  either  side  of  it,  I  found  abundant 
broken  timbers,  poles,  and  traces  of  wattled  cane  matting  as  well  as 
quantities  of  interlaced  or  latticed  saplings — laths  evidently,  for  they 
seemed  to  have  been  plastered  with  a  clay  and  ash  cement — and  quantities 
also  of  yellow  marsh-grass  thatch,  some  of  it  alluringly  fresh,  other 
portions  burnt  to  black  masses  of  cinder.  Here  and  elsewhere  along 
the  edges  of  the  benches  occurred  fire-hardened  cement  or  mud  hearth- 
plastering,  mingled  with  ashes  and  charcoal — which  indeed  occurred 
more  or  less  abundantly  everywhere,  together  with  refuse,  consisting 
not  only  of  broken  and  sometimes  scorched  animal  bones  and  shells, 
but  also  of  tlie  charred  remains  of  vegetable  and  fruit  foods.  Among 
these  remains  and  the  more  artificial  objects  that  were  associated  with 
them  we  continually  encountered  incipient  or  unfinished  pieces — 
blocked-out  trays  or  toy  canoes,  untrimmed  adze  and  axe  handles, 
uncompleted  tablets,  etc.,  and  all  this  evidenced  to  me  that  the  place 
was  indeed  a  site  of  former  daily  occupation. 

Furniture,  etc. — Here  and  there  were  found  curious  wooden  seats — 
more  or  less  like  ancient  Antillean  stools,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig. 
7,  PI.  XXXIV — flat  slabs  of  wood  from  a  foot  to  more  than 
two  feet  in  length,  slightly  liollowed  on  top  from  end  to  end 
as  well  as  from  side  to  side,  with  rounded  bottoms  and  substan- 
tial, prong-like  pairs  of  feet  near  either  end,  from  two  to  three 
inches  long.  Some  of  these  stools  had  the  feet  level  ;  others,  so  spread 
and  beveled  that  they  would  exactly  fit  the  hollow  bottoms  of  canoes. 
Others  still  were  smaller  than  those  I  have  mentioned,  so  diminutive,  in 
fact,  that  they  could  have  served  no  purpose  else,  it  seemed  to  me, 
than  that  of  head-rests  or  pillow-supports.  We  found,  indeed,  although 
we  were  unable  to  preserve  any  of  them,  examples  of  what  might  have 
been  the  pillows  used  in  connection  witli  these  rests.  They  were  taper- 
ingly  cylindrical,  made  of  fine  rushes,  and  showed  a  continuous  four-ply 
plat,  so  that,  like  cassava  strainers,  they  were  flexible  and  compressible, 
yet  springy,  and  they  had  probably  been  filled  with  Florida  moss  or 
deer  hair,  which  filling  had,  however,  long  since  disappeared  save  for  a 
mushy  residuum.  Portions  of  mats,  some  thick,  as  though  for  use  as  rugs, 
others  enveloping  various  objects,  and  others  still  of  shredded  bark  in 
strips  so  thin  and  flat  and  closely  platted  that  they  might  well  have 
served  as  sails,  were  frequently  discovered.  Yet  except  for  masses  of 
the  peat  or  mud  upon  which  tlie  remains  of  this  matting  lay  and  which 
therefore  when  dry  showed  traces  of  its  beautifully  and  variously  formed 
plies,  naught  of  them  could  be  preserved.  It  was  obvious,  however, 
that  the  peoples  who  had  inhabited  the  court  understood  well,  not  only 
platting,  but  weaving  and  basketry-making  too. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHII.OS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2  T.      PRINTED  JUNE  5,  1897. 


Cashing  ]  OO^  [Xov.  6, 

Pottery  andUtensils. — A  few  examples  of  pottery  were  discovered  lying 
always  on  or  near  the  bottom,  and  with  one  exception  invariably  broken. 
All  of  these  vessels,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  some  of  them  had  their 
rims  more  or  less  decorated,  showed  evidence  of  having  been  used  as 
cooking  bowls  or  pots.  Associated  with  them  were  household  utensils — 
spoons  made  from  bivalves,  ladles  made  from  the  greater  halves  of  hol- 
lowed-out  well-grown  conch  shells ;  and  cups,  bowls,  trays  and  mortars 
of  wood.  These  latter  were  in  greatest  variety  and  abundance.  They 
ranged  in  size  from  little  hemispherical  bowls  or  cups  two  and  a  half  or 
three  inches  in  diameter,  to  great  cypress  tubs  more  than  two  feet  in 
depth,  tapering,  flat-bottomed,  and  correspondingly  wide  at  the  tops. 
The  smaller  mortar-cups  were  marvels  of  beauty  and  finish  as  a  rule, 
and  lying  near  them  and  sometimes  even  within  them,  were  still  found 
their  appropriate  pestles  or  crushers — as  is  shown  in  Fig.  5,  PI. 
XXXIY.  The  smaller  mortars  and  pestles,  like  the  one  illustrated, 
seemed  to  have  been  personal  property,  as  though  they  had  belonged  to 
individuals  and  had  been  used  in  the  crushing  of  berries  and  tubers, 
and  perhaps  cunti-root ;  as  well  as  in  other  ways,  that  is,  in  the  service, 
rather  than  merely  in  the  general  preparation,  of  food. 

The  trays  were  also  very  numerous  and  exceedingly  interesting  ; 
comparatively  shallow,  oval  in  outline  and  varying  from  a  length  of  six 
and  a  half  or  seven  inches  and  a  width  of  four  or  five  inches,  to  a  length 
of  not  less  than  five  feet  and  a  width  of  quite  two  feet.  The  ends  of 
these  trays  were  narrowed  and  truncated  to  form  handles,  the  upper 
faces  of  which  were  usually  decorated  with  neatly  cut-in  disc  like  or 
semilunar  figures  or  depressions.  Looking  at  the  whole  series  of  them 
secured  by  us — no  fewer  than  thirty  in  all — I  was  impressed  with  their 
general  resemblance  to  canoes,  their  almost  obvious  derivation  from  such, 
as  though  through  a  sort  of  technologic  inheritance  they  had  descended 
from  the  vessels  which  had  brought  not  only  the  first  food,  and  the  first 
supplies  of  water,  to  these  outlying  keys,  but  also  the  first  dwellers 
thereon  as  well. 

Navigating  Apparatus  and  Fishing  Gear.  —  This  inference  was 
strengthened  by  the  discovery  here  and  there  of  actual  toy  canoes. 
That  they  had  been  designed  as  toys  was  evident  from  the  fact  that 
some  were  not  only  well  finished,  but  considerably  worn  by  use. 
There  were  six  or  seven  of  these,  and  while  they  generally  con- 
formed to  a  single  type,  that  is  the  dugout,  they  ditfered  very  materially 
in  detail.  Three  of  them  were  comparatively  tiat-bottomed.  One,  about 
five  inches  in  length  by  two  in  breadth  of  beam  and  an  inch  in  depth, 
was  shaped  precisely  like  a  neat  punt  or  flat -bottomed  row  boat — Fig.  7, 
PI.  XXXII.  Both  ends  were  somewhat  squared,  but  the  stern  was  wider 
than  the  prow,  and  above  the  stern  was  a  little  protuberance,  indicating 
that  such  had  been  used  in  guiding,  and  perhaps  as  well  in  sculling,  little 
light  draught  vessels  like  this,  obviously  designed,  my  sailors  thought,  for 
the  navigation  of  shallow  streams,  inlets,  bayous,  and  tlie  ciuials.     An- 


189G.]  oho  [Gushing. 

Other  of  these  flat-bottomed  little  toy  boats  was  much  sharper  and  higher 
at  the  stem  and  stern,  had  very  low  gunwales,  and  was  generally  narrower 
in  proportion  to  its  length,  and  enlarged  would  have  been  admirably 
adapted  to  swift  tidal  currents,  or  to  the  running  of  low  breakers.  Yet 
another  looked  like  a  clumsy  craft  for  the  bearing  over  shoals  of  heavy 
loads  or  burdens.  It  was  comparatively  wide,  and  its  ends  also  quite 
broad.  All  except  one  of  these,  I  observed,  were  decorated  at  one 
end  or  both,  with  the  same  sort  of  semilunar  or  disc-like  devices,  that 
were  observable  on  the  trays — as  may  be  seen  by  an  examination  of 
Fig,  6,  PI.  XXXII.  Two  others  of  the  toy  canoes  (one  of  which 
is  here  figured  as  just  referred  to)  were  not  more  than  three  inches  broad 
by  nearly  two  feet  in  length,  gracefully  and  slenderly  formed,  tapered 
cleanly  toward  the  forward  ends,  which  were  high  and  very  narrow,  yet 
square  at  the  sterns,  which  were  also  high.  We  found  them  almost  in 
juxtaposition  near  the  midmost  of  the  western  benches.  Little  sticks 
and  slight  shreds  of  twisted  bark  were  lying  aci'oss  them  and  indicated 
to  me  that  they  had  once  been  lashed  together,  and,  as  a  more  finished 
and  broken  spar-like  shaft  lay  near  bj%  I  was  inclined  to  believe  that 
they  represented  the  sea-going  craft  of  the  ancient  people  here  ;  that  the 
vessels  in  which  these  people  had  navigated  the  high  seas  had  been  made 
double — of  canoes  lashed  together,  catamaran  fashion — and  propelled  not 
only  with  paddles,  but  also,  perhaps,  by  means  of  sails,  made  probably 
from  the  thin  two-ply  kind  of  bark  matting  I  have  before  described,  of 
which  there  were  abundant  traces  near  the  midchannel,  associated  with 
cordage  and  with  a  beautifully  regular,  much  worn  and  polished  spar. 
At  any  rate,  the  natives  of  these  South  Florida  seas  and  of  the  West 
Indies  are  mentioned  by  early  writers  as  having  navigated  fearlessly 
in  their  cypress  canoes;  as  having  sometimes  crossed  the  Gulf  itself, 
and  as  having  used  in  these  long  cruises  sails  of  some  simple  sort. 
Jonathan  Dickinson,  in  his  quaint  volume  entitled  God's  Protecting  Prom- 
dence  Man's  Surest  Help  and  Defence,  etc. — one  of  the  first  books  pub- 
lished in  this  city,  by  the  way — narrates  how,  just  two  hundred  years 
ago,  he  and  his  companion  voyagers  were  shipwrecked  on  the  Florida 
Gulf  shore.  He  clearly  describes  such  a  double  canoe  as  we  found  the 
toy  remains  of,  when  he  tells  how  a  Cacique,  into  whose  hands  they  fell, 
went  to  wrest  back  the  plunder  that  had  been  taken  from  them  by 
earlier  captors.  The  Cacique — to  quote  the  author  freely — came  home  in 
great  state  He  was  nearly  nude  and  triumphantly  painted  red,  and 
sitting  cross-legged  on  their  ship's  chest,  that  stood  on  a  platform  midway 
over  tico  canoes  lashed  together  with  -poles.  He  maintained  a  fierce  ex- 
pression of  countenance  and  looked  neither  to  the  left  nor  to  the  right, 
but  merely  exclaimed  "  wow  "  when  they  greeted  him  from  the  shore  ; 
and,  after  landing,  proceeded — the  author  adds  rather  ruefully — to  ap- 
propriate the  contents  of  the  chest  to  himself. 

Two  tackle-blocks,  real  prehistoric  pulleys,  that  we  found,  may  have 
pertained  to  such  canoes  as  these.     Each  was  three  inches  long,  oval, 


Gushing.]  *^t)b  [Xov.  6, 

one  side  rounded,  the  other  cut  in  at  the  edges,  or  rabbetted  so  to  say. 
Tlie  tenon-like  portion  was  gouged  out  midway,  transversely  pierced, 
and  furnished  with  a  smooth  peg  or  pivot  over  which  the  cordage 
turned.  I  have  already  mentioned  the  finding  of  a  paddle  near  the 
mouth  of  the  inlet  canal — which  is  shown  in  Fig.  8,  PI.  XXXIL 
It  was  neatly  shaped,  the  handle  round  and  lengthy,  although 
burned  off  at  the  end,  and  the  blade  also  long,  leaf-shaped,  and 
tapered  to  a  sharp  point,  convex  or  beveled  on  one  side,  flat  or 
slightly  spooned  or  concave  on  the  other.  The  splintered  gunwales 
and  a  portion  of  the  prow  of  a  long,  light  cypress-wood  canoe,  and 
various  fragments  of  a  large  but  clumsier  boat  of  some  soft  spongy 
kind  of  wood — gumbo-limbo,  probably — were  found  down  toward  the 
middle  of  the  court.  Not  far  from  the  remams  of  these  I  came  across  an 
ingenious  anchor.  It  consisted  of  a  bunch  of  large  triton-shells  roughly 
pierced  and  lashed  together  with  tightly  twisted  cords  of  bark  and  fibre 
so  that  the  long,  spike-like  ends  stood  out  radiatingly,  like  the  points  of 
a  star.  They  had  all  been  packed  full  of  sand  and  cement,  so  as  to 
render  them,  thus  bunched,  sufficiently  heavy  to  hold  a  good-sized  boat. 
Near  the  lower  edge  of  the  eastern  bench  lay  another  anchor.  It  was 
made  of  flat,  heart-shaped  stones,  similarl}^  perforated  and  so  tied  and 
cemented  together  with  fibre  and  a  kind  of  red  vegetable  gum  and  sand, 
that  the  points  stood  out  radiatingly  in  precisely  the  same  manner.  Yet 
another  anchor  was  formed  from  a  single  boulder  of  coraline  limestone 
a  foot  in  diameter.  Partly  by  nature,  more  by  art,  it  was  shaped  to  re- 
semble the  head  of  a  porpoise  perforated  for  attachment  at  the  eye- 
sockets.  Balers  made  from  large  conch  shells  crushed  in  at  one  side, 
or  of  wood,  shovel  shaped,  or  else  scoop  shaped,  with  handles  turned  in, 
were  abundant ;  as  were  also  nets  of  tough  fibre,  both  coarse  and  fine, 
knitted  quite  as  is  the  common  netting  of  our  own  fisherman  to-day,  in 
form  of  fine-meshed,  square  dip-nets,  and  of  coarse-meshed,  compara- 
tively large  and  long  gill-nets  To  the  lower  edges  of  these,  sinkers 
made  from  thick,  roughly  perforated  umboidal  bivalves,  tied  together  in 
bunches,  or  else  from  chipped  and  notched  fragments  of  heavy  clam 
shells,  were  attached,  while  to  the  upper  edges,  floats  made  from  gourds, 
held  in  place  by  fine  net-lashings,  or  else  from  long  sticks  or  square- 
ended  blocks,  were  fastened.  Around  the  avenues  of  the  court  I  was 
interested  to  find  netting  of  coarser  cordage  weighted  with  unusually 
large-sized  or  else  heavily  bunched  sinkers  of  shell,  and  supplied  at  the 
upper  edges  with  long,  delicately  tapered  gumbo-limbo  float-pegs,  those 
of  each  set  equal  in  size,  each  peg  thereof  partially  split  at  the  larger  end, 
so  as  to  clamp  double  half-turns  or  ingeniously  knotted  hitches  of  the 
neatly  twisted  edges-cords  with  which  all  were  made  fast  to  the  nets. 
Now  these  float  pegs,  of  which  many  sets  were  secured,  varying  from 
three  and  a  half  to  eight  inches  in  length  of  pegs,  were  so  placed  on 
the  nets,  that  in  consequence  of  their  tapering  forms  they  would  turn 
against  the  current  of  the  tide  whichever  way  it  flowed,  and  would  con- 


189G.]  obt  [Cushing. 

tinuously  bob  up  and  clown  on  the  ripples,  however  slight  these  were,  in 
such  manner  as  to  frighten  the  fish  that  liacl  been  driven,  or  had  passed 
over  them  at  high  tide,  when,  as  the  tide  lowered,  they  naturally  tried 
to  follow  it.  In  connection  with  these  nets  we  found  riven  stays,  usu- 
ally of  cypress  or  pine,  such  as  might  have  been  used  in  holding  them 
upright.  Hence  I  inferred  that  they  had  been  stretched  across  the  chan- 
nels not  only  of  the  actual  water  courts  of  residence,  like  this,  but,  prob- 
ably also,  of  the  surrounding  fish-pounds  ;  and  if  so,  that  the  supply  of 
fresh  fish  must  always  have  been  abundant  with  the  ancient  inhabitants, 
both  near  at  hand  in  these  enclosures,  as  well  as  even  among  the  quays 
•of  the  actual  residence  courts. 

We  found  four  or  five  fish-hooks.  The  shanks  or  stems  of  these  were 
about  three  inches  long,  shaped  much  like  those  of  our  own,  but  made 
from  the  conveniently  curved  main  branches  of  the  forked  twigs  of  some 
tough  springy  kind  of  wood.  These  were  cut  oft'  at  the  forks  in  such 
manner  as  to  leave  a  portion  of  the  stems  to  serve  as  butts,  which  were 
girdled  and  notched  in,  so  that  the  sharp,  barbed  points  of  deer  bone, 
which  were  about  half  as  long  as  the  shanks  and  leaned  in  toward 
them,  could  be  firmly  attached  with  sinew  and  black  rubber-gum  ce- 
ment. Tlie  stems  were  neatly  tapered  toward  the  upper  ends,  which 
terminated  in  slight  knobs,  and  to  these,  lines — so  fine  that  only  traces 
of  them  could  be  recovered — were  tied  by  half-hitches,  like  the  turns  of 
a  bow  string.  Little  plug-shaped  fioats  of  gunibo-limbo  wood,  and 
sinkers  made  from  the  short  thick  columella;  of  turbinella  shells — not 
shaped  and  polished  like  the  highly  finished  plummet-shaped  pendants 
we  secured  in  great  numbei's,  but  with  the  whorls  merely  battered  off — 
seemed  to  have  been  used  with  these  hooks  and  lines.  That  they  were 
designed  for  deep-sea  fishing  was  indicated  by  the  occurrence  of  flat 
reels  or  spools  shaped  precisely  like  fine-toothed  combs  divested  of  their 
inner  teeth.  There  were  also  shuttles  or  skein-holders  of  hard  wood, 
six  or  seven  inches  long,  with  wide  semicircular  crotches  at  the  ends. 
But  these  may  have  served  in  connection  with  a  double  kind  of  barb, 
made  from  two  notched  or  hooked  crochet-like  points  or  prongs  of  deer 
bone,  that  we  found  attached  with  fibre  cords  to  a  concave  round-ended 
plate,  an  inch  wide  and  three  inches  long,  made  from  the  pearly  nacre 
of  a  pinna  shell.  Since  several  of  these  shining,  ovoid  plates  were  pro- 
cured, I  regarded  them  as  possibly  "baiting-spoons,"  and  this  one  with 
the  barbed  contrivance,  as  some  kind  of  trolling  gear,  though  it  may,  as 
the  sailors  thought,  have  been  a  "pair  of  grains,"  or  maj^  like  the 
hook  proper,  have  been  used  for  deep-sea  fishing.  Aside  from  these 
few  articles,  no  other  fishing  tackle  for  use  in  the  open  waters  was 
found  ;  barbed  harpoons  being  conspicuously  absent.  This  led  to  the 
supposition  that  the  ancient  inhabitants  had  depended  chiefly  upon  the 
pounds  and  water  courts,  whence  wath  their  nets  they  could  at  any  time 
have  readily  drawn  greater  numbers  of  the  fish  for  their  supply. 

Tools  and  Implements. — The  working  parts  of  the  various  instruments 


Gushing.]  ^^O  [Xov.  6, 

of  handicraft  that  we  found  were  not  of  stone,  but  almost  exclusively 
of  hard  organic  substances — shell,  bone,  horn,  and  teeth — principally 
those  of  sharks — with  their  various  kinds  of  wooden  appurtenances  or 
haftings,  sometimes  intact,  sometimes  merely  indicated  by  the  presence 
of  fragments  or  traces — distinct  enough,  but  too  often  wholly  un- 
recoverable. In  most  cases  these  diverse  parts  were  still  in  their  origi- 
nal relation  to  one  another,  although,  as  a  rule,  the  lashings  by  which 
they  had  been  bound  together — having  consisted,  as  could  plainly  be 
seen  by  impressions  left  even  in  the  surrounding  mud,  of  rawhide 
thongs^  or  of  twisted  sinew  or  fishgut — had  wholly  dissolved,  or  else  re- 
mained merely  as  a  dubious  sort  of  gelatinous  mass  or  slime.  Such  bind- 
ings had,  however,  in  many  instances  been  reinforced  with  cements  of 
one  kind  or  another — a  sticky  red  substance,  the  stain  only  of  which 
remained — or  else  rubber-gum,  asphaltum,  or  a  combination  of  rosin  and 
beeswax  and  rubber,  which  still  endured  and  retained  perfect  impres- 
sions of  the  fastening  cords,  whether  coarse  thongs  or  finely  twisted 
threads. 

We  exercised  great  caution  in  keeping  related  parts  together,  and 
succeeded  thus  in  recovering  quite  a  number  of  examples  of  eacli  of  the 
many  types  most  characteristic  of  the  technical  arts  of  the  keys. 

Large  clam  shells,  deeplj'  worn  at  the  backs,  as  well  as  sho^^ing 
much  use  at  the  edges,  seemed  to  have  served  both  as  scrapers  and  as 
digging  implements  or  hoes  ;  for  some  of  them  had  been  hafted  by 
clamping  curved  sticks  over  the  hinge  and  over  the  point  at  the  apex  or 
umbo — where  it  showed  wear— precisely  in  such  manner  as  LeMoine 
seems  to  have  attempted  to  show  in  his  representation — published  in 
De  Bry  and  other  early  works — of  Indians  planting  corn. 

Picks,  hammers,  adzes  and  gouges  made  from  almost  entire  conch 
shells  were  found,  handles  and  all,  in  relatively  perfect  condition  and 
in  considerable  numbers.  As  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  accom- 
panying illustration,  Fig.  1,  PI.  XXXII,  the  conch-shell  heads  of  these 
tools  were  most  ingeniously  hafted.  The  wlioii  was  usually  battered 
away  on  the  side  toward  the  mouth,  so  as  to  expose  the  columella.  The 
lip  was  roundly  notched  or  pierced,  and  the  back  whorl  also  perforated 
oppositely.  Thus  the  stick  or  handle  could  be  driven  into  these  perfora- 
tions, past  the  columella  in  such  manner  that  it  was  sprung  or  clamped 
firmly  into  place.  Nevertheless  it  was  usually  further  secured  with  raw- 
hide thongs — now  mere  jelly — passed  through  one  or  two  additional  per- 
forations in  the  head,  and  around  both  the  stick  and  the  columella.  The 
spike-like  ends  of  the  columelhe  were  so  shai>ed  as  to  form  eitlier  long, 
sharp-pointed  picks,  fiat,  small-faced  hammers  or  battering  tools,  adzes 
with  very  narrow  bits,  or  gouges.  The  edges  of  tlie  gouges  were  wider 
than  those  of  the  other  tools,  more  of  the  wings  of  the  shells  having 
been  left  on  the  ends  of  the  columelhe  and  these  half-hollow  points  hav- 
ing been  simply  ground  oft' obliquely.  I  made  a  tool  of  this  description, 
which  worked  admirablv  on  the  hardest  wood  I  could  get  ;  and  retained 


1896.]  'J^')  [Gushing. 

its  edge  amazingly  well.  Several  very  ingenious  hacking  tools  or  broad- 
axes  had  been  made  merely  from  the  lips  and  portions  of  the  outer 
or  body-whorls  of  these  conchs.  They  were  simply  notched  at  the  ends 
so  as  to  receive  correspondingly  grooved  or  notched  sticks  which  were 
bound  to  their  inner  sides  with  thongs  passed  around  the  ends  and  over 
the  backs.  The  wide,  curved,  natural  edge  of  the  lips,  had  then  been 
neatly  sharpened.  Among  the  blocked-out  pieces  of  wood  so  frequently 
found  were  examples  of  the  work  done  not  only  with  these  hollow 
hacking  tools,  but  also  with  the  chisel-  and  gouge-pointed  implements 
I  have  described,  as  was  clearly  shown  by  the  results  of  my  experiments. 
In  addition  to  these  cutting  tools,  celts,  or  rather  celt-shaped,  but  curved 
adze-blades,  two  of  them  in  connection  with  their  handles — which  were 
made  from  forked  branches,  one  limb  cut  short  and  shouldered  to  receive 
the  blade,  the  other  left  long,  to  serve  as  the  handle — were  also  recov- 
ered. True  celts  were  found  too,  made  from  the  heavy  columellas  ot 
triton  shells.  One  of  them  was  accompanied  Ly  a  pierced  handle,  the 
most  elaborately  decorated  object  of  its  kind  thus  far  found  in  our  coun- 
try. It  was  superbly  carved  from  end  to  end  with  curved  volute-like 
decorations,  concentric  circles,  ovals,  and  overpliced  as  well  as  parallel 
lines,  regularly  divided  by  en  circling  bands,  as  though  derived  from  ornate 
lashings;  while  the  head  or  extreme  end  was  notched  around  for  the 
attachment  of  plumes  or  tassels,  and  the  opposite  or  handle-end  furnished 
with  an  eyelet  to  facilitate  suspension.  Numbers  of  carving  adzes,  as  was 
plainly  indicated  by  marks  of  their  work  on  both  finished  and  unfin- 
ished objects,  were  also  secured,  quite  in  their  entiiety.  Each  consisted 
of  a  curved  or  crozier-shaped  handle  of  hardwood  about  a  foot  in  length, 
sharply  crooked  toward  the  head,  which  consisted  of  a  perfectly  fitted, 
carved,  polished  and  socketed  section  of  deer  horn.  The  socket  at  the 
point  of  this  deer-horn  head  was  deep,  transverse,  and  so  shaped  as  to 
receive  and  retain  measurably  well,  little  blades  made  either  from  bits 
of  shell,  the  sharp  ventral  valves  of  oysters — of  which  kind  numerous 
worn-out  examples  were  gathered — or  sometimes,  from  very  large  shark 
or  alligator  teeth.  These  peculiar  little  hand-adzes— that  resembled 
some  of  those  one  maj'  see  pictured  in  the  figures  of  mask-carvers  in 
Central  American  and  Mexican  codices —seem  to  have  been,  judged  from 
the  work  performed  with  them,  among  the  most  perfect  implements 
possessed  by  the  inhabitants.  That  they  were  favorite  tools  also,  was 
shown  by  the  fact  that  many  of  them  were  elaborately  carved.  All  had 
eyes,  mostly  protuberant,  just  above  the  sockets,  and  one,  for  example, 
was  slightly  crooked  from  side  to  side,  and  shaped  to  represent  a  fouged 
serpent ;  another  had  carved  near  its  head,  a  surprisingly  realistic  horned- 
deer's  head,  and  yet  another  was  surmounted  by  the  figure  of  a  gopher 
or  rodent  gnawing  at  a  stick— see  Fig.  2,  PI.  XXXII ;  and  in  these 
forms  I  did  not  fail  to  recognize  the  association  that  was  attempted,  by 
this  sort  of  decoration  between  the  carvings,  and  the  functions  of 
these  biting  or  gnawing  implements,  so  to  call  them. 


Gushing.]  '^^^  [Nov.  6, 

Of  course  scrapers  and  shavers  of  various  kinds  abounded.  Some,  of 
larsje,  finely-ribbed,  serrated  bivalves — varieties  of  pectunculus — were 
perforated  at  the  apices,  in  order  that  a  loop  might  be  attached  to  them 
to  facilitate  handling.  Others  were  made  from  the  valves  of  tide-water 
unios,  or  sun-clams,  so  called,  and  showed  no  other  art  than  that  of  hav- 
ing been  keenly  sharpened  at  the  edges,  and  of  the  wear  which  had  re- 
sulted from  use.  The  most  elaborate  objects  of  this  kind  were,  however, 
certain  tlat-hinged  bivalves  or  area  shells,  about  three  and  a  half  or  four 
inches  long.  The  umboidal  apices  of  these  had  been  broken  away  and 
strips  of  bark,  and  in  at  least  one  case,  broad  straps  of  a  kind  of 
leather,  had  been  so  passed  back  and  forth  through  the  apertures, 
and  platted  along  the  hinges  or  straight  backs,  as  to  afford  excel- 
lent grasp.  All  of  them  were  cienulate  at  the  edges  and  some  of  them 
were  double,  that  is,  made  of  two  shells  tightly  tied  together,  one  inside 
of  the  other,  in  such  manner  that  a  double  edge  was  thereby  secured. 
Several  draw-knives  made  from  split  leg-bones  of  the  deer  sharpened  to 
beveled  edges  from  the  inside;  some  ingenious  shaving-knives,  made 
from  the  outer  marginal  whorls  of  the  true  conchs — the  thick  indented 
or  toothed  lips  of  which  formed  their  backs  or  handles,  the  thin  but 
strong  whorl-walls  being  sharpened  to  keen  straight  edges — completed 
the  list  of  scraping  and  planing  tools. 

Cutting  and  carving  knives  of  shark's  teeth,  varying  in  size  from  tiny 
straight  points  to  curved  blades  nearly  an  inch  in  length  and  in  width 
of  base,  were  found  by  hundreds.  Some  were  associated  with  their 
handles.  These  were  of  two  classes.  The  greater  number  of  th.em 
consisted  of  shafts  from  five  to  seven  inches  in  length  b}'  not  more  than 
half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter  at  their  thickest  portions. 
Some  were  slightly  curved,  others  straight,  some  pointed,  others  squared 
at  the  smaller  ends.  All  were  furnished  with  nocks  at  the  lower  ends— 
which  were  also  a  little  tapered — for  the  reception  of  the  hollow  bases 
of  the  tooth-blades  that  had  been  lashed  to  them  and  cemented  with 
black  gum.  Not  a  few  of  these  doubly-tapered  little  handles  were  mar- 
vels of  finish,  highly  polished,  and  some  of  them  were  carved  or  incised 
with  involuted  circlets  or  kwa-like  decorations,  or  else  with  straight  or 
spiral-rayed  rosettes  and  concentric  circles,  at  the  upper  ends,  as  though 
these  had  been  used  as  stamps  in  the  finishing  of  certain  kinds  of  work. 
The  other  class  of  handles  was  much  more  various,  and  was  designed  for 
receiving  one  or  more  of  the  shark-tooth  blades,  not  at  the  extremities, 
but  at  the  sides  of  the  ends,  some  transversely,  others  laterally.  They 
were  nearly  all  carved  ;  a  few  of  them  most  elaborately  ;  and  they 
ranged  in  length  from  the  width  of  the  palm  of  the  hand  to  five  or  six 
inches,  being  adapted  for  use  not  only  as  carvers,  but  also,  probably — 
such  as  had  single  crossblades — as  finishing  adzes. 

Everywhere  on  the  least  finished  surfaces  of  completed  carvings,  and 
on  incipient  works,  not  only  in  wood,  but  also  in  bonC  and  horn,  could 
be  seen  distinctive  marks  left  bv  the  finelv  serrated  edges  of  these  more 


1896.]  d71  [Cushing. 

than  half-natural  carving  tools.  As  soon  as  we  had  discovered  a  few  of 
them  I  secured  fresh  teeth  and  experimentally  made  knives  and  cutters 
of  the  various  kinds  I  have  described.  I  found  these  diminutive  shark- 
tooth  blades — the  one  edge  of  each  outwardly,  the  other  inwardly, 
3urv'ed — by  far  the  most  effective  primitive  carving  tools  I  had  ever 
learned  of,  and  therein  perceived  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  pre- 
eminence of  the  ancient  key  dwellers  in  the  wood  carver's  art,  so  con- 
stantly evidenced  in  our  collections.  There  were  girdling  tools  or  saws 
— made  froan  the  sharp,  flat-toothed  lower  jaws  of  king-fishes — into  the 
hollow  ends  of  which  curved  jaw-bones,  the  crudest  of  little  handles  had 
been  thrust  and  tied  through  neat  lateral  perforations  ;  but  these  also  had 
formed  admirable  tools,  and  I  found  not  a  few  examples  of  work  done 
with  them,  in  the  shape  of  round  billets  that  had  been  severed  by  them 
and  spirally  haggled  in  such  a  way  as  to  plainly  illustrate  the  origin  of 
one  of  the  most  frequent  decorations  we  found  on  carved  wood  works, 
the  spiral  rosette  just  referred  to.  There  were  minute  little  bodkin- 
shaped  chisels  of  bone  and  shell,  complete  in  themselves  ;  and  there 
were,  of  course,  numerous  awls  and  the  like,  made  from  bone,  horn  and 
fish  spines.  Rasps  of  very  small,  much  worn  and  evidently  most  highly 
prized  fragments  of  coral  sandstone,  as  well  as  a  few  strips  of  carefully 
rolled-up  shark  skin,  told  the  story  of  how  the  harder  tools  had  been 
edged,  and  the  polished  wood-,  and  bone-work  finished,  here. 

Weapons. — It  was  significant  that  no  bows  were  discovered  in  any  por- 
tion of  the  court,  but  of  atlatlsor  throwing  sticks,  both  fragmentary  and 
entire,  four  or  five  examples  were  found.  Two  of  the  most  perfect  of 
these  were  also  the  most  characteristic,  since  one  was  double-holed,  the 
other  single-holed.  The  first — which  is  shown  in  Fig.  4,  PI.  XXXII — 
was  some  eighteen  inches  in  length,  delicate,  slender,  slightly  curved 
and  originally,  quite  springy.  It  was  fitted  with  a  short  spur  at  the 
smaller  end  and  was  unequally  spread  or  flanged  at  the  larger  or  grasp- 
ing end.  The  shaft-groove  terminated  in  an  ornamental  device,  whence 
a  slighter  crease  led  quite  to  the  end  of  the  handle,  and  the  whole  imple- 
ment was  delicately  carved  and  engraved  with  edge-lines  and  when  first 
taken  from  the  muck  exhibited  a  high  polish  and  beautiful  rosewood 
color.  The  other — shown  in  Fig.  3,  PI.  XXXII — was  somewhat  longer, 
slightly  thicker,  wider  shafted,  more  curved,  and,  as  I  have  said  before, 
furnished  with  only  a  single  finger-hole.  At  the  smaller  end  was 
a  diminutive  but  very  perfect  carving  of  a  rabbit,  in  the  act  of  thump- 
ing, so  placed  that  his  erect  tail  formed  the  propelling-spur.  This  instru- 
ment also  was  fitted  with  a  short  shaft-groove  and  was  carved  and  deco- 
rated with  edge  and  side  lines,  and  the  handle-end  was  beautifully 
curved  down  and  rounded  so  as  to  form  a  volute  or  rolled  knob,  giv- 
ing it  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  ornate  forms  of  the  atlatl  of  Cen- 
tral America  ;  a  resemblance  that  also  applied  somewhat  to  the  double- 
holed  specimen,  and  to  various  of  the  fragmentarj^  spear-throwers. 
Arrows  about  four  feet  in  length,  perfectly  uniform,  pointed  with  hard 

PROC.  AMER.   PHIL08.  SOC.   XXXV.  153.  2  U.       PRINTED  .JULY  7,  1897. 


Gushing.]  ^  ♦  ^  [Nov.  6, 

wood,  the  shafts  iiuide  either  of  a  softer  and  lighter  kind  of  wood  or  of 
cane,  were  found.  The  nocks  of  these  were  relatively  large.  This  sug- 
gested that  certain  curved  and  shapely  clubs,  or  rather  wooden  sabres 
— for  they  were  armed  along  one  edge  with  keen  shark-teeth — 
might  have  been  used  not  only  for  striking,  but  also  for  flinging 
such  nocked  spears  or  throwing-arrows.  Each  of  these  singular  and 
superbly  finished  weapons  was  about  three  feet  long.  The  handle  or 
grip  was  straight  ;  thence  the  blade  or  shaft  was  gently  curved  down- 
ward and  upward  again  to  the  end,  which  was  obliquely  truncated 
below,  but  terminated  above  in  a  creased  or  slightly  bifurcated,  spir- 
ally curved  knob  or  volute  like  the  end  of  a  violin,  and  still  more 
like  the  lower  articulation  of  a  human  femur, — as  may  be  seen  by  refer- 
ence to  Fig.  5,  PI.  XXXII, — which  the  whole  weapon  resembled  in  gen- 
eral outline  so  strikingly  that  I  was  inclined  to  regard  the  type  it  repre- 
sented as  remotely  derived  from  clubs  originally  made  in  imitation  of 
thigh-bones.  The  handle  was  broader  at  the  back  than  below,  but  neatly 
rounded,  and  the  extreme  end  delicatelj'  flared  to  insure  grasp.  At 
both  shank  and  butt  of  this  grip,  oblong  holes  had  been  bored  obliquely 
through  one  side  of  the  back  for  the  attachment  of  a  braided  or  twisted 
hand-loop  or  guard-cord,  to  still  further  secure  hold.  The  back  of  the 
shaft,  too,  was  wide,  and  sharp  along  the  lateral  edges,  from  both  of 
which  it  was  hollowed  obliquely  to  the  middle,  the  shallow  V-shaped 
trough  or  groove  thus  formed  I'eaching  from  the  hilt  to  the  turned-up 
end,  where  it  terminated  in  a  little  semi-circular,  sharp-edged  cusp  or 
spur  in  the  central  furrow  at  the  base  of  the  knob.  The  converging 
sides  of  the  shaft  were  likewise  evenly  and  sharply  creased  or  fluted 
from  the  shank  of  the  grip  to  the  gracefully  turned  volutes  at  the 
sides  of  the  knob.  The  blade  proper,  or  lower  edge,  was  comparatively 
thin,  like  a  continuous  slightly  grooved  tongue  or  an  old-fashioned 
skate  blade — save  that  it  was  obliquely  square,  not  rounded,  at  the  end. 
It  was  transversely  pierced  at  regular  intervals  by  semicircular  perfora- 
tions— twelve  in  all — beneath  each  of  which  the  groove  was  deepened 
at  two  points  to  accommodate  the  blunt  bifurcate  roots  of  the  large 
hooked  teeth  of  the  tiger-  or  "Man-Eater"-  shark,  with  which  the 
sabre  was  set  ;  so  that,  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw,  they  would  all  turn  one 
way,  namely,  toward  the  handle,  as  can  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  en- 
larged sketch  of  one  at  the  end  of  the  figure.  Finely  twisted  cords  of 
sinew  had  been  threaded  regularly  back  and  forth  through  these  per- 
forations and  alternately  over  the  wings  of  the  shark  teeth,  so  as  to 
neatly  bind  each  in  its  socket;  and  these  lashings  were  reinforced  with 
abundant  black  rubber-gum — to  which  their  preservation  was  due. 

Now  the  little  cusp  or  sharp-edged  spur  at  the  end  of  the  back-groove 
was  so  deeply  placed  in  the  crease  of  the  knob  that  it  could  have  served 
no  practical  purpose  in  a  striking  weapon.  Yet,  it  was  .so  shaped  as  to 
exactly  fit  the  nock  of  a  spear,  and  since  by  means  of  the  guard  cord, 
the  handle  could  be  grasped  not  only  for  striking,  but,  by  sliifling  or 


1896.]  did  [Cashing. 

reversing  the  hold,  for  hurling  as  well,  I  inferred  that  possibly  the 
instrument  had  been  used  in  part  as  an  atlatl,  in  part  as  a  kind  of  single- 
edged  maquahuitl  or  blade-set  sabre.  It  was,  at  any  rate,  a  most  formid- 
able weapon  and  a  superb  example  of  primitive  workmanship  and  inge- 
nuity. There  were  other  weapons  somewhat  like  these.  But  they  were 
only  eight  or  nine  inches  in  length,  and  were  neither  knobbed  nor 
creased.  They  were,  however,  perforated  at  the  backs  for  hand  cords, 
and  socketed  below  for  six,  instead  of  twelve  teeth — set  somewhat  more 
closely  together — and  must  have  formed  vicious  slashers  or  rippers. 
Then  there  were  certain  split  bear-  and  wolf-jaws — neatly  cut  off  so  as 
to  leave  the  canines  and  two  cuspids  standing — which,  from  traces 
of  cement  on  their  bases  and  sides,  appeared  to  have  been  similarly 
attached  to  curved  clubs. 

War  clubs  proper,  that  is,  of  wood  only,  were  found  in  considerable 
variety.  The  most  common  form  was  that  of  the  short,  knobbed  blud- 
geon. Another  was  nearly  three  feet  long,  the  handle  rounded,  tapered, 
and  furnished  at  the  end  with  an  eyelet  for  the  wrist  cord.  The  blade  was 
llattish,  widening  to  about  three  inches  at  the  head,  and  it  was  laterally 
beveled  from  both  sides  to  form  blunt  edges  and  was  notched  or  roundly 
serrated,  precisely  as  are  some  forms  of  Fijian  and  Caroline  Island  clubs. 
The  type  was  obviously  derived  from  some  preexisting  kind  of  blade- 
set  weapon.  This  was  also  true,  in  another  way,  of  the  most  remarkable 
form  of  club  we  discovered.  It  was  not  quite  two  feet  in  length,  and  made 
of  some  dark-colored  tine-grained  kind  of  hard,  heavy  wood,  exquisitely 
fashioned  and  finished.  The  handle  was  also  round  and  tapering,  the  head 
tiattened,  symmetrically  flaring  and  sharp-edged,  the  end  square  or  but 
slightly  curved,  and  terminating  in  a  grooved  knob  or  boss,  to  which  tas- 
sel-cords had  been  attached.  Just  below  the  flaring  head  was  a  double 
blade,  that  is,  a  semilunar,  sharp-edged  projection  on  either  side,  giving 
the  weapon  the  appearance  of  a  double-edged  battle-axe  set  in  a  broad- 
ended  club,  as  indicated  in  outline  a  of  Fig.  3,  PI.  XXXV.  This 
specimen  was  of  especial  interest,  as  it  was  the  only  weapon  of 
its  kind  found,  up  to  that  time,  in  the  United  States;  but  was 
absolutely  identical  in  outline  with  the  so-called  batons  represented  in 
the  hands  of  warrior-figures  delineated  on  the  shell  gorgets  and  copper 
plates  found  in  the  southern  and  central  Mississippi  mounds — as  may 
be  seen  in  the  figure  just  referred  to.  It  not  only  recalled  these,  but 
also  typical  double-bladed  battle-axes  or  clubs  of  South  and  Central 
American  peoples,  from  which  type  I  regarded  its  form,  although  wholly 
of  wood,  as  a  derivative. 

I  must  not  fail  to  mention  dirks  or  stilettos,  made  from  the  foreleg 
bones  of  deer,  the  grip  ends  flat,  the  blades  conforming  in  curvature  to 
the  original  lines  of  the  bones  from  which  they  were  made.  One  of 
them  was  exquisitely  and  conventionally  carved  at  the  hilt-end  to  repre- 
sent the  head  of  a  buzzard  or  vulture,  the  which  was  no  doubt  held  to 
be  one  of  the  gods  of  death  by  these  primitive  key-dwellers.     There 


Gushing.]  <^  *  "*  [Nov.  6, 

were  also  striking- and  thrusting-weapons  of  slender  make  and  of  wood, 
save  that  they  were  sometimes  tipped  with  deer  horn  or  beautifully 
fashioned  spurs  of  bone,  but  they  were  so  fragmentary  that  I  have  thus 
far  been  unable  to  determine  their  exact  natures. 

Personal  Ornaments  and  Paraphernalia. — Numerous  objects  of  per- 
sonal investure  and  adornment  were  collected.  Aside  from  shell  beads, 
pendants  and  gorgets,  of  kinds  found  usually  in  other  southern  relic 
sites,  there  were  buttons,  cord-knobs  of  large  oliva-shells,  and  many 
little  conical  wooden  plugs  that  had  obviously  formed  the  cores  of  tas- 
sels ;  sliding-beads,  of  elaborately  carved  deer  horn — for  double  cords — 
and  one  superb  little  brooch,  scarcely  more  than  an  inch  in  width,  made 
of  hard  wood,  in  representation  of  an  angle-fish,  the  round  spots  on  its 
back  inlaid  with  minute  discs  of  tortoise  shell,  the  bauds  of  the  diminu- 
tive tail  delicately  and  realistically  incised,  and  the  mouth,  and  a  longi- 
tudinal eyelet  as  delicately  incut  into  the  lower  side.  There  were  very 
large  labrets  of  wood  for  the  lower  lips,  the  shanks  and  insertions  of  which 
were  small,  and  placed  near  one  edge,  so  that  the  outer  disc  which  had 
been  coated  with  varnish  or  brilliant  thin  laminae  of  tortoise  shell,  would 
hang  low  over  the  chin.  There  were  lip-pins  too  ;  and  ear  buttons, 
plates,  spikes  and  plugs.  The  ear  buttons  were  chiefly  of  wood,  and  were 
of  special  interest — the  most  elaborate  articles  of  jewelry  we  found.  They 
were  shaped  like  huge  cuff  buttons — some,  two  inches  in  diameter,  re- 
sembling the  so-called  spool-shaped  copper  bosses  or  ear  ornaments  of  the 
mound  builders  (see  d  and  Fig.  3,  PI.  XXXV).  But  a  few  of  these  were 
made  in  parts,  so  that  the  rear  disc  could  be,  by  a  partial  turn,  slipped 
off  from  the  shank,  to  facilitate  insertion  into  the  slits  of  the  ear  lobe.  The 
front  discs  were  rimmed  with  white  shell  rings,  within  which  were  nar- 
rower circlets  of  tortoise  shell,  and  within  these,  in  turn,  little  round, 
very  dark  and  slightly  protuberant  wooden  bosses  or  plugs,  covered  with 
gum  or  varnish  and  highly  polished,  so  that  the  whole  front  of  the  button 
exactly  resembled  a  huge  round,  gleaming  eyeball.  Indeed,  this  resem- 
blance was  so  striking  that  both  Mr.  Sawyer  and  I  independently  recog- 
nized the  likeness  of  these  curious  decorations  to  the  glaring  eyes  of  the 
tarpons,  sharks,  and  other  sea  monsters  of  the  surrounding  waters  ;  and  as 
the  buttons  were  associated  with  more  or  less  warlike  paraphernalia,  I 
hazarded  the  opinion  that  they  were  actually  designed  to  represent  the 
eyes  of  such  monsters — to  be  worn  as  the  fierce,  destructive,  searching 
and  terrorizing  eyes,  the  "Seeing  Ears,"  so  to  say,  of  the  warriors.  This 
was  indicated  by  the  eye-like  forms  of  many  of  the  other  ear  buttons  we 
found — some  having  been  overlaid  in  front  with  highly  polished  con- 
cavo-convex white  shell  discs,  perforated  at  the  centres  as  if  to  repre- 
sent eye  pupils, — as  in/,  of  the  figure  last  referred  to. 

There  were  still  other  ear  buttons,  however,  elaborately  decorated  with 
involuted  figures,  or  circles  divided  equally  by  sinusoid  lines,  designs 
that  were  greatly  favored  by  the  ancient  artists  of  these  kays.  The 
origin  of  these  figures,  both  painted,  as  on  the  buttons — in  contrasting 


'  1896.]  375  [Gushing. 

blue  and  white — and  incised,  as  on  discs,  stamps,  or  the  ends  of  han- 
dles, became  perfectly  evident  to  me  as  derived  from  the  "  navel 
marks,"  or  central  involutes  on  the  worked  ends  of  univalvular  shells  ; 
brt  probably  here,  as  in  the  Orient,  they  had  already  acquired  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  human  navel,  and  were  thus  mystic  symbols  of  "the  mid- 
dle,"  to  be  worn  by  priestly  Commanders  of  the  warriors.  That  the  ear 
buttons  proper  were  badges,  was  indicated  by  the  finding  of  larger  num- 
bers of  common  ear  plugs  ;  round,  and  slightly  rounded  also  at  either  end, 
but  grooved  or  rather  hollowed  around  the  middles.  Although  beauti- 
fully fashioned,  they  had  been  finished  with  shark-tooth  surface-hatch- 
ing, in  order  to  facilitate  coating  them  with  brilliant  varnishes  or  pig- 
ments. The  largest  of  them  may  have  been  used  as  stretchers  for  ordi- 
nary wear ;  but  the  smaller  and  shorter  of  them  were  probably  for  ordi- 
nary use,  or  use  by  women,  and  had  taken  the  place  of  like,  but  more 
primitive  ornaments  made  from  the  vertebrae  of  sharks.  Indeed  a  few 
of  these  earlier  forms  made  of  vertebrae,  were  actually  found. 

I  could  not  quite  determine  what  had  been  the  use  of  certain 
highly  ornate  flat  wooden  discs.  They  were  too  thin  to  have 
been  serviceable  as  ear'  plugs,  or  as  labrets.  But  from  the  fact 
that  they  were  so  exquisitely  incised  with  rosettes,  or  elaborately 
involuted,  obliquely  hatched  designs,  and  other  figures — the  two 
faces  difl^erent  in  each  case — and  that  they  corresponded  in  size  to 
the  ear  buttons  and  plugs,  I  came  to  regard  them  as  stamps  used  in 
impressing  the  gum-like  pigments  with  which  so  many  of  these  orna- 
ments had  been  quite  thickly  coated,  as  also,  perhaps,  in  the  ornamen- 
tation or  stamping  of  other  articles  and  materials  now  decomposed.  Very 
long  and  beautifully  finished,  curved  plates  of  shell  had  been  used 
probably  as  ear  ornaments  or  spikes,  also  ;  since  they  exactly  resembled 
those  depicted  as  worn  transversely  thrust  through  the  ears,  in  some  of 
Le  Moyne's  drawings,  of  which  representations  I  had  never  previously 
understood  the  nature  ;  and  many  of  the  plummet-shaped  pendants  I 
have  before  referred  to,  must  have  been  used  after  the  manner  remarked 
on  in  some  of  the  old  writers,  as  ear  weights  or  stretchers,  and  some, 
being  very  long,  not  only  thuswise,  but  also  as  ear  spikes  for  wear  after 
the  manner  of  using  the  plates  just  described.  While  certain  crude  ex- 
amples of  these  curious  pendants  had  been  used  apparentlj''  as  wattling 
bobbets,  still  others,  better  shaped,  had  as  certainly  served  as  dress  or  gir- 
dle pendants.  On  one  of  them,  made  from  fine  gray  coral  stone — in  form 
like  a  minute,  narrow-necked,  pointed  flask — the  attachments  were  so 
completely  preserved  that  the  delicate  cords,  intricately  and  decora- 
tively  interlaced  to  and  fro  from  the  groove  cord  surrounding  the  neatly 
turned  rim,  to  the  central  knot  over  its  small  flat  head,  were  still  perfectly 
visible,  the  whole  having  been  coated  with  shining  black  gum  or  varnish. 
I  may  add,  however,  that  some  of  the  cruder  and  heavier  of  these  shell, 
coral,  and  coral-stone  plummets,  must  have  served  purely  practical  ends. 
Not  a  few  had  almost  unquestionably  been  used,  as  I  have  said,  as  wat- 


Gushing.]  Oil)  [Nov.  6, 

tling  weights  and  netting  bobbetts,  their  hurried  finisli,  their  adaptabil- 
ity to  such  uses  and  their  numbers  and  the  uniformity  of  many  of  tliem, 
all  indicated  this.  Others,  no  doubt,  had  served  as  fish-line  weights. 
Still,  several  of  the  more  elaborate  of  them  were  not  only  decorated,  but 
were  so  beautifully  shaped  and  so  highly  polished  that  they  could  have 
been  employed  only  as  combined  stretchers  and  ornaments  or  as  insig- 
nia of  a  highly  valued  kind. 

The  remains  of  fringes  and  of  elaborate  tassels,  made  from  finely  spun 
cords  of  the  cotton-tree  down — dyed,  in  one  case  green,  in  another 
yellow — betokened  high  skill  in  such  decorative  employment  of  cord- 
age. The  remains,  too,  of  what  I  regarded  as  bark  head-dresses  quite 
similar  to  those  of  Northwest  Coast  Indians,  were  found.  Associated 
witli  these,  as  well  as  independently,  were  numbers  of  hairpins,  some 
made  of  ivory,  some  of  bone,  to  which  beautiful,  long  flexible  strips  of 
polished  tortoise  shell — that,  alas,  I  could  not  preserve  in  their  en- 
tirety— had  been  attached.  One  pin  had  been  carved  at  the  upper  end 
with  the  representation  of  a  rattlesnake's  tail,  precisely  like  those  of 
Cheyenne  warriors ;  another,  with  a  long  conical  knob  grooved  or 
hollowed  for  the  attachment  of  plume  cords.  Collections  of  giant  sea- 
crab  claws,  still  mottled  with  the  red,  brown,  orange,  yellow  and 
black  colors  of  life,  looked  as  though  they  had  been  used  as  fringe- 
rattles  and  -ornaments  combined,  for  the  decoration  of  kilts.  At  all 
events  their  resemblance  to  the  pendants  shown  as  attached  to  the  loin- 
clotli  of  a  man,  in  one  of  the  early  paintings  of  Florida  Indians  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum,  was  perfect.  Here  and  there,  bunches 
of  long,  delicate,  semi-translucent  fish-spines  indicated  use  either  as 
necklaces  or  wristlets  ;  but  geuerall}^  such  collection  were  strung  out 
in  a  way  that  led  me  to  regard  them  as  pike-,  or  shaft-barbs. 

Certain  delicate  plates  of  pinna-shell,  and  others  of  tortoise-shell, 
square — though  in  some  cases  longer  than  broad — were  pierced  to  facili- 
tate attachment,  and  appeared  to  have  been  used  as  dress  ornaments. 
Still  other  similar  plates  of  these  various  materials,  as  well  as  smaller, 
shaped  pieces  of  diff'ering  forms,  seemed  to  have  been  inlaid,  for  they 
were  worn  only  on  one  side,  the  outer,  and  a  few  retained  traces  of  black 
gum  on  the  backs  or  unworn  sides. 

Considerable  collections  or  sets  of  somewhat  more  uniform  tortoise- 
I)one  and  pinna-shell  plates,  from  an  inch  and  a  lialf  to  nearly  three 
inches  square,  were  found  closely  bunched  together,  in  two  or  three 
separate  places.  None  of  them  were  perforated.  Moreover,  nearly  all 
were  worn  smooth  on  both  faces,  and  especially  around  the  edges,  as 
though  by  much  handling.  Hence  it  appeared  that  they  had  not  been 
used  as  dress  ornaments,  or  for  inlaying  or  overlaying.  One  charac- 
teristic was  notew<)rth3^  In  each  collection,  or  set,  which  consisted  of 
from  twenty  or  more  to  forty  or  more  pieces,  a  small  i)roportion  were 
distinguished  from  the  others  by  difterence  in  length  or  in  material  or 
in  surface  treatment.    In  one  lot  of  between  forty  and  tiftv  tortoise-bone 


1896.J  ^  ^  *  [Cushing. 

plates,  for  example,  there  were  four  or  five  plates  of  pinna-shell,  while 
on  one  of  the  tortoise-bone  plates  themselves  were  circularly  incised  the 
dolphin-like  figures  of  two  porpoises  "wheeling"  in  the  water — one 
?bove,  the  other  below  the  medial  suture  of  the  bone,  the  line  of  which 
evidently  represented  the  rippling  surface  of  the  water,  for  the  figure 
above  it  was  spiritedly  depicted  "  blowing  " — that  is,  with  mouth  open — 
the  one  below  it,  with  mouth  closed,  as  though  holding  the  breath.  Now 
from  the  fact  that  these  differences  were  very  marked  in  each  set,  and 
that  many  of  the  tcrtoise-bone  plates  of  each,  whether  still  covered  with 
traces  of  the  original  epiderm  or  not,  were  so  cut  from  the  carapace  at 
the  intersections  of  the  sutures,  as  to  include  portions  of  from  one  to  six 
nearly  equal -sized  segments,  I  judged  that  possibly  these  sets  of  the 
plates,  at  least,  had  been  used  in  sacred  games,  or  perhaps  in  processes 
of  divination — for  abundant  evidence  that  the  tortoise  and  turtle  were 
here — as  in  the  Orient,  and  elsewhere  in  America, — held  sacred,  occurred 
with  our  finds  in  other  parts  of  the  court. 

It  will  be  observed  that  suggestions  as  to  quite  diverse  uses  of  both 
the  plummet-shaped  objects  and  these  plates,  have  been  offered.  In 
some  cases  these  diverse  uses  of  single  types  were  perfectlj^  manifest, 
but  in  others  merely  inferential.  Let  me  repeat  that  there  was  fre- 
quently (and  this  was  especially  true  of  personal  paraphernalia)  evi- 
dence as  to  quite  varied  use  of  identical  forms.  It  is  always  difficult  to 
determine  as  specific,  the  purpose  of  a  primitive  art-form,  for  the  high 
degree  of  diff'erentiation  characteristic  of  modern  art  was  not  developed 
generally  in  primitive  art.  It  is  particularly  difficult  to  distinguish  be- 
tween tlie  purely  ceremonial  and  the  more  or  less  ornamental  in 
such  personal  paraphernalia  as  I  have  been  describing.  To  a  certain 
extent  all  personal  adornments,  so  called,  of  early  peoples,  are  cere- 
monial or  sacred,  since  the  most  rare  and  beautiful  objec*s  are  like  to  be 
regarded  by  them  as  also  the  most  effective  charms  or  medicine 
potencies,  if  only  because  of  their  rarity,  their  substances  and  tlieir  colors. 

As  typical  of  primitive  ornament  proper  I  may  mention  the  beads  and 
pendants  and  certain  of  the  gorgets  of  shell  which  we  discovered. 
While  it  is  true  that  even  such  objects  were  probably,  as  with  other 
primitive  peoples,  supposed  to  be  sacred, — for  instance,  on  account  of 
their  substance  and  white  color,  because  related  by  appearance  to  the 
shell-like  white  foam  of  the  blue  sea,  and  to  the  light  or  white  splendor 
of  day  in  the  blue  sky — the  fact  that  they  w^ere  found  indiscriminatelj' 
associated  with  other  remains  indicated  equally  indiscriminate  use — use, 
that  is,  as  ornaments  more  or  less  in  our  acceptation  of  the  term.  The 
commonness  of  the  material  of  which  they  were  made  caused  them  to  be 
prized  less  on  account  of  their  nature  and  beauty,  than  on  account  of  the 
labor  they  represented.  This  is  also  indicated  by  the  fact  that  their  forms 
(wrought  in  species  of  shell  here  more  commsn  tlian  elsewhere  on  the 
gulf  coast),  are  nevertheless  very  widely  distributed  throughout  other 
portions  of  Florida  and  all  the  Southern  and  Central  Mississippi  States; 


Gushing.]  <^  ^  ^  [Nov.  6, 

a  fact  which  argues  that  they,  like  tlie  wampum  of  other  regions,  were 
used  as  tlie  media  of  trade,  or  the  basis  of  definite  exchange  valuation, 
as  well  as,  in  case  of  the  more  elaborate  of  them,  in  the  solemnization 
of  treaties.  But  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the  articles  of  personal 
adornment  described  in  preceding  paragraphs,  were  more  than  this. 
They  were  found  not  indiscriminately,  but  definitely  associated  with  other 
ceremonial  remains.  They  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  having  been  es- 
pecially sacred,  used  as  amulets,  and  in  many  cases,  as  at  the  same  time 
badges  of  office,  liirthright,  or  priestlj'  rank.  Certainly  this  may  be 
judged  true  of  such  as  had  been  given  distinctive  forms,  for  semblance 
or  form  is  to  the  primitive-minded  man,  the  most  significant  character 
of  any  thing.  The  ear  buttons  already  described  illustrate  this,  as 
well  as  certain  of  the  gorgets.  These  were  about  three  inches  in  diam- 
eter, discoidal,  and  each  cut  out  from  the  labrum  of  a  pyrula  or  conch, 
to  represent  a  broad  circle  enclosing  a  cross.  Above  the  end  of  the 
upper  arm  of  this  cross,  four  holes  were  drilled  (instead  of  one),  for  sus- 
pension. The  margin  of  the  inner  side  was.  moreover,  scored  with 
definite  numbers  of  notches.  Thus  it  was  plain  that  to  the  primitive 
nature  worshipers  who  made  and  used  such  gorgets  the  circle  repre- 
sented the  horizon  surrounding  the  world  and  its  four  quarters — typified 
by  the  cross  as  well  as  the  four  holes  or  points — the  notches  in  its  rim, 
the  score  of  sacred  days  in  the  four  seasons  pertaining  to  the  four  quar- 
ters thus  symbolized ;  and  that  this  kind  of  ornament,  if  we  may  still 
call  it  such,  was  the  combined  cosmical  and  calendaric  badge,  probably 
of  the  priest  who  officiated  in,  and  kept  tally  of,  the  ceremonials,  and 
ceremonial  days,  of  the  successive  seasons. 

Miscellaneous  Ceremonial  Appliances  ;  Sacred  and  Sym- 
bolical Objects  ;  Carvings  and  Paintings. 

Less  difficulty  attended  the  determination  of  other  than  the  strictly 
personal  appliances  of  ceremonology  which  we  found  :  and  again,  many 
articles  of  both  these  classes,  the  meaning  of  which  might  have  been 
problematical  had  we  found  them  dissociated,  were  readily  enough 
recognized  when  found  together.  This  was  particularly  the  case  with 
a  heterogeneous  collection  of  things  I  discovered  close  under  the 
sea  wall,  at  the  extreme  western  edge  of  the  court.  I  regarded  its 
contents  as  having  constituted  the  outfit  of  a  "Medicine  man,"  or 
Shamanistic  priest.  It  is  true  that  it  contained  several  articles  of  a 
purely  practical  nature.  There  were  two  or  three  conch-shell  bailers; 
one  or  two  picks  or  battering  tools  of  conch-shell,  of  a  kind  already 
described;  and  a  hammer  of  a  sort  not  in frequentlj' found  elsewhere. 
It  was  made  from  a  large  triton-shell  by  removing  the  labrum  or  two 
first  larger  whorls,  from  the  columella,  and  leaving  this  to  serve  as  the 
handle,  while  the  remaining  four  or  five  smaller  or  apical  whorls  were 
left  to  serve  as  the  head.  There  were  also  several  hollow  shaving- 
blades  or  rounding-planes,  made  from  the  serrate-edged  dental  i)lates  or 


1896.]  OiJ  [Cushmg. 

mandibles  of  the  logger-head  turtle,  and  some  shell  chisels  and  cutters 
of  various  other  sorts. 

For  the  rest,  however,  this  curious  assemblage  of  things  both  nat- 
ixral  and  artificial,  were,  judged  by  their  unquestionable  relationship 
to  one  another,  certainly  sacred,  or  fetishistic.  No  other  purpose  could 
be  assigned  to  several  natural  but  extremely  irregular  pearls;  pecu- 
liarlv  shaped,  minute  pebbles  and  concretions  ;  water-worn  fragments  of 
coral  exhibiting  singular  markings,  such  as  regular  lines  of  star-like  or 
radiate  dots ;  more  than  twenty  distinct  species  of  small,  univalvular 
«liells,  and  half  as  many  of  small  bivalves — all  quite  as  fresh  as  thougli 
but  recently  gathered.  These  were  mingled  with  oliva-shell  buttons 
and  pendants,  and  pairs  of  sun-shells  (solenidse),  two  of  which  had  been 
•externally  coated  with  a  bright  yellow  pigment,  and  others  of  which 
had  once  been  painted,  inside,  with  symbolic  figures  or  devices  in  black, 
although  the  lines  of  these  figures  could  now  no  longer  be  distinctly 
traced.  There  were  a  number  of  interesting  remains  of  terrestrial  ani- 
mals. One  was  the  skull  of  an  opossum.  It  had  been  carefully  cleaned, 
and  cut  ofl'  at  the  occiput,  and  to  the  base  thus  formed,  the  under  jaw  had 
been  attached  frontwardly  at  right  angles,  in  such  manner  that  the 
object  could  be  set  upright.  The  whole  had  been  covered  with  thick, 
white  pigment,  and  on  this  background  lines  in  black,  representative  of 
the  face  marks  or  features  of  the  living  animal,  as  conventionally 
<;onceived,  had  been  painted,  doubtless  to  make  it  fetishistically  "alive 
and  potent  "  again.  Another  skull,  that  of  the  marten  or  weasel, 
occurred  in  this  little  museum  of  a  primitive  scientist ;  and  since  we 
know  that  both  the  opossum  and  the  weasel  were  favorite  "mystery 
animals"  of  Indian  Shamans  elsewhere,  little  doubt  remains  as  to  the 
character  of  the  collection  they  belonged  to.  But  there  were  other  more 
artificial  objects,  yet  of  a  kindred  kind.  There  were  kilt-rattles,  made 
from  peculiarly  mottled  claw  shells  of  both  the  small  sea-crab  and  the 
great  king-crab  ;  and  a  set  of  brilliant  colored  scallop  shells,  and 
another  set  of  larger  pecten  shells,  all  in  each  set  perforated,  obviouslj' 
for  mounting  together  on  a  hoop,  to  serve  as  castanets,  precisely  as  are 
similar  shells  among  the  Shamans  of  the  far-away  Northwest  coast. 
There  was  still  another  kind  of  rattle — duplicated  elsewhere — made 
from  the  entire  shell  or  carapace  of  a  "gopher,"  or  land-tortoise,  the 
•dorsal  portion  of  which  was  very  regularlj^  and  neatly  drilled,  to  aid 
the  emission  of  sound.  As  though  to  show  us  that  the  original  owner 
of  this  collection  was  not  only  a  sacred  song-man  and  soothsayer  or 
prophet,  but  also  a  doctor,  there  were,  in  addition,  a  beautiful  little 
sucking  tube  made  from  the  wing-bone  of  a  pelican  or  crane,  and  near 
at  hand  a  sharp  scarifying  lancet  of  fish  bone  set  in  a  little  wooden 
liandle,  of  precisely  the  kind  described  by  old  writers  as  used  by  the 
Southern  Indians  in  blood  letting  and  ceremonial  skin-scratching. 

In  addition  to  these  and  other  objects  largely  of  natural,  or  of  only 
partially  artificial  origin,  there  were  a  number  of  highly  artificial  things. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2  V.      PRINTED  JULY  7,   1897. 


Cushing.]  OoO  [Nov.  6. 

Most  interesting  of  these  and  conclusively  significant  of  the  nature  of  the 
find,  was  what  I  regarded  as  a  set  of  "  Black-Drink  "  appliances.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  gourd,  the  long  stem  of  which  had  been  perforated  at  the  end 
and  sides  ;  of  a  tall  wooden  cup  or  vase — brewing-churn  and  drinking- 
drum,  in  one  ;  of  a  toasting  tray  of  black  earthenware  punctured  around 
the  rim  to  facilitate  handling  when  hot,  and  of  a  fragmentary,  but 
nearly  complete,  sooty  boiling-bowl  or  liemispherical  fire-pot,  also  of 
black  earthenware.  Near  by  were  two  beautifully  finished  conch-shell 
ladles  or  drinking  cups,  both  rather  smaller  and  more  highly  finished 
than  others  found  in  different  parts  of  the  court.  The  larger  one  was 
still  stained  a  deep  reddish  brown  color  inside,  as  though  it  had  been 
long  used  for  some  dark  fluid  like  coflee,  and  uncleansed,  or  too  deeply 
stained  for  cleansing. 

Now  by  reference  to  Laudonnier's  relation  of  Ribault's  and  his  own 
efforts  to  colonize  Florida,  some  three  hundred  years  ago,  and  especially 
by  reference  to  Jonathan  Dickenson's  narrative  of  his  reception  by  the 
self-same  "Cassekey  " — who,  it  will  be  remembered,  later  despoiled  him 
and  his  party — one  can  see  that  these  things  quite  undoubtedly  pertained, 
as  I  have  intimated,  to  the  brewing  and  ceremonial  serving  of  the 
sacred  Cassine  or  '  Black-Drink"  so  famous  among  all  Southern 
Indians  ;  for  they  correspond  in  a  general  way  quite  remarkably  to  those 
described  by  this  author,  so  much  so,  that  I  do  not  hesitate  to  quote  his 
account  at  length.     He  says  : 

"The Indians  were  seated  as  aforesaid,  the  Cassekey  at  the  upper  end 
of  them,  and  the  range  of  cabins  was  filled  with  men,  women  and 
children,  beholding  us.  At  length  we  heard  a  woman  or  two  cry, 
according  to  their  manner,  and  that  very  sorrowfully  ....  which 
occasioned  some  of  us  to  think  that  something  extraordinary  was  to 
be  done  to  us  ;  we  also  heard  a  strange  sort  of  a  noise,  which  was  not 
unlike  the  noise  made  by  a  man,  but  we  could  not  understand  what, 
nor  where  it  was  ;  for  sometimes  it  sounded  to  be  in  one  part  of  the 
liouse,  sometimes  in  another,  to  which  we  had  an  ear.  And  indeed 
our  ears  and  eyes  could  perceive  or  hear  nothing  but  what  was  strange 
and  dismal,  and  death  seemed  to  surround  us  ;  but  time  discovered 
this  noise  to  us — the  occasion  of  it  was  thus  :  In  one  part  of  this  house,, 
where  a  fire  was  kept,  was  an  Indian  man,  having  a  pot  on  the  fire, 
wherein  he  was  making  a  drink  of  a  shrub  (which  we  understood 
afterwards  by  the  Spaniards,  is  called  Casseena)  boiling  the  said  leaves, 
after  they  had  parched  them  in  a  pot  ;  then  with  a  gourd,  having  a 
long  neck,  and  at  the  top  of  it  a  small  hole,  which  the  top  of  one's 
finger  could  cover,  and  at  the  side  of  it  a  round  hole  of  two  inches  diame- 
ter. They  take  the  liquor  out  of  the  pot,  and  \m\  it  into  a  deep  round 
l)owl,  which  being  almost  filled,  contains  nigh  three  gallons  :  with  this 
gourd  they  l)re\v  the  liquor,  and  make  it  froth  very  mucli  ;  it  looks  of  a 
deep  brown  color.  In  the  brewing  of  this  liquor  was  this  noise  made, 
which  we  tliought  strange  ;  for  the  pressing  of  the  gourd  gently  down 
into  tlie  liquor,  and  the  air  wliich  it  contained,  being  forced  out  of  the 
little  hole  at  the  top,  occasioned  a  sound,  and  according  to  the  time  and 
motion  given,  would  be  various.  Tins  drink  wlien  made  and  cool  to 
sup,  was  in  a  siiell  first  carried  to  the  Cassekey,  who  threw  part  of  it  on 
the  ground,  and  the  rest  he  drank  up,  and  then  would  make  a  loud  hem  ^ 
and  afterwards  tlie  cup  passed  to  the  rest  of  the  Cassekey's  associates. 


1896.]  ^"1  [Gushing. 

as  aforesaid  ;  but  no  other  man,  woman  or  child  must  touch  or  taste  of 
this  sort  of  drink  ;  of  wliich  they  sat  sipping,  chattering,  and  smoking 
tobacco,  or  some  other  herb  instead  thereof,  for  tlie  most  part  of  the 
day." 

A  much  fuller  account  of  this  solemn  ceremonial,  of  the  making  and 
administering  of  the  "Black-Drink,"  as  well  as  of  its  meaning  at  almost 
every  stage,  is  given  in  the  admirable  annals  of  William  Bartram — a 
former  and  honored  member  of  this  Society — whose  works  are,  indeed, 
the  source  of  more  definite  information  regarding  the  Southern  Indians 
than  those  of  any  other  one  of  our  earlier  authorities  on  the  natives  of 
northerly  Florida  and  contiguous  States. 

Three  other  objects  in  the  curious  lot  of  sacerdotal  things  I  have  been 
describing  were  especially  typical ;  for  closelj^  related,  but  varied 
forms  of  them  were  found  at  several  other  points  throughout  the  area 
we  excavated.  One  was  a  small,  square,  paddle-like  tablet,  about  six 
inches  long,  three  inches  wide,  and  five-eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  At  one 
end,  presumably  the  lower,  was  a  sort  of  tenon  ;  that  is,  the  board  was 
squai'ely  cut  in  from  either  side  to  the  middle,  where  a  projection  about 
an  inch  wide  and  a  little  more  than  an  inch  long  was  left,  as  though 
either  for  insertion  into  a  mortice,  or  to  facilitate  attachment  to  some- 
thing else,  otherwise.  A  much  larger  tablet  or  board,  an  inch  thick  and 
six  or  seven  inches  wide,  by  nearly  two  feet  in  length,  also  tenoned  in 
like  manner  at  the  lower  end,  lay  on  edge  near  by.  Along  the  middle 
of  one  face  of  this  tablet,  two  elongated  figures  were  cleanly  cut  in  or 
outlined,  end  to  end,  figures  that  seemed  to  represent  shafts  with  round 
terminal  knobs — indicated  by  circles — the  sides  of  the  shafts  being 
slightly  incurved,  so  that  the  figures  as  a  whole  greatly  resembled  the 
conventional  delineations  of  thigh  bones  as  seen  in  the  art-works  of 
other  primitive  peoples — in,  for  example,  the  codices,  and  on  the  monu 
ments,  of  Central  America.  Another  tablet  of  this  sort,  somewhat 
wider,  longer,  and  more  carefully  finished  by  the  shaving  down  of  its 
surfaces  with  shark-tooth  blades,  showed  likewise  along  the  middle  of 
one  face  similar  devices,  carved,  however,  in  relief,  as  though  to  repre- 
sent a  pair  of  thigh  bones  laid  lengthwise  and  end  to  end  upon,  or 
rather,  set  into  the  centre  of  one  side  of  the  board. 

Near  the  first  described  of  these  curious  objects  which  I  regarded  as 
probably  mortuary,  was  another  tablet,  evidently  of  related  character ; 
but  it  was  much  more  elaborate.  The  lower  portion  was  tenoned 
and  in  general  outline  otherwise  resembled  the  tablets  I  have  de- 
scribed ;  but  above  this  portion,  midway  from  end  to  end,  it  was 
squarely  notched  in  at  either  side,  and  above  the  stem  thus  formed, 
extended,  in  turn,  a  shovel-shaped  head,  or  nose,  so  to  call  it,  as  may  be 
better  perceived  by  reference  to  Fig.  2,  PI.  XXXIV,  which  represents 
the  most  perfect  of  these  objects  that  we  found.  The  specimen  in  question 
was  between  three  and  four  feet  long,  although  less  than  a  foot  in 
width.  The  lower  portion  was  not  more  than  an  inch  in  thickness,  and 
was  uniformly  flat,  the  upper  portion — head  or  nose,  as  I  have  called 


Cushing.J  60  Ji  [Nov.  6, 

it — was  convex  on  one  side,  flat  on  the  otlier.  Wlien  I  found  this 
object  I  encountered  the  somewhat  rounded  shovel-shaped  end  first, 
and  thought  that  I  had  found  a  paddle.  Following  it  up  by  feel- 
ing with  my  fingers  along  the  edges,  I  became  assured  that  this  was  so, 
when  I  struck  the  notched-in  portions  at  the  stem  which  connected 
it  with  the  lower  or  flatter  and  squarer  portion.  Then  when  the 
shoulders  of  this  in  turn  were  touched,  I  supposed  it  to  be  a  double  sort 
of  paddle.  I  discovered  my  mistake  only  when  the  entire  object  was 
revealed.  These  curious  tablets,  tenoned  at  the  lower  ends,  notched  in 
midwaj^  and  terminating  in  long  shovel-shaped  extensions  beyond  the 
necks  thus  formed,  were  represented  by  no  fewer  than  ten  or  twelve  ex- 
amples besides  the  one  described.  They  were  found  quite  generally 
distributed  throughout  the  court.  But  they  varied  in  size  from  a  foot  in 
length  by.  three  inches  in  width,  to  nearly  five  feet  in  length,  by  more 
than  a  foot  in  width.  The  most  elaborate  of  them  all  was  the  one 
already  referred  to,  and  shown  in  PL  XXXIV,  for  it,  like  the  first  speci- 
men found,  had  been  decorated  with  paint  (as  at  one  time  probably  had 
been  all  of  the  others).  Upon  the  head  or  shovel-shaped  portion  were 
two  eye-like  circles  surrounding  central  dots.  At  the  extreme  end  was 
a  rectangular  line  enclosing  lesser  marginal  lines,  as  though  to  repre- 
sent conventionally  a  mouth  enclosing  nostrils  or  teeth  or  other  details. 
The  body  or  lower  and  flatter  portion  was  painted  from  the  shoulders 
downward  toward  the  tail-like  tenon  with  a  double-lined  triangular 
figure,  and  there  were  three  broad  transverse  black  bands  leading  out 
from  this  toward  either  edge.  On  the  obverse  or  flat  under  surface  of 
the  tablet  were  painted  equidistantly,  in  a  line,  four  black  circles  enclos- 
ing white  centres,  exactly  corresi)onding  to  other  figures  of  the  sort 
found  on  various  objects  in  the  collections,  and  from  their  connection, 
regarded  by  me  as  word-signs,  or  sj'mbols  of  the  four  regions. 

That  these  curious  tablets  were  symbolical — even  if  designed  for 
attachment  to  other  more  utilitarian  things — was  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  various  similar  objects,  too  small  for  use  otherwise  than  as 
batons  or  amulets,  were  found.  Several  of  these  were  of  wood,  but  one 
of  them  was  of  fine-grained  stone  (Fig.  3,  PI.  XXXIV),  and  all  were  ex- 
quisitely finished.  Those  of  wood  were  not  more  than  eight  inches  in 
length  by  three  inches  in  width  ;  and  they  were  most  elaborately  decor- 
ated by  incised  circles  or  lenticular  designs  on  the  upper  convex  sides — 
still  more  clearly  representing  eyes — and  by  zigzag  lines  around  the 
upper  margins  as  clearly  representing  mouths,  teeth,  etc.,  and  on  the  same 
side  of  the  lower  portions  or  bodies,  by  either  triangular  or  concentric 
circular  figures  ;  while  on  the  obverse  or  flat  side  of  one  of  them  was 
beautifully  incised  and  painted  the  figure  of  a  Wheeling  Dolphin  or  Por- 
poise, one  of  tlie  most  perfect  drawings  in  the  collection.  Tlie  little 
object  in  stone  (disproportionately  illustrated  in  Fig.  3.  PI.  XXXIV)  was 
only  two  inches  in  length  by  a  little  more  than  an  inch  in  width.  It 
was  wrought  from  very  fine   dioritic  stone,  and   as  may  be  seen  l)y  tht> 


1896.]  ^OO  [Gushing. 

illustration  was  so  decorated  with  incised  lines  as  to  generally  resemble 
the  comparatively  gigantic  wooden  object  of  the  same  general  kind 
shown  above  it.  The  very  slight  tenon-like  projection  at  the  lower  end 
of  it  was,  however,  grooved,  as  if  for  attachment  by  a  cord.  Plaiulj% 
therefore,  it  was  designed  for  suspension,  and  no  doubt  constituted  an 
amulet  representative  of  the  larger  kind  of  object.  The  moderatelj^ 
small,  highly  finished  wooden  figures  of  this  kind,  seemed  also  to  have 
been  used  more  as  portable  paraphernalia — as  batons  or  badges  in  dramatic 
or  dance  ceremonials  perhaps — than  for  jiermanent  setting  up  or  attach- 
ment. That  this  may  have  been  the  case  was  indicated  by  the  finding 
of  a  "head-tablet"  of  the  kind.  It  was  fifteen  inches  in  length  by  about 
eight  inches  in  width,  although  wider  at  the  somewhat  rounded  top  than 
at  the  bottom.  On  the  flatter,  or  what  I  have  called  the  under  side  of  the 
lower  portion  or  end,  this  tablet  was  hollowed  to  exactly  fit  the  forehead,  or 
back  of  the  head,  while  on  the  more  convex  side,  it  was  figured  by  means 
of  painted  lines,  almost  precisely  as  were  the  upper  surftices  of  the  small 
wooden  batons  or  minature  carved  tablets.  My  conclusion  relative  to  its 
character  as  a  "head-tablet "  was  based,  not  only  upon  the  fact  that  it  was 
thus  hollowed  as  though  to  fit  the  head,  but  also  upon  the  comparison  of 
its  general  outlines  and  those  represented  on  its  painted  surface,  with  the 
outlines  and  delineations  on  certain  objects  represented  on  the  head- 
dresses of  human  figures  etched  on  shell  gorgets  found  in  the  ancient 
mounds  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

I  admit  that  the  significance  of  not  only  the  smaller,  but  also  of  the 
larger  of  these  remarkable  tablets  must  remain  more  or  less  enigmat- 
ical ;  yet,  judged  by  their  general  resemblance  to  the  gable-ornaments 
upon  the  sacred  houses  and  the  houses  of  the  dead  of  various  Poly- 
nesian peoples,  and  to  corresponding  sheet-copper  objects  of  the 
northwest  coast,  as  well  as  to  their  obvious  connection  with  the 
tablets  found  by  us,  on  which  conventional  representations  of  thigh 
bones  occurred,  I  was  led  to  believe  that  at  least  all  of  the  larger  of 
them  were  ancestral  emblems  ;  that  the  smaller  and  more  liighly  finished 
of  them  were,  therefore,  for  ceremonial  use,  perhaps,  in  dramatic  dances 
of  the  ancestry,  in  which  also  such  head-tablets  as  the  one  I  have  described 
were  used  ;  and  that  such  amulets  as  the  little  one  of  stone  here  fig- 
ured, were  likewise  similarly  representative.  It  may  be,  however,  that 
while  there  is  no  question  as  to  the  symbolic  and  ceremonial  nature  of  all 
these  things — as  is  indicated  by  the  like  conventional  devices  upon  them 
all, — nevertheless,  the  larger  of  them  may  have  been  used  in  other  ways  ; 
as,  for  example,  on  the  prows  of  canoes,  or  at  the  ends  of  small  mortu- 
ary structures — chests  or  the  like — or  they  may  have  been  set  up  to  form 
portions  of  altars.  But  in  any  one  of  these  uses  they  might  well  have 
served  quite  such  a  symbolic  purpose  as  I  have  suggested  ;  for  they  were 
obviously  more  or  less  animistic  and  totemic,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that 
I  have  provisionally  named  the  larger  of  them  "Ancestral  Tablets," 
and  look  upon  the  smaller  of  them  as  having  been  used  either  as  amu^ 


■Cushing.]  dol  [Nov.  6, 

lets  or  to  otherwise  represent  such  tablets  in  the  paraphernalia  of  sacred 
ancestral  ceremonials.  I  may  add  that  I  believe  it  will  yet  be  possible, 
by  the  experimental  reproduction  and  use  of  these  forms,  to  determine 
more  definitely  what  the  originals,  the  most  mysterious  of  our  finds,  were 
designed  for. 

In  addition  to  the  head  tablet  I  have  spoken  of,  various  thin,  painted 
slats  of  wood  were  found  in  two  or  three  places.  They  were  so  related 
to  one  another  in  each  case,  that  it  was  evident  they  had  also  formed 
portions  of  ceremonial  head-dresses,  for  they  had  been  arranged  fan-wise 
as  shown  by  cordage,  traces  of  which  could  still  be  seen  at  their  bases. 
Besides  these,  other  slats  and  parts  of  other  kinds  of  head-dresses,  bark 
tassels,  wands — one  in  the  form  of  a  beautifully  shaped  spear,  and  others 
in  the  form  of  staffs — were  found  ;  many  of  them  plainly  indicating  the 
practice  of  mimetically  reproducing  useful  forms,  and  especially  weapons, 
for  ceremonial  appliance. 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  object  of  a  sacred  or  ceremonial  nature, 
however,  was  a  thin  board  of  yellowish  wood,  a  little  more  than  sixteen 
inches  in  length,  by  eight  and  a  half  inches  in  wddth,  which  I  found 
standing  slantingly  upward  near  the  central  western  shell-bench  (Sec- 
tion 22).  On  slowly  removing  the  peatj^  muck  from  its  surface,  I  dis- 
covered that  an  elaborate  figure  of  a  crested  bird  was  painted  upon  one 
side  of  it,  in  black,  white,  and  blue  pigments,  as  outlined  in  Fig.  1,  PI. 
XXXIV.  Although  conventionally  treated,  this  figure  was  at  once 
recognizable  as  representing  either  the  jay  or  the  king-fisher,  or  perhaps 
a  mythologic  bird-being  designed  to  typify  both.  There  were  certain 
nice  touches  of  an  especially  symbolic  nature  in  portions  of  this  pictorial 
figure  (and  the  same  may  also  be  said  of  various  other  figures  illustrated 
in  the  plates),  the  nicety  of  which  is  not  sufficiently  shown  in  the  draw- 
ings, that  were  unfortunately  made  from  very  imperfect  prints  of  our 
photographs.  It  will  be  observed,  however,  not  only  that  considerable 
knowledge  of  perspective  was  possessed  by  the  primitive  artist  who 
made  this  painting,  but  also  that  he  attempted  to  show  the  deific  character 
of  the  bird  he  here  represented  by  placing  upon  the  broad  black  paint - 
band  beneath  his  talons  (probably  symbolic  of  a  key),  the  characteris- 
tic animal  of  the  keys,  the  raccoon  ;  by  placing  the  symbol  or  insignia  of 
his  dominion  over  the  water — in  form  of  a  double-bladed  paddle — upright 
under  his  dextral  wing ;  and  to  show  his  dominion  over  the  four  quarters  of 
the  sea  and  island  world  thus  typified,  by  placing  the  four  circles  or 
word-signs,  as  if  issuing  from  his  mouth, — for  in  the  original,  a  fine  line 
connects  this  series  of  circlets  with  his  throat,  and  is  further  continued 
downward  from  his  mouth  toward  the  heart, — as  is  so  often  the  case  with 
similar  representations  of  mythologic  beings  in  the  art  of  correspondingly 
developed  primitive  peoples. 

On  exhibiting  this  painting  to  that  learned  student  of  American  lingu- 
istics. Dr.  Albert  S.  Gatchet,  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  and 
.stating  to  him  that  I  regarded  it  as  that  of  the  crested  jay,  or  of  the  king- 


1895.]  ^C^O  [Gushing. 

fisher,  lie  called  my  attention  to  the  fact  that  among  the  Maskokian  tribes 
of  Georgia,  and  of  contiguous  southern  regions,  the  name  of  a  leader 
among  the  recognized  warriors  signified  "He  of  the  Rising  Crest,"  and 
that  this  name  was  also  that  of  the  jay  whose  crest  is  seen  to  rise  when  he 
Is  wrathful  or  fighting.  I  am  therefore  convinced  that  this  figure,  so  often 
found  in  the  south  and  in  other  parts  of  Florida  (and  usually  identified 
as  that  of  the  ivory-billed  woodpecker),  really  represented  the  bird-god 
of  war  of  these  ancient  people  of  the  keys,  his  dominion  over  the  water 
being  signified,  as  1  have  suggested,  by  his  double-bladed  paddle  ;  his 
dominion  over  the  four  quarters  of  the  world,  by  the  four  word-signs 
represented  as  falling  from  his  open  mouth — for  these  circular  signs,  as 
we  have  seen  before,  were  not  only  drilled  in  the  margin  of  gorgets 
symbolic  of  the  four  quarters,  but  were  also  inscribed  upon  some  of  the 
tablets  I  have  called  "  Ancestral." 

Other,  smaller,  thin  painted  boards  were  found,  but  it  was  evident 
that  they  were  lids  or  other  portions  of  boxes, — some  of  which,  indeed, 
we  found  nearly  complete.  One  of  these  lids  was  not  more  than  seven 
inches  in  length,  by  four  inches  in  width.  Upon  one  side  of  it  was 
drawn,  in  even,  fine  lines  of  black  (as  approximately  shown  in  Fig.  6,  PI. 
XXXIV),  the  representation  of  a  horned  crocodile.  Again,  in  this  as  in 
the  painted  tablet,  may  be  seen  a  clear  indication  of  a  knowledge  of  per- 
spective in  drawing,  on  the  part  of  the  primitive  artists  who  designed  it. 
This  is  apparent  in  the  treatment  of  the  legs,  of  the  serrated  tail,  and  of  the 
vanishing  scales  both  at  the  back  and  under  the  belly  of  the  figure.  Such 
knowledge  of  deUnative  art  in  the  rovnd — remarkable  with  a  people  so 
primitive — was,  I  believe,  derived  by  them  from  their  still  more  remark- 
able facility  in  relief  work,  in  wood  carving  ;  and  this,  in  turn,  originated, 
I  think,  in  their  possession  of  those  admirable  carving-tools  of  shark  teeth 
that  I  have  previously  described  The  little  lid  in  question  was  found 
still  in  connection  with  the  ends  and  with  one  side  of  a  jewel-box,  in 
which  had  been  placed  several  precious  things,  among  them,  two  sets  of 
ear  buttons  and  choice,  carved  wooden  and  shell  discs.  It  was  enfolded 
within  decayed  matting  containing  a  bundle  or  pack,  in  which  were  also 
nine  ceremonial  adzes,  a  pair  of  painted  shells,  a  knife  with  animistically 
carved  handle,  and  other  articles — all  evidently  sacred,  or  for  use  in  the 
making  of  sacred  objects.  The  little  figure  of  the  crocodile  painted  on 
this  lid,  was  of  interest  in  another  waj^  Being  horned,  it  at  once 
called  to  mind  the  "horned  alligators,"  described  by  Bartram  and 
others,  as  painted  upon  the  great  public  buildings  of  the  Creeks  or  Mas- 
kokian Indians  of  the  States  just  north  of  Florida.  Upon  another  box- 
lid  or  tablet  was  painted  in  outline,  a  graceful  and  realistic  figure  of  a 
doe,  and  along  the  middles  of  the  ingeniously  rabbetted  sides  and  ends  of 
these  boxes — whether  large  or  small — were  invariably  painted  double 
lines,  represented  as  tied  with  figure-of-eight  knots,  midway,  or  else 
fastened  with  clasps  of  oliva  shell — as  though  to  mythically  join  these 
parts  of  the  boxes  and  secure  their  contents. 


Gushing.]  ^'OO  •   ysov.  6, 

The  painted  shells  I  have  referred  to  as  contained  in  the  pack  just  de- 
scribed, were  those  of  a  species  of  Solenidte,  or  the  radiatingly  banded 
bivalves  that  are  locally  known  in  that  portion  of  Florida  as  ' '  sun-shells. ' ' 
Each  pair  of  them  was  closed  and  neatly  wrapped  about  with  strips  of 
palmetto  leaves  that  were  still  green  in  color,  but  which  of  course  imme- 
diately decomposed  on  exposure  to  the  air.  On  opening  this  pair  of  them, 
I  found  that  in  one  of  the  lids  or  valves,  the  left  one,  was  a  bold,  conven- 
tional painting,  in  black  lines,  of  an  outspread  hand.  The  central  creases 
of  the  palm  were  represented  as  descending  divergingly  from  between 
the  first  and  middle  fingers,  to  the  base.  This  was  also  characteristic  of 
the  hands  in  another  much  more  elaborately  painted  shell  of  the  kind, 
that  was  found  by  Mr.  George  Gause  within  four  or  five  feet  of  the  bird- 
painting  or  altar-tablet.  As  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  Fig.  4,  PI. 
XXXIV,  this  painting  represented  a  man,  nearly  nude,  with  outspread 
hands,  masked  (as  indicated  by  the  pointed,  mouthless  face),  and  wearing 
a  head-dress  consisting  of  a  frontlet  with  four  radiating  lines — presumably 
symbolic  of  the  four  quarters — represented  thereon,  and  with  three  banded 
plumes  or  hairpins  divergingly  standing  up  from  it.  The  palm-lines 
in  the  open  hands  of  this  figure  were  drawn  in  precisely  the  same  manner 
as  were  those  in  the  hand  painting  of  the  pair  of  shells  found  with  the  cere- 
monial pack,  and  the  thumbs  were  similarly  crooked  down.  Upon  the 
wrists,  and  also  just  below  the  knees,  were  reticulate  lines,  evidently  de- 
signed to  represent  plaited  wristlets  and  leg-bands.  Otherwise,  as  I  have 
said,  the  figure  was  nude.  It  was  not  until  our  excavations  were  well  ad- 
vanced beyond  the  middle  sections  of  the  court  of  the  pile  dwellers,  that 
these  singular  painted  sliells  were  discovered,  since  they  were  closed 
when  found  as  were  those  in  the  collections  that  I  found  under  the  sea  wall 
at  the  southwestern  margin  of  the  court.  Throughout  the  richer  portions 
of  the  court  which  we  had  already  passed  over,  we  had  quite  generally 
encountered  these  closed  sun-shells,  so  many  of  them,  in  fact,  that  we 
had  usually  thrown  them  aside  ;  since  we  had  regarded  them  as  intrusive, 
as  probably  the  remains  of  living  species  that  had  found  their  way  into 
the  court  after  its  abandonment.  Hence  I  have  no  doubt  that  we  missed 
many  treasures  of  this  kind  of  symbolic  painting  From  the  small  num- 
ber of  specimens  we  recovered,  it  is  ditficult  to  surmise  what  could  have 
been  the  purpose  of  these  painted  shells.  There  is  of  course  no  doubt 
that  they  were  ceremonial  or  sacred,  but  whether  they  were  used  in 
Shamanistic  processes  of  divination  or  not,  it  is  measurably  certain  that 
they  were  regarded  as  potent  fetiches  or  amulets,  for  in  the  one  that  con- 
tained the  painting  of  the  outspread  hand  that  I  myself  found  and  opened, 
a  substance,  whicli  I  regarded  as  decayed  seaweed,  had  apparently  been 
placed  to  symbolize,  in  connection  with  the  figurative  hand,  creative 
potencj'^  ;  for  alg<«  and  the  green  slime  of  the  sea  is  regarded  by  many 
primitive  peoples  as  earth-seed  or  world-substance.  Unfortunately  I  did 
not  see  the  other  shell  until  after  it  had  been  opened  by  Messrs.  Gause  and 
Bergmann  ;  but  hearing  their  cheers  over  tiie  discovery,  I  ran  immediately 


1!^%.]  *^"<  [Cusliing. 

to  the  spot,  and  had  the  good  fortune  to  rescue  it  before  attempt  had 
been  made  to  wash  it  out.  For  although,  as  has  since  been  ascertained, 
the  paint  employed  in  its  delineation  was  made  from  a  quite  permanent, 
gummy  substance  (probably  rubber),  yet  when  first  found  it  was  almost 
fluid,  like  that  on  many  others  of  the  paintings. 

When  I  exhibited  this  specimen  and  the  drawing  of  the  open  hand  to 
Mr.  Clarence  Moore,  whose  interest  in  these  finds  has  been  from  first  to 
last  so  gratifying,  he  kindly  called  my  attention  to  a  concavo-con- 
vex or  shell-like  plaque  of  stone,  found  in  a  mound  in  southern  Illinois, 
in  which  an  almost  identical  figure  of  an  open  hand  was  incised.  In  a 
shell  disc  discovered  in  Georgia,  there  is,  I  have  also  recentlj''  learned, 
an  etched  delineation  of  an  open  hand  containing  an  eye-like  figure  ; 
and  I  am  therefore  the  more  inclined  to  regard  the  sort  of  shell  paint- 
ings we  found  as  not  only  in  a  high  degree  symbolic  and  sacred,  but  also 
as  typical,  and  I  also  incline  to  believe  that  they  were,  moreover,  the 
earlier  forms  of  the  etched  or  graven  figures  of  the  kind  just  descilbed 
as  found  in  the  more  northerly  mounds. 

As  evidenced  by  the  exquisite  finish  and  ornamental  designs  of  so 
many  of  the  implements  weapons  and  utensils  I  have  described,  the 
ancient  key  dwellers  excelled  especially  in  the  art  of  wood-carving. 
While  their  arts  in  painting  were  also  of  an  unusually  highly  developed 
character, — as  the  work  of  a  primitive  people — their  artistic  ability  in 
relief-work  was  preeminently  so.  This  was  further  illustrated  in  a  lit 
tie  wooden  doll,  representing  a  round-faced  woman  wearing  a  sort  of 
cloak  or  square  tunic,  that  was  found  near  the  southernmost  shell-bench 
along  the  western  side  of  the  court,  in  Section  15.  Near  this  little  figure 
was  a  superbly  carved  and  finished  statuette  in  dark-colored,  close-grained 
wood,  of  a  mountain-lion  or  panther  god — an  outline  sketch  of  which  is 
given  in  Fig.  1,  PI.  XXXV.  Nothing  thus  far  found  in  America  so 
vividly  calls  to  mind  the  best  art  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  or  Assyrians, 
as  does  this  little  statuette  of  the  Lion-God,  in  which  it  was  evidently 
intended  to  represent  a  manlike  being  in  the  guise  of  a  panther. 
Although  it  IS  barely  six  inches  in  height,  its  dignity  of  pose  may  fairlj^ 
be  termed  "heroic,"  and  its  conventional  lines  are  to  the  last  degree 
masterly.  While  the  head  and  features — ears,  ej^es,  nostrils  and  mouth — 
are  most  realistically  treated,  it  is  observable  that  not  onlj'  the  legs  and 
feet,  but  also  even  the  paws,  which  rest  so  stoutly  upon  the  thiglis  or 
knees  of  the  sitting  or  squatting  figure,  are  cut  oflT,  unfinished  ;  bereft,  as 
it  were,  of  their  talons.  And  this,  I  would  note,  is  quite  in  accordance 
with  the  spirit  of  primitive  sacerdotal  art  generally — in  which  it  was  ever 
sought  CO  fashion  the  form  of  a  God  or  Powerful  Being  in  such  wise  that 
while  its  aspect  or  spirit  might  be  startlingly  shown  forth,  the  powers 
associated  with  its  living  form  might  be  so  far  curtailed,  by  the  in- 
completion  of  some  of  its  more  harmful  or  destructive  members,  as  to 
render  its  use  for  the  ceremonial  incarnation  of  the  God  at  times,  safe, 
no  matter  what  his  mood  might  chance,  at  such  times,  to  be. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153    2  W        PRINTED  AUGUST  3,  1807. 


Cushing.]  *^*^*5  |-Xov.  G, 

Masks  and  Figureheads. 

To  me,  the  remains  that  were  most  significant  of  all  discovered  bj' us  in 
the  depths  of  the  muck,  were  the  carved  and  painted  wooden  masks 
and  animal  figureheads.  The  masks  were  exceptionality  well  modeled, 
usually  in  realistic  representation  of  human  features,  and  were  life- 
size  ;  hollowed  to  fit  the  face,  and  provided  at  either  side,  both  above 
and  below,  with  string-holes  for  attachment  thereto.  Some  of  them 
were  also  bored  at  intervals  along  the  top,  for  the  insertion  of  feathers  or 
other  ornaments,  and  others  were  accompanied  by  thick,  gleaming 
white  conch-shell  eyes  (as  in  Fig.  2,  PI.  XXXIII)  that  could  be  inserted 
or  removed  at  will,  and  which  were  concave — like  the  hollowed  and 
polished  eye-pupils  in  the  carving  of  the  mountain-lion  god — to  in- 
crease their  gleam.  Of  these  masks  we  found  fourteen  or  fifteen  fairly 
well-preserved  sitecimens,  besides  numerous  others  which  were  so 
decayed  that,  although  not  lost  to  study,  they  could  not  be  recovered. 
The  animal  figureheads,  as  I  have  called  them,  were  somewhat  sm-aller 
than  the  heads  of  the  creatures  they  represented.  Nearly  all  of  them 
were  formed  in  parts  ;  that  is,  the  head  and  face  of  each  was  carved 
from  a  single  block  ;  while  the  ears  and  other  accessor}^  parts,  and,  in 
case  of  the  representation  of  birds,  the  wings,  were  formed  from  sepa- 
rate pieces.  Among  these  animal  figureheads  were  those  of  the  snouted 
leather-back  turtle,  the  alligator,  the  pelican,  the  fish-hawk  and  the  owl ; 
the  wolf,  the  wild-cat,  the  bear  and  the  deer.  But  curiously  enough,  the 
human  masks  and  these  animal  figureheads  were  associated  in  the  finds, 
and  b}^  a  study  of  the  conventional  decorations  or  painted  designs  upon 
them,  they  were  found  to  be  also  very  closely  related  symbolically,  as 
though  for  use  together  in  dramaturgic  dances  or  ceremonials.  On  one 
or  two  occasions  I  found  the  masks  and  figureheads  actually  bunched,  just 
as  they  would  have  been  had  they  thus  pertained  to  a  single  ceremonial 
and  had  been  put  away  when  not  in  use,  tied  or  suspended  together. 
In  case  of  the  animal  figureheads  the  movable  parts,  such  as  the  ears, 
wings,  legs,  etc.,  had  in  some  instances  been  laid  beside  the  representa 
tions  of  the  faces  and  heads  and  wrapi)ed  up  with  them.  We  found  two 
of  these  figureheads — those  of  the  wolf  and  deer — thus  carefully  wrapped 
in  bark  matting,  but  we  could  neither  preserve  this  wiapping,  nor  the 
strips  of  palmetto  leaves  or  flags  that  formed  an  inner  swathing  around 
them.  The  occurrence  of  these  animal  figureheads  in  juxtaposition 
to  the  human  masks  which  had  so  evidently  been  used  ceremo- 
nially in  connection  with  them,  was  most  fortunate  ;  for  it  enabled 
me  to  recognize,  in  several  instances,  the  true  meaning  of  the  face- 
paint  designs  on  the  human  masks  thus  associated  with  these  animal 
figures.  I  cannot  attempt  to  fully  describe  the  entire  series,  but  must 
content  myself  with  reference  only  to  a  few  of  the  more  typical  of  them. 

Near  the  northernnuist  shell  bench,  in  Section  20  of  the  plan  shown 
on   PI.   XXXI,    was   found,   carefully  bundled   up.  as  I   liave   said,   the 


18<JU.]  "*^.'  [Gushing. 

remarkable  figurehead  of  a  wolf  with  tlie  jaws  distended,  separate  ears, 
and  conventional,  flat,  scroll-shaped  shoulder-  or  leg-pieces,  designed  for 
attachment  thereto  with  cordage,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  PI.  XXXIII.  A  short 
distance  from  this  specimen  was  found  the  beautifullj'  featured  man-mask 
sketched  in  Fig.  2  of  the  same  plate.  Now  both  of  tliese  specimens  had 
been  painted  with  black,  white,  and  blue  designs,  whicli  unfortunately 
cannot  be  shown  with  sufficient  clearness  in  the  uucolored  sketches. 
When  I  observed  that  the  designs  on  the  human  mask  represented, 
albeit  conventionally,  the  general  features  and  lines  of  the  wolf  figure- 
head associated  with  it,  I  was  no  longer  at  loss  to  understand  the  con- 
nection of  the  two.  It  will  be  observed  that  on  the  ear-pieces  of  the 
wolf  figurehead,  are  two  well-defined  and  sharp-pointed  dark  areas  repre- 
senting the  openings  of  the  erect  ears,  and  that  correspondingly,  above 
the  eyebrows  of  the  mask  itself,  similarly  pointed  black  areas  are  painted, 
while  the  tusked  open  mouth  of  the  wolf  figurehead  is  also  represented  by 
jagged,  or  zigzag  lines  on  the  mask,  extending  across  the  cheeks  upward 
to  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  apparently  to  symbolize  the  gnashing  teeth 
of  the  Avolf ;  and  even  the  conventionally  represented  shoulders  and  feet 
of  the  springing  wolf  figurehead  are  drawn  in  clean  white  lines  over  the 
entire  middle  of  the  face  of  this  mask.  It  was  therefore  evident  to  me, 
that  these  painted  lines  upon  the  human  mask  were  designed,  really,  to 
represent  the  aspect  and  features  and  even  the  characteristic  action  or 
spring,  of  the  wolf.  Hence  I  looked  upon  these  two  painted  carvings  as 
having  been  used  in  a  dramaturgic-  or  dance-ceremonial  of  these  ancient 
people,  in  which  it  was  sought  to  symbolize  successively  the  different 
aspects  or  incarnations  of  the  same  animal-god,  namely  the  wolf-god, 
— that  is,  his  animal  aspect,  and  his  human  aspect. 

Xow  tliis  association  of  the  animal  figureheads  with  themasks  jire- 
senting  their  human  counterparts  was  not  exceptional.  In  another  por- 
tion of  the  court  the  rather  diminutive  but  exquisitely  carved  head,  breast 
and  shoitlders  (with  separate  parts  representative  of  the  outspread  wings, 
near  by)  of  a  pelican,  was  found,  and  in  connection  with  this,  a  full-sized 
human  mask  of  wood,  also.  Upon  the  forehead,  cheeks,  and  lower  portion 
of  the  face  of  this  mask,  was  painted  in  white  over  the  general  black 
background,  the  full  outline  (observed  from  above)  of  a  flying  pelican,  as 
ma  J'  be  better  seen  tlian  imagined  by  a  comparison  of  Figs.  3  and  4,  in  PI. 
XXXIII — especiallj'  if  I  explain  that  the  under  lip  and  chin  of  this  man- 
pelican  mask  was  quaintly  pouted  and  protruded  to  represent  the  pouch 
of  the  pelican — in  a  manner  that  does  not  show  in  the  full-face  drawing. 

The  remarkable  and  elaborately  carved  and  painted  figurehead  of  the 
leather-back  turtle  ;  the  large  figurehead  or  mask-like  carving  represen- 
tative of  a  bear — its  face  also  elaborately  painted — and  others  of  the  ani- 
mal figureheads  which  we  found,  were  likewise  paired  or  associated  with 
their  human  presentmentations  or  counterparts — that  is,  human  masks 
painted  with  practically  the  same  face-designs  as  occitrred  on  these 
animal  figures. 


Gushing.]  dJO  [Xov.  (5, 

The  symbolic  unity,  or  general  similarity  of  painted  designs  on  the 
masks  with  human  features  to  the  face  paintings  or  markings  on  the  very 
realistic  animal  figureheads  grouped  or  associated  with  them,  gave  me  a 
new  insight  into  the  meaning  of  mask  painting  in  general,  and  into  the 
meaning  also  of  even  simple  face  painting  as  practiced  so  widely  among 
primitive  peoples,  especially  among  such  as  use  masks  in  their  dances  or 
other  sacred  and  dramatic  ceremonials.  That  the  interpretations  I  shall 
presently  venture  to  ofler  may  seem  less  far-fetched  than  otherwise  they 
might  seem,  I  will  explain  a  little  more  fully,  the  tendency  peoples  of 
this  kind  have,  toward  reproducing,  in  their  face- paintings  or  upon  their 
masks,  the  characteristic  marks  or  features  of  animal  faces.  I  cannot  bet- 
ter do  this  than  by  making  a  few  statements  regarding  the  philosophvof 
form  I  was  taught  whilst  living  with  some  veiy  primitive-minded  people — 
the  Zuni  Indians— some  years  ago.  Since  they  observe  that  life  is  never 
manifest  save  in  some  sort  of  form,  they  argue  that  no  form  is  without 
some  sort  of  life,  and  since  they  further  observe  that  each  particular  kind 
of  life  is  manifest  in  some  particular  kind  of  form,  they  argue  that  form 
strictly  conditions  life — its  powers  and  other  characteristics.  Naturally, 
therefore,  they  accord  to  forms  (or  rather  to  semblances)  even  of  inani- 
mate things,  such  potencies  as  they  see  manifested  in  the  forms  of  the  ani- 
mate beings  these  things  most  resemble  externally  or  otherwise.  Let  me 
illustrate  this.  They  connect  the  wave-,  or  ripple-like  scales  of  fishes  with 
their  ability  to  live  and  float  in  the  wave-fretted  waters  ;  they  believe  it  is 
chiefly  because  of  the  cloud-like  down  under  or  between  the  feathers  of 
a  soaring  bird  that  he  is  able  so  lightly  to  fly  among  the  similai',  flufty  or 
downy  clouds — for  these  of  themselves  like  the  mist  of  living  breath, 
ever  float  without  efli"ort.  To  such  a  people,  of  course,  form,  semblance, 
aspect,  is  therefore  all  important  ;  and  they  naturally  think  that  by  re- 
producing a  given  form  or  appearance  which  of  itself  gives  rise  to  a  cer- 
tain eft'ect,  they  may  again  and  unerringly  produce,  or  help  to  reproduce 
the  same  etfect,  with  the  form  of  their  own  making. 

This  sort  of  reasoning  about  analogy  between  form  and  function,  be- 
tween creatures  and  the  phenomena  that  resemble  their  operations,  be- 
tween animals  and  things,  is  only  touched  upon  here — ^just  sufficiently  to 
indicate  how  a  people  thus  reasoning  further  reason  that  as  the  lives, 
conditions  and  powers  of  animals  difler  as  do  their  forms,  so  the  speci- 
fic traits  or  characters  of  animals  differ  according  as  do  their  differing  as- 
pects, especially  according  as  do  the  expressions  of  their  countenances ; 
and  finally,  that  since  the  facial  expression  of  each  kind  of  animal  is  un- 
varying in  all  members  of  the  species,  and  the  corresponding  trait  or 
character  of  each  is  equally  unvarying,  they  reason  that  expression  con- 
trols, rather  than  that  it  is  the  result  of,  character  or  disposition — so  far 
at  least  as  these  animals  are  concerned.  It  follows  that  they  believe  the 
changes  in  the  expression  of  a  man's  face  to  be  similarly  eff"ective.  They 
observe  that  liis  face  is  far  more  mobile  than  is  that  of  any  animal,  and 
lience  believe  that  lie  is  more  capable  of  changing  ;  that  according  as  his 


ISyo.]  ^»*-L  [dishing. 

mood  changes,  his  face  changes  ;  and  thej'  reason  that  vice  versa  accord- 
ing as  his  face  is  clianged  liis  mood  must  necessarily  change.  Further, 
they  believe  that  not  only  according  as  his  face  changes  so  does  his 
mood  change,  but  also  that  his  traits  or  his  entire  character  may,  for  the 
time  being  be  changed,  by  wholly  altering,  with  paint  or  other  marking, 
with  mask  or  other  disguise,  the  entire  expression  of  his  countenance  or 
aspect.  Just  as  a  wrathful  warrior,  with  glaring  eye  and  drawn  mouth, 
and  alert  or  deliant  attitude,  resembles  to  some  extent  a  mountain  lion 
or  a  panther  at  bay,  so  by  the  painting  upon  his  face  and  upon  other 
portions  of  his  person  of  the  characteristic  markings  of  the  panther,  he 
may  be  made  to  assume  still  more  fully  the  nature  of  the  panther. 

Xow  when  we  reflect  that  the  peoples  who  reason  thus  are  also  in  a 
totemic  phase  of  development  sociologically — largely  because  they  do 
reason  thus — that  they  are  inclined,  each  according  to  his  tutelary  deity 
or  the  totem  of  his  clan,  to  emulate  the  animal  (or  supposedly  living 
plant  or  thing)  that  is  his  clan  totem,  in  both  behavior  and  appearance 
so  far  as  possible — in  order  to  become  so  far  as  possible  incarnated  with 
his  spirit — we  find  one  of  the  many  reasons  he  has  for  painting  his 
face  with  the  aspect,  or  face  marks,  of  some  special  animal.  Moreover,  in 
this  reasoning  may  be  found  a  primal  explanation  for  his  supposition 
that  by  putting  on  a  mask  he  can  more  utterly  change  for  the  time 
being  ;  can  even  change  his  totem  or  relationship  ;  can  become,  to  quote 
rom  the  Zunis,  "That  which  he  thirsts  to  become,"  or  "Desirously 
needs  to  become,  what  tho'  a  God,"  strictly  according  to  the  expres- 
sion (and  name)  or  aspect,  of  the  mask  he  makes  and  marks  and  puts  on. 
Thereby,  it  is  believed  that  so  far  as  he  resembles  in  facial  aspect  or  ex- 
pression one  kind  of  being  or  animal  or  another  kind  of  being  or  ani- 
mal, he  will  become  that  being  or  animal,  or  at  least,  be  possessed  by  its 
spirit. 

Nothing  short  of  a  full  treatise  on  this  primitive  philosophy  of  analogy, 
and  the  relation  thereto  of  maskology  or  disguise  by  costuming,  paint- 
ing, tattooing,  bodily  distortion  or  mutilation  and  the  like,  as  a  means 
of  becoming  actually  incarnated  with  the  spirits  of  ancestors,  mythic 
beings,  and  animals,  or  totem  gods,  would  fully  explain  the  significance 
of  the  bunched  animal  figureheads  and  animistically  painted  human 
masks  that  we  found.  I  may  add,  however,  that  one  can  see  how  far 
reaching  was  this  primitive  conception  of  the  life-potency  of  form,  or 
expression,  by  examining  any  sorts  of  ancient  vessels  that  are  decorated 
with  maskoids  or  diminutive  representations  of  human  or  semihuman 
countenances.  Almost  always  these  maskoids  —  whether  found  on 
mound-builder  vessel,  Central  American  jar,  ancient  Peruvian  vase,  or 
even  Etruscan  urn — are  characteristic,  according  to  the  style  of  expres- 
sion they  represent,  of  some  particular  kind  or  use  of  the  vessel  they  oc- 
cur on.  They  have  often,  indeed,  been  described  as  grotesques,  carica- 
tures and  the  like,  usually  without  any  farther  explanation  ;  yet  the  ab- 
sence of  a  humorous  conception  or  intent  in  their  portrayal  is  demon- 


Gushing.]  ^'^^  [Nov.  (i, 

strated  by  the  fact  that  if  we  study  the  relation  of  tlie  primitive  vessels 
ou  which  they  occur  to  other  things,  with  wliich,  for  example,  they  are 
sometimes  found,  we  shall  speedily  discover  that  each  curious  mask 
upon  such  vessel  is  but  the  exaggerated  expression  of  a  character  or 
being  it  was  sought  to  associate  in  some  waj^ — as  by  fixing  its  potency — 
Avith  the  "being"  and  purpose,  of  the  pot  itself,  and  this  is  especially 
true  of  vessels  designed  for  ceremonial  use. 

A  strikingly  perfect  example  of  the  kind  of  animal  carving  I  have 
earlier  characterized,  was  the  figurehead  of  a  deer,  which  Gause  and  I 
found  near  the  edge  of  the  northernmost  of  the  shell  benches  along  the 
western  border  of  the  court  (in  Sec.  22,  PI.  XXXI)  It  was  lying,  in  a 
V  ery  natural  position,  on  its  side.  Thus  seen  in  the  midst  of  the  dark 
muck,  its  light-hued  painted  lines  vividly  revealed  by  contrast,  its  large, 
deep  brown  eyes  wide  open  and  lifelike — for  the  pupils  were  formed  of 
polished,  cleverly  inserted  discs  of  tortoise  shell — it  was  the  most  win- 
some and  beautiful  figure  of  the  head  or  face  of  a  doe  or  deer  that  I  have 
ever  seen,  albeit  so  conventionally  treated.  The  illustration  of  this  fig- 
urehead shown  in  No.  2  of  Plate  XXXV,  by  no  means  does  justice  to 
the  graceful  lines  of  the  original  carving,  or  to  the  fineness  of  the  painted 
decorations  thereon,  for  the  view  is  too  directly  full-faced.  The  ear- 
pieces had  been  attached  to  the  back  of  the  head  by  means  of  cords  pass- 
ing over  pegs  thrust  through  them  and  then  through  bifurcated  holes  at 
the  points  of  attachment  to  the  head-piece,  in  such  manner  that  they  could 
be  used  as  pulleys  for  the  realistic  working  of  these  parts ;  and  the  un 
painted  edge,  as  well  as  peg-holes  all  around  the  rearward  portion  of 
the  head,  plainly  indicated  that  the  skin  of  a  deer  or  some  flexible  sub- 
stitute therefor,  had  been  also  .attached  to  it,  the  more  perfectly  to  dis- 
guise the  actor  who  no  doubt  endeavored  in  this  disguise  to  personate 
the  character  of  the  deer-god  or  dawu-god,  the  primal  incarnation  of 
which  this  figure  was  evidently  designed  to  represent. 

A  mask  of  purely  human  form  was  also  found  not  far  away.  It  had 
evidently  been  associated  with  the  figurehead  in  such  ceremonials  as  I 
have  referred  to.  At  any  rate,  like  the  figurehead  itself,  it  had  over  the 
eyebrows  a  crescent-shaped  mark — which  seems,  by  the  way,  to  have 
been  the  forehead-symbol  of  all  sorts  of  game-animals  amongst  these 
people,  as  betokened  b}-  its  presence  on  the  forehead  of  the  rabbit  carv- 
ing and  of  other  similar  animal  carvings.  It  also  had  the  tapered,  sharp- 
pointed  white  marks  or  patches  along  either  side  of  the  nose  above  the 
nostrils,  observable  on  the  snout  of  the  deer  head,  and  the  four  sets  of 
three  lines  radiatingly  painted  around  the  eyes  to  represent  winkers. 
This  latter  characteristic  in  the  eye-painting  of  the  deer  figurehead,  is 
very  noteworthy  ;  for  it  would  seem  that  it  was  intended  to  symbolize,  by 
means  of  the  four  sets  of  three  lines,  not  merely  the  eyelashes  of  the 
deer,  but  also  rays,  of  the  "eye  of  day"  or  the  sun.  This  I  infer  the 
more  unhesitatingly  because,  according  to  the  accounts  given  by  more 
than   one  earlj'  writer  on    Florida,  the  deer  must  have  been  regarded 


18<m;.]  dJO  [Cushiug. 

among  some  of  the  Floridiaii  tribes  as  one  of  the  gods  of  day  or  of  the 
dawn — as  indeed  is  both  the  antelope  and  the  deer  among  tlie  Zunis. 
In  such  event  they  symbolized — ^just  as  do  similar  sets  of  radiating  lines 
around  paintings  of  the  Zuni  sun-god — the  four  sets  of  the  sun's  rays 
that  are  supposed  to  correspond  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  world,  as  well 
as  to  the  four  sets  of  three  months  in  the  corresponding  four  seasons  of 
the  year  over  which  the  sun  god  is  believed  to  have  dominion — since  he 
creates  all  the  days  thereof. 

Not  only  were  the  human  masks  associated  with  their  animal  counter- 
parts, but  sometimes  two  or  more  of  the  human  masks  were  found  in 
one  such  group.  In  two  or  three  instances  we  found  multiple  sets  of 
them.  In  such  case  they  were  superimposed,  as  though  they  had  been  tied 
or  wrapped,  one  inside,  of  the  other,  and  thus  hung  up  or  laid  away,  and 
had  fallen  so  gently  into  the  water-court  that  their  relation  to  one 
another  had  not  been  disturbed  therebJ^  A  notable  example  of  this 
kind  was  found  in  the  association  of  two  masks — one  lying  directly  over 
the  other,  the  faces  of  both  turned  upward — that  lay  not  far  away  from 
the  turtle-figurehead  that  I  have  already  described.  The  painted  lines 
on  the  lowermost  of  these  masks  were  indicative  that  it  was  designed  to 
represent  the  man-turtle  or  man-turtle  god  ;  whilst  the  lines  upon  the 
superimposed  mask  seemed,  from  their  general  resemblance  to  the  face 
marks  painted  upon  the  bear-figurehead  I  have  also  described,  to  indi- 
cate that  they  were  designed  to  represenc  the  same  sort  of  human  pre- 
sentmentation  of  the  bear.  I  am  at  loss  to  account  for  this  singular 
consociation  of  the  two  masks — the  turtle-man  mask  and  the  bear-man 
mask — unless  by  supposing  that  the  ancient  people  who  made  them, 
regarded  the  somewhat  sluggish  turtle  as  the  "bear  of  the  sea,"  and  the 
bear,  whose  movements  are  also  awkward,  as  one  of  his  "brother- 
turtles  of  the  laud,"  or  that  they  otherwise  mythically  related  them. 

We  found  several  human  masks  by  themselves.  One  was  clearly, 
from  the  length  of  its  sharp  nose  and  the  painted  lines  upon  its  fea- 
tures, designed  to  represent  the  cormorant ;  another,  from  the  oblique 
or  twisted  form  of  its  mouth,  its  nose  awry,  and  its  spiral  or  twisted 
face-marks  or  bands,  as  plainly  represented  the  sun-fish  or  some  other 
slant-faced  fish.  I  regarded  a  third  one  of  these  masks  as  that  of  the  man- 
bat-god.  It  was  of  especial  interest,  not  only  on  account  of  its  associa- 
tions, but  also  on  account  of  its  general  resemblance  to  the  face  of  the 
bat-god  of  night  conventionally  depicted  so  frequently  on  Central 
American  monuments.  Still  another  mask  was  of  ecpial  interest,  for  it 
represented  unmistakably,  in  a  half-human,  half-animal  style,  the  fea- 
tures of  the  wild-cat  ;  and  the  curiously  doubled  paint  lines  with  which 
its  cheeks  were  streaked  downwardly  below  the  eyes,  although  strictly 
regular  and  conventional,  were  singularly  suggestive  of  the  actual  face- 
markings  of  the  wild-cat,  and  thus  enable  us  to  understand  the  signifi- 
cance of  like  lines  that  are  incised  upon  certain  purely  human-faced 
figures  characteristic  of  many  of  the  maskoidal  pipes  from  mounds  of 
the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys. 


Cusliing.]  6J±  l^j^-oy,  G, 

I  would  once  more  call  attention  to  the  association  in  qrovps  or  sets,  of 
the  animal  figureheads  and  especially  of  the  masks,  as  affording  still  fur- 
ther proof  of  similarity,  if  not  identity,  in  key-dweller  art  and  mound - 
builder  art,  and  as  thus  affording  also  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  cer- 
tain points  observable  in  delineations  I  have  so  often  heretofore  referred 
to  as  occurring  upon  the  shell  gorgets  and  copper-plates  of  the  ancient 
mounds  of  Georgia  and  other  Southern  States.  Almost  always,  in  these 
delineations  of  the  mythic  human  figure,  it  may  be  observed  that  while 
upon  the  face,  a  mask  is  plainly  portrayed,  yet,  in  one  or  other  of  the 
hands  is  as  distinctly  represented  another  mask — not  a  head,  as  has  fre- 
quently been  supposed, — and  I  am  therefore  inclined  to  believe  that,  as 
with  the  key  dwellers,  so  with  these  peoples  of  the  mounds,  dramas 
representative  of  the  transformation  of  gods  from  animal  into  human 
form,  and  from  one  human  character  into  another  human  character, 
were  probably  attempted  in  their  sacred  dances. 

Such  a  figure  of  the  mound  plates  as  I  have  described  is  shoM'n  in  No. 
3,  PL  XXXV,  of  the  accompanying  illustrations.  It  is  drawn  from  one 
of  the  celebrated  copper-plates  of  the  "  Etowah  Mound ''  of  Georgia, 
and  I  have  reproduced  it  here  (from  one  of  Prof  William  H.  Holme's 
superb  drawings)  not  only  to  illustrate  this  statement  regarding  the 
probable  ceremonology  of  duplicated  masks  in  both  cases,  but  also  to 
illustrate  various  other  points  of  close  similarity  between  the  art  remains 
of  the  two  peoples.  The  so-called  baton,  held  in  the  right  hand  of  the 
figure  in  this  plate,  may  be  seen  to  correspond  veiy  closel}^  to  the 
war-club  which  we  discovered  in  the  court  of  the  pile  dwellers,  and 
which  is  outlined  in  front  thereof  ("a,"  of  the  same  figure).  It  may  be 
seen,  too,  that  the  winged  god  here  portrayed  wears  not  only  a  beaked 
mask,  but  also  a  necklace  of  oval  beads,  and  an  elongated  pendant 
depending  therefrom,  like  those  we  so  frequently  found  ;  an  ear  button, 
also  exactly  like  those  we  found  (shown  in  "d"  of  the  same  figure)  : 
that  around  the  wrists,  arms  and  legs  of  this  primitive  portrait  are  rep- 
resented reticulate  or  plaited  bands,  as  around  the  wrists  and  legs  of 
tlie  figure  painted  in  the  sacred  shell  I  have  described  ("b  "  and  "c  ")  ; 
and  that  finally,  this  character  bears  in  his  left  hand  a  mask,  the  face 
lines  and  ear  plug  of  which  as  closely  resemble  those  that  we  actually 
found  (as  shown  in  "e  "  and  "f  "  of  the  figure)  in  the  court  of  the  pile 
dwellers. 

General  Conclusions. 

In  reference  to  the  general  significance  of  tliese  observations  and 
finds  in  southwestern  Florida,  I  must  necessarily  be  brief  since  this 
paper  has  already  reached  a  length  that  was  not,  when  I  began,  con- 
templated. 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  key-dAveller  phase  of  existence,  it  was,  I  think, 
so  much  infiuenccd  bv  certain  coastal  conditions,  that  a  few  words  on 


18'jr.]  OVO  [Cubhing. 

the  physiograpliy  of  the  Lower  Gulf  section  of  Florida  which  best 
exemplifies  them,  will  not  be  amiss. 

Tlie  whole  coast,  even  from  as  far  north  as  Tarpon  Springs  to  the 
extreme  end  of  the  Peninsula,  is  low^  and  sandy ;  the  highest  natural 
land  rarely  rising  more  than  a  few  feet  above  high-tide  level,  and 
the  loftiest  dunes  nowhere  reaching  an  altitude  of  over  fifty  feet. 
Geologically,  Florida,  Prof.  W  J  McGee  tells  me,  is  an  extension  of  the 
lowland  zone — made  up  of  later  mezozoic  and  cenozoic  deposits — fring- 
ing our  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts,  and,  as  one  of  your  Secretaries,  Dr. 
Persifor  Frazer,  also  states,  reappearing  in  several  of  the  Antillean 
islands.  Especially  do  the  prevailing  formations  of  Florida  resemble 
those  of  the  Peninsula  of  Yucatan.  They  are  of  very  pervioi;s  limestone, 
and  from  above  the  region  of  Charlotte  Harbor  southw^ardly,  are  inter- 
spersed with  phosphatic  beds,  also  of  organic  origin.  But  whether  indu- 
rated,as  are  the  lowermost,  or  less  solid  as  are  the  more  superficial,  these 
formations  are,  like  the  overljang  soil,  excessively  sandy.  Hence  they 
are  not  only  pervious,  but  also,  very  soluble  in  the  acids  of  fresh  surface- 
or  rain-water.  One  of  the  consequences  of  this  is,  that  areas  of  varying 
extent  and  in  lines  generally  parallel  with  the  courses  of  the  open  rivers 
and  inlets  of  the  country,  and  of  their  tributaries,  are  subject  to  under- 
mining by  these  corrosive  processes  ;  have  fallen  in,  forming  first  deep 
lakes,  then,  as  these  in  time  have  become  filled,  morasses,  in  the  central 
lagoons  of  which,  thi-ough  the  peculiar  habits  of  alligators  and  other 
aquatic  creatures,  circular  mud-banks  have  been  thrown  up,  becom- 
ing cypress  islets,  and,  finally,  the  foundations  of  hammocks,  or 
marsh-keys  like  those  of  the  Anclote  region — built  there  by  man  in 
later  ages.  Everywhere,  too,  along  the  lines  of  narrower  subterra- 
nean rivers  formed  by  more  restricted  dissolving  aw^ay  of  the  under- 
lying formations,  series  of  perfectly  round,  hopper-shaped  sinks 
occur,  seemingly  fathomless,  containing  pellucid  or  deep  green  water, 
and  reminding  one  measurably,  not  only  of  the  round,  artificial  drainage 
basins  of  the  keys,  but  also  of  the  more  natural  (and  in  some  ways 
identical)  (jenotes  or  ancient  well-caves  of  Yucatan  and  other  portions  of 
Central  America. 

Not  to  enter  as  fully  as  I  ought  into  a  discussion  of  the  physiographj- 
of  this  inner  portion  of  the  coast — so  suited  to  settlement  by  a  people 
like  the  key  dwellers,  when  they  came  inland — I  may  say  that  the  con- 
ditions described  render  the  whole  region  peculiarly  unstable.  This 
has  been  especially  true  of  the  actual  coast.  Everywhere  it  is  indented 
by  such  tidal  inlets  as  the  Manatee  and  Pease,  or  their  sluggish  inland 
extensions  called  rivers,  like  those  of  Anclote,  and  those  that  put  out 
from  the  north  and  east  of  Charlotte  Harbor,  and  those  wiiich  every- 
where radiate  sinuously  in  the  same  general  directions,  from  the  great 
indentation  or  bay  that  contains  the  Ten  Thousand  Islands.  In  a  land 
so  broken  and  low  as  this,  the  hurricane  has  wrought  continuous  change 
of  shore-line,  and  'tis  but  natural,  too,  that  its  coast  should  be  skirted 

PROC.  AMEK    PHII.OS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2  X.      PRINTED  AUGUST  3,   1897. 


Cushing.]  Oif\)  [Sov.  G, 

b}'  wide  reefs,  paralleled  by  long-reaching,  sea-enclosing,  narrow,  tide- 
and  wind-heaped  sand-islands  such  as  already  described  ;  and  that  all  its 
hither  sliores  should  be  nearly  tide-low,  traversed  by  forbidding 
marshes,  and  fringed  by  almost  impenetrable  swamps  of  cypress  and 
mangroves.  Even  the  mouths  of  its  creeks,  rivers  and  inlets,  are  shift- 
ing and  treacherous,  and  are  also  filled  with  shoals,  almost  if  not  quite 
exposed,  at  low  tide.  As  a  consequence,  approach,  even  in  light  craft,  is 
— save  in  special  places  sundered  by  many  miles  of  unnavigable  shal- 
lows— wellnigh  impossible.  I  regard  this  feature  as  having  had  a  pre- 
ponderating influence  in  causing  the  ancient  key  dwellers — whether 
they  were  derived  from  the  mainland  or  whether,  as  I  have  reason  to 
think,  they  were  alien  comers  to  these  shores  from  some  distant  region 
over  the  sea, — to  locate  as  they  did,  out  in  the  midst  of  the  open 
waters. 

Again,  no  waters  in  the  world  so  teem  with  food-producing  animals 
— mollusks,  fishes,  Crustacea  and  turtles — as  do  these  waters  of  the 
lower  Florida  Gulf-coast.  Yet  to  a  people  dwelling  inland — save  in 
sucli  favored,  far-sundered  sections  of  the  country  as  I  haA^e  mentioned — 
this  abundance  would  be  all  but  valueless,  in  consequence  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  shoreland  navigation.  What  more  natural,  then,  than,  as  I  have 
endeavored  to  picture  in  earlier  chapters  of  this  paper,  that  these  peo- 
ples should  have  followed  the  example  of  the  pelican  and  cormorant,  and 
located  their  stations  for  food-winning,  and  finally  their  dwelling- 
places  tliemselves,  out  in  the  midst  of  the  navigable,  but  still  uot  too 
deep,  shoreland  seas'.'  That  they  did  so,  ages  and  ages  ago,  is  unques- 
tionable. That  the  structures  which  they  reared,  more  or  less  modified, 
in  many  cases,  the  further  distribution  of  .shoals,  sand  reefs,  tidal 
swamps  and  the  lowlier  of  the  fringing  islands  themselves,  is  also  un- 
(luestionable — as  I  might  proceed  to  sIioav  by  entering  into  a  discussion 
of  the  results  of  my  investigations  of  certain  of  the  keys  that,  although 
once  free  islets,  are  now  connected  with  the  capes  of  the  outer  islands  ; 
and  of  certain  others  that  have,  in  fact,  been  almost  buried  in  sand-drift, 
as  was  the  Ellis  Settlement.  But  suffice  it  if  I  say  that  not  onlj'  have 
wide  stretches  of  sandy  shoals  drifted  up  between  all  the  humanly  con- 
structed reefs  of  the  olden  time  that  lie  near  the  land — especially  those 
to  the  south — but  also,  that  wide  mangrove  swamps  have  grown  up 
around  them,  as  among  the  Ten  Thousand  Islands,  evidencing  the  vast 
antiquity  of  the  earliest  key-building  and  key -builders  here. 

There  are,  however,  other  evidences  of  great  antiquity,  more  directly 
of  interest  to  us  as  anthropologists.  One  of  these  evidences  is  manifest 
in  the  character  of  the  art  displayed  on  all  of  the  more  finished  objects 
we  found  in  the  keys ;  for  this  was  of  a  highly,  and  at  the  same  time  dis- 
tinctively conventional  kind.  Now  I  scarcely  need  state  of  primitive  art- 
forms,  that  wherever  they  have  obviously  originated  and  have  become 
highly  conventionalized  in,  and  yet  are  still  recognizably  characteristic  of, 
a  peculiar  region — to  the  degree  to  which  those  of  this  art  were  character- 


1896.]  0.)4  [Cushing. 

istic  of  the  environment  we  found  them  in,  thej'  are  the  product  of  a 
very  slow  growth.  Certainly,  while  this  art  of  the  keys  may  not  have 
been,  nay,  was  not,  altogether  of  a  strictly  local  origin,  it  was  in  the 
main,  of  a  kind  whicli  one  might  expect  to  find  developing  or  developed 
in  such  an  environment.  Everywhere,  for  example,  evidence  of  the 
influence  of  shell,  shark-tooth,  and  other  sea-produced  materials — used 
as  implements  in  the  working  of  wood,  bone  and  horn,  and  of  shell 
itself — could,  as  I  have  shown,  be  traced  here  ;  and  had  jilainly,  as  I 
have  also  shown,  given  rise  to  special  ornaments  on  particular  parts  of 
things  thus  made.  But  the  point  of  interest  is,  that  these  ornaments  were 
not  only  conventional,  but  that  they  had  already  become  conventionally 
speciiiUzed  ;  were,  many  of  them,  indeed,  so  highly  conventionalized  and 
thus  so  specialized,  that  except  for  the  completeness  of  our  series,  they 
could  not  have  been  traced  to  their  simple,  incidental  origin  in  the  kinds 
of  tools  used,  modes  of  working  employed,  and  materials  worked.  I 
have  said  that  this  kind  of  conventionalization  in  art  and  localization 
of  decorations,  is  of  exceedingly  slow  growth.  This  is  because  genera- 
tions, if  not  ages,  are  required  for  the  radical  modification  of  a  single 
specialized  ornament  on  any  particular  part  of  a  specialized  tool  or 
implement,  weapon  or  ceremonial  appliance,  among  primitive  peoples  ; 
owing  to  such  peculiar  conceptions  of  the  meaning  and  potency  of  form 
as  I  have  already  discussed  in  its  relation  to  ceremonial  objects,  and  will 
presently  again  refer  to  as  particularly  relating  to  things  practically  used. 
By  way  of  a  single  example,  I  may  instance  the  circular  obvolute,  or 
navel  ornament  (as  I  have  called  it),  in  its  relation  to  the  ends  of  the  hard- 
wood handles  of  certain  classes  of  tools  in  the  collection.  I  have  referred 
to  this  as  having  been  derived  directly  from  the  double  spiral  or  obvo- 
lute observable  on  the  cut-otf  apices  or  ends  of  conch-  or  busycon-shells 
and  other  univalvular  shells.  I  have  also  suggested  that  the  use  of 
kingfish  jaws  and  shark-tooth  knives  in  girdling  sticks,  bj'^  a  process  of 
cutting  around  and  around  the  sticks  always  in  the  same  direction,  with- 
these  sharp,  yet  jagged  tools,  produced,  as  shown  by  many  specimens  in 
the  collection,  rough,  spiral  rosettes  at  the  ends  of  the  sticks.  Now 
when  the  sticks  were  severed  in  the  same  way,  but  first  from  one  side 
then  the  other,  the  figures  produced  at  the  ends  of  them  strikingly 
resembled  the  involuted  spirals  at  the  ends  of  the  worked  shells.  Thus, 
although  the  figure  when  associated  with  purely  ceremonial  objects 
doubtless  signified  the  "navel"  or  "middle  "—as  earlier  suggested — yet 
it  came  to  be  associated  also  with  the  ends  of  the  handles  of  tools  the 
working  parts  of  which  were  made  of  the  columelUe  of  shells  on  the 
ends  of  which  it  naturally  occurred.  Thus,  for  mythic  reasons,  the  figure 
was  doubtless  considered  not  only  appropriate,  but  even  essential  to  the 
handle,  no  less  than  to  the  shell  armature  of  such  a  tool,  in  order  to 
harmonize  its  parts,  to  give  potency  or  etfectiveness  to  it  as  a  whole. 
So  too,  with  the  radiate  or  rosette  figures  found  on  the  ends  of  very 
small  liandles  made  from  saplings.     It  was  observed  that  when  suitable 


lushing.]  O.fo  [Nov.  6, 

saplings  were  cut  off  squarely  and  sufficiently  smoothed,  little  clieck- 
lines,  such  as  one  may  see  on  the  sawed-off  end  of  a  seasoned  stick, 
always  appeared,  radiating  from  the  heart  toward,  but  not  quite  to,  the 
circumference  of  the  severed  segment.  Thus  the  figure  came  to  be  exag- 
gerated decoratively,  and  associated  with  the  end  of  another  special  kind 
of  working  tool  and,  for  like  mythic  reasons,  was  retained.  The  steps 
by  which  these  originally  half-natural  or  accidental  markings  became 
developed  as  decorations,  then  localized  on  special  tool-handles,  and 
then  so  characteristic  of  special  types  of  tools  as  to  be  laboriously  repro- 
duced even  in  other  material  than  wood — like  the  horn  and  bone  some- 
times substituted  therefor— could  only  have  been  taken  very  slowly. 

Still  more  confidently  may  this  be  affirmed  of  the  art  displayed  on 
objects  less  evidently  of  local  origin,  for  they  illustrated  an  equally 
slow  and  much  longer  continued  process  in  the  development  of  conven- 
tional art,  that  of  survival — as  on  the  box -tablets  described ;  which, 
being  no  longer  held  together  with  double  cords  or  strands  lashed 
around  them  and  tied  over  their  middles  with  square-  or  reef-knots 
(double  figure  of  eight  knots)  had  come  to  be  secured  with  gum  and 
pegs,  yet  must  still  be  mythically  tied  with  pfdnted  strands  and  knots  in 
imitation  of  the  "good  old  way."  In  this  connection  I  would  ag:.in 
refer  to  the  superb  celt-handle,  the  decorations  on  which  were  so  very 
highly  conventionalized  and  so  modified  by  the  introduction  of  shell- 
volute  figures  and  of  certain  eye-marks  derived  from  knots  (the  one 
kind  of  figure  being  generic  on  the  shell  tool  handles  just  referred  to, 
the  other  on  the  crooked  adze  handles,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Plate  XXXII), 
that  it  was  with  difficulty  the  main  lines  and  bands  on  the  shaft  and 
head  could  be  recognized  at  all,  as  survivals  of  the  wrappings  or  bind- 
ings on  simpler  and  earlier  forms  of  this  kind  of  instrument. 

If  these  forms  of  decorations  on  tools,  and  their  association  with  spe- 
cial parts  thereof — whether  of  extraneous  or  of  autochonous  origin,  pos- 
sessed as  they  were,  of  so  high  a  degree  of  conventionalization — were 
of  great  age  in  development,  this  must  to  a  much  greater  extent  have 
been  the  case  with  the  yet  higher  degree  of  conventionalization  shown 
in  the  representation  of  face  and  bod}"  marks  on  animal  carvings  and 
paintings  in  the  collection.  In  the  first  place,  these  marks  on,  for  in- 
stance, the  faces  of  the  figureheads,  were  not  irregular,  as  they  are  seen 
to  be  on  the  faces  of  the  natural  animals  they  represented.  While  the 
forms  of  these  figureheads  were  realistic  to  a  degree,  the  painted  or  incised 
fiice  marks  were  remarkably  conventional,  regular,  and  almost  perfectly 
symmetrical.  That  is,  stripes  were  represented  as  clean  bands,  patches 
or  spots  as  neat  circles  or  figures,  sometimes  elaborated  into  highly  or- 
nate curved  devices.  Yet  as  a  whole,  these  painted  or  incised  face  mark- 
ings were  so  distributed  and  contrasted  as  to  look  startlingly  natural 
when  seen  at  a  distance.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  great  degree  of  conven- 
tionalization thus  attested,  I  have  only  to  state  that  this  kind  of  highly 
artificial  and  ornate  representation  of  the  face  markings  of  animals  be- 


1896.]  ^'^'♦'  [Gushing. 

tokens  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  primitive  artist  to  repre.sent  tlie 
ideals,  the  perfect  ancestral  types  or  spiritual  archetypes,  of  the  animals 
portrayed — for  it  is  supposed,  as  is  told  in  the  numberless  beast-tales  of  his 
people,  that  the  present  animals,  descendants  of  these  great  and  perfect 
ancestors,  have  been  changed  by  their  own  deeds,  their  disobedience  of 
the  gods,  their  strifes  and  what  not,  and  that  thus  their  countenances  are 
distorted  or  besmirched,  and  fixed  so  in  token  of  their  rashness  or  mis- 
fortunes in  creation  time.  So  this  kind  of  conventionalization  represents 
myth,  as  well  as  art ;  both,  developing  and  interacting  uninterruptedly 
throughout  a  very  long  period  of  progress  in  a  given  organic  environ- 
ment. If  this  be  true  of  the  style  of  the  art,  it  is  doubly  true  of  its  sym- 
bolic specialization.  For  it  has  been  seen  that  in  case  of  the  figures  of 
timid  creatures — game-animals,  like  the  figurehead  of  the  deer,  the  carv- 
ings of  the  rabbit  and  other  creatures  of  the  kind — all  were  character- 
ized by  a  crescent-shaped  device  on  their  foreheads.  Thus,  this  conven- 
tional mark  was  not  merely  that  of  an  individual  representative  of  the 
species,  but  it  was,  so  to  say,  a  generic  mark,  representative  of  several 
species  of  the  same  general  kind.  This  is  further  shown  by  the  fact 
that  another  special  kind  of  marking  was  equally  characteristic  of  animals 
of  prey — of  the  wildcat,  the  panther,  the  bear  and  llieir  kind.  In  the  carv- 
ings of  each  one  of  these  fierce  creatures,  the  outlines  of  the  eyes  were  not 
only  sharply  pointed  in  front  but  in  each  case  terminated  behind  in  three 
sharp  triangular  lines  or  marks  pointing  backwardly,  and  giving  to  the 
face  of  the  animal  figure  a  peculiarly  crafty,  yet  sinister  look.  That  this 
too  was  a  generic  mark,  is  still  further  indicated  by  the  fact  that  it  oc- 
curred also  upon  one  of  the  human  masks  corresponding  to  the  figure- 
head of  one  of  these  fierce  creatures.  Now  in  this  generic  kind  of  mark- 
ing we  have  not  only  a  still  higher  art  development,  but  also  a  very 
much  higher  mythic  development  betokened,  since  it  indicates  that  these 
ancient  peoples  regarded  the  game-animals  as  of  one  great  family  or  de- 
scent, and  the  prej'^-animals  as  of  another  great  class  or  lienage,  and  that 
they  w'ere  thus,  in  a  way,  naturalists  of  no  mean  order. 

The  interest  of  the  significance  of  this  particular  sign  of  the  eye  as 
pertaining  to  or  symbolizing  prey-beings,  is  enhanced  greatly  by  the 
further  fact  that  upon  many  of  the  exquisitely  finished  and  highly  con- 
ventionalized carvings  of  the  heads  of  these  kinds  of  beasts  (and  of  the 
faces  of  warriors  or  men  wearing  masks  animistically  corresponding  to 
them  as  well)  that  are  found  so  frequently  in  the  mounds  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  of  Tennessee  and  even  of  Ohio,  precisely  the  same  conven- 
tional marking  or  barbing  of  the  eye — as  though  it  were  set  in  the  figure  of 
a. stemmed  and  barbed  arrow-point  to  make  it  "piercing" — is  observable. 
Thus,  through  a  study  of  the  conventional  treatment  of  such  figures  here 
in  the  keys  of  lower  Florida,  we  not  only  arrive  at  an  understanding  of  a 
new  meaning  of  these  figures  or  lines  around  the  eyes  of  maskoids  and 
head-carvings  found  in  the  far  away  north  (namely,  that  they  represent 
animals  of  prey  or  their  human  counterparts),  but  we  also  see  that  the  same 


Cushing.]  400  [Nov.  6, 

art  was,  iii  these  wiclelj^  separnted  regions,  so  identical  in  tliis  particular, 
that  we  cannot  but  assign  to  it  a  single  cultural  origin.  That  is,  we 
must  look  upon  it  as  having  originated  in  one  or  the  other,  the  northern 
or  the  southern  portion  of  the  area  throughout  which  it  was  so  generally 
distributed ;  as  having  spread  from  that  single  centre  in  the  one  or  the 
other  direction.  Now  the  bulk  of  evidence  at  hand  favors  the  belief  that 
the  place  of  origin  of  the  peculiarities  I  have  noted,  was  here  in  the  far 
south  ;  probably,  among  the  keys. 

Be  this  for  the  moment  as  it  may,  the  enormous  distance  to  which 
these  characteristic  art  forms  had  spread  after  long-continued  and  full 
development,  must  have  required  a  still  more  enormous  length  of 
time.  This  is  a  further  and  a  much  more  impressive  indication  of  the  ver}' 
great  antiquity  of  the  art  in  question.  For  the  spread  of  special  art 
forms  in  definite  relation  to  particular  implements  or  figures  is,  among 
primitive  peoples,  not  so  frequent  or  facile  as  is  usually  supposed  ;  and 
when  in  rare  cases  it  does  occur,  it  is  effected  with  exceeding  slowness. 
We  may  account  for  the  spread  of  arts  among  primitive  peoples  in  two 
ways ;  first,  by  barter  and  intercourse,  conquest  and  adoption  ;  or, 
second,  by  actual  derivation  or  descent ,  that  is,  by  actual  spreading  to 
a  greater  or  lesser  extent,  of  the  people  among  whom  the  art  prevails 
and  originated.  While  we  may  hold  that,  in  the  wide  diffusion  of  arts 
common  alike  to  the  keys  and  the  mounds,  both  of  these  causes  acted  to 
some  extent,  still,  if  we  consider  a  little  further  the  way  in  which  arts 
spread  among  primitive  peoples — why  slowly — we  can,  I  think,  arrive 
at  a  more  definite  understanding  of  the  question  as  to  which  of  the  two 
causes  above  stated  was  the  more  active,  and  as  to  whether  the  art 
traveled  from  the  Gulf  northward,  or  from  the  north  southward.  First, 
then,  the  mere  fact  that  early  peoples  attribute  to  distinctive  forms  par- 
ticular existences  and  potencies,  indicates  that  one  people  Avould  be 
slow  to  adopt  unchanged  from  another,  an  unaccustomed  form,  even  of 
so  simple  a  thing  as  an  implement,  and  especially  as  a  weapon  or  a  cere- 
monial object;  since  the  unaccustomed  form  of  the  first  would  be  sup- 
posed by  them  to  render  it  inefficient ;  of  the  second,  unsafe  ;  and  of 
the  third,  diabolical ;  while  all  would  be  held  to  be  unsuited,  because  unre- 
lated to  themselves.  It  must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that  these 
ancient  theorists  believed  their  implements  and  weapons  and  amulets  to 
1)e  alive,  and  felt  that  the  powers  of  these  things  were  not  only 
strengthened,  but  were  also  restricted  to  or  rendered  safe  for,  special 
uses,  as  well  as  made  to  be  related  to  their  makers,  hy  their  forms  or  by 
the  decorations  or  figures  placed  upon  them,  especially  when  these  were 
highly  symbolic.  It  is  for  this  reason  more  than  any  other,  tliat  primi- 
tive peoples  cling  so  to  forms,  and  are  so  chary  of  borrowing  new 
forms  of  implements  or  weapons,  etc.  When  they  do  borrow  the 
fashions  of  such  things,  they  proceed  at  once  to  cover  or  invest  them 
with  the  peculiar  decorative  or  symbolic  devices  that  they  are  accus- 
tomed to  associate  with  tlie  same  kinds  of  thiniis  in  time-honored  use 


189G.]  4U1  [Cushins. 

among  themselves.  It  is  chiefly  due  to  this  tendency  that  we  have  kept 
inviolate  for  us  everywhere  in  the  primitive  world,  signs  on  the  relics  we 
find,  of  what  have  been  termed  cultural  areas  or  areas  of  art  character- 
ization. And  so,  while  the  extensive  and  long-continued  intercourse  in 
the  barter  of  the  far-southern  peoples  of  Florida  and  the  keys,  with 
more  northern  peoples  (which  is  so  positively  indicated  by  the  occur- 
rence in  the  northern  mounds,  of  gorgets,  etc. — not  only  derived  from 
species,  found  nowhere  else  than  in  these  Gulf  regions,  but  also  treated 
in  precisely  the  same  conventional  manner),  will  account  for  much  in 
this  spread  of  identical  art  forms,  nevertheless  it  does  not,  I  am  inclined 
to  think,  explain  the  whole.  To  say  for  the  moment  nothing  further  of 
the  great  variety  of  art  forms  which  almost  certainly  took  their  origin 
in  the  region  of  the  keys  or  in  some  other  Gulf  region  where  a  life  of 
similar  kind  was  naturally  or  necessarilj'  followed,  and  which  are  also 
found  throughout  the  mound  area,  I  maj^  call  attention  to  a  single 
point  among  many — the  evidence  afl:brded  by  the  tempering-material  of 
pottery.  Almost  always,  the  pottery  of  sea-dwelling  peoples,  in  regions 
where  clays  of  such  kind  as  require  tempering  occur,  is  tempered  with 
calcined  and  crushed  shell.  In  an  article  on  "The  Germ  of  Shoreland 
Pottery"  (printed  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  International  Congress  of 
Anthropology,  pp.  217-234,  Chicago,  The  Schulte  Publishing  Com- 
pany, 1894),  I  have  endeavored  to  show  why  this  is  so,  and  was  at  first 
naturally,  if  not  inevitably  so.  Now,  wherever  the  art  forms  I  am  dis- 
cussing are  found  in  the  mounds,  even  at  far  inland  points,  the  potteries 
of  these  same  mounds  are  commonly  tempered  with  shell,  notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that  in  the  more  inland  and  northerly  regions  of  the  mounds 
such  kind  of  tempering  had  to  be  supplied,  at  great  labor,  from  fresh- 
water species  of  mollusks. 

There  are,  however,  various  additional  reasons,  it  seems  to  me,  for  sup- 
posing that  this  art  spread  northwardlj- from  a  southern  sea-environment 
— not  so  much  by  barter,  as  by  actual  movement  landwardly  and  north- 
wardly, of  the  culture  and  to  some  extent  of  the  peoples  themselves  of 
these  southern  sea-land  regions.  One  of  these  reasons  rests  in  the  very 
broad  distinction  that  we  may  make  between  the  sea-shell  art  of  the 
mounds  and  the  sea-shell  art  of  other  and  more  northerly  regions,  equallj' 
as  far  inland  from  the  sea.  There,  objects  made  from  sea  shells  are  abun- 
dant, it  is  true,  but  thej^  are  in  general,  obviouslj-  of  a  more  purely  decora- 
tive or  valuative,  than  of  a  symbolic  character.  This  was  the  case,  for 
example,  with  the  famous  wampum  of  New  England  and  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States,  prized  for  the  high  value  of  the  far-derived  material  of 
which  it  was  made,  more  than  for  its  supposed  sacred  or  ancestral  quali- 
ties ;  whereas,  the  greater  number  of  the  shell  cups,  gorgets,  and  other 
shell  articles  found  in  the  mound  region  proper,  retained  the  identical 
pristine  symbolic  character  and  association  they  naturally  had  on  the 
.seashore.  Now  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  this  could  have  been  the  case 
had  the  peoples  of  the  mounds  originated,  or  rather  had  their  culture, 


Ciishing.]  4UZ  [Nov.  li, 

customs  and  art  originated,  in  the  nortliern  or  inland  region,  and  pro- 
ceeded thence  to  the  sea. 

I  would  again  mention  the  wide  prevalence  in  the  keys,  of  the  distinct- 
ively conventional  treatment  of  carved  and  incised  work, — whether  on 
shell,  bone,  or  stone, — illustrated  by  so  many  specimens  in  our  collection, 
in  connection  with  its  almost  equally  "wide  prevalence  on  figures  found 
in  the  mounds  ;  which  art-vogue  was,  it  would  seem,  more  at  home  in  the 
keys — more  in  accordance  with  a  seaside  environment  that  appears  1o 
have  originated  these  conventional  forms  and  modes  of  treatment — than 
in  the  lands  of  the  north.  The  identity  of  costume  represented,  too, 
in  the  case  of  the  painted  shell  as  compared  with  incised  shell  gorgets 
and  embossed  copper-plates  of  Tennessee  and  Georgia,  is  obvious,  as 
may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  single  illustration  herewith  furnished 
in  PI.  XXXV,  Fig.  3. 

It  is  significant  that  the  forms,  as  well  as  the  surface  decorations  of 
the  potteries  which  we  found  somewhat  inland,  in  the  more  northerly 
region  of  Tarpon  Springs  and  of  the  Anclote  (and  this  applies  also  to 
shoreland-like  examples  of  pottery  that  I  have  seen  from  the  still  fur- 
ther interior  and  more  northerly  portions  of  Florida,  and  even  from 
western  Georgia)  were  in  many  ways  distinctive!}'  and  indisputably 
derived  from  precisely  such  gourd-  and  woodenware  and  shell-shaped 
vessels  and  utensils  as  we  found  in  the  keys.  It  was  thus  obviously  the 
pottery  of  a  people  who  had  been  accustomed  to  use  gourd-shells  and 
wood,  more  than  clay,  for  the  making  of  their  vessels,  and  not  only  so, 
but  to  use  wooden  vessels  that  had  been  made  with  cutting  implements 
of  shark-teeth  and  shell.  This  Avas  clearly  evidenced  in  the  hachured 
surfaces  of  so  many  of  the  vessels  ;  in  the  reticulated  surfaces  of  others 
of  them — which  represented  the  end  grainings  of  wood— and  in  the 
fine,  convoluted  or  concentric,  stamped  or  incised  designs  obviously 
derived  from  curly-grained  wood  or  paddles  made  thereof,  which  char- 
acterized the  surface  decoration  of  so  much  more  of  this  pottery.  When 
we  add  to  this  the  fact  that  here  in  the  North  and  in  the  interior,  the 
points  of  many  blades  of  flint  were  made  not  only  in  the  usual  lanceolate 
or  leaf-shaped  form,  but  also  in  the  asymmetrical  form  of  shark's  teeth, 
and  that  now  and  then  even  exquisitely  polished  stone  adzes  were 
formed  as  obviously  in  imitation  of  naturally  curved  shell  adzes — such 
as  were  constantly  found  in  the  keys — it  is  perfectly  evident  that  the 
peoples  who  built  up,  in  the  marshlands  here,  the  hammocks,  and  built 
near  them  the  little  lake-encircled  mounds,  were  originally  a  people  of 
tlie  sea,  not  of  the  mainland,  were  a  people  who  had  once  lived  as  the 
key  dwellers-lived,  on  island  mounds  in  the  sea  or  its  shoals,  here  using 
such  implements  as  their  ancestors  had  there  used,  and  carrying  ances- 
tral ideas  of  habitation  and  of  utensils  down  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion, and  so,  slowly  up  into  the  land. 

The  theory  I  have  ventured  toadvance  heretofore,  in  regard  to  tlu-  rela- 
tion of  kev  builduiir  in  the  sea  to  mound  buildinii'  on  the  hmd    stron!::;'iV 


1896.]  ^^^  [Gushing. 

supports  the  evidence  just  adduced  as  afforded  by  the  correspondence  of 
these  potteries  and  other  art  remains  from  mounds  in  the  North,  to  tlie  art 
types  of  the  keys  in  the  South.  No  other  theory  of  the  origin  of  mound 
building  in  general,  thus  far  advanced,  especially  of  mound  building 
as  it  was  practiced  in  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  regions  and  all  through 
the  Southern  States,  accounts,  it  seems  to  me,  so  satisfactorily  or  so 
directly  and  simply,  for  the  origin  of  this  remarkable  practice.  We 
have  seen  how,  for  many  reasons,  it  was  necessary  for  the  kej'  dwellers  to 
build  their  niouud-like  homes  or  islands,  out  in  the  seas.  Thus  were  they 
near  their  chief  source  of  food  supply  ;  thus  were  they  freed  from  the 
almost  insupportable  pest  of  mosquitoes  and  other  insects  of  the  sub- 
tropic  marshy  mainland  ;*  thus  were  safe  from  any  human  enemies  they 
might  chance  to  have  ;  and  building  as  they  did,  special  mounds  upon 
these  shell  islands  of  theirs  for  the  foundation  of  special  kinds  of  struc- 
tures— temples,  storehouses  or  public  buildings,  places  of  resort  in  dan- 
ger— they  were  not  only  protected  from  the  terrific  hurricanes  and  tidal 
waves  that  sometimes  swept  the  Gulf  seas,  but  also,  I  conceive,  they  de- 
veloped the  habit  of  erecting  great  mounds  for  special  structures  of  this 
kind  to  such  extent,  that  it  became  fixed  ;  so  customary  traditionally,  that 
whithersoever  they  or  rather  their  descendants  went  thereafter,  they  con- 
tinued the  practice  as  an  essential  tribal  regulation.  At  least  we  find  evi- 
dence enough  in  nearly  all  the  old  historic  records  from  the  Sixteenth  to 
the  Eighteenth  century,  that  generally  the  Southern  Indians  (especially 
the  Maskokean  Indians  and  Nachez)  Avere  still  building  mounds  of  pre- 
cisely this  kind,  that  is,  for  the  temples  of  their  Priests  and  for  the 
dwellings  and  assembly  places  of  their  Mikos,  "Suns"  or  King-like 
Chieftains.  Again,  along  with  the  development  of  key  and  mound 
building  for  the  living,  in  the  sea,  and  later  in  tide  marshes  or  lowlands, 
we  have  seen  that  there  was  also  developed,  through  ancestralism,  the 
habit  of  building  somewhat  similar  places  for  the  tribal  dead.  This 
also  was  practiced  in  the  interior,  as  shown  by  prehistoric  monuments  ; 
by  the   early  tribes  of  the  Southern  States,  as  equally  indicated   bj' 

*  Soon  after  my  return  from  Florida,  last  spring.  Dr.  O.  T.  Mason,  of  the  United  States 
National  Museum,  kindly  called  my  attention  to  the  following  passage,  on  page  291  of 
The  History  of  the  Cnribby  Islands,  rendered  into  English  by  John  Davides,  in  1666,  from 
an  earlier  work  by  Rochefort.  I  quote  it  here  in  full,  as  it  so  unexpectedly  confirmed 
my  previous  inference  relative  to  the  only  really  important  influence  of  the  mosquito  as 
a  factor  in  human  progress,  that  I  have  ever  learned  of.  Speaking  of  the  Caribbeans,  he 
says : 

"  Their  habitations  are  somewhat  near  one  to  another,  and  disposed  at  certain  dis- 
tances, after  the  manner  of  a  village  ;  and  for  the  most  part  they  plant  themselves  upon 
some  little  ascent,  that  so  they  may  have  better  air  and  secure  themselves  against  those 
pestilent  flies  which  we  have  elsewhere  called  Mesqidlos  and  Maringoins,  which  are 
extremely  troublesome,  and  whereof  the  stinging  is  dangerous  in  those  parts  where 
there  is  but  little  wind  stirring.  The  same  reason  it  is  that  obliges  the  Floridians, 
beyond  the  Bay  of  Carlos  and  Tortugnes,  to  lodge  themselves  for  the  most  part  at  the 
entrance  of  the  sea,  in  huts  built  on  piles  or  pillars." 

I  would  add  that  the  last  clause  is  especially  significant  in  connection  with  our  dis- 
coveries in  the  "Courts  of  theJPile  Dwellers."— F.  H.  C. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2  Y.      PRINTED  AUGUST  9,  1897. 


Cushiiig.]  4U-±  |-Xoy.  6, 

narratives  of  the  first  explorers.  Thus,  especially  throughout  the 
mound-building  area — primarily  in  the  lowlands  of  the  Mississippi  and 
tributary  rivers,  then  on  higher  land  along  these,  and  finally  on  the  ter- 
races, and  even  the  plateaus  of  rivers  in  the  still  fai'ther  north — we  find 
almost  always  these  two  kinds  of  mounds  associated  ;  that  is,  so-called 
"Temple"  and  "Domicilary"  mounds,  and  the  tumulae  of  the  dead  or 
"Burial  mounds  ;"  and  I  believe  that  wherever  these  two  kinds  of 
mounds  are  found  thus  associated  (as  they  were  naturally  and  necessa- 
rily associated  in  the  keys,  and  as  we  have  seen  that  they  were  associa- 
ted historically  in  the  Southern  States)  the  evidence  is  that  they  were 
the  works  of  peoples  who  were  either  themselves  derived  from  the 
southern  sea  islands,  or  who  derived  thence  their  culture,  and,  if  so,  a 
portion  at  least,  of  their  ancestral  population. 

•  Observable  facts  in  regard  to  mound  building  of  this  kind  the  world 
over,  support  this  theory  of  its  origin  in  sea  environments.  Since  the 
subject  is  so  important,  I  may  enlarge  upon  it  by  calling  attention  to  the 
fact  that  everywhere,  the  principal  builders  of  mounds,  barrows  and  tum- 
uliB,  have  ever  been  maritime  peoples,  or  at  least  peoples  living  along 
great  rivers  of  the  sea.  Such  were  the  heroic  seafaring  Greeks  of 
Homer's  time,  the  roving  Vikings  of  Scandinavia.  In  fact  everywhere 
— and  this  applies  especially  in  countries  famed  for  the  size  and  extent 
of  their  prehistoric  shell  heaps — the  story  is  much  the  same  ;  that  old 
peoples  of  the  sea  seem  ever  to  have  sought  to  lift  themselves  or  their 
dead  above  the  tide  and  flood  ;  to  build,  as  it  were,  islands  even  on  high 
land,  wheresoever,  in  the  course  of  ages,  they  happen  to  have  here  and 
there  penetrated  into  the  interior,  or  else  to  build  foundations  like  to 
the  refuse  heaps  of  their  ancestry,  for  the  priests  and  other  revered  per- 
sonages among  their  living. 

As  bearing  intimately  upon  this  question  in  its  relation  to  such  ancient 
remains  of  our  own  land,  and  particularly  to  the  earlier  historic  Indians 
of  the  Southern  States  (who,  as  I  have  said  before,  were  builders  of 
mounds  for  the  support  of  their  public  structures),  I  may  here  refer  to 
the  remarkable  statements  contained  in  some  of  the  early  writings, 
regarding  others  of  their  characteristics. 

It  has  been  seen  again  and  again,  that  surrounding  all  the  ancient 
keys,  were  shell-bank  enclosures  approached  by  canals  that  had,  pre- 
sumably, been  used  as  fish-pounds  or  -preserves.  It  goes  far  toward 
establishing  my  theory  of  the  derivation  from  the  key  dwellers,  or  from 
peoples  living  practically  their  life,  of  some  at  least  of  these  Southern 
mound-building  peoples,  when  we  read  in  the  narrative  of  the  expedition 
dition  of  Don  Hernando  de  Soto  amongst  these  same  peoples  (lo35(-lo41), 
presented  by  the  Knight  of  Elvas  to  the  Spanish  King  and  Council  of  tlie 
Indies,  that  "  On  Wednesday,  the  nineteenth  day  of  June,  the  Governor 
entered  Pacaha,  and  took  quarters  in  the  town  where  the  Cacique  was 
accustomed  to  reside.  It  was  enclosed  and  very  large.  In  the  towers 
and  the  palisade  were  many  loopholes.     There  was  much  dry  maize,  and 


189C.]  40o  [Cushins,'. 

the  new  was  in  great  quantity  throughout  tlie  fields.  At  the  distance  of 
half  a  league  to  a  league  off  were  large  towns,  all  of  them  surrounded 
with  stockades.  Where  the  Governor  stayed  was  a  great  lake  near  to 
the  enclosure,  and  the  water  entered  a  ditch  that  wellnigh  went  round 
the  town.  From  the  River  Grande  to  the  lake  was  a  canal,  through 
which  the  fish  came  into  it,  and  where  the  chief  kept  them  for  his  eating 
and  pastime.  With  nets  that  were  found  in  the  place,  as  many  were 
taken  as  need  required  ;  and  however  much  might  be  the  casting  there 
were  never  any  lack  of  them." 

Now  since  the  very  origin  of  key  building  was  directly  related,  in  all 
probability,  to  the  improving  of  natural,  then  the  making  of  artificial 
bayous  to  serve  as  fish-pounds  ;  to  the  building  of  fishing  stations  near 
by,  and  resultantly,  to  the  construction  of  shell  settlements  in  place 
thereof,  we  cannot  reasonably  suppose  that  the  key  builders  derived 
all  this  from  the  mainland,  but  rather  that  the  dwellers  in  the  interior 
here  spoken  of  by  an  eye-witness,  had  derived  their  practice  of  making 
such  fish  canals  and  preserves,  from  them  or  from  ancestors  like  them.* 

If,  then,  the  key-dweller  and  Southern  seashore  and  flood-laud  phase 
of  life  and  art  was,  as  is  here  indicated,  the  originative,  the  earlier 
phase,  and  the  mound-builder  phase  was  the  later  or  to  some  extent 
inherited  phase,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  mound  builders  acquired 
their  art  and  culture  from  the  particv,lar  key  dwellers  the  remains  of 

*  To  state  my  opinion  clearly  in  reference  to  this  question  of  the  relation  of  the  mound 
builders  to  the  particular  key  builders  the  remains  of  whom  we  investigated,  I  may  say 
that  I  do  not  believe  this  relation  to  have  been  necessarily  direct,  however  much  it  may 
seem  to  have  been  so.  The  remarkable  correspondence  in  the  art  characteristics  of  the 
mound  remains  proper,  when  compared  with  those  exhibited  in  objects  of  our  collec- 
tions from  the  keys  of  the  farther  south,  signifies  to  my  mind,  primarily,  that  the  art 
displayed  in  objects  from  the  inland  mounds  was  inherited  or  derived  from  key-dwel- 
lingor  sea-dwelling  methods  of  technique  and  art  treatment.  This  (leaving  out  all  other 
questions)  is  indicated  by  numerous  examples  of  mound  art.  I  need  mention  only  two  or 
three.  One  is  exemplified  in  the  double-bladed  battle-axe  type  of  war  club,  figured  in  PI. 
XXXV  (3,  a).  The  club  of  this  type  that  we  discovered  at  Marco  was  wholly  of  wood, 
yet  it  was  evidently,  as  I  have  hitherto  stated,  a  survival  of  the  double,  semi-circularly 
bladed  war-axe  of  an  earlier  time.  But  it  was,  nevertheless,  a  practical,  not  merely  a 
ceremonial,  weapon.  Now  such  a  weapon  is  represented  on  the  embossed  copper  plates 
and  is  engraved  repeatedly  on  the  shell  gorgets  of  the  mounds,  as  held  in  the  hands  of 
purely  ceremonial  figures.  It  is  also  sometimes  found  represented  ( among  mound-remains, 
but  not  among  those  of  the  keys)  in  the  shape  of  small  amulets  wrought  of  shell  or  stone. 
Again,  a  single  nearly  full-sized  specimen,  made  wholly  of  stone,  rather  than  of  wood,  (it 
is  beautifully  fashioned  from  light  colored  flint  by  chipping  and  battering,  then  grind- 
ing and  polishing)  has  been  very  recently  secured,  I  understand,  by  that  fine  authority 
on  mound  archteology,  General  Gates  P.  Thruston,  President  of  the  Tennessee  Historical 
Society  of  Nashville,  Tenn.  All  of  these  mound  forms  of  the  weapon,  however,  are 
strictly  ceremonial ;  that  is  to  say  they  are  not  directly  originative  forms,  but  forms  of 
the  weapon  inherited  and  ancestrally  venerated,  that  is,  derived  from  some  older  form 
still  adapted  to  practical  use— as  was  the  specimen  we  recovered  from  Marco.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  shapely  carving  in  green-stone,  of  a  nearly  full-sized,  hafted  celt — 
found  in  a  sepulchral  mound  in  the  Cumberland  Valley  near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  some 
years  since,  by  Prof.  Joseph  Jones— the  correspondence  of  which  as  a  type  form,  to 
the  actual  celt,  found  by  us  at  Key  Marco,  is  almost  exact,  save  in  merely  decorative 
details  of  the  handle. 


Gushing.]  4UO  [Xov.  6, 

whom-  we  investigated.  It  is  simply  au  indication,  I  tliinli,  that  they 
derived  it  from  like  sea-dwelling  people — very  probably  related  to  such 
key  dwellers,  and  who  possibly  had  their  home  farther  up  the  Gulf. 
Not  only  are  thei'e  at  present  other  keys  extending,  interruptedly,  from 
Tampa  to  the  northwestern  extremity  of  Florida,  but  between  that 
point  and  the  Delta  of  the  Mississippi  is  also  another  very  considerable 
group  of  islets  which  I  regard  as  keys — ^judged  by  their  distribution  on 
the  map.  Whether  they  are  actual  shell  keys,  or  not,  remains  to  be 
determined.  But  the  formations  of  tlie  lower  Mississippi  are  late  Quater- 
nary. Thus,  in  comparatively  recent  times,  geologically  speaking,  we 
may  assume  that  the  area  they  cover  was  a  northwardly  extension  of 
the  Gulf,  and  that  for  ages  later,  conditions  like  those  presented  by 
the  southern  marshy  shorelands  into  which  the  key  dwellers  seem  to  have 
ultimately  penetrated  must  have  prevailed,  even  unto  comparatively 
recent  times,  authropologicallj^  or  historically  speaking.  The  coast 
farther  down  was  shoal,  and  fringed  with  islets — some,  possibly,  artificial. 
Thus  the  whole  region  was  still  suited  to  such  modes  of  life  as  I  have 
referred  to,  even  well  on  toward  modern  times.  And  so,  from  this  point 
of  view,  the  Gulf  shore  and  its  borderlands  to  the  north  and  the  north- 
east, no  less  than  farther  down,  seems  to  have  been  as  much  an  area  of 
cJiaracterization  as  that  of  the  keys  we  examined  certainly  was — of  the 
southern  and  farther  northern  mound-builder  culture.  Therefore  my 
claim  is,  that  the  best  and  most  primitive,  that  is,  originative  illustra- 
tion of  this  that  we  have,  is  to  be  found  in  these  key-dweller  remains. 
I  must  not  be  understood,  however,  as  claiming  that  the  mound- 
builder  phase  of  culture  pertained  wholly  to  descendants  of  the  key 
dwellers  or  even  of  sea  peoples  like  them.  Cultures  belong  less,  prima- 
rily, to  distinct  peoples  than  to  distinct  environments.  An  environment 
and  the  essential  conditions  of  human  existence  therein,  makes  indeed, 
not  only  a  culture,  but  goes  far  toward  making  a  race  ;  that  is,  toward 
moulding  or  unifying,  racial  traits,  in  whatever  kind  of  man  or  kinds 
of  men  come  into  it  and  there  remain  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time.* 

I  believe  the  relationship  of  the  key  dwellers  to  other  Southern 
Indians  and  to  the  more  ancient  mound  builders,  both  in  the  South  and 
in  the  farther  North,  may,  however,  be  regarded,  as  indicating  more 
than  merely  parallel  development;  that  this  relationship  maybe  consid- 
ered as  having  been  actual,  and  accultural,  as  well  as  primarily  environ- 
mental ;  for  the  whole  region  of  the  mounds,  Miiich  generally  corre- 
sponded to  the  great  flood-plain  regions  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  mighty 
tributaries — and   in  this  was  not  unlike  the  shorelands  of  the  Gulf — 

*  If  one  but  glimpse  at  the  natives  of  like  low  sea-lands,  of  let  us  say,  Borneo,  Papua, 
Southeastern  Asia  and  certain  Polynesian  regions,  he  will  see  how  close  a  parallelism 
in  arts— and  probably,  too,  even  in  institutions  and  religion— obtains  between  the  key 
dwellers  as  indicated  by  their  art  remains,  and  these  peoples  not  in  any  wise  related  to 
them.  He  will  see  that  merely  by  a  similar  condition  of  natural  surroundings,  these 
parallelisms  have  lieen  wrought  to  a  point  that  is,  in  many  details  of  the  products  of 
these  wide-sundered  peoples,  no  less  than  astounding. 


407 


[Gushing. 


possessed  throughout,  also,  much  else  in  common,  particularly  in  the 
matter  of  biotic  characteristics,  plant  and  animal  life  as  they  pre- 
vailed in  at  least  the  marshy  borders  and  immediately  contiguous 
lands.  Such  characteristics,  since  so  intimately  associated  with  sub- 
sistence and  art  activities,  are  of  course  the  most  potent  of  factors  in 
giving  direction  to  the  movements  and  developments  of  primitive  peo- 
ples,— especially  when  combined  with  generally  like  physical  conditions 
throughout  a  given  area, — and  go  far  in  themselves  toward  making  thus, 
a  distinctively  etfinicarea.  Let  me  offer  an  example  of  this  :  In  its  way, 
the  arid  region  of  our  tarther  Southwest,  is  more  distinctive  than  is  the 
region  of  the  Southern  seas  and  great  contiguous  rivers  and  flood-plains. 
That  is,  it  is  a  region  the  climatic  conditions  of  which  are  so  homoge- 
neous and  so  pronounced  throughout,  and  the  flora  and  fauna  of  which 
are  therefore  so  uniform,  that  it  has  been  potent  to  mould  into  or  toward 
a  common  condition  and  type,  and  a  common  state  of  mind,  too,  nearly 
all  the  peoples  who  have  ever  entered  it  and  therein  dwelt  long 
enough.  In  the  centuries  of  a  far-off  time,  it  presently  made  of  little 
bands  wandering  and  seeking  refuge  in  its  desolate  wastes — seeking 
throughout  them  for  water  and  seeds — petty  agriculturists.  It  forced 
them  as  they  throve  apace,  to  permanent  occupancy,  then  to  cultiva- 
tion of,  these  far-sundered  watering-places  ;  then,  later,  through  conten- 
tions over  these  places  and  possessions,  with  other  comers  or  with  one 
another,  to  occupancy  of  and  building  in  the  cliffs,  for  defense.  Thus 
out  of  such  hard  conditions  was  born  the  famous  Clift"  Dweller,  his 
architecture,  and  his  culture.  It  was  my  good  fortune,  years  ago,  to  first 
definitely  relate  the  Zuiii  Pueblo  Indians,  linguistically  and  traditiou- 
all}%  with  these  ancient  denizens  of  the  cliffs,  and  to  ascertain  posi- 
tively, and  announce  in  various  publications  (especially  of  the  Bureau 
of  Ethnology)  that  the  architecture  of  these  and  other  Pueblo  Indians 
was  almost  wholly,  as  they  were  themselves  in  part,  derived  from  that 
of  older  cliff  dwellers.  But  it  seems  that  the  Northerly  cliff  dwellers 
were  the  first  in  this  long  succession,  as  the  Zuiiis  were  (to  the  extent 
to  which  they  were  descended  from  them)  their  earliest  successors. 
Yet  as  the  ancestors  of  other  Pueblo  peoples  penetrated  into  that  con- 
straining region,  they  too,  under  the  potent  influence  of  the  same 
environment — probably  more  than  by  the  example  of  these  earlier 
predecessors  who  had  been  wrought  upon  thereby — adopted,  one  after 
another,  a  precisely  similar  mode  of  living  and  building.  It  is  only 
eight  or  nine  hundred  years  since  the  Navajo  and  Apache  Indians 
gradually  descended  from  their  far-northern  homes  into  this  desert 
region.  The  Navajo  Indians  are  not  Pueblos,  but  it  is  sufficiently  evi- 
dent from  facts  relating  to  them  given  in  the- splendid  treatises  of 
Dr.  Washington  Matthews,  that  they  were,  especially  along  the  line  of 
their  sociologic  and  religious  development  and  the  art  thereto  pertain- 
ing, rapidly  becoming  moulded,  by  accultural  and  environmental  condi- 
tions combined,  to  the  Pueblo  condition  of  mind  and  life ;  and  had  their 


Gushing.]  '  4Uo  [Nov.  6, 

course  of  development  thus,  not  been  cut  short  by  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniard  with  his  present  to  them  of  flocks  and  herds  that  made  nomads 
of  them  again,  tliese  already  half-settled  peoples  would  have  become 
more  settled  and  would  have  gone  on  developing  precisely  as  older 
pojiulations  had  there  developed,  the  more  rapidly  because  acquiring 
liberally  from  these  older  populations.  Thus  in  the  course  of  a  simi- 
lar period,  or  perhaps  even  in  less  lime,  they  would  no  doubt  have 
become  Pueblos  among  the  Pueblos. 

Now  I  cannot  but  look  upon  the  mound-building  phase  of  life  as,  like 
the  Pueblo-building  phase,  something  that  was  influenced  in  a  similar 
manner ;  and  so,  while  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  ancient  mound 
builders  represented,  as  do  the  various  modern  Pueblos,  several  dis- 
tinct stocks  of  men,  still  I  believe  that  all  owed  their  culture  and  their 
mound-building  proclivities  to  the  original  common  influence  of  sea- 
shore or  key-builder  life,  and  that  each  successive  wave  of  peoples  who 
penetrated  the  mound  area  from  elsewhere,  acquired  the  practice  by  the 
combined  influences  of  the  area  to  mucli  of  which  it  was  so  eminently 
suited,  and  of  the  peoples  who  had  therein  already  become  fixed  in  it. 

In  like  manner  as  the  art  of  the  mound  builders  seems  to  have  been 
related  to  that  of  the  key  builders,  so  certain  forms  found  by  us  in  the 
keys  appeared,  as  heretofore  intimated,  to  have  been  inherited  from, 
or  directly  affiliated  to,  that  of  the  farther  south — of  the  Antilles,  and 
even  of  South  America.  I  need  only  refer  to  the  labret  and  ear  button, 
the  latter  of  which,  although  common  enough  in  the  mounds,  was  still 
more  prevalent  in  the  keys,  and  was  a  peculiarly  southern  object  of 
adornment,  having  prevailed  universally  throughout  northern  South 
America,  and,  indeed,  throughout  meridian  America  generally.  This 
is  true  also  of  both  forms  of  the  atlatl  found  by  us.  They  were  not 
only  South  American  as  well  as  Central  American  in  type,  but  on  them 
were  repeated  even  the  decorative  details  of  Yucatecan  forms.  In  the 
pointed  and  spooned  paddle  ;  in  the  celt  which,  with  its  counterpart  in 
stone  from  the  Cumberland  (and  in  little  amulets  from  other  portions  of 
the  mound  area)  which  corresponded  strictly  with  celts  found  throughout 
the  greater  and  lesser  Antilles  ;  and  finally,  in  the  remarkable  war  club 
I  have  described  in  a  former  page,  this  afliliation  of  art-types  was  even 
more  strikingly  apparent.  For,  as  I  would  repeat  anew,  this  form 
of  war  club,  at  least,  could  scarcely  have  been  other  than  a  survival  of 
a  double,  semicircular  bladed  hatchet  that  is  peculiarly  a  South  Amer- 
ican type,  as  were  war  clubs  like  it — and  also  derived  from  it — in  both 
South  and  in  some  portions  of  Central  America. 

When  it  is  reflected  that  a  not  mconsiderable  number  of  other  forms 
found  by  us  in  the  court  of  the  pile  dwellers  were,  as  were  those  that 
I  have  so  particularly  referred  to,  almost  too  minutely  identical  with 
like  southern  forms  to  admit  of  wholly  independent  origin  (although 
there  is  every  probability  that  they  had  developed,  even  if  elsewhere,  yet 
in  a  generally  similar  kind  of  environment),  and  when  this  fact  is  con- 


1S96.]  409  [Gushing. 

sidered  in  connection  with  the  trend  from  south  nortliwardly  past  tlie 
keys,  of  tlie  main  current  of  tlie  Caribbean  sea  (as  sliown  in  PI.  XXV) 
and  Avitli  tlie  usual  course  of  the  great  but  intermittent  Gulf  hurricanes,  it 
seems  to  me  highly  probable  that  not  from  the  mainland,  but  from  the 
sea,  not  from  the  north,  but  from  the  far  south,  the  primitive  or  earliest 
key  dwellers,  whoever  they  were,  came  or  were  wafted  in  the  begin- 
ning. While  it  is  true  that  only  a  few  years  after  the  discovery  by  Co- 
lumbus, the  earliest  voyagers  to  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  found  peoples  liv- 
ing there  (as  some  few  of  them  still  live)  in  pile-supported  houses  out  in 
the  midst  of  the  shallow  waters,  and  hence  named  the  country  Venezuela 
or  "Little  Venice,"  and  while  it  is  also  true  that  this  current  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea  thence  takes  up  and  is  thence  reinforced  by  the  current 
of  the  mighty  Orinoco,  still  I  do  not  believe  that  the  derivation  of  these 
foreign  arts  of  the  key  dwellers,  or  of  the  key  dwellers  themselves,  may 
be  traced  quite  so  directly  as  that.  I  believe,  rather,  that  here  and  there 
all  through  the  waters  washing  the  shores  of  lands  southward  from 
Florida — of  Cuba,  of  Yucatan,  of  northern  South  America — we  shall 
shortly  find,  unless  the  maps  deceive  me,  evidence  of  a  former  very  wide 
distribution  in  that  direction  of  the  key-dweller  phase  of  life,  and  it  has 
seemed  to  me  that  as  the  key  dwellers  of  Florida  may  have  l)orrowed 
from  these  older  and  more  wideh'  distributed  peoples  of  their  kind  (who 
were  probably  more  of  South  American  than  of  North  American  extrac- 
tion) so  other  peoples  along  that  lengthy  way,  may  also  probably  have 
derived  many  of  their  characteristics,  and  some  small  proportion  of  their 
populations  perhaps.  A  study,  for  instance,  of  the  ruined  cities  of  Yu- 
catan and  some  other  portions  of  Central  America,  makes  it  clear  that 
although  the  Mayas  and  other  peoples  who  built  them  had  advanced  to 
a  remarkable  stage  of  barbaric  civilization,  and  were  possessed  of  a  very 
highly  developed  architecture,  yet  they  were  at  most,  only  highly,  ad- 
vantageously developed  and  elaborated,  mound  builders.  The  fact,  now 
well  known,  that  they  entered  Yucatan  with  arts  nearly  perfected  and 
were  themselves  correspondingly  advanced  in  culture  when  they  came 
thither  from  the  sea  (as  they  claimed),  seems  to  bear  out  the  supposition 
that  they  owed  their  habits  of  high  foundation  building,  their  many  arts 
almost  perfected  from  the  beginning  of  their  occupancy,  and  to  some 
extent  their  OAvn  origin,  to  a  key-dwelling  phase  of  existence.* 

*I  am  not  alone  in  thus  having  found  a  decided  correspondence  between  the  arts  of 
the  ancient  Floridians  and  other  Southern  Indians  and  those  of  ancient  Yucatan.  Other 
observers,  in  particular  Dr.  Daniel  G.  Brinton,  Profs.  F.  W.  Putnam,  William  H.  Holmes, 
Frederick  Starr  and  Dr.  Cyrus  Thomas,  have  noted  umistakable  similarities  between  the 
arts  of  Yucatan  and  Mexico,  and  those  of  the  mound  builders  of  the  Gulf  States.  I  think 
it  has  been  held  that  these  arts  traveled  overland  in  some  way  along  the  far-reaching 
western  and  northern  Gulf  shores  from  south  northward.  As  I  have  already  stated, 
however,  arts,  and  especially  ceremonial  and  decorative  art  forms,  do  not  readily  travel 
from  one  tribe  to  another,  are  not  easily  adopted  by  one  primitive  people  from  another, 
unless  both  peoples  are  in  a  very  similar  grade  of  cultural  development  or  share  a  com- 
mon environment  in  which  these  arts  are  natural  and  at  home.  Moreover,  it  is  to  be 
reflected  that  not  only  arts,  but  also  peoples  (in  sufficient  numbers  to  impress  their  culture 


Gushing.]  "^J-^  [Nov.  6, 

The  foregoing  more  or  less  speculative  conclusions  have  been  offered 
tentatively,  not  as  final,  but  for  whatever  value  they  maj'  possess  as 
suggestions.  After  all,  the  collections  and  observations  under  consider- 
ation are  equally  interesting  whether  these  suggestions  be  true  or  not, 
or  only  in  part  true.  Quite  aside  from  all  this,  the  large  proportion  of  ob- 
jects in  perishable  material,  recovered  by  us,  renders  our  collections  from 
the  keys  unique  in  one  respect  at  least ;  serves  to  illustrate  how  very  little, 
after  all,  of  the  art  of  a  Stone  Age  people  (or  in  this  case  Shell  Age 
people)  is  really  represented  by  the  remains  that  are  commonly  found 
on  the  camp  sites  and  in  the  burial  places  of  such  peoples.  Had  my 
collections  and  observations  been  confined  to  the  shell,  bone,  horn,  pot- 
tery and  other  specimens  in  comparatively  enduring  materials  found  on 
the  keys,  the  art  that  they  represent  would  have  seemed  exceedingly 
crude,  almost  below  the  average  of  Stone  Age  art  generally,  here  in 
America.  As  it  was,  however,  the  carved  and  painted  works  in  wood 
alone,  in  these  collections,  served  of  themselves  to  indicate  that  here 
were  the  remains  of  a  people  not  only  well  advanced  toward  barbaric 
civilization,  but  of  a  people  with  a  very  ancient  and  distinctive  culture, 
whose  relations  with  other  peoples  may,  through  these  same  rare  speci- 
mens of  their  arts — that  alone  by  immersion  in  the  water  courts  were 

or  arts  upon  others)  travel  very  slowly  by  land — impeded  as  they  are  in  their  course  if  it 
he  long,  by  tribe  after  tribe,  and  danger  after  danger.  But  both  arts  and  peoples  travel 
with  the  utmost  facility  by  sea.  Therefore,  it  must  have  been,  if  not  by  slower  deriva- 
tion through  the  key  dwellers,  then  by  a  wholesale  sort  of  intercourse  by  sea,  that  these 
arts  of  the  civilized  peoples  of  Central  America  came  to  be  so  liberally  represented 
among  the  remains— especially  certain  ceremonial  and  decorative  remains— of  the  In- 
dians of  our  Southern  States,  if,  indeed,  they  came  from  so  far  south  northward  and 
were  not,  as  I  incline  to  think,  distributed  or  inherited  from  some  common  centre. 

In  this  connection  I  will  mention  also,  that  Prof.  Holmes  has  found  probable  traces  of 
Caribbean  art  in  Florida.  By  an  examination  of  the  collections  gathered  by  ourselves 
as  compared  with  those  made  by  Mr.  Clarence  Moore  throughout  the  eastern  half  of  the 
State,  however,  I  find  that  these  Caribbean  art  forms  are  less  characteristic  of  our  collec- 
tions than  of  those  from  the  easterly  portion  of  the  State,  and  even  from  the  Atlantic 
side  of  southern  Georgia.  While  the  art  characteristics  I  am  speaking  of,  chiefly 
exhibited  in  the  involuted  and  concentric  surface  decoration  of  paddled  pottery,  may 
be  accounted  for  as  having  originated  independently  both  among  the  Caribbeans  and 
here  throughout  Floridian  areas— from  the  graining  of  the  wood  of  the  paddles  them- 
selves, or  of  worn-out  wooden  vessels  in  Imitation  of  which  this  pottery  was  no  doubt 
at  first  made— still,  there  is  a  large  degree  of  probability  that  the  Caribs  had  more  or 
less  impressed  thei'-  art,  and  even  tliemselvcs,  upon  a  portion  of  the  native  population 
of  Florida,  long  before  the  discovery.  This  probability  is  rendered  the  greater  by  the 
linguistic  correspondences  which  Dr.  Albert  S.  Gatchet  has  clearly  traced  between  the 
languages  of  the  aborigines  of  eastern  Florida,  the  Timuquanans,  and  the  Caribs.  How- 
ever, these  Carib  influences  seem  to  have  come  into  Florida,  not  by  a  westerly  way,  but 
from  the  south  and  the  east,  possibly  through  the  Lucayos  or  Bahamas  Islands,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  were  williin  historic  times,  as  is  well  attested  by  the  earliest  writers, 
in  continual  intercourse  with  the  natives  of  the  Florida  Peninsula.  Such  truces  of  Antil- 
lean  art  as  are  found  in  tlie  region  of  the  ancient  key  dwellers  and  further  north  on 
the  western,  or  Gulf  coast,  seem  to  be  rather  more  ancient  than  the  date  of  Caribbean 
occupation,  even  of  the  West  Indian  Islands  themselves,  that  is,  they  seem  to  be  far 
more  Arawak  than  Caribbean,  and  this  again  coincides  with  the  idea  of  a  very  far 
outhern  origin  (in  the  beginning)  of  these  peoples  of  the  keys. 


1896.]  411  [Cushiug. 

preserved  to  lis — be  studied  in  many  ways  witli  unusually  satisfactory 
results. 

Another  feature  of  these  collections,  of  equal,  if  not  of  greater  inter- 
est, is  the  fact  that  they  represent  a  Shell  Age  phase  of  human  develop- 
ment and  culture.  Their  art  is  not  only  an  art  of  the  sea,  but  it  is  an  art 
of  shells  and  teeth,  an  art  for  which  the  sea  supplied  nearly  all  the 
working  parts  of  tools,  the  land  only  some  of  the  materials  worked  upon. 
A  study  of  these  tools  of  shell  and  teeth  furnishes  us  with  an  instruc- 
tive lesson  as  to  the  ingenuity  of  primitive  man,  as  to  his  capability  of 
meeting  needs  with  help  of  what  would  at  first  seem  to  be  impossible, 
or  but  very  indifterent,  means  ;  and  as  to  the  eftect  of  this  on  derived  art 
in  general.  The  lesson  is  suggestive.  It  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
not  here  alone,  or  in  those  more  extended  regions  of  subtropic  and 
tropic  America  which  I  have  mentioned  as  possibly  the  homes  of  like 
key-dwelling  peoples,  but  that  in  many  further  parts  of  the  world — of 
the  Old  World  as  well  as  of  the  New  World — such  a  phase  of  develop- 
ment may  well  have  been  passed  through  by  whole  peoples  who 
later  became  stone-using  peoples  ;  yet  whose  earlier  art  of  the  sea  had 
in  like  manner  influenced  the  art  of  their  later  conditions,  of  their 
inland  descendants  and  those  who  came  into  continual  contact  with  them 
— just  as  this  art  seems  to  have  influenced  that  of  the  mound  builders 
and  as  a  similar  art — possessing  no  less  striking  marks  of  the  sea,  seems 
to  have  influenced  early  men  in  southern  and  eastern  Asia — like  tlie 
aboriginal  Siamese  and  Cambodians,  Coreans,  Chinese  and  Japa- 
nese. Nearer  parallels  yet,  may  be  found  among  living  peoples,  as 
before  stated,  those  of  Borneo  and  Papua  and  other  parts  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago,  of  the  Caroline  Islands  and  other  parts  of  Polynesia.  The 
further  question  is  therefore  suggested — whether  perhaps,  in  some  por- 
tions of  the  world  (man  having  in  all  probability  made  the  very  begin- 
ning of  his  development  as  a  tool-maker  upon  the  food-abounding  sea- 
shore of  some  tropic  land)  whether  in  the  phase  of  life  here  exemplified 
among  the  keys,  we  may  not  (despite  its  far  higher  development),  find 
some  intimation  of  the  remotest  of  human  beginnings  in  the  use  of  tools 
and  weapons  as  made  of  sea-produced  and  other  organic  materials.  At 
any  rate,  since  returning  from  Florida  and  studying  such  sea-land  remains 
as  I  could  find  in  various  museums,  and  in  one  case  studying  them  in  the 
actual  field  (on  the  coast  of  Maine,  this  last  summer),  I  have  found  that 
teeth  and  shells,  wherever  suitable  kinds  of  these  natural  tools  of  the 
animals  themselves  could  be  secured,  have  played  a  far  more  important 
part,  even  in  the  arts  of  peoples  who  had  abundance  of  excellent  material 
for  stone  implements  at  hand,  than  has  hitherto  been  realized. 

There  is  no  subject  in  the  range  of  anthropological  study,  and  this 
especially  applies  to  the  study  of  prehistoric  anthropology,  which  can 
take  rank  above  the  subject  of  ethnographic  origins.  By  this  I  mean, 
for  the  moment,  neither  the  relations,  nor  the  migrations  of  peoples,  pri- 
marily, but  the  study  of  peculiar  arts,  institutions,  and  other  cultural 

PROC.  AMER.  THILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  2  Z.      PRINTED  AUGUST  9,  1897. 


Cashing.]  41  .Z  [Nov.  6, 

characteristics,  as  influenced  by  given  or  specific  phj'siographic  areas. 
As  aftbrding  a  concrete  example  of  this  kind,  of  the  interrelation  of  man 
and  a  particular  kind  of  environment,  I  know  of  few  cases  in  which  the 
evidences  are  so  direct  and  pronounced  and  I  may  add,  unmistakable, 
as  they  are  in  the  peculiar  art  remains  which  we  discovered  in  this  not 
less  peculiar  region  of  the  keys. 

I  have  presented  not  a  few  illustrations  of  this  influence  as  giving  rise 
to  key  building,  and  some  phases  of  the  life  itself  of  the  people  who  built 
the  keys.  Yet  in  closing  I  wish  once  more  to  recur  to  the  subject.  In 
a  preceding  note,  and  in  former  writings  (published  in  periodicals  and 
in  the  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  on  the  Zuiii  Indians,  and  the 
ancient  Cliff"  Dwellers,  and  the  development  of  Pueblo  culture  in  general), 
I  have  shown  how  the  desert  of  our  great  southwest  and  the  necessity 
for  overcoming  there,  the  difficulties  of  existence  in  an  arid  waste,  may 
account  for  the  high  development  towards  civilization  of  the  peoples 
who  for  a  long  time  dwelt  there.  It  is,  indeed,  safe  for  us  to  infer  from 
these  and  later  studies,  especially  those  of  Prof.  W  J  McGee,  that  the 
very  beginnings  of  true  civilization,  in  the  matter,  for  example,  of  agri- 
culture, must  ever  have  been  made  in  desert  environments  more  or 
less  like  these,  more  or  less,  also,  in  the  same  manner. 

Well,  so  in  other  ways  it  was,  in  the  wild  region  of  sea,  the  great 
sea-waste  wherein  the  ancient  key  dwellers  reclaimed  and  built  their 
homes.  It  was  as  truly  a  desert,  not  of  the  dry  land,  but  of  the  waters, 
and  likewise  it  both  foi'ced  and  fostered,  rapid  and  high  development  of 
the  peoples  who  entered  it  and  elected  or  w^ere  driven  to  abide  in  it. 
That  the  island  homes  of  these  peoples,  the  shell  keys,  might  be  built, 
and  in  the  ample  water  courts  thereof  a  constant  supply  of  fish  be  pro- 
vided, it  w^as  even  more  necessary,  after  such  beginnings  as  I  have  pic- 
tured on  a  former  page,  for  men  to  unite  in  each  single  enterprise  ;  the 
which  led  directly,  not  only  to  increased  communality,but  also  to  a  higher, 
and  in  this  case,  an  effective  degree  of  organization.  The  arid  deserts 
have  led  men  like  the  Pueblos  to  continued  agricultural  effort  wherein 
it  was  necessary  for  them  to  closely  unite  in  the  watering  or  irrigating 
of  the  soil ;  and  concomitantly  it  has  led  them  to  a  high  degree  of  archi- 
tectural development  in  not  only  granary-,  and  house-  construction  itself, 
but  also  in  protective  building,  fortification,  against  those  who,  tempted 
by  the  ample  stores  thus  garnered,  sought  to  rob  them  ;  and  finally,  it 
has  led,  through  these  two  causes  for  united  effort,  to  high  communal 
organization  and  high  sociologk  and  sacerdotal  government.  But  the 
men  of  the  desert  sea  wastes,  here  among  the  keys,  were  beset  by  dan- 
gers far  greater  than  those  of  human  foemen,  necessitating  far  more 
arduous  communal  eff'ort  in  the  construction  of  places,  rather  than 
houses,  of  harbors  and  storm  defenses,  rather  than  fortified  dwellings  ; 
and  the  construction  of  these  places  under  such  difficulty  and  stress,  led 
to  far  more  highly  concerted  action  and  therefore  developed  necessarily 
not  only  sociologic  organization  nearly  as  high,  but  perforce  a  far  higher 
executive  governmental  organization. 


413 


[Gushing 


The  development  of  the  key  dwellers  in  this  direction,  is  attested  by 
every  key  ruin — little  or  great — built  so  long  ago,  yet  enduring  the 
storms  that  have  since  played  havoc  with  the  mainland  ;  is  mutely  yet  even 
more  eloquently  attested  by  every  great  group  of  the  shell  mounds  on 
these  keys  built  for  the  chief's  houses  and  temples  ;  by  every  lengthy 
canal  built  from  materials  of  slow  and  laborious  accumulation  from  the 
depths  of  the  sea.  Therefore,  to  my  mind,  there  can  be  no  question  that 
the  executive,  rather  than  the  social  side  of  government  was  developed 
among  these  ancient  key  dwellers  to  an  almost  disproportionate  degree  ; 
to  a  degree  which  led  not  only  to  the  establishment  among  them  of 
totemic  priests  and  headmen,  as  among  the  Pueblos,  but  to  more  than 
this — to  the  development  of  a  favored  class,  and  of  chieftains  even  in 
civil  life  little  short  of  regal  in  power  and  tenure  of  office. 

A  curious  side  of  their  life  may  be  seen  to  have  almost  unavoidably 
helped  toward  such  a  development.  "With  agricultural  peoples  of  the 
desert,  beginnings  are  almost  always  made  normally, — in  the  totemic  or 
purely  clanal  condition  of  development.  Thus  the  lands,  the  garnered 
stores  and  the  very  houses,  belong  primarily  to  the  women,  and  there- 
fore the  existence  among  them  of  men  of  a  highlj'  privileged  class — as,  of 
any  directly  hereditary  line  of  chieftains — is  rarel}-,  if  ever,  fostered.  On 
land,  it  was  not  until  bj^the  domestication  of  animals  and  the  wandering 
pastoral  mode  of  life  this  involved  was  adopted,  that  formal  patriarchal 
or  gentile  organizations  replaced  mother  right  in  property  and  the  matri- 
archal or  clanal  organization  of  society  and  government — since  only  then 
did  property  come  to  be  held  by  the  men.  For  it  was  not  until  men  held 
all-important  possessions  that  the}'  took  the  lead,  and  by  ever-increasing 
competition  in  these,  ushered  in  the  growth  of  privileged  classes,  the 
establishment  of  direct  heredity,  and  so,  of  lines  of  patriarchal  elders, 
headmen  or  chieftains.  But  it  may  be  seen  that  here  on  the  keys  the 
case  was  different  from  the  very  outset.  The  one  most  important  pos- 
session of  the  key  dwellers  was  the  canoe.  This  was  essentially  a  man's 
possession.  Thus  what  on  land  was  effected  by  the  possession  (by  the 
men),  of  herds  and  beasts  of  burden,  was  here  in  the  sea  effected  by  that 
of  an  inanimate  (but  supposedly  animate)  vehicle  of  burden,  the 
canoe.  While  the  women  stayed  at  home  in  the  houses  of  the  safe 
and  isolated  keys,  the  men  continually  went  forth  over  the  surround- 
ing waters  in  these  canoes  that  were  owned  by  themselves.  Being 
the  possessors  of  property  so  important  to  the  lives  of  the  whole  people, 
here  where  the  plan  of  social  organization  was  still,  no  doubt,  at 
least  traditionally  totemic,  it  must  nevertheless  have  become  to  a 
limited  extent  patriarchal — virtually  so,  as  far  as  the  ruling  class  of  men 
was  concerned.  This  property-right  of  the  men,  in  canoes  that  were  so 
directly  related  to  the  public  works  which  fostered  the  executive  func- 
tion in  government,  then,  helped,  I  take  it,  toward  the  establishment  of 
king-like  chieftainships  ;  and  the  main  point  of  this  seeming  digression  is, 
that  it  was  due  to  this  kind  of  life  and  development  originally,  and  to 


CnshiDg.]  4:14:  [Nov.  6, 

inheritance  therefrom,  that  all  the  great  southern  tribes  encountered  by 
De  Soto  and  his  successors,  were  ruled  over  by  the  most  powerful  chiefs 
we  know  of,  outside  of  Mexico,  Peru  and  Central  America,  anywhere 
on  this  continent ;  namely,  the  Mikos  or  King-chiefs,  who  had  actual 
power  of  life  and  death  over  nearly  all — save  members  of  the  priest- 
hood— among  their  subjects,  and  were  held  to  be  of  divine  descent. 

This  abnormally  high  development  in  government,  indicated  by 
great  public  works  on  the  keys  and  among  the  mounds,  and  in  a  meas- 
ure by  historic  records,  is,  as  we  have  seen,  paralleled  in  the  arts  of  the 
keys,  for  in  them  we  found,  along  with  an  exceedingly  high  growth  of 
the  conventional  side  of  art,  an  artistic  freedom  on  the  aesthetic  side 
that  I  have  not  seen  equaled  in  any  of  the  primitive  remains  of  this  con- 
tinent, elsewhere,  save  alone  perhaps,  in  those  of  Central  America. 
This  gives  good  ground  for  another  generalization  ;  that  while  the 
desert  of  the  land,  with  its  scant  vegetation  andscanter  animal  life,  leads 
naturally,  yet  through  the  technique  involved,  to  formal  conventional 
art,  the  desert  of  the  sea,  teeming  with  growth  and  quick  with  animal 
life  in  untold  variety,  beauty  and  abundance,  leads  as  in  this  case, 
and  for  like  reasons,  not  to  formal,  but  to  highly  realistic  convention- 
alization. In  the  one  art,  that  of  the  land  desert,  may  be  found 
abundant  textile  and  basketry  forms  of  decoration.  There,  life  seems 
to  have  been  held  so  dearly  that  only  in  angular  or  geometric  style,  or 
by  means  of  pure  symbols  rather  than  by  direct  representation,  were 
animistic  qualities  attributed  to  things  made ;  so  that  above  any  other 
ai"t,  the  art  of  the  arid  desert  may  be  called  attributive  art.  But  here  in 
the  sea  wastes,  where  life  so  abounded,  X\\g  forms,  alike  of  animals  and  of 
men,  were  lavishly,  most  realistically  and  gracefully  represented,  and  the 
commonest  tools  were  shaped  over  with  quite  unmistakable  life-marks 
and  other  added  features,  and  were  thus,  while  conventionally,  withal 
realistically  and  fearlessly  invested,  with  their  animistic  and  specialistic 
powers.  So,  in  contrast  to  the  art  of  the  inland  desert,  this  of  the  sea 
may  be  called  an  art  of  investure.  It  seems  to  me  that  now  possessing 
as  we  do  examples  of  these  opposite  extremes  of  art  (for  museums  are 
filled  with  the  one  extreme)  there  is  scarcely  a  primitive  kind  of  art, 
ancient  or  modern,  which  cannot  be  measurably  interpreled  l)y  com- 
parative study  of  the  one  kind  (the  conventional  and  attributive)  and 
the  other  kind  so  clearly  illustrated  by  our  collection  (the  realistic  and 
the  conventionally  investive).  In  this,  then,  as  in  its  exemplification 
of  man's  direct  relationship  in  cultural  and  even  perhaps  in  racial  devel- 
opment, to  his  environment,  our  study  of  the  ancient  kej'  remains,  takes 
its  place  in  the  general  study  of  the  Science  of  Man. 

I  have  only  to  add  that  the  combined  archasological  data  and  collec- 
tions which  we  gathered  from  the  ancient  keys,  were  together  so  com- 
plete (happily  because  so  many  perishable  objects  were  preserved  intact 
and  in  their  proper  relations)  tliat  tliey  might  be  called,  what  though  so 
very  ancient,  almost  literally   etlinological,   rather  than  arclueological 


189G.]  4 1 0  [Gushing. 

collections.  The  specimens  themselves  are  now  sadly  warped  and 
shriveled.  But  happily  some  of  them  can  be  fairly  restored  by  treat- 
ment with  preservatives  ;  and  happily  also,  our  photographs,  drawings 
and  paintings,  and  casts,  made  in  the  field,  are  almost  equal  for  studj- 
to  what  the  originals  were  when  found.  Thus,  after  tlie  original  series  is 
arranged  and  exhibited  here  in  the  Museum  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  after  a  duplicate  but  representative  series  is  displayed  in  the 
National  Museum  at  Washington,  further  comparative  study  of  them 
will  be  possible,  and  through  this  study  the  ancient  key  dwellers  as 
a  people,  the  story  even  of  their  modes  of  daily  life,  will  become  known 
to  us  so  fully  as  to  make  it  almost  like  unto  one  which  might  be  told 
of  a  living  people.  And  were  it  possible  now,  I  would  fain  present 
a  picture  of  tlus  olden  life  on  our  shores — so  remotely  pre-Cohimbian 
and  so  truly  primitive — since  I  am  sure  that  with  the  materials  at  hand 
it  could  even  now  be  made  more  perfect  and  detailed  than  any  relating 
to  a  period  equally  remote,  that  has  thus  far  been  possible.  Certainly 
it  could  be  so  made  when  aided,  not  only  l)y  comparative  study  of 
the  works  of  such  peoples  as,  let  us  say  the  Arawaks  of  Brazil  and 
the  Orinoco,  but  also,  of  the  early  historic  records.  Still,  I  shall 
have  to  content  myself — and  perhaps  it  is  just  as  well,  since  this 
will  give  time  for  carrying  the  details  of  such  study  much  further — 
with  presenting  a  picture  of  the  kind  in  the  final,  fully  and  amply  illus- 
trated volume  of  the  Pepper-Hearst  Expedition,  which  Major  Powell 
has  so  liberly  consented — as  a  joint  work  of  the  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  the  Department  of 
Archaeology  and  Palaeontology  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania — to 
publish. 


Gushing,]  4ib  |Xov.  6, 


DESCRIPTIVE  LIST  OF  PLATES  XXV-XXXV. 

WITH   EXPLANATIONS   OF    FIGURES, 
AND    TEXT   REFERENCES. 

Plate  XXV. 

The  outline  map,  shown  on  Plate  XXV,  is  reproduced  from  the  latest 
Government  Hydrographic  Surveys,  and  indicates  the  location  of  Tar- 
pon Springs, — the  northernmost  point  on  the  Gulf  coast  of  Florida  (see 
pp.  351  to  354,  inclusive),  explored  by  the  Pepper-Hearst  expedition  of 
1896  ;  also  the  location  of  Key  Marco  and  of  the  contiguous  archipelago 
of  the  Ten  Thousand  Islands, — which  probably  contains  not  fewer  than 
fifteen  hundred  ancient  key-dweller  settlements  or  artificial  shell  islets. 

It  is  designed  especially  to  illustrate  the  relation  (discussed  on  pp. 
408,  409  and  410  in  the  text)  of  the  Currents  of  the  Caribbean  Sea 
to  the  principal  island  clusters  or  settlements  of  the  ancient  key- 
builders,  as  probably  bearing,  to  some  extent  on  their  remote  origin. 
The  series  of  arrows  represented  as  leading  past  the  gulf  of  Maracaibo, 
in  South  America,  thence  through  the  strait  between  Yucatan  and  west- 
ern Cuba,  and  thence  in  turn,  to  the  keys  and  islands  of  southwestern 
Florida,  defines  the  current,  which  is  regarded  as  having  been  influen- 
tial in  peopling  these  areas  of  the  keys  with  wanderers — probably  of 
Arawak  extraction,  via  the  region  of  the  Orinoco  in  South  America. 

Again,  the  series  of  arrows  represented  as  passing  northwardly  along 
the  outer  or  Atlantic  side  of  both  the  Lesser  and  Greater  Antilles,  and 
thence  to  the  Lucayo  or  Bahama  Islands,  defines  the  current  w^hich  is 
regarded  as  the  possible  line  of  comparatively  recent  Caribbean  deriva- 
tion, as  evidenced  by  various  art  remains  in  eastern  Florida  and 
Georgia,  which  are  referred  to,  in  the  footnote  on  page  410,  as  discov- 
ered by  Prof.  Wm.  H.  Holmes. 


2896.1  417  [Gushing. 


Plate  XXVI. 

The  view  presented  on  Plate  XXVI  illustrates  the  appearance 
of  certain  shoals  and  islets  to  the  eastward  of  Key  Marco,  in  the 
northwesterly  edge  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Islands.  It  admirably  exhib- 
its the  form  of  an  original  oyster-bar  or  coral-reef,  as  defined  by 
the  lines  of  foam  caused  by  the  rapidly  retreating  tide.  It  will  be 
observed  that  these  lines  enclose  a  central  space  of  deep  water  (between 
the  two  black  masses  of  reef-crags  already  exposed),  and  that  these 
foam  lines  extend  off  laterally,  forming  an  irregular,  atoll-like,  or 
semicircular  enclosure,  that  greatly  resembles  the  outline  or  plan  of  a 
true,  built  up  or  artificial  key,  or  shell  settlement. 

For  this  and  other  reasons — discussed  at  length  on  pp.  335  to  837, 
inclusive,  and  incidentally  elsewhere  in  the  text — it  is  supposed  that  the 
earliest  key-builders  made  the  beginnings  of  their  great  shell  structures 
or  islands  (such  as  are  mapped  on  Plates  XXVIII  and  XXX)  upon  reefs 
and  shoals  like  these. 

The  appearance,  seen  from  a  distance,  of  these  shell  islets  or  keys,  when 
overgrown  and  surrounded  by  mangroves,  as  nearly  all  of  them  are, 
is  quite  well  shown  toward  the  left,  and  also  at  the  extreme  right,  of 
the  picture. 


■Cashing.]  4io  ]  Nov.  6, 


Plate  XXVII. 

The  photograph  reproduced  on  Plate  XXVII,  was  taken  from  the 
southern  sea-wall  of  Cayo  del  Oso,  or  Bear  Key  (visible  in  the  leftward 
distance  of  the  view  on  the  preceding  Plate, — XXVI).  The  outlying  por- 
tions of  this  key  had  been  burned  over,  on  the  hither  side,  and  although 
the  inner  portions  were  not  typically  lofty  or  extensive,  nevertheless  the 
marginal  structures  of  the  keys  in  general, — as  described  on  pp.  331  to  350, 
inclusive — were  here  exceptionallj^  Avell  revealed.  Hence,  this  view  was 
chosen  from  among  manj-  more  impressive  scenes,  as  best  illustrating  the 
surrounding  enclosures  and  other  details  of  such  keys  :  First,  of  the  sea- 
walls, outwardly  fringed  by  mangroves  (both  seen  to  the  left  of  the  pic- 
ture) ;  of  a  small  fish-pound  or  water-court  with  its  little  outlet-canal 
seen  beyond  the  second  ridge  of  the  foreground)  ;  and  of  a  larger,  partly 
filled  water-court  (seen  between  the  third  ridge  and  the  western  sea-wall 
— its  canal  leading  off  among  the  trees  and  bushes  to  the  right).  Unfor- 
tunately the  heights  of  this  key  are  hidden,  or  are  at  best  but  slightly 
indicated — in  the  shrubberj"  at  the  extreme  right  background  of  the 
view — giving  an  impression  of  flatness  that  is  not  characteristic. 


1896.]  41 J  [Gushing. 


Plate  XXVIII. 

In  the  plan  and  elevation  of  Demorey's  key  presented  on  Plate 
XXVIII  (described  at  length  on  pp.  338  to  341,  inclusive),  one  of  the 
most  perfectly  preserved,  and  probably  most  recent,  of  the  ancient 
shell  settlements  or  artificial  islands  of  Charlotte  Harbor. and  neigh- 
boring waters  is  outlined. 

The  upper  sketch-map,  although  not  sufficiently  detailed,  was  drawn 
from  a  careful  survey  laboriouslj''  made  by  myself,  and  gives  a  fairly 
accurate  general  idea  of  the  terminal  terraces,  the  two  inner  canals,  the 
principal  graded  way,  the  central  group  of  mounds  and  pyramids,  and 
the  great  crowning  terrace — with  its  subsidiary  platform  of  approach — 
as  in  part  illustrated  in  the  succeeding  Plate, — XXIX.  Unfortunately, 
however,  neither  the  sea-wall  extensions,  the  nearly  submerged  en- 
closures within  the  swamps,  nor  the  drainage-  and  garden-basins — or 
"Spring  holes,"  locally  so-called — in  the  northern  benches  or  low  plat- 
forms, could  be  properly  shown  on  this  scale. 

The  subjoined  elevation  was  redrawn  from  an  imperfect  sketch  of  my 
own  taken  from  the  top  of  a  tree,  necessarily  inside  the  key,  and  hence 
it  gives  a  view-point  that  does  not  quite  coincide  with  the  more  correct 
orientation  of  the  map  above.  Nor  does  it  correspond  in  scale — of  details, 
— hence  the  central  group  of  mounds  appears  too  far  to  the  right,  and  the 
altar-mounds  at  the  end  of  the  crowning  terrace  are  unduly  exaggerated 
in  both  height  and  length.  Nevertheless,  the  general  contour  of  the 
elevations  here  shown  will  serve  to  suggest,  in  a  measure,  their  striking 
similarity  to  mound-groups  in  the  Mississippi  and  tributary  Valleys, 
and  to  the  terrace-,  or  platform-builded  foundation-structures  of  ancient 
Central  American  cities,  referred  to  in  the  concluding  paragraphs  of  the 
text,  on  pp.  108,  109. 


PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  3  A,      PRINTED   AUG.  10,  1897. 


Gushing.]  4:JU  [Nov.  6, 


Plate  XXIX. 

The  view  of  the  rounded  corner  and  a  portion  of  the  side  at  the  south- 
eastern end  of  the.  shell-faced  platform  on  the  crowning  terrace  or 
elongated  pyramid-mound  of  Demorey's  Key,  Pine  Island  Sound,  given 
in  Plate  XXIX,  does  not,  unfortunately,  include  the  subsidiary"  platform 
of  approach  at  the  farther  end.  As  related  on  pp.  338  and  339,  the  vegeta- 
tion covering  this  and  nearly  all  other  portions  of  the  kej%  was  so  rank, 
that  but  for  an  accident,  the  character  of  the  shell  work  of  this  terrace 
would  not  have  been  even  suspected.  Hence  too,  the  tessellated  pave- 
ment of  clamshells  along  the  lines  of  approach  to  the  side  platform  and 
toward  the  end  of  the  main  work,  were  exposed  only  here  and  there,  at 
great  labor,  and  therefore  do  not  appear  in  the  picture.  It  will  be  ob- 
served however,  that  the  apices  of  many  of  the  shells  in  the  facing  of  the 
terrace,  are  crushed  in.  It  was  found  that  as  this  ancient  facade  was  built 
up,  the  conches  were  laid  in  place — the  whorls  of  each  course  all  turned 
one  way — and  that  finally  all  were  hammered  into  place  more  firmly,  until 
the  whole  facing  was  thereby  made  even.  It  was  thus  that  the  points  or 
spires  of  some  of  the  shells  were  broken  in  as  shown.  I  later  learned 
that  this  mode  of  building  was  resorted  to  not  only  in  such  facings  of 
the  heights,  but  also  in  the  laying  of  tlie  foundations  of  the  keys  on  the 
submerged  reefs. 


1^96.]  4-j1  [Gushing. 

Plate  XXX. 

The  contour  lines  in  the  Topographic  map  of  Key  Marco  (represented 
on  Plate  XXX,  and  described  on  pp.  349,  850,  of  the  text),  by  means  of 
which  Mr.  Sawyer  has  indicated,  with  the  utmost  fidelity  and  accuracy, 
the  minutest  features  of  that  remarkable  and  gigantic  structure,  nec- 
essarily have  to  be  reproduced  here  in  one  color.  Therefore,  the  sig- 
nificant difl^erence  between  elevations  and  depressions  above  and  below 
the  mean  or  higli  tide  level  are  not  clearly  apparent.  For  example,  the 
circles  and  parallel  lines  in  the  extreme  southeastern  portion  of  the 
map,  represent  deep  round  wells  or  basins,  and  almost  equally  deep 
canals  and  graded  ways  leading  to  and  from  them  :  while  the  quite  sim- 
ilar, although  more  numerous,  lines  at  13',  14'  and  18',  in  the  easterly  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  map,  indicate  mounds  and  other  heights  above  the 
mean,   corresponding,  in  foot-measure,  to  these  several  figures. 

The  long,  narrow  water-court  or  fish-pound — at  the  northern  end — 
still  slightly  open  to  the  sea  through  its  short  canal  ;  the  three  larger 
courts — respectively  twenty,  thirty,  and  fifty  feet  wide — down  on  the 
western  side,  and  the  larger  triangular  "Court  of  the  Pile  Dwellers  " 
excavated  by  us  and  shown  more  fully  in  the  plan  on  Plate  XXXI,  are 
all  indicated  by  flat  shading,  and  are  marked  with  mangrove  signs. 

It  will  be  noted  that  above  and  toward  the  left  of  this  court,  are  two 
similar  courts,  that  had  been  filled  nearly  up  to  their  marginal  rims, 
probably  to  form  gardens  or  platforms  ;  and  that  to  the  right,  the  very 
large  bayou  at  the  southern  end  of  the  key  was  already  being  reclaimed 
for  the  formation  of  additional  courts  or  enclosures,  by  the  extension  of 
the  shell  works  down  toward  the  terminal  eastern  sea  wall.  Excava- 
tions revealed  the  fact  that  in  places  the  borders  of  this  bayou  were 
already  occupied  by  dwellings  like  those  of  the  courts,  at  the  time  of 
the  abandonment  of  the  place. 

The  eastern  edge  of  the  key  was  worn  away  by  the  sea.  The  termini 
of  canals  similar  to  those  on  the  northwestern  edge,  as  well  as  the  gen- 
eral oval  outline  of  other  portions  of  the  key,  indicated  that  it  originally 
extended  a  little  more  than  two  hundred  feet  out  in  this  direction,  and 
that  it  probably  here  also  contained  water-courts,  fish-pounds  and  other 
features,  like  those  lower  down  on  the  opposite  margin.  It  also  indicated 
that  at  the  time  of  abandonment,  the  place  of  the  extensive  mangrove 
swamp  to  the  southward,  was  open  water,  and  that  the  main  tidal  cur- 
rent between  the  key  and  Caximbas  island  further  to  the  south,  fiowed 
past  this  easterly  portion.  It  is  remarkable  that  Key  Marco  is  excep- 
tional in  having  thus  been  somewhat  demolished  ;  for  of  more  than  a 
hundred  keys  examined  by  me,  first  and  last,  only  this  and  five  others 
had  been  disturbed  by  the  countless  storms  that  have,  throughout  un- 
numbered centuries,  swept  those  regions  and  changed,  on  every  hand,  all 
other  sections  of  the  coast.  During  the  ages  that  must  have  elapsed 
since  these  gigantic  structures  were  piled  up,  they  have  stood  unscathed, 
the  stress  of  tidal  wave,  and  flood  and  storm  ;  and  they  were,  in  early 
historic  days,  as  is  abundantly  attested  by  old  writers,  used  as  places  of 
refuge  in  times  of  inundation,  by  Indians,  as,  indeed,  they  have  continued 
to  be  used  ever  since,  even  by  modern  settlers. 


4.90 

Gushing.]  i— —  [Nov.  6, 


Plate  XXXI. 

Little  more  need  be  said  of  tlie  Plan  and  Section  of  the  "  Court  of  the 
Pile  Dwellers"  at  Key  Marco,  shown  on  Plate  XXXI,  than  has  already 
been  remarked  in  the  text  (on  pp.  350,  356,  and  succeeding  pages,  and 
again  in  the  explanations  of  figui'es,  that  follow). 

The  section  below  this  plan  corresponds  to  an  east  and  west  line 
througli  the  court  from  above  section  1,  to  above  section  70  ;  and  the 
heavy  black  border-line  around  the  margins  of  the  court,  represents  accu 
rately  the  area  cleanly  excavated  by  us.  The  locations  of  preliminary 
excavations  by  Collier,  Wilkins,  Durnfordand  myself,  in  sections  14,  23, 
83,  33,  34  and  44 ;  those  of  the  shell  house-piers  and  -benches,  and  those 
of  structural  finds  and  of  the  inlet- and  outlet-canals,  are  significantly 
indicated  by  the  dotted  enclosures,  legends,  and  graphic  figures. 


I89C.]  4^d  [Gushing. 

Platp:  XXXII. 

Only  a  few  typical  examples  of  more  than  two  hundred  fairly  well 
preserved  tools  and  weapons  recovered  by  us  from  the  court  of  the  Pile 
Dwellers,  could  here  be  figured. 

Fig.  1.  Kepresents  a  hafted  busycon-,  or  couch-shell  gouge  or  adze — 
such  as  described  on  p.  368.  The  length  of  the  handle,  which  was  of 
buttonwood,  was  fifteen  inches  ;  of  the  shell  head  or  armature,  seven 
inches.  This  particular  specimen  was  found  by  Gause,  close  to  the 
edge  of  the  shell  bench, — in  section  21  (Plate  XXXI). 

Fig.  2.  Represents  the  handle  of  a  carving-adze  of  hard,  dark  wood, 
like  madeira  in  appearance.  It  and  others  of  its  kind  are  described  on 
p.  369  of  the  text.  The  length  of  its  handle,  from  end  to  crook,  was 
twelve  inches  ;  of  the  head,  from  the  crook  down  to  the  insertion  of  the 
socketed  blade-receptacle  of  deer  horn,  five  and  a  fraction  inches  ;  and  of 
this  ingenious  bit-holder,  three  inches.  It  was  found  with  eight  other 
similarly  crooked  and  socketed  adze-handles — all  contained  in  a  cere- 
monial pack, — in  section  40  (Plate  XXXI). 

Fig.  3.  Represents  a  superb,  single-hole  atlatl,  described  with  others, 
on  pp.  371  and  372.  It  is,  by  an  oversight,  figured  upside  doAvn  in  this  il- 
lustration— the  tail  of  the  rabbit-carving  at  the  end,  having  been  skilfully 
adapted  to  form  the  propelling  spur  of  this  remarkable  throwing-appa- 
ratus.  Its  length  was  nineteen  inches,  and  it  was  made  from  fine, 
springy  hard  wood — like  rose  wood  in  appearance — probably  the  heart 
portion  of  the  so-called  iron-wood  of  the  region.  It  was  found,  associ- 
ated with  the  plugged  and  hollowed  or  "footed  "  shaftment  of  an  elabo- 
rate cane  throwing-spear, — in  section  62  (Plate  XXXI). 

Fig.  4.  Represents  a  double-holed  atlatl  or  spear- thrower.  It  is  de- 
scribed, with  the  preceding  specimen,  on  pp.  371,  372  of  the  text,  and 
like  it,  consisted  of  dark,  red-brown,  flexible  wood.  It  was  sixteen 
inches  in  length,  and  was  found, — in  section  29  (Plate  XXXI). 

Fig.  5.  Represents  roughly,  one  of  the  singular  and  highly  finished 
hard-wood  sabre-clubs  armed  with  shark  teeth,  which  are  described  on 
pp.  372,  373  of  the  text.  They  were  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  in 
length,  and  probably,  like  the  war-clubs  of  the  Zuiii  Indians,  corre- 
sponded to  the  length  of  arm,  or  of  thigh  from  hip  to  knee,  of  those  who 
made  and  used  them.  The  specimen  here  figured  was  found  by  Mr. 
Bergmann, — in  section  11  (Plate  XXXI). 

Fig.  6.  Represents  a  toy  canoe,  of  cypress  wood,  nineteen  and  three- 
quarter  inches  in  length.  As  described  on  p.  365  of  the  text,  it  was 
found  with  another  of  like  proportions — to  which  it  had  been  attached, 
probably  in  imitation  of  sea-going  catamaran-canoes  of  the  ancient  key 
dwellers,  by  means  of  cross-stays, —  by  Gause  and  Clark, — in  section  26 
(Plate  XXXI). 

Fig.  7.  Represents  a  little  flat-bottomed  toy  canoe,  (such  as  described 
on  p.  364)  of  the  kind  supposed  to  have  been  used  in  canals,  bayous,  and 
other  shoal  waters.    It  was  found  by  myself, — in  section  7  (Plate  XXXI). 

Fig.  8.  Represents  a  paddle  of  hard  wood,  the  end  of  handle  burned  off 
as  described  on  pp.  361,  366.  It  was  found  by  Gause,  sticking  slantingly 
up  through  the  muck,  in  the  mouth  of  the  inlet-canal, — in  section 
48  (Plate  XXXI). 


Cushing.l  *— '^  'Not.  6. 


Plate  XXXIII. 

Of  the  many  animal  figureheads,  and  actually,  as  well  as  decoratively, 
associated  human  masks  discovered  in  the  Court  of  the  Pile  Dwellers, 
those  of  the  wolf  and  wolf-man,  and  of  the  pelican  and  pelican-man 
only,  Avere  chosen  for  illustration  here,  not  because  they  were  the  most 
striking  or  perfect  examples  of  the  kind  recovered,  but  because  they 
illustrate  more  completely  than  others,  the  singular  relations  and  mean- 
ings of  these  peculiar  objects  of  art — as  I  have  endeavored  to  explain  them 
in  the  text,  on  pp.  388  to  394,  inclusive. 

Fig.  1.  Represents  very  perfectly,  the  wolf  figurehead,  as  it  appears 
w^hen  the  parts  are  put  together  as  the  relations  of  the  perforations  and 
cord  fragments  therein  indicate  they  were  originally  joined.  When  this 
figvirehead  was  found, — by  Gause  and  myself,  in  section  30,  Plate  XXXI 
— the  ear-pieces  were  back  to  back,  and  were  thrust  through  the  hollow 
head-piece  and  open  mouth  ;  and  the  conventional,  scroll-like  shoulder 
and  leg-pieces,  were  laid  together  in  like  manner,  and  were  neatly  bound, 
with  strips  of  palmetto,  or  flag-leaf — still  green  in  color — to  the  side  of  the 
head.  This  head-piece  was  six  and  one-half  inches  in  length  ;  the  spread 
of  the  jaws,  five  and  seven-eighth  inches;  the  ear-pieces,  six  inches  in 
length,  and  the  leg  and  shoulder-pieces,  four  and  six-eighths  inches  long. 
Happih^  Mr.  Sawyer  was  able  to  make  an  excellent  water-color  sketch  of 
the  specimen  before  it  was  disturbed,  and  another  after  it  was  put  to- 
gether and  was  still  bright  with  the  moisture  of  its  centuries  of  im- 
mersion and  preservation. 

Fig.  3.  Represents  the  human  featured  mask  associated  with  this  wolf 
figure-head.  It  is  less  perfectly  shown  in  the  sketch,  since  the  details  of 
its  paint  decoration  do  not,  in  mere  black  and  white,  show  as  plainlj^  as 
could  be  desired,  and  hence  the  really  unmistakable  correspondence  be- 
tween these  color-designs  (in  black,  brown,  gray-blue  and  white), 
and  the  general  aspect  and  face-markings  of  the  animal-head,  is  not  so 
pronounced  as  in  the  original.  But  the  black  ear-marks  over  the  eyes,  the 
black,  indented  stripe  under  and  around  the  nostrils,  the  scroll  like  out- 
lines of  the  shoulder-pieces  (in  white  lines  over  all  the  other  markings 
in  the  middle  of  the  face),  and  the  zigzag  lines  representative  of  the 
gnashing  teeth  or  tusked  jaws  of  the  wolf  (across  the  cheeks  toward  the 
mouth  of  the  mask),  will  at  once,  however,  be  recognized. 

This  mask  was  nine  inches  in  length,  by  six  inches  in  width,  and  was 
found  in  the  same  section,  (30),  not  only  with  the  wolf  figurehead,  but 
also  near  other  masks  and  figureheads. 

Fig.  3.  Represents,  on  a-greatly  reduced  scale,  the  pelican  figurehead, — 
found  by  Gause  and  Hudson,  in  section  40.     This  extraordinarily  grace- 


1896.]  4J0  [Gushing. 

ful,  and  realistically  painted  carving,  was  four  and  one-half  inches  high, 
by  three  inches  in  width  of  shoulders  ;  it  was  much  under  natural  size  of 
the  bird  it  represented,  but  it  was  surprisingly  life-like,  what  though  so 
beautifully  and  conventionally  idealized  as  a  figure  of  the  head  and  front 
of  the  pelican.  Near  it  were  thin  slats,  admirably  cut  and  painted  to 
represent  the  wings  of  the  bird  ;  and  they  were  pierced,  as  were  the  incut 
shoulders  of  the  figurehead  itself,  for  attachment  thereto.  The  mask  (fig. 
4)  found  near  this  figurehead  and  the  other  painted  carvings  mentioned, 
was  nine  and  one-eighth  inches  high,  and  five  and  one-quarter  inches 
broad.  It  was  vinquestionably  designed  to  represent  the  human,  or  man- 
god  counterpart  of  this  bird  ;  for  not  only, was  the  chin  protruded  and 
the  under  lip  pouted  to  symbolize  the  pouch  of  the  pelican,  but  also,  the 
rear  and  tail  of  the  body  (painted  in  white  on  the  chm),  the  trailing  legs 
(in  gray-blue  and 'white  lines,  descending  from  the  nostrils  around  the 
corners  of  the  mouth),  the  wings  and  shoulders,  (in  dappled  white  over 
the  cheeks),  and  the  huge  bald  head  (in  white  on  the  forehead  of  the 
mask),  were  all  most  distinctly  suggested.  Moreover,  on  the  upper 
edge  of  the  mask  (at  the  terminal  point  of  the  bird  head  painted  on  the 
forehead),  were  perforations,  indicating  that  either  an  actual  beak,  or 
an  appendage  representative  thereof,  had  been  attached.  With  this  in 
mind,  if  the  mask  be  reversed  and  a  comparison  of  the  design  on  it  be 
made  with  the  figurehead,  or  with  the  imagined  form  of  a  flying  peli- 
can seen  from  above,  the  almost  ludicrous  resemblance  of  the  design  to 
its  supposed  original  will  readily  enough  be  seen. 


Cushing.J  ^^jD  ry^ov.  6, 


Plate  XXXIV. 

Fig.  1,  in  Plate  XXXIV,  represents  a  tablet  of  rivean  cypress  wood, 
sliaved  with  shark-tooth  blades  to  a  uniform  thickness  of  less  than  half 
an  inch, — the  characteristic  marks  of  this  work  being  visible  all  over  the 
iinpainted  portions  of  both  sides  of  the  board.  It  was  found  by  myself, 
standing  slantingly  upright — in  section  21  (Plate  XXXI),  the  painted 
side  fortunately  protected  by  its  obliciue  position.  It  was  marvelously 
fresh  when  first  uncovered, — the  wood,  of  a  bright  yellowish-brown 
color,  and  the  painting  vivid  and  clear.  It  is  sixteen  and  a  half  inches 
in  length  by  eight  and  a  half  inches  in  width,  and  was  slightly  concavo- 
convex  from  side  to  side.  Upon  the  hollow  side  is  painted  the  figure  of 
a  crested  bird,  with  four  circlets  falling  from  his  mouth.  A  black  bar, 
and  over  it  the  outlines,  in  white,  of  an  animal,  is  represented  as  under 
the  talons  ;  and  a  long,  double-pointed  object, — probably  a  double- 
bladed  paddle, — as  borne  aloft  under  the  right  wing  of  the  figure. 

The  drawing  here  shown  was  made  from  a  very  obscure  photo- 
graphic print,  and  does  not,  therefore,  adequately  show  some  of  the 
minutest,  yet  most  significant  details  visible  in  either  the  original  or  in 
the  fine  full  sized  painting  made  by  Mr.  Sawyer  when  the  specimen  was 
freshly  taken  up  from  the  muck.  In  the  first  place,  the  bands  and  spacer 
of  white  on  the  figure,  enclosed  very  significant  zones  of  clear  light  blue, 
— on  the  crest,  neck,  body  and  wings.  They  do  not  show  here,  but 
they  made  it  possible  to  identify  this  primitive  bird  painting  as 
that  of  the  jay,  or  else  of  the  king  fisher,  or  more  probably  still, 
of  a  crested  mythic  bird  or  bird-god   combining  attributes   of  both.* 

*,In  reference  to  certain  scarred  or  crest-marked  skulls  found  by  us  in  the  burial  mound 
at  Tarpon  Springs,  I  wrote  the  Chief  Ethnologist  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology, 
Prof.  W  J  McGee,  as  follows : 

" ,  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  certain  classes  of  men  among  the  Southern 

tribes, — notably  those  of  the  Maskokian  confederacy,  the  Creeks  especially,— wore  the 
hair  in  erect  crests,  cropped  and  narrow  in  front,  broadening  rearwardly  to  the  back  of 
the  head,  where  it  was  allowed  to  grow  to  the  normal  length,  and  whence  it  depended 
in  each  case,  either  naturally  like  a  tail,  or  bound  about  with  fur  or  stuffs,  to  form  the  so- 
called  scalp-lock.  The  researches  of  Gatschet  make  it  evident  that  this  was  the  special 
hair-dress  of  the  Warrior-class  (see  portrait  of  Tomochichi,  a  Yamasee  war-chief,  in  Url- 
sperger,  vol.  i).  He  finds  that  in  the  Creek  language,  Tas-sa  (HiehitiTds-si),  signifies  alike 
'  jay  or  king-fisher '  ( '  crested  bird ' )  and  '  hair-crest ;'  while  Ttis-si  ka-ya  signifies  'Warrior ; 
(lit.,  'crest  standing  up'— that  is,  'he  of  the  erectile  crest').  From  other  sources  it 
appears  that  as  the  jay  was  regarded  as  more  powerful  in  resisting  even  birds  of  prey 
than  were  any  otlier  birds  of  his  kind, —as  was  also  the  king-fisher,  so  nearly  resembling 
him,  more  powerful  than  other  birds  of  his  kind, — because  of  their  shrill  and  startling 
cries  and  their  habits  of  erecting  their  hair-like  crests  when  alarmed  in  defending,  or 
■wrathful  in  offending  their  kind.    Wherefore,  the  crest  of  the  jay  and  of  the  male  king- 


1896.]  4-1 4  [Gushing. 

In  the  second  place,  all  of  the  main  outlines  of  this  primitive  painting, 
— the  crest,  neck,  breast,  shoulder,  and  oblique  end  of  the  tail,  were 
delicately  spaced,  so  as  to  produce  the  eflfect  of  double  outlining  and 
so  as  to  enhance  botli  the  beauty  and  the  perspective  of  the  figure.  The 
centres  of  the  circlets  falling  from  the  open  beak  were  filled  with- 
pigment — originally  blue,  white,  and  probably  red, — and  a  tongue-like 
line  of  white  extended  from  the  moutli  to  the  circlets  and  was  oppositely 
continued  in  black,  into  the  throat  of  the  figure — enabling  me  to  identify 
it  as  the  heart-line,  and  these  circlets  as  "living,"  or  "sounding" 
breaths  or  Avords — symbolizing  the  "commands  of  the  four  quarters." 
The  animal  represented  under  the  talons  of  the  bird  figure,  had  a  long 
and  faintly  ringed  tail,  which  extended  nearly  to  the  lower  paddle- 
blade,  and  enabled  me  to  identify  it,  in  turn,  as  a  picture  of  the 
raccoon — all  as  more  fully  described  on  pp.  384  and  385  of  tlie  text. 

Fig.  2  represents  one  of  those  mysterious  objects  described  on  pp. 
382  to  385  inclusive,  as  "altar-",  or  "ancestral-tablets."  It  was  painted 
on  botli  sides, — in  black  and  white  on  the  side  here  shown,  and  with 
four  round  marks  of  white  enclosed  and  dotted  in  black,  centrally  and 
equidistantly  disposed  along  the  other  side.  It  was  made  of  light  wood, 
— pine  or  cypress, — was  two  feet  three  and  a  half  inches  high,  ten  inches 
,wide,  flat,  and  an  incli  thick  below  the  shoulders,  and  nearly  three  inches 
thick  in  the  middle  of  convex  shovel-shaped  head  or  nose.  It  seems  to- 
be  the  highly  conventionalized  representation,  as  does  the  little  amulet 
of  coral  lime-stone  below  (Fig.  3,  which  is  barely  two  inches  long,  by 
one  and  a  quarter  inches  wide),  of  some  kind  of  monster  of  the  deep — 
like  the  alligator,  or  cayman  or  American  crocodile. 

Fig.  4  represents  the  painted  valve  of  a  pair  of  sun-shells  described  on 
pp.  886  and  387  ;  and  compared  as  to  details  on  pp.  393,  394  and  402,  as 
well  as  in  Plate  XXXV,  with  corresponding  mound  builder  delineations. 
They  were  found  tightly  closed  together,  and  near  some  symbolic  head- 
slats,  on  which  a  bird-god  (like  tlie  one  just  described)  had  been  painted,. 
— in  section  30  (Plate  XXXI),  by  Messrs.  Gause  and  Bergmann. 

Fig.  6  represents  a  beautifi;l  little  pestle  and  bowl  of  mastich-wood 
found  together  as  here  shown,  although  tilted  over — in  section  40 — by 
Alfred  Hudson.  The  pestle  was  six  and  a  half  inches  high  ;  the  bowl, 
three  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter.  Both  were  handsomely  polished 
and  were  reticularly  decorated  with  incised  lines,  so  delicate  as  to  al- 
most escape  detection. 

fisher,— who  were  probably  bird-gods  of  war,— came  to  be  imitated  (reproduced,  so  far  as 
possible)  in  the  head-dress  (or  aspect)  of  the  Warrior— the  Wrathful  Defender  of  his  Peo- 
ple and  their  Homes." 

I  quote  this  passage,  which  was  later  substantially  published  in  the  ^Iwimcan  Anthro- 
pologist (vol.  X,  pp.  17  and  18),  because  I  think  it  throws  light  on  the  meaning  of  the 
tablet  here  described  and  figured,  not  only  as  being  really  a  painting  of  the  Bird-God  of 
War  of  the  ancient  key  dwellers,  but  also,  because  of  its  apparent  bearing  on  probable 
historic  or  derivative  connections  of  the  Southern  Indians  with  a  key  dweller  people  or 
ancestry. 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  3  B.      PRINTED  AUG.   10,   1897. 


C'ushing.J  4-;0  [Nov.  6, 

Fig.  G  represents  a  little  jewel-box  lid  or  bottom,  of  hard,  dark  brown 
wood,  eight  inches  in  length,  by  four  in  width.  The  ends  were  rabbetted 
and  drilled  for  attachment  (with  sinew  and  black  gum,  traces  of  which 
remained),  to  the  ends  of  the  box,  and  the  ends  themselves  were  in  jux- 
taposition. Each  end  was  four  inches  long  and  of  corresponding  width, 
and  painted  lengthwise  on  the  outside,  with  double  mythic  tie-cords  and 
shell-clasp  figures.  The  bottom  and  the  other  parts  were  missing,  save 
for  fragments.  With  these  fragments,  however,  were  some  of  the 
most  superb  ear  jewels  and  plugs,  shell  beads  and  pearls,  among  all 
our  findings.  Curiously  enough,  the  remarkable  outline  of  a  horned 
crocodile,  painted  on  this  little  lid  as  here  shown,  occured  on  the  inside, 
and  this  plainly  indicates  the  sacred  nature  of  the  box  and  its  contents. 
It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  horned  crocodile  (or  alligator)  was  seen 
by  William  Bartram,  painted  on  the  facades  of  the  great  sacred  houses 
of  the  Creek  Indians,  when  he  visited  their  chief  towns  more  than  a 
hundred  years  ago. 

This  specimen  was  found  by  Hudson  and  myself,  with  the  ceremonial 
pack  and  painted  shell  descilbed  on  pp.  385,  386, — in  section  40  (Plate 
XXXI). 

Fig.  7  represents  a  stool— described,  with  others  of  its  kind,  on  p. 
363.  It  is  seventeen  inches  in  length,  between  six  and  seven  inches  in 
width,  and  at  one  end,  five,  at  the  other  end,  six  inches  high.  It  was 
blocked  out  with  shell  adzes — as  shown  by  traces  of  hacking  still  visible 
on  its  under  side,  then  finished  with  shark  tooth  knives, — from  a  piece 
of  hard,  yellowish  wood,  probably  buttonwood.  It  was  found  by 
Clark, — in  section  31. 

I  would  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  it  is  sloped,  or  higher  at  one 
end  than  at  the  other.  This  indicates  that  it  was  designed  for  use  ((stride, 
so  to  say,  as  is  also  indicated  in  other,  even  unsloped  specimens,  bj' 
the  slant  of  the  pegs  or  feet,  which  adapted  some  of  these  stools  for  use  in 
canoes,  lengthwise,  but  not  crosswise.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Antil- 
leans,  whose  stools,  while  far  more  elaborate  than  those  we  found,  were 
not  unlike  them  in  style,  had  a  fashion  of  sitting  astride  or  lengthwise 
of  them.  While  this  may,  with  many  other  points,  signify  connection, 
it  far  more  certainly  signifies  that  this  curious  way  of  sitting  was 
established  by  the  use  of  long  stools  in  narrow  canoes,  and  possibly 
also,  by  use  of  the  sitting-hammock. 


429 


fCushing 


Plate  XXXV. 

The  first  figure  here  given,  represents  the  statuette  of  a  panther  or 
mountain  lion-god.  It  is  six  inclies  in  height  by  two  and  a  half  inches 
in  length  of  base,  from  heel  to  knee-bend.  It  is  carved  from  an  exceed- 
ingly hard  knot,  or  gnarled  block  of  fine,  dark-brown  wood,  and  had 
either  been  saturated  with  some  kind  of  varnish,  or  more  probably  had 
been  frequently  anointed  with  the  fat  of  slain  animals  or  victims. 
To  this,  doubtless,  its  remarkable  preservation  is  due  ;  for  it  is  still  rela- 
tively heavier,  harder,  and  less  shrunken  by  drying,  than  any  other 
specimen  of  like  material  in  the  collection. 

This  extraordinary  object  of  art  is  generally  described  on  p.  387,  and  is 
referred  to  elsewhere  in  the  text ;  but  I  would  again  call  attention  to 
the  fact  that  while  the  head  and  body  are  not  only  delicately  fashioned 
and  finished,  even  to  the  extent  of  polishing,  the  legs  and  the  ends  of  the 
paws,  although  smoothed  outside,  are  simply  shaped,  and, — as  though 
purposely — left  unfinished  ;  and  the  spaces  below  the  tail — which  is  con- 
ventionally laid  along  the  back  after  the  manner  of  Z,uni  carvings  of 
the  same  sort  of  animal-god — and  the  spaces  between  the  legs,  still  show 
the  characteristic  marks  of  the  fine-edged  shark-tooth-blade  with  which 
the  figure  was  carved. 

I  found  this  gem  of  our  art  collections — on  a  happy  day — at  a  depth  of  ■ 
not  more  than  twenty  inches,  just  between  the  overlying  muck  and  the 
middle  stratum  of  peat-marl,  near  tlie  edge  of  the  shell-bench — in  section 
15.  Not  far  away  were  found,  a  large  stool,  a  decayed  mask,  portions 
of  a  short  wooden  stave,  and  of  symbolic  ear-buttons  ;  a  sheaf  of  about 
tw^o  dozen  throwing  arrows,  and  other  remains  of  w^arrior- and  hunter- 
paraphernalia  and  accoutrements.  This  afibrds  convincing  evidence 
that  the  statuette  was  a  fetish  or  god  of  war  or  the  hunt,  like  its  clum- 
sier stone  analogues  in  Zuni  land. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  finest  and  most  perfectly  preserved  example  of 
combined  carving  and  painting,  that  we  found — unless  the  figurehead 
of  a  great  sea  turtle  and  its  companion  masks,  referred  to  on  p.  89,  be 
exempted.  In  form,  or  mere  contour,  it  portrayed  with  startling  fidelity 
and  delicacy,  the  head  of  a  young  deer  or  doe,  a  little  under  life-size  ; 
that  is,  in  length,  from  back  of  head  to  muzzle,  seven  and  a  half  inches; 
in  breadth  across  the  forehead,  five  and  a  half  inches.  The  view,  as 
stated  in  the  text,  on  p.  392,  where  the  significance  of  this  figurehead  is 
discussed  at  large, — was  an  unfortunate  choice  for  illustration,  since  it 
is  in  full  front,  instead  of  in  profile  or  a  three-quarter  aspect.  Certain 
points  not  noted  in  the  text  should  be  referred  to  here.  Not  only  were 
the  ears,  the  bases  of  which  were  hollow,  or  tubular— and  as  already 


Gushing.]  ^^^  [Nov.  6. 

Stated  transfixed  with  pegs  to  facilitate  attachment  by  means  of  cords 
passed  through  bifurcate  lioles  at  tlie  back  edge  of  the  headpiece, — but 
they  were  also  relatively  large,  and  were  fluted,  and  their  tips  were 
curved  as  in  nature,  only  more  regularly  ;  and  they  were  painted  inside 
with  a  creamy  pink-white  pigment  to  represent  their  translucency  ;  and 
the  black  hair-tufts  at  the  back  were  neatly  represented  by  short,  dou- 
ble black  streaks  of  paint,  laid  on  lengthwise  and  close  together.  On  the 
crown  of  the  head  were  two  slight,  flat  protuberances,  with  central  peg- 
holes,  for  the  attachment  of  small  antlers,  probably  imitative,  for  thej' 
had  disappeared,  as  actual  horns  would  not  have  done. 

The  slime  of  the  tortoise-shell  eyes  still  remained  in  place,  and  the 
combined  bees-wax  and  rubber-gum  cement  with  which  they  had  been 
secured  was  still  intact  when  the  specimen  was  found.  The  whites 
of  the  eyes  had  consisted  of  some  very  bright  gum-like  substance,  and 
the  front  corners  or  creases  of  the  eyes  had  been  filled  with  black 
gum  and  varnish,  highly  polished,  so  that,  save  for  the  four  conven- 
tional sets  of  equidistantly  radiating  winker-marks,  they  gave  a  sur- 
prisingly life-like,  realistic  and  timid  or  appealing,  yet  winsome  ex- 
pression, to  the  whole  face.  The  muzzle,  nostrils,  and  especially  the 
exquisitely  modeled  and  painted  chin  and  lower  jaAv,  were  so  delicately 
idealized  that  it  was  evident  the  primitive  artist  who  fashioned  this 
masterpiece,  loved,  Avith  both  ardor  and  reverence,  the  animal  he  was 
portraying. 

The  face-markings  were  perfectly  symmetrical.  Those  in  wliite  are 
sufficiently  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  cheeks  or  jowls  were  gray-blue, 
merging  upwardly  into  black,  and  the  two  central  and  lateral  bands  over 
the  forehead  were  divided  by  a  deep  black  band,  and  were  themselves  of 
a  deeper  blue.  The  face,  below  the  forehead-crescent,  and  between  and 
to  either  side  of  the  white  nose-marks,  was  painted  a  dull  black  ;  while 
tlie  nozzle  was  covered  with  an  intensely  black  and  gleaming  varnish, 
and  the  nostrils,  which  were  outlined  in  black,  were  deeply  cut  in  and 
partially  filled  with  a  thick  dead  black  substance,  to  make  them  appear 
still  deeper. 

I  need  only  add  that  all  the  face-marks  were  not  only  delicately  out- 
lined with  black,  but  were  edged  with  fine,  regular  hair-marks  ;  and  that 
like  marks,  as  well  as  minute  stipplings,  covered  all  the  blue,  and  lighter 
black  areas  of  the  face  and  sides,  while  along,  and  to  the  rear,  of  the 
upper  lip,  the  hair-warts  were  represented  by  neat,  oval  and  regularly 
disposed,  thick  or  protuberant  dots  of  black  gum  or  varnish. 

Although  so  much  of  the  line-painting  on  this  figure  was  as  fine  as 
though  made  with  a  camers-hair  brush,  it  was  evident,  as  on  other 
painted  specimens,  that  points  and  spatulaj  of  some  kind — probably  of 
■wood — as  well  as  brushes  of  human  hair,  had  been  employed  in  much  of 
the  work;  for  the  paint  was  mixed  thickly  with  gum-sizing, — such  as  we 
found  many  lumps  of,  in  several  shells  filled  with  both  the  black  kind, 
and  with  the  less  permanent  white  and  blue  kinds  of  pigment., 

Fortunately,  we   secured   an  excellent   photograph  of  this  splendid 


1896,]  431  [Cushing. 

specimen,  in  situ  ;  and  fortunately,  also,  it  was  immediately  yielded  to 
Mrs.  Cushing's  care.  For  she  placed  it,  with  a  few  other  choice  speci- 
mens, in  a  protected  corner  of  our  cabin,  turning  it  and  them,  carefully, 
tlaily,  so  that  they  dried  so  evenly  and  slowly  that  they  neither  warped 
nor  checked — only  grew  smaller  in  the  process. 

Fig.  3, — a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  and  f.  The  illustration  here  oflfersd  has  been  so 
fully  referred  to  in  various  portions  of  the  text,  especially  on  pp.  393, 
394  and  402,  that  little  need  be  added. 

While  the  central  figure  represents  the  art  of  the  Georgia  mound 
builders,  the  marginal  figures  (of  warclub,  a — described  on  p.  373)  ;  of 
plait-bound  wrist-band  and  leg-band  (b,  c, — both  painted  in  ventral 
valve  of  a  sun-shell,  described  on  pp.  386,  387  and  illustrated  in  Fig.  4, 
Plate  XXXIV)  ;  of  large,  inlaid,  eye-like  ear-button  (d, — described  on 
pp.  374,  375)  ;  and  of  mask  and  ear-plug  (/, — respectively  described 
on  p.  375  and  pp.  388  et  seq.),  are  taken  from  objects  and  art  specimens 
found  by  us  in  the  Court  of  the  Pile  Dwellers,  at  Key  Marco.  The  corre- 
spondence between  them  and  the  details  and  paraphernalia  of  the 
Georgia  figure,  is  sufficiently  apparent  at  a  glance. 

It  is  desirable,  however,  to  indicate  several  other  points  of  correspon- 
dence which  might  have  been  as  clearly  shown,  given  more  ample  scope 
of  illustration.  In  fact,  our  finds  in  the  keys, — carefully  observed  in 
their  relations  to  one  another, — actually  furnish  a  nearly  complete  com- 
mentary or  explanation,  of  almost  everything  portrayed  in  connection 
with  this  remarkable  delineation  of  the  ancient  mound  builders  so 
skilfully  rendered  and  accurately  reproduced  in  Prof.  Holme's  drawing 
here  given. 

To  begin  with,  the  war-club  we  found  was  practical — a  war-club  for 
use  ;  while  the  baton-like  war-club  held  in  the  hand  of  the  figure  was 
ceremonial  and  decorative.  Nevertheless,  our  specimen,  like  the  one  in 
the  figure,  was  furnished  with  a  knob  at  the  end,  grooved  for  the  attach- 
ment ot  a  tassel,  precisely  like  the  other  one,  conventionally  shown  in 
this  figure  ;  that  is,  the  cord  of  attachment  had  been  furnished,  not  with 
two,  but  with  one,  slidiug-bead  (similar  beads  of  both  shell  and  deer- 
horn  were  frequently  found  by  us).  The  node  below  these  beads  had 
been  formed  by  enwrapping  a  little  conical  plug  of  wood  lengthwise 
and  then  around — in  a  manner  quite  familiar  to  our  grandmothers,  and 
shown  clearly  in  the  figure  before  us — and  the  fringe  of  the  tassel  had 
been  made  of  combined  yellow,  and  green,  very  finely  twisted,  sea  island 
cotton  cordage. 

I  liave  already  commented  upon  the  beads  of  the  necklace  worn  in 
this  figure.  The  pendant  hanging  therefrom,  represents  a  typical  form 
found  in  all  the  more  northerly  of  the  Florida  Keys.  It  is  made  from  the 
columnella  and  a  portion  of  the  spire  of  the  busycon-conch-shell  so  com- 
mon there.  These  large-headed,  pin-like  pendants,  were  not  only  used 
as  such,  on  necklaces,  but  were  also  favorite  ear-spikes  and  -pendants 
combined.     When  worn  as   ear-spikes,  they  were  thrust  through   the 


Gushing.]  4d-)  [Nov.  G, 

ears  so  that  the  polished  conical  plate  formed  from  tlie  spire  of  the  shell, 
showed  like  a  convex  disc,  in  front. 

The  central  portion  of  such  a  head-frontlet  as  is  shown  turned  side- 
wise  over  the  forehead  of  this  tigure,  was  found  by  me  between  sections 
20  and  29,  near  the  fine  figurehead  of  an  osprey  or  fish  liawk.  It  con- 
sisted, not  of  four,  but  of  six,  slender  yellow  wooden  slats,  shaved  as 
thin  as  cardboard,  and  lying  side  by  side, — in  which  position  relative 
to  one  another,  they  had  been  secured  by  fine  threads,  alternately 
woven  over  and  under  the  slats,  precisely  as  seems  to  be  indicated  in 
this  primitive  delineation.  The  slats  that  I  found,  however,  had  been 
figured  over  with  black  paint  (and  probably  other  colors),  but  the  de- 
sign could  no  longer  be  made  out. 

One  other  feature  in  this  figure  deserves  interpretation  in  the  light  of 
our  finds — the  representations  of  hair  on  various  parts  of  it.  On  such 
of  our  specimens  as  exhibited  hair  painting,  the  mode  of  representation 
was  precisely  such  as  that  exhibited  around,  (1)  the  pointed  flap  at  the 
hip  of  the  figure  ;  (2)  on  the  cross-marked,  semicircular  band  at  the  back 
of  the  head,  as  well  as,  (3)  in  the  centre  of  the  object  that  stands 
slantingly  up  therefrom  ;  and  finally,  (4)  on  the  tail-like  tassel  stiffly  de- 
pending from  the  back  of  the  head,  as  well  as  (5)  over  the  crest  of  the 
hand-mask  held  below.  All  this  makes  it  clear  that  (1)  the  flap  in  ques- 
tion, was  that  of  a  beaded  and  otherwise  decorated  girdle-pouch  of  fur  ; 
that  the  semicircular  band  (2)  was  a  hair-crest,  while  the  object  (3) 
slanting  up  from  it,  was  an  elaborate  hair-knot,  attached  to  either  side  of 
which  was  a  thin  semicircular  plate, — in  this  case,  probablj*,  of  mica  :  for 
among  the  keys,  silmilar,  curious  plates,  were  made  either  of  gleaming 
pinna  shell,  or  of  rubbed  down,  and  highly  polished  pecten  shells ; 
while  in  ancient  Shawnee  mounds,  identical  forms  have  been  found, 
made,  however,  from  the  palmate  portions  of  elk  horns,  and  furnished 
with  teeth  or  narrow  combs,  unmistakably  to  facilitate  insertion  into  the 
hair.  Finally  (4)  the  dark  tassel  is  simply  a  plaited  scalp-lock  or  queue, 
the  end  cut  oft'  squarely,  and  the  hair  standing  out,  therefore,  like  the 
bristles  of  a  much  spread  brush. 

Yet  other  details  in  this  and  kindred  figures  of  mound  builder  art,  could 
be  explained  equally  well  by  comparisons  with  our  finds  as  observed  in 
situ,  but  enough  has  been  said,  I  trust,  to  render  quite  conclusive  the 
close  and  actual  relation,  if  not  the  identity,  of  our  key-dweller  art,  with 
typical  examples  like  this,  of  mound  builder  art — such  relation  as  I  have 
not  hesitated  to  suggest  in  the  text. 


Discussion". 
Dr.  Brintox  : 

Mr.  President  .-—After  the  brilliant  demonstration  of  discoveries  in 
an  entirely  new  field  of  American  archeology,  to  which  we  have  been 
privileged  to  listen  this  evening,  all  that  I  could  add  is  a  discussion  as 
to  the  probabilities  of  the  builders  of  those  remarkable  remains  being 
known  or  unknown  to  us.  I  shall  review,  briefly,  the  history,  so  far 
as  we  know  it,  and  the  ethnography,  so  far  as  we  know  it,  of  the  locali- 
ties in  which  these  were  found. 

Columbus,  in  his  first  three  voyages,  did  not  hear  of  the  Northern 
continent.  He  struck  the  Bahamas  ;  he  was  in  Cuba  ;  he  heard  of  the 
Southern  continent ;  he  heard  of  Yucatan  ;  but  he  did  not  hear,  appa- 
rently, of  Florida.  His  last  voyages  were  made  from  what  he  had 
learned  from  the  Indians  of  Cuba  as  to  where  the  mainland  was  situ- 
ated. He  went  toward  the  south,  as  you  know,  and  toward  the  west. 
He  did  not  go  toward  the  north.  So  far  as  we  know  the  first  informa- 
tion which  was  derived  by  the  Spanish  settlers  of  Cuba  and  the  Antilles 
— their  first  information  of  the  Northern  continent — came  somewhat 
later.  It  was  probably  twenty  years  afterward  that  they  first  made 
their  expedition  to  discover  what  is  now  known  as  Florida. 

The  earliest  exploration,  which  was  that  made  by  Ponce  de  Leon,, 
he  was  distinctly  led  to  make,  according  to  the  information  we  derive 
from  his  contemporaries,  by  reports  of  the  Indians  of  Cuba.  He  went 
very  nearly  to  this  spot  which  has  been  shown  on  the  map  this  evening 
and  journeyed  northward.  What  led  him,  according  to  the  statements, 
was  not  only  the  thirst  for  gold  but  a  nol)ler  idea,  the  discovery  of  the 
fountain,  the  river,  of  perpetual  life.  It  is  a  common  belief,  among 
the  North  American  and  South  American  Indians,  that  somewhere  or 
other  there  is  that  fountain  or  stream.  It  can  be  explained  by  their 
general  theory  of  mythology.  No  doubt  it  was  shared  by  the  Indians 
of  Cuba  ;  no  doubt  he  heard  of  that,  and  it  led  him,  therefore,  in  part,, 
to  make  his  expedition.  He  carried  it  out  with  unfortunate  results,  so 
we  have  never  been  able  to  profit  by  the  discovery  in  the  sense  in  which 
he  intended  it.  That  was  about  1512  to  1520 — two  expeditions  which 
were  sent  out  by  him  or  under  his  charge.  "We  have  no  very  full- 
reports  of  them,  although  we  have  some  accounts. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  abundant  information  of  the  expedition 
which  was  headed  by  Hernando  de  Soto,  who  reached  the  Florida  shore 
in  1540.  He  landed  also  on  the  west  coast  of  Florida,  and  probably  in 
Tampa  Bay  ;  most  likely  near  the  present  town  of  Tampa.  "We  learn 
from  the  accounts  of  that  expedition  that  he  discovered  there  tribes  who 
were  accustomed  to  build  just  such  mounds  as  have  been  described  to 
you  this  evening.  Those  mounds  are  still  in  existence,  and,  so  far  as 
we  can  locate  the  mound-builders,  they  were  precisely  where  he 
pointed  them  out.     The  historians  of  his  expedition  say,    "The  natives 


Briuton.]  4o4:  [Xov.  6, 

l)uilded  their  houses  on  mounds  made  with  hand  for  strength,"  as  mili- 
tary positions,  and  in  order  to  raise  them  above  the  waters  which  some- 
times invaded  them.  We  have,  therefore,  a  distinct  statement,  which 
'Cannot  be  controverted,  that  at  that  time  tliose  people  were  accustomed 
to  build  just  such  structures  as  those  which  have  been  mentioned  to 
you  to-night. 

From  that  time  on  the  sources  of  our  information  are  rather  abundant. 
There  was  a  Spaniard  (one  of  many  who  had  been  wrecked  on  the 
Florida  reefs)  by  name  d'Escalante  Fontaneda,  who  had  been  captured 
by  the  Indians  and  remained  with  them  six  or  eight  years,  about  1552  to 
1560.  He  lived  to  write  an  account  of  his  explorations  there.  He  said 
lie  had  traveled  all  over  the  peninsula  of  fair  Florida,  and  adds  that  he 
"had  bathed  in  every  river  that  he  had  come  to,  hoping  that  it  would 
be  the  one  to  confer  upon  him  perpetual  life."  He  regretted  to  add 
that  he  had  not  found  it,  otherwise  we  should  have  had  him  here  to- 
night. 

He  says  of  the  people  there  dwelling  that  they  "  live  in  a  condition 
of  comparative  simplicitj',  but  are  great  warriors  and  fine  archers."  He 
adds  that  they  were  divided  into  a  certain  series  of  village  communi- 
ties ;  and  he  mentions  one  in  particular  where  he  stayed  the  longest 
time,  about  the  locality  described  by  Mr.  dishing.  He  gives  us  the 
name  of  the  chief  of  the  country,  Caloosa  ;  he  tells  us  also  that  that 
had  been  a  kingdom  for  many  generations,  and  furnishes  a  few  particu- 
lars as  to  the  genealogy  of  the  king  ;  among  others,  the  name  of  his 
father  (Sequene)  and  the  names  of  his  ancestors.  We  have,  therefore, 
rather  strong  evidence  from  this  that  the  people  who  constructed  these 
mounds  belonged  to  a  race  who  continued  to  live  there  for  some  time 
after  the  first  discovery  of  the  country. 

From  that  time  on  Florida  becomes  a  known  country.  In  1502,  the 
Protestants,  who  had  been  sent  out  by  Admiral  Coligny,  settled  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  lower  St.  Johns,  not  far  from  St.  Augustine.  They 
remained  there  five  years  ;  wrote  several  very  excellent  books  about 
it  (which  we  still  have,  fortunately)  ;  when  they  were  dispossessed 
and  mostly  massacred  by  the  Spaniards  who  came  in  1567.  The  Span- 
iards made  a  permanent  settlement. 

The  French  had  gone  far  up  the  St.  .Johns  River,  probably  to  Lake 
Okeechobee.  The  Spaniards  explored  it  quite  thoroughly  and  their 
priests  immediately  began  to  study  the  languages  and  write  books  in 
them  and  instruct  their  converts  in  religion.  We  have  not  all  those 
books,  but  we  have  several  of  them,  so  that  we  know  something  about 
the  native  tongues  of  Florida  at  that  time. 

I  need  scarcely  pursue  this  branch  of  the  subject  further  than  to  say 
that  it  was  probably  nearly  a  century  before  a  Christian  (Catholic) 
church  was  founded  directly  in  the  locality  which  has  been  described 
to-night.  It  was  probal)ly  about  1660  or  1666  that  the  Bishop  estab- 
lished a  permanent  priest  there.     He  did  not.  however,  have  sufficient 


1S96.]  4dO  [BriiUOD. 

means  to  extead  liis  parochial  duties  very  far  ;  so  that  a  chieftain  of  this 
very  tribe  went  over  to  the  Bishop  of  Havana  in  1668  and  asked  for  an 
additional  priest.  We  have  the  record  of  that  journey.  He  sent  over 
with  this  messenger  a  written  description  of  what  he  wanted,  not  writ- 
ten in  the  Spanish  nor  in  Latin  letters,  but  in  characters  which  they 
were  accustomed  to  use,  somewhat  similar,  probably,  to  those  four 
speech-words  which  Mr.  Gushing  has  shown  us  to-night  on  one  of  these 
illustrations,  some  form  of  hieroglyph. 

Now,  liow  can  we  get  at  the  evidence  as  to  who  these  people  were? 
We  found,  in  the  first  place,  the  earliest  discoverers  meeting  with  tribes 
who  lived  upon  mounds  made  in  the  manner  described.  They  arp  not 
depicted  in  full  ;  but  the  fact  tliat  they  were  mound-builders  and 
mound-dwellers  leads  us  to  suppose  that  they  might  have  extended  to 
the  Florida  keys  and  also  the  Ten  Thousand  Islands  on  the  southwes- 
tern coast.  We  have,  I  take  it,  the  means  to  a  solution  through  our 
linguistic  studies.  Hernando  d'Escalante  Fontaneda  (the  Spaniard 
whom  I  spoke  of,  who  lived  between  1550  to  1560  some  five  or  six 
years  in  this  very  locality)  has  left  us  in  his  memoir  some  fifty  or  sixty 
names  of  the  native  towns,  villages,  chiefs  and  peoples.  They  have 
been  very  carefully  examined  by  Mr.  Buckingham  Smith,  with  the  aid 
of  Mr.  Pitchlyn  (a  native  Choctaw),  and  they  have,  I  consider,  been 
practically  identified  by  him  as  belonging  to  the  Choctaw  group  of  dia- 
lects. He  has,  it  appears  to  me,  sufficiently  shown  this.  I  will  give 
you  two  examples  out  of  a  number  Fontaneda  tells  us  that  one  of  the 
villages  was  called  Cuchij'aga,  which  he  translated  "The  Town  of 
Weeping."  Now  Mr.  Pitchlyn  says  this  means  in  Choctaw  literally, 
"  Where  we  are  going  to  weep."  He  gives  us  the  name  of  the  king, 
Caloosa.  There  is  no  doubt  that  is  a  Choctaw  word.  Fontaneda  says 
that  it  means  brave,  or  fierce,  or  cruel ;  Pitchlyn  says  Caloosa  means 
"the  brave  black  man,"  "the  brave  dark-colored  man,"  dark  or  black 
being  also  the  symbol  for  bravery,  boldness,  ferocity.  We  have,  there- 
fore, these  two  words,  the  meanings  of  which  are  given  by  Fontaneda, 
and  which  Pitchlyn  says  are  good  Choctaw  to-day.  I  take  it,  there- 
fore, that  there  is  a  very  strong  supposition  that  the  inhabitants  of  south- 
western Florida  spoke  a  Choctaw  dialect. 

It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  we  do  not  find  any  French  or  any 
Spanish  early  accounts,  giving  traces  of  the  Choctaw  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  lower  St.  Johns.  That  region  was  populated  by  an  entirely  differ- 
ent linguistic  stock  and  people,  the  Timucuas.  Their  language  has  no 
similarity  to  any  other,  either  in  the  Northern  or  Southern  continent.  It 
is  absolutely  extinct  and  was  a  century  ago  ;  but  we  have,  fortunately, 
one  grammar  and  a  confessional  in  it,  which  have  been  lately  published 
by  the  diligence  of  several  eminent  French  scholars.  We  do  not  find 
the  Timuquanan  words  on  the  west  coast  of  Florida,  except  in  the 
vicinity  of  Cedar  Keys  considerably  to  the  north  of  the  localit}-  spoken 
of  to-night. 

PROC.  AMEI5.   PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  3c.       PRINTED  AUGUST  10,   1897. 


Briiiton.]  4db  [Xov.  6, 

Mr.  Cusliiug  has  poiutecl  out  a  similarity  between  tlie  cultural  ele- 
ments discovered  there  and  those  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Etowah  mounds, 
where  the  particular  design  he  showed  upon  the  screen  has  been  taken 
from.  We  know  that  the  Etowah  mounds  were  distinctly  in  the  Choc- 
taw country.  I  believe,  therefore,  that  from  the  cultural  side  of  the 
question  we  have  evidence  enough  to  say  that  the  main  dialect  of  south- 
ern Florida  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  was  Choctaw. 

At  the  same  time  I  desire  to  Ijriug  forward  some  evidence  to  show 
that  it  was  not  exclusively  Choctaw  culture.  Our  very  eminent  Ameri- 
can archaeologist.  Prof.  Holmes,  has  made  a  study  of  pottery  throughout 
western  Florida,  in  which  he  has  shown  that  the  decorations  of  that 
pottery  are  peculiar  in  character  and  have  manj'  similarities  to  what  he 
calls  the  "  Antillean  culture,"  or  the  culture  of  the  Great  Antilles — 
Cuba  and  so  forth.  In  conversation  with  him,  however,  he  tells  me 
that  all  the  specimens  on  which  he  bases  this  are  superficial  finds  ;  in 
other  words,  they  lay  upon  the  top  of  the  mounds  and  village  sites  and 
are  not  ancient.  He  believes,  therefore,  that  the  influence  of  that  cul- 
ture arrived  at  a  comparatively  late  period.  The  explanation  of  that  I 
believe  we  can  obtain  from  this  same  good  old  Spaniard,  Fontaneda. 
He  tells  us  in  his  memoir  that  the  natives  of  Cuba  used  to  come  across 
the  Gulf  Stream  and  land  in  Florida  in  search  of  the  fountain  of  life  ; 
and  that  they  came  finallj'  in  such  numbers,  that  the  king,  Caloosa,  or 
his  father,  Sequene,  assigned  to  them  a  particular  village  in  which  thej' 
should  live,  telling  them  that  it  was  useless  to  pursue  that  quest  anj^ 
further.  No  doubt  he  had  looked  for  it  himself,  with  disappointing  re- 
sults, and  therefore  he  assigned  to  them  a  particular  locality  on  one  of 
these  islands,  and  told  them  to  live  there.  In  all  likelihood  they 
brought  with  them  some  touches  of  Antillean  culture,  which  explains 
the  decorative  designs  of  Prof.  Holmes. 

It  is  not  likelj^  that  we  can  find  any  trace  there  of  true  South  Ameri- 
can culture.  The  only  people  who  occupied  the  Great  Antilles  and  the 
Bahamas  and  all  the  northern  portion  of  the  West  Indies,  were  the 
Arawaks.  There  has  been  some  question  of  Caribbean  decorative  de- 
signs ;  but  the  Caribs  never  extended  their  permanent  settlements  even 
to  the  island  of  Cuba.  They  were  known  there  and  Columbus  first 
lieard  of  them  there,  but  they  came  merely  as  pirates  ;  they  plundered 
the  shores  and  carried  off  women.  These  Caribs  came  rather  late  to 
the  northern  shores  of  South  America.  They  have  been  traced  in  the 
last  ten  years  in  a  manner  which,  I  believe,  is  completely  satisfactoiy  to 
American  scholars.  They  never  constructed  a  single  permanent  village 
on  any  part  of  the  North  American  continent  ;  never  anywhere  north 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  ;  never  in  Florida  or  along  the  gulf.  If  so, 
we  have  no  evidence  of  it  whatever  ;  it  has  perished  utterly.  As  to  the 
Mayas,  Colum1)us  distinctly  heard  of  the  Mayas  in  Cuba;  his  attention 
was  called  to  them  by  tlfc  fact  that  the  Cubans  had  wax,  which  they 
did  not  make  from  their  native  bees.  It  was  the  discovery  of  that  wax 
in  Cuba  which  led  him  to  inquire  and  to  ascertain  that  it  came  from  the 


1896.J  '*<J  *  rBrinton. 

Mayas  at  Yucatan.  We  know  therefore  that  commerce  between 
them  once  existed  ;  and  no  doubt  many  elements  of  culture  passed  over 
from  Yucatan  to  the  western  portion  of  Cuba.  We  cannot  trace  it  now 
on  account  of  the  total  destruction  of  the  Cubans  at  an  early  period  ; 
and  also  because  investigations  have  not  been  carefully  made  there  for 
archaeological  purposes  ;  but  we  know  the  facts  ;  we  know  that  the 
Mayas  did  extend  to  Cuba,  though  they  had  no  permanent  settlements 
there.  The  native  languages  in  Florida — there  are  really  only  two  so 
far  as  the  original  names  are  concerned — were  the  Choctaw  and  the 
Timuquanan.  In  the  Antilles,  in  the  Bahamas,  and  in  the  whole  coast 
of  South  America  from  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  eastward  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Amazon,  the  country  was  covered  exclusively  by  Arawak  vil- 
lages. They  migrated  from  the  south  to  the  north.  We  can  trace 
them  back  to  the  highlands  of  Bolivia,  where  their  ancestral  stock  still 
remains.  Their  historj^  can  be  followed  linguistically  and  culturallj' 
from  the  central  crestline  of  South  America  coming  northward.  They 
reached  the  West  India  Islands,  probably,  at  no  great  time  anterior  to 
their  discovery.  It  might  have  been  500  years,  or  1000.  We  have  not 
found  on  these  islands  any  signs  of  culture,  other  than  distinctly  Arawak 
or  Antillean  in  character. 

It  would  appear,  therefore,  from  these  various  lines  of  argument — his- 
toric, cultural  and  linguistic — that  we  can  discern  a  distinct  develop- 
ment, local  in  character,  ethnic  in  its  traits,  of  a  North  American  cul- 
ture. There  are,  to  be  sure,  many  strange  points  of  similarity  between 
that  and  the  Central  American  and  South  American  culture  ;  but,  as  has 
been  said  by  an  eminent  American  archfeologist,  "Wherever  j-ou  find 
the  American  Indian,  you  find  him  tarred  with  the  same  stick."  He  is 
always  developing  under  ethnic  conditions  towards  a  culture  which  is 
similar  everywhere.  That  is  shown  in  many  instances  where  we  come 
to  study  out  an  J'  Indian  development.  Take  this  one  of  masks  ;  if  we 
compare  the  general  character  of  those  masks  with  those  which  we  find 
elsewhere  (still  preserved  in  actual  use)  we  find  a  similarity  in  the 
traits  of  them  all.  American  culture  is  in  one  sense  everywhere  the 
same.  It  is  everywhere  the  same  in  its  origin  and  in  its  lines  of  develop- 
ment, although  they  are  deeply  influenced  by  ethnic  and  local  pecu- 
liarities. 

I  do  not  think  the  culture  which  has  been  exhibited  here  to-night — 
strange  and  remarkable  and  most  instructive  as  it  is — has  any  pecu- 
liarities which  are  in  themselves  broadly  distinct  from  those  in  the 
Choctaw  district  of  northern  Georgia  and  in  the  mounds  there.  Her- 
nando de  Soto,  when  about  1540  he  made  that  exploration,  found  an 
extremely  high  state  of  native  civilization  throughout  northern 
Georgia.  He  passed  through  that  region  where  we  find  now  the 
Etowah  mounds  ;  he  found  people  there  who  knew  something  about  the 
use  of  gold  and  silver  and  who  were  in  what  we  might  call  a  copper 
age  ;  and  he  encountered  a  people  so  highly  developed  that  the  his- 
torians who  accompanied  him  all  expressed  their  admiration  at  it.     The 


Putnam.]  4do  [I^ov.  fi. 

remains  which  have  been  discovered  since  confirm  those  reports  ;  so  I 
believe  that  the  culture  described  this  evening,  which  is  eminently  a 
maritime  culture,  has  developed  from  the  same  centre,  though  in  its  own 
direction,  and  has  many  analogies  to  the  culture  which  Hernando  de 
Soto  found  some  distance  north  of  it. 

We  have  a  record — very  unsafe  to  follow — composed  about  1650  to 
1658  by  an  Englishman,  written  in  Latin,  translated  in  French  and 
published  in  Rochefort's  History  of  the  Antilles,  where  the  writer 
says  that  a  general  art  culture  existed  from  the  Appalachean  country 
southward  ;  and  he  tells  us,  as  Prof.  Mason  has  pointed  out,  of  dwellings 
built  on  piles  in  the  lower  portion  of  Florida.  I  have  not  myself  ex- 
amined the  original  since  I  saw  Prof.  Mason's  quotation  some  months 
ago  ;  but  I  think  it  very  likelj^  that  pile  dwellings  are  found  anywhere 
among  native  tribes  where  it  is  convenient  to  make  them.  "VVe  meet 
them  throughout  Borneo  and  Maracaybo  ;  and  to  this  day  the  Semi- 
noles,  who  live  in  southern  Florida,  build  their  houses  often  on  piles 
in  the  bayous.  It  is  one  of  those  natural  and  necessary  methods  of 
construction  which  we  will  find  under  certain  geographic  conditions 
wherever  they  are  discovered.  This  is  my  contribution  to  this  most 
interesting  study — entirely  novel  and  extremely  valuable — to  which  we 
have  had  the  privilege  of  listening. 

Prof.  Putnam  : 

It  is  seldom  that  an  archaeologist  has  the  opportunity  of  examining  a 
collection  of  objects  of  so  much  scientific  importance  as  those  on  exhibi- 
tion here  to-night ;  and  it  is  certain  that  a  thorough  study  of  all  the  re- 
sults of  this  exploration,  carried  on  by  Mr.  Gushing,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  University  of  Pennsjlvania,  will  add  largely  to  our  knowledge  of 
American  archteology. 

Dr.  Brinton  has  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  people  represented  by 
this  collection  were  very  likely  of  the  same  stock  as  those  in  other  parts 
of  Florida  and  Georgia.  I  fully  agree  with  him  on  this  point,  because 
the  culture  we  have  here  is  of  the  same  type  as  that  known  to  have  ex- 
isted in  other  parts  of  Florida,  and  in  Georgia,  and  I  may  saj"  that  it  is 
similar  to  that  still  farther  north,  as  far  up  as  the  Ohio  valley. 

What  I  consider  the  most  important  point  in  Mr.  Cushing's  discoveries 
is  that  he  was  able  to  bring  out  of  this  muck  deposit  on  the  Florida 
Keys  a  large  number  of  objects  which  by  being  buried  in  the  muck  were 
preserved  ;  whereas  the  same  objects  if  buried  in  a  sand  mound  or  lost 
in  a  shell  heap  would  have  perished.  It  is  important  to  note  that  the 
objects  in  this  collection,  made  of  imperishable  material,  such  as  stone, 
bone  and  shell,  are  of  the  same  character  as  those  already  known  from 
other  parts  of  Florida.  Thus  it  seems  to  me  that  Mr.  Cushing's  dis- 
covery instead  of  indicating  a  new  culture,  has  thrown  a  powerful 
light  \\\m\\,  and  greatly  extended  our  know  ledge  of,  the  old  culture  of 
Florida. 

The  (question   we   are  all  asking  is,  Wiiere  did   tliis   jteople  originate  :' 


1S96.]  4oj  [Putnam. 

Mr.  Cusliing  is  inclined  to  believe  that  they  came  from  South  America. 
I  understand  that  would  be  your  idea  (turning  to  Mr.  Gushing),  that 
these  were  the  Arawaks  or  the  Caribs,  and  that  they  came  up  from  South 
America  ? 

Mr.  Cu.shing  (answering)  :  Yes. 

Prof.  Putnam  (continuing)  :  Dr.  Brinton  is  rather  inclined  to  say 
that  they  did  not  come  from  there. 

Dr.  Brinton  :  Because  there  is  no  linguistic  evidence  to  that  effect. 

Prof.  Putnam  :  And  also  that  the  culture  is  somewhat  different  from 
either  the  Arawak  or  the  Caribbean.  It  seems  to  me  that  it  certainly  is 
a  difierent  culture.  And  now  there  is  another  point  that  M^e  must  con- 
sider. Mr.  Cushing's  collection  includes  a  large  number  of  human 
skulls  which  T  have  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  in  the  museum  to- 
day. I  am  much  interested  to  note  that  these  skulls  are  of  the  same 
type  as  those  found  in  tlie  sand  mounds  of  Florida.  The  first  of  this 
type  that  I  ever  saw  came  from  the  sand  mounds  around  Cedar 
Keys  and  were  brought  to  notice  by  the  late  Prof.  Jeffries  Wyman. 
Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore  has  found  this  type  in  the  sand  mounds  of  east- 
ern Florida.  The  same  general  type  has  been  found  througliout  north- 
ern Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  througli  the  region  extending 
towards  the  Cumberland  valley  in  Tennessee  ;  also  westward  through 
tlie  Pueblo  region  and  in  Central  America.  It  is  the  general  brachy- 
cephalic  skull  ;  not  only  brachycephalic,  but  decidedly  rounded,  with 
more  or  less  artificial  flattening  of  the  frontal  and  occipital  regions.  I 
have  regarded  this  type  of  skull  as  belonging  to  the  southern  and  south- 
western peoples  of  North  America.  I  believe  that  this  type  of  skull  is 
the  type  of  the  people  who  first  settled,  so  far  as  we  know,  in  Cen- 
tral America  and  on  the  shores  of  Peru  and  northern  Soutli  America ; 
that  in  all  probability  this  people  extended  eastward,  coming  across  the 
Isthmus  through  the  Central  American  region  and  extending  along  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  over  into  Florida,  and  finally,  judging  from  the 
evidence  tliat  Mr.  Gushing  has  presented  to-night,  being  driven  onto 
these  keys.  In  fact  I  should  consider  it  probable  that  the  line  of  migra- 
tion was  directly  opposite  to  the  one  which  has  been  suggested.  That 
is,  I  believe  it  more  likely  that  tliis  was  a  people  wlio,  having  had  an 
early  home  in  the  Central  American  region,  extended  around  the  Gulf  to 
Florida,  rather  than  a  people  who  came  from  South  America  to  the 
Florida  Keys  and  then  spread  into  Florida  and  westward. 

For  a  number  of  years  Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore  lias  been  engaged  in 
exploring  the  sand  mounds  of  Florida.  He  has  found  a  large  number  of 
objects  of  the  same  character  as  many  of  these  upon  the  table.  He  has 
not  found  any  wooden  carvings  ;  I  tliink  he  has  not  found  anythin" 
made  of  wood  except  a  few  very  small  pieces  with  copper  attached  ;  but 
nearly  all  the  bone  implements,  many  of  the  bone  ornaments,  and  many 
of  the  shell  implements  which  are  upon  the  table  are  almost  identical 
with  those  found  in  tlie  sand  mounds  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Florida. 
Thus  we  find  the  same  culture,  so  far  as  the  bone  and  shell  objects  can 


Putnam.]  44U  [Xov.  6, 

determiue  the  question,  which  existed  here  on  the  southwestern  coast  of 
Florida,  extending  northward  up  the  eastern  coast. 

The  wooden  objects  in  this  collection  are  very  remarkable  ;  and  the 
fact  that  wooden  vessels  took  the  place  of  pottery  is  an  important  one,  as 
it  seems  to  indicate  that  the  people  w^ere  forced  to  use  wood  instead  of 
pottery  from  the  abundance  of  the  former  and  the  absence  of  clay  to 
make  the  latter.  These  masks  I  consider  the  most  marvelous  archao- 
logical  evidence  that  has  ever  been  brought  out.  Never  before  have  we 
been  able  to  dig  up  masks  and  to  read  the  story  that  they  tell  as  Mr. 
Gushing  has  read  it  to  us  to-night.  We  know  that  the  people  of  to-day 
in  Central  America  use  masks  very  similar  to  these  ;  and  I  believe  that 
the  people  of  South  America  have  somewhat  similar  masks.  We  know 
that  many  of  our  Indian  tribes  have  masks  .of  very  similar  character. 
This  form  of  mask  having  the  characteristics  of  the  bird,  or  some  animal, 
represented  over  the  face  is  so  common  to-daj"  in  Alaska  and  other  parts 
of  the  northwest  coast,  that  it  is  actually  startling  to  an  ethnologist  to 
see  these  masks,  dug  up  in  Florida,  showing  the  same  character  of  art. 
The  interi^retatiou  that  Mr.  Gushing  has  given  to  this  idea  of  ex- 
pressing the  animal  upon  the  human  face  and  of  making  the  Bird  God, 
or  the  Wolf  God,  is  the  same  as  that  worked  out  by  Dr.  Franz  Boas  ; 
and  this  we  know  to  be  true  from  actual  evidence  of  the  Indians  them- 
selves. 

I  can  only  add  that  Avhen  I  read  Mr.  Cushing's  first  statement  of  this 
very  interesting  discovery,  I  did  not  know  what  to  make  of  it.  It 
seemed  to  me  almost  beyond  belief  that  so  much  of  importance  could  have 
been  found  down  there  in  Florida,  where  so  many  had  been  working. 
From  his  statement  and  from  the  photographs  which  he  lias  shown  us 
to-night  I  am  satisfied  that  he  has  entered  upon  a  very  rich  field,  and 
one  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  archfeology  of  North  America.  I 
sincerely  hope  that  his  work  will  be  continued,  that  he  will  have  an  op- 
portunity to  return  to  this  place,  and,  if  possible,  to  work  for  several  years 
about  these  keys.  This  whole  subject  should  be  investigated  in  a  thor- 
ough manner,  that  we  may  understand  still  more  of  this  people  who  built 
these  peculiar  and  wonderful  shell  structures.  We  do  not  begin  to  ap- 
preciate the  probable  antiquity  of  this  people  until  w^e  stop  to  consider 
that  these  Florida  keys  could  not  have  supported  a  very  large  ])opu- 
lation,  and  that  it  must  have  taken  an  immense  amount  of  time  and 
millions  upon  millions  of  conch  shells  to  make  these  great  mounds, 
upon  which  the  dwellings  of  the  people  were  probably  erected.  Mr. 
Gushing  states  that  this  people  must  have  lived  upon  these  keys  many 
centuries  (I  am  inclined  to  say  many  thousand  j'ears)  ago. 

There  has  been  presented  to  us  to-night  one  of  the  most  important 
archaeological  papers  that  I  have  ever  listened  to  ;  and  certainly  the  ob- 
jects illustrating  the  paper  are  of  extraordinary  interest. 

I  sincerely  congratulate  Mr.  Gushing,  as  well  as  the  University  and  all 
connected  with  this  expedition,  on   the  imjiortaiit  results  of  his  lal)ors. 


1896.]  441  [Gushing. 

Mr.  Gushing  :  If  I  maybe  permitted,  Mr.  President,  to  follow  an  ad- 
dress, already  so  long,  with  a  few  remarks  in  reply  to  the  most  in- 
teresting discussion  with  which  Dr.  Brinton  and  Dr.  Putnam  have  at 
cace  honored  me  and  added  greatly  to  the  value  of  my  communication, 
I  shall  much  esteem  the  privilege. 

The  President  : — The  Society  will  be  pleased,  I  am  sure,  to  listen  to 
further  remarks  from  Mr.  Gushing. 

Mr.  Gushing  : — First,  then,  in  reference  to  Dr.  Brinton's  part  in  the 
discussion,  let  me  say  tliatit  was  quite  impossible  for  me  to  undertake  to 
review,  much  less  to  dwell  upon,  the  nvimerous  historic  references 
to  early  natives  in  Florida,  that  seem — as  I  am  well  aware — to  have 
pertained  to  the  waning  days  of  a  people  who  were  either  the  actual 
key  dwellers — as  I  have  called  them — or  were  certainly  inheritors, 
in  great  part,  of  their  culture.  Gould  I  have  done  this,  Dr.  Brinton 
would  have  perceived  that  my  belief  fully, — almost  more  than  fully — 
accorded  with  his  own,  regarding  the  affiliations  of  these  people  with 
later  and  historic  peoples.  I  would  add,  relative  generally  to  the  early 
inhabitants  of  western,  southern-central  and  southwestern  Florida, 
that  from  archoeologic  evidence  alone,  one  can  scarcely  doubt  they  were, 
at  the  time  of  the  discovery,  chiefly  Maskokians  (or  of  the  stock  to  which 
not  only  the  Muskhogees,  but  also  the  Ghoctaws  or  Ghahtas,  the 
Hitchiti  and  other  tribes  of  the  Greek  Gonfederacy,  of  the  Southern 
States,  belonged, — as,  if  I  remember  aright,  Dr.  Brinton  long  ago 
pointed  out  in  one  of  liis  published  works.  And  since  I  regard  these 
Southern  mound-building  Indians  as  having  inherited  their  mound- 
building  habits  and  much  of  their  culture  otherwise,  quite  directly  from 
key  dwellers,  I  of  course  believe,  with  him,  that  the  key  dwellers  them- 
selves may  be  looked  upon  as  having  been,  during  the  later  centuries  of 
their  existence,  not  only  American  Indians,  but  North  American  Indians, 
and  thus,  in  a  racial  sense,  by  no  means  a  new  people. 

After  all,  the  chief  significance  of  these  discoveries  and  finds  of  ours 
in  the  keys  of  southwestern  Florida  is  to  be  found,  as  I  have  said  before, 
in  the  unique  illustration  they  afford  of  a  peculiar  local  development  in 
culture  and  art  as  influenced  by,  or  related  to,  a  peculiar  environment  ; 
and  in  this,  while  they  may  not  pertain  to  a  new  or  hitherto  unknown 
people,  they  certainly  do  reveal  either  a  new  phase  of  human  culture,  or 
else  an  old  culture  in  an  entirely  new  light. 

Nevertheless,  I  wish  to  explain  a  little  more  explicitly,  quite  exactly 
where  I  stand  with  regard  to  these  ancient  key  dwellers  of  mine — as  to 
who  they  were  more  remotely,  as  to  what  may  have  been  their  origin  ! 
It  is  true  I  do  not  believe — and  I  do  not  think  I  have  anywhere  stated 
the  belief — that  they  were  a  neic  people,  or  even  that  theirs  was  wholly 
a  new  culture.  I  admit  that  there  have  appeared  various  articles  in 
which  the  most  extravagant  announcements  have  been  made  relative 
to  my  Florida  discoveries, — such  announcements  as  I  would  not  for  a 
moment  have  encouraged  the  statement  of;  and  even  in  what  I  myself 


Gushing.]  442  [Nov.  6, 

have  written  for  the  press,  I  cannot  be  held  responsible  for  "head- 
ings" or  "  editorial  leaders, " — much  less  for  comments  thereon  in  the 
press  at  large. 

But  I  would  repeat  that  I  think  a  close  study  of  many  objects  in  our 
collection  reveals  decided  trace  of  survival  in  art-types  of  a  kind  which 
cannot  be  accounted  for  as  well  otherwise,  as  by  supposing  it  to  have 
been  derived,  inherited  remotely,  I  should  say,  from  farther  southern 
regions — from  South  America,  in  all  probability'.  In  my  spoken  address 
I  did  little  more  than  touch  upon  this  important  point,  in  order  merely 
to  bring  it  before  you  in  the  proper  connection,  and  I  may  not  have 
stated  clearly  enough  that  I  did  not  think  the  key  dwellers  themselves, 
or  as  a  people,  were  wholly  South  American.  I  think,  however,  that 
they  may  have  been  such  in  the  very  beginning  ;  that  a  South  American 
people,  or  that  an  intermediate  sea-dwelling  people  derived  thence,  and 
coming  at  last  on  the  currents  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  to  the  region  of  these 
keys — as  indicated  by  my  map — initiated,  in  this  region,  the  practice  of 
the  key  building  of  which  I  found  so  many  evidences.  I  have  already 
referred  to  the  pointed  paddle  we  found,  which  is  both  South,  and 
Central  American,  in  type  ;  to  the  absence  of  bows,  and  the  presence 
of  atlatls,  which  are  likewise  at  home  in  those  remoter  regions, 
more  so  than  in  these  :  and  to  the  type  of  war  club  which  prevails 
down  there,  and  of  which,  in  particular,  I  would,  even  at  the  risk 
of  repetition,  say  a  little  more  in  this  special  connection.  Let  me 
exhibit  to  you  the  actual  specimen  we  found.  It  is,  as  I  was  at  consid- 
erable pains  to  show  you,  Maskokian  in  tj'pe,  of  the  southern  mounds  ; 
or,  as  Dr.  Brintou  has  assured  you,  Choctaw,  which  is  practically  the 
same  thing.  But  the  specimen  I  hold  in  mj-  hand  is  an  actual  weapon, 
not  merely  ceremonial,  as  were  those  of  the  Southern  Indians,  and  it  is 
distinctively  South  American  in  type.  It  is  not,  save  in  semblance, 
such  as  its  parents  were.  It  is  wholly  of  wood,  yet  it  does  not  represent 
survival  from  a  club  of  wood  alone.  It  represents,  if  I  am  not  mis- 
taken, survival  from  a  form  of  weapon  like  the  double-bladed  battle  axe, 
peculiar,  originally,  to  South  America — a  form  derived  from  a  type  of 
stone-bladed  implement  nowhere  represented  in  North  America.  I 
here  refer  to  the  sliort,  broad,  and  round-bitted,  flat-backed  celt- 
blade,  sharply  notched  at  the  sides  near  the  butt, — not  grooved  as  are 
the  axe  blades  of  the  United  States, — which  anciently  prevailed  all 
through  the  Bolivian  Highlands,  in  Peru,  Ecuador  and  along  the  upper 
reaches  of  the  Amazon,  and  thence  spread,  no  doubt,  not  only  north- 
wardly into  the  Isthmus,  but  also  northeastwardly  down  the  Amazon 
and  the  Orinoco.  These  blades  were  set  oppositeh',  not  into,  but 
a^(7t«8nhe  sides  of  their  club-like  handles,  and  were  attached  thereto 
by  means  of  criss-cross  bindings  alternately  passing  through  the  right 
notch  of  one  blade,  obliquelj'  across  the  handle,  and  tlirough  the  left 
notch  of  the  other  blade,  then  through  the  right  notch  of  the  second 
blade,  again  across  the  ojiiiosite  side  of  the  liandlc,  and  tiirough  the  left 


1S96.]  44j  [Gushing. 

notch  of  the  first  l)lade,  in  such  wise  that  a  weapon  exactly  resembling 
this  one,  in  general  outline,  was  produced.  From  such  a  form  of  weapon 
the  double,  semicircular  bladed  battle-axe  of  copper  or  bronze  which  pre- 
vailed at  the  time  of  the  Conquest  in  both  Peru  and  Isthmean,  or  Meridian 
America,  appears  also  to  have  been  derived  ;  as  well  as  the  form  of  club 
I  have  described  and  here  shown  to  have  been  almost  as  characteristic 
of  the  kej^s  (and,  ceremonially,  or  still  further  derivatively,  even  of  the 
southern  mounds)  as  it  was  originatively,  of  the  country  of  its  nativity, 
namely.  South  America. 

Much  of  like  import  may  be  said  of  the  plaited  leg-bands  represented 
on  the  human  figure  painted  in  the  shell  I  have  exhibited  and  described. 
These  bands  are  drawn  as  passing  around, — not  the  ankles,  as  at  first 
sight  appears, — but  around  the  legs,  just  below  the  knees  and  above  the 
calves ;  and  we  know^  that  both  the  Arawaks  and  the  Caribs  had  the 
curious  practice  of  tightly  bandaging  the  legs  in  this  fashion,  in  order, 
it  is  alleged,  to  enlarge  the  calves  ;  but  whether  this  is  so  or  not,  we  see 
that  the  practice  was  typically  South  American  ;  and  I  may  add  that  it 
prevailed  noM'here  in  Northern  America  except  apparently  here  among 
the  keys  and  in  the  mound  region,  and  that  in  this  last,  it  was  evidently 
a  survival ;  for  it  may  be  seen  that  the  mound  plates,  such  as  I  have 
shown  you  by  illustration,  represent  figures  wearing  not  only  wristlets 
and  leg-bands,  as  in  this  painting, — and  as  worn  by  the  South  American 
and  Antillean  Indians,— but  also,  armlets  or  bands  above  the  elbows, 
and  anklets  or  bands  heloio  the  calves,  as  worn  bj'  so  many  central  North 
American  Indians,  when  first  encountered. 

Now  I  have  mentioned  these  comparatively  inconspicuous  characteris- 
tics, not  simply  because  they  are  the  only  evidences  that  might  be  ad- 
duced in  support  of  my  supposition,  but  because  they  are  the  readiest 
at  hand  and  the  most  easily  illustrated,  of  many  such  evidences. 

I  have  not  been  unmindful  of  the  fact  that  Prof.  Holmes  pointed  out, 
some  years  ago,  an  apparent  Caribbean  element  in  the  decoration  of  cer- 
tain ancient  Floridian  potteries,  and  although  I  surely  referred  to  the 
subject  in  the  course  of  my  address,  I  evidently  did  not  make  its  signifi- 
cance as  clear  as  I  trust  my  published  notes  will  render  it.  Meanw^liile 
we  are  certainly  off  of  debatable  ground  when  we  study  or  consider  the 
collections  of  pottery  made  by  vis  in  the  northerly  portion  of  the  State, 
— at  Tarpon  Springs, — or  those  made  by  Mr.  Clarence  Moore  in  easterly 
portions  of  the  State  (as  compared,  in  various  ways,  with  the  collections 
of  corresponding  wooden-ware  vessels  gathered  by  us  from  the  southern 
keys)  in  reference  to  their  relationship  to  primitive  art-technique  and 
symbolism  ;  as  influenced  by,  and  inherited  from,  a  given  environment. 

The  forms  of  these  terra-cotta  vessels,  and  particularly  the  decorations 
upon  many  of  them,  were  eloquent  of  at  least  one  thing. — that  their 
types  had  originated  among  a  people  who  had  once, —  ignorant  of  pot- 
tery-making,— made  their  vessels  of  shells,  of  simple  gourds,  and  of 
wood  ;  and  that  those  primitive  vessels  of  theirs  had  been  more  or  less 

PROC.  AMER.  PHILOS.  SOC.  XXXV.  153.  3d.      PRINTED  AUGUST  10,   1897. 


Gushing.]  441  [Xov.  6, 

like  unto  these,  their  later  vessels  in  clay.  For,  by  critically  examin- 
ing the  peculiarly  involuted  and  concentric  designs  on  so  many  of  them, 
such  as  were  recognized  by  Prof.  Holmes  as  analogous  to  Caribbean 
decorations,  I  find  that  they  were  undoubtedly  derived  from  the  natural 
markings  of  the  curly-  or  crooked-grained  wood  of  which  these  ancient 
peoples  had  earlier  made  their  principal  vessels — that  is,  before  they 
became  makers  of  pottery  vessels  at  all. 

Again,  what  lends  plausibility  to  this  supposition,  is  the  fact  that  in 
much  of  the  pottery  under  consideration  the  surface-decoration  resem- 
bles a  hachuring — so  to  call  it, — the  origin  of  which  is  as  unmistakably 
traceable  to  the  surface  markings  of  wooden  objects  carved  with  shark- 
tooth  blades  ;  and  is  simply  the  reproductive  or  imitative  perpetuation, 
in  clay  materials,  of  such  markings  as  were  unavoidable  in  vessels  thus 
made  of  the  wood  materials  that  preceded  the  use  of,  and  served  as  the 
models  for,  these  vessels  so  differently  made  of  potter}^  materials.  All 
this  would,  to  my  mind,  indicate  that  these  forms  of  decoration, — An- 
tillean  as  well  as  Floridian — owed  their  origin  to  a  similar  condition  and 
environment, — and  thus  very  probably  were  derived  from  some  com- 
mon source. 

I  failed,  it  now  appears,  to  consider  sufficiently  these  and  many  other 
points  which  have  been  so  appropriately  brought  forward  and  empha- 
sized by  Dr.  Putnam  as  well  as  by  Dr.  Brinton,  because,  as  I  early 
stated,  it  seemed  necessary  for  me,  in  order  the  better  to  exhibit  and 
explain  the  large  number  of  lantern  slides  (there  were  sixty-seven  of 
them)  to  abandon  my  manuscript  notes.  From  the  scientific  stand- 
point I  ought  not,  in  justice  to  my  subject,  to  have  done  this,  and  I  now 
regret  that  I  did  ;  for  in  the  outline  or  syllabus  of  the  address  which  I 
furnished  to  both  Dr.  Brinton  and  Dr.  Putnam  these  points  were  at 
least  indicated  ;  and  in  my  manuscript,  as  will  appear  when  it  is  fully 
published,  nearly  all  of  them  were  fairly  set  forth. 

If,  then,  you  will  permit  me  to  restate  my  conclusions  on  one  or  two 
only,  of  the  more  general  of  these  points,  which  seem  to  me  to  include 
or  imply  so  many  of  the  others,  I  will  not  detain  you  longer. 

I  cannot  express  too  strongly  my  belief  that  there  was  a  large  "  3Iusk- 
hogian  "  (or  Maskokian)  element  among  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
western  Florida — so  large,  in  fact,  that  I  think  we  may  justifiably  map 
the  whole  western  half  of  Florida,  to  as  far  south  as  the  very  end  of 
the  peninsula,  as  Maskokian.  Now  the  Maskokians  were  mound  build- 
ers, and  therefore,  according  to  my  theory,  must  long  have  been  dwel- 
lers in  the  land.  Whether  they  had  themselves  come  from  the  South, 
or  whether  they  came  thither  from  the  North,  or  whether,  as  has  seemed 
to  me  more  probable,  they  resulted  from  an  intermingling  here  of  stocks 
from  both  directions,  these  questions  still  remain,  I  think,  to  be  deter- 
mined principally  by  further  archteologic  researches  of  precisely  the 
kind  of  wliich  I  have  given  you  some  account  this  evening, — although 
much  more  extended,  for  I  have  but  entered  the  borderland,  as  it  were,  of 


1896.]  44o  [Gushing. 

au  enormously  large  and  fertile  field.  But  I  must  reiterate  that  in  the 
keys,  in  the  essential  features  thereof,  and  in  the  principal  structures 
thereon,  we  have  prefigured,  as  it  were,  the  mound-groups  and  their 
outworks — those  built  not  only  by  the  Maskokians  and  other  historic 
Indians,  but  also  by  the  prehistoric  so-called  mound  builders  them- 
selves ;  and  since  the  keys  thus  represent  a  kind  of  mound  building 
that  was  absolutely  essential,  while  to  account  for  the  almost  equally 
laborious  earth-mound  works,  practical  necessity  cannot  be  conceived  of 
as  a  primary  cause,  I  have  claimed,  not  that  the  mound  builders  were 
as  a  whole  derived  from  the  particular  key  dwellers  I  have  been  describ- 
ing, but  that  mound  building  as  practiced  by  them,  was  derived  from  an 
analogous  sea-,  or  shore-land  environment.  And  thus,  too,  I  have  ven- 
tured to  suggest  that  the  resemblance  between  the  mound-groups  of 
our  own  land,  and  the  foundation-groups  of  ancient  Central  American 
cities — the  plans  of  the  principal  structures  of  which  are  so  strikingly 
like  even  the  plans  of  the  earlier  key  structures — may  indicate  that 
these,  no  less  than  the  mound-groups  themselves,  were  developed  (with 
much  else  in  ancient  Central  American  culture)  from  an  original  sea 
environment  of  the  same  kind.  So,  the  main  point  of  all  I  have 
brought  forward  in  relation  to  our  discoveries  and  collections  as  repre- 
sentative of  the  ancient  sea  dwellers,  is  this  :  That  for  the  study  of 
beginnings,  alike  of  the  sort  just  named,  and  in  technology  and  art, 
they  are  exceedingly  suggestive  and  in  some  respects  quite  sufficiently 
conclusive. 

In  thanking  the  distinguished  gentlemen  who  have  so  honored  me 
with  their  discussion  and  in  thanking  the  members  of  this  Society  for 
their  patient  attention  throughout,  I  wish  once  more  to  acknowledge  my 
profound  appreciation  of  the  aid  and  encouragement  I  have  received 
from  your  distinguished  Vice-President,  Dr.  William  Pepper  ;  my 
gratitude  also  to  Mrs.  Phebe  A.  Hearst,  and  to  other  members  of  the 
Board  of  Managers  of  the  Archteological  Association  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  who  made  possible  the  investigations  of  which  I  have 
given  you  account  this  evening.  Had  t\\ej  not  thus  come  forward,  I 
had  personally  missed  an  opportunity  of  enriching  my  experience  in 
American  archreology  and  ethnology  that  I  have  come  to  feel  I  could  ill 
have  afforded  to  spare. 

[Since  the  remainder  of  this  discussion  consisted  chiefly  of  a  detailed 
description  (occup}'ing  nearly  half  an  hour)  of  the  specimens  and  illus- 
trations displayed  in  the  Hall  of  the  Society,  I  have  not  hesitated  to 
incorporate  the  substance  of  the  stenographic  notes  of  it  that  were 
kindly  furnished  me  by  the  Secretaries  of  the  American  Philosophica. 
Society,  in  the  body  of  the  published  address. 

In  justice  as  well  to  my  two  distinguished  critics,  as  to  myself,  how- 
ever, I  must  repeat  that  in  the  off-hand  address  which  alone  they 
discussed,  I  may  not  have  made — probably  did  not  make — a  number 


Ciwhing.]  44b  [Mov.  6, 

of  the  points  they  consider,  as  clear  from  my  side  as  they  were  in 
my  written  notes,  and  as  I  trust  they  now  are  in  the  fuller  text. 
Hence,  it  is  not  only  appropriate,  but  seems  to  me  a  duty,  to  here  furnish 
comments  on  three  or  four  of  these. 

Regarding  Dr.  Brinton's  reference  to  the  mounds  on  Tanij^a  Bay,  I 
find,  from  the  notes  of  the  discussion,  that  I  did  not  give  the  subject  suf- 
ficient attention.  I  should  have  stated  more  fully,  that  the  mounds  which 
have  been  identified,  as  those  discovered  by  De  Soto,  were  of  iirecisely 
the  kind  I  have  described  as  occurring  on  Pine  Island.  That  is,  they  are 
not  true  keys,  for  they  are  situated  on  the  mainland,  and  they  are  com- 
posed of  earth  and  shell  combined,  as  were  all  the  mounds  near  the  gulf 
coast  of  Florida  that  I  have  described  as  probably  the  works  of  the 
descendants  or  successors  of  the  kej^  dwellers  proper.  True  typical 
shell  keys,  no  fewer  than  five  of  them,  occur  along  the  Manatee,  below 
the  opposite'  or  southward  side  of  Tampa  Bay,  but  these  are  quite  cer- 
tainly not  the  mounds  referred  to  as  occupied  at  the  time  of  De  Soto. 
They  are  either  islands,  or  contiguous  to  islands.  Nevertheless  one  of 
them  was  apparently  connected  with  a  later  series  of  earth-works  which 
seem  to  have  been  subsidiary,  like  those  of  Pine  Island,  Xaples  and  the 
Caloosahatchee  region.  It  was  in  the  region  of  these  latter,  and  of  the 
Okeechobee,  that  the  renowned  Chief  Sequene  and  his  successors,  rulers 
over  the  Caloosas,  held  sway,  and  it  was  principally  among  these  peo- 
ple— far  inland,  and  more  than  a  hundi'ed  miles  northeastwardly  from 
the  Key  Marco  region,  that  Fontaneda  seems  to  have  lived.  That  the 
particular  peoples  mentioned  by  him  were  not  the  same  as  the  key 
dwellers  proper — certainly  not  the  same  in  period  and  degree  of  develop- 
ment— may  be  inferred  from  the  single  fact  that  they  were,  as  Dr.  Brin- 
ton  quotes,  "fine  archers  ;  "  whereas,  I  have  shown  that  the  true  key 
dwellers  were  not  possessed  of  the  bow  at  r.ll,  but  used  atlatls  and 
throwing  arrows  instead,  and  were  not  unacquainted,  apparently,  with 
the  blow  gun, — both,  I  may  remark,  distinctively  South  American  types 
of  weapon.  That  they  derived  these  and  other  things  already  de- 
scribed, from  the  Arawaks  of  a  period  suflficiently  remote  to  allow  time 
for  their  domestication — so  to  say — in  this  region,  still  seems  to  me 
probable. 

While  there  is  much  to  indicate  the  comparatively  recent  introduction 
into  both  the  Antilles  and  Florida  of  the  Caribbean  element,  it  seems  to 
me  almost  certain  that  if,  as  is  generally  affirmed,  the  Arawaks  were  the 
true  aborigines  of  the  Greater  Antilles,  then  thej'  must  have  reached 
those  islands  much  more  anciently  than  Dr.  Brintou  is  inclined  to  allow, 
— for  some  of  the  cave  remains  already  found  there  give  positive  indica- 
tion of  high  antiquit,y.  Again  authorities  disagree  as  to  the  linguistic 
evidence  of  Antillean — Carib  and  Arawak — connection  with  the  natives 
of  southern  Florida.  An  impartial  examination  of  published  and  unpub- 
lished vocabularies  convinces  me  that  there  is  quite  as  much  to  prove 
such  connection  as  has  been  ])rought  fcn-ward  1o  i)rove  Maskokian  con- 


1896.]  **'  [Cushiug. 

nection,  the  number  of  correspondences  between  the  Arawak  and  the 
Timucua  and  between  the  Timucua  and  Maskoki,  being,  for  example, 
about  equal,  and  quite  as  readily  explicable  in  both  cases  on  the  score 
of  acculturation  or  borrowing,  as  on  that  of  descent.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  I  have  regarded  archieologic  evidence  on  this  question  of  connec- 
tions, as  equal  to,  and  in  some  waj's  superior  to,  linguistic  evidence  ;  and 
a  combination  of  tlie  two  kinds  of  testimony  as  superior  to  either.  Wlien, 
for  instance,  we  find  that  the  same  word  in  both  Carib  and  Timucua  sig- 
nifiesnotonly  "Fish-pond"  butalso  "  Vegetable  garden,"  and  when  we 
consider  this  in  connection  with  the  evidence  I  discovered  on  all  the 
ancient  keys,  of  the  actual  filling  in  offish-ponds  or  enclosures  to  form 
of  them  vegetable  gardens,  it  seems  to  me  we  have  quite  strong  indica- 
tion of  a  wide-spread  practice,  commonly  derived,  by  all  these  peoples. 

If  the  linguistic  evidence  relative  to  connections  either  toward  the 
north  or  toward  the  south,  of  the  ancient  key  dwellers,  is  thus  far  so 
scant  as  to  be  inconclusive,  this  is  to  a  certain  extent  also  the  case  with 
the  evidence  afforded  by  the  human  remains  we  collected.  In  justice 
to  Dr.  Putnam  I  must  state  here  that  the  series  of  skulls  in  my  collec- 
tions, examined  by  him,  were  not  the  key-dweller  skulls.  They  were 
skulls  derived  from  the  Anclote  region,  and  like  those  he  mentions  as 
previously  collected  by  Dr.  Wyman  and  Mr.  Clarence  Moore,  were 
exhumed  from  sand  mounds.  The  true  key-dweller  skulls  found  by  us 
in  the  muck  beds  at  Marco  and  in  the  bone  pit  on  Sanybel  Island,  num- 
ber only  thirteen,  but  they  are  pronounced  to  be,  by  Dr.  Harrison 
Allen,  who  is  studying  them  preparatory  to  full  publication,  uniformly 
distinct  from  those  of  more  northerly  and  easterly  parts  of  Florida.  In 
the  first  place,  the  occipital  foramime  of  these  remarkable  skulls  are 
abnormally  large  and  remain  open  in  even  the  most  mature  of  them, — a 
characteristic  seen  in  only  one  cranium  of  our  northern  series.  In  the 
second  place,  a  curious  feature  of  all  these  key-dweller  skulls  is  that  in 
no  case  is  the  occiput  flattened.  Finally,  they  are  found  to  be  more 
nearly  of  the  Antillean  type,  judged,  it  is  true,  by  only  one  or  two 
specimens  of  the  latter  examined  by  Dr.  Allen,  than  of  the  northern 
Indian  type. 

In  connection  with  this,  it  is  significant  that  the  skulls  of  two  dogs,  in 
our  collections  from  the  muck,  were  commented  upon  by  the  late  Prof. 
Edward  D.  Cope,  as  apparently,  almost  certainly,  skulls  of  the  species 
of  dog  common  in  Incan  times  to  the  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  Highlands. 

Likewise  in  justice  to  Dr.  Putnam,  I  must  again  state  here  that  while 
there  icas  pottery  not  only  on  the  terraces,  but  also  in  the  muck  depos- 
its, of  the  keys,  even  of  the  southernmost  keys  I  examined  ;  still,  the 
specimens  I  exhibited  before  the  Society — three  in  number — so  closely 
resembled  the  wooden  objects  of  the  same  general  kind,  also  exhibited 
and  in  greater  number,  that  they  may  well  have  been  mistaken  for 
vessels  of  wood  unless  particularly  dwelt  upon.  It  is  a  curious  fact 
that  of  all  the  pottery  discovered  by  us  actually  in  the  muck  deposit  of 


•Cushiug.]  44o  [Xov.  6,  1896. 

Key  Marco,  only  tray-shaped  vessels,  aad  either  shallow,  or  hemispheri- 
■cal  and  deep,  sooty,  cooking-,  or  heating-bowls  of  black  earthenware, 
were  found.  Nearly  all,  as  was  to  be  expected,  were  crushed  ;  yet 
from  among  the  numerous  sherds  carefully  saved  in  lots,  Mr.  Bergmann 
and  I  have  succeeded  in  bringing  together  the  parts  of  not  fewer  than 
fifteen  examples,  of  various  sizes  ;  and  we  hope  to  restore  yet  others. 
One  small,  shallow  bowl,  a  fragment  of  which  I  exhibited  to  the  Society, 
has  happily  been  almost  completely  restored.  It  contains  a  quite 
thick  mass  of  black  rubber  gum — intermixed  with  crushed  shell  and 
other  substance — of  precisely  the  kind  that  was  used  for  cement  and 
paint  material  as  described  in  the  text.  Other  and  larger  examples  con- 
tain almost  equally  thick  coatings  of  partly  charred  food,  inside,  and 
like  all  the  rest,  incrustations  of  soot,  outside. 

No  relics  found  by  us  in  the  muck  so  completely  evidenced  the  use  of 
the  water  courts  in  which  the  deposits  occurred,  as  places  of  actual 
residence,  as  did  these  fire-vessels. 

Only  a  single  ornamental  fragment  was  found.  This  was  the  conven- 
tional figurehead  of  a  crested  bird,  quite  such  as  is  found  on  many  of 
the  traylike  bowls  of  earthenware  from  the  ancient  mounds  of  the 
Mississippi  valley.  But  it  had  been  drilled  and  reshaped,  to  some  ex- 
tent, to  serve  as  a  weight  or  pendant.  On  the  contiguous  heights,  how- 
ever, and  on  the  heights  of  nearly  all  the  keys,  especially  towards  the 
North,  I  collected  many  examples  of  more  elaborate,  more  decorative 
and  varied  potter3%  much  of  it  so  distinct,  in  truth,  from  the  potterj'  of 
the  muck,  that  I  was  somewhat  puzzled  to  explain  it  as  the  work  of  the 
same  people,  at  least  in  the  same  period  of  their  development ;  and, 
indeed,  it  may  be  that  in  part  this  pottery  of  the  heights  is  later,  and 
even  perliaps  represents  to  some  degree  the  work  of  later  peoples. 

I  can  only  add  here  more  deliberately  than  was  possible,  of  course,  in 
my  spoken  address,  an  expression  of  my  continued  appreciation  of  the 
kindly  comments  with  which  Dr.  Brinton  favored  me,  and  with  which 
Dr.  Putnam  both  opened  and  closed  his  discussion,] 


NDEX  TO  VOLUME  XXXV. 


Page. 

AckQOwledgments  of  election 68 

Aparicio,  Julian,  appointment  as  Director  of  Observatorio  Meteorol.  y  Astrou.,  San 

Salvador 307 

Appropriation  for  signature  book 298 

Argon,  tube  containing,  exhibited        36 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Factors  of  Organic  Evolution 76,88,110,113 

Barber,  E.  A.,  Resignation  of 307 

Berlin,  Georges,  presented 74 

Bertkau,  Philipp,  death  of 15 

Biddle,  Craig,  representative  at  the  Sesqui-centennial  of  Princeton  University  ....     76 

Bonvvill,  W.  G.  A.,  photograph 71 

Brinton,  D.  G.,  remarks  on  identification  of  the  Libyans  with  the  Neolithic  tribes  .  .     67 

Resolution  on  papers  by  non-members 68 

Obituary,  Henry  Hazlehurst 75 

Factors  of  Organic  Evolution 77,  111 

Representative  to  the  International  Congress  of  Geologists,  St.  Petersburg    .  .  .    200 

Representative  at  meeting  in  memory  of  G.  Brown  Goode 308 

Vocabulary  of  the  Xoanama  Dialect  of  the  Choco  Stock 202 

Remarks  on  Remains  of  Ancient  Key  Dwellers  on  the  Gulf  Coast  of  Florida. .  .     433 

Carbutt,  on  RiJntgen  ray       12,  33 

Cassell,  Mr.,  Benjamin Rittenhouse 308 

Catalogue  of  Stock      ...  290 

■Chicago  Historical  Society,  invitation  from 302 

Clarkf,  Thomas,  photograph .5 

Committee  on  Finance 309 

On  Library,  appropriation  for 76 

On  the  Elegibility  of  a  Candidate  and  Electors 3,  5, 11 

On  the  Fossils  of  the  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas 201 

On  Hilprechfs  Paper 5,  10 

On  Premiums 15 

On  Quarterly  Meetings 15,  16,  308 

On  Messr.s.  Bitter  and  Smith's  Paper 37 

( )n  Special  Meetings 16,  39,  75,  290 

Committees,  Standing,  appointed 5 

-Conklin,  E.  G.,  Factors  of  Organic  Evolution 76,78 

■Cope,  E.  D..  On  Certain  Types  of  Saurians 3 

Obituary,  J.  A.  Ryder 5 

On  the  Structure  of  Heads  of  Certain  Cetaceans 11 

Remarks  on  tablet  from  Nippur 71 

Investigation  of  the  remains  found  at  Port  Kennedy 15 

Pleistocene 75 

Marine  Miocene  Fauna 118 

Second  Contribution  to  the  History  of  the  Cotylosauria       122 

Sixth  Contribution  to  the  Knowledge  of  the  Marine  Miocene  Fauna  of  North 

America       139 

On  the  Evolution  of  the  Teeth  of  Mammalia 2s9 

■Curators,  report  on  :Mr.  Meehan's  letter 11 

Report  on  collections  of  coins  and  medals. 71 

Ou.shing,  F.  H.,  introduced 291 

Remains  of  Ancient  Key  Dwellers  on  the  Gulf  Coast  of  Florida 295,329,441 

Representative  at  meeting  in  memory  of  G.  Brown  Goode 308 


450 

Page. 

Doremus,  C.  A,  Ou  Identification  of  Colored  Inks  by  Absorption  Spectra 71 

Election  of  Officers 1 

Electric  Storage  Battery  Renting  Co.,  thanks  tendered  to 12 

Factors  of  Organic  Evolution,  Cope,  E.  D 70,  77 

Conklin,  E.  G 76,  78 

Bailey,  L.  H 76,  88, 110,  113 

Brinton,  D.  G 77,  111 

Farr,  M.  S.,  Osteology  of  the  White  River  Horses 118,  147 

Foggo,  A.  E.,  photograph 10 

Frazer,  Persifor,  motion • 5,  12 

Representative    of  A.    P.    S.   to   International    Congress     of  Geologists,    St. 

Petersburg 201 

Symbols  made  by  the  phonographic  stylus 202 

Furness,  W.H.,  3rd,  Journey  in  Borneo  and  Loo-Choo  Islands 307 

Glimpses  of  Borneo 309 

Furnishing  North  Room 290 

Gill,  Thomas  N.,  representative  at  meeting  in  memory  of  G.  Brown  Goode 308 

Goddard,  Martha  Freeman,  The  Second  Abdominal  Segment  m  a  Few  Libellulidse  .    205 

Goode,  G.  Brown,  memorial  meeting 291,  308 

Good  Friday    .       68 

Goodspeed,  A.  W.,  on  the  ROntgeu  ray 12, 17 

Goodwin,  Harold,  motion,  signature  book 298 

Green,  Dr.,  motion 11 

Resolution  of  inquiry 67 

Hazlehnrst,  Henry,  obituary 75 

Hiller,  H.  M.,  Journey  in  Borneo  and  Loo-Clioo  Islands 307 

A  Brief  Report  of  a  Journey  up  the  Rejang  River  in  Borneo 321 

Hilprecht,  H.  V.,  on  old  Babylonian  inscriptions     5 

Researches  in  Babylonian  civilization  and  chronology 297 

Horn,  G.  H.,  nominated  for  Librarian 2 

Elected  Librarian .> 

Difficulties  of  reporting  unwritten  dialects 202 

Houston,  E.  J.,  remarks  on  Rontgeu  ray 12,  2-1 

Ingham,  W.  A.,  motion 3 

International  Congress  of  Geologists,  St.  Petersburg 200,201 

Jenner,  Dr.,  copy  of  bronze  medal  in  commemoration  of 297 

Joly  Process  of  Color  Photography 118,  119 

Kelvin,  Lord,  Semi-centennial  Jubilee 68,  76 

Laws,  amendment  considered 6 

Leonard,  Charles  L.,  New  Physical  Property  of  the  X-Ray  . 298 

Librarian  authorized  to  purchase  odd  numbers  to  fill  deficiencies  in  the  Society's 

publications 290 

Librarian  nominated 2 

Elected 5 

Lyman,  B.  S.,  nominated  for  Librarian  ....  2 

Meehan,  Thomas,  letter  offering  to  take  in  hand  the  labeling  the  South  American 

plants  belonging  to  the  A.  P.  S 3,5 

Meetings,  1896,  adjourned,  February  28 13 

Special,  appointed 15,  16,  308 

Stated,  January  3 .  .   .  1 

January  17 3 

February,  7 6 

February  21 12 

March  6 36 

March  20 65 

April  10 68 

April  17 74 


451 

Pape, 

Meetings,  1896,  Stated,  May  1        76 

May  15 115 

September,  4 193 

September  18     .   .   : 200 

October  2 286 

October  16.  .    '. 291 

November  6 294 

December  4 302 

December  18 307 

Members  elected : 

A.  E.  Kennelly 16 

W.  P.  Mason 16 

•       H.  C.  McCook 16 

H.  Pettit 16 

E.  S.  Dana 118 

C.  H.  Henderson 119 

C.  S.  Minot 119 

L.  H.  Bailey 119 

W.  H.  Welch 119 

M.  I.  Pupin 119 

T.  A.  Edison 119 

E.  C.  Pickering 119 

F.  H.  Gushing 119 

T.  M.  Prudden 119 

J.  Trowbridge 119 

N.  Tesla 119 

A.  W.  Writfht 119 

H.  A.  Rowland 119 

A.  W.  Goodspeed 119 

Harrison  Allen 293 

E.  Bastin .  , 293 

W.  F.  Magie 309 

G.  A.  Lewis 309 

B.  W.  Frazier 309 

Membership,  acceptance  of: 

M.  I.  Pupin 193 

N.  Tesla 193 

T.  A.  Edison 193 

A.  W.  Goodspeed , 193 

C.  H.  Henderson 193 

H.  A.  Rowland 193 

W.  H.  Welch 193 

C.  S.  Minot       193 

J.  Trowbridge 193 

E.  C.  Pickering 193 

E.  8.  Dana 193 

A.  W.  Wright 193 

L.  H.  Bailey  . 193 

Harrison  Allen 294 

E.  S.  Bastin 294 

Members  deceased : 

H.  Hazlehurst 5 

W.  H.  Furness 11 

H.  Reed 16 

O.  J.  Wister 16 

Hon.  William  Strong 71 

J.  B.  L6on  Say 76 


452 


Members  deceased :  Page. 

E.  Curtius 199 

G.  A.  Daubr6e 199 

A.  Hovelacque 199 

W.  R.  Grove 199 

J    Prestwich 200 

J.  D.  Whitney 200 

L.  A.  Scott 200 

H.  D.  Wireman 200 

H.  A.  Newton 200 

G.  B.  Goode 202 

J.  B.  Townsend 293 

F.  Miiller 293 

B.  W.   Richardson   .          • 303 

B.  A.  Gould 303 

Minot,  I.  S.,  letter 76 

Morehouse,  G.  R.,  obituary  L.  A.  Scott 201 

Morris,  J.  C,  motion 5,  298 

On  Genesis  xi.  1-9  as  a  Poetic  Fragment 305 

Remarks  on  shadow  pictures 37 

Representarive  of  A.  P.  S.  at  Semi-centennial  Jubilee  of  Lord  Kelvin 76 

Miiseo  Nacional  de  Buenos  Aires  requesting  deficiencies 294 

Museum  Hall  of  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  invitation  to  the  opening  of 293 

Nominations     3,  5,  11,  15,  38,  67,  71,  76,  77,  200,  202,  290,  293,  309 

Obituaries  ordered  : 

Henry  Hazlehurst,  by  D.  G.  Brinton 11 

W.  J.  Potts,  by  F.  D.  Stone 11 

W.  H.  Furuess.  by  J.  G.  Rosengarten 16 

G.  A.  DaubrtSe,  by  J.  P.  Lesley 201 

L.  A.  Scott,  by  G.  R.  Morehouse 201 

Obituaries  read  : 

J.  A.  Ryder     5 

W.  H.  Furness 67 

Henry  Phillips,  Jr 118 

Ortman,  A.  E.,  Natural  Selection  and  Separation 118, 175 

Papers  by  non-members          118 

Papers  presented  for  publication  by  J.  B.  Smith  and  W.  McKnight  Ritter 16 

Pasteur,  monument  to 307 

Patterson,  R.  M.,  portrait 118 

Pepper,  Ed w..  Eucalyptus  in  Algeria  and  Txmisia 37,39 

Pepper,  William,  remarks  on  Rontgeii  ray  .  .      12,  34 

Mexican  antiquities           .  .          303 

Prehistoricobjectsof  terra-cotta 303 

Petut,  Henry,  presented 36 

Phillips   Henry,  Jr.,  obituary 118 

Pnotographs : 

Thomas  Clarke 5 

E.  A.  Foggo 10 

W.  G.  A.  Bonwill 71 

P.  Topinard 199 

E  W.  Claypole  .   ■  .   ., 303 

Relics  found  in  Egypt 118 

Portrait,  R.  M.  Patterson     ilS 

Eli  K.  Price 37 

Potts,  W.  J.,  obituary  of. 303 

I'rice,  Eli  K.,  portrait  of 37 

Price,  J.  Sergeant,  motion 5 

Resolution,  printing  ballots       309 


453 

Page. 

Princeton  University,  Semi-centennial 76 

Putnam,  P.  W.,  Remarks  on  Remains  of  Ancient  Key  Dwellers  on  the  Gulf  Coast  of 

Florida 438 

Representatives  at  memorial  to  G.  Brown  Goode 303 

Rittenhouse,  Benjamin,  death  and  burial 308 

Robb,  on  Rontgen  ray        12,  32 

Rontgen  ray,  remarks  by  A.  VV.  Goodspeed 17 

E.  J.  Houston  ...       24 

Julius  P.  Sachse 28 

John  Carbutt 33 

William  Pepper 34 

Jos  Wharton 12,  31 

Prof  Robb 12,  32 

Rosengarten,  J.  G.,  obituary,  W.  H.  Furness 67 

Ryder,  J.  A.,  obituary  of 5 

Rykatchew,  M.,  letter 193 

Sachse,  J.  P.,  presented  two  pictures 10 

On  Kontgen  ray 12,  28 

Joly  Process  of  Color  Photography 118,  119 

Sanchez,  Don  Alberto,  death  of 307 

Sharp,  Benjamin,  letter  from 6 

Signature  book 118,  298 

Smith.  G.  H.,  letter 6 

Smith,  J.  P.,  Marine  Fossils  of  the  Coal  Measures  of  Arkansas 200,213 

Smyth,  A.  H.,  obituary,  Henry  Phillips,  Jr ,       118 

Soci6t6  Imp.  Russe  de  Geogi-aphie,  St.  Petersburg,  invitation  from 3 

Soci6t6  Physico  MathSmatique  de  Kasan,  invitation  from 193 

Society  of  Colonial  Wars,  invitation  from 291 

Society  Hougroise  de  Geographic,  Budapest,  invitation  from 294 

Stevenson,  Mrs.  Cornelius,  on  the  remains  of  the  foreigners  discovered  in  Eg^ypt  by 

Mr.  Plinders-Petrie 56 

On  the  recent  discovery  in  Egypt  of  non-Egyptian  remains 67 

Stone,  F.  D.,  obituary  of  WilUam  J.  Potts         303 

Sulzberger,  Hon.  Mayer,  to  prepare  obituary  notice  of  Joseph  B.  Townsend 296 

Tovvnsend,  Joseph  B.,  obituary  notice  of,  to  be  prepared 296 

University  of  Gla^-gow,  letter  . 68 

University  of  Princeton,  invitation 68 

University  of  Virginia,  request 3 

Wharton,  Jos  ,  on  Rontgen  ray 12,  31 

Wistar  Institute,  acknowledgment  of  busts 308 


rj 


PROCEEDINGS  AM.  PHIL.  SOC. 


VOL.  XXXV,  No.  150,  PLATE   1, 


PICTURE  TAKEN   DURING  THE  DEMONSTRATION   OF  THE  RONTGEN    RAYS  AT  THE 
MEETING  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY   HELD  FEBRUARY  7,    1896. 


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1^ 


Location  of  Ancient  Shell  Settlements  of  Key  Marco  and  the  Ten  Thousand  Islands  on  the  Gidf  Coast  of  Florida, 
in  relation  to  Currents  of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 


PROCEEDINGS  AM.   PHILOS.   SOC. 


VOL.   XXXV,    No.    153,    PLATE   XXVIIL 


1^-. 


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Plan  and  Elevation  of  Ancient  Shell  Island  or  Settlement  of 
Demorey's  Key,  in  Pine  Island  Sound. 


be 

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o 


PROCEEDINGS  AM.  PHILOS.  SOC. 


VOL.  XXXV,  No.  153,  PLATE   XXX. 


r-^^x  -x^i  v:'V^°'-"^-'-^ 


THE  PtPPEH-HEAHST  EXPEDITION. 

THE  ANCIENT  SHELL  SETTLEMENT 

KEY  MARCO 


Topographic  Map  of  Key  Marco,  showing  Sea- wall,  Water-courts,  Canals,  Cenotes  or 
Round  Reservoirs,  Garden-terraces  and  Central  Mounds. 


No,  153.     Plate  mi. 


Plan  U)id  Heclioii  of  the  "  CuHit  uf  the  File  DiceUers,"  at  Key  Minco,  shoiring  Locatiuiis  of  E.ccavittiuns  niid  FituJf! 


ProMedings  ftmer.  Ptiilos.  Soc, 


Ti/pes  of  Implements  and  Weapons  ;   Toy  Canoes  and  Paddle. 


Animal  Figure-heads  with  correspondingly  Painted  Human  Masks. 


Proceedings  ker,  Ptiilos,  Soc, 


Types  of  Sacred  Pahited  Tnhlefs  and  f^hell,  and  of  Utensils 


Proceeiiings  ker,  Philos,  Soc, 


Ti/cMji/^.S^ 


StatueUe  of  the.  Lion  or  Panther-God  :  FhjKre-heud  of  Deer  :  eoiiip<ir'iso)L  of  Ken  T)ireUer 
Types  of  Ceremonial  Paraphernalia,  etc.,  with  Delineations  on  Ancient  Copper  Plate 
from  the  Etowah  Mound  of  Georqia. 


TRANSACTIONS 

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American  Philosophical  Society, 

Held  at  Philadelphia, 
For  Promoting  Useful  Knowledge. 


Vol.  XVIII,  New  Series,  ^to,  pp.  282,  with  jo  Plates. 
Lately  published. 

CONTENTS. 

Art.     I.— Old  Babylonian  Inscriptions,  Chiefly  from  Nippur.     Part 

I.  By  H.  V.  HiLPRECHT,  Ph.D. 

Art.  II. — The  Mammalia  of  the  Deep  River  Beds.  By  W.  B. 
Scott. 

Art.  III.— The  Classification  of  the  Ophidia.     By  E.  D.  Cope. 

Art.  IV.— Old  Babylonian  Inscriptions,  Chiefly  from  Nippur.     Part 

II.  By  H.  V.  HILPRECHT,  Ph.D. 

Vol.  XIX,  New  Series,   Part  I,  ^f.to,  pp.  ig8,   wilh  j 
Plates.     y^Lst  p^iblished. 

CONTENTS. 

Art.  I. — A  New  Method  of  Determining  the  General  Perturba- 
tions of  the  Minor  Planets.  By  William  McKnight 
RiTTER,  M.A. 

Art  II.— An  Essay  on  the  Development  of  the  Mouth  Parts  of 
Certain  Insects.    By  John  B.  Smith,  Sc.D. 


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104  South  Fifth  Street,  Philadelpliia,  U.  S.  A.,  and  shall  distinguish  his 
performance  by  some  motto,  device,  or  other  signature.  With  his  dis- 
covery, invention,  or  improvement,  he  shall  also  send  a  sealed  letter 
containing  the  same  motto,  device,  or  signature,  and  subscribed  with  the 
real  name  and  place  of  residence  of  the  author. 

2.  Persons  of  any  nation,  sect  or  denomination  whatever,  shall  be 
admitted  as  candidates  for  this  premium, 

3.  No  discovery,  invention  or  improvement  shall  be  entitled  to  this 
premium,  which  hath  been  already  publibhed,  or  for  which  the  author 
hath  been  publicly  rewarded  elsewhere. 

4:  The  candidate  shall  communicate  his  discovery,  invention  or  im- 
provement, either  in  the  English,  French,  German,  or  Latin  language. 

5.  A  full  account  ot  the  crowned  subject  shall  be  published  by  the 
Society,  as  soon  as  may  be  after  the  atljudication,  either  in  a  separate 
pubUcation,  or  in  the  next  succeeding  volume  of  their  Transactions,  or 
in  both. 

6.  The  premium  shall  consist  of  an  oval  plate  of  sohd  standard  gold 
of  the  value  often  guineas,  suitably  inscribed,  with  the  seal  of  the  Society 
annexed  to  the  medal  by  a  ribbon. 


All  correspondence  in  relation  hereto  should  be  addressed 
To  THE  Secretaries  of  the 

American  Philosophical  Society, 

No.  104  South  Fifth  Street, 

PHILADELPHIA,  U.  S.  A. 


«V 


3  2044  093  310  530 


Date  Due 


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