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HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
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MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.
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PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR
PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE,
VOL. XXXVII.
JANUARY TO DECEMBER, 1898.
PHILADELPHIA :
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
: '^1898.
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
Ij-HHf
Mil) AT PHILADELPHIA FOE PROMOTING USEFUL RIWIEDGE.
Vol. XXXVII. JuLr, 1898. No. 15T.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Stated Meeting^ January 7, 1898 3
The Altitude of the Aurora above the Earth's Surface. By
Cleveland A bbe 4
Stated Meeting, January 21^ 1898 T
Description of Four New Species of Bocinela, with a Synop-
sis of the Genus. By Harriet Richardson 8
Specializations of the Lepidopterous Wing ; the Pieri-Nym-
phalid8e(with plates). By A. Radcliffe Grote, A.M.. 17
An Old Broadside, with a Reference to the Throne of Con-
gress (with plate). By Julius F. Sachse 45
Stated Meeting^ February ^, 1898 51
Stated Meeting, February 18, 1898 52
Stated Meeting, 3Iarch 4, 1898 53
Stated Meeting, March 18, 1898 54
Initiation Ceremonies of Australian Tribes (with plate).
By R. H. Mathews, L.S 54
Preliminary Note on the Selenodont Artiodactyls of the
Uinta Formation. By W. B. Scott ^ 73
Stated Meeting, April 1, 1898 81
Notes on Kansan Drift in Pennsylvania. By Prop. Ed-
ward H. Williams, Jr 84
A Note on the History of the Jefferson Manuscript Draught
of the Declaration of Independence in the Library of the
American Philosophical Society. By I. Minis Ha^s, M.D. 88
The Genesis of Bitumens as Related to Chemical Geology.
By S. F. Peckham 108
Herpetological Notes. By John Van Denburgh 139
Stated Meeting, April 15, 1898 142
A Journal Kept During the Siege of Fort William Henry,
August, 1757. By I. Mknis Hays, M.D 143
Divisions of Australian Tribes. By R. H. Mathews, L.S . . 151
Stated Meeting, May 6, 1898 1 54
Adjourned Meeting, May 13, 1898 155
Stated Meeting, 3Iay 20, 1898 , 162
The Production of an Asphalt Resembling Gilsonite by the
Distillation of a Mixture of Fish and Wood (with plate).
By William C. Day 171
philadelphia :
The American Philosophical Society,
104 South Fifth Street,
1898.
Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay.
Philadelphia, 104 South Fifth Street,
April 5, 1897.
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY held at
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge has the honor
to announce that an award of the Henry M. Phillips Prize will be
made during the year 1899 ; essays for the same to be in the posses-
sion of the Society before the first day of May, 1899. The subject
upon which essays are to be furnished by competitors is :
The development of the law, as illustrated by the
decisions relating to the police power of the State.
The essay shall not contain more than one hundred thousand
words, excluding notes. Such notes, if any, should be kept sepa-
rate as an Appendix.
The Prize for the crowned essay will be two thousand dollars
lawful gold coin of the United States, to be paid as soon as may be
after the award. The Society invites attention to the regulations
governing said prize, which accompany this circular.
William V. McKean, Craig Biddle, Mayer Sulzberger,
C. Stuart Patterson, Joseph C. Fraley, Frederick Fraley,
President of the Society, Horace Jayne, M.D.,^ Ireasurer
of the Society, Conwtittee on the Henry M.. Phillips Prize
Essay Fund.
The essays must be sent addressed to Frederick Fraley,
President of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
* Elected Treasurer American Philosophical Society, January 7, 1898, in place of J. Sergeant
Price, Esq., deceased, August 16, 1897.
RKGUIvATIONS.
Competitors for the prize shall affix to their essays some motto or name fnot the
proper name of the author, however), and when the essay is forwarded to the Society
it shall be accompanied by a sealed envelope, containing within, the proper name of
the author, and, on the outside thereof, the motto or name adopted for the essay.
At a stated meeting of the Society, in pursuance of the advertisement, all essays
received up to that time shall be referred to a Committee of Judges, to consist of five
persons, who shall be selected by the Society from nomination of ten persons made
by thf Standing Committee on the Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund.
1 iv may be written in English, French, German, Dutch, Italian, Spanish or
I- if in any language except English, must be accompanied by an English
tr. T i\e same.
or essay shall be entitled to compete for the prize that has been
! ^>r printed, or for which the author has received already any prize,
piofil, or lionur, of any nature whatsoever.
All pssavs mu3t be c/earij; and legibly written or printed on one side of the
paper '
'"'■ ioperty of such essays shall be in their authors, subject to the right
' publish the crowned essay in its Transactions or Proceedings.
AUG 2 iggs
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOE PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
Vol. XXXVII. Januaky, 1898. No. 157.
Stated Meeting^ January 7, 1898.
Dr. J. 0. MoREis in the Chair.
Present, 17 members.
Dr. T. J. J. See and Mr. S^^dney Geo. Fisher, newly elected
members, Avere presented tv. .ae Chair and took their seats.
Acknowledgments of election to membership were read
from Messrs. Charles De Garmo, Arnold E. Ortmann, Thomas
J. J. See, Alden Sampson, Sydney George ¥isher, Benjamin
Kendall Emerson, Francis L, Patton, Edward S. Holden, and
Ethelbert Dndley Warfield.
x\n invitation was received from the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, to participate in a memorial meet-
ing commemorative of Harrison Allen, M.D., and George H.
Horn, M.D., to be held at the Academy on December 31, at
8 o'clock.
The Judges and Tellers of the annual election reported the
following officers elected for the ensuing year :
President.
Frederick Fraley.
Vice- Presidents.
E. Otis Kendall, William Pepper, Coleman Sellers.
Secretaries.
Persifor Frazer, I. Minis Hays, Frederick Prime,
S. P. Sadtler.
Curators.
J. Cheston ^[orris, Benjamin Smith Lyman, Henry Pettit.
4 ABBE — THE ALTITUDE OF THE AURORA. [Jan. 7,
Treasurer.
Horace Jayne.
Councillors for three years.
Henry C. Baird, Isaac J. Wistar, Jacob M. DaCosta.
Councillor for one year^ to fill an unexpired term.
Georsje F. Edmunds.
Dr. I. Minis Hajs was nominated for Librarian for tlie
ensuing year.
Prof. Cleveland Abbe read a paper on " The Accepted
Altitude of the Aurora Borealis."
Mr. Sachse and Mr. Cook offered some remarks in dis-
cussion.
Dr. T. J. J. See presented a paper for the Transactions on
" The Evolution of the Stellar Systems," which was dis-
cussed by Prof. Doolittle, Prof. Sn3^der, Dr. See and Prof.
Abbe.
The Society was adjourned by the presiding member.
THE ALTITUDE OF THE AURORA ABOVE THE
EARTH'S SURFACE.
BY CLEVELAND ABBE.
(Mead January 7, 1S9S. )
During the past three centuries numerous observers and physicists,
astronomers and magneticians have endeavored to contribute to our
knowledge of the altitude of the region whence the auroral light
proceeds, and still the greatest diversity of opinion seems to prevail
on this subject. Some observers have seen the light in such posi-
tions between themselves and neighboring objects as to demonstrate
that the aurora, like the lightning, descends to the very surface of
the earth and may even be entirely confined to the lowest stratum :
prominent among these are Captain Parry, Sir James Clark Ross
and Sir John Ross, his uncle. Dr. Walker and Prof. J. P. Lesley.
Others, such as Dr. Richardson, Sir John Franklin, Silbermann,
have seen it so located among the clouds that its origin must be placed
at or below their level and, therefore, within a few thousand feet
of the earth's surface. On the other hand, those who have calcu-
1898.] ABBE — THE ALTITUDE OF THE AURORA. 5
lated the altitudes of specific beams and arches by trigonometrical
or equivalent methods have generally found figures indicating alti-
tudes between twenty and a hundred miles. Perhaps the highest
altitudes that have been deduced were the following : Dalton, 150
miles; Loomis, 400 to 600; Bergman, 468; Boscovich, 825;
Fournerius, 1006; Twining, iioo ; Boiler, 2000 kilometers, or
1243 miles.
Those who delight in numerical calculations accept these larger
altitudes and content themselves with saying that the altitude of the
aurora ranges from 50 miles upward to 1000. The experimental
physicists, by studying the analogies between the auroral light
and the discharge of electricity through vacuum tubes, have shown
that the auroral phenomena harmonize in part at least with those
observed in vacua such as might occur at moderate altitudes. Thus,
Miller and De La Rue give altitudes of from ten to forty miles.
Espy and Bache maintained that observers a few miles apart did
not and could not have observed the same arches. The most care-
ful observers have in many cases defended the accuracy of the
observations made under circumstances that admit of no doubt that
the auroral light in the free atmosphere often emanates from points
within a few yards of the observer.
Lemstrom has sought to reconcile the diverse conclusions by
maintaining that while many auroras are quite high up and belong
to the upper air, yet those in extreme northern latitudes most
generally belong to the lowest strata and follow the unevenness of
the ground, appearing as glows around the mountain top, or as rays
directed toward prominent objects.
The object of the present paper is to study some of the numerous
observations, calculations and opinions bearing on the nature and
the altitude of the auroral light. We shall not especially consider
the electrical origin, or the source of the electricity, but simply ac-
quiesce in the universal conviction that it really is one form of
electrical discharge, our main object being to ascertain whether we
can in any way definitely fix its locus in the atmosphere.
The most instructive method of procedure consists in taking up
the consideration of a number of authorities in chronological order,
by which means one is led to appreciate the slow progress of knowl-
edge and the difficulty which many investigators have felt, from
time to time, in giving up preconceived views without having any-
thing better to accept in their place. There is nothing more diffi-
6 ABBE — THE ALTITUDE OF THE AUEOEA. [Jan. 7,
cult than to recognize the fact that all our ideas are wrong, and that
we are wholly in the dark with regard to the nature of that which
our eyes behold so plainly. How many thousands of years elapsed
before modern science gave us any clue to the true nature of the
rainbow, and how difficult it has been to eradicate from our text-
books the crude ideas of Descartes, Huyghens and Sir Isaac Newton
which made the rainbow to be a phenomenon of dispersion and
substitute the correct view of Thomas Young, who showed it to be
a phenomenon of interference.
Possibly we must go through a similar series of changes in our
views with regard to the auroral light until we recognize that each
observer sees his own aurora as a so-called optical illusion.
There are several forms of optical illusion that are evidently con-
nected with the aurora. Some of these were recognized long
since, while others are still deceiving our senses and perplexing our
calculations.
As we pursue our reading chronologically, among the different
authorities, we shall perceive how one after another is led to suspect
and fully recognize some one or other of these optical or perspec-
tive illusions, while others, inattentive thereto, plunge deeper into
misleading calculations. If, at the end of our consideration of the
subject, we sum up all that has been shown to be probable or
demonstrated to be true, we shall almost necessarily conclude that the
determination of the altitude of the aurora is a much more delicate
problem and perhaps also a more indefinite problem than we have
hitherto believed.
After reviewing the literature of the subject since the time of
Halley, we find that the methods of determining the altitude of
specific features of the aurora may be enumerated as follows: (i)
Parallax method ; (2) Galle's first method ; (3) Galle's second
method ; (4) Bravais' method of amplitudes and its modifications
by Fearnley, Newton, Nordenskiold and Bergmann ; (5) Bravais'
method by the apparent breadth of the arch ; (6) Bravais' velocity
method ; (7) my method, by the simultaneous motion of waves at the
zenith and beam.s above an arch; (8) Gyllenskiold's method, by
the apparent length of the auroral beam.
All these agree in one fundamental assumption, that the observed
beams and arches have an individual existence and a definite locus.
But this assumption is negatived by the equal frequency of negative
and positive parallaxes whenever the parallax method is applied.
1898.] MINUTES. 7
The only conclusion possible is that the observers do not see the
same object, partly because the aurora is too low down and partly
because there are optical illusions due to alignment. We are view-
ing a luminous sheet which is folded and refolded. We are also
viewing a great collection of bright beams and bright pencils of
light parallel to each other like the trees in a forest. Every slight
change in the position of the observer alters the collective appear-
ance of the pencils and the folds. The only method of determining
parallaxes with any- confidence consists in requiring two or more
observers to start at the same point, fixing their attention upon one
feature ; separate to a short distance in opposite directions and re-
turn until they have satisfied themselves that the illusions due to
perspective and alignment are not sufficient to nullify the influence
of parallax.
Stated Meeting^ January 21^ 1898.
Vice-President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, l-i members.
Mr. Alden Sampson, a neAvly elected member, was pre-
sented to the Chair and took his seat.
Acknowledgments of election to membership Ave re received
from Eichard Olney, William H. Dall, Leroj^ W. McCa3\
Mr. Rosengarten read an obituary notice of the late Treas-
urer, J. Sergeant Price, Esq.
Dr. Hays was elected Librarian for the ensuing year.
The appointment of the Standing Committees Avas referred
to the President.
The following papers were presented :
For the Transactions :
Posthumous papers of the late Dr. Harrison Allen on
" The Glossophagin^e ' ' and on
" The Skull and Teeth of the Ectophylla alba." ;
For the Proceedings :
" Specializations in the Lepidopterous Wing — Pieri-
Nymphalidae," by Mr. A. R. Grote.
8 EICHARDSOX — FjUR XEW SPECIES OF ROCINELA. [Jau. 21,
" Description of Four Xew Species of Rocinela, with a
Synopsis of the Genus," by Miss Harriet Eicharclson.
" An Old Broadside, with a Keference to the Throne of
Congress," by Mr. Julius F. Sachse, which was discussed by
Messrs. McKean, Kosengarten, Ilildeburn and Sellers.
The meeting was adjourned by the presiding officer.
DESCRIPTION OF FOUR NEW SPECIES OF ROCINELA,
WITH A SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS.
BY HARRIET RICHARDSON.
{Uead January 21, 1898.)
I.
The species of Rocinela here described were collected by the
steamer Albatross, of the U. S. Fish Commission, during its various
cruises in different localities. One of the species herein described
comes from the Alaskan coast ; another is from the coast of Cuba, off
Havana, and the third comes from the southern part of the Gulf of
California.
The new species exhibit unique characters not found in any other
representatives. One, R. cormita, has the antero-lateral angles of
the first thoracic segment extended forward on each side of the
eyes, but not touching them, thus giving the head the appearance
of being immersed or deeply set in this segment. Another,
R. tuberculosa, presents a row of small tubercles on the posterior
margin of each one of the thoracic and abdominal segments of the
body. In R. cubensis, the frontal margin of the head is greatly pro-
duced into a large rounded process with a concave surface.
The genus Rocinela is now known to include nineteen species,^
of which nine were included in the monograph published in i88o
' A*, lilljeborgii Bovallius {Bihang Sv. Ak. Hand!., 1 885, Vol. x, No, lo,
pp. 3-10, Pis, I, 2) has been referred to the genus Syscenus Harger, and identi-
fied with S. injlexisy Harger's type species (G. O. Sars, "An Account of Ihe
Crustacea of Norway," Vol. ii, Isopoda, Pis. in, iv, pp. 67, 68).
1898.] RICHAKDSOX — FOUR NEW SPECIES OF ROCINELA. 9
by Schioedte and Meinert,' and the others in the order hereinafter
noted.
R. dajimoniensis (pp. 383-389, Tab. xi, Fig. i).
R. insularis (p. 390, Tab. xii, Figs. 1-3).
R. diimerilii {^'^. 391-393, Tab. xii, Figs. 4-6).
R. maculata (pp. 393, 394, Tab. xii. Figs. 10-12).
R. amertcana (pp. 394, 395, Tab. x, Figs. 16-18).
R. orientalis (pp. 395, 396, Tab. xiii. Figs, i, 2).
R. australis i^"^. 397-399, Tab. xii. Figs. 13-15).
R. signatci (pp. 399-401, Tab. xiii-. Fig. 3).
R. aries (pp. 401-403, Tab. xiii, Figs. 7, 8).
R. alaskensis (= /^ga alaskensis Lockington). '^ Description of
Seventeen New Species of Crustacea," Lockington, Pro. Cal.
Acad, of Sciefices, 1876, Vol. vii, Pt. i, p. 46, 1877.
R. vigilans. '' On Some New Australian Marine Isopoda," W. A.
Haswell, Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South
Wales, 1880, Vol. v, p. 472, PI. t6. Fig. 2.
R. ociilata. " Reports on the Results of Dredging, under the Super-
vision of Alexander Agassiz, on the East Coast of the United
States, during the Summer of 1880, by the U. S. Coast Survey
Steamer Blake, Commander J. R. Bartlett, U. S. N., Com-
manding," xxiii, "Report on the Isopoda," Oscar Harger,
Bull. Mus. C. Z., 1883, ^^o\. ix. No. 4, pp. 97-99, PI. 3, Fig 2.
R. spongiocola. " Notes on Tasmanian Crustacea with Descriptions
of New Species," George M. Thomson, Papers and Proceed-
ings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, 1892 (1893), pp. 57,
58, PL 3, Figs. 2>~^.
R. laticauda. '* Reports on the Dredging Operations off the West
Coast of Central America to the Galapagos, to the West Coast
of Mexico, and in the Gulf of California, in charge of Alexan-
der Agassiz, carried on by the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer
Albatross, during 1891, Lieut. -Commander Z. T. Tanner,
U. S. N., Commanding," xxii, "The Isopoda," H. J. Hansen,
Bull. Mus. C. Z., 1897, Vol. xxxi. No. 5, p. 108, PI. 3, Figs.
2, 3-
R. niodesta., op. cit., p. 109.
R. cornuta, sp. nov.
iSymbolaead monographiani Cymothoarum, Crustaceorum, Isopodum, Fami-
liae," J. C. Schioedte et Fr. Meinert, Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift, 1879 — 1880,
Vol. xii, pp. 383-403, Pis. 10-13.
10 EICHARDSON — FOUR NEW SPECIES OF ROCIXELA. rJau.21,
R. ciibensis, sp. nov.
R. japonica, sp. nov.
R. tubei'culosa, sp. nov.
II.
Analytic key of all the known species of Rocinela, with the addi-
tion of four new species. .
a. Eyes contiguous.
b. Head produced into process in front . . . R. oculata Harger.
b' . Head not produced into process in front.
c. Flagellum of second pair of antennae as long as peduncle. .
R. spo7igiocola Thomson.
d . Flagellum of second pair of antennae more than twice as
long as peduncle R. vigilans Haswell.
a . Eyes not contiguous.
b. Flagellum of second pair of antennae with 14-16 joints.
c. Eyes close together.
d. Head with frontal area excavated, bicarinated, front
roundly produced with raised margin
R. da7wioiiiensis Leach.
d' . Head without median excavation, not bicarinated . . .
R. insularis Schioedte and Meinert.
(f . Eyes widely separated.
d. Propodus of prehensile legs with two to four spines.
e. First thoracic segment with antero-lateral angles pro-
duced horn-like at sides of head
R. cornuta, sp. nov.
/. First thoracic segment normal.
/. Frontal margin of head produced.
g. Head tuberculated R. cubensis, sp. nov.
^ . Head not tuberculated.
h. Head with frontal excavation.
/. Front bicarinated. . . . R. dunierilii Leach.
/'. Front not bicarinated . R. japonica, sp. nov.
//. Head without frontal excavation
R. modes fa Hansen.
f. Frontal margin of head not produced.
g. Terminal segment of body linguate ; both branches
of the uropods crenulate on their exterior
margins.
/.
1898.] RICHARDSON — FOUR NEW SPECIES OF ROCINELA. 11
//. Spots present on both sides of the fourth
thoracic segment
7?. viaculata Schioedte and Meinert.
//. Spots wanting on fourth thoracic segment.
i. Spots present on fourth and fifth abdominal
segment and base of terminal segment. .
R. alaskensis'^ (Lockington).
/'. Spots wanting on fourth and fifth abdominal
segments and terminal segment ....
R. a7nericana Schioedte and Meinert.
Terminal segment of body subtriangular ; branches
of uropods not crenulate on their exterior
margins . R. orientalis Schioedte and Meinert.
d'. Propodus of prehensile legs with five or six spines.
e. Increase in breadth of abdomen from base to fourth
segment R- laticauda Hansen.
/. No increase in breadth of abdomen from base to fourth
segment . . , R. aiLstralis Schioedte and Meinert.
b' . Flagellum of second pair of antennae with ten or eleven joints.
c. Tubercles developed on all the segments of the body . . .
R, tuberculosa, sp. nov.
c' . No tubercles developed on body.
d. Terminal segment of body ornamented with a pair of
narrow semi-lunar bands separated by a longitudinal
stripe R- signata Schioedte and Meinert.
d'. Terminal segment of body ornamented with a very wide
crescentiforrn band, from whose posterior border
three large hastiform stripes project backwards.
R. aries Schioedte and Meinert.
^ga belUceps Stimpson {^Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia,
1864, xvi, p. 15s) J is also undoubtedly a Rocinela and may even
prove to be identical with Rocifiela alaskensis (Lockington) in which
case the proper name will be Rocinela belliccps.
^ALga alaskensis Lockington {Froc. Cal. Academy of Sciences, 1876, Vol. vii,
PI. i, p. 46, 1877) must be referred to the genus Rocinela, as it agrees in every
respect with the characteristics of that genus. When identifying yEga alasken-
sis Lockington with Rocinela, I found in conversation with Dr. Benedict that
he had already recognized this relation.
12
EICHARDSOX — FOUR NEW SPECIES OF ROCINELA. [Jan. 21,
III.
Rocinela cornuia, sp. nov. Figs. 1,2.
Length of body, two and one-quarter times its greatest breadth.
Outline, oval; surface smooth, with scattered points of depression.
Head subtriangular, having a medium excavation.
Its frontal margin is produced forward in a long
and broad projection, widely rounded at its ex-
tremity, and curving upward. Eyes large and
Fig. I. — Head, situated at some distance apart. The first antenna
X i^'
"" reaches the anterior margin of the first thoracic
segment ; its flagellum contains six articles. The second antenna
extends to the posterior margin of the second thoracic segment ;
Its flagellum is sixteen-jointed.
The thoracic segments are subequal. The antero-lateral angles
of the first segment are greatly produced
and extend forward a little less than
half the length of the head, including
the projection. These antero-lateral
projections of the first segment do not
follow closely the lines of the head,
but rather extend out straight in a
direction which is parallel to that of
the frontal projection of the head.
The extremities of these projections
are rounded. The epimera of all the
segments point downward and do not
extend beyond the post-lateral angle
of their respective segments with the
exception of the sixth and seventh
ones.
The first segment of the abdomen
is almost entirely covered by the
seventh thoracic segment. The last
segment is rounded posteriorly and
is faintly crenulate. The two branches of the uropods are similar
in shape and size ; the inner branch, being the longer, reaches the
extremity of the abdomen. The uropods as well as the abdominal
segment are furnished with hairs.
The propodus of the prehensile feet is armed with three spines,
Fig. 2. — a. Rocinela cor-
nutay ^, slightly reduced.
b. Leg of first pair, X 4.
c. Leg of fourth pair, x 4-
1898.] EICHARDSOX — FOUR NEW SPECIES OF KOCIXELA.
13
Fig. 3. — Head.
and three blunt ones are found oa the merus. The gressorial feet
are long and slender and covered with spines.
Type. — The type specimen was found off Shumagin Bank, Alaska,
Station ^il'h^^ 625 fathoms (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 20086).
Roci?iela cubensis, sp. nov. Figs. 3, 4.
Outline of body oval, surface smooth.
Head with rounded lateral margins. Its anterior margin is \)Yo-
duced forward in a large rounded projection, whose
breadth is equal to its length, and whose upper sur-
face is deeply concave with upturned edges. This
projection extends forward for about half its length
and then upward, the change in direction being
gradual. Eyes large and composed of ten rows
of ocelli. Two small tubercles are situated between the eyes, and
in the middle of the head and back of these
is an arc-shaped depression. The first
antenna reaches the posterior margin of the
head ; its flagellum contains six articles.
The second antenna extends to the posterior
margin of the third thoracic segment ; its
flagellum contains fifteen articles.
The thoracic segments are subequal in
length. The epimera are long and narrow,
with very acute posterior angles.
The first segment of the abdomen is almost
entirely concealed by the last thoracic seg-
ment. The fifth is likewise covered at the
sides by the fourth segment. The last
abdominal segment is triangular in shape
with a rounded posterior margin. The
outer branch of the uropods is very broad
and oar-shaped, with a rounded extremity.
The inner branch is long and slender, of equal
breadth throughout its length and rounded
on its posterior margin. Tlie inner branch is
the longer one. Both are fringed with hairs.
In the prehensile legs of this species the
basis presents a row of tubercles on its superior margin
two spines on this propodus and three on the merus.
sorial legs are but slightly spinulose.
Fig. 4. — a. Ro cine la
ctibensts, (j^, X 2^.
d. Leg of first pair,
X 45- ^. Leg of
fourth pair, X 43-
There are
The gres-
14
EICHARDSON — FOUR NEW SPECIES OF ROCINELA. [Jan. 21,
Fig. 5. — Head X 2i.
Type. — The type specimen was found off Havana, lat. N. 23°
11', long. W. 82° 19^ 6", Station 2341, 143 fathoms (U. S. Nat.
Mus., No. 20087).
Rocinela laticauda, Hansen^ Fig. 5, 6.
Head, with a median projection, long and broad, extending
slightly downward and having a blunt extremity.
Eyes large, with ten rows of ocelli. The first an-
tenna, with a flagellum containing six articles,
reaches the posterior margin of the head. The
second antenna extends to the middle of the
second thoracic segment; its flagellum contains
fifteen articles.
The thoracic segments are equal in length. The first is deeply bi-
sinuated, its antero-lateral angles extending
up the side of the head to about the middle of
the eyes. The epimera of the second, third
and fourth segments are rounded posteriorly;
those of the remaining segments have pointed
extremities.
The first segment of the abdomen is almost
entirely covered by the last thoracic segment.
The fifth segment, as well as this one, is nar-
rower than the intervening segments, and not
as broad as the base of the terminal segment.
The last segment is widely rounded posteri-
orly and is fringed with rough hairs which
almost conceal its crenulated margin ; at the
base it is impressed on either side of a keeled
centre ; the outer branch of the uropods is
almost twice as broad as the inner branch ;
they are about equal in length. Both are
fringed with hairs and indistinctly crenulate.
Fig. d.—a. Rocinela la- The prehensile legs are stout and short.
ticauda, ^, slightly There are four spines on the propodus and
reduced, b. Leg of first f][yg qj^ ^\^q merus, besides numerous hairs.
I ''^4- ^- ^g o The gressorial lesrs are likewise stout and fur-
fourth pair, X 4. • u ^ -.1 • ^ u •
nished with spmes and hairs.
1 he description of the above species was written and the drawings made
when Dr. Hansen's type specimen was returned to the U. S. Nat. Mus., and his
manuscript sent to the press. As there are a few differences in the specimens, it
was thought best to publish the new description.
1898.] RICHARDSON — FOUR NEW SPECIES OF ROCINELA. 15
The specimen described came from Alaska, off Unimak Island,
Station 32:55, 85 fathoms (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 20088).
Distribuiion. — One specimen was found off San Luis Obispo
Bay, California, Station 3195, 252 fathoms; one off Esteros Bay,
California, Station 3194, 92 fathoms, and another at Puget Sound,
Washington, Station 3067, 82 fathoms. The specimens from the
coast of California are smaller in size and of very much lighter color
than the other specimens. They are similar in other respects. Dr.
Hansen's type specimen is from Acapulco, Mexico, Station 3418.
It differs from the specimen herein described in the length of the
second pair of antennae, which extend to the middle of the third
thoracic segment, while in the specimen we have described they
extend only to the middle of the second thoracic segment ; in the
broader and longer terminal segment of the body, and in the in-
creased number of spines on the propodus, and the decreased num-
ber of spines on the merus of the prehensile legs.
Rocifiela japonica, sp. nov. Fig. 7-9.
Surface of body punctate and covered with black or brown dots.
Color yellow, marked lightly in such a way as to present a mottled
appearance. At the base of the terminal segment of the body, there
are two small spots of brown, separated by a distance equal to half
the width of the segment. Head subtriangular, excavated in the
centre between the eyes and havingthe lateral margin in front of the
eye produced into a lobe ; the extreme front being trun-
cate with rounded angles and curving slightly upward.
The lobe in front of the eye extends half way between
the eye and the extreme front. The eyes, which are
small, are separated by a distance of half the width of j^^^^ '^ ^-^^
the head. The first antenna, with a flagellum of six
joints, reaches the posterior margin of the head. The second
antenna, with a flagellum of fifteen joints, extends to the posterior
margin of the second thoracic segment.
Tlie epimera of all the segments of the thorax are acute, the pos-
terior angles more rounded in the first two, but sufficiently pointed,
in the remaining four. The epimera of the last two segments take
a more oblique direction than the preceding ones, and extend lat-
erally as far as the outer margins of the abdominal segments.
The first abdominal segment is almost entirely covered. The
■posterior angles of these segments are very acute and are produced
16
RICHARDSOX — FOUR NEW SPECIES OF ROCINELA. [Jan. 21,
Fig 8. — Rocinela
japonica, ^, X l|^-
at the sides beyond the terminal segment and the basal joints of the
uropods. The terminal segment is liriguate and obscurely crenulate
on its posterior margin. The internal branch of
the uropods is somewhat longer than the external
one, but the two are equal in width. They are
both armed with spines on their outer margins.
The prehensile legs are slender. There are
three or four hair-like spines on the propodus and
five blunt ones on the merus. The gressorial legs
are likewise slender and spinulose.
Of this species a single individual was found at
Hakodate Bay, Japan, Station 3659, depth fifteen
and a half fathoms (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 20651).
This species is closely related to R. modesta
Hansen. It differs from that species in the length
of the first pair of antennae, which extend only to
the middle of the last joint of the peduncle of the
second pair of antennas, while in R. modesta Han-
sen they extend a little beyond the peduncle of the
second pair of antennae ; in the greater develop-
ment of the lateral margin of the head in front of
the eye into lobes ; in the excavation in the frontal
area of the head ; in the extreme front being
directed upward ; in the number of spines on the
Fig. 9. — Leg of first merus of the prehensile legs, five spines being
pair, X 3. Leg of characteristic in our species, three or four in Dr.
^ ^' ^' Hansen's species ; in the markings on the surface
of the body of small black dots and the presence of two larger spots
at the base of the terminal segment of the body.
Rocinela tuberculosa, sp. nov. Fig. 10.
Surface of body punctate and marked with small
black dots. The posterior margin of each of the tho-
racic and abdominal segments is lined with a row of
tiny tubercles, above which is a row of small black
dots.
Head subtriangular, rounded in front. Eyes large
and situated at a distance of one-third of the head apart.
The first antenna, with a flagellum of five articles,
reaches the posterior margin of the head ; the second
vela tiibercii- antennae extends to the posterior margin of the second
o^ci,^, X 2y. thoracic segment; its flagellum contains eleven articles.
Fig. 10. — Rod
1898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 17
The posterior margin of all the thoracic segments is edged with
a row of small tubercles. The epimera are narrow, those of the
second, third and fourth segments being rounded at the top, while
those of the last three segments are more acute.
The first abdominal segment is entirely concealed by the last
thoracic segment. The second, third, fourth and fifth segments
are likewise edged with a row of small tubercles. The last segment
is widely rounded. The outer branch of the uropods is somewhat
narrower and shorter than the inner one and is rounded at its
extremity. The inner one is bluntly rounded. Both are fringed
with hairs, and on their exterior margins are armed with spines.
The prehensile legs have three long, stout spines on the merus and
two on the propodus. The gressorial legs are covered with spines.
Two individuals of this species were found in the southern part
of the Gulf of California, at Station 2824, eight fathoms, type (U.S.
Nat. Mus., No. 20652), and Station 2828, ten fathoms.
SPECIALIZATIONS OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS WING ;
THE PIERI-NYMPHALID^.
(Plates I-III.)
BY A. RADCLIFFE GROTE, A.M.
{Read January 21, ISOS.)
An immediate incentive to the present study is the statement, in
Evolution and Taxonomy, that we find, in the Nymphalidae, '^an
even greater specialization of the wings than exists in the Pieridae."
It may be premised that Prof. Comstock's classification unites in one
family two seemingly distinct types under the term Nymphalidae.
Also that the neurational character given in the more recently
issued '' Manual" of the same author for the Pieridae would exclude
the Leptidian^. The two wing types of the Nymphalidae of
Mr. Scudder and Prof. Comstock overlap. The Nymphalidae
proper, as I would limit the family, have vein iii^ of the fore
wings thrown off upon the external margin below apices through-
out all the leading groups. But in the Fritillaries, which seems
to be the most generalized group, there are genera, like Euptoieta,
in which this vein reaches the apex, as in all the other brush-
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 157, A. PRINTED MAY 17, 1898.
18 GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. [Jau. 21,
footed butterflies. But, commonly, we can tell a Nymphalid from
a Satyrid by this character. Again, on the hind wings, the Nym-
phalidae proper show vein ivg entirely joined to the cubitus, and
not issued from the cross-vein. In the Limnadidae, Heliconidae
and Agapetidae, which appear to form another branch of the
"brush-footed" group of butterflies, this latter condition of vein
ivg is only reached in a small group of specialized Satyrids, the
Pararginae. This character is plainly secondary, one which might
occur independently in diff'erent groups not immediately phylo-
genetically connected.
The specializations of the lepidopterous wing, here chiefly
considered, are visible among what I have called the "movable
veins " and cannot be relied upon as decisive in general phylogeny.
Their study leads to an arrangement of genera and species,
in most cases upon a more positive basis, by supplying us with a
gauge by which we may distinguish the younger from the older
form. The norm by which these specializations are apprehended
lies in the principle we have already set forth : the amount of the
absorption is the measure of the specialization.
The two principal directions in which the specialization is
manifested are: i. the suppression of the media, common to
both wings, and 2. the suppression of the branches of the radius,
confined to the fore wings in most Lepidoptera and occurring
sporadically. The latter is probably reminiscent of that action
which has completed its task upon the hind wings of such Lepi-
doptera which have the radius already reduced to a single un-
branched vein.^
Nomenclature.
The application of literary terms to structural groups, wider in
extent than specific, has become uncertain through the publication
of varying and subjective opinion. It has, therefore, become neces-
sary to associate the generic title with a single specific type, ascer-
tained by historical methods, in order to go safely. The failure to
employ the name of the genus in this manner renders Mr. Renter's
recently published volume at times unintelligible. The same
remark applies to Dr. Chapman's admirable paper on butterfly
1 Consult, " Mittheilungen a. d, Roemer Museum," 8, February, 1897; "The
Hind Wings of the Day Butterflies," Can. Ent., 29, 174; also several other
papers more recently issued.
1898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 19
pupae, where exactly what is meant by the terms ^'Satyrus, Epine-
phele, Hipparchia," does not appear {Entom. Record, vi, 152). So
far as the diurnals are concerned the authority I recognize is Mr.
Scudder's Historical Sketch, Salem, 1875. Since, in exceptional
cases, this work has been seemingly properly corrected and even in
one case by the author himself, a republication up to date would be
one of the most grateful of literary helps to the systematist, to whom
it is a matter of comparative indifference what term he uses so that it
is correct and exactly conveys his meaning, while it should be one
necessarily understood. Since the difference between genera and spe-
cies is quantitative, the limitations of the former will be always more
or less a matter of opinion. As matters are now and unless a standard
is recognized, the object of nomenclature will be defeated so far as
generic titles used by themselves are concerned. Both to give
greater endurance to his work and to make it a useful addition to
generic definitions extant in literature, the systematist might confine
his studies to species used for generic types as far as possible and
neglect those not yet so favored. To locate and compare genera
their types need alone be considered ; by clearly explaining the
structure of these incidental help will be afforded to reach an
approximative agreement as to the limitation of generic groups.
Generic terms should always have the same meaning attached to
them, and this meaning can only be derived from the structure of
their types. I remember that Moeschler, disputing the validity of
the genera allied to Smerinthus and wishing to discredit minute
generic differentiation, asked triumphantly. To what genus, then, do
the hybrids between species belonging to these different allied
genera belong? A little reflection might have led him to ask the
question also. And to what species ? For although, to Moeschler, a
genus would seem to have constituted a fixed quality, yet it is seen
not to be so and that the genus idea is an extension of the species
idea, and both ideal categories having a relative being without sharp
outlines. In the formation of generic categories the idiosyncrasy
of the describer comes easier to the surface, as in Mr. Scudder's
genera ; but for the purposes of the systematist these are as good as
any, and better than most ; all that is wanted being a certain name
attached to a certain thing. The describers of species are the avant
couriers of the systematists, one no more useful than the other, and
any adverse criticism of the former class, who throw the first light
upon our darkness, must be due to a lack of thought and considera-
20 GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. [Jan. 21,
tion. Nomenclature itself belongs to letters and is part of the
machinery which biologists must use to work with. And we may
remember here the fact that we possess no entire and satisfactory
definition for the term i?tdividual as used in biology. So that it
perhaps naturally follows that we are at a loss to define adequately
groups or associations of which the individual forms the unit.
The following notes explain the changes made by me in
The Nomenclature of the Pieri-Nymphalid^.
Agapetidce. — I use this term instead of Satyridae because the
generic title Satyrus Latreille is preoccupied (Scudder, /. ^., 265),
and is properly replaced by the title Agapetes Bilberg, 1820 (/. c,
104), with the same type, A. galathea. It is impossible to separate
the name of a higher group from that of the genus upon which it is
based. If Satyrus properly falls then Satyridae must also go. But
the type of Satyrus remains and the new generic title of this type by
natural right replaces the old title in all its various modifications.
It appears that the more modern title Satyrid^ replaces the Satyri
of older authors who antedate the Tentamen in the use of a plural
form, thus in recognizing a group or family in our sense. In addi-
tion the term Oreas (Oreades) used by Hiibner in 1806 is itself pre-
occupied. So that the claim of Agapetidae to designate the family,
with Agapetes galathea as its type, seems indisputable. Arge of
Esper and also of Hiibner would be preoccupied by Schrank
(/. c, 117).
LimiiadidcB.—'Y\\^ earliest plural form applied particularly to a
member of this group is Limnades of Hiibner, 1806, based upon
Li7nnas chrysippiis as type. This must, therefore, replace the term
Danaidae of modern writers, a term based upon the later Danaus {ptex-
ippus) of Latreille, 1809, for which Scudder proposes to retain Dan-
aidaof the same author of 1805 (/. c, 153), perhaps disputably, since
Latreille's change seemed warranted at that time. Once a synonym
always a synonym. In any case the modern Danaidse cannot claim
any connection directly with the JDanaifesiivi, etc., of Linne, since
that group had no legal standing ; no genus of that name upon
which it could be based having been published. Cuvier's similar
use of " Danai " included also the Pieridce (/. c, 154), and, there-
fore, Limnadidse has a clear right to recognition.
N. B. — I take the opportunity here to change my term Capis to
Capisella since there is an earlier genus, Capys of Hewitson, which
1898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 21
interferes (Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc, xxxiv, 434). I also resume
my name for Lomanaltes Icsiulus, since from the description it must
be that Mr. Walker's species differs.
General Descriptions.
These are limited to the holarctic fauna, of which the principal
genera appear to have been examined. There remain, however,
several types I have been unable to obtain.
Pieridce. Pierina. — Primary wings, specialization by suppression
of the media : Traces of the base of the media in the shape of scars
I have found in Eurymus and Callidryas. In Colias rhavini,
a mimetic form springing evidently from the same line, I fail to find
the least impression. Backward spurs occur in Aporia and faint
traces in Callidryas. The cell nowhere completely opens. The
cross-vein becomes partially degenerate in a number of instances.
In all the genera yet examined, vein iv^ , the upper branch of the
media, leaves the cross-vein and is given off, outside of median
cell, from the lower branch of radius. This character I only find
again on the hind wings of Nemeobius. The middle branch of
media leaves cross-vein above the middle and is radially inclined.
Primary wings, suppression of radial branches : End forms of spe-
cialization in this direction are offered by Mancipium, Pontia and
Nathalis, where the five branches are reduced to three. The bulk
of the forms: Pieris, Eurymus, Colias, Callidryas, Eurema, etc.,
are four-branched. As yet I find only certain of the Anthocharini,
therefore the more generalized group, five-branched.
Secondary wings, suppression of media : Taking the homologies
as given, the vein iv^ assumes function and position of iiij on pri-
maries; usually the piece between its base and the issuance of iiig
from radius must be reckoned to cross-vein. The inauguration of
the movement of the movable veins appears to take place on sec-
ondaries generally, since in a number of Lepidoptera vein ivo re-
mains central on primaries, while on secondaries of same wings
it inclines radially or cubi tally. As on primaries, the cross- vein
nowhere disappears in the Pierinse and the cell remains closed.
Other features of specialization by absorption of veins : On pri-
maries, vein viii is present, either as a scar or, in some instances, as
an apparently functional, ''tubular" vein. It takes the aspect of
a short, oblique, more or less rigid piece, running from vein vii to
internal angle. It has usually lost here the appearance of being
22 GEOTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEEOUS WING. [Jan. 21,
originally a longitudinal vein rooting in base of wing and, as in
the Limnadidae, appears more as a ^pporting strap. However, in
Terias, where it is reduced, it assumes nearly the loop-like shape.
The minute study of this vein is a matter of some difficulty. The
appearance of vein viii in the Hesperiadae corresponds essentially
with that in the Sphingidae and Saturniades, where it has the loop-
like shape. These quaiititative changes are probably correlated
with mechanical function. On the secondaries of the Pieridae,
there are but slight differences in the amount of absorption of veins
ii and iii at base ; on the whole, the absorption is small and herein
is the wing generalized. Vein i, the so-called ''prascostal spur,'^
is usually present ; it vanishes in the Eurymini and in Colias
(Gonepteryx); it may be seen in Callidryas. There is no equality
of specialization, no exact and equal step in all these instances and
the position of a genus or group can here not be assigned with cer-
tainty from any one character. Better, as a guide, is the radial
specialization on primaries^ where it may be laid down as an axiom
that the five-branched forms cannot possibly have been derived
from the three or four-branched, and that they are consequently
descendants of older types and clearly more generalized insects.
But neither may we group all the three or four-branched species to-
gether, since these specializations are reached upon what are other-
wise evidently independent phylogenetic lines, in all cases neces-
sarily succeeding a five-branched ancestor. Thus the three-branched
Pontia is clearly an offspring from the five-branched Anthocharini ;
the three-branched Nathalis is more immediately connected with
the four-branched Terias and Eurema.
LeptidiancB. — So different is this butterfly and so isolated its
present position, that we must almost leave it out of sight in dis-
cussing the specialization of the Whites. The suppression of the
media is nearly limited to the extinction of the basal portion.
The position of vein ivo is central, or very nearly so, on fore wings,
cubital on hind wings; we have here an exceptional parallelism
with Papilio. The radius is generalized, five-branched. No trace
of vein viii appears on fore win^s. The median cells are small, re-
treating; the veins long. In comparison with the other whites,
the wings are in a generalized state, but the chances are that in
Leptidia (Leucophasia) we have a survival of what was a more
extended group at one period and that the generalization is strictly
relative. The disappearance of vein viii points in this direction.
1898.] GROTE — SPECIALTZAT.IOXS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS^WIXG. 23
A feature of generalization is offered by ii and iii of secondaries
which appear completely separate.
NymphalidcB. — This term is used in a restricted sense, equivalent
to the Nymphalina; of Comstock, or typical Nymphalids, apparently
taken from Scudder.
Nymphalince. — Characterized by the position of i, ii and iii, of
hind wings, which spring from one point owing to the fact that ii
and iii are absorbed or fused up to the origin of i, which remains
nearly constant in all the butterflies examined. This character
is secondary in its nature and I have not yet studied the phylog-
eny of the genera fully. In this subfamily the suppression of the
media reaches its widest extent and is only paralleled again in the
Attacinae. In the most specialized forms the cell entirely opens,
all trace of the cross-vein vanishes on both wings. Vein ivo be-
comes radial. Vein ivi leaves upper angle of cell and does not fuse
with radius.
ArgynnificB. — Characterized by the fusion of ii and iii on hind
wings not attaining the point of origin of i. No taxonomical
features of neuration clearly define the minor groups, which are
generally bound together by steps in the grade of specialization
shown in the gradual suppression of the media. The "Goat
Weed Butterflies " belong probably to the Charaxinse, a specialized
form having lost the '' long fork " through absorption, but are not so
specialized as the Nymphalinae or ''Purples," as might be inferred
by their position in Comstock's Manual. In this work, as well as
Mr. Scudder's, the sequence, as based on a specialization of the
wings (and no other characters or class of characters allow of such
fine distinction) is irregular. In the Check List of Dr. Skinner
(1891) the disarrangement is nearly complete.
AgapefidcB {'idXynd^e). — Wings (except in the Pararginae) as in
Pieridae, but vein viii of fore wings entirely absent ; vein iii4 of
fore wings to apex. The veins in many forms show a secondary
sexual character in the enlargement of vein ii, the cubitus, or vii
at base in male. This character is indicated in the Nymphalidae, in
Potamis and some Fritillaries and in the Ager.
ParargincB. — The cross-vein of hind wings, or its traces, joins
the cubitus ; in other words the union of vein ivg with cubitus
is complete, since this branch of the media has left the cross-vein.
Here there is, in this apparently restricted group, a complete paral-
lelism with the Nymphalidae, from which the butterflies differ by
24 GROTE — SPECIALIZATIOXS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WIXG. [Jan. 21,
the position of vein iii^ of fore wings. Cross-vein degeneral e between
iva and ivj or cubitus, as might be expected, on hind wings, while
on fore wings the specialization has not proceeded so far. Genera :
Pararge and Lasiommata.
AgapetincB (Type : Agapetes galatliea). — Vein ivg of hind wings
springs from cross-vein as in Pieridse and next two succeeding fami-
lies. All the North American genera I have yet examined (but
many remain), and most European Satyrids belong here. The
cross-vein is partially degenerate, but as long as vein ivg keeps its
position and does not fuse with cubitus this may not here disap-
pear. Vein i of hind wings varies in expression and, almost van-
ishing in Coenonympha, is quite absorbed in Pyronia. It is
diminished in Cercyonis. Probably its study may give us a better
arrangement of the European forms. In Eumenis it terminates
squarely as in the Parargin^e, and again in Nymphalis. In the other
genera it is pointed. Owing to the inequality and slight nature
of the specializations in the Agapetin^, it will require a minute
and patient comparison to straighten them out. Any rough classi-
fication or sequence attempted on "general principles" must be
always nearly valueless. CEneis is evidently a generalized form.
HeliconidcB. — Study of the type : Heliconiiis antiochus. As in
all the " brush-footed " butterflies, the radius on fore wings is in a
five-branched generalized state, while iv^ springs from upper corner
of median cell. Cells completely closed, the cross-vein merely
thinning a little below iv^. No trace of vein viii, hence more
specialized than Limnadid^e and agreeing with Agapetido^. Vein
ivj nearly central, a little radially inclined on fore wings and con-
siderably more so on hind wings, where the cell is small, retreating,
the veins long. Vein i determinate, pointed. The radius of fore
wings is more specialized than in Limnas, where \\\^ leaves the
stem opposite cross-vein. Here vein iii._, arises beyond the cell. A
more generalized wing than that of the Agapetidce, more distinctly a
Limnad type. All traces of the base of media disappeared ; no
trace of backward spurs from cross- vein.
LtmnadidcB. — Study of the type : Limnas chrysippus. On the
five-branched radius of primaries vein iii.^ springs from a point oppo-
site cross-vein. Vein viii on fore wings present strongly developed.
Veins strong ; cells closed ; a backward spur from cross-vein on
fore wings opposite iv._,, the position of which is central. On hind
wings this vein is slightly radial. Vein i of hind wings imperfectly
1898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 25
fused with radius at base ; cross-vein angulate. The curious stigma
below v., is attended by a rounded retreat of the vein, which is here
slightly swollen. On comparing this type with that of Heliconius
it is seen to be the more generalized. To separate Danaus from
Limnas we must encroach apparently upon specific characters.
Libytheidce. — Vein iii^ to costa before apex ; cross-vein partially
degenerate ; vein iv_, on primaries central, on secondaries radial ;
vein viii of fore wings strongly developed as in Limnadidae. Outline
similar to Polygonia. On secondaries the cross- vein reaches vein
ivg just immediately before cubitus. Specialization here almost
like the Pararginae. This isolated group, with its strongly devel-
oped labial palpi, cannot be referred to the stem of the Nymphalidae
proper (in sensu iniJii) on account of the position of iii4 and the
presence of viii of primaries. It must be referred back on an in-
dependent line to the matrix from which the "brush-footed" but-
terflies originally sprang. It is now a specialized form as is seen
by the extent of absoption of ii and iii, on hind wings, to the
point of issuance of i, thus equaling the Pararginae.
NemeobiidcB. — Not a typical *' brush-foot," but with the fore feet
reduced in the male on the Riodinid type. Special examinations
of this structure are needed to bring out the points clearly. Wings
of the Pieri-Nymphalid pattern, not of the Lycseni-Hesperid.
Radius five-branched, generalized. It is thus impossible to bring
the butterfly into the Lycseni-Riodinid series in which the radius
is specialized, three to four-branched, while the other neurational
features contradict the supposition that it could represent a gener-
alized type of the series. The neuration runs parallel with Liby-
thea and the resemblances lie between this butterfly and Pieris.
Vein iii4 seems to join costa just before apex. Cross-vein entire,
cells closed; "on fore wings vein ivo is central, on hind wings radial.
Vein viii of primaries seems to be degenerate and I represent it by
dots in my original figure. Subsequent studies lead me to believe
it wholly or partially tubular. Veins ii and iii of secondaries at
base fused nearly to point of issuance of i, hence nearly as special-
ized as Libythea, much more so than in any Riodinid or Lycaenid
yet examined. When writing my original paper (in 1896) I failed
to note that the family Nemeobiidse had been recognized, though
I have found no description and the study of the neuration seems
to have been neglected. To unite this butterfly with the Lycaeni-
Hesperid branch appears to me a physiological impossibility. It
26 GROTE— SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEKOUS WING. [Jan. 21,
must rather be relegated to a distinct line, running parallel with
the Libytheid^e and leading to the main stem of the Hesperiades.
Its affinity with the Pieridae is marked by the position of iv^, which,,
on secondaries, has left the upper angle of cell and is fused with
the radius to a point much beyond the median cell, as in the Pieri-
nae. Since there is a parallelism in the specialization between the
Lycaenid group and the Pieridae in the reduction of the radial
branches, a further parallelism might be made to account for this,
especially as on primaries vein ivi is fused with radius as in the
Theclinae. But this will not explain the position of vein iiig on exter-
nal margin, the radial position of iv2 and the more unequal spacing.
We might appeal to the imperfection of the geological record and
conjure up extinct and intermediate series ; but, independent of the
fact that such flights of the imagination would lead us nowhere and
would excuse even the arrangements proposed by Mr. Meyrick, we
cannot do away with the main difficulty, that the wing of Nemeo-
bius is developed upon the Pieri-Nymphalid pattern and that we
should not logically graft it upon the Lycaeni-Hesperid. The
radius is also generalized, five-branched and cannot be derived from
a three to four-branched group, which it should have preceded.
But the five-branched Hesperiadae are formed upon another pattern
and could hardly have given rise to Nemeobius. The five-branched
Hesperiadae have most plainly produced the three to four-branched
Riodinidae and Lycaenidae. The wing of the latter is just what we
might expect from a reduction of the radial branches of Hesperia.
The conclusion we may come to is, that we should seek for the origin
of Nemeobius in an independent line, and that the structure of the
fore feet has been probably independently acquired. There is no
difficulty in this, since aborted fore feet are also characteristic of cer-
tain moths belonging to the Hypeninae, notably of Pallachini
bivittata Grt. There seems ro be a latent tendency in this direc-
tion whicli has broken out strongly in the day butterflies.
General Comparisons.
Before entering upon any comparison as to the amount of speciali-
zation in the Pieridae and the ^' brush-footed " butterflies (^Nym-
phalid^e of Scudder and Comstock) it will be well to get a mental
picture of the neuration of the Pieri-Nymphalid^e as a whole. This
can best be obtained by contrasting it with that of an allied wing
group in the same structural series, the Lycaeni-Hesperidae. Inde-
1898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 27
pendent of relative breadth or shape of wing we have in the latter a
simpler pattern, the veins more equidistant, an indisposition to fuse
and furcate shown by the retention of a central position by vein ivj ; so
that as the suppression of the media takes its course this branch
tends to degeneration in situ, from resisting the attraction of either
radius or cubitus. As opposed to this we have a willingness in
the Pieri-Nymphalidae to preserve vein iv.,, which latter tends every-
where to become radial, except in the isolated case of Leptidia,
where it becomes cubital. We have a spreading of the veins and
abundant traces of unequal specialization. Except in the lycaenid
reduction of the radial branches, the Lyc?eni-Hesperiad^ offer few
neurational changes to aid our formation of classificatory categories ;
the Pieri-Nymphalidse plenty. United by the presence of the loop-
ing vein viii, or its traces unequally expressed and sometimes quite
vanished, the Hesperiades offer in this way two groups characterized
by the peculiar neurational wing pattern ; giving us also an instance
of parallelism in specialization, in that the Pieridae sustain an
analogous position with regard to the ''brush-footed" butterflies
(Nymphalid?e, etc.), to that the Riodinid-Lycsenids show with re-
spect to the Hesperids or ''Skippers." In both these groups the
reduction of the radius takes place; the Pierids still showing phases
embracing and intermediate between the five 'and three-branched
radius, while no five-branched Lyc?enid is yet known to me. Thus
the gap in the Lycaeni-Hesperiadse between the subgroups is greater
than that between the subgroups of the Pieri-Nymphalidae. But the
fact that the reduction of the radial branches has been indepen-
dently taken up by the two main wing groups of the Hesperiades
comes clearly out. I have been unable to find any characters which
will always distinguish the neuration of the Hesperiades from the
moths. Not so with the Parnassi-Papilionidae, a distinct major
division entirely left out of sight in the present studies.
Having thus endeavored to trace the outlines of the neuration of
the Pieri-Nymphalidae as a whole and to enable the reader to grasp
more or less fully the wing structure of this waste of butterflies, we
may more in detail compare the wings of the " Whites " with those
of the other butterflies in their group. That the radius is special-
ized in the Pieridae and generalized in all the other families is the
first and obvious difference, one which strikingly throws the bal-
ance of specialization to the side of the " Whites." So that in this
direction of secondary specialization, which the Pieridae share with
28 GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. [Jan. 21,
the Parnassiinae, the Riodini-Lycsenidse, as well as the Saturniades
among the moths, the "brush-footed " butterflies (Nymphalidae of
Scudder and Comstock) as well as the Nemeobiidse have no share
and are ho7's de concurs.
We now come to the direction of the suppression of the media.
Herein the Pierid^ lag behind the Nymphalidae {in sensu mihi')
with one remarkable exception in the position of vein ivi, the upper
branch of the media, which ascends the radius (iiis) to a point beyond
the cell, a character repeated only on the hind wings of Nemeo-
bius. In all the ''brush-footed" butterflies this vein never leaves
the cross-vein at the extreme upper corner of the median cell.
Though the latter open and the disappearance of the media by the
distribution of its branches between radius and cubitus become
complete, still vein ivi never fuses directly with the radius. Did
it do so its passage to a point beyond the cell in the process of
specialization might be logically expected to follow. What power
is it which keeps this vein apart, even in Nymphalis and Potamis,
where, in the latter especially, the approximation is carried out so
completely? Undoubtedly all these retained and abandoned posi-
tions for the veins indicate the action of the dynamical force which
fits the wing for variations in the mode of flight. The field observa-
tions which are compared with the structure of the wings are as yet
scanty in the extreme. I have only brought the opening of the cell
and the radial position of iv., into a probable relation with a lofty
and sailing flight, a tree life like that led by Potamis iris or Philo-
samia cynthia. The passage of ivi along iiig does not seem to help
the wing to extended flights. We find it again in the moths, in
the Smerinthinae and Citheroniadae. The bunching of the two
upper branches of the media near the radius at this point seems, on
the other hand, to strengthen the primaries. As these veins are retired
from the radius and retain their original generalized position on the
cross-vein, closing the cell, so does a more modest terrestrial habit
of flight seem to prevail ; so that it seems probable that the Lepi-
doptera were not originally high flyers, and that those which now
disport among the tree tops are the latest arrivals on their respective
and differing lines of phylogenetic descent.
To return to our immediate subject, the comparison of the special-
izations of the Pieridas and Nymphalidae proper. So far as the sup-
pression of the media is concerned, the advantage of the Nympha-
lidae is quite clear when the most specialized forms are compared, but
1898.] GHOTE — SPECIALIZATION'S OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 2^
even when we descend to the '' Fritillaries," where the cell of fore
wings closes and vein ivj becomes quite central, the superiority
is kept up. For everywhere on the hind wings of the Nymphalidoe
does the lowest branch of the media, vein iv,,, completely fuse with
the cubitus. The cross-vein above it is always very weak, and
even vanishes in Araschnia, Melitcea or Euptoieta.
Leaving the two principal directions in which the movable veins
show the effects of specialization, we can compare the Pieridae and
Nymphalidce upon other points. The most important of these is
the fusion of ii and iii upon the hind wings at base. Here the
Nymphalidas continue their advantage. In the Nymphalinae the
absorption extends even to the point of issuance of i, and this mea-
sure is attained in the most specialized of the Agapetid?e or
" Meadow Browns," the Pararginae. In the mass of the Nympha-
lidas this excess is not reached and the point of absorption falls
varyingly short. But still it is always carried to a further point
than in the PieridjE, where the union is very brief and apparently
quite wanting in Leptidia. This character is plainly secondary and
cannot of itself determine the phylogeny. Again, the amount of ab-
sorption of i may be compared, a vein which is relatively constant in
its position upon ii, from which it issues. It did not always probably
do so, for I have observed in Papilio, Zerynthia (=:Thais) and Par-
nassius, the process by which it has come to be fused with ii, and in
the present group traces of its independence may be found in the
Limnads or " Milk Weed " butterflies. In the Pieridae this vein i,
the so-called ^'praecostal spur," tends to be absorbed and disap-
pears in Eurymus (Colias) and Colias (Gonepteryx). Here the
parallelism in specialization with the ''Blues" is continued. But in
the Nymphalid?e it appears everywhere to be strong and well-de-
veloped ; it is here more generalized. Evidently the strong flight
continued to call for a strengthening of the shoulder of the secondary
wings. In the fiutterings of the ''Whites," the "Meadow
Browns," the "Blues," this need was not so felt and the vein
would tend to disappear.
So much we may say in comparing the Pieridae with the Nym-
phalidce proper, and we may pass more quickly over our comparisons
of the " Whites " with the remaining families of " brush-footed "
butterflies, the " Nymphalidse " of Scudder and Comstock. After
we leave the Pararginae, the scale of specialization comes to a stand-
still or turns gradually against the latter. In the Agapetinse, con-
80 GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. [Jan. 21,
taining the mass of holarctic forms of the *' Meadow Browns," the
lower branch of the media on the hind wings no longer fuses with
the cubitus, but, as in the Pieridae, springs from the cross-vein, the
piece between this branch and the cubitus varying in length, and by
so much marking here the grade of specialization. Except that vein
viii of primaries seems to have been entirely absorbed in the Aga-
petidae, it becomes difficult to distinguish their wings from the
Whites. In both groups the position of the radial branches is similar.
In the male sex the Agapetids show very frequently a bladder-like
swelling at the base of ii, iii and vii of primaries, or the swelling
may be confined more or less to the first-mentioned veins. In
Agapetes it seems confined to ii ; I do not find it in my preparations
of Oeneis aello, of which, however, I am uncertain as to the sex.
It is a secondary sexual specialization, of which traces occur also in
the Nymphalidae. Like the Pierids, the Meadow Browns tend to lose
vein i of secondaries by absorption ; I believe, on the whole, that
Pyronia represents the most specialized form. The amount of
fusion of ii and iii at base still continues greater as against the
Pieridae, but hardly holds its own in comparison with the Argyn-
ninas. In the Morphinae, which appear to me to be specialized
Agapetidae, the cell opens on hind wings, but remains closed on
primaries. They resemble thus the Pararginae at present rather than
the Agapetinae, and have sprung apparently from the latter. Else,
in our holarctic forms, the cell does not open on either wing, while
it becomes, in the specialized forms, partially degenerate.
In the Heliconidae and Limnadidae the generalization makes
itself more and more evident. The strong veining, closed cells,
central position of ivo all tell against them. Heliconius still lacks
vein viii of primaries, but in Limnas it is stronger than in any
Pierid. At the close Libythea recovers somewhat of the lost terri-
tory, but this isolated butterfly, difficult to intercalate in a sequence,
cannot probably alter the average result. Taking this all in all, we
must find I believe that the excess of specialization in the direction
of the suppression of the media, and in the subsequent points here
explained, on the part of the brush-footed butterflies, as a whole,
cannot outweigh the absence of specialization by reduction of the
branches of the radius ; seeing also that only in one family, the
typical Nymphalids, is that specialization of the media carried to an
excess. We have also the difficulty of estimating the morphological
value of the shifting of vein ivi in the Pieridae. While we cannot
1898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 31
thus assent to the conclusion expressed by Prof. Comstock in Evo-
lution and Taxono?ny, that we find in the Nymphalidae an even
greater specialization of the wings than exists in the Pieridae, we
admit that the point of view from which this is regarded may influ-
ence any conclusion, while the unequal presentation of the changes
in the wings renders a just weighing of the differences a matter of
some difficulty. It will be sufficient for my present purpose if the
impression left on the mind of the reader is that rank is a relative
conception and that it is owing to the constitution of our minds
that we, are impelled to string one natural object after another,
while we are apt to fortify a classificatory preference for a special
group out of several lying nearly abreast, by reasons which, suffi-
ciently telling as far as they go, are apt to reflect only one side of a
complex subject, I think, then, we may believe that the specializa-
tion of the " brush-footed " butterflies is more apparent in the feet
than in the wings, and that, if we are not inclined to give them pre-
eminence on that account in our sequences, we shall not be induced
to do it upon the statement of Prof. Comstock herein discussed and
illustrated.
Phylogenetic Lines Among Pierid Genera.
I have previously shown that coincidence in the number of the
radial branches in reduction does not determine common descent,
but that a three-branched condition of the originally five-branched
radius has been reached independently, not only in different fami-
lies, but on different generic lines within the same group. It may
be assumed that three-branched species, differing otherwise unes-
sentially, are correctly associated by this character ; but to use this
character anywhere alone for taxonomic purposes, or to assign it a
commanding value, would be plainly to go wrong. It is probable,
for instance, that the three-branched radius correctly indicates that
the species of Thecla (^in sensu iniht, with the type given by Scud-
derj are monophyletic and that the four-branched Zephyrini stand,
at least constructively, as representing the original condition of
their ancestors.
Under these views we may sort out several different lines of prob-
able descent in the holarctic Pieridae, in which the examples of
extreme reduction have been independently developed. It is clear,
since nature does not proceed by jumps, that the missing stages
between the five-branched ancestors and the three-branched de-
82 GEOTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEKOUS WING. [Jau. 21,
scendants have existed and that forms, which have retained the ini-
termediate character and thus represent an earlier condition, may
yet be found and correctly identified. So that we must seek out
forms whose main disparity consists in their respective state of
specialization of the wings.
Referring to the accompanying phylogenetic table, we may com-
mence our brief study with the so-called ''Yellows." In Eury-
mus (Colias) the second branch of the radius has passed from its
normal position before to one removed beyond the cross-vein. In
Meganostoma this branch has only progressed to a point opposite
the cross-vein. Clearly, Eurymus is the more specialized and
younger form since this passage of iiia along the main branch of the
radius is one indicated on different phylogenetic lines and is evi-
dently a phase of general process by which the radial branches are
reduced in number. The normal five-branched radius has this
branch, following iiii, before the cross-vein. Under this view
Meganostoma is the representative of the primitive form of Eury-
mus. The '' dog's head " pattern has probably yielded to the ter-
minal band, straightly margined and the reappearance of the
''dog's head" in species of Eurymus is due to "reversion." In
other words, such species are the more generalized. But, while in
the type, hyale, the distance which the vein iiij has traveled is a
considerable one, it is much reduced in another species, edusa},
which is more generalized in this way than E. hyale. From the
multiplicity of species of Eurymus, especially in North America, it
is not improbable that intermediate grades occur uniting the ex-
tremes E. hyale and M. ccesonia. I have not yet found them and
Eurymus is yet separable from Meganostoma on this character.
For purposes like the present study it is immaterial, so far as the
use of the two generic names is concerned, whether such forms are
found or not. The systematist needs both terms to designate dif-
ferent grades of specialization. The change in pattern involves a
loss of black and not improbably does there exist a tendency, in the
direction of specialization, to lose this and perhaps other darker
colors upon the same immediate lines.
It is hardly probable that Callidryas is on the direct line of Eury-
mus, but it represents, in the holarctic fauna, an ancestral phase of
development. It has the same four-branched radius, but vein
1 Mr. Mey rick's figure of ediisa (^Handbook ^ 35o) is too inaccurately drawa
to be of service.
1898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 33
iiij has not moved at all from the original position within the cell.
It is thus more generalized than either of its associates. From
Callidryas-like ancestors may rather have sprung the curious form
Colias rhatn?ii, belonging to the genus Rhodocera, or again Gonep-
teryx of authors, but, according to Scudder, wrongly so referred.
In this genus in which the wings have probably been transformed
by mimicry to copy the shape of a leaf, vein iii.^ keeps its original
place of exit before the cross-vein ; consequently it cannot have
been derived from forms among which this vein was shifting. It
must have been thrown off before Meganostoma-like forms appeared
and probably Callidryas represents very nearly its direct line of
descent. It is more specialized than Callidryas, not only in the
remarkable shape of its wings, but because it has lost by absorption
vein i of hind wings, the '' praecostal spur" of some writers, which
is still retained by Callidryas. The specialization runs in this
respect parallel with the branch Eurymus-Meganostoma. In the
latter genus a remainder of the vanishing vein i is to be seen which
has become lost in Eurymus. The specialization on this phylo-
genetic line of the typical '' Yellows " has not apparently developed
a three-branched descendant, at least in the holarctic fauna, and so
far as my studies now go. Nor have I yet found the five-branched
generalized form, which might represent its more remote ancestry.
Turning to the next line of non-typical "Yellows," the
Euremini, we find the three-branched descendant reached in
Nathalis. This form has evidently emerged from four-branched
ancestors, represented in America by Eurema and Terias, forms
which so very nearly agree that I am even at a loss to distinguish
them. I make out vein viii of primaries to be quite distinct and
relatively strong in Terias, and conclude this may be the sub-
speciahzed form of the two. I cannot now connect this line with
the typical *' Yellows," and its ancestry must be apparently sought
for in more southern regions.
We will now take up the '' typical Whites." The three-branched
condition is attained by Mancipmin brassicce. Here the little remain-
ing branchlet iii34.4 of Pieris has at last vanished. But the vein iii3+4^5
in which it has lost itself is a little bent at this place. I should not
wonder if examples of the "large Cabbage White " might be found
retaining some trace of this vanished veinlet. In Pieris I have
examined rapcE and napi, while Prof. Comstock's beautiful figure of
protodice appears to agree (yEvoluiio)i and Taxono?ny, PI. ii. Fig. 3).
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 157. C. PRINTED MAY 18, 1898.
34 GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. [Jan. 21,
In all these the little vein iiis^.^ remains distinct and has not been
lost. Evidently Pieris represents the ancestral form of Mancipium
and has perhaps been thrown off before the specialization of Pieris
has progressed so far. Notwithstanding the similarity of the orna-
mentation I am not sure that P. rapce is on the direct line of
descent. As between rapcedXi^ napi I incline to considerthe latter
at present the more specialized. Aporia cratcegi is evidently a
more generalized form, standing a little apart. Vein iii3^4 is quite
a long furcation, and measures its distance from Pieris. The skele-
ton of the wing is more powerfully built and vein viii of primaries
stronger than in Pieris, in which it seems little better than a scar.
The gradation by which this vein, which appears usually like a loop,
strap or support to vii at the base, passes into obliteration is so
entire that the exact statement of its condition is often difficult
either to correctly grasp or record. The ''tubular" character dis-
appears by minute gradations ; the ''scar" aspect and the "tubu-
lar" shape are easy to detect, but where the one commences and
the other ends it is often hard for me to say. In the holarctic fauna
I do not find any form to represent the probably actual five-
branched condition of Pieris, but here several types are wanting to
me which I should like to have examined. In the genealogical tree
of the holarctic butterflies the more generalized Anthocharini must
take the place of the common five-branched ancestor of the whole
Pierinae. But this seems to me to stand upon a separate immediate
phylogenetic line of its own, notwithstanding some common fea-
tures of color and marking. With this Anthocharid line we must
now in concluding concern ourselves.
Among the Anthocharini, or what we may call the " non-typical
Whites," we have, in Poniia daplidice, the attainment of the three-
branched condition. This butterfly appears to me to have no
immediate connection with the "typical Whites," but to be a
descendant of Anthocharid ancestry. It is true that Mr. Meyrick
refers it without comment to the genus Pieris {Handbook, 353), but
it is also true that Mr. Meyrick, in the same publication, precedes
Pieris by Leptidia (Leucophasia) and this again by Euchloe, and,
to make the mixture complete, Gonepteryx (Colias). This sort of
work appears to me to prove that Mr. Meyrick's studies are not yet
sufficiently "correlated" with the actual facts of structure. If,
indeed, the picture which Mr. Meyrick has received of the neuration
at all resembles the figures with which his publications are adorned.
1898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 35
no proper judgment could, in my opinion, be formed upon it, and
this would perhaps account in part for the seemingly extraordinarily
unnatural sequences adopted by him.
The coincidence between the neuration of Pontia daplidice and
that of Alancipium brassicce is so great, that I am at a loss to give
good characters of distinction. But showing, as I do, that the
three-branched character of the Pierid primary wing is attained
upon obviously distinct lines (^. g,, Euremini), this coincidence
will not of itself determine the phylogeny. The shape of the wings
and the pattern of ornamentation of Pontia are both Anthocharid.
It is not conceivable how either could have been derived from
Pieris and the ^' typical Whites." We should have to suppose that
the four-branched Pieris threw off the three-branched Mancipium
and also the three-branched Pontia ; an inference which, consider-
ing the want of any near resemblance in the shape and pattern of
the wings between the two descendants, or between one of these
(Pontia) and the supposed parent stem, must be set down as unten-
able. More than this, we have in Pontia a similar secondary
sexual character in the shape and extent of the wings to that we
find in the Anthocharini, no trace of which is evident in Pieris or
Mancipium. This character has evidently been retained by Pontia,
through an ancestry of which I find one existing representative form,
extending back to the five-branched representative of a remote
phase which is brought before us now in Anthocharis and Euchloe.
I believe that these facts show, that the phylogenetic position here-
tofore assigned to Pontia, is a discordant one and should be cor-
rected. We may now leave Pontia and look over the more
generalized and the typical Anthocharini with their five-branched
radius.
Mr. Scudder {Historical Sketch, 113) says, regarding the use of
the ofeneric term Anthocharis : '* As Euchloe must be used for the
European species, getiutia should be considered the type of this
genus." This would seem to imply that all the European species
were generically distinct from all the American and that the latter
should alone be referred to Anthocharis. I do not agree with this
statement at all, and I can show grounds for referring American
species, with orange blotch in the male, to Euchloe, and for con-
sidering that the white species of both continents are slightly more
specialized and might be kept under the separate title of Antho-
charis. I regret not to have genutia to examine and I use Antho-
36 GROTE — SPECIALIZATION'S OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. [Jan. 21,
charis for the type belemia, which is, perhaps, identical. The
subjective question of whether there are two '' genera " to be con-
sidered is not of any importance to me at all. I recognize two
five-branched types : the one specialized, which I seem warranted
in calling Anthocharis under Boisduval's original use of that term;
the other, relatively generalized, which I call Euchloe, with the
type given by Mr. Scudder of cardamines.
The white Anthocharids differ from the type of Euchhe carda-
mines in that vein iii2 has moved from the original position and is
given off opposite, or even beyond the cross-vein. \wA. ausomdes,
which is slightly the more specialized of the three examined, it has
even passed the extremity of the cell for a considerable distance.
Therefore the specialization runs here upon the same line as in the
case of Meganostoma and Eurymus. The generic title Anthocharis
should have, I believe, the type belemia, in case genutia does not
share these essential characters and is not, in the sense here pro-
posed, an Anthocharis. It is clear from the above citation from
the Historical Sketch, that Mr. Scudder has misapprehended the
state of affairs in this group ; for I am quite unable to find any
neurational differences between the North American E. stella and
the European type of Euchloe. In both insects vein iiia retains its
original position above the cell. And the chances seem to be that
this will be the case with most of the species, carrying an orange
blotch on the male primary, irrespective of locality. In any case,
that which interests us here especially is the development of a
specializing movement tending generally in the direction of a
reduction in the number of the radial branches, but here taking a
special and, looking through the day butterflies, perhaps an unusual
direction. I find it, besides in these two instances, in the Pieridae,
in Euptoieta, Melitaea, Euphydryas, Araschnia and Heliconius.
But when we examine Pontia, we find that, although the five-
branched radius has become a three-branched, still vein iii.^ has not
changed its place. The reduction has been effected by other
means than the shifting of iiij in the direction of the apex of the
wing. Into the details of the physiological process of absorption
I cannot now enter, sufficient for my present purpose is the fact,
that Pontia represents a clean descent from Euchloe-like forms and
that it has not passed through Anthocharid-like forms upon its
way. The absorption of iii^ has proceeded to a varying extent in
these species of Anthocharis. The little branch remaining has
1898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 37
become very short indeed in A. ausonides. A. belemia would be
the most generah'zed form, since \\\^ has not, or hardly, passed the
cross-vein. In both belia and ausonides this halting place has been
passed by. But in Tetracharis (n. g.) cethura Feld., sp., we have
a four-branched Euchloe ; one which represents an intermediate
stage between the five-branched Euchloe and the three-branched
Pontia. Tetracharis may be represented also by other spe-
cies, since I have not been able to examine all the. forms of the
Anthocharini.
This survey of the Pierinae has shown us that the Anthocharini
represent the most generalized forms apparently in the holarctic
fauna, and that they are probably the survivors, not on the direct
line, of a former five-branched condition of the family. There
remains one more five-branched form to examine : Leptidia
(Leucophasia), but this presents so strange a neurational pattern,
that it must have come into its present company by a vastly different
route. Of its peculiar type it may be a specialized form, although,
in comparison with the Pierin^e, it seems generalized. Its white
color has come to it, I think, subsequently ; as to its origin —
unde et quomodo — I have no idea which is not imaginary.
To touch finally another aspect of our subject — a study of the
dynamics of the butterfly wing has been somewhat neglected. From
the details of the changes in the position of the veins, it may be
concluded that the movements have a mechanical cause. Since
this inquiry belongs to a department of direct observation upon
which we can obtain absolute knowledge, without employing recon-
structive methods, it may be painfully followed up, in field and
cabinet, until the subject becomes clear. The butterflies certainly
owe a part of their attractiveness to the fact of their seasonal
appearance. They recur at a certain niveau in the biological
circle, thus relieving the mind through their plain testimony from
doubting that the principle of existence is succession.
38 GROTE — SPECIALIZATION'S OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. [Jan. 21,
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1898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF l.EPIDOPTEROUS WING. 39
The Charaxin^.
The Nymphalidae proper appear dichotomous. The main ascend-
ing branch is represented by the Argynninae, running up into the
NymphalincX. This branch is characterized by a short furcation of
iii^ with iiig, and the genera may be called the "short forks."
The second branch represents an earlier condition of the Nympha-
lids in which this furcation is more or less extended and the genera
may be known as '* long forks." Just as the passage from the Argyn-
ninae to the Nymphalinae by the continued greater absorption of ii
and iii of hind wings may be considered to have gradually occurred,
so the transformation of the ''long forks" into "short forks" is
inevitable by the progress of iii^ toward the outer margin of the
wing. But, other characters considered, the existing "long forks"
seem to hold together on a distinct phylogenetic line. In Anaea
we have an existing "long fork" which has lost its taxonomic
character in this direction. In Euschatzia (type morvus) we have
an allied Charaxid which still retains the character. Mr. ^cudder
having in 1875 (^- ^-^ i^^) fixed the type of Anaea as iroglodyia,
this action could not be properly subverted by Schatz, who subse-
quently made the same species the type of his genus " Pyrrhandra,"
which name must fall. For ?norvus, more generalized than the
species of Anaea, I choose the generic name Euschatzia. Genera
like Aganisthos, Kallima and Anaea appear to represent in succession
Consul, Charaxes, Hypna, Prepona, typical "long forks."
In Charaxes veins iii4 and iii^ fuse at base for a short space,
only about one-sixth of the length of iii3. If this short fusion
were absent we should have a wing agreeing so far with that of
Hesperia, that all the veins are separate, and no furcation, conse-
quent upon the absorption of iii4 by iiig, has taken place. Thus
in the primitive Nymphalidae, represented more nearly by the
Charaxinae, the veins were probably all separate. And probably
also in the whole group Hesperiades. In fact the hypothesis sug-
gests itself that the lepidopterous wing may have originally shown a
series of longitudinal and independent veins, connected by a system
of cross veins and without furcations. The disappearance of the
cross veins would allow of the contact of the longitudinal veins.
This state of affairs would in turn lead to their partial absorption
and consequent furcation. We may have in the Hesperiadae and
Tortricidae existing stages of this evolutionary change in the
lepidopterous wing.
40 GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. [Jan. 21,
To resume : Butterflies like Athyma and even Adelpha seem to
find their natural place in the Nymphalinse. But^ when we come
to the west coast of South America, we find in Megalura a form
which shares the taxonomic character of the secondaries with the
Nymphalinae, while iii^ of primaries reaches apex. Perhaps here
we come upon a fresh phylogenetic line, and the meeting of i, ii
and iii of the hind wings at one point is no longer a reliable index
of a nearer blood relationship.
A Strange African Pierid.
A genus which has reached the grade of specialization of Nathalis,
Mancipium and Pontia, and even gone beyond it, is represented by
the strange little African butterfly Gonophlebia faradoxa. In his
recent work Mr. Renter has classified this butterfly as follows :
*' Papiliones : Pierididse : Pseudopontiinse : Pseudopontiidi : Pseu-
dopontia." The major clamp in this declensional series — Papiliones
— we can at once discard, since no proof has, nor apparently can
ever be offered, that the Whites are phylogenetically connected with
the Swallowtails. Further, if we may trust Mr. Scudder, the whole
series of etymological changes must go by the board, since Pseudo-
pontia is a synonym of Gonophlebia.
Two common butterflies will help us in understanding the vena-
tion of Gonophlebia : rJiamni and sinapis. How the veins may be
twisted to sustain the new shape of the wing, here assumed very
probably under the influence of mimicry, is certainly taught us by
rhanini, in which the branches of the radius are bent upward to
sustain the expanded costa of primaries. Our strange African
butterfly has the veins still more strongly bent out of their normal
course to meet the required shape of its funny round wings. In
Gonophlebia veins iviand iv.have left the cross vein and spring, one
following the other, from the main branch of the radius, vein
iiig -|- 4 -[" 5? outside of the closed cell. This is an amplification of
the usual Pierine movement of the upper branches of the median
system of veins. This, not the whitish color, stamps Gonophlebia
as an offshoot of the Pierid stem. Gonophlebia is even more easily
recognized as a Pierid than Leptidia sinapsis, in which ivj has not
left the cross vein. But, despite the contrasted shape of their
wings, it is not impossible that Leptidia and Gonophlebia are
isolated survivors of the same phylum.
The extraordinary movement of the middle branch of the median
3898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 41
series, vein ivj, in following the lead of iv^, proves Gonophlebia
to be a highly specialized form. The neuration shows us that there
is no contradiction offered to the view that Gonophlebia is a special-
ized Pierid and, in order to make this still plainer, we will study
it a little closer.
What gives the pattern of the veining its singularity, and affords
a faint reminiscence of the Pericopids, is the tendency to run apart
which the veins display in Gonophlebia. The veins are bent more
or less out of their usual course, and this is especially the case with
Vg on both wings. But all this effort is clearly exerted in order to
sustain the circular shape of the wings and keep the thin membrane
taut. On the secondaries the expansion of the rounded costal
margin has to be performed solely by the radius, in its single special-
ized condition, without branches. And how is this infrequent task
accomplished? The simple vein is bent upwards, near the middle,
at a nearly right angle, supporting and anastomosing with vein ii ;
thence again, less abruptly descending, the radius runs outwardly
to external margin below the apices, while vein ii itself is continued
to the apex of the wing. Nature wished to make a spherical wing
with no greater number of sustaining rods than go to support the
longer wings of other butterflies, or even the narrow and extended
wings of Leptid^a. And thus, with the same economy of material,
is the end attained. There arise no new veins, no complexity of
machinery astonishes. We have the old veins in new position, but
still showing the Pierine movement in specialization.
If Gonophlebia is the pattern of the veining so transformed, it
is small wonder that Mr. Butler should deny and Mr. Scudder
question its being a butterfly. Added to this the antennae lack the
regulation knob, which would allow Mr. Butler to place it among
the '' Rhopalocera. " A puzzle to the classificators and a seduction
to Mr. Reuter to a waste of category, this frail butterfly has evidently
suffered many 'Vicissitudes of the voyage" along the road it has
traveled and which may not be so very far now from its ending.
This strange butterfly is the only diurnal I have yet met with in
which vein ix is retained on hind wings.
42 GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. [Jan. 21,
Explanation of Plate I.
The figures are obtained by combined photographic process. The veins are
numbered according to the system Redtenbacher-Comstock,
iii =rz radius, iv = media, v = cubitus.
Fig. I. Pontia daplidice. Type of genus. Attention is called to the three-
branched radius. A specialized type. Vein iiig in original position.
Fig. 2. Tetracharis cethura. Type of genus. Compare the four-branched
radius with the five-branched radius of Euchloe. Vein \\\^ in original
position.
Fig. 3. Anthocharis ausonides. Vein iii2 has moved forward to a point con-
siderably beyond the cross-vein. Attention is called to the dimin-
ished extent of vein iii^. A more specialized form than A. belemia.
For this type Mr, Scudder uses Synchloe, but contrary to custom.
The reason for rejecting Midea for genutia does not seem to me
tenable.
Fig. 4. Euchloe cardamines. Type of genus. The five-branched radius
shows vein \\\^ in original position above the cell. E. stella agrees.
A generalized type of the group.
Fig. 5. Nathalis iole. Type of genus. A specialized type with three-
branched radius.
Fig. 6. Terias hecabe. Type of genus. A subspecialized type with four-
branched radius. Vein viii of primaries fairly distinct. A mere
rudiment of vein i of hind wings.
Fig. 7. Gonophlebia paradoxa. Type of genus. Vein viii of primaries pres-
ent, short, close to vii. On secondaries three internal veins. Type
of subfamily Gonophlebianue. Compare text.
1898.] GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. 43
Explanation of Plate II.
The figures are obtained by a combined photographic process. The veins are
numbered according to the system Redtenbacher-Comstock.
iii = radius, iv = media, v = cubitus.
Fig. 8. Eurymtis ediisa. Attention is called to the slipping forward of iiij. If
a comparison is made with my figure of Euryi7ius hyale (/. c. Fig. 7)
it will be found that in this type of the genus the distance traversed
by this vein along radius is slightly greater than in edusa, which is
so far the more generalized form. A specialized type.
Fig. 9. Meganostoma ccesojiia. Type of genus. Attention is called to the
remains of i on secondary wings. On primary wing vein \\\^ halts
opposite cross-vein. A subspecialized type on the direct line to Eury-
mus. Mr. Scudder prefers zerene for this genus.
Fig. 10. Callidryas eubule. Type of genus. A generalized four-branched
type. Vein iii2 in original position.
Fig. II. Nymphalis lucilla. Type of family, subfamily and genus. Vein iii^
given off upon external margin. Attention is called to the gener-
alized state of the radius, common to all brush-footed butterflies. Also
to the specialized condition of the median branches, which have
joined the radial and cubital systems respectively. The cross-vein
has vanished and the media, as a system, has virtually disappeared
from the wing. Veins ii and iii on hind wings absorbed to point of
issue of i.
Fig. 12. Para7'ge cegeria. Type of genus and subfamily. Attention is called
to position of cross-vein on hind wings and to the fact that ivg has
joined cubitus. Compare with the following figure in this respect.
Fig.1^13, Agapetes galathea<^ . Type of genus, subfamily and family. A more
generalized type than the preceding. The lower branch of media,
vein ivg, arises from cross-vein and is not permanently joined to the
cubital system.
44 GROTE — SPECIALIZATIONS OF LEPIDOPTEROUS WING. [Jan. 21,
Explanation of Plate III.
The figures are obtained by combined photographic process. The veins are
numbered according to the system Redtenbacher-Comstock.
iii =z radius, iv = media, v = cubitus.
Fig, 14. Oeneis noma. Type of genus. Attention is directed to the fact that
this is a more generahzed form, belonging to the Agapetinae with iv^
from cross- vein, by the strongly closed cell and equidistance of the
branches. The position assigned by Mr, Scudder, " at the head " of
the brush-footed butterflies, cannot be a proper one. The genus
seems related to Erebia (/, c, Fig. 23).
Fig, 15. Heliconius antiochus. Type of genus and family. From its total
characters a more generalized type than that of the Agapetidae.
Fig. 16, Lininas chrysippus. Type of genus and family. Still more gener-
alized. Attention is drawn to the strong condition of vein viii on
fore wings.
Fig. 17. Libythea celtis. Type of genus and family. Outline of wings resem-
bling Polygonia. Vein viii of primaries strong and position of ivj
nearly central. In other characters specialized, ii and iii on hind
wings fused to issue of i.
Fig. 18. Etischatzia morvus. Type of genus. The radial branches have in-
tersected with subcosta. A long fork ; furcation of iii^ and iii^ long»
but shorter than in Charaxes, Compare text.
1898.] SACHSE — AX OLD BROADSIDE. 45
AN OLD BROADSIDE, WITH A REFERENCE TO THE
THRONE OF CONGRESS.
(Plate IV.)
BY JULIUS F. SACHSE.
(Mead January 21, 1898. )
A short time ago our efficient Librarian, Dr. I. Minis Hays, during
his investigations among the miscellaneous property of the Society,
discovered a bundle of old papers which bore the legend, " Of not
much value." Upon opening the parcel almost the first paper ex-
amined proved to be a small German broadside over a century old.
It was printed upon what is known as a quarto sheet, measuring
seven by nine inches ; it was without date or imprint, and the title
simply told that it was a description of a silk serviette or handker-
chief. Certainly not one to attract any special attention. Closer
examination, however, showed that this advertisement or broadside
was really the description of a fine specimen of the weaver's art, exe-
cuted in silk damask or brocade, which had been made and dis-
tributed either in France or Germany, or perhaps in both countries,
during the darkest days of the American struggle for freedom, with
the express purpose of furthering America's interests in her battle
for liberty.
The whole design appears to have been elaborate and symbolical,
in which the portrait of Benjamin Franklin, Minister to the Court
of France and President of the American Philosophical Society,
occupied the most prominent position.
Diligent inquiry among scholars well versed in Revolutionary
matters, both historical and pictorial, has failed in bringing to
light any other notice of either the broadside or the allegorical
handkerchief which was the basis for its publication ; and it is but
fair to assume that the printed sheet now brought to your notice, to
say the least, is unique. The date of the making of our serviette,
as it appears from the incidents and inscriptions woven in the
fabric, must have been during the summer of 1778, evidently but a
short time after the news of the British evacuation of Philadelphia
reached the continent.
Another peculiarity of it is that it is couched in that peculiar kind
of German, largely interspersed with French words and sentences.
46 SACHSE — AN OLD BROADSIDE. [Jan. 21,
which was prevalent in Germany at the period, when every petty-
princeling in that divided country aimed to maintain a court pat-
terned after that of Louis XV of France.
We now come to the description of this symbolical relic as set
forth in the broadside, and it is the fervent wish of the writer that
this paper may be the means of bringing to light, or at least locating,
one of these handkerchiefs of the Revolutionary period, should one
have survived.
From the detailed description it appears that the handkerchief or
serviette was of silk. In the centre was a rattlesnake, divided into
thirteen parts, whereof the last part or tail end was supposed to be
in a state of accretion, a prophetic allusion since realized. This
symbol referred to the thirteen American Colonies then struggling
for independence. It was patterned after one which appeared in
Franklin's Pennsylvania Gazette as early as 1754, when he printed
in his paper the cut of a severed snake and the motto, " Unite or
Die," to show the necessity of Colonial union against the French
and Indians. In 1775 this emblem was printed at the head of the
Pennsylvania Jom'nal, and the idea of the resemblance between the
Colonies and the rattlesnake was often brought up in the literature
of the day.
The name of one of the different Colonies appeared over each
segment. The broadside further goes on to state that this peculiar
reptile was chosen as the symbol of the new nation because it was
held to be the noblest of its genus : it never strikes without first
giving due warning to its enemies, and for this reason, says the
broadside, it has been emblazoned upon the arms and flags of the
American Provinces. The word Provinces evidently refers to such
provincial flags as bore a rattlesnake upon their folds. The most
noted one of this series was the celebrated flag of Paul Jones, with its
warning motto, " Don't Tread on Me."
Within the circle formed upon the handkerchief by the seg-
ments of a divided rattlesnake was portrayed a large globe upon a
pedestal, so turned as to show North America. Within the outlines
of the continent was prominently displayed a portrait of Benjamin
Franklin, Ambassador at th^ Court of France, beneath which
appeared the legend, ''The Wonder of Our Times." Above this
portrait appeared the throne of Congress, together with the Book of
the Law and a drawn sword, symbolizing the supreme power. Upon
the pages of tliis book were inscribed, Les Treize Provinces Unies
1898.] SACHSE — AN OLD BROADSIDE. 47
(The Thirteen United Provinces) and Indcpendance le 4 Juillet,
lyyd (Independence, July 4, 1776). In the foreground appeared a
palmetto tree, upon both sides of which were placed the flags of
France, to indicate the treaty so lately negotiated with that
country.
A wreath of laurel formed the outside border of the handkerchief,
to signify the reward of bravery. The four corners were interlaced
with the lilies of France, which the broadside informs us also formed
a part of the arms of the United Colonies. Here again we have an
allusion to at least one of the many flags carried during the early
part of the Revolution, prior to the adoption of the Stars and
Stripes.
As corner-pieces there appear to have been four allegorical
designs, whose chief motive were leading commanders in the armies
of the United Colonies. The difl"erent Generals were supported by
the goddess Minerva and surrounded by trophies of war and figures
representing Prudence, Courage and Strength.
In the first medallion we have Washington ; upon his left the god
Mars who, with his sword, strikes off the shackles from a slave and
announces to him emancipation, while he crushed under foot slavery
and envy.
Upon Washington's right was Minerva, extending toward him a
wreath of oak as an emblem of strength. Genius reclines at her feet
and proclaims peace. The legend over this medallion. General
Washington 11 a peu (T Egaux en Bravoiire, Prude fice et dans V Art
Militaire, informs the world that General Washington has but few
equals in courage, prudence and the military art.
The second medallion shows a portrait of General Charles Lee.
At his side are divers American prisoners of war bewailing their
fate, and, pointing to the British arms, they implore Mars for succor.
General Lee's late career is indicated by a dungeon upon whose
walls are exhibited his arms, accoutrements and chains. The
accompanying legend. General Lee, Tatitot Vainqiienr Tantot
Vaincu, signifies, '^Betimes Conqueror, betimes Conquered."
The third medallion contains a profile of General Richard Mont-
gomery. It is flanked by Sorrow, who points to an urn containing
the ashes of the patriot. Below tlie portrait are seen a coffin and a
monument. A mourning genius, with torch reversed, beside the ceno-
taph, represents death. Mars consoles him by pointing with his
sword to a battle scene in the distance. The allegory is explained
48 SACHSE — AN OLD BROADSIDE. [Jan 21,
by the legend, Ge?ie7-al Mo?itgommery , [i-/V] Thou do' st fall, but
Freedom shall build her Throne on thy Grave.
The central figure of the fourth medallion is General Gates, sup-
ported by Wisdom and Liberty, whereof the latter points with
Mercury's wand toward the naval and military forces of the United
Provinces. The fertility and affluence of our country are indicated
by a scene on the river Nile. Above all appears the legend,
General Gates, Vainqueur de ses Ennemis (General Gates, Van-
quisher of his Enemies).
In connection with these four medallions there remain to be
noticed four battle scenes ingeniously wrought into the fabric.
1. The battle of Quebec, where General Montgomery was killed.
{La Bataille devant Quebeck, ou le General Mo?ttgo7?unery fut tue.)
2. The battle of Trenton, where the Hessian troops were defeated
December 25, 1776. Curiously enough our broadside gives the
credit for the victory to General Lee : La Bataille de Trentvice, oic
les Llessois furent def aits par le General Lee, le 26 Decembre, 1776.
3. The battle of Saratoga, October 17, 1777, showing the sur-
render of Lord Burgoyne to General Gates. The legend reads :
La Bataille de Saratoga, le 17 d' October, 1777, dans laquelle le
General Bourgoyne fut fait Prisonnier par I e General Gates.
4. The retreat of the British from Philadelphia by way of the
Jerseys June, 1778. With the inscription : Les Trouppes Angloises
se retiretit de Philadelphia a Jerseys f an 1768 [sic'].
Finally, there is shown a horizon with forked lightning, from
which descend two crowns, each formed of thirteen parts, one
divided, the other united ; emblematical of the dependence and
independence of the North American Colonies.
From the above description it will be seen that this specimen of
the textile art was one of no mean order, either in its poetical con-
ception or the artistic execution. It further brings to our knowledge
a heretofore unknown means used to interest foreign people of the
better classes in our favor during what may well be called the criti-
cal time of our revolutionary struggle.
Historically, our old broadside is of the greatest importance in
one particular, especially so at this time, when the old State House
and Independence Hall are undergoing another siege of '* restora-
tion;" our broadside gives us a definite clue to a representation of a
hitherto forgotten or overlooked accessory to the furnishings of the
east room of the State House.
1898.] SACHSE — AN OLD BROADSIDE. 49
I allude to the canopied throne in Independence Hall, a piece of
ornamental furniture occupied by the Speaker of the Continental
Congress at the time when Independence was declared, and which
remained a feature of the historic room until some time after the
Revolution.
Nothing can be farther from our idea of the birth of American
liberty than the introduction upon the scene of a throne with royal
emblazonment. The mere suggestion would seem like a desecra-
tion of our most cherished sanctuary, where assembled the noble
patriots who declared these Colonies free and independent. It
certainly does seem like an incongruity to picture John Hancock,
him of the bold signature, descending from a throne or anything
that savored of monarchy ^to affix his autograph to the immortal
Declaration.
No painting or engraving, so far as known to the writer, portrays
anything like such an accessory to the equipment of the chamber.
No artist appears to have had the temerity to give us a true view of
the Chamber of Assembly, with its gallery for the public and the
ornate trappings over the windows and Speaker's chair. The
memorable scene of signing the Declaration is generally depicted
as one of extreme republican simplicity, in fact painfully so, giving
the generations of the present day the impression that the interior
of the State House, the finest public building in the Colonies, was
as plain and devoid of ornamentation as a Quaker meeting-house,
and in every case, as it now appears, incorrect in most vital detail.
Now, in the face of the accepted pictures of the Chamber of
Assembly, or east room of the State House, we here have the state-
ment of a picture of this throne, or, as it is called, " The Throne of
Congress," supported by the Book of Laws and the Sword. And
this picture appears as described on the handkerchief.
Unsupported by corroborative evidence, this statement would
most likely, in the absence of the original, be received as a piece of
artistic or poetic license on the part of the artist who sketched the
design, and who for purposes of his own inserted a symbol of royalty
so distasteful to patriots of all nations.
I will now read a piece of evidence in support of the existence of
a throne in the east room. It was written by an eye-witness, the
Prince de Broglie, who visited the State House in 1782 :
''The State House, where Congress assembles, as does the Coun-
cil of Pennsylvania, and where also the Courts of Justice are held,
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 157. D. PRINTED MAY 17, 1898.
50 SACHSE — AN OLD BROADSIDE. [Jan. 21,
is a building literally crushed by a huge massive tower, square and
not very solid.
'^ Congress meets in a large room on the ground floor. The
chamber is large, without any other ornament than a bad engraving
of Montgomery, one of Washington, and a copy of the Declaration of
Independence. It is furnished with thirteen tables, each covered
with a green cloth. One of the representatives of each of the thir-
teen States sits during the session at one of these tables. The
President of the Congress has his place in the middle of the hall
upon a sort of a throne."
Now the phrase, ''sort of a throne," might mean nothing, if
coming from a modern American, more than a very dignified seat ;
but, coming as it does from a French 'nobleman of the ancient
regime, it certainly suggests the idea of regal state. The least we
can expect from it would be an ornamental chair on a dais sur-
mounted by a canopy and ornamented with the symbols of the home
government.
With these facts before us we may well assume that the symbol
was an actual and not a typical one, and that it could only have
been introduced into the general design by one familiar with the
old Council Chamber.
We now come to another phase of the subject ; how so elaborate
a piece of furniture happened to be a part of the equipment of the
Chamber at the time when the Continental Congress took the step
which eventually made the Colonies an independent nation. The
solution of this problem is comparatively easy. W^hen it is taken into
consideration that the room in which Congress met had for years been
used by the Assembly of Pennsylvania, and was more or less elab-
orately equipped with fine furniture and hangings, there can be but
little question that ample provision was made for the august Speaker
and for the Governor when he was present on State occasions in the
shape of an elaborate canopied dais, surmounted by the royal arms
and other insignia of monarchical authority.
A somewhat similar arrangement witli royal insignia over the
seat of the Chief Justice ornamented the west room. The final
disposition of these symbols of kingly authority appears in the issue
of the Pennsylvania Journal, Wednesday, July lo, 1776, where we
are told that on the evening of Monday, July 8, the day upon which
the Declaration was publicly read, '' Our late King's coat of arms
was brought from the hall in the State House and burned amidst
the acclamations of a crowd of spectators."
1898.] MINUTES. 51
A throne with royal arms in Independence Hall ! Words could
hardly express a greater incongruity. Yet, to be historically cor-
rect, the learned Committee who have charge of the restoration of
Independence Hall if they wish to place the ancient Chamber in
the exact condition it was in on July 4, 1776 (and I believe that is the
intention) will certainly have to introduce a canopied dais or throne
in the eastern end of Independence Hall.
Another apparent historic incongruity'in our old broadside is the
legend which gives to General Charles Lee the credit for the cap-
ture of the Hessians at Trenton, when, as a matter of fact, that
General was then a prisoner of war in the hands of the British. The
explanation of this curious statement is that Lee claimed to have
sent Washington the necessary information from New York, and
formulated the plan of battle which brought about the capture of
Rhal's forces. This, it appears, was believed in Europe to have
been the case, and the design was evidently made and published
before the news of the battle of Monmouth and the subsequent
court-martial of Lee reached the continent.
In closing this paper I repeat the wish that its dissemination may
bring to light, either at home or abroad, one of these symbolical
compositions so curiously wrought in threads of silk and used in the
interest of American Independence, the only description of which,
so far as known, is the broadside found in the archives of the
American Philosophical Society. Further, the finding of one of
these serviettes would give to us the true design of the Throne of
Congress, which for years was a feature of Independence Hall.
Stated Meetiiig, Fthruary Jf.^ 1898,
Yice-President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, 12 members.
Acknowledgments of election to membership were received
from Profs. C.^F. W. McClure and Henry B. Fine.
The Standing Committees for the 3- ear, appointed by the
President, under resolution of the Society, were announced,
as follows :
Finance. — Philip C. Garrett, William Y. McKean, Joel
Cook.
52 MINUTES. [Feb. 18,
Hall. — William A. Ingham, Joseph M. Wilson, Horace
Jajne.
Publication. — Daniel G. Brinton, Persifor Frazer, I. Minis
Hays, Frederick Prime, Samuel P. Sadtler.
Library. — Edwin J. Houston, Frederick Prime, T. Hewson
Bache, Albert H. Smyth, Samuel P. Sadtler.
Michaux Ze^ac?/.— Thomas Meehan, Angelo Heilprin,
William Powell Wilson, Burnet Landreth, Henry Trimble.
Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund. — William Y.
McKean, Craig Biddle, Joseph C. Fraley, C. Stuart Patter-
son, Mayer Sulzberger, the President, the Treasurer.
Programme. — William Pepper, Persifor Frazer, William
A. Ingham, Joseph C. Fraley, I. Minis Hays.
The death was announced at Philadelphia, on January 29,
1898, of Dr. Theophilus Parvin, aged 69 years.
Prof. W. B. Scott read by title the following papers in-
tended for the Transa^ctions : ' ' The Osteology of Eliothe-
rium " and "Notes on the Canidae of the White Eiver
Oligocene."
Prof. W. B. Scott presented a paper on " The Exploration
of Patagonia."
Pending nominations Nos. 1432, 1435 and 1445 to 1450
were read.
The Society was adjourned by the presiding officer.
Stated Meeting^ February 18, 1898.
Vice-President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, 20 members.
The Special Committee on Prof. Scott's papers, entitled
' ' Notes on the Canidte of the White Kiver Oligocene ' ' and
" The Osteology of Elotherium," recommended their publi-
cation in the Transactions, which was so ordered.
The Special Committee on Dr. Harrison Allen's papers
presented for the Transactions, entitled " The Glossopha-
1898.] MINUTES. 53
ginae " and " The Skull and Teetb. of the Ectophylla alba,"
recommended their publication, which was so ordered.
The death was announced of Rev. William C. Cattell, D.D.,
on February 11, in his seventy-first year.
The President, on motion, appointed Dr. McCook to prepare
an obituary notice of Dr. Cattell.
Dr. Carl Lumholtz read a paper on " The Iluichol Indians
of Mexico and Their Objective Symbols." which was dis-
cussed by Dr. Brinton and Mr. Culin.
Pending nominations were read and spoken to, and the
Society proceeded to the election of new members, after
which the Tellers reported the following persons had been
elected members :
2367. Thomas H. Montgomery, Jr., Philadelphia.
2368. W. L. R. Emmet, Schenectady, N. Y.
2369. George H. Darwin, F.R.S., Cambridge, Mass.
2370. S. Dana Greene, Schenectady, N". Y.
2371. L. B. Stillwell, Buffalo, ^^. Y.
2372. Charles F. Scott, Pittsburgh, Pa.
The Society was adjourned by the presiding officer.
Stated Meeting, March 4-, 1898.
Yice -President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, 9 members.
Mr. T. H. Montgomery, Jr., a newly elected member, was
presented and took his seat in the Society.
Letters accepting membership were read from W. L. R.
Emmet, Thomas H. Montgomery, Jr., and Percival Lowell.
The death, in his eighty-third year, of Rev. James Legge,
D.D., LL.D., of Oxford, England, was announced.
Pending nominations 1432 and 1451 and new nominations
1452 and 1453 were read.
The Society was adjourned by the presiding officer.
54 MATHEWS — INITIATION IN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. [March 18/
Stated Meeting, March 18, 1898.
Dr. I. Minis Hays in tlie Chair.
Present, 11 members.
Acknowledgments of election to membership were read
from Charles F. Scott, of Pittsburgh, Pa.; George H. Darwin,
of Cambridge, Eng.; S. Dana Greene, of New York, and L.
B. Stillwell, of Niagara Falls, N. Y.
Correspondence was submitted and donations to the Library
and Cabinet were reported.
Announcement Avas made of the death of Sir Henry Besse-
mer, at his residence near London, on March 15, 189 S, in the
85th year of his age ; and of the Eev. Dr. Edward A. Foggo,
at Philadelphia, March 8, 1898, aged 61.
The following communications were presented :
By E. H. Mathews, " Initiation Ceremonies of the Native
Tribes of Australia."
Bv W. B. Scott, " A Preliminary Note on the Selenodont
Artiodactyls of the Uinta Formation."
Pending nominations Nos. 1432 and 1451 to 1453 and new
nominations Nos. 1454 to 1457 were read.
The Society was adjourned by the presiding member.
LNITIATION CEREMONIES OF AUSTRALL\N TRIBES.
(Plate V.)
BY R. H. MATHEWS, L.S.
{Read March IS, 1S9S.)
The Koombanggary tribe, which was at one time both numerous
and important, inhabits the country from the south side of the
Clarence river along the sea- coast about as far as Nambucca, ex-
tending westerly almost to the main dividing range. On the south
they are bounded by the Thangatty tribe, occupying the Macleay
river. The Anaywan tribe, scattered over the table- land of New
South Wales, bound the Thangatty and Koombanggary people on
1898.] ^[ATHEWS — INITIATION IN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. 55
thewest. As no description of the Burbung of these tribes has yet
been published, I have prepared the following brief account of that
ceremony as practiced within the district indicated. Their social
organization is after the Kamilaroi type, being divided into four
sections,^ with numerous totems consisting of animals, plants and
other natural objects.
A Burbung is held at any time that there are a sufficient number
of boys old enough to be installed as tribesmen ; and the headman
of the tribe, whose turn it is to take the initiative in calling the
people together for this purpose, is generally agreed upon at the
conclusion of the previous inaugural gathering which took place.
When the appointed time comes round, the tribe who are charged
with this duty select a suitable camping ground within their own
territory, and some of the initiated men commence preparing the
ground. While they are employed at this work, the principal head-
man dispatches messengers to such of the surrounding tribes as he
wishes to join in the ceremony. These men are selected from among
his own friends and belong to his own totem. Each messenger has
generally one or more other men with him to keep him company,
and he is provided with the emblems usually carried on such occa-
sions, namely, a bull-roarer, several articles of a man's dress and
some native weapons. The conduct of these messengers on their
arrival in the proximity of the camp of the people to whom the
invitation has been sent is very similar to the procedure previously
explained in ray descriptions of the initiation ceremonies of other
tribes.
The situation of the general encampment as regards water and
food supplies, and the location of the visiting tribes around the local
mob, are also substantially the same as already stated. In a retired
spot, a short distance from the main camp, the headmen have a
private meeting place, called the bunbul, where they congregate to
discuss such matters as they do not wish the women to hear. They
have one or more fires around which they sit, and none of the un-
initiated men are allowed near them. The women must not intrude
upon the bunbul, even if the men are not there. The single women
and girls also have a place near the camp, but in the opposite direc-
tion, where they assemble to work at making nets, headbands and
^ I have given the names of the divisionsof these people in my paper on " The
Totemic Divisions of Australian Tribes," jfottrn. Roy. Soc. N', S. Wales,
xxxi, 168-170.
56 MATHEWS — INITIATION IN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. [March 18,
such like. Every aboriginal camp is kept free from excrementitious
matter. When the people go out to attend to any necessity of
nature, they at once make a hole in the ground and cover the
deposit over with earth.
In close proximity to the camp is the burbling or public ring,
bounded by a low earthen embankment, with a narrow sunken
pathway called maro^ leading about four or five hundred yards into
the forest to another circular space, formed in the same manner,
known as the eeteemat, in the floor of which the butts of two sap-
lings are firmly inserted, having the rooty ends upwards. These
inverted stumps are called warringooringa, and are prepared in the
way described in my papers dealing with initiation ceremo-
nies elsewhere.^ The maro enters both the circles through
a narrow opening left in the embankment, and the latter is
continued outward a few feet along either side of the path where
it meets the rings. Within the eeteemat there are also sometimes
two, and sometimes four, heaps of earth, about a foot and a half or
two feet high.
Around the outside of the eeteemat and along both sides of the
pathway referred to, there are a number of trees marked with the
usual moombeera devices, as well as the outlines of an iguana, a
squirrel, the new moon and other figures, all chopped into the bark
with a tomahawk. On one side of the path are some tracks of an
emu's foot, cut into the surface of the ground a few feet apart, as if
made by that animal running along. These tracks lead away some
distance into the adjacent bush, forming a sort of curve or semi-
circle around the eeteemat ; and on following them up they are found
to terminate at the prone figure of an emu, ngooroon, formed by
heaping up the loose earth into the required shape. All over the
body of the emu thus drawn in high relief small twigs of the oak or
wattle tree are closely inserted to represent the feathers of the bird.
All the sticks and loose rubbish are scraped off the surface of the
ground for several yards around this figure, for the purpose of danc-
ing on.
Approaching the eeteemat, near one side of the pathway, there is
a low mound of earth about a foot high. This is called kooroor-
ballunga, and a fire is lit on top of it during the time that any per-
^" The Bora of the Kamilaroi Tribes," jfotirn. Anthrop. Inst., xxv, 325.
'-* The fronds or leaves of these trees bear some resemblance to the emu's
feathers.
1898.1 MATHEWS — INITIATION IN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. 57
formance is going on, such as the arrival of a tribe, their daily
games and the ceremonial connected with the removal of the
novices.
In the vicinity of the marked trees is a gigantic human figure
named Dharroogan or Gowang, lying extended on the ground,
composed of the loose soil scraped off the surface for some yards
around. A little way farther on, near the eeteemat^ is the prostrate
image of a wallaroo, formed in high relief in the same manner. In
building all the earthen figures just described, stones or pieces of
wood are first heaped up on the ground, almost to the height of the
object required, and on top of this the loose earth is thrown to com-
plete the figure and give it the necessary shape. The finished draw-
ing represents the intended animal in high relief on the surface of
the ground.
A rope made of stringy bark is stretched between two of the
marked trees which are not too far apart, and about midway along
this rope there is a bundle of leaves and finely frayed pieces of soft
bark, supposed to represent the rest of a ring-tail opossum.^
When a strange tribe reaches a point somewhere within an easy
stage of the main camp they paint their bodies with colored clays
in accordance with the style customary in their tribe, after which
the journey forward is resumed, the men in the lead, with the women
and children following. On the approach of the strangers, the men
of the local mob, and also the men of previous contingents who
have arrived at the main camp, stand outside the burbung circle
with their spears and other weapons in their hands, and sway their
bodies to and fro. The new arrivals then march on in single file,
in a meandering line, each man carrying his weapons in his hands;
they enter the ring and march round and round until they are all
within it in a spiral fold. They now come to a stand and jump
about, the headman calling out the names of camping grounds,
water-holes, shady trees, etc., in their country. After this they
come out of the ring and each detachment of the hosts enter it in
succession and act in a similar manner. For example, the contin-
gent from Kempsey, who had arrived first, entered the ring and
called out the names of remarkable places ; next, the contingent
from Armidale did likewise ; then the contingent from Tabulam,
and so on. Lastly, the men of the local Nymboi river mob enter
1 All the animals drawn upon the trees, or on the ground, represent the totems
of some of the people assembled at the main camp.
58 MATHEWS — IXITIATIOX IX AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. [March 18,
the ring and act in the same way. While this reception is being
accorded to the men, the women, novices and children go into the
camping ground and take up their quarters on the side nearest their
own country.
The men of the newly arrived contingent are next taken along
the track to the sacred ground, and are shown all the markings in
the soil and on the trees, the earthen figures in high relief, and
the fire, at each of which they dance and give a shout. They then
start along the tracks of the emu, some men being on one side and
some on the other, the front men pretending to be following the
marks in the ground. They make short grunt-like exclamations as
they run along and all the other men follow in a body. On reach-
ing the figure of the emu, they all give a shout and dance round on
the clear space before referred to.
They next assemble around the eeteemat and are shown the luar-
rangooringa, on the roots of each of which an old man is sitting
performing magical feats. Some of the headmen enter the ring
dancing and singing round the heaps of eartli and the warrangoo-
ringa, after which the two men descend from the latter and join the
others. All the wizards or '* doctors" take their turn at produc-
ing rock-crystals, blood, string and other substances from different
parts of their bodies. After each trick, these clever fellows run
with their heads down amongst the men who are standing outside
the ring, who jump around to get out of their way. At the conclu-
sion of these performances all the men go back along the track, and at
about, say fifty yards from the burbiing, they are met by the novices,
who join the procession, taking their places with the men of their
own sectional division/ who enter the ring and dance round a few
times, naming remarkable localities in their several districts, their
totems, etc., and the women, who are standing around outside,
throw handfuls of leaves at them, after which they all disperse to
their respective quarters.
A week or two, and in some cases a much longer time, elapses
between the arrival of the first contingent and the last mob who
have been invited from the surrounding districts, so that the earlier
arrivals have a good while to wait at the main camp. During this
period carraborus are held almost every fine night, the different
tribes present taking their turn at providing the evening's amuse-
ment. The men go out hunting every day and the women proceed
^ Joiirn. Roy. Soc. A". S, Wales, xxxi, 169.
1 898.1 MATHEWS — INITIATION IN AUSTRALIAN TKIBES. 59
in search of vegetable food, but there are always some of the old
men and women in the camp. Each afternoon when the men re-
turn from the hunting or fishing expeditions, which have engaged
them during the earlier portion of the day, the men of the local
tribe start from the camp and walk away to the eeteemat, carrying a
boomerang or some other weapon in each hand. They are shortly
afterwards followed by the men of the other tribes, each mob start-
ing in the order of their arrival at the main camp. On reaching the
ring they look over the moombeera, the raised and carved figures on
the ground, the warr'angooi'inga, etc., and go through practically
the same routine — and return to the hurbung in the same manner —
as on the arrival of a new tribe. On some days during their visit
to the eeteemat, the bullroarer is sounded, and the men beat the
ground with pieces of bark held in the hand. It may be that a few
additional trees are marked on these occasions, or some improve-
ments are made in the earthen figures, or any other extra work
which may add to the embellishment of the ground.
As soon as convenient after the arrival of all the tribes who are
expected to join in the ceremony the headmen assemble, and after
a consultation among themselves they determine the day on which
the novices will be taken away for the purpose of initiation. The
Kooriiigal, or band of men who are to take charge of the ceremo-
nies in the bush, are selected and the locality fixed where the women
are to erect the new camp and wait for the return of the novices.
On the morning which has been decided upon for taking the boys
away, the whole camp is astir at daylight. The painting of the
novices is now proceeded with, all of them being adorned with red
ochre and grease from head to foot. Each boy is then invested
with a girdle, to which four " tails " or kilts are attached, one hang-
ing down in front, one at each side and one behind. They are
then conducted into the burbling ring and placed sitting down on
the raised earthen wall, the boys of each tribe being in a group
by themselves on the side of the ring which is nearest their ow^n
country. The mother of each novice is then seated outside the em-
bankment a few yards behind where he is sitting ; his sisters and
the other women are placed on the ground a little farther back. A
screen of boughs is erected between each group of mothers and their
sons. One or more of the headmen now go along the groups of
novices and throw a rug over the head of each boy. All the women
and children are told to lie down and keep still, and are covered
60 MATHEWS — INITIATION" IN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. [March 18,
with rugs, bushes or grass, which have been placed in readiness for
the purpose. The women then commence making a low humming
or chanting noise, and several old men armed with spears keep
watch over them to see that no attempt is made to remove the cov-
ering or look about.
When these preliminaries have been completed, two men sound
bull-roarers (^yoolooduree or yeemboomul) in close proximity and a
few other men come along the path and run round inside the circle
beating the ground with pieces of bark, similar to those described
in my paper on The Burbung of the Wiradthuri Ti-ibes} All the
men who are standing about the circle shout and beat their weapons
together, a separate detachment of men being located near each
group of women for this purpose. During the combined noise of
the bull-roarers, the shouting and the beating of the ground, the
guardians advance, and, assisted by some of their friends, raise the
novices on their shoulders and carry them away, their heads being
still covered with the rugs to prevent their seeing anything. The
novices are taken as far as the commencement of the inoombeera,
where they are placed lying on the ground with the rugs spread over
them. Here they are kept a short time until the women depart
from the burbung, particulars of which will be given presently.
This delay also furnishes an opportunity to the men who have been
chosen for the kooringal to go on to the kooroorballunga and paint
their bodies jet black with powdered charcoal and grease.
The novices are then raised to their feet and the rugs are adjusted
on their heads in such a manner that they can only see the ground
in front of them. Their guardians lead them along the pathway
and they are shown the marked trees, the drawings on the ground,
the fire, the squirrel's nest, etc., and are told to take particular no-
tice of all these things. They are next conducted along the tracks
of the emu until they reach the bird lying on the ground, as already
described, around which some old men dance and all the people
give a shout. After this they proceed to the eefeemat, and the
novices are placed standing in a row. On being told to raise their
eyes, they see two old men sitting on the wai'rangooj'inga exhibit-
ing different substances out of their mouths, whilst some of the
other men are dancing around the heaps of earth. An old man
with a coolamin of human blood now approaches the novices and
rubs some of the blood on their wrists. The guardians again bend
^ Journ. Anthrop. Inst.,y.y.v, 308, PL xxvi, Fig. 40,
1898.] MATHEWS — INITIATION IN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. 61
down the boys' heads and a start is made for the bush. The war-
rangooringa stumps are then pulled out of the ground and placed
upon the fire, some of the men remaining in the vicinity until they
are consumed.
I must now take the reader back to the burbling ring. Shortly
after the guardians and novices get out of sight, the bushes and
other coverings are taken off the women and children by the men
who have remained in charge of them. They then gather up their
baggage and remove to another locality, perhaps several miles dis-
tant, where they erect a new camp, each tribe selecting their quar-
ters on the side of the camping ground nearest their own country.
Before starting from the burbling, a pole is inserted in the ground in
a slanting position, elevated and pointing in the direction of the
place where the new camp is to be established. If this locality is
some distance off, a long pole is used, making a considerable angle
with the horizon, but if the camp is not far away, the pole is shorter
and the angle of elevation less. The upper end is decorated by
having a bunch of green boughs, grass or feathers attached to it.
This indicator is left for the guidance of any natives who may
arrive at the main camp after the assemblage has broken up.
As already stated, the novices have started with the men into the
bush. They march along with the rugs projecting on each side of
the face like a hood — their guardians being with them, and the
other men following, making a considerable noise. During the
afternoon they arrive at the place where it is intended they shall
remain for the night. A semicircular yard is made of bushes or
bark, and the novices are placed sitting on leaves spread upon the
•ground, their backs being toward the men's camp, which may be
fifty or sixty yards away. This camp is called karpan. Between
the men's quarters and the yard in which the novices are kept a
space is cleared of all loose rubbish, and one or more fires lit to
afford sufficient illumination. After the evening meal has been
disposed of, the boys are brought out of their yard and are put
sitting down facing the fires, while the Kooringal go through
various pantomimic representations and traditional songs. These
performances consist for the most part of imitating animals with
which the people are familiar, or scenes from their daily life ; and,
like the ceremonials of other savage races, are largely mixed with
obscene gestures. The animals selected include, amongst others,
the totems of some of the novices, the headmen and the kooringal.
^2 MATHEWS — INITIATIOX IX AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. [March 18,
During the day the men go out hunting, to provide food for all
the party, but the novices remain in the camp in charge of a few of
their guardians. Several days may be spent in one camp, or per-
haps a fresh camping place is reached every night, especially if
game is scarce. In the latter case it would be necessary for the
novices and guardians to accompany the rest of the men. The
novices march along with the rugs on their heads, and when stop-
pages are made in the bush they are placed sitting on the ground
with their hands clutching their genitals. On arriving at the place
which has been agreed upon as the camping ground for the night,
a yard is made for the boys in the usual manner. During the
evenings at these camping places human ordure is occasionally
given to the novices in addition to their daily food. If they want
anything they are not allowed to ask for it, but must make a sign to
the guardian who has charge of them. Some or all of the men who
are not attached to the kooringal may go away for a day or two to
another camping place some miles distant in quest of food, and
contribute a fair share of game to the maintenance of the novices
and guardians.
The period spent in the bush with the kooringal is about ten
days or a fortnight, being regulated by the weather and other con-
siderations. Different burlesques and songs take place every day,
but the general character of the procedure is the same. If the
wombat totem is represented, the kooringal crawl under a log as if
going into a wombat's hole ; if they select the scrub-turkey, all
the men scratch the ground with their feet, kicking the rubbish
backwards into a large heap resembling the nest of those birds ; and
so on for any other totems which may be represented. ♦
When the course of instruction in the bush is nearly completed,
some strange men, called irghindaly or wyeftdee, come from the
ahrowanga, or women's camp. They belong to a distant part of
the tribal territory, and this is their first participation in the cere-
mony. On approaching the karpan, they utter a weird noise, like
the howling of the wild dog, and advance in single file, each man
holding a leafy bough in front of him, which hides the upper part
of his body. The novices are led to believe that a strange mob of
blacks are coming to attack the camp. They are then raised to
their feet, and placed standing in a row, with their guardians, some
of the kooringal, standing on the right and some on the left of the
row of boys, having the latter in the middle, holding their hands
1898.] MATHEWS — INITIATION IX AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. 63
to their ears. By this time the irghindaly have reached the camp,
and form into a line parallel with and facing the row of men and
novices. They jump and shake their boughs, and then, throwing
the latter on the ground, they retire a few yards. The kooringal
now step forward and pick up the boughs and strip the leaves off
them, shouting wah ! wah ! while doing so. The irghindaly then
consult with the headmen, and arrange the time for the return of
the novices to the ahrowanga, after which they go back to the
camp from which they have come, and inform the women when the
boys may be expected. The mission of the i?'ghi?tdaly is analogous
to that of the beegay of the Kamilaroi, described by me elsewhere,
namely, to liberate the novices from the rigorous custody of the
kooringal.
That evening at the karpan, by the light of the camp fires, some
of the usual totemic representations are enacted by the kooringal,
after which some of the old men chant Dharroogan' s song. About
sunrise next morning the novices are placed standing in a row
beside the camp, with their eyes cast upon the ground. All the
men then run about pretending to throw pieces of stick at a squirrel
in a tree, and while they are doing so two men step into an open
space and swing the yooloodury. The blankets are then lifted off
the heads of the novices, who are requested to take particular notice
of this ceremony. Some armed warriors now rush up to each of
the novices in a menacing attitude, and caution them against
revealing what they have been taught during their sojourn in the
bush. At the conclusion of these proceedings, everything is packed
up and a start made toward the women's camp.
After proceeding some miles the party come to a halt at a water-
hole or running stream. Here a fire is lit, and they partake of such
game as may have been caught during the morning. By and by
all the kooringal gather on the bank of the water-hole or creek, and
one after another goes into the water, washing off the black coloring
matter, after which they come out, and paint their bodies all over
with pipe clay. During this time the novices are sitting on the
bank of the water-hole — or near the fire if the day is cold — and do
not participate in the washing and painting ceremony. This water-
hole is one which is always used for the same purpose at every
burhmig which takes place in this part of the tribal territory, and is
never used for bathing on any other occasion. The journey forward
is then resumed, and one of the men goes on ahead to report that the
bush contingent will shortly arrive.
64 MATHEWS — INITIATION IN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. [March 18^
I must now give some further particulars of the new camp erected
by the women, referred to in an earlier page. The same camp
may be occupied all the time the novices are away, or the women
may shift to a fresh camping ground every few nights, in conformity
with the movements of the kooringal. A patch of ground is cleared
near each of these camping places, to which the mothers and
sisters of the novices repair every evening for the purpose of sing-
ing and dancing during the time the boys are away in the bush with
the headmen. As soon as the women are informed of the day which
has been fixed for the return of the kooringal, they proceed to this
cleared space and erect an avenue of boughs, called the arrowanga^
in the following manner. In this work they are assisted by the old
men who have been with them all the time, and also by the irghin-
daly contingent. A number of small green saplings are cut down
with tomahawks, and the stems are inserted in holes made in the
ground, all in a line — the bushy tops being sufficiently close
together to make a leafy screen, about four feet high. A few feet
from this, another line of saplings is set up, parallel with the other.
The two rows of boughs are fixed in the ground with a slant
toward each other, so that their tops almost meet overhead, forming
a kind of arched avenue long enough to hold all the kooringal. A
few yards on one side of this avenue, and parallel thereto, the
women light about four fires, beyond which they sit down in a row,
and commence chanting in monotonous tones.
When all is ready, a signal is given by the men who have charge
of the women, and the bush mob approach in single file, all painted
white, as already stated. On coming in sight of the arrowanga^
the novices and their guardians stop behind, and go to another
camp a little way off, where they remain for the night. The women
are now told to lie down, and are covered with bushes. The
kooringal march on and enter the avenue of bushes, one after the
other, and sit down with their legs gathered under them in the
usual native fashion. During this time a small bull-roarer, called
dha/gitngun, is sounded out of sight in the rear. A few of the head-
men jump round outside the avenue, beating together two boom-
erangs, and muttering wooh / wooh ! After going round two or
three times, they shout hirr ! birr ! and all the women stand up and
dance round the men who are hidden in the avenue. After going
round a few times, the women commence pulling down the bough
screen, upon which all the kooringal rise to their feet, and also
1898.] MATIJEWS — INITIATION IN AUSTKALIAN TRIBES. 65
commence pulling the bushes out of the ground, breaking them
smaller and throwing them on the fires as they jump about. The
women also assist in breaking the twigs off the boughs and placing
them on the fires. By this time a dense smoke is issuing from the
burning bushes, and some of the kooringal stand in the smoke
around each fire until they are all sufficiently fumigated. A few of
the, old headmen stand round directing the proceedings, and the
irghindaly assist in throwing bushes on the fires when more smoke
is required. While the kooringal are standing on the smouldering
boughs, the women come up and rub their hands on them, ostensi-
bly to wipe the white paint off them. When the ceremony is over
it is getting near sundown, and the kooringal mix with the women
and irghindaly, and all of them go into the camp adjacent.
During the forenoon of the following day the mothers and sisters
of the novices, accompanied by some of the men, again muster at
the arrowanga, but on this occasion no bough screen is erected, and
the women are allowed to see everything which takes place. Some
fires are lit and green bushes cut and laid round ready for use. At
the camp to which the novices and their guardians went the even-
ing before preparations are also made for the approaching cere-
mony. The bodies of the boys are smeared over with ashes from
the camp fires, and the hair of their heads is singed, to make the
women believe that they have been burnt by the evil spirit and
have just emerged from the fire. After a mutual interchange of
signals that everything is ready at both camps the guardians and
novices start forward, marching two and two till they arrive at the
arrowanga. As they approach the women shout " Heh ! heh !" and
throw pieces of bark over their heads. The irghindaly lay some of
the green bushes on the fires and each guardian conducts his novice
into the smoke, which curls upward around them both. The
mothers of the boys, who have been standing on one side, now ad-
vance and rub their open hands over the bodies of their sons, after
which they rub their teats on their mouths. The sisters of the
novices next step forward and rub their feet on their brothers'
ankles. During the whole of this ceremony the novices keep their
eyes cast down, and do not look at their mothers or sisters. A
signal is now given and they scamper off with their guardians to a
camp which has been prepared for them not far away.
At the conclusion of the ceremonies at the arrowanga all the
tribes shift camp to another place, perhaps a few miles away, and
PKOC. AMEPv. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 157. E. PRINTED MAY 25, 1898.
66 MATHEWS — INITIATION IX AUSTRALIAN TEIBES. [March 18,
next morning the novices are brought up in close proximity, where
they are again smoked, after which they are invited to partake of
food spread upon nets by the women. They are then conducted to
a camp a little way from the men's quarters, where the old head-
men show them quartz crystals and other sacred substances; and
also small pieces of wood called handhanyay or kiingara, on which
certain mystic lines are made, said to be the work of Dharroogan.
They are forbidden to eat certain kinds of food until released from
these restrictions by the old men.
The ceremonies being now at an end, the visiting tribes make
preparations for starting on their return journey, and in a few days
most of them are on their way homeward, each tribe taking their
own novices with them. The latter are kept under the control
of their seniors for a considerable time, and must conform to cer-
tain rules laid down by the headmen. It is also necessary that they
shall attend one or more additional Burhung gatherings before they
can become thoroughly acquainted with the different parts of the
ceremonial and be fully qualified to take their place as men of the
tribe.
On the Macleay river there is an abbreviated form of inaugural
rite, known as the Mu7'rawin, and among the tribes occupying the
Nymboi and Mitchell rivers there is a short ceremony called the
Walloonggurra. Both these rites are of a probationary character,
leading up to the fuller ceremonial of the burbujig, from which
they differ in so many respects that I have thought it necessary to
describe them in separate articles.
Before cannibalism ceased to be practiced by the tribes dealt
with in this paper it was the custom to kill and eat a man during
the burbling ceremonies. The victim was an initiated man of the
tribe, and his flesh and blood were consumed by the men and
novices. I am preparing an article dealing fully with this and
similar customs, so that further reference is unnecessary at present.
Explanation" of Plate V.
The burbling described in the preceding pages completes a series
of articles written by me on the different types of initiatory rites
of the aboriginal tribes scattered over the whole of New South Wales.
I have now prepared a map of the colony, defining the boun-
daries of the several districts within which each type of ceremony
189S.] MATHEWS — IXITIATIOX IX AUSTRALIAX TRIBES. 67
is in force. On this map I have marked the approximate position
of these boundaries, and have assigned to each district a distin-
guishing numeral, from i to 9, so that they can be readily identi-
fied. It is outside the purpose of this paper to define the areas
occupied by the people speaking the different dialects prevalent in
each district, but the names of some of the most important of them
will be stated in a general way under each number. The reader
will be referred to certain articles which I have published describ-
ing the initiation ceremonies, and also the totemic divisions of the
tribes located inside the boundaries shown upon the map.
No. I on the map represents a wide zone of country stretching
from near the Murray river almost to the Barwon, occupied chiefly
by the Wiradjuri-speaking people. This includes the VVonghibons,
a branch of the Wiradjuri, who are spread over the country from
Mossgiel to Nyngan.^ On the Lower Murrumbidgee and extending
up the Murray from about Euston are several small tribes speaking
the following dialects : The Eetha-eetha, Watthi-watthi, Kianigani,
Yuppila, Yota Yota, Boorabirraba and some others on the upper
Murray whose initiation ceremonies are the same as the Wiradjuri.
For my descriptions of the burbling of these people the reader is
invited to peruse the following publications : Journ. Anthrop. Inst.
London, Yo\. xxv, pp. 295-318; Ibid., Vol. xxvi, pp. 272-275.
Froc. Roy. Gcog. Soc. Ausf. (Q.), Vol. xi, pp. 167-169, and
Journ, Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, Vol. xxxi, pp. 111-153. I have
also dealt with their totemic division in the last-named work, pp.
171-176.
No. 2 includes the country of the Kamilaroi, Yookumble, Wal-
laroi, Pickumble, YuoUary, Wailwan, Moorawarree and a few
others. The Bora ceremony of these tribes is described by me in the
following works : Journ. Anthrop. Inst. London, Vol. xxiv, pp.
411-427; Ibid., Vol. xxv, pp. 318-339; Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S.
Wales, Vol. xx/iii, pp. 98-129; Ibid, Vol. xxx, pp. 211-213;
Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Vol. ix, N. S., pp. 137-173- I ^^^^'^
described their totemic divisions in Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Jf'a/es,
Vol. xxxi, pp. T.56-168.
No. 3. In this tract of country the Bunan ceremony is in force.
Some of the dialects are the Thurrawall, Wodi Wodi, Jeringin,
Ngarroogoo, Beddiwell, Mudthang, Dhooroomba, Gundungurra
1 Mr. A. L. P. Cameron kindly furnished me with the location of the Wong
hibon, Eethee Eethee and Watthi Watthi tribes.
68 MATHEWS — INITIATION IN AUSTRALIAN TEIBES. [March is,
and Wonnawal. I have given a comprehensive account of this
ceremony, with a plate illustrating the Bunan ground and the dif-
ferent objects connected with it in the American Anthropologist,
Washington, Vol. ix, pp. 327-344.
No. 4 represents the country occupied by the tribes speaking
the Darkinung, Wannerawa, Warrimee, Wannungine, Dharrook
and some other dialects: Their country commences at the Hunter
river and extends southerly till it meets and merges into that of tiie
people of No. 3. Their ceremony of initiation is known as the
Narramang, which is described in a paper published in Froc. Roy.
Soc. Victoria, Vol. x, N. S., pp. 1-12. Their totemic system is
dealt with in ^Journ. Roy. Soc. JV. S. If ales, Vol. xxxi, pp.
170-171.
No. 5. Within this area, which extends from the Hunter river
almost to the Macleay, the initiation ceremonies are of the Keeparra
type described by me in Jour?i. Anthrop. Inst. London, Vol. xxvi,
pp. 320-340. This tract of country is inhabited by the remnants
of the tribes speaking different dialects, some of the most important
of which are the following : Wattung, Gooreenggai, Minyowa, Molo,
Kutthack, Bahree, Karrapath, Birrapee, etc. North of the Hunter
river and extending along the sea coast to about Cape Hawk there
is an elementary ceremony called Dhalgai, which I have included
in the article last quoted.
No. 6 represents the hunting grounds of the tribes whose initia-
tion ceremonies are dealt with in the preceding pages. Their sec-
tional divisions are the same as the tribes in No. 5, and are described
mjour. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, Vol. xxxi, pp. 168-170.
No. 7 comprises the country of the Bunjellung, Gidjoobal,
Kahwul, Nowgyjul, Watchee, Yackarabul, Ngandowul and some
other small tribes, whose initiation ceremonies are of the Wandarral
type, described by me in Froc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Vol. x, N. S.,
pp. 29-42. Districts Nos. 2, 7, 8 and 9 cross the boundary of
Queensland, and Nos. i and 8 extend some distance into the Vic-
torian frontier.
No. 8. On the west of Nos. i and 2 are the Barkunji, Bung-
yarlee, Bahroongee, Wombungee, Noolulgo and some other tribes,
occupying the country on both sides of the Darling river, as well as
on the Lower Paroo and Warrego. South of the Murray river are
several small tribes, among which may be mentioned the Wamba
Waraba, Waiky Waiky, Latjoo Latjoo, Mutti Mutti, etc. I have
1898.] MATHEWS — INITIATION IX AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. 69
referred to the totemic divisions of the Barkunji and kindred tribes
\\\ Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc, Aust., Queensland, Vol. x, p. 32. Their
initiation ceremonies are described by me elsewhere.
No. 9. In this triangular portion of New South Wales we
encounter the advance guard of those tribes who practice circum-
cision and subincision, extending thence northerly into Queensland
and westerly into South Australia. The customs of these people
will be dealt v/ith bv me in another article.
APPENDIX.
The Nguttan Initiation Ceremony.
In this article it is intended to give a short account of the Nguttan,
an abbreviated ceremony of initiation practiced by the native tribes
of the Williams and Gloucester rivers and surrounding country.
Although it is not necessary to muster the whole community for the
purpose of installing the youths into the privileges of tribesmen by
means of the Nguttan, yet it is always thought safest to consult with
the headmen of some of the nearest neighboring tribes, who may
also have one or more youths old enough to pass through the ordeal.
The preliminaries are arranged by means of messengers, and when
the appointed time comes round the tribes proceed to the appointed
meeting place. Here the combined concourse indulge in corrobo-
ries and songs at night by the camp fires. The men of each tribe
dance in their turn and their women beat time for them.
When the festivities have lasted for a few days the headmen
decide upon the time for taking away the novices. Early on the
appointed morning all the men assemble under pretense of going on
a hunting expedition, or perhaps they represent that they are making
an incursion into the country of a hostile tribe for the purpose of
avenging some supposed injury. The novices are mustered out of
their mothers' camps and are taken charge of by the men. The
women are not told anything about these proceedings, but all the
elder ones and those who have been present at similar gatherings
before form their own conclusions in regard to the purpose of the
meeting.
A number of the men, with the novices amongst them, start first,
and are immediately followed by the rest of the men, singing and
shouting as they march along in the rear. The novices are told that
70 MATHEWS — INITIATIOX IX AUSTRALIAX TRIBES. [March IS,
these incantations are for the purpose of making a plentiful supply
of game, or to cause them to be victorious over their enemies. The
men are painted in the manner customary on these expeditions.
After traveling perhaps several miles they come to a water-hole or
running stream, where a halt is made. The novices are now taken
charge of by the men who have been appointed for this duty.
Each of these men is the brother-in-law — actually or collaterally —
of the graduate who has been placed under his care.
The novices are stripped naked, and after being painted are
placed sitting cross-legged on the ground, with both hands grasping
their genitalia and their heads bowed toward their breasts. Their
guardians and some of their relatives remain with them, but all the
other men go away, taking their departure quietly and a few at a
time so that the boys may not know that they are gone. These
men go away to a suitable camping ground, perhaps a mile or two
distant, which has previously been agreed upon, and there they
erect a camp of bark or bushes and spread leaves on the ground for
the novices to lie upon. They then go into the bush hunting to
provide food for themselves and the rest of the party. Late in the
afternoon the guardians and other men who remained with the
novices bring the latter to this new camp — each boy with his eyes
cast down and being forbidden to look at anything around him —
and place them lying down upon the leaves with rugs thrown over
them. Fires are lit near where they are lying, ^ and they are sub-
jected to considerable heat, which causes them to perspire very
freely, but they are not permitted to move and must keep silent.
During the evening, perhaps an hour after sundown, by the light
of the camp-fires, some of the usual totemic dances, described by me
in previous communications, and other instructive performances, are
gone through by the men, and the novices are allowed to sit up and
look at them. Some of the men exhibit their genitals to the boys
and invite them to pay especial attention to a number of other
obscene gestures. After this human excrement is thrown to the
novices, which they are required to eat, and also to drink urine out
of a native vessel. At the conclusion of these proceedings all hands
lie down for the night.
Early next morning about half the men start away without the
knowledge of the boys and go into the bush in quest of food.
^ Compare with the fire ordeal described by me in " The Bunan Ceremony of
N. S, Wales," in the American Anthropologist (1S96), Vol. ix, pp. 335, 336.
1898.] MATHEWS — IXITIATIOX IX AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. 71
About midday they return, and on coming within hearing of the
camp they commence making a weird noise, like the howling of the
native dog, and advance in single file, each man carrying a leafy
bough which hides his face and chest. When these men, who are
called ghirrang, reach the camp where the novices are they spread
out in a line and spring up into the air, waving their arms and
uttering grunt-like exclamations. The novices are led to believe
that the ghirrang belong to a hostile tribe and will perhaps attack
them and their guardians.
The ghirrang and other men then produce several small sheets of
bark stripped from trees, on which some dharroong devices have
been carved, similar to the marks on the trees standing around a Kee-
parra ground.^ These pieces of bark are placed at intervals of a few
yards along the cleared space which was used for dancing and per-
forming upon the previous night. The novices are now brought
out in front of these pieces of bark and are invited to take particu-
lar notice of them. They are at first shown the dharroong on one
sheet of bark, and are then taken to each of the others in succes-
sion, but are not allowed to speak a word.
When this part of the ceremony has been disposed of, the men
form into two divisions — one mob standing on one side of the
cleared space and another mob on the other side — the graduates
being placed in a row facing them. The humming sound of the
bull-roarer, miidthinga, is now heard a little way in the rear, and
almost immediately two men step out into the opening, each man
swinging one of these instruments at the end of a string. The usual
obligations of secrecy are then imposed upon the neophytes, after
which the sacred umdthinga is rubbed upon their penises, chests,
arms and other parts of their bodies. While doing this the string
of the bull-roarer is placed round each lad's neck in rotation.
The guardians, novices, and all the rest of the men now start
away from that place, and proceed toward the women's camp —
which, it should be mentioned, was removed to another locality
the same day the men and boys went away. A man is sent
ahead to announce that the contingent from the bush will return
presently, and upon receipt of this message the women muster on
a level, open parcel of land contiguous to their camp. Here the
mothers of the neophytes spread nets upon the ground, on which
1 See my " Keeparra Ceremony of Initiation," Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Vol.
xxvi, pp. 320-338, PL xxxii, Figs. 6 to 13.
72 MATHEWS — INITIATION IN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. [March 18,
they lay food for the use of their sons. The sisters of the novices
and the other women also assemble near this spot, which is called
ngtirra nyalla.
When these preliminaries have been arranged, the men and boys
come marching on, painted and dressed in their full regalia as men
of the tribe, and as they approach the women throw sticks over
their heads. Ihe novices step forward to the nets, and eat the
food which their mothers have provided for them. After this the
women return to their own camp, but the graduates are taken by
their guardians to a place near the single men's quarters. During
that evening some of the old headmen show the novices the sacred
white stones, which are so much valued by all native tribes.
These white stones, which in this district are called biiggan, are
said to be found in the scrubby mountains beyond Banaon Grove,
near the head of the Williams river, and are supposed to be the
excrement of Gceh Mudyei" Dhingga (Goen of the Hairy Hands), a
malevolent being who has his abode in these mountain fastnesses.
A number of clever old men — the so-called wizards of their tribes
— used to make periodical expeditions into these regions for the
purpose of obtaining supplies of the buggan. On these occasions it
was not considered safe for a man to travel alone, but it was neces-
sary that several should go in company. At their camps at night
they were required to sing songs similar to those which form part
of the keeparr-a ceremonial, and the camp-fires had to be main-
tained by burning certain kinds of wood to be found in that dis-
trict. During the night, while the old men were asleep, Goen was
supposed to appear, accompanied by some of his coadjutors, and put
white stones into their dilly bags.
If any of the old men of the company had been remiss in their
observance of any of the tribal customs, they would keep awake,
holding a burning brand in their hand, in order to protect them-
selves against Goen's evil designs. The only way in which such
men could secure the sacred buggan was to search for them along
the sides of hills or watercourses, where they had been deposited by
Goen.
Every youth who graduates through the Nguttan is required to
attend the next keeparra ceremony which takes place among his
own people — or the burbling oi those tribes who adjoin them on the
northwest — in order that he may receive further instruction in the
sacred initiatory rites of the community.
1S98.] SCOTT — OX THE SELEXODONT ARTIODACTYLS. 73
Short or probationary forms of inauguration ceremonies are found
in several districts, and a knowledge of them is highly valuable, as
exhibiting the various stages through which a youth must pass before
he is qualified to take his place as a full man of his tribe. In a
different portion of the same tract of country, there is another ele-
mentary ceremony known as the Dhalgai, described by me else-
where.^ Both the Ngicttan and the Dhalgai are practiced in parts
of the geographical area represented as No. 5 on the map of New
South Wales hereto appended (Plate V).
PRELIMINARY NOTE
ON THE SELENODONT ARTIODACTYLS
OF THE UINTA FORMATION.
BY W. B. SCOTT.
(^Bead March 18, 1898.)
In 1895, ^^r- J- I^- Hatcher collected for the Princeton Museum
some unusually well-preserved specimens of Selenodont Artiodactyls
in the Uinta beds of northern Utah. In preparing a monograph
upon these forms I have found certain new and undescribed genera
which have proved to be of remarkable phylogenetic interest, and
the much more complete material now available of genera pre-
viously named gives us most welcome information. As the detailed
account of these fossils cannot appear for many months, it is desir-
able to publish a brief notice of the new forms and of the principal
conclusions to which the study of the Uinta Selenodonts has led.
One of the most marked changes between the mammalian life of the
Bridger and that of the Uinta is in the great increase of the Artio-
dactyls in general and of the Selenodonts in particular. In the
Bridger beds only two genera at most of the latter group have been
described, and remains of even these are very rare ; in the Uinta,
on the other hand, Artiodactyls are the most abundant fossils and
not less than eight genera of Selenodonts may be determined, while
others are indicated by specimens not sufficiently well preserved for
description.
The most interesting and striking result to which the study of the
^ " The Dhalgai Ceremony," yourn. Anthrop. Inst., Vol. xxvi, pp. 338-340.
74 SCOTT — ON THE SELENODONT AKTIODACTYLS. [March 18,
Uinta Selenodonts has led is the very unexpected conclusion that,
with the possible exception of the Oreodonts and Agriochoerids, all of
the strictly indigenous North American Seie?iodonts are derivatives
of the Tylopodan stejn. The true Ruminants (Pecora) are an Old
World type and did not reach this continent till late Miocene times,
but the Tylopoda underwent an expansion and differentiation in
America comparable to that of the Pecora in Europe, of which they
took the place here. This conclusion was long ago suggested, with
wonderful insight, by Riitimeyer, but as he did not discuss the
question and brought forward no evidence in support of his views,
the suggestion never attracted the attention which it so well de-
served. The White River forms, Leptomeryx, Hypertragulus, Hypi-
sodus and Frotoceras, have long baffled the investigator who
attempted to determine their true systematic position, but it has
now become exceedingly probable that they are all variants of the
Tylopodan type, the main line of which is represented in White
River times by the genus Poebrotherium, whose position has long
been recognized as ancestral to the modern camels and llamas. It
should be added, however, that this somewhat surprising result has
been much strengthened and confirmed by far more complete
material of Leptomeryx and Hype7'tragiiius than had previously
been known. This new material, which was gathered at various
times by Messrs. Hatcher and Gidley, makes the Tylopodan affini-
ties of these White River genera much more conspicuous than any
one had imagined. In the extended paper which is now in course
of preparation these newly obtained specimens will be described
and figured in comparison with their forerunners of the Uinta.
Parameryx Marsh.
Amer. Jour. Sci., third series, Vol. xiv, p. 364 {nomen nudiwi).
Ibid., Vol. xlviii, p. 269.
In this genus the dentition is complete, I. f , C. \, P. |, M. f and
there are no diastemata. The incisors and canines are small, the
premolars simple and trenchant and the molars very brachyodont and
composed of four crescents. The skull is exceedingly like that of
Poebrotherium, but has a shorter muzzle, a less capacious cranium, a
more widely open orbit and a very much smaller tympanic bulla,
which is not filled with cancellous tissue. The ulna and radius are
separate, at least in young individuals ; the manus consists of four
1898.] SCOTT — ON THE SELENODONT ARTIODACTYLS. 75
functional digits, though the lateral metacarpals are already very
much more slender than the median pair. The fibula is complete and
not coossified with the tibia at any point, but its shaft is so reduced
as to be a mere thread of bone. The pes contains two functional
metatarsals, iii and iv, while Nos. ii and v are long, filiform and
splint-like rudiments to which, apparently, no phalanges are
attached, but this is still doubtful. The phalanges of the functional
digits resemble those of Poebroihei^ium, and the unguals have the
same long, pointed and slender, antelope-like shape.
There can be very little doubt that Parai7ieryx is the direct and
immediate ancestor of the White River Poeb7'othe7Hiim, which it so
much resembles, and thus it holds an important place in the main
line of Tylopodan descent.
Leptotragulus Scott and Osborn.
Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, 1887, P- 258.
In a former account of this genus, ^ the type of which is a frag-
ment of the mandible containing p -3, 4 and m y, I made the
mistake of referring to it certain limb and foot bones which, it is
now apparent, belong to the very distinct genus Parameryx, from
which Leptotragulus differs in the form of the premolars and in the
presence of diastemata. At present I am not able to refer to the
latter genus any of the newly acquired material, and hence can add
nothing to my original account'- of it. It differs but compara-
tively little, however, from the following genus, the structure of
which may be very fully described.
Merycodesmus, gen. nov.
Dentition unreduced; I. f, C. \, P. f, M. |; upper incisors
conical, pointed and slightly recurved ; upper canine large, com-
pressed and thick ; lower canine incisiform ; p -I- near canine, with
diastema behind it ; p ^ with deuterocone ; p y caniniform and
opposing upper canine ; p y with large deuteroconid. Molars com-
posed of four crescentic lobes, m -3 with fifth lobe. Forehead
elongate and lozenge-shaped, sagittal crest short, as in Parameryx ;
mandible with very extended angle. Manus and pes having four
^ Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc, Vol. XVI, p. 479.
2 Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, 1887, p. 258.
76
SCOTT — OX THE SELENODONT ARTIODACTYLS. [March 18,
functional digits ; lateral metapodials less reduced than in Para-
meryx.
Merycodesmus gracilis, sp. nov.
Size small ; orbit small and bounded behind by very long
decurved postorbital process of frontal ; cranium relatively broad
and capacious ; mandible very slender.
Measurements.
Upper dentition, length I i to M 3 0.071
premolar-molar series, length 054
molar series, length. .- 022
canine, ant. -post, diameter 006
canine, transverse diameter 003
M I, length 006
M I, width 0085
M 2, length 008
M 2, width 010
M 3, length 009
M 3, width on
Lower dentition, length I i to M 3 072
'' premolar-molar series, length 058
'' premolar series, length 032
'^ molar series, length 026
P I, length 0045
P 2, length 0055
P 3, length 007
P 4, length 0065
M I, length 0065
M 2, length oo75
M 3, length on
(N. B. — The apparently great length of the premolar series is due
to the diastema behind pi)
The dentition of Aferycodesmus is quite similar to that of Para-
meryXy but differs in certain very significant ways. Thus, the
lower incisors have more chisel-shaped crowns, and the lower canine
has become one of them in form and function ; the upper canine is
much larger and the first lower premolar has taken on the form and
function of the canine. In each jaw a long diastema separates p i
1898.1 SCOTT — ON THE SELENODOXT ARTIODACTYLS. 77
from p 2. The other premolars and the molars are much alike in
the two genera save that the latter are relatively broader in Mery-
codesmus. This genus differ from Lepiotragitlus in the greater com-
plexity of the inferior premolars, and especially in the large
development of the deuteroconid on p ^. From Orojneryx it may
be distinguished by the diastemata and by the more symmetrically
quadrate shape of the upper molars.
The skull bears a close resemblance to that of Pa^-ameryx, but
has a somewhat more elongate muzzle and longer postorbital pro-
cesses of the frontals ; the forehead has the same elongate lozenge-
like shape, the temporal ridges converging gradually behind into
the short sagittal crest ; the mandible has an elongate, slender hori-
zontal ramus, which is somewhat stouter than that of Pararneryx ;
whether the very broad ascending ramus possessed a similar hook-
like angle to that of the latter genus cannot at present be precisely
determined ; the coronoid process is even more recurved and
pointed. The posterior nares are far back, their front border being
opposite m ^, and a deep palatal notch intervenes between the
hinder half of m ^ and the external wall of the narial canal.
The axis has a conical odontoid process.
The fore foot has four digits, of which the lateral metacarpals are
reduced and slender, though distinctly less so than in Para7?ieryx.
The tarsus is lower than in the latter genus, and the lateral meta-
tarsals are functional, not mere filiform splints. The phalanges are
essentially alike in the two genera.
The entire structure of Merycodesmus strongly suggests that it
was the forerunner of the White River genus, Leptotneryx, and,
through a somewhat different line, of Protoceras also. In Lep-
tomeryx the upper canines have been lost, the lower canine resem-
bles an incisor, but p y is just like a minute canine and one can
hardly escape the inference that it formerly functioned as a canine
and has dwindled because of the loss of the upper canine, which it
opposed. Protoce7'as still retains, in the male sex, the large upper
canine, which is opposed by p. y and thus abraded upon the poste-
rior surface, but in the females the upper canine is vestigial.
Camelomeryx, gen. nov.
I.^, C.i, P.i, M.-^. Upper incisors small, canines stout, but short;
along diastema between p i and p ^. Premolars and molars closely
78 SCOTT — ox THE SELENODONT ARTIODACTYLS. [March 18,
resembling those of the preceding genus, but molars with larger ex-
ternal buttresses. Forehead broad and short, sagittal crest long;
temporal ridges confined to frontals. Posterior nares farther back
than in Merycodesmus and palatal notches absent.
In this genus the superior dentition is, except in the character of
the incisors, very similar to that of Merycodesmus, but the shape of
the forehead, the cranium and the hinder part of the palate are
very different. In the absence of the lower jaw, it is not prac-
ticable to determine finally whether this form is congeneric with
LeptotraguluSy but the character of the upper premolars leads me
to believe that it will prove to be quite distinct.
Cameloitteryx longiceps, sp. no v.
Size, small ; cranium long and slender ; orbits small and widely
open behind ; postorbital processes of frontals extended trans-
versely, but little decurved.
Measuremejits.
Upper dentition, length I i to M 3 0.062
canine, ant. -post, diameter 005
canine, transverse diameter 003
premolar-molar series, length 051
^' premolar series, length 029
*' molar series, length 021
'' M I, length 0055
'^ M I, width 0075
" M 2, length 007
'' M 2, width 010
" M 3, length 0085
M 3, width 01 15
n
li
cc
That Came/omeryx and Merycodes77ius are nearly allied genera
will be at once apparent from the foregoing description. Whether
the former is the ancestor of some White River genus, such as
Hypei'traguliis, or whether it is a mere variant of Merycodesmus
and without permanent phylogenetic significance, must await the
decision of more complete material.
Oromeryx Marsh.
Orome?yx Marsh, Amer. Journ. Sci., third series, Vol. xiv, p.
364 {ii077ien 7iuduf7i),
1898.] SCOTT — OX THE SELEXODOXT ARTIODACTYLS. 79
Oromeryx Marsh, Anier. Journ. Sci., third series, Vol. xlviii,
p. 269.
No representative of this genus has yet been detected in the
Princeton collection ; it may be distinguished from the preceding
genera by two principal characters. According to Marsh, '* there
is no diastema in the dentition," and in the second place, his
figure shows that the upper molars, especially m ^, have a subovate
crown, due to the much greater transverse breadth in the anterior
than in the posterior half.
Protoreodon Scott and Osborn.
Agriochcerus MdiXsh. (non l^Qidy'), Anier. /cum. Sci., third series,
Vol. ix, p. 250.
Eomeryx Marsh, ibid., Vol. xiv, p. 364 {/io7fien nudiun).
Protoreodon Scott and Osborn, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, 1887,
P- 257.
Eomeryx Marsh, Amer. Journ. Sci., third series. Vol. xlviii, p.
266.
The collection contains a large number of specimens appertain-
ing to this genus, and adds very materially to our knowledge of it,
but as the newly acquired individuals only confirm the conclusion
previously reached, that this genus is ancestral to the Oreodontidce.
of the Oligocene and Miocene, description of the new material will
be reserved for the extended paper.
Agriotherium gen. nov.
Premaxillaries reduced and upper incisors small ; upper canine
large, recurved and trihedral ; premolars simple and thick trans-
versely; py caniniform ; p ^ implanted by three fangs, but has no
deuterocone ; deuterocone of p ^ conical, not crescentic ; molars
like those of Protoreodon, but with outer crescents of superior
molars more concave, and more prominent median buttress, into
wdiich median valley extends. Cranium relatively longer and face
shorter than in Protoreodon and postorbital processes of frontals
shorter.
This genus is evidently very close to Protoreodon, but may be
distinguished from it by the reduced premaxillaries, the smaller
incisors, the simpler premolars and the more concave outer lobes of
the upper molars, as well as by the longer cranium, shorter face,
and less prominent postorbital processes.
({
n
80 SCOTT — ON THE SELENODONT ARTIODACTYI.S. [March IS,
Agnotheriu?n paradoxicum, sp. nov.
Skull about equal to that of Oreodon gracilis in length, but much
more depressed ; mandible stout and chin steeply inclined.
Aleasureinents.
Skull, length on .basal line 0-131
" width across zygomata 077
Length occ. crest to ant. border of orbit 085
** ant. border orbit to prmx 051
Mandible, height of condyle o4(S
" depth at m.o 025
Upper premolar-molar series, length 0525
" premolar series, length 029
molar series, length 024
canine, ant. -post, diameter 006
canine, transverse diameter 006
P I, length 0075
'' P 2, length 0065
*' P 3, length 007
*' P 3, width 006
" P 4, length 006
'' P 4, width 0085
'* M I, length 075
'' M I, width 009
"■ M 2, length , 008
'' M 2, width on
'* M 3, length 009
"■ M 3, width 012
Lower P 3, length 007
P 3, width 003
P 4, length 0075
'* P 4, width 004
" molar series, length 027
'* Mi, length 007
'' M I, width 0055
'* M 2, length ' 008
*' M 2, width 006
M 3, length 012
M 3, width 007
it
n
1S98.] MINUTES. 81
The differences between Protoreodon and Agriotherium are such
as strongly to suggest the inference that, while the former is the
ancestor of the Oreodonts, the latter stands in a similar relation to
the Agriochcerids. This determination can, at present, be only
provisional, until more is learned concerning the foot-structure of
the present genus. At all events, if Agriotherium be not the
desired ancestral form, we may feel confident that that form,
when found, will prove to be of a very similar character.
Hyomeryx Marsh.
Amer. Journ. Sci., third series. Vol. xlviii, p. 268.
This genus, which is described as having no upper incisors, I
have not seen. It differs from the two preceding genera not only
in the loss of the upper incisors, but also in the form of the upper
molars, which have far less concave external crescents, and less
prominent outer buttresses.
The study of the Uinta Selenodonts lends much strength to the
opinion expressed by various writers, that the Oreodonts are related
to the Tylopoda. It now appears likely that this family leads back
either to Homacodon of the Bridger, or to some nearly allied form
of the same family. If this be true, we shall then have the more
extended generalization, that all of the indigenous North American
Selenodonts belonged to the Tylopoda and that this suborder has
had a much more extended and varied development than we have
hitherto supposed. While this conclusion is already extremely
probable for the other families, we have yet to find the direct fore-
runners of Protoreodon and Agriotherium before it can be estab-
lished for the Oreodonts and Agriochcerids.
Stated Meeting^ April i, 1898.
* Mr. Fredekick Prime in the Chair.
Present, 12 members.
Correspondence Avas submitted and donations reported.
Dr. Morris, on behalf of the Curators, exhibited a fac-
simile of the Declaration of Independence in the handwriting
PROG. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 157. F. PRINTED JUNE 7, 1898.
82 MINUTES. [AprU 1,
of Thomas JeffersoD, whicli, witli some accompanying memo-
randa also in tlieir possession, they have had framed for
better preservation.
It is evidently the same as that contained in Yol. iv of
Eandolph's Memoirs ofJefferson^ and likewise from the same
plates as (previons to their completion) the proof copy in a
black frame now in the Librar}^, and identified as such by
Mr. Corbin, of the American Bank Kote Company, by marks
of the unfinished condition of one of the plates, absence of
notes "Dr. Franklin's handwriting" and "Mr. Adams' hand-
writing ' ' from margin , as well as by the texture of the
paper.
This facsimile now framed for preservation has at com-
mencement the marks in ink ' 'Draft 'A' " ; the handwriting
of which is pronounced by Mr. F. J. Dreer to be that of John
Yaughan, an interesting letter from whom, as to the Jeffer-
son-Lee MS. is in Mr. Dreer' s collection at the Historical
Society's hall, also an alleged/ac-^zmtZe of the originally signed
document on quarto paper, otherwise closely resembling this
Draft A, but lithograph, said to be copied from MS. in De-
partment of State at Washington; none such is known there.
This framed facsimile has also the following in leadpencil,
"these leadpencil marginal entries make Draft B — this
Draft B is copy sent to Lee by Jefferson."
Mr. Dreer also identifies the marginal notes as to hand-
writings of Dr. Franklin and Mr. Adams, as the facsimile of
Jefferson's handwriting, so that the latter must have anno-
tated the copy used in preparing Jefferson's Memoirs by
Randolph.
He also finds in his diary of May 13, 1889, as follows:
" Met Major Frank Etting, Fred. D. Stone, Simon Gratz.
and Mr. Philip S. P. Connor, at the Philosophical Society
rooms to compare and determine who wrote, the interlined
and marginal notes on the proof copy of the Declaration of
Independence." This explains the attached note of F. M. E.
of the same date.
A copy is also given of letters of Jefferson and R. H. Lee,
1898.] MINUTES. 83
the latter dated from Chantilly, his residence in Virginia, as
to the Jefferson-Lee document.
Dr. Hays asked if this is the facsimile copy which Dr.
Morris took out of the Librarian's desk last autumn under the
impression that it was an unknown, orig^inal, Jefferson auto-
graph draught of the Declaration of Independence.
Dr. Morris replied that it was the same copy.
Dr. Hays stated that tl^i-s, facsimile is catalogued on page
573 of the printed catalogue of the Society's library, and had
the library officials had any intimation of Dr. Morris' inten-
tion to take it he would have been informed that it was only
0, facsimile of the well-known rough draught, which has been
reproduced in almost every edition of Jefferson's works. It
has all the appearances of having been torn out of a copy of
Randolph's edition and possesses no special value.
Mr. Edmunds asked where the original of ihi^ facsimile is.
Dr. Morris replied that it is in the possession of the Uni-
versity of Virginia.
Dr. Hays expressed surprise at this statement, as he was
not aware that the University of Virginia had ever possessed
it. The United States claimed to have acquired it fifty years
ago, with the other Jefferson papers from the Jefferson heirs,
who, by the terms of their sale to the United States, agreed
to convey "all the papers and manuscripts" of Thomas
Jefferson in their possession. In the Department of State at
Washington there is framed under glass and kept in a fire-
proof safe a manuscript which is said to be this original. ^
Mr. James Douglas presented an obituary notice of Dr.
Thomas Sterry Hunt.
The following communications were presented :
B}^ Prof. Edward H. Williams, Jr., " N'otes on Kansan
Drift in Pennsylvania."
By Mr. John Van Denburgh, " Herpetological Xotes."
By Dr. I. Minis Hays, "A IS'ote on the History of the
^ Dr. Hays has since verified tlie statement that this original is in the
Department of State at Washington.
84 WILLIAMS — ON KANSAX DRIFT IN PENNSYLVANIA. [April 1,
Jefferson Manuscript Dranglit of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence in the Library of the Societ}^"
B}^ Mr. S, F. Peckham, " The Genesis of Bitumens, as
Related to Chemical Geology."
Pending nominations Nos. 1432 and 1451 to 1457 and
new nominations Nos. 1458 to 1464 were read.
The Society was adjourned by the presiding member.
NOTES ON KANSAN DRIFT IN PENNSYLVANIA.
BY PEOF. EDWAKD H. WILLIAMS, JK.
{Read April 1, 189S.)
The writer uses the terms Kansan and Wisconsin to represent
respectively the furthest ice advance and the first great moraine of
recession which was delimited by Lewis and Wright, without
accepting the differences in age claimed by some authorities. His
work since 1893 has been a study and mapping of the Kansan
deposits in this State, and papers have been published from time to
time, copies of which have been deposited in the library of this
Society.
At the Buffalo meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, in 1896, the writer presented a few notes on
the work of the preceding months and claimed that the ice which
covered the northern part of this State oriL>inated at two centres,
an eastern and a western, as tiie lithological burden on either side
of the apexes of both Kansan and Wisconsin deposits differed
widely in character, kinds and amount of crystalline and clastic
material. This claim was further substantiated by the fact, shown
in the sketch accompanying this paper, that the apex of the earlier
line of drift had been overridden by the latter, while, had the latter
been a moraine of recession only, there should have been a contin-
uous Kansan border.
To these claims the writer now wishes to add two more. First,
that the powers of the two bodies of ice on either side of the apex
were unequal, as the eastern Kansan border will average thirty
1898.] WILLIAMS — ON KAXSAX DRIFT IX PENNSYLVANIA. 85
miles in width, while the western averages but six. This is in
accordance with the deductions of the late Prof. James D. Dana,
in the last paper he wrote on glaciation, in attempting to account
for the wide difference between the eastern and western deposits.
It is well known that Mr. Upham began his work in the east and
held to the theory of a single glacial epoch. After work in the
west he accepted that of two or more periods. On his return to
the east he returned to his first opinion. This is an epitome of the
wide difference in appearance between the few strong moraines of
the east and the multiplicity of the deposits of the west, and Prof.
Dana theorized that such difference must have been caused by the
abundant precipitation of the east and the scanty precipitation of
the west, so that the deficit of dry seasons would bear a smaller
proportion to the total precipitation in the east than in the west, and
the strength and persistence of the ice at certain latitudes in the
east would be balanced by the many fluctuations of the west. The
strength thus predicted for the eastern glacier is shown by the wider
margin found and by the variation in the position of the apex.
While the western Kansan ice retreated to the position taken by the
Wisconsin margin, the relaxation of the pressure was accompanied
by an advance of the eastern ice across the region of the apex.
The second claim for a double origin substantiates the theory, as
there was found in the summer of 1897, at East Warren, Pa., forty
feet below the original surface and 100 feet above the water of the
Allegheny river, a rolled piece of native copper as long and thick
as the finger, in a lenticule of dense till which resisted the pick.
The matrix of clay had preserved the copper from oxidation to such
an extent that its surface was still smooth, and with it were found
fresh rolled and glaciated crystalline pebbles and local angular
elastics. This lenticule was about 120 feet above the rock surface,
as shown by a neighboring well section, and the original thickness
of glacial deposit was thus 160 feet. This find shows that the
western ice traversed the region of the great lakes in a southeastern
direction and proves that we had a meeting of two ice sheets near
Salamanca, N. Y. The variations in strength and the varying
number of moraines of the eastern and western glaciers are thus
satisfactorily settled in a simple manner. It remains to say that the
writer was unaware at the time he first made the claim for two ori-
gins that Prof. Wright had surmised the same (/<:<? Age, p. 443)
from the symmetry of the moraine delimited by Mr. Lewis and
86 WILLIAMS — ON KANSAN DRIFT IN PENNSYLVANIA. [April 1,
himself with respect to origins near Lake Superior and Labrador.
It was a surmise only, as he states that these need not have been
origins, and the ice may have traversed them from some more
northern point. The first distinct proof of sucli difference of
origin rests with the writer.
This glacial deposit of East Warren disposes, also, of another
question which has been much debated, whether there was more
than one ice age.
/
/
\
The writer has already disposed of the question for eastern Penn-
sylvania, by showing that the Lehigh and its tributaries acquired
their present level in pre-Kansan times. The lenticule at East
Warren was about loo feet above the present Allegheny; but the
rock floor, as shown by a well section near, was 120 feet below the
lenticule, or twenty feet below the present Allegheny. Other well
sections show that this floor is dipping steeply and toward the
west, so that it reaches greater depths below the present river level.
This lenticule was forty feet below the old surface at this point; but
this surface rose on going west, so that in a distance of fifty feet
it was sixty feet higher. On this old surface the various geologists
have collected material and all agree that it represents the oldest
glacial period. This surface is one of the alleged **rock shelves "
of the region ; but is instead a dump in slack water and shown by
well sections to be over 250 feet thick. It is allowed by all that
1898.] WILLIAMS — OX KAXSAK" DRIFT IX PENNSYLVANIA. 87
the surface consists of Kansan drift, and it is also allowed that this
surface was last deposited. It follows, therefore, that the earliest,
or Kansan, drift was deposited after the Allegheny river had reached
its present level. This is but one of hundreds of similar cases
found for 200 miles along the Allegheny, and with streams under
both glaciers — eastern and western — cut to present levels pre-
glacially, the great antiquity of the ice age falls.
It may be asked, however, how the reversal of streams and cut-
ting of cols are disposed of, as these are matters of considerable cer-
tainty.
When we consider that the ice advanced up stream in all cases over
the northern Allegheny region, we can see that extreme high water
would obtain and the water would pour over the cols into adjacent
systems long before the actual presence of the ice at the spot. In
fact, the actual presence at a given spot is unnecessary. If we next
consider that the advancing ice would confront the loftiest part of
our highlands, we can see that it would be aided in its efforts to
produce high water by a large snow cap whose ablation would pro-
duce torrential conditions in all the drainage systems, and fill those
systems with local trash, more or less rolled, which would saw down
the cols over which the empounded waters escaped, long before the
ice reached the region, and that when the glacier did make its
appearance it would discharge into abnormally deep water. We
have thousands of evidences from the north to the south of the
State, in elevated beach lines, and similar remains, that the water
exceeded 1600 feet above tide, and only on the highest mountain
tops do we find unmodified till. In all other cases it is ordinary
overwash or slack water modifications. The dead slack of the
original water is shown throughout the region by the clean iceberg
clay which sometimes reaches 100 feet in depth, and underlies all
other deposits.
The matters touched upon here will be more fully discussed in the
final report of the survey.
88 HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF IXDEPEXDENCE. [Ap. 1,
A NOTE ON THE HISTORY
OF THE JEFFERSON MANUSCRIPT DRAUGHT OF
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
IN THE LIBRARY OF
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
BY I, MINIS HAYS, M.D.
{Read April 1, 1808.)
As the precise historic relation of the Jefferson manuscript
draught of the Declaration of Independence, possessed by this
Society, to the document as adopted by the Congress, has been in-
volved in some indefiniteness, it seemed desirable to collect and
carefully examine all the information available on the subject.
The draught was acquired by the American Philosophical Society
seventy-three years ago and the following entry appears in its
Donation Book :
*' 1825, August 19.
''The draught of the Declaration of Independence originally
presented to Congress. This venerable document was sent to R.
H. Lee (the mover of the resolution of Independence) by Thos.
Jefferson (in whose handwriting it appears to be, with the altera-
tions made previous to the adoption by Congress) on the 8th [j-/V]
July 1776 & has remained in Mr. Lee's family until the present
time when his Grandson, R. H. Lee, gave it to the A. P. Soc'y to
be added to the Documents presented on 17 June.^ It was accom-
panied by a copy of Mr. Jefferson's letter enclosing it.
" Donor. Richd. Henry Lee, grandson of R. H. Lee by hands of
G. W. Smith."
On the margin of the page is written :
" Received from the hands of Richard Henry Lee, Esq., by me
and in pursuance of his request presented to the American Philo-
sophical Society.
''George W. Smith."
''The autograph correspondence of R. H. and A. Lee.
1898.] HATS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 89'
Below the entry of the donation and on the same page, the
following certificate is written :
'' Having examined the above Draught we certify it to be in the
handwriting of Thos. Jefferson.
''Philad. 9 Sep. 1825.
" W. Short,
"Edward Coles,
" Who has been for 40 yrs. *' Jn. Vaughan."
Correspt. of T. J.
The document makes four, closely written pages on two sheets of
white foolscap measuring 125 X 71 inches.
It appears to be a fair copy, originally without interlineations
or erasures, of the Declaration as adopted by the Committee.
The omissions made by the Congress sitting in Committee of
the Whole are indicated by underscoring the parts omitted and
where insertions were made by the Congress they are, for the most
part, written on the margin, in a different hand from the body
of the text, and, as will be subsequently seen, after the copy had
been received by Lee.
The document was originally folded in four for convenience of
transmittal and of filing, and at the top of the outside fold of the
last sheet is written the following endorsement :
''Declaration of Independence as reported to Congress, July
1777" [sic'].
At the bottom of the fourth and last page is written :
"The endorsement is in the handwriting of R. H. Lee, the
alterations in that of Arthur Lee."
Jefferson's letter transmitting this manuscript copy of the Decla-
ration to Richard Henry Lee, is as follows :
"To Richard Henry Lee :^
"Philadelphia, July 8th, 1776.
" Dear Sir : — For news, I refer you to your brother,- who writes
on that head. I enclose a copy of the Declaration of Independ-
1 From Lee's Life of R. H Lee, Vol. i, p. 275.
2 Presumably Francis Lightfoot Lee, who was also a delegate from Virginia to
the Congress and one of the Signers of the Declaration.
90 HAYS— DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. [Ap. 1,
•ence, as agreed to by the House, and also as originally framed.
You will judge whether it is better or worse for the critics. I shall
return to Virginia after the nth of August. I wish my successor
may be certain to come before that time : in that case, I shall hope
to see you, and not Wythe, in convention, that the business of
government, which is of everlasting concern, may receive your aid.
Adieu, and believe me to be your friend and servant."
Jefferson evidently thought that the critics had not improved the
document and so Lee understood him ; for in his reply,^ he says :
*' Chantilly, 21 July, 1776.
^^Dear Sir :
" I thank you much for your favor and its inclosures by this post,
and I wish sincerely, as well for the honor of Congress, as for that
of the States, that the manuscript had not been mangled as it is.
It is wonderful, and passing pitiful, that the rage of change should
be so unhappily applied. However, the Thing is in its nature so
good that no Cookery can spoil the Dish for the palates of Freemen.
*********
'^ It will always make me happy to hear from you because I am
sincerely your affectionate friend,
^* Richard Henry Lee."
R. H. Lee, Jr., in his Life of his grandfather (p. 175) says of
the copy thus enclosed, ''The original was carefully preserved by
Mr. Lee, not only for the interest he felt in its history, but for the
great respect and warm friendship he felt for Mr. Jefferson. It has
been as carefully preserved by his family, and finally committed to
the author."
In this connection it should be recalled that the Virginia
Convention, which convened at Williamsburg on the 6th of May,
1776, unanimously adopted on the 15th of the same month a pream-
ble and resolutions, which were prepared by Pendleton, offered by
Thomas Nelson, Jr., and powerfully advocated by Patrick Henry,
to whom R. H. Lee wrote from Philadelphia on April 20th,
exhorting him to propose in the Convention a separation from
the mother country: "Ages yet unborn and millions existing at
present," Lee wrote, " may rue or bless that assembly on which
'^Jefferson'' s MS, Papers, 2^^. series, Vol. 51, 12, Library of Department of
: State, Washington.
1S98.] HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATIOX OF IXDEPENDEXCE. 91
their happiness or misery will so eminently depend."^ The
preamble enumerated in strong terms the wrongs done to the United
Colonies ; the King's proclamation declaring them to be out of the
protection of the Crown ; and that there was no alternative but
abject submission or a total separation. The first resolution was as
follows :
"That the delegates appointed to represent this colony in
the General Congress be instructed to propose to that respectable
body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States,
absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the crown or
parliament of Great Britain, and that they give the assent of this
colony to such declaration, and to whatever measures may be
thought proper and necessary by the Congress for forming foreign
alliances, and a confederation of the colonies, at such time and in
the manner as to them shall seem best ; Provided, the power of
forming government for, and the regulations of the internal con-
cerns of each colony, be left to the respective colonial legislatures."^
Richard Henry Lee, by appointment of the delegates from
Virginia and in accordance with the instructions conveyed in this
resolution, moved in the Congress on June 7, 1776 :
"That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free
and independent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance
to the British crown, and that all political connection between
them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be totally
dissolved."
The resolution was seconded by John Adams, and was debated
from the 7th to the loth of June, Lee strenuously urging every
argument in support of his motion. The Congress finally on the
loth of June ordered the further consideration of the resolution
of independence to be postponed to the first day of July and " in
the meanwhile, that no time be lost, in case the Congress agree
thereto, that a committee be appointed to prepare a declaration to
the effect of the said first resolution."
On the evening of that day, the loth, Lee received by express
intelligence of the dangerous illness of his wife at her home in
Virginia. He immediately asked for leave of absence and left Phila-
delphia on the nth, before the Committee was elected to draught
1 The Virginia Conventio7i of 111! 6, by Hugh Blair Grigsby, Richmond, 1855,
p. 8.
"^Ibid., p. 17.
92 HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF IXDEPENDEXCE. [Ap. 1,
a declaration of independence. Lee's absence, which was of
necessity to be of uncertain duration, precluded his being selected
to serve on this Committee, in accordance with parliamentary prac-
tice, and as the resolution was offered under instructions from the
Virginia colony, another of its representatives, Thomas Jefferson,
was selected to head the Committee, with, as the other members,
John Adams, the seconder of the resolution in the Congress, Frank-
lin, Sherman and R. R. Livingston, the last representing those
who thought that the time had not yet arrived for such an extreme
measure/
The Committee unanimously requested Jefferson to prepare the
draught, but before reporting it to the Committee he communicated
it separately to Dr. Franklin and Mr. Adams, because he says" " they
were the two members whose judgments and amendments I wished
most to have the benefit before presenting it to the Committee.
.... Their alterations were two or three only, and mostly verbal.
I then wrote a fair copy, reported it to the Committee, and from
them unaltered, to Congress."
Jefferson reported the draught to the Congress on Friday, June
28, when it was read and ordered to lie on the table. On July i,
the Congress resolved itself into a Committee of the Whole and
resumed the consideration of the original motion of Lee "respect-
ing independency," which, after being debated through the day,
was carried and was reported to the House and further considera-
tion postponed to July 2, when it was adopted. The Congress,
sitting in Committee of the Whole, then proceeded to the con-
sideration of the Declaration reported by Jefferson, which had
been referred to it on July i, and examined, debated and amended
it during the 2d, 3d and 4th of July.
Jefferson, in his Autobiography, says :' " The pusillanimous idea
that we had friends in England worth keeping terms with still
haunted the minds of many. For this reason, those passages which
conveyed censures on the people of England were struck out, lest
they should give them offense. The clause, too, reprobating the
enslaving the inhabitants of Africa was struck out in complaisance
^ See E. Rutledge to John Jay, June 8, 1776, Jeffersoii's Autobiography,
Ford's ye O'er son. Vol. i, p. 19.
2 Jefferson to J. Madison, August 30, 1823, Ford's Jefferson, \, p. 26. On this
point see also Autobiography of John Adams, quoted by Ford, ibid, \, 24.
•^ Randolph's Jefferson, Vol. i, p. 15.
1898.1 HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 93
to South Carolina and Georgia, who had never attempted to re-
strain the importation of slaves, and who, on the contrary, still
wished to continue it. Our Northern brethren also, 1 believe, felt
a little tender under these censures, for though their people had
very few slaves themselves, yet they had been pretty considerable
carriers of them to others."
In the afternoon of the fourth the debate was closed and the
Declaration as agreed to in the Committee of the Whole was re-
ported by Mr. Harrison as Chairman of the Committee of the Whole
and was adopted by the House. ^
With the view of ascertaining more definitely the historic rela-
tion of the copy in the possession of this Society to the original
draught, Mr. John Vaughan, the Librarian of the Society, upon the
receipt of the document from Mr. Lee, wrote to Mr. Jefferson, ask-
ing him concerning this point, and received the following reply :^
*'To John Vaughan, Esq.
" MoNTiCELLO, September i6, 1825.
'■^ Dear Sir : — I am not able to give you any particular account of
the paper handed you by Mr. Lee, as being either the original or a
•copy of the Declaration of Independence, sent by myself to his
grandfather. The draught, when completed by myself, with a few
verbal amendments by Dr. Franklin and Mr. Adams, two members
of the Committee, in their own handwriting, is now in my own
possession, and a fair copy of this was reported to the Committee,
passed by them without amendment, and then reported to Congress.
This latter should be among the records of the old Congress ; and
whether this or the one from which it was copied and now in my
hands, is to be called the original is a question of definition. To
that in my hands, if worth preserving, my relations with our L^ni-
versity gives irresistible claims.
"Whenever in the course of the composition, a copy became
overcharged, and difficult to be read with amendments, I copied it
fair, and when that also was crowded with other amendments,
another fair copy was made, etc. These rough draughts I sent to
^ For a full review of the circumstances leading up to the Declaration and its
adoption and signing, see Frothingham's Rise of the Republic of the United
States, Boston, 1872.
2 The IVritir7gs of Thomas Jefferson ^ edited by H. A. Washington, Vol. vii,
New York, 1854, pp. 409, 410.
94 HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATIOX OF IXDEPENDEXCK. [Ap. 1,
distant friends who were anxious to know what was passing. But
how many, and to whom, I do not recollect. One sent to Mazzei
was given by him to the Countess De Tessie (aunt of Madame de
Lafayette) as the original, and is probably now in the hands of her
family. Whether the paper sent to R. H. Lee was one of these, or
whether, after the passage of the instrument, I made a copy for him,
with the amendments of Congress, may, I think, be known from
the face of the paper. The documents Mr. Lee has given you must
be of great value and until all these private hoards are made public,
the real history of the revolution will not be known."
On April 24, 1840, in response to Mr. Vaughan's request Richard
Henry Lee sent him the following statement :
''The Draught of the Declaration of Independence in the Athe-
naeum [American Philosophical Society]^ in Philadelphia, in the
handwriting of Mr. Jefferson, came into my possession, together
with the MSS. of Richard Plenry Lee from Francis L. Lee, one of
the sons of R. H. Lee ; and was presented by me to the Athenaeum
[American Philosophical Society] in Pha.
''The history of this Document, given to me by my father and
his brother, as given them by their Father, R. H. Lee derived from
Mr. Jefferson, is this, that after alterations had been made in the
Committee of the first draught drawn by Mr. Jefferson, he drew two
Draughts^ one to be reported to Congress ; and the other for Richard
H. Lee, which he sent to him enclosed in a letter dated (I think)
on the 8th July 1774 \sic\. This letter and the draught were care-
fully kept by R. H. Lee and after his death were as carefully pre-
served by his sons. Copies of the letter were taken ; but the orig-
inal had been lost, before the MSS. of R. H. Lee came into my
hands. The copy which I presented to the Athenaeum [American
Philosophical Society] with the Draught, was declared to me by the
sons of R. H. Lee, to be an exact copy. The Draught being
drawn by Mr. Jefferson himself, before the report had been made
to Congress, is as much an Original, as any other in existence.
The interlineations on the Draught were written by Arthur Lee.
"Richard Henry Lee,
"A.D. 1840. Grandson and Biographer of R. H. Lee."
^ Mr. Lee seems to have confused the American Philosophical Society with the
Athenaeum, which was a tenant in the building of the former at the time of Mr.
Lee's visit to Philadelphia.
1898.] HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 95
A careful study of the Lee manuscript copy in the possession of
this Society clearly shows it to be the wording of the draught as
reported by the Committee of five to the Congress. There is
nothing to indicate whether it was a copy made by Jefferson
at the same time that he made the fair copy to be reported to the
Congress or later but prior to the writing of his letter of trans-
mittal to Lee on July 8. Nor is there anything to prove whether
the underscoring of the parts stricken out by the Congress was
done by Jefferson or by some other hand at a later date, although
Jefferson seems to have underscored these parts in all the fair copies
he subsequently made of which we have knowledge.
Under the circumstances it was natural that Jefferson should
send to Lee a copy of the Declaration so soon as it was agreed
upon, and it seems therefore probable that when writing a fair copy
to report to the Congress, and not anticipating any material altera-
tion of it, he should, also, so as to lose no time, make another copy
to send to Lee. As the Congress was sitting in secret session the
necessity of maintaining all the safeguards of secrecy as to its pend-
ing deliberations prevented his forwarding this copy until after the
adoption and promulgation of the Declaration. Then on the 8th
of July, when he could, with propriety, send it, he found it neces-
sary, because of the unexpected changes made by the Congress, to
enclose also a copy of the text as finally adopted.^
Richard Henry Lee, Jr., in The Life and Correspondence of his
grandfather, says (p. 175), that Jefferson in his letter of July 8, 1776,
enclosed a copy of the Declaration as ''drawn in the Committee
and also a copy of the Declaration as adopted by Congress." This
statement, taken in connection with the fact that the marginal
notes of the changes by the Congress in this Society's copy were
not made by Jefferson, but are in the handwriting of Arthur Lee,
who was not in this country at any time during the year 1776, is in
entire accord with that made by Jefferson in his letter of transmit-
tal, in which he says, ''I enclose a copy of the Declaration of Inde-
II have been unable to ascertain whether the copy of the text as adopted by
the Congress was among the Lee papers presented to the University of Virginia,
and if so, whether it was saved from the fire which destroyed its Library build-
ing in October, 1895. '^'^^ ^^^ papers were contained in a trunk which, at the
time of the fire, was thrown out of an upper window and broken by the fall.
The papers were gathered up into a bundle and it is hoped none were lost, but
until the new Library building is completed they cannot be examined.
96 HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATIOX OF IXDEPEXDEXCE. [Ap. 1,
pendence as agreed to by the House, and also as originally framed ' '
and with Lee's reply thanking him for the '' inclosurej-."
If this manuscript copy had been made after the 4th of July it
seems most likely that Jefferson would have copied the document as
finally adopted by the Congress on that date, or at least would have
indicated on the margin all the changes that had been made by the
Congress. It also seems probable that the copy of the text as
adopted by the Congress, enclosed by Jefferson for purpose of com-
parison, was a printed copy, as the document was by order of Con-
gress^ immediately put in print, and on the 5th the President trans-
mitted copies, probably in the form of a broadside, to several
assemblies,^ and it appeared in The Femtsylvania Evening Post, for
Saturday, July 6, 1776 (Vol. ii, No. 228); had it been another
manuscript copy it would have been preserved by Lee with the same
care as he gave to the one now in the possession of this Society.
The accompanying copy could not have been the copy in the Em-
met Collection now in the Lenox Library, hereafter to be referred
to, which is said, also, to have belonged to *Uhe Lee family,"
since that, too, is a copy of the draught as presented by the Com-
mittee and not as adopted by the Congress.
The marginal notes showing the additions to the text made by
the Congress are evidently written by a different hand from the one
that wrote the draught, and according to the endorsement, they
were written by Arthur Lee. The handwriting appears to be his
and I see no reason to doubt the correctness of the statement.
Arthur Lee was in Europe, and had been there for some years, when
the Declaration was adopted and did not return until September,
1780.' From which it would seem certain that at a date subse-
quent to this he and R. H. Lee compared the draught written by
Jefferson with the document as passed by the Congress and marked
the omissions and wrote on the margins the additions.
It is probable that the endorsement on the document was
made some years after it was received, which may account for the
erroneous date on it of '' 1777," which error would not be likely
to have been made had it been written when received in 1776.
^ " Resolved, That copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies,
conventions and committees or councils of safety, and to the several commanding
-officers of the continental troops ; that it be proclaimed in each of the United
States, and at the head of the army."
^ Frothingham, loc. cit., p. 544.
•*See Life of Arthur Lee, by R, H. Lee, Vol. i, p. 164.
1898.] HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATIOX OF INDEPENDENCE. 97
The conclusions I had reached concerning the draught belonging
to this Society were subsequently confirmed by the following letter,
written in the autumn of 1841, from John Vaughan to the Prince
de Joinville, a copy of which I have recently found among the
Society's unarranged manuscripts.
NOTE RELATIVE TO THE ORIGINAL DRAUGHT OF THE DECLARATION OF
INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN THE
HANDWRITING OF THOMAS JEFFERSON AND NOW IN POSSESSION
OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY AT PHILADELPHIA.
On the 7th day of June 1776 Richard Henry Lee moved in the
American Congress " That America should declare itself Inde-
pende7it of Great Britain;'^ this motion was seconded by John
Adams. The consideration of this motion was referred to loth
June. On that day Rich. Henry Lee received an account that his
Wife was dangerously ill, obtained leave of absence from Congress
and went home. On the loth June, Congress proceeded to the
Order of the day, and after some debate, postponed the further
consideration of the question to the ist July ; but in order to save
time, appointed a Committee to prepare a form of Declaration, to
be ready for adoption, if then determined upon. The Committee
named consisted of Mess. T. Jefferson, J. Adams, B. Franklin,
Sherman & R. R. Livingston. Mr. Jefferson having been appointed
Chairman of the above named Committee, it was assigned to him
to prepare a Draught of the Declaration, {the three first named
were the 7nost active membersi) The Draught was submitted to the
Committee who suggested alterations. Amongst Mr. Jefferson's
papers after his death there was found the Copy with the final cor-
rections of his Associates from which a copy has been lithographed
and appended to the Memoirs of Jefferson by his Grandson Thomas
Randolph and a copy of this is preserved by the A. P. S. in a
frame. From this rough corrected Draught Thomas Jefferson made
Two fair Copies one to be submitted to Congress, as the report of
the Committee, and one for Richard Henry Lee, the mover of
Declaration, who did not return previous to the ist July. The fair
original Copy intended for Congress was reported to that body by
Benjamin Harrison (father of the late President Harrison to whom
it had been entrusted) on ist July. Considerable alterations were
made previous to its adoption which took place on 4th July. On
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 157. G. PRINTED JUNE 13, 1898.
98 HAYS — DK AUGHT OF DECLAEATIOX OF INDEPENDENCE. [Ap. 1,
the 8th July Mr. Jefferson wrote to Mr. Lee as follows. " I enclose
you a copy of the Declaration of Independence as agreed to by the
House aiidalso as originally framed. ' ' This was the Second copy which
he had made for Mr. Lee. Mr. Jefferson added ^' You will judge
whether it is better or worse for the Critics ^ On the suggestion
of Mr. Jefferson the Comparison was made by Richard Henry Lee
and his Brother Arthur Lee, who drew a black line upon the
original draught proposed by the Conunittee under every part rejected
by Congress ; and in the margin opposite placed the word out.
This document thus marked is the one possessed by the Am. Philo-
sophical Society.
Sometime after the death of Richard Henry Lee his Grandson,
of the same name, wrote the memoirs of his Grandfather, having
obtained from his Father and Uncle all the papers and corre-
spondence of his Grandfather with the Eminent Patriots
of that day. These memoirs were published in Philadelphia by the
Grandson in 1825 with whom I was on terms of intimacy. Whilst
publishing he was requested to favour the Am. Philos. Society with
the original papers and Documents as soon as he had made use of
them. The request was granted and on the 17th June 1825 they
were put in possession of the correspondence which is bound up in
two Volumes, and on the 19th of August 1825 R. H. L. sent them the
original form proposed by the Committee, in the handwriting of
Mr. Jefferson, and with the marks thereon made by the two Lees
above alluded to. When received it was duly recorded by the
Society and Mr. Wm. Short & Mr. Edward Coles who were irttimate
Friends of Mr. Jefferson and the undersigned (who had been his
Correspondent for more than 40 years) Certified on the book of
records, that this Document was of the handwriting of Mr. Jeffer-
son; and Mr. George Washington Smith, to whom the delivery
was entrusted, certified that he received the whole from Richard
Henry Lee the Grandson, with directions to deliver them to the
A. P. Society and that he delivered them to the undersigned for the
Society.
A copy of this proposed Declaration was published by the Grand-
son in the memoirs of his Grandfather the parts left out by Congress
being printed in Italics ; several Editions of this Italicised Copy of
1825 were published between that year and 1829, when it was
republished and Lithographed in similar form in the memoirs of
Thomas Jefferson which was first published in that year.
1898.] HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 99
This original draught of the declaration is framed between strong
glass Plates so as to be perfectly viewed and examined by those
who feel an interest in it. The other Original sent to Congress,
cannot be found. The form of Declaration finally adopted, &
signed by the Members of Congress exists at Washington in the
Department of State, but the originally proposed form has not been
found, from which circumstance the Document in possession of the
Society has with propriety become the sole original Draught.
France having largely contributed to the obtaining this Inde-
pendence, the undersigned (in whose charge this document now is)
has been led to think that a correct account of it, and the mode by
which it was obtained, would be received with some interest by his
Royal Highness the Prince de Joinville, who has now an oppor-
tunity of examining it. Under this impression this account has been
drawn up by
Jn. Vaughan (aged 85)
Librarian of the Am. Phil. Society.
A letter identical with that to the Prince de Joinville, but with
the last paragraph omitted, was also sent by Mr. Vaughan to Mr. J.
K. Tefft, of Savannah, on October 5, 1841, and is now preserved in
the Emmet collection in the Lenox Library in New York,^ and
previously, on March 27, 1841, he sent a letter of similar purport
to Mr. George Combe, of Edinburgh,'- in which he answers the
charge of the Edinburgh Review (No. 141, p. 134, 1839) that he
had hoaxed Captain Marryatt.
Captain Marryatt, in his Diary in America, page 43, Vol. iii,
says, ''Mr. Vaughan stated to me that he had ioww^ \ki& original
draft of the Declaration of Independence in the handwriting of
Mr. Jefferson," and the Edi?tburgh Review, commenting thereon,
states that if Captain Marryatt 'Miad ever read that very interest-
ing book {Memoirs of Jefferson, Vol. i, p. 17) he would have been
aware how grossly a Mr. Vaughan, of Philadelphia, was hoaxing
him when he talked of having discovered the original draught of
the Declaratioii of Independence." Mr. Combe in his Notes on the
United States (p. 330) says that ''on my second visit to Philadel-
phia, in March, 1840, Mr. Vaughan enabled me to peruse original
1 For a copy of this letter I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Wilberforce
Eames, Librarian of the Lenox Library.
2 Copy in the Society's collection of MSS.
100 HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. [Ap. 1,
letters, giving its history from the day it was composed to that on
which it was presented to the American Philosophical Society.
.... Mr. Vaughan exhibited also a letter dated a few weeks
before my visit from the son of Richard Henry Lee to himself,
expressing his astonishment at the reviewer's remarks."
The letter of R. H. Lee, Jr., above referred to, is preserved in
this Society's Manuscript Collections. It is dated, Washington,
February 25, 1840, and is in reply to a letter from Mr. Vaughan of
January 31, a copy of which is in the Dreer Collection of Auto-
graphs in the library of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. In
the course of the letter Mr. Lee says, ''The Edinburgh Reviewer
was rather too learned in our Antiquities. There was no hoax by
you, on Marryatt. The paper you shewed him may be called with
strict truth an original Draught. It is more so than that at Wash-
ington. It was written verbatim after the first rough Draft of the
Author^ by the Author himself. It is as much, therefore, an original
Draught as it well can be, inasmuch as the priority in time as to the
first composed paper is a matter of no account where the same author
writes at the same time and occasion the two draughts. Neither
are copies ^
The following copies of the Declaration of Independence in
Jefferson's handwriting are known to exist:
I. The original rough draught showing changes made in Com-
mittee of five and also by parentheses and interlineations most of the
changes made by the Congress in Committee of the Whole. This
appears to have been the last draught made by Jefferson in its course
through Committee, and from it he wrote the fair draught to present
to the Congress as the report of the Committee and also the copy
to send to Richard Henry Lee (2). He apparently used this same
draught in Committee of the Whole and noted on it the changes
as they were made by the Congress. This draught was first repro-
duced \n facsimile in Randolph' syk^^'ri'*?;/. It was acquired by the
Government with the Jefferson papers and is now in the Library of
the Department of State.
2. A copy of the draught reported by the Committee of five to
the Congress and agreeing closely with the text of the preceding
draught. This is one of two copies presumably made on or about the
27th of June, 1776; one was presented to the Congress as the report
of the Committee of five and is believed not to have been preserved;
the other is the copy in the possession of this Society, and was sent
1S98.] HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 101
by Jefferson to Richard Henry Lee on July 8th following, and pre-
sented in 1825, by his grandson, of the same name, to the American
Philosophical Society, in whose library it is preserved.
3. A copy from the rough draught of the Committee of five, made
in 1783 for James Madison and reproduced vs\ fac-sbnile in The
Madiso7i Papers, Vol. iii., Washington, 1840. Also in the Library
of the Department of State.
4. Another copy from the rough draught of the Committee of five,
slightly difi"erent in wording, inserted by Jefferson in the manu-
script copy of his Autobiography. This is written on contempora-
neous paper and was a copy probably made by Jefferson not long
after the adoption of the Declaration. Also in the Library of the
Department of State.
5. A copy in the Emmet collection in the Lenox Library, New
York. " This is one of several fair copies made by Jefferson from
the original rough draught of the Declaration, after its adoption and
publication, in which he gave the wording of the text as reported
by the Committee, with the portions underlined that were changed
or rejected by Congress. After remaining in the possession of the
Lee family of Virginia for many years, with other papers of Jeffer-
son, .... was sold by the late Mr. Cassius F. Lee, of Alexan-
dria, to Mr. Elliot Danforth, of New York, from whom Dr. Emmet
obtained it.'"
1 have not been able to learn the circumstances under which this
copy came into the possession of the Lee family. Dr. Emmet
writes me that the only information he " can give is that Mr. Lee
stated to me that it was one of the copies Jefferson sent his grand-
father, and that it had been sent to some one in lower Virginia by
Richard Henry Lee shortly after, and that it was not recovered for
many years after. "^
This copy is without interlineation and does not contain the
additions made by the Congress. It is, with some slight excep-
tions, the text of the document as reported to the Congress.
^Bulletin of the New York Public Library, 1897, P- 355-
2 Personal communication, April 16, 1898. It does not seem likely that Jeffer-
son should have sent two similar autographic copies of the Declaration to Rich-
ard Henry Lee, and as the history of the copy possessed by this Society is clear
and indisputable, it is probable that the Emmet copy came from another source,
and Mr. Paul L. Ford, the learned student of Jefferson's works, informs me
that he is inclined to believe that it is the copy sent to John Page.
102 HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATI0:N^ OF INDEPENDENCE. [Ap.l,
6. A fragment of a copy in the possession of Mrs. Washburn, of
Boston.
In addition to these five copies and a fragment of a sixth, Jeffer-
son made, according to Ford,^ between the 4th and loth of July,
other copies, which he sent to George Wythe,^ John Page, Edmund
Pendleton and Philip Mazzei, who gave his copy, so Jefferson states
in his letter to Vaughan, to the Countess de Tesse, of France, but
it is not known if these copies are still in existence.
The copy of the draught of the Declaration presented, as its re-
port, by the Committee of five of which Jefferson was Chairman, to
the Congress cannot be found and is believed not to have been pre-
served. ^ It was probably read in the Congress and passed into the
hands of the Secretary, who used it in writing in the amendments
as they were adopted during consideration of the document in the
Committee of the Whole and, upon its adoption by the House, at
once sent it to the printer as copy and it was subsequently de-
stroyed.
If these conclusions and the statement previously referred to of
R. H. Lee, the elder, to his son, be correct, the historic value
of the draught possessed by this Society lies in the fact, apart from
its being an autographic copy by Jefferson, that it is one of the two
fair copies made at the same time by Jefferson, one to report to the
Congress, the other to send to Lee. As the copy presented to the
Congress has been lost, the copy sent to Lee, and now belonging to
this Society, must be regarded as the authoritative text of the Dec-
laration of Independence as drawn by the Committee of five and
reported to the Congress.
^ Writings of Jefferson, ii, p. 42, Note.
2 This copy was delivered to Mr. Thomas Ritchie, editor of the Richmond
Enquirer, by Major Duval, the executor of Mr. Wythe's estate, and its text was
printed in Niles's Weekly Register, ]\x\y 3, 1813 (Vol. iv, Xo. 13). Notwith-
standing inquiiy among Mr. Ritchie's descendants I have not been able to learn
whether it is still in existence.
3 In the " Rough Journal " of Congress kept by the Secretary, Charles Thonv
son, appears the entry under July j\, " The Declaration being again read was
agreed to as follows." Here the printed Declaration, a broadside with the im-
print : " Philadelphia : Printed by John Dunlap," is attached by wafers. In the
fair copy of the " Rough Journal " the Declaration is written out at length in
the same handwriting as the rest of the Journal. See Chamberlain, " The Sign-
ing of the Declaration," Proceedings of Massachusetts Historical Society, 2d
Series, Vol. 1, p. 286.
1898.] HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATIOX OF INDEPENDENCE. 103
The text of the draught possessed by this Society and d^fac-simile
of it are appended -}
[A Declaration by the Representatives of the UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA in General Congress assembled.] /;/ Co?tgress,
July 4j J776, The Unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United
States of America.
When in the course of human events it becomes necessary for one
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them
with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the
separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of
nature's god entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of man-
kind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them
to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident ; that all men are created
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with [inherent and
inalienable] certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; that to secure these rights,
governments are instituted among men, derivnig their just powers
from the consent of the governed ; that whenever any form of gov-
ernment becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the
people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government,
laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers
in such form as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety
and happiness. Prudence indeed will dictate that governments
long established should not be changed for light «Sc transient causes,
and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more
disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right them-
selves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But
when a long train of abuses and usurpations, [begun at a distin-
guished period &] pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a
design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right,
it is their duty, to throw off such government, & to provide new
guards for their future security. Such has been the patient suffer-
ance of these colonies, & such is now the necessity which constrains
them to [expunge] alter their former systems of government. The
history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of [unre-
mitting] repeated injuries and usurpations, [among which appears
1 The text is printed in Roman characters. In order to show the changes
made by the Congress the parts stricken-out by the Congress are enclosed in*
[brackets], and the parts inserted by the Congress are printed in Italics.
104 HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. [Ap. 1,
no solitary fact to contradict the uniform tenor of the rest ; but]
all [have] having in direct object the establishment of an absolute
tyranny over these states. To prove this let facts be submitted to
a candid world, [for the truth of which we pledge a faith yet unsul-
lied by falsehood].
He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and neces-
sary for the public good.
He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate &
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his
assent should be obtained ; and when so suspended, he has [neglected
utterly] utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of
representation in the legislature ; a right inestimable to them, &
formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom-
fortable, & distant from the depository of their public records,
for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his
measures.
He has dissolved Representative houses repeatedly [& con-
tinually], for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the
rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time after such dissolutions to cause
others to be elected whereby the legislative powers, incapable of
annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise,
the state remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of
invasion from witjiout, & convulsions within.
He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; for
that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ;
refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither ; &
raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands.
He has [suffered the administration of justice totally to cease in
some of these states] obstructed the administration of justice by
refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers.
He has made [our] judges dependant on his will alone, for the
tenure of their offices, and the amount & paiment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of new offices [by a self-assumed
power] & sent hither swarms of officers to harrass our people, and
eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies [and
ships of war,] without the consent of our legislatures.
1898.] HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATIOX OF TXDEPEXDEXCE. 105
He has affected to render the military independant of, & superior
to, the civil power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction
foreign to our constitution [s] and unacknowledged by our laws ;-
giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation
for quartering large bodies of armed troops among us;
for protecting them by a mock-trial from punishment for any
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these
States ;
for cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ;
for imposing taxes on us without our consent ;
for depriving us /;/ 7na?7y cases of the benefits of trial by jury ;
for transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences ;
for abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and
enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at once an example
& fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into
these [States] Colonies ;
for taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws,
and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments ;
for suspending our own legislatures, & declaring themselves in-
vested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated government here, [withdrawing his governors,
&] dy declaring us out of his [allegiance and] protection, a?id wag-
ing war against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns,
& destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercena-
ries, to compleat the works of death, desolation & tyranny, already
begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scaj'cely paralleled
in the most barbarous ages and totally unworthy the head of a civil-
ized nation.
He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and has endeav-
ored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless In-
dian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished
destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions [of existence].
[He has incited treasonable insurrections of our fellow citizens
with the allurements of forfeiture & confiscation of our property.]
He has constrained [others] our fellow citizens taken captive[s]
on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the
106 HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. [Ap. 1,
*
executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by
their hands.
[He has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its
most sacred rights of life & liberty in the persons of a distant peo-
ple, who never offended him, captivating and carrying them into
slavery in another hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in their
transportation thither. This piratical warfare, the opprobrium of
infideP powers, is the warfare of the Christian^ king of Great Britain..
Determined to keep open a market where MEN should be bought
& sold, he has prostituted his negative for suppressing every legis-
lative attempt to prohibit or to restrain this execrable commerce :
and that this assemblage of horrors might want no fact of distin-
guished die, he^ is now exciting those very people to rise in arms
among us, and to purchase that liberty of which he^ has deprived
them, by murdering the people upon whom he^ also obtruded them :
thus paying off former crimes committed against the liberties^ of one
people, with crimes which he urges them to commit against the
lives^ of another,]
In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress
in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered
only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked
by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a
free people [who mean to be free. Future ages will scarce believe
that the hardiness of one man adventured within the short compass
of twelve years only, to build a foundation, so broad and undis-
guised, for tyranny over a people fostered and fixed in principles of
freedom.]
Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren.
We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their leg-
islature to extend [a] an uiiwarr ant able jurisdiction over [these our
states] 2is. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our
emigration and settlement here, [no one of which could warrant so
strange a pretension : that these were effected at the expence of our
own blood and treasure, unassisted by the wealth or the strength of
Great Britain : that in constituting indeed our several forms of
government, we had adopted one common king, thereby laying a
foundation for perpetual league and amity with them : but that sub-
mission to their parliament was no part of our constitution, nor ever
in idea, if history maybe credited : and] we //az/<? appealed to their
^ Underscored in original.
1898.] HAYS — DRAUGHT OF DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 107
native justice & magnanimity, [as well as to] and we have conjured
them by the tyes of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpa-
tions, which [were likely to] would inevitably interrupt our connec-
tion & correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of
justice, and of consanguinity; [and when occasions have been given
them, by the regular course of their laws, of removing from their
councils the disturbers of our harmony, they have by their free elec-
tion reestablished them in power. At this very time too, they are
permitting their chief magistrate to send over not only soldiers of
our common blood, but [Scotch and] foreign mercenaries to invade
and destroy us. These facts have given the last stab to agoniz-
ing affection ; and manly spirit bids us to renounce forever these
unfeeling brethren. We must endeavor to forget our former love
for them, and to hold them as we hold the rest of mankind, ene-
mies in war, in peace friends. We might have been a free & a great
people together ; but a communication of grandeur and of free-
dom, it seems, is below their dignity. Be it so, since they will
have it. The road to happiness and to glory is open to us too ; we
will climb it apart from them and] we must therefore acquiesce in
the necessity which denounces our [eternal] separation [!] a7id hold
thcfn, as we hold the rest of 7nankind, Enemies in War, in Peace
Friends.
We therefore the Representatives of the United States of America
in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the
world for the rectitude of our intentions do, in the name, & by
authority of the good people of these [states, reject and renounce
all allegiance and subjection to the kings of Great Britain, and all
others who may hereafter claim by, through, or under them ; we
utterly dissolve all political connection which may heretofore have
subsisted between us and the parliament or people of Great Britain,
and finally we do assert these] Colonies, solemnly publish and declare
that these United Colonies are and of Right ought to be free and
independant states ; that they are Absolved frorfi all allegiance to the
British Crown, a?td that all political connection between them and the
State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved ; & that as
free& independant states, they have full power to levy war, conclude
peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, & to do all other acts
and things which independant states may of right do. And for
the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection
of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives,
our fortunes, and our sacred honor.
108 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMEXS. [April 1,
THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS, AS RELATED TO CHEMI-
CAL GEOLOGY.
BY S, F. PECKHAM.
{Read April 1, 1898.)
1. On the 5th of February, 1897, a symposium was held at the
rooms of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, upon
'' The Origin and Nature of Petroleum." It was conducted by Profs.
S. P. Sadtler and Charles F. Mabery, Dr. D. T. Day, of Washing-
ton, D. C, Francis C. Phillips and the writer. While listening to
the papers then read, I was impressed with the fact that the dis-
cussion proceeded almost wholly without regard to any considera-
tion of the different conditions that probably obtained in that
primitive world in which the oldest petroleums found their origin.
Prof. Mabery discussed, from the standpoint of pure chemistry,
the composition of the petroleums of the Trenton limestone ; I,
myself, those of the Miocene Tertiary of California ; Dr. Sadtler,
the extremely interesting experiments that he had made upon the
destructive distillation of the glycerides of linseed oil ; while Dr.
Day discoursed upon the somewhat remote and problematic
resultant of certain chemical reactions upon bitumen ; and Mr.
Phillips presented some exceedingly interesting theoretical con-
siderations concerning ''The Genesis of Petroleum and Natural
Gas" and "The Occurrence of Petroleum in the Cavities of
Fossils." Later reflection has brought very forcibly to my mind
considerations that I am led to present as a possible means of
reconciling many of the differences that appear in the late discussion
of these questions.^
2. In view of the general acceptance of the nebular hypothesis,
it is unnecessary to establish the fundamental proposition that
bitumens, as minerals, are properly considered in their relation to
all the other mineral species that have been identified and described
as together constituting the earth's crust. The clear distinction of
these relations has followed upon many years of research along
several lines. It began more than a century ago with the famous
discussion waged between the Plutonists and Neptunists, as to
whether fire or water had been most active in producing the phe-
1 Prog. Amer. Phil. Soc, xxxvi, No. 154.
1898.] PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 109
nomena of rock building. Mineral silicates were then supposed
to have crystallized from igneous fusion, and the deposition of sedi-
ments to have resulted only in amorphous, uncrystallized rocks.
The idea that heat and water together may have produced all of the
phenomena that have been attributed to the action of either alone
has been of slow growth ', but may now be said to be pretty
generally accepted, although there are those who refer to the
action of heat and of pressure alone phenomena that are without
doubt properly the resultant of the action of heat and steam under
pressure.
3. The discussions that have proceeded along the three lines of
geology, chemistry and mineralogy, have been mainly directed to
an elucidation of the problems relating to the formation of the
crystalline rocks. To determine, therefore, the nature of metamor-
phic action and the conditions under which it might take place, was
the problem to the solution of which Bischof, Hunt, Delesse,
Daubree and several others of the most gifted chemical geologists of
this century devoted themselves.^ These gentlemen first considered
the reactions that according to known chemical laws must follow
the cooling of a heterogeneous mixture of the elements composing
the earth, in a state of gaseous fluidity, and at a temperature that
rendered chemical combination impossible ; in other words, a state
of complete dissociation. It follows that the most infusible ele-
ments would first condense and form a solid nucleus around which
would float an ocean, in a state of igneous fusion, of more fusible
elements and compounds, while over all would hover an atmosphere
containing all the nitrogen and oxygen, the free hydrogen, sulphur
and allied elements, with the chlorine and other halogens. As the
cooling proceeded the silicon would combine with oxygen and
bases, forming both acid and basic silicates, which would constitute
a solid crust. The hydrogen and haloids combining would form
the haloid acids and the sulphur and allied elements would form
oxygen acids, all the hydrogen being oxidized into water, which
with the acids would be alternately condensed and evaporated, fall-
ing as an acid rain upon the surface of silicated rocks, which in turn
1 G. Bischof, C/iem. and Phys. Geology, Cav. Soc. ed. T. S. Hunt, Chein.
and Geolog. Essays. Delesse, " Essay on Pseudomorphs," Ann. des Mines,
xii, 509 ; xiii, 393, 415 ; xvi, 317-392. Mem. Acad, de Scien. de France, xvii.
Daubree, Cofupies Kendtis de VAcad., November 16, 1857. Etudes et experi-
ences synthetique stir le Metamorphisme, Paris, 1859.
110 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April i,
would emerge from the ocean of water heavy with dissolved chlo-
rides and sulphates, while an atmosphere dense with carbonic acid
would help to maintain a temperature that would retard the cooling
through vast cycles of geologic time, in the course of which, under
conditions entirely different from any now known, vegetable and
animal life would appear upon the earth, or, more properly, in the
waters that covered the earth.
4. It is very evident that the chemical conditions obtaining in
this remote geologic epoch, while not incompatible with the
development of life, were, however, very different from those which
have prevailed at any time since the advent of any of the higher
forms of animals. We have a right to believe that at the dawn of
life, of all the elements that enter into the composition of vegetable
and animal tissue — carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus
and sulphur — nitrogen alone was wholly free. Carbon and hydrogen
existed in combination with oxygen as carbonic acid and water.
Phosphorus and sulphur were oxidized, and in combination with
basic elements as salts. The excessive proportion of carbonic acid
and aqueous vapor in the atmosphere gave to it the property of
transcalesence, by which, while readily penetrated by heat from the
sun, it refused to transmit this heat when reflected from objects at
the earth's surface. This gave to the atmosphere properties similar
to those of a greenhouse, by which so high a temperature was main-
tained during the coal period that semitropical plants flourished at
the poles. At an earlier period, before terrestrial vegetation had
removed the carbonic acid from the air, and before the surface of
the cooling earth had lost its heat by radiation, the palaeozoic (dawn
of life) ocean and the land gave support to both vegetable and
animal life, at a temperature that at the present time would destroy
most organic forms. ^
5. The strata which form that portion of the earth's crust which
has been referred to the palaeozoic era, are of enormous thickness
and are found in different parts of the world, to present aspects
strikingly similar. Messrs. Hall, Billings and Dawson, in North
America, Salter and Hicks in England, Angelin in Sweden, and
Barrande in Bohemia, have shown that the forms of animal life in
that early period were very closely related, if not identical, in these
widely separated areas ; yet, below these formations, which hold the
1 \V. H. Brewer, Am. Jour, Set. (2), xli, 389.
1898.] PECKIIAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. Ill
remains of marine animals, in Bohemia and Sweden if not else-
where, there is a ''region of fucoids," of great thickness, carrying
back the dawn of vegetable life to a still more remote epoch. ^
Throughout the last fifty years, successive discoveries of fossils in
strata hitherto supposed to be destitute of organic remains, have
carried the apparent dawn of life back through successive geological
formations, until the azoic (devoid of life) rocks have ceased to be
appropriately named, and Mr. Hicks, speaking of the Cambrian
fauna of Wales, says, "Though animal life was restricted to these
few types, yet at this early period the representatives of the different
orders do not show a very diminutive form, or a markedly imperfect
state ; nor is there an increased number of blind species. The
earliest known brachiopods are apparently as perfect as those
which succeed them ; and the trilobites are of the largest and best
developed types. The fact also that trilobites had attained a
maximum size at this period, and that forms were present represen-
tative of almost every stage of development, .... blind genera
along with those having the largest eyes, leads to the conclusion
that for these several stages to have taken place numerous previous
faunas must have had an existence, and, moreover, that even at this
time in the history of our globe an enormous period had elapsed
since life first dawned upon it.'"^
6. The formations that contain these earliest palseozoi'c forms of
life are now found for the most part in a crystalline condition ; yet,
Dr. Hunt affirms, "that the oldest known rocks are stratified
deposits of limestone, clay and sands, generally, in a highly
altered condition ; .... it is, however, quite certain that the
advent of life in these oldest fossiliferous strata was subsequent to
the period of chemical reactions on a cosmic scale. "^ The manner
in which these geological formations and parts of formations may
have been rendered crystalline has been very exhaustively discussed
by Dr. Hunt in his chemical and geological essays. He has shown
^ James Hall, Paleontology of Netv York, Vol. iii, Introduction. Billings,
A?n. your. Set, (2), xxxii, 232. Reports Geological Survey of Canada, v. d.
Dawson, Canadian N^aturalist,v. d. Reports Geological Suivey of Canada,
V. d. Salter and Hicks, Proc. Geol. Assoc, Quar. your. Geolog. Soc, v. d.
Angelin, Palccontologica Scandinavica. Barrande, Bui. Soc. Geol. de France
(2), xvi, 529-545.
^ Hicks, Quar. your. Geol. Soc, May, 1872.
^ C/ie?nical and Geological Essays, ed. 1875, P* ^'
112 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April 1,
how fully his conclusions, based almost wholly on theoretical con-
siderations, have been confirmed by the experiments of Daubree,
who was led to investigate this subject, from observing that the
action of the alkaline, thermal waters of the spring at Plombieres,
at a temperature of 6o°-7o° C, had in the course of centuries given
rise to the formation of zeolites and other silicated minerals among
the bricks and cement. of the old Roman baths/ He further shows
that at a temperature of loo'^ C. silicates are produced from a reaction
between alkaline silicates and carbonates of lime, magnesia and
iron. He says further, " Now the supposed mode of formation of
the primitive molten crust of the earth would naturally exclude all
combined or intermingled water, while all the sedimentary rocks
are necessarily pervaded by this liquid, and are consequently in a
condition to be rendered semifluid by the application of heat.
.... If now, we admit that all igneous rocks, ancient plutonic
masses as well as molten lavas, have their origin in the liquefaction
of sedimentary strata we at once explain the diversities of their
composition The presence of fossil plants in the melting
strata would generate carburetted hydrogen gases, whose reducing
action would convert the sulphurous acid into suphuretted hydro-
gen ; or the reducing agency of the carbonaceous matter might give
rise to sulphuret of calcium, which would be, in its turn, decom-
posed by the carbonic acid or otherwise The carbu-
retted hydrogen and bitumen evolved from mud volcanoes, like
those of the Crimea and Baku, and the carbonized remains in the
moya of Quito, and in the volcanic matters of the island of Ascen-
sion, not less than the infusorial remains found by Ehrenberg in
the ejected matters of most volcanoes, all go to show that fossili-
ferous sediments are very generally implicated in volcanic phe-
nomena."^ Again, he states, that in a letter to Sir Charles
Lyell, dated February 20, 1836, Sir John F. W. Herschel main-
tains that with the accumulation of sediments the isothermal lines
of the earth's crust must rise, so that strata buried deep enough will
be crystallized and metamorphosed, and eventually be raised with
their included water to the melting point." Again Dr. Hunt says,
*' We conceive that the earth's solid crust of anhydrous and primi-
tive rock is everywhere deeply concealed beneath its own ruins, which
1 Etudes et experiences syjitJiHique sitr le vietamorphisnie, par M. A. Daubree,
Paris, 1859, p. 98; Ann. des Mines (5), xiii, 227.
2 Essays, p. 8.
1898.] PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 113
form a great mass of sedimentary strata, permeated by water. As
heat invades these sediments, it produces in them that change which
constitutes normal metamorphism. These rocks at a sufficient
depth are necessarily in a state of igneo-aqueous fusion, and in the
event of fracture of the overlying strata may rise among them
taking the form of eruptive rocks. "^ He calls the effects produced
by such invasion of eruptive masses, local metamorphism. From
these extracts from several of Dr. Hunt's essays, it can be easily
understood that a struggle has been in progress from the time of
the oldest known rocks to the present, between the shrinking and
wrinkling crust of a cooling earth and the thickening deposits of
sediment accumulating from its erosion.
7. One Sunday in the early summer of 1866, I found myself
with Dr. George L. Goodale, now of Harvard University, stranded
at a small hostelry, at the San Fernando Pass, near the old Mission
of San Fernando, in southern California. The day was very fine and
we chose a morning climb to anything the hostelry had to offer ;
so, mounting our horses, we rode to the eastward over the flood
plain of pulverized rock that at some former period had poured out
of the great canon back of where the town of Burbank now stands.
We climbed one of the spurs of the San Rafael range to the west
of the canon. We first passed over rounded hillocks of sandy soil
which as we ascended became gradually merged into soft fossilifer-
ous sandstone. After a time the effects of heat became manifest.
The clam shells and fossil clams, of which there were cart-loads,
appeared crystalline, and the iron in the sand was no longer green
but red. The sandstones became more dense and the clays were
silicated. At length the strata passed into a micaceous gneiss and
finally we found the central core of the mountain to be a light-
colored fine-grained granite. About half way up. Dr. Goodale
found a vertebra of a whale half buried in' the sandstone and still
very perfect in form, while I found a fossil pine cone that had
evidently received some rough usage on the ancient beach. This
cone contained some seeds that showed it to be closely allied to the
nut pine of New Mexico. The mountain consisted wholly of
Tertiary sediments that had been metamorphosed precisely as Sir
J. F. W. Herschel had suggested in his letter to Sir Charles
Lyell.
1 Essays, p, 9.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVIT. 157. H. PRINTED JUNE 14, 1898.
114 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April ,
8. It is not alone through a study of the crystalline rocks that
the chemistry of the primeval world is interpreted. By a compari-
son of the kind and amount of salts dissolved in the waters of the
primeval ocean that are enclosed in palaeozoic strata with the kind
and amount of salts dissolved in the waters of the present ocean,
Dr. Hunt has shown that from the earliest geologic time until the
present, alkaline carbonates derived from the subaerial decompo-
sition of feldspar have been carried into the ocean by streams, and
the calcium and magnesium in the ocean have been successively
precipitated as carbonates, producing limestones and dolomites,
while common salt and calcium sulphate have accumulated in the
present ocean, the former in large excess. There is abundant
evidence that this palaeozoic ocean was hotter than the existing
one, as well as more saline, while it is equally evident that during
long intervals its sediments carried down vast quantities of the
remains of vegetable and animal life. He has further repeatedly
shown in what manner these sediments were influenced by the
organic matters that were enclosed in them. In his essay on '' The
Chemistry of Natural Waters," he has shown that argillaceous
sediments deprive waters of the organic matter in solution by form-
ing a compound containing an organic radical. He says, "There
is reason to believe that alumina is under certain conditions dis-
solved by waters holding organic acids," and cites melite and
pigotite as examples of the compounds formed. He further shows
that organic matter in water reduces sulphates to sulphides, produc-
ing from soluble sulphates of lime and magnesia carbonates of the
basis, with hydrogen sulphide, free sulphur, or a metallic sulphide ;
the hydrogen sulphide being converted by slow oxidation or com-
bustion, followed by absorption of oxygen directly into sulphuric
acid, which is again, when in contact with organic matter, reduced
to hydrogen sulphide.
He says with reference to the water of palaeozoic brine springs,
" In the large amount of magnesium chloride which they contain,
these waters resemble the bittern or mother-liquor which remains
after the greater part of the sodium chloride has been removed
from sea-water by evaporation The complete absence of sul-
phates from many of the waters points to the separation of large
quantities of earthy sulphates in the Cambrian strata from which
these saline springs issue ; and the presence in many of the dolomite
beds of the Calciferous sand rock of small masses of gypsum,
1898.J PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 115
abundantly disseminated, is an evidence of the elimination of
sulphates by evaporation The brines of the valley of the
Allegheny river, obtained from borings in the coal formation, are
remarkable for containing large proportions of chlorides of calcium
and magnesium, though the sum of these, according to the examples
given by Lenny, is never equal to more than about one-fourth of
the chloride of sodium. The presence of the sulphates of barium
and strontium in these brines, and the consequent absence of solu-
ble sulphates, is, according to Lenny, a constant characteristic in
this region over an area of 2000 square miles. "^
Among many other illustrations that might be given of these
non-sulphated palaeozoic waters, I mention one which was obtained
from a boring on Great Manitoulin island in Lake Huron, at a
depth of 192 feet, ''After passing through the black slates of the
Utica formation, and for sixty feet into the underlying Trenton
limestone It contained no sulphates nor barium nor stron-
tium." Another palaeozoic water of a very different character was
obtained from a well bored for petroleum at Bothwell, Ontario, in
1865. ^' At a depth of 475 feet from the surface, and probably at
or near the base of the Corniferous limestone, a copious spring was
met with of very sulphurous water and a little petroleum." The
water contained sulphate of calcium and sulphides of sodium and
hydrogen. Waters apparently similar are pumped from several of
the oil wells in the vicinity. ''The sulphurous impregnation is
doubtless to be ascribed to the reducing action of hydrocarbonace-
ous matter upon the sulphates which the waters contain."^
9. A brief examination of the superposition of the palaeozoic
and earlier formations of North America will show the Laurentian,
embracing the oldest known rocks of the globe, outcropping from
the coasts of Labrador to Lake Superior and over a large ai-ea in
northern New York. Associated with this system is the Norian,
which is characterized by a great development of opalescent feld-
spars. Above these are the Green Mountain series, an inferior part
of the Lower Silurian, which corresponds wholly or in part to the
Huronian system of Canada and the region about Lake Superior.
Above them are the White Mountain series, which are Upper Silurian
and perhaps Devonian. These formations constitute for the most
1 Bischof, Chem. and Phys. Geol., i, 337. Hunt, Chein. and Geol. Essays,
p. 121, ed. 1875. '^"^' Jour. Set., March, July and Sept., 1865.
"^Essays, 158-163, ed. 1875.
116 PECKHAM — ;THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April l,
part the rocks of Canada, New England, eastern New York and the
eastern slope of the Alleghenies southward through New Jersey,
Pennsylvania and Virginia. Speaking of these rocks. Dr. Hunt
says, "^ In the oldest known of them, the Laurentian system, great
limestone formations are interstratified with gneisses, quartzites and
even with conglomerates. All analogy, moreover, leads us to con-
clude that, even at this early period, life existed at the surface of
the planet. Great accumulations of iron oxide, beds of metallic
sulphides and of graphite, exist in these oldest strata, and we know
of no other agency than that of organic matter capable of generat-
ing these products.^ .... Bischof had already arrived at the
conclusion, which in the present state of our knowledge seems
inevitable, ' that all the carbon yet known to occur in a free state
can only be regarded as a product of the decomposition of carbonic
acid, and as derived from the vegetable kingdom.' He further
adds, ' living plants, decomposed carbonic acid, dead organic
matters, decomposed sulphates, so that, like carbon, sulphur,
appears to owe its existence in the free state to the organic kingdom.'
As a decomposition (deoxidation) of sulphates is necessary to the
production of metallic sulphides, the presence ot the latter, not
less than of free sulphur and free carbon, depends on organic
bodies ; the part which they play in reducing and rendering soluble
the peroxide of iron, and in the production of iron ores, is, more-
over, well known." ^
Rocks of the Lower Cambrian in Great Britain as well as in North
America are well known to exhibit carbonaceous remains. Of the
former it is said, ''They occasionally hold flakes of anthracite, and
small portions of mineral pitch exude from them in some localities."
The rocks of the Malvern hills contain fucoids. In the Quebec
series on the south shore of the St. Lawrence, Hunt describes the
occurrence of a carbonaceous substance, ''entirely distinct from
coal, which occurs in fissures, sometimes in the interstices of crys-
talline quartz. It is an insoluble hydrocarbonaceous body, bril-
liant, very fragile, giving a black powder, and results apparently
from the alteration of a once liquid bitumen." ' Similar material
^On the north shore of Lake Superior, I have found spherical concretions
of graphite occuring in a rock that is apparently eruptive.
'^ Essays, pp. 301, 302. Am. Jour. Sci., 1871.
3 Essays, pp. 382, 396. W. Hodgson Ellis, " Analysis of Some Precarbonifer-
ous Coals," Chem. News^ Ixxvi, 186, Oct. 15, 1897.
1898.] PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 117
often lines cavities in the limestone in Herkimer county, New York,
and not only sometimes encloses crystals of quartz, but is often
enclosed in quartz crystals. These limestones are not crystalline.
Above these formations just mentioned, in the Carboniferous
formation of both Europe and North America, anthracite occurs in
metamorphosed strata. In Wales, Belgium, the Alps and France,
such phenomena are frequent. The coal deposits of Massachusetts
and Rhode Island are enclosed in highly metamorphosed strata.
Much of the material is more nearly graphite than coal. Both the
coal and the enclosing strata are so distorted that the bedding is
destroyed and the material appears in segregated masses.
In the trap dykes that have penetrated the sedimentary forma-
tions of the Connecticut valley and New Jersey, veins of carbona-
ceous matter occur. These dykes are intruded masses, no doubt
formed by the igneo-aqueous fusion of sediments that contained
organic remains. ^
TO. With the exception of the exudation of mineral pitch men-
tioned above, I have seen no notice that bitumen occurs in crystal-
line rocks, but always in rocks adjacent to or above them. There
are vast areas of the pal3eozoic formations of North America that
are not crystalline, that have been more or less subjected to the
action of steam and pressure at temperatures that have made them
more or less the subjects of metamorphic action. Some of these
rocks contain bitumen and others do not. The limestones in the
bluffs of the Mississippi river at Minneapolis and St. Paul contain
in the cavities of their fossils crystals of pyrite and rhomb spar.
They immediately overlie the St. Peter sandstone and are said to
belong to the Trenton group. Similar limestones in southern
Michigan contain bitumen, free sulphur and sulphates in large
amount. In southern Kentucky and Tennessee the limestones are
often coarsely crystalline and contain large encrinite stems that are
silicified. These same rocks contain geodes lined with crystals of
quartz. Other geodes contain sulphates of barium, strontium and
calcium, both with and without bitumen. In other localities the
rocks of this age are filled with bitumen widely disseminated in
small quantities. These rocks often exhibit very slight evidence of
the effects of heat, but frequently are found immediately above or
upon crystalline schists. "
^ L. C. Beck, Am. your. Sci. (i), xlv, 335. I. C. Russell, ibid. (3), xvi, 112.
^ S. F. Peckham, Reports of the Tenth Census of the United States, Vol. x,
** Petroleum," p. 63.
118 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April 1,
11. In Prof. James Hall's celebrated Introduction to The Palce-
ontology of New ^ork, he shows that the earliest paleozoic sedi-
ments were deposited in a current that moved from southeast to
northwest. Later the current moved diagonally across them from
northeast to southwest. These later currents represent a vast inter-
val of time, during which material accumulated to a depth of tens
of thousands of feet of coarse sediments to the northeast in Canada,
and growing finer diminished to the southwest in the Mississippi
valley to a few thousands of feet. If metamorphic action is due to
the accumulation of sediments, whereby the isothermal lines of the
earth's crust rise to meet the increased pressure, by consequence of
which sediments are brought into a state of igneo-aqueous fusion,
it is not difficult to explain why, at a period in the earth's history,
when the condition of the earth's crust, the ocean and the atmos-
phere, all contributed to maintain a high temperature, the strata as
we pass from the southwest in the Mississippi valley towards the
northeast should present, at the surface, increasingly the effects of
heat.^
12. Let us now turn to Technology and see what the experience
of more than half a century can teach us in relation to this ques-
tion of the origin of Bitumen. Soon after 1830, Reichenbach in
Germany,-^ Selligue in France and Gregory in Scotland, all worked
upon, the destructive distillation of pyroschists, wood, coal, peat
and petroleum. They all discovered paraffine, and what is sugges-
tive, they all propounded the idea that bitumens are distillates.
They established the fact that pyroschists, wood, coal, etc., when
destructively distilled yield paraffine and the oils found in petro-
leum. Selligue established quite a valuable industry in France,
using as his raw material the schists of Autun. About 1850, the
Scotch paraffine-oil industry arose. The raw material was a shale,
called Boghead mineral, that was well known to contain fossil
fishes. The distillate of this mineral closely resembled petroleum,
and when petroleum was discovered in the United States in com-
mercial quantities, the refineries on the Atlantic coast, that had
been importing the Boghead mineral, commenced to work petro-
leum with slight changes in their processes. At the same time, the
1 Nat. Hist, of A\ V., " PaLxontology," iii, 45-60.
"^ Jour, fur Chem. u. F/iys., von Schweiger-Seidel, 1830, lix, 436. Trans. Roy.
Soc. of Edjnb.yxm, 12^. Rep. of Fat. Invev., n. s., iv, 109. Jour.des Con-
naisances Usuelle^ Dec, 1834, p. 285. Dingier, Ivi, 40.
1898.] PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 119
Albertite of New Brunswick was also being distilled on the^ Atlantic
coast, while west of the Alleghenies cannel coal was being distilled
at Cannelton, on the Kanawha river, in West Virginia ; at Clover-
port, on the Ohio river, in Kentucky; at Newark, O., and near
Pittsburgh, Pa. The experiment of distilling oil from Devonian
pyroschists was also made at Erie, Pa. They yielded fifty gallons
of distillate to the ton. Without exception every one of these ma-
terials yielded paraffine, and when the petroleum obtained from
Pennsylvania and West Virginia was used as a substitute, it was
found that it yielded identical products, and the coal-oil industry
was quickly rendered unprofitable. In an attempt to utilize all
available material, William Atwood, who was one of the most skill-
ful technologists in coal oil, was sent to the Island of Trinidad,
where a plant was constructed and an unsuccessful attempt made to
prepare illuminating and lubricating oils from Trinidad pitch. The
pitch furnished distillates very different from the parafifine prod-
ucts obtained in the United States.
During the last years, before the coal- oil industry ceased to be
profitable, a number of patents were granted for improvements in
this technology, mainly for improved methods of distillation. The
aim of these inventions was to effect a uniform heating of the mate-
rial by which a slow distillation at low temperatures would be pro-
moted. The presence of steam, often superheated, was found to
be at all times beneficial. While to produce gas from these mate-
rials, it was found necessary to thrust them into a retort heated to a
high temperature ; to produce oil, it was found on the contrary
best to distill at the lowest temperature possible. The intermediate
oils, too dense for illumination and too light for lubrication, accu-
mulated in the refineries, until Joshua Merrill discovered that by
distilling them in such a manner that the vapors were superheated
the vapors were '' cracked " or '• dissociated," and when they were
condensed they were found to be of such a specific gravity that
they could be used for illumination. This was the most important
discovery ever made in the technology of bitumens, and when
applied to the manufacture of paraffine petroleums it was of enor-
mous value.
Soon after i860, attempts were made to treat the bitumens of
southern California by the same methods of distillation that were
employed in treating paraffine oils, but all the results obtained
showed that the processes were being applied to different materials
120 PECKHAM — TtlE GEXESIS OF BITUMENS. [April l,
and the results were different. These results all pointed to an ex-
cess of carbon and more unstable compounds. On analysis these
crude oils were found to contain a large percentage of nitrogen as
compared with parafiftne petroleums.^
Canadian petroleum had been known to contain sulphur and to
be difficult to refine. When similar oils were obtained in large
quantities about 1885, in western Ohio, the sulphur petroleums
became a serious problem in the technology of bitumen, as it was
commercially desirable to treat them in the same manner as the pure
paraffine petroleums of Pennsylvania. During 1893 ^^^ 1S94, the
technology of California bitumens was again investigated. Destruc-
tive distillation when applied to these bitumens, resulted in the
production of a large volume of gas and asphaltic residuums with
a distillate consisting principally of unsaturated hydrocarbons. The
crude oils were found to be allied to the crude oils produced in the
Scotch shale-oil industry, as they contain a large percentage of
nitrogenous basic oils.^
There were thus established among North American bitumens
three great classes: those known as " Pennsylvania oils," consist-
ing of nearly pure paraffines, for which I have elsewhere proposed
the name of Warrenite ; those known as *' Lima oil," which together
with the Canadian oils contain a notable proportion of sulphur com-
pounds, for which I have proposed the name of Maberyite, and the
California oils, which occur in great variety and, while containing
sulphur, are characterized as nitrogen bitumens and for which I have
proposed the name of Venturaite. There is also a class of bitu-
mens not yet investigated that are found on the eastern slope of the
Rocky mountains from Mexico to the Arctic circle. In Europe, the
paraffine petroleums of Galicia appear to be quite distinct from the
bitumens of the Caspian sea. Technology has also divided bitu-
mens into two great classes that are largely determined by geologi-
cal occurrence. The great petroleum region of North America,
which is by far the most important in the world, lies in the great palae-
ozoic basin that surrounds the Cincinnati anticlinal ; while the
bitumens of California, the West Indies and Europe issue from
Tertiary rocks. These Tertiary bitumens are found in much greater
^ S. F. Peckham, Reports Geol. Surv,, Califortiia, "Geology," ii, Appendix,
P- 73-
2 S. F, Peckham, y^w. your. Set. (3), xlviii, 250.
189S.] PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 121
variety and are uniformly more difficult to refine into commercial
articles than the bitumens obtained from older formations/
It is proper to mention in this connection three classes of inves-
tigations that have been made on a commercial scale. The first
was made about 1860-65, by Cyrus M. Warren, and consisted in
distilling destructively the lime soap made from menhaden (fish)
oil. The products of this distillation were refined into illuminating
oil, in all respects identical with coal oil and refined petroleum ;
and they were also proved by an elaborate research to contain the
same constituent hydrocarbons. Quite recently, Prof. Karl Eng-
ler, has repeated these experiments with the addition of pressure and
steam during distillation. Warren's results were confirmed. Still
more recently, Dr. S. P. Sadtler has discovered that the vapors
escaping from linseed oil while being boiled furnish, when con-
densed, a petroleum-like liquid, which upon examination was found
to consist of hydrocarbons identical with those found in Pennsyl-
vania petroleum. It is an honor to American science that these
results, valuable and interesting alike to science and technology,
were obtained by American investigators."
The general conclusion from technology appears to be, that for
commercial purposes, crude bitumens and the products of their dis-
tillation may be duplicated by products of the destructive distilla-
tion of pyroschists, wood, coal, peat and a great variety of animal
and vegetable substances.
13. It would be entirely unnecessary for my present purpose to
notice in detail all the researches that have been undertaken upon
bitumen, in all its various forms, since de Saussure published his
paper on the Naphtha of Amiano, in 181 7. It is sufficient to indi-
cate along what lines the investigations have proceeded and in what
manner the results have been interpreted. The earliest investiga-
1 Boverton Redwood, Petroleum, etc., London, Charles Griffin & Co., 1896,
ii. S. F. Peckham, Prog. Am. Phil. Soc, x, 445. Repts. 10th Census ^ U.S., x.
« Petroleum," Am. Jour. Sci. (3), xlviii, 250 and 389, 1, 33. Science xxiii,
74. Jour Frank. Institute, Nov., 1895. S. P. Sadtler, Am. Jour. Pharm.,
Sept., 1896. C. F. Mabery, Joitr. Frank. Institute, cxxxix, 401. Proc. Am.
Acad., n. s., xxiii. Am. Chem. Jour., xix, 243, 374, 419,796. B. Silliman, Jr.,
Am. Jotir. Sci. (ii), (xliii,) 242. Chein. News, xvii, 257. Bui. Soc. C/iem. de
Paris, 1868, p. 77.
2C. M. Warren and F. H. Storer, Me?n. Am. Acad.,n. s., ix, 177. Karl Eng-
ler, Berichte der Deut. Chem. Gesellschaft, 1888, xxi, 1816, xxii, 592. Dingier,
Poly. Jour., 18S9, p. 271. S. P. Sadtler, Am. Jour. Phar., Sept., 1896.
122 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April i,
tors analyzed bitumens as if they were homogeneous substances.
They determined the carbon and hydrogen, added tlie percentages
together and subtracted the sum from one hundred, calling the
deficit oxygen. This went on for nearly fifty years. It is true that
Prof B. Silliman, Jr., fractionated petroleum by distillation, and
queried whether the liquids that he obtained were educt? or prod-
ucts. It was not until 1863 that Schorlemmer, in England, and
Pelouze and Cahours, in France, published researches that pro-
fessedly separated the compounds that were mixed together in
petroleum. They were soon followed by Warren and Storer in the
United States, who, by a superior method of condensation, suc-
ceeded in separating the hydrocarbons in coal-tar naphtha, naphtha
from Pennsylvania and Rangoon petroleum, naphtha from lime soap
of menhaden oil and also the hydrocarbons from oil of cumin.
These researches established the existence in these liquids of several
series gf hydrocarbons, the members of which were identical,
whether obtained from natural or artificial substances, and were also
in many cases recognized as identical with chemical compounds
already well known. ^
Since these results were published, a great amount of work has
been done with varying success upon a great variety of petroleums,
in which work progress has been observed along two lines, viz.,
first, better methods of separation, and second, better methods of
ultimate analysis. It is only quite lately, however, that Prof, C. F.
Mabery has succeeded, by distilling in vacuo with Warren's hot
condenser, in so completely avoiding decomposition by cracking as
to reach results that are final. While this is said without any wish
to disparage the work of other investigators, it must be said with a
proper regard for truth." There is, however, a vast amount of
chemical research on record, a very complete resume of which can
^ Theo. de Saussure, Ann. Chitn. et de Phys. (2), iv, 314-320. London Jour,
of Sci., iii, 411. B. Silliman, Jr., A?}i. Chemist, ii, 18. Moniteur Scientifiqiiey
No. 366. Am. Jour, of Gas Lighting, xvi, 83. Wagner's Ber., 1872, p, 848.
C. Shorlemmer, Chem. News, 1863, viii, 157; xi, 255. Am. Jour. Sci. (2)^
xxxvi, 115. Rep. de Chim. Appliquee, 1863, p. 174. Jour, fur Phar., xxi, 320.
J. Pelouze and Aug. Cahours, Compies Rendus,\v\, 505 ; Ivii, 62, Ann. de Chim.
et de Phys. (4), i, 5. Am. Jour. Sci. (2), xxxvi, 412. C. J\I. Warren and F. H.
Storer, Mem. Am. Acad., n. s., ix, 121-176. Avi. Jottr. Sci. (2), xxxix, xl and
xli. Chetn. News, xii, 85, 261, et seq.
2 C. F. Mabery, I^roc. Amer. Acad., n. s., xxiv; Amer. Chem. Jour. xix»
243. 374, 419-
1898.] PECKIIAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 123
be found in the exhaustive work of Mr. Boverton Redwood, which
has given results sufficiently accurate for my purpose. These re-
sults may be generalized as follows :
The Pennsylvania petroleums are the purest paraffine petroleums
known. They contain small percentages of olefines and traces of
benzoles. The same hydrocarbons have been found in other petro-
leums, in the distillates from cannel coal, pyroschists, peat, wood
tar, fish-oil soap, fish oil under pressure and linseed oil, and also
from grahamite, albertite, ozocerite and many other substances of
mineral and organic origin.^
The Lima and Canadian petroleums contain the paraffine series,
with a notable proportion of sulphur derivatives of the paraffines,.
formed by substitution ; and also traces of benzoles and nitrogenous
basic oils.^
The Russian oils contain the benzole hydrides and naphthenes.*
The California oils, so far as at present known, consist of the
benzole hydrides, naphthenes, benzoles and sulphur substitution
compounds with a large percentage of esters of nitrogenous basic
oils.^
The Scotch shale oils contain paraffines, olefines, benzoles and
esters of nitrogenous basic oils.^
These esters are also found in coal tar and in Dippel's oil, the
latter being an oil obtained as a distillate from the gelatine of
bones.
No satisfactory research has ever been undertaken upon semi-
fluid malthas or solid asphaltums. They cannot be distilled without
decomposition, and no analysis by solution has yet been made that
was not highly empirical. It is assumed, rather than proved, that
many solid bitumens contain oxygen. They certainly do contain
sulphur, and in some instances they contain nitrogen. When dis-
tilled upon the large scale solid bitumens are decomposed and
^ Schorlemmer, Pelouze et Cabours, Warren and Storer, Mabeiy, loc. cit.
2 Mabery and Smith, Pi'oc. Anier. Acad.,n. %., ^xvvx; Atner. Chem. Jour.,.
xvi, ^2,^ 89, 544; xvii, 713; xix, 419.
3 Beilstein and Kurbatow, Ber. d. D. Chem. Ges., 1 880, p. 18 1 8. Jotir. Amer.
Chem. Soc, xiii, 232. Markonikow and Oglobini, Ber. d. D. Chem. Ges., xviii,.
2234 ; Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. (6), ii, 372.
*S. F. Peckham, Prqc. Amer. Phil. Soc, x, ^{45; xxxvi, 154; Amer. Jour.
Set. (3) xlviii, 250. C. F. Mabery, your. Frank. Inst.^ cxxxix, 401. Boverton?
Redwood, Petroleiini, i, 203.
' English patents.
124 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April 1,
nothing but decomposition products are found in the distillate,
while coke remains in the still. These decomposition products are
very varied. Those that are geologically old yield paraffine, while
those that are recent do not.^
Prof. Mabery has remarked that all petroleums contain the same
proximate principles in different proportion. While this statement
may be absolutely true, it is not so relatively. The palaeozoic
bitumens have been most carefully studied and they consist mainly
of paraffines. The Tertiary bitumens have been less carefully studied,
and they consist principally of benzoles and their derivatives in
great variety. Mingled with these are the olefines and other series
of hydrocarbons in small proportion, with an immense number of
oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen derivatives and substitution com-
pounds, the existence of which has been only recently suspected.
It can, therefore, be asserted that the natural bitumens and the
substances resembling therh that are obtained by the destructive
distillation of mineral and organic substances, are strikingly similar.
The palaeozoic bitumens bear a resemblance to the simple distil-
lates produced in the presence of steam, at low temperatures, when
nitrogen is practically absent. The Tertiary bitumens resemble the
distillates obtained at higher temperatures and when the raw mate-
rial is rich in animal remains. There are, however, a large number
of bitumens that have been too little investigated to admit of any
generalizations concerning them. In illustration of this statement
I would call attention to the valuable papers of Prof. Henry Wurtz,
in which he shows that many so-called native paraffines are probably
olefines.'"^ I would suggest that some of them may be the higher
naphtenes, that have the same percentage composition as ole-
fines. The solution of these problems awaits a vast amount of
research.
14. In the preceding pages I have given an outline of the views
generally held by chemical and physical geologists concerning the
chemical phenomena attending the cooling of the earth and its
shrinking and contracting crust. To these I have added a resuf?ie
of the technical and chemical knowlege we possess concerning bitu-
mens. I shall now proceed to discuss, in the light of these facts,
^ S. F. Peckham and L, A. Linton, Atner, Jour. Sci. (4), i, 193. S. F. and
H. E. Peckham, Jour. Soc. Chem. Industry^ xvi, 424; H. Endemann, ibid, xv,
871 ; xvi, 121.
2 II. Wurtz, Eng. and Min. Jour., xlviii, 25, 114 ; li, 326, 376,
1898.] PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 125
the occurrence of bitumens and the relation of such occurrence to
their probable origin.
Leaving the problems of orography to the physical geologist for
solution, there are a few suggestions to be made relating to these
problems that I have not seen anywhere mentioned. If we regard
the dizzy heights of the Andes and Himalayas, or the profound
abysmal depths of the Pacific as isolated phenomena, they appear
on a scale of oppressive grandeur and immensity ; yet these irregu-
larities in the earth's crust reach a maximum of only about ten
miles in vertical height, which is only one twenty-five hundredth or
four hundredths per cent, of the circumference of the earth at the
equator. The local foldings of a few hundreds of feet in disturbed
strata are microscopic when compared with the earth's diameter ;
and yet we are accustomed to regard these plications of strata as the
result of sudden movements in the earth's crust. This is a pure
assumption. The period of time through which critical observa-
tions of geological phenomena have been made when compared
with the time that has elapsed since life dawned upon the
earth is also microscopic; it is a smaller fraction than four
hundredths per cent. The element of time in geological phe-
nomena is only just beginning to be appreciated. We have learned
from a few years of observation that some continental masses are
rising and others falling with reference to the sea level ; yet no
one has observed these movements through many centuries, nor
have these vertical movements of the coasts of the world been co-
related and the laws that govern such movements been determined.
We do not know whether a continent has emerged from an ocean
maintaining a constant level, or whether the ocean has receded as
the contracting mass has rendered the ocean depths more profound,
or, as is more probable, the shrinking of the crust has changed the
distance of the ocean surface from the centre of the earth, render-
ing the elevations apparently greater. It is not material to this
question that we should know. Nor is it of importance to consider
whether the continued operation of forces at present active through
countless centuries, or the repeated interjection of cataclysms of
world disaster, has brought the earth to its present condition. Vol-
canic eruptions, earthquakes and floods, separately and unitedly,
change the face of nature within our own generation ; it is reason-
able to suppose that they have acted from the earliest period of the
earth's history to the present time with constantly lessening vio-
126 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April!,
lence. It is true that the local effects of such phenomena as the
earthquakes at Lisbon and Java and the Red River fault appear cata-
clysmic ; yet these effects are microscopic when compared with the
dimensions of the eartli, and may have been, nay, probably were
the culmination of a series of movements that had been in progress
for immense intervals of time. I therefore believe that in stating
the causes of those changes that have taken place at the surface of
the earth as we now know it, one of the most important considera-
tions is the unlimited periods of time through which the pressure
due to accumulation of sediments and the consequent development
of heat has acted upon those sediments, which in many instances
were filled with water charged with mineral matter in solution. From
the combined action of pressure, heat and steam, tlirough unlimited
periods of time, the constituent elements of sediments have been
brought into every possible state of combination, from obsidian and
pumice, which have been completely fused, through lavas, granites,
gneisses, etc., to sediments in which there has been no change at all.
As Dr. Hunt has fully shown, the action of thermal waters, which have
•been largely instrumental in producing these changes, has been often
extremely localized both laterally and vertically, and may be greatly
varied by the constituents of the sediments themselves.
15. If, then, we accept the hypothesis that all of the rocks as we
now know them are sediments, whatever may be their present condi-
tion, we are forced to the conclusion that life first appeared upon the
planet at a date too remote to be determined even in geologic time,
and that the remains of organic forms have practically been a con-
stant constituent of sediments from that time to the present. As
might be expected, we find organic remains in every possible condi-
tion, from crystallized graphite to unaltered cellulose. Vegetable
and animal remains are found in every conceivable condition of
replacement and alteration. We find pseudomorphism in the strict-
est sense as well as metamorphic action developed in every possible
degree. Nor can we assert that any of the older strata are free from
such action, for metamorphism is, as the word signifies, a change of
form, and no limits can be assigned to such change in either time,
place or degree that are not arbitrary. There can be no question
that as sediments have accumulated slowly so these changes have
progressed slowly.
Nevertheless, following upon long periods of quiet, there appear
to have been periods of cataclysmic violence, as when the vast lava
1898.] PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. • 127
sheets that form the table mountain of the Sierra Nevada were
poured out, not from a single peak, but from a whole range of
peaks ; when the whole of southern Colorado and northern New
Mexico and Arizona were covered with lava sheets thousands of
square miles in extent ; or when the valleys of West Virginia were
upheaved, the Oil Break formed and the mass of plastic grahamite
forced into the fracture ; or when the basic rocks that form the
mounds of iron porphyry in Cumberland and Foster, R. I., were
thrust up from the deeps ; and the trap dykes along the whole
eastern borders of the AUeghanies were poured into fractures of
local extent. But these convulsions that have brought basic por-
phyrys, basalts, trap dykes and local metamorphism to the surface,
have in the physical and chemical operations of nature produced
anthracites and anthracitic residues and not bitumens. Bitumens
are not the product of the violence of volcanic or cataclysmic action,
but of the gentler action of normal metamorphism exerted through
long periods, during which the volatile bitumen has been distilled
from sediments containing organic matter, and at the lowest possi-
ble temperature, without regard to time, as the sediments were
pressed down to an isothermal that admitted first of their distilla-
tion and then of the conversion of the carbon residues into graphite.
1 6. Dr. Hunt has left hundreds of pages in which he has shown
that the crystalline and eruptive rocks, as we know them, are altered
sediments. His argument is conclusive that the carbon that they
contain is derived from organic forms. When discussing bitumens
he shows, first, that the pyroschists do not, except in rare instances,
contain bitumen, and are not in the proper sense of the word bitu-
minous. Secondly, he shows that the pyroschists do not. ^' whether
exposed at the surface or brought up by boring from depths of many
hundred feet, present any evidence of having been submitted to the
temperature required for the generation of volatile hydrocarbons."
Thirdly, he shows that as the oil occurs in the limestone it could
not have been distilled. He further shows that the Utica slate that
is beneath the lower Devonian limestones is unaltered, and adds,
'' More than this, the Trenton limestone, which on Lake Huron and
elsewhere has yielded considerable quantities of petroleum, has no
pyroschists beneath it, but on Lake Huron rests on ancient crystal-
line rock with the intervention only of a sandstone devoid of organic
or carbonaceous matter.^
^T. S. Hunt, Essays, p. 169, ed. 1875.
128 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMEXS. [April!,
I have already shown (§ 6) that sediments become crystalline at
very low temperatures and that the crytalline schists below the low-
est stratified rocks contain abundant evidences of organic forms.
Are we to suppose that there was no intermediate zone in which
normal metamorphism died out and faded into unaltered sediments?
We ought to expect to find the pyroschists in their normal condi-
tion. We ought to expect to find the coal altered or unaltered, ac-
cording to its proximity to the heated area. We should not expect
to find the carbonized remains of organic foims in rocks containing
bitumen ; for we cannot suppose that those beds that yielded the
bitumen by distillation were suddenly plunged into a condition of
igneo-aqueous fusion by which the organic constituents were in-
stantly converted into anthracite and gas. As a general rule the
process of conversion must have been as gradual as the progress of
deposition. We cannot assume that in every instance the anthra-
cite is the residue from a distillation of which the distillate was
completely lost. Moreover, the example cited in § 7 is a com-
plete demonstration, occurring as it does in a region rich in bitumen,
that the change from sediments to crystalline schists is progressive
and involves the organic as well as mineral constituents of the
strata.
17. If a traveler should leave Boston, Mass., and travel in a
generally southwest direction toward San Diego, in southern Cali-
fornia, he would encounter along his route a series of object les-
sons that would lead to but one conclusion. Whatever the age of
the crystalline rocks of New England may be, they are certainly for
the most part older than the Carboniferous. The small basin around
Mansfield, Mass., extending into Rhode Island, which contains the
anthracites of that region, is surrounded by crystalline rocks, and,
indeed, the anthracite beds themselves are, as already stated, al-
tered to a substance nearer graphite than coal. The coal slates
contain only impressions of coal plants, and fossils of any descrip-
tion are extremely rare in the vicinity. Intrusions of trap are fre-
quent, and cones of highly basic porphyrys are thrust up through
all of the crystalline sediments at several points. The change of
form has been very complete in respect to every constituent of the
sediments.
Westward around New Haven, Conn., the bedding of the sedi-
icents has not been so completely obliterated, but the change in the
organic constituents has been quite as general. In the gneissoid
1898.] PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF ]iITUMENS. 129
traps of that region, thin veins occur of anthracitic material, which
alone remains to,represent the organic constituents of the altered
sediments. Continuing our course southwestward the same changed
condition is observed in the crystalline schists of Manhattan
Island, and across the Hudson through northern New Jersey. In-
trusions of trap, too, are frequent through all this region and the
sole representative of the organic constituents of the sediments is
anthracitic residues.
On the western slope of the Catskills, through eastern New York,
the crystalline rocks which exist at varying depths below the sur-
face are overlaid with sediments which are frequently imperfectly
metamorphosed, and as one moves westward into central New York
and northeastern Pennsylvania, while the coal beneath the surface is
anthracite and the residues before mentioned that fill cavities in the
limestone are anthracitic, still the surface rocks show less and less
signs of alteration. As the summit of the Alleghanies is reached and
passed, the coal beds fade by insensible stages from anthracite into
unaltered splint and cannel coals. The beds of slate also become
beds of pyroschists, and the formations generally assume the as-
pect of unaltered sediments. On the western slope of the Alle-
ghanies the surface descends much less abruptly than it ascends on
the eastern slope. The dip of the formations is much greater than
that of the surface, consequently the outcropping edges of newer
formations are repeatedly encountered, until in western Pennsylva-
nia and New York metamorphism has ceased to be a problem in
surface geology. These surface rocks are, however, geologically
all below the coal, which in eastern Pennsylvania is metamor-
phosed into anthracite- There is no arbitrary line that separates
the unaltered from the altered strata. The successive formations have
thinned out, and in general they continue to become thinner as we go
southwest ; but there is no anthracite between the crest of the Al-
leghanies and the mountains of Arkansas. Throughout the Mis-
sissippi valley, as we pass to the west, these formations outcrop and
overlie each other precisely like the shingles on a roof, with the
pitch reversed.
In the Bradford oil field, in McKean county, Pa., the drill pene-
trates a bed of porous sandstone that lies enclosed in impervious
unaltered strata. It contains a few shells and fish bones, but no
other fossils. Like the surface rocks it lies sloping toward the
southwest, the lower portion submerged in salt water, the middle
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXTII. 157. I. PRINTED JUNE 15. 1898.
130 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April 1,
portion filled with petroleum and the upper portion filled with gas ',
both originally under an enormous pressure. In Warren county,
farther to the southwest, the drill reaches petroleum not in the Mc-
Kean county sand, but in a different sand, higher in the series.
Still farther southwest, in Venango county, the surface rocks are
still higher in the series and the drill reaches petroleum in a pebble
conglomerate that outcrops at the surface to the northeast. These
pebble conglomerates, known as the ''Venango Oil Sands,"
formed great riffles in the currents of the primeval ocean. They
are several miles long and a few rods wide, level on the upper sur-
face, and rounded on the under surface to a feather edge at the
sides. One is above the other and they are covered, when they
contain petroleum, with a solid, impervious shell of silica, that the
drill penetrates with difficulty. The uppermost of these conglom-
erates consists of spherical pebbles of yellow quartz, about as large
as cranberries ; the lowest consists of lenticular pebbles of very
white quartz. In both cases the pebbles are cemented together at
their points of contact leaving large open spaces. These conglom-
erates are sometimes replaced by coarse, porous sandstones ; neither
of these contain fossils of any kind. Still farther southwest, on
Slippery Rock creek in Mercer county, and at Smith's Ferry in
Beaver county, another sandstone, that is barren where it occurs in
Venango county, yields petroleum above the pebble conglomerate.
If a line be followed farther to the left, across western Pennsylvania
and into West Virginia, the outcrops of the formations would rise
successively in the scale until the oil would be found in the Mahon-
ing sandstone, which lies at the top of the Lower Productive Coal
Measures. Since the development of the Lima oil fields the range
of rocks holding the petroleum reaches in Ohio, Canada and Penn-
sylvania from the Lower Silurian, Trenton limestone, to the Lower
Coal Measures. These rocks embrace nearly the entire palaeozoic
formations of North America. Very few wells have been sunk
below the petroleum-bearing sandstone, for the obvious reason that
it involved a useless expense. One of the deepest wells ever drilled
in the oil region of western Pennsylvania was Jonathan Watson's deep
well nearTitusville. This well went down through all of the oil sands
and the Devonian shales beneath them, to a depth of 3553 feet, when
just as it was abandoned a hard rock was struck which was supposed
to be the Corniferous limestone, which is the oil-bearing rock of
Canada. The interval between the oil sands and the bottom of the
1898.] PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 131
well was filled with Devonian shales, that underlie the Bradford oil
sand and are supposed to extend from Allegheny county, New York,
to central Kentucky ; and in fact to underlie the entire petroleum
region that produces Warranite — the pure paraffine petroleums.
When ''dry" or unproductive holes are drilled outside the pro-
ductive areas, they pass, at the horizon of the oil sands, through a
different rock, which is compact and incapable of holding petro-
leum. These underlying Devonian shales outcrop at Erie, Pa.,
and furnish there the material that on distillation yielded fifty gal-
lons of distillate to the ton. Where this formation outcrops it is
filled with fucoids and has yielded small petroleum and gas wells.
The men who drilled Jonathan Watson's deep well told me that,
''the soap stone (Devonian shale) became harder as they went
down, and was redder in color, in fact, had been burnt like brick."
In a comparatively few localities, petroleum has been found saturat-
ing rocks that lie one above the other. The upper rock invariably
yields the most dense oil. In 1881 I saw a well in West Virginia,
from which the same walking beam pumped at every stroke oil of
27 degrees from a depth of 255 feet and oil of 45 degrees from a
depth of 600 to 700 feet.
18. I have never seen a specimen of graphite reported to have
come from any locality between the crest of the Alleghanies and
the Ozark uplift. This is an uplift of the palaeozoic formation west
of the Mississippi river, extending from central Missouri to central
Texas. It resembles that of the Alleghanies, but is on a smaller
scale. ^ The eastern slope is more abrupt than the western. The
formations of the central portions, in Arkansas and the Indian Ter-
ritory, are highly crystalline, graphite and anthracite are of frequent
occurrence and are found on the western slope. On this slope also,
but farther west, in unaltered strata immediately above the crystal-
line formations, bitumen occurs in enormous quantity and great
variety. Over a large area in the northeastern portion of the In-
dian Territory heavy petroleums are found only a short distance
beneath the surface, and, as I am informed, below the coal. South
of the Red river, in northern Texas, bitumens occur saturating
horizontal beds of sand that are intercalated between strata of more
or less solid limestone. North of the Red river, in the Indian
Territory, every rock formation that is at all porous appears to be
^ J, C. Braniier, " Former Extension of the Appalachians across Mississippi,
Louisiana and Texas," Aj?i. your. Set. (4) iv, 357.
132 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April 1,
filled with bitumen. As far as I have investigated it, the bitumen
is uniform in kind and quality. It has saturated beds of sand,
strata of sandstone and limestone, some of which are hard and
crystalline, others magnesian and almost as soft as chalk, some of
them without fossils and some almost all fossils, and all of them
conformable with the Upper Silurian and Lower Carboniferous rocks
that enclose them. In one locality a sort of bituminous breccia
occurs, of immense extent, consisting of fragments of limestone
and quartzite cemented together with bitumen. In another an im-
mense horizontal bed of sand, completely saturated with bitumen, is
overlaid with thirty or forty feet of conglomerate that has been
more or less penetrated with it.
Almost all the beds north of the river are in very sharp folds,
that bring the strata to the surface nearly vertical, in eroded anti-
clinals that extend across the country in parallel lines, often many
miles in length. What is of especial interest in this connection is
the occurrence in the vertical limestones and sandstones of imper-
fectly saturated strata. The bedding varies from the thickness of
paper to a few inches. The rock mass was usually most easily
penetrated along the lines of the thinnest beds. Fractures which
cross all these beds, including both the thin and thick ones, show
the bitumen completely filling the thin beds and only partially pene-
trating the seams and the mass of the thicker cryptocrystalline
strata. Nothing could more beautifully and clearly demonstrate the
fact that the bitumen was not indigenous to these rocks, but had
penetrated them while previously and as at present in their nearly
vertical position.
19. Continuing our journey across the continent, bitumen is fre-
quently encountered in positions contiguous to normal or local
metamorphism, until we descend into the great valley of California,
west of the Sierra Nevadas. Here the development of bitumen has
proceeded on a scale of vast magnitude. On the western slope of
the Sierras the region around Roseville, in Placer county, and the
vicinity of the city of Stockton, are well known to be rich in
natural gas.^ There are localities on these slopes that have also
furnished limited supplies of petroleum, but, as before stated, the
bitumen deposits of California are principally found in the Coast
Ranges, including the ocean area lying between the Santa Barbara
^ \V. L. Watts, T/ie Gas and Petroleum Forviatiojis of the Central Valley
of California, 1894.
1898.] PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 183
islands and the main land. The richest deposits have been
found in Ventura county, on the border line that separates the Cre-
taceous from the Lower Miocene. None of the bitumen is found in
crystalline rocks ; yet the evidences of both normal and local
metamorphism, in strata not far distant from the bitumen-bearing
rocks, are abundant. The late Eli W. Blake once visited the Santa
Barbara islands and afterwards described to me the cascades of lava
that had descended from the volcanic cones in the centre of the
islands over precipices into the sea. Bitumen has exuded for more
than a century from the unaltered strata, whose upturned edges
form the bed of the ocean, between these islands and the main
land. The Tertiary formations that constitute the bluffs of the coast
east and west of Santa Barbara contain deposits of bitumen of
enormous extent and exhibit evidences of metamorphic action still
in progress. Almost every large bluff from Point Conception to
San Diego contains a solfatera, the action of which leaves the Mio-
cene shales, originally rich in organic matter, devoid of a trace of
carbon.
The best petroleum wells of Ventura county lie in the canons of the
Sulphur mountain, one of the foothills of the Coast Ranges. Other
wells are similarly located with reference to these ranges,^ None of
them have penetrated crystalline rocks ; yet the core of the Coast
Ranges only a few miles east of the wells of the Pacific Coast Oil Co.,
as Dr. Goodale and myself found, is granite. Fragments of crystal-
line rocks are washed out of many of the large canons that head in
the main Coast Range back of the foothills in which the oil wells
are drilled. Deep drilling is extremely difficult in this region on
account of the fragile character of the rocks. It might be impos-
sible to carry a well down through all the bituminous strata to the
crystalline rocks, but the fact that they are altered Miocene sedi-
ments and exist at a comparatively short distance below the surface
does not admit of any question. The evidences of metamorphism,
through the agency of hot, silicated water, are found everywhere.
The formations contain abundant remains of highly organized ani-
mals ; and the bitumens which they contain consist of benzoles
and naphthenes, without an " appreciable amount of paraffines, if
any." ^ They also contain sulphur and nitrogen. They are evidently
^S.F. Peckham, ]\lineral Resources of the United States, "Petroleum in
California," 1894.
2 Letter of C. F. Mabery to S. F. P.
134 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April 1,
the products of the distillation of highly organized animal tissue, as
an effect of the accumulation of sediments, and of metamorphic ac-
tion upon unaltered sediments, through granite and gneiss to lava
and pumice.
20. If we turn from North America to Europe-Asia, the testi-
mony of the most eminent observers seems equally convincing.
Daubree was satisfied that the origin of the bitumen was found in
metamorphism. Other French chemical geologists were equally
well-grounded in this belief. As early as 1835, M. Rozet read a
paper before the Societe Geologique de France in which he dis-
cussed the occurrence of asphaltic limestone at Pyrimont. He says,
" The bituminous matter is found equally in the calcareous rock
and the molass that covers it. It is evident the action that intro-
duced it into the two rocks is posterior to the deposition of the
latter. The manner in which it is distributed in great masses,
which throw their ramifications in all directions, joined in such a
manner that the superior portions generally contain less bitumen
than the remainder of the mass, indicate that the bitumen has been
sublimed from the depths of the globe It may be objected
that such basaltic rocks do not appear in all the extent of the
Jura. To that I reply that they are found in the neighborhood, in
Burgundy and in the Vosges and further, that in the changes in the
surface of the soil, whether occasioned by fractures or by the disen-
gagement of vapors, the plutonic rocks do not necessarily appear at
the surface. Perhaps in the deep valleys of the Jura the basalts
are of very slight depth In the Val de Travers, near Neuf-
chatel, similar phenomena are observed."^
In 1846, Mr. S. W. Pratt associated the occurrence of bitumen
at Bastennes with the eruption of ophite in the Pyrenees.''^ In 1854,
M. Parran remarks concerning the occurrence of bitumen in the
environs of Alais, ''whatever be the origin of these substances,
whether they be due to interior emanations from fissures of disloca-
tion or to circumstances exterior and atmospheric, it is evident that
there was during the Tertiary period an asphaltic epoch in relation
to which it is convenient to recall the numerous eruptions of tra-
chytes and basalts which characterize that period, and have prob-
ably acted by distillation upon masses of combustibles hidden in
'^Bull. Geol. Soc. de France (i), vii, 138.
"^Qiiar. Jour. Geol, Soc, ii, 80.
1898.] PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 135
the bosom of the earth. "^ The anthracites of the Alps offer con-
vincing proof that large amounts of organic matter have been
involved in the metamorphic action that has prevailed in that
region. In like manner the relation of the bituminous deposits of
Galicia and Roumania to the crystalline rocks of those countries
show the part that metamorphism has played in their occurrence.
21. No theory that refers the origin of the bitumen to any phys-
ical or chemical action that has prevailed on a cosmic scale can sat-
isfactorily explain the differences that exist in crude bitumens. Mr.
Phillips has added the testimony of chemistry itself to show the
improbability of a chemical origin for bitumens on a cosmic scale.
Dr. Day has shown the reasonableness of an hypothesis which
regards the bitumens of Pennsylvania as distillates, but his idea that
the variation in the petroleums of that region is due to the effect of
filtration is, in my judgment, hardly tenable. In Pennsylvania the
darkest and heaviest oils are nearest the surface. The sulphur con-
tent of bitumen is too wide a subject to discuss here in detail ; yet
it may be said in general that sulphur enters bitumens by a second-
ary reaction between the bitumen and the sulphates dissolved in
natural waters. The freedom of Pennsylvania petroleum from sul-
phur has already been shown to be due to the absence of sulphates
in the natural waters of the region in which they occur. As has
already been stated, Prof. Mabery has shown that the sulphur com-
pounds found in Lima oil are sulpho-parafiines. This would natu-
rally follow the reduction of sulphates by parafilines, the reaction
being a double decomposition in which sulphur is substituted for
hydrogen in the parafifine. Filtration would not be likely to
remove such compounds from solution in the other constituents of
the petroleum.
In his discussion of the " Occurrence of Petroleum in the Cavi-
ties of Fossils," Mr. Phillips has offered some ingenious but wholly
unnecessary suggestions to account for the presence of a nearly solid
bitumen in the cells of a coral reef uncovered in a quarry. Petro-
leum occurs in the rocks of the oil regions filling cavities of every
description. Geodes, fossils, sandstones, pebble conglomerates,
porous limestones, the Chicago dolomite, gravel, anything and
everything that has a cavity or a pore, has been found saturated
with it. Why? Simply because the enormous pressure under
which the bitumen has accumulated in the crust of the earth has
^Afin. des Mines (5), iv, 334.
136 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April 1,
forced it there. When it has entered cavities like those in the
coral reef described by Mr. Phillips, the diminished pressure and
evaporation have resulted in the escape of the most volatile con-
stituents. When the reservoir of the Bradford field was first pene-
trated, the pressure was estimated at 4000 pounds to the square inch.
Whether or not this estimate was approximately correct, the pres-
sure was sufficient to throw the well casing and piping out over the
top of a derrick and land it in a meadow near by. A short time
after the famous Karg well was struck near Findlay, O., I, myself,
saw a pressure gauge register 450 pounds per square inch. Burning
gas wells in western Pennsylvania sent streams of flame into the
air eighty feet in height. Notwithstanding this accumulation of the
facts of experience during many years, writers still ignore the tre-
mendous significance of such phenomena, and speak of these
deposits of bitumen as if they resembled a turn-over or an apple-
dumpling laid away by nature. Gas cannot have been held under
such tremendous pressure through cycles of geologic time in reser-
voirs of porous rocks, from which it has been filtering, as suggested
by Mr. Phillips.
The complete inadequacy of all these arguments was never more
fully set forth than in the language used by Mr. Phillips : ''The
movement of the oil through the rock displaced from the inter-
stices in which it had originally collected would have been accel-
erated as the transition from solid organic tissues to liquid had
been advanced." The decomposition of organic matter i7i sitic
could never have occurred under any conditions of accelerated
pressure of even moderate amount. The rocks must have been
consolidated and capable of resisting pressure before, action and
reaction being equal, the pressure could accumulate. These facts
are themselves the strongest reason for belief that the bitumens
were never formed in situ in the porous rocks that contain them,
but were gradually accumulated in those porous rocks that had been
previously overlaid with impervious strata capable of resisting the
enormous pressure until the reservoirs were penetrated by the drill.
The fact that in the limestone some fossil cavities are filled while
others are empty lies in the further fact, that the lines of shrinkage
and other fractures penetrated some of the fossil cavities while
others remained intact.
22. Upon this hypothesis, that bitumens are distillates, all of the
variations observed in bitumens of different geological ages are
1898.] TECKIIAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. 137
easily explained. The earliest forms of animal and vegetable life
are admitted to have been nearly destitute of nitrogen; hence when
these forms accumulated in sediments, which, borne down by depos-
its above them, invaded an isothermal that admitted of their distil-
lation, they must have been distilled, in the presence of steam, at
the lowest possible temperature ; they must have been distilled
under a gradually increasing pressure, the extent of which depended
upon the porosity of the sediments above them, up to the surface.
They must also have been distilled under a gradually increasing
temperature which would have been largely controlled by the pres-
sure. While the temperature and the pressure would have in every
instance been the least possible, with steam always present, these
physical conditions would on account of the varying porosity and
consequent varying resistance of the overlying mass have produced
very great effects in some instances and very slight effects in others.
As a consequence, we have in natural bitumens, as in artificial dis-
tillates, materials varying in density from natural gas to solid
asphaltum.
If these distillates proceeded from materials that would yield
parafifine, these permanent and stable compounds, from marsh gas
to solid parafifine, remained in the receptacles that nature had pro-
vided for them until they were released by the drill. If, however,
the distillates proceeded from sediments of a different geological
age, containing animal and vegetable remains more highly organ-
ized, that would yield different series of hydrocarbons, with com-
pounds of nitrogen, then a very different bitumen would be stored
in these receptacles. Secondary reactions would convert these pri-
mary distillates into a great variety of substances. The contents
of the original reservoirs, borne down and invaded by heat, might
become involved in a second distillation at an increased pressure
and temperature. Fractures of these reservoirs from excessive pres-
sure might lead their contents to the surface along lines of contact
of strata or with water containing sulphates by which an originally
pure hydrocarbon would be converted into a sulphur bitumen. A
nitro hydrocarbon, reaching the surface under these conditions^
might, by the combined action of evaporation and reaction with
sulphates, pass through all the varying degrees of density from pet-
roleum to maltha and become finally solid asphaltum, and this
through the lapse of time and abundance of material on a scale of
vast magnitude.
188 PECKHAM — THE GENESIS OF BITUMENS. [April i,
23. Such, then, is the '^ Testimony of the Rocks," along a line
which spans the western continent. Nearly the whole of this line
has been brought under my own personal observation. There is
also reason for believing that a line might be followed in the -east-
ern continent from the North sea to Java that would furnish equally
convincing proof. To this testimony is added that of chemistry,
technology, mineralogy, and the chemistry of the cooling earth.
Each supports and corroborates the other. We have no need to
search for coke until we know that coke was formed. We have no
need to assume, that in the laboratory of Nature high temperatures
and rapid action were necessary to produce results, for which infin-
ite periods of time and the lowest possible temperature were fully
adequate.
24. Since this paper was written I am in receipt of the annual
address of the President of the Geological Society of America — Dr.
Edward Orton — read at Montreal, December 28, 1897; from which
exhales the exquisite aroma of fine literature, as from all the other
productions of its accomplished author.^ In this address I note
two very important observations. He says, in speaking of Mende-
lejeff's chemical hypothesis, "It is hard, therefore, to see why, the
whole world over, petroleum is entirely wanting in the Archean and
exclusively confined to the stratified rocks. There is not an oil
field in the world in rocks of Archean time." I pass this by with-
out comment to notice his observation upon the gas wells drilled in
Oswego and Onondaga counties, N. Y., one of which penetrated
a limestone that was found between the Pottsdam sandstone and
granite, and furnished a gas pressure of 340 pounds ; the other at
a depth of 120 feet, in the Trenton limestone, gave the gas pressure
of 1525 pounds. Dr. Orton well says, *'A rock pressure of 1500
pounds to the square inch stands for, nay demands, a hermetic
seal." Speaking of the Pottsdam sandstone and the dark limestone
beneath it, he says, ''The drillings brought from these horizons
seem normal in every respect. Certainly there is no hint of any
transformation by heat. 'The smell of fire has not passed on
them.' There is no carbon residue. The bituminous products
found in them cannot owe their origin to the usual form of destruc-
tive distillation." It is not likely, that the usual form of destruc-
tive distillation as illustrated in a gas retort has obtained anywhere
in the operations of nature. I regard the penetration of granite
^Bull. Geol. Soc. America, ix, 93.
1898.] VAX DENBURGH — •HERPETOLOGICAL NOTES. 139
beneath bitumen-bearing rocks as a most conclusive and unexpected
support to the validity of the views that I have herein set forth. I
therefore, with this argument, for the present leave the subject.
Note. — I have quoted thus fully from Dr. T. Sterry Hunt for
two reasons ; with all his eccentricities, he was a man of untiring
industry and a profound interpreter of the phenomena of nature in
the light of experiment. Therefore, no writer of recent years has
expressed views that are entitled to more respectful consideration.
He is also more widely quoted by both American and European
writers upon the subject of the origin of bitumens, especially as an
exponent of the doctrine that bitumens are indigenous to the rocks
in which they are found, than any other author.
HERPETOLOGICAL NOTES.
BY JOHN VAX DEXBUROH.
{Read April 1, 1898.)
1. Biifo boreas in Alaska. — In the winter of 1896, Mr. A. W.
Greeley, a student at Leland Stanford Junior University, gave me
for examination two toads which he had '' taken swimming in a
large lake near Prince William's sound, Alaska, July 15, 1896."
These are typical specimens of Bufo boreas^ distinguishable at a
glance from Bufo halophilus, and its northern form B. h. coIu7nbi-
ensts. Unless my memory fails me, no toad has heretofore been
recorded as Alaskan, and these specimens are, therefore, of great
interest, since they greatly extend to the northward the known
range of this family, genus and species upon the Pacific coast/ One
of these specimens contains eggs which must have been nearly
ready for laying.
2. On the Time of Laying of the Western Gopher Snake in Cen-
tral Calif oi'nia.—Y.2s\y in the month of July, 1897, I received a
fine, moderately large specimen of the Western Gopher Snake {Pitu-
ophis catenifer), which had been captured a few days before ''in a
marsh near Palo Alto," Santa Clara county, Cal. During the next
few days this snake lay almost motionless in a small box in my
office in the California Academy of Sciences. On the afternoon of
^ Toads have been reported from Gt. Bear Lake.
140 VAN DENBURGH — HERPETOLOGICAL NOTES. [April i,
July 13, however, it became very restless and seriously injured its
snout in attempting to fmd some hole through which it might
escape from its prison. The next morning — July 14 — to my sur-
prise, several eggs were in the box, and the number was added to
at intervals until by noon of the next day nineteen eggs had been
laid.
The eggs when first laid are covered with a loose, soft, sticky,
parchment-like white membrane. This quickly dries and hardens,
shrinking upon the substance of the egg until quite tense, and
cementing each egg to the others upon which it is laid. After the
membranous shell has become dry it ceases to shrink, and if the
substance of the egg be reduced, as by evaporation, wrinkles appear
upon its surface. However, the softness of the shell and its power
to shrink upon its contents are restored by the application of water.
The eggs as laid formed a great cluster surrounded by the coiled
body of the snake. The latter hissed fiercely when the eggs were
removed, although she had not shown the slightest resentment when
handled on previous days.
3. T/ie Breeding of Pleihodon oregonensis. — A female salamander
of this species with three eggs was brought to me from Mill Valley,
Marin county, Cal., where it had been found April 19, 1896. The
gentleman who secured them stated that the salamander and eggs
had been found together under a decaying log in the redwood
woods. These eggs, like those of Autodax iecajius^ are very large
(6 mm. in diameter) and almost or quite without pigment. They
were covered with a thin gelatinous coating which caused them to
stick together. In my office they were placed with the salamander
and some bits of wood and damp moss in a darkened jar. This
situation, however, proved to be unsuited to their development, for
the eggs soon became covered with mold. The most interesting
fact remains to be told. As soon as placed in the jar the salaman-
der took charge of the eggs, lying beside them and holding them
in a loop of its tail. Evidently dissatisfied with their position and
surroundings, the Plethodon moved the eggs from place to place in
the jar, holding them always in the crook of its tail. This was
done several times in the course of three or four days, and the solic-
itousness of the salamander continued until the eggs were quite
moldy. Finally the eggs of the cluster were broken apart and one
was eaten by the salamander. Thinking it probable that this sala-
1 See Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. (2), v, 1895, P- 777*
1898.] VAN DENBURGH — HERPETOLOGICAL NOTES. 141
mander was a male, I examined it with care, but found that it was a
female with well-developed ovaries containing ova of various sizes.
4. The Colors of a Living Speci?nen of the Loiver Californian
Boa, Lichanura trivi?'gaia. — The California Academy of Sciences
recently received, through Mr. F. Billa, a fine specimen of the
Lower Californian boa, collected near San Jose del Cabo. This
specimen shows beyond doubt that Lichanura trivirgata is perfectly
■distinct from L. roseofusca of northern Lower California and
southern California and Arizona. It agrees in coloration with the
specimen still in the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
The snout is strongly protruding. The diameter of the eye is one-
third the distance from the orbit to the end of the snout. The
true loreals are two on the left and three on the right side. Scale
rows forty- one. Gastrosteges two hundred and seventeen.
The following description of its colors was prepared while the
snake was yet alive :
Two bands of rich drab-gray, with a slight creamy cast, separat-
ing the very dark seal-brown ground color into three longitudinal
stripes. Belly and sides creamy white, irregularly dotted and
blotched with seal-brown. Head pure drab-gray, with markings of
seal-brown above, uniform whitish below.
This snake had the curious habit, often shown by Charina, of
coiling itself into a compact mass or ball when disturbed.
5. On the Type Specimen of Crotalus oregofius. — In the collection
of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences is a jar which
bears two labels, as follows :
Crotalus oregonus Holb., N. Amer. LLerp., Vol. iii, PL 3. Mr.
Nut tall. Type. Oregon.
Crotalus oregonus Holb. 840. Type. T. Nuttall. Oregon.
This jar contains a young rattlesnake which agrees with the origi-
nal description of Crotalus oregonus in ail respects except in length
and the absence of rattles. The total length is only fourteen and
one-eighth inches. I see no reason to doubt that this is the type of
Crotalus oregonus.
This specimen exhibits all the characters of the species long
known under the name Crotalus lucifer. The light postocular
stripe is more than two scales wide and the dark streak below it
begins below the middle of the eye. The snake now almost uni-
versally known as Crotalus lucifer must, therefore, in the future be
called Crotalus oregonus Holbrook.
142 MINUTES. [April 15,
Stated Meeting^ April 15^ 1898.
Vice-President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, 12 members.
Donations to the Library were announced and thanks were
ordered for the same.
Letters were received from Mr. Eobert Patterson, presenting
a volume of photographs of the Peale collection of Indian
relics in the possession of the Society. It was moved that
the best thanks of the Society be given to Mr. Patterson for
his gift of the photographs of the Peale collection. Carried.
From Mr. Rosengarten, donating portraits of the Hon..
Frederick Fraley and Prof. J. P. Lesley, on behalf of C. C.
Harrison, John B. Gest, J. E. Gillingham, Charles Harts-
horne, A. T. Freedley, M. H. Messchert, C. H. Clark, John
S. Jenks, J. Y. Merrick, James P. Townsend, Frank Thom-
son, Charles Wharton, Alfred C. Harrison, George C. Thomas,
Alexander Biddle, Henry N. Paul, W. D. Winsor, W. P.
Tatham, Samuel Dickson, Herbert M. Howe, W. W. Frazier^
Fanny Rosengarten, Lincoln Godfrey, N. Parker Shortridge,
"W. y. McKean, John Wanamaker, James C. Brooks, Maria
Blanchard, C. S. Wurts, C. A. Griscom, Helen C. Jenks,
Coleman Sellers, Robert Patterson, George F. Edmunds,
James W. Paul, Jr., and J. G. Rosengarten.
On motion it was Resolved^ That the best thanks of the
Society be presented through Mr. Rosengarten to the donors
of the portraits of the Hon. Frederick Fraley and Prof. J.
Peter Lesley, and that Friday evening. May 20, be assigned
for their formal presentation and acceptance.
Mr. Edmunds, by unanimous consent, presented the report
of the Committee appointed on December 3, 1897, to revise
the Laws of the Society, ^and offered the following motion :
" Ordered^ That at the next stated meeting of the Society,
the subject of the revision and amendment of the Laws^
Regulations and Ordinances of the Society shall have priority
of all other business except the reading and approval of the
minutes, and if not completed shall have the same priority
until disposed of." Carried.
1898.] HAYS — THE SIEGE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY. 1-13
Dr. Hays read a paper entitled "A Journal Kept During
the Siege of Fort William Henry, August, 1757."
A paper by Mr. K. H. Mathews was read on " The
Divisions of Australian Tribes."
A JOURNAL KEPT DURING THE SIEGE OF FORT
WILLIAM HENRY, AUGUST, 1757.
BY I. MINIS HATS, M. D.
(^Read April 15, 1898.)
One hundred and fifty years ago the French claimed all of North
America from the Atlantic coast range to the Rocky mountains and
from Mexico and the Gulf to the northernmost limit, and they had
planted flourishing colonies at the mouth of the St. Lawrence and
of the Mississippi to control these great waterways, with their
tributaries, to the North and West. These vast possessions, which
they called New France, had a white population of about 80,000
souls.
The thirteen British colonies were scattered along the Atlantic
seaboard from Maine to Georgia, with a white population of about
1,160,000, who were continually extending further and further
inland and encroaching upon the undefined area beyond the moun-
tains claimed by both French and English. To maintain their
territorial claims by force of arms, with the aid of their numerous
Indian allies, and to keep in check the British colonists with their
vastly larger population, and to drive back those who were already
intruding into the broad valley of the Ohio, the French estab-
lished a chain of forts and trading posts from Canada to Louisiana.
They recognized that the fork of the Ohio and Niagara were the
gateways to the great West and they therefore strongly entrenched
themselves at these points. Lake Champlain and Lake George on the
direct line between Montreal and New York, controlling the gate-
way to the Hudson, were also important strategic points for the
mastery of which both French and English stubbornly contended.
In September, 1755, Gen. Johnson defeated the French under
Dieskau at the battle of Lake George, and in the following spring
14tt HAYS — THE SIEGE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY. [April 15,
Montcalm was sent out to command the French forces and to
retrieve their fortmies. Ticonderoga at the head of Lake Cham-
plain was their most advanced post, while the British troops were
entrenched at Fort William Henry at the head of Lake George.
Montcalm in planning his campaign for the summer of 1757
■determined, with the aid of his Indian allies, to drive the English
back from Lake George, perhaps to capture Fort Edward, fourteen
miles to the south, and even to make a demonstration against
Albany. In the latter part of July he concentrated his forces at
Ticonderoga, and on the ist of August, with about 7600 men, of
whom more than 1600 were Indians, he started his expedition
against Fort William Henry, which was commanded by Lieut. -Col.
Monro, a brave Scotch veteran, and garrisoned by a force of little
more than 2000 men. Gen. Webb was in command at Fort
Edward with a force of about 1600 men, with half as many more
distributed at Albany and the intervening forts. He promised his
assistance, and Col. Monro had every reason to expect it, when
Fort William Henry was attacked, but he failed at the last moment
to give that support which it was his duty to have rendered. The
rest of the sad story is told in the accompanying Journal which was
recently found among the papers of Col. James Burd in the pos-
session of this Society.
Col. James Burd was the third son of Edward Burd, a Scottish
gentleman, who lived on his estate of Ormiston, near Edinburgh,
by his wife, Jane Halliburton, a daughter of the Lord Provost of
Edinburgh. He married Sarah Shippen, daughter of Edward Ship-
pen, of Lancaster, Pennsylvania. He held a prominent position in
the military forces of this colony, and at the time of the French attack
•on Fort William Henry he commanded Fort Augusta at the fork of
the Susquehanna on the site of the present town of Sunbury, which
was one of the long chain of forts that had recently been built by
the Province of Pennsylvania to protect its territory in the war with
the French and Indians.
Although the individual colonies maintained their independence
they were forced to cooperate against the common foe, and the
commanders of the frontier posts were kept advised of the move-
ments of the enemy at all points along the line. The following
interesting letter from Capt. Thomas Lloyd, also found among the
Burd papers, conveyed to Col. Burd information in reference to
the French attack on Fort William Henry :
1898.] PIAYS — THE SIEGE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY. 145
To Major James Burd, Esquire.
Philadelphia, August 9, 1757.
S/r : — We have just now reed, an Express from York informing
that Governor De Lancy has marched with an Escort to be shortly
follow' d by the whole Militia of that Government and a Demand
made of a thousand from the Jerseys to the relief of Fort William
Henry which is now invested by two thousand five Hundred french
regulars four thousand five hundred Canadians and two thousand
Indians with a Train of 36 Cannon and Five mortars against all
which damn'd execrable Combination tis Impossible for that For-
tress to hold out and the next news that arrives we expect will
confirm their mastery of it. I need tell you no more than that I
am Sir Yours etc.
T. Lloyd.
Endorsed as " Rec'd loth Sept. 1757."
It can be readily understood that this accompanying Journal of
the capture of Fort William Henry and the subsequent massacre
its garrison had a deep personal interest to Col. Burd, which suffices
to account for its having been copied and sent to him. Fortunately
he was a man of methodical habits and appears to have made a cus-
tom of filing and keeping all papers coming into his possession.
Hence this copy has been preserved, while the original is unpub-
lished and unknown, and has probably been lost or destroyed.
The French records give full data concerning the capture of Fort
William Henry, but accounts written by observers on the English
side are very few and, with the exception of Col. Frye's Journal,^
most meagre. The accompanying Journal by an unknown writer who
was evidently an officer within the fort has considerable historical
value in not only confirming Col. Frye's account, but also in
furnishing some additional details to complete the picture of the
bravery of Col. Monro, of the incapacity of the British commander
at Fort Edward, and of the treacherous apathy of the French in the
face of the savage cruelties committed by their Indian allies on their
capitulated foe.
1 TAe Port Folio, May, 1819, p. 356.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 157. .T. PRINTED JUNE 15, 189S.
146 HAYS — THE SIEGE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY. [April 15,
Copy of a Journal Kept During the Siege of Fort William
Henry.
Tuesday
August 2^ 1757
In the Evening Col. Young of the 3*^ Battalion of the Royal
Americans and Col Fry of the N. England Forces came to the Camp
at lake George with a reinforcement of iioo men Regulars and Pro-
vincials making with what we had before upwards of 2400 men the
whole under command of Col. Monro of the 35* Regiment.
Lieut. Forty of the 35''' Reg* and Cap! of one of ye gallies detached
14 of his Sailors to reconitre the lake this Evening who returned
about midnight and reported that they saw a large number of the
Enemys Boats wliich gave them chace and had like to have been
taken. During this night the Camp was frequently alarmed by the
Enemys firing on our Centurys.
Wednesday 3? Early this morning our Century discovered a
large number of Boats on the lake close under a point of Land on
the west shore distance about 5 miles upon which we fired our
warning Guns (32 pounders) a Signal agreed on upon the approach
of the Enemy. The French fired at the fort from their Boats
lying at the point but their Shot did not reach half way : At this
point the Enemy landed their forces and Artillery. This morning
we brought in our live Stock put them into the Picquet Store yard
but being neglected afterwards strayed and fell into the Enemy's
Hands.
Cap* W™ Arbuthnot was ordered out with a Party of his N. Eng-
land Forces to burn and destroy some Huts and Hedges on the
west of the Fort, which he did with difficulty. Nine o' Clock dis-
covered a number of French Regulars marching S. W. near the
foot of a Hill distant about 1000 yds which we apprehended were
intended to cut off our Communication with Fort Edward. Lieu*
Collins of the Royal Regiment of Artillery gave orders to cannonade
them as they marched which was done. Our rangers and a party
of Provincials were Smartly engaged with enem.y S. W. of the Camp
on the Ground w[h]ere S'"" W"" Johnson engaged and beat the
Enemy in the year 1755 and beat them off several times.
Twelve o' Clock we could plainly see from the Fort that the
Enemy were throwing up an entrenchment and erecting a Battery
at the distance of about 7 or 800 yards on a Clear Ground bearing
1898.] HAYS — THE SIEGE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY. 147
N, B, W, Saw several large Boats coming to the Point w[h]ere the
Enemy landed.
Two o'clock Monsf Mont Calmn sent an officer with a Flag to
demand the Fort but the brave Col? Monro rejected the Summons
with Scorn. The Remainder of this day was spent in Bombarding
the Enemys works, Capt. McCloud commanding and cannonad-
ing. The Artillery fired Several Shot from the Camp which did
great Service in beating back the Indians. One of our Balls fell
on an Indian Hutt and killed many.
Tuesday [j-/V] 4^^ Early this morning the Enemy's works were in
great forwardness with a ten Gun Battery almost finished. Their
Entrenchment approached towards the Fort thus 'w/>^>./%^'^/>./"\./>-ow/>^
Saw several large Boats coming to the Point w[h]ere the Enemy
landed from Ticonderoga : this day we had several Skirmishes from
all quarters in which our people behaved with great Bravery, a mor-
tar being pointed towards another Indian Hutt fell on it and killed
Several. During this day we cannonaded the French Battery and
threw a large number of Shells into their Entrenchm*.^ The
Artillery at the Camp kept a Constant fire on the Enemy as they
came to Attack our out Guards and Rangers who drove them off
into the woods. The Rangers brought in an Enemy wounded
Indian but he soon died.
Friday 5^^ This morning the Enemy began to cannonade our
Forts with nine pieces of Cannon 18 & 12 pounders. It was some
Time before they could find their mark. At Eleven they tried their
Shells, mostly 13 Inches diameter, which fell short but towards the
afternoon they got their distance very well, several of their Small
Shells falling into the Parade. One of their Shott carried away
the Pully of our Flag Staff and the falling of our flag Much rejoyced
the Enemy ; but it was soon hoisted tho' one of the men that was
doing this had his head Shot off with a Ball, and another wounded.
A part of the Enemy and their Indian [allies] advanced near our
Camp on which the brave Cap! Waldo of the N. England forces
went out to take Possession of a piece of rising Ground near the
wood on which a brisk fire unsued on both sides. Col. Monro sent
out a second party to Surround the Enemy, but they were forced
back and the Enemy advanced up to our quarter Guard. Capt.
M. Cloud brought his Cannon to bear upon them soon dispersed
them. Here an unlucky accident happened, as some of our men
were returning to Camp were taken for the enemy and fired upon by
148 HAYS — THE SIEGE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY. [April 15,
which Several were killed & wounded. During this Attack poor
Cap! Waldo was Shot and Soon Expired. Cap! Cunningham of
the 35'.'' Reg[ was wounded in the right arm.
Saturday [6*!"] Last night the enemy carried on their Entrench-
m*^ and Erected a Battery of 10 Guns mostly 18 Pounders about
6 or 700 yards from us bearing N. W. both of Cannon & Mortars.
This was the hotest days action from all quarters ; tho' as yet our
Garrison remained in high spirits expecting Sir W. Johnson with
the Militia and Gen. Liman with the N. England Forces to the
number of 3 or 4000 men which we heard were on their march with
some more Cannon. Would to God they were permitted to come
as their Good will was not wanting. A party of Indians were seen
advancing with great Speed towards the road that leads to fort
Edward which Confirmed us in our Belief of a Relief.
About II o'clock Mons!" Montcalm sent an officer with a Flag,
with a letter that was intercepted by the above mentioned Indians
from Gen! Webb wrote by his Aid-de-Camp M5 Bartman to Col:
Monro acquainting him that his Excellency could not give him his
assistance as the Militia had not yet come up to Fort Edward, &c.
The French officer delivered an other letter from Montcalm ac-
quainting Col: Monro that he came from Europe and Should Carry
on the war as a Gentleman and not as the Savages do " but like a
true Frenchman, both broke his word and Articles of Capitulation
as will appear in the Sequel of this relation. During this interval
the Enemy made a Shew of all their Indians, about 1200, on a ris-
ing Ground about 250 yards distance bearing S: W: which [while]
their Engineers reconitred our old Camp Ground which was after-
wards a great Advantage to them. As soon as their Officer
returned they began their fire in good Earnest which we returned
with the utmost bravery. This day we Split two of our heaviest
Pieces of Cannon (viz! 32 pounders) and our largest Mortar was
rendered useless which was very unlucky for us as we could not be
Supplied with others in their place. This day Col? Monro pub-
lished his orders to all in the Fort that if any person proved cow-
ardly or offered to advise giving up the Fort that he should be im-
mediately hanged over the walls of the Fort and he did not doubt
but the officers in the Garrison would stand by him to the last and
that he was determined to stand it out to the last or as long as two
Legs were together.
Sunday f^ The Enemy continued plying us very hard with their
1S98.] HAYS — THE SIEGE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY. 149
Cannon and Bombs while the Compliment was returned by us with
all our Artillery, still hoping for a Reinforcement from Fort Ed-
ward. A Shell fell into the South Bastion broke one man's Leg and
wounded another ; Split one of our i8 Pounders and burst a Mor-
tar. Several of the Enemys Shells fell near the Camp S. S E of our
Fort about 400 yards distance and on a line with the fort from the
Enemys two Batteries, so that their Shot missing the Fort could
Strike the Camp. It appeared that the Enemy could throw their
Shells 1300 yards. A Shell fell amongst the officers whilst at din-
ner, but did no other mischief than Spoil their dinner by the dirt
it tore up. Another Shell fell into the east or flag Bastion and
wounded two or three men.
Monday 8'? We now began to believe we were much slighted,
having received no reinforcement from Fort Edward as was long
expected. The Enemy were continuing their Approaches with
their Entrenchments from the 2^ Battery towards the Hill on our
old Camp Ground, where they were erecting a third Battery, which
would have greatly distressed us : There were frequently during
these last 2 or 3 days smart skirmishes near our Camp, but we beat
them off the Ground. This night we could hear the Enemy at
Work in our Garden, on which some Grape Shott was sent in
amongst them, which had good Effect as it drove them off, however
they had got their 3*^ Battery almost finished by Day Light.
Tuesday (ft This Day the Enemies Lines'were finished, parallel
to our West Curtain in the Garden, Distance about 150 Yards.
Col° Munro, after a Council of War had been convened, wherein
the Officers were of Opinion, that the Loss of our heavy Cannon
viz* 2, 32 pounders, i, 24 pounders, two 18 pounders, one 9
pounder & 3 Mortars bursting would render it impossible to defend
the Fort much longer, as the Enemies, Batteries had increased and
our Metal failing us, & no help coming, wherefore it was thought
advisable that a white Flag should be hung out in order to capitu-
late ; which was done accordingly, and the firing ceased : The
Enemy very readily granted the Capitulation : had Monsieur Mont-
calm been a Man of Honor, he would have performed his part ; but
instead of that such a Scene of Barbarity ensued as is scarce to be
credited : After the Articles were agreed on & signed, the Officers
left the Fort to a Regiment of the French Regulars who were ready
at the Gate, thro' which we marched with most of our valuable Effects
& Arms to the Camp and in the Evening three Companies of the
150 HAYS — THE SIEGE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY. [April 15,
35*!" Regim* had marched out & the other three Companies were
on their march out of the Breastwork, when we received Orders to
return to our Posts again where we remained till next morning.
Wednesday lo'.'' This morning the Marquis MontCalm being
desirous of our being eye witnesses of how well he was able to per-
form his part of the Capitulation (see the 7^^ Article), the In-
dian Doctors began with their Tomhawks to cure the sick and
wounded. They began to seize on all the negroes and Indians
whom they unmercifully draged over the breast work and scalped.
Then began to plunder Col? Youngs and some other officers Bag-
gage on which Col? Monro applyed to Montcalm to put a Stop to
these inhuman Cruelties but to no purpose, for they proceeded with
out interruption in taking the Officers Swords Hats Watches Fuzees
Cloaths and Shirts leaving quite naked and this they did to every
one they could lay hands on. By this time the 35^!' Reg* had almost
formed their line of March and the Provincials commg out of the
breast work the French officers did all they could to throw them
into Confusion alledging as soon as the Indians had done stripping
them they would fall on and scalp them which thru [j/V] them in a
panick that rushed on the front and forced them into Confusion,
the Indians pursued tearing the Children from their Mothers
Bosoms and their mothers from their Husbands, then Singling out
the men and Carrying them in the woods and killing a great many
whom we saw lying on the road side. The greates[t] part and best
of the plunder was brought to the french General. Our officers did
all in their power to quiet our Soldiers advising them not to take
notice but suffer themselves to be stript without Resistance lest it
should be Construed as a Breach of our part of the Capitulation
and those that were in the rear Should fall a Sacrifice to their un-
bounded fury. Those therefore that had been able to perserve
their arms carried them clubed. The French it is true had a
detachm! of their men drawn up as is mentioned in the i^ & 6*^ Arti-
cle of Capitulation but their only business was to receive the plun-
der by the Savages.
Finis.
1898.] MATHEAVS — DIVISIONS OF AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. 151
DIVISIONS OF AUSTRALIAN TRIBES.
BY K. II. MATHEWS. L.S.
{Read April 15, 1S9S.)
In 1S91, my attention was drawn by an article contributed to the
Royal Society of South Australia/ by the Rev. L. Schultze, to the
existence of eight classes or divisions among the native tribes in-
habiting the Finke river in South Australia. On making further
inquiries, I found that this eight-class system, with different modi-
fications, extends northerly from the Finke river almost to Port
Darwin and the Gulf of Carpentaria. It also prevails in a westerly
direction, from the boundary of Queensland to that of West Aus-
tralia, and may therefore be said to be in force over the greater
part of the Northern Territory — a name given to the northern por-
tion of South Australia.
Owing to the great apathy regarding native customs shown by the
white population sparsely distributed over this immense tract of
country, I have experienced much difficulty in obtaining particu-
lars respecting these classes. Among my correspondents I was,
however, fortunate enough to find Mr. S. N. Innes, the owner of a
station in the Northern Territory. He had read a paper on the
class systems of other tribes contributed by me in 1894 to the
•Geographical Society at Brisbane,^ which had awakened his interest
in the subject, and when I wrote to him he willingly offered to
collect particulars of the divisions among the natives in his district.
The tribes reported upon by Mr. Innes are divided into eight
classes or sections — the names of the women being'slightly different
from those of the men in each section. Four of these sections
form a group, which may be called A, and the other four sections
become group B. This division will be readily understood by
means of a table.
It will be seen by the accompanying table that the women of group
A are the mothers of the men of group B, who marry the women be-
longing to the latter group. The women of group B are likewise the
mothers of the men who marry the women of group A. In other
words, the sons of the women of one group marry the daughters of
the women of the other group. Or, what amounts to the same thing,
1 Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Australia, xiv, 2 10-246.
^ Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. Anst., Queensland, x, 18-34.
152 MATHEWS — DIVISIONS OF AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. [April 15
the men of group A marry the sisters of the men of their own gen-
eration in group B, and vice versa.
Group.
Husband.
Wife.
Children.
Sons.
Daughters.
A
Choolum
Jameruni
Cheenum
Yacomary
Ningulum
Palyareenya
Nooralum
Bungareenya
Palyarin
Chooralum
Bungarin
Chingulum
Palyareenya
Nooralum
Bungareenya
Ningulum
B
Chingulum
Bungarin
Chooralum
Palyarin
Noolum
Yacomareenya
Neenum
Neomarum
Yacomary
Cheenum
Tamerum
Choolum
Yacomareenya
Neenum
Neomarum
Noolum
On examining the table further it will be observed that the
daughters of the women of group A belong to the same group as
their mothers, but to a different section or class of it. For example,
Ningulum has a daughter Palyareenya ; Palyareenya produces
Nooralum; Nooralum produces Bungareenya ; Bungareenya is the
mother of Ningulum, and this series is continually repeated. The
women of the A group pass through each of the four classes in as
many generations — the same class name reappearing in the fifth
epoch. If our example had been taken from the B group, an
analogous result would have been obtained.
When on the Culgoa river some years ago I collected some in-
formation respecting a large tribe speaking the Moorawarrie lan-
guage, who occupy the country from about Goodooga on the
Bokara river to Barringun on the Warrego, extending southerly
about fifty miles and northerly into the Queensland frontier about
the same distance. They are divided into four sections, having the
same names for the men and women as those of the Kamilaroi tribe,,
with rules of marriage and descent as exemplified in the following
table :
Husband. Wife. Sons and Daughters.
Ippai, Kubbitha, Murri and Matha,
Kumbo, Matha, Kubbi and Kubbitha,
Kubbi , Ippatha, Kumbo and Butha,
Murri. Butha. Ippai and Ippatha.
1898.]
MATHEWS — DIVISIONS OF AUSTRALIAN TRIBES.
153
The whole community is divided into two groups — the members
of the Ippai and Kumbo sections forming the one, and the Kubbi
and Murri people constituting the other. The families composing
these groups bear the names of different animals, plants, or inani-
mate objects, which are called totems, a word copied by us from the
North American Indians. Among the totems of the people consti-
tuting the Ippai and Kumbo sections may be mentioned the follow-
ing:
Wirroo (parrot).
Emu,
Native Dog,
Codfish,
Bream,
Gray Frog,
Common Fly,
Spider,
Plover,
Curlew,
Water Hen,
Sun,
Rain,
North Wind,
Birribil,
Doomul,
Gidyer,
Myall,
Kurrajong,
Supple Jack,
Tea Tree,
Lime Tree,
Nardoo (Bah),
Pig-weed,
Bilbee,
Gray Kangaroo,
Jewfish,
Swan,
Native Companion,
Jew Lizard,
Galah,
Kangaroo Rat,
Grasshopper,
Cocklarina,
Copi (Moganderra),
Hail,
Rainbow,
West Wind,
Numumbeera,
Mulga,
River Gum,
Belar,
Quandong,
White wood,
Hop Bush,
Yams,
Blue Grass,
Sensitive Plant,
Mulga Snake,
Red Kangaroo,
Bronze-wing Pigeon,
Plain Turkey,
Common Ants,
Wood Duck,
Native Cat,
Top-knot Pigeon,
Muscle,
Bush Mouse,
Blue Bonnet (parrot).
Clouds,
Lightning,
Thunder,
Cuttibundi,
Carbeen,
Blood wood.
Leopard Tree,
Grooee,
Greenwattle,
Wild Orange Tree,
Lignum,
Mitchell Grass.
The under-mentioned totemic names may be enumerated as
belonging to some of the people comprising the Kubbi and Murri
sections :
Ground Iguana,
Carpet Snake, .
Eagle Hawk,
Fish Hawk,
Tree Iguana,
Crow,
Scrub Turkey,
Common Magpie,
Padamelon,
Brown Snake,
White Cockatoo,
Dove,
Porcupine,
Death Adder,
Silvery Fish,
Black Magpie,
Opossum,
Black Duck,
Pelican,
Bower Bird,
Black Snake,
Native Bee,
Flying Squirrel,
Green Frog,
154:
t
MINUTES.
Cross Frog,
Shingle-back,
Jackass,
Mopoke,
Turtle,
Wasp,
Centipede,
White Crane,
Blue Crane,
Ibis,
Crimson-wing
Parrot,
Shag,
Diver,
Wood Adder,
Scorpion,
Butterfly,
Bull-dog Ant,
Moon,
South Wind,
East Wind,
Quartz Stone,
Midjeree,
Brigalow,
Coolaba,
Ironbark,
Pine,
Sandalwood,
Apple Tree,
Box,
Mungal,
Cherry Tree,
Wirribil,
Barley Grass.
Nepon Tree,
[May 6,
East of the Moorawarrie is a large tribe speaking the Uollaroi
dialect ; they have the same sectional divisions as the former, and
with some variations their totems closely agree. In both tribes
descent is reckoned through the mother. In gathering the particu-
lars respecting the Moorawarrie tribe, now for the first time pub-
lished, I desire to thank Mr. J. E. Miller, of Goodooga, for his will-
ing assistance.
Stated Meeting^ May 6, 1898.
Yice-President Pepper in tlie Chair.
Present, 12 members.
Dr. Edward Pepper was presented to the Chair, and took
his seat as a member.
A communication entitled " Contributions to a Revision of
the North American Beavers, Otters and Fishes, ' ' by Samnel
N. Rhoads, was presented for publication in the Transactions.
It was referred to a Committee consisting of Mr. Arthur E.
Brown, Mr. Pilsbry and Dr. Jayne.
Mr. Edmunds made a statement on behalf of the Com-
mittee on the Amendments of the Laws, and moved that
when the Society adjourn, it adjourn till 3 P.M. on Friday,
May 13. Carried.
1898.] MINUTES. 155
Adjourned Meeting^ May 13, 1898.
Yice- President Pepper in the Cliair.
Present, 27 members.
The consideration of the amendments to the Laws being in
order, Mr. George F. Edmunds, on behalf of the Committee
proposing the amendments, made a statement concerning the
amendments proposed, and on motion the Laws and Ordi-
nances were adopted in conformity with the Charter as
follows:
THE LAWS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL
SOtlETY.
Chapter I.
OF THE MEMBERS, AND MANNER OF THEIR ELECTION.
Section i. The election of members shall be by ballot, and
shall form part of the stated business of the meetings on the third
Fridays of February, May, October and December.
2. A member may, at any meeting, nominate in writing a can-
didate for membership, and the nomination so made may, in like
manner, be concurred in by other members. The board of officers
and council may also nominate candidates for membership ; and
such nominations shall be certified to the Society by a minute there-
of in writing, attested by the clerk of said board.
3. No person shall be balloted for, unless his nomination, with
the names of the members proposing him, or the minute of the board
of officers and council, made as aforesaid, shall have been publicly
read to the Society at the two stated meetings preceding that at
which the balloting takes place. Nor shall any person be deemed
duly chosen unless three-fourths of the votes given shall be in his
favor.
4. Before entering upon an election for members, one of the sec-
retaries shall read the names of the several candidates ; and any
member may then, for the information of the Society, speak to their
character and qualifications for membership.
5. The names of the candidates and their places of abode shall
be designated on the ballots, and the names of the officers shall be
156 MINUTES. [May 13,
called, in the order of their seniority, by the acting secretary, the
members thereafter depositing their ballots. The name of a candi-
date struck from a ballot or not voted for shall be considered as a
vote adverse to that candidate.
6. At the conclusion of the balloting the ballot box shall be
opened by the secretaries, or, in their absence, by two tellers to be
appointed by the presiding member, who shall then declare to the
Society the result of the poll.
7. The members are mutually pledged not to mention out of the
Society the name of any candidate proposed, nor of any withdrawn
or unsuccessful candidate ; and the papers containing the names of
the unsuccessful candidates shall be destroyed immediately after the
election.
8. Every member, upon his introduction into the Society, shall
be presented to the presiding officer, and shall subscribe the laws.
The signatures of members to the Roll shall be deemed an agree-
ment to adhere to the laws of the Society.
9. Such members as reside within thirty miles of the hall of the
Society, shall pay an admission fee of ten dollars, and annually
thereafter, on the first Friday of January, a contribution of five
dollars ; and such other members as desire to vote, may do so at
any meeting, upon the payment of ten dollars and one year's dues;
and they shall, thereafter, pay the annual contribution of five
dollars. The payment of one hundred dollars at one time, by a
member not in arrears, shall exempt him from all future annual pay-
ments.
10. Members-elect, residing within thirty miles of the hall, shall
lose the right of membership unless they subscribe the roll, and pay
their admission fee within one year after their election. Any mem-
ber liable to an annual contribution, who shall neglect or refuse to
pay the same for the term of one year shall be notified by the
treasurer in writing, on or before the second Friday in January after
such default, or as soon thereafter as may be, that his rights as a
member are suspended ; and in case the said arrears together with
all contributions then due shall not be paid to the treasurer on or
before the expiration of sixty days next after such notice, the mem-
bership of such defaulting member shall be forfeited, his name
stricken from the roll, and reported to the Society by the treasurer.
189S-] MINUTES. 157
Chapter II.
OF THE OFFICERS, AND MANNER OF THEIR ELECTION.
Section i. The officers shall be a patron, a president, three
vice-presidents, four secretaries, three curators, a treasurer, and
twelve councillors.
2. The governor of the State of Pennsylvania shall be, ex-officio,
the patron of the Society.
3. On the first Friday of January in every year, between the hours
of two and five in the afternoon, as many of the members as shall
have paid up their arrears due to the Society, and shall have declared
their willingness to conform to the laws, regulations, and ordinances
of the Society, then duly in force, by subscribing the roll, and who
shall attend in the hall, or place of meeting of the society, within
the time aforesaid, shall choose by ballot one president, three vice-
presidents, four secretaries, three curators, and one treasurer ; and
at the same time and place the members, met and qualified as afore-
said, shall in like manner choose four members for the council, to
hold their offices for three years. Nominations for the elective offi-
cers of the Society shall be made at the stated meeting next previous
to the day of election. If there should occur a failure of qualified
candidates so nominated, others not so nominated may be elected.
All officers shall hold office, unless lawfully suspended or removed,
until their successors are duly elected and accept.
4. No person residing within the United States shall be capable
of being president, vice-president, secretary, treasurer, or member
of the council, or of electing to any of the said offices, who is not capa-
ble of electing and being elected to civil offices within the State
in which he resides.
5. Of the day, hour, and place of election, notice shall be given
by a secretary at least one week before the day of election, in such
one or more of the public newspapers of the State of Pennsylvania
as the Society shall direct. At the stated meeting next before the
election the Society shall appoint three of its members to be judges
of the election, and also two clerks for taking down the names of the
voters. If at the time of election there should occur a failure of the
full number of judges or clerks to be present for the performance of
their duties, the electors present shall appoint a member or members
to fill up the number. The poll shall be opened at two o'clock in
the afternoon and be closed at five o'clock in the afternoon.
158 MINUTES. - [May 13,
6. A vacancy occurring in any elective office may be filled for the
unexpired term by a vote by ballot taken at any stated meeting
after notice of such vacancy shall be given and nominations made
and entered in the minutes at a previous stated meeting. Notice
that such election will be held shall be given in the notice of the
meeting. At any such election the qualifications of voters shall be
the same as at the annual elections. At such election three judges
shall be appointed and the secretaries on duty shall act as clerks.
Chapter III.
OF THE PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENTS.
Section t. The president and the vice-presidents shall perform
such duties as the rules of administration and order shall prescribe.
Chapter IV.
OF THE SECRETARIES.
Section i. The secretaries shall perform such duties as the rules
of administration and order shall prescribe.
Chapter V.
OF THE curators.
Section i. The curators shall perform such duties as the rules of
administration and order shall prescribe.
Chapter VI.
OF THE treasurer.
Section i. The treasurer shall perform such duties relating to his
office as the rules of administration and order shall prescribe.
Chapter VII.
of the officers and council.
Section i. The officers and council shall perform such duties as
the rules of administration and order shall prescribe.
Chapter VIII.
OF THE librarian.
Section i. A member of the Society shall be chosen at the stated
meeting on the third Friday of January in each year, to be the
librarian of the Society. Nominations for said office shall be made
at the first stated meeting in January, and no person shall be voted
for who has not been so nominated, but if there shall have been a
189S.] MINUTES. 159
failure of qualified candidates so nominated, one of others not so
nominated may be elected. The duties of the librarian shall be
prescribed by the rules of administration and order of the Society.
Chapter IX.
OF THE MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY.
Section i. The stated meetings of the Society shall be on the
first and third Fridays of every month from October to May inclu-
sive, at eight o'clock in the evening. Special meetings may be
called at any time by order of the president ; or, in his absence or
disability, by order of a vice-president. And it shall not be lawful
to take up, consider or transact at such special meeting any business
other than that which is specified in the call and the notice for the
meeting. Should the time for any stated meeting, other than the
meeting on the day of an annual election, fall on a legal holiday,
such meeting shall not be held on that day, but shall be held on the
next Friday.
- 2. Twenty qualified voters, of whom seven shall be members of
the officers and council, present at any stated or special meeting,
shall be a quorum, and be competent to elect members, dispose of
property, appropriate money, and award premiums ; but no property
shall be alienated or encumbered, except by the vote of three-fourths
of the qualified voters present, and given at two successive stated
meetings. For the transaction of the ordinary business, the recep-
tion and reference of communications on literary, scientific, or other
subjects, the members present shall be deemed competent to act,
and shall form a quorum.
3. Those members shall be considered qualified voters at the
meetings who have subscribed the roll and paid the admission fee,
and who are not in arrears to the Society.
Chapter X.
OF STANDING AND SPECIAL COMMITTEES.
Section i. There shall be chosen, at the stated meeting on the
third Friday of January in each year, three members of the Society
to be a committee of finance, five to be a committee of publication,
three to be a committee on the hall, and five to be a committee on
the library. Such other committees may be constituted from time
to time as the Society shall think expedient.
160 MINUTES. [May 13,
2. The committee of finance shall have the general superinten-
dence of the financial concerns of the Society. They shall consult
with the treasurer, and with any custodian of the Society's property,
and authorize and direct investments of its surplus funds. They
shall always have access to his books, accounts, and vouchers ; and
they shall annually audit the same, and on the second Friday of
December file with the secretaries a full report on the state of the
treasury, particularly distinguishing the several funds, and the in-
come and disbursements of each, and recommending the amounts
which should be appropriated for different objects of expenditure
during the ensuing calendar year. They shall also have power, sub-
ject to the approval of the council, to remit the fees and contribu-
tions of members.
3. The committee of publication shall perform such duties in re-
spect of publications as shall be prescribed by the rules of adminis-
tration and order.
4. The committee on the hall shall perform such duties in respect
of the hall and matters incidental thereto as shall be prescribed by
the rules of administration and order.
5. The committee on the library shall perform such duties in re-
spect of the library as shall be prescribed by the rules of administra-
tion and order.
6. No committee appointed on any subject of deliberation shall
consist of less than three members ; but any other matter may be
committed to a single member. A majority of any committee shall
be a quorum.
7. No of]ficer or committee, or other body of the Society, shall
have power to incur any expense, or to charge the Society with any
debt or other obligation, without the authority of the Society
previously given.
Chapter XI.
OF RULES OF ADMINISTRATION AND ORDER.
Section i. Rules of administration and order not inconsistent
with the charter and laws of the Society may be made and changed
from time to time by the stated meetings ; but no rule shall be
changed, rescinded or suspended otherwise than in the manner pro-
vided by the rules, or in respect of change or rescission, upon
written notice publicly given at a stated meeting, showing the par-
ticular change or rescission proposed, and agreed to at the next
stated meeting.
1898.] MINUTES. 161
Chapter XII,
OF THE LAWS OF THE SOCIETY.
Section i. No statute, law, regulation, or ordinance shall ever
be made or passed by the Society, or be binding upon the members
thereof, or any of them, unless the same hath been duly proposed
and fairly drawn up in writing, at one stated meeting of the Society,
and enacted or passed at a subsequent meeting, at least the space of
fourteen days after the former meeting, and upon due notice in
some of the public newspapers, and in notices sent by mail to the
members whose addresses shall have been furnished to the secreta-
ries, that the enacting of statutes and laws, or the making and pass-
ing ordinances and regulations, will be part of the business of such
meeting.
2. Nor shall any statute, law, regulation, or ordinance be then,
or at any time, enacted or passed, unless twenty members of the
Society be present in addition to the quorum of the officers and
council ; nor unless the same be voted by two-thirds of the whole
body present.
Ordinance No. i.
It is hereby ordained and declared that the foregoing twelve
chapters shall be hereafter the laws of the Society. And all laws
heretofore existing on the subjects embraced in the said twelve
chapters and all ordinances, regulations, rules and orders inconsis-
tent therewith be and the same are hereby repealed.
Ordinance No. 2.
And it is further hereby ordained that all laws, regulations and
orders of the Society not embraced in the foregoing provisions
shall, for the time being, stand and be in force as the rules of ad-
ministration and order of the Society until they shall be repealed or
changed in conformity with the provisions of Chapter XI of the
laws now enacted.
Mr. Edmunds moved that tbe Chair appoint a Committee
of five members to report at the earliest practicable oppor-
tmiitv a bodv of rules of administration and order of the
Society. Carried.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 157. K. PRINTED JULY 6, 1898.
162 MINUTES. [May 20,
Mr. Dickson, Mr. Ingham, Dr. Hays, Dr. Jayne and Mr.
Pettit were appointed as the Committee.
A report was presented from the Special Committee ap-
pointed on the paper of Mr. Rhoads, entitled " Contributions
to a Revision of the North American Beavers, Otters and
Fishes," in favor of its publication in the Transactions^ and it
was so ordered.
Stated Meeting, May W, 1898.
Yice- President Pepper in the Chair.
Present, 35 members.
Donations to the Library were laid on the table, and thanks
were ordered for them.
Prof. Albert H. Smyth, presenting the portrait of Mr.
Frederick Fraley, said :
It had been the intention and the hope of Mr. J. G. Rosengarten
to be present this evening and in accordance with the request of the
subscribers, to present to the American Philosophical Society two
portraits, one of Mr. Frederick Fraley, our honored President, the
other of Prof. John Peter Lesley, for many years a Vice-President
of this Society.
But Mr. Rosengarten is prevented from being here, and has
asked me to act in his stead.
In the long and distinguished history of the American Philoso-
phical Society, fifteen Presidents, from Franklin to Fraley, have
successively presided over its meetings and guided its policy.
Portraits of all these — Franklin, Rittenhouse, Jefferson, Wistar,
the Pattersons, the Baches, Tilghman, Duponceau, Chapman, Kane
and Wood — hang upon our walls, together with many of that illus-
trious company who have contributed to the scientific and the
literary glory of the Philosophical Society.
A little while ago several of the friends of Mr. Fraley, within and
without this Society, desiring to express, as Hamlet says, their
**love and friending" to him, and to place in the Hall of the
Society over which he has presided with such zeal and success some
1898.] MINUTES. 163
token of their admiration and respect, learned that an excellent
portrait of him had been painted.
Subscriptions were promptly made to a fund for the purchase of
it and the portrait was obtained.
Upon the twenty-eighth of this month, Mr. Fraley, whose extra-
ordinary activities cover well-nigh a century of time, will celebrate
his ninety-fourth birthday ; and this therefore being the meeting of
the Society nearest to that happy anniversary has been chosen for
the formal presentation.
In behalf of the subscribers, I present to the American Philosophi-
cal Society this portrait of Mr. Frederick Fraley.
Prof. Prime moved that tlie thanks of the Society be ten-
dered to those gentlemen who presented the portraits, and
that the said portraits shall be hung on the walls of the Hall,
and shall be under the care of the Curators.
Hampton L. Cakson, Esq., in accepting the portrait of
Mr. Fraley, in behalf of the Society, said :
The agreeable duty has been assigned to me of speaking in sup-
port of the Resolution of acceptance in behalf of the Society, and
I respond with peculiar pleasure ; first, because I am aware of the
value of the services rendered to us for so many years by our vener-
able and venerated President, and next, because I cherish for him
personally the most affectionate and reverential regard. I look
back over thirty years of my own recollections, and I see him fore-
most in all measures tending to promote the commerce, finance,
manufactures and mechanic arts of Philadelphia, and a leader in all
movements to extend her civic industrial and educational influence.
I look beyond into the history of the preceding forty years, and I still
see him conspicuous, even at an early age, among many honored
men who have long since passed to their reward.
At the age of twenty he was one of the founders of the Franklin
Institute, and has been a member for seventy-four years. At the
age of thirty he was a member of our City Council, serving as
Chairman of the Finance Committee, a pilot standing at the helm
with clear head and steady hand, during the troubled period of
1837. He was an earnest advocate, in opposition to the views
of such men as Horace Binney, of the introduction of gas as a
means of lighting our City. He was at his post in the State Senate
164 MINUTES. [May 20,
during the Buckshot War, and was active in drafting the laws called
for by our amended State Constitution. He was the author of the
preamble of our Consolidation Act, and his skillful hand was
present in the shaping of those sections which concerned the ad-
ministration of our finances. He was a leader in the establishment
of the Paid Fire Department, after having long served as a volun-
teer member of the old Philadelphia Hose Company. He was one
of the founders of the Union Club, which developed into the splen-
did organization of the Union League. For forty-one years he has
been a manager of the Western Saving Fund, and its President for
twenty years. For forty-five years he has served as a trustee of the
University of Pennsylvania. For fifty-six years he has been a mem-
ber of this Society, and has been its President for eighteen years.
As President of the National Board of Trade, and of our own local
organization, as a member of the Board of Finance of the Centen-
nial Commission, and in many other capacities, his voice has been
raised and his influence has been exerted in unselfish devotion to
the greatest of public interests.
His long and varied career stands for unbending integrity in the
discharge of trust duties ; for knowledge and power in the discus-
sion of public questions ; for breadth and liberality of opinion ; for
constant progressiveness and generous hospitality to new ideas ; for
lofty ideals supported by trained technical skill. He has walked on
the high places of this earth with undimmed eye and steadfast cour-
age. The loftiness of his position enabled him to see the tops of
distant thoughts which men of common stature never saw. With
him " Knowledge was not a couch whereon to rest a searching and
restless spirit ; nor a terrace for a wandering or variable mind to walk
up and down with a fair prospect ; nor a tower of state for a proud
mind to raise itself upon ; nor a sort of commanding ground for
strife and contention ; nor a shop for profit and sale, but a rich
storehouse for the glory of the Creator and the relief of man's
estate."
At the end of ninety-four years of life, with none of the intellect-
ual infirmities of age, and without the slightest trace of acerbity of
temper, he stands in the golden glow of an honorable and useful
career, the central object of our affection, of our veneration and
esteem.
It is fitting that his portrait should grace these walls — walls
hallowed by sacred associations and cherished with filial piety.
189o.] MINUTES. 165
*' I would rather," said Hazlitt, ^' leave behind me a good portrait
than a good epitaph." The sentiment is just. Those who read
tombstone inscriptions are few, but those who can find inspiration
in the study of a well-pictured face are many. This Society, grate-
ful to the donors of this admirable portrait, will direct it to be hung
beside those of the illustrious men who were his predecessors, in
commemoration of the virtues, the talents and the services of
Frederick Fraley.
Mr. Smyth, in presenting to the Society the portrait of
Prof. Lesley, said :
At the same time that the portrait of Mr. Fraley was ob-
tained it was learned that a portrait of Prof. J. P. Lesley
was obtainable ; the subscription fund was immediately enlarged
and the second portrait was procured. I must not omit to add that
both are the admirable work of the same excellent artist — Mrs.
Margaret Lesley Bush Brown, a daughter of Prof. Lesley.
In behalf of the subscribers, I present both these portraits to the
American Philosophical Society.
Mr. William A. Ingham said :
In speaking to the resolution accepting the donation of Prof.
Lesley's portrait tendered this evening to the Society my words
shall be few and I hope fit.
This portrait of Prof. Lesley by his daughter is to me a most
speaking likeness. It shows him as I have seen him a hundred
times sitting in his chair, roused up from a reverie by some remark,
whether opposing his views or corroborating them (it made little
difference), but rousing him up and starting him off, active and
alert on an animated discourse which might last an hour.
I have seen him thus often, and I prefer to remember him thus,
if it shall so happen, that in the course of nature he shall go before
me to join the majority. I am not competent (who is?) to pro-
nounce on his eminent qualities as a geologist and scientist.
Prof. Lesley was an assistant on the First Geological Survey of
the State, and has written a history of that Survey, published in Vol-
ume A of the Reports of the Second Survey.
The First Survey was completed in 1858 by the publication of the
166 MINUTES. [May 20,
Final Report, but some years prior to that date the corps was dis-
banded and Prof. Lesley had turned his attention to other matters.
He was Secretary of the American Iron and Steel Association for
six years, and during that time he published The Iron Manufac-
turers' Guide (1856), which is a complete list of the active furnaces
in the United States and a very complete discussion of the iron
ores.
Of course much of this is now obsolete, but at the time it was
the first and only manual on the subject.
About the same time he published his Manual of Coal.
This little book, a model of its kind, contains, first, a description
of the coals of Pennsylvania, remarkable for its accuracy, and, sec-
ond, a concise treatise on *' Surface Geology." In this the author
insists on the importance of topography as an adjunct to geology.
Prof. Spencer, in a recent address {Popular Science Monthly^ May,
1898), says, ^'Geomorphy is the outgrowth of topography, which was
made a science fifty or sixty years ago by Prof. J. P. Lesley and his
coworkers. Its birth is graphically described by the author himself."
And from the very beginning of the Second Geological Survey,
Prof. Lesley has always insisted on the importance of topography
as preliminary to geology. This is shown by the repeated efforts of
the Board at his instigation to obtain an appropriation for a topo-
graphical survey. The failure of these efforts will account for the
fact that the Second Geological Survey is not as satisfactory as it
might have been made.
It seems strange at this date that any argument should be neces-
sary in favor of topography as preliminary to geology.
After the disbandment of the First Survey, Prof. Lesley was con-
stantly occupied as an expert geologist — which work 1 00k him all
over our State and into adjoining States. He became thoroughly
familiar with every square mile of the State geologically and geo-
graphically.
In this time he made frequent professional visits to Europe,
where he made acquaintance with all eminent geologists, many of
whom became his life-long friends.
In one of these visits he saw that the key to the complicated
structure of the Jura was to be found in Pennsylvania, and Desor
came over here and learned from us how to interpret the Jura
problem.
This varied professional experience, as evinced in his reports to
1898.] MINUTES. 167
his employers (one of which, on the Nittany Valley ores, a model of
geological work, has been published), but most of which are in the
archives of his employers — his numerous publications in the Pro-
ceedings of our Society, his general repute as to familiarity with
the geology of the State, combined to make him the choice for
State Geologist under the act of 1874.
He was Librarian of this Society part of the time and Secretary
all the time from 1858 to 1887.
He was Vice-President from 1887 to 1898.
My personal intercourse with Prof. Lesley began with the organ-
ization of the Second Geological Survey in 1874.
Since that time he as State Geologist and I as Secretary have been
in the most intimate connection.
In that period of over twenty years I have been impressed with
his unselfish motives, supervising the field work of his assistants
with the sole idea, (i) of the good of the Survey, and (2) that every
man should receive full credit for his work.
He is a thorough, unselfish, impartial man of science.
It is largely due to Prof Lesley, in continuing across this State the
work begun by Prof Cook in New Jersey on the terminal glacial
moraine, that the wonderful recent revival of interest in surface
geology is due. The modern geology which attempts to account for
the present condition of the earth's surface may almost be said to
date from the survey of the terminal moraine.
Aside from geology. Prof. Lesley, in his Lowell lectures, delivered
in 1865-1866, on the ''Origin and Destiny of Man," branches far
afield into Egyptology and Theology. In these subjects, which he
merely touches, he shows the hand of a master.
A list, possibly imperfect, kindly prepared for me by Miss Mor-
rison, is hereto appended of Prof Lesley's contributions to our
Proceedings. The titles number sixty-nine, on almost every sub-
ject conceivable. But besides these printed papers, he has often
delighted the Society with impromptu remarks on matters pending.
We all remember how brilliant these impromptu remarks were ; how
he illuminated what was obscure and explained what was confused.
Sad to say, no record of these speeches has been preserved.
In the preparation of this brief and inadequate sketch, it has been
my duty and pleasure to read again some of Prof. Lesley's publica-
tions, and I have been impressed more than ever with his amazing
versatility, with the power of his imagination, illuminating every
168 MINUTES. [May 20,
subject with flashes of genius, with his perfect command of language
and his profound thought.
His introductory chapters to the Final Report of the Second Sur-
vey (a most unequal work, part of which was written under stress of
physical and nervous depression), particularly the chapters on ''Geo-
logical Time," '' Geological Space" and " The Appalachian Sea,"
with his other works previously mentioned, deserve record here.
These show that he is not a narrow-minded, one-sided person ; that
his scope embraced the sphere of human knowledge, of course with
limitations, as no man is omniscient. After all, his monument is to
be found in the publications of the Second Geological Survey, 120
volumes, a library in itself.
It is our pride that he belongs to us. It is our pleasure that we
have now a portrait of him which may serve to perpetuate his like-
ness to those who shall come after him, and who will reap, perhaps
unwittingly, the harvest from seed which he has sown.
Communications Published in the Transactions ^wrt' Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society^ by Prof. J. P. Lesley.
Notes on a Map intended to Illustrate Five Types of Earth Surface in
United States between Connecticut and the Atlantic Trans. [N,S.], xiii, 307
Insensible Gradation of Words Proc. vii, 129
Geology of the Arctic Archipelago " " "293
Copper Horizon " «' 329
Becker's Aneroid " " 342
Primary Limestone near Chadd's Ford, Pa " viii, 281
Superclinous Oil Springs of the West '< « 262
Coal System of Southern Virginia. " ix, 30
Aurora at Cape Breton <' " 60
Coal Measures at Cape Breton Proc. ix, 93, 197
West Virginia Asphalt Proc. ix, 1S3
Vortical Gales at Sea, January, 1864 '* " 183
Abbeville Quarries «' « 38S
Ancient Sea Level <' « 399
Pennsylvania Lignite << <« 463
Petroleum in Eastern Kentucky Proc. x, 33, 187
Compounds of Bar Proc. x, 137
Petroleum Well Sections " '< 227
D'Orbigny Papyrus " « 543
Harris Museum in Alexandria '< " 561
Aurora of April 15, 1 869 " xi, 11 1
Section across the Alleghany Mountains «< " 115
Tornado at Cave City, Ky <« <« 277
Violation of the Law of Debituminization « xii, 125
1898.] MINUTES. 169'
Titaniferous Iron-ore Belt Proc. xii, 139
Upthrow Fault at Embreville Furnace, E. Tennessee « << 444
Geology of Tazewell, etc., Counties of Virginia " ** 489
Record of Fourteen Oil Wells at Brady's Bend, Pa " " 562
Iron Ores of the South Mountain " xiii, 3
Dunning's Creek Fossil Ore-bed " " 156
Micrometer for Field-note Plotting " " 233
Structure and Erosion of Brush Mountain " " 503
Geology of Brown Hematite, Spruce Creek, Pa " " 19
Note on Makaptos <' xvii, 7
Magnesian Limestone Analysis " " 260
Drift Phenomena of the United States « xviii, 85
Gas Well at Murrayville, Pa " <« 207
Brazilian Geography and Topography " '< 248
Ancient Buried River Channel Crossing the Allegheny River " " 354
Etymology of Hpakans " «' 363
Obituary of John W. Harden " " 422
Spirit of a Philosophical Society " *' 582
On the Landa Alphabet " xix, 153
On the Shells found by H. C. Lewis at Saltville « " 155
Notes on Certain Models : *< " 193
On Professor White's Notes " " 202
Egyptian Element in the Names of Hebrew Kings " " 409
Greco-Egyptian Etymology of Takyos " " no
Origin of the Great Lakes " xx, 95
Obituary of E. Desor Proc. xx, 298, 519
Ice Erosion on the Blue Mountains Proc. xx, 468
Progress of the Second Geological Survey of Penna . . . .Proc. xx, 497, 537, 638
Egyptian Character of Hebrew Names Proc. xx, 506
Policy of the Society " " 645
Identity of the Terms Catskill and Ponent " *' 673
Obituary Notice of Dr. John L. LeConte " xxi, 291
Meaning of the « Set" Animal Proc. xxi, 344, 455
Obituary Notice of James Macfarlane " xxiii, 287
On the Hebrew Word Sh Di (shaddai) " *' 303
Obituary Notice of F. V. Hayden *. " xxv, 59
On the Grapeville Gas Wells , " xxix, 1 1
Notes on Hebrew Egyptian Aiix. Enoch ; Anoki ; Enos " " 17
On an Important Boring Through 2000 Feet of Trias in Eastern
Pennsylvania " " 20
Obituary Notice of P. W. Sheafer " « T)^
Artesian Wells in Montgomery County, at Norristown, Washing-
ton Square, Worcester Township, Flourtown, Williams Station,
King of Prussia ; Parkesburg, Chester County ; Radnor, Dela-
ware County, and Philadelphia, by Oscar C. S. Carter and J.
P. Lesley " " 43
170 MINUTES. [May 20,
The resolution of acceptance of tlie portraits was then
unanimouslj adopted.
Dr. Frazer presented the report of the Officers and Council.
The Secretaries announced the death, on May 19, 1898, of
the Et. Hon. William Ewart Gladstone, at Hawarden, Ches-
ter, England.
Pending nominations ISTos. 1432 and 1451 to 1468 were
read and spoken to, and new nomination No. 1409 was read.
A paper by Dr. William C. Day, entitled, " The Production
of an Asphalt Resembling Gilsonite by the Distillation of a
Mixture of Fish and Wood," was read.
The Secretaries reported the election of the following as
members :
Edward F. DeLancey, of JN'ew York.
Pro£ William Harkness, of Washington.
Prof. C. P. Tiele, Ph.D., of Leyden.
Alfred H. Allen, F.C.S., of Sheffield, Eng.
Boverton Redwood, F.R.S., of London.
Prof. Albert B. Prescott, LL.D., of Ann Arbor.
Prof. William H. Pettee, of Ann Arbor.
Prof. R. P. Whitfield, of New York.
H. LaBarre Jayne, of Philadelphia.
Lamar Gray Patterson, of Cumberland, Md.
Charles Piatt, of Philadelphia.
John H. Converse, of Philadelphia.
Henry Grier Bryant, F.R.G.S., Lond., of Philadelphia.
Emlen Hutchinson, of Philadelphia.
Prof. G. Mangarini, Ph.D., of Rome.
The meeting was then adjourned by the presiding officer.
1898.] DAY — AN ASPHALT RESEMBLING GILSONITE. 171
THE PRODUCTION OF AN ASPHALT RESEMBLING
GILSONITE BY THE DISTILLATION OF A MIX-
TURE OF FISH AND WOOD.
(Plate X.)
BY WM. C. DAY.
{Read May 20, 1S9S.)
A few years since, I undertook a rather detailed experimental
study of the variety of asphalt known as gilsonite/ which is mined
for commercial use in Utah. Gilsonite is a black, glistening, brit-
tle material, yielding a dark-brown powder when finely pulverized.
It fuses readily, becoming a liquid which begins to boil at a temper-
ture above the limit of a mercury thermometer.
It is entirely soluble in carbon bisulphide, not entirely soluble in
ordinary ether, partly soluble in absolute alcohol, petroleum ether,
glacial acetic acid and chloroform, imparting to these solvents a
yellowish to red color with green fluorescence. Besides carbon
and hydrogen, it contains sulphur, nitrogen, a trace of oxygen and
one-tenth of one per cent, of ash.
Among the various products which I obtained by distilling gil-
sonite may be mentioned as of interest in this connection certain
nitrogenous bases extracted from the distillates by the action of
dilute acid and precipitated therefrom by alkalies. These bodies
have an odor like that of the pyridine and quinoline series. Such
substances were first obtained from bitumen by Prof. S. F- Peck-
ham, who noticed them in distillates from. California petroleum ;
later by myself from an asphalt occurring in Coos county, Oreg.,
also in the product which forms the subject of this paper.
As a result of considerable experimental work in the past few
years with asphalts from a variety of sources in the United States,
together with a study of the literature pertaining to the question of
the origin of the bitumens from both the geological and the chem-
ical standpoints, I became impressed with the belief that the solid
and also some of the higher boiling liquid bitumens have been
formed in the earth by the distillation of mixed animal and vege-
table material, together with steam at high temperatures, but at pres-
sures which may or may not have been high. Petroleum distillates
have been obtained by Warren and later by Engler from fish oil,
^Jotimal Fratiklin Institute^ Vol. clx, p. 221.
172 DAY — AX ASPHALT RESEMBLING GILSONITE. [May 20,
and still more recently by Sadtler from linseed oil. In addition to
liquid distillates, paraffin has also been obtained by these investiga-
tors. No mention, however, of an analogous production of asphalts,
so far as I am aware, has ever been made.
To test the correctness of the belief already expressed, I tried the
following experiments :
Into a cylindrical iron retort were introduced a number of fresh
herring, a quantity of pine saw dust and a number of small
pieces of fat pine wood. The retort was connect'ed by plaster-of-
Paris joints with a short glass tube, and this with a gas pipe four
feet long, the latter being placed in an ordinary combustion furnace,
the other end of the pipe was connected with a Liebig's-cold-water
condenser.^ After charging and closing the retort, it was heated by
means of gas stoves, which together with the retort were surrounded
with loose bricks to prevent the loss of heat. The heating of the re-
tort was regulated by the rapidity with which vapors were evolved,
an increase of heat being necessary toward the end of the distillation.
The gas pipe was simultaneously heated to bright redness by the
combustion furnace. The pressure was that of the atmosphere.
During the progress of the distillation water and oil together with a
white smoke flowed from the condenser into the receiver. The oil
obtained was lighter than water, of bad odor and very dark red in
color. At the end of the gas pipe next to the retort carbon sepa-
rated, and on one occasion nearly choked the pipe. Only once
was an oil heavier than water obtained, and this was small in
amount.
The condensed oil was separated from the water on which it
floated, and finally completely dried over chloride of calcium.
It was then placed in a distilling bulb provided with thermometer
and distilled, using a straight glass tube as an air condenser.
Boiling began at about loo Centigrade, but the mercury soon
rose to 1 20. The distillate between these limits consisted of a
lemon-yellow mobile oil together with a few drops of water.
At 120 C. the receiver was changed, and another fraction darker
in color and less mobile was obtained while the mercury rose to
180. The third fraction was collected between the limits 180 and
245 ; the fourth between 245 and 315, this fraction showing a pro-
nounced greenish fluorescence, the color by transmitted light being
1 See accompanying photograph.
1898.] DAY — AN ASPHALT RESEMBLING GILSONITE. 178
dark red. At 340 the receiver was again changed, the thermome-
ter removed and the distillation continued until the temperature
was (at a guess) about 425 Centigrade. At this point the distilling
bulb cracked and the operation was stopped. On cooling, the con-
tents of the bulb became a black brittle solid, showing a very pro-
nounced resemblance to gilsonite in every way. The following are
its properties : Black glistening color, becoming brown on pulver-
izing, and slightly darker than gilsonite ; fracture conchoidal, en-
tirely soluble in carbon bisulphide ; ether dissolves 90.6 per cent.;
alcohol 66.3 per cent.; petroleum ether 61. i per cent. All these
solutions show greenish fluorescence, while the color by transmitted
light varies from yellow to reddish.
As already stated, the distilling bulb cracked before I had de-
cided to stop the distillation, and the solid product being slightly
sticky to the touch, I distilled a second portion of oil, collecting the
same fractions as before, but continuing the heating longer. This
time I obtained a solid so like gilsonite that it was difficult to tell
which was which. A combustion of the first sample gave carbon,
87.5 per cent., and hydrogen, 7.7 per cent. A combustion of the
second sample gave carbon, 88.9 per cent., and hydrogen, 6.7 per
cent. The figures for Utah gilsonite are 88.3 for carbon and 9.9
for hydrogen. At the time (three years since) I made the analysis
of gilsonite nitrogen was not determined. Recently I have deter-
mined the nitrogen, and found it to be 1.96 per cent. Since the
carbon, hydrogen and sulphur figures added up to 99.5 one or all
of the three must have been high, and I am inclined to think that
it was the hydrogen, since I cannot now be sure that the gilsonite
sample was entirely dry.
The agreement in properties and composition between the gilson-
ite and my product is much more perfect than it would have been
reasonable to expect at the outset of the experiment, particularly
when it is remembered that both are doubtless mixtures in them-
selves, and that certainly on distillation they yield highly compli-
cated mixtures of hydrocarbons.
As the product under discussion was obtained only a few days
ago, I have not had time to carry the investigation further, but
enough has been done to show how a solid asphaltum may have been
formed in nature and to afford a rather satisfactory demonstration
of the correctness of views entertained by a number of scientists
who have formed their opinions largely on geological evidence and
.the study of natural occurrences.
174 DAY — AX ASPHALT KESEMBLIXG GILSONITE. [May 20, 189S.
It should be stated, in addition, that for tlie sake of comparison,
fish alone, i. e., without wood, were subjected to distillation and
without passing the vapors through the red-hot tube. The products
obtained included nothing that bore any resemblance to gilsonite
and they were radically different from the products which accom-
panied the distillation of fish and wood together.
This brief paper is of course only preliminary to one which should
consider the literature of the subject more in detail, and which may,
I trust, throw some light on a few of the many problems which nat-
urally suggest themselves.
I shall continue the work as rapidly as my limited time and facil-
ities for such study will permit. In conclusion I take pleasure in
expressing my obligations to my assistant, Mr. Eugene Leamy, for
his very intelligent and effective aid in carrying on the experimen-
tal work.
SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, May 1 9, 1 898.
Magellanic Premium.
FOUNDED IN 1786, BY
JOHN HYACINTH DE MAGELLAN,
OF London.
1898.
The American Philosophical Society,
Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge
ANNOUNCES THAT IN
DECEiVIBER, 1898,
IT WILL AWARD ITS
MAGELLANIC GOLD MEDAL
to the author of the best discovery, or most useful invention, relating to Navi-
gation, Astronomy, or Natural Philosophy (mere natural history
only excepted) under the following conditions :
1. The candidate shall, on or before November i, 1898 deliver, free
of postage or other charges, his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the President of the American Philosophical Society, No.
104 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia, U. S. A., and shall distinguish his
performance by some motto, device, or other signature. With his dis-
covery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a sealed letter
contaming the sam.e motto, device, or signature, and subscribed with the
real name and place of residence of the author.
2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be
aduiitted as candidates for this premium.
3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this
premium, which hath been already published, or for which the author
hath been publicly rewarded elsewhere.
4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
provement, either in the English, French, German, or Latin language.
5. A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the
Society, as soon as may be after the adjudication, either in a separate
publication, or in the next succeeding volume of their Transactions, or
in both.
6. The premium shall consist of an oval plate of solid standard gold
of the value of ten guineas, suitably inscribed, with the seal of the Society
annexed to the medal by a ribbon.
All correspondence in relation hereto should be addressed
To THE Secretaries of the
American Philosophical Society,
No. 104 South Fifth Street,
PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
American Philosophical Society,
Held at Philadelphia,
For Promoting Useful Knowledge.
Vol. XIX, Neiv Series.
Part /, /fto, pp. ig8, with j Plates. Lately Published.
CONTl^NTS.
Art. I. — A New Method of Determining the General Perturba-
tions of the Minor Planets. By William McKnight
RiTTER, M.A.
Art II.— An Essay on the Development of the Mouth Parts of
Certain Insects. By John B. Smith, Sc.D.
Part II, ^tOy pp. 2y2, with ij Plates. Just Published.
CONTENTS.
Art. 111. — Some Experiments with the Saliva of the Gila Monster
(Heloderma suspectum). By John Van Denburgh,
Ph.D.
Art. IV. — Results of Recent Researches on the Evolution of the
Stellar Systems. By T. J. J. See, A.M., Ph.D. (Berlin).
Art. v.— On the Glossophagin^. By Harrison Allen, M.D.
Art. VI.— The Skull and Teeth of Ectophylla alba. By HAR-
RISON Allen, M.D.
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Price, Ninety Dollars.
Address THE LIBRARIAN OF THE
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MAK U 1890
mr
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
HELD AT PniLADELPni^ FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
Vol. XXXVIT. December, 1898. K^o. 158.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Stated Meeting, Octoher 7, 1898 175
The Linguistic Cartography of the Chaco Region. Bj'
Daniel G. Brinton, M.D. (with one plate) 178
Shakespeare's Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre. By
Albert H. Smyth (with one plate and two illustrations). 206
On the Quaternion Group. By G. A. Miller 312
Stated Meeting, October 21, 1898 319
On two Unclassified Recent Vocabularies from South
America. By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D 321
Stated Meeting, November 4, 1898 324
Stated Meeting, November 18, 1898 327
Divisions of Queensland Aborigines. By R. H, Mathews
(with one illustration) 327
Adjourned Meeting, November 25^ 1898 336
Stated Meeting, December 2, 1898 337
Stated Meeting, December 16, 1898 337
philadelphia :
The American Philosophical Society,
104 South Fifth Street.
1«98.
Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay.
Philadelphia, 104 South Fifth Street,
April 5, 1897.
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, held a
Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge has the hono
to announce that an award of the Henry M. Phillips Prize will b
made during the year 1899 '} essays for the same to be in the posses
sion of the Society before the first day of May, 1899. The sabjec
upon which essays are to be furnished by competitors is :
The development of the law, as illustrated by the
decisions relating to the police power of the State.
The essay shall not contain more than one hundred thousanc
words, excluding notes. Such notes, if any, should be kept sepa
rate as an Appendix.
The Prize for the crowned essay will be two thousand dollar
lawful gold coin of the United States, to be paid as soon as may b
after the award. The Society invites attention to the regulation
governing said prize, which accompany this circular.
• William V. McKeah, Craig Biddle, Mayer Sulzberger
C. Stuart Patterson, Joseph C. Fraley, Frederick Fraley
President of the Society, Horace Jayne, M. D.,* Treasure
of the Society, Committee on the Henry M. Fhil/ips Priz
Essay Fund.
The essays must be sent, addressed to Frederick Fraley,
President of the American Philosophical 'Society, Philadelphia.
* Elected Treasurer American Philosophical Society, January 7, 1898, in place of J. Sergear
Price, Esq., deceased, August 16, 1897,
RE^QUIvATIONS.
Competitors for the prize shall affix to their essays some motto or name (not th
proper name of the author, however), and when the essay is forwarded to the Societ
it shall be accompanied by a sealed envelope, containing witliin the proper name c
the author, and, on the outside thereof, the motto or name adopted for the essay.
At a stated meeting of the Society, in pursuance of the advertisement, all essaj
received up to that time shall be referred to a Committee of Judges, to consist of fiv
persons, who shall be selected by the Society from nomination of ten persons mad
by the Standing Committee on the Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay. Fund.
Essays may be written in English, French, German, Dutch, Italian, Spanish c
Latin, but, if in any language except. English, must be accompanied by an Englis
translation of the same.
No treatise or essay shall be entitled to compete for the prize that has bee
already published or printed, or for vvhich the author has received already any priz(
profit, or honor of any nature whatsoever.
All essays must be clearly and legibly written or printed on one side of th
paper only.
The literary property of such essays shall be in their authors, subject to the righ
of the Society to publish tlie crowned essay in its Transactions or Proceedings.
IVIAR U 1899
PROCE EDINGS
OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
Vol, XXXVII. December, 1898. No. 158.
^Stated Meeting^ October 7, 1898.
Vice-President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, 28 members.
Dr. Caspar Rdne Gregory and Messrs. Hutchinson, Bryant
and H. La Barre Jayne, newly elected members, were pre-
sented to the Chair, and took their seats in the Society.
Acknowledgments of election to membership were read
from Messrs. H. La Barre Jayne, Emlen Hutchinson, John
H. Converse, Charles Piatt, William Harkness, R. P. Whit-
field, Henry G. Bryant, Lamar Gray Patterson, William
Henry Pettee, Edward F. DeLancey, C. P. Tiele, Albert B.
Prescott, Alfred H. Allen, Boverton Redwood, Guglielmo
Mengarini and A. Donaldson Smith.
A letter was received from the Secretary of State, enclosing
an invitation from the government of Italy to the Society
to send deleo^ates to the Twelfth International Consfress of
Orientalists, to be held at Rome on October 2, 1899 ; and on
motion the President was authorized to appoint a delegate,
in accordance mth the invitation. Prof. H. Y. Hilprecht
was subsequently appointed the delegate of the Society.
An invitation was received from the Academy of Sciences
and other learned societies of Stockholm, to send a delegate
to a commemorative fete to be held at Stockholm on Octo-
ber 7, 1898, on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the
death of Berzelius. The Secretary was directed to express
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXYII. 158. L. PRINTED DEC. 7, 1898.
176 MINUTES. [Oct. 7,
to these societies the regret of the American Philosophical
Society, that the coincidence of the date of reception of the
invitation with that of the fete prevented the Society from
sending a delegate, as it otherwise would have felt honored
in doing.
From the von Mueller Monument Fund.
From the Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania, expressing
its sympathy with the Society in the loss sustained by the
death of its Yice- President, Dr. William Pepper.
The Librarian announced a number of donations to the
Library, for which thanks were ordered to be sent to the
donors.
Dr. Morris presented a Hawaiian newspaper sent by Prof.
Boye, which contained a notice of the hoisting of the
American flag.
Dr. Morris read an obituary notice of Prof. Henry D.
Gregory.
Announcement Avas made of the decease of the following
members :
Dr. Friedrich Miiller, of Vienna, on May 25, 1898, aged
64 years ; elected to membership December 17, 1886.
Dr. William Pepper, of Philadelphia, on July 29, 1898,
aged 55 years ; elected to membership July 15, 1870.
Dr. James Hall, of Albany, on August 8, 1898, aged 87
years; elected lo membership July 21, 1854.
Dr. George M. Ebers, of Tutzing, near Munich, on August
8, 1898, aged 61 years; elected to membership May ^17,
1895.
Prof. Henry Trimble, at St. David's, Pa., on August 24,
1898, aged 45 years ; elected to membership, February 19,
1897.
Dr. Francis Pulzsky, of Buda Pesth, on September 9,
1897, aged 82 years ; elected to membership. Ma}/ 21,
1886.
Hon. Thomas F. Bayard, of Wilmington, Del., on Septem-
ber 28, 1898, aged 69 years ; elected to membership October
15, 1897.
1S98.] MINUTES. 1T7
Dr. Frazer offered tlie following resolutions, in regard to
the death of Dr. Pepper :
Resolved, That a Committee of five members be appointed by
the President to arrange for a memorial meeting in reference to the
death of Dr. William Pepper, with authority to confer with the
Committee appointed by the Trustees of the University of Pennsyl-
vania, and the representatives of other institutions and societies
with which he was connected.
Resolved, That as a mark of respect to the memory of Dr. Wil-
Ham Pepper, a Vice-President of this Society, the office which he
filled remain vacant until the annual election on January 6 next.
Adopted.
Dr. Frazer, Dr. DaCosta, Mr, Edmunds, General Wistar
and Dr. Tyson were subsequently appointed members of this
Committee.
On motion the President was requested to appoint a mem-
ber to prepare a biographical notice of the late Prof. Henry
Trimble. Prof. Sadtler was subsequently so appointed.
Dr. Caspar Eene Gregory made a communication on ' ' Greek
Manuscripts in Europe, in the East, and in America."
Dr. Daniel G. Brinton read a paper on ' ' The Linguistic
Cartography of the Chaco Eegion."
Prof. Smyth read a paper on " The Apollonius Saga and
Shakespeare's Pericles Prince of Tj^re."
A paper was presented by Dr. G. A. Miller and read by
title, " On the Quaternion Group."
Pending nominations J^os. 1432, 1464, 1469, and new
nominations Nos. 1470 to 1472 were read.
Dr. Morris, as Curator, offered a correction of the printed
record of the meeting of April 1, 1898, Proceedings, p. 83,
as follows : In the sentence in which " Dr. Hays asked ' Is
this [a framed copy presented at that time] the facsimile
copy which Dr. Morris took out of the Librarian's desk last
autumn, etc.?'" " Dr. Morris rephed that it was." Dr.
Morris claimed that this should read: ". . . . which had
been taken out of the old desk used by Mr. Philhps," which was
the form in which the question was put, and replied to m
178 BRINTOX — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. [Oct. 7,
the affirmative by him. Dr. Hays expressed regret that any
misunderstanding should have occurred as to what was said,
but it was natural!}^ accounted for by the fact that an old
desk, which had been used by the late Mr. Phillips when
Librarian, had been recently assigned to one of the mem-
bers of the Societ}^ for the custody of his papers. Finding
this facsimile of the copy of the Declaration of Independence
in one of th*=i drawers, he assumed that it should be handed
to the Curators, to be deposited in the Cabinet, instead of to
the Librarian. This difference of opinion as to the proper
disposition of the paper had led to the original discussion of
which a brief abstract was given in the minute referred to.
The rough minutes were then read, and the Societ}^ was
adjourned by the presiding officer.
THE LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY OF THE
CHACO REGION.
BY DANIEL G. BRINTON, M.D.
(Mead October 7, ISDS.)
Contents. — Introductory — Recent Contributions < . the Linguis-
tics of theCliaco — The Mataco Linguistic Stock — x'he Guaycuru
Stock — The Tupi Stock — The Samucu Stock — The Ennima Stock
— The Arawack Stock — The Quechua Stock — The Lule Stock —
Groups of Uncertain Affinities — The Lenguas (Timbues) — The
Chanas — The Charuas and Querandies — The Payaguas — The Caca-
nas and Calchiquis — Other Unidentified Tribes — Bibliographic
Note — List of Ethnographic Maps.
Introductory.
In mapping the areas of American aboriginal languages there is
a vast region in South America which has been peculiarly perplex-
ing, and in several respects so remains.
1898.] BRINTOX — LTXGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. 170
This is that which is vaguely known as El Gran Chaco, or the
Great Hunting Ground. It lies in northern Argentina and eastern
Bolivia, between latitude i8° and 32° south, and longitude 58° and
66° west from Greenwich. It covers an area about as great in
extent as from Pittsburg to the Mississippi and from Chicago to
the Gulf of Mexico.^
On the east, the valley of the Rio Parana and Rio Paraguay,
which are the extensions of the Rio de la Plata, and on the west
the lofty elevations of the Andes, are its well-marked boundaries.
Between them the surface is usually level and intersected by numer-
ous streams, the three most important of which, the Pilcomayo, the
Vermejo and the Salado, flow from the Andes southeastward in
almost parallel lines.
The climate is hot and the vegetation tropical. During the
rainy season the flat, grassy lands are transformed into shallow
lakes, while near the watercourses rise dense and lofty forests. In
the north are arid and sterile highlands.
Except by the water-ways it is almost impossible to traverse the
country, and for that reason extensive tracts of it are still unex-
plored.
The native tribes who inhabited this region have always been in
the lowest stages of culture, depending on hunting and fishing for
their subsistence, without settled abodes, migratory and in cease-
less warfare with each other. The self-sacrificing efforts of the
Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries have at times succeeded in gath-
ering a few hundred together about some mission, only to be dis-
persed again on some slight cause. Thus, some years ago, in the
middle of the night, the whole of the tribe of Penoquiquias, which
had been converted and induced to take up a fixed abode, suddenly
disappeared, and were never seen again (Cardus, i, p. 272).
Recent Contributions to the Linguistics of the Chaco.
In my volume on the linguistic classification of the American
race, published in 1891, I divided the tribes of the Chaco into four
principal linguistic stocks, the Guaycuru, the Mataco, the Vilela
1 Boggiani (i,p. 10) puts the maximum length of the Chaco at 830 geographical
miles, and its greatest width at 360 miles.
For this and other references in the text see the Bibliographic Note at the close
of this article.
180 BRINTOX — LINGUISTIC CARTOGEAPHY. [Oct. 7,
and the Payagua/ Since then a number of contributions to the
subject and several ethnographic maps of parts of the region have
been furnished by J. B. Ambrosetti, J. de Brettes, Guido Boggiani,
Dr. G. A. Colini, Giovanni Pelleschi, Samuel A. Lafone Quevedo,
and others, and some unpublished manuscripts of early date have
seen the light in print, the titles of which are given in the biblio-
graphic note at the close of this paper. j\Iy present intention is
to offer a summary of their results in the linguistic ethnography of
the Chaco region, as depicted in the revised chart which I have
prepared, and to present some suggestions for the correct classifica-
tion of tribes of still uncertain affinities.
The writer to whom we owe most is Mr. S. A. Lafone Quevedo.
He has edited the manuscripts of Tavolini, Brigniel, Barcena and
others, and contributed numerous articles of his own, and deserves
the highest credit for his zeal and accuracy.
He entertains, however, certain linguistic theories which would
with difficulty find general acceptance, and which expose some of
his reasonings to serious question.
Thus, he maintains that there is a fundamental difference between
what he calls the ''Atlantic" type of languages and the '' Pacific"
or ''Andean," based upon the trait that the latter suffix the pronom-
inal particles while the former prefix them.
This, as a mere matter of placement, is of minor importance. For
example, the Latin has the pronominal indications suffixed to the
verbal root ; but the neo-Latin tongues without exception prefix them.
In America, the dialects of the Zoque-]Mixe stock differ entirely
among themselves in this respect, though closely allied in others. -
He himself acknowledges (x, p. 23) that the dialects of the
Guaycuru stock are by no means a unit in this feature, some prefix-
ing and others suffixing the pronominal particles.
His general classification is :
ANDEAN TYPE (SUFFIXES). ATLANTIC TYPE (PREFIXES).
Araucanian, Tupi-Guarani,
Aymara, jMataco,
Quechua, Guaycuru.
Lule, "^
Vilela.
"^The American Race. A Linguistic Classification and Ethnographic
Description of the Native Tribes of North and Sonth America, pp. 392 (New
York, 1 89 1).
2 Raoul de la Grasserie, Langtie Zoque ct Langue Mixe, Introduction fParis,
1898).
1898.] BRINTOX— LIXGUISTIC CARTOGRAPPIY. 181
Yet in some passages (xi, p. xliii) he dismisses the criterion of
the affixes, and in maintaining the affinity of Quechua and Guaycuru
says their contrast in this respect is unimportant !
I do not question the general value of pronominal pre-position
and post-position; but it is not sufficiently fundamental to be
adopted as a single criterion for classification/
Another feature to which Mr. Lafone Quevedo has given close
study is the permutation of sounds in these tongues. Undoubtedly
he has here shown regular and frequent changes between the dia-
lects. But there will be few to follow him in such an equation as :
coz= hoz= hti = hy ^y (Tavolini, i, App., p. 26).
With such liberty, any two words could be brought into genetic
relation.
This laxity of method naturally leads him to assert linguistic
affinities between all stocks ; these he claims the Guaycuru has with
the Guarani, the Mataco with the Carib, and all with the Arawack
(L. Q., ii, pp. 56, 58).
Such conclusions are regretable, and it were to be desired that
students of American languages should be as cautious in asserting
analogies as are the leading scholars in the Aryan and Semitic fields.
The Mataco Linguistic Stock.
The lincruistic studv of the tribes of this vast area has had the
usual effect of constantly reducing the number of its linguistic
stocks by recognizing as dialects what earlier observers believed to
be independent languages. To this result, I shall also contribute
somewhat in the present article.
It has been long recognized that most of the Chaco region was
occupied at the discovery by two great groups of related idioms.
One of these was central, extending in unbroken continuity
from the river Paraguay to the foothills of the Andes, and from
S. lat. 21° to 26^. This was the Mataco stock, so called from its
central and principal tribe."- It is noticeable that all its members
1 Prof. Friederich Miiller observes that while there are a number of suffix-lan-
guages, there is, in fact, no example of a true prefix-language, <' da neben ihr
immer die Suffix-Bildung zur Anwendung kommt " (^Grtindriss der Sprachivis
sei7schaft,'Qd. i,p. 129). This illustrates how uncertain such a criterion must be.
Prof. Hovelacque remarks that linguistically the position of the pronominal affix
*'n'a aucune importance " (Ztz Linguistiqice, p. 174.)
2 The Matacos refer to themselves as vicqiiii -=1 viri, men.
182
BEINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGKAPHY.
[Oct. 7^.
reside in contiguity, as if driven together by outer pressure on all
sides. This would give probability to the opinion that they are
the oldest surviving inhabitants of the Chaco.
The dialectic variations in the stock may be seen in the follow-
ing comparisons :^
Mataco Dialects.
MAN.
WOMAN.
SUN.
MOON.
icnu,
tiquiecua.
huala.
tsimini.
inoon.
cisna,
juala.
huela.
nooHf
ijuala.
guela.
ijuela.
iguela.
FIRE.
WATER.
HEAD.
EYE.
r inot,
I kuaj,
etec.
uotei,
iiaj\
letec.
teijbei.
itag.
g^i^gi
litec.
no tela.
ittaj.
inn at,
eteky
teslo.
EAR.
MOUTH.
NOSE.
TONGUE.
c hotel.
kaj,
f nocness,
L mis.
nuea-j lo-j sie ,
hajlecha.
noguiotoc,
nolagni.
nonus.
nocagligniu.
quiote.
caj.
nus,
caj-liqtiio.
TOOTH.
HAND.
FOOT.
HOUSE.
choteiy
tzotei,
cueyi,
noguez.
pacui, ■\
kolo, 1
huettey
no diet e.
noguei.
nopachio
hoet, lobiique.
zotte.
cueiquio.
piquio
gugue.
Mataco,
Vejoz,
Nocten,
Mataco,
Vejoz,
Nocten,
Mataco,
Vejoz,
Nocten,
Mataco,
Vejoz,
Nocten,
The tribe called by de Brettes the Aksseks must be members
of the Mataco stock. They dwelt on the Bolivian frontier,
extending in a northwesterly direction from the Rio Pilcomayo
to the confines of the Samucus.^
Lafone Quevedo is of the opinion that the Mataco is a jargon,
owing its lexicon to one stock and its grammar to another (Pelles-
chi, ii, p. 14). This is not the impression that it makes upon me.
I rather agree with Father Remedi (in Lafone Quevedo, v, p. 25)
1 1 have selected the same words which form the brief comparative vocabu-
laries in my American Race.
^Mallat de Bassilan, U Amerique Inconmie, pp. 11, 37. They spoke neither
Guana (Ennima), Guarani or Chamacoco. .
1898.] BRINTOX — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. 183.
that it is of a very ancient type, and, apart from a certain number
of borrowed words, is a wholly independent stock.
The Guaycuru Stock.
The second stock has received the name Guaycuru, a Tupi word
meaning "fast runners."^ Mr. Lafone Quevedo does not acknowl-
edge a fundamental distinction between this and the preceding
group of tongues,- but the evidence seems to me insufficient to
blend them in one.
They almost surrounded the Matacos on three sides, the south,
east and north, and extended on the eastern bank of the river Para-
guay as far as S. lat. 19° 30' into the Brazilian province of Mato
Grosso. In the south they roved as far as to 33° lat. south,
where they were in contact with the Pampean tribes.
One of their most redoubtable members were the Tobas, called
by the Spanish Frentones or Frontones, from their habit of shaving
the forehead. In modern times they have occupied the shores of
the lower Pilcomayo, and have been reported at various localities
along its banks quite up to its rapids (Cardus, i ; Thouar, i).* The
Pilagas are a closely related horde.
The large majority of this stock lived west of the great river;
but in tlie south the Abipones and Mepones were found in the last
century east of the river about lat. 28°; and in the north all the
left bank, from Fort Coimbra to Puerto Casado, was peopled by
tribes of the Guaycuru stock, locally known as Quetiadegodis or
Uettiadiu, and Eyiguayegis or Eggiudgeg, the modern Mbayas and
Caduveos (Boggiani, iv, p. 171).
The dialectic variations in this stock may be seen in the sub-
joined table.
1 Lafone Quevedo considers this word a diminutive from the root ai, rogue ^
but I think that von Martins is right in considering it composed of atd or guatd,
to go ; curitei, quickly ; tiara, men. Some writers have objected to the use of
this collective name for the stock on the ground that it is a common noun, and
does not apply to a single nation. The same objection would be applicable to
many nomitia gentilia in common use [e. g. Aryans, Semites) and is therefore a
needless criticism. There are reasons why it is not desirable to choose the name
of a single tribe for the whole stock.
2" El grupo iSIataco es una subclase mas del gran grupo Guaycuru." {^Bol.
Inst. Geog. Argentiu, 1894, p. 518.)
^ M. Thouar (1, pp. 419-421) gives vocabularies of the Toba on the lower
and on the upper Pilcomayo.
184
BRINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY.
[Oct. 7,
Guaycw'ic Dialects.
MAN.
"WOMAN.
SUN.
MOON.
Mocovi,
tale.
aklo,
daassoa.
ciraigu.
Toba,
yahale,
aid,
nala,
cagoic.
Mbaya,
conelego.
igualo,
aligeg,
epenahi.
Abipon,
yoale,
oaiier77ia.
empaiga.
graoec.
Caduveo,
houlegre, '
J agouina, ")
I igualo, J
aligega.
epenai.
Quiniquinas,
heledde.
he lode.
allighera,
hepenai.
Upper Tobas,
kome,
J noodik, \
y-yayuod, /
nala.
auguei.
FIRE.
WATER.
HEAD.
EYE.
Mocovi,
annoreh, ole,
evagayaca,
y-caigo.
coctk^cijate.
Toba,
nodek,
r nogop,
I netagrgat,
\ calcoic,
cakayte.
Mbaya,
nuledi,
niogo,
n a kilo,
cogecogo.
Abipon,
ncaa-fec,
enarp, enoj.
ie, nemag,
natoete.
Caduveo,
nicledi,
niogo.
naguilo,
nigecoge.
Quiniquinas,
noledi,
niogo.
hiaquilo.
kekerehe.
Upper Tobas,
lolle,
nogapp.
EAR.
MOUTH.
NOSE.
TONGUE.
Mocovi,
licquela,
ayap, lape,
imniik.
ulleganaste.
Toba,
quetela,
ayap.
cadimic.
lateagat.
Mbaya,
conapagoti.
tola.
niniigo.
cadoketi.
Abipon,
que in I,
aagat.
cat an at.
lachig-atr
o
Caduveo,
napagate.
joladi.
f niniigo,
\ codeimic,
nogueligi,
codocaiti.
Quiniquinas,
parahte.
hin-iolaque, himigo.
hiokelegui .
TOOTH.
Mocovi,
live, be.
Toba,
Jove,
Mbaya,
CO doe, nogtce.
Abipon,
yave.
Caduveo,
nogtie,
Quiniquinas,
codohe,
HAND. FOOT. HOUSE.
nepu-qjuinet, leti, labu, vo.
yubat, apiate, ippia,nohic.
cobahaga, codohua, dimi.
apaquena, nachayu, niic.
nilagadi, codohona.
hiedede.
dimigi.
hibyhade, ctideine.
The Tupi Stock.
The northern portion of my map, from longitude 58° 30' to 66°
is occupied by the Chiriguanos. They are a well-defined substock
of the great Tupi-Guarani family. In the Sierra they extend south
to the head waters of the Rio Vermejo (Cardus, i, p. 242). About
1898.] BHINTOX — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. ' 185
8000 of them have been converted to Christianity by the mis-
sionaries, one of whom, Father A. M. Corrado, published some
years since a book of devotion in the tongue.^
The difference of its vocables from the foregoing is seen in the
following examples :
Man, aba. Eye, exa.
Woman, ciina. Ear, inanvi.
Sun, ctiarasi. Nose, inapongtia.
Moon, yasi, yiiai. Hand, ypo.
Fire, tata. Foot, ypul.
Water, i. House, oga.
Head, fiaca.
The name Chiriguanos is supposed to be a term of contempt
applied to them by the Quechuas (= esticrcol frio). They call
themselves ^^<:?, "men."
One of their branches, the Tapiis or Tapietes, extend as far south
as the Pilcomayo, and in scattered bands nearly to the R. Paraguay
(Card us, i, p. 269). Their name is given them as a term of con-
tempt by the Chiriguanos, because they go quite naked. It signifies
the male or female genitalia (Tupi, tap'i)." For the same reason
they are called Tirumbae, "naked men." M. Thouar found their
westernmost village at Yagaigua, longitude 65° (Thouar, i, p. 305).
They wear the tembeta, and are friendly {id., p. "^"^^y).
The Guaranocas, one of their branches, inhabit the " Chaco de
Antonio," within the territory of Bolivia.^ The Yanaiguas, the Pal-
mares and the Sirionas (on the Rio Peray) are other branches (Car-
dus, i, p. 272).
At the time of the discovery this stock occupied much of the east
of the map, extending along the left bank of the Rio Paraguay
from about latitude 23° to 30° and below."* Here they bore the
names Cainguas and Guayanas, up the river, and Caracaraes and
^ Catecismo de la Doctrina Cristiana en Leiigua C/iirigttana (Sucre, 187 1),
A short grammatical outline of the dialect is given in the work El Colegio
Franciscano de Tarija y sus Misio7ies, pp. 523-526.
2 It is also applied to the Chaneses of the foothills (Cardus, i, p. 250), Another
derivation of it is from tapiii, something bought, = a slave, Tarija y sus
Misiones, p. 54.
3 F. de Oliveira Cesar, Viaje al Oriente de Bolivia, p. 77 (Buenos Aires,
1891).
* Dr. Paul Ehrenreich, " Ethnographische Karte von Brasilien," in Petermann's
Miitheilujtgen, 1891.
186 BRIXTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. [Oct. 7,
Ubeguas, near its mouth. ^ Whether the Caaiguas of Charlevoix
are the same as the Cainguas is uncertain. Dr. Ehrenreich sup-
poses them the older representatives of the modern Guayakis, a
tribe near the middle Parana, who are extremely wild and timid.
We have no sufficient knowledge of their tongue to identify the
stock to which they belong."
The modern Cainguas live on the upper Parana. Their customs
and dialects have been thoroughly studied by Ambrosetti, who gives
an ample and accurate vocabulary (Ambrosetti, ii and iii). The
assertion of some writers that they have a tongue peculiar to them-
selves has not proved correct. They are divided into three sub-
tribes.
Apuitere.
Baaberd, or Baiicnlas.
Chiripa.
There are, however, but unimportant differences in the dialects.
The Samucu Stock.
In the northeast corner of the map, longitude 58°, latitude 20°,
on the right bank of the river Paraguay, dwell the Chamocos or
Chiamococos. They have been especially studied by Boggiani,
whose monograph upon them presents excellent ethnographic and
linguistic material.
He claimed them (i, p. 23) to be an independent stock, and
denied {id., p. 19) that they are linguistically related to the Samu-
cus or Zamucos described by Father Azara and the traveler D'Or-
bigny.
Dr. Karl von den Steinen, in whose hands is a MS. grammar of
the Samucu, has shown, however, by a comparison of twenty words
that there is a decided lexical similarity between the two, and that
this also extends to grammatic forms. ^
^ See D'Orbigny, V Homme Aijiericaiii, Tom. ii, p. 270, whose statement has
not been impugned by subsequent writers.
2 Dr. Ehrenreich, on the strength of one or two words, inclines to the opinion
that they are Ges (my Tapuyas). See his article in Globus, January, 1898, p. 73.
3 His article is published in Globus, for May, 1895 (^^- Ixxvii, No. 21). In
the American Race, p. 301, I have given twelve subtribes of the Samucu stock
and a short vocabulary. Cardus (i, p. 327) calls it " Zamuca," and prints a
vocabulary of twenty-three words.
1S98.]
BRINTOX — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY
187
Comparison
of Chamococo and Samucu.
CHAMOCOCO.
SAMUCU.
I,
eidc,
yoc (we).
Thou,
dua,
ugua.
Good,
ompa,
tioni.
White,
porlo,
pororo.
Sweet,
diri.
dirip.
Dead,
toi.
toi.
Wood,
pid.
pit.
Tree,
port,
pore.
Road,
dec.
daec.
Water,
nio.
yot.
Sun,
del,
dirie (day)
Mother,
Ota,
ote.
Man,
neii,
naitie.
Tongue,
os-aruc,
archo (pi.).
Hand,
os-u?7iiiie.
yumanai.
Eye,
os-iddi.
yede.
Foot,
os-iddili.
irie.
No, not.
ie.
ca-.
Our,
OS-,
az:
One,
somma/a.
tschoniara.
This comparison can leave no doubt that the verbal correspond-
ences of the two tongues are due to a close affinity of some kind.
It has been accepted by Sr. Boggiani himself <iv, p. 169). Whether
this is genetic must be left for decision until Dr. Von den Steinen
publishes the grammar in his possession.
Another lexical similarity which neither he nor Boggiani has
noted is that to the Arawack. To illustrate this I have drawn up
the following comparisons, in which the words following the
numeral i are from the Chiamoco-Sumucu, and those following
the 2 are from the Arawack dialects named. The resemblances
speak for themselves.
Comparison of Samucu and Arawack.
MAN.
1. Cham., 7ieit ; Sam., naitie, nani, vairigue.
2. Ar., iti (father), ira-it (husband); Guana, hapo-itai (man).
SUN.
1. Cham., fl'^z; '^zxti., dirie, yede.
2. Ar., hdddali, hadali.
188 BRINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. [Oct. 7,
MOON,
1. Cham., sciagurzigu.
2. Ancle., cashiri ; Goajiro, kashi ; Manao; ghairy.
FIRE.
1. Cham., dnigu ; Sam.,^toc.
2. 'Sloxos., yuczt ; ^zxiVQ, hioke.
WATER.
1. Cham.., nio ; '^am.,yot.
2. Antis., nia ; Baure., hina,
HEAD.
1. Cham.., ac/m ; Sam., yatodo.
2. h.niiQ..,ito, buto ; \}a\\\\xma, b a -it a ; l^ayana, toc/e.
EAR.
1. Cham., a-dnj'i, a-auu ; Sam., y ago?' o/ze,
2. Guana, guai-haino.
EYE.
1. Cham., iddi, illi ; Savi\., yede, yedoi.
2. Baniva, iti ; Barre, Hi; Mariate, mi-doi ; Parisi, nii-duro.
MOUTH.
1. Cham., aciho ; Sam., yago-7'one.
2. Guana, ba/io ; Moxo., nu-jaca ; Atorai, otaghu.
TONGUE.
1. Chaxti., ante ; Saxtv.,archo {^\.^.
2. Mai pure, are.
TOOTH.
1. Cham., a-potachae.
2. Uainuma, cihai, aei ; Ande., ai ; Passe, <?^/ Guana, onhai.
HAND.
1. Cham., urn /ui ; Sam., iinanaetio.
2. Chontaquero, huaniianuta ; Guana, iion-hhm ; Layana, inenien ; Peris,,
uemeyonota.
FOOT.
1. Cham., idili ; Sam., zVzV.
2. hii&Q., gtiilo ; Ara'^'aV, iiktitti ; Jabaana, zVz.
HAIR.
1. Cham., cachieha.
2. Ande., itghi, eihi ; Araicu, Manao, itschy ; Baure, ichi.
TO SLEEP.
1. Cham., ti'tghemo.
2. Moxo,, Via\xxit,ni-}noco ; Ande., maye.
1898.] BRINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. 189
The personal and possessive pronouns in the Chiamococo are as
follows :
(inseparable prefix).
I,
eio'c.
Mine, a
Thou,
o'lia.
Thine, e
He,
OS (?).
His, 0
The syllable os is prefixed to parts of the human body, articles of
use and to verbs which are reflexive or intransitive. Boggiani con-
siders it a generic pronoun referring to human beings. It seems
akin to the numeral for '■'■ two," ossia, and therefore I should think
it signifies "the other's," or "another's," which is the primary
sense of the binary numeral.
The above pronouns are not those of the Arawack stock, except
that the Ande uses the pronominal prefix a in the first person plural,
which Adam thinks is an abbreviation of aba}
The signs of negation in Chiamococo ^^V^, gio' ; or the prefix ie,
ict. This differs entirely from the Arawack stock, where the nega-
tive is conveyed by the prefix ma-, 7fio-, with great uniformity.
These and other grammatical differences are too formidable to
admit the opinion that the Samucu is a substock of the Arawack ;
while the lexical similarities are too numerous and striking to be
overlooked. Very many words from Arawack dialects have been
incorporated into the tongue spoken by the Chiamococos and their
affined hordes.
The Chamococos bravos, who occasionally appear on the shores of
the Rio Paraguay a few leagues south of Fort Olimpo, speak the
same tongue, and their separation from the main stock is still
remembered in tradition (Boggiani, iv, p. 170).
The proper name of the united tribe appears to be Tu?nanahd or
Timinaha, which recurs in documents of the eighteenth century
(Boggiani, id.); although this may be a modification of the not
uncommon Tupi tribal term, teinymyiib, grandson or descendant,
often used in a conventional, metaphorical sense."
Father Fernandez, whose observations were made at the com-
mencement of the last century, says that the Samucu tongue was
spoken by the Morotocos, the Careras of the Reduccion de San Juan
Bautista, the Ugoronos to the south and the Coroinos, a branch of
^ Lucien Adam, Arte de la Lengua de las Indios Antis 6 Cai7ipas^^. 8 (Paris,
1890).
2 Cf. Martius, EtJmographie und Spracheyikntide, Bd. ii, p, 172.
190 BRINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. [Oct 7,
the Morotocos.^ Muratori adds that it was one of the three native
languages officially taught in the Paraguay missions."
The Ennima Stock.
Since the publication of my AmeiHcan Race, a new linguistic
stock has been discovered in the Chaco region. The first vocabu-
lary of it was published by M. de Brettes, in 1892, containing
about 130 words collected in 1887.' In the same year a posthu-
mous work by Senor Juan de Cominges was printed in Buenos
Aires, containing a list collected in 1879; ^^^^ i^ ^^95? Senor
Guido Boggiani published in Rome a careful collection of terms he
had formed in 1889, republishing the vocabulary of Cominges, but
apparently not being aware of that of de Brettes.^ This last differs
notably from the others, introducing various Samucu and Guaycuru
terms, but well representing the groundwork of the tongue.
The name first given to this stock was Guana. This is a common
noun in the Tupi-Guarani language, a term of respect, something
equivalent to " fine " or ''learned people,"^ and was applied by
them to various nations whose cultural condition impressed them
favorably. Later Sr. Boggiani has proposed the more acceptable
term Ennima, a designation applied to them by their neighbors to
the north and which may as well be adopted.^
The location of the stock is on the right bank of the Para-
guay, 21° 30' to 23° and westward nearly to the Bolivian line.
Boggiani includes in it the tribes known as Guanas, Sanapanas,
Sapuquis, Angaites and "Lenguas." To these must be added
the Machicuys and the Chaco tribes mentioned by de Brettes
as speaking "Guana," the Neenssemakas, the Kamananghas and
the Banghis.
Hervas located the Machicuys on a branch of the Rio Pilcomayo
in the centre of the Chaco. They numbered about 1200 warriors
'^Relacion historial de los Indios Chiquitos, pp. 316, 371, 394.
"^ II Cristianesifuo felice nel Paraguay, y^. 132. The others were that of the
*' Guananis " (Guarani) and of the Chiquitos.
^ Mallat de Eassilan, V Amcrique Inconnue, Appendix.
^Reale Academia dei Lincei, Roma, 1895.
^ " Edles Volk," "die Gelehrten," Martins, Ethnog. ttnd Sprachenkunde,V>di.
ii, pp. 172, 788. An abbreviation of Guayana.
^See Boggiani, "Etnografia del alto Paraguay," in Boletin del Instituto Geo-
grafico Argentina, 1898, p. ii.
1898.] BRINTOX — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. 191
and were divided into nineteen subtribes. Their language was
■consonantal, nasal and guttural. The names of the subtribes were
of formidable length, as :
Guiabamaebnayesma.
Guiguailyeguaypon.
Ycteaguayefiene.
Sanguotaiyamoctoc.
They were characterized by wearing the barbote or labret, and
were tall and warlike.
About 1862, Demersay found them it^ in number, located at the
■Quartel del Cerrito, five leagues from Asuncion, and obtained from
them the vocabulary mentioned below. ^
Father Azara asserted that the Machicuys spoke a tongue of their
own; but D'Orbigny insisted that they were closely related to the
Tobas, and hence belonged in the Guaycuru stock. He observes :
''The termination in their tongue of ith, ac and op prove this
beyond contradiction."^
M. Demersay, in his Histoire du Paraguay (i860), gives a short
vocabulary of the " Machicuy " as follows :
1. Eyes, hartec, 4. Thigh, hehihohoc.
2. Feet, hemenec. 5. Tobacco, heqtiena.
3. Fingers, heptehec. 6. Fire, tahasla.
7. Yes, tahase.
Lafone Quevedo remarks of this (Tavolini, i, App., p. 19) that
he has found no affinities in these words to the Abipon except in
one (No. 3).
A comparison even of these few terms indicates, however, that
they are not from the Guaycuru stock, but belong with the Ennima,
as:
MACHICUY. GUANA.
Eyes, h-artec, gni-actec.
Feet, /ie??ienec, hemmenec.
Fingers, he-ptehec, pehec.
Tobacco, he-quena, henna, tenna.
Fire, tahasla, tata.
Another proof is the terminal c {ec, oc), which is doubtless a pro-
^Le Tottr du Monde, Vol. iv, pp. 108, in.
^ V Homme Americain, Toms ii, p. 94.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 158. M, PRINTED DEC. 14, 1898.
192
BRINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY.
[Oct. 7,
nominal suffix, and which appears also in one of the tribal names of
the Machicuy given by Hervas. This relationship has been accepted
by Boggiani (v).
No connection of this with any other tongue has yet been shown.
There are a few similarities to the Tsoneca of Patagonia, but not
sufficient to establish a relationship.^
ENNIMA.
TSONECA.
Eye,
gn-ia-te!ic^
ia-telky iateteke.
Beard,
lekpaCy
ia-pelek.
Mouth,
m-booc.
iapdlk.
Great, large,
sossepeky
satsa.
House,
pahat,
ahoike.
Bird,
tou,
tsdge.
Extremity, member,
pehecy
pgiU
Man,
kihvaouo,
kin a.
The word pehec or pe' ec seems a general term in both tongues
for the leg and foot.
The Arawack Stock.
One of the various hordes called Guanas dwells north of Corumba,
in the province of Mato Grasso. They are also spoken of as Chiia-
las, which is merely a variant, and Layanas, another variant. The
Terenos on the river Miranda are their neighbors and relatives.
These belong to the Arawack stock, which extended its various
branches in an unbroken line from the Bahama Islands, off the coast
of Florida, nearly to the river Pilcomayo of the Chaco.
The relationship of this remote southern branch to the main stem
is illustrated in the following comparisons :
Arawack Stock.
MAN.
WOMAN.
SUN.
MOON.
Guana,
r hapohitaiy
\ ta hanan,
}
zeejtOy
kat-hai.
kohaivai.
Layana,
hapohitey
ze/iena,
kai-xe.
cohehe.
Arawack dialects, ati^ atchi.
>
eno, in a,
cachi, katchi^
, cohe.
FIRE,
WATER.
HEAD.
EYE.
Guana,
incMy
hiina.
kombai poiy
ongtiei.
Layana,
tohna,
tode.
ongheh.
Arawack dialects, ;j/«a2.
tine, ttina.
hi da, ito.
7tn-uqui.
^The Tsoneca words are from H. Hale, Ethnography and Philology of the
U. S. Exploring Expedition.
m>
1898.]
BRINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY.
193
EAR.
Guana, guaihaiuo,
Layana, ghehena^
Aravvack dialects, ;^«aw«z,
TOOTH.
Guana, onhai,
Layana, onhe^
Arawack dialects, ««-<7^, 7i-ai,
MOUTH.
NOSE.
TONGUE.
baho,
agueiri,
mahainai,
bdhalo^
ghire,
nehne.
panoma^
nu-chiri,
nene, Jiino.
HAND.
FOOT.
HOUSE.
uonhuTH,
djdhavai,
niaihaino.
memen.
djehene,
nichena.
no-notna.
tcn-geopa,
nupeno.
The Quechua Stock.
In the southwestern portion of the map is marked the area at one
time included under the government of the Incas. Their authority-
extended eastward to the Rio Salado, including the valley of Cata-
marca, and as far north as the upper tributaries of the Rio Vermejo,
where they were in contact with the Chiriguanos.
This is a greater area for the Incasic power in this region than
has generally been assigned it ; but I am convinced that the evi-
dence is sufficient to justify it.
I include among the Quechuas the tribe of Omaguas or Omagua-
cas who occupied an extended territory about Jujuy. Dr. Waitz,
for various reasons, not linguistic, believed that they were a branch
of the Tupi-Guarani stock, and related to the Chiriguanos.^
My grounds for dissenting from this and placing them with the
Quechuas are the following :
1. The name Oniagua is undoubtedly the Quechua, iimayaccha,
from lima, head, and yachay, to know, understand, and means,
''intelligent, superior people."^ It was applied by the Quechuas
to various tribes whose culture or ability they respected.
2. Acarete du Biscay, who was among them in 1658, records that
they called their chiefs curaca, which is the Quechua term for the
head of a clan or village.^
3. Nicholas del Techo gives the personal name of one of their
principal chiefs as '' Piltipico." This is certainly the Quechua
1 Anthropologic der Naturvblker, Bd, iii, pp. 432, 433.
2 See von Tschudi, Beitrdge zur Kenntniss des Alien Peru, p. 139. Martins
thought it a hybrid of Quechua and Tupi. Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde
Amerikas, Bd. i, S. 436.
3 Voyage to Buenos Aires, p. 58 (London, 17 16). At that time their principal
town had 200 houses. Their immediate neighbors to the west were the Chichas,
who were Quechuas.
%
194: BRINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. LOct 7,
ppillccopichiu, which signifies a certain mountain bird highly
esteemed for its beautiful plumage/
These facts leave no reasonable doubt that this tribe was of the
Quechuan stock.
The Juris (Quechua, suri^ ostrich^) had their habitations in the
foothills about S. latitude 27° (''near the sierra of Anconquija,"
Lafone Quevedo). They are classed by D'Orbigny and Waitz
among the Guaranis, but Lafone Quevedo believes they spoke a dia-
lect of the Chaco. I included them {^American Race, p. 316)
among the Lule-Vilelas, from their location, but believe that it is
somewhat probable that they belonged to the Quechua stock.
The Lule Stock.
In my former classification of the Chaco tongues I placed the
Lule (of Machoni) and the Vilela under one group. ^ This has in a
measure been substantiated by Lafone Quevedo, though he be-
lieves the latter to be more of a jargon {mezcld) of a number of
tongues.^
This is, indeed, probable, as from their wandering habits Pel-
leschi calls them "the Jews of the Chaco." For this reason some
have included them with the Matacos. There are lexical analogies,
but the pronouns and the method of affixing them differ, the Vilela
suffixing the possessive.
For the present, it seems necessary to leave them together and
separate from others. But the Tonocotes whom I grouped with
them are no doubt Matacos, the term being a corruption of Noctenes
or Ocieneei, modifications of their own name JIuenneyei, '' Men "
(Thouar, i, p. 56).
Groups of Uncertain Affinities.
The above-mentioned eight stocks are clearly recognized, there
being sufficient linguistic material to distinguish and classify them.
1 Historia Provincice ParaquaricB, Lib. ii, cap. 7.
2 Suri was also the general name given by the Quechuas to the Province of
Tucuman ; so it would have no ethnic significance applied to a tribe.
3 The American Race, p. 316.
* «' Se ha podido establecer el hecho que (la Vilela) tiene bastante afinidad
con el Lule de Machoni" (ii, p. 40). On the Lules of Barcena see under
Cacanas. Elsewhere Lafone Quevedo says, " Vilela, 6 Chulupi ^0 Chunupi es
un co-dialecto del Lule de Machoni" [Boletin del Inst. Geog. Argent., 1894, p-
520).
1898.] BKINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. 195
But there remain a number of tribes about whom there are much
confusion and uncertainty. In some instances the same name has
been applied to groups speaking radically distinct languages, and
the identity of the name has led authors to suppose them of one
origin. I shall mention some of the more prominent examples and
attempt to diminish the difficulties which they present.
The Lenguas (Timbues).
Few tribes have contributed more to the confusion of the eth-
nography of the Chaco region than those known as the Lenguas.
Dr. Colini (i, pp. 291, 292) inserts a long note upon them, but it fails
to clear up the obscurity about them, or to reconcile the contra-
dictory statements of authors.
These contradictions are materially lessened when we learn that
the Spanish term lenguas tongue, was applied indiscriminately by
the early colonists to any tribe who had the custom of inserting a
labret, barbate, in the lower lip, causing it to project and resemble
an outstretched tongue.^ It has, therefore, no signification as a
proper name.
In the Tupi-Guarani tongue this ornament is called tembeta, from
iembe, the lower lip.^ This explains the name applied to various
tribes, Timbues, or Timbois. It is in signification the same as
Lengua, and refers to the same use of the labret ornament.^
Neither Lengua nor Timbue, therefore, is a nomen gentile. This
is evident from the discrepancies of authors about their locations
and amply explains those discrepancies.
Father Azara describes them as a subtribe of the Abipons, and
in entire conformity with this D'Orbigny* found them in 1828 living
about latitude 27°, longitude 62°, in the midst of the territory of
1 A good illustration of its use is shown in the portrait of a Suya in Von
den Steinen's Durch Cejzlral Brasilien, p. 204. Another form is where a labret
several inches in length was thrust outward and downward through the lower
lip.
2 Ruiz de Montoya, Vocabulario de la Lengua Tupi, s. v,
3 Not to the perforation of the nose, the nariz horadada, as Lafone Quevedo
states (ix, p. 4). The tef?ibefa is the sign of virility and probably a personal
and totemic sign of life. When a warrior is killed in battle his slayer carries off
the tembeta from his lip and presents it to his own wife (Thouar, i, p. 51). It
is made of wood or metal, and varies in diameter.
*D'Orbigny, L" Homiyie Anicricain, Vol. ii, pp. 116, 120, 121.
196 BEINTON— LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. [Oct. 7,
that tribe. He thought their language differed ''quant au fond,"
but apparently did not examine it closely, and considered them of
the same stock. This means simply that some of the Abipons
wore the labret.
Another tribe of Lenguas lived and still live on the right bank
of the river Paraguay, about latitude 21°. They wear the labret,
and have been recently visited by several travelers. Some of
these speak a Guaycuru dialect, according to Boggiani and Colini,
though Cardus reports authority that some are Guaranis. Possibly
two tribes residing in the same region, though of diverse stocks,
may wear the tembeta.
Further down stream, in the angle of the R. Paraguay and
R. Pilcomayo near Asuncion, is another group of Lenguas. Mr.
Lafone Quevedo states that they belong to the Mataco (Enimaga)
stock ; and this is confirmed by their numerals quoted by Father
Cardus, as the following comparison illustrates :
LENGUAS OF CARDUS.
MATACO.
One,
gezle.
guoslo.
Two,
ligague.
ho-tequachi.
Three,
diaquegzlna^
lach-tdiquajel.
Four,
dipegai,
tdiqiialessh ichi.
Five,
chumaja,
ype befagla.
The Lenguas whom M. Demersay found in this locality (i860)
lived north of the Rio Pilcomayo, near the Quartel del Cerrito,
and were fast disappearing.^
Under the Tupi appellative, Timbues, tribes wearing the labret
were reported by Pedro Mendoza on the Paraguay about where the
Mataco Lenguas were later found, and doubtless were the same.'^
Others were on the lower Parana in early times (located latitude
33°, longitude 62° by Lafone Quevedo, ix, pp. 9-1 1. and 35).
Their language is unknown, and they are long since extinct in that
locality.
The same name, Timbois, Tembetas, always for the same reason,
was applied to a tribe in the northern Chaco, speaking either Tupi
or Chiquito (Lafone Quevedo, ix, p. 11), and to a band of the
Chiriguanos (Cardus, i, p. 242).
^ Le Tour du Monde, Tome iv, p. loS.
' Coleti, Diccionario Storico-geografico delV America Meridionaley s. v.
(Venice, 177 1).
189S.] BRINTON — LINGl^ISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. 197
Some of the Chiquitos were certainly called Lenguas. Father
Fernandez mentions a tribe so named, speaking Chiquito, who
dwelt near Lake Nengetures, thirty leagues from the Rio Piray.^
A horde of the '' Payaguas " (about latitude 27°, longitude
58°) seems also to have received the name Lenguas; as a " Len-
gua " vocabulary collected by Cervifio has been shown by Lafone
Quevedo to be really Payagua, that is, Guaycuru (Tavolini i, App.,
p. 21). Doubtless they, too, made use of the labret, (see also
Lafone Quevedo, xi, p. xxix).
From the above it is evident that neither of the names ''Len-
guas " or *'Timbues " has any ethnic significance and they cause
confusion ; so I have omitted them from the map.- Believing the
so-called Lenguas between the Pilcomayo and the Paraguay to be
or to have been Matacos, I extend that stock to the latter river,
differing in this from the map of Pelleschi.
The Chanas (Chanases).
This is another general term which has led to ethnographic
errors. It is a Tupi word compounded of ane, blood relation, with
the pronominal prefix, che, my, = my relations.
Cardus, on his map, has correctly placed one of the tribes so
named about latitude 22°, longitude 65°, south of the Cliiriguanos,
to whom they are affined, both being of Tupi blood.
D'Orbigny located an early nation of this name ''on the island
of the Uruguay, opposite the mouth of the Rio Negro. "^
Lafone Quevedo has recently devoted an article to the latter
horde (ix). He places them on the mainland, latitude 34°, longi-
tude 59°. He also offers some interesting specimens of their
language from the MSS. of Father Larranaga. It appears to be
morphologically related to the eastern Chaco tongues, but the in-
formation about it is too slight to be decisive. It shows clearly,
however, that these " Chanas " were not relations of the Tupis.
Other Chaneses are located by Thouar on his map of the R.
Pilcomayo, on that river about longitude 64°, latitude 22' 30°.
1 Relacion hisiorial, p. 158.
^"Orejones," "Big-Eared," is another descriptive term applied by the
Spaniards to any tribe who expanded the lobes of the ears by artificial means.
It also has no ethnic significance.
3 L^ Homme Americam, Tome, ii, p. 84.
198 BRINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. [Oct. 7,.
These must have been a band of the Chiriguanos who have recently
wandered there.
The Ara-chanes {uara-che-ana, '' men our cousins "), located by
early writers on the Paraguay about south latitude 3o°-3i°, were
obviously a Guarani horde. Ameghino quotes authorities to show
that there were ''reductions " of Chanas who were pure Guaranis
on the Rio Carcaranal and the Rio Arecife.^
In spite of the identity in appearance and language of the
Chaneses among the Chiriguanos, there is a tradition that they are
of a different stock, all their adults having been slain and the
children adopted by the Chiriguanos. For this reason the latter
call them tapiii, slaves, while the Chaneses addresses a Chiriguano as
cheya, ' ' my master.
> >2
The Charuas and Querandies.
Acarete du Biscay, writing in 1658, says, " The country on the
north side of the river de la Plata is inhabited by none but savages
called Charruas.''^^
A wild, nomadic, equestrian nation of this name roamed over
the same territory a century later and are described by Father
Gaetano Cattaneo as intractable to the best efforts of the mission-
aries.^
Finally, about 1832, they were destroyed, as a tribe, by the
whites, though probably individuals of them survived the assaults.
They appear to have extended north as far as 30° and to have
occupied most of the area of Uruguay and parts of the Brazilian
province of Rio Grande do Sul.
The linguistic affiliation of this extended people has not been
discovered.
They are believed by I.afone Quevedo to have belonged to the
Guaycuru stock, ^ but their name, which is Guarani {cJie, my,
^ F. Ameghino, La Antiguedad del Hombre eji el Plata ^ Tome i, Cap. viii.
Other evidence is in the « Repartimiento," of 1582, published by Outes ; op.
cit. App, 3 ; but I do not signify this distribution of the Guaranis, as it seems to
have been effected by the Spaniards.
2 El Colegio Franciscano de Tarija y sas Misiones, p. 54 (Queracchi, 1884).
' Voyage to Buenos Aires, p. 28.
* His letters are appended to Muratori's // Cristianesimo Felice nel Para-
guai (ytmce, 1743).
^ In Bole tin del Instittito Geografico Argentino, 1894, p. 524.
1898.] BRINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. 199
uara, men), may indicate that they were of that tongue.^ They
wore a peculiar labret. Following D'Orbigny and others, I placed
them in The American Race as a separate stock ; but now doubt
that this was correct. No authentic texts of their language is
known to me, but the elements of their culture, the place names of
their area, and the local appellations of plants and animals are de-
rived from the Tupi Guarani."^
In a monograph recently published, Senor Felix F. Outes has ur-
gently argued that Charuas of the left bank of the La Plata and
the Querandies (Carandies) of the right bank (near where the city
of Buenos Aires is now situated) both belonged to the Guaycuru
stock. ^ The latter extended as far north as the Rio Carcarana
(south latitude 32° 30'), where they adjoined the Quiloazas (Quil-
vazas). They wore the tembeta, and at the close of the sixteenth
century were allied with the Guaranis, after which period their
name disappears. Ameghino places them in the Guarani stock, ^
while Lafone Quevedo (ix) prefers to attach them to the Guay-
curus.
The only linguistic evidence extant lies in the proper names
which have been preserved. A notable peculiarity is the frequent
termination of the names of chieftains in the syllable pen ; thus
Ccespen, Pacaospen, Allapen^ Quemumphi, etc. This termination
does not occur in the Guaycuru, but is not uncommon in the Au-
canian (Araucanian) dialects, which also were spoken by the Pam-
pean tribes. In these the word pen means estate or property. It is
probably allied io gen, a suffix signifying rule, control or ownership.^
^ Lafone Quevedo (ix, p. 12) prefers to derive it from che, my, or to me, and
harti, hurtful, [cherdrzia, "lo que me hace dano," Ruiz), which would be ap-
plicable to enemies. He inclines to attach them to the Chaco stocks, although
he quotes Hervas, who had a catechism in it, ^to the effect that their tongue was
not related to the "idioms of the Paraguay."
2 See Von Ihering, in Verhandlungen der Berlmer Anthrop. Gesell,, 1889,
PP- 655-659.
3 Los Querandies, Contribucion al Estudio de la Etnograjia Argentina
(Buenos Aires, 1897).
^ F, Ameghino, op. cit.. Tom. i., Cap. xi.
5 Comp. Febres, Diccionario Araucano, s.v., and Haverstadt, Chiliditgu,
Section 285. The latter gives the example, incite -gen ovicha -gen. '« I am
owner or master of these sheep." It is both a suffix and prefix. As a suffix, it
often conveys the abstract sense of property or quality. Cf. Valdivia, Arte y
Gra7natica de la lengua del Reyno de Chile, pp. 41, 42.
200
BKINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY.
[Oct. 7,
Moreover, when in 1580 the Spaniards routed the Querandies,
they fled not to the Guaycurus, but to the Ranqueles, whom they
must have regarded as their kinsmen. The Ranqueles, however,
are of Aucanian lineage and language.
I believe, therefore, that I was right in The American Race
(p. 323) in placing the Querandies in the Aucanian stock, an
opinion strengthened by the arguments of Burmeister from historic
a.nd archaeologic grounds.^
The Payaguas.
In my American Race I have counted this as one of the irreduci-
ble stocks of the Chaco, represented by the following tribes :
Agaces, on the Rio Paraguay.
Payaguas, near Santa Fe.
SarigueSy on middle Paraguay."
Sr. Lafone Quevedo maintains that the Payagua is of the same
stock as the Mocovi and Abipon, /'. <?., the Guaycuru (xi, p. xliii).
He bases this on a resemblance which he claims in the pronouns.
Von Martins denies that there was ever any specific tribe so
called. The name, he thinks, is from the Tupi, paracudhygoata,
*' a, swimmer of the Paraguay."^ But I believe it is simply the
word given by Ruiz y Montoy a, paraguaiguara, " the people of the
Paraguay."^
That some so called did belong to the Guaycuru stem will be
evident from a study of the following comparisons :
Comparisoft of the Payagua with the Guaycuru Dialects.
PAYAGUA. GUAYCURU.
Beard, hyakd^yaka.
Bread, asyd, yacia.
Brother, yagoiid, yagiiba.
Child, duanat.
Moc, y-acca (my); Toba, yacalaue.
From yi.oQ..,asole^ maize.
'Yohz., yacaya (my).
Mbaya, niaajti (my).
1 See his article in the Verhandlungen of the Berlin Anthropological Society,
Bd. vii, p. 59.
2 The American Race, p. 316.
^ Ethnographic tend Sprachenkunde Amerikas, Bd. ii, p. 225.
* Vocabulario de la Lengtca Guarani, sub voce Paragua. On Arrowsmith's
map (1810), the Payaguas are located on the left bank of the Rio Paraguay at
the entrance of the Rio Pilcomayo; but I have found the locations of tribes on
that map of small value.
1898.]
BRINTOX — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY .
201
PAYAGUA.
Ear, hyaheguada^ yaigua.
Eye, yatiqui.
Face, ignechogra.
Finger, kychangd, igutsan, ygchan.
Foot, hyboro^seiid, bo, ybagro.
Girl, lugandra.
Hand, siimajyd, imajd, inagchiac.
Head, yamagra.
Home, yaggo.
Moon, apajsa.
Mother, yoja-tisa.
Mouth, hyachdldi, yajalqtii.
Sun, is cabala.
Thigh, yejegd, yesigue.
Water, naaac, ueigh, gnayaque.
Women, emjira, elommi.
GUAYCURU.
Cad., na-pagate.
Abip., yatoete,
Abip., y-agic ; Moc, y-schih (my), ca-
ssigui (thy).
Toba, y-oganta, gohantd.
y[.oc.,y-ppia (my).
QdA.^yonard (daughter).
Toba, einacJi, eiJiak (left hand).
Abipon, yemag, neniag.
h\yv^oxi,yecqiii (my)/ Qz.^.,nilagadi,
Moc, appe (night) : Cad., aipainahi.
Moc, eyodo.
Cad., joladi.
Abip., nald.
Moc, uasayac, eva-gayacca.
Moc, aid (female).
But this identification must not be applied to all the Payaguas.
On various maps they will be found located along the great river
anywhere from S. latitude i8° to 32° ; and it is evident that tribes
of widely different linguistic affiliations were called by this generic
appellation.
For instance, m 1703, Father Neumann met the Payaguas on the
river about forty leagues above Asuncion, and these spoke Guarani,
as they called out to him :
^^Pe'e pemomba ore camarada Buenos Aires viarupi^^ ("You were
with those who destroyed our friends at Buenos Aires ").
At that time they extended north as far as the Rio Tobati, where
they adjoined the Sinamecas.^
The Cacanas and Calchiquis.
Near the southwest corner of the map, I have placed within the
Quechua territory, the Cacanas and Dieguitas. In The Americaft
Race (p. 320), I have included these under the hypothetical " Cata-
marena " linguistic stock.
We have the positive statement of the early missionary, Alonso
de Barcena, that Calchaquis, Diaguitas and Cacanas, spoke the same
tongue, and that it was quite different from its neighbors ; but it
1 P. Juan P. Fernandez, Relacion Hisforial de los Indios Chiquitos, pp. 154,
158 (Madrid, 1726).
202 BEINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. [Oct. 7,
has long been extinct and no specimen of it seems to have been
preserved.
At the time I wrote there was not a word positively identified as
of this stock ; and I must say the same now in spite of Lafone Que-
vedo's interesting essay (iii).
From various writers he collects the following as probably de-
rived from the Cacana tongue :
■a, or -auy or -ao, village, a locative termination.
-aquin, ruler, chief.
caylle^ a serpent-like tracing on copper, an amulet.
•CO, termination meaning water, or watery.
-cocavi, pounded maize.
etija misajo, « bad head;" perhaps, enjam, head.
is, good, aco, not (Mataco, isajia, " not good ").
gasta, village, a locative termination.
hi, fire, light.
vil, locative termination.
y, his, their, pronominal suffix.
Of these words, the frequent termination gasta I believe, in spite
of the opinion of von Tschudi,^ is the Quechua llacta, in a Spanish
corruption ', and -a, or ao, resembles much the Quechuan locative
termination aui. The word cocavi, cooked or prepared maize,
reminds one of the Quechua chucuca, which means the same. The
idol or tracing of a serpent, caylle, may well have been that of the
old or big serpent, machii kay, of the Quechuas.^
Again, the title with which the Indians of Calchaqui saluted the
impostor, Inca Pedro Chamijo, was, according to Lozano, iitaqiii?i,
from which aquin in the above list is taken. But this is pure
Quechua, as Holguin gives chapaqquen as '^ Seilor de Indios."^
There is not sufficient evidence that this list offers any Cacana
1 Von Tschudi, in Verha7id. der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft, 1885, p. 184.
A proof that it is from Quechua is that the same corruption is found in Chile, for
instance, Antofagasta. I have discussed this question at some length in my
Studies in South Airierican Native La}7gnages, pp. 54, 55 (Philadelphia, 1892).
2 See Holguin, Vocabulario de la Lengua Qquichtta, s. v. " Culebra " and
" Serpiente." Ambrosetti also is inclined to regard this symbol as of Peruvian
origin, representing the lightning snake and connected with the rains. See his
article, " El Simbolo de la Serpiente en la Alfareria funeraria de la region Cal-
chaqui," Bol, Inst. Geog. Argentino, 1896, pp. 219 sq.
^Elsewhere (xii, Sec. 12) Lafone Quevedo says, " Yo siempre he atribuido el
mismo origen etnico-linguistico a los Cacanes, Lules de Barcena y Guaycuru-
Abipones."
1898.] BRIXTOX — LIXGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. 203
words, and the problem of the tongue is still unsolved, unless we
agree, as I now incline, with the conclusion of Waitz,^ that it was
merely a corrupt dialect of the widely extended Quechua stock.
The evidence collected a third of a century ago by Vicente G.
Quesada points strongly in this direction.^ The Quechua was then
still spoken in the valleys of Catamarca and around Santiago del
Estero, Salta and Jujuy. Seven leagues from the city of Salta was
still pointed out the " great walls of the Inca," the remains of the
Inca huasi, '' the house of the Inca," about which in 1658 Acarete
du Biscay recorded the legend : "In the valley of Calchaqui was
the house of the last Incas of Peru, which was called the White
House ; and there was a great deal of treasure there which the
natives kept as a mark of their antient grandeur."^
While it is possible that at the Conquest some relics of an earlier
tongue remained, that generally spoken was Quechua. This was
said in so many words of the neighborhood of Cordova, in 1583,
by the Licentiate Cepeda, ** La gente de esta tierra hablan una
lengua que llaman Comechingona, y otra Zanavirona, aunque los
mas que sirven y entran y van hablando en la lengua general de
Piru."^
Other Unidentified Tribes.
There remain a number of tribes mentioned as populous and
important by the early writers, of some of whose idioms grammars
and dictionaries were constructed, whom we cannot with certainty
assign to the stocks I have mentioned.
Thus, Father del Techo in his list of the Chaco tribes as known in
1628, names the Taimvice, who once occupied one hundred and
eighty-eight villages; the Teutce, and the Agotce} We have no
knowledge that the grammars of various of these tribes prepared by
Father Caspar Osorius (mentioned by Techo) have been preserved.^
^ Anthropologie der Naturvdlker, Bd. iv, p. 380.
2 See his article, " Apuntes sobre el Origen de la lengua quichua en Santiago
del Estero," printed in his volume, Estudios Historicos, Buenos Aires, 1863.
^ Acarete du Biscay, Voyage to Buenos Aires, p. 54 (London, 1 7 16).
^ Relaciones Geograficas de Indias, Peru, Tom. ii, App., p. x (Madrid,
1885).
^ Historia Provincice Paraquaride, Lib. viii, Cap. 5.
* Ren6-Moreno mentions in his Biblioteca Boliviana, p. 599, that at the be-
ginning of this century there existed in the Hbrary of the Pueblo de San
Ignacio, Province of Chiquito, an Arte de la lengua Guaycuru, one volume
quarto, MS. Possibly this is one of the works referred to in the text.
204 BRINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. [Oct. 7,
But in this direction the most serious loss has been that of the
works of Father Alphonso Barsena, although these were carefully
copied in several examples by his disciple, Peter Agnascus. The
classic passage describing these is the following :
^'Alfonsus Barsena, insatiabili animarum Christo lucrandarum
desiderio flagrans, communicatus cum Petro Agnasco studiis,
Guaranicam, Naticam, Quisoquinam, Abiponicam, Quiranguicam,
linguas didicit, vocabulariis, rudimentis, catechismis, et concioni-
bus, ad earum usum compositis ; cum tamen, antequam uterque e
Tucumania discederent, Tonocotanam, Kakanam, Paquinam, Qui-
randicam, ad praecepta et lexica eo fine reduxissent, ut sociis in
partem laborum Venturis, facilitatem ad eas perdiscendas adferrent.
Atque ut latius utilitas serperet, Petrus Agnascus pleraque, omnia ab
Alfonso Barsena presertim composita, elegantissimo caractere pluries
transcripsit, transcriptaque publici juris fecit. "^
Of these, the Naticas, called also Mogonas, dwelt in 1790 on the
upper Rio Vermejo f the Abipone is familiar ; the Tonocote I have
already classified, but of the others we have no positive knowledge.
Bibliographic Note.
J. B. Ambrosetti :
I. Vocabularies in Anales de la Socledad Scientifica. Argentina, 1894.
II. Los Indies Caingua del Alto Parana, Boletin del Institute Geograf. Ar.
gentin., 1895.
III. Materiales para el Estudio de las Lenguas del Grupo Kanagaugue, Bol.
de la Acad. Nac. en Cordoba. 1896.
P. Alonso Barcena :
I. Arte y Vocabulario de la Lengua Toba. La Plata, 1893. (Edited by
S. A. Lafone Quevedo.)
GUIDO BOGGIANI :
I. I Ciamacoco. Roma, 1894.
11. I Caduvei. Roma, 1895.
XII. Vocabulario dell' Idioma Guana. Roma, 1895.
IV. Los Indios Chamacocos, in Revista del Institute Paraguayo, April,
1898.
V. Etnografia del A.lto Paraguay, Bol. Inst. Geog. Argent., 98.
Fr. Jose Cardus :
I, Las Misiones Franciscanas entre los Infielesde Bolivia. Barcelona, 1886.
Dr. G. a. CoLtNi :
I. Notizie Storiche ed Etnografiche sopra i Guaycuru e gli Mbaya. Roma,
1895;
1 Nicolas del Techo, ubi supra. Lib. ii, Cap. 43. Father Barsena died in 1597.
2 D'Orbigny, L^ Homme Americain, Tome ii, p. ii.
1898.]
BRINTON — LINGUISTIC CARTOGRAPHY. 205
Giovanni Pelleschi:
I. Otto Mesi nel Gran Ciacco. Florence, i88i.
II. Los Indios Matacos y su Lengua. Buenos Aires, 1897.
Samuel A. Lafone Quevedo :
I. Vocabulario Toba. La Plata, 1893.
II. La Lengua Vilela 6 Chulupe. Buenos Aires, 1895.
III. Tesoro de Catamarquenismos. Buenos Aires, 1895.
IV. Idioma Abipon. Buenos Aires, 1896.
V. Los Indios Matacos y su Lengua. Buenos Aires, 1896.
VI. El Grupo Mataco-Mataguayo. Dialecto Nocten. Buenos Aires, 1896.
VII. El Grupo Mataco-Mataguayo. Dialecto Vejoz. Buenos Aires, 1896.
VIII. Idioma Mbaya. Buenos Aires, 1896.
IX. Los Indios Chanases y su Lengua. Buenos Aires, 1897.
X. Los Lules. Buenos x\ires, 1894.
XL Principios de Gramatica Mocovi. La Plata, 1893.
XII. Las Migraciones de los Indios en la America Meridional. Buenos Aires,
1895.
P. Francisco Tavolini :
I. Arte de la Lengua Mocovi. La Plata, 1892. Edited by S. A. Lafone
Quevedo.
A. Thouar :
I. Explorations dans I'Amerique du Sud. Paris, 1891.
List of Ethnographic Maps Consulted.
1. Carta del " Gran Ciaco," in Boggiani, i, p. 26.
2. Map of the Caduvei, in u/. ii, p. 240.
3. Carte pour suivre le Voyage de M. A. Thouar, i.
4. Le Chaco Boreal in eod, i.
5. Mapa Etnico de las tribus Mataco-Mataguayos in Lafone Quevedo (vii).
6. Mapa Etnico del Rio de la Plata, in Lafone Quevedo (ix).
7. Mapa Historico Etnico de los Indios Abipones, in Lafone Quevedo iv.
8. Mapa Etnico de la Region Mataco Mataguaya, in Pelles.„hi, ii.
9. Mapa de las Misiones Franciscanas y tribus Salvages en Bolivia, in Cardus, i.
10. Carta de Ilustracion de las Misiones del Colegio de Tarija, in Tari/a y Sus
Misiones, Quaracchi, 1881.
11. Mapa Etnico del Territorio Paraguayo-BrasilianoBoliviano al Rio Paraguay
desde el 19O hasta el 26^, in Boggiani, v.
12. J. H. de Brettes, Carte de Voyage, in Mallat de Bassilan, U Amerique In-
conmie. Paris, 1892.
The Map.
The accompanying map is intended to exhibit the areas and boundaries of the
linguistic stocks of the Chaco region at the period of its latest permanent occu-
pation by the native tribes. It is made up from various ethnographic authorities
and from the recent maps the list of vi'hich is appended.
SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
SHAKESPEARE'S PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. OF
TYRE.
BY ALBERT H. SMYTH.
{Mead October 7, 1898.)
Shakespe3.re' s I'en'c/es J^n'nce o/ Tyre is the most singular example
in Elizabethan literature of a consistent copying of a venerable and
far-traveled story. The Apollonius Saga, from which it is wholly
drawn, is known to nearly every language of Europe, and persists
through more than a thousand years, flourishing in extraordinary
popularity. Its undiminished vitality through many centuries and its
almost unaltered integrity through many languages make it an attrac-
tive subject for critical exposition. From its untraced origin in the
late sophistic romance of Greece it entered the literatures of Europe
through a hundred manuscripts of an early Latin version. It was
popular in Italy, Russia, Hungary, Bohemia, Norway and Iceland ;
it is found in a Danish ballad and a Netherland drama; it was sung
by Provencal poets, and beyond the Pyrenees it was borrowed from
to praise the Cid ; it was translated in Crete into modern Greek in
the sixteenth century ; it was absorbed in France into the cycle of
Charlemagne, and it is the only romance in Anglo-Saxon literature.
The mythical Apollonius tossing on strange seas about the Mediter-
ranean coasts became a veritable hero of history to the Germans,
French and Italians, in the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies.
The long line of translations, imitations, mdrchen, iwlksbiicher^
sagas, romances, ballads and plays, ends at last in the culminating
splendor of Shakespeare's Pericles Prince of Tyre.
The Anglo-Saxon romance, Gower's version in Confessio Amantis,
and Shakespeare's drama have been studied with zeal and care ;
Al. Riese and M. Ring have edited the Latin text ; Prof. Erwin
Rohde, in Der griechische Roman und seine Voridufer, and Teuffel-
Schwabe, Geschichte der rbmische Litieratiir, have partly traced the
history of the saga; and S. Singer, Apollonius von Tyrus, Untersuchun-
gen iiber das P'ortleben des antiken Pomans in spdtern Zeiten, has
compared the chief versions of the story. I have attempted in this
new study to give a complete historical sketch of the romance, to
compare its more important narratives with particular reference to
. /
C?^rngea[ppoipnofcbr?c.
^Y^^l^^
FROM WYNKYN DE WORDE. 1510.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 207
its final shape in Shakespeare, and to indicate its relations to the
Vilkina saga, the poem of King Orendel, the chanson of Jourdain de
Blaivies, the Solomon-Markolf cycle, and the Antheia and Habro-
komes of Xenophon of Ephesus. For ten years I have followed the
story through the libraries of Europe, collating MSS. and examin-
ing incunabula from Copenhagen to Constantinople. And I have
observed with satisfaction in that time a growing sense of the im-
portance of this saga in the history of literature. Various literary
tasks have interfered with the completion and publication of my
study, a delay which has not been without its advantages ; for in
consequence of it I have seen certain rare and important texts and
codices edited and given to the world by far worthier hands than
mine. A few years ago I edited the unique manuscript of the
Anglo-Saxon y//^//<?;z///i- in the library of Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge, and should have embodied it in this publication, but
that my friend, Prof. Julius Zupitza, has happily forestalled me and
edited the text ^ with erudition, judgment and skill that leave noth-
ing to be desired.
The full text of the story, according to the version in the Gesta
Romanorum, will be found printed in an Appendix to this paper,
and to that the reader should refer as to an authoritative source.
The story as it is found in Historia Apollonii regis Tyri (Alex.
Riese, Lipsiae, 1871 ; iterum recensuit, 1893) may be briefly sum-
marized as follows :
The Story.
King Antiochus, the founder of Antioch, having one only
daughter, fell in unnatural love with her; and that he might
keep her for himself he made a law that whoso presumed to desire
her in marriage and could not unfold the meaning of certain rid-
dles which the king proposed should lose his life, and his head
should be placed over the palace door as a warning. Among many
other rich and powerful princes and lords who adventured came
Apollonius of Tyre, who interpreted the riddle in which the king
had artfully concealed, as he thought, his illicit love for his daugh-
ter. Terrified at his discovery, Apollonius returned secretly to
Tyre, freighted a ship with necessaries, with wheat and with
treasure, and in the night departed upon a sea-voyage. Antiochus
1 Archiv filr das Studiiun der neueren Sprachen und Litteraturen, 1896.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 158. N. PRINTED DEC. 15, 1898.
208 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
dispatched a slave to Tyre with poison for the prince, only to learn
from his messenger that Apollonius had fled. While he was thus
sought for, Apollonius had arrived at Tarsus in Cilicia, where a
citizen, Stranguillio, informed him of the famine that prevailed in
the city. With his wheat he relieved the distress of the people,
and out of gratitude they erected a bronze statue of him in the mar-
ket-place. After a little while the vessel again put to sea, and, in
a great tempest, was wrecked, and Apollonius alone, of all the
ship's company, was cast ashore at Cyrene. An old fisherman who
discovered him pitied his misfortune, clothed him with part of his
own garments, and directed him to the city (Pentapolis of Cyrene).
Upon his arrival there he found the youth of the land engaged in
ball-play {i-)(T7.upo'^y before Archistrates, the king. Apollonius took
part in the game and won the king's approval and the prize of com-
petition by his skill and strength. He was commanded to sit by
the king at supper, and the king's daughter begged him to relate
his adventures. Apollonius, having gone outside, put on a robe of
state {stattis) and a crown^ and taking a lyre went into the triclinium.
Delighted with his playing, the princess besought the king that
she might learn from the stranger, who, by permission of the
king, became her teacher. One day the king was encountered
in his walk by three young men (prince's sons) who declared
their love for his daughter. Archistrates required each of them
to write a letter setting forth his name, his parentage and his
wealth, and sent the letters by the hand of Apollonius to the
princess, who confessed the great love that had grown in her
for Apollonius. With the royal consent they were married.
After a time a vessel from Tyre put into port bringing the news
that Antiochus and his daughter had been killed by a lightning
stroke, and that Apollonius was heir to the city of Antioch, with ail
its riches, and the whole kingdom. With his consort he im-
mediately set sail, with the best wishes of Archistrates for a pros-
perous journey. Hardly were they two days old at sea when a
tempest arose, during which the princess was delivered of a daughter.
The mother directly after appeared as one dead, whereupon the
captain of the vessel came to Apollonius saying that the sailors
would not permit the body to remain in the ship. A chest was
^ See Marquardt, Rdniisches Altertum, v, ii, 425.
2 This robe, or long flowing gown — statum lyj-iciim — appears to indicate the
costume of the Citharists.
1898.] SMYTH — PEKICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 209
made with much care, and the supposed corpse of the princess was
laid within it, with treasure at the head and at the feet, and so
committed to the deep. On the third day the chest was cast ashore
on the coast of Ephesus, and was found by Cerimon, a physician,
who, with his scholars, was walking upon the shore. When the
chest was opened, and the body found and marveled at by all, it
was observed by one of the scholars (Machaon) that some sparks of
life yet lingered. He ordered a fire to be kindled, and chafed the body
until the blood again began to flow freely and the lady to awaken
from her trance. By her own request she was placed in the Temple
of Diana at Ephesus, " for aye to be in shady cloister mewed."
The sorrowful Apollonius came, by fortunate winds, to Tarsus,
where he left his daughter and her nurse, Lycoris, in the care of
Stranguillio and his wife, Dionysias, to be brought up with their
daughter. And he swore an oath that he would not cut his hair,
nor his beard, nor his nails until his daughter's marriage. He then
departed into Egypt. The daughter, whose name was Tharsia,
grew up in Tarsus, comely and well schooled. At fourteen years
of age she learned from her dying nurse the names of her parents
and the story of her birth in the tempest.
Dionysias, jealous of the child's beauty, and that she was so much
in the heart of the people that her own child was altogether mis-
prised, ordered her slave (Theophilus) to murder Tharsia, instruct-
ing him to wait by the tomb of Lycoris, whither it was the wont of
Tharsia each day to repair and to pray, and there to seize and slay
the child and to throw the body into the sea. The murderous in-
tent was frustrated by the sudden appearance of some pirates, who
-carried Tharsia to their ships and departed with her. The slave
returned to Dionysias and announced that the deed that she had
ordered was done, whereupon the family put on mourning and a
monument was erected by the people with this inscription " Unto
the virgin Tharsia in lieu of her father's benefits, the citizens of
Tarsus have erected this monument."^
The pirates landed at Mitylene and sold Tharsia to a brothel.
In this loathsome place she still preserved her honor, drawing tears
from those who sought her company by her moving recital of her
painful adventures. Athenagoras, ''the first in the city," visited
her and was moved with compassion and pity.
^ *« D. M. Gives Tharsi Tharsise Virgini Beneficiis Tyrii Apollonii" (Codex
Parasinus, 4955)-
210 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
After fourteen years Apollonius returned to Tarsus only to learn
that his daughter was dead, and after he had seen her monument he
returned to his ship where he lay lonely and sad. Again driven by
a tempest, the vessel chanced upon the coast of Mitylene, upon the
birthday of Apollonius. Athenagoras walking toward the sea-shore
saw Apollonius' tall ship riding at anchor and praised her stately
appearance to the mariners, who invited him to come aboard and
to partake of their feast. Upon inquiring after the owner of the
ship, he learned that he was ill and weak with sorrow, that he had
lost his wife upon the sea and his daughter in a strange land.
Athenagoras offered two pieces of gold to the servant who would
go down and tell his master that the Prince of the City desired him
to come up out of darkness into light, but the servant replied that
he could not buy new thighs with gold and that his master had
said that whoever troubled him should have his thighs broken.
Athenagoras then went in person, but in vain. Upon being told
that the name of the master of the ship was Apollonius, he remem-
bered that he had heard Tharsia call her father so. It occurred to
him to send for Tharsia, whom he desired to comfort the lord of the
vessel with her song. Apollonius wondered at her song, requited
her with a hundred pieces of gold and bade her depart. Upon the
demand of Athenagoras, she returned again to the despairing father
and attempted to cheer him with riddles. Apollonius solved the
riddles, but, vexed by her importunity, as it seemed to him, he rose
up suddenly and struck her on the face so that she fell to the ground.
Weeping, she lamented her unhappy fate, and at last Apollonius
recognized his daughter.
The bawd who had purchased Tharsia was burned ; the citizens
of Mitylene erected two statues of brass in the market-place, *' Unto
Apollonius, prince of Tyrus, the preserver of our houses ; and unto
his virtuous daughter Tharsia;" and Tharsia was given as wife unto
Athenagoras.
Upon his return to Tyre, in company with his daughter and son-
in-law, Apollonius had a dream in which he was commanded of an
angel to sail unto Ephesus and to go to the Temple of Diana and there
with a loud voice to declare all his adventures. This he did, and
was recognized by his wife, and the reunited family journeyed to
Antioch, where Apollonius was crowned king. Thence he sailed to
Tyre, where he found his kingdom governed in good order. He
left his son-in-law as lieutenant at Tyre, and took ship for Tarsus,
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 211
and denounced Stranguillio and Dionysias, who were thereupon
stoned to death by the people, who would also have slain the slave
Theophilus had not Tharsia interposed, and at whose intercession
his life was spared. After three months the family departed for
Cyrene, where they were received with great joy. The old king,
Archistrates, died in the arms of his children ; the fisherman who
had befriended the naked ApoUonius was richly rewarded, as was
also Hellenicus, who had brought to him the news of the malice of
Antiochus. So ApoUonius reigned over Antioch, Tyre and Cyrene,
and in happy union with his wife reached a great age. The history
of his adventures he wrote in two volumes ; one he sent to the Tem-
ple of Diana at Ephesus and the other he placed in his own library
(Oxon. Magdal., 50).
The Origin of the Story.
It is clear that the narrative exhibits the familiar mannerism of
the Greek sophistic romance. The circle of adventures in the
Babylonian histories of lamblichus, the Ethiopian histories of
Heliodorus,^ the Ephesian histories of Xenophon, the history of
Leucippe and Klitophon, etc., is the same in all instances. The
writers of this cycle had contrived a universal apparatus of romance
upon which they drew liberally and upon equal terms — pirates,
sea-storms, dreams, apparent death, reunited lovers, etc., were the
materials out of which the romances were made.
No Greek original of the ApoUonius story has been discovered,
but it is hardly believable that no such original existed. Riese
{Histona Apollonii regis Tyri)^ Rohde {Der griechische Rojnari),
W. Christ {Sitzungsberichte der Miinchen. PhiloL CL, 1872, S. 4),
W. Teuffel (^Rh. Mas., xxvii, 104), VV. Meyer ('' Abhandlung
ijber den lateinischen Text der Geschichte des ApoUonius von
Tyrus," in Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch., philolog. u. histor-
ischen Classe d. Konig-Bayer. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu
Milncheft, 1872, Heft i, S. 3-29), E. WiXwews {Fleckeisens /ahr-
biich, 103, pp. 856-858), W. Hartel {Oestreich. Wochenschrift f,
Kunst und IVis sense haft, 1872, pp. 161-172), and J. G. von Hahn
(^Griechische und Albanesische Mdrchen, ii, 250), have searched
^"HsXtodwpou AiOto7:f/.rj?'I(7Topta<s Bt^Ua di/.a, Heliodori Historise ^thio-
picse libri decern, nunquam antea in lucem editi (ed. by V. Obsopaeus). Ba-
siliae, 1534.
212 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
for Greek color and allusions in the earliest Latin versions and
have found sufficient to justify Teuffel's conclusion that the original
author was a pagan Greek from Asia Minor (" Der Verfasser dessel-
ben war vielleicht aus dem griechischen Klein-Asien und noch
Heide," J^k. Mus., xxvii, 104). Teuffel adds (id., 103), '*das
christliche Gewand ist dem Stoffe erst von dem Uebersetzer lassig
umgeworfen." A list of the graecisms may be found in Riese, ed.
1 87 1 (xi-xiii). Haupt denied the Greek origin, but was confuted
by Rohde. See Thielmann, Ueber Sprache und Kritik des lat.
Apollonius Ro7nanSy Speier, 1881, for arguments for the Latin origin
of the story. ^
There is a singular relationship which cannot be explained as an
accidental coincidence between the Apollonius and the Greek
sophistic romance of Antheia and Habrokomes, of Xenophon of"
Ephesus — Xenophontis Ephesii Ephesiacorum, libri V, de Amori-
bus Anthiee et Abrocomae nunc primum prodeunt .... cum
Latina interpretatione A. Cocchii, London, 1726.-
Antheia and Habrokomes meet in the Temple of Diana, are mar-
ried, but in obedience to an oracle of Apollo are forced to travel.
They become separated and A. falls into the hands of robbers,
from whom she is rescued by Perilaus, a young nobleman. A.
consents to marry him but, on the eve of the marriage, swallows a
sleeping potion which she had secured from a physician, a friend of
Perilaus, to whom she has confided her story.* She is lamented as
dead, and is conveyed to a sepulchre. She awakens in the tomb
which is plundered by pirates for the sake of the treasure it con-
tains.
The bold outlines of the narrative are common to both the
^ Cf. E. Klebs, Phil, 47, 80, for evidence that the story is a version of a pagan
Latin work of the third century.
2 Cf. Dunlop History of Prose Fiction London, 1888, Vol. i, pp. 61-63.
Angelo Poliziano mentions the Ephesian History — I(pz(nay.d to. Kara ''AyOiav
tai ^AiSpoKo/irju — in his Liber. MiscelL, li. It w^as translated into Italian in
1723. There are two other Xenophons nearly contemporary — X. Antiochenus
and X. Cyprius.
'Douce ("Illustrations") observed that these incidents resemble the leading
adventure of Romeo and Juliet though he admits that Xenophon's work
was not translated nor published when Luigi da Porto wrote the novel La Gin-
lietta on which Shakespeare's play is based. The story was everywhere popular.
Lopez de Vega wrote a play upon it — Los Castelvines y Monteses.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 21 {J
Ephesiaca and the ApoUoiiius. The marriage of the principal
figures of the romance is in both instances at the beginning and
not at the end of the adventures. The stories are alike in the in-
tended assassination of the heroine by a slave commissioned
by a jealous mistress ; the compassion of the murderer ; the
escape of the heroine; her preservation of her purity in a
brothel, and the final recognition of the lovers in a temple by
means of the hero's repetition in a loud voice of his adventures.
ApoUonius is succoured by an old fisherman of Cyrene ; Habro-
komes sojourns with a fisherman of Syracuse. Rohde conjectures
that the idyllic sequestration of such a picture of contented poverty
called forth imitators (^Der griechische Roman, p. 412). The wife
of ApoUonius is regarded by mistake as Artemis herself, and the
same mistake is made with regard to Antheia. The correspondence
between the two romances is briefly indicated by W. Meyer {Sit-
zungsberichte der Milnch. Akad. Phil. CL, 1872, p. 3), and the
parallelism is more fully made out by Rohde {^Der griechische Ro77iany
pp. 412, 413). The latter even finds in the brevity and dryness of
the narrative an indication of a significant correspondence of man-
ner in the two narrators, for the usual romantic style of the period
was overflowing with pathos and color.
A correspondence so exact and even verbal is only explicable
upon the theory that one of the narrators was the imitator of the
other. Of course it is quite conceivable that some Latin follower
of later Greek sophistry had ventured an imitation of the Greek
prototypes of erotic romance poetry, but the possibility of such an
explanation disappears, and the conviction that the Latin Apol-
lonius is a translation of an original Greek romance becomes irre-
sistible when the student discovers in the text — as in a palimpsest^
Rohde says — a double stratum of pagan-Greek and Christian-Latin
conceptions, customs and turns of expression. It is clear enough
that the pagan ground work and the clumsily adjusted Christian
additions are by different hands ; and if in the oldest Latin version
two writers are found to be engaged upon the old text there is
hardly a more simple explanation conceivable than that a Greek
romance originally written by a Greek of the ancient faith was
translated by a Christian of the Latin half of the empire. The love
of arts evinced by both men and women in the ApoUonius romance
smacks more of Greek manners than of Roman, or Christian-
Roman iconoclastic zeal ; while such a passage as that in which
214 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
the fisherman divides his cloak with Apollonius resembles the story
of St. Martin and indicates an origin in the Vulgate/
When Tharsia plays upon the harp in the cabin of Apollonius'
ship, she proposes to the king, in order to dispel his melancholy,
certain riddles derived from the collection of Symphosius.^ Here
there is a reminiscence of a popular kind of Oriental mdrchen in
which the sad and the sick are cheered and healed, by jugglers, moun-
tebanks and fools. J. G. von Hahn, in Griechische und albanesische
Mdrchen, ii, 250, collects some parallels to the Apollonius-Tharsia
story that are useful for comparison. He does not mention the
Apollonius, but he quotes from Apollodor, iii, cap. vii, para. 7 :
*' Euripides sagt [/. e., in his second tragedy Alkmaon'], Alkmaon
zeugte zur Zeit seines Wahnsinns mit Manto, der Tochter des Tire-
sias, zwei Kinder, Amphilochos und Tisiphone. Er brachte die
Kinder nach Korinth, und iibergab sie dem Konig der Korinther,
Kreon, zur Erziehung. Die Tisiphone aber welche sich durch ihre
Schonheit auszeichnete wurde von der Gattin des Kreon in die
Sklaverei verkauft, weil diese fiirchtete, dass sie Kreon zu seiner
Frau machen konnte. Alkmaon kaufte sie und hatte sie zur Skla-
vin, ohne zu wissen, dass es seine Tochter sei. Als er darauf nach
Korinth ging, um seine Kinder abzuholen, brachte er auch von dort
seinen Sohn mit." Hahn compares the Euripidean story with the
northern saga of Aslaug, daughter of Sigurd : " Aslaug als Kind
von einem Harfner in seiner Harfe geborgen wird, so ergiebt sich
in dem Zitherspiele der jungen Heldin des griechischen Marchens
ein neues Verbindungsglied zwischen Aslaug und Tisiphone." The
story of Tisiphone is repeated in India. Benfey, Pantschatanira,
ii, 201, relates: ''Ein Konig wendet einem Schuhmacher seine
Gunst zu, und vertraut ihm sein Sohnchen an. Der Schuhmacher
entfiihrt den Knaben in seinem 4ten Jahre, beraubt ihn seiner
^ *' Sic piscatorem dimidiam sagi partem Apollonio naufrago dantem ad sancti
Martini exemplum [Sulpic. Sever. Vita S. Mart. c. 3] conformavit," Riese, ed.
of 1893, P- xviii. The story of Tharsia in the house of the Pander reappears in
the ecclesiastical legends, <?. g., the legend of St. Agnes, Cf. Simrock, p. 119.
Cf. Leben tind Wmiderthaten des Heiligeii Alariin. Aitfranzosisches Gcdicht
aiis dent Anfang des XIII. Jahrhunderts von Pean Gatineau (^aus Toicrs).
Herausgegeben von "Werner Soderhjehii, Prof. Univ. Ilelsingfors, in Bibliothek
des Litt. Vereins in Stuttgart, 1896, Vol. 210.
2 The riddles of Symphosius or Symposiiis are to be found in many editions.
Cf. Cent Enigmes d la Manikre de SytnposiuSy Auguste Du Bois [1868];
Mpigrammata et Poematia Vetera, 1590. The author w^as Caelius Firmianus
Symposius. See also the conclusion of the /%<?<?^rz/j' of Joannes Meursius, 1610.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 215
Kostbarkeiten und verkauft ihn als Sklaven. Der neue Herr ver-
kauft ihn an seinen Vater, der ihni seine Gunst zuwendet ; diese
benutzt des Konigs Juwelier um ihn zu verfiihren des Konigs Siegel
zu stehlen ; als ihn dieser dafiir hinrichten lassen will, und ihn
entkleiden liisst, erkennt er in ihm an einem Male seinen verlore-
nen Sohn."
The Volksmarchen are marked by childlike simplicity and naivete.
They translate the reader into a realm of extravagant fancy where
" One vast realm of wonder spreads around,
And all the muse's tales seem'truly told."
The gold that is sown so liberally is fairy gold, and the kings
and princesses are fairy people. Not seldom, however, in the
midst of the thaumaturgy of the Apollonius narrative a scene is
half disclosed that reveals the presence of the attentive and skillful
Greek rhetorician who was the first to handle the romance. Thus
the scene at the beginning of the banquet with King Archistrates is
perhaps modeled after the meal of Menelaus in the Odyssey. Rohde
thinks also that the grace of an original picture has been blurred
by the copyist in such scenes as the courtship of the three youths,
and the old king's roguish familiar treatment of them ; the dis-
covery of the chest by the physician, Cerimon, and his preco-
ciously smart pupil j and the half-scurrilous, half-farcical manner
of the bawd.
On the other hand, Riese points out (Vorrede, p. xv) that certain
boorish witticisms may likely have been introduced into the narra-
tive by the Latin author.
Here then are sufficient indications from every source that the
romance was originally a work of sophistic rhetoric, though pre-
sumably of the simpler sort after the style of Xenophon.
Its scenery is the coast lands and islands of the Mediterranean ;
its pirates and other malefactors are the usual evil-doers of the
sophistic romance ; its motives are external, accidental and fatalis-
tic. Under the hands of the Latin scribe the rhetorical romance
was transformed into a Volksbuch, which accounts for its wide-
spread popularity in the Middle Ages.^
1 The Latin text even in the oldest extant MSS. shows traces of provincialisms
and of the influence of popular usage. This passage of a pseudo-classical romance
into a Volksbiich is alluded to by Riese in his edition of 1893 • " Inter quae sunt
popularia quaedam, quae iam prorsus linguarum romanarum prae se ferunt
imaginem, ut ablativi illi in inatrinionio postulabant, populi = homines, habet
nnnos (gallice il y a des Ans), quid est hoc quod (gallice qu^est ce que"), alia.
216 SMYTH — PEKICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
Before we leave this aspect of the romance it may be well to
attend a moment to a conjecture which Prof. Erwin Rohde has de-
veloped with much ingenuity. He imagines that the Latin scribe
broadened the trend of the story by an addition that is not particu-
larly successful. In the first part of the romance Apollonius is
introduced as a suitor for the hand of Antiochus* daughter. He is
rebuffed and goes abroad. We should expect that his vain wooing
would cause him some grief, but we have no word of sorrow or
regret. On the contrary, he pledges his love to the first maiden
who looks upon him with favor and compassion. King Antiochus
and his daughter could be spared from the story altogether and the
rest of the narrative not suffer in the least. It is true that King.
Antiochus reappears occasionally, and that at his shipwreck on the
coast of Ethiopia Apollonius cries out that Neptune is more cruel
than Antiochus. The wicked king dies by lightning and Apol-
lonius claims his pa^erna/ kingdom (cum desiderassem properare ad
patrium [meum] regnum percipiendum). He journeys into Egypt
where he remains fourteen years. Why does he not go to Antioch ?
" After the loss of my dear wife I will not take possession of the
kingdom," he says to his friends of Tarsus. It seems natural enough
to them, but not to us. We know nothing of the kingdom foi
fourteen years, but when all the family are again united we learn
that Apollonius took possession of the kingdom and that all was
well. Prof. Rohde therefore concludes that Antiochus, his daughter
and his kingdom, have nothing to do with the fable, and that the
Antiochus episode had been first prefixed to the romance and then
clumsily interwoven. Perhaps the Latin scribe was moved to intro-
duce this prologue by the necessity of providing a motive sufficiently
strong to send forth this luxurious king of Tyre a lonely ocean waif.
The Greek poet might have found this motive, as in Xenophon, in
an oracular response impelling and exhorting Apollonius to action,
but the Christian poet could hardly accept the domination of human
action by the oracle of a heathen daemon. He must change the
motive, and the one which he chose to substitute for the original he
found freely developed in Greek myth and saga. The tale of the
father who loves his own daughter, and who deters suitors by im-
posing upon them difficult tasks, is the story of CEnomaus, who,
loving his daughter Hippodamia, delays her marriage through
chariot races with her suitors ; Sithon who loving his daughter
Pallene slays her lovers in single combat ; the father of Side loves
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 21T
his own daughter and she kills herself upon her mother's grave, and
is transformed into a pomegranate tree, and her father into a buz-
zard (see Grimm, Deut. Sagen, 483 (ii, 182), and Rohde, p. 420,
note, for references to Servian and Persian folk-tales).^
So much for Prof. Rohde's riddle-guessing. This much of good
is in it, that it has pointed out the incongruities and the weaknesses
of the tale as we have it. The whole episode of the first sojourn
at Tarsus might be spared, nor is there any explanation of the sud-
den departure for the Pentapolitan region of Cyrene. The words
of the author are '* Interpositis mensibus sive diebus paucis, hor-
tante Stranguillione et Dionysiade et premente fortuna ad Penta-
politanas Cyrenseorum regiones adfirmabatur navigare ut ibi latere
posset." The monument erected to ApoUonius is referred to by
Lycoris who advises Tharsia when in need to take refuge by the
statue of her father ; and Hellenicus, too, reappears at the end of
all to remind ApoUonius of his fidelity.
The Antiquity of the Story.
Moritz Haupt, of Berlin, wrote to Tycho Mommsen in 1857,
that he knew of more than one hundred manuscripts of the Latin
ApoUonius. They are widely distributed, a dozen MSS. are in Eng-
land, seven in Vienna (Nos. 226, 362,480, 510, 3126, 3129, 3332)^
two in Breslau, three in Munich, and others in Paris, Rome,^ Stutt-
gart (fol. 411), Berne (228), Leipsic, Gottingen, Basle and Buda-
Pesth. The oldest is a Florentine Codex of the ninth or tenth
century. The earliest publication of the Latin text seems to have
been about 1470.' The unique copy of it in the Vienna Hofbiblio-
thek lacks the title page, and the volume remained undescribed until
^ If the Latin scribe followed the opinion of Mallalas that Antioch was named
after the son of Seleucis, he may have had a dark recollection of that particular
Antiochus' love for his mother-in-law.
2 O. Riemann has coliated two MSS. in Rome; the one is in the Minerva
Library (A. I., 21), the other in the Library of the Vatican (foundation of
Queen Christina, No. 905). Both are of the thirteenth century. The collation
of chapters 28-31 (where the Laurentian is at fault), is published in Revue de
Philoiogie, Tome vii, 1883 ("Note sur deux Manuscrits de l' Historia Apollonii
Regis Tyri). Still another MS. in the Vatican (7666) is described by Bethmann,
It is of the fifteenth century and resembles Sloan, 1619 (Cf. Pertz, Archiv 12:
402).
'Riese says circa 147 1; Brunei " anterieure a 1480;" Grasse "vers 1470."'
See Hain, 1293.
'218 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
it was collated by S. Singer and its readings quoted in \\\s Apollonius
■^on Tyrus (1895). The next edition was made by Marcus Velser
in 1595 from an Augsburg MS. which is now lost. It is entitled
*^ Narratio eorum quae contigerunt Apollonio Tyrio, ex membranis
vetustis. Augustae Vindelicorum ad insigne pinus, anno 1595."
This edition consisted of twenty-three quarto leaves. It was re-
printed in Velseri Opera, 1682 (p. 677).
In 1856 appeared Erotici Scriptores, ex nova recensione, G. A.
Hirschig, Parisiis, ed. Didot, in which between pp. 611 and 628 is
found " Eroticam de Apollonio Tyrio Fabulam ex codice Parasino
emendatius edidit et praefatiuncula notulisque instruxit. J. Lepaume
Lingonensis." The edition is a poor one. The prcBfatiuncula
occupies pp. 601-608, and is dated August, 1855.
An edition in Latin verse was edited by Diimmler in 1877 —
*^ Gesta Apollonii Regis Tyri metrica, ex codice Gandensi," edidit
E. Dummler, pp. 20, Berolini, 1877, 4°. It appeared again in
'* Monumenta Germanise Historica, edidit Societas Aperiendis
Fontibus Rerum Germanicarum medii sevi," Berolini, 1884; it is
found in the second volume — "■ Pcetae Latini sevi Carolini, Recensuit
Ernestus Dummler." It occupies pp. 483-506, is in leonine verse,
with Virgilian reminiscences, and is printed from an eleventh-century
MS. preserved in Ghent : '^ Codex mcmbranaceus, sseculi XI, biblio-
thecse universitatis Gandensis, Nr. 169, signatus constat 229 foliis.
Scriptum autem eum esse in monasterio hujus civitatis sancti Petri
testatur paginae 454 subscriptio ' liber sancti Petri Gandensis
ecclesie .... servanto benedictio .... toUente ma'edictio
..... qui folium ex eo tulerit uel certauerit Anathema sit.* "
Diimmler in hi?, prcBfatio says, *' Poeta noster fabulam suam omnem
€x historia Apollonii regis Tyrii pedestri oratione conscripta mutua-
tus dilatando copiosiorem ornatioremque reddidit. Utrum ad
■iinem eam perduxerit necne ignoramus, quia fortuito duo tantum
<:odicis folia cseteris deletis ad nostram usque aetatem pervenerunt."
Tycho Mommsen, who has spent many years of his long and
learned life in the study of the Apollonius story, gave his collations
of MSS. to Alexander Riese in 1871, who published in the Teub-
ner Classics in that year a volume, Historia Apollonii Regis Tyri.
A few years later Michael Ring edited the previously unknown
Paris Codex, and published Historia Apollonii Regis Tyri e codice
Farasino 4955, edidit et commentario critic 0 instruxit, Michael
Ring, pp. 20, Posonii et Lipsice, iSSy. Riese reviewed Ring's
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 219"
edition in Berliner Philolog. JPochenschrift, 1888, p. 561, and de-
cided that the new text was of such importance as to render it
necessary that his own publication should be recast. Accordingly
he issued Hist or ia Apollonii Regis Tyri, iteritin recensuit, Alexan-
der Riese, Lipsice, in adibus B. G. Teubneri, mdccclxxxxiiiy
with an entirely new Preface, in which he repeats his acknowledg-
ments to Tycho Mommsen, and confesses his obligation to Maxi-
milian Bonnet, who carefully collated anew the Paris Codex after
the appearance of Ring's volume. This final work of Riese was
completed at Frankfurt-am-Main, December, 1892.
So far as the MSS. have been examined, they are found to differ
widely in language and construction, but to cling rather persistently
to the type of the story. An account of such of the MSS. as have
been collated may be found in Georg Penon, Bijdragen tot de
Geschiedenisder Nederlandsche Letterkunde, 1880 ; W. Meyer, " Ab-
handlung iiber den lateinischen Text der Geschichte des Apollonius
von Tyrus " (in Silzungsberichte der philosophisch und hist. CI. d.
kon.-bay. Akad. d. Wissen. zti MiUichen, 1872, Heft I); A. Ri ese,
prcefatio to Historia Apollonii Regis Tyri ; Carl Schroeder, Griseldis,
S. xii, xiii ; Mauricii Hauptii, Opuscula, Lipsiae, iii, 4, 5 and 6 ;
Yv^tx, Hofische Epik, iii, 376; Zupitza, Roman. For., iii, 269;
Hermann Hagen, Der Ro??ian voj?t K'onig Apollonius von Tyrus in
seinen verschiedenen Bearbeitungen^ Berlin, 1878, and S. Singer,
Apollonius von Tyrus, Halle, 1895.
The MSS. in the British Museum have been carefully studied
and catalogued by L. H. D. Ward, Catalogue of Romances, i, 161-
171. He enumerates Sloane 16 19 (early thirteenth century);
Arundel 292, (late thirteenth century); Arundel 123 (early four-
teenth century) ; Cotton, Vespasian A, xiii (fifteenth century) ;
Sloane 2233 (seventeenth century) ; Royal 20, C. ii (fifteenth cen-
tury); Additional 4857 (A.D. 1669-1670) ; Add. 4864 (1770),
Cotton, Titus, D. iii (early fourteenth century); Royal 14, C. xi
(early fourteenth century).
The editio princeps is Laurentianus Ixvi, of the ninth or tenth
century, in Lombardy characters. It is fairly free from grave
faults and misconstructions, and would have been followed by
Mommsen had it been complete, but certain parts are missing (see
Riese, 1893, p. iv). The Paris Codex which M. Ring edited is
next in value to the Laurentian, which it resembles, though it is
much more recent, belonging to the fourteenth century. These
220 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
two MSS. Riese now assigns to the first class, and by their aid he
remodeled his earlier version.
In the second class he places Oxo7iiensis collegii Magdalencei 50,
which contains the entire story (pp. 80-108) in a handwriting of the
eleventh century. Vaticanus 1869, was examined by W. Meyer and
pronounced similar to Oxon. Magdal. {Siizufigs. d. M'un. Akad.j
1872, p. 8). Vossianus 113, of the ninth or tenth century (pp.
1-78), agrees with the above.
The Tegej-nsee MS., now Munich 19 148, although mutilated (it
consists of only nine and one-half leaves), is of much value, and its
readings were admitted into Riese's first edition.^ It coincides
more often with the Oxon. than with the Laurentian or Parisian
codex. I have examined the MS. and agree with Riese that Meyer
has exaggerated the importance of its unique features (cf. Riese,
vii). Even when Riese has adopted the Tegernsee readings with-
out comment he does not wish his silence to be interpreted as evi-
dence of the genuineness of the passages (''cave autem ne ex si-
lentio meo lectiones eorum pro certb constituas ").
The Vindobonensis (Vienna;, twelfth century, Meyer says agrees
with Tegernsee. •
Riese's third class of MSS. contains a great number of versions,
more boldly and more recently tampered with. To this class he
relegates Sloa?tianus 1619 f Bodleianus 247 (Laud. H. 39) (twelfth
or thirteenth century) ; Monacensis 215 (anno 1462)/ and Bernen-
sis 208 (saec xiii).^
As the MSS. l^ve come to be better known, a change of opinion
has taken place as to their relative value. Teufi'el believed the
third class which I have just cited to contain the best versions (see
^ Cf. L. Traube, Neiies Archiv. d. Gesellschaft fur dltere detitsche Geschichts-
kiinde, 10, 1884, p. 382,
Riese drew so liberally from the different MSS. in preparing his edition
that Rohde described his method as <'eine wunderliche eklektische Vermischung
der Texte " (^Der griechische Roman, 418). Riese's first edition is reviewed in
Gdltingiscke gelekrte Anzeigen, 2, 1 839- 1840; Liter arise hes Centralblatt^'^Q.
50, 1872, p. 1370; Philologisehet Anzeiger, iii, 1871, 536-539; Jahrbiieher
fut Philologie iind Pddagogik, 187 1, Vol. 103, p. 854; Philologus, xxxi, 562.
2 Riese believes Sloan 1619 to belong to the eleventh century ; Ward dates it in
the thirteenth century ; it is impossible that it should be of the eleventh century.
^ This MS. I have collated ; it is a bold paraphrase, without linguistic or
literary value.
*The Berne MS. was collated by H, Hagen. Cf. Philol, Anz., ed. Leutsch,
1871.
2898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 221
his account of Sloan 1619, in Rh. Mus. 1872, p. 103). Haupt
also believed the Velser codex to be preferable to those out of
which Riese composed his first edition. And Velser's Augsburg
MS. belonged very clearly to the same class as Sloan and Berne.
For proof that Velser's text was corrupted, cf. Riese, 1893, PP* ^^>
xii.
The earliest reference to Apollonius that has been discovered is
in the sacred lyrics of Venantius Fortunatus,^ bishop of Poitiers,
(inter annos 566 et 568) where he compares his own sad, exiled
wanderings in Gaul with those of the shipwrecked Apollonius —
*• Tristius erro niniis, patriis vagus exsul ab oris,
Quam sit Apolloniis naufragus hospes aquis."
Another reference is found in the Gesta Abbatum Fontanellen-
sium, written about 750 A.D. In the thirteenth chapter, entitled
"Gesta Wandonis abbatis cornobii Fontanellensis," occurs the fol-
lowing : ** Wando presbyter a patre Baldrico nomine progenitus ter-
ritorio Tellau ortus, regimen assumpsit cornobii ab anno dominicae
incarnationis 742." Among the books belonging to this abbot is
cited, ''Item historiam Apollonii regis Tyri in codice uno " (see
Monumenia Gerttianice historica, edidit G. H. Pertz. Scriptorum.
Tomus ii, Hannover, 1829, p. 287).
A still earlier reference than the former is in " Tractat de dubiis
nominibus," a grammatical index found in a Vienna MS. of the
seventh century. The latest writer cited in it is the poet Dynamius,
a Gaul of the sixth century.' It seems clearly made out that the
'' index " was compiled in the Merovingian times, or, as Haupt says,
**In einer Zeit wo im Uebergang des Lateins in die romanischen
Sprachen durch Erhebung der Accusative zu Nominativen und durch
andere Vermischungen und Entstellungen von denen besonders Ur-
kunden vielfache Beispiele darbieten, das Geschlecht der Worterun-
kenntlich wurde, spater als die romanische Sprachniedersetzung
^ Venantius Fortunatus, Miscellanea Lib. vi, cap. 10, hnes 5 and 6. The
lines are cited as above in Migne's Patrologice T. 88, and Migne reprints the best
edition of Fortunatus, that of the Benedictine, Mich. Ang. Luschi. Luschi no-
tices the variants " Apollonius" and " Apollonia," but prefers " Apolloniis," as
above, Fortunatus is venerated in the diocese of Poitiers as a saint, his feast
being celebrated December 14.
- Dynamius, Governor of Marseilles, was born at Aries, and lived at the end
of the sixth century. See Moreri, Diet. Hist., 1725, iii, 646, and Biographie Uni-
verse lie, Vol. 12.
222 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. T,
voUbracht war und das Latein in den Karolingischen Schulen
ungetrlibt durch romanische Formen gelehrt ward, war zu so ganz
trivialen Bemerkungen wie sie jenes Verzeichniss enthalt ebensowe-
nig ein Anlass als sich gleichartige Beispiele finden " (Haupt^
Opuscula, p. 13). The reference in the ^' De dubiis" reads
*' Gymnasium generis neutri sicut balneum in ApoUonio 'gymna-
sium patet.' " The . quotation is from the scene in Fenlapolis,
when the boys cry aloud, *' Audite, cives, audite, peregrini, ingenui
et servi, gymnasium patef ' (see Rh. Museum filr Philologies neue
Folge xxvi, S. 638-9, xxvii, 103-114).
In chapter 34, forty aurii are considered more than a half libra
auri, yet not a whole one; that is, one pound of gold is coined into
fifty pieces, which coincides with the practice of the time after Cara-
calla.^ After Constantine it became customary to compute by solidi.
The oldest Latin version therefore would appear to have been
composed in the time between Caracalla and Constantine (see W.
Christ, Sitzungsderichfe d. Akad. d. Wissenchaft zu Milnchen Cl.y
1872, p. 4, and Marquardt Rom. Altertuin, iii, 2, 18, 24).
As the translation was certainly made before the verses of Venan-
tius and the treatise *' De dubiis," it was as certainly made after
Symposius, whose riddles are inserted. The collection of riddles is
contained in many MSS. The oldest is the Codex Salmasianus,
belonging to the end of the seventh or the beginning of the eighth
century. The riddles themselves are of earlier date. Teuffel says :
" Etwa aus dem vierten bis fiinften Jahrhundert stammen wohl die
hundert Rathselgedichte des Symphosius. Sie bestehen je aus dret
Hexametern nebst einem ungeschickten Prolog. Sprache und Vers-
bau sind in reinem Geschmacke und zeigen den Verfasser als einen
Nachahmer des Ausonius," (Teuffel, p. 106 1, 3d ed.; see also
Douce, Illustrations of Shakespeare, 1807, ii, 135 ; and Riese, Zeit-
schriftfilr Oesireich. Gymn., xix, 1868, 483-500).
From these arguments we may infer, as Velser, Fabricius^ and
Douce have done, that the original Latin text was compiled some
time in the fifth century. Teuffel says, 'Mn the course of the sixth
century," which agrees also with the general character of the Latin
^ Haec dicens protulit XL Aureos et dedit in Manu virginis et dicit, etc
cui juvenis ait " si salva sis, indica mihi, quantum dedit at te juvenis," etc
Puella ait <' quater denos mihi Aureos dedit." Juvenis ait " Ma'um illi sit I quid
magnum illi fuisset, homini tarn diviti, si librom aiiri tibi daret integram ? Ut
ergo scias, me esse meliorem, tolle libram auri integram." (Riese, 1893, ?• 7')-
- Fabricius, Bibliothecce Grtecce, Hamburg, 1721, 1. 5, c. 6.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 223
and especially with the peculiar use of dos in a sense opposite to the
Latin meaning, but peculiar to the German period = pretium puellae,
Muntschatz. (Teuffel, 481.)
The Persistence of the Story.
The ApoUonius Saga is remarkable for its persiste?ice and its sta-
bility, that is for its duration and vitality, and for its retention of
its original character and form. We will consider first lis persist-
ence.
The remarkable number of MSS. attests the wide popularity of
the story before the introduction of printing. William, Bishop of
Tyre, in the twelfth century, in referring to his bishopric, testifies to
the fame of the romance — '' ex hac etiam et Hiram Salomonis co-
operator ad aedificium templi domini rex fuit et ApoUonius gesta
cujus celebrem et late vulgatam ha bent historia77iy About 1186
Godfrey of Viterbo related the story as authentic history in his
Pantheon, or Universal Chronicle (Pertz, Archiv v, 166; vii,
559), a sort of rhymed record of events from Adam to Godfrey.
The author was chaplain to Conrad III, Frederick I and Henry VI.
The principal MSS. of the work are Vienna 3406, and Paris 5003.
It has been printed in Ge7'ma?iicorum Scriptorum Tomus alter, ex
bibliotheca Joannis Pistorii Nidatii D. editio tertia curante B. G,
Struvio, RatisboncE, Sumptibus J. C. Peezii, 1726, pp. 1 75-181.
Godfrey's Pantheon is an important monument and deserves
more particular attention. My study is based upon a copy in my
own possession. It is a ponderous folio with the title : Pantheon sive
Uftiversitatis Libri qui Chronici appellantur, xx, omnes omnium
secular um et geiitium, tarn sacras quam prophanas Historias com-
plect entes : per V. C. Basilice ex officifta /acobi Parci (1559). It is
dedicated to Pope Urban III (i 185-1 187).
After a description of Rome and Carthage, of Asdrubal and
Hannibal, we arrive at the subject of our story, in column 282 —
^' His temporibus ApoUonius rex Tyri et Sidonis ab Antiocho
juniore Seleuco rege a regno Tyri et Sidonis fugatur : qui navigio
fugiens, mira pericula patitur." Gower explicitly says that he de-
rived the story as narrated in Confessio Amantis from these chap-
ters of the Pantheon.
" Of a cronique in dales gon
The wich is cleped Panteon
In loves cause I rede thus."
PKOC. AMEK. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 158. O. PRINTED DEC. 15, 1898.
224 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,.
The titles of Godfrey's chapters will be sufficient to indicate the
course of his narrative and its close parallel to the oldest Latin
MSS.
1. De Apollonio rege Tyri et Sidonis, et de ejus infortunis atque
fortunis.
2. De eodem Apollonio fugiente a facie Antiochi.
3. Item de eodem Apollonio naufragium passo.
4. Item de Apollonio, ubi suscepit eum rex Archistrates et dat
ei filiam suam.
5. Item de Apol., ubi mortuo Antiocho ipse eligitur in imperium
Antiochise.
6. Apol. tendit Antiochiam, sed uxor ejus in partu mortua pro-
jicitur in mare,
7. Apol. reiicta filia in urbe Tharsia, pergit Antiochiam.
8. Tharsia, filia Apollonii capitur a piratis et venditur lenoni
in civitate Militena.
9. Tharsia venditur a piratis in urbe Militena ubi regnat Athena-
goras, qui saluat eam a Stupro.
TO. Apol. pergit ab Antiochia in Tharsiam urbem requirere
Tharsiam filiam suam.
11. Apol. recognoscit et recipit filiam suam in urbe Militena,
per regem Athenagoram.
12. Tharsia recognoscitur a patre suo Apollonio.
13. Apol. recipit filiam ignotam et fit leetitia magna in urbe
Militena.
Apoolonius '[sic'] visitat socerum Archistratem.
Godfrey's stanza consists of two rhyming hexameters and a pen-
tameter verse. For further editions of Godfrey, cf. Griisse, Tresor
de livres rares et precieux, iii, 100.
It is said in the bibliographies of Apollonius that the story is
contained in Vincentius Bellovac, Speculum hystoriale, printed at
Augsburg in 1474, but after struggling patiently through the three
immense folios in the British Museum I must confess that I have
been unable to find the slightest trace of the romance.
There are three main sources of the endless stories of Apollonius
in the Middle Ages. They are either founded upon the Latin His-
toria, or they proceed from Godfrey, or the Gesia Romanorum}
1 Editions by Oesterley, 1872, and Keller, 1842. The Colmar MS. (fourteenth
century) is the only old MS. which contains the Apollonius. Cf. Wichert,
Zeitsch. f. dent. Geschichtsforschitng, vi.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS., 225
From Godfrey the story entered England (Gower and Shake-
speare) and North and South Germany ; from the Gesta Romaiiorum
arose the popular versions among the romance peoples, and in Hol-
land, Hungary, Sweden and Russia. In my review of the various
national versions of the story I shall indicate whenever possible the
genesis and dependence of the texts.
German Versions.
The Alexanderlied of the early twelfth century closes its account
of the plundering of Tyre with the lines
; " Zerstoeret lac do Tyrus
die stifte sint der Kiinec Apollonius
von dem di buoch sagent noch
den der Kiinec Antioch
iiber mer jagete
wande er ime sagete
ein retische mit vorhten
daz was mit bedahten [bedecketen] worten
geshriben in einem brief
daz er sin selbes tohter beslief."
Lamprecht who wrote these lines lived during the first half of the
twelfth century, and his source of information was an old romantic
poem of Alexander by Alberic de Besan^on,^ of which the begin-
ning only survives. Weismann, who edited Lamprecht in 1850,
was led by the line " Geshriben in einem brief," to believe that L.
knew the story inaccurately. Now in a Stuttgart MS. of the Latin
Apollonius certain German verses in the form of a narrative are
appended to the riddles, whence Massmann concluded, in connec-
tion with Lamprecht' s own words, that there must have been a
German version of the story before Lamprecht. But Weismann
and Penon after him have regarded these verses as a first attempt
and not as verses copied from a previously existing versification of
the story (see Massmann, Denkmdler, 1828, Vorrede, p. 10, and
L.a.mprechVs A /ex antfer, v, 1054)- The explanation of the " brief*
or 'Metter " as found in the Alexa7ider poem is not difficult. In
Shakespeare Antioch hands to Pericles a writing which contains
the riddle, saying :
1 Cf. Koberstein Grundriss der Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur
i, 161 ; Bartsch, Chrestomathie de V ancien frangais y 2me edition, 17-20.
226 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
" Read the conclusion, then ;
Which read and not expounded, 'tis decreed,
As these before thee, thou thyself shalt bleed " (i, i^)
In Godfrey of Viterbo, too, '* Antiochi regis scelerum problemata
legit, ''^ but there the riddles are read over the gate of the city where
they are inscribed. The Lapaume edition has it that the riddle
had been inscribed upon the gate of the city (quia questio condi-
tionis in porta civitatis scripta erat). In the Cretan version the
riddle is written upon the wall. Other versions, the Italian, Span-
ish, Bohemian, Copland, etc., repeat the same method of convey-
ing the riddle to Apollonius. Shakespeare is the only one who
speaks of the riddle as written upon paper ; all the others have it
written over the gate or on the wall. Lamprecht's reference indi-
cates that in some lost version the narrator had anticipated Shake-
speare in this invention. Lamprecht's lines quoted above may be
translated ''King Apollonius of whom the books still tell, whom
King Antioch pursued over seas because he told him a gruesome
riddle, which was written with covered words, in a letter.''^ They
stand thus in the Strassburg MS. of the Alexander. The Vorau
version omits the reference to the *' covered words " (bedecketen
worten) and reads, 'Mie solved a riddle in a letter" (missive). The
original meaning no doubt was, as in the lines above quoted,
that the riddle was communicated in a letter, but was misinter-
preted by Kinzel, who supposed the solution to be conveyed in a
letter, /. e. in a missive. The Basle edition also interprets after
this fashion and states explicitly ''darumb, daz er im sagtte und
im des sante brieff, daz er sin dochter beslieff " (because he told
him, and sent him a letter to that effect, that he, etc.).^
The first poet in Germany to work independently upon the Saga
was Heinrich von Neustadt, who finished his Apollonius von Tyr-
land (a poem of 20,893 verses) at the beginning of the fourteenth
century.^
Heinrich was a physician in Vienna, and naturally was interested
in the story of the resuscitation of Lucina, the wife of Apollonius.
In his poem he shows an interest in natural history, and introduces
1 In Gower and Twine the riddle is spoken^ as in the Latin, not read.
2Cf. Singer, p. 37.
' Heinrich von ^o.yysX'x^X., Apollonius. von Goles Zzto^un/tfhev&usgegehen von
Joseph Strobl, Wien, 1875. Pudmenzky, Shakespeare's Pericles und der Apol-
lonius des Heinrich von Neustadt, Detmold, 1884.
1898.] . SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 227
lists of fishes, stones and spices. But the deviations from the His-
toria we will consider elsewhere (verses 2913-15 io6 relate to inci-
dents which are not found in the Latin story).
At the close of the poem Henry introduces into his rhyme his
name and address —
" Wie ditz puocli si erdaht
unde in deutsche rime praht
daz sage ich eu dast pillich
ez geschach ze Wienne in Osterrich
waz ich sage daz ist war
ez sint me dau tousent jar
daz ditz puoch zem ersten wart geschriben
in Latin : sit ez ist pliben
daz ez nie von keinem man
solhe rime geschriben gewan}
wer ditz puoch gedihtet hat
daz sage ich eu des ist niht rat,
ein schoeneu frouwe in drumbe pat :
Meister Heinrich von der Neuvvenstat
ein arzet von den puochen.
wil in ieman suochen
er ist gesezzen an dem Graben
got muez in in siner huote haben "
{StrobL, p. 124, lines 20,844.-20,861).
In Von Gotes Zuokunft {\me 467), the poet again alludes to his
Austrian nativity. The latin book of the Apollonius he says he ob-
tained from Nicolas of Stadlaw :
"der saelic pfarraere
her Niclas von Stadlouwe."
Nicolas lived, as Ferdinand Wolf has demonstrated ( Wiener
Jahrbilcher der L. ii, 56, 257), in the first quarter of the fourteenth
century. He appears in the records of the years 129 7-1 3 18, together
with Bernhard von Krannest, of whom there are records from 1304
until 1332, and who also is referred to in the poem (line 13,696).
In 1 31 2 Heinrich and his wife Alheit were given the Freisinger-
hofe, located upon the Graben in Vienna. It was therefore after he
was *' gesezzen an dem Graben," or after 1312, that he wrote
Apollonius, which from various other reasons is believed to have been
preceded by the other composition of the same author ( Von Gotes
1 This declaration that before Heinrich no translation had been made from
the Latin into German rhyme, strengthens Weismann's theory quoted above.
228 SMYTH — PEKICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
Ziiokunft), in which there is no reference to the house upon the
Graben.
Two German prose translations of the Latin text of the Historia
were published in 1873 ^7 Carl Shroder.^ The first is from a man-
uscript of the fifteenth century, now in Leipzig," in the handwriting
of a Saxon monk who lived probably in the neighborhood of Meissen.'
The other is in a MS. of the same century at Donaueschingen,
written in the Suabian dialect and closely resembling the Volksbuch
written by Heinrich Steinhowel and published by Gintherus Zainer
von Reutlingen at Antwerp, in 147 1 — Die hy story des Kuniges Ap-
pollonij vo latin zu ieutsch geinachet, Gintherus Zainer von Reut-
li7igen. Augspitrg, 14'ji, fol. (31 leaves; 35 lines to the full page;
without pagination, signature or calch words). The book is be-
lieved by some to have been written in 1461, by others in 1464.
An acrostic found in the poem gives the date of composition.
Bartsch {Germanische Studie7i, ii, 305) fixes the date at 1461 ; Sin-
ger at 1464. Heinrich Steinhowel, the author, was born in 141 2 at
Weil. He visited Italy, studied medicine at Padua, and practiced
his profession in Esslingen. He died at Ulm in 1483.* He was a
translator, and published a rendering of Petrarch's Latin version of
Boccaccio's Griseldis. He also translated Boccaccio's De Claris
Mulief^ibiis, which was printed by Johann Zainer von Reutlingen,
1473, ^'^'^^ reprinted by Anton Sorg, 1479. ^^ is also published by
Karl Drescher in Bibliothek des Litt. Vereins in Stuttgart, Vol.
205.
This Augsburg Apollonius was reprinted by Joh. Bemler in
1476; Anth. Sorg, 1479 ^"<^ 1480; at Ulm, 1495 ; again at Ulm,
by Hans Zeiner, 1499, and at Augsburg, by H. Froschauer, 15 16.
It is the same book that bears the title Von Kilnig Appolonio. Eyn
sch'one und lustige Histori nit mynders nutzlich dann kurtzweilig zu
1 "Griseldis. Apollonius von Tyius, Aus Handschfiften herausgegeben von
Carl Schroder, Leipzig, T. O. Weigel, 1873." This is Heft ii, Pt. 5, of Mit-
theilungeii der dciitschen Gesellschaft ziir Erfoi'sc/mng vaterldndiscJur
Sprache iind Altertilnier in Leipzig, pp. 85-13 1.
2 Haupt speaks of another MS. in Breslau ( O pus c 11 la, iii, 28).
3 A conjecture of Schroder, adopted by Penon.
*Paul, Grintdriss, ii, i, 403 (article by F. Vogt), Wackernagel-Martin, Gesch.
der dent. Lit.,S. 454, A. 234, gives 1420 as the year of birth. For the biography
of Steinhowel, see Keller Litteratur Verein, 51 : 673, and Wunderlich, St. und
das Decameron, 1889.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLOXIUS. 229
lesen Vdr Jam durcJi D. Gotfrid von Viterb. im late in
beschrieben. Nachnialn inns Tents ch verwendet. IS 40, Augsburg,
H. Steyner. And again, Ein schone History AppoIo7iius, wie er von
seinem Landt vertrieben, schiffbruch und mancJierlei U7iglilck erlitten,
und dock endlich durch Gliick wider in sein Landt kommen ist.
Augsburg, 1556}
Steinhowel fixes the date of the reign of Apollonius with great
care : —
" Das ist ain Vorred in die hystorie des KUniges Appolonii das
man wisse wen er geregnieret hab."
He arrives at the proper period by a gradual descent from Eden
and the flood to the fall of Troy, the building of Rome, the divi-
sion of the world after the death of Alexander, etc.
There is a mild pathos and humor in the author's personal re-
miniscence and profession :
" Ett ichs geton sumnus bass
Ain rapp singt all zeit eras eras eras,
In soliehem gsang han ich gelebt
Nun und viertzig iar in Hoftnung gewebt
Ruwiger als vergangen Zeitt
leh gedaeht allweg bis morn beitt
Cumst du dannoeht gelernen wol
Usz dem bleib ich an kiinsten vol."
After settling the time of the reign, the translator enters upon a
■description of the incest, in which he closely resembles Wynkyn de
Worde(i5io). Apollonius guesses the king's riddle, whereupon
Antiochus lies angrily saying that his solution ^'in no way answers
the question." When Apollonius reaches home he looks in his
books and finds that in all things he has answered the king aright.
He departs from Tyre in the middle hour of the night, unknown to
all the citizens. When his flight is discovered there is great sad-
ness, no dancing, no marriages — " alle tabernen waren beschlossen.
Elemitus (Hellenicus) is the bearer of the warning to Apollonius.
The prince relieves the distress of Tarsus with 100,000 measures of
wheat, declines compensation, and the grateful burghers erect a
statue of him with corn in his right hand and his left foot spurning
gold. The king's daughter in this version is called Cleopatra;^
1 Grasse, Tresor de livres rares et precieux,'\, 165; Grasse, Lehrbiich einer
allgemeinen Literdrgeschichte , ii, 3: 459, 460.
^ She is called " Camilla" in two Latin MSS., Vienna 362 and Vienna 510, (ssec
xiii), and the daughter of Antiochus is called in them Creusa.
230 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
she is instructed in music by ApoUonius, to whom she says, ^' You are
called ApoUonius; it were better to call you Apollo." As they
walk by the seashore a ship approaches land. " We are from Tyre,"
says the captain. " A land well known to me," replies ApoUonius.
'•' Do you know ApoUonius? " queries the captain, and xA-poUonius
replies, '' Ja, ich kenn im so wol alsmich selber." Whereupon the
king says, "Yesterday he was like me, to-day he is a lord of the
earth; before this he has been my son, now I am less than he."
The rest of the story follows closely the outlines of the Historia.
Ain Hilbsche Hystori von dem Kimig Appolonius [with woodcuts],
Augspurg, 1552 ; Hans Zimmerman. This is a reprint with slight
changes of the edition of 1471. The woodcuts are curious : on the
title page is a picture of Alexander the Great, and the other illustra-
tions represent the king issuing from his daughter's chamber ; the
king stating the riddle to the princely suitors ; ApoUonius setting
forth on his voyage homeward from Antioch; the return of Taliarchus
from an unsuccessful journey, and reporting to the king the flight
of ApoUonius ; the landing of ApoUonius in Tarsus ; his boats
laden with bags of corn ; relieving the famine ; shipwreck ; fisher-
man receiving ApoUonius ; ApoUonius in the bath at Pentapolis ;
at table with Archistrates and his daughter; the king's daughter
playing on the harp ; the love-sick daughter visited by her father ;
the king joining the hands of the lovers ; the burning of Antiochus
and his daughter ; the casting overboard of the chest ; Cerimon
finding the chest ; Stranguillio and Dionysia with the infant
Tharsia ; death of Ligorides ; Philomancia and Tharsia in school ;
pirates escaping with Tharsia ; Tharsia sold to the Gemein Frawen-
hausz ; arrival of ApoUonius ; interview of Athenagoras and Thar-
sia ; ApoUonius, Tharsia and her husband sail for Ephesus ; Apol-
lonius recognizes '' Cleopatra," his wife ; journey in state to An-
tioch ; rewarding the fisherman. The whole eventful history ends
with this rustic clapping of hands and sequent prayer :
" Damit sag ich Lob, Panck und Eer
Alpha und ort widerkeer
Pillich wann er hat gegeben
Appolonius strenges Leben
Klar zu Teutschem ausz Latein
Etlicher alten Hystoryen.
Mit namen liesz ich nicht verderben
Doctor Gotfrides von Viterben
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 231
Obersters Cronickschreyben
Mit dem die Kirch auch wil beleyben
Jesus Christ Helff uns Gnad erwerben
Nit lasz uns in den Sinden sterben
Ewig das wir sind behalten
Mit alien Rainen Jungen Alten."
Hie endet sich die Hystory des Kiinigs Appolonius. Getruckt
und Vollendt in diser Kayserlichen uund Loblichen Stat Augspurg.
Durch Hausen Zimmerman, Anno MDLII.
Scandinavian Versions.
Eine sch'one ufide kortwylige Hisioria vam Konige Appollonio wa
he van Landt icnde LUden vordreve7i unde vorjaget .... unde dock
tho)n lesten wedder in syn Lundt gekamen ys. Hamborch, 1601,
octavo. This version by Herman Moller, which follows the Augs-
burg of 1552, corresponds to the Danish folkbook entitled, E7i dejlik
og skj'on Historie om Kong Apollonio i hvilken Lykkens Hjul og
Verdens Ustadighed beskrives ; lystig og fornojelig at Icese og hore.
Kjobenhavn, udi dette Aar, 1627. (The beautiful and charming
history of King ApoUonius, in which the wheel of fortune and
the mutability of life are described ; jolly and novel to read and
hear.) A copy of this scarce book is in the Karen Brahes Library
in Odensee (Finland). Another edition is dated 1731 (see
Grundtvig, Otn Nordensgamle Literati^-, Copenhagen, 1867, p. 5.
It is also quoted in Rasmus Nyerup, Ahnindelig Morskabslcesningy
Copenhagen, 1816, p. 168, 169. Cf. Haupt, Opuscula, iii, 29).
The same version (corresponding to the Gesia Romanoriun and
containing two riddles — unda and navis) was printed at Copen-
hagen, 1660, and a translation of it (Icelandic) is *' Additional
MS. 4857 " in the British Museum. The title, identical in meaning^
with the Danish, is '' Ein Agiset og fogur Historia wmm Kong
ApoUonius i huorre luckunnar og veralldarin nar ostodugleike
skrifast miog nitsamleg ad heira og lesa Prented i Kaupmannahafn,
af Christen Jenssyne Wering Acad, og Bokpryckiara, anno 1660,
Sagann af ApoUonius Konunge til Tyro," January 7, 1670.
" Additional MS." 4864 (British Museum) is a modified version
of the former.
The ApoUonius is also to be found in Rafn's translation of the
Didrig saga, Nordiske Fortids Sagger efter den udgivne islandske
232 SMYTH — PEEICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
€lse7' gamle nordiske Grundskrift, oversatte of C. G. Rafn, P. D.
Tredie Bind, Kjobenhavn, 1830. The Apollonius is found on
pages 3, 231-238, 242-247, 252-254, 257.
The Swedish version bears the title '■^ Apollonii Konungens af
Tyro Historia uti hwilken Lyckornes Hjul, och themta IVerldenes
Ostadighet beskrifwes : Med Lustiga Fragor och Gator beprydd och
Nu efter Mangas astundan pa nytt fdrfiirdigat utgifwen af Andrea
Johan Arosiandro Tryckf,''' {The History 0/ King Apollonius of
Tyre, in which fortune's wheel and the world's unsteadiness are
described, with merry questions and riddles, and now after many-
requests, revised and published anew). It was issued in 1732, and
again in 1747. The last three pages of the 1747 edition of this
little book are taken up with a tavern song, '' En wisa som lampas
kan til Historien om en man som sin Hustru bortsalde til Rofware,
och huru hon blifwit fralst ifran doden " (A song which may be
applied to the history of a man who sold his wife to a robber, and
how she was rescued from death). The edition 1747^ is not
recorded in Backstrom, whose Index records editions of 1642, 1732
and 1835.
The Swedish version is derived from the Gesta Romanorum (see
parallelisms in Singer, pp. 130-132). There are also points of
resemblance with Steinhowel which induced Haupt to believe that
the Danish and Swedish books were both indebted to that text,
particularly as the '* wheel of fortune " plays so important a part in
Steinhowel.
Danish Ballad.
In 1880, Rudolph Klein's Kort Udsigt over det philologisk-
historiske Samfunds Virksomhed, 1 878-1 880 (Copenhagen), con-
tained a brief of a paper presented by Kr. Nyrop upon " De
Historia Apollonii regis Tyri," in which a singular ballad of
the thirteenth century relating to the shipwreck of Apollonius was
described. The ballad had been referred to by Haupt {Opuscula,
iii, 29), a fact of which Nyrop appeared to be ignorant, and it was
published in Svend Grundtvig, Danmarks ganile Folkeviser^ ii, 88.
The ballad is limited to a single episode, the shipwreck of Apol-
lonius. Nyrop compared it with the Chanson of Jourdain de
Blaivies. As the ship sinks, Apollonius, according to the ballad, is
1 I am indebted for my examination of this book at the University of Lund to
my friend, Prof. Hjelmerus.
1898.] SMYTH — PEKICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 233
thrown upon a rock, but retains his lyre upon which he plays.
Some fishermen, attracted by the sound, draw near. They say :
'^ We have fished here eighteen years, and lived in darkness and
light ', now is come hither a sea-demon (a haffuetrold) who will
spoil our fishing."
Apollonius says : " I am no sea-demon ; I am a poor shipwrecked
man ; may God bring me safe to land." ''Are you a Christian ?"
ask the fishers, *' and can you pray to Jesus, the Son of Mary, who
died for us all?" He raises his right hand, makes the sign of the
cross and cries : " Help me now, Jesus, the Son of Mary, who died
to save me."
In the old French poem the shipwrecked Jourdain has no lyre
whereon to play, but he wails so loud that the fishers hear him.
The poem proceeds :
Si com Jordains se gaimentoit ainsiz,
Garde par mer, voit un home venir
En un batel qui moult estoit petis,
Et quiert poissons, c'est li ars, dont il vit ;
Et li peschierres tout droit a lui s'en vint,
Et li demande : " Va, quel chose iez tu ci ?
Se iez fantosmes, de deu te contredi,
Que de parler n'aiez vers moi loisir."
Et dist Jordains : " Se dex m'ait, nenil ;
Ainz sui uns anfes d'autre terre chaitis.
Parmi la mer m'en venoie un juesdi
A grant compaingne de chevaliers gentiz ;
Mais Sarrazin nouz orent assaillis,
Vos gens ocistrent et s'en remest des vis," etc.
(Jourdain de Blaivies, ed. Hofmann, p. 142, lines 1296- 1 309).
The resemblance here is more than accidental. The circum-
stance is found in neither the Latin Historia nor any of the other
versions. Riese reads, '' Et prosternens se illius ad pedes effusis
lacrimis ait ' miserere mei, quicumque es, succurre naufrago et
egeno, non humilibus natalibus genito ! Et ut scias, cui miserearis,
ego sum Tyrius Apollonius,' " etc. Nyrop's conclusion was that
in Denmark as in France there had been two diverse redactions,
and that the Danish folks-book, a translation, as has been said, of
the Augsburg folks-book, had no connection whatever with Jourdain
de Blaivies.
234 SMYTH — PERICLE3 AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
Dutch Versions.
The story of Apollonius entered the Netherlands through the
Gesta Romanorum, of the Dutch translation of which — Die Gesten
of gheschienissen van Ro7tien — there are three editions — Gouda,
1 48 1, Delft, 1483, and ZwoUe, 1484 (cf. Campbell, Annales de la
Typographie Neerlandaise an XVe Steele, 226, 227).
The first popular version of the story apart from the Gesta, but
derived from it, appeared in Delft in 1493, entitled Die schoone ende
die Suuerlicke historie van Appollonius van Thyro. The book is
excessively rare ; only two copies, I believe, are known to exist — one
is in the Bibliotheque National of Paris,^ the other is in the library
of the Zeeland Society of Sciences at Middelburg (Zeeuwsch
Genootschap der Wetenschappen).^ The directors of the Society
permitted Dr. Georg Penon to borrow the little book (boekje) and
to copy it. His account of it is in his Bijdj-agen tot de Geschiedenis
der Nederlandsche Letterkunde, Groningen, 1880, pp. 109-113, and
the book itself is reprinted in the same work (123-182). Penon fol-
lows the original almost literally and indicates in footnotes the pas-
sages in which it differs from the Gesta,^ and occasionally appends
the reading of the Latin Historia, in Riese's edition.
The resemblance of the folks-book to the Gesta is so marked that
Penon believes the former to have been a version made by a
bookseller who was impressed with the story as he found it in the
Gesta and who believed that it would make a popular book if
printed independently. Penon comments indignantly upon
Grasse's "guess" that the Netherland book was a translation from
the German of Steinhowel. " Woher das hollandische Volksbuch
ist, ob aus dem Deutschen, was am Wahrscheinlichsten ist, oder
unmittelbar aus dem Lateinischen, ist noch nicht entschieden,"
says Grasse {Lehrbuch, ii, 3, 458), to which Penon replies, ^^Is nog
niet beslist ! Hoe komt de man bij zoo'n praatje? Wie zou beslis-
1 The book was formerly in the library of the Hague, but was taken to Paris in
181 1 (cf. Campbell, Annales, '^. 267).
2 The book is described by Campbell, Annales, No. 965, Hain Repertoriiim
Bibliographicii7n, 1303, and by Grasse and Brunet, but it was never seen by the
two latter. Even the learned librarian at the Hague (L, Ph. C. van den Bergh)
says in his Nederlandsche Volksi-ofuans, p. 158, that this book is known to him
only by name — "alleen bij naam kent."
2 The copy of the Gesta used by Penon for comparison was the edition of
Johannes de Westfalia, 1484.
1898.1 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 235
sen ? Gewis alleen hij, die het Nederlandsche Volksboek gelezen
had. En Grasse heeft het boek gewis nooit gezien."^ Following
Grasse's venturesome conjecture, the Dutch writer, A. Winkler
Prins {Geilhistreerde Encyclopcedie, ii, 91), declares the folks-book
to have been made after the German model: ''de Nederlandsche
overzetting vermoedelijk naar eene Duitsche."
The adventures of Apollonius were dramatized in Holland and
published in 1634, under the title, ^^Twee Tragi-coinedien in prosa,
d^ Eene vanAppoIlonius, Prince vaft Tyro, Ende d^ ander van de?i sel-
ven, ende va7i Tharsia syn Dochter. Wesende niet alleen lustigh ende
vertnakelijck om lesen : maer oock vorderlijch oin weten, hoe men
hem in voorspoet ende ieghenspoet behcort te draghen. Nu van nieus
oversien ende verbetert door P. B. C. ins ' Graven- hage, Ghedruckt
by A erf Meuris, Boeck-verkooper ivoonende inde Papestraet, in
den Bijbel, Anno 16J4.'* The first part has eighty-four pages, the
second part eighty pages without separate title"^ and with continuous
pagination. It is possible that the work was printed before 1634
and that the words ''nu van nieus oversien ende verbetert" refer
to the prior publication. An imprint of 161 7 (The Hague) is men-
tioned in the Biographisch Woordenboek of Huberts, Elberts and
van den Branden, p. 48, but I know nothing of the existence of
the book.
The Twee Tragi- comedien was written by Pieter Bor Christiaensz.
In the Preface, addressed to his nephew, "the respectable, pious,
and intelligent " ["den Eersamen, Vromen, ende verstandighen "]
" Pietor Bor Jansz., Secretaris van den Gherechte der Stadt
Utrecht," the author tells how he came to write the play; he had
read, he says, in " seker oudt versuft Boeck." The book was most
likely the Gesta and not the folks-book of 1493. Dr. Penon dis-
covered that in the play Apollonius sells his wheat to the people of
Tarsus for acht pennifigen a bushel, which corresponds to the
Gesta^s acht placken, but not to the folks-book's vier hellinks.
Moreover, in the play, as in the Gesta, Lucina gives to Apollonius
a present of ten maidens (" tien Meyskens "), of which gift there is
no reference in the folks-book.
1 Penon, Bijdrageu, p. 112,
2 Penon observes that the Catalogue of the Library of the Society of Nether-
land Literature at Leiden (^Catalogus der Bibliotheekvan de Maatschappij der
Nederlandsche Letterkunde te Leiden, Derde Gedeelte, Nederlandsch Tooneel
[stage]), 1877, ?• xxvii, cites this work under two titles.
236 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
The dramatist evidently found himself embarrassed by the variety
of adventure in his story, and, while it is unlikely that he was fam-
iliar with Shakespeare's Pericles, he resorts to the introduction
of characters who are strangers to the plot but who by their con-
versation account for the many incidents for which the action of
the drama has no room or time — an expedient not unlike the intro-
duction of Gower as chorus. Bor lived at the time of the rhetorical
guilds and he introduces upon the stage characters after the manner
of the rederij'kersperiode, as, for example, Fama, Verdriet en Blys-
chap (Chagrin and Gayety), Verneem-al ett Veel-snaps (Eavesdropper
and Gossip). Bor's verse is monotonous and drowsy, and, as the
Dutch proverb says, ^*^hangs together like dry sand."
There is yet another drama in the literature of Holland — Appol-
lonms, Koningh van Tyrus, Treuer-spel {h.ms\.QTd2iva, Jacob Vinckel,
1662) — which has the name but not the story of our ApoUo-
nius. It is the performance of the cruelties of a mad king, and
while in the dramatis perso7t(B we find the familiar names ApoUo-
nius, Licoris, Stragulio, Archistratus, and Antiochus, yet the char-
acters are changed, and Antiochus is a mild and benevolent king
of Syria, and Apollonius is a murdering madman. The work is
dedicated to a woman well known in the history of Netherland
literature, Anna van Hoorn (wife of Cornelis van Vlooswyck), and
the dedicator declares that the play is none of his invention, but
the work of another hand, left in his care by the real author, who
had departed on a journey. D. Lingelbach, who writes the dedi-
cation or inscription (Opdracht), concludes, ''Ontfangh dan,
Hooghwaerde Vrouwe, 't geen ick UE opdrage : niet als eygen,
maer als een werck dat vry hooger draeft " ('* receive, estimable
lady, this work, which I dedicate to you, not as mine, but as a
work which /r(?/i- much higher^'). The dedication is dated '^Am-
sterdam, den 4 van Grasmaent [April 4J, Anno 1662." Maugre
this denial of authorship the work is nevertheless ascribed to Ling-
elbach by Grasse {Tresor, i, 166), Schroder {Grise/dis, Ixxix), and
in the Catalogue of the Library of the Maatschappij der Neder. Let-
terkunde te Leiden (iii, No. 432).
Still another Dutch version is De Wonderlyke Gevallen van Apol-
lonius van Tyr, T' Amsterdam, by Isaac Trojel, Boeckverkoper op
't Rokkin, in M. Antonius (/. c., ''at the sign of Marcus Anto-
nius "), 1 710. The little work is dedicated to Jan Munter Cornelis,
" Geheimschryver van de vermaerde Koopstad Amsterdam " (clerk
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 237
of the celebrated commercial city Amsterdam). Trojel says in his
dedication that he has sought to be brief in the narrative of adven-
tures, not diffuse (wytlopig), and that he has translated the story
from the Latin Historia, and mentions Velser's edition. Penon's
attention, after the publication of his work, was called to this rare
book by Mr. A. van Wessem, of Tiel (a judge of that city), a pos-
sessor of a copy.
Hungarian Versions.
An Hungarian version of the sixteenth century I have seen
at the British Museum, but as my attainments in Magyar are of
the same extent as De Quincey's in the Malay, I am unable to
establish the history of it. I quote the title: "Szepj'eles Historia
egy Apollonius nevu Kiraly Fiurol^ Mikeppen o egy Mefhiek, meg.
fejtefe miatt el-bujdosvan a tengeren valo hajo kazasban minden
javait el-vesz tette, es halasz ruhaban Altistrates Kiral ynak udvaraba
jutott : Annak utanna sok viszontagsaginak vegen, a szerencsenek
jobb szarnyara fel vetetvin, Kiraly allapottyahoz illo csendesseggel
megkoronaztatott. Most ujjobban ki-nyomtattatott es rendes rhyth-
musokkal meg-ekesitetett. Budan. Nyomtat. Katalin Landererne
Betuivel."^ On the reverse of the title is, "Adagio Virorum Sapi-
entium. In via virtute nulla est via; tamen itur per aspera ad pros-
pera; post nubila phoebus."
A copy in the Hungarian National Museum in Buda-Pesth is said,
in the last stanza of the work, to have been written in 1588. The
copy lacks a title-page. It is bound up with another book, and
written in the volume are the words '* Irta Bogati F. Miklos nyom.
Kolozsvar, 1591," that is, written by M. F. Bogati, printed at
Kolozsvar, 1591. Miklos Fazekas Bogathi was a Unitarian
preacher who died 1592 (Singer gives from Simonyi an account of
his life and writings). A second Miklos (Nicholas) Bogathi, some-
times confounded with the first, died in 1603. It is not certain
that the work in question was written by Bogathi ; only it is bound
^A beautiful and excellent history of Apollonius, a king's son ; how he, after
solving a riddle, wandered away ; how in sailing about on the ocean he lost all
his possessions, and in sailor's clothes arrived at the court of King Altistrates, At
the end of his many adventures, having been taken up on a better wing of for-
tune, he was crowned with a silence befitting his stale as a king. Now, again,
reprinted and embellished with regular rhyme, in Buda. Printed with Catalme
Landerer's types.
238 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
with a book which is certainly by him, entitled : ''Ez vilagi nagy
soc ziir zavarrol valo Enek " (a song of the great tangle of the
world).
The title of the book, according to Szabo Karoly, is Szep Chron-
ica mikeppen az Apolionius nevo Kirdlyfi egy Mesenec meg feytese-
vegett ellmjdosiidn^ Az Tengeren mtftdeneket eluesztuen Halasz ruh-
aban Altisirates Kiraly udvardban juta^ melynec Leanya a szep Lu-
cina aszszony az Kiraly fit meg szeretuen hozza mene. JSs jnikeppen
az Apollo7iius az Kiraly sdgra haza menuen, az Tengeren Feleseget
£S Lednydt el veszte es mikeppen oket soc eszledo mulua nagy orommel
egessegben taldld. Most vyionnan, az Lucretia notaydra Magyar
njelvre forditatot, es meg nyo7ntattatot, Colosvdrat azohvdrban 1591,
Esztendoben (A pretty story concerning Prince Apolionius who
having solved a riddle was forced to wander. Having lost every-
thing at sea, he arrived in fisher's garb at the court of King Altis-
trates, whose daughter, the beautiful Lucina, fell in love with him
and married him ; and how Apolionius returning home across the
ocean lost his wife and daughter, and how, after many years, he
found them again in good health. Now again, after the aria of Lu-
cretia, translated into Hungarian, and printed in the year 159 1).
There are other publications of the story in 1722, 1741, 1751 ;
five editions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries without
hint of place or date, but all probably printed at Buda-Pesth. The
1 75 1 copy has for title, '' Igen szep chronica Apolionius nevii Kiraly
firol, mikeppen egy mesenek meg-fejteseert elbujdosvan az tengeren
mindeneket el vesztven. Halasz ruhaban Altistratus Kiraly Udvar-
abanjuta Nota: sokeros vitezek, bolksek." Esler Marton,
1 75 1 (A beautiful story of a Prince Apolionius who having
solved a riddle wanders abroad ; having lost all upon the sea, he ar-
rives, clad as a fisher, at the court of King Altistrates Song :
Many strong knights, wise ones, etc. Esler Martin, 1751).
The poem consists of 202 stanzas of nine lines each, of which
the third, sixth and ninth lines rhyme, and the others are without
rhyme. The source of the story is the Gesta Romanorufu.
Italian Versions.
A MS. of the middle of the fourteenth century is preserved in the
Biblioteca Nazionale of Turin. The story occupies the entire Codex
N.V. 6 (Pasini, cci. 1. i. 97). It consists of twenty-eight leaves
189S.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 239
and is well written in Gothic characters. Thirty-five minia-
tures illustrate the MS. The work has been printed (at Bel-
linzona) in a limited edition (loo copies), edited by Carlo
Salvioni {La Storia di Apollonio di Tiro, Versions Tosco- Ven-
eziana, della met a del Sec. xiv edita da Carlo Salvioni). The
editor detects the presence in the MS. of the hand of a second
scribe whose work of correction follows close upon the labor of the
original amanuensis. The second writer was probably a Veronese
and his changes give to the text a more Tuscan aspect.^ Salvioni,
with the aid of Prof. Count Carlo Cipolla, has succeeded in repro-
ducing the original text.
The oldest Italian edition is La Storia di Apollonio di Tiro in
ottava ri?na,'Vt\\tz, i486; reprinted in 1489, 1490, 1492, 1520,
1535? i555» 1560, 1598, 1610, 1629, 1679 and 1709. The edi-
tion of 1492 is entitled '■^ Historia di Apolonio di Tiro reforniata
per Paulo de Taegia in f anno I4g2 nel mese settemdre a contem-
plazione della magnifica Madona S. da Ferrara e poi per placer del
popolo,^^ Milafi, I4Q2 (cf. Paitoni, Bibl. degli Volgarizz, i, 79;
and Leone del Prete : Storia di ApolL, etc., Lucca, 1861).
An edition said to have been made in Florence in 1580 is adorned
with wood cuts. It contains six cantos and thirty-two pages. It
is devout, each canto beginning with an invocation to Jesus Christ,
the Father of Mercies. It is entitled Historia d^ Apollonio de
Tiro nuovamento Ristampota.
It ends with
" Mi fu recato in questa lingua prima
perche ciascum si bella storia intenda
et io k voi ve I'ho contato in rima
perche diletto ciasche dun ne prenda
signer c'havete dal pie alta cima
da me udita la bella leggenda
io prego Dio, che a tutti sia in acoto
Al vostro honor questo libro e finito."
Spanish Versions.
In the library of the Escurial there is a Spanish MS. (iii,
k, 4to) containing three compositions: (i) *' Libro de Apo-
lonio," (2) *' Vida de Santa Maria Egipciaqua," (3) ''Adoracion
1 Notice oio for olio (oil), and perdti for perso (lost), alto for olto (high) and
tieni for tienis (hold).
PROC. AMER. PHILOS, SOC. XXXVII. 158. P. PRINTED DEC. 15, 1898.
240 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
de los Reyes. "^ It is a quarto codex, on parchment, and has
eighty leaves well and clearly written. It has generally been be-
lieved to belong to the thirteenth or fourteenth century, and the
nameless author or ''arranger" is believed to have been contempo-
rary with the author of the Poema del Cid"^ (1135-1175). The MS.
was first published by its discoverer, Pedro Jose Pidal, in 1844.
It is in Sanchez's Coleccion de poetas Castellanos anteriores al siglo
dechno quinfo, which is a collection found in Biblioteca de Auiores
Espatioles desde la formacio7idel lenguaje hasta nuestros dias (tomo
quincuagesimosetimo [57] Madrid, 1864.^ The 'Mibre de Apol-
lonio " of this publication occupies pp. 283-305, and has a pre-
liminary note by Pidal (pp. xxxvi-xli).
It is written in stanzas of four verses, all terminating with the
same rhyme. The verses contain fourteen syllables and bear evi-
dence of Provencal origin. The metre was a novelty'' and was
** properly regarded by the author as his chief distinction," and he
implores the divine aid in his new experiment while he essays his
six hundred stanzas :
** Componer un romance de mieva nKzstria,
Del buen rey Apolonio e de sa cortesia,
El rey Apolonio de Tiro natural,
Que porlas aventuras visto grant tenporal,
Como perdio la fija e la mujer capdal
Como las cobro amas, ca les fue muy leyal."
" I will write a romance (story) in the new mastery {inethod).'*^
Nueva maesiria no doubt refers to the form of the stanza and to its
rhyme. George Ticknor says '' The merit of the poem is small.
It contains occasional notices of the manners of the age when it
was produced — among the rest, some sketches of a female jongleur^
of the class soon afterwards severely denounced in the laws of Al-
fonso the Wise, that are curious and interesting. Its chief attrac-
tion, however, is its story, and this, unhappily, is no original"
(^History of Spanish Literature^ ist ed., 1849, ^o^- b P- 25). The
1 Or, Libre dels Tres Reyes dorient.
^ According to Fitzmaurice-Kelly, the most recent historian of Spanish litera-
ture, the narrator of the ApoUonius story was " probably a native of Aragon "
{Spanish Literature , 1898).
3 This is the admirable collection of Spanish classics in 79 vols, by Manuel
Rivadeneyra.
*F. Wolf, Blatter fUr literarische Unterhaltiing, Jahrgang 1850, zweiter
Band, No. 232.
1893.]
SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 241
(emsile JO ng/eur or jug/aresa mentioned in the Apolonio is the primi-
tive strolling actress. Alfonso in Las siete Pai'tidas denounces the
class as infamous.
The Spanish text obviously rests upon the French or Provencal,
and in turn inspired a production of the aljamia or Spanish-Arabic
literature. T\\q. Maid of Arcayona\it\orig% to i\\Q texios aljamia-
dos and is an outgrowth of the Apolonio. ^
The Spanish Apolonio has a perfervid Christian tone. Christian
piety and honor have been breathed into the ancient pagan story.
It is the voice of an angel that summons Apollonius to Ephesus,
where his wife is the abbess of a convent /
A later Spanish version is found in the Patramielo of Juan de
Timoneda (1576). Timoneda was a book-seller of Valencia, who
printed the pasos (dramatic interludes) of Lope de Rueda (cf. De-
leitoso Coi7pendiOj 1567, and Registro de Representanies, 1570).
He was an early writer of Spanish tales, or rather an arranger (for
he had little originality) of previously existing plays and narratives.
The very popular picaresque novel, Lazarillo de Tonnes^ had excited
a desire for stories of wit, intrigue and adventure, which Timoneda
attempted to satisfy with a collection of twenty-two traditional
tales {^Patranuelo, or story-teller). His version of the Apollonius he
derived from the Gesta Romanorum (cf. Brunet, La France litterai7'e
au XVe siecle, p. 12). It only remains to note that the character of
Tarsi ana in the early Spanish text appears to be the type of Preciosa,
the heroine of Cervantes' Gitanilla, and of Weber's opera.^
Provencal and French Versions.
Wilhelm Cloetta, Abfassungund Ueberlieferungdes Poeme Moral,
Erlangen, 1884, may be consulted for the bibliography of the Apol-
lonius saga among the troubadours. Numerous references also occur
in Raynouard, Poesias d. Troubadours, ii, 301. The allusions to
the story in the songs of the troubadours, and the frequent Proven-
cal words and phrases in the Spanish MS. point to a very early ap-
pearance of the story in France (cf. Fauriel, Histoire de la Poesie
Proven^ale, iii (1846), 486, 487).
^ Castilian written in the Arabic alphabet was called rt'/^rt/z/zi^ (/.<?., foreign),
the original name of the imperfect Latin spoken by the Muzarabes, The
Poema de l^j/^ belongs to the literature thus begotten.
- Fitzmaurice- Kelly, Spanish Literature, p. 54.
242 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
Arnaud de Marsan a poet of Provence, about 1642, sings :
" d'Apollonius de Tyr
Sapchatz contar e dire
Com el fos perilhat," etc.
Toward the end of the thirteenth century the Provencal romance
of Flamenca contains, among other anonymous histories, V autre
cantava d'' Apolloine com si reiene Tyr de Sidoine. It is a narrative
poem in octosyllabic couplets, edited from the unique MS. at Car-
cassonne by Paul Meyer and translated into modern French (Paris,
1865) (see Francis Hueffer, The Troubadours^ 1878, p. 15).
The story appears to have existed in the poetry of the trouba-
dours in the south of France, if we suppose Alphonse le Savant to
refer to the French ApoUotiius.
« Y sin gobierno ni jarcia
Me pome por alta mar
Que asi ficiera Apolonio
Y yo fare otro que tal,"
And in the north of France it passed, as we have already seen, into
the vast orbit of the Carlovingian cycle.
The old French prose version is contained in a little volume
printed at Geneva in 1482 (?). It is entitled ^^ Apollin roy de
Thire. Cy commence la cronicque et hystoire de Appollin roy de
thir et premiereinent danthiogus et de sa fille comment par luxure
il violla sa fille et comment il mourut meschamment par la fouldre
qui loccity Of this rare incunadulu7n, only two copies, so far as
I know, are known to exist ; one was purchased at the sale of Louis
Philippe's library in 1852, for about 1800 francs; the other is at
Sitten, in the library of the family of Lavallaz.
A little later was published ^* Plaisant et agreable histoire a^Ap-
pollonius prince de Thyr en Affrique et Roi d* Aittioch traduite par
Gilles Corrozet, en ses jeune ans^^ (Paris, 1530).
The story is found in Boisteau and Belleforest, Histoires tragi-
ques, Rouen, 1604, 7th vol., p. 113; and in the eighteenth cen-
tury it is entitled Les Aveniures d^ Apollonius de Thyr, par A. B.
(Ant. le Brun), Paris, 1710; Rotterdam, 1718 (?) ; Paris, 1797 (cf.
Nouvelle Bib I. d. Rom. Tom. i, p. i).
It appears in classic French literature in Corneille's Theodore,
Vierge et Martyre, the scene of which is laid in Antioch in the reign
of Diocletian.
1S98.] SMYTH — PERICLES AXD APOLLONIUS. 243
Duplessis' catalogue cites a MS. in the library at Chartres (No.
419), '^ Lystoire de Apollonius qui apres les pestilences et fortunes
quil ot en merset ailleurs, fust roy de Antioche" (Duplessis, Catalog,
de la bibl. de Chartres, Chartres, 1840).
I feel bound to mention the French translation {Apollonius de
Tyr'), by J. d'Avenel, Paris, Mortain, 1857. The translator says
(p. 3, footnote), " Notre traduction d 'Apollonius est, sauf erreur,
la premiere qui ait paru dans notre langue; nous reclamons done
pour elle I'indulgence du lecteur." It is milk for babes, all the
strong passages of the original carefully expunged.
A manuscript of the French prose romance is in the British
Museum (Royal 20, C. ii). It is of the fifteenth century, on vel-
lum ; the preceding part of the MS. contains the prose romance of
Cleriadus and Meliadice. The general heading reads : '^ Cy com-
mence la cronique et histoire des mervuilleuses aventures de Appo-
lin Roy de Thir." It concludes : " Touttesfois tant comme il ves-
quit il fust Roy dantioce et de thir et de la terre des penthapolis et
de citrianne et de tarcye et en sou tempz les tint en bonne paix.
Puis fist escripre ses adventures et le mist en vi lieux dont lun fist
mettre en la terre des effes [Ephesians] Et laultre au temple de
dyane Et laultre en anthioce Et laultre en cytrianne [cyrene] Et
laultre en tarcye Et laultre a thir Ainsi est finee listore et cronique
de appolin de Thir. "^
A French translation of the fifteenth century, Le Violier des his-
toires Roinaines, is republished in the Bibliotheque Elzeviriennej
under the title ''Le Violier des histoires Romaines, Ancienne tra-
duction frangaise des Gesta Romanorum, Nouvelle edition, revue
et annotee. Par M. G. Brunet, Paris, 1858 (chapter 125). It re-
sembles the Gesta Romanorum, but occasionally points to another
source. Singer cites (p. 108) several passages in which the text
agrees rather with the Historia and with Steinhowel than with the
Gesta.
Modern Greek Versions.
As the Greek original of the saga is lost, peculiar interest attaches
to the medieval Greek versions. The hero, after having traveled so
far from the East, returns in the circle of romance and appears twice
in a Greek garb. '' Damals kehrte die Erzahlung vom Abendlande
' Another MS. which Singer has collated is in the Imperial Library at Vienna
(No. 3428).
244 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
nach dem griechischen Osten zurlick, wo langst jede Spur des alten
Originalwerks verloren gegangen war" (Krumbacher, ''Byzantini-
schen Litteraturgeschichte," in I. Miiller's Handbiich der Clas. Alfer-
tums-Wissenschaff, ix, pt. i, p. 434.) Both the Greek versions
are metrical. The older one is apparently of the end of the four-
teenth or the beginning of the fifteenth century. It has 857 un-
rhymed verses. It is in a Paris MS. (Codex Paris, grec 390),
described in the catalogue : ^' Narratio de Apollonio Tyrio e latina
lingua in grsecam conversa ; hie codex decimo quinto sseculo exaratus
videtur." It begins on fol. 149/^ and finishes i73(^ (see Chauvin,
les Roman. Grec, pp. 175-182). It is entitled MsrayXiuzTLffixa dizo
Aazivcxov ei^ "^PcofxaixoVf J[:jy7)(Ti(^ 7:oXu7zad^ov<$ ^AtzoXXcdvIoo tod rupou. It
is compared with the Latin version in a study by M. Gidel ('' Etude
sur Apollonius de Tyr," in Literarisches Centralblatt, 1871, No. 34,
p. 851). Much Christian comment is introduced into the pagan
story. The most complete studies of the Greek versions have been
made by Wilhelm Wagner, in two separate publications. His first
book is '' Medieval Greek Texts. Being a Collection of the Earliest
Compositions in Vulgar Greek, Prior to the Year 1^00. Edited, with
Prolegomena ana Ci'itical Notes, by Wilhelm Wagner. Part i. Lon-
don. Published for the Philological Society, by Asher&' Co., i8yo.^^
His second book is " Carmina Grceca medii cevi. Edidit Gulielmus
Wagner, Lipsiae, 1874." ^tt. 2X^0 Etude sur Apol. d. Tyr. Roman
ecrit en Grec et en vers politique s d^ apres mie version Latine, M. C.
Gidel.
Wagner believes the MS. of the earliest Greek text to belong to
the early fifteenth century, but Omant (the keeper of the MSS. in
the Paris Library) contends that it is not older than the sixteenth.
For the sources from which the MS. is derived, see L. Traube,
Neues Archiv d. Gesellschaftfilr dltere deutsche Geschichtskunde , v,
10 (1884), p. 382.
The second Greek version belongs to the end of the fifteenth
century. It is a much fuller narrative than the first text and con-
tains 1894 rhymed verses (1838 in the Venice edition of 1778). It
appears in some editions (for it was a popular work and often re-
printed) to have been made by Gabriel Kontianos ; in others by
"Konstantin Temenos "^ (cf. Legrand, Bibliogr. hell, i (1885), 290).
It is entitled AirjyT^fft^ ajpatordrrj dTzoXXaj'^ioo rod tv ropoj. '^Fcp.dda, in
Venezia, per Messer Stefano da Sabio ad instantia di M. D'Amian
1 See p. 246.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 245
di Santa Maria, 1534. Brunet mentions other editions from the
Venetian press in 1553 (Christ, di Zanetti), 1603, 1642 and 1696
(see HsLupt, 0/>2^scu/a, iii, 27, and B. Schmidt, Griechische Mdrchen
Sagen und Volkslieder^ Leipzig, 1877, p. 7, and Th. Griisse, Lehr-
buch ei?ier allgemeineJi Lite?'drgeschicJite, ii (1842), 457-460, and
K. Goedecke, Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschefi Dichiung, I
(1884), 367)-
I have studied an edition of 1778 (^A. too iv rupoj, Frj/idda/EveTc-
Tjffiv, 1778) and have come to very different conclusions from those
arrived at by previous scholars. Wagner says, '^ The language is
very difficult and seems to be the bad jargon of the islands " {Af. G.
T., p. xviii). It is evident that Wagner knew very little of the
Greek dialects, and this bit of superficial criticism is characteristic
of the carelessness and ignorance which prevail in both his books,
and yet critics and bibliographers seem blindly to have followed
Wagner's lead without undertaking to examine for themselves the
language of the text. The work (translation or transcription) was
done in Crete, a fact which was unknown to most of the scholars
who described the poem, although the place and time are explicitly
stated in the body of the text. The language is difficult for any
one unfamiliar with the dialect. It is not *' bad jargon ;" on the
contrary, the poem is well written, in the Cretan dialect, and it
should be remembered that at the time the work was done (1500),
Crete was more literary and more classical than Greece itself.
Greece had passed under the Turkish yoke : Crete was still Vene-
tian. Much difference of opinion has been expressed as to the
source of the Cretan version. Prof. Konrad Hofmann thinks it
was derived from the Italian (" Von zwei griechischen Bearbei-
tungen die wir haben, ist die eine des 13. Jahrhunderts aus einem
lateinischen, die andere des 16. aus einem italienischen Texte
geflossen," Sitzungsberichte der ph. -ph. u. hist. CI. d. kdn.-bayei'.
Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Milnchen, 1871, Ht. 4, S. 416). The con-
sensus of opinion, however, favors translation from a Latin text.
But Edelestand Dumeril asserted its derivation from the German
of Johann (^sic) von Neuenstadt ! — *' la redaction en grec moderne
a ete faite d'apres la version Allemande " {^Floire et Blanceflot'y
Paris, Jannet, 1856, p. cv). What Dumeril's exquisite reason was,
I do not know, but there is less resemblance, if anything, between
Gabriel Kontianos and Heinrich v. Neustadt than between Gabriel
and Shakespeare.
246 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
The name of the author or transcriber has also set the editors
guessing. M. Sathos says that the translation of the poem into Greek
was made by Constantinos Temenos, a Cretan (^K(i}v<$Tw^rho<s Ti/ievo?
xpij^ ^gn^oupyrjffsv 7) [xdXXov fxericppaaev h erst 1500 rd xard rd> iv zupoj
^AnoXXai'^io, etc.; cf. Neo iX?.7]'>ixi) ^doXoyia, p. 230). Wagner puzzles
over Sathos for awhile and decides that he does not know the rea-
sons for the statement. The reason is to be found in Sathos' ignor-
ance. He has mistaken the Cretan word dep-ho (^composed') for a
proper name !^
But it is time to consider the text itself. It begins :
^ATtoXXib'^w^ ro> h Tbpoj. '^Frj/idda, d^oij^ iwerirjffi'^, ^77^t Ilapd
Ayj/xTjzptw 0£o8u(TC(p T(p i^ '/a>avv:'vwv. Con Licenza de superiori.
Inc. p. 3 : Mk du'^av too ^Irjffoo Xptarou, otz' oXot TzpoffxovoufiSy Tia.'jd. poo
ScLXTTj du'^a/xr^j Xoyo'j^ xaXo'J vd Tzoops, — Klav iatpaXa xaX rcTZore? a9 £v
(Topna^yjpivu, FtarT exapa to xdreya^ xai toy a pa^^vjpjvo, p. 71.
The first two pages form an introduction on the part of the
author. He invokes the help of Jesus Christ, attributes every
event to Providence, justifies his attempt to have put into verse the
story /le had read so?fiewhere and excuses himself for any mistakes
committed on his part. The story begins on the first line of the third
page and goes on to p. 69. The last eight verses of pp. 70, 71 state
the Christian name of the author to be Constantine ; his family
name is omitted. It is distinctly stated that the poem was concluded
at Canea in Crete on the first of January, 1500, the fete day of St.
Basilios. This statement, which has been consistently overlooked
by the historians, is in the following lines :
'EreXeicDffa r'apyr^'jiaa pk too {j^soo ttjv ydprj,
'9 Too<s y^iXioo<; Tzv^Taxoaioo<i, tqv pry^a'j tov yevdp-q.
'2" TYjV TzpoiTT]'^ BaaiXetov re 'J^c'ov too npsffjSoTOOf
e^9 ra Jia'^td Ppt(Tx6pevo($ el<; to vt^di ttjv KpTJTT].
I]ot7]pa elv drto /stpo? KwvffTw^Tivoo (sic, K(o'^(TTd>Tioo?) dspivOj
ytd vd pe paxapt^ooffiv d7iiJTri<$ dizod-aivo).
Kidv taipaXa xai ti7:ot£<^ a? eV <Top.7:a^7jpi>o,
yiaT). exapa to xd-Ttya xai Toya pa&rjpi\>o.
Finally in regard to the name of the author, Wagner entertains
in his second hook {Car mina) ** grave suspicions" that Gabriel
Contiani is not the name of the poet, but only of the copyist, in
which for once he is right. Some commentators have supposed
^ Numerous scholars, even the latest, S. Singer, have repeated the error.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 247
Kontiani to be derived from Kofi-qq (Coiite), an Italian title intro-
duced by the Venetians who then held Crete, and have believed
that the writer therefore belonged to the Western Catholic Church.
But this supposition is confuted by Koraes, in his Atacta, Vol. ii,
prolegomena, p. 13, where he shows that " Gabriel " clearly points
to the Oriental Church.
Russian Versions.
In Russian literature the story of Apollonius is derived from the
Russian translation of the Gesta Romanorum^ which in turn rests
upon the Polish rendering of the Gesta. G. Polivka, of all the
Russian scholars, has studied the subject most closely. In the Lisiy
filologicke^ 1889, 353~35S ^"d 416-435, he demonstrated the rela-
tions of the Russian and Polish versions of the Gesta, and discussed
the curious Bohemian version of the Apollo7iius. In the Drobne
prispevky liter drne historicke (brief literary notes), Prague, 1891, he
compared the Gesta Romanorum and the Tichonravov texts, but
came to no positive conclusions. Dr. Murko, of Vienna, was of the
opinion that the Tichonravov text was only a careful treatment by a
Moscow scholar of the White Russian Rimskija Dejanija. In 1892
he contributed to the Archiv fiir Slavische Philologie (14: 405), a
careful paper entitled, '^ Die russische Uebersetzung des Apollonius
von TJ'r/zi'und der Gesta Romanorum.^ ^ For the Tichonravov text,
see Letopisi russkoj literatury (chronology of Russian literature),
1859, and Russkij folol Vestnik (1891, Part ii, p. 314); for the
Rimski/a Dejanija, see Obscestvo Ijubitelej drevnej pismennosti (St.
Petersburg, No. 117). A selection of stories from the Rimskija
Dejanija was made and published at Cracow by Siekielowicz in
1663, and this collection was translated from Polish into Russian
''in the summer of 7199" (that is, of the Byzantine era = 1691
A.D.).
The Bohemian folk-book, to a description of which we shall
arrive later, is entitled Kro7iyka o Apollonwi Krali Tyrskem, W.
Gindrichowe Hradcy, 1733. ^^ was reprinted, Olomanci, 1769, and
Praze, 1761. See Dobrowsky, Geschichte d. Rohm. Sprache, p. 303.
It is also printed direct from the MSS. by A. J. Vrt'atko, Casopis
Musea Ceskeho, 1863.
The Story in English.
We have now spoken of the story as it appears in Germany, Den-
mark, Sweden, Holland, Italy, Spain, France, Hungary, Greece,
248 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLO'NIUS. [Oct. 7,
Russia and Bohemia. It remains for us to consider its course in
English literature. Most curious is the form it takes in Anglo-
Saxon, where it exists as the only romance in that literature. The
historian must take notice of eight versions of the story in English
literature.
1. The Anglo-Saxon romance (a MS. in C. C. C, Cambridge).
2. An early English metrical translation (Wimborne, Dorset).
3. Gower's Co7ifessio Amantis, 1483.
4. Copland's translation from the French. Pr. by Wynkyn de
Worde, 15 10.
5. TwinQ^s Fatierne of Faineful Adventu?'es, 1576.
6. Shakespeare's Pericles, 1609.
7. Geo. Wilkins' Pericles Frince''j)f Tyre, a novel, 1608.
8. Lillo's Marina.
The old English or Anglo-Saxon version is believed by Wiilker
to belong to the second third of the eleventh century. Ebert pre-
fers to date it from the beginning of the century. It exists in a
unique MS. in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
Thus before the Norman conquest brought the chivalry and ro-
mance of southern Europe into England, some unknown but not
unskillful hand, as if presaging the time when the new ideas of
courtliness and chivalry should embody themselves in the romantic
forms of the Elizabethan age, had translated this universal favorite.
The MS. was first studied by Benjamin Thorpe, F. S. A., who
published it with a literal translation in 1834. It is referred to by
Wiilker, Grundriss, p. 504; H. Leo, Altsdchsische und Angels dch-
sische Sprachproben, 32-34; B. Thorpe, Analecta Anglo-Saxonica,
108 (1846); Miiller Angelsdchsisches Lesebuch, 56-62, and by
Zupitza, Anglia, Bd. i, 46^-46'j. The MS. has now been
thoroughly edited by Zupitza.^
It is but a fragment. Thorpe fills the lacunse in his translation
with quotations from Swan's rendering of the narrative in the Gesta
Romanorum. Prof. A. S. Cook, in his First Book in Old English
(Ginn & Co., 1894), has also reedited bits of the old text.
1 Zupitza discusses carefully and learnedly the question " Welcher Text liegt
der Altenglischen Bearbeitung der Erzahlung von Apollonius von Tyrus zu
Grunde?" in RoDianische Forsc/mngen^ Vol. iii, pp. 269-279. The article should
be read for the interesting parallelism between the A.-S. and the Latin MSS. of
Riese's third class. Zupitza's edition of the A.-S. is in Arckiv filr das Sticdium
der netieren Sprachen u. Litteratureny 1896, Vol, xcvii, pp. 17-34; intro, note
by A. Napier.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 249
In 1850 J. O. Halliwell (Halliwell-Phillipps) printed for pri-
vate circulation : A new boke about Shakespeare arid Stratford-
ypon-Avon. He introduced into it a *' curious and interesting
fragment of a very early English metrical translation of the story of
Apollonius, King of Tyre." It is copied from a MS. on vellum
which had formerly belonged to Dr. Farmer. The MS. had but
two leaves and had been converted into the cover of a book, the
edges were cut off, and some words were altogether lost in
consequence. Steevens had quoted a few lines from it (cf. Ma-
lone's Shakespeare, ed. 1821, Vol. xxi, p. 221). '* The author,"
says Halliwell, "appears to have resided at Wimborne Minster in
Dorsetshire," and the MS. would appear from the language to be
anterior to the appearance of Gower's Confessio Amantis.
The fragment is of considerable philological importance, and as
it was printed in a limited edition of seventy-five copies, of which
I believe fifty were destroyed/ I have ventured to reprint it here
as a singular and interesting fragment of early English literature.^
Sche was fairest of alle,
The Kyng ....
And on hys knees byfore hire falle
He ofTryde and alle that wit him were
And afterw ....
drery chere ;
Of Tire I Ar . . . .
, . . . myself there king,
1 Halliwell-Phillipps was provokingly fond of printing his pamphlets and bro-
chures in very limited editions. A wag said of him that he only printed two
copies of his books — one he burned and the other he put in his private library.
2 1 have normalized the orthography of the MS. only in one particular, sub-
stituting for the so-called Anglo-Saxon g symbol (which had in ME. the value
of a spirant) its later ME. representatives gh, and y according to the phonetic
value of the symbol in each instance ; following in this the orthographic usage of
the later ME. MSS., which put gh for the guttural or back spirant, y for the pa-
latal, and g for the stop. In Ags. up to the twelfth century only one character
was used for the various sounds of g, viz., the Anglo-Saxon g. In ME. the so-
called Prankish g (our modern g sign) v*^as introduced to denote the stopped sound
as in go, and the French sound of g in rouge ; the Anglo-Saxon letter was re-
tained for awhile to denote the spirant sounds of g, but in Chaucer's time it had
been dropped and gh or y substituted.
250 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
Appolyn the ....
.... wit mine ofryng ;
As sone as ... .
.... upon my letterure,
The .... ing .... hedde
.... was ful suyre ;
I scholde him . . . .
.... thulke cure,
Therfore he did ....
.... he gaf gret huyre ;
To Tarse y- fledde that deth to ... .
For hunger the cite was al nought,
An hundred milianys they hadde of me
Buschelles of whete, as y am by- thought.
Tho made they an ymage of bras,
A scheef of whete he helde an honde,
That to my licknes maad was ;
Uppon a buschel they dyde hym stonde ;
And wryte about the storye.
To Appolyn this hys y-do,
To have hym ever in memorye,
For he delyverede us fro woo.
Tho wente y unto Cirenen ;
The kings doughter he me yaf,
I ledde here fro here kyn ;
Ayeyn we broughte hire nought saf,
Ffor sche deyde amydde the see ;
And ther sche bare this maide child.
That here stant byfore the :
Goude goddesse, be to hire myld !
Tho tok y the doughter in Tarse to kepe,
To Strangulion and Dame Denyse,
Y couthe no ... . reed but ever wepe,
Sorwe me t6k in ech wyse.
I held me in the see ten and four yeer
"Wit sorwe, care and wo;
I cam aye and fond hire nought ther,
Tho nyst y what was best to do.
But, grete goddesse, y thanke the
That evere sche deth so asterte.
That ever y myyhte that day y-seo,
To have this confort at my herte !
The whiles he expounede thus his lyf
"Wit sorwe and stedfast thought.
He tolde hit to hys awene wyf ;
Sche knew him wel, and he hire nought.
18SH.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 251
Heo caught him to hire armes two,
For joy sche ne mytjhte spek a word ;
The kyng was wroth, and pute her fro,
Heo cryede loude, ye beth my lord !
I am youre wyf, youre leof y-core,
Archistrate ye lovede so I
The kynges doughter y was bore,
Archistrates he ne hadde na mo.
Heo chpte hym, and efter gan to kysse,
And tolde that was byfalle;
Sche dipt and keuste with wouten lysse
And saide thus byfore hem alle, —
Ye seeth Appolyn, the kyng.
My maister thot taughte me al my goud.
• •••••
.... me out of my grace
Archistra ....
.... wham the other forsok,
And to my lord you ches ;
My lord that leide me on cheste,
Or y were cast into the see,
My lord that ofte me keuste,
And never wende me more y-se2,
My lord that y have founde,
Y thanke God in Trinyte ! "
Ure doughter on thys grounde,
Ye, dame, par fay, thys hys sche !
.... te he hire, me scholde nought knowe.
Ho was gladdest of the threo;
.... They wepte alle arowe,
That ech of other hadde pite ;
Ephese hit was couth.
The goddesse had hire lord knowe,
.... An may no man telle wit mouth
The grete mirthe thot was mad, y trowe ;
.... An song and made gleo
In gret conf<)rt of here goddesse,
.... thes y- streghyt over al thoe cite.
An keverede for gret gladnesse :
They made a feste of gret plente.
And fedde the citesaynes alle at ones.
They made of him gret dente.
The fest was gret for the nones.
They made hym prest of the lawe,
Here norry that sche loved mest,
.... the maner by har dawe,
Wymmen dide thoe offys of prest.
252 SMYTH — PEEICLES AND APOLLOXIUS. [Oct. 7,
.... the joye of thoe londe,
Sche dighte hire wit here lord to fare,
. . . . e cite broughte hem at stronde,
For deel of blisse wexeth al bare.
.... nte hy to Antioche,
Yutt was him kept thoe kyndom,
. . . . Yt fro thennys hys passage
To his lond Tire he nom ;
Made Anategora kyng,
Hys doughter quene thoe was his heir,
. . . . ne hit was at her likynge,
To schip hy wente alle y-fere.
To Tarse they wente wit gret navye,
Wederynge fel at wille,
And all the citesaynes goune crye,
Welcome lord, us tille :
.... Yt6 anon Strangulion take,
And hys wyf, Denyse, also,
. . . . ed hem alle for here sake
Wit hym to have mothalle goo.
.... bet yif he hath trespased ought.
Other eny offense ageyn hem do,
.... yde alle nay lord ryght nought,
Ye beth oure lord forever mo.
. . . . ge have to lorde y- core,
For evere love you ne mote
.... hadde ye be ne hadde before.
Of alle bales ye were bote ;
An image of brass witnesse hys,
Thot we schulle yow nevere disceyve,
.... ol let deye for you y-wys
Rather thon eny man schal you greve ;
.... Angulion, my doughter y tok.
And Denyse that hys hys wyf.
That the citesaynes wit gret deal
Hadde write hit to fore youre eyye :
Appolyn gan to calle,
Tarse, doughter, wherevere you beo,
Sche we the forth by fore us alle,
Fro deth to lyf arys aye !
Sche pytte hire forthe in riche atir.
As fel to a quene.
To fulfille her fader desir ;
« Denyse," sche seyth, "hail ye!
I grete the out of my grave
^898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLOXIUS. 253
Fro deth to lyve areved !
Wher liys Tiophele ? hym moste y have."
He stoud sire aferyd.
" Madame, y am her at youre wille ! "
He stod as he schulde sterve :
" Sche tok me the to spille,
Deonyse whom I serve."
The citesaynes Strangulion toke,
And hys wyf for hire trecherye,
Out of the cite drowe wit hoke
Into a place ther-inne to dye :
They stened him wit stone,
And so hy wolde Teophele also ;
Tarse bygan him defende sone.
To dethe he ne was nought do.
And saide, ye yaf me grace
To pray God Almyght,
I schal him yeve lyves space.
Ellys ye ne hadde ne never seye in sight ;
Appolyn dwellede ther fourty dayes,
And gaf grete giftes to alle men;
And thennes sailede to Cirenen :
Yut was hys ffader-in-lawe alyve,
Archistrates the goud kyng,
ffolk come ayeynes him so blyve.
As eny myghte by other thryng ;
They songe, daunsede, and were blythe.
That were hy myhte that day y-seo,
And thankede God a thousand sythe ;
The king was gladdest, suyr be ye :
Tho he saw hem alle byfore,
His doughter and hys sone in lawe,
And hys doughter so fair y-core,
A kinges wyf, he was wel fawe :
And her child ther also,
Al clene of kings blod;
Pie kuste them, he was glad tho ;
But the olde king so goud
He made hem dwelle al thoe yer.
And deyde in hys doughter arm. —
Wit gret gladnesse he deyde ther,
If God nolde hit was harm.
Tho nolde Appolyn nevere fyne
Ar he hadde the ffischere sought,
That yof him half hys sclaveyne,
Tho he was firste to londe y- brought ;
254 ' SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
Knyghtes him fette of gret honour,
He was aferde to be slawe,
He gaf him londes and gret tresour.
And made him erl by al hys sawe :
Olde man, ne dred the nought,
For I am Apollyn of Tire,
That ones help of the bysought,
Tho I lay byfore the in the myre ;
Thou gave me half thy sclaveyne.
And bed me y schulde thenke on the ;
Broughte hym dyeinge.
Antiochus his deth hadde swore.
He was marchaunt of many thynges ;
.... the kyng to grete,
He tok him up and gan him to kusse ;
.... de he wolde him nevere lete,
He scholde be on of hem to wysse ;
. . . . im bothe lovde and lede.
And made him erl a lite ther byside ;
. . . . ful of wilde brede,
Casteles and tourys that were wyde,
He made him chef of hys consail,
For he fonde him ferst so .... t fewe :
.... as evere wit-oute fail,
He ne leet for no newe ;
.... the kyng goud lyf and clene
Wit hys wyf in gret solas,
.... and fourtene
He lyvede after Ihys do was ;
.... twey sones by junge age,
That wax wel farynge men ;
.... the kyndom of Antioche,
Of Tire and of Cirenen.
Were nevere verre on hys lond,
Ne hunger ne no mesayse,
.... hit yede wel an hond,
He lyvede wel at ayse :
.... tweye bokys of hys lyf
That onto his awene bible he sette.
.... at byddinge of hys wyf ....
He lefte at Ephese so he hire fette;
.... hys lond in goud manere
Tho he drow to age,
.... ora he made King of Tire,
That was his owene heritage ;
1898-] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 255
The eldest sone of that empire
He made king of Antiage,
.... that he lovede dure,
Of Cirenen that was ....
When he hadde al thys y-dyght
Cam deth and axede hys fee,
.... hys soule to God Almyght,
So wel God that hit bee ;
. . . . de ech housbonde grace.
For to lovye so hys wyf
.... y-fed hem witoute trespace,
As sche dyde hym al here lyf ;
.... ne on alle lyves space,
Heere to amende oure mysdede.
.... of hevene to have a place,
Amen ye synge here, y rede.
.... ony thys was translatyd
Almost at Engelondes ende.
.... to the makers stat,
Tak eich an ... . kynde ;
.... hove y- take hys bedys on hond.
And sayd hys Pater Noster and Crede,
.... was vicary, y understonde^
At Wymborne mynstre in that stede ;
. . . . y thoughte you have wryte,
Hit is nought worth to be knowe,
.... thot wole the sothe y-wyte
Go Thider and me wol ye schewe ;
.... Fader, and Sone, and Holy Gost,
To whom y clepide at my begynnynge,
.... de he hys of myghtes most,
Brynge us alle to a goud endynge :
Grannte us voide the payne of helle,
O God, Lorde, and persones threo,
And in the blysse of hevene dwelle !
Amen, pour charit6 !
3. We next find Gower telling the story, to the pious disgust of
Chaucer, in the Confessio Amantis, which was finished not later
than 1393, and most probably a year or two earlier, and which was
first printed by Caxton in 1483. Gower confesses the source of his
tale in his opening lines :
« Of a cronique in daies gon.
The wich is cleped Panteon
In loves cause I rede thus
How that the great Antiochus," etc.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS, SCO. XXXVII. 158. Q. PRINTED DEC, 15, 1898.
256 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
Pudmenzky^ thinks that Gower must also have used some other
MSS., and his notion is perhaps borne out by Gower's own words
when after a long digression he returns to his subject with :
*' But now to my matere agen
To telle as olde bokes seyn."^
4. Kynge Apollyn of Thyre is a prose romance published in
15 10 by Wynkyn de Worde, and translated from the French by
Robert Copland. Its French parentage is the MS. in the British
Museum (Royal 20, C. ii). It exists in but one MS., in the possession
of the Duke of Devonshire, at Chatsworth, and has been repro-
duced m facsimile by Edmund William Ashbee, in 1870, only
twenty-one copies printed.
5. We come now to the last version that preceded Shakespeare,
and to which the latter is in part indebted. In 1576 appeared the
novel, ''gathered into English," entitled ^^ The Paiterne of Painefull
Adventures : Containing the most excellent, pleasant and variable
Historic of the strange accidents that befell unto Prince Apollonius,
the Lady Lucina, his wife, and Tharsia, his daughter. Wherein the
uncertaintie of this world, and the fickle state of man's life are
lively described. Gathered into English by Laurence Twine, Gen-
tleman. Imprinted at London by Valentine Simmes for the Widow
Newman." There are two Twines in English literature, and we
must be careful not to entangle them. Malone, Steevens and Douce
attributed the translation to Thomas Twine, "the continuator of
Phaer's Virgil." Laurence and Thomas Twine were brothers The
former and elder, the one of whom we have to speak, is defined for
us by Anthony a Wood as '' a fellow of All Souls' College, Bachelor
of Civil Law, and an ingenious poet of his time." Of Master
Laurence Twine's "ingenious poetry" we have no examples save
the songs and riddles of Tharsia. It is noteworthy that a new edi-
tion of The Patterne of Painefull Adventures appeared in 1607,
one year before Pericles^ by William Shakespeare, was entered in
Stationer's Hall. It is reprinted in Shakespeare* s Library, Vol. iv,
PP- 253-334.
^ Shakespeare^ s Pericles und der Apol. d. Heinrich von Neustadt^ Detmold,
1884, p. 4.
2 Gower's version of the Apollonius is to be found in Shakespeare'' s Library,
Vol. iv, pp. 181-228, printed from two MSS. in the British Museum (Harl, 3940
and 3869).
189S.] SMYTH— PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 257
The line of succession does not cease with Shakespeare. We
have still to name Pericles, Prince of Tyre, a novel by George
Wilkins, printed in 1608, and having curious relations to the
Shakespearean play. It was reprinted by Tycho Mommsen, under
the title, ''Pericles, Prince of Tyre. A Novel by George Wilkins,
printed in 1608, and founded upon Shakespeare's Play. Edited by
Professor Tycho Mommsen. With a Preface by J. Payne Collier,
Esq. Oldenburg, 1857." Shakespeare's plays were often founded
upon novels, notably upon those of Cinthio and Bandello ; this is the
first instance of a novel being founded upon a Shakespearian play.
Collier told Mommsen that there was only one copy of Wilkins*
novel in England. He cited the title-page as follows : ''The Pain-
ful Adventures of Pericles, Prijice of Tyre. Being the true history
of the play of Pericles as it was lately presented by the worthy and
ancient poet, John Gower, at London. Printed by T. P. [avier?]
for Nat. Butter,^ 1608." It is in quarto and consists of forty leaves.
In the centre of the title-page is a wood-cut of John Gower, at-
tired in a theatre cloak, with a staff in one hand and a bunch of
bays in the other; before him, upon a desk, lies a copy of Co?tfessio
Amaniis. In " The Argument of the whole Historic," with which
the book begins, the reader is entreated ''to receive this Historie
in the same maner as it was under the habite of ancient Gower, the
famous English Poet, by the King's Maiesties Players excellently
presented."
Another copy was found in Zurich, which had belonged to the
Swiss poet, Martin Usteri (i 741-1827), a minor writer who had
composed some lines in the style of Herrick :
" Freut euch des Lebens
Weil noch das Lampclien glflht,
Pfliicket die Rosen
Eh sie verbliiht."
It was this copy that Prof. Mommsen reprinted. The contents
of the novel we will consider when we discuss the stability of the
saga.
Other late reappearances of the story are in Davenport, who
uses the brothel scene, and in the Dutch play, Alexander and
Lodwick, Amsterdam, 1618, supposed to be an adaptation of a
1 It was for Nathaniel Butter that the first and second quartos of King Lear
(1608) were printed.
THE
Painfull Aduentures
oCTericIes Prince of
Tyre.
The trucHiRory of the Play o( Pericles, as it wa J
lately prcfcmed by the worthy and an-
cient Poet hhn Cower.
At Lo nd on
TrinteSj J.?, for K&tiButtcr,
I 6 O t^
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 259
lost play by Martin Slaughter, that was performed for Henslowe in
1597-8. We have also hints of it in Randolph's Oratio Prevari-
catoria, 1632, and Hey for Honesty (1636?). It is curious in
the last-named work to notice that Randolph slaps Shakespeare for
his ''greed," to use a harsh word that became agreeable to the
tongue of R. G. White after he had lost his early enthusiasm for
Shakespeare, and when he was editing the Riverside edition.
George Lillo has a play entitled Marina, dedicated *'to the
Right Honourable the Countess of Hertford." The '' Prologue "
distinguishes between Shakespeare's part in Pericles and that of
an inferior hand, and thus ''strove to wake, by Shakespeare's ner-
vous lays, the manly genius of Eliza's days."
Prologue.
Hard is the task, in this discerning age,
To find new subjects that will bear the stage ;
And bold our bards, their low harsh strains to bring
"Where Avon's swan has long been heard to sing ;
Blest parent of our scene ! whose matchless wit,
Tho' yearly reap'd, is our best harvest yet.
Well may that genius every heart command.
Who drew all nature with her own sti-ong hand ;
As various, as harmonious, fair and great,
With the same vigour and immortal heat.
As thro' each element and form she shines :
We view heav'ns hand-maid in her Shakespeare's lines.
Though some mean scenes, injurious to his fame,
Have long usurp'd the honour of his name ;
To glean and clear from chaff his least remains.
Is just to him, and richly worth our pains.
We dare not charge the whole unequal play
Of f^ericles on him ; yet let us say,
As gold though mix'd with baser matter shines,
So do his bright inimitable lines
Throughout those rude wild scenes distinguish'd stand.
And shew he touch'd them with no sparing hand.
With humor mix'd in your fore-fathers way,
We've to a single tale reduc'd our play.
Charming Marhia's wrongs begin the scene;
Pericles finding her with his lost queen.
Concludes the pleasing task, Shou'd as the soul.
The fire of Shakespeare animate the whole,
Shou'd heights, which none but he cou'd reach, appear,
To little errors do not prove severe.
260 ' SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
If, when in pain for the event, surprise
And sympathetic joy shou'd fill your eyes ;
Do not repine that so you crown an art,
Which gives such sweet emotions to the heart :
"Whose pleasures, so exalted in their kind.
Do, as they charm the sense, improve the mind."
In Lillo's play the story is told in three acts. Naturally several
of the dra7natis persQ7i(B of the first act disappear ; King Antiochus
and his daughter, King Simonides, Lychorida, the nurse of Marina,
and Cerimon and Philemon are not to be found. Escanes alone
attends upon Pericles. In place of Cleon and Dionysa, Philoten
appears as Queen of Tharsus ; Shakespeare's Valdes is refashioned
as chief of the pirates ; Lysimachus appears as governor of Ephe-
sus, and the scene is transferred from Mitylene to Ephesus. Lillo
begins with Shakespeare's fourth act, in which Marina first appears.
The reader is referred for an analysis of the plot of Marina to-
Shakespeare' s ^^ Pericles " tind George Lillo^s ^^ Marina " von Dr.
Paul von Hofmann-Wellenhof, Wien, 1885, pp. 13-21.
Shakespeare's ''Pericles Prince of Tyre."
The first mention of Shakespeare's Pericles is in the Stationers*
Register^ under date of May 20, 1608 :
'' Edward Blount entred for his copie under thandes of Sir George
Buck Knight and Master Warden Seton a booke called The booke
of Pericles prince\of Tyre' ^ (Arber's Transcript, iii, 378). It appears
to have been produced in 1607 or 1608. In Pimlyco or Ru7ine
Redcap, the extant copies dating from 1609, but originally pro-
duced, according to Warton, in 1596, occurs the following refer-
ence to Pericles :
<< Amazde I stood, to see a crowd
Of Civill Throats stretched out so loud ;
(As at a new-play^ all the Roomes
Did swarme with Gentiles mix'd with Groomes,
So that I truly thought all these
Came to see Shore or Per ides. ''''
F. G. Fleay is inclined to think that the play was performed
earlier than 1607. He fancies a resemblance between Act iii,
Scene ii, oi Pericles (the restoration to life of Thaisa) and a scene
of sham restoration in The Puritan, a play acted in 1606. It is
quite probable, however, that the likeness is accidental. The pop-
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 261
ularity of the play is apparently attested by Robert Tailor in The
Hogge hath lost his Pearle (yfyf ) :
'* If it prove so happy as to please
Weele say 'tis fortunate like Pericles ^
Richard Brathwaite, in his Strappado for the Diuell (1615),
mentions ''valiant Boults," who might therefore be a popular
stage character. The story itself was declaimed against by the
judicious. Chaucer assumed indignation at the publication of the
story by Gower, and denounced Apollonius as ''so horrible a tale
for to rede." Owen Feltham, in Lusoria (1661), has the line :
" displease as deep as Pericles.''^
And in like spirit Ben Jonson in his ode, Co?ne Leave the Lothed
Stage {\^y), complains of "Some mouldy tale like Pericles.'''
Neither is the contemporary allusion to the success of the play all
of one mind. Jo : Tatham, in verses prefixed to R. Brome'sybz//^//
Crew (1652), says:
" There is a Faction (Friend) in Town, that cries,
Down with the Dagon-Poet, "Johnson dies.
Beaumont and Fletcher (they say) perhaps, might
Passe (well) for current Coin, in a dark night :
But Shakespeare the Plebeian Driller, was
Founder'd in 's Pericles, and must not pass.
And so, at all men flie, that have but been
Thought worthy of applause."
On the other hand, Dryden (in 1672), in his Prologue to The
Conquest of Granada by the Spaniards, speaking of the early plays
as notable for " some ridiculous incoherent story, which, in one
play, many times took up the business of an age," supposes he
"need not name Pericles, Prince of Tyre nor the historical plays of
Shakespeare."
In June, 1631, the play was performed on a special occasion, and
the receipts, ;£'3.io, taken at the Globe, were paid to Sir Henry
Herbert, Master of the Revels, "for a gratuity for the liberty
gain'd unto them of playinge, upon the cessation of the plague.'^
Halliwell-Phillipps printed " a copy of a letter of News, written to
Sir Dudley Carleton, at the Hague, May 24, 1619, containing a
curious account of the Performance of the Drama of Pericles at the
English Court. Printed anno domini 1865." [This performance
of the play at court probably led to the publication of the fourth
262 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
edition of the play in that year.] In this little book, of which only
twenty-five copies were printed and fifteen destroyed by Halliwell in
his usual provoking fashion, we read: ''In the Kinges greate
chamber they went to see the play of Pirracles, Prince of Tyre,
which lasted till two o'clock. After two actes the playeres ceased till
the French all refreshed them with sweetmeates brought on chynay
voiders, and wyne and ale in bottelles. After the players begann
anewe" (p. ii).
In recent times Pericles has rarely been acted. Alfred Meiss-
ner for a long time proclaimed that Pericles was the equal of
Winter'' s Tale in its histrionic possibilities. His wish to see the play
embodied in the German repertoire was finally realized. Possart
produced it in Munich, October 20, 1882, and the magnificence
of the acting and the stage appointments Meissner described with
lively enthusiasm in the eighteenth volume of the Shakespeare
Jahrbuch} The resuscitation scene and the storm scene seem to
have impressed the audience greatly, and from the third act the
spectators were irresistibly carried away.
Pericles was several times published in quarto before it appeared
in a folio edition. The first and second quartos appeared in 1609,
the third in 161 1, the fourth in 16 19, the fifth in 1630 and the
sixth in 1635. The play is not in the first or second folios, but is
printed in the third folio (1664). That it was popularly ascribed
to Shakespeare, however, there is sufficient evidence ; as in Shep-
pard's The times displayed in six sestyads (1646) :
" With Sophocles we may
Compare great Shakespear Aristophanes
Never like him, his Fancy could display
Witness the Prince of Tyre, his Pericles.
There is some doubt as to the priority of the two quartos of 1609.
Both are in the British Museum, and both have been reproduced in
facsimile by the Griggs process in the series of ''Shakespeare
Q^zxlo facsimiles. "" Introductions to the two quartos were written
by P. Z. Round of St. Catharine's College, Cambridge, to whom I
am indebted for many courtesies in my study of the quartos. The
British Museum Catalogue names the C. 34, K. T^d copy the first
quarto, and C. 12, H. 5 the second; but the Cambridge editors
^The play was performed to the accompaniment of music. Herman Merivale
has also written some charming songs for Pericles.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 263
reverse the order of the two, and Mr. Round agrees with them
(see introduction to Q. 2, p. x).
The title-page is the same for all the quartos :
''The Late, | And much admired Play, | Called | Pericles, Prince
I of Tyre | with the true Relation of the whole Historic, | Adven-
tures, and fortunes of the said Prince : | As also, | The no lesse
strange, and worthy accidents, | in the Birth and Life, of his Daugh-
ter I Mariana. | As it hath been divers and sundry times acted by
I his Maiesties seruants, at the Globe on | the Banck-side | By
William Shakespeare | Imprinted at London for Henry Gosson
and are j to be sold at the signe of the Sunne in | Pater-noster row
&c I 1609."
It will be observed that the publishers call Pericles ''a late and
much admired play." The only hesitation in believing the play to
be of 1608 arises from the allusion in Edward AUeyn's Memoirs
to the use of " spangled hose in Pericles ^^' which may refer to an
earlier play of the same title.
Dryden in the Prologue to Davenant's Circe 1684, excused
the blemishes in Pericles on the ground of its being the first heir
of Shakespeare's invention :
" Shakespeare's own muse her Pericles first bore,
The prince of Tyre was elder than the Moored
There is a discussion of the date and authorship of the play in
the Jahrbuch d. dent. Shak.-Gesellschaft, Vol. iii, in an article by
Delius.^
Prior to 1890 the British Museum copy (imperfect) of the third
quarto- (161 1) was believed to be unique. A perfect copy owned
by Morris Jonas was described in Notes and Queries, August 2,
1890. I have collated this copy with Q. i, and find very few im-
1 A. H. Bullen ( The Atheiiceiun, Sept. 21, 1878) directed attention to an early
reference to a passage of Pericles found in Law Tricks a play by John Day :
Joculo : But, Madam, do you remember what a multitude of fishes we saw at
sea? And I do wonder how they can all live by one another.
Emilia : Why, foole, as men do on the land, the great ones eate up the little
ones (Sig. B3, recto).
Cf. the fisherman's colloquy in Pericles^ ii, I :
3 Fish. : Master, I marvel how the fishes live in the sea.
1 Fish. : Why, as men do a-land, the great ones eat up the little ones.
Law Tricks appeared in 1608.
2 The British Museum copy lacks leaves D2 and D3 (27-30) of the facsimile
of Qi.
264 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
portant differences. The changes are chiefly in spelling and in
punctuation.
The fourth quarto (1619) was probably published in consequence
of the revival of interest in Pericles owing to the performance of
the play at court.
No Shakespearian play, save one or two Histories, was so many
times printed in quarto. Sir William Davenant's company acted
the play between 1660 and 167 1, and, according to Downes,
''Roscius Anglicanus," Pericles was a favorite part with Better-
ton.
Why did not John Heminge and Henry Condell see fit to
include Pericles in the first folio ? The attempt to answer the
question opens the whole problem of Shakespeare's part in the
authorship of the play. Its first appearance in folio is in 1664,
and the editors of that edition seem to have used the quarto of
1635 (this is the opinion of the Cambridge editors).
Three theories concerning the authorship of Pericles have
received the critical attention of Shakespearian scholars. Accord-
ing to the first theory, Shakespeare is the sole author of Pe^-icles
but the play combines two periods of his life. In other words, it
was taken up, as Staunton believed, soon after its appearance in
1590 and experimented upon by Shakespeare in his youth; then
from some inexplicable cause it was cast aside, only to be resumed
and completed after a lapse of twenty years. Malone, who ad-
vanced this hypothesis, afterwards abandoned it. Charles Knight
restated it, but, in defiance of the contemporary accounts of it as a
^' new play " in 1 608, insisted upon its having been acted at the outset
of Shakespeare's career. If it had been played so early would
Meres have forgotten to mention it when he named Shakespeare's
plays in 1598? Prof. Paul Stapfer, the learned author of 6'/;^/C^j;/!'<?/'<?
et V Antiquiie, a work crowned by the French Academy, is a be-
liever in this theory, drawn to it, I think, by his friend Hugo the
Younger whose opinion he quotes.
Now can we hazard a conjecture as to why Shakespeare in his
age dipped his arm into his wallet and fumbled about after this
relic of his immaturity? Gervinus suggests that Shakespeare may
have chosen it in order to give his friend Burbage the admirable
title role. But Burbage's time of flourishing is identical with
Shakespeare's maturity, and Gervinus could not believe that at that
period Shakespeare could have written a play so faulty both in plot
1898.]
SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 265
and style. Of course on the Stapfer-Hugo-Malone supposition it
is easy to believe that Shakespeare dipped into his portfolio for a
roughly sketched play that would answer his friend's desire and suit
his capabilities.
The second hypothesis was the suggestion of Steevens and was up-
held by Hallam and Collier. It asserts that Shakespeare adopted,
as he so often did in his first period of apprenticeship, the work of
another playwright, improved it, rewrote the last scenes, and put
it upon the stage in 1608.
Shakespeare is believed to have been for some years a writer for
the Lord Chamberlain's company. We know that he revised old
plays and collaborated with unknown poets in the prepara-
tion of new ones. We know, too, that the various features of
Shakespeare's art did not crystallize immediately into a personal
and unmistakable manner. He was long a rhymster and a euphuist,
plucking and checking at many things in his period of tentative
endeavor, while his great predecessor, Marlowe, pursued his lonely
and original road with invincible independence. We are bound,
therefore, when a play comes to us with the name of Shakespeare
upon it to weigh it to the uttermost scruple, for there is always a
possibility that Shakespeare had a hand in it, either by way of trial,
or in assisting another, or in introducing some felicitous touch into
a work he was preparing for his own theatre. Because a play is
not in the first folio is not conclusive witness against its genuineness ;
it may have been impossible to secure the play owing to the stub-
born rights of some bookseller. Nor on the other hand does the ap-
pearance of Shakespeare's name upon a quarto play argue neces-
sarily the authenticity of the play. Literary pirates abounded in
the ** spacious days of great Elizabeth," and the products of the stage
were often stolen by shorthand writers for publishers who were
"just right enough to claim a doubtful right."
There are many possibilities in the case of a dubious play. It
may be a worthy work slightly retouched and heightened by
the poet ; such plays are the second and third parts of Henry VI.
It may be an old piece entirely rewritten ; such an one is
Romeo and Juliet. It may be one in which Shakespeare
wrought in concert with a fellow-author, and here we have for
examples Henry VIII and Two Noble Kinsmen. It may be
trial work rejected by Shakespeare and completed by an inferior
hand. And it may be an old piece into which Shakespeare has
266 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
worked new scenes. It is in accordance with this last thought that
Stapfer and Hugo would explain Pericles. It is as if Shakespeare
had thrown a giant's robe over the dwarfish limbs of the beggarly
verse.
There is still another banditti of troubles ambushed for the un-
wary scholar \ frequently playwrights of an inferior order so catch
the secret of a master's manner that they counterfeit it exactly.
The voice may be the voice of Shakespeare, but the thought is the
thought of Wilkins or Rowley ! Hence arises a dual possibility in
a line that has the Shakespearean ring, but a suspicious poverty or
flatness of meaning ; it may be an authentic but juvenile expression,
or it may be a clever counterfeit. There is the notable instance of
Edward III, where some cunning hand has caught the style of both
Marlowe and Shakespeare and blended them with singular vivid-
ness and vigor.
The third hypothesis is that proposed by Mr. F. G. Fleay. He
undertakes to invert Steevens' supposition ; that is, he gives to
Shakespeare the original writing of the last three acts, subtracting
Gower's part and the brothel scene. This outline, according to
Fleay, was filled out by another poet of the company with the
result which we know.
There has been a great throwing about of brains over the de-
termination of the chronology of Shakespeare's plays. In some
vain hope of approaching nearer to the personal life of Shake-
speare, the scholars of the Shakespearean Guild have occupied
their wit and ingenuity in dividing the poet's career into definitely
marked periods, and seeking for a parallel between the works of
each period and the events, ascertained or imaginary, of Shake-
speare's life. The old Shakespeare Society, represented by Halli-
well. Thorn, Dyce, Collier and Peter Cunningham, scrutinized
Elizabethan documents for every rag and remnant of external evi-
dence bearing upon dramatic history. When in 1874 the New Shaks-
pere Society was founded, an original method of inquiry into ques-
tions of chronology and authorship was instituted. Mr. Hales, in
two lectures upon the occasion of the founding of the society by Mr.
F. J. Furnivall, that indefatigable king of clubs, defined seven tests
for determining the growth of Shakespeare's mind and art from the
witness of the plays themselves: (i) external evidence, (2) histori-
cal allusions, (3) changes of metre, (4) changes of language and
style, (5) power of characterization, (6) dramatic unity, (7) knowl-
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 267
edge of life. Metrical tests soon overshadowed everything else in
the society's work, Shakespeare was turned into a calculation table
for the enumeration of feminine endings, stopt lines, middle
caesura, weak endings, middle extra syllables, and for the experi-
ment of the initial trochee test, pause test, prevalent word test,
and choric reflection test. Out of these researches and the de-
velopment in the so-called aesthetic criticism of such uncouth termin-
ology as * ' first reconciliation period, " " second recognition period, ' '
etc., etc., there was constructed an ideal biography of Shakespeare.
And without being actually advanced a single step in our knowledge
and enjoyment of the Shakespearian drama, we were told to recognize
in the order of the plays as fancifully set forth by the commentators
the whole of Shakespeare's spiritual experience. We were to see
him "in the workshop, in the world, out of the depths, and on the
heights. ' ' Moreover, the New Shakspere Society made much of the
discovery of strange hands in Shakespeare's text. This reference of
dubious or dolorous lines to anonymous or conjectural aliens is as
old as Coleridge, who, like Simpson, of Edinburgh, who was unal-
terably convinced of the infallibility of Euclid^ fancied it impossi-
ble for Shakespeare to drowse, and so pronounced all his faults to
be the intrusion of some unknown playwright. Our better in-
formed critics identify the perpetrator of the outrage and brand
upon him his mischievous meddling.
All of Shakespeare's plays, according to the laborious researches
of the New Shakspere Society, fall into three or perhaps four
groups — the lyric and fantastic, the comic and historic, and the
tragic and romantic. And these groups comprehend the years that
lie between 1590 and 1610. *' The entrance to the third period of
Shakespeare," says Mr. Swinburne, "is like the entrance to that
last and lesser Paradise of old ' with dreadful faces thronged and fiery
arms.' " It is the period of stormiest tragedy beyond and upon
which shine the mellow glory and serene splendor of the romantic
plays with which Shakespeare's career, victorious after years of
disaster and bitter experience, concludes. In this final period
Pericles is classed. With all his unrestrained eloquence, Mr.
Swinburne, after washing his hands of the brothel scene in defer-
ence to a public of " nice and nasty mind," has said of Pericles :
"But what shall I now say that may not be too pitifully unworthy
of the glories and the beauties, the unsurpassable pathos and sub-
limity inwoven with the imperial texture of this very play ? The
268 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
blood-red Tyrian purple of tragic maternal jealousy which might
seem to array it in a worthy attire of its Tyrian name, the flower-
soft loveliness of maiden lamentation on the flower-strewn
seaside grave of Marina's old sea-tossed nurse." The romantic
character of the play, its blending of classical form and me-
diaeval tradition — Goth and Greek each by the other — places
Pericles in companionship with The Tempest, Cymbeline and The
Winter' s Tale. Without accepting or approving the methods of the
New Shakspere Society, we may agree that Pericles belongs to
Shakespeare's later years.
\ The results of the researches of Dr. Boyle ( Transactions of
New Shak. Soc, 1880-1885, Pt. ii, pp. 323-340), P. Z. Round
(Intro, to Pericles, Qu. 2) and Delius {/ahrbuch, 186S,) seem
to indicate that George Wilkins wrote the first two acts and
most of the Gower choruses, and that Rowley (?) wrote the brothel
scenes.
Shakespeare's part, I hold to be his unfinished work upon what
he meant to be the beginning and the end of a play of Marina.
As we have the text it is marred throughout by the incapacity of
the reporter and printer, pirates both. Shakespeare's unfinished
work in the last three acts was completed and extended to five acts
by a writer who added the Gower choruses. Delius was the first
to discover this writer to be George Wilkins {Shak. Jahrbuch, 1868,
pp. 175-204), but Delius erred in supposing that Wilkins' work
preceded Shakespeare's.
Dr. Furnival, at a meeting of the New Shakspere Society,
quoted Tennyson as saying that Shakespeare ^' * wrote all the part
relating to the birth and recovery of Marina and the recovery of
Thaisa. I settled that long ago; come upstairs and I'll read it to
you.' Upstairs to the smoking-room in Seamore Place we went, and
then I had the rare treat of hearing the poet read in his deep voice —
with an occasional triumphant ' Isn't that Shakespeare ?' * What do
you think of that ?' and a few comments — the genuine part of
Pericles. I need not tell you how I enjoyed the reading, or
how quick and sincere my conviction of the genuineness of the
part read was. But I stupidly forgot to write down the numbers of
the scenes. However, when the proof of Mr. Fleay's print of
The Birth and Life of Marina came, its first words, * Thou God
of this great Vast,' brought the whole thing back to me, and I
recognized in its pages the same scenes that Mr. Tennyson had
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 269
read to me." {Transactions of the New Shakspere Society, Series
i, 1874, p. 252).^
The Stability of the Story.
It is remarkable that a saga so widespread should undergo so
little change in the course of centuries. Occasionally an episode is
broadened by the narrator, or local color is painted freely into the
work ; but the chief outlines of the story remain practically un-
changed. The Latin MSS. vary greatly in style and diction. It is
clear that many of them are slovenly copies, and Riese, in editing
the tale for the Teubner classics, produced an ideal text, that is to
say, he mixed the language of several MSS. in the effort to make a
clear and readable version.
A careful examination of the MSS. and a consideration of their
discrepancies (chiefly verbal) lead to the conclusion that the story
has descended along three parallel lines : from the first Godfrey of
Viterbo was derived ; from the second the Gesta Rotnanorum and
the French MS. of the thirteenth century j and from the third the
Anglo-Saxon version. The principal mediaeval versions may be
classified as follows :
Godfrey of Viterbo. Gesta Romanorum,
Steinhowel. French and, indirectly, Italian.
Gower. Twine.
Shakespeare. Timoneda's Spanish.
Wilkins. The Holland volksboek.
The Hungarian, Swedish, Slavic
versions.
Shakespeare is the first narrator of the ancient story to change
the name of the hero. The commentators upon the play have
usually been satisfied with the conjecture of Steevens that the name
Pericles was taken by Shakespeare from Sidney's Arcadia, where
Pyrocles figures as one of the characters. It is one of the curious
coincidences in the history of this saga, even if it be of no further
importance, that in the French prose version Apollonius calls him-
self Ferillie, in answer to the query of the daughter of Archistrates.
The appearance of Gower as chorus and prologue points imme-
diately to Shakespeare's source of information. He says :
1 George MacDonald made independently a similar division of scenes (see
Fleay's Marina).
270 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS.. [Oct. 7,
" This Antioch, then, Antiochus the Great
Built up, this city, for his chiefest seat :
The fairest in all Syria."
This is an expansion of the Historia, which simply affirms, *' In
civitate Antiochia rex fuit quidam nomine Antiochus, a quo ipsa
civitas nomen accepit Antiochia." Twine is the source of Shake-
speare's lines in this instance. '' The most famous and mightie king
Antiochus, which builded the goodly citie of Antiochia in Syria,
and called it after his own name, as the chiefest seat of all his
dominions." Twine's version in this as in many places corresponds
with the Swedish, both proceeding from a common source in the
Gesta.
When Pericles appears in the palace at Antioch (Act i, Sc. i),
Antiochus says to him :
" Young prince of Tyre, you have at large received
The danger of the task you undertake."
And Pericles answers, '* I have, Antiochus." Here Shakespeare
follows the Historia as translated by Twine : '^ juvenis nosti nup-
tiarum condicionem? At ille ait * novi ' " ('* Dost thou knowe the
condition of this marriage? Yea, sir King, said Apollonius,"
Twine).
Singer, Apollonius von Tyfus^ has carefully compared the
readings of the play with the corresponding passages in the other
versions ; and to his book (pp. 32-67) the student is referred for
more minute observation than is possible here.
When Antiochus declares that Pericles has misinterpreted the
riddle, he respites him fofty days, which is the time allowed in the
Italian version of Leone del Prete ; the Greek has twenty ; Stein-
howel has three ; the French and Bohemian have one; all other
versions have thirty. Sometimes a reason is given for the respite,
sometimes not. When a reason is given it is usually like that in
Pericles.
" This mercy shows we'll joy in such a son " (I, i, 118).
(Cf. Heinrich von Neustadt, " Waerstu nicht so ritterlich,
schon, machtig und reich.")
The names of the characters undergo considerable change, the
murderer sent forth by Antiochus is called by Shakespeare Thaliard,
in Gower he is called Taliart, in Latin Thaliarchus, in Twine Tha-
liarch, and in the Vienna incunabulum Taliardus.
The friend of Pericles, who is called by Shakespeare Helicanus,.
1898.] SMYTH--PEKICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 271
appears in the Latin MSS. as Hellenicus, Hellanicus, Ellanicus ;
in Italian, Ellanicho ; in Heinrich, Elanicus ; in the ificunabulum
and the Gesta, Elamicus ; in Steinhowel, Elemitus ; in Bohe-
mian, Klavik ; but in Polish and Russian, Elavik j in Timoneda,
Heliato ; in the Swedish, Elancius; in French, Heliquain; in
Gower, Helican ; in Twine, Elinatus.
Cleon is the name which Shakespeare gives Stranguilio, as he is
called in Gower and Twine and the Gesta and most of the MSS.,
though he becomes Stragul in Bohemian ; Stragwilio in the Munich
codex; Estrangilo in Spanish; Tranquilio in Godfrey; Tranquyle
in Copland, and Transqualeon in French. His wife is named
Dionyza ; in Latin, Dionysias ; Dionysiades in Steinhowel, Twine,
Heinrich and Bohemian ; Deoiiise in French, and Dionise in Gower.
In Shakespeare the servant of Cerimon is named Fhile7?wn, nearly
as in Heinrich, Philomimis, and in Bohemian Silemon. In Twine
he is called Machaon ; in Swiss Pandekta.
Boulf is called in some MSS. Amiantiis ; in Heinrich, Turpian ;
in Greek, Ilio/.ap6-a) in Italian, Focaroba (Singer conjectures that
Boult or Bolt is used euphemistically for penis').
Leonine is Shakespeare's name for the servant of Dionyza; he is
called Theophilics in most versions, while Leonine is the name of
the keeper of the brothel in Gower,
Shakespeare departs widely from the Historia in the names
of the dramatis personcB. In the play Athenagoras becomes Lysima-
chus ; Archistrates becomes Simonides ; Hellenicus becomes Heli-
canus ; Tharsia becomes Marina ; Stranguillio becomes King
Cleon ; Apollonius becomes Pericles.
Dionyza takes under Shakespeare's hand almost the demoniac
character of Lady Macbeth. Boult is not new to the story, but is
remade. Shakespeare takes Gower' s form of a name wherever it
differs from the name in Twine.
Gower. Twine.
Hellicanus. Elinatus.
Thaliard. Taliarchus.^
Dionise. Dionisiades.
Lichorida. Ligozides.
Philoten. Philomacia.
Metilene (the city). Machilenta.
^ Thaliart in Wilkins.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 158. R. PRINTED DEC. 16, 1898.
272 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7.,
Twine calls the daughter of ApoUonius Tarsia and the mother
Lucina ; Gower gives the mother no name and calls the daughter
Thaise (the Anglo-Saxon text calls the country Thasia^ which cor-
responds to Shakespeare's Thaisa). In the Fatte?'ne of PainefuU
Pleasures it is Cerimon's pupil, Machaon, who discovers the pres-
ence of life in the body of Lucina. And this is the original plan of
the Latin Historia. In Heinrich v. Neustadt, Gower and Shakes-
peare it is Cerimon himself who restores the princess to life. If
we consider the incident of the erection by the grateful citizens of
Tharsis of a statue to the hero who has timely succoured them
against famine, we find it in the oldest MSS., in Heinrich von
Neustadt, the Gesta Pomanorum, and it naturally flows thence into
Twine, Shakespeare and Wilkins. Gower has copied his account
from Godfrey, but adds a touch; the statue, he says, was ** over-
gilt." Twine has: ''they erected in the market-place a monument
in the memoriall of him, his stature made of brasse, standing in a
charret, holding corne in his right hand, and spurning it with his
left foot." Collier observes that ''Shakespeare wrote statute iox
statue, probably as a joke at the expense of the ignorant folks temp.
Elizabeth; but in the Gesta Rom anonwi, ed. Madden, p. 25, we
have statute for statue, and it is to be suspected that the word in the
text should properly be statute " (Collier, Shake sp e ai- e'' s Librai-yy
Vol. iv, p. 263 ; statue is the spelling of Q. i, statute of Q. 2, Q.3).
" And to remember what he does
^'Build his statue to make him glorious."
(^Pericles, ii, Pro.)
The vows of ApoUonius have special interest. Shakespeare makes
Pericles say of his daughter :
" Till she be married, madam
By bright Diana, whom we honour, all
Unscissared shall this hair of mine remain,
Though I show ill in't." Ill, iii, 27.
This is all that Shakespeare gives of the ancient vows common to
both Latin and Teutonic peoples. Twine says, " hee sware a
solemne othe, that he would not poule his head, clip his beard, nor
pare his nailes untill hee had married his daughter at ripe yeares."
The episode of the striking of Tharsia by ApoUonius varies in
the different versions. It is an incident more repugnant than the
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 273
brothel scenes. In Pericles the brutal act is not performed, but a
reminiscence of it lingers in :
** I said my lord, if you did know my parentage
You would not do me violence." (V, i, loo.)
These lines are insusceptible of explanation without a knowledge
of the earlier versions of the story. There is a hiatus here that
must be supplied by reference to Shakespeare's predecessors (see
Appendix, p. 308). Twine has, ''Then Apollonius fell in a rage,
and forgetting all courtesie, his unbridled affection stirring him
thereunto, rose up sodainly and stroke the maiden on the face with
his foote, so that shee fell to the ground, and the bloud gushed
plentifully out of her cheekes. And like it is that shee was in a
swoone." Godfrey writes, '' Pulsaque calce patris Tharsia laesa
dolet," while in Gower it stands :
" And after hire with his honde
He smote : and thus whan she hym fonde
Diseasyd, courtesly she saide
Avoy, my lorde, I am a mayde
And if you wiste what I am
And owte of what lynage I cam
Ye wolde not be so salvage. "^
The last element of the story that Pudmenzky employs for com-
parative purposes is the riddle (cf. Pudmenzky, Shakespeare' s Peri-
cles und d. Apol. des Heinrich v. Neustadt, p. 17). There is first
the evil riddle that Antiochus proposes to Apollonius, and later
occur the riddles that Tharsia puts to the King for his solution
when she plays the harp before him to dispel his melancholy. In
the old Latin Hisioria her riddles are eight in number, and the
answers are unda, pisces, navis, balneum, spongia, sph^ra, specu-
lum, rotae, scolae. These very riddles are in the riddle bag of the
mysterious Symphosius, to whom we have already referred Ccf.
Douce, Illustrations of Shakespeare^ ii, 137). The Gesta Romano-
rum gives only three riddles. And none at all are found in God-
frey, Gower or Shakespeare (save in Shakespeare the first riddle bor-
rowed from Twine). The literary fashion of the time had changed,
and this particular form of diversion was obsolete, yet the appear-
ance of the one riddle in Shakespeare — wretched as it is — is an
1 In the Greek romance of Chariton the hero kicks his wife so that she
falls unconscious, and is believed lo be dead.
274 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
interesting survival of a once popular and significant species of
literary entertainment. Riddle-teaching was parable-preaching. It
was a mnemonic device, and it became, no doubt, cottage wisdom.
But certainly in its genesis, at least, it contained suggestions of
something deeper, and the riddle was employed to conceal dangerous
truth.
The points of likeness between Gower and Shakespeare are
brought out by P. Z. Round in his '' Introduction " to Griggs' Fac-
simile Quartos. The source of the play is mainly the story as told
in Confessio Amanfis (Bk. viii), but the recrimination scene between
Cleon and his wife (iv, iii) is from Twine.
Wilkins borrowed phrases from Sidney's Arcadia, which are
pointed out by the Variorum editors.
Twine follows the Latin Historia rather narrowly, bat adds occa-
sionally to the narrative. The additions are the following (I quote
from the reprint of Twine in Hazlitt's Shakespeare Library ) :
P. 264, lines 11-22 the storm at sea (cf Tempest, in Griggs qu.).
P. 265, " a rough fisherman, with an hoode upon his head, and a
filthie leatherne pelt upon his backe."
P. 273, line 10, " examining her urine."
P. 275, lines 14-21 and 22-25 C^^- Chap. vi).
P. 276, lines 23 to bottom.
P. 277, the king's speech to Apollonius, and Apollonius' answer.
P. 278, 279, the description of the marriage. Twine depicts the
dresses and jewelry.
P. 284, description of Lucina's faultless beauty.
P. 296, explanation of the term Priapus.
P. 303, lines 9-13, 19-23, 25-28.
P. 312, lines 7-1S.
P. 320, lines 10 to bottom.
P. 321, lines 18 to bottom.
P. 323, lines 7-20.
P. 325, lines 7-16.
Nearly all of Chap, xxii is original with Twine.
P. 330, line 19 to end of Chap, xxiii.
Generally speaking, Twine enlarges as much as possible, giving
speeches in full even when the substance has been related previously.
Wilkins did not improve the parts he stole from Twine; witness the
account of the wedding festivities and the storm.
Twine was far surpassed, however, as an amplifier by Heinrich
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 275
von Neustadt, who goes minutely into a description of Tharsus and
the medical lore of his time. Philomin, the forward pupil, says to
Orrimonius (Cerimonius), his master :
«* latwerjen traget her
die zer amehte sin guot
und die daz geliberte pluot
von dem herzen triben
ez geschiht gern den wiben
daz sie amehtig miiezen wesen
so sie der Kinder genesen.
Man truoc dyatameron
und dyamargariton
und cum miscopliris
dytardion des si gewis.
Man prahte ouch da pi
dyarodon Julii.
Cinciat und mitratacum.
Antibacum emagogum
die latwerjen sint so guot
swem deu amaht we tuot.
da gap man der siechen
guoten win von Kriechen
pinol von Ciper und Schavernac
malvasiam und Bladac
win von Chreidpinel
turchies unde muscatel
moraz unde lutertranc.
Reinval douhte in ze kranc" {Apol., 2714-2777).
Notice also this Whitman-like catalogue of stones :
" Nu merket hie gemeine
die ouzerwelten steine
die in die Krone sint geslagen
als sie der fiirste solde tragen.
da ist abeston und absinth
adamant, achat, und jacinth
allabandin und allechorius
ametist unde amandius
perillus und calcedon
carbunculus und calophagon
centaureus und celonite
calidonius iind cegolite
corniolus und corallen
crisopassus und cristallen
276 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
djadochus und dionysya
echites elydropia
epistratis galaritide
jaspis und gerachide
panterus und obtallius
prasius und saffyrus
sardonix und sardius
topasios und smaragdus,
die steine war en diin gesazt
alle in piischelin gevazzt " {Apol., 18,416-18,439).
Collier, in his introduction to Mommsen's edition of Wilkins*
novel, attempts to prove two contentions : first, " that the novel
before us very much adopts the language of the play ; second, that
it not infrequently supplies portions of the play as it was acted in
1607 or 1608, which have not come down to us in any of the
printed copies oi Pericles. ^^
In illustration of the first point, Collier quotes from the novel,
^'A Gentleman of Tyre — his name Pericles — his education been in
arts and arms, who, looking for adventures in the world, was, by the
rough and unconstant seas, most unfortunately bereft both of ships
and men, and after shipwreck thrown upon that shore ; ' ' and cites
the parallel passage from the play :
** A Gentleman of Tyre; my name Pericles;
My education beene in Artes and Ai-mes :
Who looking for aduentures in the world.
Was by the rough Seas reft of Ships and men,
And after shipwracke, driuen upon this shore" (II, iii, 81).
Collier has greater difficulty in discovering in the text of the
novel the lost language of Shakespeare. Act iii, Scene i, of the
play, as it is printed, relates mainly to the birth of Marina at sea
during a storm. In the novel Pericles thus addresses the infant :
*■ * Poor inch of nature f . , . . thou art as rudely welcome to the
world, as ever princess babe was, and hast as chiding a nativity as
fire, air, earth and water can afford thee." In the play as printed
no corresponding commencement of the apostrophe, *' Poor inch of
nature ! " is to be found, and yet the words must have come from
Shakespeare. No mere hackney scribe could have conceived them.
Moreover, the words which follow are nearly identical in the play
with the sentence from the novel :
" Thou art the rudelyest welcome to this world,
That euer was Princes Child : happy what followes,
Thou hast as chiding a natiuitie,
As Fire, Ayre, Water, Earth and Heauen can make " (III, i, 30).
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 277
Here, as Collier says, " ' Poor inch of nature' is all that is want-
ing, but, that away, how much of the characteristic beauty of the
passage is lost" (Intro., xxxiii).
Correlated Stories.
When, in 1852, Konrad Hofmann edited the two old French Car-
lovingian poems. Amis et A7?ules and Jourdains de Blaivies, he did
not observe the intimate relation which a part of the latter chanson
bears to the celebrated and widely disseminated story of Apollonius
of Tyre. As soon as the common origin of the two poems became
clear to him, he published in the Sitziingsberichte der philosophisch-
philologische?i Klasse der k.-b. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Miinchen
(S. 415-41S), 1871, a paper on '^ Jourdain de Blaivies, Apollonius
von Tyrus, Salomon und Marcolf." John Koch, in 1875, '^^ ^^
Inaugural Dissertation at Konigsberg, again demonstrated the iden-
tity of the two stories, and finally Hofmann completed the study in
his Amis ei Amiles und Jourdains de Blaivies (Erlangen, 1882). We
have already noted in speaking of the persistence of the saga that
in old French there was but one prose version of the Apollonius,
and no new poetic rendering of the story ; a circumstance a little
surprising when we remember with what avidity the old French
grasped new materials, and reduced them to acceptable and popular
forms. It is therefore a satisfaction to recognize the old romance
undergoing a metamorphosis in the epic of Jourdains de Blaivies.
Berger next published an edition of Orendel (Bonn, 1888), a
middle high German minstrel song which originated, Berger
thinks, as early as 1160 (Paul and Braune 13, i). In the twelfth
century, the court circles of Germany looked to France for literary
inspiration. The most notable epics of the Rhineland that were
uninfluenced by the courtly epic were Orendel and Salomon and
Markolf. The Crusades form the background of these poems ; the
scenes are in the Orient, and the incidents are wars between
heathen and Christian. Through varying repetition of the original
fable, and by the introduction of auxiliary motives, sufficient bulk
for a romance was obtained, and the characters of the beggar, the
pilgrim and the minstrel were introduced.
Orendel is a king of Treves who wins the love of Bride, the heir-
ess of Jerusalem ; wanders like Ulysses ; twice frees the Holy Sepul-
chre, and brings the Holy Coat to Treves. His counterpart is in
Snorre's Edda, i, 276, which in Norway was connected with the
278 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,.
myth of Thor. Miillenhoff disentangled the primitive mythical
Teutonic saga upon which the minstrel based his story {Dent. Alter-
tumskunde, i, 32). L. Beer {Beitrlige, 13, i) opposed the conclu-
sions of Miillenhoff, which, however, were reasserted by F. Vogt in
Paul's Grund/'iss, ii, i, 67,, 64.
Svend Grundtvig pointed out similarities of incident and con-
struction in Orendel and the Danish ballad (see page 232), and
finally Singer {Apollo7iius von Tyrus, pp. 3-33) has compared in
detail the three pieces, Orendel, Jourdain and the Danish ballad.
The relationship between Orendel and the Apollonius saga has been
farther discussed by Tardel {Untersuc/uutgen zur mittel hochdeut.
Spielmannspoesie , Schwerin, 1894). It is necessary for us to deal
connectedly with this singular group of widely separated yet curi-
ously united fables.^
In the French poem Jourdain' s parents have been murdered by
Fromont, and their lands taken from them. Jourdain is cared for
and educated by the faithful Renier. Fromont sends out two trai-
tors, to whom he promises five hundred pounds if they bring the
child to him. Here the likeness is closest to the old French prose
version in which Antyocus (Antioch) is a vassal of the father of
Apolonie. When the father is dead, Apolonie is reared by Trans-
qualeon, the provost (prevost) of Tarse. Antyocus oppresses his
subjects and is warned by his wife that the people may invoke Apol-
onie. Thereupon Antyocus sends out thirty men to lay hold upon
Apolonie, but he escapes all dangers (si loing que il fust perille).
The reward offered to him who shall bring Apollonius alive is in
some of the Latin MSS. 100 talents (Riese), and in others fifty.
In the Bohemian and Swedish prose versions it is 500 talents.
Jourdain escapes the danger that menaces him, through the de-
vice and the devotion of Renier, who sacrifices his own child in his
stead'^ (Nyrop-Gorra, Storia delta epopea francese, 196).
After a time, when Jourdain is well grown, he serves Fromont,
unrecognized by him, as a page, but Fromont hates him, for he re-
sembles his slain father (Girard). One day Jourdain carries a
1 There is a very rare folks-book published in Paris in 1520 entitled, Les faitz
et proitesses du noble et vaillant ctieiialeir Jourdain de blaties filz de Girard
de hlaues lequel en son vinant conquesta plnsieurs royaulmes sur les Sarra-
zins. Paris, Michel le noir, 1520.
^ In Timoneda's Patraniielo, No. 37, an only son is sacrificed to save a friend's
son.
1898.1
SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 279
golden vessel filled with wine to Fromont, who keeps him kneeling.
Jourdain complains ; Fromont threatens him with worse treatment,
whereupon Jourdain retorts and Fromont strikes him with a stick
across the head so that he bleeds. Jourdain escapes to Renier, who
discloses to him the secret of his birth. Jourdain goes with armed
men to Fromont, finds him at the table and with his sword strikes
off his nose. In the battle that ensues, Lohier, the son of Charle-
magne, takes part and is killed by Jourdain, who takes flight, pur-
sued by the emperor. The old tale of incest is abandoned by the
French author. Hofmann sees in Karl (Charlemagne) the image
of Antiochus in the old story, but Singer with more reason fancies
Fromont to replace Antiochus, and that Karl is only introduced in
order to carry the story back to the well-known Carlovingian
type.^
The poet adds a ghastly humorous touch when he says that Fro-
mont, in order not to suffer alone the shame of his mutilation, or-
ders his knights to have their noses cut off. Singer compares the
narrative in \\\q Kaiser chronik and in Toledoth Jeschu {Zeiischrift d.
Vereins f. Volkskunde, ii, 295).
In the adventures that follow, there is an attack by Saracens, of
which we shall speak later. Jourdain springs from the deck of the
Saracen ship into the sea, and clinging to a tree bough bites his
arm and is cast up by the sea upon a foreign shore. The biting of
the arm is an allusion to the medieval belief that the sea would per-
mit no bleeding or wounded thing in its dominion (see page 281).
"II s'est navrez el bras de maintenant
N'avoit autre arme, dont il se fust aidant,
Por ce le fist, gel voz di et creant,
Mers ne piiet sane soiiffrir ne taut " ^ (y. de B., 1 260).
Apollonius after his shipwreck arrives at Pentapolis, on the north
African coast, in the kingdom of Archistrates, who is depicted as a
Greek. Jourdain finds himself in the realm of King Marcus, who
is a Christian. In both stories the heroes stand upon the beach
lamenting their unhappy fate, when they espy a poor fisherman.
The fisher is a good fellow, of a gentle heart, who feeds and
1 As in Huon of Bordeaux, It is the familiar legend of Charlemagne pursuing
a vassal who has killed his son.
2 Cf. Modersohn, Die Realien in Amis und Aniiles und Jorirdain de Blai-
viest Lingen, 1 886, p. 37.
280 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
clothes the unfortunate hero and directs him to enter the city (thus
in Godfrey of Viterbo, Pericles and the Italian and elder Greek
versions of the ApoUonius).
Jourdain spends the night with the fisher, apparently that the
contest in which he is to engage may take place after matins, and
perhaps also for the sake of the picture of the minster and the royal
party issuing from it. Thus the evening meal of the Latin and all
other versions becomes a morning meal.
While in ApoUonius the hero displays great skill in ball playing,
m. Jourdain the sport is fencing. The king exclaims : '' Who will
fight with me?" (''qui vueult iestre mes pers a' I'esquermie").
Jourdain undertakes to resist him, and astonishes the king with his
skill. After the sport Jourdain is left alone, but the king sends a mes-
senger to him, who finds him weeping and at first inclmed to think
the king's invitation a mockery because of his squalid appearance.
The king's daughter, Oriabel, is attracted by the handsome youth,
and believes him, because of his beauty and manly bearing, to be
of gentle blood (see verses 1408-1414). She begs permission of
her father to give clothes to the unknown. He replies, '' Ma belle
fille gel voil et si I'otroi .... Quant la pucelle entendit de
I'anfant. Que li porroit donner le garnement." She sends him a
splendid robe and waits upon him at the ablutions before the meal;
and he, by reason of his modesty, becomes the favorite of the king
and the beloved of Oriabel ('' et la pucelle Ten ama plus trois
tans"). In ApoUonius the princess is not present at the ball play,
but appears at the meal which follows it, and the dejected ApoUo-
nius is drawn to the banquet by the king and consoled. The prin-
cess asks her father who the stranger is, and goes herself to him and
inquires his history.
One day Jourdain gives way in the orchard to his grief. He is
overheard by the princess, who discovers his secret. ApoUonius is
overheard by the king playing upon his harp and bemoaning his
fate (so in Copland and Wilkins). It has been remarked (Singer,
p. 21), that there is here a trace of the influence of a group of
marchen in which a hero enters the service of a king, and is sur-
prised in his secret meditations in the garden by the king's daughter.
A number of parallel tales are to be found in J. G. von Hahn's
Griechische und albanesische Marchen. Similarly in Karlmeinet and
Gran Conquista (Bartsch, p. 17)^ Karl reveals his high lineage
alone and lamenting.
^ Singer, p. 21.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 281
The romances differ in the union of the lovers. The pacific
character at this point of the Apollonius narrative will be recalled —
how Apollonius instructs the princess in music, and is chosen by
her as her husband, though she is sought in marriage by lofty
suitors. The French epic is more turbulent and clamorous. At an
incursion of the Saracens, Jourdain is armed by the king's daughter,
is dubbed a knight and engages the chief of the enemy, Bruma-
dant, whom he slays, and brings his head as a bridal gift to Oria-
bel, whom he marries.^
Apollonius resolves to return to Tyre, when he learns of the
terrible fate of Antiochus and his daughter. Jourdain longs to see
his foster-father, Renier, whom he hopes to find living upon the
isle of Mekka or Mesques.
Jourdain 's wife insists upon accompanying her lord in his sea
voyage. Like the wife of Apollonius, she is pregnant, and during
a storm is delivered of a child, whereupon — an interesting diver-
gence from the ancient story — she is thrown alive and conscious
into the sea. The priests advise this horrible act, which is again a
consequence of the medieval belief that the sea would suffer no
wounded body (the body of Oriabel is lacerated) to remain upon or
within it. Jourdain fights with the sailors, but is overpowered by
them, and the body of the queen, as in the elder story, is thrown
into the sea."^
In the Christian French story, the resuscitation of the appar-
1 In the old French prose version the princely wooers from Cypress and Hun-
gary are rejected. They declare war. The princess asks Apollonius if he can
fight. In the battle he distinguishes himself and saves the old king.
-*' Die Erklarung der Stelle,die R. Schroder {Glaude und Aberglaube in den
Afr. Dichtiingen, S. 129) gibt, ist unrichtig und sein Verweis auf die Magdalen-
enlegende hilft nicht weiter, da die Frau dort wirklich tot ist und nur durch ein
Wunder erweckt wird. Immerhin ist die Parallele interessant : auch dort (j.
Roman. Forsch., iv, 493, ff.; Passional ed., Hahn, 379, 28 ff.) gebiert eine Frau
auf einem Schiffe ein Kind und stirbt an der Geburt, die Winde wachsen zu
Stiirmen an, die Marner verlangen von dem Ehemann dass er den Leichnam
iiberbord werfe, denn so lange dieser auf dem Schiffe sei, wiirden sich die Winde
nicht legen " (Singer, p. 23).
" Cil chapelain ont lor livres tenus,
Que por la damme, qui acouchie fu,
Lor est cist maus de la mer avenus,
Que mers ne siieffre arme qtci navre fust
Qui en cors soit ne navrez ne ferus" {JJ. de B., 2154).
282 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
ently dead is not accomplished by a physician skilled in the healing
art, and by no commonplace application of cotton and heated oil.
Oriabel is washed ashore at Palermo (Palerne, as the poem has it)^
and is discovered by the bishop of that city, who, as he observes
the comatose body, remembers a precious ointment which had been
sent to him from the Orient, whence come all rare and costly
things. It is the same ointment with which Christ was anointed
(dex en ot oingt les flaus et les costez). Oriabel revives at the
touch of this sacred salve, relates her history, and becomes a recluse
in a little house by the minster.
The story has here made a long journey from its pagan Greek
prototype. Bishops, nuns, priests and minsters have taken the
place of the temple of Diana and the physician Cerimon. A like
transformation we have seen to occur in the Spanish and modern
Greek versions.
The fate of Tharsia takes a somewhat different appearance in the
French poem. Jourdain, after the storm in which his wife was
thrown overboard, comes to King Cemaire, who reigned in Ori-
monde (Tliarsus) (and who corresponds to Stranguillio). Here
his daughter is baptized and named Gaudisce. Jourdain commits
her to the care of one Josselme (the counterpart of Theophilus),
and departs to seek his queen. He sails by Tunis and the Nile,
and at last reaches Palermo, where he finds his wife. He relates
to her his adventures in a much briefer way than does ApoUonius
in the elder story. After he has found Oriabel and Renier, the story
returns to Gaudisce. The king of Orimonde had a daughter who
was far outshone in beauty and in grace by Jourdain' s daughter.
The queen's envy was violently aroused, and Josselme is ordered
secretly to remove Gaudisce. Under the pretense of conducting
her to her father he brings her to Constantinople, when, saying,
''I commend thee to God," he abruptly leaves her :
" Gentiz pucelle, a Jesu tx conmant,
Qui d'encombrier gart ton cors avenant " ^ (3161).
Gaudisce, left alone with her nurse, Floriant (Lycorides), realizes
her desertion and becomes desperate.
The treachery and brutality of the scene in the bordello are also
made less revolting in the French poem. The son of the king of
^ In the Latin version Tharsia is to be murdered on the shore ; only in Pericles
and the (}reek marchen does she accompany the traitor.
1898.] SMYTIT — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 283
Constantinople becomes enamoured of the beauty of Gaudisce, but
she rejects his suit, and will approach no man, nor listen to words
of affection until she finds her father. The king, dismayed at the
melancholy of his son, orders Gaudisce to be offered in a brothel.
At this moment her parents fortunately arrive. They had first pro-
ceeded to Orimonde, where Josselme, dismayed at the arrival of
Jourdain, confesses that he had conveyed Gaudisce to Constantino-
ple, whither Jourdain immediately holds his course. He learns upon
his arrival that a woman is to be offered for sale, and his daughter
comes at once into his mind. He finds no rest until he offers pro-
tection to the unknown unfortunate and recognizes in her his daugh-
ter. She marries Alis, the son of the king of Constantinople. They
all return to France to be reconciled to Charlemagne. The usurper
and murderer, Fromont, is conquered in field fighting by Jourdain,
and condemned to be flayed alive and to be dragged to death by a
horse. The faithful Renier is rewarded with the city of Blaivies,
just as Hellenicus is remembered in the ApoUofiius.
It will be seen that in Jourdain the finding of the wife does not
conclude the story. Oriabel hears Jourdain lamenting before her
cell in Palermo. She thinks she recognizes the voice, and calls
him to her window. Mutual recognition follows, and the Bishop
dismisses her from her cloistral life.
The story of Jourdain de Blaivies is often found associated with
the tale of Atnis et Amiles and both were ultimately inserted in
the Charlemagne cycle, Joardain's father becoming the son of
Amis. See also Deux Redactions dii Roman des Sept Sages de
Rome, published by Gaston Paris, Paris, 1876, pp. 1 61-196, for a
discussion of a variation of the Romance of the Seven Sages in
which the two friends are named Loys and Alexander. This latter
story seems to be the foundation of Theodoor Rodenburgh's Alex-
ajtder, a tragi-comedy in forty-four scenes, published at Amsterdam
in 161 8. Henslowe paid Martin Slaughter in May, 1598, J],2> for
five books, one of which was a play of Alexander afid Lodwick.
Mr. W. C. Hazlitt believes that this lost play was in some degree
like the Dutch tragi-comedy.
Orendel, the hero of the poem which Berger has edited, is the
son of Eigel. The name is found in Franconian and Bavarian
from the eighth to the eleventh centuries and appears in its earliest
form in Lombardy as Auriwandalus, which corresponds linguisti-
cally with Aurvandill or Horvandillus. The name, as Miillenhoff
284 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
points out, indicates a seafarer (Norse Aurr, A.-S. ea)-, moisture
— Lat. Aqua). Orendel is the son of Ougel or Oiigel, who must have
been the central figure of a sailor myth. Singer supposes the name
to be derived from that of one of the rejected suitors of the daugh-
ter of Archistrates, called Ardaleo or Ardaleon in the Latin His-
toria Apollonii.
Singer indulges in some bold speculation in his effort to account
for "Orendel, son of Eigel." He remembers that in Vienna
Codex 3332 the unsuccessful suitor is called Ardonius, as in Velser
and the Gesta, and in the Spanish Libre de Apolonio he is named
Aguylon, and Singer supposes that the Spanish may be a mutilated
form and may lead back to Artlgilon (of the middle German
prose). He then imagines that Ardonius Agilon came to stand to-
gether, so that the French version, leaning upon domestic names,
and mistaking the second form to be a genitive, converted it into
Arondeus fils Aiglon, and the German poem in turn transmuted it
into "Orendel, Kiinec Eigels sun." Similarly Singer supposes
Jourdain to be a corruption of Ardonius, perhaps by attraction to
St. Jordan who in 1236 suffered shipwreck on his way to Palestine.
The names of the characters in this world-traveled tale have suf-
fered in their journeys strange transformations and bewilderments.
ApoUonius becomes Perillie in Bohemian and Pericles in Shake-
speare. Timoneda names the murderer Estrangilo (Stranguillio)
and gives the real murderer's name to a senator, Teofilo (The-
ophilus).
Orendel in the poem is shipwrecked on his way to meet his
bride, as ApoUonius is in the Danish ballad. Notice the confusion
between the daughter of Antiochus and the daughter of Archis-
trates. Orendel consults with his father concerning his purpose.
ApoUonius consults with his mother (according to the Danish bal-
lad), or with his councilor (according to the Bohemian folks-book).
The mother and councillor dissuade ApoUonius ; the father en-
courages Orendel. The description of the departure of the vessel
abounds with lively touches, after the manner of Diimmler's me-
trical Latin version. Huge quantities of food are taken on board,
enough for eight years, in which there may be a reminiscence of
the heavy freighing of the ship on the occasion of the second em-
barkation of ApoUonius (to Tharsus) when he takes with him 100,-
000 bushels of corn.
A storm drives Orendel into the Klebermer (literally, sticky sea ;
1898.] S:\IYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 285
a traditional sea, possibly the Sargasso), where he is detained three
years, until redeemed by divine help. So in Heinrich von Neu-
stadt the fleet of Apollonius is driven upon the Lebermer (same as
Klebermer) and detained a year, until the heathen gods chance to
pass by and free the hero.
Orendel has a successful sea-fight with the fleet of the pagan
king Pelian von Babilon, which corresponds in Jourdain with the
surprise attack by the Saracens upon the sea. Doubtless both inci-
dents grew out of the circumstance that in all the versions of the
Apollonius story Antiochus equips a fleet that vainly pursues Apol-
lonius after his solution of the king's riddle and his subsequent
flight. In the old French prose version Antiochus prepares snares
for Apollonius even before he comes to Antioch as a suitor, and
sends out soldiers to destroy him. Curiously enough in Heinrich
von Neustadt Thaliarchus, the major domo of Antiochus, fights
with Apollonius, but is conquered in the duel.
It is easy to account, also, for the appearance in Orendel of
the heathen king Pelian von Askalon, who craves possession of
Orendel's bride, and threatens to hang Orendel on a gallows in the
castle moat. No doubt this is the same Antiochus who desires to
live in shame with his daughter and threatens to kill her suitors and
impale their heads upon his castle wall.
Orendel is shipwrecked, lies three days in the sand, and then
sees a fisherman approaching in a boat. In the Bohemian folks-
book Apollonius swims three days and nights upon a log of wood,
and on the fourth day he sees a fisherman in a boat. A similar situa-
tion is in the French prose romance. In Jourdain the fisher arrives
in a boat, as also in the Danish ballad and the Cretan version. The
fisher is old but robust — quendam robustum senem (Riese). The
fisherman displays fear of Orendel, precisely as in the Danish bal-
lad the fishers fear Apollonius (see p. 233). Orendel tells him
that he is a shipwrecked fisherman. In some versions Apollonius
refuses to tell his name. So in Godfrey, and Steinhovvel, and
Shakespeare — "What I have been I have forgot to know."
In the French version he says he is a shipwrecked merchant ; in
Timoneda he is questioned by a bather, and he says he is a banador
from Tyre.
Orendel offers himself as a servant to the fisherman. In the
Bohemian the fisher says, '' Do you not know that having come out
of the sea you are my serf? But God forbid that I should do you
286 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
any harm ! " The fisher takes Orendel into his boat (cf. Pericles,
'' Canst thou catch any fishes then? "), who prays God to help him
for he cannot fish.^ He casts out his net, just as in the Danish bal-
lad Apollonius must fish, and even carry the fish-basket. Among
the fish that are caught is one in whose stomach they find a gray
coat. Blood stains are observed on it, which makes the fisher say
that a slain prince wore it. The coat has the appearance of armour.
Orendel entreats the fisher to give him the coat, but he refuses, and
instead gives Orendel a pair of shoes and a mantle. The coat is
sold to him later at a low price, and the fisher pretends that he has
given it to him, and begs him if he shall have good fortune in the
world not to forget the fisher who succoured him. He is also given
a pair of stockings, but there is no word of a partition of the
fisher's mantle.'' In Wilkins' novel Apollonius even gets a blanket
for his horse.
Orendel remains six weeks with the fisher and then goes to the city,
where he is imprisoned, and released by an angel. He comes to
Jerusalem and, asking after the meaning of a noise that fills the air,
is told that the Knights Templar are tourneying. In the Latin
text Apollonius learns from a herald. In Pericles the fishermen
have instructed him in advance of a tournament which the suitors
have instituted.
Orendel meets two pagans who are rivals for the possession of the
queen. They are Merzian and Sudan. Merzian lends his horse to
Orendel, who overthrows and kills Sudan, whereupon Merzian
takes flight. In Jourdain the hero first tries his valor with King
Marques, the father of the princess, and then conquers an enemy
of the king (Sortin) in serious combat. Marques and Sortin, Mer-
zian and Sudan, are evidently identical names, or names of common
origin. Singer conjectures that Marques arose from regem Arches-
tratem / In the Latin Apollonius, it will be remembered, there
is ball play, and gifts by the king, and then the dismissal of
three suitors. In Copland there are only two suitors (as in Stein-
howel, Bohemian and French). In the French story the suitors go
to war, and are conquered by Apollonius. Only one of the suitors
has a name — Ardalio^ Pericles buys a horse with a jewel, conquers
' In the French and Spanish he declines smilingly the invitation to fish.
'^ The Bohemian and the Danish know nothing of the division of the cloak
which the Latin speaks of. The Italian calls it *< vestimento di Grigio."
^ In Twine only have the other suitors names — Munditius and Camillas.
1898.]
SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 287
five suitors, and in a later scene, Act ii, Sc. v, three more appear
who are dismissed. In Wilkins, the king gives the hero, after his
successful tourney, a horse and a pair of golden spurs.
The queen sends a messenger to Orendel to summon him to her
presence. The messenger at first hesitates to go, awed by the terrible
appearance of Orendel. When at last he obeys the queen's com-
mand and delivers her message, Orendel, like ApoUonius, believes
that he is mocked and made sport of because of his shabby clothes.
His path is beset with perils. The Knights Templar attempt tO'
kill him ; at the court of the king he finds an envious old man who
calumniates him.
Battles with giants follow. He fights with Mentwin and Mer-
zian. The queen asks him if he is not King Orendel. He replies
that he is only a poor pilgrim. She calls him Mr. Graycoat, for
she cannot learn his real name. In battle with the giant Pelian he
utters his own name aloud (like Rustum), and the Knights Templar,,
realizing that he is indeed a king, worship him, and the queen
exclaims, " Now I am indeed happy that I have always been faith-
ful."
After the scene in which the fisher is rewarded, which is com-
mented upon elsewhere, the combat for Westphal follows, at
which siege Orendel by means of a grappling hook is pulled
over the wall and captured. A somewhat similar scene is in
Jourdain, and in Heinrich von Neustadt there is a naval battle
between ApoUonius and Absalon, in which the latter is drawn by a
grappling hook into the hostile vessel.
Orendel is called home by an angel to protect his kingdom
against the pagans. In the French the kingdom in question is the
hereditary kingdom of ApoUonius : Antiochus is merely a satrap
who wrongfully kept it from him. In Timoneda and Pericles the
kingdom is Tyre, which in Timoneda has been usurped by Taliarca,
while in Pericles an insurrection is threatened.
Orendel at first thinks to return alone, but Bride (his queen) is
resolved to journey with him. She proposes to make the fisher a
ruler in their absence, but the fisher refuses and all three depart to.
gether. In Timoneda the fisher is master of the galleys to Apol-
lonius, and is finally made Viceroy of Tyre. Upon the voyage
the queen falls into a trance and is thrown into the sea in a chest.
She is found by Daniel and Wolfhart and brought to the pagan
King Minolt. With the help of the fisher Orendel rescues her.,
PROG. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 158. S. PRINTED DEC. 16, 1898.
288 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
Again Durian brings her to the pagan King Wolfhart, but Durian,
himself, helps her to preserve her chastity. It is interesting to
note the confusion here, and to see the queen playing the role
which the Latin Historia assigns to the daughter. The scenes here
correspond to the scene in the brothel. In the second scene Wolf-
hart (Singer suggests, p. 15) is a translation of Lupanar, and Du-
rian takes the place of Villikus, who is to deprive the queen of vir-
ginity, but he figures in the light of a protector, and in Heinrich is
called Turpian (or Turian, as it is in a Spanish romance related to
the Jourdain).
The Danish ballad has already been described and its correspond-
ence to Jourdain indicated. The home of King Apolonn in the
ballad is Naples. The emperor, who at one time represents Anti-
ochus and at another Archistrates, lives in Speier. He has a
daughter whom he rates at the sea's worth, and thinks no one
worthy of her save Apolonn. She writes a secret letter, in which
she confesses her love for him, as the daughter of Archistrates does
in the Apollonius story. The emperor now bewitches the shore of
his kingdom so that Apollonius is shipwrecked there. To this end
he commands the aid of twelve troldqutn?ter, as in the Fridthtofsage
Helgi makes use of two witches for the same purpose (Singer, p.
31). All the mariners are lost save Apolonn only, who retains his
lyre. (The remainder of the story is as upon page 233.)
The riddles form an extremely interesting and important part of
the Apollonius story. They incline to the Salomon-Markolf type
of romance. Kemble's introduction to the Anglo-Saxon Salomon
and Satiirnus^ is still a classic chapter in the history of this curious
and universal literary type. Schaumberg's '* Salomo und Markolf "
in Paul and Braune's Beit rage, ii, i, and Vogt, Die deuischen Dich-
tungen von Salomon U7id Markolf, illustrate the mythic dignity of
character which originally belonged to the disputatio. This leg-
endary stock, as Prof. Earle says, sent its branches into all the
early vernacular literatures of Europe. From a rabbinical root, the
strange legend in which at first Solomon and Hiram, King of Tyre,
exchanged hard questions, and in which at a later time Solomon
and Mercury, and Solomon and a ** Chaldean Earl" dispute seri-
ously, develops into a mocking form of literature in which religion
is a burlesque and the poet a buffoon.
1 The Dialogue of Salomon and Saturnus, with an historical introduction
by J. M. Kemble, London, 1848.
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 289
King Hiram of Tyre helps in the building of Solomon's temple
(see I Kings v. i). Solomon sends a messenger to Hiram, demand-
ing, " Send me a learned man," and Hiram replies, " I have sent to
thee a prudent and wise man (a cunning man indued with under-
standing) of Hiram my father's" (2 Chron. ii. 13) [misi ergo tibi
virum prudentem et scientissimum Hiram patrem meum]. The
Vulgate here merely translated the half name. Chiram Abi (Heb.)
signifies literally " my father noble born," and so Churam abiv is
equivalent to '' his father is noble born." According to the Vulgate
the passage (2 Chron. ii. 13) would seem to mean that the architect
Hiram was the father of King Hiram, and then again the father of
Solomon. In close connection with this passage is the famous
description of the wisdom of Solomon (i Kings iv. 29-34): '^Dedit
quoque Deus sapientiam Solomoni, et prudentiam multam nimis et-
latitudinem cordis quasi arenam, quae est in litore maris. Et
praecedebat sapientia Salomonis sapientiam omnium orientalium et
^gyptiorum, et erat sapientior cunctis hominibus, sapientior Ethan,
Ezrahita et Heman, et Chalcol et Dorda, filiis Mahol, et erat nomi-
natus in universis gentibus per circuitum. Locutus est quoque
Salomon tria millia parabolas, et fuerunt carmina ejus quinque et
mille et disputavit super lignis a cedro, quae est in Libano, usque ad
hyssopum quae egreditur de pariete et disseruit de jumentis et volu-
cribus et reptilibus et piscibus, et veniebant de cunctis populis ad
audiendam sapientiam Salomonis et ab universis regibus terrae, qui
audiebant sapientiam ejus."
In this Biblical Mahol Hofmann sees the later romantic Marcol,
Marcolf, Morolf, who disputes with Solomon in riddles. And he
adds, " Wenn man erwagt, wie gewaltig die Namen des alten
Testamentes in der Septuaginta, Vulgata, bei Flavins Josephus und
sonst verandert werden, so wird die Verwandlung von Mahol
(Machol) in Marcol, vielleicht unter Einwirkung von Chalcol,
nicht besonders auffallen."
The saga made an ambassador of this King of Tyre who com-
peted with Solomon in riddles, and who on the one hand occupies the
place of the architect, Hiram Abi, and on the other that of Marcol
and his sons. This myth developed in the first century after
Christ and is mentioned by Josephus (Bk. viii, Chap, v) after
Menander who translated the Tyrian originals out of Phoenician
into Greek. After the death of Abibal, says Josephus, his son
Hiram succeeded. At this time the youngest son of Abdemon
290 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
lived, who always solved the riddles which Solomon proposed.
Dion says Solomon sent riddles to Hiram and received some from
him. Whoever could not find the answers was to pay money to
him who was successful. Hiram failed and was obliged to pay a
heavy fine. However, he learned the answer to the riddle from
Abdemon, a Tyrian, who also gave other riddles to Solomon which
he could not answer, and so was compelled to forfeit to Hiram.
This Abdemon or his son is the Hiram Abi of the Bible, and in
two MSS. he is called 'Aftr^og. (It has been suggested that we have
here the original source of Biirger's ballad of the king and the
abbot of St. Gall, and of Schiller's Teilung der Erde.)
At the end of the fifth century this history first appeared in
western literature. The decree of Damasus, or Gelasius, the first
index librorum prohibitorum, mentions among other notable books
the Contradictio Salof?ioms, which was withdrawn from the Canon
because of its deviation from the Scriptural narrative. The
Salomon- Marko If was in Germany in the tenth century, for it is
quoted by Notker, of St. Gall. It is not improbable that the
Proverbs in the St. Gall Rhetoric are taken from the St. Gall
Salomon-Markolf. In the twelfth century, Bp, William of Tyre
recognized the identity of the Salomon-Abdemon story with the
Salomon-Markolf story. By a change of names and localities a
second type of myths appeared, in which a princess is wooed by
riddles with risk of life to the unfortunate suitors. Here we ha/e
the Antiochus type. A very early indication of this condition is
to be found in Tatian, Oratio ad Grcecos, cap. 6d), where Salomon
and Hiram are shown to be brothers-in-law, and, according to the
Phoenician histories of Theodotus, Hypsicrates and Mochus, it is
reported that Chiram has given his daughter to Solomon in mar-
riage.
The change of the scene of the history from Jerusalem to
Antioch points to the time when Jerusalem, conquered for the
second time, had ceased to exist, and had even disappeared as a
name, its site being occupied by a Roman colony, Aelia Capitolina,
while Antioch had become the chief city of Syria. The middle
link between Machal and Markolf is Marcol, the Hebraized name
of Mercury, which could only have become known to the Jews
after the Roman conquest of Palestine (see B. Stentz, Die Hirafn
Sage, Hands chrift fur Briider Meister, Berlin, 1871).
The figures of Christian and pagan literature and mythology
1898.1 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 291
often proceed in medieval romance in strangely assorted com-
panies. Solomon and Mercury seems an oddly chosen companion-
ship. In the stories of Solomon we find him frequently engaging
in conflicts with djinns or demons. He overpowers and holds in
subjection all but Sachr (or Asmodeus), whom he finally conquers
by artifice and from whom he learns how to obtain possession of
the worm Schamir which cuts stones without noise — an obvious
reminiscence of the building of the temple of Solomon, without the
sound of a hammer ("like a tall palm the silent temple grew").
With the conception of Solomon as the wisest and most eloquent of
men and the most powerful conqueror of spirits, there must have
come a moment in the evolution of the story in which he would
measure his prowess with the demons of the classic world. Mer-
cury excelled in discourse. It was therefore but natural that with
him Solomon should enter into argument. When Paul and Bar-
nabas preached in Lystra, the people cried, " The gods have come
down to us in the likeness of men," and they called Barnabas,
Jupiter, because of his stature, and Paul, Mercury because of his
eloquence.
In the Vienna Apollonius, MS., 480, occurs the following note :
*^ Nota quod de isto Apollonio tyro magister in scolastica ystoria
in libro tercio regum in rubrica de opidis datis yram a Salomone.
Testatur Josephus Menandrum fenicem ystoriographum scripsisse
quod Salomon et yram mutuo sibi scripserunt enigmata et figuras
quod qui non solueret tercam daret alteri pensionean cumque artar-
etur yram in solucione conpelebat tyrum juvenem abdimum abde-
monis filium qui omnino de facili explicabat."
A deeply interesting theory, set forth with much learning and in-
genuity by A. Vesselovsky — Iz istorii literaiurnavo obstchenia
vostoka i ZapadUf Slavianskaia Skazania. Solomonge i Kiiovrase i
Zapadnya legendy 0 Marolfe i Merline, St. Petersburg, 1872 —
seeks to identify Markolf with Merlin, and so associate the ancient
disputatio with the Celtic story of Arthur. In Elie de Saint-Giles
(early thirteenth century) the abduction of Solomon's wife as nar-
rated in Solomon and Markolf is described, and the names of Ar-
thur, Gawain and Mordred appear.
Arnold de Guisnes, Chronique de Guisnes et d* Ardres, par Lam-
bert, cure d'Ardres ed. par le Marquis de Godefroy Menilglaisey
Paris, Renouard{i2>^^, Cxcvi, pp. 215-217) reads "cognatumsuum
Walterum de Clusa nominatum, qui de Anglorum gestis et fabulis.
292 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
de Gormundo et Isembardo, de Tristanno et Hisolda, de Merlino
et Merchulfo, et de Ardentium gestis diligenter edocebat." Prof.
Vesselovsky concludes, ^' Our comparison of Merlin with Asmodeus-
Kitovras, and the type of Morolf, has shown us that the legend of
Merlin is more archaic than the German poem of Solomon and
Morolf, and more nearly approaches the Talmudic-Slavonic
legend" (p. 331).'
The universal popularity and wide circulation of the tale of Apol-
lonius of Tyre is further illustrated by the Thidrik-Saga, in which
ApoUonius appears, and by the Vi/kina-Saga, in which King Artus
of Bertangaland has two sons, named Iron and ApoUonius, the latter
of whom was appointed by Attila, Jarl of Tyre (see P. E. Miiller,
Saga Bibliothek, ii, 209).
The explanation of the firm hold that this story has had upon
so many centuries and peoples is a tempting subject of philosoph-
ical study. It comes to us stained through and through with me-
dieval legend and superstition. As ancient Gower says in the play :
*' It has been sung at festivals,
At ember eves and holy ales,
And lords and ladies in their lives
Have read'it for restoratives."
COLOPHON TO WYNKYN DE WORDE.
CCI)UiSenbet^ t^e mooapFtefttUl^pQo^? of t^nobto 3lp
pol?n fomtpmc ftpngeof (d^je netolptranflateD out of
frenf O^e m to ettgMe*3lnD enp^tmteDm t^e famouiS cp^
teoe:flonDonin^eifieteftrete at^Ci^ne oftl^elbtmebp
tdpnbpndetdo>De*3|tttl)c pereof mt\oiU.Q^.XiMSi.%.
of tl)etei?8ne of t^emoodejcceUent anOnoUe p^tjntceonp
vpg^t naturall auD reooubteti fouetajm^ tqziK }t)pnae ^n
THE END.
^ F. Liebrecht (Zur Volkskunde, pp. 346-348) discusses the name Marcolf
and its relations (?) to Merlin and Moloch.
1898.] SMYTTI — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 293
APPENDIX.
The Gesta Romanorum Text.
De Antiocho qui filiam propriam cognovit et tantum earn dilexit, quod
nullus earn in uxorem habere potuit nisi problema ab eo propositum
solveret.
Antiochus in civitate Antiochia regnavit, a quo ipsa civitas Antiochia
nomen accepit. Ex conjuge sua filiam speciosissimam genuit. Que cum
pervenisset ad etatem legitimam et species pulchritudinis accresceret,
multi eam in matrimonium petebant cum magna et inestimabili dotis
quantitate. Sed cum pater deliberaret, cui potissime filiam suam daret in
matrimonium, nescio qua iniqua concupiscentia crudelitatisque flamma
in amorem filie sue exarsit cepitque eam amplius diligere quam patrem
opporteret. Qui cum luctatur cum furore, pugnat cum pudore, vincitur
amore. Quadam die accessit ad cubiculum filie sue et omnes longe
secedere jussit, quasi cum filia sua colloquium secretum habiturus.
Stimulante furore libidinis diu repugnante filia nodum virginitatis erupit.
Cumque puella quid faceret cogitaret, nutrix subito ad eam intravit.
Quam ut vidit flebili vultu, ait: " ob quam rem affligitur animatua?"
Puella ait : " o carissima, modo hie in cubiculo duo nobilia nomina
perierunt." Ait nutrix: " domina, quare hoc dicis?" Ait ilia: "quia
ante matrimonium meum pessimo scelere sum violata." Nutrix cum
hec audisset et vidisset quasi aniens facta est et ait: " et quis diabolus
tanta audacia virginis thorum et regine ausus est violare ? " Ait puella :
"impietas fecit hoc peccatum." Nutrix ait: "Cur non indicas patri ?"
Puella ait: "et ubi est pater? Si intelligis, peribit nomen patris in me;
mortis mihi remedium placet." Nutrix ut audivit eam mortis remedium
querere, blando eam sermonis colloquio revocavit, ut a proposito suo
recederet. Inter hec impius pater, cum simulata mente ostenderet civibus
pium patrem, inter domesticos parietes maritum se filie letatur. Et ut
semper impiis filie thoris frueretur, ad expellendos petitores, qui eam in
conjugem petebant, novum genus nequicie cogitavit. Questionem vero
proponebat, dicens : "si quis questionis mee solucionem invenerit, filiam
meam in uxorem habebit, et si defecerit, decollabitur." Plurimi undique
reges et principes patrie propter incredibilem et inauditam puelle speciem
venerunt. Et si quis forte prudentia litterarum questionis solucionem
invenisset, quasi nihil dixisset, decollabatur, et caput eius supra portam
suspendebatur, ut advenientes imaginem mortis viderent et turbarentur,
ne ad talem condicionem accederent. Hoc totum fecerat, ut ipsemet
cum filia sua in adulterio poterat permanere. Cum vero tales crudeli-
tates exerceret Antiochus, interposito brevi temporis spacio adolescens
quidam Tyrus, patrie sue princeps locuples valde, Appollonius nomine,
bene litteratus, navigans Antiochiam intravit, ingressusque ad regem ait :
" ave rex ! " Et ille : " salvi sunt nupturi parentes tui?" Aitjuvenis:
294 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
"peto filiam tuam in uxorem." Rex ut audivit, quod audire nolebat,
respiciens juvenem ait : " nosti nupciarum condicionem ? " Ait juvenis :
" novi et ad portam vidi." Indignatus rex ait : " audi ergo questionem :
Scelere vehor materna carne vescor, quero fratrem meum, matris mee
virum ; nee invenio." Puer accepta questione paululum recessit a rege
et, cum scienciam quereret, deo favente solucionem questionis invenit et
reversus ad regem ait: "bone rex, proposuisti questionem, audi ergo
solucionem nam quod dixisti ' scelere vehor ' non es mentitus ; te enim
ipsum intuere. 'Materna carne vescor': filiam tuam respice!" Rex
ut audivit solucionem questionis juvenem solvisse, timens, ne peccatum
suum patefieret, irato vultueum respiciens ait: "longe es, juvenis, a
questione, nihil verum dixisti. Decollari quidem promerueris, sed ecce
habebis dierum triginta spacium : recogita tecum, revertere ad terram
tuam ! Et si questionis solucionem inveneris, filiam meam in matrimo-
nium accipies ; sinautem decollaberis." Juvenis turbatus accepto comi-
tatu navem ascendit, tendens in patriam Tyrum. Sed post recessum
adolescentis vocavit rex dispensatorem suum, Thaliarchum nomine, cui
ait: " Thaliarche secretorum meorum minister fidelissime, scias, quod
Tyrus Apollonius invenit questionis mee solucionem. Ascende ergo
confestim navem ad persequendum eum. Et cum perveneris Tyrum,
quere eum et cum ferro vel veneno interfice! Reversus dum fueris,
premium magnum accipies." Thaliarchus statim sumens pecuniam simul
peciitque navem, venit ad patriam juvenis. Appollonius vero prius venit
et domum suam introivit, apertoque scrinio omnes libros respexit. Et
nihil aliud invenit, nisi quod regi dixerat, et dixit intra se : " nisi fallor,
Antiochus rex impio amore diligit filiam suam." Et recogitans secum
dixit: " quid agis Appolloni ? Questionem regis solvisti, filiam ejus non
accepisti : ideo delatus es a deo, ut non morieris." Continuoque jussit
sibi naves preparare et eas centum milibus modiorum frumenti onerari
et multo pondere auri et argenti et veste copiosa. Et cum paucis secum
fidelissimis hora noctis tercia navim ascendit, tradiditque se alto pelago.
Alia vero die queritur a civibus suis et non invenitur. Meror ingens
nascitur, quod amantissimus princips patrie nusquam comparuit ; planc-
tus magnus erat in civitate. Tantus vero amor civium circa eum erat, ut
multo tempore tonsores cessarent, publica spectacula tollerentur, balnea
clauderentur ; non templa, non tabernas quisquam ingreditur. Et cum
talia agerentur, supervenit ThaHarchus, qui a rege Antiocho ad necandum
eum missus fuerat. Et videns omnia clausa dixit cuidam puero : "indica
mihi, si velis vivere, ex qua causa civitas hec in luctu moratur?" Ait
puer : " o bone, nescis tu illud? Civitas hec in luctu moratur, quia Appol-
lonius princeps patrie huius at Antiocho rege regressus nusquam compa-
ruit ? " Thaliarchus cum hoc audit, gaudio plenus ad navem rediit et
Antiochiam intravit. Ingressusque ad regem ait: " domine mi rex,
letare, quia Appollonius vos timens nusquam comparuit. Rex ait: " fu-
gere quidem potest, sed effugere non potest." Statim hujusmodi edic-
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 295
turn posuit : " quicunque AppoUonium Tyrum, contemptorem regni mei,
mihi exhibuerit, accipiet quinquaginta talenta auri, qui vero caput eius,
centum accipiet." Hoc facto non tantum inimici sed amici cupiditate
seducti ad persequendum AppoUonium properabant. Querebatur vero
Appollonius per mare, per terras, per silvas, per universas indagines et
non inveniebatur. Tunc rex jussit sibi classes navium preparari ad per-
sequendum juvenem ; sed et moram facientibus, qui classes navium sibi
preparabant, Appollonius Tharsum devenit. Et deambulans juxta litus
visus est a quodam cive suo Elamico nomine, qui supervenerat in ipsa
hora. Et accedens ad eum dixit : " ave, rex Appolloni ! " Ille salutatus
fecit, ut potentes facere consueverant : sprevit hominem plebeium.
Tunc senex indignatus est valde et iterum salutavit eum et ait : "ave
Appolloni ! Resaluta et noli despicere paupertatem honestis moribus
decoratam ! Si enim scis, quod scio, cavendum est tibi." Et ille: "si
placet, dicito mihi ! " Qui ait: " prospictus es." Et ille: " et quis patrie
sue proscripsit principem?" Elamicus ait: "rex Antiochus." Appol-
lonius: "qua ex causa?" Elamicus ait: "quia, quod pater est, tu
esse voluisti." Appollonius ait: " et pro quanto me proscripsit?" Et
ille: " ut quicunque te illi vivum exibuerit, quinquaginta talenta auri,
qui vero caput tuum protulerit, centum accipiet. Et ideo moneo te :
fuge in presidium." Sed cum hec dixisset Elamicus, discessit. Tunc
Appollonius eum rogavit, ut ad se veniret, et centum talenta auri ei
daret. Et ait : " accipe tantum de paupertate mea, quia meruisti ;
et amputa caput meum et regi presentes et tunc gaudium magnum
habebit. Ecce habes centum talenta auri et tu es innocens, quia te
conduxi, ut gaudium offeras regi." Cui senex ait: " domine, absit hoc
a me, ut hujusmodi rei causa premium accipiam ! Apud bonos homines
amicicia premio non est comparanda." Et valedicens discessit.
Post hec Appollonius cum spaciatur in eodem, loco supra litus, vidit
hominem contra se venientem, dolentem et mesto veltu, Stranguilionem
nomine. Accessit ad eum protinus, ait Appollonius : " ave, Stranguilio !"
Et ipse ait: " quare in his locis turbata mente versaris ? " Appollonius
ait : " quia filiam ejus (ut verum dixeram, conjugem) in matrimonium
petivi. Itaque, si fieri potest, in patria vestra volo latere." Stranguilio
ait: "domine Appolloni, civitas nostra pauperrima est et non potest
tuam nolilitatem sustinere : preterea duram famem et sterilitatem patimur
annone, nee etiam jam civibus ulla spes est salutis, sed crudelissima mors
est ante oculos nostros." Appollonius ait : " agite gratias deo, qui me
profugum vestris finibus applicuit. Dabo civitati vestre centum milia
modiorum frumenti, si fugam meam tantum celaveritis." Stranguilio,
ut hec audivit, prostravit se ad pedes ejus et ait : " domine Appolloni, si
esurienti civitati subveneris, non solum fugam tuam celabimus, sed si
necessitas fuerit, pro tua salute dimicabimus." Ascendensque Appol-
lonius tribunal in foro presentibus cunctis civibus ejusdem civitatis dixit :
Gives Tharsenses, quos annone penuria turbat ^t opprimit, ego Tyrius
296 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLOXIUS. [Oct. 7,
Appollonius relevo. Credo enim vos, hujus beneficii memores, fugam
celaturos. Scitote enim non me malicia Antiochi esse fugatum, sed
vestra felicitate hue sum delatus. Dato itaque vobis centum milia modio-
rum frumenti eo precio, quo sum in patria mercatus : octo ereis sin-
gulos modios." Gives hec audientes, quod singulos modios octo ereis
mercarentur, hilares effecti sunt ac gratias agentes statim frumenta porta-
bant. Tunc Appollonius, ne deposita regia dignitate mercatoris magis
quam donatoris nomen videretur assumere, precium, quod acceperat,
ejusdem civitatis utilitatibus redonavit. Gives autem, ut tanta viderent
ejus beneficia, bigam ejus in foro statuerunt, in qua stans dextra manu
fruges daret et sinistro pede calcaret et in base scripserunt : " civitas
Tharsia Tyrio Appollonio donum dedit, quod civitatem a seva fame
liberavit." Deinde interpositis paucis diebus hortante Stranguilione et
Dionysiade ejus conjuge ad Pentapolim Tyrenorum navigare proposuit,
ut illic lateret, eo quod bene firma cum opulentia et tranquillitate ageren-
tur. Igitur cum ingenti honore ducitur ad mare et valedicens omnibus
ascendit ratim. Sed tribus diebus et noctibus totidem ventis prosperis
navigans, subito est pelagus mutatum, postquam litus Tharsie reliquit.
Nam paucis horis ventis concitatis, Aquilone vento Euroque instante
clauso celo nimia se pluvia erupit. Populus Tiri procella corripitur,
ratis pariter dissolvitur. Zephyri fretum perturbant, grando ac nubes
tenebrosa incumbebant, flant venti fortiter intantum, quod mors cunctos
occupat. Tunc unusquisque rapuit sibi tabulas. Tamen in ilia caligine
tempestatis omnes perierunt. Appollonius vero unius tabule beneficio in
Pentapolitanorum litore est pulsus. Stans autem in litore nudus, intuens
mare tranquillum sic ait: " o pelagi fides !• Facilius incidam in manus
crudelissimi regis ! Quo pergam ? Quam patriam petam ? Quis notus
huic ignoto auxilium dabit ?" Hec dum loqueretur Appollonius, aspexit
juvenem venientem contra se quendam, robustum piscatorem sordido
sacco coopertum. Cogente necessitate prostravit se ad pedes ejus pro-
fusisque lacrimis ait : " miserere, quicunque es, succurre nudo naufrago,
non humilibus natalibus genito ! Et ut scias, cui miserearis : ego sum
Tyrius Appollonius, patrie mee princeps. Deprecor te auxilium vite
mee." Piscator, ut vidit speciem juvenis, misericordia motus erigit
ilium et duxit infra tecta domus. Posuit epulas, quas habere potuit,
et ut plenius sue pietati satisfaceret, exuens se, tribunarium in duas partes
dividens, unam dedit juveni dicens : " toUe quod habeo et vade in civi-
tatem : forsitan invenies, qui tui misereatur. Si non invenies, hue ad ad
me revertere ! Paupertas quecunque sufficiat : piscemur simul. Illud
tamen admoneo te, ut, si quando dignitati tue redditus fueris, ne despicias
tribunarii paupertatem." Appollonius ait : " si non memor tui fuero,
iterum naufragium paciar, nee tui similem inveniam !" Et hec dicens
demonstrata sibi via ille carpens iter portas civitatis ingreditur. Dumque
cogitaret, unde peteret auxilium vite, vidit per plateam puerum nudum
currentem, oleo caput unctum, sabano precinctum, voce magna claman-
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLOXIUS. 297
tern et dicentem : " audite, cives omnes ! Audite peregrini et servi ! Qui
ablui vult, pergat gymnasium !" Audito hoc Appollonius exuens se
tribunarium ingreditur lavacrum, utitur liquore. Et dum singulos intue-
tur, querit sibi parem nee invenit. Et subito Altistratus, rex totius
regionis, ingressus est cum magna turba famulorum. Cum rex ludum
spere cum servis suis exerceret, admisit se Appollonius regi et decur-
rentem sustulit speram et subtili velocitate percussam ludenti regi
remisit. Tunc rex suis famulis ait : " recedite ; hie enim juvenis, ut sus-
picor, mihi comparandus est." Appollonius, ut audivit se laudari, con-
stanter accessit ad regem, Et accepto ciromate docta manu circumlavit
eum cum subtilitate. Deinde in solio gratissimo fovit eum et exeunte eo
ab officio discessit. Dixitque rex ad amicos suos post discessum adoles
centis : " juro vobis in veritate, melius me nunquam abluisse quam hodie,
beneficio adolescentis nescio cujus." Et respiciens unum de famulis
ait: "juvenis ille, qui mihi offieium fecit, vide, quis sit." Et ille secutus
juvenem vidit eum sordido tribunario indutum. Reversusque ad regem
ait: "juvenis ille naufragus est." Rex ait: " unde scis ?" Et ille:
" tacente illo habitus indicat causam." Ait rex : " vade celerius et die
ei : rogat te rex, ut venias ad cenam." Appollonius, ut audivit, acquievit
et cum famulo venit ad regem. Famulus prior ingressus ait ad regem :
" naufragus adest : sed propter sordidum habitum introire verecundatur."
Statimque rex jussit eum indui vestibus dignis et ad cenam ingredi. In-
gressus Appollonius triclinium regis contra regem assignato loco dis-
eubuit. Infertur prandium, deinde cena regalis. Appollonius cunctis
epulantibus non epulatur, sed aurum et argentum in ministerio regis diu
flens intuebatur. Tune unus de discumbentibus ad regem ait : " nisi
fallor, juvenis iste fortune regis invidet." Rex ait : "male suspiearis ;
nam mee fortune non invidet, sed plura se perdidisse testatur," Et
respiciens Appolionium hilari vultu ait : "juvenis, epulare nobiseum et
de deo meliora spera!" Et dum hortaretur juvenem, subito introivit filia
regis, virgo jam adulta, deditque osculum patri, deinde cunctis discum-
bentibus amicis. Que dum oscularetur singulos, reversa est ad patrem
et ait : " bone pater, quis est iste juvenis, qui contra te locum honoratum
tenet, qui multum dolet ?" Ait rex : " o duldis filia, juvenis iste naufragus
est et gymnasio mihi officio gratissime fecit, propter quod ad cenam
vocavi ilium. Quis autem sit, nescio. Sed si vis scire, interroga eum ;
te decet omnia nosse. Et forsitan, dum cognoveris, misereberis ei."
Hec audiens puella ad juvenem accessit et ait: " earissime, generositas
nobilitatem ostendit. Si tibi molestum non est, indica mihi nomen
tuum et casus tuos !" Et ille : " si nomen queris, in mare perdidi ; si
nobilitatem. Tyro reliqui." Ait puella : " apertius die, ut intelligam !"
Tunc Appollonius nomen suum et omnes casus exposuit. Finitoque
sermonis colloquio fundere lacrimas cepit. Quern ut vidit rex flentem,
ait filie : " nata duleis, peecasti : dum nomen et casus adolescentis peti-
visti, veteres ejus dolores renovasti. Ergo, duleis filia, ex quo jam scis
298 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
veritatem, justum est, ut liberalitatem tuam quasi regina ei ostendas."
Puella, ut audivit voluntatem patris, respiciens juvenem ait : " noster es,
Appolloni ! Depone merorem et a patre meo locupletaberis." Appol-
lonius cum gemitu et verecundia gratias egit. Tunc rex ait filie sue :
" Defer liram, ut cum cantu exhilares convivium !" Puella jussit afferri
sibi liram et cepit cum omni dulcedine liram percutere. Omnes eam
ceperunt laudore et dicere : " non potest melius, non potest dulcius
audiri." Inter quos solus AppoUonius tacuit. Ait ei rex : "Appolloni,
fedam rem facis. Omnes filiam meam in arte musica laudant : quare tu
solus vituperas ?" Ait ille : " bone rex, si permittis, dicam, quod sencio :
filia tua in artem musicam incessit et nondum didicit. Igitur jube mihi
tradi liram et statim scies, quod nescisti." Ait rex : " Appolloni, video te
eruditum in omnibus." Jussit sibi tradi liram et, egresso foras, corona
capitis eum decoravit. Accipiensque liram introivit in triclinium, pul-
sabat ante regem tanta dulcedine, ut omnes non Appollonium sed Ap-
pollinem crederent. Discumbentes cum rege dixerunt, quod nunquam
melius audissent nee vidissent. Filia regis hec audiens, respiciens
juvenem capta est in amorem ejus et ait ad patrem suum : " o pater, per-
mittas me dare juveni, quod mihi placet!" Rex ait: " permitto." Ilia
respiciens Appollonium ait : " magister Appolloni, accipe ex indulgentia
patris mei auri ducenta talenta, argenti libras quadringentas vestemque
copiosam, servos XX, ancillas X." Quibus ait : " afFerte quod promisi, et
presentibus amicis exponite in triclinio !" Jussu regine illata sunt omnia.
Laudant omnes liberalitatem puelle. Peracto convivio levaverunt se omnes
et valedicentes regi et regine dicesserunt. AppoUonius ait: " bone rex,
miserorum misericors, et tu regina, amatrix studiorum, valete !" Et respi-
ciens famulos, quos sibi regina donaverat, ait : " attollite, famuli, hec, que
mihi data sunt, et eamus et hospicium queramus !" Puella timens, ne ama-
torem perderet, tristis est facta. Respiciens ad patrem ait : " bone rex, et
pater optime, placet tibi, ut AppoUonius hodie ditatus abscedat, et quod
illi donavimus a malis hominibus rapiatur ?" Tunc rex festinus jussit illi
assignari aulam, ubi honeste quiesceret. Puella vero amore accensa
inquietam habuit noctem. Mane vero cubiculum patris adiit. Guam ut
vidit pater dixit : " quid est hoc, quod preter consuetudinem ita mane
evigilasti ?" Puella ait : " requiem habere non potero. Et ideo, carissime
pater, peto, ut me tradas juveni ad doctrinandam, quod potero artem
musicam et alia addiscere." Rex hec audiens gavisus est. Jussit ad se
juvenem vocari, cui ait: " Appolloni, filia mea multum cupit artem tuam
addiscere ; ideo rogo te, ut ei ostendas omnia que nosti, et ego mercedem
condignam tibi retribuam." Et ille : " domine, paratus sum voluntati ves-
tre satisfacere." Docuit puellam, sicut ipse didicit. Post hec cito puella
pre nimio amore juvenis infirmatur. Rex ut vidit filiam suam incurrisse
subito egritudinem, medicos vocavit. Illi vero venas et singulas partes cor-
poris tangebant et nullam egritudinem invenerunt. Post paucos dies Ires
juvenes nobilissimi, qui per longum tempus fiham suam in matrimonium
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 299
petierant, regem una voce pariter salutaverunt. Quos intuens rex ait :
" qua de causa venistis ?" At illi: " quia nobis sepius promisistis uni ex
nobis dare filiam vestram in matrimonium. Propter quod hodie simul veni-
mus. Gives tui sumus, locupletes et ex nobilibus geniti. Etideo de tribus
tibi elige, quern vis habere generum !" Rex ait : " non apto tempore me
interpellastis. Filia mea studiis vacat et ob amorem studiorum imbecillis
jacet. Sed ne videar vobis nimis differre, scribite in codicillis vestris nom-
ina vestra et dotis quantitatem ; que transmittam filie mee, ut ipsa eligat
quem voluerit." Illi hoc fecerunt. Rex accepit scripturas et legit sig-
navitque et dedit Appollonio dicens : " tolle, magister, has scripturas
et trade discipule tue." Appollonius accepit scripturas et puelle portavit.
Puella, ut vidit quem diligebat, ait: "magister, quid est, quod solus in-
troisti in cubiculum ?" Appollonius ait: " sume hos codicellos, quos
tibi misit pater tuus, et lege." Puella codices aperuit et legit trium nom-
ina petitorum. Perlectisque codicellis respiciens Appollonium dixit :
"magister Appolloni, utrum non doles, quod alteri debeo in matrimon-
ium tradi ?" Et ille : " non ! Quia omne, quod est tibi honor, erit et
commodum meum." Ait puella : "magister si amares, doleres." Hec
dicens rescripsit et signavit codicellos tradiditque Appollonio, ut eos
regi deferret. Et scripsit hec : " rex et pater optime, quoniam dementia
tua permisit mihi, ut rescribam, rescribo : ilium naufragum volo conju-
gem habere." Rex cum legisset voluntatem puelle, ignorans, quem
naufragum diceret, respiciens ad juvenes ait : " quis vestrum naufragium
passus est?" Unus ex illis nomine Ardonius dixit: " ego sum passus
naufragium." Alius ait: " tace, morbus te consumat nee salvus nee
sanus sis ! cum sciam te coetaneum meum, portam civitatis nunquam
existi : ubi naufragium fecisti?" Rex cum non invenisset, quis eorum
naufragium fecisset, respiciens Appollonium ait : " tolle codicellos et lege I
Potest enim fieri, ut, quod ego non novi, tu intelligis, qui presens
fuisti." Appollonius acceptis codicellis velociter percurrit et, ut sensit
se amari, erubuit. Cui rex ait: "Appolloni, invenisti naufragum?"
At ille pre rubore pauca dixit. Rex vero intellexit, quod filia sua
eum dilexit. Juvenibus ait: "cum tempus fuerit, mittam ad vos."
Illi vero ei valedicentes recesserunt. Ipse vero solus intravit ad filiam
suam et ait : " quem tibi eligisti conjugem?" Ilia autem prostravit sead
pedes patris sui et ait : " pater carissime, quia cupis audire desiderium
filie tue : ilium volo et amo naufragum, Appollonium magistrum meum ;
cui si me non tradideris, filiam amisisti." Rex cum lacrimas filie sue
vidisset, levavit eam a terra et alloquitur dicens : " nata dulcis, noli de
ahqua re cogitare, quia talem concupisti, quem et ego, ut enim vidi,
quia et amando factus sum pater. Diem ergo nuptiarum sine mora con-
stituam," Postero ergo die vocantur amici vicinarum urbium ad regem.
Quibus ait: " carissimi, fiha mea vult nubere Appollonio magistro suo.
Peto itaque, ut vobis omnibus sit leticia, quia filia mea prudenti viro so-
ciatur." Hec igitur dicens constituit diem nupciarum. Fiuntque convi-
300 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
via prolixa, celebranturque nupcie regie dignitatis. Puella cito concepit.
Et cum puerum in utero haberet, accidit, quod, cum ambularet cum rege
Appollonio, viro suo, juxta litus maris, vidit navim speciosam. Cogno-
vit eam Appollonius, quod esset de patria sua. Conversus ad nauclerum
ait: " unde venis ?" At ille : "a Tyro." Appollonius ait: " patriam
meam nominasti." Nauclerus ait: "ergo Tyrus es tu?' Et ille: "ut
dicis." Nauclerus ait: " nosti aliquem patrie illius principem nomine
Appollonium ?" Et ille : "quasi me ipsum." Nauclerus dixit : " peto,
ut ubicunque ilium videris, dicas ei, ut gaudeat et exultet, quia rex An-
tiochus fulmine percussus est cum filia sua ; opes autem regni Antiochie
reservantur Appollonio." Appollonius ut audivit, plenus gaudio ad con-
jugem suam ait: "peto itaque, ut me abire permittas ad percipiendum
regnum." Ilia ut audivit, profusis lacrimis ait : " o domine, si in longin-
quo itinere esses constitutus, ad partum meum festinare debueras ; et
modo recedere veils, cum juxta me sis ? Sed si hoc velis, pariter navi-
gemus ! " Et veniens ad patrem ait: " o pater, letare et gaude, quia se-
vissimus rex Antiochus cum filia sua dei judicio in fulmine percussus est,
opes autem et diademata nobis reservata sunt. Permitte me navigare
cum viro meo !" Rex autem exhilaratus naves jubet produci in litus et
omnibus bonis impleri. Preterea nutricem ejus nomine Ligoridem et ob-
stetricem propter partum ejus simul navigare precepit. Et data proficis-
cendi copia deduxit ad litus osculaturque filiam et generum. Naviga-
bant. Sed cum per aliquot dies in mari fuissent, surrexit tempestas.
Gravis puella infirmatur interim et peperit filiam, quod facta est quasi
mortua. Ouod cum videret familia, exclamavit voce magna et ululatu.
Hecaudiens Appollonius cucurrit. Vidit conjugemjacentem mortuam, ut
ei videbatur. Scidit a pectore suo vestes, profusis fletibus jactavit se super
corpus ejus et ait : " caro conjux, Altistratis regis filia, quid respondebo
patri tuo pro te ?" Et cum hec dixisset, dixit gubernator : "domine,
corpus mortuum navis sufferre non valet. Jube ergo hoc corpus in pe-
lagus mitti, ut possimus evadere !" Appollonius ait ad eum : "quid
dicis, pessime ? Placet tibi, ut hoc corpus in pelagus mittam, quod nau-
fragum me et egenum suscepit ?" Vocavit servos suos et ait : "faciatis
loculum et foramina et cum bitumine liniri . . . ." Et sic carta plumbea
intus posita facit obturari. Perfecto loculo regalibus ornamentis exornat
et puellam in loculo posuit et copiam auri ad caput eius. Et dedit oscu-
lum funeri fundens super eam lacrimas. Tunc jussit infantem tolli et
diligenter nutriri, ut pro filia neptem regi ostenderet. Et jussit loculum
mitti in mari cum maximo fletu. Tercia vero die unda maris ejecit lo-
culum ad litus Ephesiorum non longe a domo cujusdam medici Ceri-
monis nomine, qui cum discipulis suis eadem die in litore ambulavit.
Tunc vidit loculum effusis fluctibus jacentem. Ait servis suis : " tollite
hunc loculum cum omni diligentia et ad villam perferte !" Quod cum
fecissent, medicus aperuit, vidit puellam regalibus ornamentis decoratam
et speciosam valde et quasi mortuam jacentem, obstupuit et ait : " o bona
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 301
puella, quare estis sic derelicta ?" Vidit subtus caput ejus pecuniam po-
sitam et sub pecunia cartam scriptam et ait: " perquiramus, quid conti-
neter in carta !" Guam cum aperuisset, invenit titulum scriptum :
" quicunque hunc loculum invenerit peto, ut X aureos habeat et X funeri
impendat. Hoc enim corpus multas lacrimas reliquit parentibus et do-
lores amaros. Quodsi aliud fecerit, quam quod dolor exposcit, ultimum
diem incidat, nee sit qui corpus ejus sepulture commendet !" Perlectis
autem cartulis ad servos suos ait ; " prestemus corpori, quod dolor ex-
poscit ! Juro vobis per spem vite mee, in hoc funere amplius me eroga-
turum, quam dolor imperat." Continuo jubet parari rogum ; sed cum
edificatur atque componitur, supervenit discipulus medici, aspectu ado-
lescens et, quantum ad ingenium pertinet, senex. Hie cum corpus spe-
ciosum super rogum positum vidisset, intuens eum magister ait : " bene
venisti : hec enim hora expectavit te. Tolle ampulam unguenti et,
quod supremum est de funere, beneficio superfunde sepulture !" Venit
juvenis ad corpus puelle, extraxit de pectore vestes, fudit unguentum
tractans manu, Totum corpus ad precordia vivere sensit. Obstupuit
juvenis, palpat venas et indicia rimatur narium, labia labiis probat, sen-
sit vitam cum morte luctantem et ait ad servos suos : " supponite faculas
per Iin angulos lente et temperate !" Quo facto sanguis ille, qui coagu-
latus erat, liquefactus est. Quod ut vidit juvenis, ait magistro : " puella,
quam dicis mortuam, vivit. Et ut faciliu? mihi possis credere, experi-
mento satisfaciam." His dictis tulit puellam et in cubiculum suum
posuit, calefaciens oleum madefecit lanam et posuit super pectus ejus.
Sanguis vero ille, qui intus coagulatus fuerat, accepto tepore liquefactus
est, cepitque spiritus per medullas descendere. Venis itaque patefactis
aperuit oculos et recipiens spiritum ait : " qualis tu es, non tangas aliter,
quam oportet tangere, quia filia regis sum et regis uxor." Juvenis hoc
audiens gaudio plenus introivit ad magistrum in cubiculum et ait : " ecce,
magister, puella vivit." Qui ait : " probo peritiam, artem laudo, pruden-
ciam, miror diligentiam. Et audi, discipule : nolo te artis tue esse in-
gratum ; accipe mercedem. Hec enim puella multam pecuniam secum
attulit." Et jussit eam salubribus vesci cibis et fomentis optimis recreari.
Post paucos dies, ut cognovit eam regio genere ortam esse, adhibitis
amicis filiam sibi adoptavit. Et ut rogabatur ab ea cum lacrimis, ne ab
aliquo tangeretur, inter sacerdotes Diane templi eam cum feminis misit,
ut inviolabiliter servaretur. Inter hec dum Appollonius navigat cum in-
genti luctu, gubernante deo applicavit Tharso et descendens a rati petiit
domum Stranguilionis et Dyonisiadis. Quos cum salutasset, omnes casus
suos exposuit eis dicens : " cum dolore mortua est conjux mea ; tamen
filia est servata, de qua gaudeo. Et ideo, sicut in vobis confido, (Amis-
sum regnum, quod mihi servatur, accipere volo neque ad socerum re-
vertar, cujus in mari perdidi filiam, sed agam potius opera mercatoris) :
vobis commendo filiam meam, ut cum filia vestra Philomacia nomine
nutriatur, et ut filia mea vocetur Tharsia. Preterea uxoris mee nutri-
802 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
cem Ligoridem nomine curam sue puelle custodire volo." Hec dicens
tradidit Stranguilioni infantem deditque aurum et argentum et vestes
copiosas, Et juravit neque barbam neque capillos nee ungulas tonsurum,
nisi prius filiam suam dedisset in matrimonium. At illi stupentes, quod
tarn graviter juraverat, cum magna diligentia educaturos se puellam pro-
mittunt. Appollonius autem navim ascendit et ad longinquas Egipti re-
giones navigabat. Interea puella Tharsia expleto quinquennio traditur
liberalibus studiis una cum Philomacia, filia eorum, coetanea sua. Cum-
que ad XIIII annos venisset, reversa de auditorio invenit nutricem suam
Ligoridem subitaneam invalitudinem incurisse et sedens juxta eam cau-
sas infirmitatis explorat. Cui nutrix : " audi, bona filia, verba mea et in
corde tuo reserva. Ouem tu putas patrem aut matrem vel patriam ? "
Ait puella: "patriam Tharsum, patrem Stranguilionem, matrem Dyon-
isiadem." Nutrix ingemuit et ait: " audi, filia, originem natalium tuor-
um, ut scias, quomodo post mortem meam agere debeas : est tibi pater
nomine Appollonius et mater Lucina, Altistratis regis filia, que, cum te
pareret, statim precluso spiritu mortua est. Guam pater tuus Appollon-
ius effecto loculo cum ornamentis regalibus in mare misit, et viginti sis-
tercias auri posuit sibi sub caput, ut, ubicunque esset devoluta, ilia in aux-
ilium ejus fuissent. Navis quoque luctantibus ventis cum patre tuo lugente
et te in cunabulis posita pervenit ad banc civitatum. Hiis ergo hospiti-
bus, Stranguilioni et Dyonisiadi, una mecum te commendavit Tyrius Ap-
pollonius, pater tuus, votumque fecit nee barbam nee capillos nee ungues
tonsurum, nisi prius te nuptum traderet. Nunc ergo moneo, si post
mortem meam hospites tui, quos parentes appellas, iniuriam aliquando
tibi forte fecerint, ascende in forum, et ibi invenies statuam patris tui,
stantem. Apprehende illam et clama : "filia ejus sum cujus est hec
statua." Gives vero, memores beneficiorum patris tui, injuriam tuam
vindicabunt." Cui Tharsia: " cara nutrix, deum testor, si ita mihi
non dixisses unde essem, penitus nescirem." Et cum adinvieem lo-
querentur, nutrix emisit spiritum. Tharsia vero corpus nutricis sue se-
pelivit et per totum annum mortem ejus lugebat. Post vero induit prio-
rem dignitatem, petiit scolas ad studia liberalia. Et cum de scolis rever-
teretur, non prius cibum sumpsisset, antequam nutricis monumentum
introisset. Kerens ampuUam vini ingrediebatur et ibi manens parentes
suos vocabat. Et cum hec agerentur, quadam die Dyonisiades cum filia
sua Philomacia et Tharsia transibat per forum. Videntes omnes cives
speciem Tharsie et ornamentum dixerunt : " felix pater, cujis filia Thar-
sia est! Ilia vero, que adheret ei, turpis est et dedecus ; " Dyonisiades,
ut audivit Tharsiam laudari et filiam suam vituperari, conversa in insan-
iam furoris, sola sedens secum cogitavit : " pater eius ex quo hinc pro-
fectus est, habet annos XIIII : non venit ad recipiendum fiham suam nee
letteras pro ea misit. Puto quod mortuus est — nutrix ejus mortua est :
neminem habeo emulum. Oecidameam et ornamentis ejus filiam meam
ornabo." Et cum hec cogitasset, venit quidam de villa nomine Theophi-
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 303
lus, quern vocans ait: "si cupis piemium accipere, Tharsiam interfice."
Aitvillicus: " quidpeccavitinnocens virgo ? " At ilia : " pessima est, et
ideo mihi negare non debes. Fac, quod jubeo; et si non feceris, male
tibi eveniet." Et ille : " die mihi, domina, qualiter hoc potest fieri." Que
ait : " consuetudo ejus est, mox ut venerit de scolis, non prius sumere ci-
bum, quam nutricis sue introierit monumentum. Ibi te cum pugione pa-
ratum invefliat. Apprehende crines ejus a vertice et earn interfice et
corpus ejus mitte in mare et libertatem tuam cum magno premio a me
accipies." Villicus tulit pugionem. Gemens et flens ibat ad monumen-
tum et ait: " heu, non merui libertatem nisi per sanguinis effusionem in-
nocentis virginis ? " Puella autem rediens de scolis monumentum cum
ampulla vini intravit, sicut solebat facere. Villicus impetum fecit et ap-
prehendens crines puelle jactavit eam in terram. Dum autem volebat
earn percutere, ait ad eum Tharsia : " o Theophile, quid peccavi contra
te vel contra ahquem, ut moriar : " Ait villicus: " tu nihil peccasti, sed
pater tuus, quite cum magna pecunia et ornamentis reliquit." Cui pu-
ello : "peto, domine, ut, si nulla est spes vite mee, permittas me deum
testari." Villicus ait: " testare ! Et deus ipse scit, quod coactus te inter-
ficio." Ilia vero cum esset posita in orationem, venerunt pirate, et vi-
dentes puellam su jugo mortis stare et hominem armatum volentem
percutere eam, clamaverunt : " parce, crudelissime barbare ! Ilia est nos-
tra preda, non tua victoria." At ille, ut talia audivit, fugiens post monu-
mentum latuit in litore maris. Pirate vero rapiunt virginem, mare pet-
unt. Villicus rediit ad dominam et ait : " quod jussisti factum est; tu
vero, ut consulo, induas te lugubrem vestem et ego tecum, et effundamus
lacrimas falsas in conspectu civium et dicemus eam ex gravi infirmitate
defunctam." Stranguilio ut audivit, tremor et stupor invasit eum et
dixit : " da ergo et mihi vestem lugubrem, ut lugeam, quia tali scelere
sum involutus. Heu, quid faciam ! Pater puelle istam civitatem nau-
fragium pertulit, bona perdidit et penuriam perpessus est, et restitutum
•est ei malum pro bono ! Filiam suam, quam nobis commisit nutriendam,
crudelis leena devoravit. Heu cecatus sum ! lugeam innocentem vir-
ginem ! Vinctus sum ad pessimam venenosamque serpentem." Ele-
vans oculos ad celum ait : " deus, tu scis, quia mundus sum a san-
guine Tharsie, et requiras a Dyonisiade ! " Respexit uxorem suam
et ait: " quomodo suffocasti filiam regis, inimica dei hominum-
que obprobrium!" Ilia vero induit se et filiam suam lugubres ves-
tes, falsasque lacrimas fundunt et clamabant coram civibus : " cives
carissimi, ideo ad vos clamamus, quia spes oculorum nostrorum, Tharsia,
quam vidistis, subito dolore defuncta est et nobis cruciatus et amaros Ac-
tus reliquit. Quam digne sepelire fecimus." Tunc pergunt cives, ubi fig-
uratum erat sepulchrum et pro meritis patris fabricabant loculum ex ere
et scripserunt: " dii manes: cives Tharsie virgini pro beneficiis patris
ejus sepulchrum ex ere coUatum fecerunt." Igitur qui puellam rapuer-
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVII. 158. T. PRINTED JAN. 4, 1899.
304 SMYTH — PERICLES AXD APOLLOXIUS. [Oct. 7,
ant, venerunt ad civitatem Machilenam. Deponitur ergo ilia inter ce-
tera mancipia venalis. Audiens earn leno infaustissimus ac impurus ac
dives contendere cepit, ut earn emeret. Sed Athanagora, princeps ejus-
dem civitatis, videns earn nobilem, sapientem pulchramque obtulit de-
cern sestercias auri. Leno ait: "ego dabo XX." Athanagora dixit:
" ego XXX." Leno : " ego XL." Athanagora : " L." Leno : " LX."
Athanagora: " LXX." Leno: " LXXX." Athanagora: " XC." Leno:
" in present! C sestescias auri dabo." Et ait : " si quis amplius, X dabo
supra." Athenagora ait: "ego, si cum lenone contendere voluero, ut
unam emam, plures venditurus sum. Permittam eum emere, et cum
prostituerit earn in lupanar, intrabo prius ad illam et eripiam nodum vir-
ginitatis ejus, et erit mihi sicut emerim earn." Quid plura ? Perrexit
cum lenone in salutatorium, ubi habuit Priapum aureum et gemmis ador-
natum et ait : " puella, adora istum ! " Ait ilia : " nunquam tale ador-
em ! " Et ait: "domine, numquid Lapsacenus es tu ? " Leno ait:
"quare?" Et ilia : "quia Lapsaceni colunt Priapum." Leno ait:
" nescis, misera, quia in domum lenonis avari incurristi ? " Puella
prosternens se ad pedes ejus ait: "o miserere, domine, virginitati
mee ! Ne prostituas hoc corpus sub tali turpi titulo." Cui leno ait:
" nescis, quia apud lenonem et tortorem nee preces nee lacrime val-
ent?" Tamen vocavit villicum puellarum et ait: " hec puella ornetur
vestibus puellaribus preciosis, et scribatur ei titulus : " quicunque Thar-
siam violaverit, mediam libram dabit ; postea ad singulos solidos patebit
populo." Villicus fecit, quod jussum fuerat cum lenone. Tercia die an-
tecedente turba cum symphonia deducitur ad lupanar. Sed Athanagora
princeps civitatis primus ingreditur velato capite. Tharsia videns eum
procidit ad pedes ejus et ait: "miserere mei, domine, propter deum !
Et per deum te adjuro, ne velis me violare ! Resiste libidini tue et audi
casus infelicitatis mee et originem, unde sim, diligenter considera! " Cui
cum universos casus suos exposuisset, princeps confusus et pietate plenus
ait ei : " habeo et ego filiam tibi similem, de qua similes casus metuo."
Hec dicens dedit ei XX aureos dicens : " ecce habes amplius quam vir-
ginitatis propositum est. Die advenientibus, sicut mihi dixisti, et libera-
beris ! " Puella profusis lacrimis ait : " ego pietati tue gracias ago. Et
ne alicui narres, que a me audisti ! " Athanagora ait : " si narravero, filie
mee, cum ad talem etatem penenerit, similem casum ne patiatur." Et
cum lacrimis discessit. Cui exeunti obviavit ei alius et ait: " quomodo tibi
convenit cum puella?" Ait princeps : " non potest melius : erat enim
tristis." Intravit juvenis et puella more solito ostium claudit, Cui juvenis
ait : " quantum dedit tibi princeps ? " Ait puella : " c|uadriginta aureos."
At ille : " accipe integram libram auri !" Princeps audivit, ait : " quanto
plus dabis, tanto plus plorabit." Puella nummos accepit, procidit ad
pedes ejus et casus suos indicavit. Aporiatus juvenis ait: " domina,
surge! Homines sumus. Casibus subjacemes." Hiis dictis exiit. Vidit
itaque Athanagoram ridentem et ait illi : " magnus homo es I non habes,
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 305
cui lacrimas propines nisi mihi ?" Et jurabant, ne hec verba cuiquam
proderent, et ceperunt adventum aliorum expectare. Venerunt multi.
Dantes pecuniam intrabant, flentes exibant. Postea obtulit pecuniam le-
noni dicens : " ecce precium virgini tatis mee ! Leno ait: "Vide, ut
cotidie tantas pecunias afferas ! " Altera die iterum ait ad eum :
" ecce precium virginitatis mee, quam lacrimis et precibus custodio."
Iratus leno audiens, quod virgo esset, vocat villicum puellarum et ait :
" due earn ad te et frange nodum virginitatis ejus!" Cumque eam
villicus duxissetin cubiculum, dixit ad eam : " die mihi, si virgo es." At
ilia: " quamdiu deus vult, virgo sum." At ille : " unde tantam tulist
pecuniam ? " Puella ait : "lacrimis profusis exponens casus meos rogavi
homines, ut misericordiam virginitatis mee haberent." Et prosternens se
pedibus eius ait: " miserere mei, domine, subveni captive regis filie ! ne
violes me ! " At ille : " leno est avarus : nescio, si possis virgo perman-
ere." At ilia : " studiis liberalibus. Erudita sum et in genere musicali
possum modulari. Due me in forum ! Ibi poteris facundiam meam au-
dire : proponam questiones populo et proposita solvam et hac arte ap-
plicabo pecunias cotidie." At ille : " mihi bene placet." Omnis populus
cucurrit ad virginem videndam. At ilia aggreditur facundiam studiorum ;
questiones sibi proponi jubet, omnes clare solvit. Tunc clamor populi
factus est magnus circa eam et multam pecuniam a populo recepit.
Athanagora vero illam integra virginitate ut unicam filiam custodiebat,
ita ut eam donis multis villico commendaret. Cum hec ageren-
tur, venit AppoUonius XIIIT anno jam transacto ad domum Stran-
guilionis et Dyonisiadis in civitatem Tharsum. Ouem cum vidisset
Stranguilio, perrexit rabido cursu dixitque uxori sue Dyonisiade : " dixisti
Appollonium naufragium fecisse : ecce venit ad repetendam filiam suam I
Quid dicturi sumus patri pro filia ? " Et ilia dixit: " miser vir et ego
conjux ! Accipiamus vestes lugubres et perfundamus lacrim.as ! Et
credet nobis, quod filia ejus morte naturali defuncta est." Cum hec ita
dicerent, intravit AppoUonius. Ut vero vidit eos lugubri veste indutos,
ait : " quare in adventu meo funditis lacrimas ? Credo, quod iste lacrime
non sunt vestre sed mee." Ait mulier nequam : " utinam ad aures tuas
alius et non ego aut conjux meus diceret, quod jam dicam ! Tharsia,
filia tua, subito defuncta est." AppoUonius hoc audiens, totum corpus
ejus contremuit, diuque defixus stetit. Tandem resumpto spiritu intuens
mulierem ait : " o mulier, si filia mea defuncta est, ut dicis, numquid et
pecunia ac vestes simulque ornamenta perierunt ? " Ait ilia: " aliqua
sunt, aliqua perierunt." Et dixerunt : " crede nobis, quia credidimus,
ut filiam tuam viventem invenires. Et ut scias nos non esse mentitos,
habemus testimonium : cives enim nostri memores beneficiorum tuorum
in proximo litore ex ere collato filie tue monumentum fecerunt, quod
potes videre." AppoUonius credens eam esse defunctam ad famulos
ait: "toUite hec, famuli, et ferte ad navem ! Ego vadamj ad filie
mee monumentum." Legit titulum sicut superius est scriptum.
306 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
Stetit quasi extra se maledicens oculos proprios et ait: "o cru-
deles oculi, potuistis titulum filie mee cemere, non potuistis la-
crimas fundere ! " Hiis dictis ad navem perrexit et ait famulis suis :
"projicite me, quero, in profunditatem navis ; cupio enim in undis
exhalare spiritum." Et dum prosperis navigat ventis Tyrum reversurus,
siibito mutatum est pelagus, et per diversa maris discrimina naves jacta-
bantur. Omnibus autem deum rogantibus ad Machilenam civitatem, in
qua erat filia sua Tharsia, venerunt. Gubernator autem cum omnibus
magnum plausum dedit. Ait Appollonius : " quis sonus hilaritatis aures
mea»percussit ? " Ait gubernator: " gaude, domine, quia hodie Neptu-
nalia celebrantur." Appollonius ingemuit et ait : " et omnes diem festum
celebrent preter me!" Tunc vocavit dispensatorem suum et ait ei :
" sufficiat famulis meis pena mea ac dolor — dona eis X aureos, et emant,
si que voluerint, et diem festum celebrent. Et quicunque vocaverit me
vel gaudium mihi fecerit, crura illorum frangi jubeo." Dispensator itaque
emit necessaria et rediit ad navem. Cum igitur inter omnes naves navis
Appollonii honoracior esset, cum magno convivio ceteris melius celebrant
naute Appollonii, Athenagora, qui Tharsiuni diligebat, juxta navem in
litore ambulabat viditque navem Appollonii et ait: "amici, ecce navis
ista mihi placet, quam video decenter esse paratam." Naute, ut audiunt
suam navem laudari, dixerunt ei : "o domine, rogamus, in navem nos-
tram ascendatis." Et ille : "mihi placet." Ascendit et libenti animo
discubuit posiutque decem aureos in mensa et ait : " ecce, ne frustra me
invitaveritis ! " Et dixerunt : " domine regraciamur vobis." Cum autem
princeps vidisset omnes discumbentes, ait: "quis est dominus navis ? "
Ait gubernator : " dominus navis in luctu moratur, jacet inferius et opsti-
nat : in mari conjugem perdidit et in terra filiam." Athanagora ait uni
servo, Ardalio nomine : " dabo tibi duos aureos ; tantum descende et die
ei: " rogat te princeps civitatis hujus : procede de tenebris ad lucem ! "
Ait juvenis : " non possum aureis tuis crura mea reparare. Ouere alium,
quia jussit, ut quicunque eum appellaverit, crura ejus frangantur."
Athanagora ait: "banc legem vobis constituit, non mihi; ego autem
descendam ad eum. Dicito mihi, quis vocatur." At ille: "Appollonius."
Audito hoc nomine ait intra se : " et Tharsia appellavit patrem suum
Appollonium." Descendit ad eum. Quern ut vidit barba, capite squali-
dum, submissa voce dixit : " ave AppoUoni ! " Appollonius ut audivit,
putans se ab aliquo servorum suoruni appellari, turbulento vultu respi-
ciens vidit ignotum hominem, honestum et decorum. Siluit. Ait prin-
ceps : "scio te mirari, quod ego ignotus te appellavi. Disce, quia prin-
ceps sum hujus civitatis, Athanagora nomine. Descendi ad litus ad
naves contuendas, inter ceteras vidi navem tuam decenter ornatam et
amavi aspectum eius. Invitatus eram a nautis tuis. Ascendi et libenti
animo discubui. Inquisivi dominum navis. Quern dixerunt in luctu
grandi esse ; quod et video. Propter quod ad te descendi, ut de
tenebris producerem te ad lucem. Spero autem, quia dabit tibi deus
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 307
post luctum gaudium." Appollonius levavit caput et ait: "quisquis
es, domine, vade in pace ! Ego autem non sum dignus epulari et
ideo amplius vivere nolo." Athanagora confusus ascendit in superiora
navis et dixit: "non valeo persuadere domino vestro, ut ad lucem
exeat. Quid faciam, ut revocem a proposito mortis?" Vocavit unum
de pueris suis et ait: "vade ad lenonem et roga eum, ut mittat ad me
Tliarsiam. Habet enim sapienciam et sermonem suavem ; potest
eum forsitan exhortari, ne talis taliter moriatur." Venit igitur puella ad
navem, ad quam ait Athanagora : " veni ad me Tharsia domina ! Hie
est necessaria ars studiorum tuorum, ut consoleris dominum navis in
tenebris sedentem et ut provoces eum exire ad lucem, quia nimis dolet
pro conjuge sua et filia. Accede ergo ad eum et suade, ut ad lucem
veniat, quia forte deus per te luctum suum in gaudium convertet. Si
enim hoc poteris facere, dabo tibi XXX sestercias auri et totidem argenti
et XXX dies redimam te a lenone.' Puella hec audiens constanter ad
eum descendit et humili voce salutavit eum dicens : "salve, quicunque
es, salve et letare ! Scias, quia innocens virgo, que virginitatem suam
inter naufragia sua et castitatem inviolatam conservavit, te salutat."
Tunc in carminibus cepit modulata voce cantare in magna dulcedine,
intantum quod mirabatur Appollonius. Et dixit cantando ea que hie
sequuntur :
" Per sortes gradior, sed sortum conscia non sum,
Sic spinis rosa non scit violari et ullis.
Corruit et raptor gladii ferientis ab ictu.
Tradita lenoni non sum violata pudore.
Vulnera cessassent animi, lacrimeque deessent,
Nulla etenim melior si nossem certa parentes.
Unica regalis generis sum stirpe creata.
Ipsa jubente jleo letari credo aliquando.
Fuge modo lacrimas, curam dissolve molestam,
Redde polo faciem mentemque ad sidera tolle !
Jam deus est hominum plasmator, rector et auctor :
Non sniet has lacrimas casso finire labore!"
Ad hec Appollonius levavit oculos et, ut vidit puellam, engemuit et
ait : " heu mihi misero ! quamdiu luctabor ? Gratias ago prudencie tue et
nolilitati. Hanc vicem rependo, ut memor tui sim. Ouando letari licet,
regni mei viribus levabor : forsitan, ut dicis, regio genere orta est, nata-
libus parentum tuorum representaberis. Nunc accipe centum aureos et
recede ! Noli me appellare ; recenti enim luctu renovata calamitate
tabesco !"
Puella accepds aureis abire cepit. Et ait ad eam Athanagora : " quo
vadis, Tharsia ? Sine effectu laborasti ? Non potuisti facere misericordiam
ac subvenire homini interhcienti se .'*" Et ait Tharsia : " omnia, quecunque
potui, feci, et datis mihi centum aureis abire rogavit." Athanagora ait-
308 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7
" dabo tibi ducentos, descende et redde ei, quos dedit, et die: " salutem
tuam quero, non pecuniam." Descendens Tharsia sedit juxta eum et
ait : " si in isto squalore manere destinasti, permitte me tecum sermoci-
nari. Si ergo parabolarum mearum nodos absolveris, vadam; sin, alias,
refundam tibi pecuniam et abscedam." Tunc AppoUonius, ne reciperet
pecuniam, sed eciam puelle prudentes ne negaret sermones, ait: "licet
in malis meis nulla cura mihi suppetat nisi flendi et lugendi, tamen, ne
ornamento prudencie tue caream, die, quod interrogatura es, et abscede!
Peto enim, ut fletibus meis spacium tribuas." Ait Tharsia : jam audito
me :
Est domus in terris, que nobis clausa resultat.
Ipsa domus resonat, tacitus sed non sonat hospes.
Ambo tamen currunt, hospes simul et domus una.
Et ait : " si rex es, ut dicis, convenit te mihi esse prudenciorem : solve
questionem !" Ait AppoUonius: " ut scias me non esse mentitum : domus,
que in terra resonat, unda est, hospes tacitus piscis est, qui cum domo
sua currit." At ilia :
Longa feror velox formose filia silve,
Innumera pariter comitum stipante caterva,
Curro vias multas, vestigia nulla relinquo.
AppoUonius ait : " o si licitum esset, ostenderem tibi multa, que ignoras.
Tamen respondebo questionibus tuis ; miror te tam tenera etate mirifica
prudencia esse imbutam. Namque arbor stipata catervis, vias multas
currens et vestigia nulla relinquens, navis est." Et addidit puella:
Per totas edes innoxius pertransit ignis.
Est calor in medio magnus, quern nemo removit,
Non est nuda domus, nudus sed convenit hospes.
Si luctum poneres, innocens intrares in ignes.
AppoUonius ait : " intrarem balneum, ubi hinc inde flamme per tabulas
surgunt. Nuda domus, in qua nihil intus est, nudus hospes convenit,
nudus sudabit." Cumque hec et similia dicerent, puella misit se super
AppoUonium et distractis manibus amplexebatur eum dicens ei : " exaudi
vocem deprecantis, respice virginem, quia virum talis prudencie mori
nefarium est. Si conjugem desideras : deus ex sua graeia tibi restituat ;
si filiam : salvam, quam defunctam dicis, invenire poteris. Pre gaudio
oportet te vivere !" AppoUonius, cum verba hec audisset, in iraeundiam
versus est, surrexit et puellam eum pede percussit. Impulsa vero virgo
cecedit et gene eius rupte cepit sanguis effluere. Conturbata virgo cepit
flere et dixit: " o deus, conditar celorum, vide afflictionem meam ! Nata
sum inter fluetus et proeellas maris, mater mea doloribus constricta de-
functa est, et sepultura est ei negata in terris. Ornata a patre meo et in
loculo posita cum XX sisterciis auri mari tradita est. Ego infelix Stran-
1898.] SMYTH — PERICLES AXD APOLLOXIUS. 309
guilioni et iDyonisiadi, impiissimis hominibus, a patre meo sum tradita
cum ornamentis et regalibus vestibus. Et per Dyonisiadem veni, quia
jussa sum a servis eorum occidi. Tandem petivi, ut deum invocarem,
antequam me occideret : mihi concessit. Piratis supervenientibus rapta
sum (et qui occidere me volebat, fugam petiit) et in hunc locum deducta.
Et deus, quando ei placet, reddet me Appollonio patri meo !" Appollonius
audiens omnia hec signa certissima, exclamavit voce magna et ait : " o
domine misericors, qui conspicis celum et abyssum et omnia secreta
patefacis, benedictum sit nomen tuum !" Cum hec dixisset, cecidit super
amplexus Tharsie, filie sue, et osculatus est eam et pre gaudio flevit
amare et ait: " o dulcissima nata mea et unica, dimidium anime mee!
Non moriar propter te ; in veni propter quam volebam mori !" Alta voce
clamabat dicens : " currite, famuli ! currite, amici ! currite omnes, et
miserie mee finem imponite ! Inveni quam perdideram, scilicet unicam
filiam meam." Audito clamore famuli cucurrerunt, cucurrit inter illos
Athanagora princeps. Et descendentibus illis in navim invenerunt eum
flentem pre gaudio super collum filie sue et dicentem : " ecce filia mea,
quam lugeo, dimidium anime mee. Jam volo vivere!" Omnes pre
gaudio cum eo flebant. Tunc erigens se Appollonius, projectis vestibus
lugubribus indutus est vestibus mundissimis. Et omnes dixerunt : " o
domine, quam similis est vobis filia vestra ! Si non esset aliud experi-
mentum, sufficeret ejus similitudo ad probandum, eam esse filiam ves-
tram." Tunc filia bis, ter, quater osculata est patrem et ait: "o pater,
benedictus sit deus, qui mihi gratiam dedit, quod te videre potero, tecum
vivere, tecum mori !" Et narravit ei, quomodo a lenone comparata et in
lupanari est posita, et quomodo deus suam virginitatem custodivit.
Audiens hec Athanagora, timens, ne alteri filiam in uxorem daret, misit
se ad pedes Appollonii dicens: "adjuro te per deum vivum, qui te
patrem filie restituit, ne alteri des filiam in conjugem nisi mihi. Sum
enim princeps hujus civitatis, meo auxilio virgo permansit et me duce te
patrem agnovit." Cui Appollonius ait: "non possum tibi esse con-
trarius, quia multa pro filia mea fecisli. Et ideo opto, ut sic uxor tua.
Tunc restat, ut vindicem me a lenone, qui tot injurias fecit filie mee."
His auditis Athanagora civitatem intravit convocatisque civibus dixit :
" ne pereat civitas propter unum impium ! Sciatis Appollonium regem,
patrem Tharsie ad hoc venisse. Ecce classes navium properant cum
grandi exercitu ad destruendam civitatem propter lenonem, qui filiam
suam Tharsiam in lupanari constituit." Hiis dictis concursus magnus
lactus est et tanta commotio populi, ut nee viri nee femine remanerent,
quin currerent omnes ad Appollonium regem videndo eum et misericor-
diam petendo. Ait Athanagora : " consulo ad hoc, ut, ne destruatur
civitas, deducatur ad eum leno." Captus est statim leno et ligatis mani-
bus a tergo deducitur ad regem. Appollonius, regia veste indutus, tonso
capite, diadema imposuit capiti suo, tribunal ascendit cum filia et civibus
dixit : " videtis Tharsiam virginem a patre suo hodie cognitam, quam
310 SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. [Oct. 7,
cupidissimus leno, quantum erat in eo, . . . . ejus corruptionem et con-
fusionem perpetuam procurabat nee a malicia sua prece nee precio
desistere volebat. Facite ergo filie mee vindictam !" Omnes una voce
dixerunt : " domine, leno vivus comburatur, et divicie eius puelle
dentur." Protinus adducitur leno et coram omnibus in igne ponitur et
totaliter comburitur. Tharsia ait villico : " dono tibi libertatem, quia
beneficio tuo et civium virgo permansi." Et donavit ei ducentos aureos
et libertatem. Libertatem vero cunctis puellis coram se presentatis per-
donavit et dixit : " quidcunque de corpore vestro actenus .... servistis,
ex hoc libere estote." Appollonius loquitur ad populum dicens : " gratias
vobis reddo de beneficiis vestris mihi et filie mee factis. Nunc ergo
tribuo vobis auri pondera quinquaginta." Illi ei capita sua inclinabant
gracias referentes. Gives vero statuam Appollonii in medio civitatis
fecerunt et in basi scripserunt. " Tyrio Appollonio, restauratori domuum
nostrarum, et Tharsie, sanctissime filie ejus, virgini." Intra paucos dies
Appollonius tradidit filiam suam in conjugem Athanagore cum ingenti
leticia totius civitatis. Et cum genero et filia navigans, cum omnibus suis
volens per Tharsum profiscendo in patriam suam ire, in sompnis admoni-
tus est per angelum, ut Ephesum descenderet et intraret templum
Ephesiorum cum filia et genero suo ibique omnes casus suos alta voce
exponeret, quos passus esset a juventute sua. Postea veniret Tharsum et
vindicaret filiam suam. Appollonius expergefactus omnia indicavit
genero et filie sue. Et illi dixerunt: " fac, domine, quod tibi videtur."^
Tunc jussit gubernatori navigare Ephesum. Qui cum descendisset
ratim, cum suis templum petiit, ubi conjux sua inter sacerdotes sancte vixit.
Rogavit, ut templum ei aperiretur. Quod et factum est. Hec audiens
uxor eius, quod quidam rex venerat cum filia et genero, gemmis regalibus
ornavit caput suum et induit se vesta purpurea et cum honesto comitatu
templum intravit. Erat enim nimis pulchra et ob nimium castitatis amo-
rem asserebant omnes nuUam tam gratam esse virginem. Quam videns
Appollonius in nuUo noticiam eius habebat. Misit se ad pedes eius cum
filia sua et genero ; tantus enim splendor eius pulchritudinis imminebat, ut
ipsa Diana esse videntibus putaretur. Statim in templo optulit munera pre-
ciosa. Et post hec cepit Appollonius dicere, sicut ei angelus in sompnis
dixerat : "ego ab adolescencia rex, natus Tyrus, Appollonius nominatus,
cum ad omnem scientiam pervenissem, regis iniqui Antiochi questionem
exsolvi, ut eius filiam acciperem. Ille vero eam defloraverat ac in impietate
sua continue tenuit : et me occidere conabatur. Fugam petii et in mari
omnia perdidi. Et post hec a rege Altistrate gratissime susceptus intan-
tum eius benevolentiam sum expertus, ut fiHam suam mihi in uxorem
daret. Deinde mortuo Antiocho cum properarem ad regnum percipien-
dum, uxorem meam mecum duxi. Hanc filiam in mari peperit uxor mea,
de cujus partu defuncta est. Quam ego cum XX sisterciis auri in loculo
clausam in mare misi, ut inventa digne sepeliretur. Et hanc filiam
meam nutriendam nequissimus hominibus commendavi et superiores
1S98.] SMYTH — PERICLES AND APOLLONIUS. 311
Egipti partes pecii. Quarto autem decimo anno adveniens, ut filiam
meam expeterem, dixerunt earn esse defunctam. Et dum credidi, in
luctu vixi et in lugiibribus veslibus, et mori cupiens mihi fiiia mea red-
dita est," Cum hec et hiis similia narraret, Altistratis regis filia, uxor
ipsius, levavit se et rapuit eum in amplexus volensque eum osculari.
Appollonius autem repulit eam a se cum indignacione, ignorans, quod
uxor'sua esset. At ilia cum lacrimis dicebat : " o domine mi, dimidium
anime mee, cur sic agis ? Ego sum conjux tua, Altistratis regis lilia, et
tu es Tyrius Appollonius, maritus et dominus meus, tu es magister meus,
qui me docuisti, tu es naufragus, quem amavi non causa libidinis sed
sapiencie." Appollonius hec audiens statim eius noticiam habebat,
cecidit super collum eius et pre gaudio lacrimas emisit dicens : "bene-
dictus sit Altissimus, qui mihi uxorem cum filia reddidit !" At ilia : " ubi
est filia mea ?" Et ipse ostendens Tharsiam dixit : " hec est filia nostra,
quam vides." Ilia vero osculata est eam. Fit leticia magna in tota
civitate et in circuitu : quod rex Appollonius uxorem suam in templo
invenit, famatum est, Appollonius ascendit navim cum uxore et filia et
genero, revertentes ad patriam suam. Veniens igilur Appollonius
Antiochiam regnum sibi reservatum recepit et^ pergens Tyrum constituit
in locum suum Anthanagoram generum suum, Deinde cum ipso genero
et filia sua et cum exercilu regio venio Tharsum jussit comprehendere
Dyonisiadem et Stranguilionem et duci ante se et coram omnibus civi-
bus ait : " cives Tharsenses, numquid ego alicui vestrum exstiti ingratus ?"
Omnes dixerunt: "non, domine! Parati sumus pro vobis mori, Hec
statua est facta in signum, quia nos amorte salvastis." Appollonius ait :
" commendavi filiam meam Stranguilioni et Dyonisiadi uxori sue, et eam
mihi reddere noluerunt," Infelix mulier ait: "bone domine, numquid
non tu ipse titulum monumenti eius legisti ?" Appollonius jussit venire
filiam suam Tharsiam in presencia omnium, Et Tharsia maledixit
mulieri et dixit: " ave, salutat te Tharsia ab inferis revocata!" Infelix
mulier videns eam toto corpore contremuit, Cives mirabantur et gaude-
bant. Et jussit Tharsia venire villicum, cui dixit: " Theophile, ut possit
tibi ignosci, clara voce responde : quis me interficiendam tibi obli-
gavit ?" Tunc cives rapuerunt Stranguilionem et Dyonisiadem et extra
civitatem trahentes lapidaverunt, volentes et Theophilum occidere. Sed
Tharsia eum a morte liberavit. Et dixit : " nisi mihi spacium ad orandum
dedisset, modo eum non defenderem," Appollonius dedit munera ad
restaurandam civitatem, Et moratus est ibi tribus mensibus, Navi-
gans inde Pentapolim civitatem curiam ingreditur ad Altistratem regem.
Gaudens rex vero senex factus est, vidit filiam suam et neptem cum
marito suo, rege. Per integrum annum letanter insimul permanserunt.
Post hec moritur perfecta etate in manibus eorum, dimittens dimidieta-
tem regni sui Appollonio et medietatem filie sue. Omnibus hiis peractis
dum ambularet Appollonius juxta mare, vidit piscatorem, qui eum post
naufragium recepit, Jussitque eum apprehendere et ad palatium duci.
312 MILLER — ON THE QUATEENION GROUP. [Oct. 7,
Videns piscator a militibus se comprehendi putavit occidi. Ingressus
Appollonius jussit eum adduci ad se et ait: "hie est paranymphus
meus, qui mihi post naufragium opem dedit et ad civitatem venire
ostendit." Et dicit ei : "ego sum Tyrius Appollonius." Et jussit sibi
dan CC sistercias argenti, servos et ancillas, et fecit eum comiteni
suum, quamdiu vixit. Elamitus vero, qui ei de Antiocho nunciavit,
procidens ad pedes Appollonii .... et ait: " domine, memor esto
Elamiti servi tui !" Appollonius apprehensa manu eius erexit eum fecitque
eum divitem et ordinavit comitem. Hiis expletis genuit Appollonius
fi-lium de conjuge sua, quem in loco avi sui Altistratis constituit regem.
Vixit vero Appollonius cum conjuge sua annos LXXIV et tenuit regnum
Antioche et Tyri et Tyrenensium quiete ac feliciter. Casus suos ipse
descripsit, ipse duo volumina perfecit, unum in templo Ephesiorum,
alterum in sua bibliotheca coUocavit. Et defunctus est et perrexit ad
vitam eternam, ad quam vitam nos perducat, qui sine tine vivit et regnat
Amen.
ON THE QUATERNION GROUP.
BY G. A. MILLER, PH.D.
{Read Octoher 7, ISDS.)
Although the quaternion group {Q) has received some attention/
yet many of the properties of this important group remain to be
investigated. It is the object of this paper to enter upon the study
of some of these group properties after stating the known principles
which underlie the investigations that follow. We shall also deter-
mine the different ways in which Q may be represented as a substi-
tution group.
It is well known that every group of a finite order may be repre-
sented as a regular substitution group and that any two regular
substitution groups which are simply isomorphic are also conjugate.
A complete list of the regular substitution groups of order g
must therefore include every possible group of this order and no
group can occur twice in such a list. In following Prof. Cayley's
^ Dedekind, Maiheniatische Annalen, 1S97, ^^^' xlviii, pp. 549-552.
1898.] MILLER — OX THE QUATERNION GROUP. 313
notation we represent Q as a. regular substitution group in the fol-
lowing manner : ^
I ae. bf. eg. dh aceg. hdfh
agec. hhfd
abef. chgd
afeb. cdgh
adeh. bgfc
ahed. befg
The Different Ways in Which Q May be Represented
AS A Substitution Group.
We observe, in the first place, that Q cannot be represented as a
non-regular transitive substitution group. If such a representation
were possible Q would have to contain some subgroup of a prime
order that is not self-conjugate." As it contains only one subgroup
of order 2 this must clearly be self-conjugate. Hence we observe
that there is only one transitive substitution group that is simply iso-
morphic to Q.
It is known that the number of the intransitive substitution
groups that are simply isomorphic to a given group is an increasing
function of the degree, which becomes infinite when the degree
becomes infinite. We proceed to determine the nature of this
function in the present case. Since every group whose order is the
square of a prime number is Abelian, a substitution group which is
simply isomorphic to Q must contain at least one transitive con-
stituent of order 8 and its degree must be 2 71, n being a positive
integer greater than 3.
We have seen that Q contains only one subgroup of order 2.
With respect to this it is isomorphic to the four-group, since this
subgroup contains the square of each one of its operators. As a
subgroup whose order is one-half of the order of the entire group
must always be self-conjugate, Q contains three self-conjugate sub-
groups of order 4. Since none of these three subgroups is charac-
teristic^ they must be transformed into each other by the largest
1 Cayley, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, 1891, Vol. xxv, p, 144.
- Cf. Dyck, Alathematische Annalen, 1883, Vol. xxii, p, 90, It may be
remarked that the statement on p. 10 1 of this article that a group which can be
represented only in the regular form contains only self-conjugate subgroups is
not quite correct, as may also be inferred from other parts of the same article.
3 Frobenius, Berliner Sitziingsberichte, 1895, p. 183.
314 MILLER — ON THE QUATERNION GROUP. [Oct. 7,
group that contains ^ as a self-conjugate subgroup. Hence we
need to consider only one of these three subgroups in connection
with tlie study of the intransitive substitution groups that are simply
isomorphic to Q.
We may now state the problem of finding all the substitution
groups that are simply isomorphic to Q in the following manner.
Such a group contains a transitive constituents of order 8, where a
is an integer greater than o. Its other constituents form a group
whose order is either 4 or 2. If this order is four these constitu-
ents must form the four-group. If it is two these can form only
one group for a given set of values off/ and a. Hence we observe
that the number of quaternion substitution groups of degree 2 n,
« > 3, which contain no constituent group of order 4 is a.^^, where
fli is the largest integral value oi x that satisfies the relation:
n
X <^ .
To find the number of these groups that contain a constituent of
order 4 we may first find the number of those that contain only
one transitive constituent of order 8, then the number of those that
contain two such constituents, etc. The sum of these numbers is
the number required. Each of these numbers may be directly
found by means of the following formula/ in which tV is the num-
ber of all the possible substitution groups of order 4 and degree
2 «, m is any positive integer, and a^ is the largest value of y that
satisfies the relation
n
y <^2
When n = 6 m, N ^= m {^ ni- -^ 6 m -\- 1) -}- a^
^ , T,T ^'^ ^^ ^'^' 4- 15 ^^^ + 5) ,
n^=^ d jn -\- 2, N ^^ -i^ 7n {in -{- i) {tti -\- 2) -\- \ -^ a^
(2 m -f I) (3 ^fi' ■\- ^^n A^ 4)
« = 6 w -f 3, N ^=^ ^ + «!
;2 =r 6 w + 4, iV^ r=r (w + i) (3 ?;r -f 9 w -f- 4) -[- a^
,. 3 {^n + I) (2 m'' -f 7 m + 4)
« = 6 ;;2 -L- 5, N= — — — — -f a^
1 Miller, Philosophical Alagazine, 1896, Vol. xli, p. 437,
1898.] MILLER — OX THE QUATERNIOX GROUP. dlo
If we add ao to the sum of the numbers obtained by means of
these formulas we obtain the total number of the substitution
groups of degree 2 71 that are simply isomorphic to Q. Among
these substitution groups the given regular group is especially con-
venient for the study of the properties of Q.
In what follows we shall, therefore, suppose Q written in this
way unless the contrary is explicitly stated.
It is known that all the substitutions that involve no more than
g letters and are commutative to every substitution of a regular group
involving the same g letters form a group which is conjugate to the
regular group. ^ This conjugate of the given regular group con-
tains the following substitutions :
I ae. bf. eg. dh aceg. bhfd
agec. bdfh
abef, cdgh
afeb. chgd
ad eh. bcfg
ahed. bgfc
One of the 192 substitutions in these 8 letters that transform
one of these two regular groups into the other is the transposition
dh.
The Group of Isomorphisms of Q.
The largest group in these eight letters that transforms one of
the two given regular groups into itself must be transitive, since it
includes a regular group. Its subgroup which includes all its
substitutions that do not involve a given letter is the group of
isomorphisms of Q. We proceed to prove that this is simply iso-
morphic to the symmetric group of order 24. To prove this we
observe that an operator of order 4 may be made to corre-
spond to any other operator of this order in a simple isomorphism
of <2 to itself. Hence the first correspondence can be effected in
6 ways and the second can evidently be effected in 4 ways, so that
the group of isomorphisms must be of order 24.
This group of isomorphisms may be represented as a transitive
substitution group of degree 6, since there are 6 operators of order
^ Jordan, Traite des Substitutions ^ p. 60.
316
MILLER — OX THE QUATERNION GROUP.
[Oct. 7,
4 that can be made to correspond and these generate Q. As this
substitution group cannot contain a substitution whose degree is
less than 4 and the transitive groups of degree 6 and order 24 that
have this property are simply isomorphic tg the symmetric group of
this order it follows directly that the group of isomorphis?7i5 of Q is
the symmetric group of order 24 and that the group of cogredient isc-
vi07phisms is its s e If -co7tj agate subgroup of order 4.
There are two transitive groups of degree 6 that are simply iso-
morphic to the symmetric group of order 24. In one of these the
subgroup which contains all the substitutions that do not include a
given element is the cyclical group of order 4 while in the other
it is the four-group. It remains to determine which of these two
groups is the substitution group of isomorphisms of Q. This may
be easily done by making Q simply isomorphic to itself in the fol-
lowing manner :
I
I
abef chgd
ad eh.
hfc
ae. If. eg. dh
ae. bf. eg. dh
afeb. cdgh
ahed.
bcfg
aceg. bdfh
aceg. bdfh
ad eh. bgfc
afeb.
cdgh
agec. bhfd
agec. bhfd
ahed. bcfg
abef.
chgd
The substitution which corresponds to this isomorphism is given
by the second columns of letters ; hence it is bdfh and the substi-
tution group of isomorphisms of Q is the one which Prof. Cayley
represents by (=t abcdefja^-^
It is known that Q is simply isomorphic to the eight unities
(i, — I, i, — i, j, — -j, k, — k) of the quaternioji mwiber system. As
Q can be made simply isomorphic to itself in 24 different ways the
simple isomorphism of Q to these unities or of these unities to
themselves may also be written in 24 ways. The following is one
of these ways :
ae. bf. eg. dh
aceg. bdfh
agec. bhfd
abef. chgd
J
afeb. cdgh
—J
ad eh. bgfc
k
ahed. bcfg
k
It may be very easily verified that the following relations are
1 Quarterly foinnal of Mathematics, 1891, Vol. xxv, p. 80.
1898.] MILLER — ON THE QUATERNION GROUP. 317
satisfied by the substitutions which correspond to the unities that
are employed.^
tj =^ k
ji = — k
/- = — I
jk --= i
kj = — /
/ = -i
ki=}
/k = -j
Iz- =^ I
J
k
-J
k
■k
— /
k
i
These relations between the quaternion unities could also have
been obtained directly by means of the corresponding substitutions.
As any relation between quaternion unities remains true if we re-
place all these unities by those which correspond to them in any
simple isomorphism of their group to itself, it follows directly that
a knowledge of the group of isomorphisms of this group to itself
is of great utility in transforming quaternion relations j e. g., from
the simple isomorphism
I I I
— I I — I
I ; J
— i i —j
it follows that / may be replaced by j, j by k, and k by i at the
same time. In other words, we may always perform the substitu-
tion ijk. ( — i) ( — /) ( — /^) on the three imaginary unities of quater-
nions. By means of this substitution we can obtain each of the
three relations given above from any one of the set. The twenty-
# four possible substitutions in these imaginary unities can be directly
obtained from the given group of isomorphisms of Q. They are
the following :
ijk. (-/) {-j) (-k) j (-k) (-j) k ij. {-i) (-j). k (- k)
-0- J (-J) i (-» (-^)- Jk (-0 jk {-J) {-k) i (-/). /k. {-j) (-k)
-/). k (-k) ij i—k). k (—i) (— » ik (— /) {—k) i (-0. j i—k). {—j) k
-j). k {—k) i {—j) k.j (—k) (-i) i (—k) (~i) k i (—j).j (_/). k (—k)
ikj. (-0 i—k) (—j) i (—j) {—i)j ik.j i-j), {—i) {—k)
ik (—/)• j (—0 (—k) ij (-0 i—j) i {-k).j {—j). k (-i)
i{-k){-j)-j{-i)k
i{-k)j,k{-j){-i)
when an equation between the quaternion unities admits a of these
1 Cf Tail's Quaternion, 1890, p. 46.
318 MILLER — 0>r THE QUATERNION GROUP. [Oct. 7,
substitutions these substitutions must form a subgroup of this group
of isomorphism and the given equation must assume 24 -^ a dif-
ferent forms which are equally true in case it is transformed by all
these substitutions, e. g., each of the three equations in the last set
given above admits a cyclical subgroup of order 4. Hence each
of these equations gives rise to 24 -f- 4 = 6 true equations. In
addition to the three that have been given we have ( — if= {—Jf^=
We have already noticed that the group of cogredient isomor-
phisms of ^ is the four-group. Hence Q has only two operators
that are commutative to each one of its operators. ' These are evi-
dently the operators which correspond to i and — i in the quater-
nion unities. These two unities are therefore the only ones in the
quarternion number system that are commutative to all the numbers
of the system. It need scarcely be remarked that any one of the
three cyclical subgroups of order 4 contained in Q may correspond
to the unities of the ordinary complex number system.
Relation Between the Quaternion Group and the Hamil-
TONiAN Groups.
One of the most remarkable properties of the quaternion group
is that each of its subgroups is self-conjugate. Dedekind has
called all the groups which have this property Hamiltoniaji groups
and he has pointed out that the quaternion group is of fundamen-
tal importance in the study of the Hamiltonian groups.^ It has
recently been proved that every Hamiltonian group is the direct
product of an Abelian group of an odd order and a Hamiltonian
group of order 2", and that there is one and only one Hamiltonian
group of order 2" for every integer value of a greater than 2?
It is easy to see that the direct product of the quaternion group
and the Abelian group of order 2""^ which contains 2""' — i
operators of order 2 is Hamiltonian. Since there is only one
Hamiltonian group of this order it follows that every such Hamil-
tonian group may be constructed in this manner. Hence we have
that every Hamilto7iian group whose order is divisible by 2", but
not 2""^^ t7iust be the direct product of some Abelian group of an odd
order, the Abelian group of order 2""^ which contains 2*^"^ — i
operators of order 2, and the quaternion group.
1 Dedekind, loc. cit.
2 Miller, Comptes Rendus, 1898, Vol. cxxvi, p. 1406.
"J898.J MINUTES . 319
While the direct product of the quaternion group and any Abelian
group of an odd order is always a Hamiltonian group, the direct
product of the quaternion group and an Abelian group whose order
is divisible by a power of 2 is only Hamiltonian when the latter
group contains no operator whose order is divisible 4. This follows
directly from the fact that the group generated by the product of
an operator of order 4 in the Hamiltonian group and any operator
in such an Abelian group must be self- conjugate.
We may determine the number of the quaternion groups that are
contained in a Hamiltonian group whose order is divisible by 2'
without being divisible by 2*"^^ in the following manner. Such a
group contains a single subgroup ^ of order 2". This subgroup in-
cludes 3 times 2"~^ operators of order 4. Each quaternion subgroup
includes two of the operators of order 4 that are included in a sub-
group of order 2"".^ which involves only 2""^ operators of order 4.
Hence there are 2^' * quaternion subgroups in the given Hamiltonian
group. All of these have the commutator subgroup of the entire
group in common. In other words, the commutator subgroup of a
Hamiltonian group is the same as that of any one of its quaternion
■subgroups.
Cornell University, June, 1898,
Stated Meeting, October ?>1, 1898.
Vice-President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, 12 members.
Prof. Lighter Witmer, a newly elected m^ember, was pre-
f;ented to the Chair, and took his seat.
The minutes of the last stated meeting were read and
approved .
Dr. Frazer read a letter from the International Geological
Congress in regard to the establishment of an international
floating institute, and offered the following resolution :
Resolved, That the President of the Society be requested to
memorialize Congress in favor of an appropriation in aid of the in-
* Sylow, Mathematische AnnaUn, 1872, Vol. v, p. 584.
PROC. AMEB. PHILOS, SOC. XXXVII. 158. U. PRINTED FEB. 23, 1899.
320 MINUTES. [Oct. 21,
vestigations proposed at the meeting of the International Geological
Congress held at St. Petersburg, Russia, in August, 1897, and that
the President be requested to communicate to the Secretary of
State what had been done at the St. Petersburg Congress in respect
of establishing an international floating institute for the purposes
named in the action of that Congress, and to request the Secretary
of State to bring the subject to the attention of the proper commit-
tees of Congress.
which resolution, on his motion, was referred to the Officers
and Council.
The Librarian presented a list of the donations to the
Library, and called special attention to a valuable gift from
Mr. Henry Pettit, of five volumes of contemporaneous clip-
pings, illustrating the day-to-day history of the Hispano-
American War ; and of two volumes of V Illustration^ J^ljr
1870-July, 1871, being the numbers issued in Paris during
the Commune.
Mr. Pettit, by invitation, made some interesting remarks in
connection with this donation.
Announcement was made of the decease of Prof. Gabriel
de Mortillet, of St. Germain-en-Laye, France, who was
elected to membership on February 15, 1895.
Prof. Albert H. Smyth read a paper on " Thomas Moore
in Philadelphia," which was discussed by Messrs. Dickson
and Wood.
A paper by Dr. Daniel G. Brinton was presented on " Two
Unclassified Eecent Vocabularies from South America.''
Pending nominations for membership Nos. 1432, 1464,
1469, 1470, 1471, 1472, and ncAV nominations Nos. 1473 and
1474 were read.
The rough minutes were read, and the Society was
adjourned b}^ the presiding officer.
IMfl.] BRINTON — VOCABULARIES FROM SOUTH AMERICA. 321
ON TWO UNCLASSIFIED RECENT VOCABULARIES
FROM SOUTH AMERICA.
BY DANIEL G. BRINTOX, M.D.
{Read October 21, 1808.)
The time has' almost passed when any South American Indian
can speak in an unknown tongue. The hundreds and even thou-
sands of '* radically distinct " languages which the early travelers
and missionaries supposed to exist on that continent have been
r.educed to about sixty linguistic stocks, with a fair prospect of
further diminution when materials for analysis become available.
To aid in this work it is important that each vocabulary collected
by travelers be scrutinized and referred to its appropriate stock, if
known, and, if not, that it be noted for further consideration. In
pursuance of this, I shall briefly examine two vocabularies from
South America which have been published within the last year, but
which have not been referred by the writers who obtained them to
any of the leading stocks.
The first is furnished by Mr. A. Rimbach, in his ''Reise ini
Gebiet des oberen Amazonas," printed in the Zeitschrift der
Gesellschaft filr Erdkunde, Berlin, 1897, p. 379. He calls it the
" Gay " language, and adds that he obtained it from some Andoas
Indians whom he encountered on the lower reaches of the river
Pastaza. He gives only five words, which are as follows :
Sun,
mpandn.
Eye,
genamie.
House,
ite.
Water,
muaka.
Path,
nuguako.
This vocabulary belongs to what I have called in my work. The-
Americafi Race, to the *' Zaparo " linguistic stock, as is easily seen.
Ji)y comparing it with the Zaparo vocabulary collected by the Italian,
traveler, Osculati.'
Although by some writers the Andoas have been said to speak
Quichua, this has been refuted by Tyler and others.' The name.
^ Esplorazione delle Regioni Eqiiatoriali, K^t^^. (A'lilan, 1850).
^ Cf. Tyler, in The Geographical Journal, ^yyn^, 1894.
322 SRINTON — VOCABULARIES FROM SOUTH AMERTCA. [Oct. 21.
'^Gay" or ''Gae," applied to their tongue, is a Quichua word,
and appears to be an abbreviation of simi-kayay, "mouth callers,"
another tribal name given them by the Quichuas, apparently from
some peculiarity of their intonation.
An ancient authority of 1661 informs us that a group of tribes,
including the Gayes, Avixiras, Coronados, Guasagas and Ailpayos,
" othervirise called Andoas and Toqueoreos," dwelt on the adjacent
branches of the rivers Bobonaza, Tigre and Pastaza, all speaking
the same language/ About a century later, another report speaks
of the Andoas, Gaes and Semigaes as using the same tongue and
dwelling together, '^one hour's journey from the west bank of the
river Pastaza."^ These facts indicate how little was their change of
location in two and a half centuries.
The second vocabulary is given in the Geographical Journal, J"l.y>
1898, in an interesting article written by Col. George Earl Church,
on information supplied him by Dr. Jose Bach, of La Plata. The
latter describes a remarkable method of subterranean telegraphy in
use among the tribe whom he calls the " Catuquinaru," who occupy
the lands between the rivers Embyra and Embyrasu, branches of
the Tarauaca, which itself flows into the Jurua. They fill a cavity
in the earth with broken bones, ashes and other solid substances,
and by striking this with a club can convey the sound for about a
mile to the next village.
Dr. Bach gives a short vocabulary of their tongue, and says that
it '' is very similar to the Miranhas of Amazonas and has a few
words of the Therena of western Matto Grosso." He adds that
they have usually been called the " Catuquinas. " This is a Tupi
word which Martins translates " good doors," and explains as
meaning, either that the tribe lived in well-built houses, or else that
they were hospitably inclined. He regards it as a compound of
catu, good, and nay, door.* But it seems to me more likely to be a
compound of caiu, good, and gutnay, female ^^ompanion ; and to
refer'to the sociability of the softer sex.
They certainly do not belong to the Tupi stock, as D'Orbigny
thought,* nor are they related to the Tecuna stock, as Von MartiUs
inclined to believe f but those at least whom Dr. Bach visited are
^'See Boletin de la Soc. Geog, de Madrid, T. xxix, pp. 246, 261, 262.
* F. X. Veigl, A^achrichten uhcr Maynas, p. 47 (Nurnberg, 1798,,)
^ Beitrage zur Ethnograpkie Siid Anierikas,V>A i, p. 424.
* L* HoiJitne Aviericaitt ^ Tome ii, p. 355.
^Martius, ii. s., p. 446.
1898.] BRINTON — VOCABULARIES FROM SOUTH AMERICA. 323
unquestionably a branch of the great Arawack family and are
related, as he suggests, to the Terenos and Miranhas.
This position has already been assigned to certain ''Cataquinas "
by Ehrenreich ;^ and the relationship is evident enough from Dr.
Bach's vocabulary. But another problem faces us in explaining the
wide discrepancy which his list of words shows when compared to
the Catoquina vocabulary printed by von Martins.'' The latter,
taken by von Spix on the river Jurua, is certainly not of the same
tribe, and it might appear doubtful if it belongs to the same stock,
so wide are its discrepancies. But an extended comparison lines
it up more closely with the Arawack than elsewhere.
I subjoin a comparison :
Catoquina
Catoquina
Arawack
OF Bach.
OF Spix.
dialects.
Arm,
yano.
pang,
ghano.
Arrow,
uhynasu.
Bow.
uhynarasitco.
Breast,
putia.
ish a niana-ghyta ,
ichomi.
Eyes,
cesd.
ygho.
ki(a, iki-se.
Eyebrow?,,
namy.
ghoata^
ichama.
Feet,
■ pihii.
achman.
Hair,
anaht.
ghyiai.
itschy, iti.
Hammock,
ouysauarusit.
Hands,
pun^^
pagky,
ako, p-aco.
Head,
tacasu,
ghy^
• iia, vida, iquUo.
House,
ocausii.
Legs,
getemaupii,
buric, poro.
Mouth,
agaho^
nunaghy.
jaca.
Neck,
yayorua,
ghyuan.
Nose,
tinoa.
opaghpG,
a.
Teeth,
canha,
y,
hai, hi, y.
Water,
uhehy ,
uata-hy^
uhii.
It is interesting to note that all the words in Bach's vocabulary
which are not Arawack are pure Tupi. The word for " bow " is
derived from that for '* arrow," uhyna, which is the Tupi hui, or
uhi ; foot, pihu^ is the Tupi pi ; hammock, ouysa, is the Tupi quiha ;
and house, oca, is the same in Tupi. Except one, these are all
*' culture words," and indicate that the Catoquinas first became
acquainted with the objects to which they refer after they had met
the Tupi tribes.
^ In Petermann's Mitiheilungen, 1891, p. 17.
* Published in hxs Wdrtersam?tiliing biasilianischer Spraihen (Leipzig,
1867).
324 MINUTES. [Nov. 4/
Stated Meeting, November Ip^ 1S98.
Vice-President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, 14 members.
The minutes of tlie hist stated meeting were read and,
approved.
Letters were read from Dr. Endolph Buti, of Baltimore,
Md., inquiring if the Society would publish a translation of
a fras^ment of the Book of the Dead ; also another letter
accompanying the manuscript.
On motion of Dr. Frazer, the paper of Dr. Buti was referred
to a committee of three to be appointed by the President.-
The President subsequently appointed Prof. H. V. Hil-
precht, Mr. Talcott Williams and Mrs. Cornelius Stevenson.
From Prof. H. Y. Hilprecht, accepting tbe appointment as
delegate to the Twelfth International Congress of Orientalists.
From the Academy of Sciences, Letters and Art of
Modena, announcing the death of its President, Prof. Comni.
Pietro Riccardi, on September 30, 1898.
From Dr. Frederick Prime, resigning his membership of
the Committee on the Librarj^
On motion of Dr. Frazer, Dr. Prime's resignation was
accepted, and the President was requested to appoint a mem-
ber to fill the vacancy during the remainder of the unexpired
term. Mr. J. G. Rosengarten was subsequently appointed.
Donations to the Library were announced by the Librarian.
Dr. Frazer presented to the Library and Cabinet a photo-
graph of the reading of the annexation resolution of Congress
to President Dole on the steps of the Royal PaLace in Hono-
lulu. Also a copy of the Honolulu Commercial Advertiser^ ^
and a statistical statement to date regarding the Islands of
Hawaii, by the Commissionaire and Consul of France, formerly.
Consul of France in Philadelphia, M. Louis Yossion.
Senator Edmunds, on ' behalf of the Special Committee
appointed for the consideration of the- Magellanic Fund, pre-
1898.] MINUTES. 825
sented a report, and offered the following resolutions, which
were adopted :
Resolved, i. That Mr. Samuel Dickson be and he is hereby
authorized and requested to commence and prosecute in the proper
court proceedings in the name of the Society to the end of obtain-
ing a decree which will authorize this Society to offer premiums
not exceeding ^looo to be paid out of income for approved papers
which may be submitted to the Society under the provisions of
the foundation of John Hyacinth de Magellan established in the
year 1785, and that the President of the Society be and he hereby
is authorized and requested to sign and verify the papers necessary
to that end.
Resolved, 2. That the Treasurer be and he is hereby directed,
under the advice of the Finance Committee, to invest the accumu-
lated savings by the Magellanic Fund, as will, with the present
investment of that fund, produce a clear income of $50 per year;
and that the whole of such income shall be kept and specially
invested to meet payments of premiums in respect of the Magel-
lanic foundation.
Dr. Frazer exhibited specimens of flowers and scoriaceous
lava from the " P'lnch Bowl, ' ' a short distance from the city
of Honolulu, and sketched some of the geological features of
the Hawaiian group.
Dr. Frazer also exhibited a reproduction, in cast iron made
in sand scraped from the rafters of Mr. Garretson's foundry
in Buffalo, of a bronze medal and pin, and compared it with
the cast-iron medal presented to some of the members of
the Seventh International Geological Congress by the pro-
prietors of the Kytchtym Iron Works in the Urals.
Propositions for membership Nos. 1432, 1464:, 1469, 1470,
1471, 1472 and 1474 were read.
Mr. Ingham, on behalf of the Committee on the Hall,
presented a report, together with the two following resolu-
tions, which were unanimously adopted :
Resolved, That the Hall Committee are authorized at their dis-
cretion to sell for the best price attainable the houses bequeathed
to the Society by the will of the late Henry Phillips, Jr., and to
326 MINUTES. [Nov. 4.
invest the proceeds and to apply the revenue thereof for the pur-
chase of books on Archeology and Philology for the library in
accordance with the provisions of said will.
Resolved, That the Treasurer, Dr. Jayne, be and he is hereby
authorized to execute conveyances in the name of the Society for
the houses, singly or otherwise, the bequest of Henry Phillips, Jr.,
sold by order of the Society.
On behalf of the Committee appointed by the Society to
revise the Rules of Administration and Order, Mr. Dickson
presented the following report, and submitted printed copies
of the proposed new rules :
Philadelphia, November 4, 1898.
The Committee appointed at the meeting of May 13, 1898, to
revise the rules of administration and order respectfully reports :
That it has considered the existing rules in relation to the laws
as now established, and respectfully submits the accompanying draft
for the consideration of the Society.
[Signed] Samuel Dickson,
W. A. Ingham,
Henry Pettit,
Horace Jayne,
I. Minis Hays.
Mi. Dickson gave notice that he would call up the rules at
the next meeting of the Society and ask for their considera-
tion and adoption.
Dr. Morris, on behalf of the Curators, moved that the
Curators be allowed to deposit the collection of rocks and
minerals in the basement of the Society's hall in the Wagner
Free Institute, or elsewhere, at their discretion, in the name
of the Society, and under proper guarantees for their preser-
vation and recovery. Adopted.
The rough minutes were then read, and the Society wa^-
adjourned by the presiding officer.
[Note by the Secretary. — There having been no quorum
for the disposal ot property, the adoption of the resolutions
oflfered by the Committee on the Magellanic Fund and on the
Hall remain inoperative.]
189fl.] MATHEWS — ItlVlvSIONS OF QUEENSLAND ABORIGINES. 327
Stated Meeting^ Novernhrr JS^ 1898.
Vice-President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, 15 members.
Letters were read from President Fraley, Prof. Ililprecht,
Mr. Rosengarten, Mrs. Stevenson, and R. H. Mathews, ol
Queensland, Australia.
Dr. Frazer presented the proceedings of Officers and Council.
The paper by R. H. Mathews on " The Divisions of the
Queensland Aborigines," was read bv title and referred to the
Secretaries.
Pending nominations 1432, 14(34, 1469, 1470, 1471, 1472,
1474 were read, and new nominations 1475, 1476, 1477, 1478
and 1479 were read.
On motion of Dr. Frazer the resolution approved by the
Officers and Council regarding the International Floating
Institute was unanimously adopted (see minutes of October
21, 1898").
On motion of Dr. Frazer, it was ordered that when the
Society adjourns, it adjourn to meet November 25, 1898.
DIVISIONS OF QUEENSLAND ABORIGINES.
(With Map. Plate XIII.)
BY R, H. MATHEWS, L.S.
{Read November IS, 1898.)
In an article on the '* Initiation Ceremonies of Certain Tribes of
Australian Aborigines," published in the Proceedings of this
Society, Vol. xxxvii, No. 157, pp. 54-73^ ^ established the bound-
aries of the different organizations spread over the whole of New
South Wales. In the present article it is intended to show the
limits of the aboriginal nations inhabiting that portion of Queens-
■328 MATHEWS — DIVISIOXS OF QUEENSLAND ABORIGINES. [Nov. 18,
land lying between the northern boundary of New South Wales
and the nineteenth parallel of south latitude.
Each of these nations is composed of certain communities or
aggregates of tribes who adopt identical section or class divisions,
the particulars of which are explained under each head in the fol-
lowing pages, and the boundaries of the nations are accurately
defined on the accompanying map. Each nation has been named
after one or two of the tribes whose section or class divisions were
first reported in it, and they are numbered on the map to corre-
spond with the numbers given in the letter-press.
On the map referred to there is also represented the dividing
line, AB, between the area in which circumcision is practiced, and
that in which such rite is not in force. From B, this line con-
tinues in the same northerly direction till it meets the shore of the
Gulf of Carpentaria. The continuation of this line southerly from
the point A passes through the northwest corner of New South
Wales, and its position is fixed on the map of that colony accom-
panying my paper read before this Society March t8, 1898.
No. I. The Dippil Nation.
The country occupied by this nation, No. i on the map, extends
from the Upper Clarence in New South Wales to Port Curtis in
■Queensland. On the east it is bounded by the sea-coast, and on
the south, west and north by the distinguishing line marked upon
the map, and includes the Brisbane, Mary, Burnett, Dawson, Upper
Condamine and other rivers ; together with Moreton, Stradbroke,
Eraser and other islands on the adjacent coast. The following are
a few of the principal and best known tribes who were formerly
spread over this tract of country : Dippil, Turrubul, Paiamba,
Kitabool, Kaiabara, Kooranga, Goonine, Murrungama.
The people are divided into two primary groups, called Deeajee
and Karpeun ; the former is again divided into two sections, called
Bunda and Derwine, and the latter into two, called Banjoora^ and
Barrang. The following synopsis shows which sections may inter-
marry, and to what section the children belong :
^ In the Wide Bay district, Balcoin is used instead of Banjoora, with the fetu-
dnine equivalent Balcoingan.
1S9R.] MATHEWS — DIVISIONS OF QUEENSLAND ABORIGINES.
829
Group.
Kaq^eun
Sec-
Husband.
Barrang
Baujoora
Deeajee
Bunda
Derwine
Wife.
Bundagan
Derwinegan
Offspring.
Sons.
Barrangan
Banjooran
Derwine
Bunda
Banjoora
Barrang
Daughters.
Derwinegan
Bundagan
Banjooran
Barrangan
Descent is always reckoned on the female side, the children
taking the group and totem name of their mother. They do not,
however, belong to her section, but take the name of the other sec-
tion in their mother's group, as exemplified in the above table.
The pair of sections, Barrang and Banjoora, forming the group
Karpeun, invariably marry the Bunda and Derwine pair, of the
group Deeajee, but the rules of intermarriage of the individual sec-
tions constituting the groups is different in different parts of the
tribal territory. For example, in some districts, instead of the
rules of marriage following the order laid down in the foregoing
table, a Barrang, male, marries a Derwine, female, and vice versa ;
a Banjoora, male, marries a Bunda, female, and vice vejsa. The
descent of the children is not, however, affected by this variation
— the offspring of a Derwinegan being always Bunda, no matter
whether she marries a Banjoora or a Barrang husband. This law-
applies, mutatis mutandis, to the offspring of the women belonging
to the other three sections.
Although marriages are generally regulated by the rules set out in
the above table, and in the last paragraph, yet there are what I have,
called family or sectional regulations, under which a man may, in
certain cases only, marry a woman belonging to his own section,
but of a different totem to that to which he himself belongs. For
instance, a Barrang Opossum might be allowed to marry a Bar-
rangan Porcupine. Marriage between persons of the same totem is
strictly prohibited.^
The totems belonging to each of the primary groups are common
^ " The Kamilaroi Class System of Australian Aborigines," Proc. Roy. Geog.
Soc. A list, (Q.), X, 23-24..
330 MATHEWS — DIVISIONS OF QUEENSLAND ABORIGINES. [Nov. 18,
to the two sections of which it is composed. Thus, the totems
attached to Karpeun are common to the sections Barrang and Ban-
joora, and the Deeajee totems are common to the Bunda and Der-
wine sections. I have found that certain totems which belong to
Karpeun in a given district are reported to be attached to Deeajee
in a different part of the tribal territory. It may be stated that I
have observed similar local disagreements among the totems of
other organizations.^
In the tribes inhabiting the country on the heads of the Clarence
and' Condamine rivers, the following are some of the totems
attached to the group Karpeun : kangaroo-rat, parrot, turtle, carpet
snake, eaglehawk, codfish, sea, brown kangaroo, crow, opossum,
scrub turkey and porcupine. Among the totems of the Deeajee
group m the same district may be enumerated the plain turkey, red
kangaroo, bat, common magpie, wallaroo, black snake, native cat,
emu, iguana and platypus.
Mr. A. W, Howitt reports that in the Turrubul tribe, one of
those included in this Nation, ''descent is counted through the
male."* In another place he makes the same assertion in regard to
the Kaiabara, also belonging to this Nation.' There is, however,
no question that he is in error in both instances, and has evidently
been misinformed. I have drawn attention to the matter now,
because on a former occasion I was misled by Mr. Howitt's conclu-
sions respecting the line of descent of the Kaiabara tribe.* I have
since, however, from personal inquiry, reported that descent is
through the mother.^
I have before given the Rev. William Ridley the credit of being
the first to report the Turrubul and Dippil tribes from Moreton Bay
to Wide Bay, whence Mr. E. Palmer traced a siniiilar organization to
Port Curtis/ 1 am the first to publish the existence of identical
divisions on the sources of the Clarence and Dumaresq rivers ;
down the Condamine, and across the country to the Dawson,
'including that river and its tributaries, as shown upon the map.
^jfourn. Roy, Soc. N. S. Wales, xxxi, 170.
'^ Irani. Roy. Soc. Victoria (1889), i, 102.
^Journ. Anthrop. Inst., xviii, 50,
^Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust. (Q.), x, 29.
^Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. PVales, xxxii.. 81-82.
*Loc. cit., p. 81.
^^^98.] MATHEWS — DIVISION'S OF QUBTfeN'SLAND ABORICrlNKS. 331
The names of the groups Dceajec and Karpeun, and the equiva-
lence of the four sections to those of the Kamilaroi tribes, have
also been first reported by me.
No, 2. The Kogai-Yuipera Nation.
The name is adopted trom the Kogai of the Maranoa and
Yuipera of Mackay, the two tribes whose divisions were first made
known in this area. The immense extent of country covered by
the tribes and communities constituting this nation can be unlTier-
stood better by a reference to the map than by any description of
It. In a former paper, to which the reader is referred, *■ I detailed
the original work done by the Rev. William Ridley, Mr. R. B„
Smyth, Mr. E. M. Curr, and Mr. E. Palmer, among different tribes
of this organization.
I have traced the same section names among the tribes of the
Warrego, Paroo, Bulloo, Barcoo, Thomson, Diamantina, and oth^r
rivers, thus covering all the country in which the section or class
names had not been particularized by previous writers. The fol-
lowing are a few out of a large number of tribes included in my
inquiries : The Gnoree tribe of the Middle Warrego, the Murgoan
of the Bulloo, the Moothaburra and Birria of the Thomson, the
Koonkerri of the Barcoo, the Kurrawulla of the Diamantina, the
Banthamurra of the Wilson, etc.
In all the tribes of this Nation the people are divided into four
sections, called Woongo, Koobaroo, Bunburri and Koorgilla, or
else mere variations of these names. The people appertaining to
the Woongo and Koobaroo sections together form a group called
Wootaroo, and the Bunburri and Koorgilla sections constitute the
group Yungaroo. In my previous article already referred to,' I gave
a tabular arrangement of the groups and sections of the Yuipera
tribe at Mackay, as reported by Mr. R. B, Smyth, in 1878, but as
the names are slightly different in the interior, it will be better to
supply a new table, as follows :
^Joiirn. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, xxxii, 78-So.
'^Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. IVales, xxxii, 79.
332 MATHEWS — DIVISIONS OF QUEENSLAND ABORIGINES. [Nov. IS.
Group.
Section.
Offspring.
Husband.
Wife.
Sons.
Koorgilla
Bunburri
Daughters.
Wootaroo
Woongo
Koobaroo
Bunburrian
Koorgillan
Koorgillan
Bunburrian
Yungaroo
or Mallera
Bunburri
Koorgilla
Woongoan
Koobarooan
Koobaroo
Woongo
Koobarooan
Woongoan
Mr. E. M. Curr reported that the name Mallera was used on the
Belyando and other rivers instead of Yungaroo, and I have found
the same name on the Warrego, Thomson and elsewhere.
As every man and woman in the community bears the name of
an animal, or some other natural object, it follows that there will
be an aggregate of diverse totems known by the collective title of
Wootaroo, and a corresponding variety of totems will be distributed
under the distinguishing name of Yungaroo or Mallera. The
tribes of this organization are so widespread that I shall not at
present occupy the space to enumerate the lengthy lists of totem
names collected by me in the various districts, but will reserve this
task for a future occasion.
Although the section names are practically the same over the
vast territory shown as No. 2 on the map, yet the dialects and cus-
toms of the people are more or less diverse in different parts of it.
Throughout a wide zone of the western end of this nation, all the
males are circumcised, and other rites are performed, which have
been described by me elsewhere. The line from A to B on the
map separates those tribes who practice circumcision from those
who do not. Such a boundary would necessarily be varied slightly
at different times by conquest, or by the intermarriage of neighbor-
ing tribes on either side.
The southwest and west boundaries of Queensland, separating
that colony from South Australia, being arbitrary geodetic lines,
cannot be expected to coincide with the boundaries of the aborig-
inal nations. For the sake of simplicity, however, the Queensland
boundary has, for the present, been adopted as the southwest limit
of the Kogai-Yuipera people. I am preparing a map dealing with
3898.1 MATHEWS — DIVISIONS OF QUEENSLAND ABORIGINES. '333
some South Australian tribes, on which the actual boundary between
them and the Queensland communities will be shown in its proper
place. The northern boundary of the Barkunjee nation, No. 5 on
the map hereto annexed, will also be more particularly defined in
my forthcoming article.
No. 3. The Kooinmerburra Nation.
This nation comprises several small tribes, inhabiting the coastal
district from Port Curtis via Keppel Bay, Port Bowen, Cape Town-
shend and Shoalwater Bay to Broad Sound, together with Long
Island, Curtis Island and some smaller ones off the coast. On the
south they were bounded by the Dippil, and on the west and north
by the Kogai-Yuipera nations, as represented by a distinguishing
line upon the map, PI. XIII. The community is divided into two
intermarrying groups, having the same names as their western
neighbors, but with subdivisions bearing a different nomenclature.
The primary group Wootaroo is divided into two sections, called
Moonal and Karilburra, and the Yungaroo group into two, called
Kooealla and Koorpal.
The names of the groups and sections, showing how they inter-
marry, and the names of the respective divisions to which the chil-
dren belong, will be readily understood by referring to the follow-
ing table :
Group.
Section.
Offspring.
Husband.
WlFK.
Sons,
Daughters.
Wootaroo
Moonal
Karilburra
Kooeallan
Koorpalan
Koorpal
Kooealla
Koorpalan
Kooeallan
Yungaroo
Kooealla
Koorpal
Moonalan
Karilburran
Karilburra
Moonal
Karilburran
Moonalan
Moonal and Karilburra are equivalent to Murri-Kubbi, and
Kooealla and Koorpal to Kumbo-Ippai, of the Kamilaroi and
Wiradjuri communities in New South Wales.
In this community descent is always reckoned on the female side,
334''mathews — DIVISIONS of Queensland aborigines, [nov is,
the same as in the two adjoining nations, the children of both sexes
taking the totem name of their mother. The undermentioned are
a few of the totems common to Moonal and Karilburra : curlew,
wallaby, rain, russet hawk, bat, yellow-bellied snake. The Koo-
ealla and Koorpal sections have the following totems amongst
others : crow, boomerang, jackass, eaglehawk, salt water perch.
The intermarriage of certain totems belonging to the same sec-
tion, referred to in my explanation of the marriage laws of the
Dippil nation, also prevails in the Kooinmerburra community.
For example, a Moonal might, under certain restrictions, marry a
Moonalan of a totem different to his own.
For the particulars of the social structure of the Kooinmerburra,
and their geographic range, I am much indebted to Mr. William
H. Flowers, one of my most valued correspondents, who took a
deal of trouble in replying to ray inquiries. In 1894, in an article
treating of another tribe, ^ I incidentally referred to the Kooinmer-
burra divisions reported by Mr. Flowers. The divisions of this
tribe have also been briefly mentioned by Mr. A. W. Howitt.* The
full details given in the present article, and the map defining the
boundaries of the tract of country occupied by all the tribes of
this organization, have never been published until now.
Explanation of Plate XIII.
No. I. The Dippil nation, at its southern end, extends a little
way within the New South Wales frontier — the whole of the
remainder being situated in Queensland. Moreton and Stradbroke
islands appertain to this organization.
No. 2. The Kogai-Yuipera nation adjoins the northern boundary
of the Barkunjee and Kamilaroi nations of New South Wales, which
encroach some distance within Queensland territory. All the
tribes occupying the country to the west of the line AB practice
the rite of circumcision, but to the east of that line the custom is
not in force.
No. 3. The Kooinmerburra nation inhabits a comparatively
small territory fronting the sea-coast for some distance north and
south of the Fitzroy river,.
No. 4 is the northern extremity of the country of the Kamilaroi
^ Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. AusL (Q.), x., 27
'^yourn. Anthrop. Inst., xiii, 341.
QOi\
Ooi) MINb'TES. [Nov.-:..
nation, which crosses the boundary between the colonies of Queens-
land and New South Wales.
No. 5 represents a portion of the Barkunjee territory, which also
overlaps the Queensland frontier.
For particulars of the country occupied by the Kamilaroi and
Barkunjee nations, and the eastern limit of the custom of circum-
cision in New South Wales, the reader is referred to my paper on
the "Initiation Ceremonies of Australian Tribes," published in
the Proceedings of this Society, Vol. xxxvii, pp. 54-73, PI- V.
Adjonrned Meeting^ November ^5, 1898.
Vice-President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, 21 inernbers, including seven members of the
Officers and Council.
By unanimous consent, Dr. Frazer offered the resolutions
of the Committees on the Masrellanic Fund and of the Hall
(see proceedings of meeting Noveinber 4, 1898), and they
Avere unanimously adopted.
Mr. Dickson, on behalf of the Committee on the Rules of
Administration and Order, called for the consideration of the
same, and, after discussion and amendment, they were adopted
in the form entered in the minutes of this date.
On motion of Dr. Frazer, it was unanimously ordered that
a ballot be prepared for the coming annual election bv the co-
operation and with the approval of all the Secretaries, on
which shall be printed the names of all the offices for which
elections are to be held, and the number of candidates . for
each office \\\ the order in which they sliall be nominated ;
that furthermore, a copy of the ballot be sent to every mem-
l)er who receives notice of the meeting.
There being ho further business before the Society, the
meeting was adjourned by the presiding officer.
i>*9s.i mixutf:s. 337
Stated Meeting, December ^^ 189S.
Vice-President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, 11 members.
I>etters were read from J. B. Hatcliei acce])ting member-
ship, and from the London LiV)rary.
The list of donations to the Library was laid upon the
table. The Librarian reported that the third and fourth
volumes of the manuscript Logau papers, and one volume of
Penn's letters and ancient documents, which had been loaned
by order of the Society to the Historical Society of Pennsyl-
vania on April 23, 1879, had been returned.
The Treasurer read his annual report, and it was ordered
that this and all other annual reports be spread upon the
minutes.
The annual reports of the Treasurer, the Curators and of
the Standino* Committees were read.
o
Mr. Dickson and Dr. Morris gave notice of certain proposed
amendments to the Rules of Administration and Order.
The Society Avas then adjourned by the presiding officer.
Stated Meeting, December 16, 189S.
Vice-President Sellers in the Chair.
Present, 24 members.
A letter was read from Dr. Kendall, declining a reuomina-
tion as Vice-President of the Society.
Dr. Frazer offered the following resolutions, which were
unanimously adopted :
Whereas, Prof. Kendall has served the Society twenty-seven
years, or from 1849 ^^ 1876 (inclusive), as Secretary, and twenty
one years, or from 1877 to date, as Vice-President ;
Resolved, That the Society desires to express its liigh apprecia-
tion of Prof. Kendall's long and faithful services in its behalf,
338 MINUTES. [Dec. 16, 1898.
Resolved, That the Society assures him of its continued confi-
dence and affection,- and wishes him the health and happiness
which his unremitting labor for the good of others deserves.
A letter was also read from Mr. Eobert Patterson, declining
a renomination as a Councillor of the Society.
The. Library Committee presented their annual report,
which was accepted and ordered spread upon the minutes.
The report of the Finance Committee was read and or-
dered to be spread upon the minutes.
Nominations for Ofhcers and Council for the ensuing year
were then made.
The Judges and Clerks for the next annual meeting were
elected.
The Tellers reported that the following-named gentlemen
bad been elected members of the Society :
Prof. Edward P. Crowell, Amherst, Mass.
Prof. William Knight, St. Andrews, Scotland.
Paul Leicester Ford, Brooklyn, N". Y.
Francis Rawle, Philadelphia.
Prof. Edward N. Keiser, Bryn Mawr, Pa.
Prof. Ernest William Brown, Haverford, Pa.
George F. Baer, Reading, Pa.
Hon. John Hay, Washington, D. C.
Henry S. Pancoast, Philadelphia.
Charles M. Hall, Niagara Falls, N. Y.
The amendments to the Eules of Administration and
Order offered by Mr. Dickson at the meeting held December 2
were then unanimously adopted.
The amendments to the sam^^ Pules offered by Dr. Morris
at the same meeting were lost.
The Society was adjourned by the presiding officer.
INDEX TO VOLUME XXXVII.
Page.
Abbe ; Oa the Altitude of the Aurora above the Earth's Surface. . 4
Artiodactyls of the Uinta Formation, Selenodont; Scott 73
Aurora above the Earth's Surface, Altitude of the ; Abbe 4
Asphalt resembling Gilsoaite by the Distillation of a Mixture of Fish and Wood, The
Production of; Day 171
Australian Tribes, Divisions of; Mathews 151
Initiation Ceremonies of ; Mathews 54
Bitumens, Genesis of as related to Chemical Geology ; Peckham lOS
Brinton ; The Linguistic Cartography of the Chaco Region 178
On Two Unclassi6ed Vocabularies from South America 321
Chaco Region, The Linguistin Cartography of ; Brinton 178
Committees appointed. Standing 51
Day ; The Production of an Asphalt resembling Gilsonite, by the Distillation of a Mix-
ture of Fish and Wood 171
Declaration of Independence, Facsimile exhibited 81
A Note on the History of the Jefferson Draught Manu-
script of; Hays 88
Fort William Henry, MS. of a Journal kept during the Siege of ; Hays 143
Fraley, Frederick; Portrait of, presented .142,162
Grote ; Specializations of the Lepidopterous Wiug, the Pieri-Nymphalidte 17
Hays ; A Note on the History of the Jefferson Manuscript Draught of the Declaration of
Independence 88
MS. of a Journal kept during the Siege of Fort William Henry, August, 1757 . . 143
Herpetological Notes ; Van Denburgli 139
Initiation Ceremonies of Australian Tribes ; Mathews 54
Kansan Drift in Pennsylvania, Notes on ; Williams 84
Kendall, Resolutions in regard to Dr 337
Laws of the Society adopted 155
Lesley, J. P.; Portrait of, presented 142,165
Librarian elected 7
Linguistic Cartography of the Chaco Region, The; Brinton 178
Magellanic Fund, Resolutions in regard to 325
Mathews ; Initiation Ceremonies of Australian Tribes 54
Divisions of Australian Tribes 151
Divisions of Queensland Aborigines 327
Members deceased :
Bayard, Thomas F 176
Bessemer, Sir Henry. 54
Cattell, William C 53
De Mortillet, Gabriel 320
Ebers, George M. 176
Foggo, Edward A 54
Gladstone, William E 170
Hall, James • ■ 176
Legge, James . » 53
Muller, Friederich 176
Parvin, Theophilus 52
Pepper, William 176
Pulzsky, Francis 176
Trimble, Henry , 176
Members elected :
Allen, Alfred H 170
Baer, George F 338
a'
\
340 in7)p:x.
Members elected : Page.
Brown, Ernest William 338
Bryant, Henry Grier 170
Ck)nverse, John H *. 170
Crowell, Edward P 338
Darwin, George H 5R
De Lancey, Edward 1' 170
Emmet, W. L. K 53
Ford, Paul Leicester 338
Greene, .S. Dana 53
HaU, Charles M 338
Harkness, William 170
Hay, John 338
Hutchinson, Emlen 170
Jayne, H. LaBarre 170
Keiser, Edward N 338
Knight, William 338
Mengarini, G 170
Montgomery, Thomas H., Jr 53
Pancoast, Henry S 338
Patterson, Lamar Gray 170
Pettee, William H , 170
Piatt, Charles 170
Frescott, Albert B 170
Rawle, Francis 338
Redwood, Boverton 170
Scott, Charles F 53
Stillwell, L. B 53
Tiele, C. P 170
Whitfield, R. P 170
Meetings, Adjourned 155, 336
Stated 3,7,51.52,53,54,142,154,162,175,319,324,327,337
Miller ; On the Quarternion Group 312
Officers and Council elected 3
Old Broadside, with a Reference to the Throne of Congress ; Sachse 45
Peale ; Collection of Indian Antiquities, Photographs of 142
Peckham ; The Genesis of Bitumens as related to Chemical Geology 108
Pennsylvania, Notes on Kansan Drift in ; Williams 84
Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre, Shakespeare's ; Smyth 206
Pieri-Nymphalidae, Specialization of the Lepidopterous Wing; Grote 17
Quaternion Group, On the ; Miller 312
Queensland Aborigines, Divisions of ; Mathews . 327
Richardson ; Description of Four New Species of Rocinella, with a Synopsis of the Genus 8
Rocinella, Description of Four New Species, with a Synopsis of the Genus ; Richardson. 8
Rules of Administration and Order adopted 336, 338
Sachse ; An Old Broadside, with a Reference to the Throne of Congress 45
Scott ; Preliminary Note on the Selenodont Artiodactyls of the Uinta Formation ... 73
Shakespeare's Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre ; Smyth 206
Siege of Fort William Henry, A Journal Kept during ; Hays 142
Smyth ; Shakespeare's Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre 206
Specializations of the Lepidopterous Wing, the Pieri-Nymphalidse ; Grote 17
Standing Committees appointed 51
Throne of Congress, Old Broadside, with a Reference to ; Sachse 45
TJinta Formation, Preliminary Note on the SelenodoDt Artiodactyls of ; Scott 73
Van Denburgh ; Herpetological Notes 139
Vocabularies trom South America, On Two Unclassified ; Brinton 34
Williams; Notes on the Kansan Drift in Pennsylvania 84
5yo '
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXX VH, NO. I57< PLATE I.
Ill '";i+j +.1
Photolith. F. H. Bijdeker, Hildesheim,
A. Radclifife Grote - Wing-s of Butterflies.
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXX VH, NO. 157, PLATE IL
IIlJ"^+qjI
VIII
VII
VIII
fii, in,
, m
VIll
VIII Vll
III.
111.
I'/./l
VH V,
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Photohth. F. H. Bodeker, Hildesheim.
A. Radcliffe Grote — Winors of Butterflies.
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXVII, NO 157, PLATE IIL
III, 111,
Photolith. F. H. Bodeker, Hildesheim.
A. Radcliffe Grote — Wings of Butterflies.
PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. SOC. VOL. XXXVII, No. 157, PLATE IV.
S3efc5veib«iT(j einer feibmen Serviette.
Sn'6er ^OJi.tte r^aScrviette iei'get(tc6 eine tn \3X()t\k gef^dfte^fapper--
©ctlange, tt)o\)on Die !e^re im anmcbfe ijl; fte bejie^et ffc{) mif
t)iei3* Dcreinigte Provinzen \>onNord America y Dereu 9?amen ftct) urn
felbige r)erum 6cftnt>en, unD njefc^c eben DergleiAenScfifaiigen In i()rcn
SBappcn fu^ren. SiefeS friccJenDeS^ier roirD in feiiien©efc()lccf)te fur
Iki^ cD^Ifte uiitcr aWU geSalteu; mcif c^ niemaltS ettpag 55fe^ r^ut, foit«
bevn t>klmc^ feiHcngeiuOe, l>«rc& fcin Slappern fcine ©esenwart
fftcn ift , ftcllet NardAfnerica ^)or j man erblicf t t)afcl61t Da6 Portrait
\mt^ Atnbajfadeurs amgranjbfifcbeiuoofe jg)rn.D(?flF.Ffjz^^/^^^^^ mif
DcrUntcrf0nfr: Sa^SBuaoer imfreijcitcn. Ueber OicfenPor^rjiYbti
fint)ctiiiit> berX&vott \)t^Co?igreffes ncb^ Dem neueti aufgefc^Iagenen ©r»
?|*Su^ uttt)Dem@(t)n>cri)t, a(gtt)elcf)eg 6ie^&(fe(!e©en)aU tJOJiMet
2[ttt5iefcm©efe|'53uc6 ijl aaf ^er einenSciteju Icfcn: LesTreizePro*
vinc€sUniesyCX^vr>ki3.\>mmQUn^xo\>\nim,. uttfe ttuf Der anl)ecn0e(«
fe; Independence te 4, luillet. 177 6. oDer Die Unabbdn^tflfcir D;4.;3ula
1776. S^©cunDerfci)eineteing5atmen-tBaiim, nuD an &ei)Den0etrm
Diegran^bfifcbenSa^nen, M cm3eict)enDe$mlt3ranfrei*fle(($bjyemtt
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cmc^ranjofifdKSilie jtiiDet, wcl4)c^i«cn S^il ^t>n\>cmNordAmericam^
f^en?5Jappen au^mad)et.
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weri?^6e9(eitet, imD i)on "Den ©legc^jeiitcn unDDengiwrert DetSlUfib^itr
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bet; macbtniitDcn^egm (n D^r£)an^Die@cfat>ent)OJt ir)renS-ejTe(n I0&,
funDfgt i^nen Du^rei>f)eit an, unD iritt Den3JeiD unD Die@daDeitr) iui«
terfeUKgnffe, !4Dcr©&ttmMme>"i7^, t)fe.iut recbten fleber, m\>JVa^
shingto7i mx eincn ^ranje \>m Stdvcfi £an&, af* Dem ©innbilD ber ©tdr«
fe,'fr5iK^ (l|ctemGe^2/>/yju5-u(Tat, t\jeld}ei: D^ng-nejben DerfunDigef,
S)ie U6ei[fd)vijft u&^r Diefcg Portrait [mXtt alfo: General JVor
shington II a pen d'Egaux enBravourePmdencje ct dans PArtMili"
A BROADSIDE IN THE COLLECTION OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
^ai Portrait bc^&tmxalLee crinncrt im8 aii fcin ®efi5n8ni§, mU
6)ti Durc^ cinen^^uvm bejeic^net i(t, tDorait feineSfiBafferi unb3lu(?un9i
ipie andb feine ^ettert an^e^e jfret (itiD, mit ber Ue5crf4>rlfft : GeneralLee^
TantdtFainqueur7a?2tdtVamcuj Da^ftcigt: ©eneralgec/ balbllC'*
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rctlMontgonmieryThou do^Jlfall^ butFreedo?/iJiaU build herThrofie on
thy Grave y ober : bu fallj^; aber ouf beincn ©rabe mi biegrcp^cit i^^
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(tuf bie baneben pebcnbi6d)lacbt mitbem ©cbmerbt ^injelget
®a$ Portrait bc5 © eneral G^m, i(l ton ber 58d6^eit imb Sf e?)5«t
umgebeni mx>on UfiUH mi{bem-@e<afee bediWifrrnrrrauf bic@crrtinb
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General Gates, Vainqueur defesEnntmis^ Ober % becUeberiDinbei: fd*
mrgeiube.
®{e CiVi\\AtHt Serviette g?jrfdinefW4@Al(icftrei!/ (inO annoc^ ju Bemerfen t
Scflend. La Bataille dsvant Qiiubeck pu le General Montgo?nmery fut tui^
obcr titBatailie t)DnD.ue6ecf, n>ofd6(l ti^xQintvalMontgommeri^eto^m n>ucbe.
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25 December i7769cf(bla3enn)urberi.
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^er ©eneral Bourgoine Durcb ®eneral Ga/^/ jum ^rlegdgefangcnen gemacbt wutbe^
mit bcrUntcrfd)rl(fc: La Bataille de Saratoga le ly.d^ OStobre 1777 dam laquelU
U General Bourgoyne f tit fait Prifomiier par le General Gates^
95lcrtcn6 , hicRetirade t)er SnqfanCir ^u$ Philadelphia unb nacb benen Ter^
feys 1778. mit ber Unterfcbtifft, Les TrouppesAngloifesfe retirent de Philadelphia
ilerfeysV an 1768*
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obS/ongf^jhlt i>on Nord America tctjleBeC
PROCEEDINQS AM. PHILOS. SOC.
VOL. XXXVIl, No. 167, PLATE V.
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Proceedings Am. Philos. Soc.
Vol. XXXVII, No. 157 Plate X.
Magellanic Prem'um.
FOUNDED IN 1 786, BY
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OF London.
1899,
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