PROCEEDINGS
FIFTEENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION
American Railway Engineering
Association
HELD AT THE
CONGRESS HOTEL, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
March 17, 18 and 19, 1914
VOLUME 15
PUBLISHED BY
THE AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CHICAGO
1914
Copyright, 1914,
By American Railway Engineering Association
Chicago, 111.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART 1.
PAGE.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3-i6
CONSTITUTION.
CONSTITUTION x9"27
Name, Object and Location x9
Membership x9
Admission and Expulsion 20
Dues 22
Officers 22
Nomination and Election of Officers 23
Management 25
Meetings
Amendments 27
GENERAL INFORMATION.
GENERAL INFORMATION 28-32
Appointment of Committees and Outline of Work 28
Preparation of Committee Reports 28
Publication of Committee Reports 3°
Consideration of Committee Reports 30
General Rules for the Publication of the Manual 32
BUSINESS SESSION.
BUSINESS SESSION 35-6*
Introductory Remarks by the President 35
President's Address 35-51
Report of Secretary 51-54
Membership 52
Publications 52
Geographical Distribution of Membership 53
Financial Statement 53
Expenditures in Detail 54
Report of Treasurer 54
Condensed Report of Convention 55
Report of Tellers 57
Resolutions Adopted 59
Installation of Officers 60
3
3493
4 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
COMMITTEE REPORTS.
PAGE.
RULES AND ORGANIZATION 65-70
Instructions 65
Sub-Committees 65
Committee Meetings 66
Revision of Rules 66
Rules for Survey, and Construction Work 67
General Rules for the Government of Employes of the Con-
struction Department 67
Science of Organization 69
Recommendations for Next Year's Work ■ 69
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING '.'.,.. 71-100
Economics of Labor in Signal Maintenance 71
Conclusion 73
Requirements for Switch Indicators 73
Automatic Train Control 73
Track Circuits 73
Revision of Manual 80
Conclusion 80
Symbols for Signals and Interlocking 81
Rules Governing the Construction, Maintenance and Operation
of Interlocking Plants 93
YARDS AND TERMINALS 101-148
Introductory 101
Typical Situation Plans of Passenger Stations 102
Developments in the Handling of Freight by Mechanical Means 102
Conveyors for Handling Mail and Baggage 112
Conveyors for Handling Express and Parcels 115
Conveyors at Piers and Docks 116
Freight Handling at Warehouses 118
Types of Conveyors for Freight Handling 119
Mechanical Handling on English Railways 122
Freight and Cargo Handling Appliances at Foreign Ports 124
Design and Operation of Hump Yards 128
List of Hump Yards in the United States and Canada 133
Track Scales 133
Additional Data on Hump Yards 134
Profiles of Scale Humps in Various Yards (Insert) 134
RAIL 151-381
Standard Rail Sections I51
Statistics of Rail Failures -# IS2
Special Investigations • • I52
Rail Joints 156
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 6
RAIL— Continued. page.
Stresses in Rail 157
Revision of Specifications 158
Conclusions 159
Information in 'Regard to Rail Sections (Insert) 160
Information in Regard to Splice Bars (Insert) 160
Rail Failure Statistics for Year Ending October 31, 1912.... 161
Tabulated Statistics of Rails having no Failures 164
Tabulated Statement of Largest Number of Failures... 169.
Order of Superiority of Different Sections with Com-
parison for Last Two Years 179
Head Failures in Diminishing Order with Comparison for
Last Two Years 181
Comparisons of Failures, showing Different Performances
of Rail Under Similar Conditions 185
Classification of Failures According to. Position in Ingot 189
Explanatory Notes Relating to Diagrams 202
Record of Comparative Wear of Special Rail 204
Deductions 209
Classified Rail Failures — Diagrams I to 13 210
Influence on Rails of Amount of Draft in Blooming 211
Summary 238
Comparison of Basic and Open-Hearth Rails, and Influence
of Reheating Cold Blooms 241
Summary 264
Influence of Seams or Laminations in Base of Rail on Duc-
tility of Metal 267
Conclusions 314
Seams in Rails as Developed from Cracks in the Ingot 315
Summary • 336
Influence of Aluminum and Silicon on Bessemer Ingots and
Rails 337
Summary 371
Specifications for Carbon Steel Rails 375
ROADWAY 383-400
Unit Pressures Allowable on Roadbed of Different Materials. . 383
Tunnel Construction and Ventilation 391
Method of Tunnel Construction in Moderately Hard Rock
with Seams 393
Method of Tunnel Construction in Soft Rock or Hard
Clay 394
Record of Tunnel Ventilation 397
Economics in Roadway Labor 398
Conclusions on Tunnel Construction 399
Conclusions on Tunnel Ventilation 399
Recommendations for Next Year's Work 400
6 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE.
WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES 401-406
Formulas for Sheet Piling 401
Use of Guard Rails 402
Economy of Repairs and Renewals of Trestles 403
Conclusions 403
Recommendations for Next Year's Work 403
Guard Rails for Bridges and Trestles 404
Practice of Various Railways as to Use of Guard Rails. .. 405
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES 407-511
Introductory 407
Sub-Committees 407
Conclusions 410
Methods of Protection of Iron and Steel Structures against
Corrosion 412
Pigments 412
Classification of Pigments 413
Moisture Experiments 414
Preservative Coatings for Iron and Steel 415
Method of Inspection of Condition of Paints upon Havre
de Grace Bridge 417
Bibliography of Articles Relative to Protective Coatings.. 418
Concrete Encasement 426
Cement Gun 430
Blast Boards and Smoke Shields 434
Column Tests 435
Secondary Stresses 437
Secondary Stresses in the Plane of the Main Truss due
to Rigidity of Joints, Eccentricity of Joints and Weight
of Members 438
The Theory of Secondary Stress Calculation 448
Bending Moments in Members of a Transverse Frame
due to Deflection of Floor Beams 485
Stresses in a Horizontal Plane due to Longitudinal De-
formation of Chords, especially Stresses in Floor
Beams and Connections 486
Variation of Axial Stress in Different Elements of a
Member 400
Stresses due to Vibration of Individual Members 491
Methods of Calculation 491
Requirements for the Protection of Traffic at Movable Bridges 492
Interlocking Power and Bridge Devices 492
Bridge Surfacing, Aligning and Fastening Devices 492
Rail End Connections 492
Signaling and Interlocking 492
Derails 493
Guard Rails 493
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 7
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES— Continued. page.
Electric and Time Locking 494
Railway Signal Association's Standards 494
Insulation of Rails and Attachments 494
Bridge Clearance Diagram 495
MASONRY 513-568
Introductory 513
Waterproofing of Masonry 513
Disintegration of Concrete • • 514
Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete 514
Standard Specifications for Cement, American Society for
Testing Materials 514
Recommendations for Next Year's Work 515
Conclusions 515
Waterproofing Masonry and Bridge Floors 516
General Description of the Various .Methods of Water-
proofing and their Application 517
Coatings 518
Membranes 521
Integrals 525
Watertight Concrete Construction 526
Conclusions 536
Coatings 537
Linseed Oil Paints and Varnishes 537
Asphalt 538
Asphalt Specifications • • 540
Soap and Alum Washes 547
Miscellaneous Coatings 547
Testing Materials for Waterproofing Concrete 547
Cement Mortar 547
Integral Methods of Waterproofing 548
Inert Fillers • • 548
Conclusions 549
Integral Compounds 554
Water-Repelling Compounds 556
Alum and Soap 556
Watertight Concrete 559
Reinforcing for Shrinkage and Temperature Stresses .... 561
Disintegration of Concrete and Corrosion of Reinforcing Metal 564
Concrete in Sea Water 564
Concrete Subjected to the Action of Water Containing
Alkalies 566
Miscellaneous Causes of Disintegration 567
Effect of Electric Currents 567
Corrosion of Reinforcing Metal 568
Conclusions 568
8 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE.
TRACK 569-607
Introductory 569
Main Line Turnouts and Crossovers 569
Speeds of Trains on Curves and Turnouts 570
Economics of Track Labor 587
Equating Track Values 590
Revision of Manual 593
Conclusions 593
Typical Plans of Nos. 8, 11 and 16 Double Slip Crossings.... 594
Typical Plans of Nos. 8, 1 1 and 16 Crossovers 594
Special Record Track Section — Equated Mileage Track Section 594
Extending the Duties of Section Foremen 596
Statement of Characteristics of Special Record Track Sections 600
Tables of Dimensions of Double Slip Crossings 602
ELECTRICITY 609-624
Introductory 609
Sub-Committees 609
Clearances 610
Electrolysis • • 61 1
Data Regarding Third Rail Clearances 615
Data Regarding Overhead Clearances 616
Recommendations for Next Year's Work 618
Recommended Overhead Clearance Lines for Permanent Way
Structures on Electrified Railroads 619
WOOD PRESERVATION 625-682
Oil from Water-Gas and Coal-Tar in Creosote Oil 625
Merits as a Preservative of Oil from Water-Gas Tar.... 625
Use of Refined Coal-Tar in Creosote Oil 626
Records from Service Tests (Insert 634) 627
Grouping of Timbers for Antiseptic Treatment 628
Methods of Accurately Determining the Absorption of Creo-
sote Oil 628
Measurements by Gage Readings of Tanks, with Tempera- .
ture Corrections • • 628
Measurements by Weighing the Oil in the Working Tanks
Before and After Treatment of Charges in Cylinder. . 629
Determination of Absorption by Weighing the Cylinder
Charge Before and After Treatment 630
Discussion and Conclusions 630
Conclusions 632
The Use of Refined Coal-Tar in Creosote Oil 632
Methods of Accurately Determining the Absorption of
Creosote Oil 632
Recommendations for Next Year's Work 633
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 9
WOOD PRESERVATION— Continued. page.
The Use of Refined Coal-Tar in the Creosoting Industry 635
The Amount of Creosote-Tar Combination Used 635
What Coal-Tar is 636
Previous Uses of Coal-Tar 639
What Happens When Coal-Tar is Added to Creosote Oil 640
delation of Evaporation 641
Relation of Antiseptic Properties 645
Relation of Penetration g5g
Relation of Cost
676
Summary 6?Q
GRADING OF LUMBER 68 ,
Progress Report 6S3
WATER SERVICE 685.504
Introductory 685
Water Treatment and Result of Study Being Made 6i Water
Softeners from an Operating Standpoint 685
General Rules for Installation and Operation of Water
Softeners 688
Use of Treated Water 689
Economies Resulting from Installation of Water Soft-
eners 692
Conclusion 604
Corrosion Tests on Iron and Steel 695
BUILDINGS 705
Roofing 705
Bituminous Materials 706
FeIts 707
Built-up Roofs 707
Ready Roofing 70g
Slate and Tile
Asbestos Shingles
• • 708
708
Wood Shingles 700
Cement Tile 70q
Metal Roofings 700
, General ?0Q
Principles. Covering Design of Inbound and Outbound
Freight Houses ~IO
Shop Floors 7I -
Wood Block Floors 7Ig
Asphalt Block Floors 7I7
Wood Floor Set in Tar Pitch 7ig
Concrete Floor 72Q
10 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
BUILDINGS — Continued. page.
Concrete Floor With Special Finish 721
Asphalt Floor 722
Brick Floor 723
Conclusions 724
TIES 725-858
Sub-Committees 725
Effect of Design of Tie Plates and Spikes on the Durability
of Ties •• 726
Economy in Labor and Material Effected Through the Use
of Treated Ties Compared with Untreated Ties 728
Early History of Wood Preservation 729
Growth of the Industry in Europe and America 732
Length of Life • • 733
Economic Considerations 734
Foreign Practice 735
American Practice 738
Cost and Life Tables 739
Annual and Comparative Cost of Ties 740
Economic Comparison of Railway Ties of Different
Materials 741
Comparison of Cost in Life of Treated and Untreated
Ties 746
Use of Metal, Composite and Concrete Ties 747
Comparative Holding Power of Different Diamond-
Pointed and Cut Spikes 766
Holding Power of Cut and Screw Spikes ...• 790
Effect of Design of Track Spikes and Tie Plates on the
Durability of Ties 798
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS 859-904
Sub-Committees 859
Proper Quality of Fence Wire 860
Concrete and Metal for Signs and Signals as Compared with
Wood 861
Practice of Various Roads regarding Crossing Signs.... 862
Synopsis of Laws and Rulings relating to Erection and
Maintenance of Crossing Signs 867
Typical Crossing Signs 868
Statutory Inscriptions, etc., on Crossing Signs 871
Recommended Crossing Signs 873
Metal Crossing Signs 874
Trespass Signs 875
Synopsis of Laws Relating to Trespassing 878
Recommended Trespass Signs 881
Concrete and Metal as Compared with Wood for Fence Posts. 882
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 11
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS— Continued. page.
Conclusions 883
Laws Relative to Erection of Crossing Signs 883
Abstracts from Statutes in regard to Trespassing 892
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 905-912
Introductory 905
Conservation of Natural Resources in Canada 909
"Conservation" Defined 910
ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LOCATION 913-914
Progress Report 913
Minority Report 915
UNIFORM GENERAL CONTRACT FORMS 919-921
Introductory 919
Form of Proposal 921
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS 923-960
Introductory 923
Revision of Manual 923
Conventional Signs or Symbols 924
Economical Management of Store Supplies 924
Conclusions 924
I. C. C. Classification Account No. 6 925
Reports Required by Federal and State Railway Commissions. 928
Physical Valuation of Railways 929
Conventional Signs for Use on Topographical, Right-of-Way
and Track Maps and Structural Plans 930
Specifications for Maps and Profiles Prescribed by the Inter-
state Commerce Commission 943
Abstract from the Rules and Regulations of the Board of
Railway Commissioners for Canada 955
BALLAST 961-1000
Ballast Sections, with Particular Reference to the Use of Sub-
and Top-Ballast 961
Conclusions 962
Methods of Cleaning Stone Ballast and Cost of Same by Vari-
ous Methods 964
Conclusions 069
Proper Depth of Ballast of Various Kinds to Insure Uni-
form Distribution of Loads on the Roadway 969
Recommendations for Next Year's Work 971
Ballast Sections of Various Railroads 972
Composite Drawing of Various Ballast Sections (Insert) 972
Proposed Ballast Sections 988
Cleaning Stone Ballast by Means of Screens 989
12 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
DISCUSSIONS.
PAGE.
RULES AND ORGANIZATION 1003
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING 1008
YARDS AND TERMINALS 1013
ROADWAY 1021
WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES 1036
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES . . 1045
MASONRY 1059
TRACK 1063
ELECTRICITY 1069
WOOD PRESERVATION 1073
GRADING OF LUMBER 1095
WATER SERVICE 1096
BUILDINGS 1099
RAIL 1 104
TIES 1121
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS 1137
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 1151
ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LOCATION 1154
UNIFORM GENERAL CONTRACT FORMS 1 155
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS 1157
BALLAST 1162
AMENDMENTS.
Amendments to Report on Rules and Organization 1169
Amendments to Report on Roadway 1 169
Amendments to Report on Wooden Bridges and Trestles 1169
Amendments to Report on Iron and Steel Structures 1169
Amendments to Report on Masonry 1170
Amendments to Report on Buildings ll7°
Amendments to Report on Signs, Fences and Crossings 1170
Amendments to Report on Ties II7°
PART 2.
MONOGRAPHS.
GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS, By C. P. Howard 3-28
Introductory • • 3
Data 4
Tonnage 4
Power of the Locomotive 4
Resistances 5
Acceleration and Retardation Curves 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 13
GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS— Continued. page.
Fuel i 6
Profile 7
Speed Curves 7
Time and Fuel Consumption 8
Saving in Operating Expenses 12
Maintenance of Way and Structures 13
Maintenance of Equipment 13
Transportation Expenses • • 14
Equipment Released 15
Total Saving in Operation 16
Estimates of Cost of Grade Reduction 16
The Most Economical Gradient 16
Appendix 18
THE UNIFICATION OF THE FREIGHT TERMINALS OF
A LARGE CITY, by Geo. H. Kimball 29-46
Introductory 29
Conclusions 32
Cable Haulage Proposed in Place of Switch Engines, with
the Object of Increasing Capacity 38
Author's Comments 40
EXTRA TOP WIDTH FOR NEW FILLS, by J. C. L. Fish.... 47-56
Discussion 51
Comments by the Author 54
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 57-102
General 57
Electric Light and Power 66
Railroads 73
Steam Power 86
Street and Interurban Railroads 87
Telegraph and Telephone 101
THE ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS ON THE
NEW YORK, CHICAGO AND ST. LOUIS RAIL-
ROAD IN CLEVELAND, OHIO, by A. J. Himes 103-162
Preliminary Description 103
Organization 108
Plant • • 112
Grading 115
Concrete 120
Steel Work 124
Bridge Floors • • . . 131
Ornamentation of Bridges 134
Retaining Walls 138
Trestles 140
Street Grades and Pavements • • 142
14 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
URADE CROSSING ELIMINATION— Continued. page.
Water Pipes 142
Sewers 144
Walks 145
Seeding Slopes 145
General Procedure 147
Accidents 152
Personal Injuries 153
Acounting 155
Construction Contracts with the City 158
Opposition to the Project 159
Chronology 161
Conclusion 162
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER, by Wm. H. Kempfer. .. .163-232
Importance of the Subject 163
Purpose of the Publication 163
Source of Data 164
Interpretation of Seasoning Curves 164
Cross-Ties 165
Method of Conducting Tests 165
Southwestern Woods 165
Northwestern Woods 170
Eastern Conifers 174
Southern Pines 179
Southern Hardwoods 186
Northern Hardwoods 192
Poles 192
Southern White Cedar 192
Northern White Cedar 193
Western Red Cedar 193
Western Yellow Pine 195
Chestnut • • . . 196
Comparison of Species 198
Cross-Arms 199
Sawed Timbers 202
Factors which Influence the Rate of Seasoning 207
Climatic and Meteorological Conditions 207
Species and Form of Timber 207
Manner of Exposure 209
Soaking 212
Deterioration of the Wood While Seasoning 213
Degree of Dryness Attainable 214
Seasoning after Treatment 217
Shrinkage 219
Specific Gravity and Weight of Wood 221
Appendix 224
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 15
PAGE.
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES, by J. E. Grciner 233-242
Introduction • • 233
Heaviest Locomotives 233
Bridge Specification Requirements 236
Capacity of Bridges 238
Have Present Bridges Sufficient Strength ? 239
Conclusions 242
Discussion • • 243
EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES, WOOD
SCREWS AND THIOLLIER HELICAL LININGS,
by W. C. Cushing 265-306
Introductory 265
Experiment with Treated Cross-Ties, Wood Screws and
Thiollier Helical Linings at Scio, Ohio 266
Conclusions 267
Cost of Surfacing Track 268
Cost of Lining Tracks 268
Cost of Gaging Tracks 269
Cost of Tightening Rail Fastenings ". 269
Cost of Renewing Rail Fastenings 269
Total Cost of Labor 269
Grand Total Cost of Labor and Material 269
Statement Showing Cost of Maintenance per Foot of Track
on Experimental Track, Scio, Ohio 271
Physical Condition 271
Renewal of Joint Screws with Lakhovsky Linings, Heavier
Plates, Clips and Screws 279
Experiment with Treated Cross-Ties, Wood Screws and
Thiollier Helical Linings 289
Description of Material and Apparatus and Methods Used in
the Test • • 290
Tools and Methods Used in Boring the Ties and Applying
Helical Linings 292
Placing Ties in Track and Application of Track Fastenings. . 294
Cost of Experiment 294
CONCERNING RAILROAD BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A
VERTICAL PLANE, by B. R. Leffler 307-363
Introduction 307
Specifications for Railroad Bridges Movable in a Vertical Plane 321
Specifications for Special Metals Used for Machinery Parts. .. 351
Index to Article Concerning Railroad Bridges Movable in a
Vertical Plane 356
16 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE.
NOTES ON L.C.L. FREIGHT HOUSES, by E. H. Lee 363-387
Introduction • • 363
Conclusions 382
TRACK SUPERSTRUCTURE WITH CAST-IRON CHAIRS,
by R. Trimble 389-393
Introduction 389
Superstructure with Cast-Iron Chairs 390
CONSTITUTION
CONSTITUTION.
REVISED Al THE FIFTH, EIGHTH AND TWELFTH ANNUAL CONVENTIONS.
ARTICLE I.
NAME, OBJECT AND LOCATION.
i. The name of this Association is the American Railway Engi- Name.
neering Association.
2. Its object is the advancement of knowledge pertaining to the Object,
scientific and economic location, construction, operation and maintenance
of railways.
3. The means to be used for this purpose shall be as follows: Means to
(a) Meetings for the reading and discussion of reports and papers
and for social intercourse.
(b) The investigation of matters pertaining to the objects of this
Association through Standing and Special Committees.
(c) The publication of papers, reports and discussions.
(d) The maintenance of a library.
4. Its action shall be recommendatory, and not binding upon its Responsibil-
members.
5. Its permanent office shall be located in Chicago, 111., and the i^&tion of
annual convention shall be held in that city.
ARTICLE II.
MEMBERSHIP.
I. The membership of this Association shall be divided into three Membership
classes, viz. : Members, Honorary Members and Associates. asses.
(2) A Member shall be: Membership
(a) Either a Civil Engineer, a Mechanical Engineer, an Electrical uonsfiCa"
Engineer, or an official of a railway corporation, who has had not less than
five (5) years' experience in the location, construction, maintenance or op-
eration of railways, and who, at the time of application for membership, is
engaged in railway service in a responsible position in charge of work con
nected with the Location, Construction, Operation or Maintenance of a
Railway; provided, that all persons who were Active Members prior to
March 20, 1907, shall remain Members except as modified by Article II,
Clause 9.
(b) A Professor of Engineering in a college of recognized standing.
19
20
CONSTITUTION.
3. An Honorary Member shall be a person of acknowledged emi-
nence in railway engineering or management. The number of Honorary
Members shall be limited to ten.
4. An Associate shall be a person not eligible as a Member, but
whose pursuits, scientific acquirements or practical experience qualify
him to co-operate with Members in the advancement of professional
knowledge, such as Consulting, Inspecting, Contracting, Government or
other Engineers, Instructors of Engineering in Colleges of recognized
standing, and Engineers of Industrial Corporations when their duties are
purely technical.
5. (a) Members shall have all the rights and privileges of the
Association.
(b) Honorary Members shall have all the rights of Members, except
that of holding office, and shall be exempt from the payment of dues.
(c) Associates shall have all the rights of Members, except those
of voting and holding office.
6. An applicant to be eligible for membership in any class shall not
be less than twenty-five (25) years of age.
7. The word "railway" in this Constitution means one operated
by steam or electricity as a common carrier, dependent upon transpor-
tation for its revenue. Engineers of street railway systems and of rail-
ways which are used primarily to transport the material or product of
an industry or industries to and from a point on a railway which is a
common carrier, or those which are merely adjuncts to such industries,
are eligible only as Associates.
8. A Member, elected after March 20, 1907, who shall leave the
railway service, shall cease to be a Member, but may retain membership
in the Association as an Associate, subject to the provisions of Article II,
Clause 9; provided, however, if he re-enters the railway service, he shall
be restored to the class of Members.
9. Persons whose principal duties require them to be engaged in
the sale or promotion of railway patents, appliances or supplies, shall
not be eligible for, nor retain membership in any class in this Association,
except that those who were Active Members prior to March 20, 1907,
may retain membership as Associates ; provided, however, that anyone
having held membership in the Association and subsequently having be-
come subject to the operation of this clause, shall, if he again becomes
eligible, be permitted to re-enter the Association, without the payment of
a second entrance fee.
ro. The Board of Direction shall transfer members from one class
to another, or remove a member from the membership list, under the
provisions of this Article.
ARTICLE III.
ADMISSIONS AND EXPULSIONS.
i. The Charter Membership consists of all persons who were elected
before March 15, 1900.
CONSTITUTION.
21
2. The Charter Membership having been completed, any person
desirous of becoming a member shall make application upon the form
prescribed by the Board of Direction, setting forth in a concise statement
his name, age, residence, technical education and practical experience.
He shall refer to at least three members to whom he is personally known,
each of whom shall be requested by the Secretary to certify to a personal
knowledge of the candidate and his fitness for membership.
3. Upon receipt of an application properly endorsed, the Board of
Direction, through its Secretary, or a Membership Committee selected
from its own members, shall make such investigation of the candidate's
fitness as may be deemed necessary. The Secretary will furnish copies
of the information obtained and of the application to each member of the
Board of Direction. At any time, not less than thirty days after the
filing of the application, the admission of the applicant shall be canvassed
by letter-ballot among the members of the Board, and affirmative votes
by two-thirds of its members shall elect the candidate; provided, how-
ever, that should an applicant for membership be personally unknown to
three members of the Association, due to residence in a foreign country,
or in such a portion of the United States as precludes him from a sufficient
acquaintance with its members, he may refer to well-known men engaged
in railway or allied professional work, upon the form above described,
and such application shall be considered by the Board of Direction in the
manner above set forth, and the applicant may be elected to membership
by a unanimous vote of the Board.
4. All persons, after due notice from the Secretary of their elec-
tion, shall subscribe to the Constitution on the form prescribed by the
Board of Direction. If this provision be not complied with within six
months of said notice, the election shall be considered null and void.
5. Any person having been a member of this Association, and hav-
ing, while in good standing, resigned such membership, may be reinstated
without the payment of a second entrance fee; provided his application
for reinstatement is signed by five members certifying to his fitness for
same, and such application is passed by a two-thirds majority of the
Board of Direction.
6. Proposals for Honorary Membership shall be submitted by ten or
more Members. Each Member of the Board of Direction shall be fur-
nished with a copy cf the proposal, and if, after thirty days, the nominee
shall receive the unanimous vote of said Board, he shall be declared an
Honorary Member.
7. When charges are preferred against a Member in writing by ten
or more Members, the Member complained of shall be served with a copy
of such charges, and he shall be called upon to show cause to the Board
of Direction why he should not be expelled from the Association. Not
less than thirty days thereafter a vote shall be taken on his expulsion,
and he shall be expelled upon a two-thirds vote of the Board of Direction.
8. The Board of Direction shall accept the resignation, tendered in
writing, of any Member whose dues are fully paid up.
Application
for Member-
ship.
Election to
Membership
Subscription
to Constitu-
tion.
Reinstate-
ment.
Honorary
Membership.
Expulsions.
Resignations
22
CONSTITUTION.
ARTICLE IV.
DUES.
i. An entrance fee of $10.00 shall be payable to the Association
through its Secretary with each application for membership; and this
sum shall be returned to the applicant if not elected.
2. *The annual dues are $10.00, payable during the first three months
of the calendar year.
3. Any person whose dues are not paid before April 1st of the cur-
rent year shall be notified of same by the Secretary. Should the dues
not be paid prior to July 1st, the delinquent Member shall lose his right
to vote. Should the dues remain unpaid October ist, he shall be notified
on the form prescribed by the Board of Direction, and he shall no longer
receive the publications of the Association. If the dues are not paid by
December 31st, he shall forfeit his membership without further action
or notice, except as provided for in Clause 4 of this Article.
4. The Board of Direction may extend the time of payment of dues,
and may remit the dues of any Member, who, from ill-health, advanced
age or other good reasons, is unable to pay them.
ARTICLE V.
OFFICERS.
1. The officers of the Association shall be Members and shall con-
sist of:
A President,
A First Vice-President,
A Second Vice-President,
A Treasurer,
A Secretary,
Nine Directors,
who, together with the five latest living Past-Presidents who are Members,
shall constitute the Board of Direction in which the government of the
Association shall be vested, and who shall act as Trustees, and have the
custody of all property belonging to the Association.
2. The offices of First and Second Vice-Presidents shall be deter-
mined by the priority of their respective dates of election.
3. The terms of office of the several officers shall be as follows:
President, one year.
Vice-Presidents, two years.
Treasurer, one year.
Secretary, one year.
Directors, three years.
4. (a) There shall be elected at each Annual Convention:
A President,
One Vice-President,
A Treasurer,
A Secretary,
Three Directors.
•The annual payment of $10.00 made by each member is to be sub-
divided and credited on the books of the Association, as follows: To mem-
ber's subscription to the Bulletin, $5.00; annual dues, $5.00.
CONSTITUTION.
23
(b) The candidates for President and for Vice-President shall be
selected from the members of the Board of Direction.
5. The office of President shall not be held twice by the same per- conditions 01
son. A person who shall have held the office of Vice-President or R,e"®Lectlon
. of Officers.
Director shall not be eligible for re-election to the same office until at
least one full term shall have elapsed after the expiration of his previous
term of office.
6. The term of each officer shall begin with his election and con- Term of
Officers
tinue until his successor is elected.
7. (a) A vacancy in the office of President shall be filled by the Vacancies
First Vice-President.
(b) A vacancy in the office of either of the Vice-Presidents shall
be filled by the Board of Direction by election from the Directors. A
Vice-Presidency shall not be considered vacant when one of the Vice-
Presidents is filling a vacancy in the Presidency.
(c) Any other vacancies for the unexpired term in the membership
of the Board of Direction shall be filled by the Board.
(d) An incumbent in any office for an unexpired term shall be
eligible for re-election to the office he is holding; provided, however,
that anyone appointed to fill a vacancy as Director within six months
after the term commences shall be considered as coming within the pro-
vision of Article V, Clause 5.
8. When an officer ceases to be a Member of the Association, as vacation of
provided in Article II, his office shall be vacated, and be filled as provided °fflce-
in Article V, Clause 7.
9. In case of the disability or neglect in the performance of his duty, Disability
. . • or Nesrlect
of an officer, the Board of Direction, by a two-thirds majority vote of the
entire Board, shall have power to declare the office vacant, and fill it as
provided in Article V, Clause 7.
ARTICLE VI.
NOMINATION AND ELECTION OF OFFICERS.
i. (a) There shall be a Nominating Committee composed of the Nominating
five latest living Past-Presidents of the Association, who are Members, Committee,
and five Members not officers.
(b) The five Members shall be elected annually when the officers of
the Association are elected.
2. It shall be the duty of this committee to nominate candidates to Number of
fill the offices named in Article V, and vacancies in the Nominating Com- Candidates
mittee caused by expiration of term of service, for the ensuing year, as
follows : Number of Candi- Number of Candi-
dates to be named dates to be elected
Office to be Filled. by Nominating at Annual Election
Committee. of Officers.
President 1 I
Vice-President 1 1
Treasurer 1 I
Secretary 1 I
Directors 9 3
Nominating Committee 10 5
24
CONSTITUTION.
Chairman.
Meeting of
Committee.
Announce-
ment of
Names of
Nominees.
Additional
Nominations
by Members.
Vacancies
in List of
Nominees.
Ballots
Issued.
Substitution
of Names.
Ballots.
Invalid
Ballots.
Closure
of Polls.
Requirements
for Election.
Tie Vote.
3. The Senior Past-President shall act as permanent chairman of
the committee, and will issue the call for meetings. In his absence from
meetings, the Past-President next in age of service shall act as Chairman
pro tern, at the meeting.
4. Prior to December. 1st, each year, the Chairman shall call a meet-
ing of the committee at a convenient place and, at this meeting, nominees
for office shall be agreed upon.
5. The names of the nominees shall be announced by the permanent
Chairman to the President and Secretary not later than December 15th of
the same year, and the Secretary shall report them to the Members of the
Association on a printed slip not later than January 1st following.
6. At any time between January 1st and February 1st, any ten or
more Members may send to the Secretary additional nominations for the
ensuing year signed by such Members.
7. If any person so nominated shall be found by the Board of Direc-
tion to be ineligible for the office for which he is nominated, or should
a nominee decline such nomination, his name shall be removed and the
Board may substitute another one therefor ; and may also fill any
vacancies that may occur in this list of nominees up to the time the bal-
lots are sent out.
8. Not less than thirty days prior to each Annual Convention, the
Secretary shall issue ballots to each voting member of record in good
standing, with a list of the several candidates to be voted upon, with the
names arranged in alphabetical order when there is more than one name
for any office.
9. Members may erase names from the printed ballot list and may
substitute the name or names of any other person or persons eligible for
any office, but the number of names voted for each office on the ballot
must not exceed the number to be elected at that time to such office.
10. (a) Ballots shall be placed in an envelope, sealed and endorsed
with the name of the voter, and mailed or deposited with the Secretary
at any time previous to the closure of the polls.
(b) A voter may withdraw his ballot, and may substitute another,
at any time before the polls close.
11. Ballots not endorsed or from persons not qualified to vote shall
not be opened ; and any others not complying with the above provisions
shall not be counted.
12. The polls shall be closed at twelve o'clock noon on the second
day of the Annual Convention, and the ballots shall be counted by three
tellers appointed by the Presiding Officer. The ballots and envelopes shall
be preserved for not less than ten days after the vote is canvassed.
13. The persons who shall receive the highest number of votes for
the offices for which they are candidates shall be declared elected.
14. In case of a tie between two or more candidates for the same
office, the members present at the Annual Convention shall elect the officer
by ballot from the candidates so tied.
CONSTITUTION.
25
15. The Presiding Officer shall announce at the convention the names
of the officers elected in accordance with this Article.
16. Except as to the Past-Presidents, the first Nominating Com-
mittee and the three additional Directors provided for shall be appointed
by the Board of Direction, one of the Directors for one year one for
two years, and one for three years.
Announce-
ment.
First
Nominating
Committee.
ARTICLE VII.
MANAGEMENT.
i. (a) The President shall have general supervision of the affairs
of the Association, shall preside at meetings of the Association and of
the Board of Direction, and shall be ex-officio member of all Committees,
except the Nominating Committee.
(b) The Vice-Presidents, in order of seniority, shall preside at meet-
ings in the absence of the President and discharge his duties in case of a
vacancy in his office.
2. The Treasurer shall receive all moneys and deposit same in the
name of the Association, and shall receipt to the Secretary therefor. He
shall invest all funds not needed for current disbursements as shall be
ordered by the Board of Direction. He shall pay all bills, when properly
certified and audited by the Finance Committee, and make such reports
as may be called for by the Board of Direction.
3. The Secretary shall be, under the direction of the President and
Board of Direction, the Executive Officer of the Association. He shall
attend the meetings of the Association and of the Board of Direction,
prepare the business therefor, and duly record the proceedings thereof.
He shall see that the moneys due the Association are collected and with-
out loss transferred to the custody of the Treasurer. He shall personally
certify to the accuracy of all bills or vouchers on which money is to be
paid. He is to conduct the correspondence of the Association and keep
proper record thereof, and perform such other duties as the Board of
Direction may prescribe.
4. The accounts of the Treasurer and Secretary shall be audited
annually by a public accountant, under the direction of the Finance Com-
mittee of the Board.
5. The Board of Direction shall manage the affairs of the Associa-
tion, and shall have full power to control and regulate all matters not
otherwise provided in the Constitution.
6. The Board of Direction shall meet within thirty days after each
\nnual Convention, and at such other times as the President may direct.
Special meetings shall be called on request, in writing, of five members
of the Board.
7. Seven members of the Board shall constitute a quorum.
8. At the first meeting of the Board after the Annual Convention,
the following committees from its members shall be appointed by the
President, and shall report to and perform their duties under the super-
vision of the Board of Direction :
Duties of
President.
Duties of
Treasurer.
Duties of
Secretary.
Auditing of
Accounts.
Duties of
Board.
Board
Meetings.
Board
Quorum.
Board
Committees.
26
!i.':,.
CONSTITUTION.
Duties of
Finance
Committee.
Duties of
Publication
Committee.
Duties of
Library
Committee.
Duties of
Committee or,
Outline of
Work of
Standing
Committees.
Standing
Committees.
Special
Committees.
Discussion
by Non-
Members.
Sanction of
Acts of
Board.
a. Finance Committee of three members.
b. Publication Committee of three members.
c. Library Committee of three members.
d. Outline of Work of Standing Committees of five members.
9. The Finance Committee shall have immediate supervision of the
accounts and financial affairs of the Association; shall approve all bills
before payment, and shall make recommendations to the Board of Direc-
tion as to the investment of moneys and as to other financial matters. The
Finance Committee shall not have the power to incur debts or other obli-
gations binding the Association, nor authorize the payment of money
other than the amounts necessary to meet ordinary current expenses of
the Association, except by previous action and authority of the Board of
Direction. . . ,
10. The Publication Committee shall have general supervision of
the publications of the Association.
11. The Library Committee shall have general supervision of the
Library, the property therein, and the quarters occupied by the Secretary;
shall make recommendations to the Board with reference thereto, and
shall direct the expenditure for books and other articles of permanent
value, from such sums as may be appropriated for these purposes.
12. The Committee on Outline of Work of Standing Committees
shall present a list of subjects for committee work during the ensuing
year at the first meeting of the Board of Direction after the Annual Con-
vention.
13. The Board of Direction may appoint such standing Committees
as it may deem best, to investigate, consider and report upon questions
pertaining to railway location, construction or maintenance.
14. Special Committees to examine into and report upon any subject
connected with the objects of this Association may be appointed from
time to time by the Board of Direction.
15. The Board of Direction may invite discussions of reports from
persons not members of the Association.
16. An act of the Board of Direction which shall have received the
expressed or implied sanction of the membership at the next Annual Con-
vention of the Association shall be deemed to be the act of the Associa-
tion, and shall not afterwards be impeached by any Member.
Annual
Convention.
Special
Meetings.
ARTICLE VIII.
MEETINGS.
1. The Annual Convention shall begin upon the third Tuesday in
March of each year, and shall be held at such place in the City of Chicago
as the Board of Direction may select.
2. Special meetings of the Association may be called by the Board
of Direction, and special meetings shall be so called by the Board upon
request of thirty Members, which request shall state the purpose of such
meeting. The call for such meeting shall be issued not less than ten
days in advance, and shall state the purpose and place thereof, and no
other business shall be taken up at such meeting.
CONSTITUTION.
27
3. The Secretary shall notify all members of the time and place of
the Annual Convention of the Association at least thirty days in advance
thereof.
4. Twenty-five Members shall constitute a quorum at all meetings
of the Association.
5. (a) The order of business at annual conventions of the Associa-
tion shall be as follows :
Reading of minutes of last meeting.
Address of the President.
Reports of the Secretary and Treasurer.
Reports of Standing Committees.
Reports of Special Committees.
Unfinished business.
New business.
Election of officers.
Adjournment.
(b) This order of business, however, may be changed by a majority
vote of members present.
6. The proceedings shall be governed by "Robert's Rules of Order,"
except as otherwise herein provided.
7. Discussion shall be limited to members and to those invited by
the presiding officer to speak.
Notification
of Annual
Convention.
Association
Quorum.
Order of
Business.
Rules of
Order.
Discussion.
ARTICLE IX.
AMENDMENTS.
i. Proposed amendments to this Constitution shall be made in writ- Amendments
ing and signed by not less than ten Members, and shall be acted upon
in the following manner:
The amendments shall be presented to the Secretary, who shall send
a copy of same to each member of the Board of Direction as soon as
received. If at the next meeting of the Board of Direction a majority
of the entire Board are in favor of considering the proposed amend-
ments, the matter shall then be submitted to the Association for letter-
ballot, and the result announced by the Secretary at the next Annual
Convention. In case two-thirds of the votes received are affirmative,
the amendments sha1l be declared adopted and become immediately
effective.
Standing
Commit-
tees.
Special
Commit-
tees.
Personnel
of Com-
mittees.
Outline of
Work.
General.
GENERAL INFORMATION.
(Subject to change from time to time by Board of Direction.)
GENERAL RULES FOR THE PREPARATION, PUBLICATION
AND CONSIDERATION OF COMMITTEE REPORTS.
(a) appointment of committees and outline of work.
i. The following are standing committees:
I. Roadway.
II. Ballast.
III. Ties.
IV. Rail.
V. Track.
VI. Buildings.
VII. Wooden Bridges and Trestles.
VIII. Masonry.
IX. Signs, Fences and Crossings.
X. Signals and Interlocking.
XI. Records and Accounts
XII. Rules and Organization.
XIII. Water Service.
XIV. Yards and Terminals.
XV. Iron and Steel Structures.
XVI. Economics of Railway Location.
XVII. Wood Preservation.
XVIII. Electricity.
XIX. Conservation of Natural Resources.
2. Special Committees will be appointed from time to time, as may
be deemed expedient, in the manner prescribed by Article VII, Clause
14, of the Constitution.
3. The personnel of all Committees will continue from year to
year, except when changes are announced by the Board of Direction.
Members of committees who do not attend meetings of committees
during the year or render service by correspondence will be relieved and
the vacancies filled by the Board at the succeeding annual convention.
4. As soon as practicable after each annual convention the Board
of Direction will assign to each Committee the important questions
which, in its judgment, should preferably be considered during the cur-
rent year. Committees are privileged to present the results of any spe-
cial study or investigation they may be engaged upon or that may be
considered of sufficient importance to warrant presentation.
(b) preparation of committee reports.
5. The collection and compilation of data and subsequent analysis
in the form of arguments and criticism is a necessary and valuable pre-
liminary element of committee work.
28
GENERAL INFORMATION.
29
6. Committees are privileged to obtain data or information in any
proper way. If desired, the Secretary will issue circulars of inquiry,
which should be brief and concise. The questions asked should be specific
and pertinent, and not of such general or involved character as to pre-
clude the possibility of obtaining satisfactory and prompt responses.
They should specify to whom answers are to be sent, and should be in
such form that copies can be retained by persons replying either by
typewriter or blue-print.
7. Committee reports should be prepared as far as practicable to
conform to the following general plan :
(a) It is extremely Important that every Committee should ex-
amine its own subject-matter in the "Manual" prior to each annual con-
vention, and revise and supplement it, if deemed desirable, giving the
necessary notice of any recommended changes in accordance with Clause
6 (a) of the General Rules for the Publication of the "Manual." If no
changes are recommended, statement should be made accordingly.
(b) When deemed necessary, the previous report should be reviewed.
(c) Subjects presented in previous reports on which no action
was taken should be resubmitted, stating concisely the action desired. It
may not be necessary to repeat the original text in the report, reference
to former publication being sufficient, unless changes in the previously
published version are extensive. Minor changes can be explained in the
text of the report.
(d) Technical terms used in the report, the meaning of which is
not clearly established, should be defined, but defined only from the
standpoint of railway engineering.
(e) If necessary, a brief history of the subject-matter under dis-
cussion, with an outline of its origin and development, should be given.
(f) An analysis of the most important elements of the subject-matter
should be given.
(g) The advantages and disadvantages of the present and recom-
mended practices should be set forth.
(h) Illustrations accompanying reports should be prepared so that
they can be reproduced on one page. The use of folders should be avoided
as much as possible, on account of the increased expense and inconvenience
in referring to them. Plans showing current practice, or necessary for
illustration, are admissible, but those showing proposed definite design
or practice should be excluded. Recommendations should be confined to
governing principles.
Illustrations should be made on tracing cloth with heavy black lines
and figures, so as to stand a two-thirds reduction ; for example : To come
within a type page (4 inches by 7 inches), the illustration should be
made three times the above size.
Collection
of Data.
Plan of
Reports.
Definitions.
History.
Analysis.
Argument.
Illustrations.
30
GENERAL INFORMATION.
Conclusions.
To insure uniformity, the one-stroke, inclined Gothic lettering is
recommended.
Photographs should be clear and distinct silver prints.
(i) The conclusions of the Committee which are recommended for
publication in the Manual should be stated in concise language, logical
sequence, and grouped together, setting forth the principles, specifications,
definitions, forms, tables and formula? included in the recommendation.
Portions of the text of the report which are essential to a clear interpre-
tation and understanding of the conclusions, should be included as an
integral part thereof.
Reports
Required.
Date of
Piling
Reports.
Publication
of Reports.
Written
Discussions.
Verbal
Discussions.
Sequence.
(C) PUBLICATION OF COMMITTEE REPORTS.
8. (a) Reports will be required from each of the Standing and
Special Committees each year.
(b) Although several subjects may be assigned to each Committee
by the Board of Direction, a full report on only one subject is expected
at each annual convention, but the preliminary work on some of the
remaining subjects should be in progress, and, when deemed advisable,
partial reports of progress should also be presented. This method allows
time for their proper preparation and consideration.
9. Committee reports to come before the succeeding convention for
discussion should be filed with the Secretary not later than November
30 of each year.
10. Committees engaged upon subjects involving an extended investi-
gation and study are privileged to present progress reports, giving a
brief statement of the work accomplished, and, if deemed expedient, a
forecast of the final report to be presented.
11. Committee reports will be published in the Bulletin in such
sequence as the Board of Direction may determine, for consideration at
the succeeding convention. Reports will be published in the form pre-
sented by the respective Committees. Alterations ordered by the conven-
tion will be printed as an appendix to the report.
12. Committees should endeavor to secure written discussions of
published reports. Written discussions will be transmitted to the
respective Committees, and if deemed desirable by the Committee, the
discussions will be published prior to the convention and be considered
in connection with the report.
13. Each speaker's remarks will be submitted to him in writing be-
fore publication in the Proceedings, for the correction of diction and
errors of reporting, but not for the elimination of remarks.
(d) CONSIDERATION OF COMMITTEE REPORTS.
14. The sequence in which Committee reports will be considered by
the convention will be determined by the Board of Direction.
Action.
GENERAL INFORMATION. 31
15. The method of consideration of Committee reports will be one Method,
of the following :
(a) Reading by title.
(b) Reading, discussing and acting upon each conclusion sep-
arately.
(c) By majority vote, discussion will be had on each item.
Clauses not objected to when read will be considered
as voted upon and adopted.
16. Action by the convention on Committee reports will be one of Final
the following, after discussion is closed :
(a) Receiving as information.
(b) Receiving as a progress report.
(c) Adoption of a part complete in itself and referring re-
mainder back to Committee.
(d) Adoption as a whole.
(e) Recommittal with or without instructions,
(i) Adoption as a whole,
(g) Recommendation to publish in the Manual.
Note. — Art amendment which affects underlying principles, if adopted,
shall of itself constitute a recommittal of such part of the report as the
Committee considers affected.
The Chair will decline to entertain amendments which in his opinion
lie entirely within the duties of the Editor.
(e) publication by technical journals.
The following rules will govern the releasing of matter for publica-
tion in technical journals:
Committee reports, requiring action by the Association at the annual
convention, will not be released until after presentation to the conven-
tion; special articles, contributed by members and others, on which no
action by the Association is necessary, are to be released for publication
by the technical journals after issuance in the Bulletin; provided appli-
cation therefor is made in writing and proper credit be given the Asso-
ciation, authors or Committees presenting such material.
!oi
GENERAL RULES FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE "MANUAL."
Adoption
of Reports
Not Binding.
Contents.
Title. i. The title of the volume will be "Manual of the American Railway
Engineering Association."
2. The Board of Direction shall edit the Manual and shall have
authority to withhold from publication any matter which it shall consider as
not desirable to publish, or as not being in proper shape, or as not having
received proper study and consideration.
3. Matters adopted by the Association and subsequently published
in the Manual shall be considered in the direction of good practice, but
shall not be binding on the members.
4. The Manual will only include conclusions relating to definitions,
specifications and principles of practice as have been made the subject of a
special study by a Standing or Special Committee and embodied in a com-
mittee report, published not less than thirty days prior to the annual con-
vention, and submitted by the Committee to the annual convention, and
which, after due consideration and discussion, shall have been voted
on and formally adopted by the Association. Subjects which, in the opinion
of the Board of Direction, should be reviewed by the American Rail-
way Association, may be referred to that Association before being pub-
lished in the Manual.
5. All conclusions included in the Manual must be in concise and
proper shape for publication, as the Manual will consist only of a summary
record of the definitions, specifications and principles of practice adopted
by the Association, with a brief reference to the pubhfhed Proceedings
of the Association for the context of the Committee report and subsequent
discussion and the final action of the Association.
Revision. 6. Any matter published in the Manual may be amended or with-
drawn by vote at any subsequent annual convention, provided such
changes are proposed in time for publication not less than thirty days
prior to the annual convention, and in the following manner: (a) Upon
recommendation of the Committee in charge of the subject; (b) upon
recommendation of the Board of Direction ; (c) upon request of five
members, made to the Board of Direction.
7. The Manual will be reviseM either by publishing a new edition or
a supplemental pamphlet as promptly as possible after each annual con-
vention.
32
BUSINESS SESSION
PROCEEDINGS.
The object of this Association is the advancement of knowledge pertaining to the
scientific and economic location, construction, operation and maintenance
of railways. Its action is not binding upon its members.
TUESDAY, MARCH 17, 1914.
MORNING SESSION.
• The convention was called to order by the President, Mr. Edwin F.
Wendt, Member Engineering Board, Interstate Commerce Commission, at
9 .-30 a. m.
The President — The Fifteenth Annual Convention of the American
Railway Engineering Association is declared in session for the transaction
of business.
The privileges of the floor are extended to railway officials who are
not members of the Association, and also to professors of institutions of
learning, and we will be glad to have them participate in the discussions.
The first business before the convention, in accordance with the
Constitution, is the reading of the Minutes of the last Annual Convention.
These Minutes have already been printed and distributed to the member-
ship, and unless there is objection, the Minutes will stand approved as
printed. There being no objections, the Minutes stand approved as here-
tofore published.
The next order of business, in accordance with the Constitution, is
the reading of the President's address.
PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
Fellow Members:
The American Railway Engineering Association continues to grow
in membership and usefulness. The past year, 1913, has been character-
ized by the loyal devotion and conscientious work of members, commit-
tees, and Board of Direction.
Conservatism prevails at all times in the conduct of the affairs of
the Association.
The committees are endeavoring primarily to accomplish work of
quality without reference to its quantity. The membership is awake to
the situation, and is working to increase our numbers and influence.
Fifteen years have passed since the organization of our Association.
The men who gathered at the first convention, held in Steinway Hall,
Chicago, on March 14, 1000, probably had a vision of the future ; but the
success of our efforts has exceeded even the fondest hopes of those
35
36 BUSINESS SESSION.
who organized the Association. They certainly heard a voice, saying,
"It doth not yet appear what we shall be." And we hear the same voice
to-day, but the question now is, not one of success, but how strong and
useful may the Association become.
FINANCE.
The fiscal year of our Association is the same as the calendar year.
During 1913 the revenues were $25,878, and the expenditures, $22*347.
Therefore, the surplus for the year was $3,531. These figures show that
the Association is fairly prbsperous ; but in order to draw safe deduction,
consideration should be given to the relation of revenues to expenses for
a period of five years. It will be necessary to reprint the Manual in
the near future, at an expense of about $3,500, and the conservative policy
of the Board of Direction with reference to the authorization of money
for experimental purposes will no doubt prevail until such time as there
is a larger revenue.
PUBLICATIONS.
The progress of the work of the Association is reflected in the in-
crease of the text of the Proceedings from 200 pages in 1900 to about
2,000 pages in 1914.
THE MANUAL.
Past-President John F. Wallace, in his address delivered at Steinway
Hall, Chicago, March 14, 1900, stated that "The establishment of certain
recognized principles as the result of our investigations and discussions,
will materially assist our managements in adopting a policy that will
lead to the truest and highest economy." The Manual is an expression
of these "recognized principles," and the edition of 191 1 contains 450
pages of text. The Association should recognize its responsibility for
guarding the quality of the work which supports our recommended
practice.
WORK OF STANDING COMMITTEES.
The loyal devotion and businesslike methods of the members of our
committees have merited the approbation of all well-informed observers
of the work of national engineering societies.
MEMBERSHIP.
The growth of the membership in fifteen years has been gradual and
consistent. The Constitution definitely defines the qualifications of mem
bers, and the standard requirements for entrance result in the selection
only of men who possess large education and experience. From about
200 in 1900, the membership has increased to about 1,200 in 1914. It is
confidently expected that within ten years the total enrollment will be
2,000. Some of our members feel that it would be safe and profitable
to admit to full membership certain classes of engineers who are not
connected in an official capacity with railway corporations. The merits
of this proposition will no doubt receive attention during the next few
BUSINESS SESSION. 37
years. An increase in membership is greatly to be desired, in order that
the revenues of the Association may be increased. However, the question
of money is secondary to that of the qualifications of those who are
admitted to full membership.
THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE.
The work of the Association should be broadened to include the con-
sideration of all elements entering into the fixed physical property. The
increasing importance of the telephone in the railway business suggests
the advisability of opening our membership to engineers who are expert
in the design and construction of telegraph and telephone lines. When
a sufficient number of these men join the Association, a special committee
on this branch of railroading should be appointed.
The work of our Committee is now recognized by all steam railway
carriers, all State Governments and all Federal Governments in America.
The improvement of the quality of rails is one of first importance. It is
necessary to prosecute the work continuously, and during the past five
years the Association has had the practical assistance of the American
Railway Association. In order to make more rapid progress in the in-
vestigation of the rail problem, the Special Engineer who has been work-
ing under the direction of the Rail Committee will be furnished with one
expert assistant.
SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STRESSES IN TRACK.
The Board of Direction has appointed a Special Committee to co-
operate with a similar committee from the American Society of Civil
Engineers to conduct a series of tests to determine stresses in track. The
sum of $10,000 has been tendered to the American Railway Engineering
Association by the United States Steel Corporation to aid in defraying
the cost of the experiments which will be undertaken. The personnel of
our Special Committee is as follows : A. N. Talbot, Chairman ; W. M.
Dawley, Vice-Chairman; A. S. Baldwin, J. B. Berry, G. H. Bremner, H. E.
Hale, John Brunner, W. J. Burton, C. S. Churchill, W. C. Cushing, Dr.
P. H. Dudley, Emil Gerber, J. B. Jenkins, Geo. W. Kittredge, P. M.
LaBach, Wm. McNab, G. J. Ray, F. E. Turneaure, J. E. Willoughby.
The Committee from the A. S. C. E. is the same with the exception of
Messrs. Dawley, Hale, LaBach, Dudley and Jenkins.
RAILWAY MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
The civil engineering departments of railways generally include
mechanical as well as civic engineers. Our Constitution states that "a
member shall be either a civil engineer, a mechanical engineer, an elec-
trical engineer, etc., etc." Special effort on the part of our members will
result in many mechanical engineers making application for admittance,
38 BUSINESS SESSION.
and the work of the Association will be strengthened and broadened by
the selection of a special committee to consider the mechanical features
connected with the fixed physical property.
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
The Committee on Records and Accounts during the next five years
will consider many important subjects relating to valuation. Greater
uniformity of practice in connection with the preparation of engineering
records is likely to result from the extension of the powers of the Federal
Commission. Our Committee will find it profitable to review the entire
question of fundamental records and to determine the forms and methods
which make for uniformity.
The work of the Committee should be extended into the field of
engineering accounting. The entire series of classifications of accounts
of the Interstate Commerce Commission should be carefully studied with
reference to both form and principle, and the Association should take a
leading part in the discussion of any future changes in these classifica-
tions. Engineers have been very backward in taking up the study of
cost accounting, but the time has now arrived when the exigencies of
the situation demand that engineers in charge of construction and main-
tenance shall perfect their knowledge of the principles which underlie this
important subject.
ORGANIZATION.
The Board of Direction last year requested the Committee on Rules
and Organization to begin the study of the science of organization, and
report to the Board of Direction how this study can be made profitable
to the Association. The Committee has presented to the Board a most
excellent report, which will probably be printed in the April Bulletin
and distributed to the members. The initial report of the Committee
justifies the hope of the Board that this subject can be considered profit-
ably from the standpoint of principle with the greatest benefit to the
Association.. Efficiency and economy presuppose correct organization.
Scientific management is nothing more than the application of correct
principles to the management of business, and the study of the principles
of organization will be of pronounced educational value to our members.
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.
During the year the Association was invited to send representatives
to the Fifth National Conservation Congress, Washington, D. C, and
the following members were appointed as delegates: Messrs. C. H. Fisk
(chairman), Earl Stimson, A. W. Carpenter, R. C. Young, and S. B. Rice.
SAFETY.
Invitation was also received to attend the National Conference on
Safety and Sanitation, in New York City, and the following members
were appointed as delegates: Messrs. C. H. Stein (chairman), Earl
Stimson, and H. S. Balliet.
BUSINESS SESSION. 39
SIGNALS.
At the beginning of the Twentieth Century the efforts of signal ex-
perts to establish the economy of signal installations were rewarded.
Signals were found to safeguard and facilitate traffic. Each year more
and more progress has been made, until to-day signaling is recognized as
a prominent factor in successful operation.
The number of automatic block signals and interlocking levers has
increased by leaps and bounds, and will continue to increase for many
years to come. The mileage of manual block has increased from about
24,000 to 64,555 miles, and that of automatic block from 2,300 to 22,200.
Power interlocking has supplanted mechanical machines at nearly all
large plants, and the successful operation of such terminals as the Penn-
sylvania and New York Central at New York, the joint terminals at
Boston, St. Louis, and Washington, and that of the Northwestern Rail-
way at Chicago, are due very largely to the development of power inter-
locking. Three-position signals, electric route-locking, annunciators, elec-
tric detector locking as a substitute for detector bars, illuminated track
models, and signals working in the upper quadrant, are among the many
important improvements which have become indispensable during the
life of our Association.
Probably the most interesting development during the past fifteen
years has been the use of alternating current for automatic block signaling.
Automatic control of trains has received in the past a large amount
of attention by the railways of this Association. The St. Paul had test
installations in service when our Association was founded.
Any review of the progress and science of signaling would be in-
complete without mention of the earnest and valuable work of Committee
X, on Signaling and Interlocking, in their effort-to determine a uniform
system of signals. For several years the Committee was divided in its
opinion, but the members were big enough and broad enough to put
aside their individual preference, adopting for their guidance the motto,
"Unity in essentials, liberty in non-essentials, charity in all things."
Working only for the common good of the profession, they were able
last year to present a system which can be universally used, and which
has already been adopted on many thousand miles of railway. This sys-
tem is based on "evolution and not revolution." The adoption of the
report of Committee X on uniform signaling by our Association in 1913
marked an epoch in the progress of the railway.
TRACK.
The American Railway Association has requested our Association to
co-operate jointly with the Master Mechanics' Association and the As-
sociation of Chilled Car Wheel Manufacturers, to determine the question
of proper throat clearance for frogs, guard rails and crossings. The
work has been assigned to the Committee on Track. Standards of track
design, construction and maintenance have been greatly developed during
the past 15 years and the work of our Association is to-day regarded as
the standard American practice.
40 BUSINESS SESSION.
ENGLAND INVADES AMERICA.
Henry W. Thornton lias been appointed General Manager of the
Great Eastern Railway of England. The Chairman of the Board of
Directors of the Great Eastern made the following observation:
''We have appointed Henry W. Thornton, of the Long Island, which
works under the authority of the Pennsylvania, the premier railroad of
the world. His career has been one succession of railroad triumphs and
from our point of view there is also the advantage that he has worked
on the biggest system of electrically operated suburban traffic in the United
States. I know the appointment will be criticised, but I point to the
great success which the district railway, which is a part of the London
Underground, has had with the importation of Mr. Stanley."
The appointment of Mr. Thornton is a well-merited international
recognition of the capacity and ability of American Engineers for the
responsible work of management of railway properties.
TERMINALS.
Remarkable progress has been made in the design of terminal sta-
tions. The most notable examples completed during the life of our
Association are those of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway at Chicago,
the Pennsylvania Railroad at New York, and the Grand Central Terminal
of the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad at New York City.
Reference has been made by former Presidents to the first two men-
tioned above. Reference is here made to some of the general features
of the Grand Central Station. Between 1903 and the present time the
Grand Central Terminal was entirely reconstructed, all old buildings and
tracks being removed and replaced with the present magnificent facilities.
To summarize :
RAILROAD LOCATION
Hudson River Railroad. Chambers St. and West Broadway.
1st Station in 1851-1871 No. 241 Bowery.
New York & Harlem R. R. Tyron Row.
1st Station 1832-1839 Madison Avenue 26-27 Sts.
It Station 1839-1857 Grand Central Terminal.
1st Station 1857-1871
1st Station 1871
GRAND CENTRAL TERMINAL
Occupied jointly by the Hudson River Railroad, the New York and Har-
lem, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R.
1869-1871— Built
1885— Enlarged
1898— Enlarged
1903 to date— Rebuilt
The main Concourse and Waiting Room in the present Terminal were
opened for traffic on February 1st, 1913.
The one point which the development of the Grand Central Terminal
has demonstrated more than anything else is the fact that in building
great terminals in cities where the price of land is very high, a portion
of the overhead charges for land can be obtained from the rents of the
BUSINESS SESSION. 41
"up-air" space or the rental of the "air rights," so-called. The carrier
utilizes its sub-surface rights for station purposes and in the case of
the Grand Central Terminal has more than 20 entire city blocks where
"up-air" rights can be so used as to yield a revenue which will justify
the investment in the terminal.
The design of the Grand Central Terminal is one of the most
beautiful in the world and from a practical standpoint of adaptability it
may be said to have few rivals.
THE ALASKA RAILWAY.
Alaska comprises an area equal to one-fifth of that of the United
States. Congress has decided to build not exceeding 1,000 miles of modern
railway at an expense not to exceed $35,000,000. The act of Congress
permits the President either to operate the road when completed, or to
lease it to a private company. The release of the natural resources of
Alaska now owned by the Government and the encouragement of private
enterprise in the employment of these resources under conditions of gov-
ernmental regulation which shall fully safeguard the public interests
constitutes one of our greatest national problems. The consideration
of this new railway marks an epoch in the history of our country in
respect to the construction and operation of railways by the Government,
but conditions are favorable for the experiment and the results will show
whether the new policy of public instead of private ownership is best.
PROGRESS OF CANADA.
During the fifteen years' life of our Association, the Dominion of
Canada has made most marvelous progress, which is represented by the
rapid growth of its principal transcontinental railway systems.
GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY SYSTEM.
The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway will be completed in 1914. The
track is now laid continuous, except over the Quebec bridge, from Monc-
ton, New Brunswick, to Winnipeg, Manitoba, a distance of 1,804 miles,
and extends westerly across the Rocky Mountains to a point 1,280 miles
west of Winnipeg, making a total continuous mileage from Moncton
of 3,084 miles. Tracklaying has been completed from Prince Rupert on
the Pacific Ocean, easterly for 325 miles. It is expected that the rails
will be connected between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans during the com-
itig summer.
The ports of St. John and Halifax on the Atlantic Ocean are reached
from Moncton over the Intercolonial Railway, which is owned and oper-
ated by the Canadian Government. The lines of the Grand Trunk Pacific
when completed in 1914 will make a system of approximately 5,000 miles
of road, and together with the Grand Trunk Railway, which is the parent
company, will make a system of lines having a grand total of approxi-
mately 10,000 miles.
42
liUSJNESS SESSION.
The enormous resources of the new empire which is now being
opened by the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway will guarantee a large
traffic for the new line ; and in view of the low maximum grade of four-
tenths of I per cent, through the entire line from ocean to ocean, its
traffic will be handled with expedition and economy.
That portion of the road between Moncton and Winnipeg is being
built by the Canadian Government under the title of "The National Trans-
continental Railway," and when completed, it will be leased to the Grand
Trunk Pacific Railway Company for fifty years. The Western Division
from Winnipeg to Prince Rupert is being built with the aid of the Grand
Trunk Railway Company of Canada and the Canadian Government, the
latter guaranteeing the payment of principal and interest of bonds for its
construction, to the extent of three-fourths of the cost.
CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY.
The Canadian Pacific Railway was the first transcontinental line in
America, and at the present time it owns and operates railway and steam-
ship lines which encircle the globe. The rapid growth and extent of
this railway is represented by the following statistics:
Growth of Canadian Pacific. Railway
Mileage of road owned
Operated over other lines
Other roads controlled
Under construction
Tons of freight carried 1 mile
Number of passengers carried 1 mile
Total earnings
" expenses
" capital stock
preferred stock
consolidated debenture stock
cost of road and equipment . . .
" assets
1899
about 5,500
2,142,000,000
431,000,000
$26,138,977
15,663,605
65,000,000
21,000,000
' 214,707,666
264,000,000
12,987
1.767.
$139
93
200
74
162,
452
721,
11,600
384
4,604
1,295
000,000
000,000
395,700
149,826
000,000
000,000
000,000
000,000
000,000
CANADIAN NORTHERN RAILWAY.
Another great transcontinental line is the Canadian Northern Rail-
way, which extends from Quebec to Vancouver, a distance of over
three thousand miles.
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC TRACTION.
During 15 years — 1899-1914.
The theoretical possibilities of Electric Traction were recognized so
early as 1830 by Thomas Davenport of Vermont.
Following his general theories, others subsequently made experimental
demonstrations of electrical car operation.
Dynamos and rotary electric motors were first produced in the early
sixties.
BUSINESS SESSION. 43
In 1887 Frank J. Sprague, who had already made one or two suc-
cessful Electric Railway installations, undertook the then herculean task
of electrifying the entire Street Railway System of Richmond, Va., which
project was completed in February, 1888. There were then about a dozen
small electric railway systems operated in this country, the most extensive
of which had about seven miles of track.
The successful demonstration of Electric Traction made by Sprague
at Richmond on a far more extensive scale than had been before accom-
plished ; also the practical development at about this same time of certain
essentials to satisfactory and economic operation, gave a great impetus
to Street Railway Electrification.
As regards the adaptation of electric traction to heavier classes of
service prior to 1900, it can be thus briefly sketched.
So early as 1891, John F. Wallace, then Chief Engineer of the Illinois
Central Railroad Company, seriously contemplated and negotiated for
the electrification of his company's suburban service at Chicago, which
has not yet been undertaken.
In 1892, the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad closed its contract for the
electrification of its Belt Line Tunnel at Baltimore, the electrification of
which was not completed until 1895.
As early as 1890 the City and South London Underground Tube
Railway in England was using small electric locomotives for the haulage
of its trains.
In 1896 the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad electrified
its Nantasket Beach line near Boston ; in 1897 and 1898 about forty miles
of its branch lines in the vicinity of Hartford, in both instances using
heavily equipped motor cars for train haulage.
In 1897 Frank J. Sprague revolutionized all theories previously held
on train operation by the invention of his Multiple Unit System of train
control, the operative possibilities of which are probably not yet fully
appreciated. The Southside Elevated Railroad of Chicago was thus
equipped and operated in 1898.
The demonstration there made gave a terrific impetus to the elec-
trification of Elevated Railway and similar roads requiring train service,
for the system permitted the distribution of motors throughout the trains
and their instant and effective control from one or more points.
Not over one thousand miles of Interurban electric trackage had been
constructed prior to 1900. The great development of this class of rail-
ways came with the introduction of long distance high tension A. C.
current transmission, which did not get fairly under way until about 1900.
although Niagara's power was thus transmitted to Buffalo in the latter
part of 1896.
Despite this great improvement in methods of transmission, it was
several years after 1900 before the practical operation of cars with other
than D. C. current at above 600 volts was undertaken.
44 BUSINESS SESSION.
In 1900 the total track mileage of all electric railways in this country
was not far from 20,500, of which, as already stated, not over 1,000 miles
was strictly Interurhan in its character.
The present track mileage of all American Electric Railways is about
45,000, of which approximately 20,000 miles is Interurban, and on much
of which trackage a service comparable to that of Steam Railroads is
operated.
At the commencement of 1900 there were not to exceed six types
of Electric Locomotive, numbering not above twenty, operated in this
country which were of sufficient capacity to be compared with steam loca-
motives then in use.
There are now in America approximately 151 types representing 463
Electric Locomotives in operation, and 59 on order. Of these approxi-
mately 160 are for single or split-phase A. C. operation ; 4 for three-
phase, and about 100 for D. C. operation at 1,200 volts or higher potential.
Of the last about 30 are for operation at 2,400 volts D. C.
These locomotives not in the classes enumerated are for 600 volt
operation.
In 1900 about ten 600 volt D. C. locomotives were in operation upon
various sections of European steam railroads, as were 12 three-phase.
Up to the present European electrical manufacturers have produced
80 types of electric locomotives to be used by steam railroads, repre-
senting 262 machines now in service, and 148 on order.
Of this total probably a third are three-phase; about one-half single-
phase and the remainder D. C. Among these last are some high-tension
machines.
The form of Electric Traction development since 1900 that has been
the most extensive; has replaced far more steam locomotives than has
been done by electric locomotives ; and that has created a class of rail-
ways closely analogous to steam roads, so far as their passenger traffic
is concerned, is through the use of heavy cars with a motor capacity
of from 300 H.P. to 600 H.P. each.
Probably over 20,000 cars of this general description have been placed
in service since 1900. These are operated under such widely varying
conditions of service as is represented by caring for the suburban service
of the New York Central, Long Island and Southern Pacific Railroads.
That of the Elevated and similar .systems.
The electrified portion of the West Jersey & Seashore and similar
roads ; and by the host of Interurban Electric roads which have heavy
traffic or are operated at high speeds.
In Europe there has been but comparatively little construction of
Interurban Electric Railways in the sense that the term is used in this
country, but much of the steam railroad electrification there is of a
character comparable with our practice as regards Interurban electrical
equipment and operation.
As regards the use in Europe of heavily-motored cars, such as have
just been referred to, there were in operation in 1900 approximately 60
BUSINESS SESSION. 45
used on underground and similar railways. At the present there are
operated there on similar roads and electrified steam roads about 2,800.
In American Interurban Railway development and in Steam Rail-
road Terminal electrification, high tension D. C. operation at 1,200 volts
and above has made great strides since its first introduction in 1907.
It is now installed upon approximately 30 systems aggregating 2,300
miles of track, upon which approximately 715 motor cars and locomo-
tives are operated.
Between 1904 and 1908 an extensive introduction of the single-phase
A. C. system of operation occurred in the development on Interurban
electrics, which totaled approximately 1,040 miles of track in 1908. Since
then D. C. has superseded A. C. on about 430 miles of such trackage.
But in 1910 and 191 1 there were two single-phase Interurban installations
made, aggregating 115 miles of track.
As is well known there is still a strong tendency in certain direc-
tions to adopt single-phase locomotives for main-line electrification, and
those now in operation and on order have been included in the totals
of electric locomotives in America and Europe quoted in the foregoing.
The general tendency in what is termed single-phase development is
now toward its material modification, the most important form of which
is termed split-phase, such as is now being installed on the Norfolk &
Western.
In the development of high tension D. C. operation experiments are
being made with so high a potential as 5,000 volts.
Experiments are in progress also with what are termed Mercury-
Arc Rectifier systems of operation. These are of two different forms.
First — Through the installation of the Mercury Arc Rectifier device
of larger sizes than have heretofore been in use, to replace the rotary
converters or motor generators which now convert A. C. into D. C. cur-
rent at substations ; and it is hoped by all and expected by a few engi-
neers that practically the same conversion can thus lie accomplished
without the introduction of moving mechanical parts. This method, if
a success, would simplify and reduce the costs of substation operation,
but the systems of transmission and distribution, as well as the rolling
stock equipment, would remain practically the same as on D. C. roads
of the present.
Second — Through the installation of mercury arc rectifiers upon elec-
tric locomotives and motor cars, endeavor to secure all the advantages of
A. C. transmission and distribution ; also to avoid the use of substations
for current conversion, yet at the same time thus secure the well-recog-
nized advantages in operation of D. C. motors and control.
Attractive as are the theories involved in both forms of the experi-
ment, apparently great technical difficulties stand in the way of their prac-
tical realization.
European experiment and practice in the development of electric
traction is along similar lines to those followed in this country, although
there is a greater preference there than here for three-phase operation,
46 BUSINESS SESSION.
probably arising from differences in the physical characteristics of the
railroads there as regards the easier and more reliable operation of the
distribution circuits working electrical conductors required by the three-
phase system.
As is generally known, the Pennsylvania has already arranged for
the electrification of a goodly portion of its suburban lines in the vicinity
of Philadelphia.
The Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound has contracted for electrical
power to operate approximately 450 miles of its main line and are about
to order the electrical equipment therefor.
Several other important electrification projects are in immediate con-
templation by American railway systems, and electrified sections of rail-
roads are being extended.
Excluding elevated and other local railroad electrifications, about
1,750 miles of steam railroad track has already been electrified and at
least 900 miles more has been definitely decided upon ; while the elec-
trification of still another 1,000 miles or more is seriously contemplated.
The broad future of railroad electrification is dependent upon its
thorough demonstration of great economic advantages over steam. If
these are shown, nothing can of course prevent its ultimate general in-
troduction. If these are not so demonstrated, its limitations as regards
introduction will soon be reached.
FEDERAL REGULATIONS OF RAILWAYS.
The marvelous development of the system of steam railway trans-
portation has deeply affected the economic and social life of the American
people, and has contributed in large measure to the development of the
country. Distance is now measured in hours rather than miles. When
George Stevenson built and drove the "Rocket" over the Liverpool &
Manchester Railway in 1830, the traveller from London to Rome con-
sumed as much time as the courier of Julius Caesar. The Conestoga
wagon in 1790 made the trip from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh in twenty
days. The stage coach made the same trip in 1818 in six days. After the
construction of the Pennsylvania State Railroad, the train covered the
same distance in 1834 in three and one-half days. At present, in 1914,
standard passenger trains make the same journey in eight hours. The in-
dustrial expansion of the United States, together with the rapid con-
struction and development of railways in all parts of the country, has had
a marked effect on the social conditions of the people.
Economics has been defined as the social science of business and the
engineer should study the railway business as a problem in economics.
After a public discussion which extended over the years from 1870
to 1885, Congress began the consideration of a law for the regulation of
common carriers. Public opinion, both in America and Europe, demanded
BUSINESS SESSION. 47
that an industry which so vitally affects the comfort and prosperity of
the whole people should be subject to public regulation. On February
4, 1887, Congress passed the "Act to Regulate Commerce," which au-
thorized the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission. This Act
contains many provisions, some of which are:
1. Discriminations are prohibited.
2. Railway rates must be reasonable.
3. Rates must be published.
4. The rate for a short haul must not exceed the rate for a long
haul under similar circumstances.
5. Pooling contracts are prohibited.
The amendment of 1891 empowered the Commission to subpoena
witnesses and require testimony. The act was amended in 1903 by the
passage of the Elkins law; in 1906 by the passage of the Hepburn law;
and in 1910 by the Mann-Elkins law. These amendments enlarged the
powers of the Commission in several ways:
1. Uniform accounts must be kept by all common carriers in ac-
cordance with the orders of the Commission.
2. Carriers and shippers alike are subject to the penalty of fine and
imprisonment for granting discriminatory rates.
3. The Commission is authorized to secure injunctions against rail-
roads violating the law.
4. Carriers cannot change their rates except on 30 days' notice to
the Commission, and the Commission has power to suspend new rates
for 10 months, if necessary, until the reasonableness of the proposed rates
is determined.
5. The Commission has power to prescribe what is a reasonable rate.
VALUATION OF COMMON CARRIERS.
On March 1, 1913, Congress passed the Valuation Act, which is
Section 19a of the "Act to Regulate Commerce." The Interstate Com-
merce Commission is authorized and empowered to make a valuation
of the property of all common carriers of the United States. The term
"common carrier" includes steam railways, electric railways, water lines,
express companies, sleeping car companies, pipe line companies, telegraph
lines, and telephone lines. The problem of valuation is one of gigantic pro-
portions, because it deals with property which is capitalized at about $20,-
000,000,000. There is no precedent in any country in the world for this
important work. In no other country have valuations ever been made for
purposes of regulation. It therefore appears that a new work has been
undertaken which will accomplish results of the greatest interest to the
people. Important social and economic changes may follow.
The magnitude of the valuation problem is reflected in statistics
showing the growth of the railway, the telegraph, and the telephone dur-
ing the past fifteen years, as follows:
48
BUSINESS SESSION.
DEVELOPMENT OF RAILWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES
Subject
1900
Miles of railway
Miles of track . .
Number of operating roads
Number of locomotives
Number of cars in passenger service
Number of cars in freight service. . .
Number of employees
Compensation of employees, yearly
Average yearly pay for employee . .
Number of passengers carried
Tons of freight carried
Average number of tons per train. .
Capital stock
Funded debt
$571
576
$5,845
$5,645
193,346
258.784
1,067
37,663
34,713
,365,531
017,653
264,841
$567.25
931,251
351,351
270.86
,579,593
,455,367
1911
244,180
362,824
1,312
61,327
49,818
2,195,511
1,669,809
$1,208,466,470
$723.71
997,409,882
1,003,053,893
383.10
$8,470,717,611
$10,738,217,470
Gain %
26.3
40.2
22.9
62.8
43.5
60.8
64.1
109.3
27.5
72.8
71.9
41.4
44.9
91.9
DEVELOPMENT OF THE TELEPHONE— BELL TELEPHONE SYSTEM IN THE
UNITED STATES
Subject
1900
1912
Gain %
Mileage of pole lines
Mileage of wire
Number of stations
Number of employees
Number of exchange connections daily . . .
Number of toll connections daily
Liabilities — Total outstanding obligations
Assets — Total
131,538
1,961,801
855,911
37,067
5,668,986
148,528
$194,728,100
$230,225,900
315,003
139.4
14,610,813
644.7
7,456.074
771.1
140,789
279.8
25,572,345
351.9
738,823
397.4
$751,178,954
$924,260,818
DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN UNION TELEGRAPH COMPANY
Subject
1900
1912
Gain %
Mileage of lines
Mileage of wires
Number of offices
Number of messages
Receipts
Toll for average message
192,705
933,153
22,900
63,167,783
$24,758,570
$0,308
220,928
1,517,317
25 392
90,000!000 (est)
$42,987,807
$0,388
14.6
62.6
10 9
42.5
73.6
26.0
Valuation is a problem involving (i) the law; (2) engineering; (3)
accounting; (4) economics. First, the corporation is organized under
the law, followed by the construction of the property, the accounting for
its cost, and finally, the consideration of the results of its operation.
In 1898, at about the time of the first meeting of those eminent
engineers who conceived and organized the American Railway Engineer-
ing Association, the Supreme Court of the United States handed down
its decision in the Nebraska Rate Case, affirming the principle that "The
basis of all calculations as to the reasonableness of rates must be the
fair value of tbe property being used for the public convenience. What
the company is entitled to is a fair return upon the value of that which
it employs for the public convenience." In the opinion of the Circuit
Court in the Nebraska Rate Case, Justice Brewer said, "Now, if the public
was seeking to take title to the railroad by condemnation, the present
value of the property, and not the cost, is that which it would have to
BUSINESS SESSION. 49
pay. In like manner, it may be argued that when the legislature as-
sumes the right to reduce rates, the rates so reduced cannot be adjudged
unreasonable if under them there is earned by the railroad company a
fair interest on the actual value of the property." The Supreme Court
in the Consolidated Gas Case, in 1909, said, "We concur with the court
below, in holding that the value of the property is to be determined as
of the time when the inquiry is made regarding the rates. If the property
which legally enters into the consideration of the question of rates has
increased in value since it was acquired, the company is entitled to the
benefit of such increase." In June, 1913, the Supreme Court decided the
Minnesota Rate Case, and said: "The property is held in private owner-
ship, and it is that property, and not the original cost of it, of which
the owner may not be deprived without due process of law."
A duty will rest upon engineers in connection with this valuation
work, because it is necessary to determine the cost of reproduction,
which is distinctively an engineering problem. Congress has ordered.
''That the Interstate Commerce Commission shall investigate, ascertain,
and report the value of all the property owned or used by every com-
mon carrier subject to the provisions of this Act. The Commission shall
make an inventory which shall list the property of every common car-
rier in detail, and show the value thereof, ....
and shall classify the physical property, as nearly as practicable, in con-
formity with the classification of expenditures for road and equipment as
prescribed by the Interstate Commerce Commission." The Commission .
is required among other things to ascertain and report in detail as to each
piece of property (1) the original cost to date; (2) the cost of reproduc-
tion new ; (3) the cost of reproduction less depreciation ; and (4) in like
manner, other values and elements of value.
ORIGINAL COST TO DATE.
It is probable that the original cost of many railways cannot readily
be ascertained, because records have been lost or burned or destroyed.
Roads built before the passage of the Hepburn Act, in 1906, kept
their accounts in accordance with different accounting systems, and
charges to capital were determined by a variety of principles. Uni-
formity of method in accounting was unknown, and where additions
and betterments were made, the cost was divided between operation and
investment according to the economic principle which was adopted by a
particular carrier.
Railways constructed since July 1, 1907, have been required by the
Interstate Commerce Commission to report their investments in accord-
ance with a uniform system of accounts, by which charges to capital
account were determined on the basis of a uniform principle. The
original cost of these roads can probably be determined.
The determination of the "original cost to date" of railways, whether
built before or after the passage of the Hepburn law, is largely an ac-
50 BUSINESS SESSION.
counting problem. However, many difficulties will arise in connection
with the preparation of a final inventory, and it is probable that a portion
of the responsibility will rest on engineers.
COST OF REPRODUCTION NEW.
The Commission is required to determine the cost of reproduction of
railways, and the Act specifically requires that a detailed inventory shall be
prepared, and that the units of the property shall be classified. In order to
accomplish this purpose, it will be necessary to remeasure the units of the
railways of the country, which, at the present time, amount to about 250,000
miles of road. This is a task of gigantic proportions, involving, as it does,
an effort to determine the classified quantities of properties which are esti-
mated to be worth from fifteen to twenty billions of dollars. The work
of estimating the "cost of reproduction new" is essentially an engineering
problem, and will require the services of many engineers. Many doubt-
ful questions are involved, and since there is no precedent for
this work in the history of Europe or America, it will be advisable
for such organizations as the American Railway Engineering Association
to carefully analyze this problem and study the fundamental principles and
factors which should govern.
COST OF REPRODUCTION LESS DEPRECIATION.
The depreciation problem is complex and has a bearing on the de-
termination of "fair value." Considerable study has been given to the de-
preciation problem, but the principle of depreciation has not heretofore
been generally recognized in the keeping of investment accounts. The Su-
preme Court has decided that depreciation shall be considered, and the
problem is to determine the method which will yield a result which will
be just and true and fair. This work will involve an extended study on
the part of engineers, economists, attorneys and accountants.
OTHER VALUES AND ELEMENTS OF VALUE.
Congress has recognized the fact that valuation is a complex prob-
lem, and has ordered that the properties of common carriers shall be in-
vestigated and studied in order that "other values, and elements of value,
if any, of the property," shall be reported. This work opens up a large
field for valuation experts.
KEEPING VALUATIONS UP TO DATE.
Congress has provided that, "Upon the completion of the valuation
herein provided for, the Commission shall thereafter in like manner keep
itself informed of all extensions or improvements or other changes in
the condition and value of the property of all common carriers, and shall
ascertain the value thereof, and shall, from time to time, revise and cor-
rect its valuation, showing such revision and correction classified, and
as a whole and separately in each of the several states and territories
and the District of Columbia, which valuations, both original and cor-
BUSINESS SESSION. 51
rected, shall be tentative valuations and shall be reported to Congress
at the beginning of each regular session." All common carriers will be
required to report to the Interstate Commerce Commission the details of
their investment in each and every extension, improvement, or change,
including deductions incident to property which is retired or abandoned.
This is a work of great magnitude for construction and maintenance
engineers, on whom will rest the responsibility of determining what units
of an improvement are to be charged to investment and what units must
be charged to operating expenses on account of replacement. Engineer-
ing accountants will be required in the offices of original record, and the
field of usefulness for the engineer who understands the principles of
accounting will be greatly enlarged. Cost accounting is an important
branch of railway engineering, and this Association will be justified in
requiring its various committees to study the fundamental principles of
economics which must be followed in order that the record of cost may
be true and fair and just.
SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON VALUATION.
The Board of Direction has considered the appointment of a special
committee on valuation of railways, but no final action has been taken.
In view of the importance of the work, the Board has arranged to pub-
lish a bibliography on the subject, which will be kept up to date by supple-
ments issued from time to time. Many of the fundamental principles
and factors entering into valuation remain to be determined, and the
high standing of this Association makes it imperative that the membership
should lead in the discussion of this question during the next few years.
(Applause.)
The President : — The next business is the reading of the reports of
the Secretary and Treasurer.
Secretary E. H. Fritch then read the following reports :
SECRETARY'S REPORT.
To the Members of the American Railimy Engineering Association:
Your Association is to be congratulated on the progress made during
the past year. The interest of the members in the work has been
sustained. The increase in membership has been gratifying, and the
financial condition is satisfactory.
The Special and Standing Committees are to be complimented on the
excellent reports which have been presented for consideration at this
meeting. Committee work is often performed at great personal sacrifice
of time taken from busy lives, and members of committees deserve credit
for their painstaking efforts.
We are also indebted to individual members and others for mono-
graphs contributed to the Bulletin from time to time, making valuable
information available. This feature can be developed to good advantage,
52 BUSINESS SESSION.
and members possessing suitable material are urged to present it for
publication iivthe Bulletin.
Another field that can be cultivated to good purpose is tbat of written
discussions of both committee reports and monographs. Up to the present
time this feature has been somewhat neglected. Written discussions will
undoubtedly be the means of bringing out much useful information.
i
PUBLICATIONS.
During the year the following publications have been issued :
io issues of the Bulletin.
I Volume of the Proceedings.
Supplement to the Manual.
Program and miscellaneous leaflets.
The total number of printed pages issued during the year was 4,198.
On March 29, 1913, the Bulletin of the Association was admitted to
the privileges of the second-class mail rates. This permission entitles the
publication to be mailed at pound rates, thus effecting a material saving
in postage.
Our voluminous Proceedings have demonstrated the need of a General
Index, and arrangements have been made to have such Index prepared,
covering the fifteen volumes of the annual Proceedings. This work will
be undertaken by an Engineer having library experience.
The first edition of the Manual of Recommended Practice was issued
in 1905, the second in 1907, and the third in 191 1. Supplements thereto
have been issued in 1912 and 1913. and the action of this convention will
be treated in a similar manner. It would be desirable to republish the
Manual in 1915, and with that end in view the efforts of the committees
during the coming year should be directed towards perfecting the matter
to be embodied in the 1915 Manual.
The demand for the publications of the Association is constantly
increasing, and every effort should be made to improve both their quality
and appearance.
MEMBERSHIP.
The membership December 31, 1912, was 1,066
Admissions during the year 112
1,178
Deceased members 6
Withdrawals during the year 14
Dropped for nonpayment of dues II
— 3i
Total membership December 31, 1913 I>i47
BUSINESS SESSION. 53
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
The geographical distribution of members is indicated in the follow-
ing table :
United States 1,014 Brazil 2
Canada 86 Peru
Japan 8 Ecuador
Mexico 5 Bolivia
Central America 5 Panama
New Zealand 4 Porto Rico
China 3 Russia
Cuba 4 Uruguay
Philippine Islands 2 Haiti
India 2 Costa Rica
Argentine Republic 2 Hawaii
Total membership 1,147
INCREASE OF MEMBERSHIP.
Members of the Association can materially assist in increasing the
membership by personal effort and suggestions to eligible persons. Mem-
bers are requested to forward to the Secretary's office the names and
addresses of eligible railway officials and others who would make desir-
able additions to the membership, in order that suitable literature can
be furnished.
DECEASED MEMBERS.
The Association has lost by death the following members during
the year:
J. C. Haugh, Resident Engineer, New Orleans & Northeastern Rail-
road.
W. C. Smith, Chief Engineer Maintenance of Way, Northern Pacific
Railway.
E. F. Ackerman, Assistant Engineer, Lehigh Valley Railroad.
J. C. Young, Signal Engineer, Union Pacific Railroad.
G. W. West, Civil Engineer.
A. G. Macfarlane, District Engineer, National Transcontinental Rail-
way.
L. R. Zollinger, Engineer Maintenance of Way, Pennsylvania Railroad.
FINANCIAL STATEMENT.
Balance on hand December 31, 1912 $10,745.26
Receipts during the year 1913 :
From members $13,677.75
From sales of publications, advertising, etc... 5,577.84
From Am. Ry. Assn. — Rail Committee ex-
penses 5,627.00
From interest on bank balance 1 12.61
From interest on investments 320.00
Miscellaneous 563.35
Total receipts in 1913 $25,878.55
Expenditures during 1913 22,347.07
Excess of receipts over expenditures $ 3,531.48 3,531.48
Balance on hand December 31, 1913 $14,276.74
54 BUSINESS SESSION.
EXPENDITURES FOR IOJ3 IN DETAIL.
Stationery and printing $ 337-12
Proceedings 2,357.34
Bulletins 4,121.19
Manual 384-54
Salaries 4,529-i6
Officers' expenses 69.80
Postage 745-55
Telephone and telegrams 74-99
Committee expenses 10.80
Supplies 263.52
Rents 956.63
Expressage 405-1/
Light 23.00
Commission on advertising 1,166.75
Annual meeting expenses '. 918.40
Equipment 64.25
Badges 1 1320
Exchange 47-95
Miscellaneous 130.71
Rail Committee expenses 5,627.00
Total $22,347.07
Your Secretary desires to express his sincere thanks and apprecia-
tion to the members of the Association for the courtesy, good-will and
consideration extended to him during the past fourteen years.
Respectfully submitted,
E. H. Fritch, Secretary.
REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
I have the honor of presenting the following report for the calendar
year ending December 31, 1913:
Balance cash on hand December 31, 1912 $10,745.26
Consisting of:
Cash in bank $ 5,539.20
Six railway bonds 5,206.06
Total $10,745-26
Receipts during the year 1913 $25,878.55
Paid out on audited vouchers 22,347.07
Excess of receipts over disbursements $ 3,531.48 3,531.48
Balance on hand December 31, 1913 $14,276.74
Consisting of :
Six railway bonds, par value $1,000 each, at cost. .$ 5,206.06
Four Lincoln Park bonds, par value $1,000 each, at
cost 4,004.27
Cash in Standard Trust and Savings Bank 5,066.41
Total $14,276.74
BUSINESS SESSION. 55
The bonds owned by the Association have been registered and placed
in a safety deposit box in the Merchants Loan and Trust Company's
vaults.
Respectfully submitted,
Geo. H. Bremner. Treasurer.
The Secretary : — The accounts have been audited by Public Account-
ants, and their figures agree with the foregoing.
(Upon motion, duly carried, the reports of the Secretary and Treas-
urer were accepted.)
The President : — The next order of business is the reports of Stand-
ing and Special Committees. The first Committee on the program is
that on Rules and Organization.
It is evident that we have a large amount of business to transact
during the three days of the convention, and if the members will be
prompt in the discussion, it will facilitate the dispatch of business.
The Chair would suggest that each speaker, on arising to take part
in the discussion, that he first state his name and the name of the
company or institution with which he is connected, in order that the
reporters can get it correctly in the Minutes.
The report of the Committee on Rules and Organization will be
presented by the Chairman, Mr. G. D. Brooke, of the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad.
(See report, pp. 65-70; discussion, pp. 1002-1007.)
The President: — In the absence of the Chairman of the Committee
on Signals and Interlocking, Mr. Stevens, the report will be presented
by the Vice-Chairman, Mr. C. C. Anthony, of the Pennsylvania Railroad.
(See report, pp. 71-100; discussion, pp. 1008- 1012.)
The President : — The next report is that of the Committee on Yards
and Terminals. In the absence of the Chairman. Mr. Spencer, the re-
port will be presented by the Vice-Chairman, Mr. E. B. Temple, of* the
Pennsylvania Railroad.
(See report, pp. 101-148; discussion, pp. 1013-1020.)
AFTERNOON SESSION.
The President: — The first report to be taken up this afternoon is
that of the Roadway Committee. Mr. W. M. Dawley, of the Erie Rail-
road, Chairman of the Committee, will present the report.
(See report, pp. 383-400; discussion, pp. 1021-1035.)
The President : — The report of the Committee on Wooden Bridges
and Trestles will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. E. A. Frink, of
the Seaboard Air Line.
(See report, pp. 401-406; discussion, pp. 1036-1044.)
The President : — The report of the Committee on Iron and Steel
Structures will be presented by the Chairman. Mr. A. J. Himes, of the
New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railroad.
(See report, pp. 407-511; discussion, pp. 1045-1058.)
56 BUSINESS SESSION.
WEDNESDAY, MARCH 18, 1914.
MORNING SESSION.
The President : — We will continue the consideration of the report
of the Committee on Iron and Steel Structures.
The next report to be considered is that of the Committee on Ma-
sonry. Mr. G. H. Tinker, of the New York, Chicago & St. Louis Rail-
road, Chairman of the Committee, will present the report.
(See report, pp. 513-568; discussion, pp. 1059-1062.)
The President : — Balloting for officers will close at noon to-day, and
the Chair will appoint as Tellers Messrs. E. A. Frink, J. C. Nelson, H.
S. Wilgus, W. J. Bergen, H. L. Gordon, W. T. Dorrance. The Secretary
will turn over the ballots to the Tellers at the close of this morning's
session, and they will retire and report to the convention this afternoon
before adjournment.
(Vice-President W. B. Storey in the Chair.)
The Vice-President: — The report of the Committee on Track will be
presented by the Chairman of the Committee, Mr. J. B. Jenkins, of the
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
(See report, pp. 569-608; discussion, pp. 1063-1068.)
(President Wendt in the Chair.)
The President : — In the absence of the Chairman of the Committee on
Electricity, Mr. Kittredge, the report will be presented by Mr. Harwood,
of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad.
(See report, pp. 609-624; discussion, pp. 1069- 1072.)
AFTERNOON SESSION.
The President :— The report of the Committee on Wood Preserva-
tion will be presented by the Chairman of the Committee. Mr. Earl
Stimson, of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
(See report, pp. 625-682; discussion, pp. 1073-1094.)
The President: — The next report to be considered is that of the
Special Committee on Grading of Lumber. The report will be pre-
sented by the Chairman, Dr. Hermann von Schrenk.
(See report, page 683; discussion, page 1095.)
The President : — The report of the Committee on Water Service
will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. A. F. Dorley, of the Missouri
Pacific Railway.
(See report, pp. 685-694; discussion, pp. 1096-1098.)
The President: — The report of the Committee on Buildings will be
presented by the Chairman, Mr. Maurice Coburn, of the Vandalia
Railroad.
(See report, pp. 705-723; discussion, pp. 1099-1103.)
The President : — The report of the Committee on Rail will be pre-
sented by tlie Chairman, Mr. J. A. Atwood, of the Pittsburgh & Lake
Erie Railroad.
(See report, pp. 151-381 : discussion, pp. 1104-1120.)
BUSINESS SESSION. 57
The President: — The Secretary will read the report of the Tellers,
appointed to canvass the votes for officers for the coming year.
The Secretary : — The report of the Tellers is as follows :
REPORT OF TELLERS.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association :
We, the undersigned Tellers appointed to canvass the vote for
election of officers for 1914, beg to report as follows :
Total vote cast, 721.
President :
W. B. Storey 704
J. B. Berry 2
A. K. Shurtleff 2
S. B. Fisher 1
Francis Lee Stuart 1
Vice-President :
A. S. Baldwin 708
C. F. Loweth , 1
Treasurer:
G. H. Bremner 707
W. L. Webb 1
Secretary:
E. H. Fritch 705
Directors :
Earl Stimson 394
Curtis Dougherty 280
G. J. Ray 26S
C. E. Lindsay 261
John D. Isaacs 251
H. E. Hale 23 1
R. Montfort 173
J. C. Mock 135
C. H. Stein 122
C. F. W. Felt 1
John G. Sullivan 1
C. A. Wilson 1
L. A. Downs 1
Nominating Committee :
C Frank Allen 501
John V. Hanna 414
Maurice Coburn 406
J. B. Jenkins 402
C. C. Anthony 366
L A. Downs 345
58
BUSINESS SESSION.
J. M. R. Faii-bairn 315
G. A. Mountain 305
A. J. Himes 264
C. H. Fisk 109
F. W. Ranno
Andrews Allen
R. A. Rutledge
C. A. Morse
M. L. Byers .
O. E. Selby
W. J. Backes
J. H. Nnelle
R. J. Parker
Ralph Budd
Respectfully submitted,
(Signed) E. A. Frink,
W. J. Bergen,
H. S. WlLGUS,
J. C. Nelson,
W. T. Dorrance,
H. L. Gordon,
Tellers.
The Secretary: — The result of the ballot for officers is as follows:
President — W. B. Storey.
Vice-President — A. S. Baldwin.
Treasurer — G. H. Bremner.
Secretary — E. H. Fritch.
Three Directors (three years each) — Earl Stimson, Curtis Dougherty,
G. J. Ray.
Five Members of Nominating Committee — C. Frank Allen, John V.
Hanna, Maurice Coburn, J. B. Jenkins, C. C. Anthony.
(Adjournment until 9:30 o'clock Thursday morning.)
THURSDAY, MARCH 19, 1914.
MORNING SESSION.
The President : — The first order of business this morning will be
the consideration of the report of the Committee on Ties. The report
will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. L. A. Downs, of the Illinois
Central Railroad.
(See report, pp. 725-858; discussion, pp. 1121-1136.)
The President: — The next report to be considered is that of the
Committee on Signs, Fences and Crossings, Mr. C. H. Stein, of the
Central Railroad of New Jersey, Chairman. Mr. Stein will present the
report of the Committee.
(See report, pp. 859-904; discussion, pp. 1137-1150.)
BUSINESS SESSION. 59
The President: — -The report of the Committee on Conservation of
Natural Resources will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. William
McNab, of the Grand Trunk Railway System.
(See report, pp. 905-912; discussion, pp. 1151-1153.)
The President: — In the absence of the Chairman of the Committee
on Economics of Railway Location, Mr. R. N. Begien, the report of
the Committee will be presented by the Vice-Chairman, Mr. C. P. Howard.
(See report, pp. 912-918; discussion, page 1154.)
The President: — The report of the Committee on Records and Ac-
counts will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. W. A. Christian, of the
Chicago Great Western Railway.
(See report, pp. 923-960; discussion, pp. 1157-1161.)
AFTERNOON SESSION.
The President: — The report of the Special Committee on Uniform
General Contract Forms will be presented by the Vice-Chairman, Mr.
C. A. Wilson, in the absence of the Chairman, Mr. W. G. Atwood.
(See report, pp. 919-921; discussion, pp. 1155, 1 156.)
The President : — The last report to be considered is that of the Com-
mittee on Ballast. The report will be presented by the Chairman; Mr.
H. E. Hale, of the Missouri Pacific Railway.
(See report, pp. 961-1000; discussion, pp. 1162-1166.)
The President : — The reports of Standing and Special Committees
having been disposed of, we will take up new business. The Secretary
will read some resolutions which he has prepared.
Secretary Fritch : — Mr. President, I desire to offer the following
resolutions :
Resolved, by the members of the American Railway Engineering
Association, in convention assembled, that we desire to place on record
our appreciation and extend our hearty thanks to —
Hon. Charles A. Prouty, Hon. Charles Marcil, and Col. J. M. Schoon-
maker, for their admirable and instructive addresses at the annual dinner;
to the National Railway Appliances Association for the instructive and
comprehensive exhibit of devices used in the construction, maintenance
and operation of railways; to the technical press for the daily reports of
the convention and the useful information made available to the mem-
bers ; to the official reporters, Messrs. T. E. Crossman and G. W. Bur-
goyne, for their accurate and painstaking reports of this and previous
conventions ; to the tellers, Messrs. Frink, Bergen, Gordon, Nelson,
Wilgus and Dorrance, for their arduous labors in counting and tabulat-
ing the ballots for officers for the ensuing year; to Committee No.
"23," on Arrangements, for the highly successful arrangements made
for the comfort and entertainment of the members and guests attend-
ing this convention, and it is recommended that the Board of Direction
grant the Committee a horizontal increase in its "salary." (Applause.)
(The resolutions were adopted unanimously.)
Mr. L. C. Fritch (Canadian Northern) : — Mr. President, I desire
to offer a resolution :
60 BUSINESS SESSION.
Resolved, by the members of the American Railway Engineering
Association, in convention assembled, that we desire and hereby do give
an expression of appreciation of the able manner in which the retiring
President, Mr. Edwin F. Wendt, has discharged the duties of President
during the past year and presided over the meetings of this convention ;
that this resolution be spread upon the Minutes and a copy be en-
grossed and presented to Mr. Wendt.
(The resolution was put to vote by Vice-President Storey and
adopted unanimously.)
The President : — Fellow Members ; I am sincerely grateful to the
members of this Association for the loyal support which they have
given to the management of the Association during the past year. Noth-
ing remains to be done now except to install our new President. In
handing this gavel over to Mr. Storey, let me say that it has been the em-
blem of authority here for fifteen years. If the gavel could tell the whole
story it would speak of the character and work of the Past-Presidents,
Mr. Wallace, Mr. Kittredge, Mr. McDonald, Mr. Johnston, Mr. Kelley,
the late Mr. Berg, Mr. M'cNab, Mr. Fritch, Mr. Cushing and Mr. Churchill.
Fifteen years ago I was present in Stein way Hall at the first con-
vention, and I have attended every convention since. It gives me pe-
culiar pleasure at the present time to say that the management of this
Association, in my judgment, is in very safe hands. When you gen-
tlemen come to the time when you will undertake the responsibilities
of the presidency of this Association, you will appreciate what it means
to be supported by a Board of Direction and a series of committees
and a membership such as has supported us during the past year. With-
out your support the Board of Direction could not accomplish the work
which they always do accomplish. Therefore, I wish to impress upon
you this one fact : That the Board as well as myself and all other
officers recognize that the success which has attended our administra-
tion is due entirely to your efforts; and now in presenting the new
President, let me say that I know he will receive that same loyal and
hearty support that you have given to me and to the other officers. I
have nothing but words of encouragement for him, because he will re-
ceive the support of all Past-Presidents and of the Secretary, the mem-
bers of the Board of Direction, the Committee on Arrangements and
every member of the Association. Gentlemen, allow me to thank you
most sincerely for your loyal support. Now, I take great pleasure in
presenting our new President, Mr. Storey, who will be escorted to the
platform by Past-President McDonald and Past-President Fritch. (Ap-
plause.)
President-Elect Storey : — Members of the American Railway Engi-
neering Association ; there is very little that I can say at the present
time, except to express my deep appreciation of the honor which you
have conferred upon me. I consider it a very great honor to be placed
in a position of responsibility of this sort, and I can only trust that my
incumbency of the office during the coming year will meet with your
BUSINESS SESSION. 61
approval, and that it may be as efficient as has been that of the President
who has just surrendered his gavel to me. There is nothing further
that I wish to say to-day. (Applause.)
There are one or two announcements before the meeting is ad-
journed, ' which I wish to make. The first is in regard to the Coliseum
and the exhibit which is there. To-morrow is set apart for attendance
at that exhibit and it is hoped that there will be a large attendance
and that we may thus express our appreciation of the efforts made by
the railway supply men in connection with this convention.
The Board of Direction, including the new members, will hold a
meeting at once after adjournment.
I now declare the Fifteenth Annual Convention adjourned.
(The Sixteenth Annual Convention of the American Railway Engi-
neering Association will be held at the Congress Hotel, Chicago, March
16, 17 and 18, 1915.)
E. H. Fritch, Secretary.
COMMITTEE REPORTS
REPORT OP COMMITTEE XII— ON RULES AND
ORGANIZATION.
G. D. Brooke, Chairman; F. D. Anthony, Vice -Chair man;
R. P. Black, K. Hanger,
J. B. Carothers, B. Herman,
S. E. Coombs, Jos. Mullen,
C. Dougherty, E. T. Reisler,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
INSTRUCTIONS.
Your Committee on Rules and Organization has worked during the
past year under the following instructions :
(i) Review Rules and Instructions heretofore adopted by the Asso-
ciation and recommend such changes and additions thereto
as may seem desirable.
(2) Formulate rules for the guidance of field parties :
(a) When making preliminary surveys for railroad location.
(b) When making location surveys.
(c) When in charge of construction.
(3) Begin the study of the Science of Organization, and report to
the Board of Direction how this study can be made prof
itable to the Association.
SUB-COMMITTEES.
Two Sub-Committees were appointed : Sub-Committee A, consist-
ing of:
Curtis Dougherty, Chairman ;
J. B. Carothers,
K. Hanger,
Jos. Mullen;
to which was assigned work under instruction (1). Sub-Committee B.
consisting of:
B. Herman, Chairman ;
S. E. Coombs,
E. T. Reisler,
R. P. Black;
to which was assigned work under instruction (3). Work under in-
struction (2) was undertaken by the Committee as a whole.
65
66 RULES AND ORGANIZATION.
COMMITTEE MEETINGS.
Three meetings of the Committee were held : One at Buffalo on July
ii, at which were present: J. B. Carothers, S. E. Coombs, F. D. Anthony,
C. Dougherty, Jos. Mullen, E. T. Reisler, G. D. Brooke.
One at Cincinnati on October 17, at which were present: J. B.
Carothers, B. Herman, Jos. Mullen, E. T. Reisler. In the absence of the
Chairman and Vice-Chairman, Mr. Carothers acted as Chairman of the
meeting.
One at Washington on November 29, at which were present: F. D.
Anthony, R. P. Black, J. B. Carothers, S. E. Coombs, C. Dougherty, B.
Herman, Jos. Mullen, E. T. Reisler, G. D. Brooke.
•
REVISION OF RULES.
Under instruction (1) the Committee recommends that the following
revisions and additions be made in the General Rules for the Government
of the Employes of the Maintenance of Way Department, heretofore
adopted by the Association :
Add to Rule 4 of "General Notice" the words : "They must familiar-
ize themselves with the safety regulations of the road," making the rule
to read:
"Employes must exercise care and watchfulness to prevent
injury to themselves, other employes and the public, and to pre-
vent damage to property. In case of doubt they must take the
safe course. They must know that all tools and appliances are
in safe condition before using. They must move away from
tracks upon approach and during passage of trains, and, so far as
practicable, prevent the public from walking on tracks or other-
wise trespassing on the right-of-way. They must familiarize
, themselves with the safety regulations of the road."
Revise Rule 13 under Rules Governing Track Supervisors, Super-
visors of Structures and Signal Supervisors, as follows :
Present Rule : "They must know that foremen are provided
with the rules, circulars, forms and special instructions pertain-
ing to their duties, and that they fully understand and comply
with them."
Proposed Rule : "They must know that foremen are provided
with the rules, circulars, forms, special instructions and safety
regulations pertaining to their duties, and that they fully under-
stand and comply with them."
Add a rule under Rules Governing Foremen, to be under Track Fore-
men No. 18, Bridge and Building Foremen No. 11 and Signal Foremen
No. 12, to read :
"They must thoroughly understand the rules, circulars, forms,
special instructions and safety regulations pertaining to their
duties, and see that they are complied with."
RULES AND ORGANIZATION. 67
Add to Rule ly under Track Foremen:
"They must give special attention to drainage through inter-
locking plants and where track circuits are used,"
making it read :
"They must keep all interlocking pipe lines and trunking free
from grass and weeds, and all switches, frogs and movable parts
of interlocking plants free from snow, ice and other obstructions.
They must give special attention to drainage through interlocking
plants and where track circuits are used."
RULES FOR SURVEY AND CONSTRUCTION WORK.
Under instruction (2) considerable progress has been made in the
collection and tabulation of rules and instructions of the various roads
bearing on preliminary and location surveys and construction. It is the
intention to continue the work during the ensuing year, with the ex-
pectation of compiling an extensive set of instructions governing parties
engaged in the work described under this instruction.
The following general rules are now presented with the recommenda-
tion that they be printed in the Manual :
GENERAL RULES FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF EMPLOYES OF
THE CONSTRUCTION DEPARTMENT.
GENERAL NOTICE.
(1) To enter or remain in the service is an assurance of willingness
to obey the rules.
(2) The service demands the faithful, intelligent and courteous dis-
charge of duty.
(3) Obedience to the rules is essential to the safety of passengers
and employes, and to the protection of property.
(4) Employes must exercise care and watchfulness to prevent in-
jury to themselves, other employes and the public, and to prevent damage
to property. In case of doubt they must take the safe course. They must
know that all tools and appliances are in safe condition before using.
They must move away from tracks upon approach and during passage of
trains, and, so far as practicable, prevent the public from walking on
tracks or otherwise trespassing on the right-of-way. They must familiar-
ize themselves with the safety regulations of the road.
(5) Employes must do all in their power to prevent accidents, even
though in so doing they occasionally perform the duties of others.
(6) Co-operation is required between all employes whose work or
duties may be jointly affected.
(7) Anything that interferes with the safe passage of trains at full
speed is an obstruction.
(8) Employes in accepting employment assume its risks.
68 RULES AND ORGANIZATION.
(9) To obtain promotion, capacity must be shown for greater re
sponsibility.
(10) Employes must not absent themselves from duty, exchange
duties with others or engage substitutes.
(11) Employes must conduct themselves properly at all times. They
will be courteous to fellow-employes and patrons of the road.
ORGANIZATION.
(1) The Construction Department in each (District or etc.)
is in charge of the ^r.:™J. , who will report to
and receive instructions from the vv. . . ?
(2) The work of the department will be sub-divided under the fol-
lowing heads:
Preliminary Surveys, Chief of Party ft*.™*!*
Location Surveys, Chief of Party ^ Title)
Construction. Resident Engineer.
RULES GOVERNING CHIEFS OF PARTY ON PRELIMINARY AND LOCATION SURVEYS
AND RESIDENT ENGINEERS.
(1) Chiefs of Party "1 -,, ... •
_ _ ,.. Uvill report to and receive instructions from
Resident EngineersJ
the (TiHe)
(2) They are responsible for the prosecution of the work in ac-
cordance with the general rules and special instructions, and will make
such periodical reports as are required.
(3) They shall keep their parties up to the required strength and
report any prospective vacancies to the v?.1 . ..
(4) They are responsible for the proper conduct of the members of
their parties and must know that each man is competent to do the work
required of him.
(5) They shall conform to the prescribed standards and plans in the
execution of work under their charge.
(6) They must keep their parties supplied with the instruments and
materials necessary for the efficient performance of their work, and see
that these are properly used and cared for.
(7) They must know that instruments are kept in proper adjustment
and that the prescribed accuracy is attained in all their work.
(8) They must not give out information as to the object or char-
acter of their work and must refer all inquiries to the .
(9) They shall keep themselves informed in regard to the work of
other survey parties operating in their districts and report to the
l?.1*;^. anything that will have an influence on their work.
(10) They will assume immediate charge of their parties when run-
ning lines and staking out important work.
RULES AND ORGANIZATION. 69
(n) They must know that their parties are provided with the rules,
standards, circulars, forms, special instructions and safety regulations
pertaining to their work, and that they are fully understood by the men
to whom they apply.
(12) They shall keep a daily journal of the movements of their
parties and the work done, and will enter therein current items of in-
formation of which it is advisable to keep record.
SCIENCE OF ORGANIZATION.
Under instruction (3) your Committee reports progress in the study
of the science of organization, and that a report has been made to the
Board of Direction as directed in the instruction.
NEXT YEAR'S WORK.
For next year's work your Committee recommends the following in-
structions :
(1) Review Rules and Instructions heretofore adopted by the Asso-
ciation and recommend such changes and additions thereto as may seem
desirable.
(2) Formulate Rules for the guidance of the Maintenance of Way
Department pertaining to Safety.
(3) Continue the formulation of rules for the guidance of field
parties :
(a) When making preliminary surveys.
(b) When making location surveys.
(c) When in charge of construction.
(4) Continue the study of the Science of Organization.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON RULES AND ORGANIZATION.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE X— ON SIGNALS AND
INTERLOCKING.
Thos. S. Stevens, Chairman; C. C. Anthony, V ice-Chairman;
Azel Ames, - • M. H. Hovey,
H. S. Balliet, A. S. Ingalls,
W. B. Causey, J. C. Mock,
C. A. Christofferson, J. A. Peabody,
C. E. Denney, A. H. Rudd,
W. J. Eck, W. B. Scott,
W. H. Elliott, A. G. Shaver,
G. E. Ellis,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your Committee was assigned the following subjects:
(i) Report on economics of labor in signal maintenance.
(2) Formulate and submit requisites for switch indicators, includ-
ing method of conveying information on condition of the
block to conductor and engineman.
(3) Investigate and report on automatic train control.
(1) ECONOMICS OF LABOR IN SIGNAL MAINTENANCE.
In connection with Subject (1) your Committee reports as follows:
Presuming that Signal forces as now organized are efficient generally,
the only considerations involved are those of either combining them with
other forces which make up a railroad organization, or adding to their
duties some of those now undertaken by others. At the start it must be
acknowledged that when a certain point is reached signal work involves
special training. Under the present social conditions this special training
must be given to men with a limited education, must be along practical
lines and developed gradually, so that the existing organizations seem
to be necessary generally.
The above is true of all departments of a railroad organization, and,
therefore, since the men in charge must have the highest training, it
seems impracticable to combine the duties of various departments under
one foreman. While he might discover that men were actually loafing,
he would have little information to guide him in deciding on their
efficiency, unless he were trained along the same lines.
It would appear uneconomical to pick out certain bright men and
train them to become efficient to supervise a combined force. They
must be inefficient at the start in all lines, and to obtain the combined
education would prolong this inefficiency and involve more cost than
now.
71 .
72 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
If social conditions made it possible to employ men of higher educa-
tion as supervisors, the time occupied in acquiring the special knowledge
would be less, but the results are problematical. We must know how
to do a thing before we can teach others to do it efficiently, and it is
not expected that this class of men will be willing to spend a number
of years learning the practical details of the several departments. They
will specialize because this brings the quickest returns.
Although it appears impossible to effect economy generally by com-
bining maintenance forces, there is territory on nearly every railroad sys-
tem where the amount of signaling equipment is small and where a com-
bination of duties would be economical. No definite line can be laid
down, but this Association can point out the possibilities.
At interlocking plants and manual block stations the local section
foreman can be taught to take care of minor mechanical adjustments.
In automatic signal territory he can be taught to take care of broken
bond wires, the rebonding made necessary on account of broken rails,
the adjustment of switches and the maintenance of insulated joints. If
these things are done by track forces it might mean extended territory
for maintainers.
It is not at all certain that the last suggestion will bring about econ-
omy, because it involves assigning duties to track forces which will take
them periodically away from their regular work, and it is more than
probable that only special cases can be considered. Even testing switches
and inspecting bond wires will take time, and if a fair-sized gang is in-
volved may mean loss. When signals fail it becomes necessary to send
someone to inspect, and if a handcar only is available this means from
two to four men.
So far only track forces have been considered, but we still have
bridge and building, water service, telegraph, telephone, electrical and
mechanical department forces. Again no definite lines can be laid down.
All are trained in some special work which is more or less analagous to
different details of signal work, and under favorable conditions it would
appear that signal department duties could, with economy, be assigned
to local men among these forces.
The assignment of duties of some of the above departments to local
signal men should also be considered. Signal work draws men from
every class, and a well-advised Superintendent should know that he has
a carpenter, mechanical or an electrical worker at some point who can be
called on in cases of emergency.
The whole question is local; it seems one which must be handled by
each Superintendent probably in different ways on different parts of a
division. Granting that the Superintendent is supplied with efficient super-
visors for each department of his organization, it is his duty to so ar-
range them that the greatest economy will result. In this effort he
should take counsel with the heads of the different departments to in-
sure that work is not assigned to forces for which they are eminently
unfitted.
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 73
In signal construction work there is a better field for a co-ordination
of division forces. While some of the work is special, much of it is
such as other departments are familiar with, and the possibility of main-
taining a force of efficient mechanics of all kinds, who will, under the
orders of the Superintendent, be used on any class of work, seems to
offer a good .field for an economical general organization. And so with
heavy repairs: If a system of reports were adopted showing work nec-
essary to be done involving different departments', work of the same gen-
eral character could be assigned to each with a probable large saving.
The result of the adoption of any of the above suggestions cannot
be foretold. After all it seems a question for each road to settle. Labor
conditions, traffic conditions and climatic conditions are all involved, and
an economical practice laid down for one railroad or part of a railroad
might be uneconomical for another.
CONCLUSION.
That the report be received as a progress report and the subject
continued.
(2) REQUISITES FOR SWITCH INDICATORS.
Your Committee reports progress and asks that the subject be con-
tinued. General meetings have been held and earnest discussion given
to the indicator situation at these meetings and at the annual convention
of the Railway Signal Association. We hope to make final report next
year.
(3) AUTOMATIC TRAIN CONTROL.
Your Committee reports as follows :
Because the American Railway Association has appointed a commit-
tee consisting of some of the ablest men in the Engineering, Transporta-
tion and Mechanical Departments to consider this question, your Com-
mittee deems it inadvisable for this Association to undertake work in con-
nection with this subject until report is made by the American Railway
Association.
TRACK CIRCUITS.
Because of the growing importance of the track circuit as a con-
trolling agency for all signal appliances, your Committee presents reports
of various tests showing the conductivity of creosote and creosote treated
ties; also the effect of ballast and bonding conditions.
Future economics of maintenance of track and the construction of
refrigerator cars must take into consideration the effect on track circuits
or the economies may not be realized.
It is hoped that the cases here given may create interest to the end
that further investigation may be made, both with regard to the treated
74 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
tie situation and the effect of old ties, which have become porous and
therefore subject to moisture penetration.
TESTS OF CREOSOTE USED IN TREATING CROSS-TIES.
Sample i. — Creosote from Carbondale, 111.
Sample 2. — Creosote from Somerville, Tex.
Apparatus :
Weston Multimeter Model 58, No. 55. Breakers, glass plates, brass
discs, insulated wire, etc.
Method :
Part 1. — Two circular discs of about No. 18 sheet brass were cut to
fit into a small beaker. The beaker was 1% in. inside diameter, and the
brass discs i$4 m- m diameter. Each was soldered to a piece of No. 14
solid copper wire, insulated with 1/32-in. rubber wall, and double braid.
These discs were suspended in the beaker, one at the bottom and the
other one inch above, the separation being maintained by means of two
% in. x 1 in. x 1 in. glass plates on edge. A sample of creosote was then
poured into the beaker until the upper disc was entirely submerged. The
assembly of apparatus is shown as Fig. 1. A test for resistance between
loads A and B was then made by using the multimeter as a Wheatstone
bridge. Two samples were tested.
Part 2. — A thin film of creosote was placed on a glass plate and the
two brass discs placed firmly in this, on 14-in. centers. The film was
two inches wide. An attempt to measure resistance by using Wheatstone
bridge resulted in failure, as the resistance was too high. This test is
shown in Fig. 2.
Tests :
Part 1. — Sample 1. — Carbondale Creosote.
Measured 90,000 ohms.
Sample 2. — Somerville Creosote.
Measured 80,000 ohms.
Part 2. — Sample 1. — Carbondale Creosote.
Measured in excees of 900,000 ohms.
Data:
Creosote. Res. Meas. Area Discs. Specif. Res.
1. Carbondale 90,000 2.41 216,900
2. Somerville 80,000 2.41 192,800
Specific resistance is per cu. in.
Chemical Analysis :
sample no. 1.
Analysis creosote from Carbondale, 111. :
Specific gravity at 15 degrees C. (60 degrees Fahrenheit) 1.0450
Specific gravity at 38 degrees C. (100 degrees Fahrenheit) 1.0720
Weight per gallon at 100 degrees Fahrenheit 8.705 lbs.
Petroleum oils present 0.000
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 75
DISTILLATION.
Water. Trace.
Up to 200 degrees centigrade 2.2
200 - 210 degrees centigrade 2.0
210 - 235 degrees centigrade 21. 1
235 - 270 degrees centigrade 28.6
270 - 315 degrees centigrade 18.8
315 - 355 degrees centigrade 17.7
Residue 9.7
Total per cent 100. 1
sample no. 2.
Analysis creosote from Somerville, Tex. :
Specific gravity at 38 degrees C. (100 degrees Fahrenheit) 1.0745
Specific gravity at 15 degrees C. (60 degrees Fahrenheit) 1.0929
Weight per gallon at 100 degrees Fahrenheit 8.9505 lbs.
Petroleum oils None
Tar acids by volume 6 per cent.
DISTILLATION. .
Water 2.2
Up to 200 degrees centigrade 2
200 - 210 degrees centigrade .8
210 - 235 degrees centigrade 5.7
235 - 270 degrees centigrade 20.2
270 - 315 degrees centigrade 24.6
3*5 - 355 degrees centigrade 26.1
Residue 19.8
Total per cent 99.6
Specification under which this creosote is purchased is as follows:
The oil to be used must be pure dead oil of coal tar, without adul-
teration; with a specific gravity of not less than 1.03 at a temperature
of 100 Fahrenheit, as compared with water at 60 Fahrenheit, and be thor-
oughly liquid at 100 Fahrenheit, remaining so on cooling down to 90
Fahrenheit. Up to 170 centigrade nothing should come off; up to 210
centigrade not more than 5 per cent., and up to 235 centigrade not more
than 35 per cent, of all products should come off, while not more than 4
per cent, should remain as solid residuum above 335 centigrade ; dis-
tillation to be conducted under the Von Schrenk method. Not more than
3 per cent, water will be allowed in the oil, and if more than this, the
quantity of oil injected must be increased by the total percentage of
water found; should the water exceed 6 per cent, further treatment
must be suspended until the same has been reduced to a point below the
maximum percentage allowed.
76
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
Before treatment begins, the Contractor must forward a gallon sam-
ple of the oil proposed to be used hereunder, to the Railway Company's
Chemist at Somerville, Tex., for analysis, and in case a different oil is
thereafter used a new sample must be sent, as above, for further action.
^ t
Or£O507~JE
&34S5 4?/5CS. /#£>/AWS
&*/ >/~6/J1S5 /=!L/1T£
Sj?C770JV C-O
Fig. i.
v^fXMcor
GjLrftt /=±AtT£^
X~??y//v /v/.m or Ctfeosorj?
~j5*MSS- &/5C5-
FlG. 2.
TESTS OF CROSS-TIES TREATED WITH CARBONDALE CREOSOTE.
Three smoothly hewn 7 in. x 9 in. x 8 ft. ties, designated hereafter
as samples 1, 2 and 3, were tested. These ties have been in the weather,
on the Missouri Division for approximately six months, but have not been
placed in the track. The pores of these ties seemed to be filled with
creosote, but this was not oozing out as sometimes is the case in warm
weather. Tests were conducted in laboratory of Engineer of Tests,
Topeka. Air was warm and dry.
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 77
Apparatus: Weston Multimeter Model 58, No. 55, sections of 90-lb.
Santa Fe steel rails, copper bond wires, channel pins, spikes, glass plates,
salt (sodium chloride) and hydrant water.
Method: During all resistance measurements ties were insulated
from wood and concrete floor by the use of dry glass plates. All leads
to multimeter were protected likewise.
Part 1: Five-inch spikes were driven 4^ in. into ties at various dis-
tances apart and resistance readings taken. Copper and brass plates were
tried for cross-sectional measurements, but without success, as the contact
resistance formed too great a proportion of the total. Spikes were driven
part way into opposite faces and resistance readings taken.
Part 2: Two sections of 90-lb. Santa Fe rail were firmly spiked
at standard gage distance, two spikes being used for each section. Each
portion of rail was drilled and No. 8 B. W. G. size copper bond wire
bonded thereto. Resistance readings were taken; first, with tie dry;
second, after water had been poured over it, and third, after a solution
of two pounds common salt had been poured over upper surface of tie
and around rail bases. An attempt to read resistance between rail and
copper plate placed under tie was not successful on account of high con-
tact resistance.
Tests:
Part 1 (see Fig. 1).
Sample No. 3 dry.
Spikes 12 in. apart measured 12,000 ohms.
Spikes 4 ft. %l/2 in. apart measured 42,000 ohms.
Cross resistance between spikes 99,000 ohms.
Sample No. 2 dry.
Spikes 12 in. apart measured 4,200 ohms.
Spikes 36 in. apart measured 10,000 ohms.
Sample No. 1 wet, and with salt solution on upper surface.
Spikes 12 in. apart measured 54 ohms.
Spikes 36 in. apart measured 200 ohms.
Part 2 (see Fig. 2).
Sample No. 1 dry.
Resistance between rails, 13,000 ohms.
Sample No. 1 after about 1 gal. water had been poured over upper
surface and rails.
Resistance between rails, 12,000 ohms.
Sample No. 1 after more water had been poured over tie.
Resistance between rails, 11,000 ohms.
Sample No. 1 after the solution of two pounds common salt had been
poured over tie.
Resistance between rai's, 1,075 ohms.
78
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
Data:
Part i.
Sample
No.
Condition.
Dist. Apart.
Resist. Ohms.
i
Wet- salt
12 in.
54
i
Wet-salt
36 in.
200
2
Dry
12 in.
4,200
2
Dry
36 in.
10,000
3
Dry
12 in.
12,000
3
Dry
4 ft. 8J4 in.
42,000
3
Dry
cross
99,000
Part 2.
Sample
No.
Condition.
Dist. Apart.
Resist. Ohms.
1
Dry
4 ft. 8x/2 in.
13,000
1
Wet
4 ft. 8y2 in.
12,000
1
Wet
4 ft. 2>l/2 in.
11,000
1
Wet-salt
4 ft. 8J4 in.
1,075
Discussion: The results obtained in this experiment would indicate
that dry creosoted ties in themselves do not possess very high conduct-
ance; nor is their conductance increased to any great extent by the addi-
tion of a slight percentage of moisture. The amount of water poured on
Sample No. 1 in this test may be assumed as equivalent to a shower on
ties in well-drained track. It was impracticable to reproduce conditions
experienced in some locations, where the ties may be submerged for hours
or days.
The addition of the salt solution brought forth such a great reduc-
tion in resistance as to brand this substance as a great detriment to suc-
cessful track circuit maintenance. While it is assumed that two pounds
of salt per tie represents an extreme case, yet the accumulation of brine
from refrigerator cars, year after year, may mean that the residue re-
maining in the tie will eventually approach the amount used in this test.
The cross grain measurement tends to prove that the resistance is
less with the grain than along the year rings or radial lines.
There are approximately 3,200 cross-ties per mile of single track. If
all of these possessed the same resistance as the creosote mixture used
in treating, and there was leakage of current between rails through no
other path, the resultant leakage resistance per mile of track would be
58.7 ohms or 310 ohms per thousand feet.
From the data obtained for Sample No. 1, the following leakage re-
sistances are calculated, it being assumed that all leakage is due to ties
alone :
Dry, 4.07 ohms per mile, 21.5 ohms per thousand feet.
Wet, 3.44 ohms per mile, 18.2 ohms per thousand feet.
Salt solution, .336 ohms per mile, 1.77 ohms per thousand feet.,
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
79
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80
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
A measurement of resistance of a man's body, between his hands
(moist), was made and found to be 19,000 ohms. Between points on his
arms, where skin is thin, the resistance was found to be 10,000 ohms.
Fig. 4.
REVISION OF MANUAL.
Your Committee has compared the present symbols as shown in the
Manual with those at present in use by the Railway Signal Association,
and offers the following for the acceptance of the Association as a cor-
rection of the present symbols.
CONCLUSION.
That the symbols now shown in the Manual for signals and inter-
locking be changed in accordance with the Railway Signal Association
symbols as shown on following pages.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
81
PLATE I.
Operating.
Mechanical
/
tfo©
Non- Automatic.
Power
Slotted.
(MECM.)
Semi -Automatic
(POWERJ
Stick. Non-Stick
3Z3
Automatic
(power)
I- .
I j
Special
Requires
reference
TO NOTES
tffl
Two
Position
Sign aung.
2- Position.
0to60-0to10
Oto75-Oto90
Al
A2
A3
0=1
A5
A6
CO
A7
2- Position.
0to90
tX3
B2
B3
B4
en
B5
tin
B6
tan
B7
Three
Position
Signaling.
2- Position.
Oto4S
CI
SI
02
C3
G5
C6
C7
2- Position.
45 to 90
4>
rf,
I D2
D3
04
tf
I 06
rt
3- Position.
0 to 45 to 90
E2
E3
n
E5
E6
E7
NOTE : Arms should always be shown in normal position .
^| Special- 3 Position Non-Automatic, 0 to 45 .
E24 Semi -Automatic Stick, 45 to 90.
►<] Special- 3 Position Non- Automatic, 0to45.
E25 Semi-Automatig Non- Stick , 45 to 90 .
I I Absolute Stop Signal. j < Distant Signal.
■ > Permissive Stop Signal. j ( Train Order 5i6nal.
Enos of blades in symbols are to be of the actual forms used by the
ROAD CONCERNED. If NOT SPECIFIED THE ABOVE FORMS WILL BE USED ON PLANS.
i- '
3 Fiked Arm.
.l-a»i -0*1-4.1
V ~> Upper Quadrant Si6nal. T~
r~ ■' i
J"*"~1 Lower Quadrant Si6nal. -f-
i
\ 1 Vertical ^
:o
L ,
L — J
m
> Marker Lights. Diagrams of proportions for mak-
sta6gered i ins s™601-5 fm signal blades .
82
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
PLATE II.
Ground
Mast.
Ground Mast with
Bracket Attachment.
y
Offset
Bracket Post.
Bracket
Post.
Suspended
Mast.
(R) p
V^y Ring enclosed
characteristics
MEAN LI6HT SIGNAl
ONLY.
T
Smash Signal ,
Pot Signal.
Disc Signals.
©(•)(©) c
Home
Proceed ,
Home Distant Distant Double
Stop. Proceed. Caution. Functioned.
Present Signal to be Removed .
Present Signal to Remain.
Relation of the Signal to the Track and the Direction of Traffic
Right Hand Locations.
Ri6ht Hand Signal.
Left Hand Signal.
Left Hand Locations.
u
Right Hand Si6nal
Left Hand Signal.
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
83
PLATE III.
Insulating Rail Joints.
Track Circuits in
Both Directions.
Track Circuit on
Left , None on Right
Impedance Bond. Traffic Direction,
Track Circuit on
Right, None on Left.
Track Pan.
CD
Station. Crossing Gate.
(unless otherwise specified.)
Signal Signal Sub-Station.
Power Station. ._
/
/
\ s \
/ JL
n •
—
\
/
k
' >• J
\
Tunnel. Bridge or Viaduct. Draw Bridge. Lift Bridge.
NOTE: State whether Deck. Half -Through or Through Brio6e.
\S
Mile Post.
Overhead
Bridge.
Signal
Bridge.
Highway Railway Proposed Railway-
Crossing . Crossin6. Crossing.
NOTE: Specify whether Steam or Electric Ry.Crossin6.
o— '
0
Mail Crane. Water Tank. Water Column. Track Instrument. Torpedo Machine.
4 — 4-
Train Stops.
-A — 6 — 4
<&
<e-
^
•o-
Stop.
Clear.
Non- Automatic.
Mechanical. Power.
Slotted.
Semi-
automatic.
Automatic.
1
DO
Power Switch
Machine.
Insulated
Switch Rod.
Turn-Out
and Switch Stand.
Electric
Switch Lock.
84
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
PLATE IV.
[23 CM
Relay Box.
m
s
e
Junction Box. Terminal Box. Lightning Arrester
Box.
(3t CAPACITY
Battery Chute .
RELAY BOX CAPACITY -
CHUTE CAPACITY
*1
Relay Box and Post,
Battery Chute, Relay
Box and Post Combined.
X
NOTE : Type of indicator
TO BE COVERED BY
) GENERAL NOTE .
Switch Box Location. Switch Indicator.
Switch Indicator
and Switch Box.
6
00
00
Cable Post With One With Two With Relay With Relay With Relay
Only. Indicator. Indicators. Box. Box and One Box and Two
Indicator . Indicators .
-E-
Above Surface.
Half Above Surface.
Below Surface.
Highway Crossing Bell.
S Battery Shelter.
(FIGURES INDICATE CAPACITY)
OR
Track Battery.
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 85
PLATE V.
Interlocked Switches and Derails.
Switch-Set for Turn-Out.
Switch - Set for Straight Track .
Derail- Point Type-Derailing .
Derail- Point Type-Non-Derailing .
Derail -Lifting Rail Type -Derailing.
Derail- Lifting BlockType-Derailing.
Derail- Lifting RailType-Non-Derailing.
Derail- Lifting BlockType-Non-Derailing.
NOTE: Non- interlocked switches and derails to be shown
SAME AS ABOVE EXCEPT SHADIN6 IN TRIAN6LES OMITTED.
Runs
of connections.
BOLT LOCKS.
Pipe-Wire (Meck).
I-Way.
Wire Duct.
Detector Bar
B.L
2-Way.
Compressed Air.
Pipe-Wire and Duct.
Pipe -Wire and Air.
Duct and Air.
Bolt Locked Switch.
S.L.M .=Switch &. lock movement.
F.P.Lf Facing Point Lock.
/V\
Compensator.
Arrow Indicates Direction
of Movement of Pipe Line-
Normal to Reverse.
-GE
ED-
Pipe-Wire, Duct and Air .
a
Man -hole.
Oil Enclosed Pipe Line .
3-Way.
rs=7| Interlocking or Block Station. KE7
/*M SH0WIN6 RELATIVE POSITION OF STATION, OPERATOR AND TRACK. I/-— N
Operator Facing Track . Operator with Back to Track.
NOTE: Unless otherwise specified on plan it will be assumed that where an
INTERLOCKED SIGNAL IS SHOWN CLEAR OR A DERAIL SHOWN IN NON- DERAILING
POSITION THE CONTROLLING LEVER IS REVERSED, AND THAT ALL OTHER LEVERS ARE NORMAL.
86
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
PLATE VI.
Interlocked Switches, Derails, etc ,
Single Line Plan .
EXPLANATION
1 - Simple Turn-out.
2 - Simple Cross-over.
3 - Derail- Point' Type .
4-Sin6le Slip Switch.
5 - Double Slip Switch .
6 -Movable Point Crossin6 Fro6. (M.P.F.)
7-Sin6le Slip Switch with M.P.F.
8 -Double Slip Switch with M.P.F.
Rocking Shaft Le
AD-OUT.
PIPE LINE.
4
WIRE LINE.
0
^) WHEEL.
12 3 4 6 7 8 9
Crank Lead-out.
/
' \
2 -WAY CRANK/
\
V
\
1- WAY CRANK.''
^4-
MAY CRANK .
[
1 3
4 6 7
8 9
VERTICAL CRANKS.
Deflecting Bar Lead -out.
-%t
•HORIZONTAL DEFLECTIN6 BARS.
o <> • * 11
/ / / \ \
12 3 6 7 8
VERTICAL DEFLECTING BARS.
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
87
PLATE VII.
Relays, Indicators and Locks .
Elements of Symbols t~t
to be combined as -1— >-
NECESSARY.
A. C. Electro Magnet.
D . C . Electro magnet.
a..i. j._j-
ft
T"T
r.'t.
I I
a --a.
X
Coil Energized or De-energized.
i Ll Neutral Front Contact - Closed or Open .
Neutral Back Contact - Closed or Open .
Polarized Armature - With Contacts.
BI
.?. A
r-i-f t-'-t T-'-T T-L-r
3 - Position Armature - With Contacts .
High Current Contact.
Magnetic Blow-out Contact.
Bell Attachment.
Double Winding— specify if Differential.
Slow Acting.
Disc Type Indicator. 0= Disc Invisible. #=Disc Visible.
L-.i. a-.o.
Semaphore Type Indicator.
3-Position,
-o
1*1 0R i^ii0R ±*i.J Wire Wound Rotor.
"pi -o
Stationary Winding. i;:-i= High Voltage Winding .
3gk'
T--T T- — t- T--
\si \s/ \s) \§J (SEE NEXT PAGE F0R examples of combinations.)
Eleotric Lock- Show Segments for Lever in Normal
Position .
88 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
PLATE VIII.
ft
ft
JM
Relays , Indicators and Locks.
Examples of Combinations .
D.C. RELAY- Neutral- Energized -
One Independent Front Contact Closed -
One Independent Back Contact Open .
D.C. RELAY- Polarized - Energized -
Two Combination Front and Back Neutral Contacts •
LJ. Two Polarized Contacts Closed -
♦ Two Polarized Contacts^ Open .
fi
-o
JJ.
3&
-/-/-
t . t
tWB
D. C. INDICATOR - Semaphore Type- Energized -
Three Front Contacts Close© -
Bell Attachment .
D.G. INDICATOR -Semaphore Type -Arm Horizontal-
Energized -Without Contacts.
NOTE : Indicators (or repeaters) without contacts should be shown
WITH ARMATURES TO INDICATE WHETHER- ENER6IZED OR DE-ENER-
GIZED .
"T7T A.C. RELAY- One Energizing Circuit Type (Single Phase)
g**jjj T- Curom-rcn— Clue FoniuT Hamta r.*r
o
Energized- One Front Contact.
A.C. RELAY- Two Energizing Circuit Type- Energized -
Wire Wound Rotor —
Two Neutral Front Contacts .
A.C. RELAY-Two Energizing Gircuit Type -Energized —
Wire Wound Rotor —
Two Polarized Contacts..
A.C RELAY-Two Energizing Circuit Type- Energized -
Stationary Windings —
One Neutral Front Contact —
Two 3- Position Contacts.
D.C. INTERLOCKED RELAY.
TTT D.C. ELECTRIC BELL.
DESI6NATE RESISTANCE IN OHMS OF ALL D.C. RELAYS, INDICATORS AND LOCKS.
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
89
PLATE IX.
Circuit Controllers Operated by Levers .
Use either Letter System or Graphic System .
Levers with Extreme End Position as Normal .
N- Full Normal Position of Lever
B -Normal Indication Position.
C- Central Position.
D -Reverse Indication PosmoN.
R-Full Reverse Position.
letter
symbol.
N B C D
-®-
-®-
-®-
■®-
-®-
-®-
-<©-
-®-
-#-
-®-
■#-
-®-
-©-
GRAPHIC
SYMBOL .
+
-Js-
-4
-f-
%-
-29-
-i*r-
4r
-*L
Levers with Middle Position as Normal.
N- Normal Position.
L-Full Reverse Position to the Left.
B-Indication Position to the Left.
D -Indication Position to the Right.
R-Full Reverse Position to the Right.
letter
symbol .
L
-©4
<!>
-®-
-(&
-<©-
-@-
-®-
-(&-
■<&
-®-
-<S>-
-<§^
-®-
-@^
-®-
-<§^
-®-
■<&■
B N D
GRAPHIC
SYMBOL.
-&-
4-
-Sfr
4"
^
4:
-1®-
■^
NOTE: Heavy horizontal lines indicate portion of cycle of lever through which circuit is closed.
90
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
PLATE X.
Circuit Controllers Operated by Signals .
UPPER QUADRANT. LOWER QUADRANT.
3 -Position
Signals.
+ ' ^ Closed at 0 Only.
<
^-'' ^ Closed at 90 Only.
a.
^
-* — •
Closed 0 to 45
Closed 45°to 90°
o o
60-70 or
75 Signals.
g' fr Closed at 0 Only.
-# *
Closed in Clear
Position Only.
-* — r
-*—"*
+ Closed at 45 Only. 4-"^
k>
• 0
Closed.
Open.
• •
• •
Circuit Controller Operated by Locking
Switch Circuit Controller. Mechanism of a Switch Movement.
— >-•
Bridge Circuit Controller.
Closed.
Open.
Pole Changing Circuit Controller.
•Ok
t
Spring Hand Key or Push Button.
J^
Circuit Switch.
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
91
PLATE XI.
Manual Time Release ,
(electric)
•J"
•-*
Automatic Time Release,
(electric)
Floor Push,
n
P
Manual Time Release
(electro-mechan'l.)
Emergency Release
(electric)
latch Contact.
open. closed.
Track Instrument Contact.
Knife Switches .
11 T*T <J) () ()
// ° ° ° I 11
O © © © © © ©
Rheostat. Single Pole. Double Pole. Single Pole. Double Pole.
Single Throw. Double Throw.
Quick Actin6 Circuit Controllers may be Distinguished by the Letter Q
v/VW i
Fixed Resistance.
Variable Resistance.
Fuse .
OfflfflP
Impedance without
Iron Core.
Impedance with
iron Core
-L=>
Condenser,
92
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
PLATE XII.
Battery. , .
- m. UJ
A.C.Terminals.
Illlll
Cells in Multiple. Cells in Series. '
Specify Type and Number of Cells. Rectifier.
D.C.Terminals.
D = Dry Battery.
G = Gravity "
P = Potash »
S = Storage "
EXAMPLES: I6P, I0S,ETC.
Uoj&oj&J Uoo.oqo.oJ
I- SECONDARY. 2- OR MORE SECONDARIES.
Transformers.
(m) <§)
D.G.Motor.
D.C.Generator,
A.C. Motor.
<§>-<§) #mJ)
A.C. Generator. D.C.-D.C.Motor-Generator. A.C.- D.G.Motor- Generator.
Ammeter.
Incandescent Lamp.
Voltmeter.
w
X®
Wattmeter . Telephone ,
I
Single. Double.
Lightning Arrester. Terminals.
Wires Gross .
Wires Join.
Ground.
"Common " Wire.'
Track Circuit Wire.
Other than " Common" Wire.
Direction of Current.
Appendix A.
RULES GOVERNING THE CONSTRUCTION. MAINTENANCE
AND OPERATION OF INTERLOCKING PLANTS.
The States of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana and Minnesota have
adopted certain rules with reference to the construction, maintenance
and operation of interlocking plants, and these rules have now also
been adopted by the States of Missouri and Iowa. They are herewith
presented to the Association as information, with the understanding that
they have not been reviewed by Committee No. X. It is recommended
that they be published in our literature, but not included in the Manual.
PRELIMINARY REQUIREMENTS.
Indications and Aspects.
Section I. (a) As far as practicable, a uniform system of indi-
cations and aspects must be used for each operating division. When
requested, every railroad company operating in this state shall submit plans
to the Commission showing the system of indications and aspects in use,
or which it proposes to use, for fixed signaling for each operating division.
(b) If changes are made by any railroad company in its system
of signal indications and aspects on any operating division in this state
subsequent to the filing of plans, it shall notify the Commission accord-
ingly.
Plans to Be Submitted.
Section 2. (a) Prior to the construction, reconstruction or re-
habilitation of any interlocking plant, there shall be filed with the
Commission as a basis for approval, the following plans :
(b) A station map or other plat, drawn to scale, showing all
tracks, bridges, buildings, water tanks, and other physical surroundings
located on the right-of-way of each company.
(c) Profiles showing the grade of each railroad company's main
tracks for a distance of not less than two (2) miles in each direction
from the crossing or junction.
(d) A track plan in duplicate (and as many more as the roads
desire approved) showing the location of all interlocking units, the
tower and its general dimensions, and any other appurtenances necessary
to show a complete layout of the proposed interlocking plant. When not
expedient to locate accurately all physical characteristics by figures, they
should be established by scaled distances within the interlocking limits
hereinafter specified.
(e) When merely changes and additions are involved, no station
maps or profiles need be filed with the track plans, except when re-
quested 'by the Commission.
(f) All plans filed with the Commission under this and other
sections must be of light-weight paper when in the form of blueprints.
Symbols.
Section 3. In the preparation of plans, the symbols approved by
the Railway Signal Association shall be used to indicate switches, de-
rails, signals, and other essential parts of the interlocking plant.
93
94 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
Limits of Interlocking Plants.
Section 4. The interlocking limits are defined by the home or
dwarf signals situate on any specified track and located farthest from
the point to be protected. Any appliances operated in conjunction with
the interlocking plant, and situate beyond the limits herein designated,
are considered as auxiliaries.
Approval of Plans.
Section 5. (a) When possible, the railway companies concerned
should agree on the plans before submitting them to the Commission.
(b) If the preliminary plans are satisfactory, or if in the judgment
of the Commission modifications are necessary, the plans will be ap-
proved accordingly. Of the plans so approved, one copy will be retained
by the Commission, and the duplicate returned to the petitioning com-
pany.
(c) The approval herein described will stand for a period of one
year. If the work is not commenced within that period, a new approval
must be obtained.
Physical Changes, Reconstruction and Rehabilitation.
Section 6. No interlocking plant shall be reconstructed or re-
habilitated, nor shall any change be made in the locking or in the location
of any unit, until plans have first been submitted to and approved by
the Commission.
Conditional Service.
Section 7. (a) Upon the completion of any work on interlocking
plants, which involves changes in the locking, the units must be connected
and adjusted, the plant placed in conditional service for not less than
twenty-four (24) hours, and remain so until relieved by order of the
Commission.
(b) When minor changes are made in locking, under plans pre-
viously approved by the Commission, it will not be necessary to place
the plant in conditional service prior to the time it is ready for in-
spection ; and in cases when permission is received from the Commission
in advance, the plant may be placed in full operation, if the Commission
is unable to inspect it within twenty-four (24) hours after it is ready
for inspection.
(c) Conditional service is hereby interpreted to mean that all
units and other apparatus involved be connected and operated from the
interlocking machine in the tower. All trains shall come to a stop at
the governing home or dwarf signal, regardless of its position, and that
such signal shall not be operated to give a proceed indication until
after the train has made the prescribed stop.
Petition for Inspection. #
Section 8. (a) Prior to or accompanying the petition for in-
spection of completed interlocking plants, the following detailed plans
will be required :
(b) A track plan similar to the one referred to in Section 2, show-
ing all tracks and. interlocking units as actually constructed,, the terminal
ends of each track to be numbered or lettered for use in connection
with the manipulation sheet. A locking sheet and dog chart, showing
the arrangement of locking in the machine as installed; wiring plans,
showing in detail all circuits used in connection with the plant; a man-
ipulation sheet, with or without track diagrams, as required by the
Commission, showing in tabulated form the numbers of all levers neces-
sary to be manipulated for any given route designated on the track
plan.
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 95
(c) A suitable framed manipulation chart and track diagram shall
be properly placed in the interlocking tower. The terminal ends of each
track on this chart shall be numbered or lettered to correspond with the
track plans above mentioned.
(d) The petition for inspection of any interlocking plant, when
possible, shall give three (3) days' notice in advance of the time when
the plant will be ready for inspection. Upon receipt of such notice, the
Commission will endeavor to have the plant inspected within three (3)
days after receiving such advice. If the Commission is not able to make
the inspection within the time specified, it will authorize the railroad com-
pany in charge to place the plant in full operation, subject to future in-
spection.
(e) If, upon the inspection of any interlocking plant by the Com-
mission, it is found to be installed in accordance with the approved
plans, a temporary permit will be issued to the railroad company in
charge, pending the issuance of formal permits.
REQUISITES OF INSTALLATION.
Type of Signals.
Section 9. (a) Except when approved by the Commission, all in-
terlocking signals must be of the semaphore type. The apparatus con-
nected with the operation of these signals must be so constructed that
the failure of any part directly controlling the signal will cause it to
display its least favorable indication.
(b) Semaphore arms must display indications to the right of the
signal post, except where the physical conditions on a road require the
display of signal indications to the left.
Location of Signals.
Section 10. (a) All fixed signals must be located either over or
upon the right and next to the track over which train movements are
governed, except on roads operating trains with the current of traffic
to the left, or where physical conditions require placing the signals to
the left of the track.
(b) Bracket post signals may be used on roads operating trains
over two (2) or more tracks in the same direction, when such practice
is uniform for any specified operation division, or where local con-
ditions require their use.
Locking of Signals.
Section ii. The locking between the levers of the interlocking
machine must be arranged so that a home or dwarf signal cannot be
cleared for any given route unless all switches, derails, movable point
frogs and other units in the route are in proper position and locked.
Home Signals.
Section 12. (a) When required by the Commission, all home sig-
nals must be equipped with not less than two arms. Unless operated by
power, all home signals in mechanical plants must be pipe-connected,
except when otherwise approved by the Commission.
(b) When used in connection with automatic train stopping de-
vices, the home signal may be located immediately opposite the means
for controlling the apparatus of the train stopping device.
(c) When used in connection with derails and other units, the
home signal must be located as far in advance of such units as is
necessary to secure full protection, but in no case shall it be less than
five (5) ft. in advance of such units.
(d) When home signals are semi-automatic, or form a part of an
automatic block signal system, calling-on-arms or some other means may
lie used for advancing trains.
96 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
(e) All high-speed signals located in an automatic block signal
territory shall be semi-automatic and form a part of the block signal
system.
Dwarf Signals.
Section 13. Dwarf signals indicate slow-speed movements and may
be used to govern train movements on all tracks other than main tracks,
except as hereinafter specified ; on main tracks to govern train move-
ments against current of traffic; and, when approved by the Commission,
as intervening signals to facilitate switching movements. When used,
they must be located and connected in the same manner as home signals.
Advance Signals.
Section 14. Advance signals may be used when necessary, and must
be installed in the same manner as home signals.
Distant Signals.
Section 15. (a) On level and ascending grades, distant signals
shall be located not less than two thousand five hundred (2,500) ft. in
advance of their respective home signals. On descending grades, the
minimum distance of two thousand five hundred (2,500) ft. shall be
increased at the rate of one hundred (100) ft. for each one-tenth (1/10)
of one* per cent, of gradient.
(b) Where conditions justify, the location and character of dis-
tant signals or the method of operation may be varied or the signals be
omitted, depending upon the conditions surrounding each particular case.
(c) Except as hereinafter provided, all high-speed tracks must be
equipped with power-operated distant signals having electric locks or
other suitable apparatus to prevent changing of the route until such
signals have indicated their normal position.
(d) When required by the Commission, distant signals shall be
so arranged as automatically to indicate stop when the track between
the home and distant signals is occupied, or when any intervening switch
is not in its normal position.
Switches.
Section 16. All switches, derails, movable point frogs and other
units within the interlocking limits hereinbefore defined must be incor-
porated in the plant.
Derails on Steam Roads.
Section 17. (a) Main Tracks: On level grades, facing derails must
be located not less than five hundred (500) ft. from a drawbridge or the
fouling point of a crossing or junction. On descending grades, facing
derails must be located to give practically the same measure of pro-
tection as for level grades, and the minimum distance of five hundred
(500) ft. must be increased at the rate of ten (10) ft. for each one-
tenth (1/10) of one per cent, gradient. On ascending grades, the mini-
mum distance of five hundred (500) ft. may be reduced at the rate of
ten (10) ft. for each one-tenth of one per cent, gradient; but in no
case shall such derails be located less than four hundred (400) ft. from a
drawbridge or the fouling point of a crossing or junction.
(b) Pocket Derails : Where such are used they shall be located
so as to derail the first pair of wheels on the ties, at a point not less
than fifty (50) ft. from the fouling point of a crossing or junction.
(c) Back-up Derails: These shall be placed not less than two hun-
dred fifty (250) ft. from a drawbridge or the fouling point of a crossing
or junction.
(d) Secondary Tracks: All tracks other than main tracks shall
be termed secondary tracks. On such tracks, derails shall be placed
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 97
not less than two hundred (200) ft. from a drawbridge or from the
fouling point of a crossing; and not less than fifty (50) ft. from the
fouling point of a junction.
(e) The fouling point is where two trains moving toward a com-
mon center would come in contact.
(f) Where conditions justify, the location of derails may be varied
or they may be omitted, when approved by the Commission.-
Derails on Electric Roads.
Section 18. The location of derails on electric roads shall be de-
termined in the same manner as for steam roads. In placing derails in
the tracks of such roads, consideration will be given to speed and char-
acter of traffic.
Type of Derails.
Section 19. Derails must be of an approved pattern, suitable for the
purposes intended and so placed with reference to curvature, bridges and
other tracks as to secure a maximum of efficiency and safety.
Guard Rails.
Section 20. Where physical conditions require their use, guard rails
shall be installed in connection with derails. When used, they shall
be placed between the track rails, parallel to and not less than ten (10)
in. distant in the clear therefrom, and must be of sufficient height,
length and strength, and be properly secured to the track ties.
Automatic Train Control.
Section 21. Automatic train stopping devices which are a part of
a system of automatic train control approved by the Commission, may
be used in lieu of derails. In such devices, the means for automatically
applying the train brakes shall be located a sufficient distance in advance
of the fouling point as to insure a safe braking distance.
Locks.
Section 22. (a) In mechanical plants, all facing switches, split-
point derails in main tracks and all slip switches and movable point
frogs, must be locked with facing point locks. All other derails,
switches and other units must be locked either with facing point locks
or with switch and lock movements.
(b) In plants equipped with mechanical signals, all derails must
be provided with bolt locks ; also all switches, movable point frogs and
other units, where conditions require them.
(c) In power plants, the arrangement must be such that the signals
operating in connection with derails, facing point switches and other
units, cannot be operated unless these units are in proper position.
Detector Bars.
Section 23. (a) Unless otherwise provided, all derails, switches,
movable-point frogs and other units shall be equipped with detector bars
of approved design, not less than fifty-three (53) ft. in length, or longer,
if required.
(b) Except as hereinafter provided, all crossings shall be equipped
with detector bars of suitable length, so interlocked as to insure a clear
crossing before an opposing route can be set up or a proceed signal
given.
(c) Crossing detector bars will not be required where electric
locking is installed ; nor at outlying crossings of simple character where
no switching is performed, when the plant is equipped with time locks.
Time Locks.
Section 24. Unless equipped with electric locking, time locks must
be installed to prevent the changing of high-speed routes, until after
the home signal has displayed the stop indication a predetermined time.
98 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
Electric Locking.
Section 25. Electric locking may be provided in place of time locks
and crossing bars. When used, the circuits must be arranged so as to
prevent the changing of a route until the train has passed through the
interlocking limits or through a predetermined part of the plant.
Detector Circuits.
Section 26. When a railway company is equipped with sufficient
maintenance forces for properly maintaining electric detector circuits,
such circuits may be used in place of mechanical detector bars.
Machines.
Section 27. fa) All mechanical interlocking machines shall be
equipped with locking of the preliminary type.
(b) All power interlocking machines shall have the locking so ar-
ranged as to be effective before the operating conditions of any circuit
directly controlling a unit can be changed. Suitable indicating and lock-
ing apparatus shall be provided to prevent the placing of a lever in
complete normal or reverse position until the unit controlled has com-
pleted the intended operation, except that signals shall indicate the
normal position only.
Locking of Levers.
Section 28. (a) The locking must be so arranged that conflicting
routes cannot be given at any stage in the setting up of a route, nor a
proceed indication given until all switches, derails, movable-point frogs,
facing-point locks and other units in the route affected are in proper
position.
(b) When a separate lever is used to operate distant signals, the
locking between the home and distant signals shall be so arranged as
to prevent the distant signals from giving the proceed indication until
the home signals operating in connection with such distant signals are in
the proceed position.
Locks and Seals.
Section 29. (a) All interlocking machines must, when practicable,
be provided with means for locking or sealing the mechanical locking
and indication apparatus in such a manner as to prevent access to any
except authorized employes.
(b) All power interlocking cabinets, time locks, time releases,
emergency switches, indicator and relay cases must be provided with
suitable covers and fastenings and be properly sealed or locked, and must
not be opened by any but authorized employes.
Cross Protection.
Section 30. (a) As far as practicable, cross protection apparatus
must be provided in connection with electric interlocking plants, to pre-
vent the operation of any unit by cross or grounds.
(b) Low voltage circuits, as far as practicable, must be designed to
prevent the operation of apparatus by cross or grounds-
Annunciators.
Section 31. When operating conditions require annunciators, they
shall be installed.
Signal Towers.
Section 32. (a) Signal towers shall be so placed and be of such
height and size as to best serve the purpose for which they are intended.
(b) The use of interlocking towers for purposes other than inter-
locking, dispatching and block work is undesirable.
(c) If work other than interlocking is carried on in the tower, a
suitable partition or railing must be provided to prevent outsiders from
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 99
having access to interlocking apparatus, and interfering with the duties
of the operator or towerman.
Tower Lights.
Section 33. The tower lights must be screened off so that they can-
not be mistaken for signals exhibited to control train movements.
Material and Workmanship.
Section 34. Material and workmanship must be first-class through-
out. When complete, the interlocking plant must be in every way suitable
and sufficient for the purposes intended.
MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION.
Maintenance and Operation.
Section 35. (a) Interlocking plants must at all times be properly
maintained and efficiently operated. Any rules or regulations that the
railway companies may have adopted for the guidance of employes in
operating and maintaining interlocking plants must be appropriately framed
and conveniently placed in interlocking towers.
(b) When ap interlocking plant is taken out of service the Com-
mission must be notified immediately. Under such circumstances train
movements must not be governed by interlocking signals, but by the usual
precautions prescribed by statute governing train movements over and
across railroad grade crossings, junctions and drawbridges.
Interlocking Reports.
Section 36. Reports for each interlocking plant shall be filed with
the Commission by each railroad company concerned, which reports must
be filed in manner and form prescribed by the Commission.
w.
. G. Arn,
H.
Baldwin,
G.
H. Burgess,
A.
E. Clift,
H.
T. Douglas, Jr.,
A.
C. Everham,
R.
Ferriday,
G.
H. Herrold,
G.
P. Johnson,
D.
B. Johnston,
H.
A. Lane,
REPORT OF COMMITTEE XIV— ON YARDS AND
TERMINALS.
C. H. Spencer, Chairman; E. B. Temple, Vice-Chairman;
L. J. McIntyre,
B. H. Mann,
A. Montzheimer,
H. J. Pfeifer,
S. S. Roberts,
W. L. Seddon,
E. E. R. Tratman,
E. P. Weatherly,
W. L. Webb,
C. C. Wentworth,
J. G. WlSHART,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Raihwy Engineering Association:
Your Committee on Yards and Terminals submits herewith its four-
teenth annual report.
The Board of Direction has assigned the following subjects to your
Committee :
(i) Report on typical situation plans of passenger stations, of both
through and stub types, with critical analysis of working capacity, and in-
clude a review of the different methods of estimating their capacity.
(2) Report on developments in the handling of freight by mechan-
ical means.
(3) Report on developments in the design and operation of hump
yards.
(4) Report on track scales.
In addition to various meetings of sub-committees, to whom the dif-
ferent subjects have been assigned, two meetings of the entire Committee
were held, the first in Buffalo, June 6 and 7, at which were present : Hadley
Baldwin, A. E. Clift, A. Montzheimer, J. G. Wishart, C. C. Wentworth,
G. H. Herrold, S. S. Roberts, R. Ferriday, D. B. Johnston and C. H.
Spencer.
The second meeting was held at Atlantic City, September 26 and 27,
at which were present : Hadley Baldwin, G. H. Burgess, D. B. Johnston,
H. A. Lane, R. Ferriday, C. C. Wentworth, S. S. Roberts and C. H.
Spencer.
Letters were also received from E. B. Temple, A. E. Clift, H. T.
Douglas, Jr., A. C. Everham, D. B. Johnston, B. H. Mann, W. L. Seddon,
E. E. R. Tratman, E. P. Weatherly and H. J. Pfeifer.
101
102 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
TYPICAL SITUATION PLANS OF PASSENGER STATIONS.
The work on this subject has been industriously prosecuted by the
members of the sub-committee handling the same. Arrangements are
being completed for putting in use the diagrams submitted by the Com-
mittee in its last report in some of our large terminals. This has not
been carried to the extent which would allow a report to be made at this
time. The Committee, therefore, desires that the subject be carried
over until its next report. The Committee also calls attention to
an article on "The Traffic Capacity of Terminus Stations for Urban
and Suburban Traffic," by G. Brecht, Berlin, published in Elek-
trische Kraftbetrieber und Bahnen, and reprinted in Bulletin of the In-
ternational Railway Congress Association, English Edition, Volume
XXVII, November, 1913.
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE HANDLING OF FREIGHT BY
MECHANICAL MEANS.
The subject with which the Committee has to deal may be divided
into three classes: (1) the mechanical handling of freight at freight
houses; (2) the mechanical handling of freight in general, at warehouses,
piers, etc.; (3) the mechanical handling of railway baggage, mail and ex-
press matter. These three divisions of the subject are covered in this
report.
MECHANICAL HANDLING OF FREIGHT AT FREIGHT HOUSES.
The difficulty in the application of mechanical conveying devices to
the handling of freight in freight houses is not in devising such appliances,
but in adapting them to conditions of handling (1) where the sizes and
weights of packages are of infinite variety, and (2) where there are
numerous points for receiving and delivering the packages.
Where there is a fixed point for loading and discharge, as in a
warehouse or an industrial plant, it is simply a question of adopting one
of several forms of conveyors. But it is a very different problem to han-
dle freight which is delivered at a dozen or a score of team doorways (or
an equal number of points along a platform), and which must be dis-
tributed among a still larger number of cars. This problem has not yet
been solved, and the nearest approach to its solution so far appears to be
the introduction of small motor trucks as a substitute for hand trucks,
thus retaining the flexibility and independence of the trucking system,
while increasing the capacity and speed of movement.
The Committee has but little specific information to report on this
subject. In its report for 1913 it described in detail the telfer system as
used for the double-deck freight station of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas
Railway at St. Louis, but the use of that system has now been abandoned.
In reply to an inquiry as to the reason for this action, Mr. S. B. Fisher
YARDS AND TERMINALS. 103
(now Chairman of the Valuation Committee of that railway) writes as
follows :
"Our Company has abandoned the method of handling freight by
telfers, as our freight was of such a miscellaneous character and with
such unhandy packages that we could not handle it economically with
this system. I think, however, the principal difficulty is that our men
were not educated enough for the handling of this freight, and that we
were too far in advance of the times. It is true with the outbound freight
we had the principal difficulty. We found a great deal of breakage, and
freight shipped to wrong destinations under this system."
Texas City Transportation Company: This plant is primarily for
handling heavy freight, principally steel products from vessel to car and
vice versa, and consists of a main longitudinal conveyor at right angles to
the wharf with portable branch conveyors at right angles to the
main conveyor, the latter of which can be placed at any point along the
main conveyor, permitting storing at any point in the storage room, and
in the outbound house loading directly into the cars which are placed on
tracks at each side of the outbound house and parallel to the main con-
veyor.
With this plant the only manual labor is placing the freight on the
conveyor in the hold of the vessel, diverting at each junction the freight
for the branch conveyor at that point and then stacking the freight in the
house or in the car.
By reversing the movement on conveyors, cotton and cotton seed
products and other freight are conveyed directly from cars or storage
room to the hold of the vessel or from car to the storage room.
With this system the cost of handling freight from vessel to cars or
warehouse is a minimum of about eight cents per ton for steel products
and a string of cars has been loaded in an average of ten minutes per car.
A plan of the whole terminal, and of the storage room and outbound
house, are given, together with some views.
It is unnecessary to change the berth of a vessel at any dock and
it, therefore, makes less dock space necessary than with the ordinary sys-
tem of a narrow dock parallel to the water front, and gives a minimum
of port delay to a vessel. Land back for half of mile from water front
can be used to as good advantage as frontage, and as such land is
cheaper, the initial expense is reduced, it being necessary to have only
frontage enough to berth the vessels docking at the wharf at any one
time.
The main artery of the conveying apparatus consists of a series of in-
dividual slat conveyors (see Fig. i) of such length that each is
economically run by its own motor, and they are so coupled together
as to virtually form one continuous conveyor.
At the junction of branch conveyors (see Fig. 2) when delivering
to the branch, it is necessary to station a man at each junction where
freight is being diverted. However, when freight is being delivered from
the branches to the main conveyor, it is unnecessary, for many small pack-
104
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
Fig. i— Main Conveyor, Texas City Transportation Company.
Fig. 2— Cross Conveyor, Texas City Transportation Company.
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
105
ages, to have a man at the junction to divert the packages. The almost
unbelievable extent to which this transfer can be made to the main con-
veyor from branches at right angles without manual help is illustrated
by the fact that a Hanak slat conveyor in the Magnolia Brewery
at Hudson so handles bottled beer, the bottles standing upright, in con-
veying it from bottling machine to the packers (see Fig. 3).
Magnolia Compress, Harrisburg, Texas: This plant, also, designed by
Edward Hanak, used exclusively for handling cotton, is equipped with
roller belt conveyors, and handles cotton from compress or any point in
receiving sheds to the cars or any floor of a four-story storage ware-
house. The conveyor to storage warehouse passes over the railroad track,
is so adjustable that by reversing the conveyors cotton from the storage
warehouse can be delivered direct to cars. This system has proven eco-
Fig. 3 — Bottle Conveyor, Right Angle.
nomical and very satisfactory, and while it would be difficult to adjust
any existing plant to such an apparatus, it seems ideal for a new project.
Plan indicating installation and cuts illustrating use are included in the
report (see Figs. 0, 10, 11, 12).
IMPROVEMENTS IN HAND TRUCKING AT FREIGHT HOUSES.
In many cases it may be practicable to materially improve the hand
trucking system at freight houses, and two instances of such improve-
ment may be mentioned.
The Illinois Central Railroad has used at its Chicago local freight
house a method of handling L. C. L. freight which is known as the mul-
tiple truck system. There are 5 to 15 trucks to each trucker, and when a
man brings his truck he does not wait for it to be loaded or unloaded (as
is ordinarily done), but takes another truck and handles another load.
106
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
Fig. 4 — Elevator, Texas City Transportation Company.
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
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112 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
This eliminates much of the empty truck movement and the enforced
idleness of the truckers, which prevails under the ordinary system. It
reduces the cost of floor movement about 30 per cent. Fifty per cent, of
the saving is being distributed among the freight handlers in the form of
increased pay. In describing this system at a meeting of the Traffic Club
of Chicago, Mr. Barron suggested that in the absence of mechanical car-
riers or moving platforms in the city terminals the efficiency of freight
handling could be greatly increased by the establishment of large outer
sorting platforms or warehouses where outbound package freight could be
assembled and consolidated, and where the floor movement could be per-
formed by mechanical devices.
In replacing the telferage system with hand trucking at the St. Louis
freight station of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas Railway mentioned
above, steps were taken to reduce the time lost by truckage. The station
being double-decked (with the team platforms above, the car platforms
below), trucks have to be handled by elevators. As described, there are
two separate groups of truckers, one for each floor. For outbound freight
a trucker on the upper floor will take a loaded truck and run it into the
designated elevator, taking off an empty truck and going back for another
load. A trucker on the lower floor will take the loaded truck and wheel
it to the car, where he will leave it and take an empty truck back to the
elevator.
CONVEYORS FOR HANDLING MAIL AND BAGGAGE.
Carrying mail bags from trains to a post-office sub-station by means
of belt conveyors is an interesting feature of the new Chicago terminal
of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway. There are six belts running
in covered troughs between the pairs of tracks, and a little below the rail
level. When a train arrives, sections of the cover of the trough are re-
moved, opposite the mail-car doors, and the bags are thrown down upon
the traveling belt. Similar belt conveyors have been installed for han-
dling the mail in the postoffice at the above terminal. Spiral chutes for
lowering mail bags and hand baggage are in use at the New York Ter-
minal Stations of the New York Central Lines and the Pennsylvania
Railroad.
Practically the only method of handling train baggage by power at
large stations is by the use of electric motor trucks. At several steam-
ship piers portable conveyors -(of the traveling platform type) are used to
deliver baggage to and from the vessels, while fixed conveyors of a sim-
ilar type handle it between the upper and lower floors of the piers.
In regard to trucking at passenger stations, the operation of trucks on
passenger platforms is always more or less of a nuisance. In several
cases where baggage is handled beneath the train floor, the trucks with
inbound baggage still have to run from the baggage cars along the plat-
forms to the elevators, thus blocking the stream of passengers from the
train. The movement of baggage should be restricted as far as possible
to subways, overhead lines and special platforms between the tracks.
TERMINAL IMPROVEMENTS.
TEXAS CITY TRANSPORTATION CO.
TEXAS CITY, TEXAS.
Terminal Improvements
TEXAS CITY TRANSPORTATION CO
TEXAS CITY TEXAS NOV. 1912
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WAREHOUSE AND PORTABLE CON-
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YARDS AND TERMINALS. 115
CONVEYORS FOR HANDLING EXPRESS AND PARCELS.
Conveyors and escalators (or inclined elevating conveyors) have been
used at several express offices and stations, and a telfer system is re-
ferred to later in connection with foreign conveyor practice.
At the American Express Company's station at West Thirty-third
Street and Tenth Avenue, New York, there is an interesting conveyor
system. The loaded wagons coming to this station are backed against an
unloading platform, which is served by a 40-inch belt conveyor 555 feet
long, placed 7 feet above the platform and 3 feet back from its edge.
The smaller packages are thrown upon this by the wagon crews as they
unload their vehicles. The belt is driven by a 7^ H.P. direct-current
motor and runs at a speed of ninety feet per minute.
At the end of this conveyor the packages slide down a short chute to
another 40-inch belt conveyor, which is 66 feet long and inclined at an
angle of twenty degrees so as to deliver the packages to the upper floor.
This conveyor is driven from the other by means of sprocket chains.
The packages are discharged upon the apex of a revolving cone or turn-
table as shown in Fig. 10. This is 22 feet in diameter. As the packages
slide down the cone to the base they are picked off and thrown into bins
by men stationed around the turntable, each man taking off those destined
to certain offices. The turntable makes about one revolution per minute
and is driven by gearing from a 1 H.P. motor. From these bins the
packages are taken by men who weigh them and assess the proper
charges. Then the packages are placed on an inclined table, at the base
of which is a shelf where the waybill is made by men seated at this
shelf. The packages are then placed on another table, from which
they are placed in cases (called "trunks"), one or more cases being used
for every large office and other cases being addressed to a messenger on a
train, from which he will distribute the packages to the offices through
which his train passes. After being locked and sealed, the cases are
trucked to an escalator, or inclined platform conveyor, and sent to the
main platform for loading into the proper cars. This escalator is 48
inches wide and 35 feet long, operated by a 5 H.P. motor. It will run in
either direction, and in the morning it is used for taking empty cases
from the train platform to the package room. The revolving cone is a
new feature which has been found entirely satisfactory. It eliminates
the possibility of congestion and its use shows a decided saving in labor.
Similar equipment is used at the express offices of the Wells-Fargo
Company at Jersey City and at the express stations of the United States
Express Company in the terminal stations of the Erie Railroad at Jersey
City and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad at Hoboken,
N. J. At this last named station the loaded express wagons are backed up
to the receiving doors and the heavy trunks, etc., are put on the main
floor to be handled by trucks, while the lighter packages (up to about 30
lbs.) are thrown upon a wide belt conveyor above and at a short distance
back from the doors. A low side board or guard along the near side of the
116 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
belt and a high guard at the back prevent packages from being thrown on
the edge or thrown over the belt. There are two of these belts, each 300
feet long, running from the opposite ends of the express platform towards
the middle. Each discharges at the end upon an inclined conveyor 44 feet
long, which extends into the second floor and delivers the packages upon a
picking belt, from which they are taken by boys who pass them down
chutes to the billing clerks, each clerk taking those for certain routes. If
the packages come so fast that the boys cannot handle them, those that are
not taken go on to the end of the belt and are delivered by chutes to a
parallel return belt and again discharged upon the picking belt, the par-
cels circulating in this way until taken off.
CONVEYORS AT PIERS AND DOCKS.
Motor trucks and different kinds of conveyors are used for handling
freight and cargo at steamship piers, but mainly in connection with
coastwise shipping. Some conveyors handle the packages of freight, oth-
ers handle the trucks, as noted below in reference to different kinds of
conveyors. A portable cargo-handling conveyor consists of a conveyor
belt on a truss frame which is hinged to a steel tower traveling on a
track along the edge of the pier or quay. A motor drives the conveyor
and propels the tower. The end of the truss is supported by cables which
pass over the top of the tower and down to winding drums, so that the
inclination of the conveyor can be varied to meet the level of the deck of
the ship or barge.
At American ports, the handling of cargo is done mainly by the
ship's winches and booms and by hand trucks. At the extensive pier and
warehouse plant of the Bush Terminal Company, Brooklyn, N. Y., the
company leases its piers to steamship lines, and these lines handle their
own cargoes. They do not use mechanical means except such as the ships
themselves provide. A new pier for the American-Hawaiian Line will
have a double-deck shed, and the steamship line considered seriously the
matter of using equipment other than booms on the ships. It decided
finally that it would install only booms on the side of the pier shed, about
thirty feet apart. The second deck will be used only for incoming cargo.
In getting this cargo down to the first deck it is expected to use straight
chutes, spiral chutes, and "lowerators."
In its own work the terminal company loads cars mostly by hand, but
sometimes with small movable cranes mounted on storage-battery motor
trucks. The goods are moved between cars, docks and warehouses partly
by mule trucks and partly by battery trucks with trailers. The goods are
put into and taken out of the warehouses by electric hoists placed at in-
tervals along the bulkhead, and which are so arranged that the drum can
be hooked up to any one of several different hoists. For distributing
goods to New York and nearby territory both horse trucks and motor
trucks are used, the latter usually for the full loads and long hauls.
YARDS AND TERMINALS. 117
Some examples of freight handling installations at piers are given
below :
Merchants' and Miners' Transportation Company: This company is
using a portable gravity conveyor system at its steamship pier at Boston.
The conveyor consists of ball-bearing rollers carried in side frames which
are mounted on legs, giving an average grade of 4 per cent. The sections
are about six feet long and their frames hook together. As used on the
pier, a main run of the conveyor extends from the storage side of the
shed to the water side, and branches (with connecting curves) are laid
down the gangways and across the ship's deck to the hatches. Four
hatches can be served at once.
The company states that this carrier has been found economical
where used for one kind of freight and where the grade is uniform, but
at Boston there is a tidal range of 9 to 12 feet, and the character of
freight is miscellaneous, consisting of sacks, boxes, bales, barrels, etc.
It has been in use about a year with fair results. The greatest
length of travel is 150 feet and the speed of movement about 300 feet per
minute, while the heaviest packages handled average 400 lbs. It is con-
sidered that it would be superior to hand trucking if the packages were
uniform and would then reduce the number of men by some 20 per cent.
Its disadvantages are in handling the variety of packages and in the con-
gestion at the ship's ports.
Boston & Maine Railroad' This road mechanically handles freight
at pier 45, Boston, Mass., where there is a Reno escalator which consists
of a wooden frame 46 feet long and 12 feet wide, extreme grade 21 de-
grees, with two Reno chain escalators, driven by separate 10 H.P. motors,
which are reversible so that chain can go in either direction. The chain
engages the axle of two-wheel trucks, pulling up and letting down load.
The chains have two speeds. 150 feet per minute maximum, four to six
trucks on each. Capacity 5 tons concentrated load. The frame is ad-
justed to suit the tide with a hand hoist.
Delaware, Lackawatma & Western Railroad: This road has at Ho-
boken, N. J., a new pier 500 by 80 feet, where eastbound freight is un-
loaded from cars and loaded onto barges for transfer to steamship piers.
It has a double-deck steel frame superstructure with concrete walls, floors
and roof. For handling freight between the main and upper floors, there
are three 5-ton hydraulic platform elevators (9x10 feet) and five electric-
ally operated barrel and sack elevators (with arms holding the packages).
For descending freight there are also gravity chutes for packages and for
barrels, movable sections carrying the freight from the bottom of the
fixed chute to the desired points on the floor.
New York Dock Company: This company has piers and warehouses
at Brooklyn, New York, and uses both motor trucks and conveyors for
handling miscellaneous freight between the warehouses and the bulkhead
line, but these facilities extend along the piers. A six-story warehouse is
served by a telfer system which extends through the second floor and
118 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
over a bridge to a railway freight house. From the front of the ware-
house, the runway extends along a bridge which crosses the dock front
by a 76-foot span, the other end of the bridge being carried by a tower on
the bulkhead wall. A hinged apron 30 feet long can be lowered so as to
extend the runway over the deck of a barge or lighter. The runway is a
15-inch I-beam and carries electric hoisting trolleys of 5,000 lbs. capacity.
These trolleys handle special freight trucks having platforms zlA by 8J/2
feet, mounted on two casters at one end and two 10-inch ball-bearing
wheels at the other end.
Canadian Pacific Railway: This railway has at Fort William, Ont., a
freight pier which is used largely for shipping flour, and is equipped with
electrically-operated belt conveyors for handling the sacks. Along the
rear or track side, and just beneath the upper floor is a 26-inch conveyor
belt extending the full length of the building, while five transverse belts
(at a slightly lower level) extend across the building to fixed chutes.
Portable chutes attached to these carry the sacks to the hatches of the
vessel. Over the main belt, at each of the transverse belts, is a diverting
device which consists of a board placed at 45 degrees across the belt, so
that when lowered it throws the sacks off upon the transverse belt. By
the operation of these boards, the sacks can be sorted while moving, so as
to deliver a certain brand at each hatch if desired.
FREIGHT HANDLING AT WAREHOUSES.
At many large mail-order houses mechanical handling and conveying
of packages is used extensively.
Mr. J. C. Madison, Traffic Manager for Montgomery Ward & Co.,
Chicago, informs us that in its various houses this firm is using as many
mechanical appliances as may be economically adopted in conducting the
business. The elevators are used as far as possible for ascending mer-
chandise. For descending merchandise, spiral chutes are used; and belt
conveyors for conveying merchandise from different divisions to the
spiral chutes. At the foot of the spiral is a broad belt conveyor running
the length of the building which carries the merchandise to the different
packing sections, and it is run from this horizontal belt conveyor on
gravity conveyors to different parts of the floors where it is wanted.
Vertical endless-chain conveyors are used for taking up and down mer-
chandise which is conveyed in baskets, and which cannot be safely sent
down spiral conveyors.
There are inclined conveyors from the river-level floor to the ship-
ping floors and they are adapted to handle heavy merchandise of all
kinds. Supplementary elevators run from the box shop to the packing
floors, and the pneumatic tube system is used throughout the building for
the transfer of correspondence, mail, etc.
One or two portable elevators are used for stacking or double-decking
heavy cases, and a few motor-trucks for taking strings of regular flat
trucks from one part of the building to another.
YARDS AND TERMINALS. 119
TYPES OF CONVEYORS FOR FREIGHT HANDLING.
Telferage: This system of handling goods by motor trolley hoists
running on overhead runways is being used extensively. An electrically
operated telfer system has been installed at the Hood Rubber Company
plant, East Watertown, Mass., for handling loads of 250 to 5,000 lbs. It
serves five buildings and crosses a railway line, which separates a group
of buildings, and in this way it eliminates a former detour to a grade
crossing. The runway is a single 12-in. I-beam, carried on brackets along
the outside of the walls of the buildings and by steel bridges between the
buildings. On this runs the motor trolley with a 2j/j-ton hoist. There are
grades of 2^/2 and 4 per cent, on the line. It is stated that two years'
service with one trolley, which was not sufficient to entirely eliminate
handling by teams and trucks around the plant, reduced the operating cost
of handling the material around the plant by 67 per cent., as compared with
the former exclusive use of teams and trucks.
The four-story warehouse of the wholesale grocery firm of M. A.
Newmark & Company at Los Angeles, Cal., handling some 200 tons daily,
has a telfer system on each floor, with two spiral chutes and four ele-
vators. Packages in the cars are loaded into small trucks, which are then
pushed out on the platform to be picked up by the telfer carriers. Loads
are carried from cars to the storage in less than two-thirds the time, and
with less men than required by the former system.
Belt and Platform Conveyors: These are of numerous designs
adapted to various purposes, and are used very extensively for both hori-
zontal and inclined movements, for short and long distances. In some,
cases they extend across bridges from a warehouse to a pier or dock
front, and by a hinged extension at the end the package can be delivered
or loaded at the ship's hatch. One form of portable cargo conveyor has
its belt frame carried on a truss attached to a tower or frame which trav-
els along the dock wall. The attachment is hinged and the outer end of
the bridge supported by cables from the tower, so that the inclination
can be varied to suit the level of the ship or barge. Belt conveyors have
been applied to the handling of mail sacks, light baggage and express mat-
ter at postoffices and railway stations, and for handling baggage at steam-
ship piers.
Gravity Conveyors: These consist of rollers carried in side frame ;
mounted on legs, and for portable use the conveyor is made in sections
(straight and curved) about six or eight feet long. The Matthews con-
veyor uses ball-bearing steel rollers, and gives a grade of about 4 per cent.
It will handle loads of 5 to 300 lbs. For portable use, the legs of each
section may be fitted with castors. These can be used only for a down-
grade movement, but for long runs in factories, warehouses and industrial
plants an automatic motor-driven inclined or vertical elevator raises the
packages to the top of the gravity run. Spiral conveyors are made in
the same way, and where packages of various kinds are used they have
the advantage that all packages move at approximately the same speed,
120 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
while in spiral sliding chutes the speed varies with the weight and a
heavy package may overtake and crush or damage a lighter package.
These conveyors are used extensively in industrial work, and several
railways are using short runs of them for special purposes such as hand-
ling shingles, brick, etc.
Gravity Chutes: Straight and spiral inclined chutes are used ex-
tensively in stores, warehouses, etc., also, at some railway stations for
lowering mail sacks and light baggage from upper to lower floors. Open
chutes or troughs are used for the larger and heavier class of packages,
but for lighter packages the chute is a steel spiral inclosed in a steel
cylinder, with loading doors or discharging chutes at the different floors.
The openings are equipped with automatic fire doors.
Truck Conveyors: To facilitate the movement of hand trucks on in-
clines, there are different makes of traveling chains and platforms, the
chains having arms or lugs to engage the trucks. These are used in pier
sheds, warehouses, etc., but more extensively at steamship piers, on the
inclined gangways from the floor to the level of the ship's lower-deck side
ports. The trucker keeps hold of his truck in the usual way, and in some
cases the chain forms part of an endless traveling platform on which the
men stand, but usually the men walk beside the chain. This method is
a great saving of time and labor, especially where the incline is steep,
as in reaching the deck level at low tide. A modified application of this
is a traveling chain laid along the floor of a pier or warehouse, forming
two straight runs with loop ends. Trucks may be wheeled to the con-
veyor at any point. Empty trucks can be returned on the side of the run.
Motor Trucks: The use of motor trucks of about i-ton capacity
for handling freight and baggage is on the increase, and such trucks seem
to be the most practicable method so far devised to increase the facility
and economy of ordinary freight-house work. A special form of motor
truck has been introduced, equipped with an electrically operated crane
capable of handling loads up to one ton. This could load cotton bales,
etc., upon its own platform, carry the bales to a wagon, and load them
on the wagon ; it can also handle such loads to and from other trucks.
Illinois Central Railroad: At Stuyvesant Docks, New Orleans, they
have in use four Elwell-Parker electric trucks of the following sizes :
Capacity 4,000 lbs.
Speed, empty 7 to 8 M.P.H.
Speed, loaded 5 to 6 M.P.H.
Weight with Edison Battery 1,75° lbs.
Edison Battery 21 cells A-6
Turning radius of outside wheels 7 feet
Length of rear platform 4 ft. 9 in.
Width over body, front end 3 ft. 6 in.
Width over body, rear end 3 ft.
Width over stake pockets 3 ft. 8 in.
Height over body, front end 3 ft. 9 in.
Height over rear platform io?4 in.
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
121
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122 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
Each of these trucks frequently handle one and two trailers. Fig.
u shows one of these trucks pulling mahogany logs from the ship side
of the docks to the railroad side for loading on cars. Fig. 12 shows
another handling a load of sisal. These trucks are also used in re-
handling tobacco from warehouse to wharf, in which event the trucks
keep six men busy loading, two unloading and one operator for each
truck. In transporting cotton the trucks keep four men busy unloading,
one operator for each truck. The performance of these trucks for six
months ending June 30, 1913, as compared with former hand trucks is
shown in the accompanying table.
MECHANICAL HANDLING ON ENGLISH RAILWAYS.
An inquiry as to the use of appliances for the mechanical handling
of freight on English railways indicates that with few exceptions the only
appliances of this kind are elevators and cranes at freight and passenger
stations. At docks and quays cranes are employed to handle baggage
to and from steamers. At coal shipping ports, special hoists and elec-
tric and hydraulic cranes are used; also car-dumping machines (for the
small cars used on English railways.) A class of freight-house crane
used in England is an overhead traveling crane, with a revolving trolley
hoist fitted with a horizontal boom.
Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway: From Mr. John A. F. Aspinall,
General Manager, we have some more detailed information as to appliances
used for various purposes on this road, and these are. noted below:
Handling Baggage at Passenger Stations : At the Victoria Station,
Manchester, there is an overhead telfer system for handling parcels and
light baggage between the parcel office and the train platform. The run-
way is composed of a pair of flat bars attached to the legs of horseshoe
yokes suspended from the trainshed and roof trusses, and on this runs
the electric traveling hoist or trolley, which has four grooved wheels. The
hoisting chains carry slings for the attachment of a basket 5^2x3x3 ft., in
which the packages are carried. The total weight, including basket
(empty) and operator, is nearly 1,300 lbs., and the hoisting capacity is
i.ioo lbs. The runway forms an irregular loop, crossing all the platforms
and extending to the baggage and parcel room. This system is the in-
vention of Mr. Aspinall.
The only other baggage handling appliances are electric and hydraulic
hoists to reach the streets (above or below track level) or subways con-
necting the platforms.
Handling Baggage at Docks or Steamship Piers: At this Company's
steamship piers baggage is taken by hand to or from the trains at the
side of the quay and lifted by means of an electric and hydraulic crane
to the vessels. At Belfast, where no cranes are available on the quay,
and where there is a constantly varying level between the ship and the
quay on account of the tide, a continuous electrically-driven belt conveyor
is placed with one end on the ship and the other on the quay, and the
baggage is handled by means of the conveyor.
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
123
Handling Freight at Freight Stations and Yards: On the Lancashire
& Yorkshire Railway system the large freight stations and yards are well
equipped with various appliances. .In Lancashire, heavy cotton traffic
(which is dealt with in flat cars of 8 to 10 tons capacity), is handled by
means of steam and electric overhead traveling cranes. A variation of
this is the use of steam or electrically-driven gantry cranes. Light goods
are handled usually by electric, hydraulic or manual cranes of 3,300 lbs.
capacity fixed on a stage or platform. The company has been going in
very largely for sheds fitted with fast overhead electrically-driven cranes
of 1,680 to 3,360 lbs. capacity. The bridge is composed of a pair of
parallel boom horizontal trusses, with the hoisting trolley traveling on the
lower booms. These are very suitable for bales of cotton and light ma-
chinery and also paper and special traffic, as by this means a large volume
of traffic can be handled at a very low rate per ton.
Special cranes include an electric cantilever gantry crane of 10 tons
capacity, with truss 180 ft. long on a central tower for handling timber
at North Mersey, Liverpool; also electric walking cranes in a wool ware-
house at the Bradford freight yard. This wool warehouse is the largest
and most completely equipped in England. The mast of the crane is
mounted on a frame with wheels traveling on a single rail in the floor
while the head rides in guides on the girders ; it carries a revolving boom.
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Goods or Cargo at Docks : At the docks and piers of this railway
company two systems are in force: (1) serving the ships' hatches by
means of crane (electric, steam or hydraulic) on the pier; (2) loading or
discharging by means of the vessels' own steam winches.
Coal or Minerals at Shipping Docks : This railway ships large
quantities of coal and salt at its two terminal ports. This is done by
means of 25 and 50 ton cranes, which lift the cars and tip the contents
over the vessels' hold or by hydraulic hoists, which raise the car and
tip the contents down a chute into the vessels' hold.
London & Northwestern Railway: Mr. J. B. Harper, Superintendent,
states for handling baggage at stations there are a number of electric and
hydraulic elevators, with subways serving the various platforms. At some
stations, parcels and mail bags are handled in the same way. Freight
warehouses are equipped with electric or hydraulic cranes, and sometimes
with elevators, and at shipping docks cargo or freight is handled by hy-
draulic steam and electric cranes up to 30 tons capacity. For the coal traffic,
the docks are fitted with coal hoists, and electric and hydraulic coaling
cranes up to 40 tons capacity. There are also a few electrically-driven
conveyors working from the quay, and conveyors fitted to the coaling
124
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
piers. At Middlesborough there is a conveyor machine for loading coal
into steamers. The railway cars discharge the coal into a 30-ton bin be-
neath the track, feeding onto an inclined belt conveyor about 130 ft. long.
The upper end of this is in a tower, where the coal is discharged into
a hopper 30 ft. above the quay. This feeds a pan conveyor on a boom
55 ft. long, extending over the water, and hinged so that it can be lowered
to reach a steamer's hatch or raised so as to clear the rigging. It can
be swung 12 feet on each side of its center line, so as to spread the coal
or to serve two adjacent hatches.
South Australian Government Railway: Mr. A. B. Moncrieff, Rail-
ways Commissioner, states that electric cranes are being fitted to the
new freight sheds at Adelaide. Figs. 13 and 14 show a plan and section
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Fig. 14.
of a three-track outbound shed 600x91 ft. The cranes, Fig. 15, have a
radius of 13 ft. 6 in., and are spaced 80 ft. apart along the platforms, be-
ing attached to the steel columns which support the roof.
FREIGHT AND CARGO HANDLING APPLIANCES AT FOREIGN PORTS.
As noted above, American seaports are much less completely equipped
with freight and cargo handling appliances than are the large European
ports, and the following particulars as to such equipment at some of
these latter ports will be of interest.
Liverpool (Mr. Alfred Chandler, General Manager, Mersey Docks
and Harbor Board) : At the Princes Landing Stage, where the trans-
atlantic steamers embark and disembark passengers, mechanical conveyors
are used for the transfer of baggage to ships and cars. One of the
bridges connecting the landing stage with the shore has a traveling plat-
form in two parts, running in opposite direction. This is used for carry-
ing the baggage trucks, the loaded trucks moving in one direction and
empty trucks in the opposite direction.
For handling cargo the various docks have an extensive equipment
of cranes. From a pamphlet published by the Mersey Docks and Harbor
Board it appears that there are about 130 hydraulic traveling cranes of
ij^-ton capacity, mounted on the roofs of the sheds, 20 similar electric
cranes, 40 hydraulic wall cranes of i-ton capacity and numerous steam
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
125
and hydraulic cranes of 3 to 100-tons capacity. The roof cranes avoid
interference with the space on the dock front. There are also about 25
hydraulic coaling hoists, handling cars of 20 and 15 tons capacity (total
weight 30 and 32 tons), and shipping coal at the rate of 300 tons per
hour. Most of these travel along the dock wall. There is also a coal-
ing dock capable of shipping 2,300 tons per hour. The new Gladstone
Dock has ij4-ton semi-portal electric cranes and a 5-ton steam locomo-
tive crane.
London: In reply to an inquiry as to the use of conveyors at the
Tilbury Dock (a dock near the mouth of the Thames), Mr. R. Philips,
General Manager of the Port of London Authority, states that the Port
Fig. 15 — Two-Motor Electric Jib Crane, South Australian Railways.
Authority owns no mechanical appliances for handling freight and cargo
at this dock, but that a stevedoring firm (Scrutton's, Limited), has in-
stalled three conveyors worked by electricity:
(1) For carrying jute and other fibres in bales from a shed used
for the storage of general goods into a shed set apart for the storage
of fibres, a distance of 180 feet; (2) for discharging tea from a ship
and conveying it into the warehouse. The sorting to marks is done by
pushing the packages off at given points where men are stationed; (3)
for discharging frozen meat and conveying it along the quay.
The delivery to barges or railway trucks for different destinations is
accomplished by lifting the meat off the conveyor when the particular mark
required reaches the point where the barge or railway truck is placed.
126 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
Manchester (Mr. E. Latimer, General Superintendent, Manchester
Ship Canal Company) : The crane equipment of the Manchester Docks
includes 53 hydraulic, 64 steam and 109 electric cranes, varying in radius
from 16 to 40 ft., with a lifting capacity of from 1 to 10 tons, to a height
from rail level of from 13 ft. to 50 ft. There is also a 30-ton steam
crane and a pontoon sheers capable of dealing with weights up to 250
tons with a lift of 21 ft.
An appliance which has proved of great utility in connection with the
cargo handling cranes is the hatchway control gear. The crane operator
is provided with a small controller which is slung from his shoulders and
weighs about 7 lbs. By means of two handles fitted on either side, the
lifting, lowering and slewing movements are under complete control. At-
tached to the switch is a flexible armored cable which passes to the crane
ring posts and to the set of small collector rings, the motors being op-
erated through a system of contactors.
By means of this appliance, the discharge and loading of vessels
can be performed with greater rapidity and with more safety than by
means of the old system. Instead of the crane man being located 30 to
60 ft. from the hold, he is able to stand beside the hatchway, carrying
the small control apparatus, and to move with perfect freedom. He can
without difficulty sight the load from the bottom of the hold until it
is deposited upon the quay shed, railway wagon or barge.
At the Partington coal basin on the canal there are six hydraulic
car-dumping machines for loading coal direct from railway cars into
ocean steamers. Each tipple has a capacity of 300 tons per hour. The
coal is brought in cars on the lower level lines, raised by hydraulic power
to the higher level, and then tipped, the empty car being returned by
gravity to the railway sidings.
At the Manchester docks, a 25-ton hydraulic crane has recently been
erected for coaling vessels in the docks. This crane is of the center
pillar or pivot type and is fixed on a concrete foundation. It is capable
of performing the following operations :
(1) Lift and readily handle a load of 25 tons at a radius of 35 ft.
(2) Lift the load to a height of 25 ft. from the level of the railway
on the wharf immediately behind the crane foundation to the lowest part
of the inside of the cradle in any position.
(3) Slew 450 degrees in either direction.
(4) Raise a cradle carrying a standard 12-ton coal car from a
horizontal position to an angle sufficient to discharge the coal quickly out
of the wagon.
The crane is provided with a luffing jib capable of being raised and
lowered under loaded or any conditions so as to vary the working radius
of the crane to the extent of 12 ft. The operations of lifting, slewing,
luffing and tipping can be carried out at the same time. All the motions
of the crane are actuated by hydraulic pressure which is available from
the company's mains at 700 lbs. pressure.
The No. 1 grain elevator erected about 16 years ago, has storage
YARDS AND TERMINALS. 127
for 40,000 tons of grain or 1,500,000 bushels. The No. 2 grain elevator,
with a storage capacity of 40,000 tons, is now in course of construction.
The building is being constructed throughout of reinforced concrete, with
steel doors and window frames and the roof will be covered with asphalt,
it will be fireproof throughout. The building will occupy the whole of
the end of No. 9 dock and grain will be discharged from steamers berthed
along the sides of the dock into subways which were constructed when
the dock was made, and will be conveyed on bands into the elevator where
it will be elevated and distributed to the various bins in the house. Pro-
vision will be made for 260 storage bins and for 81 shipping bins 76 ft.
8 in. deep. When the grain has to be delivered from the storage bins,
it will be lifted and distributed to the shipping bins, from which it will be
loaded either in bags or in bulk into barges, carts or railway wagons.
Each of the receiving and shipping elevators will be provided with an
automatic scale capable of weighing 200 tons per hour. It is expected
that the new elevator will be ready for work early in the summer of 1914.
Bristol: (D. Ross-Johnson, General Traffic Manager.) The use of
special mechanical appliances at the several docks at this city has not
developed to an extent which would make a detailed description of them
useful. At the Avonmouth Dock (near the river mouth), the passenger
station is situated at the entrance lock and when the state of the tide
enables the ship to enter, the baggage is discharged from the ship by
means of chutes, placed by hand on trucks running on tracks, and taken
into the Customs examination room where it is distributed on benches.
After examination it is carried by means of rubber-tired hand trucks to
the train platforms and loaded into the cars.
When a steamer misses the tide, the baggage is brought in tugs to
the pier outside the lock, whence it is lifted by steam cranes onto the
trucks, and dealt with as described. Mail sacks are handled in the same
way.
Ordinary cargo is dealt with by cranes or ships' gear and hand trucks.
Electric cranes travel above the roof of the piers from ships. Grain is
discharged by means of bucket elevators either fixed on the quays or on
floating pontoons, and discharged through trap doors to belt conveyors
running in a tunnel below the surface of the quays, whence it is carried
to the grain storage and elevators.
Hamburg: In a paper by Mr. Bubendy, Director of the Port, pre-
sented before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers during its
visit to Germany in 1913, a very striking description was given of the
cargo handling equipment, as shown by the following extract from a
condensed translation of the paper, which appeared in the "Engineering
News" (July 31, 1913) :
"The modern pier sheds are 200 ft. wide in order that all the goods
taken from one ship may be distributed opposite to it for further treat-
ment. Railway tracks at the rear of the shed provide for carrying away
the goods. All sheds are built of wood because steel structures would be
rar more expensive and in case of fire would be destroyed any way.
"The hoisting of the goods from the ships' hold is done by revolving
jib cranes, of which there are 650. These cranes have an average lifting
128 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
capacity of 3 tons. The oldest of them are operated by steam, but 20
years ago the first experiments were made with cranes operated by elec-
tricity, and all cranes constructed since are electrically operated. These
cranes move along the quay on two rails, one is placed close to the edge
of the quay while the other one is along the wall of the shed above the
doorways. The crane thus spans the railway track without obstructing
to any great extent the working space on the pier.
"The great advantage of these cranes lies in their capability of adapt-
ing themselves automatically to any load. Owing to this and to their
simplicity they perform work very economically. The lifting of the
cargo and the swinging of the crane are done by separate motors, while
for the movement along the quay manual labor is employed. There is
at least one crane to every 65 ft. of pier. It often happens that two or
even three cranes are taking cargo from one hatchway.
"Very recently the desire for greater rapidity in loading and dis-
charging, thereby shortening the stay of the vessels at the pier, has led to
the construction of double cranes. They consist of a revolving jib crane
traveling on top of the pedestal and a trolley hoist or conveyor on the
lower chord of the crane bridge. The jib crane will transfer goods of any
kind and any volume from the ship's dock to the shed floor, while the
capacity of the conveyor is limited to goods of lesser bulk, as sacks,
parcels, bales and small boxes, the clear width between the legs of the
tower being limited.
"The sheds along the quays are not supposed to store goods for any
length of time. The cargoes taken from the ships are merely assorted
here, to be conveyed immediately, either by boat or by rail to the ware-
houses of the city or inland. The number of vessels arriving at this port
during 1912 was 18,500 with a register tonnage of over 14,000,000."
DESIGN AND OPERATION OF HUMP YARDS.
The Canadian Pacific Railway has recently completed a large hump
yard at Winnipeg, Manitoba. The yard as built at present contains
twenty (20) tracks in the westbound receiving yard, twenty (20) tracks
in the westbound classification and departure yard, twenty (20) tracks
in the eastbound receiving yard and twenty (20) tracks in the eastbound
classification and departure yard, each track holding seventy-two (72)
cars, making a total of eighty (80) tracks with a capacity of five thousand
seven hundred and sixty (5,760) cars.
In addition to the above, there are forty-two (42) minor tracks,
holding a total of one thousand one hundred and eighty-three (1,183)
cars. Ten (10) of these tracks are used for a hold yard, eight (8)
for caboose yard, twelve (12) for repair yard, four (4) for transfer
yard, four (4) for icing yard and four (4) for coal storage yard. The
engine yard has a capacity of twenty-four (24) engines.
When the yard is fully developed as designed it will have thirty
(30) tracks in the westbound receiving yard, holding two thousand ninety
(2,090) cars, forty (40) tracks in the westbound classification and de-
parture yard, holding two thousand seven hundred and forty (2,740)
cars, thirty (30) tracks in the eastbound receiving yard holding two
thousand ninety (2,000) cars and forty (40) tracks in the eastbound
classification and departure yard, holding two thousand eight hundred and
eighty (2,880) cars, making a total capacity of the working part of the
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YARDS AND TERMINALS.
129
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130 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
yard of nine thousand eight hundred (9,800) cars. In addition to the
above, there will be one hundred and sixteen (116) minor tracks, holding
a total of two thousand seven hundred and fifty-five (2,755) cars used
as follows :
24 tracks in WB. hold yard Capacity 600 cars
24 tracks in EB. hold yard and grain Capacity 1,160 cars
7 tracks in WB. yard Capacity 40 cars
7 tracks in EB. yard Capacity 40 cars
32 repair tracks Capacity 410 cars
8 transfer tracks Capacity 225 cars
6 icing tracks Capacity 200 cars
8 coal storage tracks Capacity 80 cars
The engine yard will then hold forty-eight (48) engines.
The engine terminals are located between the eastbound and west-
bound yards.
Present engine house contains forty-four (44) stalls, with room for
eleven (11) additional stalls. Provision has also been made for an ad-
ditional engine house of fifty-five (55) stalls.
The yard has two (2) humps. In each case track scales are located
on the hump.
The arrangement of leads in classification yards next to the humps
is planned so there will be a minimum of curvature for cars to pass
through coming from the hump.
There are no separate departure yards, the trains being made up in
the end of the classification yard furthest from the hump.
The yard is supplied with air, so that delay incident to road engines
pumping up air on train after engine is coupled is avoided. Practically
all frogs used in this yard are No. 7 with an angle of 8° 10'. Clear
running tracks through the center of yard are provided for light engine
movements.
Plan and profile of yard accompany this report.
In addition to the yard above described the following hump yards
have recently been built, or are under construction :
Boston & Maine Railroad Mechanicsville, N. Y.
Chesapeake & Ohio Railway Silver Grove, Ky.
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. P. Railway Air Line Yard, Milwaukee, Wis.
Louisville & Nashville Railroad Radnor, near Nashville, Tenn.
Minnesota Transfer Railway Minnesota Transfer, Minn.
New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Gardenville, N. Y.
Norfolk & Western Railway Bluefield, W. Va.
Circular letters asking for information relative to operation and
construction of hump yards were sent out to all roads operating yards
of this type, the following information being requested:
(1) Cost per car (for yard operation).
(2) Cost per car in old flat yard before hump yard was built, or
cost in other flat yards as nearly comparable as possible, so that economies
of the hump yard may be noted.
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
131
(3) The maximum number of cars put over the hump in any one
hour, and the estimated capacity of the hump yard in 24 hours.
(4) Do you recommend any changes in grades on the hump as
shown in the Manual?
(5) Is track scale located on hump? If not, where?
(6) How many cars should be handled daily to warrant the use of
a hump yard?
(7) How do you determine the number of car riders required to
handle cars on the hump ; that is, have you any definite rule to determine
the number of riders required to handle a certain number of cars?
(8) How do you employ car riders so as to secure the necessary
elasticity when force is to be decreased or increased?
(9) What system are you using in hump coal yards to indicate to
towermen or the men throwing switches what track the cars are to be
placed on?
(10) Advise if this system is a success, and if not, what modification
can you suggest?
(11) Do you consider departure yards desirable?
(12) Advise if you are using them.
(13) Please send print of plan and profile of each hump yard cov-
ered in the above report.
Reports were received from fifteen (15) of the leading railroads in
the United States, giving data covering twenty-nine (29) hump yards,
which is recapitulated as follows :
Question (1)
Question (2)
Question (3)
Question (4)
Question (5)
Question (6)
Question (7)
Question (8)
28 yards report an average cost in hump yard of 21.2 cents
per car.
11 flat yards report an average cost of 22.91 cents per car.
22 hump yards report an average of 72 cars over the
hump per hour.
24 hump yards report their average capacity per 24 hours
at 1,973 cars.
Of the 15 railroads reporting, 9 make no recommendations
in regard to changing grade on hump; 1 submits plans of
grades recommended, and 1 . found it necessary to make
changes in grades recommended in the Manual.
Of the 15 roads reporting, 9 have scales on hump and
6 have no scales on hump. Of the 29 yards reported, 19
have scales on hump, 8 have scales in yard and 2 have no
scales, either on hump or in yard.
An average of the reports from 24 yards indicates that
at least 800 cars must be handled daily to warrant the
use of a hump yard.
24 yards regulate the number of car riders, according to
business in sight ; 4 have no definite rule and 1 figures
on the basis of 7 cars per rider per hour.
23 yards maintain an extra list of car riders and draw
on it as required ; 4 yards maintain an extra list of switch
tenders and use switch tenders for car riders as required.
132
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
Questions (9) and (10) 20 of the yards covered in this report use switch
list to indicate cars cut off on the hump ; 8 chalk track
numbers on the ends of cars, and 1 uses telephone. All
report the system they are using as successful.
Questions (11) and (12) Reports from 14 railroads covering 29 hump
yards show that 16 yards have departure yards, and 13
have no departure yards. Reports from 28 of the yards
favor the use of departure yards.
Key to Railroads may be had on Application to Secretary.
Detailed answers to questions are shown as follows :
STATEMENT OF ANSWERS RECEIVED TO QUESTIONS (1), (2), (3).
(1)
(2)
(3)
Maximum number
(3)
Estimated capac-
Railroad
Yard
Cost per Car
Cost per Car
of cars put over
ity of hump yard
Hump Yard
Flat Yard
hump in any one
hour
in 24 hours
A
.293
X
125
2,000
B
.075
.54
90
1,000
C
.135
. 12 to .18
X
1,000
D
.16 Y
X
100
2,300
E
a
.11
X
60
1,000
b
.37
X
60
888
c
.21
X
70 to 80
1,625
d
.36
X
40 to 70
900 to 1,200
F
a
.27
.32
100
1,200
b
.275
. 20 to . 25
X
1,800
G
.165
.21
75
4,800
H
a
.4226
.34
120
2,300
b
.508
X
35
1,200
I
.3501
X
50
700
J
a
. 1128 Z
X
38
1,000
b
10Z
X
50
1,200
c
09Z
X
50
1,200
d
.19Z
X
50
1,200
e
.074 Z
X
X
3,000
K
a
.158
X
60
X
b
X
X
X
X
L
a
.2501 •
X
50 to 60
X
b
.2092
.247
X
3,200-2 humps
M
a
.21
X
X
1,600
b
.12
. 13 to . 19
100
1,500
c
.351
X
Eastbound
2,400
c
c
Eastbound
Westbound, empty
2,200
3,100
c
Westbound, loaded
100
1,200
N
.216
.121
1.700
O
a
.095
.12
105
X
b
.079
.087
50
X
"X"— Figures not given.
"Y" — Also includes cost of car inspectors.
"Z" — Does not include cost of fuel, stores and locomotive supplies.
The cost per car for yard operation includes the wages of enginemen,
firemen, conductors, yard brakemen (riders), car cutters, car markers,
clerical forces in the yard, switch tenders and yardmasters, together with
fuel and stores, except as above indicated.
Additional information in reference to questions is given in Ap-
pendix A.
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
133
LIST OF HUMP YARDS IN SERVICE AND UNDER CONSTRUCTION IN THE
UNITED STATES AND CANADA SO FAR AS COMMITTEE HAS BEEN ABLE
TO OBTAIN INFORMATION
NAME OF RAILWAY
Baltimore & Ohio
Belt Railway of Chicago
Boston & Maine
Canadian Pacific
Central of New Jersey
Chesapeake & Ohio
Chicago & Eastern Illinois
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy
Chicago. Indiana & Southern
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St
Louis
Delaware & Hudson
Illinois Central
Kentucky & Indiana Terminal
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern
Louisville & Nashville
Michigan Central
Minnesota Transfer
Missouri Pacific
Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis R'y
New York Central
Norfolk & Western
Peoria & Pekin Union
Pennsylvania Railroad
Pennsylvania Lines West (Southwest
System)
— Northwest System .
LOCATION OF HUMP YARD
— Central System
Philadelphia & Reading .
Pittsburgh & Lake Erie .
Southern
Terminal of St. Louis
Union
Washington Southern Railway .
Total.
Brunswick, Chicago Jet., Chicago, Cumber-
land, Connellsville, Fairmont, Holloway,
Keyser, New Castle Jet
Chicago Clearing Yard
Worcester, Mechanicsville
Winnipeg
Allentown, Mauch Chunk (Gravity one way)
Russell, Ky., Silver Grove, Ky
Dalton , Salem
Hawthorne, Galesburg, Lincoln, Neb
Gibson , Ind
Air Line Milwaukee, Godfrey
Harrisburg, Lyons
Oneonta, N. Y
Centralia, III., Harahan
Louisville, Ky
Collingwood, Elkhart, Ind
Radnor, near Nashville
Windsor, River Rouge, North Detroit,
West Detroit
Minnesota Transfer, Minn
Dupo, 111., Kansas City
Atlanta, Nashville
Avis, Dewitt, Gardenville, West Albany. . .
Bluefield
East Peoria
Altoona, Edgemoor, Enola, Ebenezer, Har-
risburg, Hollidayburg, Honey Pot, Mary-
ville, Pitcairn, Waverly, West Phila-
delphia, Youngwood, Northumberland. . .
Scully, Pa., Bradford, Ohio, Columbus,
Ohio, Grand View, Ohio, Fulton, Under
Cliff (both at Cincinnati, Ohio), Rich-
mond, Ind., Logansport, Ind., 59th Street,
Chicago
Allegheny, Conway, Mansfield, Crestline,
Chicago, Bedford, Cleveland, Wellsville,
Shop
Cambridge, Y. D. Yard, Lancaster
Rutherford
Glassport, Pa., Haselton, Ohio, McKees
Rocks, Pa., Newell, Pa., Dickerson Run,
Lynch
Asheville, N. C, Inman, Ga
East St Louis
Oak Hill, Pa
Alexandria, Va
No. of
Yards
in Us6
TRACK SCALES.
The Committee has received copies of the amended specifications
issued by the American Railway Association, and are giving these careful
consideration, together with such other data as they have been able to
obtain during the past year, and recommends that the subject of track
scales be continued for next year's report.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON YARDS AND TERMINALS.
Appendix A.
ADDITIONAL DATA IN REFERENCE TO QUESTIONS i AND 2.
Railroad A — In comparing hump yard with flat yard, it is entirely a
question of efficiency.
Railroad I — Hump yards are not figured as an economy. They are an
improved facility for the handling of cars, and possibly cost
more to operate.
Railroad K — Taking the wages of men engaged solely in the work of
classification, we show a decrease of 3.73 cents per car by
the hump method, as compared with the old flat yard. There
is no doubt in my mind but that with properly designed
hump yard, with receiving, classification and advance yard
for each direction, great economies can be effected both in
expense and time. A great many operating officials in this
section seem to think there is more damage to equipment
and freight by the hump method than there was in the old
flat yard, but in our opinion there is less.
Railroad L — Our experience shows that we have nothing we can compare
the hump switching with. When we had a flat yard the
switching was entirely different, in that we did not under-
take to make the cuts and classifications we do now. We
would hazard a guess that to do the clessification we do
in the flat yard, the expense per car would be doubled,
compared with hump switching.
Railroad M — Hump yard switching probably no lower per car, but yard
for flat switching would need to be much larger.
Question (4) "Do you recommend any changes in the grades on the
hump as shown in the Manual?"
(See Manual, Edition 191 1, pp. 399 and 400.)
Railroad A — No.
Railroad B — No.
Railroad C — The grades as shown in the Manual seem to be about right,
but I would not state definitely, as it often occurs that the
grades have to be changed after the yard is laid out, as they
are oftentimes not steep enough to give the cars proper
momentum to run to the heels of the tracks in the classifica-
tion yard. The best method is to lay a yard out in accord-
ance with the grades suggested, and then change the grades
after the hump is in operation, giving best degree of eleva-
tion, as will cover all requirements.
Railroad D — No.
Railroad E — No.
Railroad F — Think the receiving tracks and the hump should be of the
same elevation, so that the road engines can pull the trains
134
RAILROAD "J."
PROFILES OF SCALE HUMPS IN
VARIOUS YARDS.
YARD G
YARD-F-EAST BOUhD
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
135
up grade into the receiving yard, and not require extra-
ordinary heavy switching power to handle trains over the
hump.
Railroad H— No.
Railroad I — The grades on any hump are governed by the class of busi-
ness handled over them. Empty or located equipment, or
both.
nxJJus
7bbe/ei/e/
or curve
w/Jh large
nxJ/us
-/oo- — *-
/?A/L#OAD >7"
200'-
r/6.i
RECOMMEJ1DED HUMP W/THOUT SCALES
HAHDLIflC MOSTL Y LOADED CARS
^Jbbe/evel
orcurve
*?r
E/6.2
RECOMMEJ1DED HUMP WITH SCALES
HAflDUffi MOSTLY LOADED CARS
TobeleveJ
orcurve
with Jorge
rod/us
-200-
100-
F/6.S
RECOMMEJ1DED HUMP WITHOUTSCALES
HAMDLiriG MOSTLY EMPTY OARS
lobe/eve/
orcurve
^J?Jorgel^J0,
rod/us
E/6.4
RECOMMEHDED HUMP WITH SCALES
HAHDUM6 MOSTLY EMPTY CARS
Railroad J — No.
Railroad K — No.
Railroad L — No.
Railroad M— When cars to be classified are mostly loaded and hump with-
out scales; 3 per cent, descending for 100 ft. from summit,
136
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
200 ft. descending r.5 per cent., thence 1 per cent, descend-
ing through switches. For hump with scales, cars mostly
loaded, 35 ft. of 3 per cent, descending from summit, 50 ft.
of 0.5 per cent., descending 215 ft. of 2.5 per cent, descend-
ing, thence 1 per cent, descending through switches. For
hump without scales, cars mostly empty, 200 ft. of 3 per
cent, descending from summit, 100 feet of 1.5 per cent, de-
scending, thence 1 per cent, descending through switches.
For hump with scales, cars mostly empty, 40 ft. of 3 per
cent, descending .from summit, 50 ft. of 0.5 per cent, de-
scending, 210 ft. of 3 per cent, descending, thence 1 per cent,
descending through switches.
Railroad N — Think the grades on the hump are subject to change to adapt
them to the business to be handled over it, and also to the
locality. Climatic conditions affect the running of cars very
materially, and in more northerly locations where the win-
ters are more severe, steeper grades are required than in
locations where warmer temperature prevails. The grades
on the hump should also be adapted to the kind of business
to be handled; for instance, if only loaded cars are passed
over the hump lighter grades can be used than if empties
are to be handled. The recommendation in the Manual is a
fair average.
Railroad O— Yard (a)— No.
Yard (b) — Depends upon condition. Original grade was
constructed as recommended in the Manual.
This was found too high and steep, and neces-
sitated several changes. These changes made,
and grade is now satisfactory.
Question (5) Is track scale located on hump? If not, where?
Railroad A- — Automatic scales are located one mile south of the hump.
Incoming trains pull over the scale when entering the re-
ceiving yard.
Railroad B — Scale is on hump.
Railroad C — One track scale on hump ; one in city yard and one in shop
yard.
Railroad D — Scale not located on hump, but on parallel track 300 feet in
advance of hump.
Railroad E — Scales on hump in three yards. No scale in fourth yard.
Railroad F — Scale on hump in both yards.
Railroad G — Scale not located on hump. Scales located on outside track
in both classification yards.
Railroad H— Scale on hump in both yards.
Railroad I — Scale not located on hump. Located on outside of classifica-
tion yard.
Railroad J — All five yards have scales located on hump.
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
137
Railroad
Railroad
K
Yard (a)
Yard (b)
L— Yard
(a)
Railroad
Railroad
Railroad
Scale is on hump.
Scale is not on hump.
Scales are located in classification yard in west-
bound yard on outside lead near end of yard,
and about the same location in eastbound yard.
The locations of scales were not changed when
hump yard was built, but are reasonably con-
venient for use under our method of operation.
Very little through business required to be
weighed is switched over the hump.
Scale not located on hump. Located at east end
of eastbound classification yard.
Scale on hump.
No scale in this yard.
Scales located on both eastbound and west-
bound humps.
N — Scale not located on hump. Located in middle of yard.
O — Yards (a) and (b) Scale on hump.
(6) How many cars should be handled daily to warrant the
use of a hump yard?
A — There would be no economy unless there were at least 600
cars to handle daily.
B — 700 cars.
C — There should be at least 500 or 600 cars on hand in yard at
all times to warrant the successful use of a hump yard.
D — 500 cars.
Have no recommendation as to minimum number
of cars warranting the use of humps.
To warrant the use of hump to handle loaded
cars to weigh, the crew, consisting of conductor
and nine brakemen or riders with two engines,
and two switch tenders, 685 loaded cars must be
handled in 24 hours. For the operation of the
same hump handling empties, with the same crew
and one engine and two switch tenders, 580
empty cars must be handled in 24 hours.
Depends entirely upon the classification required.
Where prompt weighing and classifying of cars
is desired, the hump is warranted for any num-
ber of cars.
500 to 700 cars.
According to conditions ; 500 to 800 cars.
G — According to the number of classifications desired. Would
say 1,500 cars to a single hump.
H — Yard (a) 2,000 cars.
Yard (b) 1,400 or more.
Yard (b)
Railroad M— Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Yard (c)
Railroad
Railroad
Question
Railroad
Railroad
Railroad
Railroad
Railroad
E— Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Yard (c)
Yard (d)
-Yard (a)
Yard (b)
138 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
Railroad
I — At least 500 cars.
Railroad
J — Yard (a) 500 cars.
(b) 750 cars.
(c) 750 cars.
(d) 750 cars.
(e) About 500 cars.
Railroad
K — (a) Not less than 750 cars.
Yard (b) 600 cars.
Railroad
L — Yard (a) Depends largely
tions desired. If classification will not exceed
five to seven, should say flat switching most econ-
omical from wage standpoint. Only up to about
1,000 cars per 24 hours.
Railroad L — Yard (b) The number of switches made, rather than the
number of cars handled, would determine. It is
felt that 800 switches per 24 hours period
would warrant the use of a hump.
Railroad M — Yard (a) 350 cars in ir hours.
(b) 350 cars.
(c) From experience, we would say that when the
volume of business is less than 1,000 cars in 24
hours, flat yard operation is more economical, and
above 1,000 cars per 24 hours warrants the use oi
the hump yard.
Railroad N— 1,500 cars.
Railroad O — Yards (a) and (b) We have no information other than
estimates furnished by Superintendents operat-
ing hump yards. Information furnished by them
shows estimated average of 550 cars.
Question (7) How do you determine the number of car riders required
to handle cars on the hump; that is, have you any definite
rule to determine the number of riders required to handle
a certain number of cars?
Railroad A — We get a line up just before each shift, as to the probable
number of cars that will arrive, and regulate the number
of riders accordingly.
Railroad B — We have no definite rule. Number of riders depend en-
tirely upon the condition.
Railroad C — In ascertaining the number of car riders required, it is nec-
essary to start in with about 15 riders and a foreman, and
then cut down in accordance with the business handled. At
present we have 10 riders and 1 foreman. If business in-
creases, the riders are increased by taking men off of extra
runs. When business decreases the extra men are taken
off. When there is little business in the light yard on south-
bound traffic, the riders are taken from this yard and placed
in the loaded yard, and handle work over the northbound
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
139
Railroad D-
Railroad E-
Railroad F— Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Railroad G-
Railroad H— Yard (a)
Railroad I-
Railroad J-
hump helping out the other riders. By this method it helps
out the northbound when the southbound is light, and vice
versa, and insures maximum efficiency from complement
of riders cutting out idle periods.
-The number of riders is determined by the number of cars
to be handled.
-Yard (a) In this particular yard we use one crew of con-
ductor and five brakemen days, and one crew
of conductor and three brakemen nights. We
have no definite rule for determining the num-
ber of car riders, except that of experience.
Yard (b) We figure that each rider will handle seven cars
per hour, which requires nine riders at the rate
of sixty cars per hour.
Yard (c) Depends entirely upon the amount of business
being handled. Extra men are called as needed.
Yard (d) Number of riders depends solely upon the busi-
ness being handled.
Depends upon business. Ten men will keep train
moving without hump engine being required to
stop and wait for riders. We never work less
than eight riders.
No definite rule to determine the number of rid-
ers. Increase number of riders to increase move-
ment of cars over hump.
Determined by the number of cars reported com-
ing. When receiving yards are worked to nearly
full capacity, we work 20 men on an engine in
the day and 18 men nights. Three of these men,
conductor, pin puller and man following the
engine, do not ride.
Determined by number of trains in the yard,
and the number due to arrive, figuring on calling
one rider to 50 cars.
Yard (b) Sufficient number to enable switching cuts fast
enough to keep up with the business received.
Determined by number of cars on hand, and
number in sight to be handled over the hump.
-Yard (a) No definite rule to determine the number of rid-
ers to handle a certain number of cars. This is
a matter which is controlled largely by the busi-
ness handled through the yard, by the amount
of switching to be done, and the distance that
the riders are required to walk from classification
yard to new hump. In the yard our business is
regular, and as a general proposition, the same
number of men are required each day.
140
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
Yard (b-<
>d)
Yard
(e)
Railroad K-
-Yard
(a)
Yard
(b)
Railroad L-
-Yard
(a)
Yard (b)
One man for each cut; the cut may consist of
one car or more than one.
Governed by conditions of yard and reports of
trains in transit.
By the volume of cars on hand and in sight, and
the general condition of the yard and business.
No definite rule. Regulated on the judgment of
the Trainmaster, according to the amount of
business in sight.
We figure on a maximum of 18 and a minimum
of 15, according to the amount of business on
hand and in sight, and to be handled for the
subsequent twelve hours.
Regular assignment of men to the humps is based
on minimum of an average day's work. Extra
men report mornings and evenings to increase
the riders if necessary. Number of cars on hand
in receiving yard and the number of trains com-
ing, as well as weather conditions, govern.
No rule. About three minutes to a round trip.
Four cuts per minute equal twelve riders.
No rule. Seven riders at two cuts per minute.
We employ check clerks on the hump to keep
accurate daily record of the individual perform-
ance of each car dropper, from which we de-
termine the average number of cars and cuts per
man that can be ridden over the hump into the
classification yard for a day's work under normal
conditions. This gives us a basis for comparison,
and enables us to determine the number of car
droppers required, by first ascertaining how many
cars we have in the yard to be shifted. Also
how many cars we have approaching this yard
that may come in within the next twelve-hour
period. For example : On a hump where the
car dropper averages twenty cuts and forty cars
per man in a twelve-hour period, 1,000 cars in
sight to be shifted within the next twelve-hour
period, we would assign a force of 25 car drop-
pers on that particular hump.
Increase or decrease from extra list to handle
the business.
Railroad O — Yards (a-b) Have no set rule. Number of riders is deter-
mined by the yardmaster after information
is furnished by dispatchers as to the probable
number of cars in sight.
Railroad M — Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Yard (c)
Railroad N-
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
141
Question (8) How do you employ car riders so as to secure the neces-
sary elasticity1 when force is to be decreased or increased?
Railroad A — Our men are employed as switchmen, and hold seniority on
all jobs pertaining to the yard.
Railroad B — We have eighteen riders, of which ten are regular men. The
other eight are called as needed. The eighteen men repre-
sent day and night forces combined.
Railroad C — Extra car riders are taken occasionally from the extra list
and used on the hump during the day, using a new man
each day, and by this method it is only a short time before
twenty-five or thirty men on the extra list have become
proficient for service in the capacity of hump riders.
Railroad D — We carry an extra force; increases and decreases are made
from the extra force.
Railroad E — Yard (a) No answer.
Yard (b) Riders are drawn from extra list of yard brake-
men maintained.
Yard (c) Taken from the extra brakemen maintained.
Yard (d) Taken from the reserve of extra list of yard
brakemen.
Governed entirely by the amount of business and
number of cars required to be put over the
hump.
Car riders are employed as switchmen. The
fluctuation in force of car riders identical with
the increase or decrease in number of switch
engines.
In employing men we require two years' previ-
ous railroad experience in train or yard service.
Inexperienced new men throw switches until
such time as yardmasters consider them com-
petent to ride. They make the best riders.
By an established regular force with large ex-
tra list.
Experienced men assigned by yardmaster. In
reducing forces or adding to forces older experi-
enced men retained on humps.
We use the regular yard brakemen.
When necessary to increase the number of riders
on the hump, this force is drawn from our list of
extra brakemen.
Our men are paid brakeman's wages, and if
called out get paid for a day, whether they
work or not.
Yard (e) We carry about twenty-five extra men at all
times, and fill humps from this force as required.
Railroad F — Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Railroad G-
Railroad
H-
-Yard
(a)
Yard
(b)
Railroad
Railroad
I-
J-
-Yard
(a)
Yards (b-c
:-d)
142
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
Railroad K— Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Railroad L — Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Railroad M — Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Yard (c)
We carry a comparatively large extra list, and
have no trouble in decreasing or increasing the
force as circumstances warrant.
Number of riders regulated from day to day
according to the run of business.
We maintain a force of twelve to fifteen extra
yard brakemen, days and nights, to draw upon
when necessary to increase number of hump
riders.
Minimum number of car riders assigned to regu-
lar service each trick, number being increased
from extra force, reporting each morning and
evening as necessary.
We have a large extra force which may be
called as needed. Called for one day only in
each case.
Extra men sufficient force.
We have a regularly assigned shifting crew on
each hump, consisting of the minimum number
of car droppers required to handle the business
at the respective points under any conditions.
We also carry a force of about 120 extra yard
brakemen, who are used to fill vacancies of regu-
lar men off duty, also to increase the force on
the various humps by assigning the additional
number of brakemen required daily to handle the
volume of business in sight. For example, a
hump crew having fifteen regularly assigned car
droppers may have five of the regular men off
duty and may require a total of twenty car drop-
pers to take care of the business in sight on a
given date, in which event a total of ten extra
men would be assigned to that crew, five of them
to fill the vacancies and five additional men re-
quired.
Increase or decrease from extra list to handle the
business.
Railroad O — Yards (a-b) Car riders are employed as switchmen, and
when necessary to increase force men are taken
from extra board.
Questions (9) and (10) What system are you using in hump yards to
indicate to towermen or the men throwing switches what
track the cars are to be placed on? And advise if this
system is a success, and if not, what modification can you
suggest?
Railroad N —
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
143
Railroad
Railroad
Railroad A — We use the regular conductors' switch list, the hump fore-
man retaining the original list of tracks being shoved, and
making a cut list for the pin puller and for the towermen.
This system is an absolute success, and is the only prac-
tical method which should be employed in hump operation.
B — Switch tenders are furnished switch list. Successful.
C — The hump foreman on hump has a slip with the numbers,
and opposite the numbers is the destination of each car on
slip. Having permanent tracks for each and every classifica-
tion, he knows into which track each car should go, and
the three branch tenders are furnished a small slip with
just the track numbers thereon. For instance : the first cut
over hump goes into track No. 3, the first figure on this
slip being "3," he throws the switch for track No. 3; the
next cut for track 8. No. 8 being the next track number on
his slip, he throws the switch for track No. 8, etc. The
system of having branch tenders furnished with a slip stat-
ing into which track each cut is to go, is a success at this
terminal.
Railroad D — Hump conductor, car cutter and switchmen are furnished
with a switching list, made up by the car marker, who marks
the car. Successful.
Railroad E — Yard (a) Switch tenders furnished list showing standing
of cars in train to be broken up, and how many
cars in each cut, with number of tracks cars
have to go on. Successful.
Switch tenders are furnished a list on which is
designated the cuts and tracks. Successful.
Men controlling switches are furnished with list
showing the make-up of train. In addition, last
car in cut is chalk-marked on end to indicate as
to what track the next cut is to go into.
System is a success.
All cuts of cars are marked with chalk on ends,
showing the track number on which the next
cut is to be placed. A cut of cars coming down
off the hump with the figure 10 marked with
chalk on the end of car indicates that the next
cut of cars is to go on track 10.
It is successful, and the only method we have
found to overcome the mishandling of cars.
Railroad G — All cars are carded showing connection or des-
tination. Classification track for first car is
given by hand signal, and this car and all other:,
Yards (b-c-d)
Railroad F — Yard (a)
Yard (b)
144 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
as they leave the hump, are chalked on end and
side where following car is to go, switch tenders
using signs for each track. This system is the
best we know.
Railroad H — Yard (a) By chalking two track numbers on the head car
of each cut, one number indicating to signalman
or men operating switches in tower track num-
ber for immediate cut, with hump properly illum-
inated at night so that numbers can be plainly
seen. Present method very successful.
Yard (b) Tab system. Cuts are carded and tab of number
of cuts and number of cars in each cut put in
switch tenders' and pin pullers' hands.
System is satisfactory.
Railroad I — Switches operated by switchmen on ground. Chalk
marks are used during the daylight on car ahead
to indicate where the following car is to go, and
lamp signals at night. This system is a success
where we are using it if switches are close to
the hump. Where switches are some distance
from the hump and more than two switch tend-
ers used, switch list would be made.
Railroad J — Yard (a) Switches on hump and in classification yard are
handled by the car riders or switchmen, each
man being given a list of the tracks where the
various cuts of cars are to be placed, and the car
riders handle the switches on their return from
the classification yard to the hump. Our
system seems to work very successfully, and
we have no modification to suggest.
Yards (b^c-d) Switching cards. This system is a success.
Yard (e) Telephone system. Successful.
Railroad K — Yard (a) A list is made by the foreman for each switch
liner showing track to which each cut goes. As
our receiving track parallels the classification
tracks there is no trouble or delay in the fore-
man getting the lists to the liners.
This system is a success.
Yard (b) Cars are switched by tags, and from these a
switch list is made by foreman to be used by one
switchman, who sets switch by hand, and indi-
cates to men making cut how many cars to cut
off each time. Works very well here, and same
thing would have to be done where switches are
YARDS AND TERMINALS. 145
operated by power; that is, towermen who throw
switches would have to be furnished with list of
cars.
Railroad L — Yard (a) We furnish each switch tender with a list of
each train showing track each cut is t© go upon.
System successful.
Yard (b) Switching lists made in sets of four, one for con-
ductor cutting the car off, and one for each
switch tender below the hump.
System is a success.
Railroad M — Yard (a) Four cards must be made out for conductors and
switchmen to show cuts. System is successful.
Yard (b) Cars are marked on front end. System is suc-
cessful.
Yard (c) In connection with each hump, we have a man
designated as car marker, who is rated as a
conductor, who goes over each train in the re-
ceiving yard, taking the card waybills with him,
chalk-marking the cars, showing the tracks to
which they are to be shifted in the classification
yard. In addition to this, the car marker also
makes out what is termed a "cut report," form
C. T. 150 to correspond with the chalk-marks
on the train, showing how many cars are in each
cut for the various classification tracks when
train is pushed over the hump. The "cutter"
who uncouples the cars in each cut as they pass
over the hump, is governed by the chalk-marks
placed on the cars by the car marker, and the
cut card, above referred to, has been placed in
the hands of the towerman, who operates the
switches for classifying the cars, so that the
towerman knows in advance how many cars and
cuts are in each train, also what tracks they
are marked for. We have electro-pneumatic
switches on each hump, equipped with indicators
that are directly in front of the towerman oper-
ating the switches and showing him when cars
foul and clear the various switches; therefore,
the cut cards and indicators enable the tower-
man to operate the switches successfully in foggy
weather without having to depend on looking out
to see when cars clear switches for a following
movement.
This system has proven very successful, and
we suggest no modification.
146 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
Railroad N — Signal for destination of first car going over
hump is given to junction switch tender. This
first car is chalk-marked with the number of
second car. Junction switch tender reads mark-
. ing on car for next following, and conveys the
information to switch tenders by hand or lantern
' signal where next car is to go.
System is successful.
Railroad O — Yard (a) Track number is chalked on rear side and end
of each cut indicating the track that the next
cut is to go into. Switches are handled by switch
tenders in the field. Chalk system gives satis-
factory results.
Yard (b) By day, hand signals are used to indicate track
number to switch tender; at night, cars are
chalked on right rear corner of each cut, show-
ing the number of the cut which is next to be
used. Switches are handled by switch tenders
in the field.
The chalk system gives satisfactory results.
Questions (n) and (12) Do you consider departure yards desirable?
And advise if you use them.
Railroad A — Departure yards are desirable. They relieve the bottom of
the hump promptly, and relieve from danger of blockade
in the operation of the hump.
We are not using them at present, but we have one about
half-graded.
Railroad B — We do not consider them desirable.
We are not using them.
Railroad C — Yes, we do consider a departure yard desirable, as we can
place caboose on rear of train and have train ready for
movement as soon as engine is attached; while on the other
hand, if trains were run out of classification yard it would
be rather difficult to place caboose on rear of train while
cars are still running in that particular track, and should the
Motive Power Department fall down on engines to take
trains out of classification yard, there would be no room
in these tracks for cars going over the hump; but having
a departure yard trains can be hauled to it, thus making
switching room.
We are using departure yard.
Railroad D — Departure yards are desirable.
We are using departure yards.
Railroad E — Yards (a-b-c-d) Departure yards are desirable.
We are not using departure yards.
YARDS AND TERMINALS.
147
Railroad F — Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Railroad G —
Railroad H— Yds. (a-b)
Railroad I —
Railroad J— Yard (a)
Yards (b-c-d)
Yard (e)
Railroad K— Yds. (a-b)
Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Railroad L — Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Railroad M— Yard (a)
Yard (b)
Yard (c)
Departure yards are desirable.
We are not using departure yard.
Decidedly yes ; departure yards are desirable.
We are using departure yards.
Departure yards are desirable.
We are not using departure yard.
Departure yards are desirable.
We are using departure yard.
Departure yards are desirable; in the case of an
overflow from the classification yard. We have
a delta yard located beyond the classification
yard, which takes care of the overflow when any.
We consider departure yards desirable where
business is sufficient to warrant.
We are not using departure yards.
We consider departure yards desirable.
We are not using departure yards.
We consider departure yards desirable.
We are using departure yards.
We consider departure yards desirable.
We are using departure yards.
We are not using departure yards, but have new
yard under construction which will be used as
one.
We consider departure yards desirable.
We are using departure yards.
We consider departure yards desirable.
We are not using departure yards.
Yes, for safety of crews in making up trains.
We are using departure yards where they can be
built.
We consider departure yards desirable.
We are not using departure yards.
Yes, particularly at this point. They serve the
purpose of promptly relieving the classification
tracks, thereby making room to keep up a steady
movement for classifying over the hump without
interference; also, having the advantage of
coupling up the air hose and testing the air in the
departure yard (or advance tracks), thus elim-
inating the danger of performing this work on
the classification track, while cars would be drop-
ping over the hump on the same track where this
work would necessarily have to be performed if
there were no departure yard. In this con-
nection there has always been a difference of
148 , YARDS AND TERMINALS.
opinion among operating people on this railroad,
as well as other railroads, with reference to the
question of departure yards or advance tracks.
However, I believe the question of operating
with or without departure yards depends largely
on the location of the operation, as well as the
volume and kind of traffic handled.
We are using departure yards.
Railroad N — We consider departure yards desirable.
We are using departure yards.
Railroad O — Yards (a-b) We consider departure yards desirable.
We are not using them.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE IV— ON RAIL.
J. A. Atwood, Chairman; W. C. Cushing, Vice-Chairman;
E. B. Ashby, C. W. Huntington,
A. S. Baldwin, John D. Isaacs,
J. B. Berry, Thos. H. Johnson,
M. L. Byers, Howard G. Kelley,
Chas. S. Churchill, C. F. Loweth,
G. M. Davidson, H. B. MacFarland,
F. A. Delano, R. Montfort,
P. H. Dudley, C. A. Morse,
C. H. Ewing, J. P. Snow,
C. F. W. Felt, A. W. Thompson,
L. C. Fritch, R. Trimble,
A. W. Gibbs, Geo. W. Vaughan,
A. H. HOGELAND, M. H. WlCKHORST,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your Committee on Rail submits the following report :
The work outlined by the Board of Direction for the year was as
follows :
(i) Recommend standard rail sections.
(2) Continue investigation of rail failures and deduce conclusions
therefrom.
(3) Continue special investigation of rails.
(4) Rail joints.
During the year the following meetings were held : At Atlantic City,
June 23, attendance 14; at Pittsburgh, September 26, attendance 11 ; at
New York, November 5, attendance 15 ; at Chicago, November 14, at-
tendance 19.
(1) STANDARD RAIL SECTIONS.
The subject of rail sections is under consideration by Sub-Committee
B, R. Trimble, Chairman.
The information gained to date by the study of the present A. R. A.
standard rail sections, types A and B, is not such as to warrant the Com-
mittee in recommending changes at this time in those standards.
The question of sections heavier than 100 lbs. has been under consid-
eration, but no definite conclusions were reached concerning such sec-
tions, but the Committee expects to give this question further considera-
tion during the coming year, and a Sub-Committee has been appointed
for this purpose.
The investigations of the Committee up to this date indicate the in-
advisability of railroads purchasing rails of lighter sections than 80 lbs.
151
ir>2 RAIL.
per yard for replacements in main tracks on districts thereof that have
conditions or traffic which places them under Class "A" or Class "B."
according to the classification of railroads of the American Railway En
gineering Association (see page 14, Manual).
(2) STATISTICS OF RAIL FAILURES.
Statistics of rail failures for the year ending October 31, 1912, were
prepared by Mr. R. Trimble, and are given as Appendix A, having been
first issued in Bulletin No. 157 for July, 1913.
The responses this year were more complete and in better form than
ever before. Attention should be called, however, to the fact that manv
roads showed some carelessness in reports, particularly the "Position in
Ingot" report. The requests for reports prepared so that they could be;
blueprinted was in many cases disregarded.
The fact has been noted by the Committee that failures in base of
rails have been few in rails of comparatively thick base, like A. R. A.
"B" type. Some railroads using rails of the thin base type have recently
increased the fillet between the web and the base, to secure additional
material at that point. A study of these details of rail sections, as well
as of the means for avoiding seams in the base of rails during manu-
facture, will be continued by the Committee.
Mr. Wickhorst has given the subject of mill practice careful study
and endeavored to connect up failures, as reported by the railroads, with
the practice at individual mills, but finds that the forms on which the re-
ports are made by the railroads make it impossible to accurately do this,
and for this reason forms 408 and 411 have been revised in order that
proper information may be available. These forms have been printed and
distributed to the railroads for use in making current reports. The re-
ports for this year to be made October 31, 1913, will, if properly made out
on the new forms, give information covering several years, which will
enable Mr. Wickhorst, who will hereafter compile the statistics of rail
failures, to work out valuable results. The Committee is of the opinion
that there are differences in mill practice which lead to differences in rail
service, but find that it is not now in position to state definitely what those
differences are. It proposes, however, to continue its investigations along
this line. New form 408 is shown in Appendix I, and the Committee
asks that the Association adopt it as a substitute for old forms 408 and
411, and for printing in the Manual at the proper time.
(3) SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS.
During the year 1913, special reports or papers were presented to the
Rail Committee as follows :
No. 34, January, 1913, by M. H. Wickhorst, Influence on Rails of
Amount of Draft in Blooming (Bulletin 159). See Appendix B.
No. 35, March, 1913, by M. H. Wickhorst, Comparison of Basic and
Acid Open-Hearth Rails, and Influence of Reheating Cold Bloom (Bul-
letin 159). See Appendix C.
RAIL. 153
No. 36, April, 1913, by H. B. MacFarland, Influence of Seams or
Laminations in Base of Rail on Ductility of Metal (Bulletin 160). See
Appendix D.
No. 37, June, 1913, by M. H. Wickhorst, Seams in Rails as Developed
from Cracks in the Ingot (Bulletin 160). See Appendix E.
No. 39, October, 1913, by M. H. Wickhorst, Influence of Aluminum
and Silicon on Bessemer Ingots and Rails (Bulletin 163). See Ap-
pendix F. •
Each report contains a summary of the matter contained in it, but
below is given a very brief digest of the main results obtained.
Report 34 gave the results of an investigation made at Bethlehem,
Pa., at the works of the Bethlehem Steel Company, concerning the in-
fluence on the finished rail of the amount of draft in rolling the ingot
into a bloom and particularly with reference to the transverse ductility
of the base and the presence of seams. A series of five ingots of one
heat was rolled into rails in a similar manner, except that the draft used
in making the bloom from the ingot was varied from about 3 in. per pass
in the initial passes down to about 0.4-in. per pass in the early passes as
the smallest rate of reduction used. The rails made with initial drafts in
blooming of 3 in. and 1.5 in. contained a larger number and deeper seams
in the base than those made with 0.8-in. or less of initial draft. This re-
sulted in poorer results in the drop tests and transverse tests of the base
in rails made with the heavier drafts. These results should be considered
only as indicative, and final conclusions should be withheld until sufficient
work has been done along this line to warrant them.
Report 35 gave the results of an investigation made at Steelton, Pa.,
at the works of the Pennsylvania Steel Company, comparing rails made
of acid open-hearth steel with rails made of basic open-hearth steel, and
also concerning the influence on rails of re-heating blooms that had
been allowed to become cold. This investigation was not extensive
enough to detect small differences, but in a general way it may be said
that rails from basic open-hearth steel and from acid open-hearth steel
gave about the same results in the drop test and in transverse tests of
the base. Also rails from re-heated cold blooms gave about the same
results as rails from wash-heated hot blooms.
Report 36, by H. B. MacFarland, Engineer of Tests, Atchison, Topeka
& Santa Fe Railway System, gave the results of investigations concerning
the influence of seams or laminations in the base of rails on the ductility
of the metal and their relation to rail failures. This paper showed the
decrease in transverse strength and ductility caused by seams in the base
and indicated that seams are the origin of rail failures such as broken
rails and broken bases.
Report 37 gave the results of an investigation made at Bethhehem,
Pa., at the works of the Bethlehem Steel Company, concerning the de-
velopment of seams in billets and rails from cracks in the surface of
the ingot. This work showed that cracks on the right and left sides
of the ingot as it first entered the blooming rolls resulted in seams in
the rails, while cracks on the top and bottom sides of the ingot did not
154 RAIL.
result in seams. It indicated that the seams may thus be made to appear
on the sides of the rail or on the tread and the bottom of the base.
The cracks in the ingot were in a general way transverse or obliquely
transverse of the ingot. When first bloomed, the cracks on the right
and left sides of the ingot opened up or "yawned" open, forming double
V's, one inside the other. Further blooming elongated and closed in
the cracks, forming them into elongated Y snaped flaws, or clusters of
them. Still further rolling finally resulted in long, narrow Y shaped
seams in the rail, or cluster of them, generally several feet long.
Report 39 gave the results of an investigation made at South Chicago
at the South Works of the Illinois Steel Company, concerning the in-
fluence of aluminum on bessemer ingots and rails when added to the
molds while pouring the steel. It also gave the results of a few tests
concerning the influence of silicon on bessemer rails when added as
ferro-silicon to the molds. According to this work, ingots treated with
aluminum as mold additions, were of more even composition through-
out the ingot than plain Bessemer steel. There was less posi-
tive segregation in the interior and upper part of the ingot,
but the negative segregation or soft center in the interior and
lower part of the ingot was about the same. There was a softening
or negative segregation in the upper part of the wall of the plain ingot,
while in the aluminum treated ingots the walls were of fairly even
composition throughout the height of the ingot. Aluminum treated
ingots had larger and deeper pipes than plain steel, but had denser
steel around the pipes. Rails of plain steel had a brittle zone in the
upper part of the bar, as disclosed by the drop test. In rails of aluminum
treated steel, this zone was largely eliminated. Rails of plain steel con-
tained their interior laminations close to the top end of the bar, while
in aluminum treated rails the interior laminations were found a con-
siderable distance from the top end, varying from about 30 to 45 per
cent, of the weight of the ingot.
In addition to the work done by Mr. Wickhorst, the Committee has
endeavored to have the manufacturers publish the results of some of
their own special investigations into the characteristics of rails under
different processes of manufacture, and the Committee hopes to be able
in future to present some such reports.
The general line of investigation which the Committee has in view
for Mr. Wickhorst is submitted below and embraces a great deal more
work than he can cover in any one year, but it is well to keep before us
the subjects which are important and demand attention.
The main point kept in mind in the work of the last few years has
been to conduct it so as to bring out information useful in improving
rails for the purpose of making them uniformly safe, and it is probable
that this must continue to be our guiding principle for some time to
come. Investigations intended to improve the wearing properties of rails
must, it would seem, be considered as secondary to those which have
uniform safety as the prime consideration.
RAIL. 155
Several years ago, at the time our Committee took up its experi-
mental work, our information as to the causes of rail failures was in
very indefinite shape, but we have now arrived at a point where we may
feel considerable confidence that we have the correct diagnosis of the
causes of most of the rail failures. Most of the failures may be divided
into four classes, as follows:
(i) Crushed and split heads;
(2) Broken rails (square and angular breaks) ;
(3) Broken bases (crescent breaks) ;
(4) Transverse fissures (oval spots in rail head).
Our investigations show that crushed and split heads are attributable
to the interior condition of the ingot from which the rail was rolled,
known as segregation. This is an excessive concentration of carbon and
phosphorus in the interior and upper part of the ingot and is to be
avoided by obtaining well deoxidized quiet setting steel, and by not using
ingots with "horny" tops.
Investigation seems to indicate that broken bases and at least a very
large per cent, of broken rails have their origin in seams in the bottom
of the base. Our work during the past year shows that such seams (at
least a part) start from cracks in the surface of the ingot and are pro-
duced in the process of making the bloom, and that the details at this
stage of the rolling are very important.
These three types of failure include about 90 per cent, of the rail
failures of the country and are thus to be traced to the ingot and the
initial stages of the rolling.
The other type of rail failures, transverse fissure, or. oval spot in the
rail head, we are as yet unable to state the cause of, but we expect to
give this matter considerable attention during the coming year.
There is still another type of failure, cracked web, that we have
but little definite information about.
Among the subjects needing investigation, the following may be
listed:
SUBJECTS FOR INVESTIGATION.
Making Ingots.
(1) Influence of height of ingot on segregation and interior cavi-
ties, open-hearth steel.
(2) Influenced diameter of ingot, open-hearth steel.
(3) Influence of rate of pouring the ingot.
(4) Influence of temperature of liquid steel when poured into the
molds.
(5) Influence of thickness of mold.
(6) Influence of taper of mold on ingot cracks.
Making Rails.
(7) Influence of temperature of rolling on high-carbon open-hearth
rails.
(8) Causes of seams in base of rails.
(9) Influence of rate of reduction in rolling.
(10) Relation between shrinkage and grain size.
(11) Influence of methods of cooling on cooling beds.
156
RAIL.
(12) Effect of cold straightening rails.
(13) Influence of length of time in soaking pit on grain size and
other rail properties.
Composition.
(14) Quantitative influence of carbon on deflection and ductility.
Quantitative influence of phosphorus on deflection and ductility.
Quantitative influence of manganese on deflection and ductility.
Influence of titanium on open-hearth ingots and rails.
Influence of aluminum on open-hearth ingots and rails.
Influence of sulphur in production of seams.
Miscellaneous.
(20) Cause of transverse fissures in rail head.
Investigate electric steel rails.
Influence of low temperature on ductility and other properties
of rails.
(23) Influence of heat treatment on the properties of rail steel.
(24) Influence of carbon on resistance under rolling loads.
(15)
(16)
(i7)
(18)
(19)
(21)
(22)
(4) RAIL JOINTS.
By Circulars Nos. 1347 and 1348 of the A. R. A., information in regard
to the length and drilling and the individual preference for four- and six-
hole bars on a large number of representative railroads of the country has
been obtained. In this Circular a proposed drilling for four- and six-
hole bars was submitted for criticism. The replies have been tabulated
and are shown in Appendix G. A study of the information shows, for
instance, the distance between centers of the middle holes at the joint
to vary from 3% to 814 in., one road using a distance of 3% in. and one
road using a distance of 8^4 in. It is further found by studying the
tables that three distances, 5 in., sl/2 in., and 6 in. are used by a large
number of companies. The Committee on Track recommended a standard
drilling, as follows, which was adopted in 1904 and appeared in the
Manual :
-1
T 6
I
Q
6
cb
6-hol& drilling.
tz
£—'^-£--4-
5"
6 6
T ~£
4- hole drilling.
RAIL.
157
This recommendation was withdrawn.
From the information supplied, the Committee is of the opinion that
it would be very difficult to get all the roads to agree to a single standard
drilling, for the reason that there is a very great feeling against change
of standards. The Committee is of the opinion that this feeling is more
or less of a prejudice and has no substantial foundation. It is also the
invariable rule when new rail is laid to purchase new angle bars, but
by and by, the old standards will disappear and modern standards will
take their places in case of changes. After canvassing the matter
thoroughly, the Sub-Committee voted in favor of the following drilling:
|. 5i" ^ 5? | 6
"i 4, — 5aL — ^ _^i — .j
I
1 I
i cb cb o
0661
_
Proposed G~ho/e dr/7//hg.
Proposed 4-ho/e drilling.
A study of the length of bars used shows that for six-hole bars it
varies from 26 to 44 in., and for four-hole bars, from 21 to 27 in. It
would appear that there is no good reason for variation between the
limits of 30 and 36 in. for six-hole bars, and between 24 and 26 in. for
four-hole bars.
With the spacing of holes recommended by your Committee, 24 in.
is a satisfactory length for four-hole bars, and 32 in. a satisfactory length
for six-hole bars, where suspended joints are used.
STRESSES IN RAIL.
The subject of "Stresses to which rails are subjected in service,"
which was referred to your Committee, has been considered by Sub-
Committee D, A. S. Baldwin, Chairman. This Committee reported as
follows:
"After considering the subject of rail stresses, the Committee is of
the opinion that no material benefit is to be gained by further mathe-
matical investigation and discussion, unless accompanied by actual tests
under service conditions, and recommends that the Rail Committee au-
thorize that steps be taken for a series of tests to determine these stresses
under varying conditions, and as a means of accomplishing this, it is
158 RAIL.
suggested that a combination be formed of the Rail Committee with the
Roadway, Track and Ballast Committees, for conducting these tests for
rails, jointly with the tests proposed to be made by the three last named
Committees, through the proposed Joint Committee from the A. S. C. E.
and the A. R. E. A."
At the last meeting of the Board of Direction this whole subject
was referred to a Joint Committee of those two societies. The Rail Com-
mittee will therefore take no futher action on this subject.
REVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS.
There has been considerable discussion between the members of the
Rail Committee and members of the Manufacturers' Committee as to
some parts of the specifications for Carbon Steel Rails, and the meeting
at New York was a joint meeting, at which the Manufacturers' Com-
mittee was present, and at which these matters were discussed. As a re-
sult of these discussions, your Committee has revised the specifications
in the following respects :
EXPLANATION OF CHANGES.
Section i of the 1913 specifications has been changed to include
section 35, which latter requires the loading of rails to be done in the
presence of the inspector. Section 1 of the proposed 1914 specifications
now reads : "Inspectors representing the purchaser shall have free
entry to the works of the manufacturer at all times while the contract
is being executed, and shall have all reasonable facilities afforded them
by the manufacturer to satisfy them that the rails have been made and
loaded in accordance with the terms of the specifications."
Under the subject of chemical composition, the carbon limits of open-
hearth rails of 85 to 100 lbs. per yard have been changed from .63 to .76
per cent, to .62 to .75 per cent. This was done mostly to conform to
the present requirements of the two large systems, the New York Central
Lines and the Pennsylvania System.
Section 6 of the 1913 specifications, permitting an increase of carbon
for a decrease in phosphorus, has been omitted. The type of rail failure
known as "transverse fissure" in the head of the rail seems to occur
mostly in rails containing over .80 per cent carbon, and it is thought
well for the present to keep the maximum carbon limit below this amount
in weights of rails covered by these specifications. Omitting this section
changes the numbers of all the succeeding sections.
Section 13 of the 1913 specifications reading, "The test shall, at
the option of the inspector, be placed head or base upwards on the sup-
ports, etc." has been changed in section 12 of the new specifications to
read : "The test piece shall ordinarily be placed head upwards on the
supports, etc." The manufacturers complained that the constant re-
versal of the position of the rail on the supports wore the supporting
surfaces and the striking die so that it was difficult to maintain these
surfaces in proper condition for making a fair test of the rail.
RAIL. 159
Section 16 of the 1913 specifications has been revised as section 15
of the new specifications by adding a definition of interior defect as
follows : "The words 'interior defect,' used below, shall be interpreted
to mean seams, laminations, cavities or interposed foreign matter made
visible by the destruction tests, the saws or the drills."
Section 24 of the 1913 specifications deals with the length of rails
and allows a variation of % in. from the specified lengths. This part
has been revised in secion 23 of the new specifications to read as follows :
"A variation of %-vn.. from the specified lengths will be allowed, excepting
that for 15 per cent, of the order a variation of Y%-in. from the specified
lengths will be allowed." The manufacturers claimed that a variation
of not more than ^-'m. on all rails is not practicable, and although this
has been the requirement, it has not been strictly enforced by the in-
spectors.
Section 31 of the 1913 specifications reads, "Circular holes for joint
bolts shall be drilled accurately in every respect to the drawing and
dimensions furnished by the Railroad Company." This has been amended
in section 30 of the proposed 1914 specifications to read as follows:
"Circular holes for joint bolts shall be drilled to conform to the drawing
and dimensions furnished by the Railroad Company. A variation of
s^-in. in excess in size of holes will be allowed."
The full text of the specifications as revised will be found in Ap-
pendix H.
CONCLUSIONS.
(1) That the revision of the specifications for Carbon Steel Rails,
presented herewith, be approved for printing in the Manual.
(2) That form M.W. 408, "Statement of Rail Failures," as revised
and presented herewith, be approved for use and substitution in the
Manual for the present standard forms M.W. 408 and 411.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON RAIL.
Appendix A.
RAIL FAILURE STATISTICS FOR THE YEAR ENDING
OCTOBER 31, 1912.
By R. Trimble,
Chief Engineer, Maintenance of Way, Northwest System, Pennsylvania
Lines.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your Rail Committee submits the following report on Rail Failure
Statistics for the year cnc'ing October 31, 1912:
At our request the American Railway Association issued Circular
No. 1223, dated October 19, 1912, asking the members of that Association
for reports to be submitted not later than February 15, 1913. This cir-
cular was accompanied by a circular of instructions, in order that the
reports might be uniform.
The responses to this circular were more complete and in better
form than ever before. Attention should be called, however, to the fact
that many roads showed some carelessness in reports, particularly the
"Position in Ingot'' report. The request for reports prepared so that
they could be blueprinted was in many cases disregarded.
Replies were received from 157 companies, 12 of which are Asso-
ciate Members, and do not make these reports. Of the 145 members
replying, 51 do not keep these statistics and 94 furnished reports. Of
these reports the majority were in such shape that they could be used
without correction. A few had to be returned for correction, and parts
of others eliminated, becav.se the data was incomplete.
The 94 companies reporting aggregate a total mileage of about 182,-
000 miles. The total tonnage of rail covered by the statistics is 14,132,982
tons, of which 10,156,935 tons is Bessemer and 3,580,021 tons Open-
Hearth of standard sections ; the balance, 396,026 tons, being made up of
various alloy and special section rails.
Diagrams and tables as follows are submitted :
(1) Diagram No. 1, Comparison between different Weights of Rail,
Bessemer Steel.
(2) Diagram No. 2. Comparison between different Weights of Rail,
Open-Hearth Steel.
(3) Diagram No. 3. Comparison between different Sections of Rail,
Bessemer Steel.
162 RAIL.
(4) Diagram No. 4, Comparison between different Sections of Rail,
Open-Hearth Steel.
(5) Diagram No. 5, Comparison between different Manufacturers of
Rail, Bessemer Steel.
(6) Diagram No. 6, Comparison between different Manufacturers of
Rail, Open-Hearth Steel.
(7) Diagram No. 7, Comparison between different Weights of Rail,
Bessemer Steel, for period of 4 years.
(8) Diagram No. 8, Comparison between different Weights of Rail.
Open-Hearth Steel, for period of 4 years.
(9) Diagram No. 9, Comparison between different Weights and
Sections, sub-classified by Railroads ami Manufacturers. Bessemer Steel
Rail.
(10) Diagram No. 10, Comparison between different Weights and
Sections, sub-classified by Railroads and Manufacturers, Open-Hearth Rail.
(11) Diagram No. 11, Comparison between different Railroads,
Bessemer Rail.
(12) Diagram No. 12, Comparison between different Railroads.
Open-Hearth Rail.
(13) Diagram No. 13, Comparison between different Railroads.
All Rail.
(14) Table No. 1, Statement of Rails for which no failures were
reported. Pages 4 and 5. Bessemer; pp. 5 to 7. Open-Hearth; pp. 7 and
8, Special Sections and Alloys.
(15) Table No. 2, Statement of Rails for which greatest number of
failures were reported, arranged in diminishing order, down to 50 per
10,000 tons. Pages 10 to 16, Bessemer Steel; pp. 16 and 17. Open-Hearth
Steel; page 17, Special Sections and Alloys.
(16) Table No. 3, Statement of Percentages of different kinds of
failures for 4 years.
(17) Table No. 4, Order of Superiority of Various Rail Sections,
based on relative number of failures per 10,000 tons.
(18) Table No. 5, Statement of Head Failures per 10,000 tons, for
different weights and sections, arranged in diminishing order ; page 22,
Bessemer; page 23, Open-Hearth; page 24, Alloys.
(19) Table No. 6, Comparisons of failures of rails of same weights
and sections, under different conditions.
(20) Table No. 7, Summary of Number of Rail Failures classified
according to position in ingot; pp. 30 and 31, Bessemer; pp. 32 and 33,
Open-Hearth ; page 34, Alloys.
(21) Table No. 8, General Summary of Failures according to posi-
tion in ingot, arranged according to weight and section.
(22) Table No. 9, General Summary of Failures, according to posi-
tion in ingot, arranged according to manufacturers.
Drawings of the rail sections referred to will be found in Vol. 12,
Proceedings American Railway Engineering Association. Part 2, page
143, et seq.
KAIL FAILURE STATISTICS. 163
In all the tables there has been added this year a column giving
the tons of rail laid, as it seems important to consider this as well as
the failures per 10,000 tons.
TABLE NO. 1— LIST OF VARIOUS LOTS OF RAIL FOR WHICH
NO FAILURES WERE REPORTED.
In this list we find rail of practically all weights and sections, and
of the following manufacture:
Bessemer Steel: Algoma. Cambria, Carnegie. Illinois. Lackawanna.
Maryland, National, Ougree, Pennsylvania.
Open-Hearth Steel : Bethlehem, Cambria. Carnegie. Colorado Fuel
& Iron, Illinois, Lackawanna, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Tennessee
Coal & Iron.
The chemistry varies widely, as does the length of service. The
oldest rail listed is 100 lbs., P. R. R., rolled by Lackawanna Steel Com-
pany, 1893 to 1007 — 269 tons laid; of this 205 tons were laid in 1000.
Much of the rail is of comparatively short service.
Note. — All amounts reported under 1,000 tons neglected in making
this report, excepting in the case of special sections and alloys.
164
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KAIL FAILURE STATISTICS. 169
TABLE NO. 2— LIST OF LARGEST NUMBER OF FAILURES
ARRANGED IN DIMINISHING ORDER DOWN
TO 50 FOR CONVENIENCE IN STUDY-
ING COMPOSITION.
Table No. 1 should be considered in connection with table No. 2.
In last year's report this table was not classified with respect to
kind of steel. This year separate statements are made for the Bessemer.
Open-Hearth and Special Alloys. The same remarks as were made last
year apply this, i. e., this table shows —
(1) Wide variation in performance of different sections.
(2) Wide variation in performance of different mills.
(3) Same weights and sections do not give uniform results.
(4) Difference in carbon does not account for variation in rate of
failure.
(5) Comparison of Open-Hearth and Bessemer shows that both
have high rates of failure as well as low rates in individual cases.
(6) The so-called improved sections, such as A. R. A., give poor
results in individual cases, while the older sections, such as the A. S.
C. E., give good results in some cases.
(7) It is also to be noted that much of the rail listed in table No.
2 has been in service a short time.
In addition to the above remarks, attention should be called to the
fact that there are 140 items on the Bessemer list and 25 on the Open-
Hearth, a ratio of about 5^ to 1, while the ratio of the tonnage of
Bessemer to Open-Hearth is about 3 to 1. Also that the greatest num-
ber of failures per 10,000 tons of Open-Hearth rail is 378.5, while that
of the Bessemer is 1,050.0. Also that in only 9 cases of Open-Hearth
is the rate of failures above 100, while in the Bessemer there are 50
cases.
Note. — All amounts reported under 1,000 tons neglected in making
this report, excepting in the case of Special Sections and Alloys.
170
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RAIL FAILURE STATISTICS.
177
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KA1
TABLE No. 3— TABULATION OF KINDS OF FAILURES FOR DIFFERENT WEIGHTS
OF RAIL CLASSIFIED AS BETWEEN BESSEMER AND OPEN-HEARTH STEEL
The figures for 1909, 1910 and 191 1 are added for comparison.
Fractions of decimals omitted. Odd weights of rail omitted.
PERCENTAGE OF FAILURES OF TOTAL FAILURES
Bessemer
Open-Hearth
Weight
of Rail
Broken
Head
Failures
Web
Failures
Broken
Base
Broken
Head
Failures
Web
Failures
Broken
Base
Year
135-lb.
F
100
94
1911
135-lb.
3
3
1912
100-lb.
100-lb.
100-lb.
100-lb.
20
34
32
41
58
47
51
36
14
9
11
8
8
10
6
15
19
23
31
28
41
56
45
51
28
13
20
7
12
8
4
14
1909
1910
1911
1912
95-lb
14
25
25
81
68
72
3
6
2
1
3
1910
'15-lb
1911
95-lb.
1912
90-lb.
17
74
6
3
34
51
12
3
1909
90-Ib.
24
58
" 9
9
38
46
11
0
191(1
90-lb.
21
62
6
11
42
41
9
8
1911
90-lb.
51
31
2
16
52
34
4
10
1912
85-lb.
16
70
85-lb.
30
53
85-lb.
28
53
85-lb.
50
32
80-lb.
80-lb.
80-lb.
80-lb.
(5
8
21
64
9
6
1909
5
12
21
63
11
5
1910
6
5
12
24
53
11
12
1911
13
39
44
9
8
1912
6
5
15
60
19
6
1909
6
4
34
44
12
10
1910
6
6
28
38
8
26
1911
4
13
34
47
11
8
1912
75-lb.
75-lb.
75-lb.
75-lb.
28
32
25
51
52
49
52
38
18
12
17
4
2
7
6
7
1909
36
59
57
30
5
24
14
7
13
21
29
6
1910
1911
1912
In general, head failures predominate, except in the case of the 75-lb.
Open-Hearth rail in 191 1, to which attention was called in last year's
report. There is a slight excess of broken rails in all weights except
the 95-lb. of the Bessemer, and in the 75-lb. and 90-lb. Open-Hearth.
This slight excess cannot be attributed to any one item.
RAIL FAILURE STATISTICS. 179
TABLE NO. 4— ORDER OF SUPERIORITY OF DIFFERENT
SECTIONS WITH COMPARISONS FOR LAST TWO YEARS.
An examination of this table makes it evident that the section as a
rule has little influence on the quality of the material. Under ioo lbs.
Bessemer, N. Y. N. H. & H. ranks i in 1912, 7 in 191 1 and 1 in 1910.
Dudley ranks 2 in 1912, 4 in 1911 and 8 in 1910. A study of the detail
reports makes it clear that other factors than the section are responsible
for the difference in performance of different lots of rail. Small differ-
ences in chemical composition are of not much importance. Density of
traffic, speed and wheel loads are of importance principally as they
determine the weight of rail. Probably the majority of rail failures
are due to faulty material; i. e., segregation, slag inclusions, pipes, etc.
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RAIL FAILURE STATISTICS.
181
TABLE No. 5— STATEMENT OF HEAD FAILURES IN DIMINISHING ORDER, WITH
COMPARISON FOR PAST TWO YEARS
This table was prepared with a view to discovering whether or not
the number of head failures was influenced by the section. That is,
whether a thin head or deep head is the better and whether a high stiff
or low flexible section is the better.
The design has apparently little influence on the number of failures.
It is interesting to note, however, that the following sections stand,
in all three years, among the ten sections having the greatest number
of failures, possibly indicating, in these cases, a fault in design.
BESSEMER
Weight
Order in
Deep
or Thin
Head
High
Section
1912
1911
1910
or Low
Design
C. S
90
90
80
85
1
3
4
8
4
1
9
8
3
1
7
4
T
D
D
T
H
A. R. A. "B"
L
L
C. B.&Q
L
OPEN-HEARTH
C. R R of N. J.
135
90
85
80
1
5
7
8
1
4
9
5
D
T
T
D
H
G. N
9
10
5
H
A. R. A. "A"
H
A. S.C. E
L
182
RAIL.
TABLE No. 5— STATEMENT OF HEAD FAILURES PER 10,000 TONS OF RAIL LAID
ARRANGED IN DIMINISHING ORDER
BESSEMER RAIL
Order
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
IS
19
20
21
22
X',
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
.'15
Section
C.S
G.N
A. R. A. "B". .
Cambria 540
A. R.A. "A"....
P.S
A.S.C.E
C. B.&Q
G.N
Mo. Pac
B.&M
A.S.C.E
A.S.C.F
P.S
A. R. A."B"
A.S.C.E
P.&R
A.S.C.E
O. W. R. & N . ...
A.S.C.E
A. R.A. "A"
P. R. R
Dudley
D. &R. G
A.S.C.E
B.&A
Dudley
Dudley
P. R. R
A. R. A. "B". .. .
Mo. Pac
A. R.A. "A"....
N. Y. N. H.& H.
O. W. R. & N...
A. R.A. "A"
Weight
90
90
90
80
100
85
100
85
75
85
75
90
76
100
100
85
100
80
85
79
90
85
80
85
75
95
100
75
100
80
75
85
100
75
80
Tons
Laid
112,730
45,732
172,569
6,141
33,013
147,003
542,614
127,150
94,897
168,723
120,778
848,368
6,253
99,523
131,647
2,700,944
9,900
1.853,777
4,324
8.000
100,102
631,988
255,178
119,411
571.767
61,678
179.284
104,107
480,605
3,515
89,498
15,694
29.791
21,003
52,875
Number of "Head
Failures" per
10,000 Tons of
Rail Laid
1912 1911
57.0
48.0
46.3
39.1 i
37.0
33.2
33.1
29.3 I
26.3
25.7 !
25.3 I
22.8 ;
20.8 ;
18.2 I
17.6
17.5
17.2
14.2
13.9
13.7
12.3
11.9
9.8
9.2
8.8
8.4
4.3
4.1
4.0
2.8
2.1
1.3
1.0
0.5
0.0
47.1
34.8
73.0
27.6
66.5
21.0
21.5
30.4
20.1
23.5
25.6
16.9
12.9
17.1
53.9
14.2
1910
42.8
11.6
84 3
27.0
15.9
29.6
20.2
39.3
1.2
0.3
31.4
13.0
9.7
18.1
20.3
18.5
11.0
9.2
7.0
13.4
8.6
7.9
6.2
8.5
9.0
19.9
2: 9
4.0
1.7
7.5
44.9
3.4
1.7
66.2
2.7
Deep
or
Thin
Head
High
Low
De-
Order
Year
1911
Order
Year
1910
13
24
11
25
10
a
H 4 3
L 6 16
L 1 ' 1
L 9 7
H 2 13
L 14 6
L 12 9
L 8,4
L
L
L
L
L
L 16 15
L 20 17
L 15 12
L 3 8
L 18 11
L
L
H 21 14
L 22 IS
H 25 20
L
L 26 19
L
H 23 10
H
L 29 21
L
L 31 23
H 24 2
H 5 22
L 28
H
RAIL FAILURE STATISTICS.
183
TABLE No. 5— STATEMENT OF HEAD FAILURES PER 10,000 TONS OF RAIL LAID
ARRANGED IN DIMINISHING ORDER— CONTINUED
OPEN-HEARTH RAIL
Number of '
Head
High
Failures
' per
Deep
Order
Order
Order
Section
Weight
Tons
Laid
10,000 Tons of
Rail Laid
or
Thin
Low
De-
sign
in
Year
in
Year
Head
1911
1910
1912 1911
1910
1
C. R. R. ofN. J
135
2,093
152.4
366.7
D
H
1
2
Mo. Pac
85
3,075
65.0
2.2
20.2
•d
H
22
3
3
D. L. &W
90
70,592
31.4
3.6
5.6
D
L
18
13
4
A. R. A. "A"
100
65,021
24.6
10.9
0.5
T
H
10
20
5
G.N
90
131,721
20.0
20.1
7.3
T
H
4
9
6
C.S
90
163,758
18.9
5.9
5.5
T
H
15
14
7
A. R. A. "A"
85
39,191
18.4
12.6
7.1
T
H
9
10
8
A.S.C.E
80
448,446
14.0
17.0
12.2
D
L
5
5
9
A.R.A. "B"
A.S.fE
90
216,126
13.6
10.1
10.9
D
L
11
6
10
100
243,352
11.0
3.3
6.2
D
L
20
11
11
A.S.C.E
90
129,189
10.7
15.1
20.1
D
L
7
4
12
P.S
100
202,351
9.7
6.9
8.2
D
L
13
7
13
C. B.&Q
85
31,000
9.3
17.0
23.0
T
L
6
2
14
P.S
85
76,485
8.9
3.3
D
L
12
15
N. Y. N.H.&H...
100
42,892
7.4
3.6
2.0
D
H
17
18
16
A. R. A. "A"
90
450,207
6.7
5.7
8.1
T
H
16
8
17
A.S.C.E
85
574,946
5.5
3.3
5.8
D
L
19
12
18
A. R. A. "B"
100
132,948
5.2
6.4
10.9
D
L
14
6
19
90
100
100
75
132,538
25,968
2,333
81,057
5.1
5.0
4.3
2.8
2.4
14.2
1.9
3.7
T
D
D
D
H
L
L
L
21
8
24
19
20
P. & R
15
21
P. R. R
A.S.C.E
22
0.2
3.3
16
23
C.S
75
54,205
2.0
1.0
2.1
T
H
23
17
24
Dudley
D. L. & W
85
5,291
2.0
T
H
25
100
50,105
1.6
T
H
26
100
75
33,089
42,422
1.5
1.4
D
T
L
H
27
Dudley
28
N. Y. N. H. & H...
80
22,003
0.9
D
H
29
D.& R. G
A. R. A. "A"
85
80
17,912
17,834
0.6
0.0
D
T
L
H
30
31
80
14,587
0.0
T
H
32
B.&M
75
6,144
0.0
T
L
184
KAIL.
TABLE No. 5— STATEMENT OF HEAD FAILURES PER 10,000 TONS OF RAIL LAID
ARRANGED IN DIMINISHING ORDER— CONTINUED
SPECIAL ALLOYS
Order
Section
Weight
Tons
Laid
Number of "Head
Failures" per
10,000 Tons of
Rail Laid
1912 1911 I 1910
Deep I
or
Thin
Head
High
or
Low
De-
Order I Order
Year
1911
Year
1910
FERRO-TITANIUM BESSEMER
1
G.N
90
1,980
85.9
19.5
T
L
3
2
A. R. A."B"
90
7,703
20.8
12.5
D
L
4
3
A. R.A. "A"
90
13,513
8.9
0.7
T
H
i
4
A.S.C.E
90
22,043
6.3
56.9
2.8
D
L
2
2
5
Dudley
80
58,737
3.4
1.2
T
H
6
6
Dudley
100
59,012
3.2
2.3
T
H
5
7
A. R.A. "B"
A.S.C.E
A. R.A. "A"
A.S.C.E
A.S.C.E
100
80
100
85
. 100
10,816
3,606
10,909
19,699
4,754
2.8
2.8
1.9
0.0
0.0
D
D
T
D
D
L
L
H
L
L
1
8
9
10
11
73.5
FERRO-TITANIUM OPEN-HEARTH
1
A. R.A. "B"
A.S.C.E
L.V
90
90
110
100
100
723
11,295
12,967
16,234
1,308
138.3
16.8
8.5
5.5
0.0
D
D
D
T
D
L
L
H
H
L
2
1
3
3
26.6
2.3
4
5
A. R.A. "A"
D. L. &W
MAYARI— CHROME NICKEL— BESSEMER
1
A. R. A. "B"
P.S
A.S.C.E
P.S
N. Y. N. H. &H....
P.S
A.S.C.E
100
100
85
85
100
100
85
1,967
17,741
30,700
7,309
5,574
3,830
3,370
10.0
2.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
L
L
L
L
H
L
L
2
3
4
6.0 15.7
1 1
5
6
10.0 i
1
2
7
MAYARI— CHROME NICKEL— OPEN-HEARTH
1
P.S 100 1,707
41.0 D
0.0 812.7 565.2 j D
0.0 i j D
L
L
H
L
1
2
3
A. R. A. "B" 90 566
N. Y. N. H. &H... 100 333
1
4
D. L. &W 100 240
00 D
RAIL FAILURE STATISTICS. 185
TABLE NO. 6.
This table has been compiled to show the great variation in the
rate of rail failures for the same weights and sections under conditions
as nearly uniform as could be determined from the reports.
A. R. A. "A" ioo-lb. rail, for instance, varied in 1912 from 24.3
failures per 10,000 tons on the Pennsylvania Lines, N. W. System, to
364.8 on the S. W. System.
A. R. A. "B" ioo-lb. failures on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad
were 81.5 for Maryland rail and 124.0 for Cambria rail.
P. S. ioo-lb. rail, Pennsylvania Lines, N. W. System. 32.9 failures
per 10,000 tons for Carnegie rail and 2.5 for Illinois.
A. S. C. E. 90-lb. on Erie Railroad, 35.0 for Lackawanna and 617.0
for Illinois, with 186.0 for Carnegie.
In the Open-Hearth rail, on the Central Railroad of New Jersey,
ioo-lb. A. R. A. "A" varied from 5.8 to 101.6.
A. R. A. "B" 90-lb. on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad varied from
24.6 to 378.5.
Similar variations may be found throughout the report and point
to the same conclusion as was reached last year, i. e., "Variations (in
performance of rails) must be attributed to variations in the perform-
ance of different mills, and also to variations in the performance of the
same mill at different times."
186
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RAIL FAILURE STATISTICS. 189
TABLES NOS. 7, 8 AND 9— CLASSIFICATION OF FAILURES
ACCORDING TO POSITION IN INGOT.
Table No. 7 shows detail information furnished by individual roads.
Table No. 8 shows this information summarized according to
weight and section of rail.
Table No. 9 shows this information summarized according to manu-
facturer.
All tables are divided, showing Bessemer and Open-Hearth rail
separately.
The preponderance of "A" rail failures is not so great this year as
last, being only 30.2 per cent, for the Bessemer, as against 43.7 per cent,
last year. In the Open-Hearth, "A" rails made up 21.3 per cent, of the
failures this year as against 22.9 per cent, last year.
This is still a higher percentage than from any other part of the
ingot.
Last year it was noted that the Ferro-Titanium rail, both Bessemer
and Open-Hearth showed a smaller percentage of "A" rail failures than
the ordinary rail of similar process. This is not true this year, the
percentages being as follows :
Ordinary Bessemer 30.2 per cent.
Ferro-Titanium Bessemer 31.0 per cent.
Ordinary Open-Hearth 21.3 per cent.
Ferro-Titanium Open-Hearth 21.6 per cent.
There is in general a more uniform distribution of the failures
among the different positions in the ingot.
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202 RAIL.
DIAGRAMS NO. i AND NO 2— COMPARISON BETWEEN DIF-
FERENT WEIGHTS OF RAIL, BESSEMER AND
OPEN-HEARTH STEEL.
No. 1 — Bessemer Steel. — The 76 and 79-lb. sections should be dis-
regarded on account of the small tonnage.
The rate of failure of the 85-lb., 90-lb. and 100-lb. sections is- greater
than that of the lighter sections, including the 95-lb. Better results
would naturally be expected from the heavier sections. Some factor
other than design and weight is clearly responsible for increased number
of failures.
No. 2 — Open-Hearth Steel. — The highest rate of failure this year is
found in the 90-lb. rail, as is also true of the Bessemer steel. The 80-
lb. rail, which had the highest rate last year, has this year dropped
back to about the same rate as in 1910.
The general average (all weights) is lower for the Open-Hearth
than for the Bessemer, being 24.0 per 10,000 tons laid, as against 52.0
for the Bessemer.
DIAGRAMS NOS. 3 AND 4— COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFER-
ENT SECTIONS, BESSEMER AND OPEN-HEARTH STEEL.
Diagram No. 3, Bessemer Steel. — There is a wide difference in re-
sults between different sections of same weight. For instance, in the
100-lb., failures range from 4.6 (per 10,000 tons) to 92.9. Note, how-
ever, that the A. R. A. "B" and P. S. sections range close together,
having 36.7 and 33.7, respectively.
Diagram No. 4, Open-Hearth Steel. — The same lack of uniformity
in rate of failures for different sections of the same weight is found.
Comparing Diagrams 3 and 4, we note that the 100-lb. A. S. C. E.
compares favorably with the other rails in the Open-Hearth steel and
badly with the other rails in the Bessemer steel. Why should not its
relation to the other sections be independent of the kind of steel?
It is also peculiar that the N. Y. N. H. & H. section 100-lb. rail
shows 24.0 failures (per 10,000 tons) in the Open-Hearth and only 4.6
in the Bessemer.
DIAGRAMS NOS. 5 AND 6— COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFER-
ENT MANUFACTURERS, BESSEMER AND OPEN-
HEARTH STEEL.
These diagrams show the same lack of uniformity of performance
as is brought out in all the data considered heretofore. The different
weights of rail do not show the same results when rolled by different
mills, nor does the rail from the different mills stand in the same order
of superiority in the Bessemer steel as in the Open-Hearth.
For instance, the 100-lb. Bessemer rail rolled by seven mills is in
second place once, in third place three times, in fourth place twice and
in fifth place once.
RAIL FAILURE STATISTICS. 203
Of the first five mills in order of merit in the Bessemer steel, only
two rank among the first five in the Open-Hearth steel ; i. e., Pennsyl-
vania, ranks i in Bessemer and 5 in Open-Hearth; and Colorado Fuel
& Iron ranks 5 in Bessemer and 1 in Open-Hearth. If we take the
first four mills in order of merit, we have none appearing in both the
Bessemer and Open-Hearth.
It is peculiar that while there is this general lack of uniformity, that
out of 10 mills rolling oo-lb. Open-Hearth rail, it in 9 cases shows the
worst results and in the tenth case stands in third place.
In the Bessemer steel, out of 8 mills rolling 90-lb. rail, it shows the
worst results in 3 cases, the best results in 2 cases, stands second in 2
cases and third in 1 case.
DIAGRAMS NOS. 7 AND 8— COMPARISON BETWEEN VARIOUS
WEIGHTS OF RAIL FOR FOUR YEARS.
Diagram 7. Bessemer Steel.
Diagram 8. Open-Hearth Steel.
These diagrams show in general an increase in the rate of failure
during 1912. The 95-lb. and 75-lb. Bessemer and 80-lb. Open-Hearth are
the exceptions to this.
DIAGRAMS NO. 9 (BESSEMER) AND NO. 10 (OPEN-HEARTH).
These diagrams give in graphic form all the detail information
shown on Sheets 1 to 76 of the statistics, except the classification' as to
kind of failures.
They afford a ready method of referring to the details, and should
be used in connection with the other diagrams and summaries.
These are new diagrams, prepared for the first time for use with
this report.
DIAGRAMS NO. n (BESSEMER), NO. 12 (OPEN-HEARTH) AND
NO. 13 (COMBINED BESSEMER AND OPEN-HEARTH).
These are new diagrams, prepared for the first time for this report,
and show the rate of failure of rail on each railroad, irrespective of
weight or section of rail used.
Diagram 13 is probably the most interesting, as it shows the total
failures for each road.
A number of roads report no failures, i. e. :
Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic 3J75 tons. .85-lb: rail.
Cincinnati Northern 3,600 tons. .80-lb. rail.
Colorado Midland 3,000 tons. .80-lb. rail.
Houston East & West Texas 2,306 tons. .75-lb. rail.
St. Louis, San Francisco & Texas 6,276 tons. .75-lb. rail.
Toledo, Peoria & Western 2,999 tons. .85 and 80-lb. rail.
204
RAIL.
Nine roads show more
than ioo failures per 10,000 tons as follows :
Railroad
Failures
per
10,000
Tons
Tons
Rail
Laid
Kind of Rail Used
B. &0. C. T
Erie
169.6
166.3
138.8
128.1
124.4
120.9
115.6
115.0
110.9
19,684
173,963
26,946
411,397
4,500
177,453
60,859
267,035
10,903
80 A. S. C. E.
100, 90, 80 A. S. C. E.
Central Vermont
Rutland
Great Northern
Chicago, Indianapolis &
80 A S C* T*1
100, 90, A.'r.'a. "B" 85 A. S. C. E., 72 N. P.
80 Dudley
90 G. N.
90 A. R. A. "B", 75 A. S. C. E.
C. C. C. &St. L
90, 80 A. S. C. E.
90 A. S. C. E.
An interesting study is obtained by selecting three groups of five
roads each, as follows :
1 Combined Fast Passenger and Heavy Freight Roads.
Railroad
Failures
per
10,000
Tons
Tons
Rail
Laid
Kind of Rail L'sed
B.&O
L. S. &M. S
Penna Lines, West.
Penna Lines, East.
N. Y. C. &H. R..
93.4
79.4
51.3
26.7
12.1
499,826
442,383
837,130
1,229,440
418,194
100 & 90 A. R. A. "A & B", 100 & 85 A. S. C. E.
100 & 80 A. S. C. E.
100 A. R. A. "A", 100 & 85 P. S. and A. S. C. E.
85 P. R. R.
100 & 85 A. S. C. E..P. S. & P. R. R. 80 A. S. C. E.
100 & 80 Dudley.
2 Roads Principally of Fast Passenger Traffic
Boston & Maine
N. Y. N. H. &H
57.5
16.9
15.1
12.2
2.3
207,699
108,821
120,967
71,472
180,620
100 Dudley & N. Y. N. H. & H., 85, 79, 76 A.S.C.E
75 B. & M.
100 Dudley, 95 B. & A.
100, 80, 78 N. Y. N. H. & H., 80 A. S. C. E.
100, 90, 85, 80 A. S. C. E.
Atlantic Coast Line
85, 80 A. S. C. E.
5 Roads Principally of Heavy Freight Traffic
166.3
72.4
62.3
31.0
5.5
173,963
143,745
85,376
103,681
323,223
100, 90, 80 A. S. C. E.
90 A. S. C. E.
100, A. R. A. "B" and A. S
100, 90 D. L. & W.
100 A. R. A. "B", 85, 75 A.
Bessemer & Lake Erie. .
D. L. & W
C. E.
Norfolk & Western
S. C. E.
RECORD OF COMPARATIVE WEAR OF SPECIAL RAIL.
BALTIMORE & OHIO RAILROAD.
The following tests were reported as completed during the past year :
Comparison between Bethlehem Open-Hearth and Cambria Bessemer,
both 90-lb. A. R. A. "B" on 7-deg. .05-min. curve at Bloomington, W.
Va. Both laid April 4, 1909. Open-Hearth removed after 38 months, and
Bessemer removed after 23 months' wear.
Area abraded ; Open-Hearth : High Rail, 0.839 sq- hi. ; Low Rail,
0.630 sq. in.
RAIL FAILURE STATISTICS.
205
Area abraded; Bessemer: High Rail, 1.196 sq. in.; Low Rail, 0.970
sq. in.
Comparison between Maryland Open-Hearth 90-lb. A. R. A. "B"
and Pennsylvania Open-Hearth 85-lb. A. S. C. E., on No. 76 Fill, Cheat
River Grade. Both laid November 22, 1910, and removed after 21
months' wear.
Area abraded ; Maryland 90-lb. A. R. A. "B" : High Rail, 0.757 sq.
in.: Low Rail, 1.001 sq. in.
Area abraded; Pennsylvania 85-lb. A. S. C. E. : High Rail, 0.312
sq. in. ; Low Rail. 0.296 sq. in.
A number of tests are reported as in progress, the most important
of which are given below.
At Snow Creek Curve (8 deg. 42 min.) on Cumberland Division a
test of Bessemer Titanium rail is being made. After 2 years' wear the
results are as follows :
*
Chemical Composition
Area abraded 1
Kind ot Steel
C.
P.
Mn.
Si.
Titan-
ium
Alloy
High
Low
Maryland 90-lb. A. R. A. "B"
Bessemer Titanium
Laid Aug. 6, 1910
0.45
to
0.55
Not to
exceed
0.10
0.80
to
1.20
0.05
to
0.20
0.3
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.357
.362
.347
.360
0.229
.254
.269
.207
AT MARRIETTSVILLE, BALTIMORE DIV.,
9° 45' CURVE,
LAID JUNE 24,
1912.
Maryland-100-lb. A. R. A. "B"
Carnegie -100-!b. A. R. A. "B"
.46-. 56
.7O-.80
.46-56
0.10
0 04
0.10
.80-1.20
.75-1.00
.80-1.20
.05-. 20
.05-. 20
.05-20
1.00
.170
.104
.199
.075
.074
Marylandr100-lb. A. R. A. "B"
111
AT LESMALINSTON, CUMBERLAND DIV., 5° 30' CURVE, LAID MAY 18, 1911.
Illinois-100-lb. A. R. A. "B" Open-
Hearth
Ulinois-100-lb. A. R. A. "B" Bes-
.70-. 80
.46-. 56
.46-. 56
.46-. 56
0.04
0.10
0.10
0.10
.75-1.00
.80-1.20
.80-1.20
.80-1.20
.05-. 20
.05-. 20
.05-. 20
.05-. 20
.3
.158
.229
.197
.188
.139
147
Laekawanna-90-lb. A. R. A. "B"
Bess. Titan
Marvland-90-lb. A. R. A. "B"
.105
AT THORNTON, WEST VIRGINIA, TO TEST RAIL FROM DIFFERENT SIZE
INGOTS ALL 100-lb. A. R. A.-B. ILLINOIS BESSEMER RAIL ON 5° 48' CURVE,
LAID OCTOBER 31, 1911.
Ingot A-15"xl5"x60".
Ingot B-18"xl8"x60".
Ingot C-20"x24'x60".
Ingot D-25"x30"x60" .
.49
.097
.90
.49
.097
.90
.49
.097
.90
.49
.097
.90
.074
.074 .
.074
.074 .
.347 .155
.314 .167
.272 .129
.262 .117
BOSTON & ALBANY.
Lackawanna Dudley ioo-lb. Bessemer rail is being compared with
similar rail containing .02 per cent. Ferro-Titanium. After four years,
the area abraded, in square inches, is 0.138 for the Ferro-Titanium and
0.127 for the plain Bessemer.
206
RAIL.
BOSTON & MAINE.
The following test is in progress at Athol. The rail is all 85-lb.
A. S. C. E., laid in September and October, 1910.
Length
of
service
Chemical Composition
Head
Abraded
Kind of Rail
C.
P.
Mn.
Si.
F.T.
Chro.
Ni.
Bethlehem Open- Hearth
Maryland Open-Hearth
Laelca wanna Open-Hearth...
Lackawanna Open-Hearth...
Lackawanna Open-Hearth...
27 mo.
27 mo.
27 mo.
27 mo.
27 mo.
26 mo.
26 mo.
67
.025
.016
.017
.021
.019
.059
.059
.87
.75-. 80
.90
.90
.85
1.02
1.02
.175
.067
.144
.144
.118
.075
.075
6 46
68
88
85
71
53
53
.15
.20
.51
.51
4.99
2.83
3.26
4.19
.19
.19
5.39
4.33
The Ferro-Titanium rail makes a very favorable showing.
CHICAGO GREAT WESTERN.
A comparative test of Bessemer, Bessemer Ferro-Titanium and Open-
Hearth rail is being made, all 85-lb. A. S. C. E. section; chemical com-
position is not given. After 26 months' service the Ferro-Titanium shows
an average area abraded of .079 sq. in.; the Bessemer, .056 sq. in., and
the Open-Hearth, .075 sq. in.
DELAWARE, LACKAWANNA & WESTERN.
Four tests are being made as follows :
(1) Comparison of Open-Hearth and Open-Hearth Chrome Nickel.
The Open-Hearth Chrome Nickel does not compare favorably with
the other.
(2) Comparison of Open-Hearth, Open-Hearth Ferro-Titanium and
Open-Hearth "Special Premium." The best showing has been made by
the ordinary Open-Hearth.
(3) Comparison of Open-Hearth Ferro-Titanium and Open-Hearth
"Special Premium." The F"erro-Titanium makes the best showing.
(4) Comparison of Open-Hearth Ferro-Titanium and ordinary
Open-Hearth. The Ferro-Titanium makes the best showing.
LAKE SHORE & MICHIGAN SOUTHERN.
A. S. C. E. 100-lb. Ferro-Titanium compared with Bessemer 100-lb.
A. S. C. E. The Ferro-Titanium shows more abrasion than the ordinary
Bessemer.
P. R. R. 85-lb. Manganese compared with A. S. C. E. 100-lb. Ferro-
Titanium : Average area abraded, Manganese, 0.30 sq. in. ; average area
abraded, Ferro-Titanium, 1.07 sq. in.
A. S. C. E. 80-lb. Electric compared with A. S. C. E. 100-lb. Besse-
mer. The Electric rail shows less abrasion than the Bessemer rail.
NORFOLK & WESTERN.
Comparison between Manganese 85-lb. A. S. C. E. and Carnegie
Bessemer and Bethlehem Open-Hearth 85-lb. A. S. C. E.
The Manganese rail contains .jj Carbon, .06 Phosphorus and 9.93
Manganese.
RAIL FAILURE STATISTICS.
207
The first test was started on April i, 1909. After 18^2 months the
Carnegie rail was removed and replaced by Bethlehem, which is still
in service.
The areas abraded are as follows :
Carnegie Bessemer Rail, 18^2 months' service. 0.825 sq. in.
Bethlehem Open-Hearth Rail, 27^4 months' service, 0.270 sq. in.
Manganese Rail, 46 months' service, 0.350 sq. in.
The second test was started January 30, 1912, and the areas abraded
are as follows :
Bethlehem Open-Hearth, 12 months' service, 0.19 sq. in.
Manganese Rail, 12 months' service, 0.08 sq. in.
Three of the Manganese rails in the first test broke. No definite
cause was found, but the Manganese Steel Company state it to be im-
proper heat treatment at the mill.
PENNSLYVANIA RAILROAD, LINES EAST.
Two comparative tests are reported :
1. P. S. 100-lb. Pennsylvania Steel Company Nickel Chrome com-
pared with Cambria Open-Hearth.
2. P. S.- 100-lb. Maryland Nickel Chrome compared with Manard
and Open-Hearth.
The results are shown below.
Kind of Steel
Chemical Composition
Length
of
service
Area
C.
P.
Mn.
Si.
S.
Ni.
Cr.
Abraded
Cambria Open-Hearth
.45
.70
.063
.033
.84
.69
.079
.058
.066
.038
.94
.33
13 mo.
13 mo.
.22 sq. in.
.34 sq. in.
Maryland Nickel Chrome. . .
.45
1.40
.73
.063
.019
.84
13.21
.75
.079
.066
.94
.33
4 mo.
4 mo.
4 mo.
1.00 sq. in.
.075 sq. in.
Open-Hearth
.115
.029
.52 sq. in.
In the first test the Nickel Chrome makes a better showing than
the Open-Hearth.
In the second test, the Manard rail makes the best showing, but
the Nickel Chrome does not show as well as the Open-Hearth.
PENNSLYVANIA LINES, WEST OF PITTSBURGH, NORTHWEST SYSTEM.
The test of High Silicon rail reported last year is still in progress.
This is Open-Hearth rail containing a higher percentage of Silicon than
usual and is being compared with ordinary Open-Hearth of the same
rolling.
The results are shown below.
Chemical Composition
Length
of
service
Area
Abraded
Kind of Steel
C.
P.
Mn.
Si.
S.
Open- Hearth
.63-72
.72
.020-. 039
.029
.60-80
.80
.14-. 20
.31
.034-090
.039
14 mo.
14 mo.
0.159 sq. in.
0.152 sq. in.
208
RAIL.
The difference is too small to be considered. Tests of Mayari and
Electric process rail are also being started, but no reports are as yet
available.
PENNSYLVANIA LINES, WEST OF PITTSBURGH, SOUTHWEST SYSTEM.
Tests are being made at two points, i. e. :
(i) On Ohio Connecting Railway, and *
(2) At Holliday's Cove.
Results are given below :
Chemical Composition
Area Abraded,
Sq. In.
Length
of
service
C.
P.
Mn.
Si.
S.
Ni.
Chro.
Kind of Steel
Actual
Per
10,000,000
Tons
Ohio Connecting Railway, 85-lt
. P. S., e
20 mo.
3 mo.
10 mo.
4 mo.
7 mo.
11 mo.
9 mo.
9 mo.
xcept Items 2 and 3
which ai
e 85-lb. A. S. C
.E.
.805
.55
.51
.50
.52
.65
.75
.75
.022
.07
.093
.077
096
032
03
.03
.87
1.05
.88
.95
.90
.69
.80
.80
.17
.13
.103
.091
.085
.14
.12
.12
.035
.97
.21
.595
.672
.68
.45
.645
.772
.68
.72
.09
2. Carnegie, Bessemer
.045
.056
.090
.041
.18
5. Cambria, Bessemer
6. Illinois, O.H
8. Illinois, O.H
.39
.23
.22
Holliday's Cove, 100-lb. P.
S., except Item 2, which is 100-lb. A. S. C. E.
1. Illinois, Electric
2. Carnegie, Bessemer
3. Carnegie, O. H
2 mo.
5 yr.
2 mo.
.61
.51
.67
.021
096
.030
.74
.85
67
.191
.103
14'
.035
.043
.034
.06
.70
.055
1
ROCK ISLAND LINES.
Comparative tests of Ferro-Titanium, Electric process and ordinary
Open-Hearth rails, all 100-lb. A. R. A. "A," are being made. All are
of standard composition. After 17 months the results are as follows:
Area Abraded, Sq, In.
Ferro-Titanium
Electric
Open-Hearth
On 0° 50' Curve
.012
.017
.012
.008
.137
.028
.075
On 1° 00' Curve
.083
.078
.014
.058
.075
The Ferro-Titanium is also being tried at two other points, viz.
On i-deg. 20-min. curve, area abraded, .030 sq. in.
On i-deg. 30-min. curve, area abraded, .010 sq. in.
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Ra il Fa i lure 3 Diagra m No. IB.
Diagram Showing Failures Per.
/OOOO Toms or New Rail La/ d
Classir/eid Br Railroad For
A Period or One Year Ending
Oct. 31, /9/a.
Of=>em Hearth.
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Rail Failures Diagram No II.
Diagram Showing Failures Per
iooooToms of New Rail laid
Classified Br Railroad For
A Period of One Year Ending
Oct 31, (9/2
8e:53e:me:r
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fl^'i. Failures Diagram No 13
Diagram Showing Failures Per
iooooToms of New Rail. Lai id
Classifieo 8y Railroad For
■a Rcrioo of One Year Ending
OctJI. 1912
Bessemer a Open hearth
RAIL FAILURE STATISTICS. 209
DEDUCTIONS.
(i) The statistics are for all roads and do not take into considera-
tion differences in wheel-loads, speed or tonnage over the rails. The
averages are derived from a study of large quantities of rail, and may
be considered as fairly representing the performance of the product
of the different mills.
(2) In studying these statistics, small lots of rail should be ig-
nored, as the results are misleading. In future reports, all individual
lots of less than 2,000 tons should be omitted, and all rail of which a
total of less than 10,000 tons is reported should be excluded from the
summaries, except in cases of special alloys or sections, or of rails used
for tests.
(3) The wide variation in results must be due, to a large extent,
to a lack of uniformity in the performance of different mills, and also
to a lack of uniformity in the product of any individual mill.
(4) The average performance of the heavy sections (85-lb. to 100-
lb.) is not so good as that of the lighter sections (72-lb. to 80-lb.).
(5) The average rate of failure of the Open-Hearth rail is lower
than that of the Bessemer, although both are higher than last year. The
thought expressed in last year's report, that possibly, as its age increases,
the rate of failure of the Open-Hearth rail will increase so as to ap»
proach that of the Bessemer rail, is not corroborated by this year's
figures.
The rate of failure of the Open-Hearth rail was, in 1912, 22 per
cent, higher than in 191 1 and 40 per cent, higher than in 1910.
The rate of failure of the Bessemer rail was, in 1912, 68 per cent,
higher than in 191 1 and 56 per cent, higher than in 1910.
The rate of failure of the Bessemer rail was, in 1912, 116 per cent
higher than that of the Open-Hearth; in 1911, 58 per cent, higher than
that of the Open-Hearth; in 1910, 94 per cent, higher than that of the
Open-Hearth.
(6) A higher percentage of the failed rails are from the upper
part of the ingot than from the lower positions.
(7) Particular attention is called to Table No. 3, which shows that
for the past four years head failures have predominated except that in
1912 there was a slighty higher percentage of broken rails. It will be
remembered that the early part of 1912 was marked by exceptionally
severe weather, which was accompanied by an epidemic of broken rails.
The Committee feels that this was an abnormal condition, and does
not feel that the conclusion implied under (5) of last year's "Deduc-
tions" need be modified; namely, that the majority of failures are head
failures, such as split or crushed heads, and are due, not to imperfect
track conditions, but to defective material in the rail.
210 RAIL.
CLASSIFIED RAIL FAILURES.
(A) Comparison Between Different Weights of Rail-
Diagram i — Bessemer Steel.
Diagram 2 — Open-Hearth Steel.
(B) Comparison Between Different Sections of Rail-
Diagram 3 — Bessemer Steel.
Diagram 4 — Open-Hearth Steel.
(C) Comparison Between Different Manufacturers-
Diagram 5 — Bessemer Steel.
Diagram 6 — Open-Hearth Steel.
(D) Comparison Between Various Weights of Rail —
Diagram 7 — Bessemer Steel.
Diagram 8 — Open-Hearth Steel.
(E) Failures Per 10,000 Tons New Rail Laid, Classified by Weights,
Sections and Railroads —
Diagram 9 — Bessemer Steel.
Diagram 10 — Open-Hearth Steel.
(F) Failures Per 10,000 Tons New Rail Laid, Classified by Railroads —
Diagram 11 — Bessemer Steel.
Diagram 12 — Open-Hearth Steel.
(G) Failures Per 10,000 Tons New Rail Laid, Classified by Railroads-
Diagram 13 — Bessemer and Open-Hearth Steel.
INFLUENCE ON RAILS OF AMOUNT OF DRAFT IN
BLOOMING.
By M. H. Wickhorst, Engineer of Tests, Rail Committee.
This report gives an account of some tests concerning the influ-
ence on the finished rail of various rates of reduction in making the
bloom from the ingot; or, in other words, the influence of the amount
of "draft" in rolling the ingot into a bloom. The work had reference
particularly to the transverse ductility of the base and the presence
of seams. Five companion ingots of one heat were used and all
handled in the same way except that the draft used in making the
bloom from the ingot was varied from a heavy reduction per pass
in one ingot to a light reduction per pass in the ingot at the other
end of the series. The one bloom was made with a few passes and
the others were made with successively more passes. The rails were
tested by means of drop tests and transverse tests of base. In addi-
tion, a sixth companion ingot of the same heat was set aside to cool
after soaking, and used to split open to note its condition as regards
interior cavities and to make a chemical survey. This work was
done at South Bethlehem, Pa., at the works of the Bethlehem Steel
Company, who kindly furnished the material and most of the facilities
for making the tests. The transverse tests of the base or flange tests,
described later, were made at South Bethlehem, Pa., at the Fritz
Laboratory of Lehigh University, who kindly furnished the use of
their large test-machine and made the tests.
MANUFACTURE.
The steel was basic open-hearth steel, treated with titanium and
made by the duplex process; that is, the metal was partly blown in
a Bessemer converter and the reduction finished in an open-hearth
furnace. Lime, scrap steel and ore were charged to the furnace,
melted down, blown Bessemer metal charged and the whole then melted
to about .12 or .15 per cent, carbon (by fracture). Molten recarbonizing
iron high in manganese and most of the ferro-manganese were added to
the furnace. After 2 or 3 minutes the furnace was tapped and ferro-
Repnrt No. 34, January, 191?..
211
212 KAIL.
silicon, ferru-titaiiiutn and the balance of the ferro-manganese were
added to the ladle. The mill record of the various materials used are
shown in table i. The steel and rails were made November 8, T912, heat
number D19035.
TABLE I — HEAT CHARGE.
Scrap steel 44,000 lbs.
Ore . 3,300 "
Burnt lime 11,800 "
Fluor-spar 500 "
Bessemer metal 92,260 '
Recarbonizer, liquid iron 27,800
Ferro-manganese, in furnace 1,000 '
Ferro-manganese, in ladle 200 '
Ferro-silicon 200
Ferro-titanium, 15 per cent, alloy 1,030
Total charge 169,790 lbs.
The steel was tapped into a large ladle from which it was poured
into the molds, which were 19x23 inches at the bottom and tapered about
J4 inch smaller per foot of height. The mill record of the times of
operation and amount of steel made were as follows : Furnace tapped
at 11:30 a. m., started to pour into molds at 11:55 a. m., ingots stripped
12:00 noon, time into the soaking pits 12:20 p. m. The heat made 22
ingots weighing 148,500 lbs. and 1 butt weighing 3,000 lbs. The butt
and ladle scrap were 4,990 lbs. and loss was 13,300 lbs., making a total,
as shown in the table, of 169,790 lbs. Six ingots of the heat were used
for this investigation, numbers 2 to 7, inclusive, five for rolling into 100-
lb. rail of the A. R. A. type A section (see Proceedings American Rail-
way Engineering Association, 191 1, Vol. 12, Part 2, p. 143) and the sixth
for splitting open. The first of the test ingots was taken out of the
soaking pit at 2 :45 p. m., and the others were taken out in order at about
15-minute intervals.
The ladle sample, taken while the heat was being poured, gave the
following results on analysis: C, .722; P, .021; S, .043; Mn, .71; Si, .104.
INGOT.
One of the ingots, after being in the soaking pit about 3J/2 hours,
was cooled down in a vertical position and afterward split open on the
long diameter to note its internal condition as regards size and distri-
bution of cavities, and to use for obtaining drillings with which to make
a chemical survey of the ingot. This ingot cold was 64 in. high, i8?4x
22$i in. at the bottom. 17^x20^4 in. at the top and weighed 6,640 lbs.
The ingot was split by sawing with a large composite saw, so that the
surface left was an axial plane across the long diameter. This surface,
DRAFT l.\ BLOOMING.
213
Vert teat
Rows
A B C D £
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40
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70
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o O O O <)
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Fig. i — Longitudinal Axial Sec-
tion of Ingot After Drilling.
Fig. 2-^JDrilling Diagram for [ngot.
214
RAIL
after drilling for analysis, is shown in Fig. i. It will be noticed that
there was a large tapering cavity or pipe in the upper part of the ingot
extending downward from the top to about 40 per cent, of the height,
with a bridge across the cavity about 10 per cent, from the top.
ANALYSIS OF INGOT.
A chemical survey was made of the ingot by means of drillings
taken as shown in Fig. 2. There were five vertical rows of drillings,
15 samples per row, from one-half of the section, making a total of 75
samples from each ingot, less the number that could not be obtained due
to the cavities in the ingot. On each sample determinations were made
of carbon (by combustion), phosphorus and sulphur, as shown in tables
2, 3 and 4, and on the samples from the bottom of the ingot determina-
tions of manganese and silicon were made also. For the present in-
vestigation it was considered unnecessary to determine the manganese
and silicon or all the samples.
Table 2 — Carbon in Ingot.
Per cent,
from top
A
B
1
C
D
E
1
.694
.680
668
.640
5
.690
.712
572
10
.714
.718
.720
.662
15
.696
.706
.724
20
.712
.694
.788
25
.722
.712
.770
772
30
.714
.702
.76,4
770
35
.724
.708
.748
776
40
.710
.696
.774
708
.682
50
.684
.696
.772
724
.770
60
.716
.696
.692
652
.686
70
.700
.696
.684
668
.630
80
.710
.702
.702
678
.642
90
.726
712
.684
676
.692
90
.714
.724
.748
722
.714
Table 3 — Phosphorus in Ingot.
.021
.021
.021
.021
.021
.023
.022
.022
.022
.022
.025
.026
.026
.026
.028
.028
.026
.026
Per cent,
from top
A
B
1
C
D
E
1
.023
.023
' .024
.026
5
.023
.023
.022
10
.021
.023
.024
.023
15
.021
.023
.025
.022
50
.021
.023
.028
.025
.025
60
021
.023
.026
.024
.024
70
.022
.024
.023
.024
.024
80
.022
.024
.023
.023
.023
90
.023
.024
.023
.023
.023
99
.023
.024
.024
.024
.024
DRAFT JN BLOOMING.
216
Table 4 — Sulphur in Ingot.
Per cent,
from top
A
B
C
D
E
1
.038
.041
.041
040
5
.041
.041
.033
10
.046
.046
.052
037
15
.040
.045
.043
20
.041
.046
.051
25
.037
.046
.045
.049
30
.043
.046
.045
.049
35
.038
.046
.045
.046
40
.041
046
.052
.046
042
50
.041
.047
.052
.043
045
60
.040
.045
.041
.040
038
70
.040
.047
.046
.042
042
80
.042
.047
.046
.042
042
90
.043
.045
.043
.041
042
99
.038
.045
.044
.045
1
043
The results of the manganese and silicon determinations are shown
in table 5.
TABLE 5 — MANGANESE AND SILICON IN INGOT.
Sample. Mn. Si.
99A 73 .112
99B 73 -us
99C 73 .no
99D 73 .102
99E 73 100
Average 73 .107
Probably the samples from the wall of the lower half of the ingot
and those along the bottom represent fairly closely the average steel of
the ingot and I give in table 6 the average for each element and also
the heat analysis. The averages for carbon, phosphorus and sulphur
are each the average of the six samples from the wall of the lower half
of the ingot and the four samples from the bottom, each average thus
being of a total of ten samples. For manganese and silicon the averages
are taken from table 5.
TABLE 6— AVERAGE STEEL IN INGOT.
Ladle
Ingot. Test.
Carbon 716 .722
Phosphorus 023 .021
Sulphur 042 .043
Manganese 73 .71
Silicon 107 .104
It will be noticed that the ladle analysis and ingot results show up
about the same.
216
RAIL.
At any given distance from the tup of the ingot the extreme varia-
tions in composition are in general shown by the axis and the walls of
the ingot and to show conveniently the changes from the top to the
bottom of the ingot the carbon, phosphorus and sulphur are plotted in
Fig. 3. The distance from the top of the ingot in per cent, of the height
is shown horizontally and the amounts of the elements are shown ver-
tically. Where samples could not be obtained from the axis because of
cavities, the results were taken from row D and this was also done in
a few other cases in order to better show the maximum amount of the
element in the upper and interior part of the ingot. It will be noticed
that the wall showed fairly uniform composition throughout the height
.80
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io .04
I
.06
s
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04
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wait
.02
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 GO 90 100
Percent 0/ Height /rom Top 0/ Ingot
Fig. 3 — Carbon, Phosphorus and Sulphur Diagrams of Axis and
Wall of Ingot.
of the ingot. The axis showed carbon below the average for about the
top 10 per cent, of the height and then in the region between 15 and 50
per cent, from the top there was some increase above the average or
segregation. In the lower half of the ingot the axis again showed some
lowering of the carbon below the average, or negative segregation. The
phosphorus and sulphur showed about the average content along the
axis, except for a little increase in the upper part of the ingot, reaching
a maximum at about 25 per cent, of the height from the top.
The maximum amounts of positive segregation found at the axis of
the ingot and the per cents, of increase above the average content of
the ingot are shown in table 7.
DRAFT IN BLOOMING.
211
IAHLE 7 — SEGREGATION \r AXIS OF INGO
Maximum Increase,
Amount. per cent.
Carbon 788 10
Phosphorus 028 22
Sulphur 05 r 21
RAILS.
As explained, ingots 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 of the heat were rolled into
100-lb. rails of the A. R. A. type A section and the rail-bars were num-
bered respectively 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. The ingots were about 19x23 in. at
the bottom, about I7j4x2i}4 in. at the top and were all bloomed to about
8x8 in., but with varying amounts of draft per pass. They were bloomed
Fig. 4 — Bloomixg Rolls.
by first passing, with the long diameter vertical, through a roll pass 20
in. between collars, with varying amounts of draft until the ingot was
reduced to a bloom about 20 in. high. The bloom was turned and
reduced to a height of about 10 in. in the same roll pass, making the
bloom 20 in. wide and 10 in. high. The bloom was again turned and
then run through a pass 10 in. between collars, reduced to a height of
8 in. turned and finally run through a pass 8 in. between collars. In
one case (rail-bar number 4) toward the end of the blooming, the bloom
was given an extra turn to prevent it from becoming "diagonal." A view
of the blooming rolls is given in Fig. 4 intended to show primarily the
"ragging," which consisted of diagonal grooves in the 20 and 10 in.
passes and transverse grooves in the 8-in. pass. These grooves were
3-t6 in. wide and 3-32 in. deep, cut in with a round nose tool.
218 RAIL.
The number of passes used for each stage of the reduction in bloom
ing is shown in table 8. The rolls were about 27 in. in diameter anil
their speed averaged about 75 revolutions per minute, turning slower in
the first passes and faster in the latter ones.
TABLE 8 — NUMBER OF PASSES IN BLOOMING.
Number of Passes.
Rail- Rail- Rail- Rail- Rail-
Stage. Size after reduction bar 1 bar 2 bar 3 bar 4 bar 5
A — 20 in. wide x 20 in. high 1 2 4 6 8
B — 20 in. wide x 10 in. high 3 5 7 9 12
C — 10 in. wide x 8 in. high 3 4 6 8 10
D — 8 in. wide x 8 in. high 1 2 3 4 4
Total passes 8 13 20 27 34
These data are shown in another way in table 9, which shows the
approximate amount of draft or squeeze per pass in the various stages of
reduction in making the bloom from the ingot.
TABLE 9 — DRAFT PER PASS IN BLOOMING.
Inches Draft Per Pass
Rail- Rail- Rail- Rail- Rail-
Stage. Size after reduction bar 1 bar 2 bar 3 bar 4 bar 5
A — 20 in. wide x 20 in. high 3.0 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.4
B — 20 in. wide x 10 in. high 3.3 2.0 1.4 1.1 0.8
C — 10 in. wide x 8 in. high 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.2
D — 8 in. high x 8 in. wide 2.0 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.5
After being reduced from a height of 23 in. to 20 in., the width is
shown as 20 in. instead of the original width of 19 in., because, in being
reduced in height, the bloom widens to the distance between the collars
on the rolls, which was 20 in.
It will be noticed that the biggest differences in the rate of reduc-
tion were made in the early stages of the blooming. In rail-bar 1, the
first stage of 3 in. reduction from the ingot was made in one pass, while
in rail-bar 5 the same reduction was made in 8 passes, or drafts of 3 in.
and Y% in., respectively. The second stage was made with drafts of 3.3
in. in rail-bar 1 and 0.8 in. in rail-bar 5, with the other bars ranging in
between these.
After blooming, only such croppings were made from the ends of
the blooms as were necessary to permit of the bars going through the
rolls satisfactorily. Each bloom was cut in two, the first part making
three rails, the A, B and C, and the second part making two rails, the
D and E. No croppings were made from the rail-bars, but the rough
ends were left on the rails, except in the case of rail-bar 1, from which
a piece was cut off the top end of the A rail on account of a bad end.
and another piece was cut by mistake from between the B and C rails.
The blooms were shaped and finished into rails in 11 passes, as shown
in Fig. 5.
DRAFT IN BLOOMING.
21a
The weights of the bloom and rail crops and of the rails are shown
in table 10.
Table io — Weights of Croppikgs and Rails.
Bloom crop, top 303 260
Rail crop, top 170
A rail 1,095 1,160
Brail 1,091 1,086
Intermediate piece 104
Crail
Drail
Erail
Bloom crop, bottom
Total ingot 6,631 6,679
248
1,270
1,088
248
1,272
1,090
255
1,232
1,092
1,205
1,340
1,229
1,200
1,225
1,211
1,255
1,190
1,130
1,255
1,175
1.221
1,155
1,198
1,190
277
357
341
449
337
6,521
6,587
6,586
Pass M?./. Pass //a 2. PassM.3 PassAto.4.
/7reaS2~fff" /?rea<?35"" /7rea3&3"" /7rea3/.3/7//
/Pea: /7S Vc /tea1. /7/ % tfe</./6S% Peat /3.S %
Pass/Yo.S. Pass Mr. 6. Pass/Vo.7 Pass/Va.#.
/7rea25.4*"/7rea230""/7rea20.f Prea /S.0 ""
PeS. /fi.S%Pea: S.S%Pea'./Af% Pea*. 2/S%
Hht^H
Pass //a 9
/7rea /25""
/?ed 2/.0eZ>
Pass /Vo. /O.
Prsa /a.7°"
Pea'. /*#<%>
/7rea 9.3S°"
Pea: 76 %
Fig. 5 — Shaping Passes Fkom Bi.oom to Finished Rail.
Samples for analysis as representing the averages of the rail bars
were taken from near the top end of each of the D rails by drilling
220
RAIL.
into the top of the head. The samples were taken from the D i pieces
used for transverse base tests and the results are shown in table it, to-
gether with the ladle analysis.
TABLE II — ANALYSES OF KAILS.
Sample C. P. S. Mn. Si.
i D i 724 .024 .044 .74 .1 10
2 D 1 714 .024 .044 .72 .112
3 D 1 716 .024 .045 .74 .108
4 D 1 712 .024 .044 .72 .100
5 D 1 720 .024 .044 .72 .100
Ladle Test 722 .021 .043 .71 .104
The entire rail-bar of each of the ingots was used for drop tests and
transverse tests of the base or flange tests and was divided into units of
one-half rail length each. The pieces cut from each rail and the tests
made are shown in table 12.
TABLE 12 — TESTS FROM EACH KAIL.
No. 1 — 2 ft. for transverse base test.
No. 2 — 4^ ft. for drop test, head in tension.
No. 3 — 2 ft. for transverse base test.
No. 4 — 4^2 ft. for drop test, base in tension.
No. 5 — 3V2 ft. not used.
No. 6 — 2 ft. for transverse base test.
No. 7 — 4^ ft. for drop test, head in tension.
No. 8 — 2 ft. for transverse base test.
No. 9 — 4V2 ft. for drop test, base in tension.
No. 10 — 3^ ft. not used.
The distance, of each test piece from the top of the ingot, expressed
in lbs. and per cent, of weight, is shown in tables 13 to 17, inclusive.
This distance is figured to the middle of the test piece.
Table 13 — Test Pieces, Rail-bar i, Distance from Top of Ingot.
Test
Lbs.
Test
Lbs
Test
Lbs.
Per cent.
piece
1A1
506
7.6
1B1
1601
24.2
1C1
2796
42.2
2
614
9.3
2
1709
25.8
2
2904
43.8
3
722
10.9
3
1817
27.4
3
3012
45.4
4
830
12.5
4
1925
29.1
4
3120
47.1
6
1056
15.9
6
2151
32.5
6
3346
50.6
7
1164
17.6
7
2259
34.1
7
3454
52.2
8
1272
19.2
8
2367
35.7
8
3562
53.8
9
1380
20.8
9
2475
37.4
9
3670
55.4
1D1
4001
60.4
1E1
5212
78.6
2
4109
62.0
2
5320
80.3
3
4217
63.6
3
5428
81.9
4
4325
65.2
4
5536
83.5
6
4651
68.8
6
5762
87.0
7
4659
70.4
7
6870
88.6
8
4767
72.0
8
5978
90.2
9
4875
73.5
9
6086
91.8
DRAFT IN BLOOMING. 221
Table 14 — Test Pieces, Rail-bar 2, Distance fkom Top of Ingot.
Test
Lbs.
Test
Lbs.
Per cent.
Test
Lbs.
Per cent.
piece
piece
2A1
293
4.4
2B1
1453
21.8
2C1
2539
38.0
2
401
6.0
2
1561
23.4
2
2647
39.6
3
509
7.6
3
1669
25.0
3
2755
41.3
4
617
9.2
4
1777
26.0
4
2863
43.9
6
843
12.6
6
2003
30.0
6
3089
46.3
7
951
14.2
7
2111
31.6
i
3197
47.9
8
1059
15.9
8
2219
33.2
8
3305
49.5
9
1167
17.5
9
2327
34.8
9
3413
51.1
2D1
3879
58.1
2E1
5134
77.0
2
3987
59.7
2
5242
78.6
3
4095
61.3
3
5350
80.2
4
4203
63.0
4
5458
81.8
6
4429
66.3
6
5684
85.2
7
4537
68.0
i
5792
86.8
8
4645
69.6
8
5900
88.4
9
4753
71.2
9
6008
90.0
1
Table 15 — Test Pieces, Rail-bar 3, Distance from Top of Ingot.
Tabl
e 16 — Test Pieces, Rail-
•BAR 4,
Distance
FROM
Top of 1
NGOT.
Test
Lbs.
Test
Lbs.
Per cent. :
Test
Lbs.
Per cent.
piece
;
4A1
281
4.3
4B1
1553
23.6
4C1
2643
40.2
2
389
5.9
2
1661
25.2
2
2751
41.8
3
497
7.5
3 i
1769
26.8
3
2859
43.4
4
605
9.2
4
1877
28.5
4
2967
45.1
6
831
12.6
6
2103
32.0
6
3193
48.5
7
939
14.3
7
2211
33.6
7
3301
50.1
8
1047
15.9
8
2319
35.2
8
3409
51.7
9
1155
17.5
9
2427
36.9
9
3517
53.3
4D1
3843
58.4
! 4E1
4973
75.5
2
3951
60.0
2
5081
77.1
3
4059
61.6
3
5189
78.8
4
4167
63.3
4
5297
80.4
6
4393
66.7
6
5523
83.9
7
4501
68.4
7
5631
85.5
8
4609
70.0
8
5739
87.1
9
4717
71.6
9
5847
88.7
222
RAIL.
Table 17 — Test Pieces, Rail-bar 5, Distance from Top of Ingot.
Test
Lbs.
Per cent.
Test
Lbs.
Per cent.
Test
Lbs.
1
5A1
288
4.4
5B1
1520
23.1
5C1
2612
39.6
2
396
6.0
2
1628
24.7
2
2720
41.3
3
504
7.6
3
1736
26.4
3
2828
43.0
4
612
9.3
4
1844
28.0
4
2936
44.6
6
838
12.7
6
2070
31.4
6
3162
48.0
7
946
14.4
7
2178
33.1
7
3270
49.7
8
1054
16.0
8
'2286
34.8
8
3378
51.3
9
1162
17.6
9
(2394
36.4
9
3486
53.0
5D1
3837
58.2
5E1
5092
77.3
2
3945
60.0
2
5200
79.0
3
4053
61.6
3
5308
80.6
4
4161
63.2
4
5416
82.4
6
4387
66.7
6
5642
85.74:
87. 4h
7
4495
68.3
7
5750
8
4603
70.0
8
5858
89.0^
90.7' a
|
9
4711
71.fi
g
5966
i
DROP TESTS.
Four drop tests were made of each rail, two with the head in tension
and two with the base in tension. The tup was 2,000 lbs., the height of
drop was 20 ft, the centers of the supports were 3 ft. apart and the anvil
was 20,000 lbs., spring supported. The striking surface of the tup and
the bearing surfaces of the supports had radii of 5 in. The deflection
was measured after the first blow and was taken as the distance between
a 3 ft. straight edge and the rail where struck by the tup. Gage marks
Table 18 — Drop Tests, Rail-bar i, 3-inch Draft.
No.
Per cent,
from top
of ingot
Part in
Deflection,
No. of
Elongation,
tension
1st blow
blows
per cent.
1 A2
9.3
Hear!
1.22
3
20 L
1 A7
17.0
"
1.24
2
15 L
1B2
25.8
"
1.20
2
10 1.
1B7
34.1
"
1.23
3
10 I.
1C2
43.8
"
1.19
3
20 L
1C7
52.2
"
1.20
3
22
1D2
62.0
■
2
10 S
1D7
70.4
"
1.27
3
19
1E2
80.3
"
1
8S
1E7
88.6
"
1.26
0
10 s
Average
1.23
2.4
15.0
1 A4
12.5
Base
1
2S
1A9
20.8
"
1.16
4
12 L
1B4
29.1
"
1.17
3
12 L
1B9
37.4
"
1.16
3
13
1C4
47.1
"
1.15
0
14
1C9
55.4
"
1
2S
1D4
65.2
"
1.12
3
10
1D9
73.5
«
1.17
4
14
1E4
83.5
"
1
2S
1E9
91.8
"
1
4S
Average
1.16
2.6
8.6
Gen. Av.
1.19
2.5
11.8
L means interior lamination or pipe.
S means seam in base.
DRAFT IN BLOOMING.
22c
i in. apart were put lengthwise on the side in tension about the middh
of the test piece for a distance of 6 in., and the length of the i-in. space
which stretched most at failure was taken as the measure of the ductility
of the rail. The results of the drop tests are shoAvn in tables 18 to 22,
inclusive.
Table 19 — Drop Tests, Rail -bar 2, 1.5-iNCH Draft.
No.
Per cent,
from top
of ingot
Part in
tension
Deflection,
1st blow
No. of
blows
Elongation,
per cent.
2 A2
2 A7
2B2
2B7
2C2
2C7
2D2
2D7
2E2
2E 7
Average
2 A4
2 A9
2B4
2B9
2C4
2C9
2D4
2D9
2E4
2E9
6.0
14.2
23.4
31.6
39.6
47.9
59.7
68.0
78.6
86.8
Head
9.2
17.5
26.6
34.8
43.9
51.1
03.(1
71.2
81.8
90.0
Base
1
4 I,
1.21
3
18
1.21
3
15
1.25
3
15
1.21
3
16 8
1.23
3
18
1.20
4
IS
1.2.5
3
20
2
9S
1.22
4
2d
1 1:
1.20
1.14
1.15
1 IS
1.25
2.9
15.3
1 2L
l 8
12
10
n s
12
11
1 S
11
14
Average s
1.18 2.9 8.4
Gen. Av. 1
1.21 1 2.9 11.9
L means interior lamination or pipe.
Table 20 — Drop Tests,
S means seam in base.
Rail-bar 3, .8-inch Draft.
Per cent. ■£>„,. •
No. from top £»£"
of ingot tenslon
Deflection, No. of Elongation,
1st blow blows per cent.
3 A 2
6.0
U7
14.4
3B2
25.4
3B7
33.8
3C2
42.1
3C7
50.4
3D2
60.9
3D7
69.3
3E2
79.1
3E7
87.5
Average
3A4
9.3
3A9
17.7
k 3B4
28.7
3B9
37.1
3C4
45.3
3C9
53.8
3D4
64.1
3D9
72.6
3E4
82.4
3E9
90.8
Henri
1 28
4
161. S
1.20
3
16
1.23
3
17
1.19
3
19
lrl8
3
Hi
1.20
3
20
1.26
4
20
1.25
3
16
1.24 1
3
24
1.23
3
20
1.23
3.2
18.7
1.13
I*
13 L
1.17
l3
12
1.18
3
15
1.20
4
13
1.18
4
13
1.18
4
14
1.18
4
12
1.22
4
10
1.17
4
12
1.19
4
10
Average
1.18
3.8
Qen. Av.
1.21
3.5
15.6
L means interior lamination or pipe.
S means seam in base.
224 RAIL.
Table 21 — Drop Tests, Rail-bar 4, . 5-inch Draft.
No.
Per cent,
from top
of ingot
Part in
Deflection,
No. of
Elongation,
tension
1st blow
blows
per cent.
4A2
5.9
Head
1.24
2
14 L
4A7
14.3
"
1.26
2
12 L
4B2
25.2
"
1.22
2
11
4B7
33.6
"
1.22
3
21
4C2
41.8
"
1.25
3
15
4C7
50.1
"
1.24
3
14
4D2
60.0
"
2
12
4D7
68.4
"
1.23
3
16
4E2
77.1
"
1.26
3
18
4E7
85.5
"
1
9
Average
1.24
2.4
14.2
4 A4
9.2
Base
1.18
2
10 L
4 A9
17.5
"
1.14
4
15
4B4
28.5
"
1.21
4
11
4B9
36.9
"
1.17
3
14
4C4
45.1
"
1.11
3
10
4C9
53.3
"
(1)
(1)
4D4
63.3
"
(1)
fll
4D9
71.6
"
1.16
4
12
4E4
80.4
"
1.21
4
11
4E9
88.7
"
1.18
3
12
Average
1.17
3.4
11.9
Gen. Av.
1.21
2.9
13.1
L means interior lamination or pipe.
Table 22 — Drop Tests,
4C9, 4D2 and 4D4 had scabby bases.
Rail-bar 5, 4-inch Draft.
No.
Per cent,
from top
of ingot
Part in
Deflection,
No. of
1
Elongation,
tension
1st blow
blows
per cent.
5A2
6.0
Head
1.25
3
20
5A7
14.4
"
1.22
3
20
5B2
24.7
"
1.25
3
20
5B7
33.1
"
1.24
4
18
5C2
41.3
"
1.23
3
21
5C7
49.7
"
1.20
3
18
5D2
60.0
"
1.26
3
IS
5D7
68.3
"
2
10
5E2
79.0
"
1.27
3
22
5E7
87.4
"
1.22
3
23
Average
1.24
3.0
19.0
5 A4
9.3
Base
1.14
3
10
5A9
17.6
"
1.12
4
12
5B4
28.0
"
1.18
4
14
5B9
36.4
"
1
0
5C4
44.6
"
1.16
4
14
5C9
53.0
"
1.18
4
14
5D4
63.2
"
1.18
2
6
5D9
71.6
1.12 .
2
.1 S
5E4
82.4
1.20
4
12
5E9
90.7
"
1.19
4
14
Average
1.16
3.2
10.6
Gen. Av.
1.20
3.1
14.8
fc> means seam in base.
The internal defects or "pipes" found in the fractures of the pieces
drop-tested are shown in table 23.
DRAFT IN BLOOMING.
22f.
Test
Rail-bar. Piece.
1A2
1A7
1A9
1B2
1B4
1B7
1C2
2A2
2A4
3A2
3A4
4A2
4A4
4A7
TABLE 23 — INTERNAL DEFECTS IN RAILS.
Per Cent.
from Top
of Ingot. Defect.
9.3 Lamination head to near base.
54-in. lamination middle of web.
i-in. lamination upper part of web.
iJ/2-m. lamination upper part of web.
2^2-in. lamination middle of web.
J-2-in. lamination middle of web.
1^4-in. lamination middle of web.
17.6
20.8
25.8
29.1
34-i
43-8
6.0
9.2
6.0
9-3
5-9
9.2
M-3
i^-in. lamination upper part of web.
2-in. lamination upper part of web.
i-in. lamination lower part of web.
1 -in. lamination middle of web.
Lamination bottom of head to base.
Lamination middle of head to base.
Lamination bottom of head to near base.
None found.
The seams in the bottom of the base which were found in the drop
test are shown in table 24. There may, of course, have been other seams
present not opened up by the test, but the ones listed are the ones made
noticeable by the test.
TABLE 24 — SEAMS IN BASE FOUND IN DROP TEST.
Rail-bar.
Test
Piece.
1A4
1C9
1D2
1E2
1E4
1E7
1E9
2A9
2C2
2C4
2D9
2E2
3A2
5D9
Per Cent.
Depth
from Top
of Seam.
of Ingot.
Inch.
12.5
•03
55-4
.04
62.0
•05
80.3
.08
83-5
•03
88.6
.06
91.8
.10
17.5
.02
39-6
.02
43-9
.04
71.2
.10
78.6
.06
6.0
.06
'1.6
None found
.02
226
KAIL.
It will be noticed that a large number of seams in the base showed
up in the drop tests of rail-bar i, made with 3-in. draft, in the earh
blooming passes. Rail-bar 2, with 1 .5-in. draft, also showed a large
number of seams, but not as many as rail-bar 1. One seam was opened
up in rail-bar 3, none in rail-bar 4 and one in rail-bar 5. The ingots of
these bars were bloomed in the early passes with .8, .5 and .4 in. draft, re-
spectively.
DUCTILITY IN DROP TEST.
As already stated the inch which stretched most at failure in the
drop test was taken as the measure of ductility of the piece of rail tested
20 40 60 80
Percent of weight /rom'Top of tngfot
Fig. 6 — Elongation in Drop Test in* Relation to Distance From Top
of Ingot.
DRAFT IN BLOOMING. 227
and the elongation results for the five rail bars are plotted in Fig. 6, the
elongation being represented vertically and the distance from the top of
the ingot in per cent, of the total weight being represented horizontally.
For each rail-bar one curve represents the results with the head in tension
and another curve represents the results with the base in tension. The
samples which showed laminations or pipes in their fractures are indi-
cated by an L, and those which showed up seams in the bottom of the
base after testing are indicated by an S. It will be noticed that the seams
were found mostly in rail-bars i and 2, and it is also interesting to note
that all the pieces that showed up seams were low in ductility with the
base in tension and almost all the cases of low ductility showed up seams.
With the head in tension also, the presence of a seam in the base low-
ered the ductility somewhat in most cases.
Fig. 7 is given as an interesting exhibit to show how a seam in the
base may be the initial point of a premature failure in the drop test.
Fig. 7 — Sample of Rail Tested With the Base in Tension in the
Drop Test, Showing How a Seam in the Base Was
the Origin of the Failure.
This is a view of the base of about 16 in. of test piece 1E4 of rail-bar 1,
showing a short distance either side of one of the supports, this piece
having been tested with the base in tension, that is, with the base on
the two supports, with a span of 3 ft. The piece broke on the first blow
from 20 ft. and the maximum stretch of the base under the place where
the tup struck the head was 2 per cent., but the fracture occurred about
5 in. from one of the supports. The support had a radius of 5 in. and
the bearing surface was straight transversely. The indentation made by
the support into the base is indicated more strongly by white chalk, show-
ing that the impression was greatest at the center and that the edges
of the flanges had "curled up" from the support when the load came on.
It will be noticed that the seam opened up, due undoubtedly to the com-
228 RAIL.
pression spreading the metal sideways. The seam opened up both sides
of the support and after running along for about 5 in. toward the other
support, the crack started out to the edge of the flange, resulting in a
fracture of the whole section. It will thus be seen that, although the rail
ivas tested primarily longitudinally as a beam, the transverse strains at
the support opened up a seam, followed by a failure long before the
longitudinal ductility was exhausted. In other words, this failure may
be said to be due to low transverse ductility in the bottom of the base.
INFLUENCE OF DRAFT IN BLOOMING ON DROP TEST
RESULTS.
The average results in the drop tests of the several rail-bars are col-
lected together in table 25, showing the deflection after the first blow
from 20 ft, the number of the blows that it took to break the rail, and
the elongation after breaking. The average head tension, the average
base tension and the general average results are given.
TABLE 25 — AVERAGE RESULTS IN DROP TEST.
Rail-bar number 1 2 3 4 5
Initial draft, ins 3.0 1.5 .8 .5 .4
Deflection, first blow —
Head tension 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.24 1.24
Base tension 1.16 1.18 1.18 1.17 1.16
Average 1.19 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.20
Number of blows, 20 ft. —
Head tension 2.4 2.9 3.2 2.4 3.0
Base tension 2.6 2.9 3.8 3.4 3.2
Average 2.5 2.9 3.5 2.9 3.1
Elongation —
Head tension 15.0 15.3 18.7 14.2 19.0
Base tension 8.5 8.4 12.4 11.9 10.6
Average 11.8 11.9 15.6 13. 1 14.8
The general average deflection and the general average number of
blows are plotted in Fig. 8 in relation to the initial draft in blooming.
On this figure are also plotted the elongation with the head in tension,
the base in tension and the general average elongation. Although this
does not show a regularity of relationship between the initial draft in
blooming and the results in the drop test, it indicates that the average
number of blows was somewhat less with the large drafts than with the
smaller ones. The ductility also was somewhat less with the large drafts.
A study of the individual results as plotted in Fig. 6 indicates that the
lower averages are due to the low results where seams showed up, mostly
with initial drafts of 1.5 and 3 in.
DRAFT IN BLOOMING.
229
TRANSVERSE TESTS OF BASE.
Transverse tests of the base were made of four pieces from each
rail, each piece being two feet long. The method of making the test
was to support the piece of rail on two supports placed oposite each
140
<0
1.20
V)
5?
s
1-00
4
3
2
1
0
20
5
]0
k i
<
<j>
"1
0
■■
' uey-ceczion
fvurnocr of a lows
it i j
, head tension
3
<-
•^^
^
i
r
/
"**H
, —
j
''ion
ens
Tin"
— — (
t
COi
ny
til
.5 i.o 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
InitiaL Draft- inches
Fig. 8 — Results of Drop Test in Relation to Amount of Initial
Draft in Blooming.
Fig. o — Method of Making Transverse Test of Base.
230
RAIL.
other near the edges of the llanges under the middle of its length. The
supports were 6 in. long and placed one-half inch in from the sides of
flanges, and the load was applied in the test-machine to the head of rail
at the middle. The general arrangement is shown in Fig. 9. These
tests were made in the 800,000-lb. test-machine of Lehigh University at
South Bethlehem, Pa., and Fig. 10 is given showing a piece of rail in
place in the machine ready for test. The load was measured that it took
to break the rail. The transverse elongation was measured by putting a
prick-punch mark on the center line of the base and then marking two one-
inch spaces on each side of this crosswise on the bottom of the base and
at the middle of the length of the piece tested. The greatest extension
Fig. 10 — Piece of Rail in Test-Machine Ready for Transverse Test
of Base.
after breaking in any one of the four spaces was taken as the measure
of transverse ductility. The sag of the unbroken flange was measured
and was taken as the distance from a straight edge laid on the bottom
of the base near the edge of the unbroken flange to the flange where
bent most from the straight surface of the base. Some of the pieces
showed dark seams in the bottom of base and their depths were measured.
A few samples of the various types of fracture are shown in Fig.
II, from which it will be noted that in some cases a short curved piece
broke out of the flange, while in other cases a long piece was broken out
DRAFT IN BLOOMING.
231
with a long, straight break at or near the middle of the riangt. A sample
of the seams found in some of the pieces is shown in Fig. 12.
The results of the transverse tests of the base are shown in tables
26 to 30, inclusive.
Fig. 11 — Samples of Rail After Making Transverse Test of Base.
Fig. 12 — Vertical Longitudinal Fracture of Flange, Showing Longi-
tudinal Seam in Bottom of Base.
232 RAIL.
Table 26 — Transverse Tests of Base, Rail-bar i, 3-inch Draft.
1
No.
Per cent,
from top
of ingot
Load,
pounds
Transverse
elongation,
per cent.
Sag,
inches
Depth
of seam,
inches
1A1
1 A3
1A6;
1A8]
7.G
10.9
15.9
19.2
261,900
217,000
238,800
218,400
2
0
1
0
.16
.06
.14
.06
.05
.03
IBl
1B3
1B6
1B8
24.2
27.4
32.5
35.7
233,500
259,300
273,400
213,150
1
2
3
0
.10
.16
.18
.06
slight
1C1
1C3
1C6
1C8
42.2
45.4
50.6
53.8
268,700
168,400
246,500
246,050
?
2
1
.14
.03
.01
.04
.05
L.D1
1 D3
1 D6
1 D8
60.4
63. G
68.8
72.0
237,250
122,300
255,000
246,200
2
0
1
1
.08
.02
.19
.10
.20 oblique
.06
1E1
1E3
1E6
1E8
76.8
81.9
87.0
90.2
201,000
93,700
268,000
137,500
1
0
2
0
.06
.03
.17
.01
.i2
.09
Average
220,303
1.1
.093
Table 27 — Transverse Tests of Base, Rail-bar 2, 1. 5-inch Draft.
No.
Per cent,
from top
of ingot
Load,
pounds
Transverse
elongation,
per cent.
Sag.
inches
Depth
of seam,
inches
2A 1
2A3
2A6
2A8
4.4
7.0
12.6
15.9
225,650
258.550
196,350
201,000
1
2
1
1
.06
.07
slight
.04
2B 1
2B3
2B6
2B8
21.8
25.0
30.0
33.2
158,800
260,350
210,100
271,500
1
2
1
2
.01
.16
.04
.16
slight
2C1
2C3
2C6
2C8
38.0
41.3
46.3
49.5
243,100
198,550
275,950
248,650
1
1
2
1
.09
.20
.07
.04
2D1
2D3
2D6
2D8
58.1
61.3
66.3
69.6
253,150
196,600
247,650
230,300
0
0
2
1
.02
.04
.12
.10
.03
.03
2E 1
2E3
2E6
2E8
77.0
80.2
85.2
88.4
86,000
141,350
218,300
220,300
0
1
1
1
.01
.02
.05
.07
.08
.06
Average
217,110
1.1
.079
DRAFT IN BLOOMING. 233
Table 28 — Transverse Tests of Base, Rail-bar 3, .8-inch Draft.
No.
Per cent,
from top
of ingot
Load,
pounds
Transverse
elongation,
per cent.
Sag,
inches
Depth
of seam,
inches
3A1
3A3
3A6
3A8
4.3
7.6
12.7
16.0
251,000
256,200
204,000
233,150
.12
.12
.08
.08
3B1
3B3
3B6
3B8
23.8
27.0
32.2
35.4
188,700
266,800
255,700
274,950
.04
.18
.12
.16
3C1
3C3
3C6
3C8
40.4
43.7
48.8
52.1
276,400
270,000
270,750
251,950
.16
.18
.15
3D1
3D3
3D6
3D8
59.3
62.5
67.7
71.0
203,000
241,600
268,000
264,250
.06
.12
.14
.14
3E 1
3E3
3E6
3E8
77.5
80.8
85.9
89.2
274.500
266,500
275,600
275,800
.16
.14
.16
.19
;;
Average
253.443
1.6
.132
Table 29 — Transverse Tests of Base, Rail-bar 4, . 5-inch Draft.
No.
Per cent,
from top
of ingot
Load,
pounds
Transverse
elongation,
per cent.
.Sag,
inches
Depth
of seam,
inches
4A1
4.3
266,000
9
.15
4A3
7.5
261,000
3
.14
4A6
12.6
252,050
2
.17
4A8
15.9
172,500
1
.03
slight
4B1
23.6
208,750
1
.04
.02
4B3
26.8
255,800
9
.14
4B6
32.0
258,200
2
.16
4B8
35.2
268.000
2
.18
4C1
40.2
266,850
2
.23
4C3
43.4
261,550
1
.14
4C6
48.5
239,050
1
.10
4C8
51.7
276,400
2
.16
4D1
58.4
(213,600)
(0)
(.05)'
4D3
61.6
(100,000)
(0)
(.02)*
4D6
66.7
143,600
1
.01
4D8
70.0
252,100
1
.12
4E1
75.6
272,350
2
.15
4E3
78.8
267,100
2
.14
4E6
83.9
279.600
2
.14
4E8
87.1
274,100
0
.02
Average
248,611
1.6
.123
•Base scabby in samples 4D1 and 4D3. Those results not included in average.
234 RAIL.
Table 30 — Transverse Tests of Base., Rail-bar 5, .4-iNCH Draft.
No.
Per cent.
from top
of ingot
Load,
pounds
Transverse
elongation,
per cent.
Sag,
inches
5A1
5A3
5A6
5A8
4.4
7.6
12.7
16.0
247,400
250,550
256,100
233,000
1
2
2
.14
.06
5B 1
5B3
5B6
5B8
23.1
26.4
31.4
34.8
264,900
249,450
272,450
260,950
1
2
3
2
.14
.14
.17
.15
5C1
5C3
5C6
5C8
39.6
43.0
48.0
51.3
247,300
236,000
261,250
274,800
1
1
2
1
.12
.13
.15
5D1
5D3.
5D6
5 D8
58.2
61.6
66.7
70.0
266,400
266,300
217,750
240,800
2
2
1
.14
.17
.07
•10-
5E1
5E3
5E6
5E8
77.3
80.6
85.7
89.0
260,950
267,100
274,750
245,900
2
2
3
2i
1.8
.16
18
.17
.14 J
.137
Average
254,705
Depth
of seam
inches
.03
slight
The results showing the breaking load are plotted in Fig. 13 for
each of the five rail-bars, the distance from the top of the ingot in per
cent, of the weight being shown horizontally and the breaking load, in
pounds, vertically. Each piece in which a seam was found in the bottom
of the base is indicated by an "s." The most noticeable feature is per-
haps the large number of seams found in rail-bars 1 and 2, with 3 in.
and 1.5 in., respectively, of initial draft. Rail-bar 3 with .8-in. draft
Showed no seams. Rail-bar 4 with .5-in. and rail-bar 5 with .4-in. draft
each showed two small seams. It will be noticed that the presence of
a seam was attended very largely with a low breaking load. The trans-
verse strength of the base was rather uneven along the bar, especially
in bars 1 and 2, although bar 5 showed some approach toward uniformity
along the bar. This irregularity appears to have been due mostly to
seams and partly, perhaps, to a condition that may be called "grain" in
a longitudinal direction. The seams had dark sides, evidently caused by
the action of the air on an open crack in hot metal, but occasionally por-
tions of a seam were found that were not discolored ; in other words,
there was a cleavage line that had not been exposed to the action of
the air.
Fig. 14 is given showing the sag of the unbroken flange along each
of the rail-bars in relation to the distance from the top of the ingot. In
a general way, the same remarks apply to those curves that were made
concerning the curves showing the breaking load.
Fig. 15 is given showing the breaking load and the sag of flange
plotted in relation to the depth of the seam. Rail-bar 3 showed no seams,
DRAFT IN BLOOMING.
235
and the average breaking load and average sag of rlange of this bar
were taken for plotting on the diagrams to represent metal without
seams. It will be noted that a seam decreased the transverse strength of
the base and also decreased the sag of flange still more rapidly. With
dOOpoc
\
y»=
r\
A
Z00,ooo
^
v-
N,
^-
y
y
/
"*
/
1
lOQooo
v5= seam
A/O J, 3" draft
5
5
s
300,ooo
it
i
l
A
s.
N,
200,ooo
<
A
hy
/
\
r
N
f
*N
v
^
v
;
*— •
s
N
V
5
\
/
=
A/o2. t-5"dratt
\
\ /
1
100,000
Sm 300,000
.
^ 200,000
1 WOfioo
\$ 300,000
*
Vo3, .8 "draft
*-*-
\l ZOOpoo
)00,ooo
300,000
4/04, .5 "draft
200poo
=
lOOpoo
tyo5, 4' 'draft
10 20 30 10 50 60 70 80 90 )00
Percent of Wetgttt /rem Top of Ingot
Fig. 13 — Breaking Load in Transverse Test of Base in Relation to
Distance From Top of Ingot.
a seam of .06, or 1-16 inch deep, the decrease in strength amounted to
about 25 per cent and the decrease of sag of flange amounted to about
75 per cent.
The average results of the several rail-bars are collected together in
table 31, showing the breaking load, the transverse elongation and the
sag of the unbroken flange.
23fi
RAIL.
TABLE 31 — AVERAGE RESULTS OF TRANSVERSE TESTS OF BASE.
Rail-bar
1 . . .
2
3 •■■
4 ••■
5 • ••
Initial
Transverse
Sag of
Draft,
Load,
Elongation,
Flange,
inches.
lbs.
per cent.
inches
3-0
220,303
1.1
•093
i-5
217,110
1.1
.079
o.S
253,443
1.6
.132
0.5
248,61 1
1.6
.123
0.4
25470S
1.8
•137
\
tr
h
in
\
j
\
j
I
\
/
A
•
\
/
1
/
r\
§s
0
b
s
s
s,
s»
s
►s
to
•^ PC)
■ A/o/- 3" draft
j
L
r
/
\
^JO
v
/
V
/
v
/
\
rs
^s. .IV
\
H.
/
\
/
•
V
s
/
?
\
^
x 0
^ .20
\
I
>
(
V
*
s
f^
^
A/a?- /■ 5" draft
K
L J
»—
^^
•
-v
\
V
K ,0
V
"V
y\
0s
**
Vo3-3"dra/t
^/O
CO
s
0
.20
A/o4-.5"draJt
A
r
•— .
\
.10
— *
\
/
W
v^
n
A/o5- .^" draft
/0 2<9 3(9 ^ 50 60 70 80 30 tOO
Percent of Weight /rem Top of Ingot
Fig. 14— Sag of Flange in Transverse Test of Base in Relation to
Distance From Top of Ingot.
DRAFT IN BLOOMING.
237
300/>oo
2 4 6 5 10 12
Depth of Seam-.o/ inch
Fig. 15— Breaking Load and Sag of Flange as Related to Depth of
Seam in Bottom of Base.
300c
1
3:
200,000
100,000
3
2
/
0
if)
.20
.15
.10
.05
0
♦^
Load
Trar?si/erse Eioffgatio/?
Sag 0/ FLange
.5 1.0 f.5 2.0 2.5 30
Initial Draft- inches
Fig. 16— Results of Tranverse Test of Base as Related to Amoun*
of Initial Draft in Blooming.
238 RAIL.
These results are plotted in Fig. 16 in relation to the amount of
initial draft in blooming. It will be noticed that the average results of
the bars made with 3-iM. and 1.5-iw. initial draft in blooming were lower
than of the bars made xvith .2>-in. or less draft , and this, as already ex-
plained appears to be due mostly to the large number of seams found in
the bars made with heavy draft.
SUMMARY.
1. An investigation was made concerning the influence on the fin-
ished rail of the amount of draft in rolling the ingot into a bloom, and
particularly with reference to the transverse ductility of the base and the
presence of seams. Five companion ingots of one heat of titanium treated
open-hearth steel were used and all handled in the same way, except that
the draft used in making the bloom from the ingot was varied from about
3 in. per pass in the initial passes down to about .4 in. per pass in the
early passes as the smallest rate of reduction used. These ingots were
rolled into rails and in addition another companion ingot of the same
heat was cooled and split open to note its interior condition as regards
cavities and to make a chemical survey.
2. This work was done at South Bethlehem, Pa., at the works of
the Bethlehem Steel Co. who kindly furnished the material and most of
the facilities for making the tests. The transverse tests of the base
mentioned later were made at South Bethlehem, Pa., at the Fritz
Laboratory of Lehigh University, who kindly furnished the use of their
800,000-lb. test machine and made the tests.
3. The ingot split open had a large tapering cavity or pipe in the
upper part of the ingot extending downward from the top to about 40
per cent, of the height, with a bridge across the cavity about 10 per cent,
from the top.
4. A chemical survey was made of this ingot by means of 15 sam-
ples from each of five vertical rows from one-half of the section face,
making a total of 75 samples from the ingot, minus the samples which
could not be taken on account of cavities. On each sample determina-
tions were made of carbon, phosphorus and sulphur and on some of them
of manganese and silicon also.
5. There was a little segregation of carbon, phosphorus and sulphur
around the pipe and a little negative segregation of carbon in the in-
terior and lower part of the ingot.
6. The rails were 100 lbs., of the A. R. A. type A section and were
cut up for drop tests (some with the head and some with the base in
tension) and transverse tests of the base.
7. The rail-bars made with 3-in. and 1.5-in. initial drafts in bloom-
ing showed up a considerable number of seams in the bottom of the base
in both the drop tests and the transverse tests of the base. The other
bars made with .8, .5 and .4-in., respectively of initial draft, each showed
a few small seams.
DRAFT IN BLOOMING. 239
8. An example is given of a piece of rail with a seam in the base
that was tested in the drop machine in the usual manner as a girder,
with the base in tension, and in which the longitudinal seam appeared to
be the point of origin of a failure before the longitudinal ductility was
exhausted. In brief, the explanation seems to be that the spread of the
metal at one of the supports opened up a seam, which crack then resulted
in a failure through the whole section, several inches from the support.
9. In the drop test the bars made with light initial draft in blooming
stood somewhat more blows and showed some greater ductility than
those made with heavy draft and this appeared to be due to the large
number of seams in the bars made with heavy draft.
10. Transverse tests of the base were made by supporting pieces of
rail 2 ft. long, on two supports placed opposite each other near the edges
of the flanges under the middle of the length of the piece tested. The
supports were 6 in. long and were placed V2. in. in from the sides of the
flanges. The load was applied in the test machine to the head of the rail
at the middle.
11. The average load required to break a rail thus tested and the
average transverse ductility was greater with the bars made with light
draft than with the bars made with heavy draft. This appeared to be due
again to the large number of seams found in the bars with heavy draft.
12. To sum up it may be said that rails made with initial drafts in
blooming of 3 in. and 1.5 in. contained a larger number and deeper
seams in the base than those made with .8 in. or less of initial draft.
This resulted in poorer results in the drop tests and transverse tests of
the base in the rails made with the heavier drafts. These results should
be considered only as indicative and final conclusions should be withheld
until sufficient work along this line has been done to warrant them.
COMPARISON OF BASIC AND ACID OPEN-HEARTH
RAILS, AND INFLUENCE OF REHEATING
COLD BLOOMS.
By M. H. Wickhorst, Engineer of Tests, Rail Committee.
This report covers an investigation concerning rails made of acid
open-hearth steel compared with those made of basic open-hearth steel
and concerning the influence on rails of reheating blooms that had been
allowed to become cold. Two ingots were taken from a regular rail heat
of basic open-hearth steel, one ingot bloomed and the hot bloom put
through a reheating furnace or given a "wash" heat and then rolled into
ioo-lb. rails. The other ingot was bloomed, the bloom allowed to become
cold, reheated the next day and then rolled into rails of the same section.
Two similar ingots were taken from a heat of acid open-hearth steel and
handled in the same manner as the two basic ingots. The rails were
then cut up for drop tests and transverse tests of the base, the purpose
of the work being primarily to compare the transverse properties of the
base. The work was done mostly at Steelton, Pa., at the works of the
Pennsylvania Steel Co., who kindly furnished the material and most of
the facilities for the investigation. The transverse tests of the base were
made at Baltimore, Md., at the laboratory of the Baltimore & Ohio R. R.,
who kindly made the tests, as the test machines at Steelton were not of
sufficient capacity for this work.
MANUFACTURE.
The acid and basic open-hearth processes are in a general way similar,
with the essential difference that in the basic process a large amount of
lime is used in the operation of melting down, which lime removes some of
the phosphorus contained in the furnace charge, whereas no lime is used
in the acid charge. This difference in process calls for a difference in
the material in the hearth of the furnace; in the acid hearth fire brick
of usual composition is used, whereas in the basic process the hearth
must be of magnesia or basic material. The ordinary fire brick high in
silica would be attacked by the lime charged in the basic process. In
Report No. 35, March, 1013.
241
242 RAIL.
i he acid process no phosphorus is removed, and the material charged to
the furnace must be low in phosphorus or the steel will be high in this
element, whereas in the basic process the raw material may be high in
phosphorus and the resulting steel low in phosphorus.
The basic steel used was heat 22,217, made January 8, 1913. Lump
limestone was charged to the furnace, then scrap steel, then liquid blast
furnace iron and the whole worked down with ore to about .20 per cent,
carbon (by fracture) and the phosphorus determined by a quick method.
The metal was tapped into the pouring ladle, liquid recarbonizing iron
being added at the same time, together with some cold 80 per cent, ferro-
manganese and 50 per cent, ferro-silicon.
The acid steel used was heat 14,061, made January 10, 1913. Scrap
steel and cold pig iron were charged into the furnace and worked down
with ore to the required carbon. The metal was tapped into the pouring
ladle, adding cold 80 per cent, ferro-manganese, 50 per cent, ferro-silicon
and a small amount of coke also into the ladle.
The mill record of the amounts of material used in these two heats
is shown in table 1. The amount of the coke used in the acid heat was
not recorded.
TABLE I — HEAT CHARGES.
Basic Heat Acid Heat
22,217. 14,061.
Liquid blast furnace iron 85,000 lbs.
Cold blast furnace iron 31,000 lbs.
Scrap steel 90.000 lbs. 89,000 lbs.
Ore 4,000 lbs. 2,000 lbs.
Limestone 20,700 lbs.
Recarbonizer, liquid iron 29,000 lbs.
Ferro-manganese, 80 per cent 1,500 lbs. 1,000 lbs.
Ferro-silicon, 50 per cent 100 lbs. 150 lbs.
The steel was poured into open-top iron molds, 18^x18^2 in. at the
bottom and tapered one inch in six feet. After stripping, the ingots were
placed into soaking pits and afterward rolled into blooms, 7-)4x9^ m.
Only small discards were made from the ends of the blooms. After
blooming, each bloom was cut into three parts, part I making the A rail,
part 2 making the B and C rails and part 3 making the D and E rails.
The three parts of one bloom from each heat were at once placed hot into
a reheating furnace, given a "wash" heat and then rolled into rails. The
three parts of the other bloom of each heat were allowed to become cold,
placed into the reheating furnace the next day and afterward rolled into
rails. The times of these various operations are shown in table 2.
ACID STEEL AND REHEATING BLOOMS.
243
TABLE 2 — TI.ME5 OF OPERATIONS.
Basic Heat 22,217.
Acid Heat 14,061.
Rail-bar number 1
Date Jan. 8
Time into soaking pit. . .12 :2op. m.
Time bloomed 2 139 p. m.
Date into reheating fur-
nace Jan. 8
Time into reheating fur-
nace 2 :4i p. m.
Time out of reheating
furnace 3:18 p.m.
2
3
4
Jan. 8
Jan. 10
Jan. 10
12 :20 p. m.
2:35 p.m.
2:35 p.m.
2 130 p. m.
4:27 p.m.
4:23 p. m.
Jan. g Jan. 10 Jan. 11
2 :30 p. m. 4 :30 p. m. 9 :40 a. m.
4:25 p.m. 4:54 p.m. 11:55 a.m.
Samples for analysis were taken from the head of the top end of
the D rail of each of the rail-bars, and the results of these analyses, to-
gether with the analyses of the ladle samples, are shown in table 3.
Acid Heat 14,061.
Ladle. 3 D 1. 3 D 4.
TABLE 3 — ANALYSES.
Basic Heat 22,217.
Ladle. 1 D 1. 2D 1
Carbon 67
Phosphorus 019
Sulphur 052
Manganese 73
Silicon 15
Copper
Nickel 53
Chromium 30
It will be noticed that in most cases the ladle sample and the corre-
sponding samples from the rails gave about the same results. In basic
heat 22,217, however, the carbon showed low in the ladle sample as com-
pared with the results from the rails the ladle sample showing .67 per
cent, carbon and the rails showing .72, per cent, carbon. It was desired to
have about the same carbon in the two heats, but, according to the above
results, the basic rails contained .09 per cent, more carbon than the
acid rails.
■73
■73
64
015
.018
.032
.064
.069
047
•75
■75
.70
• 15
•17
.14
14
.16
•52
.48
•54
•30
•30
17
64
•63
035
.030
056
•054
7i
•7i
10
.10
16
.18
42
•42
15
.07
RAILS.
The several ingots were rolled into 100-lb. rails of the A. R. R. type
A section (see Proceedings American Railway Engineering Association,
191 1, Vol. 12, part 2, page 143). The ingots, 18^2x18^2 in., were
bloomed in a three-high mill to 7^x9^ in. in eight passes and formed
into rails in 11 passes, making a total of 19 passes from the ingot to the
rail. The dimensions and other information concerning the blooming
passes are shown in Table 4.
244
RAIL.
TABLE 4 — BLOOMING PASSES.
Pass Radius on Area Reduction
Number Size In. Corner In. Sq. In. Per Cent.
Ingot i8V2xi8y2 2 338.8
1 i6y$xi8}i 2^ 290.9 14.1
2 i4M?xi8^ 2l/2 254.2 12.6
3 15^x14 2% 214.4 15.7
4 I3/4XI4 2% 181.2 15.5
5 11^x13^ I|4 143.4 20.8
6 8%xi3^ 1^4 113.9 20.6
7 ioMsx 9Ms 1 9i-S 19-6
8 73A* 9^ 1 69.9 23.7
The areas and reductions in each of the shaping passes are shown in
Table 5.
TABLE 5 — SHAPING PASSES.
Area Reduction Area Reduction
Number Sq. In. Per Cent. Number Sq. In. Per Cent.
1 60.66 13.17 7 22.88 17.75
2 50.94 16.02 8 18.48 19.23
3 43-55 I4-SO 9 1374 25.65
4 37.20 14.58 10 10.94 20.38
5 32.90 n.58 11 9-95 905
6 27.82 15.44
The first six shaping passes, which may be called roughing passes,
are shown in Fig 1, and the last five shaping passes, which may be called
finishing passes, are shown in Fig. 2.
The rail-bar from the basic ingot, the bloom of which was not al-
lowed to get cold, was called No. 1 ; that from the basic ingot, the bloom
of which was allowed to get cold, was called No. 2; the corresponding
acid rail-bars were called Nos. 3 and 4, respectively. The weights, in
pounds, of the bloom crops and the rails are shown in Table 6.
TABLE 6 — WEIGHTS OF CROPPINGS AND RAILS.
12 3 4
Bloom crop, top 135 162 89 86
A rail 1,204 M94 1.064 1,090
B rail 1,144 952 1,154 1.192
C rail 960 1,168 1,147 1,052
D rail 1,140 1,142 980 1,070
E rail 920 918 838 1,044
Bloom crop, bottom 120 115 120 193
Total ingot 5,623 5,651 5,392 5,727
The entire rail-bar of each of the ingots was used for drop tests and
transverse tests of the base, and was divided into units of one-half rail
ACID STEEL AND REHEATING BLOOMS.
245
length each. The pieces cut from each rail and the tests made are shown
in Table 7. The No. 10 piece was sometimes longer and sometimes
shorter than shown in the table, as the rails varied in length.
Not - 60-66 sq. in.
13m Reduction
No2 - 50-S4sq.in.
16-02 7c Reduction
Fig. 1 — Roughing Passes.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
TABLE 7 — TESTS FROM EACH RAIL.
2 ft. for transverse test of base.
4^2 ft. for drop test, with head in tension.
2 ft. for transverse test of base.
4J/2 ft. for drop test, with base in tension.
3l/2 ft. not used.
246
RAIL.
No.
6.
No.
7-
No.
8.
No.
9-
No.
io.
2 ft. for transverse test of base.
4l/2 ft. for drop test, with head in tension.
2 ft. for transverse test of base.
4J4 ft. for drop test, with base in tension.
3I/2 ft. not used.
The distance of each test piece from the top of the ingot, expressed
in pounds and in per cent of weight, is shown in Tables 8 to 11, inclusive.
This distance is figured to the middle of the test piece.
A/o7, 22-88.sq.in.. 17.757* Reduction
A/O 8- 1818 sq. in.
Z9-23 % Reduction
A/o.9-J374sq.in.
25-65 7o Redact ion
/Vo/0- /0-94Sq.in.
80-38 7o Reduction
J~]
A/0//- 9-95 syin
9-05 7c Reduction
Fig. 2 — Finishing Passes.
ACID STEEL AND REHEATING BLOOMS. 247
TABLts 8 — TEST PIECES RAIL-BAR I — DISTANCE FROM TOP OF INGOT.
Test Per Test Per Test Per
piece.
Lbs.
cent.
piece.
Lbs.
cent.
piece.
Lbs.
cent.
i A i
1 68
3-0
1 B
1
i,372
24.4
1 C 1
2,516
44-7
2
276
4-9
2
1,480
26.3
2
2,624
46.7
3
384
6.8
3
1,588
28.2
3
2,732
48.6
4
492
8-7
4
1,696
30.2
4
2,840
50.5
6
718
12.7
6
1,922
34-2
6
3,066
54-6
7
826
14.7
7
2,030
36.1
7
3,174
56.5
8
934
16.6
8
2,138
38.0
8
3,282
58.4
9
1,042
18.5
9
2,246
40.0
9
3,390
60.3
i D i
3,476
61.8
1 E
1
4,616
82.1
2
3,584
63.8
2
4,724
84.0
3
3,692
65-7
3
4,832
85-9
4
3,800
67.6
4
4,940
87.9
6
4,026
71.6
6
5,166
91.9
7
4,U4
73-5
7
5-274
93-8
8
4,242
75-4
8
5,382
95-8
9
4,350
77-4
9
TABLE 9 — TEST PIECES RAIL-BAR 2 — DISTANCE FROM TOP OF INGOT.
Test Per Test Per Test Per
piece. Lbs. cent. piece. Lbs. cent. piece.
2 A I 195 3.4 2 B 1 1,389 24.6 2 C
2 303 5-3 2 1,497 26.5
2 D
3
411
7-3
4
519
9.2
6
745
13.2
7
853
I5.I
8
961
17.0
9
1,069
18.9
1
3,509
62.1
2
3,6i7
64.0
3
3,725
659
4
3,833
67.8
6
4,059
71.8
7
4,167
73-7
8
4,275
75-6
9
4.383
77-5
3
1,605
28.4
4
1,713
30.2
6
i,939
34-3
7
2,047
36.2
8
2,155
38.1
9
2,263
40.0
1
4.651
82.3
2
4,759
84.2
3
4,867
86.1
4
4.975
88.0
6
5,201
92.0
7
5.309
94.0
8
5,417
95-9
9
Lbs.
cent.
1
2,341
41.4
2
2,449
43-3
3
2,559
45-2
4
2,665
47.2
6
2,891
5I.I
7
2,999
53-0
8
3.107
55-o
9
3.215
56.9
248
RAIL.
TABLE IO TEST PIECES RAIL-BAR 3 — DISTANCE FROM TOP OF INGOT.
Test Per
piece. Lbs. cent.
3 A 1 122 2.3
2 230 4.3
3 338 6.3
4 446 8.3
6 672 12.4
7 780 14.5
8 888 16.5
9 996 18.5
3 D 1 3,587 64.7
2 3,595 66.7
3 3,703 68.7
4 3,8n 70.7
6 4,037 74.9
7 4,145 76.9
8 4,253 78.9
9 4,361 81.0
Test Per
piece. Lbs. cent.
3 B 1 1,186 22.0
2 1,294 24.0
3 1,402 26.0
4 1,510 28.0
6 1,736 32.2
7 1,844 34.2
8 1,952 36.2
9 2,060 38.2
3 E 1 4,467 83.0
2 4,575 85.0
3 4.683 87.0
4 4,791 89.0
6 5,017 93.2
7 5,125 95.1
8 5,233 97-0
9
Test Per
piece. Lbs. cent.
3 C 1 2,340 43.5
2 2,448 45.5
3 2,556 47-5
4 2,664 49-5
6 2,890 53.6
7 2,998 55-6
8 3,106 57.6
9 3,214 59.6
TABLE II — TEST PIECES RAIL-BAR 4 — DISTANCE FROM TOP OF INGOT.
Test Per
piece. Lbs. cent.
4 C 1 2,401 42.0
2 2,509 43.9
3 2,617 45-7
4 2,725 47.6
6 2,951 51.5
7 3,059 53-4
8 3,167 55-3
9 3.275 57-2
Test
Per
Test
Per
piece.
Lbs.
cent.
piece.
Lbs.
cent.
4 A 1
119
2.1
4 B 1
1,209
21. 1
2
227
4.0
2
i,3i7
23-0
3
335
5-8
3
1,425
24.9
4
443
7-7
4
1,533
26.8
6
669
10.7
6
i,759
30.7
7
777
13.6
7
1,867
32.6
8
885
15.5
8
i,975
345
9
993
17.4
9
2,083
36.4
4 D 1
3,453
60.3
4 E 1
4,523
79-0
2
3,56i
62.2
2
4,631
80.9
3
3.669
64.1
3
4,739
82.8
4
3,777
66.0
4
4.847
84.6
6
4.003
69.9
6
5,073
88.6
7
4,111
71.8
7
5,i8i
90.5
8
4,219
73-7
8
5.289
92-4
9
4.327
75-5
9
5,397
94.2
ACID STEEL AND REHEATING BLOOMS
249
DROP TESTS.
Four drop tests were made of each rail, two with the head in tension
and two with the base in tension. The tup was 2,000 lbs., the height of
drop was 20 ft., the centers of the supports were 3 ft. apart and the anvil
was 20,000 lbs., spring supported. The striking surface of the tup and the
bearing surfaces of the supports had radii of 5 in. The deflection in
inches was measured after the first blow and was taken as the distance
between a 3-ft. straight-edge and the part of the rail where struck by
the tup. Gage marks one inch apart were put lengthwise on the side in
tension, about the middle of the test piece, for a distance of 6 in., and the
increase in length of the space which stretched most at failure was taken
as the measure of the ductility of the rail. The results of the drop tests
are shown in tables 12 to 15, inclusive.
TABLE 12 — DROP TESTS RAIL-BAR I, BASIC STEEL, HOT BLOOM REHEATED.
No.
A 2
A 7
B 2
B 7
C 2
C7
D 2
D 7
E 2
E7
Average
A 4
Ao
B4
Bo
C 4
Co
D4
Do
E4
Eo
Per cent.
Elonga-
from top
Part in
Deflection,
No. of
tion,
of ingot.
tension.
first blow.
blows.
per cent
4-9
Head
.98
2
8s
14-7
"
1
6
26.3
u
■90
2
8
36.1
"
.91
3
14
46.7
K
•97
3
16
56.5
it
•95
4
14
63.8
It
•95
3
17
73-5
"
•94
3
14
84.0
"
•97
3
16
93-8
1. 00
3
14
95
2-7
1
12.7
4
8-7
Base
18.5
"
1
3S
30.2
"
1
5
40.0
u
89
5
10
50.5
"
.86
5
10
60.3
"
•9i
4
8
67.6
"
.90
5
13
77-4
<<
■94
5
11
87.9
u
1. 00
4
11
Average 92 3.4 8.3
General average 94 3.1 10.5
s means seam in bottom of base.
250
RAIL.
TABLE 13 — DROP TESTS RAIL-BAR 2, BASIC STEEL, COLD BLOOM REHEATED.
Per cent.
•
Elonga-
from top
Part in
Deflection, ■
No. of
tion,
No.
of ingot.
tension.
first blow.
blows.
per cent.
2 A 2
5-3
Head
•95
3
15
2 A 7
iS-i
"
•95
2
11
2 B 2
26.5
"
•95
3
15
2 B 7
36.2
"
•9i
4
18
2 C 2
43-3
"
•9i
4
17
2 C 7
53-0
"
•95
3
I2S
2 D 2
64.0
.98
4
16
2 D 7
737
"
.98
3
16
2 E 2
84.2
"
.96
4
16
2 E 7
94.0
1.08
4
13
Average
96
3-4
14.9
2 A 4
9.2
Base
1
4
2 A 0
18.9
"
.83
4
9
2 B 4
30.2
u
.88
5
15
2 B 9
40.0
"
•95
5
10
2 C 4
47.2
"
.83
6
14
2 C 9
56.9
a
.82
4
9
2 D 4
67.8
"
•95
5
12
2 D 9
77-5
"
.90
6
13
2 E 4
88.0
"
•9i
5
9
2 E 9
Ave
:rage
Avei
.88
4.6
4.0
10.6
General
■age
92
12.7
s means seam in bottom of base.
ACID STEEL AND REHEATING BLOOMS
251
TABLE 14 — DROP TESTS RAIL-BAR 3, ACID STEEL, HOT BLOOM REHEATED.
Per cent.
Elonga-
from top
Part in
Deflection,
No. of
tion,
No.
of ingot.
tension.
first blow.
blows.
per cent.
3 A 2
4-3
Head
1.08
3
17
3 A 7
14-5
"
1. 10
4
21
3 B 2
24.0
"
1. 16
3
17
3 B 7
34-2
a
1. 12
4
19
3 C 2
45-5
ii
1. 18
5
21
3 C 7
55-6
"
1. 19
4
24
3 D 2
66.7
"
1. 17
4
21
3 D 7
76.9
"
1.20
3
11
3 E 2
85.0
"
115
. 4
16
3 E 7
95-i
1. 14
4
21
Average
.... 1. 15
3-8
18.8
3 A 4
8-3
Base
1. 10
4
10
3 A 9
18.5
"
1.05
4
11
3 B 4
28.0
"
1.09
5
12
3 B 9
38.2
"
1.09
5
13
3 C 4
49-5
"
1. 11
5
15
3 C 9
59-6
"
1. 10
5
11
3 D 4
70.7
"
1.08
5
12
3 D 9
81.0
"
1.08
4
11
3 E 4
89.0
"
1.08
4
10
3 E 9
Average
4.6
11.7
General
4-2
15-2
252 RAIL.
TABLE 15 — DROP TESTS RAIL-BAR 4, ACID STEEL, COLD BLOOM REHEATED.
Per cent.
Elonga-
from top
Part in
Deflection,
No. of
tion,
No.
of ingot.
tension.
first blow.
blows.
per cent
4 A 2
4.0
Head
1.20
4
24 L
4 A 7
13.6
u
LIS
4
20
4 B 2
23.0
"
1. 21
2
I OS
4 B 7
32.6
"
1.23
4
23
4 C 2
43-9
"
1.23
3
16s
4 C 7
53-4
II
1. 19
4
14
4 D 2
62.2
"
I-I5
5
23
4 D 7
71.8
"
1.22
4
22
4 E 2
80.9
ii
1. 14
4
19
4 E 7
90.5
it
MS
5
20
Average
.... 1. 19
3-9
19.1
4 A 4
77
Base
I.2I
5
16
4 A 9
17-4
"
1. 19
5
12
4 B 4
26.8
"
I. II
5
12
4 B 9
36.4
"
1. 12
4
15
4 C 4
47-6
"
iiS
4
. .s
4 C 9
57-2
a
1. 10
2
8s
4 D 4
66.0
a
1.08
5
13
4 D 9
75-5
"
1. 14
4
IIS
4 E 4
84.6
i<
1. 18
4
IIS
4 E 9
94.2
"
1. 15
2
5s
Average 1.14 4.0 11. 4
General Average 1.17 4.0 15.3
L means interior lamination, s means seam in bottom of base.
Some seams in the base were developed in the drop test and these
are listed in table 16.
TABLE
l6 — SEAMS IN
Per cent.
BASE FOUND
Depth
IN DROP TEST.
Rail-
Test
from top
of seam,
bar.
number.
of ingot.
inches.
Remark.
1
1 A 2
4-9
small
Basic steel, hot bloom.
1
1A9
18.5
•03
« 11 11 11
2
2C7
53-0
small
Basic steel, cold bloom.
3
none found
Acid steel, hot bloom.
4
4B2
23.0
•14
Acid steel, cold bloom.
4
4C2
43-9
•03
11 11 11 11
4
4C4
47-6
.06
" " ■' "
4
4C9
57-2
.08
" '• " "
4
4D9
75-5
.06
ii .. << 11
4
4E4
84.6
.12
11 M 11 11
4
4E9
94.2
•03
" " " "
ACID STEEL AND REHEATING BLOOMS 253
The average results of the drop tests for each of the rail-bars are
collected together in table 17, showing the deflection after the first blow
from 20 ft., the number of blows that it took to break the rail and the
elongation measured after breaking.
TABLE 17 — AVERAGE RESULTS IN DROP TEST.
Basic Steel. Acid Steel.
Hot Cold Hot Cold
Bloom. Bloom. Bloom. Bloom.
Rail-bar number 1 2 3 4
Carbon, per cent 73 -73 -°4 -°3
Deflection, first blow, 20 ft. —
Head tension 95 -96 LIS IA9
Base tension 92 .88 1.09 1.14
Average 94 -92 :-i2 1.17
Number of blows —
Head tension 2.7 3.4 3.8 3.9
Base tension 3.4 4.6 4.6 4.0
Average 3.1 40 4-2 40
Elongation, per cent. —
Head tension 12.7 14.9 18.8 19.1
Base tension 8.3 10.6 11.7 11.4
Average 10.5 12.7 15.2 15.3
This work had reference particularly to the transverse ductility of
the base of rail as regards acid steel compared with basic steel and as
regards the effect of allowing blooms to become cold and then reheating
them. It was desired to have the basic and acid steels of the same grade
of hardness, but it turned out that the acid rails were softer than the
basic, as shown by the carbon and the deflection given in the table. The
acid rails showed more longitudinal ductility than the basic rails, but the
difference was evidently due, in part at least, to the acid steel being
softer. The largest number and deepest seams in the bottom of the base
were found in the acid rails made from the reheated cold blooms.
Comparing the rails made from blooms that had been allowed to become
cold and then reheated with those that had been rolled from hot blooms
wash-heated directly after rolling into blooms, it will be noticed that, in
the case of the basic rails, those from the reheated cold blooms stood
more blows and gave greater elongation than those from the reheated
hot blooms. The difference seems to have been largely in the samples
from the upper third of the ingot. In the case of the acid rails the re-
sults averaged about the same. The rails from the reheated cold blooms
showed a good many seams in the base, especially those from the lower
part of the ingot, tested with the base in tension.
The elongation results of the four rail-bars are plotted in Fig. 3, the
elongation being shown vertically and the distance from the top of the
ingot in per cent, of the total weight being shown horizontally. For each
254
RAIL.
rail-bar one curve represents the results with the head in tension and
another curve represents the results with the base in tension. The samples
in which seams in the base were developed by the test are each indicated
by an "s," and it will be noted that these samples were mostly of low
ductilitv.
15
10
20
5
.^ 15
X, 10
head tension. —-base tension, s-seam in base.
L- interior Lamination.
>
JO-
^r:
-o-
-o
g
s'
"w*l
Y
o
-o
s
Wo/, Basic Steei, Hot BLoom
^
S
'*=■
^s
,o-
— ■
-o-
.-c>
^'
JO
r>-
o
No 2, Basic St eeL, Cotd BLocm
•"'
~"~-~
**"«
>-~
0—
A/a 3, Acid SteeL, Hot BLocm
L»
-
o-
\
.__-
■of
''~'
vv
SjS
">
«.x
^
p..
s
D —
s
--<
I
s
s
N?
%¥, Acid Steel, CoLd Btoorn
Fig.
25
20
15
10
5
0
25
zu
15
10
S
10 20 30 ^0 50 60 70 80 90 ZOO
Percent of Weight from Top of /ngot
3 — Elongation in Drop Test in Relation to Distance from Top of
Ingot.
While a definite conclusion is not possible from these feiv tests, the
result is indicated that basic and acid open-hearth steels of tlie same
grade of hardness give about the same results in the drop test. The
result is also indicated that rails rolled from blooms allozvcd to become
cold and reheated give about the same results, in the drop test as rails
rolled from blooms zcasli-hcated directly after rolling into blooms from
the ingot.
ACID STEEL AND REHEATL\<i BLOOMS.
255
As interesting in this connection, I give some illustrations showing
how a longitudinal seam in the bottom of the base may be the origin of
a failure in the drop test before the longitudinal ductility of the rail is
-To other support
Support
Fig. 4 — Sample of Rail Tested with tiie Base in Tension in the Drop
Test, Showing How a Seam in the Base Was the Origin of a Failure.
I
Fig. 5 — Side View of Rail Shown in Fig. 4.
Struck 6r tup
Fig. 6 — View of Base of Rail Tested with the Head in Tension in the
Drop Test, Showing How a Seam in the Base Opened
Where Struck by the Tup, Splitting the Base.
exhausted. Fig. 4 shows the base of broken test piece 1 A 9, which was
tested with the base in tension. The impression left on the base by the
support was chalked to show up better in the picture. It will be noted
256
RAIL.
that the pressure of the rail on the support caused some side spread of
the base at this place, which in turn opened up two seams. A piece of
the flange broke and a fracture occurred through the whole section 3J/2
struck br iu-P
29V
Fig. 7 — Side View of Rail Shown in Fig. 6.
in. from the support, evidently as a secondary break. Fig. 5 shows a
side view of the break through the section.
Fig. 6 shows the base of test piece 4 B 2, which was tested with the
head in tension ; that is, the head rested on the supports and the tup
struck the base at about the middle of the piece. Here again it is seen
that the indentation made by the tup spread the metal sideways, opening
up a seam and causing the rail to split along the middle of the base. Fig.
Fig. 8 — Method of Making Transverse Test of the Base.
7 gives a side view of this rail after breaking. This failure evidently
proceeded downward from the top side and not upward from the tension
side.
ACID STEEL AND REHEATING BLOOMS 257
TRANSVERSE TESTS OF BASE.
Transverse tests of the base were made of four pieces from each
rail, each piece being two feet long. The method of making the test was
to support the piece of rail on two supports placed opposite each other
near the edges of the flanges under the middle of its length. The supports
were six inches long and placed one-half inch in from the sides of the
flanges and the load was applied in the test machine to the head of the
rail at the middle. The general arrangement is shown by Fig. 8. These
tests were made by the B. & O. R. R. in the laboratory at Baltimore. The
load was measured that it took to break the rail. The transverse elonga-
tion was measured by putting a prick-punch mark on the center line of
the base and then marking two one-inch spaces on each side of this cross-
wise on the bottom of the base and at the middle of the length of the
Fig. 9 — Samples of Rail After Making Transverse Test of Base.
piece tested. The greatest extension after breaking, in any one of the
four spaces, was taken as the measure of transverse ductility. The sag
of the unbroken flange was measured and was taken as the distance from
a straight-edge laid on the bottom of the base near the edge of the un-
broken flange to the flange where bent most from the straight surface of
the base. Some of the pieces showed seams (mostly dark) in the bottom
of the base and their depths were measured. The distance of the break
from the center line of the base was measured and whether above or
below the center of the base as rolled was noted. In the tables of results
"a" means above and "b" means below.
A few samples of the various types of fracture are shown in Fig. 9,
from which it will be noted that in some cases a short curved piece broke
out of the flange, while in other cases a long piece was broken out with
258
WAIL.
a long straight break at or near the middle of the base. A sample of the
seams found in some of the pieces is shown in Fig. 10.
The results of the transverse tests of the base are shown in tables
18 to 21, inclusive.
Fig. io — Vertical Longitudinal Fracture of Flange, Showing Longi-
tudinal Seam in Bottom of Base.
TABLE l8 — TRANSVERSE TESTS RAIL-BAR I, BASIC! STEEL, HOT BLOOM REHEATED.
Break
Per cent.
Transverse
Depth
from
from top
Load,
elongation,
Sag,
of seam,
center
No.
of ingot.
pounds.
per cent.
inches.
inches.
inches
i A I
3-0
i86,3oo
0
.o3a
i A3
6.8
i85,3oo
0
•03
.04
.22b
i A6
12.7
140,400
0
.01
•03
.50b
i A8
16.6
i39,8oo
1
.02
.08b
i B i
24.4
234,4CO
1
.06
.80b
i B3
28.2
233,200
1
.07
.08b
i B6
34-2
249,000
1
.06
.02b
i B 8
38.0
200,900
1
.02
.26a
i C i
447
224,300
2
•03
.10a
i c3
48.6
175,000
0
.04
•03
.16a
i C 6
54-6
295.300
2
.12
.60a
i C 8
58.4
283,200
2
.10
.06b
i D i
61.8
254,600
2
.08
•38a
i D3
657
215,600
1
•03
•S4b
i D6
71.6
256,000
2
•05
.62b
i D 8
75-4
248,500
1
•05
.25a
i E i
82.1
201,200
1
•03
.04
.12a
i E3
85-9
282,000
2
•14
.08a
i E6
91.9
297,000
3
•17
73a
i E8
95-8
286,000
2
.12
.52b
Ave
raee
. . 22Q.4O0
1.-?
.06 e,
ACID STEEL AND REHEATING BLOOMS.
259
TABLE 19 — TRANSVERSE TESTS RAIL-BAR 2, BASIC STEEL, COLD BLOOM REHEATEJi
Break
Percent.
Transverse
Depth
from
from top
Load,
elongation,
Sag,
of seam,
center
No.
of ingot.
pounds.
per cent.
inches.
inches.
inches
2 A 1
3-4
235.200
1
•04
.16a
2 A 3
7-3
180,200
1
.02
.60b
2 A 6
13.2
171,000
1
.02
04
.18b
> A 8
17.0
149,400
0
.02
25a
2 B 1
24.6
271,400
2
.08
1. 00b
2 B 3
284
165,800
0
■03
.04
.16b
2 B 6
34-3
167,400
0
.02
.04
.20a
2 B 8
38.r
216,100
1
.04
.16a
2 C 1
41.4
209,000
1
.00
.48a
2C3
45-2
269,200
2
.08
.06a
2 C 6
5ii
200,800
1
■03
.03
.12a
2 C 8
55-0
150,700
1
.00
■03
•34a
2 D 1
62.1
276,500
2
.06
1.10a
2 D 3
65-9
231,000
1
.07
■35a
2 D 6
71.8
246,900
1
.06
.18a
2 D 8
75-6
252,600
1
•03
•30a
2 E 1
82.3
260,000
1
.05
.24a
2 E 3
86.1
245.700
2
.06
•50b
2 E 6
92.0
301,600
3
.20
.64a
2 E 8
950
ge
296,600
2
1:2
15
058
.66b
A vera
■ • • 224,855
2.60
RAIL
TABLE 20 — TRANSVERSE TESTS RAIL-BAR 3, ACID STEEL, HOT BLOOM REHEATED-
Break
Percent.
Transverse
Depth
from
from top
Load,
elongation.
Sag.
of seam,
center
No.
of ingot.
pounds.
per cent.
inches.
inches.
inches
J A j
2.3
243,600
2
.10
.92a
3 A 3
0-3
222,700
1
.08
.64b
,|A6
12.4
242,100
2
■07
.96b
3 A 8
16.5
213,400
1
.04
03I)
3 B 1
22.0
225,000
1
.oy
34a
3 B 3
26.O
263,000
2
.14
.00
3B6
32.2
242,700
2
.00
.14L.
3 B 8
36.2
242,100
2
.12
1.25a
3 C 1
43-5
175,800
0
•03
52a
3 C 3
47-5
266,100
2
.11
■58b
3 C6
53-6
239,600
2
.10
1 .22a
3 C8
57-6
193,600
1
.04
.96b
3D 1
64.7
255,200
3
.16
40a
3D3
68.7
224,700
1
.06
46a
3D6
74-9
244,800
1
■15
.26b
3 D 8
78.9
236,000
2
.06
1.15a
3 E 1
83.0
158,200
1
.Ol
.06
.00
3 E 3
87.0
268,600
_'
•13
.40a
3 E6
93-2
206,000
1
.08
1.04b
3E8
97.0
-aee
185,300
1
.02
.08 X
04
.16b
Avei
. .227.4';';
ACID STEEL AND REHEATING BLOOMS
261
TABLE 21 — TRANSVERSE TESTS RAIL-BAR 4, ACID STEEL, COLD BLOOM REHEATED.
Break
Transverse Depth from
elongation. Sag, of seam, center,
per cent, inches. inches. inches.
2 .06 ... .70a
1 .03 ... .84a
1 .07 .66a
r.i2a
No.
4 A 1
4 A 3
4 A6
4 A8
4 B 1
4 B 3
4 B 6
4 B8
4 C 1
4 C 3
4C6
4 C8
4 D 1
4D3
4D6
4 D8
4 E 1
4E3
4 E6
4 E 8
Per cent,
from top
of ingot.
2.1
5-8
10.7
15-5
21. 1
24.9
30.7
34-5
42.0
45-7
5i-5
55-3
60.3
64.1
69.9
73-7
79.0
82.8
88.6
92.4
Load,
pounds.
239,100
197,200
224,000
218,500
157,300
256,600
230,400
274,100
208,000
218,900
177,100
209,000
191,800
159,600
72,700
172,300
264,300
106,800
205,300
216,500
Sag,
inches.
.06
•03
.07
.04
•03
.10
.04
.22
.08
.07
.04
■IS
.06
.00
■05
.05
• 15
.04
•05
.07
04
02
06
08
1.10a
.76a
•50a
.60a
.42b
.16b
.20b
.25b
.12b
•54b
1.12a
•50
.16a
.16a
.74a
.08a
Average 204,475
.070
The average results in the transverse tests of the base are collected
together in table 22, showing the breaking load, the transverse elongation
and the sag of flange.
TABLE 22 — AVERAGE RESULTS IN TRANSVERSE TESTS OF BASE.
Basic Steel. Acid Steel.
Hot Bloom. Cold Bloom. Hot Bloom. Cold Bloom.
Load, lbs 229,400 224,855 227,455 204,475
Elongation, per cent. 1.3 1.2 1.5 1.2
Sag of flange, inches .065 .058 .083 .070
Comparing the rails made direct from the wash-heated blooms with
those from the reheated cold blooms, it will be noted that the breaking
load and the ductility were a little greater in the rails rolled direct from
the wash-heated blooms.
262
RAIL.
The results showing the breaking load are plotted in Fig. n for each
of the rail-bars, the distance from the top of the ingot in per cent, of
the weight being shown horizontally and the breaking load in pounds,
vertically. Each piece in which a seam was found in the bottom of the
base is indicated by an "s." It will be noted that the breaking load was
rather irregular along the bar and that in most cases where a seam was
found the load was low.
The results showing the sag of ilange are plotted in Fig. 12 for each
of the rail-bars in a manner similar to the breaking load results. Here
again we see considerable irregularity of the results along the bar.
300,000
200,000
lOO.ooo
300,ooo
J? 200,ooo
(^ 100,000.
1 300,000
§ 200,000
lOO.ooo
300,000
200,ooo
lOO.ooo
/0 20 30 40 50 60 7~0 80 90 /OO
Percent of Weight from Top of Ingot
Fig. 11 — Breaking Load in Transverse Test of Base in Relation to
Distance from Top of Ingot.
5 = seam in base
s
s
Hoi, Basic SteeL, ftotBCoom
' —
-'^
*s
5
V
s,
I
fto2, Basic St eeL,Cotd BLoom
'
3¥
6
Ato 3, Acid SteeL, Hot BL 00m
\
•
5
S
s\»
sf
1
Mo 4, Acid Stee L, \ ICoCdBLoom
• To show up the effect of a scam on the breaking load and the sag
of the flange, Fig. 13 is given, in which the depth of seam is plotted
horizontally and the load and sag of flange, vertically. It will be noted
that a seam of say .06 or 1-16 inch deep was attended with a decrease in
transverse strength of about 35 per cent, and a decrease of sag of flange
of about 75 per cent.
Fig. 14 is given to show the location on the base of rail, of the frac-
ture in the transverse test of the base, and particularly its distance from
ACID STEEL AND REHEATING BLOOMS
26f
,20
B^ .10
JO
% 0
to
20
20
.10
No I Basic Steel, HotBLoom
*1
s= seam in ba j^ f
' / A. 1 /'
*
sLk
i
NH — f^ "~"~i
^oe, Basic 5teeL,CcLct3toom \
1
k
*
■^,
7
X
iV"
. 2..
..
:
sy
; i i
*
(\'c 3, Acid SteeL,
he i . BLoom
1 A \
A
kJd 7\ A
iN X 1
w / \ /
Vf \
....
r
Vi i i"i
si
»s
Mo 4, \\Acid ' Steei,CoLdBLoom
\
A
v
\s I sj ;
/
\
„ '
Is
1 \*r
s
/0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 IOC
Percent aj- Weight from Top of Ingot
Fig. 12 — Sag of Flange in Transverse Test of Base in Relation to
Distance from Top of Ingot.
300,c
\1
200,ooc
!00,ooo
ooo
.10"
1
A
1
1
•
L_3
•
i
i
1
1
~7^
"
^,J
1
'
-2
-3
- -
,
1
-?
i
>
.01
Fig.
.02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08
Deptn of Seam -inches
13 — Breaking Load and Sag of Flange in Transverse Test of Base
in Relation to Depth of Seam.
::.;i RAIL
the center line of the base. The figure gives a diagram for each rail-bar
and in general it may be said that the fractures occurred irregularly
either side of the center line of the base and at varying distances from
tbe center.
SUMMARY.
k An investigation was made comparing rails made of acid open-
hearth steel with rails made of basic open-hearth steel and also concerning
the influence on rails of reheating blooms that had been allowed to be-
come cold. Two ingots were taken of a regular rail heat of basic open-
hearth steel, one ingot bloomed and the -hot bloom put through a reheating
A/o J, Basic Steei, Hot BLoom
5 = seam in base
'A/08. Basic Steel, Cold BLoom
s «
A/o 3, Actd Steel, Hot BLoom
A/o 4, Acid SteeL, Cold BLoom
100
Percent of Weight from Top of Ingot
Fig. 14 — Locations of Breaks in Transverse Test of Base.
furnace or given a "wash" heat and then rolled into 100-lb. rails. The
other ingot was bloomed, the bloom allowed to become cold, reheated the
next day and then rolled into rails of the same section. Two similar
ingots were taken from a heat of acid open-hearth steel and handled' in
the same manner as the basic ingots. The rails were then cut up for
drop tests and transverse tests of the base, the purpose of the work being
primarily to compare the transverse properties of the base.
2. The work was done mostly at Steelton, Pa., at the works of the
Pennsylvania Steel Co., who kindly furnished the material and most of
the facilities for the investigation. The transverse tests of the base were
ACID STEEL AND REHEATING BLOOMS. 266
made at Baltimore, Md., at the laboratory of the Baltimore & Ohio R. R.,
who kindly made the tests, as the test machines at Steelton were not of
sufficient capacity for this work.
3. It was desired to have the basic and acid steel of the same cuui
position, but the final results showed the basic rails to contain .73 per
cent, carbon and the acid rails to contain .64 per cent, carbon, or .09
per cent, more in the basic rails.
4. In the drop test, the acid rails showed more longitudinal ductility
than the basic rails, but the difference was evidently due, in part at least,
to the acid steel being softer.
5. Rails rolled from blooms allowed to become cold and reheated
gave about the same results in the drop test as rails rolled from blooms
wash-heated directly after rolling into blooms from the ingot.
6. An example is given of a piece of rail with a seam in the base
that was tested in the drop machine in the usual manner as a girder with
the base in tension, and in which the longitudinal seam was evidently the
origin of a failure before the longitudinal ductility was exhausted. In
brief, the explanation seems to be that the cross-spread of the metal at
one of the supports opened up a seam, which crack then resulted in a
failure through the whole section, several inches from the support. An
example is also given of a rail tested with the head in tension, where a
longitudinal seam in the base appeared to be the origin of the failure, due
to the cross-spread of the base where struck by the tup opening up a
seam at this point.
7. Transverse tests of the base were made by supporting pieces of
rail 2 ft. long on two supports placed opposite each other near the edges
of the flanges under the middle of the length of the piece tested. The
supports were six inches long and were placed one-half inch in from the
sides of the flanges. The load was applied in the test machine to the
head of the rail at the middle.
8. In the transverse test of the base the basic and acid rails gave
about the same results. Rails rolled from wash-heated hot blooms gave
a little greater ductility and breaking load than the rails from reheated
cold blooms and more base seams were found in the rails from reheated
cold blooms.
9. In the transverse test of the base the presence of a longitudinal
seam in the base of 1-16 inch deep was attended with a reduction of about
35 per cent, in the breaking load and about 75 per cent, in the sag of the
flange when broken.
10. Finally it may be said that this investigation was not extensive
enough to show up small differences, but in a general way rails from
basic open-hearth steel and from acid open-hearth steel gave about the
same results in the drop test and the transverse test of the base. Also
!'ails from reheated cold blooms grave about the same results as rails from
\ash-heated hot blooms.
INFLUENCE OF SEAMS OR LAMINATIONS IN BASE
OF RAIL ON DUCTILITY OF METAL
(Second Paper)
INCLUDING
A STUDY OF DIFFERENT RAIL BASES
By H. B. MacFarland, Engineer of Tests,
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System.
In Report No. 27 of July, 1912, to the Rail Committee of the Ameri-
can Railway Engineering Association,* it was shown that the influence of
seams or laminations in the bases of rails was a most important factor
in rail failures.
It was shown that the presence of seams in rails as rolled had a
decided weakening effect on the strength of the base. Data were not
produced, however, to show what physical properties of the steel were
changed on account of seams or laminations in the rail.
As a result of the information obtained in the preliminary investiga-
tion and the discussions following the publication of the above mentioned
Bulletin, the investigation along lines suggested from analysis of results
obtained was continued in order to establish more definite data on the
subject.
The specimens for previous test were invariably subjected tc trans-
verse tests, which involve tension in one part of the section and com-
pression in the other. Inasmuch as there is more data available, rela-
tive to physical qualities of metal under tension than under compression,
it was thought advisable to secure complete data as to the strength and
ductility of the base of the rail under tension and from this data to
determine whether there is not a considerable decrease in the ductility
of the metal due to laminations contained therein.
Particular consideration was given to developing information with
the following objects in view:
•Bulletin Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. No. 147, Vol. 14, July, 1912, pages SIS-
SSI. Also Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.. 1913, Vol. 14, pages 315-334.
Report No. 36, April, 1913.
267
268 RAIL.
i. To determine the number, depth and extent of seams in the base
of the rail by taking etched sections at definite intervals along the length
of the rail base and measuring the seam at the fracture for depth.
2. To determine whether or not the weakening influence due to
seams was proportional with different thicknesses of metal, that is, if
the same per cent depth of seams would produce the same per cent
reduction of strength in varying thicknesses of metal. This with an
object of determining whether or not the weakening influence of seams
might be lessened by increasing the thickness of base should it be neces-
sary to resort to such practice on account of impracticability of elimi-
nating seams.
3. To determine the effect of seams on the ductility of the metal,
not only in tensile tests where all the metal is in tension, but also in
transverse tests, simulating service conditions where part of the metal
is in compression.
4. To determine the effect of low temperatures on the ductility and
strength of section of base of rail.
5. To determine the effect of sudden or repeated blows with an
initial load on rail.
Fig. 1 — Short sections of failed rails showing the character of frac-
ture resulting from the base failures.
The progress of the investigation suggested the following additional
lines of investigation :
6. To determine the relative strength of the specimens taken cross-
wise and longitudinal to base of rail — the variation in strength, if any,
of surface metal and interior metal.
7. To determine the relative strength in transverse tests of different
types of rail-base sections.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
269
CHARACTERISTIC BASE FAILURES.
Figure I shows five different rails with characteristic square and
angular breaks, all of which show indications of seams in the base.
Figure 2 shows seven failed rails of lengths varying from 5 to 8 ft.
These rails show typical half-moon base failures. The failures occur
sometimes on one side of the rail and sometimes on the other, but almost
invariably completely or partially under the tie -plate.
RAILS FOR INVESTIGATION.
The six rails for special investigation were selected from a lot of
failed rails that had been sent to the laboratory for test. This lot in-
cluded rails from different manufacturers, of different section and of
XU4$I\0
Fig. 2 — Showing base failures existing in rails, typical of the half-
moon base failure. It is evident that the failure, as a rule, occurs on
or near the edge of a tie, and these rails show the distinct marks of the
tie plate. These base failures precede square or angular breaks in about
90 per cent of failed rails sent into the laboratory for investigation.
different weight. Three weights of rails were investigated — 75, 85 and
90 lb. rails. Three different rail sections were investigated — ASCE, ARA
and Santa Fe. The rails investigated came from four different manu-
facturers— Illinois Steel Company, Maryland Steel Company, Colorado
Fuel & Iron Company and Lackawanna Steel Company.
270
RAIL.
In selecting the rails for investigation, no particular regard was
given to the manufacturer, the principal idea was to secure specimens
with dissimilar failures in order to determine whether or not the seams
and laminations such as found in the base of rails failing with char-
acteristic half-moon base failures and with square and angular breaks,
could be traced through all rails.
In Table I the general data relative to the rails selected for investi-
gation are shown :
TABLE I — GENERAL DATA ON RAILS TESTED.
Lab.
Weight
Date
No.
Pounds.
Section.
Manufacturer.
Rolled.
Failure.
10062
85
ASCE
Illinois Steel Co.
South Works
1904
Square with
half moon.
12101
85
ASCE
Maryland Steel Co.
5-07
Square with
half moon.
15018
GO
Santa Fe
Illinois Steel Co.
Gary
11-09
Web.
1704S
75
ASCE
C. F. & I. Co.
Derailment.
10057
90
Santa Fe
Lackawanna Steel Co.
12-09
Angular.
33015
85
ARA
Buffalo
C. F.&I. Co. 11-08
Head.
A chemical analysis of the rails gave results as shown in Table 2
TABLE 2 — CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF RAILS.
c.
P.
.61
.082
.61
.086
.69
.051
•57
.114
• 57
.089
.61
.085
S.
Mn.
Si.
.058
.89
.12
•043
.65
.04
.030
•74
.16
.036
1.03
•17
•054
78
•15
•045
.82
.07
Rail No.
10062
12101
15018
17045
20057
33015
From this analysis, it will be seen that all of the rails with the ex-
ception of the 90-lb. rail from the Gary plant of the Illinois Steel Com-
pany, were of Bessemer steel. One of the rails, that from the Lacka-
wanna Steel Company, was a titanium rail. The rest of the rails repre-
sented a very large percentage of tonnage of rails now in track service
on the A., T. & S. F. Ry. System.
The relative hardness of the different rails under investigation, as
shown by the scleroscope, is shown in Table 3 :
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL. 271
TABLE 3 — SCLEROSCOPE HARDNESS OF RAIL BASE SECTIONS.
Readings made each square quarter inch, base section only.
Hardness.
Laboratory No. Section. Maximum. Minimum. Average.
10062 A 42 41 41.8
C 42 41 41-3
E 42 41 41.4
Average 4x-5
12101 A 42 40 41.2
C 42 40 41-3
Average 4I25
15018 A-i 46 42 44-5
B-2 44 42 42-8
C-i 44 4i 42-9
C-2 45 42 43-3
Average 43-4
17045 A 42 40 414
B 43 40 411
Average 4*-3
20057 A 43 40 4!-8
B 43 4i 41-9
Average 4r-9
33015 A- 1 50 35 42.2
A-2 52 37 41.2
B-i 52 35 44-6
C-2 48 35 42-1
Average 425
PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS.
The base only was to be investigated for reasons before given, ac-
cordingly it was considered advisable to have the base of the rail cut off
at the junction of the web in order to expedite the work. One edge of
the base was then center punched about every half inch in order that all
measurements might be made from the same edge. The base was then
cut into sections varying from 2 to 4 ft. in length. These sections were
stenciled A, B, C and so forth in regular order. The location of speci-
mens may be best understood by referring to the diagram, Fig. 3. All
the specimens were numbered regularly and lettered to indicate the sec-
tion from which taken.
Inasmuch as this investigation includes tensile tests on metal at
the surface and also tensile tests on metal within the surface, those
272
RAIL.
specimens which had base surface removed are referred to as sections
with bases planed, while sections which did not have base surface re-
moved are spoken of as specimens with surface or base natural.
Almost invariably every even numbered specimen had the base planed
off to eliminate, if possible, the influence of seams in the base.
L/JB. A/OS. 12/0/ -ArBrC-D. *no /0062-A-BrCrD-E-F.
,. r-i — ^ 1 i i i i i i I
*h TEN. ^. TEN. Off- 77?. FC/LL S/ZE TR.
R/234S678 9 IO II 13 IS 17 1321 2325 3
L/JB. NO. 20057 -/7.-B.
'I i
Xf. TEN.
NICK
>a"TEN.
\ I r~
% TEN.
J/a"TEN.
04"
I I I I I I I
FULL SIZE Tfi.
241 242 2S 26 27 28293031 32 B
L/JB. NO. 1704-5
rn
J$"TEN.
J, J I
-^ TEN.
% TEN
I I I
FULL SIZE Tfi.
L/JB. NOS. /50I8-/J-C. and 330/5-/J-C.
I ! I I I I
FULL size rn.
24 2526 2723233031
-fa" TEN.
$4 TEN.
% TEN.
21 22 23
L/JB. NOS. /50/8-B "no 330/5 ~B.
i — i — i — rx1 — ' — 1~ i — i-'
G %}■ TEN. NICK
B / 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 /I 12 13 I4\IS\I6
D//J6R/JMS - SHOW/NG POSIT/ ON OF TEST
SREC/MENS IN B/JSE OF R/J/L
Fig. 3.
As a general rule it may be stated that the odd numbered specimens
are with base surface as rolled and the even numbered specimens are
with base surfaces planed. The exceptions are specimens iy and 19, of
A, B, C and D sections of rail 12101, and specimens 21 and 23, C and D
sections same rail, which had both surfaces planed. Specimens 1 to 8, in-
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL. 273
elusive, rail 15018, section B, have base natural, while specimens 9 to 16,
inclusive, section B, have both surfaces planed. Specimens 1 to 8, in-
clusive, of rail 33015, section B, have both surfaces planed, while speci-
mens 9 to 16, inclusive, of same section have base surfaces natural. Sec-
tions A, B, C, D and E, specimens 17 and 19, of rail 10062, and specimens
21 and 23 of sections C, D and E of the same rail had both surfac/cs
planed.
Fig. 4 — Showing method of testing transverse specimens. Loading
at center and supporting at each edge on one-half inch round steel lying
in grooves of plate. Four-inch spans. Load being applied through base
of separate rail.
Three different sizes of tension test specimens were used in this in-
vestigation with dimensions approximately as follows: i"x^"; 1'x1/^",
and i"x^". All tension test specimens were 2 in. between punch marks.
Two sizes of transverse specimens were taken as follows: 2"xo.4"
and 1 in. by full heighth of base, varying from approximately 0.8 to 1 in.
All transverse base specimens were broken as beams loaded at the center
274
RAIL.
with 4-in. spans. The method of setting up transverse test specimens
in the testing machine is shown in Fig. 4.
The test sections were, reduced in width at middle portion so as to
prevent, as much as possible, the specimens from breaking in the jaws
of the testing machine. The tension test specimens were gripped in the
flat jaws of the machine and pulled in accordance with standard practice.
RESULTS.
Ordinary tension tests with standard one-half inch tension specimens
were made on two of the rails investigated. These rails in question
showed very close chemical analysis except for manganese and silicon con-
tent. The results of tension tests are given in Table 4:
Fig. 5 — Showing the base of rail 10062, sections 2 ft. apart. Section
A at end of rail. Note the almost entire absence of seams in section A,
and the well developed seam in section G.
TABLE 4— TENSILE PROPERTIES OF RAILS.
Rail Number.
F-10062. E-12101.
Elastic limit, lbs. per square inch 66,200 77,ioo
Ultimate strength, lbs. per square inch 120,000 118,900
Elongation in 2 in., per cent 16.0 13.5
Reduction in area, per cent 28.4 17.6
The physical nature of specimens investigated and some of the re-
sults of investigation are shown in Figs. 5 to 34, inclusive. Figures 5, 12,
18, 21 and 25 show sections, 2 to 4 ft. apart, of base of rails investigated.
The rail base has been etched to bring out the seams. Specimen A in
each instance is the end of the rail. It will be noted that, although in
some cases the seams are not clearly defined in the end, or A specimen,
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
275
Fig. 6 — Showing tension and transverse test specimens of A and B
sections rail 10062, after test. Specimens 1 to 8, inclusive, tension test
specimens. Specimens 9 to 21, inclusive, transverse test specimens.
mm 111111
Fig. 7 — Showing manner of failure of tension and transverse test
specimens, sections C and D, rail 10062. Specimens 1 to 8, inclusive,
tension test specimens. Sections 9 to 23, inclusive, transverse test speci-
mens.
276
RAIL.
Fig. 8 — Showing tension and transverse test specimens after test,
sections E and F, rail 10062. Specimens 1 to 8, inclusive, tension test
specimens. Specimens 9 to 23, inclusive, transverse test. Note the man-
ner in which the failures followed along lines of well defined seams.
LABORATORY NO. 10062
CONDENSED D/AGR/JAf OF RHIL B/JSE
POSITION OF BREAK
0.5'
ao6
0.03'
0.00'
o.s-
0.06
0.03'
0.O0
0.S"
0.06'
O-OJ'
0.00"
/flZ3^S67e 9 to n 13 is ,J ,k 2i
DEPTH OF -S£V?/*f
g rTi4
iMj
I I I
POSITION OF BFiE/tH
"c
2
3
8
13
15
19
1
15
'7
1
Z3
-4
3T
S
21
23
~
3
3
C
■7
8
9
IO
7
13
DEPTH
OF
SEAM
1 . .
. . . 1 1
POSITION OF BKEPK
i
I3\l5\n\l9 \2l\23
DEPTH OF SE/ll-r
_L_I L
J_l_L
Fig. 9 — Showing by heavy lines occurrence of seams in A, B, C, D,
E and F portions of rail one-half inch either side of middle line of base
and by heavy line position of break. Depth of seam at break shown un-
der each test piece.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
277
LAB. NO. 10062 6S LB. /J.S.C.E.
"5 ~£"
L/NES SHOWING DEFLECTION OF BASE AT RUPTURE
-1 5- BASE NATURAL -/7-BRSE PLANED
Fig. 10.
278
RAIL.
SO
SO
40
30
*** 30
TEA/S/LE
• Pa X / /A/. SPEC/AfEA/
O f<f. X / /A/. SPEC/MEN
•
.
•
o .
o
o
(
>
••o
•
<
•
t /
o
O,
o
/ *
>
•
•
to
O 20 40 GO SO /OO
PER CEA/T REOUCTtON OF STRENGTH
LABORATORY NO. /006Z
/LL/A/O/S STEEL CO. /904-
Fig. ii— Percentage decrease in strength with varying depth of seams.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
279
Fig. 12 — Sections from base of rail 12101, showing base etched to
bring out seams. Sections 2 ft. apart. Note the slight seams in speci-
men A, at end of rail, and the more pronounced development towards
the middle of the rail.
nmiHunn
Fig. 13 — Showing tension and transverse test specimens of A and B
section rail 12101 after test. Specimens 1 to 8, inclusive, tension test ;
specimens 9 to 23, inclusive, transverse test.
280
RAIL.
Fig. 14 — Showing tension and transverse test specimens of C and D
sections of rail 12101 after test. Specimens 1 to 8, inclusive, tension test;
specimens 9 to 25, inclusive, transverse test.
0.5'
LABORATORY NO 12 101
CONDENSED DIAGRAM OF RAIL BASE
POSITION OF BREAK
i
3 r \s
:
z
3
■»
S
e
7
S
a
it
13
IS
11
13
00
H
.
6
7
S
a
3-
10
II 1
3 IS
n
is-
a
/
to
17
IS
DEPTH C
F
S£*ff
006
000
..l.l.l.l
1. .
1 1 I.I.I . 1 1 1 . I . .
fOSITIO/ll OP BKEMM
c
/
S
6
-j
7
8
9
IS
-
21
13
2
3
*
10
o.i a
ooi
0,00'
OCPTH OF 3EA*T
-i i I I L
J L
to is zo as o
■ - I !■».-
io" is" ao" as"
Fig. IS — Showing relation of fracture to seams in middle portion of
base.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
281
A-J5-M
LINES SHOWING DEFLECTION OF B/7SE /IT RUPTURE
-IS- BASE A//1TUR/1L -/7-B/JSE PLANED
Fig. 16.
282
RAIL.
Q
us
i
60
SO
4-0
30
20
to
O 20 4-0 60 SO tOO
PE/Z CEA/T R.EOUCT/ON OF STRENGTH
Lf1BO*./JTO&r NUMBER. J2IOI
MAftYL/IND STEEL CO. 1907
Fig. 17 — Percentage decrease in strength with varying depth of seams.
TEA/S/LE
• fa * 1 /N. SPEC /MEN
O Uf- X / /N. SPEC/MEN
•
•
•
/
! •
•
O
V>
m
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
283
Fig. 18 — Specimens from base of rail 15018, etched to bring out seams
distinctly. Sections 4 ft. apart in rail base. Section A-i at end of rail.
LABORATORY NO ISO/8
CONDENSED DIA6RAM OF Kil/L BASE
POSITION OP BfZEIH
3
S
6
9
26
23
27
29
29
3'
3
12
2*
25
*
2
2,
22
"
2J
2*
2£
■■€
J!7
Z3
m
}/
c
2
3
+
s
a
DEPTH Of &EAM
I I
1
1
1 1
1 1 1 1 II
Fig. 19.
284
RAIL.
LOAD
LAB. NO. 150/8 - 90 LB. S/7/VTA FE
~L\ ZT
LINES SHOWING DEFLECT/ON OF BASE AT RUPTURE
25-29-BASE NATURAL 26-30-BASE PLANED
Fig. 20.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
285
Fig. 21 — Sections of rail base from rails 20057 and 17045.
4 ft. apart in base of rail. Section A at end of rail.
Section:
286
RAIL.
LO/W
L/fB. /VO. /7045- 75 IB. /7S.CE.
~K
~2T
UNES SHOW/NG DEFLECT/ON OF BASE AT RUPTURE
/5-/7-/9-B/7SE NRTUR/JL /6-/8-20-B/1SE PLANED
Fig. 22.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
287
0.0' 41 -
LRBORATORV NO. SOOS7
CONDENSED Olft6RRM OF RAIL B/fSS
fOSIT/ON Or BREHK
21 22 23 2* 24
p4*jBp6naa30 3l
2+2<£SKZ7tat»XV
m
D£fi>TM OF" SEAM
M
,
1
i;i
1
.ll
1 1 . 1
.
0"
n
28"
*
»'
J'
17
28"
*£
Fig. 2.3.
288
RAIL.
LOAD
L/fB. NO 20057 - 90 LB. S.F
"S E
/J-27-L ==>
zr
/1-28-L
A-3I-L
Ff-32-L
"7T
B-27-L =
B-28-L
B-3I-L
B-32-L
7T
i
r
Z.//V£"S SHOW/NG DEFLECTION OF BASE FIT RUPTURE
27 -3 /-BASE NATURAL 28 -32 -BASE PL/IN ED
Fig. 24.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
289
Fig. 25 — Showing sections of base of rail 30015. Sections are 4 ft.
apart in base of rail. Section A-i is at end of rail.
LABORATORY NO- 330/S
CONOENSEO DIAGRAM OF RAIL BASE
&OS/T/O/V Or B/PEStH
fe
2
-
5
7
e
21
*S
U
£?
28
20
31
2
-
C
3
*
5
6
8
3
"
23
2*
Zi
H
27
28
^
23
DEPTH OF SE&M
01s
Fig. 26.
290
RAIL.
LOAD
lab. no. sso/s - as lb. a.ra.
-S 2X"
A-2S-W
7S =
t£
/J-26-W =
/7-29-W =
?r
^
A~30~\N =
2S — =
C-25-W =
C-26-W =
C-29-W =.
7T
C -s?0- W -
T
^
■ A
jfc
£
^-A
•'#♦
"f
ZV/V£S SHOWING DEFLECT/ON OF BASE AT RUPTURE
25-29-BASE NATURAL 26-30-BASE PLANED
Fig. 27.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
291
Fig. 28 — Tension test specimens B section, rail 15018, after test.
Specimens 1 to 8, base in natural condition. Specimens 9 to 16, botli
surfaces planed. All specimens nicked but 1, 5, 9 and 13. Note the
manner failure occurs in nicks.
292
RAIL.
Fig. 29 — Tension test specimens B section, rail 33015. Specimens 1
to 8, with both surfaces planed ; specimens 9 to 16, with base in natural
condition. Specimens 1, 5, 9 and 13 not nicked. Remaining specimens
all nicked. Note the few specimens that failed in nicks. Several speci-
mens failed near jaws several times before failing in nick. Irregularity
in manner of breaking probably due to segregation.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
293
k
ki
Q
K
to
ki
1
60
• V NICK & .
Q \J N/CK /%■ ,
60
TE/VS/LE
X / /N. SPEC /MEN
</ /N. SPEC/ MEN
kj
k
0
0
k
(J
ki 20
<0
/O
• /
/&
tB 9
• §
_
20 40 60 80 /OO
PER. CENT REOUCT/ON OE STRENGTH
LRB. NO. ISO/8-B AS. CO. GRRr WORKS
Fig. 30.
294
RAIL.
8
° 5
70
60
SO
4-0
30
£0
10
o
o
O
•/
o/
i
>
/
i
oy
o /
3
V
'•
c
V
•
A/
Oa/
m
TENSILE
O— BASE NATURAL
m—BASE PLANED
zo
+o
60
SO
/oo
A>EA CENT REDUCTION Of STRENGTH
LAB. NO. J30/S-B. C.F.&-T. CO.
Fig. 31 — Curves from results obtained with tension test specimens
from B section, rail 33015, showing irregularity in results obtained. Al-
though 12 of the 16 specimens were nicked, only four failed in nicks, the
remaining specimens failed in seams. A few specimens failed outside
of the reduced sections and were reset for further tests, which accounts
for the large number of failures shown for the 16 specimens tested.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
295
Fig. 32 — Section of rail base, rail 33015, showing surface in a plane
one-quarter of an inch above and parallel to the base. Note the number
of dark lines running across the surface in the same direction as the
seams existing in the base. These lines have no depth, but are brought
out by the effect of the planing tool, indicating an apparent variation in
physical structure of metal.
296
RAIL.
Fjg. 33 — Fractures of Tensile Specimens.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
297
B-25f
Fig. 34 — Fracture of Specimens in Transverse Bend.
298 RAIL.
yet, the seams become more pronounced in the specimens toward the
middle of the rail.
In addition to these six figures, other illustrations are given in Figs.
6, 7 and 8 of the broken test specimens of sections A, B, C, D, E and F
of rail 10062, and in Figs. 13 and 14 of the broken test specimens of
sections A, B, C and D of rail 12101. The tendency of the specimens
to break along certain well-defined seams will readily be noted from
these illustrations, the failures sometimes following one seam for a
considerable distance.
Diagrams are presented in Figs. 9, 15, 19, 23 and 26, showing for the
various transverse and tension tests of the different sections of rails
10062, 12101, 15018, 20057 and 33015, respectively, the position of fracture
and the per cent depth of seam, if any, in each specimen.
Additional diagrams are presented in Figs. 10, 16, 20, 22, 24 and 27,
showing contour of base of various transverse test specimens of rails
10062, 12101, 15018, 17045, 20057 ar)d 33015 at time of rupture; the point
of rupture is indicated by letter E. These diagrams show clearly the de-
creased ductility of metal in specimens not having the base surface
planed to remove the surface seams.
Curves are shown in Figs. 11 and 17 plotted from results of tensions
tests of rails 10062 and 12101, respectively. These curves are plotted to
show the per cent reduction of strength of metal with varying per cent
depth of seam of sectional fracture. It will be noted that results in all
cases follow a regular curve.
COMPARATIVE RELATIVE INFLUENCE ON STRENGTH OF METAL OF NICKS AND
LAMINATIONS OR SEAMS.
The specimens from B sections of rails 15018 and 33015 were nicked
and pulled to determine the influence of nicks on strength, as compared
with influence of laminations or seams. Four of the specimens from
each of these rails were circular nicked in order to secure data which
would show comparative weakening influence of nicks of different char-
acter. Specimens 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8 were nicked and pulled with base in
natural condition and specimens 1 and 5 were pulled with base natural
and no nick in order to establish the average true strength of the metal.
Specimens 10, 11, 12, 14, 15 and 16 were planed on both surfaces, nicked
and then pulled. Specimens 9 and 13 were planed on both surfaces, but
were pulled without nicking in order to establish the average strength
of the metal with both surfaces planed.
Specimens 1 to 8, inclusive, of B section of rail 33015 were planed
and all specimens nicked, with exception of specimens 1 and 5, which
were pulled in natural condition. Specimens 9 to 16, inclusive, were
pulled with base in natural condition and all specimens nicked with ex-
ception of 9 and 13.
Figs. 28 and 29 show the tension test specimens from the B section
of rails 15018 and 33015, respectively, after being tested. It will be noted
that the breaks in specimens from rail 15018 occurred in every instance
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL. 299
in the nick, whereas specimens from rail 33015, prepared in an identical
manner, broke in an irregular manner, that is, failures did not occur in
the nick. The erratic manner in which these specimens failed indicated
irregular structure of metal, probably due to segregation.
In Fig. 30 are curves showing effect of nicks on tensile strength of
rail. It is at once seen that the curved nick may be much deeper than the
"V" nick and still have no greater influence in reducing the tensile
strength of the rail. Comparing these results with the curves in Figs.
11 and 17, one notes that the seam has a proportionally greater influence
than the nick, and that the curve follows the same general direction.
The irregular results obtained from tension test specimens from rail
33015 may possibly be explained by segregation of the metal; this con-
dition is indicated by Fig. 32 of a section of the rail base from rail 33015,
showing surface in a plane one-quarter of an inch above and parallel to
the base. A number of dark lines will be noted across this surface, run-
ning in the same direction as the seams or laminations existing in the
base. These lines have no depth, but are brought out by the effect of
ihe planing tool, indicating an apparent variation in physical structure.
From the variation in results of tests of specimens from rail 33015,
as compared with results from other rails, it is apparent that there is a
difference in the structure of the metal as well as the character of the
seams. From a study of the fractures of the specimens from the various
rails under investigation, shown in Figs. 33 and 34, the differences in
character of seams may be readily noted.
Tlie figures, however, do not bring out this fact as clearly as re-
vealed in an examination of the original fractures. The seams in the
base of rail 33015 are not as clearly defined as the seams in the base of
other rails examined, that is, the penetration of the seam is more irregu
lar and it is difficult to determine just at what depth the seam ends, and
the metal has a regular molecular bond. The variation in condition and
depth of seam is very marked in short linear distances of rail.
DATA.
Inasmuch as this is a detailed study of rail bases containing seams
or laminations, all representative test data from one rail have been in-
troduced in order that a detailed check of results obtained might be made
and opportunity afforded for checking up conclusions made as a result
of this investigation.
Information is shown relative to tension tests giving computed values
of elastic limit and ultimate strength in pounds per square inch of the
material, together with the per cent elongation in 2 in. and per cent re-
duction of area. Data are also presented showing, when the fracture oc-
curred at seam, the depth of the seam and per cent depth of the seam
based on the depth of the section.
Information is shown relative to transverse tests giving actual size
at the center of the specimens tested, the total force necessary to frac-
300 RAIL.
Uire specimen, and the ultimate strength of the specimen in pounds per
inch. Computations are also given, strictly for comparative purposes, of
the estimated strength in pounds per inch of material for a standard
height of either 0.4 in. or 0.8 in.' The depth of the seam in inches, as
well as the per cent of fractured area showing seams, is also given.
TABLE 5 — TENSION TEST, LABORATORY NO. IO062. SIZE OF SPECIMEN, I X % IN
Fracture
Pounds per sq. in. Per cent of Depth of from
Specimen Elastic Ultimate Elon- Reduc Seam Top
Limit Strength gation tion T 1 Per Edge
lnches cent Inches
A-l-I 59,200 59,200 1.0 0.0 0.005 3.6 2 70
2 57,800 99,600 4.5 2.1 2.55
3 51,200 70,900 1.0 0.6 0.006 4.1 2.75
4 64,800 106,600 4.5 0.5 2.95
R-l-I 65,800 84,000 3.0 1.0 0.008 6.1 2.90
2 76,600 95,800 3.0 3.9 1.50
3 57,000 61,100 2.0 0.3 0.028 21.1 2.95
4 73,400 91,400 3.0 1.2 2.15
C-l-1 64,900 64,900 2.0 0.0 0.012 9.2 2.55
2 74,000 108,600 4.5 3.4 3.90
3 59,400 75,300 2.0 0.3 0.010 7.5 2.55
4 65,000 107,000 4.0 1.0 1.50
D-l-I 71,100 85,600 2.0 4.0 0.010 7.3 2.65
2 69,600 91,400 3.0 3.8 1.50
3 70,700 84,900 2.0 0.7 0.010 7 7 2.65
4 64,600 102,000 4.5 2.9 2.55
E-l-I 43,900 43,900 1.5 0.0 0.020 14.9 2.90
9
58,300 100,500 4.5 4.1 2.55
3 51,200 67,200 2.0 1.2 0.004 3.1 2.44
4 58,700 90,000 3.5 2.3 2.35
F-l-I 35 000 35,000 1.0 0.0 0.050 35.5 2.20
2 43,500 108,500 6.5 3.6 2.50
3 28,600 28,600 1.5 0.0 0.047 32.6 2.35
1 71,300 9.8,900 3.5 3.0 3 25
0.010
0.010
0.020
0.004
0.050
0.047
SEAMS IX BASE OF RAIL.
30]
TABLE 6 — TENSION TEST, LABORATORY NO. IOo52. SIZE OF SPECIMEN, I X l/$ IN.
Specimen
A- 5-
6
B-5-
6
7
C-5-I
6
7
D-5-I
6
7
E-5-I
6
7
8
F-5-I
6
7
8
Pounds per sq. in.
Elastic Ultimate
Limit Strength
55,800
67,800
49,000
63,600
61,800
47,000
59,100
50,800
60,200
62,000
63,000
62,800
65 300
58,800
59,600
52,200
54,400
47,200
53,000
53,500
53,200
60,500
45,500
52,500
76,400
97,000
49,000
105,000
69,800
99,800
69,200
112,500
86,100
106,600
93,800
108,500
85,800
104,000
72,400
109,500
82,900
103.700
58,500
91,400
60,200
107,500
61,100
87,800
Per cent of Depth of
Reduc- Seam
tion Per
Inches cent
2.3 0 030 11.9
2.8
03 0^039 15'6
4.1
0.7 0.031 12.5
2.4
0.4 0.026 10.5
5.9
2.6 0.008 3.2
4.7
3.0 0.005 2.0
5.1
2.3 0.011 4.4
3.8
1.3 0.012 4.7
5.6
1.7. 0.018 7.5
3.6
0.7 0.022 9 0
1.4
0.0 0.027 11.1
4.7
0.0 0.031 12.5
1.5
Elon
gat ion
2.5
4.0
1.5
5.0
2.0
4.0
2.5
6.5
3.0
5.5
4.0
6.5
2.5
5.0
2.5
6.5
3.0
5.5
2.0
3.5
2.0
5.0
2.0
4.0
Fracture
from
Top
Edge
Inches
2 80
2.75
1.90
2.55
2.15
2.95
2.15
2.30
3.00
3 00
3.00
2.70
2.65
40
60
30
45
70
95
60
2.30
2.65
2.30
2.35
302 RAIL.
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SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL. 801
DISCUSSION.
Extent and Number of Seams: The investigation shows that there
may he numerous seams in the lower part of the rail base. Photographs
of etched rail bases to illustrate this are reproduced in Fig. 5 for an 85-
1b. ASCE section, rolled by the Illinois Steel Company, South Works;
in Fig. 12 for an 85-lb. ASCE section, rolled by the Maryland Steel Com-
pany; in Fig. 18 for a 90-lb. Santa Fe section, rolled by the Illinois Steel
Company, Gary Works; in Fig. 21 for a 75-lb. ASCE section, rolled by
the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company ; in Fig. 21 for a 90-lb. Santa ¥r
section, rolled by the Lackawanna Steel Company, and in Fig. 25 for an
85-lb. ARA section, rolled by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company.
The sections for etching were taken either 2 or 4 feet apart from one
end of the rail and show that any particular seam may not extend from
end to end of a rail. Moreover, there may be more seams in one portion
of a rail than in another. Of the rails investigated, laboratory No. 17045.
from the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company showed the least number of
seams. In as much as this rail failed on account of derailment and not
with characteristic rail failure due to seams in base, it may be only logical
that such condition should exist.
Data and figures show that the absence of seams from the whole rail
cannot be assured on the grounds that any one section does not show
seams. The uncertainty in location and continuation of a seam in rad
base is in keeping with the depth of the seam.
The actual depth of seam was determined only in cases of fracture,
consequently, unless the fracture was in the same seam for sections
tested, the variation in depth of any one seam could not be established.
Data on depth of seams are shown in various data sheets and figures.
The extent and depth of seams is also well shown for rail number 10062
by photographs and diagrams in Figs. 6 to 9. inclusive.
The diagram in Fig. 9 shows developed seams for a half inch on
either side of center line of base of rail. The heavy lines, on sections
A, B, C, etc., are seams shown by etching tests. The heavy lines on
numbered sections show position of fracture of test piece, the vertical
lines on scale below represent depth of seam, if any, in fractured test
piece. Similar diagrams for other rails are found in Figs. 15, 19, 23 and 26.
No attempt was made to investigate thoroughly the seams near the
outer edges of bases, as experience has shown that these seams are of
less influence on failure of rails than seams near the center of lowc
surface of rail base. A study of fractures shows that where failure con-
tinues along the same seam for sections covering a distance of 12 in., th<
seam may vary in depth from 0.02 to 0.10 in. Fractures may occur in one
seam and on next test in another scam. The line of fracture from tension
test may continue with transverse test specimens. The structural appear-
ance of the seam is the same whether specimen is broken under transverse
cr tension test.
308 RAIL.
Seams and Tensile Properties. The object of this investigation was
to study conditions, not the production of conditions. No attempt is
made to explain the nature of a seam or to investigate the cause of
seams, their existence is established, their deteriorating influence is recog-
nized, and it is further recognized that seams must be eliminated fron.
rail bases or their influence neutralized.
The presence of seams in metal reduces the tensile strength as well
as the ductility of the metal. The seam or lamination produces a. state
of discontinuity, the metal indicating a peculiar segregation of impurities
from the steel and a consequent breaking down in the co-efheient for the
transfer of molecular stress.
The study of some 500 tests in detail leads to the deduction that
seams in rail bases decrease the strength and ductility of the rail base in
cross-wise direction. These facts are shown graphically. In Figs. 11
and 17 the decrease in tensile strength due to seams is seen to vary from
15 to 70 per cent, of the strength of adjacent material containing no
seams. With only 10 per cent of seam in a small tension test specimen,
the decrease in ultimate strength is almost 40 per cent.
The decrease in ductility for transverse tests is shown graphically in
Figs. 10, 16, 20, 22, 24 and 27. The decrease is most pronounced in
Fig. 20, and least prominent in Fig. 24. The two rails in question are
both go-lb. Santa Fe section.
The individual average results of all tension tests of rails investigated
are presented graphically in Fig. 35 in order, if possible, to bring out the
relation between ductility, tensile strength and depth of seam in a con-
clusive way. The per cent of seam of fractured test piece is shown by
heavy black horizontal lines on the right. The tensile strength is shown
by double ruled lines. The per cent elongation is shown by heavy black
lines superimposed on ultimate strength lines.
Detailed study of different tests and for different rails may lead to
different conclusions. No conclusions from rail number 33014 showing
relations can be made general, because this rail upon final investigation
was found to have, not only pronounced seams in the lower base surface,
but laminations throughout the head, base and web. In general, the duc-
tility is greatly decreased by presence of seams.
The presence of a seam is not easily determined. The seams were
assumed to be gone after the base was planed down, unless the fracture
showed seam. Planing down the surface, however, is not conclusive as-
surance that homogeneity in structure is attained. This point is mos*
pronouncedly brought out by Fig. 32. It does not need an etching solu-
tion to show discontinuity in structure of this rail, even a quarter of an
inch above the base surface. The varying hardness of the metal is
clearly indicated by the play of light and shade on the planed surface.
The average results show a further decrease in strength and ductility
for transverse tests made at comparatively low temperatures. There was
a similar tendency when the specimen is subjected to a blow or a number
of blows under initial load. For the latter test only a light blow was
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
309
struck— a 7l/2-\b. bar falling through a distance of 2 ft. The results oh
tained are not sufficient to warrant definite conclusions, although they
indicate a tendency.
A comparison of tensile properties .for specimens with seams as
against specimens with nicked or tool marked surfaces has been made a
side line of investigation with results shown graphically in Fig. 31.
/ X0/3 'z
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/ ~X0 2S"
LAB. NO. /0062
/./IB. NO. /2IOI
LAB.NO/50ia
L1B.NO.I704S
L.1B. NO. 20057
LJJB. NO. 330/5
78%.
ss%-
OOO /VO. BASE f/ATVK*L
EVEN HO. BSSE PL/WED
o 20000 *%oooo eoooo 60000 100000 120000
AVERA.6E ULTIMATE STRENGTH LBS. PER SO, INCH
O 10 20 30
PER CENT ELONGATION
Fig. 35— Average Results of Tension Tests.
Transverse and Longitudinal Structure. There is some considerable
variation in tensile properties, as shown in tabulated data, which should
require explanation. To get a basis for comparative results, tests were
made on specimens taken longitudinal with rail base, tests were also made
310
RAIL.
to determine the influence of surface metal. As a general rule the %-in.
test pieces show less elongation than the ^-in. specimens. From results
of tests on longitudinal specimens it is assumed that surface metal has no
decidedly unfavorable influence on tensile properties.
An interesting feature was the study of tensile- properties of rail
1 5018, with the average elongation increasing from 6 to 14 per cent, in a
distance of 18 in. along the rail and then falling, within a distance of 36
in. to 1 per cent. ; the average ultimate strengths corresponding were
112,000, 123,000 and 42,000 lbs., respectively. The maximum strength and
ductility were again manifest 48 in. beyond the first maximum, in-
dicating a periodical rise and fall in physical structure in crosswise di-
rection with advance along the rail. The rail in question was an open-
hearth 90-lb. rail. This rise and fall of tensile properties is also shown in
rails 17045, 33015, and to some extent in rail 20057, although in the latter
rail the variation is more in tensile strength than ductility.
The relation between the tensile properties crosswise and lengthwise
of base of rail was obtained for four of the six rails investigated. The data
of tabulated average results are of unusual interest, as shown in Tables
10 and 11.
The average results for crosswise tests show a decided decrease in
tensile strength and elongation due to base having seams therein. In-
dividual cases show even more pronounced variation. The tests made
along the rail give average results with a decided increase in tensile
strength and elongation. In the average results there are rails included
with such peculiar characteristics that average tensile properties are
shown in Table 11 for individual rails.
TABLE 12 — AVERAGE RESULTS OF TENSION TESTS ALL RAILS.
Thickness
of Specimen
Inches.
Va
Va
Average
Tensile
Strength
Condition Pounds
of Base. Per sq. in.
Elongation Per cent. Decrease.
Per cent. Tensile Elonga-
in 2 in. Strength. tion.
CROSSWISE OF BASE.
Planed
Natural
Planed
Natural
Planed
Natural
Planed
Natural
99,iio
73.240
97480
78,710
99,290
91,200
98,5SO
79,730
4-4
2.6
4-3
2.6
4-5
3-3
4.6
2.8
26
10
41
43
27
40
LENGTHWISE OF BASE.
y8
Va
Va
Average
Planed
Natural
Planed
Natural
Planed
Natural
in,S40
110,410
116,450
114,150
1 14,000
112,280
9-8
10.4
16.5
17-5
13-2
14.0
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL. 311
TABLE 13 — AVERAGE RESULTS TENSION TESTS INDIVIDUAL RAILS.
Tensile
Strength Elongation Per cent. Decrease.
Condition
Pounds
Per cent.
Tensile
Elor
Rail No.
of Base.
Per sq. in.
in 2 in.
Strength.
tio
SPECIMENS
TAKEN CROSSWISE OF
RAILS.
IO062
Planed
IOI.39O
4.6
Natural
67.750
2.1
33
5S
I2IOI
Planed
II2,6€o
7-8
Natural
57-250
1.8
49
77
1 5018
Planed
117,930
7.0
Natural
88,120
3-8
26
46
17045
Planed
95,550
3-3
I
15
Natural
100,720
3-9
20057
Planed
98,540
3-4
Natural
94,250
3-2
4
6
33C 15
Planed
66,840
3-3
Natural
59,090
1-7
12
49
Average
Planed
98,550
4.6
Natural
79.730
2.8
20
40
SPECIMENS '
rAKEN LENGTHWISE OF
RAILS.
1 501 8
Planed
124,200
»-S
Natural
120,150
11. 1
3
4
17045
Planed
122,000
12.5
Natural
Il8,050
12.5
3
20057
Planed
Il6,6lO
14-5
8
Natural
114,890
157
2
33015
Planed
93,170
152
3
8
Natural
95,930
16.5
Average
Planed
I I4,COO
13.2
6
Natural
II2,28o
14.0
2
In comparison of decreased strength for the % and %. in. tension test
specimens, the average results are nearly the same, indicating a permanent
decrease in tensile properties due to seams in the base. In comparing
these results with the Y?,-'\n. tension specimens, however, it is seen that the
thicker specimens show up with less decrease in tensile strength and
elongation.
Consideration, however, must be given to rail 33015, which entered
into average results, as this rail was a most peculiar rail in its structure
having laminations in the interior, as well as on the surface of the base.
The elimination of results of tests on this rail for average results shows
that the per cent of seams was practically the same for the J4-in. and
lA-'m. specimens, and very much smaller for the f^-in. specimens, so that
results are conclusive that the decreased strength is due to the per cen:
of seams in the base of the rails.
312 RAIL.
For specimens lengthwise of the base it cannot be expected that a
small test specimen would represent fully the character of the base, as il
might or might not contain a representative portion of seams. For
normal conditions, however, the variation in strength or ductility may
favor the base of rail being planed or the base of the rail being natural.
An analysis of stresses in the base of a rail shows a peculiar change
in conditions with longitudinal stresses at one point and direct compres-
sive stresses at another, with varying kinds of stresses for intermediate
points. The result is that the lines of stress existing in the base of a
rail may take any direction. The effect of the seams is that of introduc-
ing surfaces of discontinuity in the metal with the result that the lines
of stress exerted on adjacent molecules are turned from normal direction.
There is a consequent concentration of stresses along the edges of the
seam which result in a fracture.
Where seams lie parallel with the line of stress their effect in pro-
ducing highly concentrated stresses is less than where they lie perpen-
dicular to the line of stress, consequently specimens taken crosswise of
the rail should show considerably greater decrease in strength and duc-
tility than specimens taken lengthwise.
Study of Different Rail Bases. An investigation of this kind nat-
urally brings up the question as to the relative strength of the different
rail bases. This is of particular importance at the present time when
there is such a tendency to increase the base, or, if not, a tendency to
increase the fillet at the bottom of the web, thus throwing more weight
towards the base of the rail.
In Report No. 27 to the Rail Committee, issued in July, 1912, con-
siderable data was published relative to the strength of bases of a num-
ber of different 85-lb. ASCE section rails. The present investigation in-
volves data that may be compared with results found in previous report.
In that report it was well established that the seams in the base greatly
decreased the strength of the base of the rail for sections studied. The
results of this investigation are even more conclusive on this point.
For ready reference, contours of the four different rail bases investi-
gated are shown in Fig. 36.
The data include a considerable number of transverse tests on the
different rails, as well as on the different rail bases, and can only be ap-
preciated by individual study of results and conditions effecting results
Results of transverse tests on rail 10062, shown in Table 9, do not
show any decided decrease in strength per unit section for specimens at
low temperatures. But on these tests, the bases were planed so that no
seams were present. Results of transverse tests on rail 12101 for effect
of temperature show considerable decrease of strength per unit section,
with reduction of 70 degrees in temperature. These tests were made on
specimens with the base containing some per cent of seams, even though
the bases had been planed, and lead to the conclusion that the effect of
lowering temperature is most marked in decreasing the strength of the
rail when rail contains defects.
SEAMS IN BASE OF RAIL.
313
The average results of all transverse tests are shown in Table n.
From the results of the average values, calculated values have been given
per linear inch for the full base of the rail, not only for the specimens
tested with a thickness of 0.4 in., but also for those tested with a thick-
ness of 0.8 in. These calculated values agree fairly well for the two dif-
ferent heights of test specimens, and allow a charitable comparison of
results.
CONTOURS OF R/RIL BASES INVESTIGATED
Fig. 36.
From this data it will be seen that rail 15018 and rail 20057 show
the greatest strength. These are rail bases from 90-lb. Santa Fe type
rails. Rail 33015, although showing great irregularity in structure gives
the next best average results for strength of base considering two con-
ditions— base planed and base natural.
314 RAIL.
CONCLUSIONS.
A careful study of detailed and average results obtained from this
investigation concerning laminations in base of rails, leads to certain
general conclusions:
1. Rails failing in track may generally be found to contain, upon in-
vestigation, numerous black seams in the base.
2. Base seams are not continuous throughout a rail and vary in
depth at different intervals.
3. Seams materially decrease tensile properties of the metal in the
tail base.
4. Seams decrease strength of rail bases for decreased temperatures.
5. Transverse strength of rail base is decreased about 10 per cent,
due to seams in the base.
6. The seams in the rail base may be periodical, due to methods of
manufacture causing variation in tensile properties at different portions
of the rail.
To reduce rail breakage efforts have been made to increase the rail
section, when probably the decreased strength of the rail is due more
to physical defects contained therein, than to the weight of the sections.
More attention should be given to the elimination of base seams and th_>
direct production of a rail with a uniform homogeneous structure.
seams in rails as developed from cracks in
the ingot.
By M. H. Wickhorst, Engineer of Tests, Rail Committee.
This report covers a study of the development of seams in billets
and rails from cracks in the surface of the ingot. From a pile of ell
ingots, one was selected which showed a number of cracks on the
and it was selected because of its bad surface appearance with the idea
of determining what form the cracks in the ingot take in the various
stages of reduction to the finished rail. In order to show up well the
condition of the surface of the ingot below the scale, the four side- if
the ingot were "skinned" off in a planer and photographed. Photo-
graphs were also made of the surfaces of several of the shapes derive 1
from this ingot.
The work was dune at South Bethlehem, Pa., at the works of the
Bethlehem Steel Co., who kindly furnished all the material and facil-
ities for the investigation. The ingot selected was from heat 10220.
which showed the following heat analysis: C, .57; P. .026; S, .035:
Mn, .52; Si, .093. After lightly planing the four sides, the dimensi ms
of the ingot were as follows: ^^^ inches high, i8\x\22'j inches at the
bottom end, and 17.X20J/2 inches at the top end.
One of the narrow sides was designated the top side and was
marked by drilling a three-inch hole about two inches deep, into the
top end. This was the upper side as the ingot first entered the rolls
with the top end of the ingot forward. Standin 1 en 1
of the ingot and looking toward the top cud, the side at the right was
designated the right side and the side at the left was designated the
left side.
For convenience of description the work may be divided into several
stages, as follows :
First Stage — The four sides of the ingot were skinned off in a
planer and photographed.
Second Stage — The ingot was run through blooming rolls with tl
long diameter vertical and reduced from 22V2 inches to i6lA inches in
two passes and then allowed lo cool. The resulting bloom was 8 ft.
5 in. long, 16J/ inches high, 19}^ inches wide at the bottom end and 18
inches wide at the top end. The sides were concave about ^s inch on
each side. Photographs were taken of the right, left and to]
the bloom as rolled and also of the top side after machining off the
rough surface.
Report No ?,7. June. 1913.
315
316
RAIL.
Third Stage — The bloom was given one turn to the right, that is,
what was the top side of the ingot, now made the right side of the
bloom. It was reduced from about 19 inches down to about 10 inches
in four passes. This bloom was therefore given a total of 6 passes and
was turned once from the ingot. It was cut in two hot by shearing and
the two parts of the bloom were measured after cooling. The top part
was 6 ft. 6 in. long, 10^ inches high and 18*4 inches wide. The bottom
part was 6 ft. 9 in. long, iojHs inches high and 18^2 inches wide. The
sides were concave about Vs inch on each side.
Fourth Stage — The two parts of the previous bloom were again
turned so that what was the top side of the ingot again made the top
Fig. 1 — Blooming Rolls.
side of the bloom as rolled. The i8j4-inch dimension was vertical and
was brought down to 10 inches in four passes. This made a total of
10 passes and the bloom was turned twice. Each part was again cut
in two and the ingot thus made a bloom of four parts. These parts
were 10 inches high and 11 inches wide with lengths as follows: part 1,
5 ft. ; part 2, 5 ft. 10 in. ; part 3, 5 ft. 5 in. ; part 4, 6 ft. 3 in.
Fifth Stage — Part 2 of the 10x11 bloom from the fourth stage was
worked down to a 7x7-inch bloom, using 8 passes thus making a total
of 18 passes from the ingot. When cold this bloom measured 7lA in.
x 7% in. x 11 ft. 10 in. long and it was sawed into three pieces. The
bloom pieces were well pickled in sulphuric acid before photographing.
Sixth Stage — Part 1 of the 10x11 bloom from the fourth stage was
worked down to a 5xs-inch bloom using 12 passes, thus making a total
of 22 passes from the ingot. When cold it measured 5 in. x 5 in. x
19 ft. 5 in. long and it was sawed into four pieces These pieces were
well pickled before photographing.
SEAMS FROM INGOT CRACKS.
317
Seventh Stage — Part 3 of the 10x11 bloom from the fourth stage
was bloomed to 8x8 inches in four passes and this at once rolled into
85 lb. A. S. C. E. section rails in 11 passes, making a total of 25 passes
from the ingot to the rail. It was rolled so that what was the top
side of the ingot finally made the bottom side or base of the rail. The
rail-bar was 57 ft. long, cut into four-foot pieces and well pickled.
Eighth Stage — Part 4 of the 10x11 bloom from the fourth stage was
rolled into rail in the same manner as part 3, just described, except that
what was the top side of the ingot finally made the left side of the
rail. That is, the left side of the ingot made the base of the rail and
the right side of the ingot made the tread of the rail. The rail-bar
was 68^2 ft. long, cut into four-foot pieces and pickled.
The blooming mill was two-high with variable draft and the larger
blooming passes were respectively 20 in., 10 in. and 8 in. between collars.
A view of the blooming rolls is given in Fig. 1.
The appearance of the "top" side of the ingot (that is, the side on
top when first entering the blooming rolls) is shown at various stages
from the ingot to the rail in Figs 2 to 9 inclusive. For convenience
Fig. 2 — Top Side of Ingot Skinned Off in Planer.
Fig. 3 — Top Side of Ingot After Two Passes, Making Top Side of
Bloom.
Fig. 4 — Top Stde of Ingot After Two Passes, Surface Skinned Off
in Planek
318
RAIL.
Fig. 5— Top Side of Ingot After Six Passes and Turned Once, Mak-
ing Right Side of Bloom.
BOTTOn
Fig. 6 — Top Side of Second Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into 7x7 Inch
Bloom. Pickled.
Fig. 7— Top Side of Top Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into 5x5 Inch
Bloom. Pickled.
SEAMS FROM INGOT CRACKS
319
Fig. 8 — Top Side or Third Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into Rail. Mak-
ing Bottom of Base. Pickled.
320
RAIL.
Pig. g — Top Side of Bottom Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into Rail. Mak
ing Left Side of Rail. Pickled.
SEAMS FROM INGOT CRACKS. 321
of description the main cracks which showed after lightly machining the
surface, were numbered from Ti to T12 inclusive (T standing for
"top" side). The cracks on the bottom side were numbered and given
the prefix "B ;" those on the right side were given the prefix "R ;" and
those on the left side were given the prefix "L." The flaws and crack?
found in succeeding shapes were given the same numbers as the cracks'
in the ingot from which they were derived. Fig. 2 shows the top side
of the ingot as skinned off. Fig. 3 shows the top side as rolled, after
the thickness had been reduced from about 22 in. to 16 in. in two
passes. Crack T12 near the bottom of the ingot shows on this sur-
face, but the others do not show, except perhaps that Tu shows slightly.
Fig. 4 shows the same surface planed off lightly and what were the
larger cracks in the ingot are now visible. The small ones are no longer
visible and the others do not show as prominently, except again, Tu,
although this does not appear as an open crack. Fig. 5 shows the top
side of the ingot at the third stage. The top side- is now shown as
the right side of the bloom. The cracks do not show, except T12 near
the bottom end. Fig. 6 shows the top side of the second quarter of the
ingot, rolled to a jxj-inch bloom and Fig. 7 shows the top side of the
Fig. 10 — Bottom Side of Ingot Skinned Off in Planer.
top quarter of the ingot, rolled to a 5x5-inch bloom. These are the
surfaces after thorough pickling in sulphuric acid. They show no big
flaws except the holes near the top ends drilled in as markers before
rolling. Fig. 8 shows the third quarter of the ingot rolled into rail
and pickled. The bottom of the base is shown which was the top side
of the ingot. A few seams are shown near the side in samples 3E
and 3F. Fig. 9 shows the bottom quarter of the ingot rolled into rail
and pickled and in this case the top side of the ingot is shown as the
left side of the rail. Samples 4A and 4B showed seamy on the side
of the web which, however, resulted from holes drilled in the bloom
to mark the top side.
The bottom side of the ingot is shown in a somewhat similar manner
in Figs. 10 to 15 inclusive, and in this case the cracks in the ingot
seem not to have resulted in flaws in the billets or rails
322
RAIL.
Fig. ii— Bottom Side of Ingot After Six Passes and Turned Once,
Making Left Side of Bloom.
Fig. 12— Bottom Side of Second Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into 7 x 7
Inch Bloom. Pickled.
Fig. 13— Bottom Side of Top Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into 5 x 5 Inch
Bloom. Pickled.
SEAMS FROM INGOT CRACKS.
323
Fig. 14— Bottom Side of Third Quarter of Fngot Rolled Into Rail,
Making Top of Head. Pickled.
?>2A
RAIL.
Fig. is-Bottqm Side of Bottom Quarter of Ingot Roixed Into Rail.
Making Right Side of Rail. Pickled.
SEAMS FROM IXGOT CRACKS
325
Fig. 16 — Right Side of Ingot Skinned Off in Planer,
Fig. \- — Right Side of Ingot After Two Passes; Making Right Side
of Bloom.
Fig. 16 shows the right side of the ingot planed off lightly. Fig. 17
shows the same side after the first reduction from 22 to 16 inches in
two passes. This is the rough surface and it will be noticed that the
cracks have all been opened up and now "yawn" open, in which respect
the cracks on the side of the ingot acted quite differently from those
on the top and bottom sides which were in contact with the rolls. From
this difference, the interesting conclusion seems to follow that the metal
ahead of the rolls is compressed while that between the rolls is pulled.
Fig. 18 shows the right side of the ingot after it was given a total of
Fig. 18— Right Side of Ingot After Six Passes and Turned Once,
Making Bottom Side of Bloom
32G
RAIL.
six passes and was turned once so that it made the bottom of the
bloom. The various cracks are plainly seen, although somewhat
"smeared" over. Fig. 19 shows the right side of the ingot in the fourth
Fig. 19 — Right Side of Ingot After Ten Passes and Turned Twice.
Making Right Side of Bloom.
stage after a total of ten passes and again turned so that what was
the right side of the ingot made also the right side of the bloom, now
11 in. wide by 10 in. high. The cracks which were opened up in the
first blooming have become elongated, but did not pull open farther.
Fig. 20 — Right Side of Second Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into 7x7
Inch Bloom. Pickled.
SEAMS FROM INGOT CRACKS ZZ'i
The sides of the opening have come together so as to make a longi-
tudinal crack or seam with two branches issuing from it, thus making
a Y seam. This is well illustrated by crack R 9. Fig. 20 shows the
right side of the second quarter of the ingot rolled to a 7x"-inch bloom.
What were cracks R3 and R4 in the ingot are here seen as consisting
largely of elongated Y seams. Fig. 21 shows the right side of the top
quarter of the ingot rolled to a 5xS-inch bloom. What was crack R 2
is here seen as an elongated Y seam. Fig. 22 shows the right side of
the third quarter of the ingot rolled into 85 lb. A. S. C. E. section rail.
The right side of the ingot made the left side of the rail. Although
considerably changed, we may even here recognize what were cracks
in the ingot as seams, mostly as very much elongated Y seams. Fig. 23
shows the right side of the bottom quarter of the ingot rolled into
85-lb. rail and in this case, the right side made the top of the rail. Here
Fig. 21 — Right Side of Top Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into 5 x 5 Inch
Bloom. Pickled.
again we may recognize what were cracks in the ingot as seams in the
head of the rail.
The surface of the left side of the ingot is shown in Figs. -'4 to 31
inclusive at the various stages in the same manner as shown for the
right side. Here again we see that the crackj of the ingot which were
transverse of the ingot or obliquely so, first opened up as double V's,
one within the other, then formed into Y-shaped flaws lengthwise of
the bloom and finally developed as very much elongated Y seams in
the rail. Fig. 31 shows the left side of the bottom q
rolled into the base of the rail, showing the presence of numerous
seams. The base of the piece of rail marked 4 C. shown -1 t>is illus-
tration, was broken lengthwise to show the seam and this is shown
in Fig. t,2. The seam here shown was % inch deep.
From the above descriptions it will be seen that cracks in the right
or left side of the ingot as it first entered the blooming rolls finally
developed into seams in the rail, mostly of elongated Y form several
feet long, while most of the cracks in the top or bottom side of the
ingot as it first entered the blooming rolls, disappear so far as may be
328
RAIL.
Fie. 22— Right Side of Third Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into Rail,
Making Left Side of Rail. Pickled.
SEAMS FROM INGOT CRACKS
329
Fig. 23 — Right Side of Bottom Quarter of Ixgot Rolled Into Rail,
Making Top Side of Rail. Pickled.
$30
RAIL.
Fig. 24 — Left Side of Tngot Skinned Off in Planer.
ig. 25 — Left Side of Ingot After Two Passes. Making Left Side
of Bloom.
SEAMS FROM INGOT CRACKS
331
Fig. 26 — Left Side of Ingot After Six Passes and Turned Once,
Making Top Stde of Rt.oom.
Fig. 27 — Left Side of Ingot After Ten Passes and Turned Twice,
Maktng Left Stde of "Btoom
332
RAIL.
Fig. 28 — Left Side of Second Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into 7x7 Inch
Bloom. Pickled.
Fig. 29 — Left Side of Top Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into 5x5 Inch
Bloom. Pickled.
SEAMS FROM INGOT CRACKS.
333
■■■■BNPHffMMNHHWVW
rr »mii "•*• '
''■'■' "" mm^m^m^m^aimlm^kmm^mm
PiG, ?0— Left Side of Third Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into Rail, Mak-
ing Right Side of Rati. Pickled.
:::-!4
KAIL.
-
Fig. 31 — Left Side of Bottom Quarter of Ingot Rolled Into Rah.
Making Bottom of Rail Pickled
SEAMS FROM INGOT CRACKS
335
shown by the appearance of the surface or developed by pickling in acid.
It seems to be true that from the standpoint of rail failures, the most
detrimental location of a seam is at or near the center of the bottom
of the base and the above observation suggests that the base may be
at least partly or perhaps mostly freed from injurious seams by mak-
Fig. 32 — Vertical Longitudinal Fracture of Flange, Showing Longi-
tudinal Seam in Bottom of Base.
ing the top or bottom side of the ingot as it first enters the blooming
rolls form the bottom of the base.
In order to show in convenient form the development of seams
from cracks in the ingot, Fig. S3 is presented. A crack first opens up
<
>
Fig. 2>2) — Diagrams Showing Development of Seams in Rails From
Cracks in the Ingot.
forming two V's, one inside the other. These are both elongated and
closed in, forming a Y in the bloom. This continues to be elongated
and finally forms a long narrow Y, perhaps several feet long. This is
the simplest case, but the more usual case consists of a cluster of
elongated Y's of varying lengths
336 RAIL.
SUMMARY.
i. An investigation was made concerning the development of seams
in billets and rails from cracks in the surface of the ingot. A cold
ingot with a badly cracked surface was taken and its four sides "skinned"
off in a planer to show well the condition of the surfaces. The four
sides were photographed and photographs were also made at succeed-
ing stages showing the surfaces of blooms and rails.
2. The work was done at South Bethlehem, Pa., at the works of
the Bethlehem Steel Co., who kindly furnished all the facilities and
material for this work.
3. The cracks in the ingot were, in a general way, transverse or
obliquely transverse of the ingot. When first bloomed, the cracks on
the right and left sides of the ingot as it first entered the blooming
rolls, opened up or "yawned" open, forming double V's, one inside
the other. Further blooming elongated and closed in the cracks, form-
ing them into elongated Y-shaped flaws, or clusters of them. Still further
rolling finally resulted in long narrow Y-shaped seams in the rail, or
clusters of them, generally several feet long, as shown up by pickling
in sulphuric acid.
4. The cracks on the top and bottom sides of the ingot as it first
entered the rolls, did not open up and finally disappeared so far as
could be determined by the appearance of the surfaces of the blooms
and rails after pickling in sulphuric acid.
5. The difference in behavior of the cracks on the top and bottom
sides in rolling from the behavior of those on the right and left sides
suggests the interesting conclusion that the metal ahead of the rolls is
compressed, while that between the rolls is pulled.
6. The work indicated that seams resulting from cracks in the
ingot will be on the web of the rail if what were the right and left sides
of the ingot as it first entered the rolls form the sides of the rail, and
that they will be on the top of the head and the bottom of the base
if these sides of the ingot form the tread and base of the rail.
7. To sum up, the cracks on the right and left sides of the ingot
as it first entered the blooming rolls, resulted in seams in the rails,
while the cracks on the top and bottom sides of the ingot did not result
in seams. Seams may therefore possibly be oriented to appear on the
sides of the rail or on the tread and the bottom of the base.
REVISED FORM M. W. 408.
STATISTICS OF RAIL FAILURES
FOR ONE YEAR.
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
Jl 1
Rail
failures for the Year Ending October
31,
91
Railroad
Kind
Si eel
Mill
Rolled
Pounds
Per
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T^BULAT/ON OF PePUES TO A P. A. C/E>CULAf?
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Zisulst/oh of Pep lies ro A. PA C/s?cuL/ie No 1347 No./ 5890
//vro/e/tnT/o/v //v /c'eo/ix'D to P/iil Sect/o/ws.
January 79~/4
/?a//retfe/
N//e-
oge.
rVbaf weight Ooyouconfenwbtt
ondsect/co ooeor/er sect/on
ore you now TAon Abo/oTpres*
purc//os/ng en/ /r> genera/ 'use
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user /s proposed'
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jsieose sYaYe your ob/ecfionr
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tl/nicno/ /Ae
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A' or'B'do
you prefer?
rV6a/ n70d///co//on 0/ 7/te
Amer/con jfb//tvay /fssoc/a-non
5ec7/ons wot/id you cons/der
des/rco/e?
79o you foror ///e san?e »/d/n of
7>oje /or /wo or more we/ah/i 0/
ra/7 m order 7o reduce number
of pa/ferns 0/ //e pto/ei?
/fso 7o wf/of e/feaf >
Do you fa far /ne some fisn/oo
d/rrteni/om for two or more weights
afra/l/n order Ao reduce the
number o/po//er/}j ofjoinf-bars ?
/f SO fo wr/a/ edeyjf /
Cen/ra/ ftf* o 7 7/ew Jersey
53/
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//v/o/ezdAT/ozv //v A?caA/eo to A?*il Secr/orvs.
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under Aead anda/ '/Ae
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Zisvljt/oh of Pc*>l/£$ to A. /f A Circa/.** A/o. 7347 H° '5890
//vr-OiemsiT/o/v //v tfeeAKo to A3iil Stcr/o/vs-
January J9I4.
fat/road
74i/e-
age
U/hofweight
ana 'sectianat
yotinowpur-
chasing for
genera/
use 7
Do you contemplate
o heavier sect/an
Man Ma/now in
genero/ use 7 if
so what increase
is proposed'
//aye you used
any of /he rail
sec/ions of The
American ifo,i.
wayAi/n. //
so wii/ch ?
/fyou do not use The American
Abi/yuey Ass1". Sections
p/eose s/o/e your objections
ft/Aem.
Which of the
AfA sections
'A or'3~do
you prefer'
Who/ madiYico/ian of T/>e
Amer/oon Ab/Ywoy Assh
Jecf/ons wou/d you consider
desirable'
Do you favor The some width of bose
for two or more we/gh/s of rod in
order /o reduce number af patterns
of tie -p/a test
//Jo Ao who/estent ?
Oo you fa vor /he same fishing
dimensions for two ormore weights
0/ rail 'in order to reduce t/ie
nurnher of patterns of /ornt bars'
ffso to what en tent '
Pare A/orgaef/e
2330
96*AMtA
A/o
90*A-
B
None
/Vo
No
Son Pedro n los Ange/es &
//34
90°A,/?A.A
7Vo
90"A~
'A
/Jane
Yes. /Vote base of each weight of
So// late
7s"/ff.a.
A.A'A-77 /7?e same width os base of
/Vo
A/MA section nerf fighter
Seohaord Airline
3105
9o"/ir/M
A/a
A"
//one
A
A/one
/Vo. durA/e-p/a/es ore designed to
Yes
85"Dud/ey
///any ro/7 w//A Aose /rom 4%5i"
Soy/a em Pac/Y/'c
7086
9crZg.AM.-A
A/0
90~4
/Yam?
A
A/one
A/a
A/o
Sov/Aem Pac/A/i: ofA/est/co
J 244
soys^/nt
A/o
9d"and7J^t
Atertf
A"
//one
A/o
A/o
Sunset Cen/ra/ lines
3SII
90"AfAA
A/o
9a"A
A"
/Vone
A/o
/Vo
7StSr*»»d
(An/oo Pdc///c
3S74
90*A£A:A
A7a///rneor
9d*A
A/one
A"
A/o/?c
f/o, we" do no/ ' co/s/emp/a/e AAeuse
of two sections of 'near enough
75"CSrerised
/u/ure
/Tie some weight Ye justify fhernidi/ied design
Ch/cogo. /nd/an opo//s 8c
6/7
90"AMS
M>
9tT£
£"
A'oae
/Vo
A/o
7oa/syi//e
77ci/ofh dr/ron/Ponge
769
9cArA/?A:&~
A/o
9tfs
£~
Desirob/e if practicable. Suggest
Z/esirab/e /sot not so important
stfAsu.
same width Yor9o"'ood/cW'rA.I?A:
asfirvweus gues/ion
A and ' ffa'AXCf.
£/gm, do//efS fas/em
487
90%M-g
A/o
9610, 9030
■0"
//one
Yes, for smo// isonof/ons
A/o
/ouisy/7/e & fVoshyi//e
4937
90"AMS
/ya
A
•£■•
A/one
At/yon/ageoos 7o ho ye />osee/
Advantageous Ac //aye same jp/ice
A FA. /3 same m/d/h os 0OAJ.CE.
/i/A/?.A:ffoadc?/r*A.S.C£.
/Vorfhern Pacific
6233
9<fA/?A-B
Ahouf 47n/i 740*
SO-Sad/JO*
A/ovye
-0"
A/o/ie
rVe use 85"s/ondard 7/e-plote with
No
A./fAB/a/din/m
£
WftMil. ftofinfbwot 'chonqmf
w/d/fr at 'SS"iait on account of great
number of /ie-p/ofes now in use.
/Veyy/iirJ- <On/ar/a 8- Western
566-
SO'AfiA-8
A/o
90"S
'£"
90"/? Si 'high, 5 £~ hose and
/Vo
/Vo
andAose
H/ej/era fi°y 0/ 'r4/o/io/7Ja
225
S/andordSO'
Yes, 90'
/Vo
h7//7 s//ou/d nof /be ///oher
A/Vfd/7/. e/ween t/?efivo.
/Vo
Yes, for yar/o7/o/?s in weight not
7I.S.a. Snx/7
/Aonyy/dfAofhose with
foerceed 5 "per yd.
amovn/Sd"
su/fic/eafme/e//io ho// of rait
A.SCS.
/o ysray/de areosonoh/e wear
B0//0/0 Cree/
7
9tfAS.CE.
A/o
/Vo
We hot/eye ff?e wide base
/Yo choice.
/Vone
Yes
Yes
/s pmferah/e for our pur
poses, aperofion a// ' fow
speed.
aIa/SA'/GA/V /fA/drVAY Jz/VG//VE£-/:1//VG /\3SOC/Y*T/O/V/-C0Ay'A//TrAT£Z 27/V f?AA£.. Sneer 4 or 7
Fabulation cpiFs plies to At? A. C/ccuLAr /Vo. 1347 No. J 5890
//vro/e/dATi op/ //v a^eha/to to fan. Sections.
January 79/4.
/rbi/noad
A/ile-
aoe
Wna/weighf
ondsect/an
art you now
purchasing
fargenerof
use?
0o yoocanbrmp/ofe
oneov/ersec/l'evi
Man/Aa/aA/ires •
en/ in genera/ use}
//so irhaf increase
is proposed 7
//aye you used
any o/bbf rai/
sct//oaie///ie
American Abif-
way Assn.' ft
so wn/eA?
t/ you do not use The Amer-
ican /foitway Ass'n. Sec lions
p/eose stop* your abiec lions
to /hem
WAicA a//Ae
A. A! A. Sec/ions,
"A'or'8"do you
prefer?
n/na/modificoAan of the
Amer/con A^of/woy Ass'n Section
i*rot//d you cens/dcr desir-
OO/f?
fio you /ovar the same w/dth of
dose /or /wo or more weiohts of roil
/n order /o reduce noma era/
po/frros 0/ Ac -p/oles ?
//so /otvAo/ertenf
Do you favor the same f.
ens/ons far two or more weights at
roif in order to reduce the number
of pot/ems of joint- bars'
t/so to whoterfent?
^/eve/and, Cincinnati', Chicago
2608
9t7"AS.C,£.
AW 'r'or present.
A/o
/to not wish to change an///
/Vo
study given
Yes. witAin moderate /im/ts.
A/o
& St. /ouis
A power sec/ /an is adopted.
Te/oivore SNiidsa/l
9/6
90°AS(£
No
No
iH reason /a change /romASCE
None
No
No
<con0wAo S Afichigon
777
9d*AJ.C£.
/OOPS.
A/o
Atase /oo narrow.
B'
increase wid/A o/base about
At*
No
6%t decreasing mftoi in rve/>
and /A/cAness o/Aoss.
'o/e/rre <f vVes/ern
886
SC'ondW
TVo
1V0
f/o reason/a change /remAS.CE.
//o ey, ler/ence
Dfs/rab/e bu/ not practicable far
voriohons 0/ over 5" per yd.
ASCI
which has given safis/ac/ian
"f./euis 8c Son troncisco
5256
90"AS.C£.
/Vo
A/o
A.5.C.S gives good service.
s~
AJdoA/A/f /a/i//e/s both
Yes, tor var/at/ons 0/ /d"per yc ' in weight
A/o reason fa change.
under Aead ondo/ t/>e Aose
otedo 8c Oh/o Central
53/
90*ond84"
TVo
A/o
Atone
No choice
A/one
Yes, /or /d"peryd. di/ference //?
A.S.C.£
weigh/-
Vheehng & AoAe /Trie
543
9C"/!.S.C.£.
A/o
A/o
Sase o/fheA R.A. section and
/Yei/Aer-
vV/dfr 60s? and deeper
A/o '
No
head of /he A section is small
Aead.
ermdep//) and width than
/fie A.S(£.
reof Aor/Aern
7714
90"
A/o
9<>°'£
Base too //'oh/
Aa/enough
A/one
Yes. vvou/duse hoses of 4, "4$ "
AVo
e/peri'epce.
S'j 5 J "and 5"
"ut/ond
468
96"Dud/ey
A/of at present
No
None
A/o choice
A/one
1V0
A/o
fmneopolis St Si ' louis
7586
85"/SCo
/•7ayt/se96"or//?(»
/SCo. 8530
on beov/esl
is simi/grfo
A/one
"£'
/Vo conc/i/sians.
Our 7c?"ornd tffroi/ Aoi"° /Ae
A/o
Art/fit //'/its
Af/AS
Some hose.
f//pneopo//s, 5/ Aou/ St
5845
ffiZfiPAA
/Yd
scajsl m
"A
A/one
/Vo
No
SovA'S/e. Sfarce
/SCo 9520
8S"AJl.CcgS20
/Aan/ic C"oos/ Ahe
4458
SfAS.C.E.
/Vo
A/o
No reason Ai change /ram
A'
//eight shou/d '00/ 'eraeed
A/o
No
A.S.Cf.
mdtn of ' isove.
'nyor Sf Aroos/ooh
625
85"ASXf
/Vo
A/o
/Vope
A/o
A/o
7a"s?s.Co
y/fo/a SI Susguehanno
356
8S"ASC£
A/o
/Vo
Atone
'ra/ino. C//hcb/ie/d8i Ohio
256
85"A5Cf.
Proboblv /60*
/Vo
Oi/Aeren/A-omaurs/andbyd
V
Yes. where the vonationin weight dc 'j jia/ erceed /0"peryd
Ki/mati, f/ew Or/fans 8r
357
/Od" dis-
A J ' £■£ adopfrd AeAorr
/Vo j/i/dy
7esos AiciA/c and
05'A.S.a.
cussed 60/
A/o
A.A!A. come 00/
A/oj/vey
/Vo/sf
/Vo
/Vo
'ahdnyd c9rea/ Southern
3t)S
net decided year,
heave Greo/A/es/ern
7496
75"<8S"AXa
/Vo
A/o
A/one
X"
AVonf
/Vo
/Vo
/ago. And/dno St- Sou/Aerp
359
85"AS.(.£.
Ab
A/o
A/ope
S"
A/one
A/o
/Vo
ial St Coke
798
SS'A.S.CI.
/Vo
/Vo
//one. Prefer wider cose.
A'
Jaggfj/f "tv/de/Aa/c.
A/o
AVo
January J9/4.
5*
f)o yau /oyor the same yt/ldth of
base for two or more weights of rail
/'/? order fo reduce number of
patterns of f/a-p/ofes ?
/fso fowAafertenf
Do you farar the same f,
ens/ans far two or more weiahts of
rod /n order to reduce the number
0/ pa/ ferns 0/ joint-bars'
/fsa /a yvba/e/fenf?
Yes. yvith/n moderate //mds.
/Va
A/a
f/a
bout
At)
/Vo
•4
Des/rab/e but not practicable far
uanat/ons of oyer 5"ppryd.
//>
Ves, for yar/a/foas of f0"per yt.
'. in weight
">es. for /^per yd. difference jn
we/'ohf-
A/a '
/Va
"re's, yuoutduse bases 0/ d. "4i "
/Va
S" Sj "and 6"
Ate
A/a
Our fd'o-ndffS'ra// frays //>e
/Va
sarme base.
/Vo
No
d
A/a
/Vo
/Vo
/Va
Yes. where the vor/otionin we/gb/do
"jsta/erceed /0"peryd.
/Va
Wo
/Vo
A/a
/Vo
Afo
M>
/Va
Tabulation or Replies to A fT. A Circular /\
//vro^nATion /// r?E6ri/?D to /('ail SlCTIOMS.
' canJemp/ote
fier sect/on
'fia/o/pres-
■ general ust
riff/ mcreolt
•posed '
//aye you used
any of '/he roil
section or tie
Amencen foil
woyAss'n7 //
so wA/c/i ?
//you do not use The Amer-
ican foi/way Asfn Sections
pleave stare your objections
to f hem.
Wnic/) o//ne
A fit Sec/ions,
A'o AS do you
prefer ?
H/notmedi/icofton .B
American fai/way A. ^5
tvoo/d you con side ^E
Me?
A/o
No
None
A
A/one
//jrejen/
A/o
A.SXc~ oc/op/ed 'before A.f/I.
A , or pc
ssib/y a compromisJ^^
came ouf
A'and c9 ' H
95"
/Va
ffose snoo/d 'eft/ al ' heion/
A mean ot
tween /ne /Wo.
yvi/A ju//icien/ me/a/ in bo//
•sr ■
a/ 'ran '/o proride a reason •
■J
o/>/e wear before removal
Rj
A/o
A/o
7oo narrow hose compared
A'
A/are /rose epoa/ ,^M
wini heiphffo use an cedar
MM
/ies uri Moo/ p/a/es .
HI
M
/Va
A
/novate hose, decree ^Bt
A/o
A/o
. Vol /or,
7i/or yw/h f,
*iem
H
No
No
None
AVo/ysr
yiaret/ /o answer .^E
Va
No
A/one
'A'
-HI
:H1
■
No
8o~~A
A"
None Hj
No
No
A/one
B
,H
No
A/o
AVone
H
A/a
No
None
A'
None Wk
?6*ASC£
80"A
/Vane
A
S/igh/ decrease in /• ^H
adding* /o wd/ho/ '*^E
No
/Vo
Ooncfivonftoo many sections.
/Va choice
Afore meia/in head, >-H
A/o
A/o
/Vane
X /or tight
tetsf web and ftonge'^^
fn>ffi<, "B"/or
/rioufed os/oprodu-^^
/yeory.
imum cooling stres\^^
AYo
A/o
A/one
A'
A/one '^p
■H
fA. 3
A/o
AVone
8-
None »^E
A**
A/a
AVone
A
AVone •
A/o
A/o
:|
A/o
A/o
Wane
A/o ejry.
er/ence, -^^B
A/o
A/e
A/one
B
AVone '•
tO*
90*A
/Vone
A
None
'resenf
90*A
//one
A'
A/arena/ coM/dere,\^^
s4Af£P?fCAAf ffAt/LWAY ^AVe/fSfPr^f^/A/C AsSOCfATtO/V;- Co/VfM/TT£:£r OA/ /^A/t-. Sheet 5 of 7
/Abulat/op/ op VPeplies to /?./P/. Cip'cuiap' Wo. /34f Mo/5890
f/VEOP'Pf^T/OrV /// P'eGAPO TO ffall SeCT/OP/S.
January 19/4.
Pb/fnood
Nile-
aye
TVhefweigAt
and sed/onon
younoirpur-
chosmgfor
genera/
use/
Do you contemplate
a Seamier section
than that now in
yenerat use 7 If
so trio/ /ncreose
is prop os eo '?
//oreyouuifd
any of the mil
sectionsof7ht
Ameritenforl
woyAisn/lf
So which 7
77 you do not use The Amencon
pbifwoy Assn. Secf/oos
yi/ease state your objections
to/hem.
Which of the
APA. sections
•A'crB'do
youpreter?
What mod/ //ration of The
Amer/can Plr//wey Assn.
Secf/ans woo/d you consider
des/rah/e'
77o you favor the same width otbose
for two or more we/yhts ofroi/ in
arder /a reduce numher of patterns
oftieptatet'
/tso to what ertent ?
fioyov fai/or Me some fistiny
dimensions /or Avo or more weights
ofra///n order to reduce the
nu/nher of patterns of/ant- bars?
ft so /o Mia/es/b>/7
Co/trade 8 Sou them
I//5
85"A5C£.
' A7o
85"A
'd for heavy
/Vane
No
No
curvotUrc. "B
for fongeott.
Detroit, Toledo & /ronton
441
8J"ASC£
AID
/Vo
A/one
f/o choice
/-/aye no/ aonj/dered
Nave not Co
isidered
£t Paso & Southwestern
968
85"AJCI
30" A.I? A
/Vo
A/ane
A'
AVone
Yes, /or i/or/afions of/Cfperydin wt.
Georgia Scuthern 8r Pfor/da
395
85?6~0ord
Peloy/ng 75m*vith
/Vo
YVone
No
75*A5.C£
85"ASC£
Indiana Norhor Belt
/C5
85"A.SCE
TVo
TVo
/Vo reason 7o change stanaard.
No si
'c/dy
No
Mo
/Yarns Yen/r-a/
1333
SJ'ASfP
TVo
TVo
None
■0"
//one
Not /f sections differ ma fen all - /n tve/yht.
Wary /and ' S Pennsytvon/'o
79
85"ond/d"
Wot at/ores ent
/Vo
None. l4/eu/d/>rohah/y
ascj
i/se en newworA:
M/sioori, Ponsos 8 7ejras
3864
85"ASa
Not ' of present
TVo
A/ane
"B"
A/one
No
fVo
rYeN/s 8 Oh/a
I39S
8S"ASYE.
iVo
/Vo
None
No
No
/few Or/eons, pfob/fe & Chicayo
404
85"A5.C£
/Vo
TVo
/Vane
/fore nc / sfc/d/ed
No
No
Pittsburgh, Showmut Stfarthern
279
85"AS.C.£.
No
/Vo
None
Not oh/i
to say.
Not ttie erper/e Tee to discuss
Southern
7Z37
85"AJ.C£
/Va
A/a
None
•0"
None
No
No
7esas 8- Y^ar/Y/a
1965
85"ASC.£.
/Vo
/Vo
None
"3"
None
No
No
V/rqinian
475
85MASC£
/OO" a 7 some1
/7m. fUU'B
None
3'
ttone
Yes
Yes
poin/s on tine
Baft/more, Chesapeake Sr
77/
ss'pa'P
TVo
Wo
Proportion at head too
B~
Peduce heiyht to 5i ".Mate
No
Nc
A//ontic
smaff and section too high
hase eyciaf ne/yht. Plate web
tor hate tor type 'A'.
of//Y/e heavier.
Afar fir A, Yh/coya 8 S/Veo/s
S73
85"
TVo
B~
Not prepared to state.
//ore not ini/est/yated
Same
5po/ione, Portlands 5ea/t/e
7/7
85"/S.Co
TVo
No
None
Not sufficient
A/one
No
/to
"9509
ly acquainted.
Western Poc/f/c
980
85"C.F&ICa
/Vo
/Vo
None
'£'
None
Yes, when difference in weight
is not ofer 5"per yd.
"050
//rand Poplds & Tnd/ana
578
85"P5.
/Vo
A/o
~B~
/»
No
4 Van/a, Birmingham &A//ontfc
660
80"AJCE
Mo
A/a
Oistniutlon of material in
/f
/Vo
Not for rods yarymg more than
AS.C.f. section fires stroay
4" in weight
er raitatso prefer wide hase
ofA.S.CE.
Ba////»are & cOh/o C.T
75
80"AS(£
/Vo
No
/7o no fuse.
Yes
Yes
Charfesfan8 Western Carolina
341
80"A5.C.£.
/Vo
No
Atone
fVo
No
Co/orado Nldtand
338
80'A.S.CE.
/Vo
No
Yes. /or 75" SO" aid 85"
Cornier/end & Pennsylvania
53
80"ASCS.
/Vo
No
A5.C.7. better for our conditions.
ifndec/ded
/Vone
/Vo
No
A/W£:S?/CAI/V rt/l/LWAV JzAr-0//V£~£-/:?//VG /4-S30C/s4T/O,V;~ Cc7AfAf/T7~^F- OAV ffA/A . 5HrET6er7
Tabulat/o/w or for Lies to A. £ A. CixculAK No. (347 Ato. /5890
f/vro/erryiT/o/v //v /?csdi?D to J^Ail SfCT/o/ws.
January 1914
far/road
Ni/e-
age
Who/weight
ondjection
are you now
purchasing
for genera/
use'
Do you contemplott
o neoyter section
than /ho/ a/ pres-
ent in general 'use
/fso wAaf /ncreas
ii proposed '.'
//aye you usea
any o/ /he ran
section! ot the
' Amencon /roil
•woyAssh' //
so wh/ch ?
If you do not use The Amer-
/can /fo it 'way Asfn Sections
p/ease state your objections
to /hem.
Wh/ch of /he
A.H.A- Section,
A'or'S do you
prefer ?
li/hot modif/cof/on of /he
American iPaiiway Assn. Section
svoutd you cons/der desir-
able?
Oo you fayor the same width of
base for /wo or more weights 0/ rail
/n order /o reduce number of
patterns 0/ f/e plates ?
If so to whafe/tenff
Do you fayor the some fishing dim-
ensions for jive or more weights of
rod /a order to reduce the number
a//sa//erns of joint- bars ?
If so to what ertenf?
Centra/ Yermonf
S86
SO'ASCr
/Vo
/Vo
None
A
/Vone
Yes, some for 90*and J0O* 7f"oiJ85" 7Z°and60*
rrand 7rz/nf A>oc///c
1730
80*AS.CC
//of a/yorejen/
A/a
ASCS adopted before A./? A.
A", or pi ssibly a compromise between
No
No
came out.
A'add'A"'
reoryta
307
so"as.cc
Yes, 85"
/Vo
Base sheo/d eguo/ he/gh/
A mean bt tween /he /wo.
/Vo
y&s, for yariotions ofnotover 5"
sr//A suff/c/enf me/a/ in ha//
/>er yd.
o/ro///oproride a reason-
ab/e wear before remoyol
turns in j, ftargu/tte & South ■
so*asc£
/Vo
No
Too narroyy hose compared
7T
Ataf'e base eguat to Ae/ghf.
No
A/o
eastern
/St
sy/fh t/eigntto use en cedar
f/es wt/boaf p/a/es
wOr/eans Oreo/ Nor/hern
285
soviet
M
rVo
A'
increase base decrease depth
No
Afo
uebec Nonfreo/8- Sou/bern
2/9
eo*/is.c£
/Vo
/Vo
/Vo/ fan
7//ar yy//h t. hem
res, same base for 80'and 90"
and /or /O0"ond //Oa
rrifoa /fryer
22
80*4 S(t~.
/Vo
No
None
A/o//// Roared fo answer
Yes Cannot say to what ey, lenf
sgwe/panno 8 New Vorlr
tss
80*4 SCI
/Vo
No
/Vane
A'
Yes 75y0"Ond85"- 5" base.
No
9o~9J"ond/0C''- 5i " base.
/OS? ////"and//5"- 6" base.
ledo, Peoria & tYes/ern
248
SO*A./?A.-A
/Vo
eo*A
A"
None
/Vo
No
War/0, Peoria & Stfauis
255
7S*ASC£
No
1%
A/one
B
A/o
No
d/ 8 SA/o /s/and
307
7S*4SC£
/Vo
/Vo
/Vone
/Vo
No
etv c?r/eans 6 Ner/beos/ern
509
7S"AS.C.F..
/Vo
No
None
A'
None
A/o
A/o
~w Orleans, Texos 3 Neyuo
457
7S"A.S.C£.
25m, ■80*ASC£
80"A
/Vane
A~
S//gb/ decrease in height.
Yes, fso/ no/ for difference of
Yes, but not for difference of
adding to yy/d/bof //onpe.
oyer S"peryd.
ayer /O* per yd.
ternationalg Great Northern
//eo
75"
/Vo
/Vo
Qonotivonftoo many sections.
/Vo c/roice
None metal in head , head fil-
A/o
No
vis zona & Ar/ransos
260
75*/5.Co
/Vo
/Vo
/Von*
'4 for tight
"7S0S
traffic . B'for
theory.
imum cooling stresses.
Joseph & Grand /stand
3/3
75"/torriman
/Yo
A/o
A/one
A'
/Vone
Lines CS
75" to 80" and 72" to 60*
louts Southwestern
/809
7f*/.SCo.
9S"AfA..0
A/o
A/one
B-
None
Yes for differences of not ore- 5* per yd.
//6
70"ASC£.
/Vo
No
/Vone
A'
A/one
A/o
No
Dodge, Dei ffoinej 8c Southern
'orgta & f/or/do
nsas City, rlenco 8r Orient
/70
352
675
70"ASCf
70*A.5.C£.
70"A.SCZ
/Vo
/Vo
/Vo
A/o
/Vone
No eyp er/ence.
/Vo
Afo
-rode A/or/hern
uis ui//e, /tender Jon & it Louis\
165
200
70*ASCF
70*A5tt.
90*'
Votafpresent
90*A
90*A
/Vone
/Vane
A' None
A" /Vare no/ considered.
Some base and fishing dimensions for 7O*-75fandtor80~85*and9O*
A/o No
fM7 Na,589°
January 1914
f
Sect/at
'Sir-
0o you /ay or the jaw w/dth of
bdje /or two or more weiahts of rat/
/n order fo reduce number 0/
pd//erns 0/ /lep/afrs ?
//so /a w/iaf eyfenff
Do you foyer the some fishing dim-
ensions /or Iwa or more weights at
ra/Z /a order fa reduce the number
o/jOo//err>s 0/ join f- bars'
If so fo iy/idf ' ertenf?
Ye>j,same/or 30"and ff?0* 7 fa
id 85", 7Z"and6d*
tvyeen
Wo
/Vo
/So
Yes, /or variations ofnotover 5"
/>er yd
ignt
A/o
No
eptb
No
No
yfrfjjame base far 60"and 30"
and /ar /dd"or?d //Oa
Yes Cannot say to what e>y,
er>f
Yes 7f?80"Or,d8S"- S" base.
No
90fS}Mand/He"- 5 J" base.
NS? //Mad /IS"- 6" base.
/Va
No
No
No
/Vo
No
A/o
No
Yi>s, /su//?e/ /or di//erence of
Yes,bu/notford///erer?ce 0/
oyer S"peryd.
oyer /d" per yd.
fit-
/Vo
No
i/s-
in-
Same yyidff) base arte/ f/sfiino 0
/me/js/or>5 /or SO" /0 /dD*
7ffo80"and 72" /o 60"
Yes. for differences 0/ nof ore
r 5"peryd.
A/o
No
No
No
A/o
No
Some base ond fishing dim ens/a,
s /or 70"-75"and for 80'8S"ond 90"
A/o
No
INFORMATION IN
REGARD TO
RAIL SECTIONS.
s4M£ff/C/iA/ rtsq/Z-WAy ^/VO/fl/F&Sf/A/G A-SSOCMT/0/V;- Co/LfA//rr£7£: OA/ /fA/L. Surer 7 or 7
Tabulation of Replies to A P. A. Ci/cculai? A/o. J347 /Vo 15890
/nfoxmation in Pesapo to Pail Sections.
January 1914.
Pai/road
Nite-
age
Who/weight
ondsedion
ore you now
purchasing
for general
use?
Do you contemplate
a heavier section
than that at pres-
ent in general 'use>
If So what increase
is proposed?
Mane you used
anyaftnerail
lections of the
American /foil-
WO/A'ss'n' If
so which?
If you do not use The Amer-
ican Railway Ass n Sections
please state your objections
fa them.
Which of the
A./? A. Sections,
A' of 8 do you
prefer?
What modification of the
American failwgy /Iss'n Sections
would you consider desir-
able?
Do you favor the same width of
base for two or more weight! of rail
in order to reduce number of
patterns of tie-plates?
If so to what ei tent'
Oo you favor the same fishing dim-
ensions for two or more weights of
roil in order to reduce the number
of patterns of joint- bars?
If so to what eytent ?
/VarfoM Southern
608
7CA.SCI.
80"
12 mi. 80^'
Difficulty in getting orders
A'
/lake head 40% , web ZZ%
No
No
fitted for frogs and switches.
and base J8%
Pacific 8 fdohoNarff/ern
90
65aA5.CI
80 in cose of
/Vo
tfase foe /arge in ralio to
A
i^/a/re Mem conform as cloiely
Yes. some width base and fishing dimensions for 6S*-/0* 'for 75*- 80,"
ejr/enj/on
web and head
as possiile /a Me Dudley section
far 85" 90" ond for SS'-IM"
7onopah or Oa/dYie/d
I/O
65"ASCE
/Vo
/Vo
/Vone
iVo
No
Cora/i/xt 8 Northwestern
134
6u"/tS.CE
76'
/Vo
A/orrosv base.
B'
Mate Width of base eguol height.
/Vo
Yes. if possible.
Tennessee, Alabama & Georgia
95
/Vone
//o
tVo
None hid since 1891
A
/Vone
•Yes
Yes
Ti/ee/o, S/ /ova 8 Western
454
as. a.
/Vo
etf's'
&aje /oo /yorresy
"B"
i^fa^e hose eooo/ oeifAf
/Vo
No
Peceivea
fao /oft fo arrange
according
fa weight of rail.
Ba/timore & Ohio
3519
90"and/00u
YVo
9d"ai>d/ee*
/Vane
A
/Vone
Pecammend same width of bose
A/FA. A
A
for 90"4rfA-A ond /dO"4 ffA B
No
_
PttCA/V
HA/LWAV itNG/MEefff/VG ASSOC/^TfOAfj -
_^ y j
7s4dULATtO/V OF Pe PLIES TO /4.PA. C/fCULAP
/V FOFMAT/ON //V FegA#D TO SP/JCE -ffAi
ford Length and Drilling.
S/o/e preference for cS-/7a/c> a*
iff
^-/pote
<4-/?c/e> anyfabarj awd gtrd recrso.
»^B^CO
1 O-B-^-4 -O-e-^)
-ted
i»oJ L~c— J
/Reference
Reasons.
c
D
E
faq/tit
A
3
D
E
6
A
: as
*d
26
*¥
6
4
Just as good as 6-hofe and costs les.
■■
■/jet
/
26
d
d
4
/Yore economical 'and 'art setisfacfi
/set
/
24
4%
7
n
s
4
Additiana/cosfof Shelf net worrvnfec^
6
24
8
s
4
//are economica/. ~4
S
A/ct
(/sea
S
f/old/nore firmly. Carers join/ ties be'
T}
"27
4
7
-
4
27 'bar taog enot/gb fo distribute wr
"£7
si
Si
and4bo/fsepou9b Uteep join/ tig/
5
A/at
used
6
Greafer security.
6
6
Account trouble mm creeping rai-
•sed
6
6
/§
si
4
t/aye never used.
Si
24
S
S
4
Strang enoagb.
>sed
!"26
sf§
6
4
Adegaate strength with considei
,v24
st
Si
aar/nf of materia/.
0>M
8
§
-t
t.
6
Aa/
e/sea
'
6
Better af/gnmenf an sharp coni'
6
si
6i
*££
Si
7i
2
s
4
Less cos/ saf/sfacfory results. '■
IM
s,i
6%
24
<A
7
ti
s
4
We bare fewer broken bars. *
43
*,S
5f<
26
H
6
n
n
6
■
•i
/sed
24
s
6
4
More economical, just as good.
5
7i
m
24
7
6
6
Increased stiffness and strenth.
'sed
26
6
6
z
6
4
Lower cost, fewer parts, /ess holes /.
9?
24
Si
6i
4
S/r/70/e joints too fong. Waremdi
causes ra/7 cho/ing and ' permone7-
/xm/wg. c7?fc7/?erf/rs/ cost and md)
brno~S7ce. <S/re better results.
9
a
8
6
Setter adapted for supported joint: .
7
24
6
6
6
Supports ends of rails better.
it_
2
Si
4*.
7
/i
S
4
fcav7an7/ca'C 'and eff/c/enf.
use<
/
24
6
6
4
drfra cosf at dhole ro/jostif/ed
c/sea
'
24
6*
S
4
fff/c/enf and mare econcvn/caf:
6
24
S
S
4
Efficient and more economical.'
csed
24
6
6
4
Efficient fewer boffs, better he spi
vsed
26
S
7
2
si
Eff/cient and mare economical
\-
Am£/?/ca/v ftA/z-Wxr £a/g/a/£:£:/=?/a/g Ass0c/at/oa/;-Coaim/T7~£:£: o/v F?a/l Shcet t or &
Tabulation op Pcpues to j4.trfA. C/rcuiA/? No /348
f/V P Of MAT ION l/V /FscAlPO TO CJPLICE BAPS.
January 1914.
fr'ai/road
tfi/eage.
Standard Length and Drilling.
S/'a'/f /Or-e/erence for 6-ho/e or
•4-/io/ie 0/?&/e-D0rs ond aire reason
Sfa/e objections, if any. To drilling proposed below,
fsased 00 joint ties ff'face with 8~ /between.
6- 7/ole
4 hole
p o c -e- a ■€. A ^« B 4*-c-e> 1
1 O b~^2a -e- e-O 1
r~dir- c*/?o/e 7>or
T^or -4l7ofe bar
24
(as »
A
B
c
D
t:
teogM
A
B
D
E
6
4
Reasons
2«f« p1e>J:^-5v-e-5re-5ie- 5*»-| ff
[»ii<=>-5i"-Q- 5 i'-^»-s ;'Q3|j
str/xona 3/Vew Mexico
/OS
A
'ef
L3e
3
24
54
5i
4
iBf/Tsradapled 7a jujpended joint
/tone
/}//0/?fa Aides/ Point ond
Western Ay of /l/oboma.
225
A7
7/ is.
;ed
24
i
6i
4
feonomy in first cost and maintenance.
27o 170/ o'deoca/e.
//one
/If/an/a, Birmingham SAt/onU
666
/V,
7/ I/.
•ed
24
J
s
:i
5i
4
Bettfr adapted for suspended joint.
TYo/ sufficient space betneen f/es.
ftone
flf/0/7//c Coas/ C/ne
4436
29
5
5
5
24
S
-;
Bo;
'n
4/orirtji>f7i"and/if7>/er, d /or n/arier
Too /on? for Two ties, too short for three
Sui/abte for tioht rails,
B&O. C.T
75
M
/ e/Si
-a
Si
6
72
Si
■4
/Toes as pood tvor/c as 6ho/e.
IVbuJd reouire chonae in standard.
Buffo/a Creet
7
30
4&
d?
4}
24
6
7
4
Bef/erodoio/ed /ar suspended joint
/Vone
/Vone
Bessemer & la fie Erie
263
31
5
s
5
6
81
tier
'.sea
6
5/ro/n ot bolts better dwided.
Prejenf dr/77ing a tittle better.
fT-esen/ c/r/t/ing a tittle better.
Baltimore, Caesopeo/e SrA^/a/r/zc
///
34
4
5
6
Vaf
utei
4
£ccnomy of material.
8 "space not suf/icienf.
Drdti/14 seems in good proportions.
Sanffor 6c firoostook
625
24
5
6
4
fs/re/ne ends ofjan/s oreof/ift/e use.
cea/ers/oacs should no/ exceed d'j'osjt :nt sboutd beheld /irmly at center
Bos/on dr/ltbany
394
3/
5.6
56
5.6
2£
5
6
Better adopted /or 3 fie suppor fad joint.
Spaces sf/ould be uniform .32'is Uoshdrf.
/Vane, e/cepf change iif present practice.
Bu//e/o S- Susguehanna
3S6
1b
5/
si
-}
24
5
5
2i
61
4
6-/?o7e bar /e* long and orertt in center
6-bolebors no longer used.
Punching should be forther from ends.
Buffalo, Rochester S Pittsburgh
S7d
V,
lcn$
erpi
^ctj.
ed
2 5
6
7
4
?6~"con//nueus joint // standard.
Lvould reguire cbor, ?e afs/anaard.
Cen/xv/ J^Knranf
S66
A,
' c it
J
24
6
£
■4
TVore ecorr am/cat.
/Vane
IVone
C~ner/es/oo & Wrs/em Carol/ha
34/
29
5
5
5
24
5
8
6
Secures greater sfi/tnejj.
/Vone
//one
CfesoyieoSe & Ob/o
2309
34
4
5
(
24
4
7
4
£rfro kngtnis waste of materia/.
/Vone, except c/iongein standards.
Cti/caa-o & /4/ton <-> f./oS
/0Z6
TVo
/jnat
'rpa.
j/jst
3
'74
6f
6
4
6~-/?o/e is unnecessarily Zona andtraifet
/Vone
Hi 9a"
^4
ii
5j
1/aAr/a/. /teter 24"cen/inucosjdOZ .
CI? /rapo 6 fas tern /liinois
7276
/Vo/
tsex
/
26
Si
6
2i
6
4
/Yard econony/ca/, j ust as good.
Woutd reguire change of standards, regi iriny two sets of bars to be" carried.
C~/iic0a~o C/rea/ UCes/ern
7496
xYo/
c jen
24
s
6
*ll
6f
4
Snvnd eneofn it 'we/t ' mo/n/ained.
/Vane
None
Cb/coy'O, /nd/dna &5outbern
3S9
33
S
5
6
23
6
6
4
C/?e'4e>dra/?d/us/ as ef tec/ire.
/fot ada/sted to present standard.
C///C0?o SrxYcr/b ISes/ern
8273
/Yo/
CJPC
26
6
6
4
6-/?o/e oar nceoAens roil by e/trv />o/r.
/Vo particufar objection, but not
ne/n forces fieyondpoint w/tere e/fedive,
soff/cienf improvement over present.
and tors are drawn so tight ffaf
friction mates e/patfsion distribution
more unere/> four bo fe bar per-
mits be//er s/>ac/na of joint 7/es /or
fomp/h? and cos/ /ess.
C/7/caga ex IVester/i /ndfono
73
(/si
du
ronr
nuec
/
24
5
6
/i
H
6
//design provides for 3 supporting ties
/Jolt botes j-hoofd hare uniform spac-
and bans of such design and ' mt
ing. Slot spacing permits onole bar
as/d/Wdfft?/ 2>end//!d Otherwise 4 fide
/o extend beyond join/ 7/es
Chicago, /ndianapotis &
A/a/
isjec
'
24
6
6
4
6bote too /ang - wastefu/.
None
lYone except change of standard.
/ou/SV///e
617
CmcdgV, Sur/iogton 3- Ouincy
9003
/Vo/
uied
24
5
5
2
4
4
Cost of oddifionot tsng//? not wo/ranted.
Center hdes should not be orer 5"apart
Center titles feo far apart.
Cb/cefo,////wae/ee 3- ST fau/
9732
37
Jg
6
7
24
si
6
4
Increased cost a/ Sno/e no/ werran/ed. None, except 'conflict with our standard.
ftone, escep f con f lid with our standard.
Amer/c/w Ha/lwav £ng/a/££k/a>o Ajjoc/^kt/oa/; -Comm/tt/te: oA//=f/\/^. ^T/sffsf
TrldULATtOfV OF Pe -plies to /I. PA CtecuLAf No. 1348
//vroeMATioN t/V Pega/?d to Splice -baps.
January IS/4.
Ard//road
AfiZeaoe
Standard /.engtA ond Drilling.
S/o/£ preference /or £■/?{>/*> or
'f/tc/f d/y/fibor? and g/r* reason.
S/a/e objections, ft any. Zo dr////ng proposed be/ow,
Sajed an jo/nf Z/es ff'foce witt) 6" between.
6- State
*?-/7o/e
1 i>c«.B-#-'i«>«-e.c-e ]
E
3»-B-er- A -©-»-€> 1
Tar 6- note' Aor-
,,„- 31" or 32*
Tor dAo/e bar
2f
Wff trd
c^eterence
Reasons.
•1. Ui»5:^-5;'<»5;"'Q'5i^- 5J»H »r.
ki^- s j-e-si'-o^ j'-e-jjj-
<*>&
A
3
c
D
E
1..-V-
A
B
D
E
6
A,
Ch/ceg-o Abet /stood 8 /hectic
7694
/Vc
/ c/s
'd
26
a
6
4
Just as good as 6-Me and costs less.
/Zone ercepf in variation of holes.
for light roil a/fheles should he eli/plicol
Chicago St Abu/,
ZZ>/?neepotis cf dmaAa
77dd
A3
usee
t
16
s-
6
4
A7are economko/ ond are seiisfadory
None
ZVone
C./V.0 8 TPondA 6S. JfJP
666
fee/
usee
■
34
4,i
7
<i
s
4
Additiaae/cosfatdtfde net warranted.
ZYone
/Zone, except conflict with sfondard.
Carof/na & ZVorfh- western
7S4
30
4
5
6
34
8
5
4
/Vars eoonamko/
ZVone
Alone
Care/ma. Owchfie/d 8 Ohio
2SS
29
S
5
5
usea
6
tto/d/Vere tvmly. /overs joint t/es belter
Prefer present even spacing
7ba sAort.
CenfraZ of Ceorgie <<i 86*
28tS
30
4j
4$
4}
'27
4
7
4
2? ~£ar 7ary enoue/} fo distribute *ve>ig/rt
SrZraAoi/s orrdfengtb not sufficient
ZYo porZ/cuZar object/en but prefer
M SO"
*/;
S;
Si
and 4 ea/ts esoveti t»/ee/> /omt tight
bene/// to justify them
Z( 'or 2 '7 ~Aar
CenZraZ eZ Afew dersey
63/
2S
4
4
5
/to)
used
6
Greo/er security.
ZVof our practice.
ChorZofZe //arbor 8 /Yorthern
7/8
34
Si
S
6
6
4ccoui?/ trouble wtti creeping roil.
Coot & Coke
798
v.-
used
6
6
f§
53
4
/tore netcer used.
/Vane, but prefer present procf/ce
Cetarado 8 Southern
77/5
38
Sj
Si
Si
34
3
5
4
S/ranor enougA.
ZVone
/Vone
Ce/arado At/dtand "' bs"
33/
/Yet
used
"7.6
Sf§
6
4
Adequate strength w/tt? cons/dera6te
/Vane ercep>/ centZZcf with standard.
"t 7j'-ec
^7
S3
Si
sor/af ot mo/eriat.
Cumber/end & Frnnsy/iian/a
53
31
4
S
6
fVof
usee
6
Be//er at/gnment on sher/> curyes.
/Vone
/Vone
Cumberfand Vot/ey
76/
33
5
4,
6
Si
6j
Mi
&
74
2
S
4
Lfss cost, sat/s factory results.
Conf/rc/jr m/6 j/bmfrrd.
Arv/er /d'beZUw/7 ZZes.
Oe/osrare 8c Zfudson
916
<4
4$
S&
fji
24
41
7
/J
S
4
/Ve neve /ewer broken bars.
/tone
ZVone
De/aware, Zac/awanna 8c
Zi1
4t
4i
4i
3^
Sii
26
-i
6
ft
■i
6
A>re/er 26'
ate.
Western
339
Oefrv/t, 7otedo 8 /ronton
44t
/Vet
used
24
5
6
4
More economical, just as good.
None
ffone
Dufuth 8c Iron Fange
769
34
i
i
i
/}
t/i
24
7-1
6
6
Increased stiffness ond strenth
Con f fids wit. *i standard.
Denver & Hie Grande
2777
A/at
used
26
6
6
2
6
4
lonver cost, fewer ports, less holes in roil.
Z/ehe
Sarfoo short. Tie space Too small.
/Ji/tutnjodh Shore & Atlantic
7S7
44
33
6i
94
24
3.7
6t
4
3/s 7?e/e joints foofong. Wore motion
H6/ir Pits tie spacing' ends ofang/ebars
ZVone
and Minera/ Fonye
\roc/ses rati 'chafing end permanent
cere no/ supported.
iv/tdmf /Z/peaper f/rsf cost ond main-
teno/?ce d/re /setter results.
/7e/rai/ S- Atoc/inoc
3S3
38
6
6
9
8
a
6
8etter adqot&d forsupported joint
O/s/ec/ /o suspended joint.
/Zone
8/?/a, Jot/et 8 f astern
brie
48/
2F4S
40
30
6
42
6
7
24
6
6
6
Supports ends of rails better.
F/ Abso 8: doufhirestern
368
/Vol
use.
i
24
6
6
4
S*/ra cos/ at dho/e nofyi/st//Zed.
Prefer ait tielesJ''c. toe.
St 'cenPr span Zoo area/
F/or/do Fast Coast
/7/)oaye,Desfie,nes 8c Southern
64/
778
33
3
/Ve/
S
usee
6
Z4
24
s
S
5
4
4
fffu/ent and more econom/cot.
ZS/ficienf and more economical.
Z/a/es sfoo/d 'be egui -distant. /Zone
FtJm/M & Western
6a// 8 SA/p ZsZand
2S9
J07
A/ef
/tot
used
used
24
26
cS
S
6
7
2
Si
4
£fficier?t fewer botts, better tie spacing
Eff/cienf and more economical
/Ze/es sAouZdoe egu/dts/anZ.
A/one
Are/e. - 6 ~spoc//?&.
/Vane, eycepf change in sfondard.
i,*cer 1 or &
CoAfM/TTEE o/vffA/t-. Ho.ifsse
No. 1348
es.
January /$&■
-
Sso/s objections, //aty. '* J"""*? Proposed below,
/>e?jt>cfan<yo/r>/fies trfoce "M # **"*»■
/Tar 6- A?/'' far
ror 4/iqlf oar
.;. [«»-5:^-5i:<»5i^5i'» S<»^ fr
|3i*-5j-e-5i'-^-5ij«wjj.
For hontreil at' Ivies should be elliptical.
try.
Atone
Atone
/Yon?
IVone, e/cept conflict with standard.
/Vone
AVone
Itfr
Prefer present even spacing
Too sf/ort
'ioht
/Ty/rtf foiss and length net sufficient
/Yo pc/rf/cc/Arr object/ on but prefer
it.
denef/f Ujt/st/fy them.
2f~or27~6ar
Atet our practice.
•1
/Von e, but prefer present procf/ce
Nor??
Atone
•oMr
Atone escepf canf/fcf with standard.
.,
/Vone
Atone
Cd/?Wefi w/tf s/tzirdhrd'.
/°r'/fr /d "/iefsuvn A/es.
/Vane
Atone
prefer 2S'
O./C
None
A/one
Conflicts tvif,
*> standard.
nrail
/Wane
Bar too short. Tie space too small.
tio/i
W/M l/i/sf/e spacing', ends of angle bors
Atone
it
are no/ Supported.
ir>-
Ofh/ee/Jb suspended joint
Atone
/Yo c/to/ce
J t Cenfa- span Zoo c/reaf
Prefer a// notes i "c toe
f^rc/er at/ notes 6" cfee
. .
nb/ev y/tao/d be eqw -distant.
/Vone
Obyecf to g/fcrnofe placing of bolt boles a
id' fo cho/if/ng our slondard.
Xing
tfe/ey sjteufc/be> egu/dtstanf.
fre/e. - 6 jpae/M.
Afe/?e
SVar?e>, eycepf cbonge in stondord.
W£ff/c/\/v f?/\/i_WAr zz/vof/v^^/f/fvc Assoc/at/oa/jSi
Tabulation of Pe plies to /I. P. A. c'tpcui */?■>
//VPOfflATION //V PsOAPD TO Splic£-ba,
ire/ length and Dn///ng
Sfafe
preference for 6/ia/e or?
'
<dfi-o/e
*d-/?a/e attgr/ebars ond g/ve reason y
■»-6^»C<l 1
1 0-B«.A^O,S-«_|
"reference
/CeosanJ.
C 1 D
B
toy/*
A
B
c
E T
6
-3
t ft
24
4
7
4
Setter alignment at joints
6
Z2
6$
4i
4
Esfro £o(t of 0 /sate pot i*orronred.
vs,
-J
24
S
J
Zi
5
4
Sufficient strength and /ess cast
S
4
7
J
Stw/t spf/cedo/r at (//eater retPanofa/vv
fianzo/IO.IOOfo. Ctsnt/hvoi/i pre PsMr mo/
use
i
14
si.
6
4
/4s good results js with £lx>/e ^
(/Si
•a
■ L V
6
6
4
d ' /to/ey&a/ too long
Pg+
f
Z4
4
S
4
6-fote 4ars tsreof eos>er /)/o jd/v/sti
//? add/7/oao/ /ength
i ft
d
24
S
6
//
^
4
4s t/ fa/en/ and more ecano/n/ca/. ■
f
14
si
J
4
4s et7/c/f//f ond/nore economical. $
t?
f>e
4
4//eas/ ' as e//Cc /enfant coj/yess "7.
.: se
f
24
5
7
W
V
4
Tt/7/y at e//7c/e//t as 6-t/c/e,
t so
i
4
7
4
fxtra erpense of 6~- Ao/<? notjostifieJ"
USA
?'
26
6g
<f
4
Longang/e tsar bends too easily-
use
J
24
5
5"
4
first cost and momte/Kince less. ^
5
ze
6
6
4
As efficient and costs /ess.
5
24
4
7
4
rfs effect/re and costs fess. ~
*«*
Yd
26
6
7
4
t&srsr ia/ts. shorter ptate
4t/st
d
24
-
-
4
fff/cie/Tt and less cost
:&
/Voft
fA^
6
rVe use 36 'supported joint
fi/J,
•d
27
Si
5i
4
Afore effic/enf, /ess cost 7
C
H
s/a-
</<7/t?
6
f7ore rigid tnan 4-noie 4 tsrofen ~
<
bott does not tveotenjcnt so much. ',
^
-4jr
-fi-
*39-
-#•
-^f-
?-
**-
4
Tfiese oreg/ring satisfactory serrl^
t4-
■44-
#jf-
T04-
-ff
_4f
*#■
^
~
'^H-
-*-
^^
■7*-
+^
-
"27
fi
si
*/
3t
H
^; ,7
-&-
-&■
/j>
-t—
•1
6
3i
(1
-ii-
si
-trr
7i
2
S
4
/9s e/ fie /en f of 6 and costs /ess.
6
?i
6i
Ze£
.Si
74
2
S
■4
Aoouf eat/at fod~ antf cost /ess.
6
24
5
6
6
a
4
4ho/e Suff/ently /ong.
~
Am£2P?ICAM /7/)//^/K £A/G/A/££:/=t//VG AsSOC/AT/OA/;C0MM/rT£:£: OAf f?A/£. S»c*r3crS
Tdsut/iT/o/v or/P£rpu£j to /I./? A. C/jpcu/^ip /Vo. J348.
//VfnjpptAT/O/V //V fi*£Gy4/?D TO SPLICE- BAFS.
January 1914.
fat/read
Mileage.
Standard Length ond Drifting
S/a/e /a/v/Ssirf/tce /or S-Po/e or
■^Pa/e ct/ic/fe /bars andg/^e reason
S7c?Ae odjecf/ons, //any, to drifting proposed below,
iased 0/7 jo/nt ties 3 face tv/th 8" between
S- /?0/4>
*?■ Aa/e
1 OC& 8 ©-A^-S<«n;
*-'
I o^B-e-^ -e-e -0 I
for 6-/>o/e aar
ror 4 no/e bar
Prv/fnmce
Reasons.
r$~ ^f»"iW»^ ?,.
|-3 je- 5 1'-G- 5 J" -e> 5 i^)j'j
Cm/Hi
4
e
c
D
E
tinglt
A
3
D
E
6
4
Oeorg/o St A/orida
351
A
'0/ 01
ed
24
4
6
4
zdore econom/cat
/Vone
OoAes/an. pouston 3 rienderson
50
A
■>/ U)
ed
24
4
7
4
£///{/en/, econjm'Caljj/rnvfs juprnaed joint
/Van*
fYaae, e/cepf change in standard.
Geary/a
307
6/
df
6$
ze
6i
6i
4
Eff/dertt and economical.
27 0 nafadroccsfe
0//ers good practice
I9rand 77-cnf
4766
A
7/ USt
d
24
6
6
ti
4}
4
6/ref greater e/o j //c//y /or jusp&idedjcirrt
Aane. ou/be/eve 6 "spacing hetter
Grand 22cnA /Trci/cc
7738
Ac
•fl/ft
d
24
Si
Si
4
6/des good e///de/>cy with less cost
/Vane
f/one
Great ' /Vor/Aem W90*
77/4
36
d§
4i
7
2
3i
'"24
5
6
6
&ecoc>se of tendency 0/ />e//j fo
7/e space /oo c/eseAr /ompmg.
Tie space too close /or temping
81 sf
2,<v
s/re/cA under Aeayy af/e /aods.
Prefer 2 6' bar
Vgj
*>
6 '•* vrg '/a Sautter/! & P/orida
395
A
aft/St
<d
24
4
7
/*
5i
4
f/7/v efficiency of 6/te/edoes ndjvitrff coit
/reef//?? Va//ey
35Z
Ac
/ use,
1
24
di
si
4
C/?ecf/>er
d/t I'fs/dpermiti jj»/e cleoronce on ntdi
O/i itspkei w/l/c/ear na/s.
/22/neis Soutbern
2 38
/Vo.
'asea
24
5
5
6
d /vr^Md rood bed Under e/istinf
condd/ons onftd read prefer 4
/Vane
fVane
Jnd/ana //orpor Be//
/ 05
. A-
' C/Se*
7
24
£
6
4
Eyfra lenofn 0/ 6/>ek 'does no/ada 'jfe/yto
Aone
/Vane
to Airn a/one /& Oreo/ Por them
r/60
40
6
6
6
24
6
6
6
Better adapted top/went 'mit creeping.
/Vane
//one
Mrnja/di/y, tde/ico 8r On en/
675
/Vet
used
26
42
if
//
5i
6
4
4 /ar 7d*rO't. Fortreawer pre/er 6
//one
/font
Kansas Southwestern
61
//or
used
24
6*
5
/
5
/Vone. Think pet ten than present
itcraatvAe 3-A7/cA/gen
277
Mot
used
24
4i
4i
4
f/A/c/e/tcy dependen/ on good potts
and not on /enptn 0/ i>ars.
/Vone
Alone
lauisritte & Nashu/fte
4937
29
4*
4i
6
4
6
6
£a-/?/>eAe/dufi /era// better /hdn 4 note.
Obyec/ /e /engtbbutnot/odr////na
/Ve abject/on bu/cao/dadtvafaoeouilyee 22".
feh/gA & Pew fngtand
Z7Z
30
4
S
6
24
5
ei
4
t/rsf cast ond nta/ntewnce tr/s
/Yd/?C
End 'space feo areaf reducing effect/re
/eng/A c?//ds/reag/n. SAou/dneteteeed J".
Ian? A /ar>d
399
29
4
4
5
44
*4
24
4
4
6
To present 'etboir/dg ot joint on cvryes.
/Vane
//one
leA/gh 8 Puds on
97
28
4
4
5
24
8i
5
6
Pre/er 6Mejcin/tor neavy sections.
//d4/e /e drear tro/n s/e//ono/e,_
£s?d space too /ong.
late /he & Hfcstern f'/SO"
886
/2a
? use
i
ft)
6
6
4
Pre/er suspended joint Wdh ttt/s tttere
/Yone
Pract/caffy some as our drilling.
(tlge*
s
*f*-
-^0-
isneodranfoye /n e/trotengfh atd-hde.
Lore Shore 8 Michigan Southern
1965
We
1 usee
24
6
6
4
Uje suspendedjomf. 4 bolts enough.
6 "spacing better. Brings end hales nearer
end e/ Bar ond distributes bott pressure
Leb/gn Vo//ey
/42S
26
4
4
4
/Ye/
eject
6
6 botts necessary to resist stretching.
26~join/ tong enough with 4' spacing.
touuiona & /Irlransos
26i7
32
5
5
5
24
S
5
4
Eguotty efficient ond more economical.
Atone
Alone
Couis/i/fe. Henderson 8 Stlouis
ZOO
A/01
used
26
8j
5
4
dhole bars ot/vn break arcrvcf o/cen/er
//one
tVone
Missouri Pacific "'/ad'es'/s'
7738
/Vo/
used
"26
5
5
4
six fff/aen/ as 6bde at less cost.
Aon,
p/one
ru9e:63"S6'
'"76
6
6
i>r.
J '■>
Missouri, tfdnses & Teros
3864
36
6
6
6
2i
24
4
7
3
6
4
/dttre economical, ma/n/enance /ess
/Vane
f/one
40
6
6
6
H
3i
i
AfW£fYlC4MV f?A/2- W* V £a/G//V£:£/?//VG A SSOC/A T/OA/,--CoMM/rrB£T (?/V/?»/Z . S""7 ' *"* S
fro. Jyooj
Have at/on op Ft plies to /l.F/4 CtPcuL/ie A/o IJ48.
//vror/~TAT/oM in f£6Ari> to Splice-baps
January 1314
/fo/traod
Mileage
Standard length and Drilling.
1 State preference for 6 Me or
State abjections, //any, fa drilling proposed below,
£-hofe
4- riot*
'd-Ao/e oi7o~/ebdrs and give reason
based an joint ties & face
e&r s-noie txnr
yyitn a oefyyeen.
for 4'dole Oor
Uj =15TZ
Preference
AFeos-oos.
"J. [H^-S'-^-Jj-^-Si-'O-Si'e- r'"-^-j or.
|-^&-5i^e^5i ^e^^i'^oj.H
ifryli
J
B
c
D
E
knelt
A
B
0
E
6
4
cVoh/fs & c?h/o
J395
V
' US
d
24
4
7
4
Setter al/anment at joints
f-r-efer J0 ~tvr frith S 'spat ei
Preter aur present standard
f2mneapo,is. StPoJ8&«lt Stefan,
3845
46
r
6i
6
;:
6$
4 s
■1
Cstra cort at c-nale not warranted.
DtO Ocffer /fan present standard.
Afrssouri & lYerfhern/lrlransas
365
j
'd
2-1
i
5
It
6
4
Suttieient s/temjtti endlesi cast
</./f for peony rail
Hone
ff/ch/gad Oenfrat
1914
3a
4
c
a
is
4
7
J
Stiart }/^/re2ary at yr eater redidrtalarea, as
freter 4'space atrenler rtalds tsars and
Saua^a.lOOZ. Cant/haoaf aire better remits
3'oehyeer ties not joffiaent
rail ends Setter
fd/nneapalis A St touts
1586
A
■ w?
1
24
Si
6
4
As good results js with 6-ho/e
/Pecommend all 5$ 'spacing
Alone except prefer ourown
fdaine Central '"fff"
1333
>
'ft it
•d
''2-4
6
6
4
cS neteydi/ll loo 'ong
f?ar too long
IVoav
Pv-
ttunising Morgue/left Southeastern
151
32
■4
s
s
24
4
S
4
6 -note 2>ars dreat e?os>er f/o jdraataae
IVone
lYone. except change at standard
/n additional length
A/orfhem /%c/f/c
6233
%
t I.JC
/
24
s
6
'S
34
-4
els el/ictent and mere ecanorn/oal.
Aiane
IVot heller than our standard
rVorfallc Soul/tern
600
3C
si
5
5
14
54
5
4
4s eltrerenl andrnare economical.
Prefer our osvn
standard
Vfie tirt, Philadelphia S Mdolf
112
Si
» f
ee
4
J//eaj/ ase//ic/snt and cast/ess
MniriirA, AlesrttayeoShorllord
209/
ty.
' o<e
j
24
5
7
>i
7i
4
Ti/llf ay e/ticle/?t as 6 -tide.
/Vcne
Outside hates should he neater end.
IVeiv drfeaas 8 Jllortheadern
S03
II
* i. j e
i
4
7
4
i~xtra expense at 6/iele not justified
23onofase f/tem
Pfefer our una standard
file ■» Orleans. Mobile 6 Chicago
404
A
■ ' .. je.
I
26
6s
6
4
Long angle 2>erDends too easily-
7bol?/?g — joint too e/pensiye
Alone, except change in standard
tlenv Orleans Great IVorthern
285
fi
■Oil
d
?4
5
5
4
first cost and maintenance lejs.
IVone
Atone
Vety Orleans, Texas & Mexico
457
36
5
t
5
16
6
6
4
As efficient and costs /ess.
A/one
Hone
Mtshydle, ChattoiMojo & St lews
1230
26
4
4
5
24
4
7
4
rfs effect/re and casts /ess.
Vesv reef, Ontario 8 Western
566
A
"''■j.
d
26
6
7
4
/ever bdfs. shorter plate
Too long, f^efer suspended joint.
Too short for ff'jorat ties.
Afeyada Aforthern
165
A
of USt
<d
24
-
-
4
ft/Sclent and less cost.
Prefer all oolong holes.
ttesr rirtCentral8Hudscn finer
3437
36
SS
5 6
5.&
tVotc
t*d
6
rYe use 36 'supported joint
fyot 'adorned/a supported jo/nt
Does not mafcA aur standard
iVar/hsyej/ern Pac/f/c
424
A
arm
'd
27
Si
5i
4
/*7ore ell/c/enl, less cod
Drrll/ng O.K. Prefer c 7 plate.
A/orfolt a Western <»8S"
ICI4
r30
Sh
5
S
y\
s/oy.
dcrv
6
27ore rigid than 4-no/e A draten
Suggest 2tO" length tj-'end spaces.
None
Oregon Short tune M&ifmM
\v
5
4i
6
-Hr-
m
ft
?s
4
bolt does not Hreotenjcnt so much.
These oregnr/ng satisfactory seryice.
Alone
IVone Do not foyor 8" tie.
»
|£
-&-
-fr-
-44-
-H-
W 80""
"27
■1,,
Si
it
2r
3i
Pennsylyanro
5605
36
5
4i
6
3i
6i
26,
Si
-**r
7i
^7-
2
5
4
/4s efficient ' os 6 and costs less.
Prefet our dnl/ing four middle holts
Prefer our drilling, c? 'not enough
nearer end of rail.
hefyyeen Ties
Pe<nna fines West of Pitts euro*
3418
JO
S
4i
6
3t
6}
zej
St
74
2
s
4
Afloat eat/el fo dor/d cost less.
ttone
Pere Marquette
2330
6
6
6
24
5
6
<h
5fi
4
4 hole juffiently long.
four holes enough.
Woo/d ma/re m/dd/e space S"
sjo. 1347 No. 15890
January J9/4.
/he £o yoa /oyor /be same w/dtb of
'fsn Sect/ont aase for /wo or/narc we/fh/s ofra//
- desir* /'/? order /o redace rtcmAero/
pa/feras a/ //e-p/afes ?
/fso /otvAa/er/enf?
Do yoo farar the same f
ens/oas far two ar mare we/ghfs af
rad //> order to reduce the number
0/ pa//eras of yo/af-bars7.
//so /o wAaf extent ?
Yes, w/tb/a Moderate ///nds.
A/a
>
A/a
Ma
?se about
M>
Ma
//?/yf/>
"*.
Des/rab/e bo>/ aot practicable far
vor/af/ons 0/ oyer 5" per yd.
f bo/b
Yes, /ar irar/a//a/?j a/ /b *per yc
'. m wetabt.
base.
Y?J, /ar /^per yd. difference jn
\
we/'f/?/
\
?per
No '
/do
Yes. woo/dose bases <?f d, "di "
//a
d" S/ "aad d ".
Mb
A/o
Oi/r 7d"a>/?d dS*/~a// /?ave> //?e
A/a
Same &ase.
M
No
vceed
A/a
A/o
A/a
A/a
)fes. where the variat/oam we/gbfdo
"jrra/erceed /0"peryd.
A/o
/Va
A^o
A/a
/Va
M>
VA
M
A*o
CA\/V f?/l/L WA y ^LA/O/AV^TFAf/AVG •*? S^OC/A\ T/O
Jasulat/oai or Replies to A. f?. A. C/rcolAR /
///FO/WAT/OM /rV A?£T6AFD TO aTaIL SeCT/OMS.
* conlemp/ote
wer section
'/jototprvs-
» general 'use?
vnWinereose
posed?
//ore you used
any of fa roil
sect /on 's ot 'the
Amencan foil-
woyAssn? //
SO kvA/d) ?
If you do not use The Amen
/con ffritway Asfn Sections
piease state your objections
to them.
Which oftbe
A R. 'A. Sections,
Aor'S 'do you
prefer?
M/bot modification «
American fiei/way A
tvou/d you conside
able?
A/o
No
A/one
A'
A/one
S/oresen/
A/o
A.S.Cf. adopted before A.M.
A , or pt
ssibJy a compromist
came out.
^'a/7d^.'
es"
/Vo
&ose shov/d egoo/ he/on/
A mean hi
/ween //?e tivo.
sv//A ju///c/eni ' me/a/ in ball
0/ roil /o proride a reason ■
ob/e wear before removal.
/Vo
/Vo
7oo narrow hose compared
yr
A/a/re hare eg oat ' ,
wi/b heiyhtfo use on cedar
/ies tv/Moof p/o/es .
M
M
A"
//?c/vase dose, decree
A/o
A/o
A/o/ far,
?//ar with f*
hem
A/o
/Vo
A/one
A/o//>r
soared /o answer.
A/o
A/o
/Vane
A"
t
A/o
&o*A
"A"
//one
/Vo
Ab
A/one
"&"
A/o
A/o
AVo/?e
A/o
A/o
/Vone
A"
A/one
96*ASC.E
80"A
AVa/?e
A'
Slight 'decrease in /•
adding to w/d/hef / '..
Wo
A/o
//onotwanttoo many sections.
A/o choice.
Afore me/a/ in head, > '■
A/o
A/o
A/o/?e>
'A' for tight
lets, yveb and flange-
troff/c, "B'for
Aribufed as foprodu -
heavy.
imum cooling stres-^
/Vo
A/o
A/o/jf
'A'
A/one ■
.
fA-0
A/o
A/a/te
#"
A/one
A/o
A/o
AYo/je
>r
A/one '.
A/o
A/o
A/o
A/o
A/one
A/o ejr/.
er/ence.
/Vo
/Vo
/Vane
B
A/one \
10*
90*A
AVorte
A
A/one '
>resenf
90*A
A/one
A"
A/aye /?o/ cons/ateret
/tfYl/TfT'/CAfV f?A//.WAY £tVO//V^£f?/AfG AsSOC/AT/OAJ,--£0ASAf/TT£-£ 6>/V /t'A/C. S/yft5889 *
T^euL/iTtoiy ar-ifb-p/ifs raff. f?,A C/rcut/u? fVa. /348.
f/v/-atfrv^TsOrv trv /r'sGyQ/Pa TO SfLICe-B/ltS.
Jancxrry /9/4-
frb/fradd.
iVt/fdne
Standard 2£>naf/i crnd Drt//tng.
S/a/e preference for 6~-2>o/e or
■4 /?<>/? at?g/eiars and gtve reason.
Sfa/P obj iecttans, if any. fa dr////ng proposed te/ow,
ftasecf an join/ /ies ff' /ace wi/h 8" toettveet?
E
cf-2?o/e
-4-Aa/e
» c-&~ s-e-^ >&-b*&-co |
E
>-8*-A-*-B<e j
for 6-hole bar.
jjV-j 3f or 32 .
For 4-bofe bar
FdH
KOH kCi
Preference
treasons.
°J p^ 5'^^ ;t'e>;t^e-5t'€>5^-'-| ^
Wo- $ y ■»- 5 1" 3fe 5 t'-^&nA
tengt»
.-1
B
C
D
E
LeryA
A
B
D
E
6
4
Pittsburgh & 2ate Erie
22/
A
--/ l/s
ed
.>
4
7
4
four bolfholei enough hold.
//one
//one. ercepl should be 26"
OMburgA, Jhowmut& northern
273
JO
4l
S
5
2/o/
usea
4
C/teawr- and as strong oj 6 t?ote.
/Yattf. etcep/ ,f establishes another set
otc
o/dr,lhag.
fb/77fa r?rrer
22
32
4
5
6
.'
'0 sh
, 7J^'r
1
6
Oreff/er safe/y and r/g/dity.
fVone
f/one
r/uebet. Montreal A Soumern
213
30
4A
4A
4 a
A
Y* j/
•w-
/
4
Answer* same purpose wttb sar/ng ofmetot.
£>rit/in-g- OX Prefer JaVem//».
tYone
tfcSn/ax', frrdericAs bunj &
Potomac
M
A
'/toe
d
24
3J
7
4
/Ve ot/rart/o-fe m 6 Me 2>ar.
//one
ffoye ttad best results from our drilling.
rPut/dnd
468
36
£(
S6
S.6
/Vat
uied
6
7b ae/ ja///o/'en//e/^M /oproytde
Afane
Mne
j/tao/t^ /or J//e jo/nt
St/ouis Southwestern
/809
34
5
s
6
24
5
S
4
£tre as aood Ja//j/dr7/an as 6ho/e
Sfseu/d /lore uniform spoc/ng so a
/Vans/* dr///mf Weuld prefer feagfh 26 "
40
6
6
6
rai/ caa2v ca/aad/evee tsvo holes oyo/Jable.
tri/A /2~2>e/sveen frff /orfampi'ne:
Sanfirdro, Los /Inge/es &
f/34
'■Js>
gljf
<14
4
/est e/p*/7s/re //tan 6/tote and a/yes
Afaae
Alone
So/f2o*e
naad rejv/tr. 6-fiate bars o//er?
>Vof
2>rea2 a/ outer /so/e.
i'j}' s&*>tS\Sirm>i>' urimv
tig*.
i!
rj
■sm7
5}
Si
SeaAaardyfirlme «W
3105
A
c/ us
ed
4
Cons/o'er extra Aa/A 0/ ' SMe use/ess.
T/tinf S-S:5~5'vuoMbc better
Tbmit 5 r5'S"dri/tmg preferable as it
'"SV
so cou/dase 30" bar.
brings center no/es nearer rod ends and
permits Setter spacing of spite slots.
Soo/hern Poci/ic aff^enca ond
/244
A
of oi
ed
27
Si
S}
4
/ftttp/e j-i/fiporf at '/ess cos/.
f/e/tf
//one
/Iraooo f as fern
24
5i
Si
Southern Poci/ic
7086
->
vftrj.
W
27
Si
5i
4
Su/ftc/ett/artdtnareeconony/ca/
5ou//tern
7232
ft,
rt
26
4
7
?
h
4
S/roaa enat/pn andn?are ecenamtcat.
23or7otvse
//one
5f2ouisond San/rancisco
5256
16
5h
4
4
3i
5i
26
6,i
6
2i
6
4
/ess e/pensive, egaa/ty efficient.
2ai7a~er je/a/ a/?d swore 4>a//S //for?
/refer our sfandard.
/ej^eryo/n/ //es . /ess /Tra/nA^a/rce
necessary
5f Joseph or Grand ' /s/aad
319
23
5
4i
4 7
4£
5",
'"27
Si
Si
3i
61
6
4
W1/6 con/mt/oosjciti/s a 4ht/ebaris suf-
P'CeirAviwj ■/««./■
14
Si
Si
ii
si
fae/>/. h/ith angtebar joints hie 1>vo odd-
2nd bolts should come oyer otie.
//one
(DJngle ttor-
'"27
si
si
2/
3i
/f/enet baths reduce wear and ass/sf /a
rnjtn/eining tiotlt joints .
Svsooeffaano 8/Veiv Yarfr
t9S
36
6
i
5
24
5
5
4
Sof//?a a/mo/er/dt and tabor
Hteutd prefer JO'bar drifted li'S-S"
Atone.
fermidat '^f/f? ' ^ssociaf/on "£$
/2
/
Yof „
24
4i
4r
4
Cneoperondos e//tc/en/
/Vone
Atone
of JS /.«,,, '"/dtf
"24
P
5
/eras & f^a-eifrc
2965
6
6
6
24
If
6
4
Cons/der tong joint unnecessary.
Prefer uniform spacing and end of bar
AVone
/o Ae on fas.
7ofeda SfM/o Centra/
53/
A
tftUt
/
24
6
6
4
/~/>t/!£4sa///cienf
rVe use fhe 6-66
7*8(/L*T/OtV OP /FcPLI£S TO A A? A C//?CUL»7? /Vo /J48
//vro/e/s^rio/v /// fcaA/ro ro Splice -baps
Jonuory J9I4.
Afts/road.
Mr/eOfe
5 tar dare/ le/7cs/r7 c?/?a/ Dr/////,<?
Ste/f preferartc* for 6-2?oJe or
4-7bo/e a/?o-/<?bors a/x/fJyp reason
Sra/p odject/or.s if any, to dn///no proposed De/orv,
t/asea1 on join/ ties 8' face nn/fi 8 oe/yreen.
S-ac/f
■4/?o2e
£££ii — jjg» 6 -» ■-■
e |
| &-B&A -4ht>V j
ror 6 rro/e 6ar
»f'-J 3r.,J?~ r .
for -4no/e_ 7>or
5i k
l»D 4' 1i~T~4
Preference
ttasavj.
y, . y&sr-SfSi'G* }j'-»5i ->? -e^j Jr.
p3ie>5i'^^5r- ■»57'&lA
•av-
a
c
D
£
lt»0
A
a
£
E
e
4
7o~/edo.5tLowt & Western
454
v-
; j«
"■!&-
-4fr
-6—
1
44-
4
t'>0e"/Wf, tiJSO"/fA ' S
"2-7
f*
6
■i
4i
attaftm/ ff.esa.
w+
-!rk-
-*2h
£
-*-
-if-
fitiqoai <S <soii//e/o'
t/0
t/e
" <-se
/
24
f
5
3 A
3,1
4
S/reqoer orx/as peecf '7or 2 •an' 7 'sect/on
A/one
Tfencpo/i S 77deirater MdSa
264
18
:
5
5
//
4}
'"27
5
5
It
Si
4
6 />*/? /jo r/f/d o/r aMdialhsted
/Vane
None
Atr^tf*
*!'**
-f-
—S-
■H-
U^
rcodtH>d.
(37 Si*
p4-
-*—
—#—
r+r-
-M-
7ennejsee 6entro7
294
37
5
4i
9
24
5
5
6
6/rej 2>e/yer jt^ifiort tiro// otjard.
TVone
//one
To/edo fe-ar/a & Western
248
A
•'ole
4
76
5
5
4
C/?faper artd easier to mo/a/oin
Tieno/caw/o'er d-fra/ejoi/?// econa/n/ca/
//areata/? /a c/>0<ac>e /ram 5 5 5
H>/r4a/a
827
/V,
J t/st
/
16
S
6
4
6ires gaod service and easts less
TVo/vsed.
/Yane e/cep/tfe use 26 '2>or
V/ro/p/a S 7ri/ckee
68
M
fusei
i
74
*»
5
2u
6,i
4
JTe/frr adetfcd /b cand/t/ons a/rsad
/Vane
Z/ro//?xr/?
475
38
6
t
6
2jt
6%
74
£
6
6
Supported Jt/e ong/eoorjo/nf cneaper
7io j/>art /r>r 3t/e supported
/Yo/ ju//od/e for J t/e jvppor/et/ jo/nt
32
4i
f
5
r*
■>J)
6 ft
ana1 p/res so?*j/4er rtwn/r?0 troctf than
yo7/j/.
ji/spendea 'jo/n/
HbJtjA, <2Aej/*r & rlirj/er//
65
M
*t/stt
/
2/
5
5
4
Ab ?z0f/7f/?{e yy/fi/ <5/?o/f
hii4aj4
2S/5
72
4f
4i
6
A
'*>/#/<
V
6
/Yo/Me sa/7?s o/¥>ar/i/ri/4> /oriar
/Vane /9-efer oar standard
y^esen/oo 7//H/ts *rt>rA /eoje
HfaAm/Zxtfe
980
42
6
?
7
7 9
S/7
26
6
7.i
7
4
25v///c/es?t/ ess/a/>erJess»Kilremr>qrrft.
A/one
//one
Wife-///?? 3- /.ate £r/e
543
Aft
' i/s
'd.
24
5
S~
4
C/ieaper and as eff/cifn/
tfoona'/ro/ej a^e nap od/77/2 of
any e/po~/?j-/o/?
,-rv
-<fi
vec.
r*ao
/c
•/*>
u\
7/AA
2.rs
f/da/ arraofet^er?/.
GronO'/fap/t/j S/nd/dna
578
,'u
- 1 Jt
d
26
U
6
4
Juj/ a j e//io'en/ ana/ casts /ess
£a nof use
6>.2f.
Son An/on/a & Aransas Pass
726
tVc
!t\
'
2-7
5
i
3b
fi
4
Tm es/ro/xj/ts a/o 6-/so/eyoin/ are
/Vane
/Vone
srnrse tfan isse/ess as ■44a/e/0//?/i/
efoa//y e///c/r-n///praperlyma/n/a/ned
Sunset (2en/ra/ /.ines
35/1
A
/ i,
:->JJ
'</
24
5i
5j
4
Cheaper. /Id/antsyes c/6ne/e do
A7one
//one
27
Si
52
star a Met oddi/Zano/ cos/
27
St
si
Ctrve/ond, C/nc/nne//, CTiicaat
2608
30
.!,?
s
6
24
4i
s
0et
i
&~ nc/e /isr oraihary aaf/e ears, -4nde
A'one
/Vone
& S/. /otr2s
3t
6
e
7
24
6
6
/or approved patented bars.
AtcA/jon. 7opse/cact5anta7i
3(2,4
24
S
s
a
6}A
y'3a*J.f. ^>AAC£-.
".crd
S
s
V
3
>
R/CA/V Ra/LWAY £NG/A/££ff/A/G ASJOC/^KT/OA/;-,
ZJdULATfOAt OF Pe PLIES TO /4.PA- CteCULAP .
/A/ FORMATION /A/ f?EGA#D TO SPJJCE -0At
ford l.engt/7 ond Drilling.
Sfctfe
preference far tS/70/e a»,
te
<#-/70/€>
^■/?a/e d/Tf/ebo/J a/td g/re reaso,.
^B^C-i©
0-e->@f-/4 ->^-e-^)
^tg^d
VoJ U-E
ftefarence
Reasons.
c
D
E
Le/tp&>
A
3
D
E
6
A
' us
></
26
6$
6
4
Just as good as 6-hoie and costs Us'
yjec
t
26
<S
eS
4
tVore economical 'ana 'or* satis facte
'Sec
'
24
4%
7
H
s
4
Add>ti#?o/cosfot ' 6Mf net worrv/tMs^
6
24
8
5
4
/fore economical. ]
S
/Vet
usee
6
ffcldmere firmly. Carers join/ ties be:
T}
"27
4
7
4
27 ~f>ar /acg enough' to distribute wi'
m2?
Si
Si
and 4 ooits epouoh Utaep joint h'gi
5
Atat
used
6
tSreofer security. ';
6
6
Account trouble with creeping rar
std
6
6
//
Si
4
t~tare never used.
Si
24
S
S
4
Sfra/rg enough.
<sed
w26
sg
6
4
Adeguate strength wit? considei
,v24
Si
Si
sarin? of materia/
0>U
9
S
\
6
/y*f
usea
1
6
Setter af/gnmenf an sharp cur*
6
Ji
si
£'£
Si
7?
2
s
4
Less cost Jaf/s factory results.
l£
sk
6%
24
*fi
7
Ji
s
4
We hare fewer broken bars.
43
5fe
26
*f
S
n
n
6
1
ved
24
S
6
4
Mare economical, just as good.
5
7}
J/9
24
7
6
6
increased stiffness and strenth.
<sed
26
6
6
Z
6
4
lower cost, fewer ports, f ess holes i
9j
24
Si
6i
4
S/r/?a/e join fs too fong. Wore mo.
causes ro/f chaf/ng and permone:
be/xf/ng. cy?fdperf/rsf cast and mo\
tenodce. CS/re hetfer results.
9
s
8
6
Setter adqsted for supported joint:
7
24
6
6
6
Supports ends of roils better
£L
2
Si
4±
7
/i
S
4
Econam/coy/ ar7d eff/'c/enf.
use
/
24
6
6
4
cTxfra cosfofShofe/tofjastif/ed
usee
'
24
6*
S
4
Efficient aad more econovn/ca/
6
24
S
5
4
/Efficient and more economical.
<sed
24
6
6
4
Efficient fewer boffs, better t/e spt
/sed
26
S
7
2
si
Efficient and more economical
^>
AMEEt/CA/V Ra/LWAY E/VG/NEER/NG /\SSOC/AT/0/V;-CoMA4/TTEE 0A//?A/L Sh^t- ? o/*a
-r- --. „ ,-, .. ^ /S989
/*&(//- A t/oa/ or /l£-f>/_/^3 to A.rr.A. C/ffCi//^rl /Vo /J^tf.
//vs=-a/*MAr/0/v //v f?£'eA/?£> re <5/=/./ce - &a/-?s.
</os?otary^ Z6/-4
/faz/road
/f//eape>
Srondard Length and Ori//mg
S/afe preference for 6-r/o/e or-
'S/'a/v. ofyecf/ons, // anyt fo dr/l//ny pro nosed ' be/on^
/based on Joint- hes 8" /ace tr/ffr 8" oe/tveen.
6- />o/e
■4-hc/e,
— -f-fyc/e cno/e6aKS and a/ re. reason.
1 ac fta«Aeeece |
1 Ob© a <*b© 1
A
/x>r G-/io/a bar
r^br 4 /70/e /bar
Z4"
k
B
c
o
£
Zeg^
A
B
D
B
e
4
/feasor? $
[Jtest'-esV'^05y;^3iJ"
Sa///more d, 0/>/o
3S/9
da
-}
-4
5fc
SJi
AS
&4
■4
f
4fi
/fit
Can ad* a a Eitc / // c
//■4S6
£6
5
6j&
z'k
s?«
^<s
s\
6&
zy<*
s%
Canfra/ r?.f? of /Yctv Jersey
63/
M
4
4
5-
£
6
///ino/'s Ceafra/
e/JS
dZ
s&
s'4
e%
s&
PMade/f/iia at /feaJma-
ISOO
ea
4
4
£
6&
Z
*&
s
7
f&
i>
Bos fon 6% Aftr/he
&4 70
/\
'o ~5
f~an
/u',
•
*M
S"
(*
4
S/er* /to /as r&dac.& sf-rena/Zr
AZ crdranAafe orer sfiorferjvr
W/eo" ^35*
*>Z4
6
6
INFORMATION IN
REGARD TO
SPLICE BARS.
„ _ Sheet Gor3
CoMAf/rr££ O/V flA/E. No 15089
A/YtEEt/CA/V f?A/L\WAY £~/VO//V J=-JET/? /KG A5SOG/AT/ON
SuMrfAfY or Cehte* Distance Drilling or Splice Baits
Used by Members or the A r?A. Osta/sveo rr-or*
Fepl/es ro A.£A CiecuiAe No. J348.
Jon 19/4
Cenfer
D/sfonce in
inches
S'X-ho/e Bor
Four- hole Bar
A/umber
of Foods
Using.
Mi/eoge
A/vmber
of Poods
Using
Mi/eage
31
1
/24
4
/6
/447f
/S
^5555^
4i
3
8544
2
2620
4i
4
3687
3
4)27
4§
/
77/4
4i
2
2794
2
523
4}
/
20/5
4i
/
475
5
/7
Z9825
33
50063
5h
/
5256
5g
/
//6
2
/43
sk
1
/586
S4
2
/359
4
/806
5,4
/
ZO/4
Si
/
///5
/4
35804
5.6
3
4299
5k
/
356
si
J
9732
3
10676
5%
2
13/8
6
1/
1622/
Z3
45598
Off
/
5256
6i
5
/0854
6,4
/
578
64
/
61
6i
/
307
/
307
6i
/
3845
7
/
3845
/
/6S
8
5
5579
8i
1
97
8i
/
200
„ Sheet 9os-9
Committee: o/v /ta/e No. 15889
A/dEEl/CA/V f=iA//.WAY £/YG//VEEE?/AIO AS5OC/AT/0r/
SuEiM^ry or Ir/versis or Splice B*es Used by Mehbefs or
THE A J3 A. ObTA/A/EO r/?OM /?C PLIES TO
A. FA. C/pculjp No. 1348.
Jon. /9/4.
Length
//7 inches
S/x-f?o/e Bor
Four -hole Bar
/Vunvber
of foods
Using.
Mi/eage
Afumber
of foods
Using
M/feoge
21
1
65
22
2
4/09
24
73
/0Z7'22.
25
Z
2273
26
3
7924
Z2
53873
26 1
4
24/86
27
3
Z3734
28
6
7£94
29
6
10690
30
/4
20082
3/
2
2518
32
6
3476
33
2
529
34
5
4574
36
7
J8942
37
2
/0026
38
5
4121
40
7
/2496
44
/
751
Appendix F.
INFLUENCE OP ALUMINUM AND SILICON ON
BESSEMER INGOTS AND RAILS.
By M. H. Wickhorst, Engineer of Tests, Rail Committee.
This report covers an investigation concerning the influence of alumi-
num on bessemer steel ingots and rails when added to the molds while
pouring the steel and at the same time some tests were made on the in-
fluence of silicon on bessemer rails when added as ferro-silicon to the
molds. Four ingots were selected from a heat of bessemer steel for split-
ting and chemical survey. One ingot was of plain untreated steel and
the others were of steel treated with various amounts of aluminum. Rails
were also made of two other ingots from the heat, one plain and the
other aluminum-treated. In addition rails were made from two other
heats. Some of the ingots were plain untreated and others were treated
with aluminum or ferro-silicon while pouring the steel into the molds.
The rails were cut up for drop tests and transverse tests of the base. The
work was done at South Chicago, 111., at the works of the Illinois Steel
Co., who kindly furnished all the material and facilities for the investiga-
tion.
MANUFACTURE.
The steel was made by blowing mixer metal and scrap steel, adding
Spiegel to the converter and then pouring the metal into an intermediate
ladle. The metal was then poured into the teeming ladle and finally into
the ingot molds. In the third heat used, it was desired to have the carbon
a little above the usual amount, and the additional carbon was obtained
by adding some liquid mixer iron to the converter after blowing, along
with the spiegel. The amounts in pounds, of the various materials used,
are shown in table 1.
TABLE 1 — AMOUNTS OF MATERIAL USED.
Heat number 28.619 28.630 34,503
Date made July 12, 1913 July 12, 1913 July 21, 1913
Mixer metal 28,000 29,000 27,000
Scrap steel 1,500 500 2,000
Spiegel 2,990 2,990 3,400
Mixer metal to recarbonize 440
In all, fifteen ingots were used in this investigation and table 2 is
given showing the heat from which each was made, its treatment and
purpose for which used.
Report No. 39. October, 1913.
337
33S
RAIL.
TABLE 2 — INGOTS USED.
Ingot No. Heat No. Treatment How Used
1 28,619 1 oz. Al. per T. Split and surveyed
2 28,619 none . Split and surveyed
3 28,619 2 oz. Al. per T. Split and surveyed
4 28,619 5 oz. Al. per T. Split and surveyed
5 28,619 none 85 lb. rails
6 28,619 2 oz. Al. per T. 85 lb. rails
7 28,630 none 85 lb. rails
8 28,630 5 oz. Al. per T. 85 lb. rails
9 34,503 none 90 lb. rails
10 34,503 2 oz. Al. per T. 90 lb. rails
11 34,503 5 oz. Al. per T. 90 lb. rails
12 34,503 10 oz. Al. per T. 90 lb. rails
13 34,503 .1% Si. additional 90 lb. rails
14 34,503 .2% Si. additional 90 lb. rails
15 34,503 none 90 lb. rails
The aluminum used was" "shot" aluminum. When the ingot was about
one-third poured the addition of aluminum was started and was com-
pleted when the ingot was about two-thirds poured. The silicon was
added as 50 per cent, ferro-silicon and was added in the same way. Plain
ingots 2, 5, 7 and 9 set with somewhat raised tops. The other plain ingot
15, and all the treated ingots set with flat tops. The molds were 18x1°
inches at the bottom and had been sprayed with tar.
The compositions of the mixer irons and of the spiegel on the last
heat are shown in table 3 together with the heat analyses.
TABLE 3 — ANALYSES.
C.
P.
S.
Mn.
Si.
Mixer iron, heat 28,619
Mixer iron; heat 28.630
Mixer iron, heat 34,503
Spiegel, heat 34,503
Ladle test, heat 28.610
Ladle test, heat 28,630
■L5S
.43
.45
.57
.089
.099
.092
.030
.033
.in iii
.0411
.1)45
.03S
12:74
.73
.99
.83
1.3S
1.50
1.40
1.50
.132
INGOTS.
Four ingots of heat 28,619 were set aside to cool after being in the
soaking pits 2 hours. No. 2 was an ingot of the plain or untreated steel.
No. 1 was treated with 2 oz. aluminum or about 1 oz. per ton. No. 3 was
treated with 4 oz. aluminum or 2 oz. per ton and No. 4 was treated with
10 oz. or 5 oz. per ton. These ingots were about 18x19 inches at the
bottom and about 57 inches high. No. 1 weighed 4,200 lbs. and the others
each weighed 4,300 lbs. They were split across their short diameter by
slotting on each side, a little to one side of the axial plane and then break-
ing with wedges under the steam hammer. The larger part was then
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
339
Fig. 1 — Ingot No. 1, Treated With
1 Oz. Aluminum Per Ton of Steel.
Fig. 2 — Ingot No. 2, Plain Besse-
mer Steel.
planed down to the axial plane. The planed surfaces of these ingots are
shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4. Ingot No. 2 of plain steel, shown in Fig. 2,
it will be noted, contained a large central cavity or pipe in the upper part
of the ingot and a large number of small elongated holes along the sides
in the upper part. This ingot also had a raised top. The other three
ingots, treated with various amounts of aluminum, had somewhat larger
pipes but were free from the small elongated holes along the sides. They
had small holes at the top under the roof of the ingot, which decreased
340
RAIL.
Fig. 3 — Ingot No. 3, Treated With
2 Oz. Aluminum Per Ton of Steel.
Fig. 4 — Ingot No. 4, Treated With
5 Oz. Aluminum Per Ton of Steel.
in number with increase in amount of aluminum treatment. Ingots No. 1
and No. 3 had some spots in which the fractured surface did not clean
up in planing; that is, in splitting, the fractured surfaces were below the
central plane in spots and were not afterwards planed off. These spots
are marked on the figures with crosses. Ingot No. 3 also shows a large
number of dirt and grease spots which are rather confusing. The three
aluminum treated ingots had sunken tops. As disclosed by the appearance
of the split ingots, those treated with aluminum had larger pipes but con-
tained denser steel around the pipes. One oz. of aluminum per ton had
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
341
considerable influence in this direction. The effect increased a little with
2 oz. and still a little more with 5 oz. per ton.
ANALYSES OF INGOTS.
A chemical survey was made of each of the ingots by means of drill-
ings taken as shown in Fig. 5. There were five vertical rows of drillings,
Vert i cat
Rows
A B C D £
t
S
10
IS
20
% 25
v
K 30
a
i 35
%
6
K
50
%i
U
R
0
15 60
70
80
90
99
d>000<>
09 <p § <>
£-diam. ■>{
— ^ cUarn
O O O O <t>
Fig. 5 — Drilling Diagram for Ingots.
342
RAIL.
15 samples for row, from one-half of the section, making a total of 75
samples from each ingot, less the number that could not be obtained due
to cavities.
On each sample determinations were made of carbon, phosphorus and
sulphur and on the samples from the bottom of the ingot determinations
of manganese and silicon also were made. The results on carbon, phos-
phorus and sulphur are shown in tables 4 to 15 inclusive. The results on
manganese and silicon of the five samples from the bottom of each of the
ingots are shown in table 16.
TABLE 4 CARBON IN INGOT 1, 1 0Z. ALUMINUM PER TON.
Per Cent.
A
B
C
D
E
from lop.
1
.43
.42
5
.44
.45
.44
.44
10
.43
.45
.44
15
.44
.45
.46
20
.45
.45
.50
25
.45
.45
.54
.49
30
.44
.42
.50
.46
.46
35
.44
.44
.46
.44
.45
40
.45
.45
.44
.44
.45
50
.44
.46
.41
.44
.44
60
.45
.45
.42
.44
.44
70
.45
.45
.42
.43
.44
80
.45
.45
»41
.44
.44
90
.45
.44
41
.44
.45
99
.45
.45
.44
.44
.45
TABLE 5 — PHOSPHORUS IN INGOT 1, 1 OZ. ALUMINUM PER TON.
Per Cent.
A
B
C
D
E
from Top.
1
.078
.066
5
.085
.086
.us:;
.079
10
.085
.072
.090
15
.089
.085
.(K)L'
20
.088
.089
.110
25
.090
.087
.112
.105
30
.089
.089
.103
.100
.101
35
.090
.090
.095
.088
.086
40
.088
.089
.096
.088
.090
50
.088
.089
.088
.084
.083
60
.089
.090
.086
.084
.078
70
.089
.090
.089
.080
.088
80
.089
.092
.091
.081
.079
90
.089
.089
.087
.080
.080
99
.087
.090
.090
.087
.086
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
343
TABLE 6 — SULPHUR IN INGOT 1, 1 OZ. ALUMINUM PER TON.
Per Cent.
A
B
C
D
E
from Top.
1
.030
.023
5
.032
.033
.033
.032
10
.031
.027
.035
15
.033
.032
.038
20
.034
.038
.114.-.
25
.037
.034
.048
.045
30
.037
.033
.044
.041
.044
35
.037
.037
.041
.036
.030
40
.035
.035
.030
.034
.035
50
.034
.038
.035
.031
.033
60
.036
.036
.034
.032
.031
70
.036
.037
.036
.031
.033
80
.034
.037
.034
.032
.032
90
.037
.038
.035
.032
.034
99
.036
.038
.035
.036
.032
TABLE 7 — CARBON IN INGOT 2, PLAIN STEEL.
Per Cent.
A
B
c
D
E
from Top.
1
.36
.34
.32
5
.35
.37
32
.38
.39
10
.31
.34
.48
15
.32
32
.45
20
.34
.38
.53
.63
.71
25
.38
.38
.40
.54
.61
30
.40
.40
.40
.53
.50
35
.41
.46
.40
.46
.54
40
.41
.46
.48
.45
.53
50
.41
.43
.48
.46
.44
60
.42
.44
.42
.41
.42
70
.43
.43
.44
.42
.39
80
.42
.46
.42
.40
.40
90
.43
.43
.41
.33
.38
99
.44
.42
.46
.36
.43
TABLE 8 — PHOSPHORUS IN INGOT 2, PLAIN STEEL.
Per Cent.
A
B
C
D
E
from Top.
1
.062
.061
.061
5
.061
.064
.058
.064
.070
10
.051
.058
.097
15
.057
.057
.004
20
.061
.069
.106
.Hi.".
.234
25
.078
.068
.092
.120
.175
30
.084
.077
.092
.131
.130
35
.089
.093
.108
.109
.105
40
.090
.091
.108
.102
.107
50
.090
.093
.100
.095
.092
60
.088
.090
.090
.084
.090
70
.089
.089
.089
.077
.072
80
.090
.090
.087
.079
.079
90
.087
.091
.084
.076
.079
99
.088
.089
.087
.084
.086
344
RAIL.
TABLE 9 — SULPHUR IN INGOT 2, PLAIN STEEL.
Per Cent.
A
B
C
D
E
from top.
1
.023
.026
.021
5
.027
.025
.019
.025
.028
10
.021
.025
.037
15
.024
.025
.030
20
.025
.030
.049
.076
.128
25
.030
.032
.036
.049
.082
30
.038
.033
.039
.058
.057
35
.037
.041
.047
.048
.046
40
.040
.039
.046
.045
.043
50
.040
.039
.041
.038
.039
60
.040
.040
.036
.038
.037
70
.039
.034
.ICV.)
.032
.030
80
.040
.039
.039
.031
.029
90
.039
.038
.036
.032
.034
99
.040
.037
.039
.037
.035
TABLE 10 — CARBON IN INGOT 3, 2 OZ. ALUMINUM PER TON.
Per Cent.
A
B
C
D
E
from Top.
1
.41
5
.40
.43
.37
.35
.43
10
.43
.40
15
.43
.42
20
.43
.43
.50
25
.43
.43
.49
.52
.66
30
.43
.43
.50
.47
.43
35
.43
.43
.51
.42
.42
40
.43
.43
.48
.38
.41
50
.43
.43
.41
.38
.39
60
.42
.43
.43
.38
.38
70
.44
.44
.42
.39
.37
80
.43
.42
.44
.39
.38
90
.45
.42
.40
.37
.36
99
.44
.43
.42
.43
.41
TABLE 11 — PHOSPHORUS IN INGOT 3, 2 OZ. ALUMINUM PER TON.
Per Cent.
A
B
c
D
E
from Top.
1
.081
5
.087
.087
.069
.068
.092
10
.088
.076
15
.090
.091
20
.088
.095
.088
25
.090
.((92
.100
.118
.205
30
.090
.089
.110
.094
.098
35
.090
.093
.095
.081
.081
40
.091
.090
.092
.086
.076
50
.089
.093
.090
.083
.075
60
.089
.092
.086
.087
.075
70
.088
.091
.086
.081
.077
80
.089
.090
.087
.081
.077
90
.089
.089
.082
.077
.080
99
.090
.091
.088
.086
.086
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
345
TABLE 12 — SULPHUR IN INGOT 3, 2 OZ. ALUMINUM PER TON.
Per Cent.
A
B
c
L>
E
from Top.
1
.033
5
.034
.033
.028
.030
.038
10
.036
.032
15
.035
.036
20
.032
.038
.039
25
.036
.035
.046
.057
.081
30
.040
.037
.047
.040
.043
35
.038
.040
.039
.037
.038
40
.037
.040
.042
.038
.035
50
.035
.040
.032
.033
.031
60
.038
.039
.035
.033
.030
70
.035
.036
.040
.041
.032
80
.035
.035
.036
.033
.036
90
.033
.'038
.032
.034
.031
99
.039
.038
.037
.038
.032
TABLE 13 — CARBON IN INGOT 4, 5 OZ. ALUMINUM PER TON.
Per Cent.
A
B
c
D
E
from Top.
1
.45
.45
.43
.43
5
.45
.43
10
.46
.46
15
.45
.44
.50
20
.42
.44
.54
.54
25
.42
.47
.53
.49
.46
30
.41
.44
.52
.43
.45
35
.42
.44
.47
.40
.44
40
.43
.44
.48
.43
.46
50
.43
.44
.42
.40
.38
60
.43
.43
.44
.40
.41
70
.42
.44
.43
.41
.41
80
.42
.45
.42
.41
.40
90
A?.
.43
.42
.40
.40
99
.43
.44
.45
.46
.42
TABLE 14 — PHOSPHORUS IN INGOT 4, 5 OZ. ALUMINUM PER TON.
Per Cent.
A
B
C
D
E
from Top.
1
.093
.088
.078
.080
5
.093
.089
10
.093
.091
15
.095
.091
.101
20
.094
.092
.113
.118
25
.094
.001
.113
.106
.083
30
.094
.092
.105
.092
.084
35
.091
.092
.101
.086
.087
40
.094
.092
.094
.090
.092
50
.093
.091
.iii»2
.089
.081
60
.094
.092
.090
.084
.085
70
.093
.091
.004
.086
.081
80
.094
.092
.091
.083
.077
90
.092
.092
.086
.087
.085
99
.094 '
.090
.093
.093
.087
346
RAIL.
TABLE 15 — SULPHUR IN INGOT 4, 5 OZ. ALUMINUM PER TON.
Per Cent.
A
D
C
D
E
from Top.
1
.039
.035
.028
.031
5
.038
.036
10
.036
.036
15
.037
.038
.039
20
.038
.037
.045
.048
25
.038
.035
.044
.037
.038
30
.039
.037
.044
.037
.035
35
.037
.038
.039
.034
.035
40
.039
.037
.037
.034
.037
50
.039
.039
.035
.034
.035
60
.037
.038
.037
.032
.030
70
.039
.038
.036
.034
.032
80
.040
.034
.035
.036
.030
90
.039
.038
.034
.033
.032
99
.039
.040
.035
.035
.032
TABLE 16 — MANGANESE AND SILICON IN INGOTS.
Manganese, Ingot 1.
Manganese, Ingot 2.
Manganese, Ingot 3.
Manganese, Ingot 4.
Manganese, Average
Silicon, Ingot 1
Silicon, Ingot 2..
Silicon, Ingot 3. .
Silicon, Ingot 4. .
Silicon, Average.
99A
99 B
99C
99D
99E
Av.
.69
.69
.70
.68
.127
.128
.125
.119
.67
.70
.69
.68
.120
.127
.107
.120
.69
.71
.68
.68
.130
.130
.117
.123
.67
.69
.73
.128
.126
.127
.122
.66
.70
.69
.69
.123
.128
.120
.122
.676
.698
.698
.682
.126
.128
.119
.121
.124
Probably the five samples along the bottom of the ingot represent
fairly closely the average steel of the ingot and in table 17 are given the
average composition of each ingot, the general average, and for compar-
ison, the heat analysis.
TABLE 17 — AVERAGE STEEL IN INGOTS.
Ingot 1
Ingot 2
Ingot 3
Ingot 4
Average
Heat analysis, 28,619.
C.
.446
.438
.426
.440
.438
.43
1".
.OSS
.087
.088
.091
.089
S.
.ii:::.
.038
.037
.036
.037
.040
Mn.
.67(i
.698
.698
.682
.689
.73
Si.
.126
.128
.119
.121
.124
At any given distance from the top of the ingot the extreme varia-
tions in composition are in general shown by the axis and the walls of
the ingot and to show conveniently the changes from the top to the bot-
tom of the ingot, the carbon, phosphorus and sulphur are plotted in Figs.
6, 7, and 8 respectively, each figure showing one element for each of the
four ingots. The distance from the top of the ingot in per cent, of the
height is shown horizontally and the amount of the element is shown ver-
tically. Where samples could not be obtained from the axis because of
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
347
cavities, the results were taken from samples next the cavities and in a
few other cases also, the results were taken from samples away from
the axis in order to better show up the maximum amount of the elements
£0
SO
40
.30
zenter
20
.10
0
.60
SO
40
^M
po
\> o
^.60
^ so
^ 40
\so
<3 20
Vj jo
Q
tuciLL
A/o J - Joz AC per Ton
)-■-<
j/X
V— 1
»— <
>-"«
>"*
A/oc? -P/a/f? Bessemer
a=-«
^jl3
r^<
».— <
1— <
).._(
>H
lii^
)--
— <
)....
— <
i —
.— <
?---
— <
)---
— -c
1 —
...©
Wo 3 - Poz AC per Tor?
1
60
SO
.40
.30
20
JO
0
rrr^
<—i
'— c
)---(
'—<
, «
pT3
,.-.
zsS)
/Vo4-5ozAtper Ton
1 1
1
/O 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 WO
Percent a/ //eight pom Tojo of Ingot
Fig. 6 — Carbon Diagrams of Ingots.
in the upper and interior part of the ingot It will be noted that in the
aluminum treated ingots, the walls showed a fairly even composition
throughout the heights of the ingots. In the ingot of plain bessemer steel,
the wall at the top end showed considerably less carbon, phosphorus and
348
RAIL.
sulphur than the average of these elements in the ingot. These elements
increased in the wall, downward of the ingot until at about 30 per cent,
of the height from the top end, the average composition was reached, and
it then remained about uniform for the rest of the distance downward.
.150
.050
/O 20 30 40 SO 60 70 60 90 WO
Percent o/ t/eig/if from Top 0/ Ingot
Fig. 7 — Phosphorus Diagrams of Ingots.
The interior metal showed a segregation or concentration of the ele-
ments in the upper part of the ingot, reaching a maximum at about 20 or
25 per cent, from the top. The segregation was considerable in the plain
bessemer steel, less in the steel treated with 2 oz. aluminum per ton, and
mild in the steels treated with 1 oz. and^with 5 oz. aluminum per ton. In
all the ingots, the lower half of the ingot showed "soft centers," that is
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
349
the carbon, phosphorus and sulphur in the interior were below the average
composition of the steel.
The maximum amounts of positive segregation found in the interior
of the several ingots and the per cents of increase above the average com-
060
■"TTr
1— i
*->
I— <
^
>-**
030
9»«4
Vol- loz AC per Tor?
0/5
0
JSO
.(05
center
wait
£90
075
^ 060
V* SMC
y
,<
>— (
u
£rr-
l=JL=-
sad
t^_
■ — !►—
...(
>---
(I
— o
q£ 030
*<0/5
< /?
T'
r.^
cl
>— <
>-*'
t/o2-PLa/n Bessemer
* ?
"^ .090
§4*
^f 060
°5 A4C
/
' xstb
pa
i— <
'--r
.--<
1— -*
«i-
>---
,— o
.030
0/5
fV/rt-ZozALperTon
C
.060
.045
030
.0/5
0
■ —
-"r-'T i i i — i—
ivO
C/>
y /c
/<? 2<? J0 40 50 G£> 70 80 90 /CO
Percent 0f ttetght from 7bp of Ingof
Fig. 8 — Sulphur Diagrams of Ingots.
position of the steel, are shown in table 18. The average results of the
four ingots, as shown in table 17 were taken as the average composition
of the steel, namely ; carbon, .44 per cent. ; phosphorus, .089 per cent. ; sul-
phur, .037 per cent.
350 RAIL.
TABLE 18 — POSITIVE SEGREGATION IN INTERIORS OF INGOTS.
Ingot Number.
Maximum Amount.
Per
Cent. Increase.
C.
P.
S.
C.
P.
S.
.54
.112
.234
.205
.118
.048
.128
.081
.048
23
61
50
23
26
163
130
33
30
3 — 2 oz. aluminum per ton
4 — 5 oz. aluminum per ton
.71
.66
.54
246
119
30
The maximum amounts of negative segregation found in the walls of
the several ingots and the per cents of decrease below the average com-
position of the steel, are shown in table 19.
TABLE 19 — NEGATIVE SEGREGATION IN WALLS OF INGOTS.
Ingot Number.
1 — 1 oz. aluminum per ton
2 — Plain bessemer
3 — 2 oz. aluminum per ton
4 — 5 oz. aluminum per ton
Minimum Amount.
.43
.31
.40
.41
P.
.078
.051
.081
.091
.030
.021
.032
.036
Per Cent. Decrease.
C.
12
43
9
2*
19
43
14
3
*Increase
The separation of the phosphorus into regions of different concen-
trations is shown in fig. 9 for each of the four ingots and the same dia-
I- foj AC per Ton ?- Plain- 3-\?oz AC per Ton 4- Soz ALpvTon
W^^
fd%
0^f<7K/>W><A>
20%
30%
40%
xx^|xxXx
50%
60%
wS^iw
70%
80%
>$wB/%$&
90%
Fig. 9 — Distribution of Phosphorus in the Several Ingots.
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
J51
grams may be taken to represent the distribution of the carbon and sul-
phur. Five concentrations of phosphorus were selected as shown in table
20 and the approximate amounts of carbon and sulphur represented by
these regions are also shown in the same table.
TABLE 20 — REGIONS OF VARIOUS CONCENTRATIONS.
A
B
C
D
E
Phosphorus.
Below .070
.070 to .082
.082 to .100
.100 to .120
Above .120
Carbon.
Below .35
.35 to .41
.41 to .48
.48 to .58
Above .58
Sulphur.
Below
.027 to
.027
.033
.033 to .043
.043 to
Above
.060
,060
In this table region C represents steel of about the average com-
position as poured.
It will be noted that the greatest separation occurred in the ingot of
plain steel. The interior positive segregation was greatest and the nega-
tive segregation in the wall extended downward very much farther. In
Heat/. 37.69 %
*YeA_ ZZ.ZI 7o
r/4"/?-
4 tot
/////70/5 Stee/ Co.
Fig. 10 — Rail Section of 85-lb. Rails.
this ingot, the wall reached the average composition of the steel about
one-third way down from the top. The negative segregation in the in-
terior and bottom part of the ingot was in a general way similar in all
the ingots, indicating that the tendency of the metalloids to separate from
o52
RAIL.
this region was not influenced greatly by the aluminum treatment. In the
upper half of the ingot, the distribution of the metalloids was more even
in the aluminum treated ingots than in the plain steel, and the distribution
was roughly the same for the various amounts of aluminum treatment
between 1 oz. and 5 oz. per ton.
RAILS.
As shown in table 2, ingots 5, 6, 7 and 8 were rolled into 85 lb. rails
and ingots 9 to 15 inclusive were rolled into 90 lb. rails. The ingots were
about 18x19 inches at the bottom, were bloomed in 9 passes and finished
in 9 more passes, making a total of 18 passes from the ingot to the rail.
After blooming only such croppings were made from the ends of the
blooms as were necessary to permit of the bars going through the rolls
satisfactorily. Each ingot made four rails. No croppings were made
from the rail-bars but the rough ends were left on the rails. In the case
of the 85 lb. rails, the blooms were cut in two before shaping into rail,
and in the case of the 90 lb. rails the blooms were rolled into rail with-
out cutting. The 85 lb. rails were of the Illinois Steel Company's sec-
tion 8521, shown in Fig. 10. The 90 lb. rails were of the A. R. A. type
A section. (For diagram of this section see Proceedings American Rail-
way Engineering Association, 1911, Vol. 12, part 2, page 153.)
The weights of the rails and bloom crops of the several ingots are
shown in table 21.
TABLE 21 — WEIGHTS OF RAILS AND BLOOM CROPS.
Ingot
Top
A
B
C
D
Bottom
Total
Number.
Crop.
Rail.
Rail.
Rail.
Rail.
Crop.
Ingot.
5
75 .
983
981
1022
1068
100
4229
6
71
1001 .
949
1027
1125
80
1253
7
80
1006
978
1036
1153
127
4380
8
101
1044
956
1055
1170
105
44?,1
9
90
1080
992
992
970
145
4269
10
123
1070
988
990
1030
255
4456
11
76
1010
988
990
1010
235
4309
12
128
988
988
988
1045
225
4362
13
87
935
990
988
1032
214
4246
14
107
1042
986
990
1022
228
4375
15
130
1010
990
988
1045
216
4379
Samples for analysis as representing the averages of the rail-bars
were taken from near the top end of each of the D rails by drillings into
the top of the head. The samples were taken from the Dl pieces used for
transverse base tests and the results are shown in table 22 together with
the ladle analyses.
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
353
TABLE 22 — ANALYSES OF RAILS.
Heat.
Sample.
C.
P.
S.
Mn.
Si.
28,619
5D1
.43
.095
.038
.71
.132
28,619
6 1) 1
.44
.096
.039
.70
.126
28,619
Ladle
.43
.040
.73
28,630
7D1
.46
.094
.043
1.05
.138
28,630
8D 1
.47
.005
.H4::
1.03
.130
28,630
Ladle
.45
.045
.99
34,503
!ID1
.61
.097
.039
.83
.150
34,503
10 1) 1
.61
.095
.039
.83
.153
34,503
11 Dl
.'11
.05)4
.1)37
.84
.150
34,503
12 Dl
."32
.095
.089
.84
.150
34,503
13 Dl
.60
.095
.038
.83
.240
34,503
14 D 1
.60
.094
.039
.82
.328
34,503
15 Dl
.63
.096
.039
.84
.144
34,503
Ladle
.01
.092
.038
.83
.132
It will be noted there was fair agreement between the ladle analyses
and the analyses of samples from the rails taken as described, except in
the case of carbon in the rails from heat 34,503. The carbon in the rails
showed up from .03 to .06 per cent, higher than shown by the ladle sample.
In rail samples 13 Dl and 14 Dl the silicon was higher than shown by
the ladle test, as these had silicon additions to the molds.
The entire rail-bar of each of the ingots was used for drop tests
and transverse tests of the base and was divided into units of one-third
rail length each. The pieces cut from each rail and the tests made are
shown in table 23.
TABLE 23 — TESTS FROM EACH RAIL.
No. 1 — 2 ft. for transverse test of base.
No. 2 — AYz ft. for drop test, head in tension.
No. 3 — P/2 ft. for drop test, base in tension.
No. 4 — 2 ft. for transverse test of base.
No. 5 — 4l/2 ft. for drop test, head in tension.
No. 6 — Al/2 ft. for drop test, base in tension.
No. 7 — 2 ft. for transverse test of base.
No. 8 — \y2 ft. for drop test, head in tension.
- No. 9 — \Vi ft. for drop test, base in tension.
DROP TESTS.
Six drop tests were made of each rail, three with the head in tension
and three with the base in tension. The tup was 2,000 lbs., the height of
drop was 20 ft., the centers of the supports were three feet apart and
the anvil was 20,000 lbs., spring supported. The striking surface of the
tup and the bearing surfaces of the supports had radii of 5 in. The de-
flection in inches was measured after the first blow and was taken as
the distance between a 3-ft. straight edge and the part of the anvil where
struck by the tup. Gage marks one inch apart were put lengthwise on
the side in tension about the middle of the test piece, for a distance of
6 in., and the increase in length of the space which stretched most at
failure was taken as the measure of the ductility of the rail. The re-
sults of the drop tests are shown in tables 24 to 34 inclusive.
TABLE 24 DROP TESTS, RAIL-BAR 5, HEAT 28,619 — PLAIN.
Per Cent, from
Deflection,
No. of
Elongation,
No.
Top of Ingot.
1st Blow.
Blows.
Per Cent.
Where Broken.
HEAD IN
TENSION
5A2
4.6
2.95
3
SOL
Twisted
5A5
12.0
i
7
Middle
5A8
19.4
i
8
Middle
5B2
27.9
2.50
2
15
Middle
5B5
35.4
2.45
4
38
Middle
5B8
42.7
2.45
4
45
Middle
5C2
51.1
2.50
4
35
Not broken
5C5
59.0
2.65
3
35
Base split
5C8
66.0
2.60
3
25
Base split
5D2
75.5
2.6t
5
33
Middle
5D 5
82.8
2.60
4
32
Not broken
5D8
90.2
2.65
5
29
Not broken
Average
2.60
BASE IN
3.3
TENSIOK
27.7
5A3
7.7
2.60
4
34
Not broken
5A6
15.0
2.50
4
31
Middle
5A9
22 4
2.45
4
26
Near support
5B3
30.8
2.40
4
26
Near support
5B6
38.4
2.35
5
26
Near support
5B9
45.7
2.35
5
30
Middle
5C3
54.2
2.45
5
33
Middle
5CG
61.5
2.55
5
28
Not broken
5C9
69.0
2.50
5
26
Near support
5D3
78.4
2.45
5
29
Not broken
5D6
85.8
2.55
5
25
Web split
5D9
93.2
1
7
Middle
Average
2.46
4.3
26.8
Gen. Av.
2.53
3.8
27.2
TABLE 25 — DROP TESTS, RAIL-BAR 6, HEAT 28,619 — 2 OZ. AL. PER TON.
Per Cent, from
Deflection,
No. of
Elongation,
No.
Top of Ingot.
1st Bow.
Blows.
Per Cent.
Where Broken.
HEAD IN
TENSION
6 A2
4.5
2.60
4
32L
Middle
6A5
11.8
2.50
3
28L
Middle
6 A8
19.2
1
4
Middle
6B2
28.0
2.45
4
33
Base split
6B5
35.4
2.50
4
42
Base split
6B8
• 42.7
1
8
Middle
6C2
50.4
2-60
4
36
Near support
6C5
57.7
2.05
3
25
Base split
6C8
65. 0
2.55
4
29
Middle
»; D 2
74.5
2.60
4
26
Not broken
6D5
81.8
2.60
3
30
Base split
6D8
89.1
2.60
4
38
Near support
6D11
96.4
1
2
Middle
A' erage
2.57
BASE IN
3.1
TENSION
25.6
S A 3
7.5
2.50
5
°2
Not broken
6 A 6
14.8
2.40
4
22
Middle
6 \ 9
22 2
2.35
4
32
Middle
(i B :;
Sl'.O
2.35
4
20
End Split
6B6
38.4
2.45
4
23
Middle
i; B9
45.7
2.50
5
26
Not broken
6 c 3
53.4
2.45
3
21
Middle
6C6
60.7
2.45
5
31
Not broken
6C9
68, 0
2.45
6
30
6D3
77.5
2.45
4
25
Near support
6D6
84. S
2.50
5
22
Middle
6D9
02.2
2.45
4
17
Average-
2.44
4.4
24.3
Gen. Av.
2.50
3.7
25.0
354
TABLE 26 — DROP TESTS, RAIL-BAR 7, HEAT 28,630 — PLAIN .
— - — — —— — —
Per Cent, from
Deflection,
Xo. of
Elongation,
i ■"
No.
Top of Ingot.
1st Blow.
Blows.
Per Cent.
Where Broken.
HEAD IN
TEXSION
7A2
4.6
2.30
4
40
Middle
7A5
11.8
2.20
2
18
Middle
7A8
18.8
2.10
2
17
Middle
7B2
27.5
2.20
4
39
Middle
7B5
34.6
2.15
3
40
Middle
7B8
41.8
2.15
4
35
Middle
7C2
49.9
2.05
4
31
Base split
7C5
57.0
2.15
5
42
Middle
7C8
64.1 .
2.15
4
44
Middle
7D2
73.5
2.15
2
21
Base split
7D5
80.6
2.20
5
41
Not broken
7D8
87.8
2.1")
3
27
Base split
7D11
95.0
2.15
4
36
Base split
Average
2.16
BASE IN
3.5
TENSION
33.2
7A3
7.5
1
6
Middle
7A6
14.6
2*15
4
22
Web split
7 A9
21.8
2.00
4
22
Middle
7B3
30.5
2.10
4
26
Middle
7B6
37.6
2.10
5
28
End split
7B9
44.7
2.10
5
20
Middle
7C3
52.8
2.10
5
36
Middle
7C6
60.0
2.15
4
28
Middle
7C9
67.0
2.10
5
20
Xear support
7D3
76.5
2.10
5
29
Middle
7D6
. 83.6
2.15
5
22
Middle
7D9
90.8
2.15
5
23
Xear support
Average
2.11
4.3
23.5
Gen.Av.
2.13
3.9
28.5
TABLE 27 — DROP TESTS, RAIL-BAR 8, HEAT 28,630 — 5 OZ. AL. PER TON.
Per Cent, from D
eflection,
No. of
Elongation,
No.
Top of Ingot. 1
st Blow.
Blows.
Per Cent.
Where Broken.
I
IEAD IN
TENSION
8A2
5.0
2.20
3
27
Middle
8A5
12.0
2.20
4
40
Middle
8A8
19.1
2.10
2
23
8B2
28.6
2.10
3
26
Base split
8B5
35.7
2.10
3
37
Middle
8B8
42.7
2.15
3
25
Base split
8C2
50.2
2.20
3
30
Xear support
8C5
57.2
2.20
3
26
Base split
8C8
62.3
2.20
4
32
Base split
8D2
74.0
2.25
4
28
Not broken
8D5
81.1
2.30
3
18
Base split
8D8
88.1
2.20
4
27
Middle
8D11
95.2
2.15
5
38
Middle
Average
2.18
BASE IN
3.4
TENSION
29.0
8A3
7.9
2.15
4
27
Middle
8A6
14.9
2.10
3
18L
Middle
8A9
22.0
2.10
4
23
Middle
8B3
31.5
2.00
4
22
Head broke
8B6
38.6
2.00
5
27
Near support
Middle
8B9
45.6
2.05
4
32
8C3
53.1
2.15
4
27
Near support
8C6
60.2
2.15
4
27
Middle
8C9
67.2
2.15
5
24
End split
8D3
77.0
2.10
5
31
8D6
84.0
2.15
4
25
Near support
8D9
91.0
2.15
5
26
Middle
Average
2.10
4.3
25.8
Gen. Av.
2.14
3.8
27.4
355
TABLE 28 — DROP TESTS, RAIL-BAR 9, HEAT 34,503 — PLAIN.
Per Cent, from
Deflection,
No. of
Elongation,
No.
Top of Ingot.
1st Blow.
Blows.
Per Cent.
Where Broken.
HEAD IN
TENSION
9 A2
. 5.1
1
5
Middle
9 A5
12.8
1
3
Middle
9A8
20.5
1
5
Middle
9B2
30.4
1
3
Middle
9B5
38.1
1
5
Middle
9B8
45.8
i!8
2
11
Base split
9C2
53.6
1.7
3
15
Middle
9C5
61.4
1.7
3
18
Middle
9C8
69.1
1.6
3
22
Middle
9D2
76.9
3
12
Base split
9D5
84.6
1.7
3
22
Near support
9D8
92.4
1.8
3
14
Base split
Average
1.72
BASE IN
2.1
TENSION
11.3
9A3
8.3
1
5
Middle
9A6
16.0
1
4
Middle
9 A9
25.3
1
5
Middle
9B3
33.2
i!e
2
11
Middle
9B6
41.3
1.6
4
19
Middle
9B9
49.0
1.7
3
15
Middle
9C3
56.8
1.7
2
7
Near support
9C6
64.5
1.7
4
22
Middle
9C9
72.3
1.7
4
17
Near support
9D3
80.0
1.7
4
18
Middle
9D6
87.9
1.7
3
14
Near support
9D9
95.5
1.6
4
17
Web split length-
wise
Average
1.67
2.8
12.8
Gen. Av.
1.70
2.5
13.1
TABLE 29 — DROP TESTS, RAIL-BAR 10, HEAT 34,503 — 2 OZ. AL. PER TON.
Per Cent, from
Deflection,
No. of
Elongation,
No.
Top of Ingot.
1st Blow.
Blows.
Per Cent.
Where Broken.
HEAD IN
TENSION
10 A 2
5.6
1.8
2
11
Middle
10 A 5
13.1
1.8
3
20
Middle
10 A 8
20.5
1.7
2
20
Middle
10 B 2
29.6
1.7
2
16
Middle
10 B 5
37.1
1
7
Middle
10 B 8
44.5
L7
3
21
Middle
10C 2
51.8
1.7
3
22
Middle
10C 5
59.3
1.7
3
27
Middle
10C 8
66.7
1.7
3
24
Middle
10 D 2
74.1
1.7
3
30
Middle
10 D 5
81.5
1.7
3
28
Middle
10 D 8
88.9
1.7
4
31
Middle
Average
1.72
BASE IN
2.7
TENSION
21.4
10 A3
8.7
1.7
2
10
Middle
10 A 6
16.1
1.7 •
4
16
Middle
10 A 9
23.5
1.7
3
15
Middle
10 B 3
32.7
1.6
4
18
Middle
10 B 6
40.1
1.7
3
15
Middle
10 B 9
47.5
1.7
2
6
Middle
10C 3
54.9
1
5
Middle
10C 6
62.3
L7
2
13
Middle
10C 9
69.8
1.7
4
15
Middle
10 D 3
77.1
1.7
4
18
Near support
Middle
10 D 6
84.6
1.7
4
15
10 D 9
92.0
1.7
4
19
Middle
Average
1.68
3.1
13.8
Gen. Av.
1.70
2.9
17.6
356
TABLE 30 — DROP TESTS, RAIL-BAR 11, HEAT 34,503 — 5 OZ. AL. PER TON.
Per Cent, from
Deflection,
No. of
Elongation,
No.
Top of Ingot.
1st Blow.
Blows.
Per Cent.
Where Broken.
HEAD IN
TENSION
11 A2
4.7
1.7
3
20
Middle
11 A 5
12.4
1.7
3
19
Middle
11 A 8
20.0
1
3
Middle
11 B 2
28.2
L7
2
13
Middle
11 B 5
35.9
1.7
2
10
Middle
11 B 8
43.6
1.7
3
20
Middle
11C 2
51.1
1.7
2
10
Middle
11 Co
58.8
1.7
3
24
Middle
11C 8
66.5
1.7
2
19
Middle
11 D 2
74.1
1.7
3
21
Middle
11 Do
81.8
1.7
3
26
Middle
11 D 8
89.5
1
9
Middle
Average
1.70
BASE IN
2.3
TENSION
16.2
11 A3
7.9
1.6
3
17
Middle
11 A 6
15.5
1.7
4
23
Middle
11 A 9
23.2
1.6
3
15
Middle
11 B 3
31.3
1.7
4
22
Middle
11 B 6
39.0
1.7
4
20
Middle
11 B 9
46.6
1.7
2
10
Middle
11C 3
54.3
1.7
4
22
Middle
11C 6
62.0
1.7
4
16
Middle
11C 9
69.6
1.7
4
18
Near support
11 D 3
77.3
1.7
4
17
Near support
11 DC,
85.0
1.7
4
18
Middle
11 D 9
92.8
1.7
4
19
Middle
Average
1.68
3.7
18.1
Gen. Av.
1.69
3.0
17.2
TABLE 31 — DROP TESTS, RAIL-BAR 12, HEAT 34,503 — 10 OZ. AL. PER TON.
Per Cent, from
Deflection,
No. of
Elongation,
No.
Top of Ingot.
1st Blow
Blows.
Per Cent.
Where Broken.
HEAD IN
TENSION
12 A 2
5.9
1.7
3
27
Middle
12 A 5
13.5
1.7
2
12
Middle
12 A 8
21.0
1.6
9
10
Middle
12 B 2
28.6
1.7
3
22
Middle
12 B 5
36.2
1.7
2
19
Middle
12 B 8
43.7
1.7
2
19
Middle
12 C 2
51.2
1.7
3
22
Middle
12 Co
58.8
1.7
3
22
Middle
12 C 8
66.3
1.7
3
25
Near support
12 D 2
73.9
1.7
4
25
Middle
12 D 5
81.5
1.7
5
25
Middle
12 D 8
89.1
1.7
6
16
Twisted
Average
1.69
BASE IN
3.2
TENSION
20.3
12 A 3
9.0
1.7
4
99
Middle
12 A 6
16.5
1.7
4
19
Middle
12 A 9
24.1
1.6
2
14
Middle
12 B 3
31.6
1.7
2
8
Middle
12 B 6
39.2
1.7
2
15
Middle
12 B 9
46.7
1.7
4
19
Middle
12 C 3
54.3
1.7
4
22
Middle
12 C 6
61.9
1.7
5
22
Middle
12 C 9
69.5
1.7
4
22
Middle
12 D 3
77.0
1.7
4
19
Middle
12 D 6
84.6
1.7
3
13
Middle
12 D 9
92.2
1.6
3
15
Near support
Average
1.68
3.4
17.5
Gen. Av.
1.69
3.3
18.9
357
TABLE 32 — DROP TESTS, RAIL-BAR 13, HEAT 34,503 — .1% SI. ADDITION.
Per
Cent, from E
eflection,
No. of
Elongation,
No. To]
a of Ingot.
st Blow.
Blows.
Per Cent. Where Broken.
]
iEAD IN
TENSION
13 A 2
5.1
1
4
Middle
13 A 5
12.8
1
5
Middle
13 A 8
20.6
i.6
2
8
Middle
13 B 2
27.1
1.6
3
25
Middle
13 B 5
34.9
1.7
3
21
Middle
13 B 8
42.7
1.7
3
25
Middle
13 C 2
50.5
1.7
3
22
Middle
13 C 5
58.3
1.7
3
25
Middle
13 C 8
66.1
1.6
3
27
Middle
13 D 2
73.9
1.7
2
18
13 D 5
81.7
1.7
3
24
Middle
13 D 8
89.4
3
10
Base split
Average
1.67
BASE IN
2.5
TENSION
17.8
13 A 3
8.2
1
3
Middle
13 A 6
16.0
i.'f
2
9
Middle
13 A 9
23.8
1.7
4
21
Middle
13 B 3
30.3
1.6
4
20 Near support
13 B 6
38.1
1.7
4
23
' Middle
13 B 9
45.9
1.7
5
22
Middle
13 C 3
53.7
1.6
5
19
Middle
13 C 6
61.5
1.7
4
20
Middle
13 C 9
69.3
1.6
4
20
Middle
13 D 3
77.1
1.7
4
17 N
ear support
13 D 6
84.8
1.7
3
13
Middle
13 D 9
92.7
1.7
4
15 Near support
Average
1.67
3.8
16.8
Gen. Av.
1.67
3.2
17.3
TABLE 33 — DROP TESTS, RAIL-BAR 14, HEAT 34,503 — .2% SI. ADDITION.
Per Cent, from
Deflection,
No. of
Elongation,
No.
Top of Ingot.
1st Blow.
Blows.
Per Cent.
Where Broken.
HEAD IN
TENSION
14 A 2
5.4
1.7
3
27
Middle
14 A 5
12.9
3
12
Base split
14 A 8
20.5
1.6
3
20
Middle
14 B 2
29.2
1
5
Middle
14 B 5
36.8
1*7
3
18
Middle
14 B 8
44.3
1.7
2
15
Near support
14 C 2
51.9
1.7
3
23
Middle
T4C5
59.3
1.7
2
12
Middle
14 C 8
67.0
1.7
4
30
Middle
14 D 2
74.5
1.7
3
25
Middle
14 D 5
82.1
1.7
2
10
Middle
14 D 8
89.6
3
12
Base split
Average
1.69
BASE IN
2?7
TENSION
~VtA
14 A 3
8.5
1.7
2
8
Middle
14 A 6
16.0
1.6
3
15
Middle
14 A 9
23.6
1.6
4
20
Middle
14 B 3
32.2
1.7
4
15
Middle
14 B 6
39.9
1.7
4
17
Middle
1'4B9
47.4
1.7
4
15
Middle
14 C 3
55.0
1.7
4
13
Middle
14 C 6
62.5
1.7
4
17
Middle
14 C 9
70.0
1.7
4
17
Middle
14 D 3
77.6
1.7
4
18
Middle
14 D 6
85.1
1.7
3
18
Middle
14 D 9
92.6
1.7
4
17
Middle
Average
1.68
3.8
15.8
Gen. Av.
1.69
3.3
16.6
358
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
359
TABLE 34 DROP TESTS, RAIL-BAR 15, HEAT 34,503 — PLAIN.
No.
Per Cent, from
Top of Ingot.
Deflection,
1st Blow.
No. of
Blows.
Elongation,
Per Cent.
Where Broken.
15 A 2
15 A 5
15 A 8
15 B 2
15 B 5
15 B 8
15 C 2
15 C 5
15 C 8
15 D 2
15 D 5
15 D 8
Average
15 A 3
15 A 6
15 A 9
15 B 3
15 B 6
15 B 9
15 C 3
15 C 6
15 C 9
15 D 3
15 D 6
15 D 9
Average
5.9
13.4
21.0
29.0
36.5
44.1
51.7
59.3
66.7
74.3
81.8
89.4
8.9
16.5
24.1
32.1
39.7
47.2
54.7
62.3
69.8
77.4
85.0
92.5
HEAD IN
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.70
BASE IX
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.69
TENSION
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
3
2
1.8
TENSION
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
4
1
1.9
6
3
3
4
12
14
8
8
9
18
11
15
9.3
4
5
3
8
12
13
6
7
7
13
17
6
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Base split
Near support
Base split
Middle
Base split
Near support
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Near support
Near support
Near support
Near support
Near support
Near support
Near support
Middle
Gen. Av,
1.70
1.9
8.9
The elongation in the drop tests is shown in fig. 11 for rail-bars 5 to
8 inclusive and in Fig. 12 for rail-bars 9 to 15 inclusive, the elongation
being represented vertically and the distance from the top of the ingot
in per cent, of the total weight being represented horizontally. For each
rail-bar one curve represents the results with the head in tension and an-
other curves represents the results with the base in tension. The samples
which showed laminations or pipes in the fractures are indicated by an
L. A study of these ductility curves is interesting and indicates that the
use of aluminum was in general attended with a considerable increase in
ductility in the upper part of the rail-bar, where the ductility was low
in the plain steel, especially with the higher carbon. The addition of
silicon had a similar effect, especially with the .2 per cent, addition. The
aluminum additions and the larger addition of silicon were also attended
with interior flaws extending downward a considerable distance from
the top end of the bar while with plain steel interior laminations as seen
in the fractures of the drop-test pieces, were absent or close to the top
end. The interior defects or pipes found are shown in table 35. The
aluminum and silicon additions it will be remembered were made to the
molds while pouring the steel and whether the interior laminations in
the rails would occur in the same way if the additions were made to the
ladle before pouring the steel into the molds, this investigation does not
show.
360
RAIL.
1
I
50
40
30
20
10
0
50
40
30
20
10
0
50
40
30
20
10
0
50
40
30
20
10
—
—head tension
l = interior Lamination
——etcher censcur/
V
o-.
"i
1
T"-o
" *i
L
"O-
....
7-
-0-
""
'O^N
v£
--"
_0.
0,
\
A/o 5 - Meat ?$6/9 - Plain
ko
L
1
>>, ,
A
.*■-.
o-
i\
+*
s.
--&\
°-/-.
--0'
~"*%
"^0-
™-e«_
*A
NO 6 -Meat* 28,6/ 9 - ?0Z. /1L per- TO/7
»^
\J
«"
■>---
■•°n
-,
/
"c
^
\j
A1--.
**0-
0
o'
A/o 7- Heat 28,630 - Plain
9,
'° *.
r o„
,
.--O'
"-o^
>^<?
'
-0-
-*"*>
"-0-
0
\
'1
A/oG-Heat ee,630 - 5 oz. /It per Ton
Fig.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 SO /00
Percent 0/ Weight yrom Top o/ f^c/of
11 — Elongation in Drop Test as Related to Distance from Top
of Ingot, Rail-bars 5, 6, 7 and 8.
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
361
30
20
(0
30
2o
10
%
s
X
30
20
fO
^ o
30
0
X.
X
fc 30
20
/O
kc
30
Heat 3^Sa3. head '/» tension ~—6ase~i» fens ton.
=^S
M?/2-/foz /)LperT<?/7
20
fO
30
20
JO
/O 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 /ffl
Perce/?/ of We/gfyf from Top of //igof
Fig. 12 — Elongation in Drop Test as Related to Distance From Top
of Ingot, Rail-bars 9 to 15 Inclusive.
302
RAIL.
TABLE 35— INTERIOR DEFECTS IN RAILS.
Test Piece.
5A2
6A2
6A5
7
8A6
9
10 B 2
10 B 3
10 B 5
10 B 6
10 B 8
11 A 2
11 A3
11 A 9
11 B 2
11 B 3
12 A 2
12 A 3
12 A 8
12 A 9
12 B 2
12 B 3
12 B 5
12 B 6
12 B 8
12 B 9
13 A 2
14 A 2
14 A 5
14 B 2
14 B 3
15
Treatment.
Al.
None
2 oz. Al.
2 oz. Al.
None
5 oz. A!
None
2 oz. Al.
2 oz. Al.
2 oz. Al.
Al.
Al.
Al.
Al.
Al.
Al.
5 oz. Al.
10 oz. Al.
10 oz. Al.
10 oz. Al.
10 oz. Al.
10 oz. Al.
10 oz. Al.
10 oz. Al.
10 oz. Al.
10 oz. 'Al.
10 oz. Al.
.1% Si.
.2% Si.
.2% Si.
.2% Si.
.2% Si.
None
2 oz.
2 oz.
5 oz.
5 oz.
5 oz.
5 oz.
Per Cent,
from Top
of Ingot.
4.6
4.5
11.8
14.9
29.6
32.7
37.1
40.1
44.5
4.7
7.9
23.2
28.2
31.3
5.9
9.0
21.0
24.1
28.6
31.6
36.2
39.2
43.7
40. 7
5.1
5.4
12.9
29.2
32.2
Defect.
\y2" lamination upper part of web.
Web laminated head to base.
ls/2" lamination from head down.
None found.
21A" lamination from head down.
None found.
\l/2" lamination in web.
\y2" lamination in web.
lyi" lamination in web.
iy2" lamination in web.
Small lamination in web.
3" lamination in web.
iy2" lamination in web.
1" lamination upper part of web.
1" lamination in web.
1" lamination in web.
3 small laminations in web.
2" lamination in web.
ll/2" lamination lower part of web.
lyk" lamination in web.
Yy2" lamination in web.
y2" lamination in web.
iy" lamination in web.
2" lamination in web.
2" lamination in web.
1" lamination in web.
Several %." laminations in web.
Small lamination head to base.
1" lamination upper part of web.
1J4" lamination in web.
54" lamination in web.
None found.
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM ON DROP TEST RESULTS.
The average results in the drop tests of the several rail-bars are col-
lected together in table 36, showing the deflection after the first blow
from 20 ft., the number of blows that it took to break the rail, and the
elongation after breaking. The average head tension, the average base
tension and the general average results are given.
TABLE 36 — AVERAGE RESULTS IN DROP TESTS.
Rail
Bar
Carb.
Treat-
ment
Deflection, 1st blow
Number of blows
Elongation
H T
B T
Av.
H T
B T
Av.
H T
B T
Av.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
.43
.44
.46
.47
.61
.61
.61
.62
.60
.60
.63
None
2oz.Al.
None
5oz.Al.
None
2oz.Al.
5oz. Al.
10 oz. Al.
M Si.
2$ Si.
None
2.60
2.57
2.16
2.18
1.72
1.72
1.70
1.69
1.67
1.69
1.70
2.46
2.44
2.11
2.10
1.67
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.67
1.68
1.69
2.53
2.50
2.13
2.14
1.70
1.70
1.69
1 69
1 67
1.69
1.70
3.3
3.1
3.5
3.4
2.1
2.7
2.3
3.2
2.5
2.7
1.8
4.3
4.4
4.3
4.3
2.8
3.1
3.7
3.4
3.8
3.8
1.9
3.8
3.7
3.9
3.8
2.5
2.9
3.0
3.3
3.2
3.3
1.9
27.7
25.6
33.2
29.0
11.3
21.4
16.2
20.3
17.8
17.4
9.3
26.8
.24.3
23.5
25.8
12.8
13.8
18.1
17.5
16.8
15.8
8.4
27.2
25.0
28.5
27.4
13.1
17.6
17.2
18.9
17.3
16.6
8.9
The general average elongation and general average number of blows
are plotted in Fig. 13 in relation to the amount of aluminum treatment
for each of the two grades of steel, the one with about .45 per cent, carbon
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
363
and the other with about .61 per cent, carbon. It will be noted that with
the .45 per cent, carbon steel the use of aluminum was not attended with
an increase in the average ductility of the whole bar. With the 2 oz.
treatment the average ductility was somewhat lower than in the plain
steel. A study of the diagrams of the individual rail-bars, however, shown
in fig. 11 indicates a tendency toward increased ductility in the upper part
of the bars, in the aluminum treated steel. With the .61 per cent, carbon
steel, the treatment with 2 oz. aluminum per ton of steel was attended
*-—
u 1 -
.fSC
' .eic
1
Afum6er 0/ Bloats
45£_
.6/<t
Percent TCongaf/or?
2
/
O
30
25
20
/5
/O
S
0
./ 2. 34 56783/0
Oz. Aiurn/num per Ton
Fig. 13 — Elongation and Number of Blows in Drop Test as Related to
Amount of Aluminum Treatment.
with an increase of the average ductility of the bar, of 60 per cent.
With the 5 oz. treatment, there was about the same increase, and with
the 10 oz. treatment a little more. A study of the individual diagrams in
Fig. 12 shows that the increase was due mostly to the considerable elim-
ination of the brittle zone found in the upper end of the untreated bars,
although there was also some improvement along the whole bar.
INFLUENCE OF CARBON ON DUCTILITY.
Incidental to this work we may note the influence the carbon had on
reducing the elongation in the drop test measured as already described.
From the diagrams in Fig. 13, we may take the elongation of the .45 per
cent, carbon steel as 27 per cent, and of the .61 per cent, carbon steel as
364
RAIL.
17 per cent. An increase in carbon therefore, of .16 per cent, was attended
with a decrease in elongation of 10 per cent. ; or roughly, the elongation de-
creased .6 per cent, for each .01 per cent, increase in carbon, between car-
bon limits of .45 and .61 per cent. There were differences in manganese
as well as carbon but these seem not to have had a great deal of effect
on the ductility, as indicated by a study of table 36, although the de-
flection was influenced.
Fig. 14 — Method of Making Transverse Test of Base.
TRANSVERSE TESTS OF BASE.
Transverse tests of the base were made of three pieces from each rail,
each piece being two feet long. The method of making the test was to
support the piece of rail on two supports placed opposite each other near
the edges of the flanges under the middle of its length. The supports
were six inches long and placed one-half inch in from the sides of the
flanges and the load was applied in the test machine to the head of the
rail at the middle. The general arrangement is shown in Fig. 14. The
load was measured that it took to break the rail. The transverse elonga-
tion was measured by putting prick punch marks one inch apart crosswise
on the bottom of the base and at the middle of the length of the pieces
tested, a multiple punch being used for convenience. The greatest ex-
tension after breaking, in any one of the four spaces, was taken as the
measure of transverse ductility. The sag of the unbroken flange was
measured and was taken as the distance from a straight edge laid on the
bottom of the base near the edge of the unbroken flange to the flange
where bent most from the straight surface of the base. The results of
the transverse tests of the base are shown in tables 37 to 47 inclusive.
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM. 365
TABLE 37 — TRANSVERSE TESTS, RAIL- BAR 5, HEAT 28,619 — PLAIN.
Per Cent.
Elongation,
Sag of
No.
from Top
Load, Pounds.
Transverse
Flange,
of Ingot.
Per Cent.
Inches.
5A1
2.4
5A4
9.8
146,200
1
.10
5A7
17.2
0
.08
5B1
25.7
187,200
2
.16
5B4
33.2
184,600
2
.16
5B7
40.5
183,100
2
.14
5C 1
49.0
213,100
4
.23
5C4
56.4
212,000
.22
5C7
63.8
230,000
4
.30
5D1
73.2
201,000
3
.20
5D4
80.6
203.600
4
.22
5D7
88.0
208,300
4
.24
Average
196,910
2.6
.19
TABLE 38 — TRANSVERSE TESTS, RAIL-BAR 6, HEAT 28,619 — 2 OZ. AL. PER TON.
Per Cent.
Transverse
Sag of
No.
from Top
Load, Pounds.
Elongation,
Flange,
of Ingot.
Per Cent.
Inches.
6A1
2.3
250,000
7
.52
6 A4
9.7
234,000
6
.42
6A7
17.0
191,500
2
.16
6B 1
25.8
212,700
4
.22
6B4
33.2
230,100
6
.35
6B7
40.5
218,000
4
.20
6C1
48.2
156,400
1
.08
6C4
55.5
191,100
3
.18
6C7
62.8
220,200
4
.26
6D1
72.3
126,200
1
.03
6D4
79.6
178,600
2
.14
6D7
87.0
139,100
1
.06
Average
195,658
3.4
.22
TABLE 39 — TRANSVERSE TESTS, RAIL-BAR 7, HEAT 28,630 — PLAIN.
Xo.
Per Cent,
from Top
of Ingot.
Load, Pounds.
Transverse
Elongation,
Per Cent.
Sag of
Flange,
Inches.
7A1
7A4
7A7
7B1
7B4
7B7
7C1
7C4
7C7
7D 1
7D4
7D7
Average
2.8
9.6
16.7
25.5
32.6
39.7
47.7
' 54.9
62.0
71.5
78.6
85.7
156,300
121,200
146.500
158,400
229,100
199,400
184,000
268,200
232,500
119,400
181,500
1
1
1
1
2
2
*2
6
4
'6
2.0
.06
.02
.02
.03
.20
.10
.io
.34
.26
.01
.11
366 RAIL.
TABLE 40 — TRANSVERSE TESTS, RAIL-BAR 8, HEAT 28,630 — 5 OZ. AL. PER TON.
Per Cent.
Transverse
Sag of
No.
from Top
Load Pounds.
Elongation,
Flange,
of Ingot.
Per Cent.
Inches.
8A 1
2.9
230,400
3
.22
8A4
10.0
212,600
3
.14
8 A7
17.0
200,500
2
.10
8B1
26.5
202,100
2
.10
8B4
33.6
212,800
3
.14
8B7
40.6
214,300
2
.12
8C1
48.1
221,800
3
.18
8C4
55.2
220,700
3
.16
8C7
62.2
244,000
.24
8D 1
72.0
245,800
4
.30
8D4
79.0
249,600
5
.28
8D7
86.1
142,500
1
2.8
.06
Average
216,425
.17
TABLE 41 — TRANSVERSE TESTS, RAIL-BAR 9, HEAT 34,503 — PLAIN.
Per Cent.
Transverse
Sag of
No.
from Top
Load, Pounds.
Elongation,
Flange,
of Ingot.
Per Cent.
Inches.
9 Al
2.8
116,600
0
.03
9A4
10.5
82,000
0
.00
9A7
17.1
122,600
0
.02
9B1
28.1
152,600
0
.03
9B4
35.5
180,500
0
.05
9B7
43.5
183,000
1
.10
9C1
51.3
177,300
0
.05
9C4
59.2
154,000
0
.02
9C7
66.8
179,800
1
.07
9D1
74.6
187,600
1
.08
9D4
82.3
111,900
0
.00
9D7
90.1
106,900
0
.00
Average
146,233
0.3
.04
TABLE 42 — TRANSVERSE TESTS, RAIL-BAR 10, HEAT 34,503 — 2 OZ. AL. PER TON.
Per Cent.
Transverse
Sag of
No.
from Top
Load, Pounds.
Elongation,
Flange,
of Ingot.
Per Cent.
Inches.
10 A 1
3.4
204,700
0
.07
10 A 4
10.9
193,000
2
10
10 A 7
18.3
227,800
1
.14
10 Bl
27.5
241,400
2
.18
10 B 4
34.9
241,500
3
.20
10 B 7
42.3
150,000
0
.03
10 CI
49.7
180,800
1
.06
10C 4
57.1
221,400
2
.13
10C 7
64.5
238,600
3
.22
10 Dl
72.0
206,800
1
.12
10 D 4
79.3
225,700
1
.13
10 D 7
86.8
150,000
0
.05
Average
206,808
1.3
.12
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM. 367
TABLE 43 — TRANSVERSE TESTS, RAIL-BAR II, HEAT 34,503 — 5 OZ. AL. PER TON.
Per Cent.
Transverse
Sag of
No.
from Top
Load, Pounds.
Elongation,
Flange,
of Ingot.
Per Cent.
Inches.
11 A 1
2.5
200,100
1
.10
11 A 4
10.1
200,600
1
.09
11 A 7
17.8
216,100
2
.10
11 Bl
25.9
190,500
2
.15
11 B 4
33.6
244,900
3
.18
11 B 7
41.3
257,400
3 ■
.20
11 CI
48.9
269,300
3
.27
11C 4
56.5
224,000
2
.13
11C 7
64.3
164,000
0
.05
11 D 1
71.8
237,000
2
.14
11 D 4
79.6
256,500
3
.25
11 D 7
87.2
241,300
2
.18
Average
225,142
2.0
.15
TABLE 44 TRANSVERSE TESTS, RAIL-BAR 12, HEAT 34,503 — 10 OZ. AL. PER TON.
Per Cent.
Transverse
Sag of
No.
from Top
Load, Pounds.
Elongation,
Flange,
of Ingot.
Per Cent.
Inches.
12 A 1
3.6
210,100
0
.OS
12 A 4
11.2
252,000
2
.21
12 A 7
18.8
190,700
0
.05
12 Bl
26.3
240,100
2
.17
12 B 4
33.9
246,000
2
.13
12 B 7
41.5
242,400
o
.19
12 CI
49.0
258,200
3
.26
12 C 4
56.6
243,500
2
.20
12 C 7
64.1
232,800
2
.18
12 Dl
71.7
247,000
3
.15
12 D 4
79.2
222,300
2
.16
12 D 7
86.9
200,600
1
.07
Average
232,142
1.8
.15
TABLE 45 — TRANSVERSE TESTS, RAIL-BAR 13, HEAT 34,503 — .1% SI. ADDITION.
Per Cent.
Transverse
Sag of
No.
from Top
Load, Pounds.
Elongation,
Flange,
of Ingot.
Per Cent.
Inches.
13 A 1
2.7
160,600
0
.04
13 A 4
10.6
182,500
1
.06
13 A 7
18.3
183,300
0
.06
13 Bl
24.8
222,100
2
.15
13 B 4
32.6
210,600
1
.10
13 B 7
40.4
230,000
2
.16
13 CI
49.2
248,000
2
.12
13 C 4
56.0
200,800 •
1
.09
13 C 7
63.8
157,400
0
.02
13 Dl
71.6
164,600
1
.05
13 D 4
79.4
183,900
1
.06
13 D 7
87.1
211,900
1
.14
Average
196,308
1.0
.09
368 RAIL.
TABLE 46 — TRANSVERSE TESTS, RAIL-BAR 14, HEAT 34,503 — .2% SI. ADDITION.
Per Cent.
Transverse
Sag of
No.
from Top
Load, Pounds.
Elongation,
Flange,
of Ingot.
Per Cent.
Inches.
14 A 1
3.1
104,100
0
.05
14 A 4
10.7
104,300
0
.04
14 A 7
18.3
179,000
0
.03
14 Bl
27.0
■219,500
2
.10
14 B 4
34.5
200,800
1
.12
14 B 7
42.1
243,500
2
.12
14 CI
49.6
229,100
2
.12
14 C 4
57.1
245,000
3
.17
14 C 7
64.8
211.200
2
.11
14 Dl
72.2
241.700
2
.15
14 D 4
79.9
248,000
3
.24
14 D 7
87.4
173,400
1
1.5
.04
Average
209,967
.11
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Fig. 15 — Load and Sag of Flange in Transverse Test of Base as Re-
lated to Distance from Top of Ingot, Rail-bars 5, 6, 7 and 8.
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
369
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Fig, 16 — Load and Sag of Flange in Transverse Test of Base as Re-
lated to Distance from Top of Ingot, Rail-bars 9 to 15 Inclusive.
370
RAIL.
TABLE 47 — TRANSVERSE TESTS, RAIL-EAR 15, HEAT 34,503 — PLAIN.
Per Cent.
Transverse
Sag of
No.
from Top
Load. Pounds.
Elongation,
Flange,
of Ingot.
Per Cent.
Inches.
15 A 1
3.7
84,U0U
1
.03
15 A 4
11.2
100,900
0
.00
15 A 7
18.8
116,300
0
.02
15 Bl
20. 8
159,000
1
.08
15 B 4
34.3
137,600
0
.02
15 B 7
41.9
136,200
0
.02
15 C 1
49.5
126,700
0
.00
15 C 4
57.0
182,800
1
.06
15 C 7
64.5
151,600
0
.02
15 D 1
72.1
180,500
0
.08
15 1)4
79.6
156,300
0
.05
15 D 7
87.2
135,800
0
0.3
.02
Average
138,975
.03
The breaking load and the sag of flange for rail-bars 5 to 8 inclusive
are plotted in Fig. 15 and for rail-bars 9 to 15 inclusive in Fig. 16, the
distance from the top of the ingot in per cent, of weight being shown
horizontally and the breaking load in pounds and the sag of flange in
inches being shown vertically.
Probably the most noticeable feature disclosed by a study of these
diagrams is shown in the curves for rail-bars 9 to 15 of .61 per cent,
carbon steel. Bars 9 and 15 of plain steel show materially lower trans-
verse strength and sag of flange than the treated bars. In general also
the upper fourth of the bar shows somewhat lower strength and sag of
flange than the lower three-fourths.
The average results of the transverse tests of the several rail-bars
are collected together in table 48 showing the breaking load, the trans-
verse elongation and the sag of the flange.
TABLE 48 — AVERAGE RESULTS OF TRANSVERSE TESTS OF BASE.
Transverse
Sag of
Rail-bar.
Carbon.
Treatment.
Load,
Elongation,
Flange,
Pounds.
Per Cent.
Inches.
5
.43
None
106,910
2.6
.19
6
.44
2 oz. Al.
195, 658
3.4
22
7
.46
None
181,500
2.0
.11
8
.47
5 oz. Al.
216,12.-,
2.S
.17
9
.61
None
146.233
0.3
.04
10
.61
2 oz. Al.
206.80S
1.3
.12
11
.61
5 oz. Al.
225,142
2.0
.15
12
.62
10 oz. Al.
232,142
1.8
.15
13
.60
.1% Si.
196,308
1.0
.09
14
.60
.2% Si.
2(19,067
1..-.
.11
15
.63
None
138,97.-.
0.3
.03
The results on load and sag of flange, except those for rail-bars 13
and 14, have been plotted in fig. 17 in relation to amount of treatment
with aluminum. The amount of treatment in ounces of aluminum per
ton of steel is shown horizontally and the load and sag of flange are shown
vertically. Separate curves are shown for the .45 and .61 per cent, car-
bon steels. It will be noted that with .61 per cent, carbon steel the treat-
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM.
371
ment with 2 oz. of aluminum per ton of steel, was attended with consid-
erable increase in the load and sag of flange. With larger treatments
there were some further increases. With the .45 per cent, carbon steel
there were small increases in load and sag with the aluminum treatments
as against the plain steel, but they were not as large as with the higher
carbon steel.
Jo
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Fig. 17 — Load and Sag of Flange in Transverse Test of Base as Re-
lated to Amount of Aluminum Treatment.
SUMMARY.
1. An investigation was made concerning the influence of aluminum
on bessemer ingots and rails when added to the molds while pouring the
steel and at the same time some tests were made on the influence of
silicon on bessemer rails when added as ferro-silicon to the molds. Four
ingots were split open and a chemical survey made of them. Eleven ingots
were rolled into 85 or 90 lb. rails and used for drop tests and transverse
tests of the base.
2. This work was done at South Chicago, 111., at the works of the
Illinois Steel Co., who kindly furnished all the material and facilities for
the investigation.
3. Five ingots were of untreated bessemer steel, eight were treated
with aluminum varying from 1 to 10 ounces of aluminum per ton of steel
and two ingots were treated with additions of ferro-silicon equivalent
to .1 per cent, and .2 per cent, of silicon respectively. These latter were
rolled into rails.
4. The ingots used for splitting and chemical survey had about
.44 per cent carbon. The plain ingot had a large central cavity or pipe in
the upper part of the ingot and a large number of small elongated holes
along the sides in the upper part. This ingot also had a raised top. The
other three ingots treated respectively with 1 oz., 2 oz. and 5 oz. of
aluminum per ton of steel, had somewhat larger pipes but were free from
the small elongated holes along the sides. They had flat or sunken tops.
Expressed differently, the aluminum treated ingots had larger pipes but
contained denser steel around the pipes. One ounce of aluminum per ton
372 RAIL.
had considerable influence in this direction and the effect increased a
little with increase of aluminum.
5. A chemical survey was made of each of the ingots by means of
15 samples from each of five vertical rows from one-half of the section
face, making a total of 75 samples from the ingot, minus the samples
which could not be taken on account of cavities. On each sample deter-
minations were made of carbon, phosphorus and sulphur and on some of
them, of manganese and silicon also.
6. The chemical surveys showed a more even distribution of the
material in the aluminum treated ingots. The treated ingots showed less
segregation or concentration of carbon, phosphorus and sulphur in the
interior and upper part of the ingot. Both plain and treated ingots showed
"soft centers" in the lower part of the ingot, that is, there was negative
segregation of carbon, phosphorus and sulphur in the interior and lower
part of the ingot. The walls of the treated ingots showed a fairly uni-
form composition throughout their heights. The plain ingot showed a
considerable softening or negative segregation in the upper corners. The
carbon, phosphorus and sulphur increased in the wall downward of the
ingot until the average composition of the steel was reached at about
one-third of the height from the top end, after which the wall remained
of about uniform composition.
7. Rails were made of steel of two grades of hardness, one of about
.45 per cent, carbon rolled into 85 lb. rails and the other of about .61 per
cent, carbon rolled into 90 lb. rails. Some were of plain steel, some
treated with aluminum varying from 2 oz. to 10 oz. per ton and two were
treated with .1 and .2 per cent, respectively of silicon added as ferro-silicon.
8. In the drop tests, the use of aluminum was in general attended
with a considerable increase in ductility in the upper part of the bar,
where the ductility was low in the plain steel, especially with the higher
carbon. The addition of silicon had a similar effect, especially with the
.2 per cent, addition. With the .45 per cent, carbon steel, the average
ductility of the whole bar was about the same in the aluminum treated
as in the plain steel. With the .61 per cent, carbon steel, the average
ductility was considerably greater in the aluminum treated bars.
9. The aluminum additions and the larger addition of silicon were
attended with interior flaws extending downward a considerable distance
(as high as 30 to 45 per cent, of the weight of the ingot) from the top
end of the bar, while with plain steel interior laminations as seen in the
fractures of the drop test pieces were absent or close to the top end. The
aluminum and silicon additions it will be remembered were made to the
molds while pouring the steel and whether the interior laminations in
the rails would occur in the same way if the additions were made to the
ladle before pouring the steel into the molds, this investigation does not
show.
10. Incidental to this work, some results were obtained concerning
the influence of carbon on ductility as measured in the drop test. The
elongation for .45 per cent, carbon averaged about 27 per cent, and for
.61 per cent, carbon about 17 per cent. Roughly, the elongation decreased
INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM. 373
.6 per cent, for each .01 per cent increase in carbon, between the above
carbon limits.
11. Transverse tests of the base were made by supporting pieces of
rail 2 ft. long, on two supports placed opposite each other near the edges
of the flanges under. the middle of the length of the piece tested. The
supports were 6 in. long and were placed J^ in. in from the sides of the
flanges. The load was applied in the test machine to the head of the rail
at the middle.
12. With the .61 per cent, carbon steel, treatment with 2 oz. of
aluminum was attended with considerable increase in transverse strength
and sag of flange before breaking. With treatments with 5 oz. and 10 oz.
of aluminum per ton of steel, there were some further increases. With
the .45 per cent, carbon steel, there were small increases in transverse
strength and sag of flange with the aluminum treatments as against plain
steel.
13. To sum up, ingots treated with aluminum as mold additions,
were of more even composition throughout the ingot than plain bessemer
steel. There was less positive segregation in the interior and upper part
of the ingot but the negative segregation or soft center in the interior
and lower parts of the ingot was about the same. There was a softening
or negative segregation in the upper part of the wall of the plain ingot
while in the aluminum treated ingots, the walls were of fairly even com-
position throughout the height of the ingot. Aluminum treated ingots
had larger and deeper pipes than plain steel but had denser steel around
the pipes. Rails of plain steel had a brittle zone in the upper part of the
bar as disclosed by the drop test. In the rails of aluminum treated steel
this zone was largely eliminated. Rails of plain steel contained their
laminations close to the top end of the bar, while in aluminum treated
rails, the interior laminations were found a considerable distance from
the top end, varying from about 30 to 45 per cent, of the weight of the
ingot. In the transverse test of the base, rails of aluminum treated steel
showed considerably greater transverse strength of the base and sag of
the flange before breaking, than the rails of plain steel, with .61 per cent,
carbon and a little greater strength and sag of flange with .45 per cent,
carbon.
Appendix H.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR CARBON STEEL RAILS.
1914.
INSPECTION.
Access to Works.
1. Inspectors representing the purchaser shall have free entry to the
works of the manufacturer at all times while the contract is being exe-
cuted, and shall have all reasonable facilities afforded them by the manu-
facturer to satisfy them that the rails have been made and loaded in ac-
cordance with the terms of the specifications.
Place for Tests.
2. All tests and inspections shall be made at the place of manufac-
ture, prior to shipment, and shall be so conducted as not to interfere un-
necessarily with the operation of the mill.
MATERIAL.
Material.
3. The material shall be steel made by the Bessemer or Open-Hearth
process as provided by the contract.
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS.
Chemical Composition.
4. The chemical composition of each heat of the steel from which the
rails are rolled, determined as prescribed in Section 6, shall be within the
following limits :
Elements
Per Cent, for
Bessemer Process
Per Cent, for
Open-Hearth Process
70 lbs. and over, 85 - 100 lbs.
but under 85 lbs. inclusive
70 lbs. and over,
but under 85 lbs.
85-100 lbs.
inclusive
Phosphorus, not to exceed.. .
0.40 to 0.50
0.10
0.80 to 1.10
0.20
0.45 to 0.55
0.10
0.80 to 1.10
0 20
0.63 to 0 66
0.04
0.60 to 0.90
0.20
0.62 to 0.75
0.04
0.60 to 0 90
0.20
Average Carbon.
5. It is desired that the percentage of carbon in an entire order of
rails shall average as high as the mean percentage between the upper and
lower limits specified.
375
37G RAIL.
Analyses.
6. In order to ascertain whether the chemical composition is in ac-
cordance with the requirements, analyses shall be furnished as follows:
(a) For Bessemer process the manufacturer shall furnish to the in-
spector, daily, carbon determinations for each heat before the rails are
shipped, and two chemical analyses every twenty-four hours representing
the average of the elements, carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus and
sulphur contained in the steel, one for each day and night turn respectively.
These analyses shall be made on drillings taken from the ladle test ingot
not less than one-eighth inch beneath the surface.
(b) For Open-Hearth process, the makers shall furnish the inspectors
with a chemical analysis of the elements, carbon, manganese, silicon,
phosphorus and sulphur, for each heat.
(c) On request of the inspector, the manufacturer shall furnish a
portion of the test ingot for check analyses.
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS.
Physical Qualities.
7. Tests shall be made to determine :
(a) Ductility or toughness as opposed to brittleness.
(b) Soundness.
Method of Testing.
8. The physical qualities shall be determined by the Drop Test.
Drop Testing Machine.
9. The drop testing machine used shall be the standard of the Amer-
ican Railway Engineering Association.
(a) The tup shall weigh 2,000 lbs., and have a striking face with a
radius of five inches.
(b) The anvil block shall weigh 20,000 lbs., and be supported on
springs.
(c) The supports for the test pieces shall be spaced three feet be-
tween centers and shall be a part of, and firmly secured, to the anvil. The
bearing surfaces of the supports shall have a radius of five inches.
Pieces for Drop Test.
10. Drop tests shall be made on pieces of rail not less than four feet
and not more than six feet long. These test pieces shall be cut from the
top end of the top rail of the ingot, and marked on the base or head with
gage marks one inch apart for three inches each side of the center of the
test piece, for measuring the ductility of the metal.
Temperature of Test Pieces.
11. The temperature of the test pieces shall be between 60 and 100
degrees Fahrenheit.
RAIL.
377
Height of Drop.
12. The test piece shall ordinarily be placed head upwards on the
supports, and be subjected to impact of the tup falling free from the
following heights:
For 70-lb. rail 16 feet
For 80, 85 and 90-lb. rail 17 feet
For 100-lb. rail • • 18 feet
Elongation or Ductility.
13. (a) Under these impacts the rail under one or more blows shall
show at least 6 per cent, elongation for one inch, or 5 per cent, each for two
consecutive inches of the six-inch scale, marked as described in Section 10.
(b) A sufficient number of blows shall be given to determine the com-
plete elongation of the test piece of at least every fifth heat of Bessemer
steel, and of one out of every three test pieces of a heat of Open-Hearth
steel. »
Permanent Set.
14. It is desired that the permanent set after one blow under the
drop test shall not exceed that in the following table, and a record shall
be made of this information.
Permanent Set, measured by
Rail
Middle Ordinate in Inches
in a Length of 3 Feet
Section
Weight
Moment
Bessemer Process O.-H. Process
per Yard
of Inertia
A.R.A.-A
100
48.94
1.65
1.45
A.R.A.-B
100
41.30
2.05
1.80
A.R.A.-A
90
38.70
1.90
1.65
A.R.A.-B
90
32.30
2.20
2.00
A.R.A.-A
80
28.80
2.85
2.45
A.R.A.-B
80
25.00
3.15
2.85
A.R.A.-A
70
21.05
3.50
3.10
A.R.A.-B
70
18.60
3.85
3.50
Test to Destruction.
15. The test pieces which do not break under the first or subsequent
blows shall be nicked and broken, to determine whether the interior
metal is sound. The words "interior defect," used below, shall be inter-
preted to mean seams, laminations, cavities or interposed foreign matter
made visible by the destruction tests, the saws or the drills.
Bessemer Process Drop Tests.
16. One piece shall be tested from each heat of Bessemer steel.
(a) If the test piece does not break at the first blow and shows the
required elongation (Section 13), all of the rails of the heat shall be
accepted, provided that the test piece when broken does not show interior
defect.
(b) If the test piece breaks at the first blow, or does not show the
required elongation (Section 13), or if the test piece does not break and
378 RAIL.
shows the required elongation, but when broken shows interior defect, all
of the top rails from that heat shall be rejected.
(c) A second test shall then be made of a test piece selected by the
inspector from the top end of any second rail of the same heat, preferably
of the same ingot. If the test piece does not break at the first blow, and
shows the required elongation (Section 13), all of the remainder of the
rails of the heat shall be accepted, provided that the test piece when
broken does not show interior defect.
(d) If the test piece breaks at the first blow, or does not show the
required elongation (Section 13), or if the test piece does not break and
shows the required elongation, but when broken shows interior defect, all
of the second rails from that heat shall be rejected.
(e) A third test shall then be made of a test piece selected by the
inspector from the top end of any third rail of the same heat, preferably
of the same ingot. If the test piece does not break at the first blow and
shows the required elongation (Section 13), all of the remainder of the
rails of the heat shall be accepted, provided that the test piece when broken
does not show interior defect.
(f) If the test piece breaks at the first blow, or does not show the
required elongation (Section 13), or if the test piece does not break and
shows the required elongation, but when broken shows interior defect, all
of the remainder of the rails from that heat shall be rejected.
Open-Hearth Process Drop Tests.
17. Test pieces shall be selected from the second, middle and last
full ingot of each Open-Hearth heat.
(a) If two of these test pieces do not break at the first blow, and if
both show the required elongation (Section 13), all of the rails of the
heat shall be accepted, provided that none of the three test pieces when
broken show interior defect.
(b) If two of the test pieces break at the first blow, or do not show
the required elongation (Section 13), or if any of the three test pieces
when broken show interior defect, all of the top rails from that heat
shall be rejected.
(c) Second tests shall then be made from three test pieces selected
by the inspector from the top end of any second rails of the same heat,
preferably of the same ingots. If two of these test pieces do not break
at the first blow and if both show the required elongation (Section 13),
all of the remainder of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, provided
that none of the three test pieces when broken shows interior defect.
(d) If two of these test pieces break at the first blow, or do not show
the required elongation (Section 13), or if any of the three test pieces
when broken show interior defect, all of the second rails of the heat shall
be rejected.
(e) Third tests shall then be made from three test pieces selected
by the inspector from the top end of any third rails of the same heat,
RAIL. 379
preferably of the same ingots. If two of these test pieces do not break
at the first blow, and if both show the required elongation (Section 13),
all of the remainder of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, provided
that none of the three test pieces when broken shows interior defect.
(f) If two of these test pieces break at the first blow, or do not show
the required elongation (Section 13), or if any of the three test pieces
when broken show interior defect, all of the remainder of the rails from
that heat shall be rejected.
No. 1 Ralls.
18. No. I classification rails shall be free from injurious defects and
flaws of all kinds.
No. 2 Rails.
19. (a) Rails which, by reason of surface imperfections, or for
causes mentioned in Section 29 hereof, are not classed as No. 1 rails, will
be accepted as No. 2 rails, but No. 2 rails which contain imperfections in
such number or of such character as will, in the judgment of the in-
spector, render them unfit for recognized No. 2 uses, will not be accepted
for shipment.
(b) No. 2 rails to the extent of 5 per cent, of the whole order will
be received. All rails accepted as No. 2 rails shall have the ends painted
white and shall have two prick punch marks on the side of the web near
the heat number near the end of the rail, so placed as not to be covered
by the splice bars.
DETAILS OF MANUFACTURE.
Quality of Manufacture.
20. The entire process of manufacture shall be in accordance with
the best current state of the art.
Bled Ingots.
21. Bled ingots shall not be used.
Discard.
22. There shall be sheared from the end of the bloom, formed from
the top of the ingot, sufficient metal to secure sound rails.
Lengths.
23. The standard length of rails shall be 33 feet, at a temperature of
60 degrees Fahrenheit. Ten per cent, of the entire order will be accepted
in shorter lengths varying by 1 foot from 32 feet to 25 feet. A variation
of one-fourth inch from the specified lengths will be allowed, excepting
that for 15 per cent, of the order a variation of }i inch from the specified
lengths will be allowed. No. 1 rails less than 33 feet long shall be painted
green on both ends.
Shrinkage.
24. The number of passes and speed of train shall be so regulated
that on leaving the rolls at the final pass, the temperature of the rail will
380 RAIL.
not exceed that which requires a shrinkage allowance at the hot saws,
for a rail 33 feet in length and of 100-lb. section, of six and three-fourths
inches and one-eighth inch less for each ten lbs. decrease in section.
Cooling.
25. The bars shall not be held for the purpose of reducing their
temperature, nor shall any artificial means of cooling them be used after
they leave the finishing pass. Rails, while on the cooling beds, shall be
protected from snow and water.
Section.
26. The section of rails shall conform as accurately as possible to
the template furnished by the Railroad Company. A variation in height
of one-sixty-fourth inch less or one-thirty-second inch greater than the
specified height, and one-sixteenth inch in width of flange, will be per-
mitted; but no variation shall be allowed in the dimensions affecting the
fit of the splice bars.
Weight.
27. The weight of the rails specified in the order shall be maintained
as nearly as possible, after complying with the preceding Section. A vari-
ation of one-half of I per cent, from the calculated weight of section, as
applied to an entire order, will be allowed.
Payment.
28. Rails accepted will be paid for according to actual weights.
Straightening.
29. (a) The hot straightening shall be carefully done, so that gagging
under the cold presses will be reduced to a minimum. Any rail coming
to the straightening presses showing sharp kinks or greater camber than
that indicated by a middle ordinate of 4 inches in 33 feet, for A. R. A.
type of sections, or 5 inches for A. S. C. E. type of sections, will be at
once classed as a No. 2 rail. The distance between the supports of rails
in the straightening presses shall not be less than 42 inches. The supports
shall have flat surfaces and be out of wind.
(b) Rails heard to snap or check while being straightened shall be at
once rejected.
Drilling.
30. Circular holes for joint bolts shall be drilled to conform to the
drawing and dimensions furnished by the Railroad Company. A varia-
tion of 1-32 inch in excess in size of holes will be allowed.
Finishing.
31. (a) All rails shall be smooth on the heads, straight in line and
surface, and without any twists, waves or kinks. They shall be sawed
RAIL. 381
square at the ends, a variation of not more than one-thirty-second inch
being allowed ; and burrs shall be carefully removed.
(b) Rails improperly drilled or straightened, or from which the burrs
have not been removed, shall be rejected, but may be accepted after being
properly finished.
(c) When any finished rail shows interior defects at either end or in
a drilled hole the entire rail shall be rejected.
Branding.
32. (a) The name of the manufacturer, the weight and type of rail,
and the month and year of manufacture shall be rolled in raised letters and
figures on the side of the web. The number of the heat and a letter in-
dicating the portion of the ingot from which the rail was made shall be
plainly stamped on the web of each rail, where it will not be covered by
the splice bars. The top rails shall be lettered "A," and the succeeding
ones "B," "C," "D," etc., consecutively ; but in case of a top discard of
twenty or more per cent., the letter "A" will be omitted. All markings
of rails shall be done so effectively that the marks may be read as long
as the rails are in service.
(b) Open-Hearth rails shall be branded or stamped "O.-H.," in addi-
tion to the other marks.
Separate Classes.
33. All classes of rails shall be kept separate from each other.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE I— ON ROADWAY.
W. M. Dawley, Chairman; J. A. Spielmann, V ice-Chairman;
M. J. Corrigan, W. D. Pence,
J. R. W. Ambrose, F. M. Patterson,
Ward Crosby, L. M. Perkins,
W. C. Curd, W. H. Petersen,
Paul Didier, A. C. Prime,
R. C. Falconer, H. J. Slifer,
S. B. Fisher, J. E. Willoughby,
Frank Merritt, W. P. Wiltsee,
L. G. Morphy, Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
The Committee on Roadway held a general meeting at the Secretary's
office, Chicago, November 14, Messrs. Ambrose, Curd, Dawley, Fisher,
Patterson, Pence, Slifer and Willoughby being present, to consider the
work done by the several Sub-Committees.
The work assigned to the Roadway Committee was divided between
three Sub-Committees as follows :
UNIT PRESSURES ALLOWABLE ON ROADBED OF DIFFERENT
MATERIALS.
SUB-COMMITTEE A.
S. B. Fisher, Chairman; J. R. W. Ambrose, F. M. Patterson, W. D.
Pence, A. C. Prime, H. J. Slifer.
To be able to make any definite recommendations as to allowable
unit pressures on roadbed the following points or facts must be de-
termined :
(a) The distribution of the wheel load and impact among the several
ties and its variations due to different weights of rail, tie lengths and
spacing.
(b) The distribution and variation of this load throughout the bal-
last from the bottom of the tie to the subgrade for various kinds and
depths of ballast.
(c) The ability of subgrade soils of various physical characteristics
to withstand the load imposed by the ballast.
(d) A classification of subgrade soils or such minute and detailed
description of each kind that they may be readily identified.
(e) A determination, experimentally, of the mechanics of the
problem of supporting a load on a soil plane, such as the ballast on the
subgrade or an embankment on a level plane.
The objects to be obtained by determining the allowable unit pressures
on roadbed are:
383
384 ROADWAY.
(a) A more rational design of track superstructure based upon a
definite knowledge of the value and distribution of the forces involved,
such for instance as determining the proper length and section of metal
ties to replace the present standard-length ties at points where the area
of subgrade covered by the ballast is insufficient to support the present
or a proposed increase in weight of rolling stock.
(b) The detection and possible elimination of unnecessary and in-
determinate stresses in the rail due to variations in the supporting power
of the subgrade soil.
(c) The reduction of maintenance charges by a better understanding
of the causes of irregular depression of the track superstructure under
traffic.
(d) In new locations the engineer knowing the bearing power of
the soils encountered may compare a longer line with low maintenance
with a shorter line over soils of less bearing power and consequent
higher maintenance charges.
The principal benefits to be derived are an increase in safety of
operation and a decrease in cost of maintenance.
Sufficient preliminary discussion has been had to determine that
nothing further can be done toward defining allowable unit pres-
sures on • roadbed till experiments under actual traffic conditions have
been made.
A Special Committee has been appointed and arrangements made for
a fund sufficient to start the experimental work. (See American Railway
Engineering Association Bulletin 161, Association Affairs, page 3.) In
case these funds should prove insufficient due to an enlargement of tke
scope of the investigation, it is the sense of this Committee that a pro-
rata assessment on a mileage basis be made against the railways repre-
sented in this Association. This levy would at the rate of four-tenths
of one cent ($0,004) per mile for each thousand dollars ($1,000) ad-
ditional required, amount to only $70 for the largest system represented.
The following description by Mr. J. R. W. Ambrose of some inter-
esting experiments which he has conducted is submitted as information:
"After considering the question allotted to this Sub-Committee, viz.,
'the allowable unit pressure upon the roadbed,' it is evident that no data
can be obtained from existing information, and that anything we do
must be in the line of original research and experiment.
"In making this investigation, we naturally run into the question of
load distribution through the ballast and likewise the ties and rails, and,
therefore, must consider the distribution of the load from the rail to the
subsoil.
"My idea is that we first intercept this distribution at the subgrade in
order to determine what loading is delivered to the roadbed. Then the
first point to determine is the method by which the necessary data can
be obtained, and it was with this in view that I performed the following
more or less crude experiments :
t "The first attempt was made to utilize the principle of the electrical
resistance of powdered carbon upon the idea that the resistance varied
inversely as the pressure.
ROADWAY.
385
"To carry out this idea, a table was constructed 4 ft. square and 1%
in. in thickness. It has diagonal rows of holes, 2 in. in diameter, 54-in.
deep and spaced 3 in. center to center, beginning with one in the center
of the table. In the center of each depression through to the bottom is
a iHs-in. hole (Fig. 1).
"In the bottom of each hole is placed a copper disc connected with a
terminal at the outer edge of the table, and the space then filled with
flW^<KW^^^^
Fig. 1.
powdered electric light carbon mixed with powdered charcoal in propor-
tion of 2 to 1, respectively. On top of this mixture and flush with the
top of the table was placed a second copper disc connected to a terminal
near the former one at the outer edge of the table.
"The resistance of the carbon in each hole was measured before any
loading was applied. Then about 100 lbs. of Ottawa standard sand was
386
ROADWAY.
placed on the table in the form of a cone with its center coincident with
the center of the table. The resistance in the various pockets was again
taken and the difference noted. This was continued under various con-
ditions until it was found that the method was too delicate, although
certain information was obtained which showed conclusively that the
maximum pressure in the bank was not at its center, and also that at a
certain height an arch was formed in the material which transferred the
pressure to the side, rather than directly downward, and in trying to
destroy this arch by vibrating the table, the value of the resisting quality
of the carbon was also destroyed, and therefore this method was aban-
doned.
"The second method attempted was by using the same table and plac-
ing in each of the depressions a small rubber bulb, which in turn was
connected by rubber tubing to a glass tube — held in a rack at the side,
/**
Fig. 2.
and just above the table. Each bulb was filled with water, and the level
of the water in all of the glass tubes kept the same before any loading
was applied. Then using Ottawa standard sand, a cone was built over
the center of the table by applying the sand in io-lb. lots, and after each
lot was applied, a reading in the tube was taken.
"The result of these various loads is shown plotted in Fig. 2. Each
of the 9 vertical lines represent a point of application upon a bulb, and
also the corresponding glass tube. The dotted line marked dead load rep-
resents the result after 100 lbs. of sand had been applied. Then a block
of iron weighing 31^ lbs. was applied to the top of the cone, the solid
black line showing the result. Then by slightly jarring the table in order
to break the arch, we got the result shown in the dot and dash line. It
ROADWAY.
387
will be noted that in all instances the pressure at the center is consid-
erably less than that of either side.
"Fig. 3 same as the above, using sand taken from the lake shore.
"Fig. 4 shows the result of an experiment made by building an em-
bankment to scale J/2-in. to I ft, the embankment being 5 in. high, 6 in.
wide on top and having iTA to 1 slope, which represents 10-ft. bank with
a 16-ft. roadway. The bank was built so that the line of tubes ran at
right angles to its center line. A small track was built to the same scale
and placed on top of the embankment. A small board was fitted with
wedge-shaped cleats to represent the points of application of loads from
an E-50 engine. Upon these was placed the same iron weight of silA lbs.,
and in Fig. 4 "the results obtained will be noted. First — the dotted line
showing the load of the embankment. Second — the solid black line show-
ing the load after the weight was applied. Third — the dead load plus the
\
\
• \
V
&
%
7
Fig. 3.
live load after the table was slightly jarred, thus breaking down the arch.
Fourth — the double dot and dash line which represents the total load after
the weight has been alternately taken off and on, with the idea of getting
the effect of impact. This was continued until the bank showed evidence
of failure by bulging out on either side. The fine solid line indicates the
result after the live load was finally removed and the table slightly jarred.
"I think you will agree with me that there is plenty of food for
thought, judging from the results shown in Fig. 4, especially when one
thinks of how the rail loads seem to affect the roadbed directly under-
neath them, and not in the center, as one of the members pointed out at
our last meeting in Chicago.
"I have one or two other methods in mind which I intend to try,
but it probably will be a few weeks before I can give you any result.
You, no doubt, have already concluded in your own mind that while the
388
ROADWAY.
preceding method seems to show good results for static loads, it would
not do at all for recording loads transmitted from a fast-moving train,
as the time required for the water or mercury, as the case might be, to
return from any given reading to the normal position is quite perceptible."
Fig. 4.
In a letter addressed to the Secretary under date of November 9,
1913, Mr. James E. Howard describes some observations made on the
Missouri Pacific through the kindness of Mr. J. R. Leighty, Engineer
Maintenance of Way, and a few made on the Burlington.
The depression under traffic and subsequent recovery of the embank-
ment and surrounding soil observed, indicating an elastic nature or a
wavelike motion of the soil, suggests that the scope of the experimental
tests originally contemplated by the Committee may have to be widened.
The letter follows herewith :
ROADWAY.
389
"Dear Mr. Fritch : — Your letter of the 28th ult. received, also copy of
Bulletin No. 142. I have read the report on 'unit pressures allowable on
roadbed' with great interest. The remarks of the Committee upon the
distinction to be made between data upon deep foundations and impact
loading is particularly apropos.
Fig. 5-
"Mr. Prime's method of ascertaining whether the allowable pressure
had been exceeded was specially interesting. Experiments and observa-
tions to be of greatest value should doubtless be made in such a manner
as not to disturb the conditions of the track which is under investigation,
and Mr. Prime's method of getting a record from sheet lead accomplishes
such a result.
iiiunw
■■■■
Fig. 6.
"One feature in track maintenance deserves special consideration.
It is the exposure and alternate stresses due to variation in load. The
difference is very pronounced between repeated stresses and static load-
ing, and this is an obstacle to judging of track conditions in the light of
experience in foundation work.
390
ROADWAY.
"During the week just passed, I have had opportunity to make a
number of observations in the behaving of the surface of the roadbed as
affected by the weights of engines and trains. The observations were
made on the Missouri Pacific through the kindness of Mr. J. R. Leighty,
Engineer Maintenance of Way, a few additional observations having been
made on the Burlington.
"The depression of the roadbed and adjacent ground is measurable
for at least a distance of 30 ft. from the center line of the track in which
the engine and train passes. Within a shorter distance of say 10 ft., the
difference in depression between that of heavy and of lightweight cars
is noticeable. This is the case of trains moving at say six to ten miles
per hour, and at such speeds the partial recovery between trucks of the
same car may be noted.
"These cases are where the level was placed at right angles to the
direction of the length of the track. When parallel to the track the
boundary of the affected zone of depression may be noted, and the re-
versal in the direction of the slope of the ground ascertained when the
engine gets abreast and then advances beyond the place of observation.
"One observation of interest, if it is confirmed, refers to the apparent
rebound of the roadbed after the passage of a train at high speed. In the
Fig. 7.
one case observed the train caused first a depression, then immediately
after the train got by an elevation above the normal, which subsided in a
short time, a few minutes, and came to rest at its normal elevation. Pos-
sibly the relative effects of different speeds can be judged of in some such
manner as this.
"The rate of travel of wave movements was also noted, that is, an
appreciable interval of time is necessary for the roadbed to transmit a
wave of depression from the track to places of observation at different
distances away.
"These results and others which I expect to make may prove of
sufficient interest to bring to the attention of the Association at its coming
meeting in March next. I may pass through Chicago within a few days
and will call at your office if such is the case.
"Yours very truly,
"(Signed) James E. Howard."
ROADWAY. 391
TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION AND VENTILATION.
SUB-COMMITTEE B.
J. E. Willoughby, Chairman; M. J. Corrigan, Ward Crosby, Paul
Didier, R. C. Falconer, L. M. Perkins, W. P. Wiltsee.
This subject has been under consideration for a number of years,
and on October 10, the following members of your Committee, viz. : M.
J. Corrigan, Ward Crosby, J. E. Willoughby and W. P. Wiltsee, met at
Bluefield, West Virginia, for examination of the ventilating system (com-
monly known in the United States as the Churchill- Wentworth System)
now installed for the Elkhorn Tunnel, on the Norfolk & Western Rail-
way, and for the Big Bend Tunnel, on the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway.
Two days were devoted to the examination and your Committee had
the benefit of the advice of Mr. Chas. C. Wentworth, who, in connection
with Mr, Chas. S. Churchill, designed the form of the blowing nozzle, and
prepared the plans and specifications for the two plants examined. Your
Committee had also information from the operation and maintenance
officials who are in charge of the two plants and of the movement of
trains using the tunnels.
Your Committee reports as the result of its investigation on tunnel
construction :
(i) That the railway tunnels, as ordinarily constructed in the United
States, are more economically built by driving first the heading entirely
through, but that such method usually requires a greater length of time
for completion of the tunnel.
(2) That for material requiring support, the top heading should be
usually driven.
(3) That it is economical and expedient to use an electric shovel
or an air shovel for the removal of the bench where the section of the
tunnel permits the safe operation of the same; and that where the ma-
terial does not require support, there are advantages in low cost and
quick removal of the bench in driving the heading at the subgrade line.
(4) That where the time limit is of value, the heading and bench
should be excavated at the same time, the heading being kept 50 ft. in
advance of the bench. Where the material of roof is not self-supporting
and timbering is to be resorted to, the bench should not be removed until
the wall plates are laid and the arch ribs (or centering) safely put up.
(5) That opposing grades should never meet between the portals of
a tunnel, so as to put a summit in the tunnel, and where practicable, the
alinement and ascending grades in the tunnel should be in the same di-
rection as the prevailing winds.
(6) That the attached drawings, Plates I, II and III, are representa-
tive of American practice in single-track tunnel construction, where the
time limit is of value.
392
ROADWAY.
Plate I.
METHOD OF TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION IN HARD ROCK WITH
FEW SEAMS.
SINGLE-TRACK SECTION.
/. • • • • :\\
• • • • • •
J
i
i
- — i
Heading in material of this kind is usually
driven by a "V" cut, using from 16 to 22 holes
about 8 ft. deep. The holes near the middle of
the heading are drilled so as to nearly meet at
the end. These holes are the first one shot, then
the second row and outside holes last. The ar-
rangement of these holes will vary slightly, ac-
cording to the way the material breaks.
Bench in hard material of this kind is usually
taken out in two lifts of almost equal weight.
Sub-bench is drilled from 20 to 40 ft. in advance
of the bench. From 4 to 8 holes in a row, with
about 6 to 8 ft. face, are used in both sub-bench
and bench. One or two rows of holes may be
used. Center holes are shot first, round and side
holes last.
ROADWAY.
393
Plate II.
METHOD OF TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION IN MODERATELY
HARD ROCK WITH SEAMS.
SINGLE-TRACK SECTION.
Heading in material of this kind is usually
driven by a "hammer cut," using from 14 to 20
holes 6 to 10 ft. deep. The bottom row of holes
is inclined at about an angle of 30 degrees. The
bottom row is shot first and each row shown in
succession. These holes should be arranged to
suit the seams in the material.
Bench in material of this kind is usually taken
out in two lifts, but the sub-bench is not as deep
as the bench. Sub-bench is best drilled from 20
to 40 ft. in advance of the bench. From 4 to 6
holes in a row may be used with 6 to 10 ft. face.
The bench is sometimes taken out in one lift.
Center holes are shot first, round and side holes
later.
394
ROADWAY.
Plate III.
METHOD OF TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION IN SOFT ROCK OR
HARD CLAY.
SINGLE-TRACK SECTION.
ToPHCfioiNG by Side DRirTina ro# Wall Platcs
f'Pi
[LijJ
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
This method is only used when material is so
soft that heading cannot be driven for full length
of timber used for wall plate. Drifts about 4 ft.
wide and 6 ft. high are driven for each wall
plate, and then core is taken out as timber rings
are put in. Three or four holes may be used from
3 to 5 ft. deep in each drift. The amount of
shooting necessary depends entirely upon the
softness of the material. It can often be picked.
The core may be soft enough to pick, or may be
shot with from 4 to 8 holes, either drilled from
face as shown or from sides of drifts.
Bench in this class of material is shot in one
or two lifts. Only very few holes are necessary.
ROADWAY 395
Your Committee, as a result of its investigation, are convinced that
tunnels less than half a mile in length when constructed according to
adopted section of the Association, and with traffic of less than thirty
trains daily, do not usually require artificial ventilation. There are many
tunnels in this country more than half a mile in length that carry suc-
cessfully traffic in excess of thirty trains daily without the aid of artificial
ventilation, and while there is in general a direct relatioa in the need of
ventilation to length of tunnel, amount of traffic and size of tunnel section,
there are exceptions growing out of local atmospheric conditions and
local operating conditions that forbid your Committee from undertaking
to fix any definite length or size of section of tunnel as the limit for the
installation of artificial ventilation. Your Committee is convinced that
the most practicable, effective and economical artificial ventilation for
tunnels carrying steam-power traffic is to be obtained by blowing a cur-
rent of air into one end of the tunnel for the purpose of removing, or
of diluting and removing, the smoke and combustion gases at the op-
posite end. As practiced in America, this way of procuring ventilation
partakes of two methods :
(a) To blow the current of air in the direction the train is moving
and with sufficient velocity to remove the smoke and combustion gases
ahead of the engine ;
(b) To blow the current of air against the direction of the train
with velocity sufficient to dilute the smoke and combustion gases to such
an extent as not to be uncomfortable to the operating crews and to clear
the tunnel entirely within the minimum time limit for following trains.
The Elkhorn Tunnel is 3,000 ft. long with a section of 235 sq. ft. The
tunnel is for single track, with double track extending from each end of
the tunnel. The tunnel is at the top of a long 2 per cent, grade opposed
to the heavy coal movement to Norfolk. The grade through the tunnel is
1.4 per cent. The coal trains are handled over the 2 per cent, grade
approaching the tunnel with three Mallet engines, one at the head and
two in the rear. When the train enters the tunnel one of the rear en-
gines is cut off, and the train carried through the tunnel with one engine
at the head and one at the rear. The air is blown into the tunnel from
the lower end and in the direction the train is moving up-grade, the loco-
motives being loaded to their tonnage capacity. The velocity of the cur-
rent is 1,700 ft. per minute, which is about double the speed of the train.
The air current carries the smoke and combustion gases ahead of the
engines, making the tunnel clear during the passage of the train. No
blowing is done, except when the trains are going up-grade through
the tunnel.
This method of blowing is most effective and economical in operation
only for single-track tunnels of rather small section, where the locomo-
tives are ordinarily worked to their tonnage capacity and consequently
396 ROADWAY.
for trains running at speeds of ten miles per hour or less. This type,
has, therefore, a limited use, but it is the desirable type where the con-
ditions are such as permit its installation.
The Big-Bend Tunnel is 6,500 ft. long, with a section of 250 sq. ft.
The grade is 0.4 per cent, against the heavy coal movement toward New-
port News. This grade is the ruling grade for the operating division.
The current of air is blown against the train, and the effect is merely to
dilute the smoke and combustion gases by furnishing a supply of fresh
air, which current cools and removes the smoke and gases quickly from
about the engine cab. After the train has left the tunnel the blowing is
continued until the tunnel is clear, which in practicable operation will be
within the minimum time interval for following trains.
This method is adapted to tunnels of all sections and for all speeds
of trains. The amount of dilution (and therefore the power necessary
for its production) is in control of the Engineering Department. These
advantages make the Big-Bend Tunnel method the type for general use.
Your attention is directed to the table attached, showing points of installa-
tion of the type of tunnel ventilation recommended herein.
Your Committee after considering the various types of tunnel ven-
tilation, and from its investigations of the two typical tunnels as above
set out, is convinced that effective ventilation for American railway tun-
nels (exclusive of the type more properly designated as subways) can be
obtained only by blowing a current of air into the tunnel during the pas-
sage of the trains of sufficient volume to dilute the smoke and combustion
gases to such a degree during the passage of the train as to prevent the
possibility of partial asphyxiation of train crew and to cool the smoke and
gases and remove them entirely from the tunnel section within the mini-
mum time limit for following trains. It regards the Elkhorn type as a
special development to be used only where the conditions are favorable.
It is interesting to note that for the first method the small sec-
tion is most economical, because of less volume of air to be moved, and
that the installation of this method of ventilation will enable a railway
company to defer enlargement of the tunnel sections of many of the
tunnels built long ago, and even delay the necessity of constructing a
second-track tunnel in locations where the existing single-track tunnel
can be advantageously operated as a gauntlet in a double-track line.
In the report of the Roadway Committee for the year 1912 (see Pro-
ceedings, page 398) a record of tunnel ventilation under plans of Chas.
S. Churchill and C. C. Wentworth was given as Appendix A. There hav-
ing been some additional installations, the table has been brought up-to-
date and for convenience of reference is presented herewith :
ROADWAY.
397
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398 ROADWAY.
ECONOMICS IN ROADWAY LABOR.
SUB-COMMITTEE C.
H. J. Slifer, Chairman; J. A. Spielmann, W. C. Curd, Frank Merritt,
L. G. Morphy, W. H. Petersen.
Your Committee has given considerable thought to this subject and
we feel we can add little or no information to that which will be sub-
mitted by other committees. References to the Proceedings for the year
1913 are as follows :
"Economies in Labor of Signal Maintenance. — Your Committee begs
to state that this subject is being considered with reference to the report
in 1914."
"Economies in Track Labor. — Your Committee adopted the following
preliminary outline for future study, the plan being comprehensive and
intended to cover the work of several years." This is followed by vol-
uminous statistical information of great value.
"Economies in Roadway Labor. — Your Committee having agreed with
the Track, Signal and Interlocking Committees on a sub-division of the
work, reports progress." At the meeting in question, it was agreed that
the Roadway Committee would confine its study and recommendations to
the question of labor required for construction work only, it being the
province of the Track Committee to consider the question of labor re-
quired for maintenance work.
Ordinarily, construction work is assigned to contractor's forces and
aside from separation of grades (track elevations, subways, etc.), it is
seldom necessary to call on the railway engineer to organize labor forces
for this class of work.
In view of the fact that all such work is confined to congested ter-
minals, where the magnitude of the work to be accomplished, the time
allowed and the interference to traffic are so variable, your Committee
feels that any recommendations it might make would be of little or no
value.
We do not desire to treat the subject "Economics of Railway Labor"
lightly, believing as we do that it is the one important subject before the
Association and its individual membership, from a maintenance stand-
point. In fact, and with all due deference to the work which has al-
ready been done by your several committees, we believe that the subject
is one that should have the careful study of a Special Committee, which
should be instructed to make its recommendations as to consolidations
that might be made to accomplish greater efficiency in inspection and
repairs. Some of our members have already recognized the practicability
of combining the duties of inspection forces and others have assigned
combined crews to miscellaneous repairs and it is believed there is a
large field for economical work along these lines.
Your Committee would respectfully request that it be relieved of
further consideration of the subject.
ROADWAY. 299
CONCLUSIONS.
TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION.
(i) That railway tunnels, as ordinarily constructed in the United
States, are more economically built by driving first the heading entirely
through, but that such method usually requires a greater length of time
for completion of the tunnel ;
(2) That for material requiring support, the top heading should be
usually driven.
(3) That it is economical and expedient to use an electric shovel
or an air-shovel, for the removal of the bench where the section of the
tunnel permits the safe operation of the same; and that where the ma-
terial does not require support there are advantages in low cost and
quick removal of the bench in driving the heading at the subgrade line.
(4) That where the time limit is of value, the heading and bench
should be excavated at the same time, the heading being kept about 50
ft. in advance of the bench. Where the material of roof is not self-
supporting and timbering is to be resorted to, the bench should not be
removed until the wall-plates are laid and the arch ribs (or centering)
safely put up.
(5) That opposing grades should never meet between the portals of
a tunnel, so as to put a summit in the tunnel, and where practicable, the
alinement and ascending grades in the tunnel should be in the same
direction as the prevailing winds.
(6) That the attached drawings, Plates I, II and III, are representa-
tive of American practice in single-track tunnel construction, where the
time limit is of value.
TUXXEL VENTILATION.
The most practicable, effective and economical artificial ventilation
for tunnels carrying steam-power traffic is to be obtained by blowing a
current of air into one end of the tunnel for the purpose of removing,
or of diluting and removing, the smoke and combustion gases at the
opposite end. As practiced in America, this way of procuring ven-
tilation partakes of two methods :
(a) To blow a current of air in the direction the train is moving
and with sufficient velocity to remove the smoke and combustion gases
ahead of the engine ;
(b) To blow a current of air against the direction of the train with
velocity and volume sufficient to dilute the smoke and combustion gases
to such an extent as not to be uncomfortable to the operating crews and
to clear the tunnel entirely within the minimum time limit for following
trains.
400 ROADWAY.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NEXT YEAR'S WORK.
(i) That subject No. I be kept under consideration till the Special
Committee on Stresses in Track has made its report.
(2) Submit specifications for the protection of slopes by sodding or
otherwise.
(3) Consider the subject of acquiring land for right-of-way from
the original survey and option to the final purchase, monumenting and
entering on right-of-way maps, submitting necessary forms.
(4) Harmonize specifications heretofore adopted with the Uniform
General Contract forms adopted last year.
(5) The construction and maintenance of tracks in tunnels.
(6) The element of cost of earthwork in railway construction.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON ROADWAY.
BEPORT OF COMMITTEE VII— ON WOODEN BRIDGES
AND TRESTLES.
E. A. Frink, Chairman; W. S. Bouton, Vice-Chair man;
H. Austill, Jr., P. B. Motley,
F. J. Bachelder, A. O. Ridgway,
J. E. Barrett, I. L. Simmons,
F. E. Bissell, D. W. Smith,
E. A. Hadley, W. F. Steffens,
W. H. Hoyt, H. B. Stuart,
H. S. Jacoby, Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
The following subjects were assigned for the consideration of your
Committee :
(i) Complete report on formulas for use in determining the strength
of sheet piling.
(2) Complete report on the use of guard rails for wooden bridges
and trestles.
(3) Report on relative economy of repairs and renewals of wooden
bridges and trestles.
The Committee was divided into three Sub-Committees, one for each
of the subjects assigned, and worked during the year in collecting data.
A meeting was held i« the Association's rooms at Chicago on January
17, 1914, at which were present H. Austill, Jr., F. J. Bachelder, J. E.
Barrett, E. A. Frink, W. H. Hoyt, I. L. Simmons, D. W. Smith, and H.
B. Stuart. At this meeting the information and reports furnished by
the various Sub-Committees were discussed and the Committee makes the
following report and recommendations :
FORMULAS FOR SHEET PILING.
SUB-COMMITTEE A, HENRY S. JACOBY, CHAIRMAN.
This topic has been under consideration before the present year and
some experimental investigations were undertaken. The equipment in-
stalled at first proved to be inadequate for the purpose. The devices for
measuring the pressure of the earth had to be changed and it was hoped
that after the preliminary work of the preceding, year some satisfactory
results might be obtained. As is often the case, however, in experi-
mental research, unexpected difficulties and new problems related to the
work have arisen so that no fruitful results can be reported this year.
While the outlook is now more favorable, it is impossible to predict
how soon the work can be completed.
401
402 WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES.
This topic is closely allied to the investigation now being made by
Committee VIII on the principles of design of retaining walls, and the
experiments of Committee VIII should throw considerable light on the
design of sheet piling. The use of sheet piling is seldom required for
wooden bridges or trestles, but is a usual accompaniment of the con-
struction of masonry. Your Committee therefore believes that in order
to prevent duplication of experiment, and to serve the best interests of
the Association, the report on Formulas for the Use of Sheet Piling
should be combined with the report on the principles of Design of Re-
taining Walls, now being prepared by Committee VIII.
USE OF GUARD RAILS.
SUB-COMMITTEE B, E. A. FRINK, CHAIRMAN.
This subject has been previously investigated by this Committee
which submitted certain conclusions at the last annual meeting, all of
which conclusions were adopted except the recommendation in con-
clusion 2, that guard rails be used on all structures over 35 ft. long,
which was referred back to the Committee for further consideration and
report.
In August, 1913, Circular No. 1, given in Appendix A, was sent to
the officers in charge of structures of 329 railroads with a total mileage
of 276,544, to which 165 replies were received, covering a total of 170,804
miles of track, a summary of which is also given in Appendix A. 78.9
per cent, of those answering, representing 82.3 per cent, of the railroad
mileage answering, recommend guard rails on through bridges. Your
Committee believes the protection of trains and the lives of their pas-
sengers and crews to be more important than the protection of structures.
If, therefore, guard rails are a protection to through bridges, which
means that they assist in guiding a derailed train, they will equally be a
protection to trains which may be derailed on deck structures, and are
therefore desirable. Your Committee therefore recommends the adoption
of conclusion 5, given below.
At the annual meeting references were made to the danger of brake-
rigging catching in the ends of guard rails. Your Committee believes
that this objection can be met by beveling or bending down the ends of
guard rails or frog points to the level of the deck, and accordingly
recommends the amendment of conclusion 2 as given below.
In changing the wording of conclusion 2 as adopted last year,
to eliminate the recommendation to use guard rails on all structures
over 35 ft. long, the conclusions were left in such shape as to recom-
mend the use of guard rails. Your Committee has therefore changed the
wording of this paragraph to make it consistent with the other recom-
mendations.
WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES. 403
ECONOMY OF REPAIRS AND RENEWALS OF TRESTLES.
SUB-COMMITTEE C, W. F. STEFFENS, CHAIRMAN.
Considerable progress has been made in the collection of data re-
garding existing practice and relative cost of trestle renewals and re-
pairs, but your Committee is not yet in position to formulate conclusions
and therefore reports progress.
CONCLUSIONS.
(i) Amend conclusion 2, as adopted at the last annual meeting, to
read as follows :
"It is recommended as good practice, in the installation of guard
rails, to extend them beyond the ends of the bridges for such distance
as is required by local conditions, but that this distance, in any case, be
not less than 50 ft. ; that guard rails be fully spiked to every tie, and
spliced at every joint; that the guard rails be some form of metal sec-
tion; and that the ends be beveled, bent down, or otherwise protected
against direct impact with moving parts of equipment."
(2) Adopt conclusion 5 to read as follows :
"It is recommended as good practice to use inner guard rails ©n
all open-floor and on the outside tracks of all solid-floor bridges and
similar structures longer than 20 ft. in main-line tracks, and on similar
bridges and structures in branch-line tracks on which the speed of trains
is 20 miles per hour or more."
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NEXT YEAR'S WORK.
Your Committee recommends that the following subjects be assigned
for the ensuing year :
(1) Continue report on relative economy of repairs and renewals
of wooden bridges and trestles.
(2) Report on design of docks and wharves.
(3) Report on use of lag-screws for fastening guard timbers.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES.
Appendix A.
GUARD RAILS FOR BRIDGES AND TRESTLES.
CIRCULAR NO. I.
"At the last convention of the American Railway Engineering As-
sociation, this Committee was instructed to reconsider its recommenda-
tion regarding the use of guard rails on bridges and to obtain further
data. To this end you are requested to fill out the following inquiry
and return to the undersigned at your earliest convenience.
"Thanking you in advance for the courtesy of a prompt and full
reply, I am,
Yours very truly,
E. A. Frink,
Chairman, Committee."
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION.
Committee VII. — Sub-Committee 2.
Guard Rails for Bridges and Trestles.
"Definition : Guard Rail — A longitudinal member, usually a metal
rail, secured on top of the ties inside of the track rail, to guide de-
railed car wheels.
Inquiry.
"1. Does your road use guard rails on all its bridges and trestles?
"2. If not, on what structures are they used?
"3. In your judgment, should guard rails be used?
"(a) — on movable bridges; (b) — on through bridges; (c) — on deck
bridges; (d) — on wooden trestles; (e) — on solid floors.
"4. What kind of guard rails do you use?
"5. How far in front of the end of a structure do you extend guard
rails?
"6. Are your guard rails full spiked and bolted?
"7. Have you known of instances in which guard rails have pre-
vented damage to bridges?
"8. Give full particulars of each such instance.
"9. Have you known of instances in which guard rails have failed
to prevent damage to structures?
"10. Give full particulars of each such instances.
"11. Kindly enclose print of your standard guard rail.
"12. Give any further information or arguments which you think
may influence the Committee's action."
404
WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES.
405
SUMMARY OF ANSWERS TO INQUIRY OF CIRCULAR No. 1
Number of inquiries sent .
* " replies
Number of replies
using guard rails on all bridges .
" " " " some "
advising use on all bridges
" ■ ■ movable bridges
" " " through "
" " deck "
" " " timber trestles
" . " " solid-floor structures
not advising use on all bridges
" " " movable bridges
" " " " through "
* " deck "
" * " " timber trestles
* " " " solid-floor structures ....
reporting cases where guard rail prevented
damage
reporting cases where guard failed
No.
329
165
165
30
117
18
49
115
130
108
94
60
5
16
7
13
13
38
84
33
Per Cent
100
50.2
100
18.2
71.0
10.9
29.7
69.8
78.9
65.5
57.0
36.4
3.0
9.7
4.2
7.9
7.9
23.0
50.9
21.3
Mil. Rep.
276,542
170,804
170,804
15,039
151,348
4,417
54,523
132,912
140,556
95,658
73,830
59,460
3,367
15,269
4,726
5,977
6,093
22,603
103,317
60,156
Per Cent
100
51.7
100
8.8
88.6
2.5
31.9
77.8
82.3
56.0
43.2
34.8
1.9
8.9
2.7
3.5
3.6
13.2
60.5
35.2
REPORT OF COMMITTEE XV— ON IRON AND STEEL
STRUCTURES.
A. J. Himes, Chairman; O. E. Selby, V ice-Chairman;
J. A. Bohland. William Michel.
A. W. Buel. W. H. Moore.
A. W. Carpenter. Albert Rzichmann.
Charles Chandler. C. E. Smith.
C. L. Crandall. I. F. Stern.
J. E. Crawford. G. E. Tebbetts.
F. O. Dufour. F. E. Turneaure.
W. R. Edwards. L. F. Van Hagan.
Committee.
To the Members of the Am:rican Railway Engineering Association:
The subjects assigned to your Committee for investigation during
the past year are :
(i) Report on the methods of protection of iron and steel struc-
tures against corrosion.
(2) Study the design of built-up columns, co-operating with other
investigators and committees of other societies.
(3) Report on design and length of turntables.
(4) Report on the relative economy of various types of movable
bridges for varying lengths of span.
In addition to these subjects, there remained from the preceding year
unfinished business as follows :
(5) Investigation of secondary stresses and impact.
(6) Adaptation of designs of movable bridges to signal and inter-
locking appliances required.
(7) Specifications for phosphor bronze.
(8) Bridge clearance diagram.
(9) Revision of the Manual : Specifications for elastic limit ; re-
vision of paragraph 23 of "Instructions for the Inspection of the Fabri-
cation of Steel Bridges."
Because of the large number of members of the Committee and their
wide geographical distribution and also the considerable volume of work
in hand, the several subjects were assigned to sub-committees as follows:
Sub-Committee A, Subject (1) :
G. E. Tebbetts, Chairman ;
J. A. Bohland,
Charles Chandler,
F O. Dufour,
W. R. Edwards,
C. E. Smith,
L. F. Van Hagan.
407
408 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
Sub-Committee B, Subject (2) :
W. H. Moore, Chairman ;
A. W. Carpenter,
C. L. Crandall,
J. E. Crawford,
C. E. Smith,
I. F. Stern.
Sub-Committee C, Subject (3) :
O. E. Selby, Chairman ;
Charles Chandler,
J. E. Crawford,
W. R. Edwards,
Wm. Michel,
Albert Reichmann,
C. E. Smith.
Sub-Committee D, Subject (4) :
Albert Reichmann, Chairman ;
J. A. Bohland,
A. W. Buel,
A. W. Carpenter,
G. E. Tebbetts,
F. E. Turneaure.
Sub-Committee E, Subject (5) :
F. E. Turneaure, Chairman;
C. L. Crandall.
F. O. Dufour.
Albert Reichmann.
Sub-Committee F, Subject (6) :
O. E. Selby, Chairman ;
C. E. Smith.
Sub-Committee G, Subject (7) :
0. E. Selby, Chairman ;
F. O. Dufour.
Sub-Committee H, Subject (8) :
C. L. Crandall, Chairman ;
A. W. Buel,
W. R. Edwards,
Wm. Michel.
W. H. Moore,
1. F. Stern,
L. F. Van Hagan.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 40U
REVISION OF THE MANUAL.
Sub-Committee I, Subject (9). (a) Specifications for Elastic Limit:
A. W. Carpenter, Chairman ;
F. O. Dufour,
Albert Reichmann,
O. E. Selby,
L. F. Van Hagan.
Sub-Committee I, Subject (9). (b) Revision of paragraph 23 of "In-
structions for the Inspection of the Fabrication of Steel Bridges."
Albert Reichmann.
The investigation of these several subjects has been carried on largely
by correspondence, but several meetings of Sub-Committees have been
held. On October 17 a meeting of the whole Committee was held at
Buffalo, N. Y. The following members attended: A. J. Himes, Chair-
man; O. E. Selby, Vice-Chairman; C. L. Crandall, F. O. Dufour, W. R.
Edwards, Albert Reichmann, G. E. Tebbetts and F. E. Turneaure
On January 20 a meeting of the whole Committee was held at the
U. S. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. The following members
attended : A. J. Himes, Chairman ; J. A. Bohland, Charles Chandler, C.
L. Crandall, W. R. Edwards and W. H. Moore. William Michel was
represented by his assistant, Mr. Eastman, and the American Society of
Civil Engineers' Special Committee on Steel Columns and Struts was
represented by its Chairman, A. L. Bowman. The location for the meet-
ing was selected in order that the Committee might witness the first
of the column tests being made by the Bureau, under the direction of
the Committee.
Your Committee submits a final report on "Methods of Protection
of Iron and Steel Structures against Corrosion" in Appendix A.
This report is submitted as information and without recommendation.
The "Study of the Design of Built-up Columns" has made but little
progress during the year. Considerable delay was encountered in securing
material for the columns in the first series of tests. Some of these tests
are now being made and a progress report is presented in Appendix B.
Progress is being made on the subject of "Design and Length of
Turntables."
It is recommended that this subject be continued during the coming
year.
"The Relative Economy of Various Types of Movable Bridges for
Varying Lengths of Span" is a subject that covers such a diversity of
conditions as not to admit of the formulation of principles of general
application. It is therefore recommended that the Committee be relieved
from its consideration for the present.
The "Investigation of Secondary Stresses and Impact" is reported on
in Appendix C.
This material is submitted as a progress report. The subject should
be re-assigned for further study.
410 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
The "Adaptation of Designs of Movable Bridges to Signal and Im-
terlocking Appliances Required" has been subject of careful study by a
joint Sub-Committee representing Committees II and III of the Railway
Signal Association, and Committees X and XV of the American Rail-
way Engineering Association. The final report is presented in Appendix
D, and is recommended for adoption and publication in the Manual.
A "Specification for Phosphor Bronze" has received some discussion
during the year and considerable information has been received. How-
ever, it is not in shape for presentation to the Association at this time.
The "Bridge Clearance Diagram" has been the subject of an ex-
haustive study. Any changes in the present diagram will have such far-
reaching importance that no change should be made hastily and the work
of the Committee has thus far consisted in the compilation of prevailing
opinions and practices on the various roads. This information is shown
in Appendix E, and is submitted as a progress report. It is recommended
that the investigation be continued.
(a) The Committee has no report to make upon the "Specifications
for the Elastic Limit."
(b) Paragraph 23 of "Instructions for the Inspection of the Fabri-
cation of Steel Bridges," page 88, of Volume 14 of the Proceedings, has
been amended to read as follows :
"23. Have the assembling of trusses and girder spans required by the
specifications carefully done and in any case insure the accuracy of
field connections. If a large number of duplicate parts are to be made,
the number of parts to be assembled should be governed by the work-
manship. If errors are found, a sufficient number of parts should be
assembled to make it reasonably certain that such errors have been
eliminated."
This paragraph is recommended for adoption and publication in the
Manual.
The following additional clauses for the inspection of the fabrication
of steel bridges are submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual :
"1. Check every finished member against the drawings for its gen-
eral dimensions and for the section of each piece of material forming a
component part of the member.
"2. Attend the weighing of material whenever practicable, especially
that purchased on weight basis. Check the accuracy of the scales with
test weights or by other sufficient means."
CONCLUSIONS.
Your Committee recommends that the following action be taken on
the report submitted herewith:
(1) That the report on methods of protection of iron and steel struc-
tures against corrosion be received as information.
(2) That the report on secondary stresses be received as informa-
tion.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 411
(3) That the report on requirements for the protection of traffic at
movable bridges be adopted and published in the Manual.
(4) That the report on bridge clearance diagram be received as in-
formation.
(5) That revised paragraph 23 of "Instructions for the Inspection of
the Fabrication of Steel Bridges" be adopted and published in the Manual.
That the two additional clauses relating to the same subject be adopted and
published in the Manual.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
Appendix A.
METHODS OF PROTECTION OF IRON AND STEEL STRUC-
TURES AGAINST CORROSION.
PIGMENTS.
Pigments may, in respect to their action upon steel in water, be divided
into three classes, each of which merge into the next by easy steps, so
that the line of demarcation is difficult to ascertain. These classes are the
"inhibitive," the "neutral" (inerts or indeterminate), and the "stimula-
tive." The "inhibitive" pigments retard rust, the "stimulative" hasten
the corrosion, while the "inerts" are an intermediate class which appar-
ently leaves the material in much the same condition as it was originally,
the only protective action being that of a covering pure. and simple. It
should be noted that the chemical composition of the metal influences the
action of the pigment and may reduce the protective action of weak
inhibitors.
Pigments may further be divided according to their ability to exclude
and to shed moisture. There is a distinction between the two classes
mentioned. A pigment may exclude the moisture and still be of such
a surface character as to allow it to stand upon the surface until it
evaporates or is absorbed; or a pigment may have such surface char-
acteristics that the moisture will run off. A "shedding" pigment may
be a greater absorber of moisture than an "excluder" and still be a
superior protection, according to the conditions of location.
Strong inhibitors may be weak "excluders" or "shedders," while
"stimulators" may have high qualities as "excluders" or "shedders."
Pigments may have different coefficients of expansion and "drying"
and different modulii of elasticity. In cases where great differences obtain
in any or all of these properties, the surface may "alligator" or crack.
In some cases the finishing coat has "alligatored" along the priming coat,
which was of a different color, and this shows through. The liability
of some of the best "inhibitors" to crack or alligator is so great as to
preclude their use in many cases.
The chemical processes by which the pigments are prepared exert
a marked influence in the action of the pigment on the metal. For
example, Prussian blue may be either inhibitive, neutral or stimulative,
according to the process of manufacture. This condition of affairs
probably serves as a basis for discussion where one person condemns and
another lauds a certain pigment used in different cases under the same
conditions. Failure occurred in one case, and fair satisfaction was
given in the other.
The consideration of the conditions of exposure are also important
in the selection of a pigment. The chemical composition of the pigment
412
J RON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 413
may be affected by either heat, light, moisture or gases, so that it would
fail, whereas if one or more of these deteriorating influences was ab-
sent, good service would be obtained.
The vehicle is as important as the base. While the vehicle may, on
account of porosity or other features, be objectionable, yet the addition
of the pigment will, by reason of the filling of the voids, produce a
successful protective coating.
Investigators have concluded that the size of the pigment particles
is important and that the law of minimum voids holds true in the
preparation of protective coatings, as well as in concrete. Therefore,
either various proportions of the same pigment, which have different
degrees of fineness, or the mixing of pigments of different degrees
of fineness, would seem to be advisable. The spreading value of a pig-
ment is an important consideration, secondary, of course, to its pro-
tective action, but still influencing it. Too high a spreading quality
causes films of paint too thin to withstand the actions of the deteriorating
influences.
Investigators appear to have come to the conclusion that bituminous
coatings protect metal better than any other, but that the acion of
sunlight readily destroys their life and, hence, the value, and that, there-
fore, they are practically of no value as a protective agent where
subjected to the action of light.
From the preceding it appears that :
(i) Priming coats should always be inhibitors, whether or not
they are excluders or shedders.
(2) Finishing coats should be excluders or shedders ; shedders,
preferably, whether or not they are inhibitors, neutrals or stimulators.
(3) Care must be taken to consider the deteriorating influence and
determine the chemical requirements of the pigment accordingly.
(4) In cases where a pigment appears in more than one class,
care should be taken to determine its process of manufacture before
using it as a priming coat.
(5) That the best results will probably be obtained by using an
"inhibitive" and "excluder" or "shedder" pigment for both priming and
finishing coats, due consideration being paid to (3).
Table 1 gives the classes to which commonly-used pigments belong :
TABLE 1— CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS (CUSHMAN).
Inhibitors
Indeterminates
Zinc and Lead Chro- White Lead (Quick Process,
mate
Zinc Oxide
Zinc Chromate
Zinc and Barium
Chromate
Zinc Lead White
Basis Carbonate)
Sublimed White Lead (Basic
Sulphate)
Sublimed Blue Lead
Lithopone
Orange Mineral (American Red
Lead)
Stimulators
Lamp-black
Precipitated Barium
Sulphate (Blanc
Fixe)
Ochre
Bright Red Oxide
Carbon Black
414
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
TABLE 1, Continued— CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS (CUSHMAN).
Inhibitors
Indeterminates
Stimulators
Prussian Blue (in-
Litharge
Graphite No. 2
hibitive)
Venetian Red
Barium Sulphate
Chrome Green (Blue
Prince's Metallic Brown
(Barytes)
tone)
Calcium Carbonate (Whiting)
Graphite No. 1
White Lead (Dutch
Calcium Carbonate (Precipi-
Prussian Blue
process)
tated)
(Stimulative)
Ultramarine Blue
Calcium Sulphate
Linseed Oil
Willow Charcoal
China Clay
Asbestine
American Vermilion
Medium Chrome Yellow
From this it is seen that the carbon and graphite paints should
not be used as primers, that the zinc and zinc lead pigments are good
primers, while the lead basis may belong to either class, according
to their method of manufacture.
Table 2 gives the relative moisture value of pigments (Cushman) :
TABLE 2— MOISTURE EXPERIMENTS.
Experiments Given Express Gain in Weight, e. g., Water Absorbed.
Rank
Pigment
Relative Units
Absorbed In 7
Days
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Iron Oxides (with 2 per cent. Zinc
Chromate and 2 per cent. Gum) . .
White Lead, D. D
White Lead and Zinc Oxide
China Clay
Whiting
Zinc Oxide, Barytes and Blanc Fixe.
Zinc Lead White
Red Lead
Basic Sulphate — White Lead
Zinc Oxide and Whiting
Zinc Chromate
Barytes and Zinc Oxide
Zinc Oxide
Calcium Sulphate
American Vermilion
White Lead, Barytes and Blanc Fixe.
Barytes
Willow Charcoal
Lithopone
Carbon Black
Lead and Zinc Chromate
Chinese Blue (Stimulative)
Venetian Red
Natural Graphite
Medium Chrome Yellow
Bright Red Oxide
Barium and Zinc Chromate
Ultramarine
Prussian Blue (Inhibitive)
Raw Linseed Oil
Lamp-black
Blanc Fixe
0.032
0.040
0.043
0.044
0.044
0.048
0.049
0.049
0.049
0.060
0.064
0.064
0.065
0.066
0.069
0.074
0.074
0.077
0.083
0.084
0.086
0.092
0.093
0.104
0.106
0.116
0.H6
n.119
0.125
0.143
0.1!I3
0.210
It shows that some of the best inhibitors are in the lowest "excluder"
coefficient, and vice versa — although some of the best inhibitors are the
best excluders.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 415
It is of particular interest to note that raw linseed oil alone stands
30 in a list of 32, being one of the worst excluders. This alone should
be sufficient to remove it for the priming coatings and all experiments
appear to show that, as a primer coating, it is also one of the greatest
stimulators.
PRESERVATIVE COATINGS FOR IRON AND STEEL.
As the American Society for Testing Materials has devoted so
much time and effort to the determination of the best paints for the
preservation of iron and steel against corrosion, it is deemed advisable
to confine this report to other methods for such preservation and to
give a brief synopsis of, and reference to, the results accomplished
by the American Society for Testing Materials and other investigators
in paint tests.
The matter was first taken up by the American Society for Testing
Materials at its fifth annual meeting in 1902, at which time a resolution
was adopted to appoint a Committee on "Preservative Coatings for Iron
and Steel." The first report was made by that Committee in 1903, and
beginning with that year the Proceedings contain a great deal of valu-
able information in Committee reports and in papers by individual
members.
The Committee early realized the desirability of service tests on
full-sized structures in ordinary service, and made such a recommenda-
tion in 1903. The report of that year gave the general requirements as a
basis for the work of the Committee :
(1) Requirements for a satisfactory preservative metal coating.
(2) Methods used and suggested to determine whether the pre-
servative coating is efficient.
(3) An index, with abstracts, if possible, of general and current
literature bearing on this subject which has appeared in
English, French, German and American publications.
(4) A classified liSt of all coatings used or suggested for the pro-
tection of iron and steel.
In addition, the Committee recommended a series of tests on steel
panels, and in 1904 reported in detail the methods of preparing such
panels for test.
The following Sub-Committees were appointed to study the various
phases of the work:
. "Standard Methods of Conducting Field Tests."
"Standard Methods of Conducting Service Tests."
"Permeability of Paint Films."
"Permanency of Paint Films."
"Preparation" of Iron and Steel Surfaces."
In 1906 the Committee reported that arrangements were under way
to paint a portion of the Havre de Grace bridge of the Pennsylvania
Railroad with a large number of different brands and kinds of paints,
4JG IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
one portion of the bridge and several sheets of steel to be painted with
each paint.
In 1907 the Committee reported that 19 paints had been applied to
19 panels of the bridge. Specifications for the preparation of the sur-
face and application of the paint, together with instructions to the
Director of Tests stationed at the bridge, had been issued by the Com-
mittee, but it was early found impractical to follow them under the
conditions existing at the bridge.
The specifications required that all parts of the structure be cleaned
free from mill scale, dirt, rust, etc., to clean bright steel. This was
found impractical, as some of the members were badly rusted, especially
in inaccessible parts, as between eye-bars on bottom chord and on lat-
ticed members. In such places it was found impossible to thoroughly
clean without delaying the work to such an extent as to cause criticism
from the railroad. The specifications also required that all paint be
applied by the standard round brush. This was also found impossible
on latticed members and between eye-bars on bottom chord, etc.
It was found that serious delay would have resulted from a rigid
adherence to the original specifications.
For the above reasons the instructions were modified as follows :
(1) The surface of all accessible metal, in so far as is practicable,
is to be cleaned in a workmanlike manner with putty and broad knives,
scraper and wire brushes, so that all loose or easily detachable mill scale,
rust and dirt are removed, as well as loose shop coat or "black oil"
(by "black oil" is meant linseed). Any non-drying oil or grease on
accessible parts is to be removed with either benzine or a torch.
(2) Where the shop coat is firm, hard, and in good condition, it is
not necessary to remove it. This applies also to black oil.
(3) Field and shop rivets are to be wire-brushed, and, where nec-
essary, this is to be followed by the knife or scraper, and hammer is
not to be used.
(4) It is understood that the inside of columns and such other
members difficult of access are not to enter into the test, and the above
instructions for cleaning do not apply to them. They should, however,
be cleaned in accordance with the ordinary methods of the contractor.
The inspector is to make note of such members and include them in his
report.
(5) Painting should follow cleaning immediately, and as many
different paints are to be applied at the same time as the length and
position of the scaffolds and expediency will permit.
(6) No paint shall be applied when the humidity is greater than
85 per cent.
(7) Since the net cost of all work is borne by the Committee, the
inspector will see that the work is done with reasonable promptness, and
will endeavor to keep the cost down as much as possible, consistent
with reasonable thoroughness.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 417
(8) All directions contained in the previous letter of instructions not
herein modified are to remain in force.
The Committee also adopted the following rules for
""METHOD OF INSPECTION OP CONDITION OF PAINTS UPON HAVRE DE
GRACE BRIDGE."
(i) Inspection to be made every six months, unless for sufficient
reasons the Committee desires more frequent inspections, by an official
inspector. Notice of each inspection is to be sent out previously to
every member of the Committee, with the endeavor to have the Com-
mittee represented at each inspection.
(2) As far as practicable, a photograph should be taken at each
inspection by a thoroughly competent photographer, preferably the in-
spector, care being taken to obtain negatives capable of enlargement and
microscopic examination. A scale should be photographed in connection
with the object.
(3) Character of gloss, to be noted by the inspector, whether high,
moderate, dull or flat.
(4) Relative absorptive condition of each film when moistened with
water.
(5) Relative toughness to be determined by cutting the film with a
sharp knife, note being made whether elastic, tough, brittle or flaking,
degree of adhesion being determined by the same test.
(6) Condition of surface to be noted, whether tendency to blister,
alligator, scale, flake or powder (chalk), giving especial attention to the
condition at angles and corners.
(7) Relative hardness to be determined by testing the films as to
resistance to an edge of a cube of lead, tin, aluminum and zinc, re-
spectively. (The details are now being worked out by Mr. Heckel, and
report upon the method will be made shortly.)
(8) Note to be made as to the degree to which dirt has become
attached to the surface.
(9) Condition of the surface as to powdering and general appear-
ance, wear and weathering.
(10) When pitting has begun, the size, number, form, .character
and location of the pimple should be carefully noted, and the proportional
increase since last inspection.
(11) Date to be noted on which repainting becomes necessary.
(12) These instructions are intended merely as a general guide
to the inspector, who will be expected to make as complete observations
as possible of all matters which appear to him to be. worthy of report.
The 1908 report stated "The only example of an asphaltum coat-
ing thinned with a petroleum volatile solvent has failed to a marked
degree after eighteen months' exposure."
In 191 1, with one or two exceptions, the paints were affording excel-
lent protection to the structure.
A further report of considerable interest appears in the Proceedings
of the American Society for Testing Materials of the sixteenth annual
meeting, June 24-28, 1913.
In 1908 a number of paints were also applied to wooden and steel
panels exposed to the salt air at Atlantic City, N. J. The description of
418 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
these tests is contained in Vol. X, 1910, pages 79 et seq., Pro. Am. Soc.
Testing Materials.
In 1910 the investigations on preservative coatings by the Com-
mittee had broadened to such an extent that it was reorganized, all for-
mer Sub-Committees being abolished and the following organization
adopted :
(1) The Officers of Committee D-i shall be a Chairman, a Vice-
Chairman and a Secretary, to be elected annually.
(2) Members may be added to Committee D-i at any time, by ap-
pointment by the Advisory Committee, after approval by the Executive
Committee of the Society.
(3) The following standing Sub-Committees and their chairmen
shall be appointed by the chairman of Committee D-i, abolishing all
old Sub-Committees :
(a) Advisory committee of six to act with the Chairman, Vice-
Chairman and Secretary, for the Committee between meetings.
(b) On inspection of the Havre de Grace bridge.
(c) On inspection of the wooden panels at Atlantic City.
(d) On the steel fence at Atlantic City, to collaborate with Sub-
Committee of Committee A-5.
(e) On linseed oil.
(f) On the definition of terms used in paint specifications.
(g) On the influence of pigments on corrosion,
(h) On accelerated tests.
(i) On varnish.
(j) On testing white paints.
References to the Committee reports and articles of interest by
individual members of the American Society for Testing Materials,
together with the general conclusions reached by these and other in-
vestigators, are contained in the following pages.
Some of the experiences of those members, and other facts of inter-
est set forth in the proceedings, are as follows :
"Almost no paint containing linseed oil as a constituent is impervious
to water. The fineness of the pigment is a most important element in the
water resistance of the layer. Protective coatings which dry by evapo-
ration of the solvent seem to offer much more prospect of success.
If our experiments are to be trusted, the protective coatings at present
available are not as valuable as we have been hoping." Dudley, Vol. IV,
1904.
"Cement coatings must be kept in moist air at least 24 hours after
being applied. Cement in extremely fine state of division will be nec-
essary; 5 to 10 per cent, calcium chloride makes it set before drying."
Newberry, Vol. IV, 1904.
"Paint must be rubbed in with a good stiff round brush. Proper
cleaning and proper application of primary importance. Average quality
of wood painting better than iron. Paint, then cover with paraffin paper,
then paint." Sabin, Vol. IV, 1904.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 419
"Tar residuum of petroleum mixed with some of the lighter oils
(petroleum products) is the best preservative for train shed steel."
De Wyrall, Vol. IV, 1904.
"Some of the ferric oxides are perfectly stable, are not affected by
gases, and cannot change their composition." Toch, Vol. V, 1905.
"Use of flat brush should be prohibited. Round brush larger than
a 6-0 should not be allowed." Cheesman, Vol. V, 1905.
Articles and Committee Reports Contained in Proceedings of the Amer-
ican Society for Testing Materials Referring to Preservative Coatings for
Iron and Steel.
Volume III — 1903.
Report of Committee E — on Preservative Coatings for Iron and Steel.
Volume IV — 1904.
Report of Committee E — on Preservative Coatings for Iron and Steel.
Results of an Investigation Concerning Causes of Durability of Paints
for Structural Work. — Robert Job.
Preservative Coatings for Iron and Steel. — Cyril de Wyrall.
Volume V — 1905.
Report of Committee E — on Preservative Coatings for Iron and Steel.
Proper Methods in Conducting Painting Tests. — G. W. Thompson.
The Practicability of Establishing Standard Specifications for Pre-
servative Coatings for Steel. — Topical Discussion.
Protection of Iron and Steel Structures by Means of Paper and
Paint. — Louis H. Barker.
What Is the Best Method of Painting Steel Cars?— Frank P.
Cheesman.
The Effect of Electricity on Paint. — James C. Blanch.
Volume VI — 1906.
Report of Committee E — on Preservative Coatings for Iron and Steel.
The Electrolytic Corrosion of Structural Steel. — Max Toch.
The Relative Corrosion of Wrought-Iron and Steel. — H. M. Howe.
The Corrosion of Iron and Steel — General Discussion.
Volume VII — 1907.
Report of Committee E — on Preservative Coatings for Iron and Steel.
Report of Committee U — on the Corrosion of Iron and Steel.
The Corrosion of Iron. — Allerton S. Cushman.
The Influence of Stress upon the Corrosion of Iron. — W. H. Walker
and Colby Dill.
Priming Coats' for Metal Surfaces — Linseed Oil vs. Paint. — F. P.
Cheesman.
Deleterious Ingredients in Paints. — L. S. Hughes.
Physical Testing of Oil Varnishes. — J. C. Smith.
The Physical Properties o-f- Paint Films. — R. S. Perry.
Paint Legislation. — E. F. Ladd.
Volume VIII— 1908.
Report of Committee E — on Preservative Coatings for Iron and Steel.
Appendix I — Paint Analyses. — P. H. Walker.
420 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
Appendix II — Paint Analyses. — P. C. Mcllhiney.
Appendix III— Supplementary Reports of the Director of Tests.
Reports of Committee U — on the Corrosion of Iron and Steel.
Electrolysis and Corrosion. — A. S. Cushman.
The Relative Corrosion of Steel and Wrought-Iron Tubing. —
H. M. Howe and Bradley Stoughton.
General Discussion on Corrosion.
The Analysis of Oil Varnishes. — P. C. Mcllhiney.
Certain Solubility Tests on Protective Coatings. — G. W. Thompson.
The Inhibitive Power of Certain Pigments on the Corrosion of
Iron and Steel. — A. S. Cushman.
Volume IX — 1909.
Report of Committee E — on Preservative Coatings for Structural
Materials.
Report of Committee U — on the Corrosion of Iron and Steel.
•Volume X — 1910.
Report of Committee A-5 — on Standard Specifications for Steel.
Report of Joint Sub-Committee in Charge of Erection and Painting
of Steel Test Panels at Atlantic City.
Report of Committee D-i — on Preservative Coatings for Structural
Materials.
Report of Sub-Committee B — on Inspection of the Havre de Grace
Bridge.
Report of Sub-Committee C — on Inspection of the Wooden Panels
at Atlantic City.
Report of Sub-Committee E — on Linseed Oil.
Report of Sub-Committee G — on the Influence of Pigments on
Corrosion.
Report of Sub-Committee I — on Varnish.
Some Exposure Tests of Structural Steel Coatings. — C. M. Chapman.
Vermilion Paint for Railway Signals : Results of an Investigation. —
Robert Job.
Another Solubility Test on Protective Coatings. — G. W. Thompson.
Volume XI — 191 1.
Report of Committee A-5 — on the Corrosion of Iron and Steel.
Analysis of Results of Official Inspection of Fence Wire Tests,
Carnegie Technical Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa., November 30, 1910.
Report of Committee D-i — on Preservative Coatings for Structural
Materials.
Report of Sub-Committee B — on Inspection of the Havre de Grace
Bridge.
Report of Sub-Committee C — on Paint Vehicles.
Report of Sub-Committee D — on the Atlantic City Steel Paint Tests.
Report of Sub-Committee E — on Linseed Oil.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 421
Report of Sub-Committee F — on the Definition of Terms Used in
Paint Specifications.
Report of Sub-Committee J — on the Testing of White Paints.
The Value of the Sulphuric Acid Corrosion Test. — C. M. Chapman.
The Marked Influence of Copper in Iron and Steel on the Acid
Corrosion Test. — W. H. Walker.
Some Tests on the Rate of Corrosion of Metal Exposed to Loco-
motive Gases. — A. W. Carpenter.
The American Railway Bridge and Building Association assigned
a Committee to report on the subject, and as that report contains in
concise form some fundamental principles, it is reprinted here in full :
"As a number of separate and distinct operations are necessary in
the proper performance of a job of structural steel painting it appears
best that the subject be divided and the different stages separately pre-
sented. Also, in this discussion, the process of coating new steel, and the
work of repainting old structures should not be confused.
"Scientific research and numerous practical tests have demonstrated
the fact that certain paint pigments, though possessing excellent moisture
repelling properties, will actually stimulate corrosion when applied di-
rectly to steel surfaces, while certain other pigments have a tendency to
restrict and repress corrosion when used for primers and foundation
coats. Because of this, we divide the pigments into rust retarding, and
air and moisture excluding ones, using the first for priming and contact
coats, and the latter, for finishing and exposed outer surfaces. The
pigments used in steel protective paints of the first kind are principally,
red lead, oxides and the like, while carbons, lampblacks, graphite, etc.,
belong in the other class.
"Shop Coating. — A rust retarding coat may be suitably compounded
from red lead mixed with pure linseed oil. The average stock mixture
may consist of from 25 to 30 lbs. of red lead to the gallon of oil. This
mixture can then be reduced to the proper consistency at the time of
application. A small amount of turpentine added to this brush coating
will greatly help in its manipulation and will also provide for proper
penetration. Red lead should always be mixed at the time of its applica-
tion, for it settles quite readily, as it is an extremely heavy pigment.
If so desired, the settling can be retarded, to a certain degree, by the
addition of a small amount of asbestine (magnesium silicate) in the
proportion of about 20 lbs. of red lead and 2^ to 3 lbs. of asbestine
pulp to the gallon of linseed oil. A small amount of turpentine should
also be added to this mixture for the purpose mentioned above. A good
workman is required to properly apply red lead paint because of its
more or less difficult application.
"Natural oxides have also grown to be very good for priming pur-
poses, and very satisfactory results are recorded from their use. A
number of consumers favor oxides because of their easier application and
the less expert class of labor which is required to apply it. A saving
422 »"~ IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
of from five to ten per cent., as compared with red lead paint, can thus
be effected. Some concerns are using a combination of red lead and
oxide and make good reports regarding it. A number of reliable paint
firms have similarly composed products on the market, which are sold
under certain trade names, and some concerns have adopted them as
their standards.
"Although quite extensively used in former years, linseed oil is
rapidly losing favor. It appears to be a universal opinion that linseed oil
is not a desirable material for the prime coating of metals when used
without the addition of pigments. A foundation coat of linseed oil is
very often the direct cause of peeling and blistering of the other several
coatings applied over it. The oil is seldom dried enough to insure close
adherence to the metal surface which it covers before the other paints
are spread over it. When the subsequent coats of paint are spread, the
solvents and oils in them are bound to soften to some extent the under-
lying coat of oil, and the moderate heat of the sun alone is sufficient to
cause the whole film to draw up, blister, and finally peel. Too much oil
in a paint coating, particularly when the surplus is in or near the founda-
tion coat, will generally cause blistering and peeling, regardless of the
pigments used in the coatings. If, on the other hand, the erection or final
completion of an oil-coated structure should for some reason become de-
layed, this oil film, which deteriorates much faster than a paint coating,
will have practically perished; its surface will be morbid and dead and
will not have strength and stability enough to carry any subsequent coats,
which when applied over this kind of a surface, will also peel.
"Field Coatings. — Paints containing the same kinds of pigments as
for shop coatings, can be successfully used for the first field coat, pro-
viding it is covered with another elastic outer coating. If that is not
done, paints suitable for finishing coats should be applied, and the first
field coat omitted. Red lead or oxide priming should be darkened for
this coat by adding carbon or lampblack in the proportion of oo to 95
per cent, of the reds and 5 to 10 per cent, of carbon mixed. The addi-
tion of this black will not only help to make the coating more elastic,
but will act as a guide to determine if the former surface is being
completely covered because of its darker shade and the shade is also
brought nearer to the color of the black finish coating.
"Carbon, lampblack and graphite pigments, singly or mixtures of them,
have given best satisfaction as outer surface and finishing paints. These,
combined with some inert and reinforcing pigments according to special
formulas form the basis for nearly every brand of paint for the satis-
factory metal coatings on the market. The addition of some high grade
gum like 'Kauri' improves a finishing paint greatly, producing more elas-
ticity, resistance and life. It is, of course, just as essential that the oils
entering into the makeup and composition of the various paints are of the
proper kind and quality, as that the selection and composition of pigments
be properly made and storekeepers or other officers charged with the
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 423
duties of passing on the merits of goods purchased should be very alert
and strict in regard to linseed oil. Paints containing tar, or those with
a tar base, should not be used on steel structures exposed to the sun and
weather, as tar-paint films rapidly check, crack and 'alligator.'
"Repainting. — When for any reason it becomes necessary to repaint
an iron or steel structure, the paint should never be applied in wet or
freezing weather, and the surface should be freed absolutely from all
scale, rust, dirt, etc. It is not sufficient to merely apply a fresh coat
of paint over an .old paint surface under which traces of paint corrosion
appear, for while the new paint will cover up the old surface, and may
adhere firmly to it, corrosion goes on beneath the paint just the same.
Freeing from rust and corrosion and perfect cleaning are positively
necessary. When for some reason it is not possible that the entire
structure can receive a coat of some rust-retarding primer, the parts
cleaned and freed from rust, and all the exposed surfaces, at least, should
be touched up with either a red lead or oxide primer, before the finishing
coat is given. The use of turpentine in the paint applied over the old
surface is advised, as turpentine is a penetrant, providing the penetra-
tion and adhesion between the old paint film and the new coat.
"Although more expensive, cleaning by sand blast is much more
thorough than the hammer, chisel, scraper and wire brush method, and
the greater cost is readily offset by better results in the end. The sand
blast method thus far has not been very extensively used, so the com-
mittee has not been able to gather full data as to the cost, etc., but we
believe that the matter is worthy of deliberate consideration. Where the
sand blast has been used, the steel so cleaned and the steel has been
painted promptly, it has not shown signs of corrosion again nearly as
quickly as steel cleaned by hand.
"Occasionally we notice defects showing up here and there on a steel
structure within an unusually short time after the completion of the
painting. On looking into the matter we find that nothing extraordinary
has occurred during the progress of the work. Everything has been
handled in the usual way, the general course of mechanical procedure
has been followed, and still improper results are appearing. We recall
no acts of our own to which to lay the blame and are finally compelled
to look for the cause previous to our own handling of the work, or to
the priming, which was done at the works or in the mill. We are not
certain beyond a doubt, so we decide to visit a mill, and there make
personal observations, which may very probably result as follows : In
one part of this enormous plant we find the inspector busy in the pursuit
of his duties, checking, comparing specifications, testing, weighing, and at-
tending to the many details connected with his work. In the meantime,
we notice in another remote part of the place a bunch of unskilled
laborers mopping paint onto some steel that had been sent along for
priming, using large 6 in. or 8 in. flat brushes, and covering over mill
scale, rust, dirt and other imperfections, each and every one a destructive
agent and an enemy to the life of steel. We observe all these stimulators
424 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
of corrosion brushed over and covered up with paint, but not removed,
and so the march of the corroding process is sure to go on. We next
pay attention to the paint they are using and learn that the package,
which was opened some time ago to be inspected and was left standing
uncovered all this time, had contained the standard paint as specified,
but now, through neglect to properly cover, is no longer fit for the
purpose used. On examining the contents of the package closely, we
also notice that the paint is scarcely stirred up, and we see that the oily
substance from the top of the mixture is first used,- and as the work
progresses and the material is consumed, the paint becomes heavier and
intermixed with more or less pigment, until when the lower part of the
package is reached nothing is left but a semi-dry pigment, which will
no longer spread under the brush. Now, to assist in brushing, the men
reach for the benzine can and reduce the paint with it, destroying what
little life the paint had first contained. In this way a number of different
surfaces and films are created on the same structure, and from the same
package of the so-called protective coating.
"We proceed further, and find at other parts of the mill, though
this time under a covered shed, more laborers applying a shop coat to
other sections and parts of the structural steel. Here we notice exhaust
pipes of all kinds steadily discharging vapor and moisture which finally
settles and deposits on the steel. Under such conditions the steel can-
not be perfectly dry, however much it may appear so, yet the painting is
done just the same; these layers of moisture are enclosed between the
surface and the steel, and the paint, which is supposed to close the pores
and firmly adhere to the steel, is merely attached in some places and
spots, and a weak foundation is created which is absolutely unfit to re-
ceive and successfully hold subsequent coats of paint.
"While we have gathered all this valuable information the inspector
has found an opportunity to inspect the painting on these various sec-
tions of the steel. He looks at the job, and as it looks uniform in
color, he regards it as properly done, because it is outwardly covered over
with paint. The material is consequently passed, loaded and shipped.
"The foregoing illustration may appear somewhat severely drawn,
and the situation presented greatly exaggerated ; nevertheless, if a number
of troublesome cases were thoroughly sifted, the illustration, in part, or in
whole, would be identical with the underlying cause of the trouble.
"It must not be construed that our illustration is intended to cast any
reflections upon the inspector or his methods. On the contrary, it is
sought to imply that he uses his principal efforts in a direction considered
primarily important, which is the correct fabrication of the parts com-
posing the structure. No matter how diligent and untiring an inspector
may be, it is not possible for him to be in a number of places at the
same time, for, in large plants where modern methods are pursued in the
manufacture and assembling of steel, the various departments are some-
times miles apart.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
425
"Of course, not all failures are due to work which was first painted
at plants, for often, even among so-called intelligent mechanics, the
belief still exists that anything in the way of paint is good enough for
priming purposes, so long as it is going to be covered again with paint,
thus entirely ignoring the fundamental principles of a correct foundation.
"It may, therefore, be suggested that considerable attention be given
to the education of men who deal in, or supervise the erection and main-
tenance of steel structures, so that greater interest in the problem will
be aroused, better co-operation between the various departments effected,
and the proper men chosen to handle the different lines of work."
INFORMATION RECEIVED FROM THE ROADS REPORTING.
Nineteen roads reported on the use of paint, 2 on the use of blast
boards and 4 on encasement with concrete.
PAINT.
PRIMER (OR SHOP COAT).
Number
Using Kind of Paint
Composition
Remarks
1 Lamp Black
(Not given)
None
10 Red Lead
(Average) 30 lbs. Red Lead, 1 gal.
Linseed Oil
None
i Iron Oxide
1 gal. Red Iron Oxide, 2 gals. Lin-
seed Oil
1 pt. Coach Japan
None
FIELD PAINT.
1 First Coat Oxid-j
of Iron; Second.
Lamp Black
3 Silica (2 Coats)
"White Lead
Iron Oxide
Graphite and Red
Lead
Carbon
Coal Tar (Used
for Steel Ex-
posed to Brine
Drip)
(Given above)
(Not given)
Linseed Oil, 63%; Pigment, 29%;
Turpentine Dryer, 8% (by wgt.);
Composition of Pigment (by
wgt.), Lamp Black, 27%, Silica,
58%, Red Lead, 10%, Graphite,
5%
92% lbs. White Lead, 7% lbs.
Graphite (ground in oil)
(Given above)
Equal parts of Graphite and Red
Lead ground separately in Lin-
seed Oil, then mix and grind
together
Not given. (Probably some form?
of Graphite and Red Lead)
(1:4:6 Mix.) 16 parts Coal Tar, 4
parts Cement, 1 part Kerosene
Oil
None
In use 5
years and
gave good
results
Lasts from
3 to 5 years
None
Average life
for two
coats about
7 years
Average life
about 4
years
In good con-
dition after
4 years
BLAST BOARD.
The two roads reporting agree that concrete encasement, when
subjected to the blast action of locomotive exhaust, must be protected
by some kind of a blast board and recommend the use of steel plate.
426 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
cast-iron (exposed surface chilled) and vitrified and glazed tile. To date
the use of the steel or iron blast board has proven effective.
The Kansas City Terminal Railway Company is conducting experi-
ments with the use of transite board and means of fastening to the
structure.
ENCASEMENT WITH CONCRETE.
The four roads reporting recommend the use of concrete for the
(Protection of steel of highway bridges passing over railway tracks,
and the protection of the concrete from blast action as given above.
CONCRETE ENCASEMENT.
Concrete encasement as a protective agent for that portion of steel
structures exposed to the blast and gases of locomotives has come into
use due to the trouble experienced with paint and to the cost of mainte-
nance of the same.
That concrete properly applied is an ideal protection will, we believe,
be conceded by everyone interested, even though they do not generally
use it.
The use of the concrete encasement is in a way limited by railorads
to undercrossings and to city bridges where the headroom is close and
the railroad traffic heavy.
Painting. — In the above locations protecting floors by the use of paint
is at best unsatisfactory and the cost while varying with the conditions
will be somewhere in the neighborhood of $1.25 per ton per year. A fair
average relation of weight to area is .065 square ft pet lb. of metal,
this giving, using the above value, a cost of 0.96 cents per square ft.,
per 3rear, for painting.
Poured Encasement. — If the floor is protected by the use of concrete
encasement poured in place, the cost per square ft. will be as shown
later approximately 25 cents per square ft., the encasement being three
in. in thickness.
Gun Encasement. — Encasement of the floor by use of the cement
gun, the encasement being three in. in thickness, will be as shown later
approximately 23 cents per square ft.
The Committee has written to the several roads regarding their ex-
perience with encasement and the following extracts from the replies have
been received :
W. F. Jordan, Manager Grand Central Terminal Improvements, Neva?
York Central & Hudson River Railroad:
"The cement gun is being used at the Grand Central Terminal for
fireproofing and protecting a part of the steel structure of the Grand
Central Terminal Improvements. The yard is in two stories, the upper
tracks being supported on a steel structure with concrete jack-arches. It
was necessary to get the upper tracks in service at an early date, so the
fireproofing of the exposed parts of the steel below the jack-arches was
not done at the time the floor was built.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 427
"The lower parts of the beams, the girders and columns are now
being fireproofed with the cement gun, using a minimum thickness of
2 in. ; the average thickness is from 2}/z to 3 in., as in the angles and
around the stiffeners there is generally more than the minimum thickness.
"The fireproofing is reinforced with a wire mesh, ij^xij^ in. of
No. 12 wires ; this is attached to % in. rods, which are bent around
the steel and fastened to it.
"The mixture has generally been 1 to 3, but in cool weather, and
where the steel is subject to vibrations from the trains running on it,
a 1 to 2 mixture is found to be more economical, as it is not as likely
to drop off. It is necessary with this machine to use fine sand, as sand
with pebbles in it clogs the hose ; all of the sand, therefore, has to be
carefully screened.
"We find that a cubic foot of 1 to 3 mixture, when weighed in a
box of I cubic ft. capacity after being moderately shaken down, weighs
93 lbs. ; if this mixture is wet and applied with a trowel, after setting
it will weigh 127 lbs. to the cubic ft. ; when shot through a cement gun
onto a steel structure and set up, it weighs 144 lbs. per cubic ft. From
this you will get an idea of the density of the fireproofing made with
this apparatus.
"In applying the mixture of sand and cement with the cement gun
from 20 to 25 per cent, of it is lost. Some bounces off as it strikes the
structure, some is shot by the steel in working around the angles and to
get a smooth surface the mason scrapes off the irregularities, and to get
a good surface it is floated.
"The labor required to operate one machine is as follows :
1 Foreman,
1 Operator of the machine,
1 Nozzleman,
2 Masons for floating,
4 Laborers screening, mixing and charging the machines.
Carpenters are used when necessary to erect scaffolds.
"One of these machines uses compressed air to the amount of 100 ft.
of free air per minute at a pressure from 35 to 40 lbs.
"The hose through which the mixture is conveyed wears out quite
rapidly and renewals amount to about $1.00 per day.
"We have averaged covering about 500 square ft. per day of the
thickness mentioned above.
"This method would appear to give an excellent protection for the
steel. The material is very dense and the method of application such
that every inch of the structure is uniformly protected. The great thick-
ness used in this work is due to the municipal laws requiring at least
2 in. of fire protection."
/. /. Yates, Bridge Engineer, Central Railroad of Nezv Jersey:
"It is our practice, wherever practicable, to protect the steel of high-
way bridges or structures over our tracks by encasing in concrete. Where
in close proximity and subjected to the blast of the exhaust from the
stacks of locomotives, this has not proven altogether satisfactory.
428 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
"A concrete floor was installed in our bridge over the Pennsylvania
Railroad at Newark, N. J., at which point there is only a clearance of
about 12 in. above the stack. Within six months' time the concrete over
the exhaust had been blown off to a depth of about 2 in. and it is now
contemplated to use a 7/16 in. steel plate to protect the concrete. This
type of steel plate protection was installed about two years ago by the
Pennsylvania Railroad when they renewed their bridge over our tracks
at Elizabeth, N. J., the previous bridge being so badly disintegrated by
gases as to require renewal. Up to the present time this has proven
very satisfactory and looks as if it were still good for two or three years.
The original bridge was built about 1892.
"We have experimented with paints in the protection of steel work
from exhaust but as yet have found nothing of any value. Our practice
at the present time is to protect such portions as it is possible by en-
casing in concrete or by cast-iron, steel plates or wood, the cast-iron or
steel plates being used when the structure is close to the exhaust of the
locomotive.
"At our Newark bridge above referred to, before putting in the con-
crete we had a wood protection of hard pine which it was necessary to
renew about once in three months, and, on the whole, offered a very poor
protection, as pieces of wood were being constantly blown off, exposing
the steel work."
IV. F. Steffens, Engineer of Structures, Boston & Albany Railroad, Re-
porting to the New York Central Lines Bridge Committee, June
20, 1912:
"We have just completed at Tremont Street, Boston, a bridge over
four tracks of the Boston & Albany Railroad. The minimum clearance
from top of rail to under side of bridge is 15 ft. 1% in- It is evident,
therefore, that the top of stack of the highest locomotive passes the bridge
by but a few inches clearance. The old structure was of the usual open-
floor type, with pony trusses, was built in 1889 and when removed was
practically deteriorated to not less than 50 per cent, of the original sec-
tions, where exposed to gases.
"The new structure is of plate girders, with a floor of total depth
of about 2 ft. 1 in. consisting of 15-in. beams spaced 1 ft. 6 in. center to
center and incased entirely in concrete to form a solid slab,* upon which
the rails of the Street Railway Company and the paving are laid. The
concrete is supported under the flanges of the beams by means of a net
work of J4 m- r°ds attached to the beams by means of thin hangers of
Strap steel 1/16 in. by lA in. section hooked over the top flanges.
"It was very evident that under the severe conditions existing at
this structure, the concrete protection would soon be worn away by
blast action. To prevent this, we embedded in the concrete over the
center line of each track a series of cast-iron blast guards 1 in. thick
by 20 in. wide and in convenient lengths, attaching these to the concrete
by means of hook anchors into the slab. The exposed surface of the
cast-iron was chilled in order to harden it.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 429
"To date this blast guard construction has demonstrated that it will
be effective indefinitely in protecting the concrete undersurface. The
blast strikes the plate and is deflected horizontally as intended.
"At the large bridge at Worcester, Mass., for the section over the
New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, we have been lim-
ited by the court to the minimum 18 ft. o in. prescribed by the Railroad
Commissioners. For the protection of the surface exposed to direct
blast action at this greater distance above the tops of stacks, we intend
to specify a special vitrified and glazed tile."
0. E. Sclby, Engineer of Bridges and Structures, The Cleveland, Cin-
cinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Railway:
"We have used concrete protection on some structures over railroad
tracks with entire success. It is necessary to apply the concrete to a
mesh of expanded metal or wire, and secure this mesh to the steel work
at frequent intervals, also to protect the underside of the concrete casing
from abrasion from the locomotive exhaust. For this latter purpose, we
have used a protection plate one-half inch thick applied to the underside
of floor beams, girders, etc., and made a part of the bottom flange, al-
though it is not included in the computed flange sections. This pro-
tection plate extends 2 in. beyond the other flange plates and forms a shelf
for the support of the concrete casings above. The oldest structure with
this protection plate is about five years old and is in perfect condition as
regards that detail."
G. E. Tebbctts, Bridge Engineer, Kansas City Terminal Railway:
When the Kansas City Terminal Railway Company took over the
Kansas City Belt Railway to be used as their main line, there were among
other structures four overhead highway viaducts which were of the en-
cased type, i. e., having the floor system protected by concrete. A brief
description and the results of a recent inspection may be of value.
One of the bridges was erected in 1903 and the other three in 1906.
The one erected in 1903 was of a through-girder type, 64 ft. long
with suspended floor beams, the bottom flanges of the stringers flush with
the bottom flanges of the girders.
The plans called for iTA in. of encasement held in place by No. 10
gage, 3 in. mesh, expanded metal and V2 in. bolts, mortar to be 1 :2 -.4
mixture. The roadway floor and sidewalk to be 1 :2 -.4 concrete 5 in. thick
reinforced with expanded metal. All steel encased unpainted.
The bridge was constructed as described, except that the encasement
varied from il/2 in. to 3 in. in thickness, in general being 2 in. The con-
crete was put in dry and tamped and the mortar for the encasement was
also made stiff, being rammed into the forms. The bottom board was
held in place by bolts, and after the forms had been filled the bolts were
tightened to force the mortar onto the steelwork. No waterproofing
was used. Overhead clearance was 19 ft. o in.
Recent inspection showed the encasement on underside of floorbeams,
stringers and girders over main track nearly all gone. The encasement
430 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
over industry tracks was in a little better condition but concrete was
missing in quite a few places, notably lower flanges. The lower surface of
floor was wet. Samples of concrete were taken and tested for excess of
sulphur, but no excess was found.
It was concluded that most of the trouble was due to the seeping of
water through the cracks in the concrete floor and also between the en-
casement and the steel; this action loosening and cracking the concrete
and rusting the reinforcement, finally causing the concrete to drop off.
On the three structures erected in 1906 the encasement work was in
about the same condition as the one above described, the cause seeming to
be the same, i. e., the seeping of water down between the steel and the
concrete.
On the new structures, the Kansas City Terminal Railway Company is
building, the encasement is applied in the majority of cases by use of the
cement gun.
Cement Gun. — This machine consists essentially of a hopper into
which the cementitous materials, made up of one part Portland cement to
three parts dry screened sand, are placed ; a hose connected to the bottom
of the hopper, through which the mixture is forced by air pressure; a
nozzle at the end of the hose, to which another hose supplying water is
attached for hydrating the materials.
At the end of the hose is a cylindrical nozzle having an annular
ring at its base, to which the hose delivering the water is attached. This
water is delivered inside the nozzle in the form of a fine spray, through
which the materials from the gun pass. The nozzle is made of brass,
and to prevent wear on the nozzle proper a rubber lining is used. This
lining can be replaced whenever necessary.
Before adopting the cement gun, the claims of the company selling
it were investigated and test panels were encased. The conclusion
reached was that if the cost was not too great, it would solve the
problem of encasement.
Comparative estimates made are shown below :
Encasement by pouring in forms. Encasement to be 3 in. in thick-
ness. Mixture to be 1:2:4 concrete. Reinforcement, wire mesh and
bars.
Stone, 1 cu. yd., @ $1.25 $1.25
Unloading 1 cu. yd., @20c 20
Loss in handling, @ 5 per cent 07
Sand, l/2 cu. yd., @ 60c 30
Unloading l/2 cu. yd., @ 6c 03
Loss in handling, @ 5 per cent 02
Cement, 1^4 bbls., @ $1.25 , 2.19
Unloading 1% bbls., @ 5c 09
Loss in sacks, @ 5 per cent 03
$4.18
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 431
One cubic yard equal to 108 sq. ft., 3 in. thick.
Cost of material per sq. ft $0,059
Forms $1.63 BM. @ .050 081
Mixing and placing at $540 per cu. yd 050
Insurance on payroll @ 5 per cent. 003
■ U3
Overhead and profit (a8 per cent+ 15 per cent = 23
per cent .040
Cost per sq. ft. of encasement=.2i6
Encasement per sq. ft .216
Mesh No. 3 @ $0.06 018
Bars No. 5 @ $0.03 0.15
Total cost per sq. ft 249
Say 25 cents per sq. ft.
Encasement by use of cement gun. Encasement to be three inches in
thickness. Mixture 1 -.3 mortar. Reinforcement, wire mesh and bars.
Average number of square feet covered in a day of 10 hrs., 275 sq. ft.
Loss due to gun work, 20 per cent. Loss due to handling sand, 30 per cent.
Quantity of sand used in placing 275 sq. ft. three inches thick, 4 cu. yds.
Sand, 4 cu. yds., @ $0.60 $2.40
Unloading and screening 4 yds. @ $2.51 1.00
Cement, 5^ bbls., @ $1.25 6.88
Unloading slA bbls. @ $0.15 83
Loss in sacks @ 5 per cent 11
Water per day 15
Gasoline for compressor, 12 gals. @ $0.15^ 1.86
Oil waste and handling per day 60
$13-83
1 foreman 10 hrs. @ 37.5 $3-75
1 finisher, 10 hrs., @ 35 3.50
I nozzleman, 10 hrs., @ 32.5 3.25
1 gunman, 10 hrs., @ .30 3.00
2 laborers, 10 hrs., @ 22.5 4.50
1 boy, 10 hrs., @ .125 1.25
$19.25
Repairs, etc., per day 2.00
Scaffolding for 275 sq. ft. @ $0.15 4.13
6.13
Interest on gun, $3,000 @ 5 per cent. . .41
Insurance on payroll @ 5 per cent. .97
1-38
$40.50
432 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES
Overhead and profit 8 per cent, and 25 per cent=
S3 per cent 13.53
Cost of encasement 54-12
Cost per square foot 19.68
Mesh No. 3 per sq. ft. @ $0.06 018
Bars No. 5 per sq. ft. @ $0.03 015
.2298
Say 23 cents per sq. ft.
A comparison of the above shows a saving of 2 cents per square foot
in favor of the gun work over the poured encasement, and it might be
stated that since this estimate was made we have received bids on actual
work that check very closely with the above.
The steel work to be encased was designed with open holes 11-16 in.
in diameter in webs, stiffeners and flanges, so that in placing and attach-
ing the reinforcement there would be ample provision for rigid attach-
ment to the structure. In attaching reinforcement to girder webs and
other large surfaces, the bars were placed on small V-shaped iron saddles
and wired through the webs to each other. On flanges the rods were run
through steel eyebolts attached to the lower flange, the mesh being at-
tached to the bars by wiring. At the junction of the concrete encasement
with the floor, which is also of concrete, a splice was provided by use of
mesh placed in the floor previously cast, this splice being four inches in
width. Fig. 3 shows typical method of attaching reinforcement to girders.
The steel girders were shipped from the shops with a shop coat of
linseed oil, which was removed by the use of a caustic soda wash before
encasement was started. All rust spots were removed with a wire brush.
Our experience has shown that the 1 :3 mixture placed in the gun
gives a resulting mortar of approximately 1 :2l/2, this change being due
to loss of sand. The sand must be nearly dry, the dryer the better, a
mixture of coarse and fine grains giving better results with considerably
less loss, than either the coarse or fine alone.
The sand must be screened as particles over % in. in diameter clog the
gun and cause serious delays.
The compressor should be a machine of very ample capacity and an
intermediate air storage tank is an advantage.
It was found that it was very difficult to encase the lower flange of a
girder, especially so the lower face, and in our work we cast this portion
in quite a few cases.
It was also a difficult proposition to get a good, clean job around
stiffeners and sidewalk bracket members. On the brackets V-shaped forms
were made and used as a backing for the gun work. As to finish, the
appearance is fairly good, though far from the smooth, even lines of cast
work and a great deal depends upon the finisher as to the final appearance.
One great advantage of the cement gun work, especially so in a large
terminal proposition, is that the viaduct can be put in service and the
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES
433
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^ /l''/S\l2.'\ $-Sar ] DECK GIRDER CONSTRUCTION.
CORRJCT/- /I */? // APPROVED
BRIDGE ENGINEER
chief chsiwcr
>SJ5 S?-V
434 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
encasement work performed afterward when convenient without any
material trouble.
Care has been taken in all the work on this terminal to build and
waterproof the bridge floors so as to prevent the seepage of water onto
the concrete, or encasement work, and we believe that waterproofing is an
essential in good encasement work.
BLAST BOARDS AND SMOKE SHIELDS.
At bridges and undercrossings where the headroom is close, the
lower portions of the structure should be protected by smoke shields
if floor is not encased in concrete or by blast boards over each track if
steel is encased. As shown below in the replies received by the Com-
mittee, the concrete encasement is rapidly worn away by sand blast action
if unprotected. A variety of materials are in use for this purpose, in-
cluding timber, steel, vitrified tile and asbestos boarding.
Below are extracts from replies to the inquiries sent out to the
several roads :
G. E. Tebbetts, Bridge Engineer, Kansas City Terminal Railway:
Up to the present time we have not put into use blast boards on the
work in hand, but the use of a J^-in. asbestos board 42 in. wide over the
center line of each track is contemplated and will be put into service
within the next few months.
The old structures on the Kansas City Belt Ry. had, in quite a few
cases, headroom varying from 17 to 20 feet and were built over the main
line where the grade was \Y2 per cent., so that they were subject to a
very violent sand blast action from exhaust. On inspection it was found
that the girder flanges and other portions of floor system over the uphill
tracks were practically worn away by the action of the exhaust. The
wooden floor joists being worn away to a depth of about two inches by
two feet in width over the center line of tracks.
Several materials were considered for experimental purposes and it
was finally decided to try asbestos board in two very severe locations. The
boards were placed at a height of 18 feet above the rail at Grand avenue
land Troost avenue temporary bridges. At the above points the grade
of the tracks was i^ per cent, and the blast action very severe. The
boards were left in service for about eleven months and were examined
every month. It was found that there was practically no cutting action
and the boards were finally removed when the temporary bridges were
taken down.
On the showing of the experiment asbestos blast boards have been
adopted for use on the terminal work and will be installed in service in
the near future.
For additional information on this subject, see above letters from
Messrs. Yates, Steffens and Selby, under the heading "Concrete Encase-
ment."
The Committee submits the above for the information of the Asso-
ciation and believes that more time should be taken to go further into the
use of this form of protection
Appendix B.
COLUMN TESTS.
The United States Bureau of Standards is now engaged in testing
the first 18 columns mentioned in the program of tests submitted in the
last report. The Committee witnessed the first test January 20, 1914. The
specifications under which the tests are being made are as follows:
1. Before testing, each column should be examined carefully to de-
termine the following points which shall be specifically noted on the de-
tail drawing as well as on the test report sheets :
(a) Any deviations from the approved plan, either in weight, gage,
section or make-up.
(b) Any imperfections in fabrication such as poor riveting, open
joints, lack of true alinement, non-parallelism of parts, kinks or twists.
(c) Any imperfections due to careless handling during shipment,
such as bent or dented edges, bent lattice bars or gusset plates or in-
jury to base plates.
2. The shorter columns may be tested without counterweighting, but
all columns, whose slenderness ratio is 85 or over, shall be counter-
weighted at the middle to the extent of one-half the weight of the column,
exclusive of the base plates.
3. During the test, determinations of local stresses shall be made
by strain gage measurements, located near the center and both ends of
the column. The strain gage measurements near the center shall be
made on the four legs of the channels, at the center of the channel web
and on two or more lattice bars. At each end a similarly located set of
measurements shall be taken just outside the wing plates of the bases,
and also four measurements shall be taken to determine the stress distri-
bution in the wing plates and channel webs close to the base, the last
gage points being at least 6 in. from the ends of the column. The dis-
tance between gage points to be from 7 in. to 10 in. as may be convenient.
4. The strain gage measurements shall be supplemented by exten
someter measurements on lenghts of from 4 to 10 ft. or longer if prac-
ticable. These shall be made on the flanges of the channels near the cor-
ners and also at the centers of the webs.
5. During the progress of the test, deflections in both planes shall
be noted and recorded at each step as also any changes in shape of cross-
section, opening of joints or slipping of lattice bars. The location of
incipient scaling and the lines followed by the scaling are to be care-
fully noted and recorded.
6. The Initial load shall be 1000 lbs. Then loads of 10,000
lbs.. 15,000 lbs. and 20,000 lbs. shall be added, returning to the initial
load after each application and determining permanent sets. From 20,000
lbs. proceed with increments of 1000 lbs. per sq. in. Measure the per-
manent sets after reaching loads of 20,000 lbs. per sq. in., 25,000 lbs.
per sq. in. and 30,000 lbs. per sq. in., in case these loads are reached
before the column fails. After each return to the initial load, when
re-applying the loading, take the extensometer readings at every incre-
ment of 5000 lbs. per sq. in. until 25,000 lbs. per sq. in. is reached, after
which point take the extensometer readings at every increment of 1000
lbs. per sq. in. up to failure, in order that it may be possible to plot
a complete stress-strain diagram for each series of load applications.
435
436 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
7. Record the method of failure, whether by local buckling or de-
flection, as a whole and note carefully and record the condition of
latticing, rivets and channels in the distorted areas.
8. After the ultimate load has been reached, at least one column
of each section and ratio shall be further compressed to complete failure
in order to emphasize the manner of failure. Photographs shall be taken
of all columns where the failure has been thus emphasized, and of at least
one column of each cross-section and ratio which has been loaded to
.failure.
9. As soon as any column is tested, a copy of the full test report
shall at once be forwarded to the Chairman of the Sub-Committee in
order that it may be submitted to the members for discussion.
The Sub-Committee is expected to use its discretion in varying these
specifications as circumstances may require.
The Committee is co-operating successfully with the Special Com-
mittee on Steel Columns and Struts of the American Society of Civil
Engineers. There will be no duplication of work, and all of the tests are
planned to further our knowledge of the behavior of columns.
Appendix C.
SECONDARY STRESSES.
During the summer of 191 1 a considerable amount of experimental
field work was carried out, observations being made on several trusses
representing quite a variety of design. The results were, in general,
quite satisfactory and instructive. Your Committee has also made a
theoretical study of some length on various types of trusses and has
compared, to some extent, results obtained by calculation and by obser-
vation. The importance of the subject and the comparative newness of
this class of calculations to most engineers has led the Committee to sub-
mit a very brief statement of the theoretical principles involved, and a
complete set of calculations on one of the trusses which were investi-
gated.
For the purpose of this report, secondary stresses will be considered
under the following heads: •
(1) Bending stresses in the plane of the main truss due to rigidity
of joints, eccentricity of joints and weight of members.
(2) Bending stresses in members of a transverse frame due to the
deflection of floor beams, and primary stresses in posts.
(3) Stresses in a horizontal plane due to longitudinal deformation
of chords, especially the stresses in floor beams and connections.
(4) Variation of axial stress in different elements of a member.
(5) Stresses due to vibration of individual members.
(6) Methods of calculation.
Certain of these stresses, particularly those under (1) and (2), and,
to some extent, those under (3), are capable of calculation by rigid
methods of analysis. Granting the assumption of perfectly rigid joints,
as in the case of well-riveted connections of continuous members, the re-
sults of calculations are quite as definite and certain as the primary
stresses themselves. The problem may be illustrated by considering the
case of a single triangle of members rigidly connected. If two of these
are stressed in tension and the third in compression, the axial deforma-
tion of the three members tends to change the angles of the triangle by a
small amount. The rigid connections prevent this, and the result is a
bending of all members, the resulting stresses being a maximum near the
joints. A similar result follows in a truss, but all the members are mu-
tually interdependent, so that the calculations are somewhat lengthy, al-
though the results just as definite as in the single triangle.
Your Sub-Committee has made a careful study of the secondary
stresses falling under groups (1), (2) and (3), both theoretically and
experimentally, and believes it possible to indicate with considerable defi-
niteness the extent of such stresses under ordinary conditions. Those
variations in stress noted under (4) and (5) have been observed in
many cases in the experimental work which the Committee has carried
out during several seasons. These stresses are not readily arrived at by
theoretical analysis.
437
438 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
I— SECONDARY STRESSES IN THE PLANE OF THE MAIN
TRUSS DUE TO RIGIDITY OF JOINTS, ECCENTRIC-
ITY OF JOINTS AND WEIGHT OF MEMBERS.
General Principles. — Stresses belonging to this category are capable
of close theoretical analysis by methods which have been fully developed
and which have been used for many years. A study of the action of a
truss having rigid joints leads to certain general conclusions which are of
much assistance in this connection. These may be stated, briefly, as fol-
lows :
(i) In any given truss the amount of bending, or the sharpness of
curvature, produced in the members is, in general, proportional to the
intensity of the primary stresses, that is, the larger the primary stresses
the greater the deformation, both longitudinally and in bending.
The fiber stresses resulting from this bending, that is, the secondary
unit stresses, are proportional to the bencfing and, therefore, proportional
to the primary stresses. It follows that in any given truss, for any given
method of loading, the secondary stresses bear a fixed percentage to the
primary stresses, no matter what the amount of the load may be.
(2) Other things being equal, or similar, the percentage of the sec-
ondary stress is proportional to the distance to outer fiber in the plane of
bending, and inversely proportional to the lengths of the members.
When the members are symmetrical the secondary stresses will be pro-
portional to the ratios of widths to lengths. Thus, if two trusses are
compared whose general dimensions and moments of inertia of members
are proportional, but the ratio of width to length of the various members
of one truss is in all cases twice this ratio in the other truss, then the
percentages of the secondary stresses in the first truss will be twice the
percentages in the second truss. This relation comes about from the fact
that in the two assumed cases, if the primary stresses are equal, the
angular deformations of the members in the two trusses will be the same,
and, for a given angular deformation, the resulting fiber stress is pro-
portional to the ratio of width to length.
(3) The secondar}r stresses in any particular member are dependent
upon the distortions of all the members of the truss, but, primarily, upon
the distortions of the members of the particular triangles of which this
member is a part and of the members of the adjoining triangles.
(4) Bearing in mind the above principles, it is possible to predict
from calculations of typical trusses the secondary stresses in any par-
ticular type of truss in terms of ratio of widths to lengths of members
with a considerable degree of accuracy.
(5) The more uniform the proportions of a truss the less, in general,
will be the secondary stresses. Sudden changes in length, width, or in mo-
ment of inertia, are likely to result in relatively large secondary stresses.
(6) Trusses consisting of approximately equilateral triangles, and
without hangers or vertical struts, present the most uniform conditions
and will have, in general, the lowest secondary stresses. A truss com-
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 439
posed of right-angle triangles will show somewhat higher secondary
stresses, and such stresses will be large if the ratio of height to panel
length is large.
(7) Wherever hangers or vertical struts are used to support single
joint loads, as in a Warren girder with verticals, or in a Pratt truss (at
the hip vertical, or at the center vertical in the case of a deck bridge)
the secondary stresses in the adjacent chord members are likely to be con-
siderably larger than elsewhere. The best arrangement, so far as sec-
ondary stresses are concerned, is where each web member forms an in-
tegral part of the entire truss so that its stress will gradually change as
the load progresses.
(8) Considering the fact that secondary stresses are, in general,
proportional to the ratios of widths to lengths and considering the prin-
ciples stated in the preceding paragraphs, it follows that the secondary
stresses in trusses where the panels are subdivided, as in the Baltimore
or Pettit system, are likely to be very high. In the case of pin-connected
trusses this may also be the case with the top chord.
(9) Stresses due to eccentricity of joints are readily calculated. If
the joints are rigid the effect of eccentricity is included in the other cal-
culations. If the joints are pin-ended, then the effect of eccentricity is
very simply determined. In general, an eccentric joint has the effect of
introducing an "external moment" at the joint determined by calculating
the resultant moment of all the primary stresses meeting at this joint.
The maximum bending effect of eccentric joints is felt at the particular
joint in question; at other joints the effect rapidly decreases and alter-
nates in sign at successive joints in the same way as the bending moment
in continuous girders at successive supports, due to a load on one span.
(10) The effect of the weight of the member can also readily be
included in the rest of the calculations. Here, again, the effect of weight
is very similar to the behaviour of a continuous girder supporting a uni-
form load. Illustrations of the effect of eccentricity, and also of
weight, are shown in Plates I and Il-b.
Results of Calculations and Experiments. — The results of calcu-
lations on several trusses, together with certain experimental results, are
shown on several plates submitted herewith. These calculations will be
briefly described, after which some general conclusions will be attempted.
Plate I shows results of calculations on a continuous top chord of a
deck Pratt truss. The first figure below the truss diagram shows by the
shaded portion the actual calculated secondary stress, both in pounds per
square inch and in percentage of primary stress. Note that at the center
point the secondary stress is about 33 per cent, of the primary. This high
value is due to the distortion of the center strut. The third diagram below
the one already mentioned shows what the secondary stresses would be
under full live load if the middle vertical were lengthened by 3/64ths
inch. The maximum here is about 16 per cent. The last diagram shows
the stress due to weight of members.
440 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
Plate Il-a and ITb give the truss diagram and the calculated sec-
ondary stresses in the top chord of a pin-connected Pettit truss. In both
this and the preceding truss it has been assumed that the web members
are free to turn on the pins, but that the top chord is continuous.
The upper diagram on Plate Il-b shows the actual calculated sec-
ondary stresses. These run as high as 60 per cent, of the primary, due
evidently to the deflection of the intermediate joint in the subdivided
panel. If the two sub-verticals supporting the top chord are lengthened
by S/64th inch, these excessive stresses are practically removed, as shown
by the second diagram of Plate Il-b. The same result is obtained by
omitting these sub-verticals, but the effect of weight of member is then
greater. The last diagram gives stresses due to weight, with sub-
verticals omitted. Plates Ill-b and III-c show calculated results on two
ordinary trusses whose design is given in Plate Ill-a. The secondary
stresses in the chord members of these two trusses are nearly the same.
The lower chord on Plate Ill-b shows about 20 per cent, secondary
stress, while on Plate III-c the percentage is a little higher. This is
due to the fact that in the Warren system the effect of the hangers is
greater.
Plate IV-a shows some very interesting results. They are obtained
on a truss with sub-divided panels, Plate IV-b, in which the panel length
is relatively small (12 ft., 9% in.). This is an actual design and was used
in connection with a solid floor. The secondary stresses in the lower
chord amount to from 50 per cent, to 60 per cent, of the primary stresses.
The same is true in the end post. In the top chord the maximum is
about 25 per cent. The very high secondary stresses in this case and
in the top chord of the Pettit truss are due, primarily, to the very high
ratio of the width of member to length.
Plates IV-c, d and e give the calculated results on a sub-divided truss
of very short panel length (8 ft. 4 in.). The direction of bending as
well as the per cent, of stress is shown in this case. Here the stresses
run to nearly 100 per cent., obviously due to the very short panel length,
together with the use of hangers.
Plate V-b shows the calculated secondary stresses, and Plate V-c
the experimental secondary stresses in a pony truss, whose design is
shown in Plate V-a. In the experimental work the bending stresses
were determined by extensometer measurements on the four corners
of the member. Considering the nature of such work, the agreement
between the two sets of results is fairly good. Note that the secondary
stresses in the lower chord are about 40 per cent., and in the upper
chord about 25 per cent, of the primary stresses. These are fairly high,
but in this truss the ratio of width of member to length is naturally
very high, and when this is taken account of it will be found that these
stresses are low as compared to some of the other results.
Plate VI shows calculated results on a viaduct tower. The results
here obtained are very interesting. The three-story tower has no lateral
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 441
struts in the longitudinal plane, but in the transverse plane there is a
strut at joint No. 3. The secondary stresses in the longitudinal plane
are very small, while in the transverse plane they amount to about 15
per cent, of the primary stresses.
Calculations on a four-story tower, without lateral struts, are given
in the adjoining figure. This shows a secondary stress of 12 to 15 per
cent, at each joint.
The explanation of the great variation in results is evident by a
little study of the situation. In a two-story tower, or a four-story
tower having no lateral struts, the vertical compression of the posts
causes the first joint below the top and the first joint above the bottom
to be bent outwards by the action of the diagonals. In the four-story
tower the middle joint will tend to stand fast. The result is to bend
the post outwards at alternate joints, and this will be the case in any
similar tower of an even number of panels. In a three-story tower
this alternating effect cannot take place, as both joints, No. 3 and No. 5,
tend to bend outwards, and the diagonals connecting these joints resist
this tendency. The insertion of a single strut at joint No. 3 tends to
break up the tower into two parts, the upper part being a two-story
tower, subject to considerable secondary stress.
The obvious conclusion to be drawn from this analysis is either to
use an odd number of panels or to use struts at each joint.
Other Experimental Results. — In addition to the experimental re-
sults given on Plate V-c, a considerable number of results were ob-
tained during the summer of 191 1. A considerable proportion of these
observations were made with respect to other features, such as effect
of floor beams on vertical posts, and horizontal bending of floor beams
due to stringer action. A number of these observations were, however,
made with respect to secondary stresses in the plane of the main truss.
The principal results are noted in the following tables :
442
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
Observed Secondary stresses on Vap/ous Tzusses
( See P/ahzs~fflZ far aescriphon of Trusses)
TWSS "A".P/vet£d Trass Sfhn op /59l9"
Mzmbers
ptK/froh of
Exknsomefers
fr/mary Siren
Ihpersq.ih.
fkrcent Secondary Sten
in 'Plane of ~7russ
EndPbst
A (~&p Fibre)
3,5(?0
/9
lop Chord
D (&oforr> Fibre)
O (Top . )
D (Top .. )
£t (Top - )
F (Top - >
3,200
?,9oo
4,40o
4,70O
4^00
3
52,
6
m
7
"JRXJSS 3 Rat Ccw/V£CT£D SrcarvSPi^YQF/76-e"
Members
Positron of
fx/ensomefers
Primary Sfresi
lb.persq.ih.
Percent Secondary Sfress
in Plane of Trw<,
End Post
8otjomChord
A (SoHom Fibrt)
3 flop F,bn>.)
5.500
48PO
?5 (£ccentr/c>/q)
57
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
443
T&USS O 104 FT PAIZT/AU.V &VETEO Ponr T&USS (Ptoqono/i ore .
Members
Pos/frdn of
Extensamekr
Primary Sfasss
Ib.persq./h.
Peranr Secondary S/ress
in Plane of Truss
frdFbsi
r\ (Sofiom FibnJ
9.000
S.SOO
7
22
Top Chord
C CBofkm F,i>n>)
D (Tap - )
tz (Top ,. )
6,400
6,ooo
7,SO0
7
/O
b^Hom Chord
F (Top Filre)
G (BaUorr, f>bn)
S.60O
5,900
5,70O
/O
24
55
Truss E. 182-6 * r^ted double t&ac*- span
E
Members
Positton of
Exiensormfzr
Primonj Stress
lb. per so. in.
fbtent Secondary Sfreu
in Pbne of Truss
End tod
A (kbrnFih*)
& (Top m.)
C &*» .)
2,700
1,200
2,900
20
J?
24
7bfiChord
Df73p fii^J
a crop . ;
jpoo
3J OO
29
25
444
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
In general these results correspond in magnitude with the theoret-
ical results already discussed and confirm the general conclusions as "to
the presence of such stresses of relatively large values.
Trusses A and B are skew bridges and the secondary stresses in the
members of the end panels are considerably affected by the lateral
systems. In truss B, for example, although pin connected, the bending
stress in the end lower chord is about 50 per cent, of the primary, due
to the heavy lateral stresses. Truss E is a heavy double-track span with
deep chords. Note the relatively large stress in the end post and top
chord, due partly to the collision strut.
General Discussion of Results. — To assist in analyzing the results
of the calculations and experiments, we have plotted the most significant
of these on Plates VIII (a) and (b). On Plate VIII-c are also shown
certain theoretical results of considerable value in this connection.
TRUSS f~ /32 Ft Span. Pm 'Connected, w/th Riveted
Lower. Chord
Members
Position of
fxtensomefer
Primary Stress
lb. per. s?. //?.
Percent Secondary Stress
in P/ane oFTmss
Bofhm Chord
A (Top fibre)
4JO0
70
Top Chord
B (Bofkm F/bre)
7.200
?/
On Plates (a) and (b) are plotted maximum percentages of sec-
ondary stress in various members of thirteen separate trusses. These
results are taken partly from Grimm's work on Secondary Stresses,
partly from Part II, Johnson's "Modern Framed Structures," and partly
from the calculations presented herewith. Bridge No. 11 is the one
analyzed by F. C. Kunz in Engineering News of October 5, 191 1. In all
cases the percentages given are the maximum percentages of the second-
ary stress in the various members, but only those results are taken that
occur when the primary stresses are large. In a few cases where the
design is such that the primary stress is small, the calculated percentage
of secondary stress has been somewhat reduced.
On Plate VIII (a) are plotted results on bottom chords and main
diagonals and on Plate (b) results on top chord members and end posts.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 445
All results are plotted with ratios of width of member to length as
abscissae and percentages of secondary stress as ordinates.
Referring to Plate (b) and noting the higher values, it will be seen
that these occur generally in the end post, or in the end member of the
top chord. The value for the top chord of the sub-divided Pettit truss
No. 13 is also relatively high. This value of 60 per cent, is very high,
but evidently the high ratio of width to length accounts, for the most
part, for this high value. Noting trusses Nos. 4, 7, 8 and 11, all of the
results are seen to be relatively low. These trusses are all ordinary
single intersection trusses of modern design. The results on No. 6 are
rather high in the end panel and end post. This is due to the use of a
collision strut in this design. No. 10 is exceptionally high. Phis is the
sub-divided Warren truss with very short panels.
Referring to Plate (a), it will be noted that the results are, on the
whole, slightly larger relatively than those on Plate (b). This condition
is due to the fact that nearly all the trusses are through bridges, which
brings most of the load along the lower chord, so that the distortions of
the vertical members affects the lower chord more than it does the
upper chord. The high values of No. 10 and No. 4 are noteworthy.
No. 4 is a modern design, but the height of truss is comparatively great
so that the distortion of the verticals is relatively great. This affects
the lower chord rather seriously. On both Plates (a) and (b) it is of
interest to note that No. 9, the Pony-Warren truss, having relatively
wide members, has a fairly small percentage of secondary stress, con-
sidering the width of the members. This is doubtless due to the favor-
able proportions of the triangles and to the relatively large sections of
the floor beam verticals.
The truss whose analysis is given in Plates IV (d) and (e) is not
represented in the diagrams here described, but the values will be seen
to correspond very well with the others. The lower chord (Plate IV-c)
has a ratio of width to length of about 0.24 and a maximum secondary
width
stress of 100 per cent., or about 4 X , while the upper chord and
length
end post have ratios of about 0.12 and secondary stresses of 35-40 per
width
cent., or say 3 X •
length
On Plate VIII (c) are plotted some interesting theoretical results.
Lines A, B, C and D show the results obtained on single triangles in which
the primary stresses in all members are numerically the same, the stress
in two of them being of one sign and the stress in the third being of
opposite sign. Line A gives the maximum percentage of secondary
stress which will occur in an equilateral triangle where all members
have the same moment of inertia. Line B gives results for a right-angle
triangle where the lengths of the members have the proportions 3:4:5-
Line C gives results for an equilateral triangle in which one of the sides
has an infinitely large moment of inertia. This condition gives rise to
446 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
much larger bending stresses in the other members. Line D gives similar
results for the right-angle triangle.
Lines E and F give general results of various systems calculated
by assuming a truss of indefinite length, and of certain proportions as
between chord members and web members, and certain uniform stresses.
These calculations are given on pages 484 and 486, Part II, Johnson's
"Modern Framed Structures." While, of course, these results are
different from what would be obtained on any given truss, they are very
helpful as indicating what the necessary secondary stresses are under
uniform and rather favorable conditions. Line E, for example, shows
that in a long truss of Pratt or Warren system, without verticals, we
cannot avoid secondary stresses of approximately 35 per cent., if the
ratio of width to length is one-tenth. A detailed examination of the
calculations referred to shows that in the chord members the percentage
is likely to be as low as 30 per cent, along the center of such truss where
the web members are not large, but may reach as much as 40 per cent,
towards the ends, where the web members are nearly as' large as the
chord members.
Line F shows very clearly the effect of floor beam verticals on the
loaded chord.
Effect of Secondary Stresses on Strength of Struts. — The bending
moments at the ends of members caused by rigid joints are equivalent
to a certain eccentricity of application of primary stress. Where the
bending moments at the ends of a member are such as to cause the
member to deflect in single curvature the eccentricities at the two ends
will be in the same direction. In this case the effect of the resulting
deflection will be to increase somewhat the bending moments along the
center of the member above the calculated values. This increase will
be approximately equal to the product of direct stress multiplied by the
center deflection. The equivalent eccentricity due to secondary stress and
the actual center deflection under certain assumed conditions may be
readily determined so that the possible effect of the deflection may be
estimated.
Suppose the ratio of the width to length be 1/10 and that the sec-
ondary fiber stress is 40 per cent, of the primary stress. Assume, further,
that the radius of gyration = r = .4 X width = •%/ Then it can be
y A'
shown that the equivalent eccentricity is closely equal to % the width
of member, that is, the effect of secondary moments is equivalent to
applying the direct stress at each end with an eccentricity of this amount.
The deflection due to this condition in the case of single curvature is
10 s
closely equal to — X width, where ^ = unit compressive stress in mem-
E
ber and E = modulus of elasticity. Where s = 10,000 lbs. sq. in. the
deflection is equal to width -=- 300, or about 1/40 the original eccentricity.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 447
This is a rough measure of the effect of deflection on the bending
moments in the strut. We may, therefore, conclude that in struts of
ordinary proportions this effect is quite small.
General Conclusions. — Considering the results of the observations
and calculations above referred to, and the general principle that to a
great extent secondary stresses are proportional to the ratios of widths
to lengths of members, it may be said that the secondary stresses of the
kind here discussed in ordinary trusses should not exceed 40 per cent.
for a ratio of width to length of one-tenth, or, expressed more generally,
width
should not exceed 4X . If sub-divided panels are not used, it is
length
width
probably practical to keep the ratio sufficiently low so that the
length
secondary stresses will not exceed 35 per cent.
width
In the bottom chords of through trusses a value of 5 X
length
width
is likely to be reached, but here the ratio can be kept somewhat
length
lower than in compression members, so that ordinarily the secondary
stress need not exceed 30 to 35 per cent.
Special attention should be given to secondary stresses in trusses
with sub-divided panels, as these are likely to reach very high values,
• • • width ...
due, primarily, to high ratios , but also to the distortion of the
length
hangers and sub-members.
448
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
THE THEORY OF SECONDARY STRESS CALCULATION.
the n?efhc& 'of Secondary Stress cafcafctt/or> q/ven /n the tvlfomnga/scuss/an '/s •
that set forth /n hbrfJ2 ' af A/ocferr? Framed '^/nic/ores ''fyJe/?qup,&zr?/&^%tf^^R
let /he do/feel '///7es of Fig. / rgpresen/ a portion ofta/rass before /he app//a;/cr? of fas
laxts. After the /cads are app/ied the various members e/cngole or shor/en^a'epena'/ng
Upon ihe character of /he stress tnthe members,ar?d /he /rz/ss ddr7ects tip/h&pas/tiao
shonn by /he f/qhf fuff fines.
/=/&./
FtO.Z
This change of form of fhe truss ca//s tor changes in the angles of /he rar/ous triangles,
depending c/pon the deformation of /he members and /he proportions of /he tridngk.
The values of /he angu/ar 'changes canoe calculated as soon ai /he ?ize of members, form
of truss , and loading conditions are known.
A convenient set of formulas lor fhe calculation of 'angular changes car? 6e aerrvea' by
differenfation Thus in Fig Sjkf A, B, andC be the
angles and a,b,andc fhe sides of any triangle
fromfngonometty;-Co5A__^j^ci_al) ^}
The effect of posif/e differential changes m rhg fength
f~/Cr 3 of sides a, p, andc on the ang/eA can oe determined
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 449
bu partia' ' differenfohon offq. fa), this is equiro/erTt tt Jehsmaf/on in a// members
due to tension. J1& /rare
dA*(2Z- tycotB +fi2L- 2k)cofC
ifsh, St, j ands^ are the t/r/i stresses /n a, b and
c nsspecbuefcf , we /rare b\?* sa q,£ , db* S& ^
F/& 3 and t?c= sc <fe , from wh/ch we bare
dA*2?[(SQ -si) cpf3 * {% -s6)corCj ft)
Irrthe some way we find for dng/es 3andGj-
J5=jf[rs6-s0) cofC +(&-S*)ce>tA] C2)
dC* j?[(Sc -Si) cot A +(sc - sa) cor 8 J (3)
As a checJr on the caicuiated /aiues of anqu/or changes /n any ir/ange, /re hare
a'A+dB+dC = o
In order to attow these onguar changes to tahe p/ace, as shown m F/g fj the /tor/pus
members must be tree to turn atfheja/nfj-. 7be members in structures with nyeied
joints are not tree to turn and the ang/'es between ii*e members refa/hfhe/r origina/
yatues. tndef testing to the tuff fine pos/Aon off/at the members musffte henfou. * or
q straight i/he, a$ shown by the heavy fu// tines of Fig. 2. ifre members are frere-
fore subjected fp bending moment depending upontbe amount afbend/rg as /h-
dicated by the defecfion angies at each end of foe member? from Mechanics,
the reidh'on between anguhr changes aithe ends of a member and hend/hg
moments /s found to 6ej-
Af,3 - -ff^f^^J end A£r ?£I('?7-+7r3).. — .tyfr)
where the yonous terms am as shown /n Fry. 4-y rrh/ch repmsenfs the tomes
1/ acting on member /- J of F/gs ia/xfC
f~~ 4 ' . — x^L. Tne s/qns of moments and Kiiues of
[H3 / \==^^==~^^l7[1 jr~^ Twitt be considered as pasifiye when
X~^r ~~<t-\" — == — j - A/*i\ the bending produced /s as shown in
'3I* - — " "zJ F/gs? and 4. Ad^ondT,
p A- "~*J , / ind/cife respecfireiy the momenta/*?'
F/Cj/Q. inclination attheieii end of member
£-5, and /*d3/ and 7?/ /nd/cafe I'he
corresponding Quantifies at the right end of the same member 7he effechoffbe
direct stress /n thememb w has been negkded/n c^gjsf^)
Since each Joint of the truss consiaered by itseifas a tree bcdq in space /sin e^uiiifr/um,
ire can s/afe an /ndspervtenfeguot/on bg-pia&ng eifz&ifp zero fiie sci/n of the moments
at the ends of att members c/t angjo/otproZ/dsa 'the members are concentric sofhaf ire
primary stresies cause no bend-nq nvment Thus for joint 3 of rig ? n'e ho re
Substifufma interim of 7^ as /n^a-sfa) nehare,-
In the some rraij an eguotion sim'itiar h Eq(6) canoe written out tor each j'aht.
the ra/ues of Tin these equations am ait unknown, and thus yts hare tmce as many unbncmns
ai there are members inihgtrvss. At the same hme m have aniy oi mamj /ndependenf
equations as there cnjoink'inttKtrvss.x-lhatatprzsent the eguahons can not be sohed.
450 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
But from certain geomehri'ca/rvfo/rbns bebreer? /he anq/es afongje/hf^ /he /xmberof
unknorrns can be reduced to one a/eocbjd'h/. Pfe rrr// /ten pare avmony/bai&e&denf
eqaahons as i/rt/rne/mSj ana' a so£/Abn oA/Ae egoaforrs /spays/b/te.
jfius af join/ 3 ofAygZrrgsee/hiTf 7^, +(*<, +£*<,)= -<,-fi 7^z „ or,- 7&* 7i,faU,
A/so, 7£ ^x^aUJ^t+j-t,) * -<-, y-«^2 -*7^J0/z- 7if - 7S/*^fO^
To so/77 up, /re bare
7j2= Tj/t^-it - 7Z + ak,
7J4 -• 7r/ * d«, i^aUx = 7j * d«,*dkx.
7ssa 7?, v dU, -H/<<z+aUi * Ti+d*, f-df^d^t^ „ _
1ms trehaie expressed fie ntiues or 7i2, Ti+j and 7F-? /b terms oA/toe vrxbwrm 7j, a^d
rite trnonn arrguhr cbonges td°<, _, a/«zo>7a'ak<i rrb/cb cos? ba ca/coA?h°c> 'by means
oftqs (/J, (2), and(5). The ang/e 7j, /s /ben /be on/g or7A77om a/jdmAS.
//rri//berre///ogire qng/e %, a name ama" t&Ane //? seAecbch /nranqj&h/.
tYetr///ca// 7s/ /be'Fefe fence /)f7gfe "fcrjb/bAS, and&rbney/hyrr////nd>caAe/f
(ft 7i (orrrha/ererYhcjp/bf number may be) /fm/fbe canken/er/jbse/ecr/ne
reference ang/e as /be a/ef/ecbon ang/e of Me /frs/ member er7co€/nbfre^3^ '/hposs-
fng around a jo/n/ /r? a c/ocArrr/se al/roeboh, beg/nnuTg^rf/Ihe ou/srak pf^he /nuss.
Thus in F/g ?j 7?<« or /£ forjo/n/ 2, ana'Z^ orlffirjo/oA A arf7fte rrs-
pecfrre reference ong/es. Ide can norr /rans/orm ibe ror/oos 71 //?/5a(ej
info ihe farm of Eg (7)
Jo/h/*/ 77,= TJ+d/S, -)
Joint+J Tii • Ti+dr, ^ l£-
Joint <5 7;, , 71+oj 7;2 » TJ+oU, ; r, j;+d«,+aUt ifc&dfjH** «*> Y%*
Jo/n/U Ki-Ti+de.+dc,.. \@)
Join/* 5 Tis - f* + o- .. J
As 2£ /s common too// members of^a/'&J ne con d/r/c/e /brpugb by fa's herm.
A/so fbrbrerifg ne con aenofe by /X '/be genem/term -fy , g/r/hg /peach A~/be
proper subscr/p/ /f/s cr/den/ /baf AT,/ = /C/s _, Kjs* A'ss ^ efc. /*fo4-/nq /base
changes and sobsb/obbg /be /ransfbrmed 7i /h ^(SJ^ ntbare
+ **[?(%+ </«, *d«t) + rz+dz, * dejJ+ZGsft/'rsd*, ~*<t * d<J*($*>)J,o
which can be nritfen ' "
"ZfilK, * fat +Ks*+K>';J+?[ftid<><, *fci(ax,*J*t)+/('j;i(a<</*d><i 1-d*,)] +[/f„T+K'jsd'/5)J
+[K„T7Tk'2,dfJ+[t<4tZ+/<'<,(d£,*dc2)]+ rftnfe + o)J~0 fyfa)
Eq{9) /s the general form of the indepenaenteaoaf/i//? tvrjo/ht 5. A) S/m)//dr e^a/ron /s.-bae
written out tor each jpiht In general 'each equation contains as onhnonns the reference 7~^or
the. joint tvr which the equation /s made op, and the reference 7^ for the Joints a/ /he opposite
end of each member en/ering fhejoihf/h qoest/on. 7he equation a/so con/oms cer/a/n fenorm
or absolute terms ivh/ch depend for their ya/ue upon K and /he def/ecfion anq/eS-
Ihus the first term of3?(9) is composed of 7i mu/t/pj/ed by /nice /he sum ofthe/Cs for a//
the members at joint. 3. T?e secona 'member ot rfbl'?J/se^ao/mhr/ce the sum oi fyproaoefs
of terms composed of the tCl'fprthe sere/v/members a/Jo/h/ 3 ' mu/hp/ied ' bd the sum of a//
the anqufar chanqes from /he refe/ence angfc up k> /he member /h question, we remaining
n*& mh**r s%-r-Jhj* sumi i**l*+w+ s+vs* 4<*j* r%/9+i/9s-T-irit-t siHA.ke -frtf J~hr* sinrtsx/ht ***/*//+£ jrs>s'St *n»/r^r /7/tft
Me mkrence ang/e of the joint combining the member, as/o£o's(0j
The equations siniifiar/orq(^Jtpreochjoinfmaheupa^efof//near5/mu//oneous
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 451
equahons /rh/ch rrben sotesdn-///g/rtt /he ra/ue of/fiere/enence angh /sreacbjcxhr'
jttfitrom Ea's(0/me can determ/ne tee ra/ues ofteedefikcfah arg/es arena's ofe&chow?-
ter Subst/tuf/fa teese ra/ues of/fa defection angjksmtys{4J»vfnd fa maven/s a/ tee
&xfs of each member ^ a(t/erm/be fort s/rssses nzbwetee /brma/a f- ^c/x rrbere
fa fibre stress j /*/- bend/bg moment, cdrsbmce /rvm> neotro/ax/s /oerbrme -fibre of
member, and _T- mcmen/of/oer//j of member- Subsb/abng /he mementos g/renby
Fjbf-J 'r? te/s tormub? me fare „, ,
r, , ^f?^^) and £ = ^{2%+ T,)- -tfifc)
J/m///ar ey&abons can be made upfar any member of&e~ p/ruc/ore-
The Effect of fceentr/c forces g/gjo/h/ /fbentee/77embersa/aya/n/ar7g/x>/ con-
cenfr/c, as assumed m tee der/rafon of£d(5j, >re must hc/t/de tee moment doe fa
eccentric/fa /n -foe summat/on of moments aranyjofbt. letters movxo/ i&rjb/bt '^.^4/3.
The ra/ue of tfs &n be ca/ca/a/ed as soon as tee eccentrrc///es of tee members and
stresses are baonr?. f*zC5)teen becomes ^
bf3, +rts?+tfs4 * WJ5 r-Af3 =0 -- . 0/J
The effect often aetr term on /be genera/ V^aa/rbn f9jfsfaadda farm of tee form?
^V?a to tee /etr band member of tee,eaoabdr?.
Formu/abo/? offguobons tar foterrbr^fe/TTr /r?some cases rre bare fadea/rr/b?
/nter/orjo/n/s , as /n tee case of a s/rac/ane rr//b subd/y/bledpane/s. Atty comenenf
dzftect/on aaa/e can be fabe>\ as tbe re/erence ang/e, af/errrb/cb rre proceed as
tbranexter/brjo/ht 4n eramp/e ofte/s brbdoccurs a/jo/n/s 7and '// '0/ 'tee /nrss
on page 3 3, Append/ x B-
Spec/o/ Case A nerrpo/bt { comes c/p/nca/cu/afo/? ofangt/ar changes /nteefoss
snorrn on page B 3, one pane/ofrrb/cb/s gberi/n F/g 5. 7fre neary carredbbes
shorr tne probable bend/ng of /be members. /fob/ teb/jo/ht 7
causes a change /n /be cvrva/z/re of member 5-9. so tea? '5-0-9
JS not a true trrang/e /n tee sense of tee te/ang/es of F/g 2
&ot by /ntrodac/ng ar? /mag/nary n?ember from 7 tbS, rre can
d/y/de tee figure /dtp tev rea/ 'bvdrg/ex 58- 7 and 73 -Sf Th/s r
nerr member 7S rr///be cons/deradas/xir/ng-zeromomea/or
/nerha , hence bf79-C>. The on/t stress /nmember 74 fabesseat
Ft& & tefas f/J. (2), ond(?) for /be catu/ar/br? ofangufarchanges can
be aeterm/'ned 'trvno tee d/sfarf/bn ofribeThsssofcng/ie.'/ne 7-S f%~
the bad/rig conrf'fydos 0/ '/6e par//Co/arprcb/fen?. From Aihcban/cs, P/siy-4on= ~y^
ftbere s-un//sfess and 'A '* /engtecrmember fe/ '//& caka/a/ed d/sfon9bn af&*g
//r?e 7-0 be £?7.a . fan ne fare £>.,,= * ar-*/£^trrh/<:bSsaqooab/cfof&e
same d/mens/ons as sa,stJoodsc o/C^sC/JX^JaodfsJ. /br<anejztmc7eofsac/?
ca/cu/atroas see fix pmb/em n-orbed cv/sn Appeaa'/x &.
fft? Canyec/ed Struc/ures rrr/b /7/ve/ed Top Cbards /n ca/cubbng tee secondary
stresses/a such structures re may cens/der tea,4 a//fherye£> members are fve to Asm on
the pins ffecan take account of ms cond/bon-ty assam/ngtea/ fre end mo/pen/? /or
members -fee fa turnonteep/ns are eero^ and on?/f {teen? mfcrm/nq an egua/rcv? ofmomenrs
at the joint , as /5f(5). Afso nt. assume tea/ tee woman/ of /ber/a ofsocb members /s
zero, or teat K- zero. In the eaJcu/obbns tor amju/ar changes _,sucb •members s/ouH
horrever, be iricfuded, tee same as others tha/ane r/grdAj connected.
Flate I.
SECONDARY STRESSES IN THETOPCHORD OF A DECK PRATT 7W5S
Snqk 7rzxk Sfrvdurtz
Trusses /fa'c. b&
Pfn Connected Joint*
PlttM Tip Chora/
leafing. Capers E-GO Spee/f'i&/'ansj/ITd'5.E/<S02
floor System; rtarbeoms andS/rmgers, Bo/irsf EHoorr
TABLE OF CHO/SD SECT/CWS
MtrtBEK
CWACjU,
WM{li%%.%
(MPs
4m2PJY''4fJr
#A
*'"*'■?
Z'3
6'4'f
7
76. JW
ice.?"'
>Z9g7«tM?S '46fS
~Mfa? li?fU 74?? '467? 0.5CT
0.S2
10 A»7«;/s @ 24'-3& "-= ?a7- /" c.*><z e™/ a™
?COtfMpr STRESSES PUE TV WEIGHT OF MEMBERS
Stnmei pbHtd or* fir Mf> frh~
IROW AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
453
1
1
ft
■V~1&-s y -3„0-0&
.°~Z£
w
^ -
OH
*|
gig
k
1!
fl
1
$
1
Q)
<&
c^
S
8
«
S
n*$&
%
454
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
rt/v/ yo 9ii// -*=yfaj jnoyo /03u/9tvuifi& suo swoj6cv(2 //^
>J r„s
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
455
Plate Ill-a.
SECT/OAf TABLE FDJ? PfflTT A/Y0 y/AffiE/r TFUS5
7aken fivm ft?e Exarrpk cjiren on page 44/ Mx&rn rromea 'Sfrt/c/vnei for/IT
p&att muss
Ui (A
rYA/?F£N T&USS
SSCT/ON 7ABi-£:
Truss
Member
a
t?
I
Secfron
Ansa
Pratt
and
lYARREN
LjU,
/Cov.P/.ZB- % 7fkk ZZ' % '
26 %'<%'> f fro) w&H-flUj
58.49
9.54"
!4.08'
4490
VIA
UtUs
/Cov.PlZV' 9/,e'?net*Z?*%f"
52.35
9J9
Z4.45
3978
Lot,
2P/s/8"'£"
4fr4"'4''l"
29.44
9.12
9.12
/2f6
tu,
44ff>4fV"
/6.0
S.4
s.4
94.8
U,Lt
2C*/s"<sso*'
29.42
7.9
7.9
80S.4
Pratt
Truss
£Us
4&4"'4l§" 2P/sl8'<$'
45.48
9/?
9.17
/907
6U*
?£/$"($ 4 5"
26.46
7.S
7.9
750.2
u*u
2f* /2"<5*S**
70. 98
6.0
6.0
598. &
UsL*
2& /2"@27**
/4.TO
6.0
6.0
288.0
tfctRREA/
Truss
LiL*
4£4">4">l" 2P/s/8"'g'
56.46
9./2
9./2
2570
U*Lr
4l'5',>?i"<i"
/6.0
£4
S.4
94.8
U,Li
?rs/S"<S45*i
26.48
7.9
7.9
750.7
U,L3
40S*5i'*i'
/6.0
S.4
S.4
948
Mote 'a"/
'a"
f disfonct
' from neutno/ax/s of section
to top
fibre
wn fii
hn
456
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
457
M
m
&•£<»> 53 s ^ ^
III
Mil
E^ §s
I'll
458
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
I r
I
I
J* ^
If
ft
-*£ •*< r. ? - £> *c V « ^
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
459
Plate IV-b.
D/AGRAM OF SECTIONS
RIVETED WAP/PEN TPUSS WITH 5UB-D/V/DED PANELS
ICor.Pf. -21"* V*i"
2fYcbPfs.i8''i'a'
2 Flats 3V«%*
BoTTvrr Chord AfoB
n
-2P/sl6--¥
j_ JJ IL ?/*****?
Bottom Chord &foC
2&4"'4"*V rip =tTi
L
460
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
1
■V
"5
9
~*
III
K
•*>
«S
*
tt
fc~
^>
S
^
W
>
*>#
»N«
*
*=t-
5> ci 0
I
4
^Thi
i
J4 Xjj ^4 o>
NMM
*)
tp
5.4
9E Vj
? .c
s o
I
>o o ™
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
461
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES
Q
M
55
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
463
Plate ^A-sl
t05 FmWBTED PON)T VYA&RBN TGUSS
6&on*/s <S /3-/j"' /oe'~o"
Sec-norr 7?\Bi.i
Member
S&ch'orr
C
Area
T
UL.&L,LX
444'*4'*§'J ?P/s /8"> ? r
9.75'
29.44
Z254.4
UU+LzLt
4&4"*4'<fj 2P/s /8"* §■ 2P/s IO"-$ '
9.75'
55.98
Z947.6
L0U,
4&4"*4'*§'J 2Pfs20'*%'
ZOOS
45.48
1364.6
uu9&otu3
46 4'**> %', 2P/$ 2o'* § '
10.25'
43.48
7164.6
U3Ua
46 4'*4*'fj ?P/s 20 \ § "j 2P/S/2 '4 ".
lO.rf
55.48
2508.6
U,l, a U3L3
46S'<3im'j'j /#/&§'j //*■/&■ fr
5.25'
22.99
/24.0
UtLz&U4U
44 5*SF* | y /Pi W* j:
5.75'
/7.24
75.0
U,L2
4& 6*>4'' § '; /Pf/5i 'r /*
6.75
78.48
206.O
u3u
4&f'*4'- 9kJ /#/%'§•
6.75-
26.28
/8S.4
u*u
4& ff\ 4'<j ; /PI /&< § :
«?5'
/9.48
/23.0
7hz Loading?
***** f f * 1
oQQQ 9 9 9 9 9-9-
1n*i m w'M»» Isa gV eg .
pY&qht- 49.eas>*i
Caboose.
A1! ' /cod* art
Ax*/ LooJi
9J? Q-SL
<i?jMjjfcV *3 jggjsjzarjgj^g^ \s.s\ ?<7- Jtt-Q-9-7' if*-',**6' Jjf-
$
Loading Ce>No/T/or/s fr?r /he co/cu/afed ' ra/ues, sherrr? or? P/a/e Yb
/he /rarn foods are pfacea '*? /he pas/f/c*? nh/ch gives fhe max /mum combhetf
value of primary and secondary stresses ih/s pos/f/on of food/mars defer
mined by /he use of Influence lines c/rorr/? fir each rt7e/nber
The observed rahes, yiven on Pht&Yc were ob famed from e*/emianekr mod/op
■faHft ft? /he s/ruc/vns fbra/esf /rain as shorrn by /he nzvn d/aqrom ahore
464
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
465
466
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
«%/Z/- "**£ f***«/4j
/r «» My
*%.<>£>//-"*'*£ f>-'°u"-V z%S9Ci'-s'*4iffisc*u/4/ ■^K'a/-"A¥S f**"*"-V
I
"A
fr
ft
Li
si
til
ir
ii
4^
III
|li*4**l
Ml
!? £ « -VI
>» 5 *> C-
»<5 8 SS"»ii|S
a a •» -• ' a n
k m
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
467
TBU55 D/A&/ZA/VS
Plate VH-a.
Truss A
A/IJo/nkl?/yekd.
Fin connection for
£qeBarj on/y.
SJ-7%
?@?e-7'4'
2V-7&'
4&4"*4">%"
3f'7^"
4^4'^4'^a 4&4U'-%" 4£4">4" %' <?<ea'*4' %'
■ZP/s. 18"' V ?P/s./d"'%' -20s/8"*%" VP/sJS'*??'
■4 <@?6'-7i "
4#4'*4<-£'
2P/s /8">i"
-21-7? -
/59- 9 ' c. ^ c. End Pins
' Center ofs^n
,T
S^Sev+h Trt/SS
%
OHE-HALE BOTTOM LATERAL SYSTEM \ ONE-HALF TOP LATERAL SK5TE/V
Truss B
Pin Connected
/Cor. Pi ?4"-z
2lS5~- J#"'%
?H66P/s /8
/ CorP/.24'>t"
?ni>bP/s./8"''l$6'
i6'-e'
Zp^'QIP0 4Bors7'«/' 4-Bars3^/»" JBarsS"*/?"
-7<3>?0-6'
t76-6 "c. Jo c. f^a'P^s
468
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
Plate VH-b.
TR.US3 D/ AG GAMS
Top Chord and End Post Continuous, famfed Jo/nfc
1QUSS 'C
Pbrfial/i) 'Fueled
4&4">4"' %''
6 f^ctmls @. 17-4."" fQ4'-0' (Bottom Chord Continuous. entkdJomh)
Note:- Etjt Bars am Pin Connected. AI/otherJoih!sffrekdJexcepr'asr)okd
T&uss O'
Riveted.
44 4"* A'- s/b'
2Pfs VO"'
4 1*4'* A"' %
^PIs.^O"' >/8'
2Ph i?"* h'
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
469
TRUSS DIAGRAMS
Plate VII-c.
muss t
Bvefed
mt
/iW<fc
» a1 9^"-
4&4">-4"''/:z
2Ph.'24"^/ie"
2 Pis -2o"*Vig'
7 fbm/s (&> •26-0%"= /62'-&&"
Ikuss'F"
P/r> Connected
&
,*i*
?li/5"@ 33* ?fi IS"@ 33*
"2& /S'@33* " -21s/!>"<s>38*
6Pon<zk @ 2?'-o" - / 72^ "
470
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
n
i— i
i— i
(
mrai
it**;
8
>
w
H
$
<
<s «
c ^ t 5 <3
! ? e H'.* '•
»
*
o
5
\<b
* !
t fi ^ <a <o * * >«> °» 5; * W i*
■>' N wi \J Mi <©' N «ri<Js 5 5: Sj 5j
-
t \
F
i
^
^
a
C^4
'^
o\
q
Q-
O
)
?>
"V>
<s
1
1
s
o^
<*
"VA
I
|S
«
\
i
*
^
a
N. «o<
>\N(
K-
k
«8
I
<s
)\
ft
it
v°\
>*\.
q
R
§
J
i
i
II
i
\
i
t
*
i
S
?
si
ft<%4£5 frsOjtXXJOZK; /</9ZU^i
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
471
^3
,*
t— 1
(— 1
1— 1
>
%
w
<
*
P-,
tf
»
O
ifl
<s
5
"*
K
I
*
i
K
•^
fc
i
s
V
ft
"5
fc
y
c
*S
$
•v.
<s
)
^0
*°
*° \
w\
*
\ >t<
) o
«
ft-
D
\*0
o"
4!
*
1
o
fl\
5
<s
to
a
^ J
«
*?
«s
fe
l
5
x
*
k
i
k
4
^
I
i
i
sss^c, d^OiOC*}^^ jlesruttf
472
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
s;
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
473
5EC0NDART STRESSES JN A RIVETED WARREN TRUSS
WITH SUBDIVIDED PANELS
Truss
fy&SOC*
/oco"
/? RmeJs ®/2- 9* '«/55'-3 '
TFbhJj'-j"
CHO&D S£CT/OrtS
TopChOBD
EndPost
tVesPLATB
/6-'s/8'
/8'*%'
a
9.3/95 "
9.37S "
t?
9.993 "
9.9375'
e
a 243 "
O. IB75 '
Borrow Chord Lo U L4
\ fir Ti ?/f4'4'^"
m ?p/s/6'>£
Borrow? Chogd L4 tb Ls
?{s4*>4'>k'
X.
■t \
L
&H9
790f'
*f
474
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
TABLE A
TABLE OF SECT/ONS
Mariaae
5ECT/0/V
Le/VQM
(ins)
I
*i
c
%
Sneess
AttA
Csf-*x)
u/v/r
5T/&SS
U4U6
5-8
8-/3
Top Chozp
See fhqe>/
300.5
2644.1
8.0s
T9.1/95
6 9.931
0.08O8
O.0652
-6,487
45.2P
-/45.S
uu
1-2
2-4
4-6
6-9
Sse page- /
153.2$
12/4.6
7.95
8./2S
0./O6O
+4,460
37.0O
+720.5
UL5
9-10
!(H?
»
/53.2s
1696.4
/1.07
T8.149
B7.90/
Q/089
O./OJO
+Z704
60.18
+727.6
UK,
/-S
Ewpfbsr
Saspoga/
245.5
5009.4
72.17
T9.S7S
59.9m
O.077O
o.os/e
-7,080.5
58. To
-720.7
MU*
5-5
//
245.1
3009.4
/2.17
T9.>7S
S 9.9375
O.077O
O.03&
-6,417.5
5870
-709.6
(JZM3
5-7
2£/SbS0*
241$
805.4
3.31
7.5
o.oe/7
+3864
29.42
+757.5
MsU
7-9
2£*/5'<SSo*
245.1
805.4
3.51
7.5
0.06/7
+5720
29.42
+709.5
ttfifs
9-//
2^/5"®45¥i
245.5
750.2
3.08
75
0.0617
-Z93/.4
26.43
-72.94
MeU6
//•/J
?£*/S'®45**
245.5
750.2
3.06
7.5
0.O6I7
-7287.6
26.43
-48.62
MsU
5-4
4-7
11-12
2£ S'o/ti*
245.3
79.8
0.128
4.0
0.0379
-645.75
9.56
-67.14
M,L,
M3L3
3-2
7-6
//•/O
iP/./oy>y
/89.o
70.7
o.m
5./87S
0.0548
+7000
76.75
+67.62
UeLs
5-4
ISi2
4L*5">5i"<%'
573.o
70.7
0.187
5.1675
0.0774
+ 2000
76.71
+723.7
U4L4
8-9
445>Sfry
/p/./oy>y
57S.O
70.7
0.(87
5.1875
0.0274
O
16.23
0
Stresses am tbr i0O0*Jo/ht Loads at 0// ' frotfo/i? chord pcvnts
+ Denotes Tens/on — Denotes Compress/on
"7" "and "B " ctenofe Top and bottom f/bre of ' Sectfoo
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
475
*OfcS*
476
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
+2ooo
<a
cr\
ml
m
\
CM
>0
8
tv
cr>
Ov
<tl
cm
?
&
$
Q
CJ
^
s
\
i
r-M
Mi
S
?
t
^
•a
Q
n\
0
•^
»n
fO
N
§
Cm
c^
^
i
CM
«\
CM
CO
CM
Q
CM
i
CM.
c*
1
2
^
c\
CO
NT,
(M
5
1?
<*
M-
*8
S
^
Cm
a
«i
rv
i
1
V
Cl
K
Cm
5:
8
1
1
5
i
CM
CM
<|
cj>
5
n
■4,
lu
4
^
*
jgg
(s ia
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 477
TABLE. 3
Values of- S/L
(Sl\/2l = (-/20.7-6/.62)/.233 + (-120.7 -120.5)08/09 =-420.5
Triarxg/eA \ <& 231 * (+120.5+120.7)0.8109 '■■+195.5
L Si 312 = (+ 6/.6Z +/20. 7)/. 2 S3 = ■*•- 225. 0
(St 324= (-67.34-6/62) /.235 + (-67M - /20.5) 0.8/09 «: - J//.2
Triangle 3 I Si 245-- (+6/. 62 +67.34)12*1, = + /59.Q
LSL 452= (+/20. 5+67. 34)0.6/09 = -+ /52. 2
(Si 534= (+/23.2+67.34)/.7*3 + (-+/23.2 + /09.6) /.733 =< + 523.0
Tr/'orng/eC \Sf 345- (■/o9.6-/23.7)/.z*5 -(-103.6 + 67*4)0.2/10 =-278.1
453= (+67.34-/09.6)0.2//O + (-67.34-/237.) A253 = -243.9
'$1 547= (+/3/S-/23.2)/.233 +(-/3/.$- 67.34)0.7//O = - 3>.7
Si 475' (+/2S.7+ 67.34)/. 2*3 -+(+/23.2-/3/.5) /.2S3 ' +224.8
Si 754 -- (+67. 34 +13 /. 5)0. 2//0 + (-6734 -/2*. 2) /. 23 3 = - /9S. /
(Si 746 ' (+6Z.62 + 67.34)/-235, - + /59.0
Triangle Li ISl &7 '* (-67.34 -6/.62)/.23S + (-67.14-/20.5) O.8/09 = -J//.2
LSI 674' (+/20.5 + 67 34)0.6/09 = ■+ Z52.2
SSL 976-- (+/ZO.S -/09.5)O.6/O9 = + 8.9
SL 169= (+I09.5-6/.62) 1.7*3 +(+/O9 5-/2o.$)o.8/09 « + 37-9
Si 697= (+6/.67-/09.5) 1.233 = - 46.8
(SI 857'(-43,74-/3I.S) 0.21/0 +(-43.74 +/43.5)O.8/09 » + 44.6
TriarTqle Q Xsi 578- (-143.5 +43.74) O.8/09 +(-/43.S-/3/.5)0.8/09 = -304/5
LSI 785= (+13/. 5 +743.5) 0.8/09 +(+/3/.5 +43.?-)0.7//0 • +259.9
(SI 879- ( O -/09.s)/.7$3 + ( O + 43.?4)/.7*3 = - 8/ .8
Triangle H iSi 798=(-43.?4- 0 )/.7*5 + (*43.74+/o9.5)o.7//o « - 2/. 2
I Si 987= (-/09.S- 43.74) 02//0 + Y+/09.5 - O ) 7.253 = + /03 I
(Si //-8 9- (+7Z94 +325.0) 0.2IIO +(-77.94- O ) 7-233 - - 3.9
Triangle J \Si 8-9-n-(+32s.o+ o ) 7.233 -(+375.0+72.94)0.7/10 = +3/8-0
lsi9H-8=( o +7294)/.733 + ( O -325.0)7.233 • -3/2. 0
(Si //-9/0-- (+6Z.67 +72.94)1733 = +/66.Z
Triangle J )si 9-/o-// = (-77.94 -6/.67)/.2*s +(-77.94 -/27s) 0.8/09 =-328.6
if l /O/i '9 = (+'276 + 77.94)0.6/09 - +/6Z.5
(&1///0/2-- (-67.34-6/67 )/.733 +(-6734-/276) 0.8/O9 = -3/7.0
Triangle K \sno/?/h (+6/.6?+67.34)/.2*3 s +/59.0
[fl /?///0= (//27.6 *■ 67. 34) 0. 6/09 «= +/58.0
rSl/3-6-// = (-48.62 -375.0)0.2//O+(-48.67+/43.5)O.8/O9 ' - . / .9
Triangle L \Sl 6 'll/3--(-/435+46.67)0.8/09+(-/43.5 -325.0)0.6/09 ' -456.0
(Sl///3-8' (+325.0 +/43.S) 0.8/09+ (+375.0+48.62)0.2/10 = +458.9
(Sl/3/1/7-- (+Z73.2 +67.34) /■733+(+/73.7 +48.67) 1733 = +447-0
Triangle M iSlZ/-Z?-/3> (- 48.67 -Z73.7) f.73* + (+48.67- 67. 34)0.2//0 = - 2ZS.9
Ul Z?>/3/Z' (+6734- 48.62) 0.7//0 + (-6734 -173.7) Z.733 = -231./
Trianqle /Y same a$ Triangk M Trianq/e O 5o/r?e as 7rianq/e K
Triangle Pjome as Tria/jqk L
478
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
TABLE: CZ
VALUES OF ZM AW KZSl
Jo/of
z
S£
ISZ
Afember
K
KZ6~£
0)
m
(ii
{4)
(S)
(6)
77)
/-3
72.57
/
31-2
+225.0
+225.0
/-Z
7.95
20.10
■+■ /.784.0
■+■ / 784.0
2-7
7.91
2
7-23
-420.S
-470.S
2-3
0.374
- 157.3
32-4
-3//. 2
-73/. 7
2-4
7.93
- 5.303.0
16.23
- 5.960.3
3-6
72.37
S-3-4
-+523.0
+523.0
3^4
0.328
■+ 777.6
3
43-2
+752.2
+675.7
3-2
0.574
■+• 252.5
2-3 ■/
+795-5
+870.7
S-l
72.17
25.44
+ 70,770.0
+ ///94.0
4-7
7.9-5
243
+/S9.0
+759.0
4-3
0.328
+ 52. 2
4
34-5
-278.1
-7/9. 1
4-5
0.187
- 22.3
5-47
- 3/.7
-750.8
4-7
0.528
- 49.5
746
■/■ /59.0
/■ 3.2
4-6
7.93
76.70
+ 65.0
+ 45.4
5-8
8-65
857
+ 44.6
-+44.6
5-7
3.31
+ Z47.&
3
75-4
- /93. 7
-748.5
5-4
0.787
- 27-8
453
-243.9
-397.4
S-3
72.-57
24.50
-4 854.2
-4. 7S4.4
6-4
7.93
e
4-6-7
-311.7
- 3/7.2
6-7
0.-574
- 1/6.4
7-6-9
+ 37.9
- 273.S
6-9
7.93
-7.167.2
76.73,
-7,283.6
7-9
3.3/
9-7-6
+ 8.9
+ 8.9
7-6
0.374
+ 3.33
7
6-7-4
+ 752.2
+ 76/. 1
7-4
0.578
+ 52.8
4-7-5
+ 224.6
+ 385.9
7-5
3.31
+ Z277.7
5-7-8
-304.5
+ 8/. 4
7-8
0
0
7- 32
+ 1333.3
8-73
8.65
13-0-U
- /.9
- /.9
8-//
o
o
a
71-8-9
- £.9
- 7.8
8-9
O.I87
1.5
9 8-7
+ /P3.I
+ 95.5
8-7
O
0
7-8-5
+ 2593
+■355.2
8-5
8.65
17.45
+ 3.06 5.7
+ 1.063.7
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
479
TABLE C CCoohwec/)
VALUES OF Z&M>K2<K CConfhuecf)
Jo/hf
Z
&
Zfr
Member
K
KZfo
9
6 9-7
7-98
89//
//•9-/0
- 46.8
- 7Z.7
*3Z8.0
+/66. Z
- 46.0
- 68.0
+ 250.0
+ 4Z6.Z
9-6
9-7
9-8
9-Z/
9-ZO
7.93
3.3/
0.Z87
3.08
//.07
25.58
- Z54.9
- /2.7
+ 770.0
+ 4.606.S
+ 5,2033
/O
9/0-//
/0///7
- 378.6
- S/7.0
- 378.6
- 645. 6
ZO-9
/O-//
ZO-/2
//.<?7
0.374
//■07
22.5/
- /22.9
- 7J46.5
-7,269.4
//
Z3ZZ-Z7
/2-ZZ/O
ZO-ZI-9
9-ZZ-8
+ 4470
+ ZS8.0
+ Z62.5
-3Z2.0
+ 447.0
+ 605.0
+ 767.5
+ 455.5
/A/3
//-Z7
/Z-ZO
ZZ-9
ZZ-8
3.08
0.328
0.374
3.08
O
+ 746.8
+ 226.3
f 2,363.8
O
e.86
a 2,736.7
/2
Z0Z7-/I
ZZZ2-Z3
/5/7/S
Z5/7/4
f/59.0
-2Z5.9
-2Z5.9
+zse.o
+ Z59.0
- 66.9
-277.8
-ZZ3.3
Z7-/0
Z2-ZZ
Z7-Z3
Z7-Z&
Z7-/4
//.<77
0.378
O.Z87
0.328
//.07
72.98
+ 52.7
ZO.6
- 89.5
- Z759.8
-Z307.7
A3
#•13-15
I5Z3-/7
Z?Z3'/Z
11/3-8
+458.9
-731.1
-23Z. 1
+458.9
+ 458.9
+ 7778
- 3.3
+ 456.6
Z3-Z6
13-ZS
Z3-Z7
Z3-//
13-8
8.63
3.08
0.187
3.08
8.65
23.61
¥■ /4/S.2
+ 47.6
ZO.7
+ 393/8
+ 53674
480
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
TABLB D
FORMULAT/Otf OF EQCJAT/OJVS
Joint +J * w mmktr
40.60Z + 3.568.0 I
rZ.JlTs +/Q.770.O i 3-1
7.93% Z 7-7
40.60Z+7.9S7; +77.37 T3* -U338.0 fyC')
Joints
50.63 T5 +27,386.0 3
/2.177s -4854.2 f S-*
0.328% + 52.7 4 4-3
O.YWn -757.5 2 2-3
72.37 Z I h$
72.37Z+0. $74 7i * 50.88 75 +a Tie T4
■+77.37 7s*- /7,428.7£>t[V
Jo,nt+5 *
49.00 Ts -9468.8 s
8.63Ta + 306S.2. * 8-i
3.31 T7 + Z777.7 7 7-5
0.187 Ti -22.5 -* 4-S
/7.37 7J s 3-i
fZ 3771+0.1877} +49.oo% +3.31 7}
74.64 7;
3.31 T9
0.3747^
0.32871
3.31 Ts
+2666.6 7
- 754.9 9 9-7
- 1/6.4 6 6-7
-49.5 4 4-7
+ 747.6 5 S-7
0328 71+3.3/7} +P.37471 +#647; +3. 37 %
Joint* 9 -2493.4*1 (7)
3/.I6 T9 +70,4/7.8 9
793 7e -Z/67.2 6 6-9
3.3/71 - AS 7 7-9
3.08 T, + 7. 363.8 a 11-9
II.OJTJo k> 7o-a
7.9S7Z+3.5/77'+0./877j+S/./6r9 +77.077^
■+308%- -70.6/2.9 £4 (9)
Joint *n
73.72 77, +5473.4 //
3.08 77s -7&T. 73 /3-/I
O. $28772 + 52.2 12 n-ii
0.37477o -722.9 'o lo-zi
3.08 75 + 770.0 9 9-7/
3.08 T9 +0.374 To +13.72 Z, +0.326Zt
+3.08 77t - - 6.18275 ff (//)
ZJomf HtmUr
Jtirrf*?
37.467i -U920.6 2
7.937; y 7704.0 l A2
aWTs + 2*2.5 3 3-2
7<&7i 4 4-2
7.937;+3?.467i+0.3?4r3t7.9374:=*9.884.7£9®
Us '
Joint *4
33.4077 +908 4
7.93 71 -5803 jt> 2 2-4
0.328TS +777.5 3 3-4
OJ8771 - 27.8 5 5-4
O.328T7 +52.8 7 7-4
7.93 71 66-4
79371 +0. $2873 +33.40H+0./87Ts +7.93 T6
Joint +6 "****>* +SStS.7£f&
32.46Te -4567.2. 6
~7.937i +6S.O 4 4-t
0.3747} + 3.3 r 7~e
7.93 7? 99-6
7.9$7i +37.46 Z.+0.3747} +7.937}-. +4498.9 £f&)
Jo/nt*8
8
34.90 71 +-6/27.4
863 77s +393/. 6 13 0-4
0.1877} -77.7 9 9-8
8.65 71 5 9-6
8.6371 +34.90Te +0./877} +8.63Z^-/0.046.5
Jo/ht *JQ_
45.02 To -Z4.538.8 'i>
/1. 07 7} +4606.5
O.37477, *- 226.5
//■07 Zi
//.077, +45.02 Zo+O-374Z,+//07Z,.
= +9,706.O £1(70)
9-/0
ll-IO
12-10
Joint */J
77,-
Z,i+227.8 = 0 Bf(/S)
Joint*/ 2
Tm.
77,-56.9
Bf (72)
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 481
TABLE E/
EQUA T/O/VS (tV/thout effect of Eccentricity of Members)
40.6 T +793 7; +/2.37T3 . - U, 358. 0 fit//)
7.95 T +37/967; +0.374 T3 + 7.9371 - + % 834.1 (2)
12.577; '+0.574Tz +50.63 Ts + 0.528% +17.37 72 *- 17,427.0 (J)
7.93T* +0,328T3 +35.4072 +0./87%+ 79372 +0.32875 • + 5,6/5.7 (4)
12.3772 +0.16772+49.0072 +3.31 75 +8.65 Ts ** 8,146.7 (5)
7.9372 +32.4672 +0.574T? + 7.93T9 * + 4,496.9 (6)
0.3787: +3.31 Ts + 0.374 Te +14.64 7; +3.31 T9 --- 2,493.4 (7)
8.63 Ts+ 34.90 Ts+ 0.187 T9 +8.637}* ,-10,046.5 (6)
7.93% + 3.3/ 72 +0.18771 + 51.16 % +-11.07 To + 3.08 77, * - 10, 6/2.9 (9)
11.07 75 +45.0?To +0. 374 77, + 11. 07 77* > + 9, 706. 0 (/0)
3.08% +0 374 '72> * 13.72 Z * 0 328T7 +3.03 77, --6, 102. 5 fit)
Tn + 227.8 '0 8<J. &2) Ti-56.9 = O fr (/3)
From das 0?)and (13);- 77s * -227.8 *nd T2 = +56.9
These values of T2 and Ti,subst/tuted ' //? Eg.s(8)j0)and C 0) give ;-
8.63 7; +34.901$ +0.167 7? *- 6,080. 5 (d)
//.07 T9 +45.02 To +0.37477, -+ 9.076. 1 (/O)
3.08% + 0.374 To +/3J2 77, - - 5,479. 6 (//)
MOMENTS DUE TO ECCE/VTe/C/Tr Of- MEMBERS
Joint ^J Jo/nt*5 J»h^9
b.
#•
7704+
\
Moment* -7060.5 '0./87S Moment* -6487.0* 0.241 +6437.5*0/875 Moment*
W • - Z377. 5"* Ms = -369. 2 -7704*0. 724 -1725.6
-$M,* +663.6 forty/) -^Ms* +/84.S FerEq(s) ~4M9* +867.8 £$>
TABLE £2
EQUATIONS (Effect of Eccenfr/afy of Members inchdled)
40.677 + 7.937* +12.3771 --13,674.2 Eq.O)
~7.9377 +32.4677 + 0.374 Ts + 7.9372 -+9,834.1 (2)
12.37T -+0.3747; +50.88 75 + 037872 +77.57TS --17,477.0 (3)
7.9375 +0.328Ts +33.40 T4 +OJ87 Ts +7.93 Te +0.378 75 - / 5.5/5.7 (4)
17.57T, + 0.18772 +49.00 75 +3.3/ T? + 8.63 T8 -- + 5,335.3 (5)
7.957^ +32.467; + 0.374 T +7.93 T9 . + 4,498.9 (6)
037872 + 33/ Ts + 037475 +1464 7? +3.31 75 = - 2,493.4 (7)
8.63TS +34.90TB +0.167 T9 --8,080.6 (8)
7.93T. +3.31 T,+0./87Ta +5/J6 75 +//07Tof3.08T, =- 9,750./ (9)
11.07% +45.02 To +0.374 T, - + 9,078-t 00)
3087; +0. 374 75> +13. 72 T, ---5,a79.6 00
TABLE /=•
SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS
No
of
T
%
i;
z
T,
T
%
X
%
%
z
A850l.Um
T£/?M
7
i
■root
+ 7«
* 17 37
+ 7.«
*J7«*
+ 0.174
+ I? 17
* O. 5*
+ S0.83
f 79!
'0.323
+17.17
- /3.674.Z
+ 9.384. 1
+ /7,477.0
1-
T
+ 1.0
no'
tl O
'0I9S1
• 4093
10.0302
' o lot
' 0.0417
'4.11
'1.0
'Ones
no
- 337.0
' 17470
- /4O9 0
a
b
4
O'fnm I')
'5.90
-0.I6S0
+793
-02(73
'J 80S
to n»
+I.O
'00765
r>340
+I.O
HI 187
'793
'0.S78
+ /S84.0
- /072.O
+ SS/S.7
a'
»'
4'
'10
-1.0
HO
- 0(3*6/
'7307
'O.OHkt
'0.7f*7
tlfOi
14.71
t6o*
'0.0733
H.O
10.0414
+ J08.S
- SfOO.O
* 39S.O
c
4/
s
(•■Am.*)
* 73 004
t 0 I07S
+T7T7
fO.4167
'3.984
10.137
'8.06
10.0716
149.0
HO
10.0414
+S.63
- 4094.5
t 788. S
t S 333-3
c
3'
+ 1.0
110
no
'0 0/81
■Htl
tOOISl
'0 7830
t0 7l9S
'3.93
'911
'0 WfS
I0.267S
+0698
- 764./
+ 768S.0
■t 4S/.0
e
f
6
7
'34.86
' 3(88
+ 7.93
+ o. S2e
-0 04IS
-3.74
+331
+931
19.31
'37.46
'0.370
t0 38SS
to. 1130
to. 374
14 64
-0 693
+7.9S
+X3I
+ 7949.1
+ 77S4P
+ 4493-9
- 7493.4
e'
f'
f'
7'
H.O
+Ko
H.O
H.O
-0.00118
- 0.1016
H0.09
+0.7S73
'0 7S28
+4.095
+1.14
to. OHMS
'0 00320
tO.0477
f446f
-0.01393
+I.O
H0.09
+ SO./
* $1.1
+ 367.0
- 76O0.O
1
h
A.
a
-0.I0O47
HO. 09
'0.1016
18.61
0
10.8377
+33477
-0.0072S
144.64
'0 044
-0.01391
+0.8/893
+34.90
+10 09
H.O
+0.187
- U.9
- 7380.1
* SOS. 8
- 8080.S
9'
*
-1.0
+1.0
11.0
+1.0
0
10.0880
'37.85
-0.0727
14430
tO.433
-0.1333
10 IMS
+4.04S
tl.O
+9.3S
+0O7I7
- /88.1
- 73/. 0
+ 4970.0
- 937.0
1
k
I
9
(h+\m 80
'0.0330
+3J.8S
-0 0330
+ 7.93
I4.SS8
+0.381
-4.430
*3.SI
-0.1833
-0.0071
+404S
tf. 187
'+ 9.3S
-0.9783
1 3U6
+//.07
+3.08
- *49.7
+ 478/. a
- /7S.0
- 97SO./
1'
£
9'
l/.O
HO
-1.0
H.O
141.60
+ 0.0096
-S0.7S
I0.4J7S
-7.MS
-O.O0O06
+43.0
+ 0.0238
+ I/.SS
+ 0 76
-11.10
+ 6.4S
+/.39S
ta.38SS
- 10730.0
+ 17$. 1
- 700O O
- 173(7 0
irt
n
o
+49.39
-S0S4
to 4O80
-7.M6
+48.00
+ 0.07368
+1/10
-10.34
13.19
+/.196
t0.333S
-I09O31
- i ■873.3
- ISS3 2
m'
n'
0"
+1.0
-/.0
+1.0
-0.043S
+4.9IS
tO.OS30
+O.T240
-0 7/fS
HS.I3
+X47
+09S2
- 771.0
- 37.3
- 3S79.0
P
1
('•'fcmrf,
fy-£m Iff-
'0,8717
+0.973
+O0O3S
'/49S
'342
'0.961
- 7S8.S
- 3387. 3
P'
t/.O
+1.0
+O0O97S
'IS.!*
'3 37
I0.98O
- 796.S
- 34S9.0
r
10
//
(>%~-f)
HS. 13
+1/07
+3.03
'3.91
+4307
+8.374
toieo
10174
+1377
-3/37.S
+ 907*./
-S479.3
r'
10'
//'
+1.4
+1.0
+I.O
+0 219
+407
+O.I1 14
+9.0*17
+4 0S33
'44SS
- 70S .9
+ 870.0
-I779.0
s
t
fffm.1^)
'3.84
-3.9S
-0.02*9
+4.411
+ /07S.9
-7S99.0
3'
f
+/£
-/■»
-0.0073
+/.I1
+ 7*70
- 6S7 0
U
fy'tmmt')
HI/71
- 3*0.0
u'
+/.0
- si?.o
'U
77
75
7?
%
77
H
7;
r.
To
%,
7T,
Rtsulh
-3O9.0
+175.8
-3JZ2
r 33.9
+Z56.6
+/9Z.2
-179.7
-2<ML/
-2V3.6
+764. i
-SSZO
s'
s"
H.O
H.O
+7.7
+ 767.0
+ 264.3
r"
r~
+1.0
+/.0
+40.3
-77.4
- 209.9
- 743.3
P"
p~
+IO
+1.0
-7.4
- 796. S
- 194./
mm
+/.0
HO
+17.3
-S4.6
- 11/0
- Z79.2
k"
k-
H.O
HO
-1.71
+o.n
-63.3
+ 116.1
t 14/ 7
9"
e"
-1.0
+/.o
0
H7.9
+ SSS
- /80.1
+ 216.6
e"
e'"
HO
■H.O
-OS
+4S4
-7.9
+ 80./
+ 33.9
c"
e"
+1.0
H.O
*oe
167. 5
-764./
O"
+1.0
+/.0
1770
13.7
+■403.5
+ 373.8
1-
p
+I.O
+ I.O
t73.*
-101.4
- 3370
-309.0
Afotr PQuOmn a 'neq s' m*b loJurs of "Z rvsubstihiteJ
fquolioo s~ a ff. s'sa/ndfor T The some notation hct/s £r o.'/ foxjotwn
\
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
483
TASLEz Or
VALUES OP DEFLECTION ANGLES A/Y0E/B£E STRESSES
Joint
tkmber
**
%
z&
Inm
(ZEmt-fan)
Stress
Prmary
Stms
1
UH,
7-3
0.0770 r
0.03/6 6
-309.0
O
-309.0
- 79.5
- 6.12
+ 6.50
-/20.7
S.f
UL,
1-2
0./060
+22S.0
-84.0
+ 207.8
+ 72.0
■+ 720.5
13.2
2
L,L0
2-1
0.I06O
+375.6
0
+375.8
+ 667.6
+ 70.6
+ r70.5
58.5
L,M,
2-3
0.0*40
-420.5
-44.7
+ 253.6
+ /S.9
+ 6/. 62
22.6
L,Lt
2-4
0.IO6O
-73 J. 7
-356.1
- 678.3
-7/. 8
+/TO.S
59.6
3
M,Ut
3-5
0.0770 T
0.06/6 8
-332.7,
o
-332.2
- 800.2
-6/. 6
+ 65.3
-/09.6
56.7.
M,U
3-4
0.0329
+ 523.0
+/90.8
+ 574.5
+ 189
-67.34
26.1
M,L,
3-2
0.0S48
+ $75.2
+343.0
+ 04/ .3
+ 35.7
+67.62
56. 1
KU
3-t
0. 03/6 8
0.0770 r
+ 870.7
+538.5
+ 768.0
+ 67.6
-59.1
-/20.7
49.0
4
5
UL,
4-2
0.IO6O
0
+ 33.9
- 288.3
-50.6
+/70.5
25.4
UM,
4-3
0.0329
+ 333
+ 159.0
+/9Z.9
+ 576.6
+ I8.9S
-67-34
28.7
LtU7
4-5
0.0274
-f/9.1
-85.2
- 62.3
- 1.7/
+123.2
1.4
L7M3
4-7
0.0329
-/SO. 8
-7/6.9
- 251.9
- 8.28
-67-34
17.3
UU
-4-6
5-8
0JO6O
4 6.7
+ 42./
+ 775.4
+ 29.2
+770.5
24.2
0.06O8T
0.06*26
0
+256.6
+ 574.3
+ 34.9
-37.4
-/43.5
26.o
U^f3
5-7
0/>6/7
+2*6.6
+ 44.6
+301.7
+ 809.1
+ 49.8
+/3Z.5
37.9
4U
5-4
0.0274
-/46.S
+/08. 1
+ 131 .0
+ 3.S9
+773.2
7.9
-392.4
-135.8
- 603.8
-49.7
+ 46.4
-/09.6
457
W,
5-3
0.0770 T
0
7
UU
6-4
0.1060
O
+ /9I.7
+ 475-5
+ 45./
+I20.5
37.5
L,MS
6-7
0.0648
+/9I.7
-311.7
-/2O.0
- 4/0. 3
-27.6
+ 61.67
36.7
uu
6-9
0.1 060
-273.3
- 82./
- 403. 0
-43.3
+/20.5
35.9
M,U
7-9
0.06/7
-179.2
0
-179.2
- 649.0
-4 O.I
+I09.5
36.6
*f,li
7-6
0.0648
* 8.9
-170.3
-460.6
-25.3
+ 6/.f2
M.O
MyLt
7-4
0.0329
+ 161. 1
- 18.1
- /93./
- 5.04
-67.34
7.5
%Ui
7-5
0.0617
1 385.9
+ 206.7
+ 7/4.6
+44./
+/3Z.5
33.5
484
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
hint
8
Member
O.OS08T
0.06528
%
Iti
'nm
&U'%»>)
Secaiabry Primary
$t/es$ Stress
Cfs) flU
m
3-/3
-794.1
0
-294J
- seo.4
- 71.9
+ 23.5
-743.5
75.2
u,u
8-9
0.0274
- 7.8
-30/.9
- 9/S.6
-25./
O
-
U4Ut
8-5
0.06S2B
0.0608T
+ 356.7
+ 6/.I
+ 373.8
+ 24.7
-23.0
-743.5
/6.e>
9
i*h
9-6
O./06O
-243.8
O
-2438
- 569.7
-6a 3
+'20.5
50.0
4^5
9-7
0.06/7
-46.8
-790.6
- 760.4
-46.9
+/09.5
42.6
L,U4
9-8
o.otn
-$8.0
-3//.B
- 975.5
-25.3
o
—
4**
9-fl
0.06/7
+ 250.0
+ 6.2
+ 477.9
+26A
-72.94
36.7
4A
9-10
0.1089 7
0.IO3OB
+4/6.1
+ 772.3
+ 6O0.9 "
+66.2
-62.6
■+Z27.6
57.0
10
£4
Kh-9
0.10V) 8
0.10897
+264.5
0
+764.3
+ TO0.9
+72.2
-76.2
+-/2Z6
56.6
U4
tO-ll
0.0548
-378.6
- 64.3
+ /24.4
+ 6.85
+6/. 62
//.I
44
KH?
0.10897
0.10108
-645.6
-38/. 5
-709.7
-76.9
+ 72.7
+V27.6
57.0
n
W*
IMS
0.0817
-S57.0
O
-357.0
- 935./
-57.7
-48.62
//8.8
Wi
n-n
0.0379
+447.0
+ 95.0
+ 405.9
+/S.4
-67.14
/9.9
Af5Ls
/i-ro
0.0548
+ 605.0
+ 253.0
+ 44/. 7
+24.2
+6/ -62.
39.5
**4
Ih9
0.08/7
*767-5
+4/5.5
+ 837.2
+ 5/. 7
-72.94
7/.0
12
44
17-10
0.10308
O.I089T
+ 56.9
0
+ 56.9
- 767.5
-27.6
+ 29.1
+Z77.6
27.8
4>*
17-11
0.OT29
+'59.0
+2/5.9
+ 576.8
+/7.4
-67.34
25.9
44
17-V
0.0274
-56-9
O
o
O
+/21.7
—
/3
#4
n-n
0.0274
-27.7.8
+227.8
o
o
o
+/23.2
-
UfMi
13-11
0.06/7
- 3.Z
-71/. 1
- 6/4. 0
-50.2
-48.62
/O3.0
w
/3-B
0.O6S2B
0.0608T
+455.6
+227.8
+/6/.5>
+/0.9/
-9.82
-/4S\5
6.8
+ De
notes
7ins/'o>
s 7opF/b
7 -De
>/Jf 3 i
notes C
ompresi
BonWr?/
%/on
*zi>re
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
485
II— BENDING MOMENTS IN MEMBERS OF A TRANSVERSE
FRAME DUE TO DEFLECTION OF FLOOR BEAMS.
Where floor beams are rigidly connected to vertical posts, as in the
usual modern design, the deflection of the floor beams produces certain
deflections of the posts in a transverse plane with corresponding bending
stresses. This problem can readily be approximately analyzed as follows:
A J, B
4
P P,
t t
Fig. i.
P
Fig. I shows a tranverse frame consisting of beams, posts and
overhead transverse bracing. We may consider two cases: first, if the
transverse bracing is so slender, or the connection such that the post
may be considered as hinged at A and B ; and second, if the bracing and
connection are sufficiently rigid that the post may be considered as fixed
at A and B, then, taking into account the deflection of the beam and posts,
and placing equal to zero, the deflection of A relative to B, the following
formulas for the bending moments at C and D are derived :*
30 (b-a) h
First case (hinged at A and B) M = P
2hh -f 3bh
2a (b-a) h
Second case (fixed at A and B) M = P
hh + 267.
It can be shown that under the above assumptions, and for the usual
spacing of track stringers in single-track bridges, the ratio of fiber stress
in the post to the fiber stress in the center of the beam is approximately
as follows :
A
in which /p= fiber stress in post, f,b=: fiber stress at beam center, Ci =
depth of beam and c2 = width of post. Thus, the ratio of post stress to
•7
to 1.0 —
*For a derivation of these formulas see p. 502, Part II, Johnson's
"Modern Framed Structures."
486 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
maximum beam stress is nearly equal to the ratio of widths of members.
For example, if the depth of beam is 48 in. and width of post 16 in., the
ratio of the respective widths is .25 and, therefore, the bending stress in
the post will be approximately from 20 to 25 per cent, of the bending
stress in the center of the beam, assuming the usual spacing of stringers.
Results of observation bear out these theoretical conclusions. Bend-
ing stresses in posts have been observed as high as 40 per cent, of the
floor beam stress, and invariably the observations have shown quite
large values. In the case of the compression verticals, or posts, the
maximum bending stresses would not occur simultaneously with the
maximum post stress ; however, an increase of 20 to 25 per cent, in the
maximum primary stress may be expected from this cause. The nar-
rower the posts and the deeper the beams the less this secondary stress.
In the case of the tension verticals, such as hip verticals, the maximum
bending stress would occur simultaneously with the maximum primary
stress, thus increasing very greatly the maximum fiber stress in the
member.
Another possible cause of lateral bending in verticals is the presence
of transverse bracing of the type shown in Plate VI, in which trans-
verse struts are not used at every panel point. The bending stresses
due to this cause would not be a maximum at the section where the
moment from other causes is a maximum.
Ill— STRESSES IN A HORIZONTAL PLANE DUE TO LONGI-
TUDINAL DEFORMATION OF CHORDS, ESPECIALLY
STRESSES IN FLOOR BEAMS AND CONNECTIONS.
Results of Observation.- — In the usual arrangement of floor members
in a through bridge the elongation of chords causes a considerable hori-
zontal bending of floor beams. This bending effect is cumulative from
the center towards the ends of a span, and in long-span structures the
resulting stresses are very large. This effect is well recognized and the
use of expansion joints in stringer connections in long-span trusses is
now a common practice.
In the experiments of 191 1 a study was made of actual stresses due
to this cause. The most complete sets of observations were made on
the small trusses C and D of Plate VII. Extensometers were placed
on each side of the lower flange and complete records of stresses were
obtained for several movements of the test train. Both the horizontal
bending stress and the stress due to vertical load were thus obtained.
The results are given in detail below.
It is to be noted that the maximum horizontal bending stress does
not always occur simultaneously with the maximum vertical bending.
The maximum horizontal bending occurs, in general, when the structure
is fully loaded or nearly so. Hence, with the train headed towards the
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
487
left, the locomotive will rest upon the beams in the left half of the
span, while the right half will be loaded with the train. It follows that
in the left half of the span the two maxima will occur nearly simultane-
ously, while in the right half the maximum vertical moment will occur
first and be followed by maximum horizontal moment.
reus 5 c
Span /oa£
Dspfh of f/oorbearr? 45/nches
rY/d/h of flange /? % /hc7?es
Po//er Fricf
7rc/it >
frmlcr-g
£ost
-B
-C
■o
Sf/oeriear»Ssr
>
Dnch
*? ofTrotn
<3
Mo**fr>*S7f
&r,n<)erJ
Ffoorbeam
A/ax /mum Mor/zon/o/
fending Stress
tbperxj /n
Appraumak Mbx/rwrr?
mrhca/5end/ngftress
Jb.per 5f/a.
Ffrtenf
fhr/zontbttofartfcoJ
B
C
P
4400
3 '300
//OOffi&tJ
5200
35
65
2/
reuss D
Try Si ?
■sn 705 tf
rjpan /ubft
Depth pf floor beam -4-7/nches
tY/dth of flange 3% inches
Director) of Train Afortm*r>7
-A
T&
f$fr*/>g*r
--C
1L Sfrmqer
Y?\ f7eorb*or9t
■-&
ioa
PoPer £r?d
Truss?
F/oorbeam
Maximum tton'zontot
5end/'nq SM-'SS
Ib.persq. /n
Approximate Max/mum
Ik heal ' Bend/nqftress
lh per x? //?.
Percent
hbr/zonfa/fo/erhcaJ
A
29W
2,'00
Jf8
5
?<9%>
3W
65
C •
1370
60
O
f/40
»
37
£
470 ffiqM)
»
'5
F
//OP (Left)
»
36
G
7770
"
57
//
2400
»
71
J
2700
2/00
12?
Several other observations of a less complete character were made
on floor beams near the ends of trusses, with resulting bending stresses
of from 2,000 to as high as 8,000 lbs. per sq. in.
Approximate Method of Calculation. — If it is assumed that the
axis of the stringers does not elongate; that the stringer connections are
488
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
unyielding, and that the ends of the beams remain vertically over the
joint centers, then it follows that the horizontal deflections of the beams
must correspond to the elongation of the chords. If it is assumed that the
center beam remains straight, the deflection of the adjacent beams must
be equal to the elongation of the one panel of the chord; the deflection
of the next beam will be equal to the elongation of the two panels, etc.
In Fig. 2, C D represents the first beam from the center.
-ft
<?
Chord t /ne -s> A
ex
1
1
1
S+r/nges- Line ■?
|
,
1
1
1
1
'
h
1
D
d
5
Fig. 2.
The deflection A is taken equal to the elongation of chord C A =
dXs
, where s = unit stress in the chords and E = modulus of elasticity.
E
Although the joints at C and D are more or less rigid, it may be assumed
that as regards horizontal bending, the beam is free to turn at the ends.
In this case the deflection of the beam in terms of maximum fiber stress is
fa
A = (3b-4a)
6Ec
in which / — fiber stress, c = half of flange width. Placing this deflection
dXs
equal to and solving for f we derive
E
6cd
f = *•
a (3&-40)
Assuming, for example, ^ = 300 in., c = 6 in., b = 192 in., and
a = b -^-4, we find that / = .58.y. For the second beam f=i.i6s, etc.
In these calculations it has been assumed that the stringers are not
elongated at all and that the connection to the beams permits of no
deformation whatever. Practically, the riveted joint is not entirely rigid,
as the connection angles, the rivets, and the web of the beam all con-
tribute to the deformation. The stringers, also, receive some longitudinal
stress, although the amount per square inch of section is small. On the
whole, the deflections and stresses in the beams are not as great as
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 489
deduced from the above calculations, but they are often large and of
much importance. As the calculations show, they increase with the width
of the beam and with the number of panels, and are greater as the
distance a becomes smaller.
Applying the above method of calculation to the two sets of obser-
vations previously given, we have for truss C the following values :
d = 208 in., b = 16.5 ft, a = 4.25 ft., c = 6.2 in. The observed average
value of chord stress .s was approximately 5,200 lbs. per sq. in. From
the formula we derive from these values, for the first beam, / = .39s =
2,000 lbs. per sq. in.
For truss D we have d = 157.5 m-» £ = 4-2 in., ^ = 4,700 lbs. per sq.
in. The values of b and a are the same in truss C. Applying the formula,
we have / =3.20^ = 940 lbs. per sq. in. per panel.
Comparing the calculated values with the observed values, we have
the following results :
Truss C.
Observed Calculated
Values, lbs. Values, lbs.
Panel Point — per sq. in. per sq. in.
Center beam 1,100 o
Beam C 3,300 2,000
Beam D 4,400 4,000
Truss D.
Center beam 470 o
fD 1,1401
F.rstbeam |p IIOO| 940
Second beam 4 G ' "' Q }- 1,880
„. . , . (B 2,950!
Thn-d beam |R ^j 2,820
Fourth beam -l T " ' '^^ I 7 760
[I 2,700/ 0/
The correspondence between observed and calculated values is much
closer than could ordinarily be expected and closer than similar esti-
mates in some other cases. It is probably true that in longer spans,
where the beams are deeper, the actual stresses in the beams towards the
end of the span are not as great as this approximate theory would call
for. However, the values actually observed, as well as the theoretical
analysis, shows that these stresses are very large in such cases. In
one long span the horizontal bending in the end floor beam was so great
as to be readily noted by the eye, and the floor beam web had become
permanently dished by the pull of the stringers. Conditions are especially
unfavorable in double-track structures where the distance between out-
side stringer and end of beam is relatively small.
490 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
Stresses in Lower Laterals and Lateral Connections. — Besides the
stresses in beams and connections the extension of the chords gives rise
to considerable stress in the lateral members and their connections.
With fairly rigid joints the unit stress in the laterals may easily reach
one-third to one-half the unit stress in the chords themselves. In the
end panels, where the chord section is small and the laterals relatively
large, a considerable proportion of the chord stress will be carried by
the laterals. This consideration shows the importance of good lateral
connections, especially near the end of the span. Several observations
on end posts and end sections of lower chords showed very high sec-
ondary stresses in these members, due, undoubtedly, to eccentric con-
nections of lower laterals.
IV— VARIATION OF AXIAL STRESS IN DIFFERENT ELE-
MENTS OF A MEMBER.
In addition to the secondary stresses in a vertical plane due to rigid
joints, there will exist more or less bending in a direction at right-angles
to the vertical plane. Some of this bending has already been discussed
under III. A considerable amount of bending or inequality of stress
exists, however, in other members, such as the chords and diagonals,
which will be briefly considered. In the case of eye-bar members this
lateral bending will be shown in the inequality of stress in the various
bars; in the case of riveted members it will be shown as a lateral
bending similar to the bending in a vertical plane. It is impossible to
apply theoretical analysis to any extent in this case, but results of obser-
vations will be of considerable value as indicating probable limits of
stress due to this cause.
As already stated elsewhere, lateral bending has been found to be
large in some cases in the end post and lower chord. The following
percentages of secondary stress in a lateral direction were observed :
Truss A — End post, 75 per cent. ; top chord at portal, 24 per cent.
Truss B — End post, 27 Per cent.; lower chord, 10 per cent.
Trusses A and B are skew bridges.
Truss C — End post, 12 per cent. ; chord, 3 per cent.
Truss D — End post, 19 per cent. ; chord, 10 per cent.
Excepting in such cases as above noted, the observed lateral bending
stresses in riveted members were generally small. For example, in truss
A in four cases the average was 3 per cent., with maximum of 5 per
cent. ; in truss C the average was 3 per cent, and maximum 6 per cent.
In truss D the maximum in the bottom chords was 9 per cent, and in
the top chord 13 per cent.
A number of observations were made with reference to the equality
of stress in eye-bars. In truss B the stresses in the four bars of the
bottom chord showed a variation in one panel of 31 per cent, above the
average, and in another panel, of 19 per cent, above the average. In
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 491
this same truss the variation in the two bars of the diagonal members in
various panels ranged from i per cent, to 19 per cent., averaging 12
per cent. Various observations made on other structures showed a
variation in diagonal stress ordinarily from 10 to 20 per cent, above
and below the average. Sometimes the maximum stress occurred in the
inside diagonal and sometimes in the outside diagonal.
V— STRESSES DUE TO VIBRATION OF INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS.
In the case of long eye-bar diagonals it was frequently observed,
during the progress of the work, that under certain conditions such
members would vibrate very considerably in a vertical plane. In one
case where these bars were very long the observed vibration would
cause a stress of about 3,000 lbs. per sq. in. This was a rather extreme
example, but in many other cases vibrations were observed which would
cause stress of 1,000 to 1,500 lbs. per sq. in. Comparatively little vibra-
tion was noted in chord bars, and, in general, it may be said that, ex-
cepting in very light and short spans, eye-bar members, for lower chords,
are very satisfactory in this respect.
VI— METHODS OF CALCULATION.
Since the methods of analysis of secondary stresses are not com-
monly taught in engineering schools and little used in practice, the Com-
mittee deemed it desirable to present a brief outline of the theory and
a fully worked-out example of its application.
Appendix D
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PROTECTION OF TRAFFIC AT
MOVABLE BRIDGES.
The protective appliances at drawbridges consist in devices for in-
suring that the bridge is in proper position, and the track in condition
for the passage of trains over draw, or for reduction to a mirimum of
the damage in case of trains not stopping when track is not in condition
for passage of same over draw ; also the usual devices for protection
against damage in case of derailment.
The protective devices may be classified under the headings :
(A) Interlocking power and bridge devices.
(B) Bridge surfacing, aligning and fastening devices.
(C) Rail end connections.
(D) Signaling and interlocking.
(E) Guard rails.
(A) Interlocking Power and Bridge Devices. — Interlocking the
drawbridge devices so that their movements must follow in a predeter-
mined order to protect the drawbridge machinery.
(B) Bridge Surfacing, Aligning and Fastening Devices. — Draw-
bridges should be equipped with proper mechanism to surface and align
them accurately and fasten them securely in position. This condition
can be secured by the use of efficient end lifts in case of swing bridges,
and by proper end locks in case of lift bridges.
(C) Rail End Connections. — Rail ends should be cut square and
connected by sliding sleeve or joint bars, or by easer rails to carry
the wheels over the opening between the end of bridge and approach
rails; the outside of the head of the main rail to be planed off to a width
of 2 inches for the length required by easer rail or joint bar.
(D) Signaling and Interlocking. — If trains are to proceed over
drawbridges which are in service, without first stopping, interlocking
should be installed which will provide that the draw span, tracks and
switches within the limits of the plant are locked in the proper position.
This will require :
(i) Locking drawbridge devices.
(2) Locking providing for the proper order of operation of signal-
ing devices, such as signals, switches and derails.
This interlocking will require the following order of operation:
BEFORE OPERATING TRAINS OVER DRAW-
BEFORE OPENING A DRAWBRIDGE. BRIDGE.
i. Display stop signals. 1. Lock bridge and rail devices.
2. Unlock rail and bridge devices. 2. Display clear signals.
492
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 493
Since there are various types and designs of drawbridges and various
drawbridge devices for each of the types, and also various designs and
types of signaling devices, as well as various locations from which they
all may be interlocked and operated, a typical example only of the detail
order of operations is given ; viz., a swing bridge with all its devices
operated from one location on the draw span, having home and distant
signals, derails, etc.
TO OPEN DRAWBRIDGE. TO PASS TRAINS OVER DRAWBRIDGE.
i. Display stop signals. i. Close bridge.
2. Unlock derails. 2. Insert bridge surfacing, align-
3. Open derails. ing and fastening devices.
4. Uncouple interlocking connec- 3. Insert rail end connections.
tions. 4. Lock bridge surfacing, aligning
5. Unlock rail end connections. and fastening devices.
6. Unlock bridge surfacing, align- 5. Lock rail end connections.
ing and fastening devices. 6. Couple interlocking connections.
7. Withdraw rail end connections. 7. Close derails.
8. Withdraw bridge surfacing, 8. Lock derails.
aligning and fastening de- 9. Display clear signals,
vices.
9. Open bridge.
Derails. — The above example of order of operation includes derail-
ing switches, but their use is not recommended in all cases. Each situa-
tion must be given special study with respect to (a) the use of derails,
smash boards or similiar devices ; (b) their location with respect to draw
span, and (c) the use and length of guard rails.
(E) Guard Rails. — There should be two lines of guard rails of rail
section, placed between the running rails, which should extend from the
approaches continuously over the bridge, except for the necessary breaks
at the ends of the draw span. The top of the guard rails. should pref-
erably be level with the top of the main rail and not in any case more
than one inch below it. There should be a clear space of ten inches be-
tween the head of the guard rail and the gage side of the main rail.
The guard rails should be full spliced and bolted and be fastened at the
same intervals and by the same methods as the main rail. Obstructions
to derailed wheels which are guided by the guard rails should be re-
duced to a minimum. The guard rails shall be brought together at a
point not less than 75 feet beyond the ends of the bridge, the ends of the
rails to be beveled or otherwise effectively formed so that dragging ob-
jects will be deflected. When traffic is in one direction, the guard rails
should be extended as described on the approaching end of the bridge
only.
494 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
Electric and Time Locking. — Electric and time locking are regarded
as adjuncts.
Railway Signal Association's Standards. — The interlocking should
be constructed in accordance with Railway Signal Association's standards,
and the various bridge devices should be so designed that standard in-
terlocking apparatus may be used.
Insulation of Rails and Attachments. — The rails and attachments
should be separated from the metallic structure so track circuits may be
successfully operated the entire length of the bridge.
Appendix E.
BRIDGE CLEARANCE DIAGRAM.
At the request of the Committee, the following circular letter was
sent out by the Secretary to different railway officers to obtain informa-
tion to aid in the study of the bridge clearance diagram. As no recom-
mendation is to be made by Committee XV this year, it has been decided
to present the replies received as information.
It may be noted that there is quite a general feeling that the whole
clearance diagram should be considered rather than a modification for
third rail.
It should also be noted that some of the Public Service Commissions
are taking action and in some cases fixing dimensions which will seri-
ously increase the cost for portal and vibration bracing without in-
creasing safety.
"Last year a modification of the bridge clear-
ance diagram (see page 404 of the 191 1 Manual)
to make room for the third rail construction for
electric traction was referred to the Committee on
Iron and Steel Structures for investigation and
report. After considerable discussion it was de-
cided to be undesirable to make the change sug-
gested without a careful consideration of the
entire diagram. The subject was reassigned to
the Committee and it has been referred to a Sub-
Committee to obtain the information necessary
for a proper study of the subject.
"To aid in this work you are earnestly re-
quested to answer the inquiries given on attached
sheet as promptly as possible, directing your reply to Mr. C. L. Crandall,
Professor of Railway Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
"(1) Do you favor a modification of the bridge clearance diagram
for third rail for electric operation, as suggested, by widening to 5 ft. 6
in. down to top of rail?
"(2) Do you favor a diagram wide enough to include third rail
by widening the base without other changes in the diagram as shown
in the Manual, p. 404?
"(3) Minimum diagram which you would recommend for new
structures?
"(4) Minimum diagram used on your road: (a) Existing struc-
tures, (b) New structures, (c) Yards or where there is switching
service?
"(5) Would you distinguish between main and branch lines?
"(6) What is your general practice with street bridges with solid
floors where girders between tracks are necessary?
"(7) Do you believe roads using the present minimum (see above
diagram) would suffer loss due to the recommendation of a larger dia-
gram by the Association in view of the fact that several states have al-
ready passed laws enlarging the clearance diagram and that many roads
use greater clearances?"
495
496 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
Atlantic Coast Line (J. E. Willoughby, Assistant Chief Engineer) :
(i) Yes, for through truss bridges; no, for through girders.
(2) No.
(3) Standard A. R. E. A. modified for through truss to 7 ft. top
of rail.
(4) Standard A. R. E. A. for all new structures and changes.
(5) No.
(6) Do not build any.
(7) Yes.
Ann Arbor Railroad (L. J. Allen and A. W. Towsley, Vice-President and
General Manager) :
(1) No.
(2) No.
(3) Present diagram except 7 ft. 6 in. from center of track.
(4) (a) 7 ft. (b) 7 ft. 6 in. (c) 13 ft. c. to c. of track.
(5) No.
(6) —
(7) Not if made to apply to new work.
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe (C. F. W. Felt, Chief Engineer):
(1) Yes. Better to have line start 5 ft. 6 in. from center of track
at top of rail and run straight to a point 7 ft. from center of track at
height of 4 ft. above top of rail.
(2) Favor retention of present diagram with change recommended
in No. 1 ; think alternate diagrams providing widths of 7^2 ft. and 8 ft.,
respectively, from center line should be prepared where clearance is
necessary or advisable.
(3) See No. 2.
(4) See blueprint. (The blueprint gives the clearance for Chi-
cago 13 ft. wide above 4 ft. 3 in. from top of rail and 16 ft. high ; those
for other portions of the line apparently 14 ft. and 15 ft. wide and 22 ft.
high ; the California R. R. Commission 15 ft. and 16 ft., and the clearance
for buildings 16 ft.)
(5) No, except would re-erect old spans on branch lines to wear them
out, and accept a less clearance on branch lines than on main line.
(6) See diagram.
(7) Think unqualified adoption of larger diagram would cause
trouble.
Baltimore & Ohio (Earl Stimson, Engineer Maintenance of Way):
(1) Yes. The 5 ft. 4^4 in. at base of rail in B. & O. diagram prac-
tically same as 5 ft. 6 in. top of rail.
(2) Yes.
(3) See diagram (14 ft. for bridges with 10 ft. 9 in. at base of rail).
(4) Standard clearances are required on all structures.
(5) No.
(6) No exceptions from standard diagram.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 497
(7) Believe recommendation of larger diagram by Association would
tend toward state and government legislation requiring greater clearance,
which would cause some roads loss.
Boston & Albany (F. B. Freeman, Chief Engineer): .
(1) Yes.
(2)
(3) See print (15 ft. with 11 ft. at top of rail).
(4)
(5) No.
(6) Secure at least 7 ft. 6 in. in clear if possible.
(7) No.
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific (C. A. Morse, Chief Engineer):
(1) Yes.
(2) No.
(3) Eight feet center of track to truss.
(4) (a) 7 ft. center of track to truss, (b) 8 ft. center of track to
truss, (c) 8 ft.
(5) No.
(6)
(7) No.
Carolina, Clinchfield & Ohio (Ward Crosby, Chief Engineer):
(1) Yes.
(2)
(3)
(4) See diagram (15 ft. with 11 ft. at base of rail).
(5) No.
(6) We have none. Widen tracks apart to get full clearance if
possible.
(7) No.
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy (G. H. Bremner, Engineer Illinois Dis-
trict):
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) See attached print (14 ft. for through girders, 15 ft. 6 in. for
trusses).
(4) See attached print (no difference shown).
(5) No.
(6) Clear all equipment.
(7) Yes. Any increase in clearance will result in greater cost of
structures.
Chicago Great Western (L. C. Fritch, Chief Engineer) :
(1) Yes.
(2) No.
(3) C. G. W. R. R. standard (16 ft. with 11 ft. at top of rail).
498 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
(4)
(5) No.
(6) Have no cases of this nature.
(7) Yes.
Chicago & Northwestern (IV. H. Finley, Assistant Chief Engineer) :
Blueprint standard shows 16 ft., 3 ft. above top of rail, 13 ft. 1 ft.
above, 11 ft. 6 in. above, and 10 ft. 4 in. at top,, changing by steps, not by
slope lines.
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul (E. O. Reeder, Assistant Chief Engineer:)
As neither the Tacoma Eastern nor the lines of the C. M. & St. P.
Ry. are now or are likely to be in the near future operated in the manner
mentioned, I have not given the matter sufficient study to permit me to
properly answer the inquiries.
Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha (C. W. Johnson, Chief Engi-
neer) :
No electrification of this road is at present contemplated, and we
therefore have no standard covering third rail.
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis (O. E. Selby, Engineer Bridges
and Structures) :
(1) Yes.
(2) No.
(3) Print attached (15 ft. wide, 4 ft. from base with 11 ft. at base
and 22 ft. high from top of rail).
(4) (a) 7 ft. lateral, 19 ft. overhead, (b) Print attached, (c)
Lateral 8 ft. from center line of track down to top of rail.
(5) No.
(6) Girders extend above rail only as permitted by attached dia-
gram when applied to adjacent tracks.
(7) No. Minimum legal clearances are usually less than desirable
working standards.
Colorado & Southeastern (F. W. Whiteside) :
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) Same as diagram (of circular) except base which would be 5 ft.
6 in. or more.
(4) Twenty-two feet vertical, 12 ft. wide at base, 14 ft. wide at
point 4 ft. above top of rail and balance of way up.
(5) No.
(6) We have none.
(7) Yes.
Delaware & Hudson (Geo. H. Burgess, Chief Engineer):
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 499
(3) See diagram base 5 ft. 6 in., central portion 15 ft. to within 5
ft. of top; top 7 ft. Other dimensions as on diagram of circular.
(4) (a) As above except width 14 ft. and length 21 ft. (b) As
above, (c) As above except width 16 ft.
(5) No.
(6) Keep depth of girder and width of cover plates such as not to
come within clearance lines.
(7) Depends largely upon number and age of structures having
minimum diagram. If of recent date it would require considerable ex-
pense to change structures for clearances which would otherwise be
good for several years' service.
Denver & Rio Grande (A. O. Ridg-way, Assistant Chief Engineer):
(1) Do not think 5 ft. 6 in. at top of rail sufficient.
(2) No.
(3) See diagram (shows width of 15 ft. 6 in. with 12 ft. at top of
rail; height 23 ft. from top of rail).
(4) (a) Not available, (b) See diagram, (c) We are endeavor-
ing to conform to attached diagram.
(5) No.
(6) Conformity to attached diagram.
(7) No.
Detroit, Toledo & Ironton (G. R. Endert, Chief Engineer) :
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) Item No. 1.
(4) (a) Rectangle 13 ft. wide 16 ft. high, (b) No record existing
clearance yards. New ones to be in excess of main line.
(5) No.
(6) Has none.
(7) Loss would be of more or less extent.
Duluth & Iron Range (IV. A. Clark, Chief Engineer):
The last legislature of this state passed a drastic clearance law which
may be modified by the Railroad and Warehouse Commission. As I do
not yet know what action they will take, I feel that it would be useless
for me to express any opinion at the present time regarding a standard
clearance diagram.
Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic (E. R. Lewis, Assistant to General Man-
ager) :
I desire to express myself as not favoring a modification of the bridge
clearance diagram by widening it to accommodate third rail for electric
operation. While I believe such procedure may be desirable on a very
few railroad divisions, I do not believe it will be generally necessary for
some years to come.
I am of the opinion that roads using the present minimum clearance
would suffer loss from such a recommendation by the Association.
500 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
El Paso & Southwestern System (J. L. Campbell, Engineer Maintenance
of Way):
(i) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) •
(4) (a and b) 6 ft. at top of rail.
(5) No.
(6) Have none.
(7) •
Elgin, Joliet & Eastern (A. Montzheimer, Chief Engineer) :
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) Eight feet at level of car floor and 6 ft. 6 in. at top of rail.
(4) (a) 7 ft. from center of track. In some cases the gussets are
brought down so close to rail that doors on steel dump cars have injured
them, (b) 8 ft. from center of track, (c) In most cases 8 ft. clearance.
(5) No.
(6) It is our practice to keep the floor up as high as possible between
girders so as to give better clearance between tracks.
(7) No. There is no doubt but what wider clearances will be re-
quired in future.
Erie (R. C. Falconer, Superintendent of Construction) :
(1) Yes. Our present practice is to provide 5 ft. 6 in. at base of
rail.
(2) Present practice is to provide side clearance 7 ft. 6 in. between
7 ft. and 19V2 ft. above base of rail where possible.
(3) See diagram (as above with height of 24 ft. 6 in. above base of
rail).
(4) (a) As above for many years, although some bridges in track
with less, (b and c) As above.
(5) No.
(6) Maintain our standard clearance, keeping girders outside of
clearance line.
(7) Suggest modification for future construction only and would
thus impose no hardships on roads using smaller diagrams.
Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico (J. M. Reid, Chief Engineer):
(1) Yes.
(2) Would prefer 7 ft. 6 in. instead of 7 ft.
(3) Seven feet 6 in. clearance from center line, 5 ft. 6 in. at top
of rail, other dimensions same as shown.
(4) (a) Same as diagram, (b) 7 ft. 6 in. 5 ft. 6 in. Standard
Nat. Rys. of Mexico, (c) 6 ft. 6 in. instead of 7 ft.
(5) No.
(6) None in use.
(7) No, because present clearance is sufficient to keep the bridges
in use until necessary to replace them by new ones.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 501
Florida East Coast (E. B. Carter, Superintendent Maintenance of Way):
(i) Have had no actual experience upon which to base an opinion.
(2) No actual experience.
(3) That shown on diagram on this sheet.
(4) (a, b and c) 22 ft. overhead, 9 ft. 6 in. from center line sideways.
(5) No.
(6) Have no bridges of this type. v
(7) Believe such roads would suffer loss.
Georgia (W. M. Robinson, Roadmastcr) :
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) Same as in Manual.
(4) (a) As marked on diagram (10 ft. width at top of rail, 12 ft.
central portion).
(5) No.
(6) None on our line.
(7) No.
Gulf & Ship Island (W . H. Gardner, Jr., Chief Engineer):
(1) Do not have any electric operation.
(2) .
(3) Present one. (See Manual.)
(4) (a) Bridges, (b) None.
(5) No.
(6) Have none.
(7) Expect some would.
Grand Trunk (H. R. Safford, Chief Engineer):
(1) See diagram (13 ft. top of rail, 16 ft. from 3 ft. to 17 ft. above
rail, 7 ft. at top, height 22 ft. from top of rail).
(2) Would favor above diagram.
(3) Would favor above diagram.
(4) Would favor above diagram.
(5) No; would prefer uniform standard.
(6) We arrange, if possible, to keep top of girder not more than
3 ft. 6 in. above base of rail to have body of car clear girder. Where
this is not possible with a double track bridge, we omit the center girder
and provide two outer girders only.
7. Believe the larger diagram will eventually be enforced.
Great Northern (R. Budd, Chief Engineer):
(1) No third rail experience.
(2) No third rail experience.
(3) Plan attached, as used in Canada (10 ft. base of rail, 11 ft. 4 in.
top of guard, 4 in. up, 16 ft. between 4 ft. 4 in. and 16 ft. 7 in., 12 ft. 10
in. at 19 ft. 11 in., 8 ft. at top, 22 ft. 6 in. from base).
502 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
(4) U. S. diagram (for bridges in the United States, 10 ft. at base,
11 ft. 4 in. top of guard 4 in. up, 15 ft. between 4 ft. 4 in. and 16 ft. 6 in.,
11 ft. 10 in. at 19 ft. 10 in., 7 ft. at top, 22 ft. 5 in. from base).
(5) No.
(6) Girders do not encroach on diagram, tracks being spaced far
enough apart to admit of this.
(7) Yes.
Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe (F. Merritt, Chief Engineer):
It seems to me that this has special reference to electrically-operated
railways, of which there are none under my jurisdiction, and have there-
fore no suggestions to make regarding this subject.
(4) Height 18 ft. 4 in., width 14 ft. (b) Height 23 ft., width 14 ft.
Hocking Valley (Wm. Michel, Chief Engineer):
(1) Yes.
(2) No.
(3) Width 11 ft. at base, 15 ft. from 4 ft. to 18 ft. up, 6 ft. at top,
22 ft. up.
(4) (a) Same as in Manual, (b and c) Same as 3.
(5) No, not for new work.
(6) Keep center girders below 4 ft. line.
(7) Not for new work.
Hudson & Manhattan (J. V. Davies, Chief Engineer):
This company would hardly deem it advisable to make any recom-
mendations as to modifications of existing bridge clearance diagram, as
the whole character of our structure, equipment and operation (entirely
electrical) would not necessitate in any way, in my mind, any change
from the existing diagram.
From personal experience I do not think there is any necessity for
changing this diagram by widening to 5 ft. 6 in. down to top of rail,
which would make it more difficult to design half through girder bridges
and other such structures. For electric train service could advantageously
reduce height from existing 22 ft. to something less in view of the large
number of cases where electric service is installed.
Houston & Texas Central (I. A. Cottingham, Assistant General Manager) :
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) See diagram (11 ft. at top of rail, 15 ft. between 4 ft. and 18 ft.
7 in. above rail center with height of 23 ft. 7 in. from top of rail).
(4) (a) Width 14 ft, height 20 ft. from top of rail, (b and c)
See diagram.
(5) No.
(6) Use deck girders.
(7) No.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 503
Interborough Rapid Transit (Geo. H. Pegram, Chief Engineer):
The subject of modifying the bridge clearance diagram does not relate
directly to the elevated railways and subways operated by the I. R. T. Co.
In the case of the elevated railways, the equipment of cars and tracks for
electric traction was designed largely to suit the structure as built. In the
case of the subway, many factors govern the amount of clearance that
can be provided, and it is therefore not feasible to adopt a standard clear-
ance that is adapted to trunk lines.
Blueprint enclosed shows 20% in. from center of running rail to out-
side of third rail and 2434 hi. from same point to the guard rail.
International & Great Northern (O. H. Crittenden, Chief Engineer):
(1) No.
(2) No.
(3) Present standard.
(4) (a) Present standard, (b) Present standard, (c) Have none.
(5) . No.
(6) We have no street bridges.
(7) Yes.
Kansas City, Mexico & Orient (R. P. Parker, Chief Engineer):
(1) I do.
(2) No.
(3) Five ft. 6 in. down to top of rail, 8 ft. above.
(4) (a) 16 ft. inside to inside, (b) No change . (c) Same.
(5) No.
(6) Same clearance as with trussed bridge.
(7) I do not, as I think the most of the states shortly will recom-
mend larger diagrams.
Lehigh Valley (E. B. Ashby, Chief Engineer):
(1) Yes, as indicated for No. 2.
(2) Yes, only the lower bevel to be changed.
(3) Eleven ft. at top of rails, otherwise same as diagram.
(4) (a) — (b) Same as 3. (c) Same as 3. The height of 20 ft.
from top of rail shown, with overhead clearance in special cases made
less than shown as conditions may require, but not less than 16 ft.
(5) No.
(6) We endeavor to provide the same clearance at all bridges. In
special cases the side clearance for intermediate girders may have to be
reduced to maintain spacing of tracks.
(7) The enlargement of the diagram will increase the cost of bridges.
The changing from 10 ft. 6 in. to 11 ft. o in. will reduce the length of
span for which intermediate girders can be placed unless the tracks are
spread.
Long Island (J. R. Savage, Chief Engineer):
(1) No. Believe such change unnecessary.
(2) Do not believe any change from one shown on margin is re-
quired. (See Manual).
504 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
(3) As per diagram on margin.
(4) See copies attached. (The blueprint attached is a composite
showing the outside dimensions of cars, with minimum structure clear-
ance of 10 ft. at base of rail, 11 ft. 7 in. from 4 ft. up to 6 ft. 10 in.,
12 ft. 6 in. from 6 ft. 4 in. to about 12 ft., narrowing irregularly to a flat
top at 15 ft. 2 in. The minimum diagram differs from this by widening
to 13 ft. from 6 ft. 10 in. to 13 ft. up and narrowing uniformly to 4 ft.
at top 17 ft. from base).
(5) No.
(6) If question refers to overhead crossing of R. R., increase
spacing of track centers to 15 ft., preferably 16 ft.
(7) Undoubtedly they would.
Louisville & Nashville (W. H. Courtenay, Chief Engineer):
(1) No.
(2) No.
(3) As shown on margin (11 ft. at base, 15 ft. between 4 ft. and
15 ft. up and 8 ft. at top with height of 22 ft.).
(4)
(5) No.
(6) We have none.
(7) Probably yes.
Mississippi River & Bonne Terre (C. H. Fake, Chief Engineer):
We have no third rail electric traction and therefore prefer not to
express an opinion.
Missouri & North Arkansas (E. M. Wise, General Manager for Re-
ceivers) :
As we have had no experience with third rail construction, we are
not in position to make any recommendations or report thereon.
Missouri Pacific (C. E. Smith, Br. Engineer):
(1) Yes.
(2) No.
(3) Fifteen ft. by 22 ft.
(4) (a) Eleven ft. by 16 ft. (b) Fifteen ft. by 22 ft. (c) Eight
ft. side. Not less than 18 ft. Effort always made to get 22 ft. overhead.
(5) No.
(6) Have done none of this work.
(7) Not if a reasonable increase were made, say 15 ft. by 22 ft.
(This is accompanied by a blueprint showing suggested clearances permit-
ted by the Illinois R. R. & Warehouse Commission September 16, 1912.
These show rectangle 13 ft, 17 ft., 17 ft. wide respectively and 15 ft..
18 ft., 22 ft. high from top of rail for the three classes of roads, and
allow no bracing except for the upper corners of the 17 ft. by 22 ft., and
these are limited to 3 ft. each way from the corner.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 505
Mobile & Ohio (B. A. Wood, Chief Engineer M. of W. and S.):
(i) Yes.
(2) No.
(3) Fourteen ft. 6 in.
(4) (a and b) 14 ft. (c) Tracks 12 ft. center to center in yard.
(5) No.
(6) Have none.
(7) No.
Newburgh & South Shore (A. H. Stewart, Engineer Maintenance of
Way):
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) Diagram adopted in Manual with above changes in base.
(4) (a and b) Am. Ry. Eng. Assoc.
(5) No.
(6) Constructed ten years ago with clearance of four ft. at rail top.
(7) No.
Lake Erie & Western (W. G. Atwood, Chief Engineer):
(1) No.
(2) No.
(3) Are now using and recommend clearance of 7 ft. 6 in. each side
of center line.
(4) (a) Fourteen ft. (b) Fifteen ft. (c) Fifteen ft.
(5) I would not so distinguish.
(6) We sometimes permit slight encroachments on the diagram at
points below 4 ft. above the rail.
(7) Do not believe that these roads would suffer, or that legisla-
tion could well be retroactive and affect existing structures. The Indiana
law is 7 ft. 6 in. from center line, but had not heard of any attempt to
cause reconstruction of existing bridges ; in fact, the law provides for
these cases by giving the Commission authority to approve their use. I
believe that the Association should recommend a clearance diagram that
it believes is proper, regardless of whether it is in general use or not.
Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis (Hunter McDonald, Chief Engi-
neer) :
(1) No.
(2) Yes, if impossible to obtain room for third rail otherwise.
(3) Diagram shown above. (See Manual).
(4) (a) See Drawing 519-36E herewith (blueprint shows tunnel
section 11 ft. at top of rail, 11 ft. 6 in. 6 ft. from base and 15 ft. 10 in.
center height. It shows a bridge clearance of 12 ft., with height of 16 ft.
5% in. from top of rail), (b) Diagram shown above, (c) Diagram
shown above.
(5) No.
(6) Raise floor so that diagram shown above is cleared.
(7) Yes.
506 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
New York, New Haven & Hartford (E. Gagel, Chief Engineer; W. J.
Backes, Engineer Maintenance of Way):
(i) The bridge clearance should be modified for third rail electric
operation by widening to 5 ft. 6 in. at top of rail.
(2) Widening diagram shown in Manual, at the base to include the
third rail does not seem sufficient, as the maximum width of the present
diagram is 7 ft., and 7 ft. 6 in. is much better for through bridges.
(3) Not smaller than shown in N. Y., N. H. & H. Specifications,
1912. (Sketch shows 11 ft. for 1 ft. from top of rail; widens to 12 ft.
4 in. at 3 ft. 9 in. and is 15 ft. from 3 ft. 9 in. to 17 ft. 6 in. and 8 ft. at
top 21 ft. from rail.
(4) (a) Diagram attached. (Diagram shows 10 ft. 6 in. at top of
rail, 14 ft. 6 in. from 7 ft. 3 in. to 16 ft. up and 7 ft. at top 21 in. from
rail), (b) (c) Sketch attached.
(5) We do not.
(6) We use N. Y., N. H. & H. Specification 1912, and where neces-
sary spread tracks to obtain required depth of girders.
(7) No.
New York, Ontario & Western:
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) See Sketch 1912 Specifications. (Eleven ft. top of rail, 15 ft.
between 4 ft. and 15 ft. and 8 ft. at top 21 ft. up).
(4) (a) About same as diagram 404 Manual, except clear head
room above top of rail is 21 ft. (b) and (c) 1912 Specifications.
(5) No.
(6) Same clearance as Specifications 1912.
(7) No.
New Orleans Great Northern (R. H. Hozvard, General Manager):
(1) Yes.
(2) No. Diagram should be changed otherwise.
(3) See print (11 ft. top of rail, 14 ft. from 4 ft. to 18 ft. 6 in. and
7 ft. at top 23 ft. 6 in. above rail).
(4) (a), (b), (c) See print.
(5) No.
(6) None constructed.
(7) Yes.
Norfolk & Western (J. E. Crawford, Acting Chief Engineer) :
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3)
(4) (a) See Specifications January 1, 1911. (Eleven ft. base of
rail, 15 ft. between 4 ft. and 17 ft, 6 ft. at top 23 ft. from base).
(5) No.
(6) Spread the tracks or use deck girders.
(7) Yes.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 507
Northern Electric (A. D. Schindler, Vice-President and General Man-
ager) :
Clearances on railroads in this state (California) are governed by an
order of the State Railroad Commission, a copy of which is enclosed.
All our new construction is in accordance therewith. (The regulations
fix the minimum clearance at 22 ft. from top of rail where standard
freight cars are to be used, at 19 ft. for street railroads not hauling
standard freight cars and 14 ft. if in a street. The side clearance is
fixed at yy2 ft. for bridges and tunnels).
Northern Pacific (W. L. Darling, Chief Engineer):
Has no electric operation and is therefore without experience.
Oregon Short Line (Carl Stradley, Assistant General Manager):
(1) Would not recommend simply on account of installation of
third rail, as it is possible that in near future the third rail may become
obsolete. There are other reasons which would appear to me sufficient
to make standard clearance at top of rail 5 ft. 6 in.
(2) Depends upon the amount of money involved in making
changes. I believe the larger clearance would be much safer and more
satisfactory.
(3) Same as for new structures. See diagram.
(4) (a) See drawing 17964 (height, base of rail, 20 ft. 1 in. branch
line, 20 ft. 10 in. main line, width 14 ft.).
(4) (b) See drawing 17964 (height base of rail, 24 ft., width 11 ft.
at base of rail 15 ft. between 4 ft. and 19 ft. and 6 ft. at top), (c) For
general conditions, diagrams would be similar to drawing 17964. How-
ever, for special cases special design would be made.
(5) No.
(6) Drawing 17964 except for special cases.
(7) Yes, if this leads to laws forcing the railroads to increase the
present clearance, when the railroads do not believe it necessary, espe-
cially upon roads not strong financially.
Otsego & Herkimer (R. P. Waller, Engineer Maintenance of Way):
My experience in the use of bridge clearance diagrams in actual
practice has been so limited that I do not feel qualified to pass opinions
on most of these questions. The Otsego & Herkimer is a trolley system
throughout, so that questions with regard to third rail practice do not
come up.
Pennsylvania Lines West of Pittsburg (W. C. Cushing, Chief Engineer
Maintenance of Way):
(1) Yes.
(2) Do not seriously object to small modifications.
(3) Chairman Public Service Commission of Ohio called repre-
sentatives of the railroads of that state together June 19 and appointed
a committee of seven railroads to prepare rules and regulations. Un-
known what the Commission will do, as the personnel has been changed.
508 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
(The report places minimum overhead clearance at 21 ft. from rail,
which may by consent be reduced to 17 ft. for overhead crossings in
cities and towns. The lateral clearance is placed at 7 ft. between 4 ft.
and 15 ft. from top of rail 5 ft. at top of rail except for mail cranes and
passenger stations platforms, and 3 ft. at top of vertical clearance).
(4) (a) Diagram (shows 17 ft. from top of rail for grade separa-
tion work in cities and 21 ft. for regular work and width of 14 ft.), (b)
Seventeen ft., 22 ft. 6 in. and 15 ft., respectively.
(5) No.
(6) Endeavor to eliminate girders entirely by use of columns, and
where it is impossible endeavor to keep the girders as low as possible
above top of rail.
(7) I do not think so, provided any laws or rules issued by states
are not made retroactive, but apply- only to future work.
Pennsylvania — P. B. & W., N. C, W. J. & S. (L. R. Zollinger, Engineer
Maintenance of Way):
(1) Yes.
(2) See diagram B (11 ft. top of rail, 14 ft. from 4 ft. 6 in. to 17 ft.,
6 ft. at top, with height of 22 ft.).
(3) See diagram B.
(4) See diagram A (rectangle 12 ft. plus gage of track by 16 ft.
from top of rail except intertrack fence and station platform high and
low. The height to be 22 ft. where practicable, (b) See diagram B.
(c) See diagram C (rectangle 9 ft. 2 in. plus gage wide by 16 ft. high
from top of rail, except for freight transfer platforms 4 ft. high 3 ft.
9 in. from gage lines. •
. (5) No.
(6) Wherever possible structures are built in accordance with dia-
gram B.
(7) Yes.
Philadelphia & Reading (F. S. Stevens, Engineer Maintenance of Way):
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes. A width of 11 ft. o in. at top of rails.
(3) The above diagram with width at base 11 ft. o in.
(4) •
(5) No.
(6) When girders project above top of rail they are spaced 14 ft.
ctrs. for flanges 14 in. wide.
(7) •
Pittsburg, Shawinut & Northern (H. S. Wilgus, Engineer Maintenance
of Way):
(1) Have no third rail and cannot answer.
(2) Do.
(3) The 7 ft. should be at least 8 ft; on this road 7 ft. leaves but
1 ft. 9 in. clearance between cab and structure. Have killed one man and
seriously injured another on a bridge with 7 ft. clearance.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 509
(4) Cooper's specifications.
(5) No. Not on this road, where heavy power is used indiscrim-
inately.
(6) No such bridges here.
(7) Larger diagram should be used. See answer to No. 3.
Queen & Crescent (C. Dougherty, Chief Engineer):
(1) No recommendation.
(2) No recommendation.
(3) Eight ft. side clearances between 4 ft. and 18 ft. above top of
rail; 22 ft, o in. vertical clearance; top width of 9 ft. and bottom width
of 11 ft. o in.
(4) (a) Six ft. 9 in. each side center line of track, (b) Same as
3. Cc) Seven ft. side clearance.
(5) No.
(6) Tracks are spread to give at least 7 ft. 3 in. side clearance.
(7) •
Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac (S. B. Rice, Engineer Maintenance
of Way):
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) Base should be 5 ft. 6 in.
(4) (a) As above, (b) As above, (c) They are not affected.
(5) No.
(6) We spread tracks to give clearance.
(7) Would only recommend the use of a larger diagram for new
structures.
St. Louis & San Francisco (F. G. Jonah, Chief Engineer) :
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) Sixteen ft. horizontal, 23 ft. vertical.
(4) Enclosed herewith (9 ft. 10 in. bottom, 14 ft. between 3 ft. 9 in.
and 15 ft. 4 in. and 6 ft. 4 in. at top 19 ft. 2 in. up).
(5) No.
(6) Maintain standard clearance — spread tracks if necessary.
(7) Yes, probably would temporarily. Might have to remove some
bridges before their life was up.
San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake (R. K. Brown, Engineer Mainte-
nance of Way):
(1) This company has had no experience in the development of
clearance for third rail traction, as none of the line has been electrified.
Southern (B. Herman, Chief Engineer Maintenance of Way and Struc-
tures) :
(1) See specifications (11 ft. top of rail, 14 ft. 6 in. from 3 ft. 6 in.
to 18 ft., 6 ft. 6 in. at top 22 ft. up).
510 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
(2) Have no third rail.
(3) •
(4) •
(5) No.
(6) Wherever possible through girders in the yards -are designed
to come outside this clearance diagram.
(7) •
Spokane, Portland & Seattle (A. M. Tapper, Chief Engineer):
(1) Yes.
(2) No.
(3) See sketch attached (11 in. 6 ft. base of rail, 14 ft. 6 in from
4 ft. to 18 ft. 6 in. and 7 ft. at top 22 ft. 6 in. up).
(4) (a) 19 ft. vertical — 7 ft. o in. long, (b) and (c) See
sketch.
(5) No.
(6) Have none.
(7) Yes.
Sunset-Central Lines (W. B. Scott, President):
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) See Diagram A (11 ft. top of rail, 15 ft. from 4 ft. to 18 ft.
7 in. and 6 ft. at top 23 ft. 7 in. up).
(4) (a) Diagram B (14 ft. 2 in. from top of rail to 17 ft. 8 in.
and 6 ft. 2 in. at top 21 ft. 8 in. up).
(5) No.
(6) Use deck girders.
(7) No.
Susquehanna & New York S. T. Hays, Jr., Chief Engineer):
(1) Electric operation has never been considered.
(2) Electric operation has never been considered.
(3) Electric operation has never been considered.
(4) See print, (a) (Nine ft. 4 in. base of rail, 14 ft. from 4 ft. 6
in. to 16 ft. 6 in. and 6 ft. at top 21 ft. 6 in. up.) (b) Diagram (11 ft.
at base of rail, 15 ft. from 4 ft. 6 in. to 16 ft. 6 in. and 6 ft. at top 21 ft.
6 in. up).
(5) Yes, in certain cases.
(6) We require a special design for each particular case and allow
top flanges of longitudinal girders inside clearance lines from 8 to 12 in.
when between 3 ft. 6 in. and 6 ft. 6 in. above base rail.
(7) For existing structures would necessitate expensive renewals
and work a hardship on our company.
Union Pacific (Assistant General Manager):
We have no third rails on the Union Pacific system, and therefore
presume that the clearances which we are using will be of no benefit in
answer to the inquiries referred to.
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. 511
Western Pacific (T. J. Wyche, Chief Engineer) :
(i) Have no third rail track.
(2) Have no third rail track.
(3) Fifteen ft. 6 in. clear width, 23 ft. o in. clear height.
(4) (a) Fourteen ft. o in. clear width, 20 ft. 6 in. clear height,
(b) Fifteen ft. 6 in. clear width for middle 15 ft., 7 ft. 6 in. at top, 12
ft. o in. at top of rail, 23 ft. o in. clear height, (c) Have no through
bridges in yards.
(5) Not in purchasing new bridges for branch lines.
(6) Have none.
(7) Yes, as future state laws would probably be governed by A. R.
E. A. Standard.
Wheeling & Lake Erie (W. L: Rohbock, Chief Engineer) :
(1) Yes.
(2) Yes.
(3) See sketch (5 ft. 6 in. from center at base. No other change
from Manual).
(4) Use A. R. E. A. diagram on all lines.
(5) No.
(6) Make diagram the same for both tracks.
(7) We should not be compelled to alter old bridges in order to
conform to new diagram, as this in many cases would be extremely ex-
pensive.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE VIII— ON MASONRY.
G. H. Tinker, Chairman; F. L. Thompson, V ic e -Chairman;
R. Armour, Richard L. Humphrey,
J. C. Beye, J. H. Prior,
C. W. BOYNTON, F. E. SCHALL,
W. A. Clark, G. H. Scribner, Jr.,
T. L. Condron, A. N. Talbot,
J. K. Conner, Frank Taylor,
G. W. Hegel, Job Tuthill,
L. J. Hotchkiss, J. J. Yates,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
Meetings of the Masonry Committee during the past year have been
held as follows: Sub-Committee "A" on September n, 1913, at Buffalo,
N. Y. Whole Committee on November 8 and December 20, 1913, at
Chicago. The work of the Committee has been conducted largely by
correspondence.
The following Sub-Committees have dealt with the subjects assigned
for investigation :
Sub-Committee "A," "Waterproofing of Masonry and Bridge Floors,"
F. E. Schall, Chairman; F. L. Thompson, R. Armour, J. K. Conner, L. J.
Hotchkiss, Richard L. Humphrey, J. H. Prior, J. J. Yates.
Sub-Committee "B," "Effect on Concrete Structures of Rusting of
the Reinforcing Material," C. W. Boynton, Chairman; J. C. Beye, W. A.
Clark, G. W. Hegel, G H. Scribner, Jr.
Sub-Committee "C," "Principles of Design of Plain and Reinforced
Concrete Retaining Walls, Abutments and Trestles," T. L. Condron, Chair-
man; C. W. Boynton, L. J. Hotchkiss, J. H. Prior, A. N. Talbot, Frank
Taylor, Job Tuthill.
Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete, C. W. Boyn-
ton, G H. Scribner, Jr., F. L. Thompson, Members ; L. J. Hotchkiss, J.
H. Prior, F. E. Schall and Job Tuthill, Alternates.
Joint Committee on Standard Specifications for Cement, C. W. Boyn-
ton, F. E. Schall.
REVISION OF THE MANUAL
No revision of the Manual is recommended at this time.
WATERPROOFING OF MASONRY.
The subject of Waterproofing of Masonry has been under investiga-
tion by the Committee for the past five years. During this time a large
amount of information has been collected and analyzed. Progress re-
513
514 MASONRY.
ports have been made at the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth annual con-
ventions, and a final report is presented at this time. A bibliography of
the subject was published in Vol. 12 of the Proceedings.
DISINTEGRATION OF CONCRETE.
The subject of "Effect on Concrete Structures of Rusting of the Re-
inforcing Material" has been considered under the more general subject
of "Disintegration of Concrete," a report upon which is herewith
presented.
JOINT COMMITTEE ON CONCRETE AND REINFORCED
CONCRETE.
The Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete held no
meeting during 1913. Its report, adopted by the American Society of
Civil Engineers in January, by the American Railway Engineering Asso-
ciation in March and by the American Society for Testing Materials in
June, was given publicity and criticism invited. The Committee will en-
deavor, in 1914, to round out its report to represent the best American
practice.
COMMITTEE C-i— STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENT,'
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS.
In October, 1912, a sub-committee of Committee C-i (American So-
ciety for Testing Materials) on Standard Specifications for Cement, was
appointed to co-operate with a sub-committee of the Departmental Com-
mittee of the Government in an effort to harmonize the differences exist-
ing between the specifications adopted by Committee C-i and the specifi-
cations written by the Departmental Committee, and by executive order
put into effect as a standard specification for cement for all departments
of the Government.
As the Methods of Tests on which Committee C-i based its specifi-
cations were prepared by a committee of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, which has been dismissed, that Society was asked to appoint
a special committee to co-operate with the sub-committee of the Depart-
mental Committee and the sub-committee of Committee C-i. These com-
mittees are organized as a Joint Conference on Uniform Methods of
Tests and Standard Specifications for Cement.
By unanimous vote, the Chairman of Committee C-i was authorized
to appoint this sub-committee, of three, and though neither of our repre-
sentatives was appointed, they approved of the action taken.
A number of meetings of the Joint Conference have been held, and
several tests and investigations conducted. Considerable progress ha.*
been made in reconciling differences, and it is expected that the Con-
ference will be in position to make a report during the current year.
MASONRY. 515
The only meeting which Committee C-i held during 1913 occurred at
the Engineers' Club, Philadelphia, December 2. This meeting was called
to consider reorganization of the Committee and to discuss the autoclave
test with Mr. G. J. Ray, Chief Engineer, and Mr. H. J. Force, Chief
Chemist of the Lackawanna Railroad. The time was entirely consumed
in discussing the autoclave, and the meeting was adjourned to reconvene
in the same place January 7, 1914.
NEXT YEAR'S WORK.
It is recommended that the subject of "Principles of Design of Plain,
and Reinforced Retaining Walls, Abutments and Trestles" be continued
and a further effort be made to obtain some data upon the pressure of
earth upon retaining walls.
It is also recommended that the Specifications for Plain and Rein-
forced Concrete Masonry be revised.
CONCLUSIONS.
(1) It is recommended that the conclusions under "Waterproofing
of Masonry and Bridge Floors" be adopted and published in the Manual.
(See page 536.)
(2) It is recommended that the conclusions under "Disintegration of
Concrete" be adopted and published in the Manual. (See page 568.)
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON MASONRY.
Appendix A.
WATERPROOFING MASONRY AND BRIDGE FLOORS.
In compliance with the instructions of the Board of Direction, the
Committee has further investigated the subject of "Waterproofing
Masonry and Bridge Floors" and submits the following report:
Masonry construction should usually be impervious to water in order
that it may be protected from possible disintegration. The presence of
water within masonry structures not designed to retain water is objec-
tionable.
The effect of percolating water upon the masonry cannot be esti-
mated as to the number of years the life of the structure may be short-
ened. Records are lacking from which a comparison of the life of an im-
permeable masonry structure might be made with one through which
water percolates freely. Were such information to be had, no doubt
more attention would be devoted to watertight construction.
Probably the fact that water usually is objectionable in structures
and the degree in which watertightness affects the requirements of a
particular structure, in most cases determine the amount of effort to be
spent to obtain watertightness.
The following classification includes the ordinary requirements call-
ing for watertight construction and special methods of waterproofing.
Structures should be waterproof when it is necessary:
(i) To prevent dampness in walls above grade, and in walls and
floors below grade.
(2) To prevent flooding of basements and pits which are at all
times or occasionally below the ground water level.
(3) To prevent percolation or leakage of water through the masonry
and the formation of unsightly deposits on exposed surfaces.
(4) To prevent the dripping of water through a bridge floor over a
street, and in the cases of solid floors of steel or reinforced concrete
bridges, to protect the steel from corrosion.
(5) To prevent the entrance of water into tunnels, either above or
below ground water level, or subaqueous tunnels.
(6) To prevent leakage from reservoirs.
(7) To prevent the penetration of water into the masonry.
The outline given below includes the ordinary methods of water-
proofing :
(I) Coatings.
(1) Linseed oil paints and varnishes.
(2) Bituminous :
Asphalt.
Coal Tar.
(3) Liquid hydrocarbons.
(4) Miscellaneous compounds.
(5) Cement mortar.
516
MASONRY. 517
(II) Membranes.
Felts and burlaps in combination with various cementing com-
pounds.
(III) Integrals,
(i) Inert fillers.
(2) Active fillers.
(IV) Watertight Concrete Construction.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS METHODS OF WATERPROOFING AND
THEIR APPLICATION.
Walls above grade are waterproofed by coating with paints, varnishes,
or waterproofing washes, or by plastering with cement mortar. The
coating or plaster may be applied either on the inside or outside of the
wall.
The walls of basements and pits are waterproofed, either by the ap-
plication of coatings, membranes, integral or watertight concrete con-
struction. Membranes are usually protected with concrete, brick or
bituminous binder.
Where basement or pit walls and floors are below the ground water
level, they must be so designed as to resist the existing hydrostatic head
in order to prevent cracks and leakage. Such walls may be waterproofed
by the integral method or by watertight concrete construction. When
exterior waterproofing is employed, the membrane method is generally
used properly protected.
Stone, brick or concrete arches, retaining walls, abutments, subway
walls and culverts are waterproofed by any of the methods mentioned
in the preceding paragraph. For important structures, the membrane
method is most generally used.
When surface coatings, integral waterproofing or watertight concrete
construction is used, particular attention must be paid to reinforce the
work against cracks due to expansion, contraction or settlement. The
expansion joints must be waterproofed by sheet copper or lead built into
the adjoining sections.
The solid floors of steel and reinforced concrete bridges probably
present the most difficult problems of waterproofing. In steel troughs or
I-beam floors a concrete filling may be used to bring the deck up level
with, or above the top of the steel in the floor. The floors of this class
of structures are usually waterproofed by the membrane method.
Tunnels in which the ground water level is below the invert may be
waterproofed by any of the aforementioned methods.
Subaqueous tunnels present a different and distinct problem of water-
proofing; usually reinforced concrete, or plain concrete, with iron or steel
lining is used. The structures are designed to resist the hydrostatic
head.
The walls and floors of reservoirs may be waterproofed by any of
the four methods before mentioned.
518 MASONRY.
(I) COATINGS.
(i) LIN.EED OIL PAINTS AND VARNISHES.
Linseed oil paints and all coatings containing linseed oil are reactive
to atmospheric conditions and to alkaline water. Applied as a damp-
proofing to the surface of a concrete wall which may be permeable to
moisture, the paint is likely to be of short life, unless the surface is
specially prepared. (See Appendix, pp. 537, 538.)
To secure the best results, the wall must be dry and clean before
application. The paint is applied with a brush in the ordinary manner.
The coating power of paint is approximately 200 sq. ft. of wall per gal-
lon of paint, but varies with the thickness of the paint and the nature of
the surface.
The prices of the paints sold for damp-proofing masonry and con-
crete surfaces vary from about $1.00 to $3.00 per gallon for the material.
(2) BITUMINOUS COATINGS.
This class includes asphalt, petroleum residuum, coal tar and coal tar
pitch. As used for waterproofing purposes, they are solid at ordinary
temperatures and are, therefore, often applied while hot. As they are
soluble in benzine and coal tar naphtha, they are frequently mixed with
these solvents and applied in a liquid form. Two coats cost about one
cent for material and one-quarter cent for labor per square foot.
ASPHALT.
Waterproofing by the application of liquified asphalt, as a paint ap-
plied with a brush or mop, has been used on practically all kinds of en-
gineering structures as a surface coating.
Bituminous coatings applied cold by dissolving in naphtha, instead
of hot, do not set instantly, therefore are much easier to apply. The
work can be done by an ordinary laborer, care rather than skill being re-
quired in its handling. All walls that are to be waterproofed must first
be allowed to dry.
If the waterproofing is made by dissolving the bitumens in a volatile
solvent with a dryer so that it may be applied cold like a paint, it is diffi-
cult, if not impossible, to prepare a paint that will dry to the right con-
sistency and then stop. The usual result is that the drying and harden-
ing continues until it reaches a point where its waterproofing qualities
are destroyed.*
Hot asphalt will not adhere to cold, damp concrete. Several different
methods of heating the surface of the concrete have been used. Gasoline
has been poured over the surface and burned; hot sand has been spread
over the surface and swept back as the waterproofing proceeds. It is
claimed, however, that heating the surface draws up moisture and pre-
vents the asphalt from adhering. It is necessary that the concrete be
thoroughly dry before the asphalt mixture is laid upon it, as the steam
caused by placing the hot material upon a damp foundation will prevent
•See N. A. C. U. Proceedings, 1909. "Waterproofing," Boorman.
MASONRY. 519
adhesion. Good results have been obtained by first painting the surface
to be treated with a priming coat of asphalt cut with naphtha or benzine
and then applying the hot asphalt over this coat.
In applying hot asphalt directly to steel, difficulty is found in getting
the asphalt to adhere to the steel, and no dependence can be placed upon
adhesion to vertical surfaces.
The asphalt should be heated in a suitable kettle to a temperature
not exceeding that allowed in the specifications for any particular struc-
ture depending upon the material used. If this temperature is exceeded,
it may result in pitching the asphalt. Before the pitching point is reached,
the vapor from the kettle is of a bluish tinge, which changes to a yellow-
ish tinge after the danger point is exceeded. The asphalt has been cooked
sufficiently when a piece of wood can be put in and withdrawn without the
asphalt clinging to it. Care should always be taken not to prolong the
heat to such an extent as to pitch the asphalt. Should it become neces-
sary to hold the heated asphalt for any length of time, the fire should be
drawn or banked and a quantity of fresh asphalt should be introduced
into the kettle to reduce the temperature. Excessive heat converts the
petroline or cementitious constituents of the asphalt into asphaltene,
which is devoid of cementing properties and by so much reduces the
cementing quality — the vital element — of the asphalt. The fire should not
be allowed to come into direct contact with the melting kettle or tank.
Asphalt coatings cost about sixty-five cents per gallon for material and
three-tenths cent for labor per square foot, a gallon covering about ioo
sq. ft. per coat. (See Appendix, p. 538, Asphalt.)
ASPHALT MASTIC.
Various results have been obtained by the use of asphalt mastic, and
it is probable that much is dependent upon the quality of the mastic.
The requirements of a sand for asphalt mastic are much the same as those
for cement mortar. It is common practice to mix a certain amount of
limestone screenings with the sand, with the intention of securing an
aggregate with the least percentage of voids. The strength and com-
pactness of the mastic will depend considerably upon the percentage of
voids, and the proportion of asphalt used in the mastic should be sufficient
to fill the voids and completely coat each particle of sand and screenings.
Too much asphalt will produce a mastic that is soft and easily indented,
does not offer a good protection against the ballast on a bridge floor
and flows more readily than a well-proportioned mixture.
The asphalt and sand are separately heated to from 325 to 350 de-
grees. The proper proportions are measured out simultaneously, poured
into a mixing vessel and thoroughly mixed. The operation of mixing
the asphalt mastic requires care in heating the ingredients to secure uni-
form temperature, not to overheat the asphalt, to proportion the mixture
accurately, and to mix the materials thoroughly. The mixture is dumped
in place and spread evenly over the surface with wooden floats, shovels
or rakes. After being compressed with tampers, the surface is finished
with hot smoothing irons.
520 MASONRY. /
Asphalt mastics are usually applied in layers not exceeding % in. in
thickness, usually two coats are applied, the coats to break joints not less
than one foot. The cost of asphaltic mastic 1% in. thick is about $30.00
for material per net ton, a ton covering about 375 sq. ft. ; the cost of
labor is about two to five cents per square foot, depending upon location
and conditions. (See Appendix, Asphalt.)
COAL TAR AND COAL TAR PITCH.
Tar produced by the distillation of bituminous coal is used in water-
proofing, either applied cold as a paint by dissolving in naphtha or benzine
or applied hot. It is also mixed with sand, gravel or screenings to form
a mastic. See American Railway Engineering Association Bulletin 131,
January, 191 1, Report of Committee VI — Buildings, for information on
coal tar.
It is generally found to be difficult to obtain coal tar of good qual-
ity. Good coal tar compares favorably with asphalt as a waterproofing
material.
The present price of coal tar pitch, used for waterproofing, is about
$17.50 per net ton. (See Appendix, p. 543, Use of Tar.)
COAL TAR PAINT.
Annapolis mixture is a coal tar paint composed of one part kerosene
oil, four parts Portland cement and sixteen parts refined coal tar.
The mixture is put on with a paint brush in the same way as ordi-
nary paint is applied. The compound not only covers the surface, but
sinks into and bonds with it, so that two or three coats are sometimes
required. It has been found to adhere to moist or even wet concrete.
The cost for three coats is about one-half cent for material and
about one-half cent for labor per square foot. (See Appendix, p. 543.)
(3) LIQUID HYDROCARBONS — PARAFFIN AND PETROLEUM.
Waterproofing by the application of a coating of melted paraffin has
been used on masonry in much the same manner as hot asphalt. Paraffin
is also applied cold as a paint made by dissolving the paraffin with
naphtha.
Petroleum oil is sometimes applied to the surface of masonry as
waterproofing.
The efficiency of these materials depends upon their absorption into
the surface of the masonry. Applied to clean, dry surfaces of porous
masonry, they are fairly efficient as damp-proofing.
(4) MISCELLANEOUS COMPOUNDS — SOAP WASHES.
Solutions of soap applied as a wash for waterproofing or damp-
proofing masonry surfaces are not recommended, as no permanent water-
proofing effect can be depended upon.
SOAP AND ALUM WASHES.
Waterproofing by alternate washes of soap and alum is one of the
oldest methods of treating masonry surfaces, and has given fair results
when properly used on surfaces sufficiently dense and impermeable to
MASONRY. 521
afford support for the void-filling material. Inferior materials and
workmanship cannot be atoned for by the use of alum and soap washes.
The alum and soap combine and form an insoluble non-absorptive com-
pound in the pores of the masonry surface.
The cost of applying two coats each of soap and alum washes is
about one-half cent per square foot of surface. (See Appendix, p. 543.)
miscellaneous surface coatings. (See Appendix, p. 543.)
(5) CEMENT mortar.
The method of waterproofing masonry structures by the application
. of a plaster coat has proved efficient when the plaster has been properly
applied.
The surface to be waterproofed must be clean to insure bond be-
tween plaster and masonry. Old surfaces may be cleaned by chipping
off a thin layer from the face or by the use of a sand blast or steam jet.
The surface must then be kept wet until it has absorbed water to its full
capacity.
A wash of neat cement mortar should then be applied with a brush.
This wash should be mixed to the consistency of cream and should never
be used after it is 45 minutes old. The plaster should be applied over the
cement wash before the latter has commenced to dry.
The sand to be used in the mortar should receive careful attention.
It should be well graded from fine to coarse, the maximum size of par-
ticles being that passing a No. 8 sieve. Portland cement and sand should
bz mixed in the proportion of 1 :i*4. The mortar should be applied in
layers about Y% of an inch thick if more than one coat is used. Each
coat should be applied before the preceding one has attained its final set.
Good workmanship is essential and the use of a wooden float is necessary
in order to obtain a dense, impermeable coating. As ordinarily applied,
the finished coating is about 24 of an inch thick.
The cost of 24-in. plaster, applied as above, will be about six cents
per square foot.
(II) MEMBRANES.
Membrane waterproofing consists of the formation of a mat or cov-
ering of waterproofing material over the surface to be waterproofed, made
up of a number of layers of membrane united by a cementing material.
Being somewhat elastic and independent of the movement of the sur-
face, this method offers a protection from the seepage of water through
expansion or contraction joints and cracks in the masonry which can-
not be secured by any other.
For this reason it is largely used for waterproofing subways, arches,
solid floor bridges, retaining walls, basements, pits, etc.
It is also largely used in important structures in connection with
some integral form of waterproofing as a precaution against seepage of
water through cavities that may occur in the masonry.
Although waterproofing by the membrane method has been unsuc-
cessful in many cases and many reports of failures are returned by the
522 MASONRY.
railroad companies, the better methods of membrane waterproofing now
in use are giving excellent results.
The character of the structure is frequently the greatest drawback
to the life of the waterproofing. The greater the number of projections
and irregularities in the surface to be waterproofed, the more the lia-
bility of leaks.
Many times the design of the structure is such as to make it im-
practicable to waterproof in a permanent manner. Sudden slopes or deep
drops between the different elevations of the floor often cause the pro-
tection to slide, with a consequent tearing of the waterproofing. Often
on railroad bridge floors the waterproofing is destroyed by the creeping
of its protection under traffic; on arches or sharply inclined surfaces by
its movement due to the settlement of the fill.
In many cases the labor employed is quite unskilled and the results
are obviously poor.
Another factor in the success or failure of waterproofing is the state
of the weather. In cold weather the heated materials cool too rapidly.
In very damp or rainy weather it is impracticable to make a good job of
waterproofing, unless some protection from the weather is provided.
Other causes of failure are the lack of free working space and in-
terruption by traffic.
Any of these causes may lead to failure, even with the best materials.
MATERIALS.
The materials of membrane waterproofing and the combinations that
have been used most successfully by the various railroads are as follows :
FELTS AND BURLAPS.
Wool felt impregnated with either asphalt or coal tar pitch.
Wool felt impregnated with either asphalt or coal tar pitch and skin
coated with the same material.
Wool felt impregnated with coal tar pitch and reinforced with a
thickness of cotton drilling cemented to the felt with coal tar pitch.
Asbestos felt impregnated with asphalt.
Burlap both plain and impregnated with either coal tar pitch or
asphalt.
CEMENTING MATERIALS.
Mined or lake asphalts.
Petroleum asphalts.
Coal tar pitch.
COMBINATIONS.
Two (2) to three (3) layers of felt cemented together, used gen-
erally for damp-proofing and for the backs of retaining walls or foun-
dations where no provision for a head of water is necessary.
Four (4) to six (6) layers of felt cemented together, used generally
for railroad bridge floors, arches, tunnels, subways and for a protection
from a head of water.
MASONRY. 523
To add tensile strength to the waterproofing, the following combina-
tions are commonly used :
One (i) middle layer of reinforced felt or burlap and four (4) lay-
ers of felt, all cemented together.
One (1) layer of felt, two (2) layers of burlap and two (2) layers
of felt cemented together.
Three (3) layers of burlap and one (1) top layer of felt cemented
together.
Combinations of coal tar pitch and asphalt treated felt or asphalt
and coal tar treated felt should not be used as the materials will not
combine.
In using burlap it is recommended that burlap impregnated with
either asphalt or coal tar pitch be used, otherwise, owing to its nature,
it is impracticable to prevent the absorption of moisture when the ma-
terial is exposed to the weather. Moisture promotes rot and also greatly
reduces, or, if present in any quantity, prevents the bond of the hot ce-
menting material and its penetration of the pores of the burlap. On
the other hand, the treating of burlap promotes the bond and penetration
as the treating materials in the burlap are softened on the application of
the hot cementing material, and the whole becomes united in one mass.
The use of burlap with cementing material, whose temperature on
application exceeds 450 degrees Fahrenheit, is not recommended, as the
higher temperatures are likely to result in burning and destruction of
the burlap.
In many cases it is desirable to bond the waterproofing to the sur-
face. This is not desirable in the vicinity of expansion joints or where
there is likely to be a movement of the surface. At such points special
provision must be made in the waterproofing to allow for expansion.
PROTECTION.
To protect the membrane from injury it is necessary to provide a
covering of some hard material that cannot be penetrated by ballast,
tamping picks nor by sharp stones.
Of the various methods, the following three have been the most
widely used :
(1) Brick laid flat in the hot cementing material with joints poured
with the same material, or brick laid in cement mortar.
On comparatively flat surfaces, brick is practicable with a bituminous
binder, but on steep surfaces or slopes, the tendency to creep in hot
weather makes it unsuitable. One great advantage of brick is that it
can be laid quickly and easily under traffic. Brick, if used on large areas
or on the extrados of an arch or on steep slopes, should be laid in ce-
ment mortar to prevent creeping.
(2) A cement mortar coating about two (2) inches thick, reinforced
with wire mesh, forms a good protection and can often be used to better
advantage where there is a tendency of the protecting materials to creep.
This protection is recommended for arches and tunnels.
524 MASONRY.
(3) A bituminous binder not less than one and one-quarter {1%)
inches thick, consisting of asphalt or pitch mixed with sand, gravel or
fine crushed stone and applied over the waterproofing, has often been
successfully used. If this is used, it should be of such consistency in hot
weather as to prevent runs and the stones forcing through the protection
to the waterproofing. It is not recommended on steep slopes.
SPECIFICATIONS.
The following specifications for five-ply waterproofing is typical of
those in use by the various railroads, and applies equally well to combina-
tions of felts and burlaps or felts and reinforced felts:
"The surface on which the waterproofing is to be applied shall be
dry and free from all sharp projections or irregularities of any character
other than those shown on plans.
"If it is desired to secure the waterproofing to the surface this
surface shall be given one (1) coat of hot cementing material mopped
on uniformly, which coating shall be thin enough to penetrate the recesses,
and in the case of concrete, to form a bond for the subsequent water-
proofing coating. In order to insure the adhering of this coating it is
advisable, in cold weather, to first heat the surface with hot sand, which
is to be swept off as the cementing material is applied, or a priming coat
of the cold cementing material which has been thinned with a suitable
solvent may be applied.
"On this first coat shall be applied a heavy coating of hot cementing
material, into which shall be laid, shingle fashion, two (2) layers of felt
lapped one-half the width of the felt and cemented together with cement-
ing material. The surfaces of the two-ply felt thus formed shall be
mopped uniformly with hot cementing material and followed with three
(3) layers of felt laid shingle fashion in this material and lapped two-
thirds of its width. The surface of the five-ply of felt thus formed shall
be given one (1) heavy coat of cementing material, making a five-ply
waterproofing membrane all thoroughly saturated, cemented and bonded
together.
"In the courses thus built up it is important to have the moppings of
cementing material uniform, so that felt shall not touch felt at any point
and to insure a surface free from all folds and pockets.
"At girder webs or around gusset plates, corners, or over column
connections and expansion joints, the waterproofing membrane shall be
reinforced with at least two (2) thicknesses of felt.
"Over the surface of the membrane shall be placed a protection of
either brick, bituminous binder or concrete, plain or reinforced."
Cost of membrane waterproofing varies greatly with conditions.
A five-ply membrane waterproofing, with asphalt-treated felts ce-
mented with asphalt, will cost from 25 cents to 45 cents per sq. ft., in-
cluding a bituminous binder or brick protection and labor.
A five-ply membrane waterproofing, using four layers of coal tar
pitch-treated felt and one layer of felt reinforced with cotton drilling, ce-
mented with coal tar pitch, will cost from 20 cents to 35 cents per sq. ft.,
including bituminous binder or brick protection and labor.
A four-ply membrane waterproofing, using one layer of asbestos felt
and three layers of impregnated burlap cemented with asphalt, including
MASONRY. 525
iJ4-in. thick asphalt mastic protection and labor, will cost from 20 cents
to 30 cents per sq. ft.
Cost of asphalt about $30.00 per gross ton.
Cost of coal tar pitch about $17.50 per gross ton.
Cost of asphalt treated felts from $1.00 to $1.25 per 100 sq. ft.
Cost of coal tar pitch treated felts about 25 cents per 100 sq. ft.
Cost of reinforced felt from $2.00 to $2.25 per 100 sq. ft.
Cost of asbestos felt about 70 cents per 100 sq. ft.
Cost of brick $8.00 to $12.00 per thousand.
(Ill) INTEGRALS.
The use of some material in small quantities, mixed with the con-
crete materials in order to make concrete watertight, is generally called
the integral method of waterproofing.
I. INERT FILLERS.
The addition of a small amount of fine material to a rich concrete
mixture with a well-graded aggregate, decreases the strength of the
concrete. The effect upon leaner mixtures is to increase the imper-
meability of the concrete without decreasing its strength. Fillers used
should not only be inert toward the action of the cement, but also to
atmospheric conditions and to water.
Material containing organic matter should be avoided, owing to its
deleterious effect upon the strength of the concrete.
In using inert fillers in mixing concrete only such materials should
be used as have been thoroughly analyzed as to their chemical proper-
ties and effect upon the concrete both as to strength and chemical action.
The amount of inert fillers used must be determined by careful tests.
The waterproofing effect of inert fillers depends upon the void-filling
quality of the material used and upon the grade of workmanship in-
sisted upon; the addition of a waterproofing compound to the concrete
material coupled with poor workmanship will not assure watertight
concrete.
It is an open question whether it is good engineering, especially on
important structures, to omit precautions and methods of workmanship,
which improve the quality of the resulting concrete in any respect, in
order to reduce the cost and produce a somewhat inferior concrete
which meets the present needs. There is a possibility that in gaging
the amount of money to be spent in making concrete by the strength
required, other factors may be lost sight of which may in time prove
harmful to a structure which was supposed to be of the most durable
construction.
There are numerous examples on record where structures have been
built of concrete, in the too often used haphazard method of selecting
proportions and aggregates and by inferor workmanship, due to lack
of proper supervision, or lack of judgment and feeling of responsi-
bility, with the idea that concrete is concrete, which will withstand
526 MASONRY.
any usage as good masonry construction. This is a wrong conception
of the importance of this class of work. The selection of proper pro-
portions and well-graded aggregates of good quality, coupled with good
workmanship, the proper consistency of the mix and the thoroughness
of the mixing, depositing, compacting and spading are factors which
must be considered and insisted upon if a good, dense, strong and
durable concrete is to be obtained.
With such precautions employed, inert fillers or compounds used
in the proper proportions, impermeable and good concrete should be
obtained.
In presenting results of tests of waterproofing materials added to
the ingredients of concrete, the proportions of the mixture are at times
stated in two different ways. One method is to state that a certain
proportion of waterproofing material was mixed with the cement and
then the proportions of the test specimens are given as so much of the
cement mixture to aggregate. Other tests are described in which an
amount of waterproofing material equivalent to a certain percentage of
the . cement used is added to the concrete materials. The results oi
such tests cannot be correctly compared without reducing them to a
common ratio between cement and aggregate.
When dry compounds are used from i to 2rA per cent, of the
cement used are recommended by the manufacturers, while for the
liquid compounds from 4 to 8 per cent, of the amount of water used
is recommended by them.
The cost of concrete is increased by the addition of such materials
from 80 cents to $1.20 per cubic yard for dry compounds and from
50 cents to $1.00 for the liquid compounds, per cubic yard of concrete.
2. ACTIVE FILLERS.
Compounds which are added to the concrete mixture and which
react with certain of the constituents of the cement to form other com-
pounds which will be inert and fill the voids are included in this class.
In general these materials are soaps and saponifiable oils.
Inasmuch as the waterproofing effect of these materials depends
upon a reaction which may or may hot take place, objection has been
made to their use. (See Appendix, n. 547.)
(IV) WATERTIGHT CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.
The results of laboratory experiments, supplemented by many ex-
amples from practice, have shown that watertight concrete can be made
without the use of coatings, membranes or integral compounds. It is
reasonable to assume that the porosity of concrete in certain cases is
due to the fact that it contains small air spaces or voids throughout its
mass, which are connected to each other more or less irregularly, and
through which water passes, due either to the presence of the hydro-
static bead or to capillary attraction. At the time of placing the
concrete, some space is occupied by water carrying in suspension fine
MASONRY. 527
particles of cement. It is not necessary to assume that continuous
capillary passages must be left in the concrete in order that as it dries
the water may get out. It is probable that the excess of water passes
out of the concrete in drying in such a state as to leave behind no
pores through which water could again find access to the interior of
the concrete or penetrate the structure.
The question of watertight concrete is then a problem of re-
ducing the size and number of voids. Sands contain voids ranging
from about 25 to 40 per cent, of the total volume of dry loose sand.
The proportions of cement to aggregate required to make a mixture
of the maximum density with sands of these extreme values, are about
1 11^2 to 1 :2j^. Experience has demonstrated that mortars leaner than
this are not suitable for work requiring considerable strength or density,
so that the proportions used in ordinary engineering work are suf-
ficiently rich to produce a watertight concrete, provided the aggregates
possess the requisite qualities.
Samples of crusher run limestone show 37 per cent, voids for each
of two specimens, one having a maximum size stone passing 2H-inch
sieve, the second passing i^-inch sieve. A broken stone passing a
2^-inch ring and retained on a 5^-inch screen had 46 per cent, voids.
Feret found about 52 per cent, voids in samples consisting of stones
of about one size, for each of three different sizes. A similar variation
in the percentage of voids with graduation in sizes of particles is found
with gravel, for screened gravel of approximately one size of particles
40 per cent, to 45 per cent., for a well-graded gravel containing sand
25 per cent.
The amount of voids in a mixture of aggregate and cement is the
least when the cement is just sufficient to fill the voids in the aggre-
gate, since the cement paste itself is less dense than the coarse material
of the aggregate.
A slight deficiency in cement produces a porous concrete because
the unfilled voids are large enough to permit the passage of water,
while properly-made concrete containing an excess of cement, though
it may be of lower density than the former, is impermeable after
hardening since the voids in the cement paste are too small to permit
the passage of water.
Tests have failed to discover substances which, added to the con-
crete materials, will increase the density of the cement paste which
fills the interstices between the particles of the aggregates, hence it
is not believed that improvement as regards impermeability of con-
crete containing sufficient cement can be made by the addition of
any material to the concrete mixture.
Some engineers apprehend that grading and proportioning ac-
cording to ideal requirements necessitates extreme care and consid-
erable expense, and therefore reject this method of obtaining water-
tight construction for one of the integral compounds, which is in
reality based upon the same principle, or the results of which are un-
528 MASONRY.
certain as regards permanent impermeability and are detrimental to
the strength of the concrete.
While it is true that concrete in which the amount of cement used
is slightly in excess of the voids in the aggregate and in which the
aggregate is so graded as to contain a minimum amount of voids, is
an ideal mixture as regards density and strength, the requirements for
watertight concrete do not demand the maintenance of exact propor-
tions of this nature.
Experience has proved that materials, as supplied for large works,
run uniformly enough to permit the proportioning and grading to be
maintained at such a degree of excellence as to insure watertight con-
struction at a very small expense for testing.
The following abstract from the results of laboratory tests made
by the United States Bureau of Standards, Technologic Paper No. 3, are
here quoted :
"These tests show that the permeability of concrete was not depend-
ent entirely upon the quantity of cement used in proportion to the total
aggregate, but depended also upon the ratio of coarse aggregate to fine
aggregate. It will be observed in the case of sand No. 4, that the
1:1^2:7^ proportion was decidediy more impermeable than the 1:2:4 pro-
portion, although the former contains considerably less cement in pro-
portion to aggregate."
Tests designed to show the effect of waterproofing materials, es-
pecially such as are added as fillers, should present a granulometric
analysis of the aggregate, as comparisons are valueless without such
information. It is to be expected that tests on mortar in which a sand
was used, having a deficiency of fine particles would show increased
impermeability and increased strength upon the addition of a small
amount of fine material. On the other hand, if the aggregate already
contains as much fine material as it requires, addition of a fine ma-
terial as waterproofing may be expected to decrease the strength and
have no beneficial effect as a waterproofing material.
The method of proportioning the aggregate by mechanical analysis,
which is described by Taylor & Thompson as exact and scientific, is
recommended. The granulometric analysis requires a very inexpensive
equipment, and a complete analysis of an aggregate may be made in
less than one hour's time. By its use definite data may be obtained
upon which to base conclusions as to the necessity of and method of
improving the concrete mixture.
In discussing the use of exterior coatings as against impermeable
construction, the point is often advanced that although there is no
doubt that watertight concrete can be made, the watertightness is of
no avail when cracks occur in the structure.
The subject of cracking is one of design. Cracks are caused by
failure to properly provide for primary stresses to which the structure
is subjected, by faulty details, by settlement of foundations, by shrinkage
of concrete when hardening in air, and by stresses developed in the
concrete due to temperature changes.
MASONRY. 529
Where concrete is to be deposited under circumstances which make
it impracticable to construct watertight concrete, a special form of
waterproofing should be provided. (See Appendix, p. 550.)
DRAINAGE.
The first requisite in designing any structure when water is to be
kept out from the interior or from beneath, is to provide means of
getting rid of the water as directly and as quickly as possible. Methods
of providing drainage differ with the class of the structure.
During the construction of basements and pits, drainage can be
maintained by pumping, and permanent drainage should be provided
whenever a free outlet can be obtained.
Drainage of arches and culverts is provided by sloping the extrados
to the back of the abutments and to the piers, placing downspouts at
piers and drain pipes behind abutments.
Drainage of retaining walls, abutments and subway walls is pro-
vided by one or more lines of drain pipes, placed at different elevations
along the back of the walls.
In tunnels the extrados of the arch may be provided with sufficient
slope to facilitate the flow of seepage water to the sidewalls. The back
filling consists of porous materials, which will permit the ready pas-
sage of the water. Side-drains and connecting under-drains should be
provided.
The drainage of subaqueous tunnels differs from the general problem
of drainage, and is not concerned with waterproofing, in that it is a
problem of handling water on the inside of the tunnel. This is usually
accomplished by pumping from sumps.
The foundations of masonry reservoirs should be drained to insure
the stability of the structure.
The solid floors of steel or reinforced concrete bridges may be
drained by sloping the finished surface of the floor from the center
to each end, and carrying the water away back of the abutments, or
the water can be carried away by downspouts at the intermediate
points or supports.
Probably the commonest method of draining solid-floor bridges is
to slope the deck to one abutment or from a summit to both abutments.
A continuous waterproofing layer extends over the deck and the top
of the abutments and extends down over the back of the abutments to
prevent the seepage of water at the bridge seat.
The surface of the waterproofing and its protection must have suf-
ficient grade to carry away surface water. In the case of bridge floors,
it is recommended that this grade be not less than six (6) inches in
one hundred (100) feet. It is customary, when bridges are on sufficient
grade, to have the waterproofed surface at the same grade, the water
being carried down over the back wall of the lower abutment where
drainage is provided by coarse backing and open-joint drains.
An objection to this method of drainage is made by some who find
that in the spring, when the surface ice and snow melt and the filling
530 MASONRY.
back of the abutments is still in a frozen condition, the water does not
escape freely, but accumulates and eventually seeps through at the end of
the bridge and flows over the face of the abutment. Another objection
is that in bridges having supports at curb lines and in the middle of
the street, whether of flat slab construction or of steel troughs filled
with concrete, cracks in the waterproof covering and in the concrete
filling are likely to appear where joints are not provided over these
supports, and where joints are provided, trouble is likely to be ex-
perienced in preventing the seepage of water.
When the troughs of steel bridges run transversely to the track
and the filling in the troughs is omitted, the individual troughs may be
drained through outlets in the bottom of the troughs into a drainage
gutter suspended beneath the deck. These gutters may empty into
pipes which run through the abutments and empty outside the em-
bankment. Difficulty is found in obtaining a seal between the water-
proofing and the drain pipe or opening in the trough.
When the troughs of solid floor steel bridges run parallel with the
tracks, the water is usually carried over the abutments as in the con-
crete floor bridges.
A method sometimes used on solid-floor bridges in which the deck
is filled up above the top of the steel with cement or bituminous con-
crete is to divide the floor of the bridge into rectangular sections, each
of which is sloped to a drain pipe at one corner which carries the water
through a downspout at one of the supporting columns.
Much difficulty has been experienced with all types of waterproof-
ing on steel bridges in preventing the leakage of water along the webs
of girders. Although the concrete filling of the deck may be carried
up above the top of the rail and great pains may be taken in pro-
viding a joint with a waterproofing material between the girder web
and the concrete, leaks usually develop along the girder.
Several bridges have been built in which a special flashing angle
or Z-bar extending the full length has been riveted to the inside of
the girder to prevent the flow of water down the web of the girder.
By carrying the concrete filling up underneath the outstanding leg of
the flashing angle or Z-bar an efficient flashing is obtained. Good re-
sults have been obtained in the case of through girder bridges by
carrying the concrete filling up under the top flange of the girder.
In considering the conclusions presented in Bulletin 64 in regard
to reinforcing over supports, the following remarks of President Arm-
strong, of the Western Society of Engineers, are of interest :
"In large railroad structures it is impracticable to reinforce concrete
so that there will be no cracks over a line of supports ; good engineering
would not permit such practice. It would be better to allow the concrete
to crack or to leave a joint there, and then provide some means of keep-
ing out the water. In the lighter structures, it is practicable to reinforce
the concrete so that the reinforcement will prevent cracks at supports."
A joint in the waterproofing which will allow of movement of
the ends of adjacent spans at supports is believed to be necessary. The
MASONRY.
531
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536 MASONRY.
use of a metal flashing between concrete slabs over joints has been used.
When the steel troughs run transversely to the track, a slight
movement under traffic is to be expected at the connection of the
troughs to the girders. Consequently, it would seem necessary to keep
the water away from these connections by means of flashing and pro-
viding sufficient slope toward the center of the floor, adjacent to the
girders.
Diagrams showing method of waterproofing various structures are
given in this report.
CONCLUSIONS.
(i) Watertight concrete may be obtained by proper design, rein-
forcing the concrete against cracks due to expansion and contraction,
using the proper proportions of cement and graded aggregates to secure
the filling of voids and employing proper workmanship and close
supervision.
(2) Membrane waterproofing, of either asphalt or pure coal-tar
pitch in connection with felts and burlaps, with proper number of
layers, good materials and workmanship and good working conditions,
is recommended as good practice for waterproofing masonry, concrete
and bridge floors.
(3) Permanent and direct drainage of bridge floors is essential
to secure good results in waterproofing.
(4) Integral methods of waterproofing concrete have given some
good results. Special care is required to properly proportion the con-
crete, mix thoroughly and deposit properly so as to have the void-
filling compounds do the required duty; if this is neglected, the value
of the compounds is lost and their waterproofing effect destroyed.
Careful tests should be made to ascertain the proper proportions and
effectiveness of such compounds.
Integral compounds should be used with caution, ascertaining their
chemical action on the concrete as well as their effect on its strength ;
as a general rule, integral compounds are not recommended, since the
same results as to watertightness can be obtained by adding a small
percentage of cement and properly grading the aggregate.
(5) Surface coatings, such as cement mortar, asphalt or bitu-
minous mastic, if properly applied to masonry reinforced against cracks
produced by settlement, expansion and contraction, may be success-
fully used for waterproofing arches, abutments, retaining walls, reser-
voirs and similar structures; for important work under high pressure
of water these cannot be recommended for all conditions.
(6) Surface brush coatings, such as oil paints and varnishes, are
not considered reliable or lasting for waterproofing of masonry.
Appendix B.
(I) COATINGS.
LINSEED OIL PAINTS AND VARNISHES.
The following information is from Technologic Paper No. 3, U. S.
Bureau of Standards, Tests of the Absorptive and Permeable Prop-
erties of Portland Cement Mortars and Concretes, and Tests on Damp-
proofing and Waterproofing Compounds and Materials, 191 1:
"Compounds in this class differ in no wise from the ordinary enamel
paints, which are usually characterized by hardness and brittleness due
to the comparatively large amount of hard resins and the small amount
of linseed oil. Linseed oil is constantly undergoing changes due to
oxidation and, in the presence of alkali, its life is still further decreased
owing to the saponification which takes place in the presence of the
latter. Nearly all these coatings softened under the influence of
water, thus showing that saponification was taking place. By putting
more resin in the material, the manufacturer puts more of a stable
compound in it, as opposed to the more unstable material linseed oil.
In respect to both oxidation and saponification, the resins are more
stable. To replace all or nearly all of the oil by resin would give a
very brittle, inelastic coating, which is so little desired.
"Some manufacturers have added Portland cement to varnishes and
placed them on the market, but these decompose so quickly, the oil
reacting with the cement, that they were withdrawn.
"No one special pigment was found in samples tested. The volatile
material or thinner used in these compounds was also that common to
ordinary paints or varnishes. Some of the paints could not be dis-
tinguished by chemical analysis from any of the other similarly colored
paints on the market to be used for general purposes. Paints carrying
petroleum oil, would, after the evaporation of the volatile thinners, leave
the petroleum filling the surface pores. Under any considerable head
of water, it would be forced out."
A. S. Cushman, Director, Institute of Industrial Research, Wash-
ington, D. C, in Am. Soc. for Testing Materials, Vol. 10: "The reason
why some treatment should be necessary before applying paint coating
to the surface of concrete must be apparent to everyone. When
Portland cement sets, a certain amount of lime is set free in a hydrated
condition, as calcium hydroxide. This is a strong alkali and tends to
saponify the oil in the paint coating and thus destroy it. Zinc sul-
phate is very well adapted for preliminary treatment of the concrete
surface owing to the fact that when zinc sulphate is brought into con-
tact with calcium hydroxide, a chemical reaction takes place which
results in the formation of calcium sulphate and zinc hydroxide. After
the concrete surface is dry, a solution of zinc sulphate and water, equal
parts by weight, should be applied with an ordinary bristle brush and
allowed to dry from 48 to 72 hours. After the surface has become
537
538 MASONRY.
thoroughly dry again, it will contain within its pores a mixture of
gypsum and zinc oxide ; these materials have no bad influence on lin-
seed oil, and in fact are frequently used as paint pigments."
Mixtures of various Bitumen with Linseed Oil, etc., information
from Tech. Paper No. 3 : "This class covers a large variety of mixtures.
The makers seem to have had one purpose in mind in making these,
however, to make the materials more elastic by the addition of a drying
oil, as linseed oil. It is a question if they have not sacrificed durability
by this addition, since it is very likely that bitumen alone on the con-
crete would last longer and be more inactive than the readily oxidizing
and very active and drying oils."
ASPHALT.
The following information is taken from "Roads and Pavements,"
by I. O. Baker, and from other sources :
"Recent investigations are inclined to class all components of as-
phalt under two heads only, the active and the inert. The active ele-
ment is that part which is easily melted by heat, is readily soluble in
ether or naphtha and is highly adhesive and cementitious ; while the
inert material is the hard and brittle part which is not readily melted by
heat and which adds nothing to the cementitious properties of the as-
phalt. The ratio in which the active and the inert constituents are-
combined is the true index of the value of asphalt for use as a cement.
"Crude and also refined asphalts from different localities differ
widely in consistency, in susceptibility to changes of temperature and
to changes by age, in stability at high temperatures, cohesiveness, ad-
hesiveness, elasticity, etc. There is no recognized standard for testing
the physical properties of asphalt and the results of such tests are
usually stated in terms so general as to be of no scientific value. As
a rule, tests of the physical properties are useless except perhaps in
comparing two asphalts tested at the same time, under the same con-
ditions.
Composition of Trinidad Asphalt.
Components. Crude Hard Lake Asphalt.
Bitumen soluble in carbon bisulphide 38.15 per cent.
Earthy matter 26.38 per cent.
Vegetable matter 7.63 per cent.
Water 27.85 per cent.
Refined Hard Lake Asphalt.
Bitumen soluble in carbon bisulphide 53-87 per cent.
Earthy matter 36.56 per cent.
Vegetable matter 10.57 per cent.
Bermudez Asphalt.
Composition of the Crude Asphalt.
Bitumen soluble in carbon bisulphide 0354 per cent.
Earthy matter 2.16 per cent.
Vegetable matter 1.15 per cent.
Water 3.15 per cent.
MASONRY. 539
"In manufacturing asphaltic cement, the Bermudez asphalt requires
much less of the fluxing agent than does the Trinidad on account of the
large amount of oil contained in the former.
"Maltha (Cal.) refined product contains an average of 98.26 per cent,
of pure bitumen and 1.74 per cent, of mineral matter.
Solid California Asphalt. Average Composition (crude.)
Bitumen soluble in carbon sulphide 59-15 per cent.
Earthy matter 39-75 per cent.
Vegetable matter 1.10 per cent.
"There are also some soluble salts present in asphalts in small quanti-
ties which possibly may help to explain the fact that asphalt is acted
upon by standing water.
"Asphaltic Cement. — Asphalt is so hard that before being used it is
necessary to soften it by the admixture of oil. A selection of the proper
fluxing agent for the harder asphalts is a very important matter. The
properties required of an asphaltic flux are:
"(1) It should contain no material volatile under 300 degrees Fahren-
heit, as otherwise the volatile matter will be given off while it is being
heated. (2) The flux should be as fluid as possible, in order that the
greatest softening effect may be produced by the least quantity, as or-
dinarily the fluxing agent is expensive. (3) The softening agent should
be chemically stable and not lose its fluidity by molecular change. (4)
The fluxing agent should dissolve the asphalt and not simply form a me-
chanical mixture with it* and therefore the fluxing agent should dis-
solve the asphaltene. There are two general classes of asphaltic flux in
common use: (1) Petroleum residuum or artificial bituminous fluxes and
(2) Malthas or natural bituminous fluxes. The first is composed of liquid
paraffin and the second of fluid natural bitumens of the same nature as
asphalt. There are two forms of each in more or less general use. There
are, therefore, four fluxing agents, viz. :
"(1) Residuum from the paraffin petroleum of Pennsylvania.
"(2) A specially prepared paraffin — petroleum residuum known as
Pittsburgh flux.
"(3) Residuum from the asphaltic petroleum of California.
"(4) Maltha.
"Until recent years the first was the only fluxing material in use,
but at present all four are in more or less common use.
"Paraffin Petroleum Residuum. — Judging from the physical properties
of this residuum and its chemical relations to asphalt bitumen, it is not
a desirable flux.
"Pittsburgh Flux. — This is made by heating paraffin petroleum resi-
duum with sulphur, which favorably changes the paraffin and has been
used to a limited extent.
"Asphalt Petroleum Residuum. — California petroleum is an excellent
solvent of asphalt and in recent years has been much used as a fluxing
material.
540 MASONRY.
"Maltha. — This is unsuitable for use as the fluxing agent for asphalt,
as it has no fluxing effect upon the asphalt to which it is added.
"Petroleum Residuals. — The petroleums found in the United States
vary in quality according to their location.
"The Pennsylvania oils are rich in paraffins and in the lighter and
more valuable illuminating oils and naphthas. Most of the California oils
are practically free from paraffins and have comparatively small quantities
of the illuminating oils. They are darker in color, have a greater specific
gravity and have what is known as an asphaltic base. The oils found
in the intermediate fields have qualities varying between the two extremes.
"As compared with asphalt, tar more easily loses its cementing quali-
ties by vaporization and oxidation. The particular method of distinguish-
ing asphalt and coal tar, therefore, to the layman, is the odor. The tar
emits a sharp odor while both the crude and the refined asphalt when
cold give a weak clay-like odor and must be rubbed to obtain the dis-
tinctive bitumen odor. If tar is mixed with asphalt the presence of 25
per cent, will be revealed by the odor. When being laid, tar gives off
a bluish vapor while asphalt emits a white vapor. Expert analysis is
necessary to detect the presence of tar when mixed with asphalt in small
quantities. The following method will certainly detect 5 per cent, to 7
per cent, of tar : Extract the bitumen with carbon disulphide, filter,
evaporate to dryness and heat the residue until it can be ground to a dry
powder; 0.1 of a grain is treated with 5 c.c. of fuming sulphuric acid for
24 hours and is then mixed by continuous stirring with 10 c.c. of water.
If coal tar be present, the solution will be of a dark brown or blackish
tint; if not, the solution will be of a light yellowish color.
"Tars are sometimes employed for fluxing purposes, but they do not
mix easily with the asphalt. As asphaltic compounds age, they tend to
become brittle and hard, losing their elasticity and combining power. Poor
fluxing hastens this process."
ASPHALT SPECIFICATIONS.
Specifications for asphalt waterproofing, Chicago & Northwestern
Railway, by W. H. Finley, in Journal, Western Society of Engineers,
June, 1912:
"Asphalt shall be used which is of the best grade, free from coal tar
or any of its products, and which shall not volatilize more than 0.5 per
cent, under temperature of 325 degrees Fahrenheit, for seven hours.
"It must not be affected by 20 per cent, solution of ammonia, a 25
per cent, solution of sulphuric acid, a 35 per cent, solution of hydrochloric
acid, or by a saturated solution of sodium chloride. It should allow no
hydrolytic decomposition when subjected for a period of ten hours to
hourly immersions in water, with alternate rapid drying by warm air
currents.
"For metallic structures exposed to the direct rays of the sun, the
asphalt must not flow under 212 degrees Fahrenheit, nor become brittle at
o degrees Fahrenheit, when spread thin on glass.
MASONRY. 541
"For structures under ground, such as masonry arches, abutments, re-
taining walls, foundations, walls of buildings, subways, etc., a flow point
of 180 degrees Fahrenheit, and a brittle point of o degrees Fahrenheit,
will be required.
"A mastic made from either grade of asphalt by mixing it with sand
in the proportion of i asphalt to 4 sand must not perceptibly indent when
at a temperature of 130 degrees Fahrenheit, under a load of 20 lbs. per sq.
in. It must also remain pliable at a temperature of o degrees."
From discussion on above by Clifford Richardson :
"Referring to the above specifications, it is claimed that they call for
a material of much too high a melting point, and on this account, neces-
sarily a very short material and one lacking in ductility and adhesiveness.
A material of a lower melting point and one that is more adhesive
possesses greater self-healing properties, that is to say, of uniting if a
crack forms in the concrete over which it is placed and by any chance
fractures the waterproof coating."
Specifications proposed by Clifford Richardson :
"(1) Asphaltum. — In order to demonstrate that the asphaltum is
free from coal tar, its distillate, obtained upon destructive distillation,
must be completely insoluble in dimethyl sulphate.
"In order to demonstrate that the asphaltum is essentially a genuine
natural asphaltum and not largely a petroleum residue, it shall have a
specific gravity, at 77 degrees Fahrenheit, greater than unity, and shall not
contain over 1.0 per cent, paraffin scale as determined by the Holde
method.
"(2) Purity. — In order to demonstrate the percentage of bitumen in
the asphaltum, and to regulate the uniformity of the material, it shall be
soluble to the extent of at least 95 per cent, in carbon disulphide.
"(3) Consistency. — In order to demonstrate that the asphaltum is
of the proper degree of consistency, it must, when tested for 5 seconds
at 77 degrees Fahrenheit, with a No. 2 needle, weighted with 100 grams,
have a penetration of at least 7.5 mm. and not more than 10.0 mm.
"(4) Viscosity. — In order to demonstrate that the asphaltum has a
sufficiently low melting point and a degree of fluidity to be conveniently
melted for use, and possesses suitable flowing and self-healing properties,
it shall have a viscosity of not more than 10 minutes at 150 degrees Fah-
renheit, as determined by the float test apparatus, manufactured by How-
ard & Morse, Brooklyn, N. Y.
"(5) Cementitiousness. — In order to demonstrate the cementitious
or adhesive character of the asphaltum and to preserve the proper balance
between its adhesive and cohesive qualities, such asphaltum shall have a
ductility between 25 and 100 cm. at 77 degrees Fahrenheit, according to
the District of Columbia standard.
"(6) Stability. — In order to demonstrate that the asphaltum is of a
sufficient stability to insure against loss of consistency upon being sub-
jected to working heat, it shall meet the following test:
"When 50 grams of the asphaltum are heated in a dish 2% in. in
diameter, for seven hours at 325 degrees Fahrenheit, the loss shall not
542 MASONRY.
exceed 3 per cent., and the penetration of the residue shall not be reduced
more than 50 per cent, from its original consistency.
"(7) Durability. — In order to demonstrate that the asphaltum is un-
affected by water, a thin film of such asphaltum, when coated on glass
and immersed in fresh or salt water at atmospheric temperatures for an
indefinite period of time, must not disintegrate.
"(8) Safety. — In order to insure safety of operation the asphaltum
must not flash below 350 degrees Fahrenheit, when tested in the Cleve-
land cup.
"(9) Standard. — Any asphaltum to be eligible for use under these
specifications must be in all respects equal in quality to refined Bermudez
Lake asphalt, but whether the asphaltum is manufactured of refined Ber-
mudez Lake asphalt or otherwise, it shall not be considered as complying
with these specifications unless it complies with each and all of the tests
herein above specified."
Specifications for waterproofing Chicago River tunnel :
"(38) The asphalt should be the best Assyrian, Cuban or Alcatraz,
free from coal tar or any of its products, and must not volatilize more
than 0.5 per cent, under a temperature of 300 degrees Fahrenheit for ten
hours. It must not be affected by a 20 per cent, solution of ammonia, 25
per cent, solution of sulphuric acid, a 35 per cent, solution of muriatic acid,
nor by a saturated solution of sodium chloride. It shall show no hydro-
lytic decomposition when subject for a period of ten hours to hourly im-
mersions in water with alternate rapid drying by warm air currents.
"(39) The asphalt must not flow under a temperature of less than
200 degrees Fahrenheit, nor become brittle at 0 degrees Fahrenheit when
spread thin on a sheet of glass. A mastic made with equal parts of asphalt
and bank sand or marble dust must not indent below a temperature of 100
degrees Fahrenheit, when subject to a load of 20 lbs. per sq. in.; it must
also be pliable at a temperature of o degrees Fahrenheit.
"(40) The waterproofing course shall consist of two courses of
brick laid flat in hot asphalt mastic. The joints of the brick work shall
be at least one inch thick. The brick shall be carefully laid and not
shoved along nor into the mastic. After the first course of brick is laid,
it shall be flooded with hot asphalt mastic, care being taken to thoroughly
cover the brick and fill all joints. The second course of brick shall then
be placed as above specified and then flooded with hot asphalt so there
will be at least one inch cover of asphalt mastic over all brick in every
course.
"(41) The compound or mastic used may vary according to the
nature of the work or time of placing, but in general it will consist of
one part by weight of aspbalt to one part sand or marble dust, these to
be thoroughly stirred and mixed while beating and applied at a tempera-
ture of not less than 375 degrees Fahrenheit. In joining old or hardened
waterproofing to new or fresh waterproofing, the surface and edges of the
former shall be thoroughly heated immediately before applying or plac-
ing fresh waterproofing.
MASONRY. 543
"(42) No waterproofing shall be used or placed until the concrete
has been fully dried, nor shall any waterproofing be done in damp or
rainy weather.
"(43) Waterproofing shall be paid for on the basis of actual amount
measured in place at a unit price per square foot, mentioned in the pro-
posal.
"(44) Brick used in waterproofing shall be thoroughly dried and
shall be heated before using, if this becomes necessary."
A very interesting exhibit of bituminous waterproofing material is to
be seen in the office of the Harbor and Subway Commission, City Hall
Square Building, Chicago. Specimens of waterproofing removed from
the old Chicago River tunnels are over 40 years old, the material having
been applied about 1869.
At the time of the construction of the LaSalle and Washington
Street tunnels in 1869, the city was supplied with a bituminous water-
proofing material which was being used on fortifications under construc-
tion at Newport News, and which was supplied to the city at cost by the
Government. The waterproofing of these tunnels consisted of a layer of
brick laid in asphalt. The samples shown, which were several inches
square and about JA in. thick, were pliable, and could be easily indented
with the fingernail at room temperature and seemed to have a fair amount
of strength. Upon ignition and upon rubbing with the hand the material
gave off the characteristic odor of asphalt. A sample of material, which
has been in a tin can for two years, has conformed to the shape of the
vessel, that is, it apparently melted down. The condition of this material
would seem to indicate that under the pressure to which it is subjected
in use, it would be self-heating and, considering the age, over 40 years,
the condition seems remarkably good. It must be remembered that up to
the time of the opening of the drainage canal, the Chicago River was an
open sewer, carrying practically all the sewage and wastes of the city of
Chicago.
A specimen of pitch used in some of the waterproofing done several
years ago was shown, and was apparently in excellent condition.
The bids on waterproofing one of the recently constructed Chicago
River tunnels, according to the specifications given, including the protec-
tive covering of 8 in. of concrete, varied from 50 to 70 cents per sq. ft.
The waterproofing of these tunnels by the methods described has proved
very efficient. The principal difficulty has been that, owing to the nature
of the reconstruction work, there have been places where no waterproofing
could be applied, and there has been a great deal of work that had to be
in small pieces and joined to other work. The results obtained, however,
have been very satisfactory.
Armstrong, in Western Society of Engineers, on New Passenger Ter-
minal, Chicago & Northwestern Railway, Chicago, 111.:
"There were three classes of waterproofing work, each differing from
the others in certain particulars :
"(1) On passenger platforms in train shed.
"(2) On tracks in train shed, being the space between platforms.
544 MASONRY.
"(3) On ballasted track floors.
"(1) Waterproofing on passenger platforms consisted of an asphalt
mastic coating \l/z in. thick on top of the concrete of the platform, to
serve as a wearing surface in addition to its waterproofing qualities. The
concrete was first given a coat of liquid asphalt paint, applied cold. The
mastic used was the manufactured product of the Standard Asphalt &
Rubber Co. It was brought on to the work in blocks and melted in
specially designed boilers with the addition of a small percentage of flux.
"After the mastic was thoroughly melted and mixed with the flux,
grit, in the form of washed torpedo gravel or granite screenings, was
added to the mixture, the amount of grit varying from 50 per cent, to
60 per cent, of the mass. The mixture was thoroughly stirred with iron
stirring rods and brought to a temperature of 450 degrees Fahrenheit. It
was then spread over the surface of the floor and rubbed down with wooden
floats. The mastic was applied in two layers, each fy m- thick. The
first layer was mixed with torpedo sand and the second layer with granite
screenings, to reduce the slipperiness of the surface. The second layer
was sprinkled with fine sharp sand while still warm and soft, and thor-
oughly rubbed to a true smooth surface. On top of this, dry Portland
cement was sprinkled and the rubbing continued until the mastic had
quite hardened."
Information concerning the use of asphalt for waterproofing has been
published in the American Railway Engineering Association Proceedings
as follows :
Market Street Subway, Philadelphia Vol. 11, Part 2
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Vol. 11, Part 2
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Vol. 11, Part 2
Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway Vol. 12, Part 1
Chicago & Northwestern Railway Vol. 12, Part 1
Central Railroad of New Jersey Vol. 13, Vol. 12, Part 1
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway
Vol 11, Part 2; Vol. 12, Part 1; Vol. 13
Michigan Central Railroad Vol. 13
Union & Southern Pacific System Vol. 13
New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Vol. 13
American Railway Engineering Association, Bulletin 64, June, 1905.
In a paper on the Chicago River Tunnels, presented before the West-
ern Society of Engineers, November, 191 1 (Journal, Vol. 16, No. 19), by
William Artingstall, the following information is given regarding the
waterproofing of the Chicago River tunnels:
"The roof of the Van Buren Street tunnel, reconstructed in 1907,
consists of concrete jack arches between steel cross girders 4 ft. 3 in. c. c.
Over the entire roof and extending up into the bulkheads over the ends
of the river section of the new roof, was laid a waterproofing course of
brick embedded in and flushed with hot asphalt compound. This is pro-
tected by a 12-in. course of concrete.
MASONRY. 545
"The concrete in the jack arches was mixed wet and thoroughly
puddled. Concrete was allowed to set and thoroughly dry for two weeks
before starting the waterproofing course.
"The specified waterproofing was one course of brick and a mixture
of asphalt and gypsum, but so much trouble was encountered by foaming
that this mixture had to be abandoned and a mixture of asphalt, asphaltic
cement and marble dust substituted. This retained the heat better, gave
no trouble in the boiling pan, and adhered better to the brick. But like
the other, the new mixture did not adhere to the concrete. To remedy
this feature, a second course of brick, with ij4-in. joints, was embedded
in the filler course of asphalt and the upper parts of the joints filled with
cement grout. The waterproofing was finished February 16, 1907.
"In the reconstruction of the Washington Street tunnel in 1906, the
waterproofing used on the roof consisted of a mastic of asphalt, asphaltic
cement and marble dust, the amount of any one being governed by the
requirements of the particular location or condition. In general, how-
ever, the asphalt was about 50 per cent, of the entire mixture. An inch
layer of the mixture was spread over the roof and hard sewer brick was
immediately imbedded therein, with joints not less than one-half inch,
which were then flooded with a thinner mixture of the same mastic.
"In the reconstruction of this tunnel in 1909, the waterproofing course
used on Section 1 of the tunnel (lying between Clinton and Canal streets)
was brick laid in asphalt.
"It is noted that in the construction of the old LaSalle Street tun-
nel, built in 1869-1871, the outer course of brick in the arches was laid in
asphalt, instead of simply being covered with a layer of asphalt."
In discussing the design of the new LaSalle Street tunnel, Mr. Art-
ingstall makes the following remarks :
"On account of our assumption of open cut work, the tunnel at an
early stage must necessarily sustain a heavy, loose backfill, and the design
was made on the basis of supporting the entire weight without counting
on the arching effect within the material itself. Only the effective sec-
tion was used in making the calculations, no allowance being made for
any assistance from the waterproofing course of brick nor from concrete
covering same.
"The plans of the tunnel provide for an 8-in. waterproofing course
outside the tunnel structure, covered by 8 in. of concrete, and extending
from the track level and up over the arch."
In Proceedings of the American Railway Bridge and Building Asso-
ciation, Vol. 18, 1908, is published a report of a committee of that body,
on the subject of "Waterproofing of Concrete Covered Steel Floors of
Bridges."
The report contains information as to methods used in waterproofing
solid-floor street crossings on several railroads. The good adhesion of
concrete to steel in trough floors was particularly noted in the case of a
bridge junked.
No definite recommendations are contained in the committee's report.
546 MASONRY.
Waterproofing With Coal Tar.
Grand Trunk Railway A. R. E. A., Vol. 12, Part 1
New York Central & Hudson River Railroad
A. R. E. A., Vol. 12, Part 1
New York Central & Hudson River Railroad
A. R. E. A., Vol. 13
Waterproofing With Tar Paint.
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad A. R. E. A., Vol. n, Part 2
St. Louis & San Francisco Railroad A. R. E. A., Vol. 13
General Remarks on Bituminous Waterproofing.
American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 10:
Cyril de Wyrall: "The greatest disintegrators of asphaltum and
pitch bitumens, which are mainly used for waterproofing, are benzole or
gas drip, kerosene or petroleum and other like oils, and ferrous hydroxite ;
the latter substance is a seepage which is common to the gneiss rock for-
mation such as is found on Manhattan Island. These well-known foes
of bitumens should be particularly guarded against.
"Hot brick and asphalt were also used in several places (New York
Subway), all of which have failed in places where it was most necessary
that this should not have occurred.
"Where water has not touched the waterproofing, it has as a rule,
held good, but where water has come into actual contact with waterproof-
ing, it has failed. Where the water has been impregnated with benzole
or gas drip, due to leaking gas mains, it has gone through the protecting
coat of concrete and, in numerous instances, it has so dissolved the bitu-
men as to cause it to run through the shrinkage cracks between the con-
crete and the steel, and to drip through on the platforms and tracks.
When an excavation was made to repair the waterproofing at some of
these points, there was practically nothing left; everything had been dis-
solved. In short, the waterproofing generally has proved efficient, pro-
vided the water has been kept away from it.
"To get an efficient waterproofing material, the chemical tests should
be radically changed. A carbon test by heating should be required, and
a bitumen should be used, of- which at least 30 per cent, should be in-
soluble in cold naphtha. The running and melting points are much too
low. It is folly to specify a bitumen that will run at 60 degrees and
melt at 100 degrees Fahrenheit, as it would be impossible to keep it
on a vertical wall at a summer temperature, such as is obtained in this
latitude, unless it were nailed on, especially with four or five-ply work.
A far better specification would be that bitumen should have a melting
point of not less than 200 degrees Fahrenheit, and that it should be
pliable at 20 degrees Fahrenheit.
"The plan of waterproofing the sides to the ground water level is
inefficient as most of the trouble occurs in the roof. Such leaks, together
with the gas and the oil from the street railway switches, are a source
of considerable expense."
MASONRY. 547
"Five bituminous waterproofing materials used in test conducted by
the American Society for Testing Materials, when subjected to the action
of Astoria gas drip seepage water from the sump of the New York Sub-
way at 42d Street, same with the addition of 5 per cent, of kerosene and
city water to which had been added about 23 per cent, of potash, showed
that the bituminous material in every case was partly dissolved and car-
ried away by the gas drip ; showed no effect from seepage water, and were
somewhat affected by seepage water and kerosene."
SOAP AND ALUM WASHES.
Chicago & Northwestern Railway, American Railway Engineering
Association Proceedings, Vol. 12, Part 1.
El Paso & Southwestern System, American Railway Engineering As-
sociation Proceedings, Vols. 11, 12, 13.
See Treatise on Masonry Construction, I. O. Baker, for description
of and formula for soap and alum method.
MISCELLANEOUS COATINGS.
Technologic Paper 3 : ''The analysis of compound No. 25 showed 85
per cent, iron and 3^ per cent, sal ammoniac. The material is applied on
the surface in a water paste form, hence it can only be a surface filler
and does not penetrate. There may be a reaction between the concrete
and the material, but the one reaction upon which the value of the com-
pound depends, is the corrosion of the iron by the sal ammoniac in the
presence of water. If the resulting corroded iron will adhere to the con-
crete, the material should have considerable value as a waterproofing
material."
National Association'of Cement Users, December, 1912, C. M. Chap-
man:
TESTING MATERIALS FOR WATERPROOFING CONCRETE.
"In practically all the numerous tests of waterproofing made in the
past 7 or 8 years, in the laboratory of Westinghouse, Church, Kerr & Co.,
it has been the custom to expose the test pieces to the action of the
weather on the roof of their office building after first testing them and
then testing again after 6 or 12 months' exposure. The results of these
tests after prolonged exposure show that few, if any, of the materials
which are applied to the surface of concrete to waterproof it after it is
made, will retain even a small proportion of their efficiency.'*
CEMENT MORTAR.
Reports on the use of plaster coatings for waterproofing are published
in American Railway Engineering Association Proceedings as follows:
Pennsylvania Lines West Vol. 11, Part 2
Canadian Pacific Railway Vol. 13
Long Island Railroad Vol. 13
New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Vol. 13
548 MASONRY.
(Ill) INTEGRAL METHODS OF WATERPROOFING.
INERT FILLERS.
In the discussion of inert fillers in the Bureau of Standards Tech-
nologic Paper No. 3, the author states that some of the fillers ordinarily
used — hydrated lime, feldspar, sand and clay — may be partly changed in
time when in the concrete. The hydrated lime may be partly carbonated,
especially on the surface; the feldspar may decompose by the leaching out
of the alkalies ; the sand will change but very little ; the clays will be
very inert, although some theories have been brought forward which as-
sume a very important role for clay when mixed into concrete.
Under the theory proposed by R. H. Gaines, of the New York Board
of Water Supply,* the electricity charged ions of water not only ma-
terially aid the chemical combinations of the elements in the cement, but
also tend to form a glue-like film around the particles, joining them to-
gether and forming a dense and hard mass. By the substitution of a dilute
solution of some electrolyte for the water, the more numerous ions of the
electrolyte will cause the same binding action to a higher degree, and the
resulting product will be more closely bound together, that is, more dense
and, therefore, stronger and more impervious. Also by the introduction
into the mass of- certain substances known as colloids, which have the
power of aiding the electrolytic action and at the same time of retarding
the too rapid hydration of the calcium ingredients of the cement, the set-
ting process can be carried to a higher degree of density and solidity.
In the experiments reported by Mr. Gaines, 2^ per cent, of alum in-
creased the compressive strength of 1 :i3 Atlas cement and Cow Bay sand
mortar specimens by about 35 per cent, at 90 days ; and the tensile strength
by about 7 per cent. The permeability tests on the treated mortars showed
a great increase in impermeability with the addition of the alum solution.
Similar tests using 5 per cent, of alum showed an increase of about
11 per cent, in the compressive strength at 90 days, and an increase of
about 9 per cent, in the tensile strength at 90 days. Permeability tests
showed a still greater increase in impermeability. Similar tests in which
colloidal clay was substituted for 5 per cent, and 10 per cent, of the sand,
showed still greater increases in strengths and in impermeability. A third
set of experiments in which colloidal clay was substituted for 5 per cent,
and 10 per cent, of the sand used and 2^2 per cent, and 5 per cent, of alum
solution was used in the mixing water, showed similarly favorable in-
fluences on strengths and impermeability.
As a result of the investigations carried on by the commissioners
of sewerage at Louisville, Ky., 1910, concrete to be used in wet localities
has been made by the substitution for 10 per cent, of the regular (Ohio
River) sand, a like amount of fine sand containing some clay, and uni-
formly satisfactory results have been obtained.
Tests to determine the effect of the waterproofing materials upon the
tensile strength of heat and 1 13 mortar briquettes were made in connec-
*See Engineering News, September 26, 1907.
MASONRY. 549
tion with impermeability tests. The mortar briquettes showing the great-
est strength at 28 days were those in which 5 per cent, and 10 per cent, of
hydrated lime was added and those in which 10 per cent, of molding sand
was substituted for an equal amount of sand. Five per cent, of clay and
5 per cent, of molding sand substituted for an equal amount of sand and
5 per cent, of Ceresit added to the mixing water, gave strengths about
75 per cent, of the former. Other tests, with 2^ per cent, and 7^ per
cent, of clay in place of sand, gave strengths equal to 65 per cent, of the
first mentioned mixtures. McCormick waterproofed cement gave still
less strength, two different samples varying nearly 50 per cent.
American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 8, 1908:
Permeability tests of concrete with the addition of hydrated lime, by
Sanford E. Thompson, Lehigh cement, crushed conglomerate rock,
which resembles trap in its characteristics and tests, and good, coarse
sand, Pine Cone brand hydrated lime.
CONCLUSIONS.
(1) Hydrated lime increases the watertightness of concrete.
(2) Effective proportions of hydrated lime for watertight concrete1
are as follows :
For 1 cement 2 sand 4 stone, add 8 per cent, hydrated lime.
For 1 cement 2H sand 4^ stone, add 12 per cent, hydrated lime.
For 1 cement 3 sand 5 stone, add 16 per cent, hydrated lime.
These percentages are based on the weight of dry hydrated lime to
the weight of the dry Portland cement.
(3) The cost of large waterproof concrete structures frequently may-
be reduced by employing leaner proportions of concrete with hydrated
lime admixtures, and small structures, such as tanks, may be made more
watertight.
(4) Lime paste made from a given weight of hydrated lime occupies
about 2^4 times the bulk of paste made from the same weight of Portland
cement and is, therefore, very efficient in void filling. Sands containing
considerable fine material produce a more watertight, although a weaker
concrete. Pressure used, 60 lbs. per sq. in., specimens 8 in. thick. (No,
strength tests given.)
The author refers to tests made in 1906 in connection with the con-
struction of a reservoir 100 ft. in diameter, 43 ft. high, at Waltham, Mass.
Five per cent, of hydrated lime was adopted to mix with the 1 :2 :4 con-
crete in building the walls. Results were satisfactory, the only seepage
occurring at some of the joints between different days' work, where the
bond between the old and new concrete was not made with sufficient care.
In the tests described in Technologic Paper No. 3, hydrated lime
was incorporated into a 1:4 mortar with Maramec River sand. The ef-
fect of the lime on the compressive strength was to decrease it by about
15 per cent, with the addition of 2 per cent, of the hydrated lime, and to
increase it about 2 per cent, with the addition of 10 per cent, of hydrated
lime. The effect on the tensile strength was to decrease it by about 20
550 MASONRY.
per cent, in the first case and by about 25 per cent, in the second case.
All the fillers tested were quite effective in increasing impermeability,
but the clays appeared to be slightly more effective than the sand or
feldspar.
American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 8, Hydrated Lime and
Cement Mortars. E. W. Lazell :
"Hydrated lime is lime slaked with sufficient water so that each par-
ticle of quick lime or calcium oxide receives enough water to form the
hydrate. It is chemically the same material as lime paste without the
excess water to make it wet and plastic. To render the hydrated lime
plastic, it is only necessary to add this excess water in the same way as
it is added to cement. The hydrate is prepared in a regular plant de-
signed for the purpose and a much more uniform product is produced
than by the customary way of slaking lime on the work. The mechan-
ically-treated hydrated lime is further aged in bins or silos like cement
before it is placed on the market. Air-slaked lime is radically different
in its composition and characteristics from hydrated lime. Air-slaked
lime has become slaked by contact with the moisture and carbon dioxide
of the atmosphere ; it is not of a uniform composition and generally con-
tains considerable free or unslaked lime. On the other hand, hydrated
lime is a homogeneous, uniform product, perfectly hydrated. The product
goes into the market as a dry powder in bags, and can be as easily han-
dled as cement; therefore, for the preparation of mortar or lime cement
mortar, it offers the great advantage of ease of handling and uniformity.
"The tensile strength of 1 :3 mortars was in general decreased by the
substitution of from 5 per cent, upwards of hydrated lime for an equal
amount of the cement in tests extending over a period of 12 months.
The tensile strength of 1 :5 mortars was in general improved by the sub-
stitution of from 10 per cent, to 40 per cent, hydrated lime for an equal
portion of cement. Standard Ottawa sand used. Five per cent, substi-
tution decreased strength in both cases.
"It should, therefore, be possible to use in mortars for brick work,
an amount of hydrated lime equal to 25 per cent, of the cement used, ob-
taining thereby a plastic mortar which is much stronger than lime mortar
and gains its strength much more quickly. In cement mortar, the addi-
tion does not materially decrease the strength and it does, to a marked
degree, increase the plasticity. The mortar would, therefore, be easier to
place, and laying the bricks would be much facilitated. Plasticity of the
mortar would also enable the bricklayer to do better work. Permeability
tests on 1 :3 mortars, with standard sand, showed some flow in plain ce-
ment mortar at 7 days, zero flow at 28 days; specimens 1 in. thick. Sub-
jected to a pressure of 30 lbs. per sq. in. for 1 hour. Impermeable mor-
tars were obtained proportioned 1 15 with 15 per cent, hydrated lime sub-
stituted for an equal portion of the cement."
Engineering News, November 7, 1912:
Impermeability tests on concrete made by James L. Davis, when in
charge of the laboratory of the New York City Board of Water Supply,
MASONRY. 551
in connection with a design of the Catskill aqueduct, afford an excellent
means of judging of the advisability of using inert materials to obtain
impermeable concrete.
The following conclusions are drawn in regard to the use of hydrated
lime: (i) Hydrated lime is effective in producing impervious concrete,
but its use is doubtful economy, except, possibly, for resisting low pres-
sure of water. Concrete in proportions i :3 :6 requires the addition of a
proportion of lime equal to about 20 per cent, of the weight of the cement
for efficiency against high pressure. This results in a slight loss in the
compressive strength of the concrete as compared with the plain 1 :3 :6
mixture. (2) It is probable it is not an economical material for struc-
tures subjected to tensile stress such as reinforced conduits. .(3) Ex-
cept, possibly, for low pressures, equally good results in impermeability
can be obtained by the same cost invested in additional cement with re-
sulting stronger concrete. (4) The addition of lime increases the plas-
ticity and mold filling properties of concrete, resulting in smoother sur-
faces against forms. Its use may give practical advantages in filling
around reinforcing steel and other restricted spaces. The maximum
density obtained in these tests was .857 on plain, 1 :3 :6 concrete with
straight Portland cement.
Quoted prices in New York per ton: Sand, $1.08; gravel, $1.40;
Portland cement, $678; high calcium hydrated lime, $8.00; magnesian
hydrated lime, $9.50. In commenting on the tests, the author states that
both permeability and strength tests are greatly affected by slight ex-
cesses or deficiencies in the amount of mixing water used. Under 40 lbs.
per sq. in. water pressure, Portland cement concrete in proportions 1.2:3:6
(equivalent to 1:2^:5), or richer, and all proportions of hydrated lime
used (0.1 to 0.3 of amount of cement added) give impervious concrete.
At 80 lbs. pressure, several of the above described mixes are practically
impervious and none of them give much leakage.
High calcium lime is the only material giving entirely consistent re-
sults in decreasing permeability in proportion to the amount used.
Similar tests were also made on puzzolan cement. Puzzolan cement
is slightly less efficient than the cement hydrated lime construction.
Averaging all comparable proportions, the relative strengths at 3
months age are as follows : Portland cement 100 per cent., calcium lime
85 per cent., magnesian lime 76 per cent., puzzolan cement 81 per cent.
Compressive tests on r :3 :6 concrete cylinders 6 in. diameter, 12 in. length.
Aggregates used were ordinary quartz sand, and gravel, supplied from
Long Island banks for the New York market, sand all passed a sieve
with 0.2-in. square openings; the gravel passed a i^4-in. and was retained
on a 0.2-in. sieve.
A record of the volumes of rammed concrete produced in the tests
was kept as a check on the volume computed from density tests. The
lime does not have an appreciable effect in increasing the volume of con-
crete, neither does it increase the density, although hydrated lime yields
about 2l/i, times the volume of paste that an equal weight of Portland ce-
552 MASONRY.
ment does. The density of the richest cement lime paste used was 0.42,
the density of plain cement paste was 0.52. The cement lime paste had
an excess of volume of paste of 29 per cent, over plain cement paste.
With cement lime paste, the maximum density any paste-filled cavity can
have is 0.42 ; with cement paste it may be 0.52.
Based on prices in New York markets, plain Portland cement concrete
costs slightly less per cubic yard for materials than any of the other
mixes containing equal proportions of cementing materials. For equal
efficiency in waterproofing at 40 lbs. pressure, the use of hydrated lime
reduces the cost of materials about 5 cents per cu. yd. of concrete (equal
to V/z per cent).
Tests similar to those on hydrated lime were made with a white,
pure clay from Georgia, intended to represent high-grade material in
colloidal properties. Plain concrete of two percentages of cement, 10
per cent, and 11 per cent., were selected as the basis of the tests, the
total percentages of fine material in the dry mix, 45 per cent., remaining
constant. A group of specimens was made up in which 5 per cent., 7J4
per cent, and 10 per cent, of clay was substituted for an equal amount of
sand. A second group was made up in which equal percentages of extra
cement were substituted for similar percentages of sand. The clay used
passed a No. 30 sieve. The author's conclusions in regard to the use of
clay are as follows: (1) clay added to ordinary concrete gives beneficial
results in permeability and strength with no practical effect in density ;
(2) compared with an equal excess of cement by weight, clay gives no
advantage of practical importance in permeability or density, and results
in a loss of strength; (3) both processes give impermeable concrete un-
der 80 lbs. pressure ; (4) if the use of clay is practicable on a working
scale, its possible economic use under two methods is evident: (a) By
mixing with the cement at the cement mill. The mixed material would
have to be sold about 20 per cent, cheaper than ordinary cement, (b)
By mixing in the field in localities where the cost of cement is high and
clay can be obtained very cheaply.
The maximum density obtained in this series of tests was 0.807 in
a specimen containing 12 per cent, of cement.
It is noted that concrete of ordinary sand and gravel containing 13.5
per cent, (approximately equivalent to 1 :2^2 :S mix) of cement was im-
pervious at a pressure corresponding to 185 ft. head of water. It is no-
ticeable that the clay gives better results in the leaner concrete. This
seems to indicate that the clay acts simply in a manner similar to very
fine aggregate, for it is well known that lean concretes are benefited in
strength by the addition of fine material, such as loam and dust, which
rich concretes are not.
Special appliances for handling clay would be necessary. The clay
used in these tests when pulverized to pass a No. 30 sieve, 54 per cent,
passed the No. 100 and 15 per cent., the No. 200 sieve. Should it be
found necessary to adopt the method used in practice, the process would
involve considerable expense. The less expensive method, if found prac-
ticable would be to add the clay to the mixing water.
MASONRY. 553
Tests in which blue New York brick clay was substituted for the
white Georgia clay gave similar results.
Tests have demonstrated that finely divided material as hydrated
lime, clay, puzzolan cement, sand cement and very fine sand may be used
to produce highly impermeable concrete. The same result can, however,
be obtained by the use of an extra amount of Portland cement at less cost,
usually, than by any of the special materials, and in all cases with an in-
crease in the strength of the concrete over the other materials. For im-
permeable construction, concrete should contain not less than 45 per cent,
of combined fine aggregate and cement, with ordinary aggregates; 15 per
cent, to 18 per cent, of the entire dry mixture should be cement, unless
the resisting walls are several feet in thickness.
Observations showed that fairly uniform rates of leakage would be
established within 30 minutes after pressure was applied. Tests in wrfich
a range of pressure up to ico lbs. per sq. in. was used, indicated that
leakage increases more rapidly than pressure. It is probable that under
continued action, the rate of leakage would decrease in the usual manner.
Experiments were made by the Ulster & Delaware Railroad Com-
pany to determine the effect on strength and impermeability of mortar of
the addition of clay and colloids.
Results of 90-day breaks are as follows : The addition of 5 per cent.
of alum reduced the tensile strength of 1 .3 mortar briquettes in which
clay had been substituted for 12^2 per cent, and 22^/2 per cent, of the
cement used by about 10 per cent, to 15 per cent. The addition of 2V2.
per cent, of alum reduced the tensile strength of similar mortars from
1 per cent, to 9 per cent. The addition of 2V2. per cent, of alum decreased
the strength of 1 :3 cement mortar briquettes 9 per cent., and the addition
of 5 per cent, of alum increased the strength 2V2 per cent.
In these experiments the substitution of 12^2 per cent, of clay for
an equal amount of the cement increased the tensile strength of 1 13 mor-
tar briquettes by 7 per cent, with two kinds of clay, and decreased the
tensile strength an equal amount with another kind of clay. The substi-
tution of 22 per cent, of clay reduced the strength from 2 per cent, to 15
per cent.
In a discussion of the adulteration of Portland cement, by R. C. Car-
penter, Professor of Experimental Engineering, Cornell University, in
reference to the claim that by the use of certain adulterants in Portland
cement quality could be improved rather than otherwise, he states that
so far as investigations have been made in the past, there is a good deal
to support such a statement. The following inert materials have been
ground into the Portland cement materials subsequent to calcination: (a)
clay (either raw or burned); (b) slaked lime; (c) sand; (d) ashes; (e)
natural cement; (f) pulverized natural rock, like rag-stone or tufa.
His investigations indicated that Rosendale cement could be ground
with Portland cement in practically equal quantities, with no loss in sand-
carrying quality or strength.
Good results obtained with silica cement, made by grinding over fine
sand into Portland cement, were thought by many engineers to come largely
554 MASONRY.
from the extra grinding which the Portland cement received when the
sand was added. The expense of this product forbids its use. Some en-
gineers report decrease of long-time strength with silica cement when
mixed with sand, although showing better results than straight Portland
neat. It is quite evident that any inert material to be of value must not
lessen the good qualities of the cement when used with normal amounts
of sand.
Regarding the use of tufa cement on the Los Angeles aqueduct up
to the present time, investigations have not indicated that the practice
was dangerous, or that the resulting structures would be weak and would
not be permanent. Sufficient time has not elapsed to make it safe to draw
any other conclusions.
Slaked lime added to cement after calcination has a decided effect in
regulating the setting and also tends to make the mortar waterproof.
Slaked lime must be used with care, since any particles which are not
thoroughly hydrated tend to make the cement unsound. It is rather ex-
pensive and is not likely to be largely used because of the fact.
INTEGRAL COMPOUNDS.
Active fillers. — Some compounds are supposed to react with certain
of the constituents of the cement to form other compounds which will
be inert and fill the voids. Resinate of potash in the presence of the free
lime of the concrete would react to form the more insoluble resinate of
lime. Certain saponifiable oils will form an insoluble lime soap with the
concrete. These lime soaps are not only almost insoluble in water, but
they are also not wet by it, consequently they form the basis of the water-
repelling compounds. However, in themselves, these materials are not
waterproof, but become so only as a result of a series of reactions, and
it would be better to use the result of these reactions directly and not
depend upon something that may not always take place.
From Technologic Paper No. 3 : The following is a summary of
conclusions presented in Bulletin No. 46, Office of Public Roads, United
States Department of Agriculture :
"The following conclusions as to the effect of the oils used in ce-
ment and concrete may be drawn from the foregoing investigations :
"(1) The tensile strength of 1:3 oil-mixed mortar is very little
different from that of plain mortar, and shows a substantial gain in
strength at 28 days and 6 months over that at 7 days.
"(2) The times of initial and final set are delayed by the addition
of oil; 5 per cent, of oil increases the time of initial set by 50 per cent.,
and the time of final set by 47 per cent.
"(3) The crushing strength of mortar and concrete is decreased by
the addition of oil to the mix. Concrete with 10 per cent, of oil has 75
per cent, of the strength of plain concrete at 28 days. At the age of 1
year the crushing strength of 1 :3 mortar suffers but little with the addi-
tion of oil in amounts up to 10 per cent.
"(4) The toughness or resistance to impact is but slightly affected
by the addition of oil in amounts up to about 10 per cent.
MASONRY. 555
"(5) The stiffness of oil-mixed concrete appears to be but little
different from that of plain concrete.
"(6) Elasticity. — Results of tests for permanent deformation indicate
that no definite law is followed by oil-mixed concrete.
"(7) Absorption. — Oil-mixed mortar and concrete containing 10 per
cent, of oil have very little absorption, and under low pressures both are
waterproof.
"(8) Permeability. — Oil-mixed mortar containing 10 per cent, of oil
is absolutely watertight under pressures as high as 40 lbs. per sq. in.
Tests indicate that oil-mixed mortar is effective as a waterproofing agent
under low pressures when plastered on either side of porous concrete.
"(9) The bond tests show the inadvisability of using plain bar rein-
forcement with oil-concrete mixtures. The bond of deformed bars is not
seriously weakened by the addition of oil in amounts up to 10 per cent.'"
Tests conducted by the Institute of Industrial Research on oil-mixed
mortars have given good results. Fifteen per cent, (of cement weight)
of oil incorporated in 1 13 cement, standard sand and mortar briquettes,
showed no decrease in tensile strength at 6 months, as compared with
water-mixed briquettes and showed an absorption of only 2 per cent., as
compared with 6.8 per cent, for the latter. The addition of clay to the
oil in amount equal to 7 per cent, of the weight of oil used, did not de-
crease the absorption. The results at the end of one year show prac-
tically the same strength for the oil-mixed briquettes as the straight
water-mixed briquettes and absorption of 3.6 per cent., as compared with
6.9 per cent, for the latter. The addition of clay in amount equal to 7
per cent, of the weight of the oil used, gave practically the same results
as the oil alone. The addition of whiting to the oil in similar amount de-
creased the strength considerably.
In a discussion of alternative designs for a dam in Engineering News,
Vol. 68, No. 10, Edward Wegmann, Consulting Engineer, Department of
Water Supply, Gas and Electricity, New York City, gives the results of
some tests of waterproofing compounds :
"Mixtures of each compound were made with 1 part cement and 2
parts of clean, quartz sand. The samples to be tested were left one day
in air and 34 days in water.
Strength in Lbs. Per Sq. In.
Per Cent.
Trade Name. Manufacturer. Used.
1 :2 Cement and Sand, (no waterproofing)
Shamrock McCormick Waterproofing
Portland Cement Co 3
Medusa Sandusky Portland Cement
Co 4
Metal-Crete Klein Mfg. Co 5
Marvel Goldstein Waterproofing
Products Co 1
Crude Oil 10
One in
Integrol Wemlinger Steel Piling Co. 25 pts. of 391
water.
Tension.
490
Com-
pression.
4,655
469
4,136
417
454
3,889
5,055
466
362
3,412
4,509
556 MASONRY.
"While the tests made were not numerous enough, nor continued
sufficiently long to give conclusive results, they show that the admixture
of any of the compounds with the cement always diminished somewhat
the tensile strength of the mortar. Tests made recently for the Depart-
ment of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity of the city of New York gave
similar results. This diminution of tensile strength may be less appre-
ciable in tests for longer periods.
"In the tests for watertightness of mortar mixed with the waterproof-
ing compounds, blocks were subjected to a water pressure of 75 lbs. per
sq. in. None of the cubes showed loss of water through the mass when
subjected to the water pressure, and they all appeared to be practically
watertight.
"The engineers in charge took under consideration the fact that the
Ambursen Hydraulic Construction Company has made the decks of many
dams it has built practically watertight by using a wet mixture of 1 :2 .-4
concrete. In view of the reduction in tensile strength of mortar contain-
ing a waterproofing compound, indicated by the tests, it was finally de-
cided by the engineers not to use any integral waterproofing."
WATER-REPELLING COMPOUNDS.
(Information from Technologic Paper No. 3.)
These are stearates of lime or soda and potash. Stearate of lime
(lime soap) is almost insoluble in water and is also not wet by it.
The stearates of soda and potash are ordinary soap readily wet and
soluble in water. With these there is a reaction when they are treated
with water in the presence of the cement; the soda or potash soap is dis-
solved and precipitates the more insoluble lime soaps, the result being
the same compound as the rest of this class contains.
The claim made by the manufacturers that these compounds are water
repellent is inconsistent in that they must be thoroughly surrounded by
water when mixed with the aggregate, if the normal strength of the
concrete is to be developed. When so mixed in the concrete, their water-
repellent action would be lost. If it repels the water from the concrete,
it must necessarily repel it from the cement and prevent the latter from
attaining its usual strength.
Several manufacturers have added water-repelling materials directly
to cement and offer it to the public as waterproofed cement. This re-
pelling material is similar to that used in the water-repelling compounds,
consequently, the remarks made under that class apply here.
ALUM AND SOAP.
The alum is mixed with the cement in the form of a fine powder,
and the soap is dissolved in the water used in mixing concrete, or both
the alum and the soap may be dissolved in the water. The effect of the
addition of these materials is "generally to increase the impermeability
and decrease strength.
Lime and soap are incorporated into the concrete mixture as water-
proofing ingredients. Their action is the same as that of alum and soap.
MASONRY. 557
An analysis of waterproofed cements (Technologic Paper No. 3)
showed in one case an addition of fine sand, in another a very small
amount of potash soap.
National Association of Cement Users, December, 1912, C. N. Chapman :
In the case of those methods by means of which the entire mass of
the concrete is designed to be waterproof, there is shown sometimes a
steady improvement after exposure and sometimes a marked decline. In
some cases the life of the waterproofing is very short and the failure after
a few months' exposure almost complete.
It is important therefore, before any particular method of water-
proofing be adopted, that the probable life of the treatment be ascertained.
It is pretty well established that a good concrete without foreign sub-
stance in it, improves with age and becomes more dense and watertight,
but the same cannot be said as positively of a concrete containing some
of the recently developed compounds intended for waterproofing.
The use of integral compounds has been reported in A. R. E. A. Pro-
ceedings as follows :
Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway Vol. 11, Part 2
Oregon-Washington Railroad and Navigation Company Vol. 13
Santa Fe Vol. 13
Union and Southern Pacific System Vol. 13
The following summary is presented in Technologic Paper No. 3, of
the Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and Labor :
Portland cement mortar and concrete can be made practically water-
tight or impermeable (as defined below) to any hydrostatic head up to
40 ft., without the use of any so-called "integral" waterproofing ma-
terials; but in order to obtain such impermeable mortar or concrete con-
siderable care should be exercised in selecting good materials as aggregate
and proportioning them in such a manner as to obtain a dense mixture.
The consistency of the mixture should be wet enough so that it can be
puddled, the particles flowing into position without tamping. The mixture
should be well spaded against the forms when placed, so as to avoid the
formation of pockets on the surface.
The addition of so-called "integral" waterproofing compounds will
not compensate for lean mixtures, nor for poor materials, nor for poor
workmanship in the fabrication of the concrete. Since in practice the
inert integral compounds (acting simply as void filling material) are added
in such small quantities, they have very little or no effect on the permea-
bility of the concrete. If the same care be taken in making the concrete
impermeable without the addition of waterproofing materials as is ordi-
narily taken when waterproofing materials are added, an impermeable
concrete can be obtained.
The terms "permeability," "absorption" and "damp-proof" should not
be confused. A mortar or concrete is impermeable (not necessarily damp-
proof), as defined and used throughout this report, when it does not
permit the passage or flow of water through its pores or voids. The
558 MASONRY.
absorption of a mortar or concrete is the property of drawing in or
engrossing water into its pores or voids by capillary action or other-
wise. If the pores or voids between the grains or particles or in the
individual grains are sufficiently large and connected from surface to
surface of the wall, the concrete will be permeable to water. If the
pores or voids are very minute, but connect with another, theoretically
they may act as capillary tubes, absorbing or drawing in and filling them-
selves with water ; but the capillary forces will tend to hold the water
in the pores and will prevent the passage or flow of water, even though
one surface of the wall may be exposed to a considerable hydrostatic
pressure. P'or all practical purposes a wall under such conditions would
be considered perfectly watertight and impermeable, although it may be
highly absorptive. If these minute pores do act as capillary tubes and
are never minute enough to prevent capillary action, the moisture either
as water or water vapor would in time penetrate entirely through and
fill a concrete wall, no matter what the thickness or composition. In such
a case the capillary forces would not permit an actual flow of water, but
these forces may carry moisture entirely filling the wall, and unless
evaporation is retarded, the opposite face of the wall would appear dry.
In such a case, the concrete would be considered impermeable, but not
damp-proof.
The damp-proofing tests as conducted would indicate that Portland
cement mortars can be made not only impermeable but damp-proof as
well, as defined above, without the use of any damp-proofing or water-
proofing compound. However, these tests should be interpreted with
caution, as the evaporation may have been sufficient to care for the slight
amount of moisture coming through the test pieces without indicating on
the filter paper. Thus it cannot be stated that if a material were used
which was damp-proof according to this test, if used as a basement wall,
one surface being constantly exposed to moisture and the other surface in
an inclosed room where there would be little or no circulation of air,
that the interior surface would not appear damp and the atmosphere be-
come saturated with moisture. The tests of coating materials as damp-
proofing mediums can be considered as only preliminary, but the results
considered along with the chemical discussion, throw some light on their
comparative merits. The mortar used in these tests was, perhaps, too
coarse and too absorptive for a fair test. The purpose of the rough sur-
face was to test the flowing qualities of the coating, and it 'would seem
that many of the failures may be due to the poor or imperfect spreading
and adhesive quality. Several of the compounds deteriorated and proved
their unfitness for the purpose intended.
Well-graded sands containing considerable graded fine materials are
preferable for making impermeable concrete, but if such is not to be had,
fine material in the form of hydrated lime, finely ground clay, or an ad-
ditional quantity of cement will be found of value.
Where Portland cement mortar is used as a plaster coat, if sufficient
cement be used and the sand contains sufficient fine material (or a fine
MASONRY. 559
material be added) and the mortar be placed without joints, and well
troweled (care being taken not to over-trowel which may cause craz-
ing), the coating will be effective as an impermeable medium without the
use of any waterproofing compound.
As a precaution under certain conditions, it is undoubtedly desirable
to use bituminous or similar coatings, even on new work, as protection
where cracks may occur, due to settling of foundation or expansion and
contraction caused by temperature changes. In large or exposed work
it is practically impossible to prevent some cracks, but where cracks can
be prevented, no coating whatever is required to make the structure
impermeable.
The permeability of Portland cement mortars and concretes rapidly
decrease with age.
None of the integral compounds tested materially reduced the ab-
sorption of the mortars before they were dried by heating at 212 degrees
Fahrenheit. Thus they would have little or no practical value. But some
of the so-called integral waterproofing compounds did decrease the ab-
sorption after drying the mortars at 212 degrees Fahreanheit, and the rate
of absorption was much slower in these cases. The addition of hydrated
lime and clays seemed to have little or no effect on the absorption.
The addition of any of the compounds tested to a mortar in the
quantities as used in these tests does not seriously affect the com-
pressive or tensile strength. The addition of the inert void fillers
to mortars, as used in these tests, up to 20 per cent, of the volume
of cement increases the compressive strength.
Tests of waterproofing materials (Technologic Paper No. 3) comprise
the results of experiments made to determine the permeability of
1 :4, 1 :6 and 1 :8 mortars of "quaky" consistency made with typical
Portland cement and Meramec river sand. It was found that any
mortar richer in cement than a 1:4 proportion was impervious in
itself under a hydrostatic pressure of 20 lbs. to the sq. in.
(IV) WATERTIGHT CONCRETE.
Reports published in Proceedings A. R. E. A. concerning the use
of concrete without waterproofing in locations where impermeability is
required are as follows :
T. L. Condron Vol. n, Part 2, Vol. 13
Chas. M. Mills Vol. 11, Part 2
Indianapolis Water Co Vol. 13
El Paso & Southwestern System Vol. 13
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Vol. 1 1
Southern Pacific Company Vol. 11
Union Pacific Railroad Vol. 12
In Engineering News, December 14, 191 1, C. Raymond Hulsart de-
scribes the construction and testing of a concrete tunnel lining: "A re-
cent test in the Wallkill Pressure Tunnel of the Catskill Aqueduct on the
560 MASONRY.
new water supply for New York City showed the practicability of making
the concrete construction watertight against high heads. The test was
made upon the concrete lining of the tunnel which is being constructed
of a nominal i :2 4 concrete without the use of any waterproofing ma-
terial, and in rock excavation."
"Tested up to 135 lbs. per sq. in. hydrostatic pressure applied to the
outside of the concrete tunnel lining through grout pipes which were in-
serted through the lining during construction.
"The author states it may be safely concluded
that with reasonable care in mixing and placing of concrete and with
sufficient excess cement, a concrete can be had which will be practically
watertight against hydrostatic heads of several hundred feet. In case
of tunnel lining, proper care in placing of course includes care in ar-
rangement of collecting pans and. weepers to carry leaking ground water
through the concrete and forms without damage to the body or finish of
the concrete.
"The large aggregate used in the concrete was crushed Bonticou
grit, a metamorphosed gravel containing 43 per cent, voids. It was a
well graded aggregate ranging from J4 up to i$4 m- m size. A very
clean, rather fine bank sand was mixed with Bonticou grit screenings in
proportions of 2 parts of sand to 1 part of screenings. This gave a well
graded sand containing 38 per cent, voids.
"In the concrete, 1.7 barrels of cement was used per cubic yard of
concrete, and 7.1 per cent, of water by weight of dry materials, giving a
wet mix."
WATERPROOFING.
(Progress Report Joint Committee, A. R. B. A., Vol. 11, page 1004.)
"Many expedients have been used to render concrete impervious to
water under normal conditions, and also under pressure conditions that
exist in reservoirs, dams and conduits of various kinds. Experience
shows, however, that where mortar or concrete is proportioned to obtain
the greatest practicable density and is mixed to a rather wet consistency,
the resulting mortar or concrete is impervious under ordinary conditions.
A concrete of dry consistency is more or less pervious to water, and com-
pounds of various kinds have been mixed with the concrete or applied
as a wash to the surface for the purpose of making it watertight. Many
of these compounds are of but temporary value, and in time lose their
power of imparting impermeability to the concrete.
"In the case of subways, long retaining walls and reservoirs, leakage
cracks may be prevented by horizontal and vertical reinforcement, properly
proportioned and located, provided the concrete itself is impervious.
"Such reinforcement distributes the stretch due to construction or
settlement, so that the cracks are too minute to permit leakage, or are
soon closed by infiltration of silt. Asphaltic or coal tar preparation, ap-
plied either as a mastic or as a coating on felt or cloth fabric, is used for
waterproofing, and should be proof against injury by liquids or gases."
MASONRY. 561
REINFORCING FOR SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE STRESSES.
(Progress Report Joint Committee, A. R. E. A., Vol. 12, page 479.)
"Where large areas of concrete are exposed to atmospheric conditions,
the changes of form, due to shrinkage (resulting from hardening) and
to action of temperature, are such that large cracks will occur in the
mass, unless precautions are taken to so distribute the stresses as either
to prevent the cracks altogether, or to render them very small. The size
of the cracks will be directly proportional to the diameter of the rein-
forcing bars and inversely proportional to the percentage of reinforcement
and also to its bond resistance per unit of surface area. To be most ef-
fective, therefore, reinforcement should be placed near the exposed sur-
face and well distributed, and a form of reinforcement used which will
develop a high bond resistance."
American Society for Testing Materials, Vol 8, Committee "S" :
"Sub-Committee 'A' has carried on an extensive series of tests both
of materials incorporated with cement at the time of manufacture or
added thereto or to the gage water at the time of use and of those
materials used simply as protective coatings. The tests undertaken com-
prise the making of briquettes fsom cement mortars in the several pro-
portions of 2:1, 3:1 and 4:1 of both a fair natural sand and standard
quartz or Ottawa sand with both treated and untreated material to ob-
tain comparative results concerning tensile strength at different periods.
Discs of identically the same material were similarily made up to deter-
mine the comparative effect on permeability of the treatment with the
various waterproofing compounds. It has thus far been demonstrated
pretty conclusively that as was generally known, with the care and fa-
cilities of laboratory work, untreated mortar of a fair natural sand, even
as lean as 4:1, can be made practically waterproof. Similar mortars of
standard quartz or Ottawa sand fail to show corresponding impermea-
bility when untreated, but when treated with several waterproofing ma-
terials, showed considerable improvement in this feature, which, it can
be concluded, was due to mechanical improvement of the mortars by
an increase in their granulometric value through the filling of the voids
with the dry, or in case the compound is added as a liquid, suspended
matter, rather than through any chemical action. From the action of
most of the materials experimented with, it may be concluded that in a
poorly proportioned mortar or concrete and under the more unideal con-
ditions in the field where immediate results are wanted, many of the
compounds do materially decrease the permeability of aggregates for the
time being, but so far, no claim for permanent action on their part is
warranted. This condition arises in time, with any well proportioned
and properly laid concrete through the mechanical filling of the voids
by percolation of water carrying natural deposits. A condition of marked
impermeability was, however, very generally obtained with no impair-
ment of strength by the substitution of small percentages of very finely
comminuted clay for sand, even when this was standard Ottawa sand.
This was without the use of an electrolyte which has been claimed to be
562 MASONRY.
helpful although this was not confirmed by our experiments. No bene-
ficial effect on tensile strength was noticed from the use of any of the
so-called waterproofing materials ; in fact, indications only to be cor-
roborated from much longer time tests point rather to the impairment of
strength, a weakening of the mortars, even though greater impermeability
may be obtained."
American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 9, Report of Commit-
tee "S" :
"The results of the present year's tests corroborate very generally the
conclusion previously noted with the additional positive information that
with even such ungraded materials as crushed quartz or standard Ottawa
sand, no difficulty is experienced in a carefully conducted laboratory in
obtaining waterproof mortars in such lean proportions as 1 part cement
to 4 of sand. There is no excuse for failure when a fairly graded natural
sand is used with even leaner mixtures, confirming the fact that the
necessity of waterproofing treatment with ordinary field concrete mix-
tures, is due either to the use of poor materials or to poor proportioning
or bad handling or to all of these combined.
"We think it has been demonstrated and will be generally admitted
that with proper materials and proper proportioning and handling of the
subsequent mixtures, these need no addition of foreign substances to be-
come initially waterproof; that when such addition is needed for reasons
stated above, the desired end can be and is most easily secured mechanic-
ally through proper void filling, compensating for the poor proportioning,
and for poor quality of the original constituents. Any chemical action
claimed for mixtures operating toward securing waterproof concrete is
apparently nil. Since void filling is to be sought as the panacea for water-
proofing ordinary field concrete, comparative tests through the addition
of percentages of colloidal clay or hydrated lime and the various adver-
tised waterproofing compounds have been carried on continuously with
the conclusion at this date that no general results are obtainable from
the use of patented or proprietary compounds which cannot be obtained
equally well through the addition of colloidal clay or hydrated lime.
"Furthermore, it seems to be very generally proved by corroborative
tests, the results of which will be submitted later when including longer
time tests, that, as stated in last year's report to be likely, a weakening
in tensile strength in time follows the use of many of the patented com-
pounds, which effect is not generally marked when colloidal clay or
hydrated lime is used. It has been concluded that the so-called patented
compounds fail to remedy defectively proportioned concrete of poor ma-
terials as effectively as colloidal clay or hydrated lime, simply because
they do not carry sufficient fine material called for by existing conditions.
The apparently waterproofing effect of some of these proprietary com-
pounds at early stages, with the very common loss of strength later on,
only confirms the opinion as to their temporary effect being entirely
mechanical in aiding through deposits to fill voids to the desired end.
which can be permanently better assured by the use of proper percentages
of fine material such as colloidal clay or hydrated lime."
MASONRY. 56^
American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 10:
"While a large number of tests on as many as 40 or 50 waterproofing
compounds have been independently made by several members of the
Committee, this number does not include all the materials exploited
from time to time, for they are of mushroom growth." .... "In
the opinion of the Committee, several facts are established: (1) that the
general effect of these incorporated foreign compounds is to reduce the
tensile strength of mortars. This refers to a general reduction in the
strength of mortars carrying these so-called incorporated waterproofing
admixtures, when compared with standard untreated mortars ; (2) that
resistance to water penetration in mortars and concretes being essentially
dependent upon the density of the normal ingredients (all other condi-
tions of handling and placing being normal), that no addition of any
foreign substance is absolutely necessary ; (3) that when through lack
of proper volumetric proportioning in the aggregate (sand in mortar
or sand and stone in concrete) some extraneous material is needed to
insure filling the voids, this can be accomplished by the use of natural
materials such as colloidal clays or hydrated limes, and practically per-
fect results obtained without resorting to the use of proprietary materials
whose general effect is to reduce the strength, with no marked improve-
ment, as a rule, in water-resisting characteristics. Investigations to date
do not show that the effect of any of the admixtures is other than
mechanical." "It is an admitted fact that
theoretically waterproof mortars and concrete can be secured by proper
proportioning, proper mixing, and proper handling of their ingredients
and this has been repeatedly accomplished in practice under proper or-
ganization and supervision without the use of any admixtures of so-called
waterproofing materials and can in any case be secured even with poor
natural materials by the addition of similar natural material. It appears
that the claim of waterproofing characteristics advanced for most of the
proprietary materials examined, cannot be substantiated by any laboratory
tests so far developed."
Appendix C.
DISINTEGRATION OF CONCRETE AND CORROSION OF REIN-
FORCING METAL.
The subject of the disintegration of concrete, when investigated with
the object of preparing a report that shall be of value to engineers, leads
directly to the study of the causes of disintegration and the means whereby
it may be prevented. The corrosion of reinforcing metal confines in-
vestigation to a study of reinforced concrete. Inasmuch as corrosion of
reinforcing metal ultimately leads to disruption of the surrounding con-
crete and ordinarily presupposes disintegration of the concrete, the
subjects are closely allied.
Your Committee has endeavored to present in a concise form recog-
nized good practice relating to those particular features of concrete
construction which must be observed in order to prevent disintegration
of concrete and corrosion of reinforcing metal. It is to be noted that
in work where extraordinary provisions are made for peculiar conditions,
the requirements of good design and good engineering in general, cover-
ing both materials and methods, must be none the less rigidly adhered to.
Failure to provide for shrinkage of concrete due to hardening in
air, and for expansion and contraction due to temperature changes, is a
common cause of cracks which are sometimes ascribed to disintegration.
The requirements for good materials have been described in numerous
tests, specifications and reports, together with the methods of determin-
ing whether the materials meet the requirements. However, the proper
precautions are not usually observed in selecting concrete aggregates.
The use of crushed stone screenings as fine aggregate is a frequent cause
of disintegration and resultant corrosion of reinforcement.
To obtain good work, competent and ample supervision is absolutely
necessary.
CONCRETE IN SEA WATER.
Investigations concerning the effect of sea water on concrete im-
mersed for periods up to fifty years or more ; of the relative merits of
standard Portland cement and Portland cement made with different
proportions of its principal constituents, in resisting the disintegrating
effect of sea water ; of the effect of varying the proportions of cement
in the mortar and concrete ; of differently graded aggregates ; of the
addition of various finely ground materials to the cement after burning;
of the relative durability of concrete cast in place as compared with
concrete blocks allowed to harden before placing in the sea ; and of the
effect of various materials added to the concrete mixture to produce
impermeability and consequent increased durability, have been made in
European countries and in America.
Regarding the chemical composition of the cement, the following
conclusions are presented :
564
MASONRY. 565
Cement containing up to 2j^ per cent, of S03 resists the action of
sea water fully as well as cement with lower S03 content.*
While all the hydraulic cements now in use are liable to decompo-
sition in sea water, Portland cement is the one to be preferred in every
respect.!
High iron Portland cement and puzzolan cement have failed to
show superiority over standard Portland cement in resisting the disinte-
grating effect of sea water.$
Regarding the effect of varying the proportion of cement in the
mortar and concrete, in general the richer mixtures have been found to
offer better resistance to the attack of sea water. Proportions recom-
mended for mortars are those with one part cement to one part sand
up to one part cement to two parts sand. The bad condition of mortar
leaner than the above after exposure in sea water stands out prominently.§
In the use of reinforced concrete for maritime works, it is advisable
to employ larger proportions of cement than are usual for similar works
in fresh water.] |
Concerning the addition of finely ground material to the cement
after burning, it has been found that the addition of puzzolana to Port-
land cement increases the resistance of the resulting mortar or concrete
to the disintegrating effect of sea water.fl
Regarding the use of any material added to the concrete mixture
in small quantities in order to reduce permeability, no results of practical
working tests have demonstrated that the effect of any material in reduc-
*The effect of SO, in Portland Cement. Special publication. Proceed-
ings of Association of German Portland Cement Manufacturers, 1911.
International Association for Testing Materials, 1912. Proposal for
Establishing a Standard SO, Content for Portland Cement. Association of
German Portland Cement Manufacturers.
tinternational Association for Testing Materials Proceedings of the
Sixth Congress. Second Section, 1912. "Action of Sea Water on Hydraulic
Binding Media." Lombard and Deforge.
International Association for Testing Materials, 1912. "Action of Sea
Water on Reinforced Concrete." de Blocq van Kuffeler.
JSee Engineering News, September 7, 1911, editorial, "The Different Iron
and Slag Cements;" also Engineering News, August 3, 1911 — "Ferrite Cement
and Ferre Portland Cement," E. C. Eckel — for definition of cements.
International Association for Testing Materials, 1912. "The State of
Preservation of Test Blocks," by W. Czarnowski.
Proceedings National Association Cement Users, 1912 — P. H. Bates,
Bureau of Standards.
§International Association for Testing Materials, 1912. "Action of Sea
Water on Hydraulic Binding Media." Lombard and Deforge.
International Association for Testing Materials, 1909. "Cement in Sea
Water." A. Poulson.
||International Association for Testing Materials, 1912. "Action of Sea
Water on Reinforced Concrete." de Blocq van Kuffeler.
^International Association for Testing Materials, 1912. "Action of Sea
Water on Reinforced Concrete."
Engineering News, September 7, 1911. "Official German Recognition of
the Harmless Nature of a Slag Addition to Portland Cement Clinker."
International Association for Testing Materials, 1909. "Experiments on
the Decomposition of Mortars by Sulphate Waters." G. A. Bied.
International Association for Testing Materials, 1909. "Cement in Sea
Water." A. Poulson.
566 MASONRY.
ing. permeability is other than mechanical, i. e., to supply a deficiency in
fine material in a poorly graded concrete mixture.
Allowing the concrete to harden under favorable conditions before
exposure to the action of sea water greatly increases its resistance
to attack by the sea water and is recommended wherever possible.
When concrete is deposited under sea water, such precaution should
be observed as will prevent the washing of the cement from the
mixture.*
Forms should be so tight as to prevent the entrance of sea water
after depositing the concrete, in order that a smooth dense surface may
be obtained.
The combined effect of freezing and of sea water is noted on
marine structures in northern latitudes between high and low tide levels.
Under these conditions the disintegrating effects are particularly severe.
Dense, properly hardened concrete is not affected by the action of
sea water. Where the concrete is porous, however, it is likely to be dam-
aged by frost action, especially between tides. There is no evidence,
however, that porous concrete is damaged by sea water in latitudes where
there is no frost.
The making of a dense, impermeable concrete by the use of a well-
graded aggregate, rich mixture, proper consistency, and good work-
manship, and allowing the concrete to harden under favorable con-
ditions before being exposed to the action of sea water, is generally
conceded to be an efficient means of satisfactorily insuring the preserva-
tion of concrete in maritime works.
CONCRETE SUBJECTED TO THE ACTION OF WATER CONTAINING ALKALIES.
Investigations concerning the effect of ground waters which contain
alkalies on concrete have disclosed several instances of apparent disinte-
gration. The following points have been demonstrated in regard to the re-
sistance of concrete to these agencies.
Concrete in which poor aggregates and lean mixtures have been used
and in which the material has been carelessly placed, when coming in
contact with alkali seepage may be affected thereby.
The aggregates should be composed of materials inert to alkalies
present in the water. A chemical examination of the sand from country
known to contain alkaline soils is recommended.
Water containing substances known to react with the elements of the
cement should be kept from coming in contact with concrete until the
latter has thoroughly hardened.
Care should be taken to provide a smooth surface and sufficient
slope to the extrados of the arch of tunnel linings when the ground water
level lies below the tunnel grade to facilitate the flow of seepage water
to the sides. The back filling over the arch should consist of porous
material such as coarse, crushed stone, for the same reason. Side-drains
♦See American Railway Engineering Association. 1912, Report Masonry
Committee. Methods of Depositing Concrete Under Water.
MASONRY. 567
should be used where necessary and connected with an under-drain, which
should be provided in all cases.
The alkalies which are most' active in causing disintegration of con-
crete when allowed to penetrate into the interior of the mass, are the
sulphates of sodium and' magnesium.*
The measures to be used in making concrete which is to be exposed
to the action of these deteriorating agencies in order to prevent disinte-
gration arc the same as recommended for sea water construction. Im-
permeability is the prime requisite, and the results of experiments and
practical tests indicate that concrete, carefully prepared, is just as re-
sistant, if not more so, than if mixed with foreign materials or special
preparations.
MISCELLANEOUS CAUSES OF DISINTEGRATION.
Cinders give unsatisfactory results in concrete, especially if there is
much coke or porous material present. Such cinders may be improved if
allowed to -weather, with occasional washing until the ferrous iron and
sulphur have been 'oxidized and leached out.f
Cinder concrete in roofing slabs exposed to the action of locomotive
gases is not an efficient protection for reinforcing metal, which has been
found to corrode and cause the disintegration of the slab.$
Freshly made concrete surfaces in contact with smoke gases at tem-
peratures below 45 degrees Fahrenheit have failed to harden properly, and
experiments indicate that under such conditions the cement is acted upon
by the gases. It has therefore been recommended that when heating is
done by means of open fires, higher temperatures should be 'maintained^
EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS.
Laboratory experiments furnish most of the information which
exists concerning the effect of electric currents on concrete and rein-
forcing metal. The discrepancy between the conditions in these experi-
ments and field conditions seems to be greater than is the case in other
laboratory tests on structural materials, and the information obtained
up to this time is difficult of application to field conditions.
It has not been shown that plain concrete is affected by the passage
of an electric current through it.||
•P. H. Bates, Bureau of Standards, in Proceedings International Asso-
ciation for Testing Materials, 1912.
See also Technologic Paper No. 12, Bureau of Standards, 1913.
t Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, June, 1912. "Some
Observations on the Disintegration of Cinder Concrete," by George Borrow-
man.
tEngineering Record, July 30, 1910. "Replacing Concrete Roof Slab.
La Salle Street Station."
§American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 9. Alfred H. White.
"Disintegration of Fresh Cement Floor Surfaces."
!|See Journal of American Concrete Institute. Vol. 1, No. 1, November,
1913. Published at its office. Harrison Building, Philadelphia, Pa. "Effects
of Electric Currents on Concrete," by E. B. Rosa, Burton McCollum and
D. S. Peters, of the Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C
668 MASONRY.
CORROSION OF REINFORCING METAL.
Tests and experience have proved that steel embedded in dense con-
crete will not corrode, when located either above or below fresh or sea
water level. Concrete, in order to be an efficient protection to steel must
be rich in cement and mixed to such a consistency as to flow around and
completely coat the reinforcing metal.
Steel to be embedded in concrete should not be painted.
CONCLUSIONS.
(i) Concrete exposed to the action of sea water, or in contact with
alkali waters, or exposed to gases containing sulphur, or in which re-
inforcing metal is embedded, should be dense, rich in Portland cement
and allowed to harden under favorable conditions before exposure to
the conditions stated.
(2) Concrete in contract with alkali waters should be made with
aggregates inert to the alkalies in the water.
(3) Cinders should not be used for concrete in which reinforcing
metal is embedded.
(4) Reinforcing metal should not be painted, but should be thor-
oughly covered and protected with concrete when in place.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE V— ON TRACK.
*
J. B. Jenkins, Chairman; G. J. Ray, Vice-C hair man;
Geo. H. Bremner, P. C. Newbegin,
H. M. Church, F. B. Oren,
Garrett Davis, H. T. Porter,
Raffe Emerson, E. Raymond,
J. M. R. Fairbairn, W. G. Raymond,
T. H. Hickey, L. S. Rose,
E. T. Howson, H. R. Safford,
L. J. F. Hughes, C. H. Stein,
J. R. Leighty, F. S. Stevens,
Curtiss Millard, A. H. Stone,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your Committee on Track respectfully submits its report to the
fifteenth annual convention.
Meetings of the whole Committee were held at Chicago on June ioth
and November 17th, in addition to the meetings of the two Sub-Com-
mittees.
In addition to the three subjects assigned by the Board of Direction,
your Committee undertook a study of speeds of trains on curves and the
relation between speeds of trains and the lead curves and switch angles
of turnouts ; also a study of standard plans of guard rails.
These subjects were reassigned to two Sub-Committees, all subjects
excepting that of Economics in Track Labor being assigned to Sub-Com-
mittee No. 1, while that subject was assigned to Sub-Committee No. 2;
the different subjects assigned to Sub-Committee No. 1 were again as-
signed to special committees of two or three members each, with the un-
derstanding that each member of the Sub-Committee was to contribute
all he could to the work of each special committee.
MAIN LINE TURNOUTS AND CROSSOVERS.
SUB-COMMITTEE NO. I.
H. T. Porter, Chairman; E. Raymond,
T. H. Hickey, G. J. Ray,
L. J. F. Hughes, L. S. Rose,
J. R. Leighty, F. S. Stevens,
Curtiss Millard, A. H. Stone.
H. T. Porter and T. H. Hickey, Special Committee.
Your Committee has prepared typical plans for Nos. 8, 11 and 16
main line crossovers. It has also made a study of double-slip crossings,
obtaining data as to the practice and standards of various railroads and
669
570 TRACK.
manufacturers, and has compiled and submits 'herewith a table of dimen-
sions of various designs of such crossings, including dimensions suggested
by your Committee. It has tdso prepared and- presents, as information
and progress report, typical plans for Nos. 8, n and 16 double-slip
switches and a plan by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis
Railway for a No. 8 double-slip switch, the feature of which is the stag-
gering of the switch points. Your Committee is studying and reports
progress on plans for double -crossovers or scissors.
The basis for the preparation of these typical plans was to make as
much of them as possible correspond with the Table of Practical Leads
and with the Typical Plans of Turnouts, which have been adopted by the
Association ; therefore, the standard frog was used for the rigid end
frogs of the crossings, and the switches are the standard recommended
for the corresponding frog. The tie spacing under frog and switch is
made to correspond as nearly as consistent with the tie spacing under
corresponding frogs and switches in turnouts.
The distance from end of frog to switch point of double-slip switches
has been taken at about the minimum that should be used and still have
the necessary spread between rails at points, this spread being about 14
inches. Taking the above distance as a minimum gives the greatest length
from switch point to switch point, and correspondingly the easiest curve
through the turnout.
Preliminary plans have also been made and studies for the double
crossing or scissors, but your Sub-Committee reports only progress on
them and considers that further study is required.
SPEEDS OF TRAINS- ON CURVES AND TURNOUTS.
F. S. Stevens and G* J. Ray, Special Committee.
Your Committee reports" that1 it has made a study of -speeds through
turnouts and around curve's, has made' calculations and has prepared dia-
grams showing the results of these calculations, which are presented here-
with.
RELATION OF SPEED TO POINT OF INTERSECTION OF RESULTANT OF FORCES WITH
PLANE OF TRACK.
Let M — the mass of a body,
g = the acceleration of gravity,
W = the weight of the body.
From the law of the weight of bodies,
W = Mg. "
Let R = the radius of rotation,
^ = the velocity in feet' per second,
C= centrifugal force.
TRACK.
571
From the law of centrifugal force,
Mv2
R
C v2
Hence — =
W Rg
Let V = velocity in miles per hour,
D = degree of curve.
5280)/
Then v = ,
3600
5730
R = , ....
D
g = 32.16.
Substituting these values in equation (1)
c
(I)
(approx.)
(2)
— = .000 on 67 D V2
W
log= 5.067 192 — 10
Let G = gage of track,
E = elevation for curvature,
H = height of center of gravity above top of rail,
F = resultant of forces,
A = distance from center of track to intersection of F with
plane of track,
B = distance from center of gravity to axis of track,
x = cant of track =5 angle of axis of track with the vertical,
y — angle of resultant of forces with axis of track.
EL
Fig. 1.
572
TRACK.
In Fig. I, ab = G
bc = E
hd = pf = H
pn = F
dk = A
hp = df = B
angle bac = mpf = x
and angle fpk = 3;
From the right triangles
E
sin x = — (3 )
G
A-B
tan y = (4)
H
C
tan (x + y) = — = .000 01167 DV* (5)
W
In using the above formulas we not only need to know the values of
H and B, but we should also give consideration as to the proper value to
assign to G.
Heights of centers of gravity of recently constructed engines and
tenders are given in the following tables, furnished by the Baldwin and
American companies.
AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE COMPANY.
VERTICAL CENTER OF GRAVITY OF ENGINES
Driving
Center of
Order
Road
Class
Weight
Cylinders
Wheel
Gravity
Diam.
from Rail
S 846
Missouri Pac
462
256,000
26 x26"
73*
76}*
S 831
282
275,000
27 x30"
63'
71'
B 1234
Missouri Pac
280
209,600
22 x30'
63*
72*
S 310
B.&O
462
229,500
22 x28"
74'
70'
S 496
N. Y.C
280
236,000
23 x32"
63'
72*
S 461
L. S. &M.S
462
261,500
22 x28"
79'
75}*
S 203
Grand Trunk
460
182,000
20 x26"
73'
64J*
S 42
B.&O
280
262
186,000
J#1230,000\
\#2 234 ,500 f
21 x30'
22}x28*
57'
80*
68}'
S 286
Pennsylvania
74}'
P 405
B.&O
280
260
193,500
150,500
22 x28"
20 x26'
56'
64*
60}'
S 351
M.&St. L
60}'
S 73
B.& 0
442
180,000
22 x26*
80'
70}*
VERTICAL CENTER OF GRAVITY OF TENDERS
Order No.
Road
Capacity
Tank Type
Center of Gravity
S 848
J 1720
S 695
Erie
Erie
9000
8500
8000
Vanderbilt
Water Bottom
Water Bottom
76}'
77'
70'
TRACK.
573
THE BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS.
APPROXIMATE HEIGHT OF CENTER GRAVITY OF STANDARD GAGE
LOCOMOTIVES AND TENDERS RECENTLY CONSTRUCTED
Engine in Working Order
Tender Loaded
Type of
Locomotive
Weight
Height C. of G.
Weight
1
j Height C. of G
Pounds
Inches
Pounds
Inches
4-6-2
267,000
80
147,000
60
2-8-0
217,000
74
177,000
60
2-8-2
265,000
78
167,000
57
2-8-2
275,000
'76
184,000
62
2-8-2
284,000
78
167,000
65
2-8-2
286,000
75
154,000
55
2-8-2
310,000
75
175,000
56
2-8-2
322,000
76
157,000
62
2-10-2
293,000
78
185,000
62
2-10-2
356,000
77
160,000
55
0-6-6-0
350,000
77
140,000
62
0-8-8-0
409,000
84
170,000
61
2-8-8-0
450,000
80
154,000
64
The engine has a lateral swing or play due to compression of springs,
play on axle, difference between gages of wheels and track, worn flanges,
worn rail and widening of gage of track on curves, although the last
factor is usually more than neutralized by the distance the center of the
wheel-base is held away from the outer rail by curvature.
Although the flange of the rear wheel of an engine traveling at slow
speed is never observed to be in contact with the outer rail when there is
any lateral play, yet it would be unsafe to assume that such were the case
at speeds high enough to be near the limit of safety, and it is entirely pos-
sible that the line of the wheels may at times coincide with a chord of the
rail drawn from the point of contact of the front wheel to that of the rear
wheel. Hence it has been assumed that the minimum distance that the
center of the outer wheel-base is held away from the outer rail equals
the middle ordinate of a curve whose chord equals the length of wheel-
base.
Under compression of springs, the upper part of the engine revolves
about a horizontal central axis about 40 inches above the rail ; the maxi-
mum vertical movement of the springs from normal position is about %
inch, at a distance of about 2 feet 4 inches from the center of the engine ;
the resulting swing from one side to the other of a point in the vertical
axis of the engine, 84 inches above the rail, is
84-40
2 X X Ya in. = H in- = ** in.
28
Gage of wheels, back to back of flanges 53^6 in.
Add two flanges of minimum thickness 2
Minimum gage of wheels, front to front of flanges 55^ in.
Gage of track 56^2
Maximum play between worn wheels and standard gage track... . i1/^ in.
Play on axle s/%
Total lateral play not affected by degree of curve 2 A in.
r
L
574 TRACK.
The distance B equals l/2. of 2& in., plus half the widening of
gage due to worn rail, plus half the widening of gage for curvature, less
the middle ordinate of the curve for a length equal to the wheel-base.
For example, with a 12-foot wheel-base :
When D = 1 degree, B = 1 & in. -j- %. in. + oin. — 32 in. = i}4 in.
" D = 4 degrees, B = i& in. -j- Va in. + o in. — $z in. = i$i in.
" D= 8 degrees, B = i£-i in. -j- % in. + oin. — & in. = 1 32 in.
" £> = 15 degrees, B = i392 in.- -(- ^ m- + Va in- — A in. = 132 in.
" /} = 19 degrees, 5 = 1 s92 in. -j- J^ in. + y% in. — II in. = 1 is in.
" D = over 19 degrees, 5 = less than
Thus, B varies from a possible yalue of 1% in. for a i-degree curve
to a possible i3\ in. for an 8-degree curve, remains constant, on account
of widening of gage for curvature, up to 15 degrees and then decreases.
As high speeds are necessarily encountered on the lighter curves and
lower speeds on the sharper curves, any change in the assumed value of
B would cause a considerable change in the results of calculations of
speeds for the lighter curves, but would have a comparatively slight effect
on the results for the sharper curves. Hence no great error will result,
and such errors as do result will be on the safe side, if the maximum
value of B is used throughout.
The value of G may also vary from 56^ in., the standard gage, to
57l/2 in. ; but under the conditions which will give B its maximum values
G will have the following values :
D = 1 degree to 8 degrees G = 57 in.
D = 15 degrees or over £ = 5714 in.
It might appear at first thought that a wider gage would increase the
stability of an engine, and that, therefore, the minimum value of G should
be used in all calculations, in order to keep on the safe side. Such would
be the case if the gage of the wheels were widened at the same time as
the gage of the track. But a little consideration will show that the widen-
ing of the gage does not affect the stability of the engine, either one way
or the other, when it is at the point of overturning, while a wider gage
actually decreases the stability of the engine when the resultant of forces
falls within the gage line.
Referring to Fig. 1, when the engine is on the point of overturning
y2 G-B fb
tany = = — ; any widening of gage affects ab and af equally,
H pf
leaving fb constant ; hence y is constant, and the speed necessary to over-
turn is not affected.
But when the engine is in a given phase of stable equilibrium, as
for instance, when two-thirds of its weight is carried by the outer rail,
1/6 G-B fk
tan y = == — ; fk = fb — kb; fb is constant as before, while
H pf
kb = J/3 G; hence any increase in G decreases fk by one-third that amount ;
TRACK.
575
y is decreased and the speed necessary to produce the given condition is
decreased.
If, however, we take B uniformly at its maximum value of iH in.,
we can also take G at a uniform value of 57 in. ; for, although G may be
lA-in. too small and A may be &-in. too small, when D is 15 degrees
or over, B has been taken & to is in. too large ; fk and the angle y are
too small, and the speed calculated to produce the given distribution of
weights is still on the safe side.
A number of calculations were made, using the theoretical values of
B and G, and compared with the results obtained by giving B its maxi-
mum value of 1^2 in. and G a constant value of 57 in.; the differ-
ences were found to be too trifling to warrant the more complex calcula-
tions, and the results obtained by assigning the latter values were all on
the safe side. Hence, in calculating the results which are submitted, it
has been assumed that
B= iVz'm.
and G — 57 in.
To ascertain the speed which will cause the resultant of force to in-
tersect the plane of the track at any given point k :
First — Obtain x from equation (3).
Second — Obtain y from equation (4).
Third — Solve equation (5) for V.
SPEEDS OF TRAINS ON CURVES
Height of Center of Gravity 84 in.
Resultant of Forces through Gage Line
Elevation in Inches
Degree
of Curve
1° 165 9
1°30' 135.5
2° 117.3
2°30' 104.9
3° 95.8
3°30' 88.7
4° 83 0
4°30' 7S 2
5° 74 2
6° 67 7
•7° 62.7
8° 58 7
9° 55 3
10° 52.5
12° 47.9
14° 44.3
16° 415
18° 39.1
20° 37 1
25° 33 2
30° 30.3
170 9
139.5
120.8
108.1
G8.7
91 3
85.4
80.6
76 4
69 8
64.6
60.4
57.0
54.0
49.3
45.7
42.7
40.3
38.2
34 2
31.2
175.8
143 5
124 3
111.2
101.5
94.0
87.9
82.9
78.6
71.8
66.4
62.1
58.6
55.6
50.7
47.0
43.9
41.4
39.3
35 2
32.1
180.6
147.4
' 127.7
114.2
104.3
96 5
90.3
85.1
80 8
73.7
68.3
63.8
60.2
57.1
52.1
48.3
45 1
42.6
40.4
36.1
33 0
185 3
151 3
131.1
117.2
107.0
99.1
92.7
87.4
82.9
75.7
70.1
65.5
61.8
58.6
53.5
49.5
46.4
43.7
41.4
37 1
33 8
190.0
155.1
134.3
120.1
109.7
101.5
95.0
89.6
85.0
77.6
71 .8
67.2
63.3
60.1
54.8
50.8
47 5
44.8
42.5
38 0
34.7
194 7
159.0
137.7
123.1
112 .4
104.1
97.4
91 8
87 1
79.5
73 6
68.8
64.9
61 6
56.2
52 0
48.7
45.9
43.5
38 9
35 5
199 4
162.8
141.0
126.1
115.1
106.6
99.7
94.0
89 2
81.4
75 3
70.5
66 4
63 0
57.5
53 3
49.8
47.0
44.6
39.9
36.4
204.0
166.5
144 2
129.0
117.8
109.0
102.0
96 .2
91 2
83.3
77.1
72.1
68 0
64 5
58.9
54 5
51.0
48 1
45.6
40 8
37.2
576
TRACK.
SPEEDS OF TRAINS ON CURVES
Height of Center of Gravity 84 in.
Resultant through Edge of Middle Third
Degree
Elevation in Inches
of Curve
0
1
2
3
.
5
6
7
8
1°
90.3
73.7
63.9
57.1
52 1
48.3
45.2
42.6
40.4
36.9
34.1
31.9
30.1
28.6
26.1
24.1
22 6
21 3
20.2
18.1
16.5
98.4
80.3
69.6
62.2
56.8
52.6
49.2
46.4
44.0
40.2
37.2
34.8
32 8
31 1
28.4
26.3
24.6
23.2
22 0
19.7
18.0
105.9
86.4
74.9
67 0
61.1
56.6
52.9
49.9
47.3
43.2
40.0
37.4
35.3
33.5
30.6
28 3
26.5
25.0
23.7
21.2
19.3
112.9
92.2
79.8
71.4
65.2
60.3
56.5
53.2
50.5
46.1 *
42.7
39.9
37.6
35.7
32.6
30.2
28.2
26.6
25.2
22 6
20.6
119.6
97.6
84.5
75.6
69.0
63.9
59.8
56.4
53.5
48.8
45 2
42.3
39.8
37 8
34 5
31.9
29.9
28.2
26.7
23.9
21.8
125.9
102.8
89.0
79.6
72.7
67 3
62.9
59.4
56.3
51.4
47.6
44.5
42.0
39 8
36.3
33.6
31 5
29.7
28.1
25.2
23.0
132 0
107.8
93.3
83.5
76 2
70.6
66.0
62.2
59.0
53.9
49.9
46.7
44 0
41.7
38.1
35.3
33.0
31.1
29 5
26.4
24.1
137.9
112.6
97.5
87.2
79.6
73.7
68 9
65.0
61.7
56.3
52.1
48.7
46.0
43.6
39.8
36.8
34.5
32.5
30.8
27.6
25 2
143.4
1°30'
2°
117.2
101.5
2°30'
90.8
3°
3°30'
4°
4°30'
82.9
76.7
71.7
67.7
5°
64.2
6°
7°
58.6
54 3
8"
9°
50.8
47 8
10°...
45.4
12°
41.4
14°
38.4
16°
35.8
18°
33.8
20°
32.1
25°
28.7
30°...
26.2
SPEED AND UNBALANCED ELEVATION FOR CURVATURE.
The comfort of a passenger on a train, which passes over a curve or
through a* turnout at high speed, is not dependent on the height of the
center of gravity of the engine which draws his train, or of the car in
which he is riding, nor is it dependent on the point where the resultant
of forces intersects the plane of the track.
But the comfort of the passenger is much affected by the condition of
the track in the matter of surface and line, and the disturbed equilibrium
of the passenger due to centrifugal force uncompensated by the cant of
the track.
The relation of speed to the condition of the track cannot be reduced
to formula, tabulated nor shown on a diagram, but the relation of equi-
librium to speed can very readily be shown.
There are nearly as many opinions as there are individuals as to
what constitutes a comfortable speed on curves ; but by tabulating speeds
which will produce a certain fixed degree of disturbance of equilibrium,
we can at least furnish a basis for comparison between speed and com-
fortable riding.
Referring to Fig. i, if y = 3 degrees, the track will lack sufficient
cant to neutralize the centrifugal force by 3 degrees ; a difference of 3
degrees in the cant of the track is very closely equivalent to a difference
of 3 inches in elevation of the outer rail. Hence, if the amount of dis-
comfort can be measured by the degree of angle, which the resultant of
forces makes with the axis of the car, it can be measured by number of
TRACK.
677
inches of unbalanced elevation. In other words, a passenger riding over
track elevated i inch at a speed requiring an elevation of 4 inches, should
experience the same amount of discomfort as when riding over track
elevated 7 inches at a speed requiring an elevation of 10 inches.
Your Committee has calculated tables of speeds of trains through
curves and turnouts with unbalanced elevations of 3 inches. These cal-
culations were made from the formulas
£ + 3
sin (x -f- y) = and V
56.5
=4
tan (x + y)
.000 01167 D
in which E = actual elevation for curvature.
SPEEDS OF TRAINS ON CURVES
Three Inches of Unbalanced Elevation.
Those Speeds of Trains on Curves having an Elevation of 3 Inches less than the
Theoretical Elevation.*
All Heights of Center of Gravity.
Degree
Actual Elevation
n Inches
of Curve
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
-
1°
1°30'
67.5
55.1
47.7
42.7
39.0
36.1
33.7
31.8
30.2
27.6
25.5
23.9
22.5
21.3
19.5
18.0
16.9
15 9
15.1
13.5
12.3
78.0
63.7
55 1
49.3
45.0
41.7
39.0
36.8
34 9
31.8
29.5
27.6
26 0
24.7
22.5
20.8
19.5
18.4
17.4
15.6
14.2
87.2
71.2
61.7
55.2
50.4
46.6
43.6
41.1
39.0
35 6
33 0
30.8
29.1
27.6
25.2
23.3
21.8
20 6
19.5
17.4
15.9
95.6
78.1
67.6
60.5
55.2
51.1
47.8
45.1
42.8
39.0
36.1
33.8
31.9
30.2
27.6
25.6
23.9
22.6
21.4
19.1
17.5
103.4
84.4
73.1
65.4
59.7
55.3
51.7
48.8
46.2
42.2
39 1
36.6
34.5
32 7
29.9
27.6
25.9
24.4
23.1
20.7
18.9
110.7
90.4
78.3
70.0
63.9
59.2
55.3
52.2
49.5
45.2
41.8
39.1
36.9
35.0
32 0
29.6
27.7
26.1
24.7
22.1
20.2
117.6
96.0
83.1
74.3
67.9
62.8
58.8
55.4
52.6
48.0
44.4
41.6
39.2
37.2
33.9
31.4
29.4
27.7
26.3
23.5
21.5
124.1
101 3
87.8
78.5
71.7
66.3
62.1
58.5
55.5
50.7
46.9
43.9
41.4
39.3
35.8
33.2
31.0
29.2
27.8
24.8
22.6
130 4
106.5
2°
92.2
2°30'
82.5
3°
3°30'
75.3
69.7
4°
4°30'
65.2
61.5
5°
6°
58.3
53.2
7°
8°
49.3
46.1
9°
43.5
10°
41 2
12°
37.6
14°
34.8
16°
32 6
W
ir
30.7
29.2
25*
26.1
30°
23.8
•See text under "Speed and Unbalanced Elevation for Curvature."
The motion through a straight switch-point being angular, there can
be no direct comparison of speed through the switch-point with that
through the lead curve. In order to give a rough basis for comparison
between the various switch-points and the various lead curves, the speeds
through the switch-points are figured for curves whose central angle
equals the switch angle, and the length of whose chord equals the length
of switch-point. On the above basis, with a wheel-base or truck-center
distance equal to or longer than the switch-point, the rate of turning
would equal that through the lead curve.
678
TRACK.
SPEEDS OF TRAINS THROUGH TURNOUTS
Height of Center of Gravity 84 in.
Resultant of Forces through Gage Line.
Elevation
in Inches
Frog
Degree of
Lead Curve
Length of
Switch
No.
fc
0
1
2
3
4-6
11
34.1
35.1
36.1
37.1
4
53°42'24'
22.6
23.3
24.0
24.6
5
33° 19 '57'
28.7
29.6
30.4
31.3
6
21°43'04"
35.9
37.0
38.0
39.0
7-10
16.5
51.1
52.7
54.2
55.7
7
15°52'29"
41.7
43.0
44.2
45.4
8
11°46'27"
48.4
. 49.8
51.2
52.6
9
9°28'42'
53.9
55.5
57.1
58.7
9}
8° 14 '45'
57.8
59.5
61.2
62.9
10
7°15'18'
61.6
63.5
65.3
67.1
11-14
22
68.2
70.3
72.2
74 2
11
6°12'47"
66.6
68.6
70.5
72 .4
12
5° 12 '59'
72.7
74.8
77.0
79.1
15-24
33
102.3
105.4
108.4
111.3
15
3° 17 '10"
91.1
94.3
97.0
99.7
16
2°52'59"
97.7
100.6
103.5
106.4
18
2° 14 '31"
110.8
114.1
117.4
120.6
20
1°45'32"
125.1
128.9
132.5
136.2
24
1°10'21"
153.3
157.9
162.4
1
166.8
SPEEDS OF TRAINS THROUGH TURNOUTS
Height of Center of Gravity 84 in.
Resultant Through Edge of Middle Third.
Elevation
in Inches
Frog
Degree of
Length
No.
Lead Curve
of Switch
0
1
2
3
4-6
11
18.6
20.2
21.8
23.2
4
53°42'24"
12.3
13.4
14.4
15.4
5
33° 19 '57'
15.6
17.0
18.3
19.5
6
21°43'04'
19.5
21.3
22.9
24.4
7-10
16.5
27.8
30.3
32.6
34 8
7
15°52'29"
22.7
24.7
26.6
28.4
8
11°46'27"
26.3
28.7
30.9
32.9
9
9°28'42' '
29.3
32.0
34.4
36 7
9*
8C14'45"
31.4
34.3
36.9
39.3
10
7°15'18'
33 5
36.5
39.3
41.9
11-14
22
37.1
40.4
43 5
46.4
11
6°12'47"
36.2
39.5
42 5
45.3
12
5° 12 '59"
39.5
43 1
46.4
49.4
15-24
33
55.7
60.7
65.3
69.6
15
3°l7'10" i
49.8
54.3
58.4
62.3
16
2°52'59" i
*
53.2
57.9
62.4
66.5
18
2°14'31" '
60.3
65.7
70.7
75.4
20
1°45'32"
68.1
74.2
79.8
85.1
24
l°10'2i' '
83.4
90.9
97.8
104.3
TRACK.
SPEEDS OF TRAINS THROUGH TURNOUTS
579
Three Inches of Unbalanced Elevation.
All Heights of Center of Gravity.
Those Speeds of Trains through Turnouts having an Elevation of 3 Inches less than the
Theoretical Elevation.*
Frog
No.
Degree of
Lead Curve
Length of
Switch
Actual Elevation in Inches
4-6
4
5
6
53°42'24"
33°19'57*
21°43'04'
13.9
9.2
11.7
14.6
16.0
10.6
13.5
16.9
17.9
11.9
15.1
18.9
19.6
13.0
16.6
20.7
9i
10
15°52'29'
11°46'27*
9°28'42'
8° 14 '45'
7°15'18'
16.5
20.8
17.0
19.7
21.9
23.5
25.1
24.0
19.6
22.7
25.3
27.1
29.0
26.9
21.9
25.4
28.3
30.4
32.4
29.5
24.0
27.9
31 1
33.3
33.5
11-14
11
12
6° 12 '47"
5°12'59'
27.7
27.1
29.5
32 0
31.3
34.1
35.9
35.0
38.2
39.3
38.4
41.9
15-24
15
16
18
20
24
3°17'10"
2°52'59'
2°14'31"
1°45'32"
1°10'21'
41.6
37.2
39.7'
45.1
50.9
62.3
48.1
43.0
45 9
52.1
58.8
72.0
53.8
48.1
51.4
58.3
65.8
80 6
*Seetext under "Speed and Unbalanced Elevation for Curvature."
SPEEDS OF TRAINS THROUGH LEVEL TURNOUTS
Height of Center of Gravity 84 in.
Resultant Through Points at Varying Distances from Center Line.
Frog
No.
4-6
4
5
6
7-10
7
94
10
11-14
11
12
15-24
15
16
18
20
24
Length of
Switch
16.5
22
Distance of Resultant from Center Line of Track
4.6
3.1
3.9
4.9
7,0 "
5.7,
6.6
7.3
7.9
S-.4
4'
10.4
6.9
8.7
10.9
15.6
12.7
14.7
16.4
17.6
"1877 ■
9.3
9.1
9.9
13.9
12.5
13.3
15.1
17.0
20.9
20.7
20.3
22.1
31.1
27.9
29.7
33.7
38.1
46.6
6"
13.-9
9.2
11.7
14.6
20.9
17.0
19 7
22.0
23.6
"25.2
27.8
27.2
29.7
41.8
37.4
39.9
45.2
51.1
62.6
16.7
11.1
14 1
17.6
25.1
20.5
23.7
26.4
28.4
30.2
10'
19.1
12.7
16.1
20.1
33.5
33.4
35.6
50.2
44.9
47.9
54.3
61.4
75.2
28.7
23.4
27.1
30.2
32.4
34.6
38.3
37.4
40.8
57.4
50.2
54.8
62.2
70.2
86.0
21.3
14.1
17.9
22.4
31.9
26.0
30.1
33.6
36.0
38.4
42.5
41 5
45.3
63.8
57.1
60.9
69.1
78.0
95.6
59.0
52.8
56.3
63.9
72.1
88.3
14'
23.2
15.4
19.5
24.4
34.8
28.4
32.9
36.7
39.3
41.9
46.4
45.3
49.4
69.6
62.3
66.5
75.4
85.1
104.3
The speeds in the foregoing tables are graphically represented in the following diagrams.
580
TRACK.
5PEEZDS OF TRAINS ON CURVES
OVERTURNING SPEEDS - RE5ULANTTH BOUGH GAGE UNE
HEIGHT OF CENTER OT GRAVITV - &A "
30
29
25
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
n\\u\\\
ll\
\M\\\\
\\V\V
vvv\
\
\l\\\l
w
vl
"VA
!>
\\V\
AVA
a
\\\
A\YA
^
w
16
17
t
O
\\\\\\\\
16
15
14
13
12
II
10
9
Hd
U
\\\\\\\
\AV.\
n
YN
m
S
\v
AAA
\\\W
\w\v\
\vo-v
-^
0
7
6
5
TIXH
BTKRX
*• UUI
ER~R3
ljninI
«ts ^
^
feaT"
$^|
^5
.
4
3
2
1
o<
— <^
itsi
llt^^
lo
VEL.C
OTY
in Mr
-ESF
•ER h
OUR
D I
0 20 30 40 SO SO TO 50 90 I00
TRACK.
581
5PEEIDS OF TRAINS ON CURVES
RESULTANT THROUGH EDGE OT MIDDLE THIRD
HEIGHT OF CENTER OF GR/VITY= B4-"
30r
29-
28-
27-
26-
25-
24-
23-
22-
2C-
19-1
»i
17 1
14-
12
10
DF 0U"ER R/JL IN INCHED
vfI ncri-v list mil^3 PEka hOuq
10 20 30 40 50 60 TO ©O 90 IOO 110
582
TRACK.
SPEEDS OF TRAINS ON CURVES
UNBALANCED ELEVATION — 3"
ALL HEIGMT5 OF CENTER OF GRAVITV
TtlOSE SPEEDS OF TGAINSON CURVES HAVING AN ELEVATION
OFTHREE INCHES LESS THAN THE THEORETICAL ELEVATION
INCHE5
10
20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90 IOO 110
TRACK.
583
SPEEDS OF "TRAINS
"THROUGH LEVEL TURNOUTS
HEIGHT OF CENTO? Or GRAV1TV = 64"
Nfi5-^
Ltzvai
atical
I nchos
Llavafibn
and a paly
t-nrouqh
10 lO 30 40 50 60 TO SO 90 100 110
584
TRACK.
SPEEDS OF TRAINS
"THROUGH LEVEL- TURNOUTS
REI5ULTANT OF FORCES THROUGH POINT5 AT
TRACK. 585
By dividing the speeds in the above tables by the frog numbers, the
result for each table is found to be nearly a constant. Hence, when the
height of center of gravity is 84 inches and the elevation = 0 inches, the
speeds have the following simple arithmetical relations to the frog num-
bers when the turnouts are level :
Resultant through gage line — speed = 6.1 N±.
Resultant through edge of middle third — speed = 3.3 N±.
Three inches unbalanced elevation — speed = 2.46 N±.
Other equally simple relations can be figured for other heights of
center of gravity. The speed for three inches of unbalanced elevation is
not affected by the height of center of gravity.
As nearly as can be compared (by assuming the switch-point as a
chord of a curve whose central angle equals the switch angle) the corre-
sponding speeds through the switches are 3.1 S, 1.69 S and 1.26 S, re-
spectively, in which 6" is the length of the switch-point. On such an as-
sumption the length of the switch-point should approximate double the
frog number, as stated in the report of this Committee in Vol. 13 of
Proceedings, p. 373.
The assumption, for the purpose of comparison, that a switch-point
is equivalent to a curve of equal length subtending an angle equal to the
switch angle is a purely arbitrary one ; it would be true only if the curve
were exceedingly kinky and consisted of short tangents, whose lengths
equaled the lengths of switch-point.
Such an assumption is commonly made, however, evidently under the
belief that the center of gravity of the engine traverses a more or less
regular curve in the direction of the deflection of the switch-point. It
does traverse a curve, it is true; but the direction of the curve is opposite
to that of the switch-point; in other words, the curve is concave to the
rail.
The middle ordinate of the curve traversed by the middle point in
the wheel-base is equal to half the length of wheel-base times the differ-
ence between the tangent and the sine of half the switch angle, as will
be clearly seen by inspection of Fig. 2.
AB - RaiHor? of Wheel- base, /von/ Driver of Fbir?r afSA-ifct?
C - Cetr/er • ■■ - • , - ■■ ......
A'B - fhsihon » wl?er7 Genfer is opposite Poirrf
C = Cenhzr ... . oppoi/fe Point.
An3"- Fhs'ifior? - . , Rear Driver afPoirrf of 3>wfcf7
C » Ccrrhzr . , - ...
CCC~ ' Ftif/7 of Cesjfvj- of W?ee/-£<*se.
C'G * A'C' Ar/7 '/z-a
DB »- CB .si/? Sit*
A'C1- CB
CD- CB(roo'Aa-sy/jAa) C"
AC SS/dcA Rwl B^A
Fig. 2
586 TRACK.
The middle ordinate of this curve is so small that the path traversed
by any point in the engine, in passing over a switch-point, can be con-
sidered as a straight line.
Therefore, it is not a curved, but an angular motion with which we
have to deal at the switch-point.
The reactions at the switch-point are rather complex, consisting of
both static and dynamic forces.
HORIZONTAL THRUST AT SWITCH-POINT, DUE TO FRICTION.
First, there is a static force in the form of a horizontal thrust, due
to the switch-point forcing the engine to move at an angle with the di-
rection of rotation of the wheels, or at an angle with the line of the
wheel-base. This probably causes a slipping of all wheels excepting the
rear outside or the rear inside wheel, depending on whether the engine is
exerting tractive force or not. This horizontal force will vary with the
length of wheel-base and with the number of drivers, but can be roughly
determined in the following manner:
Assume a 17-foot wheel-base and 6 drivers; the weight on drivers =
W, and the co-efficient of sliding friction = c.
W
The weight on each driver is then — and the resistance to sliding
6
cW
of each of the five sliding wheels is .
6
Taking the distance between points of contact between the rail and
the two wheels on an axle at 5 feet, the lever arms of the two slipping
wheels on the one side are 8.5 and 17 feet, while those of the three
wheels on the other side are 5, 9.86 and 17.72 feet. The sum of the mo-
cW
ments of the five slipping wheels is 58.08 X •
As the lever arm of the switch-rail acting on the front outer wheel
is 17 feet, the resulting horizontal force exerted by the rail on this wheel
58.08 c W
is X or 0.57 c W.
17 6
With a 22-foot switch-point, the sliding motion of the front outside
wheel is 1/44 of the forward motion of the engine and the average slid-
58.08
ing motion of the five wheels is of that of the front outside wheel
5X17
or .015 times the forward motion of the engine.
Therefore, at a speed of 60 M. P. H., the average sliding motion is
at a velocity of only 0.9 M. P. H.
At the moment the sliding begins the friction to be overcome is the
friction of repose. The co-efficient of friction of repose between steel
tires and steel rails is approximately 0.25. After the sliding begins the
co-efficient will drop somewhat, but seldom below that for a velocity of
1 M. P. H.
TRACK. 587
At the moment sliding begins, which is when the front drivers strike
the point of a facing-point switch or the stock rail of a trailing-point
switch, the horizontal static pressure on the rail in this particular case
will be approximately 0.57X0.25 W or
7 = 0.14^
in which T is the approximate horizontal static pressure, and W is the
weight on drivers.
T will vary somewhat with the type of engine, but will probably never
exceed 0.19 W. .
In addition to the above static pressure there is a dynamic force, due
to the impact of the engine against the stock rail or switch -point, which
is being studied by your Committee, and will be made the subject of a
future report.
RELATION BETWEEN WORN FLANGES AND WORN SWITCH-
POINTS.
L. S. Rose and J. R. Leighty, Special Committee.
Your Committee reports that it has received a number of letters con-
taining only very indefinite information, and that no conclusion has been
reached. Your Committee will endeavor to secure further data and will
continue the study.
STANDARD PLANS OF GUARD RAILS.
L. J. F. Hughes, E. Raymond and A. H. Stone, Special Committee.
Your Committee has made no progress on this subject, but will con-
tinue the study.
ECONOMICS OF TRACK LABOR.
SUB-COMMITTEE NO. 2.
H. R. Safford, Chairman; E. T. Howson,
G. H. Bremner, P. C. Newbegin,
H. M. Church, F. B. Oren,
Garrett Davis, W. G. Raymond,
Raffe Emerson, C. H. Stein.
J. M. R. Fairbairn,
The Sub-Committee assigned to the subject of Economics of Track
Labor has now been in existence for two years. When it was created,
a defined program was prepared, calling for a systematic plan of action
embracing some nineteen subjects, of which certain ones would be se-
lected for each year's work, the idea being to look ahead to the future
and to not lose sight of the relation existing between these subjects,
many of them having dfefined relations. •
The general program embraced the following :
(i) A system of reports to measure efficiency of gangs for various
588 TRACK.
kinds of work and efficiency of various kinds of labor with a view to
establishing tangible data to correctly measure efficiency.
(2) A system of reports to establish unit costs of work.
(3) The use of a system of work cards and other means of plan-
ning work and keeping records to measure progress.
(4) The development of a plan and system for establishing a thor-
oughly accurate basis of comparison of track conditions as a means for
measuring efficiency — equating for various conditions, such as rails, bal-
last, ties, drainage, length of track, etc.
(5) A study of the use and efficiency of motor cars for track work.
(6) A study of labor-saving devices.
(7) A study of the method best suited to various kinds of track
work, particular reference being made to rail, ballast and tie renewals.
(8) A study of the method of renewing ties, as to the renewal of
ties on every mile of track each year or taking a portion of the track
each year to avoid disturbing track too often.
(9) A study of the matter of proper season for various kinds of
track work.
(10) A study of the organization best suited to carry on the above
work as to extra gangs versus section gangs.
(11) The study of the general suggestion to combine under section
foremen such work as ordinary maintenance of signals and telegraph
lines, rough carpentry, water station repairs, etc.
(12) Proper size of track supervisors' territory.
(13) The establishment of a labor bureau to better control and se-
cure labor.
(14) Training laborers for track work by specially organized gangs
for that purpose.
(15) Rates of pay for section labor.
(16) The matter of obtaining good section foremen.
(17) The education of section foremen.
(18) The rates of pay for section foremen.
(19) The proper basis for providing section houses.
The subjects chosen for the first year's work were:
(a) The matter of educating and obtaining good section foremen.
(b) Methods of making programs for work and sequence of work.
The first subject was discussed to a point permitting a definite con-
clusion to be reached.
The second subject was not concluded.
The subjects assigned for this year's work were:
(1) The consideration of the idea of extending the scope of duties
of a section foreman to embrace certain other works now generally han-
dled by other classes of labor in an endeavor to effect the following:
(a) A saving due to the lost motion of mechanics traveling great
distances to perform very simple work, resulting in unnecessary cost.
(b) A saving in delay in getting more prompt action in such work.
(2) The study and development of a system for equating track
values to enable :
TRACK. 589
(a) A more efficient track' maintenance as a result of establishing
accurate units of service required.
(b) A more equitable method of apportioning monies for track
maintenance.
SUBJECT I.
At a meeting held in Buffalo, the Sub-Committee decided to put out
a number of inquiries to determine what had been done by other roads
in this connection, and circulars were sent out to the membership, as
follows :
"The Committee on Track is conducting a study to determine the
practicability and advantage of the suggestion being followed by some
roads of extending the scope of section foremen's duties to embrace some
classes of work now being handled by representatives from other depart-
ments.
"The basic feature is an economic one and the result hoped for seems
to be a reduction in maintenance expense by having section foremen do
such things as emergency repairs to platforms, stock pens, track bonding,
battery renewals, teleeraph line repairs, etc., the general idea being to
reduce, as far as possible, the expense occasioned by high-priced men mov-
ing over the road with great loss of time, when only a small amount of
work of simple character is required.
"The Committee is desirous of obtaining all possible information
from railroads where this has been tried, and in addition to pet the
opinion of other members of the Association, whether or not based upon
actual experiment.
"The Committee would, therefore, appreciate replies to the enclosed
circular." .
CIRCULAR.
Has your road out into effect anv definite plan or conducted any tests
or experiments in the direction of extending the scope of Section Fore-
men's duties to embrace work or portions of work generally done by
other than section forces, such as roueh carpentry on bridges and build-
ings, simple repairs to water plants, maintenance of signals, repairs to
telegraph lines, etc.?
If so, to what extent?
(a) Length of territory on which it is in effect.
(b) Single or double track line.
(c) Main line or branch line.
(d) Character of track:
r. General alinement and gradient.
2. Ballast.
3. Labor ("native or foreign).
(e) Character and quantity of traffic.
(f) Length of time of experiment or application.
What character of work was covered?
What results were observed?
(a) The nature of relative expense for various classes of work
done.
(b) In obtaining more prompt action in repair work.
Kindly give a statement descriptive of the methods of applying the
practice, preparation therefor, method of supervising, etc., as well as any
other information of interest.
590 TRACK.
In this circular opinions were also requested upon the general prop-
osition, and a summary of the replies is attached hereto, marked Ex-
hibit "A."
In addition to the information furnished by replies, one of the mem-
bers, Mr. E. T. Howson, has personally canvassed a number of roads,
which have shown interest in this proposition, and has prepared an arti-
cle descriptive of the results obtained (see Exhibit "B").
Only three railroads have made a real test of the idea. Some others
have tried it to a limited extent, but so far it has had very little trial.
The results obtained by the three roads which have made an appli-
cation of the idea vary considerably, but it will be noted that in the case
of the road which found the trial unsatisfactory, the test was started
with apparently little preparation and did not extend over a long enough
time to really demonstrate it.
The idea is purely an economic one, its purpose being to eliminate
the wasteful expenditure due to men traveling long distances to do work,
which, while possibly falling under the direction of men specially skilled,
yet not beyond the power of an intelligent man of most any experience
with ordinary tools.
The idea does not involve an immediate change to the condition
where the Section Foreman will be charged with the entire duties of a
branch of service, such as suggested, but, if practicable at all, must be
started in a very limited way and developed gradually.
Some of the replies state this suggestion calls for a higher class of
man — a much broader scope of education, and the class of man now gen-
erally found for Section Foreman is not capable of the enlarged service.
A number of the replies indicate that the idea is entirety practicable
and can be worked out to advantage.
The thought may lead to a great change in organization whereby
the Track Foreman may become extinct and in his place may appear a
Roadway Foreman in charge of track, bridges, ordinary rough building
work, ordinary water service, ordinary signal repairs, etc.
It is not known to what extent the idea is possible of development,
but it warrants careful consideration.
Your Committee recommends continuing the study of the results to
be obtained by the roads engaged in the experiment, and that it warrants
very careful consideration and experiment by members of the Track
Committee.
SUBJECT II — EQUATING TRACK VALUES.
The Sub-Committee in the first consideration of this subject came to
the conclusion that in the absence of any information upon the subject,
the basis of the study would have to be a series of experiments. In-
quiry developed that while a very few roads had tried to work out a
plan for equating values, it was in a very general way.
One exception to the rule was found in the case of the Baltimore &
Ohio Railroad, which has developed a very complete and elaborate unit
TRACK. 591
of work system which has been quite successfully tried, and the thanks
of the Sub-Committee are due that road, through Mr. Earl Stimson, for
the thorough explanation of it which he made to the Sub-Committee at
the Baltimore meeting.
The factors entering into this problem are very numerous and con-
sist of generally :
Character of traffic.
Quantity of traffic.
Character of rolling stock.
Speed of trains.
Character of rail.
Character of ballast.
Character of roadbed.
Alinement.
Number of switches.
Number of feet of sidetrack.
Climatic conditions, etc.
These factors vary more or less between different parts of the
country, and it is very doubtful if any results can be worked out which
could be accepted everywhere, and in all probability it will always have
to be a more or less local proposition, but the Committee feels that a
general and thorough test should be made and has tried to work out a
plan for that purpose.
This plan contemplates the selection of test sections of track and a
thorough statement made of the physical characteristics, so that a proper
relation can be established, and the members of the Track Committee
were communicated with on August 19th last, as follows :
"The Sub-Committee on the Economics of Track Labor have taken
up for study the matter of equated track values. The object of this study
is to arrive at a basis for equating track values for determining the fol-
lowing things :
"(1) To arrive at proper units of cost of the various features which
enter into track labor expense.
"(2) To arrive at a basis for equitably apportioning appropriations
for expenditure.
"(3) To obtain a systematic measure of efficiency of track foremen
and men.
"The subject has been given some tentative study by a few roads
and some interesting data has been developed, but, as far as can be deter-
mined, the results heretofore obtained have been somewhat general and
form only a guide to the complete determination desired.
"The Committee feels that the method of attacking this question in
order to get positive and accurate data is to conduct a series of tests,
taking actual cost data of various pieces of track for given periods of
time. This seems to be the only way to accomplish the desired results,
because of the varying conditions met in all classes of track.
592 TRACK.
"This is readily seen because the following are the important and
general factors which govern expense, and which differ so materially as
between sections of the same road :
Main Track Factors. Side and Yard Track Factors.
Ton miles. Number of cars handled.
Character of freight traffic. do
Character of passenger traffic. do
Alinement.
Grades.
Speed (maximum).
Character of rail and age.
Character and quantity of ballast.
Character and number of ties.
Character and number of switches.
Character of roadbed.
Climatic conditions.
Number and character of road
crossings.
Number and character of water
stations.
Station grounds.
Railroad crossings.
Area of right-of-way.
"The starting point in the collection of cost data would seem to be a
plan providing for careful records being kept in order to obtain reliable
information, and for this purpose the Sub-Committee suggest that each
member of the Track Committee put into effect a plan for keeping in-
formation concerning several sections of track for a period of, say, one
year, exercising careful watchfulness over the distribution of time, and,
after this information is obtained, it will be possible, we think, to assign
equated values for such things as the number of units generally entering
into track maintenance.
"There is attached to this letter a blank form giving the physical
characteristics required in connection with such experiment, also a sug-
gested form for keeping the records of distribution of labor expended in
this experimental track.
"The Sub-Committee appreciates that it means some special care, pos-
sibly a slight additional expense, to keep these records, but it is felt that
the expense would be justified by the result. However, before putting the
suggested plan into effect, we could appreciate a thorough criticism of
the attached circulars."
The test should extend over a period of one year, during which time
a special distribution of all labor should be kept on a sheet marked Ex-
hibit "C," specially designed to give information not provided by the
Interstate Commerce Classification.
This test will require special supervision, but the results are deemed
worthy of the cost.
The results to be obtained by this method will enable certain units to
be determined which can be given a relative value, so that an equitable
distribution of monies can be made as between sections of road upon a
TRACK. 593
mathematical basis. In other words; it is a step in the direction of put-
ting this feature of track maintenance upon a scientific basis.
The Sub-Committee has proposed to conduct a series of experiments
by its individual members.
Your Committee recommends the matter to be studied further, and
especially recommends that all of the members of the Track Committee
assist in conducting such tests.
REVISION OF MANUAL.
Your Committee has found an error in the Table of Theoretical and
Practical Leads, in the dimensions for the No. 15 Turnout, which it
wishes to correct by substituting the following corrected dimensions for
those in the Manual :
CORRECTIONS TO TABLE OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL SWITCH LEADS.
No. 15 Turnout.
Theoretical Leads. Manual. Corrected.
Col. X. R = Radius of Center Line 1/44-38 1744-45
XL Z? = Degree of Lead Curve 3°i7'oi" 30 17' 06"
XII. Distance Point of Switch to Theo-
retical Point of Frog 133.02 130. 50
XIII. Closure Straight Rail 92.36 89.83
XIV. Closure Curved Rail 92.46 89.94
Practical Leads.
Col. XV Ri = Radius of Center Line 1744.58 i/43-8o
" XVI. Di = Degree of Curve 3°i7'oi" 30 17' 10"
" XVIII. Rectangular Co-ordinate Xi 77.95 77.98
" XIX. Rectangular Co-ordinate Xi 100.41 100.45
" XXII. Rectangular Co-ordinate V3 2.85 2.84
XXIII. T = Tangent Adjacent to Switch
Rail 0.00 0.09
XXV Li = Distance Actual Point of
Switch to Theoretical Point of
Frog 132.66 130.56
XXVI. Lead = Distance Actual Point of
Switch to Actual Point of Frog 133.28 131.19
" XXVII. Closure for Straight Rail 2-33 2-30
1-25.9 1-29.89
" XXVIII. Closure for Curved Rail 2-33 3-30
1-26
CONCLUSIONS.
Your Committee recommends for adoption and publication in the
Manual :
(1) Typical plans of Nos. 8, 11 and 16 crossovers, as representing
good practice.
(2) The five diagrams of speeds of trains through curves and level
turnouts.
594
TRACK.
(3) The following table, showing relative speeds through level
turnouts, to give the equivalent riding condition to track elevated three
inches less than theoretically required:
Turnout
Speed
Frog Number
Length of Switch
Miles per Hour
4
11
9
5
11
12
6
11
13
7
16.5
17
8-10
16.5
20
11-14
22
27
15
33
37
16-24
33
40
(4) The corrections to Table of Theoretical and Practical Switch
Leads recommended under "Revision of Manual."
Your Committee recommends receiving as information :
(1) Typical plans of Nos. 8, 11 and 16 double-slip crossings.
(2) Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis plan of standard No.
8 double-slip switch.
(3) The report on "Speeds of Trains on Curves and Turnouts."
Your Committee recommends receiving as a progress report, the re-
port on Economics of Track Labor.
Your Committee recommends recommittal for further study :
(1) Typical plans for double-slip crossings, double crossovers and
guard rails.
(2) Relation between worn flanges and worn switch-points.
(3) Economics of Track Labor.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON TRACK.
TYPICAL PLANS OF
NOS. 8, ii AND 16
DOUBLE SLIP CROSSINGS.
\
TYPICAL PLAN OF NO 8-DOUBLE SLIP CROSSING (movable points') x-measurement between gauge lines
1M ^ J;J"j[JJ J'JUULfU UUUUUUUUUUUU
TYP/CAlWaN OF NO. //-DOUBLE SLIP CROSSING (mlSvablTpoinTs) % ^\ \Ms\ Wsh
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_ a«J Igg-af <*/rjmr ^mat/iLttn .ggrCT
urr LTirniT wwrrwOT
C.C.C.& STL. Fir
STANDARD A/O 3 DOUBLET SUP SWITCH
A S ruBNISHCO FOR /A/7T/71 OCKINS
X-MEASUREMENT BETWEEN GUAGE LINES
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TYPICAL PLAN OF NO /6-DOUBLE SL/P CPOSS/NG [movable po/nts)
i
TYPICAL PLANS OF
N OS. 8, ii AND 16 CROSSOVERS.
TYPICAL PLt\N OF NO 8 CPOSSOI/CR
1 » ■ ■ "'
3 ■
typical plan of no // crossover
TYPICAL PLAN OF NO 16 CROSSO VCR
EXHIBIT C.
SPECIAL RECORD TRACK SECTION
-EQUATED MILEAGE TRACK SEC-
TION.
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Exhibit "A.'
Road
Trial
Result
Opinion as to
Practicability
Great Northern ! Yes-limited .
Illinois Central I Yes-50 miles
St. Louis & San Francisco
Queen & Crescent
Detroit, Toledo & Ironton .
Pennsylvania Lines
Washington Terminal
St. Louis Southwestern
Chicago & Northwestern
Mobile & Ohio
International & Great Northern.
Northern Pacific
Minneapolis & St. Louis
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western
Terminal Railroad of St. Louis.. .
Bangor & Aroostook j
Seaboard Air Line
New York Central & Hudson
River !
Chicago & Alton
Delaware & Hudson
Colorado & Southern
Lehigh Valley
Boston & Maine
Chicago Junction
Big Four
Missouri Pacific
Norfolk & Western
Delaware & Hudson
Erie
New York, New Havn & Hart-
ford
Chicago & Eastern Illinois
Denver & Rio Grande
Missouri, Kansas & Texas
Carolina, Clinchfield & Ohio
Southern
Wheeling & Lake Erie
Richmond, Fredericksburg & Po-
tomac
El Paso & Southwestern
L. I. &L. A. Ry
Nashville, Chattanooga & St.
Louis
Duluth & Iron Range
Virginian
Philadelphia & Reading
Pittsburgh & Lake Erie
Lake Erie & Western
Central Railroad of New Jersey..
New York, Chicago & St. Louis.
Elgin, Joliet & Eastern
Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg . .
Chicago Great Western
Louisville & Nashville
Santa Fe
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul. .
No.
No.
Yes- limited.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No- Rough
Carpentry.
No.
No-Bonding
rails.
No.
No.
No.
No.
Yes-Signals.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
Fair only.
None.
None.
Favorable.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
No reply.
None.
Not satisfactory.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Not satisfactory.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
That the practice should
result in economy.
Experiment not satisfactory
but to be extended.
Doubtful.
Doubtful; class of labor
not suitable.
Favorable.
Doubtful.
Not applicable to a Term-
inal Co.
Not favorable.
Not favorable.
No opinion.
Not favorable.
No opinion; apparently fav-
orable.
Favorable.
Not favorable.
Not applicable to Terminal.
Not favorable.
No opinion.
Not favorable.
Not favorable.
No opinion.
Recommended .
No opinion.
Favorable.
Not practicable (Terminal)
No opinion.
No opinion.
Not favorable.
Not favorable.
No opinion.
No opinion.
No opinion.
No opinion.
No opinion.
No opinion.
No opinion.
No opinion.
Favorable to
tent.
No opinion.
Not favorable.
limited ex-
No opinion.
Favorable.
No opinion.
Not applicable.
Not favorable.
Favorable.
Not applicable.
No opinion.
Favorable.
No opinion.
Not favorable.
No opinion.
No opinion.
No opinion.
695
Exhibit "B."
EXTENDING THE DUTIES OF SECTION FOREMEN.
The extent to which the duties of the Section Foreman can be
broadened to include other simple work commonly handled by men of
the bridge and building, water service, telegraph and signal departments,
is a live question at the present time when the railroads are endeavoring
to adopt every means to reduce the cost of operation. Briefly, the main
advantage of consolidating these duties under the Section Foreman is
that he is at all times on one section of limited mileage and can attend
to any such work with the minimum delay and expense, as compared
with sending a man from one of the other departments from the division
headquarters. The principal objection made is the inability of the aver-
age foreman to perform such work at present. This plan has been tried
to a limited extent with the consolidation of the track and carpentry,
telegraph and water-service work, principally, however, on the smaller
lines.
Although at first thought one would consider that the last two de-
partments to be combined would be the track and signal departments,
because of the generally considered technical details of signal maintenance,
it is here that the combination has been most thoroughly tried and has
made the most progress. While this has been to a certain extent the re-
sult of local conditions, careful consideration will show that there is at
least one definite reason for this condition. The forces engaged in track
and signal maintenance are most closely associated to-day, and it is here
that there is the greatest overlap and friction. Representatives of both
departments patrol the line daily and they must co-operate in making
repairs of any magnitude to signals. Because of this interdependence
there is certain to be more or less loss in efficiency.
The first extensive trial of the combination of track and signal main-
tenance under the supervision of one force was inaugurated on the
Union Pacific. In April, 1910, that portion of the Union Pacific main
line from Kearney, Neb., west 95 miles to North Platte, was equipped
for this experiment. This portion of the line is double track, equipped
with Union Switch & Signal Company Style "B" automatic signals, and
has an average train movement of 28 passenger and 20 freight trains
daily. Previous to 19 10 there were 24 Section Foremen at $65 per month
each, and seven signal maintainers were employed at $75 per month. In
combining these forces the District Supervisor of Signals was made As-
sistant Roadmaster, and this 95 miles of line was divided into 11 sections,
each in charge of a foreman at $75 and an assistant foreman at $65.
Each gang was provided with a gasoline motor car and with a handpower
velocipede, making the customary track inspection and taking care of the
signals. This man also tightens bolts and does other work customarily
required of the track walker.
596
TRACK. 597
This same plan of organization was extended over the double-track
main line of the Union Pacific, from North Platte west 135 miles to
Sidney in April, 1912, and from the west limit of the Omaha terminals
west to Columbus, about 85 miles, on May 1, 1913. On August 1 of this
year the maintenance of the Omaha terminals was also placed under this
same system, while it is planned to further extend it over the two re-
maining districts of the Nebraska division, between Omaha and Cheyenne,
Wyo., next spring. Thus the signals and track are now maintained by
one common force on 351 miles out of a total of 516 miles of main line
on the Nebraska division of the Union Pacific.
While the actual economies resulting from this system cannot be
definitely ascertained because of the fact that these districts have been
equipped with motor cars and the length of sections has been increased,
it is felt by those in charge that the combination of track and signal
maintenance has contributed its share to the large total savings which
have been made. The work, formerly requiring seven signal maintainers
at $75 each on the original district of 95 miles and a track walker on
each section, has been consolidated under nine assistant foremen at $65
each. While the Nebraska division used to be the highest in point of
expenditures per mile for maintenance, it has gradually fallen until it is
now the lowest on the Union Pacific, with the single exception of the
Colorado division, which consists largely of branch lines. This is in
spite of the fact that the main line is double track and handles the heavi-
est traffic of any division on the system. With this arrangement the fric-
tion between the signal and track departments has been eliminated, in-
sulated joint failures have largely disappeared and the avoidable signal
failures have decreased materially.
The Illinois Central was the second road to combine the track and
signal maintenance experimentally on 41 miles of double-track main line
from Ballard Junction, near the south end of the Cairo bridge, to Fulton,
Ky., on October 1, 1912. The sections on this district average four miles
in length, and the line is equipped with Hall normal danger gas signals
spaced 1^2 to 2 miles apart. Previous to the inauguration of this plan
the Assistant Signal Engineer spent three weeks instructing the Section
Foremen in their duties, and the Division Supervisor also spent as much
time as he could spare from his other work in training the foremen. At
the time this plan was put into operation the salary of the foremen was
increased $5 per month and white assistant foremen were employed, the
laborers being colored. No increase was made in the length of the sec-
tions.
When the signals were turned over to the track forces the number
of failures increased greatly. A General Foreman was, therefore, em-
ployed in September to give his entire attention to the further instruction
of the foremen on this district, and since that time the failures have been
greatly reduced, although they are still considerably above normal. Also
the cost of maintenance of the track and signals is now in excess of that
under the old system. However, the experiment on this road has been
598 TRACK.
under way too short a time to enable the officers to draw any definite
conclusions, but it is believed that both the cost of maintenance and the
number of failures will compare favorably with results obtained under
former methods.
The Chicago & Alton is the most recent road to combine the track
and signal forces experimentally. About the middle of April of this
year these forces were combined on 30 miles of the double-track main
line between Bloomington, 111., and Ocoya. These tracks were laid with
80-lb. and 90-lb. rail with rock ballast and were equipped with Hall sig-
nals. Previous to the combination of these forces the track was Main-
tained with section gangs covering an average of four miles of line, under
the direction of a foreman at $60 per month, and the signals by a main-
tainer covering 15 miles of line and paid $75 per month, with a lamp
tender at $40 per month. In combining these forces the maintainer was
dispensed with and the foreman's wages increased to $70 per month. The
length of section remained the same and no assistant foreman was pro-
vided. After a trial of about three months this plan was decided a failure,
and the maintenance of track and signals was placed on the original basis.
It was found that the foremen were devoting an excessive amount of
time to the maintenance of signals in their desire to hold the number
of failures down to normal, and thus retain their increase in salary. As
a result their efficiency in the track work decreased, while the number
of signal failures increased, due to the inexperience of the foremen.
The contrast between the results obtained on these three roads is
instructive and can be studied with value. The success or failure can be
attributed largely to the nature and extent of the preparatory education
and training of the foremen in their new duties and to the degree of
patient assistance shown by the officers in its development. The Union
Pacific found, as did the Illinois Central and the Alton, that the number
of signal failures increased at first, as would naturally be expected when
their maintenance was turned over to partially experienced men. The
Alton's experiment did not continue sufficiently long to overcome this
initial period of increased signal failures, and if it had been continued
for six months longer these failures would probably have approached a
normal condition as they have done on the Union Pacific and are now
doing on the Illinois Central. In fact, on the Union Pacific the average
number of failures is now reported to be lower than on the old system.
The degree of success attained by this method on the three roads
corresponds largely to the extent of the education of the foremen. On
the Union Pacific the men had access to the courses of instruction of the
Educational Bureau on maintenance of signals for several months before
the signals were turned over to them, and they had availed themselves
very generally of the opportunity of studying the elementary details of
signal maintenance. Also, this plan was in contemplation on the various
sub-divisions for some time before its installation, and opportunity was
thus given to coach the men in their new duties. After the adoption of
this plan on the first sub-division, several men experienced in the main-
TRACK. 599
tenance of signals were transferred from this sub-division to the other
sub-divisions as assistant foremen when the joint maintenance was put
in effect there to aid in the new work.
While the Assistant Signal Engineer of the Illinois Central devoted
three weeks to instructing the Section Foremen on this line regarding
their new duties, the officers now realize that this was insufficient in view
of the fact that the Division Supervisor of Signals could devote only a
limited amount of attention to the men after this system was inaugurated.
This defect has been remedied to a large degree by the employment of a
General Foreman, who is spending his entire time on this territory, and a
marked improvement has been noted.
While some preparation was made on the Alton, the plan was de-
cided on quickly, and the men were given only a couple of weeks' in-
struction in connection with their other work. The foremen were not
provided with assistant foremen and the responsibility for the main-
tenance of signals fell upon them in addition to their regular track work.
It is difficult to see how men thrown upon their own resources, after this
limited amount of instruction, could equal experienced maintainers in
performing that work.
In view of the limited extent to which this experiment has been
tried, no definite conclusions can be drawn at this time, and the entire
subject is still in the experimental stage. At the same time, this method
would appear to offer possibilities for economy in maintenance and de-
serves the careful consideration by railway officers not only in combin-
ing the maintenance of the track and signals, but more particularly the
combination with light carpentry and similar work. An incidental ad-
vantage, which should not be lost sight of, is the possibility of attracting
a better class of men from the signal, bridge and other departments be-
cause of the increased salary paid for the enlarged duties.
Exhibit "D."
STATEMENT OF CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIAL RECORD
TRACK SECTIONS.
i. Railroad
2. Division
3. District
4. Station
5. Mile post to mile post
6. Double or single track
7. Main or branch line
, 8. Rail :
(a) Weight and section
(b) Condition per cent, life spent
9. Ballast :
(a) Character
(b) Condition
(c) Depth under ties
10. Number of ties per mile
(a) Size
(b) Treated or untreated
(c) Kind treatment
1 1. Per cent, track anchored
12. Per cent, track tie plated
13. Number of miles of main track : First
Second
0 Third
Fourth
14. Number of miles of passing track
Yard leads
Other yard tracks
Industrial tracks
15. Character and condition of rail:
(a) Passing track
(b) Yard leads
(c) Other yard track
(d) Industrial tracks
16. Character and condition of ballast sidetracks :
f Number of feet of curve
i7. AlinementJ2feauchde/™e---; " ,
I Number of feet of straight track
l.Degree curvature per mile
600
TRACK. 601
17A. Miles of grade of less than 0.6 per cent
Average rate of such grade
Miles of grade of 0.6 per cent, and over
Average rate of such grades '. . . .
18. Number of miles of embankment
19. Number of miles of excavation
20. Character of roadbed
21. Character of drainage
22. Estimated ton miles per year:
(a) First track
(b) Second track
(c) Third track
(d) Fourth track
23. Number of high-speed trains per year, freight. . . .
Average speed of high-speed freight trains
24. Number of high-speed trains per year, passenger.
Average speed of high-speed passenger trains. . . .
25. Area and character of right-of-way
26. Area of station grounds
27. Number of railroad crossings (main)
Number of railroad crossings (side)
Number of street crossings (main)
Number of street crossings (side)
Number of highway crossings (main)
Number of highway crossings (side)
28. Number of interlocking plants
Signal characteristics
29. Number of main line switches :
(a) Hand operated
(b) Interlocker
30. Number of side track switches :
(a) Hand operated
( b) Interlocker
31. Number yard switches
32. Number industrial switches
33. Track pans, feet of track
34. Number of bridge approaches
35. Linear feet of bridges :
(a) Open deck
(b) Ballast deck
(c) Steel bridges
36. Mean January temperature
37. Mean July temperature
38. Number of thaws during winter
39. Annual precipitation (rain and snow)
40. Winter snowfall
602
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L REPORT OF COMMITTEE XVI— ON ELECTRICITY.
George W. Kittredge, Chairman; J. B. Austin, Jr., Vice-Chairman;
D. J. Brumley, J. A. Peabody,
R. D. Coombs, Frank Rhea,
A. O. Cunningham, J. W. Reid,
Walt Dennis, A. F. Robinson,
L. C. Fritch, J. R. Savage,
George Gibbs, A. G. Shaver,
G. A. Harwood, Martin Schreiber,
E. B. Katte, W. I. Trench,
C. E. Lindsay, H. U. Wallace,
W. S. Murray, Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your Committee presents herewith its annual report for the year 1913.
Xo meetings have been held by the full Committee during the year,
the work having been done by correspondence and by Sub-Committees.
Sub-Committees for the year were appointed as follows :
Sub-Committee No. 1 — Clearances :
G. A. Harwood, Chairman ;
A. O. Cunningham,
L. C. Fritch,
G. Gibbs,
E. B. Katte,
W. S. Murray,
J. A. Peabody,
A. G. Shaver.
Sub-Committee No. 2 — Transmission Lines and Crossings :
R. D. Coombs, Chairman ;
D. J. Brumley,
A. O. Cunningham,
G. A. Harwood,
W. S. Murray,
F. Rhea,
J. R. Savage,
J. M. Reid,
A. F. Robinson.
Sub-Committee No. 3 — Insulation :
W. S. Murray, Chairman ;
R. D. Coombs,
G. Gibbs,
E. B. Katte,
F. Rhea,
M. Schreiber,
H. U. Wallace.
609
610 ELECTRICITY.
Sub-Committee No. 4— Maintenance Organization:
J. B. Austin, Jr., Chairman ;
L. C. Fritch,
C. E. Lindsay,
W. I. Trench,
J. R. Savage.
Sub-Committee No. 5 — Electrolysis:
E. B. Katte, Chairman ;
D. J. Brumley,
W. Dennis,
G. Gibbs,
M. Schreiber,
W. I. Trench,
H. U. Wallace.
Sub-Committee No. 6 — Relation to Track Structures :
C. E. Lindsay, Chairman ;
J. B. Austin, Jr.
L. C. Fritch,
J. R. Savage,
W. I. Trench.
(1) CLEARANCES.
The following report from the Sub-Committee on Clearances has
been received:
(a) Data has been secured covering overhead clearances on electri-
fied railroads and has been embodied in Table 2, pp. 616 and 617. The
Committee expects to correct these statements annually for the records
of the Association.
(b) The attached Diagram "B", showing Typical Overhead Clear-
ance Diagrams for permanent way structures and working conductors, has
been circulated amongst the members of this Sub-Committee and their
approval of it has been secured. It will be noted that this diagram con-
forms generally to the practice indicated on the tabular statement referred
to under (a).
The first four diagrams are taken from report prepared by the
Committee on Electrical Workings of the American Railway Association,
and are also being considered by a Sub-Committee of the American Elec-
tric Railway Association.
The fifth diagram has been added as in the judgment of this Sub-
Committee it seemed that the overhead clearance necessary at various
points on lines operated by d.c. rail should be indicated and this min-
imum under-clearance of structures has been based on the minimum per-
mitted by the New York State Public Service Commission.
(c) In the report of this Sub-Committee for 1912 it was stated that
information was not then sufficient to make recommendations on clear-
ance lines for automatic stops. During the past year a meeting has been
held at which representatives of the American Railway Association,
American Electric Railway Association and the American Railway Engi-
ELECTRICITY. 611
neering Association were present, this Association having been represented
by Messrs. Katte, Shaver and Trench and the chairman of the Sub-Com-
mittee. After discussion, the Joint Committee adopted the following
resolutions :
"(r) Inasmuch as the present state of development of automatic train
stops or speed regulation devices is. in an experimental stage, and since
no such device has as yet been generally adopted by steam railroads,
this Joint Committee should give no further consideration at this time
to the location of such devices on the track structure, and should so
report back to their various associations.
"(2) It is recommended to the Clearance Committees of the various
associations that further study be made of the Equipment Clearance line
shown on the third-rail clearance diagram adopted by the American
Railway Engineering Association at its meeting of March, 1912, between
the point FE and the gage line of the nearest running rail and to the
location of the third-rail clearance line between point ET and the gage
line of the nearest running rail."
Following this meeting, data on Equipment Clearance Lines of various
railroads has been collected. From the present information, it seems that
the EE-FE line, indicated on approved diagram "A," of the American
Railway Engineering Association, may be extended toward the gage line,
and, if further study does not develop serious encroachment, the space
below said extended line would be available for automatic stops or other
structures of a similar nature. Your Sub-Committee proposes to continue
this study in conjunction with the other associations.
(d) Table 1, page 1, covering data on third-rail clearances, has been
corrected up for the year and is attached to this report.
(2) TRANSMISSION LINES AND CROSSINGS; (3) INSULA-
TION; (4) MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION; (6) RE-
LATION TO TRACK STRUCTURES.
Your Committee has nothing to report on these four subjects, other
than progress.
(5) ELECTROLYSIS.
The following report has been received from the Sub-Committee and
is submitted herewith as one of progress and for the information of the
Association :
"The work assigned to this Sub-Committee by the Executive Com-
mittee is as follows:
"(1) Report on the effect of electrolytic action on metallic struc-
tures and the best means of preventing it.
"(2) Continue the investigation of electrolysis and insulation.
"There has been no meeting of the Sub-Committee on Electrolysis
pending the report of a special sub-committee appointed on May 12, con-
sisting of Messrs. Katte and Brumley, for the purpose of representing
the Committee on Electricity, as members to a National Committee on
612 ELECTRICITY.
Electrolysis, originated by the President of the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers.
"The first and only meeting of the Joint National Committee on
Electrolysis, thus far held, was convened in New York City on May 27,
1913, and owing to the importance of this meeting and the organizations
there represented, we include in this report the full minutes of the meet-
ing referred to, as follows:
"joint national committee on electrolysis.
"Minutes of Meeting Held in New York, May 27, 1913.
"A meeting of the Joint National Committee on Electrolysis was
held in the offices of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 33
West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, on May 27, 1913.
"There were present: Messrs. R. P. Stevens, A. S. Richey, and
Calvert Townley, representing the American Electric Railway Association ;
E. B. Katte, D. J. Brumley and W. I. Trench, representing the American
Railway Engineering Association; H. S. Warren and E. L. Rhodes, rep-
resenting the American Telephone & Telegraph Company; Philip Torchio,
L. L. Elden and D. W. Roper, representing the National Electric Light
Association ; B. J. Arnold, F. N. Waterman and Ralph D. Mershon, rep-
resenting the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.
"Mr. Mershon stated that as President of the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, he felt it his duty to call the meeting to order and
turn it over to a chairman to be elected by the Committee. He then
set forth the object of the meeting and stated that the associations who
had not yet appointed representatives had been conferred with by letter
on March 12, and that the American Water Works Association had re-
plied to the effect that it would not be possible for the Association to take
any action until its convention, which would be held on June 23. The
Natural Gas Association of America has also replied, stating that no
action could be taken by that association until after their convention on
May 20. The American Gas Institute had not yet replied to Mr. Mershon's
communication.
"Mr. Torchio suggested that inasmuch as all of the associations who
had been invited had not yet appointed representatives, it might be in-
advisable to take any definite action until after the representatives of these
associations had been appointed ; these associations are : the American Gas
Institute, the American Water Works Association, and the Natural Gas
Association of America. Mr. Torchio further suggested that a temporary
chairman be appointed pending the appointing of these representatives.
This view prevailed and Mr. B. J. Arnold was elected temporary chairman.
"Mr. Townley was asked to give his views as to what work should
be undertaken by the Committee, and he set forth to some extent the
field that, in his opinion, the Committee's work should cover, which
was that it should be mainly suggestive and constructive and that
the Committee should recommend to the associations interested certain
findings which, when adopted, could be utilized by the associations in their
work with each other in the handling of the general subject of electrolysis.
"There being a large representation of the Committee present, it was
deemed best to proceed with a general discussion of the subject, in order
that time might not be lost, keeping in view, however, the fact that no
definite action of any character would be taken until ihe other representa-
tives could be present.
ELECTRICITY. 613
"At the suggestion of Mr. Waterman, who stated that he had had
some communication with the representatives of the American Gas Insti-
tute, it was thought best to appoint a Committee to confer with the
three associations who have not yet appointed representatives, with a
view to obtaining their co-operation.
"Upon motion of Mr. Torchio, seconded by Mr. Katte, the tem-
porary chairman was requested to act as such Committee.
"Upon motion of Mr. Waterman, it was voted after some discussion
to invite the National Bureau of Standards to appoint representatives
on the Committee.
"A general discussion then followed as to the object, work and scope
of the Committee, in which several members took part. At the close
of the discussion the following resolution was offered by Mr. Waterman,
seconded by Professor Richey, and carried:
"Resolved, That the chairman be authorized to appoint a Committee
on Scope, Organization and Plan of Work, such Committee to include
representatives of each of the associations interested, and that no further
attempt at work be made by the Joint Committee until the Committee on
Scope, Organization and Plan of Work can tender a report to the Joint
Committee, outlining the scope of its work and suggesting a plan of
procedure.
"The chairman appointed Messrs. Calvert Townley, Chairman ; F.
N. Waterman, E. B. Katte and H. S. Warren.
"Mr. Katte stated on behalf of the American Railway Engineering
Association, of which he is a representative, that the principal desire of
that Association, as regards lectrolysis, is for education ; that a Sub-
Committee on Electrolysis of that Association had spent most of its time
during the past year and a half in preparing an educational thesis, in very
elementary language, which when presented in the report of the Com-
mittee at the last annual meeting appeared to be just along the lines of
information that some railway men were looking for ; and that the Sub-
Committee had been instructed to continue its work along the same lines ;
so that the representatives of the American Railway Engineering Asso-
ciation will be glad to have information to present to the Association
along educational lines.
"Mr. Waterman stated that he knew of a number of such reports as
mentioned by Mr. Katte having been prepared, and that perhaps a com-
mittee representing the Joint Electrolysis Committee could be appointed
to collect such reports and data as may be available, and select therefrom
a list of matters as might be agreed upon as fundamental, which should
form the basis of some sort of an educational document to be issued by
the Committee ; that this seemed to be a way in which the Committee
could be of most use.
"The question then arose as to whether the Joint Committee should
suspend its work pending the appointment of the representatives of the
associations who had not taken action, and it was decided that the Com-
mittee would continue to hold meetings as occasion might require.
"The chairman then named the members of the Scope and Organiza-
tion Committee, and suggested that the Committee prepare a skeleton
outline of what it considered the Joint Committee should do, subject, of
course, to the approval of the Joint Committee."
614
ELECTRICITY.
JOINT NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON ELECTROLYSIS.
(As constituted May 27, 1913.)
Societies.
American Electric Railway
Association :
American Railway Engineering
Asosciation :
American Telephone & Telegraph
Co.:
National Electric Light Associ-
ation :
American Institute of Electrical
Engineers :
American Gas Institute:
American Water Works Assn. :
Natural Gas Assn. of America:
"The useful work of the Joint National Committee on Electrolysis
is therefore at the present time held up pending appointment of delegates
from the American Gas Institute, the American Water Works Associa-
tion and the Natural Gas Association of America.
"Your Sub-Committee on Electrolysis has deemed it inadvisable to
make any further report pending some definite action of the Joint Na-
tional Committee."
Representatives.
R. P. Stevens, Allentown, Pa.
Calvert Townley, New York.
Prof. A. S. Richey, Worcester,
Mass.
E. B. Katte, New York.
D. J. Brumley, Chicago, 111.
W. I. Trench, Baltimore, Md.
H. S. Warren, New York.
F. L. Rhodes, New York.
Philip Torchio, New York.
L. L. Elden, Boston, Mass.
D. W. Roper, Chicago, 111.
B. J. Arnold, Chicago, 111.
F. N. Waterman, New York.
Paul Winsor, Boston, Mass.
Not yet appointed.
Not yet appointed.
Not yet appointed.
ELECTRICITY.
615
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ELECTRICITY.
617
618 ELECTRICITY.
RECOMMENDATIONS.
(i) Your Committee recommends the adoption by the Associa-
tion of Diagram "B," showing typical overhead clearance diagrams for
permanent way structures and working conductors.
(2) Your Committee also recommends the continuation* during the
coming year of consideration of work now under way, particularly the
consideration of the subjects of "Electrolysis," "Insulation," and "Lo-
cation and Clearance of Automatic Safety Stops," and also the con-
sideration of any new information that may develop in reference to
"Maintenance Organization" and "Relation to Track Structures."
(3) Your Committee asks for such other directions or instructions
as seem necessary or desirable.
Respectfully submitted for the Committee,
GEORGE W. KITTREDGE,
Chairman.
Diagram B-
RECOMMENDED OVERHEAD CLEARANCE LINES FOR PER-
MANENT WAY STRUCTURES ON ELECTRIFIED
RAILROADS.
SUBMITTED BY COMMITTEE ON ELECTRICITY.
Notes.
Momentary obstructions, such as signal blades, may approach panta-
graph clearance line.
Sway of pantagraph based on 1 in. difference in height of car springs;
% in. difference in elevation of track rail, and sway of 6 in. either side at
22 ft. above -top of rail for pantagraph itself.
These diagrams show minimum clearance; additional clearances will be
required to provide for special features of design, sag between points of
support as affected by length of span and temperature changes, and also
for steady strains, pull-off s, etc., if any.
All heights to be measured at right angles to plane of rails at center
line of track.
619
Case No. i — Clearance for Trainman With Lantern,
assumptions.
Reach of 6- ft. trainman 7 ft. 8 in.
Lantern Swing I ft. o in.
Clearance o ft. 5^4 in.
Total distance car running board to wire 9 ft. \y2 in.
ClfAtfA/VCE- UJYE
Gor/TJ/yvoua obstruct/oh
GlfA/PA/YCf- LINE- !
r/r/e/i7A,y^jyr w/ir
3Tji?L/GTU££-
///////////////X////;/;//////////
Case No. 2 — Clearance for Trainman Without Lantern.
assumptions.
Reach of 6- ft. trainman 7 ft. 8 in.
Clearance 0 ft. 5^ in.
Total distance car running board to wire 8 ft. i^4 in.
CLtAFA/VCF l/JVt
cor/rsnuoao offjrwcvon
PA/yr/\G/?APH
f=£/?/77AUY£Mr WAY
CT/eUGTUJeCr
///////////////////////////////////
Case No. 3 — Normal Minimum Clearance Without Trainman on Cars.
assumption.
Normal distance car running board to wire 2 ft. \l/2 in.
622
CLEARANCE- UA/£-
COMT/MJOUS OBaT/?UCT/ON
PANTAGPAPH
P£F/ffANE/iT WAY
///////////////X//////////////////
Case No. 4— Special Minimum Clearance Without Trainman on Cars.
assumption.
Minimum distance car running board to wire 0 ft. llj<£ in.
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Case No. 5 — Minimum Clearance D. C. Overhead.
assumption.
Minimum distance car running board to rail o ft. 2^2 in.
624
REPORT OF COMMITTEE XVII— ON WOOD
PRESERVATION.
Earl Stimson, Chairman; E. H. Bowser, Vice-Chairman;
H. B. Dick, George E. Rex,
C. F. Ford, E. A. Sterling,
Dr. W. K. Hatt, C. M. Taylor,
V. K. Hendricks, Dr. H. von Schrenk,
Jos. O. Osgood, T. G. Townsend,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
The Board of Direction assigned to your Committee the following
subjects :
(i) Continue investigations of the merits as a preservative of
oil from water-gas and the use of refined coal tar in crea-
sote oil.
(2) Continue the compilation of available information from
Service Tests.
(3) Continue the investigation of the proper grouping of the
different timbers for antiseptic treatment, conferring with
Committee on Grading of Lumber.
(4) Report on methods of accurately determining the absorption
of creosote oil.
The subjects were assigned each to a Sub-Committee for investigation.
Two meetings of your Committee were held in the Association rooms,
Chicago, the first on September 25, 1013, those present being E. H. Bowser,
C. F. Ford, C. M. Taylor and Earl Stimson, Chairman ; the second, on
December 10, 1013, those present being E. H. Bowser, C. F. Ford, Dr.
W. K. Hatt, V. K. Hendricks, E. A. Sterling, T. G. Townsend, Dr. H.
von Schrenk and Earl Stimson, Chairman.
(1) OIL FROM WATER-GAS AND COAL-TAR IN
CREOSOTE OIL.
(a) MERITS AS A PRESERVATIVE OF OIL FROM WATER-GAS TAR.
The large railroad mentioned in last year's report as contemplating
the use of a mixture of coal-tar creosote and oil from water-gas tar
did not use this mixture, because the cost of the water-gas oil was too
high. The Public Service Railroad Company has in use 25,000 ties treated
in 1911, 75,000 treated in 1912 and 60,000 treated in 1913, with 10 lbs. per
cu. ft. of oil from water gas. Arch Street, Philadelphia, has been paved
with wood blocks treated with this oil, but too recently to get results.
Some heavily-treated paving blocks at .Baltimore have rotted after seven
years' use, and the oil after extraction analyzed like oil from water-gas tar.
625
626 WOOD PRESERVATION.
The Forest Service has compared a water-gas tar, specific gravity
1.058 at 60 Centigrade, and a coal-tar creosote, specific gravity 1.048 at 60
Centigrade, with the following results :
"The water-gas product seems to be absorbed as readily as the
creosote, though its diffusion through the wood was very much poorer
than creosote. In the volatility test the specimens were submitted to
a constant temperature in dry air for 90 days. The specimens treated
with water-gas tar lost 18 per cent., while the creosoted specimens lost
32 per cent. The inflammability of the wood treated with the water-
gas tar product was about the same as creosoted specimens. In the
toxicity tests, agar solutions of water-gas product up to three per
cent, allowed a strong growth of fungus (Fomes Annosus), while 0.2
per cent, agar solutions of coal-tar creosote allowed a slight growth
only, and 0.4 per cent, allowed no growth at all. Corrosive action of
.both substances on steel is negligible and neither can be used in wood
whose surfaces are to be painted."
Partial tests of the Forest Service on mine timbers show that lob-
lolly pine treated with 10 lbs. per cu. ft. of oil from water-gas tar, specific
gravity 1.064 at 50 Centigrade, is economical. The life of these timbers
necessary to be economical is 2^4 years, while the treated material has
already lasted three years.
Preliminary tests in petri dishes of water-gas oil by the Forest Serv-
ice show oil of gravity of 1.01 at 60 Centigrade to be about as strong
antiseptically as ordinary creosote and oil of gravity of 1.06 at 60 Centi-
grade as having no antiseptic properties. Petri dish tests by A. L. Dean
and C. R. Downs of the Sheffield Scientific School show that the water-
gas tar creosote was almost identical in antiseptic power with the coal-tar
oil with its tar acids removed. • Petri dish tests by J. M. Weiss show
that the water-gas tar distillate is one-sixth antiseptically as efficient as
coal-tar creosote in preventing mould and that it has considerably lower
antiseptic value than the coal-tar oils with acids, bases and solid hydro-
carbons removed.
On account of the present lack of definite data as to its efficiency,
its rising price and the uncertainty of its preservative value, it is thought
not advisable at this time to recommend the use of oil from water-gas
tar as a wood preservative.
(b) THE USE OF REFINED COAL TAR IN CREOSOTE OIL.
Your Committee has given careful consideration to the question of
adding coal tar to creosote oil. The information collected clearly estab-
lishes the fact that a considerable amount of timber is being treated with
a coal-tar creosote mixture; also, that present conditions governing the
supply and cost of creosote oil indicate an increased use of the mixture.
Although the addition of coal tar to creosote is sufficiently extensive
to require recognition, it is not a clearly defined practice as regards tech-
nical application. At the plants where the mixture is used, it is applied
under conditions which vary from open specifications and a full under-
standing, to surreptitious use where not specified or allowed.
WOOD PRESERVATION. 627
The Committee's investigations indicate that up to date the results
obtained from the use of the coal-tar creosote mixture are not sufficiently
definite, as to character of treatment and preservative qualities, to permit
of specific recommendations as to its merits as a preservative. It is, how-
ever, the opinion of the Committee that coal tar should not be added to
high-grade creosote, and it therefore submits the following recommenda-
tion for insertion in the Manual :
The Committee recommends that wherever possible only Grade I Coal
Tar Creosote should be used, and that under no circumstances should coal
tar be added to creosote of this grade.
While making only one definite recommendation, because of lack of
information on which to base additional conclusions, the Committee
realizes that on account of the inadequate supply of Grade i Creosote, and
because of individual conditions or opinions, various roads may add coal
tar to the creosote used. The Committee, therefore, advises that in such
cases the following precautions be taken, it being clearly understood that
these are appended without making any recommendations as to the advisa-
bility of the coal-tar addition to creosote :
Where it is thought advisable by any company to use coal tar, in
mixture with the lower grades of creosote, i. e., Grades 2 and 3 of the
American Railway Engineering Association, and poorer, the Committee
recommends that the following precautions be followed, and they are
submitted for adoption and insertion in the Manual :
(1) That there be a distinct understanding between all concerned
that a mixture is specified and used.
(2) That the coal tar be added to the creosote only at the plant
and under the direct supervision of the railway company.
(3) That under no circumstances should the coal tar added con-
stitute more than 20 per cent, of the mixture.
(4) That the coal tar and creosote be thoroughly mixed at a
temperature of approximately 180 degrees Fahrenheit be-
fore being applied to the timber, and that the mixing be
done in tanks other than the regular working tanks, and
that the tanks containing the mixture shall be heated and
agitated thoroughly each time before any oil is transferred
to the working tanks.
(5) That only low-carbon coal tar be used, the amount of free
carbon not to exceed 5 per cent.
(6) That in treating with the mixture the temperature of the
solution in the cylinder be not less than 180 degrees
Fahrenheit.
There appears as Appendix A to this report a paper by Dr. Her-
mann von Schrenk, dealing with this subject in a comprehensive manner.
(2) RECORDS FROM SERVICE TESTS.
As Appendix B of this report will be found the record of service
tests. This record is compiled from the reports of periodical inspection of
the sections of test track on the various railroads conducting such tests.
628 WOOD PRESERVATION.
Many of the tests have not been under way a sufficient length of time to
show results. Attention is called to the following tests, which show
some interesting results :
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy;
Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio;
New York, New Haven & Hartford;
Norfolk & Southern ;
St. Louis & San Francisco.
(3) GROUPING OF TIMBERS FOR ANTISEPTIC TREATMENT.
Your Committee reports progress on this subject for this year. No
new data was obtained on the subject of the proper grouping of timbers
for treatment which would be of any material value.
There is so much variation in the absorptive powers of the different
kinds of timber, the same kind of timber growing in different localities,
and even timber from different parts of the same tree, that any definite
and detailed rules for grouping so as to obtain exact results are impossi-
ble. Your Committee, however, has promises that some experiments
will be made along this line during the coming year, from which it may
be able to formulate a few general rules regarding the absorptive power
of the different kinds of timber and also the absorptive power of the same
kinds of timber with different percentages of sap and heartwood.
(4) METHODS OF ACCURATELY DETERMINING THE
ABSORPTION OF CREOSOTE OIL.
A brief discussion of the present practice in determining the absorp-
tion of creosote oil in the treatment of timber is submitted as a basis for
the consideration of new and improved methods. Three systems are in
general use for determining the absorption of preservatives, as follows :
(1) By gage readings of tanks, with temperature corrections.
(2) By weighing the oil in the working tanks before and after treat-
ment of charges in cylinder.
(3) By weighing the cylinder charges before and after treatment.
A description of these methods is given below :
(i) MEASUREMENTS BY GAGE READINGS OF TANKS, WITH TEMPERATURE
CORRECTIONS.
This is the method in most general use at treating plants, and has two
forms of application, as follows :
(a) The simplest form of gage reading is to measure the level of
the oil from some fixed point on the top of the tank with a steel tape
and plumb-bob. Common chalk rubbed on the plumb-bob indicates to
what depth it has been lowered in the liquid.
(b) An improved and commonly-used apparatus for gage readings
consists of a float which is connected by a wire or chain over a system
WOOD PRESERVATION. 629
of pulleys, to an indicator which moves up and down a graduated gage-
board as the height of the oil in the tank varies, the gage-board being so
placed as to be easily read by the operator.
Instead of this gage-board the wire from the float is sometimes con-
nected with the drum of a recording gage. A system of properly designed
gears, operated by this drum, causes a movement of the indicator hands
over a dial graduated into feet and fractions thereof as the level of the
oil in the tank changes. A counterweight is attached to the drum to
offset the friction in the gears and pulleys.
Some of the causes of errors peculiar to float and gage readings
are mentioned in Bulletin 126, Forest Products Laboratory Series, United
States Department of Agriculture, as follows :
Change in position of float with change in its volume due to
temperature.
Change in position of float with change in specific gravity of the
oils.
Variation in length of gage wire or chain with change of tem-
perature.
Change in volume of measuring tank with change in temperature.
Position of indicator as affected by resistance in the gage and
difference in tension in the gage wire.
Inertia of the gage and friction of the pulleys.
The possible lack of uniformity in the temperature of the oil in
the measuring tank at any given time.
The temperature of the oil must be taken and corrections of the
volume made for temperature change. The temperature of the oil in the
tank at time the gage readings are taken is determined either by:
(1) A long-stemmed thermometer, placed at the side of the tank
a sufficient distance above the heating coils, so that its
reading may not be affected; or
(2) Taking the temperature of a sample of oil representing an
average of the entire contents of the tank, which may be
obtained with an "oil thief," with an ordinary thermometer.
(2) MEASUREMENTS BY WEIGHING THE OIL IN THE WORKING TANKS BEFORE
AND AFTER TREATMENT OF CHARGES IN CYLINDERS.
This heading may be divided into two classes :
(a) As determined by direct weighing.
(b) As determined indirectly by means of a mercury gage.
(a) In the first method the working tanks are mounted on scales
with scale beam ordinarily graduated to 20 lbs. A type-registering attach-
ment permits the recording of the weight.
Measurements of absorption, as determined by weight of oil taken
from the working tank, makes it unnecessary to take temperature varia-
tion into consideration, thereby lessening the tendency for inaccuracy
from that course. It requires frequent determination of the specific
gravity of the oil in case the absorption of the treated material is desired
in gallons, or by volume.
630 WOOD PRESERVATION.
(b) Mercury gages have been installed in several creosoting plants.
Their principle consists of counterbalancing a free column of oil in the
working tank with a mercury column. In order to permit close reading
of the mercury thread, the scale is usually set at an angle, to permit a
larger scale and consequently closer reading.
The Shaw mercury tank indicator, as installed at the Atlantic Coast
Line Railroad Company's treating plants, consists of a wide, hardwood
base, reinforced longitudinally by two iron rods. Down the center runs
a heavy glass tube, which holds the recording mercury and connects at
the bottom with the mercury bath. The glass tube is flanked on both
sides by graduated brass plates. On one side are scales in gallons for
creosote oil for different gravities. On the other side the scale is gradu-
ated in pounds. The working tanks are connected by a %-\n. pipe from
a point near the bottom of the tank to the mercury bath.
(3) DETERMINATION OF ABSORPTION BY WEIGHING THE CYLINDER CHARGE
BEFORE AND AFTER TREATMENT.
The use of track scales for the determination of the absorption of
creosote oil in timber is very common. As a check of the oil as meas-
ured or weighed in the working tanks, it is very desirable and should be
inaugurated as far as possible. It is only, however, where there is no
appreciable loss of moisture and sap from timber during treatment that
this method can be used with accuracy.
The volatility of creosote at the temperature at which treatment is
ordinarily conducted is somewhat high, which necessitates the immediate
weighing of the charge as soon as it is taken out of the cylinder in order
to minimize the error in determining the absorption in this manner, be-
cause of the evaporation of the oil from the treated timber.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS.
Absorption when determined either by gage readings or weights of the
creosote in the working tank before and after treatment makes it neces-
sary that either all oil in the pipe line and subsidiary tanks from working
tanks to cylinder is returned to the working tank before readings are
taken, or some method be devised for accurately determining such oil in
pipe lines and subsidiary tanks and allowances made accordingly.
In case water is introduced in the creosote during the treating pro-
cess, which is sometimes the case when timber is artificially seasoned in the
cylinder, a determination of the water content of the oil in the working
tanks before and after treatment must be made and the gage readings or
weighings changed correspondingly.
Of the three systems practiced for determining creosote absorption,
the weighing of the oil in the working tanks before and after treatment
is considered best, although either of the other systems, when properly
checked, is practicable.
WOOD PRESERVATION. 631
Without attempting to make final recommendations at the present
time, attention is called to the need of a more logical basis for absorp-
tion determination, and certain general modifications in practice are recom-
mended. The term "accurate" under the present practice is only relative,
since errors which make the determinations only approximate result from
both the basic unit of absorption and from inaccuracies in readings and
equipment.
The usual practice in treating specifications calls for a given number
of pounds per cubic foot of timber, or a stated number of gallons per
tie. In both cases the essential factor of penetration is ignored. What is
wanted is maximum penetrations, which with most woods means complete
penetration of the sapwood and of the heart to the extent possible with
the kind and condition of the timber treated. The exceptions which
occur — as in red oak, which gives heartwood absorption, and red fir,
which resists even sap penetration — do not affect the general rule.
The fallacy of the present unit is evidenced by the fact that a specific
absorption may be given in the outer inch of a two-inch ring of sapwood,
which would not be good treatment. On the other hand, a io-lb. treat-
ment, for example, may be specified for a wood which is 60 per cent heart,
resulting in a 25-lb. absorption in the treatable portion, with the conse-
quent waste and expense. Moreover, oil is bought by the gallon at a
specified temperature and injected into timber on a pounds-per-cubic-foot
basis, thus complicating check of quantities and inventory.
While the difficulties of specifying the proper amount of oil for full
penetration of the treatable portion of timber is realized, particularly
at commercial plants, where costs must be definitely estimated in ad-
vance, it is believed that at railroad plants the best treatment for each
particular class or kind of timber should be given and the costs based
on the amount of oil used. If the various departments concerned feel it
necessary, a maximum could be named, and if insufficient, it would simply
result in lighter treatment in the treatable portions of the wood. In most
cases it is believed this plan would effect a saving: Master carpenters, for
example, are in the habit of specifying 12 lbs. for structural timber. When
long-leaf pine dimension timbers are used, this often means 20 lbs. or
more per cubic foot in the parts of the stick which absorb oil, which is
more than is needed to prevent decay under normal conditions
It is therefore recommended that at railroad plants the absorption
be based on the treatment which will give the most complete penetration
for each class or kind of timber, specifying complete penetration of the
sapwood and as much of the heart as possible for the particular species
or charge ; payment to be based on the amount of oil used, plus operating
and other charges.
Where railroads have their work done by contract, it is recom-
mended that gallons be specified for ties, posts, cross-arms and other ma-
terial of uniform size, and pounds per cubic foot for other material; the
632 WOOD PRESERVATION.
same requirements as to sap and heart penetration to be applied as in the
above.
It is also recommended that the Committee pursue investigations next
year relative to a more definite and satisfactory basis for determining
creosote absorption, and also of improved mechanical means of checking
the absorption.
CONCLUSIONS.
It is recommended that the following be adopted by the Association
and inserted in the Manual :
(l) (b) THE USE OF REFINED COAL TAR IN CREOSOTE OIL.
(i) Wherever possible only Grade I Coal Tar Creosote should be
used, and under no circumstances should coal tar be added to creosote of
this grade.
(2) Where it is thought advisable by any company to use coal tar
in mixture with the lower grades of creosote, i. e., grades 2 and 3 of
the American Railway Engineering Association, and poorer, the following
precautions should be followed :
(a) That there be a distinct understanding between all concerned
that a mixture is specified and used.
(b) That the coal tar be added to the creosote only at the plant and
under the direct supervision of the railway company.
(c) That under no circumstances should the coal tar added con-
stitute more than 20 per cent, of the mixture.
(d) That the coal tar and creosote be thoroughly mixed at a tem-
perature of approximately 180 degrees Fahrenheit before being
applied to the timber, and that the mixing be done in tanks
other than the regular working tanks, and that the tanks con-
taining the mixture shall be heated and agitated thoroughly
each time before any oil is transferred to the working tanks.
(e) That only low-carbon coal tar be used, the amount of free car-
bon not to exceed 5 per cent.
(f) That in treating with the mixture, the temperature of the solu-
tion in the cylinder be not less than 180 degrees Fahrenheit.
(4) METHODS OF ACCURATELY DETERMINING THE ABSORPTION OF
CREOSOTE OIL.
(1) At railroad plants the absorption should be based on the treat-
ment which will give the most complete penetration for each class or kind
of timber, specifying complete penetration of the sapwood and as much
of the heart as possible for the particular species or charge ; payment to
be based on the amount of oil used, plus operating and other charges.
(2) Where* railroads have their work done by contract, gallons
should be specified for ties, posts, cross-arms and other material of uni-
form size, and pounds per cubic foot for other material ; the same re-
quirements as to sap and heart penetration to be applied as in the above.
WOOD PRESERVATION. 633
OUTLINE OF WORK FOR 1914.
Your Committee recommends :
(1) Continue investigation of the use of coal tar in creosote oil.
(2) Continue the compilation of available information from service
tests, supplementing this with reports of inspections to be made by mem-
bers of the Committee, of those sections of test track that have been in
service long enough, to give results.
(3) Investigate the subject, "Water in Creosote."
(4) Prepare specifications for timber to be treated.
(5) Report on a more definite and satisfactory basis for determin-
ing creosote absorption and improved mechanical means of checking the
absorption.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON WOOD PRESERVATION.
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
COMMITTEE ON WOOD PRESERVATION s^^.nf.,
1914- REPORT - APPENDIX 'K She<* "" ' rf *
RECORD OF TIE 5ERVICE TESTS
C°"f»"> JJ
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COMMITTEE ON WOOD PRESERVATION Sheet- No 2 of A-
1914- REPORT - APPENDIX "B'
RECORD OF TIE SERVICE TESTS
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COMMITTEE ON WOOD PRESERVATION. -,h,*-w„*,^
1914- REPORT - APPENDIX "E>" 5tlKr No ?or4"
RECORD OF TIE SERVICE TESTS
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APPENDIX B.
RECORD OF TIE SERVICE TESTS.
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
COMMITTEE ON WOOD PRESERVATION 5t^t-A»p^
1914 REPORT - APPENDIX "E>"
RECORD OF TIE 5ERVICE TESTS
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Appendix A.
THE USE OF REFINED COAL-TAR IN THE CREOSOTING
INDUSTRY.
By Hermann von Schrenk and Alfred L. Kammerer*
For some years it has been the practice in a number of plants to add
a certain percentage of refined low-carbon coal-tar to creosote oil of a
certain grade. By "certain grade" a creosote oil is meant which has a
specific gravity of approximately 1.03, or less, at 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
This addition was made because it was found that by adding a small
percentage of coal-tar to creosote of this grade, it was possible to make
a heavier grade oil. A good deal of discussion has been aroused during
recent years as to the propriety of adding refined coal-tar to creosote
oil. In view of the fact that this practice has now grown to considerable
proportions, it was thought advisable to prepare a brief statement, out-
lining the best information available with respect to this subject at the
present time.
So far as known to the writers, refined coal-tar was first added, in
the United States, as a matter of standard practice, to ci tosote oil used
in the treatment of cross-ties early in 1908. Since that t»me similar ad-
ditions to creosote oil have been used at a number of large plants in
various parts of the country. At about the same time that treatment was
begun with the combination of refined coal-tar and creosote oil for the
treatment of cross-ties, a similar practice started for the treatment of
wooden paving blocks. The best information available indicates that this
practice was inaugurated about 1907. Since that time, with few ex^
ceptions, the paving blocks treated in the United States have almost all
been treated with a combination of coal-tar and creosote. The standard
specifications of the Committee of Street Engineers, issued in 1910,
specifically requires such a combination, and the use of the heavy oil
thus produced is now standard for the treatment of paving blocks in
the largest cities of this country.
THE AMOUNT OF CREOSOTE-TAR COMBINATION USED.
While it is not possible to give accurately the amounts of creosote
and coal-tar used in combination, approximations can be made. From
figures in possession of the writers, it has been found that since 1908,
approximately 24,500,000 cross-ties have been treated and laid, treated with
coal-tar-creosote mixture at plants where the mixture was specifically
specified. In addition to this number, a number, which it is impossible
to estimate, has been treated at other plants, and the total number would
•The writers wish to express their appreciation for co-operation and as-
sistance given in this investigation by officials of the New York Central Lines.
C. I. & L. and A. T. & S. F. Railroads, and the Federal Creosoting Company.
635
636 WOOD PRESERVATION.
probably considerably increase the number first given. The reason it is
impossible to give any accurate figures is because at many creosoting
plants a mixture of coal-tar and creosote has been used for the treat-
ment of ties and other materials on a straight creosote specification,
without any mention of the fact that it is actually a mixture. The
figures given by the writers are taken from the output of plants in which
the coal-tar and creosote are mixed at the plants as a matter of standard
practice. The twenty-four and a half million ties referred to have now
been in the track anywhere from one to five years; that is, approximately
five million ties have been laid annually since 1910. Assuming that each
tie was treated with approximately two and one-half gallons of oil, and
using the year 1912 as a basis of comparison, that means that there were
used in 1912 approximately 12,500,000 gallons of the coal-tar-creosote
combination at plants where this combination is required as standard
practice. The total creosote oil used for all purposes in 1912 (see Pro-
ceedings of the American Wood Preservers' Association, 1913) was 83,-
666,490 gallons. In other words, for the plants referred to, the amount
of oil used equalled about 14 per cent, of the total oil used.
Taking the paving blocks, according to the United States Forest
Service, there were used, in 1912, 7,091,058 cu. ft. of paving blocks, and
estimating that approximately two gallons of oil were used per cu. ft.,
this would make 14,182,116 gallons, or approximately 17 per cent, of the
total oil used. Taking the oil used for the treatment of ties and paving
blocks together, brings the quantity of coal-tar-creosote combination
used to about 31 per cent. No deduction has been made in this con-
nection for paving blocks treated with straight creosote oil, but it is
believed that any error in this connection will be largely offset by adding
to this amount the amounts of creosote and coal-tar used at plants where
no specific mention is made that such a combination is being used, and
from which plants no statistics are on that account available. The
writers believe that a very conservative estimate would show at least
40 per cent, of all the oil used at the present time in the United States
to be a coal-tar-creosote combination.
WHAT COAL TAR IS.
There seems to be considerable misunderstanding as to exactly what
the compound is which is being added to creosote. Numerous references
have been made from time to time referring to coal-tar additions in the
sense of an "adulteration." Briefly stated, coal-tar is produced as a by-
product in the destructive distillation of coal. Two distinct sources of
this material should be recognized, one the product obtained in the de-
structive distillation of coal in by-product coke-ovens ; the other, the
product resulting from the destructive distillation of coal at retort gas
works. These products are usually referred to as "coke-oven tar" and
"gas-house tar."
WOOD PRESERVATION. 63?
A very instructive summary of the practice of coal-tar distillation
and refining was presented in a paper by R. P. Perry, before the Eighth
International Congress of Applied Chemistry, New York, 1912 (reprinted
in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 5, page
151, I9I3)-
The crude coal-tar, that is, the tar as it is first collected, is usually
subjected to various processes of refinement, meaning by this the re-
moval of water and the subsequent breaking-up of the coal-tar into
various fractions. The substance usually referred to as refined tar (per-
taining to the additions of coal-tar to creosote) is the crude tar from
which the water and low-boiling oils have been removed. In other
words, the refined tar is the crude coal-tar from which the lightest
boiling oils and water have been taken. Creosote oil is one of the
fractions of crude coal-tar obtained by the distillation of the coal-tar.
It is a fraction coming off between the benzol and carbolic-acid com-
pounds, which come off at low temperatures, and the pitch, which remains
in the still at the highest temperatures. Creosote is therefore a part of
coal-tar. Creosote has usually been made from gas-house tar, although
large quantities are now being made from coke-oven tar. The principal '
point pertinent to this discussion is that creosote, as it is usually known,
is simply a fraction of crude coal-tar.
Reference has been made to the fact that there are two types of
coal-tar: gas-house tar and coke-oven tar. These two are practically
identical so far as their chemical composition is concerned, but they
differ very radically in one respect, namely, the percentage of free
carbon found in the tar. Without going into details as to reasons (see
Mr. Perry's article), it may be stated that the coke-oven tar usually has
a low percentage of free carbon, the retort coal-gas tar a comparatively
high percentage of free carbon.
In the following table five analyses of by-product coke-oven tars are
given and five analyses of retort coal gas tars made in our laboratories :
(See Note).
Note. — The analyses of coke-oven tars here given represent samples
taken from tars which have actually been used for the treatment of ties.
These tars are examples of low-carbon coke-oven tars. Tars produced
from coke-ovens are not necessarily low-carbon tars. The amount of free
carbon in tars will depend on the type of ovens in which the coke is made.
In general, the Otto Hoffman ovens will yield tars with high percentages of
free carbon, the Semet-Solvay ovens a low percentage, and the Koppers
ovens the lowest percentage. The following table is quoted from Public
Roads Circular 97, and shows the possible range of free carbon found in
tars from various types of coke ovens:
Percentage of Free Carbon.
Type of Oven. Minimum. Maximum. Average.
Koppers 2.81 3.95 3.38
Semet-Solvay 4.04 9.00 6.74
United Otto 5.26 12.55 9.00
Otto Hoffman 8.62 14.69 12.16
Otto Hoffman and United Otto (mixed) 11.51 13.52 12.51
United Otto and Rothberg (mixed) 17.17 17.17 17.17
For more detailed information see papers by S. R. Church, "Tar and
Its By-Products'* (Gas Age, May 15, 1913), and "Coke-Oven Tars of the
U. S.," Office of Public Roads Circular 97.
638
WOOD PRESERVATION.
By-Product Coke Oven Tars.
Semet- Semet- Barrett Indiana Illinois
Solvay, Solvay, Mfg. Co. Steel Co. Steel Co.
Source. Ensley, Ensley, Chicago, Gary, Joliet,
Ala. Ala. 111. Ind. 111.
Sample Number 835 1212 983 1750 1752
Sp. Gr. at 380 C... 1.150 1. 183 1.170 1. 156 1. 160
Free Carbon 4-5% 6.2% 4-3% 2.7% 2.7%
Distillation :
2100 C 2.7% 1.5% 0.8% 0.6% 1.8%
235° C 3-8 3-6 3-2 5-6 7-4
2700 C 0-5 8.7 8.8 8.0 9-4
3150 C 6.6 7.0 8.9 8.0 6.0
355° C 7-5 12.2 11.5 14-5 15-8
Residue 69.9 66.7 66.8 63.3 60.2
Retort Coal Gas Tars.
Barrett Burt, Boul- Laclede West Uni- Gas Co.
Mfg. Co. ton & Hay- Gas L. Co. ted Gas & Indpls.,
Source. Phila.. wood. St. Louis, Elec. Co. Ind.
Pa. (a) County Tar. Mo. Aurora
London, Eng. 111.
Sample Number 286 611 690 860 1170
Sp. Gr. at 380 C 1.157 1.175 1.163 1.218 1.221
Free Carbon 14.6% (b) 24.5% 23.8% 27.9%
(a) Mixed (b) Not de-
Distillation : Tar. termined.
2100 C 3-6% 47% 2.9% 9-6% 1.8%
2350 C 5-5 12.2 4.1 . 1.2 1.8
2700 C ) 6.8 7.0 3.5 3.1
315° C j I57 4-5 6.3 5-2 8.9
355° C 11.2 6.9 8.3 ]8 6.8
Residue 63.0 64.6 70.0 j ° 76.3
A comparison of the figures given in this table will show that there
is a great similarity in the fractions of the two types of tar. Also, that
while there is a difference in their specific gravity, the difference is not
very marked.
Where refined tar has been added as a matter of standard practice,
only low-carbon by-product coke-oven tar has been used. Retort coal-
gas tar and certain grades of coke-oven tars are absolutely unfitted for
the addition to creosote oil because of their high free-carbon content,
unless this is removed either by mechanical methods or by filtration. It
is possibly true that at many of the plants where coal-tar has been added
to creosote oil, sufficient care lias not always been used to see to it that
only a low-carbon tar has been used. In other words, the writers are
of the opinion that in many cases improper tars have been used.
The principal points summarized in this chapter are :
1. Crude coal-tar is produced from by-product coke-ovens and
retort gas plants.
2. The coke-oven tar has a comparatively low percentage of free
carbon ; the retort coal-gas tar has a comparatively high
percentage of free carbon.
3. Creosote oil is made from coal-tar, obtained both from gas-
house tar and coke-oven tar.
WOOD PRESERVATION. 639
4. Refined tar, as used in the discussion pertaining to the addi-
tion of refined tar to creosote oil, is, or should be, a low-
carbon coke-oven tar; or coke-oven tar or gas-house tar
from which the carbon has been removed by filtration or
otherwise.
Reference has been made to the fact that most of the creosote oil
was formerly produced from gas-house tar. The question was frequently
asked why the manufacturers of by-product coke-oven tar did not refine
the same and produce the creosote oil just as was done from the gas-
house tar. Referring to this point, Mr. Perry says: "For many years
there was very little coal-tar produced in this country, except from gas
works operated at very high heats, and the tar was extremely viscous,
of high specific gravity, and often containing from 30 to 40 per cent,
free carbon. It was very difficult and expensive to distill such tar be-
cause of the percentage of water which it always contained, and the
tendency for the excessive carbon to coke on the still bottoms and cause
them to burn out. Because of this extreme, the lower carbon coke-oven
tars were welcomed as of relatively better quality, but to-day they are
not necessarily more valuable, as they yield pitches which are extremely
subject to temperature influence — being very brittle when cold and easily
flowing when heated — and therefore unsuited for many pitch uses in the
United States." The writer's impression, however, is that the manu-
facture of creosote oil from coke-oven tar is largely increasing.
PREVIOUS USES OF COAL-TAR.
The impression has prevailed in many places that the use of the coal-
tar addition to creosote oil, is a new proceeding. It may be of interest
to note, therefore, that this is by no means the case- John Bethel,
frequently called the "father of the creosoting industry," took out his
patent, which may be regarded, as stated by Mr. Boulton, as the origin
of the so-called creosoting process, in July, 1838. In this patent he
specifies a mixture consisting of coal-tar thinned from one-third to one-
half of its quantity with dead oil distilled from coal-tar. Quoting from
Mr. Boulton's classic paper on the "Antiseptic Treatment of Timber" :
"It has been sfen that Mr. Bethel's original patent recommended the
use of the mother liquor, or coal-tar thinned with a portion of heavy
coal-tar oil, so late as 1849. Bethel's license for the use of his patent
described the patent as 'saturating timber with the oils obtained by a
distillation of gas tar, either alone or mixed with gas tar.' The author
remembers how, in the early days of creosoting, inspectors frequently
refused to allow the thinner and lighter dead oils to be used without
being thickened with tar. Tar, the mother liquor, necessarily included
all the substances contained in the dead oils, plus the naphthas and pitch."
The use of the crude tars added to the coal-tar or dead oil was
gradually abandoned, due to the fact that it was recognized that the
crude naphthas evaporated from the wood, owing to their low-boiling
points and because it was believed that the pitch contained in the tar,
640 WOOD PRESERVATION.
when added in such large quantities as was then the practice, interfered
with the proper injection of the oil. The use of a slight addition of
tar has, however, not been abandoned in England.
The writers have repeatedly observed that at most of the creosoting
plants in England, particularly the commercial plants, coal-tar is being
added to creosote oil to-day largely for the curious reason that it is
impossible to make prospective purchasers regard timber as properly
creosoted if creosote oil alone is used, because it has a very light brown
color. The average consumer demands that creosoted timber looks black,
hence a slight addition of coal-tar is made even at the present day. A
noteworthy point brought out by Mr. Boulton is the statement that as
the coal-tar is the mother liquor of creosote oil, it practically must con-
tain all the compounds which creosote itself does.
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN COAL-TAR IS ADDED TO CREOSOTE OIL.
The relation between coal-tar and creosote oil, when the same are
mixed, is of prime importance. The combination of the two has, un-
fortunately, been termed "a mixture." It would be much better to state
that the relation of the two is in the nature of a solution. The term
"mixture" implies that the relation of the two substances is really one
such as is found when two unlike substances are mixed. As an actual
matter of fact, the two materials have approximately the same chemical
constituents, and when coal-tar is added to creosote oil, the two sub-
stances combine so thoroughly that it is impossible to separate them by
any physical process and, likewise, by any chemical process. That this
is actually so can be clearly demonstrated by adding coal-tar to creosote
oil and examining the resulting combination. An experiment was made
to demonstrate this more clearly.
Fifty per cent, by weight of coal-tar (sample No. 1947) was added
to 50 per cent, creosote oil (sample No. 1946)- After the addition, the
mixture was thoroughly heated and stirred for an hour or more- The
resulting solution was then poured into a long glass tube and the tube
was tightly stoppered. The following determinations were made :
Specific gravity of mixture at 100 degrees F.#= 1.099
Specific gravity of creosote used at 100 degrees F. = 1.042
Specific gravity of coal-tar used at 100 degrees F. = 1.163
The tube was allowed to stand undisturbed for 13 months. The cork
was then removed, and by means of a pipette successive layers or sec-
tions of the oil were carefully withdrawn, starting at the top. Approxi-
mately five equal sections were withdrawn and these were put into sepT
arate cylinders. The specific gravity of each section was determined
separately. In the following table the successive sections are numbered,
starting from the top, i. e., the top is section No. 1, the next is section
No. 2, etc., and the bottom portion being section No. 5. The gravities
found were as follows :
No- 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5.
Sp. Gr. at 100 degrees Fahrenheit. .1.0970 1.0970 1.0971 1.0980 1.1006
The bottom of the tube contained a slight sediment of free carbon.
WOOD PRESERVATION. 641
The conclusion drawn from this test, extending over a year, is that
where a proper mixture of coal-tar and creosote oil is made and allowed
to stand, no physical separation of the two substances takes place. The
slightly lower specific gravity of the upper portions of the column are
no doubt due to the settling out of the free carbon. To this is also due
the slightly higher specific gravity of section 5, that is, the one nearest
the bottom of the tube. Even if the slightest physical separation had
taken place, the portions near the top of the tube would certainly have
been very much lighter than was actually the case. The difference in the
specific gravity of the upper layers, as found after a year, as compared
with the specific gravity at the beginning of the test, is practically in-
significant. When one remembers that this mixture was composed of
one-half coal-tar and one-half creosote oil, it appears reasonable to con-
clude that when the proportions are on a basis of four parts of creosote
oil and one part of coal-tar, the tendency for any separation would be
still less than with the higher proportion.
The combination of coal-tar and creosote oil acts in every way like
a heavier creosote- In fact, it requires a chemical determination of a
somewhat refined character to be perfectly sure that any particular sample
of creosote oil has had coal-tar added to it. There is nothing at all
extraordinary about the fact that the two substances practically become
one when it is remembered that coal-tar* is the mother liquor from which
creosote oil is distilled.
The statement has frequently been made that the coal-tar addition
to creosote oil is in the nature of an adulteration. The Century dic-
tionary defines the word "adulteration" as follows : "To debase or de-
teriorate by an admixture of foreign or baser materials or elements."
It would appear perfectly obvious from the discussion just presented that
coal-tar can in no sense be considered a baser or foreign material to
creosote, especially in view of the fact that creosote is obtained from
coal-tar. The word "adulteration" used in the ordinary accepted sense
cannot be applied to the addition of coal-tar to creosote oil.
RELATION OF EVAPORATION.
One of the principal reasons why coal-tar has been added to low-
gravity creosote oils was to obtain an increased permanence for the re-
sulting combination after it has once been injected into wood. The
results of a good many years' experience in the use of creosote oil has
shown that after creosote is injected into timber, a certain percentage
evaporates from the wood. These percentages will be highest where
creosote oils of low specific gravity are used. In other words, where
creosote oils are used having comparatively high percentages of low-
boiling compounds, a higher percentage of evaporation takes place. The
most recent recommendations of all those who have made a study of the
proper grade of creosote oil to be used in the treatment of timber are
to the effect that the best results will be obtained by the use of the
heaviest coal-tar creosotes. In Bulletin No. 93 of this Association, the
642 WOOD PRESERVATION.
results of an extensive investigation on the lasting power of timber
were presented. The principal result of the investigation showed "a very
marked evaporation of the low-boiling fractions of the creosote oil."
As a result of this investigation, the writers urged as a standard speci-
fication for creosote an oil having a comparatively small amount of low-
boiling compounds. The specification then recommended was subsequently
adopted by the American Railway Engineering Association, and is now
the standard creosote oil No. i of the Association. In 191 1, one of the
writers presented a discussion before the National Electric Light Asso-
ciation, giving the results of further European studies in connection
with the use of creosote oil. Quoting from a report of the British Post-
otfice Department, made after an investigation of a large number of
telephone poles, Mr. Henley, of the British Postoffice Department, con-
cluded : "It would seem, therefore, that the opinion put forward by Mr.
Boulton is justified (Mr. Boulton urged the constituents of heavy creosote
oil), and that the heavier portions are the most durable and effective."
In view of the practical agreement of all recent investigations, it can
hardly be doubted that the heavy constituents of the creosote oil are the
more stable and permanent ones.
With the large amount of creosote oil being used in the United
States at the present time, a great deal of oil is offered for the creosoting
of wood which does not fulfill tb,e American Railway Engineering Asso-
ciation specification No. 1, that is, these oils have comparatively high
percentages of low-boiling compounds. The writers have contended for
many years that the use of such oils, except when they are used in larger
quantities, will not give as good results as the use of the American
Railway Engineering Association specification No. 1, particularly where
such oils are used with one or the other of the so-called economical
creosoting processes.
In order to determine what rate of evaporation occurs in creosote
oils of various types, a large number of tests have been conducted during
the last three or four years, the results of which are of particular interest
at this time. Attention is here called to three series of these tests. In
the first test (see chart No. 1) three creosote oils were taken, one a very
light oil, the second a medium oil, and the third a heavy oil. Great
care was exercised in the selection of the samples. Each of these oils
is a pure creosote as distinguished from a made-up creosote; that is,
they come from different sources and are the product of direct distilla-
tion of one tar. A weighed quantity of each oil was put into an open
pan, and these pans were set out in the laboratory. They were weighed
from time to time, and the percentage loss was determined. On chart
No. 1 the percentage loss is shown graphically for a period of 955 days,
that is, covering a period of almost three years. The analyses given
on the chart show that these oils differ very materially in their specific
gravities, and also that they differ considerably in their relative con-
stituents. A marked difference will be noted between the percentage of
low boiling compounds in oils contained in pans Nos. 29 and 36 compared
WOOD PRESERVATION. 643
with the oil contained in pan No. 28. After almost three years, the
lightest oil lost 50.1 per cent, the medium oil lost 48.5 per cent., and the
heavy oil 32.6 per cent.
In view of the fact that the results obtained with the evaporation
from pans are not exactly comparable to the condition of the oil when
injected into timber, a second series of experiments was undertaken.
Six different oils were chosen. Samples of these oils were placed in
open pans, as in the first series, and in addition, a number of maple and
pine blocks were treated with the different oils. The blocks of wood
were carefully kiln dried for a considerable period, so as to be perfectly
sure that they contained no water. The blocks of wood were kept in
the laboratory in close proximity to the oil samples in the pans. They
were weighed from time to time for a period of 376 days. Chart No. 2
shows the character of the oils used ; chart No. 3 shows the results ob-
tained from the evaporation series in open pans; chart No. 4 shows the
same from maple blocks, and chart No. 5 shows the same from the pine
blocks. In the case of the maple and pine blocks, the percentage loss
is figured on the basis of the actual amount of oil injected. Referring
to chart No. 2, oil No. 1 is a light American creosote; oil No. 6 is a
heavy German creosote; oils Nos. 2, 3 and 4 were made up by redistilling
oil No. 1 and omitting certain of the fractions. Oils Nos. 2 and 3 were
so prepared as to have approximately the same fractions from 210 to 235
degrees, oil No. 2 having a higher fraction up to 210 degrees than oil
No. 3. Oils Nos. 3 and 4 were so prepared as to have approximately
the same percentage distilling up to 210, and with a larger fraction up
to 235 in oil No. 3 than in oil No. 4. Oil No. 5 is a mixture of 80 per
cent, oil No. 1 and 20 per cent, of coal-tar. The per cent, of fractions
is shown on chart No. 2 on a cumulative basis. A glance at this chart
shows that there was a wide variation between Nos. 1 and 6.
Referring to chart No. 3, showing the percentage of loss from open pans,
it will be noted that the rate of evaporation was in the order i, 5, 2, 3,
4 and 6. By consulting chart "No. 1, it will be noted that by adding
fractions up to 235, and arranging the oils in the order of the highest
quantities distilling up to 235, one obtains the series 1, 5, 2, 3, 4 and 6.
This, it will be noted, is exactly the order in the evaporation series from
open pans, beginning with the oil which lost the highest amount. Turn-
ing to chart No. 4, showing the percentage of evaporation from maple
blocks, it will be noted that, starting with the oil which lost the highest
amount, the order is again 1, 5, 2, 3, 4 and 6. Turning to chart No. 5,
showing the evaporation of various creosote oils from pine blocks, it
will be noted that the order is again 1, 5, 2, 3, 4 and 6. The percentage
evaporating from the pine and maple blocks shows in an even more
striking manner than in the open pan series that the oils having the
highest percentage of low-boiling compounds disappear from the woods
with relatively greater rapidity than do the oils having a low percentage
of low-boiling compounds. Referring specifically to oil No. 5, this being
the mixture of 80 per cent, oil No. 1 and 20 per cent, coal-tar, it was
644 WOOD PRESERVATION.
found in the open pan series that whereas oil No. i lost 67.8 per cent.,
oil No. 5 lost only 57.2 per cent. In the maple block series, the maximum
loss for oil No. 1 was 69.7 per cent., while oil No. 5 lost only 53.4 per
cent. (The lower percentage loss according to the last weighings on
charts Nos. 4 and 5 are without doubt due to moisture absorption. The
period immediately preceding the last weighing on April 24 was a very
wet and rainy week). In the case of the pine blocks, the highest loss
for oil No. 1 was 71.6 per cent., while for oil No. 5 the highest loss
was 54 per cent. These results show in a most striking manner that, so
far as the percentage loss by evaporation is concerned, the coal-tar addi-
tion certainly reduces the percentage loss. A comparison is invited be-
tween the rate of evaporation of oils 1 and 5, that is, the light creosote
oil and the same creosote oil with 20 per cent, coal-tar addition, as
shown on charts Nos. 3, 4 and 5. It will be noted that the difference in
the actual rate of evaporation is very much higher in charts Nos. 4 and 5,
representing the evaporation from actual wood, than it is in chart No. 3,
representing the evaporation from open pans. It woidd therefore appear
that there is something in the creosote-coal-tar mixture which very ma-
terially reduces the loss of the lighter boiling fractions. A possible ex-
planation may be that the heavier and more solid constituents of the oil
block up the outer cells of the wood. United States Forest Service Circu-
lar No. 188 says : "It may be inferred that the creosote, to be of the most
value at least for treating loblolly pine, should contain considerable quanti-
ties of high-boiling fractions, which appear to block up the outer cells and
so insure the retention of the lighter oils in the interior of the wood."
There are certain other interesting points in connection with this test,
but as they are of less interest at this point, they will be discussed else-
where. An important feature of the experiment is that it indicates that
the evaporation from pans may be taken as a fair index of the rate of
evaporation of the same oils when contained in wood.
A third series of experiments was aonducted to determine the influ-
ence of the coal-tar addition on creosote oil. In this series of tests a
heavier creosote oil than in the second series of tests was used. Two
sets of oils were placed in open pans. In one case an English creosote
oil was used (pan No. 36), a coal tar (pan No. 38) and a mixture of
the two composed of 70 per cent, creosote and 30 per cent, coal-tar. The
per cent, loss, due to evaporation, in this series is diagramatically illus-
trated on chart No. 6. Chart No. 7 shows a similar series, in which,
in addition to the mixture of 70 per cent, creosote and 30 per cent, coal-
tar, a pan with 80 per cent, creosote and 20 per cent, coal-tar was set
out. Both series cover a period of a little over two years. In both cases
it will be noted that the per cent, evaporating was materially reduced as
a result of the addition of the coal-tar.
A fourth series of evaporation tests was conducted at two creosoting
plants, one at Toledo, Ohio, and the other at Shirley, Ind. The creosote
oil actually used at the plants was chosen for one set of pans, the tar
WOOD PRESERVATION. 645
actually used for another, and a mixture of 20 per cent, coal-tar and 80
per cent- creosote oil, as actually used in the daily treating operations,
formed a third set of pans. Two sets were set out at Toledo, one started
in September, 191 1, the other in November, 191 1. These two sets of
pans have therefore been exposed a little over two years. In the same
way a set of pans was exposed at Shirley, Ind. The results of these
tests to date are shown on charts Nos. 8, 9 and 10. In all three cases
the mixture of creosote oil and coal-tar shows a decidedly smaller loss
than the creosote oil itself.
In all of these evaporation tests, the reduced rate of evaporation is
doubtless due to the smaller percentage of low-boiling oils. It is too
soon as yet to determine what the ultimate difference will be of the
creosote oils, such as were used in the experiments, and the same creosote
oils mixed with a small percentage of coal-tar. The present plan is to
leave these pans until the evaporation curve reaches a fairly straight
line. It is then proposed to determine the composition of the residue in
each case. Sufficient information, however, is at hand to indicate that
the addition of coal-tar to creosote oil gives assurance that a larger
quantity of the original oil injected will remain in the wood than would
have been the case if the creosote oil had been used by itself.
RELATION OF ANTISEPTIC PROPERTIES.
For the last 50 years there has been a continued discussion as to
which of the component parts of creosote oil should be regarded as the
most valuable from an antiseptic standpoint. In spite of very consider-
able investigation, there is as yet no conclusive evidence as to which of
the constituents of creosote oil are the most valuable from an antiseptic
standpoint. J. M. Weiss (Journal of Chemical Industry) reports the
results of a series of culture tests with various portions of creosote oil.
Without going into a detailed discussion of these tests, the criticism may
be presented that the results can hardly be regarded as conclusive from
the standpoint of wood preservation, in view of the fact that the fungi
tested were chiefly molds and had no relation whatever to the decay-
producing forms. It is a well-known fact that different species of fungi
act very differently towards antiseptics, and in so important a discus-
sion as this the results of culture tests made with mold fungi are at least
open to serious doubt-
H. F. Weiss, in a paper presented before the Eighth International
Congress of Applied Chemistry (see Journal of Industrial and Engineering-
Chemistry, Vol. 5, page 377, 1913) refers to some tests made by the
United States Forest Service, using the well-known fungus causing the
disease of coniferous trees (Polyporus aniiosus). and from a series of
tests he reaches certain conclusions as to the antiseptic value of different
constituents of creosote oil. So far as known to the writers, the fungus
used never caused a decay of structural timber. This fungus is strictly
646 WOOD PRESERVATION.
confined to the root system of living trees, and it can hardly be taken as
a fair representative of the fungi which cause decay of structural timber.
Another series of cultural experiments is reported by Dean & Downs
before the Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, using
P olystictus versicolor. These experiments were made largely with ref-
erence to the comparison of creosote and water gas creosote, although
they state that "the greater value of the coal-tar oil appears to depend
upon the presence of the tar acids and especially upon the tar bases."
They do not report any specific results with reference to the effect of
different portions of creosote oil other than the quotation made.
Ignoring for the time being the more or less inconclusive nature of
the investigations referred to, most of which appear to indicate that
coal-tar acids are chiefly effective in causing timber to last (J. M. Weiss
regards the lower-boiling coal-tar oils as distinctly more antiseptic than the
higher boiling ones), one should turn to an examination of creosoted
timbers which have actually lasted. In Bulletin No. 93, 1907, a table was
presented showing the nature of the oils extracted from old creosoted
timbers. Reference to this table will show that in all cases where timbers
have been exposed to the air for a considerable period of time, the per-
centage of oils distilling below 235 degrees Centigrade is extremely small.
The older the timber, the more striking is this disappearance. Coincident
with this is the finding that the oils remaining in all of these timbers
show a very high percentage of high-boiling compounds, that is, oils
distilling above 315 degrees Centigrade. All of the timbers referred to
in this table were still in an excellent state of preservation, so far as
fungus attack is concerned, and the recent examination of many of them
shows that they are still in a good state of preservation.
Reference to a paper published by G. Alleman (Forest Service Cir-
cular No- 98, 1907) shows the same condition just referred to, that is,
the major part of the oils extracted from old timbers consist of high-
boiling compounds.
In a recent paper on oils extracted from old piles, by E. Bateman
(Forest Service Circular No. 199), statement is made that "practically
no light oils were found in the piles after their long period of service
(30 years). If originally present, they were lost by volatilization and
leaching."
In a recent bulletin, Mr. Teasdale (Forest Service Circular No. 188)
presents the results on the volatilization of various fractions of creosote
oil after their injection into wood. His conclusions were as follows:
"It may be inferred that a creosote to be of the most value, at least
for treating loblolly pine, should contain considerable quantities of high-
boiling fractions, which appear to block up the outer cells and so insure
the retention of the lighter oils in the interior of the wood."
Irrespective of the laboratory determinations, it seems to be an
actual fact that the low-boiling oils injected into the timber disappear from
the wood within a comparatively short period of time. The writers do
not think that it is an exaggeration when it is stated that probably most
WOOD PRESERVATION. 647
of the low-boiling oils disappear in ten or twelve years, and in many
cases probably sooner. In the case of the creosoted telephone poles
referred to in Bulletin No. 93, the low-boiling oils had disappeared in nine
years. It appears, therefore, that there is only one conclusion which
can be drawn from the numerous data developed during recent years,
and that is that the heavy oil constituents, irrespective of what they may
be considered chemically, are actually preserving the wood.
Referring to some of the old timbers in detail, the percentage of
oils distilling above 315 degrees Centigrade are as follows :
Per cent.
L. & N. piles, West Pascagoula, Ala., 28 years'
service 49-03
Muskogee Wharf, Pensacola, Fla., 23 years' service 54.75
Galveston Bay Bridge, Santa Fe System, 28 years'
service 50.01
River Nene, England, 51 years 66.80
Galveston Bay Bridge, Santa Fe System, 28 years'
service 59.88
Galveston Bay Bridge, Santa Fe System, 28 years'
service 56.34
Railroad tie, Great Western Railroad, England, 24
years' service 71.5
Railroad tie, Great Western Railroad, England, 24
years' service 79-49
New Orleans paving block, 35 years, etc., etc 66.3
These timbers, as stated above, are in an excellent state of preserva-
tion, and there is no indication that they are beginning to decay. The
oils contained in ail of the timbers quoted consist of more than 50 per
cent, distilling above 315 degrees. It is, of course, impossible to say
that these are in any way active in preserving the timber. It may be
that the portions of the oil distilling below 315 degrees are the really
effective agents in preserving the wood. Nevertheless, the fact remains
that in the older timbers, which are perfectly sound, a very large per-
centage of the oil still in the wood is composed of the heaviest portions
of creosote oil- It should be taken into consideration in any problem
involving the question as to what parts of creosote are most effective in
preventing decay, that long-term tests after all are more indicative as
to what may be expected of the timber preservative than any laboratory
test, which, however valuable it may be, must always be considered as
indicative rather than a final proof.
Applying this discussion to the question of mixing a certain percentage
of coal-tar with low-boiling creosote oil, it is not unreasonable to assume
that by adding heavier compounds to a low-boiling oil, the permanence of
this oil is thereby increased. No proof has yet been submitted which
would indicate that the addition of these heavier compounds in any way
reduced the antiseptic value of the creosote oil itself. On the contrary,
it may materially aid in increasing the antiseptic value by the addition
of compounds which will remain in the wood in a more or less per-
manent manner.
648
WOOD PRESERVATION.
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WOOD PRESERVATION. 659
The foregoing conclusion was reached many years ago (1884) by
Mr. Boulton in his famous treatise on "The Antiseptic Treatment of
Timber." Quoting from Mr. Boulton:
"Sleepers were also received from the Taff Vale Railway, the South-
Eastern Railway, and the Great Eastern Railway, which had been in use
for periods varying from 14 to 23 years. A portion was also taken from
a creosoted pale fence, which had been fixed in the Victoria docks in
1855, and which is still in place, perfectly sound and strong, after 29
years' use. A careful analysis of these seventeen specimens, all of or-
dinary Baltic fir, gave the following results :
"(1) In no case were any tar acids detected by the ordinary tests.
"(2) In fourteen out of the seventeen specimens the semi-solid con-
stituents of the tar oils were present; in twelve of them was naphthalene,
this body being in some cases in considerable quantity.
"(3) Only small percentages remained of oils distilling below 450
degrees Fahrenheit. In the majority of instances from 60 per cent, to 75
per cent, of the total bulk of substances retained in the wood did not
distill until after a temperature of 600 degrees Fahrenheit (315 degrees
Centigrade) was reached.
"It is clear, therefore, that these timbers had been preserved by the
•action of the heaviest and most solid portions of the tar oils and that
the other constituents had disappeared."
RELATION OF PENETRATION.
Successful creosoting will always depend very largely upon the pene-
tration secured. In other words, no timber can be considered as well-
creosoted unless all sapwood is thoroughly penetrated in timbers which
have an impenetrable heartwood, like pine, beech, etc., and unless complete
penetration is obtained throughout the piece in timbers which have a
penetrable heartwood, like some species of red oak. No criterion has
been established to show relative penetration of different compounds.
So far as is known to the writers, it will be almost impossible to
establish a positive criterion, because the inherent variability of the wood
fiber is so great that no two sticks can be found, which, if tested even
under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, will permit
making comparative tests as to the penetrating power of several liquids
and obtain absolute results. The best that can be done is to select pieces
from the same stick of wood and compare these by using different pre-
servatives. The same piece will, however, show variations using the
same liquid (see plates 1 and 2). The writers have made a good many
tests of conditions governing the penetrability of creosote oils, and as a
result of these tests, believe that there are certain fundamental con-
ditions which either favor or retard penetration. These are briefly as
follows :
1. The presence or absence of a certain percentage of moisture.
2. The viscosity of the oil.
3. The character of the wood fiber to be penetrated ; that is, its
density and the condition of the walls are important factors.
4. The presence or absence of solid matter in the impregnating
liquid.
660 WOOD PRESERVATION.
Moisture acts as a retardent, and the highest penetration will be
obtained where the smallest amount of water is found in the wood struc-
ture. It is hardly necessary to give any detailed facts to substantiate
this conclusion. It has been thoroughly demonstrated on a practical
scale at treating plants all over the world that dry wood can be pen-
etrated throughout, whereas green wood cannot be penetrated.*
The relation between viscosity and penetration has been well put by
Weiss (Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 5, page
378) ; "The depth to which oils can be impregnated varies as some
inverse function of the viscosity."
In the writers' experience the relation between viscosity and pene-
tration will hold almost universally for liquids of various types. It is
exceedingly difficult to prove this, as has been stated, because it is
hardly ever possible to completely eliminate the variable in the wood
fiber. It can be approximated, however, by using a considerable number
of pieces, using pieces of the same stick for different oils. Where this
is carefully done and where every possible factor of moisture, density
of wood fiber, etc., has been eliminated, the degree of penetration will
increase as the viscosity decreases. Viscosity tests were made with
creosote and with the same creosote to which a certain per cent, of coal-
tar had been added. It was found that the viscosity of the mixture
composed of 80 per cent, creosote oil and 20 per cent, coal-tar was ap-
proximately equivalent to the viscosity of the creosote oil when both
were measured at a temperature of 170 degrees Fahrenheit. On chart
No. 11 the specific viscosity of different percentages of coal-tar and cre-
osote combinations are shown, and also a curve showing the specific
viscosity of 80 per cent, creosote oil and 20 per cent, coal-tar at different
temperatures. It will be noted that as the temperature approaches the
working temperature in the creosoting cylinders (usually between 180
and 190 degrees Fahrenheit), the viscosity of the mixture is practically
that of the creosote oil without any tar addition. Judging from this,
therefore, the penetration of the coal-tar-creosote mixture, in the pro-
portion of 80 per cent, creosote oil and 20 per cent, coal-tar, will be about
the same as that of the creosote oil.
In order to obtain some graphic method for determining the extent
of penetration which can be obtained with various liquids under approxi-
mately the same conditions, the writers made a series of tests extending
over a period of several years. It was finally found that comparative
lesults could be obtained by using comparatively large-sized pieces of
wood and allowing the liquids to be tested to seep into the wood longi-
tudinally. The method of testing finally adopted will be best illustrated
by the description of the last series made.
Four average air-dried loblolly pine ties were selected. These ties
were strictly average ties. The only special precaution taken in their
selection was to pick out ties with a minimum number of season checks.
*Bailey, I. W.: The Preservative Treatment of Wood, Forestry Quar-
terly, March 1913.
WOOD PRESERVATION. 661
The four ties selected may be regarded as typical ties, such as are being
treated every day. Each tie was sawed into five pieces, the lengths
being approximately equal. After sawing, the pieces were placed into
a warm place so as to become warmed through. Two holes were then
bored into the end of each piece. These holes were bored to a depth of
four inches as nearly as possible. The pieces were then returned to the
warm place. In the first series five different preservatives were used : a
good German creosote oil, a light American creosote, a mixture of 80
per cent, light American creosote and 20 per cent, coal-tar (containing
7 per cent, free carbon), a heavy carbolineum, and a sample of
Lyster wood preservative. Piece No. 1 was selected for the German
creosote, piece No. 2 for the American creosote, etc. Using piece No.
1 as an example, 80 c.c of German creosote were poured into each of
the two holes. In the same maimer 80 c.c. of American creosote were
poured into each of the two holes of the second piece, and so on for the
other pieces. The pieces were then put in a warm place in the cylinder
house until there was no evidence of liquid in the holes. This procedure
was carried out with all four ties. Some three weeks after the last oil
had disappeared, the pieces were sawed longitudinally through the holes
and photographed. These photographs are reproduced on plates Nos.
1 and 2.
The analyses of the preservatives used in this penetration test are
given in the following table :
80 and
Lyster 20 per
German American Wood cent.
Creo- Carbo- Creo- Creo. Mix-
sote. lineum. sote. sote. ture.
Sp. Gr. at ioo° F 1.0642 1.1026 1.0336 1.0901 1.0699
Per Per Per Per Per
cent. cent. cent. cent. cent.
Tar Acids by Volume 7.0 4.0 8.5 75.0 6.7s
Up to 2000 C 0.1 0.0 1.7 1.2 0.0
200 to 210 1.5 0.0 5.2 0.5 0.6
210 to 235 9.5 0.0 35.6 9-i 26.7
235 to 270 21.3 0.1 23.3 44.1 26.2
270 to 315 23.9 13.2 12.7 30.9 12.4
315 .to 355 23.6 48.5 12.0 2.7 12.8
Residue 19.9 37.8 9.3 10.3 21.2
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0
Referring to the photographs, it will be noted that the oils pen-
etrated the wood fiber around the holes to a small extent, but that the
principal penetration was downward from the holes. It will furthermore
be noted that even in the same piece there is a slight variation, due pos-
sibly to the difference in the nature of the fibers in that particular piece.
The American creosote had such a high percentage of naphthalene that
some of it solidified, even in the heated room, hence the penetration re-
corded for this oil is more or less defective. In the other four cases, how-
ever, every trace of oil had disappeared from the holes. A careful
comparison of the four series shows that the combination of the 80
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per cent, creosote oi! and 20 per cent, coal-tar penetrated as far into the
wood as did the German creosote; in fact, in some cases the penetration
appears to be somewhat better. It certainly exceeded the penetration ob-
tained with the Lyster wood preservative and that obtained with the
carbolineum, for both of which compounds exceedingly high penetrating
powers are claimed. Attention is called to the fact that the penetration
shown in the four test pieces was relatively about the same for all the
compounds, although the actual penetration, that is, the number of inches,
varies somewhat in the different series. This was due no doubt to the
fact that the different ties had different degrees of moisture. Series D.
S. had a particularly high water content in the wood fiber, hence a
smaller penetration.
The writers believe that this type of test shows in a much fairer way
what can be expected of different preservatives than did the tests made
by Mr. Bond (of the United States Forest Service), reported at the
meeting of the American Wood Preservers' Association last year. The
test herein described made use of the usual type of wood used in treat-
ment. The ties taken were the kind of ties which were being put through
the cylinder every day. The moisture factor was practically the same
in the comparative pieces taken from the same tie. Furthermore, a
commercial comparison should be made between the creosote-coal-tar
combination and some other straight creosote oil. The comparison
shown by the various tests made by Mr. Bond are largely on the basis
of different types of coal-tars. From a large number of additional
tests made by the writers, one is chosen for further illustration.
A stick of sap pine was kiln dried for a year and sawed into blocks.
Only one hole was bored, in this case, into each piece, and three different
preservatives were tested, namely, a standard English creosote fulfilling
the American Railway Engineering Association specification No. 1, a
light American creosote, and a combination of 80 per cent, of the
American creosote and 20 per cent, coal-tar. Fifteen cc. of each pre-
servative were used. The pieces of wood were kept in a drying oven at
180 degrees Fahrenheit for six hours before the actual test, and again
after the liquids were poured into the holes. The resulting penetration
is shown on plate No. 3.
The analyses of the three preservatives used were as follows :
80 per cent.
English
Creosote.
Number 2314
Sp. Gr. at ioo° F 1.044
Per cent.
2100 C 3.6
235 26.6
270 22.7
315 16.8
355 20.3
Residue 8.9
American
Light
Creosote,
American
20 per cent.
Creosote.
Coal-Tar.
1976
1.006
1.03 1
Per cent.
Per cent.
1570
11.42
33-74
28.17
26.27
23.90
12.91
11.30
10.50
9.27
10.50
15-25
674 WOOD PRESERVATION.
The penetration in this instance was every bit as good for the coal-
tar-creosote combination as it was for the American Railway Engineer-
ing Association No. I oil.
Taking all of these tests into consideration, the conclusion has been
reached that for practical purposes the penetration obtainable with this
type of mixture (that is, by mixing a percentage not to exceed 20 per
cent, low-carbon coal-tar with creosote oil) is as good as that which
can be obtained by using the creosote alone.
In actual practice the extent of penetration with creosote oil is
usually determined by sawing a number of different ties or pieces of
lumber, and noting the actual penetration obtained. This is, to be sure,
a very rough method and usually requires sawing a considerable number
of different pieces. The variation in absorption and penetration for
different pieces of wood is very great, even when the greatest care is
taken to have the same species represented in any one treatment. Our
decisions are frequently determined, however, by just such so-called
practical tests. We go through the treating plant and saw six or eight
ties, and if we find that a fair percentage shows an acceptable penetration,
we consider that the treatment is a good one. If, on the other hand, we
find that a large number show a poor penetration, we consider the
treatment as poor. The sawing of such ties is, unfortunately, the only
method, aside from making actual borings, which we have for gaging
penetration. Such sawing tests must always be accepted with a good
deal of reserve, because they may give rise to wholly incorrect conclu-
sions- It is of the utmost importance that in any discussion on pene-
tration the fact be kept in mind that no two pieces of wood will react
exactly alike in the creosoting cylinder, and that judgment based on
sections made from ties picked from one or two runs are apt to be very
misleading. With a full appreciation of this fact, but with the idea of
seeing to what extent ties as nearly alike as possible absorb creosote
when compared with creosote to which low carbon coal-tar had been
added, a series of tests was made with red oak.
A whole cylinder charge of dry red oak ties was treated with
creosote oil. Another cylinder charge of the same kind of red oak ties
was treated with this same creosote, to which 20 per cent, coal-tar had
been added. A considerable number of ties in each charge were weighed
individually before and after treatment. These individually-weighed ties
were laid aside after treatment and were exposed to the air for some two
months. A number of ties from each series were then selected. The selec-
tions were made from the table of weights and absorptions in such manner
that two ties were selected, one from the creosote series and one from the
creosote-coal-tar series, having approximately the same weight before
treatment and approximately the same absorption of creosote and cre-
osote-coal-tar, respectively. These ties were then cut on a very cold
day, the sections being made under, the rail base. Photographs were
taken immediately after the sections were made. A number of these are
reproduced on plates 4, 5 and 6. So, for instance, in one case a tie
WOOD PRESERVATION. 675
weighed 121^ lbs. before treatment and absorbed 20 lbs. of creosote oil;
from the second series a tie was selected which weighed 124^ lbs. before
treatment and absorbed 21 lbs. of creosote-coal-tar mixture. In another
case, both ties weighed 126 lbs- before treatment, the one absorbing 11
lbs. of creosote and the other 14 lbs. of creosote-coal-tar mixture. A
critical examination of all of these ties so sectioned failed to show any
material difference in the extent of penetration. In fact, it was almost
impossible to tell one from the other, except that the ties treated with
the creosote-coal-tar mixture were blacker, due to the presence of free
carbon. A glance at the photographs will show how difficult it is to
establish any definite basis according to which penetration can be gaged.
There is no such thing as saying that one tie is better than another
in terms of depth of penetration, because in ties like red oak the oil is
in streaks or spots throughout the tie. No two people will ever agree
which of the two ties, which weighed respectively 113 and 117 lbs. before
treatment (see plate 6), shows the better penetration. It had been
suggested that we employ half ties and treat one with creosote and the
other with creosote-coal-tar mixture. This was tried, but it was found
that in such short pieces the actual amount absorbed was so large that
a definite comparison could not be obtained. It is fully realized that
the illustration presented should be taken only as such tests are con-
sidered at the treating plants. They are presented, however, because
engineers frequently base their opinion concerning this subject of penetra-
tion on sections made of actual ties.
One should not lose sight of the fact that it may take a slightly
longer period of pressure to obtain the extent of penetration with the
mixture that one can obtain with straight creosote, but practical ex-
perience at those plants where the combination of coal-tar and creosote
oil has been used for several years, bears out the conclusion just made,
that equally as good penetration can be obtained with the mixture as
can be obtained with the creosote.
The only property of the coal-tar and creosote combination which
might retard the penetration is the presence of a small amount of free
carbon in the mixture. This free carbon filters out on the ends of the
wood and it may to a certain extent retard the penetration of the oil.
This retardent action is more apparent than real. Until recently it
was supposed that none of the free carbon particles could penetrate the
wood. Even-one has been struck with the fact that the wood treated
with the coal-tar-creosote mixture, when cut into, is blacker than wood
treated with creosote without the coal-tar addition. Not until recently,
however, was it proven that carbon particles can actually enter into wood
fiber with the oil.
Bailey (Forestry Quarterly, Vol. II, page 11, 1013). in a series of
experiments, used an aqueous mass containing very finely divided particles
of carbon held in suspension as a test liquid, to determine the manner
of penetration of liquids into wood fiber. He states : "Obviously this
dark-colored liquid could penetrate only when actual openings existed in
676 WOOD PRESERVATION.
the cell walls." He shows a number of photographs in which the carbon
particles are plainly visible in the cells. The presence of small portions
of free carbon in the creosote, therefore, need not necessarily be regarded
as materially retarding the entrance of the oil, even from a theoretical
standpoint, because some of the free carbon enters with the creosote oil.
The conclusions to be drawn, therefore, both from actual experience
with pieces of wood as well as from theoretical consideration, are that
the penetration which can be secured with the creosote to which approxi-
mately 20 per cent, of low carbon coal-tar has been added, will not in any
way be inferior to that which could have been obtained had the same pieces
of wood been treated with creosote alone. Any slight retardation, to what-
ever cause it may be due, can easily be made up by a slight increase in
the time of pressure.
RELATION OF COST.
In the President's address of the American Wood Preservers' Asso-
ciation in 1913, E. A. Sterling stated : "The procuring of an adequate
supply of creosote at a reasonable cost may safely be considered as a
vital factor in the wood preserving industry of the United States, even
though other preservatives, including zinc chloride, are used in large
quantities." The consumption of creosote in the United States in 1912
amounted approximately to 83,000,000 gallons, of which about three-
fourths was imported. This means that about 20,000,000 gallons were
manufactured in the United States. Owing to the character of the
crude tar from which the creosote oil is distilled and to varying market
conditions, a considerable percentage of the oil furnished for consumption
will not meet the standard specification No. 1 of the American Railway
Engineering Association. These oils, however, are sold at a lower price
than many of the imported oils which fulfill the specification No. 1 of
the American Railway Engineering Association. The average consumer
is consequently confronted with the alternative of buying an oil meeting
the specification No. 1 and paying higher prices for the same or of buying
an oil below this specification at a cheaper price. Given the alternative
of buying the American Railway Engineering Association oil No. 1 or
an oil which will not conform to this specification, there can be no ques-
tion but that it is better policy to buy the highest grade oil, even at a
higher price. The condition of the oil supply is such, however, that the
amount of No. 1 oil is limited, and many consumers are forced either
to buy the lower grade oil or to have none at all. Under these circum-
stances the question is: Shall the low-grade oil be used and how? Two
alternatives suggest themselves to the writers in this connection. One is
to use the low-grade oil in larger quantities, or to use the low-grade oil
and add a certain percentage of coal-tar, which can be purchased at about
the same price as the low-grade oil.
Where the oil is only slightly inferior to the American Railway En-
gineering Association specification No. 1, it will probably prove best to
use larger quantities of such oil; where it is equal to the American Rail-
way Engineering Association No. 3 oil, it is believed that the addition
WOOD PRESERVATION. 677
of coal-tar will be good policy, remembering the various considerations
presented above. One will thereby obtain an oil, at a lower cost, which
will have many of the qualities of the high-grade oil and which, to a
certain extent, will do away with the necessity of using increased quan-
tities.
Another point which should be considered in this connection is that
we have after all practically no information as to the actual number of
years which a given quantity of creosote oil of any grade will preserve
any given piece of wood. Some railroads use about two gallons of
creosote, or less, per tie, whereas others use about two and one-half
gallons for the same sized ties. If two gallons is considered a good
risk, the addition of a half gallon of coal-tar to two gallons of creosote
oil is certainly as good a risk. In fact, with the retentive influence of the
coal-tar, the probability is that the two original gallons of creosote oil
to which coal-itar had been added will stay in the wood longer
than the two gallons to which no coal-tar had been added. Whichever
way one looks at it, therefore, the risk of adding coal-tar to creosote
appears to be a fair one, and. in many instances it may be better policy to
use the combined oils rather than to use larger quantities of the poorer
oil, particularly in connection with the economical creosoting processes
so largely employed at the present time.
Reference has been made to the fact that larger quantities of No.
2 or No. 3 oil always mean an increased cost. It has also been pointed
out that there is at present no very good basis from which one could
judge what increased quantities are desirable, and consequently how
much the increased cost would be. In view of the fact that the basis of
comparison of various oils is largely derived from the degree of per-
manence which such oils are supposed to have after once injected into
timber, it is suggested that the permanence of the oil might be used as
a basis for estimating the relative quantities of different oils to be used
for similar purposes. It is fully realized that such estimates must be re-
graded from a purely theoretical standpoint. We have not yet sufficient
data to make such estimates more than theoretical. In order to illustrate
the possibility in a graphical way, we have taken the figures obtained from
the evaporation of various oils from pine and maple blocks referred to
above (see charts 4 and 5).
Referring to chart No. 5 (oil evaporation from pine blocks), and
taking the highest percentage of evaporation for oil No. 6 (A. R. E. A.
No. 1 oil), oil No. 1 (A. R. E. A. No. 3 oil), and oil No. 5 (A. R. E. A.
No. 3 oil plus 20 per cent, coal-tar), and using A. R. E. A. No. 1 oil
as a standard, we find that the evaporative ratio of these oils are as
follows :
A. R. E. A. No. 1 creosote 1.00
A. R. E. A. No. 3 creosote 1.68
A. R. E. A. No. 3 creosote plus 20 per cent, coal-tar 1.29
Taking A. R. E. A. No. 1 oil as a standard for the quantity to be
used per tie, and assuming that the amount to be used is two and one-
678 WOOD PRESERVATION.
half gallons per tic, we find the ratio of quantity, based on the evaporative
ratio as follows :
No. I oil 2.50 gal- per tie
No. 3 oil 420 gal. per tie
No. 3 oil plus 20 per cent, coal-tar 3.22 gal. per tie
Assuming the price to be 7 cents per gallon for all of the oils, we
get a total cost, based on this evaporative ratio, as follows:
A. R. E. A. No. 1 creosote 17.5 cents
A. R. E. A. No. 3 creosote 29.4 cents
A. R. E. A. No. 3 creosote plus 20 per cent.
coal-tar 22.5 cents
If, as appears fair, we charge a slightly higher price for A. R. E.
A. No. 1 oil, that is, 9 cents instead of 7 cents, we get the total cost for
treatment on this basis, as follows :
A. R. E. A. No. 1 creosote 22.5 cents
A. R. E. A. No. 3 creosote 29.4 cents
A. R. E. A. No. 3 creosote plus 20 per cent.
coal-tar 22.5 cents
Using the same method on the basis of the results for maple blocks
(chart No. 4), the final price obtained for A. R. E. A. No. 1 oil is 22.5
cents; for No. 3 oil, 25-3 cents; and for No. 3 oil plus 20 per cent, coal-
tar, 19.7 cents.
For convenience these figures are presented in tabulated form here-
with:
Evap. Total Total
Pine. Ratio. Quantity. Price. Cost. Price. Cost.
A. R. E. A. No. 1 creosote 1.00 2.50 gal. 7c 17.5c- 9c 22.5c
A. R. E. A. No. 3 creosote 1.68 4.20 gal. 7c 29.4c 7c 29.4c
A. R. E. A. No. 3 creosote plus
20 per cent, coal-tar 1.29 3.22 gal. 7c 22.5c 7c 22.5c
Maple.
A. R. E. A. No. 1 creosote 1.00 2.50 gal. 7c 17.5c 9c 22.5c
A. R. E. A. No. 3 creosote 1.45 3.62 gal. 7c 25.3c 7c 25.3c
A. R. E. A. No. 3 creosote plus
20 per cent, coal-tar 1.12 2.81 gal. 7c 19.7c 7c 19.7c
A study of these figures will show that if it be true that A. R. E. A.
No. 1 oil is the best oil, and consequently that Nos. 2 and 3 should be used
in larger quantities, because they disappear more rapidly from the wood
than does No. 1 oil, it will certainly be true that larger quantities of Nos.
2 and 3 oils will cost more than a treatment with No. 1 oil; that is, it
will always be the best policy to use No. 1 oil wherever one can.
The second conclusion from this study is that it will be cheaper to
use No. 3 oil with the slight coal-tar addition than to use correspondingly
larger quantities of the No. 2 or 3 oil without the coal-tar addition.
We wish to point out again that the figures in this table should be
taken only as an individual study and from one set of experiments, and
they are simply presented for the purpose of indicating a possible basis
for discussing how we should arrive at cost estimates where different
qualities of oil are used. It would be interesting to have these evapor-
WOOD PRESERVATION. 679
ative experiments made on a larger scale for different quantities of oil,
and we are at the present time engaged in carrying out such a series.
While these cost considerations are of great importance, nothing
herein is to be taken as implying that the decision as to whether coal-tar
should be added to Nos. 2 or 3 A. R. E. A. oil, should be based entirely
on cost considerations. This phase of the matter will enter into the dis-
cussion only in such cases where a coal-tar addition is considered advis-
able, because of the difficulty or impossibility of getting No. 1 oil. There
are many railroads in this country who can get No. 2 or 3 oil, not only
at lower prices, but who can get such oils where they cannot get No. 1
oil, except at very advanced prices or not at all. In other words, the
amount and quality of the creosote available at any one particular point
will be the first point to be considered, and where it is found that an
adequate supply of Nos. 2 or 3 oil is available, then it will be time to
consider the possibility of adding the coal-tar, both from the standpoint
of getting the proper quantity of oil and at a lower cost than would
have to be paid for the No. 1 oil.
SUMMARY.
Summarizing the factors presented, we find :
/. Amount Used.
Since 1908 approximately 24,500,000 ties have been treated with a
combination of 80 per cent creosote oil and 20 per cent, refined coal-tar.
Practically all paving blocks since 1907 have, been treated with such a
combination. The total amount of creosote oil used in the United States
in 1912 was 83,666,490 gallons. During 1912 it is estimated that 12,500,000
gallons of coal-tar-creosote combination were used for the treatment of
ties, and about 14,000,000 gallons for paving blocks, or a total of 28,000,000
for both, or about 31 per cent, of all the oil used. Adding to this similar
oil used at plants from which no figures are available, a conservative esti-
mate indicates that about 40 per cent, of all the creosote oil used in 1912
was a coal-tar-creosote combination.
//. W hat Coal-Tar Is.
Coal-tar is one of the products obtained from the destructive dis-
tillation of coal-tar, either at retort gas works or at by-product coke-
oven plants, and the tar so obtained is gas-house tar or coke-oven tar.
Gas-house tar usually has a high percentage of free carbon, coke-oven
tar a low percentage of free carbon. Both tars when redistilled yield
creosote oil, that is, the coal-tar is the mother liquor from which creosote
oil is obtained. Only a low-carbon tar should be used for addition to
creosote oil.
///. Previous Uses of Coal-Tar.
Coal-tar was added to creosote oil in large quantities in the early
days of creosoting, and is still added to creosote oil in England to give
a black color to creosoted wood.
680 WOOD PRESERVATION.
IV. What Happens When Coal-Tar Is Added to Creosote Oil.
When coal-tar is added to creosote oil, the two substances, being
composed of the same chemical compounds, unite. The combination is
in the nature of a "solution," and it is not merely a physical "mixture."
When thoroughly mixed, they do not separate. The addition of coal-tar
to creosote oil cannot be called an "adulteration."
The addition of a small amount of coal-tar to creosote oil reduces
the amount of evaporation which takes place. The combination remains
in wood longer than the same creosote oil without the coal-tar addition.
V. Relative to Antiseptic Properties.
The experience of many years has shown that the high-boiling con-
stituents of creosote oil are the most effective in preserving wood. Coal-
tar is largely composed of high-boiling compounds. The presumption
therefore is that by adding a small amount of coal-tar to creosote oil
the antiseptic value of the mixture is not reduced, but may be enhanced.
VI. Relation to Penetration.
Tests at treating plants and under exact conditions show that the
penetration obtained with a combination of 80 per cent, creosote oil and
20 per cent, refined coal-tar is as good as that obtained with good creo-
sote oil. In any event, a slight increase in the time of pressure will
give as high a penetration as can be obtained with the lighter creosote
oils.
VII. Relation to Supply and Cost. ,
Only a limited supply of high-grade creosote oil is available, whereas
large quantities of lower-grade creosote oils are on the market. With
the economical creosoting processes now used, injecting small quantities
of oil into timbers, it is desirable to retain as much oil in the wood as
possible. Low-grade oils lose a large percentage in a very few years-
Anything which will retard this loss will make it possible to use these
lower-grade oils to good advantage. One of the principal reasons for
adding coal-tar to these lower-grade oils is to make them better adapted
to the economical creosoting processes, and at no increase in cost.
VIII. Conclusions.
The chief object of this discussion has been to present results of
certain experimeUts made during recent years with creosote oil to which
low carbon coal-tar had been added. The writers firmly believe that the
best results with creosoting will always be obtained by ' the use of oil
equivalent to the American Railway Engineering Association No. 1 oil.
They wish to point out distinctly that, in their opinion, the refined coal-
tar should never be added to American Railway Engineering Association
No. 1 oil. The information available seems to indicate that the addition
of low-carbon coal-tar to oils inferior to American Railway Engineering
Association No. 1 specification oil does not reduce the penetration ob-
tainable, provided suitable methods are adopted at the creosoting plants
to bring about the proper mixture and injection. They find also that
WOOD PRESERVATION. 681
little risk is taken from the antiseptic standpoint. The results also seem
to indicate that the addition of the refined coal-tar materially tends to
retain creosote oil in the timber. The addition also makes possible the
utilization of the poorer grades of creosote oil, which are coming more
and more into use, and that where such oils are used with the coal-tar
addition, smaller quantities can be used at a probably lower cost than
where larger quantities of the same inferior oils are used. Remembering
these indications, it is pointed out that the coal-tar addition, when properly
used, is worthy of trial. Where it is thought desirable to add refined
coal-tar to creosote oil, it should be observed that only a low^-carbon
coal-tar should be used, that is, one having a percentage not to exceed
5 or 6 per cent, of free carbon.
Before the combination of creosote and coal-tar is used for the im-
pregnation of timber, the two substances should be thoroughly mixed
in a tank reserved for that purpose, preferably at a temperature of 180
degrees Fahrenheit, and during the process of impregnation the tem-
perature of the mixture in the cylinder should be maintained at least
at 180 degrees Fahrenheit.
One of the most important considerations is that if the coal-tar is
used anywhere, it should be mixed with the creosote oil under the im-
mediate direction of the railroad company, and with their full know-
ledge. The practice which has come about in various quarters of selling
creosote oil mixed with coal-tar as a No. i specification oil, should be
stopped; and the caution is added that the greatest care should be taken,
where timber is treated with creosote, where a No. I specification is
called for, that the specification for such oil as printed in the Manual, be
rigidly enforced.
REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON GRADING OF
LUMBER.
Dr. H. von Schrenk, Chairman; B. A. Wood, Vice-Chairman,
W. McC. Bond, W. H. Norris,
D. Fairchild, R. C. Sattley,
R. Koehler, J. J. Taylor,
A. J. Neafie, Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
The Special Committee on Rules for the Grading and Inspection
of Maintenance of Way Lumber has, during the past year, been engaged
in trying to formulate additional grading rules for such classes of
lumber as have not yet been standardized. The work has unfortunately
been retarded, owing to the fact that many of the rules for such timbers,
particularly hemlock and western timbers, are still in a process of de-
velopment. It was therefore not thought advisable to force the formu-
lation of such rules by the Committee, but to await their definite
adoption by the associations manufacturing such classes of lumber. It
is anticipated that the rules for hemlock and some of the Pacific Coast
timbers will be in shape for presentation at the next convention.
The Committee reports progress in the adoption of the rules al-
ready in the Manual. A recent communication is received from one of
the largest associations manufacturing lumber, advising that the changes
made in the rules as adopted by this Association last year are very
slight. Your Committee would respectfully urge all members to use
these rules in the purchase of Maintenance of Way lumber. They may
not always fit the requirements, nor will they always quite agree with
the commercial grades of manufactured lumber, because the latter
changes from year to year. The changes, however, do not materially
affect the quality as described in the grades. A more universal use of
the lumber grades as already adopted in the Manual will tend towards
the elimination of odd sizes and grades.
Respectfully submitted,
SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON GRADING OF LUMBER.
683
REPORT OF COMMITTEE XIII— ON WATER SERVICE.
A. F. Dorley, Chairman; J. L. Campbell, Vice-Chairman;
C. C. Cook, A. Mordecai,
R. H. Gaines, W. A. Parker,
W. S. Lacher, W. L. Rohbock,
E. G. Lane, Chas. E. Thomas,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your Committee submits herewith a report of its proceedings and
work accomplished during the past year. To facilitate the handling of
the work assigned to it by the Board of Direction, it was decided to divide
the Committee into three Sub-Committees for detailed study of the three
subjects assigned, as follows:
Sub-Committee No I— "Report on the Design and Relative Economy
of Track Pans from an Operating Standpoint;" E. G. Lane, Chairman.
Sub-Committee No. 2 — "Report on Wjrter Treatment and Result of
Study Being Made of Water Softeners from an Operating Standpoint;"
W. S. Lacher, Chairman ; W. A. Parker, A. F. Dorley, R. H. Gaines.
Sub-Committee No. 3 — "Report on Recent Developments in Pumping
Machinery ;" C. C. Cook, Chairman ; A. Mordecai, W. L. Rohbock, J. L.
Campbell.
In addition to the various meetings of Sub-Committees, meetings
of the Committee were held in Chicago on May 26 and September 15, and
in Pittsburgh on October 27.
(1) DESIGN AND RELATIVE ECONOMY OF TRACK PANS
FROM AN OPERATING STANDPOINT.
The Committee desires to report progress only at this meeting. The
subject has had considerable study and investigation, but the information
is not in form for final submission at this time.
(2) WATER TREATMENT AND RESULT OF STUDY BEING
MADE OF WATER SOFTENERS FROM AN
OPERATING STANDPOINT.
The report on this subject has been divided into three sub-headings:
(1) Economy of water treatment.
(2) Present situation as to water treatment on railroads.
(3) General rules for the installation and operation of water
softeners, and the use of treated water, based on a study
of water softeners from an operating standpoint.
685
686 WATER SERVICE.
(i) ECONOMY OF WATER SOFTENERS.
Much information has been published from time to time, showing
clearly the benefits to be derived from the treatment of water for hard-
ness, but on the whole this has been of a descriptive character, contain-
ing insufficient numerical data to show, mathematically, the relation be-
tween the character of the water and the economy of treatment. The
section of the Manual devoted to Water Service contains a formula for
determining the justifiability of treatment, which is in fact a mathemat-
ical expression of the principles of water treatment. The difficulty, how-
ever, is in assigning numerical values to the various terms. The prin-
cipal reasons for this are as follows :
(i) Many of the benefits are of such an intangible nature as to be
very difficult of mathematical expression.
(2) The necessary subdivision of cost of locomotive, operation and
maintenance is not generally obtained.
(3) Presence of other variables, as in making a comparison between
two divisions of a road, one with softeners and one without, or on a
given division, before and after installation of softeners. In the one
case, we encounter variation in physical conditions, traffic, personnel, in
the other changes in equipment and policy, while both are affected by
transfer of power from division to division.
Efforts on the part of your Committee to collect data giving numer-
ical values for the economy or benefits of water treatment have, there-
fore, not been met with an appreciable success. In Appendix A your
Committee submits an effort at an analytical solution of the problem.
Appendix B gives results of water treatment on two roads in the
middle West. In one case the economy of treatment on the entire sys-
tem is shown, and in the other a comparison is made between three di-
visions of a road as to boiler repairs, two divisions with water softeners
and one without.
(2) CURRENT PRACTICE AS TO WATER TREATMENT.
The present situation as to the treatment of water on railroads pre-
sents a rather complex outlook. While softening plants are in use on
nearly all roads, and some lines have installed a sufficient number to
eliminate bad water at practically all important water stations, it is a
fact that a large number of roads are resorting to other means, in efforts
to eliminate the effects of bad water. These are enumerated as follows:
(1) The use of soda ash (sodium carbonate) directly in locomotive
tanks.
(2) The use of some proprietory anti-scaling compound, with or
without an anti-foaming ingredient, either in the locomotive tank, or di-
rectly in the boiler.
(3) The treatment of water with soda ash only, in the road tanks,
generally with provision, through a float outlet and a sludge valve, for
the removal of a portion of the sludge. These "soda ash plants" permit
WATER SERVICE.
687
of an accuracy of proportioning impossible with Methods No. i or No. 2.
They are used in some instances as auxiliaries to complete softening
plants, to give a partial treatment to water at the less important stations
where the installation of a softening plant was not considered justifiable.
The table below gives the practice as to water treatment on six rep-
resentative trunk lines in the middle West.
TABLE SHOWING CURRENT PRACTICE AS TO TREATMENT OF WATER ON
SIX TRUNK LINES IN THE MIDDLE WEST
Line
No. of Treating
Plants Installed
No. of Treating
Plants in Operation Use of Soda Ash
1 as a Boiler Com-
Use of Anti-
Scale Boiler
Compounds
other than
Soda Ash
i
Complete Soda Ash
Treatment 1 Treatment
1 pound (in Engine
Complete Soda Ash Tanks)
Treatment ' Treatment j
A
45 0
For experiment-
45 0 Is not used. al purposes in
a few localities
B
42 0
42
On divisions where
0 ' plants have not None used,
been installed.
C
6
0
5
n „ i In a few local-
0 Very extensively. ities
D
115
0
On branch lines and
at points where no
112 0 softeners have None used,
been installed on
* main lines.
E
9 86
5
t
Forexperiment-
oc ' a* a „!.„*;„„„ al purposes on
86 At 6 stations. a ^^ divi.
sion.
F
28 25
28
25 Is not used.
Silicate of Soda
used in mod-
erately hard
water terri-
tory.
* Three abandoned on account of station closed.
t Three are lime'.soda ash plants, two are barium hydrate plants
The failure of the roads to go more generally into the use of com-
plete water softeners is accounted for by the fact that installation of
water softeners involves a considerable initial outlay as compared to the
use of compounds, which require no plant at all.
It is also due to the fact that on one or two roads, due to good or-
ganization and intelligent supervision, excellent success has been attained
with the use of soda ash plants, which involve little investment for plants
as compared to complete treatment plants.
Investigation of the failure or abandonment of such softening plants,
as have been brought to the notice of the committee have been found to
be the result of faulty design, supervision or operation, rather than any
inherent fault in the principle of water softening. The general rules for
installation and operation 'given hereafter are in part the result of such
investigation.
688 WATER SERVICE.
(3) GENERAL RULES FOR INSTALLATION AND OPERATION OF WATER SOFTEN-
ERS AND USE OF TREATED WATER BASED ON STUDY OF WATER
SOFTENERS FROM AN OPERATING STANDPOINT.
(A) Design and Installation.
(1) The plant must be of adequate capacity. It is necessary
to anticipate possible increases in the consumption of water at the
station considered. This may result from increase in volume of traffic,
reduction in number of stops for water, due to increase in size of engine
tanks, or preference for treated water over that at adjoining stations not
treated. The prospective plant must be carefully investigated to ascertain
if the proportions of all parts are such as to insure the rated capacity. It
is not safe to accept a plant requiring a reduction in the time for treat-
ment because of special appliances purported to accelerate the process.
(2) The installation of softening plants must follow a systematic
plan. Greater success is generally obtained by completing the installa-
tion on one division first, rather than installing plants at individual points
of especially bad water. A softening plant is not completely successful
as long as engines served have badly encrusted boilers, and desired im-
provements in this respect cannot be fully obtained when engines take
from other stations, water which is high in incrusting matter. This con-
dition, of course, would not obtain in the case of a plant at the single
intermediate water station for passenger engines, where the water at the
terminals was of good quality, or in a plant at a terminal serving a great
many switching or transfer engines that receive water from no other
source.
(3) The mechanical features of treating plant must be so simple as
not to require expert attendance. Where proportioning is automatic, it
is essential that the machine is not easily thrown out of adjustment.
(4) Feasibility of treatment of a given water should be carefully
investigated. This applies especially to waters containing large propor-
tions of incrusting sulphates or sulphates in combination with quantities
of alkali salts. Treatment of such water by the Porter-Clark process
may result in water containing such high proportions of foaming solids
as to be entirely unusable.
(B) Operation, Maintenance and Supervision.
(1) Adequate supervision is necessary to successful operation of a
softening plant. Such supervision must be exercised at least in part by a
chemist, or an engineer having adequate knowledge of water treatment.
A tendency on the part of operating and mechanical officials to under-
estimate the importance of treating plants has frequently been evidenced,
emphasizing the necessity for supervision on the part of some one who
has the interests of the plant at heart.
(2) Provision should be made for frequent analysis of both the
treated and raw water. This is necessary, principally as a check on the
treatment, and also to some extent on account of changes in the condi-
tion of the raw water. This is of more importance with water from
WATER SERVICE. 689
streams or surface reservoirs; but even with wells, changes occur oc-
casionally, due to entrance of surface water, or perhaps to failure of
supply from one of the several water-bearing strata.
In order that the analyses shall be effective, they must be made under
the supervision of a competent chemist. Simple tests with soap and acid
solutions which are of sufficient accuracy to handle ordinary operating
results, should be made at least once a week by the chemist for check
purposes.
Where creek or other water subject to sudden changes is softened,
a simple testing outfit, accompanied by specific instructions and chart for
each individual water, should be provided for the plant operator, who
with little practice and weekly check by the chemist will become suf-
ficiently proficient to make formula changes to meet the variations in
character of water.
(3) Proper mechanical operation and maintenance of the treating
plants must be provided for through adequate supervision on the part
of a supervisor of water service, bridges and buildings, or equivalent
officer. Where the division organization is in use, a check on such su-
pervision must be maintained by an engineer directly responsible for
the water treatment.
(4) Where the plant is inadequate in size, arrangements should
be made to use raw water to such an amount as to permit of proper
treatment of all water that passes through the softener.
USE OF TREATED WATER.
One of the objections against water softeners is the foaming of
boiler water following treatment. There is good reason to believe that
the importance of this objection is occasionally overestimated. This is
evidenced by the fact that natural alkali waters are being used success-
fully on some Western roads, which contain many times the amount of
foaming solids which have caused criticism of treated waters. Foaming
is of much more immediate concern to the enginemen than the presence
of scale in the boiler. It serves as a good excuse for delays.
Foaming from treated water is due to the presence of sodium salts as
a result of treatment for incrusting sulphates, together with such quan-
tities of the alkali salts which may have been present in the raw water.
The condition is aggravated and to a large extent due to the presence of
suspended matter in the water. For this reason foaming is more preva-
lent immediately after the introduction of treatment, due to the loosening
of old scale in the boilers. Difficulty from this source will also occur
where engines receive at other stations water which is high in incrusting
solids. Any excess of soda ash in the treated water will re-act on the
untreated water causing a precipitate which is carried into the boiler.
Since foaming takes place with the concentration of the foaming
solids and the accumulation of suspended matter, one remedy for foam-
ing is to prevent the condition of concentration by blowing down the
boilers or periodic washing and changing the boiler water. A method for
determining the amount of blowing off necessary to keep the concentra-
690 WATER SERVICE.
tion within definite limits is given fully in the report of the Water Serv-
ice Committee in Vol. 8. Owing to the accumulation of suspended matter
in the water legs of the firebox, blowoff cocks, as ordinarily located, will
remove a large part of these deposits. In fact, it is argued by the advo-
cates of systems of treatment which do not permit of complete removal
of the suspended matter before discharged into the engine tanks, that
sufficient blowing down to keep the water within reasonable limits of con-
centration of foaming solids will also be sufficient to remove all accumula-
tions of suspended matter.
There is a wide variation in the practice as to blowing off on various
railroads. Some roads depend entirely on the blowing down, washing
and changing of water at terminals. Other roads, by requiring engine-
men to blow off engines systematically on the road, are keeping the de-
gree of concentration of dissolved solids and the quantities of suspended
matter within the desired limit, and are at the same time greatly in-
creasing the allowable interval between boiler washings.
The advantages of frequent short interval road blowing off are as
follows :
(i) Less chance for mud burning.
(2) Less chance for injury to sheets, since amount of water removed
at one time is relatively small, and there is less opportunity for material
change in temperatures.
(3) Amount and frequency of blowing off is modified to meet the
varying conditions and the degree of concentration may be kept at a
reasonably uniform standard.
Objections to road blowing off are as follows:
(1) Danger of failure of blowoff cock to close with resultant en-
gine failure.
(2) Possible danger to persons on the right-of-way, and spattering
of structures and equipment, especially passenger trains.
(3) Objection to noise, particularly in cities.
In addition to the above objections, following are some obstacles
which tend to make effective blowing off difficult :
(1) Difficulty enforcing regulations as to blowing off.
(2) On long hills, where foaming is most likely to occur, the water
consumption, due to the severe working of the engine, taxes the injectors
to such an extent that further reduction of water in boiler by blowing
off is not permissible.
Anti-foaming compounds are, of course, in general use to overcome
this condition, but experiments go to show that with a minimum of sus-
pended matter the content of alkali salts can be carried to a considerable
degree of concentration without trouble from foaming. The primary
measure, therefore, should be to obtain clean boilers and clean water so
far as practicable.
There are, of course, conditions where concentration of foaming
solids is so great that the required amount of blowing off would be both
impracticable and uneconomical, and it is necessary to resort to anti-
foaming compounds.
WATER SERVICE. 691
EXAMPLE ILLUSTRATING A METHOD FOR CALCULATION OF THE ECONOMIES RE-
SULTING FROM THE INSTALLATION OF WATER SOFTENERS.
In estimating the beneficial effects of water softening, the following
were considered :
(a) Loss of fuel due to the insulating effect of scale on flues and
other heating surfaces.
(b) Renewal of flues account of scale accumulation and injury to
flue ends from repeated caulking.
(c) Caulking of flues and other enginehouse boiler repairs.
(d) Loss of engine time during periods of boiler and firebox repairs.
No consideration was given to the indeterminate transportation losses
and interruptions to traffic due to engine failures resulting from leaky
flues ; nor the saving in engine time and enginehouse labor for washing
out boilers brought about by removal of the suspended matter in natural
waters by treatment.
The percentages of fuel loss used below were determined by a series
of tests made at the University of Illinois. The thicknss of scale with
the water of 20 grains average hardness was taken at y^-'mch at time of
flue renewal, and 1/16-inch with the water of 7 grains average hardness.
The price of coal was taken at $1.45 per ton, with 12 cents additional for
handling, and 36 cents for hauling, or a total of $193 per ton on the
tender.
The life of flues, cost of boiler repairs and loss of engine time used
in the estimate are the average figures obtained from the existing con-
ditions on various railroads in the middle West.
The cost of $234.00 for removal of flues represents the average of
$125.00 for labor for each removal for cleaning, and cost of 13J/2 cents
per foot of flues, less scrap value for each sixth removal.
The $13.00 value per engine day represents 10 per cent, for deprecia-
tion and interest on a valuation of $16,000.00 per engine, and 7 cents per
engine mile to cover maintenance.
Following are comparative estimated operating figures of a 106-ton
engine, with a mileage of 45,000 miles per year, a coal consumption of
4,500 tons and water consumption of 7,500,000 gallons :
20-Grain Water. 7-Grain Water.
15.6 per cent, loss of fuel due 7-82 per cent, loss of fuel due
to ^i-inch average scale.. $1,354 to 1/32-inch average
1 Yz set of flues at $234 312 scale $677
Roundhouse flue repairs 252 4/5 set of flues at $234 187
13 days' loss of engine time at Roundhouse flue repairs 142
$13 169 8 days' loss of engine time at
$13 I04
$2,087
$1,110
Saving per locomotive per year, $977.00.
692 WATER SERVICE.
As the difference of 13 grains of hardness in 7,500,000 gallons of
water represents 13,929 lbs. of incrusting solids, it is concluded that the
saving of $977 per locomotive represents 7 cents per pound of excess
scaling matter entering the boiler, or 13 cents per 1,000 gallons of water
treated.
To obtain the net saving we must subtract from the above the cost
of treatment, and the cost of water wasted in blowing off to overcome
foaming.
Cost of treatment should be made up of the following :
(a) Interest and depreciation of the plant.
(b) Cost of chemicals.
(c) Cost of operation, maintenance and superintendence.
The loss due to blowing off has been thoroughly discussed previously
in the report of the Committee in 1907.
In making a comparison between the results above given and those
in the first report shown below, it is to be noted that the former is based
on the removal of 13 grains of incrustants per gallon, or 1.85 lbs. per
1,000 gallons, while the latter is based on the actual removal of an aver-
age of 23 grains per gallon, or 3.3 lbs. per 1,000 gallons.
A REPORT SHOWING THE ECONOMIES RESULTING FROM THE INSTALLATION OF
WATER SOFTENERS ON A LARGE RAILROAD IN THE MIDDLE WEST.
The installation of water softening plants on this system began in
1905, and to date a total of 45 plants have been provided and are in op-
eration. The total investment is approximately $136,000.
The average amount of water treated for locomotive and stationary
boiler purposes per year, by reducing the hardness to a point at which
it will form practically no scale, is 1,692 million gallons.
The total average amount of scale-forming solids removed from the
water by treatment per year is 5,537,000 lbs., or an average of 3.3 lbs. per
1,000 gallons.
In calculating the benefits of water softening in the figures given be-
low, the following losses resulting from the use of bad boiler waters were
considered :
(a) Frequent renewal of flues and other parts of boilers account of
scale accumulation; also injury to flue ends from repeated caulking.
(b) Labor caulking flues and other enginehouse boiler repairs.
(c) Loss of engine time during periods of boiler and firebox repairs.
(d) Loss of fuel due to the insulating effect of scale on flues and
other heating surfaces.
The total loss per year that would result from the above causes in
the absence of water treatment on this system is calculated from the best
conservative figures available from the experience on this and other roads
to be about $166,771, or 9.8 cents per 1,000 gallons treated, or 3 cents per
pound of incrusting solids removed.
WATER SERVICE.
E A COMPARISON AS TO BOILER REPAIRS.ION DIVISIONS OF A WESTERN
RAILROAD, SHOWING EFFECT OF WATER TREATMENT
Divisions A and B are Equipped for Water Treatment, Division C was without Treatment .
The cost of Machinery Repairs is not included in the Statement. The Loss of Time includes that
due only to Work on the Boilers.
Div. A
Div. B
Div. C
Loss Div. C,
Compared with
Div. A
Div. B
RUNNING REPAIR DATA BOILER
WORK, ALL ENGINES.
Average Engines in Service per month.
Cost Boiler Work — Running Repairs..
Average per month
Cost per Engine in Service per month.
Cost based on No. Engines on Div. C.
112 80
;$ 15328. 50 $19162.36
CLASSIFIED REPAIR DATA BOILER
WORK.
(New 800 and 900 Passgr. and 1900
and 2000 els. Frt. on Div. A. & Div. C.
and 800 and 1700 on Div. B.)
1277.38
11.40
695.40
1596.96
19.96
1217.56
61
$25066.25
2688.85
34.24
2088.85
$1393.45
$871.29
30
Number Engines in Comparison
Total Cost Boiler Work (Period Aver-
aging 16 months) I $9350.02
Cost per Engine per Month Service 19 .48
Cost Based on No. Engines on Div. C. . 1188. 28
LOSS OF SERVICE ACCOUNT EN-
GINES IN SHOP.
Engines in Comparison
Number of Shoppings
Total Days Out of Service, Based on
Avg. Figures
Per Month Figures include 16 Months . . .
Per Engine Per Month
At $15.00 per Day, One Engine One Month
Cost Based on No. Engines on Div. C. .
$3638.49 ;$26952.92
17.49 ! 43.19
1066.89 2634.59
30
13
63
37
1428
712
89
45
2.9
3.4 :
$ 43.50
$ 51.00
2653.50
3111.00
39
114
2184
137
3.5
$ 52.50
3202.50
$1446.31
$1567.70
$ 549.00 $ 91.60
Total Per Month
Total Per Year
Total One Engine Per Month
Total One Engine Per Year
3388.76
40665.12
55.55
666 64
2530.49
30365.88
41.49
497.80
Besides this to be considered is life of fire-box. This is about ten years in good water, about
three on C Division, Cost of applying a fire-box about $, 1000.00. The difference on 55 road engines
on Division C would amount to $1,000.00 per month.
694 WATER SERVICE.
The total annual cost of treatment including interest, depreciation,
maintenance, chemicals, supervision, etc., is $62,861, or 3.7 cents per 1,000
gallons treated, or 1.1 cents per pound of incrusting solids removed.
The net saving is therefore about $103,910, or 6.1 cents per 1,000 gal-
lons treated, or 1.9 cents per pound of incrusting solids removed.
This net saving reduced to a "per engine" saving on the basis of
the total number of 106-ton engines required to evaporate the amount of
water treated gives an average annual saving per engine of $458.00.
This average figure compares favorably with the saving per engine
reported to result from water treatment on a neighboring line, which is
$439.00.
In arriving at the above figures of saving, no consideration was given
to the following benefits of water treatment, which, though more or less
intermediate, are generally recognized to be large :
(a) Improvement in road performance of locomotives by reducing
failures and interruptions to traffic due to leaky flues.
(b) Saving in engine time and enginehouse labor for washing out
boilers brought about by removal of the suspended matters in many
natural waters by treatment.
(c) The reduction in number of locomotives required for a given
traffic due to improved road performance.
These latter benefits will be found to offset many times the foaming
troubles that are always present in the alkali districts of the Western
lines, and which are aggravated by treatment.
(3) RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PUMPING MACHINERY.
A large amount of information has been gathered on this subject and
considerable work has been accomplished, but the Committee wishes, at this
time, to report progress only. The subject has -not been developed suf-
ficiently to report otherwise, and the Committee asks for further time in
which to make final report on this subject.
CONCLUSION.
Your Committee respectfully submits the following conclusion :
The report on Subject (2) is submitted as information only. It is
intended to give the Association a brief outline of the developments of
water-softening on railways since this subject was studied by the Water
Service Committee in previous years. Particular reference is given to
the relation of the problem of water softening to railway operation.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON WATER SERVICE.
Appendix A.
CORROSION TESTS ON IRON AND STEEL.
The resistance to corrosion of iron and steel plates has been the
subject of considerable study and discussion by the Water Service Com-
mittee for several years with the view to determining the most suitable and
most lasting material for steel water tanks. Following is a report pre-
pared by Mr. J. L. Campbell, Vice-Chairman of the Water Service Com-
mittee, on a series of tests of various metals conducted by him, outlining
their relative resistance to corrosive influences.
(NO. I.) TEST OF THREE GRADES OF METAL — CONDUCTED FOR NINE MONTHS
ENDING MARCH I, I9I3.
(1) Six pieces of 1/16 in. x 1 in. x 2 in. of ingot iron manufactured
by the American Rolling Mill Company, Middletown, Ohio.
(2) Six pieces 1/16 in. x 1 in. x 2^ in. of tank steel manufactured
by the La Belle Iron Works, Steubenville, Ohio.
(3) Two pieces % in. x 6 in. x 6 in. of copper-bearing steel manu-
factured by the Carnegie Steel Company.
The typical analysis of the ingot iron is given by the manufacturers
as follows :
Per cent.
Sulphur 020
Phosphorus 005
Carbon 010
Manganese 025
Silicon 005
Oxygen 030
Nitrogen 004
Hydrogen 001
Copper 060
The tank steel is probably ordinary Bessemer or Open-Hearth steel.
The copper-bearing steel is Open-hearth, the manufacturers giving
the copper content as varying from .45 to .60 and the carbon from
.12 to .22.
All of the samples tested were ungalvanized plate.
Three samples each of the ingot iron and tank steel were buried in
soil in a shallow vessel, the soil being kept approximately in the condition
of wet soil in lowlands, where the precipitation is heavy, a considerable
drying out of the soil being occasionally allowed. The remaining three
samples of each were likewise buried and treated in coal cinders. One
sample of the copper-bearing steel was likewise tested in the soil and the
other sample in the cinders.
695
696 WATER SERVICE. !
The analysis of the soil is as follows :
Per cent.
Water of hydration 7.64
Silica (refined) 52.78
Oxide of aluminum (Al-..Os) 17-94
Oxide of iron (ferrous oxide, FeO) 5.56
Oxide of Manganese (MnO) 05
Calcium oxide (CaO) 6.30
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 1.44
Oxides of sodium and potassium 5.30
Sulphuric acid (S03) 42
Phosphoric acid (P>05) 18
Chlorine (CI.) .05
Carbonic acid (CO;) 2.91
100.57
The analysis of the cinders is as follows :
Per cent.
Volatile matter 15.70
Combustible matter (fixed carbon) 23.02
Silica (refined) 33.55
Oxide of iron (Fea03) 7.71
Oxide of aluminum (A1203) 11.04
Calcium oxide (CaO) 4.25
Magnesium oxide (M'gO) 82
Oxide of manganese (MnO) 29
Oxides of sodium and potassium 3.26
Chlorine (CI.) 02
Sulphuric acid (S03) 1.30
Phosphoric acid (P2O5) 09
101.05
Phosphorus 0.040 per cent.
The weight of the samples was carefully determined at the begin-
ning and at the end of the test. The final weight was determined after
the metal had been carefully and uniformly cleaned of loose rust.
In the soil, the loss by corrosion per square inch of exposed surface
was as follows :
Grams.
Ingot iron 4.19
Tank steel 4.18
Copper-bearing steel 17
In the cinders, the loss was as follows :
Grams.
Ingot iron 6.23
Tank steel 7.43
Copper-bearing steel 38
Apparently, copper is a valuable alloy in producing steel plates to
have high corrosive resistance.
WATER SERVICE. 697
(NO. 2.) TEST OF SEVEN SAMPLES OF IRON AND STEEL — BEGINNING MAY
I, 1913.
In the tests beginning May 1, 1913, seven samples of iron and steel
were selected, as follows :
No. 1, Charcoal iron,
No. 2, Open-hearth steel,
No. 3, Open-hearth steel containing 0.40 per cent, of
copper,
No. 4, Open-hearth steel containing 1.00 per cent, of
topper,
No. 5, Ingot iron.
No. 6, same as No. 3, except as to preliminary surface
preparation as hereinafter described,
No. 7, same as No. 4, except as to preliminary surface
preparation as hereinafter described.
Each sample contained four pieces. The dimensions of the samples
were as follows :
No. 1, r/& in. x 2 in. x 2 in.
No. 2, % in. x 2 in. x 2^4 in.
No. 3, ^ in. x 2 in. x 2^2 in.
No. 4, % in. x 2 in. x 2 34 in.
No. 5, Y% in. x 2 in. x 3 in.
The dimensions of sample No. 6 are the same as No. 3 with one
corner cut off for identification.
The dimensions of sample No. 7 are the same as No. 4 with one
corner cut off for identification.
In the following analyses, {he figures in the first column are as given
by the manufacturers, and in the second column, as given by S. W.
Parr, Professor of Applied Chemistry, under the direction of A. N.
Talbot, Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois.
No. 1, Charcoal iron.
Per cent.
Carbon 0.041
Manganese 0.205
Phosphorus No 0.049
Sulphur analysis 0.032
Copper 0.00
Silicon 0.033
No. 2, Open-hearth steel manufactured by the Carnegie Steel Company,
analyzing as follows :
Per cent. Per cent.
Carbon 0.15 0:144
Manganese 037 0.394
Phosphorus 0.037 0.038
Sulphur 0.037 0.039
Copper Trace 0.00
Silicon 0.00 0.036
698 WATER SERVICE.
No. 3, Open-hearth steel manufactured by the Carnegie Steel Company,
analyzing as follows :
Per cent. Per cent.
Carbon 0.12 0.141
Manganese 0.38 0.418
Phosphorus 0.020 0.037
Sulphur 0.032 0.028
Copper 0.40 0.43
Silicon 0.00 0.021
No. 4, Open-hearth steel manufactured by the Carnegie Steel Company,
analyzing as follows :
Per cent. Per cent.
Carbon 0.15 0.139
Manganese 0.45 0.492
Phosphorus 0.023 0.038
Sulphur 0.033 0-034
Copper 1 .00 0.98
Silicon 0.00 0.033
No. 5, Ingot iron manufactured by the American Rolling Mill Company,
analyzing as follows :
Per cent. Per cent.
Carbon ' 0.012 0.030
Manganese 0.025 o. 180
Phosphorus 0.006 0.017
Sulphur 0.028 0.056
Copper 0.042 0.00
Oxygen 0.035 0.00
Nitrogen 0.004 0.00
Silicon Trace 0.014
No. 6, Quality, manufacture and analysis the same as No. 3.
No. 7, Quality, manufacture and analysis the same as No. 4.
Five corrosive mediums were selected, as follows :
No. 1, Clean sand.
No. 2, Clay soil, to which 5 per cent, of salt by weight
was added.
No. 3, A mixture of equal parts of white and black
alkali soils.
No. 4, Bituminous coal cinders.
No. 5, Cooling water in the overflow tank from the fur-
nace water jackets of the Copper Queen Con-
solidated Mining Company, Douglas, Ariz.
Analyses of these corrosive mediums are as follows :
No. I, Sand.
Per cent.
Silica 82.31
Oxide of aluminum 9.44
Oxide of iron 2.98
Calcium oxide 1.86
Magnesium oxide 45
Oxides of sodium and potassium 3.18
Oxide of manganese Trace
100.22
WATER SERVICE. 699
No. 2, Clay soil plus 5 per cent. salt. „
Per cent.
Water 5.89
Silica 54-34
Oxide of aluminum 14.33
Oxide of iron 3.71
Calcium oxide 5.10
Magnesium oxide 2.15
Oxides of sodium and potassium 10.17
Oxide of manganese n
Sulphuric acid, combined 95
Chlorine, combined 2.83
Carbonic acid, combined 2.05
Phosphoric acid, combined 16
101.79
No. 3, White and black alkali soil. t,
0 Per cent.
Water 5.10
Silica i 48.46
Oxide of aluminum 8.76
Oxide of iron 2.00
Calcium oxide 9.45
Magnesium oxide 1.37
Oxides of sodium and potassium 11. 10
Oxide of manganese 04
Sulphuric acid, combined 9.64
Chlorine, combined 3.64
Carbonic acid, combined 2.26
Phosphoric acid, combined 06
101.88
No. 4. Cinders. D
Per cent.
Volatile matter 5.44
Fixed combustion carbon 24.60
Silica 41.06
Oxide of aluminum 24.76
Oxide of iron 1.54
Calcium oxide 1.60
Magnesium oxide 42
Oxides of sodium and potassium 1.22
Oxide of manganese 02
Sulphuric acid, combined 50
Chlorine, combined Trace
Phosphoric acid, combined 07
101.23
No. 5. Water in settling tank. ,-,
J & Per cent.
Alkalinity in CaC03 parts in 100,000 21.00
Hardness in grains per U. S. gallon 3.50
Total solids 57.88
Silica 1. 17
Iron oxide and alumina 0.47
Calcium carbonate 0.40
Magnesium carbonate 0.42
Sodium carbonate 14.00
Sodium sulphate 16.80
Sodium chloride 25.20
700 WATER SERVICE.
The sand, clay soil, alkali soil and the cinders were placed in alumi-
num pans, each pan being 4 in. deep, 11 in. wide and 16 in. long in the
clear. The pans are numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4, and the settling tank at
Douglas, No. 5, corresponding to the numbers designating the corrosive
mediums contained by the pans. These pans are kept on the balcony of
one of the south windows of the seventh floor of the office building of
the El Paso & Southwestern Railroad Company, El Paso, Tex. They
are exposed to sunlight and air, and the materials in them are periodically
saturated with water, thereby being alternately wet and comparatively
dry, duplicating in a general way service conditions of iron and steel
buried in the ground with a light covering.
In each pan, one piece of each sample of iron and steel, No. 1 to
No. 7, inclusive, is placed, with the exception of pan No. 5 at Douglas,
in which samples Nos. 6 and 7 were not placed. The pieces are buried
in the corrosive medium by forcing them down edgeways to the middle
of the depth of the pan, the pieces standing side by side about two inches
apart. As this places one piece of each sample of iron or steel in each
pan, it makes the corrosive test strictly comparable throughout for all
the corrosive mediums.
Each piece of each sample of iron or steel was prepared for begin-
ning the test by carefully filing off all surface oxidation until only clean,
bright metal showed over all surfaces of the pieces, including the edges,
with the exception of samples Nos. 6 and 7. The original surfaces of
samples Nos. 3, 4, 6 and 7, containing copper, were covered with a
distinct copper colored oxidation. This oxidation was left on Nos. 6
and 7 to determine its effect in resisting corrosion, as compared with
samples Nos. 3 and 4, from which the surface oxidation was completely
removed before beginning the tests.
After being prepared as above, each piece of each sample was weighed
on a metric scale measuring to one centigram. All pieces of all samples
were then immediately immersed in the corrosive mediums as described.
At the beginning of the test, it was decided to clean and weigh the
samples at the end of each three months' period, and the loss in weight
in grams per square inch of exposed surface was chosen as the unit for
corrosive comparison. The test is now complete for the second three
months' period, and the results are available for the first six months.
The test will be continued, but preparation of the report of the Water
Service Committee renders it necessary to consider the results to date.
It has been found that the corroded samples may be thoroughly
cleaned of the corrosive action, leaving the clean metal, by immersing
the samples in a 10 per cent, solution of ammonium citrate, and this
method of cleaning has been adopted. In this connection, and at the
first cleaning, a clean piece of uncorroded iron was also immersed in
the solution in order to determine if the latter itself would produce any
loss of weight in the metal. Subsequent weighing of this control piece
shows that there is no such loss, and the ammonium citrate appears to
be a satisfactory medium for cleaning.
WATER SERVICE.
701
In the following tables, the corrosion is measured in loss of weight
in grams per square inch of exposed surface and edges, as follows :
Pan No. i. Clean Sand. Loss in 3 Loss in 6
Sample. months, months.
No. 1. Charcoal iron 0.41 0.96
No. 2. Carnegie plain O. H. steel 0.42 0.86
No. 3. Carnegie 0.4 per cent, copper,
O. H. steel 0.45 0.87
No. 4. Carnegie 1.0 per cent, copper,
O. H. steel 0.45 0.90
No. 5. Ingot iron 0.43 0.87
No. 6. No. 3 not filed 0.34 0.90
No. 7. No. 4 not filed 0.31 0.84
Pan No. 2. Clay soil + 5 per cent. salt. Loss in 3 Loss in 6
Sample. months, months.
No. 1. Charcoal iron 0.13 0.34
No. 2. Carnegie plain O. H. steel 0.14 0.32
No. 3. Carnegie 0.4 per cent, copper
O. H. steel 0.20 0.44
No. 4. Carnegie 1.0 per cent, copper
O. H. steel 0.14 0.34
No. 5. Ingot iron 0.16 0.41
No. 6. No. 3 not filed 0.13 0.35
No. 7. No. 4 not filed 0.14 0.32
Pan No. 3. White and black alkali soils. Loss in 3 Loss in 6
Sample. months, months.
No. 1. Charcoal iron 0.06 0.13
No. 2. Carnegie plain O. H. steel 0.06 0.14
No. 3. Carnegie 0.4 per cent, copper
O. H. steel 0.06 0.14
No. 4. Carnegie 1.0 per cent, copper
O. H. steel o.o5 0.15
No. 5. Ingot iron 0.07 0.16
No. 6. No. 3 not filed 0.04 0.12
No. 7. No. 4 not filed 0.04 0.10
Pan No. 4. Cinders. Loss in 3 Loss in 6
Sample. months, months.
Xo. 1. Charcoal iron 0.76 1.23
No. 2. Carnegie plain O. H. steel 0.89 1.38
Xo. 3. Carnegie 0.4 per cent, copper
O. H. steel 0.78 1.34
No. 4. Carnegie 1.0 per cent, copper
O. H. steel 0.78 1.21
No. 5. Ingot iron 0.71 1.23
No. 6. No. 3 not filed 0.43 0.93
No. 7. No. 4 not filed 0.58 1.18
Pan No. 5. Water in overflow tank from furnace water jackets.
Loss in 3 Loss in 6
Sample. months, months.
No. 1. Charcoal iron 1.68 2.188
No. 2. Carnegie plain O. H. steel 1.62 2.172
No. 3. Carnegie 0.4 per cent, copper
O. H. steel 1.82 2.310
No. 4. Carnegie 1.0 per cent, copper
O. H. steel 1-77 2.255
No. 5. Ingot iron 1.39 T-88o
702 WATER SERVICE.
Your attention is directed to results on samples Nos. 6 and 7 in pans
Nos. 1 to 4, inclusive, from which it appears that the copper oxidation
on the surface, as compared with the identical samples Nos. 3 and 4,
but with the oxidation removed from the latter, protected samples Nos.
6 and 7 for three months, but this protection appears to have disappeared
at the end of six months. This may throw some light on the high re-
sistance shown by the copper-bearing samples of the test for 1912, re-
ferred to above.
There is another thing to be considered in the first test. The tank
steel and ingot iron were of small dimensions, but the sample of copper-
bearing steel was much larger. This may have modified the conditions
of covering and corrosion in the small pans used.
In contrast to the wide difference in favor of copper-bearing steel
in the first test, you will observe that the figures of the test for the
current year fail to show marked superiority for any sample. Perhaps
the most significant figures are those showing the relative corrosion of
samples Nos. 2, 3 and 4, as they are of the same grade of steel, made by
the same manufacturer, and are presumably identical in quality, the
difference in copper content excepted. In regard to the addition of the
copper, we quote from letter of the manufacturer, as follows :
"In regard to the addition of copper, would say that the heats are
made up as far as possible with copper scrap and any deficiency in the
copper content is made up by adding the requisite amount of metallic
copper to the bath in the open hearth furnace about fifteen minutes or
half an hour before tapping. The copper, therefore, has ample oppor-
tunity to become evenly distributed in the steel, particularly by the mixing
action which takes place when the steel runs from the furnace into the
ladle."
It will be observed that the corrosion of the ingot iron is substan-
tially the same as the other samples, except in pan No. 5, containing the
water from the overflow tank of the furnace water jackets at Douglas,
Ariz. Of this water, Mr. Stuart W. French, General Manager, Copper
Queen Consolidated Mining Company, says : "We have found that the
water is extremely corrosive in our water jackets up to a temperature
of say, 150 deg. Fahr. Above that temperature it seems to have little
action. It is good water for our boilers, but in all cold water pipes and
water jackets, where the water is more or less cool, pitting action is very
strong."
The analysis of this water is given above. The steel water jackets
of the furnaces mentioned require frequent renewal on account of the
corrosion specified by Mr. French. It was for this reason that this
water was also selected as one of the corrosive mediums in this test. The
corrosive action of this water appears to be somewhat similar to that
of an acid, and it will be observed that, while the corrosion of the ingot
iron in the other corrosive mediums is not materially different from the
other samples, it shows considerably less corrosion in the water, which
conforms with its known ability to resist the sulphuric acid test.
WATER SERVICE. 703
The corrosion of all samples in the clean sand is greater than in
the clay and alkali soils. Rather the reverse would be expected, especially
in the alkali soil. This may be partially due to the fact that, while the
sand is porous and allows a comparatively free circulation of air, the
clay and alkali soils are very close grained and practically exclude the air.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE VI-ON BUILDINGS.
Maurice Coburn, Chairman; M. A. Long., Vice-Chairman;
&< W. Andrews, C. F. W. Felt,
J. P. Canty, G. H. Gilbert,
O. P. Chamberlain, A. T. Hawk,
D. R. Collin, H. A. Lloyd,
C G. Delo, P. B. Roberts,
C. H. Fake, W. S. Thompson,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railzcay Engineering Association:
The Committee on Buildings held two meetings during the year, one
at Chicago immediately after the convention and one at Buffalo in De-
cember. There were also several meetings of Sub-Committees.
The following subjects were assigned to the Committee by the Board
of Direction :
(i) Present principles covering design of inbound and outbound
freight houses.
(2) Report on the advantages and disadvantages of the various
designs of freight house and shop floors.
(3) Report on methods of heating, lighting and sanitary provisions
for medium sized stations.
Reports on subjects (1) and (2) follow.
Progress is reported on subject (3).
The Committee has also in preparation a report on rest houses.
The following summary of the last report on Roofing is to replace
the present conclusions regarding that subject in the Manual.
ROOFING.
The following statement summarizes some of the important points in
the report on Roofing, pp. 839 to 878, Vol. 14 of the Proceedings. For
detailed information, reference should be had to that report.
In selecting a roofing there should be considered :
(1) Chance of leaks, due to character of construction.
(2) Probable life, including chance of damage by the elements and
by wear from other causes.
(3) Fire-resisting value.
(4) Cost of maintenance.
(5) First cost.
The important materials may be classified as follows :
Bituminous substances, applied with felts made of rags, asbestos or
jute.
705
706 BUILDINGS.
Clay and cement products and slate.
Metals.
They are laid in two general types : That for a flat roof, cemented to-
gether, as a coal-tar pitch and gravel roof or as an ordinary tin roof;
and that for a steep roof, laid shingle-fashion.
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS.
The common bituminous materials are :
Coal-tar pitch (the heavier distillates of bituminous coal).
Various asphalts (bitumens found naturally in the solid state).
Various petroleum products.
Various animal and vegetable residues.
Their peculiar value lies in the fact that they are practically insoluble
in water, that they are elastic, adhesive, and comparatively stable.
Coal-tar pitch is easily affected by heat and cold, is not acted upon at
all by water, is easily worked, and, if properly protected, is very stable. It
should ordinarily be used as it comes from the still "straight run," of a
consistency suitable to the climate and to proper application.
Water-gas tar pitch, a by-product in the manufacture of water gas,
which is enriched by gas from petroleum oils, resembles coal tar. It is in-
ferior to coal-tar pitch for roofing purposes, and materials made from it
should only be accepted in the low-priced products. It has more value as a
saturant of felts than as a coating.
The asphalts are unsuitable for use in their natural state. They
are ordinarily fluxed with products of petroleum.
The petroleums found in this country vary considerably, and grade
roughly in quality, according to location from East to West. The
California oils, with their asphaltic base, furnish materials especially
valuable for roofing.
The blowing of air through a heated still of certain petroleum prod-
ucts produces "blown oils," which, while somewhat lacking in adhesive
properties, are not easily susceptible to atmospheric changes and are valu-
able especially for roofing coatings.
A single asphalt fluxed with a single oil is for most purposes a crude
and unsatisfactory material. To secure the best results for any desired
purpose, several oil and asphaltic substances must ordinarily be com-
pounded. This requires skill and experience. Those properly made are
for certain conditions invaluable, particularly for ready roofing, for which
tar products are not suited.
The asphalt and petroleum products are not so readily affected by
heat and cold as is coal-tar pitch, and lesser amounts of them are neces-
sary to get good results. They are more expensive, require more skill in
handling, and, when protected, some at least are to some extent liable to
lose their life by drying out of the oil fluxes. Unprotected, they do much
better than does coal tar.
BUILDINGS. 707
FELTS.
The bituminous substances are used with felts whose qualities con-
siderably affect the roofing. The ordinary felt is made of rags, mainly
cotton. "Wool Felt" is a misnomer. Asbestos felts, as compared with
the rag felt, act less as a carrying medium for the bitumens, but rather
as a protection to the layers of bitumen. They are not suited for use
with coal-tar pitch, but are not injured by hot asphalt. They are more
expensive than rag felts, but have some peculiar and valuable qualities.
Burlap made from jute decays easily when not protected. It is used in
a few ready roofings with rag felts to increase their tensile strength, the
need of which is not generally agreed to.
BUILT-UP ROOFS.
The bituminous roofings come ready to lay, or can be built up on the
roof, using layers of saturated felt, mopped with pitch and properly
protected.
The built-up roof is especially valuable for flat surfaces. It can be
made as heavy as desired and if properly laid and of good materials, gives
a roofing which by long experience has been shown to be economical and
efficient. Where the roof is to be subjected to wear and where the char-
acter of the construction warrants the expense, flat tiles or brick should
be used as a protective coating to the roofing instead of gravel or slag.
For the flat roof built under average conditions, coal-tar pitch is
recommended in preference to asphalt products. It is more easily han-
dled, requiring less skill, and while more material is necessary, it is
still cheaper and in our opinion more certain results can usually be ex-
pected from its use when laid by the average contractor. The large
amount of material, while heavy, has insulating value. Good results, how-
ever, can be expected from built-up roofs using good asphalt compounds
where laid by skilled workmen.
When the slope of the roof is over three inches to the foot, the
application of a built-up roof becomes more difficult for both coal-tar and
asphalt, it being harder to get even mopping and there is more chance
of accident for the men. The desirable straight run coal-tar pitch cannot
be used, it being necessary to add some stiffening material which is sup-
posed to somewhat affect the life of the pitch. This must not be done
except under supervision skilled in such work, and especial care must also
be taken in the selection and application of the stone or slag coating.
Built-up roofs with a ready roofing for the coating sheet are pro-
posed by various manufacturers. They should have their best value for
steep slopes.
The advantages of a coal-tar pitch built-up roofing are such that it
is recommended that where a permanent roof is desired and where the
character of the structure allows, that the building be so designed as to
allow its use. A flat roof makes an economical structure and has small
fire hazard. A pitch of from one-half to one inch to the foot is better
708 BUILDINGS.
than anything steeper. With proper materials and application a life of
from fifteen to twenty years can be expected with a flat roof.
No contracts should be made for a built-up roof without a complete
and positive specification including flashings, and the contract prices
should not be less than those of the materials specified, plus a reasonable
amount to cover the cost of laying and profit. Thorough inspection of
workmanship and material is recommended.
READY ROOFING.
The ready roofing has better value for the steeper roofs than for
those of small pitch. It averages much cheaper than the built-up types.
Most kinds to get a fair life require occasional recoating. For flat slopes
they are hard to lay absolutely tight, and they are not economical for a
permanent structure, but on slopes of from three inches to the foot up,
their use is more justifiable.
Ready or prepared roofings are recommended for use on small, tem-
porary and other buildings, where the cost, considering maintenance, of
more expensive roofings is not justified. They are also of value for steep
slopes where a built-up coal-tar cannot be used, and for locations where
the skilled labor necessary for a built-up roof is not available. The
steeper the slope the greater their relative value and the wider their
economical field. The heavier varieties are, in general, the more desirable
because of their chance for longer life and their greater fire-resisting
value. In making selections the reliability of the manufacturer, service
tests and the cost should be governing factors.
On the steeper slopes the use of ready roofing shingles properly re-
inforced so as to prevent curling up at the corners and fraying on the
exposed edges and laid shingle-fashion is growing. They are supposed
to give better results than the rolled goods, but cost more. They would
seem at least to be worthy of investigation.
SLATE AND TILE.
Slate makes a good roof if of good quality and properly watched.
It breaks easily and cannot be walked on without danger to the slate.
Tile of good quality gives good results. It is not so tight as slate,
but does not break easily. It has architectural value, and its use is grow-
ing, with improvement in the product and in the variety of colors.
Slate and tile of suitable quality, properly protected and fastened,
can be recommended on roofs with a pitch of six inches to the foot or
over, where expense is not the governing feature, and where they aid in
producing the desired architectural effect, except that where there is
much chance of driving snow, eight inches to the foot should be the
flattest slope allowed.
ASBESTOS SHINGLES.
Shingles of asbestos and Portland cement are of value. They have
some elasticity and can be driven down tight.
BUILDINGS. 709
WOOD SHINGLES.
Wood shingles are not now desirable for a railroad structure.
CEMENT TILE.
Small cement tile are not considered of much value, being brittle.
Large cement tile reinforced, laid without sheathing directly on the pur-
lins are in use on shops and freight houses and seem to have consid-
erable merit. Glass can be introduced into them, avoiding the expense of
skylights. We are not ready to recommend them for plastered or
heated buildings or offices where an occasional slight leak would be
disastrous.
METAL ROOFINGS.
Metallic roofings with steel as a base are not recommended for gen-
eral use on permanent buildings. They require continual maintenance.
Galvanizing of steel seems to be well worth the expense. Tests of
lead covered steel sheets indicate good results. Large sheets of cor-
rugated galvanized steel can sometimes be used economically where the
building is not to be heated.
Small metallic shingles of either copper, tin, galvanized steel plate
or specially pure iron are not recommended for general use. They are
very light in weight and serve a purpose, particularly in the dry climate
of the Southwest.
In using metals, every effort should be made to secure those of good
quality. The pure irons have value. Their virtues have perhaps been
overstated, but they are not expensive, and experience seems to indicate
considerable economy by their use as a substitute for wrought-iron and
steel.
Copper, lead, zinc and Monel metal are used for roofing, but they
are not of value for ordinary railroad structures.
GENERAL.
In the laying of all roofings thoroughness in preparation of flashings
and work around openings is of vital importance.
To get a satisfactory roof there must be a stable structure, careful
attention must be given to the design of gutters, and with some types
particularly, there must be systematic inspection and regular repairs. In
buying a roof its fire resisting qualities, to a considerable extent de-
pending on the quantity of material as well as its quality, are of great
importance. A building covered with a heavy coal-tar pitch and gravel
roofing is a better fire risk than one covered with corrugated steel sheets,
or with a light ready roofing.
The practice of depending merely upon guarantees in selecting roof-
ings cannot be trusted to secure proper results.
It does not pay to put a cheap roof on a good building.
The annoyance and indirect expense occasioned by leaky and short-
lived roofs are rarely compensated for by any possible saving in first
cost.
710 BUILDINGS.
PRINCIPLES COVERING DESIGN OF INBOUND AND
OUTBOUND FREIGHT HOUSES.
The following report on Freight House Design is presented for publi-
cation in the Manual, and is intended to replace the conclusions relating
to inbound and outbound freight houses now in the Manual. (See p. 395,
under Yards and Terminals.)
The economical handling of less-than-carload freight at terminals is
a problem that is giving a great deal of concern. We know (approxi-
mately) the cost of handling a ton of freight a mile by train, but it is
almost impossible to figure the cost per ton mile for trucking and han-
dling unclassified freight at the freight house. To quote from an article
in the Engineering News, March 3, 1910, by Charles Whiting Baker :
"The cost of terminal handling in all cities is so great compared with
the cost of moving a train or a vessel when started on its journey, that
the latter can be ignored." Freight house design should receive serious
consideration.
In outlying districts, where fire hazard is not great and business is
not large, and the building laws will permit, frame freight houses having
wood floors on joists, studding covered with wood sheathing or metal
siding, and wood rafters and sheathing covered with appropriate roofing,
are fairly satisfactory and cost less than any other sorts. Floor for this
type should ordinarily be designed to carry 250 lbs. per sq. ft.
With such construction there should be ventilation beneath the floor,
but the access to the space under the house should be prevented to avoid
the accumulation of rubbish and increased fire hazard.
But even where a frame house is to be used, it is better practice to
use a filled concrete foundation, eliminating some fire hazard and de-
creasing maintenance charges.
Where the laws prohibit frame structures and the value of freight
stored is considerable and it is necessary to build freight houses of so-
called fireproof material, floors should be placed on a fill between foun-
dation walls*, and the exterior walls should be of masonry or steel frame
covered with metal siding. Roof trusses, framing, etc., can be of wood,
covered with appropriate roofing, but to provide better fire protection,
fireproof construction may be used.
Fire walls of brick or other non-combustible material should be
located so as to conform to the requirements of the underwriters. The
strictest practice limits the area between firewalls to 5,000 sq. ft. This es-
pecially applies to houses with no outside platform. In wide houses, this
locates the walls rather close together for economical operation. Fire
walls should in no case be more than 200 ft. apart.
Doors in fire walls should be as limited in number as possible, no
one door opening should exceed in area 80 sq. ft. and all should be
equipped with automatic fire doors.
Where non-fireproof construction is used, inflammable parts of the
structure should be covered with fireproof material for a distance of at
BUILDINGS. 711
least 5 ft. on either side of the fire wall. This refers especially to over-
hanging roofs.
Where but a single house is needed, a width of from 30 to 40 ft. is
good practice.
When the amount of freight handled is sufficient to justify it, sepa-
rate houses for inbound and outbound freight are desirable. When these
are provided, the outbound house should be narrow, not more than 30 ft.
wide, and the inbound 40 to 70 ft. wide, it being considered expensive
operation where a house is in excess of 70 ft. in width.
A platform 8 to 10 ft. wide, along the track side of the house, avoids
the necessity of considering the location of doors in spotting cars on the
track next to the house, and also eliminates the necessity of keeping an
aisle-way inside the house on the track side. It should be at least 8 ft.
wide, to give sufficient room for two trucks to pass.
The distance from the center of the nearest track to the face of the
platform or freight house should not be less than 5 ft. 9 in. where tracks
are on tangent.
The top of rail should be 4 ft. below the floor or platform level at
the track edge, where refrigerator cars are not to be handled in any
quantity. With occasional refrigerator cars, the doors can be opened
before the cars are set.
Where refrigerator cars are to be handled regularly, the height
should not be more than 3 ft. 8 in., this conforming to the recommenda-
tions of the M. C. B. Association. (See Proceedings for 1911, Vol. 45,
page 728.) The alternative of spacing tracks at least 7 ft. from platforms
is usually expensive at important terminals.
The platform should be protected by an overhanging roof, not greater
than the width of the platform, and at least 10 ft. above the platform
level.
Where state laws permit, protection over the cars is often used.
This should be at least 17 ft. above the top of rail and should preferably
extend to within 18 in. of the middle of the car. This will allow walking
on the top of cars.
There should also be an overhanging roof or other protection on
the team side to protect goods while being unloaded, the overhang to be
at least 4 ft. and preferably more, 12 ft. being needed to give protection
from a driving rain.
Freight houses without outside platforms would seem desirable in
some localities, especially in northern climates, where there is consider-
able snow and sleet, as these houses can be entirely closed, except for
that part of the house where the freight is being received or loaded. At
some points where ample track room is not available, the elimination of
the outside platform gives better results.
With this type it is necessary to leave more trucking space inside the
house longitudinally the full length of the building. With the house
congested with freight, it is difficult to keep the aisleways from being
712 BUILDINGS.
crowded up so that it is almost impossible to get through with a truck
that is loaded with any large packages. This causes delay and confusion.
On the street side, the floor of the inbound house should be from
3 to 4 ft. above the street grade, depending on the type of trucks in use.
At the outbound house the height should not exceed 3 ft.
To assist truckers, the floor of the inbound house should be sloped
toward the street, approximately 1 in. in 8 ft., this being for the house
proper. An outside platform on the track side should slope approximately
1 in. toward the tracks for drainage.
For the outbound house, the floor should slope from the street to
the edge of the platform alongside the car not more than 1 in. in 8 ft.
Several kinds of doors are satisfactory, counterbalance lift (either
folding or not), rolling shutters and parallel sliding.
It is advantageous to have as much door opening on the team side as
possible, and with all types of doors except the last, all of the house can
be opened except for the space occupied by posts.
With the parallel sliding doors, not more than half of the space can
be opened up. They are all right on the track side.
Without the outside platform continuous doors should be used, so that
an opening can be obtained at any point opposite a car door.
Where an outside platform is provided, a door in each panel is suffi-
cient. Considering the average length of cars and economy in framing,
22 ft. is a good panel length.
It is advantageous to have the floor entirely free from posts; but
in houses approaching 50 ft. in width, the saving made by using posts
becomes considerable, and great enough to offset the advantages due to
their omission.
On account of light weight merchandise being piled high on trucks,
it is desirable to have the edge of the eaves at least 14 ft. above the level
of the driveway, where local conditions will permit.
As all freight trucked into the house and cars must pass through the
car door, the height of the freight-house door need be little greater than
the car door. All doors should be at least 8 ft. high. On the team
side a greater height might at times be convenient.
Natural light should preferably be provided in the sidewalls above
the doors. Skylights in the roof are expensive to maintain and inef-
fective, as is also glass in canopies or on any plane approaching the
horizontal.
Artificial light is needed for operation at night and during the late
afternoon in the winter, and, wherever possible, electricity should be used,
with wires run according to the specifications of the National Board of
Underwriters. One or more lines of lights should be run the full length,
inside the house, and one line over outside platforms.
Another circuit should be run along the face of the platform wall
parallel to the track, with outlet boxes not over 40 ft. on centers, with
socket arrangement for push plug for use in attaching an extension
BUILDINGS. 713
cord to hang inside the car to provide light for loading on dark days
and evenings during the winter season. The need of other outside lights
on the train side is questionable.
The type of lights will depend somewhat on the height of the ceiling.
All lights should be stationary and operated in circuits from conveniently
located panel-boards. The circuits should be carefully planned, .so as to
allow maximum economy in use of lights.
Where water pressure is available there should be provided for fight-
ing fire standpipes and hose racks not more than 150 ft. apart. By putting
them on the fire and end walls they are thought to be more accessible
and less liable to be blocked by freight than if located at other points,
but by putting them about 40 ft. from the end of each section, fewer
hose connections are necessary to cover the entire station. By putting
them 100 ft. apart, 50 ft. of hose will be sufficient for each connection,
more than this being somewhat inconvenient to handle. As there is
no heat in the house, the valve controlling the water supply should be
located below the frost line and controlled by a stem, with a hand wheel
above the floor. The valve should be located in a pit, so as to be readily
accessible for repair or renewal. It should be drained into the pit, and
this in turn be connected to the sewer. A 2^2-in. standpipe of wrought-
iron should be run up to approximately 8 ft. above the floor, and to this
should be attached a hose rack, equipped with 50 ft. of 2-in. rubber-lined
linen hose.
In houses where electricity is available, there should be over each
hose rack a small red light to designate the location of the fire-fighting
apparatus, this light to be kept burning at all times.
Chemical extinguishers should be provided in addition to the hose
and standpipes. As they are put out of service by freezing, some provi-
sion should be made for replacing them or keeping them warm. Tanks
containing a solution of calcium chloride are used successfully.
Where a watchman is needed, a watchman's clock system, with a
registering clock in the freight office and stations located at various
places throughout the freight houses, should be installed.
In outbound houses sufficient scales should be provided so that ail
the freight can be weighed. From 50 ft. to 80 ft. apart is good practice.
In inbound houses where little of the freight is weighed, scales should
be placed at least one in each section. The scales should have a mini-
mum capacity of four tons. A successful dial scale expedites the han-
dling of freight. Stalls for checkers should be located at least one in each
section. These should be approximately 4 ft. 6 in. by 4 ft. 6 in., with a
shelf along the back and drawers beneath. Sometimes they are left en-
tirely open in front, and sometimes are closed up, and heated, depending
on local conditions. Some roads make their checkers' stalls portable, so
as to allow them to be moved in case of a special congestion of freight
at certain points, but this is not ordinarily considered necessary.
In inbound houses a room should be provided to house "over, short
and damaged freight;" this be enclosed so that it can be kept locked.
714 BUILDINGS.
In large layouts, particularly where there is considerable transfer
business, a room should be provided for repairing broken packages, such
as crates, boxes, barrels, etc.
In large houses a separate office should be provided for the foreman.
If this can be an elevated structure, it will save floor space.
In large houses the general office for the clerks and the private
office for the agent should be provided by a second story over the inbound
house, and in the second story should also be a space for files and sta-
tionery cases, toilets and locker facilities for clerks. This all should as
far as possible be in view from the desks of the agent or chief clerk.
The cashier and his clerks should ordinarily be located on the first floor.
Where possible, it is preferable to have the clerks' and agent's offices,
the toilet room, etc., for the freight handlers and draymen, the room for
"over, short and damaged freight," and the cooperage" room for repairing
broken packages, etc., all in one section. In the larger terminals pro-
vision may be wanted to care for perishable freight, and when it is pro-
vided, it should also be located in this section.
The basement should house the heating plant, with room for coal,
and is sometimes a good place for toilets for the freight handlers and
draymen, and for locker and lunch rooms for the freight handlers.
Where both outbound and inbound houses are arranged in the same
layout, a transfer platform is usually included. One of the best designs
for covering these platforms in a butterfly shed, with the post located
in the center on the platform. Where this design is used, the platform
should not be less than 12 ft. wide, to provide room for trucks between
the posts and the cars.
For loading and unloading agricultural implements and other large,
bulky packages, platforms should be built, usually as extensions to the
inbound and outbound houses, with ramps on the ends of these platforms.
The extension platform should be at least 8 ft. wide and, if possible, 16 ft.
wide, especially if covered. A stub end track butting against a platform
with a ramp is valuable.
Where no gantry crane is provided in the freight yard, a stiff leg
or pillar crane should be provided on the end of the extension platform.
It is not good practice to put downspouts inside the house, and in
placing them outside they should be properly protected.
On the team side of all freight houses a fender should be provided
to protect the walls from the wagon wheels. A good type is one made
up of an 8-in. by 10-in. timber set on brackets, with a spacer or separator
to keep the timber approximately 2 in. away from the wall, so that dirt
will filter through and not collect on the fender.
In large cities it is frequently advisable to build the inbound houses
eight to ten stories high, using the ground floor for handling freight and
the balance of the structure for storage, to be leased to shippers. Most
of the material stored will not be affected by heat or cold, but provision
should be made for cold and warm storage where conditions warrant.
This report does not cover freight piers.
BUILDINGS. 715
FREIGHT HOUSE FLOORS.
The following report on shop floors contains detailed information
and diagrams applicable to freight house floors, and can be considered
as supplementary to the report of last year on that subject.
SHOP FLOORS.
The essential requirement of a shop floor is a good hard wearing
surface that is level, smooth, easy on the feet, easy to truck loads over
and capable of carrying heavy loads. Different typical types of con-
struction of shop floors are illustrated by the following diagrams :
Cinder or Gravel Floor.— Fig. i is a type of floor in general use,
one that is best adapted for blacksmith shops and foundries. It is made
by filling in the space between foundation walls, preferably with sand
or gravel, and bringing the filling up to the required grade, thoroughly
compacting it as it is placed. The filling should be well flooded, rolled
and tamped. A five to ten-ton roller should be used where possible.
The minimum depth of the finished floor should be 8 in. and if the
top surface of the ground is soft, it should be removed below this depth.
For a top wearing surface, hard screened cinders or stone screenings
should be used to a depth of about 2 in., and this should be thoroughly
wet down and rolled to a firm hard surface. Where clay is available it
often can, with advantage, be mixed with the top surface and rolled
into place. This makes a hard and more compact surface. Crude oil
also, when mixed with the top surface, tends to harden it, and helps to
prevent the wearing surface from becoming broken up.
This type of floor is often used where an inexpensive floor is re-
quired, or where on account of a heavy fill inside of foundation walls,
a more expensive floor would fail, on account of settlement.
This type is not well adapted for trucking, aod often an industrial
track about two feet wide with small push cars or a close-planked run-
way may be desirable where the most material has to be moved. Special
foundations are necessary for all machinery.
Plank Floor on Cinder or Gravel. — This type of floor, illustrated by
Fig. 2, is often found desirable where a heavy fill inside of foundation
walls is required, where settlement may occur, and where the type of floor
shown in Fig. 1 would not answer on account of the volume of trucking
required, or on account of the necessity of gathering up and saving scrap
material, as in a machine shop.
It consists of planking, spiked to sleepers resting on the filled ma-
terial between the foundation walls. The filling, preferably sand or gravel,
should be settled as mentioned in connection with Fig. 1, and should
be brought up to within 9 in. of the finished floor grade. On this should
be placed 6 in. of cinders, gravel, or other material of a porous nature,
in the top surface of which 4-in. by 6-in. sleepers are embodied, spaced
about 3 ft. centers. They should be laid with running broken joints.
716
BUILDINGS.
This makes a fairly good working surface, which will last at least four
years, at which time all settlement should have taken place in the filling,
and a better type of floor can be used. Long leaf yellow pine will last
longer than short leaf yellow pine, but will cost more. Fir and hemlock
will longer resist decay than will short leaf yellow pine, but they will
not wear as long, and are not as good as long leaf yellow pine. Special
care should be taken to have the sleepers and plank thoroughly seasoned.
For this reason it often is advantageous to get the lumber early on the
site of the work, stack it, and allow it to season. Additional life may
be obtained, if desired, by creosoting the sleepers, or both sleepers and
plank. A cinder bed under the sleepers will give a little longer life than
sand or gravel.
Special foundations are necessary for all machinery, and where jack-
ing is done.
Wood Block Floors. — Wood block floors shown in Fig. 3 are often
used, and have these advantages:
They can be easily repaired, are easy to work and truck on, and
do not damage falling tools. They need a concrete base to distribute
heavy loads which may bear on a few blocks only.
The filling between foundation walls is done as in Fig. 1, and
includes a 6-in. bed of compacted cinders. On the cinders is laid a 6-in.
Fig.
1 — Cinder or Gravel Floor, Especially Suitable for Blacksmith
Shop. Foundry and Boiler Shops.
course of 1 '.3:$ concrete. Steel reinforcement may often be placed in the
concrete to advantage, particularly over soft spots in the filling, or where
heavy loads are apt to be placed. The reinforcement should be placed
either near the top or bottom surface of the concrete, depending upon
local conditions. Sand should be spread over the concrete, and brought
with a board or template to a uniform thickness which, when compacted,
will amount to one inch.
On the sand bed place the wood blocks, which should be of an even
thickness of at least 4 in. The blocks should be cut across the grain
so that they can be laid with the ends of the fibre exposed to wear.
They should be uniform in width but may be variable in length, al-
though blocks of a uniform length can be laid quicker, and more
cheaply.
BUILDINGS.
717
Wood blocks should be creosoted, and can be made from any ma-
terial suitable for such treatment. Generally, however, the blocks are
of short leaf yellow pine, although long leaf yellow pine blocks give the
greatest wear.
The blocks should be laid with the fiber vertical, and with close
joints, with at least a two-inch lap. Expansion strips one inch in thick-
ness should be placed every 50 ft. across building and at the sides of the
building, or at any break in the floor surface. The blocks should be
tamped, or rolled to an even surface, joints filled to within one inch of
top surface with sand, and the balance of the joints filled with No. 2
street pitch. Immediately after placing the pitch there should be spread
hot dry sand or gravel over the blocks to take up surplus pitch.
Creosoted planks are sometimes used in place of the concrete base.
The resulting floor is not nearly as good as one with a concrete base, and
is generally equally costly.
Special concrete foundations are necessary for heavy machinery, but
for small machinery the foundations may be built up from the concrete
base of a size as may be required for the setting of the machine.
Scrap lumber (oak and yellow pine) is often used for shop floor
blocks. The mill can take cuttings and condemned lumber, and saw it
up at odd times. Consequently such blocks cost practically nothing
for material and very little for labor. Such floors are often laid di-
rectly on filling or on plank, but they do not last over 4 or 5 years,
and care must be taken to provide more expansion joints than with
creosoted blocks.
3' Plank S.1.S.ZE
Temporary Floor.
Fig. 2 — Plank Floor on Cinder or Gravel.
Hexagonal blocks are sometimes used. They should be not less than
5 in. nor more than 7 in. deep and all blocks for one job should be of
the same size. Blocks of this type have no particular advantage except
that they are more stable, as they have more friction on the side surfaces
and are not so easily tipped up at the corners.
A wood block floor with a concrete base is generally fully as ex-
pensive as any good type of floor, and often has to be relaid due to
buckling.
Asphalt Block Floors. — Asphalt blocks, about 4 in. by 12 in. by 4 in.,
are sometimes used to advantage, as they come on the job all ready, and
718
BUILDINGS.
can be laid like wood blocks or like brick. They do not need expansion
joints nor does the laying of them require any skilled supervision. They
do not heave, they stay smooth and wear slowly without chipping, except
that where there is continuous dripping of oil, as directly under a vise,
Fig. 3 — Wood Block Floor.
lpi!|j.iij1.iijMin: ,:': ja sh i' •■ >" T ~^wrr^.
they soften and wear faster than at other points. They can be more
easily taken up and repaired than other types.
PLANK FLOOR ON CONCRETE.
Fig. 4 shows a wooden floor with a concrete, base. It is a good
type of floor, as it gives a fine surface either to work on or to truck over.
However, it is expensive.
The filling and concrete base should be placed as for a wood block
floor, Fig. 3, except that in the top surface of the concrete there should
Fig. 4 — Floor on Concrete Base.
be embedded 4 in. by 6 in. creosoted sleepers. On these sleepers should
be laid 2-in. plank, dressed to even thickness and width. This should
be laid with running broken joints. On the planks should be laid a top
wearing surface of \yi by 2>lA D. & M. maple flooring with ends
matched, laid parallel to the direction of the maximum trucking, and with
BUILDINGS.
719
running broken joints. The flooring should be end matched and bored
for nailing, for which there is little, if any, extra cost. A square edged
floor may be used. It costs less, but is not quite so smooth, and will re-
quire attention to maintain a good surface. It is especially desirable that
the two inch plank should be thoroughly seasoned, and for this reason
it should be brought on the site of the work early, stacked, and allowed
to season.
This type of floor should ordinarily last from ten to twelve years, and
generally fails from dry rot to the sleepers and the underfloor. Addi-
tional life may be obtained by creosoting the sleepers and underfloor, and
by giving the top surface of the finished floor a good mopping of hot
linseed oil which also tends to lessen buckling.
Light machinery may be lag-screwed directly to this floor, and only
heavy machinery need be provided with special concrete foundations ex-
tending lower than the concrete subfloor.
Wood Floor Set in Tar Pitch. — Fig. 5 shows a wooden floor with
a concrete base, the wooden sub-floor being set in a top coat of pitch
t 'Plank SIS
J$'3q Maple Floor S 1. S. 2E-, Tongueddc, Grooved.
Fig. 5 — Tar-Rock Floor.
and sand, spread over the concrete. Either Portland cement concrete. or
a tar concrete can be used as a foundation. This is a more permanent
type of floor than that shown under Fig. 4, unless in the latter case
both the sleepers and the underplank be creosoted.
Where Portland cement concrete is used it should be laid as shown
in Fig. 4. Where the tar concrete is used, on the compacted filling be-
tween foundation walls there is laid 4 in. of coal-tar concrete. The
foundation for this concrete should consist of 4 or 6 in. of screened gravel
or crushed stone, none of which should exceed 2j^ in. in longest dimen-
sions or be less than J^-in. size, mixed with special subfloor tar (min-
imum amount stated below), so that it will compact under a roller af-
ter being spread evenly in place. It shall then be rolled until the stones
do not creep under the roller. The tar for this course may be heated to
not more than 200 degrees Fahrenheit, and in cold weather the stone
shall be slightly heated, so the tar will mix with the stone and the stone
spread evenly. The roller used for this work should weigh not less than
720 BUILDINGS.
300 lbs. to each foot in length. The amount of tar used in the founda-
tion shall not be less than :
6 gals, for each cu. yd. of 2J/2 in. to 1 in. crushed stone.
9 gals, for each cu. yd. of 2^2 in. to Y^ in. crushed stone.
7 gals, for each cu. yd. of coarse screened gravel.
10 gals, for each cu. yd. of fine screened gravel.
If the mixing is done with a machine, 25 per cent, less tar will be
required.
The top coat over the concrete should consist of a fine sand thor-
oughly mixed with specially prepared tar, in the proportion of not less
than 50 or more than 60 gallons of tar to each cubic yard of sand. The
sand should be thoroughly dry before mixing, and neither tar nor sand
should be hotter than 225 degrees Fahrenheit, when being mixed to-
gether. If they are hot enough so a thick white smoke arises from the
mixture, five gallons more of tar for each yard of sand should be re-
quired. This mixture should be spread evenly 1%. to ij^ in. (so it will
compact to i-in.) thick over the foundation, leveled with a straight edge
and followed closely with the plank.
The top coat mixture may be tested as follows :
If 10 to 20 cu. in. of the mixture at a temperature of 175 degrees
to 200 degrees Fahrenheit be placed in a tight vessel to a depth of not
less than 1 in. and "patted" it should be deemed that the mixture con-
tains sufficient tar if tar shows on the surface.
Two-in. plank should be laid on the soft material, and bedded on it by
hammering until the proper stability is obtained and the plank brought
to a proper level and toe-nailed together. If, after hammering any plank
is below the proper level, the plank should be taken up and more of
the top coat spread on.
In order to insure the use of seasoned plank, it is desirable that the
plank should be on the premises as long as practicable before being laid
and stacked so that they will have the best opportunity of seasoning, and
covered with boards to protect from rain. If green plank are used and
covered with a hardwood floor dry rot may result.
Cinders make a foundation in every way as good as stone, but they
require at least 15 gallons of this special tar to the cubic yard and far
more rolling to properly compact them.
Sand may also be used for the foundation, but at least 20 gallons of
tar will be required to each cubic yard, and different special tar must
be used. The sand will also need to be heated before the tar will mix
with it properly. If desired, either a cinder or sand foundation may be
compacted with a rammer instead of a roller.
Light machinery may be attached to this floor without additional
foundation, but for heavy machinery special concrete foundation will
have to be provided.
Concrete Floor.— Fig. 6 makes a cheap and fairly permanent
floor, is easy to truck over, is easily cleaned, is sanitary, and has the
BUILDINGS.
721
advantage that no special foundations have to be provided, except for
the heavier types of machinery. Light machinery is simply bolted to the
floor. Industrial tracks may be easily and cheaply installed in the floor
with the head of the rail flush with the top surface. This floor, how-
EXPAfl5/0/S JO/ATT^ Top Q(? WtAZlHOr 5uEFAC£r
Fig. 6 — Concrete Floor.
ever, easily damages falling tools, it is hard to work on, and quite easily
becomes worn in spots.
In making it, fill in as for the other types of floors and over the
filling spread about 6 in. of hard screened cinders properly compacted.
Then lay a concrete floor 7 in. thick of the same concrete proportions
given in connection with Figs. 3, 4 and 5, with the exception : that the
top or finished surface should be composed of one part Portland cement
and 1 to 2 parts torpedo sand, troweled smooth to a sidewalk finish before
the base has taken its initial set. Provision must be made for expansion
by putting in slabs not over 8 ft. by 16 ft. alternately with small V-joints.
Sometimes granite screenings are used instead of torpedo sand to give
additional wearing life. The cost is somewhat increased.
Top OS i^EM2l/*jSUeFAC^ySs.
Special top surface -7
Fig. 7— Special Surface on Concrete Floor.
Ordinary concrete floors are porous and constant wear results in
granulation and abrasion, starting holes which rapidly increase in size
and gradually make the floors useless. The heavy wear, trucking and
constant hard usage make them wear unevenly and break up.
Concrete Floor with Special Finish. — Fig. 7 shows a concrete floor
with a special top finish. It is designed to be more lasting than the usual
722
BUILDINGS.
concrete floor, as the special top is designed to stand harder wear, and to
keep floor surface from becoming rough.
There are several special materials on the market that are used for
the top finish which give good results.
The special surfaces generally consist of some mineral powder
mixed with other substances. When applied the particles of this powder
expand, filling the porous places in the concrete and gives a surface of
flint-like hardness, making a dustproof, wear-resisting and waterproof
floor. One advantage is that this topping can be applied after the base
is set without materially hurting its efficiency. These special top dress-
ings may also be used to advantage in patching old damaged concrete
floors without renewing them.
Asphalt Floor. — Fig. 8 is considered to be an ideal floor for shops, if
properly laid, with the correct materials and mixtures. Experienced super-
vision must be employed to get the best results. Similar floors are
still in service and in fair condition after having been laid 25 years.
// Pock Mastic FJoor ^
•■:••■■• ■ , ; ■■■;-■-■■■■■;■■,■■■■■";--■■-,■■■;■,■: -;Xy;-;
"5^ Rodded 'surface
_
*■•»'! * .,*
■*. ■.*-•»•• # •. . . *. 4 ••■*.' & Concrete ' " • • a.
". ' e ' la
Fig. 8— Rock Mastic Floor.
Floors of this type will outwear others several times. They give
the qualities which are desirable in a floor, and are without the objec-
tionable features which have been mentioned in connection with other
floors. They are easy to walk on and truck over, and the more the
traffic the more dense and durable they become. They do not grind
away material under truck traffic, they do not easily wear uneven, do not
easily crack or disintegrate, are noiseless and dustless, and can be kept
clean by broom or mop, or occasionally by flushing with a hose. They
are sanitary, water- and fireproof, and are easily repaired. The filling
and concrete subfloors are laid the same as for other types of floors.
The top of the concrete should be drawn out under a straight edge
struck off, but not troweled.
Mastic blocks should be delivered on the ground plainly marked with
name of the brand, and broken up before placed in the mastic boiler.
Asphalt flux should then be added and both allowed to cook, until the
mastic blocks are entirely melted. Washed torpedo gravel, torpedo sand,
crushed limestone or granite, in the proper percentage to give the re-
quired hardness, should then be added, and thoroughly mixed into the
BUILDINGS.
723
mass by iron stirring rods, and the temperature of the mixture brought
to 450 degrees Fahrenheit. The material must be constantly stirred to
prevent burning and then removed from the kettles in all-iron wheel-
barrows or oak buckets, and taken to the work as required.
The gravel or stone must be thoroughly dry before being put into
the mastic and should be clean, well-graded material, which contains
no particles larger than would pass through a J4-in. mesh.
Native bitumens do not give as good results as do the imported
mastics.
BRICK FLOOR.
Fig. 9 shows a brick floor with a concrete base. Such floors are
easily repaired, easily cleaned, sanitary, fairly cheap, but are hard to
truck over, hard for men to work on and hard on falling tools. The fill-
ing, concrete base and one-inch sand cushion are placed as for a wood-
block floor. Over this is laid the brick floor. The bricks should be
vitrified, repressed pavers laid edgeways and carefully tamped or rolled
Sonc/-\ Brick
dond-\ -OricH -—-?
. f 1 r—j r—n . r-7-jr r 1 1—1 Til ' A
1 1 I 1/1 I I I li 1 1 1 1 1 i i
_ — ^ — ^ — ? — j — ? — ^ — p—^ — p-^ — ( — p_£ — f —
Fig. 9 — Paving Brick Floor.
to insure an even top surface. The intervening space betwen bricks should
be filled with Portland cement and sand of a one-to-one mixture, and
poured as a thin grout, followed up with a stiffer mixture, and covered
over with sand. Expansion joints are necessary, as for creosoted blocks,
but the joints need not be so large.
Special foundations for machinery must be provided, as with a
creosoted block floor.
724 BUILDINGS.
CONCLUSIONS.
Your Committee recommends :
(i) That the report on Roofing be adopted and substituted for
the matter under that heading now appearing in the Manual.
(2) That the report on Freight House Design be adopted and sub-
stituted for the conclusions relating to inbound and outbound freight
houses now in the Manual (p. 395).
(3) That the report on Freight House Floors be approved for pub-
lication in the Manual. Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON BUILDINGS.
REPORT OF^COMMITTEE III— ON TIES.
L. A. Downs, Chairman; G. W. Merrell, Vice-Chair man;
A. M. Acheson, E. R. Lewis,
C. C. Albright, R. J. Parker,
H. W. Brown, J. G. Shillinger,
W. J. Burton, G. D. Swingly,
S. B. Clement, D. W. Thrower,
E. D. Jackson, H. S. Wilgus,
H. C. Landon, Louis Yager,
F. R. Layng, E. C. Young,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
The following subjects were assigned your Committee by the Board
of Direction :
(i) Report on the effect of design of tie plates and spikes on the
durability of ties.
(2) Continue study of stresses to which cross-ties are subjected, and
determine size required.
(3) Report on economy in labor and material effected through the
use of treated ties as compared with untreated.
(4) Continue to compile information as to the use of metal, com-
posite and concrete ties.
The work was divided into Sub-Committees as follows :
(1) R. J. Parker, Chairman;
W. J. Burton,
D. W. Thrower,
A. M. Acheson.
(2) C. C. Albright, Chairman;
H. S. Wilgus,
H. W. Brown,
H. C. Landon,
J. G. Shillinger.
(3) E. R. Lewis, Chairman;
W. A. Clark,
Louis Yager,
S. B. Clement.
(4) F. R. Layng, Chairman ;
E. D. Jackson,
G. W. Merrell,
E. C. Young.
725
726 TIES.
(i) THE EFFECT OF DESIGN OF TIE PLATES AND SPIKES
ON THE DURABILITY OF TIES.
Your Committee reports progress on this subject and submits its
partial report for the benefit of the Association.
There were 37 inquiries sent out to the principal railroads in the
United States asking the following information :
"(1) How long have you used tie plates?
"(2) Give briefly the dimensions of plates, and state whether they
are flat-bottom, longitudinal or cross-ribbed, etc.
"(3) Are your plates applied to ties primarily for the purpose of
prolonging the life of the tie, or are they applied to assist in holding gage?
"(4) What has been your experience with plates having longitudinal
ribs over 3/16-in. deep, with reference to tie failures?
"(5) What has been your experience with plates having cross-ribs or
claws over 3/16-in. deep with reference to tie failures?
"(6) What has been your experience with plates having longitudinal
ribs 3/16-in. or less with reference to tie failures?
"(7) What has been your experience with plates having cross-ribs
3/16-in. or less with reference to tie failures?
"(8) What has been your experience with flat-bottom plates with
reference to the mechanical wear of the tie? Has this wear, if any, been
on track having screw spikes?
"The following Committe report has been outlined and your criticism
of the same is requested. In making reply, kindly indicate wherever
statements are based on observation or information gathered from actual
experience :
"(a) Plates with deep ribs or claws cut the tie so as to admit moist-
ure and decay. The deep ribs or claws are not necessary to hold the
plate in position and are undesirable.
"(b) Flat-bottom plates used with cut spikes become loose and the
looseness results in mechanical wear of the tie. They are satisfactory
when used with screw spikes.
"(c) Plates with cross-ribs not over 3/16-in. deep do not seriously
damage the tie and at the same time do not become loose enough to rattle
and cause mechanical wear when used with ordinary cut spikes.
"(d) Plates less than 7 in. wide for use with softwood ties cut into
the tie sufficiently in some cases to determine the life of the tie.
"(e) The plates should be of sufficient thickness to avoid cupping
on either side of rail. This thickness depends on the projection beyond
the rail, the amount of traffic, the kind of tie and the rate of deterioration
from rust, etc.
"(f) Screw spikes prolong the life of ties over that obtained with
cut spikes.
"(g) Where treated ties are used, all boring should be done previ-
ous to treatment.
"(h) Ordinary driven cut spikes, by breaking down the structure of
the wood for an inch or so around the spike, facilitate decay at the point-
where greatest strength in the tie is required. In case of treated ties, this
introduction of decay below the treatment may defeat the purpose of the
treatment.
"(i) The breaking down of the structure of the wood, with the use
of cut spikes is, to a considerable extent, avoided where the spike is driven
TIES. 727
in a bored hole. Spikes so driven have at least the same holding power as
spikes driven without boring. Where spike holes are to be bored and cut
spikes used, the diamond-pointed cut spike is preferable, because of the
greater ease with which it follows the hole."
Of the 37 requests there were 29 replies received, and 27 of them
agree to the following ideas :
(a) Plates with deep ribs or claws cut the tie so as to admit mois-
ture and decay. The deep ribs or claws are not necessary to hold the
plate in position and are undesirable.
(b) Flat-bottom plates used with cut spikes become loose and the
looseness results in mechanical wear of the tie. They are satisfactory
when used with screw spikes.
(c) Plates with cross-ribs not over 3/16-in. deep or other independ-
ent fastenings that will hold them to the tie, do not seriously damage the
tie and at the same time do not become loose and cause mechanical wear
when used with ordinary cut spikes.
(d) The width of the tie plate is an element to determine the
mechanical wear of the tie, less than 7 in. wide, for use with softwood
ties cut into the tie sufficiently in some cases to determine the life of
the tie.
(e) The plates should be of sufficient thickness to avoid cupping
on either side of rail. This thickness depends on the projection beyond
the rail, the amount of traffic, the kind of tie and the rate of deteriora-
tion from rust, etc.
(f) Screw spikes prolong the life of ties over that obtained with
cut spikes.
(g) Where treated ties are used, all boring should preferably be
done previous to treatment.
(h) Ordinary driven cut spikes, by breaking down the structure of
the wood for an inch or so around the spike, facilitate decay at that
point where greatest strength of the tie is required. In the case of
treated ties, this introduction of decay below the treatment may defeat
the purpose of treatment.
(i) The breaking down of the structure of the wood, with the use
of cut spikes, is, to a considerable extent, avoided where the spike is
driven in a bored hole. Spikes so driven have at least the same holding
power as spikes driven without boring. Where spike holes are to be
bored and cut spikes used, the diamond-pointed cut spike is preferable,
because of the greater ease with which it follows the hole.
See Appendix A for report on "Comparative Holding Power of
Spikes, Chisel Point versus Diamond-Point."
See Appendix B for report on "Holding Power of Spikes, Cut Spikes
versus Screw Spikes."
See Appendix C showing photographs on effect of design of track
spikes and tie plates on the durability of ties.
728 TIES.
i
(3) ECONOMY IN LABOR AND MATERIAL EFFECTED
THROUGH THE USE OF TREATED TIES
COMPARED WITH UNTREATED TIES.
The information presented in the following report has been collected
from different parts of Canada and the United States.
Though possibly the latest, it is by no means the last word on the
comparative life and cost of treated and untreated ties. Since it depends
on the experience of the officers of railways in divers parts of this
continent, its results must be understood to be very general, and suitable
for use as guides only, in arriving at an estimated annual cost of ties
in any individual case.
It is evident that in every such problem local conditions must remain
the primary factors.
With the completion of the many well-ordered tests now instituted,
it is hoped that the zones of information may be so narrowed that fair
averages of tie-life and cost in any State may be made available within
the next two decades.
The ever-increasing demand for tie timber and the ever-decreasing
supply have created the necessity for treating timber not suitable for
ties in its natural state.
If the total annual cost to the railways of treated ties can be brought
within the annual cost of untreated ties, these timbers, hitherto unusable,
become of service.
The economy in labor resulting from use of treated as compared
with untreated ties depends largely on the cost and frequency of tie
renewals and therefore on the comparative life of the ties.
It is considered most desirable to present both labor and material
economies in cost per tie per annum.
The comparative life and cost of untreated and treated cross-ties
involve many variable factors.
Few American railways have used treated ties long enough to obtain
complete data on length of life, while records of life of untreated ties
are not all reliable.
The service life of ties depends on conditions under which the
timber is grown and manufactured as well as the conditions to which the
tie is subjected in the track.
The species of timber, the portion of the tree from which the tie
is cut, the season of the year when cut, the extent of curing, the method
of laying in track, the excellence of roadbed and ballast, the drainage, tie
plates, rail base, spike, splice, axleload, density of traffic and maintenance ;
— all these conditions have their individual effects. Treated ties are
further affected by the method and kind of treatment, variations in
TIES. 729
receptive qualities of different ties of the same kind of timber, and even
of individual ties from the same tree.
Climatic conditions exert powerful influence on tie-life, both before
and after cutting and before and after putting in track. The Northern
latitudes, where seasons of plant growth are short, winters long, and
altitudes high, make possible quite different results from those obtained
in Southern countries of low altitude and excessive humidity.
Numerous careful tests, now being made, will undoubtedly result in
the increase of valuable information along the lines of tie-cost and life.
EARLY HISTORY.
The wide differences in treatment and in traffic conditions in other
countries must be considered before applying to local problems the results
obtained abroad. Though the treatment of wood with preservatives was
in general practice in Europe earlier than in America, we have record
of several early experiments along this line in the United States.
In American Society of Civil Engineers Transactions, May 17, 1899,
W. W. Curtis reports as follows :
"A street railway in Cambridge, Mass., was laid with spruce stringers
and sleepers in 1855. In 1883, 28 years later, the stringers were all worn
out, but the President reported that 'many, and, I think, the majority of
the sleepers are in good condition to-day.'
"On the Vermont Central Railroad, ties were treated in 1856 to i860,
at which time the plant was abandoned and the entire matter lost sight
of until 1879, when an old sidetrack was removed, which had not been in
use for several years, and which was nearly covered with earth and grass ;
still the hemlock ties were then found to be nearly sound after over 20
years.
"On the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway eight spans of Howe-
truss bridges, built in i860, were still in use and in fair condition in 1882
On this road 2,000 ties of hemlock, pine, tamarack and cedar were laid
in 1866. In 1882 about 75 per cent, of the hemlock was still in the track
and good for several years longer ; the pine and cedar ties had all been re-
moved sometime during the 15 years — the tamarack lasting about as long
as the hemlock.
"On the Lehigh & Susquehanna Railroad, L. L. Buck reported in
1883 that he had examined Burnettized maple, beech and hemlock ties laid
in 1867-68, which had 'resisted decay almost perfectly. Most of the
treated ties appeared good for 7 or 8 years longer.'
"In 1891, 200 tamarack and 200 hemlock ties were treated for and
placed in the tracks of the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne & Chicago Railway.
Thomas Rodd, Chief Engineer, says of them (1898) :
" 'After these ties were put in the track we watched them pretty
carefully, and for about 3 years they cut rather more than an oak tie.
After that, however, they seemed to cut less than an oak tie, and are to-
day in good shape in our main track.'
"In the spring of 1898 two of these ties had decayed, and were re-
moved. An examination after removal satisfied Mr. Chanute that the
two ties were from dead trees, and their failure after 7 years' service he
attributes thereto."
We are indebted to W. F. Goltra, in his "History of Wood Pre-
servation," Proceedings American Wood Preservers' Association, 1913,
for the following information :
730 TIES.
"The invention of the steam locomotive and railway gave rise to the
necessity for protecting the wooden ties, or 'sleepers,' as they call them in
Europe, from decay. From this period may be reckoned the active prog-
ress in wood preservation. The treating of railway ties with a preserva-
tive of some kind increased rapidly, and very soon the quantity of wood
treated in the form of railway ties exceeded that used for all other pur-
poses. This ratio is constantly increasing, and at the present time per-
haps 90 per cent, of the wood treated in the United States consists of rail-
way ties.
"Inasmuch as the real active progress in the development of timber
preservation did not occur until the advent of railways, and the develop-
ment of the latter in America was contemporaneous with that of Euro-
pean countries, it may be said that the development of the wood-preserving
industry was contemporaneous in all countries. A good many experiments
were made in America, based largely, however, upon European experi-
ence, from which much data was obtained.
"The first recorded use of treated ties were some chestnut ties
treated with chloride of mercury (Kyan's process) and laid on the North-
ern Central of Maryland in 1838. Some oak ties treated by the same
process were laid in track of the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad in 1840.
Presumably both of these were trial lots to determine the value of the
process. It is recorded that these ties gave a service of twelve to fifteen
years.
"The first treating plant worthy of the name was probably that at
Lowell, Mass., built in the year 1848 by the proprietors of the locks and
canals at that point. The plant consisted of two wooden tanks, each 50
ft. long, 8 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep, in which the timber was immersed in
accordance with the Kyanizing process, using chloride of mercury. Chlo-
ride of zinc was also used in treating wood at this plant. It was here
used for bridge work in connection with canals and not with railroads.
This plant is still in use and is now owned by Otis Allen & Son, of
Lowell, Mass.
"The growth of the treating industry in the United States was slpw
during the following three or four decades, only a few small plants being
constructed.
"The Philadelphia, Washington & Baltimore Railroad and the Phila-
delphia & Reading Railway each built works to treat material with zinc
chloride and started to treat their ties, the former in 1863 and the latter
in 1867. They found that ties would last against decay, but 'were brittle
as a carrot,' caused, of course, by the solution used being too strong, so
that the ties were overtreated and had to be removed. However, they
were used as fence posts, and it is said they lasted a long time. It is not
definitely known what solution the Philadelphia, Washington & Baltimore
Railroad used, but that of the Philadelphia & Reading Railway is said
to have been 334 per cent, strong.
"The Louisville & Nashville Railroad built a treating plant at West
Pascagoula, La., in 1875-6. The plant was arranged to treat material by
the pressure process with creosote oil. It was built primarily to treat piles,
stringer caps and ties used in construction of trestles and docks. Creosote
timber was extensively used in the New Orleans, Mobile & Texas Rail-
road, extending from Mobile, Ala., to New Orleans, La., many important
structures having been built of creosote timber from 1876 to 1879. The
Louisville & Nashville Railroad acquired control of the road from Mobile
to New Orleans in 1880. In 1882 large quantities of creosote piles, string-
ers and caps were used in construction of trestles and docks of the Louis-
ville & Nashville lines in the city of Pensacola, Fla., and vicinity. The
earlier use of creosote piles was more for the purpose of protecting them
from attacks of sea-worms or toredo navalis.
TIES. 731
"However, in more recent years, large quantities of creosoted piles
and sawed timber have been used by the Louisville & Nashville lines
when not subject to attack of sea-worms and have been used mostly for
economical reasons.
"About 600 longleaf yellow pine ties, which were creosoted at this
plant and placed in the track in 1877-1878, remained in the track until
June, 1905. The amount of oil injected into these ties is not known, but it
is estimated at 15 to 18 lbs. per cu. ft. or 45 to 55 lbs. per tie.
"The Houston & Texas Central Railroad also built a treating plant
at Houston, Tex., in 1876, to treat piling and timbers generally with
creosote oil.
"It is not to be supposed that every experiment made in this new
field was a success. They were frequently dependent upon men without
much prior experience in this line, and who, to some extent, were feeling
their way. Neither was it known that, where zinc chloride was used suc-
cessfully in the case of bridge timber, that it could also be satisfactory
with cross-ties. It seemed to have been tried in some cases where there
was necessity of economy irrespective of other considerations, and failure
was not, therefore, a cause for surprise. In the majority of the earlier
trials, however, the results were favorable, so that about 1878 several other
railways made tests with treated cross-ties with such success that in 1885
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway erected a treating plant at Las
Vegas, N. M., and because of continuous operation of the same to 1906
may be considered the pioneer company in its line. It is true this plant
was built eleven years later than the Louisville & Nashville Railroad plant
at Pascagoula, but it should be borne in mind that this plant was not built
primarily for the treatment of railroad ties, as is the case with the Las
Vegas plant. The latter plant had two cylinders, and for some years all
the ties and timbers were treated by the zinc-tannin process, otherwise
known as the Wellhouse. In part of 1890 and all of 1891 and part of 1892
zinc chloride alone was used as a preservative, and from 1900 to date of
dismantling of the plant that treatment alone was used.
"The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe in 1897 made a contract with
the Texas Tie & Lumber Company of the Santa Fe to build a plant at
Somerville, Texas, for treatment of their ties with zinc chloride. A sec-
ond treating plant was also built by the Santa Fe at Bellemont, Ariz.,
in the same year.
"In 1886 the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway, which had previ-
ously tried the Burnettizing process without success, made a contract with
Card & Chanute (later the Chicago Tie Preserving Company) to treat a
specific number of hemlock and tamarack ties each year by the Wellhouse
process. So satisfied were they with the results that as each contract ex-
pired it was renewed from time to time with an increased quantity. Mr.
Octave Chanute figured up the average life of these ties treated at the
Chicago works by three different methods and found it to be 102-3 years.
"In 1887 the Southern Pacific (Atlantic System) began treating Texas
soft-pine ties at a leased plant, and in 1891 built one of their own at Hous-
ton, Texas. To this company's officials belongs the credit of being the
only road having complete record of service given by treated ties from
the start. Only the Burnettizing method has been used on that system.
So satisfactory were the results that the Pacific System of the same com-
pany erected a portable plant in Oregon in 1894 and since then have
treated practically all of the ties used on that part of the system.
"The heavy increase in cost of ties of durable quality caused several
of the western roads to begin the use of certain woods, the life of which
they knew to be very short, but which could be materially lengthened by
treatment. Many plants were therefore constructed, either owned by
732 TIES.
the railroads themselves or by private concerns who treated under
contract.
"In 1899 the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy built a plant at Sheridan,
Wyo., for treating lodge-pole pine ties from Wyoming and the Black
Hills. The Great Northern Railway built a plant at Kalispell, Mont., in
1901, for treating Montana pine, tamaracks, etc. The Missouri, Kansas &
Texas Railway built one at Greenville, Texas, in 1901, and the Mexican
Central Railway one at Aguas Calientes, Mexico, about the same time.
"At the end of the year 1903 there were 27 timber-treating plants in
the United States.
"Railroad ties constituted fully 90 per cent, of the total quantity of
material treated during that period, and fully 95 per cent, of the ties were
treated with chloride of zinc and the remaining 5 per cent, with creosote
oil. Some of these plants have since been dismantled or moved else-
where, such as the Las Vegas plant and the Bellemont, Ariz., plant of the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and the three portable plants of the South-
ern and Union Pacific railways.
"GROWTH OF THE INDUSTRY IN EUROPE AND AMERICA.
"The statistics of European railways relating to number of ties
treated from the beginning can only be found in the voluminous and
scattered records in various languages which are meager, and difficult to
obtain, and the author does not pretend that it is accurate, but it may
be of interest to the reader in comparing the figures with those given
later for the United States.
"The railway mileage of Europe, January 1, 1909, is reported as 195,-
521 miles. Of this mileage Germany stood first (34,743), followed in
their order by Russia (32,743), France (28,430), Austria-Hungary (24,-
261), United Kingdom (22,847), Italy (10,070), Spain (9,190), Sweden
(7.677), Norway (2,931). European railways use a large number of metal
ties and space their ties much farther apart than practiced in the United
States, so that there are not so many wooden ties used per mile for main-
tenance in Europe as in the United States.
"The number of wooden ties treated annually in Europe is about as
follows: Germany, 4,000,000; Russia, 2,600,000; France, 3,000,000; Aus-
tria-Hungary, 2,500,000; United Kingdom, 2,300,000; Italy, 1,000,000; all
other countries in Europe, 1,200,000; total, 16,600,000. Thus the total
quantity of ties treated annually in Europe is about one-half the number
treated in the United States during the past year or two.
"The total number of timber-treating plants in Europe is between 65
and 70. Approximately 85 per cent, of all wooden ties in use in Europe
are treated.
"In the United States the data is more copious and reliable. The
author has compiled the accompanying statement from various govern-
ment reports and publications. The steam railway mileage was obtained
from Interstate Commerce reports, the electric and street railway mileage
from the Electric Railway Journal of New York, for years 1900 to 1912,
inclusive ; previous to 1900 figures estimated by the author.
"The number of ties used by steam and electric railways was obtained
from Forest Service reports from year 1907 to 191 1; previous to 1907
from United States Census reports and estimated by the author. The
number of ties treated from 1907 to 191 1, inclusive, from Forest Service
reports, previous to 1907 from various publications and estimated by the
author. All figures for 1912 are estimated.
"The proportion which treated ties formed of the entire number pur-
chased is calculated and given for each year, also number of plants in
operation from i860 to 1912, inclusive, is stated.
TIES. 733
"Up to January i, 1900, approximately 15,000,000 ties were treated
in the United States, of which. about 14,500,000 were treated with chloride
of zinc and 500,000 with creosote oil.
"During the year 1903 the number of ties treated was 9,010,000, of
which 8,400,000 were treated with chloride of zinc and 610,000 with cre-
osote oil, and during the year 1905 approximately 14,890,000 ties were
treated, of which 13,420,000 were treated with chloride of zinc and 1,470,-
000, or about 10 per cent., with creosote oil.
"During 1907 and 1909 the largest number of plants were built in the
United States, being 12 in the former and 11 in the latter year.
"The proportion which treated ties form to the entire number used
has gradually increased from 1 per cent, in 1886 to 24 per cent, in 1912,
and we see no reason why these percentages should not increase from
year to year until the bulk of them receive a preservative treatment.
"Our supply of timber is fast diminishing. We are consuming it at
such a reckless rate that some of us may live to see a day of repentance.
Aside from the great economy effected by the use of treated ties and tim-
ber, there should be in all of us the spirit of patriotism, which will urge
us to husband the resources of our magnificent inheritance of forests."
C. T. Barnum, United States Forest Service, in a paper presented
before the Western Society of Engineers, October 6, 1909, entitled "Wood
Preservation from an Engineering Standpoint," says in part :
"The practice of preservative treatment will also create a new and
increasing market for many timbers not formerly used, and timber con-
sumers will more easily break away from their former custom of ad-
hering closely to a few well-known kinds and disregarding others which
may be equally as good in other respects, but lack durability. Moreover,
there will be an increasing realization that by the use of cheaper woods
properly treated with preservatives, as good or better results can be ob-
tained, together with the reduction of the annual cost. This last item,
the saving in dollars and cents, is the all-important factor of wood pres-
ervation. As soon as the consumer fully understands that his annual ex-
penses can be actually reduced by these methods, it is only natural to
conclude that a strong effort will be made for their adoption.
"Wood preservation is an exceedingly complex subject, and upon
considering it many problems arise for solution. There has been a great
deal of thought given to it, and it has undoubtedly made rapid strides
during the comparatively short time it has been practiced in this country.
Nevertheless, it is still far from being on a sound scientific basis. The
experiments that have been made show very clearly that each different
species of wood, and wood of the same species but differing in the char-
acter of growth present an entirely different set of problems. They differ
greatly in the receptibility of different preservatives and they differ in
the kind of preparation necessary for treatment and in their action in
contact with the preservative, and after. The kind and condition of wood
to be treated and the conditions under which it is to be used are very im-
portant factors in determining the kind of treatment that is best. The
effect of the preparation and of the preservative on the mechanical proper-
ties of the wood are also very important, and must be carefully considered
before any treatment is decided upon. Present practices are now largely
determined by the experience derived from preceding years rather than
an intimate knowledge of the theory of the subject. This latter feature,
however, is most important and is at the present time receiving much
deserved consideration.
"length of life.
"The length of life of treated timber, like the treatment, depends on
a variety of conditions. The kind of wood, kind of preservative used,
734 TIES
the kind of treatment given, and the conditions under which the treated
timber is used, all have an important bearing on the length of life. In the
Southern states, Louisiana and Texas particularly, a loblolly pine tie un-
treated will last little more than a year. Ties treated with zinc chloride
and placed in a track in the same locality have been removed in three
years on account of decay. The life of the same species of timber in one
section of the country will not be the same when exposed to the climatic
conditions in another section.
"The Forest Service has estimated that proper preservative treatment
will increase the life of ties over 200 per cent.
"economic considerations.
"It has been clearly demonstrated that the life of timber in many
situations has been increased at least twofold by the use of preservatives,
and often the increased life is very much greater. Suppose, for example,
that certain timbers put to a certain use will last 5 years without treat-
ment. Disregarding interest charges, it is therefore true that the cost
of treatment must be less than the additional cost of new timbers 5 years
later, plus the cost of their setting in order to effect a saving. In treat-
ing on a large scale the additional cost of any treatment now practiced
does not usually exceed the present purchase price of the timber. There-
fore, the saving means at the least the cost of resetting the timbers, plus
the advance in price of timber, over a period of 5 years.
"With railway ties a wide field for the betterment of conditions exists
in the more general introduction of preservative treatment. Formerly,
white oak was the most popular and widely used species for this purpose,
but in the past 10 years the cost of the oak tie has more than doubled,
and railroads have consequently been turning their attention to other
species. Thus loblolly and shortleaf pine in the South, hemlock and tam-
arack in the lake states, lodgepole pine and Engelman spruce in the West,
birch in Wisconsin and the New England region, and maple and beech in
Michigan, Pennsylvania, New York and Vermont, are gradually attaining
recognition and rarely fail, when properly protected from decay and me-
chanical wear, to give satisfactory results. For example, it has been esti-
mated by the Chicago & Northwesterji Railway that the cost of the average
untreated hemlock or tamarack cross-tie, when laid for use west of the
Mississippi, is 75 cents. The cost of a satisfactory impregnation with zinc
chloride is about 12 cents per tie, making the cost of the treated tie 87
cents.
"The annual charge on an untreated tie costing 7s cents is 16.8 cents.
For a treated tie costing 87 cents and lasting 6 years, the annual charge is
16.6 cents ; lasting 7 years, 14.5 cents; lasting 8 years, 12.8 cents, and 10
years, the estimated life of a treated tie, the annual charge is 10.7 cents.
These figures demonstrate that an added life of a single year make the
cost of treatment practicable and an added life of 5 years (a conservative
estimate) secures a saving of 36.3 per cent, in the annual charge.
"By proper preservative treatment and the prevailing rates of interest,
it can be conservatively estimated that the net annual saving for each form
treated would be about 3 cents for a tie.
"Wood preservation, then, accomplishes three great economic objects :
(1^ It prolongs the life of durable species in use; (2) it prolongs the life
of inferior and cheaper woods and thus enables the utilization of those
inferior woods which, without preservative treatment, would have little
or no value: and (3) it reduces the annual charge and renewal charges
whenever it is used enabling the money saved to be put to other uses."
TIES.
735
DISCUSSION. — BY OCTAVE CHANUTE.
"After an experience of some 24 years in the preservation of wood, I
will say that results depend largely upon the thoroughness with which the
work is done. When we began work along this line the results obtained
were not nearly as good as those we are obtaining^ to-day, simply because
we had not had the necessary experience. We followed at that time the
German practice of injecting about one-third of a pound of chloride of
zinc to the cubic foot of timber, and an average life of ny2 years was
obtained with hemlock and tamarack ties. Since then we have ascer-
tained that the Germans, in their extended experience, have increased the
dose to one-half pound of dry chloride of zinc to the cubic foot, and
with that we are now obtaining results (only 10 years old, however), which
promise a life of 14 to 17 years in the track.
"We also found that in the early days we treated the ties too soon,
and did not allow them to be sufficiently seasoned to become entirely
saturated throughout with the antiseptic treatment. I feel confident now,
with the knowledge we have acquired, that we are going to get results
with zinc-treated ties which will compare favorably with, although they
will not equal, the results to be obtained with creosote. If creosote be
thoroughly injected into wood with the full-cell process, the results which
have been obtained in Europe show that a life of 20 to 27 years can be
obtained. But there is one element there which does not obtain in this
country. The rolling stock on the European railroads is light, the weight
per wheel is limited to about 10,000 lbs., while the weight of our modern
freight cars is much greater ; for instance, a car weighing 49,000 lbs. and
carrying 100,000 lbs. will give wheel pressures of about 18,000 lbs. per
wheel. Those weights are all producing mechanical wear, so that the
ties, whether treated with zinc chloride or creosote, are going to be de-
stroyed by mechanical wear sooner than by decay. Therefore, the prob-
lem of preservation also brings up the problem of better track, which I
hope will be given due consideration by the engineers of railroads."
FOREIGN PRACTICE.
In a report presented to the American Society of Civil Engineers,
May 17, 1889, W. W. Curtis cites the following statistics of German
practice in railway tie preservation :
COSTS AND RESULTS OF WOOD PRESERVING FOR THE UNION OF GERMAN
RAILROADS FOR 1896
Cost
of
crude
tie
Treated with Chloride of Zinc
Treated with Tar Oil—
Creosoted
Kind
of tie
Absorp-
tion
in lbs.
Cost
of
treat-
ment
Total
cost
Average
dura-
tion
Cost
per
year
Absorp-
tion
in lbs.
Cost
of
treat-
ment
Total
cost
Average
dura-
tion
Cost
per
year
Oak...
Beech . .
Pine...
$1.49
1.01
.84
24.2
34
34
Cts.
13
15
16
$1.62
1.16
1.00
15
9
12
Ct3.
10.8
13.0
8.3
J15.4
\24.3
J66.0
\79.2
/50.6
\79.2
Cts.
21
29
50
59
43
57
$1.70
1.78
1.51
1.60
1.27
1.41
24
28
30
34
20
23
Cts.
7.1
6.3
5.0
4.7
6.3
6.1
This is based on a tie 6J in. by 10 is. by 8 ft. 10 in.
736
TIES.
In the "Organ of the Progress of Railroads," series 1897, published
in Wiesbaden, there is a table in which the average duration of various
ties on the German railroads is given for the zinc treatment and also
with tar oil (creosoted). These are:
Oak ties, treated w'ith zinc chloride, 15 years; with tar oil, 24 years.
Beech ties, treated with zinc chloride, 9 years ; with tar oil, 30 years.
Pine ties, treated with zinc chloride, 12 years; with tar oil, 20 years.
The contract prices in Germany for Burnettizing are: For pine and
beech, 5 cents per cu. ft, and for oak, 4 cents; for treating with zinc-
creosote, 6 cents for beech and pine, and 5 cents for oak; for creosoting,
15 cents for beech and pine, and 9 cents for oak. In creosoting, the
amount of creosote per cu. ft. is 12 lbs. for pine, 15 lbs, for beech, and
414 lbs. for oak. It is understood that the oak referred to corresponds
to American white oak and not to the American red and black oaks,
which will absorb as much as either pine or beech.
In conection with treatment, the ties can have the rail seat dressed
and the spike holes bored for about 3 cents per tie.
Below is an abstract of answers of British railways to Mr. Herzen-
stein in reply to inquiries concerning treatments and life of railway ties.
This abstract appears in Vol. XLV, June, 1901, Transactions of the
'American Society of Civil Engineers, in a report presented by Octave
Chanute.
TABLE 1
Railway
Belfast & N. Counties Creosoting 1 gal. per
No.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII. North London Ry
XIV. Southeastern Ry 97,000.
XV. TaffValeRy 17,000.
Number of
sleepers annually
renewed
Process of
Preserva-
tion
Amt.
Injected
1894
Report
Cost
Cts.
12
Ry
FurnessRy 40,000
Hall Barnoley Ry . . . . 4,000 to 24,000. .
Great Eastern Ry . . . . 90,000 to 100,000
Great Northern Ry
Great Southern & West-
ern Ry
London & Northwest-
ern Ry 300,000
London & Southwest-
ern Ry 170,000
London, Tilbury &
Southend Ry Variable
Manchester L.&L.Ry 20 per mile
Midland Ry
North British Ry .
cu. ft.
8 lbs. per
cu. ft
8 lbs. per
cu. ft. . . .
2J gal. per
tie
0.7 gal. per
cu. ft
3 i gal. per
tie
30 lbs. per
tie
2 J gal. per
tie
7 to 10 lbs.
percu.ft.
10 lbs. per
cu. ft.. .
1 gal. per
cu. ft. . .
28 lbs. per
tie
28 lbs. per
tie
1$ gals.per
cu. ft. . .
30
Life
in
yrs.
15
15
12-15
12
Cause
of
Failure
Splits
Wear
16-20 Wear
Wear and
12 Splits
25-30
16
Decay,
etc.
40%
decay
Wear
Natural
causes
TIES.
737
TABLE 2.— ABSTRACT OF ANSWERS OF FRENCH RAILWAYS TO
MR. HERZENSTEIN
Kind Process of Cost Life
of Preserva- Amount 1893, in Causesof
wood tion Injected Cts. years Failure
No.
XXVII.
Railway
State
Number
of ties
annually
renewed
161,213...
XXVII.
State
XXVIII.
Eastern
356,660. . .
XXIX.
XXX.
Meridional —
Southern
10%
284.511...
XXX.
Southern
XXXI.
285,000. . .
XXXI.
Northern
XXXII.
Western
242,050. . .
XXXII.
XXXIII.
Orleans
460,000. . .
XXXIII.
Orleans
XXXIV.
Paris, Lyon & 700,000. . .
Mediterranean
XXXIV.
Paris, Lyon &
Mediterranean
....,....:
Pine. Zinc Cre- 66 lbs. per
osote tie 10-15 Decay.
Oak.. Zinc Cre- 9 lbs. per
oscte tie
Beech Creosote.. 60 lbs. per
tie 42 25-30 Wear.
Oak . • None
Pine.. Sulphate 0.4 lb. dry
of Copper per cu. ft 8-10 Decay and wear.
Oak.. Creosote.. 9.5 lbs. per
tie 10-15 Since increased.
Oak.. Creosote.- 11 lbs. per
tie 11
Beech Blythe 24 lbs. per Going over to
Process., tie 21 straight creosot-
ing.
Oak.. Creosote.. 11-13 lbs.
per tie 15-20 Decay and splits.
Beech Creosote.. 31-33 lbs.
per tie 18-25 Now inject 44 lbs.
Oak. . Creosote.. 12 lbs. per
tie 15 Decay.
Pine.. Creosote.. 35-44 lbs.
per tie... 30 13-16 Decay.
Oak.. Creosote.. 10-11 lbs.
per tie... 12
Beech Creosote.. 26-35 lbs.
per tie...
12 Decay and cut-
ting.
18 Prior Now copies East-
to era.
1890
"Ties prepared by the zinc-creosote process, mostly pine, now last from
12 to 18 years, and creosoted ties, mostly oak, are expected to last from
24 to 28 years. In past time it was not always thus, some beech ties cre-
osoted having perished about as soon as some ties injected with chloride
of zinc alone, but the results developed upon the roads in Alsace-Lorraine,
where beech ties, creosoted by the French, were found to be sound after
21 years of exposure, have again brought the Germans to favor the use
of beech creosoted, there being a surplus of that timber, heretofore dis-
esteemed, in the forests of that country."
The prices paid in Germany for treatment, when reduced to American
currency, are shown in tables 3 and 4.
table 3.
With Zinc Chloride. With Zinc Creosote.
First Class. Second Class. First Class. Second Class.
Timber. Cents Per Tie. Cents Per Tie. Cents Per Tie. Cents Per Tie.
Pine 15.60 12.00 19.20 14-40
Oak 12.00 9.12 15.60 12.00
Beech 18.80 12.48 20.40 15.36
table 4.
With Creosote and Drying Oven. Boiling in Creosote.
First Class. Second Class. First Class. Second Class.
Timber. Cents Per Tie. Cents Per Tie. Cents Per Tie. Cents Per Tie.
Pine 53.76 40.32 56.64 42.00
Oak 26.85 20.16 28.80 21.60
Beech 56.64 42.00 59-28 44-40
738 TIES.
These prices are based upon the various amounts of the antiseptics
which the different woods absorb, with careful work. As already stated,
treatment with chloride of zinc alone has been given up, and boiling
in creosote is growing in favor, as computations of annual charges for
the renewals exhibit the fact that, notwithstanding the higher cost, im-
pregnation with tar-oil is the most economical, in the long run.
H. F. Weiss, in a paper printed in the Proceedings of the American
Wood Preservers' Association, 1913, page 80, table 3, shows the average
life of treated ties obtained in service on 100 railways in this and foreign
countries. From this table has been compiled the following list of average
treated tie life for the different countries:
Germany, Prussia and Austria 18.5 years
France 17-5 years
Great Britain 16.0 years
Switzerland 15-2 years
United States 12.4 years
Average life of treated tie, all countries 16.4 years
AMERICAN PRACTICE OF TIE TREATMENTS.
Of American practice in tie preservation, past, present and future,
much might be said about the exact commercialism of treatment processes.
It was early found undesirable to treat ties with a view to longest
obtainable life on account of mechanical wear.
It is likewise desirable to provide sufficient preservative to well out-
last the mechanical life of the average tie in order to take advantage of
that large percentage of ties which lasts longer than the average, due
to light traffic, light axleloads and sidetrack service.
A timely note of warning against under-treatment has been sounded
by F. J. Angier, Secretary American Wood Preservers' Association, in
which he says :
"It is the practice in this country to inject a minimum amount of
preservative, or at least to endeavor to inject just enough to counterbal-
ance the life of a tie from the standpoints of decay and mechanical wear.
It might prove, however, that we are making a mistake in treating with
'empty cell processes.' Thousands of ties are being treated with small
doses of creosote, in many instances ranging from 12 to 20 lbs. per tie,
with only a superficial penetration. With many inferior woods now being
used for cross-ties the heartwood remains practically untreated, and with
the more refractory woods even the sapwood is not entirely impregnated.
With such treatment are we not going to be very much disappointed in the
life obtained?"
Octave Chanute, in a paper presented before the American Society
of Civil Engineers (Vol. XLV, June, 1901), says on this subject:
"It appears that the Europeans are now getting a longer service out
of their ties than is obtained in the United States, Mr. Curtis having
shown in his paper read before this Society May 17, 1899, that an average
life of 10 to 12 years is being obtained by the use of zinc chloride in this
country. It would be possible to obtain a life of 15 to 30 years by the
use of creosote, but it will be seen from the figures given that this would
cost three to four times as much as zinc chloride. Thus, at present prices,
' TIES.
739
it would cost 45 cents each to creosote according to English practice, and
15 to 16 years' life would be obtained; it would cost about 85 cents each
to creosote after the best French or German practice, and 27 to 30 years'
life would be obtained in thoroughly-drained ballast; but it would not be
economical to spend such sums upon ties costing 20 to 40 cents each un-
treated, while it is economical to spend them upon ties costing from 90
cents to $1.50 each abroad.
"We must be content, therefore, either to allow our cheap ties to
decay in the good old way, or to adopt for the present some of the cheaper
and inferior methods which will produce shorter lives than obtained in
Europe."
In the past the American railways seem to have nearly doubled the
life of ties by preservative processes.
It is believed that the results obtainable from present practice will
not give such extended average life. The questions of what we want
and how we are to best get it with the materials at hand and the condi-
tions confronting us are only now in a fair way to be answered through
the experiments being made.
COST AND LIFE TABLES.
Information received from 16 principal railways of the United States
indicate actual costs of tie treatments to 1913 as follows :
Average Cost of Tie Treatment.
Zinc
Card
Creosote
Chloride
Zinc
Process
Ry.
Company
Creosote
Company
Chloride
Company
No.
Plant.
Contract.
Plant.
Contract.
Plant.
1
.283
2
.258
3
.310
4
.250
5
•324
6
.380'
7
•235
8
•235
9
.252
10
..., .
.112
11
•155
12
.150
13
.100
14
.100
15
• 1/5
16
■ I7t
Averages .276 .289 .104 .152 .175
The above costs include all labor, material, fuel, handling of ties at
plant and charges for interest and depreciation in the case of company
plants.
In obtaining the following figures, no reports were considered where
less than 40 per cent, of the original number had been renewed. To
extend the figures beyond the percentage reported renewed, it was
assumed that for the remaining percentage the renewals per year were
equal to the average renewals for the years reported.
740 TIES.
AVERAGE LIFE OF UNTREATED CROSS-TIES.
Deduced from "Statistics of Cross-Ties," p. 360, Vol. 12, Proceedings, A. R. E. A.
Percentage Computed
Year reported Average
Railroad Kind of ties Number State laid renewed Life of
and life 100%
C. I.&S Red and White Oak.. 55,500 Illinois 1899 55.3 at 10 yrs. 9.7 yrs.
C M.& St. P. . . Yellow Pine 7,500 Iowa 1900 41.8 at 10 " 11.1 "
C R I & P . White Oak 101,700 Texas 1903 92.9 at 7 " 6.1 "
D&I R Tamarack 7,500 Minnesota ... . 1902 73.6 at 8 " 7.8 "
Erie Oak 8,605 Ohio 1903 45.9 at 7 " 7.5 «
111. Cent . .. White Oak 351,600 Iowa 1899 49.5 at 11 " 11.2 "
LS&l'" White Oak 57,000 Michigan 1896 99.7 at 14 " 10.7 "
L &A White and Post Oak. 93,900 Louisiana 1903 55.3 at 7 " 7.1 "
L&N White Oak 24,920 Kentucky .... 1895 100.0 at 13 " 9.5 "
MH.&L Cvpress, R.&W. Oak 236,160 Arkansas 1905 69.9 at 5 " 4.3 "
M &0 Oak 646,631 Miss, and Ala. 1897 74.7 at 13 " 10.6 "
M&O" Pine 646,631 Miss, and Ala. 1897 56.5 at 13 " 12
N.Y.C.&H.R. White, Rockand Red 150,048 Penn 1901 2 100.0 at 8 " 5.9 *
Oak and Chestnut .
p & R White Oak 16,915 Penn 1901 93.8 at 9 " 7.5 "
P.&R Oak and Chestnut . . 5,760 Penn 1897 91.5 at 13 " 11 "
p.&R Chestnut 2,816 Penn 1903 83.5 at 7 " 6.4 "
Penn. Lines West White Oak 127,902 Ohio 1892 100.0 at 14 " 10 "
Average Life 8.7 yrs.
White Oak only 9.1 yrs.
The growing conservatism of engineers on the subject of the life of
untreated ties is noted in answers to inquiries along this line made in
1 91 3 as compared with answers from the same men in 191 1, from which
the above averages were deduced.
ANNUAL AND COMPARATIVE COSTS OF TIES.
The annual cost of tie maintenance for labor and material is the
governing consideration of the railway tie problem. Any change in the
prevailing practice must stand the test of monetary economy.
In a general consideration the increased cost of a treated tie is
justified when the annual cost of its maintenance in track does not exceed
the annual charge of the untreated tie.
The increased life of a treated tie naturally decreases the number
of annual renewals, resulting in a decreased labor charge and disturbance
to the track and ballast.
The item of decreased track disturbance has a value, an estimate of
which has been variously attempted (and by some, valued as high as
one-fourth the total cost of surfacing) without definite convincing results.
The determination of this factor is so much involved as to almost defy
a satisfactory solution ; so that it may properly be accounted as an un-
determined credit to the use of the treated tie.
The increased initial cost of a treated tie over an untreated tie raises
the question of interest charges on the additional expenditure for the
period of its life in track; and it is fair to assume that the ultimate
economy of treated tie use must cover this interest feature. Numerous
methods have been suggested for computing the resultant economy of
treated ties over untreated ties, arriving at capitalized values or annual
costs per tie. The accuracy of the monetary values arrived at may be
questionable ; but the results from a comparative standpoint have a direct
workable value.
TIES. 741
An accurate and interesting economic comparison of "Railway Ties
of Different Materials," by Neil N. Campbell, appearing in the Engineer-
ing News of September 22, 1910, is quoted below.
The variable factors of initial cost, treatment, labor, tie plates, life,
etc., may be considered in this method to obtain results that will dis-
close fairly the comparative economic features of the problem at hand.
Similarly the problem of the economic aspects of resorting to devices
for resisting mechanical wear, or increased cost of treatments to obtain
additional tie life may be studied.
"an economic comparison of railway ties of different materials.
"By Neil N. Campbell.
"The principal elements that must always be considered in determin-
ing the relative merits of different materials used as railway ties are: (1)
First cost; which should include the cost in forest, the freightage, han-
dling and distributing, and the cost of placing the tie in the track; (2)
life, that is, the time elapsing from the date when the tie is laid to the
time when it becomes necessary to renew it; (3) cost of renewals; (4)
rate of interest on money; (5) maintenance, or cost of repairs; (6) sal-
vage, or the scrap value of the tie at the close of its life of usefulness.
Since the cost of maintenance of ties is practically the same for all kinds,
it will be omitted in this consideration. The item of salvage is also ex-
tremely small and in most cases is zero or negative ; therefore, this also
will be omitted, leaving only four elements to be considered; (1) the first
cost; (2) life; (3) cost of renewals; (4) rate of interest.
"For example, let us consider two ties : a white oak tie, which costs
68 cents in the track and lasts nine years, and a pine tie, which costs
61.5 cents in the track and lasts six years. On the basis of capitalization,
that tie is considered cheapest which under present conditions will require
the least amount to install, and the least amount to be set aside at com-
pound interest to reproduce it forever. The capitalization is made up of :
(a) The first cost = C, (b) the amount at compound interest necessary
to produce in interest during the life of the tie its first cost = C1.
C
c =
(!+#)" -I
Total capitalization equals
C + <7 = (1)
in which n equals the years of life of the tie, and R equals the rate of
interest on money, taken as 4 per cent. Then the total capitalization is
as follows :
"White oak tie :
"Pine tie :
0.68(1 + .04)*
= $2,286
(1 + .o4)8 -1
0.615 (i + .04)e
$2-933
(1 + .04)9-
"On the basis of annual cost that tie is considered cheapest which
under present conditions shows the least annual cost. The annual cost
742 TIES.
being made up of : (a) The interest on first cost — I = CR; (b) the amount
that must be set aside annually at compound interest to provide for re-
newal at the expiration of the life of the tie =
CR
A=
(! + #)» -I
"Total annual cost =
CR (i+ R)"
l + A= (2)
"The annual cost of white oak tie =
0.68X.04O + .04)9
(i + .o4r-i
"The" annual cost of pine tie =
0.615 X0.04 (1 + .04)'
= $0,091
$0,117
(1 + .04)°- 1
"On the basis of equivalent cost, one tie is considered to cost the
same as another when the capitalization or annual cost of the one is
equal to the capitalization or annual cost of the other, or
C(i+R)« (i+7?)«i_t
C= X (3)
(i+tf)" -1 (1 + fl)"1
where C is the cost of a tie of n years' life, and C1 is the cost of a tie of
n1 years' life.
"Assuming a white oak tie that costs 68 cents in the track and lasts
nine years, to find what can be paid for a pine tie lasting six years to
show the same merit,
0.68 (1 + .04) 8 (1+.04)0— 1
c = X = $0,479
(i + .04)"-i (1 + .04)9
"From the foregoing consideration, we see that on the basis of capi-
talization the white oak tie is the more economical, requiring only $2,286
total capitalization, while the pine tie requires $2,933, showing an advan-
tage in favor of the white oak tie of $0,647. On the basis of annual cost
the same is true. The annual cost of the white oak tie being $0,091, while
that of the pine tie is $0,117, showing an advantage in favor of the white
oak tie of $0,026. Again, on the basis of equivalent cost we see that we
can only pay $0,479 for a pine tie lasting six years to show the same
merit as a white oak tie lasting nine years, and costing $0.68, while we
actually pay $0,615.
"Table 1 shows the average life and cost in track of the ties used
on representative railroads all over the United States, having a total mile-
age of 62,309 miles. It gives the kind of ties used, their average life,
their average cost in track, together with the comparative value of each
on the basis of capitalization, annual cost, and equivalent cost, using as a
basis for comparison a live white oak tie costing $0.68 in the track and last-
ing nine years. Ties which show an average life of a fraction of a year
in the computations were considered to have a life represented by the
nearest whole number of years.
"The figures in last column of this table indicate the order of merit
of the ties as shown by their capitalization and annual cost, regardless
of the kind of timber used or whether they were treated or untreated.
TIES. 743
"The lower line in the accompanying diagram represents graphically
what we can afford to pay for ties of different life to show the same
merit as a white oak tie costing $0.68 in the track and lasting nine years.
"Table 1 does not take into account the necessity of using tie-plates
on any of the ties, but with increase in traffic and heavier rolling stock
it becomes necessary to use tie-plates on all softwood ties on curves,
whether treated or untreated, and on hardwood ties which are treated.
The best practice also recommends that tie-plates should be used on all
softwood treated ties on tangent. If this is not done it is impossible to
obtain the full life of the ties, as they fail through mechanical wear be-
fore they lose their usefulness through decay. Assuming that a live white
oak tie will resist mechanical wear as long as it can resist decay, let us
compare with it a pine tie on which we have to use a tie-plate. The
white oak tie with life of nine years to cost $0.68; the pine tie with life of
six years to cost $0.615 ; tie-plates to cost 14 cents each and last for 20
years. Total capitalization of white oak tie (by formula 1) :
C(i+R)» 0.68(1 + .04)°
= = = $2,286
(i+R)n -1 (1 + .04)9— 1
"Total capitalization of pine tie equals :
"(a) First cost in track =C,= cost of pine tie to be renewed every
six years; $0.615 ; cost of two tie-plates to be renewed every 20 years.
$0.28; total, $0,895.
"(b) The amount at compound interest necessary to produce in
interest during the life of the tie its first cost :
C—T
= & =
"(c) The amount at compound interest necessary to produce in
interest during the life of the tie-plates their first cost:
T
"Total capitalization = C + C\ + & T=
C(i + i?)» T T
+
(i+R)" — 1 (1 +R)"— 1 (i+i?)"1— 1
where 7" = cost of tie-plates which last n1 years, n = life of tie, R =
rate of interest on money. Then total capitalization of pine tie =
0.895 (1 + .04) 6 28
(i + .o4)6-i (i + .o4)8-i
28
: $3448
(i + .o4r°-i
The annual cost of the live white oak tie (by formula 2),=
CR(i + R)" 0.68X04 ( 1 + .04)'
= = $0,091
(i+i?)»-i (I + .o4)8-i
The annual cost of the pine tie equals, (a) the interest on first cost=
CR, (b) the amount that must be set aside annually at compound interest
to provide for the renewal of the tie at the expiration of its life =
R (C—T)
A=
(i + R)»-i
744
TIES.
(c) the amount that must be set aside annually at compound interest
to provide for the renewal of the tie-plates at the expiration of their
life is
RT
Ai —
(i + tf)"1-!
Then the total annual cost =i + A-\-Ai =
CR(i+R)n TR
+
TR
(i + R)» — x (i+J?)"
o.8q5X.04(i + .04)<
i (i +7?)"1 —i
.28 X 04
(1 +.o4)«- 1
.28 X .04
f (1 + .04)20-
(i + .o4)'-i
= 0.138.
"From these examples we see that the white oak tie shows consider-
able advantage over the pine tie, requiring only $2,286 capitalization,
while the pine tie with a tie-plate requires $3-448- A similar advantage
is shown when the two are considered on the basis of annual cost. The
annual cost of the white oak tie being $0,091, against $0,138 for the pine
tie.
TABLE 1.— COMPARATIVE VALUES OF TIES OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS.
Average
Cost
Capital-
Annual
Equiv-
Order
Material
Treatment
life,
in
ization
cost
alent
of
years
track
cost
Merit
White Oak. ..
9.0
$0,680
$2. 28b
$0 091
$0,680
25
Other Oaks...
6.0
0.625
2.981
0.119
0.479
30
. . Zinc chloride
11.0
0.730
2.083
0.083
0.801
23
Other Oaks...
. . Creosote
15.0
0.827
1.860
0.074
1.017
15
6.0
0.615
2.933
0.117
0.479
29
Pine
. . Creosote
15.0
0.750
1.687
0.067
1.017
3
Pine
. . Zinc chloride
8.0
0.710
2.636
0.106
0.616
28
Cypress
10.0
0.540
1.664
0.066
0.742
2
17.5
0.950
1.952
0.078
1.112
19
. . Rueping
15.0
0.810
1.822
0.073
1.017
6
9.0
0.655
2.202
0 088
0.680
24
5.0
0.550
3.089
0.124
0.407
31
. . Rueping
15.0
0.810
1.822
0.073
1.017
7
. . Creosote
17.5
0.855
1.757
0.070
1.112
4
. . Rueping
15.0
0.810
1.822
0.073
1.017
8
Hemlock
. . Creosote
17.5
0.950
1.952
0.078
1.112
20
. . None
12.0
0.700
1.865
0.075
0.858
16
. . Rueping
17.0
0.860
1.767
0.071
1.112
5
. . Creosote
20.0
1.000
1.840
0.074
1.243
14
15.0
0.810
1.822
0.073
1.017
9
. . Creosote
17.5
0.950
1.952
0.078
1.112
22
4.0
0.550
3.787
0.151
0.330
32
. . Rueping
15.0
0.840
1 889
0.076
1.017
18
. . Creosote
17.5
0.950
1.952
0.078
1.112
21
15.0
0.810
1.822
0.073
1.017
10
4.0
0.550
3.787
0.151
0.330
33
. . Rueping
15.0
0.810
1.822
0.073
1.017
11
Birch
4.0
0.550
3.787
0.151
0.330
34
Birch
. . Rueping
15.0
0.810
1 822
0.073
1.017
12
20.0
0.600
1.104
0.044
1.243
1
10.0
0.850
2.620
0.105
0.742
27
Elm
15.0
0.810
1.822
0 073
1.017
13
7.0
0.620
2.582
0.104
0.549
26
Fir
. . Zinc chloride
15.0
0.830
1.867
0.075
1.017
17
TIES.
745
TABLE 2. -COMPARATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT TIES, USING TIE-PLATES.
Cost in
Average track Capitali- Annual Equiv- Order
Material Treatment life, including zation cost alent of
years two tie cost Merit
WhiteOak None
Other Oaks None
Other Oaks Zinc chloride
Other Oaks Creosote
Pine None
Pine Zinc chloride
Pine Creosote
Cypress None
Cypress Creosote
Cypress Rueping
Chestnut None
Gum None
Gum Rueping
Gum Creosote
Hemlock Rueping
Hemlock Creosote
Locust None
Locust Rueping
Locust Creosote
Tamarack Rueping
Beech None
Beech Rueping
Beech Creosote
Hickory Rueping
Hickory Creosote
Maple None
Maple Rueping
Birch None
Birch Rueping
Catalpa None
Redwood None
Elm Rueping
Fir None
Fir Zinc chloride
9.0
$0,680*
$2,286
$0,091
$0,680
7
6.0
0.625*
2.981
0.119
0.479
2«
11.0
1.010
2.598
0.104
0.801
25
15.0
1.107
2.375
0.095
1.017
18
6.0
0.895
3.448
0.138
0.479
31
8.0
0.990
3.151
0.126
0.616
30
15.0
1.030
2.202
0.088
1.017
4
10.0
0.820
2.179
0.087
0.742
2
17.5
1.230
2.467
0.099
1.112
21
15 0
1.090
2.337
0.093
1.017
8
9.0
0.655*
2.202
0.088
0.680
3
5.0
0.550*
3.089
0.124
0.407
27
15.0
1.090
2.337
0.093
1.017
9
17.5
1.135
2.272
0.091
1.112
5
15.0
1.090
2.337
0.093
1.017
10
17.5
1.230
2.467
0.099
1.112
22
12.0
0.980
2.370
0.095
0.858
17
17.0
1.040
2.282
0.091
1.112
6
20.0
1.280
2.355
0.094
1.243
16
15.0
1.090
2.337
0.093
1.017
12
4.0
0.550*
3.787
0.151
0.330
32
15.0
1.120
2.404
0.096
1.017
20
17.5
1.230
2.467
0.099
1.112
23
15.0
1.090
2.337
0.093
1.017
11
17.5
1.230
2.467
0.099
1.112
24
4.0
0.550*
3.787
0.151
0.330
33
15.0
1.090
2.337
0.093
1.017
13
4.0
0.550*
3.787
0.151
0.330
34
15.0
1.090
2.337
0.093
1.017
14
20.0
0.880
1.619
0.065
1.243
1
10.0
1.130
3.135
0.125
0.742
29
15.0
1.090
2.337
0.093
1.017
15
7.0
0.900
3.097
0.124
0.549
28
15.0
1.110
2.382
0.095
1.017
19
*
Tie-plate
NOTE-
s not used on these ties.
Tie-plates assumed to cost 14 cents eacl
u
$/Z)
a
RAW
,„
.--
-—
* " "
\&>
^^
~""
$40
,-
*•"'
,,
--'
10
„-'
-'
^
jj»<
-"■*
.,_
6 a /o /2
Life of TfG /r? fears.
/4
/€
m
zo
Diagram of Equivalent Cost of Ties of Different Length of Life.
The dotted curve shows the cost on the basis of a white oak tie costing
68 cents and lasting 9 years; interest at 4 per cent. The solid curve
shows the cost on the basis of a tie which costs $1.00 in the track and lasts
9 years; interest at 4 per cent.
"Table 2 shows the same data as in Table 1, except that in the com-
parison of the ties on the basis of capitalization and annual cost it was
considered necessary to use tie-plates on all ties excepting the white
746 TIES.
oak, other oaks, chestnut, gum, beech, birch, and maple, which are
untreated. In the case of these ties it was considered that they would
resist mechanical wear as long as they could resist decay.
"The figures in the last column of this table also represent the ties
in their order of merit, as shown by their capitalization and annual cost.
By comparing these figures with those in the last column of Table i
we see the effect upon the capitalization and annual cost of the tie, caused
by the use of tie-plates. In Table i, the white oak tie is No. 25 in order
of merit, while in Table 2 it jumps to No. 7. Again, the untreated pine
tie drops from No. 29 in Table 1 to No. 31 in Table 2, while the chestnut
jumps from No. 24 to No. 3. These figures show also the relative m'erit
of ties of the same kind which are treated with different treatments.
For example, in Table 1 the creosoted pine tie holds third place, the
pine tie treated with zinc chloride holds the twenty-eighth and the un-
treated pine tie holds the twenty-ninth place. In case of the creosoted
gum tie we find it occupies fourth place, the same tie treated with Rueping
process drops to the seventh place, while the untreated gum falls to the
thirty-first place."
COMPARISONS OF COST AND LIFE OF TREATED AND UNTREATED TIES.
The tabulated results of 90 answers from members of this Associa-
tion representing 230,000 miles of railway in the United States, Canada
and Mexico to inquiries from your Committee as to the comparative
cost and life of treated and untreated cross-ties, indicate that the average
life of untreated ties is 7.78 years; average cost, $0,761; the average
life of treated ties is 13.85 years; average cost, $1,031.
Information has also been obtained indicating that the average cost
of removing an old tie and installing a new tie is about $0.23.
There is, as before mentioned in this report, an undetermined factor
of cost incidental to tie changing due to the disturbance of ballast, and
consequently of the surface of the track. Whatever this cost may prove
to be, it is in inverse ratio to the life of the tie, and therefore least in
the tie of longest life. That this cost is considerable and deserving of
investigation there seems no doubt, and further consideration will be
given it.
So far as your Committee's investigation has proceeded, the com-
parison of the cost in labor and material of the use of treated and un-
treated ties favors the tie which is treated with a preservative of such
quantity and quality as to preserve the wood fiber against decay to the
limit of mechanical wear.
Among considerations favoring the use of treated ties may be
mentioned : the rapid and alarming disappearance of the available supply
of timbers suitable for use as untreated ties ; the possibility of using
available supplies of cheaper and so-called inferior timbers when chem-
ically treated; the decrease in cost over a term of years of total tie
renewals, owing to the reduced number of necessary tie renewals, and
of reduced cost of the labor of surfacing, tamping and replacing of ties,
fastenings and ballast resulting therefrom.
The growing realization of the desirability of adzing and boring
ties before treating and of obtaining more perfect drainage by boring
spike holes clear through the tie will tend to further increase tie life.
TIES.
747
It is believed to be feasible, with the formulas and facts here pre-
sented, for any intending user of cross-ties to calculate the comparative
cost of treated and untreated ties in any particular case; for instance:
Knowing the life and cost of an untreated tie and the estimated
life of a treated tie which the investigator contemplates using if an
ultimate economy will result; the cost of the treated tie may be ascer-
tained. Also, given the life and cost of the untreated tie and the cost
of the treated tie, the necessary economical life of the latter may be
calculated. Similar calculations are possible for comparisons of cost
and life of ties of any materials.
(4) THE USE OF METAL, COMPOSITE AND CONCRETE TIES.
As your Committee has stated before, it is building up a history of
cross-ties that will be good for reference to future generations and
making reports only on those ties that have been put in the track and
used by some steam or electric railroad.
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway:
R. J. Parker, General Superintendent, has furnished the Committee
the following information in. regard to substitute ties on their line:
Baird Railway Steel Tie. — Three of these ties were installed in
yard at Newton, Kan., on main track under heavy passenger and freight
service, rock ballast, ties 20 in. center to center. No detail plan of this
tie is available, but a sketch of the tie is shown in Fig. 1.
Baird Ste.eli_Tie:
riANur/WTuncD Bv
The Baird Railway Steles-Tie: Company
Kansas City.Mo.
Fig. 1.
Carnegie Steel Tie. — One set No. 8 switch-ties installed in main
track, Newton, Kan., April 22, 1913. Rock ballast, heavy passenger and
748
TIES.
Fig. 2 — Universal Metallic Tie, A., T. & S. F. Ry., Chicago.
Fig. 3— Universal Metallic Tie, A., T. & S. F. Ry., Chicago.
TIES. 749
freight service; also one set No. 10 switch-ties at Chanute, Kan., April
22, 191 3, main track, rock and gravel ballast, heavy passenger and freight
service. The set of ties at Chanute have held line and surface since
installed without any labor whatever. The set at Newton were recently
destroyed by a derailment and removed from the track.
Universal Metallic Tie (for design see Vol. 13, page 356). — This
company installed 83 Universal ties in main track, March, 1913, near
Chicago, 111. The ties were placed in rock and gravel ballast under
85-lb. rail, spaced 20 in. center to center, heavy passenger and freight
service. (Figs. 2 and 3.)
One hundred and six Universal ties were put in main track, April,
1913, in front of Florence, Kan., depot. The ties were placed in rock
ballast under 85-lb. rail, spaced 20 in. center to center, heavy passenger
and freight service.
The ties at Florence were first put in on single track, on a two-degree
curve, one per cent, grade, 12 in. stone ballast, this curve being at the
foot of a grade and traffic very fast in both directions. The wave motion
of the rail together with the vibration caused ballast to move out of the
channels and keep the shoulder loose, at the same time this wave motion
and vibration did not seem to affect the alinement or surface or riding,
but it did pound the ballast into the roadbed more than with wood ties
and then after the ballast was all worn smooth, we had trouble maintaining
alinement. The ties were taken out and placed in the eastbound main
track in front of the passenger station at Florence, Kan., where the wave
motion and vibration would not affect the ballast nor move it around
as in the place they were first inserted. This was done last April ; track
very carefully surfaced and tamped and they have not been disturbed
since, in fact we have no record of any work having been done on this
track since that time.
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad:
Jennings Combination Railroad Tie. — E. D. Jackson, Division En-
gineer: "On January 27, 1006, five of these ties were placed in the east-
bound main track just west of Ridley Street, Baltimore, Md. The ties
were removed from the track on August 8, 1908, and were not used again,"
(See Fig. 4 for a design of this tie.) The officers on the division on
which this test was made advise that they do not consider the construc-
tion of this tie would fulfill the requirements of ties in main track or
other frequently-used tracks. It is thought that they would buckle in the
center if laid on curves. It is also their judgment that these ties could
not be satisfactorily insulated.
For the information of the Association, the following, in regard to
the Jennings tie, is given. On February 4, 1913, House Joint Resolution
No. 393 was introduced by Representative W. J. Brown, Jr., of West
Virginia. This resolution directed the Interstate Commerce Commission
to investigate and report on the use of the Jennings Combination Rail-
road Tie upon railroads engaged in interstate commerce. For this purpose
the resolution provided that the Commission be authorized to employ
persons who are familiar with the subject, and use such of its own em-
ployes as are necessary to make a thorough investigation. In making
this investigation the Commission may make a practical test of said
appliance upon some railroad in the United States.
The resolution further provided that the Commission may at its dis-
cretion tabulate accidents upon railroads engaged in interstate commerce
750
TIES.
resulting from a spread of track, broken rail, and defective roadbed for
the period covering the last five years and to report to Congress the
number of persons killed or injured and the damage to property by
reason of defects herein above mentioned, etc.
In addition to directing the Commission to recommend legislation
and empowering them to issue subpoenas, administer oaths, etc., the
legislation carried with it an appropriation of $25,000. On February 4,
n Elevation
SECTION
y
JENNIN05 STEEL TIE.
Steel Shell- Wood Filler.
Fig. 4.
1913, this resolution was referred to the Committee on Interstate and
Foreign Commerce. The resolution is still with this committee.
Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad:
During the year 1913, this company has received 64,438 steel ties,
and 92,300 ties are still due on their 1913 order ; in addition to this, 3,200
ties of the same design as were installed by the Carnegie Steel Co., at
Atglen, Pa., on the Pennsylvania Railroad (see Fig. 9), have been received
but have not yet been put in the track. This company will continue to
use the steel tie almost exclusively on its main tracks from North Bessemer
to Conneaut Harbor.
Buffalo Creek Railroad:
S. M. Kielland, Engineer, reports that all of the 32 Corell ties in
their tracks have been removed during the past year. (See Vol. 14,
page 743)
Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg Railway:
E. F. Robinson, Chief Engineer : "No further information. Carnegie
ties at Colden, N. Y., are still in and giving satisfactory service."
TIES. 751
Chicago & Alton Railroad:
H. T. Douglas, Jr., Chief Engineer, advises that the 63 Simplex ties,
manufactured by the Chicago Steel Railway Tie Co., are still in the track
and are giving the highest degree of satisfaction. (See Vol. 14, page 745.)
Mr. Douglas further states that all of the Kimball ties which were
in their track at Lockport, 111., have been removed. These ties were put
in in October, 1905.
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad:
Geo. H. Bremner, Engineer, Illinois District, gives the following in-
formation: Universal Steel Ties (for design see Vol. 13, page 356).
"In March, 191 1, this company installed 100 ties manufactured by the
Universal Metallic Tie Co., Salt Lake City, in a running track at Chicago.
The ties were spaced 21-in. centers, gravel ballast, traffic — light freight.
Oak ties were used at the joints, as no steel ties were furnished for this
purpose. These ties are satisfactory and show no signs of wear. They
are corroding slightly, about iJ-4 in. below the top of the tie."
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Railway:
C. A. Paquette, Chief Engineer, Engineer Maintenance of Way, says
they have put in no additional substitute ties. The one mile of Carnegie
steel ties in westbound main track between Newpoint and Greensburg.
Ind., are still in and giving excellent service.
Cornwall & Lebanon Railroad:
Snyder Steel Tie (for design see Vol. 13, page 352). — Two hundred
of these ties were put in southbound main track near Mt. Gretna about
1907. A. D. Smith, President and General Superintendent, advises they
are still in the track and there has been very little change since last year's
report.
Duluth & Iron Range Railroad:
Two thousand Carnegie steel ties were put in their main track in
1905. These are still in the track and giving satisfactory service.
Duluth, Missabe & Northern Raihvay:
This road put in 22,400 Carnegie steel ties in the fall of 1908 and spring
of 909. Two miles were placed between Duluth and Proctor on double
track, one mile in each track, the remainder being placed about 50 miles
north of Duluth on double track, i1/, miles on each track. These ties
are giving excellent service.
Elgin, Joliet & Eastern Railway:
Bates Concrete Tie (for design see Vol 14, page 750). — Sixty-two
ties were installed in eastbound main track at Whiting, Ind., May 1, 1912.
A. Montzheimer says, "The Bates Concrete Ties are holding up in
good shape and as far as I can see are in as good condition as when
first installed." In regard to the insulation of this tie, F. B. Wiegand,
Signal Engineer, Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway, advises,
December 4th, as follows :
752 TIES.
"I made personal test of this tie on June 30th and at that time
we reported that we could not say whether or not the ties would be
satisfactory where track circuits are in operation, although we knew
there would be more leakage than where wooden ties were used, and
the length of track section for the same battery would therefore be
less with the reinforced concrete tie than with the wooden tie.
"Complete information could not be had at that time on account of
steel ties being in service adjacent to the concrete ties and the section
of track with the concrete ties not being insulated from the adjoining
section.
"After this test, Mr. Bates wished to have this section insulated and
a further test was made, after which we reported as follows :
"We had further test made but we could only determine with the
number of ties in service that the leakage would be materially higher
than with wooden ties and if ties are installed for test, we will without
doubt have to provide short track sections.
"On account of the leakage, Mr. Bates suggested enameling the
anchor plates. The following quotation is taken from his letter of
July 15th:
"'Mr. Buchanan will no doubt report to you many interesting dis-
coveries in this test, among them is one of most vital interest to myself
and that is the small leakage of current shown is due to the anchor plate
imbedded in the concrete for holding the rail; this seems to absorb the
current from the rail and distributes it through the concrete to the re-
inforcements; it is so slight, however, that if the anchor plate were
enameled this would provide sufficient non-conducting material to stop
this leakage. This discovery alone is certainly worth the time and energy
in the tests we have made. There is no doubt in my mind now that if
this tie stands the endurance of high speed (and I am sure it will) we are
in a fair way of having the railway tie problem solved.'
"In replying to this I wrote Mr. Bates the following:
" 'The tests showed that the leakage between rails would be materially
increased by replacing wooden ties with your ties and it will therefore be
necessary to reduce the length of track section.
" 'Enameling of the plates spoken of in your letter would certainly
not prove satisfactory for any length of time on account of the wear due
to the pressure of the ends of the hook bolts on the plates.'"
Carnegie Steel Ties. — During the past year this road put in 556 sets
of Carnegie steel switch-ties, making 710 sets in to date and further
they have in 12,150 Carnegie steel cross-ties, the first of which were put
in in 1907. These ties are giving satisfactory service.
Florida East Coast Railway:
This road intsalled 16 Percival concrete ties at St. Augustine, Fla.,
March, 1906, in their main track. These ties are giving good service.
Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio Railway:
D. K. Colburn, Assistant General Manager, furnishes the following
information :
Percival Concrete Ties (Vol. 11, page 894). — Ties at Edgewater,
Texas:
Test No. 1 — 50 ties installed in main track interspersed with ordinary
cypress ties, gravel ballast. These ties installed October 22, 1906. On
February 9, 1907, a wreck broke three ties, which were removed; at the
same time 14 other ties were badly disfigured. On January 28, 1908, it
TIES. 753
developed that 6 ties in addition to the 14 damaged by wreck had de-
veloped cracks, at which date 20 ties were renewed. Inspection of June,
1909, showed 4 ties were broken at or near the rail and 3 developed
slight cracks near the center.
The July, 191 1, report showed 2 more ties were broken and balance
developing cracks, and report of July, 1912, showed 3 more ties broken.
The report of July, 1913, shows 9 ties removed between January 1 1913,
and July 1, 1913.
Test No. 2 — 50 ties installed in main track, ties laid out of face,
gravel ballast. These ties were installed October 22, 1906. All reports
show these ties in good condition up to July, 1912, at which date one tie
was reported broken. The reports of July, 1913, shows the broken tie
as having been removed.
Test at Bayou Sale, La. — Fifty ties installed in main track, laid out
of face. These ties were installed January 20, 1910. To date there have
been no failures reported.
Hocking Valley Railway:
Sixteen ties manufactured by the International Steel Tie Co., Cleve-
land, Ohio, were placed in northbound freight track, Columbus, Ohio, in
191 1. Wm. Michel, Chief Engineer, says their ties are still in and they
expect to install a few more this year.
Lake Terminal Railroad (Lorain Steel Co.):
F. W. Waterman, Engineer, advises that he is using steel ties ex-
clusively for replacements and new work. During 1912 he used 23,000
Carnegie steel ties, M-21 section. (Figs. 5 and 6.)
M onongahela Connecting Railroad:
McCune Steel Tie. — This tie is the invention of Frank McCune,
General Manager, Monongahela Connecting Railroad. For design see
Fig. 7, and for photograph of ties in track see Fig. 8.
In the fall of 1905, Mr. McCune had 45 ties made of 3/16-in. plate
and placed in their tracks at Pittsburgh, Pa. The ties were part on
tangent and part on a 16-degree curve, grade 1 per cent., traffic extremely
heavy, over 100 trains and engines passing over them each day. These
ties were spaced 15 to a 30-ft. rail. As stated above they were made of
3/16-in. plate and were made by hand. Mr. McCune would have used
heavier material, but this was the limit they could work without special
machinery. Mr. McCune further states that the ties put in in 1905 were
defective before they were placed in the track, made so by constant
heating and bending in order to get them to shape because he had no
machinery to work with.
These ties were removed from the track at the end of two years,
but Mr. McCune says the test demonstrated that a tie of this design
made of material of sufficient thickness, say 5/16-in., would hold up under
almost any pressure. Such a tie would weigh 190 lbs. and is the tie
given in Fig. 8.
754
TIES.
Fig. s — Carnegie Steel Switch Ties, Lake Terminal Railroad,
Lorain, Ohio.
Fig. 6 — Carnegie Steel Ties, Lake Terminal Railroad, Lorain, Ohio.
£SL
Y^f^
^7
^7"
ELEVA TION
CLIP
©c CQ o
TOP
000
END VIEW.
£
\1
^
BOTTOM
'mcOUNE STEEL TIE
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8 — McCune Steel Tie, Monongahela Connecting Railroad,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
755
756
TIES.
Mr. McCune expects to have some ties of this heavier design made
and put in their track early next year, which ties it is proposed to press
cold, thus preserving the life of the steel to a greater extent.
New York Central & Hudson River Railroad:
Universal Metallic Tie (for design see Vol. 13, page 356). — On
February 10, 191 1, this company installed 99 Universal ties, manufactured
by the Universal Metallic Tie Co., Salt Lake City. The ties are in main
track under 100-lb. rail, spaced 18 to a rail, length (33 ft.) in stone
ballast, traffic heavy freight and express.
IOO LB. R.B.Rail
STEEL TIE
Carnegie steel Co.
Fig. 9t
The ties are insulated, insulation renewed October 29, 1912. The
blocks under the rail have never been renewed, but are decaying very fast.
G. W. Vaughan, Engineer Maintenance of Way, says the ties do not
hold well in the ballast and it is expensive to renew rail on them. He
states that the ties do not seem to have been affected as yet by salt
drippings from refrigerator cars.
TIES. 757
Pennsylvania Railroad:
Carnegie Steel Ties. — This company has installed, December i, 1913,
3,000 Carnegie steel ties of heavy design near Atglen, Pa., on their low-
grade freight line, eastbound main track. The ties are not insulated,
but the Carnegie Steel Company advise that they can be furnished
with insulation, a piece of fiber being placed under the plate, much the
same as is shown in the design of their M-21 tie. (For design of this
heavier tie see Fig. 9.)
These ties are placed in three sections of about 1,000 ties in each
section, spaced 18, 19 and 20 ties to a 33-ft. rail. Part are in cinder ballast
and part are in stone ballast. Your Sub-Committee inspected these ties.
In addition to the above they laid 8 sets of No. 8 turnouts in Pitcairn,
Pa., yard, two years ago and they have been giving satisfactory service.
Eight more sets have been ordered.
Mechling and Smith Steel Tie. — One hundred of these ties placed
in a running track in Brushton Yard (date installed not given). These
ties still in the track and giving satisfactory service.
Morgan Steel Tie. — This tie is manufactured by the Morgan Engin-
eering Co., Alliance, Ohio, and a test of same is being made at Atglen,
Pa. The ties are made from old rail by special machinery and a stretch
400 ft. long was laid about two years ago. A cross-section of this tie
is shown in Fig. 10, and a plan showing the general arrangement of the
ties in the track is shown in Fig. 11. No definite conclusion has been
reached as to their economy.
Snyder Steel Tie (for design see Vol. 13, page 352). --1,600 at Derry
Pa., and 966 at Conemaugh, Pa. These ties are still in the track and
there has been no change since our last report.
Pennsylvania Lines (Northwest System):
Champion Combination Concrete and Steel Tie. — This tie is manu-
factured by the Champion Steel Railway Tie Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. (For
design see Fig. 12 and photographs of the tie in the track are given in
Figs. 13, 14 and 15.)
Two hundred and three, of these ties were placed in the westbound
main passenger track December 1, 1913, near Emsworth, Pa. The ties
are on a curve of about 1 degree 30 min. They are insulated, being in
automatic limits and are placed out of face — spaced 19 to a 33-ft. rail —
100-lb. P. S. section, rock ballast.
The weight of the steel in this tie is 140 lbs., weight of concrete
approximately 460 lbs., total weight 600 lbs. As shown on the plan, the
tie is made of J4-in steel plate, and J. A. Hyle, the inventor, says the
concrete is a 1:3 :5 mix.
The fastening on this tie is of special interest. On top of the tie
is a plate 7 by 10^2 in. for intermediates and 7 by 13 in. for joint ties.
This plate may be rolled, but on the Emsworth ties it is made of cast
steel. The projections on this plate are so formed that they hold the rail
758
TIES.
- \
J
/
)
STEEL TIE
Morgan Engineering Co,
Aluiance, O.
Fig. io.
5TEEL TIE
Morgan Engineering Co.,
Alliance:, D .
Fig. ii.
TIES.
759
imX^
jxuJL=jh
In
np,aAsj,<!
^^^MmUMi^
e=
CD
Filled with Conohcte
Cast Steel[
Plate
Insulation
FLCW
7 ION
7
o
\^-S^-St^ap
Clip
Plate A
CHAMPION STEEL TIE
Placed in Pass en her Track
Eastern Div.-P.r~: H/OrC FtY.
West or Emswo rth. Pa.
Fig. 12.
Fig. T3 — Champion Steel Tie, Pennsylvania Lines, Emsworth, Pa.
760
TIES.
.-> -\ ir^K?
"T"
^;i«ii ivf - \ t ' ' - lyfl
■PS* JPll
:-4v- .-'■:■;'
41
■■■■ i
?13f5?!
Fig. 14— Hyle Steel-Concrete Tie, Pennsylvania Lines, Emsworth, Pa.
Fig. 15 — Champion Steel Tie, Pennsylvania Lines, Emsworth, Pa.
TIES.
761
clip at all times square with the tie, a very important feature. This
plate is insulated from the tie by a number of thicknesses of insulating
paper or fiber which the inventor thinks will act as a cushion in addition
to providing for the track circuits, the bolts are insulated where necessary
with thimbles or washers and the plate on the under side of the tie is
insulated with fiber or insulating felt.
It will be noticed that the bolts holding the plate under the top table
of the tie have the nut in a pocket in the concrete which permits the
bolt to be tightened from the top.
As noted above, a special plate is used at the joint. No special angle
bars are required and no change is made in the tie proper at the joints.
A member of the Sub-Committee inspected these ties in the track Decem-
ber 9, 1913, and he reports that this test is being watched with a great
deal of interest.
Fig. 16 — Reigler Concrete- Steel Tie, Pennsylvania Lines,
Emsworth, Pa.
Reigler Combined Steel and Concrete Tie (see Vol. 11, page 893
for design). — Fifteen of these ties were put in westbound main passenger
track, May, 1908, at Emsworth, Pa., where they are subject to very heavy
traffic. They are still in the track and giving satisfactory service with no
apparent depreciation. Fig 16 is a photograph of these ties after 5l/2
years' service. L. J. Reigler, Engineer, Pennsylvania Lines, the inventor
of this tie, believes they have still a long life ahead of them and it is of
interest to note that these ties are approaching the average life of wood
ties used under similar service.
Rohm Steel Tie (for design see Vol. 13, page 355). — Twelve of these
ties put in eastbound freight track June, 1910, Sewickley, Pa., are still in
the track.
762 TIES.
Universal Steel Tie (for design see Vol. 13, page 356). — Ninety-
eight of these ties were installed in eastbound main freight track near
Emsworth, Pa., December, 1910. They were all removed September 6,
1913, a number being broken under the rail seat. The ties were not
satisfactory.
On June 15, 1914, the Universal Metallic Tie Co. advised your Sub-
Committee that they had a report from the Pennsylvania Lines saying
that during the time these ties were in there was not any material dif-
ference in the line and surface of the steel-tie track and the adjoining
stretch of wood-tie track, and that the insulation did not give any trouble.
The appearance of the ties after they were removed from the track
indicates that they were too weak for the loads imposed. About 90 per
cent, of the ties developed cracks at the rail seat where the metal had
been punched upward to provide means for the rail fastening, and further
the bottom of the ties was considerably corroded.
Commenting on the report of the Pennsylvania Lines, B. S. Rupp,
Contracting Manager of the Universal Metallic Tie Co., says: "You
will notice that the ties are bent on the end, showing plainly, as we have
always contended, the ballasting had been done almost entirely on the
end of the tie. Had the tie been ballasted the same distance in from the
rail as it was out, the tie would not have bent up on the ends. I re-
ported this matter a number of times to the Section Foreman, as I could
plainly see the ballast was driven in from the end of the tie, and not
under the rail, and distributed on each side of the rail, as it should have
been. The' ties were put in the ground without any treatment, and as
the place where they were installed was rather low, the ballast was
nearly always wet and soft, consequently there would be some corrosion.
I had an experienced chemist and engineer look over the ties, make a
careful examination of the place they were installed, and they both
decided that some chemical action had taken place in the metal while
the ties were in the track or the metal had been burned while in the
course of construction."
Mr. Rupp concludes, "While perhaps there may be something in the
statement that the ties were made of too light material for the heavy
traffic of this road, we do not feel that this alone was responsible for
the condition of the ties when they were removed. There are a number
or roads that are now using our ties, which have as heavy equipment as the
Pennsylvania Lines, and while perhaps they are not running as many
trains, the ties have been in fully as long as on the Pennsylvania and are
yet in perfect condition."
The Sub-Committee wishes to call attention to the reports of other
roads in regard to this tie and suggests that they be considered carefully
in connection with the above. These reports will be found under the
following roads : A. T. & S. F., C. B. & Q., N. Y. C. & H. R. R., and
P. & L. E. R. R.
TIES. 763
Pennsylvania Lines (Southwest System):
Kimball Concrete Tie (For design see Vol. 14, page 760).— One tie
was installed in a slow-speed running track in Scully Yard, November 21,
191 1. This tie had prior to this been in the main track of the Pere Mar-
quette Railroad near Saginaw, Mich., having been put in in 1902 and taken
out and sent to Mr. Cushing for test in 191 1.
Mr. Cushing states that this tie is still in the track and in gjood
condition.
Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad:
Atwood Concrete Steel Tie (for design see Vol. 12, page 379)- —
J. A. Atwood, Chief Engineer, says the five ties of this design are still in
the track and that they are having 12 of these ties made on slightly differ-
ent lines and with a different rail fastening which were to be placed in
the track as soon as complete. No details of this revised tie were
furnished, but will try to get same for the next report.
Mr. Atwood says that the ties in the track have given first-class
service without expense, since being installed October 10, 1008.
Brukner Reinforced Concrete Tie (for photographs of this tie see
Vol. 13, page 358 and Vol. 14, page 761). — The Sub-Committee has no
report in regard to these ties since last year.
Carnegie Steel Ties, with wedge fastening (for design see Vol. 12,
page 375). — Six of these ties were placed in the track near the Terminal
Station, May, 1908. The Sub-Committee has no report on these ties this
year.
With bolt and clip fastening. — Three thousand of these ties laid
August, 1907, in westward freight track, McKees Rocks. The Sub-
Committee has no additional information on these ties. They are still
in the track.
International Steel Tie (for design and photographs see Vol. 12,
pp. 361-363). — Twenty-four of these ties were put in the track at Glass-
port, Pa. The Sub-Committee has no report on these ties this year.
Maxey Steel Tie. — This tie is manufactured by the United States
Steel Tie Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. No detail plans of this tie are available,
but photographs of same are shown in Figs. 17, 18 and 19.
Mr. Atwood says on Oct. 10, 1912, they installed 10 of these ties in
their westbound main track at Glassport, Pa., for experimental purposes.
He adds : "They have given good service during the 14H months they have
been in the track."
Universal Steel Tie (for design see Vol, 13, page 356). — One hun-
dred of these ties were placed in northbound main track near the Terminal
Station, Pittsburgh, Pa., February, 1911. The Sub-Committee has no
report on these ties this year.
Pittsburg, Shawmut & Northern Railway:
Seven hundred and ninety-five Carnegie ties installed in 1907. H. S.
Wilgus, Engineer Maintenance of Way, states they have nothing further
to advise in regard to these ties. They are still in the track.
r64
TIES.
Fig. 17 — Maxey Steel Tie, Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad.
Fig. 18 — Maxey Steel Tie, Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad.
Fig. 19 — Maxey Steel Tie, Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad.
TIES.
765
Union Railroad (Pittsburg, Pa.):
F. R. McFeaters, Superintendent, says they have, during the past year,
put in 46,654 steel cross-ties and 156 sets of steel switch-ties manufactured
by the Carnegie Steel Co.
Union Pacific Railroad:
Shane Steel Tie (for design see Fig. 20). — This tie is manufactured
by the Steel Railway Tie & Appliance Co., Denver, Colo. A. F. Vick Roy,
Superintendent, advises they placed 33 of these ties in their main track
at Denver, October 23, 1912. The ties are under 90-lb. rail, spaced 22
PATTERN N0.1
a'-o"
@
5^^
-7|-
i
PATTERN N0.2.
"SHANE" STEEL TIE.
MADE BY
THE STEEL RAILWAY TIE & APPLIANCE CO.
DENVER. COL.
Fig. 20.
NSULATIC
PATTERN NO. 2.. INSULATED
in. center to center, cinder ballast, heavy traffic. The ties have been very
satisfactory so far, but Mr. Vick Roy says in case of a broken rail it is a
very slow process to change out, account necessary to remove all fasteners
before rail can be removed.
Appendix A.
COMPARATIVE HOLDING POWER OF DIFFERENT POINTED
GOLDIE AND CUT SPIKES.
By H. B. MacFarland, Engineer Tests, Atchison, Topeka &
Santa Fe Railway System.
Object. — The object of this test was to determine the holding power
of different pointed Goldie and chisel-pointed cut spikes and the tearing
effect on the fiber due to driving the spike into the wood.
A particular object was to determine what taper of Goldie spike was
most advantageous.
The data were also obtained to determine if the Goldie spike should
not be adopted as standard instead of the chisel-pointed cut spike.
The general dimensions, and other detailed information in regard
to the spikes, are shown below :
End
Inches.
0.05 by 0.55
o.os by 0.55
0.06 Square
0.07 Square
0.25 Square
0.25 Square
0.25 Square
0.25 Square
0.25 Square
0.25 Square
0.25 Square
0.25 Square
Three pieces of 6 by 6 in. by 3^ ft., hard pine dimension lumber un-
treated were secured for test. Three ties, one 6% by &lA in. by 8 ft.
hewn hard pine, treated; one 6% by &l/2 in. by 8 ft. hewn red oak;
treated; and one 6$/$ by 8|4 in. by Sl/2 ft. hewn white oak, untreated,
were secured from Roadmaster Hansen to be used in this test.
. At the conclusion of tests on the above specimens, six additional
ties, two each of the above mentioned woods, were secured for further
tests.
The following photograph shows only one of each series of points
tested, the numbers under each one indicating the series to which they
belong.
Tests. — This test was made to determine only the relative holding
power of the different-shaped spikes in the same wood ; therefore, it
was considered sufficient to make the determinations using the standard
}i-'m. hole 4 in. deep. This was followed out with a few exceptions. In
case of the hard pine untreated dimension lumber a 2j4-in. hole was
766
Point
Length
No.
Point.
Inches.
1
Chisel
I.I
2
Chisel
1.1
3
Sharp
1.1
4
Sharp
1.0
5
Blunt
0.5
6
Blunt
0.5
7
Blunt
0.8
8
Blunt
0.8
9
Blunt
1-25
10
Blunt
1.15
11
Blunt
1.70
12
Blunt
1.60
Spike
Size of
Length Weight
Spike
Inches.
Grams.
Inches.
5.8o
260
o.57 by 0.56
5-75
260
0-57 by 0.57
570
250
o.57 by 0.57
575
251
0.57 by 0.56
5-35
255
0.58 by 0.56
5-30
252
0.58 by 0.56
5.60
254
0.58 by 0.57
540
251
0.57 by 0.57
5-35
249
0.57 by 0.58
5-45
249
0.58 by 0.57
5-30
224
0.57 by 0.57
545
242
0.57 by 0.57
TIES.
1 67
1 and 2.
3 and 4.
5 and 6.
7 and 8.
9 and 10.
11 and 12.
Photograph showing six different points used in this test. No. 1 is the
chisel point now commonly used; the other five were specially designed for
this test.
76:
TIES.
SPIKE HOLDING TEST
HARD PINE! -UNTREATED €>" X 6"
2» ■*• 6* 8» '<>• 12*
1 » 3* jy« 7* 9* //«
-Jfc-
■*J \*t"A
I * S* 9* 2* C* 10*
3» 70 /I* 4» 8* It*
/• s* 9» a* a* /9m
3* T //• -*• 8* '£»
h
^'
H h
3^-
H,q/?0 PiNEl - TREATED GROSS TiET.
/• J» ,5. 7» 3» //•
/2* /<?» B* 6* +« 2*
70» 2» 4t 6* a# /<>•
3»« '" 3. 7# J. 3* I*
8'
RED O^tf- T/PET^TEO CROSS TIE.
'• ^. *• 7. ••
-I M
^'
II"
.*>. V «*. Vf *«fc %J
' .,« ^ 7» a* „.
8'
IT
f^"
WHITE 0/7K- UHTFfE/lTED SWITCH TIEZ.
'• *. •»• r. 9«
«• «■• e* *• *'
-5* „• «• „.
a'/z'-
1W
t*^"
SPIKES
KIND.
NO.
POINT
NO.
POINT
LEN6TH
SIZE
LENGTH
-SIZE.
CHISEL
1
I.I"
.05"X .65"
2
/. /"
05"X.55"
SH/1 f?F>
3
l.l"
.06 " SQ.
4
1.0"
07" SQ.
BLUNT
S
0.5"
.25" . .
6
0.5"
.25" . .
..
7
0.8"
.23" .. .
e
0.8"
£5" .. .
,.
9
1.23"
.25" . .
10
1.15'
.23" .. .
It
1.70"
2.5'.. .
/2
i.eo"
.25" - .
TIES. 769
used in a few instances. In one series of special tests on the ties, the
spikes were driven without holes.
The spikes were marked at a point 4% in. from the end, as seen in
the preceding photograph, and driven to this line, thus each spike was
driven into the wood the same distance.
The spikes were spaced as shown in the preceding diagram, being
staggered so as to split the wood as little as possible. The points marked
iD, 3D, etc., show the spikes driven without holes, all the others having
been bored jHj-in. to a depth of 4 in. with the exceptions shown in data.
The spikes were pulled in the 100,000-lb. Riehle testing machine.
After pulling the spikes, the ties were sawed and split through the
spike hole so as to note the effect of the spike on the fiber. Photo-
graphs were taken of these splits and are shown on pp. 776-789 inclusive.
The holding power of the spikes as determined by the several tests
was as follows :
HARD PINE BLOCKS — UNTREATED.
— Load in Pounds —
No.
1st Block.
2d Block.
3d Block.
1
3,000
3,8oo
4,000
2
2,880
3,450
4,100
3
4,100
3,36o
3,520
4
2,840
3,300
3,500
5
3,170
4,000
3,66o
6
2,900
3,350
4,130
7
2,620
3,400
3,600
8
2,700
3,970
3,900
9
3,160
3,840
3,540
10
3,090
3,350
4,ioo
11
3,no
3,640
3,720
12
3,370
3,290
2,730
Note. — istBlock,
all holes 2^4 in. deep.
2d Block, odd holes 2J/2 in. deep ; even holes 4 in. deep.
3d Block, odd holes 2Y2 in. deep; even holes 4 in. deep.
TIES — FIRST SERIES.
Vz by 4 in. Bored Holes.
Load in Pounds to Start Spike.
Spike
Hard Pine
Red
Oak
White
No.
Treated.
Treated.
Oak.
I
II
1
2,840
4,040
3,86o
6,380
2
3,590
3,280
3,020
7,100
3
3,180
4,100
3,58o
6,720
4
2,950
3,930
3,390
6,340
5
3,330
4,590
4,100
7,43o
6
2,810
4,320
3,540
7,200
7
3,o8o
4,050
4,270
5,690
8
2,360
3,920
4,140
5,670
9
3J30
4,250
4,600
7,100
10
2,100
2,840
4,790
6,59o
11
3,450
3,890
4,660
6,130
12
1,920
3,40O
4,6io
6,440
770
TIES.
SPIKES
DRIVEN — NO HOLES.
iD
2,770
4,020
2D
3,350
3D
3,IOO
4,280
4D
3,250
5D
2,460
4,860
6D
3,460
7D
2,760
5,200
8D
3,390
9D
2,730
'. '. 5,680
ioD
2,820
nD
2,800
5,000
12D
4,000
TREATED HARD PINE TIE.
Y% by 4 in. Bored Holes.
— Load in ]
Dounds —
I
II*
No.
Start.
Pull.
Start.
Pull.
1
2,685
i,755
3,620
2,130
2
3,200
2,100
2,935
1,650
3
3,750
2,150
4,110
2,890
4
3,750
2,650
4,170
2,375
5
3,150
2,575
4,785
3,100
6
3,275
2,505
3,695
2,450
7
3,850
2,925
4,055
3,o6o
8
3,6o5
2,575
3,970
2,700
9
3,225
2,400
3,56o
2,050
10
3,100
1,850
3,885
4,595
11
3,675
2,000
3,890
2,225
12
3,125
1,600
4,290
2,490
TREATED RED OAK TIE.
Y% by 4 in. Bored Holes.
■ — Load in
Pounds —
I
II*
No.
Start.
Pull.
Start.
Pull.
1
6,125
4J75
4,970
2,975
2
5,275
3,090
6,000
4,430
3
7,800
4,875
6,655
3,875
4
6,175
3,850
7,465
5,5O0
5
6,940
4,400
6,875
4,750
6
6,300
3,950
7,6i5
5,37o
7
7,700
4,950
6,650
4,650
8
6,075
3,735
7,500
5,200
9
7,260
4,240
7,230
4,035
10
5,540
3,300
7,675
4,56o
11
8,190
3,965
6,945
4,775
12
5,5O0
3,125
6,805
4,250
*Average for two pulls.
TIES. 771
No.
i
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
io
ii
12
Spike
No.
i
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
io
ii
12
WHITE OAK TIE.
H by
4 in. Bored Holes.
— Load in
Pounds —
I
II*
Start.
Pull.
Start.
Pull.
5,835
3,750
4,855
2,950
5,665
3,250
4,405
2,875
6,370
4,525
5,575
3,300
5,980
3,625
6,100
3,400
6,136
4,250
4,700
3,000
5,66o
3,450
5,125
3,590
5,540
3,670
5,190
3,450
5,495
3,535
5,950
4,000
5,5io
3,120
5,070
3,020
5,855
2,920
3,925
2,400
5,830
3,135
6,170
3,350
6,655
3,465
5,325
3,400
TREATED HARD PINE
TIE.
Spikes
Driven — No Holes.
— Load in
Pounds —
I
II
Start.
Pull.
Start.
Pull.
1,800
1,300
2,500
1,750
2,000
1,200
2,000
1,100
2,500
1,600
3,830
2,450
2,500
1,600
2,930
2,220
2,100
1,600
3,6oo
2,650
2,660
2,000
2,250
1,800
2,200
1,500
3,450
2,70O
2,200
1,300
2,269
1,500
2,400
1,600
2,920
2,250
2,150
1,600
2,570
1,500
2,100
1,500
4,120
2,40O
2,150
i,350
2,720
1,700
TREATED RED OAK TIE.
Spikes Driven — No Holes.
— Load in
Pounds —
Spike
I
II
No.
Start.
Pull.
Start.
Pull.
1
5,30o
3,300
4,850
3,150
2
5,220
3,100
5,750
3,420
3
5,050
3,900
6,850
4,600
4
5,300
3,50O
6,670
4,800
5
5,7O0
3,90o
5,830
4,500
6
5,70o
4,450
5,900
4,000
7
5,58o
4,200
6,060
4,400
8
5,670
4,5O0
5,6oo
3,950
9
4,670
2,830
5,100
2,800
10
5,200
3,48o
4,400
3,000
11
5,56o
3,300
6,500
3,200
12
6,610
3,800
5,750
3,000
*Average for two pulls.
772 TIES.
WHITE OAK TIE
Spik<
is Driven — No
— Load in
Holes.
Pounds —
Spike
I
II
No.
Start.
Pull.
Start.
Pull.
i
3,88o
2,500
4,650
2,850
2
3,690
2,870
1,770
1,260
3
3,S8o
2,200
3,750
2,600
4
2,630
1,200
1,900
1,000
5
3,88o
2,200
3,050
2,550
6
2,75o
1,600
1,850
1,200
7
3,900
2,350
2,150
1,770
8
2,520
1,000
3,000
2,450
9
3,78o
1,760
1,700
1,000
10
2,900
i,55o
2,550
1,840
ii
3,o6o
1,500
3,500
1,950
12
3,050
1,500
2,360
1,400
Note. — End of tie badly checked.
AVERAGE HOLDING POWER FOR DIFFERENT WOODS — TIES.
Force to Withdraw — Pounds — % by 4 in. Holes.
Hard
Pine
Red
Oak
White Oak
Treated
Treated
Untreated
Spike.
Start.
Pull.
Start.
Pull.
Start.
Pull.
1 & 2
3,140
1,910
4,810
3,670
5,570
3,200
3 & 4
3,77o
2,520
5,940
4,525
5,995
3,7io
5 & 6
3,590
2,660
5,9io
4,590
5,250
3,570
7 & 8
3,630
2,815
6,000
4,640
5,640
3,665
9 & 10
3,3io
2,210
5,995
4,090
5,46o
2,865
11 & 12
3,100
1,970
5,870
4,oi5
6,100
3,200
Force
to Withdraw
■ — Pounds
— No Holes.
1 & 2
2,215
i,340
4,900
3,240
3,6oo
2,370
3 & 4
2,975
1,970
5,430
4,200
3,230
i,75o
5 & 6
2,615
2,010
5,320
4,210
3,280
1,890
7 & 8
2,575
i,750
5,260
4,240
3,36o
2,120
9 & 10
2,560
1,740
4,440
3,030
3,330
1,560
11 & 12
2,780
1,740
5,690
3,320
3,395
i,590
AVERAGE HOLDING POWER FOR ALL TIES TESTED.
Force to Withdraw — Pounds.
H by 4 in.
Holes
No
Holes
Start.
Pull.
Start.
Pull.
I & 2
4,590
2,920
3,570
2,315
3 & 4
5,30o
3,59o
3,870
2,640
5 & 6
5,020
3,6i5
3,740
2,700
7 & 8
5,160
3,700
3,730
2,710
9 & 10
5,oio
3,040
3,440
2,090
:i & 12
5,no
3,o8o
3,950
2,550
Hard Pine. Treated. Size, 6'4 by 8% in. by 8 ft.
Photograph showing rings and depth of crecsote in hard pin ■ treated tie.
Cracks are due to driving spike.
'- s*" ^mHHHVH
Red Oak Tie, Treated. Size, 6% by Sy2 in. by S ft.
Photograph showing rings of red oak treated tie used in test. Xote
774
TIES.
White Oak Tie, Untreated. Size, 6% by 8% in. by 8y2 ft.
Photograph showing the rings of white oak untreated tie used in test.
Note checks all around. The two vertical cracks are due to spike holes.
TIES.
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TIES. 789
Discussion. — The average values for all pulls made from Y% by 4-in.
bored holes in all pine, red and white oak ties treated, shows the fol-
lowing order:
Spike Designation Pounds
Number. Point. Start. Pull.
3 & 4 i-in. sharp 5,300 3,59<>
7 & 8 24-in. blunt 5,160 3,700
11 & 12 i^-in. blunt 5,110 3,080
5 & 6 J^-in. blunt 5,020 3,615
9 & 10 i}4-in. blunt 5,010 3,040
1 & 2 i-in. chisel 4,590 2,920
And the following order for tons holding power per ton of metal :
Pounds
Start. Pull.
3 & 4 i-in. sharp 9,5Io 6,440
11 & 12 i^-in. blunt 9,400 5,670
9 & 10 iJ4-in. blunt 8,870 5,370
7 & 8 M-in. blunt 8,700 6,310
5 & 6 ^4-in. blunt 8,450 6,060
1 & 2 i-in. chisel 8,020 5,110
The columns headed "start" show the initial force required to over-
come all resistances and start the spike, while those headed "pull" show
the average resistance of each spike after it has been started and is being
drawn from the hole.
In both of the above tables the spikes are ranked upon their relative
resistance to the initial pull or start. The ranking order of the different
spikes based upon the average resistance after the initial start, however,
would be slightly different, but is consistent in that it shows the chisel-
pointed spike inferior to all the others tested.
Conclusions. — These data show that the holding power of the i-in.
chisel-pointed spike is but 86.7 per cent, that of the i-in. sharp Goldie
pointed spike, and from 1 to 10 per cent, below that of the special blunt-
pointed spikes tested.
The photographs show that the injury done to the fiber of the wood
is maximum with the chisel-pointed spike and a minimum with the sharp-
pointed spike.
It is also greatly diminished with the blunt-pointed spikes.
The chisel-pointed spike is harder to drive straight than the others,
where tie plates are not used.
There is little apparent difference in holding power of the four
forms of blunt-pointed spikes tested. The pull required to start the
different spikes varied less than 3 per cent.
These data substantiate results reported under test No. 84077, Spike
Test — Softwood Ties, and further show that the conclusions drawn are
equally applicable to the hardwoods generally used for track ties.
These conclusions were briefly as follows :
1. The Goldie spike is superior to the chisel-pointed spike not only
in holding power, but on account of better alinement in the hole.
2. Better holding power and less tendency to break down the wood
fiber are obtained with spikes inserted in bored holes.
Appendix B.
HOLDING POWER OF CUT AND SCREW SPIKES.
By H. B. MacFarland, Engineer of Tests, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway System.
Object. — The object of this test was to determine:
(i) The holding power of common cut spikes and screw spikes in
different kinds of wood.
(2) The relative holding power and modulus of rupture of the
various kinds of wood.
(3) Their compression strength.
Material. — Nine different kinds of ties were received for test, as
follows :
3 Longleaf pine,
3 Shortleaf pine;
3 Red oak;
3 Red gum,
3 Douglas fir,
3 Balsam,
3 New Mexico pine,
2 Japanese oak,
2 Ohia.
They were cut in two lengthwise to aid in handling.
The Japanese oak and ohia were sawed ties. All others were hewn.
These two ties were so hard that spikes could not be screwed into a
5^-in. hole.
WEIGHT OF TIES
Weight
Kind of Wood Tie No. 1 Tie No. 2 Tie No. 3 per
cu. ft.
Longleaf pine 156 lbs., 7oz. 156 lbs., 10 oz. 124 lbs., 3 oz. 41.1 lbs.
Shortleaf pine 110 " 7 " 98 " 3 " 103 " 7 " 41.0 "
Red oak 147 " 14 " 145 " 8 " 162 " 6 " 62.0 "
Red gum 145 " 4 " 136 " 12 " 138 " 0 " 43.5 "
Douglas fir Ill " 1 " 143 " 8 " 124 " 1 " 30.7 "
Balsam 105 " 3 " 107 " 5 " 107 " 14 " 30.3 "
New Mexico pine 136 " 7 " 134 " 0 *' 152 " 0 " 29.9 "
Japanese oak 118 " 9 " 124 " 5 " 46.2 "
Ohia 125 " 8 " 108 " 14 " 47.3 "
The common spikes used were the 5^-in. cut spike, which weighed
9JA ounces each, or 169 spikes per 100 lbs.
The screw spikes were the J^-in. rolled V-thread with j4-in. pitch.
Diameter at bottom of thread was ^j-in. Their weight was 19 ounces
each, or 84 spikes per 100 lbs. All ties thoroughly seasoned.
790
TIES. 791
Method. — One-half of the spikes were to be pulled immediately and
the other half to be pulled one year later, with the ties exposed to
weather conditions during the year.
The common spikes were driven 4^4 in- deep with a maul, under four
different conditions, each tie containing :
4 spikes driven with no hole bored ;
4 spikes driven with 7/16-in. hole bored ;
4 spikes driven with J^-in. hole bored ;
4 spikes driven with 9/16-in. hole bored.
For the screw spikes holes were bored and the spikes were screwed
in for 5 in. of their length with a wrench, each tie containing :
2 spikes screwed into 5^-in. holes ;
2 spikes screwed into n/16-in. holes.
The 200,000-lb. Olsen testing machine was used for pulling the
spikes. Tie was laid across top of machine, the spike puller attached
to the movable head, passed through upper crosshead and hooked onto
the spike. All spikes were scrived close to the tie before pulling, and
again when the maximum load was reached, thus determining the
amount of draw at maximum pull. The screw spikes averaged 5/16-in.
draw before the maximum load was reached, their movement being
gradual until pulled out. There was little movement to the common cut
spikes until maximum load was reached, then a sudden movement of
from 1/64-in. to Ji-in., depending upon the character of the wood.
33 per cent, showed a gradual creep until pulled out,
17 per cent, showed a sudden jump of 1/64-in. at maximum load,
22 per cent, showed a sudden jump of 1/32-in. at maximum load,
19 per cent, showed a sudden jump of 1/16-in. at maximum load.
4 per cent, showed a sudden jump of M$-in. at maximum load.
Following is a list of the holding power of the spikes in the dif-
ferent woods and with the different size holes bored :
CdMMON 5^-IN. CUT SPIKES.
Pounds required to pull spike
with various sizes of holes bored.
Kind of Wood. No Hole. 7/16 in. V2 in. 9/16 in.
Red gum 3,610 4,230 3,220 3,020
Red gum 3,300 3,300 2,570 2,600
Red gum 3,480 3,620 3,210 3,195
Red gum 2,580 2,760 2,490 2,330
Average 3,265 3,478 2,872 2,786
Red oak 4,600 3,220 3,210 2,220
Red oak 3,940 4,020 2,700 2,710
Red oak 4,240 4,240 3,740 3,300
Red oak 3,700 4,320 3,410 3,220
Average 4,120 3.95° 3-265 2,812
792 TIES.
Pounds required to pull spike
with various sizes of holes bored.
Kind of Wood. No Hole. 7/16 in. V2 in. 9/16 in.
Longleaf pine 3,580 3,780 2,900 2,890
Longleaf pine 4,77o 4,200 3,660 3,710
Longleaf pine 2,400 3,600 3,470 2,320
Longleaf pine 3,810 2,830 2,280
Average 3,583 3,598 3,215 2,800
New Mexico pine 2,420 2,210 1,370 2,060
New Mexico pine 2,240 .... 1,570
New Mexico pine 2,020 1,910 1,340 2,220
New Mexico pine 2,460 1,790 860 1,000
Average 2,285 i,970 1,190 1,713
Shortleaf pine 3,220 3,750 1,920 2,090
Shortleaf pine 3,520 2,830 1,990 2,070
Shortleaf pine 2,870 4,580 2,350 2,330
Shortleaf pine 3,68o 4,320 2,840 2,640
Average 3,323 3,870 2,275 2,282
Douglas fir 2,990 3,720 1,910 1,880
Douglas fir 3,770 3,820 1,570 2,060
Douglas fir 2,480 2,560 1,910 2,080
Douglas fir 2,290 2,970 2,320 2,060
Average 2,883 3,268 1,928 2,020
Balsam 1,980 1,630 1,570 1,640
Balsam 2,000 2,270 1,280 1,690
Balsam 3,550 2,620 2,540 1,840
Balsam 4,340 3,640 2,260 1,700
Average 2,968 2,540 1,913 1,718
Ohia 5,010 7,930 3,920 3,800
Ohia 5,380 • 4,950 4,370
Ohia 3,620 4,910 3,750 1,400*
Ohia 2,860*
Average 4,315 6,073 4,207 3,108
Pounds required to pull spike
with various sizes of holes bored.
Kind of Wood. No Hole. 7/16 in. V2 in. 9/16 in.
Japanese oak 6,160 6,570 3,630 5,000
Japanese oak 5, 120 7,340 6,080 5,210
Japanese oak 8,060 8,370 5,000 4,110
Japanese oak 7,040 8,320 4,700 4,720
Average 6,595 7,650 4,853 4,760
♦Indicates spike in crack.
TIES. 793
SCREW SPIKES.
Pounds required to pull spike
Kind of Wood. with various sizes of holes bored.
5^-in. 11/16-in.
Red gum 7>o8o 10,050
Red gum 6,920 10,570
Average 7,000 10,310
Red oak 8,640 10,010
Red oak 9,470 12,170
Average 9.055 ' 1,090
Longleaf pine 10,490 1 1,660
Longleaf pine i3,45o 10,320
Average 1 1,970 10,990
New Mexico pine 5,390 4,620
New Mexico pine 6,660 5,770
Average 6,025 5,195
Shortleaf pine 8,680 9,290
Shortleaf pine 5,750 7,420
Average 7,215 8,355
Pounds required to pull spike
Kind of Wood. with various sizes of holes bored.
5^-in. 11/16-in.
Douglas fir 8,000 7,620
Douglas fir 9,010 9,040
Average 8,555 8,333
Balsam 5,66o 5,590
Balsam 9,000 9,000
Average 7,780 7,295
Ohia
Could not screw 17,370
spike in 18,650
Average 18,010
Japanese oak
Could not screw 13,280
spike in i3,x90
Average 13,235
The transverse test was made on the sections of ties in which no
spikes were driven in order to determine their modulus of rupture. These
pieces were placed on the bed of the testing machine on two knife edges
40 in. apart, with a 4-in. iron plate over the knife-edges. An iron plate
794 TIES.
3 in. wide was placed on top of the tie in the center under knife-edges,
which was attached to the movable head of the machine. The deflection
from no load to the breaking point was also noted. The modulus of
3PL2
rupture was calculated by the formula R= -, in which P is the
2 B D
breaking in pounds ; L the length in inches between supports ; B the
breadth, and D the depth of the tie.
The following are the results obtained :
TRANVERSE TEST OF TIES.
Inches
between Load Modulus of
Kind of Wood. Supports. Applied. Deflection. Rupture.
Douglas fir 40 40,55° i7A in. 4,920
Douglas fir 40 40,610 1 in. 4,910
New Mexico pine.... 40 41,700 1 in. 4,420
New Mexico pine 40 45,86o 15/16 in. 4,525
Shortleaf pine 40 35,5io 15/16 in. 7,290
Shortleaf pine 40 28,470 5/% in. 5,645
Balsam 40 26,140 34 in. 4,270
Balsam 40 30,000 V2 in. 3,380
Red gum 40 36,450 * in. 5,460
Red gum 40 4i,95o 1 in. 5,330
Red oak 40 30,680 34 in. 6,020
Red oak 40 37,270 Vs in. 8,610
Longleaf pine 40 47,i6o % in. 5,880
Ohia 32 50,910 s/g in. 8,480
Japanese oak 30 50,000 ]/2 in. 7,580
Compression Test. — The ties were hewn so unevenly that it was
found impossible to get comparative results without squaring up a short
section. Pieces 18 in. long were cut from the ends of the ties used for
transverse test and planed to z3A by 7^2 in. These pieces were then
placed flat in the testing machine, a section of railroad rail placed across
them and the pressure applied to the rail sufficient to imbed it 3/16-in.
and ¥&-m. in the tie.
The following table shows the pressure required to sink the rail
in the tie, also pounds per square inch pressure on the section. The
weight per cubic foot of timber was calculated from the short sections
which were planed.
COMPRESSION TEST.
Pounds Pounds
to sink rail Pounds to sink rail Pounds
Kind of Wood. 3/16 in. deep, per sq. in. Y% in. per sq. in.
Shortleaf pine 39,050 1,225 47,190 1,480
Longleaf pine 27,405 860 34,560* 1,082
Douglas fir 30,880 968 34,440 1,080
New Mexico pine 26,060 816 31,160 977
Balsam 23,560 739 27,560 863
Red gum 34,640 1,088 42,120 1,320
Red oak 41,670 1,306 53,350 1,670
Japanese oak 63,860 2,000 80,700 2,530
Ohia 76,720 2,400 88,710 2,780
♦Indicates tie split.
TIES. 795
The red gum, balsam, longleaf pine and red oak fibers were not
broken at all by the rail in the compression test, which indicates a very
elastic fiber in the wood. The Japanese oak and ohia show a very slight
breaking of the fiber.
Douglas fir, shortleaf pine and New Mexico pine presented very
brittle fibers, which were broken considerably by the rail section when
under compression.
The relative weight of the cut spikes as compared with the screw
spikes is I to 2, and their relative maximum holding power averages
I to 2}A respectively, thus indicating an advantage of 25 per cent, for
the screw spike over that of the cut spike, equal weights of metal being
considered. It will be noted from the accompanying curves that in the
majority of cases the cut spikes driven in the 7/16-in. holes require the
greatest force to remove them. The longleaf pine exhibits about the
same holding power with no hole and with 7/16-in. hole, while the red
oak, balsam and New Mexico pine display a somewhat higher power with
no hole bored for the spike.
With the screw spikes we have but seven compressions to make,
since it was impossible to screw the spikes in ^-in. holes in the ohia
and Japanese oak woods. In these seven cases, however, the red oak
and the red gum, which are the hardwoods, reveal a much greater hold-
ing power with the spikes screwed into the larger hole, while the long-
leaf pine, Douglas fir, balsam and New Mexico pine, which are soft-
woods, the holding power of the spikes is somewhat higher with the
smaller hole, although the difference is not so marked as in the case
of the hardwoods.
796
TIES.
car sf/kss.
8000^.
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./aoo
TIES.
797
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/7O00
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ysooo
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-/60oa
./,?ooo
Appendix C
EFFECT OF DESIGN OF TRACK SPIKES AND TIE PLATES ON
THE DURABILITY OF TIES.
(B^H^rtto.R.J.P^Gg^^^"***. Atchison' T°Peka &
Series i -Samples of ties showing the driving of cut spikes, being
evidence as to the damage done to ties by the driving of our present cut
spikes, and would seem to be an unanswerable argument in favor ot
the boring of ties before they are inserted in the track.
»i4' «j*mJ
■
HHhRV- »H
"White Oak, Untreated.
Common Spike. 9/16 by 9/16 in. Pulls
9,f.30 lbs.
S'pruce.
Common Spike. Pulls 3,030 lbs.
79S
TIES.
799
Longleaf Pine Tie.
Treated by Rueping process and spike
driven after treatment, in an un-
bored hole.
8C0
TIES.
Common Spike. Note direction grain
line of spike. Pulls 3,957 lbs.
Loblolly Pine.
Creosoted Common Spike,
lbs.
Pulls 2,448
TIES.
801
Chisel Point. Showing- effects of cut
spike inserted in redwood. No hole
bored. Note badly broken fiber
caused by chisel-point spike.
Chisel Point Spike. Showing effects of
cut spike inserted in cedar; no hole
borel. Note badly broken fiber
caused by chisel point.
802
TIES.
Series 2. — Views showing injury to ties by rail cutting and spike
driving. Especial attention is directed to view No. 22, Arkansas River
Division, A., T. & S. F. Railway, showing 1910 treated ties with cut
spikes without plates. Note the ruination of these ties in three years,
also View 4, same division, especial attention being directed to 1912 ties
in the foreground of the picture, which are already beginning to show
signs of abuse for lack of plates, then compare this with the View 2,
Missouri Division, in which 1912 ties are inserted with plates.
View showing injury to ties by rail cutting and spike driving. View 4,
Arkansas River Division. Note especially two 1912 ties in foreground badly
abused account lack of plates after less than one year's service.
TIES.
803
View .showing injury to ties by rail cutting and spike driving. View 3,
Arkansas River Division. Same as View 22.
804
TIES.
..•-". PT.'-.i
View showing injury to ties by rail cutting and spike driving. View 2-,
Arkansas River Division, 1910 treated ties, with cut spikes without plates.
Note especially ruination of ties in three years from this cause.
TIES.
805
View showing injury to ties by rail cutting and spike driving.
Arkansas River Division, 1907 ties, cut spikes without plates.
View 1,
806
TIES.
mi. I^wmg injury to ties by rail cutting and spike driving. View 3,
Missouri Division Cut-spike track with tie plates, where zinc ties
.nn^w^L1? V-^Wt K 1'hese ties being laid out of face when track was
constructed and right at end of the tie shown in No. 2. Observation on
fi£ ?h^ ^n1 md.\c,fte tw?uJd »et at least four years more service from the
n fir\t n ™^W}|h°Ut PlfilS' *"d if ties had been hiSh-dass creosoted ties
in nrst instance, this would be increased.
TIES.
807
View showing injury to ties by rail cutting and spike driving. View 4.
7a H nVvision5 Ties inserted in 1906. cut spikes without plates.
Missouri Division. Ties
808
TIES.
View showing injury to ties by rail cutting and spike driving. View 1,
Missouri Division. 1904 ties, cut spikes without plates.
TIES.
809
View showing injury to ties by rail cutting and spike driving. View 2,
Missouri Division. Note first four ties in foreground and compare these with
condition of 1912 ties in previous picture, demonstrating value of tie plates.
810
TIES.
View showing injury to ties by rail cutting and spike driving. View 21,
Colorado Division, showing ties with and without tie plates.
TIES.
811
Series 3. — Showing cut spikes with and without tie plates and with
and without rail anchors. In this connection, note View 2 of Arkansas
River Division, A., T. & S. F. Railway, showing the damage from rail
cutting and condition of track, account of skewing of the ties.
jbp-''- - vi&i, m S3 H -i'i'
' J^SHs!
View 23, Illinois Division, showing cut-spike track with tie p
rail anchors.
812
TIES.
View 24, Illinois Division, cut-spike track, tie plates and rail anchors.
TIES.
813
View 1, Albuquerque Division, cut spikes, tie plates, Japanese oak ties.
Xote the skewing.
814
TIES.
View 2, Arkansas River Division. Cut-spike track without tie plates or
rail anchors. Note the damage to tie from rail cutting and condition of
track account skewing of tie.
TIES.
815
Series 4. — Showing several views on the Illinois Division, A., T. &
S. F. Railway, screw-spike track with and without tie plates.
No. 1, View 11, Illinois Division. Screw spikes inserted with plates,
without shoulder.
816
TIES.
View 20, Illinois Division, same as above. Note, these were inserted 1909,
and ties have to be spaced once a year.
TIES.
817
View 19, Illinois Division. Screw spikes inserted with plates without
shoulder.
.•.-*« >*•-
f~* _•»_»:•*»»
\'ie\v 21, Illinois Division. Screw spike; joint ties inserted without tie
plates. Note skewing, which is approximately 4 in. and is average of the lot.
TIES.
819
View 22, Illinois
without tie plates.
Division, showing screw spikes used opposite joints
820
TIES.
Series 5. — Screw-spike track on the Missouri Division, A., T. & S. F.
Railway. Note the first three views, Nos. 21, 19 and 20, screw spikes in-
serted in 1908, and View 20, showing the movement of the rail in five
years, 2^ in. without the spikes ever having been touched, and Views
12 and 11, showing screw spikes on ties in quarters and centers, inserted
in 1912, View 11 showing the rails having moved 4 in., which will seem
to be an argument in favor of a solid screw-spike track.
View 21, Missouri Division. 1908 screw spikes, never touched.
TIES.
821
View 19; 190S screw spikes, never touched.
822
TIES.
~ ' ■' "" :; »«f_~:
View 20; 190S screw spikes, never touched. Note movement of rail in
five years,, or 2% in.
TIES.
823
View 12; 1912 screw spikes on ties in quarter and centers.
824
TIES.
View 11; 1912 screw spikes on ties in quarter and centers. Note that in
one year these rails have moved 4 in.
TIES.
825
Series 6. — Showing Standard Santa Fe construction, with screw
spikes.
View 20, Western Division. Sawn pine, standard construction screw spikes.
826
TIES.
View 19, Western Division. Hewn pine, standard construction screw spike
TIES.
827
View 22, Western Division. Hewn gum. standard construction screw spikes.
828
TIES.
View 1, Western Division,
spikes.
Ohia hewn ties, standard construction screw
TIES.
829
View 24, Albuquerque Division. Eucalyptus ties, standard construction
screw spikes.
830
TIES.
View 12, Albuquerque Division. Japanese oak, standard construction
ccrew spikes.
tifs.
831
View :_', Western Division. One
standard construction screw spikes.
um switch tie.s. screw spikes;
832
TIES.
View 23, Missouri Division,
construction screw spikes.
Gauntless track with screw spikes, standard
TIES.
833
View 24. Missouri Division,
construction screw spikes.
Gauntlet track, witli screw spikes; standard
834
TIES.
Series /.— View 24, Western Division, A., T. & S. F. Railway, stan-
dard Santa Fe screw-spike track, installed 1910, upon which wreck oc-
curred account of brake beam being down in 1911. Note where wheels
hit ties in this track, edges of plates, spikes and joints were considerably
trimmed by impact from wheels, and, while train ran 18 rail lengths be-
fore stopping, there was only one tie taken out after accident and gage
was absolutely not disturbed.
As compared with what would have occurred, had cut spikes been
used, this seems to be a strong argument in favor of the screw spike.
i>(iftVif,^r.2 wh7f ter" Pivision- Standard screw spike construction, installed
1910, upon which wreck occurred, account brake beam being down, in 1911.
TIES.
835
Series 8.— View showing dowelled ties with screw spikes. Note es-
pecially Views 12, 4 and 3, showing a section of a tie that was dowelled
and sections of the same tie cut showing the application of the screw
spike in same.
Xo. 1, View 22. Red Cak Tie. Second-hand, dowelled with oak dowels
in the field by the Kendiick Dowelling Machine.
836
TIES.
No. 2, View 12. New sawn pine tie, dowelled in 1910 by the Kendrick
Dwelling Machine, and put into the Hutchinson track.
No. 3, View
No. 2, View 12.
No. 4. Section through dowel of same tie as shown in
TIES.
837
No. 4, View 3, showing contact of screw spike in same tie.
838
TIES.
No. 5, View 4, Albuquerque
cedar ties dowelled in 1910.
Division, showing two redwood and two
TIES.
839
No. 6. View 11, Western Division, showing stretch of sawn pine ties,
dowelled in 1910.
840
TIES.
Series g. — Some specialties used in construction on the experimental
track between Sylvia and Kinsley.
Specialties used in Experimental Track, Sylvia to Kinsley.
Western Division, Weber Joint with screw spike requiring lugs.
View 21,
TIES.
841
IH^HE^f
r *■ jTY-
Specialties use in Experimental Track, Sylvia to Kinsley. View 21,
Western Division, top view, same point.
842
TIES.
No. 3, View 23, Western Division. Beddoe Joint with screw spikes.
Roadmaster claims better service with screw spikes than Weber.
TIES.
843
.4, 'A
Xo. 4. View 1, Western Division. Bonzana Joint with screw spikes.
S44
TIES.
No. 5, View 2, Western Division, showing Positive tie plate with screw spike.
TIES.
845
Specialties used in Experimental Track, Svlvia to Kinsley. View 21
Western Division, showing Security tie plates with screw spikes.
846
TIES.
View 22, Western Division, showing Morse tie plate and screw spike.
Roadmaster says cannot keep bolts tight on this plate.
TIES.
847
■
Specialties used in Experimental Track, Sylvia to Kinsley. View 20,
Western Division, showing YY tie plate, Adrian modified style.
848
TIES.
Series io. — Views 23 and 24, Colorado Division, A., T. & S. F. Rail-
way, showing conditions which are the result of coal-burning engines
cleaning fires on unprotected track. These ties were treated with oil in
1909, which demonstrates that it is quite an expensive proposition and
suggests in itself that some remedy should be applied, such as the inser-
tion, say of a number of steel ties, to be placed at each end of a passing
track, painted white, so that they would be readily seen by the engineer,
and an order issued compelling him to pull to that point before cleaning
out firebox.
No. 2, View 24, Colorado Division. Oil-treated ties, inserted 1909.
TIES.
849
Xo. 1, View 23, Colorado Division.
850
TIES.
Series ii.— Views showing application of the Betts >anti-creeper tie
plate, as installed on the Eastern Division, A., T. & S. F. Railway. Also
effect of the application of 6-in. tie plates to 7"in. ties. A very strong
argument in favor of the 7-in. tie plates.
Betts anti-creeper tie plate, on curve just west of Turner Station.
TIES.
Betts anti-creeper tie plate, on curve just west of Turner Station.
852
TIES.
J ;, "
m
i
Betts anti-creeper tie plate, just outside Holliday S'tation.
TIES.
853
Betts anti-creeper tie plate, just outside Holliday Station.
854
TIES.
Six-in. tie plates under 85-lb. rail.
TIES.
855
Six-in. tie plates under 75-lb. rail.
S56
TIES.
Six-in. tie plates under 75-lb. rail.
TIES.
857
Series 12. — Views showing effect upon the tie of the old-style deep-
ribbed Wolhupter tie plate. Views 1 and 2, showing two ends of the tie
from which a tie plate was removed, showing the indentations and decay
of wood resulting from the deep abrasions. Views 3 and 4 show old-style
Wolhaupter tie plates that have been removed from ties, the decayed
wood clinging to them between the ribs.
Series 12, View 1.
,
Series 12, View 2.
858
TIES.
Series 12, View 3.
Series 12, View 4.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE IX— ON SIGNS, FENCES
AND CROSSINGS
C. H. Stein, Chairman; G. E. Boyd, Vice-Chairman;
R. B. Abbott, C. M. James,
H. E. Billman, Maro Johnson,
E. T. Brown, L. C. Lawton,
B. M. Cheney, J. B. Myers,
A. C. Copland, G. L. Moore,
F. N. Crowell, C. H. Splitstoxe,
Arthur Crumpton, T. A. Stocker.
J. T. Frame, W. F. Strouse,
L. E. Haislip, W. D. Williams,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
The following subjects were assigned by the Board of Direction for
consideration :
(i) Continue the investigation of ways and means for securing a
proper quality of fence wire to resist corrosion and secure durability.
(2) Concrete and metal for signs and signals as compared with wood.
(3) Concrete and metal as compared with wood for fence posts.
A general Committee meeting was held in Chicago at the Associa-
tion rooms on Monday, June 9, 1913. There were present H. E. Bill-
man, Maro Johnson, L. C. Lawton, Arthur Crumpton, L. E. Haislip, \V.
F. Strouse, W. D. Williams, C. H. Stein.
The subjects assigned were discussed and the following Sub-Com-
mittees appointed :
Subject No. 1, Proper Quality of Fence Wire:
W. D. Williams, Chairman ;
T. A. Stocker,
L. C. Lawton,
F. N. Crowell.
L. E. Haislip,
B. M. Cheney.
Subject No. 2, Concrete and Metal for Signs and Signals:
W. F. Strouse, Chairman ;
R. B. Abbott,
C. M. James,
A. C. Copland,
G. L. Moore,
J. B. Myers,
C. H. Splitstone,
C. H. Stein.
Subject No. 3, Concrete and Metal for Fence Posts :
Maro Johnson, Chairman;
H. E. Billman,
G. E. Boyd,
E. T. Brown,
J. T. Frame,
Arthur Crumpton.
859
860 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
(i) INVESTIGATION OF WAYS AND MEANS FOR SECURING
A PROPER QUALITY OF FENCE WIRE.
The Secretary of the Association, under date of September n, 1913,
issued a circular prepared by the Committee to the various railroads
represented in the Association, making inquiries in regard to present
practices and recent developments, for the purpose of securing a proper
quality of fence wire. Only 35 replies were received, and the information
imparted is so vague and unsatisfactory that it will probably be of in-
terest to furnish a statement of the inquiries made, with a summary of
the replies received:
Question 1. Kindly send copy of your specifications of fence wire for
right-of-way purposes.
25 have no specifications.
5 use manufacturers' specifications.
2 use Association's recommended specification for galvanizing.
3 have had no experience with wire fencing.
Question 2. Have you conducted any experiments that serve as a
basis for your conclusions in preparing such specifications ?
21 no.
12 do not reply.
2 from actual service.
Question 3. Furnish such data as you possess that enabled your
company to reach such conclusions.
3 from observation.
8 no data.
24 do not reply.
Question 4. Are you securing wire fencing that complies with these
specifications, and from whom?
11 furnish names of various manufacturers.
4 report "No."
20 do not reply.
Question 5. Cost of wire fencing f. 0. b. line of road?
15 reply average 31 6-ioc per rod.
14 reply average 32 5-ioc per rod.
1 replies 53c per rod.
5 do not reply.
Question 6. Actual or estimated life of wire fencing that you are
now using.
11 furnish no data.
2 reply 7 years.
11 reply 6 to 15 years.
2 reply 25 years.
7 reply 15 years.
1 replies 8 years.
1 replies 30 years.
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 861
Question 7. Actual life of wire fencing purchased before the adop-
tion of your specifications.
30 reply "No data."
2 reply 8 to 10 years.
1 replies "barb wire 25 to 50 years."
1 replies 10 years.
1 replies 5 to 6 years.
Question 8. Description of fencing or specifications covering same,
that you were using prior to the adoption of your present specifications.
26 do not reply.
4 reply "barb wire."
5 used manufacturers' specifications.
Question 9. Please send small sample of the wire fencing that has
given you extra good service.
30 sent no samples.
4 submitted No. 9 special galvanized wire.
1 sent sample of barb wire.
Question 10. Have you made any analysis of your wire fencing; if so
kindly furnish data.
35 reply "No."
Question 11. Have you made any investigations to show how evenly
protective coating is distributed? If so, please give results.
35 reply "No."
Question 12. Have you ever used fencing wire that was made of
puddled iron or of ingot iron? If so, please give your experience.
35 reply "No."
A careful analysis of the replies received failed to develop anything
of a new or tangible nature, and the Committee feels that it can add
nothing of value to what has already been presented to the Association
upon this subject. It, therefore, reluctantly concludes that it would be well
to discontinue any further consideration of the matter for the present,
but permit a sufficient time to elapse to enable those few roads that are
trying to make some progress in the development of a better quality of
fencing wire to conclude their investigations. The subject may be revived
in the course of the next couple of years with the hope of some accom-
plishmnet.
(2) CONCRETE AND METAL FOR SIGNS AND SIGNALS AS
COMPARED WITH WOOD.
A meeting of the Sub-Committee was held in Baltimore, Md., August
3, 1913, at which the following members were present : W. F. Strouse,
Chairman ; R. B. Abbott, A. C. Copeland, C. H. Splitstone, C. H. Stein.
A circular submitting the following inquiries for information was pre-
pared and sent by the Secretary of the Association to 400 representatives
of railroad companies in the United States, Canada and Mexico :
862
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
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866 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
"(i) Please send blueprints of standards adopted or proposed, cov-
ering various kinds of metal, concrete or wood signs.
"(3) Cost of these signs in place.
"(4) Are there any laws in force in the States through which your
lines pass governing kind of signs, wording on same, style of lettering,
etc.? If so, please send copy of same.
"(5) Are there any decrees or rulings of State or Public Utility
Commissions in the States through which your lines pass governing
kind of signs, wording on same, style of lettering of same, etc.?
"(6) Please send copies of laws of States through which your lines
pass regarding trespassers.
"(7) Please furnish any other information on this subject that may
be of interest."
Sixty replies were received, nearly all of which contained some in-
formation useful to the Committee, either in the form of standard plans,
rulings of Utilities Commissions, abstracts of laws relating to the main-
tenance of signs at public highway crossings, or laws relating to trespass-
ing on railroad property.
A cursory examination of the information received suggested a natu-
ral sub-division of it into two classes : one applying to the general public,
the other to the employes of railroad companies.
Owing to the scope of the subject coverd by the information at hand,
the Committee considered it inexpedient at this time to take under con-
sideration any signs except those in which the public is directly interested.
On account of the great number and variety of these signs, it has con-
fined its efforts to compiling information on the three signs in which the
public is most vitally concerned, viz. : public and private road crossing
and trespass signs.
The preceding tables have been prepared to show in condensed form
detailed information as to the standard practice of the various railroads
of the country. Table herewith shows general dimensions, size of letters,
color of paint, cost and inscriptions of standard crossing signs used by
46 railroads from which replies have been received. Attention is called
to the fact that of the above number 42 railroad companies are using
wood signs consisting of a post about 16 ft. long, with two blades attached
to the top of same at angles ranging from about 40 degrees to 90 degrees;
i/; have added a horizontal board below the inclined blades bearing vari-
ous inscriptions; 3 are using elliptical metal signs; 2 rectangular boards;
3 a square frame attached to the post diagonally, and 2 triangular frames.
Of the entire number of standard plans furnished there is but one sign
in which concrete was used, except in anchoring the posts in the ground.
The States of Indiana and New Jersey, through their Public Utilities
Commissions, have prescribed forms of crossing signs that have been
adopted as standard for use in those States. They have also provided
that in the case of two or more railroads paralleling each other within
certain distances the signs shall designate the number of railroads to be
crossed. There are three or four different forms of signs in use in the
State of New York which have been accepted by the Public Service
Commission.
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 867
Herewith is submitted a diagram showing the various types of road
crossing signs in use. While in only a few cases do any two roads
agree as to details, in a general way the six types presented are fairly
representative, and all in use could be grouped under the six classifications
shown. The inscriptions, size of letters, detailed dimensions, etc., vary
to suit local conditions and requirements, but in almost every case there
is a close resemblance to some one of the typical signs exhibited on the
diagram.
An attempt was made to secure copies of laws in every State affecting
the size, design, etc., of signs to be placed at highway or street crossings.
It was found difficult to secure them for each State, but we did succeed
in getting them as in force in 32 States and Canada, as well as the decrees
and rulings of the Public Utility or Railway Commissions of Connecticut,
Indiana, New Jersey and Rhode Island. There are no laws in effect in
regard to signs at highway crossings in Colorado, Louisiana, Nebraska or
Oregon. These statutes and rulings will be found under Appendix 1, and
it is hoped that the Committee will be able to supply those that are lack-
ing for publication in the Proceedings. In order that quick conception
may be obtained of the requirements of the laws in force, we present
herewith a synopsis of same.
SYNOPSIS OF LAWS AND RULINGS OF PUBLIC UTILITIES COMMISSIONS RELATING
TO ERECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF CROSSING SIGNS.
Alabama. — Railroads must erect warning signs at all public road
crossings. Form of sign, wording of warning, and size of letters are not
specified.
Arizona. — Railroads must erect warning signs at all public road
crossings bearing the words. "RAILROAD CROSSING," "LOOK OUT
FOR THE CARS," in letters at least 9 in. high ; form of sign not
specified.
Arkansas. — Railroads must erect warning signs at all public road
or street crossings bearing the words "RAILROAD CROSSING,"
"LOOK OUT FOR THE CARS WHILE BELL RINGS OR WHISTLE
SOUNDS," in letters at least 9 in. high. Does not apply to city or
village streets unless required by local authorities.
Canada. — Railroads are required to erect sign boards at all highway
crossings containing the words "RAILROAD CROSSING" in letters at
least 6 in. high. In the Province of Quebec these words must be printed
in both the English and French languages.
Colorado. — In Colorado there are no statutes or rulings of the Rail-
road Commission governing signs at crossings affecting the wording or
size of lettering on same.
Connecticut. — Warning boards approved by the Commissioners must
be erected at all grade crossings where there are no gates. Form of sign,
wording and size of letters not specified.
Delaware. — Railroads are required to erect sign boards at all high-
way crossings bearing the inscription "RAILROAD CROSSING" in let-
ters at least 5 in. high.
868
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS
RAILROAD CROSSING!
LOOK OUT
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Typical Crossing Signs.
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 869
Florida. — Sign boards bearing the inscription "LOOK OUT FOR
THE CARS" must be maintained at all public highway crossings. Bell
must be rung before crossing streets of cities and speed is restricted to
4 miles per hour.
Illinois.— Sign boards bearing the words "RAILROAD CROSSING"
or "LOOK OUT FOR THE CARS," in letters at least 9 in. high, must
be maintained at all public road crossings except in cities or towns where
crossings are controlled by local authorities.
Indiana. — Sign boards bearing the words "RAILROAD CROSS-
ING," in letters at least 9 in. high, must be erected at all public road
crossings. A board containing the word "DANGER," in red or black
letters, must be attached to the post at least 7 ft. above the ground.
Where two railroads parallel each other within 100 ft., the word "TWO"
shall appear on the post.
Iowa. — Warning boards must be provided at all public road cross-
ings. Form of sign, inscription and size of letters not specified.
Kansas. — Sign boards containing the words "LOOK OUT FOR THE
CARS" must be maintained at all public road or street crossings, except
in cities and towns where crossings are controlled by local authorities ;
form of sign or size of letters not specified.
Kentucky. — Sign boards bearing the inscription "RAILROAD
CROSSING," in letters at least 5 in. high, must be maintained at all
public highway crossings, except in cities and towns where it is optional
with local authorities.
Louisiana. — There are no statutes in force in Louisiana prescribing
form of sign, inscription or size of letters.
Maine.— Sign boards bearing the words "RAILROAD CROSSING"
must be maintained at all public road crossings. No form of sign or
size of letters specified.
Maryland. — Statute requires railroads to erect signs at all public road
crossings, but form of sign, inscription and size of letters are not specified.
Massachusetts. — Statute reauires signs with words "RAILROAD
CROSSING," "LOOK OUT FOR THE ENGINE," in letters 9 in. high
at each highway or townway, unless substitute has approval of Board of
Railroad Commissioners. Form of sign not specified.
Michigan. — Sign boards at each public road or street crossing must
contain the words "RAILROAD CROSSING" in letters not less than 12
in. high, except in cities or towns, unless other form is prescribed by
local authorities or the railroad commissioner.
Minnesota. — Statute requires signs at all public road crossings, but
no form of sign, size of letters or wording suggested.
Mississippi.— Sign boards bearing inscription "LOOK OUT FOR
THE LOCOMOTIVE" or "RAILROAD CROSSING" must be main-
tained at all highway crossings. No style of sign or size of letters
specified.
Missouri.— Sign boards bearing words "RAILROAD CROSSING"
in letters at least 9 in. high must be maintained at all public road or
street crossings where gates are not provided.
Nebraska. — There is no statute in Nebraska covering style of sign,
inscription or size of letters on same.
New Jersey. — Statute requires sign boards bearing words "LOOK
OUT FOR THE LOCOMOTIVE" in letters at least 9 in. high at all
870 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
public road or street crossings except in cities and towns where style of
sign is optional with local authorities.
The Public Utilities Commissioners have recently prescribed a form
of crossing sign which bears the inscription "RAILROAD CROSSING,"
"LOOK OUT FOR THE LOCOMOTIVE," and where two railroads
parallel each other within 400 ft. the words "TWO CROSSINGS" shall
appear on sign.
Where a crossing sign cannot be clearly seen on account of obstruc-
tions at a distance of 150 ft. from a crossing, an additional sign to read
"RAILROAD CROSSING, 150 FEET," shall be erected at a distance of
150 ft. from the crossing.
New York.— Sign boards are required by statute. Style and inscrip-
tion left to Public Service Commission. Inscriptions in use: "RAIL-
ROAD CROSSING." "LOOK OUT FOR THE CARS," "DANGER.
RAILROAD CROSSING," "RAILROAD CROSSING," "LOOK OUT
FOR THE CARS," "STOP."
North Dakota. — Statute requires signs having white background with
black letters at least 8 in. high at all crossings. No form of sign or
wording specified.
Ohio.— Sign boards required at all public road crossings, but no style
of sign, wording or size of letters specified.
Oklahoma. — Signs required by statute at all public road crossings
bearing inscription "RAILROAD CROSSING," "LOOK OUT FOR
THE CARS," in black letters at least 8 in. high, on white background,
on posts 15 ft. high.
Oregon. — There are no laws in force governing the kind of signs,
wording on same and style of lettering, the matter being under the
jurisdiction of the Railroad Commissioners.
Pennsylvania. — Has no statutory provision as to crossing signs, cases
of proper precaution lays down the rule that due care must be taken to
prevent accidents, and proper precautions are construed to include signs
at crossings.
Rhode Island. — Requires sign boards at all highway crossings bearing
the words "Railroad Crossing," "Stop, Look and Listen," in letters at least
9 in. high under direction of the Railroad Commissioners.
South Dakota. — Railroads must erect and maintain signs containing
words "Railroad Crossing," "Look Out for the Cars," in letters at least
8 in. high. Form not specified.
Tennessee. — Overseers of public roads are required to provide signs
marked "Look Out for the Cars When You Hear the Whistle or Bell."
Texas. — Signs are required by statute, but no wording, size of letters
or form of sign specified.
Virginia. — Statute requires erection and maintenance of signs with
"Railroad Crossing" inscribed thereon in letters at least 5 in. high.
West Virginia. — Sign boards are required by statute bearing the in-
scription "Railroad Crossing," "Look Out for the Locomotive." No style
of sign or size of letters specified.
Washington. — Sign boards must be erected at all highway crossings,
the form of which is to be prescribed by the Public Service Commission.
Wisconsin. — Sign boards bearing the inscription "Look Out for the
Cars" must be erected and maintained at all public highway crossings. No
form or size of letters specified.
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 871
It may be of interest to scan quickly the inscriptions and size of let-
ters required by each State, as with two exceptions they are the principal
features of the laws and rulings; we, therefore, submit them below:
STATUTORY INSCRIPTIONS, ETC., ON CROSSING SIGNS.
State. Inscription. ^ ze °*
* Letters.
Alabama
Arkansas Railroad crossing; look out for the cars.. 9 in.
Arkansas Railroad crossing; look out for the cars
while bell rings or whistle sounds 9 in.
Canada Railroad crossing 6 in.
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware Railroad crossing 5 in
Florida Look out for the cars 9 in.
Illinois Railroad crossing, or, look out for the cars 9 in.
Indiana Railroad crossing — danger 9 in.
Iowa
Kansas Look out for the cars 5 in.
Kentucky Railroad crossing 5 in.
Louisiana
Maine Railroad crossing
Maryland
Massachusetts .. ..Railroad crossing; look out for the engine. 9 in.
Michigan Railroad crossing 12 in.
Minnesota
Mississippi Railroad crossing, or, look out for the loco-
motive
Missouri Railroad crossing 9 in.
Nebraska
New Jersey Look out for the locomotive 9 in.
New York Railroad crossing, look out for the cars. . .
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma Railroad crossing, look out for the cars... 8 in.
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island . . . .Railroad crossing, stop, look and listen. ... 9 in.
South Dakota ...Railroad crossing, look out for the cars... 8 in.
Tennessee Look out for the cars when you hear the
whistle or bell ;
Texas
Virginia Railroad crossing 5 in.
Washington
West Virginia . . . Railroad crossing, look out for the loco-
motive
Wisconsin Look out for the cars
The Committee finds that only three of the roads that submitted
plans use standard road crossing signs made of metal, with metal posts;
the balance uniformly use wood. One has used a sign and post made of
concrete, but it does not commend itself. Another uses a wooden sign
with a concrete post, but this is in an experimental way, and has not yet
been tested out for merit.
872 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
With very few exceptions the various roads have some form of sign
made of two wooden blades placed in a diagonal form to represent a
crossing, the angles between blades varying from 40 degrees to 90 de-
grees. There is no doubt but that this form of sign is most suggestive,
and is indicative of its purpose and intention, exclusive of the wording
thereon. An illiterate person could scarcely be ignorant of its meaning,
particularly since it is in such general use. This argues strongly for its
recommendation by our Association. Such a form of sign does not lend
itself readily to the use of any other than a wooden post. Concrete may
be used, but the Committee is not prepared to even advise it, as experi-
ence with concrete posts of this character has been limited, and it is of
the belief that such a post would be easily broken.
The most frequent wording on the signs is "RAILWAY CROSSING"
or "RAILROAD CROSSING." Some States, however, by law or Public
Utility Commission ruling, require different or additional language. In-
evitably the wording will have to conform with any special requirements.
The Committee does not feel warranted in specifying the use of any
particular kind of timber, as that in most general use differs in various
parts of the country. Roads will unquestionably, and properly so, use the
timber that is native to their locality, and which has the longest life, or
which can be the most readily secured. The height of sign above the
ground will have to be varied in some places to meet certain local con-
ditions.
The objects to be achieved in the selection of a proper form of road
crossing sign are reasonable cheapness in first cost, economy in mainte-
nance, which includes durability, and the merit of serving the purpose for
which it is placed, that" is, to give proper and ample warning of the ex-
istence of a railroad crossing.
The Committee, therefore, presents a design of sign which, in its
opinion, most adequately meets these conditions. It should be made with
wooden blades 12 in. wide and 8 ft. long, with mitred ends placed in a
diagonal manner with an angle of 50 degrees between blades on an 8-in.
by 8-in. by 16-ft. wooden post. The post should stand 4 ft. in the ground,
and be creosoted from bottom to 6 in. above ground line. The lower 9 ft.
of post should be painted black, and the balance white. The blades should
be painted white with black letters, and ^-in. black border around blades.
Border and lettering should be on both sides. Letters should be Egyptian
style, 9 in. high, with the exception of connecting terms, as "for the"
in the recommended sign, which should be 4 in. high.
One very large trunk line has adopted a modified form of this sign
made of cast-iron on wrought-iron pipe post. The Committee presents
as information a plan of this sign. It has not felt warranted in recom-
mending it for the reasons that it is quite expensive, it has not been tried
out for but a short period of time; hence, any disadvantages in its use
may not have developed. The blades are a single casting and hence very
heavy and liable to breakage in handling. In brief, it is yet but an un-
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
873
NOTE
PAINT LOWER 9-0" OF POST BLACK.
BALANCE WHITE PAINT BLADE5 WHITE
WITH BLACK LETTERS AND 4" BLACK
BORDER AROUND BLADES. BORDER
AND. LETTERING ON BOTH SIDES.
LOCATE SIGNS AT SUCH POINTS AS
WILL ADMIT OF THE BEST VIEW BY
PERSONS APPROACHING THE CROSS-
ING WHEN TWO RAILROAD15 PARALLEL
i_.'\CH OTHER WITHIN TOUR HUNDRED
FEETAN ADDITIONAL BLADE MARKED
"TWO CRO>3IN6S"MUST BE APPCP.
P05T TO BE CRE050TED FROM 6"
ABOVE GROUND TO BOTTOM.
GrciimA
_~k&
Crossing Sign (Recommended).
874
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
PAINT LOWER 5-o' OF POST BLACK, BALANCE
WHITE PAINT BLADES WHITE WITH BLACK LETTERS
AND z" BLACK BORDER AROUND BLADES ERECT
ONE SIGN ON EACH SIDE OF RAILROAD AT
EACH CROS5INQ LOCATE SIGNS AT SUCH
POINTS AS WILL ADMIT OF THE BEST VIEW BY
PERSONS APPROACHINS THE CROSSING .WHEN SO
LOCATED THAT SIGNS CANNOT BE 5EEN AT A
DISTANCE OF ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY FEET
FROM THE CROSSING AN ADDITIONAL. SISN
MUST BE ERECTED AT THAT DISTANCE FROM
THE CROSSING. WHEN TWO RAILROADS
PARALLEL EACH OTHER WITHIN FOUR
HUNDRED FEET AN ADDITIONAL. BUAPE
MARKED TWO CROSSINGS MUST BE APDEP.
Crossing Sign (Metal).
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
875
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SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
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ice. Railroad grounds. No
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lowed. Dangerous.
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ice. — This land is private prop-
ty and all persons are hereby
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der penalty of the law as pro-
ded in the Act of the Assembly
ssed April 14, 1905. Lehigh
illey R. R.
trespassing. Private property
the Lehigh Valley R. R. Not
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ger. Trespassing on railroad
operty positively forbidden.
ger. No trespassing.
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idge.
ger. All persons except em-
jyees of the N. & W. Ry. Co.,
e forbidden to go on these
emises.
not walk nor trespass on the
idge.
ger. Walking on the track or
her trespassing is forbidden.
ate way. No thoroughfare.
se by the public prohibited.
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878 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
tried experiement for such a design of sign. It is but fair to say, how-
ever, that the testimony up to date is to the effect that it has given en-
tire satisfaction. It may be possible, therefore, that at some future time
the Committee may be able to recommend its substitution for the wooden
sign of same general dimensions presented in the foregoing.
The Committee also made an investigation of the various kinds of
trespass signs in use by the railroads. Replies were received from 28
roads, submitting 46 forms of signs, differing in style, phraseology, etc.
We are presenting below a table giving a brief description of the sign in
use on each road, as well as prices delivered f. o. b. line of road, and cost
in place to the extent that such data was available.
We are also furnishing a description of the private road crossing
signs in use on six of the roads, but the information on these was so
meagre that the Committee thought they could hardly be in very gen-
eral use, and, therefore, concluded to ignore this particular form of sign
until further investigation was made.
Inquiry was also made as to the laws in force in the various states
and Canada, relating to the subject of trespassing. We obtained the text
of such laws for 28 states and Canada. We are submitting them under
Appendix 2, and hope to secure copies of those in force in the remain-
ing states for publication in the annual proceedings. In order that the
substance of these laws may be quickly referred to, we are presenting a
brief synopsis of them herewith.
SYNOPSIS OF LAWS RELATING TO TRESPASSING ON RAILROAD AND PRIVATE
PROPERTY.
Arkansas. — No laws relative to trespassing on tracks or right-of-
way. Railroads liable for killing trespassers, if negligence is shown.
Canada. — Law very explicit and complete for various classes of tres-
passers.
California. — Has law prohibiting use of right-of-way by vehicles,
but is weak on common trespassers.
Colorado. — There is no statute with reference to trespassers upon
railroad property. There are certain statutes which designate as crimes
the turning or operating of switches, and the use of railroad tracks by
use of a railway bicycle, push car, hand car, slide, or other similar ve-
hicles or device, excepting such as are provided by said railroad company
to be used for such purpose; and also providing for the punishment of
parties guilty of the removal of waste or packing, or brass or brasses,
etc., or throwing stones at the train.
Connecticut. — Law .applies particularly to stealing rides and ma-
licious trespass ; not to common trespass.
Delaware. — Law applies to trespass on private land and railroad
cars ; not explicit on trespassing on railroad tracks or right-of-way.
Florida. — General trespass law, but no specific reference to trespass
on tracks or right-of-way.
Idaho. — Applies to disorder on trains and refusal to pay fare; does
not cover trespass on track or right-of-way.
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 879
Indiana. — General trespass law covering trespass on private prop-
erty and would apply to railroad tracks and property ; also law covering
interference with brakes and signals.
Illinois. — Has no general statute prohibiting trespassing on railroads,
but has rather stringent regulations on malicious trespass and stealing
rides.
Iowa. — Malicious trespass fully covered, but no law relative to tres-
pass on railroad property.
Kansas. — Has no statute specifically covering trespassing on right-of-
way, but has very complete law covering malicious trespassing.
Kentucky. — Has no statutory regulation on trespassing, but Court
of Appeals has announced that the company is only responsible for injury
to a trespasser which could have been prevented by ordinary care.
Louisiana. — Has statute on stealing rides, but none relative to tres-
passing on railroad tracks or property.
Maine. — Trespass statute fully covers all forms of trespass on rail-
road property or tracks, and releases company of liability if law is prop-
erly posted.
Maryland. — Statute covers stealing rides on trains, but is silent on
common trespass.
Massachusetts.— Trespass statute covers trespass on tracks or right-
of-way. No provision covering malicious trespass.
Michigan. — Statutes do not cover trespassing on railroad tracks or
property, nor malicious trespass. Not broad enough to cover trespass on
railroad property.
Minnesota. — Statutes cover both malicious and common trespass on
railroad property.
Missouri. — Law covers trespass on tracks of railroad companies ; but
does not include malicious trespassing.
Montana. — Statute covers matter of disorder or refusal to pay fare,
use of force to expel, etc., but does not cover trespass on tracks or right-
of-way.
Nebraska. — General law covering malicious trespass, but scarcely
applicable to railroad property.
New York. — Covers trespassing on railroad tracks, but not malicious
trespassing.
Ohio. — Statute covers trespassing by team on tracks and right-of-
way, stealing of rides and malicious trespass, but not walking on tracks.
Oklahoma. — Covers malicious trespass and preservation of order on
railroad property.
Oregon. — Covers malicious trespass, unauthorized riding of equip-
ment and trespassing on tracks.
Pennsylvania. — Statute covers malicious trespass and unauthorized
riding on trains. Trespass signs must be worded as follows : "Notice. —
This is private property and all persons are hereby warned from trespass-
ing thereon under penalty of the law, as provided in the Act of Assembly
passed April 14th, 1905."
Rhode Island. — Statute covers trespass on right-of-way; no provision
for malicious trespassing.
South Dakota. — Malicious trespass only. No statute covering com-
mon trespass on tracks or right-of-way.
880 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
Tennessee. — Specified precautions to be taken to prevent accidents
on railroad to trespassers.
Utah. — Statute deals with unauthorized riding of equipment.
Virginia. — Covers malicious trespass, walking on tracks, stealing
rides, disorderly conduct, etc.
West Virginia. — Covers trespassing on trains and disorderly con-
duct.
Washington. — Statute covers trespassing on railroad right-of-way
and malicious destruction of railroad property.
It will be observed that there are no statutory regulations with re-
gard to the form of sign, character of wording to be employed, etc., ex-
cept in the State of Pennsylvania, which specifies that the sign should
read "Notice. — This is private property and all persons are hereby
warned from trespassing thereon under penalty of the law as provided
in the Act of Assembly passed April 14th, 1905."
The signs of this character in most general use are made of wood,
with wooden post, but there seems to be a greater tendency to use cast-
iron or steel plate with wrought-iron post than in the case of the cross-
ing signs. We also find that a number of roads that are how using wood
are considering the feasibility of going to a metal sign. The size of
signs, wording on same, character of lettering, etc., varies with each
road and scarcely any two of them are alike. The only similarity exists
in the cases of those roads which have adopted metal signs. The cost
of metal signs is but slightly in excess of the cost of many styles of
wooden signs. It is the experience of those roads which formerly used
the wooden signs and later adopted those of metal, that the metal sign,
while slightly more expensive in first cost, is more durable, and can
be more easily maintained, including repainting.
The Committee, therefore, presents a form of sign which would
seem to most nearly conform to what is required in the way of reason-
able first cost, durability, neatness and legibility. The wording on same
might conform to the judgment of the management of each particular
road, where statutory regulations do not provide for the . form of
wording.
These signs should be made of cast-iron ^4-in. in thickness, borders
to be raised MHn., with slight draught; they should be 1 ft. 6 in. deep
by 2 ft. 6 in. wide, with $i-'m. diagonal cast ribs on back for stiffness;
all signs to have face of letters and borders painted black on white
background ; posts and back of signs to be painted black, letters to be
raised %-'m. with slight draught; 2^2-in. wrought-iron pipe, or good
second-hand boiler tubes filled with grout to be used for posts. When
concrete or stone foundations are not used, the pipe is to be planted
3 ft. 6 in. deep in the ground and a i-in. diameter gas pipe about 18
in. long should be run through the pipe post about 1 ft. below ground
line to keep it from turning. The wording indicated on typical signs
presented, "RAILROAD PROPERTY— TRESPASSING FORBIDDEN
UNDER PENALTY OF LAW," or "DANGER— DO NOT TRESPASS
ON THE RAILROAD," is suggested.
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
881
BACK ELEVATION
CA5T IP >N PLATC
Railroad proper
TRESPA55INQ
FORBIDDEN UNDER
^PENALTY OF LAW
7
PLAN
DANGER
DO NOT
TRESPASS ON THE
RAILROAD
NOTE
ALL SIGNS TO HAVE
FACE OF LETTER5 AND BOR-
DERS PAINTED BLACK ON
WHITE BACKGROUND. P05T5 |j
AND BACK OF SIGNS TO BE
PAINTED rjLACIC LETTERS
AND BORDERS OF ALL
SIGNS TO BF RAISED "5
WITH SLIGHT DRAUGHT
GOOD SECOND HAND
601 LER. TUBES MAY BE
USED FOR POSTS ANP
FILLED WITH GROUT.
.L-l
L-J
f DANGER A
DO NOT
[TRESPASS ON THISJ
\^ BRIDGE. J
L-
Trespass Signs (Recommended).
882 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
(3) CONCRETE AND METAL AS COMPARED WITH WOOD
FOR FENCE POSTS.
A meeting of the Sub-Committee was held in Chicago on September
19, 1913, at which were present Maro Johnson, Chairman; Arthur
Crumpton, H. E. Billman, J. T. Frame.
The subject of concrete posts was taken up at the stage that the
Committee had reached at the conclusion of the previous year, and it
was determined to undertake to have exhaustive tests made to ascertain
the actual strength of the various kinds of concrete posts under different
conditions. Sample posts were to be secured from the different railroads
using them. Arrangements have been made to conduct the tests, ztnd
they will be supervised and financed by the Universal Portland Cement
Company, and made at the Lewis Institute of Chicago, to both of which
the Committee is indebted for the manifestation of interest. The results
of these tests will not be in shape for presentation for some time yet,
and the Committee hopes to submit interesting data on this subject
next year.
CONCLUSIONS.
Your Committee recommends :
(1) The adoption of the specifications and plan for highway cross-
ing signs as shown on page 873.
(2) The adoption of the specifications and plan for public trespass
signs as shown on page 881.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
Appendix A.
LAWS RELATIVE TO ERECTION OF CROSSING SIGNS.
In response to inquiry No. 4, "Laws relative to erection of crossing
signs," abstracts were received from thirty-three States, as follows :
ALABAMA. — Code of 1907, Section 5475. — Every railroad company
must erect, at all points where its road crosses any public road, at a
sufficient elevation to admit of the free passage of vehicles of every kind,
a sign, with large and distinct letters placed thereon, to give notice of the
proximity of the railroad and warn persons of the necessity of looking
out for the cars.
ARKANSAS. — Kirby's Digest 1904, Section 6596. — Every railroad
corporation in this State shall cause boards to be placed, well supported
by posts or otherwise, and constantly maintained, across each public
road or street where the same is crossed by the railroad on the same level.
Said boards shall be elevated, so as not to obstruct travel, and to be
easily seen by travelers, and on each side of said boards shall be
painted, in capital letters of at least the size of 9 in. each, the words
"RAILROAD CROSSING"— "LOOK OUT FOR THE CARS WHILE
THE BELL RINGS OR THE WHISTLE SOUNDS," but this section
shall not apply to streets in cities or villages, unless the corporation be
required to put up such boards by the officer having charge of such
streets.
ARIZONA. — And every such corporation shall also cause boards to
be placed, well supported by posts or otherwise, and constantly maintained,
across each public road or street where the same is crossed by railroad ;
said boards shall be elevated so as not to obstruct the travel, and to be
easily sene by travelers, and on each side of said boards shall be
painted in capital letters of at least the size of 9 in. each, the words,
"RAILROAD CROSSING,"— "LOOK OUT FOR THE CARS." If
such corporation fail to construct and maintain said crossings or to put
up boards as above provided, then the overseers, municipal authorities
or parties having legal control or charge of said roads or streets, shall
notify such corporations of the necessity for the construction thereof,
which notice shall be in writing, and shall be served by delivering a
copy of the same to the agent of the company most convenient to the
crossing ; upon the serving of such notice, if such corporation fail to
construct said crossings or put up said boards within 60 days from the
service of said notice, the parties having control or charge of said roads
or streets may proceed to construct said crossings or put up said boards
as herein provided, and shall be entitled to recover the amount ex-
pended, together with all accruing costs, from such corporation thus re-
fusing or neglecting to construct or put up the same ; and such corpor-
ation shall be liable for all damages resulting from such neglect to
construct such crossings or erect such sign boards as are hereby provided
for, said damages to be recovered from any court having jurisdiction
thereof, by civil action in the name of the parties injured or having leg il
control of said roads or streets. But in cities, towns or villages such
sign boards shall not be required, unless the corporation shall be re-
quired to put up such boards by the officers having charge of such streets.
CANADA. — Railway Act, par. 243. — Sign board at every highway
crossed at rail level by any railway, shall be erected and maintained at
each crossing, and shall have the words, "RAILWAY CROSSING"
883
884 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
painted on each side thereof in letters at least 6 in. in length. In
the Province of Quebec such words shall be in both the English and the
French languages. Par. 382. — Every company which fails or neglects to
erect and maintain at each crossing where a highway is crossed at rail
level by the Railway of the Company, a sign board having the words
"RAILWAY CROSSING" painted on each side thereof, in letters at
least 6 in. in length and in the Province of Quebec in both the English
and the French languages, shall incur a penalty not exceeding forty
dollars.
CONNECTICUT.— General Statutes, Revision of 1902, Sec. 3785.—
Every company shall keep and maintain at each crossing at grade of an\
highway at which there is no gate, warning boards of such description
as the Commissioners -may approve.
DELAWARE. — General Incorporation Law 1899, Sec. 92. — Every
railroad corporation formed under this Act shall cause signal boards, well
supported by posts, or otherwise, at such heights as to be easily seen
by travelers, and not obstructing travel, containing on each side, in capi-
tal letters, at least 5 in. high the following inscription, "RAILROAD
CROSSING," to be placed and constantly maintained, at such public
highway where it is crossed by the railroad at the same level ; but such
board need not be put up in cities or towns, unless required by the au-
thorities thereof.
FLORIDA. — Acts 1874, Chap. 1987, Sec. 34. — Every railroad company,
whenever its track crosses a highway, shall put up large sign boards at or
near said crossing with the following inscription in large letters on b;.th
sides of the boards : "LOOK OUT FOR THE CARS." In all cor-
porated cities the said company shall cause the bell on the engine to be
rung before crossing any of the streets of a city, and their trains shall
not go faster through any of the traveled streets of a city than at the
rate of four miles per hour.
ILLINOIS. — Hurd's Revised Statutes of Illinois, Sec. 67, Chap. 114. —
Every railroad corporation shall cause boards, well supported by posts
or otherwise, to be placed and constantly maintained upon each public
road or street, where the same is crossed by its railroad on the same
level. Said boards shall be elevated so as not to obstruct the travel,
and to be easily seen by travelers. On each side of said boards shall be
painted in capital letters of at least the size of 9 in. high each, the words
"RAILROAD CROSSINGS," or, "LOOK OUT FOR THE CARS."
This section shall not apply to streets in cities or incorporated towns or
villages, unless such railroad corporation shall be required to put up such
boards by the corporate authorities of such cities, towns or villages;
provided, that when warning boards have already been erected under
existing laws, the maintenance of the same shall be a sufficient com-
pliance with the requirements of this section.
INDIANA. — Chap. 224, Sec. 1. — Be it enacted by the General As-
sembly of the State of Indiana, that from and after January 1, 1912,
it shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation, or the lessee or
receiver of any person, firm or corporation, who shall own or operate
any line of steam or interurban railroad in this State to run trains on
the same without installing and maintaining at each grade crossing of its
railroad with any public highway, highway crossing signs, to be placed
at right angles with the highways where possible, and the construction of
same and warning notice to be as follows : A substantial upright post,
13 ft. or more in length, 3V2 ft. of which shall be in the ground; a
board of wood or metal to be placed not closer to the ground than 7
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 885#
ft. on this post at right angles with the post, on which shall appear the
wor.d "DANGER" in red or black letters; two other boards to be placed
diagonally across each other just above the board on which the word
"DANGER", is printed, and on one of the two boards the word "RAIL-
ROAD" shall appear, and on the other the word "CROSSING." Where
two railroads are crossed by the highway, parallel with each other, and
not further than ioo ft. distant from each other, a board shall be
placed at the top of the diagonal boards on which shall appear the
word "TWO" ; the boards on which the word "DANGER" is written
shall be at least 4 ft. in length ; the boards on which the word "RAIL-
ROAD CROSSING" is written shall not be less than 5 ft. in length,
and where there are two railroads to be crossed the board with the
word "TWO" on it shall not be less than 2. ft. in length ;
the size of all letters on the signs shall not be less than 6. in. high —
provided, that the crossing signs of carriers in this state heretofore
approved by the Railroad Commission may remain and be taken as a
compliance with the terms of this Act; and, provided further, that any
other sign than the type described above mav be constructed and used
with the consent of the Railroad Commission of Indiana. Sec. 2. —
Be it further enacted, that any person, firm or corporation, or the
lessee or receiver of any person, firm or corporation, violating
the provisions of section 1 of this Act are guilty of a misdemeanor
and on conviction shall be fined not less than $25 nor more than $200.
Sec. 3. — Be it further enacted, that all laws, or parts of laws, that are
in conflict with this Act are hereby repealed.
IOWA. — Code of Iowa 1897, Sec. 2054. — Every corporation construct-
ing or operating a railway shall make proper cattle guards where the
same enters or leaves any improved or fenced land, and construct at
all points where such railway crosses any public road, good, sufficient
and safe crossings and cattle guards, and erect at such points, at a
sufficient elevation from such a road as to admit of free passage of
vehicles of every kind, a sign with large and distinct letters placed
thereon, to give notice of the proximity of the railway, and warn
persons of the necessity of looking out for trains. Any railway com-
pany neglecting or refusing to comply with the provisions of this sec-
tion shall be liable for all damages sustained by reason of such refusal
or neglect, and it shall only be necessary in order to recover for the
injured party to prove such neglect or refusal.
KANSAS. — General Statutes 1909, Sec. 1771. — Every railway cor-
poration shall cause boards to be placed, well supported by posts or
otherwise, and constantly maintained, across each traveled public road
or street, when the same is crossed by the railway on the same level.
Said boards shall be elevated so as not to obstruct the travel, and to
be easily seen by travelers; and on each side of such boards shall be
painted in capital letters, "LOOK OUT FOR THE CARS." But this
section shall not apply to streets in cities or towns, unless the cor-
poration shall be. required to put up such boards by the city or town
authorities, or the officer having charge of such streets.
KENTUCKY. — Kentucky Statutes, Sec. 773. — Every company shall
cause signal boards, well supported by posts, or otherwise, at such
heights as to be easily seen by travelers, and not obstructing travel,
containing on each side, in capital leters at least 5 in. high, the follow-
ing inscription, "RAILROAD CROSSING," to be placed, and con-
stantly maintained, at every public highway where it is crossed by the
railroad at the same level; but such boards need not be put up in cities
or towns, unless required by the local authorities thereof.
886 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
Sec. 793. — In addition to subjecting itself to any damages that may
be caused by such failure or violation be guilty of a misdemeanor, and
be fined for such failure or violation not less than $100 nor more than
$500, to be recovered by indictment in the Circuit Court of any county
through which the company in default operates a line of road, or in
the Franklin Circuit Court.
MAINE.— Chapter 51, Sec. 70.— A sign with the words "RAILROAD
CROSSING" distinctly painted thereon on each side in letters plainly
legible, shall be placed on each side of a way where it is crossed by a
railroad, on a post or other structure in such a position as to be easily
seen by persons passing upon such way.
MARYLAND. — Code 1912, Art. 23, Sec. 280. — Every railroad com-
pany organized under this article shall be required to erect at all
points where its road shall cross any public road, at a sufficient elevation
from such public road to admit of the free passage of vehicles of every
kind, a sign with large and distinct letters placed thereon, to give notice
of the proximity of the railroad, and warn persons of the necessity of
looking out for the cars; and any company neglecting or refusing to
erect such signs shall be liable in damages for all injuries occurring
to persons or property from such neglect or refusal.
MASSACHUSETTS.— Acts 1906, Chapter 463, Part 11, Sec. 149.—
Every railroad corporation shall cause boards, supported by posts, or
otherwise, at such heights as to be easily seen by travelers, and not ob-
structing travel, containing on each side in capital letters at least 9 in.
long, the following inscription— "RAILROAD CROSSING," "LOOK
OUT FOR THE ENGINE"— to be placed and constantly maintained
across each highway or townway where it is crossed by the railroad at
the same level ; or the corporation may substitute therefor warning
boards on each side of the crossing, of such form, size and description
as the Board of Railroad Commissioners shall approve.
MICHIGAN. — Sec. 198. — A bell of at least 30 lbs. weight and a
steam whistle shall be placed on each locomotive engine, and said
whistle shall be twice sharply sounded at least forty rods before the
crossing is reached, and after the sounding of the whistle the bell shall
be rung continuously until the crossing is passed, under a penalty
of $100 for every neglect; provided, that at street crossings within the
limits of incorporated cities or villages the sounding of the whistle
may be omitted, unless required by the Common Council or Board of
Trustees of such city or village ; and the company shall also be liable
for all damages which shall be sustained by any person by reason of
such neglect.
Every railroad corporation shall, and they are hereby required to
cause signal boards to be placed, well supported by posts or otherwise,
and maintained at each public road or street where the same is crossed
bv the railroad track at grade. The board shall be so elevated as to not
obstruct the travel, and to be seen by people before reaching the cross-
ing, and on each side of such board shall be painted in letters not less
than 12 in. in height, the words "RAILROAD CROSSING"; but such
boards need not be put up in cities or villages, unless required by the
proper officers thereof, or upon the order of the Commissioner of Rail-
roads (railroad commission). This provision shall not apply to signal
boards already erected.
MINNESOTA. — Revised laws of Minnesota, 1905, Sec. 1994. — Every
such company shall maintain, wherever any of its lines cross a public
road, a proper and conspicuous sign indicating such crossing. Any
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 887
such company failing to comply with any requirement of this section
shall forfeit to the town or municipality having charge of such road
$10 for each day that such failure continues.
MISSISSIPPI. — Code of 1906, Sec. 4050. — Every railroad company
shall cause a board to be erected and kept up, upon a post or frame suf-
ficiently high, at every place where the railroad may cross a highway,
with this inscription, "LOOK OUT FOR THE LOCOMOTIVE," or
this, "RAILROAD CROSSING." And on failure to observe this sec-
tion such company shall be liable to a fine of fifty dollars for each
failure, and such offence shall be cognizable before any justice of the
peace of the county. A failure to erect the board, as directed, shall be
deemed to have occurred once every day the company may continue
so to fail or neglect to have the same set up, after two days' notice to
an agent or section master ; and the company shall be liable to any
party injured by such failure or neglect for all damages that he may
have sustained thereby.
MISSOURI. — Revised Statutes of Missouri, Sec. 10626. — Every such
corporation shall require boards to be placed, well supported by posts
or otherwise, and constantly maintained, at all crossings of public roads
•or streets where gates are not ' provided, so as to be easily seen by
'travelers; on each side of such boards shall be painted in capital
letters of at least the size of 9 in. each, the words "RAILROAD CROSS-
ING." If such corporation fail to construct or maintain said crossings
or to put up such boards as above provided, then the overseers,
municipal authorities or other parties having legal control or
charge of, or interested in said roads or streets as above stated, shall
notify such corporation of the necessity of the construction and erection
thereof, which notice or petition shall be in writing and shall be served
by delivering a copy of the notice or petition to the agent of the cor-
poration most convenient to the crossing. Upon the service of such
notice or petition, if such corporation fail to construct said crossing or
to put up said boards within thirty days from the date of said notice
or petition, the parties having charge of or interested in said roads or
streets may proceed to construct and open said crossings or put up said
boards as herein provided, and shall be entitled to recover double the
amount expended, together with all cost of the road district, county,
municipal, corporation or persons interested living in a town not in-
corporated at whose expense the said crossing was constructed or said
boards erected, in any court of competent jurisdiction, from such cor-
poration refusing to construct or erect the same. And such corporation
shall be liable for all damages resulting from such neglect to construct
such crossing or erect such boards, said damages to be recovered in the
name of the party injured, in any court of competent jurisdiction.
NEW JERSEY. — That every such corporation shall cause boards
to be placed well supported by boards or otherwise, and constantly main-
tained across each traveled public road or street, where the same is crossed
by the railroad on the same level ; said boards shall be elevated so as not
to obstruct the travel and to be easily seen by travelers ; and on each
side of said boards shall be painted in capital letters of at least the size
of nine inches each, the words "LOOK OUT FOR THE LOCOMO-
TIVE," but this section shall not apply to streets in cities or villages unless
the corporation shall be required to put up such boards by the officers
having charge of such streets.
NEW YORK — Railroad Law, Sec. 53. — Every railroad corporation
shall cause a sign board to be placed well supported and constantly
maintained, at every crossing where its "road is crossed by a public
888 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
highway at grade. Such sign board shall be of a shape and design to
be approved by the Public Service Commission and shall have suitable
words painted thereon to warn travelers of the existence of such grade
crossing. The Commission shall have the power to describe the loca-
tion and elevation of such sign and the words of warning thereon. The
Commission may dispense with the use of such sign boards at such
crossings as it may designate in cities and villages.
NORTH DAKOTA.— Revised Code 1905, Sec. 4294.— Every railroad
corporation operating a line of road within this state must erect suitable
signs of caution at each crossing of its road with a public highway,
which sign shall be painted with black Roman or block letters on white
background, said letters to be at least 8 in. in length and proportion-
ately broad; said signs shall be placed at the top of posts at least 15 ft.
high.
OHIO. — General Code, Sec. 8852. — At all points where its road
crosses a public road, at a sufficient elevation from such public road
to admit of the free passage of vehicles of every kind, each company
shall erect a sign, with large and distinct letters placed thereon, to
give notice of the proximity of the railroad, and warn persons to be
on the lookout for the locomotive. A company which neglects or
refuses to comply with this provision shall be liable in damages for
all injuries which occur to persons or property from such neglect or
refusal.
OKLAHOMA. — Compiled Laws 1909, Sec. 1385. — Every railroad cor-
poration operating a line of road within this state must erect suitable
signs of caution at each crossing of its road with a public highway, which
sign shall be painted with black Roman or block letters, on white back-
ground, "RAILROAD CROSSING"— "LOOK OUT FOR THE CARS."
Said letters to be at least 8 in. in length and proportionately broad ; said
signs shall be placed at the top of posts at least 15 ft. high.
Sec. 1386. — In case any railroad corporation shall refuse or neglect
for a space of thirty days after notice given by the Board of County
Commissioners to comply with the provisions of the preceding sections,
it shall become the duty of the county commissioners of each county
through which any such railroad shall be in operation to erect such signs
and the company shall be liable for all expenses so incurred by said
commissioners.
PENNSYLVANIA. — In Pennsylvania there is no statutory provision
as to crossing signs. The cases as to proper precaution lay down the
general rule that due care, according to the circumstances, must be
taken to prevent accidents, and the question of whether or not proper
precautions (including signs at crossings) have been taken would prob-
ably be referred to the jury in case of suit for damages for injuries
at a crossing.
RHODE ISLAND.— General Laws, Chapter 215, Sec. 15.— Every
railroad corporation shall cause to be erected and to be maintained at
every turnpike, highway or public way, where it is crossed by the railroad
upon the same level therewith, a suitable sign board upon each side of
the crossing; and on each side of said sign board shall be painted in
black capital letters of at least the length of 9 in., these words : "RAIL-
ROAD CROSSING, STOP, LOOK AND LISTEN." Said sign boards
shall be erected and placed under the direction and with the consent of
the Railroad Commissioner. Every railroad corporation shall also adopt
such other precautionary measures at such grade crossings as shall be
deemed proper by the Railroad Commissioner.
SIGNS, FENCES. AND CROSSINGS. 889
SOUTH DAKOTA.— Civil Code, Compiled Laws of South Dakota
1910, Sec. 536. — Every railroad corporation operating a line of road
within this state must erect suitable signs of caution at each crossing
of its road with a public highway, which sign shall be painted with
black Roman or block letters on white background, "RAILROAD CROSS-
ING," "LOOK OUT FOR THE CARS," said letters to be at least 8
in. in length and proportionately broad, said signs to be placed at the
top of posts at least 15 ft. high.
TENNESSEE.— Shannon's Code, Sec. 1574.— In order to prevent
accidents upon railroads the following precautions shall be observed :
The overseers of every public road crossed by a railroad shall place
at each crossing a sign marked, "LOOK OUT FOR THE CARS WHEN
YOU HEAR THE WHISTLE OR BELL," and the county court
shall appropriate money to defray the expenses of said signs; and no
engine shall be compelled to blow the whistle or ring the bell at any
crossing unless it is so designated.
TEXAS. — Sayle's Civil Statutes, Article 4506. — Such corporations,
shall erect at all points where its road shall cross any first or second
class public road, at a sufficient elevation from such public road to ad-
mit of the free passage of vehicles of every kind, a sign with large
and distinct letters placed thereon, to give notice of the proximity of
the railroad and warn persons of the necessity of looking out for the
cars, and any company neglecting or refusing to erect such signs shall
be liable in damages for all injuries occurring to persons or property
from such neglect or refusal.
VIRGINIA. — Pollard's Code, Sec. 1294-d. — Every railroad company
shall cause signal boards, well supported by posts or otherwise, at such
heights as to be easily seen by travelers and not obstructing travel,
containing on each side in capital letters, at least 5 in. high, the fol-
lowing inscription, "RAILROAD CROSSING," to be^ placed and con-
stantly maintained, at each public highway where it • is crossed by the
railroad at the same level, but such board need not be put up in
cities or towns, unless required by the local authorities thereof.
WEST VIRGINIA. — Sec. 2359. — Every such corporation shall cause
boards to be placed, well supported by posts or otherwise, and constantly
maintained across each public road or street, where the same is crossed
by the railroad on the same level. Said boards shall be elevated so as
not to obstruct the travel, and be easily seen by travelers, and on each
side of said boards shall be painted in legible capital letters, "RAIL-
ROAD CROSSING, LOOK OUT FOR THE LOCOMOTIVE." Any
corporation failing to comply with the provisions of this section within
six months after the passage of this chapter as amended, shall, for each
crossing at which there is such failure, be fined five dollars for every
week the failure may continue.
WASHINGTON.— Laws of Washington 1913, Chapter 128, Sec. 3.—
The Public Service Commission of Washington shall require any com-
pany operating such a railroad as is described in section 1 of this Act, to
erect and maintain, upon such part of its line, at every point where a
highway crosses such line, a sign or warning, in form to be prescribed
by such commission.
WISCONSIN.— Wisconsin Statutes 191 1, par. 5, Sub-Div. A, Sec.
1809. — Every such railroad company or corporation shall erect and main-
tain at all times at every place where its railroad track crosses a public
highway or street, and near such crossings, a large sign board with
the following inscription, painted in large letters on each side, "LOOK
OUT FOR THE CARS," in such manner as to be visible on the highway
track at least 100 ft. distant on each side of such crossing.
890 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
RULINGS OF PUBLIC UTILITY COMMISSIONS.
In response to inquiry No. 5, "Rulings of Public Utility Commissions,"
the following information was received:
CONNECTICUT.— A decree of the Public Utilities Commission,
January 24, 1913. On consideration, we do hereby approve of warning
boards proposed to be hereafter erected or renewed from time to time,
as occasion may require, by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
Railroad Company, at crossings of its railroad, by highways at grade,
at which there is no gate, said boards to consist of two boards placed
crosswise, each 8 ft. in length, one foot in width and il/i in. in thick-
ness, painted white on both of its sides, each board bearing in black
letters on one side the words, "RAILROAD CROSSING," and on the
other side the words, "STOP, LOOK AND LISTEN"; and to be used
in lieu of those heretofore approved by the Board of Railroad Com-
missioners and to be of a design shown on blue print plan on file in
this office dated December 24, 1912, and entitled "Standard High Way
Crossing Sign." Said boards to be securely fastened to a post, consist-
ing of 66-lb. relay rail, or heavier, and when erected, such post to be
securely set in the ground, in a concrete bed, to a depth of at least 4 ft.
land to be of sufficient height that the lower portion of each of the
boards shall be approximately 12 ft. above the surface of the ground.
INDIANA. — Railroad Commission of Indiana, Circular No. 26,
August 14, 1908. — One hundred and seventy-three persons were killed
while trespassing on the tracks or cars of the railroads in Indiana during
the year ending June 30, 1908. While the railroads are not to be held
responsible for these deaths, as they are for accidents resulting from
negligence, it is an act of humanity and a moral, if not a legal, obliga-
tion to prevent this loss of life where it is possible so to do. Acci-
dent reports for July and August indicate a large increase in these
fatalities, and fatalities at highway grade crossings.
Nine states of the Union make explicit prescriptions with reference
to walking on railroad tracks ; and three, as all should do, expressly
forbid it. The State of Indiana, Burns 1908, Sec. 2280, makes it un-
lawful only after warning: "The offence defined by the statute con-
sists in entering unlawfully upon the lands of another after having
been forbidden to do so by the owner or occupant. The unlawful entry
in defiance of the command of the lawful occupant constitutes the offence."
In a recent special case in one of the large cities of the state, where
railroad tracks were notoriously and daily used by a large number of
citizens as thoroughfares, the Commission called upon the Division Super-
intendent to take steps under this statute to abate this practice. We
are now advised by the railroad company that "warning signs are placed
at the principal streets, that the mayor has promised us that he will
have policemen placed to notify people that they are trespassing, and
that we do not feel it necessary for a member of the Commission to come
to this city for the purpose of taking up this question with these people."
Success and progress in the individual case demonstrate that the
same work should be undertaken in order that like results may be
achieved at many places in this state.
This Commission is of the opinion that a more systematic, general
and determined effort should be made by the railroad companies and lo-
cal authorities to keep trespassers off the tracks. We recommend and
direct that you shall place warning signals, indicating "DANGER" in
led letters at such places in towns, cities or country, and on such
bridges and trestles as are often and repeatedly used by the public for
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 891
footways or thoroughfares. We recommend and direct that you shall
seek the co-operation of local authorities, using this circular if advisable,
after placing the warnings referred to, and that you advise the Commis-
sion of the results of your efforts, to the end that we may use our
official influence to aid you in any case where local authorities refuse
to enforce the law. You will take this most important matter up at
once and advise us as indicated herein.
INDIANA. — Railroad Commission of Indiana, Circular No. 77. — For
three years this Commission has been urging the installation of highway
crossing signs with the word "DANGER" inscribed thereon. Most of
the companies have complied. For such that have failed or refused, the
General Assembly has prescribed Chapter 224, Acts of 1911, set out here-
after. Notice is hereby given that in all cases where these signs are
not installed, and in all cases where the same are not maintained with
letters plainly legible, prosecutions will be commenced for the penalties
provided by the Act. The Commission has directed its inspectors to re-
port all failures, and this Act will be strictly enforced.
NEW JERSEY. — Board of Public Utility Commissioners. — In the
matter of conference with representatives of railroad companies respect-
ing adoption of a standard crossing sign, recommendations: (1) In
replacing existing crossing warning signs or erecting new signs, they
use a sign conforming substantially to that shown upon the blue print
attached hereto, both as to the construction thereof and the notice thereon;
(2) that such signs be located at such points as will admit of the best
view thereof by persons approaching the railroad crossing; (3) that when
such signs are so located that the same cannot be seen by persons upon
the highway at a distance of at least 150 ft. from the crossing, an addi-
tional sign be erected at a distance of at least 150 ft. from such cross-
ing, which sign shall give notice of the danger and of the distance to
the crossing, and (4) that where two independent railroads run in a
direction substantially parallel, and within four hundred feet of each
other, the lower blade marked, "TWO CROSSINGS," shall be added.
RHODE ISLAND.— Order No. 20 of the Public Utilities Commis-
sion of Rhode Island, dated December 20, 1912, on approval of stand-
ard highway crossing signs, is as follows: Application of New York,
New Haven & Hartford Railroad Company for approval of crossing
sign. — Upon consideration, it is ordered, that the approval of the
Commission be and the same hereby is given to the Standard High-
way Crossing Sign, as shown on plan filed with application.
Appendix B.
ABSTRACTS FROM STATUTES IN REGARD TO
TRESPASSING.
CANADA. — Par. 407. — Every person who (a) wilfully leaves open
any gate on either side of the railway, provided for the use of any
farm crossing, without some person being at or near such gate to
prevent animals passing through it on the railway; or (b) not being
an officer or employe of the company acting in the discharge of his
duty, takes down any part of a railway fence, or (c) turns any horse,
cattle or other animal upon or within the inclosure of the railway,
except for the purpose of and while crossing the railway in charge
of some competent person, using all reasonable care and precaution
to avoid accident; or (d) except as authorized by this Act, without
the consent of the company, rides, leads or drives any horses or
other animals to enter upon the railway, and within the fences and
guards thereof, shall, on summary conviction, be liable to a penalty
of twenty dollars for such offence.
2. Every such person shall also be liable to the company for any
damages to the property of the company, or for which the company
may be responsible, by "eason of such act or omission.
3. Every person guilty of any offence under this section shall,
in addition to the penalty and liability therein provided, be liable
to pay to any person injured by reason of the commission of such
offence all damages thereby sustained.
Pars. 408 and 409. — Every person not connected with the rail-
way or employed by the company who walks along the tracks thereof
except where the same is laid across or along a highway is liable
on summary conviction to a penalty not exceeding ten dollars.
Any person who uses any highway at rail level for the purpose
of passing on foot along such highway across the railway, except
during the time when such highway crossing is used for the passage
of carriages, carts, horses or cattle, along the said highway is liable
on summary conviction to a penalty not exceeding ten dollars, if
(a) the company has erected and completed, pursuant to order of the
board, over its railway, at or near in lieu of such highway crossing a
foot bridge or foot bridges, for the purpose of enabling persons pass-
ing on foot along such highway to cross the railway by means of
such bridge or bridges; and (b) such foot bridge is maintained or
such foot bridges are maintained by the company in good and effi-
cient repair.
CONNECTICUT— Public Acts of 1905, Chapter 202.— Every per-
son who shall without right be upon or attach himself to, any engine
or car upon the track of a railroad or occupy or be upon any part
of the platform or grounds of any station or yard of such railroad,
or ride, drive, or lead any beast on said track, shall be fined not more
than fifty dollars, or imprisoned not more than thirty days, or both.
Every station agent of any such company, who shall know or have
immediate information that any person has violated any provision
of this section, shall forthwith notify a grand juror or other informing
officer of the town in which such offence shall have been committed.
DELAWARE. — Code 1892, Chapter 416, Column 14, Laws of
Delaware, Sec. 1. — That if any person shall enter into, or get upon,
or upon the platform or steps attached to any railroad car, of what-
ever kind, for the purpose of riding upon the railroad without the
892
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 893
payment of fare, contrary to the rules of the railroad company, he
shall, upon proof thereof, before a justice of the peace, be subject to
a penalty of five dollars, which shall be for the use of the school dis-
trict in which the act shall be committed, and shall be recovered
in the name of such district with costs of suit.
Sec. 2. — That it shall be the duty of any constable of this state,
or police officer of any city or town, to arrest, without warrant, every
such offender and take him before a justice of the peace to be tried
for the said offence. Should the penalty and costs not be paid upon
judgment rendered, the justice shall commit the offender to some
proper place for safe keeping for ten days, and shall not before that
time be released therefrom unless the said penalty and costs are paid.
Sec. 3. — That suits for the penalty aforesaid shall be within the
jurisdiction of a justice of the peace.
Code of 1892, Sec. 21, Chapter 190, Vol. 19, Laws of Delaware. —
If any person shall wilfully enter into, upon, or trespass upon the
ways, lands, or premises of another in this state, he shall be guilty
of a nuisance. Any constable or other conservator of the peace,
the owner or occupier of such ways, lands or premises, his agents, or
employes, or any other person or persons whom he, or any of them
may call to their or his assistance, shall have authority to arrest
such offender, either with or without warrant, either upon the prem-
ises, or in immediate flight therefrom, and if with warrant, then at
any place, and take him before a justice of the peace, or mayor of a
city, in the county where the offence is committed; such justice of
the peace or mayor is hereby authorized to hear and determine every
such case in a summary manner, and if he shall find such person
guilty of the charge, shall for each offence, impose a fine of not more
than five dollars and costs. The person so found guilty may also
be held in recognizance with good security to keep the peace, and not
to trespass for one year, in the penal sum of one hundred dollars. If
the fine and costs are not paid, or recognizance not given when recog-
nizance is required, the justice or mayor shall commit such offender
to the county prison for a term not exceeding thirty days. All
prosecutions, proceedings and costs, where not herein otherwise di-
rected, shall be the same as in other criminal cases before such jus-
tices of the peace and mayor. Nothing in this section shall be con-
strued to limit or affect the jurisdiction of justices of the peace under
chapter 100 of the Revised Code, or to affect the right of the party
injured, to his civil action for damages, as in cases of trespass.
FLORIDA.— That Sec. 3424 of the General Statutes of the State
of Florida be, and the same is hereby, amended so as to read as
follows: 3424. — Whenever fences or enclosures have been or shall
hereafter be dispensed with in any county or part of a county in
this state, by reason of any no-fence law, or law making it unlawful
for live stock to run at large in such county or part of a county,
the laws of this state applicable to offences or trespass against
realty or injury thereto, or to property thereon, or connected there-
with, and in regard to hunting or fishing, or other kinds of trespass
on lands, shall not become inoperative, but shall apply to such unen-
closed or unfenced land with the same force and effect as if such
enclosures or fences had not been so dispensed with. Notices re-
quired to be posted on lands shall be sufficient if the sign board shall
have thereon in letters easily seen and read the word "POSTED"
in letters not less than two inches long and followed by the owner's
name.
894 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
IDAHO. — That section 2822 of the Revised Code of the State of
Idaho be amended to read as follows: Sec. 2822. — If any passenger
on any railroad train refuses to pay his fare, or to exhibit or sur-
render his ticket, when reasonably requested to do so, or uses
abusive, vulgar, obscene or profane language in a car occupied by
other passengers, or makes his presence offensive or unsafe to the
paid passengers, or if any trespasser be found on any car or train,
the conductor and employes of the railway company may put him and
his baggage out of the cars or off the train, using no unnecessary
force, at any station of the railway company operating such train,
which is open at the time of such ejection on stopping the train, but
not otherwise. Any conductor or employe of any railway company
violating the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a mis-
demeanor, and the railway company shall be liable for all damages
caused thereby.
INDIANA. — Burns' Annotated Indiana Statutes, Revision of 1908,
v ol. 1, Sec. 2280. — Whoever, being about to enter unlawfully upon the
enclosed or unenclosed land of another, shall be forbidden so to
do by the owner, or occupant, or his agent or servant, or who,
being unlawfully upon the enclosed or unenclosed land of another,
shall be notified to depart therefrom by the owner, or occupant,
or his agent or servant, and shall thereafter enter upon such land,
or neglect or refuse to depart therefrom shall be guilty of a mis-
demeanor, and, on conviction, shall be fined not less than five dol-
lars nor more than fifty dollars.
ILLINOIS. — Chapter 114, Sec. 79. — :No person or minor shall
climb, jump or step, stand upon, cling to, or in any way attach him-
self to any locomotive engine or car, either stationary or in motion,
upon any part of the track of any railroad, unless in so doing he
shall be acting in compliance with law, or by permission, under the
lawful rules and regulations of the corporation then owning or man-
aging such railroad.
Sec. 80. — Whenever any officer, agent or employe of any railroad
corporation shall have any information that any person or minor has
violated any of the provisions of the preceding section, and has thereby
endangered himself or caused reasonable alarm to others, said officer,
agent or employe shall, without unnecessary delay, make complaint of
such offence against such person or minor before some justice of the
peace.
Sec. 81. — Any person or minor who shall violate any of the pro-
visions of Sec. 79 of this Act shall be punished by a fine not exceed-
ing $25, to be recovered in an action of debt, in the name of the
people of the State of Illinois, before a justice of the peace, or, upon
conviction, by imprisonment in the county jail, or other place of
confinement, for a period not exceeding twelve hours.
Sec. 82. — The several railroad corporations in this state shall with-
out unnecessary delay cause printed copies of the three preceding
sections of this Act to be kept posted in conspicuous places at all
their stations along their lines of railroad in this state. Every
railroad corporation that shall neglect to post, and keep posted,
such notices as required by this section, shall, for each offence,
forfeit the sum of $25 to be recovered in an action of debt, in the
name of the people of the State of Illinois.
IOWA. — Code of Iowa 1897, Sec. 4807. — If any persons malici-
ously injure, remove or destroy any bridge, rail or plank road, or
place or cause to be placed any obstruction on such bridge or road;
or wilfully obstruct or injure any public road or highway; or malici-
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 895
ously cut, burn or in any way break down, injure or destroy any
telephone or telegraph post, or in any way cut, break or injure the
wires or any apparatus thereto belonging, he shall be imprisoned in
the penitentiary not more than five years, or be fined not exceeding
five hundred dollars and imprisoned in the county jail not exceeding
one year.
Sec. 4809. — If any person shall wilfully and maliciously place any
obstruction on the track of any railroad in the state, or remove any
rail therefrom, or in any other way injure such railroad or do any
other thing thereto whereby life of any person is or may be en-
dangered, he shall be imprisoned in the penitentiary for life, or for any
term not less than two years.
KANSAS. — There are no statutes specifically covering trespassers
on right-of-way, but attention is called to the following sections :
Sec. 914, General Statutes, 1909, provides that cities of the first
class shall have the power to provide for the punishment of all per-
sons who may in any way wrongfully interfere with or obstruct, in-
jure or destroy any railway track, car, engine, or trucks, or loiter
around or about the same, or upon the right-of-way or ground of any
railway company.
Sec. 2593. — Any person or persons who shall wilfully remove,
break, displace, throw down, destroy or in any manner injure any
iron, wooden or other kind of rail or other branches or branch ways,
or any part of the tracks, or any bridge, viaduct, culvert, embankment,
parapet, switch or other fixtures or any part thereof attached to or
connected with the track or tracks of any railroad in the state, in
actual operation, 'or in the course of construction, or which shall
hereafter be constructed, or put in operation, or who shall wilfully
place any obstruction upon the rails or track of any such railroad,
shall on conviction thereof be punished by confinement at hard labor
in the penitentiary not less than five nor more than ten years; pro-
vided, that if any person or persons, shall by the commission of either
or any of the aforesaid offences, occasion the death of any person
or persons, the person or persons so offending shall upon conviction
be deemed guilty of murder in the first degree, and shall be pun-
ished as now provided by law for the punishment of murder in the
first degree.
Sec. 2889. — That every person who shall climb upon, hold to or in
any manner attach himself to any locomotive engine or freight or
passenger car, or train or trains of any character, while the same are
in motion or standing still, or who shall ride or attempt to ride
upon any locomotive engine, railroad train or trains of any char-
acter or in or upon any part thereof, for the purpose or with the
intent of stealing a ride thereon, at any place within this state shall
be guilty of a misdemeanor; provided, that this section shall not apply
to any employe of a railroad company operating such train, loco-
motive or car, nor to any person having business with or acting
under legal authority of such railroad company.
Sec. 9692 is a general statute covering common law trespass
and provides for civil damages and criminal liability, but in all proba-
bility it has no application to trespass upon railroad property unless
the trespasser shall knowingly break a glass or any part of it in a
building, or shall voluntarily throw down or open any doors, bars,
gates or fences and leave the same open or down.
LOUISIANA. — Acts of State of Louisiana 1908, Act 38, Sec. 1. —
Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Louis:ana.
that any person, other than a railway employe in the discharge of
896 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
his duties, who, without authority from the conductor of the train,
or permission of the engineer, brakeman or other employes in charge
of the train, and without paying the usual fare for such transporta-
tion, rides or attempts to ride on the top of any car, coach, engine
or tender on any railroad in this state, or on the drawheads between
the cars, or under the cars, on truss rods or trucks, or in any freight
car, or on the platform of any baggage car, express car or mail car
on any train in this state shall be guilty of a misdemeanor.
Sec. 2. — That any person found guilty of violating the first sec-
tion of this Act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be pun-
ished by a fine of not exceeding fifty dollars, or imprisonment not
exceeding six months or work on the street or public roads, at the
discretion of the court.
Sec. 3. — That any person charged with violation of the first
section of this Act may be tried in any parish of this state through
which such trains may pass, in which such violation may have
occurred, or may be discovered.
MAINE. — Chapter 52, Sec. 77. — Whoever without right, stands
or walks on a railroad track or bridge, or passes over such bridge
except by railroad conveyance, forfeits not less than five, nor more
than twenty dollars, to be recovered by complaint; and whoever,
without right, enters upon any railroad track with any team, or any
vehicle however propelled, or drives any team or propels any ve-
hicle upon any railroad track, shall be punished by fine of not less
than fifty dollars, or by imprisonment not less than thirty days.
Sec. 78. — A printed copy of the preceding section shall be kept
posted in a conspicuous place in every railroad passenger station; for
neglect thereof, the corporation forfeits not exceeding one hundred
dollars for every offence.
Sec. 79. — No railroad corporation shall be liable for the death of
a person walking or being on its ground contrary to law, or to its
valid rules and regulations.
MARYLAND. — Code of 1904, Art. 27, Sec. 366. — Any person who
shall cling, climb, jump or step or in any other way get upon any part
of any locomotive, engine or car, whether the same be freight, pas-
senger, coal, or otherwise, upon any part of the track of any railroad
within this state, unless in so doing he acts in compliance with law,
or by permission under the rules and regulations of the railroad
company or corporation operating and managing such railroad, shall
be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof before any
justice of the peace or any court of competent jurisdiction shall be
fined not less than one dollar nor more than twenty-five dollars, or
be subject to imprisonment in jail or in the house of correction for
not more than six months, or to both fine and imprisonment in the
discretion of the justice of the peace trying the case, or court before
whom the case may be tried; or if any such person be a minor under
sixteen years of age, he may in the discretion of the justice of the
peace or any court trying the case, be committed to any reformatory
institution provided by law, and authorized to receive the same, for
such period as the justice of the peace or court may determine, not
to exceed two years.
MASSACHUSETTS.— Acts 1906, Chapter 463, part 11, Sec. 232.—
Whoever without right knowingly stands or walks on a railroad track
shall forfeit not less than five nor more than fifty dollars.
MINNESOTA. — Revised laws of Minnesota 1905, Sec. 5124. —
Every person who (1) shall displace, remove, injure or destroy a
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 897
rail, sleeper, switch, bridge, viaduct, culvert, embankment or struc-
ture or any part thereof, attached or appertaining to or connected
with a railway, whether operated by steam, electricity or any other
motive power; (2) shall place any obstruction upon the track of such
a railway, or (3) shall wilfully discharge a loaded firearm, or pro-
ject or throw a stone or other missile at a railway train, locomotive,
car or vehicle standing or moving upon a railway shall be punished
as follows:
If thereby the safety of any person is endangered, by imprison-
ment in the state prison for not more than ten years. In every
other case, by imprisonment in the state prison for not more than
three years, or by fine of not more than two hundred and fifty dollars
or both.
Every person who, without lawful authority, shall break down
or carry away any part of any fence, bars or gate at a crossing over
anj' railway track, or plank used for such crossing, or shall destroy or
injure any hedge, ditch or other structure used or intended as a fence
to inclose any railway tracks, every person using any gate or bars or
opening the same for any purpose, at any railway crossing, who
shall permit any animal to stray upon a railway track or inclosed
right-of-way, or who shall leave such bars down, or gate open, so
the animals may stray upon such railway track, and every person
who shall lead, drive or turn upon such track any animal for graz-
ing or other purpose, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and punished
for each such offence by imprisonment in the county jail for not more
than thirty days, or by a fine of not less than ten dollars nor more
than fifty dollars.
Sec. 5148. — Every person not an employe of a railway company,
who, without permission from such company, on foot or with any ani-
mal or vehicle, shall enter upon any railway bridge or trestle, or
who, without a permit, shall ride, operate or propel a velocipede,
track bicycle or tricycle on or along the track of any railway, shall
be guilty of a misdemeanor.
MISSOURI. — If any person not connected with, or employed
upon the railroad, shall walk upon the track or tracks thereof, except
where the same shall be laid across or along a publicly traveled road
or street, or at any crossing as hereinbefore provided, and shall re-
ceive harm on account thereof, such person shall be deemed to have
committed a trespass in so walking upon said track in any action
brought by him on account of such harm against the corporation
owning such railroad, but not otherwise.
MONTANA. — 8316 (404) Use of force not unlawful. To use
or attempt to offer to use force or violence upon or towards the
person of another is not unlawful in the following cases: (5) When
committed by a carrier of passengers or the authorized agent or
servants of such carrier, or by any person assisting them at their
request in expelling from a carriage, coach, railway car vessel or
other vehicle, a passenger who refuses to obey a lawful and reason-
able regulation prescribed for the conduct of passengers, if such
vehicle has first been stopped at any usual stopping place or near
any dwelling house, and the force or violence used is not more than
sufficient to expel the offending passenger with a reasonable regard
to his personal safety.
4238 (975). — Passengers refusing to pay fare. — If any passenger
refuses to pay his fare, or to exhibit or surrender his ticket, when
reasonably requested so to do, the conductor and employes of the
corporation may put him and his baggage out of the car, using no
898 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
unnecessary force, at any usual stopping place, or near any dwelling
house, on stopping the train.
NEBRASKA.^Cobby's Ann. Statutes 191 1, Sec. 2183.— If any
person shall wilfully and maliciously injure or deface any church edi-
fice, school house, dwelling house or other building, its fixtures,
books or appurtenances, or shall commit any nuisance therein, or
shall purposely and maliciously commit any trespass upon the en-
closed grounds attached thereto, or any fixtures placed thereon, or
any enclosure or sidewalk about the same, such person shall be fined
in any sum not exceeding one hundred dollars.
Sec. 3042. — That any person or persons who shall go upon or
pass over any cultivated or enclosed lands of this state, without the
consent of the owner or occupant thereof, or who shall do, or whose
accompanying dog shall do any damage, to or upon said premises,
or to any property thereon shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor,
and upon conviction thereof shall pay a fine of not less than the
amount of damage committed, nor more than double the amount of
such damage, and in addition thereto, shall be liable to the person or
persons suffering such damages for the amount thereof.
Sec. 3043. — Any person or persons who shall enter or go upon
any enclosure or cultivated lands, owned or occupied by another,
and shall refuse upon request of the owner, or occupant thereof, to
go immediately therefrom, shall for each such refusal be deemed
guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall pay a
fine not less than five dollars, -nor more than fifty dollars for each
such offence so committed.
NEW YORK. — Sec. 83. — No person other than those connected
with or employed upon the railroad shall walk upon or along its
track or tracks, except where the same shall be laid across or along
streets or highways, in which case he shall not walk upon the track
unless necessary to cross the same. Any person riding, leading
or driving any horse or other animal upon any railroad, or within
the fences and guards thereof, other than at a farm or street or for-
est crossing, without the consent of the corporation, shall forfeit
to the people of the state the sum of ten dollars, and pay all dam-
ages sustained thereby to the party aggrieved.
OHIO. — Sec. 12522. — Whoever, being about to enter unlawfully
upon the lands or premises of another is forbidden so to do by the
owner or occupant, his agent or servant, or being unlawfully upon
the lands or premises of another, is notified to depart therefrom, by
the owner or occupant, his agent or servant, and thereafter enters upon
such lands or premises, or neglects or refuses to depart therefrom,
shall be fined not less than one dollar nor more than five dollars.
Sec. 12542. — Whoever draws or drives a two or four wheeled
vehicle on or between the rails or tracks or on or along the graded
roadway of a steam railroad, unless compelled by necessity so to do.
without the knowledge and consent of the owner or controller of
such road, shall be fined not less than five dollars nor more than
twenty-five dollars.
Sec. 12543. — Whoever climbs, jumps, steps, stands upon, clings
or attaches himself to a locomotive, engine or car upon the tracks
of a railroad, unless in compliance with law or by permission under
the lawful rules and regulations of the corporation managing such
railroad, shall be fined not more than twenty-five dollars.
Sec. 12544. — Whoever, at a place other than a private crossing,
or for a purpose other than crossing a railroad, rides or drives a
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 899
horse or other domestic animal into an enclosure of a railroad or
knowingly pemits such animal to go into or to remain in such en-
closure, or places within it feed, salt or other things to induce such
animal to enter into such enclosure or upon the tracks of such
railroad, or, while constructing a private crossing, permits a fence
to remain down or open for a longer time than is necessary to con-
struct or use such crossing, shall be fined not more than ten dollars
or imprisoned not less than ten days nor more than thirty days.
Sec. 12545. — Each ten hours an animal named in the next preceding
section is knowingly permitted to remain in an enclosure or upon a
track described therein, shall be an additional offence, and such animal
shall not be exempt from execution for a fine or costs imposed under such
section.
OKLAHOMA. — Sec. 1444. — Railway companies organized under the
laws of this state, or doing business within the state, are hereby author-
ized and empowered at their own expense to appoint and employ police-
men at such stations or other places on the line of their railroads within
this state, as said companies may deem necessary for the protection of
their property, and the preservation of order on their premises, and in
and about their cars, depots, depot grounds, yards, buildings or other
structures ; and said policemen shall have power and authority to arrest
with or without warrant, any person or persons who shall commit any
offences against the laws of this state, or the ordinances of any town,
city or other municipality, when such offence shall have been committed
upon the .premises of said companies, or in and about their cars, depots,
depot grounds, yards, buildings or other structures ; and shall also have
the authority of sheriffs, constables and peace officers in regard to the
arrest and apprehension of any such offenders, in or about the premises
or appurtenances aforesaid; but in case of the arrest by said policemen
of any person without warrant, they shall forthwith take such offender
Ibefore some justice of the peace or other magistrate having juris-
diction, and make complaint against such offender, according to law.
Nothing herein contained shall be construed as restricting the lawful
rights, powers or privileges of any sheriff, constable, policeman or peace
officer within their respective jurisdiction, and for the official acts of
such policeman or policemen the railroad company making such ap-
pointments shall be held responsible to the same extent as for the acts
of any of its general agents or employes.
OREGON. — Sec. 1977. — If any person shall wilfully break down,
injure, remove or destroy any free or toll bridge, railway, plank road,
macadamized road, telegraph or telephone posts, or wires, or any gate
upon any such road, or any lock or embankment of any canal, such
person, upon conviction thereof, shall be punished by imprisonment in
the penitentiary for not less than six months nor more than two years,
or by fine not less than $50 nor more than $1,000.
Sec. 2254. — Every person who shall, at any place within this state,
ride or attempt to ride upon any locomotive, engine, railroad car, rail-
road train, or trains of any character, or in or upon any part thereof
for the purpose or with the intent of stealing a ride thereon ; or who
shall for a like purpose, or with like intent, at any place within this
state, climb upon, hold to, or in any manner attach himself to any loco-
motive engine or railroad car or railroad trains of any character, while
the same are in motion or standing still, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor ;
provided, however, that this section shall not apply to any employe of a
railroad company operating such train, locomotive or car, nor to any
person having business with or acting under legal authority of such rail-
900 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
road company, nor to any passenger for hire lawfully entitled to ride
upon or in any passenger train.
Sec. 2255. — Authority is hereby given to and conferred upon
railroad conductors, brakemen, firemen and engineers of railroad trains
to immediately arrest any person or persons violating section 2254
without warrant or other process, and to call upon any bystanders or
other persons for assistance whenever the same may be necessary to
enable them to make such arrest. Any person authorized under this
act to make arrests may cause the person or persons so arrested to be
delivered to any sheriff, or other peace officer, to be prosecuted for such
offence; provided, however, nothing in this. Act shall be construed to
restrict the authority or duty of any regular peace officer within the
state to make arrests for said offences.
Lord's Oregon Laws, Sec. 2255. — It shall be unlawful for any person
to run or operate any push car, velocipede, hand car or any other wheeled
contrivance upon any railroad track in the state. Nothing in this Act
shall be construed to apply to any of the employes operating such rail-
road whose duty it is to keep such railroad track in condition as a
common carrier.
Section 2253 provides for punishment by a fine of not less than $20
or more than $100, or by imprisonment in jail not less than ten nor more
than fifty days, or both fine and imprisonment.
PENNSYLVANIA.— Purdon's Digest, 13th edition, Vol. 4, Sec.
227.— Any person found entering or being in or upon any railroad en-
gine or car, whether the same be passenger, freight, coal or other car,
on any railroad in any city or county in this commonwealth, contrary
to the rules of the person or persons, or corporation, owning or operating
the same, and with the intention of being in or upon, riding or traveling
upon such engine or car without paying fare, or committing larceny,
violence or destruction thereon, or of threatening, intimidating or assault-
ing travelers or other persons upon such engine or cars, shall, upon
conviction, forfeit and pay a penalty of not less than $5 nor more than
$15, which penalty shall be paid to the treasurer of the school district in
which said offence was committed, for the use of said district or be com-
mitted to the county jail of said county for a period not exceeding ten days,
either or both, at the discretion of the magistrate, and in default of
payment of fine as aforesaid and costs, then the said alderman, magistrate
or justice of the peace shall commit the person so convicted to the
jail of the county wherein the offence was committed for a further
period not exceeding ten days.
RHODE ISLAND.— Public laws of Rhode Island, Chapter 953, Sec.
35. — Every person who, without right knowingly, stands, or walks, or
rides a bicycle on the private right of way of any railroad or railway
operated by steam or other power, except for the purpose of crossing
it at a highway or other authorized crossing, shall be fined not less than
$5 nor more than $20. Any person violating this section may be ar-
rested without a warrant by any police officer or any special railroad
police officer and proceeded against according to law.
Sec. 36. — A printed copy of the preceding section shall be conspicu-
ously posted in a public place in or upon each passenger station of every
railroad and railway, operated by steam or other power, in this state.
SOUTH DAKOTA.— Code of South Dakota, Sec. 702.— (1) Every
person who maliciously either removes, displaces, injures or destroys
any part of any railroad, whether for steam, electricity or horse cars,
or any track of any railroad, or any branch or branchway, switch, turn-
out, bridge, viaduct, culvert, embankment, station, station house or other
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 901
structure or fixture, or any part thereof, attached to or connected with
any railroad; or (2) places any obstruction upon the rails or track of
any railroad or any branch, branchway, or turnout, connected with any
railroad, is punishable by imprisonment in the state prison not exceeding
four years, or in a county jail not less than six months.
TENNESSEE. — Shannon's Code, Sec. 1574, par. 4. — Every railroad
company shall keep the engineer, fireman, or some other person upon
the locomotive, always on the lookout ahead ; and when any person, ani-
mal or other obstruction appears upon the road, the alarm whistle shall
be sounded, the brakes put down, and every possible means employed to
stop the train and prevent an accident.
UTAH. — Chapter 41, Sec. 4341. — Every person who clandestinely en-
ters into or upon any railroad car for the purpose and with the in-
tention of riding or being transported thereon, or who having entered
into or upon any railroad car, rides over any railroad line or portion
thereof in this state without the knowledge and consent of the company
or person, owning or operating such car or railroad, and with the
intention to defraud such company or person of the fare or compensa-
tion for such transportation, shall be guilty of a misdeameanor, and, upon
conviction thereof, shall be punished by imprisonment in the county jail
not exceeding fifty davs, or by a fine in any sum less than $50, or by
both.
Sec. 4342. — Every person, being at the time a servant or employe of
any railroad company, who aids, abets, assists, counsels, advises, or en-
courages another person to enter into or ride upon any railroad car
for the purpose, with the intention, and, in a manner specified in the
section, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor.
VIRGINIA. — Sec. 3725. — If any person maliciously obstructs, re-
move, or injure any part of a canal, railroad, or urban, suburban or
interurban electric railway, or any lines of any electric power company,
or any bridges or fixtures thereof, or maliciously obstruct, tamper with,
injure, or remove any machinery, engine, car, trolley, supply or return
wires, or any other work thereof, or maliciously open, close, displace,
tamper with, or injure any switch, switch point, or switch lever, or signal
of any such company, whereby the life of any passenger or other person
on such canal, railroad, urban, suburban or interurban electric railway,
is put in peril, he shall be confined in the penitentiary not less than two
years nor more than ten years ; and, in the event of the death of any
passenger or other person resulting from such malicious act, the person
so offending shall be deemed guilty of murder, the degree to be de-
termined by the jury. If any act be committed unlawfully, but not
maliciously, the person so offending shall upon conviction thereof, be
punished by confinement in the penitentiary not less than one nor more
than three years, or, at the discretion of the jury, be confined in jail
not to exceed twelve months and fined not less than $100 nor more
than $500.
Sec. 3726. — If any person be on the track of a railroad within one
hundred yards of an approaching train otherwise than in passing over
s^ich road at a public or private crossing, or wilfully ride, drive or
lead any animals, or contrive for any animal to go on such track, ex-
cept in crossing, as aforesaid, without the consent of the railroad com-
pany or person operating such road, he shall be fined not less than $10
nor more than $100.
Sec. 3726a. — If any person, not being a passenger or employe, but
a trespasser, shall be found upon any railroad car or train of any
railroad in this state, or shall jump on or off any car or train on its
902 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
arrival, stay or departure at or from any station or depot of such
railroad, or on the passage of any such car or train over any part of
any such railroad, such person so offending shall be deemed guilty of a
misdemeanor and, on conviction, shall be punished by a fine of not
less than $2.50, nor more than $10, or by imprisonment in jail not ex-
ceeding thirty days, or both.
Sec. 3726b. — If any person, not being a passenger or employe, shall
be found trespassing upon and railroad car or train of any railroad
in this state, by riding on any car or any part thereof, on its arrival,
stay or departure at or from any station or depot of such railroad, or on
the passage of any such car or train over any part of any such railroad,
such person so offending shall be deemed a disorderly person and, on con-
viction as such, shall be punished by a fine of not less than two dollars
and fifty cents nor exceeding twenty-five dollars, or by imprisonment in
jail not exceeding thirty days, or both.
Sec. 3726c. — If any person shall wilfully and maliciously take or re-
move the waste or packing from out any journal box, or boxes, of any
locomotive, engine, tender, carriage, coach, car, caboose, or truck, used
or operated upon any railroad, whether the same be operated by steam
or electricity, he shall, upon conviction thereof, be confined in the
penitentiary not less than one nor more than three years, or in the county
or city jail not less than one nor more than twelve months, or fined
not exceeding $500.
Sec. 3726d. — If any person maliciously shoot at, or maliciously
throw any stones, or other missile at or against any train, or cars on
any railroad or other transportation company, or at, or against, any
vessel or other water craft, whereby the life of any passenger or other
person on such train or car, or on such vessel, or other water craft,
may be put in peril, the person or persons so offending shall, upon con-
viction thereof, be punished by confinement in the penitentiary not less
than five nor more than ten years ; and in the event of the death of any
passenger or other person resulting from such malicious shooting or
throwing, the person so offending shall be deemed guilty of murder,
the degree to be determined by the jury.
If any such act be committed unlawfully, but not maliciously, the
person so offending shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished by
confinement in the penitentiary not less than one, nor more than three
years, or, at the discretion of the jury be confined in jail not to ex-
ceed twelve months, and fined not less than $100 nor more than $500.
Sec. 3726c — If any person maliciously injure, destroy or remove
any switch lamp, flag, or other signal used by any railroad company,
whereby the life of any traveler, employes, or other persons is or may be
put in peril, he shall be punished by confinement in the penitentiary not
less than two nor more than ten years ; and in the event of the death
of any traveler, employe, or other person resulting from such malicious
injuring, destroying, or removing, the person so offending shall be
deemed guilty of murder, the degree to be determined by the jury. If
such act be done unlawfully, but not maliciously, the offender shall, in
the discretion of the jury, be confined in the penitentiary not less than
one nor more than five years, or be confined in jail not exceeding twelve
months, and fined not exceeding $500. And in the event of the death
of any traveler, employe, or other person, resulting from such unlawful
injuring, destroying or removing, the person so offending shall be deemed
guilty of murder or manslaughter, as the jury may determine.
Sec. 3727. — If any person, with a view to the recovery of dam-
ages against a railroad company, wilfully ride, drive, or lead any
animal or otherwise contrive for any animal to go on the railroad
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS. 903
track of such company, and such animal is by reason thereof killed
or injured, he shall be confined in the penitentiary not less than
one nor more than ten years, or, in the discretion of the jury, con-
fined in jail not exceeding one year and fined not exceeding five
thousand dollars.
Sec. 3728. — If any person wilfully break, injure or destroy any
fence of a railroad company, he shall be fined not less than ten
nor more than one hundred dollars, and be confined in jail not
exceeding six months.
Sec. 3728a. — Any person who shall maliciously cut or break down,
injure, or destroy any fence erected along the line of any railroad,
for the purpose of fencing the track or depot or depot grounds of
such road, or shall break down, injure or destroy any cattle stop along
the line of any railroad, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor,
and, upon conviction thereof, shall be punished by confinement in
jail not less than fifteen days or fined not less than ten dollars or
both.
Sec. 3779a. — If any person, whether a passenger or not, shall,
while in any car or caboose, or on any part of a train carrying
passengers or employes of any railroad or street passenger railway
behaves in a riotous or disorderly manner, he shall be guilty of a
misdemeanor, and, on conviction thereof, shall be fined not less than
five nor more than fifty dollars, or be committed to jail not less
than one month nor more than six months, or both, in the discre-
tion of the court. The agent or employes in charge of the train,
car, or caboose, may require such person to discontinue his riotous
or disorderly conduct, and if he refuses to do so, may eject him with
the aid, if necessary, of any other persons who may be called upon for
the purpose.
WASHINGTON.— Chapter 128, Sec. 1.— It shall be unlawful for
any person to go upon or to be upon that portion of any railroad
right-of-way upon which is constructed and operated more than one
main line track or upon which is constructed and operated any elec-
tric interurban line of one or more tracks where the electricity is
transmitted by a third rail.
Sec. 8. — The foregoing section shall not be construed to in-
clude that part of any right-of-way embraced in any highway cross-
ing or any lawful private crossing, and shall not be construed to
prohibit officers or employes of any such railroad or public offi-
cers from going or being upon any portion of the right of way in the
performance of their duties.
Sec. 4. — Any person violating the provisions of section one of
this Act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor.
Remington & Bollinger's Annotated Code and Statutes of Wash-
ington, Sec. 2650. — Every person who, in such manner as might,
if not discovered, endanger the safety of any engine, motor car or
train, or any person thereon, shall in any manner interfere or tam-
per with or obstruct any switch, block, rail, roadbed, sleeper, viaduct,
bridge, trestle culvert embankment structure or appliance pertaining
to or connected with any railroad; or any train, engine, motor or
car on such railway; and every person who shall discharge any fire-
arm or throw any dangerous missile at any train, motor or car on
any railway shall be punished by imprisonment in .the state peni-
tentiary for not more than twenty-five years.
Sec. 2664. — Every person who, without permission from the per-
son or corporation owning or operating the same, shall enter or
take any animal or vehicle upon any railway, bridge or trestle, or
904 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
ride, operate or propel, a hand car, velocipede, track bicycle or tri-
cycle on or along the track of any railway shall be guilty of a
misdemeanor.
WEST VIRGINIA.— Code of 1906, Sec. 4282.— If any person, not
being a passenger or employe, shall be found trespassing upon any
railroad car or train of any railroad in this state, by jumping on or
off any car or train on its arrival, stay or departure at or from any
such car, station or depot of such railroad, or on the passage of
any such car or train over any part of any such railroad, such per-
son so offending shall be deemed a disorderly person, and on con-
viction as such, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding twenty-
five dollars, or by an imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding
thirty days, or both.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE XIX— ON CONSERVATION
OF NATURAL RESOURCES.
William McNab, Chairman; C. H. Fisk, Vice-Chairman;
R. H. Aishton, G. A. Mountain,
Moses Burpee, . W. L. Park,
F. F. Busteed, G. H. Webb,
A. W. Carpenter, R. C. Young,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
The Committee on Conservation of Natural Resources was formed
in 1908, its object being to keep in touch with the general work of Federal,
State and Provincial Conservation organizations, and more particularly
with the features of such work of specific and general interest to rail-
ways, in order to report on such proceedings to this Association. It is
noted with satisfaction that the influence of the spirit of conservation, in
a broad and complete sense, is rapidly enlarging, and the various sec-
tions of the Continent, acting through the regular organizations, are be-
coming more impressed with a desire that the great principles embraced
therein should receive prompt and more general attention.
At the outset of the national general movement for Conservation of
Natural Resources, and more particularly at the time this Committee
was formed, there is no doubt that the term "Conservation" had created
a somewhat hazy impression in the minds of a large proportion of our
population, and in some instances its meaning seemed synonymous with
the preservation of forest wealth, by reason simply of a desire to re-
strain or restrict wanton methods of the timber exploiter. The movement
however, has gone steadily through an evolutionary educational process
in physical science, commercial possibilities and social and domestic eco-
nomics, by which its general scope has been enlarged. It now embraces
principles of preservation, prevention of waste, the efficient development
of every variety of our natural resources, and the study of how to make
the wealth-producing power, as represented by such features, perpetual
by judicious conservation.
Much time and thought have been spent in the past in devising ways
and means for benefiting posterity and preventing the deprivation to them
of what may be termed part of their birthright. These means have, how-
ever, been more or less associated simply with restricting the use of natu-
ral resources by an existing generation, lest otherwise posterity should
suffer thereby, instead of applying certain principles of conservation that
will permit each succeeding generation to concurrently make use of these
resources in such a way as to be stimulants to every department of in-
dustrial activity and national life and expansion.
The Committee has kept in touch with the work of two great organ-
izations, viz., the National Conservation Congress and the Commission of
905
906 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.
Conservation for the Dominion of Canada, and it has been able to secure
a mass of valuable data touching forests, timber preservation, water
powers, fuels (including oil), etc. They were unable, however, as yet, to
obtain certain details in order to make the statement sufficiently com-
prehensive, and as this report is merely one noting progress, it has been
deemed advisable to defer publishing such data until it can be correlated
in order to represent the whole continent.
The Fifth National Conservation Congress was held in Washington,
D. C, November 17, 18, 19 and 20, 1913. The Congress was made up
of delegates from all States of the Union and from Canada. They were
representatives of States, cities, counties, universities and colleges, public
and commercial organizations, conservation associations, technical socie-
ties and other National and State organizations interested in the work of
Conservation. For the first time in the history of the National Conserva-
tion Congress, its meeting had the advantage of the presence among
its members of a number of distinguished engineers representing more
than twenty thousand engineers of the country who are enrolled in the
ranks of the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Institute
of Electrical Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
and the American Institute of Mining Engineers. The Water Power
Committee of the Conservation Congress had no less than six able engi-
neers in its membership. There were standing committees on the follow-
ing subjects: Forestry, Water Power, Minerals, Land and Agriculture,
Education, Vital Resources, Food, Civics, Wild Life Protection, National
Parks and Mammoth Cave.
The American Railway Engineering Association had three delegates
at the Congress, viz., Mr. C. H. Fisk, Vice-Chairman of this Committee,
together with Messrs. R. C. Young and A. W. Carpenter, members of
the Committee.
The topics announced for the principal consideration of the Congress
were "Water Power" and "Forestry." Preceding these, a number of
addresses were made on other subjects, including conservation of the
soil for agricultural purposes, improvements, for the benefit of farmer and
consumer, in conditions for marketing farm products, the bettering of
farm-life conditions, and the prevention of food adulteration. It was
stated that less than 40 per cent, of the arable land in the Union Is rea-
sonably well cultivated, and less than 12 per cent, is yielding full returns.
Very striking examples of increased productivity of soil, due to intelli-
gent and scientific use of fertilizers, were cited. It was announced that
the Federal Government, through the Department of Agriculture, is to
offer to co-operate with the States in the inauguration of a new system of
instruction to farmers in proper land cultivation; the work to be done
through the agency of demonstrators who will undertake the manage-
ment of a piece of any farmer's land, at his request, and thus bring the
education directly to the farmer. The Department of Agriculture also
proposes a study for the improvement of farm marketing, transportation
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES. 907
and temporary storage of farm supplies and other general assistance to
farmer and consumer in the matter of prices received and paid for farm
products. It is needless to point out the benefit to our railways in any in-
crease in the output of the farms along their lines and in the in-
creased prosperity of the farmers. Any movement of this kind should
receive the hearty approval and co-operation of the members of this
Association.
The greater portion of the time of the Congress was taken up with the
subject of "Water Power." The Committee of the Congress on Water
Power presented three reports, a majority report, a minority report and a
report containing unanimous recommendations of the Committee. The
unanimous report recommended that the development of water power,
under proper safeguards of the public interest, should be encouraged and
hastened, and set forth principles recommended to govern the granting of
a privilege to use a water power. These principles, briefly stated, were
that the grant should be for a definite period, sufficient to be financially
attractive to investors, irrevocable except for cause, reviewable by the
courts; thereafter should continue subject to revocation by the proper
governmental authority upon payment of the value of the physical prop-
erty and improvements of the grantee; the privilege to be unassignable
except with the approval of the Government and to be granted only on
condition of development of the whole capacity of the power-site as rapidly
as use demands; the right to receive compensation for the privilege to
be reserved to the Government, State or Federal, which grants the priv-
ilege— in normal cases the Government to share increasingly in profits
above a certain reasonable limit; and other details in connection with
these fundamentals. Both the majority and the minority reports urged
the prompt development of water power both for the benefits to be de-
rived directly therefrom and in the saving in coal, oil and gas — the
non-replaceable power-producing resources which would otherwise be
employed. Both reports pointed out that the Federal laws are at pres-
ent discouraging to the development of water power and urged the enact-
ment of laws more favorable to investors. The principal differences be-
tween the majority and minority reports were in the matters of regula-
tion of rates and control, the majority being more liberal in these mat-
ters and expressing confidence in the ability of State public service com-
missions to regulate public service corporations in intrastate business,
while the minority report expressed fear of centralization of monopolis-
tic control and urged Federal Government control. The majority report
considered very fully the development of water power in navigable streams
and suggested the possibility of combining with the development of naviga-
tion. The recent Supreme Court decision in the Chandler-Dunbar case
seems to provide that any streams not now navigable will come under the
Federal Government jurisdiction if rendered navigable in any way. In
case of a general development of water power it would appear that many
streams now not navigable nor under Federal jurisdiction would be ren-
908 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.
dered so, with all the attendant requirements for railroad crossings. This
is mentioned merely for information and not to suggest opposition to the
development of water power. The Congress first adopted the unanimous
recommendations and later adopted a declaration of principles recogniz-
ing present concentrations of water-power control, accentuating the need
for "firm and effective control" on the part of the public and resolving
that "no water power now owned or controlled by the public" should be
disposed of in perpetuity or removed from public ownership.
There was practically no discussion of the merits of the Water
Power reports, most of the time given to the subject being taken up by
speeches on State vs. Federal Government control, several Western and
Southern States delegations being strongly in favor of State control. The
voting was, however, nearly three to one in favor of Federal Government
control.
In the consideration of Forestry, there was a marked trend from
the theoretical to the practical, it being pointed out that forestry would
not be practiced as a science by individual owners and lumbermen until
it can be made clear that it will be profitable. One detriment to the
growing of trees for lumber is the present general method of taxing tim-
ber lands. One phase of forestry is being practiced by the lumbermen,
namely, the adoption of improved methods for protection against fire, and
that with great success. It was stated that the Federal Government is
making great progress in the purchase of cut-over timber lands to form
the Appalachian Reserve and in the replanting of these lands.
The questions discussed, such as the proper control of irrigated lands,
the robbing of the soil and preserving the soil fertility, conservation of
human life, and the control of our water power, all interest railways more
or less directly, but do not interest us as railway engineers until they
begin to affect the revenue and the prosperity of the railway. The ques-
tion of control of water power might be interesting to the railway engineer
under two aspects :
(i) In case railways contemplate electrifying their system and han-
dling their traffic by electric power.
(2) When the use of electric power decreases the consumption of
coal to the extent of its interfering with the revenue of the railway and
the prosperity of the coal-mining communities.
The large number and wide representation of the delegates attend-
ing the Congress and the close interest manifested in all the proceedings
was very impressive and indicative of the intense interest of the Nation
in the work of taking care of its natural resources and of developing
them for the good of the people as a whole, as opposed to development
for the benefit and enrichment of a few, and an illuminating statement on
the general object of Conservation was made in the President's address,
in which he stated that "Conservation does not mean reservation," but it
means "wise use."
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES. 909
CANADA.
The Committee announces with satisfaction that it is also in close
personal touch with the Conservation Commission of the Dominion of
Canada, and has pleasure in stating that that body is doing excellent
work along its particular lines of usefulness. Some general but useful
statistics which the Committee has for compilation will, when published,
be authoritative, as they have been received from the highest official
sources. A question which has been asked in a letter from one of our
members engaged in railway work in northern Canada concerning oil for
fuel may be interesting. The nature of the inquiry is as follows : "I take
the liberty of suggesting that the question of oil fuel is one which our
Association, through its Committee on Conservation of Natural Resources,
should consider fully and in great detail. We engineers who are working
in the far North are, in a few years, going to be confronted with the
question of fuel costs * * * ." The Committee would state that in
many lines of industry, oil fuel is rapidly displacing coal. The great in-
crease in oil-burning mileage of railways is due to the fact of the sav-
ing in operating expenses. In Canada the Great Northern Railway uses
oil exclusively on 115 miles of the Cascade Division. The Canadian Pa-
cific Railway has installed oil burners on its main line between Kam-
loops, B. C, and Field, B. C, a distance of 260 miles ; also on the Arrow
and Okanagan branches, an aggregate length of 79 miles; and on the
Esquimalt & Nanaimo Railway, between Victoria and Alberni on Van-
couver Island, a distance of 134 miles. Fifty per cent, of the locomotives
on the division between North Bend and Vancouver have been converted
to oil burners, and the remainder are now in course of alteration. The
Grand Trunk Pacific contemplates the installation of oil-burning engines
on the Mountain Division as soon as its line is completed. The steam-
ships of the Grand Trunk Pacific, as well as those of the Canadian Pacific,
operating on the Pacific Coast, burn oil, and other Pacific Coast vessels
have been changed from coal burners to oil burners. The oil is obtained
from the California fields. No fuel oil is as yet produced in Canada,
but if the Athabaska fields are successfully developed, as seems probable,
the supply will be practically unlimited.
As a mark of the importance that the subject of Conservation is held
in Canada and of the interest the railways have in the proper care and
exploitation of natural resources, it may be stated that some of the rail-
way systems are entering into the spirit of it in a keen and business-like
manner. One of the great transcontinental roads — the Canadian Pacific
— has created a Department of Natural Resources under the immediate
direction of a competent engineer and administrator. This department
controls all the natural resources of the company, such as lands, mines and
industrial and forestry branches, and it is particularly interested in see-
ing that every acre tributary to its lines produces what the soil is specially
adapted for, and that it will furnish a full complement of such products,
whether they be agricultural or forest.
910 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.
One of the important features of practical forest conservation is the
development of methods whereby the so-called inferior species of timber
may be used in the place of more valuable species, the supplies of which
are becoming rapidly reduced, or the prices of which have become so high
as to render impracticable their use for many purposes. This feature is the
lengthening of the life of timbers by preservative treatment, thereby de-
creasing the drain upon the forests.
The practice of using preservative treatment for ties in Canada is of
quite recent origin.
The first plant of any size to be erected was built at North Trans-
cona, about five miles from Winnipeg, Manitoba. It is operating under a
contract with the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. The industry of
wood preserving is certain to expand as soon as the more or less ex-
perimental period is passed. In using the word "experimental," it is not
meant that there is any doubt as to financial results, but there is doubt as
to what woods ought to be treated ; as to what preservative treatment
should be given, the effect of climatic and other conditions, cost of differ-
ent preservatives laid down at the plant, differences in wood of the same
species, supply and prices of timber, amount and weight of traffic over a
given line, the use or non-use of tie-plates, weight of rail, etc. These are
all very important factors in determining the advisability of a preserva-
tive treatment.
Your Committee therefore earnestly recommends to the members of
this Association the study and practice of timber preservation, both as
an economic proposition and as a check on the rapid depletion of our
forests.
"CONSERVATION" DEFINED.
As a matter of interest and information to our members, the follow-
ing extract from Gifford Pinchot's work, entitled, "The Fight for Con-
servation," is submitted, in the hope that it will show the true spirit in
which the great question of Conservation of Natural Resources should
be considered and dealt with :
"The principles which govern the Conservation movement, like all
great and effective things, are simple and easily understood. Yet it is
often hard to make the simple, easy and direct facts about a movement
of this kind known to the people generally.
"The first great fact about Conservation is that it stands for develop-
ment. There has been a fundamental misconception that Conservation
means nothing but the husbanding of resources for future generations.
There could be no more serious mistake. Conservation does mean provi-
sion for the future, but it means also and first of all the recognition of
the right of the present generation to the fullest necessary use of all the re-
sources with which this country, is so abundantly blessed. Conservation
demands the welfare of this generation first, and afterward the welfare
of the generations to follow.
"The first principle of Conservation is development, the use of the
natural resources now existing on this Continent for the benefit of the
people who live here now. There may be just as much waste in neglecting
the development and use of certain natural resources as there is in their
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES. 911
destruction. We have a limited supply of coal, and only a limited supply.
Whether it is to last for a hundred or a hundred and fifty or a thousand
years, the coal is limited in amount, unless through geological changes
which we shall not live to see, there will never be any more of it than
there is now. But coal is in a sense the vital essence of our civilization.
If it can be preserved, if the life of the mines can be extended, if by pre-
venting waste there can be more coal left in this country after we of
this generation have made every needed use of this source of power, then
we shall have deserved well of our descendants.
"Conservation stands emphatically for the development and use of
water power now, without delay. It stands for the immediate construc-
tion of navigable waterways under a broad and comprehensive plan as
assistants to the railways. More coal and more iron are required to
move a ton of freight by rail than by water, three to one. In every case
and in every direction the Conservation movement has development for its
first principle, and at the very beginning of its work. The development
of our natural resources and the fullest use of them for the present gen-
eration is the first duty of this generation. So much for development.
"In the second place, Conservation stands for the prevention of waste.
There has come gradually in this country an understanding that waste is
not a good thing and that the attack on waste is an industrial necessity.
I recall very well indeed how, in the early days of forest fires, they were
considered simply and solely as acts of God, against which any opposi-
tion was hopeless and any attempt to control them not merely hopeless
but childish. It was assumed that they came in the natural order of things,
as inevitably as the seasons or the rising and setting of the sun. To-day
we understand that forest fires are wholly within the control of man. So
we are coming in like manner to understand that the prevention of waste
in all other directions is a simple matter of good business. The first
duty of the human race is to control the earth it lives upon.
"We are in a position more and more completely to say how far
the waste and destruction of natural resources are to be allowed to go
on and where they are to stop. It is curious that the effort to stop waste,
like the effort to stop forest fires, has often been considered as a matter
controlled wholly by economic law. I think there could be no greater
mistake. Forest fires were allowed to burn long after the people had
means to stop them. The idea that men were helpless in the face of them
held long after the time had passed when the means of control were fully
within our reach. It was the old story that 'as a man thinketh, so is he' ;
we came to see that we could stop forest fires, and we found that the
means had been at hand. When at length we came to see that the
control of logging in certain directions was profitable, we found it had
long been possible. In all these matters of waste of natural resources,
the education of the people to understand that they can stop the leakage
comes before the actual stopping and after the means of stopping it have
long been ready at our hands.
"In addition to the principles of development and preservation of our
resources there is a third principle. It is this : The natural resources
must be developed and preserved for the benefit of the many, and not
merely for the profit of a few. We are coming to understand in this
country that public action for public benefit has a very much wider field
to cover and a much larger part to play than was the case when there
were resources enough for everyone, and before certain constitutional
provisions had given so tremendously strong a position to vested rights
and property in general.
"The Conservation idea covers a wider range than the field of natural
resources alone. Conservation means the greatest good to the greatest
number for the longest time. One of its great contributions is just this,
912 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.
that it has added to the worn and well-known phrase, 'the greatest good
to the greatest number,' the additional words, 'for the longest time,' thus
recognizing that this Nation of ours must be made to endure as the best
possible home for all its people.
"Conservation advocates the use of foresight, prudence, thrift, and
intelligence in dealing with public matters, for the same reasons and in
the same way that we each use foresight, prudence, thrift and intelligence
in dealing with our own private affairs. It proclaims the right and duty
of the people to act for the benefit of the people. Conservation demands
the application of common sense to the common problems for the com-
mon good.
"The principles of Conservation thus described — development, preser-
vation, the common good — have a general application which is growing
rapidly wider. The development of resources and the prevention of waste
and loss, the protection of the public interests, by foresight, prudence, and
the ordinary business and homemaking virtues, all these apply to other
things as well as to the natural resources. There is, in fact, no interest
of the people to which the principles of Conservation do not apply.
"The Conservation point of view is valuable in the education of our
people as well as in forestry; it applies to the body politic as well as to
the earth and its minerals. A municipal franchise is as properly within
its sphere as a franchise for water power. The same point of view gov-
erns in both. It applies as much to the subject of good roads as to water-
ways, and the training of our people in citizenship is as germane to it as
the productiveness of the earth. The application of common sense to
any problem for the Nation's good will lead directly to national efficiency
wherever applied. In other words, and that is the burden of the message,
we are coming to see the logical and inevitable outcome that these prin-
ciples, which arose in forestry and have* their bloom in the conservation
of natural resources, will have their fruit in the increase and promotion
of national efficiency along other lines of national life.
"The outgrowth of Conservation, the inevitable result, is national
efficiency. In the great commercial struggle between nations which is
eventually to determine the welfare of all, national efficiency will be the
deciding factor. So from every point of view conservation is a good
thing for the American people."
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE XVI— ON ECONOMICS OF
RAILWAY LOCATION.
R. N. Begien, Chairman; C. P. Howard, Vice -Chairman;
F. H. Alfred, A. K. Shurtleff,
A. C. Dennis, F. W. Smith,
F. W. Green, H. J. Simmons,
L. C. Hartley, E. C. Schmidt,
P. M. LaBach, John G. Sullivan,
J. deN. Macomb, Walter Loring Webb,
C. W. P. Ramsey, M. A. Zook,
Committee.
To the Members of the American- Railway Engineering Association:
The Committee on Economics of Railway Location has not held any
meetings during the year. The conditions affecting railway operation
brought about by the great flood of March and April, 1913, were such
that the energies of a great many members of the Committee were taken
up in overcoming the results of that disaster.
Early in the year, certain letters were written to the members of
the Committee, calling for their views on the definition for the
following:
(1) Ruling Grade.
(2) Value of Distance.
(3) Rise and Fall.
(4) Curvature — Compensated and Uncompensated.
Answers were received from a number of the members of the Com-
mittee, but after giving the subject further consideration, we do not
feel that the time is ripe to establish a definition.
It is felt, that in order to be of definite value, the work of the
Committee should be performed, by men who can give up their time to
investigations, and with that in view, your Chairman has requested that
the work of the Committee on Economics of Railway Location be per-
formed under the direction of the present Chairman, or of someone
who shall be selected in his place, by a force of men who can give
their undivided attention to the work for a space of six months, at
least. These men will report to the Committee as a whole, and either
revise their work in accordance with the criticism of the Committee,
or secure the approval of the Committee, if the work is suitable. Your
Chairman has, therefore, asked the Board of Direction to furnish au-
thority and funds to conduct the work in that manner.
913
914 ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LOCATION.
The work of the Committee in the future must necessarily involve
the analysis of a great many figures, the detailed working out of ex-
amples, the construction of many drawings, profiles, etc., and a great
deal of figuring.
It is felt that if this work was done by men who could devote
their entire time to it, results of value to the railroad profession at
large could be accomplished. To do the work in any other way must
necessarily mean slow progress and. possibly, inaccurate conclusions.
It is therefore recommended that the sum of $400.00 per month for
about six months be appropriated to employ :
1 man at $200.00 per month
1 " " 125.00 "
1 " " 7500 "
This force should report directly to the Chairman, who will submit
the results to the Committee as a whole for their approval, and if
approved, to the Association.
It is our understanding that this matter is now before the Board of
Direction.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LOCATION.
MINORITY REPORT.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
We do not think this a good time to ask for an appropriation.
Should such be made, however, salaried employes should work under
the general directions of the Committee through its Chairman; but in
no case should they be employed until sufficient data is on hand ready
for analysis.
It has been our opinion, and is now, that this year's work should
have been a continuation of the investigations of last year — an analysis
of maintenance expenses to determine the proportionate costs of pas-
senger and freight tonnage, and the relative damage to track per ton
of engine and cars. Also, that one member should have been assigned
to the study of the locomotive superheater so as to provide suitable cor-
rections for tables 2 and 4 on pp. 429 and 431 of the Manual.
Last year the attempt was made to divide the expense of maintenance
between passenger and freight tonnage, using a multiple (two) for
passenger tons. Because this multiple was rejected by the Association
as not proven does not minimize the importance of securing information
on the subject. As to the necessity for some such apportionment of
expense, we may quote the United States Supreme Court decision in
the Minnesota rate case as follows (see Railway Age Gazette, June 20,
1913, page 1541) :
"There should be assigned to each business that proportion of the
total value of the property which will correspond to the extent of its
employment in that business. It is said that this is extremely difficult;
in particular, because of the necessity for making a division between the
passenger and freight business, and the obvious lack of correspondence
between ton-miles and passenger-miles. It does not appear, however,
that these are the only units available for such a division ; and it would
seem that, after assigning to the passenger and freight departments re-
spectively, the property exclusively used in each, comparable use-units
might be found which would afford the basis for a reasonable division
with respect to property used in common."
The question of damage to track of some of the present high loco-
motives is also a very live one.
We do not, therefore, concur in the report of the Chairman and
other members; and recommend that for the ensuing year investigations
be continued along the lines indicated in 1913, "report to determine the
relative expense of maintenance due to passenger, freight and engine
tonnage;" and that circulars "A" and "B," prepared by the former Chair-
man (forming an appendix to this report), be sent out for securing
the desired information.
Respectfully submitted,
C. P. HOWARD.
E. C. SCHMIDT.
915
916 ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LOCATION.
COMMITTEE ON ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LOCATION.
CIRCULAR "A."
Note. — Freight tracks will be designated as "Low Speed" and pas-
senger as "High Speed" to include high-speed freight service operated
over them.
Operating Data.
(i) Average gross tons per annum per mile of main track:
Loco- Bal. Total
motives. of Train. Tons.
Low-speed tracks
High-speed tracks
(2) Average running velocity of trains :
Low speed Miles per Hour
High speed Miles per Hour
(3) Average curvature:
Degrees Per Cent.
per Mile. of Line.
Low-speed tracks
High-speed tracks
Maintenance of Way and Structure Accounts,
Note. — Give average costs (or unit data) per track mile per annum
in the answers :
(4) Account 1. Superintendence :
Expense per Mile.
Low-speed tracks
High-speed tracks
Sidetracks
(5) Account 2. Ballast per mile:
Cost. Cu. Yds. per Annum.
Low-^peed tracks' —
High-speed tracks *.
Sidetracks — —
(6) Account 3. Ties per mile :
Cost. No. per Annum.
Low-speed tracks
High-speed tracks - —
Sideti acks
(7) Account 4. Rails per mile :
Cost. Tons per Annum.
Low-speed tracks
High-speed tracks
Sidetracks :
(8) Account 5. Other track material per mile:
Cost.
Low-speed tracks
High-speed tracks
Sidetracks ".
(9) Account 6. Roadway and track per mile :
Cost.
Low-speed tracks
High-speed tracks
Sidetracks
ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LOCATION. 917
(10) Account 9. Bridges and culverts per mile;
Cost.
Low-speed tracks '
High-speed tracks
(11) Account 10. Over and undergrade crossings per mile:
Cost.
Low-speed tracks
High-speed tracks
(12) Account 13. (Block signals only) :
Cost per main track mile ..-
(13) Account 18. Tools and supplies per mile:
Cost.
Low-speed tracks
High-speed tracks
Sidetracks
(14) Account 16. Buildings:
Cost per main track mile
Give an estimate of the proportion of this that should be charged to
high-speed or passenger service for the volume of traffic shown under
Question 1, per cent.
Chicago, 111., April 8, 1913.
COMMITTEE ON ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LOCATION
CIRCULAR "•&."
Maintenance of Equipment.
Note. — Statistics received from certain roads indicate that repairs
of locomotives vary more nearly with the horsepower hour work done
than to the locomotive mile.
Answers to the following will assist in establishing a rational unit
for analyzing accounts Nos. 25, 26 and 27. The figures may be from
the average of the entire road and can be mostly obtained from data
compiled for annual reports to Interstate Commerce Commission.
(1) Per cent, of total locomotive mileage.
Freight locomotives
Passenger locomotives
Switch locomotives
(2) Average per locomotive :
Freight Passenger Switch
Tons weight excl. tender ■ — —
Tons weight incl. tender
Nominal tractive power ■ —
Average velocity operated (miles per
hour) when in service
(3) Average cost per 1,000 locomotive miles for following:
All
Freight Passenger Switch Classes
Account 25 repairs
Account 26 renewals ■ — — —
Account 27 depreciation
(If statistics are not kept separating these accounts by class of ser-
vice, give costs per 1,00c locomotive miles for all classes.)
918 ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LOCATION.
Conducting Transportation.
(4) Average of following items :
Freight Passenger Switch
Costs per 100 loco, miles enginemen.
Enginehouse expenses
Fuel
Lubricants
Other supplies
Pounds of coal used per loco. mile. .
(5) Costs per 100 train miles:
Freight Passenger
Road trainmen —
Train supplies and expenses
(6) Cost per main track mile for operation of :
Block signals
Type signals used
Chicago, 111., April 8, 1913.
REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM
GENERAL CONTRACT FORMS.
W. G. Atwood, Chairman; C. A. Wilson, Vice-Chair man;
C. Frank Allen, E. H. Lee,
John P. Congdon, C. A. Paquette,
Thos. Earle, H. C. Phillips,
J. C. Irwin, J. H. Roach,
R. G. Kenly, H. A. Woods,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your Special Committee on Uniform General Contract Forms begs to
submit the following report.
We were instructed to continue the study of the contract form and
to prepare forms for proposal blanks and for bonds.
A large portion of the work was carried on by correspondence and
two meetings were held, one on November 7, 1913, at the House of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, at which there were present Wm. G.
Atwood, Chairman ; C. A. Wilson, Vice-Chairman, and Messrs. Irwin, Al-
len, Earle, Roach and Paquette. A second meeting was held at the same
place on January 24, at which there were present Wm. G. Atwood, Chair-
man, and Messrs. Irwin, Earle and Lee. At the latter meeting there was
also present a committee representing the Surety Association of America,
consisting of Messrs. Henry C. Wilcox, Vice-President, American Surety
•Company; Leonard Damann, Vice-President, National Surety Company;
E. W. Briggs, Vice-President, New England Casualty Company, and R. R.
Gilkey, Secretary, Surety Association of America.
The Committee has received only two criticisms of the "Contract
Form" adopted at the annual meeting in March, 1913, although we under-
stand that the form has been put in use by a number of companies.
One suggestion, received from the Mobile & Ohio Railroad, the Com-
mittee felt could be cared for by a minor change in the form of printing,
and arrangements were made with the Secretary for this change when ad-
ditional copies of the contract are printed.
The Toledo & Ohio Central Railroad suggested a change in clause 15,
"Indemnity," and the Committee wish to recommend the insertion of the
words "losses and" in line 1, clause 15, after the word "against," making
this clause read, "The Contractor shall indemnify and save harmless the
Company from and against all losses and all claims, demands, etc."
The Committee presents herewith a form for Proposals and recom-
mends its adoption.
919
920 UNIFORM GENERAL CONTRACT FORMS.
The Committee has been unable to complete the form for "Construc-
tion Bond," and would therefore recommend that it be instructed to com-
plete this form and furnish a copy to the Secretary. We would recom-
mend that the Secretary be instructed to send this form to the senior offi-
cer of each road represented in the Association with a request that the
Legal Departments of those roads criticize the form.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM GENERAL CONTRACT FORMS.
UNIFORM GENERAL CONTRACT FORMS. 921
Form of Proposal.
- 191...
the
undersigned propose to furnish all the materials, superintendence, labor,
equipment and transportation, except as otherwise specified, and to exe-
cute, construct and finish in an expeditious, substantial and workmanlike
manner, to the satisfaction and acceptance of the Chief Engineer
and agree to commence the work within days after receipt of
the notice of award of the contract, and to complete the work within
days thereafter, in accordance with the terms,
conditions, requirements and specifications covered by the request for
proposals made by
dated for the following prices :
(Signed)
REPORT OF COMMITTEE XI— ON RECORDS AND
ACCOUNTS.
W. A. Christian, Chairman; M. C. Byers, Vice-Chairman;
W. S. Danes, J. H. Milburn,
G. J. Graves, O. K. Morgan,
G. D. Hill, Frank Ringer,
Henry Lehn, Guy Scott,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Raihuay Engineering Association:
Your Committee on Records and Accounts respectfully submits here-
with its annual report :
The Board of Direction assigned the following work to your Com-
mittee for the current year :
(i) Make a comprehensive study of the forms in the Manual,
which were adopted a number of years ago, and bring
forms up to date.
(2) Continue the study of the economical management of store
supplies.
(3) Recommend feasible and useful sub-divisions of Interstate
Commission Classification Account No. 6, with a view to
securing uniformity of labor costs.
(4) Study the subject of reports required by National and State
Railway Commissions.
Sub-Committees were appointed by the Chairman after consultation
with the Vice-Chairman, as follows :
Sub-Committee A — G. D. Hill, Chairman ; W. S. Danes, Guy Scott.
Sub-Committee B — G. J. Graves, Chairman; O. K. Morgan.
Sub-Committee C — Henry Lehn, Chairman ; J. H. Milburn.
Sub-Committee D — W. A. Christian, Chairman; M. C. Byers and
Frank Ringer.
The members of the Sub-Committees were selected in accordance
with their geographical location, so that it would not render a hardship
on the members to hold Sub-Committee meetings, which meetings were
held at various times during the year and at places selected by the chair-
man of each Sub-Committee.
The General Committee met at the office of the Association in Chi-
cago on February 10.
(1) REVISION OF MANUAL.
The following conclusions are submitted for adoption :
(1) Eliminate the Foreman's Diary (form M. W. 1101), for the
reason that the information given on the form should be shown on the
Time Rolls (forms M. W. 1104. 1105), a space in each being provided for
the purpose.
923
924 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
(2) Amend heading of form M. W. 701, Bridge Department Tool
Report, to read, "Maintenance of Way Department Tool Report."
(3) Form M. W. 2100 "Estimate for Track," to be made uniform
with form M. W. 2201, "Estimate for Buildings, Bridges and Water Serv-
ice," by revising form M. W. 2100 accordingly.
The forms pertaining to accounts might be changed somewhat, but
your Committee is of the opinion that no changes made at this time
would bring about a more general use of the blanks by railways, and
furthermore, it seems to your Committee that the rules and regulations of
the Interstate Commerce Commission and of the American Railway
Accounting Officers' Association have virtually disposed of the sub-
ject, and removed it from the province of the American Railway Engineer-
ing Association. It is therefore recommended by your Committee that
no changes be made in the forms for keeping accounts at this time so
far as they appertain to the Maintenance of Way Department and that
the future work of the Committee be confined to working jointly with
committees of other associations, with the ultimate object of developing a
series of forms and reports for the maintenance of way accounting sys-
tem that would conform to the rulings and regulations of the Interstate
Commerce Commission and be generally used by railways.
CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OR SYMBOLS.
In the Specifications for Maps and Profiles, prescribed by the Inter-
state Commerce Commission, to be furnished by railway companies under
the Act of Congress providing for the physical valuation of railway prop-
erties, the Conventional Signs or Symbols of the American Railway En-
gineering Association have been specified to be used as far as they are
applicable. To make these Conventional Signs or Symbols as complete
and consistent as possible, your Committee has carefully revised those
now in the Manual and submits herewith a revision of the symbols for
approval.
(2) ECONOMICAL MANAGEMENT OF STORE SUPPLIES.
Your Committee, after careful study of the report made last year,
which was received as information, has no additional recommendations
to make, and resubmits the conclusions presented last year for adoption :
CONCLUSIONS.
(1) Classification of Material. — It is recommended that the de-
tails of classification should conform to those adopted by the Railway
Storekeepers' Association.
(2) Stock Account. — The conclusion reached last year is funda-
mental. The detailed methods of keeping the accounts may be varied
to fit the individual condition. Stock accounts can be kept, (a) by
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 925
ledger account; (b) by card system; (c) by personal inspection and
estimation.
(3) Organization. — The essential elements are as follows:
(a) Location. — The store should be located as closely as possible
to the point of greatest consumption, so that the minimum force will
be required, and delay to material between the store and its destina-
tion may be reduced to a minimum. Usually this is at a point where
equipment is maintained.
(b) Force. — The force required is dependent almost entirely on
the character and volume of material issued and on local conditions.
As the prompt and efficient handling of material and tools has a vital
effect on the economical operation and maintenance of the railway, the
force in the storeroom should be large enough to bring about this result.
(c) Position in Organization. — The consumption of supplies being
greatest in maintenance of way and equipment, the Storekeeper should
be closely associated with the heads of these departments. It is the
opinion the the Committee that this can best be accomplished by having
the Storekeeper, Engineer Maintenance of Way and the Master Mech-
anic report to the same officer. In a divisional organization this would
place the Division Storekeeper under the Superintendent, and the Gen-
eral Storekeeper under the General Manager or Vice-President in charge
of operation.
(d) Mechanical Equipment. — Cost of unloading, storing and load-
ing material depends solely upon the volume of business done by each
store, and such appliances as will reduce this cost to a minimum are
recommended.
(3) SUB-DIVISIONS OF I. C. C. CLASSIFICATION
ACCOUNT NO. 6.
The Interstate Commerce Commission, in their Classification of Op-
erating Expenses, effective July 1, 1907, and supplements thereto, include
in the maintenance of way accounts primary account No. 6 — Roadway and
Track. This account includes about one-third of the total charges for ma-
terial and labor in the maintenance of way and structures accounts, and
includes practically all of the labor performed by section and extra gangs
chargeable to the maintenance of way and structures operating expenses;
it seems therefore desirable to provide sub-divisions of this primary
account in order to analyze operating expenses and assist in securing
uniformity of labor costs.
The Interstate Commerce Commission does not specify as to the
number of sub-divisions of this account, provided the account is charged
with all elements of expense that the classification indicates should be
charged to it. Accordingly, any sub-division made would be purely a
company matter, and the Committee questions, if the Accounting Depart-
ment is interested; that is to say, they would not require or ask it to be
divided. That being the case, we are forced to conclude that the sub-
926 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
The Interstate Commerce Commission does not specify as to the num-
ber of sub-divisions of this account, provided it is charged with all ele-
ments of expense that the classification requires. Accordingly, any sub-
division made would be purely a company matter, and the Committee
questions if the Accounting Department is interested; that is to say, they
would not require that it be divided. Assuming this to be the case, we
conclude that the sub-division is for the use of the officer in charge of
the maintenance of roadway and structures, in order that he may
(a) Determine the efficiency of section gangs ;
(b) Analyze expenses ;
(c) Effect economies.
By reference to the report of the Committee, contained in Vol. 14,
pp. 1015-1017, it will be noted that this account is divided into nine sub-
divisions, corresponding to the headings of the 13 divisions of the Inter-
state Commerce Commission classification. The Interstate Commerce
Commission's 13 divisions were condensed to nine, and your Commit-
tee does not consider the number can be still further reduced, but suggests
an additional one, No. "J," the heading to be "Work-Train Service ;" i. e.,
rather than attempt to divide the work-train service between nine sub-
divisions, it would be preferable to include it as one sub-division. The
total of all sub-divisions should agree with the total charged to main-
tenance of way and structures account No. 6, including work-train service.
We would then have ten sub-divisions as follows :
(A) Track maintenance;
(B) Applying track material;
(C) Cutting weeds and general cleaning;
(D) Ditching and bank widening;
(E) Changing grades and alinement;
(F) Flood damage;
(G) Bank protection;
(H) Filling;
(I) Other care of roadway and track:
(J) Work-train service.
The application of the sub-divisions mentioned above to the 13 di-
visions of the Interstate Commerce Commission classification, would be
as follows :
ROADWAY AND TRACK.
No. 1. Applying Ballast.
Pay of employes engaged in preparing roadbed for the reception q
of ballast ; also pay of employes engaged in applying ballast after
it has been prepared and unloaded.
No. 2. Applying Ties.
Pay of employes engaged in unloading, distributing and renewing Q
cross-, switch- and bridge-ties, head-blocks and railway crossing timbers,
respacing ties and burning old ties.
(Note. — Classify "respacing of ties" under "A.") A
No. 3. Applying Rails.
Pay of employes engaged in unloading, distributing, cutting, slotting, Q
drilling and laying rails, adzing for new rails, gathering and loading old
rails and adjusting, expansion and contraction.
(Note. — Classify "adjusting, expansion and contraction" under "A.") A
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 927
No. 4. Applying Other Track Material.
Pay of employes engaged in applying rail braces, angle bars,
rail joints, track bolts and spikes, nutlocks, anti-creepers, switches,
switchstands, frogs, crossing frogs, tie plates, tie plugs and other
miscellaneous track material not specified above.
No. 5. Track Maintenance.
Pay of employes engaged in aligning, surfacing and gaging tracks,
placing and removing track shims and tightening bolts and spikes in
tracks. When a track is taken up, the labor expended therefor should
be charged to this account, whether another track is laid to replace
it or not.
No. 6. Care of Roadbed.
Expenses of constructing and cleaning tile and open ditches; cost
and expenses of placing and cleaning sewer pipes for drains (cost of
sewer pipes laid under tracks should be charged to account "Bridges,
Trestles and Culverts") ; cost of material used and labor expended
in sloping cuts, blasting rock, widening roadbeds, cuts, fills and em-
bankments, filling borrow pits, removing slides, dangerous rocks and
other similar obstructions; expenses of operating steam shovels,
scrapers and ditchers while engaged in such work;
also expenses of keeping tracks clear and repairing the sub-grade of
tracks in cases of freshets or washouts and cost of boarding employes so
engaged. Cost of labor building temporary tracks around slides and wash-
outs and removing such tracks ; cost of replacing rails, ties and ballast
and repairing other damages caused by washouts to tracks proper or to
the roadbed ;
cost of cutting, handling and placing sod : also landscape gardening and
beautifying along roadway (except when chargeable to account "Buildings,
Fixtures and Grounds").
No. 7. General Cleaning.
Pay of employes engaged in mowing right-of-way and burning
grass and weeds: cost of operating weed burners, removing brush,
grass and drift from right-of-way, and removing cinders dumped by
passing trains, plowing fire-guards, removing weeds from and dress-
ing ballast, cutting sod lines, removing dirt from track yards, clean-
ing streets used as roadways,
and loading and handling track scrap.
No. 8. Patrolling and Watching.
Pay of trackwalkers, track watchmen, patrolmen, employes while
extinguishing fires on right-of-way and adjacent property, and watch-
men at bad spots in tracks, slides and dangerous places.
(For pay of bridge watchmen, see account, "Bridges, Trestles and Cul-
verts;" for pay of street-crossing watchmen, see account, "Crossing Flag-
men and Gatemen," and for pav of tunnel watchmen, see account, "Tun-
nels.")
No. 9. Changing Alinement and Grades.
The proportion chargeable to operating expenses of cost of ma-
terial used and labor expended in changing the alinement and reducing
grades.
No. 10. Bank Protection.
Cost of material used and labor expended in protecting banks by
retaining walls, riprap, piling, piers, dikes or other means, and in
928 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
constructing breakwaters and revetments and diverting the channels
of streams to prevent cutting, washing or sliding of embankments.
No. ii. Filling.
Cost of material used and labor expended in filling bridges, tres- H
ties, culverts and cattle pits.
No. 12. Other Expenses.
Cost of material used and labor expended in paving and improv- |
ing streets used as roadway, and oiling roadbed; payments of assess-
ments for street repairs, sewers, or other public improvements
affecting roadway adjacent thereto, not chargeable to account "Build-
ings, Fixtures and Grounds"; expenses incident to track inspection,
premiums in connection therewith, and any other roadway or track
expenses not provided for elsewhere.
No. 13. Train Service.
Pay of work-train, enginemen, trainmen and enginehousemen; J
cost of fuel, stores and other supplies (including cost of lubricating
the equipment) for work-train locomotives and cars; cost of oil and
wicking used in lanterns of work-train by enginemen and trainmen,
while such employes and equipment are engaged in work pertaining
to roadway and track.
Numbers on left are the numbers of the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission sub-divisions; letters on right indicate sub-divisions under which
the whole or portions of the Interstate Commerce Commission sub-
divisions are classified.
(4) REPORTS REQUIRED BY FEDERAL AND STATE RAIL-
WAY COMMISSIONS.
In the study of reports required by Federal and State Railway
Commissions, the Committee, through the efforts of the Association
Secretary, received from Canada and most of the states, blank forms on
which steam railroads are required to report annually to the various
Federal and State Commissions.
Many states submitted forms for power, light and heat company,
street railway company, express company, telegraph and telephone com-
pany, and various other reports, which were not considered by the Com-
mittee.
Twenty-nine states and Canada use a form similar to that of the
Interstate Commerce Commission. Ten states use different forms, but a
comparison shows that they cover the same information called for in the
Interstate Commerce Commission blanks.
Arkansas, Arizona, Delaware, Maine, North and South Carolina,
Texas, Utah, New Mexico failed to reply to the Committee's request for
blanks.
After careful study of the blanks prescribed by Federal and State
Railway Commissions, your Committee reports progress and asks an ex-
pression of views and interpretation of the subject assigned, namely,
"Study the subject of reports required by National and State Railway
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 929
Commissions" — whether it implies recommending changes in the forms
prescribed by Federal and State Railway Commissions, or merely to make
information available with reference to reports required by public service
bodies.
PHYSICAL VALUATION OF RAILWAYS.
In accordance with the Act of Congress passed March i, 1913, the
Interstate Commerce Commission is charged with the duty of valuing
the railway properties of the United States. Specifications for Maps and
Profiles to be furnished by common carriers have been promulgated by
the Interstate Commerce Commission under date of February i, 1914.
It has seemed desirable by your Committee to make this information
available in our publications for the benefit of the members.
An abstract of the rules of the Railway Commission of Canada, relat-
ing to the requirements for maps and profiles, is also given for reference.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
CONVENTIONAL SIGNS FOR USE ON TOPOGRAPHICAL,
RIGHT-OF-WAY AND TRACK MAPS AND STRUC-
TURAL PLANS.
Title. Present.
Hydrography (shown in blue).
Streams.
Springs and Sinks.
Lakes and Ponds.
Falls and Rapids.
Water Line.
Marsh.
Canals.
Ditches.
Contour System.
Sand.
Cliffs.
Cuts.
Embankments.
Bottom of Slope.
Top of Slope.
Proposed.
Name
Size
Relief (shown in blue).
mm%**ffEm
nninnifimiffliiffliiTTLinnimn
mriiimiflniimiimilinflininnu
imiuiwuiilllfillilililllJlilUdUiP
Medium
Fine
miriuiiiilUlilillJi'llliiliiJiiuOTi
flmnrnimTiiimipinniinnifl
iuTiimiJriiiTIiiTTiiiTniiimiiiri
'-uuimiMiniiuiiriimuijiiiiii'U!
Medjum
Fine
930
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
931
Title. Present.
Boundary and Survey Lines {Civil).
Political divisions, State, County or gerhei Twp-woijne Co.- Mich
Township lines. PweyTwp -Adam's Co- ind
Government Surveys, Base, Meridian 5tc.i8iTi2N11R.rEJj^PM.
Township, Section or Harbor Line.
Street, Block or other Property Line.
Survey Lines.
Center Lines.
Company Property Line.
Fence (on Street Line).
Red prewssg—
UocoMon
On gindlfsechon^Cenlreiine 19
irmonunnenFed. sTiowTocofibn
ond proper Symbol
Proposed.
Bethel Twg_-Wayne Co -Mich
Posey TWp - Adams Co Ind
Sec 18 TI2N.R I E.3'° PM.
5ecl3 T. iin R iO"PM
Red gre\g^=^-
LocoTipn
OriginqKsecrion (Centre Line 19
l7~monumente"bT. snow Locanon
ond proper Symbol
Store Kind'and heigV
Fence (on Company Property Line). trote^no*on"d'neigh>t"
*Stone Fence.
*Board Fence.
*Picket Fence.
*Barb Wire Fence.
*Rail Fence.
*Worm Fence.
*Woven Wire Fence.
*Snow Shed.
*Hedge.
Cities.
Villages.
City Limits.
Fire Limits.
!□□□□□!
iJh_i
I I I l_l l_l I I l__l I
1 « • L.
Store Kind ond height
Stote kind and height
Give Height
Give Height
Give Heipirit
.. . mm 7i ff f'n f t t'n Tf ;"t r f fTTi.
"""""iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii"1'
D3OD3333J03J0JJ33J33
i55553i
l_Jt_i
•Additions.
932
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
Title.
Present.
Proposed.
Highways and Crossings.
Public and Main Roads.
Private and Secondary Roads.
Trails.
Road Crossings.
♦Street and Public Road Crossings.
♦Private Road Crossing.
*Road Crossing at Grade.
*Road Crossing Under Grade.
*Road Crossing Overhead.
Crossing Gate.
Turnstile.
Cattle Guards.
"•V
M*
-X)*
AV
^<^L.
"TV
#=#
■V,'
— (X— X)—
--E3
*Farm Gate.
Section Corner
Section Corners, Monuments, Etc.
17 lie
20|21
Section Center.
Triangulation Station
Point.
or Transit
A
Bench Mark.
BM.X1232
Stone Monument.
D
Iron Monument.
■
17 16
20|21
BM.X123?
♦Additions.
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 933
Title. Present. Proposed.
Mines.
Tunnel. "^>-^ - — -
Shaft. B 0
Test Opening. X
Coal Outcrop. ^^^^^^y^^
Mine in Operation. /C A
♦Railways (Topographical Maps).
Steam. ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
Electric. EBmnnmnnmi n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n n
Street Railways. — ™ » — m "i » ■ i m m m — m
♦Railway Tracks (Track Maps).
Railway track or old track to remain. = -
Old track to be taken up. — ~ z: = ;z rz := — — =z zz: — zz.~
Red Red
New tracks. —
R_ed R£d
Future tracks. — —
Foreign tracks. Color other than Red Color other thonged.
I 4° Curve to right. _0
Almement \ 2„ Curve tQ ,eft> -^ £^-~
*Track Fixtures.
Turnout and Switch Stand. ^ -::^>- ~ A -^^>- :
Interlocked Switch. r*-^;^ g"-^^.
Derail. < V ■ ■ ■■
Bumping Post. t- = ^ —
•For Railway track and yard studies use single or double lines.
934
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
Title.
Present.
Buildings.
Proposed.
F Frame.
El
B Brick.
QD
S Stone.
El
C Concrete.
CUaractif
| p | Pass Station
Cor. I. Corrugated Iron.
I F | Frf Station
Use letters to indicate character.
|PF| Pass ondFrr.Sfohon
Platform or Driveway.
State Kind
Indicate Kind and Character
Turntable.
®
®
Interlocking Tower.
E> — <3
I — fl •
In Plan In Profile
*Section Dwelling.
p A
Indicate Kind of Material
No of Story and Rooms
*Coal Chute (Mechanical).
*Coal Chute (Trestle).
1 c. s. 1 T 1
*Circular Engine House.
*Rectangular Engine House.
*Telegraph Office in Station.
Mile Post.
Section Post.
Yard Limits.
Highway Crossing Bell.
Signs and Signals.
T
m
Sec.
f
< V. LA
♦Additions.
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
935
Title.
Present.
Proposed.
Broken Stone.
Slag.
Screenings.
Gravel.
Cinders.
Chats.
Sand.
Burnt Clay.
Earth.
Ballast.
U 1 1 1 1 1 1 t f
r i t n
f</'V\/'\/'\,Vy\y\/^/'\y\/'Vl
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I 1
V J I I 1 > ) ) ) I I /->
I r — -3
I I I 1-
Rail.
ioo-lb. Black.
oo-lb. Red.
85-lb. Yellow.
80-lb. White.
75-lb. Green.
70-lb. Purple.
Girder.
Truss.
Trestle.
Signal Bridge.
♦Bridges.
^XTXTX-j
*==£
Rerolled Roil ho be sJxswn
in broken line
•For Railway track and yard studies use single or double lin«
936 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
Title. Present.
Culverts, Sewers, Etc.
Proposed.
Masonry Arch or Flat-top Culvert.
Pipe or Wood Box Culverts or
Drains; state kind and length, and
kind of walls, if any.
Catch Basin.
Manhole.
Sump.
<X>
3
=1
o---
Miscellaneous.
Pole Wire Lines.
Switch or Signal Connecting Lines.
Wire Conduit.
Arc Lamp.
Other Lamps.
Railway Tunnel.
Dimension Line.
Cribbing.
Abutment, Wall and Pier.
Track Scales.
Wagon Scales.
Mail Crane.
True Meridian.
Magnetic Meridian.
F- \> \> l> t>
State N°of Wires ond Ownership
State -o- Kind
=3= = = = = *=
Red inK
■* *■
uuuuuuiwuumumi
) — I
Indicate N°of Wires ond Ownership
r \> \> \> F
Specify N° of Wires ond Pipes
State -o- Kind
Red or Black Ink
UIMUHUHHHWMH
) — I
Indicate Cop ond Length
rSI
-Z N~^-
*Scales.
Il I . I ll ,1 !J=
200
♦Additions.
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 937
Title. Present. Proposed.
Water Supply and Pipe Lines.
G;ve Character, Diam* Height
J§^ (S)wT.
Water Tank.
Water Column.
Track Pan.
Company Water Pipe.
Other Water Pipe.
Steam, Compressed Air or Gas.
Fire Hydrant.
Valve.
Riser.
Meter.
*Sewer or Drain.
♦Additions.
938
Title.
Rockfaced Ashlar.
Dressed Ashlar.
Uncoursed Ashlar.
Rubble.
Rubble.
Plain Concrete.
Reinforced Concrete.
Brick.
Geological Strata.
Solid Rock.
Seamy Rock.
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
Present.
Masonry.
nnn
itei
MET. MESH
RODS OR BARS
Proposed.
E
o
o
J5
u
o
Title.
Earth.
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 939
Present. Proposed.
Gravel.
Sand.
Wrought Steel.
Metals.
Cast Steel.
U
Wrought Iron.
Cast Iron.
Malleable Iron.
Copper.
940
Title.
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
Present.
Miscellaneous.
Proposed.
Cinders.
Crushed Rock.
, -It!"- ..
Water.
Wood.
Wool, Felt, Asbestos, Leather, etc.
Mica, Rubber, Vulcanite, Fiber, etc.
Glass.
Comp. Metal, Lead, Babbitt, etc.
Bronze.
Brass.
<
E
£
o
U
o
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
941
♦Structural.
A — BRIDGE RIVETS.
Shop.
Two Full Heads.
Field.
Countersunk and chipped, far
side.
Countersunk and chipped, near
side.
Countersunk and chipped, both
sides.
®
Far Side. Near Side. Both Sides.
Countersunk and not chipped.
Flattened to %-in. high for }4-in.
and 5^-in. rivets.
Flattened to }i-'m. high for 54-in.,
74,-m. and i-in. rivets.
B — STRESSES.
Tension.
Compression.
+
♦No change recommended.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR MAPS AND PROFILES.
AS PRESCRIBED BY THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION IN ACCORDANCE
WITH SECTION IQA OF THE ACT TO REGULATE COMMERCE.
FIRST ISSUE— EFFECTIVE ON FEBRUARY 1, 1914.
Order.
AT A GENERAL SESSION OF THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION, HELD
AT ITS OFFICE IN WASHINGTON, D. C, ON THE I2TH DAY OF
JANUARY, A. D. I914.
The subject of specifications for maps and profiles to be prescribed
for and applied by steam railway carriers being under consideration, the
following order was entered :
It is ordered, That the specifications for maps and profiles which
are set out in printed form to be hereafter known as first issue, a copy
of which is now before this Commission, be, and the same are hereby,
approved; that a copy thereof, duly authenticated by the Secretary of the
Commission, be filed in its archives, and a second copy thereof, in like
manner authenticated, in the office of the division of valuation; and that
each of said copies so authenticated and filed shall be deemed an original
record thereof.
It is further ordered, That the said specifications for maps and
profiles be, and the same are hereby, prescribed for the use of all steam
railway carriers subject to the provisions of the act tp regulate com-
merce, as amended, in the preparation of all maps and profiles which
shall be required filed with this Commission in accordance with section
19a of the act to regulate commerce, that each and every carrier and
each and every receiver or operating trustee of any such carrier be re-
quired to prepare and furnish to the Commission all maps and profiles in
conformity therewith ; and that a copy of the said first issue be sent to
each and every such carrier and to each and every receiver or operating
trustee of any such carrier.
It is further ordered, That every steam railway carrier prepare and
furnish to the Commission complete maps and profiles of its property as
it exists June 30, 1914, on or before February 1, 1915, or by such
subsequent date as may be fixed by the Commission as a result of a hear-
ing which will be given any carrier to show cause why said maps and pro-
files cannot be filed within such time limit.
It is further ordered, That maps and profiles of extensions and im-
provements or other changes made after June 30, 1914, shall be pre-
pared and furnished to the Commission within six months after said
extension and improvement or change has been placed in operation.
It is further ordered, That February 1, 1914, be, and is hereby fixed
as the date on which the said first issue of the specifications for maps
and profiles shall become effective.
By the Commission. George B. McGinty,
[Seal.] Secretary.
943
944 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.
Interstate Commerce Commission,
Washington, January 12, 1914.
To Railway Carriers:
The accompanying specifications for maps and profiles required by
the Interstate Commerce Commission under authority of section 19a of
the act to regulate commerce prescribe standards which, from date of
issue, will apply to all maps and profiles which shall finally be filed with
the Commission in connection with the valuation of railway properties.
To enable the Commission to begin the valuation work promptly,
the carriers shall furnish for initial use copies of those existing maps and
profiles and other standard and special plans that will assist the Com-
mission in its work. These existing maps, profiles and other plans shall
be collected together by the carriers at their general engineering offices for
inspection by the Commission, and copies of such maps, profiles and other
plans which it determines useful for its purpose shall be furnished when
requested.
Many standard and special plans of structures will be required by
the Commission in connection with the valuation, from time to time,
but the permanent filing of all such special records with the Commission
is not contemplated at this time, and carriers will be required to preserve
such plans at their general offices so as to be readily accessible to the
Commission.
A copy of section 19a of the act to regulate commerce is included as
Appendix A.
Should a question arise at any time in the minds of officers of car-
riers with regard to the correct interpretation of any portion of these
specifications, such officials are invited to correspond with the Commis-
sion in order that uniformity may be secured in their application.
George B. McGinty,
Secretary.
SYNOPSIS.
I. General.
1. Intent.
II. Maps and profiles required.
2. Classes and Titles.
3. Description and purpose.
III. Materials for maps and profiles.
4. Cloth.
5- Ink.
IV. Form of maps and profiles.
6. Size of sheets.
7. Scales.
8. Symbols.
9. Lettering.
10. Arrangement of data.
11. Cardinal points.
12. Indexing.
13. Title.
14. Certification.
V. Data required.
15. Right-of-way and track map.
16. Station maps.
17. Profiles.
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 945
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF THE MAPS AND
PROFILES WHICH SHALL BE FILED WITH THE IN-
TERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION TO SUP-
PORT THE VALUATION OF PROPERTY
OF RAILWAY CARRIERS.
I. GENERAL.
1. Intent.
In order that the Interstate Commerce Commission may investigate,
ascertain, report and record the value of property of railway carriers as
it now exists and as it hereafter may be extended, improved or changed,
it is essential that certain maps and profiles shall be prepared by the car-
riers and filed with the Commission.
It is not the intent of the Commission to require the unnecessary con-
struction of maps and profiles. All maps and profiles, both old and new,
must be furnished upon sheets of the standard sizes and upon material of
the kind specified, and they must be produced or reproduced by the process
specified.
All new maps and profiles, whether covering new construction or old
construction, must be strictly in accordance with these specifications.
Where maps and profiles already in existence contain, in the opinion
of the Commission, the necessary information in such form that it is rea-
sonably available, these will be accepted.
For the purpose of ascertaining to what extent their present maps are
acceptable carriers may bring together at their principal engineering offices
such maps and profiles as they desire to tender. Thereupon the Commis-
sion will at once examine the same and will indicate in writing what
are acceptable in their present form and what changes or additions should
be made in order to make others acceptable.
Except in case of existing maps and profiles accepted or modified as
above, these specifications must be strictly followed.
II. MAPS AND PROFILES REQUIRED.
2. Classes and Titles.
Three general classes of drawings shall be made by the carriers and
filed with the Commission, viz. :
(i) Right-of-Way and Track Map.
(2) Station Maps.
(a) Maps showing all lands, separately from improvements,
when this is necessary for clearness.
(&) Maps showing tracks and structures and external land
boundaries.
(3) Profile.
3. Description and Purpose.
The Right-of-Way and Track Map shall be a true horizontal projec-
tion of the right of way, tracks and other structures, platted continuously
between district or terminal points.
The Station Maps shall be a supplement to the above for terminals
and other locations where the property of carriers is so extensive and
complicated that it cannot be clearly shown on the Right-of-Way and
Track Map. The Station Maps shall be made in two separate sets, one
showing details as to lands and the other the tracks, structures and ex-
ternal land boundaries, except that where practicable to show clearly on
one map all information specified hereinafter, this may be done.
946 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
The profile shall be a vertical, sectional view on center line of track
(or other railway base line) on an exaggerated vertical scale, and shall
show the features of the railway track substructure and superstructure,
which can best be indicated in vertical projection; also such other detail
information as is hereinafter more fully set forth.
III. MATERIALS.
4. Cloth.
All maps and profiles shall be made by hand or by a lithographic
process, approved by the Commission, on the best grade of tracing cloth
(Imperial or its equal).
5. Ink.
The ink used for making maps and profiles shall be the best grade,
black, waterproof, and permanent india or printer's ink. The profile rul-
ing shall be printed in orange (colored) ink where hand tracings are
furnished.
IV. FORM OF MAPS AND PROFILES.
6. Size of Sheets.
The Right-of-Way and Track Map shall be made in sheets 24 by 56
inches. A plain, single-line border shall be drawn on each sheet, dimen-
sions inside of which shall be 23 by 55 inches.
The Station Maps shall be made in sheets 24 by 56 inches, with border
line as above. When more than one sheet is required to show a station
property, the plat shall be made upon "matched marked" sheets in such
manner as to require a minimum number.
The profile shall be made in sheets 12 by 56 inches with border. The
size inside of border lines shall be 10 by 55 inches.
7. Scales. ,
The Right-of-Way and Track Map shall be made on a scale of I
inch equals 400 feet, or 1 inch equals 200 feet.
The Station Maps shall be made on a scale of 1 inch equals 100 feet,
or in complicated situations 1 inch equals 50 feet.
The Profile shall be made on standard plate A, and on scales of : Ver-
tical, 1 inch equals 20 feet; horizontal, 1 inch equals 400 feet.
8. Symbols.
The symbols used on all maps and profiles shall be the standards rec-
ommended by the American Railway Engineering Association, in so far as
they may be applicable.
9. Lettering.
All lettering on maps and profiles shall be in plain, simple style.
10. Arrangement of Data.
The Right-of-Way and Track Map sheets shall be made with the zero
or lowest number station at the left side of each sheet and shall be platted
continuously from left to right. Where the use of this method would
involve the abandonment of established survey station numbers of a rail-
way, the platting may be done in such a way as to preserve them, pro-
vided the maps or profiles for any given main line or branch are con-
tinuous in same direction between termini of main line or branch. The
general direction of the center line of track shall be as nearly as possible
parallel to and half way between the long sides of sheets, so that the
maximum space each side of platted right-of-way lines may be available
for showing adjacent topography and property lines and for making
notes as to physical property. The maximum length of main roadway
represented on any one sheet (between "match marks") shall be 4 miles,
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 947
if scale is I inch equals 400 feet, or 2 miles if scale is 1 inch equals 200
feet.
The Station Maps shall be made as prescribed above for Right-of-Way
and Track Maps.
The Profile shall be made so that any serially numbered sheet shall
cover the same portion of the railway as the like serially numbered sheet
or sheets of the Right-of-Way and Track Map. Platting shall be done as
specified above. The 2^-inch space immediately above the lower border
line shall be used for track alignment and topographic data. The re-
maining 7j4-inch space shall be used for platting the profile in such a way
as to most economically utilize the space.
11. Cardinal Points.
On all Right-of-Way and Track Map sheets and Station Maps an
arrow showing the true north and south line (as nearly as can be ascer-
tained from existing records) shall be placed. This arrow shall be not
less than 3 inches in length and shall have the letter "N" marked at its
north end.
12. Indexing.
For each series of Right-of-Way and Track Maps there shall be
made a small skeleton index map on a scale of not less than one-fourth
inch equals 1 mile. Where practicable this index map may be placed on
any vacant space of the first sheet of a series, and where made on a sep-
arate sheet it shall be 24 by 56 inches. This index map shall show by
outline with file numbers therein the sheets of a series, the name of main
line division or branch line, the principal cities or towns, and the beginning
and ending station numbers of series, and any other information carrier
may elect to place thereon.
All Right-of-Way and Track Map sheets and Profile sheets shall be
numbered serially, beginning with sheet 1. The sheets representing valua-
tion sections shall form separate series and the valuation sections shall be
numbered serially with the letter "V" preceding the number. The letter
"P" shall precede the serial number or numbers on the profile sheets.
Index numbers shall be in lower right-hand corner of the sheet and in-
closed in plain, single-line circle 1 inch in diameter. Valuation numbers
shall be in the upper half of circle and sheet number below with a straight
line between.
The Station Maps shall be given the same serial number preceded by
the letter "S" as the sheet of the Right-of-Way and Track Map which they
supplement.
In case a Right-of-Way and Track Map sheet is supplemented by
more than one Station Map, a subscript letter should be used after the
number, e. g., S 32a, S 32b, etc., where land and track features are com-
bined; S-L 32a, etc., where land only is shown; and S-T 32a, etc., where
track features only are shown.
On the Right-of-Way and Track Map sheets references to all Sta-
tion Maps shall be shown by outlining limits of Station Maps and giving
the number of the Station Map sheets.
The carrier's file number shall also be placed on all map and profile
sheets in the lower left-hand corner.
13. Title.
The title shall be placed as near the lower right-hand corner as
practicable. The following information shall be given therein:
(1) Class.
Right-of-Way and Track Map.
Station Map.
Profile.
948 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
(2) Corporate name of the railway.
(3) Name of operating company.
(4) Name of railway division or branch line.
(5) Beginning and ending survey station numbers on sheet.
(6) Scale or scales.
(7) Date as of which maps or profiles represent the facts shown
thereon.
(8) Office from which issued.
14. Certification.
A certificate as to the correctness of all maps and profiles shall be
printed and executed on the first sheet of each series, and each of the
other sheets of the same series shall be identified as a part thereof. The
certificate on the first sheet of each series shall be placed as near the title
as practicable and shall be of the following form:
State of
County of
I, the undersigned, officer of the
(Name or railway company.)
do hereby certify that this is a correct
(Map or profile.)
in a series of sheets, of said railway from survey station
to survey station
(Main line, division, or branch.)
State of
prepared from the records of said company.
Engineer.
Correct :
(Name of officer authorized to certify records.)
Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of
Notary public in and for the
County of
State of
My commission expires
The identification on the other sheets of a series shall be of the
following form and placed as near the title as practicable:
Sheet No of of ,
(Series.) (Railway, main line or branch.)
from survey station to survey station
Engineer.
V. DATA REQUIRED.
18. On the RIght-of-Way and Track Map.
On the Right-of-Way and Track Map shall be shown the following
data:
(a) Boundary Lines of All Right of Way. — The term "right of
way" as herein used includes all lands owned or used for purposes of a
common carrier, no matter how acquired.
Show : Width of right of way, in figures, at each end of the sheet
and at points where a change of width occurs, with station and plus
of such points; boundary lines and dimensions of each separate tract
acquired ; a schedule of deed, custodian's number, the name of grantor
and grantee, kind of instrument, date and book and page where re-
corded. Each tract of land shall be given a serial number and listed
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 949
serially in the schedule. The schedule shall also include reference to
leases to the company, franchises, ordinances, grants, and all other
methods of acquisition.
(b) Boundary Lines of Detached Lands. — Where same can be
shown clearly. The term "detached lands" as herein used includes :
(i) Lands owned or used for purposes of a common carrier, but
not adjoining or connecting with other lands of the carrier.
(2) Lands owned and not used for purposes of a common car-
rier, either adjoining or disconnected from other property owned by
the carrier.
Show : Boundary lines and dimensions ; distance and bearing from
some point on the boundary line to some established point or perma-
nent land corner, where practicable, and separately on the schedule above,
the lands not used for purposes of a common carrier.
(c) Intersecting Property Lines of Adjacent Landowners. — Where
the information is in the possession of the carrier show : The property
lines of adjacent landowners, the station and plus of important inter-
sections of property lines with center line of railway or other railway
base line, and the names of owners of the land adjacent to the right of
way.
(d) Intersecting Divisional Land Lines. — Show : Section, town-
ship, county, state, city, town, village or other governmental lines, with
names or designations; the width and names of streets and highways
which intersect the right of way; and the station and plus at all such
points of crossing or intersections with center line of railway or other
railway base line.
(e) Division and Subdivision of Lands Beyond the Limits of the
Right of Way. — Where the information is in the possession of carrier
show: The section and quarter-section lines for a maximum distance of
1 mile on each side of the center or base line of railway where the
land has been subdivided into townships and sections ; such data as to
divisions, tracts, streets, alleys, blocks and lots, where the land has
been divided in some other way than by sections ; the distance, where
known, from railway base line to permanent land corners or monu-
ments ; and the base line from which the railway's lands were located
(center line of first, second, third or fourth main track or other base
line).
(/) Alinement and Tracks. — Show : The center line of each main
and sidetrack when such tracks are outside the limits covered by the
Station Maps and center line of each main track, also inside Station
Map limits; the length, in figures, of all sidetracks from point of switch
to point of switch, or point of switch to end of track; all other rail-
ways, crossed or connecting, and state if crossing is over or under grade,
and give name of owner of such tracks ; survey station number at even
1,000 scale-feet intervals, and station and plus at points of all main line
switches at points of curves and tangents and at beginning and ending
points on each sheet; the degree and central angle of curves; and joint
tracks and ownership thereof.
(g) Improvements. — Show : Station and office buildings, shops, en-
gine houses, fuel stations, water stations, etc. (owned by the carrier), in
general outline, where it can be done clearly. Also indicate convention-
ally : Bridges, trestles, culverts, tunnels, retaining walls, cattle guards,
mileposts, signal bridges and ground masts, fences by note only, and other
principal railway structures owned by the carrier, with general data as to
dimensions ; and, where practicable, pipe lines, sewers, underground con-
duits, paving, curbing or similar works located on the right of way of
the carrier or adjoining and owned by the carrier in whole or in part.
Give station and plus to all important structures which are outlined above.
950 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
(h) Topographical Features. — Show: Rivers, creeks, watercourses,
highway crossings, etc. Give names, where known, and when highway
crossings are over or under grade, so state.
16. On Station Maps.
The purpose of the large scale Station Maps is to permit the show-
ing of improvements in more detail than is practicable on the right-of-
way and track map.
Where the station property to be mapped is extensive and com-
plicated, it shall be delineated on two separate maps.
(i) Shall show all data relating to ownership of lands.
(2) Shall show all tracks and structures and external land boun-
daries.
Where practicable, without sacrificing the clearness of the map, the
two may be combined into one map.
Show all information set forth under items (a) to (h), inclusive, of
section No. 15, when inside of Station Map limits, and all other surface
and subsurface improvements owned by the carrier and not hereinbefore
noted, as far as may be practicable.
Tracks shall be represented on Station Maps either by center lines or
by rail lines.
17. On Profile.
The following data shall be placed on all Profiles :
(a) Roadway. — Show: The vertical projection of the original ground
surface on center line of railway; present grade line (top of the roadbed
subgrade) ; rates of grade; elevations (sea-level datum) at all points of
change of grade, at each end of sheets and where profile is "broken," at
50-foot (scale) intervals; and the station and plus to points of change of
grade and station numbers at each 1,000-foot (scale) interval near lower
border of sheet.
(b) Structures. — Show: Bridges, trestles, culverts, retaining walls,
tunnels, and other roadbed structures in vertical projection, stating the
kind and general dimensions by figures; average depth of penetration of
piling in each bent of trestles, or under other structures, by vertical pro-
jection; character of, and depth of foundation bed of masonry structures
by vertical projection; reference to railway file numbers of the detail
standard or special plans by which the structures were built; existing mile
posts; and the station and plus of each of the above indicated improve-
ments.
(c) Quantities. — Profiles of railways built after the date of issue of
these specifications shall show for each mile a summary of construction
quantities to subgrade, including roadway, bridges and culverts. Profiles
of railways built before the issue of these specifications may show, at the
option of the carrier, similar quantities in the same summary form.
The summary of quantities shall be in detail, according to the stand-
ard classification of units used by each carrier.
(d) Alinement and Track. — Show : On the lower 2l/t by 55-inch
space of the profile sheet, the center line of each main track, developed into
straight line or lines, with alinement notes of curves stated in figures; the
station and plus at points of curves and tangents; and other data, such as
passing tracks, depot buildings, water and fuel stations, highway cross-
ings, railway crossings, and important watercourses that will assist in in-
terpreting the profile. For platting transversely a scale of 1 inch equals
200 feet shall be used.
Appendix A.
[PUBLIC— NO. 400.]
[H. R. 22593.]
An Act to amend an Act entitled "An Act to regulate commerce," ap-
proved February fourth, eighteen hundred and eighty-seven, and all Acts
amendatory thereof by providing for a valuation of the several classes of
property of carriers subject thereto and securing information concerning
their stocks, bonds, and other securities.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled, That the Act entitled,
"An Act to regulate commerce," approved February fourth, eighteen hun-
dred and eighty-seven, as amended, be further amended by adding thereto
a new section, to be known as section nineteen a, and to read as follows :
"Sec. 19a. That the Commission shall, as hereinafter provided, in-
vestigate, ascertain and report the value of all the property owned or
used by every common carrier subject to the provisions of this Act. To
enable the Commission to make such investigation and report, it is author-
ized to employ such experts and other assistants as may be necessary. The
Commission may appoint examiners who shall have power to administer
oaths, examine witnesses, and take testimony. The Commission shall make
an inventory which shall list the property of every common carrier sub-
ject to the provisions of this Act in detail, and show the value thereof
as hereinafter provided, and shall classify the physical property, as nearly
as practicable, in conformity with the classification of expenditures for
road and equipment, as prescribed by the Interstate Commerce Commis-
sion.
"First. In such investigation said Commission shall ascertain and
report in detail as to each piece of property owned or used by said common
carrier for its purposes as a common carrier, the original cost to date, the
cost of reproduction new, the cost of reproduction less depreciation, and
and an analysis of the methods by which these several costs are obtained,
and the reason for their differences, if any. The Commission shall in
like manner ascertain and report separately other values, and elements of
value, if any, of the property of such common carrier, and an analysis of
the methods of valuation employed, and of the reasons for any differences
between any such value, and each of the foregoing cost values.
"Second. Such investigation and report shall state in detail and sep-
arately from improvements the original cost of all lands, rights of way,
and terminals owned or used for the purposes of a common carrier, and
ascertained as of the time of dedication to public use, and the present
value of the same, and separately the original and present cost of con-
demnation and damages or of purchase in excess of such original cost or
present value.
"Third. Such investigation and report shall show separately the
property held for purposes other than those of a common carrier, and
the original cost and present value of the same, together with an analysis
of the methods of valuation employed.
"Fourth. In ascertaining the original cost to date of the property of
such common carrier the Commission, in addition to such other elements
as it may deem necessary, shall investigate and report upon the history
and organization of the present and of any previous corporation operat-
ing such property; upon any increases or decreases of stocks, bonds or
other securities, in any reorganization ; upon moneys received by any
such corporation by reason of any issues of stocks, bonds or other securi-
951
952 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
ties ; upon the syndicating, banking and other financial arrangements under
which such issues were made and the expense thereof ; and upon the net
and gross earnings of such corporations; and shall also ascertain and
report in such detail as may be determined by the Commission upon the
expenditure of all moneys and the purposes for which the same were
expended.
"Fifth. The Commission shall ascertain and report the amount and
value of any aid, gift, grant of right of way or donation made to any
such common carrier, or to any previous corporation operating such prop-
erty, by the Government of the United States or by any State, county, or
municipal government, or by individuals, associations or corporations ;
and it shall also ascertain and report the grants of land to any such com-
mon carrier, or any previous corporation operating such property, by the
government of the United States or by any State, county or municipal
government, and the amount of money derived from the sale of any por-
tion of such grants and the value of the unsold portion thereof at the
time acquired and at the present time, also, the amount and value of any
concession and allowance made by such common carrier to the Govern-
ment of the United States, or to any State, county or municipal govern-
ment in consideration of such aid, gift, grant or donation.
"Except as herein otherwise provided, the Commission shall have
power to prescribe the method of procedure to be followed in the con-
duct of the investigation, the form in which the results of the valuation
shall be submitted, and the classification of the elements that constitute
the ascertained value, and such investigation shall show the value of the
property of every common carrier as a whole and separately the value of
its property in each of the several States and Territories and the District
of Columbia, classified and in detail as herein required.
"Such investigation shall be commenced within sixty days after the
approval of this Act and shall be prosecuted with diligence and thorough-
ness, and the result thereof reported to Congress at the beginning of each
regular session thereafter until completed.
"Every common carrier subject to the provisions of this Act shall
furnish to the Commission or its agents from time to time and as the
Commission may require, maps, profiles, contracts, reports of engineers,
and any other documents, records and papers or copies of any or all of
the same, in aid of such investigation and determination of the value of
the property of said common carrier, and shall grant to all agents of the
Commission free access to its right of way, its property and its accounts,
records and memoranda whenever and wherever requested by any such
duly authorized agent, and every common carrier is hereby directed and
required to co-operate with and aid the Commission in the work of the
valuation of its property in such further particulars and to such extent
as the Commission may require and direct, and all rules and regulations
made by the Commission for the purpose of administering the provisions
of this section and section twenty of this Act shall have the full force
and effect of law. Unless otherwise ordered by the Commission, with the
reasons therefor, the records and data of the Commission shall be open
to the inspection and examination of the public.
"Upon the completion of the valuation herein provided for the Com-
mission shall thereafter in like manner keep itself informed of all ex-
tensions and improvements or other changes in the condition and value
of the property of all common carriers, and shall ascertain the value
thereof, and shall from time to time, revise and correct its valuations,
showing such revision and correction classified and as a whole and separ-
ately in each of the several States and Territories and the District of
Columbia, which valuations, both original and corrected, shall be tentative
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 953
valuations and shall be reported to Congress at the beginning of each
regular session.
"To enable the Commission to make such changes and corrections in
its valuations of each class of property, every common carrier subject to
the provisions of this Act shall make such reports and furnish such in-
formation as the Commission may require.
"Whenever the Commission shall have completed the tentative valua-
tion of the property of any common carrier, as herein directed, and before
such valuation shall become final, the Commission shall give notice by
registered letter to the said carrier, the Attorney-General of the United
States, the governor of any State in which the property so valued is
located, and to such additional parties as the Commission may prescribe,
stating the valuation placed upon the several classes of property of said
carrier, and shall allow thirty days in which to file a protest of the same
with the Commission. If no protest is filed within thirty days, said valua-
tion shall become final as of the date thereof.
"If notice of protest is filed the Commission shall fix a time for hear-
ing the same, and shall proceed as promptly as may be to hear and con-
sider any matter relative and material thereto which may be presented in
support of any such protest so filed as aforesaid. If after hearing any
protest of such tentative valuation under the provisions of this Act the
Commission shall be of the opinion that its valuation should not become
final, it shall make such changes as may be necessary, and shall issue an
order making such corrected tentative valuation final as of the date there-
of. All final valuations by the Commission and the classification thereof
shall be published and shall be prima facie evidence of the value of the
property in all proceedings under the Act to regulate commerce as of the
date of the fixing thereof, and in all judicial proceedings for the enforce-
ment of the Act approved February fourth, eighteen hundred and eighty-
seven, commonly known as "the Act to regulate commerce," and the vari-
ous Acts amendatory thereof, and in all judicial proceedings brought to
enjoin, set aside, annul or suspend, in whole or in part, any order of the
Interstate Commerce Commission.
"If upon the trial of any action involving a final value fixed by the
Commission, evidence shall be introduced regarding such value which is
found by the court to be different from that offered upon the hearing
before the Commission, or additional thereto and substantially affecting
said value, the court, before proceeding to render judgment, shall transmit
a copy of such evidence to the Commission, and shall stay further pro-
ceedings in said action for such time as the court shall determine from the
date of such transmission. Upon the receipt of such evidence the Com-
mission shall consider the same and may fix a final value different from
the one fixed in the first instance, and may alter, modify, amend or rescind
any order which it has made involving said final value, and shall report
its action thereon to said court within the time fixed by the court. If the
Commission shall alter, modify or amend its order, such altered, modified,
or amended order shall take the place of the original order complained of
and judgment shall be rendered thereon as though made by the Commis-
sion in the first instance. If the original order shall not be rescinded or
changed by the Commission, judgment shall be rendered upon such original
order.
"The provisions of this section shall apply to receivers of carriers and
operating trustees. In case of failure or refusal on the part of any car-
rier, receiver or trustee to comply with all the requirements of this sec-
tion and in the manner prescribed by the Commission, such carrier, re-
ceiver or trustee shall forfeit to the United States the sum of five hundred
dollars for each such offense and for each and every day of the continu-
954 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
ance of such offense, such forfeitures to be recoverable in the same man-
ner as other forfeitures provided for in section sixteen of the Act to
regulate commerce.
"That the district courts of the United States shall have jurisdiction,
upon the application of the Attorney-General of the United States at the
request of the Commission, alleging a failure to comply with or a violation
of any of the provisions of this section by any common carrier, to issue a
writ or writs of mandamus commanding such common carrier to comply
with the provisions of this section."
Approved March I, 1913.
ABSTRACT FROM THE RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE
BOARD OF RAILWAY COMMISSIONERS FOR CANADA.
MAPS AND PROFILES.
REQUIREMENTS ON APPLICATION HAVING REFERENCE TO PLANS.
No. 1. — General Location of Railway. — Section 157.
Send to Secretary of the Department of Railways and Canals : 3 cop-
ies of map showing the general location of the proposed line of railway,
the termini and the principal towns and places through which the railway
is to pass, giving the names thereof, the railways, navigable streams and
tidewater, if any, to be crossed by the railway, and such as may be within
a radius of thirty miles of the proposed railway, and generally the physical
features of the country through which the railway is to be constructed.
First copy to be examined and approved by the Minister and filed in
the Department of Railways and Canals.
Second copy to be approved by Minister for filing by the Minister
with the Board.
Third copy to be approved by Minister for the company. Scale of
map — not less than 6 miles to the inch.
No. 2. — Plan, Profile, Etc., of Located Line. — Section 159.
Upon approved general location map being filed by the Minister with
the Board, send to the Secretary of the Board three sets of plans, prepared
exactly in accordance with the "general notes," as follows :
T7- j „ ^ an-'i ( For sanction and deposit
First set — < I profile. > •., iU t> a
I „ r i t r \ with the Board.
' I book of reference. )
l To be certified as copy of original and
Second set — Same as first, -J returned to the Company for registra-
( tion.
_.. , c c . / To be certified as copy of original and
Third set-Same as first. [ returned tQ thP/ companBy.
Scale — Plans — 400 feet to the inch.
Profiles. ( £or;zo?tai; f°* feet
1. Vertical, 20 feet.
(N. B. — In prairie country, scale of plan may be 1,000 feet to the inch.)
No. 3. — To Alter Location or Grades of Line Previously Sane
tioned or Completed. — Section 167.
Send to the Secretary of the Board three sets of plans, profiles and
books of reference as required in No. 2.
(N. B. — The plans and profiles so submitted will be required to show
the original location, grades and curves as far as possible, and railway,
highway and farm crossings, and the changes desired or necessitated in
any of these, giving reason for same. Upon completion of the work ap-
plication must be made to the Board for leave to operate.
(Scale— Same as No. 2.)
No. 4. — Plans of Completed Railway. — Section 164.
Send to the Secretary of the Board within six months after com-
pletion three sets of plans and profiles of the completed road.
First set to be filed with the Board.
Second set to be certified as copy of plan filed, and returned to the
company.
Third set to be certified as copy of plan filed. To be returned to the
company for registration purposes.
Scale — Same as No. 2.
955
To be examined and cer-
tified and deposited
with Board.
956 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
No. 5_To Take Additional Lands for Stations, Snow Protection,
Etc. — Section 178.
Send to the Secretary of the Board three set of plans and documents
as follows:
i application sworn to by
officers required to sign
and certify plans. See
"General Notes."
i plan, i profile,
i book of reference.
. „ r / For certificate and return for registration
Second set-Same as first, j wjth duplicate authority.
_,..', ~ r / For certificate and return to company.
Third set-Same as first. j with copy of authority>
Scale — Same as No. 2.
N. B. — Ten days' notice of application must be given by the applicant
company to the owner or possessor of the property, and copies of such
notice with affidavits of service thereof must be furnished to the Baord
on the application.
No. 6. — Branch Lines, Not Exceeding Six Miles. — Sections 221-225.
Plans, etc., shall be prepared the same as in No. 2; and one set
shall be deposited in the Registry Office. Upon such deposit the com-
pany shall give four weeks' public notice of its intention to apply to the
Board, in some newspaper published in the county or district through
which the branch line is to pass; or, if there should be no newspaper pub-
lished in such county or district, for the same period in the Canada
Gazette.
Then send to the Secretary of the Board an application, accompanied
by proof of public notice, and three copies of the plan, profile and book
of reference, one set bearing the certificate of the Registrar that it is a
true copy of the plan, profile and book of reference deposited in the
Registry Office.
After the Board has approved the plan, etc., a certified copy of the
Order authorizing the construction of the branch line shall be filed in the
Registry office, together with any ipapers and plans showing changes
directed by the Board.
No. 7. — Railway Crossings or Junctions. — Section 227.
Send to the Secretary of the Board with an application three sets of
plan and profile of both roads on either side of the proposed crossing
for a distance of one mile in each direction.
Scale — Plan — 400 feet to the inch.
Profile / 4°° *eet to 'ncn h°rizontah
\ 20 feet to inch vertical.
First set for approval by and filing with the Board.
Second and third sets to be certified and furnished to the respective
companies concerned, with certified copy of order.
No. 8. — Highway Crossings. — Section 235 to 243.
Standard regulations of the Board affecting highway crossings, as
amended May 4, 1910.
Unless otherwise ordered by the Board, the Regulations regarding the
future construction of highway crossings are and shall be as follows:
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 957
1. With each application, the railway company shall send to the
Secretary of the Board three sets of plans and profiles of the crossing or
crossings in petition :
Scale —
Plan 400 ft. to an inch.
„ r, , -, /Horizontal 400 ft. to an inch.
Profile of radway. . { Vertical 20 ft. to an inch.
0 r, C u- u Horizontal 100 ft. to an inch.
Profile of h,ghway. f Vertical 20 ft. to an inch.
First set for approval by and filing with the Board.
Second and third sets, to be furnished to the respective parties con-
cerned, with a certified copy of the order approving of the same.
2. The plan and profile shall show at least one-half mile of the
railway each way and 300 feet of the highway on each side of the crossing.
3. The plan shall show all obstructions to the view from any point
on the highway within 100 feet of the crossing to any point on the rail-
way within one-half mile of the said crossing.
4. The company shall give the municipality in which the proposed
crossing lies, 10 days' notice of the application, and copies of the plan,
and furnish the Board with proof of service.
5. The road surface of level or elevated approaches, and of cuts
made for approaches, to rural railway crossings over highways shall be
20 feet wide.
No. 10. — Crossings With Wires or Other Electrical Conductors. —
Section 246.
Notice to Applicants : Send to the Secretary of the Board with the
application three copies of a drawing containing plans and profile views
of the crossing. Also send proof that the railway company has been
served with a copy of the application and drawing.
Make the drawing show :
(a) The location of the poles or towers, or the location of the
underground conduit in relation to the track; the dimensions of poles or
towers, and the material or materials of which they are made.
(b) The proposed number of wires or cables, the distances between
them and the track, and the method of attaching the conductors to the
insulators.
(c) The location of all other wires to be crossed and their supports.
(d) The maximum potential, in volts, between wires, the potential
between the wires and the ground, and the maximum current, in amperes,
to be transmitted.
(e) The kinds and sizes of wires or conductors to be used at the
crossing.
(f) On circuits of 10,000 volts or over, the method of protecting the
conductors from arcs at the insulators.
(g) The number of insulators supporting the conductors at the
crossing. (See also "J" in Specifications.)
N. B. — Place a distinguishing name, number, date and signature upon
the drawing. Mark the exact location of the proposed crossing upon the
drawing, so that this crossing can be identified readily.
No, 11, — Crossings With Pipes for Drains, Water Supply, Gas, Etc.
— Section 250.
Send to the Secretary of the Board, with the application, a plan and
profile in triplicate. The plan must show the track or tracks proposed to
be crossed. The profile must show the distance between the pipe and the
base of rail, the size of the pipe, and the material of which it is to be
958 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
constructed. A copy of the plan and profile must be sent to the railway
company with notice of application.
No. 12. — Crossings and Works Upon Navigable Waters, Beaches,
Etc.— Section 233.
Upon site and general plans being submitted to Department of Public
Works, and being approved by the Governor in Council, send to the Secre-
tary of the Hoard: Certified copy of Order in Council with the plans
and description approved thereby and so certified — one application and two
sets of detail plans, profiles, drawings and specifications.
The plans must show details of construction of piers and their founda-
tions, also details of superstructure, if standard plan of the same ha^
not already been approved.
The profile must show the cross-section of the river or stream at the
place of crossing and high and low water marks.
The name of the river or stream and the mileage of the bridge should
be given.
Upon completion of work application must be made to the Board for
leave to operate.
No. 13. — Bridges, Tunnels, Viaducts, Trestles, Etc., Over 18 Ft.
Span. — Section 257.
(a) Must be built in accordance with standard specifications and
plans, approved of by the Board.
(b) Or detail plans, profiles, drawings and specifications, which may
be blue, white or photographic prints, must be sent to the Secretary of
the Board for approval, etc., as in No. 12.
No. 14. — Station Grounds and Station Buildings. — Section 258.
Send to the Secretary of the Board three sets of plans showing the
location and details of structures and yard tracks. The company shall
give the municipality in which the proposed station lies notice of the ap-
plication and copy of the plan, and furnish the Board with proof of
service.
First set for filing with the Board.
Second set to be certified and returned to t lie company with certified
copy of order of approval.
Third set to be certified and sent to the municipality.
GENERAL NOTES.
Plans (for Nos. 2 to 6) must show the right of way, with lengths of
sections in miles, the names of the terminal points, the station grounds,
the property lines, owners' names, the areas and length and width of land
proposed to be taken, in figures (every change of width being given), the
curves and the bearings, also all open drains, watercourses, highways,
farm roads and railways proposed to be crossed or affected.
Should the company at any place require right of way more than 100
feet in breadth for the accommodation of slopes and side ditches, it will
be necessary to place on the plan cross-sections of the right of way, taken
one hundred feet apart and extending to the limits of the right of way
proposed to be taken.
Profiles shall show the grades, curves, highway and railway crossings,
open drains and watercourses, ami may be endorsed on the plan itself.
Books of reference shall describe the portion of land proposed to be
taken in eaeli lot to be traversed, giving numbers of the lots, and the
area, length and width of the portion thereof proposed to be taken and
names of owners and occupiers so far as as they can be ascertained.
RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS. 959
All plans, profiles and books of reference must be dated and must be
certified and signed by the President or Vice-President or General Man-
ager, and also by the Engineer of the company.
The plan and profile to be ertained by the Board must be on tracing
linen, the copies to be returned may be either white, blue, or photographic
prints.
All profiles shall be based, where possible, upon sea level datum.
All books of reference must be made on good, thick paper and in the
form of a book with a suitable paper cover. The size of such books
when closed shall be as near as possible to lYz inches by 7 inches, or book
of reference may be endorsed on the plan.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE II— ON BALLAST.
H. E. Hale. Chairman; J. M. Meade, Vice -Chair man;
L. W. Baldwin, G. H. Harris,
D. P. Beach, C. C. Hill,
W. J. Bergen, S. A. Jordan,
A. F. Blaess, William McNab,
T. C. Burpee, A. S. More.
O. H. Crittenden, J. V. Neubert.
F. T. Darrow, S. B. Rice,
J. M. Egan, E. V. Smith,
T. W. Fatherson, F. J. Stimson,
H. L. Gordon, S. N. Williams,
Committee.
To the Members of the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your Committee respectfully submits herewith its report to the
fifteenth annual convention.
The following subjects were assigned your Committee for investi-
gation, by the Board of Direction:
(i) Further investigation of proper depth of ballast of various kinds
to insure uniform distribution of loads on roadway, conferring
with Committee on Roadway.
(2) Revise ballast sections, with particular reference to the use of
a sub- and top-ballast.
(3) Investigate methods of cleaning stone ballast and obtain cost
of same by various methods.
(1) BALLAST SECTIONS, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO
THE USE OF SUB- AND TOP-BALLAST.
Meetings of the Sub-Committee were held at St. Louis, July 18, and
Chicago, November 13, 1913.
The members of the Sub-Committee are: J. M. Meade, Chairman;
F. T. Darrow, S. N. Williams, A. F. Blaess, C. C. Hill, D. P. Beach, A.
S. More.
Your Committee considered plans of ballast sections of various rail-
roads and results of tests reported to the Association by the Committee
on Ballast.
For the purpose of ready reference and to place this subject clearly
before the Association, there appears in Appendix A the ballast sections
of some of the principal railroads of Canada, United States and Mexico.
In Appendix B will be found a composite drawing showing the ballast
sections of some of the principal roads of the United States, and on this
drawing is shown the proposed ballast section recommended by the Com-
mittee on Ballast. This composite drawing gives a very good idea of
961
962 BALLAST.
the general trend of ballast sections and indicates how the proposed
ballast section will conform with present practice.
There was much discussion in the Committee meeting in regard to the
various dimensions of the proposed ballast sections, and your Committee
finally came to fairly definite conclusions by passing on one point at a
time, as follows :
(a) Tn Class A stone ballast section, the top-ballast shall consist
of broken stone, and, where economical, there shall be a sub-ballast
of fine material, such as cinders, gravel, or granulated slag.
(b) The depth of ballast shall be 24 in., and on curves the depth
of 24 in. shall be maintained under the low rail.
(c) Where top- and sub-ballast is used, the thickness of the top
or coarser ballast shall be 12 in. and the thickness of the sub-ballast, or
finer material, shall be 12 in.
(d) The slope of the ballast on the side shall be 2 to 1, and the
upper corner shall be rounded off with a 4-ft. radius.
(e) The top of the ballast shall slope with a grade of J^-itt. to 1 ft.,
from a point in the center of the track at the top of the tie to the inter-
section with the 4-ft. radius above-mentioned, to avoid interference with
track circuit.
(f) In a general way the proposed plan of the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad should be followed.
(g) The top of the sub-grade shall not be level, but shall be raised
in the center to provide drainage.
Appendix C — proposed Class A ballast section — is in a general way
the same as the proposed ballast sections of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
On the following page are shown two photographs of the standard
ballast section of the Eastern Division of the Pennsylvania Lines West,
with 24 in. of ballast under the tie.
Your Committee endeavored to have several sections of track put up on
24 in. of ballast, in accordance with the ballast section which they
recommend, but without success, and they feel that this subject cannot
be thoroughly studied and definite conclusions drawn unless the proposed
ballast section is actually put in service and attention given to the process
of installing the ballast, as well as maintaining the track on the proposed
ballast section.
CONCLUSIONS.
Your Committee offers to the Association for favorable consideration
the proposed ballast section shown in Appendix C with 24 in. of ballast
under the tie, using a top-ballast of broken stone and a sub-ballast of
finer material, such as gravel. Your Committee wishes to call particular
attention to the fact that the sub-grade is wider from the center line to
the outer edge on the outside of curves than it is on the inside, which
appears to be the most economical method of providing for the slope of
24 in. of ballast.
BALLAST.
96c
Staniiard Ballast Section, Pennsylvania Links, Eastern Division.
964 BALLAST.
Your Committee recommends that these ballast sections be put in
service for short stretches on some railroad during the early part of 1914.
and full report of process of applying and results of maintenance of same
be made to the Association with final conclusions, if possible, in the 1915
report.
(2) METHODS OF CLEANING STONE BALLAST AND COST OF
SAME BY VARIOUS METHODS.
The following is the personnel of the Sub-Committee: S. A. Jordan,
Chairman; H. L. Gordon, S. B. Rice, J. V. Neubert, E. V. Smith, J. M.
Egan, T. W. Fatherson.
The Sub-Committee has held no meetings except the regular meetings
in St. Louis, July 18, and Chicago, November 13, 1913. as it was believed
that the necessary information could be obtained by letter as well as by
meeting.
The following suggestions were made by the Chairman, Mr. H. E.
Hale, in connection with the investigation of the subject:
(a) Ascertain what methods are being used for cleaning stone
ballast and cost of same.
(b) Refer to test of Baltimore & Ohio, printed in last year's report.
(c) Obtain copies of any articles printed in engineering magazines
or reports on this subject which will be of interest to the Association.
(d) Obtain any other data on this subject which will be of interest.
The Pennsylvania Railroad have made tests on two divisions the
past year, under the following instructions :
PROPOSED TEST TO DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF BALLAST LOST IN CLEANING
ONE MILE OF DOUBLE TRACK.
"Select two stretches of double track une-half mile in length, one
on the Pittsburgh and one on the Eastern Division, which are ballasted
with stone to the full section, but in which the ballast is choked with
cinders or mud, and which requires cleaning.
"Clean the ballast in these stretches of track in the usual manner by
shaking the ballast on forks, throwing the clean ballast retained on the
forks back into the track and the small particles of ballast and dirt
which pass between the tines of the forks into piles, being careful to
see that none of it is lost. While this is being done, be careful to see
that the track is not raised during the cleaning operation. The space
between the ties should be cleaned to the base of the ties and the
shoulders outside of the ties, and the space between tracks to 12 in. below
the base of the ties.
"After this work shall have been completed, fill in the track to the
full section, making note of the number of cubic yards of new ballast
required. From the length of track cleaned and the number of cubic
yards of new ballast required to fill in the track to full section after
cleaning the old ballast, calculate the number of cubic yards lost per
mile of double track by cleaning.
"Then pass the dirt which passes between the tines of the forks over
a screen having a f^-in. mesh and measure the number of cubic yards
of small particles of stone reclaimed. From this calculate the number of
BALLAST. 965
cubic yards of ballast lost per mile as a result of the existing imperfect
method of cleaning."
Letter reports were made, showing the results of these tests :
"We have had a test made to determine the amount of ballast lost in
cleaning one mile of double track. This test was made on one-half mile
of double track located between milepost 144-3300 and milepost 145-660,
near Shreve, Ohio, Eastern Division.
"This work was done in the usual manner, with ballast forks, and
the dirt was thrown onto piles. The space between the ties was cleaned
to the bottom of the ties, and the shoulders outside the track and the
space between the tracks to a depth of 12 in. below the base of the ties.
The dirt was screened over a 24-in. mesh screen. The stone reclaimed by
cleaning was 10 cu. yds.
"The track was then filled to its full ballast section with new ballast.
This required 285 cu. yds. of new ballast.
"The cost of labor for cleaning this one-half mile of double track
was $537-30.
"The cost of screening 10 cu. yds. of stone out of the dirt was $159.10.
No lift was made in the tracks.
"From the above, we calculate the cost of cleaning the ballast on one
mile of double track to be $1,074.60, the cost of screening the stone out
of the dirt to be $318.20, and the number of cubic yards lost screening
to be 570
"We have completed the experiment outlined in the instructions by
cleaning the stone ballast in one-half mile of double track on stretch
beginning at the east end of No. 5 tunnel and extending eastwardly for
one-half mile, where the ballast was choked with cinders and mud, with
the following results for one-half mile of double track:
New ballast required after cleaning old bal-
last 163 cu. yds.
Ballast lost per one-half mile of double track
by cleaning 75 cu. yds.
"From the figures shown above we calculate that there would be 326
cu. yds. of ballast lost per mile of double track by ordinary cleaning and
that by using a 24-in. mesh screen 150 cu. yds. per mile could be saved.
However, this seems to be a very expensive way of cleaning ballast.
"It might be of interest to know what this work cost, which is as
follows :
Cleaning ballast out of track and forking it back
into track $1,062.00
Screening ballast 105.00
Leveling ballast 64.00
Loading the screenings which did not pass
through 34-in. mesh 28.00
Unloading screenings 32.00
Unloading stone ballast to fill in 11.00
Total $1,302.00
"From this it will be noted that to reclaim 75 cu. yds. of stone on
one-half mile of double track we expended $165.
"It would not have been necessary to have expended the $28 to load
the screenings and the $32 to unload them, had we not been required
to take accurate measurements to determine the amount of ballast saved
by screening, therefore the cost of screening ballast was $105 to reclaim
75 cu. yds."
966 BALLAST.
In addition to this test the following information was obtained in re-
sponse to circular letter sent to railroads using stone ballast:
W. J. Backcs, Engineer Maintenance of Way, New York, New Haven er
Hartford Railroad:
"Relative to cleaning ballast, we have cleaned some ballast on our
New York and Shore Line Division. The work is done as follows:
"When renewing ties, a shovel is used to remove the ballast from
track, in preparation to taking out the old ties. After the new ties are
installed, stone is forked back into the track, the dirt being left in the
middle gages. The dirt is then picked up by work train in the cuts
and generally on the fills, and is cast or carried out in boxes and used for
widening out embankments.
"We have no ballast cleaning organization, nor have we made any
comparative tests of various methods.
"We find that it costs about $2,500 per mile of four tracks to do
this work where the tracks have not been previously cleaned by section-
men, and the dirt left in the middle gages."
Jos. O. Osgood, Chief Engineer, Central Railroad Company of New\
Jersey:
"The only method of cleaning ballast has been the ordinary one — by
the use of ballast forks.
"We have no fixed organization for this purpose. The ballast in the
track is cleaned by our section or extra-gang forces, as the necessity for
it occurs.
"We have not conducted any tests of the different methods. Mr.
Stein, Engineer Maintenance of Way of the Central Division, informs me
that he has found that it costs from jl/2 cents to 12 cents per linear foot
on a double-track road to clean the ballast down to the bottom of the tie,
including the shoulder on the ditch side and up to the middle point in
the center ditch, digging the center ditch down to actual sub-grade in
order to divert all of the water from between the ties either to the side
ditch or to the center ditch. In four-track districts this cost is from
i2l/2 cents on the outside tracks to 17 cents per linear foot on the inside
tracks.
"We have made no special investigation to determine the amount of
ballast lost by cleaning, but from such information as we have, it is esti-
mated that we lose from five to ten carloads ; or from 150 to 300 yds. of
ballast per mile of track, when cleaned at intervals of three years."
Geo. W . Kittredge, Chief Engineer, Neiv York Central & Hudson River
Railroad:
"We clean ballast. This is done by laborers with ballast forks. We
have no regular organization for cleaning ballast, but the regular track
maintenance gangs do it in connection with their work of putting in ties,
surfacing and lining over the track, except where substantial changes or
raising of track is done, which makes it advisable to clean out the bal-
last first and then deposit new ballast on top. Occasionally, where the
grade of the track is substantially changed, the ballast is forked out be-
fore the lift is made, so as not to affect the drainage, but under ordinary
conditions, each section gang forks out the ballast on a portion of the
section needing it most each year.
"We have made no tests of other methods.
"The amount of ballast lost by cleaning cannot be accurately meas-
ured, as we cannot separate, in any feasible way, the dust from the ballast
BALLAST. 967
and the dust, cinders, dirt, etc., blown or washed in the ballast. Where
we have felt it necessary to fork the ballast, the material removed, con-
sisting largely of dirt, has averaged about 30 per cent. This is the re-
sult of measuring it in several places.
"At one point between tracks we forked 4.6 cu. ft. of ballast, which
yielded about 1.4 cu. ft. of dirt, divided as follows :
16 per cent, stone; could not pass through a i-in. mesh.
24 per cent, stone; passed through i-in. mesh, but not
through %-in. mesh.
60 per cent, dirt; passed through J4"in- mesh.
"Cleaning ballast under and between ties to a depth of 6 in. has aver-
aged on one job we watched .093 cent per linear foot of track. Clean-
ing ballast in the space between ties, where tracks are 12-ft. centers, has
averaged .154 cent per linear foot of track.
"These figures are, of course, for four-track sections under average
traffic on this division, which is rather heavy, and I assume the cost
would be reduced very much where there are fewer tracks, so that the
cost of removing material screened from the ballast would not be so
large.
"We have to carry by hand, usually, at least, over one-third rail and
sometimes more than that, to get it to a place where it can be disposed
of, or picked up by the work train.
"We had one case in the Park Avenue Tunnel, New York City,
where the cost of forking out ballast made it cheaper to load it, take it
away and use it on sidetracks and bring the new ballast down and dump
it. This was an unusual condition where wet mud made it particularly
hard to fork the ballast and limited clearance made it expensive for men
to work."
F. S-. Stevens, Engineer Maintenance of Way, Philadelphia & Reading
Railway :
"Our practice is to clean ballast when we renew ties by digging out
the old ballast between ties nearly to sub-grade and take about 2 in. from
the bed of the tie that has been removed, thereby getting nearly all of the
dirt. When the new tie has been placed, the ballast is replaced with a
fork, care being taken to screen out in this way all dirt and fine stone
that will fall between a ballast fork having ten tines.
"We do not have any other cleaning organization. We have made
no comparative test of various methods. We have made no tests to show
the percentage of ballast lost by cleaning."
Appendix B of last year's report on the subject of "Cleaning Stone
Ballast by Use of Screens," by W. I. Trench, Division Engineer, Balti-
more & Ohio Railroad, is supplemented by Appendix D to this report.
This report contains full description of tests that have been carried on
on the Baltimore & Ohio, together with description and plans of screens,
explanation of organization and costs of doing the work.
The screens described are covered by patents owned by Mr. Trench
and Supervisor A. G. Zepp of Baltimore. The cost of these screens is
about $150 for set of three.
The following table shows a comparison of cost of cleaning ballast
on several roads and by different methods. It will be seen that the costs
vary widely, due to the various methods employed and the various depths
to which ballast was cleaned.
968
BALLAST.
Tests on the Baltimore & Ohio have shown that ballast can be cleaned
by use of screens for just one-half the cost of doing the work with forks,
and that the results are more uniform and altogether more satisfactory:
Railroad.
Pennsylvania. . .
(Eastern Div.)
Method of
Cleaning.
Forks.
(Screened
dirt.)
Pennsylvania. . . .
(Pittsburg Div.)
N. Y. N. H. & H.
C. R. R of N. J.
Forks.
(Screened
dirt.)
Forks.
Forks.
N. Y. C. &H. R.
Forks.
Cost Per Mile,
Double Track.
$1,074.60
$2,252.00
$2,500.00
(Four tracks.)
,484.00 to $2,534.40
$3,115.20
(Four tracks.)
$491.04
(Single track.)
Under and between
ties to a depth of
6 in.
Remarks.
Space between ties
cleaned to bottom of
ties. The shoulders out-
side the track and space
between tracks to a
depth of 12 in. below
base of ties. Ten yds.
of stone reclaimed by
screening from dirt ob-
tained by forking one-
half mile double track
at cost of $159.
Section cleaned same as
above. Seventy-five yds.
of stone reclaimed by
screening from dirt ob-
tained by forking one-
half mile of double
track at cost of $165.
Estimated that from, 150
to 300 yds. of ballast is
lost per mile of track,
when cleaned at inter-
vals of three years.
Material removed consists
largely of dirt; aver-
ages about 30 per cent.
$813.12
(Single track.)
In space between
ties, track 12 ft.
centers.
B. & O Screens.
$622.00
$576.00
$262.00
$363.00
On four-track territory.
Waste divided as fol-
lows: 16 per cent, stone
could not pass through
1-in. mesh, 24 per cent,
stone passed through 1-
in. mesh, but was re-
tained on x/4-in. mesh;
60 per cent, dirt passed
through ^-in. mesh.
Cleaning and dressing.
Cleaned to 12 in. below
bottom of tie at berm.
Cleaned to bottom of tie
between ties. Cleaned
to 6 in. below bottom of
tie in center ditch.
Cleaning only. Same
depth.
Cleaning center ditch and
berm only.
Cleaning 6 in. below tie
in center ditch and to
bottom of tie between
ties on each adjacent
track.
.46.00
Cleaning ditch only.
BALLAST. 969
It has been found on the Baltimore & Ohio that by cleaning by screens
to a depth of 12 in. below ties on the berm, 6 in. below ties in center
ditch, and to bottom of ties between ties, that there is a loss of 12.5 per
cent, of the stone actually screened, or 5.1 per cent, of all stone in the
track.
Appendix D is a copy of report of Mr. Trench, Division Engineer,
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
Appendix E shows the details of a collapsible ballast screen.
CONCLUSIONS.
(1) The Committee recommends the following changes and additions
to the Manual :
(a) Under "Cleaning Foul Ballast," change "Clean with ballast
forks," to read, "Clean with ballast forks or screens."
(b) Change "Clean center ditch of double track to sub-grade," to
read, "Clean space between tracks to depth of 6 in. or more below the
bottom of ties."
(c) Add, "Clean the berm to bottom of ballast, preferably not less
than 12 in."
(d) Add, "Clean cross-ditches between ties approximately every rail
length, or 33 ft. Cross ditches should not be under rail joints."
(e) Add, "Tests fully described in report of Committee on Ballast
for 1914 indicate stone ballast can be cleaned by use of screens for ap-
proximately one-half cost of cleaning stone ballast with forks. (For
diagram showing detail of collapsible screens see 1914 report)."
(3) PROPER DEPTH OF BALLAST OF VARIOUS KINDS TO
INSURE UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS ON
THE ROADWAY.
The personnel of Sub-Committee "C" is as follows : Geo. H. Harris,
Chairman; F. J. Stimson, W. J. Bergen, O. H. Crittenden, T. C. Burpee,
William McNab, L. W. Baldwin.
The subject was discussed at two meetings of the Committee as a
whole; at St. Louis, Mo., on July 18, and at Chicago on November 13,
1913, but no meetings of the Sub-Committee were held during the year.
On April 15, 1913, this question was taken up by the Committee on
Ballast with President Wendt, with a view of financing the test recom-
mended by the Committee on Ballast in the annual report of 1913, and
the following schemes were proposed :
(a) W. M. Dawley, Chairman of the Roadway Committee, proposed
to combine this test with the Roadway Committee's test "to
determine the stresses in track," which is to be financed by
the United States Steel Corporation and others.
(b) President Wendt endeavored to obtain financial assistance from
the American Society Civil Engineers, and the Committee on
Ballast wishes to express its appreciation of President Wendt's
efforts along this line.
970 BALLAST.
However, the efforts to make the test recommended by the Committee
on Ballast above-mentioned, failed and to date no method has been ar-
ranged for by which this test can be financed.
At a meeting of the Committee on Ballast as a whole, at St. Louis,
July 18, a review of this subject developed the fact that little additional
information could be hoped for until such time as some actual tests
might be made upon track subjected to usual traffic stresses, but the Sub-
Committee was instructed by the Chairman of the Committee on Ballast
to endeavor to obtain any further information possible which might be
of interest to the Association.
The Chairman of this Sub-Committee requested the other members,
by letter, to submit whatever information might be found bearing on
this subject, and also devoted' several days' to a search through the files of
the various scientific periodicals, but nothing was found to supplement
the references given in the Ballast Committee's report for the year 10,12
in Vol. 13 of the Proceedings.
On November 13, 1913, at a meeting of the Committee in Chicago,
your Committee was unanimous in feeling that the test recommended by
it in its annual report of 1913 should be made, in addition to the
Roadway Committee's test referred to above; as it in no way con-
flicts with the Roadway Committee's test and gives information which
your Committee believes will not be given by that test. Your Com-
mittee has given a great deal of consideration to the subject of the best
manner to determine the proper depth of ballast, and have discarded sev-
eral proposed tests and devices for measuring the distribution of the
loads on the sub-grade, and they are convinced that no test so far sug-
gested will cover the point in question so completely as the test recom-
mended by your Committee on Ballast in its annual report of 1913, as this
test is proposed to be made under regular traffic.
Your Committee therefore requested President Wendt to ask five
roads each to make the test at their own expense, on the basis that the
expense of the test would be more than offset by the information gained
to determine the economical depth of ballast.
This proposition was placed before the Board of Direction on No-
vember 20 and President Wendt advised as follows :
"The Board is strongly of the opinion that the present financial situ-
ation will cause many roads to decline to invest any money in experi-
ments at this particular time, and this explains the proviso that the Sec-
retary and President are cautioned to present the request to the railroads
at whatever seems to be the most opportune time. In other words, the
Board has approved the proposition and the Executive Officers will give
this matter proper attention Permit me to say that the Board
of Direction was unanimous in its approval of the proposition, and only
regrets that the time is not opportune for approaching the roads at once."
For ready reference, the following is a copy of test recommended in
1913, and an estimate of cost. This estimate is probably high, and was
intentionally made so. It is believed that by careful handling the test can
be made for much less money than the following estimate, as any railroad
BALLAST. 971
which is purchasing stone hallast could easily afford to disregard the
item of $400 for stone ballast:
"(1) Select a stretch of track on clay roadbed, under heavy traffic,
where trouble has been experienced with clay working up between the
ties.
"(2) Excavate roadbed to a uniform depth of 30 in. below the bot-
tom of the ties, for a space of two rail-lengths; prepare the adjacent
rail-lengths in the same manner, decreasing the depth 3 in. under each
successive two rails, until the bed is 12 in. below the bottom of the tie
(14 rail-lengths).
"(3) Place on this bed a thin layer of fibrous material, such as hay,
to make a well-defined separation between roadbed and ballast.
'"(4) Place stone ballast on bed to the above-mentioned depths,
tamp well, and put track in good line and surface.
"(5) Make note of tie-spacing, width of ties, keep accurate levels,
and record of amount of time spent on surfacing various parts of track,
also keep record of axleloads and amount of traffic. Take photographs
at regular intervals to show deformation of roadbed.
"(6) Make similar test for gravel and similar for ballast section.
having a sub-ballast of gravel equal to one-half the total depth and a top
ballast of stone equal to one-half the total depth of ballast.
"(7) The estimated cost of this test is as follows:
(a) Cost of material (stone), 500 yds. at 80 cents $ 400.00
(b) Labor, preparing track and widening bank, where necessary,
at $30.00 per rail (14 rails per test) 420.00
(c) Labor, inspecting, six inspections at $2.00 per rail 170.00
(d) Line and surface to be paid for by railway owning track,
at regular maintenance charge
Total for one test $ 990.C0
Three tests $3,000.00
In view of the dearth of authoritative information on this subject
and the fact that all experiments to date have been made under artificial
conditions, your Committee feels if further reliable information is to be
procured that a further test must be made.
RECOMMENDATIONS.
Your Committee again unanimously recommends that the test outlined
in its 1913 report, as above printed, be made under regular traffic.
Your Committee recommends that several railroads be asked to make
the test at their own expense, as approved by the Board of Direction, and
that the test be made under the direction of the Committee on Ballast,
preferably on a road on which a member of the Committee on Ballast is
located.
Your Committee feels that the gain to any large railroad system re-
sulting from the knowledge of the proper depth of ballast is so great
and the cost of the test so small by comparison, that the test should be
made in the immediate future.
Respectfully submitted,
COMMITTEE ON BALLAST.
Appendix A.
BALLAST SECTIONS OF VARIOUS RAILROADS.
CRUSHED STONE OR SLAG.
Slope 0 in
Slope d' in Radius A' 0"i
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
17 2
10—0-
3-L4'2-r4J-0'^12,, Sloped'
_ — ..^ . . — .
w Slope 0 in 0' Radius 4' 3"'
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
i'dL
Sod
0,"
^-JO-OL
d41X\-4'-0'-L
'3l70!^-l 1
Slope o"in 0" J Slope o" in 0
Slope d in 0' Crown 0" Radius 4' 3"--^ Radius 0'
Tie, 6 in. by S in. by S ft. 0 in.
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad.
972
tPPHNDIX B.
COMPOSITE DRAWING OF VARIOUS
BALLAST SECTIONS.
BALLAST.
CRUSHED STONE OR SLAG.
1 9
-9-0—
-14±P-
Ballast 0 below top of tie ax c
Sod
^^T^ff 4'°"~1 tSlope3'stothefoot j^,, Slope3 a to the foot
' r^v Slope J' 2 to J
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad.
Radius 2' 3'[
Slope Q"to the foot
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway.
973
-10-0-
-i^L
Slope 3 8 to the foot
Slope 2to 1'
Slope 0" to the foot ''' Radius 2 3"
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by S ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway.
3'4>
l'2" ,
t J 0-0
i 6^ — 4'0jl? Ballast 0 ' oelowtie
Slope i "to /''
Slope o'in 0'
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago & Northwestern Railway.
-10-0-
-13-0—
7 '6" —4'0- Slope 3"to the foot » Ballast 6'below top of tie
/I 1 ■ * r^ — 'I ^ - — ^-T^. Slope r"to I "
Slope 0 in O''-
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago & Northwestern Railway.
974
BALLAST.
CRUSHED STONE OR SLAG.
9X J
Slope 2 to V
,'i , n "
Slope 2 4 in 2 5J0z
Tie, 7 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico.
-9'-0IJ—
Slope 1v2to l'
Slope l'l"Ato the foot
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by S ft. 0 in.
Illinois Central Railroad.
/t /Slope V/2 to 1
1 *>K,SloPe T'to the foot
_. — _ — i — _j 'i^__j >%,
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Illinois Central Railroad.
Slope 1'to the foot
Tie, 6 in. by S in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Illinois Central Railroad.
}j Slope 1% 'to''
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway.
BALLAST.
975
CRUSHED STONE OR SLAG.
Z'r!''^ *> o<A Ballast '/2 below top of tie
7-iJ — -* Slope 1\ to 7
m
Slope 5 In 9' 6
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Lehigh Valley Railroad.
-9-6
731°* *u t A Ballast'^' bchiH top of tie
me' a to the foot L... i
^;n^4-3^ Slope' t^to the foot g„ »
'////My//'""""-'''"/'
Slope b'Iii 16' 0
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Lehigh Valley Railroad.
-70-0-
4'3"— 12- Slope I" to 7'
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Louisville & Nashville Railroad.
— 73-0-
, Slope1 Ato 7-L
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. C in.
Louisville & Nashville Railroad.
'K-,to the foot
Sod-
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
New York Central & Hudson River Railroad.
97G
BALLAST.
CRUSHED STONE OR SLAG.
10' o'-'-
o'n" > -4-3—
'73- 0—
Slope r* to the foot j ^ ^ f hg fQQt
=Jr3_ZL. 1— '--- - -'-^--^ Slope 3to I '
Slope 2 In 16 fl"
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
New York Central & Hudson River Railroad.
Slope '/2 to the foot
^ Slope r,eto the foot > Radius 40°
New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad.
Slope 2'2 in 9'10'4"
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Pennsylvania Lines East.
Ballast fi below top of tie
10"
Slope 4','ein I6'4'4"
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Pennsylvania Lines East.
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Pennsylvania Lines West.
BALLAST.
977
7 11s
■w
if 2"
l'e" 2 8 2 8"
CRUSHED STONE OR SLAG.
13 0
3"
12"Graoal or Cinder
Slope 2 to V
- Stone
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Pennsylvania Lines West.
^P
Slope 'A to the foot
>J-__^ Slope l'4'to '"
Slope 0"to the foot Radius 2' 6"
Philadelphia & Reading Railway.
10
8-0
-13' 0^-
1 'c'^^./'fj ' -J_4'0_vJ Mope V to fooi
x _J __J.
Ballast 0 below top of tie
Slope ' ,6 to ' '
Slope V'ito V
Slope I ' 2 in 8' 0" """
Tie, 7 in. by 8 in. by S ft. 0 in.
Southern Pacific Company.
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Union Pacific Railroad.
GRAVEL.
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago & Northwestern Railway.
978
BALLAST.
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago & Northwestern Railway.
Slope 3 in 1 7%
Slope 1'2'to I'
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago & Northwestern Railway.
7 K'J~
1 o-fi
-9-4IU— if 70 V
l&^Ltz.^ siop
1Vf
Tie, 7 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico.
i'je"
-Q'-O-
0 4 , ,, »-y? n ..■■..
■^pfZ-O^-ef -s-4' 0"~ Slopet ft to the foot
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Grand Trunk Railway.
2 0 i'e"
Ballast 0" below top of tie at f)
/j2^Slope Vl'to the foot
^~T~^s. Slope 2tol'
Slope o"to the foot ~
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Grand Trunk Railway.
BALLAST.
979
GRAVEL.
-8-6-
1' 3^-\2'934: 4' 3-
Sod LJ
/ 3
Sod
Slope? in 8-6 ' "«<»«*
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway.
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by S ft. 6 in.
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway.
-70-0—
*'C| Tro'f#81H^4lS"n9'/2" Slope {"in 4-' 3"
Sod / - t-^—
^SIopel'2inT0'0" Radius 6' 9"
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
New York Central & Hudson River Railroad.
&7ope 2 in 16' 6 " Cown 0 " Radius 6V Radius 0 '
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
New York Central & Hudson River Railroad.
-9-0-
|o'j-3'6^
Slope '/2 to the foot
'Slope 1'A'tol' %o*
S°
«W Slope' ',% to the foot ' Radius 4'0^
New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad.
980
BALLAST.
GRAVEL.
Slope7,"gto the foot Radius 4'0 y
New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad.
Slope' 2 to the foot
*-*■- ^/ Slope 2' 'to /'
n^~ ■■■■■ &
Radius 40"
New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad.
■% Slope 2'i'ln 9'lOU"
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by S ft. 6 in.
Pennsylvania Lines East.
—9-10f4
*2-10f2'-9'Jr-4-3-
6
J,/ r-=A*-
Efc^V^ES!
^ Slope 4>,'Jin W'4l4" h
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Pennsylvania Lines East.
- -1-0 -5' 3'--4 3-> /10 1*3%
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Pennsylvania Lines West.
BALLAST.
981
GRAVEL.
—13-0-—
- 0 G 3 ,!_,
fed
H S/ope 0 to the foot
r«^ i>-C "V
Slope 0"to the foot Radius 20' 0"
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. 8 ft. 6 in.
Pennsylvania Lines West.
I'M" 9" . „
■(A: -^70-6—
-73-0-
>0^*3 thft-4-3-
,o" Slope 0 in 0
-1 r^, L. .L
Slope 0 in 0'
Sod
Slope d'fn 0' Crown 4" Radius 3' 6" ^ Radius 10' 0'''%%/
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad.
CEMENTING GRAVEL.
Slope 7 in 8'
Tie, 6 in. by S in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.
Tie, 6 in. by S in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.
Tie, 6 in. by S in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.
982
BALLAST.
CEMENTING GRAVEL.
-13-0-'-
Slope ' a to the foot
M-- i .Slope 3" to 1 '
> ■ Slope O'iii
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway.
fe 70-^0- ff
7 Q'^J'-O" -2' Of- 4-' O1^ 6 "
-13-0—
6
2" 8 Slope a to the foot
- ^^Tl Slope 3 to 1'
Radius^'!}" Slope o" in
Tie, 6 in. by S in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway.
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Illinois Central Railroad.
-3V— 2 ' 0 2'-0' I / 3"
JO '^-^ Slope 1'Jjto the foot
Tie, 6 in. by S in. by S ft. 0 in.
Illinois Central Railroad.
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by S ft. 0 in.
Illinois Central Railroad.
BALLAST.
983
SHERMAN GRAVEL, CRUSHED STONE OR SLAG.
— %-8-0-r-r* 13-0 1 - „
«2 0»^4-0^-> Slope V to the foot g ! Ballast 0 below top of tie
y\ x I — I * y 3-*T^Slnpe fi'to 1'
Southern Pacific Company.
10 , .. I
.,- £-6 -|
I'e-^r^'ipf-^O^ ,8" Slope'ieto the foot
^_L J. - - ■ . - _t _ ^sione 1 Kto »
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Union Pacific Railroad.
16
Sod
-- , •< 8 /,' « 1 . 7:,3 ° H Ballast 0 "below top of tie
- ' p » -4-0-' Slope % to the foot , ^ Sloped e to the foot
<^H ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ -' — ^~~l _~ ~_ _ _" '~t~^M°Pe%'e t0 1 '
Slope 3" in 15 0" a
Tie, 7 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Union Pacific Railroad.
CHATS AND SAND.
.9—0-
<l'*-3-6-*--4L0
^1
T4, T fop* '"'" 4'°"
Slope 0"in Radius 6' 6"
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway.
i'o±
Sod
-w'-O-L
,'^3-e'^—4^0-
1
^Slopt'l" in"4'0'
Radius 6' 6"
^ Slope o" in -^
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway.
984
BALLAST.
CHATS AND SAND.
Slope 0 " In Grown 0 "' Radius 6 6 Z Radius 0"
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway.
, „+ -tO'O'-f- -f IS^-Q-jy, —4 „ .„,.
1 Q4, Jq^.q'S^-^o—A JSIope 1 4 in 6 6 | Slope 1 in 4 0
Slope 0"in/ Crown 0"' Radius 6' 6 '-'" Radius 0' '' /%y
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway.
BURNT CLAY, GRAVEL OR CINDERS.
-io'o1
- 2 10-9- r
s I ~ -- ■ ' ^ Slope fin 8''
4'Q" 10" J\ /
wmt (pP
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.
Tie, 6 in. bv 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.
BALLAST.
985
STONE, GRAVEL, CINDERS OR BURNT CLAY.
?3jj- -8-0-
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
i'o~V
--4L0-\-4-0—\12 Slope 1V2 in 4 0
" Slope 0 in Radius 4 3
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
o"
-10 -0-
-13' 0"
^o'-fj-^O^M Slope in I -i S/ope r'2'/„ 4 0"
J+-1 * , , , 1 / f ■ . ^
5°"
Crown 0"
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
-0.-0-
10"
i-Lj — ». . j. , ^ x5/0„e r!i to r'
' / " ^: ' \ Slope V.3'-' to the foot
^iL— : r H-^_ !__ V* J&
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Illinois Central Railroad.
Tie, 6 in by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Illinois Central Railroad.
Slope l"to the foot
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Illinois Central Railroad.
Slope P'sto 1
986
BALLAST.
STONE, GRAVEL, CINDERS OR BURNT CLAY.
67ope 6" in 9' 0'
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Lehigh Valley Railroad.
Sorfv,
-9-6-
-^0f-3L6'^2'3%-4-3'J-^\ 7'
-13-0-
-Jfe-, ' 2V
'Slope a to the foot
_i-il— i Slope 2 ' to 1'
„;', ^^^^^^m^(Mf^M^Mm'Mmm^^^
Radius 2
Slope 6 in 16 0
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Lehigh Valley Railroad.
-9-0-
&**%-*-
V
Slope o"to the foot
''„,/' Slope7 "B to the foot Radius 4' 6"
Southern Railway.
M- 0-^2-9^—4-3—4 fi"
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 6 in.
Pennsylvania Lines West.
io"
\9-0—
■2'9^4'-0^ 12" Slope3/s'to the foot
ii--* /—-—'I Slope 2"to V
'%?? Slope 0 in
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad.
BALLAST.
987
GRAVEL, CINDERS OR CHATS.
-14'-0—
Ballast 0 below top of tie at 0
'f h-4-0^-i, Slopeig'to the foot ]<,,', " o,J"a,"t Jl "",""
I J , __ J_ _ T N 1 12W , j , , Sope a t0 the f°ot
Slope 2 to 7
'0? Slope o" to the foot /V%/
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad.
""////
Tie, 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 0 in.
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway.
• w«"
-8-6
T B^—s-^2' 6^,^4-0— =1 Ba,last 0" below top of tie
SodM "
Mope 1 Win 8'6"
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. 0 in
Southern Pacific Company.
\ Vs-6-
-13' 0—
I fc'-tff*— 4-^0^4 ,Mope54'to the foot \ Ballast o"below top of tie
=1 ^ ' ' — T^JIope / % to 7
' Slope 1 '/a in 8,6'
'"-W
Tie, 7 in. by S in. by S ft. 0 in.
Southern Pacific Company.
' Radius 2 6
Tie, 7 in. by 9 in. by S ft. 0 in.
New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad
— r- -;°ty
Appendix C.
PROPOSED BALLAST SECTIONS.
V&s"*f - -7-'/0$~ - *?7'sjlf7?j^ - - 7-/0%"- *fZ-9\
j I j_ j I .-j'/to/Ar/WI
C/./9S5 "/?"5//l/Gl£ 7??/9CK
K /-?V? -
ffc?<9*H - - 7-/0$*
fS-'?j<fs^- *-/J- + - *#j~*s%lkz$5fi - -7-/0$—
Cl/?5s"/?~Doi/&/-£ 7/?/?CK
, //-'# " J«. /S-0* J
/?f 7-3*- -*>t7-'*j%7-fj%- -/0-'7j- *r?-0%
I ! ,'L"/o Me foot i '
1 I ,_JUi^ i
C/#5S /? S//VCl£ T#/?CK o/v Cv/?y£
/3-0" *K
/S'0- — ->t
h /)'0" -41-
*(/* (V - 7-3$"- - *w%ttek#**>r f-'/j'+r*- *-/i"Jr&&7!4* /<?-7/' *f/VM
I I I ' - l2"/o Me foot '
j"/o Me/bo/-
CL/9SS "fl "DOl/SIS T/?/?CK O// Ct/fiVc
988
Appendix D.
CLEANING STONE BALLAST BY MEANS OF SCREENS.
By W. I. Trench, Division Engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
DOUBLE-TRACK WORK.
There are several most important reasons for keeping stone ballast
clean, which probably do not occur to the casual observer, and this dis-
cussion will be prefaced by a few words thereon. There is ever apparent
a readiness on the part of the track people to cure all the evils due
to dirty compact ballast by raising track and putting under from 4 to
ro in. of new ballast. It is true that this gives instant relief, but the
relief by the light raise is but temporary, and by the heavier raises ex-
tremely wasteful after the required amount has been put under the track
to properly distribute the load. Assuming that we have this amount
of ballast under the track and that it has been there for several years
without raise, we will probably find to exist the following undesirable
conditions :
BAD EFFECTS OF DIRTY BALLAST.
(a) Main track line, surface and gage very bad (these conditions
are so related that they never occur singly, as one produces the others)
or extraordinary force required to maintain good line, surface and gage,
due to dirty ballast, which will not drain properly. ("The familiar expres-
sion, "centerbound," refers to a related condition, where ballast has
become old and track so settled in it that there is more bearing in the
middle of the tie than under the rail, and surface reverses from side to
side as though track were supported by a ridge in the center.)
(b) Rail is observed to be deteriorating rapidly, due to bad line, sur-
face and gage.
(c) Ties are deteriorating rapidly bv mechanical wear, and tend-
ency of track to run. due to bad line, surface and ^aee and bad rail, and
decaying faster, due to dirty ballast retaining moisture.
Cd) Tractive effort required to move tonnage is increased, due to
bad line, surface and gage and bad rail, with consequent increase in cost
of operation.
Ce) Undesirable impression is given to oatrons of the road by rough
ride, due to bad line, surface and gage, with its consequent loss of
revenue.
(i) Weeds thrive luxuriantly, giving an undesirable impression to
patrons of the road for a portion of the vear. with consequent loss of
revenue, and requiring the annual Tune and September weed-pulling at a
cost of from $?o to $150 per double-track mile per annum.
(g) Road is dusty, giving it bad impression to patrons during a
large part of the year, at open windows and on observation end, with its
consequent loss of revenue.
USUAL EXPEDIENCY.
On account of the past, almost prohibitive, cost of cleaning ballast,
as noted above, track is raised, introducing new ballast and covering up
the dirt. With a light raise we get relief temporarily from the acute
situation we have noted. Line, surface and ^age are good for a time and
tbe weed and dust nuisance abated, but the dirty ballast, still being present,
soon brings about a condition as bad as before. While a heavy raise pro-
duces more permanent results, we forget that :
98"
990 BALLAST.
(a) Stone ballast costs from 45 to 80 cents per cu. yd., and to raise
one mile of double track 10 in., 4,380 cu. yds. are required, at, we will
estimate, 60 cents per cu. yd., costing:
Material $2,628.00
Labor, ballasting 1,300.00
Dressing after berm is raised 300.00
Total $4,228.00
(b) That a io^in. raise on a 10-ft. fill requires 2,000 cu. yds. of filling
per mile to restore standard embankment at, say, 50 cents per cubic yard,
amounting to $1,000, and that raising in cuts fills the ditches, and requires
widening the cuts, which is very costly.
fc) Continual heavy raising distorts profile of track, requiring raising
bridges, platforms and depots and lengthening culverts and requiring
greater tractive effort to move tonnage.
ADVANTAGES OF CLEANING BALLAST.
Tf ballast is cleaned systematically and often, and track is raised only
when necessary to put the proper edge on line, surface and gage, or to
re-space ties, and then only in small raises of not more than iT/2 in., we
find that
(a) Line, surface and gage can be maintained at greatly reduced
cost, due to improved drainage and equalized bearing.
(M Life of ties and rail are prolonged by a large percentage.
(c) Weeds do not grow in clean ballast.
Cd) There is no dust in clean ballast.
(e) Satisfaction of natrons will be increased, due to better ride, no
dust and better general impression.
(f) Cost of labor and material, applying stone ballast and widening
fills and cuts occasioned bv raising will be saved.
(g) The dirt cleaned from ballast will, if applied between ballast
line and shoulder of fill or bottom of cut, present a neat black appear-
ance and nleasinsr contrast to the white stone ballast properly dressed :
will keep down the weeds in this area and keep pace in raising the em-
bankment with the small raises of track made.
(h) Cost of cleaning is less by any method if done often, as amount
of dirt to handle is less, this varying from 100 to 400 wheelbarrow loads
per 100 ft. of double track.
CLEANING WITH SCREENS.
Tn the 1013 Proceedings of this Association the report of the Ballast
Committee contains a description of a ballast screen, as developed on
the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, which showed that double-track ballast
could be cleaned at a cost of $640 per mile, or 56 per cent, less than by
the use of forks, leaving ballast dressed up complete, dirt being deposited
in wheelbarrows ready for disposal. At present rates of pay, viz., foreman
$2.54 and laborers $1.75 per ten-hour day, this would have been $692.80
per mile. The object of the present discussion is to show that by certain
improvements in the screen and in gang organization, 200 ft. per day
is a conservative figure, with a gang of foreman and 12 men, costing per
mile $622, which includes dressing up complete, stone line laid by hand,
shortage of ballast due to cleaning left between rails, where shower
from a Rodger ballast car will fill cribs without shoveling. (Note
between rails, Fig. 1.)
BALLAST. 991
A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF SCREEN.
The screen under discussion consists of woven l/+-'m. rods, making
a mesh 24 by 8 in. This gives a perfect separation of stone and dirt far
superior to that given by forks. The rods are carried in a light chan-
nel frame, which is reversible, end for end, giving double wear. The
main frame of the screen is made of light angle iron. The screen is
made for use either outside of track or in center ditch. (Figs. I and 2.)
When using outside of track, it sits at right angles thereto, and is
supported at the lower end by horizontal legs, which ride upon the ties,
and at the upper end by adjustable legs, which regulate the inclination
of the screen. When in this position it clears the longest Pullman cars
on curves of io degrees and under. For curves sharper than this, the
screen must be drawn back from track a little. Dirty stone is thrown
onto the screen from in front and the side, and clean stone is delivered
back on berm, being piled high in a windrow, clear of the ballast line, so
that in dressing, board is laid down on line, one line of stone is placed
by hand, and dressing completed by drawing down stone with a fork
against the board. (Note dressing, Figs, i and 4.)
An apron has been attached, which is pushed forward when sufficient
stone has been placed on the berm, and remainder allowed to run between
the rails. (Note Fig. 1, the apron of one side screen down for use and
the other withdrawn.) Pan can still be used, if it is desired to take stone
some distance. The screen is entirely backed with galvanized iron to
collect the dirt, and opening being left at the proper place, which is
closed by a door. When this door is opened, it acts as a chute delivering
the dirt into a wheelbarrow. When closed the screen holds about a
wheelbarrow-load of dirt, giving opportunity for exchanging the full for
an empty wheelbarrow. When the screen is moved, one man raises each
of the rear legs and one man pulls the front end along on ties.
When the screen is used in center ditch, the front horizontal legs
are replaced by short vertical legs; the long rear adjustable I«gs are
replaced by shorter adjustable legs, the door is removed as dirt is
discharged directly into a pan placed under the screen, from which it is
shoveled by a man with a long-handled scoop shovel into a wheelbarrow
placed across the outside rail. (Of three methods of relieving the
center screen pan, viz., scooping out, exchanging pans and catching dirt
in sack, the first was found to make this man available for dressing up
behind the screen by about one-third more time than the last two, as it
requires only about six or eight scoopfuls to clean out the pan.) The
apron is removed, as it is not used in center ditch, and the hood which
formed the top of screen in its side position is thrown forward. In this
position the screen progresses backwards, dirty ballast is thrown over the
top and deflected down by the hood, clean ballast being left behind in
the center ditch, and the dirt being dropped into the pan underneath.
Tn moving this screen the two men behind it place the rear legs well
forward in the direction of progress and pull screen forward, repeating this
walking movement until the required distance has been covered. The pan
beneath moves with the screen. The screen is let down flat on passage
of trains.
IMPROVEMENTS SINCE LAST REPORT.
Side Use— Apron for depositing clean stone on berm or in crib at
will ; change in horizontal legs and in the pitch of lower end of the
screen, so that ballast on berm is left clear of the ballast line, from which
position it can be drawn down against the board with minimum of labor.
Center Ditch Use. — Lower legs modified so that in yard use. where
there is no place to dispose of or leave dirt standing^ open, it is dropped
directly from screen into sack and left in the center ditch to the rear
Fig. i.
Fig. 2.
^"^^^p^s^BPI
HsHnHI
■
m.«'HIH«IM>w •
?5
•\. . . . 1 -i.
»--• ...
4 £
9WMT. iMI iMW ilHH i _<'<! H St.-. ■»
'
Fig. 3.
BALLAST.
993
to await removal by work train. Change of the legs also increases the
speed of this screen by clearing cleaned ballast behind without the
assistance of shovel.
General. — Use of scoops adopted instead of track shovels in center
ditch and on berm, as this was found to increase speed by a large per-
centage. Track shovels must still be used in the crib, on account of
limited space.
ECONOMICAL DISPOSITION OF STONE AND DIRT AND OPPORTUNITY FOR EFFICIENT
ORGANIZATION MAKE RESULT POSSIBLE.
After a screen has been evolved which will clean the ballast satis-
factorily, the entire problem remaining is to give it such form and to so
organize the gang that from the time the dirty ballast is disturbed until
the time the clean ballast reaches its resting place in the track, both stone
and dirt progress in an orderly manner, without interference or back move-
ment and the disposition of the stone is so arranged that the additional
stone required occasioned by loss of volume in cleaning can be dumped
directly into place from the car without handling, and each member of
the gang has prescribed duties which do not interfere or depend on any
other member of the gang. The pickers, shovelers and dressers have
designated and uniform strips of ballast to work over, always moving in
the direction of the progress of the gang and using, without an exception,
one tool only.
STANDARD BALLAST SECTION USED IN CLEANING BALLAST.
Ballast in all cases is cleaned 12 in. below bottom of tie on berm
and 6 in. below bottom of tie in center ditch, and to bottom of tie in
crib. This line is indicated in Fig. 4, by heavy line "B." One crib on
Hfc,
Line A' ishtne To which onecnbistsvUen ouT^vcyy 50FT.
Line'ES is line To which tol/ror i>ctez\nc<i
i-irtcC i5.lir?<?towhicb ^nrtro deposits B«*ll<af>l-
COADBCD Se-CTIOHFORCuTdCpM-L
Fig. 4.
the most available side is cleaned to line "A" every 50 ft., so as to afford
drainage to center ditch. Center ditch screen leaves center ditch full
as indicated. Side screen leaves it piled up to line "C," free of ballast
line, so that it can be forked down against board with minimum labor.
TRAIN DETENTION.
All figures below were made on territory where actual train detention
was 15 per cent., men clearing both tracks when train passed on either
track, in accordance with safety rules.
ARRANGEMENT OF SCREENS AND GANG ORGANIZATION FOR VARIOUS
CLASSES OF WORK.
(a) See Fig. 2 for photograph and Fig. 5 for diagram. To clean
standard depth and dress up ballast complete where track is not to be
raised, six men operate screen "A," cleaning center ditch and cribs 12
in. inside of inside rail, of each track, so as to get ballast enough to fill
center ditch complete; three men each operate screens "B" and "C," clean-
!I94
BALLAST.
ing berm and remainder of cribs not cleaned on center screen ; men
numbers n and 12 are the architects of the berms. They take from their
wheelbarrows of dirt enough for dressing purposes and waste the rest;
they level up the berm for reception of stone line, haul forward dress-
ing board, pin it down ; lay one line of stone by hand, and dress down the
ballast from the position in which screen has left it, to standard section.
These men quickly learn how much stone is required on berm and pull
down apron, allowing the rest to go between rails. A slight shower of
new stone from a Rodger ballast car, between rails, completes dressing.
Center Piteb Meo Work
to This Uoc
Clfifl"^ H*& 5jwce on
cenhzr- Ttrten Fills ccofer
di feH c<?rr?pleh=ly
©iHr© mnrnrmfWh
GANG ORGANIZATION.
Cleaning ballast where track is not to be raised 12 in. below tie on berm,
6 in. below tie in center ditch, and to bottom of tie in crib, cleaning one
crib every 50 ft. deep enough to drain center ditch. Dress up berm to
hand-laid ballast line and dress center ditch to standard, leaving cribs be-
tween rails partially empty for future dumping of ballast.
Output of this gang 200 ft. of double track per 10-hour day. This sup-
poses putting dirt into wheelbarrows, additional men being required for long
haul of dirt.
Men. Duties. Tools.
No. 1 Picks for 2, 3, 4 5 1 Pick
No. 2 Shovel on center screen 1 Track Shovel
No. 3 Shovel on center screen 1 Scoop Shovel
No. 4 Shovel on center screen 1 Scoop Shovel
No. 5 Shovel on center screen 1 Track Shovel
No. 6 Shovels out of pan onto wheelbarrow 1 Long-handle Scoop
and dresses up behind screen Shovel
1 Ballast Fork
2 Wheelbarrows
No. 7 Shovel on side screen 1 Scoop Shovel
No. 8 Shovel on side screen 1 Scoop Shovel
No. 9 Shovel on side screen 1 Track Shovel
1 Pick
No. 10 Shovel on side screen 1 Track Shovel
1 Pick
No. 11 Dress ballast behind side screen and 1 Track Shovel
empty wheelbarrow 1 Ballast Fork
1 Pick
No. 12 Same as No. 11 1 Track Shovel
1 Ballast Fork
1 Pick
No. 13 Foreman
Total— 13 men
Total of Tools —
5 Picks
6 Track Shovels
1 Long-handle Scoop Shovel
3 (or more) Wheelbarrows, depending on haul
2 Boards 16 ft. by 1% in.
Fig. 5.
Progress 200 ft. per 10-hour day, track on 12-ft. centers; cost per
mile of double track, foreman $77 per month and twelve laborers at $175
each per day, total $622. 1
(b) (See Fig. 5.) To clean standard depth without dressing where
track is to be raised, same as "A," except that man 12 is eliminated, no
dressing being done; man 11 empties wheelbarrow for both side screens
BALLAST.
99f,
and assists in moving both screens and smooths down ballast on both
lierms with fork. In this case, sufficient stone would be run between the
rails from side screen to raise the track on, leaving the berm shy, which
will facilitate the renewal and re-spacing of ties.
Progress 200 ft. per 10-hour day, track on 12-ft. centers. Cost per
mile of double track, complete: Foreman, $jj per month; 11 laborers at
$i."5 per day each, total $576.
EoJ feErrd of fe
GANG ORGANIZATION.
Cleaning ballast 12 in. below tie on berm, 6 in. below tie in center ditch
— cribs not being cleaned except one every 50 ft. deep enough to provide
drainage for center ditch. A shower of ballast between rails will be neces-
sary to complete dressing of berm and center ditches.
Output of this gang 475 ft. per 10-hour day of double track. This sup-
poses putting dirt in wheelbarrows. Additional men being required for
long haul of dirt.
Men. Duties. Tools.
No. 1 Picks center ditch end to end of ties 1 Pick
No. 2 Shovel on center screen 1 Scoop Shovel
No. 3 Shovel on center screen 1 Scoop Shovel
No. 4 Shovel on center screen 1 Scoop Shovel
No. 5 Shovel on center screen 1 Scoop Shovel
No. 6 Shovel out pan into wheelbarrow 1 Long-handle Scoop
Shovel
No. 7 Empties wheelbarrow, picks ahead of 1 Wheelbarrow
side screen, levels up berm 1 Pick
1 Track Shovel
No. 8 Same as No. 7 1 "Wheelbarrow
1 Pick
1 Track Shovel
No. 9 Shovels on side screen 1 Scoop Shovel
No. 10 Shovels and picks side screen 1 Pick
1 Scoop Shovel
No. 11 Same as No. 10 1 Pick
1 Scoop Shovel
No. 12 Shovels on side screen 1 Scoop Shovel
No. 13 Foreman
Total — 13 men
Total of Tools —
5 Picks
9 Scoop Shovels
1 Long-handle Scoop Shovel
2 Track Shovels
2 Wheelbarrows
Fig. 6.
(c) (See Fig. 6.) To clean to standard depth on berms and center
ditch only, no cleaning being done in cribs, no dressing except a little
smoothing up, as more ballast will be required, whether track is raised
or not. This is showered between the rails from Rodger ballast car and
shoveled in center ditch and on berms in dressing up ; six men operate
screen "A" and three men each screens "B" and "C." This method is
approved by some important roads ; the cribs being cleaned in connection
with tie renewals.
Progress 475 ft. per day, track on 12-ft. centers. Cost per mile of
double track, complete: Foreman, $77 per month; 12 laborers at $1.75
per day each, total $262.
990
BALLAST.
CLEANING BALLAST IN YARDS.
In yard work it is obvious that the disposal of dirt is more difficult
than out on the line, where it can be thrown over the bank or used in
dressing. Even in territories on the line where we have grassed slopes
and would not throw the dirt down the bank on that account the dirt can
be left in windrow along the shoulder and loaded up on work train,
but this cannot be done in large yards, as the clean ballast occupies all the
available space. This may also be true on main-track territory, which is
grassed, and there is no room to leave dirt temporarily. An attachment
has been provided for this class of work in the shape of a spout, which is
attached by bolts beneath the screen, and delivers the dirt into a common
sack.
There has been provided an arrangement which shuts off this spout
during the exchange of sacks. A sheet-iron slide rests in the bottom of
the center ditch with front end upturned, sled fashion. This moves with
C\zcav>~Xo Center Line
OF Track'
GANG ORGANIZATION.
Cleaning in yards from center of track to center of track on screen in
center ditch — one or more screens with the same organization for each can
be added for adjacent center ditches, and worked by same Foreman. Clean
6 in below ties in center ditch and to bottom of tie in crib dress up center
ditch complete, leaving deficiency of stone between rails for future dumping
of ballast. Leave dirt sacked behind in center ditch.
Output of this gang 190 ft. complete in 10-hour day. This supposes
sacking all dirt and leaving in center ditch behind.
Men. Duties. Tools.
No 1 Picking from center line to center
line
No. 2 Throwing on screen
No. 3 Throwing on screen
No. 4 Throwing on screen
No. 5 Throwing on screen
No. 6 Sacking dirt, dressing ballast
No. 7 Foreman
Total — 6 men
Total of Tools —
1 Pick
2 Track Shovels
2 Scoop Shovels
1 Ballast Fork
Sacks and String
1 Pick
1 Track Shovel
1 Scoop Shovel
1 Scoop Shovel
1 Track Shovel
Sacks, String and
Ballast Fork
Fig. 7.
the screen, being brought along by the front legs. Sack to receive dirt
is set on this slide, hooked up around the spout by two sharp hooks and
filling proceeds. When full, one man ties up sack, pulls another sack under
spout, dumps filled sack over on side, under low end of screen and it passes
out behind screen as latter is moved, leaving sacked dirt in the center
ditch to be picked up by work train. Man doing sacking also dresses up
behind screen. These sacks can be bought by the thousand at a small
cost. Two classes of work are shown for yards :
(a) (See Fig. 3 and diagram 7.) Cleaning 6 in. below tie in center
ditch and to bottom. of tie in crib, half-way on each adjacent track. Man
No. 1 picks from center line to center line of tracks; men Nos. 2, 3, 4
BALLAST. 997
and 5 shovel onto the screen and man No. 6 sacks dirt. Center ditch is
filled complete, and space left between rails to be supplied by shower of
new stone from Rodger ballast car. Excess stone not required in center
ditch is caught in pan and carried over rail into cribs.
Progress 190 ft. per 10-hour day, 12-ft. centers (exclusive of switches).
Cost per mile : Foreman, $77 per month ; six laborers, $1.75 each per day,
total $363.
The above figures are based upon 15 per cent, detention. In yards
of heavier movement, they should be increased accordingly.
(b) (See Fig. 6.) Cleaning in cribs only to bottom of tie. The center
ditch organization shown in Fig. 6 is applicable here, excepting man No.
6 sacks instead of shovels. This gang consists of foreman and six men.
Leaving dirt in center ditch behind sacked complete.
Progress 475 ft. per 10-hour day, 12-ft. centers (exclusive of switches).
Cost per mile : Foreman, $77 per month ; six laborers at $1.75 per day
each, total $145.
The above figures based on 15 per cent, detention.
Organizations "A" and "B" may be doubled or tripled in yards by
putting screens in adjoining center ditches, to be worked abreast under the
same foreman.
SHALL WE CLEAN THE BALLAST IN THE CRIBS BY EXTRA OR REGULAR
SECTION GANGS?
Railroads representing a large mileage are requiring that when regu-
lar tie-renewals are made, the ballast in the crib each side of the new tie
be cleaned. Supposing the life of the tie to be eight years, this cleans the
crib on an average of once in four years. If then the center ditch
and berms are cleaned every two or three years, we have an ideal condi-
tion. We have shown that this can be done at a cost of $262 per mile.
All cleaning could then be done by the regular section gangs. A gang
consisting of a foreman and 12 men, equipped with three screens, mov-
ing at rate of 475 ft. oer day, or a mile of double track every twelve days,
should, along with their regular work, clean a mile per month. On a
section of four miles of double track, complete cleaning of center ditch
and berms could be expected every three years, the tie-renewals taking
care of the cleaning of the cribs every four years.
SCREENS USED IN CONNECTION WITH TIE RENEWALS BY REGULAR
SECTION GANGS.
For this purpose one screen is used, equipped with fixtures for side
of track use ; three men operate this screen, ahead of tie renewals, going
only so far as ties will be renewed that day. One man picks on each
side of tie to be taken out and disposes of dirt from screen. Two men
follow, one shoveling out each crib adjacent to tie to be removed, throw-
ing the dirty stone on the screen. Dirt is delivered by screen into wheel-
barrow and clean stone is caught in pan at foot of screen. This is pulled
over rail and dumped from the pan close along the edge of the crib to be
filled, and the cleaners proceed to the next crib. The men renew-
ing ties then proceed with the tie renewals, working in pairs,
withdrawing old ties, putting in new and tamping up. A few trains are
allowed to pass over the new tie before it receives its final tamping.
The cleaned stone which has been left laying along the edge of the crib
is forked into crib, and the renewal is complete. By this method of com-
bining the tie renewals and cleaning, the one shoveling out cribs answers
both purposes and a saving is made which the use of screens greatly
increases.
998 BALLAST.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO SUPERVISORS AND FOREMEN ON CARE AND
USE OF SCREENS.
It is thought that it will be of value to insert instructions in effect,
and the same follow :
Care of Screen. — This screen is equipped with two pairs of separable
long legs for bottom and top ends for use on outside of track, and two
pairs of separable short legs for bottom and top ends of screen for use in
center ditch ; a removable door, which is not used in the center ditch ;
hinge pin, and galvanized iron pan and wrench attached to the frame ;
iron hook for removing stone from screen. Supervisor should make
his foreman personally responsible for the care of the screen parts. He
should see that parts are stored when not in use. Small parts put in
toolbox over night so they will not be picked up or mislaid and that
screen is painted throughout with' black paint if it is to lie idle for a
few weeks. Much valuable time may be saved by maintaining screens in
perfect order. The bolts should be kept tight and screens should be re-
versed from time to time in the frames, so as to keep it from wearing
all one way and becoming sagged. If stones become caught in screens,
do not attempt to knock them through with shovel, but remove them
with hook, so as not to injure the screen.
To set up for double-track use, equip two screens with long legs,
top and bottom, and apron to put stone between rails, for outside of
track and throw hoods back. Equip one screen with short legs, top and
bottom, and remove door for center ditch, throwing hood forward. The
screens on outside of track will clear train. Screen in center ditch must
be lowered on passage of trains, throwing hood back. It is not necessary
to remove pan from under screen to lower. Chain which holds up door
on side screen is fastened in hole in front of dirt pan, holding up front
edge, so it will slide with screen. Decide on depth to which ballast is
to be cleaned; recommended that this be 18 inches below the base of
rail on outside of berm, and 12 in. in center ditch, after track is raised,
to afford drainage of center ditch, a crib being cleaned out to grade
to these levels at intervals to run off water from center ditch.
As the screens work on these surfaces, a space of about 8 ft. should
be shoveled down to these levels before the screen is set up, and work
of cleaning should be done uniformly to these depths, so there will
be no water holes in center ditch and a level berm will be presented
on outside to dress up ballast line on. If the desired depth is within
two or three inches of bottom of old stone on outside berm, it will be
found to advantage to go below the stone, as this saves picking and
shoveling is easier, allowing enough dirt to fall back to build up the berm
to desired height. Scoop shovels should be used, as they carry a heavier
load and increase the amount of ballast cleaned about 10 per cent.
It is found that two men can move the screen on side of track, but
as there are three men working around each of these screens, it is found
easier to get all to assist in moving same. One man holds each of the
long legs in the rear of the screen and one man pulls the screen. Two
men can pull the screen in center ditch. Placing legs forward and walk-
ing, it is unnecessary to remove the pan underneath the screen, as it will
slide with the screen.
Attached are diagrams showing working position of screens and men.
The position of these screens and men will vary somewhat, depending
upon conditions and the work being done. Screen working in direction
of arrow. Men Nos. 2, 3, 4 and 5 shovel over the top of the screen in
the center ditch, working backward, in the direction of the arrow, prefer-
ably two right-hand and two left-hand men. No. 1, using pick, works
abead of these men loosening up stone. No. 6 shovels dirt out of center
ditch onto wheelbarrow, which straddles one of the rails, as shown in
BALLAST. 999
sketch. This man should be equipped with long-handled shovel of the
scoop type. This man also keeps the stone leveled down behind the center
ditch screen. Men n and 12 empty the dirt from the side screens,
deposit it in wheelbarrows, and level up on berm where necessary. If
all the dirt is required on the spot, then it is allowed to drop directly upon
the ground and is spread out without use of wheelbarrows. These men
watch the stone falling from the side screen, and when enough has
fallen to dress up the berm, pull down the apron and allow the rest
to run between the rails. The screen leaves the stone on the berm
free of the ballast line. Boards are brought along by these men, pinned
down and ballast pulled down against the board, completing dressing, ex-
cept between rails, where ballast will later be showered from a Rodger
ballast car. The efficiency in the use of these screens is largely depend-
ent upon the foreman in charge. It requires a live man, who will properly
place screens, watch disposition of ballast and line up men to get
results.
SUMMARY OF SAVING DUE TO KEEPING BALLAST CLEAN. \
(a) Reduced cost of maintaining line, surface and Saving.
gage • No figures
(b) Increased life of rail No figures
(c) Increased life of ties No figures
(d) Reduced tractive effort No figures
(e) Cleaning grass and weeds semi-annually elimi- $50 to $150 per dou-
nated ble-track mile
(f) No dust nuisance — increased passenger revenue. . Inestimable
(g) Saving in cost of new stone ballast by not $0.45 to $0.80 per
raising cu. yd. of stone
(h) Saving in cost of applying and dressing up stone $1,600 per double-
ballast track mile
(i) Saving in cost of widening fill, etc., account of Very great
raise
CONCLUSION.
The railroad of the future will clean its ballast oftener and reap
the many benefits of so doing. The output per man in cleaning ballast
has been increased something over 100 per cent., which will change the
entire situation, and encourage this class of work.
DISCUSSIONS
DISCUSSION ON RULES AND ORGANIZATION.
(For Report, see pp. 65-70.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON RULES AND ORGANIZATION.
J. B. Berry. C. P. Howard.
G. D. Brooke. C. E. Lindsay.
H. M. Church. William McNab.
C. H. Fisk. H. R. Safford.
L. C. Fritch. Francis Lee Stuart.
A. J. Himes.
The President: — Mr. G. D. Brooke, Chairman of the Committee, will
present the report of the Committee on Rules and Organization.
Mr. G. D. Brooke (Baltimore & Ohio) : — The report consists roughly
of two parts, a few revisions of the matter which has already been adopted
by the Association ; these revisions are not extensive ; then a set of in-
structions or rules to govern the chiefs of parties on surveys and con-
struction work. In formulating these new rules the Committee has at-
tempted, as far as possible, to follow out the same general line of thought
that has been followed in formulating the rules for the maintenance of
way organization. I would offer a motion that the various rules sub-
mitted and the revisions be read, in order to have discussion of them.
(Mr. Brooke then read the first rule.)
Mr. Brooke : — I would like to add here that the sub-committee on
Revision of the Manual thought it wise to introduce something into our
rules at this time bearing on the safety question which is so prominently
before the railroads of the country, and this revision of the general notice
and revisions of certain rules under the different supervisor and foreman
headings resulted. I offer the motion that that revision be adopted.
Mr. H. M. Church (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I would like to refer to the
fourth sentence, reading, "They must move away from tracks upon ap-
proach and during passage of trains, and, so far as practicable, prevent
the public from walking on tracks or otherwise trespassing on the right-
of-way." It does not seem to me that it quite covers the situation. I
move the sentence be changed to read, "On approach of trains employes
who are working on and about tracks must move to places of safety,
and, so far as practicable, prevent the public from walking on tracks or
otherwise trespassing on the right-of-way, and also warn and serve
notice on those habitually trespassing." I think at places where there
is constant trespassing on railways, some notice should be given.
Mr. Brooke: — The only revision which is offered by the Committee
is simply the addition of one sentence to that paragraph of the general
notice, which has been adopted by the Association. It does not offer
that entire paragraph, so to make that revision would mean to go back of
this Committee's report at this time and be a revision of the matter
which has been adopted. The Committee thought that this revision simply
1003
1004 RULES AND ORGANIZATION.
meant calling attention to the safety regulations. As I recall it, at the
time this rule was promulgated, it was considered specific enough for
the general notice and did not intend to go into such detail as Mr. Church
has in mind. The view of the Committee is that that would be covered
in rules which follow, or in more specific rules of individual companies.
Mr. Church : — The point I want to make is in regard to employes
moving away from tracks — that is hardly practicable, and in yards would
not apply. If employes were required to move away from tracks in
yards, they would be obliged to move to clear running tracks, and that
would not be practicable on a four-track railroad. The place of safety
should be specified in detail.
Mr. Brooke: — That is true; but the Committee does not think that
the general notice is the place to cover that. That would be covered
specifically in the safety regulations of the company.
Mr. W. I. Trench (Baltimore & Ohio) : — Why should the wording
state specifically that men should get off all the tracks, when we know it
is not possible to get off all the tracks on all occasions? We should say
all "running tracks," or modify it in some way so that it will be possible
to do what the instructions tell us to do.
(Mr. Church's motion was lost.)
Mr. C. E. Lindsay (New York Central & Hudson River) : — In regard
to rule 41, will the Committee omit the words at the end of. the* proposed
rule, "of the road"?
(The suggestion was accepted by the Committee.)
(Rules 13 and 18 were adopted as read.)
Mr. H. R. Safford (Grand Trunk) :— I think that Rule 17 is a good
rule. I presume the intent is to make the section force feel a certain
responsibility for keeping the portions of the interlocking plants that per-
tain to the track in good order without being called on specially to do
so. It seems to me in view of the fact that there must be complete
co-operation between the section force and the men in charge of the
interlocking plant, and the fact that the interlocking man must not be
relieved from the responsibility for seeing that this work is done, an addi-
tion to that rule, expressing that co-operation, would be a valuable thing,
in order that it may not be understood to relieve the local interlocking
plant force from some of that responsibility. It seems to me it could
be expressed in such a way that when the section foreman left a man
at the plant, this man should be under complete direction of the tower-
man or maintainer.
Mr. Church : — Would the Committee consider the word "interlocking"
to cover taking care of all pipe lines, derails, etc. ?
Mr. Brooke : — The Committee feels that the word "interlocking"
would not cause any misunderstanding and would be interpreted as cover-
ing derail pipe lines. There might be other classes of pipe lines, under-
ground pipe lines, which would not be affected; whereas, if we left out
the word "interlocking" it might be applied to other lines than track
appliances.
DISCUSSION. 1005
As to Mr. Safford's suggestion, the Committee thinks that arrange-
ment would probably mean a division of authority affecting the section
foreman's force, putting some of his men at certain times under the charge
of the signal maintainer, who might be inclined to carry his authority
too far. These rules apply only to track foremen, and rules which will
probably be written later, governing maintainers, will cover that point.
Mr. Safford : — The principal point is, there should be something to
require co-operative effort between the section foreman and the interlock-
ing force.
Mr. Brooke : — The Committee will take that point into consideration
in connection with next year's work.
(The amendment to Rule 17 was carried.)
Mr. Brooke : — The Committee has formulated rules for the govern-
ment of employes of the construction department, the first portion of which
is the general notice, which is in accordance with the notice applying to
the maintenance of way department, previously adopted. There are some
sections of the general notice which might not seem to apply directly
to survey parties, but when these parties are working around tracks they
will be found to apply pretty generally ; also where construction work is
being done along running tracks, where there is danger of blocking the
traffic. )
William McNab (Grand Trunk) : — I think in this general notice we
should be consistent, because it is going into the Manual. Rules 4 and
11 are not expressed in quite the same terms. Rule 4 states that employes
must exercise care and watchfulness to prevent injuries to themselves,
other employes and the public. Rule 11 says that employes must be
courteous to fellow-employes and patrons of the road. I think if the
Committee would change the wording to "fellow-employes and the pub-
lic" it would be in better form. I would not like to see the Association go
on record as limiting the range of courtesy.
Mr. Brooke: — The Committee will accept that suggestion.
Mr. C. H. Fisk (Consulting Engineer) : — Rule 10 reads, "Employes
must not absent themselves from duty." Could we not add "without
authority" ?
Mr. L. C. Fritch (Canadian Northern) : — The words "without permis-
sion" at the end of that rule would cover that.
Mr. Brooke : — The Committee will accept that.
(The rules under "General Notice" as amended were adopted.)
(Mr. Brooke read the rules under "Organization.")
Mr. Lindsay: — Will the Committee accept the removal of the word
"periodical" in rule 2?
Mr. Brooke : — Yes ; we will accept that.
(Mr. Brooke read rules 3 and 4.)
Mr. Lindsay : — It seems to me that the chief of the party would be
as responsible for the improper conduct of the party as for the proper
conduct of the party. Will the Committee accept the omission of the
word "proper"?
1006 RULES AND ORGANIZATION.
Mr. McNab : — I do not think it is possible for any man to be re-
sponsible for the improper conduct of his men, unless the hours are
specified that conduct is to be supervised.
Mr. Brooke: — The Committee will accept Air. Lindsay's suggestion.
Mr. C. P. Howard (Consulting Engineer) : — Rule 4 raises a question,
I do not know how it is provided for, that the chief of the party must
know that each man is competent to do the work required of him. Sup-
pose he has not appointed the man, as is frequently the case?
(Mr. Brooke read rules 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 11 and 12.)
Mr. J. B. Berry (Rock Island Lines) : — If it is permissible, I would
like to go back to rule 5 and suggest to the Committee that they should
put the word "instructions" after the word "prescribed," so that it shall
read, "They shall conform to the prescribed instructions, standards and
plans in the execution of work under their charge." Anyone in giving out
instructions has to go by standards and plans, and he is required to carry
those out very carefully.
Mr. Brooke : — The Committee will accept that revision and insert the
word "instructions."
Mr. L. C. Fritch : — I would like to suggest to the Committee that the
word "prescribed" be omitted, because some of the work may not be
prescribed, hut may be given verbally.
Mr. McNab: — "Prescribed" will come in all right. Instructions may
be given before they are written.
The President: — How do you wish it to read, Mr. Fritch?
Mr. L. C. Fritch : — I would omit the word "prescribed" and have
it read, "They shall conform to the instructions and plans in the execu-
tion of work under their charge."
Mr. A. J. Himes (New York, Chicago & St. Louis) :— I would like
to protest against the insertion of the word "instructions." It seems to me
to be wholly impertinent that we should formulate a rule saying that any
body of railroad men should conform to instructions. The very idea
of the preparation of instructions implies that they will be conformed to.
Mr. L. C. Fritch : — I would like to go back to rule 6 and change the last
part of the sentence to read, "and see that these are properly cared for
and used ;" I think it would be better than to end that sentence with a
preposition.
Mr. Brooke : — The Committee will accept that.
A Member: — I move that rule 10 be eliminated and that rules 11 and
12, as written in the report, be made to read rules 10 and ir. My reason
for that is that I think we should not bind the chief of party to such
rigid lines as are here required ; that he should be allowed a certain
amount of flexibility in handling his party, and if the work requires
his being in charge, he is the one to judge of that. I doubt whether we
should lay down such rules.
The President :— The Committee accepts that suggestion.
(Rules as amended were adopted.)
Mr. Brooke:— The Committee has submitted a report to the Board of
Direction on the question of the study of the science of organization,
DISCUSSION. 1007
as instructed. While the information on this subject that has been col-
lected and is not very extensive, the Committee feels that there is quite
a large field and that a great deal of good can be done by a proper study
of the science of organization. There is an indication that in a great
many parts of the country more attention is being given to this phase of
organization; more thought is being given to organization, to the proper
selection of all grades of employes, their education and proper compensa-
tion, and results are apparent in some quarters already. If the Board of
Direction sees fit to instruct the Committee to continue this study, the
Committee will have to depend upon the members of the Association for
the information with which it will have to work, and the success, of the
study will be determined by the replies to the circulars or questions which
the Committee may send out, so that the matter rests in the hands of the
individual members of the Association as much as in the hands of the
Committee, and the Committee hopes for the hearty co-operation of all
the members.
Mr. L. C. Fritch : — Before this Committee is dismissed, in behalf of
the Committee on Outline of Work, I would like to ask that the matter
of instructions for next year's work be considered. In some cases the
committees have made recommendations, but in others no recommenda-
tions have been made. It will greatly aid the Committee on Outline of
Work if we can get the specific recommendations of the committees; then
I think, too, this matter of instructions to committees is of such vital
importance to the Association that the convention at large should have
something to say about it. If there is a member who has some live sub-
ject to suggest, it might be well to have the suggestion made. I ask
that the Committee on Outline of Work be given all of the assistance in
this matter possible, in order that we may select live topics in our in-
structions to committees for next year's work.
The President : — The Board of Direction, at its meeting yesterday,
decided that they desired two things done : First, that each committee
should recommend an outline of work for one, two, three, four and five
years in the future. Many committees have done this ; a few have failed
to do so. Consequently, the Board desires the general membership to make
suggestions at this convention as to what work should be done under the
head of each committee. Now, if you have in mind any question which
should be studied, or any outline of work which should be prose-
cuted over a series of years, the Board, and especially the Com-
mittee on Outline of Work, desires you to offer those suggestions
at this time. Has anybody any suggestion to offer as to what work the
Committee on Rules and Organization should undertake for next year in
addition to that which is already suggested? The Board is so well pleased
with the preliminary work submitted by the Committee respecting the study
of the science of organization that it has decided that the study will be
continued, and no doubt a report from this Committee will be printed
within probably the next year or two. In closing this discussion the
Board desires to compliment the Committee for its valuable and faithful
work in connection with this report. The Committee is now dismissed.
DISCUSSION ON SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
(For Report, see pp. 71-100.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON SIGNALS AND
INTERLOCKING.
C. C. Anthony. J. B. Jenkins.
J. L. Campbell. C. E. Lindsay.
W. A. Christian. J. C. Mock.
H. M. Church. L. S. Rose.
L. C. Fritch. H. R. Safford.
The President: — The Chairman of the Committee, Mr. Thos. S.
Stevens, had expected to be present, but is detained by illness. The
report will be presented by the Vice-Chairman, Mr. C. C. Anthony.
Mr. C. C. Anthony (Pennsylvania Railroad) : — Under the first sub-
ject assigned to the Committee, namely, "Report on Economics of Labor
in Signal Maintenance," the Committee has prepared a report, which you
will find on page 71 of Bulletin 162, and offers it as a progress report,
with the request that the subject be continued. I doubt if it is desirable
to take the time to read it. If there is any discussion on what we have
here, we should be glad to have it for the guidance of the Committee in
its future work.
With reference to subject (2) Formulate and submit requisites
for switch indicators, including method of conveying information on
condition of the block to conductor and engineman, the Committee has
done some hard work, and has made the discovery that this is an in-
teresting subject and one on which there is a good deal to be said. They
are not, however, ready to make a report at this time, and simply re-
port progress. The third subject was to investigate on automatic control.
The Committee submits, beginning at the bottom of page 73, some
matter on the effect of treated ties on track circuits.
Since this matter was printed some further investigations have been
made on zinc-treated ties, particularly, which brings out some very
interesting results, and the chairman of the Committee sent me a copy
of the matter on that subject, which, with your permission, we will
add to the report as it is printed in the Proceedings.
If there is any discussion on the matter of track circuits, we would
be glad to have it.
Under the heading "Revision of Manual," the Committee has com-
pared the present symbols as shown in the Manual with those at present
in use by the Railway Signal Association. These symbols were adopted
by the Railway Signal Association possibly two years ago and have
been in actual use on signal plans for at least a couple of years. They
include certain symbols taken from the Manual of this Association, which
are applicable to the case. For example, on page 83, the symbol
1008
DISCUSSION. 1009
for water column was taken from the Manual. These symbols relate
particularly to signal and circuit devices, which have been originated
by a joint committee of the Railway Signal Association and a Com-
mittee of this Association.
The Committee recommends that these symbols be placed in the
Manual as a substitute for the signal symbols now in the Manual.
Mr. L. C. Fritch (Canadian Northern) :— With the permission of
the convention, I would like to go back to the subject of track cir-
cuits. It is quite important, in view of the extended use of treated ties,
that some definite recommendation should be made as to the length of
track circuits when treated ties are used. The Committee has gone into
this subject very exhaustively, and it might be well for them to give us
some recommendation as to what to do with our track circuits in case a
certain class of treated ties are used and a certain number of ties per mile
are used.
Mr. Anthony : — The Committee will be glad to take up that sub-
ject in the work of next year.
Mr. C. E. Lindsay (New York Central & Hudson River) : — The sub-
ject of track circuits is very important. We found in certain locations
that the accumulation of brake-shoe dust on the tracks has a greater
influence on the signals than the dirty condition of the track, the bal-
last, or the use of special ties.
I have compared the symbols shown on pp. 81 and following, and
have found some differences between those shown here and those shown
in another Bulletin, for instance, mileposts. I did not have an oppor-
tunity to compare them with the Manual, but there are some differences
which ought to be reconciled before this list is substituted for that in
the Manual.
Mr. W. A. Christian (Chicago Great Western) : — Referring to Mr.
Lindsay's remarks regarding the symbol for mileposts, as shown in
Bulletin 162 and that in the Manual, it seems to me, if the Interstate
Commerce Commission are going to accept our symbols as shown in the
Manual, we should include the symbols the Interstate Commerce Commis-
sion is using. The selection of symbols is coming up in the report
of your Committee on Records and Accounts. In regard to highway
crossings, the symbol for that is different in the Manual from the sym-
bols submitted by the Interstate Commerce Commission. These symbols
should be reconciled before being adopted.
Mr. Anthony : — I move that the symbols on pp. 81 to 90, inclusive,
be substituted for the signal symbols now in the Manual.
Mr. H. M. Church (Baltimore & Ohio) :— This Committee should
confer with the Committee on Records and Accounts and reconcile any
differences which may exist in the symbols submitted. That is important,
in my opinion, inasmuch as the Interstate Commerce Commission has
specified the use of the symbols recommended by this Association in
connection with the valuation of railways.
1010 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
Mr. L. S. Rose (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : — I
think we should adopt the symbols submitted by this Committee for signals
and interlocking, and also adopt the symbols submitted by the Com-
mittee on Records and Accounts, so that we will have something at the
end of this convention to go on.
Mr. Anthony: — The Committee will accept Mr. Rose's suggestion and
make the motion read : That those symbols peculiar to signaling and in-
terlocking be adopted and substituted for those on pp. 219 to 225, in-
clusive, of the Manual, edition of 191 1.
Mr. Church : — There is one specific case which may lead to con-
fusion. The symbol for two-way bolt lock, as recommended by this
Committee, is almost identical with the symbol for road crossing sub-
mitted by the Committee on Records and Accounts, and it seems to
me that should be straightened out.
Mr. Anthony : — The answer to that is that each will appear on the
plan in an entirely different place from the other, and it is very doubtful
if there could be any conflict in practice.
Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — We have an im-
portant matter here. It is undesirable to represent one thing by more
than one symbol. A symbol for the milepost should be the same where-
ever found, be it in location, construction or maintenance records. Con-
fusion will result if one thing is represented by more than one symbol.
The President : — The differences between the recommendations of the
Signal Committee and the recommendations of the Records and Ac-
counts Committee can be reconciled without any difficulty.
The motion is that the Manual be amended and that the symbols
on pp. 81 to 92, subject to such modifications as are necessary in order
to harmonize the recommendations of the Committee on Signals with
those of the Committee on Records and Accounts, be adopted.
(Motion carried.)
Mr. Anthony then called attention to Appendix A, and said : This,
we think, is valuable information inasmuch as several States have
taken joint action in the matter, and it is advisable that the rules be
in our literature — the rules governing the construction, maintenance and
operation of interlocking plants as adopted by the States of Wisconsin,
Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, Missouri and Iowa. The Committee has
not had the opportunity to analyze the rules in detail, but they were
prepared by persons representing the Commissions in those States, who
consulted very freely with signal engineers of many of the roads affected.
Mr. L. C. Fritch : — These rules have been adopted by the railroads
in all the States named, have been found to be very reasonable, and I
believe we could accept them without any reservation.
The President:— Are there any remarks in connection with the Ap-
pendix? Tf not, we would be glad to have the Committee recommend
what work should be taken up next year. The Committee states it
will give this matter consideration and submit its recommendation later.
Have the members of the Association any suggestions to offer as to the
DISCUSSION. 1011
future work of this Committee? This question is one of first impor-
tance, and any study which the Committee makes should have reference
to the work for a series of years.
You will notice that the Committee submits for the information
of members some observations respecting economics of labor in signal
maintenance. The membership should express itself in reference to this
study, because it is one which should be prosecuted continuously for
several years to come.
Mr. Anthony : — There is considerable difference of opinion in the Com-
mittee as to what to do with the subject, how to approach it, and what
to report on it. If there is no discussion directly on what we have printed
here in the Bulletin, we should be glad to get suggestions for our further
work.
Mr. H. R. Safford (Grand Trunk) : — As a member of the sub-com-
mittee of the Track Committee having this particular subject in hand, it
seems to me that there is a good deal that can be discussed between the
two committees, the Signal Committee and the Track Committee. We
have only made a start on this subject of the Economics of Track Labor.
Naturally, one of the first things we did was to make inquiry as to the
extent to which this idea had been put into effect by the railroads and
the information which we have so far received is that combined work
has been taken in hand by two or three railroads, and in the particular
instance in mind it has been in connection with the maintenance of the
signal system and other work in connection with signals. We have made
so little progress, it is hard for us to add much of value at this time to
the general subject, but I suggest there should be some definite, system-
atic and co-operative arrangement between the Signal Committee and the
Track Committee on this particular subject. This appears to be the
only idea which has been taken up in the direction of combining forces,
and if.it meets the view of the Signal Committee that there should be a
sub-committee appointed by it to co-operate with the sub-committee of
the Track Committee, I am sure such co-operation would be helpful to
both. There is a great difference of opinion about many features. Being
the only branches of the service combined in an experimental way, it leads
me to the suggestion that there be some systematic co-operative method.
Mr. J. B. Jenkins (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I endorse the suggestions of
Mr. Safford as to co-operation between the sub-committee on Signals and
Interlocking and the sub-committee on Track.
The President : — When we outlined our committee work two years
ago, we included this subject of economics in labor, and we looked back
over the fifteen years' history of the Association and found that much
study had been given to the technical side of the matters of design, but
that very little consideration had been given to the broader question of
the economics of labor. We all know that about 55 per cent., and in
some places between 50 and 60 per cent, of the expenses of the railway
are consumed in the labor charges, and the importance of this question
is reflected by those statistics.
1012 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING.
If the Engineer is ever going to assert himself in connection with
the broader questions of the railway business, he will have to study the
question of economics. This subject has been defined as the social science
of business, and it does seem to me that the object of our Association
is not alone to consider the design of appliances, respecting the construc-
tion and maintenance of railways, but it is as well to consider the
broader economic features. The Engineer is peculiarly educated and
fitted for making this study and it is the hope of the Board of Direction
that all of our committees will consider this broad question of economics
of labor and that the membership at large will submit its observations
from time to time in writing, so that they may be included in the
Bulletin.
Mr. J. C. Mock (Michigan Central) : — It occurs to me in the co-
operation of committee work it may be well for this Committee to work
also with Committee on Rules governing the Track Department and Sig-
nal Department. I think that is in line with Mr. Safford's suggestion.
The President : — The Board has already complimented this Committee
for faithful attendance, not only at the convention, but upon its work.
We desire to thank you once again for your loyalty to the interests of
the Association.
DISCUSSION ON YARDS AND TERMINALS.
(For Report, see pp. 101-148.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON YARDS AND TERMINALS.
G. D. Brooke. B. H. Mann.
A. E. Clift. A. Montzheimer.
Maurice Coburh. W. B. Scott.
L. A. Downs. Francis Lee Stuart.
E. H. Lee. E. B. Temple.
C. E. Lindsay. W. I. Trench.
The President: — The next report will be that of the Committee on
Yards and Terminals. In the absence of the Chairman, Mr. C. H. Spen-
cer, the report will be presented by Mr. E. B. Temple, the Vice-Chairman.
Mr. E. B. Temple (Pennsylvania Railroad) : — Mr. Spencer has left
the Washington Terminal Company and has been appointed Assist-
ant District Engineer of the Valuation Board of the Government.
He wrote me that he regretted very much that he could not be with us
to-day, as it is the first time he has been absent from one of these meet-
ings for several years. We should congratulate ourselves upon the fact
that men like Mr. Spencer and our President, Mr. Wendt, should be
called by the Government to aid in the work of this very important com-
mission, and I know the work they have done in this Association will be
of great assistance to them in their new positions. .
(Mr. Temple then read the outline of the subjects assigned to the
Committee, and said:)
We are not this year prepared to make any report on subject No. i,
"Typical Situation Plans of Passenger Stations," although progress has
been made, and the Committee hopes to have its report ready in another
year. Last year three methods of critical analysis of working capacity of
passenger terminals were submitted, one by Mr. Lane of a method devised
by Belgian engineers, another by the Pennsylvania Railroad, showing the
method they pursued in studying the situation at Broad Street Station,
Philadelphia, where they are now electrifying, and a third submitted by
Mr. Mann, termed the co-ordinate system, and we are endeavoring to
have that method worked out at some important terminal to see the re-
sults.
A very thorough report has been made on subject No. 2, "Mechanical
Handling of Freight." It deals with the telfer, gravity, chute and other
systems, and describes the methods of handling in this country, as well
as abroad, under the different systems. Considerable space is given to
the report on hump yards, of which Mr. Montzheimer was the sub-com-
mittee chairman, and a yard at Winnipeg on the Canadian Pacific is dis-
cussed in detail.
1011
1014 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
The fourth subject was "Report on Track Scales." This matter is
undergoing considerable change in this country to-day and many of the
railroads are required to rebuild their scales and get them up to date.
This Committee is not quite ready to make a report. Committees No. i,
on Passenger Terminals and No. 4 did not think it advisable to make a
preliminary report for introduction in the general report on account of
the space which the Association has given us on reports on mechanical
handling of freight and hump yards. We have no recommendations to
be incorporated in the Manual this year, but if the Committee is continued
and asked to investigate the subjects which are not yet completed, they
hope to have by next year a number of recommendations.
I wish to express my appreciation as an officer of the Pennsylvania
Railroad of the valuable information that is contained in the Manual and
in the reports of the various committees. I don't know of any document
printed that gives more valuable engineering information than is con-
tained in the Manual and the reports of this Association.
The President: — We will take up the first question, "Report on Typi-
cal Situation Plans of Passenger Stations," etc. Mr. Mann, chairman
of the sub-committee, will you kindly discuss that question ?
Mr. B. H. Mann (Missouri Pacific) : — The thought on the analysis
of the capacity of passenger stations is that something should be devised
somewhat along the lines of the present methods of analysis of the line.
When the question comes up as to the capacity of the line, the time at
terminals, the meeting points, the solution is reached quickly and re-
liably by "stringing the schedule on the chart." A similar method has
not yet been generally applied to a terminal. The terminal situation is
often worked up by,- you might say, the rule of thumb. The Committee
feels, after a study of two years, that there should be no reason why
some uniform method cannot be arranged for application to a congested
passenger terminal. This year's study has been along the line of follow-
ing up what was done last year. It may take a year or two years. The
Committee feels that it should now apply some of the methods studied
to present terminal situations and see how they work out.
The President : — The question is now open for general discussion.
There are no recommendations, but the Committee would be very much
helped by having your suggestions. If there is no discussion we will
call on- the chairman of the sub-committee on the developments in the
handling of freight by mechanical means. The report of this Committee
is certainly along the lines of scientific management and should give rise
to discussion.
Mr. Clift, we would like to hear from you as chairman of the sub-
committee.
Mr. A. E. Clift (Illinois Central) : — Mr. Chairman and gentlemen
bi the convention: As is indicated by the Committee's report on the
mechanical handling of freight, -while considerable progress has been
made in this and other countries, same has been confined mostly to com-
modities and articles of uniform size. The greatest difficulty encountered
DISCUSSION. 1015
in attempting to handle L.C.L. freight being the various sizes
of packages, etc., thereby making the subject a very serious one, and at
this time impossible to arrive at any definite conclusion. There is no
question,, however, but what this is a subject of vital importance to the
railroads of the country and one in which a very great saving can be
made.
The President : — Mr. Lee, will you please favor us with a discussion
of this question?
Mr. E. H. Lee (Chicago & Western Indiana) : — I do not desire to go
into a general discussion of the report of this Committee. It is certainly
of fundamental value to the railroads that the work which the Commit-
tee is doing should be done thoroughly. As, perhaps, some of the mem-
bers may know, I have been engaged for some time past in an investi-
agtion of certain phases of the work, including some kinds of mechan-
ical handling, which the Committee also covered to some extent, and I
would be unable to add at this time anything over and above the views
stated in an article in the last number of the Bulletin regarding this par-
ticular angle of the matter. It is an important subject. It occurs to me
that other questions which are not so fundamental, and which involve
neither as great an expenditure of money, nor as necessary and important
a place in the operating of a railroad, have often received more attention
in the past than this particular subject. This is easily explained. "While
congestion has been constantly increasing for many years under the old
methods of freight handling, it has been a gradual increase, and in few
places have the limits of the present methods been reached. I would not
wish to express any hard and fast opinion as to the mechanical handling
of L.C.L. freight, but am perfectly willing to express a tentative opinion
regarding the matter.
The investigation which we have made has led us to believe that a
good many of the claims made for mechanical handling cannot be sub-
stantiated. Claims for certain devices can be backed up by experience;
certain devices are exceedingly valuable in a special way, but I question
as to whether in the strictly mechanical handling of L.C.L. freight any
method can be devised which will make good the claims made for me-
chanical handling, that is, without decreasing capacity and without in-
creasing cost, unless this mechanical handling be reduced to some of
the fundamentals.
One particular phase of the subject has impressed me radically. It
seemed to stand out when I first considered the question : the fact that,
as to mechanical means for the handling of L.C.L. freight, the important
point is frequently lost sight of that the mechanism offered or suggested
for handling the freight so often introduces an element of extra handling.
Anyone who knows anything about handling material of any kind knows
that the mere transportation of the material may be the minor part of
the operation. Anybody who knows anything about handling freight in
any important city terminal knows that the mere process of transporting
that freight from one point to another may be the easy part of the game.
1016 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
In any switching or transfer operation there are numerous movements,
sometimes lost sight of, which may involve more expense than transport-
ing the cars between points. Our investigation showed that this was true
in handling freight mechanically in many cases.
I wish to be understood as not objecting to any particular method
of handling, and I must be understood as saying that for certain pur-
poses, mechanical handling of many kinds is well devised and economical,
but it seems to me that mechanical handling must be adopted with cau-
tion, it must be adjusted to the needs. We constantly found in our in-
vestigation, more or less superficial though it necessarily was, the disre-
gard of the subsidiary elements of the process, if I may so term them. We
found chutes, for instance, installed to handle freight between different
levels of a freight house, put in at considerable expense, and absolutely
unused. Why? The freight going through the chute was loaded on a
truck, it was then unloaded onto the chute. When it reached the lower
level it was again loaded on the truck. Now, study shows that the opera-
tion of loading freight onto a truck is one of the expensive elements in
connection with the process. If you double that part of the process you
immediately have increased cost unnecessarily and have in a way cast sus-
picion on the method. The fact has been proved in a number of cases. I
have in mind a transfer station on the Pennsylvania Railroad. We will ad-
mit that the Pennsylvania road's methods are good. We must admire the
organization that is in effect on that road. They don't very often do
things by guess, and generally investigate matters thoroughly. I found
that at one transfer station the process had been to load freight onto
trucks and then pile it on a platform, sorting it out there in order to get
full truck loads, and then to pass it along to the car. But an extra hand-
ling was involved ; they discovered that this extra handling was needlessly
expensive and it was eliminated. Now, in my view, that is the process
which must be carried out. If mechanical handling is to be a success, the
means and methods must be very carefully adjusted to the needs.
The President :— M'r. F. L. Stuart, will you kindly give the Commit-
tee the benefit of your experience?
Mr. Francis Lee Stuart (Baltimore & Ohio) : — Mr. Chairman, I agree
substantially with Mr. Lee. There are but few general cases in which
we have found mechanical handling to be an advantage. It is, usually,
useful only in specific cases. No doubt, as the art improves, mechanical
handling will become more useful.
There is one suggestion I would like to make. The plans for the yard
are quite complete, but we must go further than that; we want plans for a
general yard organization. While it is true that one railroad may require
a certain kind of organization and another a different kind, still I think
the Committee can outline an organization that will be efficient and prac-
tical under ordinary circumstances for yard work, and one that can be
molded to suit a great many conditions.
There is another suggestion that occurs to me : We should be able,
at many points, to change engines, cabooses and crews on one or two side-
DISCUSSION. 1017
tracks, with only lateral tracks to set off on or pick up from and cut out
some of the delays which occur in a yard with many tracks. The times
are such that we may have to make every "edge" cut, and it is well worth
the thought of your Committee to design the simplest kind of a siding
possible, with some method of setting off and picking up with a minimum
amount of switching and delay and keep the trains moving. Such an ar-
ranged yard would also be useful as a collecting and distributing yard
for such points as require a single switcher, etc.
Mr. W. B. Scott (Southern Pacific Lines) : — I do not believe that I
can qualify properly on this subject, although I have had a little experi-
ence with it. The point brought out by Mr. Lee seems to be a very perti-
nent one. We have found that the reloading of trucks practically eats up
the saving in expense of the mechanical operation.
The President : — Mr. Coburn, we notice in the report of the Com-
mittee on Buildings, page 710, Bulletin 163, that some observation is
made respecting the conclusions in the Manual under the head of "Yards."
Do you desire to explain at the present time that reference in your reporr
in connection with this Committee's report?
Mr. Maurice Coburn (Vandalia Railroad) : — The situation is rather
unfortunate, and I think the Buildings Committee owes an apology to the
Yards and Terminals Committee. We thought that we knew what they
had reported, but we did not. At the last moment, before our report
was printed, we found that we were overlapping them, though we had
thought, from our correspondence with the chairman of that Committee,
that we were not doing so. I hoped to have a chance to confer with Mr.
Spencer before he appeared.
We have a report on the design of freight houses. We have dis-
cussed in that report the size of the houses, and also some question as to
fire protection, which had been discussed in previous reports of the Yards
and Terminals Committee. There was also a question as to whether there
should be an outside platform or not. As I have thought over the mat-
ter since it seems to me that, perhaps, the Yards and Terminals Com-
mittee should designate the proper width of the house and its size, and
at that point the Buildings Committee should take up the question of de-
sign of the building. We have not had any chance to confer with the
Yards and Terminals Committee, but since we are the trespasser, we are
perfectly willing to meet any recommendations they have on the subject
at this time. We had the report printed in this way because we felt that
if what we had recommended was a proper part of our report, the Asso-
ciation could let it stand.
Mr. Temple : — In regard to the recommendations which are made in
the Buildings Committee report, as to the sizes of inbound and outbound
freight houses. I do not think that they differ materially from what is in
the Manual under Yards and Terminals. I would suggest, if it is in
order, that the two committees get together and submit something that
will not conflict, and, if it is not too late this year, then have it inserted
in the Manual. I think the matter ought to be stated in the Yards and
1018 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
Terminals .Committee report in a general way, without going too much
in detail and have the Buildings Committee treat with the subject more
fully.
The President: — The report of the Committee on Buildings will not
be considered until to-morrow. It is suggested that these two committees
agree on what changes they desire before the report of the Committee
on Buildings is brought up. The next subject is "Report on Develop-
ments in the Design and Operation of Hump Yards."
Mr. A. Montzheimer (Elgin, Joliet & Eastern) : — The sub-commit
tee on design and operation of hump yards considered the question of
new construction of hump yards and picked out the Canadian Pacific
yard, at Winnipeg, as a typical hump yard of recent construction. They
also tabulated a list of the various hump yards in the United States and
Canada. The list is shown on page 93. The suggestion recently made
by Mr. Stuart, that the question of the operation of hump yards be gone
into, was also considered by the Committee. They made up a list of 28
questions with a view of obtaining information as to the different meth-
ods of operating hump yards. On account of the large amount of in-
formation required we reduced the list of 13 questions, with the idea that
at some future time the other information would be obtained. You will
note in the report that we have gone into the question of cost per car
handling in hump yards, compared with the cost of handling the car in
the ordinary flat yard. The information is not altogether satisfactory,
because we find in modern hump yards more work is being done in the
way of classifying cars than was done in the old Mat yards. Trains are
made up with cars in station order and in many cases cars are weighed,
where formerly they were not weighed. We have also gone into the
question as to the amount of business that would warrant the construc-
tion of a hump yard ; also the question of grades on the hump and the
location of the track scales in reference to the hump. We also investi-
gated the necessity of departure yards. Some railroads are using de-
parture yards and some are not. It is thought that taking the possible
hundred hump yards that are in the United States and Canada, a great
deal of information can be obtained and certain rules laid down as to the
best methods for operating hump yards. If the Committee is granted
further time on this, we can bring out a larger amount of valuable in-
formation in reference to the operation of the hump yards.
Mr. W. T. Trench (Baltimore & Ohio) :— I would like to ask if, in
the design of the hump on scales, as shown on page 35, consideration was
given to selecting grades so that there would be a sufficient separation
of cars at the switch of the dead rails, so that the switch could be op-
erated either by hand or by interlocking without withdrawing the cars
coming up the grade? On our line the scale people are very insistent
that the non-weighers use the dead rails. This requires that the switch
be operated each time there is a change from weigher to non-weigher.
In the way the hump is designed, there is not only loss of time in with-
drawing the column of cars down the approach grade, but there is wear
DISCUSSION. 1019
and tear on the equipment, which would seem unnecessary, and there is
loss of steam. I would like to ask whether this was given consideration.
Mr. Montzheimer : — We asked each railroad operating hump yards
what grade, if any, they recommended different from that shown in the
Manual. On insert sheet, railroad J, page 134, is shown the hump grades
recommended by the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, and these are the grades
that they are using at their hump yards. I presume, since Mr. Trench
has mentioned it, that this is the grade they recommend to take care of
the movement of cars through the dead rails at track scales, thus avoiding
slowing up of the cars.
Mr. Trench : — That does not seem to be the case. The switch of the
dead rail is reached before the crest of the hump is reached, and it is
necessary to stop the train and withdraw it in order to throw the switch.
It would probably be necessary to have a separation of cars of at least
20 ft. in order to give an opportunity to throw the switch from an inter-
locking tower or by hand.
Mr. G. D. Brooke (Baltimore & Ohio) : — The accurate weights of
cars passing over scales is considered much more important now than it
was a few years ago, or rather the question of getting accurate weights.
Until recently cars were weighed in motion at considerable speed. Our
scale bureau now requires that cars be moving not over four miles an
hour. It is very difficult at that speed to obtain a separation of the cars so
great that the switch can be operated between them, particularly on
existing humps. A great many of the scales were installed after the
humps were built, and it was not practicable to revise the grades to such
an extent as to obtain that separation. Then, if that separation is ob-
tained, the car is moving too fast before it reaches the scale : so that
there seems to be no practical arrangement of grades that will obtain
that condition, and it is necessary when changing from the scale rail to
the dead rail to withdraw the cut of cars.
Mr. Trench: — I think that this point should at least be given con- '
sideration before a standard hump is adopted. I believe it is possible to
design a hump which will give the separation and possibly slow down the
car at the scales to the required limit. I think that should be gone into ;
or, it might even be possible to design a scale for use on humps in which
the weight could be lifted off the knife edges from the tower or by hand
lever and make dead rails unnecessary.
Mr. Montzheimer: — The diagram on insert sheet, page 134, shows the
profile of humps of the railroad J. These are the grades recommended
by the Baltimore & Ohio and are in actual use at the various yards. I
take it that these grades shown on the insert sheet referred to will take
care of the conditions that are mentioned.
Mr. C. E. Lindsay (New York Central & Hudson River) : — I have
nothing to say on the subject of track scales, but I would like to say,
in view of the fact that the Committee on Yards and Terminals has
made no recommendation for next year's work, that the design of a
hump yard is intimately related to the operation of it. It is impossible
1020 YARDS AND TERMINALS.
to study one without studying the other. We have been studying our
yard at West Albany very carefully and have endeavored to increase its
capacity by the use of some means of returning the riders to the hump,
which we found was one of the greatest sources of delay. We also found
it necessary to take into consideration the direction of prevailing wind,
the temperature and the operating conditions as to the trains coming into
the receiving yard, as to how long they stood before they were humped —
all of these things will be, I believe, of value in the further study of this
subject. I believe the Committee is working along the right line.
The use of poling cars has also become profitable with us where
hump cars are not possible. We have found we can increase the capacity
25 per cent, by the introduction of the poling system without increased
cost per car.
The President: — Has anyone any suggestions to offer as to next
year's work?
Mr. L. A. Downs (Illinois Central) : — In connection with the work
on Yards and Terminals, design of hump yards, etc., I believe attention
should be paid to the movement of cars. Yards, as we know, retard the
movement of cars. Statistics on all the railroads of the United State?
show that freight cars move less than thirty miles a day. Transportation
experts say that on well-organized and well-regulated railroads, when a
car is moving that it makes 10 miles per hour, therefore it should make
240 miles miles a day if not retarded. Therefore, there is a loss, as you
will understand, of 210 miles in each 24-hour movement of cars. Of
course, transportation experts will see that the proper cars are put in
trains, at certain terminals, to run to various other terminals without
switching. Sometimes the cars are not put in those trains, with the re-
sult when they get to the next terminal, they run over a hump or into
another yard and are switched again. I think it is a part of the work
of this Association to design our yards and terminal facilities, such as
coaling and water stations, in such a way that they will increase the move-
ment of cars. I think that one of the greatest losses that the railroads
now have is the use of the car. The car is the revenue producer, and, of
course, what we get out of the use of the car is our revenue. There-
fore, in the designs of the different yards and terminals, just like the
workings of the individual hump, the workings of the entire system in
the organization of the terminals should come into play.
In other words, if the originating terminal is A, as much as possible
all cars for Z should be switched to go in that train and go by these
other terminals without this great delay in each 24 hours. Even if the
railroads of the United States could increase the mileage of their cars
five miles a day, it would be millions of dollars in revenue to the railroads.
I think it is the work of this Committee to so design the yards as to
figure the movement of a car continuously through the terminals without
switching, which will minimize the delay.
The President:— The Committee is dismissed with the thanks of the
Association for its faithful work.
DISCUSSION ON ROADWAY.
(For Report, see pp. 383-400.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON ROADWAY.
J. R. W. Ambrose. H. T. Douglas, Jr.
Geo. W. Andrews. J. B. Jenkins.
C. H. Blackman. P. M. LaBach.
W. M. Camp. J. R. Leighty.
J. L. Campbell. Hunter McDonald.
Chas. S. Churchill. John G. Sullivan.
W. H. COURTENAY. ALBERT SwARTZ.
W. M. Dawley. F. E. Turneaure
Curtis Dougherty. J. E. Willoughby.
The President : — The next report will be that of the Committee on
Roadway. The report will be presented by Mr. W. M. Dawley, the
Chairman of the Committee.
Mr. W. M. Dawley (Erie) : — The Roadway Committee had for con-
sideration three subjects, the first being unit pressures allowable for road-
bed of different materials, which was assigned to sub-committee A. This
Committee is not able to make any definite recommendations as to allow-
able pressure until a certain amount of information has been determined
experimentally. Mr. Ambrose, of the Committee, has conducted some
experiments which are described in the report and illustrated by some
photographs which may be of interest. If any of the members care to
ask him questions he will be glad to answer them.
A Special Committee has been appointed to determine the distribu-
tion of live loads and impact on the track, and how it is influenced by the
different weights of rail, to consider tie lengths, tie spacing, distribution
and variation of the load throughout the ballast, to determine what is
necessary for a proper depth of ballast and also the capacity of different
classes of soils to support the various loads. This calls for a classifica-
tion of soils in order that the recommendations of the Committee may
be applied with judgment. There is also called for a determination of the
mechanics of the problem of supporting a load on a soil plane, without
any surcharge, such as placing ballast on a subgrade or embankments
on a level plane. After we have obtained this information, we think it
will enable us to design a track and superstructure with a definite
knowledge of the value and distribution of the forces involved, to
get at the proper depth of ballast, of tie spacing, length of ties, etc.,
with some confidence in the results to be obtained. It may be that
our rail is subject to stresses in the present design of track which
might be greatly reduced if we knew the value of all the factors entering
into the problem. It may also be possible to reduce the cost of main-
tenance. If the Locating Engineer in selecting new locations knows defi-
1021
1022 ROADWAY.
nitely what load the soils will carry, he may be able to vary the location
of his track, when he finds it necessary ; instead of building across un-
stable soil, a short line, it may be profitable to build a longer line on
stable ground. He will be better able to judge, with the information
which we are seeking, than he is at the present time. The principal
benefit to be derived will be an increase of safety first, followed by a
decreased cost of operation and maintenance.
A Special Committee has been appointed and arrangements made to
provide a sufficient fund to start the work, and in case the expenditure
should run beyond the amount provided the Committee suggests that the
various railroads represented in the Association contribute to the fund
on a mileage basis or some other basis to be determined by the Board
of Direction. We are of opinion that if the matter is put up to the
railroads in the proper light, they would be glad to contribute. The
amount required of each would be very small. The Committee could
hardly be expected to hold itself to the small amount of money which
we have in sight. Perhaps Mr. Leighty will give us some information
of what might be saved in maintenance cost if we could improve on
the character of our track.
Mr. J. R. Leighty (Missouri Pacific) : — This is a rather broad
question, and I should dislike to start a discussion on such broad lines.
There is no doubt that greater permanency in the type of track construc-
tion would result in considerable saving by the investment, under very
heavy traffic conditions, but under ordinary conditions, and for the
ordinary traffic that our main lines have to carry, I believe we have about
as economically maintained, and as desirable a type track construction
as it is possible to get. I have given some thought to the question of
greater permanency and have made some tentative figures on a design,
using a continuous concrete base, with I-beams imbedded, supporting the
rail, which is used only to make a running surface, and under a traffic
of about sixty trains per day on one track it would pa}' as an investment.
That seems to be about the number of trains at which it would begin to
be a good investment. There are so few miles of line with such a traffic,
especially in the West, that I did not go into it further. So far ass I am
able to see, the general design of track as it now is, is about as economical
as we could expect to get for ordinary traffic, under usual climatic and
soil conditions, in this country.
Mr. J. R. W. Ambrose (Grand Trunk) : — I will be frank to admit
that when I was first placed on this sub-committee, I thought, in view of
the different classes of roadbed varying from solid rock to muskeg, that
this was rather a foolish proposition, but after floundering around a bit
trying to perform a few experiments, the subject seemed to broaden out
and seemed to have some possibilities.
I finally performed these experiments shown in the report, from which
we gather that there is something to be learned from this kind of work.
The experiments show the effect of static loads only, but we are
DISCUSSION. 1023
endeavoring to devise an apparatus that will register the effect of any
moving load, and these experiments are to be made with that view and
not for results.
At the present time I have, about half complete, an apparatus which
I think will record the effect of all moving loads.
The moment we start to analyze the stresses in the roadbed, the
question arises what are the loads delivered to it, their direction, magni-
tude, etc., which means that a study must be made of the rail, ties and
ballast, as to how the loads are distributed through them.
We have concluded that there are no formulae regarding earth pres-
sures that can be applied to this case, and if anything is to be learned
regarding this subject, it must be done by experiment.
I understand there is a Special Committee appointed for that work,
who will have an adequate appropriation.
I think these experiments should be performed on various classes
of roadway and also under different conditions of track and traffic at the
same location.
Considering the status of our funds, I do not believe we can do
anything further than design an apparatus that will measure the actual
stresses in the track.
Prof. F. E. Turneaure (University of Wisconsin) : — Mr. Chairman.
I have just arrived and have not heard this discussion. I have, however,
had a little experience in making experiments with a sub-committee of
this Association on stresses in bridges under traffic conditions, and I
appreciate to some extent the difficulties that are in the way and that
have to be overcome before reliable results can be obtained. I think
that the difficulties in measuring stresses in roadway will be more trouble-
some than in the case of steel structures. For example, in our experi-
ments on steel structures we found that our results were satisfactory
until we got down to a span length of 25 ft. When you come down
to rail and ballast, you get down to a shorter span than that. If the
Committee is able, within a year or two, to devise an apparatus to do
that work, they will accomplish a great deal. If an apparatus can be
devised that will give satisfactory results, a great deal can be learned
unquestionably from such experiments. The wave motion that proceeds
from the rail and the ties down to the roadbed is something that must
finally be determined. That will be difficult to accomplish.
Mr. P. M. LaBach (Rock Island Lines) : — The diagrams given in
the report of the Committee on Roadway show graphically what was
found in these various tests. The diagram on page 388 also shows what
we would expect to find by a mathematical analysis. The stresses in
track, when we come to investigate them theoretically and practically,
must be worked out by the utilization of elastic factors. The rail is
subjected to both positive and negative bending moments. These are
influenced by the spans of the locomotive wheels as well as the tie spacing.
The bending of the rail downwards will load the tie. The amount of
this bending will depend on the elasticity of the rail. In other words
1024 ROADWAY.
the load on the tie would be different with different weights of rail when
the wheel load remains constant. The maximum load on the tie will be
when the wheel is immediately over it. The form which we expect the
tie to take will be such as is found on page 388. The depression of the
tie will be at a maximum at a point underneath the rail base. The fibres
of the tie will be in tension on the bottom at this point and in com-
pression on the top. In the middle of the tie the reverse is true, the toy
fibres are in tension and the bottom ones in compression. The com-
pressive stresses in the ballast regarded as a partially elastic substance
will be proportioned to the depression. This depression being greatest
immediately under the rail the ballast has a greater load to carry than
at any other point. Their maximum load is distributed through the
ballast to the roadbed. The manner in which it is distributed depends
upon the elastic working of the ballast. If the elastic limit is not ex-
ceeded we get good results with a given thickness of ballast. With less
elastic ballast or a greater load the results will not be the same.
When you try to figure out the stresses in either the rail or tie, the
mathematical formulae are rather long and complicated but this has
been done and can be done again. The use of measuring instruments
on ties in track has been tried and the results tabulated. By the use of
formulae which provide for maxima and minima the stresses under
working conditions may be found.
It is interesting to know that along about 1867 or 1868 a German
engineer named Baron von Weber went into this subject and after many
tests wrote a book upon it. He has been followed by others, notably by
Dr. Zimmermann in Germany, Mr. Ast in Austria, Mr. Wasintynski in
Russia and Messrs. Cuenot and Schlussel in France. The records of the
tests made by these gentlemen have been published and a number of
general works written on the mathematical phases also. All these en-
gineers regard the track superstructure as elastic and derive their results
with that conception of the subject.
Mr. W. M. Camp (Railway Review) : — I believe the subject under
discussion is unit pressure allowable on roadbed of different materials,
and the design of track with reference thereto. Of course, we under-
stand that the unit pressure resistance of soil has an intimate relation
with the elasticity of track supported on that soil. The railroad tracks
of the United States are almost universally of a common design, so that
it might seem trite to suggest that there are not any questions regarding
that design to be considered. Finely worked-out data or formulae on
allowable pressures may prove to be of but little use, but there are a few
applications of knowledge of relative supporting power of soils which
can be made in practice, and which, for that matter, always have been
recognized.
The materials that have been used for ballast on American railroads
have been largely of broken stone, gravel, sand and common earth.
Those four kinds cover nearly the entire mileage of track that is bal-
lasted at all. Broken rock has a better sustaining power than gravel ;
DISCUSSION. 1025
gravel has a better sustaining power than sand, and sand has a better
sustaining power than common earth. One will find that, for a long
time back, where earth ballast was commonly used, particularly in the
South and Southwest, 9-ft. ties were frequently standard, while in the
North, where the ballast was usually of better quality, a tie 8 ft. long
was the standard, and is still, to a large extent. Here was a practical
recognition of the difference in supporting power of different kinds of
ballast, and such knowledge affected the design of the track to the extent
of lengthening out the tie where it was used on the poorer ballast.
I was present in a railroad convention a few years ago when the
inquiry came up as to how the 8-ft. tie came to be selected as the standard,
and I believe it was pretty well agreed that the lumbermen settled that
question. The 16-ft. saw log was a very common length of cut for
timber. At the mills they cut lumber of that length in two and made
two ties of it. From the fact that 8 ft. was a convenient length to make
a tie, that became the standard length; but during the past ten years
engineers have been getting away from that rule of expediency applied
to the length of the tie, and quite commonly &l/2 ft. has been adopted
as the standard length. A good many think that is the economical length
of tie. Given a tie 7 in. thick, as you lengthen it out you increase the
tendency for the tie to spring, and when you get a tie springy the
sustaining power of the tie is not satisfactory. As we lengthen the
tie we must increase the depth. The length of tie is thus a question in
the design of track which is a very practical one, and one which is very
readily solved.
The motive power department has been increasing the weight of lo-
comotives and rolling stock without consulting or even regarding the
engineering department. The engineers have simply had put up to them
the question as to what they were going to do to hold up the increased
weight of traffic, and that should be one line of investigation by this
Committee. The question of increasing the bearing surface of the
track, is, of course equivalent to decreasing the pressure on unit surface
of roadbed. The more bearing surface there is to the track structure
the smaller the pressure on the unit of roadbed surface. In swamps,
muskegs and sink holes, as we call them, there is material which has
very little sustaining power. Railroads have been laid over ground
which had not sustaining power enough to hold up a horse or even a
human being. In such cases it became necessary to throw in brush or
logs and thus widen out the roadbed, in order to sustain the track.
There are all degrees of softness in such roadbed. In one instance, on
one of the Canadian roads, use is made of 12-ft. ties, on some of the
muskegs, in order to increase the bearing surface of the track. I think
it is along such lines of investigation, rather than in the working out
of precise formulas that the best work of the Committee can be done,
to see in what practical ways this matter of increasing the bearing sur-
face of the track on the soils that we have to deal with.
1026 ROADWAY.
We have to take the soils as we find them. We cannot transport
gravel long distance, from one place to another, to make a roadhed :
we have to be satisfied if we can get enough of it for ballast. As far
as the roadbed is concerned we have got to take the natural surface of
the earth. I heard some discussion in an early annual meeting of this
Association when the question came up as to whether the motive power
department should not be requested to stop increasing the size of the
locomotives, and it was asked whether or not they had not already ex-
ceeded the ability of the soil to sustain the loads. 1 recall that one
member stated that he had assumed the ultimate bearing power of the
soil to be something like 55,000 pounds to an axle. Another member,
Mr. Lum of the Southern Railway, T think it was, who said : ''No matter
how we theorize about this question or what we find to be the unit
allowable pressure, old mother earth has got to carry the railroads."
Mr. Leighty : — In line with the remarks just made by Mr. Camp,
we have found in a great many cases where our track is unballasted, a
mud track, that after a certain amount of rainfall, the bottom simply
drops out. We have apparently no sustaining power in the roadbed, track
is practically impassable. Under these conditions we have in every case,
so far as I can recollect, made the track passable and reasonably good
by filling in ties, that is to say, by putting ties in between those already
in the track. That accomplishes the same thing Mr. Camp speaks about,
without making the tie a longer beam, and, therefore, making it neces-
sary to make it a deeper beam. T think that track maintenance in a
territory where the rainfall is great enough to make considerable trouble,
or ballasting material so expensive that it is almost prohibitive, or the
natural soil is of such a nature that a little rainfall makes it bad ; that
the thickening of the ties, putting in more ties to each rail length, will
do a great deal toward lessening the cost of maintenance. In an ex-
treme case, where the track is practically impassable under ordinary
conditions, it can be made passable and reasonably good by putting in
an almost solid floor of ties. If that can be done, in such an extreme
case, there will be some locations where track can be improved and we
will get a greater economy of maintenance with very little ballast, by
adding more ties.
We have made an effort in the last few years to distribute the axle
load over a greater area of roadbed by making the rail deeper or stiffer.
Some roads have offset that by lessening the number of ties under the
rail length. I could never understand the philosophy of that kind of a
move. We spend additional money for rails to accomplish a certain re-
sult, and then reduce our expenses by reducing the number of ties and
when we get through we are just where we started.
Mr. Albert Swartz (Toledo Railways) :— I do not see why the Com-
mittee should not go through with the investigation to determine what
bearing power the different soils have. It requires some study to de-
termine that capacity of the soil, and I think the Committee should pro-
ceed with its investigation.
DISCUSSION. 1027
Mr. Camp: — I do not like to be misunderstood. It is not my idea
to suggest that the Committee should not go ahead with its investigation.
I think they should continue on the lines laid down. I tried to make
clear my opinion that there are certain limitations in the designing of
track to meet various conditions of soil, unless we get some type of
track radically different from what we have now. From the well
known fact that the sustaining power of soils may vary greatly in
a single mile of track, and that it does so vary on a large mileage
of many of our railroads, I will venture the prediction that track
design, however much it may be improved, will, for the same railroad,
continue to be built pretty much as at present, namely one standard
design for the whole road, with, possibly, special construction for par-
ticularly soft places, as through swamps and bogs. Longer ties and
closer spacing of ties can increase the bearing surface of the track,
and deeper and stirrer rails can distribute loads over more roadbed
surface. The character of the ballast also has a relation to distribution
of the load, as previously stated. With track of present type (and we
know of none better) the possibilities in these directions are the limita-
tions that I wish to point out.
Mr. John G. Sullivan (Canadian Pacific) : — I was on the Roadway
Committee at one time, and I opposed the making of these experiments
for the reason that if you make them under all conditions you will
find that you will get earth that will bear from 10 to 15 lbs. per sq. in.,
including in the word earth solid rock, up to earth which will bear a
locomotive on one square foot, and I cannot see that the results which
you will get will be of any practical value. We had some earth on our
track near Winnipeg on which you could run locomotives without rails
in the dry season. In a wet season you could not run a baby carriage
over the same ground. Therefore, experiments in that particular case
would show very different results according to the day on which the
experiments were made. We laid that track when there was frost in
the ground — we could not have laid it in any other time without putting
in brush or cross logging. We managed to get some ballast on it, but
before we did that the mud came to the top of the rails, dried out
slightly, evidently it was somewhat harder than the material under the
tie, and at some places in that track we put two or three feet of ballast,
and in three or four months these ribs of clay would come up through
the ballast.
Of course, you will say that was not the way to do it, the way to
have done it was to round off grade, as shown in standard plans, secure
good drainage and good ballast on them. If anyone can tell me how
you can put ballast on a track which you cannot drive a team over, and
get the sub-grade in shape for them to do it at any reasonable expense,
we would welcome the information. I do not know how to do it. You
must lay the track and put your ballast on it. We overcome the difficulty
by putting on enough ballast to overcome the load.
1028 ROADWAY.
I can see only one reason for these experiments. There are a great
many tracks in the West that are suffering for lack of ballast. The
maintenance would be much less if the tracks were properly ballasted.
If the Committee can bring in a report which will convince the General
Managers that they should really put on ballast enough to hold the
track properly, it may do some good. As a means of education to Engi-
neers, it will be simply useless.
So far as the ties are concerned, the 12-ft. and 16-ft. ties — we use
some 12-ft. ties — they are not to carry the load, however, but to steady
the load. The 8-ft. tie will break under the rail now rather than break
in the center. The purpose of using the 12-ft. tie is to steady the load
and prevent creeping. We put in the longer ties, because the more
anchorage you have for the rails the less trouble you will have from
creeping track. We practically abandoned the 12-ft. tie in regular work,
but we use them now to keep the track rigid and level, we put them
in at soft places or joints, or other points at which we anchor the track.
We had some discussion recently in the Canadian Society of Civil
Engineers about ties, and I went into the matter, and figured the tie as
a beam loaded uniformly, turning the track upside down, if you will.
It is true you should not tamp the tie in the center as hard as you do
at the ends, I think you will find you should not go over 8.5 ft. to get
a uniform loading. If you make it over 8.5 ft. you will have the ties
breaking under the rail.
We had an Engineer make some tests on the eastern part of the
road, and some of those tests were rather unique and gave surprising
results. They were made for testing the strains on the track of different
rolling stock. It was rather surprising to find that every wheel on a
locomotive exerted a very great outward pressure. A great many have
been thinking, and they seem to have practical reasons for believing,
that in the case of an engine running slow the flanges of the trailing
drivers will not touch the outside rail. I do not believe in any place did
the lateral stress in the track exceed 20 or 22 per cent, of the load on
the wheel. Therefore, you get a stress on the track without having the
flange strike the head of the rail, but the most surprising thing we learned
— and these were the results of probably 600 or 800 tests — was that
some freight cars exerted a greater pressure on 6 and 8-degree curves
than our locomotives. If the Committee, instead of endeavoring to test
some things that are immeasureable, will test the strain of the rolling
stock on the track for lateral movements, I think they will get in-
formation which will be of more benefit to the Association.
Mr. Hunter McDonald (Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis) :— I
came in after the discussion had gone too far for me to know exactly"
what the matter before the meeting is. 1 presume it is on the question
of the Committee's request for privilege of making experiments on the
depth of ballast. I am not now able to express an opinion on the methods
[hey propose, hut certainly sympathize in their desire to make such ex-
periments. While Mr. Sullivan may have a condition of affairs that may
DISCUSSION. 1029
be exceptional, in regard to the character of material he has described,
it seems to me that some of that material ought to have piles in it. I
do not believe it would be good practice to let that stuff dry out, and
then get wet again. It should be piled to begin with.
There are plenty of roadbeds in the United States, and I am satisfied
there are plenty of them in Canada, where it would be practicable to find
out what amount of ballast would be needed on the average roadbed. I
believe the tendency of to-day is to keep the track about 25 per cent,
behind the equipment. I think we ought to get the track up to the
equipment, but I do not believe we can do it unless we can show our
managements that more ballast is needed, and I am heartily in favor
of some experiments to that end.
Mr. Geo. W. Andrews (Baltimore & Ohio) : — Mr. Sullivan's re-
marks reminded me of the old story of the shipwrecked Irishman. He
was picked up and brought on a vessel in the last stage of exhaustion.
When he was aroused he said: "Have you a government here?" The
answer was that they had. He said, "Then I am agin it."
I believe this Committee should continue investigations along the
line on which they have been working. Mr. Camp has outlined a method
that the Committee could give very close attention to. We know that
what Mr. Camp has said is a fact. We also know that the money put
at our disposal for ties and ballast is rather limited. We cannot put
concrete under ties if we do not have money enough to buy sand. I
can recall that some years ago on the road I have been fortunate enough
to be connected with for a good many years, that we installed a system
of track tanks. The Division Engineer went over the territory shortly
after the tanks were installed, and called the attention of the section
foreman to the fact that they must exercise a great deal of care not
to allow pieces of ballast to rest on top of the ties as the scoop on
the tender was sufficiently low to strike the ballast, damage the scoop
and prevent it from taking water. One Irishman said, "No danger, no
danger ; we do not get money enough to put the ballast under the ties
without leaving it on top." That is the condition most of us are in.
This Association cannot take the stand where they will say we have
reached perfection and will stop.
Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — I think the last
speaker has come pretty close to the heart of this proposition. I take
no exception to these experiments if they result in showing the man-
agement that more money is needed for the track. I do not believe that
the trouble is primarily lack of knowledge as to what should be done.
As a rule Engineers have definite ideas as to what should and could be
done within economical limits if they could get the money. It resolves
itself into a question of how shall we get the money to improve the
track and to what extent would we be justified in spending money on the
track to increase its general efficiency. I anticipate that in a general way
our tracks are about what they ought to be and I believe we are building
and maintaining about as good tracks as the traffic justifies. Whatever
1030 ROADWAY.
our knowledge may be of what might or should be done later on as the
business increases, 1 believe we are doing about all that we should do at
the present time. I believe the managements of our railways recognize
that and that that is one of the reasons we are not getting more money
to improve our track, because the question of increased permanency must
be considered in connection with justifiable expenditure.
1 think the information that the Committee could secure would be
all right bearing in mind what has been said about the instability of the
soil and its carrying capacity under different conditions. Assuming that
the diagrams presented by the Committee are correct and that they show
the stresses as they act on the roadbed and that it is desirable to im-
prove the stability of the track, has the Committee any definite idea of
how the information so secured would be applied? How would it
modify the design and construction of track in case increased per-
manency of the latter was ordered?
Mr. Ambrose : — At one time I acted with Mr. Sullivan on this sub-
committee and if the work of this Committee is to be limited to stating the
allowable unit pressure on roadbeds, I would be inclined to agree with
him, but the subject is broader than that. The moment we consider the
pressure in the roadbed we find that the rails, the spacing of ties, the depth
and kinds of ballast, all have their effect on the roadbed and we cannot
segregate one from the other in this study. We all know the ideal con-
dition is a uniform loading on the sub-grade. How to attain that con-
dition and when it is, or is not necessary, is the problem confronting
this sub-committee. 1 believe, therefore, that we should work jointly
with the other committees and take the whole problem under con-
sideration.
The President : — The Special Committee on Stresses in Track ex-
pects to take up the study of the entire subject of stresses in track, rails,
ties, ballast and roadbed, so that no one feature of the problem will be
studied to the detriment of the other.
Mr. Camp : — 1 am in favor of getting all the information we can
on the allowable pressures on earth, and I cannot see any harm in the
Association or anyone else making tests to discover what these are.
Scientific data on this subject will harm no one. Many members of this
Association started out with academic information in the first place, and
they have found by experience what use could be made of it. While
1 have no expectation that new data or information along the lines
we are discussing will revolutionize track construction, yet I think the
more knowledge we can get of roadbed conditions the broader will be
our understanding of what we are doing.
There is another possible line of utility in this proposed investigation
which has not been mentioned, and that is this: If the Committee can
ascertain what are the allowable unit pressures on soils as they find them
about the country; then if the Association has the courage to do so, it
can say to the managements of the railroads that the time has come
when the motive power departments should stop increasing the weight
DISCUSSION. 1031
of the rolling stock. I read a quoted remark of a member of the Inter-
state Commerce Commission, not long ago, in which he said that if the
government had to step in and regulate the construction of railroad
tracks, it might, about the first thing, have to decide whether the al-
lowable loads that are carried over the tracks had not already reached
a safe limit. If the Committee can get some data on this subject that
will appeal to railroad managements, in a manner to draw attention to
this ever increasing weight of rolling stock and the economical effect
thereof, I think it would be a very good plan to have in view.
Mr. C. H. Blackman (Louisville & Nashville) : — There has been
a great deal of criticism of the Committee in regard to its measuring
the amount of pressure on the soil, but if the Committee can determine
how the pressure from the axle load is distributed and transmitted to the
ties and through the ties to the ballast under the ties, it will be of
wonderful assistance to such of us as have to design structures to
go underneath the track.
The President : — If there is no further discussion on this phase
of the subject, we will go to that part of the report which treats of
tunnel construction and ventilation.
Mr. J. E. Willoughby (Atlantic Coast Line) : — The Committee has
considered this subject for several years and has tabulated conclusions
which appear to be representative for a number of tunnels not more than
a mile in length. We recommend that the conclusions which appear on
page 399 under the heading "Tunnel Construction" and "Tunnel Ventila-
tion" be adopted.
Mr. Sullivan: — I think conclusion i will have to be modified, de-
pending on the material through which the tunnel is driven. If it is
a case of solid rock, and the railway did not have traffic enough to
justify the running of the tunnel, it would be more economical driving
to take out, say, three benches, shooting the three benches at the same
time, and doing as much mucking as possible with the steam shovel.
Mr. Willoughby: — The Committee is of the opinion that as tunnels
are ordinarily constructed when the time limit is not of great value, the
unit price of the removal of the tunnel section will be less if the heading
is driven entirely through and then the bench be removed afterwards.
The Committee believes, however, that when material does not
require support, there are often advantages both in time of construction
and in less unit cost in driving a bottom heading first and removing
the material by an air or electric shovel; and makes this suggestion
further on in the conclusions.
Mr. J. B. Jenkins (Baltimore & Ohio) : — With regard to conclusion
5, which provides that opposing grades should never meet between the
portals of a tunnel, so as to put a summit in the tunnel, T would say that
it is sometimes necessary for the purpose of drainage to have the oppos-
ing grades meet between the portals.
Mr. Willoughby :— The Committee believes in view of Its previous
investigations, that a tunnel should never be built level, but built at
1032 ROADWAY.
least on a 0.2 per cent, grade, and it is the opinion of the Committee
that it is better to take the drainage through the entire length of
the tunnel, than to put a- summit in the tunnel, with two opposing
grades.
Mr. Jenkins : — Sometimes the two portals of the tunnel are neces-
sarily of the same elevation, in which case I think it is better to put a
summit in the tunnel than to have a level grade.
Mr. Willoughby: — The Committee believes that in the construction
of a tunnel such control can be had of the grades on either side as not
to require that kind of construction.
Mr. Jenkins :— I have had one case where it was impossible to make
enough difference in elevation between the two ends of the tunnel to
provide drainage from one end to the other. I think that paragraph
should be qualified.
Mr. Chas. S. Churchill (Norfolk & Western) : — I agree with Mr.
Jenkins. We should not insert anything in our conclusion so absolute as
"never," that has been the policy of the Association. The words "pre-
ferably not" would be better. There are conditions conceivable in any
location where it is desirable to have the two ends of the tunnel prac-
tically of the same level, and there is certainly nothing wrong then in
securing drainage in the method suggested by Mr. Jenkins. Whether
that is a fact or not, the word "never" is not a good word to use in a
conclusion of this kind.
Mr. E. B. Temple (Pennsylvania Railroad) : — What effect will a
pronounced summit in the grade have on the ventilation?
Mr. Churchill : — There is very little difficulty in the ventilation one
way or the other, provided there is not too large a break in the grades.
When air is started through a tunnel with sufficient force behind it, it
will go through. It makes no difference whether there is a broken grade
in it or not. Grades do not enter into the calculation. All that enters
into the matter of moving air is the resistance of the walls of a tunnel
combined with the cross-section and length of it.
Mr. Campbell : — I do not think "never" is a good word to use. Still
it is important that opposing grades do not meet within the tunnel. I
think it would be better to say, "where practicable, opposing grades
should not meet within the portals of the tunnel."
Mr. Churchill : — Take the case of a tunnel passing under a river,
the New York Terminals, for example. There we have tunnels of about
the same level at both ends, and as we know there is a very strong dip in
going under the river, and a summit under New York. There is no
trouble in ventilating those tunnels. I mention this to show it is im-
practicable to always arrange tunnels so that there shall be no broken
grade therein.
Mr. Willoughby :— The reading of the Committee report is "summit."
Mr. Churchill :— The same thing.
The President :— The Committee will accept the words "preferably
not."
DISCUSSION. 1033
Mr. W. H. Courtenay (Louisville & Nashville) : — I agree with the
Committee that where it is possible to do it there shall be no summit in
the tunnel. The summit is an unmitigated nuisance. On the road with
which I am connected we have a tunnel which has a summit in it. We
have other tunnels which have no summit, the same grade all the way
through. The longest tunnel we have is about 4,600 ft., and there is no
trouble at all about bad air, or any other conditions influencing the train
movement. I have stood on the rear end of the passenger train going
up grade in that tunnel without suffering discomfort. We have another
tunnel about 3,300 ft. long which has a summit in it, put there for the
purpose of dividing the drainage. It was a mistake. The tunnel is wet,
the drivers sometimes slip, and it is not an infrequent occurrence that the
men on the engines suffer on account of bad air. In nearly all cases, for
ordinary tunnels, without reference to such tunnels as those of the New
York Terminal of the Pennsylvania Railroad, it is entirely practicable to
so adjust the grades that there will be no summit in the tunnel. I en-
tirely concur with the Committee that it is better to pass water entirely
through the tunnel from one end to the other, than to have a summit in
the tunnel which catches the smoke and holds it there. It has been proven
that a straight roof for a tunnel is of very great assistance in clearing
it. We have stopped up shafts that were used for construction purposes
merely to get better draft. With the long tunnels built in recent years
there has been no trouble in getting rid of the gas, but in old tunnels,
where they had shafts and where there was a summit in the tunnel, there
has been great trouble.
Mr. Curtis Dougherty (Queen & Crescent) : — Mr. Courtenay has said
about all I had in mind to say. I am in similar territory and our situa-
tion is quite the same. We have tunnels on straight grade in which, as
stated by Mr. Courtenay, the ventilating conditions are better than in
shorter tunnels where a summit is provided in the tunnel. I agree with
him that it would be better to take cane of the water in a tunnel with a
uniform grade than to be up against a tunnel with a summit in the
middle, providing adequate arrangements are made to take care of the
water.
Mr. W. B. Storey (Santa Fe) : — The position taken by Mr. Churchill
seems to be proper. I know of tunnels that have summits, and are over
a mile long, in which the ventilation does not give trouble. Mr. Jenkins
is right, however, in many cases. It seems, therefore, if the language of
the conclusion remains as now accepted by the Committee, it is along
proper lines to secure the best practice, that is, not to have the grades
meet, but, under certain circumstances, they may be allowed to meet.
The language, as it now stands, covers that point.
Mr. H. T. Douglas, Jr. (Chicago & Alton) : — A further objection to a
break in the grades in a tunnel, other than ventilation, which has been
discussed, would be the probability of drawbars being pulled out, causing
break-in-twos and probably serious derailments, and assuredly a derail-
1034 ROADWAY.
ment in a tunnel introduces conditions which are probably more disastrous
than at any other point on the road.
The President: — We should consider the next subject before taking
final action on tunnel construction. Let us proceed to tunnel ventilation,
page 399. General discussion is now in order. The Committee recom-
mends that these conclusions be printed in the Manual. The question
is on the adoption of the recommendation of the Committee, that the
conclusions on page 399, under Tunnel Construction and Tunnel Ventila-
tion, subject to the modification of Rule 5, be approved and published
in the Manual. The Committee desires Rule (b), under Tunnel Ventila-
tion to read, "To blow a current of air against the direction of the ton-
nage, train," etc., the word "tonnage" being introduced before train.
(The conclusions were then adopted.)
The President: — The next point is, what work does the convention
desire to outline for this Committee for next year? On page 400 the
Committee makes a recommendation which will be considered. H^ve you
any further suggestions? The Chair would suggest that in view of the
remeasurement of the grading of all railroads, that this Committee on
Roadway has an important study which it might be well to take up during
the coming year. The Committee is excused with the thanks of the
convention.
Prof. C. C. Williams (University of Kansas — by letter) : — The report
of the Committee on Roadway sets forth many matters of interest, for
it is only through the consideration of such data as are presented therein
that track as a structure can be consistently designed. That is, unless
some knowledge is first had of the character and distribution of the loads
and stresses occurring in a roadway, the proper arrangement and pro-
portioning of strength and rigidity in the rails, rail fastenings, ties and
ballast are impossible, for random design rarely produces a well-propor-
tioned structure. Although it is doubtless true that these stresses can
never be determined with a great degree of precision, yet it is equally true
that more information than is available at present is extremely desirable.
A few weeks ago, the writer's attention was called to a pile of per-
haps three dozen cracked and broken angle bars at the side of a railroad.
Walking along the track he found, in a stretch a trifle over half a mile
long, twenty-one joints at which either one or two angle bars were
broken. However, the next half-mile contained only two joints where
cracked angle bars were discovered. The foreman in charge of the
section insisted that the large breakage was due to inferior material.
By. watching the behavior of the track during the passage of trains it
hecame evident that the breakage was caused by low joints and uneven
bearing of the ties on the ballast. The fractures were typical angle bar
cracks from the top downward, and were caused, in part at least, by the
bending moment occurring when the joint was between two trucks or im-
mediately in front of the locomotive. The greatest upward deflection
occurred when the joint was midway between two trucks of a passenger
coach. Besides the bending moment, there was, of course, a heavy shear-
DISCUSSION. 1035
ing stress in the section every time a wheel passed from one rail to
another. The cracked angle bars which had been removed from the track
were not bent in the vertical plane, and hence must have failed by fatigue.
The fracture, moreover, very much resembled the fatigue fracture of
steel obtained in the laboratory. The ballast was slag and not well
tamped under the ties. A portion of the bad half-mile was on a slight,
embankment and a portion in excavation. The rail was 85-lb. A.S.C.E.
section.
It would seem that such a condition of affairs might be remedied,
at least, if not entirely obviated, by a proper adjustment of the component
parts of the roadway, based upon a knowledge of the stresses existing.
In determining these stresses, the experiments performed by Mr. Ambrose
and described in the Committee report are of much interest. The elec-
trical apparatus used was similar to a device used by the writer for
studying pressures in a grain bin, a brief description of which may be
of value.
This instrument utilized the same principle which Mr. Ambrose ap-
plied, but in a slightly different manner, namely, that carbon plates were
used instead of carbon dust. Sixteen carbon plates, 3 in. by 3 in. by
1/16-in., were placed between two electrodes, consisting of steel plates
three inches square. These were inserted in a box with a movable lid
against which the pressure operated. The amount of current passing
through the series of carbon plates varied with the pressure, not as the
pressure, however, consequently the instrument had to be calibrated with
known weights in order to secure numerical results. Daniell's cells were
used to furnish the current owing to the fact that they furnish a constant
voltage; since the metal deposited in their operation is copper instead of
hydrogen, there is no increase in internal resistance, which condition re-
sults in freedom from polarization and a constant voltage.
This sort of a pressure gage is well adapted to the measurement of
pressures like those between ballast and roadbed because it involves very
little movement (0.01 in.) and it records the release of pressure as well
as the application of pressure.
A complete study of the distribution of pressures and stresses may
lead to some improvement in the design of track which would obviate the
unsatisfactory conditions described first above. Perhaps a special de-
sign for the ballast and ties under a joint made with particular attention
to the needs of a joint in this respect might improve the matter. At any
rate, such investigations will surely be fruitful of useful results.
DISCUSSION ON WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES.
(For Report, see pp. 401-406.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON WOODEN BRIDGES,
AND TRESTLES.
Geo. W. Andrews. E. R. Lewis.
J. A. Atwood. C. E. Lindsay.
F. J. Bachelder. C. A. Morse.
W. M. Camp. J. C. Nelson.
J. L. Campbell. C. H. Stein.
A. W. Carpenter. John G. Sullivan.
Chas. S. Churchill. S. N. Williams.
The President : — The report of the Committee on Wooden Bridges
Structures will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. A. J. Himes.
Mr. E. A. Frink (Seaboard Air Line) : — Your Committee has made
some progress on the consideration of subject i, relating to the deter-
mination of the strength of sheet piling, but has not yet been able to
formulate any conclusions. Referring to subject 2, on the use of guard
rails for wooden bridges and trestles, the completion of that report con-
sisted practically in the reconsideration of the conclusion brought in
by the Committee last year, which was not acceptable to the conven-
tion. We have reconsidered that, have gotten some more information
on it, and have formulated and present a conclusion in line with what
we find. In addition to that, we find, on reading the supplement to the
Manual published last year, that conclusion 2, as given in the Manual, is
wrong, in that it presupposes the universal use of guard rails, which
was not what the convention intended ; so we have brought in our first
conclusion, that we amend conclusion 2 as adopted at our last annual
meeting to read as follows :
"(1) Amend conclusion 2, as adopted at the last annual meeting,
to read as follows :
"It is recommended as good practice, in the installation of guard
rails, to extend them beyond the ends of the bridges for such distance
as is required by local conditions, but that this distance, in any case,
be not less than 50 ft. ; that guard rails be fully spiked to every tie,
and spliced at every joint; that the guard rails be some form of metal
section, and that the ends be beveled, bent down, or otherwise pro-
tected against direct impact with moving parts of equipment."
The change in the first part of that is to eliminate the provision that
guard rails must be used. The addition of the last sentence is to pro-
vide for some suggestions made at the last convention. I move the adop-
tion of conclusion 1 as presented.
1036
DISCUSSION. 1037
Mr. C. H. Stein (Central Railroad of New Jersey) : — Should not the
last line read, "Direct impact with parts of moving equipment," instead
of "moving parts of equipment"?
The President : — The Committee accept that suggestion.
(Conclusion i was adopted as amended.)
Mr. Frink : — I move the adoption of the conclusion, on page 403,
which reads as follows :
"(2) It is recommended as good practice to use inner guard rails
on all open-floor and on the outside tracks of all solid-floor bridges and
similar structures longer than 20 ft. in main-line tracks, and on similar
bridges and structures in branch-line tracks on which the speed of trains
is 20 miles per hour or more."
Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — In this second
conclusion the words "inner guard rail" are used. It seems to me that
if we are referring to the same thing, we. should have the wording the
same in both conclusions. It is quite possible that the word "guard rail"
might be taken to mean an outside guard rail unless the definition in the
Manual was consulted. My preference would be to have the word
"inner" in both conclusions.
The President: — The Committee accepts that suggestion, and will
insert the word "inner" preceding "guard."
Mr. A. W. Carpenter (New York Central & Hudson River) : — I
would like to ask the Committee the reason for recommending the use
of the inner guard rails only on the outside tracks of solid-floor bridges.
Mr. Frink: — The Committee considered that the definition of solid-
floor bridge would mean that the solid floor was one level floor surface.
Mr. J. A. Atwood (Pittsburgh & Lake Erie) : — It seems to me there
might be some doubt as to the advisability of that conclusion being
accepted by this convention. While, of course, it is not binding on the
roads, at the same time it is a strong recommendation that inside
guard rails be used on all trestle bridges over 25 ft. The railroads in
the South and West have so much timber work that it would be a
considerable burden. This conclusion might be taken to mean that we
are making this as a strong recommendation.
Mr. Campbell : — We have pile bridges with solid floors which we
consider fairly permanent structures. Some of them are considerably
more than 20 ft. long. We also have concrete bridges with solid floors,
some of which are more than 100 ft. long. We have no intention of
putting guard rails on such bridges, as we do not consider it necessary.
Mr. W. M. Camp (Railway Review) : — I would like to ask the
Committee what the length of bridge has to do with this question.
There might be as bad a pile-up if a car went off on the side of a
culvert where the opening was 10 ft. wide as there would in crossing a
stream 100 ft. wide.
Mr. E. R. Lewis (Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic) : — I would like
to ask the Committee what the twenty-miles-an-hour has to do with it.
Inasmuch as the Committee has given this matter a great deal of study,
1038 WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES.
I would like to know why they stipulate and how they arrive at the
minima of the 20-ft. bridge and speed of twenty miles an hour?
Mr. Frink : — We realize that there should be some distinction
made between main-line structures and rather unimportant branch line
structures. We tried to find some way to measure that difference and
the requirement of twenty-miles speed was the best way that we could
measure it.
Mr. C. E. Lindsay (New York Central & Hudson River) : — I rise
to oppose the recommendation. While it is true that this is a Committee
on Wooden Bridges and Trestles, whatever we adopt here as a definition
or as to location, will naturally extend to the use of similar devices on
more permanent structures. We have this anomalous condition in the
State of New York. A good many years ago, when wooden bridges
were in use, a law was passed requiring the erection of a large wooden
post at each end of the bridge- on either side of the track; the idea be-
ing that a derailed car would first come in contact with that post be-
fore it could damage the structure. That law was modified to include
the inner guard rail, and in addition to that there was a penalty
included in another law, so that the railroad should be punished if it
did not have these appliances. Subsequently the original law was re-
pealed, but the penalty still remains on the statute books and we must
still put up posts or put in inner guard rails or get a special dispensa-
tion. Whatever we do with this recommendation will naturally extend,
by the act of this Association or someone who takes his cue from what
this Association does, to structures where the guard rail will not be of
any service whatever. I am not opposed to the use of the inner guard
rail where it will minimize accidents, but there are places where it will
not serve that purpose.
Mr. F. J. Bachelder (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I would like to call at
tention to the fact that Mr. Lindsay's argument is a very important rea-
son for not abandoning this particular clause. There is no doubt that
we are up against the question every day of regulations being made by
different legislative bodies as to what railroads shall do, how they shall
build their structures and run their roads. Why lag behind and allow
different legislatures to tell you what to do? This question was thoroughly
discussed in Committee and some definite measurements or conclusions
were arrived at so that they could be used for that purpose ; so that when
the legislatures proceed to tell you how to protect your bridges they
would not start in with some wild scheme that is absolutely impracticable.
We agree that there is no question that there are locations where inside
guard rails are not needed. The question of how long a bridge to put
them on was thoroughly discussed. First, we talked of 30 ft. Afterwards
it was decided to bring it down to 20 ft. The question of what branch
lines not to include, what was the basis to arrive at a just division, was
discussed, and we decided that probably the speed of trains operated on
branch lines would be as good a way as any. I should dislike to see this
body refuse to make some recommendation upon this subject, for I con-
DISCUSSION. 1039
sider it important. In some states the question is being considered now
as to passing regulative legislation on this subject. We should lead in this
and not lag behind.
Prof. S. N. Williams (Cornell College) : — I trust, gentlemen, that
a word in behalf of the general public may not be considered out of
place at this time. I wish to express myself as heartily in favor of the
recommendation of the Committee. We are interested in all matters
which affect the safety of the traveling public, and as railway men we
are interested in that which affects the safety of railway property. Many
railways are paying a great deal of attention at the present time to the
subject of "Safety First," delivering lectures to the trainmen, and per-
haps to the general public. It is noted that the general public has
been trespassing on the railway companies to such an extent that in
my opinion it ought to be prohibited from walking on railway tracks,
or on the right-of-way. On the other side, whenever I have traveled on
a railway where there were guard rails at the ends, of bridges, running
all the way across, I felt good, because I said : "This railway has the
safety of its passengers in mind, and is doing all that it can to protect
the interests of the traveling public as well as of their own train." I
am heartily in favor of everything which tends to promote economy and
the avoidance of unnecessary expense on the part of railways or the
general public or individuals, but I would urge you as railway men, in
the interest of the people generally, to think very seriously before you
strike out this recommendation, because it seems to me extremely valu-
able and does not carry the weight of direction — it is not mandatory.
It puts before every railway company and every engineer the question
of safety for its trains and for the public. Therefore, I am in favor
of it, as I am in favor of all other measures which promote public
safety or the security of railway property.
Mr. Geo. W. Andrews (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I feel that inasmuch
as I took part in the argument last year in favor of the inner guard
rail, that it is no more than right that I should say a few words now.
As I said last year, I am heartily in favor of the inner guard rail, and
my position is based not on theory but on practice that has been obtained
in the maintenance of structures for thirty years. I could recall a num-
ber of cases where the inner guard rail has prevented cars, tenders
and even engines from going over into the opening under the trestle or
the bridge when so protected. We cannot take the stand, from an
economical standpoint, that inner guard rails should not be advocated.
I had the fortune during the past year to be connected with the Gen-
eral Safety Committee of our road. We visited a number of places
throughout the country, and we found there was a public feeling against
the railroad, because they had not taken action on the installation of
certain safety devices because of the first cost. Now we all know that
the placing of an inner guard rail on all bridges, especially on a road
that has a great many, such as our road, with over 4,600, costs a great
deal of money. One serious accident at any one bridge would come
1040 WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES.
very nearly paying for the entire cost of the guard rails, not mentioning
the loss of prestige of the road, and it is for that reason that I speak
heartily in favor of the installation of guard rails as fast as the condi-
tions under which each and every road is laboring may permit.
We have to look upon this thing as much from the side of the pub-
lic as we do from the standpoint of the railroad; we have to put our-
selves in the position of a humanitarian in many cases. We have to
say to ourselves, "Shall we help in every way possible to prevent acci-
dents to our fellow-man, or shall we, to save a few dollars, take a
chance?" I say we should not take the chance.
In closing I feel like reciting a few words by Sam Foss :
"Let me live in a house by the side of the road,
Where the race of men go by —
The men who are good, the men who are bad,
As good and as bad as I.
I would not sit in the scorner's seat,
Or hurl the cynic ban ;
Let me live in the house by the side of the road,
And be a friend to man."
Mr. C. A. Morse (Rock Island Lines) : — This subject of inner guard
rails has been near to my heart for a good many years. I have in-
sisted on their use, and with more or less success, but it is very hard
to get rail for inner guard rails when it is hard to get it for sidetracks
and other things that are needed badly. If we were all millionaires and
had lots of money, it would be a good thing to have inner guard rails
on sharp curves, and it would no doubt make a safer riding track, but
we have not money enough for that, and no one would suggest that
at the present time. The roads I have been connected with have had
the rule that inner guard rails should be put on all through bridges,
all steel deck bridges, all bridges on curves, and on all bridges one
hundred feet or more in length on tangents ; on main line and on branch
lines where specially authorized. I do not think we are warranted in
making the sweeping requirements recommended by the Committee ;
would also increase limit of speed of trains on branch lines, as there are
few branches where passenger trains do not exceed twenty miles per
hour between stations. I think we are liable to have legislation on this
subject, and therefore think the recommendations of the Association should
be what the railroads are finding practicable and not what is theoretically
good practice.
Mr. John G. Sullivan (Canadian Pacific) : — Some of the speakers
misunderstood Mr. Lindsay and have misunderstood me, and being an
Irishman, although born in this country, I have a right to explain my-
self. I am heartily in favor of the guard rail ; we use them on all
of our bridges that are over 100 ft. long ; we use them on some curves
and in some tunnels and . at other dangerous points, but we are not
so foolish as to make a rule and say that all curves, tunnels, etc., shall
be provided with guard rails. Tt is to the interests of the company
to avoid accidents, and we are trying to protect the company
and in this way protect the public from the pettifogging lawyer, for in
DISCUSSION. 1041
the long run the public has to pay the bill. If this motion should carry
and you fail to put in a guard rail at some unimportant culvert and an
accident should happen in that vicinity, the fact that this is considered
good practice by this Association may be the cause of the company hav-
ing to pay a large amount of damages, which, of course, the public
will have to pay in the long run. If we were voting on the question
of whether we should use inner guard rails or not at certain points, there
are not five men in this room who would not vote for the inner guard
rail, but what we are voting on is whether or not this recommendation
of the Committee shall go into the Manual regardless of conditions
or whether the line is a straight line or whether trains are running fast
or slow.
Mr. Chas. S. Churchill (Norfolk & Western) : — Mr. Sullivan has
covered the point that is in the mind of every objector. The Manual
now contains the following statement :
"Guard Rail. — A longitudinal member, usually a metal rail, secured
on top of the ties inside of the track rail, to guide derailed car wheels."
Now, that recognizes the inner guard rail. The Proceedings here-
tofore have a great deal in them descriptive of the inner guard rail.
Many plans have been published and good practice has been shown by
those plans in the Proceedings. I believe the Association would make
a mistake to adopt conclusion 2 in its present form, and that we are
well protected by the form that is now in the Manual. The railroad
with which I am connected has been using inner guard rails a great
many years on bridges, curves and tunnels, but we believe as railroad
men that we ought to be the judges, and certainly 20 ft. is too short a
span for requiring the inner guard rail on solid-floor bridges.
Mr. Lindsay : — Mr. Sullivan and Mr. Churchill have voiced my sen-
timents exactly. On page 07 of Bulletin 162, section 20, we find the fol-
lowing specification, from the rules adopted by several states :
"Guard Rails. — Where physical conditions require their use, guard
rails shall be installed in connection with derails. When used, they shall
be placed between the track rails, parallel to and not less than ten inches
distant in the clear therefrom, and must be of sufficient height, length
and strength, and be properly secured to the track ties."
That gives some leeway for the exercise of good judgment. I am
not opposed to guard rails. I favor them. I yield to no man when it
becomes a question of the safety of the public, but I do think that we ought
not to put the public to unnecessary expense. I would like to see that
recommendation read something like this : "Where operating condi-
tions warrant, a guard rail shall be installed on main track bridges of
more than 30-ft. span — (a) on any track where the superstructure pro-
jects above the ties and adjacent thereto; (b) on single and double
track structures; (c) on the outside tracks of multiple track structures.
Note. — Exception should be made in any case where the maximum
clearance diagram of equipment does not provide more than 8-in. clear-
ance from the structure.
1042 WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES.
The object of the inner rail is to prevent the equipment from strik-
ing the superstructure and doing damage to either. If the clearance of
the supporting structure is not sufficient to pass a derailed car, what is
the use of putting in a guard rail?
Mr. Carpenter : — I agree with a number of the speakers that we
should not call for inner guard rails on all structures. One point that
has been brought out is that it does not make any difference in regard
to the length of the structure, but it does in regard to the width of it.
If your structure is as wide as the roadbed and strong enough to carry
derailed equipment, I see no greater necessity for guard rails on the
structure than on the roadbed. I think that this feature of the width
should enter into the recommendation in regard to the solid-floor
bridges.
Mr. Bachelder : — This body of men is better able to determine some
specific length and specific speed than an individual. A number of men
here have argued that it should be left to the individual judgment. We
ought to be able to determine on something, if this recommendation is not
right. The Committee feel, from their study of the question, that this is
proper and we would be glad to hear some suggestions for changing the
recommendation.
Mr. Frink : — This recommendation has been under way two years.
The first time one or more inquiries were sent out, about 61 replies were
obtained. Of that number, 25 reported the use of guard rails on all
structures and 54 reported using them on some structures. From the
remarks and other evidence submitted in answer to that circular, the
Committee felt at that time perfectly justified in recommending the use
of guard rails on all structures. It was not accepted by the convention
last year, and the recommendation was returned to the Committee for
further handling. The Committee sent out another set of inquiries, the
result of which is briefly summarized in our report. We sent out
329 inquiries and received answers from 165 roads. Those inquiries were
in all case9 sent, as far as we could determine, to the official in charge
of construction or maintenance of bridges. Where they had a Bridge
Engineer it was sent to the Bridge Engineer. In that circular we asked
them to report on what they thought was the proper practice to be recom-
mended, our idea being that the men who had been in that work and
had specialized in it for years would be better qualified than others who
had not specialized in that work. Of the 165 replies we received, 18
per cent, reported using guard rails on all bridges ; 71 per cent, reported
using it on some, and practically 11 per cent, on none. When it came to
the personal opinion of the members, 29.7 per cent, recommended using on
all bridges ; 69.8 per cent, on movable bridges ; 78.9 per cent, on through
bridges; 65.5 per cent, on deck bridges; 57 per cent, on timber trestles,
and 36 per cent, on solid-floor structures. With the exception of the
solid-floor structures, more than a majority of the members replying ad-
vised the use of guard rails. We have consulted the members of the
DISCUSSION. 1043
Association as closely as we could; we have gotten a great deal of in-
formation from them, and all of that information points to the general
opinion of the members of the Association being in favor of the general
use of guard rails.
I do not see how we could have brought in a different report from
the information we had. Now, let me refer briefly to some other con-
siderations. I assume that there is no question that this Association
wants us to bring in a report in accordance with the facts, and what-
ever those facts are, if they believe that our report agrees with those
facts, they want the report to go on record as being what we approve
as good practice. We do not want to dodge the issue. One thing that
bears on this subject is the action that has been taken by various civic
bodies in regard to the use of guard rails. Mr. Lindsay has referred to
the laws of New York State, imposing a penalty of $500 for each offense.
This is under the act of April 29, 1913, which reads in part as
follows :
"Failing to cause guard posts to be placed in prolongation of the line
of bridge trusses upon such railroad ... or, in lieu thereof, failing
to cause guard rails to be placed within the running rails of its track, or
such other safeguard as the public service commission shall order, for the
same purpose ... is guilty of a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine
of five hundred dollars for each offense."
In the Massachusetts laws of 1909, Sec. 58, page 25, par. 3, reads as
follows :
"In order to prevent a derailed truck from running far from the
track, even if it should be derailed before reaching the bridge, inside guard
rails should be provided. These rails should be of the same height as the
track rails and should extend across the entire bridge and for a distance
of some 50 ft. beyond the ends, coming to a point in the center of the
track, the point being protected by a casting or frog point. If there is a
sharp curve on the approach, the guard rails should be extended around
the curve. These rails should not be less than 8 in. in the clear, inside of
the track rails, and should be securely spiked down to every tie. Such
inside guard rails will in most cases guide a derailed truck safely across
the bridge, a fact which has been repeatedly demonstrated in connection
with steam railroads."
In the State of New Jersey, the Public Service Commission has asked
to have guard rails placed on all bridges over 30 ft. in length.
In 1887 there was a bad wreck at White River Junction. I presume
some of you may remember the editorial in the Engineering News at
that time by the late A. M. Wellington, who was strongly of the opinion
that the guard rail was an important protection to the bridge, and he
took occasion to criticize the road for not having them in place. Some
years ago there was a derailment at a drawbridge at Atlantic City and
the Engineering News took occasion to criticize the construction of that
bridge, referring at the same time to this accident at White River Junc-
tion. I do not think there is any question that any other accident that
might be traceable to the same cause or was not traceable to
that cause, but was on a structure without guard rails, would lead
1044 WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES.
to the same kind of criticism. I think the fact that guard rails
have been used so universally would make it practically certain that
in case of a suit for damages the railroad would settle for all the
damages. I do not think the action of the Committee in recommending
the adoption of that conclusion would have any effect whatever on possi-
ble future damage suits, because I think the mischief has already been
done. I do not see, from the information the Committee has gotten from
the various members who answered their inquiry, that it was possible to
bring in any other conclusion than that which we have brought in.
The President :— The question is on the adoption of the recommenda-
tion of the Committee on page 403.
(A rising vote was then taken on the adoption of the conclusion, re-
sulting in 115 votes for the adoption and 75 votes against the adoption
of the conclusion.)
The President : — The next question is recommendations for next
year's work.
Mr. Frink : — There is no need to make remarks about the first sub-
ject. That was left over from last year, and you understand its im-
portance. In regard to the report on wooden docks and wharves, it
seems to me that is a vital question, because there are many wooden
docks and wharves all over the country which must sooner or later be
replaced by other types of structures. In regard to the other point, that
is a subject that Mr. Nelson, of the Seaboard, is interested in.
Mr. J. C. Nelson (Seaboard Air Line) : — On the Seaboard Air Line,
some seven years ago, the use of lag screws in connection with ties was
an innovation to me. Like Mr. Sullivan, I was "ag'in the Government"
on it, but after using them a few years, concluded it was the best type
of fastening that I had ever come in contact with. I think that most
of us have found that bolts on guard timbers have been a serious con-
sideration, and I suggested to Mr. Frink that it might be a good point
to bring out, so that the Association might get the benefit of it.
The President: — The Committee will be relieved with the thanks of
the Association.
DISCUSSION ON IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
(For Report, see pp. 407-511.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON IRON AND STEEL
STRUCTURES.
A. \Y. Carpenter. W. H. Moore.
J. E. Crawford. G. J. Ray.
W. H. Elliott. A. H. Rudd.
E. A. Frink. H. R. Safford.
A. J. Himes. O. E. Selby.
H. S. Jacoby. C. H. Stein.
B. R. Leffler. E. B. Temple.
C. E. Lindsay. F. E. Turneaure.
The President : — The report of the Committee on Iron and Steel
Structures will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. A. J. Himes.
Mr. A. J. Himes (New York, Chicago & St. Louis) : — The subjects
assigned to your Committee during the past year are given in Bulletin
163, page 407.
Your Committee submits a final report on methods of protection
of iron and steel structures against corrosion, in Appendix A. This re-
port is submitted as information and without recommendation.
This subject is such a very broad one and involves so much detail
and concerning it so much has been said, so many other investigations
have been made, that this Committee thought best to compile a consider-
able amount of information, to give the references, and in general to in-
dicate to the members the direction in which to look for informa-
tion. It was our opinion that we could add little, if anything, to
original information. We would be glad to hear the opinions, of those
present, on the report, of the manner in which it has been treated, or any
suggestions as to how it should be treated.
Mr. A. W. Carpenter (New York Central & Hudson River) : — I can-
not boast any Irish ancestry, but I find myself "agin the government" on
certain features of this report. The feature to which I take exception
is the portion of the report on pigments, given on pp. 412, 413, 414. The
Committee has advanced a theory for the classification of pigments de-
pending upon the action of pigments on steel in water, which is commonly
known as the inhibitive and stimulative theory, and it has set it forth in
such a manner as to make it appear as if it were a fully accepted theory,
and has set forth a specific classification for different pigments, stated to be
in common use, and then has drawn conclusions from this specific classi-
fication. Now,, I believe that this theory is not fully accepted and that
the Committee should have so stated, and I think that the classification
shown in Table 1 is not proper to apply to commonly used pigments, even
if the theory be accepted. I will state some reasons for my opinion in
1045
1040 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
connection with this table. It will be noted that preceding the table, at
the bottom of page 413, it is stated, "Table 1 gives the classes to which
commonly used pigments belong ;" then follows the classification of pig-
ments, the authority being named. It appears that this classification of
pigments was made on a certain set of samples, representing one or more
varieties or manufacturers' products of the different kinds of pigments
named, and it does not at all follow that samples of other varieties or
products of pigments known by the same general names would have given
the same results and been similarly classified.
At the top of page 414, in the column under "Stimulators," you will
note, graphite No. 1, graphite No. 2.
The common varieties of graphite pigments are not distinguished
commercially by numbers and there are at least four or five in common
use. You will also find two iron oxides, classified. There are many dif-
ferent iron oxides. There is no reason to believe that they will all have
the 'same characteristics. The very common pigment for structural paint,
red lead, is omitted altogther. It seems to me that that omission ought
to at least be commented upon. As to some of the discrepancies in
the theory, I want to call attention to the inclusion of Prussian blue, in-
hibitive, at the top of page 414, and in another column, Prussian blue,
stimulative. I have seen steel test pieces which were painted with botli
those pigments, one classified as inhibitive, the other as stimulative, by
this theory, and after five years' exposure, my opinion, as well as that
of other observers, was that the Prussian blue stimulative pigment had
given the best results. Again at the top of page 414, I see white lead,
Dutch process, shown as inhibitive, and in the table on the other page,
under "Indeterminates," I find sublimed white lead and sublimed blue
lead. These same tests, which I referred to, included all three of those
pigments, and the white lead, Dutch process, gave very much poorer
results than the other two.
I, therefore, think that the Committee in reporting in this way, with-
out stating in any way the limitations of the theory or classifications
shown, is not offering the information in the proper shape to the Associa-
tion. I hope that they will revise their report in these respects, because
otherwise it will go out to the membership and be taken as something
that is accepted by the Association.
The President: — Appendix A, page 412, is now open for general dis-
cussion. The Committee does not submit this with the idea of publish-
ing it in the Manual, but desires to have it received as information. In
view of the remarks by Mr. Carpenter it may be well for our member-
ship to carefully read this Appendix later on and submit suggestions in
writing. With this understanding we will proceed to conclusion 2, page
410. The chairman will speak of certain subjects which are not treated
in that conclusion.
Mr. Himes : — With reference to the report on "Study the design of
built-up columns, co-operating with other investigators and committees of
other societies," I would say that we have now at Washington 18 columns
DISCUSSION. 1047
which have been fabricated for these tests. One of them has been tested
in the presence of the Committee. We are hoping for more rapid prog-
ress in the future.
In view of the very great importance of the fifth subject, "Investiga-
tion of secondary stresses and impact," and the original nature of the ma-
terial contained in this report, it is much to be desired that the meeting
give a little time to its consideration. We have here Prof. Turneaure,
who has acted as chairman of the sub-committee handling this subject,
and as he can present the suhject so much better than the chairman, I
will ask that he make a brief statement concerning the accomplishments
of that sub-committee.
Prof. F. E. Turneaure (University of Wisconsin) : — The Committee
did some experimental work in the field two years ago last summer, a
brief statement of which was made in the report a year ago, explaining
what work had been done, but giving no results. During the past year
the Committee lias worked out a number of theoretical analyses, and has
also worked over the results of the field tests and brought together here
such results of analysis and of the tests as could be got together in the
time at its disposal. From a theoretical standpoint, the subject is a very
large one, but it seemed to the Committee that the analysis of a few
typical structures and a comparison of theoretical with experimental re-
sults where possible would be of considerable value to the Association.
The report begins on page 437, with a brief statement of the various ele-
ments involved and the various kinds of secondary stresses that we
studied.
(Prof. Turneaure read the six items on page 437.)
The discussion shows that secondary stresses due to rigidity of
joints are quite as much real stresses as any other stresses that make up
the total. On pp. 440-1 we have described some of the results of analysis
and experimentation. (I will explain here that in getting together this
report there were so many cuts that there was some confusion in bringing
them together for binding. The report will read easier if you note that
the cuts on pp. 448 to 451 inclusive, and 473 to 484 inclusive, should
follow the text of the report, coming after page 491. The cuts I have
just mentioned belong to the analysis of a typical structure, inserted
merely as sample analysis.)
The results of the theoretical analysis begin on page 452. On that
page is shown by the shaded diagrams the bending stresses or secondary
stresses in the top chord of a deck Pratt truss, showing secondary stresses
approximately 20 per cent, of the primary stresses. On page 454 are
shown results of calculation of the secondary stresses in the top chord
of a 396-ft. curved chord truss, the secondary stresses running as high
as 60 per cent, being due to the very short panel length. The second
diagram from the foot of page 454 shows what the secondary stresses
would be if the sub-verticals supporting the top chord were lengthened
a small amount.
1048 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
On pp. 456-457 are shown the results on a riveted Pratt truss and
a riveted Warren truss, of ordinary design, showing secondary stresses
of about 20 per cent, as a maximum. The make-up of these trusses is
given on page 455.
On pp. 458-459 are shown some very high secondary stresses on a
sub-divided Warren truss. With panels of very short length, 12 ft. 9%
in. in the lower chord, we get secondary stresses of 50 to 60 per cent.
The top chord, with panels twice as long, shows only about 20 per cent.
On pp. 461-2 are shown, in a slightly different way, the results of
calculations on another bridge of very short panel length. The panel
length is only 8 ft. 4 in., and you will notice on page 461 secondary
stresses running nearly to 100 per cent. The exaggerated curved lines
simply show the directions of the curvature. On page 462 results are
given with joints slightly eccentric, as actually built, while 461 shows
the effect with the joints all concentric.
Perhaps the diagrams on pp. 464-5 are as interesting as any. These
show in one case the calculated secondary stress in a 105-ft. riveted
pony Warren truss, and in the other case the observed secondary stresses
in the same structure. These are the best comparison we have had be-
tween the theoretical and observed stresses. I think that the results cor-
respond as closely as you would expect in work of that kind. The
experimental results were obtained by means of four extensometers placed
on the four corners of the member and readings taken by photographic
process during the passage of a slowly moving test train, whose move-
ments could be closely regulated.
Other analyses, given on page 466, show interesting results as ob-
tained for trestle towers. They show how the omission of the trans-
verse strut will in some cases cause secondary stresses to be fairly high,
while in other cases the effect is very small. In the one case the num-
ber of panels is even, and in the other case the number of panels is odd.
That makes considerable difference as to the effect of the lateral strut on
the secondary stresses.
On pp. 470-1 are brought together in a general way the results ob-
tained from theoretical calculations on all of the structures that have been
calculated, and which were of any value in this comparison. The
diagram on page 470 gives the general results on bottom chords and ten-
sion diagonals. The ordinates show the percentages, and the abscissa-
show the ratios of the widths to the lengths of the respective members.
That is the largest controlling factor in the problem, the ratio of the width
to the length of the particular members, the secondary stress being ap-
proximately proportioned to that ratio, but of course depending on the
general design.
The next plate shows the same thing for top chords and end posts,
and some brief conclusions are given in regard to secondary stresses that
we bave been talking of. The tables given on page 477 show the general
conclusions regarding this type of secondary stresses, and indicate that
from 30 to 40 per cent, of secondary stress may be expected in trusses
with rigid joints, the amount depending largely on the ratios of the
widths to the lengths of the members.
DISCUSSION. 1049
On page 485 and following pages are taken up special problems,
such as the effect of the deflection of floor beams on the bending of posts,
and the effect of the chord stresses on the horizontal bending of floor
beams. On page 487 are shown some theoretical results, compared with
observed results, a very fair degree of correspondence being indicated.
There is also given a brief discussion of some of the other features.
The Committee feels that it has shown fairly well that the secondary
stresses due to rigidity of joints are not a myth, but that they occur just
as definitely and certainly as primary stresses, that while they are a lit-
tle more difficult to figure, they are nevertheless real. It has also been
shown that the ratios of secondary to primary follow some general
laws which may be developed and expressed so as to control to some
extent the design. While we do not expect to see secondary stresses
calculated' for all bridges, I think the Committee as a whole feels it is a
rather important matter, and that the limitations of secondary stresses can
and ought to be determined with a certain degree of accuracy, so that
some general recommendations may follow, controlling these secondary
stresses in ordinary design.
Mr. O. E. Selby (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : — It is
customary to give committees and sub-committees more or less perfunctory
thanks for their work, but it seems to me that the work of Prof. Turn-
eaure and his associates on the sub-committee deserves some special
recognition. The sub-committee has furnished the Association with the
results of scientific work which has involved great labor and devotion,
and there is no reward in sight except what the Association sees fit to
give them. I move a special vote of thanks to Prof. Turneaure and his
sub-committee for this splendid report on secondary stresses.
(Motion carried unanimously.)
The President: — Prof. Jacoby, will you discuss this report?
Prof. H. S. Jacoby (Cornell University) : — I am not prepared to dis-
cuss the report, since the time has not been available to study it as
thoroughly as desired. Probably at the next annual meeting I may offer
some statements in regard to methods of computation of secondary
stresses. During the academic year ending last June there was at Cor-
nell University a graduate student who had four languages at his com-
mand, as well as the mathematical ability and interest which led him to
select bridge engineering as his major subject of study and to write a
thesis on secondary stresses. He made a critical compafion between all
the methods of computation, which has been developed and it is interest-
ing to note the results of his investigation. I am informed that in Eu-
rope one of the writers on this subject made some comparisons of meth-
ods, but that the results were not published.
It may be added that this student made an unusual combination of
subjects by selecting geodetic engineering as a minor, in consequence of
which he discovered the possibility of a new and simpler solution of the
equations relating to secondary stresses which had not been noticed
before.
(Adjournment to Wednesday, March 18th.)
1050 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
Mr. Himes : — Yesterday afternoon the Committee presented certain
features of the report which were of such a highly technical nature
as to be properly appreciated by comparatively few. To-day we will
present a portion of the report which is not so technical, but has more
to do with operation. It is no less important, and to the public it is
probably of much greater importance.
The first paragraph on page 410 gives the subject covered in Ap-
pendix D as the "adaptation of designs of movable bridges to signal
and interlocking appliances required."
This subject has been carefully studied by a joint sub-committee
representing Committees II and III of the Railway Signal Association,
and Committees X and XV of the American Railway Engineering Asso-
ciation, and the report, as presented in Appendix D, is recommended for
adoption. While this is presented by the Committee as a final report,
there is not a complete unanimity of thought on the subject, and one or
two amendments will be presented by members of the Committee. The
report is shown on page 492.
Mr. W. H. Moore (New York, New Haven & Hartford) : — Some
members of the Committee feel that the paragraph, as printed, cuts out
altogether the detail very often used in connection with a mitered rail.
We feel that this mitered rail is very desirable in some cases, especially
in lift bridges, on account of the smooth riding and absence of hammer-
ing which it produces, and for this reason we suggest the following
changes in paragraph (c) :
"(c) Rail End Connections. — For high-speed operation over swing
bridges rail ends should preferably be cut square and connected by sliding
sleeve or joint bars to carry the wheels over the opening between the
end of the bridge and approach rails ; the outside of the head of the main
rail to be planed off to a minimum width of 2 in. for the length required
by the sleeve or joint bar. For lift bridges, rail ends may be cut square
and connected as above or by easer rails, or may be mitered. Mitered ends
shall retain the full thickness of the web to the points. For high-speed
mitered joints should be trailing to normal traffic."
Mr. Carpenter : — I wish to second that amendment.
The President : — Before this amendment is discussed, let us take up
the discussion of the introductory paragraphs down to (a).
Mr. C. E. Lindsay (New York Central & Hudson River) : — I feel
that the report of the Committee is hardly in shape for acceptance by
this Association. Instruction 6, on page 407, reads, "Adaptation of de-
signs of movable bridges to signal and interlocking appliances required."
The heading of Appendix D is : "Requirements for the Protection of
Traffic at Movable Bridges."
Either the sub-committee has enlarged the scope of its work or it has
not fully covered it. The sub-committee attempts not only to say what
changes in designs of movable bridges are necessary to adapt the
signal and interlocking appliances required, but they attempt also to go
into the physics of the bridge, which is beyond the scope of the
instruction.
DISCUSSION. 1051
Mr. Himes : — I will answer Mr. Lindsay's comments by saying this
subject was first proposed by the Railway Signal Association and the re-
port has been formulated by representatives of that Association and by
our Committee and Committee X, and the report is satisfactory to
a majority of all of these committees. It is fair to presume that the par-
ties who originated the instructions had in mind what they desired to
secure, and in their judgment they have secured it. It is possible that
some other words might have been picked out to describe precisely what
was done.
Mr. A. H. Rudd (Pennsylvania Railroad) : — If mitered rails are good
for lift bridges, I do not understand why they are not good for swing
bridges. The amendment offered provides for their use on lift bridges
only. The Pennsylvania uses mitered rails on its high-speed swing
bridges successfully; they are used by the Lackawanna in some places, and
on quite a number of the other Eastern roads. I see now that the Com-
mittee recognizes that mitered rails might be used, and I would be glad
if they would broaden that amendment so as to permit their use on
swing bridges as well as lift bridges. The amendment goes into a
good deal of detail. I offer as an amendment to paragraph (c), eliminat-
ing the words "cut square and," and eliminating the last clause, so it will
read "or by easer rails to carry the wheels over the opening between the
end of bridge and approach rails," and stop there. That will permit the
use of either miter or square-cut rail and recognize both as good practice
without going into the specifications very deeply.
Mr. C. H. Stein (Central Railroad of New Jersey) : — I agree with
what Mr. Rudd has said in regard to the use of mitered rails. I was glad
to hear Mr. Moore of the Committee make the recommendation, but I
feel that he did not go quite far enough; I think he should specify that
miter ends may be used on the swing as well as the lift bridges. We
have no way of judging of the necessities of the present, except by the
experiences of the past. Our line has been using the miter ends for all
of its swing bridges, as well as all of its lift bridges. I have in mind
a certain connecting line over which our road runs that adopted a type of
square joint similar to that recommended by the Committee, and after it
had been in use for perhaps a year it had given them no end of trouble
and annoyance. By way of interjection I might say that the construc-
tion of this bridge' on the Connecting Line was under the supervision of
a large trunk line. After the connecting rails were installed and the
bridge was in operation, it gave no end of trouble. The Connecting Line
approached us and asked if we would not make for them a set of our
mitered rails, with castings, shoes, and so forth, and install it on this
bridge, which we did. Prior to the installation of the mitered rails the
square-cut joints gave them much trouble: I might say, on an average
of two to three times a month. The bridge was. put of commission fre-
quently, so that readjustment could take place. The mitered rails that
we installed for them have been in service about three years. It is a
swing bridge. During all of that time I do not recall having heard of the
interruption to a train due to mitered rails not fitting in place properly.
1052 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
1 would like to see the suggestion that Mr. Rudd made approved, and
the mitered rail proposition apply in these recommendations to swing as
well as to lift bridges.
Mr. Himes: — I would like to say what the attitude of the committees
is on this subject of mitered rails. The majority of the committees are
opposed to mitered rails on either swing or lift bridges. We are op-
posed to them especially on swing bridges, because with mitered rails
we cannot swing the bridge without lifting the rails. The lifting of the
rails means that a certain length must be loose, held in position for traffic
by chairs. The Committee purposely raised the issue and recommended
that for safety of drawbridge operation these loose rails at the end of
a drawbridge be done away with. That is our recommendation and
that is the important topic for discussion.
Mr. E. A. Frink (Seaboard Air Line) :— I am sorry to see that clause
passed as it is. The Seaboard has quite a number of drawbridges that
have been equipped with mitered rails for a number of years. So far,
we have had very little, if any, trouble over them. The mitered
rail, in connection with the lift bridge, gives you an excellent chance
to provide your interlocking or signal mechanism with a detector lock
as well as rail lock, so that it prevents clearing signals until the rails
are down and locked in place. In the mitered rails that we use, the
ends of the rails are bent at the correct angle before the rails are mitered.
In that way we get very good wearing qualities, a very durable rail.
The President :— Mr. Rudd, do you wish to offer an amendment to the
amendment?
Mr. Rudd: — I would offer an amendment to the amendment that
"rail ends should be connected by solid sleeve or joint bars, or by easer
rails, to carry the rails over the opening between the end of the bridge
and the bridge rails." I might say that with our locking device, the
signal cannot be given if the rail is up more than a quarter of an inch —
the rail must be locked down before the signal can be given. The
rail is supported in the channel with the easer rail on the outside, and we
have found for our four-track lines it is the most satisfactory arrange-
ment. We have tried the other on one or two bridges — most of our high-
speed drawbridges are in the State of New Jersey, and on the P. B. & W..
but in the State of New Jersey the Commission permits a speed of 45
miles over these bridges, and that is the highest speed permitted over
any drawbridge in New Jersey.
Mr. Stein : — I second the amendment to the amendment, and I would
add further to what I have already said, that when I saw an installa-
tion of the particular device I spoke of, the square joint, it impressed me
profoundly, and I thought that it was the thing we would want for our
lines, but after it had been in operation for a few months I concluded
we did not want anything to do with it. I do not pretend to say that
the square joint is imperfect and should not be installed. I simply want
the Committee to permit railroads a certain amount of latitude in that
matter, so that they may adopt their own preferences. It may be possi-
ble, in the case to which I refer, that there was something wrong with
DISCUSSION. 1053
the balauce of the bridge, or something wrong with the alinement that
was responsible for the imperfection in the operation of the square joint.
But the fact remains, nevertheless, that the joint did not operate prop-
erly and these people came to us and had us make for them in our
shops a set of the mitered rails, castings, etc.
I want to refer to what the chairman said, to the effect that a ma-
jority of the Committee were in favor of the square joint and opposed
to the mitered rail. In our experience, covering fifteen or twenty years
with the mitered rail, we have never experienced any trouble on account
of this rail being loose. I do not contend that the mitered rails never
foul in coming down and land on top of the fixed rail. As Mr. Rudd
has stated, if the rail is not in its correct position within one-quarter of
an inch, and I believe on our line it is adjusted to one-eighth inch, we
cannot lock up the rails, so that the mitered rails, practically speaking,
have never given serious trouble. I do not know of any that have given
any trouble or broken under traffic, and while the speed is confined to
forty miles an hour over the drawbridge I have in mind, I am certain
that the speed has not always been forty miles over this bridge. I think .
it has been as much as sixty miles. We have never experienced any
trouble on the seven or eight drawbridges we have equipped with the
mitered rail.
Mr. G. J. Ray (Delaware, Lackawanna & Western) : — I wish to con-
firm what Mr. Stein has said concerning the mitered rails on drawbridges.
We have some drawbridges in our territory, both on the Passaic River
and the Hackensack River, where we have more than one hundred sub-
urban trains passing each way over them each day. There is an immense
amount of traffic in the river, and there is a very great amount of in-
convenience on account of holding up our traffic, because of bridges be-
ing open during the busiest hours of the day. I am sure that we have
never experienced any undue difficulty, which shows that the perform-
ance of the mitered rail is satisfactory. There is no trouble to ' speak
of at all, and I would be very much opposed to seeing this rule go
through as worded, unless the amendment which Mr. Rudd suggested,
in regard to permitting the use of the mitered joint, is also incorporated
in it.
Mr. Carpenter : — Referring to Mr. Rudd's motion, I am not clear how
it will cover the mitered rail, unless he considers the mitered rail an
easer rail.
Mr. Rudd : — It simply means that the mitered section would be con-
nected with a sleeve or joint.
Mr. Carpenter : — A mitered rail at the opening to the bridge.
Mr. Rudd : — It would be carried over by the riser.
Mr. Carpenter: — You consider the miter an easer?
Mr. Rudd : — The miter, with an easer rail outside that.
Mr. Carpenter : — That, perhaps, would clear up that question, but I
want to state that my experience with the lift rails has not been in accord
with that of the other speakers. I know of a case of«a bridge equipped
with the most modern form of lift rails for swing bridges, fully inter-
1054 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
locked, locks provided for the ends of every rail, and yet there was an
accident on that bridge. A train was derailed. It was apparent that
one or more of the lift rails was out of proper position, and the train
was derailed. Therefore, I have come strongly of the opinion that for
high-speed operation the square-end, fixed-rail joint is better, as providing
more security, because there are less chances for trouble. It does not ride
as well as the mitered rail, there is no question about that, I think, but,
nevertheless, 1 believe it is more secure.
Mr. B. R. LefHer (Lake Shore & Michigan Southern) : — The present
practice on the Lake Shore is to have square ends. A loose rail, which
must be used with the miter rail on swing bridges, means a rail 15 to
20 ft. long not fastened to the ties, and just how that can be interlocked
so as to show absolute security in case of a broken rail has not been
shown.
Many years ago we used to have the old stub switch with loose
rails. Inventors later devised the split switch, one characteristic advan-
tage of which was an unbroken rail for one of the running rails. It
seems to me to endorse the lift rail, which we would have to do in con-
nection with mitered rails on swing bridges, is recognizing, in disguise
at least, an old bad practice. As far as the smooth riding of the track
is concerned, with the square-end rail there is a slight roughness, due to
the false flanges on the wheels, but there is no more roughness than is
found in the crossing of other railroads or in switch frogs. I have
seen mitered rails that were hammered pretty badly, the result being a
depression or a rough spot at the end of the bridge ; this is a condition
which grows worse very rapidly after it is once started.
The experience that we have had is that, under the heavy axle loads
we are having to-day, the mitered rail will not hold up under traffic con-
ditions ; that is, where the traffic is 60,000 lbs. axle load and over. It
may hold up under traffic of a few trains a day.
I think many engineers have a feeling that a mitered rail is some-
thing like a facing-point switch. On single-track railroads you cannot
avoid this condition, and on double-track railroads you may have traffic
either way.
Of course, one great advantage of the mitered rail in connection with
lift bridges is that you do away with considerable machinery, which
the sliding bar and the sliding sleeve require. It reduces first cost.
Mr. E. B. Temple (Pennsylvania Railroad) :— I would add my pro-
test against the adoption of paragraph (c) as it stands. Mr. Rudd has
pointed out that all our important drawbridges are equipped with mitered
rails, and they have an easing block outside to ease the wheel over the
miter. In order that these two subjects may be treated in a single
paragraph, I would suggest the following reading: "Rail ends may be
cut square or mitered, and connected by sliding sleeve or joint bars, etc.
I feel very strongly that this Association ought not to legislate against
the mitered rail, when it is shown that it has been used successfully
and advantageously on a number of important railroads."
Mr. H. R. Safford (Grand Trunk) :— It has not been made clear to
me from the remarks of Mr. Stein just what were the real troubles
DISCUSSION. 1055
he had with the square-end joint. My personal experience leads me
to believe that the square-end joint is a much stronger form of track struc-
ture, and the same reason for condemning the miter rail at the drawbridge
holds as to condemning the miter rail for ordinary track use, namely,
that the rail is weakened at that joint by reason of being cut in a
diagonal direction. There is a type of miter rail, and perhaps that type
is meant in this discussion, which is in effect a dovetail joint, but the rail
is specially made so that the full supporting power of the web is main-
tained practically all the way through. However, if by mitered joint is
meant a rail planed off at an angle, I am opposed to it. If it means a
semi-miter or dovetailed miter (if that is a proper term to use), I have
no objection to it, but it seems to me the straight miter has an element
of weakness and should not be used. I should like to hear what the trouble
was with the butt-end joint.
Mr. Stein : — The Central Railroad of New Jersey is not having any
trouble with the butt-end joints, because they do not use any. The ex-
perience to which I referred was secured from a connecting line over
which our trains run adjacent to our territory and the touble was due
to the fact that the butt-end joint did not slide in proper adjustment, and
it had to be pounded to get it in, consequently interrupting the entire
bridge machinery. When I first saw the device it appealed to me strongly,
and I thought it was something far superior to the mitered joint.
I will be glad to put Mr. Safford in touch with the case I have in
mind where the butt-end joints did not work out satisfactorily, and
where we substituted the miter-end joints we had used on all of our
drawbridges.
I cannot allow the statement of Mr. LefHer to go unchallenged when
he says he thinks the miter joints are all right when they do not have many
movements. I want to say for his enlightenment and the eludication of
those who will vote on this subject and do not have any drawbridges on
their own lines to contend with, that on one particular bridge which we
have over Newark Bay, we have from 250 to 300 movements in each
direction each day; there are sometimes more than 600 trains which
pass over this bridge each day. At least 200 of these movements are
high-speed movement running around forty miles an hour, and some-
times in excess of that. With all of our experience with the miter rails
we have had no difficulty to speak of, and only occasionally would they
fail to drop properly into their proper positions. They may bind, per-
haps, a little on the shoe, but with just a little touch of a hammer or
bar, it will set them in proper position. Under no circumstances could
you lock up the bridge until the rail was within % in. of where it be-
longed. I think we only allow for an adjustment of % in. in these
rails.
I think in the case that Mr. Carpenter referred to, he wants to go
after his signal department to get more modern interlocking. I cannot
possibly see how they could have locked up this bridge and given the sig-
nal if each one of the mitered rails was not in exact position for the
1056 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
movement. It should have been impossible to have done that, unless
something was out of order about the interlocking arrangements which
permitted it.
Mr. W. H. Elliott (New York Central & Hudson River) :— As a
representative of the sub-committee of Committee X, which made this
report, I would say, from a signaling standpoint, it is our opinion
that either arrangement of rail ends may be interlocked with equal
security, so that discussion of the subject of supporting or carrying the
wheel across the gap should be from a track standpoint rather than as
a signaling matter.
Mr. Leffler : — The question of maintenance is a vital point. It would
be interesting to know how many times the rails have to be renewed, es-
pecially where there are 600 trains a day. Another advantage in the
square-cut rail is the allowance for expansion. A gap of 1 ^4 or 2 in.
can be allowed. With the mitered joints you can, of course, have some
expansion, but the edge of the miter will cold-roll and trouble ensue
to some extent.
Mr. Himes : — It might appear from the discussion that the sliding
joint, which has been proposed by the Committee, did not operate suc-
cessfully. I wish to disabuse the minds of the members of the Asso-
ciation from any such idea. A very large number of them are in suc-
cessful operation and have been for years. I might say that while I
was Bridge Engineer on the New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railroad,
we were obliged to rebuild several of our drawbridges, and in my
capacity as Bridge Engineer I looked into the subject as thoroughly as
I was able to do, and eventually decided on this sliding joint. It has
been installed and used successfully on our bridges for a number of
years. It is true that you cannot operate the sliding sleeve unless the
rails are properly centered, and in order to secure that we have a step
at the end of the bridge, a jacking device, which centers the bridge
absolutely, so that there is no difficulty whatever about the operation of
the sliding joint.
As to the expense of the device, of course, it does cost something
more than the plain mitered rail, but the cost is an exceedingly small
percentage of the entire cost of the drawbridge, and I am sure that those
roads having large numbers of drawbridges, and whose representatives
have spoken in opposition to this clause, would not stop for an instant at
the added expense, if thereby they might secure greater safety. The
work of the Committee has been carried on in full view of the vital situa-
tion which has developed in recent years pertaining to the safety of
railroad traffic, and in particular the safety of traffic over drawbridges.
There has been a great deal of discussion of the subject, and it has been
our aim to present to you the best device which we can find to insure
against, not an accident every day, a great number of trivial accidents, but
any single great accident which might involve the loss of many lives and
large sums of money.
In spite of all that has been said in opposition to this paragraph,
it remains true, as anyone can see, that with a loose rail at the end of a
DISCUSSION. 1057
drawbridge, if peradventure at any time that rail should be broken square
across — and such a case is not unknown in railroad operation — the signal-
ing and interlocking would not prevent a wreck. The strongest merit of
the sliding joint is that it permits the rail to be spiked right up to the
end of the bridge.
Mr. Rudd : — The drawbridge is a place where you can spend money
to better advantage perhaps than anywhere else. That is, no expense
should be saved in making the drawbridge safe, but I do not believe
the sliding joint will cost very much more than the devices we use on our
high-class drawbridges. I presume we are spending as much or more
on our protection than is spent for the sliding shoe suggested. It is not
a question of economy. It is a question of effectiveness. On our single-
track lines we use square-end rail, but on double and four-track lines we
use the miter rail, because we get better results and can run at high
speed, and, in our opinion, with less danger. I do not believe anybody is
more anxious for safety first than the Pennsylvania Railroad.
The President: — The question is on the amendment to the amendment
proposed by Mr. Rudd. The paragraph as it will be under the amendment,
reads, "Rail ends should be connected by sliding sleeve or joint bars or
by easer rails to carry the wheels over the opening between the end of
the bridge and the approach to the bridge ;" that is, eliminate the words
"cut square and" and eliminate the last clause.
(The amendment to the amendment was carried.)
Mr. Stein : — Please explain the substance of the motion as it stands.
The President : — As it now stands, the amendment to the amendment
offered by Mr. Rudd has been adopted, and that amendment is practically
a substitute for the motion of Mr. Moore, and Mr. Moore's motion is
practically a substitute for the recommendation of the Committee. If
you vote in the affirmative on the next motion, paragraph (c) will read
as outlined by Mr. Rudd.
(Paragraph (c) was then adopted.)
(Paragraph (d) was adopted as read.)
Mr. Carpenter : — I would like to offer an amendment to the section
on guard rails. I think the section as written is too narrowly defined.
There are differences of opinion as to how guard rails should be con-
structed and there are different details best to be used for different
locations. My amendment is, "guard rails should be provided as for
fixed bridges, except for the necessary breaks at the ends of the draw
;;pan. Obstructions to derailed wheels which are guided by the guard
rails should be reduced to a minimum."
Mr. Lindsay : — I second the amendment.
Mr. Stein : — I would like to ask whether the Committee will accept
this phraseology in the sixth line, "There should be a clear space of not
less than 8 in. between the head of the guard rail and the gage side of
the main rail." I would like to know the reason they specify TO in. My
suggestion will not change the sense of the paragraph at all.
Mr. Carpenter: — That is one point that I would criticize this speci-
fication on : We are constructing a drawbridge now where we are placing
1058 IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
the guard rails about 4 in. clear from the main rails on account of using
an entirely different arrangement for guard rails. We are using the
re-railing device and the close spacing of guard rails which goes with
it. We think that in case of derailment the mechanism for the rail
connections would suffer less damage with that scheme of guard rail.
Therefore, it seems to me that a very narrow and fixed determination as
to just how the guard rail should be constructed is out of place in this
specification.
Mr. J. E. Crawford (Norfolk & Western): — If a motion is in
order, I would move that this whole subject be withdrawn from con-
sideration this year, and be postponed until next year. I feel, in the
first place, that there have been some amendments offered that have
not been fully considered, that these recommendations as worded are
too positive, they should be more in the nature of recommended practice
than of a specification.
The President : — We will entertain that motion after disposing of Mr.
Carpenter's motion, unless Mr. Carpenter will withdraw his motion.
Mr. Carpenter : — I will withdraw my motion.
The President : — The motion before the house is that of Mr. Craw-
ford. Before putting the motion we had better know what the Com-
mittee desires to have done with that portion of the report on page 454.
The motion is that Appendix D be recommitted.
(Motion carried.)
Mr. Lindsay : — I feel that the subject of clearances is intimately re-
lated to the same subject pending before the Committee on Electricity,
and I move that it be referred to the Committees on Iron and Steel
Structures and on Electricity for joint consideration and action.
Mr. Himes : — The Committee submits two additional clauses for the
inspection of the fabrication of steel bridges, page 410.
Also, additional clauses for the inspection of the fabrication of steel
bridges, on the same page.
The Committee moves that these subjects be adopted and published
in the Manual.
(Motion carried.)
Mr. Himes : — The recommendation of the Committee as to work for
the coming year is that we continue the study of built-up columns, the
design and length of turntables, the study of secondary stresses and im-
pact, and also to take up the consideration of live load and column
formula.
Mr. Chas. S. Churchill (Norfolk & Western) : — With reference to the
inner guard rail conclusion adopted yesterday, the fact we do not have
a definition for bridges leaves us in the shape of having adopted a con-
clusion, the application of which we cannot correctly determine. When-
ever in order, I would like to have that action reconsidered.
The President: — The Chair would call attention to the fact that this
is a Committee that has a very large attendance and it sets an excellent
example for all the committees of the Association. The Committee is
dismissed with thanks.
DISCUSSION ON MASONRY.
(For Report, see pp. 513-568.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION OX MASONRY5,
Maurice Coburn. H. R. Safford.
Richard L. Humphrey. G. H. Tinker.
Hunter McDonald.
The President: — The report of the Masonry Committee will be pre-
sented by the Chairman, Mr. G. H. Tinker.
Mr. G. H. Tinker (New York, Chicago & St. Louis) :— The Commit-
tee has had under consideration during the past year three subjects, "Water-
proofing of Masonry and Bridge Floors," "Disintegration of Concrete
Structures" and "Principles of Design of Plain and Reinforced Concrete
Retaining Walls, Abutments and Trestles." The subject of waterproof-
ing of masonry and bridge floors has been under consideration by the
Committee for the past five years. We have presented progress reports,
and in 1912 a bibliography of the subject. This year we present a final
report with recommendations as to approved practice, which we ask the
Association to adopt and order published in the Manual. The subject
of disintegration of concrete structures has been under consideration for
two years and we present this year a final report with recommendations.
The Committee has had under consideration for several years the sub-
ject of "design of retaining walls, abutments and trestles." We have not
been able to make very much progress. Some years ago we presented
a report showing typical examples of designs of retaining walls, with
an analysis of the stresses in the same from a mathematical point of
view. We had also some examples of walls which had failed, with an
attempted analysis. During the last two or three years the Committee
has tried to inaugurate a series of experiments to determine practically
the pressure of earth upon retaining walls, but inasmuch as this requires
the expenditure of some money for apparatus, we have not been able
to accomplish anything as yet. We still hope to be able to make some
such experiments. There will be an opportunity during the coming sea-
son for experiments upon walls of 30 to 40 ft. in height, and we hope to
be able to raise funds to start these experiments.
The report upon the subject of waterproofing of masonry and bridge
floors will be found on page 156. It contains a statement of the scope
of the subject, with a description of the different methods of water-
proofing and the materials which are used. Following this are certain
conclusions which we ask the Association to adopt. Following these
is an appendix, in which the general subject is again treated in greater
detail. Extracts from various sources are given concerning the use of
the different waterproofing materials and tlie results obtained. The
Committee asks the Association to adopt the conclusions on page 536.
1059
1060 MASONRY.
Mr. Maurice Coburn (Vandalia Railroad) : — In the first line of this
paragraph it says, "Of either asphalt or pure coal-tar pitch in connec-
tion with felts and burlaps." There is nothing said about the quality of
the asphalt. In connection with the felts, a mistake has been made in
speaking of felts and coal-tar pitch. It is not coal-tar pitch, but coal tar.
In many places asphalt is not thought to be the proper waterproofing, and
there are many places where coal tar is not the proper waterproofing
and where asphalt would give better results. I would move that this
paragraph be amended to read, "Membrane waterproofing of a suitable
bitumen in connection with either felt or burlaps, or both."
Mr. Tinker: — In stating the conclusions regarding this particular
method of waterproofing in one paragraph, the Committee assumed that
members would refer to the body of the report in which these matters
are gone into in detail. It is there shown that asphalt may be used in
different combinations, either with or without burlap, and with different
numbers of layers. There are specifications for the quality of the
material, specifications for asphalt; and it is also stated that coal-tar
pitch is not the best material in all instances, and neither is asphalt.
Sometimes asphalt is preferable and sometimes coal tar. By reading the
body of the report it will be seen that this is brought out in detail. The
conclusion simply says, "Membrane waterproofing, of either asphalt or
pure coal-tar pitch, is good practice." We did not think it necessary
to go into a great amount of detail in the conclusions.
Mr. Coburn : — My amendment does not require that any of the con-
clusions should go into detail.
Referring back to the body of the report, I do not think the dif-
ferences between the materials is properly brought out. There are a
good many changes that should be made in the body of the report. On
page 519 the word "pitching" is used in connection with "asphalt." That
may be a common term, but people in the business do not seem to under-
stand it. Under the heading "asphalt mastic," on page 519, proper
emphasis is not given to the preparation of the material. I do not think
the matter has been properly brought out. It does not seem to me that
the difference in the qualities of coal tar and asphalt have been prop-
erly stated. It is the general opinion that asphalt is warranted in
the waterproofing of a solid floor bridge and that coal tar is not to be
put there at all. A good many people think that most asphalts are
not first-class material in underground waterproofing. On page 520,
in the third paragraph, it is stated, "It is generally found to be difficult
to obtain coal tar of good quality." That is what the asphalt salesman
tells you before he has been in your office five minutes. I do not think
it is any more difficult to get good coal-tar waterproofing than it is to
get good asphalt. On page 522, under "felts and burlaps," the words
"coal tar pitch" should not be used, but "coal tar." In this connection
"wool" felt is the common trade term. I think the word "rag" is
preferable. On page 523, about the seventh paragraph, I think the point
should be brought out that coal tar has antiseptic qualities and prevents
DISCUSSION. 1061
the rotting of felt, particularly burlap, while in asphalt there is nothing
that protects it. The asphalts are not antiseptic. On page 524, it
seems to me that an attempt is made to draw a general specification for
all sorts of bitumen, and that is a hard thing to do. On the top of
page 525, some of the prices are not right.
In the fourth paragraph, page 439, there is a direct quotation from
the roofing report, except that the statement in the roofing report re-
ferred to Trinidad asphalt alone, and this paragraph refers to all
asphalts. I have seen it stated that all asphalts are affected by water,
but the best opinion does not agree with that, and I believe that it
would be a very difficult thing to demonstrate.
The statements about fluxes quoted on the last part of page 539, were
taken from Prof. Baker's book. They are not now a correct statement
of the situation in regard to fluxes.
When we come to the appendix, with the quotations from other peo-
ple, it seems to me that the Committee has not used a proper degree
of accuracy in this matter. When a quotation is made the dates should
be given, and it should state who the man is, and if he has any connec-
tions with the manufacturers.
In the fourth paragraph, page 539, Prof. Baker's discussion of bi-
tumen was made in connection with roads and pavements in 1902. At that
time it was probably the best general discussion of bitumens in this coun-
try. Now it is out of date. On page 541, there is a discussion by Clifford
Richardson. It seems to me that it ought to be stated that Clifford
Richardson is an employee of the Barber Asphalt Company, and that the
specification he proposes is clearly a specification for Bermudez asphalt.
There are several other instances of that same sort. Where there are
quotations that ought to be made plainer, as to where they came from,
and the date should be given. On page 547, next to the last paragraph,
it speaks of the test of Westinghouse, Church, Kerr & Co. as to water-
proofing. That would be a good test for roofing, but is not a good
test for waterproofing.
The President: — The question is on the amendment offered by Mr.
Coburn, reading, "Membrane waterproofing of a suitable bitumen in con-
nection with either felts or burlaps or both."
Mr. Richard L. Humphrey (Consulting Engineer) :— Mr. Coburn is
right in some of his statements ; both asphalt and coal tar are suitable for
some purposes and not suitable for others, as has been shown by the ex-
periments made by the United States Geological Survey. The term "bitu-
men" is elastic and incorrect. The paragraph ought to go back to the Com-
mittee for further consideration. The amendment proposed by Mr. Co-
burn does not meet the situation at all. I offer the amendment —
The President : — The Chairman will read the next.
(Mr. Tinker then read paragraphs 3. 4, 5 and 6.)
The President : — The Committee moves that conclusions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
1062 MASONRY.
and 6 on page 536 be adopted by tbe convention and published in the
.Manual.
(Motion carried.)
Mr. Tinker: — The Committee wishes to offer a revision of conclusion
on page 568, as follows : "Concrete to be exposed to the action of sea
water, or alkali waters, or gases containing sulphur, or in which re-
inforcing metal is embedded, should be dense, rich in Portland cement
and allowed to harden under favorable conditions before such exposure."
Also a revision of conclusion No. 2 : "Concrete to be in contact with
alkali waters should be made with aggregates inert to the alkalis in the
water."
The President : — The Committee recommends the adoption of con-
clusions 1, 2, 3 and 4, as amended, in accordance with its own motion,
and that these conclusions be published in the Mariual.
(Motion carried.)
The President :■ — The Committee will make a statement as to its
recommendation for its next year's work.
Mr. Tinker : — We expect to endeavor to get a start on some of the
experiments on earth pressure upon retaining walls. We also intend
to revise the specifications for concrete and reinforced concrete, not
very extensively, but in some small parts. The subject of specifications
for Portland cement and the methods of testing cement will be largely
overhauled by the committees having such matters in charge. The
matter is mainly in the hands of Committee C-i of the American Society
for Testing Materials. Committee VIII will appoint representatives who
will act with Committee C-i. It is probable that within the next few-
years these specifications will be largely rewritten. Outside of this the
Committee has no definite plans for undertaking any new work. We
would be glad to have suggestions.
Mr. Hunter McDonald (Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis) : — I
would suggest that the Committee be instructed to look into the ad-
visability of spouting concrete by adding an excess of water.
Mr. H. R. Safford (Grand Trunk) : — In reference to the adoption of
conclusions on waterproofing bridge floors, notwithstanding the time the
Committee has devoted to this subject, it seems to me it has been left
in rather unsatisfactory shape. I think that the Committee should con-
tinue their investigations and see if it is not possible to get a set of
specifications or rules regarding the waterproofing of bridge floors which
shall be acceptable and which the majority of the members of the Asso-
ciation will use.
The President :— The Committee is relieved with the thanks of the
Association.
DISCUSSION ON TRACK.
(For Report, see pp. 56A-606.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING TART IX DISCUSSION ON TRACK.
Curtis Dougherty. E. R. Lewis.
W. H. Elliott. Hunter McDonald.
E. T. Howson. Edwin F. Wendt.
J. B. Jenkins.
(Vice-President Store}' in the Chair.)
Vice-President Storey : — The report of the Committee on Track
will he presented by the Chairman, Mr. J. B. Jenkins.
Mr. J. B. Jenkins (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I will introduce the re-
port by reading the first part.
(Mr. Jenkins then read paragraphs i, 2 and 3 on page 569, and con-
clusion 1 and moved its adoption.)
(Conclusion 1 was adopted.)
(Mr. Jenkins read conclusion 2, and moved its adoption.)
(Conclusion 2 was adopted.)
(Mr. Jenkins read conclusion 3, and said:)
This is simply a concise statement of speeds through level turnouts
with which each individual can compare his own notions as to the
proper speed. For instance, No. 11 turnouts with the 22-ft. switch
point gives a speed under these conditions of 27 miles per hour, while
No. 16 gives a speed of 40 miles per hour. If, in your estimation, the
speed for No. 11 should be cut down to 20 miles an hour, No. 15
should be cut down proportionately. If, in your estimation, the speeds
for No. 11 could be exceeded 50 per cent., those for No. 16 should
be exceeded 50 per cent. The speeds given here are strictly con-
sistent.
(Mr. Jenkins read the section of the conclusion relating to the
matters to be received as information and said:)
The Committee is not ready to report finally on plans for slip
switches, but has presented its ideas in three typical plans, and has
also presented another idea which has been worked out by the Big
Four Railroad, which embodies the distinctive feature of staggering
the switch points in order to take care of the interlocking rods. The
Committee considers this feature as worthy of special study.
(On motion, that part of the report was received as information.)
Mr. Jenkins : — The Committee's recommendations for further study
are embodied in the last part of the conclusions. The third subject
is "Economics of. Track Labor." There is one matter, in connection
with that subject, which is not strictly economics of track labor, but
1063
1064 TRACK.
very closely related to it. We have touched upon it in the general
program for future work of the Committee, found in the report, page
S88, item (9) "A study of the matter of proper season for various
kinds of track work." The date of the beginning of the fiscal year
has a great deal to do with the season at which the track work is done.
As the fiscal year begins July 1st, it is very common to have main-
tenance expenditures postponed from the spring until the fall, throwing
the work into a season of the year when it cannot be done as well,
when labor is scarce, and when the roads which began the track
Work in the spring have secured the pick of the labor ; also, in the
fall the labor is largely employed for harvesting and other purposes.
The track work is left in a rather uncompleted state when frost
comes, and in many cases the track cannot be brought into proper
condition until spring. I do not think it is any exaggeration to say
that for every dollar of expenditure postponed in the months of April,
May and June, it will require about $2 to be expended in July, August
or September in order to put the track in the same condition it would
have been if that money had been expended at the proper time, which
makes about 400 per cent, interest on the money.
By the simple expedient of changing the fiscal year, we would
not be under the necessity of postponing our expenditures for track
maintenance and could spend the money at the time it could be put
to the best advantage.
Further, in connection with this same subject of economics of
track labor, referring to Exhibit C, the Committee has undertaken
the work of deriving some factors for equating the track mileage,
and a few roads have already undertaken this to some extent, among
them the Baltimore & Ohio, which has accomplished considerable along
this line; but the information is exceedingly scant so far, and the Com-
mittee thinks it a very important subject.
There are too many roads on which the maintenance expenditures
are apportioned purely on a mileage basis, perhaps too much money
spent in some places where the money is not needed, and entirely too little
money spent where it is needed. We should try to arrive at some prac-
tical method of apportioning the proper amounts to the various divisions
of the road, and if the information called for in Exhibit C is supplied
to the Committee, it will furnish us the basis for obtaining the proper
factors and enable the railroads to apportion the money for track
work to better advantage in the future. We wish to ask the hearty
co-operation of every member of the Association in compiling the in-
formation shown on Exhibit C.
Tlie Vice-President: — Are there any suggestions in regard to the
work of the Committee for next year?
Mr. Curtis Dougherty (Queen & Crescent): — I note that the
Committee has under consideration the matter of standard guard rails
and that it will continue to have this matter under consideration during
Lhe coming year, according to the recommendations. I desire to urge
DISCUSSION. 1065
on the Committee that they should endeavor to arrive at a definite
recommendation on the matter of guard rails, if possible, for next
year's report, considering the length, the matter of guard rails on
tangents as well as on curves, and the proper height of the guard rail
relative to the main track rail.
Mr. W. H. Elliott (New York Central & Hudson River) :— I wish
to refer to Exhibit B, extending the duties of section foremen. This
work is also being undertaken by Committee X, under the title
"Economics of labor of signal maintenance," and I suggest that a sub-
committee of the Track Committee be appointed to confer with a sub-
committee from Committee X. We feel that the two committees
should work together on this subject and that the results derived from
such co-operative work will be greatly to the advantage of both com-
mittees.
Mr. E. R. Lewis (Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic) : — It appears to
me that there is likely to be some misunderstanding, even among the
officers of railroad companies, of the progress report on this subject
if it is left as it stands. I am sure it is not the idea of any member
of the Committee that the section foremen, with the amount of know-
ledge that these men now have, and the help which they have at their
command, will be expected to take care of signals, bridges and buildings.
I think the Committee's suggestion that road foremen be appointed, who
shall have charge of all work over short districts or sections, including
the track, bridges, buildings and signals, seems the most likely solution
of the problem. I do not think any staff alteration less than that would
be practicable. To my certain knowledge, for twenty-five years the
officers of railways, from the lowest to the highest, have now and again
increased the scope of the section foreman's duties to the detriment
of track maintenance ; and this same statement holds true to-day. I
am sure that it is not the intention of the Committee that this mistake
be enlarged upon. It is unjust to the section foreman: he must have
some special education to prepare him for these new duties and must
have proper help to perform them. At the present time he is the
hardest-worked man on the railroad, not only physically, but mentally.
He works all day with his hands and he spends half the night on his
clerical work. I do not think there is any body of men in the railway
service who do the work which the section foreman does day after
day, or who have greater responsibility.
Another point of view is that it would not be safe to increase his
work. We have heard a great deal in the last year or two about "Safety
first." The way to keep a track safe is to keep the trackmen on the
track. Every minute you take them off the track you leave the track
unsafe. Every hour's work taken off the track, every hour that you
take the section foreman away from the track, is lost and will never
be regained. There are so many days' work in the year. When a
day of track labor is gone, it is gone forever. Unless provision is
1066 TRACK.
made for ceaselessly patrolling the track by men under this roadway
foreman, or whatever he is to be called, we will handicap progress.
Mr. Jenkins : — The Committee has made no recommendations in
regard to this matter. The Committee considers it a large subject and
has only started to make investigations. We have very little infor-
mation on the subject. It may be possible the Committee will not
undertake to say that it is advisable — the Committee is just as likely
to recommend against this as for it. It may be possible that it may be
found that some economies, perhaps some increase in safety, can be
brought about by putting a high-class man in charge of the section
gang, a man who understands the signals as well as the track, and
have an assistant foreman to look after the track and road, leaving
your track gang unimpaired; putting under your section foremen all
the men necessary to do the little jobs of carpentering, attending the
signals, and everything of that kind that is now done by men who
travel 500 miles to do 50 cents worth of work. The question is an
open one, and the Committee has as yet no mind on the subject.
Mr. Lewis :— What I said was not made in a spirit of adverse
criticism of the report of the Committee, but to call attention to the
fact that the section foreman has not had much said for him in prob-
ably twenty years, and I am sure that this Committee will be glad
to do him justice.
The Vice-President: — It is my understanding that this is a progress
report only, and consequently is not up for discussion at the present
time, having been adopted as a progress report. The suggestions of Mr.
Lewis will be given consideration by the Committee when it brings in its
further report.
Mr. E. T. Howson (Railway Age Gazette) :— I would like to em-
phasize and endorse what Chairman Jenkins said about a study of the
influence of the present fiscal year on the economics of our present
track labor. Over 55 per cent, of the total maintenance expenditures
of the railroads is for labor, and over 46 per cent, of all maintenance
expenditures is for track labor The greatest deterrent to the economical
expenditure of this 46 per cent, for track labor to-day is the termination
of the fiscal year in the center of the natural working season. LTnder
the present financial conditions existing on the roads, many of them
find it necessary to limit the expenditures very severely during the
first half of the working season up to July 1st. After July 1st the
forces are enlarged in an endeavor to do the work which should be
done before winter. If the ending of the fiscal year could be changed
to some other date, perhaps to correspond to the calendar year, these
disturbances and interferences would be eliminated and the track work
could be conducted through the entire working season, the natural season
for this work, which is in the spring and summer.
The advantages of a change of this kind are evident to any man
who has to pare down his forces in the spring and then build them up
in the fall, not only in securing greater economy of labor, but in the
DISCUSSION. 1067
better handling of material as well. These advantages amount in the
aggregate to large sums, into millions of dollars. One Vice-President
told me last week that he believed if he could get away from the effects
of the fiscal year he could reduce his maintenance expenditures one
million dollars, or practically ten per cent, of his total maintenance ex-
penditures.
A study of this subject through this Association, whose membership
sees most directly the detrimental results of the present practice, would
be valuable. This Association could impress on the executive officers
of the railroads the advisability of a change in the date, by showing the
savings that would be possible by such change. The termination of the
present fiscal year is a purely arbitrary date for accounting purposes,
and while there would necessarily be some adjustment, after it was
changed I believe the operating and maintenance officers could show such
a large saving that the change would be warranted from every point
of view. I would second Mr. Jenkins' suggestion on this subject most
heartily.
Mr. Edwin F. Wendt (Member Engineering Board, I.C.C.) : — I have
endeavored to ascertain what reasons led to the selection of June 30th
as the closing date of the fiscal year, but have been unable to find any
good business reason. It has been said that the railroads favor this
date. If this is the case, I am sure that Engineers could not have been
consulted in regard to this matter ; therefore, I wish to most heartily
endorse the suggestion of the Track Committee that this is a question
for discussion on the part of Engineers and as a result of their study
it seems to me that a recommendation could be made which would be
valuable.
Mr. Hunter McDonald (Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis) : — I
hope that the Association will decide to take this matter up, and I fully
endorse the idea. I hope, however, that we will have better success
with it than we have had with the question of brine dripping.
The Vice-President : — The Committee is excused with the thanks
of the Association.
Mr. E. E. R. Tratman (Engineering News, by letter) : — The in-
sistent demand upon the railways to-day is for increased economy and
efficiency, and in maintenance work it seems probable that these results
may be obtained by consolidating or correlating the various maintenance
forces to some extent. One member considers that it would be unsafe
to let men leave the track-work for other duties. But the track is left
to itself at least 14 hours per day, and if a rainstorm comes along the
sectionmen will leave the track and get shelter. A road that would
adopt this combined maintenance system is not likely to have track in
such condition that it is not safe to let one or two men leave the section
gang while they repair a station platform or fix a pump house or repair
a bridge floor. In fact, it seems to the writer that the system offers
advantages specially to the progressive road, which is giving thought to
the problem of combining efficiency, economy and safety in greater dc
1068 TRACK.
gree than before. Incidentally, the "safety movement" must not be car-
ried to extremes. Railways are not built for safety, although they should
be operated, with safety. They are built to carry traffic, to accommodate
the public and to earn a return on the investment, and safety is only one
of many items in the problem of operation. While it is too early to
express a decided opinion as to the proposed change in the maintenance
system, it certainly appears to offer advantages that make it worthy of
careful consideration.
DISCUSSION ON ELECTRICITY.
(For Report, see pp. 609-624.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON ELECTRICITY.
G. A. Harwood. J. C. Mock.
E. B. Katte. E. B. Temple.
C. E. Lindsay.
The President :• — The next business is the report of the Committee
on Electricity. In the absence of the Chairman and Vice-Chairman of
the Committee, Mr. G. A. Harwood will present the report.
Mr. G. A. Harwood (New York Central & Hudson River) : — The re-
port of the Committee this year is brief, containing only one recom-
mendation, but it is felt that that recommendation is important in the
development of the standardization of clearances on steam railroads
which are electrified or to be electrified.
The American Railway Association wishes the diagrams acted on by
this Association and American Electric Railway Association before it
passes on them, although its Committee will recommend them.
Some considerable progress has been made on a possible modification
of a third-rail clearance diagram to permit space for automatic train
stops or other structures.
The table on third-rail clearances has been corrected up to date.
A very considerable start has been made on the subject of electrolysis,
a Joint National Committee having been appointed, and since the re-
port was written some further progress has been made. I will ask
Mr. Katte, who is the Chairman of the sub-committee on Electrolysis, to
advise the meeting what has been done.
Mr. E. B. Katte (New York Central & Hudson River) :— Since the
report was printed, two meetings of the Joint National Committee on
Electrolysis have been held in New York, and the National Bureau of
Standards, the American Gas Institute and the Natural Gas Association,
which had not previously sent delegates, have now appointed members
and are represented on the Joint Committee. The American Water Works
Association is the only one of the larger associations interested in
electrolysis which has not joined in the work. They are holding out be-
cause they feel that their interests were opposed to those which have
been active in bringing together the various associations. They have,
however, recently been approached by representatives of the Gas Insti-
tute and the Natural Gas Association and the Telephone and Telegraph
companies, and it is hoped that before the end of the summer they will
also send delegates to the Joint Committee.
The National Bureau of Standards has appointed Dr. E. B. Rosa,
the chief physicist of the Bureau at Washington, as its representative
1069
1070 ELECTRICITY.
and he has consented to serve as the Secretary of the Committee. A
Committee on Plan and Scope was appointed which reported at the
last meeting of the Joint Committee. Perhaps an extract from this
report will give you an idea of the kind of work the Committee is to
take up. I quote from the sub-committee on Plan and Scope as follows :
"We recognize the existence of electrolytic injury due to stray earth
currents. An important object of this Committee should be to promote
harmony between the interests affected and which might be threatened
by disputes on account of electrolytic injury.
"We believe that in general the prevention or cure of electrolytic
trouble can only be secured to the fullest extent by a spirit of co-operation
between all interested parties :
"(a) In ascertaining all the pertinent facts;
"(b) In preventing the undue airing of disputes in the press;
"(c) In determining the best remedy for any trouble that may be
found to exist from an engineering and a non-partisan standpoint.
"We do not believe it to be the province of this Committee to de-
cide matters at law. Therefore, it should exclude from its consideration
all questions as to the legal rights of the respective parties. We do
not believe it to be the province of this Committee to act as Consulting
Engineers and prescribe special remedies for individual cases of troubles."
The Committee on Plan and Scope recommends four subjects to be
considered. These are to be considered by sub-committees. When these
committees were appointed the three representatives of this Association
received assignments to them of the sub-committees. The work of the
sub-committees are divided in this way : First, principles and definitions ;
second, methods and analyses of surveys ; third, foreign practice ; fourth,
domestic practice.
The Committee on Principles and Definitions is to prepare a definition
of "electrolysis" as it is to be considered by the General Committee and
provide an elementary treatise on the theory of electrolytic damages. The
Committee on Methods and Analyses of Surveys is to set forth the kind
of information to be obtained when an electrolytic investigation is to
be made and to prescribe in general the recommended methods of pro-
cedure in order to obtain it ; also, this Committee is to prepare in con-
venient form, useful statistics of various classes of pipes, rails, cables,
etc.
The Foreign Practice Committee is to collect and compile full in-
formation on the manner in which electrolysis problems are dealt with
in foreign countries, including regulations prescribed and the practice of
the interests concerned.
The Domestic Practice Committee is to collect and compile full
information on the manner in which electrolysis problems are dealt
with in America, including regulations prescribed and the practice of the
interests concerned.
Your representatives will be very glad to receive suggestions or in-
structions to take with them to the various sub-committees on which they
DISCUSSION. 1071
are working. The work is very comprehensive, and your sub-committee
wishes to feel that it has the co-operation of all the members of this
Association, so that when conclusions are reached and are submitted
to you for adoption and are finally accepted that they will be recognized
as having the endorsement of the entire membership of the American
Railway Engineering Association.
Mr. Harwood : — The Committee has three recommendations which
appear on page 618. We move the adoption of recommendation i of the
Committee.
(The motion was carried.)
The President : — In recommendation 3, the Committee requests the
convention to state what subjects in addition to those now being con-
sidered should be taken under consideration.
Mr. E. B. Temple (Pennsylvania Railroad) : — I suggest that the
Committee look into the matter of vertical clearances, as to where train-
men can remain on top of cars and where they cannot. There was a
ruling passed by the New York State Public Service Commission where
a height of 22 ft. above the rail was provided for. We are about to
electrify our lines in Philadelphia and will probably adopt a height of 22
ft. Mr. Gibbs is on this Committee and undoubtedly helped prepare the
diagrams submitted in the report. It is stated that 24 ft. is the minimum
height of the contact wire that should be adopted in case the trainmen
remain on tops of the cars with lanterns. The advice of this Asso-
ciation as to the proper height of contact wire is important and may
affect rulings of other State Commissions. It makes a difference in
heavy built up lines in suburban territory, with overhead bridges. If
you make it 24 ft. and work down to these bridges, it means that we do
not get the full 24 ft. for probably over 50 per cent, of the suburban
territory.
Mr. Katte : — The first four diagrams were prepared by a sub-
committee, of which Mr. Gibbs was the Chairman, and Mr. Murray, of
the New Haven, a member. Had there been any such law enacted, Mr.
Murray would have been cognizant of it and not allowed the diagrams
to go through if they conflicted with it. Mr. Murray is primarily re-
sponsible for the first four diagrams.
Mr. J. C. Mock (Michigan Central) : — Do I understand that the ap-
proval carries with it the approval of No. 5 diagram for publication in
the Manual?
Mr. Harwood : — This is a minimum diagram and it covers that as a
minimum.
Mr. Mock : — We have an installation where a great deal of the
overhead in the shed itself is placed at the side to avoid smoke ducts, and
I believe we will have trouble in maintaining a minimum distance of
15 ft. 3 in. for this overhead rail. We would have to make the installation
about 15 ft. to allow for a clearance at the bottom of the smoke ducts.
The third-rail shoe or pantagraph is about the middle. I should like to
1072 ELECTRICITY.
have this diagram checked for the conditions we are up against.
Mr. Harwood : — I think Mr. Mock has some of the special con-
ditions some of the other roads have. On the New York Central we
had some special conditions where we had to trim the clearances to get
the third rail and shoe through, but we would not recommend that as
desirable in new construction, which these diagrams cover.
Mr. Mock: — The construction to which I refer is new.
Mr. C. E. Lindsay (New York Central & Hudson River) : — How far
off the center of the line is the smoke duct?
Mr. Mock: — About 2 ft. 10 in., 6 in. from the outer edge of the
smoke duct concreted.
Mr. Katte : — The standard is for overhead rail on the center line
of the track. When you come to the side you have a special construction
to which this standard would not apply.
The President : — The development of electric traction has been so
rapid during the past fifteen years that the work of this Committee is
not only of the greatest importance to-day, but the future work will be as
fully important, and the work done by the Committee so far is of the
very greatest value. I am sure that the Association heartily thanks the
Committee for its labors.
*
DISCUSSION ON WOOD PRESERVATION.
(For Report, see pp. 625-682.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON WOOD PRESERVATION.
VV. M. Camp. E. A. Sterling.
J. L. Campbell. Earl Stimson.
S. R. Church. Dr. H. von Schrexk.
G. B. Shipley.
The President : — The discussion on the report on Wood Preservation
will be opened by the Chairman, Mr. Earl Stimson.
Mr. Earl Stimson (Baltimore & Ohio) : — The Committee was di-
rected to report on four subjects, as given on page 625.
The investigations of the merits as a preservative of oil from water
gas tar were carried on this year in continuation of those carried on in
previous years. Owing to its rather limited use and the rather meager
data as to the results of this use, the Committee reports that it is not in
position at this time to recommend the use of oil from water gas tar as a
wood preservative. The second subject of the first instruction, namely,
the use of refined coal tar in creosote oil, was investigated quite ex-
haustively by the Committee. This is the most important subject that the
Committee had for consideration this year.
The Committee feels that the results of its investigations to date
do not warrant a definite recommendation as to the use of coal tar
creosote mixture, particularly with respect to its merits as a preservative.
However, owing to the fact that the mixture is quite extensively used,
the Committee feels that this use is entitled to recognition to a certain
extent. This recognition takes the form of a definite recommendation,
namely, that wherever possible only grade 1 coal tar creosote be used,
and that under no circumstances should coal tar be added to creosote
of this grade. With reference to grades 2 and 3, whenever it is found
advisable by any railroad company to use coal tar in mixture with these
grades, that certain precautions be followed. These precautions are
given on page 627 and are six in number. These precautions are sup-
ported by a very able and comprehensive paper by Dr. von Schrenk and
his associate, Mr. Kammerer, which is published in Appendix A to this
report. It was the intention of the Committee to offer these six pre-
cautions for the approval of the Association and for publication in the
Manual. However, since our report was published, certain information
has been brought to light which changes our attitude in respect to
offering these precautions for publication in the Manual. The question
that arose in the minds of the Committee was whether or not it would
be better to have these precautions offered as information, and accepted
1073
1074 WOOD PRESERVATION.
as such, as in a measure they are preliminary and will be followed
some time in the future by a definite specification for the mixture.
The paper by Dr. von Schrenk gives results of laboratory tests which
fully support the precautions offered, and since the Committee report has
been published there has been offered by Mr. S. R. Church, of the Barrett
Manufacturing Company, a report of tests from actual practice at a
treating plant, giving the comparative results of use of the straight
creosote oil and the mixture. Mr. Church is present, and by way of
discussion, the Committee, with the approval of the convention, will call
upon Mr. Church to give an outline of these tests. If it is your desire,
he is willing to offer same as information to be published.
Mr. S. R. Church (Barrett Manufacturing Company) : — Mr. Presi-
dent and gentlemen, in briefly outlining the results of these tests, I
want first to take the opportunity of congratulating the Committee on
tin- interesting and valuable information which is presented in such
logical and concise form in Appendix A by Dr. von Schrenk and Mr.
Kammerer. This is really the first time any full information on the sub-
ject has been made public and I know it will be a great deal of satisfac-
tion to the producers as well as to the consumers to have such informa-
tion available.
The results reported in this Appendix are supported by information
obtained in a series of plant operations in December, 1913, at the plant of
the Pittsburgh Wood Preserving Company.
I submit herewith, for the information of the Association, and subject
to the approval of your Committee, a report of this series of tests.
(Mr. Church then briefly summarized the conclusions reached as a
result of these tests. The full text of the report follows) :
REPORT OF OIL TESTS MADE DECEMBER, I9I3, AT THE PLANT OF THE PITTSBURGH
WOOD PRESERVING COMPANY.
The tests described herein were undertaken with the object of se-
curing information as to the practicability of treating various kinds of
wood with creosote oil containing a substantial amount of filtered coal
tar. Tests were undertaken jointly by the Barrett Manufacturing Com-
pany and the Pittsburgh Wood Preserving Company, at the plant of the
latter at Broadford Junction, near Connellsville, Pa. The work was car-
ried out under the observation and direction of J. L. Conwav, Superin-
tendent, P. W. P. Co.; W. J. Smith, Inspector, P. & L. E. R. R. ; B.
Kuckuck, . representative of the Rueping process ; L. B. Shipley, repre-
sentative of the Barrett Mfg. Co.
The woods treated were beech, birch, maple and gum grouped to-
gether ; red oak, pine and chestnut treated separately. In all cases ex-
cept the chestnut, one full cylinder treatment was made by the ordinary
full-cell process, and another by the Rueping process. With chestnut,
only the latter process was used. i
Throughout these runs the effort was made to obtain the same net
absorption with each of the oils for the same process, namely, to retain
6 lbs. per cu. ft. by the Rueping and 8 lbs. per cu. ft. by the full-cell.
An exception was made in the case of the chestnut, endeavoring to retain
but 4 lbs. per cu. ft. by the Rueping process ; the only variables, therefore,
were the temperature of the oil and the time of operation.
DISCUSSION. 1075
The oils used were :
(i) Ordinary coal-tar creosote oil of No. 2, A. R. E. Assn. grade.
(2) Special oJJ containing filtered coal tar, prepared to meet the
following specification :
The oil shall be a pure coal-tar product, containing no crude tar. *
Water shall not exceed 2 per cent.
Specific gravity at 38 degrees C, 1.06 to 1.10.
Insoluble in hot benzol, not over 2 per cent.
Distillation by standard A. R. E. A. method:
Xot more than 1 per cent, at 170 degrees C. ;
Not more than 5 per cent, at 210 degrees C. ;
Xot more than 30 per cent, at 235 degrees C. ;
Xot less than 40 nor more than 60 per ceut. at 300 degrees C. ;
Not less than 60 per cent, at 355 degrees C.
Viscosity at 100 degrees C, not more than 25 seconds for 100 cc.
Oil No. 2 was especially made for these tests by the Barrett Manu-
facturing Company, and sufficient oil for the tests was shipped to the
Pittsburgh Wood Preserving Company's plant in tank cars. It was care-
fully stored in a separate storage tank and analysis made before and after
each treatment to determine that no accidental admixture of this oil with
other oil had occurred.
Tests of Oils — The following are average analyses of the two oils
used in the tests :
No. 1 No. 2
Regular Oil Special Oil
Specific gravity at 38 degrees C 1049 1.078
Water, per cent 0.30 0.30
Free carbon, per cent 0.31 1.00
Viscosity (100 cc. (Engler) :
At 60 degrees C, seconds 25.5 28.6
At 100 degrees C, seconds 23.8 24.4
Distillation (A. R. E. A. method) :
Total to 170 degrees C, per cent 0.0 0.0
Total to 200 degrees C, per cent 1.7 1.5
Total to 210 degrees C, per cent 4.8 4.3
Total to 235 degrees C, per cent 37.8 28.7
Total to 270 degrees C, per cent 62.9 49.5
Total to 315 degrees C, per cent 76.3 59.4
Total to 355 degrees C, per cent 91.8 73.2
Method of Operation. — (See plan.) Sufficient oil for six charges
was pumped from the storage tanks and thoroughly mixed in the under-
ground tank. The oil was then pumped in the overhead weighing tanks
and heated by steam coils to the desired temperature, and its weight
accurately taken.
After the wood received its preliminary treatment, the oil was run
into the treating retort and the weight used noted. The pressure pump
was started immediately, and the weight of oil forced into the wood ob-
served every fifteen minutes, until the desired gross absorption was ob-
tained, upon which the pressure pump was stopped. The oil was dropped
to the underground tank, and together with the oil later recovered by
vacuum, was repumped to the overheads and reweighed. The loss in
weight in the overhead tanks is the net absorption by the ties. The track
scale weights of the charge before and after treatment were taken and
their difference considered as the official figures for net absorption.
Count of ties in each charge was taken and the absorption per cubic
foot figured from a volume of 3.8 cu. ft. per tie, this having been
frequently checked up.
1076
WOOD PRESERVATION.
Fifteen minute readings were taken of pressure, temperature and
weight of oil forced into the ties. These readings are recorded on charts
i, 2, ,3 and 4. A summary of the working operation of each charge is given
in Table A.
( 1 ) Adaptability for Use at Treating Plant. — Throughout this
series of tests, the Special Oil was handled equally as readifag^nd as
easily as \tas the regular oil. The pumps exhibited no markup -differ-
ences with either oil, and pumped them with equal rapidity. 1t|ihce the
working temperature for the Special Oil is somewhat higher (b^-Japproxi-
niately 20 degrees Fahrenheit) than for the regular oil, slight Iteration
in the heating coils may, under certain conditions, be required.
The test charges throughout came from the retort clean and dry, with-
out any dripping. Slight differences were noted only between thegKueping
and full-cell treatments, but not between the oils.
(2) Absorption and Retention by the Woods. — Reference to the
absorption curves shows a slight advantage for the Special Oil in the
time required for treatment by the Rueping process ; in other particulars
the two oils show practically no differences in absorption and retention,
p, . 3i*S'c* Puxp
Px . P*Ctt</*£ PtlMP
Pi . if/ICVi/fl PtlriP
/? flim Can Pittite*
7T . U*t>*rt G*ot/*o TUnrs^
71 . Owt'to Tanner
Tj . ftiK /Tece/*£/t
R • TketfTiNC JfcTCHT
other than are usually met with in general operation practice by either
Rueping or full-cell treatment.
(3) Penetration into the Woods. — This is illustrated by photo-
graphs. Tie specimens of each of the woods were included in each test
charge. These were arranged as follows : One tie was quartered, and a
quarter placed in each test charge. Four ties were sawed in half, and
two halves placed in each test charge, so placing that matched half ties
would be in charges with the Rueping process for each of the oils, with
the full-cell process for each of the oils, and also with the same oil in
both the Rueping and full-cell process. In addition to these quarter and
halt ties, a whole tie was also included and weighed before and after treat-
ment. The ties were cross-sectioned— the half ties under the rail plate
and the whole and quarter ties at their middle, and these sections photo-
graphed immediately after sawing.
Each species ^\ wood (except chestnut) is represented by two pic-
tures, one of which shows the section of the whole ties and of the
DISCUSSION.
1077
1078
WOOD PRESERVATION.
«t O 00 \£> ■* c* O
•poo* o»u* f»d\am. ITO ©ql
DISCUSSION.
1079
at © 8
at C4 r*
•Qjri}»j»cluiaa
»- wv e* d «~ r»
•H r+ r* r*
«* O «o vo ** e» o
1080
WOOD PRESERVATION.
o o o
e» o «
N 01 r4
if\ o irw o ir o
^ ir» 01 o e- ir\
«H fH iH rH
ol o od «0 -4> ot o
DISCUSSION.
1081
o o
1 s
wn^wtAuej,
•9Jnescjj
<M O CO v£ •* &)
1082 WOOD PRESERVATION.
Pounds Oil per oublo foot
DISCUSSION.
1083
-tibia foot
Potmas Oil per oubis foot
4.0 *»8
7,2
6.1
18. 2
14.:
lF.r
15.9
1084
WOOD PRESERVATION.
!il per oubio foot
6.7 4.8
DISCUSSION.
1085
Potuifls Oil per eubio foot
7.3 7.8
8.6
?otmfia Oil per eubie foot
,6 7.4
1086
WOOD PRESERVATION.
md* Oil per 011M0 foot
.* 5.4
5.7
DISCUSSION.
1087
Pounds Oil ner
ouM«a r« --:
6,2
g.e. t
4.? ,^J^^^__-- ■
j^ J|
<|J^^^H ,i
S V..-
W00
Jg, — mb— j jii»»»i
10.4
1088 WOOD PRESERVATION.
matched quarter ties; the other picture shows the sections of the matched
half ties. In each picture the Rueping process (R) occupies the top
shelf, and the full-cell (F. C.) the lower shelf. The oils alternate on
the same shelf, first regular oil (R. O.) and then special oil (S. O.). On
the card heneath each section is the charge numher and the tie num-
ber. Whole tie numbers are preceded by a circle ; half ties by a halved
circle and quarter ties by a quartered circle. The middle number of
each half tie shows the matched ties. Thus, for beech in the picture of
matched half ties, 121 and 123 are the same ties treated by the Rueping
process, with regular and special oil, respectively; and /// and 112 are
the same tie treated with regular oil by the Rueping and full-cell process,
respectively. The chestnut ties were treated by the Rueping process only.
Conclusions. — The results obtained from these experimental runs
show that the special oil containing oil derived from the filtration of coal
tar. in accordance with the specifications given herewith, meets satisfac-
torily the conditions essential for proper treatment of cross-ties. This
applies specifically to the case of handling in the process, and the ab-
sorption, retention and penetration into seven kinds of wood.
It was also noted that the surface of ties treated with the special oil
was fully as dry and clean as those treated with the regular oil.
The President : — We will take up the conclusions on page 632, item
by item, and discussion will follow.
Mr. Stimson : — It is the sense of the Committee that this be offered
for insertion in the Manual, and I move that No. 1 be adopted by the
Association and inserted in the Manual.
Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — As a practical prop-
osition in case of scarcity of creosote, there is a question in my mind
about the advisability of adopting that conclusion as it stands. It
seems to me that if it were necessary to adulterate for any reason —
scarcity of creosote being one — we could better afford to adulterate first-
class creosote than an inferior grade. I would rather add a percentage
of coal tar to No. 1 than to No. 2 or No. 3 creosote on the assumption
that there is still a question about the result of the addition of coal tar.
Dr. H. von Schrenk : — Referring to Mr. Campbell's suggestion, I
would like to point out on behalf of the Committee that we have taken
a rather strong stand with reference to the term adulteration as applied
to the addition of coal tar to the creosote oil. In view of the fact that
the coal tar is the matrix or mother liquor from which coal oil is dis-
tilled, the addition appears to us to be iii the nature of an addition of
a similar product, rather than the sense in which that word is ordinarily
used. As to Mr. Campbell's suggestion, this subject was brought up in
the Committee meeting and aroused a great deal of discussion and it was
suggested by a number of the Committee that we were taking a rather
insistent attitude for the reason specified. Our chief reason, however,
for recommending this rule was that there seems to be very little doubt
as to the very strong and efficient preservative value of our No. 1 standard.
It is the creosote oil which has given the longest length of life records
both in this country and abroad, and we feel that any addition to it, while
it might to a certain extent increase the permanency of such oil in the
wood, would be in a sense changing its very character, and we did not
1089
feel that we were warranted in recommending the addition of coal tar to
No. i oil. After all the addition of refined coal tar to No 2 or No. 3 oil,
was making the best of the situation, it being forced on us due to the lack
of No. 1 oil.
Mr. W. M. Camp (Railway Review) : — I am not entirely clear about
this matter. As I understand it, the Committee is not in the position of
recommending that coal tar be added to creosote. Am I correct about
that?
Mr. Stimson : — Yes, sir.
Mr. Camp: — Then these conclusions mean that if one does do it,
he should do it according to this formula ; but the Committee does not
recommend adding coal tar to creosote of good quality.
Mr. Stimson: — That is explained in the body of the report, on
page 627.
Mr. Camp : — I fear that the adoption of these conclusions may be
misleading; that they may used to support a claim that this Association
does recommend adulterating creosote. It is adulteration, pure and
simple. The manufacturer takes coal tar and distils it, and at a certain
temperature there goes over what is called creosote, of a certain grade.
Five or six years ago a good deal of attention was paid in this As-
sociation to the chemical composition of creosote, and a good deal of
emphasis was placed on the importance of having a good article, ac-
cording to the best knowdedge which had been obtained in experimenting
with creosote. Now it is proposed, by some, after they take coal tar
and distil creosote out of it, to mix some of the raw product with it
again. Call it refined coal tar if you wish.
1090 WOOD PRESERVATION.
The ground on which the Committee excuses the use of this practice
is that we cannot get a sufficient supply of creosote of first quality. The
ground is therefore one of expediency. I think it is letting down the
bars to the use of an inferior grade of antiseptic which will still go
under the name of "creosote." As I have always understood it, creosote
is the best material to lie used in treating ties. Comparisons have been
made between zinc chloride and creosote, and, with zinc chloride and
creosote mixed. It has always been understood by men who have dis-
cussed this subject in an unbiased manner that creosote was the most
efficient material for treating ties, referring, of course, to the use of
the heavier oils. I am afraid that if a method of treating ties by an
adulterated article is approved, that such may lie taken as approval of
the inferior article ; and who can say that the mixture of tar with the
lighter oils really accomplishes the purpose sought? I have observed ties
treated with such mixtures where it appeared that all of the tar re-
mained on the outside of the timber. I am not, however, able to say
whether or not such precautions as are laid down by this Committee were
followed in the treatment of those ties.
Mr. Stimson : — I regret that the gentleman, after our explanation,
persists in referring to it as an adulteration. The Committee's position
is quite clearly set forth in the text of the report. We do not recommend,
but we recognize, a prevalent practice. The question is whether we want
to stand out for a practice that is largely ignored, or whether we want
to frame our recommendations to meet working conditions.
Mr. E. A. Sterling (Consulting Forester) : — I think the Committee
as a whole will agree with Mr. Camp, that creosote was and is the desir-
able preservative. It is also true that certain commercial conditions have
arisen in connection with the use of creosote ; while the fact that it is
the best preservative of that kind has naturally led to rapidly increased
use until the point has been reached where not only is the price higher,
but there is an actual difficulty in getting the required supplies. These con-
ditions have no doubt been largely responsible for the use of coal tar,
in order to increase the quantity available and still be able to use a coal
tar product. We cannot get away from the recognition of this practice,
and from any evidence now in sight conditions are not going to improve
as to the quantity and price of creosote. Personally I think it is the
feeling of the Committee that we should recognize the existence of this
commercial condition. Having recognized a commercial condition it
remains to apply the best technical measures possible for the protection
of the people who have to use this mixture or desire to use it. The ques-
tion of adulteration has been covered by Dr. von Schrenck and there is
no use going over it again, but we do not feel that coal tar is an adul-
teration in the usual sense of that word. By following the precautions
suggested here, as based on the experiments made and results shown by
Dr. von Schrenk and other investigators, very reliable results can be
obtained, with the proper sort of mixture, properly applied.
DISCUSSION. 1091
Mr. Camp : — If there is such a remarkable shortage of creosote and
not more than 30 per cent, of tar is to be mixed with it, the creosote will
not go so much farther after all.
Dr. von Schrenk : — One of the chief reasons for the commercial use
that Mr. Sterling has referred to is that the use of the coal tar makes
a grade of creosote oil available for the treatment of ties which other-
wise could not be used at all. So it is not simply a question of increasing
the coal tar volume. A commercial condition has existed, and we all rec-
ognize that. It has existed in a sort of sub-rosa fashion. We all have
known a good many years that creosote oil was being sold under our No. 1
specification, which consisted of No. 2 or No. 3 oils, to which coal tar had
been added. The chief purpose of the Committee in making these rec-
ommendations is to state openly that such a practice is in existence. As
I have attempted to indicate in the Appendix, about 40 per cent, of the
creosote oil used to-day in the United States is a combination of creo-
sote oil and coal tar. With the increased price of No. 1 oil and its in-
creasing scarcity we are confronted by the alternative question of either
using a cheaper oil, in larger quantities and paying more for it, or using
a cheap oil with a slight addition of refined coal tar, which we otherwise
could not use. The whole problem is simply one of stating publicly that
such a thing is being done, so that everybody may know it. As the
chairman has indicated, these are preliminary suggestions looking toward
an ultimate specification which shall say openly and above board to any
consumer who wishes to buy it, "Here is No. 1 oil, costing so much. Here
is No. 2; here is No. 3, with coal tar, costing so much. We leave it to
you to take your choice." Probably in a year or two the Committee will
be in a position to say something specific as to the desirability of No. 1
oil or the oil with the coal tar added to it. We do not feel that we can
take that responsibility as yet.
Mr. Camp : — Does the Committee state anywhere that it does not con-
sider the mixture of coal tar and creosote to be the best practice?
Mr. Stimson: — Yes, on page 627. "It is, however, the opinion of the
Committee that coal tar should not be added to high grade creosote."
Mr. Camp : — You say, wherever possible, only Grade 1 coal tar creo-
sote should be used. That saves the situation, for in the same sentence
the Committee's recommendation forbids the mixture of coal tar with
this grade of creosote. The Committee thus intends that in the creosot-
ing business there shall be one article that shall be first class and that
it shall not be adulterated.
Mr. Stimson : — Yes, we have always stood out for that. "And under
no circumstances should coal tar be added to creosote of this grade."
That is the recommendation that is now before the convention.
Dr. von Schrenk : — Some years ago this Committee brought in three
specifications for creosote oil, No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3, and at that time
Mr. L. C. Fritch asked a very pertinent question of the Committee, which
we had to admit we could not answer. He said, "You bring in three
specifications. You give us nothing to indicate when we shall use No. 1,
1092 WOOD PRESERVATION.
No. 2 and No. 3," and we had to give the rather indefinite answer that No.
2 and No. 3 were available oils and we recommended in general that we
use larger quantities of No. 2 and No. 3. That was based upon our con-
viction that the reason for using No. 2 and No. 3 was that they evapo-
rated from the wood quicker than No. 1. At the present time we say,
"When you can buy No. 1 oil use it, and do not add any coal tar to it.
When you cannot get No. 1, if you decide to use No. 2 or No. 3, use it
either in larger quantities, according to our recommendation two or three
years ago, or if you decide you are going to put coal tar into No. 2 or No.
3, be careful that you follow some of these precautions."
Mr. Campbell : — This conclusion, when adopted by this Association,
should be so worded that if a railroad decided that it was best for it to
dilute No. 1 creosote such decision should not be contrary to the adopted
recommendations of this Association. I do not consider that the dilution
of No. 1 creosote has anything to do with the specification for that grade,
because as soon as you dilute any grade of oil you have something differ-
ent and it does not then come under the specification for the original.
I see no inconsistency in diluting No. 1 as compared with No. 2 or No. 3.
On account of the general scarcity of creosote I do not believe any un-
necessary restrictions should be placed on the use of coal tar. The re-
port of this Committee holds out some hope to the railroads for relief
under the existing scarcity of oil. If the railroad with which I am con-
nected becomes convinced that coal tar can be added to creosote and a
proper preservative secured, thereby increasing the quantity so that more
'ties can be treated, I think that railroad may be willing to dilute its creo-
sote. Under such circumstances we would like to do so without acting-
contrary to the recommendations of this Association.
Mr. G. B. Shipley (Consulting Engineer) : — I know it to be a fact
that creosote, during the last nine months, has been very scarce. Here-
tofore the majority of the large railroads have insisted that we use all
No. 1 creosote. This summer at least eight plants were shut down be-
cause they could not get No. 1, or German creosote. About 60 per cent,
of the creosote used in the United States is imported from Germany, and
the importers find it practically impossible to secure enough creosote to
go around. This means that the Association should have three or four
standard specifications. Another thing that interferes with the use of No.
1 grade creosote is the fact that creosote has increased in price 2T/> cents
a gallon f. o. b. coast points within the last two years. If you add freight,
that means you will pay n or 12 cents for creosote, which is almost pro-
hibitive. Whereas, if we are permitted to use several grades, it will be
possible to secure additional creosote from domestic factories.
Dr. von Schrenk : — I do not personally see any reason why anybody
that wants to add refined coal tar to No. 1 oil should not do so. He
thereby increases the volume of his oil 10 or 20 per cent.; but at the
same time the Committee understands that the reason why refined coal
tar is added is not chiefly for the purpose of increasing the volume of
available oil. The chief purpose of those who are adding coal tar to the
DISCUSSION. 1093
inferior grades of creosote is to realize the permanency of the oil after
it is injected into the wood. By comparison we have used No. i creosote
oil as the standard on evaporative properties because by experience we
have found that we get good and sufficient service from the standpoint of
time out of the chemical composition of No. I oil. The chief reason why
coal tar is added where it is done to creosote No. 2 and No. 3, is to bring
oils of the grade of Nos. 2 and 3 up to that standard as far as the per-
manency is concerned. If it incidentally increases the oil supply a small
percentage by the addition of the coal tar used and also by the increased
oil supply of No. 2 and No. 3', that is an incidental matter and I can see
no reason why coal tar should not be added to No. 1. The reason that
this Committee stands out strongly in its recommendations is to obviate
what Mr. Camp objects to, that we want it to be strictly understood that
we are standing squarely on the proposition that • where you can use
No. 1 creosote oil, do so, without the addition of coal tar.
Mr. Campbell: — The cost of creosote is high. It seems to me that
there is a probability that we can secure the preservative results that
we require for ties by the addition of coal tar to creosote and thereby
reduce the cost per gallon of the preservative. If that is true, I think
one reason for the addition of coal tar would be the reduction in cost
of the oil and consequently a reduction in cost of treatment per tie and
an increase in the number treated.
Mr. Stimson : — The Committee wishes it distinctly understood that it
does not recommend the addition of coal tar to the No. 1 grade. We
want to preserve the No. 1 grade as the high standard. We do not rec-
ommend changing our standard, and we wish the recommendation to go
before the convention as it stands.
(Conclusion 1 was thereupon adopted.)
Mr. Stimson : — In conclusion 2 we want to strike out the words "and
poorer" after "American Railway Engineering Association," and change
precaution (b) to read, "That the coal tar be added to the creosote under
the direct supervision of the railway company, and preferably at the
plant."
(Mr. Stimson then read conclusion 2 (a, b, c, d, e).
Mr. Stimson : — I move that these precautions as read be received by
the Association as information.
(The motion carried.)
Mr. Stimson : — I would like to call attention to the fact that the
changes just noted in these precautions as printed on page 632 also apply
to the text of the report on page 627. Also on page 629, fourth line, last
paragraph, third word should be "source," instead of "course." And on
page 679, second line, next to last paragraph, third word should be "coal,"
instead of "coal tar."
(Mr. Stimson then read the second and third subjects assigned the
Committee.
Mr. Stimson : — No conference was held with the Committee on Grad-
ing of Lumber. The subject of grouping timber is one that is worked out
1094 WOOD PRESERVATION.
locally at each plant, and other than the fundamental principles, already
adopted by the Association, the Committee is unable to go into further
detail and recommends that the investigation of this subject be dropped.
The fourth subject is report on methods of accurately determining the
absorption of creosote oil. A description of the three systems in general
use for determining the absorption of preservatives is given in the re-
port, followed by a discussion.
We recommend that the investigation of this subject be continued
next year.
Under the heading of "Conclusions," the Committee presents two
recommendations pertaining to the determination of absorption for adop-
tion and insertion in the Manual, as given on page 632.
(On motion, the two conclusions were adopted.)
Mr. Stimson: — We have here the report of tests referred to by Mr.
S. R. Church, and we would like to have this report accepted by the con-
vention to be printed as information in the discussion of this report.
The President:— If there is no objection, the report will be printed.
Has the convention any subjects to suggest for the work of the Com-
mittee during the coming year? If not, the Committee is excused, with
the thanks of the Association.
DISCUSSION ON GRADING OF LUMBER.
(For Report, see page 683.)
list of speakers taking part in discussion on grading of lumber.
Dr. Hermann von Schrenk.
The President: — The report of the Special Committee on the Grad-
ing of Lumber will be presented by the Chairman, Dr. von Schrenk.
Dr. Hermann von Schrenk (Consulting Timber Engineer) : — Owing
to the nature of the subject assigned to us it involved frequent con-
ferences with the various manufacturing organizations which produce
various grades of lumber, and in view of the fact that their committees
are somewhat ponderous and the deliberations were scattered over a
considerable period of time, we found ourselves in a position of not being
able to agree upon any set of specified rules this year. We, therefore,
have nothing but a progress report to offer, with indications that next
year the series of specifications we are drawing up for Northern woods,
particularly hemlock and white pine, will have progressed sufficiently
so that they can be presented.
We have spent a great deal of time and energy in persuading the
various lumber manufacturing organizations of the desirability of adopt-
ing the standards promulgated by their associations and this Association.
Your Committee is finding considerable difficulty, and we will admit
discouragement, owing to the fact that we are constantly being met
with the objection on the part of the producer of lumber for main-
tenance material, who state that there is no use in their conferring
with us, because after they adopt the rules we propose there is not
a single railroad company in the United States which ever buys a
stick of lumber under the rules which we adopt. It is rather dis-
couraging to have these rules adopted, and your Committee appeals
to you to use your good offices to see those who are responsible for
the purchase of lumber are at least advised of the fact that we have
standard rules. Lumber is going up in cost. The specifying of ab-
normal sizes and abnormal grades always costs very much more money
than the specifying of standard sizes and grades, and your Committee
feels sure that by adhering to some of the standard sizes which this
Association has hitherto adopted, particularly for heavy stringer tim-
bers, like yellow pine and various classes of oak wood, that a con-
siderable saving could be effected.
Next year we hope to present a complete series of rules, having
been working on these for some time, which will probably close up
the work of this Committee.
The President: — Is there any discussion? The convention desires
to thank the Committee for its labors and it is dismissed with the
thanks of the Association.
1095
DISCUSSION ON WATER SERVICE.
(For Report, see PP. 685-704.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON WATER SERVICE.
J. L. Campbell. A. F. Dorley.
The President: — The next subject to be considered is that of the
Committee on Water Service. It will be presented by the Chairman,
Mr. A. F. Dorley.
Mr. A. F. Dorley (Missouri Pacific) : — The report of the Committee
on Water Service will be found in Bulletin 163, page 685.
(Mr. Dorley then outlined the report.)
I wish to call particular attention to the statement made on page
693, which illustrates the experience of a road in the Middle West on
three divisions. Division "A" is equipped throughout with complete
water softeners, that is, both lime and soda ash are used to remove
both the carbonate and sulphates. On Division "B" partial treatment
only is used, that is, soda ash only, and on Division "C" no water
softeners are in use. In the table is given the apparent saving or
loss in boiler repairs on Division "C" as compared with the other two
divisions. You will notice quite a marked difference between Division
"A" and Division "B," which illustrates the advantage of full treat-
ment over partial treatment. The comparison between Division "C"
with either Division "A" or Division "B," illustrates quite definitely that
there is marked advantage in water purification.
The Committee in submitting these figures has made every effort
to be conservative. We feel that in presenting a thing of this kind
with any degree of mathematical accuracy is about as difficult as it
would be for an individual to try to calculate how much he would
save in doctor's bills if he used pure water as compared with polluted
water.
The Committee moves that the report on subject No. 2 be received
as information.
(Motion carried.)
Mr. Dorley: — The third subject to be reported on by the Committee
is "Recent developments in pumping machinery." This is a subject upon
which a great deal of hard work has been done by the sub-committee.
but unfortunately it is not in shape for final submission. With the
consent of the Board of Direction, the Committee will continue the
study of this subject for another year.
In Appendix A will be found a report on "Corrosion Tests on
Iron and Steel," by Mr. J. L. Campbell, Vice-Chairman of the Com-
1096
DISCUSSION. 1097
mittee. These tests were conducted by him personally with the object
to determine, if possible, the most suitable and most lasting material for
steel water tanks.
Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — I want to refer
to one thing in the report of this Committee on page 686. In section
(i) it says "Many of the benefits are of such an intangible nature as
to be very difficult of mathematical expression." That refers to the
results of the treatment of water. I happen to be impressed with
that statement as to how much it may mean under certain conditions.
As a result of the expenditure of a large sum of money on the road
with which I am connected a very bad supply of water on one division
was replaced with a supply of very good water. One of the marked
benefits derived was what may be described as a great improvement in the
esprit de corps of the organization. The water was so bad, engine
failures so numerous and train service so demoralized that everybody
on the division was discouraged. When the good water was secured
and the traffic began to move properly, everybody was relieved and en-
couraged and the boys began to "hit the ball" cheerfully and regularly.
These indeterminate values in such a case are unusually large, but they
apply to a marked extent to this subject generally and it is a phase
of the matter that is deserving of consideration. I venture the asser-
tion that if any road which has a bad supply of water will introduce
a thorough system of treatment, such road will derive large indeterminate
values.
With reference to the corrosion tests which have been referred to
by the Chairman, I have nothing particular to add to the report. Your
attention is called to the remarkably small difference in the corrosive
resistance of the various samples, notwithstanding some of them were
of a specially pure iron and some of the steel was treated with copper.
About all that can be said at the present time as far as these tests in-
dicate is that there is little indication of any marked superiority in any
of the metals. Evidently we have not yet found a panacea for the
important corrosive question.
Recently I met Mr. Buck, of the American Tin Plate Company. I
went over this matter with him and found that the results of these
tests are in substantial agreement with what they have found under
similar conditions. You will notice that these tests were in soil. None
of them were in the air. We have so little rain in El Paso and the
atmosphere normally is so dry that any kind of good metal exposed
to the air only would last indefinitely. Consequently I did not under-
take testing these metals by exposure in the atmosphere.
Mr. Buck says that their corrosion tests in soils are in harmony
with the results here reported, but that they have found an advantage
for the copper-bearing steel in exposure to the atmosphere only. I am
not prepared to express an opinion on the latter.
In this report you will notice that samples Nos. 6 and 7 of the
copper-bearing steel had no surface treatment prior to the beginning
1098 WATER SERVICE.
of the tests. The copper oxidation on the surface of the samples was
quite perceptible and was left as it came from the mills. There is
indication that during the first three months this oxidation afforded
some protection to the surface of the metal, but the corrosion of these
samples at the end of six months compared with the other copper-bearing
samples indicates that such initial protection, if any, had disappeared
in six months.
The special iron shows a slight superiority in the exposure in the
cooling water from the converters of the Copper Queen Consolidated
Mining Company at Douglas, Arizona. This water has exceptionally
high corrosive action on the steel water jackets of the converters. The
advantage for the special iron is small and we can say in a general way
that there is remarkably small difference in the corrosive resistance of
all the samples. Visual inspection reveals the fact that all of them are
failing rapidly with the exception of those in certain alkali soils.
The tests are being continued during the coming year.
The President: — Is there any further discussion on this report? If
not, the Committee is excused with the thanks of the Association.
DISCUSSION ON BUILDINGS.
(For Report, see pp. 705-723.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON BUILDINGS.
G. D. Brooke M. A. Long.
Chas. S. Churchill. H. C. Phillips.
Maurice Cobur.v. R. C. Sattlev.
L. A. Downs.
The President : — The report on Buildings will be presented by the
Chairman, Mr. Maurice Coburn.
Mr. Maurice Coburn ( Vandalia Railroad) : — The first thing at-
tempted by the Committee this year has been a discussion on roofing,
condensed from the report of the previous year. We were given per-
mission last year to abstract the report for the Manual. We attempted
to do this, but the results were unsatisfactory, and we therefore con-
densed the matter and summarized the important points. This informa-
tion is necessarily brief and many important points are omitted; possibly
in some cases the information presented is so incomplete that it may
seem misleading, but we trust such will not be the case. One or two
points may be slightly changed from what is now in the report, but
they are comparatively unimportant.
I move that the report on Roofing be accepted and printed in the
Manual.
(Motion carried.)
Mr. M. A. Long (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I have been asked to pre-
sent the part of the report dealing with "Principles Covering Designs
of Inbound and Outbound Freight Houses."
The first paragraph should be revised to read as follows : "The fol-
lowing report on Freight House Design is presented for publication in
the Manual. This report does not cover freight piers, and deals only
with single-story freight houses where the mechanical handling of freight
is not considered."
Also eliminate the line "This report does not cover freight piers"
at the end of the section on Freight Houses, page 714.
Also add on page 711, middle of the page after "Important Ter-
minals :" "Many roads are building cars that are lower than the maximum
figures given above, and each road in deciding the height of platform
above the top of rail should take into consideration the sizes of cars that
predominate on its lines."
I move that the matter just read be accepted and approved for pub-
lication in the Manual.
( Motion carried.)
Mr. H. C. Phillips (Santa Fe) :— I would ask if the Committee has
any examples to cite, as to the freight floor sloping 1 in. in 8 ft. in the
1099
1100 BUILDINGS.
direction of the trucking, or whether that is a theoretical consideration.
Mr. Long: — The Committee has only theoretical information.
Mr. Phillips : — The amount of slope seems so very small that it was
doubtful to some of us whether we would not need the freight house
floor level or sloped for drainage and abandon the slope in direction of
the trucking consideration in most cases.
Mr. R. C. Sattley (Rock Island Lines) : — Has the Committee consid-
ered the direction in which the plank in the freight house floor should
be laid?
Mr. Coburn: — That matter was discussed last year; we are not going
into the freight house floor question at this time.
Mr. G. D. Brooke (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I am very much in favor of
having this report published in the Manual, but it seems to me that it
may be made more convenient by the use of marginal notes. In some
cases one note could cover several paragraphs, but in looking for one
specific subject now, the whole report will have to be read.
Mr. Coburn : — The Committee will accept that suggestion.
Mr. Chas. S. Churchill (Norfolk & Western) : — On page 711 the
clearance of the face of the platform or freight house is given as not
less than 5 ft. 9 in. I think that is too close to the freight house, ac-
cording to proper clearances and is contrary to the laws of several states.
Mr. Coburn : — In the matter of clearances, the Committee agrees that
5 ft. 9 in. is too close to the building. We had the section 5 ft. 9 in. for
the platform, and then remembered we had stated in some cases it might
be desirable to have a freight house without any platform, and we put
that in. We say it should not be less than 5 ft. 9 in. It might be mis-
leading, of course.
Mr. Churchill : — I suggest that you omit the words "freight house."
Mr. Long: — We communicated with various roads and obtained
typical cross-sections of new freight houses, and we found some of them
used dimensions less than 5 ft. 6 in. from center of track to face of plat-
forms, and some of the freight houses were 5 ft. 8 in. from the center
of track to face of house. I understand that the law in Ohio is 5 ft. 9 in.
from center of track to face of platform.
Mr. Churchill: — My recollection is the Ohio law requires about 6 ft.
minimum above the level of a freight house platform.
Mr. Long : — I suggest in line with Mr. Churchill's remarks that this
section be amended to read 5 ft. 9 in. to the face of the platform and 6 ft.
to the face of the freight house from the center of the track.
The President : — In its report the Committee presents a statement on
shop floors.
Mr. Coburn: — The Committee feels that this part of the report is
also rather incomplete. The same criticism applies to this part of our
report that was made about one of the reports this morning in discussing
asphalt. We speak about asphalt flooring and give a little information
about building it, but say nothing about the material. It is an important
subject, and we feel that this part of the report should be amplified con-
DISCUSSION. 1101
siderably. We think there should be more information about wood block
floors. There are many chances for error in laying them and there should
be more detailed information presented.
The Committee presents this report with the understanding that it is
not complete, but that what has been presented should be printed in the
Manual.
Mr. L. A. Downs (Illinois Central) : — As the Committee states that
the matter is incomplete, do we want to put it in the Manual until the
final report is made? It has been against our policy to place partial re-
ports in the Manual or any deductions we might make from the reports
until they are completed.
Mr. Coburn : — The Committee believes that there is some information
of value in what we have reported, and that as far as presented it was
complete in itself. These subjects can be amplified without end. If the
Association decides that this part of the report should not be placed in
the Manual, we would not object.
Mr. Downs: — I would consider that a report of this kind should be
received as information. I believe that matter of this nature should noc
be put into the Manual until it is completed.
I move as an amendment that this part of the report be received as
information only.
(Motion carried.)
The President: — Are there any suggestions with respect to the work
of this Committee for next year? If not, the Committee is excused with
the thanks of the Association.
Mr. E. M. Rosher (Cuban Central Railways — by letter) : — -The Com-
mittee recommends the adoption of their report on Freight House Design
in substitution for the conclusions already in the Manual.
It is not quite clear whether they intend to eliminate the latter half
of the "Outbound Freight House Clause" (page 395), relating to a
"freight house built at right angles to and at the back end of a series of
tracks built in pairs with covered platforms between."
I would regret to see this omitted, as this class of freight house
has undoubted advantages. On the other hand, further information from
the Committee on the subject as to proportions and limiting size and
conditions would be of considerable interest and value. Any further in-
formation as to the actual working in practice compared with the ordi-
nary long inbound and outbound houses would be useful.
Mr. E. A. Frink (Seaboard Air Line — by letter) : — Because of serv-
ing as teller at the recent convention, the writer was prevented from tak-
ing part in the discussion on the report of the Committee on Buildings.
On page 709 of their report, in the third paragraph, under "Metal Roof-
ing," they decry the use of metal shingles, so called, which the writer be-
lieves to be a mistake.
There is no doubt that steel or iron roofing, protected only by paint,
is of very doubtful durability, and, moreover, requires frequent painting.
When used in the form of shingles over sheathing, of necessity only one
1102 BUILDINGS.
surface can be repainted. But when properly galvanized, the painting
except for appearance, is largely unnecessary, the shingle being durable
without.
Plenty of evidence is available showing a life of 25 years or more
for metal shingles, properly made and laid. But to obtain this service
it is essential that the same care be used in inspecting and testing the
material as is used with other permanent construction. Attached is a
copy of a shingle specification that is in use on this road, which is sub-
mitted as a basis for investigation by this Association.
The requirements for a good metal shingle roof are as follows :
(1) The shingle must be redipped, that is, dipped after being
formed. If the shingle is cut and stamped from pre-galvanized sheet
metal, from two to four edges are raw and nngalvanized, the zinc coating
is usually too thin, and the process of stamping and forming the lock is
apt to crack or flake the zinc coating.
(2) The zinc coating must be heavy, because upon this coating de-
pends the life of the shingle. A 30-gage metal, properly coated, will far
outlast a 24-gage poorly coated.
(3) The zinc coating must be uniform, the reason for which is ob-
vious.
(4) The roof pitch should preferably be not less than 6 in. to the
foot, although slopes as low as 4 in. to the foot may be covered if suf-
ficient care is taken.
(5) The roof should be covered under the shingle with a good
rosin-sized building paper.
It is also better, though not essential, to use a shingle stamped into
comparatively high relief; say not less than J^-in., as this makes a stiffer
shingle, and a better looking roof. Shingles shaped like Spanish tile are
obtainable, and make an artistic roof.
It is obvious that any of the pure irons may be used as bases. Be-
lieving, however, that the value of the shingle depends principally on the
coating, the writer does not advise the use of the pure irons unless at
practically the same cost.
It may be argued that a metal shingle roof cannot last longer than
one of galvanized corrugated iron. But the cases are unlike. The zinc
coating on the shingle is heavier, and the underside is protected by the
roofing paper. Moreover, corrugated iron must necessarily have numer-
ous holes punched in each sheet in order to fasten it in place, these holes
being usually protected from the weather only by the head of the nail,
bolt or rivet used as a fastening, each hole thus becoming a vantage point
for the attack of rust, while the two-nail holes in each shingle are both
under the lock of the next shingle, thus being entirely protected.
For a large proportion of railroad structures, 25 years of life may
be called permanency. A due regard for changing conditions will lead
the engineer who has at heart the true interest of his company in many
cases to specify material having a life expectancy of 25 years, in prefer-
ence to a higher-priced material having a longer life.
DISCUSSION. 1103
The writer requests that as part of this year's work, your Commit-
tee on Buildings be instructed to investigate this question thoroughly and
prepare a specification for the manufacture and use of galvanized metal
shingles.
The following are the Seaboard Air Line Company's standard specifi-
cations for metal slates and shingles :
"All metal slate or shingles wherever shown or specified will be Cort-
right's Victoria Shingles, or equal. They shall be about 10 in. wide by
14 in. long, made of best grade roofing plate, hot galvanized, carry-
ing not less than 1 oz. of zinc per sq. ft. of surface of each side
of shingles. The sheet steel or iron of which the shingles are made,
shall not be thinner than No. 30 B. W. G. The complete shingle must
weight at least 9^4 ozs- per sq. ft. of metal. The highest part of the
formed up metal shall be at least ^2-in. above the flat body of the shingle.
Shingles shall be well formed, true to size and shape, with well-made
locks. The zinc coating must be evenly distributed over all parts of the
shingles and must be applied after the shingle is fully formed, and must
not crack or flake off when the metal is bent double to a radius of Ms-in.
"Metal slates or shingles must be laid over tongued and grooved
sheathing surfaced one side, laid diagonally or parallel to the eaves of
the building. Cover the entire roof over the sheathing with waterproof
sheathing paper, free from tar or asphalt, weighing not less than 20 lbs.
per sq., all laps to be at least 3 in. wide. Over this lay the metal slates in
strict accordance with the manufacturer's specifications. All courses must
be strictly parallel to the eave line, all joints between shingles
vertical, and the joints in any course must come exactly at the center
of the shingles in the next course above and below.
"Hips, valleys, ridges, gables, etc., must be finished with the proper
fitting pieces as made for the purpose by the manufacturer of the shingles
used and as may be shown or specified. All cutting and fitting of the
regular shingles to fit at gables, hips, valleys, chimneys, etc., must be
carefully and neatly done. Furnish and lay all necessary flashing of No.
26 galvanized sheet metal of sizes required or specified. All nails used
to be balvanized steel wire nails 1 in. No. 13."
DISCUSSION ON RAIL.
(For Report, see pp. 151-381.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON RAIL.
J. A. Atwood, C. E. Lindsay,
J. L. Campbell, R. Trimble,
W. H. COURTENAY, M. H. WlCKHORST.
The President : — The report of the Rail Committee will be presented
I iy Mr. J. A. Atwood, the Chairman.
Mr. J. A. Atwood (Pittsburgh & Lake Erie) : — I would ask Mr.
Trimble, chairman of the sub-committee on standard rail sections, to pre-
sent the report on that subject.
Mr. R. Trimble (Pennsylvania Lines) :— The Committee has been em-
barrassed a little by the instructions that it has received, and I think this
Association ought to understand the position of the sub-committee that
is working on the problem of sections.
Several years ago the American Railway Association evolved two sets
of sections called series A and series B. Then the matter of studying
these sections was referred to this Association and we were asked, if
possible, to recommend one section for the use of railroads. When we
come to collect information in regard to the comparative merit of these
two sections, we find that we do not get very much information. There
are only a few people who have gone to the trouble of making compari-
sons between these two sections, some have selected sections series A and
said, "That is good enough, we are satisfied with that section." Others
have selected series B and have said, "That section is good enough ; we
are satisfied with it." Because of that attitude we do not get any com-
parative information.
If three or four years ago a number of important railroads had se-
lected pieces of test track and put both of these sections on that test
track, we would then have some information which would be of value.
There are a few roads that have gone to the trouble of putting in both
of these sections, and the information that we have is somewhat con-
flicting, and that makes it difficult to draw any definite conclusions from
what has been done.
We find in looking over the statistics in response to the inquiries sent
cut by the Committee that a great many of the roads which use the old
A. S. C. E. section are entirely satisfied with that section and they do not
want to make any change. They have not given the A. R. A. sections
series A and B any consideration. They object to a change of standards.
We assume these must be roads of comparatively light traffic, although
there are some very important roads in that category.
We find that there is a disposition on the part of a great many roads
hot to make any change, and not to make any experiments until this
1104
DISCUSSION. 1105
question of sections is settled, and if it is to be settled on the basis of the
experiments that are now being conducted it will have to be settled from
experiments made by a very few railroads.
We also find a tendency to develop new sections varying by the
merest trifle from the sections now in existence. I think I voice the
sentiment of the entire Committee when I say that we believe it would
be a mistake for any member of this Association to design a new section
.which varies by the very smallest fraction of an inch from the sections
we now have. We believe that the A. R. A. sections A and B are good
sections. They have been designed from the point of view of people who
look at this proposition from differing standpoints. Those who prefer the
A. R. A. section A, ask for a rail of thin base, thin head and high
moment of inertia. Those who prefer the B section are not so particular
about the moment of inertia, but are quite particular about the thickness
of the base and the thickness of the head.
We find when we compare some of these new sections that have
been evolved that they do not vary and cannot vary very much from
either one or the other of sections A or B, and we think that these very
small variations will not produce any practical benefit. On the other hand,
if the different members of the Association go ahead multiplying sections
without regard to the work of this Association, this matter of the rail
sections is going to get into the same chaotic condition that it was in be-
fore the A. S. C. E. sections were evolved. We all hope that there will
not be too much work done in designing new sections until our Com-
mittee can make some more definite recommendation than it is ready to
make at the present time.
Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — Has the Commit-
tee considered the practicability of having one weight of rail base to
include several weights of rail, especially from 75 lbs. up? I think that
matter is important. If we could get a rail of uniform base for varying
weights, it would save expense by permitting old tie plates to be used with
new rail and for other reasons the uniform width of rail base would be
desirable.
Mr. W. B. Storey (Santa Fe) : — The remarks of the chairman of the
sub-committee, Mr. Trimble, seem to be directed against the Santa Fe
system, as we changed the A. R. A. section 1-16-in. It was a very im-
portant matter to us, in spite of what seems to be considered a small mat-
ter in the discussion. It was due to the fact that we had an 85-lb. rail,
for which we provided tie plates, over a very large mileage, and when
we changed to the 90-lb. rail we changed the A. R. A. section so as to
give the same base as the 85-lb. We were thus able to use the same tie
plates as before we changed from the 85-lb. rail, and it saved us the
expense of buying new ones. The expense connected with relaying the
rail is very material to this case. I think Mr. Campbell's observations
are very well made.
Mr. Trimble : — I had forgotten what Mr. Storey had done on the
Santa Fe road when I made my remarks — they were not particularly
HOC RAIL.
directed at that railroad. The suggestion has been made to the Commit-
tee of having rails of two or three different weights with the same width
of base, in order that a uniform size of tie plate may be used without
making changes. We have noticed, Mr. Storey, that not only your road,
but a couple of others during the past year, have produced sections vary-
ing very little from the existing sections, but probably not for the
same reason that you changed yours — that is a very good reason that you
have given for the change you have made.
Mr. Atwood : — The next subject assigned to the Committee is, "Con-
tinue investigation of rail failures and deduce conclusions therefrom."
The rail statistics for the past year have been placed in Mr. Trimble's
hands, and he and his people have spent a great deal of time in compiling
statistics and drawing conclusions. The compiling of these statistics
and drawing conclusions has become a very arduous task, and the Com-
mittee has placed the matter in Mr. Wickhorst's hands, who has em-
ployed assistants to help him out in that work, so that in future this
arduous work will be done by Mr. Wickhorst.
The matter under the heading, "Statistics of rail failures," is offered
as information.
Mr. W. H. Courtenay (Louisville & Nashville) : — I would like to
secure some statistics from the various railroads regarding rail failures due
to transverse fissures. Our road has been a great sufferer in that respect,
and we would like to know whether other railroads have suffered from
failures from transverse fissures. It seems to me that this is a live sub-
ject for the railroads for the reason that in nearly all other cases of fail-
ure that I know of there is some warning given before the rail breaks.
When rails fail on account of pipes in the ingot, or cracks in the web, our
people discover the flaws in the rails before they break altogether. But
with a transverse fissure we have no warning, and we have had a good
many broken rails from this cause. One-sixth of all the broken rails
we had on account of transverse fissures caused derailments. It is very
difficult to get records of failures from this cause, as a foreman or sec-
tionman must be educated to know a transverse fissure where he sees one.
In the course of my experience on railroads I have seen many dif-
ferent kinds of broken rails, but I never saw a rail that failed on ac-
count of transverse fissure until February, iqii. Since then I have seen
a great number. In order to educate our people to detect this flaw, and
to be able to report it as such, I had photographs made and distributed
them, and asked all the Roadmasters to bring that matter particularly
to the attention of every foreman on the road, and whenever there was
a case of transverse fissure discovered to report it to me. Such litera-
ture as I have seen on this subject so far does not explain it. We all
know that the Engineer-Physicist of the Interstate Commerce Commis-
sion, Mr. Howard, attributes the failure of rail due to this cause to the
simple reason that the rail is not strong enough. On the Louisville &
Nashville road we have 70-lb. rails rolled under the same general specifica-
tion, except that the carbon is lower than in the 80-lb. rail — rolled at the
DISCUSSION. 1107
same mill, same time, and same metal. We have never had a transverse
fissure reported in the 70-lb. rail, although on some divisions we run the
same weight of engine over the 70-lb. rail as we do over the 80-lb. rail.
That appeals to me as powerful argument against the theory of Mr.
Howard that the rail is not strong enough.
On many of the branch lines we have had 585^-lb. Bessemer rail in
the track for many years and there have been no transverse fissures de-
veloped in that rail, whereas in the later 80-lb. rail, with the same weight
cf engines, we have a number of them. I admit that the rails are not
strong enough since they contain flaws of that character, but if they did
not contain that peculiar kind of flaw they would be strong enough.
I should be glad if the members here would give me some information
whether they are having serious trouble of that kind. I believe that they
have, but I do not know that it has been brought out. This transverse
fissure is the most serious thing that confronts us in connection with rails.
Rails with this defect snap quickly and there is no warning that they are
about to break. Only recently have we succeeded in getting the track-
men to detect rails which have lateral cracks before they break across the
section. There is sometimes a minute crack on the side of the head of
the rail, which is discovered by the presence of a slight amount of rust
running down the side of the rail. I have examined a great number of
breaks from transverse fissures, and I believe every one of them is caused
by an internal crack which extends to the surface of the rail. I have had
a number of remaining parts of rails broken, the first fracture of which
disclosed the fact that transverse fissures caused the rail to break, and
found other spots or fissures, silvery gray, ranging in size from ^-in. in
diameter to over half the area of the head.
•Mr. Atwood : — The subject of transverse fissures is a live one with
the members of the Committee. We recently had a meeting in Wash-
ington with Mr. J. E. Howard, the Engineer-Physicist of the Interstate
Commerce Commission, and the purpose of that meeting was solely to
discuss this question of transverse fissures. I think we left the meeting
with a more satisfactory feeling all around as regards that particular
trouble. There was some information developed during that meeting
which we believe will lead to some solution of the cause of this class of
failure, and which we hope will possibly result in eliminating these failures
to a considerable extent. This is the subject before us which will be
given serious consideration during the next year.
With reference to that particular thing, it comes under the next
subject assigned to the Committee, (3) "Continue special investigations of
rails.'' The matter which we offer under the third subject has appeared
in the various Bulletins which you have had during the year and is of-
fered as information. We will ask Mr. Wickhorst to speak on that phase
of the report.
Mr. M. H. Wickhorst (Engineer of Tests) : — As regards the develop-
ments of the last year, I may make a few remarks on the matter of
broken rails and broken bases and their relation to seams in the base. Mr.
1108 RAIL.
MacFarland has presented one or two reports dealing with seams in the
base and shows up nicely how the seam is the origin of broken bases and
broken rails. Two of the reports which have been given out during the
last year have dealt with the origin of the seams in the manufacture of
rails.
A seam in the base may be anywhere from a few hundredths to %-in.
or more in depth longitudinal of the rail, anywhere in the base, and these
seams also occur in other portions of the sections; but so far it does not
appear that such other seams are a frequent cause of rail failures. But
when they occur in the base, and particularly in the center of the base, run-
ning lengthwise under the web, or near that position, they are apt to be
the origin of a broken rail.
These seams start in the ingot from which the rail was rolled. The
ingot surface may be cracked transverse of the ingot, and in the rolling
process, on the two sides of the ingot as it enters the rolls (the right and
left sides) the cracks open up and produce gaps in the nature of zig-zag
gaps. These gaps lengthen out more or less, later the sides of the gaps
come together, and we have longitudinal seams. We start with a crack
transverse of the ingot, or approximately so, and finally, due to the clos-
ing of the sides of the gap, the seam is longitudinal of the rail.
The matter of transverse fissures has been a very puzzling proposi-
tion, but it looks as if we had struck a trail that may lead us somewhere,
although possibly the trail may prove to be simply a blind alley. We
have given close attention to one rail and we find on examination that the
interior of the head contained a great many fissures, not only transverse,
but also longitudinal, oblique and in all directions; in other words, the
whole steel was honeycombed with fissures. That is the result of a close
examination of one sample, probably a typical sample. Just how *his
matter is going to develop we cannot say at this stage. While we might
theorize and speculate, we cannot do more than that at this time.
As to the matter of rail statistics, the Committee six or eight years
ago got up a form for compiling rail failure statistics, and then ar-
ranged to gather them, and we have now reached a point where we can
in all probability make another step forward toward improving the value
of the statistics.
The statistics as they will be issued some time in the course of the
next few months, covering the year 1913, will be somewhat changed in this
particular — heretofore the statistics have covered only the failures which
occurred during the year included in the report. The statistics as we
shall get them out hereafter, however, will include the accumulated fail-
ures, all failures which have occurred since the rail was put into service;
for instance, for the 1910 rail, the report will show all the failures that
have occurred since that rail was put into service up to the time covered
by the report. We will start with the 1908 rail (for which, however, the
reports are not very numerous), and all failures of the 1908 rail will be
kept by themselves and separated according to the different mills. Then
the 1909 rail will be treated in the same manner, the 1910 rail following,
DISCUSSION. 1109
and each year's rolling will be a complete unit. We hope in that way
to be able to follow the improvement from year to year which may occur
in the rolling of the various mills, or the lack of improvement, which
we hope will not turn out to be the case.
Mr. Atwood : — I might, before starting on the conclusions, state that
one of the meetings of the Committee was with a committee of manu-
facturers, and they brought up a number of changes which they would
like to have made in the specifications, the large majority of which were
not approved by the Committee, but there were some changes which the
Committee thought it was advisable to make in the specifications. These
changes are embodied in the specifications printed in Bulletin 164, page
375, and our conclusion is that the revision of the specifications for carbon
steel rails presented herewith be approved for printing in the Manual. I
would suggest if it is thought desirable that the seven different changes
be taken up. The first change is in the first paragraph of section 1 as it
appears on page 375. This is changed only by the words "and loaded,"
after the word "made," next to the last line. This change has been
made to include section 35, requiring the loading of rails to be done under
the supervision of the inspector.
The President: — If there is no objection, this section will be ap-
proved as amended.
Mr. Atwood : — Section 4 of the specification has been changed by
substituting under the column "per cent, for open-hearth process." and
"under 85 to 100-lb. rail, inclusive," the figures .62 to .75 for carbon, in-
stead of what was in the old specification, .63 to .76.
The President :— If there is no objection to this change, it will stand
approved.
Mr. Atwood : — The next change is the elimination entirely of section
6 of the old specifications. The principal thing which induced the Com-
mittee to eliminate that section was the fact that failures showing trans-
verse fissures were as a general thing found where the carbon was high,
and this section 6 allowed the carbon to be modified on a sliding scale, pro-
vided some other constitutents of the rail were in proper proportion. We,
therefore, eliminated it so that it might not be possible to get carbon
higher than as provided by paragraph 4 of the specifications.
The President: — If there is no objection, the recommendation will
stand approved.
Mr. Atwood: — The next modification is in paragraph. 13 of the old
specifications.
(Mr. Atwood read the last paragraph on page 158 and the first para-
graph on page 159.)
Mr. Atwood: — There has been some difference of opinion in the Com-
mittee with reference to this particular change. The majority of the Com-
mittee approved the change and the change was practically made to get to
a common understanding with the manufacturers on every point where
it was thought reasonably possible to do so.
The President: — Without objection the change will be approved.
1110 RAIL.
(Mr. Atwood read the second paragraph on page 159.)
The President: — If there is no ohjection, this change will be made.
(Mr. Atwood read the third paragraph on page 159.)
The President: — If there is no objection, this change will be ap-
proved.
Mr. Atwood : — We therefore move that conclusion 1 be approved.
The President : — The Committee moves that the specifications for
carbon steel rails, as published in Bulletin 164, be substituted for those
which appear in the 1913 supplement to the Manual.
Mr. Atwood : — Mr. Wickhorst has already explained to you the rea-
sons for these changes in the forms referred to in conclusion 2, in order
that he might make more intelligible reports of the statistics of rail fail-
,ures. We move that conclusion 2 be adopted.
(The motion carried.)
Mr. Atwood : — The Committee has one more conclusion to be acted
upon with the consent of the convention. On page 157 there is shown
standard drilling for four and six hole angle bars. This is a report of the
sub-committee to the main Committee. At the time the report was
printed the main Committee had not acted upon this, and it was not,
therefore, presented in the conclusions. Since that time the Committee
has approved the action of the sub-committee, and we, therefore, offer as
the third conclusion that the drilling for the four and six hole angle bars,
shown on page 157, be adopted and printed in the Manual as recom-
mended practice.
(The motion carried.)
( The President: — Any suggestions as to next year's work?
Mr. C. E. Lindsay (New York Central & Hudson River) : — I have in
my hand the statistics of the rail failures on 933 miles of main track on
my division, which emphasizes to me in a peculiar way the effect of speed
on rail failures. Tracks 1 and 2 are laid with 100-lb. rail, on stone bal-
last ; tracks 3 and 4 are laid on gravel ballast, with mostly 80-lb. and 100-
lb. rail taken from tracks 1 and 2 in previous years. Out of 232 failures
of 100-lb. rail, 176 were on the passenger tracks and about 24 on the two.
freight tracks. Speed must have some very great effect on the breakage
of rails, more than we have perhaps given it credit for.
The President : — I feel sure that the convention is proud of the Rail
Committee and the work it has done. We feel that we can confidently look
forward to the accomplishment of even greater work by this Committee.
The Committee will be excused with the thanks of the convention.
Mr. Wm. R. Webster (Consulting Engineer — by letter) :— The Associa-
tion is to be congratulated on the effective work being done by its Rail
Committee, their reports having steadily increased in value from year to
year, and the recommendations they have made for work of investigation
in 1913 are the most comprehensive and far-reaching of anything the Asso-
ciation has yet undertaken. It is to be hoped that funds will be furnished
so that the tests and investigations may be carried through to completion
during the next few years.
DISCUSSION. 1111
The general outline given by the Committee for work in 1913 and
the points covered agree so closely with those in the "Suggested Lines
for the Discussion and Investigation of the Physics of Steel," under
which the papers of the Chicago meeting, August, 1893, of the American
Institute of Mining Engineers (being part of the International Engineer-
ing Congress) were grouped and discussed, that I give below the table
for comparison :
THE PHYSICS OF STEEL.
(See papers of Messrs. Martens, Osmond, Pourcel, Sauveur, Had-
field, Howe and Webster in Vols. XXII and XXIII).
The following lines of discussion are suggested, but are not in any
way exclusive :
I. Correspondence between chemical composition and fracture, micro-
structure and physical properties.
II. Influence of —
(1) Casting temperature
(2) Manner and temperature of heating
(a) For rolling
(b) For annealing
(3) Work
(4) Finishing temperature
(5) Rate and mode of cooling
(a) After forging
(b) For casting
on
(a) Fracture
(b) Micro-structure
(c) Physical properties
(d) Tensile properties
(e) Residual stress
III. Segregation as affected by —
(1) Composition
(2) Casting temperature
(3) Rate of cooling
IV. Blow Holes and Pipes : their volume and position as affected by —
(1) Composition
(2) Casting temperature
(3) Casting pressure
(4) Rate of cooling
(5) Special additions
(6) Forging
V. Hardening: relation between tensile properties and hardness of
quenched steel, and —
(1) Quenching temperature
(2) Quenching medium
(3) Size of piece quenched.
Much valuable information, especially on the heat treatment of
steel, will be found in the original papers and discussions on the physics
of steel, that extended over several years and are printed in the pro-
ceedings of the Institute.
The recognition by your Rail Committee of the valuable work done
by the Ordnance Department of the Army at Watertown Arsenal a few
1112 RAIL.
years ago is very gratifying to the members of the former Committee,
under whose direction the tests were planned and carried out.
The transverse weakness in rail steel was first called to the atten-
tion of this Association by M'r. James E. Howard in his preliminary
report on that Committee's work in March, 1908. Photographs are given
in that report showing how the samples were taken in order to develop
this transverse weakness. In cross-bending the flanges broke along the
line of streaks in the steel and moon-shaped breaks of the flange in a full
section of rail were made in the testing machine just beyond a similar
break which had been caused in the track.
The head of a rail was planed down for the purpose of showing the
streaks at different depths and sample bends of pieces 1-16 inch thick,
cut from the head at different depths were exhibited to show the marked
difference in the metal longitudinally and transversely. The longitudinal
bends were very satisfactory, but the transverse bends cracked from
end to end after they had been bent but a few degrees.
In discussing Mr. Howard's paper, the writer said :
"With this information before us, it is not hard to account for rails
with a shallow head failing by the side of the head breaking off in
service in the plane of web, but it is the strongest plea for making a
rail with a deep head and a good large fillet connecting the head to
the web."
These tests showing the transverse weakness of the rail did not make
as much of an impression at the time as they have since, although Mr.
Snow very soon afterward called attention to the great number of moon-
shaped breaks in the flanges of the rails in service and the cause of
same.
Mr. Wickhorst, in Bulletin 147, Appendix "D," refers to the sound-
ness of acid open-hearth steel ingots made by the Standard Steel Works
and the good results of tests on rail rolled from these ingots. These
results confirm Mr. Howard's earlier tests made on bottom cast octagonal
ingots, cast big end up, as made by the Standard Steel Works for tires
in their regular every-day practice. The superior quality of the metal
shown by Mr. Wickhorst's tranverse tests, made on the flanges of an
85-lb. A.S.C.E. rail is remarkable. It would be very interesting to have
some transverse tension tests made from the heads of this rail in order
to show what the loss of tensile strength would be as compared with
tests of similar pieces taken longitudinally from the heads. It is to be
expected that the loss will be less than shown in his former tests made
from Bessemer and basic open-hearth steel rail rolled under the ordinary
conditions of manufacture.
If this is the case, the next step would naturally be to have a few
heats of basic open-hearth steel made as nearly as possible under the
same conditions used in making this acid open-hearth steel and make
similar tests of ingots and rails rolled to the same weight and section
in order to see just how much the process of manufacture has to dp
DISCUSSION. 1113
with the results, that is, acid vs. basic open-hearth steel of the same
longitudinal tensile strength.
Heavy draughts on the ingots in the first passes in the blooming mill,
tear the metal and expose the honey-comb cavities at the outer edges
of the ingot which become oxidized and do not weld up in the subse-
quent operations of rolling. This is clearly shown in forging blooms
that are rolled from about the same sized ingots to about the same sized
blooms as used for rails. Heavy reductions in rolling are desirable when
the surface will stand them and when the interior of the mass is not
too hot. Some mills that use very light draughts on their ingots from
the first pass through, have little or no chipping on the blooms ; other
mills that take heavy draughts from the first pass through have often
to chip as high as ninety per cent, of their blooms, and even with this
chipping they have heavier rejections of the finished axles or other forg-
ings. These defects in the rail blooms are often so lapped over and
rolled in that they are not seen on the surface of the rail, but they exist
and cause many failures. Any blow hole that does not thoroughly weld
up is very much elongated by the rolling and helps to form planes of
cleavage at right angles to the direction at which the pressure is applied.
This trouble is generally attributed to poor material, poor rolling, or
both, yet I believe it can be produced in rail rolled from perfectly sound
steel that has received light passes in the blooming mill, or was not torn
on the surface, as planes of cleavage may be developed, parallel to the
web, in line of the flow of the metal, and at right angles to the pressure
applied if too much work in rolling in one direction is put on the steel.
Re-heating rail blooms does not improve the quality of the rail
as much as it should as the blooms have to be heated too hot in order
to carry the heat through rolling and avoid finishing the flanges too cold.
The first experiments bearing directly on the formation of such
planes of cleavage, in perfectly sound material, by pressure, were those
of Dr. Tyndall in 1856, described in his lecture on Slates before the
Royal Institution of Great Britian, from which the following abstracts
are taken :
"Here is a mass of pure white wax; it contains no mica particles,
no scales of iron, not anything analogous to them. Here is the self-
same substance submitted to pressure. I would invite the attention of
the eminent geologists now before me to the structure of this wax. No
slate ever exhibited so clean a cleavage ; it splits into laminae of sur-
passing tenuity, and proves at a single stroke that pressure is sufficient
to produce cleavage, and that cleavage is independent of intermixed
plates or scales. I have purposely mixed this wax with elongated
particles, and am unable to say at the present moment that the cleavage
is sensibly affected by their presence — if anything, I should say they
rather impair its fineness and clearness than promote it.
"The finer the slate is the more perfect will be the resemblance of
its cleavage to that of the wax. Compare the surface of the wax with
the surface of this slate from Borrodale in Cumberland. You have
precisely the same features in both ; you see flakes clinging to the sur-
faces of each, which have been partially torn away in cleaving. Let
\1U RAIL.
any observer compare these two effects, he will, I am persuaded, be
led to the conclusion that they are the products of a common cause.
(Note i).
(Note I — I have usually softened the wax by warming it, kneaded
it with the fingers, and pressed it between thick plates of glass pre-
viously wetted. At the ordinary summer temperature the impressed
wax is soft, and tears rather than cleaves; on this account, I cool my
compressed specimens in a mixture of pounded ice and salt, and when
thus cooled they split beautifully.)
"But you will ask me how, accordingly to my views, does pressure
produce this remarkable result. This may be stated in a very few
words :
"There is no such thing in Nature as a body of perfectly homo-
geneous structure. I break this clay which seems so uniform, and find
that the fracture presents to the eyes innumerable surfaces along
which it has given way, and it has yielded along these surfaces be-
cause in them the cohesion of the mass is less than elsewhere. I break
this marble, and even this wax, and observe the same result ; look at
the mud at the bottom of a dried pond ; look at some of the ungravelled
walks in Kensington Gardens on drying after a rain — they are cracked
and split, and other circumstances being equal, they crack and split
where the cohesion is least. Take then a mass of partially consoli-
dated mud. Such a mass is divided and sub-divided by interior sur-
faces along which the cohesion is comparatively small. Penetrate the
mass in idea, and you will see it composed of numberless irregular
polyhedra bounded by surfaces of weak cohesion. Imagine such a mass
subjected to pressure — it yields and spreads out in the direction of least
resistance (Note 2) ; the little polyhedra become converted into laminae,
separated from each other by surfaces of weak cohesion, and the in-
fallible result will be a tendency to cleave at right angles to the line
of pressure.
"Further a mass of dried mud is full of cavities and fissures. If
you break dried pipe-clay you see them in great numbers, and there
are multitudes of them so small that you cannot see them. A flatten-
ing of these cavities must take place in squeezed mud, and this must
to some extent facilitate the cleavage of the mass in the direction
indicated.
(Note 2 — It is scarcely necessary to say that, if the mass were
squeezed equally in all direction, no laminated structure could be pro-
duced ; it must have room to yield in a lateral direction. Mr. Warren
De la Rue informs me that he once wished to obtain whitelead in a
fine granular state, and to accomplish this he first compressed it. The
mould was conical, and permitted the lead to spread out a little
laterally. The lamination was as perfect as that of slate, and it quite
defeated him in his effort to obtain a granular powder.)
"The principle which I have enunciated is so simple as to be almost
trivial ; nevertheless, it embraces not only the cases mentioned, but, if
time permitted, it might be shown you that the principle has a much
wider range of application. When iron is taken from the puddling
furnace, it is more or less spongy, an aggregate of small nodules; it
is at a welding heat, and at this temperature is submitted to the process
of rolling. Bright, smooth bars are the result. But, notwithstanding
the high heat, the nodules do not perfectly blend together. The process
of rolling draws them into fibers. Here is a mass acted upon by dilute
sulphuric acid, which exhibits in a striking manner this fibrous struc-
ture. The experiment was made by my friend, Dr. Percy, without any
reference to the question of cleavage.
DISCUSSION. 1115
"Break a piece of ordinary iron, and you have a granular frac-
ture; beat the iron, you elongate these granules, and finally render
the mass fibrous. Here are pieces of rails along which the wheels of
locomotives have slidden ; the granules have yielded and become plates.
They exfoliate or come off in leaves ; all these effects belong, I be-
lieve, to the great class of phenonema of which slaty cleavage forms
the most prominent example. (Note 3).
(Note 3 — For some further observations on this subject by Mr.
Sorby and myself, see Philosophical Magazine for August, 1856.)
"I would now lay more stress on the lateral yielding, referred to
in Note 2, accompanied as it is by tangential sliding, than I was pre-
pared to do when this lecture was given. This sliding is, I think, the
principal cause of the planes of weakness both in pressed wax and slate
rock. Tyndall, 1871)."
I repeated this experiment years ago when a student, and can assure
the Committee that it is well worth their while to do likewise, as one
can hardly believe, without seeing it, that ordinary wax by simple pres-
sure in one direction, can be made to split, like isinglass, in planes at
right angles to the pressure. After having seen this, one can appreciate
how sound steel may be made to split lengthwise and planes of cleavage
be formed in the head of the rail parallel to the web at right angles to
the direction of the application of the pressure in rolling, and on line
of the flow of the metal.
It is very doubtful if we can ever get the same strength trans-
versely in the head of the rail that we have longitudinally for there are
other causes of transverse weakness where no cross-rolling or spread-
ing is done to interlock the particles, for instance there is a loss in the
transverse strength in universal mill plates as the rolling is practically
all in one direction. The loss is not due to any overlap or longitudinal
surface defects in rolling or edge work put on . the ingot or bloom ;
there is not enough work to the vertical rolls to do much more than
give good edges to the plates, still the weakness exists, the work is all
in one direction and the particles are not interlocked as in sheared plates
where the bloom is first spread by cross-rolling to get the required width
and then rolled out lengthwise. In this way the particles of the steel
are better interlocked and there is much less loss of strength trans-
versely and the transverse bending tests are also better than similar tests
from universal rolled plates.
Large steel angles show a tendency to split endwise, sometimes
heavy angles on being sheared in 12-inch lengths will split from end
to end at the root of the angle and the old opening and closing tests
designed to check this defect, are often omitted.
Might it not be well to experiment with rectangular ingots so that
a large part of the work to bring it down to a rail bloom, would be
on the sides that would form the top of the head and bottom of the
flange, thus any planes of cleavage that may be formed would be parallel
to the bottom of the flange and the subsequent work on the other sides
in rolling the rail, would not be so likely to form planes of cleavage
parallel to the web, as under present conditions, and in this way help
1116 RAIL.
to do away with split heads and moon-shaped breaks in the flanges.
Attention has already been called to the trouble caused by finish-
ing the flange too cold in rolling while the heads, especially in the
heavier sections, may be finished too hot. The internal strains left by
these differences in temperature, and those due to the section of rail,
naturally decrease its strength. Your Committee has already shown
how easily a rail is broken when there is any small starting point for
the fracture and how a longitudinal flange fracture may precede a
square or angular break through the rail. It would be very interesting
to repeat the recent tests on transverse ductility of the base of rails,
given in Appendix "E," by supporting the flanges in the same manner
and breaking them under the drop in order to see if there is any change
in the character of the fracture from that produced by the steady pres-
sure of the testing machine.
The investigation of Silvery Oval Spots, sometimes called "Trans-
verse or Internal Fissures" in Rail Heads, by Mr. Cushing, Appendix I,
is most interesting and instructive. Of course every effort will be made
to try and find out if there are any other causes for such defects than
those referred to by Mr. Cushing. With this in view, I desire to call
attention to the following :
In 1901, Mr. C. H. Ridsdale read a paper on "The Correct Treat-
ment of Steel" before the Iron and Steel Institute of England from
which the following abstracts are taken :
"The cooling of steel, molten to critical point: When molten steel
cools it crystallizes, the pure iron grains settling out, and the more
quietly and slowly it cools, the larger they are. The last part to set
contains more of the carbon and impurities, and may be termed the
'cement' which binds the grains together. If disturbed just as the
grains are formed, this cement is still so liquid or soft that they have
little or no cohesion, and the material is quite 'rotten' or red short
in the extreme. At a little lower temperature it become cohesive and
freely plastic, and it can therefore be readily worked, the cement being
so soft that the grains, though cohering enough to permit this, are
not held rigidly in their relative positions, but are able to move about
each other so easily that they are not themselves appreciably broken
up; and if the work is stopped whilst at this temperature, especially
if the cooling is slow, the grain is found to be very large and coarse.
"In fact at this temperature the size and shape of the grain is not
affected by work, only by the interferences and other conditions of
cooling, and the piece exhibits no flow lines and has no rolling hard-
ness. The larger the grain, however, the less coherent it is (owing
to the larger area of the cleavage planes) if subjected to sudden shock;
so the piece is wanting in toughness and may be actually 'rotten.' "
In discussing Mr. Ridsdale's paper Mr. J. E. Stead stated:
"The author had pointed out the bearing the dimensions of the
crystalline grain had upon the strength. In the tension-testing machine
they did not get much difference between a coarse-grain and a fine-
grained crystalline steel when the strain was applied gradually; but
under a falling weight the difference was most marked, and often the
coarse-grained steel would snap like a carrot. Such fractures were
not due to intergranular deposits, but to true separation of the cleavage
DISCUSSION. 1117
planes. The large crystal masses present large planes of weakness, and
when a strain was brought to bear upon these crystals they separated
through their mass, and once the cleavage was started it traveled rapidly
from crystal to crystal through the whole section of the steel. When
he was studying, many years ago, the crystalline structure of steel, he
obtained very coarse crystalline steel, which elongated thirty per cent,
in the testing machine, and yet when a small section was placed upon
a V-block, and a sudden blow was given so as to put the under sur-
face in sudden tension, on examination of the piece under the micro-
scope, he found that one or two of the crystals in the center of the
piece in which the cleavages happened to be vertical or at right angles
to the surface, had fractured."
Is it not possible that the hammer blow of a flat wheel may start
fractures in the head of the rail, as described by Mr. Stead, and thus
cause a detailed fracture having this silvery oval appearance at the
point where the fracture started, due to the surfaces moving slightly
on each other before the final break took place ; or might they not be
started by heavy gagging in straightening?
This brings us back to the question of rolling green steel to which
particular attention was called by the writer's chief assistant, Mr. F. L.
Moister, in a discussion of the Association's rail specification in March,
1905. The injury that may be done to the internal structure of the
steel by forging it under the hammer or press, is fully recognized and
precautions are taken to avoid forging at too high temperatures. But
the same precautions are not taken in the rolling mills and much good
steel has been injured.
It would be very desirable to have some rail ingots rolled at as
high temperature as they will stand in order to learn what the effect
is on the internal structure at different stages through to the finished
rail, which should also be finished as hot as possible in order to get
the worst results. If the material in the interior of the ingot is in
the condition referred to by Mr. Ridsdale there may be found both
longitudinal and 'ransverse defects, where the metal has been torn and
not thoroughly welded up again during the subsequent work at lower
temperature. A very small defect of this kind would be sufficient to
start an internal transverse detailed fracture.
Internal fractures have been found in axles and other heavy fjrg-
ings. In guns they find small defects that are known as streaks or
ghost lines — if the line of this defect is circumferential to the bore it
is not as injurious as when it is radial — many large guns have failed
from this cause. One of the most likely reasons given for this form
of defect is slight segregation, that is, a hard spot. We should look
for this in all rails that fail from detailed fracture starting from the
interior of the head.
Mr. Trimble's report on rail failures for year ending October 31,
T911, is very complete. One of its most surprising features is the great
number of failures by split heads of the I35^1b. rail. A thorough investi-
gation by the Committee of this rail is desirable in order to locate just
what the trouble is so as to avoid it in future.
1118 RAIL.
The increase in weight of rail has not been proportionate to the
increase in wheel loads, rate of speeds and traffic. Of necessity the
next step will be the general use of much heavier rail to meet present
conditions, which are the most severe of any country in the world.
But in designing these heavier sections the metal should not be used
to make a much deeper girder to carry the load, or wider flanges to
avoid the use of tie plates, or wider head to provide for side wear,
unless the depth of the head is increased and larger fillets used to
connect the web with the head and flanges so as to act as braces and
prevent splitting of the head and flanges. Under these conditions there
should be a very great increase in the thickness of the web and flanges so
as to carry the load properly and avoid internal shrinkage strains. That
is, a section of rail that approaches as nearly as possible the bull-
headed rail but adhering to the flat base of the T rail. It would be
an ugly looking section, but would do the work required of it. It should
come from the rolls straight and require very little gagging. Until
the section of rail is changed and work can be put upon the steel at
such temperatures as to bring out its true value, it will be a very
hard matter to say what is the best tensile strength to meet our severe
service conditions and what chemical composition should be specified
to produce the toughest and best wearing rails. The changes recently
made in rail sections are a start in the right direction, but have not
gone far enough.
At the present time the carbons in our rail are too high and in
the foreign rail are too low for service here; there should be a happy
mean that would meet our requirements better. Our T-rails rolled for
export of low carbon steels to the foreign specifications, or of high
carbon steels to American specifications, are giving as good service
under the lighter loads and traffic conditions in foreign countries as
rails from any other country, and show that our troubles are largely
due to more 'severe service conditions.
With the proper section of rail and lower carbons the work of roll-
ing could be done at much lower temperatures than at present and rail
rolled under such conditions would be much tougher and give better
wear than our present higher carbon rail. Why not roll a few thou-
sand tons of rail of such improved section and lower carbon (about
130 lbs. per yard) and give it a thorough trial under the most severe
service conditions.
Up to this time all tests made by your Committee to show the in-
fluence of finishing temperature on rail, have, of necessity, owing to its
section, been made on rail rolled at higher temperatures than those recog-
nized as necessary to get the best results from the same carbon steels in
other lines of work. That is, the metal in no T-rail has, under present
conditions, been rolled so as to develop its true value.
At the Twenty-fourth Annual Convention of the National Association
of Railway Commissioners, their Committee on Rails and Equipment
made a very exhaustive report confined almost exclusively to rail. It is
DISCUSSION. 1119
most conservative and full credit has been given to all who have been
investigating this subject. Special reference is made of, and abstracts
taken from, the work of your Rail Committee. The complete report can
be obtained from the Chief Clerk of the Interstate Commerce Commis-
sion, Wm. H. Connolly, and is well worth the perusal of all the members.
The following is the closing paragraph of the report :
"Finally, your Committee would recommend the continuance of the
Government tests of rails and ingots which were begun a few years
ago and which are referred to in the body of this report. These tests
were planned by a committee composed of Government officers and of
high-grade experts from civil life representing both railroads and
manufacturers. The tests were partially completed under the super-
vision of Mr. Howard, and the results embodied in a congressional
report are recognized as of great value. The work was, however,
stopped by the Government before definite conclusions could be
reached. We believe that it should be continued along the same gen-
eral lines as originally planned, and that special study should be given
to rail steel made by the basic open-hearth process.
"JAMES E. SAGUE,
"WILLIAM J. WOOD,
"CHARLES E. ELM'QUIST,
"Committee on Rails and Equipment."
The advisability of continuing this investigation as suggested under
Government auspices is generally conceded. The natural starting point
would be to have the original Committee called together to make a short
report, giving their views on the results of the investigation already
made, and any suggestions they might have to offer for the continuation
of the work. The writer feels confident they would willingly do this
whether they were connected or not with any future work.
The work already done on ingots, blooms, rails taken at different
passes in the blooming, roughing and finishing mills, and finished rail,
was on steel made under the ordinary conditions of manufacture. This
was to show the original internal or external defects in the ingots as
cast and how they were increased or decreased by the different operations
in the rolling, specimens having been selected at each stage of the work.
The original plan contemplated making a similar series of tests for
both Bessemer and open-hearth steels, manufactured under conditions
purposely arranged to increase the defects found in the first series, in
order to show whether our ideas as to the causes of the defects found
in the first series were correct or not.
The next step was to be another series of tests on Bessemer and
open-hearth steels, manufactured under conditions arranged to eliminate
the defects, and based upon the information derived from the first and
second series.
In Proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials, Vol.
VIII, 1908, page 48, is given the plan outlined by the Committee for
the original work, treatment of ingots with diagrams showing location
and treatment of cobbles for the tests; introductory statement by Major
1120 RAIL.
C. B. Wheeler, Commanding Officer Watertown Arsenal, showing how
the Committee was appointed and the members of same. Particular
attention is called to those portions of Mr. Howard's report on this work
on pages 71 to 73, as they show the initial points of rupture in the in-
terior of the head and flange, developed in the testing machine, similar
to those which produce the silvery spots.
The work of the original Committee was brought to a close by Act
of Congress terminating all committees on which civilians and officers
of the Army and Navy served, or for which Government funds were
used. The Committee did not even have an opportunity to meet and
make a report on what had been done up to that time, and there has
never been any attempt at the interpretation of the results of the work
done by that Committee, and for that reason the records are not as com-
plete as they should be. It may take some time to have the Act of
Congress amended so that funds could be appropriated for such an in-
vestigation, but in the meantime it seems desirable that the work should
be resumed under the proper Government auspices and by a Committee
similar to the original one, on which was represented the producers, the
consumers and the Government, this Committee to outline a plan of
carrying on the investigation which would be carried out in detail by
the Government officials in a manner similar to the work already done
at Watertown.
This work is so important and far-reaching that it should not be
confined to any one Association, and the co-operation of those already
interested in similar investigations would give it additional weight, ma-
terially assist in securing legislation that may be required for appropriat-
ing Government funds, and insure its being carried through to com-
pletion ; but in the meantime funds will have to be raised from other
sources to start the work and thereby save from six months' to a year's
time.
In this connection, the following is quoted from a letter of one of
the members of the former Committee:
"The views of Mr. Sague's Committee are interesting. First, as
expressing the feeling that the results desired can be obtained with-
out the necessity of Government inspection ; and second, recommenda-
tion for the continuance of Government tests on rail and rail ingots
which were begun a few years ago. To express it tersely, it would
seem to me that what is needed at the present time is not Govern-
ment inspection, but Government assistance. Having been a member
of the original Committee, referred to by Mr. Sague, and knowing
something of the work that was started and done, I feel that had this
work been continued to a conclusion, some of the problems that are
troubling the railroads today would have been solved. There is no
question but that the work as originally mapped out was the most com-
plete series of tests and experiments that had ever been suggested. A
Committee consisting of representatives of the Government, consum-
ing and producing interests, with sufficient funds to carry on the work
as originally started, would, in my opinion, be one of the strongest
moves that could be made at the present time."
DISCUSSION ON TIES.
(For Report, see pp. 725-S5S. )
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON TIES.
Geo. W. Andrews. L. A. Downs.
J. A. Atwood. W. K. Hatt.
E. H. Bowser. F. R. Layng.
W. J. Burton. C. E. Lindsay.
\Y. M. Camp. G. J. Ray.
J. L. Campbell. \V. B. Storey.
C. H. Cartlidge. R. Trimble.
The President : — The report ot the Committee on Ties will be pre-
sented by the Chairman of the Committee, Mr. L. A. Downs.
Mr. L. A. Downs (Illinois Central) : — The Committee on Ties was as-
signed four subjects for this year's work, as shown on page 151. We
do not make a report on the second subject, "Continue study of stresses
to which cross-ties are subjected, and determine size required," due to
the fact that this Association has appointed a Committee tc co-operate
with the Committee of the American Society of Civil Engineer? on Stresses
in Track, and while we have been considering this question for three years
and last year brought in a report stating that we would continue the
subject, intending this year, through the assistance of Dr. Hatt and
Prof. Albright, of Purdue University, the latter being a member of the
Committee, to do some work, to make some actual field tests to deter-
mine the stresses to which cross-ties are subjected, yet the Committee
felt very much relieved when they found that the engineering societiesi
were going to undertake the investigation of this subject on a broad
scale. The Committee recommended to the Board that this topic be
not assigned to us again until the special committee which has been
appointed by this Association (one member of the Tie Committee having
been placed thereon) made its report.
The other three subjects we have reported on. I may say that
these subjects were first assigned to this Committee three or four years
ago, and we thought we would complete the work in one year, but the
more we got into the subject the greater we found its scope to be, and
while last year and the year before we made reports of progress on
these different subjects, and expected to finish the work by this year, we
find that we are not ready to make a complete report at this time. It may
be several years before these subjects that are assigned to us will be
finally completed and definite conclusions made.
As to the first subject, "report on the effect of design of tie plates
and spikes on the durability of ties," inquiries were sent out to the various
railroads in line with the letter shown on page 726 — 37 roads particularly
1121
1122 TIES.
interested in this subject; 29 reports were received in reply, and of these
29, 27 agreed with the statements on page 729. We submit this matter
to the Association for its consideration only as a progress report, be-
cause we feel that the Association should know what we are doing.
Appendices A, B and C, which fill up the latter part of our report, are
based on tests made on the Santa Fe. A member of our Committee,
whom I am very sorry to say had to leave last night, is one of the gen-
eral officers of the Santa Fe, and through his work and the kindness
of the management, we. were able to show in our report this year some
very good information, one subject being the comparative holding power
of different pointed cut spikes and the other being the holding power of
cut and screw spikes. The third subject covered in the appendices is
"Effect of design of track spikes and tie plates on the durability of
ties." The results of these comparative tests are shown in the appendices
and are accompanied by numerous photographs.
I might say, in explanation, that in this report reference is made
to the names of particular makers, which we regret, as it has been our
custom not to mention the names of makers or trade names — the spike
should be referred to as chisel-pointed, or diamond-pointed spikes.
The second subject on which we have reported is on the "Economy
in labor and material effected through the use of treated ties, as compared
with untreated ties." The matter relating to this part of our report will
be found on page 728.
This involves the history and general questions that are brought out :
on the bottom of page 743 is a formula that is worked out where one can
arrive at the life or the saving made by the use of treated ties as com-
pared with untreated ties, knowing the life and cost of the untreated
tie and the estimated life of the treated tie.
The next subject and the last was the use of metal, composite and
concrete ties. This is a report that we are making each year, and, of
course, means no conclusion. It will go on indefinitely. The Committee
is building up a history of metal, composite and concrete ties that will he
valuable many years from now. We report on no patented ties or any
kind of ties that are not found in some steam or electric railroad and
actually in use, and the opinions of those ties are given us by the rail-
roads which use the ties. Particular reference is made to the Jennings
tie. Probably some of you remember that the inventor of this tie got
his congressman from West Virginia to introduce a joint resolution in
the House of Representatives in 1913. The resolution provided that the
Interstate Commerce Commission be authorized to employ persons who
were familiar with the subject and to investigate the spreading of tracks,
etc., on railroad's, to see if metal ties should not be used, and in addition
to directing the Commission with regard to this legislation they would
appropriate $25,000 for the investigation. We have a report on five of
those ties that were put in on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. The
ties were of no value. All the other reports on the metal ties, composite
and concrete ties are found in the report, together with figures that
DISCUSSION. 1123
we obtained from railroads. I might add that the sub-committee in charge
of this work makes frequent inspection of these different ties in order
to keep in touch with the matter.
I will ask Mr. Burton, who is chairman of the sub-committee, inas-
much as Mr. Parker is not here, to lead the discussion on the subject
of effect of design of tie-plates and spikes on the durability of ties.
Mr. W. J. Burton (Missouri Pacific) : — The conclusions which the
Committee prepared are on page 727. I will say here that the con-
clusion as to 7 in. is the result of the replies received from the various
members of the Association, but as far as we know there is no way
of actually determining the proper width from present data. We do not
know whether it ought to be 7 in. or yY2 in., but the consensus of opinion
was that 7 in. is the correct width.
The question of the holding power of the diamond-pointed cut spike is
not new. We have had information in years previous on this subject,
and we also give some information from tests on the Santa Fe, in one
appendix of this report.
Mr. R. Trimble (Pennsylvania Lines) : — There are two statements on
page 72J which I think ought to be pretty carefully considered before
accepting. The first is under (b). It is that second statement that I
think there is some doubt about. There may be some places where that
would be entirely true, but I happen to know a place where it does not
appear to be true. The Pennsylvania System is conducting at the present
time a series of experiments to determine the comparative value of screw
spikes and cut spikes. One of these experiments is east of Pittsburgh
and one is west of Pittsburgh, and on the experiment east of Pittsburgh,
where the traffic is three times as dense as it is west of Pittsburgh, we
have found that that statement is not exactly correct. The fact is the
majority of our committee that is looking after this experiment is almost
at the point of recommending the abandonment of the use of screw
spikes for as dense a traffic as we have at that particular point, and the
committee seems to be almost unanimous — I will not say unanimous, but
almost unanimous — in the opinion that the cut spike is better than the screw
spike. The experiment is still going on, but it throws some doubt upon
that statement formulated by this Committee, and I think it should be
accepted with caution, if accepted at all.
With reference to clause (b) on page 727. that is not going to prove
true in this particular experiment. In fact, a great number of screw
spikes have become loose, and they can be lifted up. They have experi-
mented with several of the devices which have been tried abroad in order
to repair and retain screw spikes. They have not yet found any satis-
factory method of repairing the defects that have been caused by these
screw spikes becoming loose, and I doubt very much whether it is safe
to accept that as a definite proposition.
Mr. J. A. Atwood (Pittsburgh & Lake Erie) :— I would like to
ask Mr. Trimble if these experiments refer to the use of screw spikes,
where the screw spike holds the rail ? Screw spikes may be applied to
the tie-plate and do not have to perform the office of holding the rail.
1124 TIES.
Mr. Trimble: — They hold the rail instead of the cut spike.
Mr. Atwood :— Tf the screw spikes were for the purpose of clamping
the tie to the plate solely, those objections you raise would not apply.
Mr. Trimble : — They would, because we had those same experiments
where the rail is fastened to the tie-plate independent of the tie, and we
found the same trouble.
Mr. Downs : — I was interested in reading Mr. Cushing's report in
Bulletin 165 on the use of screw spikes. I do not remember the date
this experiment was made, but it was some years ago. I might say
from the investigation that was made on the Santa Fe that they seem
to have exactly the same trouble when they started. They did not know
how to use screw spikes. If they had taken the results of their first
trial with screw spikes, they would have discarded them altogether. If
you will look at the photographs in Appendix C that were made pur-
posely to substantiate the statements made on page 727, you will find
out from those photographs how it is done, and they took a great num-
ber of them just to demonstrate. The report of Mr. Cushing's experi-
ment with treated cross-ties and wood screws is in volume 15, Bulletin
165. It refers back to 1908. This report was made several years ago.
Like a good many other things, the first trial sometimes does not prove
satisfactory, and it is not satisfactory until the matter is studied and
we undertand the proper methods for using such things.
Mr. E. H. Bowser (Illinois Central) : — I would like to ask what is
meant by the term "hard pine." I notice in a number of these experi-
ments with spikes they use the term "hard pine."
Mr. Downs: — Mr. Parker, of the Santa Fe, is not here now, but I
think it means heart pine. Maybe someone from the Santa Fe is here.
Mr. Geo. E. Rex (Santa Fe) :— It is "heart pine" instead of hard pine.
Mr. Bowser : — You ought to say "heart long-leaf pine." In some of
these cuts it does not look like long leaf pine, but looks like loblolly.
Mr. Trimble :— In the particular place where this experiment is being
conducted, we have all noticed this : That with the amount of traffic-
going over that particular piece of road, in order to maintain a screw-
spike track to perfection would require a great deal more labor than
where we have the ordinary cut spike. We are not yet ready to give
final results, but we are looking for the man who can tell us how to
repair and keep up that track in service with the screw spikes in it.
Mr. Geo. W. Andrews (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I want to go back to
the question of heart pine. I think the explanation given by some of
the gentlemen is wrong. Heart pine does not signify anything. Any pine
has a portion of heart, loblolly or bull. In a great many sections of the
country long-leaf pine is known as heart pine. I am of the opinion that
the members of the Committee who used the term "heart pine" in the
report had in mind long-leaf pine.
Mr. W. M. Camp (Railway Review) : — The information that has been
given me in regard to this question of flat-bottom tie-plates with screw
spikes corroborates what Mr. Trimble has stated. Going back in the his-
DISCUSSION. 1125
tory of flat-bottom plates, one will find that the design of tie-plates started
with a flat bottom, and the development has been that some projection
on the under side of the plate has been necessary in order to assist the
plate to stick to the tie. Any kind of projection on the under side of
the plate, whether it be a rib or a claw, does assist the spikes very
materially in holding the rails to gage. There is no question about that.
I also think that there is no question about these under-projections
having something to do with admitting water to the tie, and, therefore,
affecting the life of the tie.
Screw spikes are being experimented with on a good many roads
in this country to-day, and I think there are a good many men in this
audience who can speak on the question as to whether they have found
that a screw spike with a flat-bottom tie plate will hold the rail bet-
ter than a drive spike with the same kind of plate. It is a live question
to-day, this matter of screw spikes, and I think it would be a fortunate
thing if this morning we could have a thorough discussion of this ques-
tion. It would seem to be an important matter if we can do away with
the ribs on the under side of a tie plate by the use of the screw spike.
I am gratified to find that the Committee has found it advisable
to recommend the boring of a hole for the drive spike, because the
reputation of the drive spike has suffered, in comparison with the screw
spike, in that it injured the fiber of the wood. That comparison has
never been fair, because the screw spike has been driven in bored hole,
while the drive spike has had to make its own hole, and in this way
injured the fibers of the wood, without question. If a hole was bored
in the tie, a drive spike should not broom up the fiber any worse than
the screw spike. By boring a hole in the tie the drive spike has a better
chance, on its merits.
While the Committee states that 27 out of 29 replies support its
conclusions, I would like to know whether or not the conclusion in
paragraph (f) was based on the drive spikes there referred to as being
driven in bored holes. If not, I do not think the conclusion is fair. If
they compared the drive spikes set in the ordinary way with screw spikes
in bored holes, I do not think it is fair to say, based on any experiments
of that kind, that the screw spike in itself has made possible the longer
life of the tie.
In conclusion (d) it seems to me there must be a typographical error
of some kind — it does not make sense. As I understand it, there should
be a period after the word "tie,"' in the second line of that paragraph, and
it should then start in to read : "Tie plates less than 7 in. wide, for use
with softwood ties, cut into the tie sufficiently in some cases to deter-
mine the life of the tie." Is that what the Committee means? That
plates less than 7 in. wide cut into the tie so badly that it affects the
life of the tie?
Mr. Downs : — That is what the Committee meant ; it is not expressed
as clearly as it should be in the paragraph (d).
Mr. Camp : — I think the phraseology of that paragraph should be re-
vised to make it clear. I do not think it is clear in the way it stands.
1126 TIES.
Mr. Burton : — The Committee was not asked to report on the de-
sirability of screw spikes or the desirabality of any particular shape of
tie plate. The report is on the effect of the design of tie plates and
spikes on the durability of ties. This is a little different from reporting
as to the desirability of any one type or design, and I think this answers
Mr. Camp's remarks in regard to the flat-bottom tie plate. The ques-
tion of the desirability of the design does not enter into the matter ex-
cept as it affects the durability of the tie; that is, affords protection to
the tie from mechanical wear and decay.
Mr. C. E. Lindsay (New York Central & Hudson River) : — It is my
understanding that the report of the Committee does not carry with it
any recommendations and that these conclusions which they have reached
so far are the result of their study, and are offered to draw out further
discussion for the benefit of the Committee.
I have read with very much interest Mr. MacFarland's Appendix B
on the holding power nf cut and screw spikes, and while I agree that the
vertical pull on the spike is one means of determining the relative value
of two appliances, I think probably the severest strain to which the ordi-
nary track fastening of that kind is subjected is the horizontal compo-
nent of the thrust, that is, in the plane of the tie.
I have conducted some experiments recently to test it in that way,
by pushing the spike back through the tie — backing it through the tie
as it would be backed by the ordinary pressure of the rail base against
the spike. It brought out some very interesting figures. The idea
that the vertical pull of the spike was the great strain on the spike has
led some inventors to design a toothed spike, where one face of the
spike was serrated or toothed. Tests of spikes of that kind show
strains from 2,290 to 3,770 lbs., depending on the splitting of the wood
in the sample. It required from 4,170 to 4,920 lbs. to push that same
spike back through the tie. Another idea in the improvement of the
ordinary cut spike was to change the section of it from a square to
a truncated pyramid with the base against the base of the rail, with the
idea of increasing the area so as to reduce the amount of "necking" of
spikes. A spike designed along that line was tested and required from
2,610 to 3,850 lbs. to pull the ordinary spike, where the special spike
took 2,290 to 3,000 lbs. In backing the ordinary spike through the tie, it
took from 4,670 to 5,750 lbs., and in the case of the special spike it took
from 4,470 to 5,740 lbs.
I believe that the work of the Committee in the testing of such ap-
pliances should be along the plane of the tie rather than to determine
the pulling resistance of the spike.
Mr. G. J. Ray (Delaware, Lackawanna & Western) : — Mr. Lindsay's
remarks remind me of the fact that we have made quite an extensive
series of experiments as between cut spikes and screw spikes along
the line that Mr. Lindsay mentions. Our data, while it is not in shape at
this time, we hope will be put in shape at an early date, and we ex-
pecl to give it to the Association in the near future.
DISCUSSION. 1127
I think it will show very conclusively that the screw spike does not
only have a very much greater pulling resistance, but also a much greater
lateral resistance to rail pressure, all spike holes being bored. In fact,
as I remember it, in round figures the screw spike has at least twice the
lateral resistance — I am sure it is more than that — of the cut spike. We
have not tested these spikes on just a few ties, but we have taken sev-
eral hundred ties of different kinds, selected ties of the different kinds
of wood, seasoned them, treated them, and bored different size holes in the
same specimen. We then compared the pulling and lateral resistance
of both the cut and screw spikes. These tests were made by means of
a machine which we secured in France especially for the purpose.
These experiments comprise several hundred, and probably run into
a thousand. Some of them were tested before treatment, others imme-
diately after treatment, and again others were tested after they had sea-
soned for a period of six months or a year. That is one reason why we
are not yet through with the test. We do not want to make the data
public until it is complete, but we have sufficient information to con-
vince us beyond a question of doubt that the screw spike has a con-
siderably greater lateral resistance than the cut spike.
As a matter of actual practice, we have been using on our lines
screw spikes for two purposes — main-line work, both in renewals, and in
construction work. We have been using a flat-bottom tie plate with
screw spikes. We have had no material trouble with loose tie plates
to date. What trouble we may have, of course, I cannot foretell. We
have had no indications to date that the screw spikes are not going to
be absolutely satisfactory in every respect.
On our eastbound main track, down the mountain, where we have a
one and one-half per cent, grade, with the traffic running from ten to
twelve million tons per annum, we have curves of 5 and 6 degrees, where
we have had to change the rails regularly every year, since we have
been using open-hearth rails. When we used the Bessemer rail we had
to change about every four or five months. At the present time we get
nearly a year's wear out of the best rail. We have changed the rail
three or four times on some of the curves where we have screw spikes
without having to alter the gage of our track, laying the rail in on
the old tie plates. I think that is pretty good evidence that they are
not giving a great deal. Of course, on the sharp curves we double spike
inside, and in some places both inside and out. It is out of reason to
expect that you will not have some giving with screw spikes with the
flat-bottom plate where there is no lateral resistance other than the
spikes themselves, where you have extremely sharp curves and heavy
traffic, but we have found that is so little that it has not been necessary
to regage our track.
We have in service a good many miles of solid screw-spike track.
Over the entire line we have screw spikes which have been put in dur-
ing the past four years in renewals, in some places on part of the ties,
in some places not so many, in other places more.
1128 TIES.
The only material trouble we have had with screw spikes in main-
tenance work is where we have had one or two or three spike ties to
the rail, and that has been in wet places, where there has been some
little heaving in cold weather. In such places we have found that the
cut spikes do not hold in the winter, with the result that we have had
some screw-spike heads broken off under such conditions. In other
words, we know the cut spike gives when the track heaves and tends to
pull out. The screw spike will not rise with the heaving of a track,
but may break off. Where we have all of our ties spiked with screw
spikes we never have had a case of that kind occur, to my knowledge.
We have had cases where screw spikes were broken off in being placed
in service in white oak ties by not having the holes sufficiently deep.
A man can break a screw spike in placing it in position, and that has
been done. We have proven conclusively that that has been done, but
where the holes are properly drilled and of sufficient size, not too large,
there is no trouble in placing them and no trouble with them; at least,
there has not been on our line in the last four years.
I do not believe we are going to have the trouble Mr. Trimble
speaks of with enlarged holes, and I am sure our tie plates do not rat-
tle. We had a few cases where they did, due to the fact that they were
not properly set down when they were placed. If you do not set them
down, it is because you are not looking after them. The screw spikes
do not come up ; they have not done so yet.
Mr. W. B. Storey (Santa Fe) : — I ask the last speaker what kind of
ties he uses.
Mr. Ray : — We have mostly long-leaf yellow-pine ties, although we
have in service a good many chestnut ties, short-leaf pine, beech, some
maple, and a great many red oaks.
Mr. Storey: — The reason I asked the question was that we have
used the screw spikes on the Santa Fe System almost entirely in
pine, most of it rather soft pine, and we find that the tie plate does
not rattle after a week or two of service, by reason of the compression
of the wood by the plate, and we have to go over the track a second
time, sometimes a third time, in order to get the plate tight. I do not
know as yet that the rattling will ultimately stop, because the plate
continues to sink somewhat into the tie as time lapses. Of course, our
plate will require tightening early in the application, due to the fact that
we use a rib under our tie plate about 3/s in- deep, and until that is
pressed home there will be necessarily some loosening of the plate.
Even after the rib has gone home, the plate still continues to sink
into some of our ties, owing to the softness of the wood, and in that
case it is absolutely necessary to tighten the screw spike.
We are making some experiments now with screw spikes, covering
twenty miles of continuous track on low grade with the traffic all in one
direction. We have other experiments in which the spikes are placed on
single track, with only a few ties fastened with screw spikes. We also
have places where screw spikes are applied without tie plates.
DISCUSSION. 1129
We do not feel in this case the experiment has heen tried long
enough to warrant our reaching definite conclusions. The tonnage on
our lines is nowhere near that on the piece of track described by Mr.
Trimble, and I can readily see how the expense of keeping the screw
spikes in shape may be a determining factor in regard to that piece
of track; not that the screw spike may not give better results than
the cut spike, but the expensive maintenance under excessively heavy
traffic, or under excessively hard conditions, may turn the question
economically toward the cut spike.
I also think that there is very great merit in Mr. Camp's sugges-
tion that the comparison should be made between the cut spike in a
bored hole rather than a cut spike under the old conditions, which most
of us know of. I think further that the compression of the fiber of
the wood, in the manner described by Mr. Lindsay, will, after the passage
of two or three years, considerably affect the comparison between the cut
spike in the bored hole and one driven home in the ordinary manner.
The subject is one of very great interest. It is one that we should
all observe closely, and we should give the Association the benefit of
any knowledge that comes to us in regard to this subject, because it is
something that will, in the end, make for great economy.
Mr. Trimble : — May I ask Mr. Ray if he will state the amount of
tonnage passing over the line which he described?
Mr. Ray: — Ten to twelve million tons per annum, eastbound, on one
track.
Mr. Trimble: — I am very glad Mr. Ray has given us those figures,
because that helps us out some. On the tracks on which we are con-
ducting our experiments west of Pittsburgh, we have just a little greater
tonnage than that, and we have not had any trouble with the screw spikes
on the test track west of Pittsburgh. East of Pittsburgh, however, there
is just three times as much tonnage as Mr. Ray mentions on the par-
ticular piece of track to which he referred, and we are getting results
three times as quickly as we are getting them in the other place.
Mr. Ray : — I would like to say one thing more about the question
of the tie plate loosening. Our experience has been very much the same
in reference to setting down the tie plates in softwood ties,
that is, setting down screw spikes after the plate has been in some
little time. I do not think that with the screw spike you can get
away from the necessity of going over the track after they have been
put in, and the plates have become set down in the ties. Our plates
are absolutely flat on the bottom. We find in the case of our softwood
ties, due to the compression of the fiber, even with perfect bearing sur-
face there is some slight settlement. We have not had that trouble in the
harder ties. I believe we will have trouble with the softwood ties re-
gardless of the kind or size of plates, but as far as our experience goes,
the spikes do not come up.
Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — It would be inter-
esting if Mr. Ray would tell what trouble, if any, they have had in re-
1130 TIES.
moving and replacing these screw spikes in connection with the con-
stant renewal of rail mentioned.
Mr. Ray: — Wc have had no trouble so far. I can see where there
is liable to be some trouble. In the first place, one of the most ag-
gravating things we have to deal with, and one which must be cor-
rected sooner or later, is the matter of brine drippings from the cars.
This Association has done what it could to remedy that condition, but
the present condition must sooner or later be corrected. We handle a
good deal of refrigerator freight. We have a lot of rusting of all
classes of material in consequence. We find that the screw spikes are
very badly rusted in places on curves where trains stop, or at certain
points just outside of icing stations where there is a lot of brine dripping.
I believe we are liable to have serious trouble with the heads of the
spikes rusting to such an extent that it will be hard to get them out.
That is a troublesome matter, but it can be overcome if the question
of brine dripping is properly taken care of. In the same territory we
always have trouble with the bolts between the splice bars rusting to such
an extent that they soon stretch, and that is true with other track ma-
erial which is exposed to the brine drippings. Where the brine drip-
ping does not affect the track fastenings, we have no such difficulty with
the screw spikes.
It takes a little longer, certainly, to lay rail where you must take
out screw spikes, as compared with the cut spike. There is no ques-
tion about that. It takes time, but there is no trouble.
Furthermore, we have not had any serious trouble with screw spikes
on account of derailments. We had one case where some derailed cars
took out all the screw spikes on one side of both rails for about two
miles, and there was not one out of twenty of the screw spikes so badly
injured as to affect this holding power, with the result that we operated
the wrecking train over the track and took care of the wreck. That
shows that the screw spike is able to hold the track and perform its
function where the cut spike cannot.
Mr. Campbell : — I think it is brought out clearly by the remarks
made by Mr. Storey and Mr. Ray that the statement in paragraph (b) page
727, "Flat-bottom plates used without spikes become loose and the loose-
ness results in the mechanical wear of the tie; they are satisfactory when
used with screw spikes," will be true and satisfactory only if you remember
that you will have to follow up the inevitable settlement of the tie plate
into the tie by turning down the screw spike. That will always occur, I
am sure, with a softwood tie. To what extent it occurs on a hardwood
tie I am not prepared to express an opinion.
In regard to the statement in paragraph (c), am I to understand
that this paragraph states that a rib 3-16 in. deep will hold the tie plate
to the tie? There is some question in my mind about that. I do not
express a definite opinion, because I have not had experience with that
particular kind of rib. But it has a decided V shape, and it does not
appear that it would hold the tie plate to the tie. If there is any
DISCUSSION. 1131
member of the Committee who has definite information on this point,
it would be interesting to have it.
Mr. Storey : — I can say definitely that it does not hold the tie suffi-
ciently to prevent vertical movement. The sole intent of the rib, as used
on the Santa Fe tie plate, is to prevent lateral motion, and was put
on primarily to help us in holding the gage on very . curved mountain
work. We later found it was no detriment to the tie in that it does
not cut the fiber, but compresses it sufficiently to take in the rib. There-
fore, we consider that it does not let the water in or damage the
tie in any way, and it has a tendency to hold the gage on tangent and
other track.
Mr. Downs: — I would like to correct the impression that the work
of this Committee is in any way to determine the relative merits of
the screw and cut spikes. The only point about it is, so far as the
Committee is concerned, as to whether it affects the durability of ties
or not. The last remarks made by Mr. Campbell and Mr. Storey are
probably directed to the work which the Committee has in hand, but the
relative merits of the screw and cut spikes are not questions for this
Committee to decide, except as they affect the durability of the tie.
Mr. Storey: — On the particular point raised by the chairman of the
Committee, I would call attention to (d) page 727, where mention is
made of the width of the- tie plate as an element to determine the
mechanical wear of the tie. I believe that is not the only element, but
that the width and the length taken together are the elements that have
to do with the cutting effect of the tie plate. This is because the purpose
of the tie plate is to distribute the load over a greater area on the
tie, and the width alone has nothing to do with the area. If we could
make it 6 in. wide, a foot long and thick enough to prevent curling
at the edges of the rails, we could distribute our load sufficiently to
prevent a large amount of trouble. The statement as given in the report
of the Committee should, I think, be changed to take in the full dimen-
sions of the plate.
Mr. Trimble : — I do not think I was out of order to speak to
paragraph (f). As I understand Mr. Downs, he is not speaking of the
relative merits of screw spikes and cut spikes, yet paragraph (f) cer-
tainly brings out that comparison very plainly. My first remarks were
addressed to that statement.
Mr. Camp : — The relative holding power of screw and cut spikes
against the lateral thrust of the rail is very intimately concerned with
the life of the tie. If the spike spreads it does not maintain the gage,
and the holding power of the spike in that particular plan becomes so
deficient that it must be pulled and set at another place in the tie. The
boring of extra holes in the tie or the redriving of spikes always weakens
the tie and therefore affects its life. It is a big point in favor of the
screw spike if it can be shown that it offers better lateral resistance
to the rail than the cut spike, and it is important to know that these
experiments have been made, as Mr. Lindsay and Mr. Ray have stated.
1132 TIES.
There is no question about the screw spike having better holding
power against direct pull than a cut spike. It is not worth while to
conduct laboratory experiments to determine that matter — one can easily
settle that question with a screw, a smooth nail and a carpenter's claw
hammer. On the other hand, we must take into consideration that the
standard cut spike of to-day is no larger than it was when tonnage
was very much smaller than it is now, and when the weight of rail was
perhaps 30 lbs. to the yard lighter. There arises a question whether an
increase in the size of the cut spike would not work some improve-
ment, especially when it is driven into a bored hole.
Mr. Ray's remarks are so pertinent in this connection that I wish
he would cover still other points I have in mind. I would like to ask
whether his screw spikes were driven by hand or by power appliances,
and whether his experiments have been conducted long enough to deter-
mine the relative merits of screw and drive spikes in ties which have
advanced well along toward decay.
Mr. Ray : — Screw spikes have been driven both by hand and by
power. We have been trying to get a machine so that we could
drive the screw spike down and have them driven exactly the
same in each case, so the tests would all be alike. In the tests we
thought it quite essential that the screw spikes be driven down with the
same strain in each case. We had a good deal of trouble getting such
a machine and we found it nearly impossible to get any sort of an elec-
tric appliance that would tick the current out at the right time. We had
no end of trouble securing that result. Most all of our test work has
been done by hand. In the field the spikes have been driven by hand
entirely. So far as the holding power of the tie is concerned, we have
in a great many cases taken out our old tie plates, or on track where we
had cut spikes on curves we have put new tie plates in throughout,
double spiked them with screw spikes and have found that we are getting
a good deal more life from the ties which we otherwise would have had
to take out. I speak especially of white oak. I think we have prolonged the
life of the ties, and we have done the same on bridges where we had
long-leaf yellow-pine ties ; that is, put on screw tie plates throughout the
entire bridge on old ties.
Mr. Lindsay: — May I ask Mr. Ray: With tie plates, the point of
application of the horizontal stress is at the top of the plate and the
point of resistance is at the bottom. Were your experiments conducted
with or without the tie plates?
Mr. Ray: — They have been conducted in both ways, in most experi-
ments without the tie plate. The difference would not be so material
if the experiments were carried on with the screw spike and the cut
spike in the same way'.
Mr. Lindsay : — The first action of the movement of the rail is to
bend the spike, and of course the rectangular section has greater re-
sistance than the circular section. The first action bends the spike diag-
DISCUSSION. 1133
onally in the hole. It seems to me that would show considerable differ-
ence in the action of the two appliances.
Prof. W. K. Hatt (Purdue University): — Some question has been
raised as to the relative transverse resistance of screw spikes and common
spikes. An investigation of this and kindred matters has already been
reported to the American Railway Engineering Association by the speaker,
and the report will be found in Proceedings of 1910, pp. 827 to 857.
This report covers the relative strength of various kinds of wood against
the pressure of the rail, and the holding power of various kinds of screw
spikes and common spikes. On page 856, Tables 5 and 5-A, it is shown
that lateral resistance of both common and screw spikes was the same
in the case of loblolly pine. These screw spikes were from Y% to Yx in.
diameter of spike at root of threads. In case of the harder woods, the
screw spike had a greater transverse resistance than the common spike.
Since this report in 1910, the work at Purdue University has been ex-
tended to include the resistance of tie plates by force parallel to the
axis of the tie. The tie plates included the various commercial forms,
and were spiked to the tie both by common spikes and screw spikes.
The transverse load was applied while a load of 30,000 lbs. rested on the
rail in the direction of the weight of a locomotive.
The speaker would request the privilege of submitting an account
of these later tests for the Bulletin of the Association.
It appears to the speaker that laboratory tests are a rather incom-
plete index to the thing we are trying to arrive at, viz., the best material
and design for service conditions.
Mr. Burton : — I would like to ask Prof. Hatt if any experiments have
been made in the laboratory with partly decayed ties, i. e., ties which
have been in service two or three years. It has always seeemd to me
that tests made on brand new white oak or first-class timber were
hardly representative of the conditions in the track, and that a spike
which might show favorable holding power in a new tie compared with
some other spike would show the opposite result, or a less favorable result,
in a tie partly decayed.
It is not uncommon to find cut spikes in ties which have been in
service perhaps two or three years which can be quite easily withdrawn
from the tie, sometimes even by hand, the tie being otherwise fairly sound
and capable of performing its functions (other than holding spikes) for
several years longer. In such ties the fibers surrounding the spike, which
were bent down when the spike was originally driven, and to which are
due a large part of the holding power of the spike, have become set or
have lost their "spring," so that when the spike is withdrawn the hole is
left full size. In the case of a screw spike, timber in the same condition
would not allow the spike to be withdrawn.
Prof. Hatt: — The experiments we made were upon ties of lob-
lolly pine, red oak, red gum, long-leaf pine, short-leaf pine, treated with
creosote, zinc chloride and with crude oil.
After one end of the tie had been tested the other end was planted
in the earth for the durability test. This set of ties has been now sub-
1134 TIES.
jccted to the conditions of the surface ground for nearly four years. It
is possible, therefore, to make tests of some of these ties that are partially
decayed, and to determine the resistance asked for by the speaker. The
tests will also determine the relative amount of rotting of the various
timbers. The speaker hopes to prepare a report of this entire investi-
gation for the Association at his earliest opportunity.
Mr. Ray: — Just one word more in reference to the experiments that
we are carrying on. They were started for the main reason to find out
what size of holes we should put in the different classes of wood for
the screw spikes and also for the cut spikes, for the reason that we
are boring and adzing all of our ties before they are treated. It is
quite essential to have the proper hole in the tie. The experiments will
plainly indicate that the different diameter holes will materially affect
the holding power of the cut and the screw spikes, and our experiments
were primarily for the purpose of determining the proper diameter of hole
and not to tell us what we could expect in practice from the life of
the tie.
The President : — This discussion indicates that much study is being
given to this subject, and the Board of Direction would like to urge the
membership to submit the results of any experiments for publication
in the Bulletin. Mr. Ray, I understand, will see that this is done later,
in respect to experiments he has conducted, and in view of the desire
of the Association to make the Bulletin of maximum benefit to the
membership, we trust that other members of the Association will submit
articles similar to Appendix A. The next subject is on page 728.
Mr. Downs : — I will ask Mr. Lewis, chairman of the sub-committee
on that subject, to lead the discussion.
Mr. E. R. Lewis (Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic) :— It was thought
by the Committee that the best information could be given to the mem-
bers of the Association on this subject of economy of labor and material
affected through tbe use of treated ties, as compared with untreated ties,
by summarizing the literature on the subject and presenting it to the
Association with some workable formula by which any intending user
of treated or untreated ties might compare the two from a money basis
and determine for himself, in the circumstances obtaining in his own par-
ticular case, which was the more economical. In the information pre-
sented there is such a formula, which was the subject of a thesis by Mr.
Neil Af. Campbell, and which seems to be most appropriate to this result.
The report is presented as information.
The President: — The Committee submits no conclusions and offers
this report as one containing good information. The intention is to
continue the study. The next subject is on page 747.
Mr. Downs : — I will call on Mr. Layng to open the discussion.
Mr. F. R. Layng (Bessemer & Lake Erie) : — In opening the discussion
on this report I wish to emphasize the fact that we have had a great deal
of difficulty in getting in touch with some of the members as to experiments
they are conducting. If any of you know of experiments being made in
vour vicinity, or if you are making them on your own line, it would be of
DISCUSSION. 1135
material assistance to the Committee if you would advise us. If I am on
this work next year, I promise you that we will not bother you any further
than to ask you to let us know that you are making the tests, that you
give us a plan and photograph of the tie you are using. Later we may
get after you, but at the present we will not ask anything further than
to get into the record the fact that you are making experiments. The
report is historical. There are no conclusions submitted, and the only
thing that I wish to call attention to particularly is the installation of a
tie on the Pennsylvania Railroad, near Atglen, Pa. We consider it a
very important installation and the Committee will watch it with a great
deal of interest. On the Pennsylvania Lines at Emsworth there has
also been an installation of a composite tie, which is worthy of study.
This will be watched very closely. In this connection I want to say it
is very hard to draw any conclusions from one, two or three ties put
in the track. The Pennsylvania, in putting in a mile of track, have, to my
mind — and I think my fellow-committeemen are of the same opinion —
used a sufficient number from which conclusions can be drawn.
The President : — This Committee has continued this work about seven
years and the report has appeared annually in the Proceedings. It is
to be hoped the Committee may continue the same line of work for
many years to come in order that a true comparison may be made of
various designs of ties. Unless the members of the Association will fur-
nish to the Committee the basic data for their reports, of course, there
may be omissions from time to time, but it is hoped that the Committee
may be able to get a full statement of the experiments which you may be
conducting. The next question is, have you any suggestions to offer
as to what work this Committee should do next year? The discussion
this morning has indicated that the Committee is already considering
some very live questions, and all of them will be continued in the pro-
gram for next year.
Mr. C. H. Cartlidge (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy) : — The Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy, some years ago, made some experiments with con-
crete ties which did not prove very successful. It is probably useless
to say that the cost of such ties at that time was quite prohibitive. The
subject is still interesting. It is possible that a concrete tie may be de-
signed which will stand up under traffic, and which will be sufficiently
practical to compete with the wooden tie. There are a good many ques-
tions which arise regarding design. One of the more important ones, to
my mind, is how much can we afford to pay for a concrete tie in order
to make it a commercially practical tie. I believe, after investigation, that
a practical tie can be designed, one that will last as long as a wooden
tie, or sufficiently longer to warrant our going into it, but it is necessary
to know how much we can afford to pay for it. I think the Committee
can handle this better than any one person. I will suggest that an in-
vestigation be made as to the amount which can be paid for a tie which
will give a life of, say, thirty years.
1136 TIES.
Mr. Layng: — I think Mr. Lewis' report (sub-committee No. 3) this
year answers that question directly. One can make the necessary as-
sumptions and arrive at the consequent result. Mr. Lewis' formula gives
a method of figuring, hut you will have to make your own assumptions.
Mr. Downs;: — I would like to add that the Committee appreciates very
much the discussion here to-day by Mr. Trimble, Mr. Ray, Mr. Storey,
and others, on our report, because our report is not yet completed. We
expect to do considerable work on it. What has been said here to-day
will be a great help to us in our future work.
The President: — The discussions indicate that the convention appre-
ciates the work of this Committee. The Committee will be dismissed with
the thanks of the Association.
DISCUSSION ON SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
(For Report, see pp. S59-904.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON SIGNS, FENCES AND
CROSSINGS.
A. S. Baldwin*. E. R. Lewis.
E. H. Bowser. C. E. Lindsay.
Moses Burpee. B. H. Mann.
W. M. Camp. Hunter McDonald.
J. L. Campbell. G. A. Mountain.
C. H. Cartlidge. L. S. Rose.
W. A. Clark. H. R. Safford.
W. H. Courtenav. C. H. Stein.
Curtis Dougherty. Francis Lee Stuart.
J. B. Jenkins. John G. Sullivan.
Maro Johnson. S. N. Williams.
J. R. Leighty.
The President : — The report of the Committee on Signs, Fences and
Crossings will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. C. H. Stein.
Mr. C. H. Stein (Central Railroad of New Jersey) : — Mr. Chairman
and gentlemen, as this is the period of the convention when the Chair
is accustomed to saying, "Be brief, please," I shall endeavor to pass over
as rapidly as I can the substance of this report. The Board of Direction
assigned three subjects to this Committee, given on page 859.
With regard to the subject of continuing the investigation of ways
and means for securing a proper quality of fence wire, I would say that
this subject seems to have been worn almost threadbare, at least the Com-
mittee in its investigations has not seemed to be able to make any prog-
ress, and therefore is passing over the subject at this time very lightly
and suggests to the Board of Direction that we discontinue it for a few
years at least, until manufacturers are able to tell us a little more about
it, along the lines of certain suggestions that have been made from time
to time; also to give the railroads that are investigating the matter on
their own initiative an opportunity to determine the results to be ob-
tained from several different forms of wires that have been under in-
vestigation. One of them is the sherardized, another the special gal-
vanized, the latter seeming to meet with most favor.
In regard to the subject of concrete and metal for signs and signals.
as compared with wood, the Committee prepared a series of questions and
promulgated them among the railroads with a view to securing informa-
tion in regard to the subject, and received replies from a vast number of
railroads with regard to a multitude of signs, both affecting the employes
and the public. The Committee realized that it was rather a ponderous
task to undertake, and, therefore, concluded at this time to devote itself
1137
1138 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
more particularly to the two signs that seemed to be of primary im-
portance— the public road crossing signs and the trespass sign.
You will note on page 862 that the Committee has tabulated the sub-
stance of the replies received, indicating under proper headings the name
of the railroad and the style of signs, giving dimensions, etc., together
with the inscriptions and other information. However, this Committee
worked up a typical form of sign which it thinks will best meet the
present conditions. By way of interjection I might mention that on page
868 it lias presented also six typical signs that are in use by the different
railroads; all of the various signs in use come under one or the other of
those types. It also secured from the legal departments of the various
railroads information in regard to the statutory laws in effect in the vari-
ous states, also the Public Utility or State Railroad Commission rulings
covering the different forms of road crossing signs prescribed. I might
say that it would be very apropos here, after our study of this subject,
to repeat the words of Cowper, that "The earth is made so various that
the mind of desultory man, studious of change and pleased with novelty,
might be indulged." It appeared to us that that sentiment is carried out
in the different forms of railroad signs that the railroads in this country
and Canada have adopted. We were finally able to determine upon the
design of a sign that we thought would best meet the most general con-
ditions and requirements. The Committee, therefore, in its consideration
of the subject concluded that the objects to be achieved in the selection
of a proper sign were —
"Reasonable cheapness in first cost, economy in maintenance, which
includes durability, and the merit of serving the purpose for which it is
placed ; that is, to give proper and ample warning of the existence of a
railroad crossing."
On page 874 we present a sign made of cast-iron and wrought-iron
pipe. The Committee does not feel at this time like recommending this
wrought-iron pipe sign because of its high cost. Furthermore, it is not
certain whether it has the feature of durability about it. That has to be
determined a little later on, by further experimenting. This sign has
only been in use about a year; so that the Committee is not willing to make
any recommendation as to the practicability of this sign.
We have presented in Appendix A a list of the different States cov-
ering their requirements for road crossing signs, as well as the rulings of
the Public Utility Commissions. These laws are not complete for the
reason that it was impossible to secure all of them from the legal depart-
ments of the railroads, but we have that under way, and I think by this
time we have secured all the laws in effect in this country.
The Committee at this time would like to recommend the adoption
of the specifications and the plan for highway crossing signs as shown mi
page 873. I move the adoption of this recommendation.
The President : — The Committee moves the adoption of recommenda-
tion 1 on page 872, which carries with it the illustration on page 873, to-
gether with the specifications on page 872.
DISCUSSION. 1139
Mr. Curtis Dougherty (Queen iX: Orescent); — I would like to ask if
the Committee considered the use of reinforced concrete posts for this
sign, and if so what were the considerations that led to the rejection of
that form of post?
Mr. Stein: — In behalf of the Committee I would say that it does not
believe in speculation, and we were only able to get a report from one
railroad that was using a concrete sign, and from one other that was
using concrete posts. The information secured, therefore, on this subject
was so meager that the Committee could not feel justified in going on
record and recommending anything in regard to concrete signs. It would
have done so if there had been any information available of sufficient
importance.
Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — I would like to ask
the chairman if the Committee has found that the word "locomotive" is
more generally used than the word "cars" on crossing signs.
Mr. Stein: — Perhaps Mr. Campbell has not read the entire text of
the report. The Committee does not propose to confine the wording on
the sign to "Railroad Crossing," "Look Out for Locomotive," because we
refer in the text to the fact that local conditions will have to be com-
plied with, and wherever the law requires "Look Out for the Cars," those
words must be substituted for "Locomotive," but the words "Look Out
for Locomotive," seem to be so well adapted to this sign, and since a
number of railroads are using it, we thought it was best to use it for
typical purposes.
Mr. C. E. Lindsay (New York Central & Hudson River) : — I think
the Committee has very properly selected this sign as the most important
sign on a railroad. It is supposed "to stand by the side of the road and
be a guide to man." I feel, however, that whatever this Association does
will be taken as a guide by public bodies which have not already estab-
lished standards. The Public Service Commission, second district. New
York State, is about to adopt a regulation of this sort, but is probably
awaiting the action of this body regarding a sign before doing so. I
was born and reared with this kind of a sign, so I am not opposed to it, per
se, but the more I see of conditions around highway crossings, and the
increasing number of paved streets with curb lines, requiring signs to
be set on the curb lines ; and the increase in size, velocity and character
of vehicle traffic on the highways, the more I am impressed with the
fact that such signs so placed are hardly visible. A post standing on the
curb line is on a line with trees, poles and other obstructions. This sign
has a blade, with less than 4 ft. projecting out over the roadway. When
I first went into New England I rather sneered at the type of railroad
crossing signs in use there. It is the shingle type, 10 or 12 ft. long,
sticking out over the road, and the more I think of it the more I admire it
as a proper device. The sign must be made more visible than this sign is.
It is not sufficient to put up a sign of this kind; we ought to adopt a sign
that will give better results in this respect. A great many of the laws
which are quoted here, which do not specify a particular type of sign, say
1140 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
that the sign must be across the highway, intimating that there must be
some structure across, above the road. I believe that is the only kind
of a sign anybody will pay attention to. I think it is inadvisable for this
Association to adopt the words "Look Out for the Locomotive." The
fundamental words are, "Stop, Look and Listen." That is the law in most
of the States. Those are the words which I think should be given spe-
cial prominence.
Mr. Stein : — I will answer Mr. Lindsay by questioning his last state-
ment. I will ask him whether he can find in any one of the laws that
are quoted in this book, which are supposed to be transcripts of the
statutory laws, a requirement on the part of any State or a requirement
on the part of any Public Utility or State Railroad Commission, that the
words "Stop, Look and Listen" should be used in any of the States.
Mr. Lindsay : — There is more than the laws you have read. You must
read the interpretation of the laws by the courts, and every court has said
it is the duty of everybody to stop, look and listen. I believe that answers
you.
Mr. Hunter McDonald (Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis) : — The
chairman of the Committee has stated that he was unable to get informa-
tion as to reinforced concrete posts. I believe it was probably due to the
fact that the Committee's circular of inquiry covered only reinforced con-
crete posts for these particular signs. The use of concrete posts is quite
universal for a great many purposes, and there is no reason why they could
not be used in this connection. The line with which I am connected has
used reinforced concrete posts for supporting bridge warning signs for
the past seven or eight years, and we have found them very satisfactory.
I therefore move to amend the plan of the Committee on page 873, by a
note adding the words, "Unless made of reinforced concrete."
A Member: — I understand the purpose of that is to make it optional.
Mr. McDonald : — That is the purpose of it. We are confined in this
sketch to a wooden post.
The President: — The Committee states that they have no objection
to the amendment, and by unanimous consent this note will be added.
Mr. C. H. Cartlidge (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy) : — It might be
inferred from the wording proposed by Mr. McDonald that a reinforced
concrete post as outlined in the drawing would be sufficient. I would
suggest that the Committee be requested to present a design for rein-
forced concrete posts.
Mr. Stein: — We did not have sufficient information to warrant us in
stating that a concrete post might be used in place of a wooden post. Only
two cases have come to our notice where railroads were using concrete
posts for crossing signs. While the Committee is willing to accept this
amendment, it is not prepared to say, as has been suggested by Mr.
Cartlidge, that a reinforced concrete post made up similar in design to
the wooden post would meet the conditions. From the practice in the coun-
try to-day I do not believe that the Committee is warranted in specifying
anything other than the wooden post. Notwithstanding the fact that
DISCUSSION. 1141
the Committee has accepted this amendment, I believe that we ought
to go a little slow in adopting it. Just because one or two railroads have
tried out the concrete posts and have felt that their experience with it
has justified their continuing it is not sufficient. I would much prefer to
see the sign go through in its present design. Mr. Lindsay said that
whatever the Association did on this occasion is what railroad commis-
sions are going to adopt, and it was really our purpose in undertaking this
work during the past year to accomplish this object. We felt that some-
thing would have to be adopted that all railroads, with slight variations,
could accept, and, therefore, we ought to become sufficiently progressive to
get there first with our recommendations and not to depart too far
from the standards in use on the different railroads of the country. This
sign seemed to us to typify the very thought and sentiment of a railroad
crossing, and it appealed to the judgment of the Committee. I feel san-
guine now that the commissions of certain States which have thus far
not adopted any road crossing sign would gladly accept this one, and
several States that have already adopted road crossing signs have adopted
signs similar in type to this. I think we are getting in harmony not
only with the thoughts of the Public Utility Commissions and the State
Railroad Commissions, but also with the feeling of the railroads in re-
gard to this matter. I think it would be better for the Association if
this sign were adopted now and if found expedient an addition could
be made to the Manual a little later on and a concrete post could be
recommended by this Association. If in the meantime certain railroads
feel that this sign is all right except that they would like to adopt the
concrete post, there is no objection to their doing so.
The President : — In looking over the specifications, I think it is the
intention of the Committee simply to present this as a wooden sign, with
a wooden post. The introduction of this clause, "unless made of rein-
forced concrete," will require the Committee to recast its specification.
Mr. McDonald (reading conclusion i) : — There does not appear any
specification for the sign on page 873, but a note is given. I, therefore,
can see no conflict in the words which I propose to add to the sketch,
which is covered by the conclusions. There may be some conflict in the
text which is not covered by the conclusions. As to the chairman's re-
mark about not being able to get the information, it seems to me that
the very wide use of reinforced concrete telegraph poles should have
been sufficient notice to the Committee that such a thing was possible.
I know of a large number of instances where reinforced concrete posts
as high as 30 ft. are loaded down with considerably more weight than
these signs would impose. As to our ability to design them with sufficient
strength, if they are made 8 in. square, I think there is no doubt about it.
The President : — Mr. McDonald is correct in his observation. How-
ever, the Committee intend thafr the specification on page 872 should ac-
company the diagram on page 873, yet that is not stated in the conclu-
sion.
1142 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
Mr. Stein :— That was due to the manner of setting it up in the
book. That was intended to accompany the diagram.
Mr. McDonald: — If the specification is to go with it the addition of
the words 1 have mentioned would cause a conflict. I think then the
Committee might take up the question of a revised sign next year, omit-
ting the kind of posts. The Committee says, "creosoted at the bottom."
My idea of creosoting is that it is impregnated with creosote. This is
only a coat, and I think you are wasting money putting it on.
Prof. S. N. Williams (Cornell College) :— I think it is a deplorable
fact that there are people who will disregard all warnings, no matter
how plainly they are expressed. I remember an instance during the past
year in Iowa, where a gentleman traveling with his family insisted on
trying to make a certain crossing in front of a fast train, and as a result
three members out of four of that family were killed and the automobile
was smashed. I remember an instance recently in Chicago where a man
insisted on going under the bars of a railway crossing where they were
set to try to keep people from crossing, and as the result he was killed.
There have been instances also of people trying to cross the Chicago
River when the signs were clearly against them. I remember an instance
in my town not long since where a runaway team ran three-quarters of a
mile to make the railway and then turned and ran three-quarters of a
mile along the railway in order to meet a fast train and be killed and
have the vehicle smashed. I feel from the standpoint of my own limited
observation that the railways are doing all that can be expected by any rea-
sonable person to secure the safety of the public in crossing their tracks
and that a very large proportion of the accidents which are happening
at crossings are due to the positive wilfulness and neglect of people in
insisting on doing things they know they ought not to do, when every
possible effort has been made to prevent their doing them.
Mr. E. R. Lewis (Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic) :— In Appendix
A, I do not see anything about the height of sign in the regulations of
Canada, but I recollect having heard that in Canada they stipulate that
the minimum height for crossing signs shall be 16 or 20 ft. The higher
you get a sign the more costly is the maintenance, because the wind has a
greater effect on a high sign than on a low one.
Mr. Lindsay : — I feel that road crossing signs, as designed in most
cases, are not sufficiently conspicuous to serve practical purposes, and
they are becoming less so, in thickly populated districts, because they
are forced to the side of the road, to the curb line. If we are to adopt a
practice which merely meets the letter of the law, this will serve the
purpose as well as anything else, but if we are to adopt a sign that will
meet the spirit of the law and give reasonable warning to the public, I
think this sign will fail. I move that this sign be referred back to the
Committee for .further study.
Mr. G. A. Mountain (Canada Railway Commission) :— I agree largely
with the Committee's design of the sign. Mr. Lindsay speaks of the
sign being placed at the curb or outside of it and that it cannot be seen.
DISCUSSION. 1143
That may occur in a few cases. We have had some inspections of acci-
dents where that did occur. That is, it could not be seen on one side of
the crossing. I notice by this pamphlet that Rhode Island requires a
crossing sign on each side of the crossing. I do not think that is neces-
sary, but there are cases where you might place a sign on one side that
will serve pedestrians or vehicles coming from the other side. I think
that might be taken into consideration.
Mr. W. H. Courtenay (Louisville & Nashville) : — The Committee has
produced a sign which is in common use, the lettering of the sign differ-
ing in various sections. It is the practice on road crossings, where there
is heavy traffic or at crossings where trains cannot be seen a long dis-
tance, to erect a special audible highway alarm, visible where the view
can be had and audible where it cannot be seen. I think the recommenda-
tion of the Committee does not prevent roads adopting highway signs,
audible or otherwise, in special cases.
Mr. A. S. Baldwin (Illinois Central) : — I concur with the views
of Mr. Courtenay. Where special conditions exist they can be met by spe-
cial signs, but we do not wish to go to too great expense in adopting
expensive devices for very general use, and in many places where the
travel is slight. I wish to call attention to a remark made by Mr. Mc-
Donald as to creosoting the post for a length of 6 ft. I think that should
be corrected on the drawing. It is not practical to creosote 6 ft. of a post.
On the Illinois Central we creosote the entire post and get good results
from it. The comparison between the capitalized cost of the creosote and
the concrete post from the Committee will be interesting.
Mr. Campbell : — The Committee has brought in a plan of crossing sign
(which I think is as nearly a standard in common use as any other. I
think the Committee's work is good. I do not believe it should be referred
back to them for the reasons stated by the two gentlemen who have pre-
ceded me. If there are special conditions requiring special signs they
should be handled accordingly.
Mr. Moses Burpee (Bangor & Aroostook) : — I do not want to find
fault with the recommendations of the Committee, but would like to sug-
gest something simpler. The more you put on a sign, the more you de-
feat its purpose. I think there is too much lettering, and the letters are
so crowded as to make them almost illegible at a distance. It seems to
me the wcrds "Railroad Crossing" are sufficient for the purpose of warn-
ing, and if those words only are used, it will be sufficient. I think the use
of two boards is good, because the form of the letter X indicates "cross-
ing," and it is more conspicuous. I have seen the same form used, with
the word "Railroad" on one board and the word "Crossing" on the other.
Mr. Stein : — Before the question is put to vote, I would like to sum up
again what the Committee had in view. Its chief object was, knowing
that the different States were going to require the railroads to put up
certain kinds of signs, to prepare a sign that would meet the approbation
of the States that have already adopted certain signs, and at the same
time meet the general views of the railroads that have signs already
1144 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
in use. Referring to page 871, you will note what inscriptions the dif-
ferent States require. The inscriptions will have to meet local condi-
tions. The Committee tried to meet the general conditions. If we fail to
adopt a sign at this time it inevitably will come about that the different
States will prescribe different forms of signs and there will be no uni-
formity at the railroad crossings, which is so much desired. If all
railroads in the country would adopt a uniform crossing sign, I think I
would be almost safe in saying that it would be unnecessary to put any
words on the sign, because everybody would understand it to be a cross-
ing sign.
Mr. Lindsay :— The National Association of Railway Commissioners
has under discussion at the present time the propriety of the adoption
of a uniform sign throughout all the States. While that body has no
power to require that, the States generally follow its lead. My object in
asking the Committee to reconsider this subject is to seek a design of
sign that can be built and maintained practically at no greater expense
than the sign proposed, but which will better meet the conditions. A sign
across the road is illuminated at night by the headlights of an automobile.
This sign is never seen until after the accident has happened. These signs
are required no matter what other devices you put up. I ask for a more
conspicuous road crossing sign.
Mr. Cartlidge : — I believe the members will agree with me that the
Committee has done its work well, and I believe that work should be
recognized by the convention. I think from the discussion that there are
two things required. Both are of sufficient importance to require con-
sideration. One is the matter of creosote. There has been no dispute
of the assumption that we had better creosote the whole post, if we creo-
sote any of it. It has been clearly brought out that in many cases the
words "Look Out for the Locomotive," or "Look Out for the Cars," are
not required. It is evident also that the letters are very close together on
the sign. It seems to me that an amendment could be made to the report
providing for the use of the words "Railroad Crossing" on the two arms,
occupying the whole of it, and that any other additional words that may be
required could be placed on the post, as is done by many railroads to-day.
Mr. J. R. Leighty (Missouri Pacific) : — It seems to me that the recom-
mendation that the Committee has worked out is in line with the general
practice in the country to-day, and that if this report be referred back to
them, because the sign they propose is not always visible, that it should
be referred back with specific instructions that they shall work out a
sign that cannot be placed in any position where it cannot be seen from
all directions.
Mr. Francis Lee Stuart (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I hope that the Asso-
ciation will adopt a standard crossing sign. We should compromise our
differences about non-essentials and recommend or adopt some sign
which can be published, and be distributed so as to help influence legisla-
tion in the right direction. If an Association like this cannot agree,
how can we expect States and Public Service Boards to agree?
DISCUSSION. 1145
Mr. John G. Sullivan (Canadian Pacific) : — It appears that we are
nearing an agreement. I agree with one of the speakers that if the words
were put on, "Railroad" or "Railway Crossing," and any other words
added, that we would get the necessary results. Why not adopt the
simplest sign, with the least requirements, and put on such words as
may be required ? We are going to make a mistake if we think that we
can lead legislative bodies. I would move an amendment to this, that
we use the words "Railway Crossing" or "Railroad Crossing," using
two boards for the sign. The cross is a good indication of what is meant.
Mr. J. B. Jenkins (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I think the objections which
Mr. Lindsay states can be answered. In nearly all of the places he spoke
of in which this crossing sign is not suitable, crossing gates are needed.
We are consuming a great deal of time, but I think it is important to
have this crossing sign adopted to-day. That can be done by making two
or three motions to test the sense of the meeting. I would second Mr.
Sullivan's motion, to get the matter started.
Mr. Stein : — In regard to what Mr. Sullivan and Mr. Jenkins have
stated, and answering Mr. Lindsay's objection, the Committee did not
care to treat of that feature of the case where signs could not be properly
seen because of intervening trees or other obstructions, but you will note
in the text a statement in reference to the sign not being clearly seen 150
ft. from the crossing, that then another sign shall be erected 150 ft. from
the crossing. The Committee did not want to say anything about that
at this time. They thought perhaps the question would come up. They felt
constrained to omit any reference to that in this report, because they
felt it would bring up discussion that would be unnecessary now. If
you will read the specifications you will see that the Committee has made
no reference to the wording that is to be on the sign, in view of the fact
that local conditions require different wording, and this was simply typical
of the wording and style of the lettering. If it is the sense of the Asso-
ciation that they want any specific wording on the sign, all that it is neces-
sary to do is that someone make a motion that the wording shall be
"Railroad Crossing" or "Railway Crossing." It is not necessary to sub-
stitute anything for the present wording, because no wording exists at
present on this sign.
The President : — The question is on the adoption of that conclusion.
Mr. Stein moves that the design on page 873, together with the specifica-
tion on page 872, be adopted. Mr. Lindsay moves an amendment to the
effect that this subject be referred back to the Committee for further
study.
(The amendment was lost.)
The President : — The amendment has been lost. The motion now is
that the design on page 873, together with the specifications on page 872,
be adopted, as recommended practice.
Mr. E. H. Bowser (Illinois Central) : — I ask the Committee if it will
accept the suggestion Mr. McDonald makes, that it is useless to paint
it with creosote and no railroads have plants with which to creosote part
1146 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
of the post. Has the Committee any objection to fully creosoting the
post? That is in accordance with present practice.
Mr. Stein: — Can you paint the post after it is creosoted?
Mr. Bowser : — You can, but it will not stick very long.
Mr. Stein: — That was the objection to it.
Mr. Courtenay : — That is a good objection. You cannot paint a creo-
soted post.
Mr. Bowser: — Why is it necessary to paint the post?
Mr. Courtenay : — We paint on our posts, "Stop, Look and Listen."
It has been of service to our railroad in damage suits.
Mr. H. R. Safford (Grand Trunk) : — I think we are going too far
in specifying creosoting in any form, whether by painting or treating.
The use of the creosoted timber posts is purely an economical question.
There is a large portion of the country in which a railroad would not be
justified in using creosote, where the cost of the untreated timber is so
low and the cost of the treated timber so high, that it would not be logical
to use it. It seems to me the Committee goes far enough when it specifies
the size of the post, the height, etc., and the determination as to whether
it should be treated or untreated should be left entirely to the local organ-
ization.
Mr. Campbell : — We tried the experiment of using a creosoted post
for our property line posts, but discontinued it because the post could not
be painted successfully. The creosote came through the paint and de-
stroyed the lettering. We finally adopted the practice of dipping that part
of the post to be in the ground in hot coal tar for whatever such practice
is worth.
Mr. Safford : — I offer my suggestion as an amendment, that all refer-
ence to the subject of creosoting be omitted from these specifications.
Mr. W. M. Camp (Railway Review) : — I do not want to speak on the
amendment. As I understand it, the Committee has not recommended any
specific wording of the sign.
Mr. Stein: — No specific wording, only size of letter.
Mr. Camp : — In order to facilitate matters, would it be agreeable to
the Committee to leave off the lettering on this sign?
Mr. Stein : — The lettering is put on there simply to show the size of
the letter, etc.
Mr. Camp : — This lettering has proved a stumbling block in the con-
sideration of this report.
Mr. Stein : — We might insert something to the effect that other lan-
guage could be used.
Mr. Camp : — I think that would be a good thing.
Mr. Stein : — The Committee will accept that.
Mr. Sullivan: — I think, as I said before, that it might be well to
show the general plan of the crossing sign, but to leave the wording
optional.
The President : — The Chair was about to call attention to that ques-
tion and ask whether or not the Manual will contain this illustration ex-
DISCUSSION. 1147
actly as it is shown here. It is my understanding that the Committee
does not intend the lettering shall appear on the design as recommended.
Will the wording appear in the Manual?
Mr. Stein : — It may be omitted.
(Mr. Safford's motion carried.)
Mr. Campbell : — Is there not a motion before the house that the
words "Railroad Crossing" be used in lieu of the wording suggested by
the Committee?
The President : — The motion to recommit having been voted down,
the motion introduced some time ago by Mr. Sullivan and seconded by
Mr. Jenkins is now in order.
Mr. Sullivan : — I move that the wording now shown on the sign be
changed to either "Railway Crossing" or "Railroad Crossing," and that
it be stated that the type of letters and size of letters shown are simply
typical.
Mr. McDonald : — I am anxious to see this go through and I think it
is an important matter that we should lead legislation, if it is possible. I
am anxious to see it go through in the shape in which it is. The illus-
tration should show the lettering as a sample with "Railroad Crossing"
or "Railway Crossing" and there should be a note stating that the in-
scription on the sign is to conform to the local legislation. If that is
done, then we are not committed to any lettering.
I want to call attention once more to the fact that in adopting this
conclusion we are adopting the sketch only, and nothing whatever in the
text.
Mr. Stein : — The Committee states with the permission of the con-
vention it will accept the changes indicated in Mr. Sullivan's motion.
Mr. McDonald : — Will the Committee accept the further suggestion
that a notation be added that the. inscription on the sign shall conform to
local conditions?
Mr. Stein : — That is the feeling of the Committee.
The President: — Without objection on the part of the convention,
the Committee will accept that modification.
Mr. Jenkins: — As I understand it, the amendment which was made
to this section, with reference to concrete posts, has created some con-
fusion, and I offer a further amendment that the clause inserted in regard
to concrete posts, which has been accepted by the Committee, be stricken
out again, and that the title of the sign be changed to read, "Wooden
crossing sign."
Mr. Courtenay : — I desire to appeal to this convention to adopt the
Committee's recommendation just as it stands. It will then give each
railroad company the privilege of putting on each sign such lettering as
best suits the local conditions of each individual road, and it appears to
me that will be far more satisfactory.
As to this question of creosoting the bottom of the post, there is no
prohibition against it, if anyone wants to do it, and naturally these mat-
1148 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
ters of detail can be decided by the individual road. The Committee's con-
clusion, it seems to me, is best for the convention to adopt.
Mr. L. S. Rose (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : — I
suggest, in order to clear up this matter, that the words "Railroad Cross-
ing" on the one panel be left there, and the other panel be left blank;
the style of lettering and specification to indicate something else can be
put there.
The President: — Mr. Jenkins, do you desire a vote on your motion?
Mr. Jenkins : — Unless the Committee sees fit to accept it. The design
on page 873 was amended by an acceptance of a suggestion by the Com-
mittee to print words something like this : "Excepting where concrete posts
are used ;" the striking out of the part in regard to the creosote leaves
that meaningless, and I think it is necessary to indicate that this is intend-
ed only for a wooden sign, provided that the Committee thinks a separate
design should be inserted for the concrete. I make this suggestion in order
to get the matter straightened out. If the dimensions are good for a
concrete post also, then it is not necessary to put in the word "wooden"
in the title, but simply to strike out the clause in regard to concrete posts.
The President :— The motion is tha* the original motion be amended
so that all reference to concrete be omitted and the title be amended to
read "wooden crossing signs."
(The motion was carried.)
The President : — Mr. McDonald makes the suggestion that the con-
clusion on page 882 does not include the design shown on page 873.
Mr. Stein : — I want to say that was simply due to a typographical
error. When the copy was prepared the plan appeared in connection
with the specifications and under the same number. The Committee could
not get in their copy the number of this page in the book and we had to
rely on the printer to insert that. It so happened that the specifications
appeared on a different page from the plan, as you will note, and that is
what made the conclusion seem at variance with what the book contains.
The intention was that the specification, which is only one paragraph of
about twelve lines, describing the sign, should be included as part of the
plan and in explanation of it.
Mr. Courtenay: — Should there not be a reference to the page?
Mr. Stein : — Yes, a reference to pages 872 and 873.
The President : — The explanation given by the Committee is to be
considered as indicative of the intent of the Committee, which is that
the design on page 873, together with the specification on page 872, as
now amended, is to be adopted as recommended practice for publication
in the Manual.
Mr. Stein : — The next question taken up by the Committee was the
consideration of trespass signs.
In like manner we secured the statutory laws throughout the United
States and Canada and prepared a synopsis, as you will note by the Bul-
letin, and also secured from the railroads of the country the different
forms of signs in common use and it was observed that there were no
DISCUSSION. 1149
statutory regulations with regard to the form of the signs, the character
of the wording to be employed, etc., except in the State of Pennsylvania.
That State stipulates that the sign shall read: "Notice — This is private
property and all persons are hereby warned from trespassing thereon
under penalty of the law, as provided in the Act of Assembly passed
April 14, 1905." That is the form of wording which the Pennsylvania law
requires on the "No trespass'' signs displayed in that State. I have not
personally seen any of these signs, although there may be many of them
which have that wording.
The Committee presents a form of design which would seem to meet
most generally with the requirements under this heading, and they have
prepared a plan of trespass sign as shown on page 881. I want to make
it clear again that the wording on that sign is not the wording the Com-
mittee recommends. The Committee simply presents it as the typical
form of wording. The sign as placed in the Manual may be blank, if so
desired. The Committee recommends the plan and specification for public
trespass signs as shown on page 881. The specifications do not appear
on the same page of the Bulletin, because of the explanation made.
I want to say, in conclusion, both in regard to this road crossing sign
and the tresspass sign, it is not a matter of snap judgment with the Com-
mittee. I think I am safe in saying that the Committee spent several
months in giving very close study to all the plans presented before they
arrived at conclusions for presentation to the Association, and there is a
long line of work yet mapped out for them in connection with the signs
which will come before them in the year to come; the Committee, there-
fore, moves that the specification and typical design presented on pages
880 and 881 be approved and printed in the Manual.
Mr. Lindsay : — There has been some comment regarding the wording
of the sign. I understand the Committee is willing to put any desired
wording on the sign, or to leave the wording off —
Mr. Stein : — Yes.
Mr. Lindsay: — While the laws may specify signs in one State to be in
a certain form, I know the interpretation has been made in some of the
States that unless the sign contains the name of the railroad company
it does not fulfill its legal purpose. Anyone could put up a sign, "No
trespassing," but that would not be a proper defense for the railroad com-
pany unless the sign bore the name of the railroad company.
Mr. W. A. Clark (Duluth & Iron Range) : — In some parts of the
country hunters with high-powered rifles find railroad signs a very con-
venient target, and it seems to me that a sign of steel or of wood would
not be damaged to the extent that a cast-iron sign would be if used in thi*
manner. I think the cast-iron sign would be pretty badly shattered if it
were struck by a bullet.
Mr. Campbell: — We are using steel for such signs and think it is well
to do so, but I do not care to make an issue of that. Would the Com-
mittee have any objection to omitting the diameter of the pipe? Boiler
1150 SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
tubes vary in diameter and this detail could be left to the judgment of
the railroad company. Any old boiler tubing on hand could he used.
Mr. Stein: — Nearly all of these details are optional with the railroad
company, but we must stipulate something that would seem to be most har-
monious with the general design of the sign. If a railroad company does
not desire to follow our recommendation, and wishes to use a pipe J^-in.
smaller or larger, it is optional with them, but we must give them some-
thing harmonious with the general plan.
The President : — The question is on the adoption of the conclusion as
i ecommended practice.
(The conclusion was adopted.)
Mr. Stein: — There is one more item, and that is the subject of the
investigation of concrete and metal as compared with wood for fence
posts. The Committee has prepared to make an exhaustive series of
tests in regard to this, and if Mr. Johnson, a member of the Commit-
tee, is present I think he could probably say a few words in regard to what
the Committee is doing, and that will conclude our report.
Mr. Maro Johnson (Illinois Central) : — -The matter is pretty well
covered in the text of the report. We have had concrete posts made by
a number of different railroads and propose to have these broken later
under a variety of conditions, carrying out as far as possible conditions
met in the actual use of the posts.
The President : — Are there any suggestions regarding next year's
work of this Committee?
Mr. B. H. Mann (Missouri Pacific) : — The Committee reports that
the subject of fence wire should rest for a year, but judging from what is
said in the Bulletin it might be just the other way. The galvanizing
specifications are those in use by several associations. One manufacturer
said he could not meet the galvanizing tests of this Association which
have to do with the making. of joints. If the joint corrodes faster than
the fence itself, it reduces the life of the fence. As the structure as a
whole should be judged by its weakest parts, I suggest that the Com-
mittee be asked next year to take this feature up with the manufacturers.
Mr. McDonald : — I do not know whether what I am about to suggest
is within the province of this Committee or not, but I think some com-
mittee of this Association should study the question of the equitable and
practicable apportioning of grade separation expenses between the com-
munity, the steam railroads and the electric railways.
The President : — The suggestion of Mr. McDonald will be taken up
by the Committee on Outline of Work and turned over to whichever com-
mittee seems to be the proper one.
In excusing this Committee, we want to call your attention to the
very large attendance, and in so far as the Committee is concerned, I think
the discussion of the convention is a sufficient compliment for its work.
DISCUSSION ON CONSERVATION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES.
(For Report, see pp. 905-912.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON CONSERVATION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES.
William McNab. S. N. Williams.
The President: — The report on Conservation of Natural Resources
will be presented by Mr. M'cNab, the Chairman of the Committee.
Mr. William McNab (Grand Trunk) : — The purpose of this Commit-
tee has been set forth in the first paragraph of the report. It may be
assumed that every member has read the subject matter and matters
contained in these few pages, and, as it is merely a report of progress,
one of information, rather, I will move that this report on Conservation
of Natural Resources be received as information and progress.
Prof. S. N. Williams (Cornell College) : — Gentlemen of the Associa-
tion: While this subject is not as technical and, perhaps, as peculiarly
interesting to railway men as some other subjects which have been ably
discussed by the committees, yet it is really one of the most important
subjects before railway men and people of the entire country at the pres-
ent time. The late honored A. M. Wellington, in the introduction to his
book on the "Economics of Railway Location," said that the first idea
in connection with railway construction was the avoidance of waste. In
conversations with students I have tried to impress upon them the neces-
sity for economy of time, money, energy, space and material. These mat-
ters are just as important to the general public as they are to railway
companies.
I have been pleased recently to see a statement made by the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Company that it was trying to increase the
car loading of freight trains. Last year 1,683,000 cars were underloaded,
and if the loads on each car had been increased two tons, $2,500,000
would have been saved the company. Only a small part of the earning
capacity has been available heretofore, and it is just as important to other
railway companies as to that company to thus economize. Incidentally,
the company is trying to avoid unnecessary delay in the use of freight
cars. As I came into Chicago the other day, I noticed a long line of
freight cars down a siding, extending perhaps half a mile, and wondered
what all of these idle cars meant. I suppose they are being held in re-
serve for the handling and movement of the crops.
I have been interested also in seeing a statement made which came
from another railroad company as to the number of persons who have
been killed and injured in accidents on their tracks and in various other
ways. This is no reflection on the company, because it is undoubtedly as
1151
1152 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.
careful as other companies are in handling their trains, but it was a
comment on the danger of trespassing — the loss of life and injury to peo-
ple attendant upon their being in places where they ought not to be, and
that subject is increasingly important.
Sanitarians are trying to impress upon us the great waste of human
life and loss to humanity by unnecessary sickness. One of our members
told me a short time since about the great trouble and expense to which
he had been subjected in trying to save the life of his wife who had been
ill with typhoid fever, one of the preventable diseases. It is also one of
the most common diseases, and yet it is one which can be largely attrib-
uted to human negligence.
I was interested in looking over a report presented at our meeting
yesterday to see the effort of Mr. Beahan, one of the Engineers in
charge of operations on the Belt Line Railway around Cleveland, to ar-
range the work so that there should be no delay to trains, and the work
of construction should not interfere with the work of the management
of the car line.
These are only a few instances which occur of things being done by
railroad companies over the country, and we are coming to have efficiency
engineers who show us how we should avoid unnecessary effort in doing
work. The subject of handling freight was mentioned in one of the dis-
cussions at the meeting yesterday, so this matter of economy is coming
to be one of the most important things in connection with the working
of railways as well as everything else.
We have had presented to us recently by one of the great Chicago
dailies the matter of wasted lumber caused by forest fires. We are all
familiar with that, and this Committee has previously called attention to
it. I think, however, it might be well to note that a recent report of the
National Conservation Commission estimated there were 65,000,000 acres
of land denuded in our country when the report was made five years ago,
and if we assume only one dollar per acre as the loss by denudation there
would be $65,000,000 to be made up in some way, which means a general
movement toward reforestation. I think three states at least are provid-
ing for this. The subject of improvement of waste land is important to
railway companies, because it involves the subject of ties. We have had
an able discussion of this presented by the Committee. I notice no refer-
ence was made, as in years past, to the efforts of railroad companies to
provide for the growth of new ties, but this subject of reforestation is
of great importance to railroad companies because of the question as to
where are we to get a supply of railway ties after the present supply is
exhausted.
I would like to appeal to the organization as men and brothers to
make conservation a habit, if I may term it such, or a specialty. You are
accustomed to do that already in the avoidance of unnecessary railway
expenses. All business organizations are making efforts to avoid unnec-
DISCUSSION. 1153
essary expense and waste. We have had our attention directed previously
to economy in the various materials used by railways, and the effort to
make their money go as far as possible.
I appeal to you to do all possible with your ability and opportunity
in trying to impress upon the people of our country the necessity for
economy. I think men who have the management of railways have pro-
duced most valuable results. They have shown great sagacity and skill
in enabling railroad companies to pay dividends when circumstances were
so much against them as they have been. They have done extremely well,
and yet all of us have an opportunity to produce that which is so neces-
sary, namely, a proper appreciation by the people of the value of economy
and the avoidance of waste in every direction ; in doing that we will not
only benefit the railroad companies, but also do that which is very impor-
tant— impress upon the public the necessity of learning to exercise the
same economy, thrift and careful management which is shown by the
people of Europe and possibly many other countries.
The President : — The report will be received as information, and the
Committee relieved with the thanks of the Association.
DISCUSSION ON ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY
LOCATION.
(For Report, see pp. 913, 914.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON ECONOMICS OF ^
RAILWAY LOCATION.
C. P. Howard. Hunter McDonald.
The President : — The next report will be that of the Committee on the
Economics of Railway Location. In the absence of the Chairman, Mr.
C. P. Howard, the Vice-Chairman, will present the report.
Mr. C. P. Howard (Consulting Engineer) : — This Committee has no
conclusions or data to submit at this time. There are two reports, a ma-
jority and a minority report, given in Bulletin 164.
The President : — This question of furnishing funds to the Committee
is before the Board of Direction and is under consideration. The Board
will decide at a convenient time as. to whether any appropriation can be
made or not. The convention understands there has not been sufficient
funds in the past for any experimental work, and in so far as the
Board is concerned, the matter is still under consideration with no final
action taken.
The Committee makes no recommendation, but simply outlines the
general ideas with respect to the future work of the Committee. It
is only necessary, therefore, to accept this as a report of progress. The
Committee is relieved with the thanks of the Association.
1154
DISCUSSION ON UNIFORM GENERAL CONTRACT
FORMS.
(For Report, see pp. 919-921.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKIN'G PART IN DISCUSSION ON UNIFORM GENERAL
CONTRACT FORMS.
L. C. Fritch. W. B. Storey.
Hunter McDonald. C. A. Wilson.
The President : — In the absence of the Chairman, we will ask the
Vice-Chairman, Mr. C. A. Wilson, to present the report of the Special
Committee on Uniform General Contract Forms.
Mr. C. A. Wilson (Consulting Engineer) : — It seems as if the Com-
mittee should have been able to complete the work which was assigned
to it. At the first meeting of the Committee a form* of proposal and
a form of bond were practically agreed to, but later on in the year there
came up some questions as to the bond which were brought up by such
important interests that the chairman of the Committee thought it ad-
visable to have another conference of the full membership of the Com-
mittee, and, therefore, we have asked for further time on that matter.
The other matter submitted is a minor change in simply one word
which the Committee feels that in the next printing of the Manual should
be added. The Committee on page 919 recommends the insertion of the
words, "losses," "and," in the contract form.
(The form of proposal and the change recommended by the Com-
mittee were approved.)
Mr. L. C. Fritch (Canadian Northern) : — This Committee has now
discharged its duty, apparently, which the Board imposed upon it, which
was to draw up a uniform general contract form. The Committee re-
ported a form last year which has been adopted very largely.
The question of the construction bond is purely a matter which the
legal departments can handle, and it would be my recommendation that
the Committee be now discharged with the thanks of the Association.
Mr. Hunter McDonald (Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis) : — My be-
lief is that if this matter is left entirely to the legal departments of rail-
roads, it will not be properly attended to, and I am in favor of continuing
the Committee and let them consult with the legal departments if
necessary.
Mr. W. B. Storey (Santa Fe) : — The Committee in its report states
"that the Committee be instructed to complete the bond form, and submit
it to the legal departments of railroads for criticism." I do not believe
we will get any satisfactory construction bond by the end of next year,
if this matter is referred to each railroad. I feel that each road has to
take care of its own bond and the legal department will furnish such
1155
1156 UNIFORM GENERAL CONTRACT FORMS.
bond as may be necessary. I do not think there is anything further in the
work of this Committee which pertains to this Association.
Mr. Wilson: — The Committee last year, if you will remember,
thought it was through when it performed the service of preparing the
contract form, and asked to be released. The convention saw fit to give
the Committee this further work to do which they have not yet per-
formed. I do not agree with the gentleman that the bond is any more of
a legal proposition than the contract.
Referring to the form of contract, we submitted that to the legal
department of all the railways and got answers from all those who were
willing to answer. It was a composite proposition, it was the result after
the reception of the opinion of the various legal departments of the rail-
roads which considered it. We feel that if the construction bond is pre-
sented to the legal department of the railroads, we will get a composite
proposition and have a construction bond which will represent the best
opinion of the legal department of the roads.
The President : — The Committee is excused with the thanks of the
Association.
DISCUSSION ON RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
(For Report, see pp. 923-960.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
A. W. Carpenter. C. P. Howard.
W. A. Christian. J. B. Jenkins.
L. C. Fritch. Henry Lehn.
The President : — The report of the Committee on Records and Ac-
counts will be presented by Mr. W. A. Christian, the Chairman.
Mr. W. A. Christian (Chicago Great Western) : — Bulletin 164 shows
the subjects assigned to this Committee, and I do not think it will be
necessary for the Chairman to read them. The first one, with regard to
making a comprehensive study of the forms in the Manual, has been up
so often it seems to me everybody is familiar with it; but I may mention
it is difficult to get information from the various roads as to forms, the
usual reply being, "We do not use all the forms in the Manual."
Your Committee submits conclusions regarding the revision of the
Manual, beginning at the bottom of page 923.
(Conclusions 1 and 2 were adopted.)
Mr. Christian : — In regard to the information on page 924, following
conclusion 3, I think it would be well if a conference between our Asso-
ciation and the Accounting Officers' Association could be arranged regard-
ing the subject of these forms.
The President: — For the information of the convention, the Chair
iwill state that the Board of Direction will take up this question in accord-
ance with the ideas of the Committee and endeavor to get some action
on it.
Mr. Christian : — Your Committee has received from the Interstate
Commerce Commission the symbols that they have used on maps and
profiles and we have embodied these symbols in the proposed changes to
our Manual. Your Committee submits these signs or symbols to the
convention and recommends their adoption.
Mr. A. W. Carpenter (New York Central & Hudson River) : — This
matter of symbols is certainly a very important one, for the reasons
which the Committee has pointed out. I find a number of the symbols
which I believe can very well be modified. On page 931 the third symbol
from the top is for the "Street, Block or Other Property Line." The third
symbol below that is for the "Company Property Line." We have to
show on the right-of-way maps to conform to the Interstate Commerce
Commission specifications, the separate land parcel lines. It is very con-
fusing if these are shown as full lines, because there are so many other
full lines, and I would recommend that some form of broken line be
1157
1158 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
adopted. On page 932 there are symbols for crossings — these might apply
very well, perhaps, to very small-scale maps, but in the case of crossing
bridges, they do not seem to be adequate or in keeping with the other
symbols for bridges which somewhat indicate the type of construction.
The crossing gate sign is a difficult one to make and could be simplified
by simply using four lines in a diamond shape, without filling in and
putting tbe additional work on in the middle as shown.
On page 934 the mile-post sign shown is rather difficult to make. It
would seem a circle would answer quite as well, and be very much easier
to make in good shape.
At the bottom of page 935 the last symbol is for a signal bridge.
This is shown as a heavy straight line with a projection at either end.
Comparing it with the symbol for culverts on the top of the next page,
it will be seen that on a map the signal symbol would appear very in-
significant in comparison. It would be more correct, I think, to use
double lines for the signal bridge, connecting them with diagonal lines
to represent bracing, and with cross lines at the end. On page 936,
under Miscellaneous, the symbol proposed for the Pole Wire Lines be-
comes very difficult to show on small-scale maps, because it occupies
so much space transversely. If the circles representing the poles were
placed on the longitudinal line, it would seem to answer the purpose
quite as well and be better generally.
In looking these symbols over rather hastily, I do not find any for
electrified track construction, third rail, transmission lines, etc.
Another point is in connection with the colors, where red ink is
mentioned. That becomes of some importance in connection with trac-
ings which it is desired to reproduce. Ordinary red ink lines will not
reproduce satisfactorily by the processes that are now in general use.
Orange lines, however, will produce well. I would suggest these matters
be taken into account by the Committee.
It is very important, in my opinion, that the Association .authorize
the revision of the conventional signs for maps and profiles at this meet-
ing on account of the valuation work which is going to require an un-
usual amount of map making, which should be on a uniform basis and,
furthermore, the specifications for maps and profiles of the Interstate
Commerce Commission in connection with the report of this Committee,
read as follows : "The symbols used on all maps and profiles shall be the
standards recommended by the American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion, in so far as they may be applicable." I understand that the Inter-
state Commerce Commission has issued no other order as to symbols
and signs to be shown on the maps and profiles. If I am wrong in that
undertanding, I would ask the President to kindly correct me.
The President: — The illustrated drawing accompanying this order
shows some symbols different from those in the Manual of this Asso-
ciation. The Committee on Records and Accounts now presents to the
Association a revision of the symbols heretofore published in the Manual,
together with such additional symbols as it finds to be necessary.
DISCUSSION. 1159
Mr. Carpenter : — I understand that the symbols shown on the illus-
trative plans are not necessarily mandatory, but if that should he the
case, that they are mandatory, I assume tfiat the Committee will ascer-
tain that fact. And so that there will be no conflict in any of these mat-
ters, I suggest that the Committee give the subject very careful attention
as to any changes as to the conventional signs proposed.
Mr. Christian : — The symbols shown for pole wire lines is made
mandatory by the Interstate Commerce Commission.
Mr. Carpenter :— If those are mandatory, then I will not mention
further the criticisms on the symbols presented. There are additional
symbols that will be required, particularly in connection with electrified
track construction. I suggest that the Committee endeavor to include
symbols for such construction.
Mr. Christian : — In regard to that point, your Committee on Sig-
nals and your Committee on Electricity have some symbols, and we
will confer so that there will be only one symbol for each object.
Mr. C. P. Howard (Consulting Engineer) : — I believe that the sym-
bol for a curve on a profile shows the curve down underneath, does it not?
I think, also, that the Interstate Commerce Commission symbols which
have been recently submitted, in their profile show a solid line for tangent
and dotted line for curve, which seems to me to be very much preferable.
In the first place, the dotted line shows it to be a curve, and the letters
"r" or "1" show whether it is to the right or to the left. In the second
place, any topography you want to put on the profile will be distorted
by the curved line. In the third place, I do not think there is any general
unanimity of opinion as to the meaning of the symbol. In the case of a
curve that bulges out to the right, some people think it is a curve to the
right, and in the case of a curve which bulges to the left, it is a curve to
the left. It seems to me the present symbol creates confusion and is
not a good symbol. In my opinion the symbol of the solid line for the
tangent and dotted lines for the curves, as adopted by the Interstate
Commerce Commission, is better.
Mr. J. B. Jenkins (Baltimore & Ohio) : — In view of the necessity of
reproducing a great many maps for use by the Government for final
records, it is essential, I think, to abandon the color scheme as far as
possible. The Committee has proposed, under "hydrography," to show
all such features in blue. A great many of these features are such as
will appear on the ordinary record maps, and will have to be reproduced
by photographic processes. There will be no confusion if those symbols
are shown in black instead of blue, excepting those for canals and
ditches, for which we could devise some other symbol. The Committee
indicates that the relief features are to be shown in blue. That is a poor
color for reproduction by photographic process, but brown reproduces
very well and in the reproduction it shows a mellow line that is easily
distinguishable from black lines on the original. I would suggest that
the color for hydrography be made black and that for relief be made
brown.
1160 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS.
In view of the necessity of having these symbols adopted imme-
diately, I would move that the^Committee take note of all the suggestions
and changes made at this meeting, and that the Committee be empowered
to amend their recommended symbols as they may see fit, and that the
amended symbols be considered adopted and authorized to be published
in the Manual.
The President: — You have heard the motion that the substitutes
offered by the Committee on Records and Accounts for insertion in the
Manual be approved, it being understood that this Committee has power
to make any changes which may seem proper in view of the discussion
at this meeting.
Mr. Christian: — With reference to the second subject, this was taken
up by your Committee last year jointly with the General Storekeepers'
Association and the conclusions arrived at were submitted as information
to the Association. We have not been able to do any better than last
year, and your Committee moves that the conclusions be adopted as
shown in the present report, namely, that conclusions I, 2 and 3 be adopted
and published in the Manual.
Mr. L. C. Fritch (Canadian Northern) : — It would seem to me that a
matter of that kind would be better if received as information instead
of being published in the Manual. It is likely to be subject to continual
change, and it seems to me it is just as valuable to us if it is a matter
of information only.
The President : — The Committee states that they will be agreeable to
that course.
Mr. Henry Lehn (New York Central) : — In view of the fact that the
Division of Statistics of the Interstate Commerce Commission have
under consideration a new Operating Expense classification, which I
understand they intend to put into effect at the beginning of the next
fiscal year (July 1, 1914), I move that this subject (sub-dividing Oper-
ating Expense account No. 6, Interstate Commerce Commission, Road-
way and Track) be referred back to the Committee for further con-
sideration.
Mr. Christian : — Your Committee has received information from many
of the States, and also blanks showing the information required by the
State commissions ; after these were all collected and analyzed, it was
found that the majority of the States, with the exception of about nine,
were using the blank forms of the Interstate Commerce Commission.
We can only report progress on this subject, and the Committee
asks the views of the members and an interpretation of the subject as-
signed, whether it implies recommended changes in the forms prescribed
by Federal or State Railway Commissions, or merely to make informa-
tion available with reference to reports required by public service bodies.
The President: — I may say last year when this subject was assigned,
that there were many standards in this country, but by the time the Com-
mittee makes its next report, there is likely to be only one standard
co far as Federal regulation is concerned, and it seems to me the sub-
DISCUSSION. 1161
ject can very well go over and allow the Committee to bring in next
year such a recommendation as its judgment suggests.
This Committee will have a very important work to do in the fu-
ture, not that it has not had an important work to do in the past. It
seems to me that we have been a little slow in taking up this question
of engineering accounting, which has been referred to by Mr. Lehn, and
it behooves this Association to get more information in connection with
this question of accounting, so that during the next year I have no
doubt that this Committee will consider not only engineering account-
ing, but these other questions as well.
The Committee is excused with the thanks of the Association.
DISCUSSION ON BALLAST.
(For Report, see pp. 961-1000.)
LIST OF SPEAKERS TAKING PART IN DISCUSSION ON BALLAST.
J. B. Berry. J- B. Jenkins.
W. M. Camp. Hunter McDonald.
Chas. S. Churchill. C. A. Morse.
L. C. Fritch. Francis Lee Stuart.
H. E. Hale.
The President: — We will now take up the report of the Committee
on Ballast, which will be presented by Mr. H. E. Hale, Chairman.
Mr. H. E. Hale (Missouri Pacific) : — The Association asked your
Committee to revise the ballast section, particularly for use of sub-ballast
and top-ballast. In working up this subject, the Committee presents
drawings which appear on page 972 and following pages.
The Committee also submits ballast sections of various roads, and
these are submitted for the purpose of giving the members of the Asso-
ciation sections which they are familiar with in various parts of the
country and in case they are disposed to study the subject, we think
these illustrations would be a great help to them. On page 988 are the
proposed ballast sections. The Committee submits this rather in the
form of a progress report without any definite recommendation, as we
have not tried out these sections.
There is 24 in. of ballast under the tie, and this proposed section is a
copy of the Baltimore & Ohio proposed section. The only other road
which your Committee found that is figuring on 24 in. is the Pennsylvania
Lines West, and their proposed section is at the top of page 977. The
Committee wishes to call attention to the fact that the section on page 988
requires practically a 26-ft. roadbed, and on curves, on account of the
elevation and the slope at the outside of the ballast, if the subgrade was
made symmetrical, it would be nearly 30 ft. wide, but your Committee
has recommended that the subgrade be not symmetrical, but that it be
15 ft. wide on the outside of curves and 11 ft. on the inside, which will
vary with the degree of the curve. The above would be the dimensions
for the maximum elevation.
The President: — The idea of the Committee is that this report will
be before the membership the coming year and the Committee would like
to have the result of the study of the members of the Association as it
may be made during the year. Is there any discussion on the report?
Mr. W. M. Camp (Railway Review) : — I will open discussion by ask-
ing a question. I notice in the top section, on page 988, there is a clear
space of 2 ft. 9 in. beyond the toe of the ballast, for single track; also
the same width for "Class A" double track. For "Class A" single track
1162
DISCUSSION. 1163
on curves there is a difference between that and the "Class A" single track
for tangent — it is 2 ft. on the outside of the curve and 16 in. on the inside.
I will ask how the Committee arrived at that dimension, and whether
they consider it necessary to have it there for the purposes of roadbed
stability. Did the Committee take into consideration, in arriving at that
dimension, the bearing power of the soil we talked of the other day in
discussing the report of the Roadway Committee?
Mr. Hale: — Your Committee considered those various points and we
made the width of 26 ft. to keep the track as narrow as possible and
have followed somewhat the precedent of the Baltimore & Ohio proposed
section. The Committee has not tried this out and we do not know what
the results will be.
The Committee does not wish to make any recommendation, but it
is working with the Roadway Committee, and at our meetings we have
discussed the question of the pressure on the roadway.
Mr. Camp: — What is the utility of the space? Is it intended to pro-
vide a sort of reservation against eventual wearing down of the embank-
ment width?
Mr. Hale : — No, it adds to the stability of the track material. It has
been found in gumbo spots, or soft spots, that a wide roadbed helps to
hold the track stable. It is with that idea that the Committee wishes to
get a substantial bank.
Mr. C. A. Morse (Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific) : — The tendency
of all our committees seems to be running to the ideal, rather than to the
practicable. I think there are very few roads in the country that can
possibly have Class A tracks, if Class A tracks require a ballast of this
section. We do pretty well if we can get 10 or 12 in. While this may
be ideal, I think the Committee report should be based on what the ma-
jority of the roads of the country can possibly use. I doubt if there is a
road in the country that has 50 miles of track that has as much ballast
as standard as the Committee has recommended. I think the Commit-
tee should recommend something that is practicable, something that we
can use.
Mr. J. B. Jenkins (Baltimore & Ohio) : — The ballast on the Cumber-
land Division of the Baltimore & Ohio will average 3 ft. deep for 50
miles. The depth of ballast is naturally increased in the ordinary course
of maintenance if the track is kept in first-class condition under heavy
traffic. As traffic increases and it becomes more difficult to maintain
proper surface, ballast is added until the proper depth is "reached.
Mr. Hale: — Your Committee felt there are many places where 12 in.
is not enough. It is not supposed that every railroad in the United
States will put 24 in. under the tie, but we do know some roads that are
doing so. On page 963 we give you a photograph of what they are doing
on the Pennsylvania Railroad. We also show you what they are doing
on the Baltimore & Ohio. The tendency is to go to a ballast section of
over 12 in. The Committee submits this as their idea of what would be
first class.
1164 BALLAST.
Mr. L. C. Fritch (Canadian Northern) :— I think the Committee is
working along right lines. We all know with the dense traffic to-day,
with the heavy wheel loads, we do not have sufficient ballast under our
ties to maintain the track. The Committee should be slow, however, in
making recommendations in this matter until exhaustive tests have been
made which the Special Committee on Track Stresses will undertake.
There have been some valuable tests made on the Pennsylvania Railroad
which demonstrated that with certain densities of traffic and wheel loads
at least 24 in. of ballast is necessary to maintain the track.
Mr. Francis Lee Stuart (Baltimore & Ohio) : — We have on our road
a section where we carry at times 2,500 loads a day, and in making our
cuts and fills we are preparing them on the basis of having 2 ft. of bal-
last under the track. When we first lay our rails we will probably put
18 in. of ballast in the track and then leave the other 6 in. for the track
force to raise in the course of their work. We do not suggest that sec-
tion for all the roads in the country. However, the foundation of all
good track is ballast, and the more ballast you get under your ties, the
better returns you will get, if you keep within certain limits.
The President: — If there is no further discussion this matter will be
left in the hands of the Committee for further consideration.
(M'r. Hale then read the conclusions on page 969, which were on mo-
tion adopted for publication in the Manual.)
Mr. Hale: — The Committee feels that the information given under
the heading "Cleaning Ballast" is reliable, and shows that by the use of
screens the cost of cleaning stone can be cut in half. The information
in this report is given in detail, as are also the dimensions of the screen
and how they can be obtained. In Appendix D is a contribution by Mr.
Trench in which certain screens are mentioned. While these screens are
patented and the report so states, the Committee felt the Association
would like to have the information regardless of the patent, that the
patent should not stand in the way of anything in the interest of economy.
Mr. Hale: — The Committee has had the subject of "Proper depth of
ballast to produce uniform pressure on subgrade" in its charge for three
years at least. Last year the Committee recommended a test be made
which is outlined on page 971, but notwithstanding the efforts made to
finance this test so far it has not been done. The test is a simple one and
the Committee believes it is very advisable because it will be made under
regular traffic conditions. We have the test' of the Pennsylvania Rail-
road made at Altoona and the test of the German railways which are
good, but they were not made under regular traffic conditions. The esti-
mate of $3,000 as the expense of the test is very liberal, and was in-
tentionally made so. As a matter of fact, a good many of the items,
such as the stone, etc., will have to be purchased anyway by the railways.
Without some test of this sort the Committee feels it cannot go any
further with this work, as it has exhausted every source of information
available.
DISCUSSION. 1165
Mr. Stuart : — When I spoke a moment ago I did not understand that
the 2 ft. of ballast is to be recommended for Class A tracks; I think that
is an injustice to some railroads in the country. Twelve in. of ballast
will make a satisfactory track for Class A operation and the 24 in. is only
for use under special conditions.
Mr. J. B. Berry (Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific) : — Your new Com-
mittee on Track Stresses is to be given $10,000 by some of the steel com-
panies, and they expect to get $2,000 from the American Society of Civil
Engineers. The Committee held a meeting yesterday and will organize
for work in the near future. Among the things the Committee will fol-
low up is the question of the amount of ballast under the tie. I think
this Committee on Ballast can safely wait until they hear from this new
Committee before they ask for any appropriation, as it is the intention
of the Committee on Track Stresses to investigate the matter very thor-
oughly and they hope to report to the Association next year.
Mr. Hale: — We considered that. Of course we did not know what
the new Committee would do, but the Committee on Ballast is unanimous
in recommending this test. We feel it has been carefully outlined and
studied for two years. No test has been suggested which will be as
good as this one, on account of its being made under traffic conditions
in the regular tracks in service, and we think it is very important to
have it made.
The President: — The recommendation of this Committee is already
before the Board of Direction and will be given most careful considera-
tion.
Mr. L. C. Fritch : — We would like suggestions from the Committee
or the convention at large in regard to the 1914 work for this Com-
mittee.
Mr. Hale: — Two subjects appear to be carried over. Your Com-
mittee recommended next year that an additional subject be added,
namely, ''The proper depth of ballast under various conditions of sub-
grade, etc." Where there is a soft bottom you need more ballast, and
where there is good gravel, shale or rock subgrade very little ballast is
needed. We think it would be a good plan to have definite recommenda-
tions made on that subject.
Mr. Chas. S. Churchill (Norfolk & Western) : — I suggest that the
Committee consider with this matter of depth of ballast, whether the
use of sub-ballast is not just as good as a depth of stone ballast larger
than 10 or 12 in. I believe they will find on investigation, among the
various railroads, that some of them secure their total depth of ballast
by adding a sub-ballast, such as cinder or slag, for example, which is
not costly, and which simply raises the level of the roadbed, as shown in
cut top of page 977. It forms a proper drainage and is purely a sub-
ballast, not costing but a fraction as much as stone. Then on top of
that is placed the regular ballast.
1166 BALLAST.
Mr. McDonald : — I would suggest that the Committee consider com-
parisons between the different kinds of limestone. I was recently very
much surprised to find that limestone dust, which had passed through a
No. 200 sieve, would give a tensile strength of 80 lbs. to the sq. in., after
seven days, without any cement at all. I find in the use of some lime-
stones, where the ballast is heavily tamped, and a large amount of dust
accumulates under it, it forms a cement which clogs the drainage. I think
the siliceous limestone is, therefore, preferable to one which has a high
content of lime. I believe the matter is worth looking into.
The President :— The Committee is relieved with the thanks of the
Association.
AMENDMENTS
AMENDMENTS TO COMMITTEE REPORTS.
REFERENCE TO AMENDMENTS MADE TO COMMITTEE REPORTS AT THE FIFTEENTH
ANNUAL CONVENTION.
RULES AND ORGANIZATION.
(For Report, see pp. 65-70; discussion, pp. 1002-1007.)
Amend General Notice on page 66, by eliminating the words "of the
road" at the end of the paragraph.
Amend Rule (io) under . "General Rules for the Government of
Employees of Construction Department" by adding the words "without
permission" at the end of the paragraph.
Amend Rule (n) by substituting the words "the public" for "patrons
of the road" at the end of the paragraph.
Amend Rule (2) under "Rules Governing Chiefs of Party" by elim-
inating the word "periodical" in the last line.
Amend Rule (4) by omitting the word "proper" in the first line.
Amend Rule (5) by inserting the word "instructions" after the word
"prescribed" in the first line.
Amend Rule (6) to read as follows: "They must keep their parties
supplied with instruments and material necessary for the efficient perform-
ance of their work, and see that these are properly cared for and used."
Eliminate Rule (10) and renumber (ii) and (12) to be (10) and
(11), respectively.
ROADWAY.
(For Report, see pp. 383-400; discussion, pp. 1031-1035.)
Amend conclusion (5) under "Tunnel Construction" by substituting
the words "preferably not" for the word "never."
Insert the word "tonnage" before the word "train" in conclusion (b)
under 'Tunnel Ventilation."
WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES.
(For Report, see pp. 401-406; discussion, pp. 1081-1035.)
Amend conclusion (1) by inserting the word "inner" before the word
"guard" in the first line, and make the last line read "against direct impact
with parts of moving equipment."
IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES.
(For Report, see pp. 507-511; discussion, pp. 1045-1058.)
Amend conclusion (c) to read as follows :
"(c) Rail End Connections.— Rail ends should be connected by
sliding sleeves or joint bars or by easer rails to carry wheels over the
opening between the end of the bridge and the approach to the bridge."
1169
1170 AMENDMENTS.
MASONRY.
(For Report, see pp. 513-568; discussion, pp. 1059-1062.)
Amend conclusion (i) under "Disintegration of Concrete and Cor-
rosion of Reinforcing Metal" to read as follows: "(i) Concrete to be
exposed to the action of sea water, or alkali waters, or gases containing
sulphur or in which reinforced metal is embedded should be dense, rich
in Portland cement and allowed to harden under favorable conditions
before such exposure."
Amend conclusion (2) to read : "Concrete to be in contact with alkali
waters should be made with aggregates inert to the alkalis in the water."
BUILDINGS.
(For Report, see pp. 705-723; discussion, pp. 1099-1103.)
Amend first paragraph on page 710 by eliminating all words after
the word "mainly" in the second line and add : "This report does not
cover freight piers and deals only with single-story freight houses, where
the mechanical handling of freight is not necessary." Also eliminate last
line on page 714, reading : "This report does not cover freight piers."
On page 711, on the 26th line, add the following after the words
"important terminals" : "Many roads are building cars that are lower
than the maximum figures given above, and each road in deciding the
height of platform at the top of rail should take into consideration the
size of car that will be used on its lines."
Amend fourth paragraph on page 711 to read as follows: "The dis-
tance from the center of the nearest track to the face of the platform or
freight house should not be less than 5 ft. 9 in. to the base of the platform
and 6 ft. to the base of the freight house from the center of the track."
TIES.
(For Report, see pp. 725-858; discussion, pp. 1121-1136.)
Amend conclusion (d) on page 727 to read as follows:
"(d) The width of the tie plate is an element to determine the
mechanical wear of the tie. Tie plates less than 7 in. wide for use with
softwood ties cut into the ties sufficiently in some cases to determine the
life of the tie."
SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS.
(For Report, see pp. 859-904; discussion, pp. 1137-1150.)
Amend the specifications for road crossing signs on page 872 by
eliminating all reference to creosoting.
Amend the specifications for road crossing signs on page 872 by
amending the title to read "Wooden Crossing Signs."
PART 2
MONOGRAPHS.
GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS.
A STUDY OF GRADES ON A 130-MILE DIVISION.
Power of Locomotive, Speed and Time Curves for Trains on Present
and Proposed Grades ; Total Time and Fuel Consumption ; Mini-
mum Cost in Fuel and Train Wages per Ton Mile; Limit of
Economy in Weight of Train and Rate of Grade; Length of
Division; Momentum Grades; Grade of Center of Gravity for
Long Trains; Study of Operating Conditions.
By C. P. Howard, Consulting Engineer.
This study of grades was made in connection with a proposed
reduction from a 0.6 per cent, maximum to 0.3 per cent. The results
indicated, being such as could not have been determined by the usual
more approximate methods, may be of interest to members of the
Association who may be called on to make similar investigations.
In some respects it may be considered as a typical case. Not
all the information desired was at hand. The Engineer is generally
more < r less limited as to time and facilities. He will not usually
have at hand a train of locomotives and cars of the type to be
used, loaded and weighed according to his desires, with dynamo-
meter car and all other facilities for making tests, to say nothing
of the various repetitions and comparisons necessary before results
can be secured which may be considered as fairly average and repre-
sentative. All he can do is to use all available information and
calculate the rest from the best known data and formulas. But
whether all the information desirable is at hand or not, such cal-
culations must be made, and by all means should be as thorough
and exact as possible. Every reasonable method of checking and
verifying results should be employed. It is surely a penny-wise and
pound-foolish policy which would refuse the time and money needed
for proper investigations, at the time when such investigations should
be made, and then enter hastily upon vast expenditures without
knowing whether one-half the amount will ever be financially
justifiable.
"The method herein described requires work and time, but it
does away with the more or less 'scientific guess-work' with refer-
ence to the effect of distance, gradient, rise and fall, and curvature
on the main accounts under 'conducting transportation' expenses.
There will be less disappointment in the expectation of producing a
decreased train mileage directly in proportion to the decreased total
3
4 GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS.
resistance of trains on the controlling gradients. The actual econo-
mies realized will be much nearer the estimated economies than the
average guess-work. The most important value is that it will, in
many cases, save the waste of money in the investment of so-called
improvements, which fail to realize a fair return on their cost.
The time spent in preparing the tables and in mak-
ing tlv: calculations for any given lines is in itself a foundation for
greater economies, and the cost of this time will bring abundant
results." (A. K. Shurtleff, Bulletin 148, August, 1912, American
Railway Engineering Association.)
DATA.
The tonnage, average loading of cars and characteristics of the
locomotive were known. Profiles, maps and general information as
to conditions of operation were available. The latest data of the
Committee on Economics of Railway Location of the American
Railway Engineering Association (except as otherwise noted) was
used in connection with information and suggestions given by Mr.
Shurtleff, Chairman of Committee, in Bulletin 148, August, 1912.
TONNAGE.
Tonnage statistics were carefully worked out, giving for dead
freight for the preceding year:
Northbound, 2,600 trains, average 2,165 tons, total 5,630,000.
Southbound, 2,490 trains, average 1,271 tons, total 3,165,000.
Owing to the comparative lightness of movement in that direc-
tion, the reduction of southbound gradients was not considered.
POWER OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.
"Actual drawbar pull of the locomotive at various speeds should
be used in making estimates with reference to economic value of
various locations of line and grade, where such drawbar pull is
known. Where not known, the drawbar pull should be calculated.'"
(American Railway Engineering Association Manual, page 427.)
Not having this information, the drawbar pull at different speeds
was calculated, using tables 1 to '7 inclusive (pp. 428 to 434 of Manual
of American Railway Engineering Association.) In using these
tables, as suggested at the time by Mr. Shurtleff, 0.85 lb. of super-
heated steam was assumed as equivalent in volume and pressure to
one pound of saturated steam. Four thousand pounds of coal per
hour was taken as the maximum consumption of coal fired per
hour, except on one particularly long pull on the present grade.
Here a consumption of 5,000 lbs. per hour for 25 minutes was
assumed for the 2,700-ton train. Elsewhere for the 2,700-ton train,
GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS. 5
and everywhere for the 4,000-ton train, the curve (a), Plate i„two tons
per hour for the engine when working, was assumed.
T!i<_- locomotive, when running, is assumed to be working at its
maximum cutoff for the given velocity, or to be drifting.
"The prevailing custom has been to calculate the power by using
an arbitrary Mean Effective Pressure curve. With our modern loco-
motive.', it has been impossible to realize the power calculated by
this curve, particularly in sections of the country where the fuel
is not of a very high thermal value." (Report of Committee on
Economics of Railway Location, American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion, Vol. 2, Part 1, 1910, page 632.) The curve (marked "M M") com-
puted from Bulletin 1002 of the American Locomotive Company, is shown
also on the diagram of Cylinder Tractive Power. It will be noted
that curves (a) and (b) show a much smaller power for speeds
over five miles an hour, especially curve (a), which with the excep-
tion above noted, was the one used in this investigation.
RESISTANCES.
From the cylinder tractive power are subtracted the locomotive
and train resistances. The former were computed from table 7,
page J34, of the Manual of the American Railway Engineering
Association. Train resistances from 5 to 30 miles an hour were
taken from table 3, page 35, Bulletin 43 of the University of Illi-
nois, by Prof. Edward C. Schmidt. An addition of 3 lbs. per ton,
equivalent to a 0.15 per cent, grade, was made for the starting
resistance, diminishing down to that shown in table 3 (3.7 lbs. per
ton for a 50-ton car) at 5 miles per hour. This low starting re-
sistance was taken in view of the light grades, which would permit
of utilizing the slack of the train to start one car at a time. For
several miles after starting from the south yard, it was assumed
the resistance would be somewhat higher, say 2 lbs. more per ton,
diminishing as the journals warm up.
The increased starting resistance is not used in the tables and
diagrams for retardation curves or any acceleration curves which
do not start from zero speed.
ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION CURVES.
Cylinder tractive power at a given speed minus* engine resist-
ance gives the drawbar pull, P, on a level grade. From this,
subtracting the train resistance, R, and dividing by the gross weight
of train, engine, tender, cars, we get (P — R) per ton, the force avail-
able for overcoming grade resistance or accelerating from one speed
to another.
Referring to the 2,700-ton train (P — R) per ton at eight miles
per hour is 930, at nine miles per hour it is 8.34, the average between
6 GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS.
the two speeds being 8.82. The distance, D, to accelerate on a
level grade from one speed to another is D ="70 (Vs* — W) -4-8.82 =
135 ft.
The same result is obtained by using a table of velocity heads
(see Raymond's Elements of Railroad Engineering, page 186). Thus
at 8 miles per hour the velocity head is 2.24, at nine miles an hour it
is 2.84, the difference being 0.6 ft. Therefore, to accelerate from 8
to 9 miles an hour is equivalent to climbing a grade to. an elevation
of 0.6 ft.
The average (P — R) available for acceleration is, as above noted,
8.82 lbs. per ton. This is the force required to climb a 0.441 per
cent, grade.
Therefore, dividing the difference in velocity head, 0.6, by the
equivalent grade, 0.441, we get 1.36 stations as the distance to accel-
erate from 8 to 9 miles per hour on a level grade. If the grade of
track were + 0.2 per cent, we would have a net force for accelera-
tion equivalent to a grade of 0.441 — 0.2 = 0.241; and it would take
0.6-4-0.241 = 2.48 stations to accelerate from 8 to 9 miles per hour.
On a -f- 0.6 per cent, grade, the accelerating force would be minus;
that is, we have a retarding force and a net equivalent grade of
(0.441 — 0.6)= — 0.159. Then the distance required to retard from
one speed to the other, i. e., from 9 to 8 miles per hour, would be
0.6-4-0.159 = 3.77 stations.
The tables and diagrams of acceleration and retardation have
been calculated and platted by this method, using the table of
velocity heads.
Accelerations and retardations with the engine drifting have to
consider only engine and train resistances and the accelerating or re-
tarding force due to grade. For simplicity in the "drifting" tables,
the tram resistance is taken as constant according to the American
Railway Engineering Association formula, R = 2.2T + 122 C = 4.64
lbs. per ton for a 50-ton car. The engine resistance is also taken as
constant in the "drifting" tables, neglecting the slight variation in
the wind or head end resistance, and is 2,900 lbs. for the given engine.
Train resistances were computed for a 50-ton weight of car and
load. The average for the northbound trains is now about 46 tons
per car and is probably increasing.
FUEL.
The quantity of steam produced for any given rate of coal con-
sumption per square foot of heating surface is taken as directly
proportional to the B. T. U. or thermal value of the coal (see table
1, page 428, Manual American Railway Engineering Association.)
The coal used at present has a thermal value of approximately
12,900 B. T. U. Ninety per cent, of this value or 11,600 B. T. U.
was used. Mr. Shurtleff, Chairman of Committee, and author of the
GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS. 7
tables in the Manual, gives records of tests by the U. S. Geological Survey,
showing that the average car samples run about 90 per cent, of the
air-dried mine samples, and states that he generally uses about this
percentage in his calculations.
The cost of the fuel on the tender was estimated at $1.50 per
ton.
PROFILE.
The profile was platted on plate "A" paper; 20 ft. to the inch
vertically, and 2,000 ft. to the inch horizontally. This scale was
convenient for the purpose, but for steeper grades a vertical scale
of 30 or 40 ft. to the inch might be used.
SPEED CURVES.
From the acceleration and retardation diagrams the speed curves
were platted on the profile from the south yard to the north end of
division, using a scale of one inch equal to 20 miles per hour. Time
was scaled from the speed curves of the profile, using a small scale
on a slip of profile paper, representing the time in minutes and
decimals required to travel 1,000 ft. for corresponding speeds on the
profile. Within the limits of the south yard, both the time and the
distance were approximated roughly, assuming that the engine would
be working about one-third the time or running at about one-third
its maximum speed. From an inspection of the telegraphic train
sheets for three days, October 1, 2 and 3, 1912, it was concluded to
assume the train as making five stops. These stops were estimated
at 45 minutes each, or three hours and 45 minutes for stops be-
tween the south yard and the north end of division.
The speed curves are similar to those shown on page 1327 of
Part 2, Vol. 11 of Proceedings of American Railway Engineering
Association, accompanying an article by John D. Isaacs and E. E.
Adams; except that the sharp angles in the curves occurring at grade
changes have been rounded off to more nearly approximate actual
conditions. The angles in the speed line would not really exist. The
center of gravity of long trains does not really follow the grade
at these angles. A 4,000-ton train of 50-ton cars would be about 3,200
ft. long. With the center of train at the summit intersection of two
+ 0.3 per cent, grades, the ends of train would be nearly five feet
lower, and the center of gravity about 2Y2 ft. lower, if the cars are
uniformly loaded. With heavier grades, the difference would be
greater for the same length of train. At two places on the profile,
proposed revisions Nos. 10 and 11, the grade of center of gravity was
platted approximately. It will be noted this makes quite an im-
portant change in the resultant grade line. At proposed revision No.
10, it does not differ greatly from the proposed 0.3 per cent, grade
revision, indicating at both places in connection with the speed
8 GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS.
curves that, as a question of limiting grades, the proposed 0.3
per cent, revision is unnecessary.
To plat this gravity grade line exactly it would be necessary to
lay off the length of train on profile, divide it up into a number
of lengths, preferably of equal weight, and consider it as being
moved along the profile, computing the rise or fall of each portion
for every 100 ft., or say every 500 ft., as it moves. Averaging these
results will give the rise or fall of the center of gravity of train
for each interval, and from this the gravity grade line may be
platted. In this instance, as a convenient approximation, the train
was taken as 3,000 feet long, of uniform weight per foot of length.
The motion of the center point was averaged with each end and the
result platted as shown.
The speed line for 4,000-ton train indicates that a number of
proposed revisions could be dispensed with.
TIME AND FUEL CONSUMPTION.
Table 8 shows the time working, drifting and standing ; total
time and fuel consumption.
For 2,700-ton train on present grade, the time as estimated is:
Hours Minutes
Through south yard o 45
Thence to north end of division 7 43
Standing at station — 5 stops of % hr. each 3 45
Total 129.75 miles 12 13
Average speed between stations north of south yard, 16.1 miles
per hour.
Fuel consumed, 14.94 tons, which checks with the Superintendent's
figures. It was estimated or assumed by him at 15 tons.
For the 4,000-ton train running on revised grade, time estimated is :
Hours Minutes
Through south yard 1 0
Thence to north end of division 9 22
Standing at stations, 5 stops of }£ hr. each 3 45
Total 129.75 miles 14 07
Fuel consumed, 19.1 tons.
The 4,000-ton train takes 1 hour and 54 minutes longer between
stations. The delays at stations are assumed to be the same. With
the diminished number of trains on the road better hours might
be chosen for the run. but the train is on the road longer and
might have more passing points.
The total time is increased 15^ per cent, and the fuel consump-
tion 27.8 per cent. The tax on the fireman will therefore be greater.
GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS. 9
Before assuming the 4,000-ton train can make it in fourteen
hours, it was suggested that it might be well to find out by test
whether the 2,700-ton train (50-ton cars) could and should make it
in 12. This would be valuable as a check. If ascertained to be
entirely practicable, then we may with greater confidence assume
that the heavy train will realize its expected performance on the re-
duced grades. Twelve hours for the 2,700-ton train is somewhat
better than might be expected, judging from what we understand
has been the experience on this district heretofore; but recent im-
provements in the quality of fuel and the elimination of delay from
doubling at one point may make it practicable.
Messrs. Isaacs and Adams, in article above noted, estimate one-
half hour per stop, or 2J/2 hours for the five stops. Mr. Shurtleff,
in Bulletin 148, American Railway Engineering Association, esti-
mates one hour for water, coal, orders, etc., plus 15 minutes for
each meeting and passing point, or 2 hours and 15 minutes for the
five stops. If time lost at stops could be reduced to figures in Mr.
Isaacs' paper, we would save 1 hour 15 minutes. By Mr. Shurtleff 's
figures we would save il/2 hours.
If we allowed thirteen hours for the 2,700-ton train, 15^ per
cent, proportionate increase would make 15 hours for the 4,000-
ton train, a condition which would bring up the question of sub-
dividing the district. Taking a station near the one-third point,
43.5 miles from the north end, we would have approximately 10
hours from the south end and a turn-around of 5 hours each way
from the north end, plus the time lost at the subdivision point. The
question of time on the road being then of less importance, trains might
be loaded heavier, say, up to 4,500 tons or more when necessary. This
would ease up things and give more latitude in operation, the cost in
train wages and fuel per ton, however, remaining about the same.
Some serious objections to the turn-around which may be mentioned
are the necessary outlay for tracks and plant at the sub-terminal, and the
delay of cars. Taking the total movement we have :
Northbound 2,600 trains, 47 cars each 122,200 cars
Southbound 2,490 trains, 47 cars each 117,000 cars
Total cars per year over division 239,200
If we assume an average delay at the sub-division point of two hours,
estimating at 45 cents per day per car, we have :
239,200 cars at 3}£c $8,970
Which, capitalized at 5 per cent., amounts to. .. .$170,000
We might assume roughly the following expenditure for the sub-
terminal :
10 GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS.
10 miles sidetrack at $12,000 $120,000
10 stall roundhouse at $3,000 30,000
2 cinder pits at $2,500 S.ooo
1 crane 6,000
1 coal chute 10,000
Water pipes and pen stocks 10,000
Air plant 2,000
Total 183,000
Adding the above 179,000
Total against subdivision $362,000
All of which would point to the advantage of getting the trains over
the division in a day if possible.
MECHANICAL STOKER.
One way to reduce or eliminate the delay for heavy trains would be
to increase the rate of coal consumption by the engine when working.
We have before us a blueprint of a Mikado engine with curve showing
tractive power at various speeds and fuel consumption of 7,000 lbs. per
hour, this engine being equipped with a Street stoker. I understand, how-
ever, the amount of coal was not measured. The heating surface of the
engine is about the same as the one considered in this estimate. On the
lighter train we estimate 15 tons fired for the trip and 19.1 tons for the
heavy train. The fireman on the 2,700-ton train, north of the south yard,
shovels with engine working:
5.22 hours at 4,000 lbs 10.44 tons
0.42 hours at 5,000 lbs 1.05 tons
Total 5.64 4,080 lbs 11.49 tons
which is equivalent to SZA hours at 4,000 lbs. per hour.
On the 4,000-ton train he shovels 7.88 hours at the same rate. That is,
he has to keep up his maximum rate more than two hours or 37 per
cent, longer. A mechanical stoker, which would make this result cer-
tain and easy of accomplishment, might solve the problem without in-
creasing the rate of consumption. We have not sufficient data to pass on
the relative economy of these stokers, but the regularity and freedom
from exposure to air every time the door is opened may be important
considerations.
The speed of the 2,700-ton train between stations north of the south
yard, is 16.1 miles per hour against 13.3 for the 4,000-ton train; or 21
per cent, greater. The amount of steam produced per hour and conse-
quent speed increases with the rate of coal consumption, but not in the
same ratio.
Referring to tables in the Manual of American Railway Engineering
GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS. 11
Association, taking 85 per cent, of quantities in tables 2 and 4 for super-
heated steam; engine resistance 2,900 lbs.; train resistance 4,000 x 4.3 =
17,200 lbs., we find that 5,900 lbs. coal per hour will be required to attain
a speed of 16.1 M. P. H. on a 0.124 per cent, grade; which is the equiva-
lent grade of the 4,000-ton train at 13.3 M. P. H. and 2 tons per hour
coal consumption.
That is, 21 per cent, increase in speed requires an increase in the
rate of coal consumption per hour of 47V2 per cent, and the amount of
coal consumed for a given distance increases (1.475 -=- 1.21 = 1.22), 22
per cent, or almost directly as the speed.
As the coal consumed by the engine of 4,000-ton train on the whole
division, while working is 16.4 tons, we conclude that approximately
16.4 x 22 per cent. = 3.6 tons, would be needed to make this increase in
speed. At $1.50 per ton this amounts to $5.40; which is a rather expen-
sive method of saving 2 hours in train wages, were that the only con-
sideration. At $1.86 per hour, train wages for 1 hour and 54 mu.utes
amounts to $3.53. If time is estimated at 45 cents per day per car we
would have 80 cars at 3.6 cents = $2.88, which, added to $3.53 in train
wages, amounts to $6.41, against $5.40 for the extra fuel.
It was hoped, however, that by careful management, cutting down
the length of stops, etc., with good fuel, that with or without the addi-
tion of mechanical stokers the 4,000-ton train might be handled in one
day's run at something like the calculated time and fuel consumption, and
on this assumption the estimates of savings were based.
TRAINS WEIGHING MORE THAN 4.000 TONS. TABLE 9.
Having estimated the time, speed and fuel consumption for a 2,700-ton
train, which is taken as the maximum for the present grade, and also
for a train of 4,000 tons, the results of any heavier loading may be con-
sidered after the method outlined by Mr. Shurtleff on page 13, Bulletin
148, Vol. 14, August, 1912, of the American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion.
The average velocity of the locomotive of the 4,000-ton train, while
working north of the south yard, is 13.07 miles per hour. At this velocity
and loading (P — R) is 2.6 lbs. per ton of gross weight of train, equiv-
alent to a 0.13 per cent, grade. This is the grade on which the given
speed may be maintained and will be considered as the equivalent or
average grade of resistances for that part of the district (north of the
south yard) on which the engine is working, and not drifting (103
miles out of 124.26). We assume that for heavier trains the engine will
be working over the same distance. On this grade we compute the
weight of trains that can maintain a speed of 12, 11 and 10 miles per
hour: namely, 4,300, 4,610 and 4,930 tons, as shown in Columns 2 and 4.
Table o. The calculated speed on a +0.3 per cent, grade; the fuel
consumption, time, tons per engine hour, etc., are shown in succeeding
columns. In Column 15 it will be noted that the 4,300-ton train has the
same fuel consumption per ton of train, with only 2. per cent. (Col. 14)
12 GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS.
increase per hour in the efficiency of engine and crew, measured in ton
miles. The time has been increased *A hours or 514 per cent, and the
weight of train 7lA per cent. Similarly for the 4,610-ton train, as com-
pared with the 4,000-ton train, we have an increase of train weight of
15 per cent., an increase in efficiency of engine and crew of 2y2 per cent,
and an increase in fuel consumption per ton of lA of 1 per cent.
For the 4,930-ton train, which could maintain a speed of only 3.82
miles per hour on a + 0.3 per cent, grade, we have an increase in
weight of train of 23 per cent., increase in efficiency of engine and crew
of 4 per cent., increase in fuel consumption per ton of train of 2.4
per cent.
The fuel consumption per ton, it will be noted, remains practically
the same and there is very little increase in the efficiency of work done
by engine and crew, as measured in ton miles per hour. When the
trouble of starting heavy trains from the south yard, additional length
of sidings, loss of time of cars, increase in cost of grade reduction to
more nearly approximate a 0.3 per cent, grade, and the probable expense
of subdividing the divisions are considered, there are no apparent ad-
vantages in a greater loading than 4,000 tons. With a shorter division,
using a turn-around, there might be a certain amount of benefit in the
greater latitude of operation; allowing trains to be increased considerably
whenever it is convenient to do so, but with no resultant economy in
fuel and very little in the efficiency of engine and crew as measured in
ton miles.
SAVING IN OPERATING EXPENSES.
Passenger trains would not be appreciably affected by the changes
proposed, and it is assumed that fast freight and local freight trains
would not be. The time table gives a rating of 1,900 tons for fast
freight trains with the given engine. As this engine could pull about
2.500 tons of 38-ton cars over the steepest grade, it is not apparent that
the present grades limit these trains. Similarly for southbound traffic
as above noted. Southbound grades are light enough to accommodate
the increased length o' trains, considering the lighter tonnage.
NORTHBOUND MOVEMENT— DEAD FREIGHT.
The present annual tonnage is 2,600 trains, average weight 2,165
tons, total weight 5,630,000. With the proposed proportionate increase
in loading from 2,700 tons to 4,000 we would have the average weight
per train, 3,207 tons, number of trains, northbound, 1,755. The number
of trains southbound is now somewhat less, being 2,490 against 2,600
northbound. We assume them to be the same for the reduced grades,
as there will be less surplus power to admit of variation in length of
trains.
We would then have 1,755X2 = 3.510 trains, against 2,600 -f 2,490 =
5.000 per year, a saving of 1,580 trains per year. Multiplying this by 129.
the average length between terminal yards, we have 1,580 X 129 = 203,800
GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS. 13
train miles per annum. These figures take into consideration the reduced
tonnage of the average train as compared with the calculated maximum,
and show a greater saving than would be obtained by taking the figures
for the maximum train. The figures for fuel consumption have been
based on the maximum train, and it seems not improbable that the operat-
ing efficiency would be less for the heavier train, requiring a longer time
to get over the division. Consequently we use only the figures for the
calculated performance of maximum trains from which to compute
savings in operation :
2 X 5.630,000 ~- 2,700 = 4,170 trains per annum.
2 X 5,630,000 -7- 4,000 = 2,815 trains per annum.
Computed saving. 1,355 trains per annum.
1,355 X 129 rr 174,800 train miles per annum.
MAINTENANCE OF WAY AND STRUCTURES.
By report of Committee on Economics of Railway Location, pre-
sented March 18, 1912 (referred back to Committee), these expenses
were based on equivalent ton miles, in estimating which the weight of
freight engines is multiplied by two. As train tonnage would be the
same, we have for additional equivalent tons per mile of road, 2 X 1.355 X
227 (weight of engine and tender) =615,000 tons.
In a former report on another division of the same road, expense of
Maintenance of Way and Structures was estimated at $620 per mile plus
$105 per mile per million equivalent ton miles, this being understood to
apply only to the main line between division terminals, not including
sidetracks. The $105 per million equivalent ton miles is the only part
which affects the estimate, viz. :
0.615 million equivalent tons at $105 = $64.60 per mile.
129 miles at $64.60 = $8,330 per year.
MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT.
The car miles are the same, and we have only to consider freight
engines. From the annual report of the road, we have :
Freight locomotives, road, repairs $2,421,527
Freight locomotives, depreciation 222, 183
Total for these items (a) $2,643,710
Also —
Revenue freight train miles 18,127,028
Helping and light freight locomotive miles 568,353
Total for these items (b) 18,695,381
Dividing (a) by (b), we have 14. 1 cents per freight engine mile.
14 GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS.
Also from annual report :
Shop, machinery and tools (c) $322,881
And total revenue service miles, excluding switching (d) 32,305,087
Dividing (c) by (d), we have 1 cent per engine mile. Total, 14. 1
cents + 1 cent = 15.1 cents, or, in round numbers, 15 cents.
The freight train miles will be reduced from 4,170 to 2,815, a re-
duction of 321/6 per cent. The engine hours, however (see table 9), will
be reduced only 22 per cent. Again if we proportioned these expenses
to work done by the engine as measured by fuel consumption, we would
have a reduction in these items of only 14 per cent. The Mikado is a
heavy engine, and expenses would probably run above the average. We
shall assume them as being in proportion to the engine hours, or 22 -f-
32.5 X $0.15 = 10 cents per engine mile.
We have then for saving in maintenance of equipment 174,800 engine
miles at 10 cents = $17,500 per annum.
TRANSPORTATION EXPENSES.
From annual report:
Engine house men — freight, $500,883.
There seems to be no particular reason in this case why this
item should not vary with the number of freight engine miles.
Dividing by (b) above we have 2.68 cents per engine mile, making
a saving of 174,800 X 0.0268 = $4,680 per annum.
In table 9 we have 11.07 lbs. coal per ton of train for present
operation, and 9.55 for 4,000-ton train. The saving is 11.07 — 9-55 =
1.52 lb. per ton of train, or 13.7 per cent.
We check the Superintendent's figure 15 tons, as to fuel consump-
tion for northbound trains, and shall assume his figure of nine tons
for present southbound trains as close enough, making an average
both ways of 12 tons.
The total saving will be:
4,170 trains X 12X0.137 = 6,850 tons
6,850 tons at $1.50 = $10,300 per year
Items of annual report which we take as varying with the fuel
consumption are:
Engine house supplies — freight $ 52,541
Water for freight locomotives 158,712
Lubricants for freight locomotives 60,644
Other supplies for freight locomotives 49,031
$320,928
Dividing this by (b) as before, we have 1.7 cent per freight
train mile; and, as the fuel reduces 13.7 per cent, we have 4170 X 129 X
•017 X 137 = $1,250 per annum.
GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS. 16
Engine and trainmen's wages will be estimated per hour, ten
hours being:
i Conductor $ 4.18
2 Brakemen 5.56
1 Engineman 5.15
1 Fireman (Mikado) 3.75
Total $18.64, or $i.86perhr.
We have for estimated operation:
Present grade (2,700-ton train) 4,170X12.21 = 50,900 hours
Reduced grade (4,000-ton train) 2,815X14.11=39,700 hours
» — — __
Time saved 1 1,200 hours
11,200 hours at $1.86 $20,800 per annum
EQUIPMENT RELEASED.
The capitalized cost of an engine in service is considered as
follows:
(1) The first cost of locomotive.
(2) The capitalized value of the annual expenditure for repairs.
(3) The amount of a sinking fund, whether actually set aside
or not, which at compound interest will be sufficient to pay for
renewals indefinitely.
We have already estimated the cost of (2) repairs and (3) the
annual expense of depreciation or sinking fund. It now remains
to estimate (1) the first cost of locomotives released from service.
It is estimated that each engine will make an average of about
one trip of 129 miles per day, with an average of three engines
(out of 24) in the shop per day; or say 125 miles per day, with 10
per cent, of its time in the shop, representing an average perform-
ance of 113 miles per day = 41,250 miles per year.
It was estimated above that there would be an annual saving
for the 4,000-ton train of 174,800 train miles. Reducing this pro-
portionately to allow for the increased time of the heavier train, we
22
would have an equivalent saving in train miles of 174,800 X =
32.5
117,800 train miles, which divided by 41,250 = 2.85 engines released.
2.85 engines at $20,000 $57,ooo
Annual saving, 5 per cent, of 57,000 2,800
16 GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS.
TOTAL SAVING IN OPERATION.
Maintenance of way and structures $ 8,300
Maintenance of equipment I7.SOO
Transportation expenses:
Engine house men $ 4,700
Fuel 10,300
Water and supplies 1,200
Train wages 20,800 37,000
Total annual saving in operating expenses. .. .$62,800
Equipment released, interest on cost 2,800
Total estimated saving per year $65,600
which capitalized at 5 per cent, amounts to $1,312,000. Note that this
saving is equivalent to 37.5 cents per train mile eliminated.
ESTIMATES OF COST OF GRADE REDUCTION.
Estimates were made of the cost of reducing grades to a 0.3
per cent, on 16 different parts or "sections" of the district. It was
recommended that for purposes of grade reduction, work be done
only on sections 1, 9, 13, 15 and a part of section 3.
The estimated cost of reducing grades to a 0.3 per cent, on those
sections where grade reduction was considered necessary was much
less than the estimated savings. Improvements on other sections, where
the speed curves clearly indicated that the grades would ordinarily
give no trouble, were not recommended. If conditions arise which
make it necessary for trains to stop on these short grades often
enough to cause any appreciable expense, revisions at such points
may be made.
THE MOST ECONOMICAL GRADIENT.
As elsewhere noted, the 4,000-ton train can be handled on a
0.4 per cent, grade at a maintained speed of about 4 2/3 miles per hour
without the use of momentum. In Bulletin 148, August, 1912, Ameri-
can Railway Engineering Association, page 10, Mr. Shurtleff says:
"The locomotive is figured on the maximum at 5 M.P.H. Formerly,
in calculations of this character, 10 M. P. H. was the minimum
velocity assumed, but common practice in everyday work for dead
freight will load the locomotive down to this low velocity on the
ruling grades wherever there is sufficient amount of lighter gradients
on the district, so that the train can cover the same without over-
time, unless the traffic be so dense as to call for the stopping and
starting of trains on the ruling gradients, due to block signals being
against them."
GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS. 17
It was recommended that the 0.3 per cent, grade be used on
section No. 1 and at one other point. It was also suggested
that on certain other sections, estimates be made of the cost of re-
ducing to 0.375 Per cent, and 0.35 per cent, against traffic.
A 0.375 per cent, grade would give a maintained speed for the
4,000-ton train of 5.4 M. P. H. and a 0.35 a speed of 5.9 M. P. H. Of
course the 0.3 per cent, grade would have some advantage as giving
a greater leeway, and as making possible the handling of heavier
trains in case this should at times be desirable.
Taking the monthly average, there is little variation in the weight
01 northbound trains over different parts of the division. The difference
is probably much greater from day to day. For instance, the engine may
haul 3,000 tons over one-half the division, and 2,000 over the other, or
vice versa ; dropping or adding on cars from time to time. Similarly
after grades are reduced, it may at times be convenient to haul 3,500
over one part of the division and 4,500 over the other, the average weight
of train per mile remaining the same, or about 4,000 tons. Were the
grades such as to limit the train to 4,000 tons all over the division, this
would then represent the maximum train and any variation or irregu-
larity in the length of train would tend to reduce the average below
4,000 tons. In other words with a lighter grade, cars could be put on
an.d off at pleasure, the only limit being one of time, depending more or
less on the average loading and total work done by the locomotive.
It is possible that this feature of operation, regardless of other con-
siderations, would make it desirable to reduce to 0.3 per cent. This in-
vestigation was not carried far enough to estimate the saving that might
iesult from such a reduction and its consequent greater latitude in op-
eration. The figures indicate a substantial saving for a reduction to a
grade which would permit the comfortable handling of a 4,000-ton train —
say 0.375 or 0.35 per cent. A further study along these lines to determine
the advantages of a reduction to 0.3 per cent, or below might be amply
justified; aside from its general interest in throwing light on conditions
of operation which affect the problem of maximum economy in grades-
In this particular problem an approximate test of the correctness of
calculations as to speed, time and fuel consumption could be made for the
4.000, as well as the 2,700-ton train. For the former it would be neces-
sary to use a helping engine at points where the present grade is too
steep. But as these stretches are not long, the performance could be
noted on the rest of the division, and corrections made for time lost at-
taching and detaching the helping engine.
18 GRADE REDUCTION PROBLEMS.
Appendix.
I lir following formula may be of use in connection with table (2)
or willi table (3), the latter to be used only in case of an isolated
short and steep grade, where exceptional work on the part of the fireman
may be expected.
Equation (1) is used to determine weight of train that can be hauled
on a given grade at a given maintained speed; equation (2) to find the
maintained speed at which a given train on a given grade can be hauled.
P— 20EG
T = (1)
r + 20G
Where P = Drawbar pull in pounds of engine on a level grade, i. e.,
the cylinder tractive power minus the engine resistances. It is given in
column 4 of table (2) or (3), and varies with the speed.
Where G = Per cent, of grade.
r = Resistance in pounds per ton of train behind the tender.
T = Weight of train behind tender in tons.
E = Weight of engine and tender.
Another form of the formula is :
p=(r + 20G)T + 20EG (2)
If any speed is assumed and T is to be calculated P may be found
from column 4 of table (2) or (3) ; r may be taken from page 35,
Bulletin No. 43, University of Illinois (copies may be obtained from
Prof. Edward C. Schmidt at Urbana, Illinois). Or if the American Rail-
way Engineering Association formula be used which gives higher re-
sistances than those in Bulletin 43 of University of Illinois, reference
may be made to the Manual of American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion giving the flat rule, r = 2.2 T+ 122 C. In view of the higher re-
sistances at starting Prof. Schmidt omitted from his data all tests taken
during the first 10 miles of run.
20G is the grade resistance in pounds per ton of train and 20EG is
the total grade resistance of engine and tender =. 227 X 20G for the
locomotive used.
P, G and r being known, T may be found from equation (1).
If the grade, G, and weight of train, T, are known, r must be taken
by trial from Bulletin 43, (if American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion formula is used it may be ascertained at once from the weight per
car), and P found from equation (2). The corresponding speed may
then be found by interpolation from table (2) or (3). But as the
resistance, r, varies with the speed, the value of r must be corrected for
the proper speed, and a second, and possibly third calculation may be
necessary if it is desired to calculate the speed with great accuracy.
TABLE 7 ACCELERATIONS AND RETARDATIONS, LOCOMOTIVE WORKING, COAL CONSUMPTION 4,000 LBS PER HOUR B T U, 11600
sv
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THE UNIFICATION OF THE FREIGHT TERMINALS OF
A LARGE CITY.
Geo. H. Kimball.
In its seventh annual report (Bulletin No. 71) the Committee on
Yards and Terminals quoted the following extracts from an article in the
"Iron Age" of September 7, 1905 :
"The transportation facilities of the country broke down under the
weight of prosperity in 1902 and 1903, not so much because the supply of
locomotives and cars was insufficient, though that was a factor, as from
the utter inadequacy of terminal facilities
"In every important railroad city of the country the question of
terminals has been a threatening one for years. Naturally it is one of
infinite difficulty, the acquisition of needed property being often a matter
of years. Moreover, expenditures for terminals have so much of the ele-
ment of providing for the distant future that directorates find it expedient
to postpone them and put money into equipment that can begin paying its
way the day it is delivered from the maker. Frequently the heavy outlay
involved in terminal improvements and the obstacles to financing them
in times of slack business have put them off indefinitely. Yet, it has been
demonstrated time and again that the returns terminal expenditures would
have yielded in the next burst of prosperity following their completion
would have paid interest on the money for years."
The Committee made no particular comment on this extract from
the "Iron Age," and evidently adopted and submitted it as their own view
of the situation as it existed at the time. The report referred to was
dated January, 1906, and applied particularly to large city freight ter-
minals. That the general situation relative to the growth of traffic and
condition of terminals remains unchanged to-day rests on very eminent
authority.
In a recent address, by Mr. James J. Hill, he stated in part as follows:
*"Every interest and every community should understand that the
main need to-day of transportation and of the many activities connected
with and dependent upon it is an increase of terminal facilities. It is no
exaggeration to say that the commerce of the country, its manufacturing
and agricultural industry, its prosperity as a whole, and the welfare of
every man in it who engages in any gainful occupation, can escape
threatened disaster only by such additions to and enlargements of exist-
ing terminals at our great central markets and our principal points of
export as will relieve the congestion that now paralyzes traffic when any
unusual demand is made upon them.
"Our natural material growth will make this their chronic condition
in the near future unless quick action is taken.
"If you increase the size of a bottle without enlarging the neck,
more time and work are required to fill and empty it. That is what has
happened to the transportation business."
The freight traffic of the country increases by leaps and bounds —
one hundred per cent, in the past ten years — and we can confidently
♦Extract from an address made by Mr. Hill at the Annual Dinner of the
Railway Business Men's Association in New York, December 19, 1912.
29
30 UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS.
anticipate its average increase in the period of years at a constantly
accelerating rate. ,. . -,T — .-,. , ,„-
The era of railroad reconstruction and improvement has prevailed
for many years, but large city freight terminals in spite of their para-
mount importance, and the fact that they are a limiting factor in the
transportation problem, have lagged far behind and have received only
such attention as circumstances compelled, to keep them limping along.
Large city freight terminals form a vital part of every railroad sys-
tem—the "solar plexus," so to speak — upon which vitality or paralysis
absolutely depend. Without such terminals, properly arranged and
smoothly operated, prompt and efficient transportation movements become
impossible.
The difficulty in general, as the writer conceives of it, seems to be
not so much a matter of the number and capacity of yards and tracks,
as of their location and lack of systematic arrangement, of a rational
design in the adaptation of means to ends, coupled with an efficient op-
crating system, and certain reforms in business details that have a re-
tarding influence on the movements of freight traffic.
The urgent need of radical measures in dealing with the problem of
large city freight terminals seems to justify the thought that the investi-
gation made at Buffalo in which the writer took part, and the conclusions
reached in the course of that experience, may be of interest and con-
tribute something to the fund of information on the general subject of
yards and terminals.
The Buffalo Freight Terminals Committee was organized for the
purpose of making a comprehensive study of terminal conditions in and
about the city of Buffalo, and was composed of the Superintendents,
General Superintendents or Superintendents of Terminals of the trunk
lines of railroad centering at that point.
Its object was to provide for systematic operation; increased ca-
pacity and efficiency, and the relief of periodic congestion. This work
was continued for two years or more and closed with the Committee's
final report in May, 1904. It involved so great an undertaking that the
recommendations of the Committee were not carried out and while im-
provements have necessarily been made from time to time to keep pace
with the growth of traffic, the same relative conditions prevail, and the
lapse of time has served to emphasize the importance of the problem
and of the conclusions reached in the effort made for its solution.
Every large city presents special problems concerning its freight ter-
minals, which are determined in a general way by the routes of approach
necessarily occupied by lines of railroad converging on a common point,
due to topographical features, public improvements or other artificial
conditions.
The city of Buffalo has its peculiarities in this respect, which present
more than ordinary difficulties. Located at the outlet of Lake Erie and
fronting on the lake and on the Niagara River, the lines of approach are
confined to two general routes; one from the east and south confined
UNIFICATION OF FREGIHT TERMINALS. 31
practically within an angle of ninety degrees (see map), and including
the railroads within that angle and those approaching along the south
shore of the lake, and one from the north including the Canadian lines
of railroad that cross the frontier at Black Rock and Suspension Bridge.
On the Canadian side of the Niagara River, opposite Black Rock,
the following named railroads converge to a common connection with
the International Bridge:
Grand Ti unk Railway Syhtem;
Michigan Central Railroad;
Wabash Railroad;
Pere Marquette Railroad;
Toronto, Hamilton & Buffalo Railroad.
On the Black Rock side of the river the yards of the following
named railroads lie practically parallel and just north of the connection
with the International Bridge: D. L. & W., Grand Trunk, Erie, and New
York Central.
There are seventeen steam railroads converging on Buffalo, the large
majority of which reach the heart of the city by their own lines of rails
and have their own terminals.
Large city terminals may be divided into three general classes, as
follows:
(i) Seaboard and lake terminals, which are terminals proper, where
all traffic is classified or its classification broken, for forwarding via the
home line, or for distribution at the terminal, as follows :
(a) Interchange with connecting rail routes.
(b) Interchange (loading and unloading) for connecting water
routes.
(c) To and from industries.
(d) To and from city freight houses and team tracks.
(2) Inland or all-rail terminals, which are terminals proper, com-
prising all of the features in class one, except interchange with water
routes.
(3) Intermediate or division terminals, where the terminal work of
a large city and connecting lines combines with the work of two or more
operating divisions.
This classification might be further extended, but there are perma-
nent characteristics to differentiate these three classes of terminals. In
these cases, and in all modifications of them that may arise, the special
difficulties of general location ; the limitations due to public improvements,
arbitrary land lines, character and volume of traffic, as well as commer-
cial considerations that prevent the prompt handling of certain classes
of business and so complicate yard work, make the arrangement and
operation of large city terminals a problem of exceeding difficulty.
The railroad terminals of the city of Buffalo naturally fall under the
first head in the above classification. The essential problem at that point
has not yet been solved, and it is probable that on the whole Buffalo pre-
sents the most difficult situation of any great city between Chicago and
the seaboard.
32 UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS.
It is to be noted that the various lines of railroad in and about Buf-
falo connect and lie closely parallel at three widely separate points,
forming an area roughly triangular. These points are Black Rock on
the north, where the traffic via the north shore or Canadian lines crosses
the frontier by the International Bridge ; Blasdell on the south, where the
south shore lines and lines from the south and east converge, and Lan-
caster on the east ; the last named point being directly connected with
Blasdell by the Terminal Railroad of Buffalo (New York Central Rail-
road System), and with Black Rock less directly by the belt lines of the
New York Central Railroad, the Erie Railroad and the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna & Western Railroad. These belt lines just referred to also serve
as connections to and from the south, there being no connection for
through freight movement from Black Rock south along or parallel to
(he water front.
Practically all of the Buffalo terminal facilities, including those serv-
ing the water routes, the local freight stations and the outer yards lie
within the angle between the lines east and west, and north and south
before referred to (southeast quadrant), the only exception being the
yard at Black Rock and its connections where the business is largely di-
rect interchange, handled by switching movements to and from the outer
yards in the southeast quadrant just referred to, and via the International
Bridge.
This brief survey of the Buffalo Terminal District, as it came to be
known, presents the general features of the situation and brings us to a
point where the general conclusions of the Committee may be presented
and considered.
These conclusions embodied the following factors :
(i) The formation of a general switching association to be or-
ganized and equipped for carrying on all of the terminal work of the
lines in interest.
(2) The combination, under the control of the proposed association,
of all of the terminal property and equipment required, or in any way
necessary, for carrying on its work.
(3) The terminal territory of all of the lines in interest within the
Buffalo Terminal District to be made common territory; that is, open
terminals with unrestricted interchange, and the same conditions to all
concerned for similar service.
(4) Such arrangements of yards and connections to be made as
would divert through traffic from the congested districts, and prevent re-
verse and duplicate switching and interchange movements.
(5) The proper location, design and construction of a general clas-
sification and clearing yard of ample capacity for the needs of the time
and capable of natural expansion without rearrangement or reconstruc-
tion to provide for future growth of traffic.
(6) The construction of auxiliary yards at Blasdell and Black Rock
to provide for the interchange traffic via the International Bridge at the
UNlFfCATIOX OF FREIGHT TERMINALS. 33
last named point, and for local freight for city delivery at both points,
so as to avoid reverse movements.
In a word, these conclusions called for a unification of all railroad
and water terminals ; for a track system specifically designed to adapt
means to ends to the fullest extent possible in the handling of freight
traffic, and for an operating system capable of economy and dispatch.
It was confidently expected that such a system as was proposed would
not only avoid congestion and provide for a more prompt movement than
had ever been possible before, but that it would stimulate the growth of
Buffalo as an industrial center, increase the local business, result in very
great economy in terminal service and prevent the construction of addi-
tional be't lines by outside parties, and the assumption by existing rail-
roads of the burdens an independent terminal involves.
In continuing the investigation of the subject in hand statistics were
compiled showing the maximum movement of freight traffic in and
through the Buffalo Terminal District. These statistics were subdivided
and classified in considerable detail, according to the requirements of the
case as shown by the blank form attached hereto.
At this point in the process of investigation the greatest problem of
all involved in the general proposition, that of the location and conforma-
tion of the general classification and clearing yard, was taken in hand,
and as the central or controlling factor in development was followed in
detail to completion, and to this work the writer was specially assigned.
By a process of elimination a location was at length decided upon
just east of Lancaster. At this point four of the most important trunk
iines of railroad lie within very narrow limits, are practically parallel
tor a long distance, and then diverge eastward. This fact, together with
that of direct connections, beginning just west of Lancaster, and extend-
ing to Suspension Bridge, Black Rock (International Bridge), Buffalo
proper and Blasdell, show this location, on the east point of the triangular
area comprising the Buffalo Terminal District, to be the logical location
for the general classification and clearing yard, the auxiliary yards at
Black Rock and Blasdell being located at the opposite angles of the
tiiangular area referred to.
The details of various minor problems, with reference to changes in
existing tracks and connections to permit direct movements in diverting
trains outside of the congested district, were worked out in connection
with the problem of locating the clearing yard.
Due regard was paid to the direction of the center line of the yard
with reference to prevailing winds and the probable effect of extreme
weather conditions.
The design of the classification and clearing yard was controlled by
factors and conditions far greater in number and magnitude than in any
work of the kind previously attempted, and so far as known, attempted
up to the present time. All of the freight traffic passing the Buffalo gate-
way, excepting local freight from the west, was to be provided for, and
34 UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS.
all of the work performed in receiving, classifying and delivering, city
and industrial business, lake freight and interchange, including car re-
pairs, and the care of the engines and light repairs to same. In brief
all of the work of a freight terminal in any way involved in receiving,
handling and forwarding the business, together with maintaining the
efficiency of the equipment, facilities and appliances. What had so far
been attempted by only a single railroad at its terminals, in the switch-
ing and classifying of its traffic, was to be done for ten or more important
lines combined with a heavy lake traffic and the work of an extensive
city and industrial district.
As there was no precedent to follow, the problem of design became
one of making the best adaptation possible of known principles and appli-
ances to larger needs.
A list of the requirements necessary for a yard of this character will
be found in the appendix. This was largely an outgrowth of the in-
vestigation and was not prepared in advance as a guide.
The method was followed of designing the essential features of a
track plan without regard to road lines, land lines, topography or any other
possibly limiting object, and then adapting it to the location desired. This
proved a very satisfactory way.
For obvious reasons it was necessary to carry on the work with
secrecy. No surveys were permissible, and the information required of
that kind was compiled as far as possible from existing maps and profiles,
with such detached measurements and special observations as were pos-
sible under the circumstances, to check and unify the whole.
A classification and clearing yard is a composite affair and com-
prises an extensive group of closely connected and inter-related yards.
The first division is determined by the opposing movements of the traffic,
which, in this case, was substantially balanced so far as the general ca-
pacity of the yard was concerned, and requiring an eastbound yard and
a westbound yard practically identical in arrangement, excepting that the
eastbound yard had the added feature of stock yards and icing stations.
Thus the general design became two parallel hump yards identical in plan,
but reversed as to direction of movement of traffic. The humps were lo-
cated as nearly opposite as possible to permit the ready transfer of en-
Mines and car riders from one yard to the other in order to equalize the
number of engines and the force of men required under varying condi-
tions of traffic.
From this point it will be convenient for the writer to follow for a
time the wording of his report on this subject, which recites as follows:
"The classification and clearing yard, as a whole, will consist of an
eastbound yard and a westbound yard substantially parallel to each other,
and as, with the exception of the provision for stock yards and for refrig-
erator freight, the two yards will be essentially duplicates, the descrip-
tion that follows will be confined to the eastbound yard which includes the
facilities for handling stock and refrigerator freight.
"This yard (eastbound) must have a capacity for handling 5,000 cars
in each 24-hour period. It will consist of a receiving yard, a classifica-
tion yard, a repair yard and a forwarding yard, all arranged in linear
UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS 35
order from west to east, so that a forward movement in the direction of
the traffic is provided for with the possible exception of repaired cars.
Stock yards and icing stations are provided for in connection with this
yard, but are separately operated. Facilities for caring for and handling
engines and cabooses, for fuel and water supply, car repairs and all of
the numerous details that go to make up a complete terminal are of
course included.
"To handle 5,000 cars per day will require the regular service of two
engines working over the hump, and this suggests a track system di-
vided longitudinally into two sections for convenience in working, but
so connected that they are in effect one yard.
"This feature, the requirements of classification, and the fact that the
eastbound lines in interest diverge at last to right and left (north and
south) make it feasible and desirable to separate the eastbound lines into
two groups and assign to them sections of the classification yard and
forwarding yard to right and left of the center line.
"I have therefore carried out this idea of a longitudinal division for
the entire length of the eastbound yard (westbound also), but the sec-
tions are so intimately connected that all of the cross movements that can
possibly be required are provided for.
RECEIVING YARD, CAPACITY 2,750 CARS.
"The receiving yard is divided transversely by slip switches into two
sections, a receiving section and a hump section and each consists of two
parallel groups of tracks with twelve tracks in each group. The exterior
tracks of each group are reserved for thoroughfare tracks and are not
included in estimating capacity. It is assumed that a rough or partial
classification can be provided for in the make up of incoming trains.
This separation is feasible and is desirable, and can be made by trains
or by groups of cars in trains. It is not unreasonable to expect that in
view of the large amount of classification work to be performed by the
clearing yard, the lines in interest can establish rules requiring inbound
trains to be made up with solid groups of cars for lines connecting
through the terminal.
"Engines will 'feed' cars from the receiving section to the hump
section of the receiving yard as fast as tracks in the latter section are
cleared by the hump engines, or all engines can be worked in a circuit, in-
cluding the receiving section and the hump section.
CLASSIFICATION YARD, CAPACITY 2,200 CARS.
"Classification yards generally serve a double purpose; that is, both
for classifying cars and making up trains on the same group of tracks.
The large number of classifications to be made in this case make it im-
perative to provide a yard for classification purposes exclusively, so that
cars can be grouped in cuts, on tracks provided for each road and its
principal stations and junction points, these cuts to be run to the tracks
in the forwarding yard in the order determined for made up trains. A
separate group of classification tracks is provided for each hump engine
with connections at both ends with the classification group opposite.
"There are 65 classification tracks in each group ; that is, 130 classifi-
cation tracks in the eastbound and a like number in the westbound yard.
These groups are understood to be arbitrarily divided longitudinally by
tracks reserved as thoroughfare tracks, into secondary groups, and one
group is assumed to be assigned to each road for which trains are to be
made up. The plan is perfectly flexible, as any track can be designated
as a thoroughfare track for this purpose, and the number of tracks in
each secondary group can thus be made to suit unequal or varying re-
quirements.
36 UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS.
TRACK SCALES.
"Track scales are located just over the hump at the head of the
classification yard on independent tracks with grades adjusted to suit th-j
service. There are two scales one for each section of the classification
yard, referring, of course, to the main longitudinal divisions, with tracks
and connections so arranged that either scale can be used to weigh cars
for either or both divisions of the classification yard as required. These
scales should be 75 feet in length with all modern attachments, the device
for automatically recording the weight being particularly necessary.
"Repair Yards, Working Capacity 1,060 Cars
"Additional Holding Capacity 900 Cars
"Repair yards occupy the space between the classification yards and
the forwarding yards. The grade falls slightly in the direction of the
traffic, so that cars can be easily moved by hand or with a cable and sta-
tionary power. The yard is divided into sections as follows : A holding
section, a working section and a section for repaired cars. In the work-
ing section tracks are spaced alternately 15 feet and 25 feet centers. The
wide intervals are intended to include standard gage service tracks for
handling wheels and repair materials. The length of track provided for
cars under repair is 45 feet. In the working section of the repair yard
groups of tracks are provided as follows :
"(1) First-class or time freight.
"(2) Second-class or slow freight.
"(3) Light repairs such as wheels, truck repairs and draft rigging.
"(4) Medium repairs such as ends, end sills, etc.
"(5) Heavy repairs.
"Transfer tracks and platforms are also provided for.
FORWARDING YARDS, CAPACITY 9,200 CARS.
"There are two forwarding yards side by side, each composed of two
groups of twenty-five tracks each. The exterior tracks of each group arc-
reserved for thoroughfare tracks and are not included in estimating ca-
pacity. These forwarding yards are to be further divided under work-
ing conditions into smaller groups of tracks by assignment to the different
railroads, according to their requirements.
"The relatively large capacity of the forwarding yards is noticeable,
but the only proper place for the prolonged holding of cars is in the for-
warding yard in made-up trains ready for road movement. To insure
smoothness, certainty and consequently capacity in the working of a
hump yard the receiving end should be kept practically clear, that is with
the traffic moving freely through it, particularly so in cold weather, and
it should never be allowed to fill up to check the movement except in
some serious emergency.
CABOOSE YARDS, CAPACITY IOO CABOOSE CARS.
"The location of the caboose yards is shown between the extreme
ends of the forwarding yards, the intention being to handle the cabooses
with electric motor cars. The locations shown provide for putting ca-
booses on made-up trains in the forwarding yard or as they pull out of
the forwarding yard, and it has the advantage of separating the move-
ments of cabooses from all other movements to the greatest extent pos-
sible.
PROFILE.
"The profile adopted provides an accelerating grade with a fall of
five feet in the first 150 ft. from the hump. This will give, if cars are un-
controlled, a velocity of about 12 miles per hour under normal condi-
UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS 37
tions. A uniform grade for the classification yard follows : It should
be from 0.6 per cent, to 0.7 per cent, in order to start the cars by
gravity to make the run to the forwarding yard. The grade beyond the
classification yard can then be reduced to 0.5 per cent, 0.4 per cent, and
0.3 per cent.
"On account of the extreme length, unavoidable for trains of 100
cars, as specified, it will not be possible to work the eastbound forward-
ing yard for its full length by gravity, and it will be necessary for en-
gines to bunch the cars at the lower end. (The westbound yard can be
worked by gravity for its full length.)
TROLLEY TRACKS, ETC.
"Provision has been made for a double line of trolley tracks in the
central space between the longitudinal sections of both eastbound and
westbound yards. These tracks will extend from a point near the hump
to the extreme ends of the forwarding yards, and will be constructed in
subways where cross connections are made between adjacent sections of
the yard, passing the repair yard and at the hump. These facilities pro-
vide for prompt handling of car riders on the return trip to the hump.
ENGINE LOOPS, ETC.
"Provision is made for the continuous forward movement of road
engines from the time they are cut off of trains in the receiving yard,
until they reach the coal dock, ash pit and engine yard, and thence to out-
bound trains the engines being turned in the process without the use of
turntables. In the course of this circuit they pass between and under
the humps. There is no interference with other traffic, nor is the engine
movement interfered with. While the distance to be covered by engines
in making this movement may appear to be considerable, the time ele-
ment is the real factor, and on this basis the design proposed has every
advantage.
"A sufficient number of tracks is provided in the engine yard so that
the engines of each road can be assigned to separate tracks. This detail
is necessary to facilitate the outward movement of various classes of
engine service, as well as for the different roads. After entering the
engine yard engines will pass through a house and over pits, arranged for
thawing out when necessary.
"Fuel storage is provided for adjacent to the coal dock, as well as
for an additional supply on cars. These facilities, as shown, have a ca-
pacity sufficient for the roads in interest and the plan is capable of nat-
ural expansion to include other lines as well.
STOCK YARDS AND ICING STATIONS.
"Stock yards and icing stations are arranged in two groups in order
to avoid reverse movements and grade crossings ; this also favors the di-
vision of the traffic by roads as it diverges east from the clearing yard.
One lead track for this section of the yard can include a low hump for
sorting purposes if necessary. The capacity shown is much in excess of
the present maximum requirements.
POWER HOUSE.
"A centrally located power house is required as a source of com-
pressed air and electric power, light, heat and water supply. It must be
of relatively large capacity, provided for ready expansion, and contain
all of the modern appliances that contribute to economy and efficiency.
38 UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS.
INTERLOCKING, LIGHTING, ETC.
"The interlocking of this yard will naturally be divided into sections,
determined by the divisions of the yard and the service requirements.
For example, the two longitudinal divisions of the classification yard will
be separately interlocked, and will be controlled by independent signal-
men at the hump, and will be interlocked as between the two main longi-
tudinal divisions at points of connection so that the co-operation of the
signalmen will be required to make cross movements.
"Not all switches or groups of switches need to be interlocked, but
all switches should be moved by electric or pneumatic power from central
stations, and all switches should be electrically lighted.
"Arc lights are to be provided for all switch leads, thoroughfare
tracts, engine tracks, ash pits, coal docks, etc. Compressed air supply and
testing plants are required for the repair yards and for testing made-up
trains, also for testing and power purposes in the repair shops. Pneu-
matic tubes are included for the transmission of way bills and for simi-
lar purposes.
TELEPHONE SYSTEM, WATER SUPPLY, FIRE PROTECTION, DRAINAGE, ETC.
"A very complete telephone system is, of course, essential and has
been included in the estimate of cost.
"Particular attention has been given to the question of drainage,
both natural and artificial, also provision has been made for an ample
supply of good water, with a standpipe to provide pressure for distribu-
tion and a storage reservoir to tide over any emergency. The mains of
the Depew & Lake Erie Water Co. can be readily extended to the loca-
tion chosen for the storage reservoir.
"Ample provision for fire protection has been made at all critical
points, and special provision for apparatus on cars and for the general
equipment of switch engines."
CABLE HAULAGE PROPOSED IN PLACE OF SWITCH ENGINES
WITH THE OBJECT OF INCREASING CAPACITY.
Throughout the investigation indicated by the above, the question of
the possibility of increasing the capacity of hump yards was kept con-
stantly in view.
The hump is the limiting point, and its efficiency, as determined b\
(he design and the operation at that point, determine the capacity of the
yard. Everything depends upon this factor in the problem and it is, per-
haps, ordinarily the weakest link in the chain.
To insure the continuous service of two switch engines at one hump,
tour tracks were provided, designed to be operated in pairs with the ob-
ject of operating the opposite tracks of each pair alternately, thus keep-
ing up a steady movement of two lines of cars over the hump, by bring-
ing in a second line of cars on the opposite track of each pair, while the
first two lines of cars are being classified ; that is to say, that it would
take four switch engines to keep up a continuous movement on two tracks.
The four-track arrangement also minimizes the effect of derailments, as
u is very improbable that more than one track would be thus obstructed
at any one time. Beyond this, however, extreme weather conditions
sometimes defeat all calculations, and in a yard of this character it was
UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS 39
desirable to be free from the effect of high winds and sleet, if possible,
as well as to increase the normal capacity at the hump.
The writer at length hit upon the plan of a modified cable haulage
system. It was manifest that with the weight assumed to be handled,
50 cars, estimated at 2,250 tons, applied at one point on the cable, the
"grip" system was useless, and it was found necessary to insert in the
cable a heavy link of special design ; as such a device could not be op-
erated over the drums of the winding machinery provisions were made
for reversing the movement of the cables, and here the four tracks over
the hump fitted into the plan as well as before, as cars could be moved
on one track while the cable was being reversed on the other.
Special cars were designed for picking up the cable by means of appli-
ances operated by compressed air. These cars to be held by brakes on a
short switch-back grade from which they ran out by gravity behind a cut
of cars pushed up from the lower end of the receiving yard, and dropping
back by gravity to the starting point. The eastbound yard on the plan
accompanying this Bulletin shows the track arrangement as proposed for
cable haulage.
The following extracts quoted from my supplementary report on this
subject, made at the time, will perhaps present the matter with greater
clearness :
"The second change proposed is a radical departure from the present
method of working hump yards, and consists in the application of sta-
tionary power and cables for handling cars in the hump section of the
receiving yard, and over the hump, in place of switch engines.
"There is nothing experimental in the proposed use of such appli-
ances, and nothing new except the adaptation of standard machinery to a
new purpose where the conditions are in no sense difficult. Even the
weight to be handled does not exceed that formerly controlled on 'grip
lines,' where the conditions of the service was very much more com-
plicated.
"The present limit of capacity in yards of this character is the num-
ber of cars one or more engines will handle over a hump in a given time.
Increase of track room, and other facilities cut no figure whatever, as
the engine service at the hump exactly measures the volume of traffic that
can be moved through such a yard. This application of stationary power
will, in my judgment, practically double the capacity of the clearing yard,
without any other change in the arrangement or increase in its facilities.
"I see no difficulty whatever in adapting such appliances to the re-
quirements of the service, and that I have attempted to do in what fol-
lows. The plan proposed practically eliminates the effect of weather
conditions on the ascending side of the hump, and the power is more re-
liable, economical and under better control.
"In applying this method, all of the tracks in the hump section of the
receiving yard are omitted, except the four tracks passing over the hump,
and these remain exactly as before.
"Without disclosing the real purpose in view, I submitted the prob-
lem to the Wellman-Seaver-Morgan Co. of Cleveland, Ohio, as follows :
" 'Given four tracks on a 2 per cent, grade about 3,000 ft. in length,
the track spaces 20 ft. and 15 ft. on centers, in the central and side in-
tervals, respectively, to elevate loads of 2,250 tons, alternately on each
track of a pair, at a normal speed of not less than five miles per hour.
Each pair of tracks to be worked independently, and provision to be
40 UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS.
made for reversing the motion of, and tension on the cables. The power
to be sufficient to start the load (assumed to represent 50 average loaded
freight cars) from a state of rest on the grade.
"It was further specified that the engines should be in pairs, both en-
gines of a pair to be able to hoist together, alternating on either track
of the pair of tracks they serve.
"That is to say, that there will be cables and winding machinery for
four tracks, to work independently, and a pair of engines for each pair
of tracks the combined power of one pair of engines being sufficient to
operate one track, and so arranged that the power can be applied on
either track of a pair at will.
"The machinery to be located in a concrete structure below grade at
the crest of the hump. The tracks carried on concrete arches, the wind-
ing machinery being located in the spaces under the arches, and the en-
gines located in the spaces between the arches, which spaces are covered
over like a subway so as to exclude water and support derailed cars. A
general plan was prepared to fulfill these conditions and show its relation
to the general scheme, a copy of which is shown herewith on the plan
of the classification and clearing yard.
"In stating the problem it was my purpose to fix, what seemed to
me, limiting conditions so that any modification that might be made could
only affect the problem favorably.
"A 2 per cent, grade is hardly necessary and I think that 1V2 per
cent, need not be exceeded in this particular case.
"The duplication of machinery, primarily necessary to give sufficient
capacity within reasonable space prevents the possibility of serious inter-
ruption by breakdown, or when making renewals or repairs.
"The tonnage specified is probably in excess of what would have to
be handled under everyday conditions. It should be noted that the ele-
ment of wear that so rapidly destroys the cable on grip lines is entirely
absent in this case.
"A positive cable connection is made by means of a car of special
construction called a follower, that is switched by gravity in behind the
cuts of cars to be handled. This car takes up the tension in the cable and
transmits it as a thrust to the rear drawhead of the last car of the cut.
"Under this arrangement the constant movement over the hump of
two lines of cars can be maintained at an average speed of not less than
five miles per hour.
"The manufacturers of cable machinery to whom this problem was
submitted — the best and most highly experienced in their line — expressed
their entire willingness to undertake the contract and guarantee results.
Plans were prepared and an estimate of cost submitted. General plans
showing the arrangement of machinery and cables at the hump are
shown on the clearing-yard plan submitted herewith."
WRITER'S COMMENTS UP TO DATE.
The investigation above referred to was concluded in May, 190.J.
and the subject has been presented as it was considered and developed
;'t the time. As has been shown, the relative situation concerning con-
gestion and delay at large city freight terminals remains substantially un-
changed.
Experience and observation since that time have only served to
strengthen my belief in the wisdom of the conclusions formulated by the
Buffalo Freight Terminals Committee.
UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS 41
While it is true that hostility to the idea of open terminals is common,
and the thought of placing all railroads and their patrons on an equal
footing, so far as terminal service is concerned, with "reciprocal switch-
ing" applied to competitive as well as non-competitive business, finds lit-
tle favor, yet in the main the conclusion is sound and merits serious
consideration. In the older and more congested districts industrial de-
velopment has already reached its limit, and without the opening of new-
districts that condition would soon prevail. Where industrial expansion
seeks new territory on connecting lines and additional business is within
reach, some substantial return as between railroads must be made if a
share of new business is to be secured ; furthermore, there are locations
where industrial development has been dwarfed by a short-sighted policy
in this respect, and the alternative has been, and may again be presented,
of a choice between open terminals and the assumption of the burdens
an independent terminal involves. Shippers have also learned to appre-
ciate the value of a location where there is perfect freedom and flexi-
bility pertaining to transportation.
The unification of terminals, however, as to operation, does not nec-
essarily involve the idea of open terminal territory. Without it the unifi-
cation of terminal operations would seem to be desirable on the score
of efficiency, economy and dispatch. It is not even essential that a ter-
minal association should be formed as a separate entity to take over and
hold the terminal property necessary to be combined. An association
for the operation of terminals as a unit may be confined to the use of the
terminal facilities so combined. The title of ownership to lands, to
tracks, equipment, etc., can remain in the parties in interest. The adjust-
ment of accounts need not be a difficult matter and could be fairly based :
(i) On the interest on the value of the property contributed br-
each railroad, equalizing the inevitable inequalities : and
(2) Pro-rating the cost of maintenance and service.
An objection has been offered to a clearing yard of the character de-
scribed simply on the score of its size, with the thought that it might be
cumbersome and difficult of operation, but when we consider that the
necessary subdivision of the work reduces the operating unit to what one
engine, or its equivalent will handle at the hump, the objection seems to
rest upon no very substantial basis.
Efficiency and economy in operation as a whole will depend finally
upon rigid adherence to the operating system ; track system and operating
system must harmonize and sustain a nice adjustment, but once determined
operating methods must control and be adhered to through thick and thin.
On the score of economy the plan proposed seems to possess every
advantage. The estimated cost of the clearing yard, with its facilities
and equipment, was in round figures, $14,000,000, requiring an initial ex-
penditure of $10,000,000. It was further estimated that the economies the
proposed system would effect in switching service alone represented the
interest at 4 per cent, on an investment of $20,000,000. This took no ac-
count of the release of large areas of land and extensive trackage that
42 UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS.
could be devoted to other purposes, nor to many other economies that
could not be clearly estimated and possibly not foreseen; but by far the
greatest advantage expected from the adoption of the proposed system
consisted in relief from periodic congestion, and in relation to this the
factor of cost was regarded as secondary. The unit prices that entered
into the above estimate are, of course, out of date, but the relative value
of the general figures still hold good.
As to the capacity of the clearing yard measured by the estimated
flow of traffic through it, to the writer it seems at this distance that it was
much underestimated. It was not anticipated that all of the tracks in
each of the groups composing it would be constructed at one time of the
capacity shown, but that beyond a certain limit the adjustment of the
relative capacities of the various yards would be determined by use.
Doubtless these factors in the problem sustain a certain definite rela-
tion for a given volume and character of business in each particular case,
that can be best determined under actual operating conditions.
The length of the various groups of tracks composing this clearing
yard was based on a train length of one hundred cars, that requirement
being specified. It seems to be excessive and hardly justified by the facts
in the case. The length of the yard could be materially reduced with
economy in construction and further advantage in operation.
The receiving yard, as shown, is believed to be relatively too large
and it could be reduced with advantage. The receiving end is no place
to hold cars or allow them to accumulate, and it should be made as small
as can consistently be done in any given case. If necessary at any point,
cars should be held in made-up trains in the forwarding yard where the
responsibility for delay will rest with the forwarding road. Traffic should
be kept moving through the receiving yard, and with sufficient capacity
at the hump as there is believed to be in this case, this is entirely feasible.
Tn cold weather cars should not be left standing long enough for the
packing in the oil boxes to chill, so cars will run hard, and this shouid
fix the limit of time in any case for cars to remain "dead" on receiving
yard tracks.
The cable haulage system proposed seems to offer substantial advan-
tages, even if there was no increase in capacity in the number of car?
put over the hump in a given time, and with the improvement in electric
motors for heavy service, that has taken place in recent years, their use in
place of steam would doubtless be much more satisfactory.
It was found that the readjustment of grade lines made possible in
this case by the assumed adoption of the cable haulage system resulted in
a saving in the cost of construction that fully offset the cost of machinery,
together with the necessary concrete structures, and the cost of installa-
tion.
There are certain business methods the modification of which would
go far to speed up the movement of traffic and reduce or prevent con-
gestion in yards and terminals generally. I refer to the present methods
of billing which involve notice through yardmaster and agent to consignee
UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS. 43
and return of information through the same channel, and the practice of
storing "hold" cars for the convenience of the consignee who handles
his business on reconsignment.
In the first instance there would seem to be no good reason why the
card bill that accompanies the car should not carry in addition to the
usual information all that is needed to make final delivery, with a duplicate
for the yardmaster's use, and a triplicate attached to the car. This
should be done so that cars can be lined up for delivery in all cases, ex-
cept those where credit to the consignee has been refused.
In the second instance it is believed that the practice in many places
of storing "hold" cars is responsible as much as any one factor for the
periodic congestion from which all roads, shippers and consignees suffer
alike. From this standpoint there is not a good word to be said for this
custom, and with the exception of actual emergencies and cars held for
charges it should be everywhere abolished as it has already been in some
instances.
Detroit, July n, 1913.
Appendix.
Rail Company.
STATEMENT.
SHOWING THE MAXIMUM MONTHLY MOVEMENT OF
FREIGHT CARS IN THE BUFFALO TERMINAL DISTRICT.
Month of 19
INBOUND OUTBOUND
Loaded. Empty. Loaded. Empty.
A. Total for all routes :
1. Total for home route.
2. Total for foreign routes (Buffalo Interchange).
3. Total for terminal routes (Include lake business).
B. Classify Ai and A2 as follows:
1. Coal.
2. Ore.
3. Grain.
4. Live stock.
5. Refrigerator freight.
6. All other fast freight.
7. Slow freight.
C. Classify A2 by routes (Buffalo Interchange) :
1. "Erie R. R.
2. Erie R. R.
3. P. R. R.
4. P. R. R.
5. N. Y.( C. & H. R. R.
6. W. S. R. R.
7. L. V. R. R.
8. D., L. & W. R. R.
9- L. S. & M. S. Ry.
10. N. Y., C. & St. L. Ry.
n. B., R. & P. R. R.
12. M. C. R. R.
13. G. T. Ry.
14- B. C. R. R.
WHERE HELD
K. Held for reconsignment or to complete trains or cargoes :
1. For north shore rail routes.
2. For south shore rail routes.
3. For lake.
4. How many classes, lots or shipments, and numbers of cars
in each.
44
UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS. 45
THE FOLLOWING GENERAL INFORMATION IS ALSO
NECESSARY.
Show the limits of the district served by each switching run (not
including interchange), and the maximum number of cars handled in
each district.
Show the maximum number and kind of empty cars held to fill gen-
eral orders in the Buffalo terminal district, and where held.
Show the maximum number and kind of empty cars held to fill spe-
cial orders in the Buffalo terminal district, and where held.
Show the maximum number of cars in process of "coopering," and
where held.
Show the maximum number of stock cars held for cleaning, and
where held.
Show the number of classifications you will require in making up
outbound trains.
REQUIREMENTS AND RESTRICTIONS,
ESSENTIAL IN A GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND CLEARING YARD.
The principles, requirements and restrictions here laid down were the
outgrowth of the investigation concerning the Buffalo freight terminals
problem and the design of the clearing yard. They are regarded as es-
sential features in any complete development of this character :
(i) For traffic in opposite directions, two hump yards parallel and
cross-connected with the humps as nearly opposite as possible.
(2) Location to permit approach tracks and departure tracks, with-
out grade crossings, with unobstructed view and with gradients not ex-
ceeding the ruling grade of the connecting main lines.
(3) General trend of ground line on profile to favor gravity grades —
level or rising toward the center, if possible. Surface lines descending
toward the center, or similar grade lines of adjacent main tracks that
control the situation, are inadmissible.
(4) The yard system, as a whole, to be enclosed by a double line of
thoroughfare tracks which may limit a group of yard tracks where con-
venient ; connections to be made at all critical points such as switching
leads or the extension of such leads, interior thoroughfare tracks, etc.
(5) Track system to provide for a continuous forward movement
of freight traffic, and to be free from grade crossings, except such as are
necessarily made by slip switches, etc.
(6) All groups of yard tracks to have double leads, and the exterior
tracks in every case to be reserved for use as thoroughfare tracks only.
(7) Duplication of hump tracks to insure continuous movement in
classifying cars, and prevent complete stoppage in case of derailment.
46 UNIFICATION OF FREIGHT TERMINALS.
(8) Clearing yard to be composed of:
(a) Receiving yard, receiving section and hump section.
(b) Hump tracks.
(c) Scale tracks.
(d) Classification yards, subdivided to hold cuts of cars to be
built up into trains in a predetermined order.
(e) Repair yards, consisting of holding section, repair sec-
tion and section for finished cars.
(9) Caboose yard for putting caboose on train before movement.
(10) Forwarding yard.
(11) Second caboose yard for putting caboose on train as it pulls
out.
(12) Independent loop tracks for road engines providing for a con-
tinuous forward movement to engine yard, turning the engines without
the use of turntable, and a continuation of these tracks beyond the
engine yard to point of attachment for outgoing trains.
(13) Engine yard arranged to classify engines by roads and class
of engines. Ash pits, coal, sand and water supply with facilities for
thawing out arranged in order approaching the engine yard.
(14) Special provision for coal, sand and water supply for hump
engines, near or at the hump.
(15) Roundhouse adjacent to engine yard equipped for light repairs
to dead engines only.
(16) Coal storage yard for coal on cars, stock pile and trestle and
chutes for coaling engines.
(17) General water supply system, with storage reservoir and stand-
pipe.
(18) Centrally located plant for light, heat and power purposes.
(19) System of fire protection, including apparatus on cars, and
on engines.
(20) Telegraph and telephone systems.
(21) Pneumatic tube system.
(22) Trolley tracks and cars for car-riders.
(23) Foot bridges for car-riders across forwarding yard.
(24) Signal system and lighting system.
(25) Ice houses with re-icing and filling facilities.
(26) General office building and outlying buildings for yardmasters.
inspectors, repairmen and rest rooms and bunk rfouses for enginemen and
trainmen.
(27) Stock yards, including:
(a) Unloading tracks, platforms and feeding pens with ce-
ment floors.
(b) Separate facilities for loading and forwarding stock.
(c) Yards for cleaning and disinfecting empty stock cars.
(d) Yards for holding empty stock cars after cleaning.
(e) Water supply and special appliances for fire protection.
(f) Isolated pens and other facilities for quarantine purposes.
EXTRA TOP WIDTH FOR NEW FILLS.
By J. C. L. Fish, Professor of Railroad Engineering, Stanford University,
California.
In order that the settled fill may be of standard top width, the new
fill must be made extra high to offset vertical settlement and extra wide
on top to offset sliding of the material on the shoulders. Thus in build-
ing any fill two questions arise: (i) to what extra height shall the fill
be made, and (2) what extra top width shall be given to the fill?
Tables of vertical shrinkage allowance are given in several books
which treat of earthwork. The Manual of 191 1, page 35, gives the fol-
lowing under the caption "Allowance for Shrinkage in Embankments" :
For green embankments, shrinkage allowance should be made
for both height and width.
And then gives a short table of additional heights to offset vertical set-
tlement, but makes no specific recommendation as to the amount of extra
width. The writer recalls only two definite statements as to extra width
to be given to new fills. The late Augustus Torrey made the following
statement before this Association :*
". . . Our practice on the Michigan Central is to widen the base
of the embankment one foot additional to what the uniform width would
make it — one foot for every five fe^t in height of the embankment. We
generally build a trifle above grade, but always wide. . . ."
Mr. L. B. Merriam statesf that on the reconstruction of the Union
Pacific Railroad he built fills to subgrade and gave each fill a top width
determined thus (Fig. 1) :
". . . The slopes were steepened until the top width of the em-
bankment at subgrade was the same as if the embankment had been built
^qnstrucjpd^
1 Roadbeds
(<S_ubgrgde_
Fig. I.
to a height above subgrade, equal to the percentage of its height which the
method of construction warranted, and then cut down to subgrade. . . ."
♦Proceedings American Railway Engineering Association, "Vol. 3 (1902),
pp. 36 and 37.
•(•Engineering News, Jan. 3, 1901 (Vol. 45, p. 11).
47
48
EXTRA TOP WIDTH FOR NEW FILLS.
The following is offered as a rational method of determining the
extra top width to be given to a new fill under any conditions. This
method was devised by the writer for use on high fills, where it proved
entirely satisfactory.
For the present purpose we distinguish (I) fills built upon ground
which is level transversely, and (II) fills built upon ground which has
considerable transverse slope. In each of these groups there are three
cases to be considered : A fill may be built (a) with partial vertical
shrinkage allowance with the expectation that it will settle below sub-
grade ; or (b) with full vertical shrinkage allowance so that it will settle
just to subgrade ; or (c) just to subgrade so that the top will drop below
subgrade to the full extent of the vertical settlement.
(I) Extra top width for new fill built upon ground having little
or no transverse slope, (a) The conditions are shown in Fig. 2. Sub-
grade height is h. The fill is built to the height h' (greater than h) with
Su&grade^
7W
i y f \r\
vaJ* hsJ.u '
Ground Surface-* \£" \^"
Fig. 2.
the expectation that it will settle to the height h" (less than h). The
slope ratios are ^ for the settled fill and s for the new fill, the ratio in
each case being horizontal/vertical.
If the shoulder of the new fill were at B', the shoulder of the settled
fill would be at B", provided there were no sliding; but at the elevation
of B" the half width of the fill should be A"C". Therefore the shoulder
of the new fill should be carried out from B' to C, even if there were
no sliding of the shoulder. With the shoulder of the new fill at C", the
toe would be at E (C'E being drawn with slope /), and, providing there
were no sliding, the side line of the settled fill would be C"E. However,
the shoulder will not be stable at C" unless the triangle C'EG be filled.
To fill this triangle requires an additional slab of material, C'D'FE, on
EXTRA TOP WIDTH FOR NEW FILLS.
49
the side of the new fill. The area of the slab, settled, is h" CD', and
this must be equal to the area of the triangle C"EG. Therefore,
h" CD' = y2h" EG,
or
CD' = Y2EG
= y2(C"G-C"E)
= y2{h"s—h's') (i)
The total extra top width to be added to the standard roadbed width on
each side of the fill is therefore
B'D' = B'C + CD'
= (h — h") S+y2 (h"s — h's) (2)
since B'C = (h — h")s.
(b) For the fill which is built with full shrinkage allowance,
h" = h. h — h" = O, and eq. 2 reduces to
B'D' = y2 (hs — h's' (3)
(c) For the fill which is built new just to subgrade h' = h, and eq.
2 becomes
B'D' = (h — h")s + y2 (h"s — hs') (4)
In practice h and h' are known and s' can be measured readily, but,
owing to the fact that the vertical settlement and final slope of the fill
must be estimated, the values given to h" and j are subject to some un-
certainty. Hence the engineer must use the foregoing formulas with
judgment, increasing the computed extra top width if material be abundant
or suspected of treacherous action in the fill.
■ Standard' _ _*T^> Extra Width
Roadbed^ ~, \ n*
Top of New tf/A , tf\^ c
/^ ! i\, \ ^*" Top of Settled Fill
\ , ^>v^. No 1
1 I
3 ^£>^\
*> r
Gn
Fig. 3.
(II) Extra top width for new fill built upon ground having consid-
erable transverse slope. — In order that the top of a fill that is built on a
transverse slope may be level at the end of settlement the top of the new
50 EXTRA TOP WIDTH FOR NEW FILLS.
fill must have some slope in the direction contrary to the slope of the
ground. See Fig. 3, which is drawn for case (a) in which the new fill
is made with partial shrinkage allowance for vertical settlement. Since
the fill is higher on one side than the other the extra top width required
will not be the same for the two shoulders. To find the extra top width
required for the shoulder on the downhill side of the fill we proceed as
follows :
(1) Plot A' on the cross-section to represent the top of the new
fill on the center line.
(2) Plot A", A' A" being the vertical settlement expected on the
center line.
(3) Draw a horizontal through A" to cut BG at C".
(4) Plot C" vertically above C", making C"C' = C"C" {A" A' / A"
A"').
(5) Draw C'E through C with the slope s' of the new fill.
(6) Find, by scaling, the approximate (settled) height hi of the
slab C'D'FE, which is required to fill triangle C"EG.
(7) Find the area of the triangle C'EG.
The required width of slab C'D'FE is (approximately)
CD' = (area of triangle C'EG) /hi (5 >
and
B'C = AA"s (approximately) (6)
Therefore the extra top width to be given the downhill side of the fill is
(approximately)
B'D' — AA"s + (area of triangle C'EG) /hi (7)
The extra top width on the uphill side of the fill is found in the same
way.
(b) and (c). When the new fill is to be built with full shrinkage
allowance for vertical settlement, or to subgrade, the general method
given above is used to determine the extra top width required at each
shoulder.
EXAMPLES OF FILLS BUILT ON GROUND LEVEL TRANSVERSELY.
Example 1. — The subgrade height of a new fill at a given station is
60 ft. New side slope is 1.25:1 and the settled side slope is expected
to be 1.5:1. The vertical shrinkage allowance is judged to be 10 per
cent., but it is decided to build the fill only 2 ft. above subgrade. What
should be the extra top width at each shoulder of the new fill? The
answer is found by eq. 2, thus :
B'D'— (h — h")s + y2(h"s — h's')
— (60 — 56.4*) i-5 + lA (56.4 x 1.5 — 62x 1.25)
= 5-4 + 3-5 = 8.9 ft. = 9 ft., say.
Thus the total extra top width is twice 9.25, or 18.5 ft.
♦Since h' = 1.10 h", h" — .91 h' = .91 h' — .91 X 62 = 56.4.
EXTRA TOP WIDTH FOR NEW FILLS. 51
Example 2.— If it be decided to build the fill of Example 1 to sub-
grade height plus full shrinkage allowance the extra width required at
each shoulder will be (eq. 3)
B'D' = y2(hs — h's')
= I/4(6ox 1.5 — 66 x 1.25)
= 375 ft-;
and the total extra top width will be 7.5 ft.
Example 3. — Suppose the fill of Example 1 to be built to subgrade.
In that case
B'D' = (h — h"s + y2 (h"s — hs')
= 60 — 54.6) 1.5 + y2 (54-6 x 1.5 — 60 x 1.25)
= 11.6;
and the total extra top width required is 2B'D', or 23 ft., say.
The results obtained by formula should be used not blindly, but with
judgment.
DISCUSSION.
F. L. Wheaton, Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad:
This is a very clever mathematical solution of a problem which does
not admit of mathematical treatment. Theoretically, this solution is ex-
cellent, but I fear in practice the factors entering into the formula are
so uncertain as to be of little practical use to the construction engineer.
Many of these factors are impossible to determine until the fill has been
actually constructed and depend upon the nature of the ground upon
which the fill is placed, the height of fill, the nature of the material of
which it is composed and method of construction.
As Mr. Fish says in his concluding clause, the results of this formula
should be used not blindly, but with judgment and, since so much de-
pends upon good judgment, it would seem to me that the whole matter
should be left entirely to the judgment of the engineers in charge.
I do not think that a formula of this kind should be inserted in the
Manual, since the tendency would be for young and inexperienced en-
gineers to use it wrongly.
C. S. Millard, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Railway:
It seems to me that Mr. Fish has handled the subgrade very thor-
oughly and has adopted a rational method of determining the extra top
width, which should prove satisfactory in the great majority of instances.
Paul Didier, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad:
In perusing the article and looking over the blueprints carefully, I
concur with his views as to Figs. 1 and 2, but the extra fill, as shown in
Fig. 3, appears to be rather extravagant.
52 EXTRA TOP WIDTH FOR NEW FILLS.
R. C. Falconer, Erie Railroad:
I have glanced over this paper in a hasty manner, and while I have
not followed his equations through, the method seems rational and
proper with this one exception :
It depends on the use of two slopes, a slope s, which is the final
slope taken of the embankment, and the slope s', which is the slope of
the new embankment immediately after it is completed.
Materials vary, and while it is perfectly possible to measure the slope
s , it is possible not to know during construction just what the slope j
will be after the bank has taken its entire settlement. The equation then
necessitates the assumption of the slope s, and the results are de-
pendent entirely on the judgment of the engineer, as they are without the
use of the formula.
H. J. Slifer, Consulting Engineer:
I had hoped to be able to answer your letter of March nth, relative
to Professor Fish's paper before the meeting of the Association ; but
was so busy that I could not find time to do so. I intended to discuss
the subject with you during the meeting of the Association, but was
unfortunately prevented from being present on the day that the Roadway
Committee's Report was considered. I am, therefore, writing you my
views, which have been very considerably changed in the past five years,
and particularly so through my experience in rebuilding the Panama
Railroad, where we found it necessary to establish new rules and regu-
lations, none of which could be made standard for all conditions to off-
set the unheard of settlement of material in railway embankments. In
fact, I concluded after a more than 20 years' experience as a Railroad
Engineer, that I was an "infant" in knowledge on this subject after I
spent a few months on the Isthmus of Panama.
There is a nicety in the theoretical and technical views of engineers,
as it applies to some subjects, that fits the particular experience of other
engineers in the field, but there are some things in which engineer's "horse
sense" will have to guide his work, and I think this applies particularly
to the question of the settlement of new fills.
It has been my general practice to follow the rules which are used
by Mr. Merriam on reconstruction of the Union Pacific Railroad ; but,
even following such rules, I have had more than one occasion where I
found it necessary to use a gang of trackmen to lower a new fill before
the track could be laid on it — which, naturally, was an indication that this
rule would sometimes fail.
In noting Prof. Fish's paper, I see that he indicates that there have
only been two definite statements made as to the extra width that should
be given to new fills. I would respectfully call attention to copy of a
letter which I wrote in 1906, and which is quoted on page 307, Vol. 8,
Proceedings, 1907, Roadway Committee Report, American Railway Engi-
neering and Maintenance of Way Association. I can't say that the rules
EXTRA TOP WIDTH FOR NEW FILLS. 53
or suggestions, as shown in this letter, were ever followed, or how the
future years or sliding may have confirmed the percentages.
I do not think that any engineer would deliberately make a new fill
with the idea that it should settle below subgrade, unless it was an over-
sight or done for the purpose of topping the subgrade with a bed of sand
or something of a similar character. So that I feel that Example A
should certainly be eliminated, and in fact I think Example C could
also be very readily eliminated from consideration, as it is the usual rule
of engineers to build new embankments, as shown in Example B, "with
full vertical shrinkage allowances so that it will settle just to subgrade."
I do not believe that a practical engineer in the field would use the
suggested rules if they were printed and adopted, and I would hesitate to
recommend any such action, for the reason that I feel that the question
of shrinkage of new banks is very largely one of "guess work," and like
the question of "area of waterways," the engineer would usually build
his waterway twice as large as the formula would provide so as to be
on the safe side, and in this connection I note particularly that Prof. Fish
indicates that the values given to the basic measurements are "uncertain
and that the formula should be used with judgment."
/. E. Willoughby, Atlantic Coast Line:
The paper is interesting since it undertakes by mathematics to de-
termine the extra width to be given to fills to provide for "side shrink-
age," but inasmuch as in shrinking a fill does not follow any mathe-
matical laws, it occurs to me that the Roadway Committee could do no
more than submit the paper as an ingenious discussion of a condition for
which there is but little hope of ever finding a mathematical formula. It
has been my experience with fills that they will not settle uniformly.
They almost invariably settle in holes and while, as a whole, to approxi-
mately the amounts shown by the recommendations of the Roadway Com-
mittee as published in the Manual of 191 1, there are always portions of
the fill which fall but little below the elevation at which the material was
dumped. I have abandoned the practice of finishing a high fill above sub-
grade on a maximum grade of a low-grade line railway, because the
shrinking of the fill takes place unevenly, and I have had the annoyance
of having, after the railway was put into operation, projections above sub-
grade on high fills constructed for low-grade line railways. The prac-
tice which I have adopted is that, during the progress of construction of
the fill, I place sufficient material above subgrade to insure that, when
the time comes for constructing the finished roadbed ready to receive the
ballast, the fill would be of sufficient height to finish the roadbed to exact
subgrade elevation. All projection above this elevation is cut away.
I find that as a general rule that if the width of the fill at subgrade
be increased in feet an amount equal to about 10 per cent, of the height
of the top of the fill above the surface of the earth, then a sufficient width
will be obtained to provide for the standard width of roadbed at sub-
54 EXTRA TOP WIDTH FOR NEW FILLS.
grade height when the fill has ceased to shrink. For example for a fill
40 ft. in height, I make the new fill four feet wider at subgrade than the
standard width requires.
Where fills are at the foot of two grades, or where the grade is less
than the maximum grade, I make the roadbed height sufficient to provide
for shrinkage to the extent as is shown by the Manual of 191 1, consid-
ering always the amount of shrinkage that has taken place during the con-
struction period.
Alfred C. Prime, Pennsylvania Railroad:
I would say that the theory as worked out by Prof. Fish is very in-
teresting and instructive, but that in actual practice his formulae should
be used with great care on account of varying natures of the material en-
countered in making fills, and the difference in climatic conditions in vari-
ous parts of the country.
5". B. Fisher, Missouri Kansas & Texas Railway System:
I think this is a very creditable discussion of the question, from a
theoretical standpoint, and is useful in enabling one to understand the
principles involved. The assumption in such discussions is that the earth
settles uniformly, according to fixed laws. The trouble in doing the work
is that the fills do not settle uniformly, but very irregularly. Some places
it scarcely subsides at all, and at other places it goes down beyond all
expectations.
COMMENTS BY THE AUTHOR.
/. C. L. Fish:
I shall answer the criticisms made by some members of the Com-
mittee on Roadway, point by point, in an impersonal way.
(1) In Figs. 1, 2 and 3 the allowance for shrinkage and the extra
top width are much exaggerated for the sake of clearness. The draw-
ings are not made to scale, but are mere diagrams.
(2) It would appear that some who discussed my paper had the
impression that the formulas were worked out for the sake of a little
exercise in mathematics. The fact is, I investigated the subject when,
as Engineer on Construction with the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern
Railway, I was building fills ranging in height to 120 ft. ; and for nearly
four years I used the method described in my paper on such fills. The
first draft of the paper was made during the third year's use, with the
idea of presentation to this Association, but through lack of time and
neglect the final draft was deferred for five years. The subject was
investigated and the principle found and used within the limits of the
right-of-way — all by an engineer responsible for results.
(3) The method offered in my paper is entirely rational, notwith-
EXTRA TOP WIDTH FOR NEW FILLS. 55
standing that one of the factors, s, must be estimated, according to mv
understanding of the word rational.
(4) The slope, s, which a bank, of given materials and given
method of construction, will take on settlement can be closely predicted
by the engineer who has opportunity to measure the slopes of settled
fills which have been made of like material with like method ; and in
the great majority of cases such opportunity exists. On the contrary,
comparatively few engineers have the opportunity of knowing the origi-
nal dimensions of fills which have settled. It follows that the experience
necessary to form trustworthy judgment as to what slope, s, a fill will
take on settlement, is in general much more readily obtainable than the
experience necessary to form trustworthy judgment as to the extra top
width to be given to a new fill. Furthermore, common experience shows
that, all things equal, skill in estimating simple quantities is more readily
acquired than skill in estimating complex functions of simple quantities.
For example, one can more quickly become skillful in estimating heights
and lengths of fills than in estimating their volumes. To make the best
possible estimate of the total cost of a proposed railroad the engineer
uses his best judgment on each of the elements of cost, and then com-
bines the estimated elements. Few engineers would advance the idea
that since one must use his judgment on each element in this case, he
might as well ignore the elements and proceed at once to judge the
total cost.
(5) The formulas offered in the paper cannot be classed with water-
way formulas, for the reason that waterway formulas, while containing
the elements, drainage area and slope, which can be measured or even
estimated satisfactorily, contain a coefficient for the proper value of
which for given cases we are still seeking. If the waterway depended
only upon slope and drainage area, it is difficult to believe that an engi-
neer would prefer to fix the waterway in a given case by direct judg-
ment rather than by computation from the elements slope and drainage
area, even if the two elements had to be estimated.
(6) There are many useful and much-used formulas which give
results which must be used with judgment. For example, do we not
fix the size of water pipe for given flow under given head by formula?
Yet the formula involves the coefficient of friction of the proposed pipe,
and this coefficient must of necessity be estimated, and consequently the
result obtained by the formula must be used with judgment. I take
it that even the shrinkage allowances now recommended by this
Association are intended to be used with judgment. Sureljy the
caution that the results obtained by the method of my paper should
be used with judgment cannot be used as a basis for condemning
the method.
I appreciate the consideration which the members of the Roadway
Committee have given my paper, and hope they will be interested in my
replies to their criticisms. In conclusion, I wish to thank Mr. Slifer for
56 EXTRA TOP WIDTH FOR NEW FILLS.
calling my attention to his letter (Vol. 8, page 307, Proceedings American
Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association) on extra top
width for new fills.
♦BIBLIOGRAPHY ON VALUATION OF PUBLIC
UTILITIES.
GENERAL.
AN ACCOUNTANT ON DEPRECIATION. Journal of Gas Lighting, v. 98, p. 175
(April 16, 1907). (Abstract of lecture delivered by Lawrence R Dicksee.)
American Gas Light Journal, v. 86, p. 847 (May 20, 1907).
Depreciation ; by Lawrence R. Dicksee. Municipal Journal (London), v. 16, pp.
323, 355 (April 19, 26, 1907).
— ■ — Editorials. Local Authorities and Depreciation. Journal of Gas Lighting,
v. 98, p. 144 (April 16, 1907) ; Electrical Review (London), v. 60, p. 665
(April 26, 2907).
THE ACCURACY OF APPRAISALS; by Martin Schreiber. Aera, v. 1. p. 247
(Oct., 1912). (States that the principal point that the writer wishes to
bring out is that any appraisal involving a comprehensive utility, founded
principally on estimated values, is not entirely reliable for any business un-
dertaking.)
THE APPRAISAL OF ELECTRIC PROPERTIES AND THE USES TO WHICH AP-
praisals May Be Put ; by Halbert P. Gillette. Engineering and Contracting, v.
36, p' 506 (Nov. 8, 1911). (Address delivered before the Seattle Electric Club
on general principles of valuation; one and one-half pages.)
Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 948 (Oct. 28, 1911).
THE APPRAISAL OF INTANGIBLE VALUES IN PUBLIC UTILITIES. (Editorial.)
Electrical World, v. 60, p. 866 (Oct. 26, 1912). (Review of a paper read by
William J. Hagenah before the Northwest Electric Light and Power Associa-
tion.)
APPRAISAL OF PLANTS FOR PUBLIC SERVICES; by Nicholas S. Hill, Jr. En-
gineering Record, v. 43, p. 546 (June 8, 1901). (On the fundamental prin-
ciples of valuation ; three pages.)
THE APPRAISAL OF PUBLIC SERVICE PROPERTIES AS A BASIS FOR THE
Regulation of Rates ; by C. E. Grunsky. Transactions, American Society of
Civil Engineers, v. 75, p. 770 (Paper 1232. Dec, 1912). (Discussion of ap-
praisal for rate-fixing purposes without deducting anything from the properly
invested capital for depreciation.)
CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING EXPENSES OF CARRIERS BY WATER AS
Prescribed by the Interstate Commerce Commission. First Issue. Effective on
Jan. 1, 1911. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1910. (Contains gen-
eral instructions on reserves for depreciation and replacements.)
CLASSIFICATION OF REVENUES AND EXPENSES OF PIPE LINE COMPANIES
as Prescribed by the Interstate Commerce Commission. First Issue, Effective
on Jan. 1, 1911. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1910. (Gives
general instructions in regard to depreciation, replacements and abandonments
of property.)
COMPENSATION FOR CONDEMNATION OF PROPERTY; by Maguire and Mooney.
Electrical Review and Western Electrician, v. 60, p. 709 (April 13, 1912).
(Discusses value of land.)
CONCERNING FRANCHISE VALUES; by William H. Hodge Public Service, v. 5,
p 111 (Oct., 1908). (One and one-half pages.)
THE CUSTODY OF DEPRECIATION FUNDS. (Editorial.) Electrical World, v.
59, p. 126 (Jan 20, 1912). (One column.)
CUSTODY OF DEPRECIATION FUNDS. (Letter) ; by George L. Hoxie. Electrical
World, v 59, p. 367 (Feb 17, 1912).
THE DEFICIT THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT EXPENSE OF PUBLIC SERVICE COR-
porations and an Erroneous Application of the Theory by the Wisconsin
Railroad Commission. (Editorial ) Engineering and Contracting, v. 35, p.
671 (June 14, 1911). (Editorial indicates alleged mistakes in the application
of the deficit theory; one page.)
DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Engineering, v. 83, p 585 (May 3, 1907). (Re-
view of recent papers on this subject ; refers especially to the papers of Robert
Hammond, P. D. Leake, and Lawrence R. Dicksee.)
DEPRECIATION. (Editorials.) Municipal Journal (London), v. 12, pp. 818,
859. 939, 999, 1059 (Sept. 11, 25, Oct. 23, Nov. 13, Dec. 4, 1903).
Public Service, v. 6, p. 122 (April, 1909).
Stone and Webster Public Service Journal, v. 1, p. 16 (July, 1907). (Four
pages.)
DEPRECIATION; by A. Winder. Cassier's Magazine, v. 35, p. 539 (Feb., 1909).
(States that depreciation is made up of two elements, obsolescence and de-
terioration ; two pages.)
DEPRECIATION; by C. N. Duffy. Progressive Age, v. 27, p. 686 (Sept. 1, 1909).
(Paper read before the Western Gas .Association.)
•From August, 1913, Proceedings, American Society of Civil Engineers;
prepared in the Library of the Society by the Library Force.
Note. — Unverified references to publications which are not in the Li-
brary of the American Society of Civil Engineers are placed at the end of
each Division of the List.
Articles marked with an asterisk are published by State Commissions,
or contain extracts from their reports.
57
58 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
GENERAL — ( Continued ) .
DEPRECIATION; by Edwin S. Mack. American Gas Light Journal, v. 88, p. 971
(June 8, 1908). (Paper read before the Wisconsin Gas Association.)
— —Progressive Age, v. 26, p. 372 (June 15, 1908).
Public Service, v. 7, p. 42 (Aug., 19C9).
Editorial. Progressive Age, v. 26, p. 362 (June 15, 1908).
DEPRECIATION; by Frederick Walmsley. Municipal Journal (London), v. 12, p.
932 (Oct. 23, 1903). (Abstract of paper read before the Society of Incorpo-
rated Accountants.)
■ Editorial. Municipal Journal (London), v. 12, p. 939 (Oct. 23, 1903).
Criticism. Ourselves or Our Successors. Municipal Journal (London), v. 16,
p. 84 (Feb. 1, 1907).
DEPRECIATION; by George Johnson. Electrical Review (London), v. 66, p. 1048
(June 24, 1910). (Discusses methods of providing for shrinkage in value;
two pages.)
DEPRECIATION; by H. E. McJilton. Street Railway Journal, v. 13, p. 288 (May,
1897). (Definition of the word depreciation; what should and what should
not be charged to depreciation ; abstract of paper read before the Association
of Street Railway Accountants; very brief.)
DEPRECIATION; by Patterson J. Logan. Municipal Journal (London), v. 15, p.
93 (Jan. 26, 1906). (Depreciation as a factor in the accounts of municipalities
and methods of making provision for it.)
DEPRECIATION; by Rowland Wilson. Mechanical Engineer, v. 27, p. 309 (March
10, 1911). (On depreciation in relation to works on factory buildings, machin-
ery and plants; one paragraph.)
DEPRECIATION. (Letters) ; by Thomas G. Milner and Oswald W. Arnold. Mu-
nicipal Jdurnal (London), v. 12, p. 824 (Sept. 11; 1903). (Brief opinions in
regard to depreciation in municipal undertakings.)
DEPRECIATION; by W. A. J. O'Meara. Electrician, v. 64, p. 1072 (April 8,
1910). (Discusses physical decay, obsolescence, inadequacy, tenure of hold-
ing, etc., and the life of machinery and other plant; three pages.)
DEPRECIATION: A PLEA FOR THE STUDY AND USE OF BETTER METHODS;
by P. D. Leake. Mechanical Engineer, v. 20, pp. 117, 147, 179 (July 27, Aug.
3, 10, 1907). (A plea for better methods of measuring and providing for de-
preciation of industrial plants.)
DEPRECIATION AND APPRAISALS. (Editorial.) Electrical Review and Western
Electrician, v. 59, p. 155 (July 22, 1911). (On method of providing for de-
preciation.)
DEPRECIATION AND PUBLIC SERVICE REGULATION; by Robert H. Whitten.
Engineering News, v. 69, p. 942 (May 8, 1913). (Straight-line method, ac-
crued depreciation deducted ; uniform annual investment cost method, com-
parison of chief methods ; diagram of combined interest and depreciation per-
centage under each method.)
DEPRECIATION AND RESERVES; by George Wilkinson. Electric Railway Re-
view, v. 17, p. 491 (April 13, 1907). (Paper read before the Wharton School
of Commerce and Finance.)
Editorial. Electric Railway Review, v. 17, p. 481 (April 13, 1907).
DEPRECIATION AND SINKING FUNDS. (Editorial.) Municipal Engineering, v.
38, p. 33 (Jan., 1910). (Three pages.)
DEPRECIATION AND VALUES. (Editorial.) Municipal Journal (London), v. 16,
p. 304 (April 12, 1907). (Statement by the Electrical Engineer at Southwark
that depreciation allowances should be included in sinking fund.)
DEPRECIATION AS AFFECTING ENGINEERING STRUCTURES; by Horatio A. Fos-
ter. Proceedings, Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, v. 19, p. 330 (Oct., 1902).
(Contains tables on effects of depreciation at different rates for term of years,
sinking fund, reserve fund, etc; eighteen pages.)
DEPRECIATION ESTIMATES; by Edwin Gruhl. Aera, v. 1, p. 644 (March. 1913).
(Advocates the necessity of securing actual data as to variation of life in
service as a basis for estimating depreciation.)
DEPRECIATION IN ITS RELATION TO APPRAISALS; by Frank F. Fowle. Elec-
trical World, v. 56, p. 796 (Oct. 6, 1910). (Address before the Electric Club
of Chicago; one page.)
DEPRECIATION OF BUILDINGS AND MACHINERY. Engineering Record, v. 6S,
p. 159 (Feb. 11, 1911). (Two pages.)
THE DEPRECIATION OF FACTORIES, MINES AND INDUSTRIAL UNDERTAKINGS
and Their Valuation ; by Ewing Matheson. Edition 4. E. & F. N. Spon, Ltd.,
London, 1910. (Contains six chapters on valuation.)
o
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 59
GENERAL — (Continued).
THE DEPRECIATION OF PLANT, AND ITS RELATION TO GENERAL EXPENSE;
?/ I ■ Norris- Engineering Magazine, v. 16, pp. 812, 957; v. 17 p. 76 (Feb.,
March, April, 1899). (On the depreciation of machinery and machine tools;
contains a table on the effects of depreciation at different rates for a term
or years.)
DEPRECIATION OF PLANT AND WORKS UNDER MUNICIPAL AND COMPANY
Management ; by Charles H. W. Biggs. Transactions, Society of Engineers,
1902, p. 271. (Considers capital, depreciation and maintenance.)
DEPRECIATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. Municipal Journal and Engineer,, v. 22,
p. 148 (Feb. 13, 1907). (Methods of allowing for depreciation ; one column.)
THE DEPRECIATION PROBLEM; by John L. Bronson. Cassier's Magazine, v. 28,
p. 190 (July, 1905). (A very short article.)
DEPRECIATION RESERVE. Municipal Journal and Engineer, v. 27, p. 772 (Nov.
24, 1909). (Census Bureau's definition of depreciation, and argument of a
Public Accountant for a reserve fund derived from income.)
DEPRECIATION RESERVE AND THE PEOPLE. (Editorial.) Public Service,
v. 5, p. 2 (July, 1908). (Effect of depreciation on rates.)
DEPRECIATION, SHALL SINKING FUND PERIODS BE EXTENDED? by S. H. Tur
ner. Municipal Journal (London), v. 12. p. 833 (Sept. 18, 1903). (Abstract of
paper read before the British Association.)
Editorial. Municipal Journal (London), v. 12, p. 818 (Sept. 11, 1903).
DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL VALUES; by Clinton S. Burns. Engineering
Record, v. 52, p. 328 (Sept. 16, 1905). (Discusses the mathematical de-
termination of values, with examples from water-works plants.)
Engineering Nevs, v. 52, p. 328 (Sept. 16, 1905).
DEVELOPMENT EXPENSE IN THE VALUATION OF PUBLIC SERVICE PROPER-
ties. (Letter) ; by W. H. Winslow. Engineering and Contracting, v. 35, p. 697
(June 14, 1911). (Includes summary of case and editorial comments; one
page.)
DIFFICULT PROBLEMS WHICH PUBLIC UTILITY COMMISSIONS ARE ENDEAVOR-
ing to Solve ; by H. C. Abell. Journal of Electricity, Power and Gas, v. 22,
p. 81 (Jan. 30, 1909). (Analysis of elements of valuation of public utilities.)
ELEMENTS OF A CONSTRUCTIVE FRANCHISE POLICY; by Delos F. Wilcox.
Engineering News, v. 64, p 615 (Dec. 8, 1910). (Abstract of paper read before
the National Municipal League of Buffalo.)
ENGINEERING VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES AND FACTORIES; by Horatio
A. Foster D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1912. (Analysis of the elements of
valuation ; 345 pages.)
EQUITABLE RATE=MAKING BY PUBLIC SERVICE COMPANIES; by Dugald C.
Jackson. Technology Quarterly, v. 31, p. 348 (Dec, 1908). (Considers de-
preciation in respect to "obsolescence" and "required reconstruction" )
Public Service, v. 7, pp. 145, 189 (Nov., Dec, 1909).
Stone and Webster Public Service Journal, v. 5, p. 104 (Dec, 1909).
ERROR IN FIGURING DEPRECIATION. (Letter) ; by C. J. West Engineering-
Contracting, v. 32, p. 506 (Dec. 8, 1909). (Depreciation in the Boston Mu-
nicipal Machine Shop; one column.)
THE ETHICS OF ALLOWANCES FOR DEPRECIATION; by L. S. Randolph. Engi-
neering Magazine, v. 39, p. 692 (Aug., 1910). (Discusses three possible general
policies and their physical and financial effects; four pages.)
EXPENSE BURDEN, ITS INCIDENCE AND DISTRIBUTION; by Sterling H. Bunnell.
Transactions, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, v. 33, p. 535 (1911).
(Analysis of value of plant and equipment and cost-keeping.)
FACTORY DEPRECIATION, THE PROBLEM OF CORRECT VALUATION; by Ewing
Matheson. Cassie7-'s Magazine, v. 23, p. 140 (Nov., 1902). (Discussion of the
principles involved in valuation.)
FINANCIAL COSTS THAT FREQUENTLY ARE UNDERESTIMATED Engineering
and Contracting, v. 37, p. 255 (March 6, 1912). (Organization, taxes, broker-
age, interest and development costs or going value.)
FIVE IMPORTANT DECISIONS RELATING TO DEVELOPMENT EXPENSE OR
Going Value Based on the Deficit Theory. (Editorial.) Engineering and Con-
tracting, v. 36, p. 369 (Oct 11, 1911). (One and one-half pages.)
FIXED CHARGES IN THE MACHINE SHOP AND DEPRECIATION OF MACHINE
Tools; by Henry Spencer. Engineer, v. 114, p. 321 (Sept. 27, 1912).
FORM OF GENERAL BALANCE SHEET STATEMENT FOR CARRIERS BY WATER
as Prescribed by the Interstate Commerce Commission, First Issue, Effective
on Jan. 1, 1913. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1912.
GO BIBLIOGRAPHY.
O
GENERAL— (Continued).
GOING VALUE. (Editorial.) Electrical Review and Western Electrician, v. 59,
p. 2 (July 1, 1911). (Largely extracts from an article by W. J. Hagenah
published in The Voter entitled "The Regulation of Public Utilities".)
GOING VALUE; by Frank F. Fowle. Journal, Western Society of Engineers, v. 17,
p. 147 (Feb., 1912). (Review and discursion of the more prominent methods
of determining going value, with particular reference to their application to
public utilities.)
Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 1115 (Nov. 25, 1911).
GOING VALUE AS AN ELEMENT IN THE APPRAISAL OF PUBLIC UTILITY PROP-
erties ; by William H. Bryan. Journal, Association of Engineering Societies,
v. 43, p. 147 (Oct., 1909). (Discusses intangible values in appraisement of
public utility plants; eleven pages.)
Abstract. Engineering-Contracting, v. 32, p. 549 (Dec. 22, 1909).
GOING VALUE OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. (Editorial.) Electrical World, v. 57, p.
821 (April 6, 1911). (One page.)
HANDBOOK OF COST DATA FOR CONTRACTORS AND ENGINEERS; by Halbert
P. Gillette. Edition 2. Myron C. Clark Publishing Co., Chicago, 1910.
(Contains a chapter on principles of engineering economics and cost keeping.)
HEARINGS BEFORE THE COMMITTEE ON IRRIGATION OF ARID LANDS OF THE
House of Representatives, April 23, June 1 and 8, 1910, p. 105. Government
Printing Office, Washington, 1910. (Contains two and one-half pages on de-
preciation.)
THE IMPORTANCE OF DEPRECIATION ALLOWANCES. (Editorial.) Engineer-
ing Record, v. 55, p. 703 (June 15, 1907). (One page.)
INCOME TAX AND DEPRECIATION. Municipal Journal (London), v. 16, p. 744
(Aug. 13, 1907). (Allowance for depreciation of plant and machinery by
municipalities.)
INTANGIBLE ASSETS OF PUBLIC UTILITIES; by N. I. Garrison. Public Service,
v. 12, p. 105 (March, 1912). (On values that are not represented by physical
property.)
AN INTANGIBLE VALUE. (Editorial.) Electric Railway Journal, v. 34, p.
1047 (Nov. 20, 1909). (Discussion of the values that should be allowed
above the actual physical property ^of a public utility; one page.)
INVENTORY VALUATION OF MACHINERY PLANT; by Oberlin Smith. Transac-
tions, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, v. 7, p. 433 (1886). (Cost,
going value, obsolescence, cost of reproduction as factors in the valuation of
machinery.)
THE JUST VALUE OF MONOPOLIES, AND THE REGULATION OF THE PRICES
of Their Products ; by Joseph Mayer. Transactions, American Society of Civil
Engineers, v. 75, p. 455 (Paper 1225. Dec, 1912). (Valuation of enter-
prises supplying transportation, communication, light, heat and power.)
KEEPING DEPRECIATION RECORDS. (Editorial.) Engineering Record, v. 52,
p. 82 (July 22, 1905). (One column.)
LECTURE NOTES ON SOME OF THE BUSINESS FEATURES OF ENGINEERING
Practice, pp. 96, 133 ; by Alexander C. Humphreys. Stevens Institute of
Technology, Hoboken, N. J., 1905. (Contains lectures on repairs and de-
preciation and on accounting as applied to depreciation.)
Supplement No. 1, p. 41. Hoboken, N. J., 1905. (Contains supplementary
note on depreciation.)
LORD AVEBURY AND DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Municipal Journal (Lon-
don), v. 16, p. 112 (Feb. 8, 1907).
THE MAINTENANCE AND OBSOLESCENCE CHARGES. (Editorial.) Engineer-
ing Record, v. 55, p. 584 (May 11, 1907). (Statement that classification of
items under this head might give rise to uncertainty, and example in report
of United States Steel Corporation.)
MAY RESERVE FUND TO RENEW OBSOLETE EQUIPMENT. (Editorial.) Elec-
tric Traction Weekly, v. 6, p. 1473 (Dec. 3, 1910). (Decision of the Supreme
Court on the valuation of special franchises.)
METHODS OF COMPUTING DEPRECIATION. (Letter) ; by Halbert P. Gillette.
Electrical World, v. 60, p. 1273 (Dec. 14, 1912). (Refers to "unit-cost"
depreciation problem.)
METHODS OF DETERMINING LIFE OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. Engineering and
Contracting, v. 38, p. 448 (Oct. 23, 1912). (Based on a paper by Halford
Erickson on depreciation, read before the Central States Water Works Asso-
ciation.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 61
GENERAL — ( Continued ) .
METHODS OF MAKING COMPUTATIONS FOR DEPRECIATION IN PUBLIC UTILITY
Plants. (Letter) ; by F. C. Finkle. Engineering-Contracting . v. 34. p.
590 (Oct. 12, 1910). (Challenging the statement that the sinking fund
method is in common use to provide for depreciation of public utility plants.)
METHODS OF PROCEDURE UNDER THE WISCONSIN UTILITY LAW, BENEFITS
and Restrictions of the Law. Engineering and Contracting, v. 38, p. 425 (Oct.
16, 1912). (Discusses methods of valuation, depreciation and business or
going value; very brief.)
METHODS OF PROVIDING FOR AND RECORDING DEPRECIATION. Engineering
and Contracting, v. 38, p. 506 (Nov. 6, 1912). (Various methods of pro-
viding for and recording depreciation with special reference to the practice
of the Wisconsin Railroad Commission.)
METHODS OF WISCONSIN COMMISSION FOR THE VALUATION OF PUBLIC UT1L-
ities. Electrical World, v. 54, p. 600 (Sept. 9, 1909).
MUNICIPAL FRANCHISES, v. 2, p. 780 ; by Delos F. Wilcox. Engineering News
Publishing Co., New York, 1911. (Contains a chapter on capitalization, capi-
tal value, appraisals and purchase price.)
MUNICIPAL LOAN PURPOSES AND PERIODS IN ENGLAND AND THE UNITED
States. (Editorial.) Engineering News, v. 54, p. 462 (Nov. 2, 1905). (On
depreciation of public properties; contains table; two pages.)
OBSOLESCENCE AND DECREPITUDE AS FACTORS IN DEPRECIATION. Munici-
pal Engineering, v. 43. p. 100 (Aug., 1912).
OBSOLESCENCE IN PUBLIC UTILITY PLANTS. (Editorial.) Municipal Engi-
neering, v. 42, p. 182 (March, 1912). (Two pages.)
OFFICIAL VALUATIONS OF PRIVATE PROPERTY; by Frederick W. Whitridge.
Electric Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 110 (Jan. 15, 1910). "(Abstract of an
address presented before the American Economic Association ; discusses meth-
ods of valuation; two and one-half pages.)
THE ORGANIZATION FOR AND METHODS AND RESULTS OF PHYSICAL VALU-
ation in Nebraska ; by E. C. Hurd. Engineering and Contracting, v. 36, p.
694 (Dec. 27, 1911). (Deals with the valuation of railroad and other public
utility properties ; two pages.)
OVERHEAD CHARGES; by Mortimer E. Cooley. Proceedings, American Electric
Railway Accountants Association, v. 15, p. 169 (1911). (Discussion of the
elements of value of a non-physical nature which are properly included in the
appraisal of a public utility property; three pages.)
Abstracts. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 877 (Oct. 14, 1911) ; Cana-
dian Engineer, v. 22, p. 630 (May 9, 1912).
Discussion. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 816 (Oct. 14, 1911).
Editorial. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 897 (Oct. 21, 1911).
THE PHYSICAL VALUATION DEPARTMENT OF THE NEBRASKA STATE RAIL=
way Commission. Engineering News, v. 68. p. 300 (Aug. 15. 1912) (Meth-
ods of valuation used by the Nebraska State Railway Commission.)
PHYSICAL VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES, DEPRECIATION IN ITS RELA«
tions to Investment, Earnings and Current Value ; by R. S. Hale. Engineering
Magazine, v. 45, p. 161 (May, 1913). (Gives general conclusions; five pages.)
PHYSICAL VALUATIONS; by O. T. Crosby. Proceedings, American Electric Rail-
way Association, 1911, p. 368. (Discusses the services of the promoter, ways
in which profit in public service enterprises have been limited, and some
merits of watered stock.)
Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 874 (Oct. 14, 1911). (Three
pages.)
Editorial. . Stone and Webster Public Service Journal, Nov., 1911, p. 309.
A PRACTICAL DISCUSSION OF DEPRECIATION; by Frank F. Fowle. Souther,!
Electrician, v. 42, p. 227 (June, 1911). (Difference of opinion about the theory
of actual rate of depreciation.)
THE PRINCIPLES OF VALUING PROPERTY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
Industrial Enterprises ; by Henry K. Rowell. Journal, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, v. 34, p. 1275 (Sept., 1912) ; v. 35, p. 285, (Feb., 1913).
(This article has the following sub-divisions : Value of property ; tax value ;
insurance value ; fair cash value ; commercial value ; depreciation ; capitaliza-
tion, and method of valuing a plant.)
Abstract. Engineering and Contracting, v. 38, p. 312 (Sept. IS, 1912).
PUBLIC SERVICE RATES AND DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Electrical Review
and Western Electrician, v. 58, p. 67 (Jan. 14, 1911). (One page.)
QUASI-PUBLIC CORPORATION ACCOUNTING AND MANAGEMENT, p. 77, 181; by
John F. J. Mulhall. Corporation Publishing Co., Boston, 1905. (On de-
preciation; three pages.)
02 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
GENERAL — (Continued) .
REGULATION, VALUATION AND DEPRECIATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES? by Sam-
uel S. Wyer. Sears & Simpson Co., Columbus, Ohio, 1913. (Contains selected
bibliography.)
THE RELATION ' OF DEPRECIATION TO GROSS EARNINGS, Engineering-
Contracting, v. 34, p. 130 (Aug. 10, 1910). (Comparison of the effects of de-
preciation charges upon annual income in the case of gas and electric com-
panies as contrasted with water companies ; comments on paper by Leonard
Metcalf.)
REPAIRS, RENEWALS, DETERIORATION AND DEPRECIATION OF WORKSHOP
Plant and Machinery; by James E. Darbishire. Proceedings, Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, 1908, p. 797. (Method of treating depreciation, etc.)
*REPORT OF THE NEW YORK PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION, SECOND DIS=
trict. Electric Railway Journal, v. 37, p. 301 (Feb. 18, 1911). (Includes brie/
report on uniform system of accounts, including depreciation.)
*REPORT OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION FOR THE FIRST DISTRICT
of the State of New York for the Year Ending December 31, 1908, v. 1,
p. 401. Albany, 1909. (Report upon uniform systems of accounts for pub-
lic service corporations, basic principles established and treatment of deprecia-
tion and appreciation.)
*REPORT OF THE STATE BOARD OF EQUALIZATION FOR 1911-1912 (CALI-
fornia), p. 75, and Supplement. Sacramento, 1912. (Contains general dis-
cussion of methods of valuation for public service corporations.)
*REPORT ON LEADING RAILROAD AND PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSIONS; by
Max Thelen. California Railroad Commission, Sacramento, 1912. (On the
organization and work of railroad commissions in Oregon, Washington, Ne-
braska, Minnesota, Wisconsin, New York, Massachusetts, Maryland, Georgia,
Texas, and Oklahoma, including their work in physical valuation of property ;
very brief.)
RESPONSIBILITIES OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS IN MAKING APPRAISALS; by
H. M. Byllesby. Transactions, American Institute of Electrical Engin?ers, v.
30, p. 1251 (1911). (Remarks on the rapid and wonderful development of
electrical engineering and allied industries and discussion of the proper
measurement of values in general.)
Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 16 (July 1, 1911).
THE SALES METHOD OF APPRAISING LAND NOT UPHELD BY THE COURTS.
(Editorial.) Engineering and Contracting, v 36, p. 677 (Dec. 27, 1911). (One
column.)
THE SALES METHOD OF APPRAISING REAL ESTATE. Engineering and Con-
tracting, v. 35, p. 751 (June 28, 1911). (Statement to the Wisconsin State
Railroad Commission of the use of this method made by W. D. Pence ; one and
one-half pages.)
THE SALES METHOD, THE EXPERT WITNESS METHOD AND THE CAPITAL^
ized Rental Method of Appraising Land. (Editorial.) Engineering and Con-
tracting, v. 35, p. 733 (June 28, 1911). (One column.)
SINKING FUND CHARGES; by W. H. Booth. Tramway and Railway World, v. 13,
p. 349 (April 9, 1903). (Allowance for depreciation and renewals.)
SOME CRITERIA OF VALUE IN PUBLIC SERVICE INDUSTRIES; by Clarence P.
Fowler. Engineering Magazine, v. 42. p. 873 (March, 1912). (Discussion from
the point of view of the investment banker.)
SOME PRINCIPLES ESTABLISHED BY THE WISCONSIN COMMISSION. Electrical
World, v. 57, p. 221 (Jan. 26, 1911). (Paper by Edwin S. Mack presented to
the convention of the Wisconsin Electrical Association ; discusses actual total
investment, cost of going value and good will.)
• -Electric Traction Weekly, v. 7, p. 61 (Jan. 21, 1911).
- — —Electric Railway Journal, v. 37, p. 164 (Jan. 28, 1911).
SOMETHING ALONG THE LINE OF PHYSICAL AND INTANGIBLE VALUATION
as Covered by Recent Legislation ; by Robert B. Rifenberick. Electric Rail-
way Journal, v. 41, p. 1163 (June 28, 1913). (Physical and other values, re-
production cost, overhead charges, depreciation, recent legislation and the
Detroit appraisal; paper read before the Central Electric Railway Association )
STATE REGULATION OF LIGHTING ENTERPRISES; by H. L. Doherty. American
Gas Lir/ht Journal, v. 89, p. 92 (July 20, 1908). (Address before the Wis-
consin Gas Association, discussing general principles in the valuation of public
utilities.)
Abstract. Doherty on Electrical Rates and Franchises. Electrical World, v.
52, pp. 170, 352 (July 25, Aug. 15, 190S).
Editorial. Valuation of Lighting Systems. Electrical World, v. 52, p. 607
(Sept. 19, 1908).
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 63
GENERAL — (Continued).
TAXATION AND VALUATION; by Henry K. Rowell. Transactions, National Asso-
ciation of Cotton Manufacturers, No. 82, p. 175 (April, 1907). (Considers
principles of common law relating to taxation, methods of determining values
of property, and what may be admitted as evidence to establish values of prop-
erty from its capacity for valuable use.)
THEORIES OF THE VALUATION OF PUBLIC SERVICE INDUSTRIES. Municipal
Engineering, v. 43, p. 34 (July, 1912).
A TRUST WITNESS. (Editorial.) Municipal Journal (London), v. 12, p. 659
(July 17, 1903). (States that municipalities should be compelled to provide
a depreciation fund in addition to a sinking fund; very brief.)
TWO CONFLICTING THEORIES OF VALUATION OF PUBLIC SERVICE COMPA-
nies ; by Halbert P. Gillette. Engineering and Contracting, v. 38, p. 648 (Dec.
11, 1912). (Discusses theory of market value and investment value.)
Railroad Gazette, v. 54, p. 55 (Jan. 10, 1913).
THE USE OF DEPRECIATION DATA IN RATE MAKING AND APPRAISAL PROB=
lems ; by Halbert P. Gillette. Engineering and Contracting, v. 38, p. 476 (Oct.
30, 1912). (An attempt to make clear the radical difference between actual
accrued depreciation and estimated prospective depreciation.)
Electrical World, v. 60, p. 927 (Nov. 2, 1912).
Editorial. Depreciation. Electrical World, v. 60, p. 909 (Nov 2, 1912)
VALUATION, A FAIR RETURN, AND REASONABLE CAPITALIZATION; by Fred-
erick Royce. Stone and Webster Public Service Journal, v. 9, p. 7 (July,
1911). (Seventeen pages.)
VALUATION OF LAND FOR RATE=MAKING PURPOSES. Electrical Review, v
61, p. 1106 (Dec. 14, 1912). (Considers whether original cost or present value
should be used in appraisal of land.)
VALUATION OF OPERATING PROPERTIES; by Edgar S. Nethercut. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 945 (May 28, 1910). (Paper read before the Central
Electric Railway Association; very general statement; one and one-half pages.)
Discussion. Electric Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 976 (June 4, 1910)
THE VALUATION OF PUBLIC SERVICE CORPORATION PROPERTY; by Henry
Earle Riggs. Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, v 72, p. 1
(Paper 1190. June, 1911). (300 pages.)
Abstract. The Reasons For and Methods Employed in Appraising the Value of
Railway Properties with Special Reference to the Michigan Valuation. Engi-
neering-Contract i7ig, v. 34, p. 534 (Dec. 14, 1910)
Editorial. Method of Appraising Non-Physical Railway Values. Engineering-
Contracting, v. 34, p. 517 (Dec. 14, 1910)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC SERVICE CORPORATIONS, LEGAL AND ECONOMIC
Phases of Valuation for Rate Making and Public Purchase ; by Robert H.
Whitten. The Banks Law Publishing Co., New York, 1912. (Valuations made
for Governmental purposes by official appraisers, commissions or courts , de-
cisions and reports; bibliography of the subject.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC SERVICE INDUSTRIES; by Henry C. Adams. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 314 (Feb. 19, 1910). (Abstract of paper read before
the American Economic Association; one page.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC SERVICE PROPERTIES; by L. R. Nash. Stone and
Webster Public Service Journal, v. 11, p. 241 (Oct., 1912) (A summary of
opinions, decisions and methods bearing on valuation.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES; by Clinton S. Burns. Municipal Journal and
Engineer, v. 29, p. 744 (Nov. 30, 1910). (Discusses depreciation and present
value reducing formulas and explains a new method of appraisement.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES; by Halford Erickson. no place, 1912. (Ad-
dress before the Indiana Sanitary and Water Supply Association, Feb 15,
1912.)
Abstract. Principles of Valuation of Public Utilities. Public Service Regula-
tion, v. 1, pp. 294, 370 (May, June, 1912). (Discussion of original, repro-
duction, going, franchise and earning values and abnormal conditions.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES BY THE RAILROAD COMMISSION OF Wis-
consin. Electric Railway Journal, v. 34, p. 393 (Sept. 11, 1909) (Description
of methods followed by the Commission; three pages.)
Methods of Wisconsin Commission for the Valuation of Public Utilities. Elec-
trical World, v. 54, p. 600 (Sept. 9, 1909)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITY PROPERTIES; by Henry Floy. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York, 1912. (Summary of practice with typical examples.)
VALUATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF PUBLIC UTILITY CORPORATIONS; by
Charles Gobrecht Darrach. The Bradford Press, Philadelphia, 1913. (Pro-
posed method of estimating the value of public service companies' properties.)
64 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
GENERAL — (.Continued).
THE VALUATION OF THE PROPERTY OF PUBLIC SERVICE CORPORATIONS.
Engineering Record, v. 58, p. 274 (Sept. 5, 1908) (General article on
methods of making valuations.)
VALUING THE PROPERTY OF PUBLIC UTILITIES; by Harold Almert. Public
Service, v. 12, p. 65 (Feb., 1912). (General article on the appraisal of public
utilities ; one and one-half pages.)
WHERE A THEORY FAILS; by R. W. Child. Stone and Webster Public Service
Journal, v. 2, p. 422 (June, 1911). (Discussion on depreciation of physical
property.)
THE WISCONSIN PUBLIC UTILITIES LAW; by B. H. Meyer. Electric Railway
Journal, v. 33, p. 103 (Jan. 16, 1909). (Discusses valuation in a general
way ; two pages.)
WISCONSIN PUBLIC UTILITY LAW: ITS OPERATION AND RESULTS; by Charles
B. Salmon. Proceedings, American Water Works Association, v. 29, p. 168
(1909). (On valuation; two and one-half pages.)
Municipal Engineering, v. 37, p. 27 (July, 1909).
*WORK OF THE JOINT ENGINEERING STAFF OF THE WISCONSIN TAX AND
Railroad Commissions ; by William D. Pence. Journal. Western Society of
Engineers, v. 14, p. 73 (Feb., 1909). (Describes fully the work of the
staff in physical valuations of railways, street railways and other public
utilities.)
Abstracts. Valuation and Inspection Work of the Joint Engineering Staff of
the Wisconsin Tax and Railroad Commissions ; by William D. Pence. Engi-
neering Neivs. v. 61, p. 227 (March 4, 1909) ; Railway Age Gazette, v. 46, p.
67 (Jan. 8, 1909) ; Electric Railway Journal, v. 33, p. 22 (Jan. 2, 1909) ; En-
gineering Record, v. 59, pp. 10, 49, 73 (Jan. 2, 9, 16, 1909).
Editorial. Valuation and Inspection of Public Service Corporation Properties
by Engineers. Engineering News, v. 61, p. 244 (March 4, 1909).
WORKS MANAGEMENT, p. 82 ; by William Duane Ennis. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York, 1911. (Contains a chapter on depreciation.)
GENERAL— UNVERIFIED REFERENCES.
ACCOUNTING OF INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES; by William M. Lybrand. Journal
of Accountancy, v. 7, p. 224 (Jan., 1909). (Abstract of paper read before the
American Association of Public Accountants.)
ACCOUNTS, THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND INTERPRETATION; by W. M. Cole.
ADDRESS BEFORE STREET RAILWAY ACCOUNTANTS ASSOCIATION OF AMER-
ica (1903) Convention; by H. J. Davies (Abstract.) Street Railway Review,
v. 13, p. 724 (Sept. 20, 1903)
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE KANSAS CITY PUBLIC UTILITIES COMMISSION, 1911
ARGUMENTS AS TO THE TRUE VALUE OF THE GENERAL PROPERTY IN WIS-
consin, Jan., 1904 ; by Frank P. Crandon, Thomas H. Brown, Arthur S. Dudley,
W. W. Baldwin, Thomas A. Polleys. Madison, Wis., 1904.
CAPITALIZATION AND DEPRECIATION IN MUNICIPAL PLANTS; by Forrest F
Barker. Inter-Nation, v. 1, p. 76 (April, 1907). (Address before t*he Incorpo-
rated Public Service Accountants of Massachusetts.)
CARING FOR DEPRECIATION; by Earl A. Saliers. Journal of Accountancy, April,
1912, p. 241.
COMPULSORY DEPRECIATION CHARGE. Journal of Accountancy, Dec, 1912,
p. 431.
CORPORATION ACCOUNTING AND AUDITING; by Keister.
CORPORATION ACCOUNTING AND LAW; by Rahill.
COST ACCOUNTING; by J. R. Weldman. Journal of -Accountancy, Nov., 1910.
THE COST OF PRODUCTION; by B. C. Bean.
DEFERRED CHARGES TO OPERATING; by Walter A. Staub. Journal of Ac-
countancy, v. 8, p. 401 (Oct., 1909).
DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Light Railway and Tramway Journal, v. 14, p.
210 (April 6, 1906).
Michigan Investor (Detroit), March 13, 1909.
DEPRECIATION; by Edwin S. Mack. Water and Gas Review, v. 20, p. 29 (Aug.,
1909). (Abstract of paper read before the Wisconsin Gas Association.)
DEPRECIATION; by H. W. Wilmot. Journal of Accountancy, v. 9, p. 104 (Dec,
1909).
DEPRECIATION; by Max Teichmann. Journal of Accountancy, v. 3, p. 101 (Dec,
1906).
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 65
GENERAL— UNVERIFIED REFERENCES — (Continued).
DEPRECIATION AND OBSOLESCENCE. Light Railway and Tramway Journal,
Sept. 6, 1912, p. 791.
DEPRECIATION AND OTHER RESERVES; by Alfred Knight. Journal of Ac-
countancy, v. 3, pp. 189, 201 (Jan., 1908). (Paper read before the Cincinnati
College of Finance, Commerce and Accounts.)
DEPRECIATION AND RESERVE ACCOUNTS; by H. D. Grant. Journal of Ac-
countancy, v. 9, p. 352 (March, 1910).
DEPRECIATION AND RESERVE FUNDS; by Lawrence R. Dicksee. 1903. (80
pages.)
DEPRECIATION AT DETROIT. Finance (Cleveland, Ohio), v. 15, p. 201 (Feb.
16, 1907).
DEPRECIATION ESTIMATING; by William B. Jackson. Steam, v. 7, p. 103
(April, 1911).
DEPRECIATION IN ENGINEERING WORKS; by R. E. Neale. Jfec/ianical World,
Serial beginning Feb. 7, 1913.
DEPRECIATION IN VALUATIONS OF PUBLIC SERVICE CORPORATIONS FOR
Various Purposes ; by E. A. Saliers. Journal of Accountancy; v. 15, p. 106
(Feb., 1913).
DEPRECIATION OF CAPITAL; by Lawrence R. Dicksee.
DEPRECIATION, RENEWAL AND REPLACEMENT ACCOUNTS; by Herbert G.
Stockwell. (Paper read at the Annual Meeting of the American Association of
Public Accountants at Denver, Colo., Oct. 18-22, 1909.)
Abstract. Journal of Accountancy, v. 9, pp. 89, 189 (Dec, 1909, Jan.. 1910).
DETERMINATION OF GOING VALUE; METHODS OF FIXING VALUE OF INTAN-
gible Utility Assets; by Morris Knowles. Public Service, Oct., 1912, p. 81'-.
DISTRIBUTION OF URBAN LAND VALUES; by Richard M. Hurd. Yale Review,
v. 11, p. 124 (Aug., 1902).
ETHICAL AND ECONOMIC ELEMENTS IN PUBLIC SERVICE VALUATION; by
James E. Allison. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Nov., 1912, p. 998.
GOING VALUE RECOGNIZED IN NEW JERSEY. Gas Record, Feb. 10, 1913, p. 137.
HISTORY OF RENEWAL FUNDS. Proceedings, International Street Railway Con-
gress, 1904, p. 167.
IMPORTANCE OF DEPRECIATION. Zeitschrift fiir Werk-Zcug, Dec. 13, 1908.
INCOME TAX AND ALLOWANCE FOR DEPRECIATION. Light Railway and
Tramway Journal (London), v. 21, pp. 18, 28 (July 2, 1909).
INCOME TAX ASSESSMENT. Tramway and Railway World, V. 26, p. 66 (July
17, 1909).
INCREMENT VERSUS RATES; by Ward Prouty. Public Service Regulation, March,
1912.
LAND VALUES AND PUBLIC UTILITY RATES. The Public, Sept. 29, 1911, p. 995.
(Testimony of Edward W. Bemis in the Des Moines gas case.)
LEGAL BASIS OF RATE REGULATION; by E. C. Bailey. Columbia Law Review,
June, 1911, p. 532 ; Nov., 1911, p. 639.
LOGICAL BASIS FOR VALUATION; by Charles Griffith Young. New York, 1911.
(Paper read before Central Electric Railway Association, Jan. 19, 1911.)
MAINTENANCE AND DEPRECIATION IN PUBLIC SERVICE CORPORATIONS; by
Harvey Stuart Chase. Journal of Accountancy, v. 4, p. 1 (May. 1907). (Paper
read before Incorporated Public Accountants of Massachusetts.)
MODERN ACCOUNTING; by H. R. Hatfield.
THE NATURE OF CAPITAL AND INCOME; by Irving Fisher.
OFFICIAL VALUATION OF PRIVATE PROPERTY; by Frederick Wallingford
Whitridge. New York, 1910. (Paper read before the American Economic
Association, Dec. 30, 1909.)
ORIGIN OF THE PECULIAR DUTIES OF PUBLIC SERVICE COMPANIES; by Charles
K. Burdick. Columbia Law Review, June, 1911, p. 514 ; Nov. 1911, p. 616.
PHYSICAL APPRAISAL IN RELATION TO ACCOUNTANCY, EXAMINATION OF
Some of the Basic' Fallacies Regarding Plant Valuation ; by R. K. Woodbury.
Journal of Accountancy, Dec, 1910.
PLANT VALUATIONS; by W. D. Scott. Journal of Electricity, Power and Gas,
Dec. 9, 1911, p. 549.
PROPER BASIS OF CAPITALIZATION; by Bruce Wyman. In "Public Service
Corporations," v. 2, pp. 1080-1112, 1911.
QUESTION OF DEPRECIATION. Zeitschrift fiir Werk-Zcug, March 15, 1909.
RENEWAL AND REPLACEMENT ACCOUNTS; by E. G. Stockwell. Journal of
Accountancy, Jan., 1910.
6G BIBLIOGRAPHY.
GENERAL— UNVERIFIED REFERENCES — (Continued).
SINKING FUND RESERVES; by Warren S. Pangborn. Journal of Accountancy,
Aug., 1911.
THE SOMERS SYSTEM OF REALTY VALUATION; by H. L. Lutz. Quarterly
Journal of Economics, v. 25, p. 172 (Nov., 1910).
STANDARDS OF DEPRECIATION; by Harvey Stuart Chase. Boston Evening
Transcript, April 12. 1907.
TREATMENT OF DEPRECIATION IN CONNECTION WITH THE FEDERAL COR-
poration.Tax. Journal of Accountancy, March, 1912, p. 213.
VALUATION OF PUBLIC SERVICE UTILITIES. In American Economic Associa-
tion, Publication, 3d series, v. 2, pp. 184-195 (April, 1910).
THE VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES; by Clinton S. Burns. City Hall-Midland
Municipalities, v. 22, p. 50 (Nov., 1911).
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES; by Henry A. Lardner. In Public Utilities
Act of California, p. 28; compiled by Louis Sloss & Company, San Francisco,
1912.
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES FOR PURPOSES OF COMPENSATION; by P.
H. Bell. Canadian Law Times, Jan., 1911.
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITY PROPERTY; by Horatio A. Foster. Bulletin,
Thropp Polytechnic Institute. Jan., 1911, p. 17.
VALUING PUBLIC UTILITIES. Commercial and Financial Chronicle, Aug. 3, 1912.
p. 266.
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER— GENERAL.
ACCOUNTING FOR DEPRECIATION; by H. M. Edwards. National Electric Light
Association, Thirty-fourth Convention, 1911, Papers. Reports and Discussions,
v. 2, p. 179. (How the amount to be reserved for depreciation should be
determined and how the reserve should be treated.)
ADEQUATE DEPRECIATION OF CAPITAL EXPENDITURE BY MUNICIPAL ELEC-
tricity Undertakings ; by J. Horace Bowden and Fred Tait. Electrical Rc-
vieio (London), v. 60, pp. 1021, 1064 (June 21, 28, 1907). (Serial giving
full discussion of the subject, including physical valuation.)
ANALYSIS OF CENTRAL=STATION COSTS. Electrical World, v. 52, p. 1239 (Dec.
5, 1908). (Elements of cost of service to the consumer.)
COMMENTS ON FIXED COSTS IN INDUSTRIAL POWER PLANTS; by John C.
Parker. Proceedings, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, v. 30, p. 469
(March 30, 1911). (Two and one-half pages on depreciation.)
COMMERCIAL DEPRECIATION IN ELECTRIC PLANTS. Street Railway Bulletin,
v. 7, p. 431 (Aug., 1908). (States that allowance should be made for ma-
chinery out of date in addition to allowance of 10% for ordinary wear and
tear.)
COMMERCIAL DEPRECIATION IN ELECTRIC PLANTS; by Judson H. Boughton.
Public Service, v. 5, p. 7 (July, 1908). (One-half page.)
DEPRECIATION; by C. N. Duffy. Electrical World, v. 51, p. 217 (Feb. 1, 1908).
(The treatment oi depreciation is confined to broad general questions briefly
touched upon as applicable to electric lighting ; abstract of paper read before
the Northwestern Electrical Association.)
Electric Raihoay Review, v. 19, p. 83 (Jan. IS, 1908).
Electrical Review (London), v. 63, p. 374 (Sept. 4, 1908).
Street Railway Journal, v. 31, p. 169 (Feb. 1, 190S).
Editorial. Depreciation. Electrical World, v. 51, p. 207 (Feb. 1, 190S).
DEPRECIATION; by Robert Hammond. Journal, Institution of Electrical Engi-
neers, v. 39, p. 270 (1907). (The question of depreciation in all its bearings
as applicable to electricity supply undertakings.)
Abstracts. Electrician, v. 59, p. 51 (April 26, 1907) ; Electrical Review
(London), v. 60, p. 744 (May 3, 1907) ; Electric Railway Rcvieiv, v. 17, p.
716 (June 1, 1907) ; Progressive Age, v. 25, p. 305 (June 1, 1907) ; Engineer-
ing Magazine, y. 33, p. 636 (July, 1907) ; Enaineering Record, v. 55, p. 703
(June 15, 1907) ; Electrical Review (Chicago), v. 50, p. 828 (May 25, 1907) ;
Municipal Journal (London), v. 16, pp. 411, 435 (May 10, 17, 1907) ; Street
Railway Bulletin, v. 6, p. 382 (June, 1907); Tramway and Railway' World
v. 21, p. 497 (June 6, 1907).
Editorials and discussions. Electrician, v. 59, pp. 100, 103 (May 3, 1907) ;
Engineering Record, v. 55, p. 703 (June 15, 1907).
DEPRECIATION. (Letter) ; by S. Fred Smith. Electrical World, v. 54, p. 489
(Aug. 26, 1909). (Depreciation of property of electrical corporations; gen-
eral.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 67
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER— GENERAL— ( Continued) .
DEPRECIATION ACCOUNTING FOR SMALL COMPANIES; by George E. Claflin.
National Electric Light Association, Thirty-second Convention, 1909, Papers
Reports and Discussions, v. 3, p. 165. (Classification for depreciation of
electrical works ; tangible property ; wear and tear ; obsolescence ; inadequacy ;
extraordinary casualties.)
Abstract Electric Railway Journal, v. 33, p. 1078 (June 12, 1909). (Very
brief.)
THE DEPRECIATION AND MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT; by
George W Cravens. Electrical Review (New York), v. 56, p. 853 (April 23.
1910). (Considers the different methods of accounting in use and advocates
the sliding scale method; four pages.)
DEPRECIATION AND REPAIRS. (Editorial.) Electrical Review and Western
Electrician, v. 53, p. 807 (Nov. 28, 1908). (Allowance made for electric light-
ing plants for annual depreciation and repairs.)
DEPRECIATION AND RESERVE FUNDS OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES; by Wil-
liam B. Jackson. Journal, Western Society of Engineers, v. 15, p. 587 (Sep-
tember, 1910) (Discusses methods of estimating the amount to be charged
for depreciation and reserve fund and how the principle should be applied ;
thirty-two pages.)
Abstracts. Engineering-Contracting, v. 33, p. 487 (May 25, 1910) , Electric
Railway Journal, v 35, p. 903 (May 21, 1910)
DEPRECIATION AND RESERVES FOR ANTIQUATION AND OBSOLESCENCE FROM
an Engineering Standpoint ; by C. H. Yeaman Electrician, v 59, p. 475
(July 5, 1907) (Contains table of estimated life of electrical appliances
for loan purposes.)
Electrical Engineer (London), v. 40, p. 46 (July 12, 1907)
Electrical Review (London), v. 61, p. 44 (July 12, 1907).
DEPRECIATION AS RELATED TO ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES; by Henry Floy.
Proceedings, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, v. 30, p. 1267 (1911).
(A long article, subdivided under application of terms, classes of deprecia-
tion, absolute and theoretical depreciation, depreciation accounts or reserve
funds, 50% method, depreciation of contingent percentages and summary and
conclusions.)
Abstracts. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 21 (July 1, 1911) , Deprecia-
tion. Engineering-Contracting, v. 36, p. 359 (Oct. 4, 1911) , Notes on Depre-
ciation. Engineering Record, v. 64, p. 282 (Sept. 2, 1911)
Comments. Absolute and Theoretical Depreciation. Engineering Record, v.
64, p. 333 (Sept. 16, 1911); Depreciation; by H. C. D. Nutting. Electrical
World, v. 58, p. 323 (Aug. 5, 1911).
DEPRECIATION OF COMPANIES' ASSETS. (Letter.) Electrician, v. 59, p. 146
(May 10, 1907). (On depreciation of electric light plants; very brief.)
DEPRECIATION OF ELECTRIC LIGHT PLANTS; by Alexander C. Humphreys.
Municipality, v. 8. p. 72 'March, 1908) (The elements of obsolescence, in-
adequacy and actual decay.)
DEPRECIATION OF ELECTRIC LIGHT PLANTS; by Robert Hammond Munici-
pality, v 8, p. 69 (March, 1908) (An attempt to secure data on actual de-
preciation, rather than methods used in appraisal.)
DEPRECIATION OF ELECTRIC LIGHT PLANTS; by William H. Bryan. Munici-
pality, v. 8, p. 74 (March, 1908) (Brief abstract of paper read before
the Engineers' Club of St. Louis.)
THE DEPRECIATION OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES; by G. W. Bissell. Electrical
Age, v. 36, p. 459 (June, 1906) (The allowance that should be made for
depreciation.)
DEPRECIATION OF POWER-PLANT EQUIPMENT. (Letter) ; by Everard Brown.
Electrical World, v. 60, p. 268 (Aug. 3, 1912) (On decrepitude and obso-
lescence of machinery in electrical power plants.)
DEPRECIATION OF POWER PLANT EQUIPMENT; by F. H. Neely Power, v. 30,
p. 1028 (June 8. 1909). (Concerning depreciation in private and municipal
plants and provision which should be made against it.)
DEPRECIATION ON ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS. Electric Railway
Journal, v. 40, p. 60 (July 13, 1912) (Analysis of depreciation on different
elements of physical property; brief.)
ELECTRIC LIGHTING RATES AND DEPRECIATION; by H. H. Crowell. Municipal
Journal and Engineer, v. 23, p. 698 (Dec. 18, 1907) (Table of estimated
life of apparatus, depreciation due to wear, obsolescence and inadequacy.)
ELECTRICAL UNDERTAKINGS AND THE LAW OF RATING. (Serial.) Electrical
Review (London), v. 66, p. 84 (Jan. 21, 1910) (The first part discusses
the rating of electric light and power companies.)
68 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER— GENERAL— (Continued).
ELEMENTS AFFECTING THE FAIR VALUATION OF PLANT AND PROPERTY;
by W. F Wells. National Electric Light Association, Thirty- fourth Conven-
tion, 1911, Papers, Reports and Discussions, v. 1, p 271. (Analysis of
valuation classification of electrical properties.)
ESTIMATING THE COST OF AN ELECTRIC PLANT. Journal, Franklin Institute,
v 165, p 397 (May, 1908). (Gives years of life as estimated by different
engineers for various parts of the plant.)
MAKING RATES FOR ELECTRIC PLANTS; by Halford Erickson. Public Service
Regulation, v. 1, p. 579 (Sept., 1912) (Principles of valuation; going
value, depreciation, operating expenses, rates, effect of demand on cost, etc.)
THE OBSOLESCENCE OF ELECTRIC LIGHTING PLANT; by F. Fernie. Electrical
Review (London), v. 63, p. 516 (Sept. 25, 1908) (Discusses rate of depre-
ciation and necessity for an insurance fund.)
RATE=MAKING FOR PUBLIC UTILITIES; by Halford Erickson. Electric Railway
Journal, v 33, p. 775 (April 24, 1909) (Relation between investment and
output of electrical plants ; paper read before the Wisconsin Electric and
Interurban Railway Association.)
RATE REGULATION OF ELECTRIC POWER; by S. S. Wyer. CassieiJs Magazine,
v 35, p. 410 (Jan., 1909). '(Considers replacement value and depreciation.)
RATES AND RATE MAKING; by John F. Druar. Journal, Association of Engineer-
ing Societies, v. 50, p. 221 (May, 1913). (Discusses the valuation of a
combined electrical and gas property to determine the legitimate capital,
on which capital a certain return should be received.)
STANDARD HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, p. 668. Edition 3.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1910 (Contains brief data on cost and
depreciation of electric plants.)
UNIFORM SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING. (Letter) , by F. E. Haskell. Electrical
World, V. 53, p 928 (April 15, 1909). (Rule adopted to provide for monthly
charge to cover wear and tear, obsolescence and inadequacy, etc.)
UPKEEP CHARGES ON LARGE ELECTRIC GENERATING SETS; by Robert J.
Burstall. Electrical Engineer (London), v. 39, p. 866 (June 21, 1907)
(Paper read before the Engineering Conference, Institution of Civil Engineers;
allowance for repairs and renewals.)
Engineering, v. 83, p. 834 (June 21, 1907)
VALUATION OF ELECTRIC PLANTS. (Editorial.) Engineering Record, v 58,
p 365 (Oct. 3, 1908). (One and one-half columns.)
ELECTRIC LKiHT AND POWER— SPECIAL CASES.
Aberdeen, Scotland.
ABERDEEN AND DEPRECIATION. Municipal Journal (London), v 12, p. 943
(Oct. 23, 1903). (Comparison of allowance for depreciation of electrical
plants at Aberdeen, Glasgow, and Bolton.)
Beloit, Wis.
*CITY OF BELOIT VS. BELOIT WATER, GAS AND ELECTRIC COMPANY; Decided
July 17, 1911. In Opinions and Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the
State of Wisconsin, v. 7, p. 216. Madison, Wis., 1912 (Details of the
valuation of the power plant and going value.)
FIXING NORMAL OPERATING COSTS; by Frank A. Newton. Engineering Record,
v. 65, p. 258 (March 9, 1912). (Comments on the decision of the Wisconsin
Railroad Commission in the case of the City of Beloit vs Beloit Water. Gas
& Electric Co.)
Boonville. N. Y.
AMORTIZATION RULE OF THE NEW YORK PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION OF
the Second District. Electrical World, v. 54, p. 1162 (Nov. 11, 1909). (Com-
putation of amortization of property of the Board of Light Commissioners of
Boonville, N. Y.)
Bristol, England.
REPORT BY SIR WILLIAM PREESE ON PROBABLE LIFE OF PLANT AT BRISTOL.
Electrician, v. 57, p. 704 (Aug. 17, 1906) (Details of estimated life of
electrical plants ; figures given for various items are those used by L. R.
DlCksee in his report.)
Editorial. Depreciation. Electrician, v. 57, p. 702 (Aug. 17, 1906)
Burkhardt Milling & Electric Power Co.
*E. G. ROSS ET AL. VS. BURKHARDT MILLING AND ELECTRIC POWER COM-
pany ; Decided April 8, 1910. In Opinions and Decisions of the Railroad Com-
mission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 5, p. 139. Madison, Wis., 1911. (The
value of property and the method of determining values are discussed.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 69
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER— SPECIAL CASES— (Continued) .
California.
*UNIFORM CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS FOR ELECTRIC CORPORATIONS
prescribed by the Railroad Commission of the State of California ; Adopted
Oct. 23, 1912, Effective Jan. 1, 1913. Sacramento, 1912.
Cardiff, Wales.
DEPRECIATION: INTERESTING REPORT FROM CARDIFF. Municipal Journal
(London), v. 16, p. 1083 (Dec. 20, 1907). (Allowance for depreciation con-
sidered to represent fair wear and tear.)
DEPRECIATION OF CARDIFF ELECTRIC TRAMWAY AND LIGHTING UNDER-
takings. Electric Railway Review, v. 19, p. 16 (Jan. 4, 1908). (Details
of rates of depreciation of equipment are given.)
Cashton, Wis.
*IN RE DETERMINING AND FIXING JUST COMPENSATION TO BE PAID TO THE
Cashton Light and Power Company by the Village of Cashton for the Taking
of the Property of the Said Company Actually Used and Useful for the Con-
venience of the Public in Accordance With the Provisions of Chapter 499,
Laws of 1907 ; Submitted Oct. 14, 1908, Decided Nov. 28, 190S. In Opinions
and Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 3, p. 67.
Madison, Wis., 1910. (Discusses going value of public utility plants.)
Chippewa Falls, Wis.
*T. J. CUNNINGHAM ET AL. VS. CHIPPEWA FALLS WATER WORKS AND
Lighting Company : In Re Investigation by the Railroad Commission of
Wisconsin of Rates Charged by the Chippewa Palls Water Works and
Lighting Company ; In Re Valuation of the Property of the Chippewa Falls
Water Works and Lighting Company ; Decided June 14, 1910. In Opinions
and Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 5,
p. 302. Madison, Wis., 1911. (Contains data on the value of the electric
plant.)
Chippewa Valley Ry., Light & Power Co.
*IN RE APPLICATION OF THE CHIPPEWA VALLEY RAILWAY, LIGHT AND
Power Company for Authority to Change its Rates ; Submitted Feb. 19, 1908,
Decided Mar. 18, 1908. In Opinions and Decisions of the Railroad Commission
of the State of Wisconsin, v. 2, p. 311. Madison, Wis., 1909. (Refers to
valuation of electric plant.)
Darlington, Wis.
*IN RE APPLICATION OF THE DARLINGTON ELECTRIC LIGHT AND WATER
Power Company for Power to Increase Rates , In Re Darlington Electric Light
and Water Power Company. Valuation of Property ; Submitted Sept. 2, 1909,
Decided June 17, 1910. In Opinions and Decisions of the Railroad Com-
mission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 5, p 397. Madison, Wis., 1911.
District of Columbia.
-UNIFORM SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR GAS CORPORATIONS AND ELECTRIC
Corporations in the District of Columbia as Prescribed by the Interstate Com-
merce Commissior. pp. 29, 47, 55, 67. Washington, 1909. (Provision for
amortization of plant, which includes monthly charges of the amount estimated
to be necessary to cover wear, tear and obsolescence.)
Dodgeville, Wis.
*CITY OF DODGEVILLE VS. DODGEVILLE ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER COM=
pany . Submitted May 4, 1908, Decided June 2, 1908. In Opinions and Deci-
sions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 2, p. 392.
Madison, Wis., 1909 (Data relating to valuation of plant.)
Edinburgh, Scotland.
DEPRECIATION, ETC., ON ELECTRICITY SUPPLY UNDERTAKINGS. Electrician,
v. 57, pp. 231, 350 (May 25, June 15, 1906) (Report on present condition
of electric light and machinery plant of the Edinburgh Corporation.)
Fareham, England.
DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Electrician, v. 62, p. 709 (Feb. 19, 1909). (Depre-
ciation in connection with a loan for an electrical plant at Fareham, England.)
Greenwood, Miss.
REPORT OF THE APPRAISERS SELECTED TO ESTIMATE THE VALUE OF
property of the Greenwood Light and Water Company to the City of Green-
wood and the Greenwood Light and Water Co., March 22, 1904. Greenwood,
Miss., 1904. (Eight pages.)
Groton, Mass.
A VALUABLE MUNICIPAL RATE DECISION. (Editorial.) Engineering Record,
v. 66 p. 2 (July 6, 1912). (Comments on decision by the Massachusetts Gas
and Electric Light Commission on electrical rates at Groton, Mass; very brief.)
70 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER— SPECIAL CASES— (Continued) .
Kaukauma, Wis.
*IN RE DETERMINING AND FIXING THE JUST COMPENSATION TO BE PAID
to the Kaukauma Gas, Electric Light and Power Company by the City of
Kaukauma; Submitted Feb. 6, 1911, Decided Dec. 26, 1911. In Opinions and
Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 8, p. 409.
Madison, Wis., 1912. (Physical value and going value of the property and
value of the wafer-power lease.)
La Crosse. Wis.
*IN RE APPLICATION OF THE LA CROSSE GAS AND ELECTRIC COMPANY FOR
Authority to Increase Its Rates ; Decided Nov. 17, 1911. In Opinions and
Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 8, pp. 13S
156, 170, 179, 202, 224. Madison, Wis., 1912. (Physical value of plants,
original cost and effect of allowance of going value.)
*IN RE APPLICATION OF THE LA CROSSE GAS AND ELECTRIC COMPANY FOR
Authority to Increase Rates; Submitted Aug. 16, 1907, Decided Sept. 19, 1907.
In Opinions and Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wiscon-
sin, v. 2, p. 3. Madison, Wis.. 1909. (Gives method of estimating cost of
plant before physical examination can be made.)
*THE MEANING OF "ACTUAL STATION OPERATING COSTS." Engineering Record
v. 65, p. 191 (Feb. 17, 1912). (Decision of the Railroad Commission of
Wisconsin iu the case of the La Crosse Gas & Electric Co.)
Madison, Wis.
RATE MAKING FOR PUBLIC UTILITIES, THE MADISON CASE; by Percy H.
Thomas. Electric Journal, v. 7, p. 560 (July, 1910). (Discusses the
decision of the Railroad Commission of Wisconsin in the case of the State
Journal Printing Coj vs. the Madison Gas & Electric Co., rendered March 8,
1910.)
Manitowoc, Wis.
*CITY OF MANITOWOC VS. MANITOWOC ELECTRIC LIGHT COMPANY; Sub-
mitted Sept 30, 1908, Decided June 14, 1910. In Opinions and Decisions of
the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 5, p. 361. Madison,
Wis., 1911. (A tentative valuation of the physical property of the respondent
was made ; the income accounts and operating expenses for a term of years
are analyzed.)
Marinette, Wis. See Menominee, Wis.
Marquette, Mich.
A STUDY IN CENTRAL-STATION FINANCES AND OPERATION FROM MARQUETTE,
Mich. Electrical World, v. 53, p. 403 (Feb. 11, 1909). (Gives estimates of
depreciation for an electric light and power plant.)
Massachusetts.
DISTRIBUTION COSTS IN SEVEN CENTRAL=STATION SYSTEMS. Electrical World.
v. 52, p. 1014 (Nov. 7, 1908). (Figures deduced from returns to the Massa-
chusetts Board of Gas and Electric Light Commissioners.)
Meno-minee, Wis.
*IN RE VALUATION OF ELECTRIC LIGHT PLANT OF MENOMINEE AND MARN
nette Light and Traction Company , In Re Application of Menominee and
Marinette Light and Traction Company for Authority to Equalize Rates ;
In Re Menominee and Marinette Light and Traction Company, Investigation
of Rates on Motion of the Commission ; Decided Aug. 3* 1909. In Opinions
and Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the' State of Wisconsin, v. 3,
p. 778. Madison, Wis., 1910. (Data on valuation of electric light and power
plant.)
Merrill Ry. & Lighting Co.
*IN RE APPLICATION OF THE MERRILL RAILWAY AND LIGHTING COMPANY
for Authority to Change Its Rates for Electric Lighting; Submitted Sept. 17,
1907, Decided Dec. 10, 1907. In Opinions and Decisions of the Railroad
Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 2, p. 148. Madison, Wis.. 1909.
(Discusses value of the plant, including water power and dam, electric light
plant; and railway plant.)
Minneapolis; Minn.
ELECTRIC RATES FOR MINNEAPOLIS, A LONG CONTROVERSY OVER BASING
Rates on Expert Analysis or Unreasonable Comparisons ; by William G.
Deacon. Public Service, v. 5, p. 107 (Oct., 1908). (Contains very brief
data on valuation.)
MINNEAPOLIS LIGHT AND POWER RATES. Electrical World, v. 51, p. 651
(March 28, 1908). (Brief data on the elements of cost of plant.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 71
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER— SPECIAL CASES— (Continued).
New York City.
ACCOUNTING FOR DEPRECIATION; by H. M. Edwards. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 37, p. 972 (June 3, 1911). (Method used by the New York Edison Co.)
REGULATED ELECTRIC LIGHT ACCOUNTING; by H. M. Edwards. National Electric
Light Association, Thirty-fifth Convention, 1912, Papers, Reports and Discus-
sions, v. 4, p. 106. (On the uniform system of accounts for electrical cor-
porations as prescribed by the Public Service Commission, State of New
York, First District, and the petition to modify it.)
Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 39, p. 1029 (June 15, 1912).
New York State.
NEW YORK PUBLIC SERViCE COMMISSION TENTATIVE ACCOUNTS FOR ELEC=
trical and Gas Corporations. Electric Railway Review, v. 19, p. 532 (May
2. 1908). (Classification for accounts prepared by W. J. Meyers; abstract
of some features of the system.)
PETITION FOR CHANGES IN TREATMENT OF DEPRECIATION IN NEW YORK.
Electrical World, v. 58, p. 1420 (Dec. 9. 1911). (Petition filed by various
lighting companies with New York Public Service Commission, Second Dis-
trict ; one page.)
STANDARD ACCOUNTING CONFERENCE. Progressive Age, v. 26. p. 287 (May 1,
1908). (On report of classif cation of accounts, gas and electric companies,
by the Public Service Commission, State of New York, Second District.)
*STATE OF NEW YORK, SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE
Commission, Second District, for the Year Ending Dec. 31. 190S : v. 2. Uni-
form System of Accounts. Albany, 1909. (Classification of accounts foi
street railroads, gas and electrical corporations ; general amortization account,
including amount estimated for wear, tear and obsolescence of plant.)
Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
PACIFIC GAS RATE VALUATION; by John A. BriUo:i. Progressive Age, v. 30,
p. 330 (April 15, 1912). (Includes cost of electric energy, depreciation and
administration.)
Pasadena, Cal.
PASADENA MUNICIPAL LIGHTING PLANT. Municipal Engineering, v. 4-1 p. 505
(June, 1913). (Capitalization, depreciation allowance, etc., in relation i.o
rate regulation.)
Red Cedar Valley, Wis.
*IN RE APPLICATION OF THE RED CEDAR VALLEY ELECTRIC COMPANY FOR
Authority to Increase its Rates ; Decided June 14, 1911. In Opinions and
Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 6, p. 717.
Madison, Wis., 1912. (Contains Company's statement of the value of the
physical property of the plant.)
Ripon, 11 is.
*CITY OF RIPON VS. RIPON LIGHT AND WATER COMPANY; Decided March 28,
1910. In Opinions and Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the State
of Wisconsin, v. 5, p. 1. Madison, Wis., 1911. (Data on vaulatiou of the
water, light and electric plants.)
St. Louis, Mo.
REPORT OF ST. LOUIS PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION TO THE MUNICIPAL
Assembly of St. Louis on Rates for Electric Light and Power. St. Louis,
1911. (Contains description of methods of appraisal of the property of the
Union Electric Light & Power Co.)
San Francisco, Cal.
UNIT GENERATING AND DISTRIBUTION COSTS OF THE PACIFIC GAS & ELEC=
trie Company in San Francisco. Electrical World, v. 59, p. 790 (April 13,
1912).
Sheboygan, Wis.
*C!TY OF SHEBOYGAN VS. SHEBOYGAN RAILWAY AND ELECTRIC COMPANY;
Submitted Oct. IS, 1910, Decided Feb. 3. 1911. In Opinions and Decisions of
the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 6, p. 353. Madison,
Wis.. 1912. (Company's estimate of investment and annual expenses charge-
able to street lighting.)
Superior Water. Light <& Power Co.
♦ESTIMATING THE RATE OF "REASONABLE RETURN" FOR A PUBLIC UTILITY.
Engineering and Contracting, v. 39, p. 482 (April 30, 1913). (Argument
submitted to the Wisconsin Railroad Commission, for the Superior Water.
Light & Power Co., giving analysis of the rate of fair return for capital
invested.)
72 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER— SPECIAL CASES— (Continued).
*PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION NEWS. Electrical World, v. 60, p. 1136 (Nov.
30, 1912). (Basis of valuation of electric plant in investigation of the reve-
nues of the Superior Water, Light & Power Co.)
Wakefield, Mass.
DEPRECIATION OF MUNICIPAL LIGHTING PLANTS. (Editorial.) Electrical
Review and Western Electrician, v. 53, p. 493 (Oct 3, 1908). (Inadequacy
of allowance for depreciation in plant at Wakefield. Mass.)
Waupaca, Wis.
*IN RE JOINT APPLICATION OF THE WAUPACA ELECTRIC LIGHT AND RAIL-
way Company and the City of Waupaca to the Effect that the Railroad Com-
mission Act as Arbitrator in Certain Matters Pertaining to Street Lighting
in the City of Waupaca ; Submitted Dec. 15, 1910, Decided Feb. 21, 1912.
Id Opinions and Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wis-
consin, v. 8, p. 586. Madison, Wis., 1912. (Total reproduction cost, present
value and cost of operation were ascertained and apportioned between street
lighting and all other service.)
West Ham, England.
IS DEPRECIATION AS SUCH, NEEDED? (Editorial.) Municipal Journal (Lon-
don), v. 12, p. 699 (July 31. 1903). (Relates to West Ham Corporation
electric lighting plant.)
Wisconsin.
*ADJUSTMENT OF ELECTRIC LIGHTING RATE. Power, v. 35, p. 498 (April 9.
1912). (Extracts from the reports of the Wisconsin Railway Commission
regarding the influence of various fixed charges upon the rates.)
METHODS OF OBTAINING COST OF ELECTRIC LIGHTING SERVICE TO CON>
sumers Based on Decisions of the Wisconsin Railroad Commission. Engineer-
ing and Contracting, v. 37, p. 48 (Jan. 10, 1912). (Four pages.)
*UNIFORM CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS FOR ELECTRIC UTILITIES PRE=
scribed by the Railroad Commission of Wisconsin, Dec. 1908. Edition 3.
Madison, Wis., 1912. (Treats of tangible and intangible property, reserve
accounts, etc.)
WISCONSIN CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIC ACCOUNTS. Electrical World, v. 53.
p. 503 (Feb. 25, 1909). (Classification prepared by the Wisconsin Railroad
Commission.)
Worcester, Mass.
THE APPRAISAL OF STREET LIGHTING SERVICE. Engineering Record, v. 66,
p. 104 (July 27, 1912). (Decision by the Massachusetts Gas and Electric
Light Commission in the Worcester street lighting case.)
York, England.
DEPRECIATION IN ELECTRIC LIGHTING. (Editorial.) Municipal Journal (Lon-
don), v. 12, p. 12 (Jan. 2, 1903). (Policy of York Corporation; very brief)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 73
RAILROADS— GENERAL.
ACCOUNTING DEPRECIATION. Railroad Age Gazette, v. 43, p. 415 (July 3.
1908). (On the relation of valuation to depreciation; one column.)
AMERICAN TRANSPORTATION QUESTION, p. SI : by Samuel O. Dunn. D. Apple-
ton & Co., New York, 1912. (On the theory of railroad valuation; forty-two
pages.)
AN AMERICAN TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM, p. 316; by George A. Rankin.
G. P. Putnam's Son?, New York, 1909. (Contains a discussion of the appraise-
ment of railroads; seventeen pages.)
APPORTIONMENT BETWEEN STATE AND INTERSTATE TRAFFIC OF RAIL-
way Property Devoted to the Public Service; by Thomas D. O'Brien. Pro-
ings, Annual Convention of the National Association of Railway Commis-
sioners, 1909, p. 306. (Method of valuation by reproduction cost; three page-.)
APPRAISED VALUE OF THE RAILWAYS IN FIVE STATES AND THE PROBABLE
Cost of Reproducing All Railways in America. Engineering-Contracting, v. 34,
p. 89 (Aug. 3, 1910). (Results and comparisons of State valuations.)
THE ARBITRARY DEPRECIATION CHARGE; by F. A. Delano. Railroad Gazette,
v. 44, p. G81 (May 15, 1908). (A paragraph from the Wall Street Journal.)
ASSIGNMENT OF STEAM AND ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES, PASSENGER AND
Freight Train Cars and Work Equipment Cost to the Several States and to
Operating Divisions Within States. Engineering and Contracting , v. 39,
p. 724 (June 25, 1913). (Abstract of paper by A." I. T. Thompson read before
the Mississippi Valley States Conference.)
THE ASSIGNMENT OF VALUATION OF FACILITIES TO MORE THAN ONE STATE.
Engineering and Contracting, v. 39, p. 726 (June 25, 1913). (A plan for
apportioning value of general railroad shops betwefii States; abstract of paper
by Hugh H. Bryant read before the Mississippi Valley States Conference.)
BASIS OF VALUATION AS BETWEEN INTRASTATE AND INTERSTATE BUSINESS.
Railway Age Gazette, v. 46, p. 319 (Feb. 12, 1909). (One paragraph.)
COMMERCIAL VALUATION OF RAILWAY OPERATING PROPERTY IN THE
United States, 1904 : by Henry C. Adams. U S. Bureau of the Census, Bul-
letin No. 21, Washington, 1905. (Reports by Prof. Henry C. Adams, Prof
B. H. Meyer, William J. Meyers and. others ; eighty-eight pages.)
Abstract. Railroads Valuations in State Reports. Railroad Gazette, v. 39,
p. 226 (Sept. 8, 1905).
Editorial. The Census Office Railroad Valuation. Railroad Gazette, v. 39.
p. 194 (Sept. 1, 1905).
Criticism on Bulletin No. 21 Issued by the Census Bureau, Assuming to Give
the Commercial Value of Railroads : by E. Frederick Browne. Omaha, 1905.
A COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF PHYSICAL VALUATION AND CAPITALIZA-
tion ; by the Bureau of Railway Economics. Washington. 1911. (Compares
valuations made by States of Washington, South Dakota, Michigan and
Minnesota.)
CONCERNING RAILWAY VALUATION. (Letter) . by E. Gray, Jr. Railway and
Engineering Review, v. 53, p. 105 (Feb. 1, 1913) (Criticism of paper by D. F.
Jurgensen on Reproduction Costs.)
COST, CAPITALIZATION AND ESTIMATED VALUE OF AMERICAN RAILWAYS:
An Analysis of Current Fallacies; by Slason Thompson. Edition 3. Bureau
of Railway News, Chicago, 1908. (Aims to show that the value of railway
properties in the United States exceeds their total net capitalization.)
Editorial. Cost, Capitalization and Values of American Railwavs. Railway
Age, v. 44, p 710 (Nov. 22, 1907)
THE CROSBY BILL ON RATE REGULATION. Electric Railway Journal, v. 40,
p. 94 (July 20, 1912). (The author suggests a method of valuation of the
properties of public service carriers, and outlines a suggested scale for a rate
of return for new and old capital.)
DEDUCTIONS FOR OBSOLESCENSE JUSTIFIED. Railway Age Ga:cttc. v. 49.
p. 1093 (Dec. 2, 1910). (Decision of the Supreme Court of New York re-
garding the value of franchises and allowance for depreciation in taxation.)
DEPRECIATION; by S. M Hudson. Railway Age, v. 44. p. 175 (Aug. 9, 1907)
(General discussion of depreciation ; one and one-half pages.)
DEPRECIATION IN RAILWAY ACCOUNTING. Railway Age. v. 43, p. 72S (May
10, 1907). (Recommendations of Interstate Commerce Commission; one page.)
DEPRECIATION IN RAILWAY ACCOUNTING. Railway Age, v. 45, p. G23 (May
1 1908). (On equipment depreciation accounts; two pages.)
DEPRECIATION IN STEAM RAILWAY ACCOUNTING. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 32, p. 748 (Oct. 3, 1908). (Memorandum compiled by Special Committee
on Relations with Interstate Commerce Commission of the American Rail-
way Association; one page.)
74 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
RAILROADS — GENERAL — (Continued),,
I DETERMINING A REASONABLE RATE. (Editorial.)' Railway World, v. 56.
p. 344 (April 19, 1912). (Comments on opinion of Judge Thomas G. Jones, of
Alabama, on the cost of reproduction of a railroad, the basis for reasonable
rates.)
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FREIGHT RATE HEARING REGARDING THE PHYSICAL
Valuation of Railways. (Editorial.) Engineering-Contracting, v. 34, p. 263
(Sep*. 28, 1910). (One and one-half columns.)
DISCUSSION OF REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RATES AND RATE MAKING; by
M. R. Maltbie. Proceedings. Annual Convention of the National Association
of Railway Commissioners, 1910, pp. 200, 204. (On "market value/' deprecia-
tion, and methods of making valuation; five pages.)
THE ECONOMICS OF RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION, p. 41 ; by Walter Loring Webb.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1906. (Contains a chapter on the valuation of
railway property.)
EQUIPMENT ACCOUNT FOR EACH CAR AND LOCOMOTIVE. Railway Age Ga-ell<\
v. 43, p. 640 (Nov. 29, 1907). (Method of keeping a depreciation account.)
ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF RAII ROAD PROPERTY. Railroad Gazette, v. 37,
p. 289 (Sept. 2. 19QI). (On general principles of valuation; two columns.)
FAIR RETURN ON THE VALUE OF PROPERTY: A FALLACIOUS STANDARD.
Railway Age Gazette, v. 48, p. 1129 (May 6, 1910). (From an address by
Walker D. Hines before the Traffic Club of Pittsburgh.)
FEDERAL REGULATION OF RAILROAD SECURITIES AND VALUATION OF RAIL-
road Properties ; by Henry Fink. Railway World, v. 55, p. 390 (May 19,
1911). (Further extracts from statement" to the Railway Securities Com-
mission.)
GOVERNMENT SUPERVISION OF RAILWAY ACCOUNTS; by Henry C. Adams.
Electric Railway Review, v. 19, p. 43 (Jan. 11, 1908). (Abstract of paper
read before the Association of American Government Accountants.)
HEARINGS OF THE RAILROAD SECURITIES COMMISSION. (Editorial.) Rail-
way and Engineering Review, v. 50, p. 1175 (Dec. 24, 1910). (Refers to ques-
tion whether valuation of railroad should be used as a bsrsis for issuing new
securities.)
HENRY C. ADAMS ON RAILWAY VALUATION. Railway World, v. 51. p. 467
(June 7, 1907). (A brief analysis of the elements of valuation.)
HENRY FINK ON DANGER OF RAILWAY VALUATION. Railway Age, v. 43.
p. 680 (April 26, 1907). (Declares there is no relatlon-between valuation and
rate regulation.)
INCOME ACCOUNT OF RAILWAYS. (Letter) : by Frank May. Railway Age.
v. 45, p. 560 (April 17, 190,8). (How depreciation charges should be made.)
INITIAL COST, COST OF MAINTENANCE AND DEPRECIATION OF WOODEN
Passenger Cars. Engineering-Contracting, v. 34, p. 215 (Sept. 7, 1910).
(Rate of depreciation per year of different classes of cars.)
LET THE GOVERNMENT GO AHEAD AND PROSECUTE AND APPRAISE THE
Railways. (Editorial.) Railway Age Gazette, v. 49, p. 566 (Sept. 30, 1910).
(Relation between valuation and rates.)
MAINTENANCE CHARGES AND DIVIDENDS. (Editorial.) Engineering Record.
v. 55, p. 86, (Jan. 26, 1907) (Alludes to comparison of repair costs in rela-
tion to traffic; one column.)
MAY RESERVE FUND TO RENEW ABSOLUTE EQUIPMENT. (Editorial.) Electric
Traction Weekly, v. 6, p. 1473 (Dee. 3. 1910). (Decision by Supreme Court;
article states that this is a new principle on valuation of special franchises.)
A METHOD OF APPRAISING NON=PHYSICAL RAILWAY VALUES. (Editorial.)
Engineering-Contracting, v. 34, p. 517 (Dec. 14, 1910). (Comments on
paper by Henry Earle Riggs on valuation of public utilities and on the method
employed by Prof. Henry C. Adams in valuation of railroads.)
MR. HANSEL ON VALUATION OF RAILWAYS. (Editorials.) Railway Aae, v. 44,
pp. 71, 277 (July 19, Aug. 30, 1907). (On "State Valuation of Railways", by
Charles Hansel in North American Review for July 5, 1907.)
Letter. State Valuation of Railroads; by Carl Tombo. Railway Aae v 44
p. 348 (Sept. 13, 1907).
Letter. State Valuation of Railroads; by Charles Hansel. Railway Age v 44
p. 2S1 (Aug. 30, 1907). '
NATIONAL VALUATION CONVENTION URGED, CONCERTED ACTION SHOULD BE
Taken to Make Appraisal of Railways Economical, Intelligent and Just ; by H
Bortin. Railway Age Gazette, v. 54, p. 836 (April 11, 1913).
THE NECESSITY OF DEPRECIATION RESERVES; by Henry L. Gray. Railway
Age Gazette, v. 48, p. 1297 (May 27, 1910). (Two pages.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 75
RAILROADS — GENERAL — (Continued).
Editorial. Depreciation Reserves. Railway Acje Gazette, v. 48, p. 1290 (May
27, 1910).
■ Letters. Depreciation Reserves. Railway Age Gazette, v. 49, p. 66 (July 8.
1910).
NOTES ON THE APPLICATION OF A DEPRECIATION CHARGE IN RAILWAY
Accounting; by Frederic A. Delano. Railway Age, v. 45, p. 471 (March 27,
1908). (Depreciation of equipment, track, bridges, buildings, shop tools, etc.,
of the plant as a whole and limit of depreciation.)
OBSOLESCENCE AND DEPRECIATION FOR LOCOMOTIVES. (Editorial.) Electric
Railway Journal, v. 41, p. 997 (June 7, 1913). (Comparison between steam
and electric locomotives.)
PHYSICAL VALUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. Railway Age Gazette, v. 50.
p. 121 (Jan. 20, 1911). (A statement of Prof. F. H. Dixon, which is said to
refute a statement made by Clifford Thorne to the effect that railways iu the
States where valuations have been made are over-capitalized.)
PHYSICAL VALUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. Railway World, v. 55, p. 88
(Feb. 3, 1911). (Material prepared by the Bureau of Railway Economics;
four pages.)
PHYSICAL VALUATION OF AMERICAN RAILWAYS. In Railway Library. 1910.
p. 395; edited by Slason Thompson. Bureau of Railway News and Statistics,
Chicago, 1911.
PHYSICAL VALUATION OF RAILROADS; by William J Wilgus. Proceedings,
American Society of Civil Engineers, v. 39, p. 1109 (May, 1913) (Discusses
basic principles, land values, inventorying and pricing measureable items, over-
head cost, interest during construction, working capital and depreciation.)
Abstract. Valuation of Steam Railroads. Hallway Age Gazette, v 67, pp. 654,
692 (June 14, 21, 1913).
PHYSICAL VALUATION VERSUS RAILROAD RATES; by Henry Fink. Railwau
World, v. 55, p. 2S8 (April 14, 1911). (Extracts from statement made to
the Railway Securities Commission.) *
PHYSICAL VALUATIONS AND CAPITALIZATION OF RAILWAYS; by Slason
Thompson. Railway World, v. 55, p. 1011 (Dec. 16, 1910). (Gives actual
appraisals made in various States.)
Railway and Engineering Review, v. 50, p. 1159 (Dec. 17, 1910).
THE PROBLEM OF RAILWAY VALUATION: by Logan G. McPherson. Railwau
Age Gazette, v. 54, p. 1131 (May 23. 1913). (The change in the attitude of
the public toward the carriers, and the various .difficult questions it has
raised.)
PROGRESS OF VALUATION OF RAILWAYS. Railway Age, v. 45, p. 103 (Jan.
24, 1908). (Considers the progress in methods of valuation, one page.)
PROPOSED VALUATION OF RAILROAD PROPERTY. (Editorial.) Railway Age
Gazette, v. 42, p. 293 (March 8, 1907). (Concerning valuation as a basis for
rate-making; one and one-half columns.)
RAILROAD ACCOUNTING AND THE HEPBURN LAW; by Arthur C. Graves. Rail-
road Age Gazette, v. 45, pp. 1543, 1597 ; v. 46, p. 18 (Dec. 11, 18, 1908 ;
Jan. 1, 1909). (A protest against the requirements of the Government in rail-
road accounting.)
RAILROAD ACCOUNTING UNDER GOVERNMENT SUPERVISION; by M. P. Blau
velt. Railway Age, v. 45, p. 702 (May 15, 1908). (Discusses depreciation of
equipment and replacement accounts.)
THE RAILROAD PROBLEM, RATES, UNIT COSTS AND EFFICIENCY; by F. Lincoln
Hutchins. Engineering Magazine, v 42, pp. 488, 709 (Jan., Feb., 1912).
(The paper contains the following divisions: rate-making, unit costs and
efficiency, capitalization and regulation.)
RAILROAD TAXATION AND VALUATION; by C. F. Staples. Proceedings, Annual
Convention of the National Association of Railway Commissioners, 1909, p. 375
(Discusses gross earning and stock and bond methods of valuation ; eight
pages.)
RAILROAD VALUATION; by William J. Ripley. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1907
(Thirty-three pages.)
RAILROAD VALUATION, REPRODUCTION COST NEW AS A SOLE BASIS FOR
Rates ; by D. F. Jurgensen. Journal, Association of Engineering Societies,
v. 49, p. 294 (Dec, 1912). (On method to be used in the valuation of rail-
roads.)
RAILWAY ATTITUDE TOWARD VALUATION OF RAILWAYS. Railicay Age
Gazette, v. 49, p. 1137 (Dec. 16, 1910). (Arguments against a mere physical
valuation ; one page.)
76 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
RAILROADS — GENERAL — (Continued) .
RAILWAY CAPITAL AND REAL VALUE; by Darius Miller. Railway World, v. 55,
p. 28 (Jan. 13, 1911). (An article by the President of the Chicago, Burling-
ton & Quincy R. R., in which he gives his views as to the relation betweeD
capitalization and rates.)
RAILWAY DEPRECIATION ACCOUNTS; by C. L. Sturgis. Proceedings, Annual
Convention of the National Association of Railway Commissioners, 1909, p. 392.
(Considers depreciation and depreciation accounts in relation to the question
of railway regulation.)
Railway Age Gazette, v. 48, p. 914 (April 8, 1910).
Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 34,- p. 1224 (Dec. 18, 1909).
RAILWAY DEPRECIATION ACCOUNTS; by W. J; Meyers. Proceedings, Annual
Convention of the National Association of Railway Commissioners, 1909, p. 403.
(Charging repairs and' replacements as made, importance of formal deprecia-
tion account and consideration of depreciation by companies affected.)
_ Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 34, p. 1146 (Dec. 4, 1909).
RAILWAY VALUATION AGAIN. Railway and Engineering Review, v. 50, p.
1172 (Dec. 24, 1910). (Comments on statement of Judson C. Clements before
the Railways Securities Commission; from New York Sun, Dec. 3, 1910.)
RAILWAY VALUATION BY THE CENSUS OFFICE. Railway Age, v. 37, p. 1103
(June 17, 1904). (On methods of valuation advocated by the Interstate Com-
merce Commission; one page.)
REPAIRS, RENEWALS, DETERIORATION AND DEPRECIATION OF WORKSHOP
Plant and Machinery ; by James Edward Darbishire. Proceedings, In-
stitution of Mechanical Engineers, 1908, Pts. 3-4, pp. 812, 879. (The dis-
cussion of this paper includes remarks upon the depreciation of railway work-
shops and rolling stock.)
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON LIFE OF RAILWAY PHYSICAL PROPERTY. Pro-
ceedings, American Electric Railway Accountants Association, 1912, p. 189.
(Contains bibliography on life of physical property of railways and table of
depreciation estimates.)
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RAILROAD TAXES AND PLANS FOR ASCERTAIN-
ing Fair Valuation of Railroad Property. Proceedings, Annual Conven-
tion of the National Association of Railway Commissioners, 1903, p. 13 ;
1904, p. 50; 1905, p. 55; 1906, p. 33; 1908, p. 174; 1909. p. 321; 1910,
p. 138 ; 1911, p. 61 ; 1912, p. 34. (Reports and discussions of varying
length on taxation and the best methods of valuation.)
Abstract of report for 1905. Railway Age, v. 40, p. 289 (Sept. 8, 1905).
Abstract of report for 1910. Electric Railway Journal, v. 36, pp. 1062, 1192
(Nov. 26, Dec. 17, 1910) ; Railway and Engineering Review, v. 50, p. 1130
(Dec. 10, 1910.)
Abstract of report for 1911. Electric Raihoay Journal, v. 38, p. 1026 (Nov.
11, 1911).
Abstract of report for 1912. Electric Railway Journal, v. 40, p. 1065 i Nov. 23,
1912). (Treats of allowance for contingencies, interest during construction,
basis for valuation, cost of reproduction new and original investment and fair
value.)
Editorials on report for 1912. Railway Valuation. Electric Raihoay Journal,
v. 40, p. 1051 (Nov. 23, 1912) ; Valuation by the National and the State
Governments. Electric Railway Journal, v. 40, p. 1139 (Dec. 7, 1912).
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON FEDERAL RELATIONS. Proceedings, Ameri-
can Electric Railway Association, 1911, p. 310. (Contains a page on physical
valuation of railways.)
Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 812 (Oct. 13, 1911).
REPORT OF THE HADLEY SECURITIES COMMISSION. Railway Age Gazette, v.
51, p. 1210 (Dec. 15, 1911). (Two pages.)
Editorial. The Usefulness of a Physical Valuation. Railway Age Gazette, v. 51,
p. 1203 (Dec. 15, 1911).
SOME DISPUTED POINTS IN RAILWAY VALUATION. (Editorials.) Railway
Age Gazette, v. 54, pp. 1056, 1118, 1164, 1208 (May 16, 23, 30, June 6, 1913).
(On right of way, investment from earnings, depreciation and intangible values.)
Criticism. Mr. Loweth on Depreciation in Valuation. (Letter) ; by C. F.
Loweth. Railway Age Gazette, v. 54, p. 1536 (June 20, 1913). (Criticism on
editorial in issue of May 30th, 1913.)
Editorial. Depreciation in Railway Valuation- Railway Age Gazette, v. 54,
p. 1535 (June 20, 1913).
SOME NEGLECTED FACTORS OF FAIR VALUATION. (Editorial.) Railway Age
Gazette, v. 46, p. 441 (March 5, 1909). (Concerning the relation between
physical valuations as made by State Commissions and rate regulation.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 77
RAILROADS— GENERAL— (Co,if (,,,</).
STATISTICS AS TO THE LIFE OF STEEL RAILWAY BRIDGES. Engineering-
Contracting, v. 30. p. 227 (Oct. 7. 190S). (Reference to depreciation of
bridges and table showing life of ten railway bridges.)
AN UNSEEN FACTOR IN RAILWAY VALUATION. (Editorial.) Railway Age
Gazette, v. 50, p. 821 (April 7. 1911). (In regard to the element which repre-
sents investment extinct and destroyed in the various railway re-organizations.)
USEFULNESS OF A PHYSICAL VALUATION. (Editorial.) Railway Age Gazette,
v. 51, p. 1203 (Dec. 15, 1911). (Comments on the report and recommenda-
tions of the Hadley Securities Commission : one page.)
THE VALUATION OF AMERICAN RAILWAYS. (Editorial.) Railway World, v.
51, p. 410 (May 17, 1907). (Discusses value regarded as original or repro-
duction cost and as capitalization on the net earnings of the road.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC SERVICE CORPORATIONS; by W. H. Williams. Ameri-
can Economic Association, New York, 1909 (Discusses the valuation of
railroad taxes, rates, capitalization, etc.; fifty-one pages.)
Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 76 (Jan. 8, 1910).
VALUATION OF RAILROAD PROPERTY; by Henry Fink. Railway Age Gazette,
v. 45, pp. 587, 627 (July 24, 31, 1908). (Discusses physical valuation, capi-
talization and rate-making.)
VALUATION OF RAILROAD PROPERTY FOR LOCAL TAXATION. (Letter.)
Railroad Gazette, v. 29, p. 863 (Dec. 10, 1897). (Decisions on valuation of
railroads, based on opposing principles, cost of reproduction and earning
capacity.)
VALUATION OF RAILROADS. (Editorial.) Railway Age Gazette, v. 42, p. 730
(May 31, 1910). (History of attempts to fix value of railroad properties, and
statement that this cannot be done on a physical basis; one page.)
VALUATION OF RAILWAY PROPERTIES; by Robert Yates. Railway Age Ga-
zette, v. 47, p. 975 (Nov. 19, 1909). (Considers a few of the principal ele-
ments of construction showing the cost value and depreciated value.)
VALUATION OF RAILWAYS. Railway Aqe Gazette, v. 46. pp. 173, 219, 261,
312 (Jan. 22. 29, Feb. 5, 12, 1909). (Full discussion of valuation in relation
to State Railway Commissions, rates, etc.)
VALUATION OF THE RAILWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES; by B. H. Meyer.
Proceedings, Annual Convention of the National Association of Railway Com-
missioners, 1904, p. 46. (General principles of valuation; four pages.)
Abstract. Valuation of the Railways of the United States. Railway Age, v. 38,
P.-729 (Nov. 18, 1904).
VALUE OF THE RAILROADS AND THEIR CAPITALIZATION; by H. T. Newcomb
Railroad Gazette, v. 34, p. 671 (Aug. 29, 1902). (Argues that the capital
stock of a railroad does not represent its real value; one page.)
VALUING RAILROAD PROPERTY; by Charles Hansel. Traffic World, v. 7, p. 735
(April 22, 1911). (Consideration of earning power, franchise and real value
as elements of appraisal; address before the Southern Commercial Congress.)
WHAT IS THE VALUE OF A RAILROAD FOR PURPOSES OF TAXATION? by
Charles Hansel. Railroad Gazette, v. 33, p. 271 (April 19, 1901). (On the
work of Prof. M. E. Cooley, who was selected to examine the railroads in the
State of Michigan, and on the subject of valuation in general ; one page.)
United States Interstate Commerce Commission.
ACCOUNTING FOR DEPRECIATION OF EQUIPMENT. (Editorial.) Railway Age,
v. 44, p. 36 (July 12, 1907). (Comments on the proposal to require railways
to make formal depreciation accounts as outlined in Accounting Circular, No. 8,
United States Interstate Commerce Commission.)
ACCOUNTING FOR DEPRECIATION OF EQUIPMENT. (Letter) ; by W. A. Worth-
ington. Railway Age, v. 44. p. 245 (Aug. 23, 1907). (On the classification
of the Interstate Commerce Commission.)
CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS FOR INTERSTATE STEAM ROADS. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 32, p. 348 (July 25, 1908). (New classifications as of
July 1, 1908, supplements to the revised issues prescribed for the fiscal year
beginning July 1st, 1907.)
CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING EXPENSES AS PRESCRIBED BY THE INTER*
state Commerce Commission. Third Revised Issue. Government Printing
Office, Washington, 1911. (Gives annual per cent, allowed for depreciation.)
CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING EXPENSES AS PRESCRIBED BY THE INTER-
state Commerce Commission for Steam Roads. Third Revised Edition, Effective
July 1st, 1908. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1908. (Contains
condensed classification of account for small carriers and extended classifica-
tion for large carriers.)
Supplement. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1908.
78 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
RAILROADS — GENERAL — (Continued).
DEPRECIATION AND RENEWALS ACCOUNTS MODIFIED. (Editorial.) RaHtoay
Age, v. 44, p. 30S (Sept. 6, 1907). (Discussion of Circular 13, Accounting
Series, United States Interstate Commerce Commission.)
DEPRECIATION IN RAILWAY ACCOUNTING. (Letter) ; by H. A. Dunn. Rail-
way Age, v. 45, p. 756 (May 29, 1908). (Comments en methods of account-
ing recommended by the Interstate Commerce Commission.)
EVALUATION OF RAILROADS; by Walter S. McCormack. Traffic World, v. 8,
p. 511 (Sept. 23, 1911). (States that carriers should be represented in work
6f the Interstate Commerce Commission.)
FORM OF GENERAL BALANCE SHEET STATEMENT AS PRESCRIBED BY THE
Interstate Commerce Commission for Steam Roads. First Revised Issue, Ef-
fective June 15th, 1910. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1910.
HEARING ON DEPRECIATION OF EQUIPMENT ACCOUNTS BY INTERSTATE COM-
merce Commission. Electrjc Railway Journal, v. 32. p. 236 (July 4, 1908).
(Opinion of a Committee of the American Railway Association.)
Editorial. Depreciation of Equipment Accounts. Electric Railwait Journal,
v. 32, p. 193 (July 4, 1908).
INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION DESIRE INFORMATION CONCERNING
Treatment' of Depreciation Accounts. Railway Age, v. 45. p. 221 (Feb. 14,
1908). (Questions which should be considered in keeping account of deprecia-
tion ; abstract of Circular No. 7, Special Report Series.)
OBJECTIONS TO THE DEPRECIATION CHARGE. Railroad Age Gazette, v. 45, p.
1050 (Oct. 2, 1908). (A summary of views expressed by railroad officers on
depreciation; memorandum of the American Railway Association's Special
Committee to the Interstate Commerce Commission.)
Depreciation in Steam Railway Accounting. Electric Railway Journal, v. 32,
p. 748 (Oct. 3, 1908).
Editorial. Proposed Valuation and Rates. Railway Aae, v. 43, p. 268
(March 1, 1907).
PROTEST OF PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD AGAINST CLASSIFICATION OF ADDI=
tions and Betterments. Electric Railrcay Journal, v. 34, p. 908 (Oct. 23. 1909).
(Formal protest to the Interstate Commerce Commission against required
classification of accounts.)
QUESTIONS PERTAINING TO DEPRECIATION. Railivay Age, v. 44, p. 805 (Dec.
6, 1907). (Abstracts of Circulars 12 and 12a, Accounting Series, United States
Interstate Commerce Commission.)
STATE VALUATION OF RAILWAYS; by Darius Miller. Railway and Engineering
Review, v. 50, p. 1027 (Nov. 5, 1910). (Statements made at the rate hearing
of the Interstate Commerce Commission.)
United States Railway Valuation Act.
THE BILL FOR PHYSICAL VALUATION. Railway and Engineering Review, v. 53,
p. 169 (Feb. 22, 1913). (The text 6f the Railway Valuation Act.)
Bill for Physical Valuation of Railways. Railway Age Gazette, v. 52, p. 811
(April 5, 1912). (Full text of the Adamson Bill for the physical valuation
of railways by the Interstate Commerce Commission.)
CAN ENGINEERS BE TRUSTED TO ARBITRATE FAIRLY AND INTELLIGENTLY
Between the Public Interests and the Property Interests? (Editorial.) En-
gineering Naivs, v. 69, p. 1187 (June 5, 1913.) (On statement of Senator
Robert M. La Follette that railroad valuation work should be placed in
charge of an economist and not of an engineer.)
HEARING ON PROPOSED FEDERAL RAILROAD APPRAISAL. Railway and En-
gineering Review, v. 53, p. 140 (Feb. 15, 1913).
A HUGE PIECE OF ENGINEERING WORK. (Editorial.) Engineering News, v. 69,
p. 476 (March 6, 1913). (Comments on the Railway Valuation Act.)
PHYSICAL VALUATION OF RAILROADS. (Editorial.) Railivay Age Gazette,
v. 45, p. 1029 (Oct. 2. 1908). (Recommendation for Federal valuation of
railroads by Henry C. Adams, Statistician of the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission; one and one-half columns.)
PLAN FOR PHYSICAL VALUATION OF RAILWAY PROPERTIES. Railway Age.
v. 43. p. 286 (March 1, 1907). (Abstract of a memorandum by H. C. Adams
submitted to the President by the Interstate Commerce Commission.)
THE PLANK IN THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM PLEDGING' THE APPRAISAL OF
All Railways. (Editorial.) Engineering and Contracting . v. 38, p. 562
(Nov. 20, 1912). (Estimates the cost of a railway appraisal to range from
$2.50 per mile, for very rough inventory, to $25 per mile for a very thorough
appraisal, or about 50 cents per $1 000 of physical property appraised.)
PROPOSED NATIONAL VALUATION CONVENTION. (Letter) ; by L. C. Fritch.
Railway Age Gazette, v. 54, p. 1536 (June 20, 1913). (Objections to holding
convention.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 79
RAILROADS— GENERAL— (Continued).
The Railway Valuation Act. Engineering News, v. 69, p. 482 (March 6, 1913).
(Text of the law passed by Congress ordering the valuation of railroad prop-
erties.)
THE RAILWAY VALUATION ACT. (Letter) ; by Alex. C. Humphreys. Engi-
neering News, v. 69, p. 688 (April 3, 1913). (The doubtful value of the pro-
vision of tne law which requires the appraisers to analyze past financial
transactions of railroads.)
STATE RAILWAY COMMISSIONERS AND FEDERAL VALUATION; by D. F. Jur-
gensen. Railway and Engineering Review, v. 53, p. 529 (June 7, 1913).
(States that the Federal valuation is a contest between carriers and public,
with the Interstate Commerce Commission as umpire.)
VALUATION OF THE RAILROADS. (Editorial.) Engineering Reccyrd, v. 67, p.
283 (March 15, 1913). (On the Railway Valuation Act.)
THE VALUE OF VALUATION. (Editorial.) Elective Railroad Journal, v. 41, p.
667 (April 12, 1913). (Doubt expressed as to the usefulness of the valuation
of railroads provided for by Congress.)
RAILROADS-SPECIAL CASES.
Atchison, Topeka dc Santa Fe R. R.
WHY RAILROADS NEED HIGHER RATES, p. 88; by E. P. Ripley. Chicago (?),
1910. (Takes up the physical value of the Santa Fe R. R. in testimony
before the Interstate Commerce Commission, Chicago, 1910.)
Beaumont & Great Northern R. R.
VALUATION OF THE RAILWAYS OF TEXAS. Engineering-Contracting, v. 33,
p. 370 (April 20, 1910). (Detailed value of the Beaumont & Great Northern
R. R., with brief comments.)
Boston & Maine R. R.
♦EVIDENCE AS TO THE VALUE OF NEW HAMPSHIRE ROADS EMBRACED IN
the Boston & Maine System. In the Report of the Public Service Com-
mission of New Hampshire on an Investigation of Railroad Rates, p. 300.
Concord, N. H., 1912. (Discussion of formula for determining the value of
railroad properties : Original cost ; amount and market value of stocks and
bonds ; present as compared with original cost of construction ; probable earn-
ing capacity.)
California.
♦INSTRUCTIONS TO ASSISTANT ENGINEERS FOR INSPECTING RAILWAY PROP*
erty for Inventory and Appraisal, California Railroad Commission. Engineer-
ing and Contracting, v. 37, p. 619 (May 29, 1912).
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul R. R.
*A. E. BUELL VS. CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE & ST. PAUL RAILWAY COMPANY;
Submitted July 1, 1906, Decided Feb. 16, 1907. In Opinions and Decisions of
the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 1, pp. 337, 478. Madi-
son, Wis., 1908. (Discusses what constitutes a fair valuation of a railroad.)
ITEMIZED COST OF THE C, M. & ST. P. R. R. IN SOUTH DAKOTA. Engineer-
s-Contracting, v. 28, p. 56 (July 24, 1907). (Estimates given in the
Spokane rate case.)
Great Britain.
THE SERVICEABLE LIFE AND COST OF RENEWALS OF PERMANENT WAY OF
British Railways ; by R. Price-V/illiams. Journal, Iron and Steel Insti-
tute, v. SO, p. 183 (1909, Pt. 2). (Gives actual figures and diagrams of cost
of maintenance on British railways for a number of years.)
Great Northern Ry.
ITEMIZED COST OF THE GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY SYSTEM AS ESTIMATED
by Its Chief Engineer. Engineering-Contracting, v. 29, p. 271 (May 6,
1908). (Estimates given in testimony before the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission in the Spokane rate case.)
ORIGINAL COST AND COST OF REPRODUCTION OF THE GREAT NORTHERN
Railway (768 Miles) in the State of Washington. Engineering-Contracting,
v. 32, p. 496 (Dec. 8, 1909). (Data as to the original cost, given by Halbert
P. Gillette before the Railroad Commission.)
Kansas.
♦ KANSAS RAILWAY VALUATION, REPORT OF THE WORK OF THE ENGINEER-
ing Department, Public Utilities Commission, from Date of Establishment to
Nov., 1912; by C. C. Witt. Public Service Regulation, v. 2, p. 217 (May,
1913).
80 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
RAILROADS— SPECIAL CASES— ( Continued) .
Kansas City Southern Ry.
ACCOUNTING FOR ABANDONED PROPERTY. Electric Railway Journal, v. 39,
p. 247 (Feb. 10, 1912). (Reply of Interstate Commerce Commission to the
suit brought by the K. C. S. Ry., in regard to manner of accounting for value
of property abandoned in the reconstruction of track.)
Louisiana.
*REPORT MADE BY THE STATE BOARD OF APPRAISERS SHOWING THE
Assessments Made of Property Employed in the Railway, Telegraph, Tele-
phone. Sleeping Car, and Express Business for the Year 1899. (On the
methods of valuation, and actual valuations made.)
Massachusetts '
THE FRANCHISE IN CAPITALIZATION. (Editorial.) Railroad Gazette, v. 37.
p. 269 (Aug. 26, 1904). (Discussion of bill presented to Massachusetts Legis-
lature'allowing a new corporation to capitalize on a basis of market value of
absorbed companies and to capitalize the franchises.)
Michigan.
EXPERT VALUATION OF RAILWAY AND OTHER CORPORATE PROPERTY IN
Michigan. Engineering News, v. 44, p. 430 (Dec. 20, 1900). (Full account
of the valuation made by the Michigan Board of State Tax Commissioners,
describing organization for the work.)
RAILROAD TAXATION; by Robert H. Shields. in Sixth Report of the Board of
State Tax Commissioners, Dec. 15, 1910, p. 53. Lansing, Mich., 1911. (Dis-
cusses several theories for valuation of railroads.)
RAILWAY CAPITAL AND VALUES; by W. H. Williams. Railway Age Gazette,
v. 46, pp. 761, 805, 845, 903 (April 2, 9, 16, 23, 1909). (Outlines the methods
used to obtain a physical valuation of railroad property in Michigan.)
• Abstract. Railway and Engineering Review, v. 48, p. 1047 (Dec. 26, 1908).
Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie Ry.
*IN RE INVESTIGATION ON MOTION OF THE COMMISSION OF PASSENGER
Rates Charged by the Minneapolis, St. Paul. & Sault Ste. Marie Railway Com-
pany ; Submitted April 9, 1907, Decided June 1, 1907. In Opinions and De-
cisions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 1, pp. 543. 581.
Madison, Wis., 1908. (Contains brief reference to valuation of the road.)
Minnesota.
CURRENT RAILWAY PROBLEMS; by Samuel O. Dunn. Railway Age Gazette,
New York, 1911. (Contains an article on valuation of railways with special
reference to the physical valuation in Minnesota.)
*FORMS USED IN COMPILING INFORMATION IN THE 1906 APPRAISAL OF THE
Railways of Minnesota. Engineering and Contracting, v. 37, p. 52 (Jan. 10,
1912). (Four pages.)
JUDGE SANBORN ON STATE INTERFERENCE WITH INTERSTATE COMMERCE
and Valuation of Railways. Railway Age Gazette, v. 50, p. 987 (April 28,
1911). (Opinions of the U. S. Circuit Judge in the Minnesota rate case; ab-
stract of the discussion on the correct basis for the valuation of railways and
a "fair return'"' )
THE MINNESOTA COMMISSION'S VALUATION FORMS. Public Service Regula-
tion, v. 1, p. 301 (May, 1912). (Showing headings of some of the blanks used
for detailed railway inventory and valuation in Minnesota, contributed by D. F.
Jurgensen, Engineer.)
THE MINNESOTA RATE CASE; by Charles E. Otis. In Railway Library, 1910,
p. 31 ; edited by Slason Thompson. Bureau of Railway News and Statistics,
Chicago, 1911. (Contains analysis of valuation of property devoted to public
service.)
THE MINNESOTA RATE CASES, OPINION OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE
United States. (63d Congress, 1st Sess., Senate Doc. No. 54). Washington,
D. C, 1913. (Opinion of Justice Hughes of the Supreme Court on the valua-
tion of railways.) .
Abstracts, Decision of the Supreme Court in the Minnesota Rate Cases. Elec-
tric Railway Journal, v. 41, p. 1064 (June 14, 1913) ; Railway Evaluation
and Depreciation. Engineering Record, v. 67, p. 687 (June 21, 1913) ; The
Supreme Court's Comments on Railway Valuation. Railway Age Gazette,
v. 54, p. .1537 (June 20, 1913).
Editorials. Construction Expenses in the Minnesota Rate Decision. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 41, p. 1101 (June 21, 1913) ; Railway Age Gazette, v. 54,
p 1304 (June 13, 1913) ; The Minnesota Rate Decision. Engineering Record,
v. 67, p. 679 (June 21, 1913) ; The United States Supreme Court on Prin-
ciples' of Railway Valuation. Engineering News, v. 69, p. 1338 (June 26,
1913).
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 81
RAILROADS — SPECIAL CASES— {Continued).
MINNESOTA RATE LAWS VOID. Traffic World, v. 7. p. 646 (April 15, 1911). i
(Statement is made that apportionment on the basis of revenue to the various
classes of its business in order to determine the reasonableness of its rate, is'
the most reaonable and equitable method of assigning the value of a railroad
property in a State, used for transportation ; decision in case Shepard vs.
Northern Pacific et ah, etc., United States Circuit Court.)
*TWENTY-TH1RD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE RAILROAD AND WAREHOUSE
Commission of Minnesota to the Governor for the Year Ending November 30,
1907, p. 14. St. Paul, 1908. (On method of making valuation ; :=ix pages.)
* 24th, 1908, p. 12. Minneapolis, 1909. (Contains report on valuation of the
railways of the State.)
Abstracts. An Analysis of the Appraisal of the Railways of Minnesota with
Comments on the Same. Engineering -Contracting, v. 31, p. 172 (March 3,
1909) ; Valuation of Railways in Minnesota. Railway Age Gazette, v.- 46,
p. 225 (Jan. 29, 1909).
* 26th, 1910, p. 94. Minneapolis, 1911. (Contains findings and report on rate
cases by Charles E. Otis, including valuations' of property devoted to public
service.)
Abstract. Railway and Engineering Review, v. 49, p. 297 (March 13, 1909).
VALUATION OF RAILROAD PROPERTY IN MINNESOTA; by A. S. Cutler. Year
Booh, Engineers' Society, University of Minnesota, v. 16, p. 69 (1908).
(Method of making valuation of railroad property in Minnesota; seven and one-
half pages.)
VALUATION OF RAILWAYS IN MINNESOTA. Railway Age Gazette, v. 44, p. 877
(Dec. 20, 1907). (Describes methods of nraking valuation.)
VALUATION OF RAILWAYS IN MINNESOTA. Railway Age Gazette, v. 46, p.
269 (Feb. 5, 1909). (Describes the work of the Minnesota Railroad Com-
mission.)
Editorial. Railway Age Gazette, v. 46, p. 245 (Feb. 5, 1909).
Nebraska.
*FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE NEBRASKA STATE RAILWAY COMMIS-
sion to the Governor, Year Ending November 30, 1911, p. 446. Omaha, 1911.
(Includes statements of physical value of the various railroad and transporta-
tion facilities of the stock yards properties within the State of Nebraska, being
the initial appraisal of July 1st, 1909.)
State Railway Valuation : Nebraska Commission Reports Progress on State-
Wide Appraisal of Physical Values. Public Service Regulation, v. 1, p. 4 45
(July, 1912).
ORGANIZATION FOR AND METHODS AND RESULTS OF PHYSICAL VALUATION
in Nebraska; by E. C. Hurd. Engineering and Contracting, v. 36, p. 694 (Dec.
27, 1911). (Two pages.)
VALUATION OF RAILWAY PROPERTY — THE' NEBRASKA METHOD. Raihoay
Age, v. 37, p. 1219 (June 24, 1904). (Valuation for purposes of taxation;
one page.)
New Jersey.
THE APPRAISAL OF THE RAILWAYS OF NEW JERSEY, AND PROGRESS IN
Other States. Engineering and Contracting, v. 35, p. ,701 (June 21, 1911).
(One column.)
^PROGRESS REPORT OF THE BOARD TO RE-APPRAISE RAILROADS AND
Canals in This State, March 9th, 1910. Trenton, N. J. (Gives organization,
methods, and some data on actual values.)
RAILROAD APPRAISAL AND TAXATION IN NEW JERSEY; by Charles Hansel.
Engineering News, v. 68, p. 334 (Aug. 22, 1912). (Defense of the method of
appraisal of railroads for taxation in New Jersey.)
*REPORT ON REVALUATION OF RAILROADS AND CANALS, NEW JERSEY, 1911;
by Charles Hansel. Trenton, 1912. (Treats of value of property, including the
franchise, bonds and stocks, organization, operating cost, real estate, tangible
personal property, depreciation, etc.)
THE VALUATION OF RAILROADS IN NEW JERSEY; by Charles Hansel. Engineer-
ing Record, v. 63, p. 594 (May 27, 1911). (Four pages.)
VALUATION OF RAILWAYS IN NEW JERSEY. Railway Age Gazette, v. 53, p.
243 (Aug. 9, 1912). (Methods adopted by Charles Hansel to ascertain value
in accordance with State statute; results obtained by the work.)
New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R.
DEPRECIATION FUNDS OF THE NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN AND HARTFORD
Railroad. (Editorial.) Railway Age, v. 43, p. 133 (Feb. 1, 1907). (One
paragraph.)
82 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
RAILROADS— SPECIAL CASES — {Continued).
THE NEW HAVEN VALUATION. Railway Age Gazette, v. 50, p. 461 (March
10, 1911). (Review of the valuation of the N. ¥„ N. H. & H. R. R. properties
just completed under the order of the Massachusetts Legislature. J
PRICES EMPLOYED IN THE PHYSICAL VALUATION OF THE NEW YORK, NEW
Haven & Hartford R. R. Engineering and Contracting, v. 37, p. 220 (Feb. 21,
1912). (The unit prices adopted were based on the average ruling prices of
the various elements for the last few years and on prices actually paid by the
Railway Company; one column.)
THE PRINCIPLES GOVERNING A RAILROAD APPRAISAL OF AN UNUSUAL NA-
ture. Engineering Record, v. 65, p. 174 (Feb. 17, 1912). (Gives an outline of
the views of George F. Swain on the valuation of the N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R.)
RAILROAD REVALUATION— WITH AN EXAMPLE. (Editorial.) Railway Age
Gazette, v. 45, p. 1081 (Oct. 9, 1908). (On the valuation of the X. Y., N. H.
& H. R. R.)
Letter. Scientific Valuation in Wisconsin ; by Dwight C. Morgan. Railway Age
Gazette, v. 45, p. 1242 (Oct. 30, 190S). (Criticism of editorial of Oct. 9,
1908.)
♦REPORT OF THE BOARD OF RAILROAD COMMISSIONERS, THE TAX COMMIS-
sioner and the Bank Commissioner, Sitting as a Commission, Relative to the
Assets and Liabilities of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Com-
pany. Wright & Potter Printing Co., Boston, 1911. (Contains extensive re-
ports by George F. Swain and Stone & Webster on the valuation of the rail-
road. )
VALUATION OF THE SOUTH STATION, BOSTON. (Editorial.) Railway Age
Gazette, v. 48, p. 1243 (May 20, 1910). (On the revaluation of the South Sta-
tion at Boston, made by J. F. Stevens, for the N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. Co. ;
one-half column.)
Northern Pacific Ry. ,
AVERAGE COST OF REPAIRING LOCOMOTIVES IN AMERICA, COMPARED WITH
the Cost on the Northern Pacific, Together with Comments on Plant Deprecia-
tion and Repairs. Engineering-Contracting, v. 30, p. 150 (Sept. 2, 1908).
(Discusses depreciation of locomotives.)
FINDINGS OF THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION AS TO THE COSTS
of Constructing the Northern Pacific and Great Northern Railways, and Its
Decision in the Spokane Rate Case. Engineering-Contracting, v. 31, p. 217
(March 24, 1909). (Discusses a decision of the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission regarding rate reduction on the N. P. and G. N. Rys.)
ITEMIZED COST OF THE NORTHERN PACIFIC RAILWAY SYSTEM AS ESTI-
mated by Its Chief Engineer. Engineering-Contracting, v. 29, p. 226 (April 15,
1908). (Estimates given in the Spokane rate case.)
♦ORIGINAL COST AND COST OF REPRODUCTION OF THE NORTHERN PACIFIC
Railway (1 645 Miles) in the State of Washington. Engineering-Contract-
ing, v. 33, p. 44 (Jan. 12, 1910). (Data as to the cost given by Halbert P.
Gillette, before the Railroad Commission.)
See also Minnesota.
Oklahoma.
*BEFORE THE CORPORATION COMMISSION, STATE OF OKLAHOMA: In Re
Proposed Order to Promulgate Rates on Wheat, etc., No. 1350. Oklahoma
City. 1912. (Opinion of George A. Henshaw, Commissioner ; contains an
extended discussion of the proper elements in valuation.)
Oregon.
♦ANNUAL REPORT OF THE RAILROAD COMMISSION OF OREGON, 1908, p. 20;
1909, p. 25. Salem, Ore., 1909-10. (Speaks briefly of the methods used and
describes the organization of the force.)
Oregon R. R. & Navigation Co.
♦VALUATION OF THE OREGON RAILROAD & NAVIGATION COMPANY. Railway
Age Gazette, v. 45, p. 1357 (Nov. 13, 1908). (Actual figures; one paragraph.)
South Dakota.
♦ NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF RAILROAD COMMISSION-
er.-^of the State of South Dakota for the Year Ending June 30, 1908, p. 24.
Huron, S. Dak., 1'908. (On method of making valuation of railroads ; three and
one-half pages.)
THE PHYSICAL VALUATION OF THE RAILROADS IN SOUTH DAKOTA. Engi-
neering Record, v. 63, p. 174 (Feb. 11, 1911). (Contains a table giving ap-
praised value per mile of all railways in South Dakota, reproduction value
new, condition per cent, and present value.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 83
RAILROADS — SPECIAL CASES — (Continued).
*SOUTH DAKOTA RAILROAD APPRAISAL AS OF JUNE 30, 1909: REPORT OF
Carl C. Witt, Engineer, to the Board of Railroad Commissioners of the State
of South Dakota. In Twenty-First Annual Report of the Board of Railroad
Commissioners of the State of South Dakota for the Fiscal Year ending June
30, 1910, p. 25. Sioux Falls, S. Dak., 1910. (Actual valuation and general ex-
planatory notes.)
Southern Pacific Co.
EQUIPMENT DEPRECIATION AND RENEWAL; by William Mahl. Railroad Gazette.
v. 43, p. 418 (Oct. 1, 1907). (Compiled from data published in Annual Report
of the S. P. Co.)
Haihcay Age Gazette, v. 48, p. 440 (March 4, 1910).
Editorial. Railroad Gazette, v. 43, p. 406 (Oct. 11, 1907).
EQUIPMENT DEPRECIATION AND REPLACEMENT; by William Mahl. Railway
Age Gazette, v. 48, p. 1249 (May 20, 1910). (Statement of the per cent, of
cost of equipment vacated to total original cost on the S. P. Co.)
Abstract. Equipment Depreciation and Renewal of Raihvays. Enginei
Contracting, v. 34, p. 193 (Aug. 31, 1910).
Texas.
*ANNUAL REPORT OF THE RAILROAD COMMISSION OF THE STATE OF TEXAS
for the Year 1908, pp. 32. 457. Austin, Tex., 190S. (Gives a detailed state-
ment of the value of the different railroads.)
ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF A RAILWAY. Engineering News, v. 31. p. 308
(April 12, 1894)., (On the work of the Texas Railroad Commission; one
column.)
Editorial. Engineering News, v. 31, p. 302 (April 12, 1894).
*METHOD USED BY THE RAILROAD COMMISSION OF TEXAS, UNDER THE
Stock and Bond Law, in Valuing Railroad Properties ; by R. A. Thompson.
Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, v. 52, p. 328 (Paper 974.
June, 1904). (Thirty-six pages.)
RAILROAD FRANCHISE ..VALUES IN TEXAS; by W. H. Coverdale. Railroad
Gazette, v. 36, p. 115 (Feb. 12. 1904). (Remarks on the methods of the Texas
Commission in the valuation of railroads.)
STATE REGULATION AND VALUATION OF RAILWAYS IN TEXAS. Engineering
News, v. 33, p. 152 (March 7, 1895). (On the work of the Railroad Commis-
sion ; one page.)
WORK OF THE TEXAS STATE RAILWAY COMMISSION. Engineering News,
v. 35, p. 273 (April 23, 1896). (On the valuation work of the Texas Com-
mission; one page.)
Union Pacific R. R.
REPORT OF THE COMMISSION AND OF THE MINORITY COMMISSIONER Ap-
pointed Under the Act of Congress, Approved March 3d,. 1887, Entitled,
"An Act Authorizing an Investigation of the Books, Accounts and Methods
of Railroads Which Have Received Aid from the United States, and
for Other Purposes" ; also Report of the Inspecting Engineer and Accountants.
Washington, 1887. (Valuation of the IT. P. Ry.)
TESTIMONY TAKEN UNDER THE ACT OF CONGRESS APPROVED MAR. 3d, 1887,
Entitled. "An Act Authorizing an Investigation of the Books, Accounts and
Methods of Railroads Which Have Received Aid from the United States and
for Other Puruoses." Washington, 1887. (50th Congress, 1st Sess., Senate
Doo. No. 51.) " (Testimony taken in the valuation of the U. P. Ry.)
Washington.
♦CLASSIFICATION* OF UNITS INVOLVED IN CONSTRUCTION, AND ADDITIONS
and Betterments, Railroad Commission of Washington, 1909. Olympia,
Wash., 1910.
DISCUSSION ON RATES AND RATE MAKING; by J. C. Lawrence. Proceedings,
Annual Convention of the National Association of Railway Commissioners,
1910, p. 164. (Method of the Railroad Commission of Washington in deter-
mining the reasonableness of rates.)
*STATE OF WASHINGTON, SECOND AND THIRD ANNUAL REPORTS OF THE
Railroad Commission of Washington to the Governor Covering the Period
from December 31, 1906, to December 31, 1907, and from December 31, 1907,
to December 31, 1908, pp. 13, 41, 127. Olympia, Wash., 1909. (Contains
report of H. P. Gillette on valuation of railways of the State of Washington.)
Abstract. Report of H. P. Gillette to the Washington Railroad Commission
on the Valuation of Railways in Washington. Engineering-Contracting , v. 31,
p. 266 (April 7, 1909).
84 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
RAILROADS— SPECIAL CASES — {Continued).
VALUATION OF RAILWAYS IN WASHINGTON; by J. C. Lawrence. Railway Age
Gazette, v. 48, p. 358 (Feb. 18, 1910). (Reasonable railway rates and how
they are determined.)
Editorial. Valuation and Rate Regulation. Railicay Aae Gazette, v 48 d 437
(March 4, 1910).
■ (Correction.) Railicay Age Gazette, v. 48, p. 859 (April 1, 1910).
VALUATION OF WASHINGTON RAILWAYS. Railway Aae, v. 45, p. 113 (Jan. 24,
1908). (Review of the work of the Washington Railroad Commission.)
Wisconsin.
THE APPRAISEMENT OF THE PHYSICAL VALUE OF WISCONSIN RAILWAYS
for the Purpose of Taxation ; by W. D. Taylor. Wisconsin Engineer, v. 8, p. 1
(Dec, 1903). (Concerning valuation made by the Wisconsin State Tax Com-
mission, giving method, organization, etc.)
Abstract. Engineering News, v. 51, p. 314 (March 31, 1904).
AVERAGE COST PER MILE OF RAILWAYS IN WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN AS
Determined by State Commissions. Engineering-Contracting, v. 27, p. 285
(June 26, 1907). (One page.)
*FIRST BIENNIAL REPORT OF THE WISCONSIN TAX COMMISSION TO THE
Governor and Legislature, p. 91. Edition 2. Madison, Wis., 1901. (Con-
tains data on the method of determining the value of 'railroads.)
* 2d, p. 182. Madison. Wis., 1903. (Elements of value of railroad property,
earnings as a basis of valuation, market value, value of land grants, etc.)
* 3d, p. 267. Madison, Wis., 1907. (Report of Prof. William D. Taylor, on
the "Appraisal of the Physical Properties of Wisconsin Railways, 1903" ;
twenty-six pages.)
* 4th, p. 121. Madison, Wis., 1909. (Report by William D. Pence on the
"Appraisal of the Physical Properties of Wisconsin Railroads, 1908" ; twenty-
three pages.)
* 5th, p. 185. Madison, Wis., 1911. (Contains a report submitted by W. D.
Pence on "Appraisal of Physical Properties of Wisconsin Steam and Electric
Railroads for the Year ending June 30, 1910".)
WISCONSIN RAILWAY TAXATION BILL. Railway Age, v. 35, p. 364 (March. 13,
1903). (Discussion of the proposal of the State of Wisconsin to base taxation
of railroads on their valuation, and of the methods of valuation by stock and
bpnd* prices and capitalized net earnings.)
RAILROADS— UNVERIFIED REFERENCES.
ADMINISTRATIVE SUPERVISION OF RAILWAYS UNDER THE TWENTIETH SEC-
tion of the Act to Regulate Commerce ; by Henry C. Adams. Quarterly Journal
of Economics, v. 22, p. 364 (May, 1908).
THE ANATOMY OF A RAILROAD REPORT AND TON-MILE COST; by Thomas
Francis Woodlock. New York, 1909. (Nelson's Wall Street Library, -Vol. 2.)
APPRAISING RAILROAD VALUES; by J. D. Evans. Moody's Magazine, v. 4, p.
135 (July, 1907). (States no fair and just plan yet devised; also imprac-
ticable to fix rates by cost of service; railroads not over-capitalized.)
AN ARGUMENT AGAINST OFFICIAL VALUATION OF RAILROAD PROPERTIES;
by Joseph P. Cotton. In American Economic Association Bulletin, 3d Series,
No. 1 (April, 1910), pp. 253-258.
ARGUMENTS AS TO THE FAIR TAXABLE VALUE OF THE RAILWAY" PROP-
erty in Wisconsin of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway, the Chicago, Mil-
waukee & St. Paul Railway and the Chicago. Burlington & Quincy Railroad
Companies ; Submitted by Frank P. Crandon and others to State Board of
Assessment of Wisconsin. Madison, Wis., 1904.
CIRCULAR NO. 7, SPECIAL REPORT SERIES, UNITED STATES INTERSTATE COM-
merce Commission. (Depreciation blanks sent out by the Interstate Commerce
Commission.)
CIRCULAR NO. 13, ACCOUNTING SERIES, UNITED STATES INTERSTATE COM-
merce Commission. (Prof. H. C. Adams discusses the equipment depreciation
and renewals account.)
CIRCULAR NO. 20, ACCOUNTING SERIES, UNITED STATES INTERSTATE COM-
merce Commission.
COST, CAPITALIZATION AND ESTIMATED VALUE OF AMERICAN RAILWAYS.
Railway News, Jan. 4, 1908.
DEPRECIATION IN RAILWAY ACCOUNTING; by J. F. Calvert. Journal of Ac-
countancy, v. 6, p. 229 (Aug., 1908).
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 85
RAILROADS— UNVERIFIED. REFERENCES— (Continued) .
THE ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY MAINTENANCE OF WAY; by W. M. Cunning-
ham. Journal of Accountancy, v. 9, p. 358 (March, 1910).
FURTHER HARDSHIPS FOR THE RAILROADS. Commercial and Financial Chron-
icle, June 8, 1912, p. 1537.
JUDICIAL TEST OF A REASONABLE RAILROAD RATE AND ITS RELATION TO
a Federal Valuation of Railway Property ; by Charles G. Feuwick. Michi-
gan Laxo Review, April, 1910.
THE LAW RELATING TO THE ASSESSMENT AND VALUATION OF RAILWAYS
and Stations for Rating Purposes ; by Walter B. Clode and Francis H. Cripps-
Day. London, 1899.
LIFE OF PHYSICAL RAILWAY PROPERTY, TRACK AND WAY STRUCTURES; by
W. J. French. Street Railway Bulletin, Jan., 1912, p. 42.
METHODS OF ' ESTIMATING RAILROAD VALUATION; by Carl Snyder. In
"American Railways as Investments," 1907, pp. 15-66.
THE MICHIGAN RAILROAD APPRAISAL; by Henry Carter Adams. Ann Arbor,
1901.
MICHIGAN RAILROAD APPRAISAL; by Mortimer E. Ccoley and Henry C. Adams.
Michigan Political Science Association Publication, June 1901, p. 65.
MINNESOTA RAILWAY VALUATION; by G. O. Virtue. Quarterly Journal of
Economics, May, 1909. (Six pages.)
NECESSITY FOR DEPRECIATION CHARGES ON RAILWAYS; by Arthur F. Dodd.
Encyclopedia of Accountancy, v. 5, p. 423.
THE NEEDS OF THE RAILROADS; by Logan G. McPherson. Political Science
Quarterly, v. 23, p. 440. (Refers to capitalization as affected by railroad
development.)
NOTES ON DEPRECIATION ON RAILWAYS; by Frederic A. Delano. Journal of
Political Economy, v. 16, p. 585 (Nov., 1908).
OFFICIAL VALUATION OF RAILROAD PROPERTIES: DISCUSSION; by Edward B.
Whitney, Victor Rosewater, Charles F. Matthewson, A. C. Playdell, B. H.
Meyer. American Economic Association Quarterly, v. 11, 3d Series, pp. 259-
289 (April, 1910).
OUGHT THE RAILROADS TO ADVANCE THE RATES? by Samuel O. Dunn. Review
of Reviews, Sept., 1910, p. 338. (Gives tables showing comparative costs of
equipment, 1900 and 1910, and comparative cost of material in 1900, 1907,
and 1910.)
OUR RAILROADS; by Harry P. Robinson. St. Paul, 1890. (A statement of the
value and earnings of railroads of the Western States ; forty-one pages.)
PHYSICAL VALUATION OF RAILWAYS; by William Z. Ripley. Nation, v. 86, p.
209 (March 5, 1908).
RAILROAD CAPITALIZATION AND FEDERAL REGULATION; by Franklin K. Lane.
American Review of Reviews, v. 37, p. 711 (June 1908).
RAILROAD RATE REGULATION. Beale and Wyman, 1906.
RAILROAD RATES; by Noyes.
RAILROAD VALUATION; by Ivy Ledbetter Lfe. New York, 1907.
Banker's Magazine, v. 75, p. 81 (June, 1907).
RAILROAD VALUATION; by William Z. Ripley. Political Science Quarterly, v. 22,
p. 577 (Dec., 1907).
RAILROAD VALUATION: Report of the State Assessors to the Seventy-fifth Legis-
lature of Maine, 1911. (Twenty pages.)
RAILWAY ACCOUNTING. Journal of Accountancy, v. 6, p. 381 (Oct., 1908).
(Abstract of paper read before the American Association of Public Account-
ants.)
RAILWAY CAPITAL AND VALUES; by William Henry Williams. New York,
1908. (Paper read before the Traffic Club of New York, Nov. 24th, 1908.)
RAILWAY CAPITALIZATION; by H. T. Newcomb. Railway World, June 7, 1907.
RAILWAY OVER-CAPITALIZATION; by William L. Snyder. Outlook, v. 35, pp.
559-562 (March 9, 1907). (The case against the Great Northern.)
RAILWAY OVERCAPITALIZATION, A DEFENSE OF THE GREAT NORTHERN;
by A. B. Stickney. Outlook, v. 85, p. 557 (March 9, 1907).
RAILWAY VALUATION AGAIN. New York Sun, Dec. 3, 1910.
RAILWAY VALUATION, IS IT A PANACEA? by Jackson E. Reynolds. Columbia
Laio Review, v. 8, p. 265 (April, 1908).
RELATION OF VALUE OF RAILROADS TO RATE=MAKING; by Lucius E. John-
son. (An address delivered to the Toledo Transportation Club at its annual
dinner at the Hotel Secor, Toledo, Ohio, Dec. 2d, 1909.)
86 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
RAILROADS — UNVERIFIED REFERENCES — (Continued).
REPLIES OF JUDGE BAXTER, MESSRS. S1UYVESANT FISH, E. P. RIPLEY,
Henry Fink and S. R. Knott to Questions Involving Valuation of Railway
Property and Reasonableness of Rates, Together with Extracts from Certain
Decisions of the Courts, Supporting Said Replies ; . compiled by Claudian B.
Northrup. Washington, 1906. (Seventy-six pages.)
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE STATE SENATE OF MINNESOTA, Ap-
pointed for the Purpose of Investigating the Value and Cost of Operation of the
Railroads of Minnesota. 1907.
REPORT ON THE TRUE VALUE OF OHIO RAILROADS FOR THE PURPOSE OF
Taxation, Prepared at the Request of Hon. Tom L. Johnson, Mayor of Cleve-
land, and with his Approval as to Results ; by Cary H. Bemis and Nau.
Cleveland, 1903.
REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT, 1911, OF THE RAILROAD SECURITIES COMMIS-
sion, Arthur T. Hadley, Chairman. Washington, 1911. (62d Congress,
2d Sess., House Doc. 256.) (Physical valuation, pp. 17-18, 38.)
THE ROMANCE OF THE RAILWAYS; by John Moody. Moody's Magazine, v. 5
(Jan. -Dec, 1908). (The Reading System; The Union Pacific R. R. System;
the Pennsylvania System; the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry.)
SOME PHASES OF THE AMERICAN RAILWAY PROBLEM. Government, v. 1, p.
7 (July, 1907). (Valuation of railroads, pp. 7-18.)
STATE VALUATION OF RAILROADS, SOME OF THE PROBLEMS; by Charles
Hansel. North American Review, July 5, 1907, pp. 185, 485.
THE TAXATION OF CORPORATE PROPERTY AS SEEN IN THE TAXATION OF
Michigan Railroads ; by Robert H. Shields. Proceedings, Minnesota Academy
Of Sciences, 1907, pp. 40-58.
LES VALEURS DES CHEMINS DE FER AUX ETATS-UNIS; by F. Bernard. Paris,
1894.
VALUATION AND TAXATION OF RAILROADS IN PENNSYLVANIA; by the Penn-
sylvania Tax Conference. 1894. (Eighteen pages.)
VALUATION OF RAILROAD PROPERTY, REGULATION OF RATES AND SER-
vices the Arguments and Votes Upon the Same in the Senate of the United
States, May 9, 12, 14 and 18, 1906 ; by Robert M. La Follette.
VALUATION OF RAILROADS IN MICHIGAN; Report of the Michigan Tax Commis-
sioner, 1900, p. 66 ; 1902, p. 50.
VALUATION OF RAILWAY PROPERTY NECESSARY TO FIX REASONABLE
Rates, Amendments to the Interstate Commerce Act, Speech in the Senate,
May 25 26 and 33, 1910; by R. M. La Follette. Congressional Record, 61st
Congress, 2d Sess., May 31, 1910, v. 45, pp. 7, 139-144, 6882-6913.
VALUATION OF RAILWAYS; by Lawrence J. Laughlin. In "Latter-Day Prob-
lems." New York, 1909. (Reprinted from Scribner's Magazine, April, 1909.)
VALUATION OF RAILWAYS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE PHYSICAL
Valuation in Minnesota; by Samuel O. Dunn. Journal of Political Economy,
v. 17, p. 189 (April, 1909). (Sixteen pages.)
*VALUATION OF TERMINAL LANDS; by John Earl Baker. Journal of Account-
ancy, v. 8, p. 237 (Aug., 1909). (Supplement to Annual Report, Minnesota
Railroad and Warehouse Commission, 1908; thirteen pages.)
VALUE OF RAILROAD PROPERTY; by W. S. Harries. American Railroad Man-
agement, 1907. (Abstract of paper read before the American Railway Associa-
tion.)
VALUING THE RAILROADS. American Review of Reviews, v. 39, p. 379 (March,
1909).
WHAT ARE RAILROADS WORTH? by Henry L. Gray. Saturday Evening Post,
June 17. 1911.
STEAM POWER.
COMMERCIAL ECONOMY IN STEAM AND OTHER THERMAL POWER-PLANTS
as Dependent upon Physical Efficiency, Capital Charges and Working Costs ;
by Robert H. Smith. A. Constable & Co., Limited, London, 1905.
DEPRECIATION OF PRIME MOVERS. (Editorial.) Electrical Review and West-
ern Electrician, v. 54, p. 601 (April 3, 1909). (One and one-half columns.)
DEPRECIATION OF STEAM PLANT. Electric Railway Review, v. 19, p. 360
(March 31, 190S>. (Opinion of Charles T. Main on life of parts of steam
plant; one paragraph.)
Depreciation of Power Plant Equipment ; by Charles T. Main. Electric Trac-
tion Weekly, v. 4, p. 456 (May 7, 1908).
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 87
STEAM POWER — (Continued).
STANDARDIZATION OF METHODS FOR DETERMINING AND COMPARING POWER
Costs in Steam Plants ; by H. G. Stott and W. S. Gorsueh. Proceedings,
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, v. 32. p. 1097 (May, 1§13).
(Method of determining costs bv groups and individual items and equitable
basis of comparing costs of power in different plants and under different
conditions.)
Editorial. Engineering Record, v. 67, p. 567 (May 24, 1913).
STEAM POWER PLANT ENGINEERING, p. 624 ; by G. F. Gebhardt. John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1908. (Contains chapter on finance and economics of
power plants including table of rate of depreciation, and one of life of various
portions of steam power plant equipments.)
STEAM POWER- UNVERIFIED REFERENCES.
DEPRECIATION OF POWER PLANT EQUIPMENT; by Charles T. Main. Electric
Traction Weekly, v. 4, p. 456 (May 7, 1908).
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS— GENERAL.
ACCOUNTING VERSUS STATISTICS. Electric Railway Journal, v. 41, p. 803
(May 3, 1913). (Instances where standard classification makes it impossible
to compare justly energy production costs and other data of electric railways.)
ACTUAL FIGURES OF EXISTING STREET RAILWAYS; by H. G. Bradlee. Aera,
v. 1, p. 392 (Dec, 1912). (Includes percentage return on company's invest-
ment which must be earned to provide for taxes, depreciation, obsolescence
and to attract capital freely to the business ; names of companies are not
given.)
APPRAISALS OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY PROPERTIES; by D. C. Jackson. Elec-
tric Raihcay Journal, v. 32, p. 1283 (Oct. 31, 1908). (Abstract of an address
before the New England Street Railway Club; one page.)
CALCULATING DEPRECIATION; by R. W. Western. Tramway and Raihcay
World, v. 23, p. 456 (June 4, 1908). (Formula for estimating depreciation
in street railways.)
CONSTRUCTION AND DEPRECIATION; by A. S. Atkinson. Electric Traction
Weekly, v. 5, p. 919 (July 17, 1909). (Refers to street railways.)
THE COST AND SALE OF ELECTRIC POWER; by G. H. Kelsay. Electric Railway
Review, v. 17, p. 126 (Jan. 26, 1907) ; Street Railway Journal, v. 29. p. 207
(Feb. 2, 1907). (Discusses interest and depreciation; paper read before the
Central Electric Railway Association.)
THE COST OF CARRYING A PASSENGER; by C. L. S. Tingley. Proceedings,
Street Railway Accountants Association, 1905, p. 163. (Table of allowances
for depreciation from book by Philip Dawson, and comments on depreciation
in street railway property.)
DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Electric Railway Review, v. 16, p. 452 (Aug.,
1906). (Discusses depreciation in relation to street railways.)
DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Electrical Review (London), v. 61, p. 2 (July 5,
1907). (States that the definite and continued application of some reason-
ably probable approximation to the average depreciation of tangible assets
is wanted in England and America.)
DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Street Railway Journal, v. 23, p. 760 (May 21,
1904). (A review of European practice.)
DEPRECIATION; by C. N. Duffy. Electric Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 184 (Jan.
29, 1910). (Brief abstract of discussion before the Wisconsin Electrical Asso-
ciation on depreciation in street railways.)
DEPRECIATION; by H. E. Weeks. Report of the Seventh Annual Convention,
Iowa Street and Inter.urban Railway Association, p. 59 (1910). (Discusses
the subject in general, length of life of property, etc.)
Abstract. Elect,ric Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 782 (April 30, 1910).
- — — Discussion. Electric Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 779 (April 30, 1910).
DEPRECIATION AND PERMANENT RENEWAL FUND. Street Raihvay Bulletin,
v. 6, p. 298 (May, 1907). (Depreciation in street railways.)
DEPRECIATION AND PUBLICITY IN IOWA. Electric Raihvay Review, v. 19, p.
523 (May 2, 1908). (Resolution recommending provision of an annual ap-
propriation for a depreciation reserve, separate from the maintenance account.)
88 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
STREET AND 1NTERURBAN RAILROADS — O.ENERAL— (Continued).
DEPRECIATION AND RENEWALS FUND IN RELATION TO TRAMWAYS UNDER-
takings; by G. W. Holford. Electrician, v. 57, p. 938 (Sept. 28, 1906);
Electric Railway Review, v. 16, p. 906 (Nov., 1906) ; Electrical Engineer
(London), v. 38, p. 441 (Sept. 28, 1906) ; Tramway and Railway World, v. 20,
p. 363 (Oct. 4, 1906). (Paper read before the Municipal Tramways Associa-
tion ; contains table showing provision made for depreciation in street railways
in sixty cities 'in Great Britain.)
Abstract. Street Railway Journal, v. 28, p. 529 (Oct. 6, 1906).
Editorial. Electric Railway Review, v. 16, p. 887 (Nov., 1906).
DEPRECIATION AND SINKING FUNDS; by C. A. Smith. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 40, p. 121 (July 27, 1912). (Refers to depreciation iu street railway
plants).
Canadian Engineer, v. 23, p. 299 (Aug. 3, 1912).
DEPRECIATION AS APPLICABLE TO ELECTRIC RAILWAYS; by M. Haselmann.
Street Railway Journal, v. 28, p. 1003 (Nov. 24, 1906). (Depreciation on
railways ot Continental Europe.)
Discussion. Street Railway Journal, v. 24, p. 830 (Nov. 5, 1904).
DEPRECIATION AS APPLICABLE TO ELECTRIC RAILWAYS; by Robert N. Wallis.
Proceedings, American Street and Interburban Electric Accountants Associa-
tion, 1906, p. 168.
Abstract. Electric Railway Review, v. 17, p. 526 (April 20, 1907).
Editorial. Maintenance and Depreciation. Electric Railway Review, v. 17,
p. 513 (April 20, 1907).
Discussion. American Notions on Depreciation. Electrical Reviexo (London),
v. 60, p. 757 (May 10, 1907). (Discussion of a paper by R. N. Wallis.)
DEPRECIATION FROM A MANAGER'S POINT OF VIEW. Stone and Webster
Public Service Journal, v. 1, p. 69 (Aug., 1907). (Method of allowing for
depreciation in street railways; very brief.)
DEPRECIATION IN ELECTRIC RAILWAY ACCOUNTING; by Daniel Royse. Report
of the Fifth Annual Convention, Iowa Street and Interurban Railway Associa-
tion, p. 30 (1908). (Gives theory and classification of accounts; six pages.)
Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 31, p. 687 (April 25, 1908).
DEPRECIATION OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY EQUIPMENT. Electric Traction Weekly,
v. 5, p. 736 (July 17, 1909). (Average percentage of first .cost of various
items of equipment to be set aside as an annual reserve to the depreciation
fund for the renewal of these items.)
DEPRECIATION OF ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. (Editorial.) Electrical Review and
Western Electrician, v. 55, p. 1 (July 3. 1909). (Life and annual percentage
of depreciation for buildings, power plant equipment, track and paving ; very
brief.)
THE DEPRECIATION PROBLEM. (Letter) ; by H. S. Knowlton. Street Railway
Journal, v. 24, p. 101 (July 16, 1904). (Considers the necessity of deprecia-
tion records.)
THE DEPRECIATION PROBLEM; by William B. Jackson. In "Electric Railway
Transportation," p. 31. Annals. American Academy of Political and Social
Science, v. 37, No. 1 (Jan., 1911). (Refers to depreciation in connection with
the valuation of electric railways; eleven pages.)
Canadian Engineer, v. 20, p. 353 (Feb. 23, 1911).
DEPRECIATION, RESERVES AND SINKING FUNDS; by W. O. Strangward. Elec-
tric Railway Journal, v. 40, p. 123 (July 27, 1912). (Discusses reserves for
depreciation, renewals and obsolescence.)
DEPRECIATION, SOME THOUGHTS ON POLICY AND PRACTICE. Municipal
Journal (London), v. 12, p. 773 (Aug. 28, 1903). (Comparison between
Glaygow and Bolton systems of allowing for depreciation in street railroads.)
A DISCUSSION OF THE DEPRECIATION PROBLEM WITH PARTICULAR REFER-
ence to Electric Railwavs ; bv William B. Jackson. Engineering and Con-
tracting, v. 35, p. 176 (Feb. 8, 1911). (Two pages.)
THE ECONOMICAL LIFE OF CAR MOTORS. (Editorial.) Electrical Review
(London), v. 63, p. 914 (Nov. 27, 1908). (One-half column.)
ELECTRIC RAILWAY ACCOUNTING; by A. L. Linn. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 34, pp. 30, 36 (July 3, 1909). (Includes discussion on depreciation;
abstract of paper read before the Street Railway Association of the State
of New York.)
ELECTRIC RAILWAY APPRAISALS. (Editorial.) Electric Railway Journal, v.
30, p. -905 (Nov. 2, 1907). (Discusses object of appraisal, use of records, etc.;
one page.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 89
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS— GENERAL — (Continued).
ELECTRIC RAILWAY APPRAISALS. (Editorial.) Electric Railway Journal, v.
31, p. 446 (March 21, 1908). (One column.)
ELECTRIC TRAMWAY ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE. Electrical Review (Lon-
don), v. 61, p. 959 (Dec. 13, 1907). (Contains a brief reference to deprecia-
tion allowance.)
ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET=BOOK, p. 498 ; by Horatio A. Foster. Edition
6. D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1905. (Contains table on approximate
rate of depreciation on electric street railways.)
ENGINEERING AND ELECTRIC TRACTION POCKET-BOOK, p. 914 ; by Philip
Dawson. Edition 4. John Wilev & Sons, New York. 1906. (Gives various
tables including durability of railroad ties and approximate life of various
parts of plant.)
EQUITABLE CHARGES FOR TRAMWAY SUPPLY; by H. E. Yerbury. Journal,
Institution of Electrical Engineers, v. 44. p. 576 (1910). (Valuation cost of
street railway plants as a basis for rates.)
tramway and Railway World, v. 27, p. 108 (Feb. 10, 1910).
FOR IMMEDIATE DEPRECIATION ACCOUNTS. (Editorial.) Electric Railway
Review, v. 18, p. 182 (Aug. 17, 1907). (On necessity of depreciation accounts
for electric railways ; one column.)
HOW SHOULD DEPRECIATION BE ENTERED ON THE BOOKS. (Editorial.)
Street Railway Review, v. 14, p. 523 (Aug. 20, 1904). (Question as to
whether property of street railway company should stand on books forever at
the original cost or whether the account should be reduced from year to year
to allow for depreciation.)
INTANGIBLE VALUE OF ELECTRIC RAILWAYS AND THEIR DETERMINATION
From Accounts; by William J Hagenah. Proceedings, American Electric
Railway Accountants' Association, 1912, p. 60. (Elements of reproduction
cost, analysis of accounts, economic waste of competition, discount on bonds,
unacceptable deficits, and going costs.)
Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 40, pp. 698, 715 (Oct. 9, 1912).
Editorial. Stone and Webster Public Service Journal, v. 11, p. 901 (Nov.,
1912).
LOGICAL BASIS FOR VALUATIONS OF INTERURBAN STREET RAILWAYS; by
C. G. Young. Electric Railway Journal, v. 37, p. 115 (Jan. 21, 1911). (Ex-
plains the purpose of valuation, discussing the fair rate of return, and the
principal methods used in valuation of properties; three pages.)
Electric Traction Weekly, v. 7, pp. 67, 99 (Jan. 21, 28, 1911).
Electrical Review and Western Electrician, v. 58, p. 180 (Jan. 28, 1911).
Engineering News, v. 65, p. 141 (Feb. 2, 1911).
Discussion. Electric Raihcay Journal, v. 37, p. 162 (Jan. 28, 1911).
OBSOLESCENCE IN CARS. (Editorial.) Electric Railway Journal, v. 40, p. 239
(Aug. 17, 1912). (The effect on valuation of changing from old to new
equipment.)
POLICY OF ENGLISH MUNICIPAL TRAMWAYS RESPECTING RENEWALS. Elec-
tric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 661 (Oct. '7, 1911). (Abstract of Finance and
Policy, by James H. Rodgers ; paper read before the Municipal Tramways
Association.)
QUESTION BOX OF THE CENTRAL ELECTRIC RAILWAY ACCOUNTANTS Asso-
ciation. Electric Raihcay Journal, v. 39, p. 742 (May 4, 1912). (How to
determine the actual value of stocks and bonds.)
REDUCING THE COST OF DEPRECIATION ON ELECTRIC RAILWAYS; by A. S.
Atkinson. Street Railway Bulletin, v. 6, p. 80 (Feb., 1907). (One and one-
half pages.)
REPORT OF SUBCOMMITTEE ON WHAT CONSTITUTES MAINTENANCE. Pro-
ceedings, American Electric Railway Engineering Association, 1911, p. 342.
(Includes discussion referring to depreciation.)
Abstract. Electric Raihcay Journal, v. 38. p. 766 (Oct. 12. 1911).
RESOLUTION ON DEPRECIATION AND PUBLICITY. Street Railway Journal, v.
31, p. 789 (May 9, 1908). (Resolutions of the Iowa Street and Interurban
Association ; very brief.)
ROLLING STOCK DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Street Railway Journal, v. 30,
p. 240 (Aug. 17, 1907),
SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Elec-
tric Railway Reviexc, v 17, p. 144 (Feb. 2. 1907). (Method of accounting
for depreciation.)
90 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS— GENERAL — (Continued).
SPECIAL REPORTS, STREET AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS, 1907, p. 165. United
States Bureau of the Census. Washington, 1910. (Definition, object and meth-
ods allowing for depreciation in electric railway property and estimated per
cent, for depreciation allowed by the Chicago Union Traction Co., the Third
Avenue R. R. of New York, and the Milwaukee Electric Ry. & Light Co.)
STREET "RAILWAY ACCOUNTING; by A. S. Michenner. Stone and Webster Pub-
lic Service Journal, v. 3, p. 92 (Aug., 1908). (Paper read before the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology ; refers to classification of accounts, including
allowance for depreciation.)
A THEORETICAL BASIS FOR DETERMINING FARES ON PROPERTIES HAVING
Annual Gross Earnings of from $100 000 to $5 000 000 ; by C. N. Duffy. Pro-
ceedings, American Electric Railway Association, 1912, p. 246. (Data on
cost of providing the service.)
Abstract. Electric Railway Journal, v. 40, p. 1103 (Nov. 30, 1912).
TRAMWAY DEPRECIATION; by A. J. J. Pfeiffer. Tramway and Railway World,
v. 28, p. 61 (Aug. 4, 1910). (A discussion of the subject from the .viewpoint
of conditions in Great Britain; theoretical.)
TRAMWAYS DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Municipal Journal (Loudon) v. 11.
p. 2S7 (April 4, 1902). (Discussion of necessary allowance for depreciation
in street railways.)
TREATMENT OF DEPRECIATION OF STREET RAILWAY PROPERTIES; by Frank
R. Ford. Engineering-Contracting, v. 38, p. 560 ' (June 15, 1910). (From a
paper read before the American Street and Interurban Railway Association,
January, 1910; three pages.)
Electric Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 284 (Feb. 12, 1910).
*UNIFORM CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS FOR ELECTRIC RAILWAYS, PRE-
scribed by the Railroad Commission of Wisconsin, January, 1909. Edition 2.
Madison, Wis., 1912. (Includes treatment of reserve accounts, depreciation,
sinking fund and amortization.)
VALUATION AND RATES. (Editorial.) Street Railway Journal, v. 30, p. 307
(Aug. 31, 1907). (On the similarity of street and steam railroad valuation;
one and one-half columns.)
VALUATION OF A SHORT-TERM FRANCHISE. (Editorial.), Electric Railway
Review, v. 17, p. 313 (March 9, 1907). (Should reconstruction and renewals
be charged to capital accounts or provided for out of earnings, etc.)
VALUATION OF INTANGIBLE STREET RAILWAY PROPERTY; by Frank R. Ford
In "Electric Railway Transportation," p. 119. Annals, American Academy of
Political and Social Science, v. 37, No. .1 (Jan., 1911). (Twenty-two pages.)
WHERE MAINTENANCE ENDS AND DEPRECIATION BEGINS; by J. H. Neal.
Proceedings, American Street and Interurban Railway Accountants' Association.
1907, p. 195. (Discusses the relation between maintenance and depreciation.)
Street Railway Journal, v. 30, p. 700 (Oct. 19, 1907).
WORK OF VALUATION OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY PROPERTY; by H. R. Ralph
Badger. Electric Traction Weekly, v. 6, p. 197 (Feb. 19, 1910). (Methods
of determining physical and intangible values.)
United States Interstate Commerce Commission.
ACCOUNTING CIRCULAR OF THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION. Elec-
tric Railway Review, v. 19, p. 266 (Feb. 29, 1908). (Classification of ac-
counts for electric railways, including depreciation accounts, from Circular
No. 20 of the U. S. Interstate Commerce Commission.),
ACCOUNTING FOR DEPRECIATION AS PRESCRIBED BY THE INTERSTATE COM-
merce Commission. (Editorial.) Electric Railway Review, v. 18, p. 32 (July
13, 1907). (Comments on paper by H. J. Davies, who outlined a method of
providing for depreciation or renewal reserves for an electric railway.)
CONFERENCE ON STANDARD ACCOUNTS WITH THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE
Commission. Street Railway Journal, v. 31, p. 860 (May 23, 190S). (Tenta-
tive classification of operating expenses of electric railways.)
HEARING ON DEPRECIATION OF EQUIPMENT ACCOUNTS. Street Railway Bulle-
tin, v. 7, p. 390 (July, 1908). (Committee of the American Railway Associa-
tion; hearing before the Interstate Commerce Commission.)
THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE CLASSIFICATION. (Letter) ; by H. M. Kocher-
sperger. Street Railway Journal, v. 31, p. 729 (May 2. 1908). (On the in-
applicability of the classification to electric railways.)
INTERSTATE COMMERCE CLASSIFICATION. (Letter) ; by Thomas Yapp, Assist-
ant Secretary, Minnesota Railroad and Warehouse Commission Electric Rail-
way Journal, v. 32, p. 124 (June 20, 1908). (Contains opinion on deprecia-
tion accounts.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 91
STREET AND 1NTERURBAN RAILROADS— GENERAL— (Continued).
THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS. (Letter) ; by
W. W. May. Street Railway Journal, v. 31, p. 613 (April 11, 1908). (Ob-
jections to the system of accounting prescribed in Accounting Circular No. 20,
U. S. Interstate Commerce Commission.)
MILWAUKEE ELECTRIC RAILWAY & LIGHT COMPANY'S REPLY TO ACCOUNT-
ing Circular; by C. N. Duffy. Electric Railway Journal, v. 19, p. 419 (April 4.
1908). (Reply to Accounting Series Circular No. 20 of the U. S. Interstate
Commerce Commission.)
REPORT ON INTERSTATE ACCOUNTING SYSTEM; by H. E. Adams. Electric
Railioay Journal, v. 34, p. 218 (Aug. 7, 1909). (Statement regarding the
classification of accounts of electric railways required by the Interstate Com-
merce Commission with paragraphs on depreciation and valuation.)
REVISED CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS FOR ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. Electric
Railway Review, v. 19, p. 624 (May 23, 1908). (Classification of the Inter-
State Commerce Commission, effective as of Oct. 1, 1908.)
SUIT AGAINST CLASSIFICATION OF ADDITIONS AND BETTERMENTS OF THE
Interstate Commerce Commission. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 1067
(Nov. 18, 1911). (One-half column.)
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS— SPECIAL CASES.
Augusta-Aiken Ry. & Electric Co.
INSURANCE FUND AND DEPRECIATION RESERVES. (Letter):, by John Blair
MacAfee. Street Railway Review, v. 15, p. 292 (May 15, 1905). (Plans of
the Augusta-Aiken Ry. & Electric Co. for taking care of depreciation.)
Boston Elevated Ry.
HEARING ON ELECTRIC RAILWAY MAIL PAY. Electric Railway Journal, v. 41,
p. 291 (Feb. 15, 1913). (Details of estimated cost of operation of present
type of mail car on Boston Elevated Ry. ; car, power, track investment, etc. ;
includes per cent, allowed for depreciation in each case.)
Brooklyn, N. Y.
ALLOWANCE FOR OBSOLESCENCE UPHELD IN FRANCHISE TAX CASE. Elec-
tric Railway Journal, v. 36, p. 1154 (Dec. 10, 1910). (Decision of New York
Supreme Court in favor of Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co. ; one-half page.)
APPROXIMATE VALUE PLACED ON PHYSICAL PROPERTY OF BROOKLYN
Transit System. Electric Railway Journal, v. 34, p.- 1261 ; v. 35, pp. 156, 248
(Dec. 25, 1909; Jan. 22, Feb. "5. 1910). (Testimony of B. J. Arnold and
T. S. Williams before New York Public Service Commission.)
HEARING ON VALUATION OF CONEY ISLAND AND BROOKLYN R. R. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 34, pp. 377, 398, 437, 469, 878, 1108, 1148, 1188. 1263;
v. 35, pp. 104, 460 (Sept. 4, 11, 18, 25, Oct. 16, Nov. 27, Dec. 4, 11, 25, 1909;
Jan. 15, March 12, 1910). (Hearing before the New York Public Service Com-
mission, First District.)
MAY RESERVE FUND TO RENEW OBSOLETE EQUIPMENT. Electric Traction
Weekly, v. 6, p. 1473 (Dec. 31, 1910). (Decisions' of the Supreme Court at
Albany that there may be a deduction for obsolescence as distinguished from
depreciation in connection with the valuation of special franchise of the
Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co.)
*RE MacREYNOLDS V. BROOKLYN UNION ELEVATED RAILROAD COMPANY
(Case 353). Reports and Decisions of the Public Service Commission, First
District of the State of New York, v. 2, p. 246. New York, 1912. (Relation
of fares and the valuation of Brooklyn Union Elevated. R. R. Co.)
*RE MONHEIMER V. CONEY ISLAND & BROOKLYN RAILROAD COMPANY
(Case 350). Reports and Decisions of the Public Service Commisison, First
.District of the State of New York, v. 1 p. 705. New York, 1912. (Valuation
of the Coney Island & Brooklyn R. R. Co. in relation to fares.)
* A Ten-cent Fare to Coney Island Upheld by Public Service Commission
Electric Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 456 (March 12, 1912). (Decision of Com-
mission after considering the testimony as to the value of the Brooklyn Rapid
Transit Co.)
THEORY OF STREET RAILWAY RATE REGULATION AS DEVELOPED IN THE
Coney Island Fare Case ; by Frank R. Ford. Proceedings, American Street and
Interurban Railway Association, v. 29, p. 159 (1910). (On valuation:
twelve pages.)
Electric Railway Journal, v. 36, pp. 712. 752 (Oct. 12, 1910).
92 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS— SPECIAL CASES— (Continued).
Buffalo, N. Y.
DEPRECIATION CHARGES OF THE INTERNATIONAL TRACTION COMPANY.
(Editorial.) Electric Railway Review, v. 19, p. 472 (April 18, 1908). (The
definite policy of the International Traction Co. of Buffalo, in accounting cur-
rently for depreciation.)
FURTHER TESTIMONY IN BUFFALO REORGANIZATION CASE; by F. A. Sager.
Electric Railway Journal, v. 39, p. 246 (Feb. 10, 1912). (Reviews methods"
followed in the inventory of the physical property of the International Traction
Co.)
HEARING IN BUFFALO ON INTERNATIONAL TRACTION REORGANIZATION.
Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, pp. 910, 991 (Oct. 21, Nov. 4, 1911). (An
account of the methods used by B. J. Arnold in determining the cost to produce
new the physical property of the International Traction Co. of Buffalo.)
Editorial. Values Claimed by the Buffalo Plan. Electric Railway Journal, v.
38, p. 976 (Nov. 4, 1911).
California.
*ORDER OF CALIFORNIA COMMISSION REQUIRING VALUATIONS OF ELECTRIC
Railways. Electric Railway Journal, v. 40, p. 1027 (Nov. 16, 1912).
Cardiff, Wales.
CARDIFF TRAMWAYS FINANCE. Electrical Engineer, v. 44, p. 879 (Dec. 24,
1909). (Discusses depreciation of electric railway at Cardiff.)
DFPRECIATION, INTERESTING REPORT FROM CARDIFF. Municipal Journal
(London), v. 16 p. 1083 (Dec. 20, 1907). (Allowance for depreciation con-
sidered to represent fair wear and tear.)
DEPRECIATION OF CARDIFF ELECTRIC TRAMWAY AND LIGHTING UNDERTAK-
ings. Electric Railway Review, v. 19, p. 16 (Jan. 4, 1908). (Abstract from
Electrical Engineer (London) giving details of depreciation of equipment.)
DEPRECIATION OF CARDIFF PROPERTIES. Electric Railway Journal, v. 36, p.
409 (Sept. 10, 1910). (Brief report on the street railway of Cardiff in rela-
tion to depreciation.)
TRACK DEPRECIATION AT CARDIFF; by John Allcock. Tramway and Railway
World, v. 27, p. 30 (Jan. 6, 1910). (Brief statement.)
Chicago, III.
THE BASIS OF VALUATION IN THE CASE OF MUNICIPAL PURCHASE OF STREET
Railways ; by Sidney Ossoski. Electric Railway Journal, v. 36, p. 999 (Nov. 12,
1910). (Discusses methods of valuation using street railways of Chicago and
Cleveland as examples ; two pages.)
CHICAGO ELEVATED RAILWAY VALUATION. Electric Railway Journal, v. 39,
p. 1087 (June 22, 1912). (Elements entering into the value of each piece of
property in real estate valuation.)
Abstracts. Reports of Appraisal of the Physical Properties of the Elevated
Railways of Chicago. Engineering ai\d Contracting, v. 37 (May 15, 1912) ; The
Valuation of the Elevated Railroads of Chicago. Engineering Record, v. 65, p.
552 (May 18, 1912).
Editorial. Engineering Record, v. 65, p. 534 (May 18, 1912). (Very brief.)
CHICAGO ELEVATED RAILWAYS, REPORT ON VALUATION OF PHYSICAL
Property Including Real Estate and Rights of Way of the South Side Elevated
Railroad Company, Metropolitan West Side Elevated Railway Company, North-
western Elevated Railroad Company and Chicago & Oak Park Elevated Rail-
road Company, to the Local Transportation Committee of the City Council of
Chicago, April 30, 1912, Reprinted May 9, 1912, with the Addition of the
Final Figures of the Valuation Commission ; by George F. Swain. Chicago, 1912.
CHICAGO ELEVATED RAILWAYS VALUATION. Electric Railway Journal, v. 39,
p. 919 (June 1, 1912). (Analysis of right-of-way values.)
CHICAGO VALUATIONS — AGREEMENTS TO TERMS BY COMPANIES. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 28, p. 1164 (Dec. 22, 1906). (Abstract of the report of
'B. J. Arnold, M. E. Cooley and A. B. du Pont, on valuation of the Chicago
City Ry. Co. and the Chicago Union Traction Co.)
DEPRECIATION AND CHICAGO VALUATION FIGURES. (Editorial Correspond-
ence.) Electric Traction Weekly, v. 8, p. 584 (May 18, 1912).
DETAILED EXHIBITS OF THE TANGIBLE PROPERTY OF THE CHICAGO CITY
Railway Company as of June 30, A. D., 1906, Accompanying the Valuation Re-
port Submitted to the Committee on Local Transportation of the Chicago City
Council ; by Blon J. Arnold, Mortimer E. Cooley and A. B. du Pont. Chicago,
1906.
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 93
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS — SPECIAL CASES — (Continued).
DETAILED EXHIBITS OF THE TANGIBLE PROPERTY OF THE STREET RAILWAY
System in the Possession of and Operated by the Receivers of the Chicago
Union Traction Company as of June 30, A. D., 1906, Accompanying the Valua-
tion Report Submitted to the Committee on Local Transportation of the Chicago
City Council ; by Bion J. Arnold, Mortimer E. Cooley and A. B. du Pont. Chi-
cago, "1906.
ELEMENTS OF VALUE IN A STREET RAILWAY. Railroad Gazette, v. 41, p.
567 (Dec. 28, 1906). (Valuation of the Chicago street railways by a commis-
sion prior to their purchase by the city; one page.)
ELEVATED VALUES IN CHICAGO. (Editorial.) Electric Railway Journal, v. 39,
p. 817 (May 18, 1912).
ESTIMATED COST OF CABLE RAILWAYS IN CHICAGO. Engineering and Con-
tracting, v. 37, p. 338 (March 20, 1912). (Cost of reproducing cable railway
new as estimated by Bion J. Arnold.)
ITEMIZED UNIT COSTS OF 98 SPECIAL OVERHEAD LAYOUTS FOR A TROLLEY
Railway. Engineering-Contracting, v. 34, p. 335 (Oct. 19, 1910). (Inventory
made by the Traction Valuation Commission of Chicago.)
MAINTENANCE AND DEPRECIATION CHARGES OF THE CHICAGO UNION TRAC-
tion Company. Electric Railway Review, v. 17, p. 247 (Feb. 23, 1907). (The
policy of the City of Chicago, in allowing for depreciation in street railway
property.)
Editorial. Amount of Maintenance and Depreciation Charges. Electric Railway
Review, v. 17, p. 244 (Feb. 23, 1907).
METHODS OF CONDUCTING THE VALUATION OF THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
of the Chicago Consolidated Traction Co., with Summaries of Costs ; by Philip
J. Kealy. Engineering-Contracting, -v. 34, pp. 274, 295 (Sept. 28, Oct. 5, 1910).
(The valuation covers only that portion of the system within the city limits ;
describes methods and costs of track and power-house valuation and data of the
electric power distribution.)
OPERATIONS OF THE COMPANIES UNDER THE 1907 ORDINANCES (CHICAGO).
Electric Railway Journal, v. 40, p. 525 (Oct. 5, 1912). (Comparative values of
street railways of Chicago, Commission's and Companies' estimates.)
RENEWALS AS DEFINED BY THE BOARD OF SUPERVISING ENGINEERS, CHI-
cago Traction. Electric Railway Journal, v. 37, p. 374 (March 4, 1911).
(Classification of renewals of track, equipment, buildings and bridges.)
REPORT ON THE ENGINEERING AND OPERATING FEATURES OF THE CHICAGO
Transportation Problem, Submitted to the Committee on Local Transportation
of the Chicago City Council, p. 182 ; by Bion Joseph Arnold. Chicago, 1902.
(Gives unit price estimates,- valuation estimates, valuations under expiring
grants, and cost of estimates; fifty-five pages.)
REPORT ON THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND INTANGIBLE VALUES OF THE
Calumet Electric Street Railway Company and the South Chicago City Rail-
way Company as of February 1, A. p., 1908, Submitted to. the Committee on
Local Transportation of the Chicago City Council ; by Bion J. Arnold. Chicago.
1908. 3 v. (General summary of value of physical property and detailed
exhibits.)
STREET RAILWAY APPRAISAL METHODS AT CHICAGO. (Editorial.) Engi-
neering Record, v. 62, p. 501 (Oct. 29, 1910). (Four columns.)
TWO REPORTS SUBMITTED TO COUNCIL COMMITTEE ON VALUES OF CHICAGO
Elevated Railways. Electric Raihoay Journal, v. 39, p. 797 (May 11, 1912).
(Comparison of reports by George F. Swain and the one submitted by the
Harbor and Subway Commission.)
UNIT PRICES USED IN THE FIRST APPRAISAL OF ELECTRIC RAILWAYS IN
Chicago. Engineering and Contracting, v. 37, p. 393 (April 3, 1912). (De-
tailed estimate of cost of street railway property in Chicago.)
VALUATION OF THE PROPERTY OF THE CHICAGO CONSOLIDATED TRACTION
Co. ; by B. J. Arnold and George W. Weston. Engineering News, v. 64, p. 241
(Sept. 1, 1910). (Short paragraph.)
VALUATION OF TWO STREET RAILWAY POWER PLANTS. Engineering-Con-
tracting, v. 34, p. 280 (Sept. 28, 1910). (Part of the property of the Chicago
Consolidated Traction Co.; two pages.)
VALUATION REPORTS ON CHICAGO ELEVATED ROADS. (Editorial Corre-
spondence.) Electric Traction Weekly, v. 8, p. 556 (May 11, 1912).
VALUATIONS OF CHICAGO ELEVATED RAILWAYS. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 39, p. 829 (May 18, 1912). (Detail figures and summaries of the ex-
planatory statements made in connection with the two valuations.)
VALUE OF PROPERTY OF THE CHICAGO CONSOLIDATED TRACTION COM-
pany. Electric Railway Journal, v. 36, pp. 309, 374, 1111 (Aug. 20, Sept.
3, Dec. 3, 1910). (Valuation made by Bion J. Arnold and George W. Weston.).
94 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS— SPECIAL CASES — (Continued).
Cleveland, Ohio. . ■
ARBITRATION OF OPERATING EXPENSE CHARGES IN CLEVELAND. Electric
Railway Journal, V. 41, p. 925 (May 24, 1913). (Includes brief reference to
depreciation of the railway plant, and maintenance, renewal and depreciation
fund.)
DECISION OF ARBITRATOR IN CLEVELAND CONTROVERSY. Electric Railway
Journal, v. 34, p. 1237 (Dec. 25, 1909). (Findings of Judge Taylor in the
Cleveland Street Railway valuation.)
DECISION OF BOARD OF ARBITRATION IN THE CLEVELAND CASE. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 41, p. 1159 (June 28, 1913). (Text of the finding, includ-
ing allowance for maintenance, renewal and depreciation.)
Editorial. The Arbitrated Result in Cleveland. Electric Railway Journal, v.
41. p. 1134 (June 28, 1913).
DEPRECIATION IN CLEVELAND. Street Railway Journal, v. 29, p. 743 (April
27, 1907). (On depreciation of track- and cars; abstract from report of the
Cleveland Electric Ry. Co.)
FINAL TESTIMONY AND ARGUMENTS IN THE CLEVELAND CASE. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 41. p. 1070 (June 14, 1913). (Denreciation in the value
of the property shown by tables submitted by Henry J. Davies.)
MAINTENANCE PROVISIONS OF CLEVELAND ORDINANCE; by H. J. Davies. Elec-
tric Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 614 (April 2, 1910). (Provisions for main-
tenance of physical property of Cleveland Ry. Co. determined in granting new
franchise ordinance.)
OPERATION OF THE CLEVELAND STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM BY A NEW COM-
pany. Electric Railxcay Journal, v. 32, p. 433 (Aug. 8, 1908). (Provisions for
maintenance and renewal fund in lease.)
TESTIMONY IN CLEVELAND VALUATION. Electric Railway Journal, v. 34, pp.
1024, 1068, 1159 (Nov. 13. 20, Dec. 4, 1909). (Opinions on valuation of the
Cleveland Street Railway given by Frank R. Ford, Bion J. Arnold and others
before Judge Taylor ol the United States Circuit Court.)
VALUATION OF THE CLEVELAND ELECTRIC RAILWAY. Electric Railway Re-
view, v. 19, p. 149 (Feb. 1, 1908). (Values of physical property, overhead
charges, franchises, etc. ; two pages.)
Detroit'. Mich.
APPRAISAL OF THE CITY LINES OF THE DETROIT UNITED RAILWAY. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 41, p. 897 (May 17, 1913). (Methods and summary of
valuation.)
REPORT AND APPRAISAL OF THE DETROIT UNITED RAILWAY (CITY LINES),
Detroit. Michigan, Oct. 1, 1909 ; by Frederick T. Barcroft. Detroit, 1910.
(Contains brief data on method of making appraisal.)
Abstract. The Appraisal Value of the Electric Street Railways of Detroit,
Mich. Engineering-Contracting, v. 34, pp. 16, 35 (July 6, 13, 1910).
Editorial. Noteworthy Article on Electric Street Railway Appraisal. Engineer-
ing-Contracting, v. 34, p. 1 (July 6, 1910).
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF FIFTY. Electric Railway Journal, v. 36, pp.
Ill, 142 (July 16, 23, 1910). (Abstract of report of Committee to investigate
Detroit Street Railway situation ; contains brief references to the appraisal.)
REPORTS ON VALUATION OF DETROIT PROPERTY. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 34, p. 1077 (Nov. 20, 1909). (Brief comparison of the valuations made by
F. T. Barcroft and R. B. Rifenberick.)
RESULTS OF DETROIT INVESTIGATION. Electric Railway Journal, v. 34, p. 1276
(Dec. 25, 1909). (Concerning reports received by the Committee of Fifty on
the street railway valuation.)
A STATEMENT OF "FACTS" CONCERNING THE SO-CALLED "BARCROFT
Appraisal" of the Detroit United Railway Lines in the City of Detroit ; by
R. B. Rifenberick. Detroit, Mich., 1910. (A criticism of Mr. Bancroft's methods.)
THE VALUATION OF THE DETROIT STREET RAILWAYS. Engineering News,
v. 64, p. 212 (Aug. 25, 1910). (An explanation of the situation with com-
parison of valuations made for the City with those for the Company; two
pages.)
VALUATION OF THE TRACK OF THE DETROIT STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM.
Engineering News, v. 64, p. 249 (Sept. 8, 1910). (Explains methods used in
track valuation, including estimated value of twenty-one types of rail sections ;
one page.)
VALUATIONS OF THE DETROIT UNITED RAILWAY. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 36, pp. 258, 294 (Aug. 13, 20, 1910). (Review of the facts, statement of
the position of the Company regarding the Barcroft appraisal, brief abstract of
the Barcroft appraisal, and a statement by R. B. Rifenberick.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. »5
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS — SPECIAL CASES— (Continued).
Duluth, Minn.
DECISION OF WISCONSIN COMMISSION IN SUPERIOR CASES. Electric Raihcay
Journal, v. 40. p. 1067 (Nov. 23, 1912). (Data on valuation of property of
Duluth Street Ry. Co.)
Eastern Ry. £ Light Co. See Fond du Lac, Wis.
Europe.
DEPRECIATION AS APPLICABLE TO ELECTRIC RAILWAYS; by Haselmann.
Electric Railway Journal, v. 28, p. 1003 (Nov. 24, 1906). (Abstract of a
paper read before the International Street and Interurban Railway Association .
giving methods of depreciation accounting in Europe; three pages.)
DEPRECIATION FUNDS IN EUROPE. Electric Raihcay Journal, v. 23, p. 696 (May
7, 1904). (Gives allowances made for depreciation.)
Editorial. Depreciation. Electric Raihcay Journal, v. 23, p. 760 (May 21,
1904).
Fond du Lac, Wis.
*EXISTING FARES OF WISCONSIN ROAD UPHELD BY COMMISSION AFTER A
Valuation. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 193 (July 9, 1911). (Valuation
of electric railway properties and division of valuation between city and
interurban systems ; decision of the Railroad Commission of Wisconsin in a
fare case involving the Eastern Ry. & Light Co. of Fond du Lac.)
Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville R. R.
LIFE OF RAILWAY PHYSICAL PROPERTY FROM THE ENGINEERING STAND-
point; by F. A. Bagg. Electric Raihcay Journal, v. 38. p. 1205 (Dec. 9, 1911).
(Paper read before Street Railway Association of State "of New York; dis-
cusses life of track and overhead lines and gives data regarding Fonda, Johns-
town & Gloversville R. R. ; one page.)
Discussion. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 1210 (Dec. 9, 1911).
Glasgow, Scotland.
DEPRECIATION. (Editorial.) Electrician, v. 61, p. 744 (Aug. 28, 1908). (Prac-
tice of Glasgow Corporation Tramways.)
GLASGOW AND DEPRECIATION. Municipal Journal (London), v. 12, p. 795
(Sept. 4, 1903). (Very brief itemized statement of allowance for depreciation
by Glasgow Corporation Tramways.)
GLASGOW TRAMWAYS. Municipal Journal (London), v. 14, p. 896 (Aug. 11.
1905). (Analysis of accounts of Glasgow Tramways, including allowance for
depreciation.)
TREATMENT OF DEPRECIATION IN GLASGOW. Electric Railway Journal, v. 36.
p. 362 (Sept. 3, 1910). (Discussion of the treatment of depreciation in ac-
counts in report of the Glasgow Corporation Tramways.)
VALUATION OF GLASGOW TRAMWAYS. Tramway and Railway World, v. 27.
p. 353 (May 5, 1910). (Decision in the appeal of the Glasgow Corporation
Tramways against compulsory valuation.)
Great Britain.
B. E. T. DEPRECIATION. Municipal Journal (London), v. 16, p. 449 (May 24,
1907) ; v. 17, p. 459 (June 5, 1908). (Per cent, allowed for depreciation by
sixteen British street railway companies.)
DEPRECIATION AND PERMANENT RENEWAL FUND; by William R. Bowker.
Street Railway Bulletin, v. 6. p. 298 (May. 1907). (On the amount to be
allowed for depreciation in street railroad property, giving cities of Manchester,
Glasgow, Leeds, Bolton, and Wolverhampton, as examples.)
POLICY OF ENGLISH MUNICIPAL TRAMWAYS RESPECTING RENEWALS. Elec-
tric Raihcay Journal, v. 38, p. 661 (Oct. 7, 1911). (Two pages.)
RULES ON DEPRECIATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. Electric Railway Journal, v. 34,
p. 476 (Sept. 25, 1909). (Allowances for depreciation in electric railway un-
dertakings; one page.)
Illinois.
REPORT OF THE ILLINOIS TRACTION SYSTEM. (Editorial.) Electric Railway
Journal, v. 36, p. 353 (Sept. 3, 1910). (Refers to annual allowance for de-
preciation.)
Kansas City, Mo.
DEPRECIATION CHARGES IN KANSAS CITY. (Editorial.) Electric Railway
Journal, v. 36, p. 424 (Sept. 17. 1910). (On provision for depreciation made
by the Kansas City Ry. & Light Co. ; one paragraph.)
PEPORT ON STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM OF KANSAS CITY. Electric Railway
Journal v. 41, p. 716 (April 19, 1913). (An investigation of the value
of the property and its apportionment between the different municipalities
96 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS— SPECIAL CASES— (Continued),
REPORT ON THE VALUE OF THE PROPERTIES OF THE METROPOLITAN STREET
Railway System of KaDsas City, v. 1 ; by Bion J. Arnold. Kansas City, Mo.,
1913. (Report of Commission to investigate the capital value of the properties,
various elements of such value, and how it shall be apportioned between the
municipalities in a contract for a new franchise.)
A STREET-RAILWAY VALUATION. Engineering News, v. 69, p. 1053 (May 22,
1913). (Valuation of the street railway lines of Kansas City, Mo., by Bion J.
Arnold; values found and various elements thereof and comparison with the
values computed under four different methods.)
J\okomo, Marion & Western Traction Co.
DEPRECIATION ACCOUNT OF THE KOKOMO, MARION & WESTERN TRACTION
Company*. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 156 (July 22, 1911). (An arbi-
trary charge of a certain per cent, against each class or division of the prop-
erty was adopted, to provide for current replacements and future requirements
on account of losses due to age and wear ; about the same percentages as are
used by the Wisconsin Railroad Commission; one page.)
Lincoln, Nebr.
*TESTIMONY ON DEPRECIATION BEFORE NEBRASKA COMMISSION; by Edward
W. Bemis. Electric Railicay Journal, v. 35, p. 441 (March 12. 1910). (Testi-
mony in relation to the consolidation of the properties comprising the Lincoln
Traction Co.)
London, England.
LONDON TRAMWAY DEPRECIATION ALLOWANCE FOR INCOME TAX. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 274 (Feb. 12, 1910). (Very brief statement.)
Middlesex <£ Boston Street Ry.
LIABILITIES ON WHICH PROPER RETURNS SHOULD BE ALLOWED. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 34, p. 464. (Sept. 25, 1909). (Hearing before Massachu-
setts Board of Railroad Commissioners ; discussion of the basis on which the
value of the property of the Middlesex & Boston Street Ry. should be com-
puted.)
Milwaukee Electric Ry. <f- Light Co.
*DECISION IN THE MILWAUKEE FARE CASE. Electric Railway Journal, v. 40,
p. 314 (Aug. 31, 1912). (Gives summary of physical valuation, going value,
treatment of allowance for depreciation, rate of return, etc., of Milwaukee Light,
Heat & Traction Co. and Milwaukee Electric Ry. & Light Co.)
DEPRECIATION AND RESERVE FUNDS IN MILWAUKEE. (Editorial.) Street,
Railway Journal, v. 26, p. 441 (Sept. 23, 1905). (Gives actual figures.)
DEPRECIATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES PROPERTIES. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 31, p. 169 (Feb. 1, 1908). (On the subject of depreciation in general, with
reference to Milwaukee street railways.)
Editorial. Depreciation. Electric Railway Journal, v. 31, p. 104 (Jan. 25,
1908).
DEPRECIATION RESERVES OF THE MILWAUKEE AND ST. LOUIS RAILWAYS.
Electric Railway Review, v. 17, p. 319 (March 9, 1907). (Comparison of total?
of maintenance and depreciation charges for fiscal year 1906, for street rail-
ways in Milwaukee, St. Louis, Chicago, and Glasgow.)
A DISCUSSION OF THE MILWAUKEE FARE DECISION. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 41, p. 110 (Jan. 18, 1913). (Discusses valuation of Milwaukee street
railway.)
THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY SYSTEM OF MILWAUKEE AND EASTERN WISCONSIN.
Street Railioay Journal, v. 15. p. 352 (June, 1899). (Provision of the Mil-
waukee Electric Ry. & Light Co., for depreciation and other reserves.)
Editorial. Street Railway Journal, v. 15, p. 369 (June, 1899).
'HEARINGS ON MILWAUKEE FARE CASE BY WISCONSIN RAILROAD COM-
mission. Electric Railway Journal, v. 32, p. 395 ; v. 33, pp. 419, 464, 499,
554, 640, 683, 729, 766, 955 (Aug. 1, 1908; March 6, 13, 20, 27; April
3, 10, 17, 24; May 22, 1909). (Testimony by many experts on the value of
the ^Milwaukee Electric Ry. & Light Co.'s property, allowances for deprecia-
tion, etc.)
Editorial. Electric Railway Journal, v. 33, pp. 452, 536 (March 13, 27, 1909).
THE MILWAUKEE FOUR=CENT FARE DECISION. Street Raihoay Journal, v. 14,
p 397 (July, 1898). (Opinions of William H. Seaman, United States Dis-
trict Judge, in the case of the Milwaukee Electric Ry. & Light Co. ; three
pages.)
Editorial. Street Railway Journal, v. 14, p. 381 (July, 1898).
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 97
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS — SPECIAL CASES — (.Continued).
♦VALUATION BY EARNINGS; by Frank W. Stevens. Public Service Regulation,
v. 1, p. 438 (July, 1912). (Opinion of Chairman, New York Public Service
Commission, Second District, in the application of the Westchester Street R. R.
Co. for authorization to issue capital stock.)
VALUE OF PROPERTY IN NEW YORK REORGANIZATION CASE. Electric Rail-
way Journal, v. 41, p. 381 (March 1, 1913). (Decision of the New York
Public Service Commission, Second District, in the case in which the West-
chester Street R. R. asked authority to issue capital stock.)
Newcastle, England.
DEPRECIATION AND RESERVES, WARNING TO NEWCASTLE. Tramway and
Railway World, v. 20, p. 258 (Sept. 6. 1906). (Discussion on the necessity
of reserve and renewal funds; statistical.)
Niagara Gorge' R. R.
TREATMENT OF DEPRECIATION ACCOUNTS OF NEW YORK PUBLIC SERVICE
Commission. Electric Railway Journal, v. 34, p. 1073 (Nov. 20, 1909).
(Rules adopted by the Niagara Gorge R. R.)
Philadelphia, Pa.
♦PENNSYLVANIA STATE RAILROAD COMMISSION IN THE MATTER OF THE
Complaints Against the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company ; Report to the
Commission by Ford, Bacon & Davis, March 7, 1911. 2 v. New York, 1911.
(Detailed report, comprising a series of tabulated statements, maps and dia-
grams on the physical valuation of the property of the Philadelphia RaDid
Transit Co.)
Puget Sound Electric Ry.
*FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE RAILROAD COMMISSIONER OF WASHINGTON
to the Governor Covering the Period from January 1 to November 1, 1910, p.
49. Olympia, Wash., 1910. (Refers to valuation of the Puget Sound Electric
Ry.)
VALUATION OF THE PUGET SOUND ELECTRIC RAILWAY; by Henry L. Gray.
Engineering-Contracting, v. 33, p. 482 (May 25, 1910). (Methods and details
of valuation of physical property; four pages.)
St. Louis, Mo.
DEPRECIATION FUND IN ST. LOUIS. (Editorial.) Electric Railway Journal,
v. 35, p. 433 (March 12, 1910). (One paragraph.)
LARGER DEPRECIATION FUND FOR ST. LOUIS. (Editorial.) Electric Railway
Journal, v. 37, p. 247 (Feb. 11, 1907). (Comments on the policy of the United
Railways Co. of St. Louis.)
*REPORT TO THE MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLY ON THE UNITED RAILWAYS COM=
pany of St. Louis by the St. Louis Public Service Commission ; by James E.
Allison. 2 v. Woodward & Tiernan Printing Co., St. Louis, 1912. (A state-
ment of the principles which in the opinion of the Commission should be the
basis of valuation and derails of physical valuation of the property ; Ap-
pendix A contains a discussion by James E. Allison, "Should Public Service
Properties be Depreciated to Obtain Fair Value in Rate or Regulation Cases?")
Abstracts. Report on United Railways of St. Louis. Electric Railway Journal.
v. 41, p. 24S (Feb. S, 1913) ; Finding Fair Value. Public Service Regulation.
v. 1, p. 716 (Nov., 1912).
San Francisco, Cal.
FINAL REPORT ON SAN FRANCISCO. Electric Railrcay Journal, v. 41, p. 844
(May 10, 1913). (Analysis of value of street railways of San Francisco; re-
'■"- port by Bion J. Arnold.)
Savannah, Ga.
DECISION OF COMMISSION UPHOLDING RATES OF FARE IN SAVANAH, GA.
Electric Railway Journal, v. 39, p. 663 (April 20, 1912). (Relates to value
of street railway property.)
Sheboygan, 'Wis.
*CITY OF SHEBOYGAN VS. SHEBOYGAN RAILWAY AND ELECTRIC COMPANY;
Submitted Oct. 18, 1910, Decided Feb. 3, 1911. In Opinions and De-
cisions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 6, p. 358.
Madison. Wis., 1912. (Contains table of valuation of the physical property
of the Sheboygan Ry. & Electric Co.)
Spokane & Inland Empire R. R. System.
APPRAISAL OF THE SPOKANE AND INLAND EMPIRE ELECTRIC RAILROAD
System; by Henry L. Gray. Engineering and Contracting, v. 36, p. 696 (Dec.
27, 1911). (Contains tables of cost of reproduction, depreciation, etc. ; deals
with methods adopted to determine the correctness of the allegation concern-
ing the insufficiency of present rates.)
98 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS— SPECIAL CASES— (Continued)
*RE METROPOLITAN STREET RAILWAY COMPANY REORGANIZATION (CASE
1305). Reports of Decisions of the Public Service Commission, First District
of the State of New York, v. 3, p. 113. New York, 1912. (Estimates of valu-
ation of property.)
*RE 2ND REORGANIZATION PLAN OF 3RD AVE. R. R. CO. (CASE 1181). Reports
of Decisions of the Public Service Commission, First District of the State of
New York, v. 2, p. 390. New York, 1912. (Report on valuation of the
property of the Third Avenue R. R. Co.)
♦REPORT OF A COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF ESTIMATE AND APPORTION-
ment and of the Public Service Commission for the First District with Rela-
tion to Pending Proposals for Rapid Transit Lines (1911). Proceeding*-
Public Service Commission for the First District, State of New York v fi'
pp. 378, 399, 488 (June 27, 30. July 21, 1911). New York, 1912. '(Esti-
mated value of proposed New York Subway.)
♦THE RETURN ON THE INVESTMENT IN THE SUBWAY OF THE INTERBOROUGH
Rapid Transit Company of New York City, Submitted to the Public Service
Commission for the First District of the State of New York, Report No 7
Dec. 31, 1908; by Bion J. Arnold. New York, 1908. (Analysis of earnings
and expenses, depreciation, etc.)
♦SECOND CONDENSATION OF OPERATING ACCOUNTS FOR NEW YORK ROADS.
Electric Railway Journal, v. 33, p. 67 (Jan. 9, 1909). (Classification of ac-
counts made by New York Public Service Commission, First District ; includes
depreciation and treatment of appreciation.)
TENTATIVE CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS PREPARED BY NEW YORK PUBLIC
Service Commission. Electric Railway Journal, v. 32, p. 349 (July 25, 1908).
(The classification provides for two accounts to cover depreciation, one under
maintenance of way and structures and one under maintenance of equipment.)
TREATMENT OF DEPRECIATION ACCOUNTS BY INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT
Co. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 280 (Aug. 12, 1911). (One page.)
♦TREATMENT OF DEPRECIATION AND MAINTENANCE IN GREATER NEW YORK.
Electric Railway Journal, v. 39, p. 539 (April 6, 1912). (Table of rates of
depreciation adopted by street and electric railway companies in accordance
with the uniform system of accounts prescribed by the Public Service Com-
mission of the First District.)
VALUATION OF STREET RAILWAY PROPERTIES. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 33, p. 1122 (June 19, 1909). (Relates more particularly to the street rail-
ways of New York City; two and one-half pages.)
New York State.
♦ACCOUNTS PRESCRIBED BY NEW YORK PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION,
Second District. Electric Railway Journal, v. 32, p. 1373 (Nov. 14, 1908).
(Provision is made for the treatment of depreciation in two primary operating
expense accounts.)
BRIEF ON ACCOUNTING SCHEME SUBMITTED TO PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION,
Second District, on Behalf of New York State Association. Electric Railway
Review, v. 19, p. 591 (May 16, 1908). (Protest against requiring same
methods of accounting for steam and electric railways and reasons for the
protest).
INQUIRY BY PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION CONCERNING DEPRECIATION
Accounts. Electric Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 793 (April 30, 1910). (Circular
letter of inquiry issued to street railroad and electrical corporations, by the
New York Public Service Commission, Second District; very brief.)
♦JOINT HEARING ON UNIFORM ACCOUNTS FOR NEW YORK ELECTRIC ROADS.
Electric Railway Journal, v. 32, p. 439 (Aug. 8, 1908). (Statement of H. J.
Pierce, President of the International Ry. Co. of Buffalo, on depreciation, and
of Howard Abel, Comptroller of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit System, on classi-
fication of accounts.)
RESOLUTIONS OF NEW YORK STATE ASSOCIATION CONCERNING TENTATIVE
Classifications. Electric Railway Review, v. 19, p. 378 (March 28, 1908).
(Relates to classification of the New York Public Service Commission, Second
District.)
♦SECdND CONDENSATION OF OPERATING EXPENSE ACCOUNTS FOR NEW YORK
Roads. Electric Railway Journal, v. 33, p. 67 (Jan. 9, 1909). (Scheme of
accounts prescribed by New York Public Service Commission, Second District,
for street railroads; three paragraphs relating to depreciation.)
♦STATE OF NEW YORK, SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE
Commission, Second District, for the Year Ending Dec. 31, 1908 ; v. 2, Uni-
form System of Accounts. Albany, 1909. (Classification of accounts for
street railroads, gas and electrical corporations ; general amortization account
including amount estimated for wear, tear and obsolescence of plant.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 99
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS— SPECIAL CASES— (Continued) .
VALUATION OF MILWAUKEE PROPERTIES. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38,
p. 160 (July 22, 1911). (Details of the values placed on the property of the
Milwaukee Electric Ry. & Light Co. by the Railroad Commission of Wis-
consin; very brief.)
Editorial. Electric Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 143 (July 22, 1911).
Milwaukee Northern Ry. Co.
*EDWARD J. CHROMASTER VS. MILWAUKEE NORTHERN RAILWAY COMPANY;
Submitted May 15, 1911, Decided March 12, 1912. In Opinions and Decisions
of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 8, p. 734. Madison,
Wis., 1912. (Table of total valuation of property of Milwaukee Northern Ry.
Co. and apportionment between city and interurban.)
Nebraska.
*PROPOSED DEPRECIATION ACCOUNT IN NEBRASKA. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 37, p. 919 (May 27, 1911). (Brief reference to hearing before the State
Railway Commission on proposed depreciation account for electric railways.)
*RULE FOR TREATMENT OF DEPRECIATION IN NEBRASKA. Electric Railway
Journal, v. 38, p. 990 (Nov. 4, 1911). (Rules adopted by State Railway Com-
mission to govern charges by electric railways, for maintenance, additions and
betterments; one-half page.)
New Jersey.
REQUEST FOR LOWER FARES DENIED BY NEW JERSEY COMMISSION. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 38, p. 1117 (Nov. 25, 1911). (Contains brief reference to
the value of street railway property and allowance for maintenance and depre-
ciation.)
STANDARD CLASSIFICATION OF STREET RAILWAY ACCOUNTS IN NEW JERSEY.
Electric Raihcay Review, v. 37, p. 273 (Feb. 11, 1911). (The adoption, with
two slight changes, of the standards of the American Electric Railway
Accountants Association in regard to depreciation.)
New York City.
ANOTHER THIRD AVENUE CHAPTER. (Editorial.) Electric Raihcay Journal.
v. 39, p. 230 (Feb. 10, 1912). (The Commission provides a plan for the
retirement of excessive capitalization of the property; very brief.)
^APPRAISAL OF THE NEW YORK SURFACE SYSTEMS. (Editorial.) Electric
Raihcay Journal, v. 32, p. Ill (June 20, 1908). (Discussion of the proposed
appraisal by the Public Service Commission ; one page.)
THE APPRAISAL OF THE THIRD AVENUE STREET RAILROAD SYSTEM, NEW
York City. Engineering and Contracting, v. 35, p. 666 (June 7, 1911). (Data
relating to the appraisal taken from a pamphlet entitled "Opinion Disapproving
Plan of Reorganization," July 29, 1910.)
AN ARBITRARY DEPRECIATION REQUIREMENT. (Editorial.) Railway World.
v. 56, p. 141 (Feb. 16. 1912). (On decision of the New York Public Service
Commission on the Third Avenue Ry.)
*LIFE OF ELEMENTS OF SUBWAY PROPERTY. Electric Raihvay Journal, v. 39,
p. 575 (April 6, 1912). (Estimates of E. G. Connette, Transportation Engi-
neer, New York Public Service Commission, First District.)
METROPOLITAN STREET RAILWAY REORGANIZATION. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 37, pp. 708, 756, 798, 876, 916, 976; v. 38, p. 240 (April 22, 29, May 6,
20, 27, June 3, Aug. 5, 1911). (Hearing before the New York Public Service
Commission, First District; testimony in relation to the value of the property.)
*OPINIONS OF COMMISSION IN THIRD AVENUE CASE. Electric Raihvay Journal,
v. 39, p. 237 (Feb. 10, 1912). (Opinions on mortgages and accounting,
amortization of discounts and depreciation of the Third Avenue R. R. property.)
PHYSICAL APPRAISAL OF THIRD AVENUE RAILROAD. Electric Railway Journal,
v. 35, p. 228 (Feb. 5, 1910). (Estimate by Henry Floy of the value of the
Third Avenue R. R. ; one-half page.)
PLAN FOR REORGANIZATION OF THIRD AVENUE ROAD DISAPPROVED BY
Commission. Electric Railway Journal, v. 36, p. 262 (Aug. 13, 1910). (Con-
tains statement regarding the value of the property; three pages.)
*RE AMORTIZATION ACCOUNTS OF THE THIRD AVENUE RAILWAY COMPANY
(Case 1181). Reports of Decisions of the Public Service Commission. First
District of the State of New York, v. 3, p. 51. New York, 1912. (Amortization
of discounts and depreciation.)
*RE BOND ISSUE OF NEW YORK & NORTH SHORE TRACTION COMPANY (CASE
1398). Reports of Decisions of the Public Service Commission. First District
of the State of New York, v. 3. p. 63. New York, 1912. (Discussion of valu-
ation of property of the New York & North Shore Traction Co.)
100 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS— SPECIAL CASES— (Continued).
Sunderland, England.
DEPRECIATION AT SUNDERLAND. Tramway and Railway World, v. 14, p. 478
(Nov. 12, 1903). (Estimated life and percentage set aside for depreciation
of equipment and permanent way of street railway at Sunderland, England.)
Toledo, Ohio.
INVENTORY OF PHYSICAL RAfLWAY PROPERTY OF TOLEDO COMPANY GIVEN
to City. Electric Railway Journal, v. 36, p. 990 (Nov. 12, 1910). (Letter from
Ford, Baton & Davis ; gives a list of the work and expense items ente'ring into
the construction cost which should be included in an appraisal; one page.)
Wausau, Wis.
♦DECISION OF WISCONSIN COMMISSION: CONSIDERS THE RATE OF RETURN.
Electric Railway Journal, v. 36, p. 404 (Sept. 10, 1910). (Statement in re-
gard to the valuation of the Wausau Street R. R. Co. ; one page.)
Wisconsin.
SOME PRINCIPLES ESTABLISHED BY THE WISCONSIN RAILROAD COMMISSION;
by Edwin S. Mack. Electric Railway Journal, v. 37, p. 164 (Jan. 28, 1911).
(Includes valuation; one page.)
♦SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS PRESCRIBED BY WISCONSIN RAILROAD COMMISSION.
Electric Railway Journal, v. 33, p. 1076 (June 12, 1909). (Includes pro-
vision for a depreciation fund ; two pages.)
♦WISCONSIN CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS. Electric Railway Journal, v. 34,
p. 366 (Sept. 4, 1909). (Gives slight changes from list published June 12,
1909, with extracts from introductory letter of the Commission.)
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS— UNVERIFIED
REFERENCES.
ACCOUNTING OF DEPRECIATION BY ELECTRIC RAILWAYS; by Robert N. Wallis.
Journal of Accountancy, May, 1907. (Discusses methods used and matters to
be considered in electric railway accounting.)
ALLOWANCE FOR MAINTENANCE TO COVER DEPRECIATION. Light Railway
and Tramway Journal (London), v. 21, p. 29 (July 2, 1909). (Details of
allowances as agreed between Council of Institute of Municipal Treasurers and
Accountants and the Inland Revenue Department for tramway and light rail-
ways as well as for municipal corporations.)
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY EXPENSES; by Willard Hubbard Law-
ton. Journal of Accountancy, v. 6, p. 114 (June, 1908).
COST OF CARRYING A PASSENGER; by C. L. S. Tingley. Street Railway Bulletin,
v. 4, p. 793 (Nov. 15, 1905). (Abstract.)
DEPRECIATION AND RENEWAL FUNDS IN RELATION TO TRAMWAYS UNDER-
takings; by G. W. Holford. Light Railway and Tramway Journal (London),
v. 15, p. 294 (Oct. 5, 1906). (Abstract of paper read before the Municipal
Tramways Association ; contains table showing provision made for depre-
ciation by street railways in sixty English cities.)
DEPRECIATION OF TRAMWAYS AND LIGHT RAILWAYS. Light Railway and
Tramway Journal (London), v. 21, p. 80 (Aug. 6, 1909).
DEPRECIATION PROBLEM OF ELECTRIC STREET RAILWAYS; by W. B. Jackson.
Public Service, Sept., 1911, p. 71.
LIFE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF CAR EQUIPMENT, BEFORE AND AFTER USING
Recording Wattmeters on Cars at Cape Town. Journal, Tramways and Light
Railway Association, Sept., 1911, p. 241.
MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRIC TRAMWAYS; by Bowker.
PHYSICAL VALUE SCHEDULES OF THE CLEVELAND ELECTRIC RAILWAY CO.
as of January 1, 1908.
REPORT OF THE STREET RAILWAY COMMISSION TO THE DETROIT COMMON
Council on the Valuation of the Street Railways of Detroit. Journal of the
Common Council, City of Detroit, 1899, p. 346.
REPORTING A STREET RAILWAY EXAMINATION (FROM THE CLIENT'S POINT
of View) ; by W. B. Brockway. Journal of Accountancy, v. 4, p. 16 (May,
1907).
STREET RAILWAY COSTS; by M. E. Cooley. Public Service, v. 6, p. 117 (April,
1909).
STREET RAILWAY FARES IN LARGE CITIES; by Howard S. Knowlton. Review
of Reviews, v. 32, p. 80 (July 1905).
STREET RAILWAY SETTLEMENT IN CLEVELAND; by E. W. Bemis. Quarterly
Journal of Economics, Aug., 1908. (Thirty-three pages.)
VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 101
STREET AND INTERURBAN RAILROADS UNVERIFIED REFERENCES-( Continued).
TRAMWAY BOOKKEEPING ACCOUNTS; by D. McGall.
VALUATION OF CLEVELAND RAILWAY CO.: LETTER OF DEC. 17, 1909, TO CITY
Council of Cleveland, Ohio, by, R. W. Taylor, as Arbitrator Between City and
Railways. (Copy in files, American Electric Railway Association.)
VALUATION OF PROPERTY OF RAILROADS IN THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
62d Cong., 2d Sess. Senate Doc. No. 335. (Letter in response to Senate
resolution of Feb. 14th, 1912.)
TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE.
AN ANALYSIS OF COST OF TELEPHONE SERVICE. Electrical World, v. 55,
p. 1243 (May 19, 1910). (One page.)
DEPRECIATION AND REPLACEMENT OF GROWING TELEPHONE PLANTS; by
Burke Smith. Journal, Western Society of Engineers, v. 17, p. 779 (Oct.,
1912). (Discusses renewal, life and depreciation of plant.)
Abstract. Depreciation and Replacement of Telephone Equipment. Electrical
Review and Western Electrician, v. 60, p. 790 (April 27, 1912). (Very brief.)
THE DEPRECIATION OF UNDERGROUND CABLES; by F. Fernie. Electrical
Review (London), v. 60, p. 577 (April 5, 1907). (Method of computing
depreciation of cables.)
DEPRECIATION OF UNDERGROUND CONDUITS, CABLES AND WIRES. Electric
Railway Journal, v. 33, p. 881 (May 8, 1909). (Classification of property of
the American Telephone & Telegraph Co. ; very brief.)
DETERMINATION OF TELEPHONE RATES FOR LARGE EXCHANGES; by William
H. Crumb. Journal, Western Society of Engineers, v. 12, p. 781 (Dec, 1907).
(On depreciation, with a table giving per cent, to be allowed to depreciation
account; one-half page.)
PLANT-INVENTORY AND VALUATION. Electrical World, v. 55, p. 295 (Feb. 3,
1910). (Abstract of paper by W. R. McGovern before the Wisconsin Electrical
Association covering in a general way methods of taking inventories of tele-
phone-exchange plants in Wisconsin.
Abstract and Discussion. Electric Railway Journal, v. 35, p. 184 (Jan. 29,
1910).
TELEPHONE CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND COST. Chicago, 1908. (Contains
cost data from the actual records of various telephone companies.)
*UNIFORM SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR TELEPHONE COMPANIES AS PRE-
scribed by the Interstate Commerce Commission, pp. 16, 34, 53, 66, 71, 77.
Washington, 1912. (Refers to treatment of depreciation.)
TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE— SPECIAL CASES.
Augusta, Wis.
*IN RE APPLICATION OF J. L. BALL FOR AUTHORITY TO INCREASE TELE=
phone Rates; Submitted Sept. 10, 3 907, Decided Nov. 25, 1907. In Opinions
and Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 2,
p. 105. Madison, Wis., 1909. (Brief reference to physical valuation.)
Boston, Mass.
REPORT TO THE MASSACHUSETTS HIGHWAY COMMISSION ON TELEPHONE
Rates for Boston and Suburban District; by D. C. and William B. Jackson.
Boston, 1910. (Diagrams, tables and maps; sixty-six pages.)
Chicago, III.
THE APPRAISAL OF THE CHICAGO TELEPHONE CO. AND A COMPARISON WITH
the Results of Three Similar Appraisals. (Editorial.) Engineering and Con-
tracting, v. 36, p. 269 (Sept. 13, 1911). (One column.)
APPRAISAL OF THE CHICAGO TELEPHONE COMPANY AND DETERMINATION
of Fair Rates of Charge ; by William J. Hagenah. Engineering-Contract-
ing, v. 36, pp. 289, 445, 473 (Sept. 13, Oct. 25, Nov. 1, 1911). (Method of
arriving at plant value, appraised value and income and operating expenses.)
REPORT ON THE TELEPHONE SITUATION IN THE CITY OF CHIGAGO IN RESPECT
to Service, Rates, Regulation of Rates, etc., Submitted to the Committee on
Gas, Oil and Electric Light of the City Council of the City of Chicago; by a
Special Committee, composed of Dugald C. Jackson, William H. Cruni, and
George W. Wilder, April, 1907. Chicago, 1907. (The Committee states that
it has endeavored to obtain data from Bell Telephone Companies of New
York and elsewhere, but rates seem to have been dictated by estimates based
on experience or the requirements of business expediency.)
102 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE— SPECIAL CASES— (Continued).
Clinton Telephone Co.
*B. B. TIQHE ET AL. VS. CLINTON TELEPHONE COMPANY; Submitted Oct. 10,
1908, Decided Dec. 2, 1908. In Opinions and Decisions of the Railroad Com-
mission of the State of Wisconsin, v. 3, p. 117. Madison, Wis., 1910.
(Refers to tentative valuation of physical property.)
Massachusetts.
SIXTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS HIQHWAY COMM1S-
sion, for the Fiscal Year ending Nov. 30, 1908, p. 158. Boston, 1909.
(Contains report by Dugald C. Jackson on the advisability of making an ap-
praisal of the New England Telephone & Telegraph Co.)
■ 17th, p. 211. Boston, 1910. (Contains a summary report of the results of
the inventory and appraisal of the New England Telephone & Telegraph Co.,
by D. C. and W. B. Jackson.)
TELEPHONE REPORT TO MASSACHUSETTS HIGHWAY COMMISSION. Electrical
World, v. 55, p. 984 (April 21, 1910). (Brief reference to report on the New
England Telephone & Telegraph Co., by D. C. and W. B. Jackson ; states that
this report on traffic and operating conditions, together with the appraisal
which appeared previously, is the most detailed analysis ever made of tele-
phone rates in an urban area of such scope.)
Michigan.
THE VALUATION AND TAXATION OF TELEPHONE COMPANIES IN MICHIGAN;
by W. J. Rice. Electrical World, v. 37, p. 196 (Feb. 2, 1901). (Two and one-
half pages.)
Portage, Wis.
*IN RE APPLICATION OF THE PORTAGE TELEPHONE COMPANY FOR AUTHOR-
ity to Increase Rates ; Submitted May 19, 1908, Decided Aug. 27, 1908. In
Opinions and Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the State of Wisconsin,
v. 2, p. 692. Madison, Wis., 1909. (Contains brief data on valuation.)
Seattle, Wash.
APPRAISAL OF THE PACIFIC TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH COMPANY OF
• Seattle; by Henry L. Gray. Engineering and Contracting, v. 36, p. 332 (Sept.
27, 1911). (Gives detailed estimate of cost of reproducing the plant; five
pages.)
APPRAISAL OF THE SEATTLE TELEPHONE COMPANIES BY THE RAILROAD
Commission of Washington ; by Henry L. Gray. Engineering and Contracting,
v. 35, p. 520 (May 3, 1911). (Describes the work and explains the causes
which led to the appraisal.)
STUDY OF THE TELEPHONE SITUATION IN SEATTLE, WASH.: REPORT; by C. H.
Judson and F. B. Hall. Engineering News, v. 65, p. 652 (June 1, 1911).
(On depreciation and valuation; one column.)
Wisconsin Telephone Co.
*E. E. PAYNE ET AL. VS. WISCONSIN TELEPHONE COMPANY; Decided Aug.
3, 1909. In Opinions and Decisions of the Railroad Commission of the State
of Wisconsin, v. 4, p. 1. Madison, Wis., 1910. (Intangible values embracing
franchise, good will and going value are briefly discussed.)
TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE-UNVERIFIED REFERENCES.
DEPRECIATION AND REPLACEMENT OF GROWING TELEPHONE PLANTS; by
Burke Smith. Telephony, April 27, 1912, p. 1062.
NATIONAL TELEPHONE CO., LIMITED, VS. HIS MAJESTY'S POSTMASTER-
General. Great Britain Railway and Canal Commission Court. Judgment,
Jan. 13, 1913, pp. 4209-39.
REPORT OF THE INVESTIGATION OF THE CHICAGO TELEPHONE COMPANY,
1911 : by William J. Hagenah.
REPORT OF UNFAIR TELEPHONE RATES IN MINNEAPOLIS, TAKES UP ALLOW-
ance for Depreciation ; by Gordon Steele & Co. Public Service, v. 5, p. 106
(Oct., 1908).
TELEPHONE VALUATION, OKLAHOMA. Pioneer Telephone & Telegraph Co. vs.
E. S. Westenhaver et al. and State of Oklahoma. Oklahoma Supreme Court,
1910, p. 1256.
THE ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
ON THE NEW YORK, CHICAGO & ST. LOUIS RAILROAD IN
CLEVELAND, OHIO.
By A. J. Himes, Engineer of Grade Elimination.
PRELIMINARY DESCRIPTION.
The New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railroad, commonly called the
"Nickel Plate," traverses the city of Cleveland, with its suburbs, from
Rocky River on the west to Ivanhoe Road on the east, a distance of
16.94 miles.
Its course is intersected by 120 highways, twenty of which either did
not cross at grade when the road was constructed in 1882, or had been
separated from the grade of the railroad prior to 1909. In the latter
year the work, which it is the purpose of this paper to describe, was
undertaken.
Within the above limits, the road is crossed by seventeen double-
track street car lines, only one of which is on private right-of-way.
Eight of these lines were operated at the railroad grade in 1909. Within
the same limits there were five steam railroad crossings, one of which,
the Cleveland & Pittsburgh, was then and still is operated over a grade
crossing. At that time the Nickel Plate operated two main tracks over
10.48 miles of the above distance, and the longest stretch of track with-
out a grade crossing was that extending across the river valley and
eastward. Its length was 3.39 miles.
The Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway, which, for several
years, has been engaged in building third and fourth tracks from Buffalo
to Chicago, crosses the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland on a single-track
drawbridge. There is a very large amount of traffic on the river, and
on that account the bridge is kept open for boats except during the act-
ual passage of trains. Because of this very difficult operating condition
which grows rapidly worse as traffic increases, and for other reasons,
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway has acquired the Cleve-
land Short Line Railway, which was projected as a double-track belt
line through the southerly portion of the city. In planning this road
it was arranged to parallel the Nickel Plate for a distance of 2.4 miles
and to occupy, with it, a common four-track roadbed. Because of the
constantly increasing danger of accidents it was desired to avoid all
grade crossings, and since the Nickel Plate needed a second track through
this common territory, arrangements were made to build an entirely new
roadbed and to eliminate the existing Nickel Plate grade crossings.
The ordinances providing for the construction of the above four-
track roadbed and the elimination of grade crossings in Cleveland were
103
104 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
passed by the City Council about January r, 1909. Half a mile of this
four-track roadbed was to lie in the village of East Cleveland, and the
ordinance for that portion was passed by the Council of the village of
East Cleveland one year later.
Very strong opposition to these ordinances developed among resi-
dents of the territory where the road was to be built and particularly
among the residents of East Cleveland. This opposition resulted in the
final adoption of some very unusual bridge designs, which it was thought
by interested persons would make the bridges at the various street cross-
ings less unsightly than the usual steel construction.
The law under which the work was planned provided for the elimi-
nation of grade crossings when requested by the municipality, the ex-
pense thereof to be borne equally by the railroad and the municipality.
In this instance, the crossings were not only to be eliminated, but addi-
tional tracks constructed and so the railroads agreed to bear the whole
expense. For this purpose deposits were made with the city of Cleve-
land and the village of East Cleveland sufficient to cover their shares
of the expense.
In Cleveland it was arranged tbat all street work and the highway
bridges should be constructed by the city through the City Engineering
Department in the usual manner. In East Cleveland all work was done
by the railroad company.
Each ordinance required that the work covered therein be completed
within two years from the date of its passage. The writer was asked
whether that amount of time would be sufficient and he replied that,
considering alone the construction work, the time would be ample, but
the effect of possible delays not growing directly out of construction
was indeterminate.
The ordinances mentioned provided for the elimination of all grade
crossings between East Ninety-third Street, Cleveland, and Ivanhoe Road.
East Cleveland, a distance of 4.97 miles. Of this distance the four-track
roadbed covers 2.4 miles and a double-track roadbed was built the re-
maining distance.
Some of the larger items of work performed were as follows :
Excavation 691,000 cu. yds.
Embankment 537,000 cu. yds.
Concrete 63,000 cu. yds.
Steel Bridges 5,500 tons
Wooden Trestles, both temporary and permanent...
7,500 linear feet
Street Paving 2.18 miles
Sewers 2.76 miles
Water Pipes 2.24 miles
Fig. 1 shows the territory within which this work was to be done.
While there existed at the beginning only one main track, there
were 10.7 miles of sidings and industrial spurs. The main line was
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IN CLEVELAND, OHIO. 107
crossed at grade by three double-track street car lines and by two more
such lines, not at grade, but which had to be depressed to agree with
the new profile of the railroad.
There were four principal parties concerned in the performance of
the work : Cleveland, East Cleveland, the Cleveland Short Line Railway
and the Nickel Plate. The operation of the Nickel Plate trains within
this territory would be seriously affected by the work of construction,
and there was much street traffic to be cared for. These conditions made
it advisable to segregate the work from all other affairs of the railroad
and a separate department, known as the Department of Grade Elimina-
tion, was created for that purpose. The Department was given full con-
trol of all maintenance and construction within the territory described,
and such control of the operation of trains as might be necessary in
handling the work.
The Operating Department showed at all times an interested and
willing spirit of co-operation that was much appreciated and the ar-
rangement proved wholly satisfactory.
The Grade Elimination Department was also charged with all de-
signs and estimates for the work and the necessary accounting. The
Legal Department was charged with procuring the necessary real estate
and the settlement of claims.
The steel bridge work was performed entirely by contract. It was
completed about March i, 1912. Two thousand one hundred cubic yards
of concrete were built by contract with the railroad company during the
summer of 1009. The bridges at Cornell and Adelbert roads were built
by contract under the direction of the city. A few sewers and all street
pavements in Cleveland were built by contract. All other work has been
done by day labor. The working organization was recruited from the
open market, with practically no assistance from the regular railroad
organization.
It was realized in the beginning that to prepare plans and specifica-
tions for the whole of this work, in a manner that would permit of a
definite contract, was practically impossible. The details of the work-
involved the co-operation of nearly every department of the Nickel Plate,
several departments of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway
and numerous departments of the city of Cleveland, of East Cleveland,*
the public service corporations in each municipality, the property owners
along the line and the various affected industries. Many of these parties
could not be induced to study the subject and decide just what they would
do until the time arrived to act. The handling of the Nickel Plate trains
required an elasticity of control that could not be readily secured under
a contract. By retaining full control of the construction work it could
be adapted to the operations of other interested parties more readily
than if it were placed in the hands of a contractor, and if necessary its
completion might be hastened in ways that could not well be written into
a contract. The conditions were such that under a contract it would
have been practically impossible to escape numerous extra claims from
108 -ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
the contractor. Without a contract, it was possible to start construction
work at once, thus avoiding the loss of time necessary for preparing
contracts and specifications, receiving bids, entering into a contract and
getting a contractor's plant on the ground.
On the other hand, the railroad had neither organization nor plant
to handle the work.
It will be noticed on the profile (Fig, 2) that the excavation was
entirely in Cleveland, while the embankment to be made was largely in
East Cleveland. It has been stated that the East Cleveland ordinance
was passed one year later than the Cleveland ordinance. It was not
considered practicable to permit the Cleveland work to rest pending the
discussion of the East Cleveland ordinance. It was of great importance
that the whole Short Line project be completed at the earliest possible
date.
In view of these conditions, it was decided to begin grading at once
with a company force. A contract was let for about 10,000 cu. yds. of
concrete masonry. Another contract was let for the steel railroad bridges
in Cleveland, and the city let a few sewer contracts and contracts for
two highway bridges.
At the end of the season the company's contractor had built about
2,100 cu. yds. of concrete and one highway bridge was nearly completed;
143,000 cu. yds. of excavation had been made. The progress had been
exasperatingly slow.
After much consideration, the company's contract for concrete was
canceled.
When the East Cleveland ordinance passed, the decision was made
to handle all work possible with a company force, and it was forced
ahead rapidly thereafter without regard to either season or weather.
Construction began March 1, 1909. The operation of the Cleveland
Short Line Railway began July 1, 1912. The New York, Chicago & St.
Louis Railroad was ready for double-track operation within the above
territory October 1, 1912.
ORGANIZATION.
The original estimates and designs were prepared by the writer.
When the preliminary negotiations were complete and instructions were
given to proceed with the work, immediate steps were taken to develop
the necessary organization. An office force was employed to handle the
designing and estimating. Mr. A. C. Irwin, whose experience included
the design of a part of the arches for the Florida East Coast Railway
and an instructorship in bridge engineering at Cornell University, was
placed in charge. The accounting was of such a nature as to require
engineering experience, and it was placed under the supervision of Mr.
L. V. Gaylord, of Branford, Conn. Mr. W. A. Miller, Professor of Rail-
way Engineering of the University of the State of Missouri, was en-
gaged to attend to the field engineering. For this purpose he secured a
leave of absence from the University for one year, which, with two sum-
IN CLEVELAND. OHIO. 109
mer vacations, made his period of employment about eighteen months.
At the expiration of that period he was succeeded by Mr. C. E. Drayer.
Mr. J. W. Wilkinson, Division Engineer New York, Chicago & St. Louis
Railroad, was in charge of the construction force.
There were employed three general foremen, one each for track
work, concrete construction and timber bridges. The track foreman, Mr.
Henry Willdis, had served the road for many years as District Super-
visor of Track. Mr. John Kopp, bridge foreman, had long been an em-
ploye of the Erie Railroad and had worked on the New York, Chicago &
St. Louis Railroad as contractor's foreman in the erection of bridges.
The concrete foreman, Mr. John R. Bisset, is well-known in the East
for his work on the New York canals, in the Hudson River quarries and
on the railroads of New York and Pennsylvania.
An assistant yardmaster was employed to handle the traffic. Tele-
phones were installed at intervals along the line and excepting a reduc-
tion of speed, the interference with regular trains was very slight.
The organization was not fully planned at the beginning of the
work. It was in some respects an evolution, its various stages being
the result of developments. Had the information on hand at the begin-
ning of the work been sufficient to permit a proper organization, it could
not have been formed at once because of the lack of men. Time was
needed to secure the best assistants, and in some instances the organi-
zation was arranged to suit the men who were available, rather than
wait for men having the exact experience needed. This is one reason
why in the tables showing the actual organization and that now recom-
mended the titles used are not those recommended. It was easier at first
to call a man an Assistant Engineer and later to use him according to
his fitness than to find in each case a man properly qualified for some
particular position.
There should have been a Principal Assistant because in the rush of
work many important matters could receive but scant attention from
the Engineer of Grade Elimination and the interests of the company
suffered accordingly.
It was originally intended that the field assistant engineer should
report to the Division Engineer, but pressure of work and the experience
of the men rendered the course pursued advisable.
The rate of pay for common labor at the beginning was $1.40 per
day. In July, 1909, it was raised to $1.50 per day and in April, 1910, it
was raised to $1.60. In July, 1912, it was again raised, the final rate be-
ing $1.70 per day.
Concrete laborers were paid in general 25 cents more per day than
the rate for common laborers. Other workmen received various rates
according to their experience and ability.
The labor employed was that found commonly about the city. With
a single trifling exception, near the close of the work, no labor was
brought from other points. At the beginning labor was very plentiful.
110
ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
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IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
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112 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
There had been much idleness during the preceding winter and men
were eager to work. During the fall of 1912 there was an unusual
amount of building in the city and the local contractors paid $2.00 for
common labor. This condition resulted in bringing about seventy Greeks
from Chicago during the latter part of the year.
The great bulk of the work was performed without a regular force
of inspectors. The engineer corps kept an eye on the work while at-
tending to its regular duties, and the writer spent much of his time on
the ground.
Work performed through the agency of the city of Cleveland was
inspected by city employes. In East Cleveland one or two inspectors
employed by that city were always on the ground. All foremen were
made to understand fully that only first-class work was desired, and after
the first few weeks there was little disposition to sacrifice quality to
either speed or lowness of cost.
The maximum force employed at any one time was about 700 men.
The selection of the employes was made with a great deal of care
and now that the work is complete, it is recorded with satisfaction that
no serious blunders were made and that an unusual degree of harmony
and good-will prevailed throughout the work.
PLANT.
The construction equipment used on the work with cost, ownership,
rentals and period of service is shown in Table 3. Only cars, locomo-
tives and earth-handling machinery were supplied directly by the rail-
road. Tools, machinery, materials and supplies were obtained through
the Purchasing Agent.
The time of service of each item of equipment was recorded under
the proper account and the rental thus made up its share of the final
expense.
The method used in establishing rental values for equipment pur-
chased is illustrated by the case of Crane 8, as follows :
Cost of crane delivered .and set up ready for
service $6,207.25
Depreciation for one month at 10 per
cent, per year $51-73
Interest for one month at 6 per cent.
per year 31.04
Coal, oil and supplies for one month. . . . 28.60
Watchman 60.00
— $ 171-37
$171.37 expense and depreciation per month, equals $6.59 per
day, divided by 26 working days per month, say $7.00 per day.
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
113
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114
ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
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IN CLEVELAND, OHIO. 115
GRADING.
The steam shovel was a 70-ton Bucyrus machine, not new, but in
excellent condition. The shovel and crew were borrowed from the Lake
Shore & Michigan Southern Railway. Mr. Willard Beahan, who has
authority over the construction equipment of that road is entitled to
credit for the able manner in which he maintained both shovel and crew
in the highest condition of efficiency. No more skillful shovel engineer
is to be found than the one supplied, and throughout the whole period of
29^2 months no time was lost because of any absence or failure on the
part of the crew. The shovel was put in the shop each winter for re-
pairs and only 32 hours were lost through breakdowns while in service,
an average of about one hour per month. Critics of efficiency in rail-
road management are invited to take notice.
Much of the material excavated was very hard shale. None of it
was blasted except where excavated by hand. In some places it was so
hard that teeth of manganese steel were used on the dipper and the
progress was very slow.
Blasting was objectionable because of the proximity of dwellings
and the frequency of damage claims.
The capacity of the shovel for hard digging is illustrated by Fig. 3,
which shows the broken parts of a seven-foot six-inch circular sewer.
This sewer was encountered while excavating for the depression of the
tracks at East 105th Street, in the middle of the night.* Through some
misinformation the sewer was supposed to be about six feet lower, and
the shovel coming upon it unexpectedly, was obliged to break its way
through or suspend work until the sewer could be removed in some other
way. The volume of flow through the sewer was exceedingly small and
there was no objection to breaking through. This the steam shovel did
successfully in the night, although the sewer was constructed of a first-
class quality of concrete reinforced by i>> in. x */% in. flat bars 15 in.
center to center placed transversely of the sewer, and five l/2 in. round
bars in the top of the sewer and parallel with its length.
One of the difficulties encountered in the shovel work is illustrated
by Fig. 4. When the shovel started east from Ninety-third Street it
worked on a down grade as far as Quincy Avenue. The sewer in Quincy
Avenue had already been depressed and afforded the only means of car-
ing for drainage. It was hoped that the shovel would reach the sewer/
before any unusual runoff occurred, but the flood came when the shovel
was still 274 ft. away, and it was necessary to dig a trench 274 ft. long
and about 8 ft. deep to drain the cut.
A 2-yd. dipper was used throughout the major portion of the work.
A 3/4-yd. dipper was used in the borrow pits where there was no
hard shale.
*Night work was necessary while crossing the street to shorten the
time of interference with street traffic.
116
ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
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Showing Cut durlnq flood
Fig. 4 — Flood in Steam Shovel Cut.
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO. 117
The performance of the shovel varied from 550 cu. yds. to 2,300 cu.
yds. per day; the larger quantity approaches its capacity. Below that
the output was governed by the disposition of the material. Much of
the material handled during the first season was wasted. Spoil banks
were small and inconveniently located and the unit cost was high.
Because of the absence of spoil banks within easy team haul and
the hardness of the material which could otherwise only be loosened by
blasting, the steam shovel was used in excavating for the depression of
Quincy Avenue, Cedar Avenue and Mayfield Road. This involved haul-
ing the material in one case over a grade of 2^ per cent, on a 40-degree
curve, and on 6 per cent, grades where the curvature was small. In
one case the work trains were operated successfully over 40 to 50 ft. of
13 per cent, grade. Box cars invariably uncoupled in passing this grade,
but there was no trouble with flat cars.
The locomotives operated on these grades and curves were of the
0-6-0 type with a wheel base of 11 ft.
The shovel worked uphill on grades of 6 per cent. This was espe-
cially difficult in hard material, but it was accomplished successfully.
The work in Mayfield Road was especially interesting because of the
railroad crossing. The change of grade of the railroad at this point is
slight, and in order to depress the street with a shovel the excavation
beneath the easterly track was made by hand and a trestle built to carry
the track. The cut was extended east of the track far enough to permit
the shovel to be pulled clear of another track on the westerly side of the
narrow right-of-way. The first running track was at the easterly side
of the right-of-way. The shovel approached from the west. After ex-
cavating up to the trestle another trestle was partly built under the west-
erly track, the first trestle torn out, the shovel pulled across the first
running track, the westerly trestle completed and traffic turned over the
westerly track. The traffic was suspended about two hours to make this
change, and the shovel was idle seven hours. (Fig. 5.)
The cost of excavation in Mayfield Road was 58 cents per cu. yd.
There were 14,000 cu. yds. of material, mostly shale. The cost includes
all track work, but none of the trestle work.
All excavated material was loaded on flat cars with hinged side
boards. The average load per car was fi cu. yds., excavation measure-
ment.
The material was unloaded with plows and a Lidgerwood unloader
and afterwards leveled with a Jordan spreader. (Figs. 6 and 7.) The
embankments were generally made by jacking up the track as the filling
progressed.
An embankment was built in this manner during the coldest months
of the winter of 1910-11, an unusually severe winter. The average depth
of fill was 13 ft. The total volume was 40,000 cu. yds. The material
was mostly clay and generally moist. It would freeze very hard in a
few hours. The cost per cu. yd. of labor on the fill was 10 cents, mak-
ing the total cost $4,000.00. A trestle for use in making the embank-
118
ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
merit and built to carry standard railway equipment would have cost
not less than $9.40 per foot, or a total of $19,552. Assuming that there
was use for the stringers and ties after completion of the fill a credit
of $3-25 per foot, or a total of $6,760 could have been allowed, making
the net cost of the trestle $12,792. This is three times the actual cost
of the labor on the fill.
But apart from these considerations, it was necessary to build the
embankment as soon as authority was secured to enter upon the land
and there was no time to build a trestle.
Four work trains were in service much of the time. Occasionally a
fifth train was used. One locomotive was always needed to serve the
shovel. In busy times one locomotive was used in spreading the un-
loaded material and two trains in hauling. One train was generally re-
quired to serve the concrete construction.
Fig. 5 — Steam Shovel in Mayfield Road.
The grading was not all shovel work. Teams were used occasionally
both with scrapers and wagons, considerable quantities of earth were
handled by hand and more with the cranes. Teams cost 50 cents and
60 cents per hour. They were hard to find and unsteady in their work,
and were, of course, used as little as possible.
The cranes were useful in foundation work and in depressing streets.
In many cases material from the street was scraped or trucked on rails
in skips to the overhead bridge and there hoisted by a crane and dumped
behind the abutments. Spoil banks were very scarce, but, if plentiful, any
earth deposited thereon would have been wasted while behind the abut-
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
119
Fig. 6 — Lidgerwood Unloader.
i •
^^^^_"
{^t(/e_
^V3jt
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Wiwu
ttil ttt&nt H \iil t^K fTltii™'
ilrAd iWiTIA
Fig. 7 — Jordan Spreader.
120 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
merits it was of value. The work of the crane as above was more ex-
pensive than a short wagon haul, but where wagons could not reach the
embankments, the cranes did good service.
The average cost of prism excavation was 28 cents per cu. yd. This
cost does not include any labor on the embankments, after the material
was unloaded.
CONCRETE.
Three concrete mixers were used on the job. They were all mounted
on cars. Two were equipped with hoisting engines for charging. The
third was charged by wheelbarrows moving over the cars, and was used
in building the floor slabs and other work where a large output was not
required. The manner of operation is illustrated in Figs. 8 and 9. In
Fig. 8, the housing was carried over the boiler and the incline proved
too steep for economical wheeling. This is the first job undertaken. The
method was at once abandoned for that of Fig. 9. At a later date wheel-
ing was again resorted to, but the charging of the mixer was done at a
lower elevation and with better results.
Between Lakeview Road and Superior Street, a distance of 2,600 ft.,
the streets — eight of them — were so close together and the available right-
of-way was so narrow that it was thought best to make use of a tempo-
rary trestle. The new location of the tracks was such that about two-
thirds of the street abutments could be built without interference with
traffic on the old line (Fig. 1). It was impossible to get traffic on the
upper level and close only two adjacent streets at a time — a provision of
the ordinance — without using a trestle. This condition being recognized
and the trestle decided upon it was thought best to mix the concrete on
the trestle and pour it by chutes into the abutment forms below. If this
reason were not sufficient, a further one for so mounting the mixers
was that because of the large number of structures and their small aver-
age volume much time could be saved in moving the plant. Further-
more, there was no room for derricks, stock piles and stationary plant.
The concrete for many footing courses and small concrete structures
was mixed and placed by hand. This was partly because the small yard-
age made it economical, partly to hasten the work when the mixers were
busy and ur the case of the footings, when sheeting and bracing were
used in the foundations, it was better to get the footings in, part or all
of the bracing removed and the forms, erected, before bringing the mixer
on the work ; otherwise it would stand idle a part of the time and thus
reduce the volume of concrete placed per month below the rate necessary
to keep up with the schedule.
The maximum output of one mixer per day of 20 hours was 200
cu. yds.
The average output hi one mixer per month for n months was
1,345 cu. yds. ;
Tl c drum of a new Smith one-half-vard mixer was worn out in
mixing zo,j$2 cu. yds.
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
121
Fig. ^-Serving Mixer With Wheelbarrow
Fig 9—Serving Mixer With Cars.
122 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
All structures were divided into sections in such a way as to pre-
clude cracks from expansion and settlement, and each section was poured
complete in one run ; or at any rate, such was the intention and the fail-
ures were few. This required extra gangs and considerable night work.
The men, as a rule, did not like to work at night, but they seemed to
appreciate the necessity and to take an interest in the success of the
work. The utmost harmony prevailed and it was very rare that a sec-
tion once started, failed of completion through lack of men. It did
happen occasionally that because of the failure of a work train to serve
the mixer or because of a sudden storm, a section was left incomplete.
In these cases no water has ever seeped through the masonry on the re-
sulting seams, but the attempts at concealment in finishing the concrete
were not wholly successful. The color of the patchwork, when used, to
remedy defects along the seams, was not always the same as that of the
original concrete.
The concrete was generally mixed quite wet. This was necessary
in order to have it flow well in the chutes, and to insure a dense water-
tight product without tamping. It was aimed to draw the surplus water
off from the concrete at the rear of the masonry and thus avoid a de-
posit of laitance on the face of the structure. In this respect the success
was very good, but it might have been better.
The labor employed was wholly unskilled and it was very hard for
the foremen to teach the men just what was required.
The concrete work was carried on continuously the year around.
In freezing weather, the water and sand were heated and salt water (a
saturated solution) was used when there was to be no steel in contact
with the concrete. In but one instance was there any sign of a failure.
This case was in a section of a retaining wall that was placed by hand.
The final conclusion as to the cause was that salt had been thrown in the
mortar without being first dissolved in water. Has anyone else had such
an experience?
The concrete was generally mixed in the proportion i 13 :6. In bridge
floors and reinforced work it was made 1 .2 -.4.
Where the mixer car was obliged to stand upon the ground towers
were frequently used for elevating the wet concrete to a point where it
might be distributed by gravity. In some cases this method was very
economical. At Euclid Avenue, after railroad traffic had been turned
over the bridge, there was so much traffic. above and below and so little
available space that no other method seemed at all comparable in either
economy or speed (Fig. 10).
Wooden chutes were made two feet wide and 8 in. to 10 in. deep.
With planed boards the preferable slope is four in. per foot. Slopes of
two in. per foot were used at times, but a man was then required to keep
the chutes clear. A slope of six in. per foot will cause the ingredients
to separate and requires the use of baffles to retard the motion.
Iron chutes were made 20 in. wide and eight in. deep. The maximum
slope used was four in. per foot, the minimum slope two in. per foot.
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
123
The slope is, of course, dependent upon the amount of water in the
concrete.
Great pains were taken to remove all form marks and other defects
from the surfaces of the masonry. The cheapest method and one that
proved generally pleasing was to bush-hammer the surfaces. Such work
was done at a cost of 4 cents per sq. ft. Other surfaces were rubbed
smooth with carborundum bricks at a cost varying from 4 cents to 10
cents per sq. ft. No concrete surface can be made to retain a good ap-
pearance unless all laitance be thoroughly removed. Its deposition on
the surface may be prevented by proper care in filling the forms.
Fig. 10 — Concrete Chute. Euclid Avenue Bridge.
Little difficulty was experienced in making repairs or correcting de-
fects. Surfaces to be patched were carefully cleaned and then soaked
with water. The mortar was applied in comparatively thin layers by
throwing on forcibly with a trowel, each layer being permitted in turn
to harden. Such work has gone through three winters without sign of
failure.
Iron trowels were never used in finishing the surface. Very smooth
surfaces were secured with carborundum. Rough, sandy surfaces, re-
sembling Cleveland sandstone were secured by rubbing with wooden
floats while the concrete was still green. This is an excellent finish and
..an be done at a cost less than bush-hammering if there are no surface
defects to be removed.
124 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
When the aggregate was desired to show, the mortar was brushed
away while green with wire brushes. A good finish of the latter sort
requires the aggregate to be uniform in size and uniformly placed. It is
not easy to secure.
A very beautiful surface may be secured by bush-hammering a con-
crete made with quartz gravel.
STEEL WORK.
The steel work of the railroad bridges was divided into three sepa-
rate contracts, the first covering the bridges in Cleveland, the second
covering the bridges in East Cleveland, from Lakeview to Superior
Street, inclusive, and the third the East Cleveland bridges beyond Su-
perior Street.
The division was made in this manner because when letting the con-
tracts it was not possible to foresee when the bridges, not included, could
be erected. For instance, a contract for the Cleveland bridges was made
prior to the passage of the East Cleveland ordinance. It seemed unwise
to contract for bridges in East Cleveland before the right was secured to
erect them.
The bridges were all designed according to the New York Central
Lines specifications of 1910. The Cleveland bridges were the first to be
constructed under these specifications, and a large part of the writer's
work, as member of the New York Central Lines Bridge Committee,
was to secure the adoption of a joint specification in order that it might
be available for these bridges.
The traffic of the Short Line promised to be as heavy as any in
America, while that of the Nickel Plate is lighter. The Nickel Plate is
operated wholly independent of the New York Central Lines, but its re-
lations with the latter are so close that to build any portion of the four-
track bridges for less than the maximum requirement seemed very short-
sighted. Joint specifications seemed the easiest means of securing au-
thority for proper bridges.
The live load in these specifications is Cooper's E-60, with an alter-
nate loading of 144,000 lbs. equally distributed on two axles spaced seven
feet center to center.
The unit stresses are tension 18,000 lbs. per sq. in. ; compression 16,-
000 — 70 1/r, but not to exceed 15,000 lbs. ; and tbe impact I = S/L + 300.
The use of unit stresses somewhat higher tban common is in recog-
nition of the apparent impossibility of any material increase of live load
without a general reconstruction of all roadway structures.
The bridge floors are of I-beams encased in concrete or bearing a
concrete slab above the beams.
Fifteen of the bridges were plate-girders; seven of them w^re ihree-
liinged arches.
The former Nickel Plate East Boulevard bridge (Fig. 11) was con-
sidered a very handsome structure, and the people of East Cleveland in
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
125
the hope of beautifying their city demanded the construction of similar
arch bridges. To this the Company objected strongly, but it was finally
arranged to build such bridges on a few particular streets.
There was no material difference in weight between the plate-girder
and arch bridges. There was a considerable difference, however, in the
volume of masonry in the foundations. The rock surface was about
12 to 16 ft. below the surface of the streets and the foundations of the
arch bridges were designed to carry the arch thrust to the rock. This
increased the volume of concrete materially above what was needed for
the plate-girder bridges.
No lateral bracing was used in any of the bridges, it being left for
the floor slabs to furnish lateral rigidity. Before the construction of the
Fig. ii — Old Boulevard Bridge.
floor slabs, temporary wooden stringers were laid on the I-beams to sup-
port the track to grade, and the trains caused considerable motion in the
arch bridges and the girders having curb supports. In all such cases
temporary wooden bracing was used to check the motion.
At Euclid Avenue a combination of long span, sharp skew, curve and
heavy loading made it necessary to use curb supports. These were pro-
vided in the ordinance. Curb supports were likewise used at Mayfield
Road.
A state law makes any ordinance providing for curb supports subject
to a referendum vote. Besides the general uncertainty of the outcome
of such a vote, it involves much delay and the company would have been
glad to avoid the opportunity. At Euclid Avenue, however, there was
126
ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
IPSE
/mo' ->-- \
W ■ Lookf'riq"west-atorrq f nejvjou^
i old and mrr Jbrrdje s -~^ -
'*■ iZO Plarch £<*;
Cedar flr&.
Fig. 12 — Old Truss Span at Cedar Avenue,
Fig. 13 — Cornell Road Bridge.
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO. 127
strong objection to a truss for aesthetic reasons— so-called — and the curb
supports were the only alternative.
Fig. 12 shows the old single-track truss span at Cedar Avenue and
the Nickel Plate eastbound track over the new biidge. The picture was
taken on the day when regular traffic was turned over the new bridge.
March 24, 1910.
Fig. 13 shows the bridge at Cornell Road. It is typical of the high-
way bridges.
At Mayfield Road (Fig. 24) the curb supports were only a matter of
economy, but the street was coupled with Euclid Avenue in a separate
ordinance so that they could stand or fall together. At the end of the
prescribed time, 60 days after the passage of the ordinance, no petition
had been filed and no referendum was held.
The old bridges at Cedar Avenue and East Boulevard were dis-
mantled, and all new bridges were erected with derrick cars. All bridge
erection was done by contract.
The contracts for the railroad bridges were let and the bridges built
without delay of any kind to the general progress.
The steel work of the highway bridges consisted mainly of lattice
columns and longitudinal beams, and was wholly encased in concrete.
The division of tonnage between railroad and highway bridges was
as follows:
Railroad bridges 4,870 tons
Highway bridges 630 tons
Total 5,500 tons
EAST BOULEVARD BRIDGE.
The original East Boulevard bridge was a three-hinged plate-girder
arch with ornamental stone abutments. It was built for two tracks and
had a clear span of 57 ft. 4 in. The floor consisted of I-beams with a
deck plate to which the rails were fastened directly by clips and bolts.
It was designed by C. F. Schweinfurth, Architect, and was regarded as
typical of what a park bridge should be (Fig. 11).
The revised grade of the railroad contemplated a lowering of the
Nickel Plate track over the boulevard 6.39 ft. The grades of the two
roads separate just east of Cedar Avenue, the Nickel Plate descending
sharply to the westward on a five-tenths grade, and the Short Line as-
cending westward on a three-tenths grade. The effect of this divergence
at the boulevard is to produce a difference in the elevation of grade lines
of 3.72 ft.
The city ordinance provided for a plate-girder bridge with concrete
abutments, but when the time came to detail the work the park depart-
ment entered a protest. It desired that the bridge be rebuilt on lines
exactly similar to those of the former bridge. This it was impossible
to do, a fact, which, after careful study, was reluctantly admitted. A
stone arch was then proposed with abutments similar to those of the old
128 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
bridge. This was impracticable because of insufficient space from top
of rail to soffit on the Nickel Plate side. The negotiations continued a
whole year without results. It was finally proposed by Mr. Hoffman,
Chief Engineer of the Board of Public Service, that a composite bridge
be built, that a reinforced concrete arch be built for the Short Line
tracks where there was plenty of room, and that a plate-girder be used
for the Nickel Plate tracks. The present bridge is the outcome of that
suggestion. It was designed to meet the requirement that it have some-
thing of the appearance of the old structure except that the arch should
be concrete instead of steel. To carry out the idea as well as possible
the writer offered to surround the plate-girder with a parapet and false
soffit, so as to present the appearance of a simple arch structure and to
face it with a matrix of red granite from Picton Island in the St. Law-
rence River. Later it was decided to color the mortar with iron oxide,
not a fortunate proceeding, for the color is much inferior to that of the
granite. The granite is now exposed in the rough panels and along the
moldings, pilasters and bases where it is bush-hammered. The smooth
surfaces are weathering gradually and after a time the difference of color
will be less pronounced.
The mechanical design of the structure is interesting. The arch is
solid and perfect in condition save a fine vertical crack in the parapet
over the haunches. This is a shrinkage crack and it occurred soon after
construction. Its position could have been predetermined by a joint.
The whole arch was formed continuously without any intermission
night or day, and has thus far been wholly impervious to water ; no
waterproofing was used.
Because of the deflection and vibration of the plate-girder a longi-
tudinal joint was constructed along the face of the arch and adjacent to
the plate-girder to avoid cracking. The joint was filled with oakum
and an asphalt mixture, but it will not stay in place. The motion of the
steel span causes it to work upward out of the joint.
The false soffit under the plate-girder is divided into three sections.
The center is a part of the concrete floor slab. Ten ft. 8 in. each side
of the center is a transverse joint. From the joint to the springing line
the soffit is a sheet of mortar 3 in. thick plastered on woven wire. Tbe
wire is supported by a frame work of light channels. Provision is made
for motion at the transverse joints. The concrete parapet or face of the
false arch is separated from the concrete floor slab by a vertical joint.
These joints have thus far prevented injury to the concrete by the vibra-
tions from passing trains.
EUCLID AVENUE BRIDGE.
At Euclid Avenue the tracks cross the street on a four-degree curve,
the tangent making an angle of 37 degrees 29 minutes with the center
line of the street. The street was depressed 3 ft. 6 in., and the railroad
grade elevated 14 ft. 4 in. This street was made a controlling point in
the grade line, the prime object being to avoid as far .as possible any ob-
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
129
struction to the view along the avenue. In this respect the result is quite
satisfactory as may be seen in Fig. 14.
Preliminary studies indicated that a plate-girder bridge with curb
Fig. 14 — Euclid Avenue Bridge.
£ £l<c//c/ fire .
-rt— j-u
7
Fig. 15 — Diagram Euclid Avenue Bridge.
supports was the only feasible design. Sketches were made for trusses
spanning the whole street, but they were objected to as unsightly. The
clear span measured on the skew is 140 ft. 3 in. Because of the curve
130 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
it was necessary to space the girders 19 ft. center to center. The heavy
live load and the enormous dead load together with the lateral clearance
needed because of the curve, made the use of curb supports imperative.
Solid shale rock was found 27 ft. below the old street surface. It
was overlaid with water-bearing sand, the depth of water varying with
the season, but being generally about six ft. A concrete pier was con-
structed under each of the girders on the curb line, 10 piers in all. The
inside piers are 6^4 by 6 ft. in plan, and carry an estimated maximum
load of 17 tons per sq. ft. The sidewalk spans are so short that the
abutments are little more than retaining walls. Their load is trifling, but
to insure against settlement which might injure the concrete superstruc-
ture they were founded on piles.
The thickness of the floor 3 ft. 6 in., top of rail to underside, was
agreed to with the city officials a long time before the passage of the
ordinance, before the live load and unit stresses were determined and
before the type of bridge had been selected.
When the design of the structure was taken up it was soon found
that the depth of floor allowed was very scant. A minimum thickness
of ballast of eight inches had been agreed to as necessary to prevent
noise and avoid damage to the concrete. The summit of the grade had
been located on the bridge so it was not desirable to raise the grade.
These conditions are stated in detail, because, although investiga-
tions had indicated that waterproofing the floor slabs was in ordinary
cases unnecessary, in this case the span was pretty long, there was no
fall to take water away from the bridge and cracks in the floor were
bound to occur over the curb supports. Had there been sufficient depth
of floor available to waterproof the slab and give it a protective covering,
such a course might have been followed. As it is. the leakage at the curb
line is considerable.
The bridge was constructed without at any time closing the street.
One street car track and one side of the roadway were abandoned at a
time while depressing the roadway.
The inside girders weighed 79 tons and measured 91 ft. s^ in. over
all. They were placed with a derrick car from above.
The form of the bridge in plan is a rhombus, the diagonals being
respectively 83H ft. and 245 H ft. Some trouble was expected from
temperature changes and there was no disappointment. Both ends of the
structure were left free on the abutments. The tops of the abutments
were finished smooth and well painted with a heavy asphalt paint. The
floor slab was then extended over the abutments. There has been a little
motion on the top of each abutment; just enough to crack the mortar in
the angle between the floor and the abutment face.
The greatest motion has occurred at the extreme apices of the
rhombus. At the northerly apex the motion has resulted thus far in a
few cracks that are hardly noticeable. At the southerly apex, in Feb-
ruary, 1912, a crack appeared in the face of the pilaster, extending from
the upper right-hand corner to the lower left-hand corner. An expan
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO. 131
sion joint had been constructed in the abutment at A and one at B (Fig.
15).
The joint at B did not appear to work. It was naturally assumed
that the crack was occasioned by the tendency of the wing walls to part
from the head wall in the angle, which is a common occurrence in abut-
ment masonry. To remedy this the wing wall was cut loose from the
head wall during the following summer by drilling clear through the
abutment at B. The crack in the pilaster was then filled to a depth of
two or three inches. In the winter of 1912-13, the crack again opened.
Further repairs are now being made. The portion of the pilaster below
the bridge seat and between the crack and the joint A has been removed
and rebuilt, using reinforcing and dowels in the old concrete. At the
bridge seat two grillages made of rails have been placed, one bearing
on the other, the rail heads in contact. In this way it has been sought
to provide a sliding surface of less resistance, it being thought that the
pull of the bridge in cold weather was the cause of the crack.
The portion of concrete removed from the pilaster showed a projec-
tion from the face of about one-sixteenth-inch in extreme cold weather.
Another crack, and one which should have been avoided, occurred
in the outside columns. The bridge proper is carried by steel columns
encased in concrete and resting on concrete piers, carried to the rock
foundation as above stated. The concrete facias concealing the bridge
rest on the outside columns, but the columns were elongated in cross-
section with concrete, that being sufficient to carry the load. In each of
the four outside columns the concrete has parted from the steel. The
crack is, as yet, barely visible. Now that it has happened, it is clear
that steel reinforcing should have bound the concrete under the fascia
to the steel column under the girder, even though the composite column
does have a solid rock foundation.
BRIDGE FLOORS.
It was required that the railroad bridge floors be relatively noise-
less and waterproof. In former years every effort has been put forth to
build shallow floors so as to minimize the change of grade. Such floors
have always permitted the muddy water to seep through upon people
passing below and have operated as drums in accentuating every sound
from the passing trains. To overcome these defects the floors were made
of I-beams and concrete slabs upon which tracks were laid and ballasted
as upon the ground. Such a design requires a greater depth of floor,
which means a greater change of grade, and more steel to carry the
added weight of concrete. The bridge is therefore more expensive. But
in cities where the noise is troublesome, the ballasted floor is a great im-
provement. Trains passing over such floors are noticed but little more
than when passing over the solid ground.
A concrete floor slab can also be made reasonably water-tight. The
writer's first experience with concrete was on the Missouri in 1887-88.
132
ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
Later it was used a little on the New York State Canals, and still later
in bridge construction on the Nickel Plate. During this period many
experiments had been made and papers written in which it was sought
to demonstrate that concrete can be made practically impervious to water,
and also that it cannot. Much concrete had been built that was very
porous and there had sprung up numerous business enterprises for the
manufacture and sale of waterproofing material. Both observation and
experience indicated that water-tightness could be secured by either con-
crete alone or in combination with waterproofing. The requisite seemed
to be that the material and workmanship should be the very best. If
poor waterproofing were placed over poor concrete, the structure would
leak. If the concrete were good, it would hold water, either with or
without the waterproofing.
In order to confirm these opinions before construction, an investiga-
tion of concrete practice on other roads, and in building work, was un-
dertaken by Mr. G. H. Tinker, Bridge Engineer, New York, Chicago &
St. Louis Railroad. Later, as Chairman of the Committee on Masonry
'ire Wish Stti-S SA
^/b'Roos Throu«« Holcs to
Be Pmii-LEO i* S-nfrEi.
Wire M£3H to Be Fastened to Rom
J^
>\ r^ >»"P»«,« Til« (lT»u,.<., orlO'«.»E»ow8«n«
^■i^TW ,Wi«ei Mean SmtS< \ .SLOPC3.it "'"""'"f
CoHC BE T
^
gpr-^iy;:
Fig. 16— Sectioxnt of Bridge Floor.
of the American Railway Engineering Association, he had exceptional
opportunities for continuing the study. The result of this work was in
harmony with the above-stated views and the bridge floors were accord-
ingly designed without waterproofing. A paper by Mr. Tinker setting
forth briefly the information he has accumulated appeared in Vol. 5,
No. 3, of the Journal of the Cleveland Engineering Society. The fol-
lowing extract is quoted therefrom :
"In the bridges recently built in Cleveland by the Nickel Plate no
foreign waterproofing substance has been used. An attempt has been
made to construct a concrete slab which would be in itself as nearly
waterproof as is practicable or desirable to make. This has proved satis-
factory. When the Cedar Avenue bridge floor was built, the ends of
the bridge were dammed up, the trough so formed was filled with water
and allowed to stand for several days. No water whatever came through
at any point of the slab. A little water ran through the dam and down
over the back wall, and seeped through the joint between the bridge seat
and floor slab. At the center bent there is a drainage system provided
to carry what water might percolate through at that point down to the
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
133
gutters. Through some slight defect in the formation of this drainage
some water seeped through there and dampened the concrete, but at no
point of the bridge did any water drip."
Especial efforts were made to avoid the entrance of water between
the steel and concrete and at points of contraflexure and where cracks
might develop from temperature changes. Bevel flashings of steel were
riveted to the girder webs and malleable cast flashings were fitted around
the stiffeners to cover and seal the edge of the concrete (Fig. 16). This
Calkins or Oakum
Anp WatE* PflOoriNG
Wire NIejh
Style 5/1
Fig. 17 — Joint in Floor Slab for Arch Bridge.
design was very successful. At points of contraflexure over curb sup-
ports and at Cedar Avenue over the center columns it was realized that
cracks would develop and an attempt was made to forestall their appear-
ance by the construction of joints. The joints were carefully provided
with gutters and drainage pipes, and it was hoped that no trouble would
be had with the water. The cracks were successfully forestalled, but
the drainage was unsuccessful. The channels soon became clogged with
cinders and the details of steel work in the cross-girders did not leave
134 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
room for a sufficient body of concrete, and in some instances the con-
crete proved imperfect. So, while the slabs proved generally tight, there
has been some leakage at points of contraflexure.
Much reliance had been placed on the use of direct labor and care-
fully selected foremen, but there came a great rush of work at a critical
time and the floors suffered. In East Cleveland at a later date it be-
came necessary to build waterproof joints at the hinges of the arch
bridges. This was successfully accomplished in the manner shown in
Fig. 17.
The concrete in the floor slabs cost about $12.00 per cu. yd., in place.
Now that the bridges are completed and have been two or more
winters in service, the conclusions are as follows :
1. Concrete can be made water tight, under low heads, for all prac-
tical purposes.
2. The mixing, placing and ingredients of concrete are subject to
such a great number and variety of defects that only the keenest atten-
tion will secure an impervious structure.
3. Contraflexure, temperature changes and settlements will produce
cracks.
4. It is best to forestall cracks with predetermined joints.
5. Joints may be sealed against water if well-designed.
The highway bridges were paved with brick. The gutters have a
good fall and the water runs off quickly. On the under side of the bridge
floors the concrete is protected from locomotive blasts by cast-iron plates
r/2 in. thick and 36 in. wide. They weigh 71 lbs. per linear foot, and cost
$5.23 per foot in place.
ORNAMENTATION OF BRIDGES.
Both cities insisted that the bridges be of an ornamental character.
In Cleveland that idea seemed to mean that the structures must be masked
with concrete. Steel was held to be unsightly, but concrete was in high
favor. The bridges over East Boulevard and Cedar Avenue were sur-
rounded by park land of considerable beauty. Euclid Avenue is known
throughout the world as a magnificent residence street, but that mag-
nificence is now largely a matter of history. Other streets, undefiled by
business blocks, and exhibiting a more lavish display of wealth, have
wrested its proud eminence and the solicitude for its waning glory is
something like the reluctance with which a boy lays aside his copper-toed
boots; it is done with a struggle. In this case the bridge is the evidence
of the struggle.
In East Cleveland the municipal artist pinned his faith to a steel arch.
The Euclid Avenue bridge is shown in Fig. 14. The bridge at East
Boulevard (Figs. 19, 20, 21) and the one at Euclid Avenue have been
described in detail. The Cedar Avenue bridge (Figs. 22 and 23) was
first designed and planned as a tyt ^. It is a set of plate-girders masked
with concrete. The aim in its design was to secure a pleasing effect
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
135
Fig. 18 — Arch Bridge at Eddy Road.
-If! "*' .- T*" '"*Saai^^'*]^l^g^-'--^ikI^- '-£' ». -if-.
gjfiifc June 4, 1913
Looking /resfet
-
1
Fig. 19 — East Boulevard Bridge.
136
ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
■<3ffll
ffiV . ,i^
«"ri!L . f-i .
IBk/-> ■'. " *
-
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- •
Lr '
BflMF 'V 5
,.
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inihiliffniifi
ffepi^- "::"
' ^■'•li'^*"--**"^'-"1"*'
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Fig. 20 — East Boulevard Bridge.
"i -fiW ■HP
F
fr
1 /iAb'tn/i '■ Mtirth
p ■'-/*/
m . ** Jf" vSJWltMjfll
7
ft .... -1
ii
Fig. 2i — East Boulevard Bridge.
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
137
Fig. 22 — Cedar Avenue Bridge.
Fig. 23 — Cedar Avenue Bridge.
138 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
from general lines and without fineness of detail. The restrictions of
space for the roadway prevented that freedom of treatment which is
necessary to secure the best results.
The writer has always felt a strong repugnance to the use of stone
as a beam. Such a beam is not self-supporting and can never be more
than a symbol of deception. Accordingly he tried to relieve the curse by
giving the fascia the form of an arch, but while the curve of the soffit
is somewhat pleasing, the required clearance for the roadway prevented a
rise that would afford much resemblance to an arch.
The concealment of the steel work by the concrete is likewise a de-
ception and would furnish an excellent theme for a tirade by an artist
of Ruskin's school. However, it is noticeable that more pretentious
structures are not free from such faults and it is probable that the minds
of the people of Cleveland Heights are not disturbed thereby.
At Cedar Avenue the adjoining arch for Doan Brook and the railing
of the small highway bridge in the foreground enhance the appearance
of the structure.
The reddish color of the East Boulevard bridge, designed about a
year later, resulted from some criticism of the glaring whiteness of
concrete.
The elevation of the concrete fascia of the Mr.yfield Road bridge,
Fig. 24, was designed in the office of Robert Hoffman, Chief Engineer,
Department of Public Service. In this case the concrete fascia is built
directly upon the outer girder, and it was desired to cover the stiffener
angles and secure a pleasing effect without the use of too large a mass
of concrete.
In East Cleveland the artists were not so active. The attitude was
rather a stubborn opposition to everything proposed by the company.
Steel arches were demanded because of the one formerly used at East
Boulevard, and a type of iron railing was designed and adopted by the
council. The company was finally able to avoid all but seven of the
arches. It had little interest in the railings. Now that the bridges are
completed the consensus of opinion locally is in favor of the plate-girders,
and it is admitted that the lines of the railings are too fine.
The band of concrete — a concrete beam — used with the plate-girder
spans is another effort at concealment (Fig. 25).
Apart from questions of beauty the recesses in the abutments for the
shoes of the arch bridges are found to be a loitering place for boys and
a receptacle for rubbish and filth.
RETAINING WALLS.
Numerous retaining walls were required to prevent encroachments
of the embankments on private property. Fig. 26 shows a wall along the
land of the Peerless Motor Car Company. This company built an iron
fence on the right-of-way line at the beginning of the work and refused
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
139
Fig. 24 — Mayfield Road Bridge.
— ^— — ■
Fig. 25 — Shaw Avenue Bridge, East Cleveland.
140 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
to sell a slope right or a parcel of land. In order to care for the requisite
number of tracks a cross-section of roadbed and retaining wall, as shown
in- Fig. 27, was adopted. The wall was built, the track depressed and
switching service to three industries maintained on the line adjacent to
the wall without disturbing the fence. The length of the wall was 490
ft. Its cost was $7.09 per cu. yd.
It should be said that the above wall is next east of Ninety-third
Street where the track depression began.
A larger wall built for similar reasons along the property of the
Stearns Automobile Company was described in the Cornell Civil Engi-
neer for March, 1913, page 336. This is a reinforced counterfort wall
resting on piers (Figs. 28 and 29). The face is vertical and resistance
to overturning is secured by attaching the counterforts to a slab resting
on the piers and placing the embankment and tracks over the slab. The
estimates showed a saving of about 20 per cent, over the cost of a
gravity wall. The cost per cu. yd. was $6.55.
TRESTLES.
Pile trestles were used at nearly all of the street crossings. In East
Cleveland there was one continuous trestle about 2,600 ft. long. All
trestles over the streets were constructed to carry regular traffic. Track
stringers and ties were used repeatedly at the several crossings.
The long trestle cost $9.40 per linear foot and after filling a credit of
$3.25 per linear foot was made for the timber removed, making the net
cost per foot $6.15.
Several trestles were constructed to serve private industries from
the elevated tracks.
A common land driver was used for the long trestle. A Bucyrus
mounted driver was borrowed from the railroad company on one oc-
casion and later pendulum leads suspended from the boom of a locomo-
tive crane were used (Fig. 30). The latter device was described in En-
gineering News, November 23, 191 1, page 625, and erroneously credited
to a contractor. Its particular merit is that the leads can be readily laid
aside and the crane used for handling timber or even for shifting cars.
Its mobility is much greater than that of the Bucyrus driver. For driv-
ing a large number of piles it would not be economical, but in building
a trestle out from a bank as the piles are driven, it is very efficient. The
rig was devised and used by the bridge foreman, John Kopp. The cost
of the leads was $211.00.
At Mayfield Road much entertainment was furnished the local resi-
dents by excavating a deep hole in hard shale underneath the tracks and
supporting them with a trestle. It was many months before the steam
shovel, in excavating the subway, was ready to pass beneath the tracks,
and meanwhile the people were permitted to contemplte the strange
proceeding of digging a trench to make a place for a bridge (Fig. 5).
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
141
Fig. 26 — Retaining Wall.
Stchon fi-B
FlG 27_Cross-Section of Tracks.
142 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
STREET GRADES AND PAVEMENTS.
In Cleveland it was generally held by the city officials that changes
of street grades should be so made that the maximum rate would be 4
per cent. In some cases this could not be done without material alterations
in the proposed railroad profile and an increase in the ruling grade. The
street crossings where this condition prevailed were all located along the
base of a hill upon which is located the suburban village of Euclid
Heights. The ascent of this hill involved much steeper grades, and so
there was little to be lost in using street grades in excess of the desired
maximum. At Cornell Road a 5 per cent, grade was agreed upon. At
Cedar Avenue it was necessary to use a 6 per cent, grade, and at East
Boulevard the grade is 10 per cent. As a matter of economy to the rail-
road company the steeper grade would make the shorter change in the
street surface, which, besides the saving in construction, would incur a
fewer number of damage claims for change of grade. As a slight offset
to this, stone block pavement at cost of $2.77 per sq. yd. was required
when the grade exceeded 4 per cent. The brick paving, used elsewhere,
cost about $1.07 per sq. yd. ; but these questions of economy were given
no weight in determining the grades.
At Cornell Road it was found advantageous to alter the alinement,
throwing the track about 65 ft. farther south. This change served to
lessen materially the extent of the alteration in the street grade.
In East Cleveland the problems were very simple. In each case the
original roadbed gave a slight hump to the street profile and it was gen-
erally sufficient to cut off that hump, leaving the new grade line nearly
straight (Figs. 38, 39, 40 and 41).
In Cleveland the pavement was generally laid on a six-inch concrete
base. In East Cleveland the earth is generally very sandy, and in such
cases the brick was laid directly on the sand. Pavements laid in this way
have given good results. On a few streets where the subsoil was clay,
a six-inch concrete base was used.
At East Boulevard a good macadam pavement i2l/> in. thick was
constructed by a local contractor.
The costs of the pavements are about as follows :
Medina stone block (concrete base not included), 30.8 cents per sq.
ft. — contract work.
Vitrified brick (concrete base not included), 11.84 cents per sq. ft. —
contract work.
Vitrified brick, sand foundation, 11.9 cents per sq. ft. — direct labor.
Macadam, 19 cents per sq. ft. — contract work.
Concrete base, 6 in. thick, 6^2 cents per sq. ft. — contract work.
WATER PIPES.
All water pipes encountered in the work were lowered to a minimum
depth of six feet below the new street grades. The work was done gen-
erally in Cleveland by the City Water Department and by day labor. On
numerous occasions where trenches were to be dug the company was re-
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
143
Fig. 28 — Retaining Wall.
*ss
* &3+ %Jui§ Zfif/s/o ' J
Steams yYa/l V. , loofafif eusrer/t/
Fig. 29 — Retaining Wall.
144 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
quested to furnish the labor. That was" a material advantage because
the rate of pay was greater for city employes.
This is but one of the many evidences of the freedom from politics
of the Cleveland City Water Department.
The methods of accounting in the Water Department are such that
where a street was vacated, the company was charged with the cost of
the old water line, and where a new street was opened, the new water
line was built without expense to the company.
A considerable loss was incurred on one occasion by the cracking of
a number of sections of 36-in. main when burning out the lead. An ex-
city employe had been hired as a foreman and on the advice of an em-
ploye of the Water Department he was permitted to take up the pipe.
In his zeal to make a good showing he cooled the pipe with water which
caused the cracks and rendered the pipe useless.
There were two 36-in. mains, both of which intersected the deepest
cut and their depression in hard shale was very expensive.
SEWERS.
There were sewers to be lowered or diverted in nearly all of the
streets crossed. In East Cleveland the work was generally simple.
Where there was room below the pavement to cap a sewer with six or
eight inches of concrete, no depression was made. The concrete cap was
used for depths less than 2^ ft. from the top of sewer to surface of
pavement.
From Hower Avenue to Superior Street, East Cleveland, a sewer
extended parallel to the track and under the proposed embankment. It
was located on private land that was purchased for additional right-of-
way. This sewer was relocated on the southerly side of the new em-
bankment. It consists of a 15-in. clay pipe about 20 ft. below the ground
surface and 1,761 ft. long. Its cost was $7,089.53, or $4.03 per ft. The
bottom of the trench was in shale for a distance of 935 ft.
In Cleveland the sewers were without interest save in Quincy Ave-
nue and East One Hundred and Fifth Street. In Quincy Avenue the de-
pression was so great that the contractor did his work in a tunnel. The
tunnel was 380 ft. long. The major diameter of the sewer was 4.23 ft.
The East One Hundred and Fifth Street sewer was 7 ft. 6 in. in dia-
meter and so located that the bottom of the invert north of the railroad
was above the final top of rail. Three rectangular channels shown in
Fig. 33 were built beneath the tracks to carry the flow. In time of flood
these channels will be under a low head. They are built of concrete and
roofed with steel beams bedded in concrete. A depression was cut in the
bottom of the sewer to drain the channels under the tracks. It extended
about 1,000 ft. down the street. The excavation in the sewer was done
without blasting and the material trucked out on small cars. The ma-
terial was hard shale, brick and concrete. Fig. 34 shows how the sewer
was expanded behind the abutments to connect with the rectangular chan-
nels. The work on this sewer was done by the company.
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO. 145
WALKS.
In Cleveland the sidewalks were generally built by the city con-
tractor. In East Cleveland they were built by the company. In some
instances walks were built in Cleveland by the company.
New sidewalks were constructed generally of concrete. Old stone
flagging was relaid when found in good condition and not damaged in
handling. In 1912 Cleveland had a general contract for sidewalks under
which it paid 12 cents per sq. ft. for 2^-in. flagging laid. The usual
price for flagging delivered on the ground was 10 cents per sq. ft. It
cost the company 4 to 5 cents per sq. ft. to relay flagging with its own
men. This included redressing when broken. The flagging was bedded
in a 4-in. layer of cinders, the price of which is included in the cost of
laying.
The price for concrete walks under the general Cleveland contract
was 13 cents per sq. ft. Concrete walks built by the railroad forces cost
a minimum of 15 cents. It was interesting to observe the differences in
operations that tended to make up the difference in cost.
The company paid 18^2 cents per hour for labor. It is not known
what the Cleveland contractor paid. It probably was no less.
The company used sand at a cost of 88 cents per cu. yd., delivered
f. o. b. at point where used. The contractor frequently used sand ex-
cavated from the site of the walk. Such sand was sometimes good. It
was often mixed with loam and any discrimination in its selection was
naturally in the contractor's favor.
The company built walks 5 in. thick and gave good measure. The
contractor built walks 5 in. thick, but was careful that they should not
overrun in thickness.
Some contract walks went to pieces the first winter. An examina-
tion indicated very little cement below the upper half-inch of the walk's
thickness. Walks built by the company have not yet shown any such
behavior.
The company walks were carefully jointed to care for temperature
changes. The contract walks were marked so as to present a jointed ap-
pearance, but provision for actual motion was mainly by accident.
The forces used by the company were not organized to build walks,
and engaged in such work intermittently and for short periods. The
handling of material from cars to walks was seldom done in the most
economical manner, because the sidewalks were inconveniently located
with respect to the tracks on which materials were received. The con-
trolling reason for the building of walks by the company was to expedite
the work and to remedy bad conditions for street traffic.
SEEDING SLOPES.
The East Cleveland ordinance required that the slopes of the em-
bankment be covered with grass. To do this in an economical manner
was no little task. The material of which the embankments were made
was sand, very poor clay and shale.
146
ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
The slopes were finished with the best material available and then
well seeded with bromus inermis and hard fescue, mingled with oats
in the forepart of the summer and later with rye. These grasses are
very hardy and thrive on poor dry soil. They make very little turf be-
fore the second year and the grain was used for protection during the
first season. The slopes were generally seeded as soon as prepared, and
if that happened in the fall, rye was used instead of oats, because the rye
would live during the winter.
The slope of the embankment was 1^4 to i and to hold the earth
against washing by the rain strips of board were placed on edge along
Fig. 30 — Locomotive Crane Driving Piles.
the slope, parallel with the track and about 2.y2 ft. apart. They were se-
cured to small stakes and then covered with earth so as to be scarcely
visible. The boards and the stakes were taken from old form material
and from the wreckage of buildings which were removed from the right-
of-way. No charge was made for such material.
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
147
The seeding in general was quite successful and at the end of the
second season the slopes were well covered.
The cost of seeding as above described was about one-half cent per
sq. ft. The area seeded was approximately 12 acres, and about 47^2 lbs.
of grass seed were used per acre.
GENERAL PROCEDURE— EXAMPLE.
There were three Cleveland ordinances. Two were passed Decem-
ber 28, 1908, the third was passed January 25, 1909. They provided that
Fig. 31 — 36-lNCH Water Main at Woodhill Road.
the work should be completed within two years. The East Cleveland
ordinance was not passed until December 28, 1909. It likewise provided
two years for the performance of the work. The excavation was in
Cleveland and the fill was mainly in East Cleveland. The excavation,
including the Quincy Yard and the Euclid borrow pit, amounted to 691,-
000 cu. yds. The embankment amounted to 537,000 cu. yds.
148
ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
It was manifestly unwise to waste the material excavated, and no
suitable spoil bank was available. Yet it seemed necessary to proceed
with the work regardless of the situation in East Cleveland. It was pos-
sible to complete the work in Cleveland leaving a runoff from Euclid
Avenue eastward to Lakeview Avenue, having a grade of about 1.2 per
cent. Such a grade would of course require the service of a pusher for
the westbound traffic.
Qumc<£ /?re. .
Sbdtvittg ■■ Itforer /7ct/>7
- south abutment
Fig. 32 — 36-lNCH Water Main at Quincy Avenue.
Under these conditions the work was not only slow and expensive,
but any program laid out was necessarily tentative and adapted to only
a part of the work.
With the passing of the East Cleveland ordinance, it became pos-
sible for the first time to treat the work as a whole, and thereafter it
was pushed rapidly forward.
All traffic was operated for the first time over the new grade in
Cleveland on November 1, 1910. In East Cleveland the new grade was
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
149
Fig. 33 — 105TH Street Sewer Under Railroad Tracks.
Fig. 34-=-io5th Street Sewer Behind Abutments.
150 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
placed in service throughout the city November 22, 191 1. The street
work was practically completed in 1912 in both Cleveland and East
Cleveland. Although the time of final completion in each city was de-
layed considerably beyond the limit of the ordinances, the rate of prog-
ress had given general satisfaction and there were no complaints. It
was early seen that the company had started to carry out in good faith
the obligations assumed, and a spirit of friendliness and co-operation de-
veloped which made the work very pleasant.
The various controlling features of the work had been carefully
studied long before its beginning and a careful program prepared cover-
ing the territory from Ninety-third Street to Superior Street. If the
uncertainties of 1909, due to the pending East Cleveland ordinance be
excepted, it may be said that this program was followed very closely,
and in accordance with a time schedule that was always determined well
in advance of the work. Because of this systematic planning there was
never any delay through lack of material, and never any reduction of
force through lack of work.
In February, 1910, the concrete construction for the ensuing year
was carefully mapped out and explained to Foreman Bisset. At the end
of the year he had accomplished a little more work than was planned.
The same thing happened in 191 1.
In estimating the progress of the excavation the monthly output of
the shovel was taken at 20,000 cu. yds. The maximum output was 43,245
cu. yds., but the assumed average resulted in a close conformity to the
program.
The best example of the working of this program is the portion of
the work covering the Euclid Avenue crossing.
The first move in construction was to build a temporary line for
regular traffic from Cornell Road across Euclid Avenue to a point east
of the Euclid Avenue station. This move was for the purpose of provid-
ing dumping ground from Mayfield Road to Lakeview Avenue, and to
permit the construction of the Euclid Avenue bridge. All regular traffic
was turned over this temporary line June 7, 1909. Material from the
steam shovel was hauled over the old Euclid Avenue crossing until
August 14, 1909. The crossing was then abandoned to permit work on
the bridge abutments.
The location of the temporary line (Fig. 1) was such that a portion
of the street might be depressed 3 ft. 6 in. as planned, and the two north-
easterly girders erected, leaving space for street cars to pass under the
girders, and by a sharp ascent pass over the temporary track at the street
grade. The clear head room underneath the girders and the temporary
trestle was 14 ft. 6 in. The street car tracks were spread to permit the
placing of a trestle bent between them. After the partial depression of
the street — by a city contractor — the pavement was relaid, part of it in
temporary position, pending the removal of the railroad tracks from the
street surface. The trestle (Fig. 35) was completed September 6, 1910.
At this time enough of the abutments had been completed to permit the
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
151
erection of three girders. Five girders were used in the bridge. The
two northeasterly girders were erected and made ready for traffic in
September and October. On November i, 1910, all traffic was turned
over the bridge. The old track was taken up and the street depressed
and repaved before winter. The ground was sandy, which fact was of
great assistance to the work so late in the season when the weather was
cold and wet.
It was a very difficult matter to get each party concerned in the
street depression to move promptly and get the roadway in shape for
winter. There were wire conduits, water and gas pipes to lower, paving
to take up and relay, earth to remove, street car tracks to take up and
relay and all street traffic to maintain. It was a busy time. Six weeks
of patient, earnest effort were expended in getting everything in readi-
•
£Qclid fire. J
T/r*T,i.*t,r,mt 1-).7rX7/7m&
Sfroyyjrtf Cor;s/rucf)off offomfiorarS TrisfJc an J Street JforH
Fig. 35 — Trestle Over Euclid Avenue.
ness for the change on November 1, and there was efficient co-operation
of the finest kind.
As soon as the flurry due to a change in running track had sub-
sided, the third girder was erected and two tracks were then available
over the street.
On March 18, 191 1, the abutments were complete. The remainder of
the steel work was then erected and in October, 191 1, the concrete super-
structure was all in place.
The turning of traffic over the bridge at Euclid Avenue involved the
completion of a track at the new grade from Mayfield Road to Superior
Street. Many other details were being followed up while the Euclid
152 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
Avenue crossing was under way. There were grading, trestle building,
masonry, steel work and street work all in progress and all arranged
without conflict or delay. Every important move was planned a long
time in advance, and its date carefully fixed by a study of the progress
made and the common need.
ACCIDENTS.
The record of derailments which occurred on the work consist of:
I. A derailment on the East Cleveland trestle near Lakeview Avenue
on the night of January 19, 191 1. The derailed car ran the full length
of the trestle, and the train parted near Superior Street. No serious
damage resulted.
2. A derailment occurred at Superior Street, just east of the Su-
W?m
.Xl._,-..5:J.^.. 'Xm,
,^JG3 JJec^SJg/J^.
♦
-—
~M
«g|Pi ' '-
'•*/»: ■ - ^». >v —
. ' ■'■: ..V-,;.';:
Fig. 36 — Mayfield Road — Derailment.
perior Street bridge, on September 10, 191 1. Several cars were turned
over the bank, resulting in a considerable financial loss.
3. A derailment occurred just west of the Mayfield Road bridge on
the morning of December 5, 191 1. The train parted and one of the cars
in the rear end of the train bumped into and demolished the concrete
end post on the Mayfield Road bridge (Fig. 36). No serious damage
was done. There were six cars detached from the train by the failure
of the coupling and the distance passed over by the remainder of the
train, after the application of brakes, indicates an initial speed of twenty
miles per hour. For those who have been building bridge fenders of
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO. 153
concrete to guard against damage to supports by derailments, this oc-
currence is of especial interest. The impact was that of six loaded freight
cars running about twenty miles per hour. The speed was somewhat
lessened after leaving the rails. In the final impact against the concrete
bridge railing, the post cracked clear through horizontally, but was not
dislocated, and the railing was split a total length on the far side of
12 ft. 6 in., on the near side 7 ft. 6 in. The body of the post was 2 ft.
i in. square. The railing was i ft. thick in the panel and 2 ft. wide at
the top. The upper part of the railing was reinforced by four longi-
tudinal bars Y\ in. in diameter. The panel was built over American Steel
& Wire Co. 7-A woven wire.
These derailments were occasioned by too great speed, in spite of
the fact that slow boards were in position on both sides of the points
where the derailments occurred, and that the slow orders had been bul-
letined by the Superintendent. The trains were all freight trains and
no serious personal injuries resulted.
On August 17, 1910, a locomotive crane was upset and fell from the
trestle in East Cleveland to the soft embankment below. The crane had
been hoisting earth in skips from a foundation and was overbalanced.
The engineer admitted that he had used poor judgment in handling the
load. He jumped from the cab as the machine overturned and escaped
with a few bruises. No one was injured. The repairs to the crane cost
$1,414.38.
On July 8, 1912, a crane was overturned while dismantling a steam
shovel. The track on which it was standing, a pit loading track, was
badly out of level and when the weight of the dipper came on the boom
of the crane, the latter swung round in spite of attempts to hold it, and
the crane was upset. The engineer jumped, no one was injured and
very little damage was done.
PERSONAL INJURIES.
It is the belief of the writer that a large number of personal injuries
are due to the impatience and thoughtlessness of foremen.
A nervous, impatient, blustering foreman keeps his men excited. A
team of young, high-strung, powerful horses once belonging to the writer
were described by their driver as very unsteady and hard to control. A
later driver said the horses were as steady as a team of oxen and that
he could do anything with them. The spirit of the latter driver is to
be desired in a foreman. He should always be master of the situation,
calm, self-reliant and resourceful, having complete and constant control
of his men and being always alert for their safety. Men working in
large gangs are subjected to danger not alone because of their own acts,
but by the acts of their co-workers, and it is vitally essential that the
foreman should have their safety constantly in mind. There are many
other dangers not growing out of the presence of co-workers, but which
bring disaster through errors of judgment. Such conditions require the
154 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
presence and direction of a man of large experience and superior judg-
ment.
It too often happens that in his zeal to accomplish much work the
foreman is careless of his men and leaving them to rely upon their own
resources, keeps them in such a state of fear as to defeat his efforts to
make progress.
Upon the work described these facts were duly impressed upon all
the foremen. They were told that they were responsible for the safety
of their men and that they must strive to avoid injuries. Occasionally
comparisons were made of the number of accidents in different gangs,
but no data was ever secured that tended to prove one foreman more
careful than another. The personal injuries appeared rather to be gov-
erned by the nature of the work in hand. Pile driving and trestle build-
ing seemed to give rise to the greatest number and concrete form build-
ing next. In the latter case, injuries resulted most frequently from
stepping on nails in the old form material. Strong efforts were made to
eliminate accidents from this cause. The workmen were repeatedly
warned and the nails were pulled promptly after the forms were re-
moved.
The most serious injury which occurred on the work was the mang-
ling of a hand in the gearing of a Lidgerwood unloader.
The construction of bridges over trolley lines was especially diffi-
cult and dangerous. On three of the streets the trolley service was
maintained continuously, with slight exceptions at East One Hundred
and Fifth Street and Cedar Avenue, and the men working around the
wires were repeatedly cautioned about the danger of electric shocks.
The completion of the work without accident from this cause was a great
relief to all in authority.
Another danger was that of collisions with trains on the street cross-
ings. The danger was greatly increased by the construction work, and
both flagmen and street gates were used for protection. It is a curious
fact that, after providing the usual safeguards, danger was then due
almost entirely to drivers of vehicles who would try to run over the
crossings in front of approaching trains and in spite of warnings from
the flagmen. Current comment seems to place all blame for injuries at
such places on the railroads. It is chargeable more properly to the im-
patience of restraint so often exhibited by people who feel themselves
either above or outside the law. Cleveland's Director of Public Service
has argued for crossing gates instead of flagmen, because of lack of
obedience to the flagmen's warnings. The writer has frequently seen
drivers of vehicles endeavor to run beneath the gates as they were be-
ing lowered and instances have occurred where automobiles have run
through the gates after they were down.
The total number of injuries reported was about 290, and the aver-
age total expense per case was $22.76. This includes injuries of the most
trivial nature. Every known case was reported and recorded for pos-
sible use in the future. Even though an injury was trivial, it might
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
155
sometime lead to a damage claim and then a correct record of the facts
would be useful.
Considering the extent and duration of the work it is felt that the
number of injuries is not excessive.
ACCOUNTING.
Because of the somewhat complicated relations of the various in-
terested parties and the general use of direct labor, it was early discerned
that the accounting was an exceedingly important part of the task and
that in the end a successful adjustment of the obligations of the parties
might involve considerable difficulty. With this in mind, a careful study
was made of the subject and many precautions observed to insure suc-
cess. The first move was to secure assistants worthy of the highest con-
fidence, the next to post them fully concerning the aims and results to
hold in mind and the means for their attainment.
Payments for land or for legal claims were made by the Legal De-
partment. All other bills were approved and vouchered by the writer.
A monthly statement of expenditures was made to the Auditor. The
largest part was held in a suspense account, pending the completion of
the work.
Expenditures by either city were submitted for the approval of
the writer.
The bills for all material, supplies, tools or services were verified
by the Division Engineer. Supporting papers were filed with every
voucher.
PM I
Wau a, J3/0-
ratrmount 7foa4
Jhon/ng oU hr/dqe-
Fig. 37 — Old Bridge at Fairmount Road.
156
ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
#/jr-f April z&,i$io
> 'dti fire.
Fig. 38 — Elberon Avenue, East Cleveland, Before Separation of Grades.
Fig. 39 — Elberon Avenue, East Cleveland, After Separation of Grades.
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO. 15?
It was the expressed purpose of the writer to make the record so
clear, and to keep the unit costs so well within bounds that the final re-
sults would necessarily prove satisfactory. The successful achievement
of that purpose has not yet been questioned.
The time of all workmen, whether in the employ of the railroad
or any other corporation, was taken daily by the timekeeper. He also
made or secured from the foremen distribution of labor. Payment for
labor was made once per month. The rolls were prepared and the dis-
tribution checked in the writer's office.
A storekeeper was employed to disburse tools and material and to
account for their use.
Records of progress were continually kept to insure that the de-
sired rate was maintained, and to stimulate the workmen to put forth
their best efforts. Records of cost were made to control the expendi-
tures. No part of the work could continue unduly expensive without
receiving early attention from the office.
In order to secure the necessary unit prices and to properly interpret
the accounts, the latter were placed wholly in the hands of an engineer
who had previous experience in such matters, and who had demonstrated
his ability on the present work.
Some things often discussed as theories could not be treated with a
precision to satisfy an analytic mind. The most conspicuous case was
that of form material. The great bulk of this material was composed of
4 in. x 6 in. and 2 in. lumber. It was used many times, until worn out
or cut up. In the beginning all lumber delivered to a certain structure
was charged thereto, and when taken away, credited, first cost being used
in each case. It was expected that this would work out all right in the
end if we were careful to have little material on hand. But in the rush
of work, form material sometimes disappeared or credits failed to be
made so that in figuring the final unit costs, the form material used is not
a true record. It was adjusted in the light of the best knowledge avail-
able. The same is true in a very much lesser degree of the concrete ma-
terial. The record was not always perfect.
A distribution of earth was made by carloads and the average car-
load derived from excavation measurement.
The preliminary estimate of the cost of the construction work was
$1,843,690. The actual cost was about 11.2 per cent, less than the esti-
mate. Other work, not part of the general project, was done for the
"Short Line," for private parties and for the Nickel Plate, which brought
the total expenditure for construction up to $2,257,059.44.
The cost of engineering was 3.62 per cent, of the cost of construc-
tion. It includes salaries, stationery and repairs of instruments.
The cost of administration amounted to 3.69 per cent, of the cost of
construction and included salaries, office rent, supplies and telephone
service.
The total amount expended in the purchase of tools and equipment
is $40,000.
158 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
The estimated value of material on hand at the close of the work is
$7,000.
Unit prices, where given, include a proper proportion of overhead
charges.
CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS WITH THE CITY.
Contracts were let by the city of Cleveland for the superstructure
and substructure of the Cornell Road bridge in June, 1909. It was com-
pleted September 22, 1910. A contract was similarly let for the abut-
ments of the Adelbert Road bridge September 24, 1909. They were
completed in September, 1910. The superstructure for the latter bridge
was contracted for March 23, 1910, and was completed in May, 191 1.
During the work on the above bridges the operations of the com-
pany's construction forces were disturbed considerably by the slowness
of the contractors.
The depression of Cedar Avenue was the next work in order for
the city to undertake. The only practicable way to dispose of the mate-
rial to be excavated in the street was to haul it on cars to spoil banks
along the railroad. Any delay in the work would interfere seriously
with the progress on the railroad bridge over Cedar Avenue. Under
these circumstances it did not seem wise to permit an independent con-
tractor to get control of the job.
A condition of similar relation to the administration of the whole
undertaking existed at Fairmount Road (Fig. 37).
The highway already crossed the track on an overhead bridge, but
there was room between the abutments for only one track, where four
were needed. It was necessary to close Fairmount Road and remove
the southerly abutment before the steam shovel approached it from
the west. Should the removal of the abutment be placed in the hands
of a small contractor, it might readily happen that the whole grading
outfit would be compelled to sit idly by and watch the removal of the
old masonry.
With these conditions in mind, it was decided to bid on the city
contracts and to bid low enough to make sure that the company was
the lowest bidder. This method was tried at Cedar Avenue and later
adopted in all city work except in paving and sewers. The paving in
no way affected the operations of the railroad, and it was better to
make use of independent paving organizations than to increase the
work of the Grade Elimination Department.
These remarks apply only to the work in Cleveland, as in East
Cleveland the ordinance provided that the company should do all the
work.
The contractors who bid against the company suffered some in-
convenience and expense for which there appeared to be no remedy.
Having taken a city contract in the name of the company, the writer
had the unusual experience of approving as engineer for the company
drawings prepared by the city for work to be done by him for the rail-
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO. 159
road company which held the contract. All payments under the con-
tracts were made on estimates approved by the writer as engineer for
the company and received by the writer as representative of the con-
tractor. It was the most successful game of chasing the devil about
the stump the writer has thus far encountered. The results seemed
to be entirely satisfactory to all concerned except the unfortunate bidders.
The question as to whether the company should announce its inten-
tions in advance of a letting and thus avoid the consequent disappoint-
ment of the unsuccessful bidders was carefully canvassed and decided
in the negative.
LIST OF CITY CONTRACTS TAKEN BY THE COMPANY.
Quincy Avenue — Foundations ; concrete ; grading.
East One Hundred and Fifth Street — Foundations; concrete; grad-
ing ; modifying sewer.
Woodhill and Fairmount Roads — Grading and concrete.
East Boulevard — Highway Bridge ; Doan Brook.
Cedar Avenue — Grading; Doan Brook Bridge.
Mayfield Road — Grading.
OPPOSITION TO THE PROJECT.
The portion of the Nickel Plate which is paralleled by the "Short
Line" passes along the Fairmount Reservoir and through the adjacent
section of Wade Park, crossing East Boulevard, Doan Brook and Cedar
Avenue. It then skirts the rear of the grounds of Adelbert College
and the Case School of Applied Science on the east, crosses Euclid
Avenue, and follows East Cleveland Cemetery to a point near the city
line. In East Cleveland it next crosses a series of eight residence streets,
occupied by medium-priced houses, and parallels Euclid Avenue at a
distance of about 600 ft. throughout that city.
The original grade of the road in East Cleveland was nearly level.
Approaching Euclid Avenue from the east for 1300 ft. there was an
ascending grade of 7/10 per cent. Euclid Avenue was crossed on an
uncompensated 4-degree curve and the grade continued to the summit
in the rear of Adelbert College (Fig. 2).
The territory surrounding the college is a fine residence district,
across the railroad to the southeast is Cleveland Heights, the location
of many of Cleveland's finest houses, and East Cleveland is a city of
suburban residences. It was but natural that people living in this region
should strongly oppose the granting of increased railway facilities and
a few active opponents of the project were quick to enlist their sup-
port. There was no denial that the "Short Line" was asking for a
valuable franchise, but the project meant much for the future develop-
ment of the city and the proposal to so construct the road as to elim-
inate all grade crossings without expense to the city seemed like a
suitable return. The opposition took the form of a demand that the
tracks be depressed beneath the streets in East Cleveland and thus,
following the desired 3/10 grade, be low enough to permit a tunnel
under the summit near the college. This with electric traction and
160
ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
Fig. 40 — Eddy Road, East Cleveland, Before Separation of Grades.
1
Eddy ~Road
Looking southerly
Fig. 41 — Eddy Road, East Cleveland, After Separation of Grades.
IN CLEVELAND, OHIO.
161
ornamental bridges increased enormously the estimate of the cost, but
worse than that, the grade line ran into a cut beyond the pumping
station, too deep for consideration. The railroads could not accept the
plan and the Mayor of Cleveland, Tom Johnson, was able to under-
stand the reason. He did not hasten matters. There was a free and
fair discussion in public of the merits of the plan and up to the last
vote of the Council the outcome was uncertain. But the contest was
one of logic and the company won.
The passage of the Cleveland ordinance had an important bearing
on the situation in East Cleveland. The opposition felt that it was
losing ground and that the passing of the desired ordinance was but a
matter of time.
The work is now completed. The residents of East Cleveland are
well pleased with the results and general satisfaction and harmony
prevail.
Figs. 38 and 39 show the crossing of Elberon Avenue, East Cleve-
land, before and after the separation of grades. The house at the end
of the street is facing Euclid Avenue, which runs parallel to the railroad.
Figs. 40 and 41 are similar views of the crossing of Eddy Road.
The house on an elevation at the end of the street in the view oi the
grade crossing is the Cleveland home of Mr. John D. Rockefeller.
1908
December 28
1909
January 25
February 3
March 1
April 15
June 7
August 26
December 28
1910
February 8
February 24
March 24
June 1
August 24
October 1
November 1
CHRONOLOGY.
Two Cleveland ordinances passed the council.
The remaining Cleveland ordinance passed council.
Organization of department begun.
Construction of temporary running track east of May-
field Road began.
Steam shovel began work.
Train No. 6 was the last train to cross Euclid Avenue
on the old main track.
Steam shovel began excavation in Cedar Avenue.
East Cleveland ordinance passed.
Temporary main Ninety-third Street to Fairmount Road
placed in service.
Began concrete work with company force.
First train over new bridge at Cedar Avenue and new
grade to Mayfield Road.
Steam shovel began work in Mayfield Road.
Traffic turned over new grade from_ Ninety-third Street
to East Boulevard.
Steam shovel began work in Quincy Avenue.
Traffic turned over new grade from Mayfield Road to
Superior Street.
New grade in service in all Cleveland territory.
162 ELIMINATION OF GRADE CROSSINGS
191 1
November 22 Traffic turned over new grade Superior Street to Ivanhoe
Road.
New grade in service throughout East Cleveland.
1912
March 1 Steel work completed.
July 1 Operation of Cleveland Short Line Railway began.
October 1 Nickel Plate ready for double-track operation.
CONCLUSION.
The work is now complete. According to common standards, it may
be considered a success. The people along the route are pleased with
the result, the officers of the two municipalities have expressed their grati-
fication, the four-track roadbed was completed before the "Short Line"
was ready to lay its track ; the transportation officials of the Nickel
Plate are satisfied with the comparatively slight interference with
traffic and the cost is below the estimate.
Under such circumstances it would be ungrateful to remember occa-
sional defects and failures or to wish that any task had been better done.
The employes of the Department gave the most faithful attention
to their work and strove diligently to excel in the tasks assigned. It is
a pleasure to acknowledge here a large measure of indebtedness for
their skilled and faithful assistance and to wish them the best success
in their new positions.
To an Engineer it will be of interest to know that the writer
attributes a goodly portion of the satisfaction of the Operating Depart-
ment to his full realization that the first business of a railroad is to
handle traffic. It is built for that purpose. After building it is obligated
to its patrons to render good service and the funds for improvements
are derived either directly or indirectly from that service.
To those who find this account lacking in some particular that has
aroused their interest, it may be said that in its preparation the prin-
cipal problem has been one of selection. Neither time nor space could
be used to describe all of the interesting features of the work. If what
has been written shall serve to refresh the memory and stimulate to
further excellence like efforts of the reader, the paper will have served
its highest purpose.
The General Manager of the Nickel Plate, Mr. A. W. Johnston,
is a Civil Engineer. To this fortunate circumstance and his rare per-
sonal qualities of leadership can be ascribed much support and co-opera-
tion from other departments without which such a successful record
would have been impossible. The writer also enjoyed the unqualified
support of the President, Mr. W. H. Canniff, and of the General Counsel,
Mr. John H. Clarke. Altogether he found more to enjoy in these four
years of busy life and more loyal and harmonious assistance than might
reasonably have been hoped, and he feels profoundly grateful to all
who were concerned in bringing the work to a successful completion.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
By William H. Kempfer,
Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis., Forest Service, United
States Department of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION.
Air seasoning of timber means ridding the wood of part of its mois-
ture by letting it stand in the open air. If seasoned long enough in this
way, the moisture content of the wood will finally come into equilibrium
with that of the surrounding atmosphere. This process takes place in
any timber which has been felled or deadened, but the rate of drying
varies with many factors, among them climate, time of year, species of
wood, size and form of the piece, and degree of exposure. Certain of
these factors may be controlled and others taken advantage of, so as to
hasten the drying process itself, and also to minimize the injuries to
wood involved in seasoning.
The objects of seasoning, briefly summarized, are :
(i) To prevent injury by insects and decay before the timber is
put to use.
(2) To increase the durability of timber in service.
(3) To prevent shrinking and checking of the timbers in service.
(4) To increase the strength of the wood.
(5) To decrease its weight.
(6) To prepare it for treatment with preservatives, for kiln drying,
and for other industrial processes.
Wood, while green, is especially susceptible to attack by insects and
decay-producing fungi ; on the other hand, wood seasoned too rapidly
or unequally may check or warp so seriously as to render it worthless.
It is, therefore, necessary to know the time required for wood to become
air dry, and also the effect of factors which tend to increase or retard
the rate of evaporation.
The data collected by the Forest Service on air seasoning pertain
chiefly to the rate at which various species and forms of timber lose
moisture when freely exposed to the atmosphere. Such information
with respect to cross-ties, poles and sawed timbers has been obtained
in a number of localities, representing various climatic conditions through-
out the country, and for a large number of species, especially of the
conifers. Much of this information, though already published by the
Forest Service, is scattered among various circulars and bulletins ; and
other data, although collected a number of years ago, have not been
previously published. To make this information available, therefore, it
is here collected, and the results of the various tests are put into such
form as to be, so far as possible, comparable with one another.
163
164 THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
The data* on air seasoning have been obtained in connection with
two distinct lines of investigations: (i) studies of methods to increase
the durability of timbers; and (2) tests of mechanical properties of
wood. In the first set of investigations green timbers, in the form of
ties, poles and cross-arms, were dried so as to determine the effect of
seasoning upon the wood's durability and upon its permeability.
The tests were concerned primarily with durations of seasoning applicable
to commercial timber yards. In the second set of investigations no
special study was, as a rule, made of seasoning, but in some instances
a record of the loss of weight was obtained on timbers received green
and tested air dry.
INTERPRETATION OF THE SEASONING CURVES.
In the case of cross-ties, which furnish the greater portion of the
data presented in this Bulletin, the rate of seasoning is shown by curves
plotted from the average weights of the ties at successive periods. On
account of the variation in the average size of the different lots of ties,
the losses in pounds per tie do not afford as good a basis for comparison
as percentage losses, or losses expressed in pounds per unit of volume.
But the unit volume basis could not be applied, because in many cases
the volumes of the ties had not been obtained, and the former was con-
sidered inadvisable because the percentage method is open to more
errors than the method adopted. Freshly cut timber loses weight very
rapidly in warm, dry weather — so rapidly that ties of some species lose
ten lbs. in 24 hours. While in most cases the first weights were nomin-
ally the green weights of the timber, usually it was not possible to
weigh the ties immediately after they were cut. As a rule, from one
day to a week or more elapsed between the time of cutting and the
time when the ties were brought to the yarding point and weighed. The
first weights are therefore not strictly comparable, and the losses during
the first stage of the seasoning process, which may or may not be shown
by the weighings, would make an important difference in computed per-
centage losses. In the case of curves plotted from actual weights, neither
their direction nor location is affected by failure to have the first weights
of the ties comparable; the only effect of changes occurring before the
first weights were obtained is to change the points of origin of the
curves.
The rates of seasoning of the various species and lots of ties may
be compared by the general trend of the curves. The approach of the
ties to the air-seasoned condition is indicated in general by the approach
of the curves to a comparatively horizontal position, except when this
occurs at a time of the year unfavorable for seasoning ; if it first
occurs at such a time, the degree of dryness is not indicated unless the
*The experiments on which this publication is based were made in co-
operation with various commercial companies and associations, and with
educational institutions.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER. 165
curves are continued through the unfavorable period into the succeeding
favorable period.
The curves for other forms of timber are drawn similarly to those
for ties, except that they are based on the weights per cubic foot, and
are therefore more readily comparable with one another.
CROSS-TIES.
METHOD OF CONDUCTING TESTS.
The various experiments on tie seasoning differed in details, but
they were conducted on the same general plan. The ties were procured
at monthly intervals throughout the year and each month's cut piled in
different ways so as to determine the effect of the form of pile on the
rate of seasoning. Each pile consisted of 50 ties ; these were exposed
to the weather without cover, except in so far as the top tier of each
pile served as a roof. The rate of seasoning was determined by weigh-
ing each tie individually, usually at intervals of one month.
It was found that the rate of seasoning from month to month did
not vary sufficiently to warrant presenting the data for each month
separately and adjacent curves for ties of two or three months which
showed similar rates of seasoning were accordingly combined. Curves
for the different forms of piles have also been combined when they
showed little difference in the rate of seasoning, but data were omitted
on piles which showed marked irregularity, such as unusually high or
low average weight.
As a rule, the data for each pile were plotted separately and from
these certain curves were selected and averaged to form the final curve.
In many cases, however, the final curve could be attained directly by
computing numerically the average weights.
SOUTHWESTERN WOODS.
The woods of the Southwest tested for seasoning were Western
yellow pine, white fir and Douglas fir. Two forms of Western yellow
pine were distinguished : the "black pine," the comparatively young,
rapidly-growing trees; and the "red pine," consisting of the older trees.
The ties were seasoned at Pecos and Rociata, New Mexico, which are
between 7,000 and 8,ooo ft. above the sea.
The monthly curves could be classified best in five groups, as fol-
lows: (1) January and February; (2) March and April; (3) May, June
and July; (4) August, September and October, and (5) November and
December. This grouping has been followed so far as comparable data
on the different species were available.
The rate of seasoning is shown by Figs. 1 to 10, and in Table 1 are
given the number and description of the ties on which these curves are
based.
16G
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
TABLE 1. -DESCRIPTION OF THE TIES ON WHICH ARE BASED THE SEASON
ING CURVES FOR SOUTHWESTERN WOODS.
Ref.
No.
Species
Locality ! Date Cut
Form of Ties
Form of
Piles
No. ot
Ties
1
Black pine (Western
Pecos, N. M .. Jan. 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
50
la
Black pine (Western
vellow pine)
Pecos, N. M. . . | Mar. 1904
Hewn, 6'x8"x8'
8x2, 8x1
150
lc
Black pine (Western
vellow pine)
Pecos, N. M. . .
Oct., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
100
Id
Black pine (Western
yellow pine)
Pecos, N. M. . .
Dec, 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
8x2, 7x2
75
2
Black pine (Western
vellow pine)
Rociata, N. M.
Jan., 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
150
2a
Black pine (Western
vellow pine)
Rociata, N. M.
Mar., 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
4x4
150
2b
Black pine (Western
vellow pine)
Rociata, N. M.
May, 1904
June, 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
8x1
7x2
200
2c
Black pine (Western
vellow pine)
Rociata, N. M.
Aug., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
100
3
Red pine (Western
vellow pine)
Pecos, N. M...
Jan., 1904
Feb., 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
100
3a
Red pine (Western
Pecos, N. M. ..
Mar., 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2, 8x1
150
3b
Red pine (Western
yellow pine)
Pecos, N. M...
Mav, 1904
June, 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
9x9, 8x8
465
3c
Red pine (Western
vellow pine)
Pecos, N. M...
Aug., 1903
Sept., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
150
3d
Red pine (Western
vellow pine)
Pecos, N. M. ..
Nov., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8*x8'
8x2
50
4
Red pine (Western
vellow pine)
Rociata, N. M.
Jan., 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
50
4a
Red pine (Western
vellow pine)
Rociata, N. M.
Mar., 1904
Hewn, 6"x8'x8'
4x4
200
4b
Red pine (Western
vellow pine)
Rociata, N. M.
Mav, 1904
June, 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
8x1
376
4c
Red pine (Western
Rociata, N. M.
Aug., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
100
5
Pecos, N. M...
Jan., 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2, 8x1
100
Pecos, N. M. . .
Mar., 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2, 9x9
100
5b
Pecos, N. M. . .
Mav, 1904
June, 1904
Hewn, 6"xS"x8'
8x8, 9x9
200
5c
Pecos, N. M.. .
Oct., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8'x8'
7x2
100
5d
Pecos, N. M. . .
Dec, 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
50
6
Rociata, N. M.
Jan., 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
9x9
50
6a
Rociata, N. M.
Mar., 1904
Hewn,6*x8"x8'
8x8, 9x9
95
6b
Rociata, N. M.
Mav, 1904
June, 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
8x8
199
6c
Rociata, N. M.
Oct., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
9x9
87
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
TABLE 1.— Continued.
1G7
**®'- Species
No.
Locality Date Cut
Form of Ties
P'orm of
Piles
No. of
Ties
7 White fir (Abies con-
color)
Rociata, N. M. Jan., 1904
Pecos, N.M... Jan., 1904
Hewn, 6*x8"x8'
Hewn, 6'x8'x8'
7x2, 8x2
triangular
157
7c
White fir (Abies con-
Peco« N M SeP*' 1903
reco., .n.m... Qcti lg03
Hewn, 6*x8'x8'
7x2. 9x9*
200
7d
White fir (Abies con-
Rociata, N. M. Dec, 1903
Hewn, 6'x8'x8'
triangular
100
•Two outer ties of each tier set on edge.
I
1 -BLACK PINE
■j-prn PiKir 1
CO
\
I
J-DOUGLAS F
IR
1
,\
UJ
\
UJ
A
t-
\
V
,1
UJ
3
N
\sN
120
100
C
TIM
: se
"ASC
i
NIN(
J-l
5
•ION
"HS
i
220
In
-BL
AHK
PINF
3a
-RED PINE
CO
en
V
.
1
t-
\
2j180
5.
V
5,40
{ 1
UJ l40
\
\
n_
feBa
0 2 4 6 8
TIME SEASONING- MONTHS
Fig. i. — Seasoning of Ties at Pecos,
N. M. ; Cut in January and
February.
Fig. 3. — Seasoning of Ties at Pecos.
N. M. ; Cut in March.
2-
•BLACK PINE
4-REO PINE'
to
CD
7-
•WHITE FIR
t—
0.
V
V
0 nr.
Sc
l\
[7j l40
k 1
2 4 6 8
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
2a-
Rl A
» P
NF
4Q-RED PINE
CO
00
— ' 180
P
or 160
1—
0 ./.n
uj l40
3
4a
f'n
^2a
0 2 4 6 8
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 2. — Seasoning of Ties at Ro-
ciata, N. M. ; Cut in January.
Fig. 4. — Seasoning of Ties at Ro-
ciata, N. M. : Cut in March.
1«8
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
3b
5b
-RED PINE
-D0'1Rt A<; f
IR-
4>
m
-Sb
W
>
0 2 4 6 8
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
'02468
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
0 2 4 6 8
TIME SEASONING - MONTHS
Fig. 5. — Seasoning of Ties at Pecos,
N. M. ; Cut in May and June.
Fig. 7.— Seasoning of Ties at Pecos,
N. M. ; Cut in August, Sep-
tember and October.
2 4 6
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 6. — Seasoning of Ties at Ro-
ciata, N. M. ; Cut in May
and June.
Fig. 8. — Seasoning of Ties at Ro-
ciata, N. M. ; Cut in August
and October.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
169
2*68
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
F'g- 9- — Seasoning of Ties at Pecos,
N. M, ; Cut in November
and December.
1
180
160
140
>
i
Jd;- WHITE FIR
j
: 120
100
6 8
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. io. — Seasoning of Ties at Ro-
ciata, N. M. ; Cut in December.
Ties cut in January and February required from four to five months
to reach a constant moisture content. As the season advanced the rate
of evaporation very much increased. Ties cut in May and June required
a much shorter time to reach constant weight; those tested at Rociata
required two months ; those at Pecos, only one month. Not much change
occurs in this rate until November. The November and December ties
reach a constant weight in about six months.
Very little difference was found in the rate of seasoning of black
and of red pine, but the total loss of weight was usually greater for the
black pine. This would be expected, because rapidly-grown trees gen-
erally contain more sapwood, and hence more moisture,* than the more
slowly-grown trees of the same species. The curves for white fir re-
semble very closely those for the pines. Douglas fir seems to require
about the same time to reach constant weight as the other species, but
the weight lost is much less.
Pecos and Rociata have quite different exposures, though nearly the
same elevations. The ties at Pecos apparently season a little more rapidly
♦This applies to most coniferous woods, but not necessarily to the broad-
leaved trees or hardwoods.
170
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
than those at Rociata, but since the seasoning at both places is very
rapid the differences in time are not important.
From volume and weight determinations on sample ties, which had
seasoned from 12 to 20 months, were obtained the air-dry weights per
cubic foot shown in Table 2. The moisture content of the ties was not
known.
TABLE 2.— AVERAGE VOLUME AND AIR-DRY WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT OF
SAMPLE TIES— NEW MEXICO.
Species
Weight
Number of Ties Average Volume 1 per cubic foot
(air dry)
"Black pine"
"Red pine". .
Douglas fir...
White fir
Cubic feet
Pounds
82
3.5
33
67
3.6
33
76
3.3
33
50
3.5
31
NORTHWESTERN WOODS.
Seasoning curves (Figs. 11 to 15) are given for lodgepole pine,
Western larch and Douglas fir, of the Northwestern species. The records
on lodgepole pine were obtained at Bozeman, Mont., on Western larch at
Sandpoint, Idaho, and on Douglas fir at Sandpoint, Idaho, and Pasco
and Tacoma, Wash. A list of the ties on which the curves are based is
given in Table 3.
TABLE 3.— DESCRIPTION OF THE TIES ON WHICH ARE BASED THE SEASON-
ING CURVES FOR NORTHWESTERN WOODS.
Ref.
No.
Species
Locality
Period
of
Cutting
Form of Tie
Form
of
Pile
No.
of
Ties
10
Lodgepole pine ....
Bozeman, Mont
Jan., 1903
Feb., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
200
10a
Lodgepole pine. . . .
Bozeman, Mont
Mar., 1903
Apr., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
200
10b
Lodgepole pine. . . .
Bozeman, Mont
May, 1903
June, 1903
July, 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
300
10c
Lodgepole pine. . . .
Bozeman, Mont Au§- J9°2
Sept., 1902
Hewn, 6"x8".\8'
7x2
200
lOd
Lodgepole pine
Bozeman, Mont
Oct., 1902
Nov., 1902
Hewn, 6"x8"xS'
7x2
200
11
Sand Point, Idaho
Jan., 1905
Hewn
7x2
50
11a
Sand Point, Idaho
Apr., 1905
Hewn
7x2
50
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
171
TABLE 3.-DESCRIPTION OF THE TIES ON WHICH ARE BASED THE SEASON
ING CURVES FOR NORTHWESTERN WOODS— Continued
Ref.
No.
Species
Locality
Period
of Form of Tie
Cutting
Form
of
Pile
No.
of
Ties
lie
Douglas fir
Sand Point, Idaho . . Sept,, 1904
Hewn
7x2
50
lid
Sand Point, Idaho. .
Nov., 1904
Dec., 1904
Hewn
8x1
7x2
150
12
Douglas fir.
(unpeeled ties)
Sand Point, Idaho
Jan., 1905
Feb., 1905
Hewn
7x2
200
12a
Douglas fir
(unpeeled ties)
Sand Point, Idaho
Apr.,- 1905
Hewn
7x2
50
12c
(unpeeled ties)
Sand Point, Idaho
Sept., 1904
Hewn
7x2
100
12d
Douglas fir
(unpeeled ties^
Sand Point , Idaho
Nov., 1904 I H
Dec., 1904 aewB
7x1
7x2
8x1
350
13
Western larch
Sand Point, Idaho ; Jan., 1905 Hewn
7x2
50
13a
Western larch
Sand Point, Idaho . . .
Apr., 1905
Hewn
7x2
8x1
100
13c
Western larch
Sand Point, Idaho
Oct., 1904
Hewn
7x2
50
13d
Western larch
Sand Point, Idaho
Nov., 1904
Dec., 1904
Hewn
7x2
8x1
150
14
(unpeeled ties)
Jan., 1905
Hewn
7x2
8x1
150
14c
Western larch
(unpeeled ties)
Sand Point, Idaho ...
Sept., 1904
Oct., 1904
Hewn
7x1
100
14d
Western larch
(unpeeled ties)
Sand Point, Idaho
Nov., 1904
Dec, 1904
Hewn
7x2
• 8x1
400
15
Douglas fir 1 Pasco, Wash
Jan., 1904
Feb., 1904
Sawed, 7"x9'x8'
7x2
400
15a
Douglas fir Pasco, Wash
Mar., 1904
Apr., 1904
May, 1904
Sawed, 7"x9'x8'
7x2
600
15b
Douglas fir Pasco, Wash
June, 1904
July, 1904
Sawed,7'x9'x8'
7x2
400
15c
Douglas fir Pasco, Wash Aug., 1904
Sawed, 7'x9'x8'
7x2 1 200
15d
Douglas fir Pasco, Wash
Oct., 1904
Nov., 1904
Sawed, 7"x9'x8'
7x2
400
16
Tacoma, Wash
Dec., 1904
Jan., 1905
Sawed, 7'x9'x8'
7x2
400
16a
Mar., 1904
Apr., 1904
Sawed, 7"x9'x8'
7x2
400
16b
Tacoma, Wash
May, 1904
June, 1904
July, 1904
Sawed,7'x9*x8'
7x2
600
16c
Aug., 1904 1 Sawed, 7"x9"x8'
7x2
200
16d
Douglas fir
Tacoma, Wash.
vCt- Ji!2f Sawed, 7'x9'x8'
Nov., 1904
7x2
400
172
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
Although climatic conditions in the Northwest are different from
those in the Southwest, and vary also throughout the region, the same
grouping of the ties could be employed at all places. In spite of differ-
ences caused by species and by local climatic conditions, a similarity
exists in the curves for the various lots of ties cut at the same time of
year. The effect, however, of the time of year when the tests are started
is very evident.
4 6 8 10
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. ii.— Seasoning of Lodgepole Pine Ties at Bozeman, Mont., Douglas
Fir at Sandpoint, Idaho (Curves n and 12), Pasco, Wash.
(Curve 15), and Tacoma, Wash. (Curve 16) ; and
Western Larch at Sandpoint, Idaho ; Cut in
January and February. Tacoma
Ties in December and
January.
Lodgepole pine in Montana cut in May, June or July was practically
air dry in three months, and even if started in September it became fairly
well seasoned before winter; but, if started in winter, it did not become
dry until July of the following summer. Larch in Idaho and Douglas fir
in Idaho and Washington, if cut in the early spring, required from four
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
173
to five months to reach a condition at all resembling air dryness; if the
ties were cut as late as July they lost almost as much moisture in the
succeeding two or three months as they did by holding them over until
the following summer.
The ties seasoned at Tacoma and Pasco, Wash., afford a good ex-
ample of local climatic effects ; both lots were from the same source
240
220
180
g
160
140
O|20
5
100
30
60
10a- LODGEPOLE
Ma- DOUGLAS F
12a- -
PINE
K 1
• UNPEELEt
)_
13a- WESTERN LARCH
-ISa- DOUGLAS FIR— 1
16a- ••
l?n
W
w
>IGa
>isa
I0an
2 4 6 8 10
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 12.— Seasoning of Lodgepole Pine Ties at Bozeman, Mont. ; Douglas
Fir at Sandpoint, Idaho (Curves na and 12a), Pasco, Wash.
(Curve 15a), and Tacoma, Wash. (Curve 16a) ; and
Western Larch at Sandpoint, Idaho ; Cut in
March and April. (Douglas Fir at Sand-
point, March, April and May.)
and the first weights were taken at the same time, but in each case the
ties at Pasco lost weight faster and reached a lower weight than the
ones at Tacoma. Also, the gains in weight, due to the absorption of
water during the rainy season, which were noticeable in Tacoma ties,
were absent or less pronounced in those at Pasco.
174
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
The Douglas fir ties seasoned at Tacoma and at Pasco were sawed
to standard dimensions and had an average volume of 3.5 cu. ft. Assum-
ing the oven dry weight of the wood to be 28.3* lbs. per cu. ft., the
moisture content of the most thoroughly seasoned ties was 15 per cent,
for those at Pasco and 16 per cent, for Tacoma. The corresponding
weights for the two sets were about 33 lbs. per cu. ft.
240
220
lOb-LODGEPOLE PIN
:
200
18b-
180
1
i
Jjieo
UJ
Q-140
4
UJ
5120
n
Sra
t—i
> — <
y
H
) — <
tf-
►rH
16b
S
N=
-0—
1 — t,
) — 1
>— t
— c
kn
ISbt_
fiO
4 6 8 10
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Pig. 13.— Seasoning of Lodgepole Pine Ties at Bozeman, Mont. ; and
Douglas Fir at Pasco, Wash. (Curve 15b), and Tacoma,
Wash. (Curve 16b) ; Cut in May, June and July.
EASTERN CONIFERS.
The only Eastern coniferous woods on which seasoning records
were obtained are hemlock and tamarack. Curves of their rate of sea-
soning are shown in Figs. 16 to 20, and a description of the times is
given in Table 4.
♦Average as quoted in Circular 146, for a series of determinations on
Douglas fir beams made by the Forest Service at the Berkeley, Cal., timber-
testlng laboratory. See also footnote (2), page 193.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
175
10c
1 1 1 1
-LODGEPOLE PINE
llc-OOUGLAS FIR~T
12c- UNPEELED —
13c- WESTERN LARCH | |
200
14c-
ISc- DOUGLAS FIR
-UNPLLLLU
CO
00
IGc
-
u 180
^
fc=1
> — 1
>-=<
MC
s
^
5—1
UJ
%60
►— « — <
ki
H
^
I3c<
co
\
^>o
— o-
— o
T=0
^ Jil2c.
UJ
5 140
— a
UC^
IGc
120
rr t|5c
lOol
..
!0c
c
J
•i
4
!
6
IC
a
14
16
18
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 14.— Seasoning of Lodgepole Pine Ties at Bozeman, Mont. ; Douglas
Fir at Sandpoint, Idaho (Curves 11c and 12c), Pasco, Wash.
(Curve 15c), and Tacoma, Wash. (Curve 16c), and
Western Larch at Sandpoint, Idaho ; Cut in
August, Septemher and October.
lOd - LODGEPOLE PINE
lld-OOUGLAS FIR
200
CO
led- ' •• != -UnrtLLLU —
13d -WESTERN LARCH
J, 180
>—
h— ^
I4d-
ISd- DOUGLAS F
IGd- ••
R
-UNPEELED
13d,
Of
L*J
a- 160
►—
X
'I4d
>l2d
UJ
5 1*0
[Id
120
sj
Sd*
TiOd*
100
t
'
A
e
8
1
1
IS
w
16
K
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 15.— Seasoning of Lodgepole Pine Ties at Bozeman, Mont. ; Douglas
Fir at Sandpoint Idaho (Curves nd and i2d), Pasco, Wash.
(Curve isd), and Tacoma, Wash. (Curve i6d) ; and
Western Larch at Sandpoint. Idaho; Cut in
October, November and December.
176
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
TABLE 4.— DESCRIPTION OF THE TIES ON WHICH ARE BASED THE
SEASONING CURVES FOR NORTHEASTERN WOODS.
Ref.No.
Species Locality Period of
cutting
Form of Form of
tie > pile
Number
of ties
17b
Hemlock Escanaba, Mid. },u™> }|}<>f
(Unpeeled ties) July, 1005
Hewn 7x7
100
17c
Hemlock Escanaba, Mich.. A.i«., 1005
(Unpeeled ties) .Sept., 1905
Hewn ' 7x7
100
17d
Hemlock ... Escanaba, Mich.. . . VTct" ™<g
(Lnpeeled ties) Nov., 1005
Hewn 7x7
100
18b
Hemlock Escanaba, Mich —
June, 1905
July, 1905
Hewn 7x7
100*
18c
Hemlock ] Escanaba, Mich... .
Aug., 1905
Sept., 1905
Hewn 7x7
100t
lSd
Hemlock Escanaba, Mich —
Oct., 1905
Nov., 1905
Dec, 1905
Hewn 7x7
150J
19c
Hemlock Plscanaba, Mich... .
Aug., 1905
Sept., 1905
Hewn 7x2
8x1
200 §
19d
Hemlock ' Escanaba, Mich... .
Oct., 1905
Nov., 1905
Dec, 1905
Hewn g?
300^
20
Tamarack® Escanaba, Mich... .
Winter, 1905-6
Hewn ™
100*
21
Tamarack^ Escanaba, Mich —
Winter, 1903-4
Hewn 7x2
33
22
Hemlock^ ■ Escanaba, Mich
Winter, 1903-4
Hewn 7x2
67
* Average volume, 3. 1 cubic feet.
tAverage volume, 3.0 cubic feet.
t Average volume, 3.7 cubic feet.
§ Average volume, 3.0 cubic feet.
If Average volume, 3.5 cubic feet.
°Cut during winter and first weighed April 25.
•Average volume, 3. 2 cubic feet.
♦Piled one year with bark on, then peeled and re-piled.
Curves apply to second year's seasoning beginning May 15, 1905.
Figs. \6, \y and 18 show the rate of seasoning for three groups of
hemlock ties cut respectively in June and July, in August and September,
and in October, November and December. The ties when green had a
very high moisture content, and although they lost weight rapidly during
the summer months, none of them reached a constant weight within the
period of observation; those cut in June and July, the ones held longest.
were still losing weight at the end of the second summer, 16 months
from the time of cutting (Fig. 16, curve i8b).
Figs. iy and.18 compare the rate of seasoning of ties openly piled
(7x2 and 8xr ) with those closely piled (yxy), and practically no differ-
ence occurred between these two conditions. As between the peeled and
the unpeeled ties, however, considerable difference in the rate of season-
ing is evident.
The curves in Fig. 20 are based on ties taken from stock which,
having been closely piled with the bark on for a year, had then been
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
177
200
17b- HEMLOCK -UNPEELED
180
18b- •• -PEELED
oo
3 160
1
^140
LU
Q_
J7b
o 120
LU
3
100
>S
k
p
18?
6 8 10
TIME SEASONING
12
■MONTHS
Fig. 16. — Seasoning of Hemlock Ties at Escanaba, Mich. ; Cut in June
• and July.
I7c- HEMLOCK- UNPEEL
18c- -PEELED
19c-
ID
\
CO
*
1
V
\
I
UJ
vl7c
UJ
3
13c*
18c
80
TIME' SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 17.— Seasoning of Hemlock Ties at Escanaba, Mich. ; Cut in August
and September.
17S
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
I 200
^ 160
120
I7d- HEMLOCK -UNPEELED
Sn
I9d-
0l7d
I9>
>J8d
•xj
"-<!
6 8 10 12
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 18. — Seasoning of Hemlock Ties at Escanaba, Mich. ; Cut in October,
November and December. •
180
\a
O-TA
MAR
ACK
0 2
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 19. — Seasoning of Tamarack Ties at Escanaba, Mich. ; Cut in Winter.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
179
peeled and repiled in open forms. The curves give the losses which
occurred after the first year. The final weight, 107.4 lbs. per tie for the
hemlock, is equivalent to a weight of 30.6 lbs. per cu. ft., and the mois-
ture content of 27.5 per cent., based on an average dry weight of 24 lbs.
per cu. ft.* Freshly cut hemlock ties weighed from 55 to 57 lbs. per
cu. ft.; they can readily be seasoned to 40 lbs. per cu. ft., a process
which requires from four to nine months, according to the time of the
year they are cut.
200
21
-TAMAR/
-HEMLOI
,CK
180
22
:k
CO
m
-1I6O
1
UJ
S
X
v^,
1 —
or 140
__2_
^120
LlJ
5
22
100
80(
>
4
1
E
1
D
'
2
i.
1
5
1
3
TIME SEASONING - MONTHS
Fig. 20. — Seasoning of Hemlock and Tamarack Ties at Escanaba, Mich. ;
Old Ties Peeled and Repiled.
The tamarack ties, from which the curve in Fig. 19 was drawn, were
cut during the winter and first weighed in late April. In six months
they lost about 30 lbs. per tie and then weighed 41 lbs. per cu. ft. The
prolonged seasoning shown in Fig. 20 resulted in a minimum weight of
39 lbs. per cu. ft., or a moisture content of 27.5 per cent, based on an
oven-dry weight of 30.6 lbs. per cu. ft.*
SOUTHERN PINES.
Seasoning records were obtained on loblolly, longleaf and shortleaf
pine at Silsbee, Tex., and on loblolly pine at Ackerman, Miss, The
curves are shown in Figs. 21 to 25 and a list of the ties on which the
curves are based is given in Table 5.
•The average of ten determinations on discs cut from the ties. See
also footnote (2), page 193.
•The average of ten determinations on discs cut from the ties. See
also footnote (2), page 193.
ISO
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
The influence of variations in meteorological conditions with the
time of year is again well marked in the form of the curves, although
conditions seem favorable to rapid drying throughout a large portion
of the year.
TABLE 5 —DESCRIPTION OF THE TIES ON WHICH ARE BASED THE
SEASONING CURVES FOR SOUTHERN PINES.
Ref.
No.
Species
Locality
Period of
cutting
Form of Tie
Form of
pile
No.of
Ties
23
Loblolly pine
Silsbee, Texas
Jan., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
6x2
7x2
8x2
300
23'
Loblollv pine
Silsbee, Texas
Jan., 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
9x1
100
23a
Loblolly pine
April, 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
8x2
300
23b
Loblolly pine
Silsbee, Texas . . .
July, 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
6x2
7x2
300
23c
Loblolly pine
Silsbee, Texas
Sept., 1903
Oct., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
200
23d
Silsbee, Texas
Dec, 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
200
24
Shortleaf pine
Silsbee, Texas
Feb., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
6x2
200
24b
Shortleaf pine
Silsbee, Texas
July, 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
6x2
100
24c
Shortleaf pine
Aug., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
9x1
200
25
Longleaf pine
Silsbee, Texas
Jan., 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
6x2
7x2
8x2
200
25a
Longleaf pine
April, 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
8x2
300
25b
Longleaf pine
Silsbee, Texas ... .
May, 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
6x2
7x2
150
26
Loblolly pine
Ackerman, Miss. . .
Jan., 1905
Feb., 1905
Sawed,6"x8"x8'
8x1
8x2
200
26a
Loblollv pine
Ackerman, Miss. . .
April, 1904
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
8x1
8x2
193
26b
Loblollv pine
Ackerman, Miss . .
May, 1904
Sawed,6"x8"x8'
8x2
100
26b'
Loblollv pine
Ackerman, Miss. . .
June, 1904
Sawed,6"x8"x8'
7x2
8x2
200
26c
Loblollv pine
Ackerman, Miss. . .
Julv*, 1904
Aug., 1904
Oct.f, 1904
Sawed,6"xS"x8'
7x2
8x2
400
26d
Loblolly pine
Ackerman, Miss. . .
Nov., 1904
Dec J, 1904
Sawed,6"x8"x8'
7x1
7x2
8x1
8x2
250
•First weighed, July, 29.
fFirst weighed, October 3.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
181
E3-L0BL0LLY PINE -TEX.
23-
24-SH0RTIEAF PINE
2S-L0NGLEAF PINE
2G-i ori ni iy pinf-miso.
CD
_J
1
P 140
«-o2S
i
^
'3
Lul
-°24
CO
5
V46
1
6 8 10
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 21. — Seasoning of Ties at Silsbee, Texas, and Ackerman, Miss.
Cut in January and February.
182
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
23a- LOBLOLLY PINE
2SO.-L0NGLEAF PINE
26a- LOBLOLLY PINE
-TEX.
L
1
-MISS.
I
& 180
\
LU
\
K
1
h
1
*
k
K
5a
£ 140
o
\
°23a
120
\
\
\
i
2&
-o
C
A
e
e
i
3
i
?
TIME SEASONING - MONTHS
Fig. 22. — Seasoning of Ties at Silsbee, Texas, and Ackerman, Miss
Cut in April.
THE AIR-SEASOXING OF TIMBER.
183
23b -LOBLOLLY
24b-SH0RTLEA
.25b-L0NGLEAF
PINE-TEX.
F PI
PIN
HL
180
28b-L0BL0LLY PINE-MIS&
CD
l\
Q:I40
a.
>2Sb
^J)_2^l
il20
Ul
3
\\
^2
4b
N
\
I
k
H
£
tgj
N
o—
<>»
-QJ*
2Gb'
c
1
l
e
>
i
i
i
i
i
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 23. — Seasoning of Ties at Silsbee, Texas, and Ackerman, Miss.
Cut in May, June and July.
184
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
240
220
-23
^-i nRi ni iy pinf-tfv
24C-SH0RTIEAF PINE |
"26
;-t
Jbll
Lir
riHt
-pqi
bb.
1
00
_j
1
UJ
QC
UJ
Q.
-o2
4C
■o23
c
CD
y
?6c
>
80
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 24.— Seasoning of Ties at Silsbee, Texas, and Ackerman, Miss
Cut in August, September and October.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
185
220
23d- LOBLOLLY PlNE-TEX.
180
26d- LOBLOLLY PINE- MISS.
8,6°
1
^ 140
l-
23d
b
UJ
X
Ul
26d
2 4 6 8 10
TIME SEASONING-MONTHS
Fig. 25.— Seasoning of Ties at Silsbee, Texas, and Ackerman, Miss.
Cut in November and December.
186
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
The ties cut in January and February are fairly dry at the end of
4 or 5 months, but continue losing appreciable weight for about 8
months. From April to October the seasoning is so rapid that there is
comparatively little loss of weight after the first 2 or 3 months, even
when the ties are held over until the following summer (see Fig. 24).
The curves for loblolly and shortleaf pines at Silsbee, Texas, re-
semble each other very closely; the longleaf pine dries a little more
quickly, but the total weight lost is much less. The results of a few
determinations of volume and air dry weight per cubic foot are given in
Table 6. No data are available on which to base moisture calculation
for these ties.*
TABLE 6.— VOLUME AND AIR-DRY WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT OF
SAMPLE TIES— TEXAS.
Species -
Time
seasoned
No. of
ties
Average
volume
Weight per cu.
ft. (air-dry)
Years
Cu. ft.
Pounds
Loblolly pine
Shortleaf pine
§ to lj
i
2
15
6 "
SI
3.4
3.0
3.3
37
39
42
The tests with loblolly pine at Silsbee, Tex., and Ackerman, Miss.,
were made in different years and therefore do not afford a good com-
parison of the effects of local differences in climate. Considering that
the tests were made in different years, the two curves are surprisingly
similar.
SOUTHERN HARDWOODS.
Seasoning records were obtained on red, white and bur oak, red
gum and beech taken at points in Western Tennessee, Northeastern
Arkansas, Southern Illinois and Southern Indiana. The rate of season-
ing of these woods is shown by the curves in Figs. -26-30 and a descrip-
tion of the ties is given in Table 7.
The hardwoods in general differ from conifers in the slower rate
at which they lose moisture and the longer time they require to become
air dry. The tests of red oak in Arkansas cover a sufficient period to
show very strikingly the slow rate of season of this wood. Ties cut in
the spring and early summer (Fig. 27) were far from dry when they
ceased to lose weight at the approach of winter; this is shown by the
fact that during the following summer they lost nearly two-thirds as
much moisture as during the first summer.
♦Loblolly pine ties from Texas, tested at Lafayette, Ind., had an air
dry weight of 38.4 lbs. per cu. ft., and contained then approximately 20 per
cent, of moisture based on the oven dry weight. Forest Service Circular
89, page 27.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
187
TABLE 7.— DESCRIPTION OF THE TIES ON WHICH ARE BASED THE SEASON-
ING CURVES FOR SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN HARDWOODS.
Ref.
No.
Species
Locality
Period
of
Cutting
Form of Tie
Form
of
Pile
No.
of
Ties
28
Red oak. .
Portia and Black Rock, Ark
Jan., 1903
Feb., 1903
Mar., 1903
Hewn,6"x8"x8'
7x2
8x2
7x7
9x2
1200
28a
Red oak . .
Portia and Black Rock, Ark
Apr., 1903
May, 1903
June, 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
7x2
8x2
9x2
1200
28b
Red oak . .
Portia and BlackRock, Ark
July, 1903
Hewn,6'x8'x8'
7x2
8x2
9x2
400
28c
Red oak . .
Portia and Black Rock, Ark
Aug., 1903
Sept., 1903
Hewn,6"x8"x8'
7x2
8x2
9x2
8x9
800
28d
Red oak. .
Portia and BlackRock, Ark
Oct., 1903
Nov., 1903
Dec, 1903
Hewn, 6"x8"x8'
8x2
1200
29
Red oak . .
Trimble, Tenn
Jan., 1905
Mar., 1905
Sawed and Hewn J
7x2
!8xl
8x2
300
29a
Red oak . .
Trimble, Tenn
June, 1904
Sawed and Hewn
6"x8"x8'
7x2
8x2
100
29c
Red oak..
Trimble, Tenn
Aug., 1904
Sept., 1904
Sawed and Hewn
6'x8"x8'
7x2 *
8x2
400
29d
Red oak .
Trimble, Tenn
Nov., 1904
Dec, 1904
Sawed and Hewn
6"x8"x8'
8x1 j
8x2 J
400
«k -*i
30
White oak
Enfield, Fairfield and Iuka,
111.; Brownstown and Me-
dora, Ind
Jan., 1903
Hewn, 7'x8"x8 5'
7x7*
7x7
* 381
30c
White oak
Enfield, Fairfield and Iuka,
111.; Brownstown and Me-
Aug., 1902
Hewn, *7"x8*x8'
8x7
8x8
95
30d
White oak
En field. Fairfield and Iuka,
111.; Brownstown and Me-
Oct., 1902
Hewn, *7"x8"x8'
6x2
6x4
8x2
8x8
232
31b
Bur oak.. .
Fairfield.III
July, fl903
Hewn, *7"x8"x8'
7x2
6x7
130
31c
Bur oak.. .
Fairfield, 111
Sept,, 1903
Hewn, *7"x8"x8'
8x2
50
32
Red gum..
Jan., 1903
Feb., 1903
Sawed, 6*x8'x8'
7x2
8x2
300
Mar., 1903
32a
Red gum..
Portia, Ark
Apr., 1903
May, 1903
June, 1903
Sawed, "6x8 "x8'
7x2
7x7
8x2
9x2
300
32b
Red gum . .
Portia, Ark
July, 1903
Sawed, 6'x8"x8'
8x2
9x2
100
32c
Red gum..
Portia, Ark
Aug., 1903
Sept., 1903
Sawed, 6"x8"x8'
8x2
Trian-
gular
200
* Ties average smaller than nominal size,
t Late July and early August.
188
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
TABLE 7— Continued
Ref.
No.
Species
Locality
Period \ Form
of Form of Tie of
Cutting , Pile
No.
of
Ties
3 2d
Red gum..
Oct., 1903
Nov., 1903 , Sawed, 6'x8"x8' 8x2
Dec, 1903
300
33
Red gum..
Trimble, Tenn
Jan., 1905 \ 7x2
Feb., 1 1905 Hewn and Sawed 8x1
600
Mar., 1905
8x2
Red gum..
Trimble, Tenn
June, 1904
7x2
Sawed gx2
200
33b
Red gum..
Trimble, Tenn
July, 1904
Aug., 1904
7x2
Sawed | gx2
400
33d
Red gum..
Trimble, Tenn
Oct., 1904
Nov., 1904
Dec, 1904
' 7x1
Hewn and Sawed j 7x2
• 8x2
538
34
Beech
Trimble, Tenn
Jan., 1905
Feb. ,§1905
Mar., 1905
7x1
Sawed,6"x8'x8' ||^
8x2
400
34a
Beech
Trimble, Tenn i June, 1904
7x2
Sawed,6"x8"x8' ; g^
200
34c
Beech
Trimble, Tenn
July, 11904
Aug., 1904
Sept,. 1904
7x1
Sawed 7x2
8x2
600
34d
Beech
Trimble, Tenn
7x1
Nov., 1904 , Sawed 7x2
400
Dec, 1904
8x2
35
Birch
II
Hewn
Various
1831
36
Maple
McKeever, N. Y
II
Hewn
Various
456
37
II
Hewn
Various
827
t First weights March 3-4, 1905.
§ First weights January 31, 1905.
if First weights August 3.
|| The first weights were obtained July, 1904; within a short time after the ties were cut
from the log; the logs had been cut from 6 months to one year previously.
When the ties were cut in the winter and carried through two years
the loss of weight during the s"econd summer was nearly half that of
the first summer (Fig. 26).
The records on white and bur oak cover too short a period to show
very much about the seasoning of these species, but the structure of the
wood suggests that they would season even more slowly than the red
oak. The losses from the white and bur oak ties during the periods
covered by the curves are small.
The curves for red gum in Arkansas are very similar to those for
red oak in the same locality, but the gum shows a slightly greater total
loss of weight and loses a greater proportion of the total during the early
part of the drying period. The red gum in Tennessee shows very much
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
189
6 8 10 12
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 26. — Seasoning of Hardwood Ties in Southern States ; Cut in Jan-
uary, February and March.
28a -RED OAK -ARK.
29a- TENN
32a- RED GUM-ARK.
33a- •• •■ -TENN
34a- BEECH.
6 8 10 12
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 2~. — Seasoning of Hardwood Ties in Southern States ; Cut in April.
May and June.
190
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
200
28b- RED OAK-
ARK
3lb-BUR OAK
_39b-RED GUM-ARK.
180
CO
33t
)- •
TENN.
Y
i100
UJ
— i
> —
31b
\33t
>
28b
o
UJ
33b
3J?b;
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 28. — Seasoning of Hardwood Ties in Southern States ; Cut in July.
28c -RED OAK -ARK
30c -WHITE OA
31 c- BUR OAK
32c- RED GUM -
it is
K
1
HRK
34c -BEECH
30c
31c
29c'
28c
S«
1 — 0
34cU
32c
6 8 10 12
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 29. — Seasoning of Hardwood Ties in Southern States ; Cut in August
and September.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
191
200
28d-RE0 OAK- ARK
29d - • - TE
30d- WHITE OAK
3?d-RE0 GUM-AR
^33d TF
in
N
h
NN
00
34d- BEECH
1
(-
?9d
30d
bJ
£8d
,_ 140
X
CD
34d
UJ
5
120
33d
f32c
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 30. — Seasoning of Hardwood Ties in- Southern States ; Cut in Octo-
ber, November and December.
ZZ 180
5: 160
CD
140
35-BiRCH
37-BEECH
L_
k^sl
"-O-
35
.
37
^8=
^
ft
&
$*
6
0 2 4 6
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 31. — Seasoning of Birch, Maple and Beech Ties at McKeever. N. Y.
192 THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
greater losses than that in Arkansas; the reason for this difference is
not apparent, especially since the red oak curves for the two localities
are similar.
Beech also shows a greater loss than red oak during the early stages
of seasoning and falls between the Arkansas and Tennessee gums in
this respect. Unfortunately, the tests on beech do not cover a period
sufficient to show definitely how long is required for this species to
become air dry, but the curves in Figs. 27 and 29 indicate that the loss
of weight during the second summer would be relatively small.
NORTHERN HARDWOODS.
Data on the rate of seasoning hardwood ties in the North are very
meager. The ties on which were based the curves shown in Fig. 31 were
sawed in July from logs felled in the woods from six months to a year
previously; the periods of seasoning indicated pertain, of course, to the
ties after they were sawed. There was considerable loss of moisture
from these ties during the first few months of seasoning, but values for
the oven dry weight of these woods obtained from other sources* indi-
cate a high moisture content— .40 to 45 per cent.
POLES.t
Pole-seasoning tests were made by the Forest Service on chestnut
in Maryland, New Jersey, North Carolina and Pennsylvania ; on South-
ern white cedar in North Carolina ; on Northern white cedar in Michi-
gan; and on Western red cedar and Western yellow pine in California. In
most cases the poles were cut at monthly intervals and the successive
weights, showing the loss of moisture in each monthly lot, were aver-
aged according to the four seasons of the year :%
Spring cut — March, April and May.
Summer cut — June, July and August.
Autumn cut — September, October and November.
Winter cut — December, January and February.
The poles were seasoned in single tiers on skids which raised them
one or two feet above the ground. A brief summary of the tests made
is given below :
SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR.
The curves for Southern white cedar shown in Fig. 32 are based on
50 poles cut each month from August, 1903, to July, 1904. The poles
♦Determinations made by the Forest Service in connection with strength
tests show an oven dry weight of 34 to 35 lbs. per cu. ft. for these species.
tAll of the data on the seasoning of poles given in this Bulletin were in-
cluded in slightly different form in Bulletin 84, "Preservative Treatment of
Poles," but they are reprinted here to make the present publication more
nearly complete.
JThe curves are plotted directly from tables as originally published and
reprinted in Bulletin 84. In summarizing the data on ties cut in dif-
ferent months, the author found that five periods usually could be employed
advantageously. However, it was not thought that the difference warranted
the recalculation of all the pole seasoning tables.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
193
were rafted about 90 miles down the Cape Fear River to Wilmington
and were about 10 days on the trip. They were weighed after reaching
Wilmington. Half of them were 30 feet and half 25 feet long; the
average volume of the 30-foot poles was 20.76 cubic feet and of the 25-ft.
poles 14.53 cu. ft. Based on an assumed oven dry weight of 20.7 lbs.
per cu. ft.* The spring cut poles, which reached the lowest weight, con-
tained 21 per cent, moisture after 10 months' seasoning.
i
•
\
1
V i !
I \
K.
\%k
F^S
^II3^~^ — --(L-^i^jTLjMf^cuTi
^7iNTE^!^==T'
I
1
1
X 1
ks^_ i , __a__(L— ^-— ^-_,
?___<^_iSuMMEF
CI
r
1 J T 9 — 1 — j — <J6PRJNG JCUTJ
1 :
6 8 10 12
TIME SEASONING- MONTHS
Fig. 32. — Seasoning of Southern White Cedar Poles at Wilmington, N. C.
NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR.
The seasoning curves for Northern white cedar shown in Fig. 3^ are
based on fifty 30-ft. poles cut each month from April to December, 1905.
The poles were cut near Metropolitan, Mich., and seasoned on skids in
the woods until February, 1906, when all were removed to the yard at
Escanaba, Mich. The average volume of the poles was 17.62 cu. ft. The
average dry weight of the wood, found from discs cut from the butts
and tops of a number of poles, was 18 lbs. per cu. ft.t The lowest aver-
age moisture content reached by any group was 27 per cent, for the
autumn cut poles.
WESTERN RED CEDAR.
The curves for Western red cedar poles (Fig. 34) are based on one
hundred 40-ft. poles in each season's cut. The poles were cut near
•Average weight for species determined by Sharpless, Vol. IX, Tenth
Census. This weight is based on the actual volume of the dry wood.
tUnless otherwise stated, the oven dry weights per cubic foot used in
this Bulletin are based on the green volume of the wood.
194
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
CO
CO
i—
o
U.
y32
CO
Q=28
UJ
0-
\aiitumn c
^T
IssJ
^-.
_-_-_\
-----
"" r"
IT
-24
UJ
5
w
INTE
R CI
IT^<
N
R
N
§pr|ng CUT
n i
SUP|MEF CU '"
6 8 10 12
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 33- — Seasoning of Northern White Cedar Poles at Escanaba, Mich.
Puget Sound, Wash., and transported by boats to San Pedro, Cal., where
they were transferred to the storage yard. The first weights generally
were taken in the yard from three to seven months after cutting, but
there were 25 summer cut poles which were first weighed in the woods
to obtain their green weight. The approximate dates of cutting and of
first weighing were as follows :
Summer cut — Cut in July, 1906, and first weighed in January,
1907.
Autumn cut — Cut in October, 1906, and first weighed in May, 1907.
Winter cut — Cut in December, 1907, and first weighed in April,
1908.
Spring cut — Cut in May, 1908, and first weighed in July, 1908.
V
CO
00
s
v..
1
H
^J
O
O
i*i
■%
CJ
\ N
3
O
SPF
ING
cut\
\,
*^
!^UT
UMN
CU
UJ
OL
I
UJ
W
NTE
R CI
N
ls
1
kSUl
^IME
\ CU
T
TIME SEASONING - MONTHS
Fig. 34. — Seasoning of Western Red Cedar Poles at Wilmington, Cal.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
195
The average volume, based on 300 poles for all four seasons, was
27.34 cu. ft. The oven dry weight of the wood, determined by sections
cut from 12 poles, was 18.2 lbs. per cu. ft. The green wood, therefore,
contained 133 per cent, water; while at their lowest weight, 23.5 lbs. per
cu. ft., the summer cut poles contained 29 per cent, moisture.
WESTERN YELLOW PINE.
The curves showing the rate of seasoning for Western yellow pine
(Fig. 35) are based on poles cut and seasoned near North Fork, Madera
County, California, as follows :
Spring cut — 100 poles, cut March, 1906.
Summer cut — 100 poles, cut July, 1906.
Autumn cut — 150 poles, cut October, 1906.
Winter cut — 150 poles, cut January, 1907.
66
\
64
60
CO
CD
-1 CO
■ 56
1—
0
U.
o52
BO
CJ
0.
2 \
1—
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1
■n
\
3
va
'P
%\
r~
h
40
ff
%
5
0
36
32
6 e 10
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig- 35- — Seasoning of Western Yellow Pine Poles, Madera Co., Cal.
The poles were 40 ft. long, and their average volume was 26.1 cu.
ft. Their oven dry weight, determined from sections cut from a number
196
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
of the poles, was 26.2 lbs. per cu. ft. The green poles contained on an
average nearly 150 per cent, moisture. The autumn cut poles, which
after 10 months' seasoning were reduced to 30.3 lbs. per cu. ft, then con-
tained 15.6 per cent, moisture.
CHESTNUT.
Thorndale and Paoli, Pa.— The chestnut poles for the Thorndale
and Paoli curves (Fig. 36) were cut monthly in lots of 50 from June,
1903, to May, 1904, inclusive. The average volume of all the poles was
20 cu. ft, except that of the summer cut poles, which was 21 cu. ft.
l^UJTUM
vJ CL
T
w
INT E
R CI
^H^I^
-J>
«u
4ME
\ CL
I
S
>RIN
i CU
K
10 12 14
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 36. — Seasoning of Chestnut Poles at Thorndale, Pa.
Dover, N. J. — The seasoning curves for chestnut poles in the vicinity
of Dover, N. J. (Fig. 37), are based on fifty 30-ft poles cut each month
from August, 1902, to May, 1903, inclusive, except the months of No-
vember and February. The average volume of the poles was 22 cu. ft.
Pisgah, N. C. — The Pisgah curves (Fig. 38) are based on fifty chest-
nut poles cut monthly from June, 1903, to May, 1904. One-half of these
were 30 ft. and the other half 25 ft. long. The location is on the north
slope of Mount Pisgah at an elevation of 4,500 ft. The average volume
of the 30-ft. poles was 21.12 cu. ft. and of the 25-ft poles, 14.7 cu. ft.
Parkton, Md. — The curves for the poles seasoned in the vicinity of
Parkton (Fig. 39) are based on fifty 30-ft. poles cut monthly from Sep-
tember, 1905, to July, 1906. The average volume of these poles was 20
cu. ft.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
197
The poles seasoned at Parkton, Md., had an average oven dry weight
of 304 lbs. per cu. ft., as determined from discs cut from about a dozen
poles The average moisture content of the autumn cut poles which
52
K
—
50
V
co 48
CO
^
1 — 1
q
4j
1 46
sj
R_
bs
s.
044
O
U.
wiNrtRlcuTj6^
H
u
[UMJ^ CUT
o42
CO
TIME SEASONING - MONTHS
Fig. 37._Seasoning of Chestnut Poles at Dover, N. J.
■ 1
1
□ bb
0
l\j.
v'lNT
FR (J
UT
t_3
AUT
UMI
cu
T
^52
O
:r
if
Js
5
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NG
:uT
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rEfi
cu
fsu
to
iTc"
IT
40
0
2
1
6
8
0
2
4
16
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 38.— Seasoning of Chestnut Poles at Pisgah, X. C.
seasoned longest was 48 per cent, when last weighed, 12 months after
cutting. If the same dry weight be assumed for the poles cut at Thorn-
198
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
dale, Pa., the moisture content after practically two years' seasoning
would be about 34 per cent.*
COMPARISON OF SPECIES.
Conifers, under favorable conditions, season rapidly ; that is, in from
3 to 6 months, as shown by the spring and summer cuts of Southern
white cedar and the winter, spring and summer cuts of Western yellow
pine. Under less favorable conditions, from 8 months to a year is re-
quired, as in the case of fall cut Southern white cedar, of fall cut West-
ern yellow pine, and of spring, summer and fall cut Northern white
cedar. Western red cedar, handled as in these tests, falls also in this
class, provided the seasoning period be computed from the time of cut-
ting.
4 6 e 10
TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 39- — Seasoning of Chestnut Poles at Parkton, Md.
A very great loss took place in the weight of the Western yellow
pine poles — about 33 lbs. per cu. ft., or more than 800 lbs. per pole.
While these poles were still losing rapidly when the last weighings were
made, the moisture content, based on an average dry weight, was fairly
low (15 to 25 per cent.) and doubtless the rate of loss would have sud-
denly halted had the weighings been continued. Sharp breaks would
then have occurred in the curves at a weight of about 30 lbs. per cu. ft.
The chestnut poles season slowly when compared to the coniferous
woods. At Thorndale, Pa., where the weighings were continued longest,
spring and summer cut poles held for two years were still losing weight
at the end of the test. At this time they weighed 40.7 and 41.3 lbs.
•No oven dry weight determinations were made on the chestnut poles
cut in Pennsylvania, New Jersey or North Carolina. The moisture calcula-
tions given in Bulletin 84 for these poles are based on the dry weight of
28.07 lbs. per cu. ft. given by Sharpless in Vol. IX, Tenth Census.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
199
per cu. ft., and contained 34 and 36 per cent, moisture based on an
assumed oven dry weight of 30.4 lbs. per cu. ft* At Parkton, Md., the
spring cut poles reached a weight of 46 lbs. per cu. ft. in 6 months, while
the winter and autumn cuts reached the same weight in 8 and 10 months,
respectively. While such poles could hardly be considered air dry, in
most cases longer periods of seasoning probably would not be warranted
in commercial operations.
CROSS-ARMS.
Seasoning records were obtained at Norfolk, Va., on loblolly pine
cross-arms, shipped from Montgomery County, North Carolina. The
4 S 6 7 8
TIME SEASONING- MONTHS
Fig. 40. — Seasoning of Loblolly Pine Cross-Arms at Norfolk, Va.
(Intermediate Grade).
arms, 3^x4% in. by 10 ft, were graded into three classes: heartwood,
sapwood and intermediate. The seasoning rate for arms of the inter-
mediate class, cut monthly from December, 1905, to August, 1906, March
excepted, is shown in Fig. 40. These arms were stacked 20 in a tier
with the outer and middle arms of each tier set on edge (see Fig. 52)
♦See page 196.
200
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
2 3 4
TIME SEASONING - MONTHS
Fig. 41. — Comparative Seasoning of Sapwood, Heartwood and Inter-
mediate Loblolly Pine Cross-Arms at Norfolk, Va.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
201
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202 THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
to allow free circulation of air. The number of arms on which each
curve is based is as follows :
December 246
January 340
February 250
April ' 230
May 380
June 209
July 256
August 95
The green weight of the arms ranged from 49 to 52 lbs. per cu. ft.,*
but during the testing period they seasoned to a weight of 35 to 37 lbs.
per cu. ft. On an average oven dry weight of 28.1 lbs. per cu. ft., a
weight of 50 lbs. (wood and water) represents 80 per cent, moisture,
and a weight of 35 lbs. per cu. ft., 26 per cent, moisture.
Fig. 41 shows for arms cut in the spring months the average losses
from the heartwood, sapwood and intermediate grades. While the green
heartwood arms weighed 42.6 lbs. per cu. ft, the intermediate grade 50.3
lbs. and the sapwood grades 57.9 lbs., all had seasoned to the same weight
in a little over one month's time. By further seasoning the relative
position of the sapwood and heartwood arms was reversed, the sapwood
becoming considerably drier than the heartwood.
SAWED TIMBERS.
The joists, car sills and stringers on which seasoning records were ■
obtained are here grouped, for convenience, as one class. These timbers
were obtained for strength tests and, as a rule, were selected at mills
and lumber yards. While precautions were taken to have the material
reach the testing laboratories sufficiently green to prevent the strength
being affected by drying,! still some moisture was lost before the first
weights were taken. The data for the seasoning curves shown in Figs.
42 to 46 were obtained on certain of the timbers which were set aside
to be tested in air dry condition. A brief description of the material,
together with the average moisture content of the timbers when first
weighed and when air dry, is given in Table 8.
The several species on which data are available show considerable
variation in their rate of seasoning. For example, redwood, in the 7^-in.
x 9-in. and 8-in. x 16-in. sizes, lost weight constantly for 3 years and
then contained, respectively, 17 and 20 per cent, moisture, while 8-in. x
12-in. shortleaf pine contained 15 per cent, moisture after 15 months'
seasoning, and 6-in. x 12-in. Norway pine contained 17 per cent, after
SlA months. In comparing these species differences in climate and in
*The average volume was 0.91 cu. ft.
fSee Forest Service Bulletin 70, "Effect of Moisture on the Strength
and Stiffness of Wood," by Harry Donald Tiemann; and Circular 108, "The
Strength of Wood as Influenced by Moisture," by the same author.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
203
2 4 • 8 10
TIME SEASONING - MONTHS
Fig. 42.— Seasoning of Norway Pine and Tamarack Timbers.
^4~ 6 8 10 12
TIME SEASONING - MONTHS
Fig 43.— Seasoning of Shortleaf Pine Timbers.
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206
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER. 207
other conditions must, of course, be taken into account, and it must be
remembered that the smaller pieces dry somewhat more rapidly than the
larger ones.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE RATE OF SEASONING.
CLIMATIC AND METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS.
The accelerating effect of warm, dry weather on the rate of evapora-
tion and the retarding effect of cold or wet weather were seen very
plainly in those seasoning tests which were started at different times of
the year, and also in tests where the weighings were continued from
one summer through the winter into the succeeding summer. Timbers
which had become fairly dry ceased to lose moisture, or even gained
weight, during the wet or the cold, damp weather. But timbers cut in
the unfavorable periods showed a moisture loss during subsequent un-
favorable weather, and by the time of the warm, dry weather they had
so far seasoned that the rate of loss was fairly constant throughout both
periods.
The effect of climatic variations in the different places where the
tests were made was less on the whole than the effect of the changes
in a given locality throughout the year. Each locality had its favorable
and its unfavorable periods. Although direct comparisons of climatic
effects cannot be made because different species were studied in the
different localities, the effect of hot, dry and long summers can be seen
plainly in some of the curves. The curves for the New Mexico ties
(Figs. I to 10) exemplify very rapid seasoning; those for Northern
Michigan (Figs. 16 to 20 and 33) exemplify short summers and slow
seasoning.
By considering the effect of the time of year on rate of seasoning,
timber may be cut at such time as to obtain either slow or rapid drying.
When timber is cut in one part of the country to use in another part,
climatic conditions should also be taken into account. Thus in the case
of a timber-treating plant drawing supplies from different parts of the
country, it would be worth while to consider whether the timber should
be held for seasoning at the plant or in the locality where cut.
SPECIES AND FORM OF TIMBER.
Variations in the rate of seasoning among species may be due to
differences either in moisture content or in permeability of the wood.
Of two pieces of wood differing in moisture content, other conditions
being equal, the one with most moisture will dry the more rapidly, and
in a comparatively short time both pieces will reach about the same
condition. This rule does not apply strictly between different species,
even when of similar structure, and in pieces of the same size and form,
but with conifers the usual variation between the species does not seem
sufficient to necessitate separate treatment.
208 THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
Sapwood of the conifers contains, as a rule, very much more mois-
ture than does the heartwood, and a difference in the proportion of
heartwood and sapwood in two timbers of the same species accounts
for a large part of the difference in moisture content. But sapwood
loses moisture more rapidly than the heartwood, and this tends to equal-
ize the time required for the two pieces to become air dry. This fact
is shown strikingly in the case of loblolly pine cross-arms of the heart,
sap and intermediate grades (Fig. 41). Although these three classes
varied from 51.5 to 105.8 per cent, in their average green moisture con-
tent, all grades were in practically the same condition five weeks after
seasoning began. Furthermore, so far as the data presented afford a
basis for comparison, ties of different coniferous species, all seasoned
under the same conditions, differed usually much less in time required to
become air dry than in amount of moisture lost. As examples of this,
we may compare Douglas fir and "red" or "black" pine in New Mexico
(Figs. 1 to 9 and especially Fig. 5) ; or else longleaf, shortleaf and
loblolly pine in Texas (Figs. 21 to 24). This rule' is not true in all
cases, however; tamarack from Northern Michigan, cut in winter, reached
an almost constant weight in 8 months (4 months after favorable season-
ing weather set in), but hemlock, cut in the late fall, was still losing
weight after 10 and 12 months' seasoning. Between the conifers and
certain of the hardwoods the difference in the time required for season-
ing is very great and the hardwoods also vary much among themselves.
Chestnut and the oaks give up moisture slowly, while beech, birch, and
maple season somewhat more rapidly. But there is very little informa-
tion on the rate of seasoning of these species.
The size of the piece influences the time required for seasoning,
because it affects the relation of the volume of a timber to its surface
area and the distance which the moisture on the interior must traverse
to escape from the surface. This influence, however, is not as great
as might be expected. Shortleaf pine, 5-in. x 8-in. beams, contained only
3 per cent, less moisture after 15 months' seasoning than the 8-in. x 12-in.
size; redwood, 7-in. x 9-in. timbers, contained 3 per cent, less after 3
years than the 8-in. x 16-in. size, and the 3-in. x 14-in. size contained
3 per cent, less than the 7-in. x 9-in. Because of the great variations
in the initial moisture content, not much can be learned by comparing
the various sizes of redwood during the earlier stages of seasoning. In
case of the shortleaf pine the 5-in. x 8-in. and 8-in. x 12-in. sizes had
approximately the same initial moisture content, and the difference in
the rate of loss during the early stages is evident; the beams were sea-
soned for 15 months and at the end of 60 days those of the larger size
had lost 67 per cent, of their total loss, while those of the smaller size
had lost 71 per cent, of this amount.
A very good example of the effect of size is afforded by the Western
larch. Beams 5 in. x 8 in. in size which were held 33 months seasoned
from 45.7 per cent, moisture to 16.9 per cent. ; beams 8 in. x 16 in. sea-
soned during the same period from 47.8 per cent, to 18.5 per cent, mois-
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
209
ture. In the 5-in. x 8-in. size 85 per cent, of the total moisture loss
occurred during the first 10 months, while in the 8-in. x 16-in. size only
71 per cent, occurred in this time.
MANNER OF EXPOSURE.
The extent to which timber is exposed to atmospheric influence has
an important bearing on the evaporation of moisture from its surface.
The exposure is affected chiefly by the manner of piling the timber. In
many of the tie-seasoning tests various forms of piles were used, and
QC20
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28
32
36
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TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 47. — Comparative Seasoning of 9x9, 9x1 and 7x2 Piles. (Loblolly
Pine Ties, Silsbee, Texas; Cut in March.)
it was found that the influence of the pile form on the rate of seasoning
was very slight. However, these tests were made on isolated piles, usu-
ally of 50 ties each. If weather conditions are favorable isolated piles
permit rapid seasoning, however closely the ties are stacked, but if the
piles themselves are crowded together the influence of the form of pile
undoubtedly becomes more pronounced. Even in the small isolated piles
more difference was apparent. Figs. 47 and 48 indicate that the more
open piles season more rapidly, although some of the differences shown
210
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
are due to differences in the initial moisture content of the ties. The
curves are based on loblolly pine ties seasoned at Silsbee, Tex.
The combined effect on the rate of seasoning of close piling of ties
and retention of their bark is indicated by tests made on hemlock at
Escanaba, Mich. Ties that had been in the yard,* piled solidly with the
bark on, in accordance with the usual practice at that time, weighed 40
lbs. per cu. ft. at the end of one year. (See Fig. 20 and Table 3). The
average weight of peeled hemlock ties in various isolated piles seasoned
36
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TIME SEASONING -MONTHS
Fig. 48. — Comparative Seasoning of 9x9, 9x1 and Triangular Piles,
lolly Pine Ties, Silsbee, Texas; Cut in January.)
(Lob-
for one year ranged from 36 to 38 lbs. per cu. ft, and was usually be-
tween 36 and 2>7 lbs.
The effect of the form of pile was shown more strikingly, as well
as more accurately, in the cross-arm tests. Ten-foot arms of the sap-
wood class, cut in July and piled openly with 20 arms in each tier, con-
tained 30 per cent, moisture after 60 days' seasoning. (Fig. 49). Other
arms, similarly piled, except that 28 arms were placed in each tier, con-
tained 50 per cent, moisture after the same period. After a little more
*The tie yard of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway Company's wood-
preserving- plant.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
211
than 4 months the first lot contained 20 per cent, moisture, while the
condition of the second lot corresponded to that of the first lot after 2
months' seasoning. Even the closer of these two sets of piles permitted
considerable air circulation (Figs. 50 and 51). Had the arms in the
one pile been stacked solidly, as is frequently done in commercial prac-
tice, the difference in the rate of seasoning would have been still greater.
Attempts to determine the effect of the position of piles with regard
to wind direction showed negligible results. On tins point it should be
fc so
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TIME SEASONED- QAYS
Fig. 49. — Comparative Seasoning of Loblolly Pine Cross-Arms, Piled
28x28 and 20x20.
recalled that the conditions of exposure in the case of the single pile
show far greater variation than in the case of an assemblage of piles in
a crowded timber yard.
Site, too, has an important effect on seasoning. Chestnut poles in
Maryland which were fully exposed to sun and wind lost 25 lbs. per
pole more in 10 months than others partly protected by a hill and sur-
rounding trees; and poles skidded over dry ground lost 35 lbs. more
per pole in 8 months than others skidded over ground which was wet
and covered with rank vegetation.
212
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
It is axiomatic that the rate of evaporation varies with the degree
of exposure to atmospheric influences. The form of the pile, its position
with regard to prevailing winds, the "lay" of the ground, the presence
of underbrush or trees, and the height of the timbers above ground all
affect the rate of seasoning just in proportion as they hinder, or promote,
free circulation of air and free access of sunshine. Rank vegetation.
Fig. 50. — Ten-Foot Cross-Arms Piled 28x28 ; Two Faces of Arms Exposed
to Air Circulation.
wet soil, or neighboring bodies of water affect seasoning by increasing
the humidity of the atmosphere.
The retardation of seasoning by insufficient exposure requires, of
course, carrying a larger stock of timber in the yard, and so involves
higher interest and insurance costs. In case of timbers shipped after a
given period, slow seasoning requires higher freight costs because of the
Fig. 51. — Ten-Foot Cross-Arms Piled 20x20; all Faces of Arms Exposed
to Air Circulation.
greater weight of water to be transported. Retardation of seasoning
also extends the period of danger from insects or fungi which thus have
more opportunity to attack the timber before it becomes immune by
drying.
SOAKING.
The extreme rapidity with which saturated wood loses moisture
when exposed to drying conditions is doubtless responsible for the belief
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
213
that the seasoning of timber may be facilitated by soaking it in water.
In the tests to determine the effect of this process, timbers which had
been soaked for short periods, upon removal from the water, lost the
extra moisture so fast that they soon reached practically the same con-
dition as similar timbers not immersed. Whether the soaked timber ulti-
mately reaches a lower moisture content is still open to question. Hem-
lock ties at Escanaba, Mich., soaked 10 to 20 ^days, contained slightly
more moisture at the end of one year than ties of the same lot which
had not been soaked. Loblolly pine cross-arms at Norfolk, Va., soaked
10, 20 and 30 days, contained less moisture after 5 months than the un-
soaked arms. The same is true at the end of one year for chestnut
poles which had been submerged two weeks. These results are sum-
marized in Table 9 :
TABLE 9.— EFFECT OF SOAKING TIMBER ON SUBSEQUENT RATE OF DRYING.
Kind of timber
Days
seasoned*
Moisture content
Unsoaked
Soaked
427-439f
150
370
Per cent
Per cent
48
23
40
51
18
38
'Includes period of immersion.
tThe longer period applies to the soaked ties.
DETERIORATION OF THE WOOD WHILE SEASONING.
Knowledge of the factors which affect the rate of seasoning is im-
portant for the prevention of injury to the wood during the drying
process. The complaint is not at all uncommon that cross-ties or other
timbers of certain species, such as the soft pines, the gums, beech and
maple, will decay before they will season. It is believed that this can
be prevented usually by piling the timbers so as to dry rapidly. The
tree should be barked as soon as felled, and the timbers piled openly.
Injury by insects may be prevented in the same manner.*
While quick seasoning prevents injury by decay and insects, it is
not always necessary nor desirable. Timber cut and set drying in hot
weather checks more seriously than in cold weather, and sometimes
becomes "case-hardened" and very resistant to preservative treatment.
Timber cut in the late autumn or winter seasons more slowly and
evenly; if peeled and properly stacked, or skidded off the ground, it
dries enough before warm weather to resist attack by insects or fungi.
But whatever the time of cutting, careful attention is needed in piling
•For further information in regard to the prevention of injury to timber
product by insects, consult the publications of the Bureau of Entomology,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, particularly the following:
Bulletin 58, Part V, "Insect Depredations in North American Forests."
Circular 128, "Insect Injuries to Forest Products."
Circular 15fi, "Insect Damage to Mine Props and Methods of Prevent-
ing Injury."
214 THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
the timber, either more openly or more closely, according as local
climatic and other conditions are found to require.
The belief is prevalent that the difference in the behavior of timber
cut at one time of the year from that cut at another is due to inherent
differences in the condition of the wood itself. It is frequently stated
that wood cut during the winter when the "sap is down" is of better
quality or more durable than that cut when the "sap is up." These
effects in themselves are doubtless real, but they must be attributed very
largely to external conditions rather than to internal conditions of the
tree before it is felled. Moreover, contrary to popular belief, a tree
contains as much or more sap in winter as in summer. It was shown
by early European investigations that the moisture content of trees is
relatively high during January and February; during the spring, when
transpiration (evaporation) through the buds or young leaves is active,
the wood moisture decreases, although the conductive tissues are also
more active and the sap flows more freely at this time. Later in the
summer the moisture again increases because, perhaps, the mature leaves
permit less evaporation; in the autumn months another period of lower
moisture content occurs.* The time and extent of these fluctuations
vary in different species, and doubtless also with conditions of the
weather.
DEGREE OF DRYNESS ATTAINABLE.
The term "air dry" has heretofore been used as a matter of con-
venience to indicate the lowest moisture condition reached by the various
timbers. In most cases, further losses would have occurred if the tests
had been continued. In Fig. 52 the weights of lodgepole and longleaf
pine, red oak and red gum ties are shown for periods of from 15 to 25
months. In the case of lodgepole pine in Montana seasoned for nearly
2 years, 75 per cent, of the total loss of weight occurred within the first
2 months, and 97 per cent, within 12 months. The curve for longleaf
pine in Texas is similar to that for lodgepole; in a test lasting 15 months
91 per cent, of the total loss occurred within 5 months, although the ties
were still losing very slightly at the end of the test. The red oak ties
were cut in Arkansas and seasoned for 2 years ; they dried more slowly
than the pine ties, only 75 per cent, of their total loss in weight occurring
within the first year. These ties were gaining weight when the last
records were taken. This was on account of winter weather, but had
the test been continued into the third summer, further decrease in weight
doubtless would have occurred. Red gum ties seasoned for two years
under conditions similar to the red oak lost within the first year 81 per
cent, of the total amount of water evaporated.
Fig. S3, which is plotted from data given by Barlow.t shows that
blocks of English oak, 5 in. x 12 in., 8 in. x 16 in., 10 in. x 16 in. in
cross-section and 24 to 30 in. long, continued to lose weight for $l/2
*From investigations by Hartig in "Die Technichen Eigenschaften des
Holzes," by H. Nordlinger, 1S60.
t Barlow, Peter— "Essay on Strength and Stress of Timber."
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
215
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TIME SEASONING - MONTHS
Fig. 52. — Losses in Weight of Ties With Long-Continued Seasoning.
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THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER. 217
years. One piece, 3 in. x 14 in., was nearly as dry after 2^ years'
seasoning as after slA years. These blocks were stored in the loft of
a blacksmith's shop which was unheated except for the fire of the forge.
The Forest Service records show losses in the weight of Western
larch bridge stringers (8 in. x 16 in. in section) throughout a period of
ZV2 years and of Western hemlock and redwood throughout a period of
3 years (Figs. 44 and 46).
Losses of weight, especially with large timbers, are so gradual after
the greater portion of the moisture has been evaporated that jt is im-
possible to fix any particular moisture per cent, to be designated "air
dry." The air dry condition depends, of course, on the humidity of the
atmosphere; it changes for each climate and season, and varies from
day to day.
The moisture contents of small air dry blocks (i*A in. x il/2 in. x
8 in.) of various species of wood determined at New Haven, Conn., are
shown in Table 10. These blocks had been seasoned for over a year
under cover of a shed and the determinations were made during a period
of clear weather.* Under the conditions of this test, the air dry wood
contained from 13 to 15 per cent, moisture. In a drier climate the mois-
ture content may go as low as 12 per cent, or lower.
TABLE 10.— MOISTURE CONTENT OF SMALL BLOCKS THOROUGHLY AIR-
SEASONED AT NEW HAVEN, CONN.
Species
Moisture content
Longleaf pine .
Loblolly pine.
Red spruce
White pine
Red fir
White ash
Hard maple . .
Brown ash
Red gum
Chestnut
Per cent.
13.3
14.7
15.0
13.4
14.1
14.4
14.9
14.9
14.9
13.8
For most uses structural timber would be considered air dry when
it had lost 75 per cent, or more of the total moisture loss possible by
air seasoning. As a rule the time required to reach this condition would
not be excessive for commercial practice.
It is apparent from the information here presented that, as a rule,
timber weighing considerably more than the theoretical air dry wood
must be considered "air dry" and used.
SEASONING AFTER TREATMENT.
Fig. 54 shows the gain in weight of lodgepole pine ties during treat-
ment with 3 per cent, (approximately) zinc chloride solution and the
♦The specimens were of uniform size and were lying side by side on a
rack during the entire time of seasoning. The half-inch discs from which
the moisture determinations were made were cut one-half inch from the
ends of the blocks on October 14, the weather having been clear for five
consecutive days previously. There were two specimens of each species,
the figures given being the average of the two.
218
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
loss during subsequent seasoning. The ties, which were air seasoned
when placed in the cylinder, were subjected to steaming as a part of the
treating operation, and gained, on an average, approximately 60 lbs.
per tie. When last weighed, a little more than 2 months after they
were treated, they were 3 lbs. heavier per tie than before the solution
was injected. The same test was applied to ties treated without steam;
the result was the same except that the increase in weight was 10 lbs.
less per tie. All of this increase was lost by the end of the seasoning
170
1
160
-j
1
MI40
\
t-
2 120
*
i
100
0 12 3 4
TIME SEASONING - MONTHS
Fig. 54. — Gain in Weight of Lodgepole Pine Ties During Treatment
With Zinc Cchloride Solution and Loss During
Subsequent Seasoning.
period employed in the first case. The results in both cases are based
on two-truck loads of from 28 to 30 ties each.
Red oak ties, treated at the Forest Products Laboratory (Madison,
Wis.), lost 61 per cent, of the weight gained during treatment. These
ties were treated with approximately 46 lbs. of 3 per cent, zinc chloride
solution per tie and were piled about 5 months in the winter and spring
(from February to June). Hard maple ties under the same conditions
gained 63 lbs. (2.5 per cent, solution) per tie and lost 78 per cent, of
this amount. There are, however, no data which afford a comparison
between these losses and the losses from green untreated ties under
similar conditions.
Under some conditions at least the zinc chloride apparently retards
the evaporation of water very appreciably, as shown by the fact that
loblolly pine ties treated with a 2.5 per cent, solution and seasoned 8
months at Lafayette, Ind., then weighed 3.1 lbs. more per cu. ft. than
before they were treated.*
♦Forest Service Circular 39,
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
219
SHRINKAGE.
The drying of wood is accompanied by a shrinkage of its volume
which begins usually when all water has been evaporated* from the cell
cavities, and the cell walls themselves begin to dry out. When this
condition is reached, the moisture content is, as a rule, less than 30 per
cent.,f but the moisture content in a large stick is not evenly distributed
and the outer portions dry first, so some shrinkage occurs almost as
soon as seasoning begins. This is seen in Fig. 55, which shows the
per cent, of green area in cross-section of Douglas fir, Western hem-
lock and Western larch beams as compared with loss of moisture. It
will be noted that the reduction of proportional green area becomes
more pronounced as the beams approach an air dry condition.
Table 11 shows the linear shrinkage in the radial and tangential
directions for small blocks of a number of species; the shrinkage from
the green to the air dry, or approximately air dry condition, and from
the green to the oven dry state is shown separately. In all cases the
greater part of the shrinkage occurred after the blocks were placed in
the oven. These points are significant since they show that partial air
seasoning has very little effect in preventing the subsequent shrinkage
of timbers, and that complete air seasoning is not sufficient if the wood
is later to be subjected to further drying, as by use in artificially heated
structures.
Shrinkage tangentially is nearly twice as great as radially. Longi-
tudinal shrinkage is so small that it may be disregarded. The shrinkage
in circumference of air-seasoned poles was extremely small, being less
than 1 per cent. ; this was due largely to the fact that the poles were
not sufficiently dry when the tests ended to cause much shrinkage, and
it was due also, perhaps, partly to the checking which occurred.
TABLE 11 —RADIAL AND TANGENTIAL SHRINKAGE OF VARIOUS SPECIES'
Species
No. of Size of
tests specimen
Western yellow pine
Lodgepole pine
Englemann spruce
Englemann spruce
Alpine fir
Red fir
White fir
Douglas fir
Inches
3x3x12
3x3x10
3x3x10
3x3x12
3x3x12
3x3x12
3x3x12
3x3x12
Average moisture
content
Green
Percent
61.3
39.9
87.1
35.9
84.0
26.9
49.0
32.6
Air drv
Per cent.
14 5
17.0
19.2
20.5
22.8
14.9
16.7
15.3
Average Shrinkage
Green to air-dry
Radial
Percent
1.6
1.7
.6
.3
.3
.6
.3
2.3
Tangential
Per cent.
2.0
2.7
2.0
1.0
1.3
1.6
2.0
3.0
Green to oven dry
Radial
Percent
4.0
4.7
3.7
3.3
3.0
3 3
3.3
5.0
Tangential
Percent.
5.0
6.7
6.7
6.6
6.0
4.7
5.6
7.6
"Tests made by the Forest Service at the Seattle, Washington, Laboratory.
*Eucalyptus, which begins to shrink at once with any loss of moisture
from the green wood, seems to be an exception to this rule.
tForest Service Bulletin 70 and Circular 108.
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220
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER. 221
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT OF WOOD.
Table 12 gives the specific gravities and oven dry weights per cubic
foot for a number of species of wood. These calculations are based on
the green volume ; in other words, the weight given is the oven dry
weight of what was, when green, 1 cu. ft. of wood. Because of the
shrinkage that occurs, a cubic foot of dry wood contains a greater mass,
or weight, of wood substance than a cubic foot of green wood ; hence the
actual weight per unit volume of dry wood is from 10 to 20 per cent,
higher than that of green wood. However, the values given are more
nearly correct for calculating the weight of seasoned and partially sea-
soned wood than if based on oven dry volume, since the greater part
of the total shrinkage occurs after the air dry stage has been passed.
In applying these values, the weight of the water in the wood must,
of course, be added. As explained previously, in wood completely air
dried the water weighs from 12 to 15 per cent, of the oven dry weight,
and it weighs more than this in wood which in commercial practice is
usually considered air dry. In green wood the amount of water varies
within very wide limits,* depending upon species, age of the tree, con-
*In the case of white fir (Abies concolor) the water in the green wood
may amount to from 100 to nearly 200 per cent, of its dry weight, while in
the heartwood of a freshly cut tree of longleaf pine the water may not
amount to more than 35 per cent, of the dry weight of the wood,
ditions of growth, and other factors.
222
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
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THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
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224 THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
APPENDIX.
The following publications of the Forest Service have been con-
sulted in the preparation of this Bulletin.*
Bulletin 10, "Timber," by Filibert Roth.
Bulletin 41, "Seasoning of Timber," by Hermann von Schrenk.
Bulletin 84, "Preservative Treatment of Poles,", by W. H. Kempfer.
Bulletin 88, "Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir," by McGarvey Cline.
Bulletin 108, "Tests of Structural Timbers," by McGarvey Cline and
A. L. Heim.
Bulletin 115, "Structural Properties of Western Hemlock," by O. P. M.
Goss.
Bulletin 118, "Prolonging the Life of Cross-ties," by Howard F. Weiss.
Bulletin 122, "Structural Properties of Western Larch," by O. P. M. Goss.
Bulletin 126, "Experiments in the Preservative Treatment of Red Oak
and Hard Maple Railway Ties," by Francis M. Bond.
Circular 39, "Experiments on the Strength of Treated Timber," by W.
Kendrick Hatt.
Circular 103, "Seasoning of Telephone Poles," by Henry Grinnell.
Circular 132, "The Seasoning and Preservative Treatment of Hemlock
and Tamarack Cross-ties," by W. F. Sherfesee.
Circular 136, "The Seasoning and Preservative Treatment of Arborvitae
Poles," by C. Stowell Smith.
Circular 146, "Experiments with Railway Cross-ties," by H. B. Eastman.
Circular 147, "Progress in Chestnut Pole Preservation," by Howard F.
Weiss.
Circular 151, "The Preservative Treatment of Loblolly Pine Cross-
arms," by W. F. Sherfesee.
Circular 193, "Mechanical Properties of Redwood," by A. L. Heim.
Circular 213, "Mechanical Properties of Woods Grown in the United
States."
•Much information was also obtained from unpublished manuscripts and
data sheets in the files of the Forest Service.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
225
PLATE I.
Plate I. Fig. 1.-7x2 Form.
Ties Piled for Rapid Seasoning.
226
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
PLATE I.
Fig. 2. — 8xi Form.
Ties Piled for Rapid Seasoning.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
227
PLATE II.
Plate II. Fig. i. — Unpeeled Ties in Solid Piles.
(In a warm, moist climate timbers piled in this manner are liable to
insect attack and decay before they become seasoned.)
228
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
PLATE IT.
Fig. 2. — Unpeeled Mine Props Closely Ranked and in Contact
With Ground.
(In a warm, moist climate timbers piled in this manner are liable to
insect attack and decay before they become seasoned. )
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER. 229
PLATE III.
Plate III. Fig. i. — Wrong Method of Piling Poles for Seasoning
PLATE III.
Fig. 2. — Right Method of Piling Poles for Seasoning.
230
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
PLATE IV.
Plate IV. Fig. I. — Bridge Stringers Piled So As to Permit Air Circula-
tion and Hasten Drying.
THE AIR-SEASONING OF TIMBER.
231
PLATE IV.
■Va,l*«*W?'w ^>-"
"©0 •# grgr f,
M^i &$M •• •* P
S
Fig. 2. — A Good Way of Piling Fence Posts.
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES.
By J. E. Greiner, Consulting Engineer.
INTRODUCTION.
Coincident with the introduction of a particularly heavy type of loco-
motive is always the question as to whether bridges are being constructed
of sufficient strength to safely carry this heavy engine and its possible
future development.
This same question has been cropping out time and time again during
the past thirty years or more, and the answer has heretofore frequently
been evidenced by the construction of somewhat stronger bridges, but in
many cases to an extent merely sufficient to anticipate the increasing
weight of rolling stock for a very brief period.
During each successive revision of the specifications it was believed
that the practical limits of locomotive weights and car capacities had been
fully anticipated, but the fallacy of this belief has been demonstrated so
frequently that now few engineers feel inclined to assert, with any degree
of confidence, at what point or at what time this development will have
reached its limit. It is apparent that we have not yet passed the period
of expansion and development, and the question as to whether the struc-
tures now being built are of sufficient strength depends entirely upon
future development in the type and weight of the rolling stock and the
accuracy with which the designer has anticipated this development.
This discussion has a direct bearing on this question and is the result
of an investigation made recently with a view of ascertaining the heaviest
engines in operation, the requirements of bridge specifications and the
anticipated development as indicated by the capacity of modern bridges.
It is, therefore, hoped that the presentation of this matter at the present
time will be of some practical use to those interested.
HEAVIEST LOCOMOTIVES.
Since 1835, about the time the first bridge was built for carrying
trains, locomotives have developed from the miniature 4-wheel grass-
hopper weighing less than 22,000 lbs. to the enormous 24-wheel articulated
type weighing 616,000 lbs.
About 20 years ago the heaviest engine in service on the Baltimore &
Ohio was a Consolidation weighing about 134,000 lbs. ; at the present time
this road has articulated engines weighing 463,000 lbs. Similar increases
have taken place quite generally on other roads until the heaviest engines
of each type have now reached the weights given in Table 1.
233
234 ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES.
This table also gives the weight and wheel base of double-header
engines with their tenders for all types excepting the articulated, where
a single engine with tender is used in comparison. Attention is called to
the fact that the wheel bases of all double-header engines, excepting the
electric types, are considerably larger than Cooper's E series generally
used for bridge designs. The articulated types, being single, have shorter
wheel bases than the double-headers of other types.
The weight per foot given in the last column of this table is the total
weight of engines and tenders divided by the total wheel base, double-
headers for all except the articulated types. This weight per foot does
not signify anything in regard to the relative effects, on bridges, of the
different types of engines, and, therefore, cannot be used in comparing
these effects. It is given here merely for the purpose of illustrating this
fact, which will be apparent upon comparing these weights with the rela-
tive stress effects given in Table 3.
The heaviest locomotives in actual service on thirty-six American
railways are given in Table 2, which table also indicates contemplated
increases.
The increases from the 22,000-lb. grasshopper used on the Baltimore
& Ohio in 1835 to the articulated type weighing 463,000 lbs. has been rapid
and remarkable and is illustrated by the following data, which shows the
heaviest engines in actual service on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad from
1835 to date:
DATA SHOWING ENGINE DEVELOPMENT ON BALTIMORE AND
OHIO RAILROAD.
Type. Date. Weight.
Grasshopper 1835 22,000 lbs.
Winans' Camel, 8- wheel. . .1851 74,600 "
Perkins' 10- wheel 1863 90,800 "
Consolidation 1873 105,200 "
Consolidation 1881 108,600 "
Mogul 1886 113,200 "
Consolidation 1887 115,600 "
Consolidation 1888 125,000 "
Baldwin, 10-wheel 1890 133.000 "
Consolidation 1892 134,200 "
Consolidation 1894 160,800 "
Electric Motor 1895 190,000 "
Consolidation 1905 208,500 "
Pacific 1906 229,500 "
Articulated 1911 463.000 "
The above shows an increase from 133,000 lbs. in 1890 to 463,000 lbs.
in 191 1, which is about 248 per cent, in the past 21 years. There are
much heavier engines in use on other roads.
The maximum axle load in 1835 was 5,500 lbs., while at present it has
gone beyond 65,000 lbs., with limit not yet reached.
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES.
235
TABLE 1— HEAVIEST LOCOMOTIVES OP EACH TYPE.
Type.
Atlantic
Prairie
Consolidation
12 Wheel
Decapod
Pacific
Mikado
12 Wheel Articulated..
10 Coupled
20 Wheel Articulated..
16 Wheel Articulated.
24 Wheel Articulated.
12 Wheel Electric
16 Wheel Electric
tCooper's E-50
tCooper's E-60
Engine Alone.
Weight,
Lbs.
214,800
244,700
260,100
262,000
267,000
270,000
305,000
334,500
361,000
478,000
493,000
616,000
300,400
320,000
225,000
270,000
Wheel
Base, Ft.
30.79
34.25
26.50
27.08
29.83
35.20
35.00
30.66
43.50
59.80
40.17
65.92
38.50
44.22
23.00
23.00
•Double-Header.
Weight,
Lbs,
728,400
807,500
860,400
817,400
802,000
865,400
960,000
473,800
1,074,000
703,600
588,000
841,600
600,800
640,000
710,000
852,000
Wheel
Base, Ft.
127.76
132.92
131.81
130.15
127.00
142.48
150.00
64.56
161.00
99.70
82.58
105.82
86.50
102.84
104.00
104.00
Weight,
Per Ft.
5,700
6,070
6,520
6,280
6,320
6,070
6,400
7,340
6,670
7,060
7,130
7,950
6,950
6,220
6,830
8,190
♦Weight and wheel base for articulated engines are given for one engine
and tender.
tCooper's E-50 and E-60 typical consolidation engines are given for com-
parison.
TABLE 2-
-HEAVIEST LOCOMOTIVES IK ACTUAL
AMERICAN RAILWAYS.
SERVICE ON 36
Locomotives in
Service.
Under Consideration.
Railway.
Type.
Weight
Lbs.
Type.
Weight.
Lbs.
N. Y., N. H. & H
B. & M
Pacific
Pacific
Pacific
Consolidation
Pacific
Pacific
Consolidation
Mallet
Mallet
Mallet
Mallet
Consolidation
Mallet
Consolidation
Consolidation
Consolidation
Consolidation
Consolidation
Consolidation
Pacific
Mallet
Pacific
Consolidation
Mikado
Mallet
Double Santa Fe
Consolidation
Mallet
Pacific
Mallet
Mallet
Pacific
Consolidation
Mallet
Consolidation
Mallet
229,500
equal
l to E-43
266,100
260.100
269,800
241,400
222,000
463,000
400,000
392,000
455,000
212,000
366,000
171,000
224,000
223,800
254,000
223,000
217,000
253,800
323,400
238,000
216,600
260,500
354,500
616,000
238,900
435,200
251.000
437,000
416,000
228,000
211,200
261,900
181,400
338,000
Pacific
Mikado
Mallet
Mikado
Mallet
Mallet
Mikado
Consol
235,000
305,000
400,000
280,000
163,000
?
1275,000 abt.
N. Y. C. Lines
Erie
P. R. R
L. V
P. & R
B. & O
N. & W
c. & O
S. A. L
A. C L
L. & N
B. & L. E
I. c
M., St. Paul & S. S. M..
C. & A
C. & N. W
C, M. & St. P
C, B. & Q
A., T. & S. F
C, R. I. & P
N. P
M. P
S. P
St. L. & S. F
M., K. & T
C. N
236 ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES.
BRIDGE SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS.
The specification loading for bridge design as now in use by the vari-
ous railroads is given in Table 3, which table also gives the impact allow-
ances and permissible unit-stresses. The simplest manner of comparing
these various specified loadings, including their different impacts and unit-
stresses, is by reducing them to an equivalent loading on the basis of the
American Railway Engineering Association Specifications. These specifi-
cations provide for a consolidation type of engine known as Cooper's E-40,
E-50, E-60 series, depending upon whether the weight on each driving axle
is forty, fifty or sixty thousand pounds. The equivalent loading given in
the sixth column of Table 3, therefore, means that the specified loading,
impacts and unit-stresses, as adopted by the various railways, are practi-
cally equivalent in their effects on bridges to the Cooper's E series load-
ing noted, when used in connection with the American Railway Engineer-
ing Association Specifications.
This table also shows changes under consideration by a number of
railways. It will be observed by reference to the table, column 6, that
eleven roads are building bridges for a strength practically equal to E-60
bridges, four for E-57, seven for E-55, one for E-53, eleven for E-50, four
for loads under E-50 and one for loads over E-60. Of those roads which
are now designing bridges for E-50 or under, two propose to change to
E-60 and three to loading in excess of E-50 in the near future.
It may be reasonably assumed that the specifications in force, or the
proposed changes, represent the views of the engineering department of
the various railways relative to the sufficiency of the present requirements
for meeting future conditions, and on this assumption
One road considers E-65 insufficient,
Thirteen roads consider E-60 sufficient,
Fifteen roads consider E-55 sufficient,
Ten roads consider E-50 sufficient.
In order to determine the relative effects, on bridges, of the various
heaviest types of engines in service and the usual specification E-50 and
E-60 class, the maximum shearing and bending stresses produced by each
type were calculated for spans ranging from 10 ft. to 100 ft., all loco-
motives, excepting the articulated types, being considered as running
double-headers drawing a train of 5,000 lbs. per foot of track. On the
assumption that the maximum stress produced by E-50 class is repre-
sented by unity, the proportional maximum stress produced by the various
locomotives on bridges under 100 ft. is given in Table 4.
It is fortunate for our bridges that the stresses produced by the
heaviest engines are not in direct proportion to the weight as compared
with E-50 type. For instance, the 24-wheel articulated engine weighs 174
per cent, more than E-50, but produces increased stresses varying from
15 per cent, to 33 per cent. The 16-wheel articulated type weighs 119
per cent, more, but produces increased stresses varying from 26 per cent
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES.
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ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES.
to 34 per cent. The 20-wheel articulated type weighs 112 per cent, more,
while the stresses are increased only from 1 per cent, to 14 per cent. The
10-coupled engine weighs 60 per cent, more, while the stresses are in-
creased from 0.0 per cent, to 26 per cent. Other engines which weigh
considerably more than the E-50 produce stresses ranging from 83 per
cent, to 116 per cent, of those caused by the E-50, and the excess stresses
are mostly in very short spans.
The above refers to spans under 100 ft. For greater lengths the
stresses will in many cases be less, and in no case will they be in excess
of those mentioned above.
TABLE 4— RELATIVE STRESSES PRODUCED BY HEAVIEST LOCO-
MOTIVES—SPANS 10 FT. TO 100 FT.
Class.
E-50
Atlantic
Prairie
Consolidation
12 Wheel
Decapod
Pacific ,
Mikado
12 Wheel Articulated . .
10 Coupled
20 Wheel Articulated..
16 Wheel Articulated
24 Wheel Articulated . .
12 Wheel Electric Motor
16 Wheel Electric Motor
Actual
Weight.
225,000
214,800
244,700
260,100
262,000
267,000
270,000
305,000
334,500
361,000
478,000
493,000
616,000
300,400
320,000
Proportional
Weight.
1.00
0.96
1.09
1.16
1.17
1.19
1.20
1.36
1.49
1.60
2.12
2.19
2.74
1.33
1.42
Proportional
Stress.
From
To
1.00
1.00
0.83
1.15
0.88
1.03
0.99
1.14
1.00
1.14
0.96
1.07
0.93
1.08
1.02
1.16
0.98
1.15
1.00
1.26
1.01
1.14
1.26
1.34
1.15
1.33
0.83
0.98
0.84
0.93
CAPACITY OF BRIDGES.
All bridgemen know that properly designed bridges, as well as steel
hopper cars, may be loaded considerably beyond their nominal capacity,
and that they will carry a definite amount of overload regularly and con-
tinuously without requiring any closer attention than usually bestowed
under ordinary good maintenance conditions. This capacity for overload
provides to a large extent for future increases and developments.
We know from numerous tests and long experience that bridges prop-
erly designed and constructed of proper material and with members pro-
portioned in accordance with specifications equally as good as the standard
adopted by the American Railway. Engineering Association, so long as
maintained in good condition, will safely withstand an overload of 50 per
cent, without any traffic or speed restrictions; that such a bridge may be
subjected to an occasional overload considerably in excess of 50 per cent.,
and this without speed restrictions ; and if the speed is regulated, the
bridge will stand an occasional overload of 100 per cent.
This statement is consistent with the writer's personal experience
with the maintenance of structures in the past 25 years, and is some-
what more conservative than has been the successful practice of a num-
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES. 239
ber of railway engineers. Therefore, it should be clearly understood by
the operating officials of railways that a bridge of the nominal E-50
capacity, that is, one designed for Cooper's E-50 loading in accordance
with the American Railway Engineering Association's Standard Specifica-
tions, will not reach its full regular traffic capacity until the different
classes of engines now in service shall have about the weights given in
Table 5, and an E-60 bridge not until these engines have increased to the
extent shown in Table 6.
An examination of these tables will show that the regular service
capacity of an E-50 or an E-60 bridge will take care of engines having an
increased weight over those now in service to the following extent :
Types. E-50. E-60.
16 and 24-Wheel Articulated 12 per cent. 34 per cent.
10-Coupled 19 per cent. 43 per cent.
Mikado, 12 and 20-Wheel Articu-
lated, Atlantic, Consolidation,
12- Wheel Type 30 per cent. 56 per cent.
Pacific and Decapod 39 per cent. 67 per cent.
Prairie 46 per cent. 75 per cent.
Electric 53 to 61 per cent. 84 to 94 per cent.
The capacity of these classes of bridges when subjected to occasional
loads or to regular loads operated under restricted speed will be con-
siderably in excess of that indicated above. For example, an E-50 bridge
with an overload of 75 per cent, which, when the bridge is in good condi-
tion and up to the American Railway Engineering Association Standard
in design, is perfectly safe for occasional loads or regular loads under
restricted speed, will carry engines weighing in excess of the engines now
in use to about the extent indicated below:
16 and 24-Wheel Articulated Engines 30 per cent.
10-Coupled 39 per cent.
Mikado, 12 and 20-Wheel Articulated, Atlantic, Con-
solidation and 12-Wheel Type Engines 52 per cent.
Pacific and Decapod 62 per cent.
Prairie 70 per cent.
Electric 79 to 88 per cent.
It will be seen from the above that loads which strain an E-60 bridge
to its regular service capacity can be operated occasionally over an E-50
bridge, and even regularly when speed is restricted.
HAVE PRESENT BRIDGES SUFFICIENT STRENGTH?
In view of past experience, it is perhaps reasonable to assume that
some of the heavy types indicated in Table 5 as developing the full regular
service capacity of an E-50 bridge may probably be operated regularly
over heavy grade divisions, but experience with the present heaviest loco-
240
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES.
motives does not indicate that still heavier types will ever be proper and
economical on low-grade divisions. But suppose they should be operated
regularly on all divisions, whether high or low grade, then an E-50 Amer-
ican Railway Engineering Association Specification bridge will have ample
capacity to take care of them.
TABLE 5— FULL REGULAR SERVICE TRAFFIC CAPACITY FOR E-50
BRIDGES BASED ON AN OVERLOAD OF 50 PER CENT.
Locomotives.
Weight.
Wheel
Base.
Average
Axle Load.
Percentage
of Increase.!
337,500
280,000
356,300
342,300
344,800
374,300
375,000
394,200
436,200
429,800
629,000
552,000
695,000
460,000
516,000
23.00
30.79
34.25
26.50
27.08
29.83
35.20
35.00
30.66
43.50
59.80
40.17
65.92
38.50
44.22
75,000
82,400
82,600
75,600
73,000
66,400
81,700
77,900
72,600
71,700
70,800
62,800
62,000
78,800
64,500
50.0
31.0
46.0
32.0
32.0
40.0
39.0
29.0
30.0
19.0
32.0
12.0
13.0
53.0
61.0
12- Wheel
12-Wheel Articulated . .
10-Coupled
20-Wheel Articulated...
16-Wheel Articulated..
24-Wheel Articulated..
12-Wheel Electric
16-Wheel Electric
*The Atlantic type applies to spans under 15 ft.; for greater spans the
weight of this class of engine would run over 60 per cent, in excess of the
heaviest type now in service.
tPercentages of increase in column 5 represent the approximate increase
in weight of locomotives and driving loads in excess of the maximum
weights now in actual use.
TABLE 6— FULL REGULAR SERVICE TRAFFIC CAPACITY FOR E-60
BRIDGES BASED ON AN OVERLOAD OF 50 PER CENT.
Locomotives.
Weight.
Wheel
Base.
Average
Axle Load.
Percentage
of Increase, t
*Atlantic
405,000
336,000
427,600
411,000
413,500
449,400
450,000
473,000
523,800
515,800
754,800
662,500
834,000
552,000
619,200
23.00
31.79
34.25
26.50
27.08
29.83
35.20
35.00
30.66
43.50
59.80
40.17
65.92
38.50
44.22
90,000
98,800
99,100
90,700
87,600
79,500
98,000
93,500
87,100
86,000
85,000
75,400
74,400
94,600
77,400
50.0
57.0
75.0
58.0
58.0
68.0
67.0
55.0
56.0
43.0
58.0
34.0
35.0
84.0
94.0
12-Wheel
12-Wheel Articulated...
10-Coupled
20-Wheel Articulated...
16-Wheel Articulated...
24-Wheel Articulated...
12-Wheel Electric
*The Atlantic type applies to spans under 15 ft.; for greater spans the
weight of this class of engine would run over 90 per cent, in excess of the
heaviest type now in service.
tPercentages of increase in column 5 represent the approximate increase
in weight of locomotives and driving-axle loads in excess of the maximum
weights now in actual use.
It is less reasonable to assume that the still heavier types of Table 6
required for developing the full regular service capacity of an E-60 bridge
will ever be operated even on high-grade divisions, unless gage of track
is increased and greater clearances made, both laterally and vertically, in
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES. 241
tunnels and bridges and the right-of-way probably also increased, or, in
other words, unless all present standards are abandoned and the railway
practically reconstructed.
But suppose such types can be constructed and placed in operation
without changing standard gage and clearances, they surely would not be
operated regularly on low-grade divisions, and if their regular operations
should be confined to high-grade divisions, then E-50 bridges on low-
grade territory would have ample capacity to enable these types being
transferred to and from these high-grade territories.
It appears, therefore, that an E-50 bridge is a good and economical
type and provides for increased loading above the heaviest now in service
to a sufficient extent to justify the railways which consider it a proper
standard on all divisions until such time as conditions require practically
a complete reconstruction of the railway.
It is, of course, admitted that an E-60 bridge is heavier, stronger and
stiffer than an E-50 bridge. It will stand more abuse and more neglect,
but it will cost from 12 per cent, to 15 per cent, more for its construction.
While a number of roads have adopted this class of bridge for all divi-
sions and others are contemplating its adoption, the justification therefor
is not apparent in many cases. The mere fact that one or two roads
started a somewhat radical change by building E-60 bridges should not
in itself be sufficient excuse for other roads to do likewise, thereby appar-
ently playing the youthful game of "follow your leader."
This tendency toward the adoption of E-60 loading is perhaps influ-
enced more by precedent than by good, sound reason and judgment, and
is being stimulated by the bridge companies, who profit by a greater ton-
nage of metal used in construction.
The writer hopes it will not be inferred that he condemns E-60
bridges as unreasonably heavy and extravagant and, therefore, not con-
sistent with economical construction. They are better bridges than the
E-50 class, and those who are in a position to justify them in paying more
for the stronger structure, or who honestly believe this reserve strength
will be required in the future, should not be classed with the extravagant,
since at the most it is a case of foresight and judgment.
While E-60 bridges are stronger than those of E-50 class, it is prob-
able that if the weights of engines ever increase to an extent sufficient to
develop their capacity, many of these bridges, as now being constructed,
will not have sufficient clearance to enable such excessively large loco-
motives to be safely operated. If, therefore, E-60 bridges are constructed,
it would be well to provide a lateral clearance of at least 8 ft. from the
center of track and an overhead clearance of not less than 25 ft. above
top of rail, in which case there will be some possibility of operating over
them the excessively large locomotives required to develop their strength.
Those roads which prefer stronger bridges on account of severe and
heavy service on high grades could reasonably adopt the E-60 as standard
for high-grade divisions and E-50 for low-grade divisions.
242 ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES.
CONCLUSIONS.
Conclusions, as they appear to the writer, consistent with the fore-
going investigation may be briefly summarized as follows :
(i) It is reasonable to assume that rolling loads of sufficient weight
to develop the full regular service capacity of an E-50 bridge, as indicated
in Table 5, will probably be operated regularly over heavy-grade divisions,
but it is doubtful whether such types will ever be regularly operated over
low-grade divisions.
(2) It is less reasonable to assume that rolling loads of the weights
necessary for developing full service capacity of an E-60 bridge, as indi-
cated in Table 6, will ever be operated even on high-grade divisions, unless
present standards of gage, roadbed and clearances are abandoned and the
road practically reconstructed.
(3) An E-50 American Railway Engineering Association Specifica-
tion bridge is a good and economical type with sufficient strength to safely
carry, in regular unrestricted service, the heaviest locomotives that can
be safely operated without a possible complete revision of present standard
clearances.
(4) An E160 bridg is heavier, stronger and stiffer than an E-50
bridge and its construction will cost from 12 per cent, to 15 per cent. more.
It will safely carry the heaviest loads that it is possible to conceive of,
but if the weight of engines ever increases sufficiently to develop its
capacity, bridges as now constructed will probably not give sufficient clear-
ance to enable such enormous locomotives to be safely operated.
(5) The tendency of railways is toward the adoption of E-60 bridges,
but this in many cases appears to be influenced more by precedent than
by good, sound reason and judgment, and it is stimulated by those who
profit thereby on account of the greater tonnage of metal used in construc-
tion.
(6) If an E-60 bridge is considered warranted by the heaviest power
likely to be operated, its proper place is on high-grade divisions, and it
would, therefore, be good engineering practice to construct E-50 bridges
on low-grade divisions, since they will have sufficient strength to permit
the occasional operation to and from high-grade territories of the heaviest
equipment which could be operated on the E-60 bridge in regular service
traffic.
(7) E-60 bridges would be more consistent if constructed with greater
clear width and height than sanctioned by present standards, because this
would provide for probable increased width and height, as well as weight
of the enormous rolling stock required to develop their capacity.
DISCUSSION.
C. D. Purdon, Chief Engineer, St. Louis Southwestern Railway:
The writer agrees with Mr. Greiner generally, and, indeed, had
formed the same conclusions a long time ago and suggested them at a
meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers, held in St. Louis
at the time of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. The report of this
meeting will be found in Vol. LIV, part A, Transactions, A. S. C. E.
The largest engine the writer has seen any account of is the Santa
Fe double Mallet, which weighs 850,000 lbs. on a total wheel base of
108 ft. \Y2 in.
The drivers are in two sets of five axles each ; one set has 19 ft.
9 in. wheel base and weighs 275,000 lbs.; both combined have 49 ft. 11 in.
wheel base and a weight of 550,000 lbs., while the engine alone has a
weight of 616,000 lbs. on a wheel base of 66 ft. 5 in.
This engine would cause the same strain on spans of 10 to 100 ft.
as Cooper's E-55 to E-63, adding from 10 to 25 per cent, to the strain
caused by E-50.
Some engines that would class E-50, say on a span of 40 or 50 ft.,
or over, might, from heavy axle loads, class much higher on a span of
10 to 20 ft. For this reason the joint specifications of the Rock Island and
the Frisco were gotten up, using the American Railway Engineering As-
300 100 — L
sociation formula for impact , but adding an impact of
L + 300 500
to spans under 100 ft.
The St. Louis Southwestern Railway now uses the specifications of
the American Railway Engineering Association, with E-50 loading for
trusses or girders and E-55 Ior stringers and floor beams and short
girders.
The writer thinks that such an addition to Mr. Greiner's loading of
E-50 would be desirable and probably sufficient.
John D. Isaacs, Consulting Engineer, Southern Pacific Company:
Like all productions of Mr. Greiner's pen, his discussion of rolling
loads for bridges is of much interest and merits close study.
In general we agree with Mr. Greiner's conclusions, but the methods
of computation adopted by the Harriman lines are somewhat different
from those of the specifications of the American Railway Engineering
Association, so that the tabulated relative stresses, etc., would differ in
a comparison based upon our specifications.
Our specifications require all pointer systems to be so designed as
to take care of 80 per cent, increase of live loads, and in view of the
243
244 DISCUSSION.
low unit stresses used throughout, an increase of 80 per cent., without
speed restrictions, would not be beyond safe practice on other members.
As our present loads are equivalent to E-55, an increase of 80 per cent,
would be equivalent to practically E-100. We, therefore, do not think
we would be justified at present in increasing the live loads for which
our bridges are now designed. At a recent conference of the Harriman
Engineers this matter was fully discussed and this conclusion approved.
We agree with Mr. Greiner that a 50 per cent, increase rolling load,
without speed restrictions, would be safe practice on bridges designed
under American Railway Engineering Association specifications, but this
percentage of increase could not safely be exceeded on bridges designed
under ours.
As to using live load E-50 on low grade lines and E-60 on high
grade lines, considering difference of speeds, the necessity of frequently
operating the heaviest rolling stock over both high and low grade lines,
and the advantage in cost and deliveries of minimizing the number of
common standards, we think that all bridges on any given line, whether
high or low grade, should be designed for the same live loads.
/. P. Snow, Consulting Engineer:
The writer fully concurs in the statement made by Mr. Greiner in
regard to the practicability of overloading well-designed bridges; and
does not even consider bridges to be unsatisfactory, so far as overstrain
goes, until they are strained 50 per cent, in excess of the standard. In
short, Mr. Greiner's position is conservative on the subject.
It is perhaps anomalous that we design bridges for a certain load
and then say that the regular full service load is 50 per cent, or more
greater. The practice is right, but the terms are, perhaps, unfortunate.
The non-technical President may not understand the situation, but the
Engineer should. Cooper's loadings are understood to designate the
axle load and operating officials are frequently nervous when their en-
gines of Atlantic types get heavier on axles than the loading used in
designing their bridges.
Freight train loads per foot will probably be increased more than
locomotives. Hundred-ton coal cars are now in sight. This means that
our long-span bridges must be looked after, as these cars will make a
load of at least 6,000 lbs. per foot.
The writer believes, with Mr. Greiner, that E-50 bridges will carry
with reasonable safety anything that will be run on our present gage
and clearances, and it is absurd to think of enlarging them. On the
other hand, the writer believes our scheme of loading should be based
on wheel spacing more consistent with actual practice than Cooper's
series, so that a 50 loading, for instance, would more nearly represent
a 50 engine.
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES. 245
H. Austill, Jr., Bridge Engineer, Mobile & Ohio Railroad:
Mr. Greiner's paper is certainly a timely and valuable contribution to
engineering literature, and the writer heartily agrees with what he has
to say.
Certainly locomotive designers must keep within the limits of the
present standard gage and track and tunnel clearances. In the writer's
opinion the center of gravity of future locomotives cannot be materially
raised above that of the largest locomotives of to-day, nor can the width
be materially increased.
Referring to Table i and omitting the articulated type and electric
locomotives, the minimum weight of double-header (Atlantic) = 728,400
lbs., with wheel base equal 127.76 ft., weight per foot = 5,700 lbs., while
the maximum (10 coupled) weighs 1,074,000 lbs., with wheel base=i6i
ft, weight per foot 6,670 lbs., while the wheel base varies for double-
headers from 127 ft. to 161 ft., and the weight per foot from 5,700 to
6,670 lbs. It is clear that the tendency is to increase the wheel base as
the weight of engine is increased.
Thus, of the engines compared, the weight of engines is increased
47.4 per cent, while the wheel base is increased 42.5 per cent., and the
weight per foot only 17 per cent.
It would have been interesting had the author included the wheel
bases in Table 2.
Of course, the axle loads of recent locomotives are considerably
heavier than those of some years ago, and on short spans the stresses
are increased in much greater proportion than on longer spans.
It is evident that those roads that are designing for E-60 through-
out are certain to get a bridge sufficiently strong to carry the loads that
we may reasonably expect to be developed, but it is quite doubtful that
an economical design will in all cases be secured; and when bridges are
designed for E-60, it certainly would be well to increase the clearances
now specified by the American Railway Engineering Association.
In view of the foregoing and data in Mr. Greiner's paper, it would
seem to the writer quite proper to consider seriously the adoption of a
standard system of loading similar to Cooper's series, but with increased
axle spacing, or where Cooper's loading is used to design short spans,
suspenders and floor systems for a higher class loading than truss mem-
bers of longer spans. The writer's recent experience in calculating
stresses from a 136-ton Mikado engine on bridges designed for E-45
loading seems to justify the latter method in some cases at least.
A. W. Buel, Consulting Engineer:
Probably the most important point raised in Mr. Greiner's paper is
that of clearance, both lateral and vertical, and although he mentions
this point in several places, both in the body of his paper and in the
conclusions, it merits further consideration. The American Railway
Engineering specifications (Manual of 191 1) requires a vertical clear-
ance of 22 ft. from top of rail, which is about one foot more than the
246
DISCUSSION.
common practice of a few years ago, but retains the 7-ft. lateral clearance
from center of track which has been standard for a great many years
on Eastern roads.
The clearance requirements of three specifications, written in 1903,
1906 and 1910, respectively, clearly indicate a tendency towards more
K 6+0" M
'*-3J0'L*-3-0-^
k- - -5-0"-
K- /0$0'-- --H
*-/2'6"C.fo C. Tracks
Standard Clearance Diagram, Western Maryland Railroad, 1903
(Used with E-50 Loading).
ample clearances, both with the E-50 and heavier loadings. The West-
ern Maryland Railroad Company's specifications of 1903, with E-50 load-
ing, called for a lateral clearance of 7 ft. and a vertical clearance of
21 ft. from top of rail, and 12 ft. 6 in. center to center of double tracks.
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES.
247
The Western Pacific Railway Company's specifications of 1906 required
a lateral clearance of 7 ft. 9 in. and a vertical clearance of 23 ft. 6 in.
from base of rail, the loading being also E-50. The Western Maryland
Railway Company's specifications of 1910, with a loading of an articu-
lated locomotive (2-8-8-2), weighing 488,000 lbs., followed by a tender
k- 7'-£ >j
- 3'9 "- - *K - -3'9 "- - f\
* S'O "- >k S-0 "
k- /z-o *i
for S/ng/e 7rac/c
Standard Clearance Diagram, Western Pacific Railway, 1906
(Used with E-50 Loading).
weighing 152,000 lbs., and a train load of 5,500 lbs. per foot of track
(approximately equivalent to E-60), specified a lateral clearance of 7 ft.
9 in. and a vertical clearance of 22 ft. 6 in. from base of rail, with tracks
13 ft. centers.
248
DISCUSSION.
The clearances required on Western roads are probably greater on
the average than those on Eastern roads. Possibly the great expense
that would be incurred in changing the clearances on an old road run-
ning through a thickly settled country accounts for this condition. It
f*. 7-S- H
k - -3'-9B - -»k - -3'-9 - -*i
/s-
Tip "_ _
1 T
7-S'
S N
Bose of &&//-*
t-
k- &-0"-
\
l
/ ±.±
- -><^ s-o"
- /z'o"- *i
<- /3'0 "C. fo C. Trac/cs *- ■*
Standard Clearance Diagram, Western Maryland Railroad, 1910
(Used with Loading of 2-8-8-2 Articulated Locomotive, Followed
by 5,500 Lbs. per Ft. of Track; Weight of Engine, 488,000 Lbs.;
of Tender, 152,000 Lbs.).
would be interesting to know how many of the fourteen roads that have
adopted E-60 loading or heavier have also increased their lateral clear-
ance to more than 7 ft., as there is not much room for doubting the
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES. 249
truth of the author's statement that the service capacity of E-60 bridges
cannot be developed with the clearance generally in use. It is almost
obvious that the lateral clearance should be between 7 ft. 6 in. and 8 ft.
from center of track for all bridges designed for loadings over E-50.
If the cost of increasing the clearances over an entire division should
be too large a charge to incur, on account of tunnels, very large bridges
or other limitations, it would then seem inconsistent to use a heavier
loading than E-50 for such division. On the other hand, there are some
cases, such as on new roads or new divisions and possibly on some
divisions of old roads, where the cost of increasing the clearance would
not be prohibitive, for which it may be advisable to adopt an E-60 load-
ing or equivalent, provided the traffic, present and prospective, and the
grades are such as to justify the heavier loading.
The author assumes and states that properly designed and con-
structed bridges will safely carry an overload of 50 per cent, without
restrictions. Probably few, if any, would seriously disagree with this
statement if it were limited to a proposition of expediency more or
less temporary in nature. But apparently the author proposes that until
the overload on a well-designed and constructed bridge exceeds 50 per
cent, it may be considered as working under conditions for which it
was designed. The writer has some doubt as to the life of some types
of bridges under average conditions, when subjected to a 50 per cent,
overload from regular service traffic and thinks that there would not be
sufficient margin to provide for such "abuse and neglect" as is too often
met with, With all the bridges on a road or division subjected to an
overload of 50 per cent, under the regular service traffic, the con-
scientious Engineer in charge would be loaded with a great responsi-
bility (more than a 50 per cent, overload), not desirable from any view-
point, and if properly met the road would be loaded with an excessive
cost of supervision and maintenance. If not properly met, the loss due
to accidents might balance the account.
If the element of "guess" in our impact formulas is not further from
the truth than is indicated by the still incomplete investigations of the
subject, it is probable that a 50 per cent, overload would approach un-
comfortably near the ultimate capacity of some members, particularly
long columns. It is a fairly debatable question whether a 50 per cent,
overload "without restrictions" should be considered entirely safe, in all
cases, except as a temporary expedient or where the bridge could receive
more than ordinary care and inspection.
But admitting, for the sake of argument, that the author's 50 per
cent, overload proposition is conservatively safe (which the writer is
not yet quite prepared to do), are we justified in assuming that the
weight of locomotives and trains will not increase to a point excessive
for E-50 bridges? Already G. R. Henderson, the noted Mechanical
Engineer, Consulting Engineer for the Baldwin Locomotive Works, has
proposed a triplex type (articulated) locomotive (2-8-8-8-2), weighing
fe
&
^
|
«t
^
£>
S>
<f>
5>
«5>
5>
^>
<!>
5»
<5>
<*>
9
§
§
§
1
1
1
1
^
250 DISCUSSION.
650,000 lbs. on an 80 ft. 6 in. wheel base (63.5 ft. driving wheel base).
This locomotive would produce a loading about equivalent to E-60, and
it should not be surprising if the type were to be adopted for trial by
some roads at an early date. The Henderson triplex locomotive, as
proposed by Mr. Henderson, is to have axle loads of 50,000 lbs. If
1111 I
5 % % 5 3
flx/e Laat/s- Pounds
^ (j)Q(T)(T) CpTpQCj-) G)G)G)G) cd
K- 8.5'-k5.0'*5.0'*5.0'*- 9.ZS'^ 5.0'* 5.0'^50'io- 9.2S'-^S.o'^SoWso'^- *.S'-+\
Triplex Type Locomotive (2-8-8-8-2, Weight, 650,000 Lbs.) Designed
by G. R. Henderson, Consulting Engineer, Baldwin Locomotive
Works.
successful the same type would probably be built in the future with from
10 to 20 per cent, greater weight on drivers, which would run very
close to what the author calls full regular service capacity for E-50
bridges. With such locomotives under contemplation for early operation,
it does not seem to the writer that it is extravagant to design new
bridges for E-60 loading where conditions justify the maximum, but he
is in entire accord with the author that such bridges should be built with
larger clearances than have been heretofore the common practice.
C. E. Smith, Assistant Chief Engineer, Missouri Pacific Railway:
For a number of years Engineers have been predicting that the
limit in the weight of rolling stock would soon be reached. So persistent
has been this prediction one is led to the belief that the wish was father
to the thought. Just as persistently, however, the weights have reached
and passed the predicted limits. An editorial comment in the Railroad
and Engineering Journal of February, 1888, said:
"The fact that there are examples of passenger engines which weigh
100,000 lbs. or more leads to reflection and anticipation ; how big will
locomotives be in thirty years? Will this increase in weight continue
and in the year 1918 will there be passenger engines running which weigh
200,000 lbs. or over?"
That weight of engine was reached in ten instead of thirty years,
and it would not be surprising if in 1918 passenger engines weighing
400,000 lbs. are running.
In spite of the tremendous increase in weight in the past, however,
many Engineers now believe that, in so far as the effects on bridges are
concerned, the limits will be reached well within the capacity of bridges
designed according to the best modern practice for Cooper's E-50. This
conforms with the conclusion reached by Theodore Cooper many years
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES. 251
ago. When his loadings were first proposed — about 1895 — loading E-40
was considered sufficient to cover all future increase, and it was adopted
and used by many important roads. In 1899, after further study, Mr.
Cooper recommended the adoption of his E-50 loading by an important
road as being in his opinion sufficient to cover all future load develop-
ments
The diagram showing increase in weight of locomotives indicates
that the increase in weight was not very rapid during the first fifty years
in which locomotives were built, at the expiration of which period the
maximum weight, exclusive of tender, was 50 tons. Between 1880 and
1890 the rate of growth increased greatly, and following the introduction
of the wide firebox about 1888 and the inauguration of the general use
of steel tires and rails, the increase in rate of growth was marked.
In the decade between 1892, when the weight of the heaviest loco-
motive was about 70 tons, and 1902, when it reached 144 tons, the in-
crease in weight was in excess of 100 per cent. During the last decade
the weight increased from 144 tons in 1902 to 190 tons in 1912, an
increase of only 30 per cent, (not including the Mallets, which the writer
prefers to consider a modified form of double-header). It will be seen
that the rate of increase was much less during the last decade than
during the preceding one, which would appear to indicate that, for or-
dinary types of locomotives other than Mallets, the increase in weight
will be less rapid in future, which conclusion is also indicated by a
number of other conditions.
The increase in axle load has not been so rapid nor so great as the
increase in total weight, as the greater weight has usually been spread
out over a greater number of axles.
The increase in weight, therefore, has been accompanied by a great
increase in length, so that the weight per linear foot of engine has not
increased anywhere near so rapidly nor so much as the total weight,
which would indicate that even during the last decade the increase per
foot has been slight. The increase in total weight with relation to the
effect on bridges should not be compared on a percentage basis, but
should be considered only in connection with the length of locomotive
and preferably with reference to the relative stresses caused by the
different loads. Such a comparison is well illustrated in Mr. Greiner's
paper, where it is shown that the Santa Fe locomotive, which weighs
174 per cent, more than a single Cooper's E-50 locomotive, causes stresses
only from 15 to 33 per cent, greater; the 16-wheel Mallet, which weighs
119 per cent, more, causes stresses from 26 to 34 per cent, greater; the
20-wheel Mallet, which weighs 112 per cent, more, causes stresses 1 to 14
per cent, greater ; the Pacific, which weighs 20 per cent, more, causes
stresses from 7 per cent, less to 8 per cent, more; and the Mikado,
which weighs 36 per cent, more, causes stresses from 2 to 16 per cent,
more.
It does not follow that the stresses in a bridge designed for Cooper's
E-50 would be increased in all members by the percentages given above,
252
DISCUSSION.
nor do those percentages represent in any case the amount a bridge would
be overloaded by the respective locomotives.
The term "overloaded" as applied to a bridge is ambiguous, inasmuch
as each member gets a different "overload" when the load is increased
over that used in the design. The term is logical and consistent then
only when applied to individual members, and then only when analyzed
along the same lines as those along which the bridge was designed.
Tor example, if a bridge were designed for a one-hundred-ton loco-
motive, it would not be proper to say that it would be "overloaded"
jo per cent, by a locomotive weighing 150 tons. If the heavier loco-
motive had the same arrangement and spacing of wheels and also the
«me distribution of load, then the amount of "overload" for the bridge
jls a whole could be approximately stated. In certain members, however,
the amount of "overload" would be greater, while in others it would be
less than the percentage indicated by a direct comparison of the weights.
As an illustration, a Pratt truss span 200 ft. long, composed of 8
panels 25 ft. long, will be considered with reference to increase in load,
assuming that the bridge was designed for Cooper's E-40 and later sub-
jected to a loading equivalent to Cooper's E-60, that is, 50 per cent,
heavier. The weight of the structure will be taken as 2,000 lbs. and of
the track 400 lbs. per linear foot. Full impact allowances will be made
and the entire dead weight will be assumed as applied at the bottom
chord.
The dead load stresses, live load stresses, impact allowances and
total stresses for the Cooper's E-40 and E-60 loadings are given for the
different members in the table. The right-hand column of the table
gives the percentage of increase in stress in each member due to the
increase in live load.
Comparison between increase in live load and resulting increase in
the stresses in the various members :
STRESSES IN THOUSANDS OF POUNDS
Dead
Load
Cooper's
E-40
Impact
Total
Dead
Load
Cooper's
E-60
Impact
Total
Member
Per
Cent.
Amt.
Per
Cent.
Amt.
Increase
%
ab
87.5
181.0
60.0
108.6
377.1
87.5
271.5
60.0
162.9
521.9
38
be
87.5
181.0
60.0
108.6
377.1
87.5
271.5
60.0
162.9
521.9
38
cd
150.0
299.8
60.0
180.0
629.8
150.0
449.8
60.0
269.9
869.7
38
de
187.5
373.6
60.0
224 2
785.3
187.5
560.4
60.0
336.2
1084.1
38
aB
136.7
282.4
60.0
169.4
588.5
136.7
423.5
60.0
254.1
814.3
38
BC
150.0
299.8
60.0
180.0
629.8
150.0
449.8
60 0
269.9
869.7
38
CD
187.5
373.6
60.0
224.2
785.3
187.5
560.4
60.0
336.2
1084.1
38
DE
200.0
395.2
60.0
237.1
832.3
200.0
592.8
60.0
355.7
1148.5
38
Bb
30.0
75.6
85.7
64.8
170.4
30.0
113.5
85.7
97.3
240.8
41
Co
45 0
118.0
70.6
83.3
246.3
45.0
177.0
70 6
125.0
347.0
41
Dd
15.0
78.4
75.0
58.8
152.2
15.0
117.6
75.0
88.2
220.8
45
Ee
0.0
45.1
80.0
36.1
81.2
0.0
67.7
80.0
54.2
121.9
50
Be
97.6
213.1
66 7
142.1
452.8
97.6
319.6
66.7
213.1
630.3
39
Cd
58.6
153.4
70.6
108.3
320.3
58.6
230.1
70.6
162.5
451 2
41
De
19.5
101.9
75.0
76.4
197.8
19.5
152.9
75.0
114.7
287.1
45
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES.
COUNTER STRESSES (SHEARS)
253
Dead
Load
Cooper's
E-40
Impact
Total
Dead
Load
Cooper's
E-60
Impact
Total
Increase
%
Member
Per
Cent.
Amt.
Per
Cent.
Amt.
Panel
ef
fg
gh
—15.0
—45.0
—75.0
45.1
21.5
5.5
80.0
85.7
92 3
36.1
18.4
5.1
66.2
—6.1
—64.4
-15.0
-45.0
-75.0
67.7
32.2
8.2
80.0
85.7
92.3
54.2
27.6
7.6
106.9
4-14.8
—59.2
61
FLOOR MEMBERS
(Stringer)
(Moment)
31.3
30.5
92.3
281.5
617.8
31.3
457.5
92.3
422.3
911.1
47
Floor
Beam
Load
13.0
75.6
85.7
64.8
153.4
13.0 | 113.5
85.7
97.3
223.8
46
a /> c d e
Dead Load = 2,400 lbs. per lin. ft.
Live Load = Cooper's E-40 and Cooper's E-60.
300
Impact = . •
L + 300
The increase in stress ranges from 38 per cent, for the chords and
end posts to 61 per cent, for the counter in the panel next to the center,
and the increase in load calls for a counter in panel fg, which was un-
necessary for the lighter loading. If the unit stress used in the design
had been 16,000 lbs. per sq. in., the unit stresses in the "overloaded"
truss would run from 1.38X16,000 = 22,100 lbs. per sq. in. for the
chords, to 1.61 X 16,000 = 25,800 lbs. per sq. in. for the counter. That is,
the limiting stress occurs in a member which could have been made
stronger in the original design at practically no additional cost. The
arrangement of the members and details is frequently such that it is
difficult, at any reasonable expense, to satisfactorily reinforce the weak
counter. The result in the past has been that light counters and absence
of counters, together with light web members near the center of the
span, have caused the condemnation and taking down of many bridges
in which the remaining members could have withstood greater stresses.
This is unfortunate, because the light members at the center of a span
constitute such a small portion of the total weight of the structure.
Some method of design should be used that will result in bridges
at least as well built as the Deacon's one-hoss shay, in which no part
was stronger than the rest.
Now that a practical agreement has been reached as to the proper
maximum unit stresses in an old bridge, it would appear consistent and
logical to so arrange the design that this maximum unit stress would be
reached in all members under the same ultimate live load.
254 DISCUSSION.
For example, it has been stated that in a bridge designed for a unit
stress of 16,000 lbs. per sq. in., the maximum unit stress allowable under
increase in load would be 26,000 lbs. per sq. in., an increase of 62.5 per
cent. It has also been shown that an increase of 50 per cent, in the
live load causes the total stresses in the great majority of the members
in the case under consideration to increase but 38 per cent. What per-
centage of increase in live load then will cause the unit stresses to in-
crease 62.5 per cent? The difference between the percentage of increase
in live load and in total stress in any member is due to the dead load
stress remaining constant. Then the permissible increase in the live load
will depend upon the relation of the dead load to the original live load.
Let the total stress in any member as designed be 100 per cent, of
which the dead load stress is D and the live load stress, including im-
pact, is L per cent. Then
D + L = 100.
Let KL represent the increase in live load, which, when added to
the total stress used in the design will increase the latter 62.5 per cent.
Then
D \-L + KL = 162.5
162.5 — D
K = 1
L
Since the percentage of increase in all the. chord members is so
nearly constant, the center moments due to dead and live load may be
used in the comparison for the chords.
The dead load moment D = 6,000, or 33.6 per cent.
The live load moment L = 11,856.5, or 66.4 per cent.
162.5 — 33.6
Then K = 1 = 1.941 — 1=0.941.
66.4
That is, under the conditions assumed above, the live load must
increase 94.1 per cent, before the maximum limit of 26,000 lbs. per sq. in.
is reached in the chords and end posts.
In order that all parts of a bridge may reach the maximum allow-
able stress under the same live load, there might be a clause in bridge
specifications about as follows : "All parts shall be so designed that an
increase of 100 K per cent, in the live load will not cause the unit stresses
to exceed those specified by more than 62.5 per cent. ; K shall be deter-
162.5 — D
mined from the formula i£ = 1, in which D and L are the
L
percentages of dead and live load center moments used in the design."
Theoretically the value of K should be determined from D and L
for each member designed, including floor members. Different values
would be obtained for different members, the lowest for the counters
and the highest for the chords and end posts. For the greatest effi-
ciency, then, the greatest value of K — usually found from chord stresses
— would be used in revising the design to provide for "overload."
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES. 255
The above method of design would be somewhat objectionable on
account of the amount of work involved; its justification would be the
consistent strength under the greatest load. The present method of
designing is open to the objection that the bridge is not of uniform
strength under any load heavier than that for which it is designed. It
seems unnecessary to put into the chords a great mass of metal that
can never be used up to its safe limit.
A simpler and apparently satisfactory method would be to use the
maximum allowable stresses in the design, together with a loading suffi-
ciently heavy to cover all future load developments. There would be a
simple change in terminology; what is now looked upon as "overload"
would in such a design be looked upon as "development toward the ulti-
mate live load." The difficulty here would be in the choice of a suffi-
ciently heavy live load, because no heavier load than that assumed could
ever be allowed upon any bridge designed in this manner.
Since the present loadings and unit stresses, arbitrarily chosen, result
in bridges of inconsistent strength, there is good reason why other more
consistent loadings and stresses should be chosen.
The great discrepancies between the percentages of increase in
weights of actual locomotives over Cooper's E-50 and the percentages of
increase in the corresponding stresses, as mentioned above, indicate that
Cooper's loadings do not well represent modern locomotives, however
well they might have represented them at the time Cooper's loadings were
evolved.
That Cooper's loadings do not well represent present heavy engines
is further indicated by the diagram comparing Cooper's E-50 with heavy
Pacific, Mikado and Mallet type locomotives. The very short length and
lighter weight of Cooper's E-50 loading is apparent at a glance. Cooper's
E-50 and E-60 diagrams are, in a measure, absurdities, since no loco-
motive has ever been built, nor probably ever will be, that corresponds
with those loadings.
It would appear then that more consistent results could be obtained
by the use of some loading that would more correctly represent present
and future heavy engines. The uselessness of choosing any particular
combination of axle loads appears to be indicated by past experiences
along those lines when many loadings were chosen.
On account of the great number of special loadings in use in the
early days, the labors of calculation were greatly increased, especially
to bridge companies and Consulting Engineers who were compelled to
make use of a number of the loadings. There was much agitation for
standard loadings on the one hand and for equivalent uniform loads on
the other.
In 1892 Dr. J. A. L. Waddell made a canvass of a large number of
Engineers whose opinions were worth having, with the following result :
82 per cent, favored the use of equivalent uniform loads ;
18 per cent, favored continuing the use of concentrated loads.
The principal difficulty that followed arose from the fact that En-
gineers could not for some time be brought to agreement as to what
256 DISCUSSION.
loading the proposed equivalent load should be made equivalent to, and
when a few years later, practical agreement was reached in Cooper's
loadings, enabling the use of standard moment and shear tables, thereby
reducing the labors of calculation immeasurably, the necessity for the
equivalent uniform loading became less noticeable and the agitation
passed away to a large extent.
The loadings attained such great popularity that a large number of
railroads used them even in turntable design, to which, on account of
their short wheel base, they are entirely unsuited.
It would appear, in view of recent development in locomotive de-
sign, resulting in a great increase in length not foreseen by Mr. Cooper,
a different loading should be used. The accuracy claimed for stresses
calculated from concentrated loads is largely artificial, as the accuracy
relates only to loadings that never cross bridges. That is, bridges are
being built of uniform strength with relation to an impossible loading
only; for actual loads in use now or in future some part will be stressed
to its safe limit while there is yet a considerable margin in other parts.
This results in a very uneconomical design, in that some parts must be
disposed of before they have served their full usefulness because they
are found in bad company.
For the reasons set out above the writer feels that Cooper's loadings
are no longer suitable for bridge design, and that on account of the
great diversity in axle spacing of present heavy locomotives there is no
combination of concentrated loads that will give results nearer to actual
stresses for all conditions than a properly chosen equivalent uniform load
with excesses.
Cooper's E-50 can be represented by a uniform loading increased in
two places (each the length of a driver wheel base and the length of
one engine apart) to represent the excess weight on the drivers as
follows:
^ ss'- -*\
-9\S\+- /S- *t<- 4/'- **—/f— >t<- //rt/ef/h/fe/e/ ->
l j rS000/6sfier///?earfoof---
T
J000 /As per ///7ear foof
In view of the fact that the labors of calculation for Cooper's load-
ings have been simplified by the many tables that have been prepared,
there may be no demand for an equivalent uniform load to replace
Cooper's loadings, but it may well be that ease of calculation has delayed
their abandonment and the choice of a more consistent loading.
Such a loading can be used in calculation with only a small portion
of the labor involved in the use of concentrated axle loads. The stresses
calculated for the above uniform loading are less than 2 per cent, smaller
than those calculated for the corresponding concentrated loads for spans
over 100 ft. For shorter spans the difference is somewhat greater, being
6 per cent, less for a span of 50 ft.
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES. 257
It is well known that the maximum bending moment or shear on a
span caused by a single concentrated load is twice that caused by the
same load uniformly distributed, and the moment or shear caused by a
series of concentrated loads is greater than that caused by the same
loads when distributed. In the present case the difference has been
stated as 6 per cent, on 50-ft. spans. As the rails and top flanges under
the ties do in reality distribute the wheel loads, the stresses calculated on
the assumption that they are applied at knife edges are incorrect and
larger than actual stresses, which indicates that those calculated from
the uniform loading are more nearly correct. On very short spans the
difference is greater and would become 50 per cent, on a 5-ft. span, but
to realize the lower stress the uniform distribution of the load would
require to be perfect, which perfection does not obtain in practice, thus
necessitating the use of concentrated loads on short spans.
Instead of superseding Cooper's loadings by another set of con-
centrated loads to represent a modern type of heavy locomotive, such as
the Pacific or Mountain or Mikado, it would seem preferable to choose
a type of uniform loading closely approximating all those locomotives.
Such a loading approximately equivalent to the Pacific and Mikado shown
in the diagram would be as follows :
iV 75'-- H
-»| 5 f*- 20 -■** SS -*-- ZO - 4?- //?</ef/r?ffe/y •*■
,-6O0O /6s per //hear foof-^
~r
5000 ' //>s per //hear foor
For lines on which it is reasonably certain the Mallets will be used
a modified form of equivalent uniform load to represent such loco-
motives may be used.
To secure greater accuracy in the design of short spans, floor string-
ers, floor connections, etc., the writer would recommend the use of con-
centrated loads about as follows :
^ ^ ^ S* & £>
s « § ^ & £>
■^ .^ F» S J51 ^
\*- 9i0"^¥5-6'*5J6*5J6*4!6*
On account of the lack of knowledge of the exact amount of stress
caused in any member by impact, the stresses indicated by calculations
300
are fictitious. As the formula for impact in general use / =
L+300
gives percentages that are higher than those invariably recorded in
practical tests, the actual stresses are invariably much lower than the
calculated stresses. A considerable reduction might be made in the
258 DISCUSSION.
impact allowances, especially on long spans, with perfect safety, and the
writer believes this may occur in future, in which case much metal now
put in bridges to provide for impact will be considered available for
resisting increased static stresses.
The maximum stress in any member of a single track bridge can,
as a rule, occur but once during the passage of a train ; in a double track
bridge the combination of loads assumed in design seldom, if ever,
occurs ; in either case such maximum stress would occur for an instant
only, during which it would be permissible to allow the stresses indicated
by calculation to exceed those ordinarily allowed.
The use of electric locomotives will be greatly extended within the
life of bridges now being built and it is possible there may be further
development of the balanced locomotive. In either case there will result
a great decrease in impact, and some of the metal formerly necessary
to resist impact will then be available for increased static stresses.
Great difficulty has been experienced in the shipment of recent heavy
locomotives in finding routes over which the clearances were sufficint
and many of the obstructions are of such a nature that they can be
considered practically permanent. This difficulty further indicates that
future increases in weight must be accompanied by corresponding in-
creases in length, the weight per foot to increase but little. The trend
in this direction is indicated by the recently suggested Henderson triplex
locomotive resting on 24 drivers run by three separate engines. The
accompanying diagram shows the curves of bending moments of such
an engine followed by tender and a train of the new Norfolk & Western
100-ton capacity coal cars, compared with Cooper's E-50. It can be
readily seen that such traffic can use bridges designed for E-50 with
entire safety and no restrictions.
Maintenance difficulties in track and equipment will further delay
and may prevent unlimited increase in weight per foot.
The facts" stated above, among others, have convinced the writer
that bridges built for Cooper's E-50 loading, according to the specifica
300
tions of this Association (impact = and basis of 16,000 lbs. per
£ + 300
sq. in.), are sufficiently strong to carry without restrictions any loads
that may ever come on them and that no heavier bridges are necessary.
He believes, however, that at slightly increased cost much more con-
sistent bridges, having greatly increased strength, can be obtained
through the use of more logical loading and unit stresses in the design.
The writer suggests the use in design of an "Ultimate Rolling Load"
as follows :
/t*- 7S'- ^
-»l SW- ZO '->)«- —*--5S'- **- ZO'-M For a// spans except
1 1 l 1 -. '
I 1 .'-\-9000 //bs per //near foot*— , 1 rerif s/r&rr spars,
1 I * I I * I j-, -j..
f/oor me/njbers.etc.
90 OO ' /As per //near foot
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES. 259
^ S ^ & S S
s> ^ s» ^ s> ^
<*> ^> <5> <^ <!> v,
(r) Q(T)0(T)(T)
W- 9L0"-^J'6*SL6Z+5-6%5'-6J
for yery s/rerf spa/?s
f/oor /77e/nbers, etc.
300
to which impact is to be added by the formula / = and with
L-\-300
unit stresses 62.5 per cent, higher than those contained in the railroad
bridge specifications of this Association, which will give a unit stress of
26,000 lbs. per sq. in. for tension, other stresses to be increased in the
same proportion.
Detailed calculation will indicate that bridges designed for these
suggested loadings and stresses will correspond closely with present E-55
designs for short spans and E-50 for long spans.
/S6400/6s
483000 /bs
~c? n OO OO OOOO
<t> n 0
0
oo'nl"
MALLET TYPE.
,-,*-,„*, l 3/7000 /As
/7.5700//>s
0 0
on' O O O C)-o A'
N 7/-V/- *i
PACIFIC TYPE.
/6970076s 3/SOOO/As
O 0
n p 0 nooo a
/ t» '
MIKADO TYPE.
/30O00/6S ZZSOOO/bs
1 »
£
0 0 n OOOO a
cooper's E-50.
Diagrams Showing Comparison Between Cooper's E-50 and Actual
Heavy Locomotives.
The suggested loadings may seem unreasonably heavy, but most
bridges now being built will carry such a loading safely. The use of the
suggested method of design will result in bridges of more consistent
strength having less weight and at less cost than bridges of equivalent
maximum strength designed according to present methods.
260
DISCUSSION.
^ <5*<i^^> Si^i^^S *i<^^^ Si «4^Ss ^<5*<i ^^^ ^^>ss
^ S>§<5»^ <5>^^Si Si&Ss^ § ^§§ ^^^ Q^S> §^§
*! WS $^S ^5*3* * 3SS **& SSS ***
. GXtXi)0 QQQQ QQQQ . ©ffls> fflfflffl fflM fflfflffl
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£i/?g//ie 32S7b/7s 7ent/er J/77b/7s 6or?</o/a6ars/297b/73
1 ! 1
JOOOOOOO
(
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28000000
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Z6000000
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' 9
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/400OO0O
f
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8000000
*3
6000000
/7£ND£KS&/Y 77? //=£.£*.
Loco/*70T/y/r Lo/?/?/s/&
W/TH
COOS=>£-/?'S £-50 LO/9D/HG
ro/?
5*>/?/vs ,rj?d/*7 4?0fr to 300 r~r.
—
4000000
zoooooo
'0
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20%
&*
**■
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1
JO°70
**SV>
•wmr ooope/-^ C ~JU ^
/
O 20 40 SO 80 /OO /ZO W /60 /SO 200 220 240 260 280 300
Spa/?
ROLLING LOADS ON BRIDGES.
261
3/0
300
Z90
280
270
^260
\Z*
* 230
$220
Of.
-300 T. Sv/ito/Z Ma//et
x-24/ STfl7<?//e/-
■ /89j TTPecapat/
J67T3.sca/>7a//et
Comp. /n 7904
fc
\
N
&200
\ l90
*
>^
f
§
s
ok'
o*X'-
-7SS2T Pac/f/c
-/57^rM//ro</0
-7447:50/77afe
2-/0-Z //; 7303
"737T /0>TS>r/7ch
"736T.PPP Pac. /903
^/30T7t.rS&7rCo/7. 7906
70%
"Si
^ ltu
§
£-.
*> J40
\1$0
\no
o 30
\ so
% 60
50
40
30
20
10
g
<*-- -
i
<v.
Of.
$
:-_
^5
" -.
, "*" •
^^
<**
/S30 MO 78SO /860 /870 J880 /890 1900 /9/0 /920 % K
/ears
Diagram Showing Increase in Weight of Locomotives.
COMMENTS BY THE AUTHOR.
/. E. Greiner, Consulting Engineer:
The discussion on Rolling Loads on Bridges and the conclusions
contained therein were submitted merely as an expression of opinion
with the hope of obtaining personal views from those experienced in
the subject dealt with. It is very gratifying that so many experienced
Engineers have stated where they stand. Some of these Engineers en-
dorse the author's conclusions, and some do not. Since, after all, the
whole subject is one based on judgment, the author is content to stand on
the conclusions expressed in his original discussion.
EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES, WOOD
SCREWS, AND THIOLLIER HELICAL LININGS.
Introduction by W. C. Cushing,
Chief Engineer Maintenance of Way, Southwest System, Pennsylvania
Lines West of Pittsburgh.
In the Railway Age Gazette for June 5, 1908, page 24, the writer
discussed "The Life of Steel Ties," and pointed out the necessity of
solving the problem of control of refrigerator drippings before it would
be possible to consider the wholesale use of steel cross-ties.
The experiments described in the following pages by those who
had direct charge of the work, Messrs. Wiggins and McKeon, were
undertaken by the writer to determine if it would be possible to find
suitable rail fastenings which would enable us to obtain the full life
of a preserved cross-tie until it should perish by decay. He was fully
impressed with the short life of steel products used in track work,
especially on railroads carrying a large amount of refrigerator traffic,
and also with the idea that it might not be possible to obtain the full
life of preserved cross-ties, because it seemed quite doubtful whether the
fastenings heretofore proposed would last sufficiently long for the pur-
pose. His suspicions against the much-heralded screw spike were
aroused by the mere fact that it was already necessary in Europe to invent
various methods of repairs, such as the .wooden screw plug, the Collet
wooden screw trenail, the Thiollier helical lining, and the Lakhovsky
cast steel linings, and he called attention to this several years ago in
the Proceedings of the Association, referred to by Mr. McKeon in his
portion of the report.
The methods used in placing these screw spikes were those in common
use in France, and the screw spikes used were obtained from France, as
explained by Mr. Wiggins.
The trial shows that the screw spikes were too small, the method of
placing — without shoulder support for the head — defective, and the prob-
lem of rust is still so serious that such kinds of fastenings are rendered
ineffective in altogether too short a time.
As a result of these tests, more elaborate tests have been inaugurated
on the Pennsylvania Railroad and on the Northwest System of the Penn-
sylvania Lines West of Pittsburgh, which are under the charge of a
joint committee of the Lines East and West. The screw spike used is
much larger, and is the result of the study made by the writer in
the Association Proceedings referred to above. Some of the same diffi-
culties are arising in the new tests, which clearly show that a screw
spike is not a successful device for securing rails to wooden ties, unless
265
266 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
a successful method of repairs from time to time can be devised, which
will enable one to "cure" the screw spike when it becomes loose, which
it does inevitably in the course of time in many instances, under heavy
traffic and severe conditions.
Indeed, it may be found ultimately that the Great Western Railway
of England practice, of using bolts clear through the ties, may be the
most successful plan.
Final judgment is, however, reserved for the completion of the
tests now being conducted.
EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES, WOOD SCREWS
AND THIOLLIER HELICAL LININGS AT SCIO, OHIO.
By R. D. McKeon, Assistant Division Engineer, Vandalia Railroad,
Michigan Division.
The General Manager, under date of November 10, 1905, authorized
the Chief Engineer Maintenance of Way, to make an experiment with
wood screws and Thiollier's helical linings on the Pittsburgh Division
of the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Railway for the
purpose of determining whether such a rail fastening was a proper one
for use with treated ties in order to keep the ties in service for the
full life given by the treatment, instead of having them destroyed before
that time by spiking with the hook spike commonly used.
During the months from June to November, 1907, inclusive, the
fastenings were installed on the eastward main track between mileposts
76 and 78, west of Scio, Ohio. The timbers used in the experiment were
Kentucky short-leaf pine and Ted oak, treated with two and one-half
gallons of creosote per tie, or 0.33 gallon per cubic foot of timber.
The description and details of the installation are given in Appen-
dix A.
After an inspection of the track by the Chief Engineer Maintenance
of Way, Division Engineer and Supervisor in February, 1913, it was de-
cided that the track would have to be gaged at once, for it had become
as wide in places as it should be allowed to go, and since common spikes
would have to be used in the gaging, the experiment would be brought
to a close and a final report prepared.
REASONS FOR DISCONTINUANCE OF THE EXPERIMENT.
(1) The screw spikes were not large enough, and the plan of
placing them was not sufficiently good to furnish enough lateral resistance
to prevent the widening of the gage. No device for adjustment was
provided.
(2) The tie plates were almost entirely destroyed by rust, and many
of the screw spikes and Thiollier linings were badly corroded, so that their
holding power was destroyed (see photographs). This condition is
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS. 267
supposed to be aggravated by brine drippings from refrigerator cars.
This traffic is large over this eastbound track.
(3) The holding power of screw spikes is greater than that of the
hook spikes commonly used, but the forces tending to loosen them are
very great, unless the surface of the track is kept in a high state of
perfection. The spikes in loose ties are apt to be quickly loosened by
having the threads in the wood destroyed.
(4) The above defects having developed in five and one-half years,
it is plain that the fastenings must be adapted for repair work, or the
full term of life for creosoted ties cannot be obtained.
It is impossible to extract the defective Thiollier linings or to intro-
duce new spikes with good results, therefore the Lakhovsky linings were
introduced at the joints in new holes, to compare them with the Thiollier
linings (see description). Other devices, such as the square wood plug,
and the Collet screw trenail of wood have been introduced in Europe for
the same purpose, but were not tried in this experiment. The invention
of these devices is proof that the same necessities for repairs exist in
Europe as in this country (see Proceedings American Railway Engi-
neering and Maintenance of Way Association, Vol. 10, Part 2, 1509, page
1464, "The Question of Screw Fastenings to Secure Rails to Ties"), and
until that question is successfully solved, screw spikes cannot be a suc-
cessful device for fastening rails to ties.
THE FOLLOWING CONCLUSIONS WERE ALSO DERIVED:
(1) The screw spikes offer a greater resistance to extraction than
common spikes.
(2) Screw spikes will remain tight for a longer period than common
spikes if the track is well maintained.
(3) By reason of greater holding resistance they tend to reduce
creeping of rail and also to prevent the slewing of the ties, but this
action is not complete and entirely satisfactory.
(4) The screw spikes do not cause the ties to split, as do the common
spikes, on account of boring the holes in advance.
(5) The cost of maintenance of track for screw spikes is from
two to four times as great as for common spikes, up to the time of
discontinuing the experiment.
(6) Screw spikes cost from two to three times as much to apply as
common spikes, and first cost is considerably greater.
(7) When screw spikes break, it is impossible to extract the stump
from the hole, and when tie plates are used, it is either impossible or
very costly to exchange the tie plates, so as to allow the proper number
of spikes to be used. This can be a very serious matter when the spikes
are cut off by a derailment.
(8) It is impossible to gage the track which is laid with screw
spikes or to straighten rail which is canting on curves, when placed in
accordance with the plan used for this experiment.
268 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
(9) It is impossible to remove screw spikes which have rusted,
in order to replace them with new ones.
(10) The tie plates used in the test did not reinforce the head
against lateral thrust and the under side of the spike head was flat and
did not fit the base of the rail. Tie plates with bosses supporting the
heads of the spikes and screws with heads beveled to fit the rail would
decrease the lateral thrust and would offer a greater resistance to the
rail creeping.
(11) Larger tie plates are required, as those which were used cut
into the ties badly.
(12) It would seem desirable to fasten the tie plates to the tie
with screw or common spikes so that the sawing action of the plate,
under traffic, would be eliminated and reduce the cutting of the plate into
the tie. The plate must be held firmly to the tie.
(13) The screws used in the experiment were too light. Heavier
screws are needed, and two screws per rail on the inside should be used
on curves to prevent canting and assist in maintaining the gage.
(14) The screws should be applied by some mechanical device, so
that each screw would bear equally against the rail. By applying screws
by hand, equal bearing on all spikes is not obtained.
(15) Some method should be devised to overcome the effect of
the brine from refrigerator cars on track fastenings. The failure of these
fastenings was due largely to the rusting of tie plates and screws. '
COST OF SURFACING TRACK.
The cost of surfacing track on which the various combinations of
fastenings were used varies from 33.32, cents per foot of track for
groups 4 and 6, to 12.11 cents per foot of track for group 3. This dif-
ference is no doubt due to a large extent to the conditions under which
the fastenings are used, rather than the fastenings themselves, groups
4 and 6 being located on curved track, while all the other groups are on
tangent track. The cost of surfacing track on groups 2 and 3 varies
from 12.11 cents on group 3, to 20.45 cents on group 2. These two groups
are identical as to fastenings, but group 3 was used with oak ties, and
group 2 used with pine ties, both of which were laid on tangent track.
Groups 1 and 5 (pine ties) cost 15.02 cents for surfacing, while group
7 (oak ties) cost 16.51 cents, both being laid on tangent track.
COST OF LINING TRACKS.
The cost of lining track varies from 0.81 cent to 4.93 cents per foot
of track; the highest cost being on group 3, on which group cost of sur-
facing was lowest. The cost of lining on groups 4 and 6 (oak ties)
which are on curved track, is 3.72 cents per foot of track, while the
cost of lining on groups 1 and 5 (pine ties) on tangent track is 4.83
cents per foot of track, both having the same combinations of fastenings.
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS. 269
COST OF GAGING TRACKS.
The cost of gaging varies from 0.26 cent on group 2, to 0.93 cent on
groups 4 and 6. As very little gaging with screw spikes, and the fact
that the track laid with screw spikes required gaging before the experi-
ment was closed, would seem to indicate that the figures showing cost
of gaging are of little interest.
COST OF TIGHTENING RAIL FASTENINGS.
The cost of tightening rail fastenings is fairly uniform for all the
various groups, except group 3. As this group of ties was laid with
common spikes and is located on curved track, it shows that the screw
spikes on curves can be kept tight at much less cost than the common
type. The screws laid with tie plates were maintained at less cost than
those laid without tie plates, but there is a question as to whether the
screws with the tie plates were kept as tight as those without tie plates.
In many cases the tie plates rusted so badly that the rail, when a train
passed over it, would be deflected quite a distance from the head of
the screws. This was not the case in the track laid with the screws
and no tie plates, as this track was very rigid, ties and rails were firmlv
against each other while the train passed over them. Cost of tightening
the common spikes on tangent track is practically the same for the pine
and oak ties, and slightly greater for groups 4 and 6 (oak ties) and
groups I and 5 (pine ties), and less than group 7.
COST OF RENEWING RAIL FASTENINGS.
The cost of renewing rail fastenings is quite high, due to the fact
that all the joint fastenings were renewed in 1910 with heavier screws
and tie plates, improved joint fastenings and Lakhovsky linings, the
original fastenings being too light; the creeping of the rail caused the
heads of the screv/s to be sheared off.
TOTAL COST OF LABOR.
The cost of labor, groups 4 and 6, located on curved track, was
largely in excess of all other groups, the excess being in the item of sur-
facing. This may have been caused by the curved track.
GRAND TOTAL COST OF LABOR AND MATERIAL.
This indicates that the cost of maintaining track laid with screw
spikes costs from three to four times as much as track laid with common
spikes. As the figures for the screw spikes contain the cost of work
made necessary by the renewal of all joint material, screws, plates, etc., it
does not seem that a fair comparison can be made between the two
classes of fastenings, although the figures would indicate that, disregarding
this feature, screw spikes are much more expensive to maintain than the
common spikes.
p, to a k>
« ,„• <»
"'""a as'1" p.
So
bo p
.s *
ac S= ft .* ft
W O >^ . « Bl _ M
< C .5 to M- C to aT m
g ftft.2.2ft-2.S.2
<« ^ "^ "^ *- +J*J
^t"' O o-^ ° ° °
Tj- t- lO lO CO t> lO oo
COOOH«t"*Mo
t- "*f rH •<*< <M *— tOOoO
I I I I
THCqCO"<flO«©t-O0
cftftftaftftc
OOOOOOOO
■~ u ■- ~ i- I- :- •*.
C50000000
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS'.
271
STATEMENT SHOWING COST OF MAINTENANCE PER FOOT OF TRACK ON-
EXPERIMENTAL TRACK, SCIO, OHIO.
February, 1910, to January 31, 1913.
Table I
Type of Track
M
.5
a
i
3
M
.5
.5
M
.5
60
a
o
'3
« «■
q.H
•sg
-*» »
J3 S
,3>fe
Eh
'3
MS
.Sg
gfe
.Sep
■°'o
H
.S«
1.5
B O
<B>-»
O
d
►J
"3
0
"3
_ &
•3 8
S-S
13
0
"3
0
H
73
S
3
5
Treated Red Oak Ties-
Screw Spikes, Linings and Tie
Plates (No. 4 and No.6). . . .
$.3332
$.0372
$.0093
$0231
$.1240
$.0006
$.0036
$.5309
$.2887
$.8196
Treated Red Oak Tids—
Screw Spikes and Linings
(No. 7)
.1651
.0413
.0365
.0964
.0011
.3405
.3419
.6824
T eated Pine Ties-
Screw Spikes, Linings and Tie
Plates (No 1 and No. 5).. .
.1502
.0483
.0069
.0222
.0880
.0014
.0020
.3190
.3376
.6566
Treated Red Oak Ties-
Common Spikes (No. 8)
.1730
.0081
.0028
.0299
.0023
.0034
.2195
.0035
.2230
Treated Red Oak Ties—
.1211
.0493
.0088
. 1367
.3159
3159
Plates (No. 3)
.
Treated Pine Ties-
Common Spikes and Tie
Plates (No. 2)
.2045
.0021
.0026
.0277
.2369
2369
Cost figures previous to February, 1910, are not separated between various kinds of fastenings.
PHYSICAL CONDITION AT FINAL INSPECTION.
The widest gage, with a few exceptions, found at the time of final
inspection, was 4 ft. 9 in., a great deal of the track being 4 ft. 8^4 in.
and 4 ft. 8% in. The percentage of various gages for each group is
shown in Table II. The widest gage occurring in group 6 was laid on
the 1 deg. 31 min. curve at milepost 77. The wide gage of this rail was
due in part to the canting of the rail, indicating that double spiking should
have been provided on the inside of the rails.
The percentage of loose screws varies from 10 on group 7, to 41
on groups 4 and 6. Groups 4 and 6 being on curves, were no doubt
subject to a greater canting than those in groups 1 and 5, located on
tangent track, consequently there was a greater number of loose ones.
The small percentage of loose screws on group 7 may be attributed to the
fact that no tie plates were used. The rusting away of the tie plates evi-
dently caused a great many of the screws to become loose, as this per-
mitted greater wave motion in the rail under traffic, subjecting the
screws to greater strain and causing them to work loose. An examina-
tion of the track without tie plates showed that the rail and tie were
272 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
held rigidly to each other under traffic, while on the tracks laid with
tie plates only the rail moved up and down under traffic.
The condition of the intermediate screws and tie plates was very
bad, many of the plates having rusted almost entirely away, presumably
largely due to the action of the brine from refrigerator cars. The screws
in some cases were almost destroyed, their threads having been taken
away, permitting the screws to be lifted out of the ties. Many screws
were worn under the head, and bent. The bending could be overcome by
designing a tie plate that would support the head of the screw and assist
in resisting the lateral thrust of the rail. The tie plates had all cut
into the ties about a quarter of an inch, as had the rail on the ties
without plates. Some ties were crushing under the plates. The joint
screws, with the exception of being loose, and plates were in good con-
dition. Some screws could be raised an inch, due, no doubt, to the tie
decaying around the lining, permitting it to become loose.
The joint screws which were installed in 1910 with Lakhovsky linings,
clips and larger tie plates were giving satisfactory service. They were
not bent and all were in good condition with the exception of a few of
the linings being loose, as noted above. At a great many of the joints,
the rail, tie and tie plates seemed to be held firmly to each other, and
the entire joint moved up and down under traffic. The joints were all
in fairly good line and surface, and this type of fastening seemed to give
much better service than the smaller intermediate screws.
The ties apparently were in good condition ; a few were split and
several broken and decayed, but the greater part were in as good. con-
dition as when installed. All the joint ties in group 8 were slewed. Many
of these are laid through a cut where the drainage is not first-class, which
may account for the slewing. Some of the ties in groups 4, 6, 7 and 8
were split, some of them through the spike holes. The pine ties do not
show any signs of splitting. An oak and a pine tie were removed from
the track and they did not show any indication of decay on the bottom.
The spike holes did not show any signs of spreading.
The general condition of the track was good, the failing of the
screws being principally due to the action of the brine on them and on
the tie plates, and to the design being too light.
The various conditions of the ties and fastenings are shown on the
accompanying photographs.
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS.
27:*,
CONDITION OF EXPERIMENTAL TRACK WEST OF SCIO, OHIO
February 26. 1913
Table II— Table Showing Gage
Gage
4'-8i
»
8J'
85'
W
9'
9*'
9f
9*'
w
Group 1. .
Per Cent
M a
a u
m a
« «
« a
5
48
23
14
31
75
14
15
17
5
35
33
15
25
43
46
55
68
21
* 2 .
31
" 3..
* 4..
43
30
6
• 5..
3
3
18
3
11
9
6
6
7..
• 8..
5
9
30
Table III— Percentage of Loose Spikes
Groups
Per Cent
No. 4 and No. 6
No. 7
41
10
No. 1 and No. 5
18
RECORD OF PHYSICAL CONDITION OF EXPERIMENTAL TRACK AT SCIO. OHIO.
February 26, 1913.
Type ol Track
o
.S
-
G
o
a
°~£
3
X
G
G
G
G
G
G
a
O
Loose
Spikes
Worn Spikes
8
'5.
X
*j
c
o
pq
' 8
2-
«J3
Broken
Joint Spikes
Looso Clips
Broken
Clips
8
H
T3
9
Ec
3
.2'3
>,
a
J? m
O o
o a
a
=5.8
Treated Red Oak Ties—
4'8f
4'9i'
1420
•889
14 433 n
0
All
ties
1'
23 split
1 failing
and Tie Plates
Treated Red Oak Ties-
Screw Spikes and Lin-
ings
G
G
4'8J'
4'9fr'
168
5
2 153
4
0
All
ties
i'
18 split
Treated Pine Ties—
4'8}'
4'9 '
868
•348
24
557
0
0
All
ties
i'
G
and Tie Plates
G
G
G
Treated Red Oak Ties-
4 '8|'
4'9 '
:,i: All
Joint
|
All
Joint
Ties
All
ties
i'
30 split
3 broken
Treated Red Oak Ties-
4'8£'
4'9 '
.... All
Joint
All
ties
i*
8 split
Tie Plates
Treated Pine Ties —
4 '81'
4'9 *
.... AIM
Joint
All
ties
1'
G
Marks— (Line, Surface and Ties)— "E" Excellent; "G" Good; "P" Poor; "B" Bad; "M"
Medium.
Gage — To be measured and recorded.
"Loose," "Worn" and "Bent" Spikes, etc., to be reported by number.
Remarks— *952 due to wreck of No. 30, February 20, 1910, of which 938 have been replaced
with common spikes.
274 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
TREATED RED OAK TIES.
JOINT TIES.
SCREW SPIKES, LAKHOVSKY LININGS AND TIE PLATES.
No. 8. — Taken from the middle of Curve 174— full elevation of 3^4 in.
Gage 4 ft. 9 in. Tie mashed % »n. under plate, and split at
extreme end, but not through spike hole.
No. 14. — Taken from the west end of Curve 173 — full elevation of 3% in.
Gage 4 ft. 8^4 m- Half the lining was missing and the top of
the other half broken off. Tie had a slight heart crack.
No. 6. — Taken from west spiral of Curve 174 — elevation 2 in. Gage
4 ft. 8^4 in. Center of tie entirely decayed, so that the spike
had no hold. Cut J4 in- by plate.
No. 10. — Taken from east end of Curve 174 — full elevation of 3% in.
Gage 4 ft. 9 in. Heart wood loose as though in early stage
of decay. A slight discoloration around the spike hole, due to
the iron in the spike, is plainly visible.
No. 9. — Taken from east end of Curve 174 — full elevation of 3J4 in.
Gage 4 ft. 9 in. Tie split and cut about J4 in. by plate ; also
slightly discolored around spike hole.
Treated Red Oak Ties. Joint Ties. Spikes in Position.
Treated Red Oak Ties. Joint Ties. Spikes Removed.
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS.
27c
TREATED PINE TIES.
JOINT TIES.
SCREW SPIKES, LAKHOVSKY LININGS AND TIE PLATES.
No. 21. — Taken from tangent east of Curve 173 — Gage 4 ft. 9 in. Tie
badly split on end ; heartwood loose. Cut %. in. by tie plate.
No. 20. — Taken from tangent east of Curve 173 — Gage 4 ft. 9 in. Tie
slightly smashed and cut by tie plate.
No. 13. — Taken from tangent west of Curve 173 — Gage 4 ft. 8^4 in. Tie
badly mashed by tie plate and decayed through spike hole ; how-
ever, tie retained the treating.
Treated Pinf. Ties. Joint Ties. Spikes in P-qsithw?.
Treated Pine Ties. Joint Ties. Spikes Removed.
276
EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
TREATED RED OAK TIES.
INTERMEDIATE TIES.
No. i. — Red oak tie with common spikes; taken from tangent east of
Curve 175 — Gage 4 ft. 8-)4 in- This was a joint tie; split from
end to end and badly decayed around spike hole, allowing little
or no hold for the spike.
No. 2. — Red oak tie with screw spikes and Thiollier helical linings ; taken
from tangent west of Curve 174 — Gage 4 ft. 9 in. Tie badly
split through spike hole ; partly exposed lining and spike, thus
allowing very little hold for it.
No. 3.— Red oak tie with screw spikes and helical linings; taken from
tangent west of Curve 174 — Gage 4 ft. gJ4 in- Tie badly split at
end, but not through spike hole, except for a slight horizontal
crack, around which the wood is loose.
No. 7. — Red oak tie with screw spikes, helical linings and Glendon tie
plates; taken .from west end of Curve 174 — Gage 4 ft. 8^» in
Spike bent, but tie showed no marks of mashing or decaying.
Treated Red Oak Ties. Intermediate Ties. Spikes in Position.
Treated Red Oak Ties. Intermediate Ties. Spikes Removed.
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS. 27.
TREATED PINE TIES.
INTERMEDIATE TIES.
No. 16. — Treated pine ties with screw spikes, Thiollier helical linings and
Glendon tie plates. Taken from tangent east of Curve 173 — Gage
4 ft. 8% in. Tie mashed under and off plate, and split at ends.
No. 17. — Treated pine ties with screw spikes, helical linings and Glendon
tie plates. Taken from tangent east of Curve 173 — Gage 4 ft.
9 in. Tie cut % in. by plate and split at ends.
No. 11. — Treated pine ties with screw spikes, helical linings and Glendon
tie plates. Taken from tangent east of Curve 174 — Gage 4 ft.
8% in. Tie cracked throughout, as shown, and cut J4 in- by
tie plate.
No. 19. — Treated pine tie with screw spikes, helical linings and Glendon
tie plates. Taken from tangent east of Curve 173 — Gage 4 ft.
« 8->4 in. Tie cut % in- by tie plate — otherwise in good condition.
No. 12. — Treated pine tie with screw spikes, helical linings and Glendon
tie plates. Taken from tangent east of Curve 173 — Gage 4 ft.
834 in. Tie cut J4 in- by plate and split at ends.
Treated Pine Ties. Intermediate Ties. Spikes in Position.
Treated Pine Ties. Intermediate Ties. Spikes Removed.
278 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
TREATED RED OAK TIE.
INTERMEDIATE TIES.
No. 15.— Red oak tie with screw spikes, Thiollier helical linings and Glen-
don tie plates. Taken from middle of Curve 173 — full elevation
of 3J4 in. Gage 4 ft. 8M in. Tie split through spike hole and
cut by tie plate. Spike in bad condition; bent and worn under
cap. Tie shows distinctly the iron discoloration around the
spike.
Treated Red Oak Tie. Intermediate Tie. Spike in Position.
Treated Red Oak Tie. Intermediate Tie. Spike Removed.
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS. 27!)
RENEWAL OF JOINT SCREWS WITH LAKHOVSKY LININGS,
HEAVIER PLATES, CLIPS AND SCREWS.
In 1910 it was necessary to renew all joint spikes on account of the
action of the rail creeping and shearing the heads of the spikes. New
angle bars, heavier tie plates and screws, provided with clips and Lak-
hovsky linings were used in the work. The ties were removed from the
track, new holes were bored by hand, and the linings applied. Print of
plan dated March 5, 1909, revised April 3, 1909, show the details of this
fastening, plates, etc. The above work greatly increased the cost of
maintenance for the screw spikes.
Screw spikes may be a satisfactory form of fastening for use on
bridge floors, or in tunnels, terminal stations, etc.. provided the problem
of repairs is satisfactorily solved. Attached plans and photographs
show types of fastenings in use on bridge floors on this division and
which are giving satisfaction up to the present time. These types are
fastenings we hope will increase the life of the bridge ties, and can
be used satisfactorily with pine ties on bridges.
M-,yu±l
,-gT»g.u B»-«,
s'-ii'W
ELEVATION
5--„V _
1 u ;. 0|'
■f3=S
tsttz -
■Tffi
t£
PL.AK
T&MPUATE, FOB TESTini; BOWED HOL.E.S
1 ^ 'MET i
4jj.
\ i
CLCVATION
P>TAIL OF* TtWPLATft fOft TgiTlNft BORtD t-tOt-fcS.
Details for Test of Screw Spike, Clip, Tie Plate and Lakhovsky
Lining.
281
ffl
n rU
*- ->** -rzi
^
pyexajL- ^oca
■;r>4<3 A.M6LC BARS
r6Ttfiu b*J3 r* DJ**mSthi*
B-EVA.TION
- 5'- II f
*i-t*
Details for Test of Screw Spike, Clip, Tie Plate and Lakhovskv
Lining.
282
n
rzzz
SECTION A-&.
^
elevation .
DE.TAIL OF- TEMPLATE FOP BOWIN6 HOLES.
Details for Test of Screw Spike, Clip, Tie Plate and Lakhovsky
Lining.
283
Malleable Iron Tie Plate for Use With Screw Spikes.
286 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
Ohio Connecting Bridge No. 3. East Leg of Y. Screw Spikes and
Rolled Steel Tie Plates, P. R. R. Standard. Applied May, 1911.
Screw Spikes and Rolled Steel Tie Plates, P. R. R. Standard. As-
plied May, 191 1, North Rail.
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS.
287
Screw Spikes and Rolled Steel Tie Plates, P. R. R. Standard. Ap-
plied May, 191 i, North Rail.
Screw Spikes and Malleable Iron Tie Plates Applied June, 19 10.
West End Bridge No. 42, Westbound Track, Outside South Rail.
288
EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
Screw Spikes and Malleable Iron Tie Plates Applied June, 1910.
View on Bridge No. 42, West End Westbound Track.
Screw Spikes and Malleable Iron Tie Plates Applied June, 1910.
West End Bridge No 42, Westbound Track, South Rail.
Appendix A.
DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES.
WOOD SCREWS AND THIOLLIER HELICAL LININGS.
MAY 23, 1908.
By W. D. Wiggins, Division Engineer, Pittsburgh Division.
Before entering into a description of the experiment referred to in
the above heading, it will not be amiss to summarize the conditions sur-
rounding the cross-tie problem in this country at the present time.
It is well recognized that the supply of white oak timber in this
country is being rapidly depleted and that the railroads will be obliged
within the next few years to resort to the use of steel, concrete or the
cheaper woods treated by one of the preservative processes, as a substitute
for the untreated white oak cross-tie of to-day. The economy and prac-
ticability of the use of steel or concrete for cross-ties in this country
has not yet been satisfactorily demonstrated. On the other hand, it
cannot be questioned that the use of the cheaper woods, when treated
by one of the approved preservative processes and properly protected
from rail-wear and spiking, is economical, as compared with white oak
at the present market price.
The average life of white oak cross-ties on these lines is from 7 to
9 years. On divisions where the curvature is light, and life of rail
considerable, the ties are, for the most part, removed from the track
on account of decay, but in territory where there is a large percentage of
sharp curvature and heavy traffic, resulting in frequent rail renewals and
gage connections, the ties will become spike-killed within the period of
their natural life. Such conditions require the use of a more effective
rail fastening than the nail spike — one providing proper holding power;
permitting of the renewal of the rail without damage to the tie, such as
results when nail spikes are several times pulled out and driven in at
other points ; also providing for small changes of gage, either to correct
bad line or to correct the gage widened by curve-wear. Softwood ties
will be largely used in the future on account of low cost, available
supply, ease with which softwood lends itself to chemical treatment, and
satisfactory life obtained when treated and protected against abrasion
and damaging effect of the present form of rail fastenings. Tie plates
will be required on such ties, whether located on a curve or tangent. The
objections to the nail spikes as a rail fastening apply to a greater extent
in the case of softwood than with hardwood, for the following reasons :
First. — The holding power of the spike and resistance to loosening
are less in soft than in hardwood.
Second. — Damage to the wood fiber by the spike is more pronounced.
Third. — Increased number of re-spikings necessary, due to "First."
Unless the rail fastening problem is given proper consideration by the
users of chemically-treated timber for cross-ties, such use will prove a
disappointment and source of financial loss.
289
290 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
For the above reasons, the General Manager, on November 10, 1905,
authorized the Chief Engineer Maintenance of Way, to make an experi-
ment with wood screws and Thiollier's helical linings on two miles of
track on the Pittsburgh Division, with a view of ascertaining if they
are a proper form of rail fastening for use with treated ties.
After carefully looking over the division, it was decided to make
the test of these fastenings in the eastbound main track between mile-
posts 76 to 78, west of Scio, Ohio. The alinement is about one-half
curve and one-half tangent, the rail new 100-lb. A. S. C. E. section, and
the track newly ballasted with stone.
In order to insure that the life of the ties with which the test was
made would be equal to that of the rail fastenings, it was decided to
treat them with creosote, but, inasmuch as the test was to be one of rail
fastenings rather than of creosoted timber, it was thought that an injection
of 2^2 gallons of creosote per tie would be sufficient, as this would in-
sure a life of 15 years — a period sufficiently long to demonstrate the
value of the rail fastening. It was decided to use an equal number of
red oak and loblolly pine ties. Kentucky shortleaf pine was afterwards
substituted for the loblolly pine, owing to the difficulty in obtaining
the latter wood. Tie plates were to be used on all of the pine ties and
none of the pine ties to be placed on curves. In order to compare the
fastenings, the red oak ties were laid in the following manner:
On curves — Part with screw spikes, helical linings and tie plates.
On tangent — Part with screw spikes and helical linings, but without tie
plates. Part with common nail spikes and without tie plates. Part with
common nail spikes with tie plates.
The pine ties were laid, part with screw spikes, helical linings and
tie plates ; part with common nail spikes and tie plates. Diagram 507-
123A, showing the location and distribution of cross-ties and rail fasten-
ings, is attached hereto.
DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL AND APPARATUS AND METH-
ODS USED IN THE TEST.
CROSS-TIES.
The number and kind of ties used, preservative treatment, etc., are
shown in the following table :
Kind of Wood. No. of Ties. Preservative Treatment.
Red Oak 7 in. by 8 in. 3,789 2]/2 gallons creosote per tie
Shortleaf Pine 7 in. by 8 in. 2,494 2//2 gallons creosote per tie
6,283
The ties were purchased in the South and after being air-seasoned
for from six to fifteen months were treated by the Columbia Creosoting
Company at Shirley, Ind. In their process, the ties are first thoroughly
air-seasoned and then placed in a retort and immersed in hot creosote
oil under a pressure of 175 lbs, per sq. in. from 1 to i}i hours, depending
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS. 291
on the kind of wood. About four gallons of the oil are injected into
each tie by this process. The retorts are then drained, and a vacuum main-
tained for from 1% to 1% hours, resulting in the withdrawal of about
\Y2 gallons of oil from each tie. The ties, after their treatment, were
inspected by a representative of the C. C. C. & St. L. Ry. Co. who is
regularly stationed at this point, and were then air-seasoned from two
to five months before being placed in the track. After treatment, the
red oak ties were found to have been penetrated to a depth of from 2 to
2]/2 inches, while the pine ties were almost entirely permeated with
the oil. The report of treatment showed an actual net absorption of
from 2.82 to 5.20 gallons per tie for the pine, and from 2.48 to 3.71 per
tie for red oak. A number of the ties were found not good enough for
the test. They were treated however, and used in the track with ordinary
fastenings.
DATING NAILS.
Dating nails were placed in the ties as follows :
Creosoted red oak CR RO 07
Creosoted shortleaf pine CR SL 07
The dating nails were furnished by the American Steel & Wire Com-
pany and the C. C. & E. P. Townsend Co., and are made of galvanized
iron. They are ^-in. in diameter, 2j4 in- m length, with head 5^-in. in
diameter, having stamped thereon letters and figures designating the year,
treatment and kind of wood.
SCREW SPIKES.
The screw spike in use on the French-Eastern Railway was used in
the test. It is Sr/2 in. long under the head, J^-in. in diameter at the root
of the thread, with a thread &^m. in depth. The diameter at the root of
the thread is increased from J^-in. to il-in. at the shank to insure tighten-
ing of the spike in the last turn when applied. The pitch of the thread
is two turns to the inch. The under face of the head is formed at right
angles to the axis of the screw, or nearly so. The head is made with a
%-in. square top, tapering to 5^-in. at the upper end. This screw might
be improved by forming the under face of the head at an angle of 13 deg.,
with the axis of the screw, as shown on blueprint 7451, so as to fit the
upper face of the base of A. S. C. E. rail. The square top for engaging
the socket wrench, used in seating the screw, should be made without the
taper, as the wrench was found to lift on this taper when the screw was
being seated in the tie. Eighteen thousand of these screw spikes were
purchased from Jean Thiollier, of Paris, France.
thiollier's helical linings.
The Thiollier helical lining is a coiled steel lining for the threaded
hole in the tie in which the screw spike is inserted. In the words of the
inventor, its aim is as follows :
(1) To provide for the screw spike a strong and evenly bored re-
cess, so that it can be removed and replaced without damaging its box.
292 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
(2) To allow a greater hold on the wood fibers, and, therefore, to
increase the resisting power of the wood.
(3) To have in direct contact with the wood fibers, surfaces with-
out asperites, which will never deteriorate them under any influences.
These results are arrived at by means of a helical lining of steel,
resembling in shape a spiral spring, and having the same pitch as the
screw spike. This spring is interposed perpendicularly to the core of the
screw spike, between the latter and the wood.
Eighteen thousand of these linings were purchased from Jean
Thiollier.
TIE PLATES.
The tie plates used were of the flat-bottom type, 6x9 in., and 15/32 in.
thick. They were punched with round holes to fit the screw spike and
were furnished by the Dilworth-Porter Company of Pittsburgh.
ANGLE BARS.
Special angle bars of the Standard section, punched with round holes
to receive the screw spikes, were used.
TOOLS AND METHODS USED IN BORING THE TIES AND
APPLYING HELICAL LININGS.
This work was done at the creosoting works before the ties were
treated. The work was executed by six carpenters in the employ of
the railway company. The procedure was as follows :
On hewed ties, the rail seats were adzed, so as to bring them in the
same plane. This work was done by hand, a template being used
to insure the accuracy of the work. Holes of the proper diameter and
spacing were then bored through the tie with ordinary auger and proper
spacing template. The boring may be done by hand or power. In this
case, a portable air-compressing plant, originally made for use in con-
nection with the driving of rivets in bridge work, was used with a wood-
boring air motor.
It is necessary to bore the holes entirely through the ties, as the
thread-cutting tool could not otherwise be used, due to the accumulation
of shavings from it in the bottom of the hole. Something over 17,000
holes were bored by this machine in a short time. A long time would
have been consumed in boring these holes by hand.
The holes were properly spaced by using a steel template, bored to
the proper spacing. The holes in the template were bushed with short
studs, the inside diameter of which was slightly greater than the diameter
of the bit used in the boring machine. The underface of the template
was provided with sharp studs, about % in. in length. Diagram
500/100, showing adzing and boring templates, attached thereto. It was
the intention to affix this template to the ties by driving the studs into
the wood ; the operator would then stand on the template and bore
the holes. The studs were to act as a guide in maintaining the bit in a
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS. 293
vertical position. In practice, it was found that these studs damaged the
bits to such an extent that it was found necessary to change the method
of boring the holes. The template was placed in position on the tie,
and the exact location of the holes marked with a punch. The template
was then removed and the holes bored, the operator relying on his eye
to maintain the bit in a vertical position. It was found difficult to bore
the holes to the exact gage and in an exactly vertical position by this
method. Quite a number of them varied by as much as % in. in each
direction from the correct position. The holes were then tapped with
a special thread-cutting tool, furnished by Thiollier. The diameter of
the tool at the root of the thread is the same as the diameter of the hole.
This operation may be performed by hand, or with a boring machine.
In this experiment, a compressed-air plant and a heavy air-motor, such
as is used for machine work, were used. The air-motor was quite
heavy, and in order to relieve the men and facilitate the work, it was
mounted on a four-wheeled carriage, traveling on a narrow-gage
track. In this machine, a horizontal lever, mounted near its middle on
a vertical spindle, free to turn in any direction. The air-motor is sup-
ported at one end of this lever, which is provided with a counter-
weight at its other end. The arrangement is such that the motor can
be readily handled by one man and swung by him into any desired po-
sition. This carriage was constructed of scrap material, at Dennison
Shop, at small cost. Considerable power is necessary to drive the thread-
cutting tool. The wood-boring motor was not of sufficient power for
this work, and the heavy motor was used. The thread-cutting tool
should be lubricated with soft soap to facilitate its progress into the
wood. It was found advisable in case of hardwood to first use a tool of
smaller size than the finished thread and then enlarge the thread with a
second tool of larger diameter. If the thread be cut in one operation,
the wood fibers will be considerably damaged and the thread cut with
difficulty.
The helical lining is then seated in the hole by means of a driving
mandrel, on which the lining is placed. A shoulder on the thread of the
mandrel engages a special bend at the lower end of the lining, the lin-
ing is thus pulled into the tie. In practice, great difficulty was ex-
perienced in placing the linings by hand. When the lining was partly in
place, the friction between it and the wood became so great as to
straighten out the bend which engages the mandrel, permitting the latter
to turn in the lining. In this event, it became necessary to remove the
lining from the hole and replace the bend at its lower end, or replace
the lining itself with a new one. The removal of the lining was accom-
plished with difficulty and many were broken during this operation, or
in replacing the bend so that it might again be driven into the tie.
Various attempts were made to overcome this difficulty. Both the
diameter of the hole and the size of the thread were increased, within
limits, without much success. A slight increase in the size of the hole, or
of the thread-cutting tool, resulted in the lining being too loose and
294 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
coming out with the screw spike when there was occasion to remove it.
A new design of driving tool, shown as No. 6 on attached photograph,
was finally devised. This tool was provided with a shoulder, so as to
engage the upper end of the lining, in addition to the one at the lower end.
This tool pushed, as well as pulled, the lining into place. Some im-
provement was effected by the use of this tool, but the difficulty was not
entirely overcome. In placing the lining by hand, the operation was ac-
complished by a succession of turns. The starting friction is, of course,
considerably in excess of that existing while the lining is in motion. It
was found that when the mandrel was driven by power, and the opera-
tion continuous from beginning to end, very little difficulty was ex-
perienced.
Although the adzing of the ties, boring of the holes, and insertion of
the helical linings might be done successfully in the manner above de-
scribed with a considerable number of ties, it would, without doubt,
be necessary to use special machinery for executing work of this char-
acter on a large scale.
Photographs of the tools and machinery used in this experiment are
attached hereto.
PLACING OF TIES IN TRACK, AND APPLICATION OF TRACK
FASTENINGS.
The ties were put in the track and the fastenings applied during the
months from June to November, 1907, inclusive, by an extra gang of
about 25 men. Little or no difficulty was experienced. The screw
spikes were run down three-fourths of their length with an alligator
wrench and tightened by means of a socket wrench about 30 inches long,
equipped with an ordinary brake-wheel at the upper end. Two men
were required for operating each wrench.
Some time after the ties were put in, quite a number of variations
in the gage was noticed, most of which seemed to be at the joints.
The ties were inspected and some of the screws removed, and an exami-
nation made of the helical linings and the holes in the ties. No sign of
spreading was discovered and the variations in gage, with the exception
of a few cases, were not greater than one-eighth of an inch. The vari-
ations in gage were, without doubt, due to error in the spacing of the
holes. A number of loose screws were found, but this resulted from
settling of the tie plates into the ties. These were tightened and no sub-
sequent loosening has been noticed.
COST OF EXPERIMENT.
Statement showing cost of labor and material entering into the test is
given below. The cost per tie is quite high on account of the methods
used for boring the ties and placing the linings. If this work were done
on a large scale, with special machinery, the cost should be quite low-
not to exceed one cent per tie.
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS.
295
STATEMENT OF COST OF CREOSOTED CROSS-TIES, FITTED WITH THIOLLIER'S
HELICAL LININGS AND SCREW SPIKES.
Labor
4084 Red Oak Ties @ $0.46 ,
2548 Pine Ties <m 80.45
Freight on Ties shipped to Shirley
Freight on Ties returned from Shirley
Freight on air compressor
Freight on screw spikes from New York
1200 100-lb. Angle Bars, slotted for screw spike
7100 Glendon tie plates, punched for screw spikes
1188 Glendon tie plates, punched for common spikes
1215 Pounds Dating Nails
Expenses of Carpenters S -.) 1 .r>5
6486 Ties, creosoted
57.567 Tons Coal for air compressor
Unloading coal for compressor 8.40
Pipe fittings, etc., for water line
Truck for air motor for boring ties 41.80
Sets of Threading Tools @ $5.00
Augers® $1.50
Pounds Airoiline Grease @ $0.20
Intermediate screw spikes with helical linings (§ SO. 035
Joint screw spikes with helical linings « SO. 04
Common spikes (& $1.60 per C
Labor unloading tools for boring
Labor adzing ties
Labor boring ties
Labor threading ties
Labor inserting linings in ties
Unloading creosoted cross ties
Piling creosoted cross ties
Distributing creosoted cross ties
Surfacing and lining track
Putting on tie plates
Placing ties in track
4
4
30
1600
2200
7476
Material
Total
$1,878.64
$ 1,878.64
1,146.60
1,146.60
1,000.23
1,000.23
224.00
224.00
34.00
34.00
33.68
33.68
744.00
744.00
931.48
931.48
143.29
143.29
48.03
48.03
291.65
1,945.20
1,945.20
100.74
100.74
8.40
4.05
4.05
7.40
48.58
20.00
20.00
2.00
2.00
6.00
6.00
560.00
560.00
S0.00
80.00
119.60
119.60
190.00
321.65
181.35
177.40
177.40
240.70
40.20
324.15
574.55
31.90
1,764.90
$4,365.43 $9,028.94 $13,394.37
Labor Material Total
Cost per single tie, fitted with screw spikes and helical linings —
Original cost per tie, including freight and dating nails
Creosoting ties.
4 screw spikes with helical linings
2 Glendon tie plates, punched for screw spikes
Boring, threading and inserting linings 27
Adzing 0496
Unloading and piling 0447
Placing ties in track and surfacing 429
.65
30
.1496
.2624
.65
.30
.1496
.2624
.27
.0496
.0447
.429
Total 7935 1.3620 2.1553
Cost per signle tie, fitted with common spikes —
Original cost per tie, including freight and dating nails
Creosoting ties
Glendon tie plates punched for common spikes
Common spikes per tie
Adzing 0496
Unloading and piling 0447
Placing ties in track and surfacing 429
.65
.30
.2412
.0640
.65
.30
.2412
.0640
.0496
.0447
.429
Total 5233 1 2552 1. 7785
NOTE — Unit prices do not include angle bars or tools, except augers and threading tools worn out
in boring ties. Item of cost of placing ties in track includes cost of distributing ties, placing
same in track and applying tie plates.
296 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
Template for Spacing of Holes to Be Bored in Ties.
Boring ft-Iw. Hole in Cross-Tie Before Cutting Thread for Lining.
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS.
297
Cutting Thread for Helical Lining.
Screw Spike Experiment. Inserting the Helical Lining in Tie. This
Completes the Operation.
298 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
\
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS. 299
Car Carrying Air Compressor for Operating Boring Machine.
General View Showing Handling of Cross-Ties.
300 EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
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WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS.
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Details for Test of Wood Screws With Thiollier's Helical Lining.
303
304
WOOD SCREWS AND HELICAL LININGS.
Details for Test of Wood Screws With Thiollier's Helical Lining.
EXPERIMENT WITH TREATED CROSS-TIES,
305
JOINT PLATE PUNCHING
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Details for Test of Wood Screws With Thiollier's Helical Lining.
CONCERNING RAILROAD BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A
VERTICAL PLANE.
By B. R. Leffler,
Engineer of Bridges, Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway.
As soon as an additional track is added to an existing double-track
railroad, it becomes necessary to consider bridges movable in a
vertical plane.
The undesirable center pier, the nearness of other bridges, and the
desired boat and wharf space near the bridge site, are other factors
which compel the use of this type of bridge instead of the horizontally
rotating kind.
It is our purpose to consider the kinds of movable bridges now
in common use. A set of specifications* is presented. Tables show-
ing weights are given. Unusual kinds will not be considered.
Bridges, movable in a vertical plane, may be divided into two
classes, viz., the Vertical Lift and the Bascule. In the vertical lift,
the moving span takes successive positions similar to an elevator in a
building. The bascule rotates about an horizontal axis, which is at
right angles to the track.
In the vertical lift, the moving span is usually supported by wire
ropes, attached to counterweights. For light spans, such as used
over narrow canals, counterweight chains have been used. Sometime
ago, the writer jointly considered a parallelogram mechanism as a lift for
each end; this mechanism is similar to that used for some trunnion
bascules.
In the bascule, the moving span may be attached to the counter-
weight by wire ropes; but the usual construction consists of rigid
members throughout.
The bascule may be divided into two classes, viz., the trunnion
type, in which the span rotates about an axis of a fixed trunnion, and
the rolling type, which rolls lengthwise of the track. The latter type
may also rotate about a trunnion axis as the bridge rolls.
In the selection of a type, the following views should be taken:
First, the requirements of the location; second, the mechanical details
and features. Referring to the first, the following points are
important:
(i) The length of moving span.
(2) The vertical clearance above water.
(3) The character of the foundations.
*A previous draft of the specifications appeared in "Vol. LXXVI of the
Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers. The major part
of the specifications has been adopted by the Isthmian Canal Commission
for a bridge across the French Canal at Cristobal. (See I. C. C. Circular
No. 785.)
307
308 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
(4) Skew or square channel crossing.
(5) The erection difficulties with special reference to the existing
structure, and river and rail traffic.
(6) The number of times the structure is to be operated per
annum.
(7) The possibility of a future rise in the level of the railroad
tracks.
After considering a few of the above points, some of the mech-
anical features will be taken up.
It is not advisable to lay down fixed rules. Bridges of this kind
are in a process of development. Things which ten years ago were
considered impossible have been accomplished lately.
Longer spans of the vertical lift can be built, as compared with
the single-leaf bascule. The great weight of the moving span, effe:t
of wind, and narrowness of span, are the things which limit the length
of the bascule.
The span weight, in the vertical lift, may become too great for
the counterweight rope connections and number of ropes practicable.
The recently constructed bascule for the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad at South Chicago is a double track span of 235 ft., Cooper's
E-50 loading.
The double-track vertical lift at the crossing of the Pennsylvania
Lines over the South Branch of the Chicago River, now being con-
structed, has a span of 273 ft.
For the present, the following maximum approximate lengths are
recommended for double-track structures and Cooper's E-60 loading :
Bascule, single leaf 260 ft.
Vertical Lift 350 ft.
For single-track structures, with trusses about 17 ft., center to cen-
ter, a span of 200 ft. is about the limit for bascules.
By using nickel steel, the weight of the span can be made about
20 per cent, less than a carbon steel one.
On account of its better anchoring qualities, the trunnion type of
bascule is better for the long-span bascules.
The effect of wind on long bascules is important. There is a
tendency to specify too high a pressure. A pressure of 8 lbs. per sq.
ft. means, according to the formula, P = 0.0032 V2, a wind velocity of 50
miles per hour. Vessels would hardly navigate in such a wind.
A pressure of 8 lbs. per sq. ft. for the span in motion, and 15 lbs.
for any stationary open position of the span, should be enough for
designing the machinery.
The effect of wind on the vertical lift is often ignored. The wind
does not always blow horizontally. At least 2l/2 lbs. per sq. ft. should
be taken on the horizontal surface. The effect of the wind, on the
side of the span, should be considered, as it produces friction, during
motion, on the sides of the tower.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 309
The vertical clearance is important. While the vertical lift has
the advantage over the bascule for long spans, the bascule has the
advantage for high clearance over the channel. Each foot added to
the towers of a vertical lift increases the cost.
Up to this time, no information was available to show the effect
of height of towers on the cost. Tables I and 2 show the weights
of various spans. Using these tables, the following demonstration
concerning the height of towers in vertical-lift bridges is given.
Proposition: Given a location where the conditions are such that
either a bascule or vertical lift is suitable, which is the more
economical?
The following assumptions are made: First, that the moving
spans, in both types, are of equal weight and length; second, that
a fixed ratio exists between the pound prices of the various parts.
In addition to the symbols given in Table I, let d be the weight
in pounds for concrete counterweight for the bascule and C2 that for
the vertical lift. As found in the usual designs, approximately,
C, = 2.6 W,
Ci=1.2lV,
A cubic yard of concrete is assumed to weigh 4,000 lbs. and cost
$12.00.
Using the symbols found in Table 1 for a square-ended bridge,
we can write
9/> pHW 7 WH o/>
0.97IVP + (0.3) (2.6JV) + (0.18W) = \- p h —
4 175 2 3000 4
r Wd 3IV 1
0.16JF + 1 +0.36W/.
L 80 100 J
Simplifying and assuming p equal 4^ cents and ^=15, 7/ = 88 ft.
This means that for any length of span for which a bascule can be
used, say up to 260 ft. and other things equal, the bascule is the
cheaper in first cost for all heights of vertical-lift towers above 88
ft., measured from base of tower to center of sheaves.
For very low lifts, such as is found over canals, the vertical lift
is the cheaper.
The foregoing is based on vertical lifts having towers with 4 posts
and 4 sheaves, and for double-track bridges.
The above slightly favors the vertical lift, because no account is
taken of the variable counterweight chain which should be used to
balance the wire rope, but which chain is not often used. Neither is a
capitalized cost for wire rope renewal included.
An examination of Table 1 shows some interesting matter. For
instance, in terms of cost, the counterweight ropes equal 23 per cent,
of the span, for towers 200 ft. high. The sheaves, for a diameter
of 15 ft., cost 45 per cent, of the span. The towers, for a height of
200 ft. cost 15 per cent, more than the span.
310
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
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312 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
Some may object to assuming the weights of the moving spans
as being equal, because, in the vertical lift, a simple span is found
for all loads, while in a bascule, the span is simple only for train load.
Hence some reversal of stress may be found in the bascule. Some
figures, made by the writer, indicate that there is little difference. The
vertical lift usually has its operating machinery and house on the
center of the span. This extra weight, amounting to almost half
the weight of a locomotive, for long double-track spans, requires
extra metal in the span.
The superstructure for the bascule is heavier than that of a
vertical lift. However, the vertical lift requires large foundations
at both ends, the bascule only at one end. Hence, even for the greater
weight, the foundation for the bascule costs no more than for the
vertical lift. It is usually cheaper to build one large cofferdam
than two slightly smaller.
On account of the counterweight rope connections, considerable
height of tower, above the fully open position of the span, is neces-
sary to keep the deviation of the ropes from the vertical as small
as possible. The deviation also increases with the diameter of the
sheave.
A large diameter of sheave is desirable. It reduces the move-
ment of the individual wires, and of the rope on the sheave, also the
bending of the wires. The life of the rope is thus prolonged.* The
diameter of the sheaves in the Halsted Street lift is 90 times that of
the wire rope.
For soft ground, the vertical lift is at a disadvantage. It is essen-
tial to the success of this type that the towers maintain their original
vertical position, and are not pushed toward the channel, as is some-
times the case with masonry built on piles.
For the bascule, founded on a monolithic mass of concrete, a
small movement of the mass as a whole cannot cause a relative dis-
placement, or twisting, of the superstructure.
For either type, the concrete mass should be built as a monolith,
heavily reinforced throughout, and envelop the pile heads. To insure
as much lateral resistance as possible, the piles should be well driven
and cut off below the river bottom.
The rolling type of bascule is at a disadvantage in soft ground.
For this type, the whole moving mass occupies successive positions.
Of course, the foundation must be good for any position.
The erection difficulties are peculiar to each site. The bascub
may be erected in the open position, allowing trains to pass through
while the work is in progress. The vertical lift does not allow of
such easy erection. Space and time are too limited to cover all
points pertaining to erection. Each site must be studied by itself.
♦For a discussion of the effects of bending of wire rope over sheaves,
see Unwin's Mach. Design, Part I, Ed. 1909, Arts. 312 and 314.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 313
The number of times the structure is to be opened is important.
A movable bridge is a machine; if used enough, parts will wear out.
Many movable bridges are successful because they are seldom
operated.
In the rolling bascule type, the built-up roller and track girder
loosen where the heavy concentration occurs.
A bridge seldom operated is usually poorly lubricated. For such
a condition a rolling type, without trunnions, has advantages.
In the vertical lift, depending on the number of operations and
character of rope lubrication, the ropes will require renewal.
For a bridge that is seldom opened, care must be taken to see that
the ropes are not allowed to rust into a solid rod. This has hap-
pened to elevator ropes in buildings.
As for the trunnion type, the history of the Ferris Wheel shows
that this type, with proper lubrication and design, should last many
years under hard service.
The vertical lift is suitable where there is to be a future rise of
the tracks. It may be designed to fit either grade. Where there is
a combination of upper and lower decks, as in the Kansas City
Bridge, the vertical lift is specially fitted, in particular if the upper
deck is fixed. For high-speed railway traffic some forms of deck bascules
are not adapted ; the vertical lift is better. However, a deck bridge is
seldom necessary or desirable.
The mechanical features are fairly well covered in the specifi-
cations. However, some of the main points will be briefly considered,
taking each type.
In the vertical lift, small sheaves should be avoided. Some mech-
anical engineers, in order to save material and space, use too small
sheaves.
If the diameter of the sheave is about 90 times that of the rope,
and if the rope is kept well lubricated, it should be good for 350,000*
passes over the sheave; for poor lubrication, this may drop to 75,000.
Taking 300,000 passes as a safe basis, this would mean, for a
bridge having about 20 openings a day, a life of about 20 years for
the ropes. An opening requires two passes.
Counterweight ropes are attached to the counterweight by means
of a sort of whiffle-tree affair. Each -small bar has two ropes at-
tached. On account of it being impossible to put the pivot of the
bar on a line with the points of attachments, the ropes are not
equally stressed for all positions of the bar. For practical purposes,
the stresses are about equal. However, the whiffle-tree is somewhat
cumbersome.
For conveying the electric current to the motors on the vertical
lift, trolley wires must be used running nearly the full length of
the towers. It may be necessary to use long flexible cables, one
♦See Unwin's Machine Design, Part I, Ed. of 1909, Art. 311.
314 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
end of each being attached to the moving span, the other to the
tower. These long loose conductors are objectionable. The vertical
lift does not allow of a simple circuit for conveying current to the
motors.
As usually constructed, the counterweight ropes in the vertical
lift are not balanced for all positions. Enough counterweighting is
used, so that the ropes and span are balanced when the span is
half way up.
For a long span, having a large number of openings of small
lift per day, the unbalanced ropes will cause a relative large con-
sumption of power, as compared with a bascule.
As an example, a vertical lift across the Cuyahoga River, at
Cleveland, Ohio, on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, would
require a maximum lift of 124 ft. The number of lifts would be about
100 per day. Half of the openings would not exceed 22 ft. The
unbalanced ropes, for each start of opening, would be about 40,000 lbs.
Of course, this extra load must be taken by the motors.
For the vertical lifts on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern
Railway at South Chicago, the writer had the ropes balanced for all
positions of the span.
Looking at the rolling bascule, the most difficult part is the
roller. Our knowledge of the stresses in a heavily loaded roller is
almost nothing. The little we have is based on experiments made
on small solid rollers. In most of the rolling bascules, as now
built, the roller and track girder are built-up affairs. The life of such
parts depends largely on careful designing and workmanship. There
seem to be no well-defined rules for designing built-up rollers and
track girders. From a designing standpoint this is a serious defect.
In the Indiana Harbor bridges, on the Lake Shore & Michigan
Southern Railway, a full roller, composed of a cast-iron center nnd
steel tire, was used. In about 5,000 openings of the bridges, the tire
loosened. These rollers were replaced by solid vanadium cast-steel
ones, which seem to be successful.
Experience seems to show that a built-up roller is not entirely
successful. Wherever possible, solid cast-steel rollers, or parts, should
be used. The rollers should travel on a solid cast-steel track. The
metal should be of vanadium, or chrome steel.
In the trunnion bascule, and in the vertical lift, an important
feature is the lubrication of the trunnions. The grooves for the
lubricant should be large, have beveled edges, and allow of being
easily cleaned. Helicoidal grooves should not be used.
For a lubricant, the writer has found Mexican Cup Graphite
good. The grease does not harden in cold weather. It will cake,
if allowed to remain too long in the grooves, due to the oil drying
out. The grease can be forced into the grooves, while the bridge is
in motion, by a pump which is composed of a cylinder and a piston
operated by a screw.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 315
All parts of the trunnion bascule can be designed by well-known
principles. This is specially important for large structures.
The parts of the vertical lift can be designed by safe methods.
However, there are differences of opinion regarding the design of
wire rope for bending over sheaves. The writer does not believe it is
safe to depend upon so-called practical experience derived from
elevator or mine hoist practice in designing wire ropes.
The movements of a trunnion bascule are precise. The rolling
bascule, like a rocking chair, tends to roll unequally, and conse-
quently the free end must be forced into its closed position by the
guides and teeth in the tracks.
The operating machinery is usually located on the moving span.
This is objectionable, because the support is not firm. In the
vertical lift it is necessary to have the machinery thus located,
but in the bascule it may be located on the tower.
It is better to have the machinery located on the tower for
the following reasons:
(1) The supporting structure can be made firm. This cannot
be done if the location is on the portal.
(2) A roomy house can be built to protect the machinery.
(3) The wire circuits, conveying power to the main motors,
can be made stationary throughout. When the machinery
is on the moving span, these wires and their conduits are
subject to bending.
The circuit for conveying power to the machinery on
a vertical lift are bound to be cumbersome on account of
the machinery being on the moving span.
(4) The machinery, in bascules, can be readily inspected, and
observed while in motion.
(5) The oil cups retain their contents; this is not always the
case in bascule bridges when the machinery is on the
leaf.
It is usually assumed that the rolling bascule takes less power
to operate than the trunnion. This is true until the permanent de-
formation in the rollers and track becomes too great. In one case
known to the writer, it takes considerable extra torque to close the
bridge on account of this deformation.
The trunnion bascule requires no more power, on account of
friction, than a horizontally rotating bridge. Yet engineers do not
hesitate to use the latter.
If the machinery is designed for braking effect and to hold
the span against wind, it should be no lighter for the rolling bascule.
It is well to remember that friction is not always a bad thing; it is
very necessary for controlling the moving span. A brake is usually
a device for using friction, and hence trunnion friction is valuable to
some extent.
316 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
However, it must be granted that trunnion friction requires some
extra power.
In the vertical lift, rope bending is another element of frictional
loss.
An important detail is the connection between the shore rails and
span rails. Rails with long mitre joints are used; this joint will not
stand up under heavy and frequent wheel loads.
Sliding locks are used; these require extra machinery. To do
away with the machinery, the writer devised a stationary lock, which
has guides for seating the span rail, and a lock bar for holding the rail in
place. The lock bar is made part of the interlocking apparatus.
On the outside of the rails is a replacable wearing strip, which
carries the wheels across the rail gap. The body of the lock, which
receives the blow and to which the wearing strip is attached by a
dovetail joint, is a solid casting surrounding the lower part of the
span rail and shore rail. On account of the false flanges on wheels,
this lock does not make a smooth riding track, but the same roughness
is found in the sliding lock ; there is no more roughness than is
found at frogs. The heads of the rails should be cut back to a
width of iJ4 in.; this places the wearing strip close to the gage side
of the rail and insures the wheels being carried by the strip. The
rails should be reinforced by side pieces riveted to the web.
The material in the wearing strip should be oil-tempered cruci-
ble steel, with three-quarters of one per cent, carbon. The material
should be tempered very hard; if this is properly done, the strip
will take a hard, glossy finish under traffic. The strips under Lake
Shore & Michigan Southern Railway traffic will last from 18 months
to two years.
There has just been completed a single-track, double-leaf trun-
nion bascule at Sault Ste. Marie, having a span of 336 ft. The suc-
cess of this structure will depend on the reliability of the center
lock. The writer waits with considerable interest for the practical
demonstration of this structure through a number of years of service,
and if it continues to operate satisfactorily it will solve the problem of
long bascules.
The writer has called attention to some of the general points
and mechanical features. A few miscellaneous points will now be
taken up.
Table 1 contains weights of several vertical lifts and purely
empirical formulas for weights. All of the structures are skew-ended,
and the towers have 4 posts and 4 sheaves each.
For square ends the writer has" given a modified formula for
tower weight. The decrease in weight is found chiefly in the bracing
in two of the vertical planes.
Table 2 shows weights of bascule bridges.
In these tables the various weights are compared with the weight
of the moving span including the deck, but not any machinery.
In some vertical lifts, with approach spans, each tower has two
BRIDGES MOVABLE IX A VERTICAL PLANE. 317
vertical posts and two sheaves. The vertical posts are held in posi-
tion by a long inclined member, reaching' from the top of the post to
the approach span. Until further knowledge is available, the following
formula is suggested for tower weights:
WH
200 '
For towers with only two sheaves, a greater load is carried by
each sheave, as compared with a tower having four sheaves. The
following formula is suggested as a rough approximation for sheave
weight:
, Wa
57 '
Item 4, in Table 1, gives the weights for a four-track structure.
The weights were figured from complete proposal plans. A two-
structure design, item 2, was considered the better and adopted instead.
Item 3, in Table 2, is for the first four-track leaf to be built. The
photograph shows the structure. There are two trusses and two
plate girders, each of which rotates about its own trunnion.
Someone has said that it is easy to put two points on a straight
line, but that the trouble begins when three or more are to be put on.
To make the four carrying spans rotate about four trunnions is a
similar problem.
Torque curves, for item 3 of Table 2, are shown. The curves are
dependent on the wind pressure, frictional resistances, etc. They give
a complete picture of the work to be done by the motors. These
curves are useful for determining the storage-battery capacity, and
for checking up the design of the machinery. These curves should
be drawn up by the designer and subsequently checked by the fabri-
cating contractor.
In Table 2 the writer has given a recommended machinery weight
of o.i'&W. This is about 20 per cent, greater than the average. It is
the opinion of the writer that bascule bridge patentees specify light
machinery; under competition this is to be expected. The writer has
had one structure in which the rack and pinion were broken by
excessive braking.
The following suggestions are made regarding the actual work
of designing and installation. The first essential is a good set of
specifications. Relative weights are necessary.
All patentees are not suitable parties for writing specifications or
making comparisons of the various types. The patentee should fur-
nish weights and state his practices with reference to his own type.
In this paper an attempt is made to set forth some information
and practices necessary for the proper selection and design of a
structure. More information is needed. The field of bridges, movable
in a vertical plane, has been hardly touched in a professionally tech-
nical way; it has been largely exploited.
318 .
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
Bascule Bridge Over Portage River, Port Clinton, Ohio.
The Lake Shore & Michigan 5 cut hern Ry. Co.
Bridqe Opening 0 Secortds/O
Torque Curves for
20
Friction Coefficients
Trunnions = a
Q__J75
r-, ., Meshinq Gear Teeth - O. 01
Bridqe over Portage ff/ver journals - a oe
Trunnion friction reduced £ after motion js bequn
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 319
If the railway company has a first-class engineering organization,
the selection of the type, direction of the designing and installation
should be done by the organization. Otherwise, an able, disinterested
Consulting Engineer should be engaged. The actual designing should
be done by the patentee. The function of the railway organization
should be chiefly critical and suggestive.
The fabrication and installation should be done by the same
contractor. His contract should cover all work up to and including
the operating switchboard. There should be a separate contract for
installing the power equipment.
All electrical apparatus should be of a large size to insure
mechanical strength, especially circuit breakers, knife switches and
fuse clips.
It is desirable to have the contractor keep an expert electrician,
or mechanic, on the structure for a period of 90 days after the struc-
ture has been formally accepted and put into operation. This man is
to observe and correct any defects which may arise, and instruct the
railway company's forces in the handling of the structure.
Referring to the specifications, the writer is indebted to Messrs.
Waddell and Harrington, Consulting Engineers, for much of the
matter covering workmanship and material for wire ropes; and to
others for some of the other matter. The writer is also indebted i.o
the New York Central Lines Bridge Engineers' Committee; this
committee is now preparing specifications for movable railroad bridges
in general. The index was prepared by Mr. C. A. Knieling, one of the
writer's assistants.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A
VERTICAL PLANE.
CONTENTS.
SUBJECT. PARAGRAPHS.
Scope i- 5
Manner of Bidding 6- 20
Details in Designing 21- 48
Operating Machinery and Similar Parts 49-117
Counterbalancing, Operating Ropes, and Attachments 1 18-130
Workmanship 131-156
Unit Stresses 157-174
Power Equipment, General Requirements 175-181
Steam Power 182-188
Internal Combustion Engines 189-192
Electric Equipment 193-255
Steel Castings 256-266
Steel Forgings 267-273
Machinery Steel 274-277
Boiler Plates 278-282
Nickel Steel 283-291
Tool Steel 292-293
Phosphor Bronze 294-297
Babbitt Metal 298
Vanadium Cast Steel 299-300
Authorities on Machine Design 301-302
320
SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A
VERTICAL PLANE.
Scope.
1. These specifications are intended to cover bascule bridges, which
are such as rotate about a horizontal axis; and vertical lifts, which are
those in which successive positions are parallel.
Deck.
2. The Contractor shall place and permanently fasten all ties, rails,
guards, and other deck material. Usually, the Railway Company will
furnish all of the deck material except rail locks, rails which must be
fabricated to fit locks, and special devices to hold the deck in place.
Responsibility.
3. If complete general proposal plans are furnished to the Con-
tractor, he shall be responsible for only the material and character of
the workmanship and installation. However, for any parts of the design
not covered by the proposed plan, and for which the Contractor is to
make a design, lie shall be wholly responsible for those parts.
Electrical Equipment.
4. Unless otherwise specified, the electrical equipment shall include
all electrical parts up to the switch-board and including the switch-board.
Electric equipment carrying the current to the switch-board from the
source of power will be covered by separate contract.
Specifications.
5. The specifications of the New York Central Lines for Steel
Railway Bridges, for 1010, shall apply to movable bridges, except as
noted herein. (35), (39).
MANNER OF BIDDING.
Parts Classified as Machinery.
6. Drums, cylinders, eccentrics, pivots, trunnions and their cast sup-
ports, shafting, pistons, gear wheels, racks, boxes, bearings, couplings,
clutches, discs, cast sheaves and wheels, worm gearing, valves, pins about
whose axis the connecting members rotate, whistles, ram screws, end
bridge locks, rail locks, indicators, cranks, axles, hooks, wrenches, and
similar parts of machinery which require machine-shop work, shall be
classified as machinery and be paid for at a common price per pound.
Electric motors or other prime movers, pumps and compressors are not
classified as machinery. (11), (17).
Sheaves.
7. Sheaves, such as used with counterweight ropes, whose webs and
diaphragms are built up by means of plates, angles, and rivets, shall be
paid for at a separate price per pound of finished weight, including hubs
and fastenings to trunnions.
321
322 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
Air Compressors, Boilers.
8. Air Compressor tanks and steam boilers, their fittings and piping,
shall be paid for at a separate lump-sum price.
Wire Ropes and Cables.
9. Wire ropes and cables and their sockets shall be paid for at a
separate price per pound.
Pins, Levers, Etc.
10. The pins, equalizing levers, and cable attachments to the trusses
and counterweights shall be paid for at a separate price per pound.
Structural Steel Parts.
11. Structural steel supporting the machinery proper, counterweight
frames, counterweight trusses, steel in operator's house, towers, and links,
shall be classified as structural steel, and be paid for at the same price
per pound as for the span itself. Attached machine parts, such as sleeves,
bushings, etc., shall be weighed separately and classified as machinery. (6).
Operator's House.
12. The operator's house, except for the structural steel therein,
shall be paid for on a lump-sum basis.
Structural Steel.
13. Structural steel which can be fabricated by the common shoo
methods, as punching, reaming, drilling, shearing, planing, etc., as is
usually done for stationary structures, shall be classified as structural
steel, and be paid for at the same price per pound as for the span itself.
Segmental Girders.
14. Segmental girders in rolling bascule bridges and the horizontal
girders on which they roll shall be paid for at a separate price per pound.
This does not include any bracing, floor system, or other structural mem-
bers which may be attached. Tread plates shall be included.
Hand Rail.
15. Hand rail shall be paid for at a separate price per pound.
Electrical Equipment.
16. Electrical equipment, such as wiring, switch-boards, controllers,
lights, blow-outs, cut-offs, solenoids, switches, motors, etc., shall be paid
for on a lump-sum basis.
Engines, Etc.
17. Internal combustion engines, steam engines, pumps and com-
pressors shall be paid for on a lump-sum basis.
Counterweights.
18. Cast-iron and scrap metal used in counterweights shall be paid
for at a separate price per pound.
19. Concrete in counterweights shall be paid for at a price per cubic
yard in place.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 323
Extra Parts, Etc.
20. It is to be understood that if any extra parts are needed, or
any question arises, all difficulties shall be settled on the pound price
basis as quoted and accepted for the parts in question.
GENERAL DETAILS IN DESIGNING.
Design, Type of Moving Spans.
21. The moving span, when closed, shall act as a simple beam or
span under the live load. The live load reactions shall be vertical.
Bascule bridges shall be single leaved.
Self-Centering Devices.
22. Self-centering and seating devices shall be used on the free ends
of the moving span. Holding and forcing-down devices shall be used
for the free ends of each truss.
Rail Locks.
23. Designs for bridging the gap between the shore rails and moving
rails shall be furnished by the Railway Company. Loose rails will not
be allowed.
Air Buffers.
24. Air buffers shall be furnished at the free ends of the moving
span. The packing rings in the pistons of the buffers shall be of cast-
iron or other suitable metal; fiber or leather packing will not be allowed.
At least three rings shall be used. (156).
Counterweights.
25. The counterweights shall be easily adjustable. Usually, this shall
be done by adding or taking away cast-iron parts, or small concrete blocks.
Stairways.
26. Metal stairways with ij4-in. pipe hand-rail shall be provided
for access to the machinery, trunnions, and counterweigths. The pipe
shall weigh 2.68 lbs. per ft.
Girders in Rolling Bridges.
27. The reinforcements of webs in the segmental girders and track
girders of rolling bridges shall be symmetrical about the center planes
of the webs. The center planes of the segmental webs shall coincide
with the corresponding center planes of the webs of the track girders.
That part of an outstanding leg of an angle, which is beyond the outside
face of the upstanding leg, shall not be considered as reinforcement.
The width of contact between the segmental webs (including the re-
inforcements) and the back of the tread plates, shall be equal to the
width of the corresponding contact in the track girder.
Coefficients of Friction for Moving Span and Attached Par.s.
28. In calculating the resistances to be overcome by the machinery,
the resisting forces shall be reduced to a single force acting between the
324 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
pinion and operating rack, or in the operating cable. In determining
this force, the following coefficients shall be used in starting the span,
and, except for the stiffness in cables, shall be reduced one-half after
motion is begun (45) :
For trunnion friction 1/8 .
For rolling friction of bridges having rollers with
flanges or built up segmental girders 1/12
For stiffness of wire rope per 1800 of bending,
. . dr
d = diameter of rope, in in
D = diameter of sheave in in.
Coefficients of Friction.
29. For a solid cast roller without flanges, in contact with one
surface only, the coefficient of rolling friction shall be taken equal to
IS
, in which r is the radius of the roller in in. If two surfaces are
iooor
3
in contact, use .
ioor
30. In figuring the machinery losses between the operating rack or
operating cable and the motor, the following coefficients shall be used :
For the efficiency of any pair of gears, journal fric-
tion not included 0.99
For journal friction 0.05
Losses in a worm gear for an angle of thread of 20
degrees or more 0.30
31. For sliding friction between plane surfaces intermittently lub-
ricated, such as guides on tower posts, the coefficient of friction shall be
taken equal to 0.08.
Time to Open.
32. The time to open the bridge after the ends are released shall be
approximately as specified on the proposal drawing.
Inertia.
33. The force necessary to overcome the inertia and produce ac-
celeration and retardation for the time of opening, shall be considered.
The machinery shall be capable of stopping the bridge in six (6) seconds ;
for this purpose the coefficient of friction in the friction brake shall be
taken at not less than 25 per cent. (37), (38), (158), (159), (160), (161).
Impact in Structural Parts.
34. The dead-load stresses in the moving structural parts for the
various positions of the open bridge shall be increased 25" per cent, as'
allowance for impact. For stationary structural parts (as towers and
supporting girders in rolling bridges) which support the moving structural
parts, the static stresses caused by the moving parts shall be increased
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 325
15 per cent, for impact. These impacts shall not be taken in conjunction
with the train-load stresses.
35. In structural steel parts, where a percentage of the dead load
or static stress is added for impact, the unit stresses for stationary
structures shall be used; the impact percentages are an allowance similar
to that provided by an impact formula for stationary railroad bridges.
(5). See paragraph 41 of the 1910 specifications.
Reversal of Stress.
36. In structural members subject to reversal on account of the
motion of the span, the effect of reversal shall be neglected. The member
must be designed for the stress giving the larger section. For riveted
connections, the number of rivets shall be increased 25 per cent, over
that required for the static stress plus impact stress.
Impact for Machinery Parts, Etc.
37. The allowance for impact in trunnions, cables, cable attachments,
machinery parts, and structural parts supporting the machinery is taken
care of by lowered unit stresses. (159), (160), (161).
Wind Pressure.
38. In proportioning the machinery for wind load the following"
cases shall be considered; first, for any stationary open position of the
span, assume 15 lbs. per sq. ft. on the exposed surface of the span as
projected on any vertical plane; second, for moving the span in the
specified time of opening, assume 8 lbs. per sq. ft. on projected area.
(28), (33), (37), (41), (45).
39. The structure shall be proportioned to resist a wind pressure of
15 lbs. per sq. ft. on the exposed surface as projected on any vertical
plane for any open position of the span ; and for a wind pressure of
25 lbs. per sq. ft. when the span is in the closed position. (5), (41).
Least Wind Pressure.
40. The least wind pressure to be assumed on the floor of the moving
span shall be iy2 lbs. per sq. ft. for any position of the span. For the
vertical lift, this shall be taken as acting throughout the movement.
41. On the ordinary open floor bridge with ties, the exposed surface
to wind shall be taken equal to 85 per cent, of a full quadrilateral, whose
width is the distance center to center of trusses and whose length is that
of the moving span.
Detail Drawings.
42. The Contractor shall make complete detail drawings of the
machinery, so that any other shop can take them and duplicate the ma-
chinery. No reference to patterns or individual shop practices will be
considered in lieu of the complete drawings. These drawings shall show
a general outline of the assembled machinery. The drawings shall be
made on tracing cloth, each sheet 24 in. by 36 in. in outside dimensions.
These drawings shall become the property of the Railway Company on
the completion of the job.
326 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
Outline Drawing of Machinery.
43. The Contractor shall furnish an outline drawing of the ma-
chinery on which are shown the forces acting on the gear teeth, the
twisting moment and bending moment on shafts, and other necessary
information for checking the strength of the machine parts. A tabula-
tion of the formulas and methods of calculation shall be shown complete
enough to allow them to be checked.
Torque Curves.
44. The Contractor shall show by a drawing of curves the torque
to be exerted by the motor or prime mover, as follows :
(1) A torque curve for acceleration and retardation.
(2) A torque curve for the frictional resistance.
(3) A torque curve for any unbalanced condition of the structure.
(4) A torque curve for the wind load.
(5) A torque curve showing the greatest combination of resistances
acting at any one time.
Starting Friction.
45. In figuring the friction at starting (this being twice the running
friction), no acceleration of the moving mass shall be considered. This
friction shall be considered as reduced to the running friction in the first
second after the power is applied. (28).
Capacity of Wires, Etc.
46. If the Contractor is to furnish the design for the electric equip-
ment, such as wiring, switches, etc., he shall show by a curve the current
required by the motor to overcome the various resistances. This is for
the purpose of checking up the carrying capacity of wires and other
parts and determining the storage battery capacity.
Center of Gravity.
47. The Contractor shall check the location of the center of gravity
of the moving span, including all parts attached thereto, and also the
location of the center of gravity of the counterweights, including counter-
weight girders and trusses, by computations based on accurate weights
figured from shop plans. He shall submit duplicate sketches and copies
of these computations accompanied by weight bills to the Railroad Com-
pany for approval.
Hand Operation.
48. All bridges shall be equipped with hand-operating mechanism.
The number of men and the time required to operate shall be estimated
on the assumption that the force one man can exert on a lever is 40
lbs. with a speed of 160 ft. per minute, developing about one-fifth H.P.
For calculating the strength of the machinery, the force of one man
shall be assumed as 125 lbs.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 327
OPERATING MACHINERY AND SIMILAR PARTS.
49. The parts shall be simple in design, and easily erected, in-
spected, adjusted, and taken apart. The fastenings shall securely hold
the parts in place after they* have been set.
Kind of Material.
50. Rolled or forged steel shall be used for bolts, nuts, keys, cot-
ters, pins, axles, screws, worms, piston rods, trunnions and crane hooks,
if any.
51. Trunnions, pins and shafting over 4^ in. in diameter shall be
of forged structural steel. Shafting 4^ in. or less in diameter may be
of cold-rolled steel.
52. Forged or cast steel shall be used for levers, cranks, and con-
necting rods.
53. Cast steel or forged steel shall be used for couplings, end
shoes, racks, toothed wheels, brake wheels, drums, sheaves, and hangers
where supported weight will cause tensile stresses. Large sheaves may
be built of structural steel.
54. Pinions shall be made of forged steel and cut from the solid
metal, unless pinions are too large for forgings.
55. Sockets used for holding the ends of wire ropes shall be
forged without welds from the solid steel. The equalizing levers con-
necting the ropes to the counterweights, or moving span, shall be of
forged steel.
Cast-iron.
56. Cast-iron may be used in boxes for shafts, 2 in. or less in di-
ameter, and which obviously carry light loads. Other boxes shall be
of cast steel.
57. Cast-iron may be used in eccentrics, cylinders, pistons, fly
wheels, and parts of motors which are usually made of cast-iron. Cast-
iron shall not be used for any trunnion or axle supports.
Metal for Bushings.
58. Phosphor bronze, brass, and babbitt metal shall be used for the
bushing or lining of journal bearings and other rotating or sliding sur-
faces to prevent seizing.
59. Phosphor bronze only shall be used for bushing for the trunnions
of bascule and lift bridges, or in any large bearing carrying heavy loads.
60. The bushings for large bearings, such as for trunnions and sim-
ilar parts, shall be held from rotating in their casings. The force tend-
ing to cause rotation shall be taken as one-eighth of the load on the
trunnion or bearing, and as acting tangent to the surface between the
back of the bushing and casing; this force shall not be considered as
counteracted by any frictional resistances between bushing ana casing.
It shall be practicable to take out the bushing when the trunnion is
slightly lifted.
328 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
Castings.
61. Castings which are to be attached to rough unfinished surfaces
shall be provided with chipping strips. The outer unfinished edges of
ribs, bases, etc., shall be rounded off and inside corners filleted.
Bolts and Nuts.
62. Bolts and nuts up to 1J/2 in. in diameter shall have U. S.
Standard V-threads. Nuts and exposed bolt heads shall be hexagonal
in shape, and each nut shall be provided with a washer. If the nut will
come on an inclined surface, a special seat, whose top surface is at right
angles to the bolt, shall be cast or built up to receive the nut. Bolt
heads which are countersunk in castings shall be square.
63. Nuts which are subject to vibration and frequent changes of
load shall have locking arrangements to prevent the gradual unscrewing
of the same. If double nuts are used for that purpose, each nut shall
be of the standard thickness. Nuts subject to vibration shall be further
secured by split pins through the bolt.
Screws.
64. Screws which transmit motion shall have square threads.
Tap Bolts, Set Screws, Etc.
65. Tap bolts and stud bolts shall not be used, except by special
permission.
66. Set screws shall not be used for transmitting torsion to shafts
or axles.
Collars.
67. Collars shall be used wherever necessary to hold the shaft from
moving horizontally. Each collar shall have at least two set screws at
an angle of 120 degrees.
Shaft Couplings.
68. Shaft couplings, unless of the flexible kind, shall be of the flange
type, or split muff with bolt heads and nuts countersunk.
69. For large shafts, couplings such as are used for rolling mill
shafting may be used.
70. Couplings shall be keyed to shaftings.
Keys — Approximate Dimensions.
71. If practicable, hooked and tapered keys shall be used. The taper
shall be J^-in. per ft. The approximate width of the key shall be one-
fourth of the diameter of the shaft. The height at mid-section of tapered
length shall be three-fourths of the width. The length of the hook,
measured parallel to the shaft, shall be equal to the width of the key.
72. If tapered keys are not practicable, parallel faced keys of about
the above proportions shall be used.
73. Tapered keys shall bear on top, bottom, and sides ; parallel
faced keys shall bear on sides only.
74. The length of a key shall be not less than that of the hub. The
key, when driven into its final position, shall bear on the full length
of the hub.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 329
75. The foregoing dimensions are approximate. The shape of the
key must be such as to have unit stresses in shear and bearing not ex-
ceeding those allowable in the table. (159)-
76. If practicable, the keys and grooves shall be made so that the
keys may be backed out.
77. Keys shall be sunk in grooves in both hub and shaft. The
depth of a groove shall be such that the bearing will not exceed the
allowable unit stress.
Set Screws, Etc.
78. Keys shall be held by set screws or equivalent means. In ver-
tical shafts, bands clamped about the shaft, or other devices, shall be
placed below the key.
Hub.
79. If practicable, the length of the hub shall not be less than two
diameters of the shaft ; its thickness not less than one-third of the di-
ameter of the shaft. The hub shall have a light driving fit on the shaft.
80. The groove in the hub shall be made on the center line of an arm.
81. Hubs shall be bored truly at the center of the wheel.
Keys in Trunnions.
82. For trunnions and similar parts, which are designed chiefly for
bending and bearing, the keys, key-ways, and bolts shall be designed to
hold the trunnions from rotating. The force tending to cause rotation
shall be taken at one-fifth the load on the trunnion, and shall be taken
as acting at the circumference of the trunnion.
Journals.
83. Journals shall be proportioned to resist, not only the various
stresses to which they are subjected, without exceeding the permissible
fiber and bending stresses, but also to prevent a tendency to heat and
seize.
84. Divided journal and trunnion bearings shall be used, and the
cap shall be fastened to the base with turned bolts recessed into the base.
The nuts and heads shall bear on finished bosses cast on the bearing.
There shall be J^-in. clearance between the lining of the base and the
cap or its lining to allow for expansion.
Bushings.
85. Steel bearings carrying steel shafts or journals shall be lined
with bronze or brass. If shafts are 3 in. or less in diameter and of
a slow motion, babbitt metal may be used. Bearings of steel on steel
for moving surfaces will not be allowed.
Bearings.
86. In cast-iron bearings carrying light shafts, no lining is needed.
87. The bearings of shafts shall be placed as near to the points of
loading as possible.
88. The footsteps of vertical shafts shall be of tool steel and run
on bronze discs.
330 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
Lubrication.
89. Provision shall be made for the effective lubrication of journals,
or any other sliding surfaces. Closed oil or screw compression grease
cups shall be used. Grooves shall be cut in the surface of the trunnion
to provide for the proper distribution of grease or oil. Grease and oil
cups must hold the lubricant for any position of the moving parts.
Grease Grooves.
90. The grooves in large trunnions shall approximate to a U shape ;
the size shall be such that a wire 5-16-in. in diameter may lie wholly
within the groove. The edge of the U shall be rounded to a Y^-v^. radius.
91. The grooves shall be straight, running parallel to the axis of the
trunnion. They shall be so located, not less than three in number, that
all parts of the bearing surface of the bushing will be swept by the
contained lubricant in an opening and in a closing of the bridge. The
grooves must allow of being cleaned with a wire.
Grease Cups.
92. In any trunnion bearings, or similar heavy bearings, strong screw
compression grease cups shall be used for the grooves.
93. Oil and grease ducts shall be so located, if practicable, that the
lubricant will flow by gravity toward the bearing surface.
Housing of Sheaves. Dust Covers.
94. Counterweight sheaves shall be housed to protect from the
weather. Dust covers shall be provided for principal bearings where
practicable.
Shaft Supports and Couplings.
95. Line shafts, extending from the center of the bridge to the
end, shall not be continuous, but shall be connected with claw couplings.
Each length of shafting shall rest in not more than two bearings with
the couplings close to the bearings..
96. If shaft supports are connected to the floor beam in bridges
having long panels, intermediate supports shall be used. These shall be
adjustable, and are intended merely to prevent the shaft from sagging.
Equalizing Gears.
97. Equalizing gears or devices shall be used to insure equal action
at the pinions and operating racks.
Unsupported Length of Shafts.
98. The unsupported length of shafts shall not exceed L = Soffd*
for shafts supporting their own weight only; L = Soffd" for shafts car-
rying pulleys, gearing, etc., where L = length of shaft between center
of bearings, in inches, and d = diameter of shaft, in inches.
Speed of Shafting.
99. Line shafts connecting machinery at the center to that at the
ends shall run at fairly high speed. The speed reduction shall be made
in the machinery near the end.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 331
Formulas for Shafts.
ico. In designing circular shafting, trunnions, and axles, the greatest
unit fiber stress in tension or compression due to bending and twisting
shall be calculated by the following formula:
s=MiM+TVM' + T')
101. The maximum unit shear shall be calculated by the following
formula : .
S = -^— VM* + T*
it d3
102. In these formulas, f = vnit fiber stress in tension or compres-
sion; 5" = unit shear; d = diameter of shaft; Af = the simple bending
moment; and T = the simple twisting moment.
103. If a shaft, trunnion, or axle has one key-way cut at the sec-
tion where the maximum stresses occur, / and 6" shall be increased one-
sixth ; if two key-ways are cut, increase by one-fourth. If the shaft
is enlarged through the hub, this does not apply.
Minimum Shafting.
104. Shafting transmitting power for the operation of the bridge,
and shafting 4 ft. or more in length forming part of the operating ma-
chinery of the rail locks and bridge locks, shall not be less than 2j^
in. in diameter.
Distance Between Shaft Supports.
105. In figuring the bending moment on shafts, trunnions, and jour-
nals, the distance center to center of bearings shall be taken.
Style of Gear Teeth.
106. Gear teeth shall be of the involute type with an angle of ob-
liquity of 20 degrees. The roots below the clearance line shall be filtered.
107. The width of the teeth may be as great as four times the
pitch, but not more, except for wheels running at a very high velocity,
as in motors where abrasion is to be considered.
Strength of Beveled Gear Teeth.
108. In estimating the strength of teeth in beveled wheels, the pitch
at the middle section shall be taken.
Pitch Circle.
109. For the purpose of accurately setting gear teeth in the field
erection, the pitch circle shall be scribed on the ends of the teeth.
Worm Gearing.
no. Worm gearing, for transmitting power, shall have an angle
of thread not less than 20 degrees. The worm shall run in oil. A
bronze or brass collar shall be used at the end of the worm and at
the end of the wheel axle to take care of the end thrust. The wheel
shall be of bronze. If a nut engages the worm, the nut shall be of
bronze.
332 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
in. Worms which are to be used for actuating signals, indicators,
or other minor parts may have an angle of thread less than 20 degrees.
Teeth in Worm Gears.
112. Worm wheels shall have no fewer than twenty-six teeth.
Pinion Teeth.
113. Pinions shall have no fewer than fifteen teeth.
Diameter of Sheaves.
114. For the purpose of keeping down the wear between the indi-
vidual wires in counterweight rope, the diameter of the sheave shall
be at least 90 times that of the rope.
Deviation of Counterweight Ropes.
115. The greatest deviation of a counterweight rope, from the
vertical plane through the center of the groove, shall not exceed 1 in
40. Any deviation shall be as small as practicable.
Rope Connections.
115a. Rope connections shall be made so that any one rope can be
renewed without disturbing the remaining ropes.
Safety Guards.
116. Machinery parts, near which workmen may be while the parts
are in motion, shall be so designed that safety guards may be added.
These guards will be furnished and installed by the Railroad Company.
Sheave Rims.
117. The cast rim of sheaves carrying wire rope shall have a deep
flange so that enough rivets can be put through flange and web to carry
all of the load coming on the rim into the web. The rim shall be
strengthened by transverse ribs, or be made thick enough.
COUNTERBALANCING, OPERATING ROPES, AND ATTACHMENTS.
Wire Ropes and Cables.
118. Wire rope shall be made by a manufacturer approved by the
Engineer.
119. The counterbalance ropes shall be made of plow steel wire and
shall consist of six strands of nineteen wires each laid around a hemp
center.
120. Ropes shall be laid up in the best manner and shall be tho-
roughly soaked in an approved lubricant during the process of manu-
facture.
121. The counterbalance ropes shall be made from wire which has
been tested in the presence of an inspector designated by the Engineer,
and which, for sizes 0.076 to 0.150 in. in diameter (the limiting values
used in counterbalance ropes), exhibits the following physical properties:
(a) The tensile strength per sq. in. shall not be less than 225,000
lbs. for wire 0.150 to 0.126 in. in diameter, nor less than 230,000 lbs. for
wire 0.125 to 0.101 in. in diameter, nor less than 235,000 lbs. for wire
0.100 to 0.076 in. in diameter.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
333
(b) The total ultimate elongation, measured on a piece 12 in. long,
shall not be less than 2.4 per cent.
(c) The number of times a piece 6 in. long can be twisted around
its longitudinal axis without rupture shall not be less than 1.4 divided
by the diameter, in inches.
(d) The number of times the wire can be bent 90 degrees, alter-
nately to the right and to the left, over a radius equal to twice its di-
ameter without fracture shall be not less than six. This test shall be
made in a mechanical bender so constructed that the wire actually con-
forms to the radius of the jaws, and is subjected to as little tensile
stress as possible.
Ultimate Strength of Cables.
122. The rope shall, if possible, be made in one piece. Its break-
ing strength, as determined by test described in paragraph 125, shall not
be less than
J4 in. in diameter
Vs " '"
y " "
y& " "
n " "
1 " "
iVs " "
1% - "
iYs " "
1V2 " "
iY& " "
1 54 " "
m " "
2 " "
2y& " u
2% " "
2y2 " "
123. In case the physical qualities of the rope, or its individual
wires, fall below the values cited above, the entire length from which
the test pieces were taken shall be replaced by the manufacturer with a
new length, the physical qualities of which come up to the specifications.
124. The dimensions of the sockets shall be such that no part under
tension shall be loaded higher than 65,000 lbs. per sq. in. when the rope
is stressed to its ultimate strength, as named above. The sockets must
be attached to the rope by a method which is reliable, and which will
not permit the rope to slip in its attachment to the socket.
125. In order to show the strength of the rope and fastenings, a
number of test pieces, not more than 10 per cent, of the total number
of finished lengths which will ultimately be made, nor less than two from
each original long length, and not more than twelve ft. long, shall be
4,900 lb
s. if
11,800
' "
20,600
< <(
32,400
( it
45,000
i u
70,000
t «
79,200
I It
100,800
i <i
120,600
i it
148,000
I It
173,000
i ti
200,000
I tt
230,000
t tt
264,000
f tt
297,000
I it
325,000
i It
374,000
It tt
465,000
t tt
334 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
cut, and shall have sockets, selected at random from those which are
to be used in filling the order, attached to each end. These test pieces
are to be stressed to destruction in a suitable testing machine. Under
this stress the rope must develop the ultimate strength given in para-
graph 122.
126. If, in testing, slipping in the sockets should occur, then the
method must be changed until slipping is avoided. The sockets themselves
shall be stronger than the rope with which they are used; if cne should
break during the test, then two others shall be selected and attached to
another piece of rope, and the test repeated; and this process shall be
continued until the inspector is satisfied of their reliability, in which case
the lot shall be accepted. If, however, 10 per cent, or more of all the
sockets tested break at a load less than the minimum ultimate strength
of the rope given in paragraph 122, then the entire lot shall be rejected.
Length of Rope.
127. The length of each rope from inside of bearing to Inside of bear-
ing of socket shall be determined, and a metal tag having the said length
stamped thereon shall be securely attached to the rope.
Testing Rope Connections.
128. One-third of the wire rope connections, selected at random,
shall be tested (after attachments to ropes are made) up to four-tenths
of the ultimate strength of the rope. If any connection is weak, the re-
mainder of the connections shall be tested. The weak connections shall
be rejected and replaced. Not less than four connections shall be tested.
Facilities for Testing Ropes.
129. The manufacturer shall provide proper facilities for making
the tests, and shall make at his own expense all the tests required. Tests
shall be made in the presence of an inspector who represents the
Engineer.
Shipment of Rope in Coils.
130. Ropes shall be shipped in coils whose minimum diameter is at
least thirty times that of the rope, and they shall be uncoiled for use
by revolving the coil, not by pulling the rope away from the stationary
coil.
WORKMANSHIP.
Finish.
131. For the parts of the operating machinery of movable bridges
which are usually exposed to the weather, the finish shall be confined
to the bearing, rotating, and sliding surfaces, and wherever it is re-
quired to produce accurate fits and precise dimensions.
132. Equalizing levers in rope connections shall be neatly finished
and conform to the dimensions shown on the drawings.
133. Castings shall be cleaned, and seams and other blemishes re-
moved.
134. Drainage holes not less than three-fourths in. in diameter shall
be drilled in places where water is likely to collect.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 335
Play for Unfinished Bolts.
155. Unfinished bolts may have a play of fg-'m. in the bolt holes.
Turned bolts must have the diameter of the shank at least ik-in. larger
than the diameter of the threaded portion, and must have a driving fit in
the bolt hole.
Racks and Contact Surfaces.
136. The backs of racks and surfaces in contact shall be planed.
Grooves in Sheaves.
137. The grooves in circumference of sheaves carrying wire ropes
shall be turned to a radius that will fit the rope. This is to be done
after the sheave is completely assembled and permanently riveted up.
Tread Plates.
138. The top and bottom of the tread plates and surfaces in contact
in rolling bridges shall be planed to fit. A full bearing must be made.
Gear Teeth, Etc.
139. The periphery and the ends of teeth which mesh with shrouded
teeth shall be planed and the pitch line scribed thereon.
Finishing of Trunnions, Etc.
140. Journals and trunnions shall be turned with a fillet where the
section changes. Journals shall have a collar at each end. Trunnions
and journals eight inches in diameter and over shall have a hole one and
one-half inches in diameter bored through on the longitudinal axis.
Journals, trunnions, and bushings must be polished after being turned.
The use of a cutter which trembles or chatters will not be allowed.
141. The joints between the caps and bases of journal and trun-
nion bearings shall be planed. The ends of the bases and surfaces in
contact with the supports shall be planed. Bolt holes for holding the
cap to the base and for holding the base to its support shall be drilled.
Grooves.
142. The grooves in the surface of trunnions or similar large bear-
ings shall be machine cut. Chipping and filing will be allowed only for
removing small inequalities. The grooves shall be smooth, especially the
rounded corners.
Hubs.
143. Hubs of wheels, pulleys, couplings, etc., shall be bored to fit
close on the shaft or axle. If the hub performs the function of a collar,
the end next to the bearing shall be faced. Holes in hubs of toothed gear
wheels shall be concentric with the pitch circle.
Cut Gears, Etc.
144. The periphery of gear wheels shall be turned. Gear wheels and
racks which are a part of the train which actuates the moving span shall
be cut. Other gears, except beveled gears and worm gearing, shall be
machine molded, or cut.
336 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
145. If any molded gears are shrouded, chipping or other means
shall be used at the junction of the shrouding and teeth to insure proper
meshing.
Beveled Gears, Etc.
146. Beveled gears shall be cut. The cutting shall be done by a
planer having a rectilinear motion to and from the apex of the cone.
Rotating milling cutters shall not be used.
147. Threads on worms and the teeth of worm wheels shall be cut
and fit accurately. Point contact shall be avoided.
148. Any two surfaces which slide, roll, or bear on each other shail
be planed or turned to fit.
Assembling of Machinery.
149. Machinery parts shall be assembled on the supporting members
in the shop, and shall be aligned and fitted, and holes in the supports
drilled, with the members in correct relative position. The members shall
be match marked both to the supports and to each other, and re-erected in
the same relative position.
Holes for Sheaves for Vertical Lift Bridges.
150. The holes in the girders and columns for the bolts connecting
the main sheave bearings to their supporting girders shall be drilled from
the solid through cast-iron or steel templates on which the bearings were
set and accurately lined when the holes in the bearing were bored. The
bolt holes and the bolts shall be turned to the same diameter and the bolts
driven to place without injury to them, the bearings, the girders, or
the columns.
Testing of Trunnion Bearings.
151. Trunnions shall be turned to a diameter of 1/64-in. less than
that of the bushing. Before shipping, the trunnions shall be placed in
their bearings and given two full rotations. If any grinding or hard
turning is found, it must be remedied. The tests shall be made in the
presence of the Railroad Company's inspector.
Facing of Couplings.
152. Faces of flange and split muff couplings shall be planed to fit.
The couplings shall be keyed to the shaft.
Keys, etc.
153. A special effort to secure good workmanship on keys and key-
ways shall be made. Keys and key-ways must be machine planed or cut.
Coating of Surfaces.
154. Machined surfaces shall have a coating of white lead applied
to them.
Guarantee of Machinery.
155. Machinery which is of the regular standard manufactured type,
such as steam, gasoline, and electric motors, pumps, air compressors, etc.,
shall be guaranteed by the manufacturer as to efficiency, and shall be
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 337
subject to the approval of the Engineer. Motors shall be tested to prove
that they fulfill the specified requirements and develop the desired speed,
power, and torque.
Air Buffers.
156. The workmanship on air buffers shall be so accurately done
that the weight of the cylinder and its attachments will be sustained
by the confined air for a period of six minutes; at the end of this time,
the piston may be in the position it occupies when the bridge is closed.
The valves must be closed and the buffers so balanced that the whole
is carried by the piston rod. (24).
UNIT STRESSES.
Normal and Excess Loads.
157. Machinery parts shall be designed for the normal loads used
in determining the torque curves, using the unit stresses herein specified.
For the excess torque specified for the prime mover, twice the normal
unit stresses will be allowed. (181), (208), (211).
Braking.
158. If brakes act through the machinery, the unit stresses produced
by braking shall not exceed by more than 50 per cent, those caused by
the normal torque of the prime mover. (33), (159), (160), (161).
159. The unit stresses per square inch to be used for parts in which
the effects of impact are taken care of by the use of low unit stresses,
instead of increasing main stresses are (37) :
STRESSES IN ONE DIRECTION.
Tension Fixed
Material Lbs. Compression Bearing Shear
1
Machinery steel 9,500 9,500-40 — 13,000 6,500
r
1
Forged structural steel 9,000 9,000-39 — 12,500 6,400
r
1
Rolled structural steel 8,000 8,000-35 — 12,000 6,000
r
1
Steel castings 7,000 8,000-35 — 10,000 5,000
r
Phosphor-bronze 2,500 4.500
Cast-iron 1,500 8,000 3,000
Shear on keys 5»ooo
Bearing on keys 9,000
For rolled or forged nickel steel, increase unit stresses of correspond-
ing structural steel by one-half.
338 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
Wire Rope.
160. Maximum unit tension in plow steel cables for counterweights
shall be one-sixth of ultimate; for operating cables one-eighth. The
maximum unit tension is equal to direct unit stress plus extreme fiber
unit stress in the individual wire due to bending over sheave. (162),
(163), (164).
Reversal of Stresses.
161. For stresses which are reversed at the rate of 10 or more times
per minute, use one-half of the above unit stresses.
Bending of Wire Rope.
162. If wire rope is bent over a sheave, the bending stress and per-
missible load on the rope shall be calculated as follows :
Let P = the total pull or permissible load, in pounds, on the rope;
K = extreme unit fiber stress in greatest individual wire ;
£ = modulus of elasticity = 28,500,000;
a = cross-section area of rope, in square inches ;
d= diameter of thickest wire, in inches;
D = diameter of sheaves to center of rope, in inches;
5" = greatest unit tension allowable;
a = angle of helical wire with axis of strand ;
/3 = angle of helical strand with axis of rope;
c = diameter of rope, in inches.
_ Ed cos.2 a cos.2 /3
Then K = ? (1)
(Ed cos.2 a cos.2 B\
For rope having six strands of nineteen equal wires each,
(1 800 000 c\
5-^r" ) (3)
P
because cos.2 a cos. fi = 0.95, d = — .
c
163. For haulage rope, six strands of seven wires each, take d = — .
9
164. If a rope is in contact with a sheave over a small arc, the
actual radius of curvature may be greater than that of the sheave.
(Fig. 1.)
Fig. 1.
Let R = the actual radius of curvature;
0 = the angle between the directions of the rope;
W = pull on individual wire, equal to P divided by the number
of wires if all wires are of equal diameter.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 339
- I—
9\ IV
Then R
" W
17 COS.
2
165. If R is greater than the radius of the sheave, 2R should be
used in place of D in formulas (1), (2), and (3). The formula is only
valid for 6 between 130 and 180 degrees.
Strength of Gear Teeth.
166. The strength of cut gear teeth shall conform to the following
formula, one tooth only taking pressure :
, , / O.QI2\ 600
P=fPb (0.154--^-). , ,
\ n I 600 + v
in which
P = pressure on tooth, in pounds ;
f = permissible unit stress = 17,000 lbs.;
p = pitch, in inches ;
&=face of breadth of tooth, in inches;
m = number of teeth in gear;
v = velocity on pitch circle, in feet per minute.
167. The strength of machine molded teeth shall be calculated by the
foregoing formula, taking f =115,000 lbs.
168. The foregoing formula is for involute teeth having an angle of
obliquity equal to 20 degrees.
Pressure on Rollers.
169. The pressure, in pounds per linear inch, on rollers at rest shall
be for rolled and cast steel 600 d, where d equals diameter of roller, in
inches.
UNIT STRESSES FOR BEARING ON ROTATING AND SLIDING SURFACES.
170. The maximum bearing values for rotating and sliding surfaces,
in pounds per square inch; use diametral area for rotating surfaces:
For bearings on which the speed is 100 feet or less per minute and
intermittent: Pounds Per
Sq. In.
Trunnion bearings on bascule bridges ; machinery or
structural steel on phosphor-bronze i.Soo
Wedges; cast steel on cast steel or structural steel.. 500
Screws which transmit motion on projected area of
thread 200
For ordinary cases, parts moving at moderate speeds:
Hardened steel on hardened steel 2,000
Hardened steed on bronze i,Soo
Tool steel (not hardened) on bronze 900
Structural steed on bronze 600
Cast-iron on structural steel 400
On cross-head slides, speed not exceeding 600 ft. per
minute 50
340 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
171. In order to prevent heating and seizing at higher speeds, the
pressure on pivots or footstep bearings for vertical shafts and journals
shall not exceed :
40,000
On pivots p = per sq. in.
n d
300,000
On journals p== per sq. in.
n d
Where n = number of revolutions per minute;
d= diameter of journal or pivot, in inches;
p is taken in pounds.
172. For crank pins and similar joints with alternating motion, the
limiting bearing values given in the above formula may be doubled.
173. Permissible pressure, in pounds per linear inch of roller in
motion :
For cast-iron p = 200 d
For steel castings p = 400 d
For machinery steel p = 500 d
For tool steel p= 800 d
For hardened tool steel p = 1,000 d
Where p = pressure per linear inch of roller;
and d= diameter of roller, in inches.
174. The foregoing values are for rollers and bearing surfaces of
the same material; if rollers and bearing surfaces are of different mate-
rials, the lower value shall be used.
POWER EQUIPMENT.
General Requirements.
175. The kind of motor best adapted to any particular case depends
upon local conditions, and should be left to the judgment of the Engineer.
Mechanical Power.
176. If the bridge is operated by mechanical power, the motor shall
be of ample capacity to move the bridge at the required speed. No
matter what mechanical power is used, all bridges shall also be provided
with hand-power operating machinery.
Friction Brakes.
177. Friction brakes, to be operated by hand or foot, shall be pro-
vided where the motor is located in the operator's house. They shall
have sufficient capacity to stop or hold the moving span in any position
under all conditions.
Operator's House.
178. If mechanical power of any kind is to be used for operating
a movable bridge, a suitable house shall be provided for the operator.
The house shall be of such dimensions as required for the purpose for
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 341
which it is to be used. It shall be placed in a position where the operator
can observe the signals and see the approaching vessels and trains, and
have enough windows of sufficient size, so that his view will not be ob-
structed. If the operator's house is above or below the floor of the
bridge, suitable steel or iron stairs with railings shall be provided to lead
from the floor of the bridge to the floor of the operating house. The
house shall be of fireproof construction, consisting of a steel frame, steel
floor joists, and a fireproof floor. If the house contains motors and
machinery, the floor shall preferably consist of steel plates, but if the
motors are located elsewhere, the floor between the joists may be of
concrete construction. The sides and roof shall be of metal, concrete,
or any other non-combustible material. The hand rail for stairways and
other places shall be made of ij^-in. gas pipe.
Heating of Operator's House.
179. Whenever climatic conditions require it, provision shall be made
for heating the operator's house. If steam power is used, the house
shall be heated by a steam coil or radiator fed from the boiler. If
electric power is used, the heat may be supplied by electricity. If gas-
oline is used, or any other power which cannot be utilized for heating,
a coal, wood, petroleum, or gas stove, as directed by the Engineer, shall
be provided.
Whistle.
180. A whistle having a bell 3 in. in diameter and 10 in. long shall
be installed complete. If operated by air, the compressor and air tank
shall conform to the following specifications : The compressor shall be
motor-driven, the motor and compressor being on one frame, and geared.
All working parts shall be completely enclosed and self-lubricating. The
compressor shall have a piston displacement of from 25 to 30 cu. ft.
per minute when working against a tank pressure of 90 lbs. per sq. in.
The compressor shall be provided with strainer, and automatic governor
and switch, in order that the compressor may automatically start and
stop at any predetermined tank pressure. The air receiving tank shall
be 36 in. by 8 ft. or of equal capacity. The tank shall be galvanized,
and good for a working pressure of 100 lbs. per sq. in. It shall be pro-
vided with pressure gage and pigtail, pop-valve, and drain cock, and have
standard flanges bushed for i^-in. pipe. Contractor shall furnish all
pipe, pipe fittings, and valves; all to withstand a working pressure of
100 lbs. per sq. in.
Greatest Torque.
181. A prime mover shall be capable of exerting twice the greatest
torque shown on the torque curves for the normal loads. The rating of
a prime mover shall be the horse-power determined by the brake test.
(157).
342 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
STEAM POWER.
Steam Engine.
182. If a steam engine is used, it shall consist of a double-cylinder,
reversing engine, the mean piston speed of which shall not exceed 400
ft. per minute; it shall develop the desired power and speed with a steam
pressure of 50 lbs. per sq. in. The engine shall be connected to the
operating machinery by an approved friction clutch, arranged so that the
moving and locking machinery can be operated alternately or stopped
without stopping the engine.
Steam Separator.
183. In the steam supply pipe, and close to the steam chest, shall
be placed a steam separator. This separator, under test with quality of
steam as low as 66 per cent., shall show an average efficiency of 85 per
cent, in five tests.
Boilers.
184. The steam shall be generated by one or two upright, tubular
boilers, each of which shall have twice the capacity of the engine. The
boilers shall be designed for a steam pressure of 150 lbs. per sq. in., and
adapted to the kind of fuel specified by the Engineer; they shall be of
open-hearth steel in accordance with the specifications for boiler plates
appended hereto. They shall be encased in asbestos, covered with Russia
iron.
185. Boilers shall also be in accordance with the specifications of
the Mechanical Department of the Railway Company and conform to
the civil laws.
Flues of Boilers.
186. Vertical boilers shall have submerged flues at the top.
Horse-Power of Boilers.
187. The total horse-power of the boilers shall be twice that of the
engine, and shall be computed by the following rule: Calculate the inside
area of the tubes, area of tube sheet next to the fire, and sides of the
fire-box where this is in contact with the fire. Take the sum of these
areas in square feet and divide by 15. The intention is to allow 15 square
feet of heating surface per horse-power. At least one-half square foot of
grate surface shall be provided per horse-power.
Equipment of Engine Room.
188. The engine-room shall be provided with a steel water tank of
sufficient capacity; a duplex steam feed-pump; and an injector for each
boiler, with necessary pipes and connections for feeding boilers separately
or together; steam water-lifters with necessary strainers, flexible hose,
and piping to lift the water from the river into the tank; a coal hoist
and a steel coal bin of sufficient capacity, The engine-room shall be
provided with suitable indicators for recording the positions of the mov-
ing span and locking apparatus.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 343
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.
Gasoline Motor, Etc.
189. If an internal combustion engine is used, one of the most sub-
stantial kind shall be selected, the maximum piston speed of which shall
not exceed 600 ft. per minute. The engine shall have a reversing gear
provided with approved friction clutches, to be operated by a hand
wheel. The countershaft connecting the engine with the operating ma-
chinery shall be provided with disengaging couplings, arranged so that
the moving and locking machinery can be operated alternately and in
either direction without stopping the engine. Engines of 10 H.P. or more
shall be started by compressed air. The fuel tank shall be located out-
side of the engine-house. The engine-room shall be provided with in-
dicators for recording the positions of the moving span and locking
apparatus.
Engine Cooling.
190. For bridges which are to be opened at intervals of fifteen
minutes or less, and about four or more times per hour, the engine shall
be water cooled. For longer intervals, the engine may be air cooled ;
for this purpose the outside cylinder shall have deep flanges about which
a forced circulation of air is maintained by a fan.
Ignition.
191. The ignition shall be of the jump-spark kind in which the
secondary coil is made up on each spark plug as part of it, so that a
low-voltage current, not over ten volts, will be sufficient.
Extra Parts.
192. Two extra igniters and two extra crank pin brasses shall be
furnished.
ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT.
A. I. E. E. Rules.
193. The electric equipment shall conform to the Standardization
Rules of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, as adopted
June 21, 1907, or subsequent revisions.
N. E. C.
194. The National Electric Code shall apply to the electric con-
struction and installation, except as may be noted hereinafter.
Wires and Insulation.
195. The quality of the wires and insulation shall conform to the
specifications of the Railway Signal Association, as revised and adopted
October, 191 1. (See Vol. 8 of the Proceedings, pp. 576 to 587.)
Tests.
196. Any motor under test shall develop the required horse-power
and torque at the armature shaft. Characteristic curves showing the
results of the test shall be furnished by the manufacturer.
344 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
197. Motors shall be tested for the following voltages: normal,
one-half normal and 1% normal. Characteristic curves shall be furnished
for each test.
198. Motors, generators, automatic circuit breakers, solenoids, brakes,
and other electric mechanism shall be tested at the factory by the man-
ufacturer in the presence of the Railway Company's inspector.
Openings in Motor Case.
199. If the motor is enclosed in a case, as mill motors are, small
openings of sufficient size shall be provided in the case for the inspection,
removal, and replacing of brushes.
Motor Gears, Etc.
200. One cast steel cut gear, bored and key-seated for attachment
to the countershaft, shall be furnished with the motor. The gear and
pinion shall be covered by a sheet steel or malleable iron split gear case,
supported by the motor frame, and completely covering the gear and
pinion. An opening with a hinged cover shall be provided in the gear
case for inspection and oiling. The gear ratio shall be such that the
full speed of the countershaft will not be more than 125 revolutions per
minute. Motors of 10 H.P. or over shall have an r. p. m. not to exceed
800, other motors not to exceed 1,000.
Motor Pinions.
201. Motors shall have a forged steel cut pinion, out of one piece,
keyed to the end of the armature shaft and secured by a locknut.
Spare Motor Parts.
202. For each size of motor furnished, the Contractor shall supply
the following spare parts : One armature, one field coil, one pinion, one
gear, and one set of brushes. These parts shall be finished and fitted
in such a manner as to admit of being installed in their respective places
without further fitting or adjustment.
Mounting Motors.
203. The motors shall be mounted in such a manner as to admit
of easy access for inspection and repairs; they shall be supported securely
by brackets or suitable foundations.
204. If the machinery and motors are on the moving span, they
shall be capable of being satisfactorily operated in any position of the
span.
Housing of Motors.
205. Motors must be housed in weatherproof metal housing. This
housing must be large enough to allow the inspection and oiling of the
motor. It must be readily removable so that access to the motor may be
obtained. Metal in this housing shall not be less than No. 16, U. S.
Standard gage; it shall be galvanized.
D. C. Motors.
206. Direct current motors and generators shall be of the railway
series, or mill, interpole type, weather and moistureproof, with slotted
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 345
drum armature and form wound armature coils. They shall be of a
standard commercial type in common use. The best annealed refined
wrought-iron shall be used for cores.
Testing of Motors.
207. The rating of a direct-current motor is the horse-power output
at the armature shaft, which gives a rise of temperature above the sur-
rounding air (referred to a room temperature of 25 degrees C.) not
exceeding 90 degrees C. at the commutator and 75 degrees C. at any
other part after one hour's continuous run at its rated voltage, on a
stand with the motor covers removed and with natural ventilation. The
rise in temperature is to be determined by thermometer, but the resist-
ance of no electric circuit in the motor shall increase more than 40 per
cent, during the test.
Excess Motor Loads.
208. Direct current motors shall be capable of exerting continuously
for four cycles twice the normal torques shown on the torque curves for
the moving span and machinery. The temperature shall not exceed those
specified in Par. 207. One cycle is an opening and closing of the bridge
in a specified time (157), (227), (229).
A. C. Motors.
209. Alternating current motors shall be of the three phase, induc-
tion type, with slip rings, rotor wound, 25 or 60 cycles, and 220 or 440
voltage, unless otherwise specified, and weather and moistureproof. The
resistance for varying the speed shall be in series with the rotor circuit,
and be such as to affect evenly all three phases. Motors of 5 H.P. or
less may be of the squirrel-cage type. The best, and annealed, refined
wrought-iron shall be used for cores.
210. Alternating current motors shall show, in a run for heat test,
the following maximum temperature rises above 25 degrees C. for
the surrounding room; for continuous run under nominal load, 40 de-
grees C. ; for two hours run under 25 per cent, overload and a one
minute run under 50 per cent, overload, 55 degrees C.
211. Alternating current motors shall be of rugged construction.
The sum of the starting torques of the motors shall be at least equal
to twice the greatest torque shown by the torque curves for the bridge
operating machinery. The pull-out torque shall be at least equal to 1%
times the starting torque (157), (227), (229).
Controllers.
212. The controllers for motors shall be located in the operating
house. The controllers shall be of the reversing drum type, or flat type,
with magnetic blow-out, and shall be capable of varying and maintaining
the speed of the motors throughout the entire range desired, without
injurious sparking, and without shock due to sudden variation in speed.
The controllers shall be capable of doing their work for the usual
loads, and excess loads, that may come upon the motors, with a tem-
perature rise not exceeding that specified for the motors.
346 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
Ccntroller Steps.
213. The controller shall have a sufficient number of notches or
steps, such that the minimum or maximum motor torque will not differ
by more than 10 per cent, from the average torque required for uniform
acceleration.
Number of Controllers, Etc.
214. One controller shall be furnished for the operation of main
motors, one for rail lock motors, and one for bridge lock motor. These
controllers shall be so designed that the operation of any motor can be
cut out by pulling a switch on the switch-board, without affectfog the
operation of any of the other motors.
215. The controllers for the two main motors, if for direct current,
shall be of the series-parallel type ; or of the type in which the field
is varied, as may be done for the interpole type of motor.
Control of Motors.
216. The control of motors shall be electrically interlocked with?
each other and with the signal system, and the bridge shall be controlled'
in such a way that the end locks cannot be released until the signals
have gone to danger position and derails are set, or the bridge motor
started until the end locks have actually been released. In closing the
bridge, the control shall be such as to make it impossible for the op-
erator to move the end locks until the bridge has been completely closed,
or to set the signals at safety until the bridge has been closed and the
end locks are in place.
Master Controller.
217. For currents too large for the usual type of controller, the
motor circuits shall be made by contactors mounted on panels or frames.
These contactors shall be operated by solenoids, which are controlled
by a master controller.
Automatic Control.
218. For large structures, automatic control may be used, but this
is too complicated to be covered by a specification. This should be taken
up for special consideration with the Engineer.
Resistance.
219. Resistances shall be of the cast grid type, and of such ca-
pacity that the motor can be operated continuously at any point of
the controller when developing normal torque, or for 15 minutes when
developing excess torque, without sufficient rise in temperature of the
resistance to cause deterioration of any part. The resistances shall be
mounted so as to admit of free ventilation and be without injurious
vibration (208), (211), (227).
Electric Brakes.
220. The main operating motors, rail lock motors, and bridge lock
motors, shall be provided with approved post brakes which are held in
set position by 3 spring with such force as to overcome not less than
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 347
50 per cent, of the maximum torque required. The friction surfaces are
to be of materials not affected by moisture. The brakes are to be re-
leased by solenoids of ample power and heating capacity whenever
the motors are taking current, and are to be automatically set whenever
the current fails or is cut off from the motors. Moistureproof motors
shall be provided with moistureproof solenoids. Brakes shall be pro-
vided with a foot-switch release for coasting purposes. Means shall
be provided for mechanically releasing the brakes when the bridge
is to be operated by hand or other equipment.
Emergency Brakes.
221. An additional emergency brake shall be provided and ap-
plied to the main operating machinery. This shall be released by
solenoids or motors which shall hold the brake in release as long as
the current is applied to the brake motor. Cutting off the current
from the solenoids or motors, or any failure of current, will result
in the instantaneous application of the brake. This brake will be nor-
mally set, but will be released by the operator before starting the bridge,
and be held in release during the entire operation, unless an emergency
condition arises requiring brake power in excess of that offered by the
motor brakes, in which case it may be instantly applied by the operator.
After the bridge has been closed and traffic has been resumed, this brake
will again be applied. This portion of the equipment shall be so de-
signed that it will not be injured if left in release indefinitely. Proper
means shall be provided for mechanically releasing the brake when the
bridge is to be operated by hand or emergency power equipment.
222. The emergency brake circuit shall be independent of the general
interlocking system, and there shall be a mechanical interlocking device
which will prevent the main leaf motors and the emergency brake being
used one against the other.
223. The emergency brake switch shall be attached to the controller
stand within easy reach of the operator, and proper labels shall be placed
back of the switch handle to indicate "Set" and "Released" positions of
the brake.
Automatic Cutoffs.
224. An automatic cutoff or short circuiting device shall be pro-
vided which will throw out the circuit breakers, and cut off the current
from the operating motors, and set their brakes when the bridge is five
degrees from its open position, and its closed position. Spring switches
shall be provided, which if closed and held closed, will put the cutoffs out
of service and thus enable the bridgetender to fully close or open the
bridge.
225. The bridge lock motors and rail lock motors shall be stopped
and the brakes set automatically at each end of the travel.
Sizes of Switches, Etc.
226. Switches shall be designed to carry not more than nine hun-
dred (900) amperes per sq. in. of cross-section capacity. Any knife
switch shall have not less than 100 amperes capacity.
348 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
227. Electrical parts, such as wires, switches, etc., shall be designed
for the currents required for the motors when they exert the normal
torques called for by the torque curves, on the supposition of continual
performance through successive cycles of bridge operation. For excess
torques and 15 minutes of operation, the temperature rise of the parts
shall not exceed that for continual operation under normal torques. The
excess torques shall be taken over successive cycles of bridge operation
(208), (211).
228. Ground connections of ample area shall be provided. (See
Fig. 4, Electric Review and Western Electrician, August 30, 1913.)
229. Circuit breakers and fuses shall be designed to act when the
current through the motors is no per cent, the current required to make
the motors exert twice the greatest normal torque (157), (181)1 (208),
(211).
Fuses.
230. Enclosed fuses shall be used. A spare set of fuses, not less
than six of any one kind, shall be furnished by the Contractor.
Kind and Minimum Wire.
231. No stranded wire smaller than No. 10 B. & S. gage shall be
used. Circuits to all motors and all circuits running onto the moving
span shall be of stranded wire throughout. Solid wire of not less than
No. 12 B. & S. gage may be used for other circuits. No joints shall
be made inside of a conduit.
Wires to Be Tagged.
232. Wires when installed shall be permanently tagged and num-
bered so that any wire can be traced from the switch-board to the motors
and to the source of power.
Lightning Arrester.
233. The feeders shall be protected by a pole-switch fuse and light-
ning arrester, mounted on a non-combustible and non-absorbent insu-
lating base.
Quick Break Switch and Switch-board.
234. A switch, of the quick break type, shall be provided for each
supply wire. Each motor circuit and each light, signal, indicator, or
other circuit, shall be provided with switches which are approved by the
Railway Company's Engineer. The switches shall be mounted on an
enameled slate panel switch-board (not less than iy2 in. thick, and free
from metallic veins or flaws) in the operator's house. The switch-board
shall be large enough to carry the meters, switches, cutouts, fuses, etc.
Switches, cutouts, buttons, etc., shall be provided with a plate designat-
ing their use.
Automatic Circuit Breaker.
235. An automatic circuit breaker shall be placed on the switch-
board in the operating motor circuit of the bridge. Each line to the
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 349
motor, each line to the electric brakes, and each lighting, signal, in-
dicator, or other circuit, shall be protected by enclosed fuses.
236. Automatic circuit breakers, for main operating motors, shall be
placed near the bottom of the switch-board with the other instruments
above. Circuit breakers in circuits leading to motors of 10 H.P., or less,
shall be placed at the top of the switch-board.
237. Any circuit whatsoever shall be protected by fuses, circuit
breakers, or equivalent devices, which will insure the excessive current
being cut off before any parts are damaged.
Lightning Arresters.
238. Lightning arresters shall be placed as near as practicable to
the parts to be protected, and away from combustible material. A No.
4 B. & S. gage wire should be used for the connections ; this wire should
run in a straight line to a ground plate, and not be connected to any
structural parts. To avoid inductive resistances, the wire should not
run through a conduit. If a choke coil is used, it should be thoroughly
insulated from the ground and other conductors.
Short-Circuiting.
239. The connections of parts in contact with track shall be such
as to allow no short circuiting of track signals.
Protection of Electric Contacts.
240. Electrical contacts shall be protected from the weather or ac-
cumulations of dirt. A spare set of all contacts and contact fingers shall
be furnished by the Contractor.
Coils.
241. Coils shall be impregnated.
Solenoids, Etc.
242. Solenoids and electrically operated brakes shall be housed.
Indicators.
243. The Contractor shall provide and install electric light indicators
for the purpose of showing the operator the various positions of the
bridge, especially the fully open, entirely closed, nearly open, and nearly
closed positions of the bridge, and fully closed and fully open positions
of the rail lock and bridge locks.
Volt Meter, Etc.
244. A volt meter, ammeter and watt meter shall be provided on
the switch-board.
Ground Detector.
245. The switch-board shall be furnished with one two-candlepower
lamp for detecting ground, and a two-candlepower lamp for illumination
at each ammeter and volt meter scale.
Lamps for Lighting.
246. In the operator's house shall be placed ten 16-candlepower
lights, and additional lights about the machinery, and such other lights
350 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
as the Engineer may direct. For all lights in the house above ten in
number, the Railway Company will pay the regular market price or fur-
nish them to the Contractor.
247. Lights of 16-candlepower shall be placed outside at the head
and foot of stairways or similar paths.
248. All lights in the house shall have tungsten filaments. Outside
lights shall have weatherproof sockets.
Channel Lights.
249. The Contractor shall furnish warning and channel lights and
signals, in accordance with the U. S. Government requirements, or other
harbor requirements. The Railway Company will furnish a copy of the
U. S. Government regulations.
Railway Signal System.
250. The Company will furnish and install the railway signal sys-
tem, also the master lever and all necessary devices controlling the inter-
lock between this signal system and the bridge as a whole. The Con-
tractor shall furnish and install the necessary devices for interlocking
the various parts of the bridge with each other and for connections to
the Company's master lever.
251. Emergency switches shall be provided which will free the
various motors from the interlocking in emergencies. These switches
shall be mounted on the switch-board, and each switch covered by a
separate sealed or locked glass case.
Phase Wires in Conduits.
252. To lessen inductive effects, the phase wires in alternating cur-
rent circuits shall be placed close together in one conduit. Not more than
three (3) circuits shall be placed in a conduit. A circuit in three-phase
work means 3 wires.
253. Submarine cables, if needed, will be furnished and laid by the
Railway Company.
Conduits, Etc.
254. Wires shall be placed in metal conduits wherever practicable.
At points where stationary conduits join the conduits on the moving
span, flexible metal conduits shall be used for bending action. The
flexible conduits shall be connected by combination couplings to junc-
tion boxes, with slate terminal boards, at each end of flexible conduit.
The conduits shall be sherardized or loricated on the inside and outside.
Condulets, pull-out boxes, and ells shall be used; these shall be sherard-
ized or loricated. To prevent the hardpulling of the wires through the
conduits, bends shall be used sparingly. Built up junction boxes may be
used where other fittings are not feasible. Conduits and boxes shall
have suitably located drain holes. The combined area of the wires,
including insulation, in any one conduit, shall not exceed 42 per cent,
of the area of the conduit.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 351
Minimum Thickness of Metal.
255. No metal covering for drum switches or similar parts or for
junction boxes, etc., shall be less than No. 18, U. S. Standard gage. The
following table shall govern the minimum thickness of metal conduits :
THICKNESS OF METAL CONDUITS.
Nominal Inside Thickness
Diameter, in in
Inches. Inches.
Vz 0.109
y$ 0.113
1 0.134
1% 0.140
ilA 0.145
2 0.154
2.V2 0.204
3 0.217
3V2 0.226
SPECIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL METALS USED FOR MA-
CHINERY PARTS.
STEEL CASTINGS.
Qualities of Machinery — Steel Castings.
256. Steel for castings may be made by the open-hearth or crucible
process.
Phosphorus 0.05 per cent, maximum
Sulphur 0.05 per cent.
257. Minimum physical qualities, as determined on a standard test
specimen of ^2-in. in diameter and 2-in. gaged length.
Tensile strength, in lbs. per sq. in 70,000
Elongation, percentage in 2 in 18
Contraction of area, percentage 25
258. Castings shall be annealed.
259. A test to destruction may be substituted for the tensile test,
in the case of small or unimportant castings, by selecting three castings
from a lot. This test shall show the material to be ductile, free from
injurious defects, and suitable for the purpose intended. A lot shall
consist of all castings from the same melt or blow, annealed in the same
furnace charge.
Flaws In Castings.
260. Castings shall be true to pattern and free from blemishes, flaws,
or shrinkage cracks. When the bearing surface of any steel casting is
finished, there shall be no blow holes visible exceeding one inch in any
352 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
direction, nor exceeding Y* sq. in. in area. The length of blow holes
cut by any straight line laid in any direction shall never exceed one
inch in any one foot.
Blow Holes in Gear Wheels.
261. No blow hole exceeding one-half the above dimensions and
area* will be allowed in any gear tooth, or in the rim at the root of
the teeth.
Electric Welding.
262. The correction of defects in castings, by welding electrically,
by thermit, or by similar processes, will not be allowed.
Testing of Large Castings.
263. Large castings shall be suspended and hammered all over. No
cracks, flaws, defects, or weakness shall appear after such treatment.
264. A specimen (1 in. by J^-in.) shall bend, cold, around a di-
ameter of 1 in., through an angle of 90 degrees, without fracture on
the outside of the bent portion.
265. The number of standard test specimens shall depend upon
the character and importance of the casting. A test piece shall be
cut, cold, from a coupon to be molded and cast on some portion
of one or more castings from each melt or blow, or from the sink-
heads (in case heads of sufficient size are used). The coupon or
sinkhead must receive the same treatment as the casting or cast-
ings, before the specimen is cut out, and before the coupon or sinkhead
is removed from the casting.
266. Turnings from the tensile specimen, drillings from the bend-
ing specimen, or drillings from the small test ingot, if preferred by the
inspector, shall be used to determine whether or not the steel is within
the limits in phosphorus and sulphur, specified in paragraph 256, con-
cerning chemical properties.
STEEL FORGINGS.
Qualities of Steel Forglngs.
267. Steel forgings may be made by the open-hearth or crucible
process.
Phosphorus O.04 per cent, maximum
Sulphur 0.05 per cent.
268. Minimum physical properties, as determined on a standard
turned test specimen of ^2-in. in diameter and 2-in. gaged length :
Tensile strength, in lbs. per sq. in 85,000 to 65,000
Elongation, percentage in 2 in 28
269. A specimen (1 in. by J^-in.) shall bend, cold, 180 degrees,
around a diameter of J^-in., without fracture on the outside of the bent
portion. The bending may be effected by pressure or by blows.
270. The number and location of the test specimens to be taken from
a melt, blow or forging shall depend upon its character and importance,
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 353
and, therefore, must be regulated by individual cases. The tesl speci-
mens shall be cut, cold, from the forging, or full sized prolongation of
the same, parallel to the axis of the forging and half way between the
center and the outside ; the specimens shall be longitudinal, i. e., the
length of the specimen shall correspond with the direction in which
the metal is most drawn out or worked. When forgings have large
ends or collars, the test specimens shall be taken from a prolongation
of the same diameter or section as that of the forging back of the large
end or collar. In the case of hollow shafting, either forged or bored,
the specimen shall be taken within the finished section prolonged, half-
way between the inner and outer surfaces of the wall of the forging.
271. Turnings from the tensile specimen, drillings from the bend-
ing specimen, or drillings from the small test ingot, if preferred by the
inspector, shall be used to determine whether or not the steel is within
the limits in chemical composition.
272. Forgings shall be free from cracks, flaws, seams, or other
injurious imperfections, shall conform to the dimensions shown on the
drawings furnished by the purchaser, and shall be made and finished in
a workmanlike manner.
273. All forgings shall be annealed.
MACHINERY STEEL.
Qualities of Machinery Steel.
274. Machinery steel shall be made by the open-hearth or crucible
process.
Phosphorus 0.05 per cent, maximum
Sulphur 0.05 per cent.
275. Minimum physical properties, as determined on a standard
turned test specimen of J^-in. in diameter and 2-in. gaged length :
Tensile strength, in lbs. per sq. in 80,000
Elongation, percentage in 2 in 20
276. A specimen (1 in. by J^-in.) shall bend, cold, 180 degrees,
around a diameter of iJ/2-m., without fracture on the outside of the
bent portion. The bending tests may be made by pressure or by blows.
277. Turnings from the tensile test specimens or drillings from the
small test ingot, if preferred by the inspector, shall be used to determine
whether the melt is within the limits in chemical composition.
BOILER PLATES.
Qualities of Boiler Plate Steel.
278. The steel used for boilers and fireboxes shall be made by the
open-hearth process.
Phosphorus 0.04 per cent, maximum
Sulphur 0.04 per cent.
354 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
279. The physical properties required shall be as follows :
Tensile strength desired, in ibs. per sq. in 60,000
Elongation, minimum per cent, in 8 in. 1,500,000
ultimate strength
Character of fracture Silky
Cold bends, without fracture 180 degrees flat
280. The ultimate strength shall come within 4,000 lbs. of that
desired.
281. Chemical determinations of the percentages of carbon, phos-
phorus, sulphur, and manganese shall be made by the manufacturer from
a test ingot taken at the time of the pouring of each melt of steel, and
a correct copy of each analysis shall be furnished to the Engineer or his
inspector. A check analysis shall be made from the finished material, if
called for by the purchaser, in which case an excess of 25 per cent, above
required limits will be allowed.
282. Specimens for tensile and bending tests for plates shall be made
by cutting coupons from the finished product, which shall have both faces
rolled and both edges milled to the usual form of the standard test
specimen, iY2 in. wide on a gaged length of at least 9 in., or with both
edges parallel.
NICKEL STEEL FOR MACHINE PARTS.
Qualities of Nickel Steei.
283. Nickel steel shall be made by the open-hearth process.
Plates, Shapes,
and Bars. Rivets.
Per Cent. Per Cent.
Phosphorus shall not exceed 0.04 0.04
Sulphur " " " o.os 0.04
Nickel not less than 300 3-25
284. The physical properties required shall be as follows :
Plates, Shapes,
Bars and Forg-
ings. Pounds Per Rivets.
Square Inch. Pounds Per
Minimum. Square Inch.
Tensile strength 80,000 60,000 to 70,000
Elastic limit 50,000 40,000 min.
Elongation, percentage in 8 in., for plates, shapes, bars and forgings,
1,600,000
and also for rivets, = = min. Elongation, percentage
ultimate strength
in 2 in., for forgings = 25 per cent.
285. Specimens cut from forgings (1 in. by y2 in.) shall bend, cold,
180 degrees, around a diameter of 1 in., without fracture on the outside
of the bent portion.
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE. 355
286. Specimens cut from plates, shapes and bars shall bend, cold,
180 degrees, around a diameter of three times their thickness, without
fracture on the outside of the best portion.
287. Each rivet rod shall bend 180 degrees, flat on itself, without
fracture on the outside of the bent portion.
288. Rivet rods shall be tested as rolled.
289. The fracture of all tension tests shall show a fine, silky tex-
ture, of a uniform bluish-gray or dove color, free from black or brilliant
specks, and shall show no signs of crystallization.
290. All nickel steel forgings shall be properly annealed.
291. Annealed eye bars and similar members, when full-sized pieces
are tested, shall comply with the following requirements :
Minimum ultimate tensile strength, in lbs. per sq. in., 75,000.
Minimum elastic limit, in lbs. per sq. in., 45,000.
Minimum elongation in 10 ft., including fracture, 12 per cent.
The fracture shall be mostly silky, and free from crystals.
Full-sized pieces shall bend, cold, 180 degrees, around a diameter
of twice their thickness, without fracture.
TOOL STEEL.
Qualities of Tool Steel.
292. This steel is usually used for parts which require hardening or
oil tempering, such as pivots, friction rollers, ball bearings and springs.
293. Tool steel shall be made by the open-hearth or crucible process.
Carbon 1.00 per cent, minimum
Phosphorus 0.04 per cent, maximum
Sulphur 0.04 per cent, maximum
Manganese 0.50 per cent, maximum
PHOSPHOR-BRONZE.
Qualities of Phosphor-Bronze.
294. Special phosphor-bronze shall be used for high pressure and
slow speed.
295. Phosphor-bronze shall be a copper-tin alloy; phosphorus not to
exceed 1 per cent. Other alloys, up to one-half of 1 per cent., will be
permitted, except that no sulphur will be allowed.
Compression :
Elastic limit, in lbs. per sq. in 19,000 to 23,000
Permanent set, under 100,000 lbs., in inches 0.12 to 0.16
296. The compression is to be made on a cylinder having a height
of one inch and an area of one square inch. The elastic limit is to be
the load which gives a permanent set of 0.001 inch.
Tension :
The yield point, ultimate strength, and elongation in 2 in. are to be
recorded. The tension specimen is to have a diameter of J/>-in.
297. For every heat at least two tests shall be made. A chemical
analysis shall be furnished.
356 BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
BABBITT METAL.
Qualities of Babbitt Metal.
298. Babbitt metal composed of the following ingredients and of
the following proportions has given satisfactory results:
Copper 3.6 per cent.
Tin 89.3 per cent.
Antimony 7.1 per cent.
VANADIUM CAST STEEL.
299. Vanadium cast steel shall contain at least 0.185 per cent, van-
adium. It shall have the following approximate physical qualities :
Tensile strength 75,000 lbs. per sq. in.
Elastic limit (minimum) 45,000 lbs. per sq. in.
Elongation (minimum) 20 per cent, in 2 in.
Reduction of area (minimum) 30 per cent.
300. The remaining qualities shall conform to those of ordinary cast
steel as set forth in these specifications, except that visible blow holes will
not be allowed.
Purpose of the Specifications.
301. It is the purpose of these specifications to provide a first-class
structure. They are intended as an aid in designing and fabrication. The
subject of machine design and kindred subjects is so great and varied
that no single work of this character can cover all points. As a further
aid in securing a first-class structure, the following works will be con-
sidered authoritative, in the order named:
1. Unwin's "Machine Design," Part I, Ed. 1909.
Unwin's "Machine Design," Part II, Ed. 1912.
2. "A Manual of Machine Design," etc., by Low & Bevis, nth im-
pression.
3. Reuleaux's "Constructor," translated by Suplee.
4. Kent's "Pocket Book," 8th Ed.
302. Machine parts shall be designed, if practicable, by the methods
of applied mechanics, but such designs shall be viewed in the light of ex-
perience. It should be borne in mind that machine design is not based
on the precise methods in vogue for stationary structures.
INDEX.
Paragraph.
Air buffers 24
—finish 156
Air compressor tank 180
— price 8
Air compressors 180
— guarantee 155
Am. Inst, of El. Engrs. Rules. 193
Ammeter t 244
Approval of centers of gravity
figures 47
Assembling machinery 149
Authorities on design 301
Automatic circuit breaker 235-237
— control 218
—cut-offs 224, 225
Axles, material 50,57
Babbitt metal, composition.... 29$
— use 58, 85
Ball bearings, material 292
Bascule bridges, type 21
Bearings, see also bushings,
journals, shafts, etc 83-96
— bearing unit stresses 170-174
— cast-iron 86
— clearances 84
— divided 84
— dust covers 94
—finish 140, 141, 148
— grooves 142
— large 59
— lining 85
— location 87
— lubrication 89-94
— material 56, 58
— removable bushings 60
— rotating bushings 60
— templates 150
— trunnion, bearing unit
stresses 170
, tests 151
— vertical shafts 88
Bearing unit stresses, see ma-
terial in question —
Bidding 6-20
Boilers, see steam boilers —
Boiler plates, bend test 279
— check analyses 281
— chemical composition 278
— physical properties 279, 280
— test pieces 282
Bolt holes in bearings 141
Bolts, bearings 84
— details 62
— lock nuts 63
— material 50
—play 135
— sheave bearings 150
— tap and stud 65
— turned 135
Brakes, friction 177
— stresses on machinery 158
Brake wheels, material 53
Brass, use 58, 85, 110
Bronze, use 85, 88, 110
Bushings, see also bearings — ■
— divided 84
—finish 140, 141
—material 58, 59
— removable 60
— rotating 60
— steel journals 85
Paragraph.
Cables, see wire ropes —
Castings, see also cast steel —
— chipping strips 61
— details 61
—finish 133
Cast-iron, bearing unit
stresses 170
— pressure on rollers 173, 174
— unit stresses 159, 161
— use 56,57
Cast steel, see also castings —
— annealing 258
— bearing unit stresses 170
— bend test 264
— check analyses 266
— chemical composition 256
— flaws 260-262
— physical properties 257
— pressure on rollers 173,174
— testing large pieces 263
— testing small pieces 259
— test pieces 265
— unit stresses 159, 161
— vanadium 299, 300
— use 52, 53, 56
Center of gravity 47
Channel lighting 249
Circuit breaker, automatic. . .235-237
— location 236
— size 229
—tests 198
— use 237
Coal bin 188
— hoist 188
Coating of machined surfaces 154
Coils 241
Cold rolled steel, use 51
Collars, use 67
Compressors, price 6, 17
Compressor tanks, price 8
Conduits 252, 254, 255
Connecting rods 52
Contact surfaces, see sur-
faces, bearings, bushings —
Control, automatic 218
Controllers, Interlocking 216
— master 217
— number 214
— resistances 219
—steps 213
—type 212, 215
Cotters, material 50
Counterbalancing ropes, see
wire ropes —
Counterweights, adjustable . . 25
— center of gravity 47
— deviation of ropes 115
— price of cast-iron 18
— price of concrete 19
Couplings —
—finish 143, 152
—keyed 70, 152
— material 53
—type „... 68,69
—use 95
Crane hooks, material 50
Crank pins, bearing unit
stresses 172
Cranks, material 52
Cross-head slides, bearing unit
stresses 170
Cut-offs, automatic 224,225
357
358
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
Paragraph.
Cylinders, material 57
Deck material 2
Design, general details 21-48
Detail drawings 42
Drainage holes 134
Drawings, detail 42
— of center of gravity 47
■ — of torque curves 44
Drums, material 53
Dust covers 94
Eccentrics, material 57
Electric brakes 220
— automatic operation 225
— housing 242
— tests 198
Electric contacts, protection.. 240
Electric equipment, see also
parts in question 193-255
—brakes 220-223, 242
— channel lights 249
— circuit breakers 229, 235-237
— coils 241
—conduits 252, 254, 255
— construction 194
— contract 4
— controllers 212-219
—cut-offs 224-225
— description 4
—fuses 229, 230, 237
— ground connections 228
— indicators 243
— installation 194
— junction boxes 254, 255
— lamps 246-249
— lightning arrester 233,238
— meters 244, 245
— motors 196-211
— price 6,16
— protection 240
— railway signal system inter-
locking 239, 250
— size of parts 46, 227
— solenoids 242
— specifications 193-195
— standardization 193
— submarine cables 253
—switches 226, 234, 251
—tests 198
—wires 231, 232, 252, 253
Emergency brakes 221-223
— switches 251
End shoes, material 53
Engine room equipment 188
Equalizing gears 97
— levers, finish 132
— price 10
Excess loads, unit stresses... 157
Extra parts, electric contacts. 240
—fuses 230
• — internal combustion engines. 192
—motors 202
— price 20
Fly wheels, material 57
Forged steel, annealing 273
—bend test 269
— check analyses .271
— chemical composition 267
— flaws 272
—physical properties 268
— test pieces 270
— use 50, 52-55
Forged structural steel, unit
stresses 159, 161
— use 51
Paragraph.
Friction, see parts in ques-
tion—
— brakes 177
— friction 33
— clutches 182, 189
— coefficients 28-31, 33
— rollers, material 292
— starting 45
Fuel tank 189
Fuses 235, 237
— enclosed 230
— size 229
Gears, see also hubs —
— beveled, finish 146
— equalizing 97
—finish 143-147
— flaws 261
—friction 30
— material 53
—motor 200, 201
— pitch circle scribed 109,139
—shrouded 139
, finish 145
—worm 110-112
— finish 147
, friction 30
, material 50
Gear teeth 106-113
— beveled 108
—cut 144
— dimensions 107
— finish 144
— forces acting 43
— machine molded 144
— number on pinions 113
worms 112
— pinions cut from solid 54
— pitch circle scribed 109, 139
— planing ends 139
—type 106
— unit stresses 166-168
— worm 110-112
General details of design 21-48
Generators, tests 198
Girders, see segmental and
track girders — ■
Grease cups 89, 92
— grooves 90, 91
—finish 142
— location 83
Grooves, sheaves 137
Ground connections 228
— detector 245
Guarantee of machinery 155
Guards, safety 116
Guides, friction 31
Hand operating machinery... 48,176
— release of brakes 220
Hand rail, price 15
— stairways 26
Hangers, material 53
Hardened steel, bearing unit
stresses 170
- — tool steel rollers, pressure. .173, 174
Haulage ropes, bending unit
stresses 163
Heating of bearings, see bear-
ings—
Hubs, boring 81
— dimensions 79
—finish 143
— groove 80
Impact, see also parts in ques-
tion 34-37
Indicators 188, 189, 243
Inertia 33
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
359
Paragraph.
Injectors 188
Interlocking, see parts in
question —
Internal combustion engines,
cooling 190
— design 1S9
— extra parts 192
— friction clutches 189
—fuel tank 189
— guarantee 155
— ignition 191
— indicators 189
— price 17
— rating 181
Journals, see also bearings,
bushings, shafts, etc —
— bearing unit stresses 171
—finish 7 140,141
— friction 30
Journals, heating and seizing. 83
—holes 140
—lubrication 89-94
Junction boxes 254, 255
Keys and key ways 71-78,80,82
Keys, backing out 76
—bearing 73, 74
—finish 153
—holding 78
—length 74
— material 50
—parallel-faced 72, 73
—tapered 71,73
— trunnions 82
- — unit stresses 75, 159, 161
Keyways 77
—finish 153
—hubs 80
Lamps, channel lighting 249
—kind 248
— machinery 246
— operator's house 246
— stairways, etc 247
— switch-board 245
Levers, see also equalizing
levers —
— material 52
Lightning arresters 233, 238
Lubrication 89-94
— wire ropes 120
Machinery, see also parts in
question —
— adjustment 49
— assembling 149
— authorities on design 301
—babbitt metal 298
— bearings and bushings 83-96
—boiler plates 278-282
—bolts, etc 62-66
— braking stresses 158
— castings 61
—cast steel 256-266
— coating of surfaces 154
— collars 67
—design 49-117, 302
— drainage holes 134
— drawings 42,43
— ease of erection
— emergency brakes 221-223
—excess loads 157
— fastenings 49
— finish on contact surfaces... 148
exposed parts 131
—forged steel 267-273
—gears 97, 106-113
— guarantee 155
— hand operating 48, 176
Paragraph.
Machinery, continued.
—hubs 79-81
— impact 37
— inspection 49
— keys and keyways 71-82
—lighting 246, 248
—lubrication 89-94
— machinery steel 274-277
— matchmarking 149
— materials 50-59
— moving span 204
—nickel steel 283-291
— operating, and similar parts 49-117
— outline drawing of
— overcoming inertia 33
— parts classified as 6, 11
— phosphor bronze 294-297
—planing of contact surfaces. 136
— price 6
— safety guards 116
—shaft couplings 68-70
—shafts 95-105
— sheaves 114, 117
— starting friction 45
—tests 155
—tool steel 292, 293
— torque curves 44
— unit stresses 157
— weighing 11
— wind pressure 38
— wire ropes 118-130
— workmanship 131-156
Machinery steel, bend test 276
— check analyses 277
— chemical composition 274
— physical properties 275
— pressure on — rollers 173, 174
— unit stresses 159, 161
at bearings 170
Matchmarking machinery 149
Material, kinds 50-59
Meters 244
Motor, air compressor 180
—kind 175
Motors, alternating current,
rating 211
tests 210
type 209
—automatic operation 224,225
— brakes 220
— control interlocked 216
— direct current, excess loads. 20S
rating 207
tests • 207
type * 206
— extra parts 202
— gear case -00
—gears 200,201
— guarantee 155
— housing 205
— interlock with emergency
brakes 222
—materials for parts 57,206,209
— mounting 203
— moving span 204
— openings in case 199
— parts furnished 200
— rating 181
—speed 200
—tests 196-198
—torque 44, 196, 197
Moving span, area exposed to
wind 41
— center of gravity 47
— impact 34, 35
— machinery 204
— reactions 21
360
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
Paragraph.
Moving span, continued.
—seating devices, etc 22
— time to open 32, 33
— type 21
— wind on floor 40
■ — wind pressure 38, 39
National Electric Code 194
Nickel steel, annealing 290,291
—bend test 285-287
— chemical composition 283
— eye bars 291
—fracture 289
— physical properties 284
—rivets 288
— unit stresses 159, 161
Nuts, details 62
—lock 63
— material 50
Oil cups 89
Oil grooves, see grease
grooves —
Operating machinery 49-117
—ropes, see wire ropes —
Operator's house 178
— heating 179
—lighting 246-248
— price 12
Phosphor-bronze, bearing unit
stresses 170
— chemical analysis 297
— number of tests 297
—qualities 295, 296
— unit stresses 159, 161
—use 58,59,294
Pinions, see also gears —
■ — cut from solid 54
— material 54
— number of teeth 113
Pins, material 50, 51
—price 10
Pistons, material 57
Piston rods, material 50
Pivots, bearing unit stresses. 171
—material 292
Plans 3
Plow steel, tests of wire ropes
121-123, 125, 129
— unit stresses ' 160
— use 119
Power equipment 175-255
Powef, mechanical and hand. 176
—steam 182-188
Prices, see parts in question —
Prime mover, rating 181
Pulleys, finish of hub 143
Pumps, guarantee 155
— price 6, 17
Racks, material 53
— planing 136
Railing, see hand rail —
Rail locks 2, 23
Rails 2, 239
Railway Signal Association
Specifications 195
Resistances 219
Responsibility 3
Reversal of stress 161
Rivets, number 36
Rolled steel, use 50
— structural steel, unit
stresses 159, 161
Rollers, friction 28, 29
—pressure 169, 173, 174
Rolling surfaces, finish 148
Rotating surfaces, see also
bearings, bushings, etc. —
—material 58
Paragraph.
Safety guards 116
Screws, bearing unit stresses. 170
— material 50
— threads 64
Segmental girders, design 27
— friction 28
— planing 138
— price 14
Seizing of bearings, see bear-
ings—
Set Screws 66, 67, 78
Shafts, collars 67
—couplings 68-70, 95
— forces acting 43
—formulas 100-103
— journals 83
— keyways 103
—length 98, 105
—material 51
— minimum size 104
— speed 99
—stresses 100-103
—supports 95, 96
— vertical, bearing unit
stresses 171
foot steps 88
Shear unit stresses, see parts
in question —
Sheaves, bearings 150
— diameter 114
— grooves 137
— housing 94
— material 53
— price 7
— rims 117
Signal system-railway, instal-
lation 250
— interlocking with motors... 216
— short circuiting 239
Sliding, friction 31
Sliding surfaces, see also
bearings, bushings, sur-
faces, etc. —
—finish 148
— lubrication 89-94
— material 58
Sockets, see also wire ropes —
— material 55
— slipping of rope 124, 126
—tests 125, 126, 128, 129
— unit stresses . . , 124
Solenoids, housing 242
—tests 198
Specifications, boiler 185
— channel lighting 249
— electric parts 193-195
— purpose 301
— railway bridge 5
— scope 1
Springs, material 292
Stairways 26
Stairways, operator's house.. 178
—lighting 247
Starting friction 45
Steam boilers, covering 184
—design 184
- — grate area 187
— horse power 187
— price 8
— specifications 185
— vertical, flues 186
Steam engine, clutch 182
— design 182
— guarantee 155
— price 17
Steam feed-pump 188
BRIDGES MOVABLE IN A VERTICAL PLANE.
361
Paragraph.
Steam power 182-188
Steam separator 183
Steel castings, see cast steel-
Steel, forged, see forged steel-
Steel forgings, see forged
steel —
Steel, machinery, see machin-
ery steel —
—structural, see structural
steel
— vanadium, see vanadium
cast steel —
Storage batteries, size 46
Structural steel, bearing unit
stresses 170
— drainage holes 134
— impact 34, 35, 37
— number of rivets 36
— parts classified as 11,13,14
— price 11, 13
— reversal of stress 36
— unit stresses 159, 161
— use 53
Structure, wind pressure 39
Stud bolts, use 65
Submarine cables 253
Surfaces in contact, finish.... 14S
—planing 136, 138, 141
—unit stresses 170-174
Surfaces, machined coated... 154
— sliding, unit stresses 170-172
Switch-board 234
— lamps 245
— meters 244
Switches, emergency 251
— -mounting 231. 251
— quick break 234
—size 226, 227
Tap bolts, use 65
Teeth of gears, see gear
teeth-
Tensile unit stresses, see ma-
terial in question —
Tests, see parts in question —
Time to open bridge 32, 33
Tool steel, bearing unit
stresses 170
— chemical composition 293
—use 88, 292
— pressure on — rollers 173, 174
Toothed wheels, material 53
Torque curves 44
Torque of prime mover 181
Track girders, design 27
— planing 138
—price 14
Tread plates, planing 138
Trunnion bearings, see bear-
ings, bushings, surfaces —
Trunnions, see also journals,
shafts, etc. —
Paragraph.
Trunnions, continued.
—finish 140,141,151
—grooves 90, 91, 142
—holes 140
— impact 37
—keys 82
— keyways })>°
—length 105
— lubrication • °9-94
— material 50, 51, 57
— rotating 82
— stresses 100-103
—tests 151
Unit stresses, see also parts
in question 157-174
— reduced 161
Vanadium cast steel 299, 300
Voltmeter 2*4
Water-lifters 188
Water tank 188
■Wattmeter 244
Wedges, bearing unit stresses 170
Whistle 180
Wind pressure 11
^sduftrc!^.:.v.v.-:./.252(254,2j
— design 22/
—joints "i
—size "j
— stranded ^j>£
— specifications 195
— submarine cables 253
—tagged 2?2
Wire ropes HB-iau
—attachments, price 10
—attachments, type 115a
—bending unit stresses 162-165
—counterbalance 119
— deviation 115
— friction 28
— impact 37
— length tagged 127
—lubrication 120
— manufacture 118, 120
—material 119. 121
— one piece 122
—price 9
— properties of wires 1^1
—rejection 123
— renewing H5a
— shipment 130
—sockets 124-129
—strength 122
—tests 121'IB
— tests of connections 127
— unit stresses 160
— unwinding 130
Workmanship 131-156
Worm gears 110"H2
—finish 147
— material 50
Wrought-iron 206, 209
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
By E. H. Lee,
Chief Engineer, Chicago & Western Indiana Railroad; President Western
Society of Engineers : Member A. R. E. A., A. S. C. E.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Chart : Investment per Car, One and Two-Level Freight Houses.
Chart : Relation Between Length of House and Operating Costs.
Typical Cross-Section, Outbound House.
Typical Cross-Section, Inbound House.
Typical Cross-Section. Inbound and Outbound Houses.
Chart : Average Trucking Distance.
TABLES.
i. Investment per Car and Interest Charges per Ton, One and Two-
Level Freight Houses.
2. Freight House Data (Size, Business and Cost).
3. Itemized Operating Costs.
4. Relative Facilities of Existing Houses.
5- Data on Double-Deck Freight Houses.
6. Average Trucking Distance.
7. Comparative Facilities, One and Two-Level Houses.
INTRODUCTION.
During the last three or four years the writer has been collecting
the facts submitted in this paper, in order to verify, to his own satisfac-
tion, at least, certain assumptions which were made, and which were the
foundation upon which rested some of the principal features of plans for
a development of terminals, both passenger and freight, which he was
required to prepare in the course of his regular duties.
Terminal facilities are rapidly becoming the particular element of
fixed investment for many railroad companies which most needs enlarge-
ment, and L.C.L. freight facilities are an important factor in terminal
facilities as a whole. The great importance of determining the best means
of increasing the capacity of large city freight houses, having due regard
to economy in both investment and operation, is evident.
No claim is made to originality in what follows, neither is it intended
that the conclusions reached shall be advanced dogmatically. If these
notes draw out discussion, criticism and suggestion from members of the
Association, they will have answered their purpose.
The writer wishes to express his thanks to Mr. F. E. Morrow
and Mr. D. A. Tomlinson, and others among his assistants, for their
aid in collecting the information herein presented, and in preparing
363
364 NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
this paper. Acknowledgments are also due to a great many railroad
officers and agents for information furnished, and for exceedingly
courteous treatment in every case. Mr. R. C. Weller, of the New
York Central Lines, who has collected a mass of information, similar
to that herein, but for another purpose, very kindly made a consid-
erable part available both as information and for purposes of comparison.
The package (L.C.L.) freight business of large cities is an im-
portant part of city freight traffic, in Chicago amounting approximately
to 10 per cent, of the total tonnage and 25 per cent, of the total cars
handled. In cities the proportion of L.C.L. to the total is much higher
than when the entire freight traffic of the country is considered, the
L.C.L. tonnage of the United States being but 4.3 per cent, of the total
tonnage, and the L.C.L. cars 12.7 per cent, of the total. This ratio of
package freight to the total traffic is naturally higher in cities than in the
country as a whole, because it is derived largely from manufacturers
and wholesale houses located in the cities. This class of traffic is
also of greater importance than appears from its proportion to the
total business, because it is high-class freight, carried at high rates,
averaging from $40.00 to $50.00 per car, or from $6.00 to $8.00 per
ton. Although the gross revenues thus derived are large, the cost of
handling this class of business is very high, as terminal fixed charges
and operating expenses, including charges absorbed, sometimes amount
to $2.00 or more per ton ($1.50 fixed charges, 50 cents operation).
Such costs at each end of the shipment consume a large part of the
rate received. Any means of reducing interest charges or operating
expenses, or of giving better service to the public, should be given
careful consideration.
The need of centrally located, accessible, freight houses, for both
railroads and shippers, is apparent to even the casual observer. The
cost per ton-mile of teaming is many times the ton-mile freight rate,
for example in the downtown districts of Chicago it is estimated to
be 50 cents, exclusive of the cost of loading and unloading. A well-
located, accessible freight house is a valuable asset to a railroad, and
is of great importance to shippers and to the city as a whole, because
a city's prosperity is closely related to its commerce. Other conditions
being equal, the city having the best railroad facilities will grow most
rapidly, and the railroad having the most convenient freight houses
will get the most business.
The L.C.L. business is at present growing at the rate of about
5 per cent, a year. It therefore doubles every fifteen (15) years.
This growth, although it increases gross earnings, in many cases causes
great congestion and higher operating costs. In many cities the need
for an enlargement of facilities is daily becoming more imperative and
the cost greater, as ground values are also rising.
The usual freight-house layout is simple; a long, low, narrow
building with a driveway on one side, and with from one to eight or
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES. 365
more tracks on the other. Inbound houses are wider and served by
fewer tracks than outbound houses. A public street is often used for
the driveway, but when this is done the street is usually widened
from 10 ft. to 30 ft. that it may better accommodate standing teams.
For small houses, and in locations where land is cheap, this is un-
doubtedly the most economical arrangement, but where land is worth
from $5.00 to $20.00 or more per sq. ft., and where a house must be
800, 1,200 or even 1,800 ft. long to secure the necessary car capacity,
the investment becomes increasingly heavy and the cost of operation high.
Furthermore, when street and railroad grades are separated, the inclines
between driveways and streets consume much valuable space and impose
an added burden on teams and shippers.
In most cities a teamster drives up to the nearest door at an out-
bound house, and unloads his freight. The packages are then sorted
and trucked to the proper car. As the packages in one drayload usually
go to several different cars, the amount of trucking is great, while
the clerical expense of receiving freight is minimized. Vice-versa, in
an inbound house (in many cases), packages for each consignee are
assembled from the different cars into one particular section and the
teamster receives them there. Sometimes, however, freight is un-
loaded into the most convenient section, and the packages for one
consignee are assembled from one or more sections for* the teamster
at the most convenient door. Thus, where each load of freight must
be distributed from one door to several cars, or assembled from sev-
eral different cars to one particular section, a large amount of truck-
ing is necessary, and, of course, the longer the house the greater the
trucking distance and the higher the cost of operation.
At some points, Cincinnati being an example, the teamster de-
livers each outbound package at its proper door, i. e., freight for
Louisville is unloaded opposite the Louisville car, and freight for Pitts-
burgh opposite the Pittsburgh car. Conversely, all the inbound freight
in a car is unloaded onto the platform directly in front of that car,
and the teamster must stop at each section in which he may have freight.
Although this method cuts the trucking costs to a minimum, it greatly
increases the costs of receiving and delivery, delays the teamsters, and
even if teamsters are thoroughly familiar with the freight house, causes
confusion, street or driveway congestion, and loss of time. In St. Louis
the Shippers' Association recently protested against this method and
the "One Dump" system was installed.
The business in city freight houses may roughly be divided into
two classes, first, that originating or terminating in the city itself ;
second, transfer business, either between different roads or between
different divisions of the same road. This transfer business is largely
handled at the downtown freight houses. As the normal city outbound
freight business is usually light in the morning hours, 50 per cent,
being received after 3 o'clock in the afternoon, the transfer business
366 NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
can often be efficiently handled in these houses, and without entailing
increased facilities, because a more uniform distribution of work is ob-
tained by handling transfer freight during the morning, and a higher
loading per car and more "set out" cars are obtained by consolidating
the transfer and city business. Many large roads, however, whose busi-
ness is of sufficient volume to permit duplicate schedule loading, handle
the transfer freight at transfer stations at break-up yards, near the
outskirts of the city. This method leaves the expensive downtown ter-
minals free for strictly city business, while the transfer business is
handled at points where fixed charges are low. When the business
of a road is sufficient to justify this separation it is undoubtedly advisable.
The high interest charges on downtown freight terminals may be
illustrated by an inbound house in Chicago. It is 1,000 ft. long and
50 ft. wide, with a 40-ft. driveway on one side and two tracks on
the other, occupying a total area of 1,000 ft. by 120 ft.= i20,ooo sq. ft.
The land is valued at about $16.00 per sq. ft. The total land invest-
ment then is $16 X 120,000 = $1,920,000, exclusive of area occupied by
leads. At 5 per cent, the interest charges are $96,000 per annum. The
business handled is 50 cars per day or 15,000 cars per annum. The
interest charges per car, then, are $6.40, or at six tons per car, $1.07 per
ton. Adding to this the operating cost of 48 cents a ton, the total cost
is $1.55. This is an actual example, and there are some thirty freight
houses in Chicago alone whose charges may be considered somewhat
similar.
For purposes of comparison the operating costs of a freight house
may be divided thus :
Receiving ;
Trucking ;
Stowing ;
Delivery ;
Supervision
1 Overhead.
Miscellaneous )
"receiving" including the checkers and callers; "trucking" the truckers,
"stowing" the stowers; "delivery" the delivery clerks and their helpers;
"supervision" the foreman and his assistants, and "miscellaneous" any
messengers, coopers, car sweepers, etc. The proportion of each item
to the total and the total itself varies, of coupse, with the character
of business handled, the efficiency and method of operation in each
house, and the wages paid. Table 3 gives these itemized costs for sev-
eral houses.
Further, these items vary with the work necessary to handle each
ton ; that is, with the size and length of the house ; the longer the
house, the greater the average trucking distance and the higher the
cost of operation. If to double the capacity of a given house, its length
be doubled, then the trucking distance will also be doubled. This would
not be true if two duplicate sets of cars were placed, one at each end
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES. 367
of the house, but this is rarely done, for it is better to have "set out"
cars for as many points as possible rather than several peddler cars,
or cars whose contents must be rehandled at a transfer station before
reaching their destination. Theoretically the amount of trucking would
increase in direct proportion to the length of the house. This is borne
out by experience, as shown in Table 6, where the actual trucking
distances (average) of several freight houses of various lengths, as de-
termined by observations, are given. Fig. 6 shows this graphically. The
line as plotted agrees closely with the observations, and shows that the
amount of trucking varies directly with the length of the house; the
average trucking distance being approximately 53 per cent, of the length
of the house. The lengths and the costs of operation of 58 freight
houses are given in Table 2. These show that the cost of operation
increases with the length of the house. Fig. 2 shows this fact graph
ically, the operating costs given in Table 2 being plotted against the
length of the house. A considerable variation is found in houses of
the same length, largely due, as stated above, to differences in the
character of the business, the efficiency and method of operation, and
the wages paid. The normal line as plotted is believed to represent
closely the average cost of operation for any length of house. It would
not be exactly correct unless the conditions at all the houses were sim-
ilar, but it is thought to be reasonably accurate under average con-
ditions. This indicates an increase in cost of 1 cent per ton for every
35 ft. increase in length. The increase in the cost of operation, due
to increasing the length of any given house, would probably be greater
rather than smaller than the amount indicated by the normal line,
although the costs of operation of outbound houses tend to increase
more rapidly with the length than do those of inbound houses. It is
clearly evident that any increase in the length of a house, although
giving a greater car capacity, increases the cost of handling, not only
of the additional business obtained, but of the entire business.
As the business district and population of a city expand railroad
terminals become more valuable, and the costs of additional land and
the freight facilities thereon constantly increase. Nevertheless as a city
grows the freight traffic grows, present facilities become congested and
inadequate and the need for more accessible and enlarged facilities
becomes constantly more pressing.
Any freight house of the usual one-story type which handles ade-
quately the business offered, has four kinds of facilities and these of
sufficient capacity and proper proportions, viz.,
(1) Car standing capacity, including suitable lead or
approach tracks.
(2) Platform area.
(3) Platform frontage for teams.
(4) Team driveways.
368 NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
Table 4 gives these facilities of several existing houses, and their
relation to each other. For instance, in outbound houses the platform
area varies from 213 sq. ft. to 570 sq. ft. per car standing room, the
average being 247 sq. ft. ; the team frontage per car standing room varies
from 4.6 ft. to 19.2 ft., the average being 10.2 ft.; the width of drive-
ways varies from the street only to a 35-ft. private driveway. In most
cases where the volume of business has reached, or is approaching the
capacity of the house (and this is especially true in outbound houses),
the particular facility which first feels the pinch of congestion, is car-
standing capacity. This can be increased by the addition of more tracks
against the house, although this decreases the team frontage per car, in-
creases the cost of "spotting cars" and in inbound houses causes con-
fusion between gangs of men working in different cars in the same
"run"; or by adding to the length of the house and its present tracks,
which also increases the cost of operation ; by handling the transfer
business at outlying points, thus relieving the terminals of all except
strictly city business ; by a more rapid handling of the business ; by
the use of trap cars, or by "double-decking," that is, by placing cars
on each side of the house on one level, and driveways on each side
on another. Either of the first two methods increases the investment
in land and also (slightly) in improvements. Summarizing, increased
car capacity may be obtained :
(1) By the purchase of additional land.
(2) By handling L.C.L. transfer at outlying points,
relieving the terminals of all except strictly city
business.
(3) By the more rapid handling of freight through the
house.
(4) By the use of trap cars loaded on team tracks,
later transferring the contents into schedule cars,
obtaining a high tonnage from a small area of
valuable property.
(5) By "double-decking," obtaining a greater car ca-
pacity from present ground holdings.
In small houses (200 or 300 ft. long) the first method of enlarge-
ment is probably the best, i. e., to double the capacity of a house by
doubling its length. In the case of an outbound house, the addition
of more tracks against the house may increase the capacity at low
cost. With inbound houses, however, it is often undesirable to add
more tracks. In houses over four or five hundred feet in length, an
increase in length adds greatly to the costs of operation, and when
more than four or five tracks are placed alongside a house, the cost of
"spotting" cars and handling freight through them becomes high. In
that case a duplicate house may be built. This is often done for in-
bound business, and offers no serious operating difficulties, but for
outbound business would probably lead to many complications. This,
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES. 369
of course, doubles the facilities, but does nothing to reduce interest
charges or operating expenses. Furthermore, the cost of additional land
and expensive buildings thereon may be prohibitive, or the holdings
of other roads may make this solution impossible. A point some-
times lost sight of is that each additional purchase of land for rail-
road purposes removes the potential commercial freight producing
power of such area. Railroad holdings in the business district of a
city may be so large as to tend to hamper its growth, and public senti-
ment against such additions may sometimes be strong. The need for
keeping streets open, and for separating grades often makes difficult
an efficient development of additional property. Thus in large cities
where one-story freight houses grow so long as to be unwieldy, and
where the acquirement of additional ground is expensive and difficult,
if not impossible, it is evident that some other means for enlarging and
improving freight terminals should be sought.
One method of relieving congestion at the cramped downtown ter-
minals is to handle all or a large part of the L.C.L. transfer business
at transfer stations located at the break-up yards. This increases the
capacity of the terminals for strictly city business, although in some
cases not in proportion to the amount of transfer tonnage taken else-
where, and decreases the fixed charges on transfer business, in some
cases as much as 95 per cent. However, it forces a duplicate loading
of cars; one set of cars at the downtown houses and another set (for
the same points) at the transfer station, and leaves the city freight house
with an unbalanced peak of business in the afternoon. Where the busi-
ness is small this double loading should be avoided, but if there is a
sufficient volume of traffic, it offers a logical and simple means of de-
creasing congestion, or increasing capacity. Many large roads are now
doing this, but are finding it insufficient, as the increased capacity is
soon taken up by the growth of traffic. The city business is growing
so rapidly that additional capacity is necessary even for it alone, and
that capacity must be provided where land values are high and re-
strictions severe.
More rapid handling of freight through an inbound house would
greatly increase its capacity ; that is, the house could handle twice the
business if the storage time before delivery could be cut in half. Or in
an outbound house, if a more even flow of business during the day could
be obtained, it might be possible to load two or three different "set
ups" of cars daily, thus immediately doubling or trebling the capacity
of the house. This, however, would involve a radical change in busi-
ness methods on the part of shippers. It might cause a 24-hour delay
in shipping orders, and, therefore, probably cannot be obtained without
the co-operation of shippers. A substantial improvement would be
possible, however, if shippers realized that larger morning deliveries to
the railroad would result in decreasing congestion, thus decreasing
the time necessary for cartage delivery, a benefit for both sides.
370 NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
It is often possible to obtain a daily movement of cars 15 per
cent, or 20 per cent, greater than the standing capacity of the house,
by switching out loaded cars for points whose business requires two or
more cars daily, but no great increase in capacity is thus obtainable. In
most outbound houses the time required to place freight in its proper
car after receipt from dray or truck is short. More rapid handling
through the house by motor truck (or other means) has little effect cm
the capacity, and is justified only when it results in a saving in the cost
of operation. In large houses, that is, houses over 800 ft. long, motor
trucks have proven economical, in some cases cutting the trucking cost
as much as 40 per cent, because one motor truck and driver can handle
a greater tonnage than one man with a hand truck. Motor trucks are
most efficient when used as power for hauling loaded trucks as trailers
to be dropped opposite the proper car. This method secures the maxi-
mum tonnage and mileage from the motor truck, by reducing the load-
ing and unloading time to a minimum, and it enables a motor truck
and two men to handle 60 to 80 tons per day, whereas two men with
hand trucks handle only- 20 to 30 tons per day. In one case a motor
truck with one man is reported as handling 60 tons per day. Although
the cost of operation may be reduced as stated, yet little or no effect
in increasing the capacity of a given house or piece of ground is secured.
From the foregoing it is evident that the need of increased facili-
ties is often urgent; that further spreading out, both in first cost and
in operation, is expensive and may be prohibitive; that even when
bouses are operated efficiently, to handle city business exclusively, the
fixed and operating charges may be very high and that, therefore,
some means of increasing capacity and decreasing fixed charges and
operating expenses should be sought.
One method of securing a high tonnage from a small area of down-
town property is that which has been in use in Minneapolis and St.
Paul for several years, where some roads provide no outbound houses,
but use team tracks instead.
Outbound freight is loaded indiscriminately into large box cars
("Jumbo" cars) at team tracks; the cars are pulled several times a
day and taken to outlying transfer stations where the freight is trans-
ferred into schedule cars, the contents of '"Jumbo" cars from several
points being consolidated, thereby obtaining a high tonnage per car and
very low interest charges, but adding the cost of loading the "Jumbo"
cars (12 to 15 cents per ton) and some switching costs. This method,
however, delays all freight received late in the afternoon until the fol-
lowing day. Where the freight from several scattered houses can be
consolidated in this manner, and a" heavier loading per car and less in-
terest charges per ton obtained, this method appears simple and feasible,
but in a highly competitive business it could not be advantageously used
by any one road, unless also adopted by its competitors, owing to the
delay of freight. As this delay would not permit many present over-
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES. 371
night deliveries, it can only be used to advantage where local conditions
warrant.
Manufacturers have found it desirable to build factories of several
stories instead of spreading one-story buildings over a much larger area,
thus obtaining a more efficient use of ground and more efficient operation,
by centralizing the plant. Similarly, by double-decking a freight house,
with the tracks and driveways on different levels, but over the same
ground area, it would seem that a railroad might obtain like results.
For example Figs. 3, 4 and 5 show typical one-story freight houses
and two-story developments for the same ground areas. These show
that double-decking increases the car-standing capacity of a given piece
of ground from 60 per cent, to 133 per cent.
A comparison of the relative facilities of these one and two-level
developments is given in Table 7. This shows that double-decking main-
tains about the same relations between the different facilities that exist
in the one-story houses, for not only is the car capacity increased, but
the driveway frontage and area, and platform area as well.
Where land is cheap it is economical to use a larger ground area
and less expensive improvements. But as land increases in value it
becomes more economical to use less money for ground and more for
improvements ; that is, an increase in the money spent in improvements
accomplishes a proportionately greater decrease in the amount of money
necessary for land. Double-decking does this, and it also eliminates
grade crossings, with the consequent delays to teams and the danger of
accidents, due to switching. Moreover when streets are carried over
tracks on viaducts or beneath them in subways, double-decking avoids
the need for long, expensive inclines, between driveways and streets,
which occupy space and tend to make a freight house inaccessible.
As, in such a house, freight must be handled between two levels, the
cost of operation in some items is increased; but because the freight
house is shorter and more compact, the operating cost in other items,
especially the trucking, is reduced, often more than enough to offset
the increase. Thus a two level house :
(1) Diminishes the investment in land.
(2) Adds to the cost of the improvement.
(3) Is especially feasible on sidehill locations or where
grades are separated.
(4) Saves the space sometimes used for inclines be-
tween streets and driveways.
(5) Improves the street system, making the freight
house more accessible.
(6) Decreases the operating cost, by shortening the
trucking distance and by centralizing the operating
force.
(7) Adds to the operating costs the item of elevating or
dropping freight.
372 NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
Taking these up in order:
The fact that double-decking will decrease the investment in land
is apparent, for instead of having tracks on one side of a platform and
a driveway on the other, tracks and driveways will be located on each
side. A higher car capacity will, therefore, at once be obtained, while
the driveway frontage per car will remain about the same. Figs. 3, 4
and 5 show cross-sections of typical one-story houses, and possible two-
level developments of the same areas. The gain is obvious. Further,
the diagrams show how readily a second level may often be adjusted to
existing viaducts, thus saving long detours by teams, and long, space-
taking inclines between streets and driveways.
In one terminal in Chicago where there are ten freight houses,
handling over 700 cars a day, an average of 2,000 sq. ft. of ground is
used per car standing room. There is much interference between teams
and switch engines, and the approaches to some of the houses are long
and circuitous. In a proposed two-level development of the same area
it was found that only 1,300 sq. ft. would be necessary per car, a sav-
ing of 33 per cent, in area per car as compared with present conditions,
making possible an increase in the capacity of present holdings of 50
per cent. In this plan grades are separated, interference between teams
and engines is prevented, and all houses become more accessible. The
cost of the present one-story improvements was about $1.00 per sq.
ft. The estimated cost of the proposed development was $4.00 per
sq ft. The cost of the present improvements is typical of freight
houses in all large cities, and the estimate of the cost of the two-
level development is believed to be liberal.
In many cases where space is used for inclines between streets and
the driveways of single-level freight houses, an excellent double-deck
development may be designed that will increase the capacity as much
as 150 per cent, over a single-story development. Often, also, double-
deck developments may be designed to use as little as 1,000 sq. ft. per
car standing room. This means an increased efficiency of from 60 per
cent, to 100 per cent, or even 150 per cent, for a given piece of land
and a corresponding decrease in the fixed charges of from 20 per cent,
to 50 per cent, or possibly more.
If 2,000 sq. ft. per car and $1.00 per sq. ft. for improvements be
assumed as unit values for one-level houses, and 1,300 sq. ft. per car
and $4.00 per sq. ft. for improvements for two-level houses, then curves
may be plotted showing the total investment per car for different ground
values, for one and two-level developments. Such a chart is shown
in Fig. 1, the upper line showing the investment per car in one-level
houses, the middle line the investment per car in two-level houses, using
1,300 sq. ft. per car, and the lower line in two-level houses using 1,000
sq. ft. per car. Thus when land is worth less than $4.50 per sq ft.,
a one-level house is the more economical, but when land is worth more
than that a two-level house shows a saving; at $10.00 per sq. ft. a
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
373
saving of $3,8oo per car standing room or 17 per cent.; at $15.00 per
sq. ft. $6,300 per car or 20 per cent., and at $20.00 per sq. ft. $10,800
per car or 26 per cent.; thus the higher the land value the more eco-
nomical a two-level development becomes. If a two-level development,
using only 1,000 sq. ft. per car can be designed, the saving is even more
COMPARATIVE INVESTMENTS PER CAR
ONE AND TWO LEVEL FREIGHT HOUSES
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Value of Improvernents
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S 1 Per Sq. Ft.
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Fig. 1.
marked; at $10.00 per sq. ft., $8,000 saving per car, or 36 per cent.; at
$15.00 per sq. ft, $13,000 per car, or 41 per cent., at $20.00 per sq. ft.,
$18,000 per car, or 43 per cent. In any case, values to fit local condi-
tions may be assumed and graphs drawn.
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NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES. 375
The more the investment per car is reduced, the smaller become the
fixed charges per ton of freight handled, and the greater the gain to
the railroad company. Therefore, with the assumed values where land
costs more than $4.50 per sq. ft., a double-deck freight house is less
expensive than a single level; in other words an increase in the cost
of the improvement produces a greater decrease in the cost of ground.
Where enlargements to present facilities are needed, double-decking is
sometimes the economical and logical method, and may be the only
practicable solution.
By completely separating streets and tracks, and by removing sags
and humps now present in street grades, a street system may sometimes
be improved to the mutual advantage of city and railroad. Every such
improvement in the street system is an advantage to the city, and
also an advantage to the railroad. It makes the freight house more
accessible, a direct asset to the railroad.
The typical cross-sections shown in Figs. 3, 4 and 5 (already re-
ferred to), show an increased capacity of from 60 per cent, to 130 per
cent, possible in double-decking. In other words, a given car capacity
may be obtained in from 40 per cent, to 60 per cent, less length in a
double-deck than in a single-deck house. This would obviously result
in a saving in trucking and in an increased efficiency in operation due
to centralizing the working force. Referring again to Fig. 2, the costs
of operation of 58 houses show that starting at 32.7 cents per ton, at a
length of house of 400 ft., the average cost of operation increases about
1 cent for every 35 ft. increase of length. Conversely, decrease the length
of the house 35 ft. and the cost of operation is decreased by 1 cent,
per ton. For instance, if a capacity of 100 cars is desired, with four
tracks against a platform, a one-story house would have to be 1,000
ft. long. A double-deck house with four tracks on each side of a
platform would only have to be 500 ft. long. The saving in length
would be 500 ft. and in operating costs under the assumption made
500
would be =14-3 cents per ton.
35
But this saving is not all clear gain, for in a double-deck house
some means must be provided for handling freight between the two
levels, and this adds slightly to the cost of operation, and unless flexible,
reliable, cheap, and efficient, would form a serious objection to this type
of house. Freight can be transferred between two levels in several
ways, viz :
(1) By telphers (overhead cranes).
(2) By gravity (chutes).
(3) By mechanical conveyors (moving belts or plat-
forms).
(4) By elevators.
Where telphers are used the trucks are picked up by overhead travel-
ing cranes, and lifted or lowered through hatchways. In one house
376 NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
where telphers were installed it was found that this caused extra hand-
ling of all freight, as the telpher buggies had to be placed directly be-
neath the telpher runway, for the telpher covers a line and not an
area. Hand trucks were therefore used to a large extent between
dray and telpher buggy, and telpher buggy and car. The telpher could
handle only one buggy load at one time, the breakage of freight was
heavy, and the cost of power was relatively great, as the load could
not be counterbalanced. The telphers were unreliable, breaking down
frequently, to the demoralization of the whole working force. The sys-
tem was unsatisfactory and the house has been remodeled and elevators
installed. It may safely be stated that while telphers are useful in special
cases they are not suited to ordinary L.C.L. freight-house use, for they
lack flexibility, are unreliable and more or less unsafe, and they are
very expensive, both in first cost and in operation and maintenance.
The second method, namely, the use of gravity, which is feasible
when the cars are below the driveways in an outbound house, or above
them in an inbound, would seem ideal, as gravity is free. A close
study of operating conditions and methods, however, shows many de-
fects. Packages must be unloaded from dray onto truck, trucked to the
chute, unloaded, into it, reloaded into another truck at the other end,
and trucked to the proper car. The many rehandlings are expensive,
costing much more than the expense required to handle freight by ele-
vator. Moreover, a chute is limited in capacity, cannot handle packages
of any great size or weight, or of odd shapes, damages fragile goods
and is apt to cause congestion on the platforms- around it.
Mechanical conveyors, inclined or perpendicular, would seem to be
an efficient means of hoisting freight, but they are open to the same
objections as chutes, namely, the necessity of extra handling, inflexibility,
damage to freight, and congestion on the platforms.
In the factories or warehouses, where there is a steady flow of
articles of uniform size and weight from one fixed point to another,
chutes and mechanical conveyors between different levels, have proven
very efficient, but in a freight house where every conceivable variety
of package must be handled from any one of several different points
to any one of numerous other points, they are not satisfactory. Where
they have been installed they have sometimes been practically a dead
loss. It is cheaper and quicker to push a loaded truck on and off an
elevator, than to unload it into a chute or conveyor, and then reload
the freight onto another truck at the other end.
These three possible means of handling freight between two levels
are unsatisfactory. The fourth method, namely, the use of elevators,
remains, and is the only one found during this investigation which com-
mends itself as generally suitable for use in freight houses. It lends
itself particularly well to the handling of L.C.L. freight, as it involves
practically no rehandling, and because either a two-wheel truck or a
four-wheel truck can be put through the elevator equally well, although
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
377
the four-wheel truck, as it has a greater carrying capacity, is the better
vehicle. A trucker can handle 800 or 1,000 lbs. on a four-wheel truck
as easily as 200 or 300 lbs. on a two-wheel truck, for the former does
not tax his strength in lifting and supporting part of the load, and
allows him to put all of his effort into pushing the truck. Elevators
are flexible (need only be run when necessary), safe, reliable, can be
designed so as to have a large capacity, and are cheap in operation.
COMPARATIVE CAB CAPACITIES
ONE & TWO LEVEL FREIGHT HOUSES
DRIVEWAY "
HOUSE
1
CARS
'
II
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1
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TYPICAL 1- STORY OUTBOUND HOUSE
DRIVEWAY
□ □□
40'
HOUS
ELEVATOR
n
DRIVEWAY
□ □□
7- — J 14.' L 4.
POSSIBLE 2-LEVE DEVELOPMENT
INCREASE 60%
Fig. 3.
The elevator should be wide enough to carry a loaded four-wheel
truck or "dolly" and long enough to hold four or five of them in a
row, the trucks being placed at right angles to the long side of the
elevator, thus obtaining a high capacity per trip of the elevator and
permitting the handling of articles of unusual dimensions. To fill these
conditions the necessary dimensions would be about 8 ft. by 20 ft.
Standard elevators are built with a speed of 50 ft. and 100 ft. per
minute. Either speed is suitable, for the limiting point is not the time
between floors, but the time at each floor, and unless the elevator is
378
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
designed to permit rapid loading and unloading, its efficiency will be
seriously crippled. The higher-speed elevators can make each trip quicker,
but free movement on and off at each floor is more important than
speed between floors. In order to obtain rapid handling, access to and
from the elevator should be had from the long side, preferably from
both, and at each floor. Observations of elevators in existing two-
COMPARATIVE CAR CAPACITIES
ONE & TWO LEVEL FREIGHT HOUSES
DRIVEWAY -■
^ HOUSE ^
CARS
f
II 1
5
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TYPICAL 1- STORY INBOUND HOUSE
DRIVEWAY
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ELEVA
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£8*
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DRIVEWAY
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POSSIBLE a-LEVEL DEVELOPMENT
INCREASE lOOofo
Fig. 4.
level houses have shown that such an elevator can be unloaded and
reloaded in about 6o seconds.
The capacity per elevator can then be estimated as :
Minimum : Load to five two-wheel trucks at 200 lbs.
per truck, average time for round trip three minutes (one
way empty trucks only), capacity per hour
10 tons.
Maximum: Load of five four-wheel trucks at 1,000
lbs. per truck, average time per round trip, 2l/2 minutes
(one way empty trucks only), capacity per hour
60 tons.
n
K ' '
T7
ii
380 NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
A fair average per elevator per hour, in existing houses, has been
found to be 20 tons, capable of being speeded up to 60 tons in rush
periods.
The cost of operation of elevators is low, averaging one to two
cents per ton for power, and a little less for labor (attendant). In
addition to the actual cost of operation, however, there is some extra
trucking, as there would be some lost motion.
It is estimated that these costs (in a well-designed house) will be:
Power and maintenance 1 }4 cents
Labor (elevator man) 1 cent
Delay to truckers 1% cents
Total 4 cents per ton
An examination of existing freight-house elevators has shown this
to be very closely correct. Table 5 gives the costs of operation of
several two-level houses, and an estimate of the cost of elevators. This
varies from two to ten cents per ton, depending largely on the design
and size of the elevators and platforms, and the method of operation.
When the elevators are so small as to hold only one or two trucks at
once, when the platforms are so narrow as to cause congestion, or when
freight is unloaded from the trucks into the elevator as if it were a
box car, and reloaded onto other trucks at the other end, the cost per ton
is high. But when the elevators are of ample capacity, designed to per-
mit rapid loading and unloading, and the platforms are of sufficient
width and the trucks themselves (but not the truckers) are sent through
them, the cost of elevation is as low as two or three cents per ton.
Four cents a ton is believed to be a conservative estimate for a well-
designed house.
If the saving in the necessary length of a house is sufficient to
reduce operating costs 4 cents per ton, the decrease in operating costs
will balance the elevator cost; any decrease in operating costs due to
any greater decrease in the length of the house will be clear profit. Thus,
if for houses over 400 ft. long the cost of operation increases 1 cent for
every 35 ft. increase in length of house, and a single-story house would
have to be 800 ft. long to have a capacity of 100 cars, and a double-
deck house of the same capacity only 400 ft. long, the saving in opera-
400
tion under the assumptions made would be — =11.4 cents per ton,
35
minus the cost of elevation, of 4 cents per ton, or a net saving of 7
cents per ton. Assuming an average loading of 6 tons per car and
300 working days a year, the annual operating saving would be .07 X 6 X
100 X 300 = $12,600.
Therefore, when ground is worth over $4.50 per sq. ft, a two-level
freight house means a smaller total investment than a one-level house,
and when the saving in the length of the house is more than 140 ft.,
which would be the case in all houses over 400 ft. in length, there will
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
381
be a decrease in operating costs. From either the investment or the
operating standpoint in these cases a two-level house is, therefore, a
more desirable type than a one-level.
Furthermore, there are the sometimes desirable advantages of sepa-
rating grades, improving the street system and adding to the convenience
of the freight house for shippers, all of which indirectly add to the
volume of business which will be obtained, and may therefore tend to
decrease operating cost.
AVERAGE TRUCKING DISTANCES
OUTBOUND FREIGHT HOUSES
o
z
X
u
D
cr
h
LENGTH OF HOUSE
Note: Data Obtained From Obse-rvat ions
Fig. 6.
There are several two-level houses now in use, although so far
as known none were built in order to decrease interest charges or
operating expenses, but because owing to local conditions one-level
houses could not readily have been built. Detailed data regarding seven
of these are given in Table 5. There are a few others, but the writer
has not yet been able to examine them. Most of the present two-level
houses having been designed primarily to meet local conditions, have
not obtained the full advantages of two-level construction, but never-
theless some decrease in interest charges and operating costs has
resulted.
A still further decrease in fixed charges is desirable, if possible.
This may be obtained by building storage or warehouse floors above the
freight house. This can be done equally well in one or two-level houses.
It decreases fixed charges, and gives the tenants excellent shipping
facilities. There is a danger in this practice, however; tenants do not
handle all their freight over their landlord's line; they require and
flo
O"
r
6O
o*
r
(
| S
40
o'
1
>
20
o'
sc
IO*
IO
OO'
15
OO
■
382 NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
receive a great deal of switching service to and from other lines, for
which the landlord line receives only a nominal switching charge.
Moreover, they are often slow in loading and unloading freight, fre-
quently holding cars for several days. A car held four days, switching
revenue $5, plus $2 demurrage, does not add to profits; if it displaces a
car each day at a loss of revenue of from $40.00 to $50.00 per car. To
sum up, while overhead storage or warehouse floors decrease fixed
charges, yet the requirements of tenants may be such as to seriously di-
minish the ultimate capacity of the freight house, although possibly leases
can be drawn which will eliminate the above objections.
Where the overhead space can be used for light manufacturing or
office purposes, the above objection may not hold true; nor when the
contents of warehouses are held during long periods, and for city con-
sumption; but this phase of the question merits the most careful con-
sideration.
CONCLUSIONS.
Summing up, we draw the following conclusions from the foregoing:
The L. C. L. freight business of large cities is growing rapidly. The
need for enlargement is becoming more pressing. The investment re-
quired is constantly becoming heavier. The obstacles to one-level ex-
pansion are becoming more severe. The removal of transfer freight to
outlying points provides only temporary relief from congestion. More
rapid handling of the business in many cases requires too radical a change
in local shipping customs. Mechanical handling, even if economical, has
but slight effect on capacity. Double-decking, by decreasing both the
investment per car and the operating expense, and as it also adapts
itself to grade separation, is a logical method of improvement. Its
adoption for city L. C. L. freight terminals may, therefore, be expected
to become more general, as conditions demand.
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
383
TABLE No. 1.— COMPARISON OF INVESTMENT PER CAR AND INTEREST
CHARGESPER TON OF SINGLE AND DOUBLE-DECK FREIGHT
HOUSES FOR DIFFERENT LAND-VALUES
One-Level
Two-Leve!
Two-Level
Value
2,000 sq.ft. per car
1,300 sq. ft. per car
1,000 sq.
Ft. per car
of Land
per
sq. ft.
Investment
Interest
Investment
Interest
Investment
Interest
per car
per ton
per car
per ton
per car
per ton
t 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
$4,000
$0,111
$6,500
$0,175
$5,000
$0. 139
12,000
0.333
11,700
0.325
9,000
0.250
8
9
10
22,000
0.611
18,200
0.505
14,000
0.389
11
12
13
14
15
32,000
0.889
24,700
0.686
19,000
0.528
16
17
18
19
20
42,000
1.167
31,200
0.866
24,000
J. 667
Note. — For one-level houses the ground area per car is assumed to be
2,000 sq. ft. and the value of the improvement to be $2,000 per car ($1.00
per sq. ft.).
For two-level houses the ground area per car is assumed to be 1,300
sq. ft. and the value of the improvement to be $5,200 per car ($4.00 per sq. ft.).
In many cases, however, double-decking would decrease the ground area
to 1,000 sq. ft. per car, at which area the value of the improvements would
be $4,000 per car ($4.00 per sq. ft.).
Interest charges per ton are computed on the basis of 300 cars per annum
and six tons per car.
384
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES.
TABLE No. 2.— FREIGHT HOUSE DATA
Collected from 58 Freight Stations of 24 Railroads Located in 17 Cities
Refer-
ence
No.
Type
Trap Cars
Trap Cars
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In
In. & Out.
In
In. & Out.
Out
In
In. & Out.
Out
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In
Transfer..
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In
Transfer. .
Out
In. & Out.
Out
In. & Out.
Out
In
In
Transfer . . .
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
Transfer...
In. & Out.
Out
Out
Out
Out
Transfer...
In
In
In
Transfer...
Transfer . . .
Transfer . .
Out
Transfer...
Out
Out
Length
Actual
Feet
Used
Feet
53
52
00
100
130
192
200
241
250
371
375
380
400
550
410
417
430
380
700
200
500
444
480
480
500
500
510
400
535
540
640
250
564
570
600
600
600
000
640
600
725
800
520
705
800
750
1,750
780
800
800
800
990
815
840
/ 986
1 800
[1,270
{ 1,020
I 300
900
1,045
976
1,700
1,600
53
52
60
100
130
192
200
210
250
371
375
380
400
400
410
417
430
440
450
470
480
480
500
500
510
540
535
540
550
564
570
600
600
600
600
640
650
700
705
700
750
900
780
800
800
800
800
815
840
890
900
900
976
1,300
1,400
Width
Feet
No. of! Width
Tracks !D»v-ay
40-
152
40
60
42
37
73
30
118
/ 60
\ 42
80
44
40
24
50
232
100
73
/ 35
\ 25
50
50
39
30
60
16
( 45 \
\ 30 /
60
16
28
11-24
27
30
30
16
60
61
40
I 14 \
I 12 /
18&20
50
30
30
50
28-40
30
30
Street
St.
St.
St.
St.
St.
St.
50
Tons per Cars per
Month Month
1}
5
4
2&3
7
3
7
4
2
7
7&8
5
10
3
1.2&4
4
5
4
3
2
2
9
3&4
40
40
St. + 25
St.
42
50
36
60
50
St.+
70
35
St.
66
None
66
38
28
50
None
50
35
60
St.+
50
None
St. + 20
None
35
35
66
St. + 10
50
None
50
40
None
None
None
St. + 25
None
St. -t 17
70
6,113
3,256
133
440
300
1,040
504
3,230
1,280
2,000
3,000
5,040
9,000
1,950
7,800
8,800
2,400
5,000
4,500
4,060
5,500
10,000
11,080
13,750
16,160
6,400
3,400
12,800
10,500
13,400
18,400
9,500
10,400
3,076
8,400
10,000
14,300
15,300
22,500
3,150
19,100
12,500
14,400
17,500
19,135
13,300
5,500
17,500
15,000
31,000
12,500
11,600
9,600
12,000
31,000
500
315
140
84
164
150
1,100
900
350
1,100
1,100
600
.1,000
1,000
1,020
1,800
2,025
925
986
1,100
600
1,200
1,600
2,050
600
1,090
1,650
3,000
1,600
3,500
2,650
1,530
2,125
2,800
1,600
1,250
2,550
5,000
1,325
1,765
2,500
5,750
"■Indicates a two-level house (all using elevators).
Note. — "Actual" length is the actual length of the house. Where part of
the house is unused; where the house is operated in two sections; where
there are two or more platforms of different lengths; or where the house is
very wide, the "Actual" length has been increased or decreased to a fair
"Used" length. Where there are separate warehouse floors the operating
"Cost Per Ton" as given does not include the cost of storage.
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES. 385
TABLE 3 —ITEMIZED OPERATING COSTS
Outbound Houses
House Number 46
Overhead 6.3
Receiving 16.7
Trucking 20.5
Stowing 3.05
Total 47.0
House Number 50
verhead 10.07
Receiving 10. 04
Trucking 16.20
Delivery 9.70
Stowing
Total 46.04 42.40 42.28
Combined Houses (In and Out.)
House Number *24 *41
Overhead 2.9 3.58
Receiving 15.4 15.50
Trucking 21.8 22.25
Delivery 6.2
Stowing 2.6 2.43
Total 48.9 43.80
44
55
19
58
47
5.4
14.1
16.4
7.2
7.57
13.22
18.77
6.85
4.40
11.44
15.01
6.01
2.10
20.02
33.00
7.26
4.09
15.05
18.07
5.76
43.1
45.41
36.86
62.38
42.97
Inbound Houses
49
14
3.42
13.40
12.90
9.77
2.91
11.54
12.34
11.33
7.07
♦Cost of operating warehouse floors included.
Note. — House numbers correspond to reference numbers given in Table 2.
TABLE 4.— RELATIVE FACILITIES OF SOME EXISTING FREIGHT HOUSES
Outbound
House Number 44 46 55 57 45
Length of house 1,360 ft. 800 ft. 1,045 ft. 1,150 ft. 1,700 ft. 780 ft
Width 24 it. 30 ft. 30 ft. 30 ft. 42 ft. 27 ft
Effective length 750 ft. 800 tt. 900 ft. 40 ft. 1,300 ft. 1780 ft
Number tracks 3&4 5 3&4 2 3 6
Car capacity 136 90 134 60 125 84
Cars per day 106 85 53 90 100 61
Ratio cars per day to car cap 78% 94% 39.5% 150% 96% 72.6%
Width driveway 35 ft. St.-)- 10 ft. St.+25 ft St.-f St. .
Driveway frontage 850 ft. 640 ft. 610 ft. 1,150 ft. 1,600 ft. 780 ft.
Driveway frontage per car cap 8.0ft. 7.5ft. 4.6ft. 19.2ft. 12.8ft. 9.3ft.
Platform area, sq. ft 32,600 19,200 27,000 34,500 .... 21,000
Platform area per car capacity .sq.ft. 232 213 219 570 251
Tons per month 19,100 14,400 11,600 13,500 12,000 12,500
Inbound
House Number 50 49 14 22 38
Length of house 815 ft. 990 ft. 380 ft. 1,300 ft. 440 ft. 640 ft
Widthofhouse 61ft. 60ft. 40 ft. 48 ft. 60ft. 60ft.
Effective length 815 ft. 800 ft. 380 ft. 40 ft. 440 ft. 640 ft.
Number tracks 2 3 3 2 3 3
Car capacity 50 75 27 60 33 34
Cars per day 50 63 14 73 .... 44
Ratio cars per day to car cap 100% 84% 52% 120% .... 130%
Width driveway 40 ft. 50 ft. St.+25 ft. St.+ St.+ St.
Driveway frontage 960 ft. 990 ft. 350 ft. 1,300 ft. 440 ft. 640 ft.
Driveway frontage per car capacity. 19.2 ft. 13.2 ft. 13.0 ft. 21.7 ft. 13.0 ft. 18 8 ft.
Platform area, sq. ft 54,000 59,400 14,000 72,800 79.200 36,000
Platform areaper car capacity .sq.ft. 1,080 792 520 1,210 2,400 1,060
Tons per month 5.500 13.320 1.950 5,800 .... 8,400
Note. — House numbers correspond to reference numbers given in Table 2.
386
NOTES ON L. C. L.
FREIGHT
HOUSES.
TABLE 5.— DATA ON DOUBLE-DECK FREIGHT HOUSES
Reference No.
13
!
18 20 23
28
29
Length, Actual .
375 ft. 417 ft. 380 ft. 1/ 360 ft. \
400 ft.
535 ft. 357 ft.
i\+120ft.platj
Used...
375 ft.
417 ft.
440 ft. 480 ft.
540 ft. 535 ft.
Width
152 ft.
73 ft.
118 ft.
80 ft.
232 ft. 100 ft. 145 ft.
Type of House..
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In. & Out.
In. & Out. In. & Out. In.
First Level
Out.
Out.
Out.
Tracks
4
4
None
5
7
None None
Platforms. . |
2-27 ft. x 375 ft.
2- 6 ft. x 375 ft.
1-28 ft. x 415 ft.
141,500 sq.ft.
1-27 ft. x 480 ft.
1-27 ft. x 400 ft.
345 ft. x 150 ft. 1 1-25,800 sq . ft
i
Driveways . . .
1-40 ft. x 375 ft.
1-30 ft. x 415 ft.
2-50 ft.
1-35 ft. x 360 ft.
None
2-27.5ft.x435 ft. 1-18,100 sq. ft
Second Level.. .
In.
In.
In.
2nd & 3rd
Floors
Tracks
None
None
6
None
None
Storage 6
Platforms ....
2-55 ft. x 375 ft.
1-73 ft. x 415 ft.
2-18 ft. x 400 ft.
1-18 ft. x 480 ft.
1-80 ft. x 360 ft.
2-82 ft. x 232 ft.
242 ft. x 215 ft.
100 ft. x 535 ft. 5-25,400 sq. ft
Driveways . , .
140 ft. x 375 ft.
1-36 ft. x 417 ft.
None
1-35 ft. x 360ft.
4-38 ft. x 232 ft.
None
Upper Levels.. .
None
2 Stor. Floors
None
1 Stor. Floor
Office only
4th Level 4 Stor. Floors
Tracks
28,244 sq. ft.
80 ft. x 360 ft.
4 ! 52,000 sq. ft.
Platforms
Each
145 ft. x 535 ft. Each
Driveways. . .
1-25 ft. x 100 ft.
None ;
Type of System
Elevators and
Elevators and
Elevators and
Elevators and
Elevators and
Elevators and; Elevators an<
Hand Trucks
Hand Trucks
Hand Trucks
Hand Trucks
Hand Trucks
Hand Trucks Hand Trucks
No. of Scales. . .
11
10
13
Elevators
Size |4 ii
4-8 ft. x 9tt.
5-6 ft. x 14 ft. 6
5-10ft.xl7ft.
4-8 ft. x 18 ft.
4-9 ft. x 14 ft.
7-7 ft. x 10 ft '
2 Ton
5 Ton
1-7 ft. x 22 ft.
5 Ton
3 Ton
1-9 ft. x 15 ft.
6 Ton
1-I0ft.x20ft.
2-8 ft. x 12 ft.
10 Ton
10 Ton
Hydraulic
Electric Electric
Hydraulic
Electric
Hydraulic
Electric
Speed
60ft. per Min.
50ft. per Min. 50ft. per Min.
1-20 ft.per Min.
No.of2-Wh.Tr.
30
73
125
56
No.of4-Wh.Tr.
150 None 14
125
228
Car capacity... 36 32 66
60
57'
43'
Cars per day . . .
36
24 40
72
24 48
75
► Ratio
100%
75% 60%
120%
42%
112%
173%
Team Frontage .
1,500 ft.
830 ft. 635 ft.
720 ft.
1,632 ft.
870 ft.
660 it.
Per Car Cap..
41ft.
26 ft.
9 ft. 6 in.
12 ft.
38 ft. 6 in.
20 ft. 5 in.
15 ft. 4 in.
Platform Area..
53,400 sq.ft.
37,600 sq.ft.
64,200 sq.ft.
41,000 sq.ft.
63,718 sq. ft.
46,250 sq.ft.
51,200 sq.ft.
1* Per Car Cap..
1,270 sq.ft.
1,175 sq.ft.
972 sq.ft.
683 sq. ft.
1,118 sq.ft.
1,075 sq. ft.
1,190 sq.ft.
Tons per Month.
9,000
2,400
4,500
10,000
3,400
12,800
Tons per Car . . .
9
3.8 4.5
5.6
5.7
10.7
Cost per Ton
Receiving ....
5.5c
11.0c 3.5c
Not
Not
2.57
Not
Trucking. ,
12.1c
8.5c 15.0c
Reported
Reported
9.43c
Reported
4.4c
4.9c ! 7.1c
Delivery
7.3
5.23c
Overhead ....
2^1
3.3 4.4
3.95
Total
24.1c
35.0c 30.0c
35.0c
39.0c
21.18c
Est. CostElev.
7.0c
4.0c 10.0c
2.0c
4.0c
9.0c
Note. — This information was obtained by personal examination of the above seven houses
owned by seven railroads and located in six large cities. All seven are using elevators to han
die freight be
tween differ
ent levels.
The referen
ce numbers
correspond
to those use<
1 in Table 2
NOTES ON L. C. L. FREIGHT HOUSES. 387
TABLE 6 — TRUCKING DISTANCES IN OUTBOUND HOUSES IN CHICAGO; TOTAL
FROM DOOR TO CAR AND RETURN FROM OBSERVATIONS.
House
Length
Trucking
:nce Numbers
Actual
Used
Distance
19
430
430
220
44
1750
900
439
46
800
800
480
47
800
800
430
55
1045
900
515
58
1600
1400
750
Average Trucking Distance = 53 per cent, of the length of the house.
Note — Reference numbers are the same as given in Table 2.
TABLE 7 — COMPARATIVE FACILITIES ONE AND TWO-LEVEL FREIGHT HOUSES,
FIGS. 3, 4, 5.
Driveway Platform
Frontage Area Area per
Per Car. Per Car. Car.
Feet. Sq. Ft. Sq. Ft.
Outbound House, Fig. 3 —
One-Level 8 333 280
Two-Level 10 380 410
Inbound House, Fig. 4 —
One-Level 13.3 535 800
Two-Level 13.3 507 760
In and Outbound Houses, Fig. 5 —
One-Level 13.3 533 853
Two-Level 1 1.4 377 800
TRACK SUPERSTRUCTURE WITH CAST-IRON CHAIRS.
By R. Trimble,
Chief Engineer Maintenance of Way, Pennsylvania Company.
In view of the increasing cost of tie renewals, due to the advance in
price of timber and the decreasing life of ties, studies were made in the
office of the Chief Engineer Maintenance of Way, Northwest System of
the Pennsylvania Lines West of Pittsburgh, prior to and during 1907. The
studies involved an investigation of the methods used on the principal
European railroads and as a result a number of types of rail fastenings
were evolved, embracing the same general principle, viz : a chair fastened
to the tie with screw spikes, and with rail secured to the chair by bolts
and clips, but not fastened directly to the tie.
Following this, in June, 1908, a joint committee of the Pennsylvania
Lines East and West was appointed to test out these fastenings, and such
other designs as might be adopted by the committee.
Two stretches of track were built in 1909 and 1910, one at Birming-
ham, Pa., on the Pennsylvania Railroad, and one on the P. F. W. & C.
Railway at Wooster, Ohio. Four different designs of tie plates were
used, one of which is very similar to a rail chair tested by the Central
Dutch Railway.
The following translation of an article in the Organ fur die Fort-
schritte des Eisenbahnwesens, by E. C. Van Dyke, Chief Engineer of the
Central Dutch Railway, entitled "Superstructure With Cast-iron Chairs,"
is interesting in connection with the experiments being made on the Penn-
sylvania Lines. It may be of interest also, that after three and one-half
years' service under the heaviest traffic on the Pennsylvania Lines, this
rail chair was one of the two which showed superiority over the present
standard track.
The principal objection to this chair that has been raised is due to the
expense. It has also been found that on account of the height of the
chair and the fact that the resultant of the forces acting on the rail does
not act vertically, the outer edge of the chair has cut into the tie con-
siderably.
It has been found desirable on our lines to make all tie plates and
rail chairs with a greater distance from the center of the rail to the outer
edge than to the inside edge of the plate or chair.
389
SUPERSTRUCTURE WITH CAST-IRON CHAIRS.
. Extract from an Article by E. C. W. van Dyke, Chief Engineer,
Central Dutch Railway.
The above article appears in full in "Organ fur die Fortschritte des
Eisenbahnwesens" for December I, 1912.
In 1912 the Central Dutch Railway introduced a track superstructure,
between Utrecht and Amersfoort, in which the rails were fastened to the
wooden cross-ties by means of cast-iron chairs. The chair weighed about
28.1 lbs. (13 kg.) and has a base measuring 1415 by 6^ in. (360 by 175
mm.).
The chair is fastened to the tie with four screw spikes, ^-in. in
diameter by 8,r4 in. long (23 by 210 mm.). The holes for the screw spikes
in the chair are lined with wooden filler rings, driven in with wooden
mallets just before the screw spikes are placed, this being done to prevent
any play in the boles.
The support for the rail in the chair is 3^5 by 4M in. (80 by 120
mm.), of which surface but if? in. is level, while the rest (1 in. on each
side) is beveled, for the purpose of eliminating the tilting of the ties.
The rails are fastened to the chair by means of clips and bolts with
nutlocks. These bolts are put in from the side, instead of from the
bottom, as is usually done.
The rails weigh about 93 lbs. per yard, and are 59 ft. long, and are
of the following dimensions:
Base of rail 43A hi.
Height • SSA >n-
Width of top of head 2{% in.
Width of bottom of head 3 in.
Fishing angle 1 in 4
Fishing contact §l-in.
The angle, bars are 31^ in. long, with four holes, and use i-in. bolts.
Twenty-four wooden ties per 59- ft. rail are used. These cross-ties
are 6{\% by 10^4 in. by 8 ft. 9 in. long, and are impregnated with 22
lbs. of tar oil (System, Rueping). The joint ties are spaced 17^4. in.
center to center. All ties are adzed to give level bearing surface for the
chairs.
390
TRACK SUPERSTRUCTURE WITH OAfST-TRON CHAIRS. 391
The advantages of the chairs are as follows:
(i) Better distribution of the rail pressure on the ties, as compared
with rails resting on thin rolled tie plates.
(2) The chairs can be fastened to the ties before placing the ties
in the track.
(3) Damaged bolts can be easily renewed without disturbing the
chairs.
(4) The height of the chairs permits the covering of the ties with
ballast.
(5) Experiments and tests have shown that the chairs do not break
under a load of 40 tons (under this load, however, the chair
cuts into the tie from Y% to il-in.).
This chair superstructure is cheaper than the English rail chair
construction with bullhead rails and is slightly more costly than the stand-
ard superstructure with ordinary tie-plates, as shown below :
COST OF SUPERSTRUCTURE (INCLUSIVE RAILS AND TIES) PER YARD.
Standard with the English Chairs with
Ordinary Tie Plates. Bullheaded Rails. New Chair Type.
$4-83 $549 $5- 16
The Central Dutch Railway maintains a shop where the chairs are
fastened to the ties. In connection with this work it is of interest to note
that the holes for the screw spikes are not bored clear through the tie,
but only to within about 24-in. of the underside.
The writer is of the opinion that the present standard superstructure,
with ordinary tie plates, is inefficient for the present-day requirements.
The destruction of ties increases very rapidly and has to be checked
with new appliances.
It is important that the fastening of the chair to the tie be dis-
tinctly separate from the fastening of the rail to the chair. The chair
should also be of such dimensions that the material will not be subjected
to pressure beyond the elastic limit.
Upon recommendation of the writer, the Central Dutch Railway built,
in 1909, for experimental purposes, a track of the English type, i. e., bull-
headed rails fastened with wooden wedges in cast-iron chairs, these latter
being held to the wooden ties by means of screw spikes.
The results of this experiment were satisfactory. In three years' time
no measurable cutting of the ties by the chairs could be found. No tight-
ening of the screw spikes was found necessary.
It has been established that planing of the ties at the chair seat sufficed
even on softwood ties and that shims of fiber or wood were unnecessary.
The protection of the wood is so good that we find the life of ties
in the main tracks on English railroads to be about 21 years, and that
these ties fail by decay and not wear, while on Dutch railroads of standard
construction (ordinary tie plates) the life of ties is only about 14 years.
392 TRACK SUPERSTRUCTURE WITH CAST-IRON CHAIRS.
Cast-Iron Chair. Weight 28.7 Lbs.
i
i'-sK
I
^9
A
H
English Chair Superstructure. Weight 41.9 Lbs.
TRACK SUPERSTRUCTURE WITH CAST-IRON CHAIRS. 393
The rail joints are in fair condition, although the tie spacing is quite
wide. The bolts are tight. The joints are, however, a little weak. Mea-
surements taken every three months showed no changes in the gage.
The wooden wedges proved unsatisfactory. In dry and warm weather
the wedges became loose, thus permitting the rails to creep, and anti-
creepers had to be applied, which increased the cost.
Imported English wedges were not seasoned and showed considerable
shrinkage after one year's seasoning. Perfectly seasoned wedges gave
better results, but their sensitiveness to moisture is a serious matter.
The experience with the English chairs induced the writer to design
a chair suitable for Vignol rails.
The rail base is approximately the same as the English. The fasten-
ing of the rail was accomplished by clips and bolts, to be put into place
from the top and then turned 90 degrees.
This track was laid in 1910.
Although the chairs (22 lbs.) were put upon unplaned ties with
"knotty" structure, laid in a very bad ballast, with a tie spacing of 39
in., the superstructure gave good service. Not one chair was broken
and the clip bolts were all tight after 20 months' service, although no nut-
locks were used.
The placing of the clip bolts for above may become difficult, if the
holes become clogged, and replacing a broken bolt is not always easy.
We found that the rails on these chairs do not creep.
On this particular track we used 19-year-old rails, with badly-worn
joints. The chairs at the joints were, therefore, under very severe con-
ditions.
INDEX
INDEX.
PART 1.
A
Ambrose, J. R. W., experiments made by, on allowable pres-
sure on roadbed 384
Amendments to Committee Reports 1169
Appointment of Committees and Outline of Work 28
Asphalt mastic 519
Asphalt specifications 540
Atwood concrete tie 763
Automatic train control 73
B
Baggage, conveyors for handling 112
Ballast, report 961
Cleaning of 1 164
Cross-sections, recommended practice 1 163
Discussion 1162
Proper distribution of 969
Sections 961-1000
Sections for cementing gravel 981
Sections for crushed stone or slag 972
Sections for gravel 978
Sections for sand and chats 984
Sections for stone, cinders, gravel or burnt clay 988
Battery, symbols 92
Bibliography on protective coatings for iron and steel 418
Bituminous coatings 518
Blast boards 434
Bridge clearance diagram 495
Bridge floors , 131
Bruckner reinforced concrete tie 763
Buildings, report 705-723
Discussion 1099
Freight house floors 715
Roofings 705
Principles covering design of inbound and outbound freight
houses 710
Shop floors 715
Burlaps and felts • 522
Business session 35
iii
iv INDEX.
C
Canadian Pacific Railway, map of proposed clearing yard at
Winnipeg 128
Canada, progress in conservation of natural resources 909
Canada, rules regarding maps and profiles 955
Cargo handling appliances at foreign ports 124
Carnegie steel tie 747
Cement gun, use of 430
Cement mortar 521
Champion steel tie 759
Circuit controllers, symbols 87
Classification of rail failures according to position in ingot 189
Classified rail failures 210
Cleaning of stone ballast by means of screens 989
Clearances 610
Clearance diagram, bridge 495
Clearances for third-rail structures 1071
Coal tar and coal-tar pitch 520
Coal tar, definition ; 636
Coal-tar paint 520 .
Coal tar, the use of refined in the creosote industry 635
Coatings 518
Coatings for iron and steel 415
Column tests 435
Comparative wear of special rail.. 204
Comparison of basic and acid open-hearth rails, and influence
of reheating blooms , 241
Comparisons of rail failures 185
Composite ties 747, 1134
Concrete 120
Concrete construction, watertight 526
Concrete disintegration 1062
Concrete encasement 426
Concrete in sea water 564
Concrete signs 861
Concrete ties 747
Concrete ties, discussion 1134
Concrete, watertight 559
Conductivity tests 73
Conservation defined 910
Conservation of Natural Resources, report 905
Discussion H51
Construction and ventilation of tunnels 391, 1031
Construction work, rules governing 67
Conventional signs, discussion 1158
Conveyors at piers and docks 1 16
Conveyors for handling express and parcels 115
INDEX. v
Conveyors for handling mail and baggage 112
Conveyors, types of 104, 1 19
Corrosion tests on iron and steel 695, 1097
Cost of freight handling at Stuyvesant Docks, New Orleans... 121
Crane, electric jib, South Australian Railways 125
Creosote oil, methods of determining absorption 628
Creosote oil tests 1074
Cross-arms 199
Crossing signs, discussion 1 138
Crossing signs on various railways 862
Crossing sign, recommended 873
Crossing signs, rulings of public utility commissions 890
Crossing sign, specification for 872
Crossing signs, statutory inscriptions 871
Crossing signs, synopsis of laws relating to 867
Crossing signs, typical 868
Crossovers and main line turnouts 569
Crossovers, typical plans of Nos. 8, 11 and 16 594
Curvature, speed and unbalanced elevation 576
Curves, speeds of trains on 575
Cut spikes, holding power 766
D
Deceased Members 53
Departure yards 146
Design of inbound and outbound freight houses 710
Disc signals, symbols 82
Disintegration of concrete 514
Disintegration of concrete and corrosion of reinforcing metal.. 564
Disintegration, miscellaneous causes 567
Docks and piers, conveyors at 116
Double slip crossings, tables of dimensions 602
Double slip crossings, typical plans for Nos. 8, 11 and 16 594
Drainage through interlocking plants 67
E
Economics of Railway Location, report 913
Discussion 1154
Economics in roadway labor 398
Economics of track labor 587
Effect of ballast on track circuits 73
Effect of electric currents 567
Electricity, report on 609-624
Clearances 610
Discussion 1069
vl INDEX.
Electricity — Continued.
Electrolysis 611
Overhead clearances 617
Recommended overhead clearances 619
Third rail clearances 611
Elevator, freight 106
English railways, mechanical handling of freight 122
Equated mileage track section, special record form 594
Express, conveyors for handling 1 15
F
Felts and burlaps " 522
Fence posts, concrete and metal, as compared with wood 882
Fence posts, discussion 1150
Fence wire, discussion 1150
Fifth National Conservation Congress, report 906
Financial statement 53
Fissures, transverse, in rail 1106
Flanges, relation between worn switchpoints and worn flanges.. 587
Floors, freight house 7JS
Freight handling appliances at foreign ports 124
Freight handling at warehouses 1 18
Freight house floors 7lS
Freight house, principles covering design of inbound and out-
bound 7io, 1099
Freight, mechanical handling 102, 1014
G
General rules for installation and operation of water softeners 688
General rules for the publication of the Manual 32
Geographical distribution of membership 53
Grading of Lumber, report 683
Discussion 1095
Guard rails, circular of inquiry regarding use of 404
Guard rails, recommended practice 1036
Guard rails, use of 402> 4°4
H
Havre de Grace Bridge, method of inspection of condition of
paints 4l7
Heaviest locomotives 233
Hump yards, capacity of ,. 137
Hump yards, design and operation 128, 1018
Hump yards, grades of 134
Hump yards in United States and Canada 133
Hump yards, number of car riders required 138
Hyle steel concrete tie 760
INDEX. vii
I
Indicators, symbols 87
Influence of seams or laminations in base of rail on ductility
of metal 267
Influence on rails of amount of draft in blooming 211
Insulating rail joints, symbols 82
Interlocked switches and derails, symbols 85
Interlocking or block station, symbols 85
Interlocking plants, rules governing the construction, main-
tenance and operation 93
International steel tie 763
Interstate Commerce Commission Classification Account No. 6.-925, 1160
Interstate Commerce Commission, specifications for maps and
profiles 943
Iron and steel, corrosion tests 695
Iron and Steel Structures, report 407-511
Blast boards and smoke shields 434
Bridge clearance diagram 495
Column tests 435
Conclusions 410
Concrete encasement 426
Discussion 1045
Methods of protection of iron and steel structures against
corrosion 412
Requirements for the protection of traffic at movable bridges 492
Secondary stresses 437
J
Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete 514
Joint Conference on uniform methods of tests and standard
specifications for cement 514
Joint National Committee on Electrolysis 612
K
Kimball concrete tie 763
Knife switches, symbols 91
L
■ Leads, table of theoretical and practical 593
Linseed oil paints and varnishes 518
Location surveys, rules governing chiefs of party 68
Locks, symbols 87
M
Mail, conveyors for handling 1 12
M ain line turnouts and crossovers 569
x INDEX.
Roadway, Report — Continued.
Economics in roadway labor 398
Tunnel construction and ventilation 391
Unit pressures allowable on roadbed 383
Roofing 706
Asbestos shingles 708
Bituminous materials 706
Built-up roofs 707
Cement tile 709
Felts 707
General 709
Metal roofings 709
Ready roofing 708
Slate and tile 708
Wood shingles 709
Rules and Organization, report on 65-70
Committee meetings 66
Discussion 1003
General Rules for the government of employes of the Con-
struction Department 67
Instructions 65
Recommendations for next year's work 69
Revision of rules 66
Rules for survey and construction work 67
Rules governing chiefs of party on preliminary and location
surveys and resident engineers 68
Science of organization 69
Sub-committees 65
s
Safety regulations, compliance with 66
Science of organization 69, 1006
Screw spikes, discussion 1 123
Screw spikes, holding power 790
Seaboard Air Line, specifications for metal slates and shingles. . 1103
Seams in rails as developed from cracks in ingot 315
Seeding slopes 145
Secondary stresses 437
Section foremen, extending the duties of 596
Service tests, records from 627
Shane steel tie 764
Sheet piling formulas 401
Shingles, Seaboard Air Line, specifications for 1103
Shop Floors 7*5
Asphalt floor 722
Asphalt block floors 7*7
INDEX. xi
Shop Floors — Continued.
Brick floor 723
Concrete floor 720
Plank floor on cinder or gravel 715
Plank floor on concrete 718
Wood block floors 715
Wood floor set in tar pitch 719
Signals and Interlocking, report 71-100
Automatic train control 73
Economics of labor in signal maintenance 71
Discussion 1008
Requirements for switch indicators 73
Revision of Manual 80
Rules governing the construction, maintenance and operation
of interlocking plants 93
Symbols for signals and interlocking work 81
Track circuits 73
Signal maintenance ion
Signal symbols 81
Signs, conventional 930
Signs, Fences and Crossings, report 859
Concrete and metal for signs and signals as compared with
wood 861
Conclusions 882
Concrete and metal as compared with wood for fence posts. . 882
Crossing signs on various railroads 826
Discussion 1 137
Laws relating to erection of crossing signs 883
Laws and rules of Public Utilities Commissions relating to
erection and maintenance of crossing signs 867
Laws relating to trespassing on railroad and private property 878
Metal crossing sign 873
Recommended trespass signs 881
Smoke shields 434
Soap and alum washes 52o
Soil, bearing power of 1024
Specifications for Carbon Steel Rails, 1914 375
Specifications for waterproofing 524
Speeds of trains on curves and turnouts 570
Spikes, effect of design on durability of ties 726,798,1121
Steel and iron corrosion tests 695
Stone ballast, cleaning of 9°4
Stresses, secondary 437
Bending moments in members 4^5
Discussion 1047
Due to vibration of individual members 491
xii INDEX.
Stresses, Secondary — Continued.
In a horizontal plane 486
In plane of main truss 438
The theory of secondary stress calculation 448
Variation of axial stress . . .* 490
Survey and construction work, rules governing ' 67
Switch indicators •. 73
Switch points, relation between worn flanges and 587
Symbols 930, 1158
T
Table of Contents 3
Tellers, report of 57
Third rail clearances, data regarding 616
Ties, annual and comparative cost 740
Ties, comparative values of different materials 744
Ties, comparisons of cost and life of treated and untreated 746
Ties, economic comparison 741
Ties, report 725
Comparative holding power of spikes 766
Discussion 1121
Economy in labor and material effected through the use of
treated ties compared with untreated ties 728
Effect of design of tie plates and spikes on the durability of
ties 726-798
Holding power of cut and screw spikes 790
Tie-plates, effect of design on durability of ties 726,798,1121
Track circuits 73
Track maps, symbols for use on 930
Track, report on 569-606
Conclusions 593
Discussion 1063
Economics of track labor 5&7
Extending the duties of section foremen 596
Main line turnouts and crossovers 5°9
Tables of theoretical and practical switch leads 593
Tables of dimensions of double slip crossings 602
Track scales 133
Track scales on hump yards 136
Track values, equating 59°
Transverse fissures 1106
Treated ties, economy effected through use of 728, 1134
Trespassing, abstracts of laws relating to 878, 892
Trespass signs, discussion 1148
Trespass sign, recommended 881
Trespass sign, typical 875
INDEX. xiii
Trestles, economy of repairs and renewals 403
Tunnel construction and ven/ilation 391, 1031
Tunnel construction in hard rock 392
Turnouts, speed of trains through 578
Types of conveyors for freight handling 119
u
Uniform General Contract Forms, report 919
Discussion 1 155
Unit pressures allowable on roadbed 383
Universal metallic tie 748
Untreated cross-ties, average life 740
Use of treated water 689
V
Ventilation of tunnels 391, 1031
w
Water pipes 143
Waterproofing, general description of various methods 517
Waterproofing of masonry 513, 1059
Waterproofing masonry and bridge floors 516
Waterproofing solid floor plate girder bridges 531
Arches 533
Expansion joints 535
Subways 533
Water Service, report 685-694
Corrosion tests on iron and steel 695
Discussion 1096
Water treatment and result of study of water softeners from
an operating standpoint 685
Water softeners, economies effected through use of 686-1096
Water softeners, study of, from an operating standpoint 685
Watertight concrete construction 526
Water treatment, current practice 686
Wendt, Edwin F. (see also under "The President") :
Address of 35-51
Resolution of thanks to 59
What coal-tar is 679
What happens when coal-tar is added to creosote oil 680
Wooden Bridges and Trestles, report 401-406
Discussion 1036
Wood preservation, American practice •. . 738
Discussion 1973
Wood preservation, foreign practice 735
xiv INDEX.
Wood preservation, history of 730
Wood Preservation, report on 625 682
Conclusions 628
Discussion 1073
Methods of determining absorption of creosote oil 628
Oil from water gas 625
Records from service tests 627
Use of refined coal-tar 683
Y
Yards and Terminals, report 101-148
Design and operation of hump yards 128
Developments in the handling of freight by mechanical means 102
Discussion 1013
Hump yards 134
Track scales 133
PART 2.
The Air-Seasoning of Timber 163
Comparison of species T98
Degree of dryness attainable 214
Eastern conifers 174
Factors which influence the rate seasoning 207
Importance of the subject 163
Interpretation of seasoning curves 164
Manner of exposure 209
Method of conducting tests 165
Moisture experiment '. . . . 4J4
Methods of calculation 491
Order of superiority of different sections 179
Northern hardwoods I92
Northern white cedar 193
Northwestern woods 17°
Poles 192
Preliminary description 103
Purpose of the publication 163
Sawed timbers 202
Seasoning after treatment 217
Shrinkage 219
Soaking 212
Sources of data 164
Southern hardwoods 186
Southern pines J79
Southern white cedar *92
Southwestern woods T^5
INDEX. xv
The Air-Seasoning of Timber — Continued.
Species and form of timber 207
Specific gravity and weight of wood 221
Western red cedar 193
Western yellow pine 196
Bibliography on Valuation of Public Utilities 57
Electric light and power 66
General 57
Railroads 73
Steam power 86
Street and Interurban Railroads 87
Telegraph and telephone 101
Concerning Railroad Bridges Movable in a Vertical Plane 307-362
Index to article concerning railroad bridges movable in a
vertical plane 356
Specifications for railroad bridges movable in a vertical plane 321
Specifications for special metals used for machinery parts.. 351
Elimination of Grade Crossings on the New York, Chicago &
St. Louis Railroad in Cleveland, Ohio 103
Construction contracts with city 158
Construction department, organization 68
General procedure — example 147
Organization 108
Opposition to project 159
Ornamentation of bridges 134
Personal injuries 153
Plant 112
Retaining walls 138
Sewers , 144
Shop 715
Steel Work 124
Street grades and pavements 142
Walks 145
Experiment with Treated Cross-ties, Wood Screws and Thiollier
Helical Linings 265-306
Conclusions 267, 382
Cost of experiment 294
Description of experiment 289
Description of material and apparatus and methods used in
the test 290
Placing of ties in track, and application of track fastenings 294
Statement showing cost of maintenance 271
Tools and methods used in boring the ties and applying
helical linings 292
L. C. L. Freight Houses, notes on 363
xvi INDEX.
\
Lakhovsky linings, experiment with 279
Treated cross-ties, experiment with 265
Thollier helical linings, experiment with 265
Wood Screws, experiment with 265
Rolling Loads on Bridges 233
Bridge specification requirements 236
Capacity of bridges 238
Conclusions 232
Discussion 248
Have present bridges sufficient strength ? 239
Track Superstructure with cast-iron chairs 289
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