M/-U
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
FIFTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION
OF THE
American Railway Engineering
Association
Construction and Maintenance Section, Engineering Division
Association of American Railroads
HELD AT THE
SHERMAN HOTEL, CHICAGO
March 11, 12, and 13, 1958
VOLUME 59
This volume, as listed in the Table of Contents, includes all the committee reports
reports on research projects, monographs, and memoirs originally published
in AREA Bulletins 537 to 542, incl., June-July 1957 to February 1958.
Copyright, 1958, by
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
59 East Van Buren Street
Chicago, 5, Illinois
OFFICERS, 1957-1958
Ray McBrian
President
B. R. Meyers
1st Vice President
F. R. WOOLFORD
2nd Vice President
G. M. O'Rourke
Past President
Wm. J. Hedley
Past President
A. B. HlLLMAN
Treasurer
Neal D. Howard
Executive Secretary
DIRECTORS
E. J. Brown
1955-58
W. W. Hay
1957-58
R. II . Beeper
1955-58
C. J. Code
1955-58
G. H. Echols
1956-59
L. A. Loggins
1956-59
W. G. Powrie
1956-59
A. V. Johnston
1957-60
W. H. Hobbs
1957-60
A. B. Stone
1957-60
J. C. Jacobs
7057-d0
iii
BOARD OF DIRECTION
President
Ray McBrian, Director of Research, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, Denver 4,
Colo.
Vice Presidents
B. R. Meyers, Chief Engineer, Chicago & North Western Railway, Chicago 6, 111.
F. R. Woolford, Chief Engineer, Western Pacific Railroad, San Francisco 5, Calif.
Past Presidents
G. M. O'Rourke, Assistant Engineer Maintenance of Way, Illinois Central Railroad,
Chicago 5, 111.
Wm. J. Hedley, Chief Engineer, Wabash Railroad, St. Louis 1, Mo.
Directors
E. J. Brown, Chief Engineer, Burlington Lines, Chicago 6, 111.
W. W. Hay, Professor of Railway Civil Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.
R. H. Beeder, Assistant Chief Engineer System, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway,
Chicago 4, 111.
C. J. Code, Assistant Chief Engineer — Tests, Pennsylvania Railroad, Philadelphia 4, Pa.
G. H. Echols, Chief Engineer, Southern Railway System, Washington 13, D. C.
L. A. Loggins, Chief Engineer, Southern Pacific Lines in Texas and Louisiana, Houston 1,
Tex.
R. R. Manion, Assistant Vice President — Operation, New York Central System, New
York 17, N. Y.
W. G. Powrte, Chief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, Chi-
cago 6, 111.
A. V. Johnston, Chief Engineer, Canadian National Railways, Montreal 1, Que.
W. H. Hobbs, Chief Engineer, Missouri Pacific Railroad, St. Louis 3, Mo.
A. B. Stone, Chief Engineer, Norfolk & Western Railway, Roanoke 17, Va.
J. C. Jacobs, Engineer Maintenance of Way, Illinois Central Railroad, Chicago 5, 111.
Treasurer
A. B. HnxMAN, Chief Engineer, Belt Railway of Chicago; Chicago & Western Indiana
Railroad, Chicago 5, 111.
Executive Secretary
Neal D. Howard, 59 East Van Buren Street, Chicago 5, I1L
Assistant Secretary
E. G. Gehrke, 59 East Van Buren Street, Chicago 5, I1L
Secretary Emeritus
Walter S. Lacher, 407 East Fuller Road, Hinsdale, III
NUMERICAL INDEX TO COMMITTEE REPORTS
Report. Discussion
i — Roadway and Ballast 797 1284
3— Ties 559 1253
4 — Rail 905 1261
5 — Track 1005 1276
6 — Buildings 483 1233
7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles 743 1179
8 — Masonry 675 1187
9 — Highways 401 1160
11 — Records and Accounts 707 1131
13 — Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 407 1165
14 — Yards and Terminals 445 1135
15 — Iron and Steel Structures 699 1193
16 — Economics of Railway Location and Operation 391 1146
17 — Wood Preservation 603 1226
20 — Contract Forms 429 1126
22 — Economics of Railway Labor 563 1240
24 — Cooperative Relations with Universities 691 JI75
25 — Waterways and Harbors 499 1158
27 — Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 629 1235
28 — Clearances 655 1215
29 — Waterproofing 599 1223
30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses 555 1184
Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail 895 1257
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Tots ol Sted Girder Spans on tli>- Burlington Railroad. Advance Report of Com-
mittee 30— Impact and Bridge Stresses 1
[nvestigation of Full-Size Reinforced Concrete Railway Bridge Slabs. Advance
Report of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses 133
Part 1— Laboratory Investigation 133
Part 2 — Field Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Railway Bridge Slabs . . 216
Tii- Renewals and Costs per Mile of Maintained Track. Advance Report of Com-
mittee 3— Ties 243
The Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions on Brittle Fracture of Structural Steels,
by L. A. Harris and N. M. Newmark. Advance Report of Committee IS — Iron
and Steel Structures 245
Final Report on Railway Roadbed Vegetation Control in Montana — 1956, by
Laurence O. Baker. Advance Report of Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast . . 291
Effect of Spring Travel, Height of Center of Gravity, and Speed on Freight Car
Clearance Requirements on Curved and Tangent Track 305
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Bridge Stringers of Green and Dry Southern
Pine, by Wayne C. Lewis. Advance Report of Committee 7 — Wood Bridges
and Trestles 363
Reports of Committees on
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 391
Revision of Manual 392
Cost of Track Curvature 392
Economics of Various Types of Yard-to-Yard Car Reporting 394
Economics of Improved Freight Stations and Facilities 399
Discussion 1 146
Highways 401
Merits and Economics of Prefabricated Types of Highway-Railway Grade
Crossings 402
Possible Changes in Existing Protection at Grade Crossings Where Railroads
Have Changed from Multiple-Track to Single-Track Operation 403
Sighl Distances at Highway-Railway Grade Crossings 404
vi
Table of Contents vii
Pag(
Recommended Protection at Highway-Railway Grade Crossings Where One-
Way Traffic on the Highway Crosses One or More Tracks on the Railway 405
Discussion 1 1 60
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 407
Revision of Manual 408
Federal and State Regulations Pertaining to Railway Sanitation 420
Cathodic Protection of Pipe Lines and Steel Storage Tanks 421
Fuel Oil Additives and Equipment for Application 421
Railway Waste Disposal 424
Acid Cleaning of Heat Exchanger Coils and Boilers 424
Detection and Disposal of Radioactive Materials in Air, Oil and Water Filters
on Diesel Locomotives and Other Equipment 427
Methods of Heating Fuel Oil to Permit Winter-Time Use of High-Pour-Point
"Economy" Grade Fuel Oils 427
Discussion 1 165
Contract Forms 429
Form of Lease Covering Subsurface Rights to Mine Under Railway Miscel-
laneous Physical Property 430
Form of Agreement Covering Parallel Occupancy of Railway Right-of-Way
Property by Electric Power Lines 435
Insurance Provisions Recommended for Various Forms of Agreements 439
Form of Agreement for Construction and Maintenance of Highway-Railway
Grade Separation Structures for Public Roads 443
Discussion 1126
Yards and Terminals 445
Review of Manual Material on LCL Freight Facilities 446
Review of Manual Material on Width of Driveways for Freight Houses, Team
Yards, and Produce Terminals 44"
Review of Manual Material on Locomotive Terminals 454
Classification Yards 462
Scales Used in Railway Service 4(>4
Facilities for Cleaning and Conditioning Freight Cars for Commodity Loading K>5
Vlll
Table of Contents
Page
Facilities for Loading and Unloading Rail-Truck Freight Equipment 475
Design Data for Classification Yard Gradients 476
Discussion 1135
Buildings 483
Revision of Manual 484
Wind Loading for Railway Building Structures 485
Buildings and Structures for Hump Classification Yards with Retarders 485
Buildings to House Maintenance-of-Way Tools, Equipment and/or Personnel 485
Fire-Retardant Paints for Railway Building Interiors 489
Discussion 1233
Waterways and Harbors 499
Bibliography Relating to Benefits and Costs of Inland Waterway Projects
Involving Navigation 500
Synopsis of That Portion of the Report by the Commission on Organization
of the Executive Branch of the Government (Hcover Task Force Report)
Pertaining to Water Resource Development 500
Relative Merits and Economics of Construction M-iteria's Used in Waterfront
Facilities 519
Part 1 — Criteria of Relative Merits of Construction Materials Used in Water-
front Facilities on the Basis of Inspection Tests and Service Records, by
H. R. Peterson 519
Part 2 — Criteria of Comparative Economics on the Basis of Annual or
Capitalized Cost Methods, by H. R. Peterson 521
Part 3 — Service Performance of Construction Materials Used Completely or
Partially Under Water in Waterfront Facilities in Continental United
States, edited by Shu-t'ien Li 523
Part 4 — The Life of Steel Sheet Piling and Steel H-Section Bearing Piles,
by Fred B. White 546
Part 5 — Pressure-Treated Timber in Harbor Structures, by W. D. Keeney . . 551
Discussion 1158
Impact and Bridge Stresses 555
Steel Girder Spans 556
Steel Truss Spans 556
Table of Contents ix
Page
Viaduct Columns 557
Longitudinal Forces in Bridge Structures 557
Distribution of Live Load in Bridge Floors 557
Concrete Structures 558
Timber Structures 558
Discussion 1 1 84
Ties 55Q
Extent of Adherence to Specifications 560
Causes Leading to the Removal of Cross Ties 560
Discussion 125.5
Economics of Railway Labor 563
Analysis of Operations of Railways that Have Substantially Reduced the Cost
of Labor Required in Maintenance of Way Work 564
Economics of Securing Labor from the Railroad Retirement Board, Compared
to Securing It from Other Sources 579
Relative Economy of Housing Maintenance Forces in Auto Trailers and Camp
Cars 586
Potential Maintenance Economies to Be Effected by Laying Rail Tight with
Frozen Joints 590
The Specific and Ultimate Improvements in Various Types of Track Mainte-
nance Equipment that Would Provide the Greatest Economies in Main-
tenance Practices, and How these Potential Economies Would Compare
with Present Costs 593
Most Effective Means of Tie Distribution, Including Design of a Suitable
Mechanized Apparatus to Unload Ties from Conventional Gondola-Type
Cars 593
Discussion 1 240
Waterproofing 599
Revision of Manual 600
Waterproofing Materials and Their Application to Railway Structures 601
Coatings for Dampproofing Railway Structure? 602
Discussion 1223
x Table of Contents
Page
Wood Preservation 603
Specifications for Wood Preservatives 604
Specifications for Preservative Treatment of Forest Products, Including Lam-
inated Timbers 60S
Conditioning of Forest Products Before Preservative Treatment 610
Service Test Records of Treated Wood 612
Destruction by Marine Organisms: Methods of Prevention 625
Destruction by Termites: Methods of Prevention 628
Discussion 1226
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 629
Revision of Manual 630
New Developments in Work Equipment 631
Improvements to Be Made to Existing Work Equipment 635
Diesel Pile Hammers 636
Diesel Engines vs. Gasoline Engines Used in Work Equipment 647
Number of Units of Work Equipment to Be Repaired by Field Repairmen . . . 649
Tie Unloaders 650
Basis for Replacing Automotive Vehicles 653
Discussion 1235
Clearances 655
Review Clearance Diagrams for Recommended Practice 656
Compilation of the Railroad Clearance Requirements of the Various States . . 660
Clearance Allowances to Provide for Vertical and Horizontal Movements of
Equipment Due to Lateral Play, Wear and Spring Deflection 661
Methods of Measuring High and Wide Shipments 671
Discussion 1215
Masonry 675
Revision of Manual ! 676
Foundations and Earth Pressures 676
Use of Prestressed Concrete for Railway Structures 677
Table of Contents
Page
Methods for Improving the Quality of Concrete and Mortars 678
Part 1 — Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete 678
Part 2 — The Measurement of Air Content of Plastic Concrete 683
Specifications for the Construction and Maintenance of Masonry Structures . . 687
Methods of Construction with Precast-Concrete Structural Members 688
Discussion 1187
Cooperative Relations with Universities 691
Stimulate Greater Appreciation on the Part of Railway Managements of (a)
the importance of bringing into the service selected graduates of colleges
and universities, and (b) the necessity for providing adequate means for
recruiting such graduates and of retaining them in the service by establish-
ing suitable programs for training and advancement 692
Stimulate Among College and University Students a Greater Interest in the
Science of Transportation and Its Importance in the National Economic
Structure, by Cooperating with and Contributing to the Activities of
Student Organizations in Colleges and Universities 693
The Cooperative System of Education, Including Summer Employment in Rail-
way Service 696
The Role of Engineering Technicians in the Railroad Field 697
Discussion 1175
Iron and Steel Structures 699
Revision of Manual 700
Fatigue in High-Strength Steels; Its Effect on the Current Specifications for
Steel Railway Bridges 702
Stress Distribution in Bridge Frames 70S
Preparation and Painting of Steel Surfaces 704
Bibliography and Technical Explanation of Various Requirements in AREA
Specifications Relating to Iron and Steel Structures 704
Specifications for Design of Continuous Bridges 705
Discussion 1 19%
Records and Accounts 707
Bibliography on Subjects Pertaining to Records and Accounts 70°
Office and Drafting Practices 11
xii TablcofContents
Page
Construction Reports and Property Records 716
Valuation and Depreciation 736
Revisions and Interpretations of ICC Accounting Classifications 740
Discussion 1131
Wood Bridges and Trestles 743
Revision of Manual 744
Specifications for Design of Wood Bridges and Trestles 761
Methods of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles, Including Fire-Retardant
Paints 762
Design of Timber-Concrete Composite Decks 795
Discussion 1179
Roadway and Ballast 797
Revision of Manual 799
Physical Properties of Earth Material 799
Specifications for Pipe Lines for Conveying Flammable and Non-Flammable
Substances 807
Roadway: Formation and Protection 807
Stability of Cuts in Fine Sands and Varved Clays, Northern Pacific Rail-
way, Noxon Rapids Line Change, Montana, by Don U. Deere and
Ralph B. Peck 807
Roadway Signs 815
(a) Reflectorized and Luminous Roadway Signs 815
(b) Develop Standard Close Clearance Warning Sign 815
Ballast 816
(a) Tests: Fifth Progress Report of Research Project on Ballasts 817
(b) Special Types of Ballast 826
(d) Specifications for Sub-ballast 835
Chemical Control of Vegetation 836
Part 1 — Vegetation Control on Iowa Roadbeds — 1957, by W. E. Loomis
and W. M. Struve 836
Table of Contents xiii
Page
Part 2 — Railroad Weed Control, North Carolina State College, by Glenn C.
Klingman and Merrill Wilcox 843
Part 3— Chemical Control of Vegetation — 1957 AAR Report 851
Discussion 1 2s4
Continuous Welded Rail 895
Fabrication 896
Laboratory Tests of Continuous Welded Rail by R. E. Cramer 896
Fastenings 904
Discussion 1257
Rail 905
Collaborate with AISI Technical Committee on Rail and Joint Bars in Research
and Other Matters of Mutual Interest 907
Appendix 2-a — Investigation of Failures in Control-Cooled Railroad Rails,
by R. E. Cramer 907
Rail Failure Statistics, Covering (a) All Failures; (b) Transverse Fissures;
(c) Performance of Control-Cooled Rail 915
Rail End Batter ; Causes and Remedies 935
Economic Value of Various Sizes of Rail 936
Joint Bar Wear and Failures; Revision of Design and Specifications for New-
Bars, Including Insulated Joints, and Bars for Maintenance Repairs 938
Appendix 7-a — Sixteenth Progress Report of the Rolling-Load Tests of Joint
Bars, by R. S. Jensen 938
Appendix 7-b — Report on Service Test Installation of Rail Joint Bars with
Improved Metallurgy on the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad at
Fort Morgan, Colo 946
Causes of Shelly Spots and Head Checks in Rail: Methods for Their Pre-
vention 953
Appendix 8-a — Report on Inspections of Service Tests of Heat-Treated and
Alloy Rail in Shelly Territory Installations u54
Appendix 8-b — Report on Pennsylvania Railroad M. of W. Test No. 591,
Determination of Plastic Flow in Rail Head 962
Appendix 8-c — Sixteenth Progress Report on Shelly Rail Studies at the
University of Illinois, by R. E. Cramer 975
Recent Developments Affecting Rail Section 981
Service Performance and Economics of 78-Ft Rail; Specifications i<>r 7s Ft R.iil 992
xiv Table of Contents
Page
Rail Damage Resulting from Engine Burns; Prevalence; Means of Prevention;
Repair by Welding 1003
Discussion 1261
Track 1005
Revision of Manual 1007
Track Tools 1007
Part 1 — Manual Recommendations 1007
Part 2— Tests of AREA Rail Fork, Plan 10-57 1008
Part 3 — Standardization of Head Size and Shape for Drive Spikes and Lag
Screws 1008
Plans for Switches, Frogs, Crossings, Spring and Slip Switches 1C08
Appendix 3-a — Service Tests of Designs of Manganese Steel Castings in
Crossings at McCook, 111 1010
Appendix 3-d — Track Gage and Flangeway Widths for Operation of Diesel
Power on Curved Track 101 1
Prevention of Corrosion from Brine Drippings on Track and Structures 1018
Design of Tie Plates 1028
Hold-Down Fastenings for Tie Plates, Including Pads Under Plates; Their
Effect on Tie Wear 1035
Effect of Lubrication in Preventing Frozen Rail Joints and Retarding Corrosion
of Rail and Fastenings 1056
Laying Rail Tight with Frozen Joints 1069
Methods of Heat Treatment, Including Flame Hardening of Bolted Rail Frogs
and Split Switches, Together with Methods of Repair by Welding 1076
Discussion 1276
PROCEEDINGS
Program 10S9
Report of the Tellers 1092
Opening Session 1093
Invocation 1094
Address by President Ray McBrian 1096
Report of Executive Secretary Neal D. Howard 1099
Table of Contents
Page
Report of Treasurer A. B. Hillman 1 102
Report on Exhibit of NRAA 1 103
Greetings from Signal and Electrical Sections, AAR ] 105
Address: Research Lights the Way, by W. T. Faricy 1 10S
Presentation of Honorary Membership Certificates 1115
Address: Teamwork in Research, by W. M. Keller 1 1 lo
Address: Highlights of Engineering Division Research, by G. M. Magee 1119
Discussion of Committee Reports (see preceding pages of the Table of Contents)
Annual Luncheon Address, by G. B. Aydelott 1 21°.
Address: Legislative Situation as It Affects the Engineering and Maintenance of
Way Departments, by R. G. May 1230
Closing Business 1 294
Addresses Presented in Conjunction with Committee Reports
Value of the Knowledge of Contracts to the Engineer, by C. J. Henry 1127
Panel Discussion on Hump Yards, by Wm. J. Hedley (moderator), Martin Amoss,
G. W. Miller, and A. L. Essman 1139
Joint Facilities Revisited, by John W. Barriger 1151
Computor Determination of Risk Factors for Different Types of Grade Crossing
Protection, by G. M. Magee 1 162
Radioactivity and Railroads, by R. O. Bardwell 1 168
One Way in Which Committee 24 Is Interesting Students in Railroading, by W. H.
Huffman 1 1 7S
The Reinforced Concrete Research Council, by Eivind Hognestad and Robert F.
Blanks 1 189
The Truss Bridge Research Project, by L. T. Wyly 1 1 "7
Observations on Track Maintenance in France and Germany, by T. F. Burris .... 1244
Methods and Cost Control in the Maintenance of Way Department, by M. C.
Bitner 1 249
AAR-XLMA Cross Tie Research, by G. M. Magee 1254
Observations of Continuous Welded Rail in France, by T. F. Burris 125 7
Investigation of Failures in Control-Cooled Railroad Rails, by R. E. Cramer 1262
Plastic Flow in Rail Head, by C. J. Code 1264
Rail Production and Rail Testing in Germany, by Kurt Kannowski i ■
XVI
Table of Contents
Page
Rail Research Projects, by G. M. Magee 1274
Ventilation System for Cascade Tunnel on Great Northern Railway, by G. V.
Guerin 1288
MEMOIRS
L. J. Kimball 484
C. G. Grove 692, 1240, 1304
J. H. O'Brien 70S
D. O. Lyle 709
J. C. Dejarnette, Jr S96, 906
C. E. Merriman 1135
Olive W. Dennis 1147
J. A. Lahmer 1223
L. H. Laffoley 1233
W. G. Am 1277
F. R. Layng 1301
W. P. Wiltsee 1307
Report of the Executive Secretary 1309
Report of the Treasurer 1327
Constitution 1328
Information for Committees 1339
Fig. 1 — Bridge No. 180.57 near St. Augustine, 111. View of 85-ft
and 100-ft deck girder spans.
Advance Report of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses
D. S. Bechly, Chairman
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington Railroad
A. DIGEST
This report contains a description and analysis of the test data obtained on nine girder
spans and one beam span on the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad. The ten test
spans, in four bridges, are located on the main lines of the railroad between Chicago and
Denver, Colo., Galesburg and Quincy, 111., and St. Louis, Mo., and Burlington, la. Eight
of the spans have ballasted floors and two have open timber floors. The tests were made
under scheduled trains at a complete range of speeds up to the maximum permitted. In
addition, test trains were used to obtain certain speeds not obtained with the regular
trains. Stresses were measured under both steam and diesel locomotives.
Electromagnetic strain gages were used with oscillograph recordings, and data were
obtained on various elements of the structures, as follows:
Top and bottom flanges of girders at center of span.
Web plates near the end of span.
Bottom flanges of stringers at center of span.
Bottom flanges of Boorbeams at center of span.
Top and bottom lateral bracing and cross frames
Edges of top girder flanges at center of span.
Top flange cover plates near the end of the cover plate.
The tests of these *-> girder spans are part of a research program <>f tests on 35 spans
to determine the statii and dynamic effects <>i Menu and diesel locomotive loadings on
girder spans.
The analysis ol data contained in this report ma) be summarized a-< follows:
l
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
Fig. 2 — Bridge No. 64.33 near Apex, Mo. View of 49-ft 11^2-in
through girder span.
1. The stress factor, which is the ratio of the recorded to the calculated static stress,
was generally lower on the short spans and higher on the long spans. Based on flexure,
the stress factors varied from 0.71 to 0.99 for the steam locomotives and 0.62 to 1.02 for
the diesel locomotives. Based on shear, the stress factors varied from 0.42 to 0.94 for the
steam locomotives and 0.49 to 0.89 for the diesel locomotives.
2. An increase or decrease in the average mean stresses of both girders over the static
speed run is speed effect. The magnitude of the speed effect as a percentage of the
recorded static stress is very nearly the same for both steam and diesel locomotives. In
addition to the positive speed effects, a large number of negative speed effects were
recorded which may have been the result of the vertical acceleration of the unsprung
weight of the locomotives reducing the axle loads. The speed effects for the diesels varied
from -f 18 to - — 19 percent and for the steam locomotives varied from +16 to — 16
percent. Of the diesel runs, 86 percent indicated stresses within ± 10 percent of the
recorded static stresses, and 95 percent of the steam runs were within ±10 percent of
the recorded static stresses.
3. An increase in stress in the girder under one rail with a corresponding decrease
in the other is roll effect. In general the roll effects were within the AREA design specifica-
tion allowance. However, 4 percent of the diesel runs and 1 percent of the steam runs
produced recorded stresses exceeding this allowance.
4. Vibrations induced in the test spans by diesel locomotives caused by wheel and
track irregularities is track effect. The track-effect stresses generally increased with speed
without evidence of a synchronous speed. Only 7 percent of the track-effect stresses were
greater than 10 percent of the static stress, with a maximum of 17 percent.
5. The track and hammer-blow effects induced in the longer spans by the steam
locomotives generally increased with an increase in speed up to a certain critical or syn-
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
Fig. 3 — Bridge No. 307.32 near Albia, la. View of 90-ft through girder span.
chronous speed and then decreased with a further increase in speed. For the shorter spans
synchronous speeds were not attained. Twenty-two percent of the track-effect stresses
were greater than 10 percent of the static stresses, with a maximum of 34 percent.
6. The calculated maximum stresses, the maximum recorded values, and the average
of the six highest recorded values is compared in Table A for the girder flanges at center
of span and in Table B for the girder webs at end of span. Steam locomotives produced
higher stresses than the diesels.
7. The recorded top flange stresses and web stresses increased with an increase in
speed. Calculated flange stresses were exceeded only on the 90-ft span by the 2-axle and
3 -axle diesels. Only 4 percent of these stresses exceeded calculated values. No recorded
web stresses exceeded calculated values.
8. An increase in stress in the laterals and cross frames usually accompanied an
increase in speed, and steam locomotives usually produced higher stresses than the diesels.
9. The longitudinal deformation of the girder flanges on the 49-ft llJ/2-in and the
90-ft spans appeared to induce stresses in the lateral system. No such influence was ap-
parent on the other spans. The 49-ft \\l/2-'\n and the 90-ft spans have a double bracing
-system while the others have a single system.
10. An equivalent nosing load to produce recorded stresses in the laterals did not
exceed the AREA design allowance in any of the test spans. A nosing load of 10.2 kips
was the maximum computed from the recorded shears. Steam locomotives produced higher
nosing loads than the diesels.
11. Nosing loads were very nearly equally distributed between top and bottom lateral
bracing of the deck spans, with the top bracing taking slightly more than the bottom
bracing.
12. The calculated total impacts, the maximum recorded values, and the average
Of the -i\ highest recorded Values are compared in Table A for the girder flanges :it
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
TABLE A. GIRDER FLANGES AT CENTER OF SPAN
TOTAL IMPACTS - PERCENT
MAXIMUM STRESS - KSI
Span
Locomotive
AREA
Maximu
Claas
Design
Recorde
2 -Axle Diesel
59.0
29.7
24'-0"
3-Axle Diesel
59.0
24.9
Class 01A
79.0
46.6
Class 05A
79.0
58.2
49'-ll 1/2
* 2-Axle Diesel
44.0
24.0
Class 01A
63.7
42.6
2-Axle Diesel
49.8
21.9
50'-0"
3-Axle Diesel
49.8
17.9
Class 01A
69.5
32.3
Class 05A
69.5
25.1
2-Axle Diesel
39.3
22.4
60'-0"
3-Axle Diesel
39.3
16.8
Class 05A
58.9
31.3
2-Axle Diesel
46.7
15.0
65'-0"
3-Axle Diesel
46.7
13.2
Class 01A
66.2
32.0
Class 05A
66.2
22.4
2-Axle Diesel
35.6
29.0
75'-0"
3-Axle Diesel
35.6
22.2
Class 05A
55.0
31.1
2-Axle Diesel
41.5
28.5
85'-0"
Class 01A
60.3
35.5
Class M2A
60.3
46.9
Class M4A
60.3
17.0
90'-0"*
2-Axle Diesel
32.8
41.1
3-Axle Diesel
32.8
38.4
Class 05A
50.9
28.1
Class M4A
50.9
26.0
2-Axle Diesel
30.5
18.3
lOO'-O"
3-Axle Diesel
30.5
14.3
Class 05A
46.4
27.0
102'-0"
2-Axle Diesel
38.9
6.6
Class M4A
54.3
21.2
Average AREA Maximum Average
Recorded Design Recorded Recorded
(6 Highest) (Calculated) (6Highest)
21.8
20.5
26.0
47.1
14.3
35.6
19.5
13.6
16.7
18.4
18.9
14.4
22.4
13.4
11.3
19.7
16.6
22.2
17.3
20.1
21.6
21.6
30.8
16.5
27.3
31.4
21.4
18.2
14.9
12.0
19.6
5.3
18.0
6.03
3.08
2.92
6.54
3.10
3.01
9.36
5.25
4.60
10.27
6.40
5.98
4.39
3.82
3.52
12.77
10.60
9.69
5.30
3.59
3.56
5.29
3.58
3.34
8.20
5.75
5". 09
9.95
6.40
5.92
5.87
4.92
4.87
6.08
5.03
4.98
11.39
8.64
8.19
5.50
3.94
3.87
5.76
3.83
3.82
8.48
6.33
5.80
10.52
7.05
6.71
5.59
4.90
4.71
5.81
5.01
4.82
10.75
8.81
8.00
5.35
3.88
3.68
7.82
5.55
5.10
9.16
6.65
5.92
10.81
6.53
6.48
5.14
5.28
5.02
5.10
5.48
5,20
9.43
7.82
7.54
10.32
9.00
8.28
5.63
5.07
4.84
5.29
4.83
4.63
10.23
8.26
8.01
5.40
4.20
4.15
10.30
7.65
7.50
♦Values were recorded in top flange for these spans.
Tests of Steel Girder Spa n s on the Burlington
TABLE B. GIRDER WEBS AT END OF SPAN
Span
Locomotive
Class
TOTA
AREA
L IMPACTS
Maximum
- PERCENT
Average
MAXIMUM STRESS - KSI
AREA Maximum Average
Design
Recorded
Recorded
Design
Recorded
Recorded
(6 Highest) (Calculated)
(6 Highest)
49* -11 1/2"
2-Axle Diesel
44.0
16.7
9.5*
2.30
1.40
1.22
Class 01A
63.7
53.2
35.4
6.09
3.89
3.54
60'-0"
2- Axle Diesel
39.3
24.7
16.3
3.83
2.90
2.72
3-Axle Diesel
39.3
18.5
16.5
4.08
2.89
2.84
Class 05A
58.9
18.7
13.9
6.69
4.38
4.20
2-Axle Diesel
46.7
17.9
11.4
3.55
2.11
1.99
65*-0"
3-Axle Diesel
46.7
19.8
14.9
4.01
2.30
2.21
Class 01A
66.2
14.6
9.5
5.75
3.13
2.99
Class 05A
66.2
25.3
15.4
6.94
4.16
3.74
2-Axle Diesel
35.6
28.2
18.9
4.20
3.05
2.85
75'-0"
3-Axle Diesel
35.6
27.4
19.7
4.32
3.11
2:92
Class 05A
55.0
24.6
15.4
7.60
4.77
4.42
2-Axle Diesel
41.5
51.7
48.1
3.44
2.63
2.37
85'-0"
Class OLA
60.3
25.4
16.9
4.99
3.61
3.22
Class M2A
60.3
40.0
33.6
5.75
3.93
3.47
Class M4A
60.3
33.6
23.8
6.55
4.69
4.30
2-Axle Diesel
32.8
20.6
17.9
3.49
2.39
2.30.
90'-0"
3-Axle Diesel
32.8
59.3
32.7
3.46
3.09
2.61
Class 05A
50.9
16.4
15.5
6.05
3.71
3.64
Class M4A
50.9
22.2
16.9
6.51
4.09
3.99
2-Axle Diesel
30.5
4.6
2.3*
3.67
2.75
2.63
lOO'-O"
3-Axle Diesel
30.5
13.5
8.1
3.71
2.86
2.72
Class 05A
46.4
12.6
10.0
6.64
4.30
4.20
102'-0"
2-Axle Diesel
38.9
36.0
23.9
3.29
2.82
2.54
Class M4A
54.3
20.1
16.0
6.22
4.58
4.38
* Based on three values .
center of span. Only two maximum recorded impact percentages exceeded the AREA
design impact allowance. In general the impacts for diesels were smaller than for steam
locomotives.
13. The calculated total impacts, the maximum recorded values, and the average
of the six highest recorded values are compared in Table B for the girder webs at end
nl span. A few of the maximum recorded impact percentages slightly exceeded the AREA
design impact allowance. Some of the diesel locomotive values were higher than those
of the steam locomotives.
14. Negative total impacts were recorded in the flange- and the webs of the girders.
15. High stresses in each span were caused by a relatively small percentage "t the
locomotives crossing the span.
16. A comparison of the recorded simultaneous Stresses in the top and bottom flanges
was made for five through girder spans. Two of the spans have stringers and Boorbeams,
6 Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
and the lop flange stresses of these spans were about 20 percent higher than the bottom
flange stresses. This indicates interaction between the stringers and bottom flanges. The
other three spans have transverse floor beams only, and little or no interaction was
indicated.
17. The recorded simultaneous stresses across the top flanges of three through girder
spans indicate that very little lateral bending occurs. The average bending for the three
spans is toward the center of track, and the stress varies from 6.5 to 9.1 percent of the
average.
18. The longitudinal distribution of stresses near the end of the bottom outside
cover plate on two girders indicates that the plates are carrying their full stress at a
section about 10 in from the end.
B. FOREWORD
The assignments of Committee 30 include studies of stresses and impacts in steel
girder spans with open decks and ballasted decks. Toward the fulfillment of these assign-
ments the AAR research staff arranged to conduct tests and secure data on girder spans
of various lengths, capacities and types of decks on several railroads where both diesel
and steam locomotives are operated at high speeds.
This report covers tests of nine girder spans and one beam span on the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy Railroad made in 1947 and 1948 and brings to a total of 35 the
number of spans for which reports have been published. All the spans included in this
report are located on the main lines of the Burlington where both high-speed diesel and
steam locomotives were operating during these tests. The bridge near St. Augustine, 111.,
is in double-track territory, while the ones at Fort Morgan, Colo., Albia, la., and Apex,
Mo., carry a single track. The lengths of spans tested vary from 24 ft to 102 ft, as
follows: 24 ft, 49 ft lK in, 50 ft, 60 ft, 65 ft, 75 ft, 85 ft, 90 ft, 100 ft, and 102 ft.
Five of the spans are of the through type and five are deck spans. All of the spans tested
are on tangent track and all have a ballasted floor except two that are open-floor spans.
Of the eight ballasted spans, four are ballasted timber, three are ballasted wrought iron,
and one is ballasted concrete. Test trains were used to obtain certain train speeds not
obtained with the regular scheduled trains. The speed of some of the regular trains as
well as the test trains was controlled in order to obtain a complete range of speeds from
5 mph, which is considered equivalent to a static loading, to the maximum permitted
speed.
No record was kept of the amount of water and fuel carried by each engine crossing
the spans. The effect of a variation in tender weights would be reflected only in the
longer spans, and the difference in calculated stress in the bottom flange at center of the
102-ft span between a full tender and a half-full tender is only 0.55 ksi. A full tender
was used in the calculations.
The general procedure in conducting the tests was to erect a 6- by S-ft sectional test
building at one end of the bridge in which the instruments were placed. The gages were
individually calibrated and then placed on the various elements of the spans to be tested.
Records were then secured on most of the trains crossing the span for about two weeks,
depending on the number of trains. Special speed runs were requested only after a repre-
sentative number of regular speed runs had been obtained. Records were taken with the
track in its normal operating condition.
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington 7
The bridge impact tests analyzed in this report were conducted for AREA Com-
mittee SO — Impact and Bridge Stresses, and were carried out under the general direction
of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research, Engineering Division, AAR. The funds
necessary for the tests and analysis of the data were provided by the AAR.
The conduct of the tests, analysis of data, and preparation of the report were under
the direction of E. J. Ruble, research engineer structures, Engineering Division, AAR,
assisted in the office by W. J. Murphy, assistant research engineer structures, and H. W.
Stillman, bridge draftsman, and in the field by R. B. Crain and L. E. Monsen. F. P.
Drew, assistant research engineer structures, prepared this report.
C. INSTRUMENTS
The instruments used in these tests to determine the strains in the various parts
of girder spans and the beam span consisted essentially of two 12-channel oscillographs
which recorded the strains on photographic paper in response to the electromagnetic
gages. A detailed description of the oscillographs, electromagnetic gages and auxiliary
units is given in the AREA Proceedings, Vol. 46, 1945, page 201. The relative position
of each locomotive wheel with respect to the span was indicated by the two solenoid
marker units in each oscillograph which were connected to spring-steel wheel trips on
the rail. The speed of each train was obtained from the oscillograms by determining the
elapsed time for a locomotive of known wheel base to pass over a wheel marker or by
determining the elapsed time for the lead wheel of the locomotive to travel from one
wheel marker to the other. The location of the wheel for maximum strain can be
determined with the locomotives speed known.
The electromagnetic gages used on the girder spans had a gage length of 2 in. The
strain gages were calibrated individually before the test runs were started and after
completing the runs, and a close check was maintained on the sensitivity of each gage
so that the relation between the strain in the steel and the amount of deflection of the
oscillogram trace can be considered accurate to within a small percentage. The sensitivity
of the gages on the steel girders varied between 10,000 psi and 20,000 psi per in of trace
deflection. For a sensitivity of 1 in equal to 10,000 psi, and a modulus of elasticity in the
steel of 30,000,000 psi, a 1-in deflection of the light trace on the oscillogram represents
a unit strain in the steel of 0.000167.
D. SPANS AND LOCATION OF GAGES
24-Ft Deck Beam Span — Ballasted Concrete Floor
This span, built in 1904, is span 7 of a seven-span single-track structure known as
bridge 476.65 over Bijou Creek near Fort Morgan, Colo., as shown in the upper diagram
of Fig. 4. The span consists of eight 24 I 95 lb beams 24 ft over-all, 22 ft 6 in center
to center of bearings, with four beams under each rail, as shown on Fig. 5. Each group
of four beams has diaphragms at the third points. The concrete floor is 8^ in thick with
\2l/2 in from base of rail to top of slab. The west ends of the beams bear on flat sole
plates placed directly on the concrete abutment. The east ends bear on a pedestal buill up
of rolled sections atop a concrete pier as shown.
The center line of track was ft in .south of the center line oi bridge al the wesl end
and y2 in north at the east end of the span. In all calculations each -'roup of beams was
assumed to be carrying equal load.
.s Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
The capacity of the beams in flexure, using the gross sections, the present ARKA
design stresses and the impact for steam locomotives, is Cooper E 89.8.
Strains were measured on the bottom flange of each beam at the center of span as
shown in Fig. 5.
49-Ft 11^-in Through Girder Span — Open Timber Floor
This span, built in 1899, is bridge 64.33. The span consists of two built-up girders
49 ft llj/2 in over-all, 48 ft 6 in center to center of bearings and spaced on 12-ft centers,
as shown on Fig. 6. The floor system consists of built-up stringers and floorbeams. The
floorbeams are spaced 16 ft 8 in on centers with 2 stringers per track. The girders are
braced laterally by a double system of angles in the plane of the lower flanges. In addi-
tion, the stringers are braced by a cross frame at mid-span and laterally in the plane
of the upper flange by a single system of angles. The end bearings consist of flat sole
plates bearing on cast pedestals. One end bearing is slotted to allow for expansion. Top
cover plates on stringers and floorbeams were replaced in 1932, new laterals installed in
1943, and new 8-in ties put on in 1944.
The center line of track coincided with the center line of bridge at mid-span and
was J4 in north at both ends of the span. However, the eccentricity of the track was not
considered when calculating stresses.
The capacity of the girders in flexure, using the gross section, the present AREA
design stresses and the impact for steam locomotives, is Cooper E 61.9.
Strains were measured on the bottom flanges at center of span, on the web near
both ends of the north girder, on the floorbeams at mid-span, on the stringers at mid-
span and on the lateral bracing as shown on Fig. 6.
50-Ft Deck Girder Span — Ballasted Timber Floor
This span, built in 1904, is span 6 of bridge 476.65. The span consists of 2 built-up
girders, SO ft over-all, 48 ft 9 in center to center of bearings, and spaced 7 ft on centers,
as shown on Fig. 5. The top and bottom flanges are braced laterally by single systems
of angles with two end and three intermediate cross frames. The east end of the span
is fixed and there are sliding expansion bearings on the west end. Both bearings are
suported by concrete piers as shown. The floor was replaced with 8-in timbers in 1941
and the bottom lateral system was replaced in 1944.
The center line of track was ^ in north of the center line of bridge at the west end,
1 in north at mid-span, and \l/2 in north at the east end of the span. However, the eccen-
tricity of track was not considered when calculating stresses.
The capacity of the girders in flexure, using the gross section of the girders, the
present AREA design stresses and the impact for steam locomotives, is Cooper E 108.S.
Strains were measured on the bottom flange at center of span, as shown on Fig. 5.
60-Ft Through Girder Spans — Ballasted Wrought Iron Plate Floor
This span, built in 1936, is span 3 of bridge 476.65. The span consists of 2 built-up
girders 60 ft over-all, 58 ft 4 in center to center of bearings and spaced 17 ft 6 in on
centers, as shown on Fig. 7.
The floor system consists of transverse beams spaced 1 ft ty2 in on centers and
braced longitudinally by 3 lines of plate diaphragms. The ^-in wrought iron ballast
trough is welded to the floorbeams. Bearing plates attached to the girders bear on cast
steel pedestals. The east bearing is fixed and the west bearing is slotted to allow for
expansion, as shown.
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington 9
The center line of track was 1 in north of the center line of bridge at the west etd.
1 in north at mid-span, and \l/2 in north at the east end of the span. However, the eccen-
tricity of track was not considered when calculating stresses.
The capacity of the girders in flexure, using the gross section, the present AREA
design stresses and impact for steam locomotives, is Cooper E 95.0.
Strains were measured on the top and bottom flange at center of span and on the
web near the west end of the north girder, as shown on Fig. 7.
65-Ft Deck Girder Span — Ballasted Timber Floor
This span, built in 1904, is span 5 of bridge 476.65. The span consists of two built-up
girders 65 ft over-all, 63 ft 9 in center to center of bearings and spaced 7 ft on centers,
as shown on Fig. 8. The top and bottom flanges are braced laterally by single systems
of angles with cross frames spaced about 15 ft 6 in on centers. Bearing plates attached
to the girders bear on cast steel pedestals, as shown. A new floor with 8-in timbers was
installed in 1941 and new bottom laterals were installed in 1946.
The center line of track was ^4 in north of the center line of bridge at the west end,
7/% in north at mid-span and 1J4 m north at the east end. However, the eccentricity of
track was not considered when calculating stresses.
The capacity of the girders in flexure, using the gross section, the present AREA
design stresses and the impact for steam locomotives, is Cooper E 99.2.
Strains were measured on the bottom flange at center of span, on the web near the
west end of the north girder, on the top and bottom laterals and on the center and end
cross frame, as shown on Fig. 8.
75-Ft Through Girder Span — Ballasted Wrought Iron Plate Floor
This span, built in 1036, is span 1 of bridge 476.65. The span consists of two built-up
girders 75 ft over-all, 73 ft 4 in center to center of bearings and spaced 17 ft 6 in on
centers, as shown on Fig. 9.
The floor system consists of transverse beams spaced 1 ft 6^2 in on centers and
braced longitudinally by three rows of plate diaphragms. The ^2-in wrought iron ballast
trough is welded to the floorbeams. The east end bearings are fixed and the west end are
rocker-type expansion bearings as shown.
The center line of track was 1J4 in north of the center line of bridge at the- west
end and 1 in north at the east end. However, the eccentricity of track was not considered
when calculating stresses.
The capacity of the girders in flexure, using the gross section, the present AREA
design stresses and the impact for steam locomotives, is Cooper E 95.9.
Strains were measured on the top and bottom flanges at center of span and the web
of the north girder near the west end, as shown on Fig. 9.
85-Ft Deck Girder Span— Ballasted Timber Floor
This span, built in 1902, is span 6 of bridge 180.57. The double-track structure con-
sists of two parallel single-track bridges on common piers. The span consists of two
built-up girders 85 ft over-all, 83 ft 6 in center to center of bearings and spaced 7 ft oil
centers, as shown on Fig. 10. The top and bottom flanges are braced laterally bj single
systems of angles with cross frames spaced about 12 ft on centers. The west end of the
span is fixed and the east bearings are slotted to allow for expansion, as shown New
top laterals were installed and cross frames reinforced in 1943, and a new s in timber
floor was placed in 1946.
10 Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
The center line of track was Yz in south of the center line of bridge at the west end,
J4 in south at mid-span and '4 in south at the east end of the span. However, the eccen-
tricity of track was not considered when calculating stresses.
The capacity of the girders in flexure, using the gross section, the present AREA
design stresses and the impact for steam locomotives, is Cooper E 101.0.
Strains were measured on the bottom flanges at center of span, on the webs near
the west end of both girders, on the top and bottom laterals and on center and west end
cross frames, as shown on Fig. 10. Strains were also measured on the bottom flange of the
north girder at the end of the outer cover plate, as shown on Table 13.
90-Ft Through Girder Span — Open Timber Floor
This span, built in 1904, is span 1 of bridge 307.32. It consists of two bulit-up girders
90 ft over-all, 88 ft center to center of bearings and spaced IS ft 8 in on centers, as
shown on Fig. 11. The floor system is made up of floorbeams spaced about 8 ft 10 in
with two stringers centered under each rail. The girders are braced laterally by a double
system of angles in the plane of the lower flange. The west end bearing is fixed and the
east bearing allows for expansion, as shown. The lateral system was replaced in 1044,
a new floor was installed in 1941, and high-strength bolts were placed in lateral and
stringer connections.
The center line of track was % in south at the west end, % in south at mid-span
and '% m south at the east end of the span. However, the eccentricity of track was not
considered when calculating stresses.
The capacity of the girders in flexure, using the gross section, the present AREA
design stresses and the impact for steam locomotives, is Cooper E 108.8.
Strains were measured on the top and bottom flange at mid-span, on the webs near
both ends of each girder, on the floorbeams, on the stringers and on the lateral bracing,
as shown on Fig. 11.
100-Ft Through Girder Spans— Ballasted Wrought Iron Plate Floor
This span, built in 1936, is span 2 of bridge 476.65. It consists of two built-up
girders 100 ft over-all, 98 ft 4 in center to center of bearing and 17 ft 6 in on centers,
as shown on Fig. 12. The floor system consists of transverse beams spaced on 1 ft 6J4 in
centers and braced longitudinally by 3 lines of plate diaphragms. The l/2-m wrought iron
ballast trough is welded to the floorbeams. The east end bearings are fixed and the west
end bearings are rocker-type, as shown.
The center line of track was l1/- in north at the west end, l$>& in north at mid-span
and '% in north at the east end of the span. However, the eccentricity of track was not
considered when calculating the stresses.
The capacity of the girders in flexure, using the gross section, the present AREA
design stresses and the impact for steam locomotives, is Cooper E 97.0.
Strains were measured on the top and bottom flanges at center of span and on the
web of the north girder near the west end, as shown on Fig. 12. Strains were also taken
at the center line of span of 24 consecutive floorbeams, and the data secured were reported
in AREA Proceedings, Vol. 49, 1948, page 279.
102-Ft Deck Girder Span— Ballasted Timber Floor
This span, built in 1905, is span 5 of bridge 180.57 over Cedar Creek near St. Augus-
tine, 111., as shown on the center diagram of Fig. 4. The double-track structure consists
of two parallel single-track bridges on common piers. The span consists of two built-up
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington 11
girders 102 ft over-all, 100 ft center to center of bearings and spaced 7 ft on center.-, as
shown on Fig. 13. The top and bottom flanges are braced laterally by single systems
of angles with cross frames spaced about 11 ft on centers. The west end of the span is
fixed and the east bearings are rocker castings to allow for expansion, as shown. A new
lateral system was installed in 1946, a new floor with 8-in timbers also in 1946, and roller
nests were replaced by rocker castings in 1947.
The center line of track was x/i in south of the center line of bridge at the west end,
1 in north at mid-span and 1^4 in north at the east end of the span. However, the eccen-
tricity of track was not considered when calculating stresses.
The capacity of the girders in flexure, using the gross section, the present AREA
design stresses and the impact for steam locomotives, is Cooper E 102.0.
Strains were measured on the bottom flanges at mid span, on the webs near the wesl
end of both girders, on the top and bottom laterals and on an intermediate and end
cross frame, as shown on Fig. 13. Strains were also measured on the bottom flange of the
north girder at the end of the outer cover plate as on Table 14.
E. TEST TRAINS
Test trains were used to secure some of the data on all spans except the 49-ft 1 1 J^-in
and 85-ft spans. The rest of the runs were secured under regular scheduled trains operating
in some instances at controlled speeds. The diesel and steam locomotives recorded as
having crossed the test spans during the test are shown on Figs. 14, 15 and 16. The axle
loads and axle spacings for the 2-axle and 3-axle diesels and steam locomotives as well as
the wheel diameters are also shown on these figures and were supplied by the railroad.
The following is a general description of the locomotives recorded during the test.
The ratings referred to are shown in Table 1.
Diesel-Electric (2-Axle, Articulated)
The locomotives of this class are used for passenger service with two units articulated.
This type of locomotive was used only on the 49-ft 11^-in span and was the only diesel
locomotive used on this span. The rating of this locomotive in terms of Cooper loading
for moment at the center of span is E 19.5.
Diesel-Electric (2-Axle)
The locomotives of this class are generally used in freight service, and followed by
a uniform load of 3000 lb per track ft in the case of freight service, their ratings in
terms of Cooper loading for moment at the center of span, vary from E 37.9 for the
24-ft span to E 40.2 for the 100-ft and 102-ft spans.
Diesel-Electric (3-Axle)
The locomotives of this class are used in passenger service, and followed by a uni-
form load of 2000 lb per track ft, their ratings for moment at the center of span vary
from E 37.8 for the 100-ft span to E 41.2 for the 24-ft span.
Steam Locomotive, 4-6-4 (Class S4A)
The locomotives of this class are used for passenger service, and followed by a uni-
form load of 2000 lb per track ft, their ratings for moment at the center of span vary
from E 62.5 tor the 75-ft span to E 64.1 for the 100-ft span.
Steam Locomotive, 2-8-2 (Class 01 A)
The locomotives of this class arc used for freight service, and followed by a uniform
12 Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
load of 3000 lb per track ft, their ratings for moment at the center of span vary from
E 50.0 for the 100 ft span to E 54.(> for the 50-ft span.
Steam Locomotive, 2-8-2 (Class 02B)
The locomotives of this class are used for freight service, and followed by a uniform
load of 3000 lb per track ft, their ratings for moment at the center of span vary from
E 51.7 for the 100-ft span to E 56.0 for the 60-ft span.
Steam Locomotive, 2-8-2 (Class 03)
The locomotives of this class are used for freight service, and followed by a uniform
load of 3000 lb per track ft, their ratings for moment at the center of span vary from
E 52.2 for the 100-ft span to E 56.3 for the 75-ft span.
Steam Locomotive, 4-8-4 (Class 05 A)
The locomotives of this class are generally used in freight service, and one was used
in this test with a test train to secure a complete range of speeds on the 24-ft beam span
and the 50-ft, 60-ft, 65-ft, 75-ft, 90-ft and 100-ft spans. The ratings of these locomotives
followed by a uniform load of 3000 lb per track ft for moment at the center of span vary
from E 57.4 for the 24 ft span to E 67.0 for the 60-ft span.
Steam Locomotive, 2-10-2 (Class M2A)
The locomotives of this class are used for freight service, and followed by a uniform
load of 3000 lb per track ft, their rating for moment at the center of span is E 59.9.
The locomotive was recorded only on the 85 -ft span.
Steam Locomotive, 2-10-4 (Class M4A)
The locomotives of this class are used for freight service, and one was used in this
test with a test train to secure a complete range of speeds on the 90-ft and 102-ft spans.
The ratings of these locomotives, followed by a uniform load of 3000 lb per track ft for
moment at the center of span, vary from E 68.7 for the 102-ft span to E 70.5 for the
85-ft span.
F. ANALYSIS OF FIELD RECORDS
Test Records
The test records or oscillograms were photographed on 10-in wide sensitized paper.
Each oscillogram was marked with the name of the railroad, bridge number and date.
The oscillograph and run number, which were photographed on the record after each
run, refers to the log of test runs, which shows the engine number, direction, approximate
speed, type of train and all other necessary information regarding the test. run. The inclu-
sion of all the test records, consisting of 882 oscillograms, of which 506 were taken under
steam locomotives and 376 under diesel locomotives, would make this report too volum-
inous. The oscillograms recorded during the tests on these girder spans are similar to the
typical oscillogram shown on Fig. 17. All of the oscillograms are now on file in the AAR
Research Center at Chicago.
Reading the Oscillograms
In the analysis of the oscillograms it was first ncesessaiv to find the base lines repre-
senting zero stress. The first 2 or 3 in of the record on the left of the oscillograms were
laken before the locomotive reached the span. The oscillographs were then started just
as the locomotive reached the test span and continued until the locomotive and tender
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington I
were off the span. The final 2 or 3 in of oscillograms on the right were then taken aftei
the entire train had passed over the span. Base lines, representing zero stress, were thrn
drawn from one side of the light trace for all the gages connecting the two no load
parts of the record. Where a complete study of the various impad factors in the girder
was conducted, such as those in the flanges at the center of the span, light, flashed pencil
lines indicating upper and lower envelope curves were drawn through the peaks of the
oscillations, as shown for traces Al and A2 on the 40-ft 11^-in span, Fig. 17. A solid
line, called the mean stress curve, was then drawn midway between the upper and lower
envelope curves. Since the mean stress curves for the slow locomotive speeds represent
the static stress at the gage location for the different positions of the locomotive as it
crossed over the span, it was necessary to determine the mean stress curves on all the
slow-speed runs for those gage locations where the total impact effects were determined.
The impact effects were based on the average of the greatest mean stresses for the slow-
speed runs of about 10 mph and under. The semi-amplitude of stress or the difference
between the upper envelope curve and the mean stress curve is produced by irregularities
of the track and the effect of the resultant weights producing dynamic augment of the
steam locomotive. At slow speeds of about 1 rps of the steam locomotive drivers, the
effect of the resultant weights in producing oscillations in spans of this length is neg-
ligible, so the semi-amplitudes of stress are almost entirely due to track or wheel condi-
tions. At higher speeds, the effect of the resultant weights producing dynamic augment
in causing oscillations in the structure increases rapidly. At or near synchronous speeds
the oscillations keep building up until they reach a maximum which usually occurs at the
time of maximum mean stress. It has been interesting to note from the oscillograms that
the period of these oscillations coincides with the speed of the locomotive drivers in
revolutions per second, as theory predicts. An example of this can be seen on Fig. 1 7
where the period of oscillation in the 49-ft 11^-in span was 0.257 sec, as indicated by
traces Al and A2.
A study was made of the factors which make up (he total stress in the lateral
bracing. The traces representing the stress in the laterals are shown on Fig. 17 for gage
A3 to 8, incl. As shown on trace A5, a light pencil line was drawn through the peaks
of the oscillations to form an upper and lower envelope curve. The mean of these two
curves represents the mean stress in the lateral. The difference between the mean stress
and the upper or lower envelope is the stress caused by the nosing of the locomotives.
The difference between the mean stress and the base line or zero stress is the flange effect
stress caused by girder deflection.
Stress Corrections
Since the center of gravity of the air gap on the electromagnetic strain gages is 0.44
in from the base, the strains were correspondingly recorded on a plane 0.44 in from the
surface of the steel. The stresses recorded in the top and bottom flanges of the girders
were corrected by assuming that the stress is proportional to the distance from the
neutral axis. The stresses recorded by the gages on the web plate were not corrected
as the average of the maximum simultaneous stresses recorded by the two gages was
used for these readings, thus eliminating all bending effects in the web plates This is
clearl) indicated on the typical oscillogram, Fig. 17, where the trace from tin' gage on
one side of the web increases with a corresponding decrease in the trace from the gage
on the opposite side. The stresses recorded by the gages on the lateral bracing angles were
not corrected as the gages were located near the neutral axis of tin- member
14 Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
Tabulation of Stresses
The mean, semi-amplitude and maximum galvanometer deflections from the gages
on the center of the flanges and only the maximum deflections from the remaining gages,
except those secured at slow speeds where the mean stresses are used for the recorded
static stresses, were secured from the oscillograms and tabulated.
In addition to the above, the flange effect and the nosing galvanometer deflections
from the gages on the lateral bracing angles were secured from the oscillograms and
tabulated. The stresses were then determined from each gage by multiplying the gal-
vanometer deflections by the individual stress factor determined from the calibration
of the gages and based upon a modulus of elasticity of steel equal to 30,000,000 psi.
The locomotive speed at the instant of recorded stress is also shown on the tabulation
sheet.
Tables were then prepared for each test location showing the various static and
dynamic effects at that location. The effects were tabulated according to locomotive class
and in order of speed for each test span.
The tables containing all the essential test data taken from the oscillograms and
entitled "Tabulation of Recorded Stresses" and "Analysis of Recorded Stresses" are on
file in the AAR Research Center.
G. STATIC AND DYNAMIC EFFECTS
The oscillograph deflections, when multiplied by the proper stress factors for each
gage circuit, were tabulated and then analyzed for the particular purpose of determining
the magnitude of the static stresses, speed effects, roll effects, total impacts, maximum live
load plus impact stresses and other dynamic effects of the moving live loads. The results
of this study are as follows:
1. Static Stresses
The recorded static stresses in the flanges and web plates of the girders were deter-
mined from the maximum mean stresses secured under slow-speed runs of 10 mph or
less for each locomotive class. The static stress in the flanges of the sections was the
greatest mean stress recorded by the one gage on the member, but the static stress in the
webs of the girders was determined from the greatest average mean stress of the two
gages. The calculated static stresses were based on concentrated wheel loads, shown on
Figs. 14, 15 and 16, using the criteria for maximum moment and shear and the gross
section of the members.
The use of concentrated wheel loads in calculating the static stresses is not an
exact method, as it has been proved by rail stress measurements that the rail acts as a
continuous beam on an elastic support, with the result that the pressure under the ties
is more nearly a uniform load. However, the use of concentrated wheel loads is common
practice in the design office and results in only a 2- or 3-percent error in the longer
spans and 12- to 15-percent error in the shorter spans. The calculated stresses were also
based on the gross section of the member, as the gages were all located on a section
between rivet holes or any stress raisers. No consideration was given to any composite
action of the stringers and lateral bracing in calculating the moment of inertia of the
sections.
a. Bottom Flanges at Center of Span
The comparison of the recorded and calculated static live-load stresses for bending
at the center of the span for both diesel and steam locomotives is shown in Tables 2
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington IS
and 3. All recorded stresses shown are for stresses in the bottom flange excepl those foi
the 49-ft llJ/J-in and 90-ft spans which are based on the upper flange readings. The
static stresses recorded in each girder and the average of the two girders are shown in
Cols. 4, 5 and 6 of Tables 2 and 3, and the calculated stresses are shown in Col. 7. For
example, the recorded static stress in the 50-ft span for Class 05A locomotives varied
from 4.77 ksi to 4.89 ksi as shown in Col. 6, as compared to the calculated static stress
of 5.86 ksi as shown in Col. 7. The stress factor, which is the ratio of the recorded stress
to the calculated stress is in Col. 8. For example, the stress factors for the seven steam
locomotives crossing over the 50-ft span as shown in Col. 8 vary from 0.81 to 0.9?
with an average of 0.87. The averages of the stress factors for diesel and steam locomo-
tives for each span are shown in Col. 9. The average stress factors for steam locomo-
tives on the 10 spans vary from 0.71 to 0.99, while the average stress factors for diesel
locomotives on the 10 spans vary from 0.62 to 1.02.
Inspection of the stress factors in Col. 9 of Tab'es 2 and 3 reveals considerable
variation between recorded and calculated static stresses. The lowest stress factor was
found on the 24-ft beam span under the diesel locomotives where an average stress factor
of 0.62 was determined. This means that the recorded static stresses were only 62 per-
cent of the calculated static stresses. This large variation may be due to the fact that this
span has a concrete deck which interacts with the top flange. The highest stress factor
was found on the 90-ft span under the diesel locomotives where an average stress factor
of 1.02 was determined. This means that the recorded static stresses were 2 percent
greater than the calculated static stresses. Interaction of the stringers with the bottom
flange may account for this stress factor, as the factor is based on the stresses in the
top flange and no interaction was considered in the calculated stress. Part of these varia-
tions may be the result of using concentrated wheel loads in the calculating. It may
also be due to the redistribution of the locomotive axle loads as the span deflects under
the load, reducing the axle loads near the center of the span and increasing them toward
the ends. Experience in weighing locomotive axles has proved that considerable variation
in axle loads take place when the axles change elevation relative to each other.
It is to be noted that stress factor is lowest on the short spans and higher on the
long spans.
b. Web at End of Girder
The comparison of the recorded and calculated static live-load stresses in the web
plates near the ends of the girders and the resulting stress factors for both diesel and
steam locomotives are shown in Table 4. The average stress factor for the 57 static runs
shown for shear in the web plates is 0.76, and the average stress factor for the 109 static
runs shown in Tables 2 and 3 for bending moment at the center of span is 0.90.
The stress factors for the 49-ft 11^-in span are considerably lower than the others.
Referring to Fig. 6 it is noted that this is a through girder span with only three panels
of stringers. The distribution of wheel loads to the girders is through the floorbeams,
hence only part of the load in the end panel goes into the girder, the remainder goes
directly into the end bearing. The 90-ft span is a similar type but with more panels to
distribute the loads into the girders. The average stress factor for shear in the web
plates, excluding the factors for the 49-ft 11^-in and the 90-ft, spans is 0.81.
c. Stringers and Floorbeams
The recorded and calculated static live-load stresses in the bottom flanges of the
stringers and floorbeams of the 49-ft 11^-in span and the P0 - f t span, together with the
stress factors, are shown in Table 5. The average factor [or the stringers i- 0.92 and for
the floorbeams is 0.90.
16 Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
2. Speed Effect
The increase or decrease in the average of the mean stresses simultaneously recorded
in the two girders of each test span resulting from the locomotive passing over the
bridge at various speeds over 10 mph is termed speed effect. The positive speed effect
could be due to the centrifugal force resulting from the loaded axles running over the
deflected span, or to the variation in the axle loads resulting from the vertical accelera-
tions of the unsprung weight of the locomotive during the vertical oscillations of the
sprung weight or to a combination of the two. Variations in static stresses may also
influence the speed effect. This could result in a decrease in the axle loads at times as
well as an increase, and negative speed effects are common. A negative speed effect
implies that the average mean simultaneous stress recorded for the two girders was less
than the average mean recorded static stress.
The recorded speed effects secured at speeds greater than 10 mph in percent of the
recorded static stresses at speeds 10 mph and less are shown in the upper left diagrams
of Figs. 18 to 52, incl., for 2-axle and 3-axle diesels, and Figs. 33 to 46, incl., for four
classes of steam locomotives. The speed effects for the diesels varied from + 18.4 percent
on the 100-ft span to — 18.9 percent on the 65-ft span, while those for the steam locomo-
tives varied from + 16.0 percent to — 15.9 percent on the 75-ft span.
A total of 544 test runs were analyzed to study the speed effect. Of this total, 468
runs were made at speeds above 10 mph up to about 100 mph. Two hundred and forty
runs were made with diesel locomotives and 228 runs were made with steam locomo-
tives. Of the 241 diesel runs, 166 showed a positive speed effect of which 138 were
between zero and +10 percent, and 5 showed no speed effect. Of the remaining diesel
runs, 69 showed a negative speed effect of which 66 were between zero and — 10 percent.
Thus 86 percent of the 241 diesel runs were within ± 10 percent of the recorded static
stresses. Of the 228 steam runs, 136 showed a positive speed effect of which 109 were
between zero and +10 percent and 5 showed no speed effect. Of the remaining steam
runs, 107 showed a negative speed effect of which 103 were between zero and — 10
percent. Thus 95 percent of the 228 steam runs were within ± 10 percent of recorded
static stresses. It appears from this analysis that the magnitude of the speed effect as a
percentage of the recorded static stress is nearly the same for both steam and diesel
locomotives.
3. Roll Effect
An increase in the mean stress in one girder with a corresponding simultaneous
decrease in the mean stress in the other girder is termed roll effect. This phenomenon is
undoubtedly due to the sprung weight of the locomotive oscillating about its longitudinal
axis. Roll effect is probably set up not only by track irregularities but also by the nosing
of the locomotive from side to side.
The magnitude of the increase in stress in one girder was found by subtracting the
average simultaneous mean stress of both girders from the maximum mean stress. The
increase in load on one rail (based on 5-ft rail centers) which produce the recorded
increase in stress in one girder, is shown as a percentage of the recorded static stress in
the lower left diagram of Figs. 18 to 32, incl., for diesel locomotives and Figs. 33 to
46, incl., for steam locomotives. For example, a 2-axle diesel on the 85-ft span at a speed
of 31.4 mph produced in one girder a recorded mean stress 3.6 percent greater than the
average mean stress in both girders. This is equivalent to a 5.0 percent increase in load
on one rail since the girders are spaced 7 ft center to center. The AREA specifications
require a 20 percent increase in wheel load on one rail.
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington 17
Of the 544 total runs analysed for the study of roll effect, 271 were made under
diesel locomotives, with 10 values exceeding the AREA design requirements. They all
occurred on the 90-ft span under the 3-axle diesel where the highest value was 36.6
percent. These 10 runs amounted to 3.7 percent of the 271 diesel runs on all spans.
Forty-one recorded stresses were greater than 10 percent or one-half the AREA design
requirements. This is 15.0 percent of the 271 runs. Two hundred and seventy-three runs
were made under steam locomotives, with three values exceeding the AREA design
requirements. They all occurred on the 75-ft span under the Class 05A locomotive where
the highest value was 31.5 percent. These three runs amounted to 1.1 percent of the 273
steam runs on all the spans. Thirteen recorded stresses were greater than 10 percent or
one-half the AREA design requirements. This is 4.8 percent of the 273 steam locomotive
runs.
4. Track Effect — Diesel Locomotives
Vertical vibrations induced in a railroad bridge by the passage of a diesel locomotive
are undoubtedly caused by wheel and track irregularities. Wheel irregularities could
consist of flat spots, out-of-round wheels and eccentric mountings, while track irregulari-
ties usually result from hard and soft spots in the ballast, battered rail joints or uneven
tie or deck bearing.
The track-effect stresses or stress semi-amplitudes as read from the oscillograms
are plotted on the upper right diagrams of Figs. 18 to i2, incl., for the 2-axle and
3-axle diesels operating at speeds from about 5 mph to about 100 mph. It appears from
these diagrams that there is no particular speed at which the track-effect stresses become
a maximum, but apparently there is an increase in stress with an increase in speed.
Since diesel locomotive wheels do not have unbalanced weights as do steam locomotives,
the induced vibrations must come from wheel and track irregularities.
The track effects, expressed as a percentage of the recorded static stresses, are shown
in the lower right diagrams of Figs. 18 to 32, incl., for the 2-axle and 3-axle diesels.
There is no apparent significant difference between values for the 2-axle and 3-axle
diesels.
From the 516 values recorded of track effect, 482 showed stresses that were between
zero and 10 percent of the recorded static stresses and 34 were between 10 and 20 per-
cent, so 7 percent of the track effect stresses were greater than 10 percent of the static
stress. The highest value was 17.3 percent for a 2-axle diesel on the 49-ft HJ/^-in span.
5. Track and Hammer Blow Effect — Steam Locomotives
The vertical vibrations produced in a railroad bridge under passage of a steam
locomotive are undoubtedly caused by a combination of wheel and track irregularities
and the periodic disturbing forces of the counterweights. This disturbing force, or ham-
mer blow, of the steam locomotive is due to the centrifugal force of the unbalanced
weights on the revolving driving wheels. It is possible that in some cases the condition
of the track would tend to counteract the vibrations in the span due to hammer blow
and in other cases might augment these vibrations. Since there seems to be no way to
measure the separate effects, the total effect is reported. The total track plus hammer-
blow stresses for four classes of locomotives and for a complete range of speeds up to
about 100 mph are shown in the upper right diagram of Figs. 33 to 46, incl., with thr
track-effect stresses shown as a percentage of the static stresses in the lower right dia-
iiram> of these same figures. Of the 551 values recorded, 432 or 78.3 percent are between
zero and 10 percent, 105 or 10.0 percent are between 10 and 20 percent, and 14 ot 2 7
18 Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
percent are more than 20 percent. The highest value is 34.2 percent of the static stress
for a Class 01 A locomotive on the 49-ft HJ/^-in span.
The calculated natural loaded frequency of vibration, n, in vibrations per second
was calculated for each span and each class of power using the formula
/ 12.4
+
where d is the calculated dead-load deflection and D is the calculated live-load deflection
in inches. This value is shown in the lower left corner of Figs. 33 to 46, incl., together
with the corresponding speed of each locomotive to produce this same frequency of
vibration using the nominal driver diameters.
It can be seen that when the locomotives reached synchronous speeds, the maximum
track and hammer-blow effect was attained at or near this speed. This is particularly
noticeable in Fig. 30 for the 75-ft span with the 4-8-4, Class OSA locomotive and in
Fig. 45 for the 100-ft span with the same locomotive. Probably if additional runs had
been made at speeds in and beyond the region of the synchronous speed, the maximum
effect would be evident on other spans also. For the shorter spans synchronous speeds
were not attained.
6. Maximum Stresses
The maximum live-load-plus-impact stresses recorded in the bottom flanges, web
plates and lateral bracing under both steam and diesel locomotives at a complete range
of speeds are shown in Figs. 47 to 64, incl., and Figs. 93 to 96, incl.
a. Bottom Flanges at Center of Span
The maximum stresses recorded in the flanges of the girders at the center of span
for diesel and steam locomotives are shown on Figs. 47 to 56, incl. On these diagrams
are shown the recorded static stresses for the north and south girders and the average
calculated static stress. These static stresses are those shown in Cols. 4, 5, 6 and 7 of
Tables 2 and 3. Also on these diagrams are shown the recorded stresses at various speeds
up to about 100 mph as well as the maximum stresses calculated using the AREA design
specification impact for rolling equipment with and without hammer blow, depending
on the type of locomotive used, either steam or diesel.
It is apparent from these diagrams that there was an increase in stress with an
increase in speed; in most cases the calculated maximum stress was not exceeded. How-
ever, on the 90-ft span for the 2-axle and 3-axle diesels, 5.9 percent and 3.3 percent of
the stresses, respectively, exceeded the calculated maximum stress. Instances where the
maximum stress was substantially increased by speed are shown on Fig. 48 with the
Class 01 A steam locomotive and Fig. 56 with the Class M4A steam locomotive.
b. Webs at Ends of Girders
The maximum stresses recorded in the webs of the girders at the ends of span for
diesel and steam locomotives are shown in Figs. 57 to 64, inch On these diagrams are
shown the recorded static stresses for the north and south girders and the average cal-
culated static stress. These static stresses are those shown in Cols. 4, 5, 6 and 7 of
Table 4. Also on these diagrams are shown the recorded stresses at various speeds up to
about 100 mph as well as the maximum stresses calculated using the AREA design specifi-
cation for rolling equipment with and without hammer blow, depending on the type of
locomotive used, either steam or diesel.
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington 19
As with the stresses at the center of span, the web stresses showed an increase in
stress with an increase in speed, but no recorded maximum stress was as high as thr
calculated maximum. The closest approach to the calculated maximum was obtained on
the 90-ft span with the 3-axle diesel, Fig. 62. In this case the recorded stress was 89
percent of the calculated stress.
c. Lateral Bracing and Cross Frames
The maximum direct stresses were measured in the lateral bracing and cross frames
of the 49-ft llj/j-in, 65-ft, 85-ft, 90-ft and 102-ft spans under diesel and steam locomo-
tives at a complete range of speeds up to about 100 mph. These recorded maximum
stresses are shown on Figs. 93 to 96, incl.
The gages were applied to the members as shown on Figs. 6, 8, 10, 11 and 13, and
typical locations are shown on Figs. 93 to 96, incl.
In general, the direct stresses in the laterals ranged from a tensile stress to a com-
pressive stress during the passage of the locomotive, and several cycles of this reversal
usually took place during one run. The maximum range of stress during a run occurred
at section R-R of the top cross frame strut near the center of the 85-ft span. This
range was 8.54 ksi for a steam locomotive at about 50 mph when the stress varied from
-f- 8.54 to zero. The maximum range of stress in any one member occurred in this same
member at section R-R and was 9.31 ksi when the stress varied from + 8.54 to — 0.77.
The highest tensile stress recorded was + 8.54 ksi which occurred at the above mentioned
cross frame for a steam locomotive at about 50 mph. The highest compressive stress
recorded was — 4.13 ksi which occurred at section F-F of the cross frame diagonal at
the end of the 65 ft-span. This occurred under a steam locomotive at about 80 mph.
The stresses shown on Figs. 93 to 96, incl., represent for each run the maximum
stress during the run unless there is a reversal of stress or a reduction of stress to zero in
which case the maximum stress is recorded as well as the maximum stress of opposite
sign or the zero stress.
An inspection of these recorded values indicates the following trends:
1. An increase in stress in the laterals and cross frames usually accompanied an
increase in speed.
2. The steam locomotives in most cases produced higher stresses in the laterals and
cross frames than the diesel locomotives.
3. The stresses in the bottom lateral bracing of the 90-ft and the 49-ft 11 ^-in spans
are predominantly tensile and are highest near the center of the span and lowest toward
the end of the span.
4. The stresses in the top and bottom diagonal bracing of the 65-ft, 85-ft and 102-ft
spans are relatively uniform from the end to the center of the spans.
5. The stresses in the top strut near the center of the 65-ft, 85-ft and 102-ft spans
are predominantly tensile, and the stresses in the bottom strut are compressive.
6. The stresses in the top and bottom struts of the end cross frames of the 65-ft,
85-ft and 102-ft spans are predominantly tensile.
7. The stresses in the diagonals of the cross frames are about equally divided between
compression and tension.
Apparently the deflection of the girders, with the lengthening of the bottom flange,
is a controlling factor in the development of stresses in the bottom lateral system of the
49-ft liy2-m and 90-ft spans. These two spans have through girders with a double
bracing system in the plane of the bottom flanges. In a previous report, namely, "Tests
of Steel Girder Spans and a Concrete Pier on the Santa Fe", it was noted tli.it there
20 Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
was interaction between the flanges and the lateral bracing. The spans in that test also
had double bracing systems. Since the 65-ft, 85-ft, and 102-ft spans in this test have a
single system of lateral bracing, it may be that this type of bracing is not influenced by
the longitudinal deformation of the flanges.
The highest stress recorded in the bracing of these spans was in the top strut of the
cross frame near the center of the 85-ft span. The top diagonal bracing of this span was
renewed with 8 by 4 by re -in angles. However, the intermediate cross frames were
reused, and the top strut, in which the stresses were recorded is a 3 by 2>y2 by H-in angle.
The combination of the heavy diagonals and light struts probably accounts for the high
recorded stress in the strut.
Tables 6 and 7 show the equivalent nosing load recorded in the laterals for the five
spans tested. To secure data for this table, a run was selected that would give a maximum
simultaneous stress in each panel for each locomotive type and class. With these maximum
simultaneous stresses determined, the maximum shears in each panel were determined.
The nosing load required to produce these shears was then computed and is shown in
the table. The 20-kip AREA nosing load was not exceeded in any instance. The highest
values were on the 90-ft through girder span where nosing loads of 10.2 kips and 11.4 kips
were computed.
The recorded stresses shown in these tables are those due only to transverse shears.
The effect of girder deformation or interaction between flanges and lateral bracing is not
included. It might be reasonable to expect, therefore, that the equivalent nosing loads
would be the same all along the girder. In general, this is so. For instance, a 2-8-2 locomo-
tive on the 85-ft span produced an average equiva'ent nosing load of 2.2 kips as recorded
in 6 top lateral angles. The minimum value was 1.5 kips and the maximum 3.3 kips.
Since the stresses were measured in both the top and bottom laterals of the 65-ft,
85-ft and 102-ft spans, an opportunity was afforded to compare the equivalent nosing
loads in the top and bottom bracing. In general it can be said that equivalent nosing
loads are higher at the top of the girder than at the bottom. However, the spread between
the two is not large, so apparently nosing loads applied at the rails are very nearly
equally distributed to the top and bottom lateral bracing.
In those spans where stresses in the laterals were measured under both steam and
diesel locomotives, it can be seen that higher equivalent nosing loads were produced by
the steam locomotives than by the diesels. However, the highest equivalent nosing loads
were produced by diesels as recorded in the 90-ft through girder span. No steam locomo-
tive stresses were recorded in this span so it can not be said whether they would have
caused higher stresses or not.
7. Total Impacts
The total impacts are the combinations of (1) speed effect, (2) roll effect, and (3)
track and hammer-blow effects. These total impacts are shown as a percentage of the
recorded static stresses for flange stresses at the center of the girders on Figs. 65 to 74,
incl., and for the web stresses at the ends of girders on Figs. 75 to 82, incl. The total
impact percentage in each test run for a particular speed and locomotive is the increase
in stress in the member over the average mean stress occurring at speeds of less than
10 mph.
a. Bottom Flanges at Center of Span
The total impact percentages resulting from 270 diesel and 405 steam locomotive
runs are shown on Figs. 65 to 74, incl. The values for 2-axle and 3-axle diesels and
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington 21
steam locomotives are plotted for the complete range of speeds. Also on the diagrams
are shown the impact percentages as computed by the AREA design specification for
rolling equipment without hammer blow in the case of diesel locomotives and for rolling
equipment with hammer blow in the case of steam locomotives. It can be seen that all
the recorded values are below the specification impact allowance.
The speed of the seven classes of steam power to produce the natural loaded fre-
quency, n, of the various spans is shown at the lower left. Even though many of the
runs were made at or near the critical speed, the total impacts did not exceed the design
values. This is shown on Fig. 68 for the 4-8-4, Class 05A locomotive on the 60-ft span
and on Fig. 72 for the 2-10-4, Class M4A locomotive on the °0-ft span.
As previously mentioned under Speed Effect it is common to have a negative speed
effect. In the same respect it is common to have negative total impacts. A negative impact
implies that for a particular speed and locomotive the recorded stress in the member is
less than the average mean stress occurring at speeds below 10 mph. Of 270 diesel runs
recorded, a negative impact occurred in 43 runs in one girder and 40 runs in the other
girder, or 15.8 percent and 18.0 percent, respectively. Similarly, of the 405 steam runs
recorded, a negative impact occurred in 43 runs in one girder and 46 runs in the other
girder or, 10.6 percent and 11.4 percent, respectively.
b. Webs at Ends of Girders
The total impact percentage resulting from 199 diesel and 264 steam locomotive
runs are shown on Figs. 75 to 82, incl. The recorded values for the 2-axle and 3 -axle
diesels and seven classes of steam locomotives are plotted for a complete range of speeds,
and on the same diagrams are shown the impact percentage as computed by the AREA
design specification. It is to be noted that in most cases the recorded values are below
the specification value, but certain isolated instances occurred when the value exceeds
the specification impact allowance. This is shown on Fig. 78 for the 2-8-2, Class 02 H
locomotive on the 75-ft span, Fig. 79 for the 2-axle diesel on the 85-ft span, and Fig. 80
for the 3-axle diesel on the 90-ft span.
Negative impacts were also recorded in the webs of the girders. Of the 1°9 diesel
runs recorded as producing an impact, a negative impact occurred in 44 runs in one
girder and 8 runs in the other girder. (The reason for the high number of negative
impacts in one girder is that 134 of the 199 runs were recorded in the one girder only.)
Thus negative impact occurred in 22.1 percent of 199 runs in one girder and 12.3 per-
cent of the 65 runs in the other girder. Similarly, of the 264 steam locomotive runs
recorded with impact, a negative impact occurred in 46 runs in one girder and 18 runs
in the other girder. One hundred and sixty-five of the 264 steam runs were recorded
in the one girder only. Thus negative impact occurred in 17.4 percent of the 264 runs in
one girder and 18.2 percent of the 99 runs in the other girder.
8. Frequency of Maximum Stresses
The stresses recorded during this series of tests wire secured under regular scheduled
trains except those few runs which were recorded at controlled speeds. These values
represent the frequency of occurrence of the maximum stresses on the various spans.
The maximum stresses recorded in one girder each ol the 9 girder spans and in the
-t beams under one rail ol the 24 it beam span are shown on the leii diagram of Pigs.
S3 to 92, incl. The maximum stresses recorded under steam locomotives are shown i>\
solid circles while those under the diesel locomotives are shown by open circles I h< se
diagrams represent a compilation of the stresses shown on Figs. 17 to 56, incl. || is evident
22 Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
from these diagrams that the higher stresses occur under steam locomotives and that
there is an increase in stress with an increase in speed, particularly under the steam
locomotives.
At the upper right on Figs. 83 to 92, incl., are shown the stress range distributions.
These indicate for each of the 10 spans the number of stresses at any one range which
were recorded under each class and type of locomotive. For example, on Fig. 87, steam
locomotives of the 05A class passed over the 65-ft span 24 times but only one produced
a stress in the range 7 to 8 ksi, 13 produced a stress between 6 and 7 ksi and 10 produced
a stress between 5 and 6 ksi. Since a totail of 83 locomotives passed over the span and
only one produced a stress in the 7 to 8 ksi range, 1.2 percent of all the locomotives
passing over the span produced a stress in this range. It can be seen from the stress range
distribution diagrams that generally the highest stresses in each span were caused by a
relatively small percentage of the locomotives crossing the span.
The diagrams at the lower right on Figs. 83 to 92, incl., show graphically the data
in the stress distribution tables.
9. Comparison of Top and Bottom Flange Stresses
Gages were placed on the top and bottom flanges of the 49-ft ll^-in, 60-ft, 75-ft,
90-ft and 100-ft spans, as shown on Figs. 6, 7, 9, 11 and 12. The maximum simultaneous
stresses recorded by these gages under several test runs, selected at random from the
higher speed runs for the various locomotive classes, are shown in Tables 8 and 9 for
the 5 spans.
The maximum stresses recorded in the top flanges of the north girders are shown
in Col. 5 of Tables 8 and 9, while the simultaneous stresses in the bottom flanges of the
same girders are shown in Col. 6. The variation between the top and bottom stresses
and the percent variation from the bottom flange stress is shown in Cols. 7 and 8. For
example, when the 2-8-2 locomotive crossed over the 49-ft 11 Yz -in through girder span
at 41.7 mph, a compressive stress of 9.00 ksi was recorded in the top flange of the north
girder simultaneously with a tensile stress of 7.74 ksi in the bottom flange. The top flange
stress was 1.26 ksi, or 16.3 percent greater than the bottom flange stress. Similar data
secured on the south girders are in Cols. 9 to 12, incl. A positive sign in Coils. 7 and S,
and 11 and 12 indicate that the top flange stress is greater than the bottom flange stress
by the amount shown. Of the 5 through girder spans shown in Tables 8 and 9 only the
49-ft ll^-in and the 90-ft spans have stringers and floorbeams. The other 3 spans have
transverse floorbeams without stringers. It can be readily seen from an inspection of the
values for the 2 spans with stringers and floorbeams that the top flange stresses are con-
sistently higher than those in the bottom flange. The average variation for the 49-ft
11 ^2 -in girders is -f- 20.2 percent and for the 90-ft girders is + 21.3 percent. It has been
found in previous tests that there is interaction between the stringers, laterals and the
bottom flanges of through girder spans, and these tests substantiate this. It is interesting
to note that in the three spans with transverse floorbeams only that the percent variation
from the bottom flange is much less and in many cases is a negative value, indicating
higher stresses in the bottom flange. Thus, there is little or no interaction in these spans.
10. Variation of Stresses Across Flanges
The stresses at the center and outside edges of the top flanges of the north girders
of the 60-ft, 75-ft and 100-ft through girder spans were measured with gages located as
shown on Tables 10, 11 and 12. The maximum simultaneous stresses recorded by these
gages under several runs for each locomotive type and class over a wide range of speeds
arc shown in these tables.
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington 23
The maximum stresses recorded at the centers of the top flanges are shown in Cols.
5, 11 and 17 while the simultaneous stresses at the edges arc shown in Cols, I. 6, i
16 and 18. The average of the stresses recorded at the edges is shown in Cols. 7, 13 and
19. The difference and the percentage difference between the maximum edge stress and
the average of the two edge stresses are shown in Cols. 8 and °, 14 and IS, and 20 and 21.
A positive sign indicates that the stress at the inner edge is greater than the average
stress. For example, the passage of a 2-axle diesel over the 60-ft span at 4.3 mph pro-
duced a compressive stress at the center of the flange of 4.20 ksi and simultaneous com
pressive stresses of 4.62 ksi at the outside edge and 4.06 ksi at the inside edge, with an
average of 4.34 ksi. The stress on the inside edge was 0.28 ksi or 6.5 percent less than
the average edge stress.
Deflection of the floorbeams would tend to pull the top flanges of the girder- toward
the center of the track, resulting in lateral bending of the flanges. Such bending would
increase the compressive stress at the outside edge of the top flange and decrease it at
the inside edge. It can be seen that in general the lateral bending is small and that in
most cases the bending is toward the track. Based on the average of all stresses shown
the bending of the top flanges is toward the center line of track for each of the three
spans. The average bending for the 60-ft span is — 6.5 percent, for the 75-ft span, — 8.8
percent and for the 100-ft span, — 9.1 percent.
11. Longitudinal Stress Distribution at End of Cover Plates
The stresses in the cover plates at several locations near the end of the outside
bottom cover plate of the north girder on the 85-ft span and the 102-ft span were
determined from gages located as shown on Tables 13 and 14. The stresses recorded in
these cover plates under several diesel and steam locomotives are tabulated, and the
recorded values for a slow-speed diesel and steam locomotive run are shown graphically.
It can be seen that the stress near the end of the outside plate, gage line c on the 85-ft
girder and gage line d on the 102-ft girder, is small for both girders, indicating that the
first two rows of rivets were only partially developing the plate. A stress of 2.04 ksi was
recorded at gage line c on the 85-ft girder under a M4A locomotive at 5.3 mph. This
means that the total stress carried by the 18 by Yi-m. plate was 18.36 kips, and each of
the four J^-in rivets carried 7.64 ksi shearing stress.
Referring to the graph on Table 13, it can be seen that the cover plate is practically
developed at line b since there was very little increase in stress at line a. The recorded
stress under the M4A locomotive at line b was 4.14 ksi, and the simultaneous stress at
line e was 4.77 ksi. Considering the increase in bending moment and section modulus
between lines e and b, the stress at b should be about 93 percent of the stress at e, or
4.44 ksi compared to the recorded values of 4.14 ksi. A unit stress of 4.14 ksi at line b
means that the 14 rivets between line b and the end of the plate were developing an
average shearing stress of 4.43 ksi.
The calculated static stresses indicated on the graphs of Table 13 and 11 bj a shorl
horizontal line near the end of the cover plate were adjusted to the recorded stress level
through the use of Stress factors in Table 3.
H. CONCLUSIONS
The tests on these nine girder spans afforded an opportunity to measure and
analyze the static and dynamic effects of both steam and diesel locomotive loadin
various speeds on both deck and through girder spans of different length-. The ion. hi
24 T e sts of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
sions stated in this report must be considered as applying to these spans only; the final
conclusions on girder spans will be written later.
From the data as found from these tests it seems logical to conclude that:
1. Static Stresses
The recorded static live-load stresses in the girder flanges averaged 6 percent lower
than the calculated stresses, with the results for individual spans varying from 3 percent
higher to 19 percent lower.
The recorded web shear was about twice as far below the calculated as was the
recorded flange stress.
2. Speed Effects
The speed effects were generally small and were about the same under steam and
diesel locomotive loadings. The highest value recorded was 18 percent.
3. Roll Effects
The roll effects were generally within the AREA design specifications allowance
except on two through girder spans where values as high as 36 percent were recorded.
4. Track Effects — Diesel Locomotives
The track effects under the diesel locomotives were generally less than 10 percent
of the measured static stresses, with a high value of 17 percent. The track effects
generally increased with an increase in speed.
5. Track and Hammer-Blow Effects — Steam Locomotives
The track and hammer-blow effects under the steam locomotives were somewhat
higher than the track effects under diesel locomotives. They generally increased with an
increase in speed and reached a maximum near the synchronous speed. The highest value
was 34 percent*
6. Total Impacts
The total impacts were below the AREA design allowance except for a few values
on two of the spans where impacts under diesel locomotives exceeded the design allow-
ance. The total impact percentages were generally higher under steam than diesel locomo-
tives for flange stresses, but lower for web stresses.
7. Maximum Stresses
The maximum recorded stresses under both steam and diesel locomotives were
generally well below the calculated stresses, using the current AREA design impact
allowance. A few of the recorded flange stresses in the 90-ft span under diesel locomotives
were somewhat higher.
8. Frequency of Maximum Stresses
Only a few of the trains passing over a bridge produced stresses near the maximum.
9. Bracing Stresses
The stresses in the lateral and cross-frame bracing generally increased with an
increase in speed and were generally higher under steam than diesel locomotives. The
stresses ranged from tension to compression during the passage of a train. The highest
average tensile stress recorded was 8.4 ksi and the highest compressive, 4.1 ksi. Longi-
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington 25
tudinal deformation of the girder flanges induced appreciable stresses in the bracing of
two spans. Equivalent lateral loads to produce the recorded stresses were never more
than half the AREA design requirement.
10. Comparison of Top and Bottom Flange Stresses
The two through girder spans with stringers and floorbeams had bottom flange
stresses about 20 percent lower than top flange stresses. This indicates that some flange
stress was carried by the floor system.
11. Distribution of Stresses in Girder Flanges
In the three spans where stresses were measured across the girder flange, little
transverse bending was found.
12. Stresses at Ends of Cover Plates
In the two spans where the stresses at the ends of cover plates were measured, it was
found that they were fully developed within 10 in.
26
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
TABLE I
C B.ftQ R R BR IDGE TESTS
RATING OF TEST LOCOMOTIVES
\LOCOMOTIVE
\type a
span\class
TYPE X.
FLOOR \
2-AXLE
DIESEL
3-AXLE
DIESEL
4-6-4
S4A
2-8-2
4-8-4
0 5A
2-10-2
M2A
2-10-4
M4A
OIA
02B
03
24-0
WF BEAM
BALLASTED
CONCRETE
E 37.9
E 41 2
E 52 .4
E 57.4
49'— ll£
T.P.G.
OPEN
TIMBER
E2I.0
E 54.7
50-0
DRG.
BALLASTED
TIMBER
E39.9
E 39.9
E 54 6
E 66 2
60 '-0
T.RG.
BALLASTED
W.I. PLATE
E 39.5
E 40.8
E63.3
E 53.9
E 56.0
E 55.6
E67.0
65-0
D.PG.
BALLASTED
TIMBER
E 39.3
E 41 .1
E 53.5
E66.5
75'- 0
T.RG.
BALLASTED
W. 1. PLATE
E 38.7
E 40.2
E62.5
E 52,0
E 536
E 56.3
E65.0
85-0
DRG.
BALLASTED
TIMBER
E 39.5
E 5 1.0
E 59.9
E 70.5
90L0
T.P.G.
OPEN
TIMBER
E 39.7
E 39.2
E63 9
E 70. 0
100-0
T.P.G.
BALLASTED
W.I. PLATE
E 4 0.2
E37.8
E 64.1
E 50.0
E 51.7
E 52.2
E65.I
l02'-0
D.PG.
BALLASTED
TIMBER
E 40.2
E 6 8.7
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on t he Burlington
27
COMPARISON OF
BENDING
1ABLE 2
LB a 0 RR BRIDGE TESTS
RECORDED AND CALCULATED STATIC STRESSES
MOMENT AT CENTER OF SPAN
span a
TYPE OF
FLOOR
TEST LOCOMOTIVE
RECORDED STATIC STRESS
AVERAGE
CALCULATED
STATIC
STRESS
CLASS
NUMBER
NORTH
GIRDER
SOUTH
GIRDER
AVERAGE
STRESS Fi
RECORDED
CALCULATED
COLUMN 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
2 4'-0
WF BEAM
BALLASTED
CONCRETE
2-AXLE DIESEL
2 41
2 28
2 35
3 79
0 62
0.62
2 45
2 48
2 47
0 65
3-AXLE DIESEL
2 48
2 52
2 50
4 II
061
2 70
2 61
2 66
0 65
2 38
2 31
2 35
0 57
01 A
5070
3 67
3 81
3 74
5 24
071
0 71
5090
4 00
3 78
3 89
0 74
507 1
3 28
3 64
346
066
05A
5627
4.56
3 66
4 1 1
5 74
0.72
5627
4 02
3 98
4.00
070
561 5
4 38
3 56
3.97
0.69
0 74
5627
441
4 1 3
427
49'-l4
TPG
OPEN
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
-3 07
-3 20
- 3 14
- 3 05
1 03
1 03
OIA
4970
-7.21
-6 64
- 6 92
- 7 80
0 90
0 93
4953
-7 41
-7 09
- 7 25
0 94
4970
-7.41
-6.86
- 7.14
0.93
4945
- 7 32
-6 74
- 7 03
091
4970
-7 62
-6 86
-7 25
0 94
4970
-76 1
-6 86
- 7 25
0 94
49 5 3
-7 41
-7 20
-7 31
0 95
50L0
D. PG
BALLASTED
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
3 25
2 94
3 10
3 54
0 88
0 85
3-AXLE DIESEL
3 14
2 94
3 04
353
0 86
3 02
2 81
292
083
3 02
2 69
2 86
08 1
OIA
5070
4 26
4 22
424
4 84
0 88
0 87
5090
4 49
4 47
448
093
5071
4 37
435
436
0 90
05A
5627
4 82
4 72
477
5 86
081
5627
5 39
4 98
5 19
0 89
561 5
5 16
4 72
494
0 84
5627
5 05
472
4 89
083
60-0
TPG
BALLASTED
W 1 PLATE
2-AXLE DIESEL
4 19
4 25
4 22
421
1 00
0 99
3 84
4 17
4 01
095
3-AXLE DIESEL
4 43
4 51
4 47
436
1 03
4 19
4 26
4 22
097
OIA
5073
587
594
591
5 74
1 03
0 98
5073
5 64
5 41
5 52
0 96
05A
5624
7 07
6 58
6 83
7 16
0 95
03
5348
6 24
6 19
6 21
5 95
1 04
S4A
4000
6 48
6 58
6 53
6 76
0 97
400 1
6 24
6.45
6 35
0 94
02B
5227
6 00
6 18
6 10
5 98
1 02
5228
5 52
5 67
5 60
094
65-0
D PG
BALLASTED
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
3 42
3 37
3 40
3 75
0 91
0 88
3-AXLE DIESEL
3 52
3 59
3 56
3 93
0 91
3 31
3 37
3 34
0 85
3 32
3 36
3 34
0 85
OIA
5070
4 93
5 16
5 07
5 10
0 99
0 93
509 0
4 56
4 95
4 76
0 93
507 1
4 87
4 72
4 80
0 94
05 A
5627
5 39
5 39
5 39
6 33
0.85
5 62 7
5 91
6 61
6 26
0 99
561 5
5 60
5 28
5 44
086
5627
6 12
5 73
5 93
0 mj
ALL STRESSES SHOWN ARE IN KSI ,
MINUS SIGN INDICATES COMPRESSION
28
Tests of Steel Girder Span s on I h e Burlington
TAPLF 9
C.B.90 RR BRIDGE TESTS
COMPARISON OF RECORDED AND CALCULATED STATIC STRESSES
BENDING MOMENT AT CENTER OF SPAN
span a
TYPE OF
FLOOR
TEST LOCOMOTIVE
RECORDED STATIC STRESS
AVERAGE
CALCULATED
STATIC
STRESS
CLASS
NUMBER
NORTH
GIRDER
SOUTH
GIRDER
AVERAGE
RECORDED
CALCULATED
COLUMN 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
75-0
T. P.G.
BALLASTED
W.I. PLATE
2-AXLE DIESEL
4 18
3.91
4.04
4 12
0.98
0.97
3.79
367
3.73
09 1
3- AXLE DIESEL
4.45
428
4.36
429
1 02
432
391
4.12
096
OIA
5073
5.36
5.13
5 25
5.54
0.95
0.95
5073
5.49
5.13
5.31
0.96
05A
5624
6.54
671
6 63
6.94
0.96
03
53 48
563
5 50
5 56
600
0.93
S4A
4000
681
6.47
6.64
6.69
0.99
4001
6.41
6.1 1
6.26
0.9 4
02 B
5227
5.49
5.26
5.37
5 72
0.94
52 28
5.24
5.13
5 19
0.91
85-0
D P.G.
BALLASTED
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
3.10
3.05
3.08
3.78
0.82
0.8 1
2.97
2.91
2.94
078
3.10
3 19
3.15
0.84
2 97
2.91
2.94
078
OIA
51 25
4.52
4.16
4.34
4.88
0.89
0.83
51 25
4.14
4.02
4.08
0.84
M2A
6129
400
4.16
4.08
5.71
0.72
6129
489
5.27
5.08
0.89
61 13
4.66
4.44.
4.52
0.79
M4A
6326
5.70
5.96
5.83
6 74
0B7
6316
5.70
5.83
5.77
0.86
6320
5.43
5.69
5.56
0.83
6321
5.30
5 27
5.29
0.79
90'- 0
T. P.G.
OPEN
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
-4 01
-384
-3.93
-3 87
1 02
1.02
-4 10
-3.57
-3.84
099
3- AXLE DIESEL
-4.1 1
-4 21
-4.1 6
-3 84
' 1.08
-3.81
-375
-3.78
0.98
05A
5633
-6.55
-5.34
-5.94
-6.25
0.95
0.99
5633
-645
-5 61
-6.03
0.97
M4A
6325
-694
-6.74
-6.84
-6.84
1 .00
6325
-724
-6.55
-6 90
1.01
6325
-7.04
-646
-6.75
0 99
6325
-733
-6 65
-6.99
1 .02
lOO'-O
T.P.G.
BALLASTED
W.I. PLATE
2- AXLE DIESEL
4.22
4.13
4.17
4.31
0.97
1.00
4.35
4jI3
4.24
OSS
3- AXLE DIESEL
4.46
425
4.36
4.05
1.08
3.97
3.88
3 93
0.97
OIA
5073
5.55
5.63
5.59
5.36
1 .04
0.97
5073
5.07
488
4.98
0.93
05A
5624
6.75
6 51
6.63
699
0.95
03
5348
5.42
5.37
5.40
5.60
0.96
S4A
4000
6.75
6.64
6.70
688
0.97
4001
6.64
6.38
6.51
0.95
02B
5227
5.55
5.38
5.46
5.54
0.99
5228
5.31
5.13
5.22
0.94
102-0
D.P.G
BALLASTED
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
3.89
406
3.98
3.89
1.02
1.01
389
3.89
3.89
1.00
M4A
6315
635
6.53
6 44
6 66
0.97
0.97
6325
5.96
6.30
6. 13
0.92
6325
648
6.75
6 62
0.99
6325
635
6.30
6.32
0.95
6313
6.48
6.45
646
0.97
6312
622
6 25
624
0 94
ALL STRESSES SHOWN ARE
MINUS SIGN INDICATES COM
IN KSI,
PRESSION.
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
29
TABLE 1
C B ft Q RR BRIDGF II STS
COMPARISON OF RECORDED AND CALCULATED STATIC STRESSES
WEB SHEAR AT END OF GIRDER
span a
TYPE OF
FLOOR
TEST LOCOMOTIVE
RECORDED STATIC STRESS
AVERAGE
CALCULATED
STATIC
STRESS *
CLASS
NUMBER
NORTH
GIRDER
SOUTH
GIRDER
AVERAGE
RECORDED
CALCULATED
COLUMN 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
49-1 li
TPG
OPEN
TIMBER
2 -AXLE DIESEL
1.20
1.60
075
0.75
OIA
4970
2 59
3.72
0 70
0.69
4970
2.59
0 70
4970
2.55
0.69
4970
2.59
0.70
4953
2.39
0.64
4953
2.44
0.66
4945
268
072
60'- 0 TPG.
BALLASTED
W.I PLATE
2-AXLE Dl
2 31
2.75
0.84
0.84
OIA
5073
3.1 1
3.63
0.86
087
05A
5624
3.69
4.21
0.88
65-0
DPG.
BALLASTED
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
1.79
242
0.74
0.78
1.98
0.82
OIA
5070
2.88
346
0.83
0 78
5228
2.69
0.78
5071
262
0 76
05A
5627
3.45
4 17
083
5627
3.20
0.77
75-0
TPG.
BALLASTED
Wl PLATE
2- AXLE DIESEL
2.67
3.10
0.86
086
OIA
5073
29 1
4.09
071
0.73
05A
5624
383
4.90
0 76
03
5348
3.53
4.33
081
02B
5228
2 62
4.34
0.60
85-0
D.PG.
BALLASTED
TIMBER
2- AXLE DIESEL
1.37
1.64
1.51
243
062
0.67
1.30
1.64
147
061
1.78
2.06
192
0.79
1.52
63
1.58
0.65
OIA
5125
266
3 13
289
3.12
0.93
0.80
5125
2.33
2.63
2.48
0.80
M2A
6129
2 13
278
246
3.59
0.69
6129
2.19
2.93
256
071
61 13
2.74
2.83
2.79
0 78
M4A
6326
3.62
3.70
3.66
4.08
0.90
6316
3.15
3.63
3.39
0.83
6320
3.01
2.97
2.99
073
6321
2.75
3.73
324
0.79
90'-0
T.PG.
OPEN
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
2 1 1
1.97
2.04
2.63
0.78
0.75
1.84
1.91
1.88
0.72
3- AXLE DIESEL
2.00
1.97
1.99
2.61
0.76
1.89
1.92
1.91
0.73
M4A
6325
3.00
3.35
3.18
4.31
074
0.79
6325
3 29
3 77
3.53
0.82
6325
3.00
350
325
076
6325
345
3.72
358
0.83
100' -0
T. P. G.
BALLASTED
W.I PLATE
OIA
5073
269
3.60
0.75
0.76
05A
5624
3.82
4.54
084
03
5348
3.22
3 94
0.82
02B
5228
2.39
3.78
0.63
l02'-0
D P. G
BALLASTED
TIMBER
2- AXLE DIESEL
2 04
2.20
2.12
2.37
0.89
0.89
1.97
a25
2.11
0.89
M4A
6315
3.81
3.77
379
4 03
0.94
094
6325
3.54
359
3.56
0 88
6325
3.95
4.01
3.98
0.99
6325
354
4.07
381
094
6313
3.67
0.91
6312
3 61
4.29
3.95
0.98
6313
3.68
354
361
0.90
NOTE- ALL STRESSES ARE TENSILE AND IN K SI
* CALCULATED STRESSES COMPUTED USING THE FOLLOWING FORMULA:
(■(4g1 * i" fa + V, WHERE * -- J§
30
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
TABLE 5
C B a Q RR BRIDGE TESTS
COMPARISON OF RECORDED AND CALCULATED STATIC STRESSES
BENDING MOMENT AT t STRINGERS
SPAN &
TYPE OF
FLOOR
TEST LOCOMOTIVE
RECORDED STATIC STRESS
AVER AGE
CALCULATED
STATIC
STRESS
STRESS FACTOR=
RECORDED
CALCULATED
CLASS
NUMBER
NORTH
STRINGER
SOUTH
STRINGER
AVERAGE
COLUMN 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
49-11^
T PG
OPEN
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
4 48
3. 82
4 15
3 62
1 15
l 15
0 IA
4 9 70
8 00
6.44
7 22
6 7 1
1 08
l 05
4945
7 37
6 25
6 81
1 02
9 0'-0
T P G
OPEN
TIMBER
2- AXLE DIESEL
3 12
3 33
3 23
4 79
0 67
0 70
3 00
3 04
3 02
0 63
3- AXLE DIESEL
3 34
3 34
3 34
4 38
076
3 23
3 28
3 26
0 74
05A
5 6 33
5 45
5 20
5 33
5 78
0 92
l 06
5633
4 51
4 84
467
081
M4A
6325
6 21
6 16
6 19
5 48
1 13
6325
6 32
6 32
6 32
1 15
6325
6 27
6 07
6 1 7
1 13
6325
6 38
6 66
6 52
1 19
BENDING MOMENT AT t INTERIOR FLOOR BEAMS
SPAN a
TYPE OF
FLOOR
TEST LOCOMOTIVE
RECORDED
STATIC
STRESS
AVERAGE
CALCULATED
STATIC
STRESS
STRE SS FACTOR =
RECORDED
CALCULATED
CLASS
NUMBER
COLUMN 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
49 -l|A
T PG
OPEN
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
3 52
3 37
1.05
1 05
01 A
4970
7 05
7 1 7
098
0 96
4945
6 70
094
90 -0
T PG
OPEN
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
2 53
3 1 2
0 8 1
089
2 94
0 94
3-AXLE DIESEL
3 04
3 53
0 86
3 34
0 95
05A
5633
465
5 1 0
09 1
079
5 633
3 75
0.74
M4A
6325
4 76
5 78
0 82
6325
4.35
0 75
6325
435
0 75
6325
4 45
0 77
BENDING MOMENT AT t END FLOOR BEAMS
SPAN a
TYPE OF
FLOOR
TEST LOCOMOTIVE
RECORDED
STATIC
STRESS
AVERAGE
CALCULATED
STATIC
STRESS
STRESS FACTOR =
RECORDED
CALCULATED
CLASS
NUMBER
COLUMN 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
49'- \\\
T P G
OPEN
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
2 97
4 08
0 73
073
01 A
4970
5 70
6 36
0 90
087
4945
5 35
0 84
90-0
T PG
OPEN
TIMBER
2-AXLE DIESEL
2 30
2 93
0 79
0 87
2 57
0 88
3-AXLE DIESEL
3 1 1
3 20
0 97
2 71
0 85
05A
5633
4 41
4 43
0 99
1 05
5633
4 70
1 06
M4A
6325
5 1 2
4 60
1 1 1
6325
498
1 08
6325
4 84
1 05
6325
4 70
1 02
NOTE ALL STRESSES ARE TENSILE AND IN KSI
Tests of Steel Girder Spans » n the Burlington
31
I ABLE 6
CB 80 RR. BRIDGE TESTS
EQUIVALENT NOSING LOAD RECORDED IN LATERALS
0
12 3 4 5 6
\
EAST
T-
49'-lli T.RG.
BOTTOM LATERALS
(LOCATION OF GAGES)
XFJ$Ml
GAGE
48-6 CTOC BRGS A
PLAN
TYPICAL SECTION
PANEL
5-6
4-5
3-4
SECTION
A
B
C
D
E
F
a
>
o
o
o
_j
2-AXLE
OIESEL
SIMULT STRESS
+060
-0 7 1
+ 0 50
-0 47
+ 0 38
-030
NOSING 8 SPEED
4 6" a 440 MPH
4 2* 8 44 OMPH
4 O" 8 67 OMPH
OIA
2-8-2
SIMULT STRESS
+0 72 -0 71
+ 0 76 -0 76
+ 0 47
-030
NOSING a SPEED
5 0" 8 35 7 MPH
6 6" a 35 7 MPH
4 5" a
65-0 D.P.6.
TOP LATERALS
( LOCATION OF GAGES)
FAST
jfr B&
>>c D>
/ \^
2 INCH
MAGNETIC
63-9 C 1
PL
0 C BRGS
GAGE
AN
TYPICAL SECTION
SECTION
A
B
C
D
UJ
>
O
5
c
5
o
2-AXLE
OIESEL
STRESS
+ 1 82
-0 90
+ 118
+ 1 14
NOSING 8 SPEED
4 3" 8 62 3MPH
2 5* 8 92.8MPH
3.1* a 62 3MPH
3 8*8 928MPH
3-AXLE
DIESEL
STRESS
+ 1 46
-0 78
-0.83
-0 73
NOSING 8 SPEED
34" 8 91 6MPH
1 2 1 " a 81 2MPH
2 2" S 81 2MPH
2 4*8 81 2 MPH
OIA
2-8-2
STRESS
+3 76
-0 89
+ 1 54
- 1 04
NOSING a SPEED
88" a 37 5MPH
2 4* 8 337MPH
4.1* 8 33.7MPH
3.4*8 260MPH
05A
4-8-4
STRESS
+328
NOSING aSPEED
7 7" a 772MPH
65-0 D.PG.
BOTTOM LATERALS
( LOCATION OF GAGES)
EAST
»D L^«F
63-9 CTOC. BRGS.
GAGE
PLAN
TYPICAL SECTION
SECTION
A
B
C
D
E
F
uj
a.
>-
>
o
5
3
o
o
_l
2-AXLE
DIESEL
STRESS
+088
+0 65
+059
-0 48
-0 49
-0 52
NOSING a SPEED
30Ka406MPH
2.4*890 IMPH
2 4*862.3 MPH
22*a928MPH
2 5*8 928MPH
3 |"89I5MPH
3-AXLE
DIESEL
STRESS
-076
-0 64
-0 47
-0 47
-0 48
-0 52
NOSING 8 SPEED
2 6*891 6MPH
24*867 6MPH
1 9*a773MPH
2I*867 6MPH
2 5*a67 6MPH
3 i*asz< mph
OIA
2-8-2
STRESS
-1 26
+ 0 90
-0 82
-0 71
+0 36
-0 52
NOSING 8 SPEED
4 2*8375MPH
33*833 7MPH
33*S337MPH
3 2*a33 7MPH
1 9*8 33 7MPH
3 ,"H 337MPH
05A
4-8-4
STRESS
+2 27
NOSING a SPEED
7b"a81?MPH
90-0 T.P.6,
BOTTOM LATERALS
1 LOCATION OF GAGES)
la 2 n3nr.<U.,S 6 7 9 10 FAST
A
wm.
X
X
X
2 INCH MAGNETIC
88'-
3 C
F
TOC BR
GS
'LAN
TYPICAL SECTION
PANEL
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
SECTION
A
B
C
D
E
F
G H
O
o
2-AXLE
DIESEL
SIMULT STRESS
+ 0 5 7
-0 44
-0.55
+0.21
-0.58
+0.44
-0 80
+ 048
NOSING a SPEED
5.l" 8 63 4MPH
■l 4" n .. ' 4MI-H
r. h" a 4- "mph
102*8 634MPH
3-AXLE
DIESEL
SIMULT STRESS
-068 I +044
-033 | +062
+049 | -044
+0 69 | -0 73
NOSING 8 SPEED
56" a 680MPH
5 4" 8 68 OMPH
6 2" a 694MPH
114" 8 695MPH
NOTE SIMULT STRESS AS SHOWN IS THE SIMULTANEOUS STRESS AT WHICH THE SHEAR IN EACH
PANEL WILL BE A MAXIMUM THE NOSING FORCE IS CALCULATED USING THE GROSS SECTION
SIMULT STRESSES ARE GIVEN IN KSI WITH TENSION [+ 8 COMPRESSION!-)
THE AREA DESIGN NOSING LATERAL LOAD- 20 KIPS
M
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
EQUIVALENT
TABLE 7
C B 8 0 R.R BRIDGE TESTS
NOSING LOAD RECORDED IN LATERALS
85'-0 DPG
TOP LATERALS
(LOCATION OF GAGES )
A A
CC
E E
t
Z^V
^k/
^\F /
EAST
83-6 C. TO C. BRGS
2 INCH
MAGNETIC
GAGE-.
TYPICAL SECTION
2-AXLE
DIESEL
NOSING 8 SPEED
l.5"8545MPH
26"a545MPH l.7K8 50.0MPH
l.8"85O0MPH
l.6Ka 54.5 MPH
3.3*8 545 MPH
OIA
2-8-2
-0.39
NOSING a SPEED
1.5 828.5MPH
26" a 28 5 MPH
2.6"a285MPH
1.8" 8 285 MPH
33 828.5 MPH
M2A
2-10-2
-0.39
+ 041
NOSING a SPEED
1.5 8 35 .7 MPH
i.7"a35.7MPH
26"a357MPH
l.8"8357MPH
25"835.7MPH
33*a357MPH
M4A
2-10-4
STRESS
I 37
NOSING a SPEED
6.3*a50.0MPH6.9 a50.0MPH 5.1 8432 MPH
54"a4l.4MPH 59"850.0MPHI09 a5Q0MPH
85-0 DPG
BOTTOM LATERALS
( LOCATION OF GAGES )
t
/A^NB
/ B\
A
83-6 C. TO C BRGS
ML
TYPICAL SECTION
2-AXLE
DIESEL
NOSING 8 SPEED
1.6" a 54.5 MPH
1.8" 8 545 MPH
1.5" 8 54 5 MPH
1.7" 8 54.5 MPH
OIA
2-8-2
NOSING a SPEED
1.6" 8 28 5 MPH
1.8" 8 28 5 MPH
1.5" 8 28 5 MPH
17" 8 28 5 MPH
NOSING 8 SPEED
Zl 8 35.7 MPH
2.4" a 35 7 MPH
26 8 35 7 MPH
23 8 35.7 MPH
M4A
2-I0-'
NOSING a SPEED
5.2 8 48 3 MPH
5.9 a 43 8 MPH
4.6 8 4 1.4 MPH
5.1 8 50 0 MPH
102-0 DPG
TOP LATERALS
( LOCATION OF GAGES )
2 INCH
MAGNETIC
GAGE
I
TYPICAL SECTION
2-AXLE
DIESEL
NOSING a SPEED
23 a43.8MFH 2.2 8438MF+ 24 851 OMPH
27 8438 MPH
13 843.8 MPH
1.6 a 43.8 MPH
M4A
2-10-4
+0.66
-Q.69
-052
-069
+082
NOSING 8 SPEED
5.7" 84Q8MPH 5.5* 84Q8MPK 47*83I.8MPH 6.8*8 46.8MPH 87*a462MPH 80Ka468MPH
l02'-0 0P6.
BOTTOM LATERALS
( LOCATION OF GAGES )
EAST
l02'-0 C. TO C. BRGS.
2 INCH
MAGNETIC
GAGE -\
PLAN
iL
TYPICAL SECTION
SECTION
2-AXLE
DIESEL
NOSING 8 SPEED
20" 8 43 8 MPH
1.8" 8 43.8 MPH
17" a 53.4 MPH
1.5" 8 438 MPH
M4A
2-10-4
NOSING a SPEED 12" 8 31.8 MPH
5.8" 8 31.8 MPH
4.9" 8 31.8 MPH
44* 8 39.8 MPH
THE NOSING FORCE IS CALCULATED USING THE GROSS SECTION.
STRESSES ARE GIVEN IN KSI WITH TENSION (+) 8 COMPRESSION (-)
THE A.R.E.A. DESIGN NOSING LATERAL LOAD ■ 20 KIPS.
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
33
TABLE 8
C.B. 8 0. R.R. BRIDGE TESTS
COMPARISON OF TOP AND BOTTOM FLANGE RECORDED STRESSES
SPAN
LENGTH
a FLOOR
TYPE
TEST LOCOMOTIVE
NORTH GIRDER
SOUTH GIRDER
CLASS
NUMBER
SPEED
MPH
TOP
FLANGE
BOTTOM
FLANGE
VARIATION FROM
BOTTOM FLANGE
TOP
FLANGE
BOTTOM
FLANGE
VARIATION FROM
BOTTOM FLANGE
STRESS
PERCENT
STRESS
PERCENT
COL. 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
49-1 l-fe TRG.
OPEN
TIMBER
OIA
2-8-2
4949
41.7
-9.00
+ 7.74
+ 1.26
+ 16 3
-7 89
+ 7.12
+ 0.77
+ 10.8
43 4 5
42.5
-9.34
+ 7.25
+ 2 09
+ 28.8
-9 61
+ 8.33
+ 1 .28
+ 15.4
4946
44.0
-8 91
+ 7.1 5
+ 1 76
+24.6
-9 15
+ 7.77
+ 1 .38
+ 17.8
49GI
48 .7
-10 60
+ 8 43
+ 2 17
+25.8
-8 81
+ 7 03
+ 1 .78
+25.3
49G5
5 1.0
-9.74
+ 8.05
+ 1 .69
+2 1.0
-8.35
+ 7.21
+ 1.14
+ 15.8
UJ
1-
«t
_l
0.
z
o
K
o »-
o-' i
»-' o
o o
-' a.
to *
o
UJ
i-
n
<
j
_i
«t
CD
2-AXLE DIESEL
49 6
-4.71
+ 4 55
+ 0 1 6
+ 3.5
-4.1 0
+ 4.64
-0 54
-1 1.6
49.7
-4.71
+ 4 92
-0 2 1
- 4.3
-4.46
+ 4.77
-0 31
- 6 5
5 5.8
-4.71
+ 4.55
+ 0.1 6
+ 3.5
-4.34
+ 4.64
-0 30
- 6.5
605
-4 58
+ 4.55
+ 0 03
+ 07
-4.34
+ 4.64
-0 30
- 6 5
62.7
-4 71
+ 4.68
+ 0 03
+ 0.6
-422
+ 490
-0.68
-13.9
63.3
-4.84
+ 4 80
+ 0 04
+ 0.8
-4.34
+ 4.64
-0.30
- 6.5
3-AXLE DIESEL
68.1
-4 58
44.55
40.03
+ 0.7
-4 58
+ 4 64
-0 06
- 1.3
76.1
-5.21
•+5. 03
+ 0 18
+ 3.6
-4.8 1
+ 5 02
-0 21
- 4 2
88 6
-4.84
+ 5.03
-0.19
- 3 8
-4 58
+ 464
-0 06
- 13
90 4
-4 59
+ 4 55
+ 0.04
+ 0 9
-422
+ 4 64
-0 42
- 9 1
94 9
-4.84
+ 4 55
+ 0.29
+ 6.4
-4.46
+ 4 77
-0.3 1
- 6 5
95 0
-4 58
+4.19
+0.39
+ 9 3
-4.34
+ 4 38
-0 04
- 0 9
OIA
2-8-2
5 1 39
42 0
-7.25
+ 7.42
-0.17
- 2.3
-6.33
+ 6 69
-0 36
- 5.4
51 47
42.5
-6.87
+6 59
+ 0 28
+ 4 2
-633
+ 6 82
-0.49
- 7 2
5073
42.8
-7 12
+ 6 84
+ 0 28
+ 4.1
-6.33
+ 695
-0 62
- 8.9
51 08
48.7
-7.12
+7.30
-0.18
- 2.5
-7 27
+ 7 86
-0 59
- 7 5
OSA
4-8-4
5624
41.8
-8. 14
+ 7.80
+ 0.34
+ 4.4
-7 39
+ 7 34
+0 05
+ 0 7
5 6 09
66 0
-7.89
+7 67
+022
+ 2 9
-7 63
+ 7.99
-0.36
- 45
5627
66 1
-8.40
+8 39
+0.01
+ 0.1
-7.97
+ 8.64
-0 67
- 7 8
5623
745
-7 25
+7 44
-0 19
- 2 6
-7 51
+ 7 85
-0 34
- 4 3
5628
76.5
-7 89
+ 7 67
+ 0.22
+ 2 9
-7 85
+8 12
-0.27
- 3.3
UJ
<
_l
a.
z
O
K
?§
in ^
s *
a
UJ
t-
«
_i
<i
CO
2-AXLE DIESEL
49 6
-4.76
+ 4 31
+ 045
+ 10.4
-4.35
+ 4 65
-0 30
- 6 4
49 7
-4 96
+4 58
+0 38
+ 8 3
-423
+ 4 40
-0 1 7
- 3 9
55.8
-4.56
+4.31
+0 25
+ 5 8
-4 48
+ 4 65
-0 17
- 3.7
60.5
-4 76
+ 4.45
+0 31
+ 7 0
-4 23
+ 4 28
-0 05
- 1 2
62 7
-4.86
+ 4.71
+ 0 15
+ 3 2
-4 35
+ 4 40
-0 05
- 1 1
63 3
-5 05
+ 4 45
+0 60
+ 13 5
-4 48
+ 4 40
+0 08
+ 18
3-AXLE DIESEL
68 1
-4 66
+4 3 1
+ 0 35
+ 8 1
-435
+ 4 03
+0 32
+ 79
76 1
-3 86
+ 4 58
-0 72
- 157
-436
+ 4 65
-0 29
- 6 2
88 6
-4 96
+ 4 58
+ 0 38
+ 8 3
-4 49
+4 76
-0 27
- 5 7
90 4
-4 86
+ 4 45
+0 41
+ 92
-4 61
+ 4 65
-0 04
- 09
94 9
-4 06
+4 45
-0 39
- 8 8
-4.74
+-4 90
-0 1 6
- 3 3
95 0
-4fl6
+ 4 71
+ 0 15
+ 3 2
-4,73
+ 4.90
-0 17
- 3 5
OIA
2-8-2
5 1 39
42 0
-7 53
+ 6 41
+ 112
+ 17 5
-6 35
+ 6 36
-0 01
- 0 2
5 1 47
42 5
-7 63
+ 6.67
+ 0.96
+ 14 4
-5 46
+ 5 50
-0 02
- 04
5073
42 8
-7 93
+6 81
+ 112
+ 16.4
-6 22
+6 48
-0 26
- 4 0
5 108
48 7
-6 24
+6 16
+ 008
+ 1.3
-6 72
+ 7 2 1
-0 49
- 68
OSA
4-8-4
5624
56 8
-7 53
+ 5 76
+ 1 77
+307
-697
+ 7 22
-0 25
- 3 5
59 5
-7 43
+ 6 27
+ 116
+ 16 5
-7 47
+ 7 58
-0 1 1
- 1 5
5609
66 0
-7 93
+ 7 20
+ 073
+ 10.1
-7 47
+ 8 07
-0 60
- 7 4
5627
66 1
-8 23
+7 85
+ 0 38
+ 48
-7 60
+ 8 81
-1 21
-13 7
5623
74 5
-7 93
+ 7 32
+ 0 61
+ 83
-7 34
+ 7 34
0 0
0 0
5628
76 5
-8 13
+ 7 72
+ 0 41
+ 53
-7 72
+ 7 70
+0 02
+ 03
STRESSES SHOWN ARE IN KSI.
COL 5,6,9,8 10 THE STRESSES RECORDED AT THE GAGE POSITION HAVE BEEN CORRECTED TO
SHOW THE STRESSES AT THE EXTREME FiBER
COL 7, 8,11 8 12 A POSITIVE SIGN IN THESE COLUMNS MEANS THAT THE TOP FLANGE STRESS
IS GREATER THAN THE BOTTOM FLANGE STRESS BY THE AMOUNT SHOWN
.u
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
TABLE 9
CB a 0 RR BRIDGE TESTS
COMPARISON OF TOP AND BOTTOM FLANGE RECORDED STRESSES
TEST LOCOMOTIVE
NORTH GIRDER
SOUTH GIRDER
f
LENGTH
\ FLOOR
TYPE
CLASS
NUMBER
SPEED
MPH
TOP
FLANGE
VARIATION FROM
BOTTOM B0TT0M FLANGE
TOP
FLANGE
VARIATION FROM
30TT0M B0TT0M FLANGE
STRESS
PERCENT
" STRESS PERCENT
COL. 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 1
12
472
-528
+ 4.09
+ 1.19
+ 29 1
-4 59
+ 3.66
+ 0.93
+ 25.4
539
-480
+ 4.34
+ 0.46
+ 10 6
-4,21
+ 3 46
+ 0.75
+ 21.6
2-AXLE DIESEL -
56.2
-4.79
+ 4.49
+ 0 30
+ 67
-4.1 1
+ 3.56
+ 0.55
+ 15.5
63.4
-5.09
+ 4.22
+ 0.87
+ 20.6
-4.40
+ 3 77
+ 0 63
+ 16.7
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45 4
-4.02
+ 3.54
+ 0 48
+ 13.6
-3 93
+ 3 56
+ 0.37
+ 104
45 9
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+ 2 95
+ 1 .25
+ 42 4
-3 84
+ 3 05
+ 079
+ 25.9
469
-4 40
+ 3.41
+ 0.99
+ 29.0
-4 03
+ 3 46
+ 0.57
+ 16.5
57 3
-4 50
+ 3 72
+ 0 78
+ 21 .0
-4 2 1
+ 3 77
+ 0.44
+ 1 1.7
3-AXLE DIESEL
65.9
-479
+ 3 40
+ 1 39
+ 40.9
-4 40
+ 3 56
+ 0 84
+ 236
68 0
-4 69
+ 4 22
+ 0 47
+ 111
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+ 4.07
+ 003
+ 0.7
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-4.89
+ 4 34
+ 0 55
+ 12 7
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+ 3 56
+ 1.12
+ 31.5
69.4
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+ 3.81
+ 1 .08
+ 28 4
-4.59
+ 4.07
+ 0.52
+ 12.8
69.5
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+ 3 72
+ 117
+ 31.4
-4 49
+ 3 97
+ 0 52
+ 13.1
70.0
-4.59
+ 3.54
+ 1.05
+ 29.6
-4.30
+ 2.98
+ 1.32
+ 44 3
706
-489
+ 3 81
+ 1 08
+ 28 4
-4.49
+ 3 66
+ 0.83
+ 22.7
72.2
-4 89
+ 4 62
+ 0.27
+ 58
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+ 3 46
+ 0 94
+ 272
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45.2
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+ 4 58
+ 0 52
+ 114
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+ 4.63
+ 0 56
+ 12 1
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+ 4,46
+ 0.85
+ 19 1
-5 07
+ 4 38
+ 0.69
+ 15.8
49 7
-5.41
+ 4.70
+ 0 71
+ 15. 1
-4 50
+ 4 75
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- 5.3
55 8
-5.31
+ 4 46
+ 0.85
+ 19.1
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+ 4 50
+ 0.69
+ 15.3
60.5
-5.52
+ 4.82
+0 70
+ 14.5
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+ 4 63
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62 7
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+ 4 70
+ 0 82
+ 17 4
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+ 4.63
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63.3
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+ 5 07
+0.55
+ 10 8
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+ 4 88
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3-AXLE DIESEL
41.6
-4.7 9
+ 4 46
+0 33
+ 74
-4.06
+ 4 37
-0.31
- 7,1
42 8
-4.79
+ 4,34
+ 0.45
+ 10 4
-3 95
+ 4.25
-0.30
- 7.1
47.1
-4.37
+ 4 10
+ 0 27
+ 66
-4. 17
+ 4.25
-0.08
- 1.9
57.8
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+ 4.09
+0.91
+ 22 2
-4.29
+ 4.37
-0 08
- 1.8
6 1.5
-5 41
+ 4.83
-0.58
- 12 0
-5.41
+ 4.64
+ 0.77
+ 16.6
6 4.6
-4.99
+ 4 58
+ 0.41
+ 9.0
-4.96
+ 4.38
+ 0.58
+ 13 3
68.1
-489
+ 4 34
+ 0 55
+ 12 7
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+ 4,38
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- 2.1
76.1
-4 89
+ 458
+ 0 31
+ 6.8
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+ 4,63
+ 0.44
+ 9.5
88.6
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+ 4 46
+ 0 64
+ 14.4
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+ 4,50
+ 057
+ 12.7
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+ 4 34
+ 0 66
+ 15 2
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+ 4.50
+ 0 57
+ 12 7
94 9
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+ 4.22
+ 0 67
+ 15.9
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+ 4, 12
+ 0.84
+ 20 4
95.0
-4 79
+ 4 46
+0 33
+ 7,4
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+ 4.37
+ 0 59
+ 13.5
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-8.01
+ 7.35
+0 66
+ 90
-6.20
+ 6 37
-0.17
- 2.7
5 147
42 5
-7.07
+ 6.38
+ 0.69
+ 10 8
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+ 5 76
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5073
42 8
- 7 49
+ 6 40
+ 1 09
+ 17.0
-6.98
+ 6.25
+ 0.73
+ 1 1.7
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+ 5 78
+ 0.68
+ 118
-6.43
+ 5.76
+ 0.67
+ 1 1.6
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5624
4 1.6
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+ 7 60
+ 0 93
+ 12.2
-8.34
+ 7. 14
+ 1.20
+ 16.8
4 1.8
-8.32
+ 7.47
+ 0 85
+ 114
-8 34
+ 7.37
+ 0.97
+ 13.1
52 8
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+ 7.95
+ 1 32
+ 16.6
-8.57
+ 7.38
+ 119
+ 16.1
52 8
-8.74
+ 7 35
+ 1.39
+ 18.9
-8.57
+ 7.01
+ 1.56
+ 22.2
56 8
- 843
+ 7 25
+ 1 18
+ 16 3
-8 22
+ 7 01
+ 1 21
+ 17 3
59 5
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+ 7,84
+ 1 . 1 1
+ 14.2
-8 34
+ 7.13
+ 1.21
+ 170
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660
-8 84
+ 7.59
+ 1 25
+ 16.5
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+ 7.62
+ 0.94
+ 12 3
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66.1
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+ 8 08
+ 0 98
+ 12.1
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+ 8.26
+ 0 76
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5623
74 5
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+ 7 84
+ 0 69
+ 8.8
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5628
76.5
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+ 8.08
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+ 9 4
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- 2.1
N0TE C0LE5SS6ES9 a T-THE STRESSES RECORDED AT THE GAGE POSITION HAVE BEEN CORRECTED TO
SHOW THE STRESSES AT THE EXTREME FIBER. „,.„„„
COL 7 8 II 8 12 A POSITIVE SIGN IN THESE COLUMNS MEANS THAT THE TOP FLANGE STRESS
IS GREATER THAN THE BOTTOM FLANGE STRESS BY THE AMOUNT SHOWN.
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on t he Burlington
35
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Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
TABLL 13
C. B a Q RR BRIDGE TESTS
LONGITUDINAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION AT END OF COVER PLATES
t SPAN
85'-0 GIRDER
DIRECTION
OF TRAFFIC
"I — " ' -]T
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NOTE CALCULATED STRESSES ADJUSTED TO THE RECORDED STRESS LEVEL
THROUGH USE OF STRESS FACTORS FROM TABLE 3.
RECORDED MAXIMUM SIMULTANEOUS STRESSES
LOCOMOTIVE
TENSILE STRESS -KSI
TYPE
SPEED
a
b
C
d
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DIESEL
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2 75
2.76
1.41
328
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6 9
249
234
102
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286
42 0
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2.62
141
3.56
3.27
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302
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575
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34.5
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441
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427
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4 89
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on i h e Burlington
jg
TABLE 14
C B 8 0 R R BRIDGE TESTS
LONGITUDINAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION AT END OF COVER PLATES
l02'-0 GIRDER
DIRECTION
'of TRAFFIC
I! SPAN
NOTE: CALCULATED STRESSES ADJUSTED TO THE RECORDED STRESS LEVEL
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RECORDED MAXIMUM SIMULTANEOUS STRESSES
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TYPE
SPEED
a
b
C
d
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304
295
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2 72
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288
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5 66
5 76
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4 55
4 89
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5 10
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5.80
5.90
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4.66
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550
6 '6
6.15
2.47
5.01
5.58
40
T e s t s
Of Steel GircUi1jy1anj-_^,l
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Tests of Steel Girder Spa ns <» n the Burlington
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Tests of Steel Girder S p ans on the Burlington
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Tests of Steel Girder Spans o n the Burlington
C. 3. a 0. R.R. BRIDGE TESTS
LOCOMOTIVE DATA
2-AXLE DIESEL
L
O O
o o o o
ALL WHEELS ARE 40" DIA.
SYM ABT t
A7 A8 i
S4
S9~
X
o o
±»-i-
LOCO. NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHT - KIPS
AXLE SPACING - FEET
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
100 A,B,C,D TO
115 A.B.C.D
58.2
582
583
58.3
56.5
56.5
559
55 9
9'-0
18'- 3
9-0
8-0
9'-0
17-6
9-0
8-9
88-6
2-AXLE DIESEL
UNIT NO. I50A-I54A.I55C-I59C
Al A2
Ao o
A3 A4
o o
UNIT NO I50B-I59B
ALL WHEELS ARE 40" DIA
UNIT NO. I50C-I54C, I55A-I59A
A5 A6
o o
A7 A8
O Q
A9 AIO All AI2
n q o o A
S7~j~S8T S9 I sio Is I r
LOCO. NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHT - KIPS
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
AIO
All
AI2
150 A,B,C TO
159 A,B,C
57.0
57.0
586
58.6
56.4
56.4
56.1
56.1
58 1
58.1
58.4
584
AXLE SPACING - FEET
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
SIO
Sll
SI2
9'-0
21-0
9'-0
14'- 3
9-0
17-6
9-0
8'-0
9-0
18'- 3
9-0
133-0
2-AXLE DIESEL (ARTICULATED)
A2
WHEELS 182 (DRIVERS) ARE 36" DIA.
WHEELS 384 (IDLERS) ARE 30" DIA.
Z_
O O
o
o
, Sl >|.
S2
S3
S4
S5
,
~1
LOCO NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHT-KIPS
AXLE SPACING-FEET
Al
A2
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
9903
50 9
509
8-0
54-7
5-0
3-0
67-7
2-AXLE DIESEL
Al A2
z
O O
SI
ALL WHEELS ARE 36" DIA.
A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8
o o o o o o
-
N
LOCO NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHT-KIPS
AXLE SPACING-FEET
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
9906 8 9907
544
544
580
58 0
52 6
526
514
51.4
8-6
25'-6
8L6
I5L2
8-6
25-6
8'- 6
10*2
(-2 V^tOF TRACK FOR PASSENGER CARS
NOTE UNIFORM LOAD, FIGS ,4.15 8 16) ASSUMED TO BE [3 ,*, 0F TRACK FOR FRE1GHT CARS
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Bu.rlin.gtdh
31
FIG 15
C B a 0 R.R. BRIDGE TESTS
LOCOMOTIVE DATA
3- AXLE DIESEL
, Al A2 A3
L o o o
ALL WHEELS ARE 36" DIA.
SYM ABT t
A4 A5 A6 «_
OOP
S4 S5
S7
LOCO. NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHT- KIPS
AXLE SPACING - FEET
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
99 14 TO
9925
54 1
527
54 1
54 1
527
54 1
7-0 5
7-0 j
28-11
7L0j
7-0 f
6'-5^
6 3'-6^
9926 AND
9930
55 5
53.4
55 5
55 5
534
55 5
A2 A3 A4 A5
An OOOO n "on"
1 LOAD
( ) ( ) V/////A
r.l ASSn* , SI [ S2j S3] S4 S5 S6 S7
S8
S9 SIO
2-8-2 Sll
ALL
PP|\/£PQ
64" DIA.
LOCO. NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHT-KIPS
AXLE SPACING-FEET
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
SIO
Sll
5315 TO 5359
307
623
608
67.6
65 1
54.6
226
9'- 8
5-7
5-7
5-7
9-4
12-7
5L6
I/-9
5L6
4-2
77-1
CLASS 02B
2-8-2 .
ALL DRIVERS 64 DIA.
A2 A3 A4 A5
^o OOOO n o
S2^ S3 S4 | S5 | | ^ S6 ||S7| | S8
o o o
S9 SIO
LOCO NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHT- KIPS
AXLE SPACING-FEET
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
SIO
SM
5227 TO 5228
29.4
676
666
55.7
55 2
560
183
9-8
5L7
5L7
5-7
9-4
11-3
5-6
9L6
5-6
4-2
67-6
CLASS S4A
4-6-4
A3 A4 A5
ALL DRIVERS 78" DIA.
<-.G (
>V
J K
. a;
ooo
()()() W////,
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6 S7
S8 S9 SIO
Sll SI2 SI3
SI4
,
LOCO. NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHT-KIPS
Al
A2
A3
A4
A 5
A6
A7
A8
4000, 4002
TO 4004
374
38 1
74 1
74 2
73 8
596
59 .9
222
4001
374
38 1
74 1
74 2
73 8
59 6
59 9
224
AXLE SPACING-FEET
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
SIO
Sll
SI2
SI3
SI4
4000, 4002
TO 4004
7^-6
5-li
6-10
6'- 10
tf-7j
5-0
13-2
4-5
4-5
n'-B
4'-5
4-5
5-10
82-3
4001
7-6
5'-li
6'-IO
6'-l0
«''i
5-0
15-1
4'- 5
4'- 5
11-8
4-5
4-5
5'-IO
84-4
52
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
CB SO R.R. BRIDGE TESTS
LOCOMOTIVE DATA
CLASS OIA
2-8-2 A l
A2 A3 A4 A5
L
a
£l
SI I S2^S3 S4 S5 S6
Sll
o o
O P) V//////////.
^S7 ►_ S8 4,S9^.SI2j ALL DRIVERS
64" DIA.
LOCO NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHT- KIPS
AXLE SPACING - FEET
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
SIO
Sll
4940- 4999,
5060- 5147
27 8
549
53.5
606
622
46 9
195
9L2
5-7
5L7
5L7
r-ioi
12-15-
5'- 6
11-6
5-6
4-24
68L5
CLASS 05A
4-8-4
ALL DRIVERS 74" DIA.
Al A2 A3 A4 A5 A6
Lg oOOOO
OO n o n
S\ JS2jtS3 I S4jJS5jtS6 Jpj^SS | S9 1 SIO 1 S I t
ooo W7,
LOCO
NO
AXLE WEIGHT- KIPS
AXLE SPACING-FEET
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
SIO
SI
S 1 2
S 13
5608-
5 620
374
37 5
67.1
68 8
70.7
70 4
59 0
59.6
239
7-6
5-1
6-5
6-5
6-5
8-8
5L0
1^10 8'-IO I3MI
8-10
6-5
90^11
5621-
5635
374
37 5
671
688
70 7
70 4
590
59.6
241
7-6
5-1
6-5
6'- 5
6-5
8-8
5-0
l5'-9
lO'-O 12^9
lO'-OS'-IO
94^0
CLASS M2A
2-10-2
ALL DRIVERS 59" DIA.
A2 A3 A4 A5 A6
In OOOOO noon
S2 S3 S4 S5
1 S8 I S9 JSIO^
q m?.
LOCO
NO
AXLE WEIGHT-KIPS
AXLE SPACING-FEET
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
SIO
Sll
SI2
6129,
6134,5
314
61.5
61.5
61.5
61.5
61.5
57.9
221
9-10
5-3
5L'i
**k
5-3
9'-6
l3*-0
5'-6
!4'-6
5-6
5'-4
78'-IO
CLASS M4A
2-10-4
Al A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8
in OOOOO 00
ALL DRIVERS 64" DIA.
000
OOP V///////A
SI
j S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
|S7l S8
1 S9
SIO
j Sll
SI2
SI3
LOCO. NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHT- KIPS
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
6311 -6313 , 6315-
6320 ,6322
46 0
62.5
618
69.8
71.7
68 3
59.8
56.2
257
6321 , 6323-6327,
6314 , 63 10
52 7
66 9
62 4
63 1
610
67 1
632
64 4
257
AXLE SPACING - FEET
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
SIO
Sll
SI2
SI3
6311 -6313 , 6315 -
6320 , 6322
10-0
5-7
5-7
5-7
5-7
e'-z
5'-0
13-4
8-10
19-9
8-10
5-10
96-3
6321, 6323-6327,
6314 , 6310
ltf-0
5-7
5-7
5-7
5-7
8-2
5-0
13-1
8-10
19-9
8-10
5-10
96L0
AXLE I AT WHEEL MARKER
LOCATED AT t OF SPAN
68-5 ENG. 8 TEN
WHEEL- BASE
-AXLE 10 AT WHEEL MARKER
WEST TO ST. LOUIS
THIS PART OF THE FILM WAS
TAKEN BEFORE LOCOMOTIVE
WAS ON THE SPAN.
THIS PART OF THE FILM WAS
TAKEN AFTER LOCOMOTIVE
WAS OFF THE SPAN.
49'-l|i 0 TO 0 STEEL
EAST TO CHICAGO
I8'-3|, POSITION OF WHEEL 2 FOR MAX. STRESS IN TOP FLANGE -^
s-4_ SPAN
NOTE: GAGES ON BOTH SIDES
AND BOTH ENDS OF WEB
NO. GIRDER
ELEVATION
-i. NO GIRDER
M M
H, /M&- M /A dr
J/ ' W ^31^- Was J&W* asWat as^JI ™
-t SO. GIRDER
NOTE ALL GAGES ON LATERALS 6 IN.
FROM NEAREST RIVET
%
SYMBOLS — 2 IN. ELECTROMAGNETIC
STRAIN GAGES
FIG. 17
C.B. 8 Q. RR. BRIDGE TESTS
TYPICAL SECTION
49-II-5 THROUGH GIRDER SPAN
OPEN TIMBER FLOOR
TYPICAL OSCILLOGRAM
i-i a<;<; OlA TYPE 2-8-2
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burl i n g t o n
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54
Tests of Steel Girder Spa n s on the Burlington
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Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
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130
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Burlington
131
Advance Report of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses
D. S. Bechly, Chairman
Investigation of Full-Size Reinforced Concrete
Railway Bridge Slabs
Part 1 — Laboratory Investigation
A. DIGEST
This report contains a description and analysis of laboratory tests made on six full-
size reinforced concrete bridge slabs. The tests were made under static loading in the
5,000,000-lb test machine at the Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colo.
The six slabs tested were as follows:
01 and 02: Two slabs that had been in service for over 40 years and removed
because of severe deterioration.
Rl: A new slab designed in accordance with current AREA specifications.
Ul: A new slab designed in accordance with the ultimate-strength theory,
but of lower concrete strength than specified.
U2: A new slab designed in accordance with the ultimate-strength theory
and with the required concrete strength.
Pi: A new slab prestressed by pretensioning and designed in accordance
with current recommended practice.
All the new slabs were 19 ft long, and the two old slabs were 15 ft long.
The purpose of these tests was to determine the behavior of old slabs removed from
service and showing considerable deterioration, and to compare the behavior of new slabs
designed according to various current theories. A general summary of test results is shown
in Table 1 .
Strains were measured by means of wire resistance strain gages with oscillograph
recordings. In addition to strain gages placed on the surfaces of the concrete and steel,
stress gages were used in two of the slabs to measure concrete compressive stresses
directly. Deflections of the slabs were also measured.
A brief summary of the data follows:
Old Slabs 01 and 02
1. These slabs carried full design load without evidence of flexural or sheai cracks.
2. The ultimate load was over 3^2 times the design load, as shown on Figs. 3 and 6.
3. The eccentric application of the load to represent field loading conditions caused
strains near one edge of the slab to be 20 percent higher than the average across slab 01
and 10 percent higher than the average across slab 02.
4. Because of alkali-aggregate reaction, the concrete was so deterioraU'd that it was
not possible to drill out a core for testing.
5. The maximum concrete compressive strain was about 0.0008, as shown on Figs. 3
and 6. This indicates that the maximum concrete stress attained in the slab was below
the ultimate.
6. At design load the recorded steel stress was 6000 psi for slab 01 and 9000 psi for
slab 02, as shown on Figs. 4 and 7, compared to a calculated strt<N of 12,100 psi for :■
stress ratio of 0.74.
133
134 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
7. The steel ratios used in these slabs was less than required for a "balanced ratio."
The ultimate capacity of slab 02 was reached when the steel reached its yield strain, but
a bond failure of the longitudinal steel prevented development of the yield strain in slab 01
(see Figs. 4 and 7).
8. The linear strain distribution over the depth of the slabs indicates that the neutral
axis was at about mid-depth for loads below the cracking load and rose toward the top
of the slab for loads above the cracking load, as shown on Fig. 9.
9. The average mid-span deflection at design load was 0.07 in for slab 01 and 0.05 in
for slab 02, as shown on Figs. 5 and 8.
10. At ultimate load the mid-span deflection of one side of slab 01 was 0.72 in and
of slab 02, 0.88 in, as shown on Figs. S and 8.
Regular Design Slab Rl
1. Tensile cracks occurred before the design load was reached, as shown on Fig. 11.
2. A diagonal tension crack which progressed to within 2 in of the top of the slab
caused failure at a load of 3.1 times the design load (see Fig. 11).
3. The eccentrically applied load caused concrete compressive strains 12 percent
higher than the average across the slab.
4. The concrete stress at design load corresponding to the recorded strains was 1290
psi. The calculated stress based on a cracked section is 1110 psi for a stress ratio of 1.16
(see Fig. 12).
5. The highest recorded average compressive strain in the concrete was 0.0029.
6. The eccentrically applied load caused steel tensile strains 13 percent higher than
the average across the slab.
7. The steel stress at design load corresponding to the recorded strains was 14,250
psi. The calculated stress is 17,970 psi for a stress ratio of 0.79 (see Fig. 13).
8. The maximum recorded steel strains indicate that the reinforcement was stressed
nearly to the yield point but not beyond it, as shown on Fig. 13.
9. For loads below the cracking load the neutral axis was at about mid-depth and
rose toward the top for loads up to 500 kips. The strain distribution was linear in this
range, as shown on Fig. 15.
10. For loads beyond 500 kips the strain distribution was non-linear and characteristic
of shear failure, as shown on Fig. 15.
11. Stress or pressure gages placed in the compression zone indicated a non-linear
stress distribution over the depth of the slab for all loads up to and including 500 kips,
which is in contrast to the linear strain distribution (see Fig. 15).
12. Strains in the stirrups close to the supports were less than those closer to the load
point. No appreciable strains were recorded in the stirrups until the concrete cracked
at the stirrups, as shown on Fig. 16.
13. The average mid-span deflection at design load was 0.18 in, as shown on Fig. 14.
14. At ultimate load the maximum mid-span deflection of one side was 2.2 in as
shown on Fig. 14.
15. The ultimate moment can be closely predicted by using the theory developed by
K. G. Moody and J. M. Viest in "Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams", pub-
lished in Bulletin No. 6 of the Reinforced Concrete Research Council.
16. The steel ratio used in this slab was less than that required for a "balanced
ratio", hence the slab probably would have failed in tension had not the shear crack
developed.
I n v e s t i g ation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 135
Ultimate-Strength Design Slab Ul
1. Tensile cracks occurred before the design load was reached.
2. Because of the low 28-day concrete strength (1750 psi instead of 3000 psi as
specified), the ultimate load was only twice the design load and occurred when the
concrete failed in compression.
3. The eccentrically applied load caused concrete strains 9 percent higher than tin-
average and steel strains 17 percent higher.
4. Based on a cracked section, the calculated concrete stress at design load L- 13 70
psi. The stress corresponding to the recorded strain was 1400 psi, as shown on Fig. 19,
for a stress ratio of 1.02.
5. The highest recorded average compressive strain in the concrete was 0.00214, as
shown on Fig. 19.
6. The steel stress at design load corresponding to the recorded strain was 15,900
psi, as shown on Fig. 20. The calculated stress is 15,540 psi for a stress ratio of 1.02.
7. The ultimate steel strains were below the yield strains (see Fig. 20).
8. The actual steel used in this slab was greater than that required for a "balanced
ratio", hence the compressive strength of the concrete was reached before the steel
yielded.
9. The linear strain distribution over the depth of the slab, as shown on Fig. 22,
indicates that the neutral axis was at about mid-depth for loads below the cracking load
and changed but little as the load increased.
10. A non-linear stress distribution was demonstrated in contrast to the linear strain
distribution, as shown on Fig. 22.
11. The triangular stress block assumed in the straight-line theory was found to be
not valid at ultimate load. This is shown on Fig. 22.
12. Maximum stirrup strains did not occur near the support hut rather at the location
of the greatest diagonal tension cracking, which was closer to the load point.
13. The average mid-span deflection at design load was 0.43 in, as shown on Fig. 21.
14. At ultimate load the maximum mid-span deflection of one side was 1.24 in (see
Fig. 21).
15. The ultimate capacity of this slab can be closely predicted by using formulas
recommended by the ASCE-ACI Joint Committee on Ultimate-Strength Design and
published in the ASCE Proceedings, Vol. 81.
Ultimate-Strength Design Slab U2
1. Tensile cracks occurred before the design load was reached (see Fig. 24).
2. The ultimate load was three times the design load and occurred when the concrete
failed in compression after the reinforcement had yielded, as shown on Fig. 24.
3. The eccentrically applied load caused concrete strains 12 percent higher than the
average and steel strains 8 percent higher.
4. Based on a cracked section, the calculated concrete stress at design load is 1508
psi. The stress corresponding to the recorded strain was 1305 psi, as shown on Fig 25,
for a stress ratio of 0.87.
5. The highest recorded average compressive strain in the concrete was 0.00173. as
shown on Fig. 25.
6. The steel stress at design load corresponding to the recorded strains was 12,^00
psi, as shown on Fig. 26. The calculated stress is 15,000 psi for a stress ratio of 0.86.
7. The recorded steel strain at ultimate load was higher than the yield strain, as
indicated on Fig. 26.
136 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
8. The steel used in this slab was less than that required for a "balanced ratio",
hence the steel yielded before the compressive strength of the concrete was reached.
9. The linear strain distribution over the depth of the slab indicates that the neutral
axis was at about mid-depth for loads below the cracking load and changed but little
until the load approached the ultimate. This is shown on Fig. 35.
10. Maximum stirrup strains occurred at the location of greatest diagonal tension
cracking (see Fig. 29).
11. The average deflection at design load was 0.29 in (see Fig. 27).
12. At ultimate load the deflection of one side was 1.4 in (see Fig. 27).
13. The ultimate capacity of this slab can be closely predicted by using formulas
developed by the aforementioned ASCE-ACI Joint Committee on Ultimate-Strength
Design.
Prestressed Slab PI
1. No tensile cracks occurred at the design load, as indicated on Fig. 31.
2. There were no shear cracks even at the ultimate load (see Fig. 31).
3. The ultimate load was 3J4 times the design load and occurred when the concrete
failed in compression after the strands were stressed into the plastic range.
4. Strains recorded in the strands before and after release of the pretensioning load
indicated that the entire prestress force was transferred to the concrete in a length of
about 6 in.
5. The eccentrically applied load caused concrete strains 11 percent higher than the
average and steel strains 13 percent higher.
0. Based on an uncracked section, the calculated strains at design load at the top
and bottom of the slab are 0.00039. The recorded strain at the top was 0.000360 and at
the bottom, 0.000330, for stress ratios of 0.93 and 0.85, respectively. These arc shown on
Fig. 32.
7. The highest recorded average compressive strain in the concrete was 0.00244, as
shown on Fig. 32.
8. At the time of the test the stress in the strands from the pretensioning load was
about 122,500 psi, and the application of the design load caused an additional stress in the
strands of only 14,600 psi (see Fig. 33) .
9. The ultimate recorded strain at failure indicated that the strand was strained into
the plastic range, which governed the ultimate capacity of the slab. This is shown on
Fig. 33.
10. The linear strain distribution over the depth of the slab indicates that the neutral
axis was at mid-depth for loads below the cracking load and rose toward the top of the
slab for loads to the ultimate (see Fig. 35) .
11. The average mid-span deflection at design load was 0.19 in (see Fig. 34).
12. At ultimate load the maximum mid-span deflection of one side was 2.8 in (see
Fig. 34) .
13. The ultimate capacity of this slab calculated according to recommendations of
the ACI-ASCE Joint Committee 323 was 89 percent of the recorded capacity and hence
was on the safe side.
14. The camber due to prestressing was yi in.
Cores and Cylinders
1. Representative values of the modulus of elasticity were obtained both with cores
and with cast cylinders (see Fig. 36) .
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs I J7
2. The lateral and longitudinal strains of a cylinder in a compression test vary from
top to bottom, since the head and base of the test machine offers lateral restraint. Thi-
is shown on Figs. 38 and 39.
B. FOREWORD
The assignments of Committee 30 include stresses and impacts in concrete structures.
Toward the fulfillment of these assignments the AAR research staff conducted tests on
six full-size reinforced concrete bridge slabs.
The report of Committee 30 in the Proceedings, Vol. 54, pages 243 to 412, incl.,
indicates that more information was needed on the relation between load and stresses up
to the ultimate carrying capacity of the slabs. Arrangements were made with the Bureau
of Reclamation in Denver to conduct static tests on these slabs in its laboratory with its
5,000,000-lb test machine.
The tests were carried out under the direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering
research, Association of American Railroads, with funds provided by the AAR.
The conduct of the tests, analysis of data and preparation of this report were under
the direction of E. J. Ruble, research engineer structures, AAR, assisted in the office
by W. J. Murphy, assistant research engineer structures, and in the field by F. P. Drew,
assistant research engineer structures. This report was prepared by Mr. Drew.
C. TEST SPECIMENS
Slabs 01 and 02
These two slabs, each IS ft long and 7 ft wide, were removed from Chicago, Burling-
ton & Quincy Railroad bridge No. 131.79 located 2% miles west of Chillicothe, Mo. This
bridge, built in 1908, consisted of 52 spans, and was 777 ft long. The trestle was con-
structed of three 14-in round precast piles per bent with cast-in-place concrete caps and
precast slabs.
The concrete slabs were cast at the Hannibal, Mo., concrete plant. The aggregates
used consisted of river-run sand and gravel pumped out of the Mississippi River near
LaGrange, Mo. About 60 percent of this material was gravel ranging in size from '% to
Yd, in, with occasional stones 2 to 3 in. in diameter. The sand ranged in size from a torpedo
sand to a fine sand. The sand and gravel were washed, and stones over \l/2 in were
crushed to lJ/2 in size. About seven sacks of cement per cubic yard of river-run sand and
gravel were used in the mix.
In 1953 two of the slabs removed from this bridge were made available for test
purposes. These slabs were removed from service because of the large amount of deteriora-
tion apparent on the undersides of the slabs and between the slabs at the center line of
track. Many reinforcement bars were exposed and rusted. The deterioration had devel-
oped to the extent that not only was the reinforcement exposed but also portions of the
slab above the layer of steel had fallen off. From all outward appearances the strength
of the slabs was jeopardized by this loss of section, and the railroad management fell
that they should be removed from the bridge in the interests of safety.
The two slabs were loaded into a gondola and shipped to Denver. The wrought iron
handling hooks which had been buried in ballast since the slabs were installed were Still
adequate to support the weight of the slab.
Several large longitudinal cracks were present on the tup surface, and each of the
slabs contained innumerable close-spaced cracks penetrating the concrete in all direction.-.
The surfaces of these fractures were coated with copious quantities of a white deposit
The concrete was easily broken by a hammer into pieces controlled by the size and shape
138
I n v e s t i g a tion of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
General view of tests conducted on reinforced concrete railroad bridge
slabs in 5,000,000-lb testing machine at the Bureau of Reclamation, Denver,
Colo.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 139
of these fractures. A petrographic examination by the Bureau of Reclamation of specimens
from both slabs revealed that alkali-aggregate reaction had taken place. The type of rock
in the aggregate primarily responsible for this reactivity was chalcedonic chert, which
occurred in large quantites. Much of the deterioration of the slabs may be ascribed to this
alkali-aggregate reaction.
Fig. 2 shows details of the slabs as taken from the railroad company's original draw-
ings. Dimensions of the slabs as received for the test varied but little from those shown
on the drawings. The parapet of each slab had been replaced during its service life, but
original dimensions were maintained. The side of each slab that was under the center
line of the track was deteriorated most extensively. The width of slab 01 was reduced
from 7 ft 0 in to 6 ft 6 in at the center of span. This 6-in loss of section was measured
at mid-depth and was even more extensive near the top and bottom of the slab, as shown
on Fig. 3. Less of the concrete was missing on slab 02, and at the center of span the loss
of section was about as shown on Fig. 6.
The Portland Cement Association conducted tests on slab 02 with its sonoscope, and
impulse velocities varied from 2500 to 4000 ft per sec. These very low values are indicative
of relatively unsound concrete. (Velocities in the regular design slab, Rl, were 13,000 ft
per sec) .
The reinforcement for these old slabs may have been rolled from rail sections. The
chemical analysis of a specimen of this reinforcement has been determined as:
Carbon — 0.33 percent
Phosphorus — 0.009 percent
Manganese — 0.41 percent
Sulfur — 0.035 percent
Silicon — none
Copper — none
Nickel — none
Chromium — none
This slab was tested August 14, 1953.
Regular Design Slab, Rl
This slab was cast new for this series of tests. It was 19 ft long, 6 ft 6 in wide and
2 ft deep. It was designed for E 72 loading plus full impact as prescribed by AREA
specifications. Details of this slab are shown on Fig. 10.
Concrete for the slab was to be proportioned by the water — cement ratio method
to give a strength of 3000 psi as determined by testing 6- by 12-in cylinders at 28 days.
The slab was cast inside one of the Bureau of Reclamation laboratory buildings.
A local ready-mix company furnished the concrete in two batches, both arriving on July
22, 1953. The mix consisted of 5J4 sacks of cement per cubic yard, with other quantities
as follows:
Sand — 1230 lb per cu yd
Gravel, 54 to V/z in — 740 lb per cu yd
Gravel, No. 4 to 24 in — H'O lb per cu yd
Water — 315 lb per cu yd
Vinsol resin was added for air entrainment.
The concrete arrived at the laboratory with a 7-in skimp and an air content between
1.8 and 2.8 percent. The unit weight of the wet concrete was 145.1 ll> per CU It. and the
water — cement ratio was 0.61.
140 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Reinforcement erected in form for regular design slab.
The concrete was discharged directly into the forms, vibrated in place and screeded
off. In addition, a total of sixteen 6- by 12-in test cyinders and four 18- by 36-in test
cylinders were cast — an equal number from each batch. Metal molds were used. The
cylinders were placed in a fog room for about 18 hr. The slab was immediately covered
with wet burlap, as were the cylinders, on their removal from the fog room. The burlap
was kept wet until August 7, 1953, when no more water was used. The burlap was
removed soon thereafter and the forms stripped.
Two 6- by 12-in cylinders were broken at 7 days, and the average compressive
strength was 2860 psi. Four 6- by 12-in cylinders were broken at 28 days, and the average
strength was 4350 psi, with a minimum of 3930 psi and a maximum of 4760 psi.
Reinforcement for this slab was ASTM A 305, intermediate grade, supplied by the
Colorado Fuel and Iron Company.
The slab was tested August 25, 1953, at which time its indicated compressive strength
from 6- by 12-in cylinders was 4620 psi, with a minimum of 4120 psi and a maximum
of 4990 psi.
Ultimate-Strength Slab, Ul
This slab was cast especially for this series of tests. It was 19 ft long and 6 ft 6 in
wide (the same as the regular design slab) but only 1 ft 7 in deep. It was designed for
E 72 loading plus full impact as prescribed by current AREA specifications. Other
features of design of this slab were those prescribed by then current acceptable design
criteria. Details of the slab are shown on Fig. 17.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
141
Reinforcement erected in form for ultimate-strength slab.
Concrete for the slab was to be proportioned by the water — cement ratio method
to give a strength of 3000 psi as determined by testing 6- by 12-in cylinders at 28 days.
This slab was cast in a manner similar to slab Rl, with concrete furnished by a
local ready-mix company. It arrived on July 30, 1953, in two batches. The mix contained
V/2 sacks of cement per cubic yard, with vinsol resin additive for air entrainment. Other
quantities were as follows:
Sand — 1420 lb per cu yd
Gravel, % to 1^—740 lb per cu yd
Gravel, No. 4 to %—lU0 lb per cu yd
Water — 270 lb per cu yd
The first batch arrived at the laboratory with a 4 ^2 -in slump and an air content of
10.9 percent. It also had an unusually dark gray color. The second batch bad an 8.0-in
slump and an air content of 8.7 percent. Its color, however, was a normal gray and
contrasted greatly with the first batch. The concrete from both batches had an average
unit weight of 134.3 lb per cu ft and a water-cement ratio of 0.64.
The concrete from both batches was discharged directly into the forms from the
truck mixer. Vibrators were used, but the concrete from the second batch was so fluid
it required little consolidation.
The same number of cylinders were cast with this slab .1- with slab Rl. Curing
of the concrete for this slab was similar to that for Rl.
142 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Two 6- by 12 -in cylinders from this slab were broken at 7 days, and the average
compressive strength was 990 psi. At 14 days 2 more cylinders were broken, and the
indicated strength was 1360 psi. (It appeared that the 28-day strength of this concrete
would not attain the required 3000 psi, and arrangements were made to cast a second
ultimate-strength slab). Cylinders broken at 28 days indicated an average strength of
only 1750 psi.
Reinforcement for this slab was ASTM A 305-56 T, intermediate grade, supplied by
the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company.
The slab was tested on September 15, 1953, at which time its indicated compressive
strength from the 6- by 12-in cylinders was only 2140 psi.
Ultimate-Strength Slab, U2
This slab was cast because of the low strength attained with the concrete for
the first ultimate-strength slab, Ul. The design of this slab and its dimensions are the
same as for slab Ul, and details are shown on Fig. 17.
This slab was cast in a manner similar to those previously described. The concrete
was furnished by a local ready-mix company and arrived at the laboratory in three
batches. The mix was proportioned for S$4 sacks of cement per cubic yard, with a vinsol
resin additive for air entrainment. The following quantities, in pounds, went into each
batch:
Batch No. 1 Batch No. 2 Batch No. 3
Cement 2068 2068 2064
Sand 4927 4923 4920
Gravel, 54 to 1% 2960 2960 2960
Gravel, No. 4 to YA 4440 4440 4440
Added water 800 760 760
Water in sand 197 197 172
The first batch of concrete arrived at the laboratory at 1:20 pm on August 27, 1953.
The slump was 2 in and the air content 2.4 percent. Since it was desired to have a 4-in
slump and 4 percent air, an adjustment to the mix was made before discharging from
the mixer. Additional water amounting to 130 lb was added and also 10 g of Dresinate.
With this adjustment the slump was 2.4 in and air content 3.4 percent. The concrete
from this batch had a total water content of 1127 lb and a unit weight of 148 lb per
cu ft. Apparently the truck mixer was not designed to handle so stiff a mix, and about
2 hr were required to discharge all that, could be removed. The concrete had begun to
take a false set.
While the first batch was being discharged, the second mixer arrived and was forced
to wait 2 hr before its contents could be removed. The slump of the concrete in this
second batch was 1.8 in and the air content 3.0 percent. An adjustment was made to
this mix by adding 140 lb of water and 6 g of Dresinate. This increased the slump to 2.5
in and the air content to 3.2 percent. The concrete from this batch then had a total water
content of 1097 lb and a unit weight of 146.8 lb per cut ft. There was no trouble in
discharging this batch from the truck.
Since all the concrete in the first batch could not be removed from the mixer, it was
necessary to order a third load. Concrete in this batch arrived at the laboratory with a
5.1 in slump, 2.7 percent air content and a unit weight of 150.1 lb per cu ft. No adjust-
ments were made to this batch.
Eight 6- by 12-in cylinders were cast from batches No. 1 and No. 2 and 16 from batch
No. 3. A few 18- by 26-in cylinders were also cast. Curing of the slab and the cylinders
was accomplished in a manner similar to slab Rl.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 143
The four 6- by 12-in cylinders broken at 7 days showed a strength of 2890 psi. The
14-day strength based on 4 cylinders was 3560 psi, and the 28-day strength based on
eight 6- by 12-in cylinders was 4250 psi, with a minimum of 3800 psi and a maximum
of 4810 psi.
Reinforcement for this slab, supplied by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company,
was ASTM A 305, intermediate grade, and had the following physical and chemical
properties:
Tensile strength — 80,600 psi
Yield strength — 48,000 psi
Elongation in 8 in — 25.0 percent
Carbon — 0.38 percent
Manganese — 0.72 percent
Phosphorus — 0.017 percent
Sulfur — 0.026 percent
The slab was tested on September 30, 1953 at which time the concrete had attained
a strength of 4490 psi as determined from eight 6- by 12-in cylinders.
Pretensioned Prestressed Slab, PI
The slab for this test was made at the casting yard of Prestressed Concrete of Colo-
rado, at Denver. It was 19 ft long, 6 ft 6 in wide (same as Rl, Ul and U2) but only
1 ft 6 in deep. Details of this slab are shown on Fig. 30. It was designed for E 72 loading
plus full impact as prescribed by current AREA specification. Other features of the
design of this slab were those prescribed by then current acceptable design criteria.
Concrete for the slab was proportioned by the water — cement ratio method to give
a strength of 4000 psi in 28 days. The strands were stressed to an initial prestress of
144,000 psi.
Since the casting bed could accommodate more than one slab, it was decided to cast
two other slabs with the test slab. These slabs were constructed in accordance with
details of CB&Q Railroad slabs and have since been placed in service in bridge No. 38.64
near Hunnewell, Mo. The report on these CB&Q slabs includes stresses and impacts deter-
mined under diesel locomotives for a complete range of speeds and constitutes Part 2
of this report.
The reinforcement of these slabs consisted of sixty-one y^-in 7-wire strands, uncoated
and stress relieved. It was furnished by American Steel and Wire Division of U. S. Steel
Corporation and is known by the trade name of ''Super-Tens."
The casting bed was strengthened since it was expected that the total load on it
during the prestressing operation would be about 1,400,000 lb.
The 61 strands were stretched out in the casting bed, and since one jacking frame
could not accommodate all strands at once, they were divided into 3 groups of 16, 27
and 18 strands each. Load was applied to the jacking frames by two 150-ton hydraulic
rams. Special collets were designed for these J-4-in strands to anchor them at the abut-
ment end and at the jacking end of the casting bed. Load was applied slowly to permit
the collets to seat. A pressure gage was used to determine the load in the strands. This
gage had been given a dead-weight calibration by the Bureau of Reclamation and was
found to be accurate to 0.7 percent. In addition to the gage readings a check was made
of the elongation of the strands. The load was then released to a unit stress of about
100,000 psi. This was done to permit placing SR-4 strain gages on the strands. The lack
144 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Casting bed for prestressed slabs. The forms are set up for the laboratory
test slab and two other slabs for installation in a CB&Q Railroad bridge at
Hunnewell, Mo.
of any previous experience with these J^-in strands dictated that some caution should be
exercised in working on and around strands stressed to the full initial prestress of 144,000
psi. After all gages had been applied, the strands were reloaded to 144,000 psi. The total
elongation in a length of 65 ft was about Ay2 in.
Concrete for the three slabs was mixed at the company's own batching plant. The
mix consisted of 8^2 sacks of Type IA cement per cubic yard and was proportioned as
follows:
Cement— 400 lb
Sand— 600 lb
Gravel, No. 4 to % in— 1000 lb
Water— 108 lb
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 145
The sand and gravel were obtained from the Platte River at Denver.
AH concrete was cast on September 4, 1953. The slump varied from 0 to ^ in, the
air content (determined by the pressure method) averaged 3.2 percent, and the average
unit weight was 147.01 lb per cu ft.
The concrete was vibrated in place. A total of thirty-six 6- by 12-in test cylinders
were cured in steam with the slabs for 25 hr. They were kept covered to protect them
against direct rays of the sun until September 9, 1953. No further curing was considered
necessary since 3 cylinders broken at the age of 5 days indicated compressive strengths
of 6870, 7980 and 8160 psi, for an average of 7670 psi.
On September 9, 1953, the jacks were released to transfer the prestressing force to the
slabs. Load was released gradually to maintain as uniform a transfer to the slabs as
possible. After all load was off the jacks, the strands were cut about 3 in from the ends
of the slabs.
Rod readings taken on top of each slab at the center line before and after release of
the load indicated that there was about. 34 ln upward deflection from the applied
prestressing force.
When the concrete attained an age of 7 days the average cylinder strength was 8080
psi, at 14 days it was 8530 psi and at 28 days, 8730 psi. The maximum at 28 days was
9230 psi and the minimum, 8060 psi. The slab was tested on October 7, 1953, at which
time the concrete had a strength of 9300 psi as determined from three 6- by 12-in
cylinders, with strengths of 9780, 9110 and 9020 psi.
D. TEST EQUIPMENT
All testing was done in the laboratory of the Bureau of Reclamation in Denver. This
location was chosen for the tests because its 5,000,000-lb Baldwin Universal Testing
Machine had the required capacity and had a working distance between columns of
10 ft, which was necessary to accommodate the slabs. All the slabs were tested in this
machine, but cylinder tests and other incidental tests were performed on smaller test
machines located elsewhere in the laboratory.
A continuous record of simultaneous strains in the slabs during testing was obtained
by the use of three 12-channel oscil'ographs. The oscillographs were also used to record
strains in cylinders and samples of reinforcement. A detailed description of the oscillo-
graphs and their auxiliary units is given in the AREA Proceedings, Vol. 46. 1045, page 201
and a description of the SR-4 wire resistance strain gages, with the necessary equipment,
is given in the Proceedings, Vol. 52, 1951, page 152.
E. TEST PROCEDURE
Test Setup for Slabs
The slabs were mounted in the test machine on two specially built concrete pedestals,
as shown on Fig. 1. These pedestals made it possible to have the slabs about 3 ft off the
floor for inspection during testing. They were movable to facilitate placing the slab under
the cross head of the machine and for removal of the slab after testing. They were wide
enough to permit testing two different lengths of slab, as shown.
To secure and maintain a uniform bearing of the slab on the pedestals throughout
each test, rubber- fiber pads set on a mortar bed were used at each reaction. The pads
were 4 in wide, z/2 in thick and extended the full length of the bearings.
The slabs were mounted in the machine so that the center line of the applied load
was 2 ft 6 in from one edge of the slabs. This was intended to correspond to tin- position
of one rail in a railway trestle.
146 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Above — Instruments
used to record 36 si-
multaneous strains in
steel reinforcement and
concrete.
Left — Strain gage in-
strumentation on 6- by
12-in cylinders.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 147
The machine load was transmitted to the slabs through a system of slabs and rollers,
as shown on Fig. 1. Rubber-fiber pads 12 by Y* in by 3 ft long were placed under steel
slabs 14 by 3 in by 3 ft. For the slabs cast specially for these tests it was not necessary
to place mortar under the fiber pads, but the old slabs, 01 and 02, had a sloping uneven
top surface, and a considerable thickness of mortar was used to obtain a level surface.
Steel rollers were used to transmit the machine load to the steel slabs. Each assembly
was located 2 ft 9 in from the center of the slab and the center of the machine cross
head. This two-point loading produced a length of S ft 6 in. in each slab wherein the
bending moment and shear were practically constant and permitted an adequate length
of specimen for observation under maximum moment and maximum shear separately.
The loading head of the machine could be rotated to accommodate slightly out-of-
level slabs and rollers. Hence, the load was applied uniformly to each assembly .
Determination of Design Load
The design load was assumed as that machine load which would produce the same
bending moment in the slab as would be obtained if the slab were in service carrying full
design loading. Since the two old slabs tested, 01 and 02, were probably designed for a
steel stress of 15,000 psi (based on half the yield stress which was assumed to be half the
ultimate of 60,000 psi) . This value was used to determine the design load for these slabs.
This steel stress of 15,000 psi permitted the slab to have a total capacity of 3,380,000 in-lb.
From this was deducted the dead-load moment of the slaib in the machine of 546,000 in-lb.
The net capacity, then, of 2,834,000 in-lb was available to resist the applied machine load.
If the machine load is denoted as P, each reaction is P/2. The moment arm is 3 ft 11 in
(see Fig. 1). The applied moment is:
P/2 X 3.92 = 1.96 P ft-lb or 23.6 P in-lb
equating this to the net capacity,
23.6 P— 2,834,000 in-lb
P= 120,000 lb
A live load of E 53 at full impact will produce a calculated steel stress of about 15,000 psi.
A similar procedure was followed for the other slabs tested except that these slabs
were designed for E 12 loading plus full impact. This external moment was approximately
duplicated by a machine load of 180,000 lb.
It should be noted that the above design loads do not include the dead load of the
slab in the machine. Hence all subsequent reference to stresses and strains as related to
certain machine loads or increments of the design load do not include dead-load stresses
and strains.
Slab Tests
The general procedure in testing the slabs was to load them in increments of the
design load. The first load applied was usually a fraction of the design load, either one-
fourth or one-half, and was considered a trial run to ascertain that all recording apparatus
was in order. A typical loading program was as follows:
3 runs to design load, reading taken every 10 kips.
3 runs to \% X design load, first reading at design load, then every 10 k\\»
3 runs to V/2 X design load, first reading at 1J4 X design load, then everj 10 kips.
2 runs to Wt, X design load, first reading at V/z X design load, then every 10 kips
2 runs to 2 X design load, first reading at 1)4 X design load, then every 10 kips.
148 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
2 runs to 2% X design load, first reading at 2 X design load, then every 10 kips.
1 run to 2 14 X design load, first reading at 2% X design load, then every 10 kips.
1 run to 3 X design load, first reading at 2^4 X design load, then every 10 kips.
Variations of the above program were sometimes necessary as the action of the indi-
vidual slabs was observed. At the higher machine loads and as the ultimate was ap-
proached, it was not considered advisable to cycle the loading, since at this point per-
manent set was usually occurring, and stresses in the slab could not be repeated for the
same machine load.
In addition to the oscillogram recording of strains in the slabs, a careful record was
kept of the crack pattern as it developed. The slabs were painted white to show up the
cracks better.
Deflections of the slabs were also recorded. A taut steel wire stretched across a grad-
uated scale was used to measure deflections at the center of span. Deflections were
recorded on both sides of the slabs.
Cylinder Tests
In addition to test cylinders broken at ages up to and including 28 days, several
cylinders were broken at the time the respective slabs were tested. The elastic properties
of the cylinders could then be related to those of the slab since they were of the same age
and cured under the same conditions. To obtain further similarity between slab and
cylinder tests, the loading of the cylinders was done in cycles, the first loading cycle
being to a concrete stress which approximated the slab concrete stress under design load.
The second cycle was to ll/2 times this design stress and the third cycle to 2 times the
design stress. The fourth cycle was carried to ultimate load.
Elasticity tests were run on cylinders at the age of 28 days and at the time the slabs
were tested. An extensometer frame securely fastened to the cylinder permitted direct
readings of longitudinal and lateral strains. This frame was used only while the cylinder
was in the elastic range and was removed for the fourth cycle described above when the
cylinder was loaded to the ultimate. This was done to prevent damage to the frame.
To secure data on strains in the cylinder to the ultimate, SR-4 strain gages were applied
to cylinders from the Rl slab. In addition to the readings from the extensometer frame,
oscillograph recordings were obtained on the Rl cylinders to the ultimate.
Reinforcement Tests
Tension tests on 7-ft samples of strands as used in the Pi slab were conducted at
the Bureau of Reclamation laboratory. Collets of the kind used to tension the strands
for the slabs were used to anchor each end of each strand in the test machine. The heads
of the test machine were, thus, about 5 ft apart during the tests.
Three strands were tested. The ultimate loads per strand were 36,000 lb, 35,800 lb
and 37,200 lb for an average of 36,300 lb. The minimum guaranteed breaking strength
specified by the manufacturer is 36,000 lb.
All the strands broke at the edges of the collets. The outside wires broke first and
the center wire was unbroken.
SR-4 strain gages 1 in long were placed at the centers of the strands. One gage was
placed on each of the six outside wires parallel to their axes. An extensometer frame
with special clamps was securely fastened to the strand so that its 8-in gage length
straddled the SR-4 gages. The elasticity of the strand was thus measured with the
extensometer while the elasticity of the wires was measured by the SR^4 gages.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 149
The stress-strain curves for the strand and the wire are shown on Fig. 33. The com-
plete curve for the strand was not obtained since the extensometer was removed prior
to ultimate load.
Samples of the reinforcement from the two old slabs 01 and 02 and from the two
ultimate strength slabs Ul and U2 were tested in the AAR Research Center. No sample.^
were obtained from the Rl slab, but steel for this slab and others cast at the Bureau was
furnished by the same company.
The strain in these bars was measured with SR-4 gages and recorded through an
oscillograph. The strain was also measured mechanically with the automatic stress-strain
recorder on the test machine.
Stress-strain curves for samples of steel from slabs 01 and 02 are shown on Figs. 4
and 7, and for slabs Ul and U2 are shown on Figs. 20 and 26. The yield point and ultimate
stresses for these bars are also shown on these figures.
F. TEST RESULTS
A general summary of test results appears in AREA Proceedings, Vol. 54, page 465,
shown also in Table 1 .
Old Slabs 01 and 02
General Observations
Even though many bars were exposed and some of the compression concrete was
gone, these slabs sustained the design load without evidence of cracks or other distress.
It was not until the load had been substantially increased that there was noticeable
distress. No shear or tension crack pattern developed. Failure of slab 01 became apparent
when a longitudinal crack which had been present from the start extended downward
through the slab, and with the loss of the curb side of the slab the part remaining under
the loading pads could no longer sustain load. The longitudinal steel pulled through the
ends of the slab. Failure of Slab 02 was accompanied by a general breakup of the concrete
under and between the loading pads.
Recorded Concrete Strains
Gages were placed on the concrete surfaces as shown on Figs. 3, 6, and 9.
An attempt was made at numerous places on these slabs to secure a core. However,
the concrete was so completely fractured that a core large enough to test was not obtained.
Consequently, it is not possible to relate the concrete strains shown with concrete stress.
It is believed, however, that the modulus of elasticity of this concrete was probably
about 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 psi. Since the recorded strain at maximum load for both
slabs was about 0.0008, the recorded maximum concrete stress could be not more than
1200 to 1600 psi, and with as low a modulus as this, the ultimate concrete stress would
probably be about 2000 psi. From this it can be seen that the maximum concrete stress
attained in the slab was below the ultimate, and the compressive strength of the concrete
did not govern the failure.
Figs. 3 and 6 show the plot of compression strains based on the average of gages 16
to 20, incl. The maximum strains occurred at gage 20 for slab 01, and at design load this
gage recorded strains 20 percent higher than the average. At design load for the 02 slab
this gage was about 10 percent above the average. At or near the ultimate load, gage 20
was still 20 percent above the average for the 01 slab but was about equal to the average
for the 02 slab. The increased deterioration of slab 01 probably accounts for the difference
between the two slabs.
150 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Old slab 01 being shipped to Denver for testing.
View of old slab 01 after failure in testing machine.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 151
A plot of tensile strains is also shown on Figs. 3 and 6. For slab 01 there is a marked
break in the curve at a load of about 120 kips. This is undoubtedly the point where a
transverse crack occurred. The strain at this point was 0.0002, which would correspond
to a stress of 400 psi for E = 2,000,000 psi. It is interesting to note that the strain in the
reinforcement at this load of 120 kips is shown on Fig. 4 to be also 0.0002 for a steel
stress of 6000 psi. Concrete tensile strains above the value of 0.0002 shown on Fig. 3
have no particular meaning since the concrete is already cracked. The concrete tensile
strains shown on Fig. 6 indicate that the tensile crack occurred at a load of about
160 kips.
Recorded Steel Strains
Gages were placed on the steel reinforcement as shown on Figs. 4 and 7. The recorded
strains can be related to the stress-strain curve for conversion to stress. The average
recorded steel stress at design load was about 6000 psi for slab 01 and about 9000 psi for
slab 02, compared to a calculated stress of 12,100 psi. It should be noted in slab 01 that
the strain at ultimate load was 0.0011, which was below the yield point strain. However,
in slab 02 the ultimate strain was 0.0040, which was well beyond the yield strain. Pos-
sibly the bond failure on slab 01 prevented those bars from reaching the yield stress.
Figs. 4 and 7 show the plot of recorded tensile strains based on the average of gages
1 to 9, incl. The maximum strains at design load occurred at gage 2 for slab 01 and gage
9 for slab 02, and these gages recorded strains 42 percent and 17 percent, respectively,
higher than the average. This relationship was generally maintained on slab 01 to near
the ultimate load. On slab 02, however, the maximum strain under loads near the ultimate
occurred at gage 4 where a strain 33 percent higher than the average was recorded. The
reason maximum strains in slab 01 occurred at gage 2 rather than at gage 1 was probably
due to slippage of the bar on which gage 1 was located.
Both concrete and steel strains in slab 01 were fairly linear from no load to near
ultimate. This linearity was apparent in slab 02 up to a load of 400 kips when the steel
began to yield. No concrete strains are available above the 400 kip load (the gage went
dead) for slab 02, but if they were available there would probably be a break in the
curve similar to that for the steel strains.
j\
The steel ratio for these old slabs was 0.007, as determined by /> = — . If the slabs
bd
had been designed so that ultimate compressive strains were reached just as the steel
reached the yield strain, the steel ratio, commonly called the "balanced steel ratio", should
have been 0.0196. This value is determined from the formula
p,, = 0.4.M)' ' ,
It
where /',. is assumed to be 2000 psi and /, = 4o,OC0 psi as in slab 02. (This formula
appears in the Report of ASCE-ACI Joint Committee on Ultimate-Strength Design,
ASCE Proceedings Vol. 81). Since the actual steel percentage is less than />> . the slab
would lie expected to fail by a yielding of the steel, which it did.
Recorded Vertical Strain Distribution
Since gages were placed on the -ides of the slabs as well as at the extreme fibers the
vertical distribution of strains can be obtained. Fig. u shows a plot of such a distribution
Values for slab 01 are given on the upper half of this figure and those for slat 02 below
Slab oi was so badly deteriorated on the side under the center line of track that no
gages could be placed there, but the curb side received gages as shown The abscissa
152 Investigation of Re inforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Longitudinal crack in old slab 02 that developed near failure load.
of the graph is compressive, and tensile strains and the ordinate is the vertical location
of the gages. For slab 02, strains were plotted for 4 machine loads — 90, 270, 360 and
400 kips. The point where each curve crosses the zero strain ordinate represents the
location of the neutral axis for that particular load. It can be seen from the plot of
values for both the east and west sides of slab 02 that at a load less than the cracking
load the neutral axis was near the mid-depth and rose as the load increased. It can also
be seen that the neutral axis was not horizontal due to the variable depth of the section.
Deflection
The recorded deflections of slabs 01 and 02 are shown on Figs. 5 and 8. The graph
on the left is for the west side of the slab or the side that was under the center line of
track. The right-hand graph is for the east or curb side of the slab.
For the 01 slab the recorded deflection at the west side under design load was 0.11 in
and the west side under maximum load, 0.72 in. Deflections at the curb side were much
less: 0.03 and 0.18 in, respectively. The combination of eccentrically applied machine
load and the increased stiffness at the curb probably account for this difference.
Permanent set, indicated by the straight lines to the right of the curves, took place
in slab 01 after a load of 170 kips and increased to a maximum set of 0.09 in just prior
to failure.
For the 02 slab the recorded deflection at the west side under design load was 0.09 in
and under maximum load, 0.88 in. The curb side deflections were correspondingly less.
The deflection curve for the 02 slab shows two distinct changes in slope. The first
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 153
break is at a load of 170 kips. This is also about the point where the graph of tensile
concrete strains shows a distinct change in slope, Fig. 6. Apparently, then, this is the
point where the concrete passed from the uncracked to the cracked section. Up to 170
kips the concrete and the steel on the tension side of the neutral axis was effective in
resisting external moments. After this point is reached, however, the section was reduced
so only the steel was resisting tensile forces. The second distinct change in slope is at a
load of 400 kips where it is seen on Fig. 7 that the steel had reached its yield point. The
yielding of the steel with its accompanying large strains caused a rapid increase in
deflection with little increase in load.
Predicting the Ultimate Load
The report of the ASCE-ACI Joint Committee on Ultimate Strength Design as pub-
lished in the ASCE Proceedings, Vol. 81, may be used to predict the ultimate capacity
of a concrete beam failing in flexure. To apply this to these old slabs several assumptions
must be made, hence the following analysis can only be considered approximate.
12.4
p = ryyr— — j— — — 0.0076 (assuming only 22 bars effective and the width reduced by
' 6^4 in from deterioration)
50,000
"' ~ 0 58 X 2000 = 294 (assuming / c = 2000 psi)
0.537
pu = ^ = 0.0182 />„ > p
!,.= „, w.(±fs)
0.0076 X29.5\
= 0.0076 X 50,000 X 77.25 X (21.25)* (1 — j )
= 11,770,000 in-lb
= 981 ft-kips
The ultimate moment is the total of the ultimate machine-load moment and the
ultimate dead-load moment.
Mult = Mmach -f M„r.
M„,„rh= 937 ft-kips
P
Afm0c»=yX3.92
937 X 2
P — — ^j — = 478 kips
The recorded P for slab 01 was 430.5 kips, and the ratio of the recorded to calculated
430.5
loads = = 0.90.
4 / 8
A similar analysis can be made for slab 02.
Regular Design Slab Rl
General Observations
The first load applied to this slab was one-half the design load. At thi^ bad there
was no evidence of cracking of any kind. As the load was increased to 120 kips, the firs!
tensile cracks were observed across the bottom. At the design load of 180 kips, the tensile
cracks had extended up the sides as much as 10 in. This is shown on Fig. 11. The cracks
154 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
were largely confined to the area between loading points. When the load was released
the cracks closed, but did not entirely disappear. By the time the load had been increased
to twice the design load there was an extension of existing cracks and the formation of
new ones. Cracks had now extended to the area between the load points and the reactions
and were inclining toward the load points. One such shear crack was 4 in from the top
of the slab. As the load approached three times the design load, there was further vertical
extension of the tensile cracks, and the shear cracks had leveled off and had crossed over
the top of the tensile cracks. At 500 kips there was a rapid extension of the shear crack
horizontally, and at the ultimate load this crack was only 2 in from the top surface and
extended across the slab.
Fig. 11 shows the crack pattern for the west side; that for the east side was very
similar.
Recorded Concrete Strains
Gages were placed on the concrete surfaces of the slab as shown on Figs. 12 and 15.
In addition, gages were placed on cylinders, as shown on Fig. 39.
Two days after the slab was tested, cylinders that had been cast with the slab were
broken. Oscillograms were obtained from these cylinders, and the plot of the stress-strain
relationship for one of these cylinders is shown at the lower left on Fig. 12. The modulus
of elasticity of the concrete, as indicated by this stress-strain diagram, is 3,000,000 psi.
30,000,000
Thus, the modular ratio, n, is 3 qqq QOn = 10 f or / c = 4990 psi.
It was observed that the first tensile crack occurred at 120 kips. It can be seen that
the slope of the load strain curves on Fig. 12 changes at about this load, indicating that
the section changed from an uncracked to a cracked section. The plot of tensile concrete
strains beyond the 120-kip load has little significance since the concrete had already
cracked. The tensile concrete strain at 120 kips is 0.000180 which corresponds to a stress
of 540 psi. The calculated strain at this load, based on an uncracked section, is 0.000153
for a ratio of 1.18. The maximum compressive strain usually occurred at gage 17 and at
design load was about 12 percent higher than the average. At ultimate load the strain
at this gage was also 12 percent higher than the average.
The average recorded compressive strain at design load was 0.000425, which cor-
responds to a stress of 1280 psi. The calculated strain at design load, based on a cracked
section, is 0.000371, corresponding to a stress of 1110 psi. The ratio of recorded to calcu-
lated stress is then 1.15. Based on an uncracked section, the calculated strain at the
cracking load of 120 kips is 0.000183. The recorded strain at this load was 0.000254 for a
ratio of 1.39.
At a load of 500 kips the load strain curve flattens out appreciably from a strain
of 0.00133 to a strain of 0.0029 at near ultimate load of 556 kips. It was at this load
of 500 kips that the diagonal tension crack developed rapidly and it will be seen later
that it was also at this load that deflection began to increase rapidly.
It should be noted that while the highest recorded strain in the slab was 0.0029,
the highest recorded in the cylinder was only 0.00216.
Recorded Steel Strains
Gages were placed on the steel reinforcement as shown on Fig. 13.
As mentioned earlier, no specimen of reinforcement was obtained for this slab, but
it is felt that the stress-strain curve shown on Fig. 26 is representative.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 155
The recorded strains shown on Fig. 13 are based on the average of gages 1 to 8, incl.,
and 1A, 3A, 4A and 8A. The maximum tensile strain usually occurred at either gage 1 or
8. At design load gage 1 was 3 percent higher than average and gage 8 was 13 percent
higher. This general relationship held to the ultimate. It appears that the applied load
was well distributed to the reinforcement.
The maximum recorded steel strain at the design load was 0.000475, which cor-
responds to a stress of 14,250 psi and to a calculated steel strain of 0.000599 and a stress
of 17,970 psi. The ratio of recorded to calculated stress is then 0.79. The highest recorded
strain at center line of span was 0.00168 at a load of 500 kips. At the ultimate load strains
were recorded on bars 1 ft 6% in from center line of span, and the maximum strains at
that point were slightly less than 0.00168. From the stress-strain curve on Fig. 26, it can
be seen that a strain of 0.00168 the stress was about 50,400 psi, which is less than the
yield point stress of 53,100 psi.
Both the steel strains and the concrete strains are linear from the cracking load to a
load of 500 kips. After the 500 kip load, the concrete compressive strains increased
measurably, but the steel strains did not. This indicates that in a shear failure such as
occurred in this slab, there must be a non-linear or discontinuous strain distribution. It
can be seen from the crack pattern on Fig. 11 that the compression area had been reduced
to a depth of only about 2 in as failure was approached. This means that the neutral axis
must have been at this distance from the top surface. For slabs failing in flexure the
neutral axis would not be this close to the top surface. With the neutral axis 2 in from
the top surface, concrete strains as high as 0.0029, and with an assumed linear strain
distribution, the steel strains would have been well beyond the yield strain. Apparently,
then, in a shear failure the steel strains are not as high as in a fkxural failure. The
concrete strains, however, can be expected to be high in either case.
Recorded Vertical Stress and Strain Distributions
Fig. 15 shows the recorded strain distribution over the depth of the slab at three
locations, east side, center line of load and west side. The plot of these values is similar
to that described for the 01 and 02 slabs.
The location of the neutral axis as determined from the strain distribution cor-
responds well with the crack pattern shown on Fig. 11. After a load of 500 kips, the
neutral axis moved up measurably in accordance with the redistribution of stresses prior
to shear failure. This can be seen on the plot of strains at the 530-kip load. Here is
demonstrated the non-linear or discontinuous strain distribution associated with the
rapid development of the diagonal tension crack. Up to 500 kips the strains were linear,
but after this load they were not. No steel strains are available at this load, but an extra-
polation of data would indicate the approximate value of this strain, and only the general
direction of the graph has been shown.
In addition to the SR-4 gages, which recorded strains on the concrete surfaces, three
pressure gages were imbedded in the concrete compression zone, as indicated on Fig. 15
as gages 21, 22 and 23. These gages were developed at the Bureau of Reclamation. They
are in effect small pressure cells 2V2 in. in diameter that record concrete compressive
stresses directly, making it unnecessary to convert strain into stress.
At a load of 500 kips the recorded stress at gage 21, which was lYi in below the top
of the slab, was 5650 psi, and stresses at the other two gages were less than this, as shown
in the graph at the lower right of Fig. 15. The recorded steel strains have been reduced
to stress on this graph. It can be seen from this plot of stresses that the stress distribution
156 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
•■IF"
West side.
West side.
Diagonal tension cracks developed in
regular design slab Rl.
East side.
was non-linear for all loads up to and including 500 kips. This is in contrast to the strain
distribution which was linear in this same load range.
At a load of 530 kips the neutral axis had risen so that cell 23 was no longer
recording compression and cell 22 was recording very small compression. This corresponds
well with the strain distribution at this load when it was found that the strain gages 12
and 20 were practically zero. The strain gages were 6 in below top of slab and the cells
were $l/2 in below the top.
Recorded Strains in Stirrups
Strain gages were applied to the stirrups as shown on Fig. 16.
The gages placed on the stirrups at Sec. C recorded little or no strain throughout the
test. Fig. 11 shows that there were no shear cracks in the vicinity of these stirrups, hence
there could be no stresses in the stirrups.
Diagonal tension cracks did occur at Sees. A and B, and strains were recorded in the
stirrups at these locations. Stirrup strain did not become significant until a load of about
360 kips was reached. The stirrup strain was not uniform across the slab, but did reach
a maximum at 500 kips of 0.000616 or 18,480 psi. The non-uniform distribution was due
probably to discontinuous cracks. The recorded stirrup strain can be expected to be
maximum only when the crack passes through the gage locations, and this is practically
impossible to control.
It can be seen from these graphs that the maximum stirrup strains occurred at Sec. A
where the greatest diagonal tension cracking occurred.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 157
It cannot be said, however, that the maximum stirrup stress was that recorded, for
there was no way of knowing that the gage was at a crack.
It is interesting to compare the design of the stirrups with the recorded strains. Tht
design permitted the concrete to take shear to a maximum of 90 psi and the stirrup to
take the excess. The stirrups were spaced as shown on Fig. 10, with the stirrups closes!
near the support. From the recorded strains, however, the stirrups nearest the supports
received no strain throughout the test. Since the stirrups can take practically no stress
until a crack has formed, the provision in design that the concrete and the stirrup steel
shall take a portion of the shear seems to be unrealistic.
Deflection
The deflections were recorded for this slab the same as for the previous slabs
tested. The recorded values are plotted on Fig. 14 for both sides of the slab.
The recorded deflections under design load were 0.18 in on the west side and 0.16 in
on the east side. The calculated deflection at this load was 0.16 in.
The deflection curve changes slope slightly at the cracking load of 120 kips and very
definitely at the 500 kip load. Here, as in the other slabs tested, the tension concrete was
effective in carrying the applied load and in reducing the deflection. After the cracking
load was reached, the rate of deflection increased uniformly until a load of 500 kips was
attained. At this load the deflection was 0.79 in on the west side and 0.67 in on the
east side.
The slab had deflected a maximum of 2.18 in at the ultimate load, and when load
was released there was 1.75 in permanent set in deflection. A small amount of permanent
set accumulated under each successively higher loads. This may have been due to a lack
of time during which the slab could recover to its original state of stress.
Predicting the Ultimate Load
There are essentially two modes of failure of a reinforced concrete beam — by shear
or by flexure. This slab failed by shear with the destruction of the compression zone over
a diagonal tension crack at the end of the shear span at the point of maximum moment.
The presence of a diagonal tension crack is a necessary condition for a shear failure,
but the member may also sustain loads beyond the point when this crack forms. In
predicting the shear capacity it is necessary to know the load at which the diagonal
tension crack will form and then to know the load that will cause destruction of the
compression zone, which is also the ultimate capacity.
Bulletin No. 6 published by the Reinforced Concrete Research Council of the
Engineering Foundation entitled "Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams", con-
tains formulas for predicting the initial diagonal tension cracking load as well as the
ultimate load. Also presented in this Bulletin is a graph whereby it is possible to predict
the mode of failure of a beam and its ultimate moment.
The use of this graph can be used for predicting the capacity of this slab. The abscissa
E 1)
of this graph is *v , where p = percentage of steel, E, = modulus of elasticity of the
steel, kx = coefficient defining the magnitude of the compressive force C, kz = coefficient
defining the position of C, f'c = compressive strength of 6- by 12-in cylinders. Since
kik*= 1.121 —0.0485 -L- =0.892 for f, = 4620 psi,
E.p 7,0 X 10" X 0.0121
= 87.8
k,k,f'r — 0.892X4620
158 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Entering this abscissa in the graph for simple beams with vertical stirrups, the ordinate
0.14 is obtained. It is to be noted that this point is very nearly on the line between a
flexural tension failure and a shear failure. (The graph is plotted for /„ = 45,000 psi, and
the steel used in slab Rl had a /„ of about 55,000 psi) .
= 0.14 and for b = 78 in and d== 21.5 in.
kikafcbcf
Muu — 0.14 X 0.807 X 4620 X 78 X (21.5)*
Muit — 20,000,000 in-lb
Mu,i = 1,740,000 ft lb, less 84,000 ft-lb dead load
M„n = 1,656,000
p
Muit = — at where a is the length of the shear span and P is the machine load
o r» -, M u I l
So> P — 2 T^T = 530,000 lb
6.25
The ultimate load carried by the slab was 556,000 lb, which is very close to that
predicted by use of this graph.
This slab had a percentage of reinforcement of 0.0121, which was considerably below
that required for "balanced reinforcement" indicated by the formula
/'„ 4620
Pi = 0.456 -fc = 0.456 ^^ = 0.0384.
Hence it can be seen that had the diagonal tension crack not formed, there would
undoubtedly have been a flexural tension failure. It is possible that the a/d ratio has a
bearing on this. The aid ratio for this slab was 3.49. If this ratio was larger, it is possible
that the slab would have failed in flexure before the diagonal tension crack developed.
Slab Ul
General Observations
The first load applied to this slab was one-quarter the design load. At this load there
were no visible cracks. During the next load cycle to 90 kips, the first tensile crack
appeared at 70 kips. By the time the applied load had reached the design load of 180
kips, the tensile cracks had extended up the sides about 7 in, as shown on Fig. 18.
The cracks were not confined to the area between loading points, but were also present
outside these points where they were becoming inclined toward the center. At a load
of 1% times the design load a longitudinal crack developed under the south loading
pad near the center line of slab. At \l/2 times the design load the longitudinal crack
had nearly reached the south bearing, and at 1^4 times the design load it had extended
the full length of the slab. The tensile cracks had risen only slightly up the sides of the
slab, but the diagonal tension cracks had extended considerably. The ultimate load was
attained at 360,500 lb, slightly more than twice the design load, when a shallow, v-shaped
section about 5 in deep slowly lifted up across the entire width of the slab, as shown
on Fig. 18. This compression failure was gradual as might be expected with the soft,
low-strength concrete which made up the slab. The longitudinal crack which appeared
to be a split did not contribute to the final failure. The crack pattern was very nearly
the same on both sides of the slab.
Recorded Concrete Strains
Gages were placed on the concrete surfaces as shown on Figs. 19 and 22.
On the day the slab was tested, cylinders were tested that had been cast with the
Investigatio n of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 159
slab. Only mechanical extensometers were used to determine the longitudinal and lateral
strains. These gages were removed after a unit stress of 1000 psi had been reached. A
plot of the stress-strain relationship is shown at the lower left of Fig. 19. The modulus
of elasticity of the concrete based on 6- by 12-in cylinders as indicated by this diagram
is 2,100,000 psi. Thus, the modular ratio n = 30»000>0Q0 — 14 f01- /',. = 2140 psi.
2,100,000
The plot of compressive strains is based on the average of gages 15 to 1°, incl., and
the plot of tensile strains on an average of gages 10 to 12, incl. The maximum com-
pressive strain usually occurred at gage 17 and at design load was 9 percent higher than
the average. At ultimate load the strain at this gage location was 8 percent higher than
the average.
It had been observed that the first tensile crack came at a load of 70 kips, but it is
apparent from the load-strain curves for both steel and concrete that there was no
particular change in the slope of the curve at this load. This would seem to indicate
that the strength of this concrete was quite low and had little effect upon the carrying
capacity of the slab.
It can be seen from the diagram that the recorded compressive strains are very close
to the calculated up to design loads. At this load the average recorded compressive strain
was 0.000750, which corresponds to a stress of 1400 psi. The calculated strain at this load,
based on a cracked section, was 0.000651, which would correspond to a stress of 1370 psi
if the concrete was assumed elastic at this stress. However, it can be seen from the stress-
strain diagram that this was not the case. The ratio of recorded to calculated strain
was 1.15.
Based on an uncracked section, the calculated strain at the cracking load of 70 kips
is 0.000225. The recorded strain at this load was 0.000265 for a ratio of 1.18.
Tensile concrete strains were recorded to the ultimate load as were the compressive
concrete strains. This is indicated on the diagram by the open and closed circles. Tensile
cracking apparently occurred without rupturing the gage. It is evident, then, that since
the tensile and compressive strains were practically equal throughout the test that the
neutral axis of the section must have been at mid-depth. The plot of the vertical strain
distribution as shown on Fig. 22 reveals that this was so. It is interesting to note that
the calculated location of the neutral axis under design load is 9.2 in from the top of the
19-in deep slab.
The highest recorded compressive strain was 0.00214. It is apparent from the graph
that the concrete strains did not follow a linear variation. The plot shows a definite
curvature almost from the start. Since it is generally assumed that concrete and steel
strains are linear up to the yield point of the steel, the non-linearity existing in the
slab must be attributed to the very low modulus of elasticity of the concrete. A similar
relationship existed in the 01 and 02 slabs which also had a low modulus
Recorded Steel Strains
Gages were placed on the steel reinforcement as shown on Fig. 20. The recorded
strains shown are based on the average of gages 1 to 9, incl., and I A, 5A and 9A. The
maximum tensile strain usually occurred at either gage 1 or 9. At design load gage 1 was
15 percent higher than the average and page 9 was 4 percent higher. At the ultimate load
these values were 17 percent and 12 percent, respectively.
To determine the physical properties of the reinforcement, a sample of the steel used
in this slab was obtained. A stress-strain diagram is shown at the lower left ol Fi|
These were data obtained from mechanical and electrical strain pages. Such data were
160 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Compression failure in ultimate load slab Ul. Above, view of west side;
below, east side.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 161
secured up to the ultimate strength of the sample, but only that part of the diagram
to include a strain of 0.016 has been shown. Strains beyond this value are not significant
since recorded strains in the slab were not this high.
The maximum recorded steel strain at the design load was 0.000530, which cor-
responds to a stress of 15,900 psi and to a calculated steel stress of 15,540 psi.
The highest recorded strain at ultimate load was 0.00156. It can be seen from the
stress-strain diagram that this strain was considerably below the yield strain. The steel
stress at failure was about 46,800 psi whereas the yield stress was 57,300 psi. Hence, the
compressive strength of the concrete was reached before the steel reached the yield point.
In ultimate-strength design, the concrete and steel are so proportioned that the yield
point of steel and the ultimate compressive strength of the concrete are reached at about
the same time. This is the condition where "balanced steel ratio" is provided. This ratio
is denoted as pb. When the steel area furnished, P, is greater than pi,, the steel is elastic all
the way to the ultimate load, and the subsequent failure by compression may be sudden
and without warning. For this reason it is considered advisable to provide p less than Pi
to insure that the steel will yield before j'c is reached.
The steel ratio used in this slab was 0.0259, and the bailanced steel ratio for /'f= 2140
psi and fv = 57,300 is 0.017. Hence, it can be seen that since p > Pb, the compressive
strength of the concrete was reached before the steel yielded. In this case, however, there
was no sudden failure because the concrete was of low strength.
The load-strain graph indicates a very nearly linear relationship of steel strains from
zero load to the ultimate.
Recorded Vertical Stress and Strain Distribution
Fig. 22 shows the recorded strain distribution over the depth of the slab plotted in a
manner similar to that described for slab Rl.
It can be seen from the three diagrams of strain distribution that the neutral axis
apparently was at about the mid-depth of the slab. This was discussed previously under
"recorded concrete strains." Furthermore, it will be noted that the location of the neutral
axis changed very little as the load increased.
Since the location of the neutral axis from the recorded strains was about 9J/2 in
below the top surface, it was only about 7 in above the tensile reinforcement. Accord-
ingly, the concrete strains at the extreme fiber were higher than the tensile strains by
Z^-= 1.36 or 36 percent.
Comparing the strains shown on Fig. 19 with those on Fig. 20 it will be noted that this
general relationship is indicated.
In addition to the SR-4 gages which recorded surface strains, two stress gages
similar to those described for slab Rl were used. They were placed in the compression
zone as indicated on Fig. 22 by gage locations 22 and 23. The plot of stress values
recorded with these gages is shown at the lower right. Here allso the recorded steel
strains at gage 6 have been reduced to stress to show the total stress distribution. The
position of zero stress was determined from the strain distribution since there were
not enough stress gages placed to determine this. It is evident from the plot of stress
values that the stress distribution was non-linear which is in contrast to the strain
distribution which was linear.
The maximum stress recorded at gage 22 was 1890 psi and at gage 23, 1440 psi. These
gages were 2^4 in and 6 in, respectively, below the top surface. If the neutral axis was
9*/2 in down, it is evident that the stress distribution over the compression area was not
triangular, but was more likely to have been rectangular. Such an idealized sha|>< "t
stress block is used in the theory of ultimate design.
162 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Strains in Longitudinal Bars in Contact
Fig. 28 shows a comparison of strains in three pairs of longitudinal bars which were
wired together before the concrete was cast.
It can be seen from these diagrams that the bars nearest the bottom of the slab show
greater strain than the ones on top. This indicates that each bar was taking its share
of strain in approximate proportion to its distance from the neutral axis.
Recorded Strains in Stirrups
Strain gages were applied to the stirrups as shown on Fig. 23. It can be seen that
the gages applied to the stirrups at Sec. B recorded little or no strain throughout the test.
However, at Sec. A a maximum strain of 0.00049S was recorded, which is equivalent to
15,700 psi. In this slab, as in slab Rl, no stirrup strains of any consequence were recorded
except where diagonal tension cracks crossed the stirrups. In this slab there was also a
non-uniform distribution, due probably to discontinuous cracks.
The strains recorded here are not necessarily the maximum since it is not known that
the gage was at a crack.
In this slab, as in the Rl slab, the maximum stirrup area was placed at the supports,
but for the loadings used in this test the stirrups at the supports were not effective.
Deflection
The deflections were recorded for this slab the same as for the previous slabs tested.
The recorded values are plotted on Fig. 21 for both sides of the slab.
The recorded deflection under design load was 0.45 in on the west side and 0.41 in
on the east side. The calculated deflection at this load is 0.36 in.
This deflection curve does not show evidence of sharply changing rates of deflection
as was the case of Rl. The change of slope is bardly apparent at the cracking load of
70 kips and from that load to the maximum the change of slope is gradual. The recorded
deflection at maximum load was 1.24 in on the west side and 1.10 in on the east side.
Here, as in the Rl slab, there was a small amount of permanent set even after the
design load was released. A small amount of permanent set accumulated upon the release
of successively higher loads. The maximum permanent set recorded was 0.21 in.
Predicting the Ultimate Load
As previously pointed out, a reinforced concrete beam may fail by either shear or
flexure. In the case of this slab diagonal tension cracks formed, but did not develop
sufficiently for a shear failure. This slab failed in flexure when the ultimate compressive
strength of the concrete was reached.
The report of the ASCE-ACI Joint Committee on Ultimate Strength Design
previously referred to, may be used to predict the ultimate load capacity of a reinforced
concrete beam failing in flexure. Accordingly, since
_jU_ 32.8 _ fv 57.3 _
p — bd —78X16.25 — 002S9' m~ 0.85/'c — 0.85 X 2.14 ~ 316'
0.537 0.537
j'c 2140 (16.25)2
Muit = —b(P = —^- X 78 X — Yl = 122° ft-^P8-
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 163
The ultimate moment is the total of the ultimate machine-load moment and the
ultimate dead-load moment,
Af„„ e= Mma,n + MDL
1220 = M mac* + 67
M mac* =1153 ft-kips
P 1153
Since Af«.e» =-y X 6.25, P = 2 X g"^- = 369 kips.
The recorded P = 360.5 kips, and the ratio of the recorded to the calculated ultimate
load = 3605_ _098
369
Slab U2
General Observations
The loading cycle for this slab was similar to that for Ul. The first tensile crack was
observed at a load of 80 kips. This was at the west edge. When the load had reached
135 kips, tensile cracks were observed all across the bottom. At the design load of 180
kips the cracks had extended about 8 in up from the bottom edge, as shown on Fig. 24.
The crack pattern was very similar to that of the Ul slab, as can be seen by comparing
Figs. 18 and 24. At twice the design load the tensile cracks had risen slightly to about 11 in
from the bottom edge, and the diagonal tension shear cracks had become definitely
inclined toward the load points. At three times the design load there was no significant
change in the crack pattern. At a load of 500 kips a longitudinal crack developed at the
center line of the slab. The ultimate load attained was 546,000 lb, slightly more than
three times the design load. As in the Ul slab, at the ultimate load a v-shaped section
about 5 in deep was pushed up out of the compression concrete across the entire width
of the slab. This action was not abrupt, although it was relatively more sudden than in
the Ul slab. Just prior to the failure, small bits of concrete were seen to pop out of the
top surface between the load points. Both sides of the slab had a similar crack pattern.
After the ultimate load had been reached, the load was reduced to 400 kips, and the
slab was able to sustain this load with no further deflection.
There was no evidence that the joint between pours described previously had any-
adverse effect on the carrying capacity of the slab. None of the tensile cracks appeared
to follow this joint. Apparently a good bond was made along this joint.
Recorded Concrete Strains
Gages were placed on the concrete surfaces as shown on Figs. 25 and 35.
A plot of the stress-strain relationship of cylinders tested the day after the slab was
tested is shown at the lower left of Fig. 25. Strains were measured only with extenso-
meters to a unit stress of 2400 psi. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete based on
6- by 12-in cylinders as indicated by this diagram is 2,900,000 psi. Thus, the modular
30,000,000 ,n r t> ACrsr.
ratio, n = — ! C22L = 10 for 7 c = 4600.
2,900,000
The first tensile crack was observed at a machine load of 80 kips, and it is apparent
from the load-strain curve of the tensile concrete that the slope of the curve changes
noticeably at this load. There seems to be a linear relationship to the cracking load and
another linear relationship from the cracking load to 315 kips.
164 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
At the cracking load of 80 kips it can be seen that the concrete tensile strain was
0.00025. This corresponds to a stress of 720 psi, and based on f'c = 4600 psi the modulus
of rupture is-^-=0.lS.
4600
It will also be noted that the steel strain at this cracking load was 0.00018, corresponding
to a stress of 5400 psi.
The plot of compressive strains is based on the average of gages 15 to 19, incl., and
the plot of tensile strains on the average of gages 10 to 12, incl. The maximum com-
pressive strain usually occurred at gage 18 and at design load was 7 percent higher than
the average. At ultimate load the strain at this gage was 12 percent higher than the
average.
It can be seen from the diagram that the calculated strains were slightly higher than
the recorded strains. At design load the average recorded compressive strain was 0.000450
whereas the calculated strain was 0.000520. The ratio of recorded to calculated was
0.87. Based on an uncracked section, the calculated strain at the cracking load of 80 kips
is 0.000192. The recorded strain at this load was 0.000180 for a ratio of 0.94.
The plot of concrete tensile strains shown on Fig. 25 by the open circles indicates
that the tensile and compressive strains were approximately equal up to the cracking load
of 80 kips, but after that load the tensile strains became considerably higher than the
compressive strains. This indicates that the slab was acting as a homogeneous member
until the tensile cracks appeared, when the neutral axis moved upward from the mid-
depth to about 8 in from the top. This shift of the neutral axis is indicated on lower
left diagram of Fig. 35. It was pointed out previously that the crack pattern did not
change appreciably with increased load and hence the location of the neutral axis did
not either. The calculated location of the neutral axis under design load is 8.4 in from
the top of slab.
The highest recorded compressive strain was 0.00173. It will be noted that the com-
pressive strains were very linear between zero load and about 500 kips. A similar linearity
of strains was demonstrated on the Rl slab.
Recorded Steel Strains
Gages were placed on the steel reinforcement as shown on Fig. 26. The recorded steel
strains shown are based on the average of gages 1 to 9 incl., and 1A, 5A and 9A. The
maximum strains did not occur consistently at any one gage, but were in general highest
at gages 1, 2 or 3. At design load the greatest variation from the average was 8 percent
at gage 4.
A sample of the steel used in this slab was tested to determine its physical properties,
and the stress-strain diagram obtained is shown at the lower left of Fig. 26. The data
were obtained from both mechanical and electrical strain gages. Only that part of the
stress-strain diagram is shown up to a strain of 0.016. Strains above this value are not
significant since strains in the slab were not this high.
At the design load the maximum recorded steel strain was 0.000430, corresponding
to a stress of 12,900 psi and to a calculated steel stress of 15,000 psi. The ratio of recorded
to calculated strains was 0.86.
The recorded steel strains at the ultimate load was 0.00245. It can be seen from the
stress-strain diagram that this is slightly higher than the yield strain. Hence the ultimate
strength of the concrete in compression was reached at about the same time the steel
reached its yield point.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 165
Compression failure in ultimate load design slab U2.
The steel ratio used in this slab was the same as was used in sla'b Ul, namely,
p = 0.0259. Since the concrete had a compressive strength of /'<• = 4600 psi and the yield
point of the steel was 53,100 psi, the "balanced steel ratio" should have been
. _ .-, 4,600
pb = 0.456 — :
53,100
0.0394.
Since p < pb the steel yielded before the ultimate compressive strength of the concrete
was reached. This follows the concept upon which the ultimate-strength theory is based.
It can be seen from the load-strain graph that the steel strains were linear from zero
load to a load of about 500 kips which was probably the point at which yielding of the
steel took place.
Recorded Vertical Strain Distribution
Fig. 35 shows the recorded strain distribution over the depth of the slab plotted in a
manner similar to that used for the Ul and Rl slabs.
As was pointed out under "recorded concrete strains'' the location of the neutral axis
was indicated to be about 8 in from the top of the slab after tensile cracking occurred,
Since the reinforcement was 16}/ in below the top, the steel and concrete strains should
have been equal. By comparing the recorded strains on Figs. 10 and 16 ii will be noted
that up to a load of 500 kips concrete and steel strains were very nearh tin same Alter
the 500 kip load was reached, the steel strains increased faster than the concrete strains
with a consequent rise in the neutral axis.
166 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
The strain distribution over the depth of this slab was definitely linear for loads up
to and including 450 kips, as indicated by the straight lines in the graphs on Fig. 35. Even
at the 530 kip load there seems to be some linearity, indicating that the strain distribution
was linear up to and beyond the yield strain load.
There were no stress gages used in this slab as in the Rl and Ul slabs.
Strains in Longitudinal Bars in Contact
Fig. 28 shows a comparison of strains in 3 pairs of longitudinal bars which were
wired together before casting the concrete. Strains were indicated in these bars in about
the proportion of the distances to the neutral axis. However, at near ultimate load the
strains in each bar appeared to be about equal.
Recorded Strains in Stirrups
Strain gages were appllied to the stirrups as shown on Fig. 29. It can be seen that the
strains in the stirrups increased as the distance from the support increased and as the
area of greatest cracking was reached. A maximum stirrup strain of 0.00126 was recorded
at Sec. A under a load of 540 kips. This is equivalent to a stress of about 37,800 psi. It is
apparent that at this load the stirrups at Sec. A were effective in transmitting load across
the diagonal tension cracks. This may or may not have been the maximum stirrup strain.
A non-uniform distribution across the slab was apparent here as in the Rl and Ul slabs.
Deflection
The recorded deflections are shown plotted on Fig. 27 for both sides of the slab.
The recorded deflection under design load was 0.29 in on the west side and 0.28 in on
the east side. The calculated deflection under the load was 0.26 in.
There was some evidence of an increased rate of deflection at the cracking load of
80 kips, but a very pronounced one at a load near 500 kips when the steel was yielding.
The recorded deflection at ultimate load was 1.39 in on the west side and 1.14 in on the
east side.
A small amount of permanent set was recorded upon the release of load. This accu-
mulated to a maximum of 0.20 in at the release of a load of 540 kips.
Predicting the Ultimate Load
This slab failed in flexure when the longitudinal steel yielded and the concrete in the
compression zone reached its ultimate strength.
The ASCE-ACI Joint Committee report previously referred to may be used to
predict the ultimate capacity of this slab. Accordingly,
32.8 53.1
p = 78 X 16.25 =°-025q> m= 0.85X4.6 = 13"6
0.537
pb = 7^5"= 0-395 .-. p < pb
( pm\ m I .0259 X 13.6 \ 1
Muit — Pfy bcFil — — j = 0.0259 X 53.1 X 78 X (16.25)2 I 1 — ~2 Ijj
— 1945 ft-kips
MuU — Mmaeh + Mdl, Mmach = 1945 — 67 = 1878 ft-kips
1878
P — 2 X 6^5"= 601 kips
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 167
The recorded P = 546 kips and the ratio of the recorded to the calculated ultimate load is
546
6oT = 0-91
Slab PI
General Observations
Several cycles of load were applied to this slab at less than the design load of 180 kips.
There were no visible cracks at the design load, and it was not until the applied load had
reached 255 kips that the first tensile crack appeared. At twice the design load the cracks
had extended to about mid-depth, as shown on Fig. 31. The cracks were confined largely
to the area between load points and closed completely when load was released. At three
times the design load the tensile cracks had extended to within about 4 in of the top
of the slab. There were no shear cracks even at the ultimate load, and no crack appeared
closer than about 4 ft from the reactions. The ultimate load was attained at 576 kips,
nearly 3J4 times the design load, when a v-shaped section about 5 in deep was forced
up out of the slab, as shown on Fig. 31. The failure was accompanied by a resounding
report attributed to the high compressive strength of this concrete. Immediately after
the compression failure occurred there was a splitting of the slab in the plane of the
lower strands. Both sides of the slab showed a similar crack pattern.
Transfer of Prestress Force to the Concrete
Before the concrete was cast, SR-4 strain gages had been applied to two of the strands
in the bottom layer to determine the length of strand required to transfer the prestress
force to the concrete. These gages were applied a distance from one end of the slab of
6 in, 1 ft 6 in, 3 ft 6 in, 5 ft 6 in, 7 ft 6 in and 9 ft 6 in (center of slab) .
Readings were taken of these gages with a static strain indicator just prior to cutting
the strands and just after cutting them. The differences in strain readings recorded at
these locations were as follows:
0 ft 6 in = 350 micro inches
1 ft 6 in = 385 micro inches
3 ft 6 in = 390 micro inches
5 ft 6 in = 330 micro inches
7 ft 6 in = 370 micro inches
9 ft 6 in = 330 micro inches
It can be seen from the values near the center of the slab that the applied prestressing
force compressed the concrete by about 350 micro inches. Since the value 6 in from the
end of the slab also was 350 micro inches, the same amount of compressive force was
applied there also. It appears from this that the entire prestressing force was transferred
to the concrete in a length of 6 in or less.
In order for this prestress force to be transferred to the concrete in as short a length
as this, there must be some mechanicail anchorage developed to supplement the bond
between the strand and the concrete. If the stress in the strand 6 in from the end of slab
is under full initial prestress its diameter has been reduced by the effect of Poisson's ratio
Similarly, at the end of the slab the strand is under no stress and hence its diameter has
not been reduced. Thus the 6 in length of strand takes the shape of a wedge. This is
thought to provide a mechanical anchorage to help prevent the strand from pulling
through the slab.
168 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Recorded Concrete Strains
Gages were placed on the concrete surfaces as shown on Fig. 30.
The day the slab was tested, cylinders were tested that had been cast with the 9lab.
Mechanical extensometers were used to measure the longitudinal and lateral strains. These
gages were removed when the unit stress reached 2400 psi. A plot of the stress-strain
relationship is shown at the lower left of Fig. 32. The modulus of elasticity of the con-
crete, based on these 6- by 12-in cylinders, as indicated by the diagram, is 4,100,000 psi.
Thus, the modular ratio, n = 3Q'0Q0'000 = 7 for fe = 9300 psi.
4,100,000
The plot of compressive strains as shown is based on the average of gages 15 to 19,
incl., and the tensile strains as the average of gages 4 to 8, incl. The maximum strain
usually occurred at gage 19 and at design load was about 5 percent higher than the
average. At ultimate load the strain at this gage location was 11 percent higher than the
average.
The first tensile crack was observed at a machine load of 255 kips. It can be seen
from the load-strain curve that the recorded values began to deviate sharply from a
linear relationship at this load of 255 kips.
At the cracking load of 255 kips the compressive concrete strain was 0.000554 and
the tensile strain was 0.000578. These values are shown by the closed and open cirdes.
The fact that these two strains are nearly equal indicates that the neutral axis was very
near the mid-depth of the slab.
It should be noted that of all the slabs tested, this is the only one which did not
exhibit tensile cracking at the design load. This is characteristic and an advantage of
prestressed concrete.
It can be seen from the diagram that the calculated strains agree closely with the
recorded strains. The calculated strains at design load are 0.000390 at top and bottom
while the recorded strains were 0.000360 at top and 0.000330 at the bottom. The ratios
of recorded to calculated strains are 0.92 and 0.85, respectively.
Strain gages were applied to the concrete surfaces after the concrete had been pre-
stressed. It is not known, therefore, exactly how much stress was in the slab when these
gages were applied. However, when the strands were cut the measured compressive strain
at the center of span was 0.000350. Proportioning this value to the extreme fiber, the
strain Should have been
0.00035 X — = 0.00042
ry2
This is equivalent to a compressive stress of 1720 psi in the concrete at the bottom of the
slab.
The initial prestress force of 1,360,000 lb (9.45 sq in X 144,000 psi) produces the
following stress distribution
+320 top
-2260 bottom
1,360,000 + 1,360,000 X 4 X 9
where 1404 37,900 = + 320 or -2260.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 169
Due to the weight of the slab in the test machine this stress distribution changes by
770,000 X 9
37,900
= ± 184
with the resulting stress distribution:
With the application of the 180 kip design load, this distribution becomes:
6,750,000 X °
-=± 1600
The above represents the stress distribution without any allowance for creep and shrink
age. The allowance is usually taken as 20 percent and the above stresses then become:
-1810
Prestress Only
-1624
+DL in Test Machine
-24
Design Load
The recorded value of — 1 750 psi described above lies between the value of —2076 psi
(without losses for creep and shrinkage) and — ■ 1624 psi (including these losses).
If the cracking load is assumed at 255 kips, this is 75 kips more than the design load
and a moment of 75,000 X 6-25 X V* X 12 = 2,810,000 in-lb. This moment creates a stress
change in the slab of
2,810,000 X 9
/'« ='
6/0 psi.
37,900
It can be seen that if the bottom concrete stress under full design load is 24 p>i,
the stress under the cracking load is + 646 psi. This indicates a modulus of rupture of
646
9300
= 0.07, or 0.07 /'«
After the slab had cracked a new linear relationship was established which existed
to near ultimate load. Strains were recorded at the 570 kip load, and the average strain
of gages 15 to 19, inch, was 0.00244. The maximum strain of 0.00270 occurred .it gage 19.
The strain gages were placed midway between the loading pads, and it can be seen from
the crack pattern on Fig. 31 that rupture of the surfao did not incur exactly at tin-
point, so the ultimate strain was not the true maximum but very close thereto.
170 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Comparing the load-strain curve for this slab with those for the other slabs it can be
seen that the general pattern is much the same. Strains were linear to the cracking load
and then a new linear relationship existed to or near the ultimate load. The point where
this linearity changes was at a much higher load for the prestressed slab.
Recorded Steel Strains
Gages were placed on the strands in the slab as shown on Fig. 33. The recorded steel
strains are based on the average of gages 1, 2 and 3. The maximum strain occurred at
gage 2 for loads up to 360 kips and at gage 1 for loads beyond. At the design load the
maximum strain was 6 percent higher than the average. At near the ultimate load of 570
kips, the maximum strain was 13 percent higher than the average.
Three samples of the strands used in this slab were tested to determine their physical
properties, and the stress-strain diagram so obtained is shown at the lower left of Fig. 33.
SR-4 gages were placed on the individual wires and strains were recorded to the ultimate.
A mechanical extensometer was also used, but this was removed at a load of about
144,000 psi.
Since the SR— 4 gages were placed on the individual wires, the strain and hence the
modulus of elasticity of the wire was measured. This modulus was determined to be
29,400,000 psi.
The extensometer, however, measured strain in the strand, and the modulus of the
strand so determined was 26,700,000 psi.
The difference between these two is about 10 percent. The strand elongates more than
would a single wire of the same cross-sectional area since there is a slight unwinding
effect of the strand under load. It is possible, however, that when the strand is imbedded
in concrete throughout its entire length that the unwinding effect is reduced, and the
modulus of elasticity of the strand would then lie somewhere between the two values.
The maximum wire strain recorded with the SR-4 gages was only 0.0109. The strand
strain was not recorded at the ultimate load, but since none of the strands broke within
the limit of the 8 in extensometer frame, the maximum recorded strain probably would
not have exceeded about 0.0250. Ultimate strains in a J^-in strand have been recorded
as high as 0.0941 when special gripping devices have been used to avoid nicking the
strand in the grips. It seems possible that correspondingly high strains could be attained
with the strand imbedded in concrete as in a beam or slab.
The recorded steel strain at the design load was 0.000546, which corresponds to a
unit stress of 14,600 psi. To this must be added the stress induced in the strands in the
prestressing operation. The strands were loaded to an initial prestress of 144,000 psi.
After the strands were cut, this preload was transferred to the concrete, resulting in a
relief of tension of 0.000350 in per in, or 9350 psi. The prestress in the strand was then
135,650 psi or a 6 percent reduction from the initial prestress. By the time the slab was
put into the test machine it is conceivable that other losses from creep and shrinkage
would have reduced the prestress force a total of 15 percent, which would make the
effective prestress about 122,500 psi. The unit strain under this stress is 0.00460, so the
total unit strain in the strands at the design load was 0.000546 + 0.0004590 = 0.005136.
The linearity of strains to the cracking load was apparent here as well as the linearity
to a load of about 500 kips and a strain of 0.0066. At this strain the strand is in the plastic
region, and the load-strain curve shows a tendency to flatten out to the maximum recorded
strain of 0.00955.
The stress-strain curve for strands does not exhibit a definite yield point as does the
curve for A 305 reinforcement, but after a unit stress of about 0.70 of the ultimate stress,
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
171
Prestressed slab Pi after failure.
stress and strain are no longer proportional, and larger strains accompany each increment
of stress. As in the case of design with A 305 bars, when the steel reaches the yield strain
the slab can be expected to be near ultimate strength. So it is with prestressed design;
when the strand stress reaches the plastic range the slab is near its ultimate strength.
The total unit strain in the strand at failure was 0.004590 (the strain from the initial
prestress) plus 0.009550 for a total of 0.014140. Thus it can be seen that the strand was
not near its ultimate strength and that its plastic strain governed the ultimate capacity
of the slab.
Vertical Strain Distribution
Fig. 35 shows the recorded strain distribution over the depth of the slab plotted in a
manner similar to that for the Ul, U2 and Rl slabs.
It can be seen from the plot of the strains that at loads near the cracking load the
point of zero strain lies very close to the mid-depth of the slab. At a load of 360 kips
the neutral axis rose to 7 in from the top of slab and at load near the ultimate it can
be seen that the neutral axis was only 5 in from the top.
The strains in the compression zone were linear from 90 kips to 570 kips. The gages
in the tensile zone apparently were affected by tensile cracking, and the strain distribution
is erratic and the plot of these values is of little significance.
Deflections
Deflections were recorded for this slab the same as lor the Other slab tests Mi.
recorded values are plotted on Fig. 34 for both sides of the slab. The recorded deflection
172 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
under design load was 0.21 in on the west side and 0.20 in on the east side. The calculated
deflection at this load is 0.21.
The deflection curve shows an increase in slope at or near the cracking load. It appears
from the deflection curve on the west side that the first crack occurred at a load of about
220 kips whereas the curve on the east side indicates that the first crack occurred at a
load of about 275 kips. The load-strain curves for concrete and steel previously discussed
show this first crack occurring at a load of 2SS kips. Apparently, this load represents a
good average value for the slab as a whole.
Small amounts of permanent set were recorded as successively higher loads were
released. The maximum set occurred upon release of the 550 kip load and amounted to
0.10 in.
The recorded deflection at the ultimate load was 2.68 in on the east side. The deflec-
tion of the west side was not recorded at ultimate load, but its extrapolated value was
2.80 in.
Predicting the Ultimate Load
This slab failed in flexure when the strands were strained in the plastic range and
the ultimate compressive strength of the concrete was reached.
The preliminary report of ACI-ASCE Joint Committee 323 entitled "Recommended
Practice for Prestressed Concrete", dated December 15, 1956, contains the following equa-
tion for determining the ultimate moment capacity of a bonded member:
Pfs
pfs „ piW
-7i—< or .= 0.35, Muit = As f, d (1 — 0.59 7- I
When
As 6.00
'-M-78X1S=0-00513
/', = 9300 psi, /'., = 240,000 psi
pfs 0.00513 X 240,000
fc — 9300 =0.132
Muit =6.00X 240,000 X IS (1—0.59 X 0.132)
Muit — 19,900,000 in-lb
A/uu = 1660ft-kips
Mult— Mmaeh + Mdl, Mmach = 1660 — 64
p
Mmach = j X 6.25 MmaeK = 1596 ft*
2 X 1596
P = — ^ — = 510 kips
It can be seen that this equation predicts a load less than the actual ultimate. The
ratio of recorded to calculated ultimate load is — 112 . Hence, the use of this
510 —
equation for predicting the ultimate load is on the safe -side.
Cores and Cylinders
Comparison of Core and Cylinder Tests
After the Rl slab had been tested and removed from the test machine, three 6-in
cores were drilled out of it. One core was removed from the north end of the slab, one
from the south end and one from the east side. Locations were selected to avoid rein-
forcement steel and cracks resulting from the load test. The cores were uniform in
diameter and height and were capped and tested the same as the cast cylinders.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 173
At the age of 58 days the three cores were tested. Mechanical extensometers were
used to a unit stress of 2400 psi and then removed and the cores broken.
Fig. 36 shows a comparison between 6- by 12-in cylinders at ages of 29 days and
36 days and the cores at the age of 58 days. It can be seen that the three moduli of
elasticity are very nearly the same. Apparently, representative values of elasticity may be
obtained either with cores or with cast cylinders.
Comparison of Ultimate Strength-Time Curves for Cylinders
Fig. 37 shows ultimate strength-time curves for the 6- by 12-in cylinders that were
cast with the PI, Rl, Ul and U2 slabs.
A description of the method of curing these cylinders was presented earlier. The
effect of steam curing the PI cylinders was evidenced by the rapid gain in strength
compared with the other cylinders not so cured.
Six cylinders that had been cast with the Pi slab were placed on the roof of the AAR
Research Center administration building to duplicate as much as possible the exposure
the slabs will obtain in service on the Burlington Railroad. Three of these cylinders were
tested at the time the field tests were made on those slabs. Such tests were made two
years after the slabs were cast, and the strength-time curve for these cylinders shows very
little further increase in strength at that age.
Variation of Lateral and Longitudinal Strains in Cylinders
Since oscillograph recordings were being obtained of cylinders during the regular slab
testing program, an opportunity was thus afforded to secure additional data on the strains
in cylinders.
Data were accordingly obtained on the variation of lateral and longitudinal strains
over the height of 6- by 12-in and 18- by 36-in cylinders. SR-4 strain gages were mounted
on the cylinders as shown on Fig. 39. Twenty-four 1-in gages were used on each 6- by
12-in cylinder, and twenty-four 6-in gages were used on each 18- by 36-in cylinder. Six
6- by 12-in and two 18- by 36-in cylinders were tested.
Tables 2 to 7, inch, show the recorded strains for the 6- by 12-in cylinders at each
gage location for each load increment and run. Tables 8 and 9 show similar data for the
18- by 36-in cylinders. The upper half of the table shows tensile strains from the gages
applied horizontally, and the lower half of the table shows compressive strains from the
vertically applied gages.
The cylinders were capped with sulfur and carefully placed in the test machine to
avoid as much as possible any uneven bearing of the test machine head on the tops
of the cylinders. The load was applied in cycles as shown on the tables.
Fig. 38 shows a plot of the variation of lateral and longitudinal strains for cylinders
4 and 31. The lateral and longitudinal strains are plotted separately for loads of 500,
1000 and 1500 psi to obtain the points for these curves, average values were taken from
Tables 7 and 9. For example, at a load of 1000 psi on cylinder 4, the average longitudinal
strain at the bottom of the cylinder is 0.000405. This was obtained from Table 9, runs 67,
68 and 69, as follows:
Run 67, load 1000 psi, Bl = 3.90, B2 = 4.64, avg. = 4.27
Run 68, load 1000 psi, Bl = 3.48, B2=4.31, avg. = 3.89
Run 69, load 1000 psi, Bl=3.55, B2 = 4.45, avg. = 4.00
avg. = 4.05
Other values on this figure were obtained similarly.
Fig. 39 shows a plot of the lateral-longitudinal strain ratios for cylinders 4 and 31.
174 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
To obtain the points for these curves the average ratios for all loads of each run were
determined. For example, lateral strain was plotted against longitudinal strain for run 67,
cylinder 4, for loads 100 to 1200 psi. A fairly linear relation was thus obtained, and the
ratio was found to be 0.11. Runs 68, 69 and 70 were similarly plotted, and ratios of 0.10,
0.09 and 0.10 were obtained. The average of these four ratios is 0.10, which is the value
plotted for the bottom gages.
The low strain ratios at the bottoms of these curves is evidence that the base of the
cylinders is restrained laterally during the loading cycle and that the cylinder thus
assumes a barrel shape under load.
All of the data obtained from the tests of these eight cylinders has been presented.
Further study is required for a complete interpretation of it.
G. CONCLUSIONS
The static loading of these six full-size reinforced concrete bridge slabs demonstrated
the relative behavior of old slaibs removed from service and new slabs designed according
to various current theories.
From the test data is seems logical to conclude that:
1. Although the old slabs were badly deteriorated they proved to be capable of carry-
ing loads well in excess of their design loads.
2. Loads applied to the badly deteriorated slabs having a ballast curb on one edge
and loaded eccentrically to represent field loading conditions, produced maximum stresses
42 percent greater than the average across the slab.
3. The recorded concrete and steel stresses in the old slabs at design loads were less
than the calculated stresses.
4. At ultimate load, reinforcement which was exposed as a result of concrete deteriora-
tion pulled through the end of one of the slabs before the yield stress of the steel wad
reached.
5. The increased rate of deflection of these old slabs near ultimate load offered
warning of impending failure.
6. The slabs designed according to the AREA specifications and the ultimate strength
theory developed flexural tensile cracks when carrying full design loads, but the prestressed
slab did not.
7. Loads applied to the new slabs without a ballast curb and loaded eccentrically to
represent field loading conditions produced for individual slabs maximum stresses ranging
from 3 percent to 17 percent greater than the average across the slab.
8. The recorded concrete and steel stresses at design load in new slabs designed
according to the three different theories were approximately equal to or less than the
calculated stresses.
9. The distribution of tensile and compressive strains over the depth of the new slabs
was linear to near the ultimate load.
10. The stress distribution in the compression zone of the new slabs at ultimate load
is non-linear, and a rectangular shape of stress block as used in ultimate strength design
appears to be valid.
11. The concrete and stirrup reinforcement of the regular and ultimate strength design
slaibs did not share the total shear. No stirrup strains were recorded until diagonal tension
cracks developed, and then only those stirrups in the cracked area. The prestressed slab
did not develop diagonal tension cracks even at the ultimate load.
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 175
12. The ultimate capacity of the regular design slab which failed in shear was closely
predicted by using the theory developed in the Reinforced Concrete Research Council
Bulletin No. 6, "Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams."
13. The ultimate capacity of the ultimate strength slabs was closely predicted 'by
using the formulas recommended by the ASCE-ACI Joint Committee on Ultimate
Strength Design published in ASCE Proceedings Vol. 81.
14. The ultimate capacity of the prestressed slab as calculated according to the
preliminary report of the ASCE-ACI Joint Committee 323 was less than that recorded.
15. The regular design slab, the ultimate strength slab having the specified concrete
strength and the prestressed slab all carried approximately three times design load even
though all were designed according to different theories.
16. After the ultimate strength slab having the specified concrete strength had failed
at a load of 546,000 lb, it still was able to carry a load of 400,000 lb, or over twice its
design load.
17. The ultimate strength slab having the specified concrete strength failed in flexure
and had a steel area less than the "balanced ratio"; its ultimate load was governed by the
yield strain of the reinforcement.
18. The ultimate strength slab having a lower concrete strength than specified failed
in flexure and had a steel area more than the "balanced ratio"; its ultimate load was
governed by the ultimate compressive strength of the concrete.
19. The ultimate capacity of the prestressed slab was governed by the strain in the
strands.
20. The entire prestress force of the J^-in strands was transferred to the concrete
in a length of about 6 in, and there was no bond failure at ultimate load.
21. Representative values of the modulus of elasticity may be obtained either with
cores or cast cylinders.
22. Lateral and longitudinal strains of a cylinder in a compression test vary from
top to bottom, and the head and base of the test machine offer lateral restraint.
(All the tables and figures referred to in Part 1 of this report are presented on pages
176 to 215, incl. Part 2 begins on Page 216).
176
Investigation of Reinforc ed Concrete Bridge Slabs
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58 0.65
61 0.70
72 0.79
14 0.17
27 0.34
41 0.44
55 0.61
75 0.81
82 0.88
09 1.15
50 1.52
05 2.03
74 3.41
<
s
60 0.97
98 1.42
27 1.84
66 2.25
00 2.58
29 2.94
62 3.24
96 3.60
30 3.96
64 4.27
.88 4.56
.27 4.94
.04 1.38
.65 2.17
.12 2.69
.74 3.07
.31 3.89
.83 4.46
.96 5.57
.81 6.39
.08 1.47
.66 2.16
.29 2.83
.91 3.45
.45 4.00
.93 4.53
.55 5.14
d.14 5.67
5.66 6.24
?.30 6.84
7.93 7.47
3.75 8.24
2.69 2.38
4.23 3.90
5.76 5.33
7.50 7.04
6.84 8.37
0.60 10.00
3.20 12.60
6.90 15.40
8.30 17.20
21.60
0.05 0.1
0.15 0.1
0.21 0.1
0.25 0.2
0.30 0.2
0.33 0.2
0.40 0.3
0.41 0.3
0.43 0.3
0.46 0.3
0.50
0.53
0.13 O.O
0.23 0.1
0.30 0.1
0.37 0.5
0.42 o.;
0.48 0..
0.55 0.
0.60 0.
0.67 0.
0.15 0.
0.23 0.
0.31 0.
0.38 0.
0.43 0.
0.48 0.
0.53 0.
0.59 0.
0.66 0.
0.73 0.
0.78 0.
0.86 0.
0.20 0.
0.40 0.
0.47 0.
0.67 0.
0.87 0.
0.93 0.
1.20 1.
1.53 1
2.00 2
3.07 3
0.33 1
0.85 1
1.41 2
1.83 2
2.16 3
2.58 3
2.86 3
5.24 3
3.62 4
3.90 4
4.23 4
4.60 5
0.71 2
1.69 2
2.26 3
2.40 3
3.48 4
4.08 4
4.65
5.17
5.97
0.85
1.66
2.36
2.98
3.55
4.12
4.73
5.20
5.81
6.38
7.00
7.72
2.07
3.57
4.89
6.38
7.90
9.40 1
11.90 1
13.90
16.00
21.60
ll
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
000
100
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
200
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5150
ult.
3 a
100
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1800
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
51 5C
14
s s s °
u
5 S ■ 1 1
Investigation of Reinforced Concre te Bridge Slabs
177
6"- 6 ULTIMATE LOAD SLABS (Ul 8 U2)
6-6 REGULAR OESIGN SLAB (RD
6-6 PRESTRESSED SLAB (PI) I
178
Investigation of Reinf orced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 2
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
SLAB DETAILS AND LOCATION OF GAGES
SLABS 01 8 02
15-0 0. TO 0. SLAB
6'-0-J-
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
5± 6 4'-0
CROSS SECTION
7'-0
DRAIN HOLES
;ffi^
HANDLING BARS
HI20I
2'- 8
- DRAIN —e-
NOTCHES
4'-IO
4' -10
l5'-0
4'-0
2'- 8
£
22* ►
9± l'-6
20 '
r-4
f- 7 3±5± 3
«I3
412
I 2 3
888'
4 5
'XX'
67
'88'
89
'it
10 +
31-*
NO.
MARK
SIZE
LENGTH
6
S702
iD
II'- 6
12
S70I
3 c
1
14'- 6
5
S703
V
l5'-0
2
S403
i°
14'- 6
15
S40I
t°
6'- 6
15
S402
i°
2'-0
2
HI20I
li*
7'- 6
GAGE LOCATION AND NUMBER
(SECTION AT i OF SLAB)
NOTE:+ INDICATES GAGES ON SLAB 01 ONLY
• INDICATES GAGES ON SLAB 02 ONLY
SYMBOLS: & GAGES ON BARS
A GAGES ON CONCRETE
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
179
FIG. 3
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIOGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN CONCRETE
SLAB 01
<J00
100
t ULUMHIt LUUU
ULTIMATE LOAD
■30 2
.0005
.0010 0015 .0020
STRAIN IN INCHES/ INCH
.0025
SYMBOLS: o GAGE 10
• AVERAGE OF GAGES 16 TO 20 INCL.
GAGES 20 19
ie
17
l6y — i
■
if
L'iL
GAGE 10
SECTION AT 10F SLAB
180 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 4
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
SLAB 01
ULTIMATE LOAD
_^x^
--2.0 <£
-f«= 12,100 PSI
CALCULATED
.0010 .0015 .0020
STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH
.0025
90
80
60
50
5>
* 40
z
£ 30
U
IK
to 20
10
0
- ULTIMATf
: STRESS ■ 83.9 KSI
— f
.0 POINT ■ 50.0 KSI
GAGES I 23 45 67 89
SECTION AT L OF SLAB
SYMBOL: • AVERAGE OF GAGES I TO 9 INCL.
.002 .004 .006 .008 .010 .012 .014 .016
STRAIN IN INCHES/ INCH
TENSION TEST OF
REINFORCING BAR
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
181
DESIGN LOAD RATIO
og <
?° H CO
g Si
LOAD IN KIPS
DESIGN LOAD RATIO
o *
_S£
CEI-
LOAD IN KIPS
182
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
LABORATORY
RECORDED
FIG 6
INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAO
STRAINS IN
SLAB 02
BRIDGE SLABS
CONCRETE
400
100
ULTIMATE LOAD
-•4 5
-•3.0
2.5 o
--I.0
■-0.5
0 .0008 .0016 .0024 .0032
STRAIN IN INCHES/lNCH
.0048
GAGES 20
SYMBOLS
GAG€ 10
AVERAGE OF GAGES 16 TO 20 INCL.
GAGE 10
SECTION AT t OF SLAB
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 183
FIG. 7
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
SLAB 02
300
ff = 12,100 PSI
I
CALCULATED
v -ULTIMATE LOAD
0020 0030 0040
' STRAIN IN INCHES / INCH
--30 2
80
70
60
- 50
in
x
? 40
in
in
ff 30
t-
tn
20
10
0
-T ~
1
-ULTIMATE STRESS =75 4 KSI
"— t
~^y7elD POINT = 46 6 KSI
!» ft M M
GAGES 123 45 67 89
SECTION AT «. OF SLAB
SYMBOL • AVERAGE OF GAGES I TO 9 INCL
0 002 004 006 008 010 012 014 016
STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH
TENSION TEST OF
REINFORCING BAR
184
Investigation of Reinforced Cone rete Bridge Slabs
OESIGN LOAD RATIO
o <
od V)
-J <
™«)2
O Ift
z
o — <o
? 3
O
Z W
00 o UJ
d p o
IC
oo ZO
.u. o
"SO r:CD
z ^"* _J
o UJW o
h- _J in
< u.
2 UJ
2 Q
LOAD IN KIPS
DESIGN LOAD RATIO
LOAD IN KIPS
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 185
FIG 9
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
VERTICAL STRAIN DISTRIBUTION
SLABS 01 a 02
WEST
«
«. LOAD
»
GAGES
■/
SLAB
01
9a
SECTION AT
t OF
SLAB
AVER.
13 815
12
//,
//
f
II
<
400/
//
//
4
>i\
i-
370
270
ISO 90
KIPS
♦ 0016 +.0012 +.0008 +.0004 0 -.0004 -.0008
STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH
20
1
GAGES 15^
/
21 H
22 ►
1
SLAB
02
9
5
«I3
«I2
41 I
SECTION AT L OF SLAB
20
21
/ z'
f or
/
//
/ /
• /
' /
/ /
400
360
270
90
KIPS
AVER.
13 a 15
12
f
/
l
10
u
A
4
400/
i
360
270
90
KIPS
+ 0016 *00I2 +0008 +.0004 0 -.0004 -.0008 *00I6 *00I2 ♦0008*0004 0 -0004 -0008
STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH STRAIN IN INCHES/lNCM
186
Investigation of Reinf orced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 10
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
SLAB DETAILS AND LOCATION OF GAGES
SLAB Rl
9-6
SYMMETRICAL
ABOUT t
8-SI00I ]
8-SI002I
3® 12= 3'-0
2®8 = l'-4 2®6=l'-0
18-0 C TO C BEARINGS
19'- 0 0 TO 0 SLAB
ALT SI002
SIOOI
HALF LONGITUDINAL SECTION
L BRIDGE 8 TRACK
4-6
5'-0
5-0
4'-6
t BRIDGE
a TRACK 7
?
id
"ro
ifl
*
f
\
"ro
/
'\
/
- HANDLING
HI 101
-6
BARS ^
9-6
STIRRUP
S403
9'
19-0 0. TO
0 SLAB
-,
CROSS SECTION
I'-Z I'-ll l'-7
NO
MARK
SIZE
LENGTH
8
SIOOI
* 10
18'- 8
8
SI002
* 10
2l'-0
2
HI 101
» 1!
7'-IO
6
S40I
* 4
18-8
30
S402
• 4
6'- 2
20
S403
• 4
ll'-6
SYMBOLS a GAGES ON BARS
» GAGES ON CONCRETE
♦ MONAFORE STRESS GAGES
6AGE LOCATION AND NUMBER
(SECTION AT L OF SLAB)
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 187
FIG II
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
CRACK PATTERNS
SLAB Rl - WEST SIDE
FIRST CRACK - 120 KIPS
'ill
DESIGN LOAD - ISO KIPS
A
»-.)./ i\ ttAVi\\
2 x DESIGN LOAD - 360 KIPS
__L
i
//Ytif
&
Nas.
um
)\^\
3k DESIGN LOAD - 540 KIPS
ULTIMATE LOAD - 556 KIPS
188 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG 12
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN CONCRETE
SLAB Rl
200
CALCULATED
CRACKED
SECTION
GAGES 14-IE
r-ULI IMAI t LUAU
0010 0015 0020
STRAIN IN INCHES/ INCH
-■20 t
40
/I 1
L\'z .4.99 KSI
F
z
^E, = 3,000,000 PS 1
//
0 0004 0008 0012 .0016 0020 0024
STRAIN IN INCHES? INCH
TEST CYLINDER
L LOAD
17 I 16 15
GAGES 9 10 II
SECTION AT t OF SLAB
SYMBOLS:
o AVERAGE Of GAGES 9 TO II INCL
• AVERAGE OF GAGES WTO 18 INCL
■ 6X 12 CYLINDER
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG 13
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
SLAB Rl
0
0
l- ULTIMATE LOAD
0^
i °0/
0 •
•
°l •
0 .
Oot»
^
0 •
0 •
V
If)
a.
o
m
0
0
0 •
cP f
•
•
0
e
0
•
-■
0
o*1
O 4>
O •
O •
>
, ^CH
LCULATED
1
--
o
o
0 •
0 • /
• /
— fc - 17
1
970 PSI
^ 's " ' '•
o»
0» /
°* /
0»/
-- I 0
0010 0015 0020
STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH
NOTE GAGES IA,3A,4A,a 8A ARE
l'-6i FROM <. SPAN AND WERE
PLACED BEFORE CASTING
SYMBOLS • AVERAGE OF GAGES I TO 8 INCL
O AVERAGE OF GAGES IA,3A,4A,S 8A
LA4* "U""tr'8tJ
GAGES 12 3 4 5 6 7 8
IA 3A4A 8A
SECTION AT t OF SLAB
190
Investigation of Reinforced Con crete Bridge Slabs
DESIGN LOAD RATIO
Q <
5 Q-
m CO
o
d <
* T* —
"„. o*
r° H m
2 U)
> o
? UJ
a
£ O
H
H
1 1
— i — |
H 1
\
», ____
==2£i:
==S="
^^1
Sgsg
i^S-=-=
_l
CVJ 1.
LOAD IN KIPS
DESIGN LOAD RATIO
H
h
1 —
— i 1
^ 1
I
1
^^
^Z-.
■
"^=~£!
~S£:
^s£|
B=!E
55S
* <r>
CO UJ
I
o
z
UJ
o
*»z
o
z
H
(0 O
01
UJ
o
*
LOAD IN KIPS
Investigation of Reinforced Concr ete Bridge Slabs
191
FIG. 15
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
VERTICAL STRESS 8 STRAIN DISTRIBUTION
SLAB Rl
SECTION AT t OF SLAB
AVER.
16 8 17
•0014 +.0007 0 -.0007 -.0014
STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH
WEST SIDE
AVER.
3 84
I///
^^
"^530
w
530/
V/
i
1 ///
n\
500/
%
7
450
360
180 90
KIPS
■0021 +.0014 +.0007 0 -.0007 -.0014 -.0021
STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH
EAST SIDE
/
1//
'/
'/
¥
A
<' i
y
>i\
//36C
450 27C
180 90
KIPS
AVER.
3 a 4
530-1
\w\\y
ilif
/
/450/
y/
f /
500
360
270
180
90
KIPS
■0014 +.0007 0 -.0007 -.0014 -.0021
STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH
i OF LOAO
►30 *20 "10
STRESS IN KSI
t OF LOAD
192 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 16
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN STIRRUPS
SLAB Rl
t OF BEARINGS
2-7
4-t
-±^h^
ELEVATION
w\
GAGES I 2 3
TYPICAL SECTION AT STIRRUP
GAGES
SECTION A
5 ♦. 00020
^360
2 3
GAGES
SECTION 8
5 '.000051
GAGES
SECTION C
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG 17
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
SLAB DETAILS AND LOCATION OF GAGES
SLABS Ul a U2
- SYMMETRICAL
ABOUT t
4'- 3
DOUBLE •
STIRRUPS
S502
S503
ALT SII03
SI 101
8*
2 9
'-4=2'-8 10 9 7
5'
10
3^
l8'-0 C. TO C. BEARINGS
. Ui
19'- 0 0. TO 0. SLAB
II* I'-lf
HALF LONGITUDINAL SECTION
r-i£ c-8i
«. BRIDGE 8 TRACK
3 4'- 6
«. BRIDGE
8 TRACK
S502 T
T
CROSS SECTION
I'- 6 I'- 7
I' -6
9'- 6 9'- 6
19'- 0 0 TOO SLAB
PLAN
NO
MARK
SIZE
LENGTH
9
SI 101
" II
l8'-8
4
SI 102
"ll
10'- 6
16
S50 2
B 5
14"- 9
14
S503
" 5
14' -9
6
S504
"5
iar-8
16
S404
" a
6-2
8
S 1 103
" 1 1
21-4
2
HI 103
"II
6" -8
f- 3 NOTE
GAGE LOCATION AND NUMBER
(SECTION AT <. OF SLAB)
INDICATES GAGES ON SLAB Ul ONLY
INDICATES GAGES ON SLAB U2 ONLY
SYMBOLS: a GAGES ON BARS
A GAGES ON CONCRETE
♦ MONAFORE STRESS GAGES
194
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
CD
<
c/>
O
Q
cr
CD
Q UJ
<UJtn
??o <>
6 z |
o qt "J
(/) — I
UJ (0
>
>
cr
o
<
cr
o
CD
<
y^
XL
O
<
cr
o
co
cr
>
— c
N
V
to
0-
O
00
<
o
z
o
</>
Ml
Q
— o
</
Q.
O
(0
<
O
<
s
I-
_l
3
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 1QS
FIG 19
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN CONCRETE
SLAB Ul
■■2.5
CALCULATED
UNCRACKED
SECTION
-GAGES 10-12
-GAGES 15-19
ULTIMATE LOAD
CALCULATED
CRACKED
SECTION
GAGES 15-19
.0010 .0015 0020
STRAIN IN INCHEs/lNCH
. i
■
f'c= 2.14 KSI.
5
V i
5
.
U
. o<bx
]
0
• ^"*
r c
a
<
m
^ n
!
oU
0
s
jf a
$_LOAD
GAGES 19 IB I 17 16 15
GAGES 10 II 12
SECTION AT t OF SLAB
SYMBOLS: o AVERAGE OF GAGES 10 TO 12 INCL
. AVERAGE OF GAGES 15 TO 19 INCL
a 18 x36 CYLINDERS
■ 6 x 12 CYLINDERS
0002 0004 0006 0008 0010 0012
STRAIN IN INCHES/lNCH
TEST CYLINDERS
I Oh
[ n v e s 1 3 g a t ion <> I R einforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 20
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
SLAB Ul
ULTIMATE LOAD
O —
.0010 .0015 .0020
STRAIN IN INCHES / INCH
.0025
Z. 40
T
U
LTIMA
TE. SI
RESS
■94.8
KSI
/
"Z
/
^-YIELD POINT* 57.3 KSI
/
/
/
1L0AD
GAGES 123456 789
IA 5A 9A
SECTION AT <fc_ OF SLAB
NOTE: GAGES IA.5A a 9A ARE I'-O
SOUTH OF lfc_ SPAN AND WERE
PLACED BEFORE CASTING
SYMBOLS o AVERAGE OF GAGES IA.5A ft 9A
0 .002 .004 .006 .008 .010 .012 .014 .016 • AVERAGE OF GAGES I TO 9 INCL.
STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH
TENSION TEST OF
REINFORCING BAR
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
1Q7
DESIGN LOAD RATIO
o Z
9 <
£ °-
m en
H
h
1
1 — 1 —
rH
r
N^
^
>* X
^
^^ ^
0<
oO — m
2o
o uj
P _i
g u-
s °
- UJ
Q
° O
§ui
CD
LOAD IN KIPS
DESIGN LOAD RATIO
rH
H
1 — 1 —
1— 1 —
rl
V
. \
\ >
\s
v. V-
\
V
*
^
v. >
^^^
o </>
p *
LOAO IN KIPS
ION
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 22
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
VERTICAL STRESS & STRAIN DISTRIBUTION
SLAB Ul
SECTION AT <£_ OF SLAB
'1
/
/
/'/
T
'/
/
/ /
4
f
/
360 270
180 90
KIPS
+.0016 +0008 0 -0008 -0016 -.0024 -.0032 +0016 +.0008 0 -.0008 -.0016 -.0024 -.0032
STRAIN IN INCHES/ INCH STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH
AVER. WEST SIDE EAST SIDE
17 8 18
/
M
V
4
3%
f\
270
180 90
KIPS
22
\
23
/
1
l|-
!«
6
/
1_
360
270
180
90 KIPS
I
+.00I6 +.0008 0 -.0008 -.0016 -.0024 -.0032
STRAIN IN INCHES/ INCH
t OF LOAD
+24 +16 +8
STRESS IN KSI
t OF LOAD
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 1Q<)
FIG. 23
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIOGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN STIRRUPS
SLAB Ul
ELEVATION
£ OF BEARINGS
2-8
I' -6
A B
A B
LTLn_n4
GAGES I 2 3
TYPICAL SECTION AT STIRRUP
►.OOOI
'i +.0002
5 +.0003
♦0005
+0002
<i +0003
180 r^?TO
GAGES
SECTION B
200 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 24
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
CRACK PATTERNS
SLAB U2- WEST SIDE
FIRST CRACK -80 KIPS
/ ) / i , f \ />M\\
DESIGN LOAD - 180 KIPS
<(C(\ht\\\ n\
2 x DESIGN LOAD -360 KIPS
( ( ( (A \ ill
3*DESIGN LOAD -540 KIPS
A
r£=^
ccicn h/)\\ Vh>OV)
ULTIMATE LOAD - 546 KIPS
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 201
FIG 25
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN CONCRETE
SLAB U2
r
LTIMATE
1
LOAD
CALCULATED
UNCRACKED
SECTION
1 GAGES 10-12
r- GAGES 15-19
•
•
i
•
/
•
»
t
0
•
1
0
/•••'
c
0
o
o
1 •
c
• o
CALCULATED
CRACKED
SECTION
~"-~- GAGES 15-19
w_
>" v-— .
.0010 0015 .0020
STRAIN IN INCHES/ INCH
' -r
UJ
-4
ii i i/ i
i— f c • 4.60 KSI
D
/--
'u
/
■
3
W?
■/
D
/
>
a
^°
v
4 I
c
\
A
V
n
fa
3
/,
GAGES 19
i
i LOAD
19
18
17
16
15
I
w
»
GAGES 10 M 12
SECTION AT t. OF SLAB
SYMBOLS o AVERAGE OF GAGES 10 TO 12 INCL
. AVERAGE OF GAGES 15 TO 1 9 INCL
D 18 » 36 CYLINDER
■ 6 « 12 CYLINDER
0 .0002 0004 0006 0008 0010 .0012
STRAIN IN INCHES /INCH
TEST CYLINDERS
202
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 26
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
SLAB U2
,— ULTIMATE LOAD
0
c
c
> )
•
•
•
o*
0
0
0
0
•
• 0
• 0
3
i*P
• 0
• 0
3
a.
0
0
en
/
•
«o
)
■
0
0
0
"
(
a
» /
K
n
D
D
D
n
^"^CALCULATED
a
<* /
a /
a /
0/
■■ 1.5 z
.0005
3 .0015 .0020
STRAIN IN INCHES / INCH
0
0030
100
90
60
- 50
co
Z 40
co
co 30
UJ
<r
to 20
10
-
^ULTIMATE STRESS = 94.4 KSI
^
t
"r5^
— — -
i_^
V- YIELD POINT = 53.1 KSI
LOAD
.002 .004- .006 .008 .010 .012 .014 .016
STRAIN IN INCHES / INCH
TENSION TEST OF
REINFORCING BAR
GAGES 123456 789
IA 5A 9A
SECTION AT £ OF SLAB
NOTE : GAGES IA.5A 8 9A ARE I -0
SOUTH OF $. SPAN AND WERE
PLACED BEFORE CASTING
SYMBOLS: o AVERAGE OF GAGES IA, 5AS9A
• AVERAGE OF GAGES I TO 9 INCL.
Investigation of Reinf orccd Concrete Bridge Slabs
2CB
DESIGN LOAD RATIO
5 in
H
V-
1 —
— 1
-1
^^
^
-^
""-■"^
^
H CO
O <
UJ — '
_i <"
LU
O
o o o
in o m
PO ro (M
LOAD IN KIPS
DESIGN LOAD RATIO
1 1 M 1 I
_J^^_
5 uj
» o «/>
O r Ul
o *
-i
^ I < Lt
ui u
a 4
:
LOAD IN KIPS
204 Investigation of Reinf orced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 28
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
COMPARISON OF STRAINS IN LONGITUDINAL BARS IN CONTACT
SLAB
Ul
IB
5B
9B
5A 9A
SECTION AT t OF SLAB
MO
540
540
450
450
360
en
0.
£
- 270
450
360
M
Q.
2
? 270
270
/
•
,'to
SB
4
•
''5A
/9B
,-'9A
/
/
ieo
90
/
•
•
o
o
180
90
/
/
/
a
q
180
90
/
/ /
/ /
/
/ /
/
t
f
/ ,
/ /
/
/ /
1 /
1 /
It
0
/ /
//
It
0
/ /
It
0
.0004 .0008 .0012 .0016
STRAIN IN INCHES / INCH
.0004 .0008 .0012 .0016
STRAIN IN INCHES /INCH
0 .0004 .0008 .0012 .0016
STRAIN IN INCHES /INCH
NOTE: GAGES ARE I'-O SOUTH OF £ SLAB
360
I
2 270
o
180
SLAB
U2
IB
5B
9B
IA 3A 9A
SECTION AT t OF SLAB
/
/a
/
' /
/.
/
/ /
/
/
/
/ /
/ /
If
1/
/5B
«^ /
/
/5A
/
/
t
/
f
/ t
/ 1
/
/
/
/
/
/ /
/ /
/ /
//
It
jl
/9B
* 1
I
/9A
/
/
/
t
/ /
/
/
1 /
t
t
I
/ /
/ /
/ /
It
If
It
ll
0 .0004 .0008 .0012 .0016 0 0004 .0008 .0012 .0016 0 .0004 .0008 .0012 .0016
STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH STRAIN IN INCHES / INCH STRAIN IN INCHES / INCH
NOTE: GAGES ARE I'-O SOUTH OF (t SLAB
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete B r i d i: r Slabs
FIG. 29
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN STIRRUPS
SLAB U2
1 OF BEARINGS
2-8
- A
1-7
A B Q.
ELEVATION
-0003
5 +0003
z +0006
5 +.0009
J J J
'LTkTUl
GAGES I 2 3
TYPICAL SECTION AT STIRRUP
90 KIPS
\ 1 80
r 1270
T-360~ ^ ' ^'
- — -^^50 ^^
\
\
\
\
54CJ.^'"
GAGES
SECTION C
5 +0003
190 KIPS
180
, 1 270
1
1 360 ^______ "
s
\
X
\
540 ^^"
v
>'
'"
2 +.0003
5 +0009
GAGES
SECTION B
206
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG 30
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAO BRIDGE SLABS
SLAB DETAILS AND LOCATION OF GAGES
SLAB PI
- SYMMETRICAL
ABOUT i.
^
*■ — A
RR
„ -jr* STRAND
(7 WIRE)
4 0 2'-0- 8'"0
l8'-0 C. TO C. BEARINGS
l9'-0 0. TO 0. SLAE
D
HALF L0N6ITUDINAL SECTION
6 9l'-0-6'-0
t. BRIDGE a TRACK
t BRIDGE
a TRACK
"^ V- { ♦*STRAN0,"(7 WIRE )*
S5oA
20 9 3j- 5'- 10
CM
6 - 6
HANDLING BARS
HII02
I9'"0 0. TO 0 SLAB
CROSS SECTION
PLAN
2
-7
1
-6
-6
'-6 2
19
1-8
17
lie
15
21 »
22 ►
23 »
24»
1
• 1
2
3
iibl
4
-6*
5
6
l'-4^
'-5
7
r
• 1;
GAGE LOCATION AND NUMBER
(SECTION AT t_ OF SLAB)
NO.
MARK
SIZE
LENGTH
26
S50I
" 5
7'- 6
4
HII02
"\ 1
6'- 6
7
S30I
n 3
18'- 6
61
| STRAND (7 WIRE),
ULT. STRENGTH
- 240,000 PSI
SYMBOLS: a GAGES ON STRANDS
a GAGES ON CONCRETE
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 207
FIG. 31
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
CRACK PATTERNS
SLAB PI - WEST SIDE
DESIGN LOAD - 180 KIPS
I
FIRST CRACK -255 KIPS
I
mi r m \ \\) \ \
2 x DESIGN LOAD- 360 KIPS
n
3x DESIGN LOAD - 540 KIPS
ULTIMATE LOAD- 576 KIPS
208 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 32
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN CONCRETE
SLAB PI
400
ULTIMATE LOAD —
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
•
<
•
• •
•
•
a
0
I
D
£
e>
■
f
^^ CALCULATED
§
(UNCRACKED SECTION)
/
1
2.5
.0010 .0015 .0020
STRAIN IN INCHES / INCH
I
I LOAD
GAGES
19
18
17
16
15
T
T
T
GAGES
4 5 6 7 8
SECTION AT t OF SLAB
SYMBOLS: o AVERAGE OF GAGES 4 TO 8 INCL.
• AVERAGE OF GAGES 15 TO 19 INCL.
. 6 X |2 CYLINDER
.0001 .0002 .0003 .0004 .0005 .0006
STRAIN IN INCHES /INCH
TEST CYLINDERS
I nvestigation of Reinforc ed Concrete Bridge Slabs 209
FIG. 33
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED STRAINS IN LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
SLAB PI
ULTIMATE LOAD — *
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
to
o
n
<
i
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
••
>
•
•
••
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1 - CALCULATED
!(UNCRACKED SECTION)
f"=l4,600PSI
0040 0060 .0080
STRAIN IN INCHES / INCH
280
240
200
160
/ultimate load
'per strand
SINGLE WIRE
• f„H =24 2 KSI
1 E =29,400,000 PS 1
i
STRAND (7WIRE)
■ E ■ 2
5,700,0
30PSI
$_ LOAD
I 2 3
SECTION AT t OF SLAB
SYMBOLS: • AVERAGE 0<- GmGCS 1.2 6 3
0 .002 004 .006 008 010 012
STRAIN IN INCHES / INCH
TENSION TESTS OF
REINFORCING STRAND
210
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
DESIGN LOAD RATIO
a. Q.
CD (f)
\ ^
\ \
\ \
\ v.
\ ^
\
\ ~~"~- ^v
X ""' — -^ """•
O
I— GO
o<
LlJ — I
LOAD IN KIPS
DESIGN LOAD RATIO
r-t
1 (-
1 1 —
1 — i
r-i
\
\
\
V**v
^.^
*■".„;
^
.
^^
^
"-•^
S>-^
~~— -..
"~^
\
^
"S^
==lc=:;=c;
=^=^
H"^~-
IT^
■$^C
LOAD IN KIPS
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge S I .-i I > -
FIG 35
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAO BRIDGE SLABS
VERTICAL STRAIN DISTRIBUTION
SLABS PI a U2
i
IGES 19 <L LOAD 15
-0007 0 -0007 -0014 -.0021 -.0028 +.00M +0007 0 -.0007 "0014 -002I
STRAIN IN INCHES /INCH STRAIN IN INCHES /INCH
WEST SIDE EAST SIDE
t LOAD
TOP OF SLAB-
SECTION AT fc_ OF SLAB
15
TOP OF SLAB,
+0021 +0014 +0007 0 -.0007 -0014 -0021
STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH
WEST SIDE
+0021 +0014 +.0007 0 -.0007 -0014 -0021
STRAIN IN INCHES INCH
EAST SIDE
212 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
_i in
in uj
o
Q
E^
m UJ
Q
o Z
°i
-J o
<
roO <
= gui
< (T
o o
i- O
co
oa.
o
o
f-
AN
%
^
6°>
f* i N
CO
CL
o
CO
N
<
>*v
v ^
>0°h
0
%N
1
CO <^
or Q (_
LlJ (XI CO
Q ro UJ
f 10 UJ
CO
0-
o
CM
s
V-
\
c^N
e*,
*>*
<«.
iu>-
UJ
53
^
w>3
cccd
(T
LUrr
_IZ
=Shi
>-<(
COu.
uH,
P
IS* Nl SS3H1S 3AISS3ddlM03
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
213
u.o
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
30
2.0
1.0
0
6.0
4.0
3.0
z 2.0
X
1 L5
K
<" 1.0
FIG. 37
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
ULTIMATE STRENGTH - TIME CURVES
FOR 6"x 12" TEST CYLINDERS
1
1
1
1
I
T" '
A
f
1
|
|
|
I
1
\
0 !
> 7 l(
) 14 15 20 25 28 30 35
AGE IN DAYS
SLAB PI
I -
I
2 YEARS
1
1
1
|
V
S\
4
/
/
1
0 5 7 10 14 15 20 25 28 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
AGE IN DAYS
SLAB Rl
_1—
V-"
5 7 10 14 15 20 25 28 30 35 40 45 50
AGE IN DAYS
SLAB Ul
50
I
1
1
1
|
1
1
1
4.0
1
1
2.0
1.0
n
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
14 15 20
AGE IN DAYS
SLAB U2
25
28 30
35
214 Investigation of Reinforced C oncrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 38
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
VARIATION OF LATERAL AND LONGITUDINAL STRAINS IN CYLINDERS
note: for location of GAGES SEE FIG. 39
\
\
i
1
1
\
\
i
1
1
!
1
z
i
1
o
i
1
H
i
l/> -
i
J
Q.
tn
\
i
/
r
l
•x.
C/> 1
m
/
* i
*
/
e>
O
i
91
m
/
-
A
:«/
"s
/
I
i
1
i
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
A
-4-
\—
— V
O -0.0002 -0.0004 -0.0006
LONGITUDINAL STRAIN IN INCHES/ INCH
£C
m
n \
\ \ \
-w
1 1
I L
rjJ
II /
1 1 f
1 1/
Nj
Mi
55
o
m
d
lll
III
III
III
Ml
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006
LATERAL STRAIN IN INCHES / INCH
CYLINDER NO. 31 (6"xl2")
f
1
1
1
i
i
1
l
I
1
1
1
1
s
I
\
\
1
\
i
Y
1
l
ID
XL
i
en
1
en 1
\n
*
* i
O
i
i
q
I
in 1
-°
i
A
i
f-l
1
L--
i
i
1
^
\
\
\
\
\
i
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
A
4—
■)
4—
/ 1
i /
I I /
mi
ii i
H i
IN
HI
II I
III
HI
III
JUUL
1
1
i
S
in
o
in
d
0 -0.0002 -0.0004 -0.0006
LONGITUDINAL STRAIN IN INCHES/INCH
0.0002 0.0004 0.0006
LATERAL STRAIN IN INCHES/ INCH
CYLINDER NO. 4 (I8"x36")
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge S I .1 I. - 215
FIG. 39
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
VARIATION OF THE LATERAL- LONGITUDINAL STRAIN RATIO
LOCATION OF GAGES
I '-6
C_
BOTTOM
SYMBOL:— I PERPENDICULAR
PAIRS OF SR4
ELECTRIC STRAIN GAGES.
(j)
1-
6
J.C
6
C
FJ
to
rl
10
bL
0>
1-
Al 1
<r>
BOTTOM
CYLINDER NO. 4 ( 18 X 36)
A"
ro
C _}
to
OJ
OJ
E 1
F
00
r\
(M
ro
Bl-
Al-
lO
-
I c
CYLINDER NO 31 (6X12)
VARIATION ALONG CYLINDER LENGTH
\
\
1
/
/
/
t
f
1
1
1
1
J
1
/
/
/
(- —
1
\
i
V
z
o
1
i-
I
</>
i
o
i
1x1
r
i
<
l
i
i
1
1
t
1
A
-4-
.05 10 .15 20 25
£l»t/6long
18*36 CYLINDER
.10 .15 20 .25
Clat / Clong
6 x 12 CYLINDER
216 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
Part 2 — Field Investigation of Reinforced Concrete
Railway Bridge Slabs
A. DIGEST
This report contains a description and analysis of tests made on two reinforced con-
crete spans. One of the spans contains two 20-ft pretensioned, prestressed slabs and the
other two 16-ft slabs of regular design. The tests were made under diesel locomotives
operating over a complete range of speeds from 5 to 84 mph. The purposes of the tests
were (1) To compare the dynamic effect of diesel locomotive loading on prestressed
concrete slabs with the results obtained in the laboratory on similar slabs loaded statically,
and (2) to compare the dynamic effects of diesel locomotive loading on the prestressed
slabs and on slabs of regular design.
The strains were measured by means of wire resistance strain gages with oscillograph
recordings and data were obtained in various parts of the slabs as follows:
Top of the curbs at center of span.
Top of the slabs at center of span.
Bottom of the slabs at center o>f span.
Reinforcement in bottom of slab at center of span on the regular design slab only.
Deflection of slabs at center of span.
The data secured during these tests were analyzed for the purpose of determining
the static strains, maximum strains, total impact effects and deflections. A brief summary
of the data follows:
1. The recorded static strains in the concrete and reinforcement of the regular design
slabs varied from 20 percent to 38 percent of the calculated strains on a cracked section
(see Table A) .
2. The recorded static strains in the concrete of the prestressed slabs varied from
70 percent to 88 percent of the calculated strains (see Table C) .
3. The maximum strains for speeds up to 84 mph are shown on Figs. 6 to 10, incl.
No maximum strain exceeded the calculated maximum.
4. There was some increase in strain with an increase in speed.
5. The total impacts for speeds up to SO mph are shown on Figs. 11 to 15, incl. The
maximum impact recorded on the regular design slab was 30 percent and on the pre-
stressed slab, 10 percent.
6. The recorded static deflection of the regular slab was 60 percent of the calculated
deflection and for the prestressed slab, 94 percent of the calculated deflection.
7. The maximum deflections are shown on Fig. 16, no recorded values exceeded the
calculated values.
8. The camber of the prestressed slab has increased slightly since it was erected.
B. FOREWORD
The assignments of Committee 30 include stresses and impacts in concrete structures.
Toward the fulfillment of these assignments the AAR research staff conducted tests on
two concrete slab spans in a recently constructed bridge of the CB&Q Railroad at Hunne-
well, Mo. One of these spans contains two prestressed concrete slabs. A prestressed slab
similar to that used in this bridge had been tested in the laboratory, and the results of
the tests on this slab appears in Part 1 of this report. The laboratory tests were under
static loading only, and these field tests were made in order to obtain data on dynamic
Investigation of Reinforced Concret e Bridge Slabs 217
General view of bridge showing regular design slab at left and
prestressed slab at right.
loading. An opportunity was also afforded to compare regular design slabs with pre-
stressed design 9labs since they were placed in adjacent spans. Consequently, dynamic
tests were also made on the regular design slabs.
The concrete bridge tests analyzed in this report were conducted for AREA Com-
mittee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses, and were carried out under the direction of G. M.
Magee, Director of Engineering Research, Association of American Railroads. The funds
necessary for the tests were provided by the AAR.
The conduct of the tests, analysis of data and preparation of this report were under
the direction of E. J. Ruble, research engineer structures, AAR, assisted in the office by
W. J. Murphy, assistant research engineer structures and in the field by F. P. Drew,
assistant research engineer structures. This report was prepared by Mr. Dim
C. TEST SPANS AM) LOCATIONS OF CAGES
The two test spans are located in the weal approach of bridge No. 38.64 on the
CB&Q Railroad, Hannibal Div&ion, 00 tin- line from Hannibal to St. Joseph, Mo. This
bridge was constructed in 1Q54 on a relocated section of track 1.85 miles wesl oi
Hunnewell.
A plan and elevation of tbi> bridge are shown on Fig. l The bridge is supported on
concrete piles with cast-in-place concrete cap- The easl approach consists ol one 16-ft
and one 20-ft standard slab span. The main -pan is a J8-ft 9J^-in skewed through plate
girder span with a timber ballasted deck. The west approach consists of one 16-ft
218 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
standard slab span and the 20-ft prestressed slab span. Each slab was set on a bearing
of cement mortar J^ in thick, with a sheet of zinc separating the slab and the mortar bed.
The track is tangent across the bridge on a descending grade westward. The track ties
supporting the 112-lb rail rest on about 4 in of ballast on the prestressed slabs and about
3 in of ballast on the regular slabs.
The 20-ft prestressed concrete slabs were constructed in 1953 at the casting yard
of Prestressed Concrete of Colorado, Denver, at the same time the laboratory test slab,
Pi, was constructed. The test slab, as previously described in Part I of this report, was
o ft 6 in wide, 19 ft long and was constructed to a uniform depth of 18 in without a
ballast-retaining curb. It was necessary to make slight modifications in the dimensions
of the laboratory slab to comply with the established dimensions of the bridge where
the slabs were to be used. Accordingly, the bridge slabs were made 7 ft 0 in wide, 20 ft
0 in long and nominally 18 in thick. As shown on Fig. 3, the slabs were constructed
with a curb and two drains as well as other features to correspond to the Burlington's
standards. The concrete and the reinforcement were identical to the slab tested in the
laboratory. Three 6- by 12-in cylinders that had been cast with the slabs were tested at
the time the field tests were made. The ultimate compressive strengths of these cylinders
were 8850, 8950 and 9810 psi for an average of 9200 psi. The modulus of elasticity as
determined from the recorded strains was 5,000,000 psi.
The 16-ft slabs were cast in the Burlington's casting yard at Havelock, Nebr., in
1953. Details of these slabs are shown on Fig. 2. There were no cylinders from these
slaJbs available for testing when the field tests were made, but a conservative estimate
for the ultimate compressive strength would be 3000 psi, and undoubtedly the actual /'t-
would be higher. On this basis the modulus of elasticity could conservatively be estimated
at 3,000,000 psi.
SR-4 wire resistance strain gages were placed on the top, bottom and curb sides of
the prestressed slabs and on the top and bottom of the regular slabs, as shown on Fig. 4.
In addition to gages placed on concrete surfaces of the regular slabs, the concrete cover
was cut away to expose several reinforcement bars on which SR-4 gages were placed.
On the concrete surfaces 6-in gages were used, but %-in gages were used on the reinforce-
ment. To place gages on the top surfaces of the slabs it was necessary to remove the
ballast in one crib down to the top of slab. Bulkheads were installed to keep the ballast
away from the gage location. All gages placed on these slabs were approximately at the
center of span.
D. TEST EQUIPMENT
The response from the SR-4 strain gages was amplified and recorded on two 12-
channel oscillographs. This is the same equipment that has been used on previous field
tests and is completely described in AREA Proceedings, Vol. 52, 1951, page 152.
The sensitivity of each gage was established before the test began, and each channel
was carefully calibrated. A sensitivity was used that would produce a 1-in deflection of
the trace on the oscillogram equal to a stress in the steel of 2000 psi. A check of the
calibration of each channel was made after each run by offsetting the trace by a known
resistance and comparing this calibration offset with the offset used in the original calibra-
tion. A correction was then made, if necessary, to the gage sensitivity as indicated by this
calibration check.
The calibration was based on steel having a modulus of elasticity of 30,000,000 psi.
When a gage is placed on material with a modulus other than this, the gage sensitivity
will be changed in proportion to the modulus ratio. If the modulus of elasticity of the
concrete is assumed 3,000,000 psi, the gage sensitivity is
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
3,000,000
2000xJo^ooo = 20011-1
Hence, l in-trace deflection of either tin- steel or concrete esponds to ;i strain ol
2,000 200
30.000,000 3,000,000 = °0000667 in Per '"
Test Locomotives
The general procedure in the conduct of this test was to record for one week all
regular trains that passed over the regular slabs, at their normal speed. At the end of this
period a special test train was used to secure slow speed (static) runs and runs at other
speeds not obtained under regular operation. This procedure made it possible to secure
a complete range of speeds from S to 84 mph. A similar procedure was followed for the
prestressed slab.
The regular passenger trains were recorded at speeds of 57 to S4 mph and the regulai
freight trains, exclusive of the special test train, were recorded at speeds of 41 to 65 mph.
The various classes of diesel locomotives which were used in this test are shown
diagrammatically with their axle weights on Fig. 5.
Diesel Locomotive — 6000 Hp — Nos. 116-136
These locomotives with two-axle trucks are used in freight service. Their rating based
on moment at the center of the 16-ft slabs is E 36.4 and on the 20 ft slabs is 32.8.
Diesel Locomotive — 4050 Hp — Nos. 150-159
These locomotives with two axles per truck are used in freight service and rate I
for moment at the center of 16-ft slabs and E 35.5 on the 20-ft slabs.
Diesel Locomotives — 4500 Hp — Nos. 160-166
These locomotives have two axles per truck and are used in freight service. Their
rating based on moment at center of the 16-ft slabs is E 36.4 and on the 20-ft slabs is
E 31.4.
Diesel Locomotives— 4500 Hp—Nos. 9960-9962
These locomotives are used in passenger service and on the 16-ft slabs rate K 39 and
on the 20 ft slabs E 33.4, based on moment at center of span. They have two-axle trucks
Diesel Locomotives — 1500 Hp — Nos. 200-267
Two locomotives of this class were used in the special test train-;. The) are general
purpose diesels and used principally in freight service. They have two axle trucks and
rate E 38.9 and E 34.8, respectively, for moment at the center of the 16- and 20-ft slabs
Diesel Locomotives — 600 Hp — Nos. 9900 and 9903
These two locomotives are known as the Pioneer Zephyr and the Mark Twain. The
engine and cars are articulated and only the front trucks, with two axle-, have driving
wheels. They are E 32.5 and E 31.5, respectively, on 16-ft slabs and I-: 27.9 and I
respectively, on 20-ft slabs. The ratings are based on moment at the center of the span.
These locomotives are used only in passenger service.
Diesel Locomotives — 2250 Hp — Nos. 9938-9948
These locomotives have three-axle trucks and are used in passenger service. Then
rating on the 16-ft and 20-ft slabs are E 37.0 and E 40.2. respectively, based on moment
at the center of the span.
F. TES1 Rl -l LTS
Static Strains
The recorded static strains in the concrete and the reinforcement of the various slabs
were determined from the oscillograms under the slow speed run- .>t approximate!) 5
220 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
mph. The static strain in the concrete curb was the greatest strain recorded by the one
Kage on the curb of the regular slab and the average of the two gages on the curb of the
prestressed slab. The static strains in other parts of the slabs, such as the top and bottom
of the slab and the reinforcement, were the average of the largest simultaneous strains
recorded by the three, four or five gages on the concrete or steel.
In calculating the static strains in the slabs for the test train locomotives, the axle
loads were assumed as uniformly distributed longitudinally over a length of 3 ft plus the
depth of the ballast under the tie, plus twice the effective depth of the slab. This dis-
tribution is in agreement with the AREA specifications for the design of plain and rein-
forced concrete members. The locomotive was placed on the span in a position to produce
the maximum bending moment at the center of the span.
The laboratory tests reported in Part 1 of this report showed that tensile cracking
of a regular design slab under flexural loading does not occur until the stresses in the
reinforcement have reached 7000 or 8000 psi. At such stresses the slab changes from an
uncracked mono'ithic section to a cracked section. An inspection of the strains in the steel
indicated that the stresses were only about 1000 to 1500 psi. Hence the slab must be
acting as a monolithic section, with the concrete resisting its share of tensile forces.
Therefore, in determining the section modulus of the concrete and the reinforcement, the
slab was considered to be uncracked. The calculated position of the neutral axis was
slightly below the mid-depth of the slab because of the small amount of concrete in the
curbs. The neutral axis was assumed to be horizontal.
The following table shows a comparison between recorded and calculated static strains
in the two regular slabs for the test train locomotive.
Table A — Regular Slabs
Uncracked Sect. Cracked Sect.
Rec. Calc. Rec./Calc. Calc. Rec./Calc.
Concrete, top of curb North 227 568 0.400 1004 0.226
South 268 568 0.472 1004 0.267
Concrete, top of slab North 173 0.453 534 0.324
South
Concrete, bottom of slab . .North
South
Reinforcement, bottom . . .North
South
Strains shown are X 10"7
It can be seen from the above that the ratios of recorded to calculated strains in the
curbs of the regular slabs are slightly less than ratios for the strains in the top of the slab.
This indicates that the curbs are carrying compressive forces, but not to the extent indi-
cated by their distance from the calculated neutral axis. In order for these ratios to be
the same, the calculated strains in the curbs should be less. Apparently, the neutral axis
is slightly higher than calculated and probably is not horizontal as assumed.
Table A allso shows that the recorded concrete tensile strains are higher than the
recorded reinforcement strains. This corresponds well with the calculated strains as indi-
cated by the recorded to calculated ratios. It seems logical to assume that since the section
is not yet cracked that strains are proportional to their distances from a neutral axis.
In the case of these regular slabs the indication is that the neutral axis is probably higher
than calculated, since the ratios in the above table are lower than the average for com-
pressive strains and higher for tensile strains.
204
382
0.534
534
0.382
237
362
0.655
292
362
0.807
196
281
0.698
1112
0.176
225
281
0.801
1112
0.202
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 221
The average ratio of recorded to calculated strains for the regular slab is 0.49. The
lowest ratio is 0.34 and the highest, 0.64. The fact that recorded strains are so much
lower than the calculated indicates a considerable redistribution of axle loads.
The following table shows a comparison between recorded and calculated static strains
in the two prestressed slabs for the test train locomotive.
Table B — Prestressed Slabs
Rec. Calc. RecJCak.
Concrete, top of curb North 477 1020 0.47
South 683 1020 0.67
Concrete, top of slab North 629 600 1.05
South 570 600 0.95
Concrete, bottom of slab North 562 650 0.86
South 499 650 0.77
Strains shown are X 10~7
It can be seen from the above that the ratios of recorded to calculated strains in the
curbs of the prestressed slabs are much less than the ratios for the strains in the top of
the slab. This indicates that the curbs are resisting compressive forces but not to the
extent assumed in the calculations.
A close inspection of these slabs was made during the tests, and it was noted that
tensile cracks were present in the top of both curbs of the prestressed slabs. These cracks
were normal to the longitudinal axis of the curb. On the north curb they were spaced
about 18 in apart and extended downward toward the top of the slab a maximum of
5 J/ in and an average of about 3 in. Twelve such cracks were observed on the north
curb. The south curb had only three cracks, one of which extended a maximum of 2 in
downward. On the north curb one of the cracks was 2 in from center of span, and the
strain gages were placed 5 in from this crack. The closest crack to the center of span
on the south curb was 2 ft 4 in. It seems likely that these tensile cracks on the north
curb influenced the curb gages. Obviously, the concrete directly adjacent to such a crack
cannot earn- any compressive strain. But since the gage was 5 in away from the crack,
it is possible that some strain could be developed at that point. If, under sufficient com-
pressive load, the cracks closed and their surfaces came into solid bearing the full com-
pressive strain would have been developed as if the crack had not been present.
The cracks did not close under live load, so the recorded strains in the curb are
lower than calculated, hence, the recorded to calculated strain ratio of only 0.47. On the
south curb the crack was probably far enough away from the gage not to affect it
seriously. However, since the strain ratio is only 0.67, it seems likely that tensile cracks
may be present, but not visible.
The presence of these tensile cracks in the tops of the curbs may be explained by
noting the stress distribution over the depth of the slab. With the dead load only on the
slab the distribution was calculated to be as follows:
-30 psi
-1520 psi
222 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
At the top of slab the stress was nearly zero. However, at the top of curb Sl/2 in
above the top of slab the stress distribution was:
bottom of slab
It can be seen that tensile stresses were present in the curb and apparently were sufficient
to crack the concrete.
The ratios of recorded to calculated strains in Table B indicate by ratios of 1.05 and
0.95 at the top of slab that the recorded strains are very nearly equal to the calculated.
The strains at the bottom of the slab are not this close, however, as indicated by ratios
of 0.86 and 0.77. The calculations were based on the curb being effective in resisting
flexural forces. The previous discussion on tensile cracks indicates that these curbs were
not so available, so the strain ratios without the curb are:
Table C — Prestressed Slabs
Rec. Calc. Rec./Calc.
Concrete, top of slab North 629 718 0.88
South 570 71S 0.79
Concrete, bottom of slab North 562 718 0.78
South 499 71S 0.70
Strains shown are X 10~7
The following table shows where the maximum static strains occurred in the regular
design slabs and the relation of that maximum to the average.
Table D — Regular Slabs
Average Percent Higher
Static Strain Max at Gage Than Average
Top concrete North 173 19 17
South 204 20 15
Bottom concrete North 237 13 11
South 202 0 33
Reinforcement North 196 7 22
South 225 3 31
Strains shown are X 10"'
It can be seen from the above that at the top of the slabs the maximum strain occurred
at the inside edges, but at the bottom of the slabs the maximum strains spread out toward
the outside edges.
The following table shows similar information regarding prestressed slabs:
Table E — Prestressed Slabs
Average Percent Higher
Static Strains Max at Gage Than Average
Top concrete North 629 17 8
South 570 18 6
Bottom concrete North 562 10 6
South 499 5 5
Strains shown are X 10~7
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Sl.il>>
Comparing this table with that for the regular slab shows that the prestressed slab
distributes the live load more uniformly across the slab. The maximum variation for
the prestressed slab was only s percent while the regular slab had a maximum variation
of 33 percent.
Maximum Strains
The maximum live-load-plus-impact strain- recorded in the concrete and reinforce
ment of various locations on the test slabs under various locomotivi
speeds are shown on Figs. 6 to 10, incl.
The calculated maximum strains shown on the diagram- were determined b) com
puting the live-load static strain produced by the test locomotive based on urn I
sections and then adding a percentage for impact as specified by the current AREA
specifications for design of plain and reinforced concrete members.
It can be seen from these diagrams that there is some increase in strain with an
increase in speed, but even at the highest speed the strains are considerably less than those
calculated.
It can also be noted that several instances were recorded where -train- occurred at
high speeds which were lower than those recorded at very low speeds. This phenomenon
has been recorded in other tests and is probably due either to the rolling of the locomotive,
which would increase the strains in one slab with a corresponding decrease in the other
slab, or to the upward acceleration of the sprung weighl of the locomotive, which would
decrease the load on the slab.
The maximum strain recorded in the top of the regular slab was 0.0000347, which
occurred at a speed of 84 mph under a three axle, 2250 class passenger locomotive. The
maximum strain recorded in the reinforcement occurred during the same run and was
0.0000330. The maximum strain recorded in the bottom concrete was 0.0000513 during
this same run.
The maximum strain recorded in the top of the prestressed slab was 0.OOOOQ1O, which
occurred at a speed of 82 mph under a 2250 class passenger locomotive. The maximum
strain recorded in the bottom of this slab was 0.0000707 during the same run.
Total Impacts
The total impacts recorded in the concrete and reinforcement at the various locations
on the test spans under the diesel test locomotive- operating at speeds from 10 to 4() mph
are shown on Figs. 11 to 15, incl. Th.- total impact percentage in each test run for a
particular speed is the increase in strain in the member over that occurring at -low speed
(static) run for the test locomotive. The total impact- recorded include roll and other
vertical effects.
The maximum impacts recorded are the average of the greatest simultaneous impacts
recorded by the three, four or five gagi - on tin concrete or steel.
The AREA design impact values shown on the diagrams were determined from tin-
current AREA specification- for design of plain and reinforced concrete memb
It can be seen from the diagram- that the maximum impacts did not nec<
occur at high speeds. Thi< indicates that adl of the various imp' ni,i •'
maximum at the same time. No values exceeded the AREA design impa
The maximum impacts recorded in the top of the regular
which occurred at a speed of 20 mph. The maximum in the reinforcemei
cent at a speed of 10 mph, and the maximum in the bottom Con<
at 20 mph. All of these maximum values occurred in the north slab, and i' is possible
224 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
that this was due to some track condition adjacent to the span causing locomotive roll
to that side.
The maximum recorded impacts in the top of the prestressed slab was 10.0 percent,
which occurred at a speed of 49 mph. The maximum in the bottom of this slab was 9.3
percent at a speed of 48 mph.
By comparing the impact percentages for the two types of slabs it can be seen that
those for the prestressed slab are substantially lower than those for the regular slab. The
difference is possibly due to the fact that the regular slab is 24 in thick and had relatively
low strains while the prestressed slab is only 18 in thick and had higher strains, thus the
stiffer slalb had the higher impacts while the more flexible slab had low impacts.
Deflections
Deflections at center line of span of the regular and the prestressed slabs were
measured under the north slabs, as shown on Fig. 16. These deflections were measured
simultaneously with the strains in the slab and were recorded through the oscillograph
in the same manner as for the slab strains.
The calibration of the deflection devices was carefully made, and for the regular
slab a 1-in downward trace deflection equalled 0.0833 -in slab deflection. On the prestressed
slab a 1-in downward trace deflection equalled 0.05-in slab deflection. The calibration
was checked after each run by offsetting the trace a known amount similar to that for
the strain gages mounted on the slab.
Static deflection was calculated under the test locomotive using the same assumption
as was used in calculating the static strains. The following table shows the calculated and
recorded static deflections for the regular and the prestressed slabs:
Table F
Recorded Calculated Rec./Calc.
Regular slab, north 0.0078 in 0.013 in 0.60
Prestressed slab, north 0.0481 in 0.051 in 0.94
The maximum recorded deflection of the regular slab was 0.0120 in, which occurred
at a speed of 69 mph under a 9960 class locomotive, the maximum deflection of the pre-
stressed slab was O.064S in, which occurred at a speed of 72 mph under a 2250 class
locomotive.
The maximum live-load-plus-impact deflections were also recorded under the regular
and the prestressed slabs for a complete range of speeds, as shown in Fig. 16.
The calculated maximum deflection for the two slabs was determined by adding to
the static deflections a percentage for impact, the same as was done for determining the
maximum stresses.
It can be seen from these diagrams that there is some increase in deflection with an
increase in speed, but the maximum deflections were considerably less than those cal-
culated. Several instances were recorded where the deflection at high speeds was lower
than those recorded at very low speeds. Since the general pattern of maximum deflections
is similar to that of maximum strains, those factors which affect one would also affect
the other.
During the construction of the prestressed slabs rod readings were taken with a sur-
veyor's level at the center of each slab before and after cutting the strands. It was found
that when the prestress force was transferred to the slabs, the center of the slabs arched
upward % in. Since it was thought that any subsequent loss of this camber would be an
indication of loss of strand tension, it was decided to keep a record of any changes in
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Brid g e Slabs 225
camber after the slabs were erected. Accordingly, the day the slabs were placed in posi-
tion, March 11, 1954, rod readings were taken near the curb side and another sel Deal
the side under the center of track. On October 18, 1955, during the field testing of thea
slabs, another set of rod readings was taken on the underside of these slabs and compared
with those previously taken. It was found that the camber had actually increased. Each
slab had increased in camber by 0.05 in. This can be explained by considering that the
concrete at the bottom of the slab is stressed to about 1520 psi under full dead load
whereas the top of the slab is practically at zero stress. This sustained stress on the bot-
tom of the slab causes a plastic flow of the concrete. Since there is little or no sustained
stress at the top of the slab, there is no plastic flow there. The lower portion of the slab
is thus shortened by the amount of this flow, with only a slight reduction in the prestress
force causing the slab to arch upward.
A periodic check of these slabs will be made to determine the rate at which this
camber is changing.
G. CONCLUSIONS
The static and dynamic effect of diesel locomotive loading on prestresscd and regular
design slabs was analyzed, and from the test data it seems logical to conclude that:
1. The recorded static strains as determined under a slowly moving locomotive in
both the prestressed and the regular design slabs were lower than the calculated static
strains.
2. The recorded maximum strains under high-speed locomotives in both the pre
stressed and the regular design slabs were lower than the calculated strains which include
the AREA design impact allowance for masonry structures.
3. The maximum total recorded impacts in the regular design slab- were about
two-thirds the AREA design impact allowance.
4. The maximum total impact recorded in the prestressed slabs were about one-fifth
the AREA design impact allowance.
5. The recorded static deflections of both the prestressed and regular design slabs were
less than the calculated deflections.
6. The recorded maximum deflections under locomotives at speeds up to s4 mpb in
both the prestressed and the regular design slabs were less than the calculated deflections.
(The figures referred to in Part 2 of this report are presented on pages 226 to 211,
incl.)
226
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
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Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG 2
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
SLAB DETAILS
REGULAR SLABS
>6'-0 0 TO 0 SLAB
e
!4'-8 C. TO C. BEARINGS
8
el
15 e r-o* l5'-0
6
S4Q4 S4QI S4Q2
mU r...i,_«__ =„»_,.„ „ ,.,_^ T T.„.
11
«^>-i--»- — y -v ■•"/-•— -^ — 5—4— jf-- — V"""i'^~s""T",'^,~>*Jv^'
^. S *« i • i! !' i' *f t //' m
■ /'r3
j)
X V V S405 -*'- «■* J
-<"" -
•■---*?.
S70I
S702
1-3 1-6
5-3
I0'"9
10 9 l'-6 = l5'-0
Z'-TJ
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
M "r -Qi 75 i"^4 ?1 I'-Oi 7| 6f
S404 .
j^r"Oi
,$
•vjivv gg^Trg™ ■ '^^
S403
S405 «>
S702 <M
4'-3 3-9 3-9 4'- 3
HANDLING BARS
HI20I
DRAIN HOLES
DRIP SLOT
• S70I'
27 9 2j ■ 6-5J 3*
POCKETS FOR'
CLAMP BARS
CROSS SECTION AT t£
. -VALLEY
NO
MARK
SIZE
LENGTH
22
S70I
•7
17-6
6
S702
•7
l8'-6
22
S40I
fr"
6-8
8
S402
l5'-6
16
S403
t°
2-0
2
S404
r
15' -6
16
S405
4°
ro
2
H l?OI
,1*
6'-6
228
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG 3
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
SLAB DETAILS
PRESTRESSED SLABS
19 0 I'-O " 19'- 0
SYMMETRICAL
ABOUT 4.
=fe».»«4|rcs.-..-
s
fe.-----.v.^">-%--.----v^==^=.fe»
T- £-- - —F f f-
fr--""-"«---— —
jk-.-.-.-=-..{L
4
4 * 2'-l± = 8'-6
18-8 C. TO C. BEARINGS
S3Qt
S502
•U
20'- 0 0 TO 0. SLAB
6-2J
HALF LONGITUDINAL SECTION
\
S502
21 S302^- ?
i* STRAND (7 WIRE)
^
20 0 3i = 5'-IO
7-0
CROSS SECTION AT £_
NO
MARK
SIZE
LENGTH
26
S502
* 5
8-0
8
S302
* 3
19'- 6
20
S30I
* 5
r-6
2
S303
tt 5
19-6
4
HII02
*ll
6'- 4
61
j STRAND (7 WIRE),
ULT. STRENGTH
= 240, 000 PSI
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 22^
FIG. 4
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
LOCATION OF GAGES
4
r-s*
r-2
2'-4i
r-2 6i
i. iii i
16 19 20 21
r T »
1
-Jf
, V
«23
«24
SOUTH
*
1
3^
j
J
5
r-6
4
l'-2*
3 2 1
2'-3^ l'-6$
- — — 4- — — —
2
•rT_.
■Mh
6j I'-l^ 2'"3i l'"4i l'-4
*±
_T. TU
NORTH
l'-6*
2'-4 r-2i I r-6
23
PRESTRESSED SLABS
10 l'-7? l'-9j l'-8| 9j 2{
20 I 21
I *^=
22 23
SOUTH
4 3 2
A A A
9* | r-
I'-e-i
l'-?|
r-sH
2-«i-
2'-0
Bt
l'-7
2^ 9 l'-9^ I'-IO l'"8 9
NORTH
8*
2' -I
13
,12
f-a*
l'-7t 1 "Hi
l'-9i
l'-8
REGULAR SLABS
SYMBOLS- a GAGES ON CONCRETE
a GAGES ON BARS
HO Investigatio n of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slaba
FIG 5
Fl ELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
LOCOMOTIVE DATA
2-AXLE DIESEL
Al A2
- o o
ALL WHEELS ARE 40' DiA
SYM A9~ t. j
A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 t
o O Q o o C i
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S9
38
LOCO NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHTS-KIPS
AXLE SPACING- FEET
A 1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
1 16-136
588
588
582
582
54 3
543
58 2
58 2
9-0
21-0
9-0
II'- 0
9-0
2l'-0
9-0
5-6
94-6
2-AXLE DIESEL
ALL WHEELS ARE 40" DIA
Al
_Q_
*
A3 A4
o o
A5 A6
o o
■PM-
A7 A8 A9
0 0
5
A 10
.JL
S7 1 S8 |.S9
LOCO NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHTS KIPS
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
AIO
All
A 12
I50ABC — I59ABC
57 0
570
58 6
586
56 4
56 4
56 1
56 1
581
581
58 4
584
I60ABC — I66A8C
58 8
588
58 1
58 1
57 2
57 2
54 8
548
58 9
58 9
57 6
576
9960 ABC —9962 ABC
61 1
61.1
61.7
617
62 0
62 0
61 4
614
62 7
62 7
60 8
60 8
AXLE SPACING - FEET
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
SIO
Sll
SI2
I50ABC — I59ABC
9'-0
21-0
9-0
14-3
9-0
I/-6
9-0
8'-0
9-0
18-3
9-0 I33'-C
I60ABC — I66ABC
9'-0
21-0
9-0
1 I'-O
9'-0
2l'-0
9-0
ll'-O
9-0
2 I'-O
9-0
l39'-0
9960ABC — 9962 ABC
9-0
21-0
9'-0
ll'-O
9-0
2 I'-O
9-0
ll'-O
9'-0
21-0
9'-0
1 39LC
2-AXLE DIESEL
Al
h Q
(TEST TRAIN)
A2
_Q
ALL WHEELS ARE 40"DlA
A3
o
n
S I
LOCO NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHTS-KIPS
AXLE SPACING-FEET
2-AXLE DIESEL (ARTICULATED)
Al A2
WHEELS I 8.2 (DRIVERS) ARE 36" 01 A
WHEELS 384 ( IDLERS) ARE 30" DIA
A3 A4
a
A
, si
S2
S3
S4
1 ' S5
r
LOCO NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHTS- KIPS
AXLE SPACING -FEET
Al
A2
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
9900
52 4
52 4
8-0
52^|
4'-0
4-0
6461
9903
509
50 9
8'-0
54'-7
4'-0
4-0
67-7
3-AXLE DIESEL
Al A2 A3
q q a
ALL WHEELS ARE 36"DIA
A4 A5 A6
q q a
i sg i
LOCO NUMBERS
AXLE WEIGHTS- KIPS
AXLE SPACING- FEET
9938AB — 9948AB
7- Of
7-of
28"- 1 1
7'- Of
[n vesti gation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge S lab
FIG. 6
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
MAXIMUM RECORDED STRAINS IN CONCRETE
REGULAR SLABS
t RAIL 1 RAIL
^A "6
17
18
19
20
21
22
23 r
\ »
»
T
»
»
w/
NORTH
SOUTH
SECTION AT t OF SLABS
ffl 00006
CALCULATED MAXIMUM
, TEST TRAIN
\ (UNCRACKED SECTION)
CALCULATED STATIC
, TEST TRAIN
\ (UNCRACKED SECTION)
\
\
\
1__
} o tb 'i
>
1 fi •
•
«<
A
*4
m
0
o J, '
^ o '
fo 0 . J
x °*
«-■$»
40 50 60
SPEED IN MPH
NORTH SLAB
CALCULATED MAXIMUM
,- TEST TRAIN
\ ( UNCRACKED SECTION )
CALCULATED STATIC
r ■ TEST TRAIN
\ (UNCRACKED SECTION)
\
T
V
, 0 o o <
> o q> <
r ^ \
i 8-;
-•
>rff
•
•
•
n
40 50 60
SPEED IN MPH
SOUTH SLAB
2-AXLE TEST TRAIN
2-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
2-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN (ARTICULATED)
3-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
2M Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 7
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
MAXIMUM RECORDED STRAINS IN CONCRETE
REGULAR SLABS
tRAIL
t RAIL
12 II 10
SECTION AT t OF SLABS
CALCULATED MAXIMUM
r~ TEST TRAIN
\ (UNCRACKED SECTION)
CALCULATED STATIC
r— TEST TRAIN
\ (UNCRACKED SECTION)
_T
T
\
•
\
>
° 8 '
o ocP
•1
A
•
A
•
•A
4s
. o <
ro o
o
40 50 60
SPEED IN MPH
NORTH SLAB
CALCULATED MAXIMUM
, TEST TRAIN
\ (UNCRACKED SECTION)
CALCULATED STATIC
TEST TRAIN
( UNCRACKED SECTION)
\
\
\
\
•
a
A
A
•
A
i
>° 8 <
0 & <
p°°*:
a
•
•
•
o$
>°0° <
0
10 20
30 40 50 60
SPEED IN MPH
SYMBOLS:
SOUTH SLAB
o 2-AXLE
TEST TRAIN
• 2-AXLE
REGULAR TRAIN
D 2-AXLE
REGULAR TRAIN
(ARTICULATED)
A 3-AXLE
REGULAR TRAIN
Investigation of R einforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 2Ss
FIG. 8
field investigation of railroad bridge slabs
MAXIMUM RECORDED STRAINS IN LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
REGULAR SLABS
<{_RAIl
%_ RAIL
6 5 4 3
SECTION AT 1 OF SLABS
.00008
CALCULATED MAXIMUM
\ TEST TRAIN
\ (UNCRACKED SECTION)
CALCULATED STATIC
| TEST TRAIN
(UNCRACKED SECTION)
I
\
f ° 8 '
r, °0P C^
P* \
•
•-^J^S
A
•
<
' ~ CO [
O o ;
0*0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SPEED IN MPH
NORTH SLAB
CALCULATED MAXIMUM
r TEST TRAIN
\ (UNCRACKED SECTION)
CALCULATED STATIC
\ TEST TRAIN
(UNCRACKED SECTION)
\
\
\
»° oo <
h V 6
, ° •
ro o i
t"^"
><?
••
<**
tf*» '
,o o° (
•
<" 00002
SYMBOLS
O 2-AXLE TEST TRAIN
• 2-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
o 2-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN (ARTICULATED)
A 3-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
40 50 60
SPEED IN MPH
SOUTH SLAB
90 100
234 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 9
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
MAXIMUM RECORDED STRAINS IN CONCRETE
PRESTRESSED SLABS
({.RAIL
<(_ RAIL
SECTION AT t OF SLABS
.00008
CALCULATED STATIC
i TEST TRAIN
\ (UNCRACKED SECTION)
\
X
•
V
\
• \
_1.
8§? oo
"° i
! <?
0 oo
o. .0«
*
•
:^o,#«
vSti
• •
•
,»a '
B
\
\
CALCULATED MAXIM
TEST TRAIN
(UNCRACKED SECTIO
DM
1
N)
40 50 60
SPEED IN MPH
NORTH SLAB
CALCULATED STATIC
r TEST TRAIN
\ (UNCRACKED SECTION)
\
X
i.
o. J*
<&>*•-'
•
•
•
•
\
«8 °o
* i
"
8 °
•
Q0D
D
Q
A
\
\
CALCULATED MAXIMl.
TEST TRAIN
IUNCRACKED SECTIO
M
\
N)
0 10 20 30
40 50 e
SPEED IN MPH
SOUTH SLAB
SYMBOLS
o
2-AXLE TEST TRAIN
•
2-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
2-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
3-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
(ARTICULATED)
100
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete- Bridge Slabs
FIG. 10
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
MAXIMUM RECORDED STRAINS IN CONCRETE
PRESTRESSED SLABS
r^
1
I RAIL
1 RAIL
1 r
NORTH
SOUTH
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A A i
SECTION AT <£ OF SLABS
CALCULATED STATIC
r TEST TRAIN
\ (UNCRACKED SECTION)
\
X
1.
•
•
* •
•
•
• •
&$> °°
u. A
t <y
6> ea
5. • «a°<
■*•*'
v=gtl
D
D
j
CALCULATED MAXIfV
TEST TRAIN
(UNCRACKED SECTIC
UM
1
>N)
± 00006
40 50 60
SPEED IN MPH
NORTH SLAB
CALCULATED STATIC
1 TEST TRAIN
1 (UNCRACKED SECTION)
\
t
\
A
A
•
1
\
%8> <?
<?• I
\ 8
%%
•
35:
'■*
D
P
\
\
CALCULATED MAXIML
TEST TRAIN
(UNCRACKED SECTIO
M
\
N)
40 50 60
SPEED IN MPH
SOUTH SLAB
2-AXLE TEST TRAIN
2-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
2-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN (ARTICULATED)
3-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
236 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. II
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
TOTAL IMPACTS RECORDED IN CONCRETE
REGULAR SLABS
t RAIL
tRAIL
^,6
17 18
19
T
20
▼
21
22
*n
NORTH
SOUTH
SECTION AT <t OF SLABS
* AREA
DESIGN
40
30
<
>
o '
>
20
o
K
;
0
o
O
o
(
l
10
(
0
)
(
)
o
(
S
0
0
o
o
<
>
20 30
SPEED IN MPH
NORTH SLAB
20
u
}EA DES
IGN
0
o
(
<
>
0
<
<
1
, ° .
1
0
o <
[° ■
o <
1
o
SYMBOL:
o 2-AXLE TEST TRAIN
20 30
SPEED IN MPH
SOUTH SLAB
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 2'-'.
FIG. 12
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
TOTAL IMPACTS RECORDED IN CONCRETE
REGULAR SLABS
50
1 RAIL
t RAIL
r\
i
r
_J~\
NORTH
SOUTH
\
i.
A
A
A
14 13 12 II 10
SECTION AT <£ OF SLABS
LAR
EA DESIGN
<
1
{
0
o
^
o
J
0
°o
o
c
>
o
(
<
)o
0
o
20 30
SPEED IN MPH
NORTH SLAB
• ARE
\ DESIGr
I
o
o
(
oo
1
<
>
r~
) o
0
°
<
i «
)
(
o
>
o
1
SYMBOL:
o 2-AXLE TEST TRAIN
20 30
SPEED IN MPH
SOUTH SLAB
40
50
238 Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 13
FIELO INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
TOTAL IMPACTS RECORDED IN LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
REGULAR SLABS
r\
tRAIL
1
t
<t RAIL
1
O
\ *
NORTH
1 i
1
1
SOUTH
1 1
x .
30
20
6 5 4 3
SECTION AT t OF SLABS
U
RE A DE
SIGN
-
(
)
b° (
)
o
o
o
<
o
O (
K>
> O
O
<
1
0
o
20 30
SPEED IN MPH
NORTH SLAB
uj 50
40
30
20
10
^AR
EA DESI
GN
o
o
1
>
\
o
o
<
1
i
i
<
o
ji
>o
o
SYMBOL:
o 2-AXLE TEST TRAIN
20 30
SPEED IN MPH
SOUTH SLAB
40
50
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs 239
FIG. 14
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
TOTAL IMPACTS RECORDED IN CONCRETE
PRESTRESSED SLABS
\
14
*
<t RAIL
15 1 16
17
18
<t RAIL
19 1 20
21
n
NORTH
SOUTH
SECTION AT $. OF SLABS
r
EA DE
SIGN
oO
o
'
:
6>
o
o
00
o
o
o
20 30
SPEED IN MPH
NORTH SLAB
50
1 1
r-AREA DESIGN
Q
o
<
1
o
o
o
o
o
o
o°
SYMBOL
O 2-AXLE TEST TRAIN
20 30
SPEED IN MPH
SOUTH SLAB
50
240 Investigation of Reinforced Co ncrete Bridge Slabs
FIG. 15
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
TOTAL IMPACTS RECORDED IN CONCRETE
PRESTRESSED SLABS
rv
<t.RAIL
tRAIL
NORTH
A A
6 5
SECTION AT <£. OF SLABS
va
1
REA DE
5IGN
00
o
\
>
■
o
o
o
o
oo
o
o°
20 30
SPEED IN MPH
NORTH SLAB
60
1 1
r— AREA DESIGN
o
<
1
o
o
o
o
0
o
o
Oo
SYMBOL:
O 2-AXLE TEST TRAIN
20 30
SPEED IN MPH
SOUTH SLAB
Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Slabs
241
FIG. 16
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF RAILROAD BRIDGE SLABS
RECORDED DEFLECTIONS AT <£_ SPAN
£ OF RAIL
GAGE (SEE NOTE)
2'-9i
REGULAR SLAB
<£. OF RAIL
J
GAGE (SEE NOTE)
2'-5
PRESTRESSED SLAB
I
/ CALCULATED
MAXIMUM
L— PRESTRESSED
A
A
* A
A
A
A
♦
A
' - - - •
• <
••
* %
• ••
A
•
• •
■
CALCULATED STATIC
- PRESTRESSED
1 REGULAR
CALCULATED MAXIMUM
/ REGULAR
/
i__,
' o
A
Sfw
Co <;
o
>o o S
o
0
io 0
*
D
Q
0
0
20
30
40
50
SPEED IN MPH
SYMBOLS;
REGULAR SLAB
O 2-AXLE TEST TRAIN
a 2-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
D 2-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN (ARTICULATED)
0. 3-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
PRESTRESSED SLAB
• 2-AXLE TEST TRAIN
A 2-AXL£ REGULAR TRAIN
■ 2-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN (ARTICULATED)
♦ 3-AXLE REGULAR TRAIN
NOTE: DEFLECTION MEASURED AT MIDPOINT OF SPAN
Advance Report of Committee 3 — Ties
Report on Assignment 4
Tie Renewals and Costs per Mile of Maintained Track
L. W. Kistler (chairman, subcommittee), R. W. Cook, W. L. Kahler, ('. M Long, II B.
Orr.
The annual statistics compiled by the Bureau of Railway Economics, AAR, pro-
viding information on cross tie renewals and cost data for 1956, are shown in Tables A
and B.
These taibles indicate that 23,249,449 new wood cross ties were inserted in track in
1956 on the Class I railroads of the United States, and 5,331,348 on the three reporting
Canadian railroads. This represents a decrease from 1955 of 647,873 ties, or 2.71 percent,
for the United States, and an increase of 73,406 ties, or 1.40 percent, for the Canadian
railroads. Of the eight reporting regions in the United States, four .-bowed increases in
renewals and four decreases. These ranged from an increase of 9.83 peercent in the New
England Region to a decrease in the adjoining Great Lakes Region of 19.42 percent.
Equated gross ton miles per mile of maintained track increased in all regions except
the Northwestern and Central-Western, where there were slight decreases. For the United
States this increase was 127,000, or 1.90 percent. There was no relationship in l<->56
between equated gross ton mile changes and cross tie insertions, as three of the six regions
with increased traffic had decreased tie renewals, whereas one of the two regions with
decreased traffic had increased tie renewals.
The unit cost per tie increased in all regions, the increase ranging from .' cent- to 37
cents, except in the Great Lakes Region where it remained unchanged. The increase for
all carriers was 14 cents, making the average cost $3.44.
In further comparing 1956 with 1955, the average number of cross ties renewed per
mile decreased by amounts ranging from 1 to 72, and the 5-year average renewals dropped
from 82 to 79, a decrease of 3.
In the following table of comparisons, there is shown the "Low" region, the ' Mi h
region and the average for the United States.
I'll/till Shit i
Low High l ,
[nserted in 1956 — Ties Per
Mile 52 — New England 9 7 — South western
S Year Average Insertions 72
Per Mile 55 — New England 112 Southwestern
Change 1956 from 1955 — Ties 7"
Per Mile 12 Less Great Lake- 7 More New England 1 Less
Cost Per Tie $2.89— Southwestern $3.75 Pocahontas
Cost Per Mile of Track $184— New England $323 Southern
Equated Ton Miles Per
Track Mile 4,470 Northwestern 11,642 Pocahontas 6,817
Estimated Average Life Based
on 5-Year Average Re-
newals 27.2S Years South - New
western England V
Number Ties Per Mile Used
in Above Calculation v052 3.002 3,017
243
244 Tie Renewals and Costs per Mile
Note the estimated average life in the New England Region is almost exactly double
thai for the Southwestern. Also, the average for the United States seems to be fast
approaching 40 years, whereas not too many years ago many estimates were based on 20
years of life for treated ties.
Due to a reclassification of Class I railroads as of January 1, 1956, 1.5 railroads were
eliminated and 6 added to this category. Since these are all small carriers, the change has
not materially affected the statistics for any of the regions. There were also some con-
solidations, so the data now covers 112 railroads in the United States instead of the 125
formerly reported.
CROSS TIE STATISTICS (EXCLUDING Sl/ITCH ft MIDGE)
1 LARGE CANADIAN
nd.
r ,.„ .no.
J Dooo.b.r 31
, 1956
Road
Croee ties laid in replacement
(Item 25)
(Itm U)
«Un-
(thouauioc?
(tftoo..)
untreated (U)
treat od (T)
Total oil
woo"s)
huid (.)
r. applied
""
*£Li°
"9r
"I"1
■fr
Number
3"
Number
.£
—
„£"
1
;
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
u
15
16
17
18
E. ENGUUm ICQIONi
Canadian Facifio (lines In Lb.)
64 194
»2.1S
42 482
71 833
15 707
40 575
44.17
3.82
3.73
4.49
106 676
71 833
15 707
40 975
«2
3
3
96
82
73
106 676
71 833
15 707
40 689
620.33
2 556.98
216.54
2 369 878
7 556 174
627 113
2 869
2 953
2 896
2 261 381
12 906 577
1 912 626
2 757
5 044
8 833
4.50
0.95
2.50
130
73
4364
270
(cm.)
13.94
2.13
3.06
\ Nr» York Connecting
1 Rutland
4 082
100 367
31 930
4.94
3.76
3.45
4 082
100 367
31 930
3
3
94
76
45
• 7 318
100 815
100 367
31 930
1 110.53
26.30
3 412.16
387.65
3 322 165
82 375
10 462 059
2 992
3 132
3 066
3 127
3 821 363
333 987
21 063 333
733 464
i 441
12 699
6 173
1 892
4.96
2^63
Hi—
155
29
62
284
767
264
8.26
6.04
1.79
15.03
Total
76 969
2.13
387 698
3.84
4M h<-.T
I.J6
7 432
47! 1 95
8 961.82
26 907 086
3 002
45 094 200
5 021
1.72
52
164
3.67
24 510
77 776
182 868
5 234
272 521
3.59
2.72
4.33
1.66
24 510
77 776
182 888
5 234
272 521
83
24 510
77 776
182 686
5 317
272 521
397.06
1 280.18
2 039.15
151.34
1 205 770
3 869 718
6 329 683
454 787
1! 83! 236
3 037
3 023
3 104
3 005
1 565 632
10 576 096
15 714 624
775 982
3 943
7 706
5 127
2.03
2^9
1.15
62
61
90
35
222
105
360
150
5.62
4'.67
2.92
:' SS^.t;r
3
1
59
72
33
Lehigh Volley
-
:
7 lie
17 741
123 336
13 318
3^68
7 118
17 741
123 338
13 318
3
3
of
• 1 109
81 762
8 227
17 741
123 338
103.07
232.11
2 321.63
247.22
5 734 367
702 556
3 167
2 700
3 027
3 024
11 155 682
785 147
12 388 454
6 161
7 000
3 383
5 336
1.43
2.56
2.53
1.76
45
69
76
53
163
337
196
2.65
9.96
3.67
Hon York, Susquehanna ft iVon-tern
Pittsburgh 4 Lake Erie
:
272 044
23 943
4 356
3.23
3.88
3.9«
3.86
1 099 483
272 044
23 943
4 356
32 670
3
3
3
3
-3
8!
44
88
• 9 009
272 044
23 943
4 356
19 (55.03
3 457.77
645.61
207.78
61 213 774
10 762 895
1 855 303
602 665
3 099
3 113
2 874
2 901
143 744 706
34 250 492
1 297 690
303 597
6 620 001
7 276
9 905
1.80
2.53
1.29
0.72
56
79
37
305
146
61
3.06
7.7o
5.57
Pittsburgh ft -art Virginia
5 776
116 270
405
5 776
118 270
35
• 435
118 270
182.27
3 123.06
556 623
9 784 828
3 054
3 133
1 243 220
25 259 913
6 621
8 086
32
38
133
165
Total
-
2 362 748
3.54
2 362 748
3.54
10 636
2 373 384
41 063.99
126 185 996
3 073
302 538 186
7 367
I.87
58
204
2.77
. |rRA] .. . .._ ,L| .. ;J N.
.u
2.82
13 808
701 518
26 375
50 914
3.96
3.34
3.21
13 819
701 518
26 375
50 914
• 20 216
3< 035
701 518
26 375
50 914
220.21
1. ,0.:. 7c
407.77
1 254.13
651 390
28 802 548
3 500 648
2 958
2 653
3 377
2 791
3 043
756 235
92 784 706
3 727 881
7 391 336
7 065 544
3 443
9 190
5 694
5 441
1.45
1.81
63
69
65
55
24>
232
267
130
7.22
2.53
2.92
1M
Baltioora C Ohio
3
3
3
=0
34
21
Detroit, Toledo ( Ironton
Slcin.JoUet ft Kaatern
8 066
°:'4
6 347
38 054
18 043
30 983
3.35
3.62
3.34
3.02
6 347
16 043
30 983
3
3
3
3
J!
3-
34
• 3 5«9
• 2 592
6 347
46 140
21 592
33 575
4 518
163.44
597.32
649.31
508.72
67.07
490 320
1 720 281
2 608 804
1 611 625
209 777
3 000
2 680
3 072
3 168
3 128
783 974
2 395 352
3 184 464
1 139 339
318 251
4 797
3 749
4 745
2.68
0.69
1.92
2.15
35
77
67
130
256
71
164
235
2.71
6.39
1.69
6.22
■■■'"-
: ;;i"u!T.™i,I...«L.)
:
50 477
7 008
73 713
1 267 486
2.68
3.21
3.73
50 477
7 008
73 713
1 267 488
3
3
68
73
50 4?7
7 008
73 713
1 267 488
728.72
216.08
722.92
20 333.62
517.84
678 566
2 244 486
58 298 863
2 895
3 140
3 105
2 867
3 592 832
508 674
3 679 606
184 598 122
962 247
4 930
2 355
5 090
9 078
1 856
2.39
3)26
2.17
1.80
32
4?
87
328
232
197
3.69
6.44
3.50
Reading Co.
Staten Island Rapid Transit
'.
i
— iirfer
3 165
81 316
3.77
4.61
4.25
3 165
81 316
3
77
61
25
3 165
81 316
2 728.07
68.09
1 132.49
7 562 316
225 510
3 273 316
.: 77 5
2 560
2 890
18 053 027
130 403
6 741 688
7 719
2)48
36
72
305
11.18
3.96
Trtal
6 097
0.94
2 619 228
3.63
2 627 325
>..<.
26 357
2 653 682
41 934.87
120 757 822
2 880
339 835 661
8 104
2.18
63
227
2.80
1 FocAHOinrAs maioiii
;
327 363
441 092
12 651
86 14J
3.71
3.84
3^41
327 363
441 092
12 651
66 142
3.71
1.84
3^41
• 2 735
• 1 737
• 2 310
327 363
443 627
14 368
88 452
8 228.35
4 357.69
407.67
963.17
24 899 982
13 509 459
1 245 000
2 957 518
3 026
3 100
3 054
3 071
88 676 047
57 538 183
5 050 252
11 190 620
10 777
13 203
12 486
11 619
1.31
3.27
2I91
31
89
146
386
125
305
1.37
Richmond, Fred1 burg ft Potocac
■ Virginian
Total
867 248
1.7!
667 248
3.75
6 782
874 030
13 957.08
42 612 359
3 053
162 495 102
U 0.:
2.04
62
233
2.00
SOUTHERN REGION!
:
:
35 463
8 260
24 128
704 578
3.76
4.48
3.50
3.48
35 463
8 260
24 128
704 578
;
35 463
6 260
24 128
70» 576
558.40
119.14
147.03
7 252.18
1 686 556
361 511
358 874
22 605 045
833 900
3 020
3 034
2 713
3 117
4 341 496
627 078
757 866
41 971 756
196 221
7 775
5 263
5 154
5 767
643
2.10
2.28
6.05
3.12
4.98
64
69
164
97
136
310
575
339
593
3-09
5.90
11.15
5.85
92.11
Alabaca Great Southern
3
3
3
71
46
50
4 8
Central at Georgia
287 197
97 826
50 338
64 742
3.10
4.35
3.92
267 197
97 626
50 338
64 742
3
3
92
':
287 197
97 826
50 338
64 742
179 109
2 258.20
435.06
717.15
426.23
1 166.93
6 525 567
1 279 815
2 119 684
1 363 936
3 392 699
2 890
2 956
3 200
2 908
1 444 712
9 233 198
5 506 638
7 272 246
3 321
12 675
12 919
6 232
7.64
2.37
4.75
5.24
225
152
152
979
261
595
2.18
1 Georgia B.n.
Georgia ft Florida
85 467
a:»
72 661
71 098
311 «67
3.35
3.15
3.59
3-19
72 661
85 584
311 467
3
3
3
35
5"
• 13 717
72 661
85 584
71 098
325 184
613 330
364.39
560.71
3 496.37
) 767.45
1 337 200
1 037 853
1 763 777
11 076 499
29 77 454
3 146
3 166
3 050
622 704
2 507 541
17 566 320
62 662 196
5 024
6 436
6.25
4.03
2.81
2.73
223
127
89
83
456
264
3 .'7
10.19
'.o5
! 'BBffSiz™-
69 415
1.77
582 5oo
168 277
72 680
3.17
3.05
3.95
2.93
582 5oo
168 277
20 017
142 295
3
3
3
17
05
05
37
582 560
16E 277
142 295
18 271
1 460.39
293.90
721.64
163.00
3 994 167
669 299
2 119 266
. 5o7 jot
2 735
2 958
2 937
3 100
7 095 712
2 492 541
1 764 401
355 446
4 859
6 481
2 445
1 942
2.30
6.71
3.22
115
66
197
351
269
467
460
7.23
3.18
19.10
Si*
4.19
16.99
15.09
5.33
eastern Ry.of Alaboinn
Total
*565
160 688
1-59
2.03
33 215
403 048
552 082
39 947
37 407
4 682 667
S.07
3.60
2^83
3.51
3.51
33 215
403 048
552 082
40 532
37 »07
4 843 755
3
3
3
3
07
60
61
51
14 976
33 215
403 046
552 082
40 532
37 407
4 858 731
5 510.19
8 278.07
347.25
182.82
51 904.62
16 619 736
25 673 346
1 051 473
546 942
156 773 443
3 016
3 101
3 026
2 992
3 020
36 492 357
52 737 714
671 244
870 062
314 565 269
6 623
6 371
1 933
4 759
6 061
2.43
2.15
3.65
6.84
3.09
73
67
117
205
93
263
267
326
III
323
Table
CROSS TIE STATISTICS (EXCLUDING SWITCH ft BRIDCE) FOR CLASS I
Calendar year ended
THE UNITED STATES J
31, 1956
ir ■- i.
Road
(item 25)
Estimated
(item^)
mile
Number of
(?hoSa^.T
Number of
replaced ont0ave"agoo"
wooden ties
untr.at.d (u)
treated (T)
Total all
ties laid
Tiee
nod (s)
hand"".)
reapplied
applied
1th™..)
talnod
main-
tained
maL-
iteneral
6T0.8
Number
eel,"
Dumber
ago
Number
A«e*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
16
Chicago ft North Western
Chicago Great Western
1 Chicago, Uilmukee, St.Paul ft Fac.
1 Chicago, St. Paul, llinple. 4 Omha
Duluth.Lissttbe J Iron Range
225
60
— Ig-,
»1.63
1.42
743 116
171 632
792 414
122 561
40 860
S3.81
3.26
3.57
3.74
3.81
743 343
171 632
792 474
122 561
40 916
S3.81
3.26
3.57
3.74
3.H
• 55 230
•100 235
796 573
171 632
892 709
122 561
40 918
10 667.62
1 801.94
13 283.89
2 128.43
1 355.OI
31 820 363
5 403 066
40 594 029
6 310 906
3 1« 867
2 977
2 998
3 056
2 965
2 979
38 074 912
8 539 606
57 192 154
6 740 165
3 563
4 739
4 305
3 167
2.34
3.18
1.95
1.94
70
95
60
58
S265
310
213
215
Lent.)
7.44
6.55
4.95
6.79
Duluth.Hlnnipeg & Pacific
Great Northern
Green Bay ft Western
Lake Superior 1 IshpeninR
361
37
4 299
5 792
2.00
2.11
2.17
1.67
9 171
696 290
32 994
15 448
3.50
4.19
3.56
_J.JL
9 552
696 327
37 293
3.44
4.19
3.40
3.18
• 48 141
9 552
744 468
37 293
21 240
210.22
10 239.09
275.46
267.57
600 849
32 043 736
793 325
802 710
2 955
2 858
3 130
2 880
1 559 870
1 301 127
60 582 945
683 637
2 ill
6 189
5 917
2 482
4.53
1.59
2.17
4.70
134
45
68
135
426
156
285
15.41
2.53
4.82
16.54
lUnpls.,Northfield ft Southern
Uinpls.,St.Paul 4 S.S.U. (inc.WC)
Northern Pacific
Spokana Int arnat lonal
Spokane, Port land 4 Seattle
122
173
1.46
1.94
4 927
473 927
387 336
41 008
109 245
2.97
4.27
2.93
3.56
3.05
3.84
152 447
4 927
474 049
387 511
41 008
109 245
2.91
4.27
2.93
3.58
3.05
3.84
\
152 447
4 927
474 049
387 511
41 008
109 245
1 5J7.18
74.07
4 775.57
9 226.83
179.12
4 578 825
205 325
14 467 326
26 768 998
524 368
3 520 445
2 996
2 772
3 029
2 901
2 927
3 088
4 077 668
292 082
19 634 741
44 250 690
473 530
7 107 860
2 670
3 943
4 796
2 644
6 235
3.33
2.40
3.28
1.45
7.82
3.10
100
67
99
229
96
290
284
291
150
698
368
10.68
7.19
7.08
3.13
26.41
5.90
Total
17 236
1.74
3 862 746
3.62
3 879 962
3.61
203 606
4 083 588
57 436.19
173 243 337
3 016
256 757 675
4 470
2.24
68
244
5.46
CENTRAL WEiTiRN REGION.
\
;
1 543 745
467 706
616 977
38 396
2 909
3.12
3.34
2.60
3.52
3-95
1 543 745
467 706
616 977
38 396
2 909
3.12
3.34
2.80
3.52
•95
•117 134
• 5 158
1 543 745
5S4 840
616 977
43 554
2 909
19 620.10
11 643.90
9 561.22
787.53
loe. f 5
62 646 980
35 956 363
28 469 711
2 362 590
331 976
3 193
3 088
2 976
3 000
3 107
162 122 451
65 407 076
49 624 515
4 074 299
60 366
8 263
5 617
5 190
5 174
565
2.46
1.30
2.17
1.63
0.86
79
65
49
27
246
134
161
171
107
2.97
2.39
3-49
3.31
Atchison, Topeka 4 Santa Fe
Chicago, Burlington 4 O^iincy
Chicago, Rock Island ft Pacific
Colorado 4 Southern
loloradc 8 Qfoming
Denver 4 Rio Grande Western
Sacranento Northern
•Jaatern Pacific
3 6a
2 301
839
2.56
2.55
2.45
200 JK
138 361
59 195
24 864
738 911
17 009
876 170
178 330
3.63
3.40
3.90
3.88
3.94
3.65
4.60
200 340
138 36I
62 816
24 384
741 212
17 009
877 009
178 330
3.83
3.40
3.93
3.90
3.88
3.94
3.65
4.80
• 3 373
35
461
141 734
62 816
24 884
741 247
17 009
877 009
178 791
3 103.46
1 494.16
428.53
313.74
12 069.18
282.24
13 409.66
1 556.69
9 648 000
4 522 858
1 229 213
926 414
36 641 590
894 136
37 902 249
4 638 324
3 MS
3 027
2 868
2 953
3 036
3 168
2 826
2 980
19 183 839
5 235 307
1 836 760
122 910
126 921 012
1 066 277
137 181 437
12 768 532
3 504
4 286
392
10 516
3 778
10 230
8 202
2.08
3.06
5.11
2.69
2.02
1.90
2.31
65
93
147
79
61
60
65
115
247
315
576
309
238
237
239
549
9.00
13.45
78.58
2.26
6.28
2.33
6.70
Total
6 761
2.55
4 902 933
3.43
4 909 694
3.43
126 161
5 035 855
74 377.26
226 170 404
3 041
585 604 781
7 873
2.17
66
226
2.88
S0UTHYEST2RH REGIOHi
Kansas City Southern
Louisiana ft Arkansas
Uisaouri-Kansas-Texas Lines
93 773
49 316
56 939
403 013
3.13
2.62
2.95
2.78
93 773
49 316
56 939
403 013
3.13
2.62
2.95
2.78
'-_
93 773
49 316
56 939
403 013
1 196 139
1 383.09
352.29
899.57
3 837.26
4 371 906
1 058 464
2 924 261
36 822 015
3 161
3 005
3 251
3 164
10 331 773
1 202 554
5 283 350
17 862 902
66 949 920
7 470
3 414
5 673
4 655
5 soo
t'.a
1.95
3-32
68
63
105
367
187
292
294
2.84
10.75
3.18
6. 28
5.25
5t. Louis, ^an Francisco 4 Texas
Texas 4 Ne.r Orleans
1 017
0.50
524 283
10 865
142 754
477 794
3H 378
24 759
2.84
2.83
3.16
2.68
3.12
3.09
524 i 3
10 665
142 754
477 794
311 378
25 776
2.84
2.83
3.16
2.66
3.12
2.99
• 935
524 233
10 865
143 689
477 794
311 376
25 776
5 821.14
160.30
1 752.86
5 498.21
2 226.50
237.44
1' 314 UHi
500 229
5 435 601
15 293 907
6 506 796
752 210
3 14?
3 121
3 101
2 782
2 922
3 168
v: D33 126
724 459
14 644 765
33 318 640
19 584 622
242 172
5 159
4 519
8 355
6 060
8 796
2.17
2.63
3.12
4.79
3.43
90
68
81
87
109
192
258
233
436
324
4.25
3.08
3.84
4.96
31.81
Total
1 425
0.62
3 292 605
2.89
3 294 030
2.89
935
3 294 965
34 111.01
104 119 891
3 052
200 178 283
5 60E
3.16
97
279
4.76
! Grand total - United States
271 376
2.01
22 978 073
3.45
23 249 449
3.44
396 885
23 646 334
323 766.84
976 830 338
3 017
2 207 089 599
6 817
2.38
72
247
3.62
CANADIAN ROADS 1
Canadian National
Canadian Pacific
Ontario ft Northland
81i 731
61 637
1.65
2.21
3 239 078
1 788 oil
157 890
3.08
3.2k
4.32
3 323 809
1 81,9 6I4B
157 690
3.05
3.21
4.32
;
3 323 609
1 81i9 6I46
157 891
26 liU.
21 361.98
664.30
83 596 U03
63 133 SL.6
1 926 470
2 9I|2
2 961
2 900
109 577 126
2 699 242
b
SU.0
4 364
3.98
2.93
8.20
117
67
238
356
278
1 026
b
5.11
23.50
■on-nilea of locomotives 1
1 purchased during 1
from Annual Repoi
I AGGREGATE COST OF ^
MILE OF llAINTAINED TRACK AND RATI
largo Canadian roads, by years, and foi
ei All figures ore exoluaive of bridgo
' RENEWALS TO TOTAL C
•are 1952 to 1956, ii
J UAIMTAISEJJ TRACK
Road
I
aunbor of now wood oroee tie renewals
per mile of maintained track
Aggregate cost of nsw wood cross tie renewals
per mile of maintained track
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
5 year
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
•vera..
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
5 year
149
69
103
64
90
115
57
71
75
99
23
52
— jf-
130
28
73
— tr
121
48
76
1 — U—
»437
260
295
220
S304
226
319
263
8339
222
264
338
5275
89
198
339
S384
107
270
40?
8348
165
269
313
5.17
2.34
3.55
1.91
3.64
2.17
3.10
3.97
1.93
2.45
3.44
0.78
1.80
4.50
0.95
2.50
4.18
1.63
2.68
Bangor A Aroostook
Boston 4 koine
Canadian Faclfio (linos In to.)
Control Vornont
Now York Connecting
Rutland
52
1
— B5-
33
47
1
76
9
70
28
30
155
29
82
77
31
251
164
3
163
182
2
372
32
13
343
105
101
767
111
284
351
379
119
61
3.93
0.03
2.84
1.05
1.52
3.55
2.43
0.29
0.13
3.20
0.91
0,96
2.B1
4.96
0.96
2.63
2.46
1.02
0.75
Total
69
62
4'.
45
52
55
258
221
177
158
184
200
2.30
2.07
1.64
1.49
1.72
1.64
GRKAT LAKES REGION:
lela.mro £ Hudson
Delaware, Lackawanna 4 ..oetern
Detroit 4 Toledo Shore Line
Erie
103
98
71
63
97
126
no
61
95
98
58
60
51
7*
61
49
94
49
58
62
61
90
35
62
91
75
75
59
78
371
339
279
287
340
480
394
254
378
401
218
251
230
268
229
152
388
224
225
222
165
360
150
341
254
306
263
291
3.41
3.08
2.29
2.09
3.28
4.13
3.45
1.98
3.14
3-31
3.41
1.77
1.94
1.69
2.50
2.00
1.53
3.03
1.62
1.99
2.03
2.01
2.89
1.15
2.12
3.00
2.37
2.43
1.94
2.64
Lehigh '. Hudson River
Lehigh 4 Now England
Lehigh Valley
Lonongahela
69
es
70
61
69
89
70
60
80
3«
62
39
"0
69
76
53
54
66
74
60
45
316
356
264
312
370
273
256
338
252
130
261
164
161
127
290
337
196
126
287
271
229
152
2.58
2.90
2.33
:. 7
2.56
2.94
2.32
1.50
2! 13
1.18
2.29
1.29
1*15
I.43
2.56
2.53
1.76
1.84
1.99
2.44
2.46
New York,:hicago 4 St. Louis
Now York, Ontario 4 Western
Pittsburgh 4 Luke Erie
89
19
49
57
108
39
92
91
69
34
47
91
43
33
47
79
37
21
44
35
57
316
75
231
209
154
178
361
352
220
95
179
334
155
115
305
146
81
147
344
150
208
2.75
2.86
0.65
1.69
1.88
3.12
3.48
1.36
1.36
2.99
1.75
2.91
2.39
1.17
1.53
2.52
2.94
1.49
l.Bo
2.53
1.29
0.72
2.39
2.94
1.22
1.88
eabaah
104
76
91
85
68
64
32
3B
56
66
452
293
408
334
183
270
102
262
133
165
256
265
3.40
2.40
2.96
2.71
1.31
2.16
0.73
2.03
1.04
1.89
2.11
Total
83
91
62
70
56
73
315
348
234
249
204
270
2.71
2.96
2.01
2.28
1.87
2.37
CENTRAL EASTERN REGION:
123
56
58
58
63
36
56
65
66
136
33
51
45
120
78
22
50
59
63
69
65
41
55
109
57
47
53
58
427
168
279
223
357
270
247
244
507
131
144
157
413
261
64
182
201
249
232
267
130
391
161
205
196
208
4.15
1.97
1.86
2-.07
3.43
1.27
1.85
1.84
2.17
4.60
1.53
l!82
1.49
2.74
0.68
1.79
1.93
2.12
2.44
1.92
1.45
1.61
3.67
1.99
1.47
1.79
1.89
Baltimore 4 Ohio
Bessemer 4 Lake Erie
Central R.R. of H.J. (inol.CRRofPa)
Chicago £ Illinois Midland
Elgin, Joliot 4 Eastern
Illinois Terminal
51
96
31
84
47
139
29
78
110
96
18
50
57
111
83
39
77
21
61
6J
104
25
71
201
300
106
235
180
99
226
393
333
54
148
239
381
66
244
130
256
71
184
235
229
339
80
207
1.69
3.33
2)72
1.58
4.72
0.95
2.43
3.70
3.34
0.60
1.54
1.9:
3.84
0.73
2.59
1.29
2.68
0.69
1.92
2.15
3.58
0.79
2.24
Long Island
laesouri-Illlnols
Pennsylvania
82
194
133
94
101
84
165
94
89
78
32
65
42
68
72
30
85
55
69
32
102
62
77
66
110
69
76
355
491
405
351
442
338
113
521
357
402
291
87
212
155
270
77
276
196
272
307
87
328
232
197
312
171
348
258
311
6.19
4.29
3.29
3.72
2.91
1.31
5.30
3.27
3.28
2.70
I.03
1*45
2.51
2.50
0.95
2.73
1.93
2.66
2.39
1.03
3.28
2.17
1.80
2.67
2.10
3.54
2-P
Staton Islsnd Rapid Traneit
43
45
76
77
71
76
49
45
79
43
54
36
72
53
55
63
162
277
290
215
302
167
150
211
169
228
182
205
305
199
181
255
1.54
1.74
2.54
2.76
2.76
2.53
1.58
1.65
1.70
3.10
1.50
2.-48
2.13
2.15
Total
76
76
45
61
63
65
281
280
160
213
227
232
2.73
2.62
1.57
2.12
2.16
2.24
POCAHONTAS REGION:
Chesapeake 4 Ohio
Norfolk 4 IToBtern
Richmond , Fred ' burg 4 Potomac
Virginian
60
124
89
U7
79
115
97
55
66
136
88
56
83
72
84
101
31
89
62
98
85
98
274
411
313
365
276
370
3»1
374
165
218
519
299
197
263
284
288
148
366
125
305
216
330
320
326
2.64
3lo2
3.81
2.62
3.71
3.24
3.71
1.80
4)54
2.86
1,86
2.67
2.34
2.75
1.31
3.27
2^91
2.05
3.17
2.63
3.21
Total
97
93
64
67
62
77
325
315
213
227
233
263
3.17
3.06
2.08
2.19
2.04
2.51
SOUTHERN REGION:
93
146
172
151
80
110
169
153
82
50
150
87
76
93
152
103
64
69
164
97
79
94
129
118
354
631
557
541
292
487
613
517
282
222
550
299
286
412
533
342
310
575
339
291
412
566
406
3.07
4.81
5.75
4.94
2.64
3.63
5.68
4.94
2.72
1.63
5.03
2.80
2.53
3.06
5.10
3.30
2.26
6.05
3.12
4.98
2.61
3.08
5.52
3.82
Alabama Groat Southern
Contral of Georgia
Charleston 4 .Vestsrn Carolina
Clinchfield
130
216
107
366
100
191
97
457
109
213
90
246
103
176
70
128
127
225
70
152
114
204
87
270
371
795
369
1160
306
762
363
1487
490
340
821
340
753
507
312
692
266
395
455
394
979
281
595
576
345
810
328
876
514
4.49
7.46
3.61
5.17
3.45
6.55
3.29
14.29
4.63
3.77
7.27
3.04
7.66
4.76
3.55
2.-38
— I^li—
2.37
4.75
5.24
3.93
6.98
2.94
8.43
4.63
Georgia R.R.
Georgia 4 Florida
Gulf.Lobilo 4 Ohio
163
263
190
138
162
250
169
131
324
68
147
227
273
86
—1=5
223
127
69
159
241
217
106
522
582
613
409
541
623
586
406
319
538
593
743
286
283
491
500
621
276
223
553
494
456
284
294
558
604
332
299
9.75
406
9.27
5.37
4.15
i-i1
8.93
10.29
2.79
2.76
8.39
8.69
2.70
2.14
8.25
4.03
2.81
2.73
6.92
6.88
3.36
. 3-03
Louisville 4 Nashville
Nashville, Chattanooga 4 St. Louie
Hew Orleans i Northeastern
Norfolk Southern
131
162
76
236
128
150
67
249
101
114
66
216
111
62
208
—87
115
68
197
102
130
68
221
377
477
287
551
392
492
262
592
315
358
260
501
335
270
491
351
269
467
460
403
270
520
5.91
2.56
8.19
5.50
3*53
4.17
2.22
7.39
4.07
2.09
7.10
2.-30
6.71
4.77
2.29
7.58
Savannah 4 Atlanta a
Seaboard Air Lino
Southern Ry.
Tennessee Central
western Ry.of Alabana
104
86
115
199
72
82
110
168
69
75
146
168
89
74
128
174
173
73
67
117
205
85
77
123
163
339
302
347
645
249
293
338
609
320
264
394
312
252
334
607
532
263
267
328
718
297
276
348
638
3.45
2.76
3.78
6.65
2.38
2.65
3.62
5.63
2.96
4lei
5.60
2.96
2.38
4.23
S.82
2.43
2.15
3.85
6.84
2.64
2.47
Total
130
118
99
89
93
106
411
386
325
290
323
347
4.31
3.91
3.27
L^L
LJ±JI
Table B
> LAINTAIIIEC TRACK 1
: RENEWALS TO TOTAL (
i 1952 to 1956, inclusive
I MAINTAINED TRACK
Humbor of
ne. »oo
t oro.e
ie renewals
• w.
sate oo.
t of new
w^od rr
•newal.
"all"u
Road
mile of
maintain
0 tr.ok
per mile of m
traok
. In tra
^renewaia
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
avorage
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
5 y.ar
1952
1953
1954
1555
1956
ave^e
NORTHWESTERN REGION t
Chicago 4 North Western
68
77
35
46
70
59
• 206
5265
♦117
♦169
•265
♦204
1.56
3.08
2.15
2.34
Chicago Great Western
100
75
54
92
95
83
382
297
305
310
302
2.79
Chicago, LUlwaukoe, St. Paul * Pacific
50
54
59
148
175
145
213
213
1.61
1.55
1.54
1.30
Chicago, St. Faul,I.'.inneapolio 4 Omaha
57
76
52
58
57
183
278
150
195
215
1.91
Duluth.i.isaabo 4 Iron Range
-iS-
— m2-
5i
39
55
170
218
223
196
148
191
2.23
2.05
l.?l
4.53
4.87
Duluth, Winnipeg & Pacific
58
75
57
45
45
246
183
146
156
166
2.62
91
89
74
76
310
331
285
285
296
2.84
2.50
109
192
253
130
135
164
679
460
565
8.78
Lake Superior A l6hpeming
86
77
54
65
7?
72
197
209
155
193
253
2.87
2.51
Llinnaapolis 4 St. Louis
178
165
137
131
100
142
498
■117
290
5.50
5.47
67
284
liinpla.,St.Paul 4 S.S.Larie (incl.Wio.C)
98
101
93
90
99
96
336
346
310
290
291
315
3.26
53
54
52
43
42
49
154
180
180
147
150
162
1.82
1.85
Spokane International
393
432
471
240
229
353
1256
1443
1585
792
698
1155
13.50
14.78
Spokane, Portland & Seattle
42
55
61
61
96
63
141
211
236
235
368
242
1.30
1.71
1.99
1.98
3.10
2.02
Total
73
79
62
64
68
69
229
263
208
221
244
233
2.41
2.61
2.05
2.13
2.24
2.29
CENTRAL HBS2BHH REGION:
68
79
79
71
166
211
193
244
216
48
58
35
195
136
116
134
144
1.55
1.88
85
81
73
68
65
74
226
218
193
178
181
155
2.84
2.73
2.46
2.28
53
67
53
49
54
175
224
176
163
171
162
1.78
1.76
1.63
1.63
1.81
Colorado S. Wyondng
82
29
146
__ 25
27
62
369
109
682
'"
107
277
2.66
0.93
4.7»
0.80
0.88
6l
79
54
65
61
236
3«
229
194
247
247
1.96
2.54
1.75
1.55
1.98
88
71
72
93
78
261
225
216
239
315
251
2.91
2.36
2.13
3.06
2.57
215
245
208
251
147
213
702
802
714
811
576
721
7.42
8.49
7.23
8.72
5.11
7.39
57
61
63
79
62
165
196
199
309
1.88
2.13
2.65
Southern Pacific Co. - Pae. Lines
78
7?
74
61
73
269
248
253
253
238
252
2.50
2.61
2.43
78
98
52
75
:i:7
306
324
185
237
264
2.47
2.76
3.06
1.63
1.50
2.37
50
72
65
67
252
171
250
235
235
2.72
2.57
1.76
2.56
2.31
2.36
Western Pacific
142
146
147
115
139
562
567
603
599
549
576
4.77
4.78
4.97
4.94
3.84
Total
72
73
64
69
66
69
226
239
204
225
226
224
2.36
2.41
2.10
2.28
2.17
2.26
SO [HHt .ESTER], REGION.
192
182
46
68
117
561
582
136
280
354
5.76
3.01
106
140
129
450
315
334
367
373
5.02
4.50
3.55
3.60
4.31
210
81
63
117
589
422
295
234
167
345
116
128
108
290
264
292
307
148
114
114
100
122
436
394
324
335
294
357
3.71
81
84
87
328
232
243
243
256
3.63
112
66
282
278
a9
313
192
257
3-37
3.14
2.35
81
320
437
301
258
307
3.54
3.21
87
276
266
279
233
275
128
368
396
375
380
436
391
Texas rexican
133
99
120
94
109
111
453
323
421
275
324
359
3.13
Total
135
121
101
104
97
112
36<
352
267
297
279
320
4.44
3.98
3.35
3.39
3.16
Grand total, United StateB
91
69
70
73
72
79
296
300
230
242
247
263
3.02
2.96
2.31
2.43
2.38
2.62
!SS-
135
139
118
112
lit
87
12.
108
357
406
407
354
345
304
356
278
363
33lt
4.61
4.54
4.76
4.42
3°52
3.64
3.18
6.69
3-96
2.93
ll.25
3.72
6.76
0M"i' "°rthl""i
283
321
233
194
238
254
874
1073
966
662
1026
960
.03
> January 1, 1956.
Conpiled by
mda, Bureau of 1
Reports of Class I railways to tl
May, 1957
Advance Report of Committee 15 — Iron and Steel Structures
A. R. Harris, Chairman
THE EFFECT OF FABRICATED EDGE CONDI-
TIONS ON BRITTLE FRACTURE OF
STRUCTURAL STEELS
By L. A. Harris1 and N. M. Newmark2
A Report of an Investigation Conducted by
THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
In Cooperation with
COMMITTEE 15— IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
1 Senior structures engineer, North American Aviation, Inc., Downey, Calif., formerly research
associate in civil engineering, University of Illinois.
2 Head, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois.
245
CONTENTS
Page
Abstract 247
Object and Scope of Investigation 247
Test Procedures 248
Properties of the Steels 251
Tests of Specimens Prepared by Machining, Automatic Flame Cutting, Manual
iFlame Cutting, or Shearing 253
Subsequent Treatments of Edge Preparations 257
Conclusions 259
Acknowledgement 260
Tables and Figures
Tables 1 to 6, incl 261 to 273, incl.
Figs. 1 to 16, incl 274 to 289, incl.
246
THE EFFECT OF FABRICATED EDGE CONDI-
TIONS ON BRITTLE FRACTURE
OF STRUCTURAL STEELS
ABSTRACT
Static tensile tests were conducted on specimens of a rimmed steel and a semi-killed
steel meeting ASTM A 7 requirements, a structural silicon steel (ASTM A 94), and a low-
alloy high-tensile steel (ASTM A 242). The fabricated edge conditions used included
machined edges, sheared edges, flame-cut edges, and in some cases, flame-cut edges sub-
sequently flame softened. The flame-cut edges were prepared by both manual and guided
flame-cutting techniques.
It was concluded from the tests that for all the steels tested the strength and ductility
of the machined edges were good. For all except the silicon steel, the strength and ductility
of the guided flame-cut edges were also good. However, with the manual flame-cutting
procedure, there was in some cases serious impairment of the physical properties. Even
guided flame cutting impaired the properties of the silicon steel, but ductility and strength
appeared to be restored by subsequent appropriate flame softening of the edge.
The sheared edge impaired the ductility of all of the steels tested. The greatest loss
in ductility was caused in the semi-killed steel where the maximum strength also was
reduced, in some instances falling as low as the yield strength. The harmful effect of the
sheared edge on the ductility was apparently alleviated by a subsequent flame-softening
treatment. The strength and ductility apparently were increased, but it is not known
whether equally beneficial results would be obtained with larger members because of the
residual tensile stresses introduced by such flame softening.
Only under the most damaging edge conditions was the strength at a brittle fracture
as low as the yield point. With the better methods of edge preparation, the strength was
considerably above the yield point and approached the usual ultimate strength of the
material.
OBJECT AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION
During the past two decades, it has become increasingly apparent that the standard
acceptance tests for structural steels, although giving much useful information concerning
their physical properties, may not provide all the information necessary to predict accu-
rately the behavior of the steels in service. Particularly lacking is information concerning
the effect on the static tensile behavior of edge preparations encountered in fabricating
procedures. It was the purpose of this program to investigate the effect of edge condi-
tions, that is, the effect of the method of preparing the edge of the material, on the
tendency toward brittle behavior.
Premature failures of structural members in the laboratory and in the field have
indicated that the method of preparing the edge of the material can have a considerable
effect on the properties of the member. The tests reported herein provide information on
the effect of edge conditions on strength and ductility which support the restrictions
commonly specified on the use of certain fabricating techniques.
Four steels, namely, ASTM designations A 7 (semi-killed sted), A 7 (rimmed steel),
A 94 (structural silicon steel), and A 242 (low-alloy high-tensile steel, commercial desig
nation*, Mayari R), were employed in the Investigation. Specimens of each of these steels
•The mechanical and metallurgical properties "f steels which comply with ASTM designation A 242
are so varied that it is desirable to mention the trade name ol Ou- particular steel used In this tnveKlgltlon
247
248 Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
were fabricated with the test edges prepared either by shearing, machining, manual flame
cutting, or automatic flame cutting. In addition to these edge conditions, study was also
made of the effect of a weld arc-strike on a machined or on a sheared edge and of the
effect of manually flame softening a sheared edge or a flame-cut edge (silicon steel only).
The test specimens were such that the static tensile properties of the steels subjected
to the various test conditions could be compared. The specimens were tested at tempera-
tures in the range from — 70 to + 80 deg F.
TEST PROCEDURES
Details of Test Specimens
Each test specimen (see Fig. 1) was prepared from two halves and had a reduced
section 4 in wide and 4 in long. All the specimens were prepared from -)4-in plate, with
the direction of rolling parallel to the length of the specimen. Each half contained a test
edge located at the center line of the assembled specimen. The outside reduced edges were
draw-filed. The two halves were joined at each end by tack welds. Although these welds
often fractured during the course of the test, this did not appear to affect the results.
Stress on Test Edges
Because each half of the test specimen was not symmetrical about its own center
line, some non-uniform straining of each half of the specimen was expected. To evaluate
this non-uniform straining, type A-ll SR-4 strain gages were mounted at mid-length on
the four edges of two assembled specimens and on the two edges of one half -specimen.
The stress on the test edges in the plastic range was approximated from the measured
strain t>y assuming that the strain distribution was linear across the test section and by
averaging the results from the four strain gages on each specimen. This average curve
was assumed to represent the stress-strain curve for the material. The stresses correspond-
ing to the measured strains were determined graphically with the aid of this stress-strain
curve.
The stress on the test edges was less than the nominal stress (PJ A) by an amount
which increased in the elastic range to a maximum at the yield point of about 30 percent
of the nominal stress. This non-uniform stress distribution corresponded to an eccen-
tricity of about % in. When yielding occurred, the non-uniform straining was almost
eliminated, but further straining caused the stress on the test edge to be a maximum of
about 10 percent less than the nominal stress.
It should be remembered when reviewing the test data that the fracture stress on, the
test edge was probably less than the nominal maximum stress in all cases. Since the brittle
fractures practically always originated at the test edge(s), it can be assumed that the stress
on the test edge at fracture was never greater than the values reported in the tables and
graphs (except for the very local stress concentration effects resulting from notches or
irregularities in the test edge). The magnitude of the stress on the test edge could not,
of course, be determined for each specimen tested; therefore, the test results have been
interpreted in terms of the nominal stress.
Preparation of Test Edges
All of the test strips, except those to be manually flame-cut, were first automatically
flame-cut from the base plate to a width Y^ in oversize. The details employed in the
preparation of the various test edge conditions are reviewed below. Photographs of each
of the edge conditions are shown in Fig. 2.
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions 249
(a) Machined Edges
The machined edges were prepared by removing with a planer approximately % in
of material from the automatically flame-cut strips. The planer was operated so as to
produce a test edge similar in finish to that which would be produced by a machine shop
in a structural fabrication plant. The edge was slightly rough and jagged to the touch.
(b) Automatically Flame-Cut Edges
The automatically flame-cut edges were prepared with a cutting torch which had a
No. 6 tip. The torch was operated with 4 psi acetylene pressure, 40 psi oxygen pressure,
and a rate of travel of IS in per min. The automatically flame-cut edges were not always
accurately perpendicular to the surface of the plate, and the average width of the plate
was used to compute the area of the test section.
(c) Manually Flame-Cut Edges
The manually flame-cut edges were prepared purposely to bring out the most severe
conditions which might be expected with flame-cut edges. The flame-cutting was per-
formed by a relatively inexperienced man and represents work of a quality which would
be expected from a novice. The torch with a No. 6 tip was operated with 3 psi acetylene
pressure, 34 psi oxygen pressure, and a rate of travel of 18 in per min. The edges wen
so irregular that it was not possible to measure the width of the specimens to the accuracy
that the specimens with the other edge preparations were measured. The contrasting
appearance of the manually and automatically flame-cut edges is clearly shown in Fig. 2.
(d) Sheared Edges
The sheared edges were prepared at the rolling mill and were the outer edges of the
plate material before cutting. Often a sheared edge was not accurately perpendicular to
the surface of the plate. In all cases the edges were rough and jagged, and the thickness
at the sheared edge of the plate was significantly less than the thickness away from
the edge.
After preparation of the test edges in the above manner, some of the edges were
subjected to a subsequent treatment before testing. The subsequent treatments included:
(1) flame softening of flame-cut edges of silicon steel; (2) flame softening of sheared
edges of all four types of steel; (3) depositing a weld arc-strike on machined edges of all
four types of steel; and (4) depositing a weld arc-strike on sheared edges of all four
types of steel.
The flame-softening technique corresponded to the Type III flame-softening proce-
dure as identified by H. H. Moss1 and by the International Acetylene Association.8 The
temperature control was achieved by specifying, as suggested by C. E. Webb and F. H
Dill,3 that the edge be heated uniformly and progressively to a red heat visible in ordinary
shop light to a depth of at least h in. Checks with Tempilstiks indicated that the max-
imum surface temperature achieved in this manner exceeded 1250 deg F. The torch, which
had a number 250-MA-MP Oxweld heating tip, was manually operated with approxi
mately 6 psi acetylene pressure, 60 psi oxygen pressure (probably higher than uecessarj
and a rate of travel of approximately 12 in per min. The appearance of the flame-softened
edge is shown in Fig. 2.
1 Moss, H. H., "Cutting and Tempering of Structural Steels", Welding Journal, Vol, 17, No 1
pp. 7-20, 1938.
M "The Effect of Flame Cutting on Steel", Oxy-Acetylene Committee Publications, Sectloo VIII,
International Acetylene Association, 1938-1939.
•Webb, C. E., and Dill, F. H., "Flame-Cut Structural Silicon Steel Made Ductile", Engineering
News Record, pp. 38-39, Oct. 13, 1949.
250 Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
The arc-strikes, which were added to the test edges just prior to the joining of the
two halves of the specimen, consisted of two parts. In the first part, the welder held the
electrode (an AWS specification E 6010 electrode, &-in diameter) at one point on the
edge, allowing a slight accumulation of weld metal. The second part of the arc-strike
was made by allowing the electrode to be dragged along the test edge for the remaining
distance in the 4-in test section of the specimen. The appearance of the arc-strikes is
shown in Fig. 2.
Method of Testing
The specimens prepared as outlined above were tested statically in axial tension.
The tests were conducted in a 300,000-lb capacity Riehle screw-type testing machine
which applied the load at a rate of 0.052 in per min of travel between heads. The
specimens were held in the heads of the machine by flat grips 4-in wide.
The tests were conducted at temperatures ranging from — 70 to -f- 80 deg F. For
the specimens tested at room temperature, a fan was directed on each specimen during
the test. About 1 hr was required to test a ductile specimen at room temperature, and
the temperature of the specimen increased about 10 deg F during this hour.
A refrigeration system was devised to maintain the temperature of the specimens at
the desired value when the tests were conducted below room temperature. The system,
employing dry ice in a petroleum base solvent as a coolant, is shown schematically in
Fig. 3. Dry ice was added to the reservoir to cool the solvent to the desired temperature.
The cooled solvent was then pumped to the cooling tanks which were clamped against
the sides of the specimens. A coating of oil was placed between the cooling tanks and
the specimens to increase the rate of heat transfer. With this scheme, the temperature rise
during the tests ranged from 0 to 20 deg F, depending on the ductility of the specimen
and on the testing temperature. The reported temperature is the average temperature
during the test.
The temperature was recorded continuously during the tests with a Leeds and
Northrup Type G Speedomax using a copper-constantan thermocouple. The thermocouple
was mounted on a piece of spring steel which held the thermocouple against one of the
reduced edges of the specimen by bearing against the cooling tanks. The spring steel
was insulated from the cooling tanks by means of plastic protectors.
Method of Interpreting the Test Results
The results of the tests are presented in terms of the average temperature during the
test, the reduction of area, and the maximum stress. The percent reduction of area was
determined from micrometer measurements made before a test and after fracture. It was
not possible to determine the reduction of area for those specimens which fractured out
of the test section. The maximum stress is the nominal stress based on the area of the
specimen before testing. For those specimens which fractured out of the test section, the
stress was also computed from the area at the fracture location. This latter stress is ap-
proximately the maximum nominal stress at the time of fracture, since fracture out of the
test section was generally associated with brittle fracture which occurred after very little
plastic action.
In addition to the measurements of the reduction of area, the maximum stress and
the elongation in a 4-in gage length on the specimen, a curve of load versus the deflection
between the testing machine heads was automatically recorded during the tests. Typical
recorded load-deflection curves, one from a ductile specimen and one from a brittle
specimen, are shown in Fig. 4.
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions 251
PROPERTIES OF THE STEELS
Chemical Analysis and Physical Properties of the Steels
For convenience, a letter code was given to each of the four steels as follows:
1. Steel K: ASTM A 7, semi-killed steel
2. Steel L: ASTM A 7, rimmed steel
3. Steel M: ASTM A 94, structural silicon steel
4. Steel P: ASTM A 242, low-alloy high-tensile steel (Mayari-R)
The chemical analyses and average physical properties of the four steels are presented
in Table 1. The chemical analysis is a check analysis prepared by a commercial tesl labora
tory. The physical properties were obtained from tests of standard 8-in gage length
specimens tested with the mill scale surfaces. With the exception of one specimen of steel
K, which had a slightly low tensile strength, all four of the steels met their respective
specifications for chemical content and physical properties.
Average stress-strain diagrams are shown in Fig. S for each of the four steels. Differ-
ences in the strength and ductility of the four steels are clearly illustrated by these stress-
strain diagrams. The ratios of the yield strength to the maximum strength for each of the
steels were as follows:
ASTM A 7, semi-killed 0.57
ASTM A 7, rimmed 0.61
ASTM A 94, structural silicon 0.54
ASTM A 242, low-alloy high-tensile 0.73
Thus, relative to the A 7 steels, the yield point of the A 242 steel was increased a greater
amount than was its tensile strength, whereas the yield point and the tensile strength
of the A 94 steel were increased in about the same proportion.
Charpy V-Notch Impact Tests
The Charpy V-notch impact test was used to determine the qualitative relationship
between the notch impact toughnesses of the four steels. For each steel, six samples were
taken from each of three plates for Charpy specimens. The specimens were taken in 51 ries
of three, the first adjacent to one surface of the plate, the second from the mid-depth
of the plate, and the third adjacent to the opposite surface of the plate. The outer speci-
mens are referred to as surface specimens and the remaining specimen is the center speci-
men. The Charpy specimens were prepared with their length parallel to the direction of
rolling, and the notches were perpendicular to the plane of the plate. The specimens were
tested at temperatures in the range from 0 to -f- 195 deg F.
The results of the impact tests are shown in Fig. 6 and indicate that the Charpy V-
notch behavior of the four steels was similar. To the nearest S deg F, the temperatures
corresponding to the 15 ft-lb energy absorption level were as follow--:
ASTM A 7, semi-killed (steel K) -f 70 di
ASTM A 7, rimmed (steel L) + 84 c'.
ASTM A 94, structural silicon (steel M ) -f 85 d.
ASTM A 242, low-alloy high-tensile (steel P) + 55 d<
These results indicate that, for this method of testing, the A 7 rimmed steel and the \
structural silicon steel were slightly more notch sensitive than either the A 7 semi-killed
steel or the A 242 low-alloy high-tensile steel. The results of the Charpy tests were used
252 Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
only to obtain a qualitative rating of the notch toughness of the four steels, and a strict
correlation would not necessarily exist between the Charpy impact behavior of a steel
and the behavior of the same steel in service or in a different test.
Metallurgical Examination of the Steels
A section perpendicular to the plane of the plate and to the test edge was metal-
lurgically polished and etched with a 2-percent nital solution. Photomicrographs of these
sections at about 80 X are given in Fig. 7.
Steel K, the ASTM A 7 semi-killed steel, indicated a heavy carbide segregation which
was not present in the other steels, with the exception of the typical segregation in the
rimmed steel. Steel K had numerous inclusions, most of which appeared round or ellip-
tical. Similar inclusions were noted in steel P, the ASTM A 242 low-alloy high-tensile
steel. Inclusions were not easily detected in steel M, the structural silicon steel, because
of the large amount of pearlite present. Steels K, L, and M had relatively large austenite
grain sizes compared to steel P.
Metallurgical Examination of Edge Preparations
Sections perpendicular to the test edges and to the plane of the plate were polished
and etched with 2 percent nital to permit a study of the metallurgical changes caused by
the edge preparations. Photomicrographs of these sections at a magnification of 100X*
were prepared, and a discussion of the effect of the various edge preparations on the
microstructure is given below.
(a) Machined Edges (Photomicrographs in Fig. 7)
For all of the steels, the machining procedure produced very little distortion at the
edges, perhaps only to a depth of 0.001 or 0.002 in.
(b) Automatically Flame-Cut Edges (Photomicrographs in Fig. 8)
Steels K, L, and P reacted similarly to the automatic flame-cutting procedure. The
heating caused complete austenization to a depth of about 0.01 in, but little carbon dif-
fusion occurred. Apparently these three steels contained some residual stress, since recrys-
talization was observed of ferrite which was not transformed to austenite. The manual
flame-cutting procedure had about the same effect on steel K as the automatic procedure.
The other steels were not examined metallurgically after manual flame-cutting.
Steel M had a much deeper heat-affected zone than the other three steels, almost
complete solution occurring across the field (0.03 in) . A few ferrite envelopes at the aus-
tenite grain boundaries did not go into solution, and these might have lowered the ductility
of the steel.
(c) Sheared Edge (Photomicrographs in Fig. 9)
Shearing of all of the steels resulted in a fibrous-type structure near the surface of
the sheared edge. For all four of the steels, the distortion is pronounced across the entire
field observed at 100X- For the sections examined, those of steels M and K appear to
have been the most heavily distorted, but the effect of shearing would probably vary from
section to section along the length of the sheared edge.
(d) Sheared and Subsequently Flame-Softened Edge (Photomicrographs in Fig. 10)
The sheared specimens of steels K, L, and P were affected to about the same extent
by the flame softening treatment; complete austenization occurred to a depth of about
% in. A slight decarburization was noted at the flame-softened sheared edge, and the
* The reproductions of the photomicrographs presented with this report were reduced and have a
magnification of about 80X.
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions 253
maximum grain size at the edge was considerably smaller than the original grain size of
the rolled plate. The structure of the ferrite indicated a fairly rapid cooling rate, but there
was no indication that hardening occurred. The heat effects did not change the
distribution of the inclusions found in the sheared specimens.
For steel M, the heat-affected zone was about the same width as in the other steels.
For this steel, a very fine-grained structure was noted in regions heated just over the A;,
temperature. In regions heated between the criticals, very fine austenite grains appeared
in a network of ferrite envelopes of the previous grain size.
(e) Flame-cut and Subsequently Flame-Softened Edges of Silicon Steel (Photomicro-
graph in Fig. 11)
The structure in the heat-affected zone of the flame softened, flame-cut specimen was
very similar to that of the sheared, flame-softened specimen, except that the distribution
of the inclusions in the flame-cut specimen was the same as that of the as-rolled plate. In a
narrow band at the edge, chances of carburization and of decarburization both exist,
depending on which portion of the oxyacetylene flame was in contact with the edge.
Regions of completely ferritic or completely pearlitic structures have been noted at the
edge.
(f) Arc-Strike on a Machined Edge
The structure of the weld bead was characterized by a typical strongly columnar
structure, with very slight penetration into the base metal. At the fusion zone, cracks
appeared in the form of incomplete fusion with the base metal. The base metal was
affected to only a slight depth below the weld, and a completely martensitic structure
occurred at the junction of the weld metal and the base metal. In the region heated
between the critical temperatures, ferrite which did not go into solution existed in a matrix
of martensite of high carbon content, and thus of much higher hardness than the marten-
site resulting from complete austenization.
Hardness Surveys of Edges of Structural Silicon Steel
A diamond pyramid indenter with a 1000-g load was used to take hardness surveys
of the section along a line at about the mid-depth of the plate perpendicular to the pre-
pared edges of specimens of silicon steel. The results of these surveys are given in Table 2.
Of those edges examined, the steel adjacent to the edges of the flame-cut specimen
was the hardest. Flame softening reduced the hardness adjacent to the flame-cut edge,
but the hardness away from the edge was greater for the flame-softened, flame-cut edge
than for the flame-cut edge.
The depth to which shearing affected the hardness was considerably greater than for
flame-cutting, but the maximum hardness adjacent to the sheared edge was not as great
as the hardness adjacent to the flame-cut edge. The flame-softening treatment lev
the hardness of the sheared edge, but not to that of the as-rolled plate, as indicated by
the hardness survey of the machined edge specimen.
The machining procedure had little effect on the hardness of the metal adjacent to
the test edge.
TESTS OF SPECIMENS PREPARED BY MACHINING, AUTOMATIC FLAME
CUTTING, MANUAL FLAME CUTTING, OR SHEARING
Steel K: ASTM A 7, Semi-Killed Steel
The results of the edge condition tests of steel K are presented in Table 3 and in
Fig. 12. Only the tests of the specimens with edges prepared by machining, manual flame
254 Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
cutting, automatic flame cutting, or shearing are discussed in this section. The other edge
conditions are discussed later.
The specimens tested with machined edges and with automatically flame-cut edges
behaved somewhat the same, there being a relatively consistent decrease in ductility with
decreasing temperature. As the temperature decreased from -f 80 to — 60 deg F, the
reduction of area decreased from a range of 45-55 percent to a range of 35—45 percent.
In contrast to the ductility of the machined and the automatically flame-cut speci-
mens, the sheared specimens fractured in a relatively brittle manner. The reduction of
area decreased from about 20 percent at + 80 deg F to about 5 percent at — 65 deg F.
Thus, the ductility which the engineer relies on to prevent a rapid, complete failure might
not be available in a member with a sheared edge at its critical section, especially at low
temperatures. This confirms the restrictions commonly specified against shearing edges.
The specimens with manually flame-cut edges behaved much the same as the
sheared specimens. As indicated in Fig. 2, the manually flame-cut edge was rough and
jagged compared to the automatically flame-cut edge. In addition, the variation from
specimen to specimen was much greater for the manually cut edges. Comparison of the
tests of the automatically and of the manually flame-cut edges shows that a large difference
in physical properties can be expected from flame-cut edges of different quality. The irreg-
ularities of the manually prepared flame-cut edge appear to cause severe loss of ductility,
and this type of edge should be avoided wherever possible.
In contrast to the decrease in the reduction of area with decreasing temperature,
Fig. 12 indicates that, with the exception of one manually flame-cut specimen, the maxi-
mum strength of the semi-killed steel increased with decreasing temperature. For this
steel all of the specimens produced with the various edge conditions had about the same
strength at a given temperature ; at + 80 deg F, the maximum stress was in the range
of 60-67 ksi and increased to approximately 70 ksi at about ■ — 65 deg F. It should be
noted that in spite of their lower ductility, the specimens tested with sheared edges and
with manually flame-cut edges had maximum strengths approximately the same as those
specimens tested with machined edges or with automatically flame-cut edges. If there was
any difference in the maximum strength of the specimens prepared with the four edge
conditions being discussed here, the sheared specimens appeared to be slightly stronger
than the specimens with the other edge preparations.
Steel L: ASTM A 7, Rimmed Steel
Steel L, the ASTM A 7 rimmed steel, had a slightly higher yield point and a slightly
lower tensile strength than steel K, the A 7 semi-killed steel. The Charpy tests indicated
that the rimmed steel L was slightly more notch sensitive than the semi-killed steel K.
The results of the edge conditions tests of steel L are given in Table 4 and in Fig. 14.
The machined and the automatically flame-cut specimens of steel L behaved about the
same as the similarly prepared specimens of steel K. The automatically flame-cut speci-
mens were slightly less ductile than the machined specimens, but the difference was not
excessive and was somewhat masked by the scatter encountered in the tests of this steel.
Of particular note is the automatically flame-cut specimen which was tested at — 29 deg
F. In preparing this specimen, the automatic flame-cutting equipment stopped at one
location sufficiently long to flame-cut a notch about tV in deep. This specimen had some-
what less ductility than the other automatically flame-cut specimens, but the maximum
stress was not lower.
In contrast to the relatively ductile behavior of the automatically flame-cut speci-
mens, the manually flame-cut specimens were relatively brittle, especially at temperatures
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
below +30 deg F. At — 22 deg F, the reduction of area of the specimen with manualh
flame-cut edges was 6.5 percent. Comparison of the specimens with automatically and
with manually flame-cut edges indicated that a wide variation of physical properties can
be expected of flame-cut edges of different quality, especially at low temperatures. At
+ 80 deg F, the reduction of area of the manually flame-cut specimen was only about
IS percent while the reduction of area of the automatically cut specimen was about
35 percent.
Of particular interest were the sheared specimens of steel L, all of which exhibited
extreme embrittlement. Even at room temperature, the reduction of area did not exceed
4 percent. Such behavior by a structural steel in service could result in a sudden fracture
after very little plastic straining. Only limited results can be presented for the sheared
specimens because the fractures often occurred out of the test section, and the reduction
of area could not be determined precisely, although in such cases it was usually very low.
The importance of the tests of the sheared specimens is further illustrated by tin-
plot in Fig. 14 of the maximum stress as a function of the average temperature during
testing. It may be noted that the sheared specimens fractured at maximum stresses which
were at or only slightly above the room temperature coupon yield point. For those speci-
mens which fractured out of the test section, the symbols on the graph marked "d" indi-
cate the stress based on the area in the test section, whereas the symbol "c" indicates
the stress on the same specimen based on the area at the location of fracture. Some of
these latter specimens fractured at stresses, based on the area at the fracture location,
which were as much as 7000 psi below the room temperature coupon yield point.
The tests are of special interest because they indicate that the sheared edge may be
an efficient method of initiating a brittle fracture at a relatively low nominal stress. The
tests indicate that fracture might originate at a nominal stress below the yield point for a
highly notch sensitive steel (similar to steel L) , when used with a sheared edge.
Steel M: ASTM A 94, Structural Silicon Steel
Steel M, the structural silicon steel, had a higher yield strength and a lower ductility
than either the semi-killed or the rimmed A 7 steels, and had a Charpy V-notch impact
transition temperature about the same as that of the rimmed steel. The differences in the
physical properties are also reflected in the results of the edge condition tests reported in
Table 5 and in Fig. 15.
The machined edges of the silicon steel were relatively ductile, though less so than
either of the A 7 steels. The reduction of area of the specimens with machined edges
decreased from about 40 percent at 4- 80 deg F to a range of 20-25 percent at about
— 60 deg F, whereas the maximum stress increased with decreasing temperature. It was
noted that the greater strength of the A 94 steel relative to that of the A 7 steels com-
pensated for the relatively low elongations, so that the machined specimens of steel M
had about the same energy absorption as the A 7 steels.
For the sheared specimens the reduction of area decreased from about 8 percent at
+ 80 deg F to less than 3 percent at — 70 deg F. For those sheared specimens tested at
4- 50 deg F and above, the maximum strength was about equal to the room temperature
maximum strength. However, all but one of the specimens tested at -f- 30 deg F or below
fractured at strengths between the coupon maximum and yield strengths. Ml oi these latter
specimens fractured out of the test section. One specimen which was tested at about 4- 5
deg F fractured at a stress, based on the area in the test section, slightly greater than the
yield point; but the stress based on the area at the fracture location was slightl) below
the coupon yield point. Since both the maximum load and the ductility of the sheared
256 Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
specimens decreased with decreasing temperature, the energy absorption followed a similar
trend and was extremely small.
The silicon steel was the only one of the four steels in which the automatically flame-
cut specimens produced low ductilities and low strengths. The reduction of area of these
flame-cut specimens was only slightly greater than that of the sheared specimens. The
maximum stress for the automatically flame-cut specimens, however, was greater than for
the sheared specimens, although in many cases less than the maximum strength of the
machined specimens. Metallurgical examination of the automatically flame-cut specimens
showed that the hardness adjacent to the flame-cut edge was very high. However, subse-
quent flame softening substantially removed the damaging effects, as explained below.
The manually flame-cut specimens were slightly less ductile than the automatically
flame-cut specimens, probably as a result of the pronounced irregularities of the manually
prepared edge. Some of the manually flame-cut specimens fractured at stresses less than
the coupon maximum strength but greater than the coupon yield strength. Thus, com-
pared to the specimens with automatically flame-cut edges, the specimens with manually
prepared edges are less ductile and might fracture at considerably lower stresses.
Steel P: ASTM A 242, Low-Alloy High-Tensile Steel
Steel P, the low-alloy high-tensile steel had a coupon ductility about the same as that
of the silicon steel (steel M), but had a lower maximum strength and a higher yield
strength than the silicon steel. The results of the edge conditions tests of steel P are given
in Table 6 and in Fig. 16.
For this steel, the relatively large reduction of area of the machined and of the auto-
matically flame-cut specimens was practically independent of the temperature, the auto-
matically flame-cut specimens being slightly less ductile than the machined specimens.
The maximum stresses for the machined and for the automatically flame-cut specimens,
however, were about the same and increased with decreasing temperature.
As for the tests of steels K and L, the manually flame-cut specimens of steel P were
considerably more brittle than the automatically flame-cut specimens. For steel P, the
manually flame-cut specimens were as brittle as the sheared specimens and had reductions
of area less than 13 percent at all temperatures of testing. None of the manually flame-
cut specimens of steel P fractured at a stress greatly below the coupon maximum strength.
The tests of the sheared specimens of steel P are as interesting as the tests of the
sheared specimens of the other steels, indicating low ductility and generally low strength
at all temperatures. The reduction of area was greater than 3 percent for only one sheared
specimen. Similar low values were found in terms of the elongation and the energy absorp-
tion. As in the tests of the sheared edges of the other steels, the maximum stress for many
of the sheared specimens tested at low temperatures was below that of the room tempera-
ture coupon maximum strength and was close to the coupon yield stress.
Comparison of Tests of Four Steels
The results of the tests of the four steels were quite similar with the exceptions noted
below. For all of the steels, the specimens with machined edges were ductile in behavior.
With the exception of the A 94 structural silicon steel, the automatically flame-cut speci-
mens were also satisfactorily ductile. For the silicon steel, the transition between ductile
and brittle behavior of the automatically flame-cut specimens appeared to occur at about
+ 80 deg F.
For the specimens failing in a ductile manner, the ductility of the specimens prepared
from the A 94 silicon steel was slightly less than that of the other three steels, the reduction
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions 257
of areas at + 80 deg F being about 10 percent less. In strength, the ductile specimens
of the A 7 semi-killed and rimmed steels were about equal, the A 242 steel was about
20,000 psi stronger than the A 7 steels, and the A 94 steel was about 10,000 psi strongei
than the A 242 steel.
The manually flame-cut specimens and the sheared specimens of each of thi
were brittle at all temperatures of testing, although the specimens prepared from the A 7
semi-killed steel were slightly more ductile than the specimens from any of the other
three steels. Some of the brittle specimens prepared from the A 7 rimmed steel, the A 94
silicon steel, and the A 242 low-alloy high-tensile steel fractured at stresses which were
less than the coupon maximum strength. Some of these specimens failed at stresses approxi-
mately of yield point magnitude. Of the sheared specimens tested, the A 7 rimmed steel
and the A 242 low-alloy high-tensile steel fractured at the lowest stresses.
Comparison of the results from the tests of the A 7 steels in the sheared condition
indicates that the semi-killed steel was more ductile than the rimmed steel. In addition,
the maximum stress of the sheared specimens was as great as that of the machined
specimen for the semi-killed steel, whereas the maximum stress of the sheared specimens
of the rimmed steel was as low as the coupon yield strength.
SUBSEQUENT TREATMENTS OF EDGE PREPARATIONS
Effect of Flame Softening of Flame-cut Edges of Silicon Steel
As noted above, steel M (ASTM A 94 structural silicon steel) was the only one of the
four steels for which the automatically flame-cut edge behaved in a brittle manner. The
deleterious effect of flame-cutting structural silicon steel has been known for some time,
and a flame-softening procedure is commercially used to improve the behavior of flame-cut
edges of this steel.
As indicated in Table 5 and in Fig. IS, the flame-softening procedure eliminated the
brittle behavior of the automatically flame-cut edges for all but one specimen which had
a reduction of area of only 10 percent. The physical properties of the specimens were
improved so that the flame-softened, flame-cut edges were as ductile as the specimens
with machined edges. It was noted also that the flame-softening procedure eliminated the
excessively high hardness adjacent to the flame-cut edge.
Effect of Flame Softening a Sheared Edge
The specimens prepared with sheared edges fractured in a brittle manner, with rela-
tively low ductility and low maximum stress. Since shearing of an edge or punching of a
hole are both relatively economical fabrication procedures, specimens from each steel
were prepared with flame-softened sheared edges to see if the ductility and maximum
stress of the sheared edge could be increased.
In an investigation of the bend properties of specimens of ASTM A 201 and A 285
steels with notches prepared by machining, flame cutting, or shearing, S. S. Tor, J. M.
Rusek, and R. D. Stout4 found that flame-cutting and shearing lowered the notch tough-
ness and that subsequent heat treatments at 1150 deg F and 1600 deg F increased tin-
notch toughness. It was concluded that local flame normalizing of these edges might also
increase the notch toughness.
The results of the tests of the flame-softened sheared edges were verj encouraging
For each of the four steels, the flame-softening procedure increased the strength and the
«Tbr, S. S.p Ruzek, J. M., and Stout, R. D., "The Effect ol Fabrication Processes on Steels Used in
Pressure Vessels", Welding Journal, Vol. 30, No. 9, pp. 446s-450s, 1951.
258 Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
ductility of the sheared specimens so that they performed nearly as well as the specimens
having machined edges. In general, the flame-softened sheared specimens had satisfactory
strengths and ductilities at all temperatures of testing.
The flame-softening treatment has been economically applied to edges of structural
silicon steel fabricated by flame cutting. It is conceivable that the procedure could also be
economical for use on sheared edges if the general validity of these results is established
by further research. The procedure could be used advantageously also in the treatment
of punched holes if a suitable torch could be developed. However, additional research
would be required to determine the effectiveness of flame softening a punched hole and to
determine whether it would be an economical procedure.
Although these tests indicated a large beneficial effect from the flame softening of a
sheared edge in silicon steel, it should be noted that structural fabricators have in the past
encountered failures in members so treated.
Effect of an Arc-Strike on a Machined Edge
In the fabrication of a welded structure, the welder often purposely or inadvertently
allows the welding electrode to touch the material he is welding at places outside of the
joint area. In so doing, the arc is started and a small amount of metal is melted and
deposited. This deposit, often used by the welder to locate the region to be welded, is
known as an arc-strike. The arc-strike represents a weld deposited under very unfavorable
conditions. Since the weldability of the four steels employed in the edge conditions inves-
tigation is likely to vary widely, it was felt desirable to conduct a limited investigation
of the effect of an arc-strike on the physical properties of the machined edge conditions
specimen.
IFrom the test results, it is apparent that the arc-strike can produce a serious reduc-
tion in the ductility and in the maximum stress of a steel, especially at low tempera-
tures. For the A 7 semi-killed steel (Fig. 12), the deleterious action of the arc-strike
was the least pronounced, the ductility of the specimens being slightly gi eater than for
the sheared specimens. However, for the A 7 rimmed steel, the A 94 silicon steel, and
the A 242 low-allow high-tensile steel (Figs. 14, 15, and 16, respectively) the arc-strike
specimens were about as brittle as the sheared specimens at temperatures below + 30
deg F. At about + 85 deg F, the specimens of steels L and P were more ductile than
the sheared specimens but less ductile than the machined specimens. Mcst of the arc-
strike specimens fractured with low values of ductility, and the fractures occurred at
stresses considerably less than the coupon maximum strength.
Thus, for some steels, the effect of the arc-strike on a machined edge was as great
as that of the sheared edge. As a consequence, in the fabrication or the repair of struc-
tures by welding, every effort should be made to avoid the occurrence of arc-strikes
which are not subsequently removed or treated to reduce their detrimental effect.
Effect of an Arc-Strike on a Sheared Edge
The tests have shown that the sheared edge serves as an extremely efficient method
of initiating a brittle fracture. In service, brittle fractures have occurred at operating
nominal stresses well below the yield point of the steel. In the laboratory, however, it
has not been possible to initiate fractures at such low stresses in unnotched specimens,
although some fractures have occurred at stresses below the maximum stress. In this
series of tests, an arc-strike was deposited on the sheared edge in an attempt to initiate
fracture at stresses below the yield point.
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions 259
As shown by the solid squares in the graphical results, none of the sheared specimens
with an arc-strike fractured at a stress a greater amount below the yield stress of the
material than did the specimens with sheared edges. The arc-strike had little or no dam-
aging effect on the sheared specimens of those steels for which the sheared specimens
fractured with very low ductility. However, for steel K, the A 7 semi-killed steel which
was somewhat more ductile in the sheared condition than the other steels, the arc strike-
reduced the ductility of the sheared specimens to that of the sheared specimens of the
other steels. Thus, the effect of the arc-strike on the sheared edge is to further reduce
the ductility of the specimen so that the reduction of area is on the order of 1 percent,
provided that the ductility is not already this low.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are based on the results of the tests presented in this
report.
(1) Machined edges of structural quality do not impair the physical properties of
structural steels.
(2) For structural steels, except those having relatively high hardenabilities, the
automatically flame-cut edge does not impair the physical properties of the steel. In pre-
paring the automatically flame-cut edge, care must be taken to avoid the occurrence
of surface irregularities which might embrittle the steel.
(3) The use of the automatically flame-cut edge is likely to cause brittle fracture
at temperatures only slightly below -f- 80 deg F for a structural silicon steel corresponding
to ASTM designation A 94. Favorable ductility and strength can be restored to the
flame-cut silicon steel by subsequent flame softening.
(4) The manual flame-cutting procedure is likely to impair seriously the physical
properties of structural steels. The surface of the manual flame-cut edge is rough com-
pared to the automatically flame-cut edge, and it is believed that this roughness accounts
for the low ductility of the manually flame-cut edge.
(5) Of the edge conditions studied, the sheared edge was the most harmful, causing
severe loss in ductility of all of the steels tested. Steels prepared with sheared edges arc-
likely to fail with very low ductility and energy absorption, and for some steels, the
maximum stress might be as low as the yield strength.
(6) The deleterious effect of the sheared edge may possibly be eliminated for some
steels by a subsequent flame-softening treaiment. This treatment seems to increase the
strength, the ductility, and the energy absorption sometimes almost to that of the same
steel with machined edges. It is probable that the flame-softening treatment can be suc-
cessfully applied to a punched hole provided that a suitable heating torch is developed
for the purpose. However, this observation requires further substantiation by tests of a
variety of steels. The possibility of harmful residual tensions at the flame-softened edge
has not been investigated.
(7) The arc-strike on the machined edge has practically the same damaging effect
as the sheared edge, at temperatures below + 30 deg F. Arc-strikes should be avoided
because of their tendency to initiate brittle fractures.
(8) An arc-strike on a sheared edge will reduce the ductility and the energy absorp-
tion to practically zero, provided that these properties of the sheared specimens are not
already practically zero.
(9) For those edge conditions which caused brittle fractures, the specimens pre-
pared from the ASTM A 7 semi-killed steel used in this investigation were somewhat
more ductile than the similarly prepared specimens from the other three steels,
260 Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research reported in this paper was conducted in the Talbot Laboratory of the
University of Illinois and constitutes part of the structural research program of the De-
partment of Civil Engineering. The research was sponsored by Committee 15 of the
American Railway Engineering Association, and the steels were furnished by the American
Institute of Steel Construction.
Valuable assistance during the investigation was given by R. J. Mosborg, associate
professor of civil engineering. The authors acknowledge gratefully his assistance; also
that of R. W. Bohl, associate professor of metallurgical engineering, who conducted the
metallurgical investigations; and that of F. H. Dill, assistant to vice-president — Engineer-
ing Research and Development, American Bridge Division, United States Steel Corpora-
tion, who aided in the development of the flame-softening technique used in the inves-
tigation and who gave valuable suggestions regarding this report. Special acknowledgment
is due W. H. Munse, research professor of civil engineering, who gave valuable advice
and suggestions during the course of the program and in the preparation of this paper.
Effect o f Fabricated Edge Conditions
261
d
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262
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
TABLE 2
HARDNESS SURVEYS NEAR EDGES OF STRUCTURAL SILICON STEELS
Diamond Pyramid Indenter with 1000 g. load
Edge Condition
Flame -Cut
Sheared
Distance
and
and
from edge
Flame
Flame
Flame
0.001 mm
Machined
Cut
Softened
Sheared
Softened
15
220
3^5
275
301+
265
1+0
—
280
—
307
—
50
—
—
25I+
—
21+9
TO
—
25I4-
—
288
—
100
202
237
2 1+9
278
259
125
—
232
—
259
—
150
—
207
2 31+
27U
21+0
200
207
19k
230
2 1+9
223
500
—
—
213
—
221
1+00
—
202
212
229
212
500
205
207
216
221
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
263
TABLE 3 ^
RESULTS OF TESTS OF STEEL K, ASTM A7 SEMI -KILLED STEEL
Note: Superscript A or B on Specimen No. indicates that only designated part
of specimen was fractured.
Average
Percent
Percent
Maximum
Specimen
Temp.
Brittle
Reduction
Percent
Stress
Number
°F.
Appearance
of Area
Elongation
ksi
SPECIMENS WITH
MACHINED EDGES
KA1A
-55
75
38.8
32.9
67.1+
KA2
-17
78
kk.Q
38.7
66.1
KAJ
+78
0
53.0
1+3.6
60.1+
KAU
+6
30
50.6
1+0.0
6i+. 6
KA5A
0
30
^5-5
36.8
63.9
KA6A
-V7
80
te.3
30.5
67.7
KA75
+33
0
51.0
1+1.2
62.5
KAc^
+81
0
*3-3
1+0.1+
59.9
KA11B
-58
100
36.8
22.9
69.5
SPECIMENS WITH AUTOMATICALLY FLAME -CUT EDGES
KC1
+33
58
35.6
36.3
6i+. 0
KC2
-38
97
1+0.0
3^.9
68.8
KC^
+10
0
38.7
36.1
66.0
KCUB
+73
0
U5.8
39.0
61.6
KC5
-62
100
32.5
32.1+
69.5
KC6b
-23
100
35.0
35.0
67.1+
KC7
-5
63
1+1+.1+
32.9
6i+. 6
KCS*
-51
97
1+1.5
27-5
68.8
KC^
+81
0
1+6.8
1+0.3
62.0
KC10A
+30
20
1+8.5
1+0.1
65.2
KC11A
-60
100
i+i+.U
28.9
71.1+
KC12A
+6
51-5
U1.1+
67.O
a or b
fractured out of test section
264
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Average
Percent
Percent
Maximum
Specimen
Temp.
Brittle
Reduction
Percent
Stress
Number
OF.
Appearance
of Area
Elongation
ksi
S]
-54
DECIMENS WITH
MANUALLY FLAME -CUT
EDGES
11.9
KG -1-1
99
10.0
67.9
B
KG1
+28
98
10.7
14. 5
63.I
KG3Bb
-21
100
4.4
55.1C
55.1d
KGl+A
+77
0
SPECIMENS
WITH
21.0
SHEARED EDGES
16.5
59.7
KD1A
+3
100
8.0
7.8
69.O
KD2B
-27
100
6.2
7.0
70.0
kd/
-U3
100
6.3
7-5
71.8
KD4A
-41
100
9.1
8.5
69.9
KD6B
-36
100
2.2
4.7
67.7
KD7B
-67
100
1.2
4.9
69.9
KD8B
-61+
100
5.8
6.1
70.1
KD9
+28
97
11.4
10.6
68.6
KD10
+50
0
20.2
15.0
67.7
KD11B
+32
0
16.7
15.2
68.4
KD12
+78
0
19.1
1+-3
66.1
SPECIMENS
WITH SHEARED
AND
MANUALLY FLAME
SOFTENED EDGES
KD13B
+30
60
28.1
32.5
68.4
KDlc^
-12
60
^3.9
31.2
72.3
KDl4B
-52
98
41.5
22.6
71.9
10)17*
+84
0
+5.5
37.1
64.5
a or b
fractured out of test section
stress based on area at fracture location out of test section
stress based on original area of test section
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
265
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Average
Percent
Percent
Maximum
Specimen
Temp.
Brittle
Reduction
Percent
Stress
Number
°F.
Appearance
of Area
Elongation
ksi
SPECIMENS WITH AN ARC
STRIKE ON A
MACHINED EDGE
KA9
+27
93
18. k
22.2
62.6
KA12
-25
100
9-7
11.6
6U.3
KB8
-50
100
5.2
5.^
57.0
KA10B
+88
1
26.5
2U.8
59-6
KD15
KD201
KD19*
SPECIMENS WITH AN ARC STRIKE ON A SHEARED EDGE
-25
100
1.5
1.2
51.6
+21+
100
1.7
1.6
53.7
+86
100
M
k.Q
62.3
Average
Percent
Percent
Specimen
Temp.
Brittle
Reduction
Number
°F.
Appearance
of Area
266 Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
TABLE k
RESULTS OF TESTS OF STEEL L, ASTM A7 RIMMED STEEL
Note: Superscript A or B on Specimen No. indicates that only designated part
of specimen was fabricated.
Maximum
Percent Stress
Elongation ksi
SPECIMENS WITH MACHINED EDGES
LAI -51+ 86 1+2.5 33. ^ 72.7
LA2 +81 0 U9.J4. 38.8 6k. 8
LA3B -20 90 1+1+.3 29.5 72.5
lAk -1 93 11-6.2 36-U 69.6
LA5B +81 0 1+3.2 37-9 65.3
LA7 +28 75 1+6.7 31.2 69.I
la8 -55 100 38.5 30.0 7^.0
LA9 +28 1+0 1+3.9 ^3-9 67.8
SPECIMENS WITH AUTOMATICALLY FLAME -CUT EDGES
LCI -50 100 32.3 31.3 72.9
LC2A +79 0 39.8 - 33.5 65.0
LC3Bl3e .29 100 15.1+ 82. 1C
72.9d
LCl+A +10 97 28.1+ 28.1+ 69.9
LC5B +35 90 51.4 31.7 67.6
LC6 -2l+ 99 i+o.O 31.7 71.8
LC7 +81 60 28.3 23.8 67.3
LC8B -1+8 100 20.0 19.8 7^.6
a or b
fractured out of test section
c
stress based on area at fracture location out of test section
stress based on original area in test section
fractured out of test section at burned notch about l/l6" deep
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
TABLE 4 (Continued)
267
Average
Percent
Percent
Maximum
Specimen
Temp.
Brittle
Reduction
Percent
Stress
Number
°F.
Appearance of Area
Elongation
ksi
+84
SPECIMENS WITH
MANUALLY FLAME -CUT
EDGES
LB9B
0
15.5
18.9
65.6
LB10Sb
+30
98
6.8
50. 0C
63.7d
LBllAa
-64
100
7.6
67. 0C
67.9d
LB12
-22
100
6.5
k.k
56.9
SPECIMENS
WITH SHEARED EDGES
LDl*
+26
100
0.9
0.7
41.1
LD2Bb
-69
100
0.3
31.7°
40. od
LD3Bt
-36
100
0.5
33. 5C
42.3d
LD4
-70
100
0.8
0.9
44.4
LD5Bt
+75
90
0.9
38. 3C
42.3d
LD6Bb
+26
100
0.5
32.5°
40. ld
LD7B
+44
100
0.7
1.2
43.4
LD8B
+76
100
2.7
3.2
52.1
LDl^
-29
100
0.1*
33. 0C
SPECIMENS WITH SHEARED AND MANUALLY FLAME SOFTENED EDGES
41.8°
LDl/
+82
80
23.6
31.5
63.2
LD15A
-16
95
39.5
28.6
68.8
LD18B
+29
95
18.6
22.4
66.4
LD22B
-55
98
26.5
18.3
74.1
a or *>„.„„.
'stress based on area at fracture location out of test section
stress based on original area in test section
'fractured out of test section at burned notch about l/l6" deep
268
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
TABLE k (Continued)
Specimen
Number
Average
Temp.
°F.
Percent
Brittle
Appearance
Percent
Reduction
of Area
Percent
Elongation
Maximum
Stress
ksi
SPECIMENS
WITH AN ARC
STRIKE ON A
MACHINED EDGE
LA10
+26
100
h.l
+ .6
55.6
LA11
-28
100
k.O
3.8
55.2
LA12
-62
100
2.5
2.2
i+8.8
LB3A
+88
2
20.5
16.5
63.O
SPECIMENS
WITH AN ARC
STRIKE ON A
SHEARED EDGE
LD10
LD11
Bb
-29
-58
100
100
0.1
0.3
0.5
33.2^
Ul.6d
kl.k
a or b
fractured out of test section
stress based on area at fracture location out of test section
stress based on original area in test section
fractured out of test section at burned notch about l/l6" deep
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
269
TABLE 5
RESULTS OF TESTS OF STEEL M, ASTM A9*+ STRUCTURAL SILICON STEEL
Note: Superscript A or B on Specimen No. indicates that only designated part
of specimen was fractured.
Specimen
Number
Average
Temp.
OF.
Percent
Brittle
Appearance
Percent
Reduction
of Area
Percent
Elongation
Maximum
Stress
ksi
SPECIMENS WITH MACHINED EDGES
MA5
-62
100
27.7
21.6
83. lc
97.7
ma6
+6
97
30.0
27-5
92.1+
MA7
+79
15
1+2.5
31.6
87.8
MA9
+31
95
Ul.8
26.2
91-3
MA9-1
+3
100
30.0
22.6
93.1
MA10
-53
100
33.2
21+.1+
96.6
MAllAe
-23
95
37-7
26. oe
95-3
MA12A
+79
65
39.1
26.5
88.5
SPECIMENS
WITH ,
AUTOMATICALLY FLAT-IE -CUT
EDGES
MC9A
+32
100
h.9
t.7
83.O
MC10B
+9
100
9-3
9-7
92.1+
MC11
+77
97
21.8
20.5
89.8
MC12B
+1+8
100
8.6
10.0
90.3
MC12-1
+20
100
8.1+
6.1
87.0
MC13
-28
100
3.0
3-7
81.1+
MC13-ia
+28
100
6.8
6.9
70.2(
88. 7C
MC1U
-18
100
5.6
5.3
86.9
MCI 5
+76
95
11.8
11.1+
88.7
MC15-1
-1+9
100
h.9
k.5
86.9
MCl6a
+1+6
100
11.3
9.0
Ik.k'
a or b„
^ ,-*•>+• -i
90. 1(
'stress based on area at fracture location out of test section
stress based on original area in test section
i fracture through punch marks -elongation and energy absorption based on
gage length of unfractured half.
270
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
TABLE 5 (Continued)
Average Percent
Specimen Temp. Brittle
Number °F. Appearance
Percent
Maximum
[eduction
Percent
Stress
of Area
Elongation
ksi
MCI
MG11
MG^b
MG9
ab
MD5
ab
Bb
md6
MDT
MD81
MD91
MD10
MD11
Aa
MD12
Aa
MD13Bb
MD15B
a or b
SPECIMENS WITH MANUALLY FLAME -CUT EDGES
+80
-73
+26
-22
+32
+1
+79
+33
-69
+50
-51
+5
-25
+78
97 3.8
100 2.6
100
100
SPECIMENS WITH SHEARED EDGES
100
100
95
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
8.5
6.2
2.3
7.1
8.2
3-2
0.8
2.1
2.0
2.9
2.1
8.2
6.7
2.6
7.8
1.5
0.5
2.0
8.3
58. 6C
70.9d
56.5
50.9°
65. 6d
53.5°
70. 5d
6+.Tc
79. 5d
60. ic
72. 8d
8+.5
86.2
61. 8C
7^.1d
88. k
56.2C
68. 5d
k2.f
52.7d
60.3°
7^.3d
88.3
fractured out of test section
stress based on area at fracture location out of test section
stress based on original area in test section
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
271
TABLE 5 (Continued)
Specimen
Number
Average
Temp.
°F.
Percent
Brittle
Appearance
Percent
Reduction
of Area
Percent
Elongation
Maximum
Stress
ksi
SPECIMENS WITH AUTOMATICALLY FLAME -CUT AND MANUALLY FLAME SOFTENEE
EDGES
MB1A
+33
90
28.2
2U.6
92.9
MBU
-18
100
37.5
28.1+
93.1
MB16B
+27
98
19.0
20.9
93.9
MBU*
-26
100
9.8
10.0
96.3
MB15b
-52
100
27.5
19.0
98.8
MA7-1
+86
U5
37.2
26.2
87. h
SPECIMENS
WITH
SHEARED
AND
MANUALLY FLAME
SOFTENED EDGES
MDl/
-16
100
30.1
23.0
95.1
MDlc^
+81
90
21.0
20.3
87.7
MD22A
+32
90
36.2
27.0
92.9
MD2UA
-57
100
33.0
18.0
98.7
SPECIMENS
WITH AN
ARC
STRIKE ON A
MACHINED EDGE
MA8
+27
100
3-3
3-0
68.6
MAll-lf
-30
100
2.5
2.6
66.5
MAI 5*
+75
90
9.5
7.6
8U.6
MA15
-60
100
2.0
1.7
61*. 8
SPECIMENS
WITH AN
ARC
STRIKE ON A
SHEARED EDGE
MD16
-62
100
1.2
1.0
63.1+
MD20
+25
100
1.3
1.1
5U.8
a or b
fractured out of test section
'stress based on area at fracture location out of test section
stress based on original area in test section
: fracture through punch marks -eloncation and energy absorption based on
gage length of unfractured half.
p
A half fractured at 2 places in the test section
272
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
TABLE 6
RESULTS OF TESTS OF STEEL P, ASTM A21+2 LOW ALLOY HIGH TENSILE STEEL
Note: Superscript A or B on Specimen No. indicates that only designated part
of specimen was fractured.
Average
Percent
Percent
Maximum
Specimen
Temp.
Brittle
Reduction
Percent
Stress
Number
°F.
Appearance of Area
Elongation
ksi
•
SPECIMENS
WITH MACHINED EDGES
PA1A
+32
20
51.6
33.7
79.8
PA2
-20
^5
52.1+
36.6
82.6
PA 3
+80
0
53.6
36.5
76.6
PA5
+33
80
5I+.6
38.1
77- ^
PA6
-10
6o
53.8
1+0.7
80.2
PAT
■47
80
51.8
35.^
82.3
PA9
+82
0
56.6
37.7
77.0
PA10
-55
91
52.3
35.8
85.O
SPECIMENS WITH AUTOMATICALLY FLAME -CUT EDGES
pcib
-21+
100
50.9
31.7
83.5
PC2
-62
100
29.8
26.1+
85.5
PC 3
+1
100
50.1
31+.0
81.5
PCU
+80
20
1+6.3
29.6
78.0
PC 5
-22
100
36.2
33.0
82.0
PC 6
+ 30
100
32.1+
31.0
78.6
PC 8
+80
0
1+9.1+
3^.5
76.1+
PC9A
-58
100
31.7
23.3
85.6
PC11
+31
91
29.2
21+.1
80.3
SPECIMENS WITH
MANUALLY FLAME -CUT
EDGES
PB9
PBlO
Aa
A
1
A
PG5'
a orb
PB11
.A
+26
-21
-71
+85
100
100
100
fractured out of test section
'stress based on area at fracture
location out of test section
10.3
9.0
12.8
10.8
6.0
6.6
10.0
78.7
8l+.l+c
77.1C"
79.2
72.1
stress based on original
area in test section
Effect of Fabricated Edge Condition*
PD11
Bb
TABLE 6 (Continued)
Average
Percent
Percent
Maximum
Specimen
Temp.
Brittle
Reduction
Percent
Stress
Number
°F.
Appearance
of Area
Elongation
ksi
SPECIMENS WITH
SHEARED EDGES
PD1B
+25
100
1.2
1.8
63.1
PD3
-1
100
2.2
2.6
68. I*
PDU
+77
97
1.5
5.-8
71.*
pd6
+50
100
6.7
8.0
76.7
pd/*
-71
100
—
0.2
53.9°
60.3d
PD9B
+78
98
2.8
6.0
75. *
PD10Bb
-29
100
—
2.9
6l.lc
-59
100
0.5
72.6*
62. 0C
62.9d
SPECIMENS WITH SHEARED AND MANUALLY FLAME SOFTENED EDGES
PD15
-16
91
38.8
3^.9
82.2
PD19A
-50
100
51.1
28.0
84.2
PD13B
+90
20
51.8
36.3
75-7
PD17B
+27
80
53.3
32.0
81.0
SPECIMENS
WITH AN
ARC
STRIKE ON A
MACHINED EDGE
PAU
+26
100
6.k
6.0
69.2
pah
-26
100
2.2
2.U
63.2
PB3
-55
100
3.6
2.7
66.h
PBUA
+9k
2
51.1
25.^
76.1
SPECIMENS
WITH AN
ARC
STRIKE ON A
SHEARED EDGE
PD1U
+20
100
2.5
1.1
59.0
PD18
-21
100
1.8
1.7
62.2
a or b
fractured out of test section
'stress based on area at fracture location out of test section
stress based on original area in test section.
274
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
3/4" Plate
Specially Prepared
Edge Conditions
Punch Marks
for Gage Line
NOTE:
Gage Lines Also on
Test Edges and
Reduced Edges.
Tack Weld Each End
FIG. i DETAILS OF TEST SPECIMEN
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
275
276
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
Edge Condition Specimen
Cooling Tanks
Specimen Storage
Sump Pump
f> y Ice
FIG. 3 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF COOLING APPARATUS
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
277
DEFLECTION BETWEEN HEADS
a DUCTILE SPECIMEN
SPECIMEN
STEEL L
-7o\ DCG F
£\D4
5HEARFQ.
AREA
Z.B&6 so, /m t
0.03 in. • £LONG,
0.10 QfULVQALS
OF TEST 5ECT/0A1
IN 4H GA&E LENGTH
RECORDED HFFI FCpQN BETVfeEN HEApS
0.03 /V.
a 30 Onn^oNS
356 ^^''/on/zsjON
CALIBRATION
CALIB,
-ae*-
-Q*VI3I0N5
JLATION
OF DEFLECTION SCALE
\TION 0F\ LOAD SOUS
AREA UNOEft
-DEFLECTION
CURVE \ AFTER tyELQING
OF ENERGY ABSORPTION
* 35.6* j||£ •// W kits /so, in/4 in. )&6e un6vh
o.ip PtvrilCNl
t 1 1—1 — I l_0_
DEFLECTION BETWEEN HEADS *
b. BRITTLE SPECIMEN
FIG. 4 TYPICAL LOAD - DEFLECTION CURVES AS RECORDED
278
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
100
90
eo
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1
STEEL M
":EL P
ST!
STE
EL L
STEE
. K
J,
\JJ
STEEL K - ASTM A7 SEMI- KILLED STEEL
STEEL L - ASTM A7 RIMMED STEEL
STEEL M - ASTM A94 STRUCTURAL SILICON STEEL
STEEL P- ASTM A242 LOW ALLOY HIGH TENSILE STEEL
0.05
0.10
0.15 0.20
STRAIN - IN. PER IN.
0.25
0.30
0.35
FIG. 5 AVARAGE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
279
\
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sen id ni NOiidaosav >,0b3N3
280
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
T3
Hi fe^tS *
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
km*
'TfllflJf *i 2
UJ
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&mw
282
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
RpNn
w
bfl
bo
fa
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
283
. ■ - ■
-<* • *-
. *' t •
284
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
Fig. 11 — Micrograph of material adjacent to flame-
softened flame-cut edge of steel M. Section A, magnifica-
tion 100X.
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
285
100
o Machined
v Automatically Flame- Cut
? Manually Flame- Cut
a Sheared
A Sheared, Flame Softened
• Machined, Arc- Strike
■ Sheared, Arc -Strike
80
60
40
_Cqyp_on_ Tensi)e_
Strength
%o
76
J8 7
1 c,d
**£V—
Coup_on _Yield .Point
S 20
S
c Stress Based on Area a^ Fracture
d Stress Based on Original Area of Test Section
. ! ! _J I I I I
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE DURING TEST IN DEG. F.
a. MAXIMUM STRESS vs. AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
<
ID
<
LL
o
2
o
\-
o
D
Q
UJ
DC
o
or
UJ
a
60
50
40
30
20
10
o Machined A Sheared, Flame Softened
7 Automatically Flame- Cut • Machined, Arc-Strike
? Manually Flame- Cut ■ Sheared, Arc-Strike
a Sheared
7
o
o
J
AyO
oA v<
)
7
7
"A
7
o
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7
7
7
7
A
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•
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0
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•
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o ■
a
■
■
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE DURING TEST IN DEG. F
b. REDUCTION OF AREA vs. AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
FIG. 12 RESULTS OF TESTS OF STEEL K
286
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
'■ ' •■
PDliB, -59° F. PD6A, +30° F. PD9B, +78° F.
a. SHEARED EDGES, STEEL P
P0I9A, -50°F. PDI5A, -16° F. PDI7B, +27° F.
b. FLAME SOFTENED, SHEARED EDGES, STEEL P
Fig. 13 — Appearance of fractured specimens.
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
287
o Machined
v Automatically Flame -Cut
f Manually Flame -Cut
a Sheared
a Sheared, Flame Softened
• Machined, Arc -Strike
■ Sheared, Arc - Strike
c Stress Based on Area at Fracture
d Stress Based on Original Area of Test Section
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE DURING TEST IN DEG. F.
a. MAXIMUM STRESS vs. AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
o Machined A Sheared, Flame Softened
v Automatically Flame- Cut • Machined, Arc -Strike
f Manually Flome-Cut ■ Sheared, Arc -Strike
a Sheared
o
<
> -
>
O
O
3
o
V
A
7
\
A
7
7
A
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f
n *
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?
•
•
□
a
-80 -60 -40 -20 O 20 40 60 80
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE DURING TEST IN DEG F
b. REDUCTION OF AREA vs AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
FIG 14 RESULTS OF TESTS OF STEEL L
288
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
100
80
Coupon
Stren^rrh
£ 60
DC
40
20
o Machined
v Automatically Flame -Cut
f Manually Flame -Cut
o Sheared
a Flame -Cut, Flame Softened
a Sheared, Flame Softened
• Machined, Arc -Strike
■ Sheared, Arc -Strike
J^qupojL Yjekj
Point
Tensiki
col
id
Ao
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Wi
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c?
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c Stress Based on Areo at r-racture
o Stress Based on Original Area of Test Section
Based pn Orign
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE DURING TEST IN DEG. F.
a. MAXIMUM STRESS vs. AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
It!
60
50
40
30
20
10
o Machined & Flame -Cut Flame Softened
7 Automatically Flame- Cut * Sheared, Flame Softened
* Manually Flame- Cut • Machined, Arc -Strike
a Sheared ■ Sheared, Arc -Strike
o
C
AO
o
A
A
c
A
o
A
A
V
fc"
a
V
7
D*
7
>
•7
7
V 1
' 7°
<D
D
3
r
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE DURING TEST IN DEG F.
b. REDUCTION OF AREA vs AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
FIG. 15 RESULTS OF TESTS OF STEEL M
Effect of Fabricated Edge Conditions
280
o Machined
V Automatically Flame - Cut
f Manually Flame -Cut
a Sheared
A Sheared, Flame Softened
• Machined, Arc - Strike
■ Sheared, Arc -Strike
*o.
-a<»-cP-
.cc£l
Coupon Tensile
Strength
f&
IFr
I
Tfc-*»-
Coupon Yield
Point
e Stress Based on Area a^ Fracture
d Stress Based on Original Area of Test Section
-80 -60 -40 -20 O 20 40 60 80
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE DURING TEST IN DEG F
a. MAXIMUM STRESS vs. AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
o Machined A Sheared, Flame Softened
7 Automaticafly Flame-Cut • Machined, Arc -Strike
f Manually Flame - Cut ■ Sheared, Arc -Strike
a Sheared
oAo
7<
°
g_
A°
o
\.
<
'
7
7
A
7
•
7
f
?
▼
•
• ■
C
1
• a
'a
&
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE DURING TEST IN DEG F
b. REDUCTION OF AREA vs AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
FIG. 16 RESULTS OF TESTS OF STEEL P
Advance Report of Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast
Assignment 11
Chemical Control of Vegetation
Collaborating with Signal Section and Communications Section, AAR
C. E. Webb (chairman, subcommittee), C. R. Bergman, B. S. Converse, H. S. Leard,
P. G. Martin, W. F. Petteys, J. W. Purdy, W. O. Trieschman.
The following report, presented as information, was prepared by L. O. Baker of Mon-
tana State College, Bozeman, Mont. It presents the results of the cooperative investigation
carried out by the Engineering Division, AAR, and Montana State College, and is the
final report of the work at this College. The work has been underway since 1953.
For the college, the investigation was first under the direction of R. L. Warden, fol-
lowed by L. O. Baker. For the Engineering Division the project has been under the direc-
tion and supervision of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research, and Rockwell
Smith, research engineer roadway.
FINAL REPORT ON RAILWAY ROADBED
VEGETATION CONTROL IN
MONTANA— 1956
Laurence O. Baker
Montana Agricultural Experiment Station
The experimental results discussed in this report were obtained on tracks of the Mil-
waukee Railroad. The project was financed by the Association of American Railroads.
Precipitation from September 1955 through September 1956, was 4.6 in less than the
average for this period. The precipitation for these months, together with their 76-year
averages, follows:
1955-56
76-year avg.
Sept.
1.11
1.71
Oct.
2.04
1.66
XOD.
0.78
1.14
Dec.
2.19
0.99
Jan.
0.78
1.04
Feb.
0.16
0.84
Afar.
1.27
1.41
Apr.
L.66
1.79
Man
2.06
2.66
June
1.07
2.81
July
0. 16
1.31
Aug.
(i.'.i.-
1.02
N. pt.
0.97
1.72
Total
1 1 . 53
9 -
All tests except one were made on triplicated square-rod plots with every fifth plot
left untreated for a check. The exception was designed with duplicate plots Js mile long
and 1 rod wide.
Tracks on which treatments were made prior to the spring of 1954 underwent con-
siderable tie replacement. Because of the resulting soil disturbance observations of these
tracks were not made in 1956. Observations were made of all treatments applied in 1954
and thereafter. Repeat treatments were made on plots established in 1955, and two
additional experiments were made in 1956.
»
291
292
Roadway and Ballast
Each test is discussed separately on the following pages. Results of observations made
in 1954 and 1955 are reported in the annual progress reports for these years (Proceedings,
Vol. 56, page 718, and Vol. 57, page 662, respectively).
The chemical compositions of the materials used in the various tests are given in
Table 8.
Test 2—1954
This test was started in the spring of 1954. The test area has had no additional
treatments except those that have been made by railroad personnel in their regular main-
tenance operations. In this test ammate, sodium chlorate, Dalapon, TCA, and the sub-
stituted ureas were compared. Only those treatments that included the substituted ureas
gave acceptable vegetation control in 1956. The urea-containing treatments, with average
vegetation control estimates for 1954, 1955, and 1956, are given in Table 1.
Table 1 — Percent Vegetation Control from Test 2, 1954, Bozeman, Mont.
Treatment
Rale in
Lb./A.
195 It
1955
1956
\mmate — 2 4-D — Telvar W -
80-3-20
80-3-20
20
40
20
40
20
40
70
93
87
97
85
79
93
94
93
74
90
99
68
82
88
91
80
Ammate — 2 4-D Telvar FW
38
Telvar W __. ..
84
Telvar W - -
91
Telvar D W . -- --
42
Telvar DW -
60
Telvar FW
67
Telvar FW -
88
Telvar W at both 20 and 40-lb rates has given acceptable 3-year control. The FW
formulation provided satisfactory vegetation control for 2 years, but was losing its effect
in the third season except at the 40-lb rate. Telvar DW was never as effective as either
of the other compounds. In this test no advantage was gained by combining ammate and
2,4-D with Telvar.
Test 3—1954
This test was designed to compare various rates of chlorates, borates, and combina-
tions of them with 2,4-D. Telvar W at 40 lb per acre was included. Treatments were
applied in the early spring of 1954. No additional treatments have been made. Only Telvar
provided satisfactory weed control in 1954. It was also effective in 1955, and in 1956 still
controlled 98 percent of the vegetation. A few horsetail and Canada thistle plants were the
only surviving vegetation.
Test 4—1954
This test was applied in May and June 1954, using various rates of TCA and Dalapon
with two rates of sodium chlorate and 2,4-D. Amino triazole and some oils were included
at two rates, and Telvar W was used as a check treatment. No additional treatments have
been made. Telvar W was the only treatment providing good control in 1956 (Fig. 1).
Other treatments showed the effect of previous treatments, but only to the extent that
where grasses were killed previously perennial broadleaves or annuals had aken their place.
Test 1—1955
This trial was applied in September 1954 to an area where the roadbed is covered
with cinders, and the principal perennial pl#jt cover is Kentucky bluegrass and Canada
Roadway and Ballast
293
Fig. 1 — Telvar W, 40 lb, applied in the spring of 1954. Plot is bare
except for a few Canada thistle plants. Untreated check in foreground. Photo
taken Nov. 12, 1956.
thistle. Results from this test were discouraging in 1955. Only sodium chlorate at 960 lb
and concentrated borascu at 3200 lb per acre provided even barely acceptable vegetation
control.
While results in 1955 were not as good as expected, possibly because of the cinder
ballast, it was still considered advisable to make retreatments. Some plots were retreated
with the same rate of chemical, others were given much lighter rates. Substitutions were
made for all of the substituted-urea treatments.
The treatments applied, together with the percent vegetation control in 1955 and
1956, are given in Table 2. The percent vegetation control was higher in 1956 for all
except treatments 11 and 12. However, only five treatments gave results that could be
considered as marginally acceptable, or better (treatments 7, 10, 11, 13, and 14). Only
treatment 13 was satisfactory. Of particular interest were the results secured with 320 lb
of sodium chlorate (treatment 7), and 20 lb of amino triazole (treatment 14). Amino
triazole has not usually been effective by soil application. It is possible that diuron was
responsible for some of the effect, however, over 15 in of rain had fallen prior to the »n ond
treatment, at which time vegetation control was only 25 percent.
Treatments 5 and 6 (NaClOi, and 2,4-D) were ineffective from the standpoint of
thistle control. At the time of the 2,4-D application thistles had not emerged and -oil
temperatures were low, so some thistle root-kill was expected from tin- high rate of 2,4-D.
Test 2—1955
In contrast to test l, 1955, this trial was applied to a roadbed of soil rather than
cinders. Time of application and vegetation composition were about the same, \- in 1955,
treatment results were much better in this test than in the former. However, with ■
294
Roadway and Ballast
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Fig. 2 — In foreground 20 lb of dalapon was applied in the fall of 1954
and 1955. The bare plot in the middle was treated with 10 lb of Telvar W
and 20 lb of dalapon in the fall of 1954 and 1955. In the background is an
untreated check plot. Photo was taken Nov. 12, 1956.
treatments vegetation control in 1956 was not as good as in 1955. Two reasons are evident.
In the first place, where the grass stand was reduced or eliminated in 1955, annual weeds
or Canada thistle took over in 1956, except where monuron or diuron was used. Where
a maintenance application was made, it was not adequate to do the job (Fig. 2).
Results from this test are presented in Table 3. Vegetation control from treatments 1.
2, and 3, were almost the same as in the preceding year. Plots receiving treatment 4 were
invaded by annual weeds with a preponderance of downy bromegrass. Fall-applied
dalapon did a good job of controlling most of the grass, but Canada thistles, annual grass
and broadleaved weeds combined to make treatments 7 and 8 unacceptable even though
2,4-D was applied in the spring. Dalapon applied in the spring either with or without
sodium chlorate was not as effective as when applied in the fall; however, the spring
application was made about two weeks later than optimum.
The lack of Canada thistle control from 50 lb of 2,4-D applied in the fall of two
consecutive years was of special interest to the writer.
Treatments 15 and 16 gave good results, controlling virtually all the grass and annual
weeds. Some Canada thistle survived on the roadbed shoulders.
DB granular was not as effective in 1056 as in 1955. Evidently, the maintcnan.
of 160 lb per acre was not adequate because annual weeds were infesting the plot. Canada
thistles were killed in one replication and were retarded but not killed in the other tun
Kentucky bluegrass was almost eliminated. Downy brorae was present in 1956.
296
Roadway and Ballast
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Roadway and Ballast 297
Test 3—1955
Test 3, 1955, was applied to an area where the ballast is primarily soil, although
there is a thin covering of cinders on some plots and considerable cinders on a few others.
These plots were initially treated in May 1955. Vegetation control was satisfactory in 1955
even though all plants were not killed. Results in 1956 were not as good in spite ol
retreatments. The different treatments, retreatments, dates of application, vegetation con-
trol prior to the June retreatments and for individual plots in October 1956, and the
averages for 1955 are given in Table 4.
Baron was applied later than planned in 1956, and precipitation was below normal
for the balance of the season, which undoubtedly made it less effective. While grass was
completely controlled with 40 gal per acre or more, Canada thistle plants were not killed.
In fact they increased, especially so in the third replication where cinders were present.
Grass was not adequately controlled with less than 40 gal.
Late spring applications of dalapon were not satisfactory for control of downy brome,
which was the main grass present on these plots. Most of the perennial grasses were con-
trolled by the original treatment. Broad-leaved plants were not controlled by the 2,4-D.
Canada thistle was the. predominant species.
Treatment 7 suppressed grass growth until mid-summer, but did not control grass or
other plants. Grass was controlled satisfactorily by treatment 8. However, annuals in-
vaded these plots and Canada thistle also increased. Treatment 9 provided good grass
control, but let annuals and thistles increase.
Treatment 10 was not satisfactory. Grass was controlled where cinder ballast was not
present, but Canada thistle was not controlled on any plot.
Test 4—1955
This test was applied to a different track of the same railroad. The plots were 1 rod
wide by % mile long and were duplicated. The original application was made in May
1955. In 1956 plots 2 rods long were superimposed on the original treatment. Vegetation
on this track was varied. The grases were predominantly Kentucky bluegrass and quack-
grass with less smooth bromegrass. Broadleaved weeds included dandelion, white cockle,
Canada thistle, and others. The treatments and percent vegetation control are given in
Table 5.
Results in 1955 were all satisfactory. In 1956 this was not true, and in many cases
vegetation control estimates were very low. This was due to the greater variability qi
the smaller plots and to the fact that quackgrass made up a high percentage of the vege-
tation on some plots. Quackgrass was not killed even where 40 lb of dalapon was applied,
both in 1955 and 1956. Some suppression of growth occurred at this rate, but it did not
give satisfactory control.
Baron was applied to one small plot of each of the larger ones at a rate of 40 lb per
acre. Other small plots were treated with the original rate of baron. Baron's effectiveness
may have been decreased because of the limited rainfall following application, Quack-
grass was not killed by the 40-lb rate in 1956, although it was suppressed. Eighty pounds
produced a partial kill. Plots treated with 80 lb in 1955 had recovered and mad. i
growth in 1956. From this test it appears that around 120 lb of baron i< required t<> kill
quackgrass (Fig. 3).
When quackgrass was not present, dalapon at all rale- with 2,4 I' and baron at all
rates gave satisfactory results from 1956 treatment-. Eighty and 120 lb of baron applied
in 1955 gave excellent weed control during 1956 where quackgrass was not present. Canada
thistle was not controlled by any rate of baron.
298
Roadway and Ballast
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Fig. 3 — Untreated check in foreground. Background was treated with Baron
at 120 lb per acre in May 1955. Photo taken Oct. 6, 1956.
Test 1—1956
This test was applied in October 19SS, except for three treatments made in June
1956. At the time of treating, soil moisture was plentiful, and some germination of fall-
germinating weeds had taken place. The predominant vegetation was Kentucky bluegrass
and Canada thistle. Plots in the first replication have a covering of cinders.
Treatment 9 was applied dry, and treatments 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 14, IS, and 16 were
applied in a total volume of 160 gal per acre. Treatments 2, 8, 11, 12, and 13 required
approximately 2% gal of water per square rod.
Results from this test are given in Table 6. Several treatments gave excellent results.
Baron controlled all the grass, but not Canada thistle. The higher rates of monobor-
chlorate were effective. Even though complete kills were not obtained, good suppression
of the vegetation occurred, and control was acceptable from treatments 5 and 6.
Treatments 8, 9, 11, 12, and 13 all gave very good results. Where the kills were not
complete, vegetation development was seriously curtailed and control was quite
satisfactory.
The three treatments made in the spring were applied later than desired for best
results. Methoxone was effective in preventing fall regrowth of Canada thistles, which
occurred where it was not used. No explanation is available for the big difference in control
between replications for these three treatments.
Test 2—1956
Treatments in this test were made on June 1 to a track with mixed vegetation grow-
ing, composed principally of dandelion and Kentucky bluegrass, with spot infestations
of smooth bromegrass, quackgrass, Canada thistle, and white cockle. All plants were
growing rapidly when treated. The grasses were approximately 8-10 in tall, and the
broadleaves ranged up to 10 in. in height. Earlier application would probably have pro-
duced better results, particularly in light of the below-normal rainfall occurring in June
and July.
The principal objective in this test was to compare the borates and the chlorates
alone and in combination with Telvar W. Dalapon and two compounds containing amino
triazole and MCPA were also included (Garnet and PA 561). No reason is at hand to
Roadway and Ballast
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302
Roadway and Ballast
explain their lack of effectiveness. They were applied in 1 gallon of water per square
rod, using 12 ml of additive. Dalapon at 10 lb with 2 lb of 2,4-D ester per acre gave
slightly more than SO percent vegetation control.
Results of this test are presented in Table 7. Sodium chlorate and polybor were com-
pared using actual amounts of NaClOs and B20a. Three hundred and twenty pounds of
NaClOs gave slightly better results than four times as much B2O3. This was in contrast to
another test where they gave approximately equal results when applied at the same rate
in the fall.
Telvar W increased the effectiveness of Dalapon, NaC103 at 80 lb and B2O3 at 320 lb.
The effectiveness of Telvar was also increased somewhat by combining it with these
chemicals.
Chlorea produced the highest vegetation control estimate, although only slightly
greater than several other treatments. Chlorea was the most costly treatment; however,
cost could be pro-rated according to residual effectiveness. Probably the Telvar-containing
compounds and possibly the high rate of B2O3 will be more effective in 1957 after having
received extra precipitation.
Table 7-
-Treatments and Vegetation Control Estimate from Test 2, 1956,
Bozeman, Mont.
Treat-
Chemical
Rate in
Lb./A.
Percent Vcaetation Con
1956 — Replication
rol
No.
1
2
3
A verage
1
10 + 2
10
10 + 10
80
80+10
200
400
320+10
1280
800
320
800
320
5 gal
5 gal
40
65
80
0
70
75
95
85
70
90
85
98
5
0
0
70
85
80
10
75
65
80
80
80
98
80
98
10
0
10
60
70
85
40
98
75
85
85
75
98
70
0
10
20
57
■>
Telvar W --- --- ---
73
3
82
4.
13
NaC10 3 + Telvar . -_.
81
72
7.
87
8
83
9.
75
10.
94
11.
NaC10 3 -
88
12.
Chlorax 40 .
89
13.
5
14.
3
15.
PA 561. . .
10
Roadway and Ballast
303
Table 8-
-Chemical Composition of Materials Used in the Various Tests
at Montana State College
Material
Chemical Name
1. ATA (Weedzol).
2. Animate
3. Baron (erbon)--
4. Borascu
.">. Boron Trioxide.
6. Chlorea
7. Chlorax 40 ,
8. Dalaoon (RadaponK
9. DB Granular
10. Diuron (Telvar DW)
11. 2,4-1) Amine
12. 2.4-D Ester
13. EH-109
14. Garnet
15. Methoxone (MCP)-_.
lti. MBC No. 1
17. MBC No. 2
18. Monuron (Telvar W).
19. PA 561
20. Polybor-chlorate
21. Sodium Chlorate (NaClOs).
22. Telvar FW (fenuron)
23. TCA
21. Tumbleweed 25
25. Ureahor
3-Amino-l,2,4-triazole 50%
Aniinimiuiii sufamate 95%
2- (2. 1,5-Trichlorophenoxv ethyl
2,2-diohloroproDionate 1 lb/nal
Borax (Na»B ,( I -lull iO) 93< ,'
B ,( ) i
Sodium chlorate 40%, sodium metahorate 57'y , 3-(p-chloro-
phenyl)-l,l dimethylurea (CMTJ) I',
Soilium chlorate 40%, sodium metaborate 58%
2,2 dichloropropionic acid, sodium salt 78' ,
Disodium tetraborate pentahvdratc \;i 1', ' > -Ml I)
disodium tetraborate dccahvdrate Na jB 4< > . ■ 101 1 0 •
2,4-D acid equiv. 7.5' |
3-(3,4 diohlorophenyl)-l,l dimethylur.-a SO',
2,4-DichIorophenoxyacetic acid amine Formulation I lb /gal
2.4-Diehlorophenoxvacetic acid ester formulation 4 ll> nal
(Experimental material — composition not disclosed)
3-Amino-l,2,4-triazole; 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyaoetic acid
(MCP)
2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid 2 lb/gal
Sodium metaborate; sodium chlorate
Sodium metaborate 2 lb/gal, sodium chlorate 0.7 lb/gal
3(p-chlorophenyl) 1,1-dimethylurea 80%
(Experimental material — composition not disclosed)
Sodium chlorate 25%, disodium octaborate tetrahydrate
(Na2BsOi34H20) 73%
Sodium chlorate 99%
3- (phenyl)- 1,1 dimethvlurea
Trichloroacetic acid 90' ','■
Disodium tetraborate pentahydrate i \'a I' i1 ' -511 ' <
63.2%, disodium tetraborate decahvdrate iXajBtO;*
10H2O) 30.8%, 3-(p-chlorophenvl)-l,l-dii.icthvliirea
(CMU) 4%
EFFECT OF SPRING TRAVEL, HEIGHT OF
CENTER OF GRAVITY, AND SPEED ON
FREIGHT CAR CLEARANCE RE-
QUIREMENTS ON CURVED
AND TANGENT TRACK
Report of the Joint Committee on Relation Between Track and Equipment
of the Engineering and Mechanical Divisions, Association
of American Railroads, in Collaboration with
AREA Committee 28 — Clearances
305
CONTENTS
Page
A. DIGEST 307
B. INTRODUCTION 308
1 . Acknowledgement 308
2. Purposes of the Test Program 309
3. Test Program 309
C. INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCEDURE 310
1. Static Lean Tests 310
2. Dynamic Tests 310
D. STATIC LEAN TESTS 311
1 . Lateral Play Displacement 311
2. Car Body Roll Angle 312
3. Total Lateral Displacement 313
4. Discussion of Results 314
E. DYNAMIC TESTS 314
1. Relation of Roll Angle to Calculated Unbalanced Elevation 314
2. Relation of Lateral Displacements at a Height of IS Ft to the Unbalanced
Elevation 316
F. VARIABILITY OF LATERAL DISPLACEMENT— MAXIMUM VALUES .... 316
G. VERTICAL ACCELERATIONS AT THE FLOOR OF THE CARS 317
H. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 318
1. Effect of Long-Travel Springs on Clearance Requirements 318
2. Effect of Height of Center of Gravity on Clearance Requirements 318
3. Effect of Speed on Curves on Clearance Requirements 319
4. Factors Affecting Clearance Requirements for Freight Cars 320
Tables and Figures
Tables 1 to 4, incl 322 to 325, incl.
Figs. 1 to 38, incl 326 to 361, incl.
306
EFFECT OF SPRING TRAVEL, HEIGHT OF
CENTER OF GRAVITY, AND SPEED ON
FREIGHT CAR CLEARANCE RE-
QUIREMENTS ON CURVED
AND TANGENT TRACK
Report of the Joint Committee on Relation Between Track and Equipment
of the Engineering and Mechanical Divisions, Association
of American Railroads, in Collaboration with
AREA Committee 28 — Clearances*
A. DIGEST
Many new designs of freight trucks with greatly improved ride characteristics have
been put in use by the railroads to reduce vertical and lateral impacts and vibration in
freight cars. These new truck designs have spring travel of as much as 3i$ in compared
to the lf^-in travel of older types. Damping is also applied to the new type trucks to
prevent resonant oscillations and bottoming of the springs.
These improvements have resulted in a marked reduction of impacts and vibration,
but the longer travel springs increase the roll of the car body and the lateral clearance
requirements. These requirements can be closely calculated statically, but no informa-
tion, such as had been obtained for passenger cars, was available as to the displace-
ments under dynamic conditions. The tests here reported give information on dynamic
clearance requirements. The tests were made with 2 fully loaded 70-ton cars with
nominal center of gravity heights of 70, 85 and 100 in, statically and under a range
of speeds from 5 to 65 mph over tangent and curved track. The curves are to about
6 deg. Records were taken on both cars of body roll, vertical and lateral accelerations,
and speed.
Static Lean Tests
The static tests were made on curves in the tiack with elevations of approximately
2 in, 4 in, and 5 in. Car B (3}&-in travel springs) had greater free lateral displacement,
possibly because of the springs, than car A with 15/jj-in travel springs. Total lateral
displacement for car B referred to a height of 15 ft above the top of the rail was 5.0 in
for 100-in center of gravity and 3.5 in for 85-in center of gravity. Corresponding dis-
placements for car A were 3.8 in and 2.5 in. The larger displacements for car B were
mostly due to its larger roll angle, which is the angle between the car body and the
trucks. These values are given in more detail in Table 3.
Dynamic Tests
Effect of Spring Travel
The longer springs on car B caused average lateral displacements approximately
double those for car A. The total displacements for car B (referred to a height of 15 ft)
were 5.7 in for 100-in center of gravity and 4.5 in for 85-in center of gravity. Cor-
responding values for car A were 3.0 in and 2.5 in. (See Table 3).
•Committee 28 is of the opinion that the tests reported on may have been tffected idvei
particularly as to the correlation of the results of the static and dynamic tc-ts, by the fact that the
tests were made with loads more than 10 percent overload. Accordingly, it feels that no major con-
clusions can be drawn from the tests without such modifications as may be dictated by the findings
in further tests relating to freight cars.
307
308 Freight Car Clearance Requirements
Removal of one spring from the right side of each truck with a center of gravity
height of 100 in to simulate broken springs gave a list to the right and a displacement
at 15-ft height of 1.5 in on car A and 2.9 in on car B.
Effect of Height of Center of Gravity
The higher center of gravity loads materially increased the roll angle and resultant
lateral displacements. The displacement with 6-in unbalanced elevation for the 100-in
center of gravity was about 50 percent more than for the 70-in center of gravity, and
for the 85-in height, about 25 percent more. These percentages are approximately true
for both cars, but the smaller displacements for car A made the increases less important.
(See Table 3).
Effect of Speed
Speed gives spread to the average values of roll and displacement due to dynamic
action and variability of the track and equipment. The spread of the average displace-
ment for car B was as much as 50 percent greater than for car A. For example (see
Table 4), for 85-in center of gravity and 6-in unbalanced elevation car B had (referred
to 15-ft height) ±1.3 in spread and car A ± 0.6 in. The spread does not seem to be
proportional to speed in the range of the test runs as shown by the uniform spread
of the points over a wide range of unbalanced elevation in Figs. 17 to 32. Data are not
available as to the extent of this spread for track not having the high standard of main-
tenance of the test track, but as a matter of judgment it is suggested that values bf
"spread" given in Table 4 for these tests be increased 25 percent for fair track and 50
percent for poor track.
The records shown in Figs. 34A and B illustrate an oscillatory roll action both on
curves and tangent track even at a low speed (20 mph) that produced up to ± 4.0 in
displacement at the 15-ft point above top of rail in addition to the spread of the aver-
age values. These oscillatory displacements were almost as great at the low speeds as at
the high speeds, possibly due to some resonant action, and were increased about 20 to
30 percent by both the longer spring travel and the 15-in increments in center of gravity
height from the 70-in value. These displacements can be seen in more detail in Table 4.
B. INTRODUCTION
1. Acknowledgement
The research work on clearance requirements for freight cars was carried out under
Assignment 8 — Clearance Requirements of Passenger and Freight Cars as Affected by
Track and Equipment Conditions, of the Joint Committee on Relation between Track
and Equipment of the Engineering and Mechanical Divisions, Association of American
Railroads. Committee 28— Clearances, of the American Railway Engineering Association
cooperated in the program under its Assignment 5 — Clearance Allowances to Provide
for Vertical and Horizontal Movements of Equipment Due to Lateral Play, Wear, and
Spring Deflection. The AREA assignment, made in 1949, was the basis for the assign-
ment to the Joint Committee and also for the work done on clearances required for
passenger cars under static and dynamic conditions as reported in the AREA Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 56, 1955, page 125, Passenger Ride Comfort on Curved Track. The tests
reported below were made on the Delaware Lackawanna & Western Railroad between
Hoboken and Denville, N. J., in the summer of 1955. Low-speed runs and static tests
were made on the trip outbound from Hoboken and the high-speed runs on the inbound
trip. The train was turned at Denville.
Freight Car Clearance Requirements 309
The program was carried out under the general direction of W. M. Keller, assistant
vice president, and G. M. Magee, director of engineering research, AAR. The research
program was in the direct charge of Randon Ferguson, electrical engineer, Engineering
Division, assisted by M. F. Smucker, assistant electrical engineer. Mr. Ferguson pre-
pared the report with the assistance of J. G. Britton, engineering assistant of the
Mechanical Division and Ralph Schinke, stress analyst of the Engineering Division.
S. M. Dahl, assistant division engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Rail-
road, and chairman of Committee 28 — Clearances, actively participated in the tests and
assisted in the analysis of the results.
The program on freight car clearances was greatly aided by the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna & Western, G. A. Phillips, chief engineer, in providing cars, loading them to
various center of gravity heights and running a special train for the various test condi-
tions. Mechanical matters were arranged by K. H. Carpenter, superintendent of the car
department. Active participation in the test program by C. M. Segraves, engineer of
structures, C. T. Kaier, assistant engineer of structures, and R. Petrie, chief draftsman,
greatly expedited the work.
2. Purposes of the Test Program
The provision of proper clearances has long been a complex and difficult problem
under the great diversity of conditions encountered over the thousands of miles of rail-
road track and the great variety of equipment and lading. Many railroads, especially
in the more congested regions, have restricted clearances that would be very costly to
remove.
The recently reported research on riding comfort on curves for passenger cars in-
cluded accumulation of data that gives information on passenger car clearance require-
ments. The analysis of these data is included in the riding-comfort report mentioned
above. The use of the longer travel springs on the passenger cars for better comfort
is an important factor in the clearance required. It is also evident that additional clear-
ance is required because of irregularities in track and the dynamic action of the
equipment.
Efforts to reduce vibrations and impacts in freight cars have resulted in the intro-
duction of several improved-type trucks which have damping to reduce vertical oscilla-
tions and springs with relatively great increases in spring travel. Since some freight cars
and their lading have a greater height at the critical upper corner locations than pas-
senger cars, the clearance problems for freight cars are comparable with those for pas-
senger cars, which have much greater spring travel. Passenger car bodies are rounded
at the top so the maximum lateral width goes up only 10 to 11 ft in most cases, but
some freight cars have practically straight sides up to almost IS ft. The geometrical
and statical aspects of these problems are not difficult and have been investigated by
a number of railroads and manufacturers, but little if any data were available regard-
ing the effect of the various factors on the dynamic behavior of the equipment. The
program here reported was planned to give information on the effect of some of the
more important factors on the clearance requirements, especially under dynamic condi-
tions. As the title indicates, these factors include spring travel, height of center of gravit}
and speed. Since a variety of curves were in the test track, the effect of curvature and
unbalanced elevation will also be related to the performance of the cars.
3. Test Program
The program was planned to obtain information on the effect of the above men-
tioned factors on the clearances required under dynamic conditions and to determine.
310 Freight Car Clearance Requirements
if possible, their correlation with statical behavior. This information was specially needed
because of the adoption of the long- travel springs for many freight cars and recent
questions regarding the required track-center spacing and fixed-structure clearance re-
quirements for moving equipment. Two cars were tested simultaneously to reduce the
time and cost of the tests. Car A had short-travel (1^-in) springs. Car B had long-
travel (3}&-in) springs. Heavy oak framing was placed in both cars so a group of rails
weighing about 65 tons held together by steel yokes cou'd be blocked up to various
heights to obtain nominal centers of gravity for cars and lading of 70, 85 and 100 in
from top of rail. The aciual center of gravity heights were calculated to be within less
than 1 in of these values.
Practical considerations of time and expense prevented the inclusion of some variables
and conditions, but it is believed that the range of the test conditions covered and to
some extent exceeded the maximum operating conditions in most respects. However,
the track over which the tests were run was very high-grade main-line track so the
dynamic effect of track variations may not be as great as would be found generally.
C. INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCEDURE
1. Static Lean Tests
In previous tests on passenger cars the static lean test was found to be usable as a
relatively simple test for predicting dynamic behavior. Static lean tests were made on the
freight cars in these tests for each test condition to determine if a comparable procedure
could be used on freight equipment.
The tests in this case were made on the line during the running tests, by stopping
the cars on curves having the required elevations. A view of the test party making the
lean test measurements is shown in Fig. 1. The measurements were taken in a manner
similar to that used on the passenger cars by means of plumb lines, levels and scales.
A diagram of the measurements taken is given in Fig. 2.
2. Dynamic Tests
Two cars were tested simultaneously to reduce the number of test runs and time
of testing. The cars with the timber framing holding the rails at the elevation required
for the 100-in center of gravity height are shown in Fig. 3. Car No. 69173 (car A) has
the short-travel springs (1^ in) and car No. 68861 (car B) the long-travel springs
(3ii in). The car with the long-travel springs has a built-in snubber but the car with
the short-travel springs has no snubbers. The test train (Fig. 4) consisted of a general-
purpose diesel unit with a maximum speed of 65 mph, the instrument car, the two test
cars and a caboose. Speeds up to 65 mph were run over the 35-mile test section. A
round trip was made each day, which included making the static lean tests on the two
cars on three curves with elevations from 2 to 5 in. Speeds on curves were from 5 mph
to such speed as would give about 3 in or more unbalanced elevation. Simulation of a
broken spring was made by removing a spring from each truck on the right side, with
the 100-in center of gravity load only, in an additional test series. Speeds to 65 mph were
used with this condition. The weights of the cars and heights of center of gravity are
given in Table 1.
Measurements taken for the dynamic tests on each car are as follows:
a. Car body angle with the vertical by means of gyros adapted to give a con-
tinuous electric signal proportional to that angle. A view of a gyro mounted
in one of the cars is shown in Fig. 5. Trouble was experienced in these tests
Freight Car Clearance Requirements 311
with the gyros drifting and changing zero. This drift has since been diagnosed
as due to too slow an erection rate setting and has since been corrected.
b. Car body roll with reference to the truck frames which assumes essentially the
same angle with respect to the vertical as the normal to the track. Stresses
were measured in flexible beams on the two sides of one truck, and the circuit
combined the gage output in such a way that equal vertical spring deflections
cancelled and the difference between the two sides indicative of the roll was
recorded. When the gyro readings were found to be unreliable due to zero
drift, these readings were used instead. A view of one of these devices is shown
in Fig. 6 on car B with the long-travel springs.
c. Vertical and lateral accelerations at one end of each car by means of Statham
wire-resistance type accelerometers. Fig. 7 shows a vertical and a lateral accel-
erometer in place in the car.
d. Speed was indicated by a Weston tachometer driven from an axle of the
instrument car.
e. Mile posts were indicated on the record by a marker operated by an observer.
All these indications were recorded on a 12-channel magnetic-type oscillograph
shown set up for the tests in Fig. 8. Since it was desirable to eliminate frequencies in
the higher ranges that were not important in regard to this problem, high-sensitivity
galvanometers of the coil type were used that have a low natural frequency and act
somewhat as low pass niters for the higher frequencies. However, the cut-off is rela-
tively higher than desirable, and frequencies of 40 to SO cycles showed up in the records
that are unrelated to the purpose of the tests. Filters for such low-impedance gal-
vanometers are not practical to build, and sufficient channels of higher impedance pen-
writing equipment, which can be more easily filtered, were not available for the tests.
The research staff has previously built filters for the two channels of pen-writing equip-
ment available that have cut-off points starting as low as 10 cps. However, the records
were usable for the purpose of the tests, and the magnetic galvanometers were of such
high sensitivity that amplifiers were not needed for recording any of the pickups.
The cars were loaded with approximately 65 tons of rails which were held together
by a clamp and sling at each end so they could be handled as a single unit. This made
a compact load that could be raised by blocking to various heights in the car and
supported by the heavy framing to give centers of gravity up to 100-in height above
the rail. Fig. 3 shows the cars with the rails at the highest position, and Fig. 0 is a
view of the rails being replaced by two 60-ton gantry cranes after changing the block-
ing. The runs outbound from Hoboken were made at slow or moderate speeds to get
the inward unbalance on curves with high elevation and inbound at the highest per-
missible speeds to obtain 3 in or more unbalance on the curves and a maximum effect
on tangent track due to irregularities and dynamic action of the cars.
D. STATIC LEAN TESTS
1. Lateral Play Displacement
As previously mentioned, the static Ran testa were made on actual curves in the test
track section by stopping the cars first on a tangent track and then on a curve "I the
desired elevation (view in Fig. 1) and making the measurements shown in Fig -1 The
measurements were used to obtain three quantities for each elevation on t » « » 1 1 1
namely the free lateral play displacement, the angle of t In- mil of the tar body 00 the
312 Freight Car Clearance Requirements
springs and the total displacement, which is the sum of the lateral play and roll dis-
placements. The total displacement was calculated for a height of 15 ft above the rail,
which is a little greater than the height of the highest box cars but is sometimes exceeded
by special lading. The car with short-travel springs is designated as car A and the
car with long-travel springs as car B in Figs. 10 to 16, in which the three quantities
are plotted for three values of outer rail elevation.
The lateral play, which is the transverse displacement of the car body relative to
the wheels, is due to the clearances or play in the various parts of the truck, such as
bearing, bolster, center pin and other parts, and possibly some lateral deflection of the
springs. It does not include the play between the wheel flanges and the gage side of the
rail. This flange play is not large. It is a relatively easy value to determine and can
be added to any general displacement requirements. Its inclusion in the other measure-
ments would unnecessarily complicate the test measurements and their interpretation.
The lateral play displacement does not generally have a linear relation to the eleva-
tion (see Figs. 10 and 11) since friction and slippage is involved, and it may sometimes
be almost all taken up with a small elevation or occur in an irregular manner. However,
since the amounts are not large, it has been convenient for some purposes to consider
that the lateral play is proportional to the elevation, which does not lead to any large
errors or actually to any error at the large elevations that are most important in regard
to clearance, since at these elevations the lateral play is presumably all taken out in one
direction. The lateral play for car B was more nearly linear with respect to the elevation
than that for car A, but the lateral play on car B was about SO percent greater. Prob-
ably larger lateral deflections of the longer travel springs in car B were involved. The
heavy load took up almost all the spring deflection in car A with the short-travel
springs, and this is thought to have caused some of the non-linearity in the action in
the static tests and prevented the correlation with the dynamic tests from being as good
as was found in the tests on passenger cars. The maximum outer rail elevation was about
5 in, but the curves were extrapolated to an elevation of 6 in.
The lateral play at 6-in elevation for car A was about 0.85 in and was not affected
materially by the center of gravity height. The same was true of car B except that the
play at 6-in elevation was about 1.4 in average. The larger amount may have been due
to greater lateral deflections in the larger travel springs. This is an appreciable amount
but is not of major importance compared to the displacements due to roll and dynamic
action.
2. Car Body Roll Angle
The car body roll angle is the angle the car body makes with the truck. It is a very
important factor affecting ride comfort and clearance. The amount of the roll determines
the amount the upper corners of the car swing to one side or the other of the normal
to the track. The three general conditions on curved track dependent on the speed are
shown in Fig. 12. The static lean test condition is represented in Fig. 12a where the car
body roll is inward or negative. Fig. 12b is for equilibrium speed where there is no roll,
and Fig. 12c is for a greater than equilibrium speed where the roll is outward (positive).
Equilibrium speed has been defined as that speed on a curve which gives equal loads on
inner and outer rails (assuming the center of gravity is in the middle of the car) and
the resultant of the weight and centrifugal force is normal to the plane of the track.
The car body roll gives a lateral displacement in addition to the displacement due
to the inclined plane of curved track with an elevated outer rail and must be added to
Freight Car Clearance Requirements 3U
that displacement to give the total displacement due to tin- elevation in determining the
total clearance requirements. The car displacement due to the inclination of the track i-
not included in any of the figures or tallies of thi- report.
The car body roll angle is plotted for the static lean tests in Rgs. 13 and 14 for
cars A and B. It is seen here that the center of gravity height and spring travel have
a marked effect on the roll of the car body. This i- to be expected, of course, as long
as the springs will deflect, but after the springs are solid the roll must come from rela
tive movements of other parts. Measurement* u.r. taken of the spring oesl height for
the various conditions and are given in Table 2. Apparently the short-travel springs
were practically solid, and the others did not have much travel left. The long-travel
springs showed variations of about '{■ in. but with the short-travel -prints the move-
ment was more generally Y% to J4 hi.
The roll angle (1.02 deg) on car A with 100-in center of gravitj height was three
times that with 70-in center of gravity height and was further increased by the removal
of a spring in each truck to simulate the effect of a broken spring. Car H had about
50 percent more roll with 70-in height than car A and about 30 percent more with 100 in
height. The spring removal gave a similar increase. The car body roll is the principal
factor in increasing the displacement beyond what is considered in clearance calcula-
tions, which are based only on the geometrical aspects. The roll inward at low speed of a
train on an outer track will reduce the clearance for a train on an inner track or a fixed
object on the inside of the curve, and the outward roll on an inner track at speeds
greater than the equilibrium speed will similarly reduce the clearances on a train passing
on an outside track or a fixed object on the outside of the curve.
3. Total Lateral Displacement
The total inward displacement for the static lean tests, shown in Fig. IS and Fie. 16
for cars A and B for all center of gravity heights, is the sum of the displacement due
to roll calculated for a car height of 15 ft and the displacement due to lateral plaj
These diagrams are very important in that they show the effects of the various factors by
means of a fairly simple static test that will later be related to the dynamic tests that
can only be made with complex equipment and considerable expense and time. This
method of correlation was previously used with good success in similar studies on pas-
senger equipment. The unbalanced elevation i- inward in the static tests, but it was
previously found that an outward unbalance due to speeds above equilibrium speed
would produce on the average similar effects outwardly to those found from the static
inward unbalance. The dynamic action, of course, is subject to more variability due to
irregularities in the track and oscillation- of the equipment, and it is, therefore, aeccssarj
as part of this analysis to determine the range of such variability beyond the static
and average range to provide safe clearance limits for all normal conditions or the
usual abnormalities encountered due to wear or special condition-
Reference to Figs. 15 and 16 indicates that both the height of center of gravity and
the spring travel have an important influence on the clearance required under statu
conditions. The inward displacement due to lateral play and roll on car A was about
2 in with a 70-in center of gravity height but increased to almost 4 in with 100-in center
of gravity height. Removal of the two springs increased this latter value almost 1 in.
Car B with the long-travel springs had still greater displacements, the comparable value-
being about iy$ in and S in. Removal of the springs increased the 5-in displacement
to more than 6 in.
314 Freight Car Clearance Requirements
4. Discussion of Results
It should be borne in mind that these displacements are due to car body roll and
lateral play movements only and are requirements for clearance beyond those due to
the curvature, track elevation and equipment dimensions. The values indicated for static
conditions are further subject to increase by normal track irregularities and dynamic
action of the equipment. These requirements will be presented and analyzed in the
following sections of the report.
As previously discussed the movements or lack of spring movement given in Table 2
indicated that the heavy loads on the cars had taken up most of the spring travel, and
the elevation of the car on one side did not always cause a change in the spring heights.
This is probably the cause of some of the non-linearity in the curves in the diagrams.
The lateral play may occur in an irregular manner and also cause some of the non-
linearity.
E. DYNAMIC TESTS
1. Relation of Roll Angle to Calculated Unbalanced Elevation
When a car is subjected to a lateral force, such as the centrifugal force developed in
traversing a curve or the component of the gravity force in the plane of the inclined
track, or both, the car body will roll with respect to the trucks. The center of this
rotation is usually assumed to be at the center plate of the bolster, though it is probably
a little below this level because of the effect of the flexibility of the springs upon which
the bolster rests. Freight car trucks are much simpler in construction than passenger car
trucks, the latter generally having two sets of springs, swing hangers and equalizer
bars. The center of rotation for both freight and passenger cars is considerably below
the critical clearance points at the upper corners of the car, and a small rotation will
effect a large displacement of these points.
Some of the analytical aspects of this action are given in the report, Passenger
Ride Comfort on Curved Track.1 One of the quantities found useful as a criterion of
equipment, as a factor for determination of speed limits and for correlation of the data,
was the calculated unbalanced elevation of the outer rail, generally called the unbalanced
elevation and designated En. The elevation required for equilibrium conditions as
previously defined and designated by Er is found by the equation developed in the
above mentioned report to be
EK = 0.00070 V2D
in which Er is in inches, V in miles per hour and D in degrees of curve.
The unbalanced elevation is the difference between this required elevation and the
actual elevation of the outer rail, Ea. Thus
Eu — Er — Ea
This unbalanced elevation is a function of the resultant of the centrifugal force
caused by the lateral acceleration and the component of the gravity force in the plane
of the track. The unbalanced elevation can be used to correlate the data from curves
of various degrees, with different amounts of elevation and traversed at various speeds.
This has been done for the car body roll angle and is presented in Figs. 17 to 24 for
cars A and B and all test conditions.
1 AREA Proceedings, Vol. 56, 1955, page 125.
Freight Car Clearance Requirements 315
The data on the figures have been analyzed by a modified method ol least squares
to fit a straight line to the plotted points and determine the width of the band of varia-
tion to include 95 percent of the data. The average curve was assumed to be a straight
line through zero, and the width of the band is four times the standard deviation of the
error of estimate to include 95 percent of the possible points.
The number of points in the positive portions of the diagrams is less than in the
negative portions because, being freight equipment, the speed was limited to 65 mph
The plotted values are the average roll for the curve. Separate discussion will be made
regarding the amplitude and frequency of oscillations or variations in the roll angle from
the average.
In normal operation, freight trains are rarely run at speeds that give the 3-in out-
ward unbalance found with passenger trains, unless the curvature is quite sharp. However,
on curves with large elevations the inward unbalance elevation of 5 or 6 in is often
present at slow speeds or when stopped.
On each diagram the amount of roll at 6-in unbalanced elevation is noted as is the
width of the band of data. These values are given in Table 3, so they may be readily
compared for all test conditions. It is apparent that the roll angle of car B with the
long-travel springs was about double that for Car A with the short-travel springs. The
deviation from the average for car B was also about twice that for car A. It is quite
evident that the longer travel springs decrease the lateral stability, and greater clearance
will be required for cars with these springs.
The results of the static tests are plotted as crosses in the negative quadrants of the
diagrams. In some cases they check quite well with the dynamic points, but in other
cases the slope is similar, but the average lines are offset laterally. As previously men-
tioned, the timber bracing and blocking were considerably heavier than was indicated
by preliminary estimates and the cars were, therefore, more heavily loaded than intended.
This took up most of the spring deflection and may have caused binding or sticking
in the static lean tests, so that the results were sometimes irregular. The worst dis-
crepancy was in the case of car B with the 100-in center of gravity height and the
springs removed where the static roll was markedly less than the dynamic.
The removal of the springs from the right side in the 100-in center of gravity
height test caused both cars to list to the right. Car A showed a list of 0.57 deg and
car B 1.1 deg on tangent track after the springs were removed. The manner of reading
the dynamic points does not take this into account so, as indicated in Table 3, these
values must be added to the corresponding dynamic values to determine the total clear-
ance required for this special condition. Those values were subtracted from the static
Values for plotting with the dynamic data.
The amount of this roll for 6-in unbalance is similar to the roll shown in Table 2
for a 3-in unbalance in the previously mentioned tests on passenger equipment. How-
ever, it should be borne in mind that the height of the eaves on passenger equipment is
generally about 11 ft or less, but on freight cars the eaves ma) be 1^ it 9 in. A height
of 15 ft was assumed for comparative purposes in Table 3 and some latei diagrams
where displacement is given.
3 S. S. Wilks "Elementarv Statistical Analysis", Princeton Unlversit) Press, I9S1
to 250.
316 Freight Car Clearance Requirements
2. Relation of Lateral Displacement at a Height
of 15 Ft to the Unbalanced Elevation
The car body roll is the principal factor in causing displacements that require extra
clearance but for better interpretation as to the effect of the roll, the total displacement
at a height of IS ft is plotted in Figs. 25 to 32. This is approximately the maximum
height of the highest box car, but is somewhat higher than the maximum eave height
of 13 ft 9 in and will be useful for comparative purposes. It will also tend to make
any clearance requirement developed from these figures a little on the safe side. It is
assumed that the center of rotation is at the center plate of the car. The actual rotation
center may be a few inches below the center plate, which will tend to balance the effect
of the height being taken a little large. The lateral play also causes some lateral displace-
ment, but is of lesser magnitude than the displacement due to roll. The nature of the
lateral play makes it occur in an irregular or non-linear manner, but for the purposes
of incorporating it in the dynamic data to obtain a total displacement, it was added to
each plotted point in proportion to the unbalanced elevation for that point. This is not
an exact procedure but is not unduly in error for the purpose and will be correct for
the more important cases in which the unbalanced elevation is greatest and all the lateral
play is taken up.
The data in Figs. 25 to 32 have been analyzed by the same statistical methods as
in Figs. 17 to 24 for the car body roll. Shown are the average line through the origin,
the width of the spread and the total lateral displacement at 6-in unbalance. These
last two values are also given in Table 3 for both cars, static and dynamic tests and all
test conditions.
It is notable that the displacements for car B with the long-travel springs were
generally about twice those for car A with the short-travel springs. The same relation
applies approximately to the value of the "spread" of the average displacement. The
lateral stability of car B was evidently less than that of car A so that variation from
the average displacements were greater due to track irregularities and the equipment
behavior. Included in the sources of deviation from the average are also errors in reading
and variations in the instrumentation. This source of variation is usually held within
about 10 percent. The total displacement at 6-in unbalance was about 6 in for car B
and 3 in for car A. The band of variation from the average line is about ±1.0 in for
car B and =t 0.5 in for car A, though it varies a little for the different center of gravity
heights. Some of the values given in Table 3 are plotted in Fig. 33. The total displace-
ments for the various center of gravity heights lie approximately on straight lines, the
slope of the line for car B being about twice that for car A. The width of the deviation
from the average is also shown on the diagram.
F. VARIABILITY OF LATERAL DISPLACEMENT— MAXIMUM VALUES
All the plotted points in the diagrams mentioned so far are average values for
passage around any one curve. As cars go around curves periodic oscillations or lurches
take place. The oscillations are sometimes especially prevalent at certain speeds where
some disturbance, such as the frequency of passing the rail joints, coincides with the
frequency of some mode of action of the car. Figs. 34 A and B shows two typical oscil-
lograph records at a speed of 20 mph on a curve and 18 mph on tangent track illus-
trating this roll oscillation. The other traces are for the gyro and vertical and lateral
accelerometers as noted on the records. There did not appear to be much difference in
the oscillatory roll action of the two cars, but the fact that they were coupled together
Freight Car Clearance Requirements 317
may have tended to make them have some interaction dynamically. The amount of this
roll oscillation is, of course, of importance in that it causes an additional displacement,
which must be added to the general average values in any estimation of the clearance
requirements. Figs. 35 to 37 show the range of these additional displacements.
In Figs. 35 and 36 some of the maximum values of the oscillation variation to each
side of the average displacements on straight and curved track are plotted with respect
to speed. The points for car A show a lesser range of amplitude than car B, though the
range is not as great as that found with variation of the center of gravity height. The
amount of this semi-amplitude is quite appreciable, being as much as 3 or 4 in, which
in the case of car A is comparable to the average value of the roll displacement. These
displacements as given are for a point 15 ft above the top of rail.
The larger amplitudes are present at the lower speeds as well as the higher speeds,
though at the lower speeds they generally appeared as a periodic oscillation and at the
higher speeds as a single disturbance, such as would be caused by a track irregularity of
more than normal amount. The periodic oscillation was developed on curved track to a
much greater extent than on tangent track. The only really low values are at the 5-mph
speeds which were taken only on curves. The frequency of these roll oscillations was not
very constant, being about 1 cps, but was sometimes more or less. There also did not
appear to be any consistant relation between the frequency and the spring travel or
the height of the center of gravity, as might be expected. The springs had little reserve
travel left with the heavy load used, and this may have reduced their influence on the
action. Other random variations in conditions probably tended to obscure the effect of
renter of gravity height.
These oscillation semi-amplitudes are plotted in Fig. 37 with respect to center of
gravity heights for the two cars. The semi-amplitude is seen to be appreciably greater
[or car B and increases with the increase of height of center of gravity. The distribution
of the points with respect to speed can be followed by reference to the legend. It is
notable that some of the larger values are similar for both high and moderate speeds,
rhe only low values are those at 5 mph.
As these displacements may take place at any time, such as when passing another
;rain or a fixed structure, they must be added to the average values previously given
:or allowance due to dynamic action.
G. VERTICAL ACCELERATIONS AT THE FLOOR OF THE CARS
Facilities being available, these tests afforded an opportunity to obtain other infor-
nation on the two freight cars. Accordingly, two accelerometers were placed in each car
aver the center of a truck to indicate the vertical and lateral accelerations for the
various test conditions. Some of the maximum vertical accelerations are plotted in Fig.
J8 for both cars. The plotted points are the maximum values noted at various points
ilong the track. The height of center of gravity did not appear to affect the vertical
icceleration, but it is quite noticeable that the accelerations were greater in car A with
he short-travel springs and appear to have increased at a greater than linear rate in
:he upper speed range. The maximum for car B was about 0.?g, but for car A it w.i^
>ver 0.7g. The interpretation of the records at the higher speeds was complicated by the
>resence on the records of some unimportant vibrations of relatively high frequency in
he car due to lack of electrical filters in the recording circuits. It 13 not practicable to
nake filters for this type of recording circuit. The slow recording speed did not separate
hese higher frequencies sufficiently for good readability, especially for the lateral accel-
318 Freight Car Clearance Requirements
erations at the higher speeds. The lateral accelerometers were also operated at a higher
sensitivity than the vertical. Because of these difficulties of interpretation, the lateral
accelerations are not presented. It is not practicable to record for long periods at hidi
recording speeds because of the excessive length of records involved.
These data show the better quality of the ride given by the soften springs. There
is -nme spread noticeable in the plotted points for car A at the higher speeds that may
denote a tendency to a resonant oscillation which has generally been found to occur
in this type truck at 50 to 60 mph. The frequency of the vertical acceleration \\;i~
about 3 cps.
H. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Effect of the Long-Travel Springs on Clearance Requirements
The recognized need for giving freight cars a better vertical ride characteristic to
reduce impact effects on lading at higher operating speeds resulted in the banning of
the short-travel spring (l£4j in) for new and rebuilt freight equipment after January 1,
19S6. The longer travel springs give a 'softer'- ride, and since they are generally used
in conjunction with some damping device in the truck, the tendency to resonant ver-
tical oscillations is greatly reduced. One limitation on the spring travel is the permissible
variation in coupler height with empty and loaded cars, which prohibits improving the
vertical ride by using the longer travel springs, such as in passenger cars. The travel
specified is the spring deflection from no load to solid condition. The long-travel springs
in 'these tests had iih in travel.
The longer travel springs improve the vertical ride greatly, but it is evident from
the data presented in this report that the lateral stability, especially in roll, is much less.
The frequency of the vertical action is about 3 cps, and the damping provided is quite
effective in controlling it. However, the roll mode has a frequency of about 1 cps, and
effective control of this lower frequency requires a relatively greater damping or restoring
force. The introduction of this greater damping force would deteriorate the vertical ride
unless it could be made to act only for roll action. A simple device used on automobiles
and tried out on passenger railway equipment that acts in this manner is a torsional
stabilizer. This stabilizer acts only when the car tends to roll and is not actuated by
vertical movement. If the amount of roll of freight cars found here is of sufficient
importance, consideration should be given to some form of roll control.
Reference to Figs. 25 to 32 indicates that for all heights of center of gravity and
speeds, the average total lateral displacement on car B with long-travel spring was about
twice that for car A with the short-travel springs, being almost 5 in at 15 ft height for
an 85 in center of gravity height. This height is not far from that in many cars being
used. The spread from the average is due to track and equipment variations and would
change this average displacement about 1 in both ways. It is quite evident that use of
the cars with long-travel springs should call for a careful look at clearances in any
locations where they tend to be critical.
2. Effect of Center of Gravity Height on Clearance Requirements
The present limit on center of gravity height for cars in interchange is S4 in, which
is essentially the same as the 85 -in nominal height used in the tests. However, the recent
increase in the use of "piggy back'" equipment has brought increased attention to the
question of high center of gravity and lateral stability. The "piggy back" arrangement
in most cases adds some extra spring travel into the system from either the tires of the
Freight Car Clearance Requirements 319
truck or both tires and spring, still further decreases the roll stability and possibl)
introduces a more complicated mode of action of some importance.
Reference to the figures giving the roll and lateral displacement shows clearly the
large increase in roll or displacement as the center of gravity goes higher. There was
about 50 percent increase in total lateral displacement for both cars (see Fig. 33) in
going from 70 to 100 in. The difference between 70 and 85 in probably is not of sufficient
magnitude to be of major importance, but the increase becomes appreciable for the
100-in height. Special shipments involving high centers of gravity and large width should
be carefully considered and handled where clearances are limited.
3. Effect of Speed on Curves on Clearance Requirements
The effect of speed on the roll and lateral displacement are shown approximately
in the groups of figures previously mentioned where roll and total displacement are
plotted with respect to unbalanced elevation. The unbalanced elevation, Ec, is not exactly
equivalent to speed, but in general the positive values (upper right quadrant) of the
diagrams are for the higher speeds and the negative values (lower left quadrant) are
the low-speed or static values. The unbalanced elevation is proportional to the lateral
force on the car, which is the resultant of the gravity component due to the elevation
of the track and the centrifugal force and is dependent on the curvature and elevation
as well as the speed. The relation of the roll or displacement to the unbalanced elevation
was found to be approximately linear on the average, and the average curve representing
the points can be passed through zero with good correlation in the same manner in
which the passenger car data were represented in the report on those tests.
This linear relation means that for a given car and height of center of gravity the
displacement at a given height can be considered a function of the unbalanced elevation
multiplied by a constant. A static lean test was recommended in the case of the passenger
equipment for the determination of this constant, but the utility of this method for
freight cars is questionable except, possibly, in special cases or new designs. The static
lean tests made on the freight cars in these tests did not correlate as closely with the
dynamic tests as desirable, but it was felt that this was probably due to the small
amount of reserve spring travel left by the heavy load. Probably under less severe
conditions the static test correlation would be better, as in the tests on passenger
equipment.
A value of 6-in unbalanced elevation has been used in Table 3 as a basis for com-
paring the two cars for the various test conditions. This unbalance will not be attained
in the outward direction except under very unusual conditions, but will be approached
in going around curves with 5- or 6-in elevation at low speeds. Since large oscillations
were found even at low speeds (15 or 20 mph), it is felt that the clearance require-
ments will be dependent on this large unbalance under some conditions, and even with
the lower speeds the oscillatory displacements should be considered. Some tests with
lishtly loaded cars made in the summer of 1956. not yet reported, showed pronounced
resonance in the roll mode at a train speed of about 20 mph. Some such action took
place in the tests here reported, but was not so pronounced nor of such definite fre-
quency. The heavier loads and higher centers of gravity would tend to lengthen the
period (reduce the frequency), and the lack of reserve travel of the springs would tend
to break up a resonant oscillation.
Table 3 shows that car B had about twice the average displacement th.i! cai \ had.
being about 6 in and 3 in, respectively, for a 6-in unbalanced elevation, a rar height
320 (Freight Car Clearance Requirements
of 15 ft and a center of gravity height of 100 in. Corresponding values for a center
of gravity height of 85 in are 4.5 in for car B and 2.5 in for car A.
The above data represent the average condition going around the curves. Irregulari-
ties of the track and characteristics of the cars will cause variations or "spread" from
this average due to variability in the track and equipment action. The width of this
band is shown in Fig. 3.5 and Table 3 as about ± 1 in for car B and ± 0.5 in for car A.
This also includes instrumental and reading errors.
Speed is also a factor in the various dynamic modes of action of the freight cars,
the most important of which in the clearance problem is the roll oscillation. These oscil-
lations are superimposed on the average and individual values discussed above and must
be considered as an additional clearance requirement. Maximum values taken from the
records are plotted in Figs. 35 and 36 relative to speed. It is apparent that large roll
amplitudes develop at moderate speeds, especially on the curves, as well as the higher
speeds. The oscillations at the lower speeds were sustained for considerable periods,
indicating a resonance of the roll mode with some periodic disturbance. There were
some large roll amplitudes for the higher speeds at entrances and exits of curves. The
only speeds free from these oscillations were the low speeds, such as 5 mph.
The amount of these maximum displacements was large, being about half the maxi-
mum average values of the respective cars for a 6-in unbalanced elevation, roughly
3 in for car B and 2 in for car A. It is apparent that use of the cars with the longer
travel springs will require careful consideration of these oscillatory displacements.
4. Factors Affecting Clearance Requirements for Freight Cars
The principal questions in regard to clearance requirements are with respect to the
lateral dimensions and displacements. The variation in the vertical positions of the
various parts of the car body is small compared to the variation in the horizontal
direction, being principally the vertical oscillation of the car body on the springs, which
is a matter of only 2 or 3 in at the most. The lateral clearance involves consideration
of the following factors:
a. Car width.
b. Overhang at end of car.
c. Overhang at center of car.
d. The lateral play in truck parts and between wheel and rail.
e. Inclination of the car due to the elevation of the track on curves.
f. Roll of the car outwardly or inwardly from the normal position due to unbal-
anced elevation.
g. Additional allowances to cover dynamic action due to variations in track con-
ditions and car oscillations and roll.
A listing and summation of the maximum dynamic displacements is given in Table 4
for both cars and all test conditions. Since maximum oscillatory action appears to take
place over nearly the whole range of speed, no differentiation has been made with respect
to this action and speed. A value of 6-in unbalanced elevation has been combined with
this maximum oscillatory displacement on the assumption that unbalance may be
approached when running on light curves with large elevation at moderate speeds.
The table indicates, as have the other data, that car B with the long-travel springs
required considerably more clearance, twice as much in some cases, as car A with the
shorter travel springs, and the additional dynamic requirements approach 12 in as a
'Freight Car Clearance Requirements 321
maximum for the 100-in center of gravity. Since the maximum center of gravity height
permitted in interchange is 84 in, the displacements for heights greater than that need
consideration only for special conditions. However, some railroads have been concerned
about the clearances for "piggy back" shipments, which not only have high centers of
gravity, but also in some cases introduce one or more spring deflections into the system
besides those of the car itself.
A list of the maximum lateral variations possible due to wear and play in passenger
car truck and the track as used by a number of manufacturers in their calculations, is
given in the report for passenger cars. This possible play or movement to either side
is 4% in, which includes 2y2 in bolster travel on the swing hangers. There arc no
swing hangers on freight cars, and the clearance of the bolster in the frame is much less.
The lateral play as measured was about 0.8 in. in car A and 1.2 in. in car B. These cars
were in good condition with little wear in the parts. Presumably this was to one side of
the middle position and would be a similar amount the other way.
There seems to be no generally accepted practice of specifying maximum lateral
allowances for freight cars except as regards the wear on the axl&s and journals. A survey
of these wear limits and tolerances indicate possible total lateral play as follows:
a. ]/2 in between new brass and new journals.
b. Y% in wear permitted on brass.
c. \\ in wear permitted on journals.
d. ik in possible tolerance between bolster and frame.
e. J4 in P^y in center plate.
f. y% in possible wear between bolster and frame.
This adds up to a total of 2^ in of play on both sides of the center, or \% in on
either side of the center.
Adding the wheel-to-rail play (~h in) given in the previous report: 1J4 + 'i7g = ltt in.
This last figure is the total lateral displacement that might be expected in a car
with considerable wear. However, the dynamic displacement values given included on a
prorated basis the lateral play measured statically in the cars tested, so it would be
more nearly correct to add to these dynamic displacements only the amounts additional
that might be expected from cars more badly worn than the test cars, and the track
play, as follows:
b. Y% in wear permitted on brass.
c. W in wear permitted on journal.
f. Y% in possible wear between bolster and frame.
With track play of fg in, this adds up to 1-14/16. This figure divided by 2 is 15/16 in.
or approximately 1 in.
The assignments given the committees for determining the effect of the various
factors discussed in this report do not include the setting up of recommended clearance
tables to include allowances for dynamic displacements, or specifications, and it i- i-
sumed that is a function of the committees working on this subject and the indiviclu.il
railroads to suit their special conditions and local problems. It seems well to state again
that the dynamic displacements include only dynamic effects (except for prorated lal
and do not include the displacement given the car laterally by the inclination oi tin
track or the overhang at ends and middle due to curvature.
322
Freight Car Clearance Requirements
The main-line track used for the test run has heavy rail, good rock ballast and a
high standard of surface and alinement. Additional allowance should be made for in-
creases in the effects of track variability as represented by the "spread" and "oscilla-
tions" given in the figures and tables, dependent upon the standard of maintenance used.
In the absence of specific test data it is suggested that an increase of 25 percent in the
lateral displacement "spread" values due to these effects be made for moderately good
line and surface and 50 percent where the line and surface is quite variable.
TABLE 1
WEIGHTS AND CENTER OF GRAVITY HEIGHTS OF CARS IN DL&W TEST
Weights are given in pounds and heights in inches
Height of C. of G.
Car A
Car B
Nominal
Calc.
Light Car Weight
57800
55400
Load Weight
70
85
100
156494
163102
167068
155996
162604
169212
Total Weight
70
85
100
70.8
84.7
99.1
214294
220902
224868
211396
218004
224612
Freight Car Clearance Requirements
323
TABLE 2
CHANGE IN SPRING HEIGHTS FOR VARIOUS OUTER RAIL ELEVATIONS
Values are in sixteenth's of an inch and based on the tangent track height
C. of G.
70"
85"
Trucks
Outer
Inne
r
Outer
Inne r
Elevation
Front
Rear
Front
Rear
Front
Rear
Front
Rear
Car
A
2 9/16"
2
2
-2
-2
1
2
0
0
4 1/8"
2
4
-2
-2
2
4
-2
-2
5 3/16"
2
4
-2
_2
2
4
-2
-2
Car
B
2 1/2"
2
2
-2
-2
2
6
-4
-6
4 3/8"
4
4
-6
-4
5
10
-6
-8
5
6
5
-7
-6
8
10
-8
-8
C. of G.
100"
100" Spring Out
Trucks
Outer
Inner
Outer
Inner
Elevation
Front
Rear
Front
Rear
Front
Rear
Front
Rear
Car
A
2 9/16"
4
3
0
-3
1
1
-1
-1
4 1/8"
5
4
-2
-6
1
1
-2
-2
5 3/16"
5
4
_2
-6
2
2
-3
-2
Car
B
2 1/2"
7
6
-8
-10
5
4
-6
-5
4 3/8"
10
11
-10
-14
7
9
-9
-6
5 "
12
11
-13
-14
9
9
-10
-6
Car A Spring Travel = 1 5/8"
Car B Spring Travel = 3 11/16"
326
Freight Car Clearance Requirements
Fig. 1 — Static lean test measurements being taken by test party.
Freight Car Clearance Requirements
327
-Truck and Bolster Displacement
Springs and Bearing Displacement
<** Track Angle
(9 = Car Angle
9 = Roll Angle
Center- plate
Fig 2 Diagram of Measurements on Static Lean Test.
.<28
IFreight Car Clearance Requirements
Fig. 3 — View of test car with 100-in center of gravity loading.
Fig. 4 — View of test train.
Freight Car Clearance R equirenn'iii-
•<2<J
Fig. 5 — View of gyro mounted in car.
Fig. 6 — View of car body roll indicator on one side of car B.
MO
<F r ei ght Car Clearance Requirements
Fig. 7 — View of vertical and lateral accelerometers.
Fig. 8 — Twelve-channel recording oscillograph and gage control panel.
Freight Car Clearan ce Requirements
Fig. 9 — Rails being loaded into test car.
330
Freight Car Clearance Requirements
Fig. 7 — View of vertical and lateral accelerometers.
Fig. 8 — Twelve-channel recording oscillograph and gage control panel.
Freight Car C 1 e a r a rice Requirements
Fig. 9 — Rails being loaded into test car.
332
Freight Car Clearance Requirements
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Advance Report of Committee 7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles
S. L. Goldberg, Chairman
FATIGUE RESISTANCE OF QUARTER-SCALE
BRIDGE STRINGERS OF GREEN AND
DRY SOUTHERN PINE1
By Wayne C. Lewis
Engineer, Forest Products Laboratory,2 Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture
DIGEST
This report covers tests completed on quarter-scale bridge-stringer specimens of green
and dry southern pine. The green stringers were free of artificial checks and were either
straight-grained or had a 1:12 slope of grain. The dry stringers were either check free
or artificially checked, and likewise were either straight-grained or had a 1:12 slope of
grain. Tests of treated specimens, both straight-grained and with a 1:12 slope of grain,
are in progress.
The quarter-scale specimens were 2 by 4 by 43 in and were tested by loading at third
points of a 39-in span. Fatigue tests were made by loading at 500 cycles per minute
(Fig. 4).
While final conclusions cannot be made until the test program is completed, tests to
date show certain significant trends that are not likely to be changed by the results of
further testing. Green specimens do not develop fatigue failures unless stresses are suffi-
ciently high so that compression failures in the extreme fiber develop and progress during
the repetitions of stress. Fatigue stresses are more critical in shear in dry material than
in bending, even though slope of grain is present. Most of the static control specimens
with both 1:12 slope of grain and artificial checks failed in cross-grain tension, while all
matched specimens tested by repeated loading failed in shear along the check regardless
of the level of the repeated stress.
The results of tests to date on these selected quarter-scale specimens indicate that,
with the design stresses now in use for stringers in wood bridges and trestles, the possi-
bility of fatigue failure in service is remote, provided that slope of grain does not exceed
1:12, that checks due to drying do not reduce the net width in shear by a factor of more
than one-half, and that other defects, such as knots, are not excessive. Fatigue strength
at 10 million repetitions of stress was from 40 to SO percent of the static strength of tin
specimens that failed in bending and about 35 percent of the static strength of specimens
that failed in shear. For the failures in bending, these fatigue stresses are conservatively
estimated at 3000 psi in green material with either straight or sloping grain, at 7000 psi
for dry material with straight grain, and at 4500 psi for dry material with a 1:12 slope
of grain. Straight-grained dry specimens with artificial checks that reduced the effective
width by one-half were estimated to have a fatigue strength of 300 psi, at 10 million
repetitions in shear, as calculated on the full width. Likewise, dry specimens with a 1:12
slope of grain were estimated to have a fatigue strength of 250 psi.
1 The work, here reported was done in cooperation with the Association of American Railroadl
* Maintained at Madison. Wis., in cooperation with the University of Wisconsin.
363
364 Fatigue Resistance of Qu a r t er - S ca 1 e Stringers
INTRODUCTION
There are approximately 1800 miles of short-span and multiple short-span wood
bridges and trestles on Class I railroads in the United States. Practice varies in different
areas, but timber stringer bridges are used in both main and branch lines. Formerly,
decay in timber required that stringers be replaced at fairly frequent intervals. The
present universal practice of treating these timbers with preservatives has extended the
life of bridge stringers. The lengthened service life of the timbers, however, has raised
questions about the fatigue resistance of these stringers, since bridges are subjected to
numerous repetitions of loading.
Fatigue in engineering materials is the phenomenon of failure due to repetitions of
stress of a magnitude less than the static strength. Failure due to an accumulation of
loadings of varying duration is of a different character and is a separate consideration.
In present design practice a factor is applied in deriving working stresses for wood mem-
bers subjected to long accumulations of loadings during the life of a structure. No such
factor is applied for the effect of fatigue, nor is such a factor considered necessary since
the static strength of a member is not reduced by repetitions of stress until a failure
starts. Unless the magnitude of repeated stresses exceeds the fatigue strength for the
number of repetitions in service, there is no reduction of the margin of safety.
Members of the technical staff at the Association of American Railroads Research
Center estimate that the number of repetitions of design load or near-design load will
not exceed 2 million during the life of the structure. The test results, which are based
on 10 million cycles, provide a margin beyond the 2 million cycles of maximum stress
to which railroad stringers are assumed to be subjected. The important questions which
led to the series of fatigue tests reported herein are the following:
1. If stringers in service for 30 or 40 years were free of decay, should they be
replaced because of possible fatigue failures in the future, or was their fatigue resistance
sufficient so that they could continue to be used?
2. If the fatigue strength of timber was low compared to the stresses in service, what
allowances should be suggested in design to overcome the possibility of fatigue in service?
3. How do fatigue failures develop? What inspection procedures should be inte-
grated with regular inspections to forestall possible critical failures that may interrupt
service ?
This information was not available for wood stressed in bending, so the Forest
Products Laboratory and Committee 7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles, American Railway
Engineering Association, developed a program totaling 600 tests of quarter-scale speci-
mens and submitted it to the Association of American Railroads. It embodied these vari-
ables: moisture content (green and dry wood), straight-grained and 1:12 slope of grain,
specimens free of checks and with a V-notch simulating a drying check, two species
(southern pine and Douglas-fir), and the effect on strength of pressure treatment for
protection against decay.
The test program was accepted under the joint financial support of the Association
of American Railroads and the Forest Products Laboratory. This 1957 progress report
presents the results of approximately 200 tests and information about the following types
of specimens for one species, southern pine: (1) green, unchecked, straight-grained; (2)
green, unchecked with 1:12 slope of grain; (3) dry, unchecked, straight-grained; (4) dry,
unchecked with 1:12 slope of grain; (5) dry, artificially checked, straight-grained; and
(6) dry, artificially checked with 1:12 slope of grain.
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers 365
Green, dry, and treated specimens were selected for the tests to encompass the range
of moisture content and conditions encountered in service. Although the majority of
timbers actually installed are treated, the dry, untreated specimens were included so that
any effects of treatment on fatigue behavior could be isolated. The 1:12 slope of grain
variable was included because that is the maximum slope allowed in structural timbers
used in bridge stringers. The artificial checks were included because abrupt changes in
cross section introduce stress concentrations, which become more critical under repeated
loads than under static loads. One-half the width of the timber was selected for the
total depth of checks because in cross sectioning severely checked timbers of the size used
in bridge stringers it had been observed that the total depth of checks approximated
one-half the total width of the timbers.
PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMENS
All test specimens were fabricated in pairs; one of each pair was used for a static
control test and the other for a fatigue test. Each pair of specimens was longitudinally
matched as exactly as possible for such large-size specimens.
Specimens were sawn from log flitches as shown in Fig. 1. Each specimen was iden-
tified and numbered as to log and position in the log, in order to make comparisons
of the results of tests from different types of specimens. Radial matching, though less
desirable than longitudinal or tangential matching because different growth rings are
represented, was used in these tests to observe the effects of the variables of moisture con-
tent, slope of grain, preservative treatment, and the artificial checks on static and fatigue
strength.
A common size for a stringer is 8 by 16 in by 13 ft, so for these tests individual
specimens were scaled down to 2 by 4 by 39 in. The actual length of specimens was
43 in, which provided for a 2-in extension of each end beyond the supports when the
specimens were tested. Green specimens were sawed to final dimension and maintained
green until tested.
Specimens to be tested dry were cut to a rough size of approximately 3 by 5 by
48 in while green. They were carefully kiln-dried to approximately 12 percent moisture
content before being cut to final test size. The specimens are shown in Fiji. 2. The
artificial checks were cut with a spindle router and finished with a special hand tool
that made the point of the V-notch sharp in order to simulate the edge of a check as
closely as possible.
The moisture content of the green specimens was maintained until they were tested
by placing individual fatigue specimens in plastic cocoons in a solution of water and a
mild fungicide to prevent mold or other deterioration during storage. The static-control
specimens were close piled and covered with wetted cloths for the short period between
fabrication and test. Air-dry wood comes to an equilibrium moisture content of about
12 percent. This was duplicated by conditioning, storing, and testing the dry specimens
at 75 deg F and 64 percent relative humidity.
A numbering system for the specimens was used to identify each specimen as to log
origin, species, moisture content or treatment, as a control or fatigue specimen, whethei
checked or unchecked, and as to location in the log. During specimen preparation, pairs
were matched as to orientation of the annual ring>, in order that pairs would l>e loaded
on matching faces in both the control and fatigue tests. In the numbering system used,
the first symbol is the log number; the second is a letter, either P for southern pine 01
F for Douglas-fir; the third is either D for air-dry lumber, G for green lumber, or T for
preservative-treated lumber; the fourth is either C, designating control specimens, "i
366 Fatigue Resistance of Q u ar t er - S cal e Stringers
F, fatigue specimens; and the fifth symbol is either CH for checked specimens or U for
unchecked ones.
METHODS OF TEST
Specimens were loaded in bending at the third points while simply supported over
a 39-in span. The procedure for the control tests conformed to the requirements of
American Society for Testing Materials designation D 198-27.3 The specimens were sup-
ported and loaded on the 2-in face as shown in Fig. 3. To conform to the requirement
of D 198-27, the specimens were loaded at a uniform rate of head travel of 0.10 in
per min.
Maximum loads were obtained, and ultimate stresses were calculated with the for-
mula appropriate for the type of failure. The values of modulus of rupture for failures
in bending were computed with the conventional Mc/l formula which became
39 P
R =
bh2
where R is the modulus of rupture or extreme fiber stress in pounds per square inch,
P is the maximum test machine load in pounds, b is the width of the specimen in inches,
and h is the height of the specimen in inches.
The values of unit shear stress for specimens that failed in shear were calculated
on the basis of the gross cross section even though the artificial checks reduced the effec-
tive area in shear by a factor of one-half. This conforms to design practice where no
reduction is made in width for checking that may occur in service. The formula for
calculating unit shear stress is as follows:
0.75 P
s..=-
bh
where Ssg is the shear stress on the gross cross section in pounds per square inch, and P is
the maximum test machine load in pounds.
The unit shear stresses based on the net cross section were approximately double
those calculated on the basis of the gross section.
Fatigue tests were made in an axial loading fatigue machine adapted for bending,
as shown in Fig. 4. Specimens were loaded repeatedly to a previously computed per-
centage of the strength of the matched control. Loads were repeated at the rate of 500
cycles per minute. The green specimens were tested while in the plastic cocoons, as shown
in Fig. 4, to keep them green. The moisture content of the air-dry specimens was main-
tained because all fatigue tests were made in a room conditioned and maintained at 75
deg F and 64 percent relative humidity. The tests were continued until the specimen either
failed or had withstood 10 million repetitions of stress. A specimen was considered to
have failed when a major tension failure or shear failure developed, or when it could no
longer sustain the maximum repeated load because of severe compression failures. Ten
million cycles was selected as the end point of the test to provide a margin beyond the
2 million cycles estimated for the life of a bridge stringer. The ratio of minimum repeated
stress to maximum repeated stress (stress ratio) was 0.10 for all tests. After testing, a
moisture content coupon 1 in long was cut from each specimen near the point of failure.
This was weighed, oven-dried, weighed again, and the moisture content calculated. The
moisture content is expressed as a percentage of its weight when oven dry. The specific
gravity of each specimen was also determined on the basis of its weight and volume
when oven dry.
3 ASTM method "Static Tests of Timbers
Fatigue Resistance of Q u a r t e r - S c a 1 e Stringers 367
DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS
Green Specimens with Straight
Grain and 1:12 Slope of Grain
The results of the static control tests of the green specimens, both straight-grained
and with 1:12 slope of grain, are presented in Tables 1 and 2, while the results of the
fatigue tests are presented in Tables 3 and 4. The results of the fatigue tests are plotted
in Figs. S, 6, 7, and 8, with the absolute or percentage values of maximum repeated stress
as ordinates and the logarithms of the number of cycles to failure as abscissas.
Figs. 5 and 7 present the maximum repeated stresses as percentages of the static
strength of the matched controls, and Figs. 6 and 8 present them in pounds per square
inch. The plotted data exemplify the difficulty of obtaining a spread of values for fatigue
life (cycles to failure) from the tests of green material. During repeated stressing of the
green material, failures did not develop unless stresses in compression were sufficiently
high to produce compression wrinkles in the fiber. Compression failures that developed
when stresses were sufficiently high became apparent early in the test and deepened as
the test progressed. Tension failures developed only part of the time, even in specimens
with cross grain. In other specimens (Tables 3 and 4) either the severe, progressive com-
pression was followed by shear or the compression became so severe that the specimens
could no longer sustain the maximum repeated loads. Consequently, about one-half of
the specimens at various loading levels sustained 10 million cycles without failure.
Examination of Fig. 5 indicates that failures in straight-grained material did not
develop during 10 million repetitions if the maximum repeated stresses were less than
about SO percent of the static strength. The corresponding stress was about 60 percent
for the material with 1:12 slope of grain. This difference is logical, since modulus of
rupture is influenced more by slope of grain than is compressive strength. The effect of
slope of grain on static strength of wood is discussed in the Wood Handbook.4 Data in
Table 15 of that handbook indicate that the static modulus of rupture for wood with
a 1:12 slope of grain is about 84 percent of the strength of straight-grained material.
The data in the Wood Handbook also indicate that, in compression parallel to grain.
the static strength of wood with a 1:12 slope of grain is about 99.5 percent that of
straight-grained wood. Because the control strength for the green fatigue tests is based
on modulus of rupture, and the critical stress, as far as fatigue is concerned, is compres-
sion, it is reasonable to expect that fatigue strength values for the specimens with 1:12
slope of grain will be higher percentages of static strength values than those for straight
grained specimen.
The absolute or pound-per-square-inch values of fatigue strength are essentially the
same for the green material with 1:12 slope of grain as for the straight -grained material.
Figs. 6 and 8 indicate that the fatigue strength values for 10 million cycles of stress are
about the same, .3000 psi, for both the straight-grained specimens and those with a 1:12
slope. The average static strength of the controls with 1:12 slope of grain was 7020 psi
(Table 2) and that of the straight-grain controls was 7450 psi (Table 1). The static
strength of the slope-of-grain specimens in this test was about 94 percent that of the
straight-grained ones. This reduction is less than those indicated in Table IS oi the Wood
Handbook, which are based on tests of dry rather than green wood.
* Forest Products Laboratory, Wood Handbook, Agricultural Handbook Mo I v Department
of Agriculture, pages 95-97.
368 Fatigue Resistance of Q u a r t e r - S c a 1 e Stringers
Air-Dry, Unchecked Specimens with
Straight Grain or 1:12 Slope of Grain
The results of the static control tests of air-dry straight-grained specimens and those
with a 1:12 slope of grain are presented in Tables S and 6. The results of the fatigue
tests are presented in Tables 7 and 8. The results of the fatigue tests are plotted in Figs. 9,
10, 11, and 12. The plots are similar to those for the green specimens in that values of
maximum repeated stress are expressed as percentages of the strength of matched controls
in Figs. 9 and 11, and in pounds per square inch in Figs. 10 and 12.
The typical fatigue failure in the straight-grained material was compression followed
by either simple or splintering tension. The fatigue specimens with 1:12 slope of grain
failed in cross-grain tension; there was no visible evidence of compression. Both types of
failures were similar in appearance to failures from the static tests.
The plotted test results in Figs. 9 through 12 are more typical of values usually
obtained from fatigue tests than are the results obtained with the green material; that
is, the lower the repeated stress, the greater the number of cycles to failure. The indicated
fatigue strength of the straight-grained material for 10 million repetitions of stress is
about SO percent of the static strength (Fig. 9), or about 7000 psi (Fig. 10) for material
of the quality included in this study. If the slope of grain is 1:12, the corresponding
fatigue strength is about 45 percent (Fig. 11), or 4500 psi (Fig. 12).
Air-Dry, Artificially Checked Specimens
with Straight Grain or 1:12 Slope of Grain
The results of the static control tests of the air-dry specimens with artificial checks
at midheight and either straight grain or 1:12 slope of grain are presented in Tables 9
and 10. The results of the matched fatigue tests are presented in Tables 11 and 12. Plotted
results similar to those for the other fatigue tests are shown in Figs. 13, 14, 15, and 16.
The artificial checks were V-notches at midnight (neutral axis) fabricated to simulate
as closely as possible the checks that occur in the drying of large timbers. At one end
of each specimen the artificial checks extended from the end of the beam to a point
midway between the support and the load point. This was done to simulate a drying
check that terminated in the shear area. At the other end of the beam the checks were
continuous from the load point to the end to simulate a check that was continuous for
the full length of the area in shear. The straight-grained control specimens and the four
with 1:12 slope of grain failed in shear along the continuous or long check, indicating
that, under static loading, a continuous check was more severe than a check that ter-
minated within the zone stressed in shear. The fatigue failures were also along the long
check (Tables 11 and 12) showing that under repeated stress the results were the same.
In the straight-grained material, all of the static and fatigue failures occurred in
shear. In the static tests of specimens with 1:12 slope of grain (Table 10), four specimens
failed in shear, eight failed in cross-grained tension, and four failed in a combination of
cross-grained tension and shear so nearly simultaneously that it was impossible to tell
which occurred first. In fatigue tests of the slope-of-grain specimens, however, all failures
were in shear (Table 12). Thus it is indicated that shear is a more critical factor under
repeated stress than is the presence of cross grain of a severity of 1:12 or less.
Values of shear stress were calculated on the basis of the gross cross section rather
than the net cross section. This means that the actual shear stresses were approximately
twice the values presented in Tables 9, 10, 11, and 12, so the practice corresponds to that
usual in design of large timbers. Thus, no reduction need be made in applying the values
to design practice.
Fatigue Resistance of Q u a r t e r - S ca 1 e Stringers 369
The fatigue strength of the straight-grained, checked specimens for 10 million repeti-
tions of stress is about 35 percent of the static strength (Fig. 13). This percentage is not
a valid indication of fatigue strength for the specimens with 1:12 slope of grain because
the static specimens and the fatigue specimens did not fail in the same way, but it is
approximately 35 percent of the static strength (Fig. 15). The plot for fatigue results
of the straight-grained, artificially checked specimens (Fig. 14) indicates that the fatigue
strength for 10 million repetitions of stress is about 300 psi when computed on the basis
of the gross cross section. The corresponding plot of data from the artificially checked
specimens with 1:12 slope of grain (Fig. 16) indicates that the fatigue strength for 10
million repetitions is about 250 psi.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
Conclusive results cannot be presented until the full test program is completed, but
on the basis of the tests that have been completed, the following summary is warranted
for southern pine:
Green Specimens
1. Fatigue failures do not develop in green material that is repeatedly stressed in
bending unless actual stresses in compression are large enough to produce compression
wrinkles.
2. The indicated fatigue strength of green southern pine for 10 million repetitions
of stress (stress ratio 0.10) is about 50 percent of the static strength for straight-grained
material and 60 percent for that with 1:12 slope of grain. For material of the quality
included in the test program, the fatigue strength is about 3000 psi for both the straight-
grained material and that with 1:12 slope of grain.
Air-Dry, Unchecked Specimens
3. In air-dry, straight-grained, unchecked material, the fatigue failures were in com-
pression followed by tension and were similar in appearance to static failures. The cor-
responding failures in the specimens with 1:12 slope of grain were in cross-grain tension;
there was no visible evidence of compression. These were similar in appearance to static
failures.
4. The fatigue strength for 10 million repetitions (stress ratio 0.10) for the air-dry,
straight-grained material is about 50 percent of the static strength, and the corresponding
value for 1:12 slope of grain is about 45 percent. For material of the quality included in
this program, the indicated fatigue strengths are 7000 psi for straight-grained and 4500 psi
for the slope-of-grain material.
Air-Dry, Artificially Checked Specimens
5. When air-dry material is artificially checked, which reduces the width by one-
half at midheight, the failures in fatigue are in shear along the artificial check in both
types of specimens, whether they are straight grained or have a 1:12 slope. In static
tests with slope of grain, most of the failures are in cross-grain tension. This indii
that repeated stressing in shear is more critical than stressing in bending.
6. That fatigue stressing is more critical in shear than in bending is supported by the
fatigue strength values at 10 million repetitions of about 35 percent oi static strength for
both the artificially checked specimens with straight grain and those with slope <>t grain,
For material of the quality used in the test program, tin- fatigue strengths t<>r 1" million
cycles (stress ratio 0.10) are about 300 psi (computed on tin- urn— section) for straight
grained material and 250 psi for that with 1:12 slope "! grain
MO
Fatigue Resistance of Q u a r t e r - S c al e Stringers
Table 1. --Summary of results of static control tests of
green, straight-grained, unchecked, quarter-
scale southern pine bridge stringers_
Specimen No.
: Moisture
: content
: Specific
: gravityf;
: Modulus
: of
: rupture
: Type of failure
: Percent
:P.s.i.
2-P-G-C-U-8
3-P-G-C-U-9
: 30.3
': 88.1
: 0.54
: .52
: 7,760
: 7,670
: Heavy compression followed by
: splintering tension
: Do.
3-P-G-C-U-10
: 1^7-7
: .h6
: 6,020
: Do.
5_P-G-C-U-6
: 116.2
: .5^
: 6,910
: Do.
7-P-G-C-U-9
: 118.7
: .5^
: 7,600
: Do.
9_P_G-C-U-8
: 3k.k
: .56
: 7,720
: Do.
10-P-G-C-U-7
: 35-9
: .58
: 8,270
: Do.
ll-P-G-C-U-7
: 92.9
: .56
: 8,080
: Do.
12-P-G-C-U-6
: 115.8
: -55
: 7,350
: Heavy progressive compression
13-P-G-C-U-7
U-P-G-C-U-10
: 101.1*
': 1+6.8
: -57
': .60
: 7,180
': 8,5^0
: Heavy compression followed by
: splintering tension
: Do.
lU-P-G-C-U-11
: 118.1
: .54
: 6,7^0
: Do.
15_P_G-C-U-6
: 1V7.3
: .^7
: 6,160
: Heavy progressive compression
15_P_G-C-U-11
: 32.0
: -55
: 6,920
: Heavy compression followed by
: splintering tension
16-P-G-C-U-12
: 33-7
: .59
: 8,800
: Heavy compression followed by
: tension and shear
: 84.0
: .5^
: 7,1+50
-Specimens 2 by k by U3 inches tested in
points of 39-iQcn span.
^Based on volume and weight when ovendry.
bending by loading at third
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
371
Table 2. --Summary of results of static control tests of
green, 1:12 slope of grain, unchecked, quarter-
scale southern pine bridge stringers!
Specimen No.
: Moisture : Specific
: content :gravity£
: Modulus:
of
: rupture:
Type of failure
: Percent
P.s.i.
16-P-G-C-U-l : 125-5 :
17-P-G-C-U-l : 79-0 :
lb-P-G-C-U-2 : 32.6 :
20-P-G-C-U-l : 99.8 :
Av .: 7I0 :
2-P-G-C-U-3
32.5 :
0.51
6,UUo
3-P-G-C-U-5
30.2 :
• 52
6,U20
U_P_G-C-U-1
131.0 :
• 50
5,750
5-p.G-C-U-l
6^.7 :
• 56
6,860
6-P-G-C-U-2
32.7 :
• 58
7,280
8-P-G-C-U-U
39-1 :
.64
8,810
9_P_G-C-U-5
35-1 :
• 51
6,590
10-P-G-C-U-2
33.5 :
.55
7,260
11-P-G-C-U-U
117.1 :
.60
7,510
12-P-G-C-U-5
93-9 :
.62
7,U8o
13-P-G-C-U-l
106.9 :
.59
7,2U0
iU-P-G-C-U-2
35-5 :
.56
7,930
15-P-G-C-U-5
125.7 :
.55
6,610
51
: 6,100
62
: 7,000
5^
: 7,^80
55
: 6,550
56
: 7,020
: Cross-grained tension
Compression followed by cross-
grained tension
Do.
: Do.
: Heavy compression followed by
: splintering tension
: Compression followed by cross-
: grained tension
: Do.
: Compression followed by shear
Compression followed by cross-
grained tension
Do.
: Heavy compression followed by
: splintering tension
:Corapresslon followed by cross-
: grained tension
: Heavy compression followed by
: splintering tension
: Compression followed by cross-
: grained tension
: Do.
Do.
Do.
-Specimens 2 by h by U3 inches tested in
points of 39-inch span.
2
—Based on volume and weight when ovendry.
bending by loading at the third
.572
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
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374
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
Table 5 .- -Summary of results of static control tests of air-dry, straight-
grained, unchecked, quarter-scale southern pine bridge string"ers-
Specimen No.
: Mois-
: ture
: Spe- :
rcific :
: con-
: tent
:grav- :
: ity£ :
: Per-
: cent
: 10.8
: 0.54 :
: 11.1
: .56 :
: 11.2
: .56 :
: 11.0
: ,5U :
: 10.9
: ,5fc :
: 10.9
: -57 :
: 12.0
: -59 :
: 11.2
: .<?k :
: 10.9
: .& :
: 11.2
.51 :
: 11.2
.53 :
: 11.1
.58 :
: 11.6
.59 :
: 11.2
.50 :
: 11.0
• .56 :
: 11.2
.55 :
Modulus
of
rupture
Type of failure
Remarks
2-P-D-C-U-7
3-P-D-C-U-8
U-P-D-C-U-7
5-P-D-C-U-10
6-P-D-C-U-9
7-P-D-C-U-8
8-P-D-C-U-7
9_P-D-C-U-7
10-P-D-C-U-6
ll-P-D-C-U-6
12-P-D-C-U-10
13-P-D-C-U-6
1U-P-D-C-U-9
15-F-D-C-U-10
16-P-D-C-U-ll
Av
P.s.i. : :
13,^0 : Compression followed:
: by tension :
13,580 : do..
13,370 : do..
11,590 : do...
10,910 : do..,
15,680 : „.do..,
15,5^0 : do..,
U,370 : do..,
10,l8o : do...
12,910 : do..,
14,270 : do.
14,1^0 : do.
16,^00 : do.
10,9k0 : do.
15,100 : do.
13^90 :
:Matched fatigue
: specimen culled
-Specimens 2 by k by ^3 inches tested in bending by loading at the third
points cf a 39-isch span.
^^Based on volume and veight vhen ovendry.
Fatigue Resistance of Q u a r t e r - S c a 1 e Stringers
Table 6. --Summary of results of static control tests of
air-dry, 1:12 slope of grain, unchecked,
quarter-scale southern pine bridge stringers-
Specimen No.
: Moisture
: content
: Specific
: gravity!
: Modulus
: of
: rupture
Type of failure
: Percent
: 0.52
: P.s.i.
: 8, 280
:Cross-
-grained tension
1-P-D-C-U-i
: 10.8
2-P-D-C-U-2
: 11.0
: .5k
: 10,^20
Do.
4-P-D-C-U-5
: 10.5
: .56
: 9,000
Do.
6-P-D-C-U-l
: 10.7
: -57
: 10,060
Do.
9-P-D-C-U-l
: 11.2
: -55
: 10,61+0
Do.
10-P-D-C-U-l
: 10.7
: .52
: 11,530
Do.
12-P-D-C-U-U
: 11.1
: .60
: 12,770
Do.
13-P-D-C-U-5
: 10.7
! .58
: 8,120
Do.
lU.p-D-C-U-1
: 11.3
: .60
: 11,770
Do.
15-P-D-C-U-U
: 11.2
: .56
: 10,700
Do.
16-P-D-C-U-5
17-P-D-C-U-5
: 10.3
: 11.1
. -51
: .65
: 10,550
: 10,360
: Slight compression followed
: cross-grained tension
: Cross-grained tension
by
1&-P-D-C-U-5
: 10.6
• .50
: 7,^90
Do.
19-P-D-C-U-U
: 10.5
! .56
: 10,350
Do.
20-P-D-C-U-U
: 10.9
■ .61
: 7, 720
Do.
Av
: 10.9
■ .56
: 9,980
-Specimens 2 by k by ^3 inches tested in bending by loading at the third
points of a 39-inch span.
2
"Based on volume and weight when ovendry.
376
Fatigue Resistance of Q u a r t er - S c a 1 e Stringers
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I I I I I
Q Q Q Q Q
I I I l I
£, PL, Oh P-, Pm
o o o o o p
O CT\ VO 0\ LTV OJ
f— tr\ ro j- m r-
41 4)
0
in
B -P
CJ
-n 3
T)
•H P«
ci c
41
P c
4) -H
tn
05 .c
a e
■P V
fl
<XtJ?
378
Fatigue Resistance of Quart er-Scalc Stringers
Table 9» --Summary of results of static control tests of air-
dry, straight -grained, artificially checked,.
quarter-scale southern pine bridge stringers—
Specimen No.
rMoisture
: content
: Specific
: gravity-
: Shear
: strength
: (gross
: section )3
: Type
of failure
: Percent
: 0.1+7
: P.s.i.
: 786
: Shear al
2-P-D-C-CH-10
: 10.8
ong long check
3_P_D-C-CH-6
: 11.2
: .5^
: 82U
Do.
3-P-D-C-CH-7
: 11.1
: .51
: 832
Do.
4-P-D-C-CH-10
: 11.1
: .U9
: 7^2
Do.
6-P-D-C-CH-7
: 11.6
: .61
: 989
Do.
7-P-D-C-CH-6
: 11.2
: .53
: 932
Do.
3_p_D-C-CH-10
: 11.6
: .56
: 907
Do.
10-P-D-C-CH-9
: 11.3
: -57
: 9'i4
Do.
ll-P-D-C-CH-9
: 10.6
• .5^
: 800
Do.
12-P-D-C-CH-8
: 11.5
.70
: 1,013
Do.
13-P-D-C-CH-9
: 10.8
: .61
: 976
Do.
1U-P-D-C-CH-7
: 10.5
.60
: 966
Do.
15-P-D-C-CH-8
: 11.0
• 59
: 886
Do.
16-P-D-C-CH-10
: 10.1
• 51
798
Do.
17-P-D-C-CH-10
: 10.5
• 57
: 892
Do.
Av
: 11.0
.56
: 884
-Specimens 2 by k- by 43 inches with artificial checks at midheight,
reducing width by l/2, were tested in bending by loading at third
points of 39-inch span.
rBased on volume and weight when ovendry.
^Shear strength on actual net cross section approximately 2 timer
value shown .
Fatigue Resistance of Qu arter-Scale Stringers
MO
Table 10 . - -Summary of results of static control tests of air-
dry, 1:12 slope of grain, artificially checked,
quarter-scale southern pine bridge stringers!.
Specimen No.
Moisture
content
Specific rModulus
p
gravity-: of
: rupture
Shear
strength
(gross
section )2
Type of failure
Percent
P.s.i.
P.s.i.
3-P-D-C-CH-2
U-P-D-C-CH-3
6-P-D-C-CH-1+
7-P-D-C-CH-5
8-P-D-C-CH-l
10-P-D-C-CH-U
11-P-D-C-CH-l
12-P-D-C-CH-2
lU-P-D-C-CH-U
15-P-D-C-CH-2
16-P-D-C-CH-Ij-
17-P-D-C-CH-U
18-P-D-C-CH-U
19-P-D-C-CH-3
21-P-D-C-CH-U
2-P-D-C-CH-5 : 11.6
Av.
10.6
10.5
10.9
10.6
10.8
10.7
10.6
10.8
11.1
11. c
11.2
11.6
10. h
10.5
11.1
10.9
0.59
.57
• 56
• 67
• 5U
.58
-51*
.60
• 57
.52
.60
.67
• 59
.63
.58
: 8, 9^0
: 7,^30
: 10,190
690 :
970 :
: 6,900
: 10,U60
: 9, 730
: 7,060
809 :
: 7, 970
63U :
8U3 :
781 I
: 10,930
: 12,1+30
763 :
775 :
: 10,0UC
: 9,860
Cross-
and
Cross-
Shear
Cross-
Cross-
and
Cross-
Shear
Cross-
and
S iear
Cross-
Shear
Cross-
and
Cross-
grained tension
shear
grained tension
Do.
along long check
grained tension
grained tension
shear
grained tension
Do.
Do.
along long check
grained tension
shear
along long check
grained tension
along long check
grained tension
shear
grained tension
-Specimens 2 by k by U3 inches with artificial checks at miaheight,
reducing width by 1/2, were tested in bending by loading at third points
of 39-inch span.
•2
TBased on volume and weight when ovendry.
-Snear strength on actual net section approximately 2 times value shown.
.<80
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
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Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
E-l
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Fatigue Resistance of Q u a r t e r - S c a 1 e Stringers
O 4)
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Fatigue Resistance of Q u a r t e r - S c a I e Stringers
,.""—"--
| 8 1 1 1 11
K Hh~ H
■— i-LLLi--
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384 Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
Fig. 3 — Assembly for static control test of quarter-scale bridge stringers.
Fig. 4 — Assembly for fatigue test of quarter-scale bridge stringers.
Shown are yoke and load blocks used to distribute loads to third points of
specimens, flat bearing plates at supports, and plastic cocoon used to maintain
specimens in green condition.
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
385
60
to
%%
§^ 40 —
LEGEND:
o— SPECIMEN DID NOT FAIL
I I i
I
10*
I03 10* I05
CYCLES TO FAILURE
L_U
10' 10°
Fig. 5 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of
green, straight-grained, unchecked southern pine. Values for maximum re-
peated stress are expressed as percentages of static strength. Stress ratio
0.10.
- -
o
!
•
te
LE
o
Gl
NO
SPi
\CL
VIEflt
D
ID
NO
T Ft
ML
I03 10* 10s
CYCLES TO FAILURE
I06
I0T
Fig. 6 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of
green, straight-grained, unchecked southern pine. Values of maximum re-
peated stress are expressed in pounds per square inch. Stress ratio 0.10.
386
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
<=> & 50
o
:
»
ll
i
LEGE
o— .
ND
iPi
ran
>£/V
DID
NO 1
' FA
IL
.
I!
!
{
j
1
ill
/<?J 10* I05
CYCLES TO FAILURE
10 7
Fig. 7 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of
green, unchecked southern pine with 1:12 slope of grain. Values of maximum
repeated stress are expressed as percentages of static strength. Stress ratio
0.10.
R*
1
o
}
0
0
LE
o
G£
NO
SP
;
sen
DEN
L
1/D
NO
T FA
IL
I03 10* IOt
CYCLES TO FAILURE
10 7
Fig. 8 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of
green, unchecked southern pine with 1:12 slope of grain. Values of maximum
repeated stress are expressed in pounds per square inch. Stress ratio 0.10.
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
587
lod 70
50
I"-
\ 30
•
LE
SE
VD
'CIA
te/v
DID l\
for FA
IL
'
I03 10* I05
CYCLES TO FAILURE
10s I07 10'
Fig. 9 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of air-
dry, straight-grained, unchecked southern pine. Values for maximum repeated
stress are expressed as percentages of static strength. Stress ratio 0.10.
i
)
>
1
i
o
LE
o-
?£
VD:
~IMEN
c
ID
NO
IL
•
II
10 3 10* I05
CYCLES TO FAILURE
10'
10*
Fig. 10 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of
air-dry, straight-grained, unchecked southern pine. Values for maximum re-
peated stress are expressed in pounds per square inch. Starred specimen had
local cross grain, hence cannot be considered typical of straight-grained
material. Stress ratio 0.10.
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
lO3 10" 10 :
CYCLES TO FAILURE
Fig. 11 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of
air-dry, unchecked southern pine with 1:12 slope of grain. Values for maxi-
mum repeated stress are expressed as percentages of static strength. Stress
ratio 0.10.
-STATIC STRENGTH
0
4
1
0
)
c
o
0
<
*
r
LEGEND
o— SPL
-CIMEN DID
NOT F,
Q/L
[
j-
1
\
r
I02 I03 10" 10s
CYCLES TO FAILURE
10 T
IOa
Fig. 12 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of
air-dry, unchecked southern pine with 1:12 slope of grain. Values for maxi-
mum repeated stress are expressed in pounds per square inch. Stress ratio
0.10.
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
38Q
tfc g 60
<=> St
Uj o
40
p- ^
^ S
t 0-
»*
IP
5> v_
§
*
3
?n
0
0
-j
••
3
>~
LE
0-
SEND
- SPt
'CM
HEN
0
ID
NO
T FAIL
--
10 10* I03 10* 10s I06
CYCLES TO FAILURE
I07
Fig. 13 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of
air-dry, straight-grained, artificially checked southern pine. Checks, located
at midheight, reduced width by one-half. Values for maximum repeated stress
are expressed as percentages of static strength. Stress ratio 0.10.
V, 700
£^
o- R 60O
0
'
MAXIMUM REPEATED
(P.S.I. ON GROS.
8 8 8^
(
ii
:
LE
HE
NL
SP
ecu
VEN
D
IL
>/
10
r FA
IL
>
A
o
J .
>-
:!:
I0J 10* I0a
CYCLES TO FAILURE
10' I07
Fig. 14 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of
air-dry, straight-grained, artificially checked southern pine. Checks, at mid-
height, reduced the width by one-half. Values for maximum repeated stress
are expressed in pounds per square inch. Stress ratio 0.10.
390
Fatigue Resistance of Quarter-Scale Stringers
is
LE
?£
Al
S
0
Clt
JEN
£
IL
7 1
VO
T FA
IL
>-<
>•
10* 10* 10* 10' IO"
CYCLES TO FAILURE
10 7
Fig. 15 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of
air-dry, artificially checked southern pine with 1:12 slope of grain. Checks, at
midheight, reduced the width by one-half. Values of maximum repeated stress
are expressed as percentages of static strength. Stress ratio 0.10.
15:
'
\
0
o
LE
o
Gt
71
5
ID
PL
TCI
MEN
L
1ID
NO
T FAIL
1
o
c
1
'
1 r
IO3 10* IO5
CYCLES TO FAILURE
IO7
IO9
Fig. 16 — Stress-number of cycles to failure relation for fatigue tests of
air-dry, artificially checked southern pine with 1:12 slope of grain. Checks, at
midheight, reduced the width by one-half. Values of maximum repeated stress
are expressed in pounds per square inch. Stress ratio 0.10.
Report of Committee 16 — Economics of Railway
Location and Operation
R. L. Milner, Chairman,
C. L. Towle,
Vice Chairman,
C. W. Sooby, Secretary,
Herbert Asiitox
Q. K. Baker
J . W. Barriger
J. M. Bi.\ i n wi
C. H. Bi A( km an (E)
J. VV. BOLSTAD
I. C. Brewer
D. E. Brcnn
H. S. Bull
B. ClIAPPELL
H. B. Chris iianson, Jr.
F. J. CORPORON
L. P. Diamond
Miss Olive W. Dennis (E)
J. M. Fox
B. G. Gai.i.\( iiir
R. A. Gleason
R. M. Hardwkke
Allex Hazex
C. L. Heimbach
H. C. Hutsox
C. A. Tames
J. E. JAY
H. A. Llxd
A. E. MacMillan
J. P. Maynard
F. C. McNeill
R. B. MlDKIFF
M. B. Miller
H. P. Morgan
T. C. NORDQl Bl
F. N. Xvi.
F. B. Peter
C. W. Pitts
E. C. Poole
VV. E. Qi inn
J. P. Ray
F. J. RlCHTER
E. H. Roth
Geo. Rugge
A. L. Sams
P. J. Scum it/
H. F. Schryver (E)
H. A. Scott
H. M. Shepard
L. K. Sillcox
C. E. Stryker
D. S. Suxdel
J. E. Teal (E)
D. K. Van Ingi n
L. E. Ward
H. P. Weidman
H. H. Wiin
T. D. VVofford, Jr.
H. L. WOLDRIDGE
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Brief progress report, submitted as information page 392
2. Cost of track curvature.
Brief progress report, submitted as information page 392
3. Determination of maintenance of way expenses for various traffic volumes,
collaboratirg with Committee 11.
Progress in study, but no report.
4. Economics of various types of yard-to-yard car reporting.
Final report, submitted as information
5. Methods of reducing time of freight cars between loading and unloading
points, collaborating with Car Service Division. AAR, Signal Section. AAR,
Communications Section. AAR, and American Association of Railroad Super-
intend:nts.
Progress in study, but no report.
391
392 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
b. Economics of improved freight stations and facilities, collaborating with
Committees 6 and 14, and with Freight Station Section, AAR,
Progress report, submitted as information page 399
8. Innovations in railway operations.
Progress in study, but no report.
The Committee on Economics of Railway Location and Operation,
R. L. Milner, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 539, November 1957.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
G. Rugge (chairman, subcommittee), H. S. Bull, F. J. Corporon, A. Hazen, C. A. James,
H. P. Morgan, F. B. Peter, J. P. Ray, J. E. Teal, T. D. Wofford.
Your committee submits the following brief report of progress on revision of Chapter
16, Part 3, POWER.
A preliminary draft involving an extensive revision of Section C. Electric Locomo-
tives, has been completed. Portions of Section D. Oil-Electric Locomotives and Rail
Cars have been redrafted.
Information is being assembled on the application of data-processing equipment to
speed-time-distance calculations.
The committee is taking cognizance of the development of atomic-powered loco-
motives.
Report on Assignment 2
Cost of Track Curvature
L. P. Diamond (chairman, subcommittee), J. M. Bentham, J. W. Bolstad, I. C. Brewer,
D. E. Brunn, C. A. James, R. L. Milner, F. B. Peter, C. W. Pitts, E. C. Poole, A. L.
Sams, C. E. Stryker, L. E. Ward.
Your committee submits as information the following report of progress in the
gathering of data to determine the effect of curvature upon the cost of maintaining track.
Previous progress reports on this assignment appear in the Proceedings, Vol. S3,
1952, page 946, and Vol. 58, 1957, page 346. The present report presents a brief descrip-
tion of the findings of a study of the influence of track curvature upon the costs in ICC
Account 214 — Rail. A more complete exposition of this analysis and the conclusions
derivable therefrom will appear in a future report.
This analysis of rail costs is a portion of individual studies regarding the effects of
track curvature on Account 212 — Ties, Account 214 — Rail, Account 216 — Other Track
Material, Account 218 — Ballast, and Account 220 — Track Laying and Surfacing.
In general, rail at first location is replaced because its value has depreciated to the
point where relaying at a second location becomes economical. The wear on the head and
gage corner of the running surface of rail has been found to be an effective measure of
rail depreciation.
E c o n o m ics of Railway Location and Operation 39£
It will doubtless be generally agreed that among the most important of the practically
measurable factors contributing to rail wear are traffic tonnage, the manner in which such
tonnage is accumulated, track profile, and track alinement. Therefore, an analysis was
performed on rail depreciation, expressible as a rate of railwear per unit traffic tonnage-
time, using the following hypothesis,
B -B
Yi = KXJ Xt - 1
where
Fi = Rail wear, thousandths of an inch.
A'i = Volume of traffic accumulated from time of installation to time of measure-
ment in million gross tons.
X2 = Rate of traffic tonnage accumulation in million gross tons per year
A', Bi, — Bz = Constants of the equation.
Many thousands of rails were measured for various aspects of rail depreciation on
several representative railroad territories. Railwear on the head and inside gage corner
of the running surface of each rail was measured, using dial gages set into a specially
designed fixture. Field measurements were referred to a standardized template represent-
ing each typical rail measured. In Equation 1 above, the subscript i of the variable F
refers to wear measuremenets on rail head, rail gage corner, rail end batter, east and west.
These four measurements (considered individually) of rail deterioration for each
of the measured rails were subdivided into groups according to specific classifications
of track gradient, track alinement, rail weights, which rail (north or south, high or low),
and direction of traffic and number of tracks in the locality. Track gradient classifications
proceeded in increments of 0.4 percent. Track alinement classifications included tangent
track, and proceeded in increments of 1 deg up through 8 deg 59 min. Measurements
were made on 132-, 131-, 1 15-, and 112-lb rail laid new. Territories were subdivided into
classes of double and single track.
This classification of data into compartmented groups permits general as well as
detailed analysis, with applications of results to any point on new rail territory on a
railroad. There were several hundred groups of data, classified as described above, with
numbers of measurements for each ranging up to several hundred. In order to perform
this grouping of the original measurements as well as to perform the labor of determining
the mathematical relationship described in Equation 1, punch card tabulating equipment
as well as a large scale computer are being used.
The computer program performed analyses of the response surfaces generated by
linear multiple regression equations (obtained by log-log transformation of Equation 1)
for each of the groups of railwear measurements classified as described above. Provisions
were made to ascertain the effects of gradient, curvature, rail section and weight, rail
side, and traffic direction on the basic relationship between railwear and traffic tonnage-
time. Also, assessments are being made of the precision of each predicting equation as well
as the strength of various aspects of each relationship.
It is evident that several factors in addition to those mentioned previously have an
influence on the railwear rate per unit of traffic tonnage-time. Among these are differ-
ential effectiveness of rail lubrication media, corrosion films, rolling stock design and
maintenance effectiveness, and mixtures of service life under steam and diesel operation.
These factors do not lend themselves to economical or practical field measurement. The
operation of these factors contributes to the overall variation observed in railwear
measurements
394 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
However, the analytical techniques employed in this analysis have been sufficient to
indicate general patterns regarding the mechanism of railwear and rail deterioration as
well as the influence of the measured factors upon the rates of rail depreciation. It is
noteworthy that among these patterns is the observation that as curvature and/or
gradient increase, the influence of the additional factors discussed in the paragraph next
above are reduced to relative minor importance.
Report on Assignment 4
Economics of Various Types of Yard-to-Yard Car Reporting
Fred N. Nye (chairman, subcommittee'), A. E. MacMillan, E. C. Poole, W. E. Quinn,
P. J. Schmitz, H. A. Scott, L. K. Sillcox, C. W. Sooby.
Yard-to-yard car reporting is the basic element to be considered in designing a
mechanized car reporting and accounting system.
The objectives of such a system normally are:
1. To improve yard efficiency, expedite classification, and advance train departures,
2. To facilitate and improve car distribution and enhance the utilization of all
freight train equipment — both power and rolling stock,
3. To minimize, or eliminate, the random tracing of individual cars by automatically
providing complete and current "passing reports" to traffic and transportation
offices and promptly to advise customers of bad order cars delayed and their
probable forwarding.
4. To eliminate manual preparation of train consists, wheel reports, interchange
reports, switch lists, on hand reports, etc.
5. To provide automatic input data for mechanized car accounting procedures.
6. To provide a basis for special traffic analyses.
Railroads for many years have transmitted train consist information by teletype
from yard-to-yard. In some cases the consist merely listed the various groups of cars
which made up the train; in other cases, this has been supplemented by each car's initial
and number together with its destination or off-going junction. Now on many roads
complete detail is provided as to type of car, contents, weight, shipper and/or consignee,
routing, etc.
A typical modern system works somewhat as follows:
When a car is received from a connecting line or when a car is tendered to the rail-
road from an on-line shipper, all data concerning it are manually punched — from the way-
bill— into business machine cards and verified at the first equipped yard through which
it passes. For the great majority of cars, such being the normal concentration of traffic,
this would be the yard at the interchange gateway, or the origin city. Two cards are
normally required for loaded cars — a movement and a traffic card.
The movement information — the No. 1 Card — usually consists of the car's initial and
number, its type, whether loaded or empty, its contents and weight, destination or off-
going junction and road to which delivered and the consignee.
The traffic information — the No. 2 Card — repeats for loads the car's initial and num-
ber in order that it may be machine-matched to the Movement Card, and normally
supplements the movement data with the waybill date and number, the billing road, the
origin city and state, the shipper and the routing.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 395
A third card is sometimes used to cover special instructions, icing or other servicing,
reconsignments, etc. Or it might be used to show rates and charges, thus providing com-
plete coverage of all data on the waybill and providing a basis for revenue accounting.
The information on the Movement Card must precede the train handling tin- car,
as it advances from yard to yard. On large roads with substantial volume of traffii .
requiring dispatchment of many trains per track from major yards, it has generally been
found that manual teletyping of detailed consists direct from the waybills is too slow —
it would hold up the trains. The method commonly used to speed up the transmission
process is to pre-punch at the first equipped yard the waybill data for each car into
business machine cards. The cards are temporarily filed with the corresponding waybill.
These cards can subsequently be made into a deck when the train is made up and the
waybills are pulled, each card in the deck representing a car in the train and lined up in
the sime order. A header card is then added showing the train symbol, yard of departure,
diesel unit numbers and date and time of departure. A caboose card completes the deck,
showing number of loads and empties, total cars and tonnage. The data and time of
departure, and the yard are gang-punched into the header card and into each individual
car card. Then by card-to-tape techniques the deck of cards quickly produces a per-
forated paper tape which in turn actuates the teletype machine immediately following
the train's departure. This method has the great advantage that the receiving yard next
ahead gets not only a detailed printed consist of the on-coming train, but it also auto-
matically punches out a perforated tape, which can immediately be run through a tape-
to-card machine to reproduce a deck of cards identical to that which originated the cycle.
Beyond the first equipped yard, where manual card punching is required, the punched
cards are self-regenerating, and after reshuffling reflecting switching operations, they are
automatically transmitted from yard-to-yard. When the train arrives at the yard next
ahead, its arrival date and time are gang punched into each card of the deck previously
received. (To hold communication load to a minimum, the gang punching can be done
at a district bureau or central bureau if these have been established for reasons described
hereafter.) A record is thus created for each car, showing every yard and train handling
and the time involved. It is available at the yard ahead several hours prior to the train's
arrival. The yardmaster, knowing the number of trains and the number of cars en route,
together with their various destinations, which must be switched during the next several
hours, can line up his power and crews, arrange for icing or other servicing, prepare for
diversions or reconsignments, etc. Pre-planned work makes for increased efficiency and
economy of operation; it expedites classification and so advances train departures. This
is objective 1. In turn, this saves car hours, which accumulate into car days and reduces
per diem payments. Advance reporting of train and car movements is an important tool
to improved operations -but like any other tool its use must be understood; it must
generate confidence and be effectively applied it" it is to "pay off."
If this basic yard-to-yard or movement data on card Xo. 1 is to serve other than
objective 1 outlined above, a means must be provided for concentrating it at transporta-
tion and accounting headquarters. Similarly, the traffic data on card Xo. 2 must also be
brought to a processing center.
This can be accomplished by secondary transmission to a central bureau, or on large
systems perhaps more economically via district service bureaus, With modern communica-
tions' switching systems the secondary transmission is automatic and virtually concurrent,
At such concentration points the original Xo. 1 and No. 2 card imatically repro-
duced and can be used singly and jointly for various purposes.
396 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
The Transportation Department, which normally should exercise jurisdiction over
the central or district bureaus, can for instance sort the accumulated No. 1 cards from
many trains on many divisions and pull out empties, subsort them to types of cars and
by ownership and then localize their whereabouts. This provides a sound basis for car
distribution. It can work from the train's header and caboose cards, which show the diesel
units, cars handled and tonnage to provide a current record of power utilization. This is
objective 2.
The No. 1 or Movement Cards each afternoon can be machine-sorted at the bureau
to car number sequence, then run through a high-speed accounting machine which prints
out movement data for each car — its train and yard handlings — on multilith mats from
which a daily passing report may immediately be printed for distribution by mail to all
traffic and transportation offices. Or by selective sorting to origin and destination states,
the data can be put on tape for teletype transmission to interested traffic offices — if
economically justified.
With all cars readily identifiable by car numbers tabulated in sequence, the most
recent "passing" can promptly be made available, responsive to customer inquiries. This
is objective 3.
Objective 4, like objective 1, is at the yard level. At major yards where volume jus-
tifies the use of an accounting machine, local yard records can be compiled as to cars
switched, cars on hand, time required to transit the yard, etc. Records of cars which have
departed from a yard are very important, but it is also desirable to have a complete
record of cars in the yard. Loaded cars off schedule, showing the time they have been
detained at the yard, can be developed through selective sorting. It provides a means
for expediting their movement and, as to empties, a means to improve car distribution.
When the cards for a departing train have been arranged in train consist order, they
can be run through the accounting machine to print up the conductor's wheel report — a 2-
or 3-min operation.
When properly arranged, they can print up puller consists, interchange drafts, switch
lists, arrival notices, etc.
At yards not large enough to justify an accounting machine, the cards arranged for
specific purposes can be run through a card-to-tape machine and the tape then used to
print up tabulations on a teletype printer, disconnected from the circuits. This, of course,
is a slower method and has its limitations, particularly as to wheel reports.
Objective S is to provide automatic input data for mechanized car accounting pro-
cedures. Normally these depend on wheel reports or train consists and interchange reports.
The No. 1 or Movement Card provides the basic data in a form normally acceptable.
Objective 6 is to provide a basis for special traffic analyses. This requires the No. 2
or Traffic Card, matched by car initial and number, to supplement the data on the No. 1
card. It should as previously noted include the waybill date and number, the billing road,
the origin city and the shipper, and also the routing involved. Traffic data can then be
developed by selective reproduction of data from the No. 1 and No. 2 cards to a com-
bined statistical card, then sorting on standard tabulating equipment to origin and destina-
tion states and cities, or by shippers and consignees or by commodities. Or the cards,
suitably combined, can be used as input material to a computer programmed to develop
whatever type of data the Traffic Department may require. In the latter case, such analyses
should be the responsibility of the Traffic Department.
It must be understood that the results obtained depend entirely on the accuracy
with which the cards are originally prepared at the yard office. Numerical coding, while
more precise, is generally too time consuming and therefore unsatisfactory. Alphabetic
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 397
punching requires faithful adherence to agreed-upon abbreviations as to junctions and
commodities, precise fielding of data and poses a problem as to complicated shipper and
receiver names. Alphabetic sorting require more passes through the machine than if
numeric.
The success of any mechanized system depends on close cooperation between all
departments which contribute to the operation or which rely on information flowing
from it. It requires thorough planning and precise procedures set forth in a Manual of
Instructions and adequate training for the personnel who will operate it — particularly at
yard levels. And most importantly, there must be a determination to make it work and
confidence to rely on it as an aid to operating and sales efforts.
The above statement of major objectives — all directed toward improved manage-
ment controls — and a very brief description of certain ways and means to attain them is
not intended to be definitive ; it merely points out certain concepts which have been
applied to varying degrees and in differing combinations by many roads since World
War II.
A road contemplating such an installation should carefully review typical ones already
made. Such publications as Railway Age, Railway Signaling & Communications, Modern
Railroads, Proceedings of the Railway Systems and Procedures Association, etc., provide
excellent references.
The decision should be predicated upon an economic study. Because many depart-
ments are involved — operating, transportation, communications, freight traffic, accounting
— a committee approach has often been used. It has much to recommend it.
These factors must be considered:
System Design — This depends on a railroad's traffic flow pattern and the volume of
loaded and empty movement through various gateways or junctions; the primary yards
which dominate its operations and the secondary yards which support them. Detailed
car counts must be made and evaluated into train dispatchments ; daily and seasonal peaks
of traffic must be considered with other factors to provide a basis for an adequate
communication network.
Communications Network — The problem here is the ability of a road's own com-
munications system to assume the added burden which will be thrust upon it. To pro-
vide adequate capacity at peak periods it may be necessary to superimpose carrier cir-
cuits or perhaps even string new lines. The alternative to such capital expenditures and
ensuing maintenance is to lease commercial communication circuits and related com-
ponents. Tax and financial considerations are involved — all must be carefully weighed
preliminary to a decision, as large sums of money are involved.
Physical Additions and Betterment — Car-reporting systems are essentially based on
yard operations. Some yard installations will probably require an up grading or recon-
struction of yard offices. Those to be equipped with business machine- will frequently
require improved lighting, air-conditioning, etc. District or headquarters service bureaus
may be costly installations; with modern electronic equipment large quantities of heat
are generated, requiring air conditioning.
Business Machines Required — These depend on the extent of the system and the
objectives toward which it is oriented. At all yard offices there will be teletype equip-
ment, and if communication is to be speeded up at larger yards by mechanized lech
niques, they will require key punches, card-to-tape and tape-to-card machines. At majoi
yards there should be in addition card sorting machines and accounting machines to
print up tabulations, reports, etc.
398 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
At the district or headquarters bureaus, to carry out their functions, plans should
consider tape-to-card machines, collators, sorters, statistical machines and accounting
machines. High-speed printing machines are necessary to print up daily passing and traffic
reports; efficient mailing facilities are also essential to distribute them. This equipment
is available on a rental basis or may be purchased. Substantial sums are involved which
require detailed planning and programming.
Personnel Required — and Saved — Modern mechanized methods and procedures, car-
ried out by a well-trained force working toward objective 4 should lead to saving's in
personnel at the yard level. It may take some time to bring this about, but local super-
vision should be pressed to effect economies. Targets should be established with that
objective.
The new service bureaus must, of course, be staffed, the number of clerks required
necessarily depends on the objectives and the equipment installed.
With a systematized tracing procedure achieved under objective 3, it is reasonable
to expect reduction of tracing clerks in various yard, transportation and traffic offices.
Also reduction in telephone and telegraph expenses.
If the new system is designed to provide pre-digested input to the Car Accounting
Department — objective S — it is reasonable to look for clerical savings in that area, for
instance, a reduction in key punch operators.
Savings and Benefits — The greatest potential savings and/or benefits may be antici-
pated under objectives 1, 2 and 6. Attainment of objectives 1 and 2 will move cars faster
through yards and otherwise improve car distribution. This should enable the overall
railroad operation to be conducted with fewer cars, saving capital investment or reducing
per diem payments. An expedited operation produces a more saleable service; there are
also traffic advantages in objectives 1 and 2 as well as in objective 6.
It will be recognized that the economic evaluation suggested above raises questions
which can not be resolved mathematically, particularly those involving per diem savings
and traffic advantages which may well be the determining factors. This again emphasizes
the need of the interdepartmental or committee approach to develop sound judgment for
a wise decision and to assure cooperative action in making the program effective.
Systems of this character are based on yard operations and train dispatchments — a
yard-to-yard traffic pattern. For this reason they should be under the line authority of
top operating officers. They can delegate this authority to their superintendents and in
turn to trainmasters as to the yard phase and to their transportation officers as to the
service bureau phase. Staff assistance as to methods and procedures, changes in network,
etc., should be provided from headquarters. But strict accountability for performance
must be retained. And it should be emphasized that the line officers have the primary
responsibility to see that the information which flows from the system is put to work.
Enough roads by now have set up systems of this character to make it reasonably
clear that they are worth-while. In all probability the potential benefits of these installa-
tions have not yet been fully attained. In an increasingly competitive era it may be
assumed that other roads will be constrained to do likewise. It would prove advantageous
if all roads employed compatible — not necessarily identical — systems and procedures.
This woud permit interchange of punch cards, with the interline waybills, thus minimizing
the need of further key punching and holding transcription errors to a minimum. Yard-
to-yard reporting and centralized processing of movement and traffic data is but one
phase of the rapidly expanding field of paper-work automation.
This report is submitted as information with the recommendation the subject be
discontinued.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 399
Report on Assignment 6
Economics of Improved Freight Stations and Facilities
Collaborating with Committees 6 and 14, and with the Freight
Station Section, AAR
T. D. Wofford (chairman, subcommittee). J. M. Fox, B. G. Gallacher, R. A. Gleason,
Allen Hazen, H. C. Hutson, J. P. Mavnard, A. E. McMillan, F. C. McNeill, M. B.
Miller, T. C. Nordquist, E. A. Roth, P. J. Schmitz, D. S. Sundel, H. L. Woldridge.
Your committee submits as information the following report of progress in studying
the economic factors relating to construction of new freight-house facilities and moderniza-
tion of older installations.
A bibliography is being prepared to provide a source of reference material on all
aspects of freight station improvements undertaken by various railroads in recent years.
A preliminary list of articles relating to the subject, as reported in selected trade journals,
is presented below.
Modern Railroads
April 1054— ''CNR Boosts Efficiency"
Dec. 1953 — "Conveyor System LCL Handling"
Dec. 1953 — "New Equipment in Freight Houses"
Mar. 1953 — "Efficiency Breaks Bottleneck at Florence"
Mar. 1953 — "Great Northern Tests Container"
Mar. 1953 — "Cable Cars in Smaller Terminals"
Mar. 1953 — "The Pennsy Extends Coordinated Trucking"
Dec. 1952 — "New Freight House Has Cable Cars"
July 1952 — "Special Service for LCL"
June 1952 — "The Jersey Central Concentrates LCL at New Station"
June 1052 — "The Rock Island Has a New Freight House"
June 1952 — "Frisco Inaugurates Faster LCL Handling Techniques"
June 1052— "500 Million Lbs. of LCL a Year"
Feb. 1952 — "Mo. Pac. Opens New One and Three-Quarter Million Dollar LCL
Terminal"
Dec. 1951— "LCL Conference"
Railway Track and Structures
Aug. 1956— "When a City and Railroad Get Together"
May 1956— "Portable Prebuilt Depots"
Feb. 1956— "Prefab for B'g Buildings"
Feb. 1952 — "Something New in Platform Construction"
Jan. 1952 — "New Plastic Glazing Offers Possibilities for Railroad I
Aug. 1951 — "How to Make Low Cost Concrete Freight Platforms"
July 1951 — "Precast Wall Slabs Reduce Building Cost"
Railway Age
Dec. 5, 1955— "For Faster Freight Handling"
Oct. 3, 1955 — "Western Maryland Finds a \\
Sept. 5, 1955— "How REA Cuts Handling Costs"
May 2, 1955— "LCL Checking is Faster"
400
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Oct.
5,
Sept.
10,
Sept.
6,
July
26,
July
1°,
May
7,
Jan.
15,
Jan.
8,
Dec.
16,
Aug.
s,
July
1,
June
17,
June
3;
June
3,
June
3,
Mar.
25,
Feb.
25,
1954 — "Latest in Express Terminals"
1954— "These Walls Were Bulging So"
1054 — "Old Stations Replaced with Modern Compact Buildings"
105-1 — "Why Monon Moved to Suburbs"
1954— "This Freight Transfer Expanded"
1951 — "NYC — Improving Syracuse Freight House"
1951 — "Carriers Plan Expanded Mechanization for Stations and Store-
houses"
1051 — "LCL Station Features Mechanized Operations"
1950 — "Bridges Expedite Freight Between Platforms"
1950 — "Freight House Operations Speeded with Under-Floor Chain
Conveyor"
1950 — "A Freight House can Please the Eye"
1950 — "Conveyor Assures Faster LCL Handling"
1950 — "Trends in Freight House Design"
1950 — "Freight Stations Control Many Millions of Freight Claim Dollars"
1950 — "What Stations to Mechanize"
1950 — "New Freight Station"
1950 — "Overhead Conveyor Speeds B&M Operations in Handling LCL
Traffic"
It is planned to continue reviewing selected trade and other publications for further
references and to combine them with those above to obtain a complete and convenient
bibliography of articles of current application to the subject of improved freight stations.
Your committee also intends to gather data on specific freight house improvements
to develop more detailed information on the economic factors involved. It is recommended
that this subject be continued.
Report of Committee 9 — Highways
C. I. Hartsell, Chairman,
J. M. Trissal,
Vice Chairman,
R. W. Mauer, Secretary,
(E) Member Emeritus.
I- \. Barker
G. B. Blatt
Bernard Blum (E)
C. M. Carnahan
R. B. Carrington, |k
A. C. Cayou
M. H. Corbyn
F. C. Cunningham
R. Dejaiffi:
J. R. Derieix
A. D. Duffie
W. R. Dunn, Jr.
E. R. Englert
J. S. Felton
J. T. FlTZPATRICK
S. B. Gill
H. F. Gilzow
P. J. Harnish
Wm. J. Hedley
J. T. HOELZER
J. A. Holmes
W. H. Huffman
D. W. Hughes
Maro Johnson i
J. A. Jorlei i
R. D. Kiii.lv
J. E. K. Krylow
J. F. Mark
H. L. Mice vi i.
E. A. M ii ii r
F. T. Miller
H. G. Morgan (E)
R. E. \'<m i i\i;ii am
G. P. Palmer (E)
R. J. Pierce
W. C. Pinschmidt
D. D. Rosen
H. E. Snyder
P. Slack
R. F. Spars
R. R. Thurston
P. D. Tracy
T. M. Vanderstempel
V. A. Walling (E)
J. T. Ward
R. Westcott
Committer
To The American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress in study, no report.
2. Merits and economics of prefabricated types of highway-railway grade
crossings.
Progress report, presented as information page 402
3. Merits of various types of highway-railway grade crossing protection, col-
laborating with Signal Section, AAR.
Progress in study, oral report to be presented at the convention.
5. Possible change in existing protection at grade crossings where railroads have
changed from multiple-track, to single-track operation, collaborating with
Signal Section, AAR.
Final report, presented for adoption and publication in the Manual page 403
Sight distance at highway-railway grade crossings.
Final report, presented as information
page KM
401
402 Highways
8. Recommended protection at highwaj -railway grade crossings where one-way
traffic on the highway crosses one or more tracks on the railway, collaborating
with Signal Section, AAR.
Progress report, presented as information page 405
The Committee on Highways,
C. I. Hartsell, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 539, November 1957.
Report on Assignment 2
Merits and Economics of Prefabricated Types of
Highway-Railway Grade Crossings
R. E. Nottingham (chairman, subcommittee), C. I. Hartsell, F. N. Barker, Raymond
Dejaiffe, J. R. Derieux, Jr., S. B. Gill, H. F. Gilzow, J. T. Hoelzer, W. H. Huffman,
J. F. Mark, R. J. Pierce, P. H. Slack, P. D. Tracy, J. T. Ward, Raymond Westcott.
Your committee is continuing to assemble data covering original cost and main-
tenance expenses on various types of prefabricated materials for railway grade crossings.
Several test installation- are being observed closely, and new installations of rubber-
pad, metal-open-grating, timber-panel and concrete-slab materials are being made each
year.
One railrad has concluded a test on concrete slab crossing material conducted over
a period of 8 years. It reached an unfavorable conclusion on the use of this material for
crossing purposes.
Another railroad is trying out a new design of concrete slab paved crossing, and with
some modification will install another crossing of the same material. It considers the results
favorable so far.
Other railroads are replacing the concrete slabs with other materials because of the
difficulty experienced in preventing rocking of the slabs, which results in wear on the
bearing surfaces and the creation of an unsatisfactory condition.
Your committee now has information on several additional rubber-slab type installa-
tions with some reduction in initial cost, now reported at $68 per lin ft of track for
single track over the width of the tie area in the crossing. New installations of rubber
slab crossings authorized or recently installed include two on the Pennsylvania Railroad,
one at Wooster, Ohio and another at Lima. Ohio. This makes a total of seven installations
at main-line crossings and six installations on industrial tracks which are being observed.
Rubber slab crossing material is giving good service, and over a 3 year period has
required practically no maintenance expense. Water is largely sealed out, and even under
a combination of heavy rail and highway traffic, the track surface is holding up well.
The rubber crossing at Wilbeth Road in Akron, Ohio, installed in November 1°54
on the Erie Railroad, was carrying in 1956 a daily average traffic volume of 8300 vehicles.
The same type of crossing at West Salem, Ohio, installed in September 1955 on the Erie,
was carrying in 1956 a daily average volume of 6030 vehicles, including 1200 semi-trailers.
No doubt the volume of highway traffic over these two crossings is even heavier today.
A test installation on the Santa Fe at Streator, 111., has on one main track shop-
framed timber panel material costing in place $13 per lin ft of track, while on the other
main there is metal open grating type material costing in place $52 per lin ft of track.
The first cost of the metal open grating type was about 1 times greater than the wood
Highways 403
material. However, cost figures over the past 5 years indicate the maintenance cost has
been about 3 times greater for the timber type compared with the metal open grating
type.
The comparative installation costs together with the indicated service life of each
appears to justify the additional initial expenditure for the open grating crossing material
at this location.
Judging by appearances after 5 years service, it is estimated that the metal open
grating material will last, in this location, for 20 years, while the timber material used
in this particular installation will do well to last 10 years.
The crossing has only medium highway traffic. It is adjacent to a concrete pavement,
and there is very little dirt, salt brine, etc., to foul the crossing area.
The crossing carries heavy rail traffic on both mains, which makes it necessary to
remove the crossing pavement about once every year to surface the track und.r the
timber panel material, and about every three years under the metal open grating material.
The extended service life of the track surface under the metal material is partly due
to the aerating features of the metal open grating type design. In some installations of
metal open grating type material dirt has been allowed to accumulate in the traffic lanes,
so one of the most valuable assets of this type of crossing paving material is lost, and
you merely have a reinforced dirt slab which may rust out in a few years time.
This report is offered as information. Your committee desires to continue this assign-
ment for further study and recommends the subject be continued.
Report on Assignment 5
Possible Changes in Existing Protection at Grade Crossings
Where Railroads Have Changed from Multiple-
Track to Single-Track Operation
Collaborating with Signal Section, AAR
E. R. Englert (chairman, subcommittee), C. M. Carnahan, R. B. Carrington, Jr., A. C.
Cavou, F. C. Cunningham, W. R. Dunn, Jr., C. I. Hartsell, Wm. J. Hedley, W. H.
Huffman, J. A. Jorlett, R. D. Kelly, F. T. Miller, R. J. Pierce, W. C. Pinschmidt,
R. F. Spars, R. Westcott.
Many railroads are reducing multiple-track highway-railway grade crossings to single-
track crossing. Committee 9 was given this assignment to determine what, if any, changes
should be made in crossing protection under such changed conditions.
After considerable study we feel the principal change involved is the necessity of
relocating one signal to proper distance from the remaining track. Also, in some instances,
crossing gates have been used on multiple-track crossings in addition to flashing lights
or other signals to protect highway traffic against movement of a second train. With
reduction to a single-track crossing tin possibility of a second train is eliminated) ami
the crossing gates can be removed to reduce property investment, eliminate maintenance
expense, and to release material for use elsewhere.
Signals should be relocated to comply with the Manual recommendation- on page
9-3—1. Arcordinsrlv. your committee recommends that the Manual be revised ,- follows
404 Highways
Page 9-3-1
RECOMMENDED USE OF HIGHWAY-RAILWAY GRADE
CROSSING SIGNALS
Under "Crossing Situation" put an asterisk following the line reading "At multiple-
track crossings", and add this footnote:
"Where a multiple-track crossing is reduced to a single-track crossing, the signal
shall be converted to one of the types recommended for single-track crossings."
Report on Assignment 7
Sight Distances at Highway-Railway Grade Crossings
J. S. Felton (chairman, subcommittee), C. M. Carnahan, R. B. Carrington, Jr., J. T.
Fitzpatrick, C. I. Hartsell, J. T. Hoelzer, R. D. Kelly, E. A. Miller, F. T. Miller,
D. D. Rosen, H. B. Snyder, R. F. Spars, T. M. Vanderstempel.
At the 1955 annual meeting your committee reported progress on this subject and
submitted sketches and tables which gave values for areas of unobstructed vision at
highway-railway grade crossings not protected by manual or automatic protection. This
information can be found on pages 380 to 382, incl., AREA Proceedings, Vol. 56. The
tables were prepared from formulas which had been derived, taking into account various
speeds of highway and railway traffic. Not being entirely satisfied with these tables, your
committee at that time recommended that the subject be continued.
Further study of the subject convinced your committee that although certain values
could be determined theoretically, there was no assurance that normal driver reaction
could be predicted.
Indications are that the currently available statistics and accumulated analytical
information relating to the many variables are insufficient to permit a determination of
the adequacy of sight distances at highway-railway grade crossings.
In addition to the human element, there are many variables which make it next to
impossible to determine with any degree of accuracy the sight distances that might be
considered adequate at highway-railway grade crossings. Some of these variables are:
grade of the highway approaching the crossing, angle of crossing, curvature of railroad
and highway, topography in vicinity of crossing, rural or urban location of crossing, and
weather conditions.
Last year your committee still had hopes that further study of the subject would
produce a workable arrangement. Although various national and state organizations
dealing with safety have been contacted, the committee does not feel that information
received is of sufficient value to produce a solution to the problem.
The committee recommends that the subject be discontinued.
Highways 405
Report on Assignment 8
Recommended Protection at Highway-Railway Grade Crossings
Where One-Way Traffic on the Highway Crosses One
or More Tracks on the Railway
Collaborating with Signal Section, AAR
D. W. Hughes (chairman, subcommittee), G. B. Blatt, A. C. Cayou, F. C. Cunningham,
J. R. Derieux, Jr., A. D. Duffie, W. R. Dunn, Jr., H. F. Gilzow, P. J. Harnish, C. I.
Hartsell, J. F. Mark, H. L. Michael, E. A. Miller, W. C. Pinschmidt, T. M. Vander-
stempel.
Your committee presents the following progress report:
The crossing signal aspects presented at the 1957 convention, as illustrated on pages
445 to 456, incl., of Vol. 58, 1957, of the AREA Proceedings, remain as the recommended
practice of the committee.
Committee VIII of the Signal Section, AAR, offered to the September 1957 Annual
Meeting of that Section, essentially the same aspects for the several conditions covered
in Vol. 58, adding thereto several typical location plans to show a "with or without"
aspect, principally on two-track crossings.
Your committee's oral report to the Association at its 1957 convention, which was
illustrated with slides and published in Vol. 58 of the Proceedings, pages 1138-1149, incl.,
stated "and may be supplemented by gates".
Committee 9 has been collaborating with the Signal Section, AAR, in this matter,
and intends to continue this collaboration, with the hope of being able to present plans
to the 1959 convention for adoption and inclusion in the Manual.
It is recommended that the subject be continued.
Report of Committee 13 — Water, Oil
and Sanitation Services
R. C. Archambeault T. W. Hislop, Jr.
W. F. Arksev H. M. Hoffmeister
R. A. Bardwell A. W. Johnson
R. C. Bardwell (E) C. O. Johnson
R. O. Bardwell J- J. Laudig
J. M. Bates H. L. McMui.i i\
M. R. Bost G. F. Metzdorf
I. C. Brown C. F. Muelder
T. W. Brown J. Y. Neal
P. J. Calza John Norman
V. R. Copp A. B. Pierce (E)
R. E. Coughlan N. B. Roberts
B. W. DeGeer (E) J. P. Rodcer
C. E. DeGeer E. O. Salners
D. E. Drake E. R. Schlaf
J. J. Dwyer H. E. Srxcox (E)
C. E. Fisher R. M. Stimmi i
R. S. Glynn L. E. Talbot
H. E. Grab \m T. A. Tennyson, Jk.
H. M. Schudlich, T i Gray a g Tompkins
<■ hairman, E. M. Grime (E) H. W. Van Hovenberg
D. C. Teal, Vice Chairman. F. E. Gunning C. B. Voitelle
E. C. Harris, Secretary, T. L. Hendrix J. E. Wiggins
Commit tet
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects'.
1. Revision of Manual.
Specifications for Welded Steel Tanks for Water or Oil Storage submitted
for publication in the Manual page 408
2. Current developments in combatting corrosion in water, fuel and sanitary
facilities, collaborating with Mechanical Division, AAR.
No report.
3. Federal and state regulations pertaining to railway sanitation, collaborating
with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
Brief progress statement, presented as information page 420
4. Cathodic protection of pipe lines and steel storage tanks, collaborating with
Electrical Section, AAR.
Brief progress statement, presented as information page 421
5. Fuel oil additives and equipment for application.
Progress report, presented as information, with the recommendation that
the subject be discontinued pending further developments page 421
6. Railway waste disposal, collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway
Sanitation, AAR.
Progress in study, brief statement presented as information pagi
407
408 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
7. Inspection and maintenance of diesel fuel oil storage tanks.
No report.
8. Acid cleaning of heat exchanger coils and boilers.
Final report, presented as information page 424
9. Disinfectants, deodorants, fumigants and cleaning materials, collaborating
with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
Progress in study, but no report.
10. Detection and disposal of radioactive materials in air, oil and water niters
on diesel locomotives and other equipment, collaborating with Joint Com-
mittee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
Progress in study ; brief statement presented as information page 427
11. Methods of heating fuel oil to permit winter-time use of high-pour-point
"economy" grade fuel oil.
Progress report, presented as information page 42 7
The Committee on Water, Oil and Sanitation Services,
H. M. Schudlich, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 539, November 19S7.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
D. C. Teal (chairman, subcommittee), W. F. Arksey, R. C. Bardwell, J. M. Bates, T. W.
Brown, J. J. Dwyer, C. E. Fisher, F. E. Gunning, H. M. Hoffmeister, H. L. McMullin,
C. F. Muelder, A. B. Pierce, E. R. Schlaf.
Your committee this year has continued to review the present AREA Specifications
for Welded Steel Water and Oil Tanks.
The railroads started using welded steel water and oil storage tanks in the late
Thirties, at about the time that many roads were becoming dieselized. The welded joints
provide much tighter and more leakproof tanks when it was possible to obtain with the
old riveted-joint type construction, which is an improvement that is especially important
in the storage of diesel fuel oil.
The present specificationss for welded steel water and oil storage tanks now appear-
ing in the Manual, pages 13-3-17 to 13-3-21, incl., were adopted in 1944, and were
intended to serve as a guide for handling erection of steel tanks by contract.
Realizing that improved methods and techniques have made these specifications inade-
quate and incomplete, your committee during the past two years has reviewed pertinent
information available, including current specifications of the American Welding Society,
the American Water Works Association, and others, and has prepared new specifications
incorporating what is believed to be all the desirable features of the aforementioned
specifications and which are intended to supplant the present specifications in their
entirety.
The new specifications for welded steel tanks were presented to the Association last
year as information. Further changes have been made during the past year as the result
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 409
of contacts with the collaborating agencies, so many changes in fact that it is deemed
advisable to publish the entire specifications again this year.
By a 95 percent affirmative vote, your committee now submits the revised Specifica-
tions for Welded Steel Tanks for Water or Oil Storage, with the recommendation that
they be adopted and published in the Manual in place of the material now appearing on
pages 13-3-17 to 13-3-21.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR WELDED STEEL TANKS FOR WATER
OR OIL STORAGE
A. GENERAL
1. Scope of Specifications
These specifications apply to the construction of arc-welded storage tanks of the
above-ground type for storing water or oil at atmospheric pressure. The specifications
apply particularly to cylindrical tanks with vertical axes and to elevated tanks, all of
such dimensions as to preclude shop construction and shipment by car or truck.
2. Definitions
Elevated tank shall mean a tank supported on a tower.
Standpipe shall mean a flat-bottom cylindrical tank having a shell height greater
than its diameter.
Reservoir shall mean a flat-bottom cylindrical tank having a shell height equal to or
smaller than the tank diameter.
Tank shall mean an elevated tank, a standpipe or a reservoir.
Purchaser shall mean the person, company or organization which purposes the tank.
Contractor shall mean the person or company who contracts to furnish and erect
the tank.
B. MATERIAL
1. Quality of Metal
Plate material shall be open-hearth or electric-furnace steel conforming to the latest
revision of any of the following ASTM specifications: designations A 7, A 283 (grades C
and D), A 285 (Grades A, B and C), A 113 (Grades A, B and C), A 201 (Grades A
and B), A 131 (Grades A, B and C) or A 373, except that all plates in thicknesses
greater than ^ in shall conform to A 283 (Grade C). Copper-bearing steel with copper
content of about 0.20 percent may be used if specified.
Structural shapes shall be of open-hearth or electric-furnace steel conforming to the
latest revision of ASTM specification, designation A 7. Copper-bearing steel with copper
content of about 0.20 percent may be used if specified.
Castings shall conform to the latest revision of ASTM specification, designation A 27,
Grade 60-30, full annealed.
Forgings from plate materials shall be of open-hearth steel conforming to any ASTM
specification permitted under paragraph above on plate material. Forging* from other
than plate material shall be from material conforming to ASTM specification, designs
tion A 235, Class C. Forged and rolled pipe flanges shall he from material conforming
to ASTM specification, designation A 181, Grade 1.
Bolting shall conform to the latest revision of ASTM specification, designation A <0".
OanV A.
410 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
Welding electrodes for manual arc welding shall conform to the requirements of
AWS-ASTM specifications, AWS designation A-5.1, and ASTM designation A 233, of the
latest revision. Electrodes shall be any E-60XX Classification suitable for the electric
current characteristics, the position of welding and other conditions of intended use.
C. DESIGN
1. Design Loads
Dead load shall be the estimated weight of all permanent construction and fittings,
using 490 lb and 150 lb per cu ft for steel and concrete, respectively.
Live load shall be the weight of the contents of the tank filled to overflowing, with
water assumed to weigh 62.5 lb per cu ft.
Wind load or pressure, acting in any direction, shall be assumed to be 30 lb per sq ft
of vertical projection.
Snow load shall be assumed to be 25 lb per sq ft of the horizontal projection of
the tank for surfaces having a slope of less than 30 deg with the horizontal.
The balcony, if any, and the roof, shall be designed to withstand a vertical load of
1000 lb and 5C0 lb, respectively, applied at any point. Each section of ladder shall be
designed to withstand a load of 350 lb. All of the structural parts and connections shall
be proportioned to withstand such loads.
Provision in the design for earthquakes shall be made only upon specification by the
purchaser.
2. Unit Stresses
Steel members, except roof supports and other exceptions specifically provided for
elsewhere in these specifications, shall be so designed and proportioned that during the
application of the loads previously specified, singly or in any combination, the maximum
stress shall not exceed the following:
Maximum Fiber Stress PSI
Tension Compression Shearing Bendimj Bearing
Structural steel, net section 15,000 15.000
Cast steel... 11,250 15,000 7,325 11,250
.Steel plates in shells of standpipes and
reservoirs.- 15,000 11,250
Steel plates in elevated tanks susceptible to
complete stress analysis 15,000 11,250
Steel plates in elevated tanks not susceptible
to complete stress analysis 11,000 10,200
Columns and struts — structural sections
P 18,000
A Li
1+-
I8.OOO1-
or 15.000
whichever
is smaller
P
Columns and struts — tubular sections — = XY
A
Plate girder, stiffeners _ 15,000 ...
Webs of rolled sections at toe of fillet 18,000
Webs of beams and plate girders, gross section 9,750
Tension on extreme fibers, except column
base plates _..__ 15. 000
Column base plates 20,000
Compression on extreme fibers of rolled sec-
tions, and plate girders and built-up members,
for values of-
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 411
LD
— not in excess of 600 i ■' 0
LD 9 000 000
in excess of 600
BT ID
Contact area of milled surfaces 22,500
Contact area of fitted stiffeners ..- 20,250
( 'cmciete:
2000-lb concrete ... 500
2500-lb concrete 625
3000-lb concrete .. 750
LD
Note: In the foregoing expression, . /. is the unsupported Length and l> the depth of the member,
BT
B is the width and T the thickness of its compression Bange, all in inches, excepl thai L shall be taken as
twire tlir lciiKtli nf tlir ciiiiiprrssinn 1'anKi' "I" a cantilever beam not fullj stayed at its outer end •
translation or rotation.
In the foregoing formulas for maximum permissible unit stress for structural and
tubular columns or struts, the symbols have the following meaning:
P=the total axial load in pounds.
.4 — the cross-sectional area in square inches.
L = the unbraced or effective length of the column in inches.
r = the latest radius of gyration in inches.
R = one half the outside diameter of the tubular member in inches.
/ = the thickness of the tubular member in inches, or % inch, whichever
is larger.
P 18.000
In the foregoing expression ~r = X Y , A = . . *3
18,000 r2
or 15,000, whichever is the smaller, and
F=(2/3) (100^)[j— (2/3) lOO^r]
for values of -jt less
than 0.015, and
t
Y = 1 lor values of tt equal to
or exceeding 0.015
3. Joint Design
Joint design shall be in compliance with Section V and VI of the AWS Standard
Rules for Field Welding of Steel Storage Tanks, latesl revision, excepl as otherwise
specified herein.
Welded structural joints shall be proportioned so that the stresses on a section
through the throat of the weld, exclusive of weld reinforcement, -hall not exceed the
following percentages of the allowable working tensile stress of the structural material
joined:
Type Weld Tension Compression Shear
Groove 85 100 75
Fillet* I
Fillet* ;o (Longitudinal)
•Stress in fillet weld shall b tear on the throat, foi any direction "f the applied load
rhe thmat nf a fillpt weld shall be i 07 times the length M the »horter leg of th#> fill.'
412
Water, Oil an d Sanitation Services
Welded tank plate joints shall be considered as having efficiencies not greater than
as indicated below:
joint with complete
Type of Joint
Double-welded butt
penetration.
Double-welded butt joint with partial pene-
tration and with the unwelded portion lo-
cated substantially at the middle of the
thinner plate.
Where Z is the total depth of penetration
from the surfaces of the plate (use
the thinner plate if of different
thicknesses) ;
T is the thickness of the plate (use
the thinner plate if of different
thicknesses) .
Single-welded butt joint with suitable backing
strip or equivalent means to insure com-
plete penetration.
Double-welded transverse lap joint with con-
tinuous full-fillet weld on each edge of
joint.
Double-welded transverse lap joint with con-
tinuous full-fillet weld on one edge of joint
and an intermittent full-fillet weld on the
other edge of joint.
Where X is the ratio of the length of inter-
mittent full-fillet weld to the total length
of joint, expressed as a decimal.
Lap joint with transverse full-fillet weld, or
smaller, on either or both edges of the
joint, welds either continuous or intermit-
tent.
Efficiency, Percent
85 Tension, 100 Compression
Z Z
85 -7jr Tension, 100-~ Compression
85 Tension, 100 Compression
75 Tension or Compression
75
.(! + *>
Tension or Compression
75
{XW1 + YWq)
IT
Tension or Compression
Where X and Y are the ratios of the lengths of intermittent welds Wi and Wa, respectively,
to the total length of the joint, expressed as a decimal.
Wi and W2 are the sizes of the welds on each edge of the joint respectively.
(Wo will be zero for a joint welded only on one edge.)
T is the thickness of plate (use the thinner plate if of different thicknesses).
4. Roof Supports
Current specifications for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel
for Buildings of the American Institute of Steel Construction shall be the basis for the
LD
design of roof support, except that the ratio BT (See Sec. C-2) shall not be restricted,
the depth of the roof purlins may be less than 1/30 of the span length and the maximum
slenderness ratio — for columns supporting roofs shall be 175. (L .= the effective length
r
in inches ; r= the least radius of gyration in inches) .
Roof trusses and rafters, except where rafters connect to the tank shell, shall be
placed above the maximum water level.
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 41 3
5. Plate Thickness
The minimum thickness for any part of the structure shall be fV in for parts not in
contact and % in for parts in contact with liquid contents. The controlling thickness of
rolled shapes for the purpose of the foregoing stipulations shall be taken as the mean
thickness of the flanges, regardless of web thickness. The minimum thickness for tubular
columns and struts shall be l/\ in. Round or square bars used for wind bracing shall have
a minimum diameter or width of ^ in. Bars of other shapes, if used, shall have a total
area at least equal to a 54-in round bar.
6. Reinforcement Around Openings
Openings in tank shall be reinforced 100 percent, i.e., the area put back around the
hole shall equal or exceed the area cut out to make the hole. Necks of attachments, such
as nozzles and manhole frames, shall not be considered as reinforcements.
7. Foundation Bolts
Foundation bolts may be either plain or deformed bars, either upset or not upset.
The bolts shall be proportioned for the maximum possible uplift, using the area at the
point of smallest diameter. Bolts must extend into the concrete pier far enough to
develop the maximum uplift, but not more than to within 3 in of the pier bottom and
shall terminate in a right-angle bend or hook.
8. Support for Elevated Tanks
The area of the column base shall be sufficient to distribute the column load over
the concrete foundations without exceeding the specified bearing stress on the foundation.
If the anchors are connected to the base plates and not to the column shaft, the connection
of the column to the base plate shall provide for the maximum uplift.
If columns are spliced, the splice must be capable of withstanding the maximum
possible uplift, or 25 percent of the maximum compression, whichever is greater. Columns
may be spliced by either butt welding or welding splice plates to both sections of column
being jointed.
If necessary properly to distribute the horizontal reactions at the base, bottom struts
of steel connecting the lower ends of the columns, or of reinforced concrete connecting
the foundation piers, shall be provided.
A horizontal girder shall be provided to resist the horizontal component of the column
loads for tanks with inclined or battered columns connecting to the tank shell. This girder
shall be proportioned to withstand safely as a ring gird?r the horizontal components
of the load on the top columns. If this girder is used as a balcony, it shall be not less
than 24 in wide and shall be provided with a railing not less than $6 in high.
I) SHOP FABRICATION
1. Workmanship
All workmanship shall be hrsl class in ever]
2. Straightening
The work of straightening mat. rial, when required, --hall be done bj method
injurious to the steel, such as pressing or rolling while the steel is cold. Straightening 1>>
heating or hammering is not permissible,
414 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
3. Finish of Plate Edges
The plate edges to be welded shall be uniform and smooth and cleaned of slag
accumulation before welding. They may be sheared, machined, chipped or machine oxygen
cut. Manually guided oxygen cutting is permissible for edges of irregular contour.
E. WELDING
1. Definitions and Symbols
Welding terms shall be as given in the latest edition of AWS Standard Welding Terms
and Their Definitions.
Welding symbols shall be as shown in the latest edition of AWS Standard Welding
Symbols.
2. Qualifications of Welding Procedure and Testing of Welding Operators
Tanks, towers and their structural attachments shall be welded by the shielded
metal-arc or the submerged-arc process, using suitable equipment. The welding may be
performed manually, automatically or semi-automatically according to procedures qualified
by, and by welders and welding operators tested in accordance with, applicable sections
of the latest edition of AWS Standard Rules for Field Welding of Steel Storage Tanks,
using the suggested test values contained therein.
3. Flat-Tank Bottoms Resting Directly on Grade or Foundation
Bottoms shall be built to either butt-joint or lap-joint construction as specified below:
Butt-Joint Construction — Joints shall be single welded from top side with complete
penetration, using backing strip % in thick or heavier tack welded to the inner side of
the plate.
Lap-Joint Construction — Plates shall be reasonably rectangular, square-edged, of di-
mensions to provide laps of at least 1J4 in- Marginal sketch plates under the bottom ring
shall have the outer end of joints "fitted" and welded to form a smooth bearing under
the shell. Welding shall be on the top side only with a continuous full fillet weld on all
seams. Three plate laps in tank bottoms shall not be closer than 12 in from each other
and also from the tank shell.
4. Shell to Bottom Joint
For flat-bottom tanks the attachment between the bottom edge of lowest course
side sheets and the bottom sketch plate shall be continuous fillet welds on both sides of
side sheets. The size of each weld measured along the surface of either plate shall be not
less than the thickness of the thinner plate, with a maximum of ]/2 in. The sketch plates
shall extend outside the tank shell a distance of at least 1 in beyond the toe of the weld.
5. Butt-Welded Joints Subject to Primary Stress
Due To Weight or Pressure of Tank Contents
Longitudinal joints of cylindrical tank shells and all joints in riser pipes and in
suspended bottoms of elevated tanks shall be double-welded butt joints to insure complete
penetration or single-welded butt joints, with suitable back-up strip or equivalent means
to insure complete penetration.
6. Butt-Welded Joints Subject to Secondary Stress
Circumferential joints of cylindrical shells shall be double welded butt joints and
shall have complete fusion with the base metal over the required depth of weld. Materials
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 415
Y% in thick and less, and all single-groove welded joints, shall have complete penetration.
Square-groove and double-groove welded butt joints may have partial penetration, pro-
vided the unwelded portion does not exceed one-third the thickness of the thinner plate
at the joints, and provided the unwelded portion is located substantially at the center
of the thinner plate. Any joint of this type shall have a strength at least equivalent to
two-thirds that of a double-welded joint having complete penetration.
7. Lap-Welded Joints Subject to Primary Stress
Due to Weight or Pressure of Tank Content
Longitudinal joints of cylindrical tank shells and all joint- in riser pipes and in sus-
pended bottoms of elevated tanks shall have continuous full fillet welds on both edges
of the joint, with a lap not less than five times the thickness of the thinner plate.
8. Lap Welded Joints Subject to Secondary Stress
Circumferential joints of cylindrical tank shells shall have continuous fillet welds
on both sides with a lap not less than three times the thickness of the thinner plate. They
shall be designed to develop an efficiency of 50 percent based upon the thickness of the
thinner plate joined. Any joint of this type shall have a strength at least equivalent to
two-thirds that of a lap joint having full-fillet welds on both edges.
9. Roof Plate Welds
Joints in roof plates may be welded on the top side only with butt joints, using
single-groove welds, or with lap joints using full-fillet welds. If butt joints are used,
suitable backing must be provided to insure not less than 90 percent joint penetration.
10. Intermittent Welding
Intermittent groove welds shall not be used.
Intermittent fillet welds shall not be used on tank shell plating. The length of any
segment of intermittent fillet welds shall be not less than 4 times the weld size with a
minimum of V/2 in. All seams of intermittent fillet welding shall have continuous welds
at each end at least 6 in Ions.
11. Maximum Thickness of Material to Be Welded for Various Joints
The maximum thickness of material to be welded for various joints shall be:
a. Yz in for lap joints subject to primary sties- due to the weight or pressure of
tank contents. (Longitudinal joints of cylindrical tank shells and all joints below
the point of support in suspended bottom.)
b. Y% in for lap joints subject to secondary stress. (Circumferential joints of
cylindrical tank-. I
c. l/2 in for lap joints in Hat bottom tanks resting direct!) on foundation.
d. 2 in for butt joints. (2 in is the maximum thickness of material permitted to be
welded under these specifications.)
I- ERECTION
1. General
The contractor shall furnish all labor, tools, welding equipment, falsework, scaffolding
and other equipment necessary to erect the tank complete and ready for use on a foun-
dation furnished by the purchaser. The i shall also furnish liability and com
416 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
pensation insurance and supply the purchaser with certificates of insurance coverage.
Power for welding shall be supplied by the contractor.
All welds in the tank and structural attachments shall be made in a manner to insure
complete fusion with the base metal, within the limits specified for each joint, and in strict
accordance with the qualified procedure.
The bottom plates shall be assembled and welded together, using a procedure that
will result in minimum distortion from weld shrinkage.
All shell, bottom and roof plates subject to stress by the weight or pressure of the
contained liquid shall be assembled and welded in such a manner that the proper curvature
of the plates in both directions is maintained.
Holes made in the plates for erection purposes shall be closed by any of the methods
prescribed in Sec. VIII of AWS Standard Rules for Field Welding of Steel Storage Tanks.
Any clips, jigs or lugs welded to the shell plates for erection purposes shall be removed
without damaging the plates and any portion of weld beads remaining shall be chipped
or ground smooth.
2. Weather Conditions
Welding shall not be done when the surfaces of the parts to be welded are wet from
rain, snow or ice; when rain or snow is falling on such surfaces; nor during periods
of high winds unless the welder and work are properly shielded.
Welding shall not be done when the base metal temperature is less than 0 deg F.
When the base metal temperature is within the range of 0 to 32 deg F, incl., the base
metal within 3 in of the place where welding is to be started, shall be heated to a
temperature warm to the hand.
3. Preparation of Surfaces to Be Welded
Surfaces to be welded shall be free from loose scale, slag, heavy rust, grease, paint
or any other foreign material which adversely affects proper welding. Such surfaces must
also be smooth, uniform and free from fins, tears and other defects which will not permit
proper welding.
4. Cleaning Between Beads
Clean each bead of a multiple-pass weld by removing deposits of slag and other
loose material before the next bead is applied.
5. Tack Welds
Tack welds used in erection for assembly of joints subject to primary stress from
the weight or pressure of the tank contents and those used for assembling the tank shell
to the bottom are to be removed ahead of the continuous welding.
Tack welds used in the assembly of joints subject to secondary stress, such as those
used in flat bottoms, roofs and circumferential seams of cylindrical tank shells, need not
be removed, provided that they are sound and subsequent beads are thoroughly fused
with the tack weld.
6. Peening
Peening of weld layers may be used to prevent undue distortion. Surface layers shall
not be peened.
Peening shall be performed with light blows from a power hammer, using a blunt-
nosed tool.
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 417
7. Weld Contour
In all welds the surface beads shall merge smoothly into each other.
Undercutting of base metal in plate adjoining the weld shall be repaired, except as
permitted for inspection of joints in accordance with Sec. VI II of AWS Standard Rules
for Field Welding of Steel Storage Tanks.
All craters shall be filled to the full cross section of the weld.
8. Weld Reinforcement
The reinforcement for butt welds shall be as small as practicable, preferably not more
than fa in. In no case shall the face of the weld lie below the surface of the plates being
joined.
9. Chipping and Oxygen Gouging of Welds
Chipping at the root of welds and chipping of welds to remove defects may be
performed with a round-nosed tool or by oxygen gouging (melting out).
10. Flat Tank Bottoms
The bottom plates, after being laved out and tacked, shall be joined by welding the
joints in a sequence which the contractor has found to result in the least distortion due
to shrinkage of welding, and to provide, as nearly as possible, a plane surface.
11. Tank Shell
For welding in the vertical position the progression of welding shall be either upward
or downward, according to the direction specified in the welding procedure and used for
welder qualification.
The shell plates shall be joined by welding the joints in a sequence which the con-
tractor has found to result in the least distortion due to shrinkage of the welding and
which will avoid kinks at the longitudinal joints.
12. Matching Plates
The plates forming a lap joint shall be held in as close contact as possible during
welding, and in no case shall the separation be more than iT,; in. Where separation occurs,
the size of the weld shall be increased by the amount of separation.
The adjoining plates of butt joints subject to primary stress from weight or pressure
of the tank contents shall be accurately alined and retained in position during welding.
so that in the finished joint the center lines of adjoining plate edges shall not have an
offset from each other, at any point, in excess of 10 percent of the plate thickness (using
the thickness of the thinner plate if of different thicknesses) or fa in, whichever is larger.
The adjoining plates of butt joints subject to secondary stress shall be accurately
alined and retained in position during welding so that in the finished joint, the thinner
plate (if one is thinner than the other), or either plate (if both plates are of the same
thickness), shall not project beyond its adjoining plate by more than 20 percent of the
plate thickness (using the thickness of the thinner plate if of different thickness), or 's in,
whichever is smaller.
G. ACCESSORIES FOR STANDPIPES AND RESERVOIRS
1. Manhole and Hatches
A manhole to be furnished in the first ring of the standpipe oi reservoir shell shall
be at a location designated bj the purchaser. The manhole shall be either circular, 24 in
418 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
diameter, or elliptical, 18 by 22-in minimum size, with a cover equipped with a handle
and hinged to shell. The thickness of the cover plate shall he adequate to withstand the
hydrostatic loading.
A roof door or hatch shall be furnished and placed near the outside tank ladder on
standpipes and reservoirs and immediate]) above the high-water level on elevated tanks.
The hatch shall provide a minimum opening dimension of 24 in diameter and shall be
equipped with a suitable handle, also hinges and hasp for locking. The opening shall
have a curb not less than 4 in high, and the cover shall overlap the curb not less than 2 in.
2. Ladders
An outside ladder shall be provided for standpipes and reservoirs from the tank
foundation to the roof at a location designated by the purchaser. For elevated tanks
a tower ladder shall be furnished extending from a point about 6 ft above the ground
up to and connecting with the balcony or roof ladder, if no balcony is provided. The
tower ladder may be vertical but shall not have a backward slope in any place. For ele-
vated tanks an outside tank ladder shall be provided connecting with the balcony or
tower ladder if no balcony is provided; the tank ladder may be attached to the roof
swivel ladder. For standpipes and reservoirs with roofs having a slope too steep to walk
on and for elevated tanks where practical, an outside roof ladder shall be furnished at-
tached to the roof finial with a swivel connection and equipped with rollers so that it
can be rotated around the roof. The side rails of all ladders shall be not less than Y% by
2 in and the ladder rungs shall be not less than ^ m- ni diameter.
3. Indicator
An indicator shall be furnished and installed for the full height of the tank, of 10-in
channel iron with graduated scale complete with suitable metal float, target with guides,
and bronze metal sash chain. A half-travel indicator is acceptable for an elevated tank.
4. Roof Finial
The roof shall be equipped with a suitable finial.
5. Overflow
When specified, a stub overflow of the size designated shall be furnished and installed
to project not less than 12 in beyond the tank shell.
6. Vent
A suitable vent shall be furnished and installed above the maximum liquid level.
The vent shall have the capacity to pass air or vapor so that at the maximum possible
rate of liquid entering or leaving the tank dangerous pressures will not be developed.
The overflow pipe shall not be considered to be a tank vent. The vent may be combined
with the roof finial if desired. The vent shall be designed and constructed in a manner to
prevent the ingress of birds or animals.
7. Pipe Connections
For reservoirs and standpipes, the pipe connections of sizes and at locations specified
shall be fittings attached to the tank bottom and extending 3 in above the tank floor
to which the connecting pipe may be connected, or pipe connections may be made by
welding pipe with standard flanges at each end through the tank shell or by welding
both inside and outside threaded tank flanges to the tank shell. The openings for pipe
connections must be properly reinforced as required by these specifications.
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 419
'For elevated tanks the pipe connections shall be fittings to which the connecting
pipes may be connected and shall be of the size and number specified by the purchaser.
The contractor shall furnish pipes to extend from the fittings into the riser pipe through
and not less than 2 ft above its base. The connections between the riser pipe and the
pipes entering it shall be made watertight by welded connections or by packing rings
furnished by the contractor.
8. Steel Riser Pipe for Elevated Tank
A steel riser pipe not less than 36 in. in diameter shall be furnished. The riser pipe
shall be fitted with a manhole not less than 12 by 18 in. in size about 3 ft above the
riser base, the opening to be reinforced so that all stresses around the opening are pro-
vided for. The riser pipe shall be designed to withstand all stresses imposed upon it.
9. Additional Accessories
The purchaser shall specify any additional accessories required to be furnished by the
contractor.
H. INSPECTION, TESTING AND PAINTING
1. Inspection
The purchaser may, if he so specifies, require mill and/or shop inspection by a com-
mercial inspection agency, the cost of which shall be paid by the purchaser. Copies of the
mill test reports furnished the contractor by the steel supplier shall be made available to
the purchaser if requested.
Field welded joints shall be inspected by a qualified welding inspector designated
by the purchaser. The inspection shall be in accordance with the_ rules set forth in the
latest revision of Sec. VIII — Requirement for Testing Shell Joints by Sectioning Methods,
of AWS Standard Rules for Field Welding of Steel Storage Tanks.
2. Testing
Flat-bottom tanks shall have the bottom and first side courses tested for leaks by
applying air pressure or vacuum to the joint; previously coated with soap suds, linseed
oil, or by applying other suitable material for the detection of leaks. Upon completion.
the entire tank shall be tested by filling with water. All leaks shall be repaired by cutting
out weld and rewelding. The tank shall be empty, or the water level shall be at least 2 ft
below the point being repaired.
Tanks with suspended bottoms upon completion shall be tested by filling with water,
applying internal air pressure or external vacuum, or by applying suitable material to the
joints for detection of leaks. Any leaks disclosed by this test in either bottom, shell, or
roof shall be repaired by cutting out weld and rewelding. While repairs are being made
the tank must be empty, or the water level shall be not less than 2 ft below the point
being repaired.
3. Painting
The steel shall be shipped without painting.
After the tank is completed and tested it shall be thoroughly cleaned with a win-
brush or sand blasted, and painted or treated with a metal preservative as specified by the
purchaser.
420 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
Report on Assignment 3
Federal and State Regulations Pertaining to Railway Sanitation
Collaborating with the Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR
J. M. Bates (chairman, subcommittee), R. C. Archambeault, M. R. Bost, I. C. Brown,
V. R. Copp, T. L. Hendrix, Jr., J. J. Laudig, C. F. Muelder, H. W. Van Hovenberg,
J. E. Wiggins.
General Information
The relationship between the United States Public Health Service and the railroad
companies is regulated by the Interstate Quarantine Regulations, last revised in 1951.
In order that the railroads of the United States may have a better picture of the
regulations issued by the Surgeon General of the United States, governing interstate carrier
movements, the following should always be kept in mind:
The Interstate Carriers Quarantine Regulations, issued in 1951, are the basic rules
and regulations governing the railroad industry relative to sanitation and should be ad-
hered to strictly as written. Any interpretation that may be desired by a railroad com-
pany relative to these rules should first be handled directly with the regional office in the
area. If satisfaction is not obtained the matter should be further handled with the Chief,
Interstate Carrier Section, General Engineering Program, Washington 25, D. C.
The handbooks on sanitation issued by the United States Public Health Service
from time to time, relative to dining cars in operation, servicing areas, etc., are lor ready
reference, indicating the deiired type installations and equipment to be used and are not
mandatory except as they comply with the Interstate Quarantine Regulations.
Several railroad companies have been misinformed as to how sanitation problems
should be handled and how rules and regulations should be interpreted. Two cases in
point follow:
The official interpretation of the Interstate Quarantine Regulations concerning
hvdrants is as follows:
"Flush-type hydrants or systems using underground riser pipe drains will be approved
for reconstruction of hydrant facilities only under special circumstances where overhead
systems or systems using hydrants of the approved type are not practicable. In all cases
plans for new construction or reconstruction of coachyard watering facilities must be
submitted to the Public Health Service for review and approval in accordance with
subpart F-72.133 of the Interstate Quarantine Regulations."
Any interpretation not conforming to the above should be handled directly with the
Chief, Interstate Carrier Section, General Engineering Program, Washington 25, D. C.
Certain misinformation regarding grading of dining cars has been circulated through-
out the railroad industry, and the following is the official view of the Public Health
Service:
"The Dining Car Modified Grading Program was instituted on January 1, 1957. It
was indicated that the current program of posting only grade "A" placards in the food
preparation area would continue for a period of approximately two years. At the end
of that time a re-evaluation would be made as to what progress has been achieved and
a program outlined for subsequent action.''
Wa ter, Oil and Sanitation Services 421_
Report on Assignment 4
Cathodic Protection of Pipe Lines and Steel Storage Tanks
Collaborating with Electrical Section, AAR
W. F. Arksey (chairman, subcommittee), V. R. Copp, J. Dwyer, H. E. Graham, T. I.
Gray, T. L. Hendrix, Jr., J. Y. Neal, A. B. Pierce, E. R. Schlaf, H. E. Silcox, L. E.
Talbot.
Your committee has continued its study of the design and installation of cathodic
protection, with particular emphasis on the actual mechanics of making a cathodic survey
and designing a cathodic system; however, the undertaking has not been completed and
must be continued next year.
Report on Assignment 5
Fuel Oil Additives and Equipment for Application
R. A. Bardwell (chairman, subcommittee), C. E. DeGeer, D. E. Drake, T. W. Hislop, Jr.,
C. O. Johnson, John Norman, E. O. Salners, R. M. Stimmel, T. A. Tennyson, Jr.,
C. B. Voitelle.
Your committee presents the following additional data on fuel oil additives under
the same headings as in the review of the subject presented as information last year
(Proceedings, Vol. 58, 1957, pages 400 to 404, incl.). It is recommended that the subject
be discontinued pending further developments.
A. INTRODUCTION
Numerous new patents have been issued, both to oil producers and to additive
suppliers, which indicate a higher demand for more proficient stabilizing additives for
diesel fuel oil. These complicated organic chemicals are still mainly of the surface-active
amine or phenolic types.
Patents have been issued on several polyamine corrosion inhibitors, such as octy-
decylamine, which is commonly used for condensate line corrosion protection, and on
hydrophob:c-type corrosion inhibitors.
Several new pour-point depressants — organic compounds of waxy or polymeric types —
have been developed by the leading oil research laboratories. Blended mixtures of high-
pour-point fuels with a pour-point depressant have been successfully used on railroads.
A method of adding a zinc compound for eliminating or alleviating the valve guttering
resulting from certain combinations of sodium-vanadium in residual-type fuels may be
applicable to diesel fuels,' and might require a lesser dosage than previously tried mag-
nesium compounds. Aluminum compounds in combination with small amounts of zirconium
have also been investigated. Removal of corrosive sodium -vanadium may be accom-
plished in the refining process bj hydrogenation over titanium-aluminum oxides at high
temperatures. Other catalysts, including cobalt, have been used in various combinations
for removal of vanadium. Some experimental residual fuel blends have bad a stated attack
problem from this cause.
i Swiss Patent No. 307, ooo. (Zinc compound in amount "i SO i snl of vanadium reduces its
corrosion).
422 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
Knowledge of such new developments by railroads' technical personnel should help
them to point out where corrections can be made, either by the roads or by the refiners,
whenever fuel oils do not perform as desired.
Although there still is no universal agreement between suppliers and consumers as to
tests for stability, more uniform acceptability of fuels is being obtained because many
railroads now use electron microscopes to screen their fuels. Committees on standard
methods for such examination have made progress in the development of test methods,
which should help in furnishing an understanding of the desired stability of fuels. Future
combustion studies by use of infrared emission spectroscopy2 may augment the findings
of the electron microscope, and indicate a more ideal additive for perfect combustion.
To date, these studies have indicated that solid carbon formation from fuel oil in the
diesel combustion process under unfavorable conditions will result in deposits on engine
surfaces or appear in exhaust as soot.
Some oil companys have developed accelerated physical tests to interpret storage
stability, but standard thermal stability tests have been published only for jet fuels. Some
railroads have accelerated physical tests for establishing storage or thermal stability re-
quirements for their fuels. Although such tests cannot screen fuels as rapidly as the electron
microscope, they have helped to point out to the refiners the necessity for a stable fuel,
especially when such tests have indicated that a fuel will cause trouble, as proved by past
or subsequent use.
The need for rigid requirement for thorough testing of all characteristics of fuels was
emphasized in one case where a dispersant-type additive allowed fine abrasive particles
to pass through filters and injectors to cause subsequent damage to engine liners and
rings. From this it is concluded that any stability test is a test for stability only. An
additive cannot make a good diesel fuel out of any refinery product or by-product
without consideration of all the fuel's characteristics before it is used in a diesel engine.
B. PLANTS
As pointed out in last year's report, the most efficient method for correcting fuel oil
stability is by the refiners, which is also the most economical for the railroads, provided
all fuels are equally priced and available. However, competitive purchasing does not always
coincide with the maintenance forces' demands. In such cases, the railroads' maintenance
forces can apply their own additives.
Small pump proportioning plants, such as described under this heading last year,
have been installed to treat 95 percent of the oil used on one railroad. This automatic
application has resulted in minimizing injector troubles and the sometimes resulting fuel
dilution, and also in reducing ring and liner wear as shown by decreased lube oil con-
sumption. Fuels used ranged down to 33 Cetane and up to 0.8 percent sulfur, but average
Cetane is 42-48.
On another road, purchasing about the same average type of fuel, a stabilizing
additive has been dosed into all tank cars at the time of sample procurement before
unloading. This has been its practice for over two years. Prior to this program, lacquered
and sticking injectors occurred, and slimy, black deposits formed on filters, requiring
their frequent renewal. Results since that time indicate that the road is relatively free
from injector troubles associated with unstable fud, and that clogged fuel filters are a
thing of the. past. In addition, crankcases now appear cleaner, and occurrences of way-
2 Diesel Combustion Study by Infrared Emission Spectroscopy. W. T. Lynn, J. Inst. Petrol. 42
25-46 (1957)
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 423
side fires from exhaust sparking have abated. This road turned to its own application of
additive after attempts to have oil suppliers concerned correct the condition at their
refineries led only to promises.
Still another road makes its own application of dispersant by proportioning equip-
ment at each unloading station. This unloading fuel feeder is set to furnish the required
amount automatically, the dosage being determined by electron microscope studies.
Samples are taken regularly, monthly or semi-monthly, to determine if correct amounts
are maintained.
In several cases, railroads treated their own fuel with additive until they succeeded
in persuading their refiners to furnish stable fuel from their plants. In such cases, the
benefits of previous use of stable fuel serve as a measure to judge future operating con-
ditions. Certain experimental fuels, not entirely distillate, are being treated mainly to
assist in increasing fuel filter life in the engines, which treatment will also reduce wear
rates and provide cleaner engines.
C. SAVINGS AND RESULTS
The cost of corrective stability additive treatment for distillate fuels will amount
to a minimum of one-fifth to one-quarter of a mil per gallon. Based on a price differ-
ential between the best and poorest grades of fuels being three-quarters of a cent, such
a proportion of corrective treatment will be only three percent of this price differential.
This proportion of treatment may vary from this 125 to 500 ppm for economy fuels,
while residual and economy fuel blends uiually require from 500 to 2500 ppm. Some
newer, more concentrated additives may reduce volume requirement, with umt cost re-
maining about equal. The presence of facilities or methods for correction of unstable fuel
with additives on a railroad will permit it immediately to purchase unstable fuel from
any available supplier at no increase in maintenance costs, provided such fuel can be
stabilized by the railroad's treatment. On one railroad, the addition of stabilizing additive
has reduced the number of injector repairs necessary by 50 percent, which saving alone
compensates for the cost of the treatment.
Several refiners now add pour-point depressant to their summer-type fuel to make
such fuel satisfactory for winter use. Work done by several roads has pointed the way
to means of using either especially high or unusable high-pour-point fuels by addition
of proper pour-point depressant. In some cases, blending with other fuels is necessary.
A series of tests with addition of increments of the different available additives must be
run on each individual oil to ascertain the most effective depressant. It was found that
dosages to render such oils usable varied down to about 5C0 ppm, or 0.05 percent, depend-
ing on the additive used. Such proportion will raise the cost of fuel by about one and
one-half mils per gallon, which still may afford a price saving and make an available fuel
usable. On one railroad a low-cost, high-pcur-point (45 deg F) gas oil is blended in
various proportions with No. 2 diesel fuel, depending upon seasonal temperatures. A 70/30
gas oil — No. 2 mixture is used in summer, varying to a 50/50 blend in fall and spring
and 30/70 ratio during winter. Pour-point depressant, 0.05 percent proportion, is added
during winter months, tapering off to no additive in the warmer months.
By being acquainted with the different additives, their purposes, the various tests,
means of application and the desired results, the railroad personnel involved will be more
able to obtain and furnish fuel oil at the best economical level, from both purchasing
and diesel maintenance standpoints.
A
424 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
Report on Assignment 6
Railway Waste Disposal
Collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR
T. A. Tennvson, Jr. (chairman, subcommittee), R. C. Archambeault, W. F. Arksey, J. M.
Bates, I. C. Brown, V. R. Copp, R. S. Glynn, T. I. Gray, E. C. Harris, G. F. Metz-
dorf, C. F. Muelder, J. Y. Neal, N. B. Roberts, R. M. Stimmel, J. E. Wiggins, Jr.
This year your committee has continued to search the various trade and technical
magazines available for data on basic changes in waste disposal regulations. No such
changes have been found.
Also, the matter of separation of oil from waste water where emulsions are involved
has been under study, but the committee will delay report on this subject until data on
several plants now in operation can be collected.
Report on Assignment 8
Acid Cleaning of Heat Exchanger Coils and Boilers
H. E. Graham (chairman, subcommittee), R. A. Bardwell, D. E. Drake, J. J. Dwyer,
E. C. Harris, T. W. Hislop, Jr., J. J. Laudig, E. 0. Salners, E. R. Schlaf, L. E.
Talbot, T. A. Tennyson, Jr., A. G. Tompkins.
Your committee submits as information the following final report covering the various
procedures and materials used for the acid cleaning of flash or controlled recirculation
type boilers and their appurtenances.
The flash-type boiler is more compact in design; therefore, it is used to a much
greater extent in passenger train service on the railroads than the recirculation type, and
it is given the most consideration in this report. Because of the relatively high heat
transfer rates incorporated in these boilers, the heat transfer surfaces must be kept
absolutely clean to maintain efficient performance. The quality of the feedwater used with
these boilers is of prime importance and is one of the main factors in determining how
frequently the boilers will require acid washing. The various methods of treating steam
generator feedwater have been previously presented by this committee; therefore, they
are not included in this report. However, it cannot be overemphasized that controlling
the quality of the feedwater to reduce the scale and other deposits to a minimum is the
most effective means of keeping the steam generators clean and operating efficiently.
The railroads are now using or testing three different types of acid for the cleaning
of steam generators: hydrochloric, phosphoric, and sulfamic.
Frequency of Acid Wash
The generators, because of their design, can only be cleaned chemically, and the period
between acid washings of the boilers depends upon the quality of water used. Most rail-
roads acid wash the boilers at intervals of not more than 90 days, or on the basis of the
differential between the inlet water pressure and steam pressure. Since the water pump
pressure gages are subjected to severe service and may not give reliable readings, it is
recommended that shop test gages be used to determine this differential pressure. In most
cases, the railroads that are using de-ionized or de-ionized and zeolite water exclusively
have been able to extend the period between acid washings to the annual inspection
period.
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 425
Inhibited Hydrochloric Acid
Inhibited hydrochloric acid is still being used on most railroads for the cleaning of
steam generators and heat exchanger coils. While it is the least expensive of the acids
being used, it does have some disadvantages and limitations that may offset its lower cost.
The acid washing equipment generally used with the inhibited hydrochloric acid con-
sists of an acid-resistant pump with a capacity of approximately 5 gal per min. This
pump is equipped with the proper valves and connections suitable for either circulating
the acid or passing fresh water through the steam generator, as desired. A reservoir with
a capacity of approximately 50 gal is provided for the acid and neutralizing solutions
These solutions are used once and then discarded.
The washing procedure of the flash type unit is as follows: If the steam generator
is hot, it is necessary to precool the unit by running cold water through the coils. This
will prevent the inhibitor in the acid from losing its effectiveness. Normally, a 5- to
10-percent acid solution is circulated from the reservoir through the cold-water side of
the heat exchanger, through the generator coils, through the separator blowdown valve,
and back to the acid reservoir. The acid should be circulated for not less than V/2 hr,
or until chemical reaction ceases. When the acid washing is completed, the unit should
be rinsed with water, and then a soda ash neutralizing solution of approximately 10 lb
of soda ash to 30 gal of water pumped through the unit. Finally, the steam generator
should be flushed out by pumping fresh water through the coils. The boiler is then filled,
fired, and blown down manually. Since all of the salts that are formed by the action
of the hydrochloric acid on the coil deposits are very soluble, no special operating pre-
cautions are necessary. The hydrochloric acid does a good job of cleaning the coils and
heat exchanger; however, it cannot be used through the entire feedwatcr system to clean
the appurtenances, such as the controls, check valves, etc. Also, due to its fuming
characteristic, it is difficult to handle and use.
Inhibited Phosphoric Acid
Several railroads are using inhibited phosphoric acid for the cleaning of the steam
generators and their appurtenances. While the phosphoric acid has certain advantages
over the hydrochloric acid, it also has some disadvantages. The principal advantages
of the phosphoric acid are as follows: The entire water system can be cleaned, a separate
acid pump is not required, it is easier to handle, there are no fumes, it causes fewer cor-
rosion leaks in the system, and it may be reused. Its disadvantages are as follow^: Higher
cost for each pound of scale removed, sticky insoluble phosphate deposits will be formed
when using weak solutions, longer washing time required because of its slower speed of
reaction, and the solution must be heated to approximately 140 deg F.
Certain precautions in the cleaning procedure are necessarj when u.-ing the phos-
phoric acid. Only one of the three hydrogen ions in phosphoric acid is available to reai I
with calcium carbonate to form a soluble calcium phosphate. If the phosphoric acid solu-
tion is in contact with more than one equivalent of calcium carbonate, an insoluble
precipitate of calcium phosphate will be formed. Therefore, il i> important that tin-
strength of the phosphoric acid solution be maintained above 8 percent during the entire
washing operation. Also, it is important that the separator blowdown valve be bl
open and the orifice test valve opened For at least S min during the initial firing of t hi-
boiler after an acid wash. This will wash the insolubles progressive!) through larger coils
and prevents a possible stoppage in the intermediate or outer coils
The equipment required for washing with the phosphoric acid usually con^i--
426
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
portable tank of approximately 120 gal capacity, baffled to prevent splashing and to allow
for the settling of sediment. The tank is heated with a closed steam coil so as not to
dilute the solution.
It is not necessary to precool the generator when washing it with inhibited phosphoric
acid. An 8 to 10 percent acid solution is pumped through the water system by connecting
the suction side of the feedwater pump to the solution tank and discharging the solution
from the separator blowdown back into the tank. By doing this, the solution will pass
through the trap, heat exchanger, and other appurtenances. With care, although the pro-
cedure is not recommended, the boiler can be fired intermittently during the washing
operation to maintain the solution temperature at approximately 140 deg F. After rinsing
the generator with fresh water, it is not necessary to use a neutralizing solution. However,
upon the initial firing of the boiler after the acid wash, the previously mentioned precau-
tion must be observed by operating the boiler for 5 min with the separator blowdown
and orifice test valves open.
Inhibited Sulfamic Acid
One railroad has reported that it is using inhibited sulfamic acid, and several others
are making tests on its use for the cleaning of steam generator systems. There are indica-
tions that this acid may prove to have most of the advantages, and with the exception
of the cost few, if any, of the disadvantages of the hydrochloric and phosphoric acids.
Inhibited sulfamic acid is a non-volatile acid, forms extremely soluble salts, and is
less corrosive to ordinary metals than inhibited hydrochloric acid. When using this acid,
the washing procedure is the same as for the phosphoric acid with two exceptions: namely,
it is not necessary to maintain the minimum solution strength at 8 percent and to take
the precaution of operating the boiler for S min with the separator blowdown valve open.
Sodium acid fluoride at the ratio of 1 lb to S lb of sulfamic acid has been recom-
mended for dissolving silica scale.
Comparison of Acids Used
Acid
Percent
Acid
as Sold
Weight in
Pounds to
Dissolve
lOOLbCaCOs
Strength
Cleaning;
Solution
Percent
Recom-
mended
Dilution
Ratio
A pproximate
Cost of A cid
to Dissolve
lOOLbCaCOz
pH of
0.6
Molar
Solution
Hydrochloric.
HC1
30
243
6
1-4
$17
0.4
Phosnhoric .
H3PO4
75
261
8
1-8
■S40
1.0
Sulfamic -
HSO sNH 2
98
200
9
1-9
$70
0.6
Conclusions
iFrom the data furnished by various railroads, it is apparent that each of the acids
being used will satisfactorily clean heat exchanger coils and boilers if the proper proce-
dures are followed. In evaluating the cost figures in the comparison table, consideration
must be given to the fact that the hydrochloric acid is nearly always discarded after each
cleaning operation, regardless of the amount of acid remaining in the solution. The phos-
phoric and sulfamic acids are normally reused; therefore, the scale-dissolving potentiality
of these acids are utilized to a greater degree.
The final decision as to which acid is to be used should be governed by cost, inhibition,
speed of scale removal, and greater handling safety.
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 427
Report on Assignment 10
Detection and Disposal of Radioactive Substances in Air,
Oil and Water Filters on Diesel Locomotives
and Other Equipment
Collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR
R. O. Bardwell (chairman, subcommittee), R. C. Archambeault, J. M. Bates, T. W. Brown,
R. E. Coughlan, B. W. DeGeer, C. E. Fisher, R. C. Glynn, F. E. Gunning, H. M.
Hoffmeister, A. B. Pierce, J. P. Rodger, L. E. Talbot.
The results of investigations carried out by this subcommittee concerning the con-
tamination of rolling stock, by radioactive fallout have been gratifyingly negative.
The next step appears to be that of supplementing these data with detailed informa-
tion concerning the particle size and activity distribution of fallout and the particle-
concentrating capabilities of the various filtering devices on railroad equipment. With
this information it should be possible to evaluate the potential or existing hazard and to
decide whether the work toward dealing with this hazard should be intensified or relaxed.
Report on Assignment 11
Methods of Heating Fuel Oil to Permit Winter-Time
Use of High-Pour-Point "Economy" Grade Fuel Oils
C. E. DeGeer (chairman, subcommittee), M. R. Bost, T. W. Hislop, Jr., A. W. Johnson,
C. O. Johnson, G. F. Metzdorf, John Norman, N. B. Roberts, J. P. Rodger, E. O.
Salners, H. E. Silcox, D. C. Teal, C. B. Voitelle, J. E. Wiggins, Jr.
Your committee submits the following as a progress report on a new subject that
covers a phase of railroad operation which is done only on a small scale by most
railroads.
With the savings possible through the use of economy and residual fuels, the problem
of heating these fuels instead of using depressants has been considered on some railroads.
The cheaper fuels, which are primarily refined from domestic crudes, have higher "cloud"
and "pour" points, which lead to filtering and pumping difficulties. The residual-distillate
blends may also give trouble because of their flow and pumping characteristics. However,
most of these problems can be eliminated by heating the fuels.
Heating can be done through any means of inducing heat into the storage tank-.
pipe lines, filters, etc., the method of heating depending on the facilities available at each
location. At installations where central power plants do not exist, electrical heat can be
quite economically used. In any case, owing to the nature of diesel fuel oils, it is im-
portant to use moderate temperatures, for high heats will cause a "coking" condition
on the heating elements. If electrical heat is used, 3 watts per lineal foot of heater i-
recommended.
A few of the many questions that arise in connection with beating oil are:
Will the oil stratify after I e at higher temperatures?
Will the additive-, if used, maintain their stability at high temperatures?
Will thermo circulation be enough to maintain even temperatures throughout th
storage tank, or will circulating pump- be required?
428 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
Will it be more feasible to hent the oil in small service tank- used in conjunction with
the large storage tanks?
Will service lines and fueling facilities have to be heated?
These are but a few of the problems that will arise, but the main difficulties in
heating oil are not concerned with the heating plant itslclf, but with the problems caused
by the nature of the oil being heated; consequently, a great deal of care must be taken
in testing the oil prior to heating and storing to determine its compatability with other
oils, and its need for stabilizers or dispersents.
As most oil-heating facilities now used by railroads are either of a small experimental
type or were installed hurriedly without special metering devices, very little is known
about the operating cost of these plants at the present time; however, an electric-type
25,000-gal storage tank heater is being experimentally installed on one railroad, complete
with separate meters, which will give a fair basis for estimating the cost of the operation.
Estimated savings will depend on the volume of oil handled, initial cost of installation,
heating method used, and the cost of the oil being handled.
Your committee plans to continue this study to evaluate present plants and plants
being installed, and to go into a more detailed account of a typical standard for heating
diesel fuel oils.
Report of Committee 20 — Contract Forms
J. P. Aaron J. W. McMuxj \
G. H. Beam i s W. L. Mogle
K. A. Begemann 0. K. Morgan (E)
H. F. BROCKET! C. B. Nii BAi s*
R. G.Brohaggb W.G.Nusz(E)
R.F. Correli R.O.NUTT
A. B. Cost,, G.W.Patterson
rm G.K.I) Wis J.L.PERRIER
tE. E. Phipps
C. L. Gatton
W. R. SWATOSH
J F'HALP,K r.W.WALLE*™
R- C' "— D. J. W,„te
C. J. Henry _ ,r _.
„r _ „ I. V. Wiley
\\ D. klRKPATRICK, D. C. HORNE ^ „ _.
Chairman, T c T ,_N D- H- Yazell
„ „ IT _ T. S. Lillie (E) „ ,7
E. M. Hastings, Jr.. Clarence Young
Vice Chairman, L. W. Lindberg h l 2ouck
A. F. Hughes, Secretary, D. F. Lyons Committee
(E) Member Emeritus,
* Died June 29, 1957.
7"o the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
3. Form of lease covering subsurface rights to mine under railway miscel-
laneous physical property.
Submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual page 4.^0
4. Form of agreement covering parallel occupancy of railway right-of-way
property by electric power lines.
Progress report, presented as information page 435
5. Insurance provisions recommended for various forms of agreements.
Final report, submitted as information page 439
6. Form of agreement for construction and maintenance of bighway-railwas
grade separation structures for public roads.
Brief progress statement page 443
Tin Com m 1 11 ee on Contract Forms,
VY I) KlRKPATRICK, Chairman
\Kl.A Bulletin 539, November 1957.
429
430 Contract Forms
Report on Assignment 3
Form of Lease Covering Subsurface Rights to Mine Under
Railway Miscellaneous Physical Property
I. V. Wiley (chairman, subcommittee), J. P. Aaron, R. G. Brohaugh, G. K. Davis, J. F.
Halpin, R. C. Heckel, A. F. Hughes, W. D. Kirkpatrick, L. W. Lindberg, W. L.
Mogle, R. O. Nutt, J. L. Perrier, E. E. Phipps, D. J. White, H. L. Zouck.
Last year your committee presented as information a tentative draft of Form of
Lease Covering Subsurface Rights to Mine Under Railway Miscellaneous Physical
Property (Proceedings, Vol. 58, 105 7, pages 484 to 4Q2, incl.) and invited suggestions and
criticisms thereon.
The committee has reviewed last year's draft and acting on the comments received,
now submits a revised form with the recommendation that it be adopted and published
in the Manual at the end of Part 7, Miscellaneous Agreements, Chapter 20.
FORM OF LEASE COVERING SUBSURFACE RIGHTS TO MINE
UNDER RAILWAY MISCELLANEOUS PHYSICAL PROPERTY
This Lease, made this day of , 19 . . . . , by and between
, a corporation organized and existing during the laws of the
State of , hereinafter called the Railway Company, and
, hereinafter called the Lessee.
WITNESSETH:
Whereas, the Railway Company owns certain premises situated in
County of , State of , further described as follows:
and as shown on map entitled " ", dated ,
hereto attached and made part hereof, and
Whereas, the Lessee desires the exclusive right and privilege to mine and remove
the ....*.... underlying the surface of said premises, and ■
Whereas, the Railway Company is agreeable to granting the Lessee a lease for such
purposes ;
Now, Therefore, in consideration of $ cash in hand paid by the
Lessee to the Railway Company, of the royalties hereinafter provided, and of the covenants
herein contained, the Railway Company hereby grants said lease, subject to the following
terms and conditions:
1. Mining Rights
The Railway Company, in so far as it lawfully may, grants to the Lessee the
privileges to mine, excavate and remove the ....*...., upon and under the tracts or
parcels of land above described, except as hereinafter provided, together with all necessary
and convenient rights-of-way through and under said lands for drainage, ventilation and
ventilating shafts and tipples necessary to remove the ....*...., in the manner and to
the extent that such mining rights and privileges are vested in the Railway Company.
2. Term
This lease shall be effective (date) and shall extend
for a period of years. It may be renewed for a period,
under the same conditions, upon six month's notice by the Lessee prior to the date of
expiration.
Contract Forms 431
3. Exceptions and Reservations
The Railway Company reserves the rights for existing railroad facilities and leases
within the area described, and further reserves the right to construct, operate and main-
tain additional railroad facilities and grant leases thai do no! interfere with the mining
privileges.
The Lessee shall not have the righl to mine under railroad facilities and leases excepl
with the written consent of the Chief Engineer of the Railway Company.
4. Rentals and Royalties
The Lessee shall pay to the Railway Company a rental or royalty of ,
payment to be made monthly not later than the day of each month
for the ....*.... shipped during the preceding month; provided, however, that for the
year beginning January 1, 19 . . . ., and every year thereafter, the Lessee shall pay to the
Railway Company a minimum rental or royalty of $ , such minimum
payment to be made not later than the of the succeeding year
5. Taxes
The Lessee shall pay all taxes which may be levied or assessed upon the leasehold
estate hereby created, the surface land used by the Lessee and all buildings and improve-
ments placed thereon by the Lesese, for each year during the continuance of this lease,
and all taxes that may be imposed upon the ....*.... after it is mined from said leased
premises, or other products made from the ....*...., whether the taxes are so levied or
assessed in the name of the Railway Company or the Lessee. If the Lessee fails to pay
the taxes, or any part thereof, when and as they become due and payable, they may be
paid by the Railway Company, and the Lessee shall pay to the Railway Company any
such sums paid by the Railway Company within days after demand therefor,
with interest at the rate of percent per annum, and the Railway Company
shall have the same liens and remedies for the collection of money so paid by it as are
hereinafter provided for and reserved to it for the collection of rentals or royalties.
6. Weight of Material Mined
The quantity of ....*.... mined from said leased premises and shipped in railway
cars shall be determined by the weight sheets furnished by the Railway Company over
which the ....*.... is shipped. Weight certificates from a licensed weighing station shall
be furnished for all ....*.... shipped from the premises by any other means.
7. Records of Lessee
The Lessee shall keep an accurate record of all ....*.... mined and removed or
converted into other products or used or stored on the leased premises, and a record of
all analyses made or caused to be made by the Lessee of the ....*.... The authorized
representatives of the Railway Company shall have access at any and all reasonable times
to all such records for the purpose of inspecting, auditing and making copies of records.
The Lessee shall, on or before the day of each calendar month, furnish
to the Railway Company a reporl in writing, showing the total quantit) mined from
the premises during the preceding month, under thi- lease.
8. Plan for Mine Development
The Lessee shall, before commencing an> operations on the leased premises, submit
to the Railway Company for approval a plan providing for the removal of the ....*....
Approval of the plan shall not constitute assumption of any liability by the Railway
Company.
432 Contract Forms
9. Mine Map
The Lessee shall make and keep posted a correct and accurate map, on a scale of
, of the mine and workings on the leased premises. The map shall
accurately show the boundary lines of the leased premises and the location of all rights-
of-way, streams, roads, buildings and other improvements within the boundaries of the
leased premises, and the locations, directions, courses, levels and projections, and the
dates of the making or extension of all openings, entries, headings, drainways, air courses,
haulways, rooms, pillars, working places and extensions of the mine or mines, and any
additional information that may be necessary to the safe and proper conduct of the
operations, and shall comply in all respects with the mining laws relating thereto.
The Lessee shall keep the map up to date at all times. Authorized representatives
of the Railway Company shall at all times have access to the maps, plans and tracings
of the Lessee prepared in connection with the mining operations on the leased premises.
10. Method of Mining
The Lessee shall work, mine and remove the ....*.... in an efficient and workman-
like manner and provide support so that the surface will not be disturbed as a result
of the removal of the ....*.... The mining operations shall be carried on in conformity
with the laws of the State of and the United States of America,
and in accordance with the mining rights granted by this lease, and so as not to violate
any of the rights herein expressly excepted and reserved.
11. Inspection of Mine
The authorized representatives of the Railway Company shall have the right at all
times to enter the mine or mines and workings connected therewith and other operations
of the Lessee under this lease in order to make inspections and surveys.
The Railway Company may direct the Lessee, by notice in writing delivered to the
mine superintendent or any other person in authority at the mine on the leased premises,
to stop or remedy immediately any mining practices or other acts which may in its
opinion cause any loss or injury, and the Lessee shall comply with such direction.
12. Transporting Mined Material from Adjacent Lands
The Lessee shall not, except with the written consent of the Chief Engineer of the
Railway Company, transport any * from adjoining or neighboring lands across,
under, through or over the leased premises.
13. Removal of Property after Term
When this lease shall terminate by reason of the Lessee having mined all of the
* and paid to the Railway Company all the royalties, rentals and other moneys
required to be paid hereunder, and complied with all the covenants and agreements con-
tained herein on the part of the Lessee to be kept and performed, then the Lessee shall,
within the period of months from the date of termination, remove the mine
plant, improvements, machinery and equipment which it has placed upon the leased
premises. Any property not so removed by the Lessee within this period of
months shall become the property of the Railway Company, and it may remove the
mining plant, improvements, machinery and equipment at the expense of the Lessee.
14. Indemnification
The Lessee shall, at its own cost and expense, defend, fully indemnify and forever
save harmless the Railway Company, its successors and assigns, from all losses, claims,
Contract Forms
damages, actions and causes of action, resulting from or in any manner growing out of
the operations of the Lessee hereunder, as well as out of the failure of the Lesser to
comply with the terms and conditions of this lease whether the same be caused or con-
tributed to by negligence of the Railway Company or otherwise, and will promptly repay
any sum or sums which the Railway Company may pay or be compelled to pay, and
discharge any judgment or judgments that may be rendered against the Railway Company,
including all costs and attorney's fees, because of any such claim or claims.
15. Insurance
The Lessee shall at the Lessee's own expense carry insurance at all times in a com-
pany or companies approved by the Railway Company, covering the liability assumed
under this lease, with limits of not less than $ for one person
and $ for one accident for personal injuries or death, and
$ for property damage for each accident, with an aggregate
limit of not less than $ , and shall furnish the Railway Com-
pany true original counterparts of such policy or policies and have the Railway Com-
pany's written approval of the policies at least forty-eight hours before entering the said
leased premises. The policies shall provide for written notice to the Railway Company
at least days in advance of cancellation.
16. Assignment
The Lessee shall not assign, sublet or underlet, mortgage or convey this lease or the
leasehold estate, rights or privileges hereby demised, or any part thereof or interest therein,
without first having obtained the written consent of the Railway Company. Any transfer
by process of law or proceeding in equity, or any transfer of a controlling interest in the
share of stock of Lessee to persons not now in control of Lessee, shall be deemed an
assignment within the meaning of this provision and violation of this covenant. Subject
to the provisions herein contained regarding assignment, this agreement shall extend to
and bind the successors and assigns of the respective parties hereto.
17. Termination
The Railway Company shall have the right to terminate this lease if the Lessee shall
default in the payment of rentals, royalties or any other money herein provided to be
paid by the paid by the Lessee when and as due and payable, or if the Lessee shall fail
to keep, observe or perform any of the covenants, agreements or conditions in this lease,
and if any such defaults shall continue for a period of days after written
notice is given by the Railway Company to the Lessee.
The Railway Company shall also have the right to terminate this lease if the Lessee
shall make any assignment for the benefil ol creditors, or shall be adjudicated bankrupt.
or file an application under of the Bankruptcy Act or
any amendment thereto or substitute therefor, or any answer admitting material allege
tions of an application filed against Lessee thereunder, or shall suffer or permit a receiver-
ship of the Lessee's property. Xo demand for the payment of rentals or royalties or other
money required to be paid by the Lessee, nor other notice of default than above provided,
nor any re-entry by the Railway Company shall be necessary in order to effect a ter-
mination of this lease. The Railway Company may thereupon or at any time then
after, without further notice, demand or action, re-enter and take possession of the :
premises, or any part thereof, to the same extent and with like effect a- i hough thl
had never been made In case the Railway Companj exercises tin- right herein providpd
434 Contract Forms
to declare this lease terminated, it shall not be liable to the Lessee for any injury or
damage by reason thereof, and the Lessee hereby expressly waives and releases any and
every claim for any such injury or damage. But the exercise by the Railway Company
of the right to declare this lease terminated shall not be held to release or impair any
then existing obligation or liability of the Lessee hereunder or any right or remedy herein
granted to or in any manner vested in the Railway Company or otherwise available to it
for the collection of rentals, royalties or other money payable hereunder or the enforce-
ment of any other liability.
18. Railway Company's Liens
In order to secure the payment of all rentals or royalties and other moneys herein
provided to be paid by the Lessee, the Railway Company is hereby given a first lien upon
the leasehold estate hereby created and upon all shafts, houses, buildings, tipples, struc-
tures, ovens, rails, railroad tracks, equipment, machinery, improvements and property of
every kind and character which may be placed by the Lessee upon the leased premises.
All rentals, royalties and other moneys herein provided to be paid by the Lessee
shall be deemed and treated as rents reserved upon contract by the Railway Company.
19. Railway Company's Rights Not Waived
No delay or omission of the Railway Company to exercise any right, remedy or lien
accruing upon any default or forfeiture hereunder, or otherwise available to it, shall impair,
prejudice or waive any such right, remedy or lien, but every such right, remedy and
lien may be exercised by the Railway Company in the same manner and to the same
extent as if such delay or omission had not occurred.
20. Arbitration
Disagreements or disputes between the Railway Company and the Lessee as to any
of the covenants, agreements or conditions of this lease, or as to the performance or non-
performance thereof, that cannot be settled between the parties hereto, shall be settled
by a sole, disinterested arbitrator to be selected jointly by the parties to this lease, and
if they fail to select such arbitrator within days after demand for
arbitration is made by either party hereto, then such arbitrator shall be appointed by the
judge of the Court of The expense
of arbitration shall be apportioned between the parties hereto, or wholly borne by either
party, as determined by the arbitrator.
21. Notice to Lessee
The giving of any notice to the Lessee under the provisions hereof, the manner of
which is not otherwise herein expressly provided, shall be sufficient if in writing, and
one copy thereof, addressed to the Lessee, is left with the superintendent, manager or
an agent in charge of the mines or of the mine office of the Lessee, and one copy thereof
is sent by registered mail to the Lessee at its last address furnished the Railway Com-
pany. If there shall be no one found in charge of the mines or of the mine office of the
Lessee, then one copy of the notice shall be posted on the front door of the mine office
or at the entrance to the mine.
22. Notice to Railway Company
The giving of any notice to the Railway Company under the provisions of this lease
shall be sufficient if in writing and sent by registered mail to the Chief Engineer of the
Railway Company at All plans, maps,
Contract Forms 435
reports and other records and information herein required to be furnished by the Lessee
to the Railway Company shall be mailed to the Chief Engineer of the Railway Company
at the above address, unless and until the Lessee shall be otherwise instructed in writing
by the Railway Company.
23. Modifications
No waiver, release, modification, alteration or amendment of any of the terms, con-
ditions or provisions of this lease shall be valid or set up or relied upon or offered in any
judicial proceeding or otherwise unless the same is in writing, duly executed by the Railway
Company and the Lessee.
In Witness Whereof, the parties hereto have executed this instrument in
, as of the day and year
first above written.
Attest: Company
Secretary By
Attest : Lessee
Secretary By
Note 1. — This form of lease is not intended to cover strip or surface mining operations.
Note 2. — Insert the name of the material to be mined in all banks marked . . . .*
Report on Assignment 4
Form of Agreement Covering Parallel Occupancy of Railway
Right-of-Way Property by Electric Power Lines
E. M. Hastings, Jr. (chairman, subcommittee), J. P. Aaron, K. A. Begemann, A. B.
Costic, C. L. Gatton, D. C. Home, A. F. Hughes, J. S. Lillie, J. W. McMillen, R. O.
Nutt, W. R. Swatosh, D. H. Yazell, H. L. Zouck.
Your committee submits as information the following tentative form of agreement
covering parallel occupancy of railway property by electric power lines. The Manual does
not now contain such an agreement form.
Members of the Association are requested to give the committee the benefit of their
suggestions and criticism.
FORM OF AGREEMENT COVERING PARALLEL OCCUPANCY
OF RAILWAY RIGHT-OF-WAY PROPERTY BY
ELECTRIC POWER LINES
This Acreement, made this day of . . .v ,
19 . . . ., by and between
, a corporation duly organized and existing under the
laws of
hereinafter called the Railway Company, and
, hereinafter called the Power Company.
WITNESSETH:
Whereas, the Power Company desires to construct maintain and operate a power
line for the transmission of electrical energy, over, across, along, parallel or adjacent t<>
property, tracks, wires and other facilities of the Railway Company, from a point 1.
at Station
436 Contract Forms
, Mile Post feet to Station
Mile Post feet over the
, Division , Subdivision
, County State, the power
line together with towers, fixtures, and appurtenances thereto, hereinafter referred to
collectively as Power Line, being more completely described on Plan (Plans)
dated
marked for identification
attached hereto and made
a part of this agreement; and
Whereas, the Railway Company is willing to have the Power Line constructed,
operated and maintained upon the following terms, covenants, conditions and limitations ;
Now, Therefore, it is mutually agreed as follows:
1. Permit
The Railway Company, insofar as it lawfully may, hereby permits the Power Com-
pany at its sole risk, cost and expense, to construct, maintain and operate the Power Line,
over, across, along, parallel and adjacent to the facilities of the Railway Company, includ-
ing but not limited to tracks, pole lines, signal and communication lines, radio or other
equipment and facilities of any other person, firm, corporation or association which now
or hereafter may occupy or be a lessee of the Railway Company upon the following terms
and conditions.
2. Public Authority
Before constructing the Power Line, the Power Company shall at its sole cost and
expense, obtain all necessary authority therefor from all Public Authorities having juris-
diction in the premises, and shall thereafter observe and comply with the requirements
of such Public Authorities and all local, State or Federal applicable laws and regulations.
3. Specifications
The Power Company shall construct the Power Line to conform to the requirements
of the National Electrical Safety Code, and any amendments thereto, and the require-
ments of the Association of American Railroads and the Edison Electric Institute. If in
any particular, either of these specifications conflict with any statute, or with any order,
rule, or regulation of any competent Public Authority having jurisdiction in the matter,
then such statute, order, rule or regulations shall prevail, but in all remaining particulars,
said specifications shall govern.
4. Construction and Maintenance
In the construction and maintenance of its Power Line, the Power Company shall
use every precaution and all diligence to avoid interference with the operation of trains,
or any other facilities on the Railway Company's property as may belong to it or to any
lessee thereof. In the event the construction or maintenance of the Power Line shall,
in the judgment of the Railway Company, necessitate any changes in its tracks or any
other facilities of the Railway Company or lessee thereof, the Power Company shall
reimburse the Railway Company in full the costs of any such changes.
Contract Forms 437
5. Additions or Removals
In the event the Power Company shall at any time desire to make changes in the
physical or operational characteristics of the Power Line, it shall first obtain in writing
the consent and approval of the Railway Company, and the Power Company agrees that
such changes shall be made at its sole risk, cost and expense and shall be subject to all
of the terms, covenants, conditions and limitations of this agreement. Should the Power
Company abandon or discontinue use of the Power Line, it shall promptly remove same
from the property of the Railway Company, and restore such property to a condition
satisfactory to the Railway Company.
6. Protection
If the Railway Company deems it advisable during the progress of any work of con-
struction, maintenance, repair, renewal, alteration, or removal of the Power Line, to place
watchmen, flagmen, inspectors or supervisors, for the protection of the operations of the
Railway Company, or the property of the Railway Company or lessees thereof, the Rail-
way Company shall have the right so to do at the sole expense of the Power Company,
but the Railway Company shall not be liable for the failure so to do, or the failure or
neclect of such watchmen, flagmen, inspectors or supervisors.
7. Interference
If the operation or maintenance of the Power Line shall at any time cause interfer-
ence, including but not limited to physical interference, from electromagnetic induction,
electrostatic induction, or from stray or other currents, with the facilities of the Railway
Company or of any lessees, or in any manner interferes with the operation, maintenance
or use by the Railway of its right-of-way, tracks, structures, pole lines, signal and com-
munication lines, radio or other equipment, devices, other property or appurtenances
thereto, the Power Company agrees immediately to make such changes in its own lines
and furnish such protective devices to the Railway Company and its lessees as shall be
necessary in the judgment of the Chief Engineer, the Superintendent of Communications
and Signals or any other officer of the Railway Company having jurisdiction herein, to
eliminate such interference. The cost of such protective equipment and its installation
shall be borne solely by the Power Company.
In the event that the methods above set forth fail to eliminate such inteference,
and it is deemed necessary by the proper officer of the Railway Company having juris-
diction therein, that any or all facilities of the Railway Company or of any lessees thereof
shall be relocated, reconstructed or otherwise changed, the entire cost of such changes
shall be borne by the Power Company.
8. Relocation
In the event the Railway Company shall at any time deem it necessary or advisable
to change the grade or location of its track or tracks, or to construct any additional
track or tracks, or to relocate its structures, pole lines, signal and communication lines,
radio or other equipment, devices, or other facilities, or to make any other additions or
betterments, or to require prior lessees to relocate or otherwise change their facilities,
the Power Company shall within days after written notice from
the Railway Company, at its own risk, cost and expense, relocate, raise or otherwise
change its Power Line to a location, and in a manner agreeable to the Railway Company.
All terms, conditions and specifications of thi.- agreemenl shall apply to the relocated
Power Line, as if originally constructed hereunder.
438 Contract Forms
9. Indemnification
The Power Company hereby assumes, and releases and agrees to indemnify, protect
and save harmless from and against, all loss of and damage to any property whatsoever
(including property of the parties hereto and of all other persons whomsoever, and the
loss of or interference with any use or service thereof), and all loss and damage on
account of injury to or death of any person whomsoever, (including employees and patrons
of the parties hereto and all other persons whomsoever), and all claims and liability for
such loss and damage and cost and expenses thereof, caused by or growing out of the
operation of this agreement, or the presence, construction, maintenance, use, repair, change
or relocation and subsequent removal of the Power Line, whether caused by the fault,
failure or negligence of the Railway Company or otherwise.
10. Insurance
The Power Company shall procure and maintain at its expense while this agreement
is in effect a railroad protective policy of insurance having limits of $ /$
for Bodily Injury and $ /$ for property damage. This insurance must
name the Railway Company as insured and must protect and save hann'ess the Railway
Company from and against all loss of, and damage to, any property whatsoever (including
property of the parties hereto and of all other persons whomsoever and the loss of, or inter-
ference with, any use of service thereof), and all loss and damage on account of injury
to, or death of, any person whomsoever, (including employees and patrons of the parties
hereto and all other persons whomsoever) , and expense thereof caused by, growing out of,
or in any way related to, or connected with the operation of this agreement whether or
not caused by the negligence of the Railway Company. The original of this policy and
of all renewals thereof shall be furnished to the Railway Company. (Note 1)
Note 1. — This section may be modified to provide for placing of this insurance by
the Railway Company at expense of the Power Company.
11. Taxes
The Power Company agrees to pay all taxes, assessments, and charges on all of its
property located upon the right-of-way of the Railway Company.
12. Term
This agreement shall remain in full force and effect for a period of
years from date hereof; and from year to year thereafter; but may
be terminated at any time by the Power Company upon days
written notice to the Railway Company, but may be revoked by the Railway Company
because of failure by the Power Company to comply with any of the terms of this
agreement.
13. Title
No warranty of title to any property is given hereunder, and the permit herein given
to the Power Company is subject to all encumbrances, conditions, reservations or limita-
tions upon or under which the Railway Company holds, its property.
14. Fee and Rental
The Power Company shall pay to the Railway Company upon the execution of this
agreement, a license fee of Dollars toward
the cost of preparation of this agreement, and supervision expense.
Contract Forms 439
The Power Company shall also pay to the Railway Company as rental for the use
of its premises the sum of Dollars on the
execution of this agreement to cover the period from the date hereof to December 31,
19 , and on or before January 10th of each year thereafter, the sum of
Dollars per annum, in advance, for each
and every year or fraction thereof, during which this agreement shall remain in force
and effect.
15. Assignment
This agreement, and all of the rights and obligations herein contained shall inure to the
benefit of, and be binding upon the successors and assigns of the parties hereto, but no
assignment by the Power Company shall be made without the written consent of the
Railway Company having been first obtained.
In Witness Whereof, the parties hereto have executed this agreement as of the day
and year first above written.
Witness Company
By
Witness Company
By
Report on Assignment 5
Insurance Provisions Recommended for Various Forms
of Agreements
Clarence Young (chairman, subcommittee), K. A. Begemann, R. G. Brohaugh, R. F.
Correll, G. K. Davis, E. M. Hastings, D. C. Home, D. F. Lyons, J. W. Wallenius.
D. J. White, D. H. Yazell.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
The protection of railways from liability imposed on them by occurrences arising
out of operations of contractors on construction work has been of great concern to rail-
way engineers for more than 30 years. The extent of protection and the form of insurance
has been the subject of controversy involving the railways with the several state highway
departments, the Federal Public Roads Administration and the insurance companies.
The engineers, being on the "firing line" were the first to recognize the need for insur-
ance to cover liability for untoward occurrences on construction work. As the insurance
departments of most railways were organized originally to cope with fire and other losses
arising out of railway operations, the engineers took on the added burden of policing
insurance to cover the railways for liability arising out of construction work on railway
property. The insurance companies were unfamiliar with the coverage needed by railways.
They had a form of insurance called "Owners' Protective Public Liability and Propertj
Damage Insurance", which was not satisfactory and which some of them, under pressure,
would endorse to take care of some of the railways' demands. The state highway depart-
440 Contract Forms
merits and the Federal Public Roads Administration were also unaware of the railways'
needs and were not in sympathy with their demands for better coverage. This resulted
in considerable controversy and delays in starting work until the railways reluctantly
accepted inadequate insurance coverage under threats of the states to use their financial
and police powers arbitrarily.
A few years ago the insurance departments of some of the railways became inter-
ested in the controversy and brought the matter to the attention of the Fire Protection
and Insurance Section of the Association of American Railroads. This resulted in the
appointment in 1955 by the AAR of three members of the Insurance Section to col-
laborate with Committee 20, AREA. Since that time developments have come at a much
faster pace. The members of Committee 20 have furnished the experience as to exposure
while the members of the Insurance Section have furnished the experience in dealing
with the insurance companies and translating requirements into insurance language. This
combination has worked very effectively.
The delays in starting work on projects on railway property arising out of refusal
of railways to accept inadequate insurance policies was brought to the attention of the
American Association of State Highway Officials by the AAR, and a special committee
was appointed to study the problem of speeding up railway approval of insurance. In 1954
this special committee made a report to the AASHO convention with the recommenda-
tion that a conference be held with representatives from the AASHO, PRA, AAR and
the insurance companies. The full conference as recommended was not held, but the
AASHO and the PRA came up with a "Railroad Protective Insurance Endorsement, Pub-
lic Liability and Property Damage." This was the so-called "Oregon Form." This form
was promulgated on August 9, 1955, as acceptable by the PRA and was used by most
of the states. New York did not accept the "Oregon" form but devised its own form in
conjunction with representatives of some of the insurance companies.
Neither the "Oregon" form nor the "New York" form was considered completely
satisfactory by your committee nor the Insurance Section of the AAR, and both forms
were protested by a number of railways on every occasion. The insurance companies also
protested the "Oregon" form as containing untested clauses and wrote it under protest
at exhorbitant premium rates.
Since the "Oregon" form was more or less specified by the Public Roads Admin-
istration in 1955, there have been a number of conferences involving state highway
officials, railways, and insurance representatives. These culminated in a meeting June 24,
1957, at Seattle, Wash., of the Executive Committee of the AASHO to which representa-
tives of the AAR and the PRA were invited. C. D. Dawson and J. V. McHugh, two of
the Insurance Section collaborators with Committee 20, were among those present. This
joint meeting cleared up a great deal of misunderstanding that the state highway and
public roads people had about the position of the railways.
At this meeting an agreement was reached on an "Outline of Specifications for Rail-
road Protective Liability and Direct Damage Insurance in the Cost of Which Federal Aid
Highway Funds are Eligible to Participate."
A small committee was to be formed to write a standard form of "Railroad Protective
Insurance." The consist of the committee was to be not more than two members each
from the AASHO, the PRA, the AAR, and the insurance company bureaus. The highway
and railway members held a preliminary meeting on August 2, 1957. The first meeting
of the full committee, including insurance company representatives, was held August 16,
1957. An entirely new form of policy based on the "Specifications" is being written, which
Contract Forms 441
should be ready for approval by all concerned before the first ol the year, This will not
be an endor-ement of any present form of insurance but an entirely new form to be
printed and u^ed by all insurance bureau companies, both stock and mutual.
The "Outline of Specifications for Railroad Protective Liability and Dired Damage
Insurance" is quoted below as information:
OUTLINE OF SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD PROTECTIVE LIABILITY
AND DIRECT DAMAGE INSURANCE IN THE COST OF WHICH
FEDERAL-AID HIGHWAY FUNDS ARE ELIGIBLE TO
PARTICIPATE
1. Coverage
a. All liability imposed on the railroad by law because of occurrences arising out
of the operations of the contractor or subcontractors at the site of the work, including,
but not limited to:
(1) All liability arising out of activities at the site of the work of:
(a) Flagmen, watchmen and other protective employees of the railroad, except
those specified in (b) and (c) below, specifically loaned or assigned by the rail-
road to the work performed by the contractor or his subcontractors, provided the
cost of services of such employees is to be borne by the contractor, or subcon-
tractors of governmental authority ;
(b) Supervisory employees of the railroad while performing services with
respect to the operations of the contractor or his subcontractors; and
(c) Employees of the railroad while operating, attached to or engaged on work
trains or other railroad equipment exclusively assigned to the contractor or his
subcontractors by the railroad.
(2) Liability for death of or bodily injury to:
(a) Employees of the railroad included in subparagraphs (a), (b), and (c)
of paragraph l.a.(l) above, including liability under the Federal Employer's Liabil-
ity Act.
(b) The contractor, or subcontractors and employees of the contractor or
subcontractors.
(3) Liability under the Federal Employer's Liability Act other than that included
in subparagraph l.a(2) above.
b. All damages to personal property owned by the railroad (including property or
equipment under leases or trust agreements) because of occurrences arising out of the
operations of the contractor or subcontractors at the site of the work.
2. Exclusions
a. Liability imposed on the railroad by law and damage to personal property owned
by the railroad the sole proximate cause ol which is an act or omission of the railroad or
employees of the railroad, other than employees included in subparagraphs (a), (b), and
(c) of paragraph l.a.(l) above, and except as to liability under subparagraph, l.a.(2)
above.
b. Liability under Workmen's Compensation Laws, Unemployment Compensation
Laws, and disability and other benefits provided by law. (Federal Employer's liability V< I
is specifically exempted from that exclusion I
442 Contract Forms
c. Liability assumed by the railroad by contract or agreement, other than contracts for
carriage of persons or goods, leases or trust agreements, and agreements for interchange
of equipment.
3. Amounts of Coverage
Dollar amounts of coverage are not to exceed $250,000 for each individual and
8500,000 for each occurrence with respect to bodily injuries or death, and $250,000 for
each occurrence, with an aggregate of $500,000 for the term of the policy, with respect
to property damage, except that in cases involving real and demonstrable danger of
appreciably greater risks, higher dollar amounts of coverage may be provided. These
larger amounts will depend on circumstances and will be written for the individual
project in accordance with standard underwriting practices.
4. Other Insurance
This policy is to be primary coverage, and not contributing as to other insurance.
5. Cancellation
Upon 30-days' notice to the contractor, railroad and public authority.
6. Termination
Upon acceptance of work by the public authority.
7. Details of Policies
This field may include, among other things, defense of suits against the railroad,
purchase of attachment or judgment bonds, expenses of the railroads, investigations and
settlements by the companies, time of notice, etc. These details should be worked out
between the railroad and the insurance companies and submitted to the American Asso-
ciation of State Highway Officials and the Bureau for final acceptance as part of a
standard form.
There remains to be settled the question of whether the railways shall place the
"Railroad Protective Insurance" or whether the several states shall place it through their
contractors. Your committee advances the following reasons why the insurance should
be placed by the insurance department of the railway concerned:
1. Minimizes delays in starting work.
2. Eliminates correspondence concerning requirements, as contractors and their
brokers do not understand railways' requirements or misinterpret the require-
ments.
3. The contractor's insurance company may not be acceptable to the railway.
4. Contractor's broker often does not have a readily available market.
5. Small contractors may be at a disadvantage in meeting competition because
he may be quoted higher premium rates than those quoted a larger contractor.
6. Contractor's insurance company may lack capacity.
7. Public Authority can save considerable money in cost of insurance through
favorable experience discounts enjoyed by railways.
8. As the insurance is in the name of the railway, the contractual relationship
between the parties (insurance company and railway) should be the result of
direct negotiations.
Contract Forms 443
The Commissioner of Public Roads has indicated that he is now aware of these
and other advantages in the placing of insurance by the railways and suggests that the
matter be taken up after the standard form of policy has been agreed on.
Your committee highly appreciates the help and cooperation of Messrs. McHugh,
Dawson and F. A. Plesser, the collaborators appointed by the Fire Protection and Insur-
ance Section of the AAR. It has been a pleasure to have them at our meetings and to
work with them.
Now that agreement on specifications for a standard railway protective insurance
policy has been reached, the study of "Insurance Provisions Recommended for Various
Forms of Agreements" has been completed. There remains reviewing the several forms
in the Manual and making revisions where necessary. As this is properly in the province
of Subcommittee 1, it is recommended that Assignment 5 be discontinued and Subcom-
mittee 5 discharged.
Report on Assignment 6
Form of Agreement for Construction and Maintenance
of Highway-Railway Grade Separation
Structures for Public Roads
J. L. Perrier (chairman, subcommittee), H. F. Brockett, R. F. Correll, G. L. Gatton,
J. F. Halpin, W. D. Kirkpatrick, W. L. Mogle, G. W. Patterson, E. E. Phipps, W. R.
Swatosh, J. W. Wallenius, H. L. Zouck.
This is a progress report, submitted as information.
Your committee has prepared a preliminary draft of an agreement on this subject,
which has been submitted to the members of the committee for further consideration.
There are great differences in the practices and policies among the states in matters per-
taining to grade separation structures, and it is the purpose of this assignment to prepare
a form of agreement that can be used as a guide in the preparation of agreements of this
nature in all states.
Report of Committee 14 — Yards and Terminals
F. A. Hess, Chairman,
A. S. Krefting,
Vice-Chairman,
H. L. Sciubner, Secretary,
M. H. Aldrich
J. D. Anderson
F. E. Austerman
R. F. Beck
A. E. Biermann
W. 0. BOESSNEf'K
W. S. Broome
W. P. Bucii.w w
J. C. Bussey
G. H. Chabot
R. S. Cheney
HP. Clapp
K. L. Clark
A. V. Dasburg
Oscar Fischer
H. C. Forman
S. W. George
W. H. Giles
H. M. Goodchild
W. H. Goold
H. J. Gordon
J. E. Griffith
G. F. Hand (E)
D. C. Hastings
Wm. J. Hedley
H. W. Hem
J. E. Hoving
M. A. James
V. C. Kennedy
B. Laubenfels
Glen Lichtenwalner
J. L. Loida
L. L. Lyford (E)
H. J. McNally
J. L. McQUARRIE
C. E. MerrIman
J. C. Miller
C. J. Morris
C. H. Mori ii i-
A. G. Neigiihih k
B. R. Nelson
B. G. Packard
C. F. Parvln
R. H. Peak, Jr.
Hubert Phypers
L. F. Pohl
C. L. Richard
G. L. Roberts
L. W. Robinson
R. E. Robinson
H. T. Roebuck
M. S. Rose
H. H. Russell
W. C. Sadler
L. R. Shellenbarger
F. R. Smith
R. A. Skooglun
R. F. Straw
A. L. Thurston
J. N. Todd
P. P. Wagner, Jr.
J. C. Warren
W. E. Webster, Jr.
C. F. Worden
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
(a) Review of Manual material on LCL freight facilities.
Progress report, including recommended revisions page 446
(b) Review of Manual material on width of driveways for freight houses,
team yards, and produce terminals.
Progress report, including recommended reapproval of material page 449
(c) Review of Manual material on locomotive terminals.
Progress report, including recommended revisions page 454
(See also reports on Assignments 3 and 7) .
2. Classification yards, collaborating with Committee 16.
Report on factors affecting humping capacity, presented as information . . . page 46.'
3. Scales used in railway service, collaborating with Electrical Section, AAR.
Progress report, including recommended revisions of Manual material re
lating to specifications for the manufacture and installation of two action,
knife-edge, railway track seal'- to cover short length scales for two-draft
motion weighing page 464
44S
446 Yards and Terminals
4. Facilities for cleaning and conditioning freight cars for commodity loading.
Final report, presented as information page 465
5. Influence of roller bearing cars on design of hump and flat yards.
No report.
6. Facilities for loading and unloading rail-truck freight equipment.
Report, presented as information page 4 75
7. Design data for classification yard gradients.
Report, including recommendation for adoption and publication in the
Manual page 476
The Committee on Yards and Terminals,
F. A. Hess, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 539, November 1957.
Report on Assignment 1 (a)
Review of Manual Material on LCL Freight Facilities
H. J. McNally (chairman, subcommittee), F. E. Austerman, G. H. Chabot, F. A. Hess,
A. S. Krefting, B. Laubentels, C. E. Merriman, C. H. Mottier, C. F. Parvin, R. H.
Peak, J. C.Warren.
Pages 14-3-1 to 14-3-16, incl.
FREIGHT TERMINALS
Your committee recommends the deletion of Sec. E. LCL Freight Facilities, pages
14-3-9 to 14-3-11, incl., and the substitution therefor of the following new Sec. E.
E. LCL FREIGHT FACILITIES
1. Freight Houses — General
(a) Where there is a choice of sites, the following factors should be considered in
the selection: (1) highway accessibility, (2) nearness to city pick-up, (3) space for future
expansion, (4) proximity to existing switching service, (S) space for a new yard or
proximity to existing supporting yard, (6) the possible inclusion of rail-truck freight
facilities, and (7) economies of location near terminal yards even though remote from
city.
(b) The ultimate size of the freight house should be determined in advance from
consideration of the type and average amount of traffic to be handled through it in the
first instance, the variation of the peak from average requirements and the probable
growth of requirements during the period in which the cost of the structure can be
amortized. The initial size should be determined by the immediate needs.
(c) One factor in obtaining minimum operating costs will result when house tracks
are placed between inbound and outbound freight houses or platforms with trucking
connections. This factor applies to all large facilities. These connections can be in the
form of tunnels, grade crossings, trucking bridges, or by extending -the trucking platform
around the stub ends of tracks.
Yards and Terminals 447
(d) The factors of design for a freight house, such as car capacity, tailboard frontage,
floor area, width of house, platforms, conveyors, bridges, ramps and roadways; and in
the case of a two-level house, the capacity of elevators if used, should be so correlated
that no one factor will limit the capacity of the house.
(e) The design and layout of the facilities should be such as to require the minimum
amount of labor to handle freight, and where economically feasible, mechanization should
be exploited to the maximum.
(f) The economies of protecting the facility and operation from adverse weather
should be considered.
2. General Dimensions
(a) The size and shape of the house should take into consideration the following:
(1) the number of house tracks, (2) the number of cars to be set, (3) total tailboard
length, (4) platform space required, (S) location of roof columns, (6) type of operation
to be accommodated, such as transfer of freight between car and car, between car and
truck, forwarder, shipping association, etc., and (7) the type of mechanical freight-
handling equipment to be used, if any.
(b) Platform widths should be arrived at by allowing from 6 to 8 ft for each con-
veyor or motorized travel lane, with sufficient standing space outside of travel lanes for
parking freight trucks. Standing space 10 to IS ft wide adjacent to car side and that
much or more at tailboard side is desirable. Larger standing areas may be required,
depending on the amount of freight and length of time it is to be held on floor.
(c) Space should be provided for offices, toilets, locker and lunch room, warm and
cool rooms, cooperage shop, storage for blocking and bulkhead material, and maintenance
shop for platform equipment.
3. House Tracks
(a) The capacity of inbound tracks should be such that no more than one change
in the inbound setting of cars need be made during a shift of freight-house operations,
and this change may be made during the lunch hour.
(b) The capacity of the outbound tracks should be such that the outbound setting
of cars may be left undisturbed during the shift of freight-house operations.
(c) There are operating advantages in having a platform adjacent to each track;
however, overall economies usually dictate trucking through one or more cars.
(d) Spotting cars to permit trucking through them requires approximately 1% min
uf switch engine time per car to spot and recoupk.
(e) State regulations and type of cars to be set will usually dictate track centers,
side clearance, and platform heights. When refrigerator cars are to be used, tracks prefer-
ably should be depressed and platform set 8 ft from center line of track.
4. Mechanized Freight-Handling Facilities
(a) Mechanical equipment in a freight house will usually include one or a combina-
tion of the following': (1) mechanical trucks, (2) tractors towing platform trucks, (3) fork
lifts and (4) towing conveyors.
(b) Minimum lengths of haul are approximated in a freight-house layout having
a width roughly equal to its length. This is an important factor where hand trucking la
to be employed. It is much less important with tractor towing operation, ;tn<l least
important with towing conveyors
44& Yards and Terminals
(c) When volume justifies their u=e, conveyor chains, either overhead or encased in
floor, towing four-wheel platform trucks can normally handle 90 to 95 percent of the
freight-house tonnage.
(d) Towing conveyors are continuous and tow both loaded and empty trucks usually
spaced 12 to 18 ft apart. Travel speeds up to 175 ft per min are in use. The conveyor
may cross the freight house tracks by means of a trucking bridge or by ramping down
to a grade crossing or tunnel with ramp gradients of preferably not more than 6 percent.
With floor-type conveyors it is possible to construct grade crossings so that the chain
will not have to be disconnected to allow railroad cars to cross.
(e) Stop switches should be placed along conveyor routes at about every other car
to control the movement of the chain and to be available in case of emergency.
(f) The capacity of a conveyor line is the product of the number of loaded trucks
going by a given point per hour and the net load per truck. The net load used for the
design of a particular house should be determined by test where possible.
(g) Up to the present time, freight elevators have been the principal means for
vertical transportation of freight ; however, with proper ramps, either tractor-trailer or
towing conveyor operations are possible and eliminate the need for elevators in multiple-
level facilities.
5. Appurtenant Facilities
In the design and construction of a freight house, the following must be considered:
(I) paging and intercommunication systems, (2) centralized checking, (3) pneumatic
tube systems, (4) dock offices, (5) auxiliary toilet facilities to aid the efficiency of opera-
tion, (6) platform scales, (7) drinking fountains, (8) fire protection, (9) facilities for
fueling, storing and maintaining equipment, (10) overhead crane for handling heavy loads,
(II) facilities for transfer of tank car contents, (12) highway truck scales if trucking
operation is involved, and (13) freight house canopies.
6. Two-Level Freight House
(a) Conditions under which a two-level freight house are required are exceptional
rather than ordinary. Under certain topographical or other physical conditions, such as
separate track and highway levels, the two-level house may provide the only economical
solution, eliminating teamways, ramps, and avoiding interference between teaming and
switching movements.
(b) A two-level freight house occupies less land area per ton of capacity than a one-
level freight house, but the cost of construction may be greater, and the building cannot
be altered as readily to meet changing conditions.
(c) Trucking costs in a properly designed two-level freight house are less than in a
one-level freight house of the same capacity, but this is somewhat offset by the cost of
elevating freight. Although mechanical handling by towing conveyors has not been applied
to two-level freight houses, that method should be considered in planning new or in
modernizing existing houses.
(d) Stowing costs may be less in a two-level outbound freight house than in a one-
level outbound freight house if the loading platform is located in the middle of the
outbound setting of cars.
(e) A combination inbound and outbound freight house of the two-level type is
more economical to operate than separate inbound and outbound freight houses of this
type.
Yards and Terminals 449
(f) A multiple-level inbound freight house may prove an economical method of
securing additional storage space for freight.
7. Freight Transfer Stations
(a) A freight transfer station should be provided where it is desired to consolidate
LCL freight from a greater into a lesser number of cars, or vice versa, or where it is
desired to transfer package freight from foreign line cars into home line cars for forwarding
to destination.
(b) The width of transfer platform should be sufficient to accommodate: (1) the
parking of trucking equipment at tracks sides, and (2) lanes for movement of the type of
equipment used in moving freight from car to car.
8. Warehouses
(a) Each warehouse constitutes a problem for special analysis and study. The quan-
tity and character of commodity to be handled, the rate of turnover, and other variables
affect the problem (see Proceedings, Vol. 23, 1922, pages 67-76). Under average conditions,
the following relations should exist between factors of design in warehouses:
1. One elevator should be provided for each 40,000 sq ft of warehouse space
served.
2. The shipping platform area should be 4 percent of warehouse storage floor area.
3. There should be one car length of house track for each 17,600 sq ft of warehouse
storage area.
4. There should be 1 ft of tailboard frontage for every 1100 sq ft of warehouse
storage area.
5. There should be 16 ft of tailboard frontage for each car length of house track.
Report on Assignment 1 (b)
Review of Manual Material on Width of Driveways for Freight
Houses, Team Yards, and Produce Terminals
R. E. Robinson (chairman, subcommittee), F. E. Austerman, F. A. Hess, C. H. Mottier,
C. F. Worden.
This is a final report, presented as information, including recommendations with
respect to the Manual submitted for adoption.
Your committee, in the light of an evident trend to increase the lengths of trucks
now being operated in team-track and freight house service, compiled the following data
on widths of driveways now in use and the size of vehicles using them, for the purpose
of updating present Manual material on driveways in Part 3 — Freight Terminals, pages
14-3-1 to 14-3-16, inch, to such extent as might be found desirable.
To develop this assignment a questionnaire was prepared identical in form to that
used as a basis for the last previous report on this subject, published on pages 239 to
254, inch, of Vol. 39 of the Proceedings. This questionnaire, entitled "Driveway Traffic
Survey", was circulated to members of Committee 14, representing 31 railroads, Is a
result, information was obtained on the widths of 47 existing freight house driveways and
18 team-yard driveways, located in 21 cities distributed geographically. The committee
also has data on the lengths of 2069 vehicles using these facilities, together with facts
regarding the nature of business handled and the characteristics of vehicular traffic.
450
Yards and Terminals
Table 1 — Widths of Existing Freight and Team-Track Driveways
City
House Driveways with
Tailboard on Both Sides
House Driveways with
Tailboard on One Side Only
Team-Track
Driveways
Numbt r
\l< asured
Average
Width Feet
Number
Measured
A veraye
Width Feet
X umber
Measured
Average
Width Feet.
3
1
1
8
54.6*
21.0
45.0
67.8
2
99.5
2
1
1
1
2
17.(1
45.0*
1
3
3
2
3
50.0
70.0
78.2
61.0
92.0
50.0
45.0
1
.55.5*
58.8
Elizabeth, N. J.
5
41.0
4
.57.0
1
60.0*
80.0
42.0
54.0
80.0
35.0
33.0
63.6
70.0
78.0
1
43.0
New York, N. Y.
4
1
32.0*
1
120.0
50.0
Trenton, N. J.
♦Considered inadequate by respondent.
Table 1 is a summary of driveway widths obtained through the survey. Reported
widths are considered to be clear widths, where driveways are adjacent to tracks, allow-
ing 5 ft from center of adjacent track to clearance. Driveway widths now considered to
be inadequate are so noted in the tabulation.
Legal Restrictions of Vehicle Lengths
Table 2 sets forth the maximum allowable lengths of vehicles permitted on state high-
ways as of July 23, 1957. A comparison of these prevailing restrictions with those in
effect in prior years will reflect a tendency on the part of administrative authorities to
relax such controls in favor of the longer trucks.
While the adjustment is more evident in the limits imposed on tractor-semi-trailer
units, some consideration has been shown for the longer single-unit truck. The average
allowable lengths 20 years ago were 35.3 ft over all for the single-unit vehicle and 46.7 ft
over all for the tractor-semi-trailer unit. Today these are, respectively, 37.4 ft and 51.5 ft.
Legal restrictions do not form a satisfactory basis for the determination of driveway
widths, as it was found that only 11.55 percent of all vehicles measured in the recent
survey were more than 35.5 ft in length. None of the single-unit vehicles measured were
longer than 31.5 ft over all.
Lengths of Vehicles
Of the 2069 vehicles measured in the driveway traffic survey, 679, or 32.8 percent,
were of the single-unit type; 1116, or 53.9 percent, were trailers or semi-trailers which
are detached from tractors during the period of loading or unloading; and 274, or 13.3
percent, were combination vehicles, consisting of tractor and semi-trailer or some other
truck-trailer combination. Table 3 shows the range of lengths of these vehicles; one
column includes all vehicles measured, the other includes only single-unit vehicles. Table 4
shows the accumulated percentage of vehicles of various lengths.
Yard? and Term inals
451
Table 2— Maximum Lengths of Vehicles Allowed by State Regulations
as of July 23, 1957
Stati
Alabama -
Arizona.^-
Arkansas.'
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
< ieorgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas -
Kentucky
Lo isiana.
Maine
Marj land
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Mcmt ina. -
Nebraska..
Nevada ■
\cw Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
( Oklahoma
m
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Smith Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
\\ est Virginia.
\\ isci main
Wyoming
Maximum /.< ngth
Si i,, ih Unit
\'i hide
Recommendations '>f American Association of
Highway < Officials
35
40
35
35
35
15
35
35
Id
39.5
35
42
3(1
35
35
35
35
50
55
35
35
40
35
35
35
35
No Restriction
35
35
40
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
4(1
35
35
35
35
45
50
35
35
35
35
to
Maximum /.. ngth
Tractor-Si mi-
Trmli i
50
65
50
60
60
45
50
50
50
48
60
50
50
45
50
48
50
50
55
45
55
50
15
50
60
50
Xo Restriction
45
45
65
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
45
50
60
50
50
60
50
50
60
Maximum Length
Other
Combinations
Not Permitted
05
50
60
60
Not Permitted
60
50
50
48
65
50
50
Not Permitted
50
Not Permitted
50
50
55
Not Permitted
55
50
45
50
60
50
No Restriction
45
50
65
50
50
50
60
50
50
50
50
50
50
45
50
60
50
60
60
50
50
i in
452
Yards and Terminals
Table 3— Range of Lengths of Vehicles Using Freight House
and Team -Track Driveways
Overall Length in Feet
/'( m ni 0)
All Vehicle:
1/. asurtd
P< / a ni "i
Singh ' mi
Vehicles Only
Less than 14.6
15.6 and 16.5 ^. .
16.6 and 17..".
0.05
0.63
0.03
0.92
3.04
1.16
7.39
5.27
6.23
7.78
0 . 63
8.40
3.09
4.54
1.98
3.58
3.07
5.37
4.83
0.07
1.45
5.08
1 1 . 55
0.15
1.91
1.77
2 . 35
17.6 and 18.5
18.6 and 19.5
20.6and21.5
21.0 and 2". 5 .
22.6 and 23.5 ..
6.63
2.06
0.78
7.07
10.00
1 1.29
12 52
10.40
25.6 and 26.5 -
26.6and27.5 :
0.78
9.72
1.91
2.05
1.91
0.44
28.0and29.5
" 29.6 and 30.5
30.6 and 31.5
31.0 and 32.5
32.0 and 33.5
33.0 and 34. 5 . __
34.0 and 35. 5
More than 35.5. - -
100.00
100.00
Table 4 — Accumulated Percentage of Vehicles of Various Lengths
Percent of
Percent of
Overall Length in /•'< < /
All Vehicles
Single Unit
Measured
Vehicles Only
Less than 14.6 - - - - - -.__- —
0.05
0.15
Between 14.6 and 15.5 ..
0.68
2.00
"
15.0 and 10.5 __.
1.31
3.83
"
10.6 and 17.5
2 23
6.18
"
17.6 and 18.5
5.27
12.81
"
18.0 and 19.5
6.43
14.87
"
19.0 and 20.5
13.82
21.65
•i
20.0 and 21 .5 - - - -
19.09
25.32
28.72
«
21.0 and 22.5
39.32
"
22 . 6 and 23.5 . _ _
33.10
39.73
53.01
"
23.0 and "4.5
00.13
"
24.6 and 25.5
48.19
76.59
•'
25.6and26.5 ..--
51.28
83.37
"
26.6 and 27.5 .
55 . 82
'13.09
"
27.0 and 28.5
57.80
95.00
"
28.0 and 29.5
61.38
97.05
"
29.6 and 30.5
65.05
99.56
"
30.6 and 31.5
70.42
100.00
"
31.6 and 32.5
32.0 and 33.5
75.25
81.92
«
••
33.0 and 34.5
34 .6 and 35.5
83.37
88.45
100.00
ii
More
Yards and Terminals
453
Table 5 — Range of Lengths of Vehicles Measured at Facilities l\ VYiih b Fivi
Percent or More of Vehicles Move "Over the Road" OUTSID]
the Immediate Metropolitan Area
Accumulati d
/', ret nl Of
Pera
On mil 1., ngth in Feet
Vehii
Vehv
Measured
Measured
D.77
0.77
1.03
2.70
0.77
1.51
16.6 and 17.5.-.
1 . .".7
17.6 and 18.5
5 . 27
"
1S.0 and 19.5
1.03
6.30
"
19 6 and 20.5
3.11
L38
9.71
«
20.6 and 21 .5
1 1.09
••
21.6 and 22.5
- 6.56
20.65
«
22. ti and 23.5
6.69
7.47
27 . 3 1
"
23.6 and 24.5 .
3 1. SI
"
24. ti and 25.5
9.11
43 . 95
"
25. ti and "ti.:.
3.03
Iti.'.IK
"
Mid 27.5
1.63
51 .til
"
27.0 and 28.5
1 . 29
52.90
"
28. ti and 29.5
4.12
57.02
"
29. ti and 30.5
3.41
60.43
"
30.6 and 3l.5__.
6.56
66.99
"
31.6 and 32.5
5 . 53
7.72
72.52
"
32.6 and 33.5
80.24
"
33. fi and 34.5
1.61
81 . 85
"
34.6 and 35.5
5.92
87.77
Mon
1 2 . 23
100.00
100.00
Trucks using freight house driveways are divided into two -roups or classes. One
class is comprised of those vehicles which operate only within the local metropolitan area
in the pickup and delivery of freight; the second class includes trucks engaged in long-
haul movements over highways outside of the immediate metropolitan area. Trucks in
the first class are necessarily restricted in length, usually by local regulations, because they
are operated exclusively over streets and through alleyways. Table 5 shows the range of
lengths of vehicles measured at freight facilities where 5 percent or more of the vehicles
move over-the-road, outside of the metropolitan area.
The average length of the 679 single-unit vehicles measured was found to be 23.1 ft:
yet 531, or 78.2 percent, of the total in this category were operating in over-the-road
service. The grand average length of all vehicles included in this survey was found to be
only 27.1 ft, with 1554, or 75.1 percent, engaged in transport outside of metropolitan areas.
Freight House Driveways
The committee's 1938 report was the basis from which the present Manual material
on driveways, appearing on pages 14-3-12 and 14-3-14, was last revised. On page 14-3-12.
Par. (d) of Art. 2- — Freight House and Team-Yard Driveways, reads as follow-:
"For general use at locations where vehicles operate only within the immediate
metropolitan area, the size of the vehicle recommended for determining driveway widths
is 8 ft by 28 ft. At locations where 'over-the-road' traffic is to be accommodated or where
extreme congestion may occur, the size of the vehicle recommended is 8 ft by 35 ft. Ten
feet is the proper width for a thoroughfare lane. If the 35-ft length is selected for design
purposes and only a limited number of long trucks is anticipated, one thoroughfare lane
may be provided even thoueh traffic is not limited to 'one way' operation"
454 Yards and Terminals
Information obtained in the current survey, as set forth in Table 1, shows that for
existing house driveways with tailboard on both sides, the average width is 86.9 ft. The
average of those widths deemed adequate for right-angle parking is 106.0 ft. For house
driveways with tailboard on one side only, the average width is 63.9 ft, and all accom-
modated right-angle parking.
Today, more than 38 percent of all vehicles measured exceeded 28 ft in length as
compared with 10 percent exceeding that length in 1936. The percentage of single-unit
vehicles longer than 28 ft was found to be 3.5 in 1936, and that figure still obtains today.
As stated previously, only 11.55 percent of all vehicles measured were greater than 35.5 ft.
Maximum widths of vehicles continue to be restricted, with few exceptions, to 8 ft
by state regulations; hence a lane width of 10 ft for moving vehicles is considered satis-
factory. Lane widths of 12 or 13 ft have been adopted as standard for some state highways
expected to handle high-speed traffic.
Team- Yard Driveways
Team-track driveways generally have light vehicular traffic. Very few of the drive-
ways checked in the traffic survey handled any appreciable density of traffic even during
the peak traffic period.
Present Manual material on page 14-3-12, Par. (c), of Art. 2 — Freight House and
Team- Yard Driveways, reads as follows:
"Team-track driveways normally should be of sufficient width to allow the longest
single-unit truck using the driveway to stand at right angles to the car, with sufficient
space remaining in front of the truck to allow another truck of maximum width to
pass"
The mean of individual city averages of existing team-yard driveways recently
measured is 43.2 ft. All of the facilities considered in the current survey permitted trucks
using the driveway to stand at right angles to cars spotted on the team-track.
Conclusion
Recognizing that the economics of a particular situation do not often justify pro-
viding driveways that would accommodate the longest possible trucks using them, your
committee considers the basic information contained in the Manual today as still pertinent.
Your committee therefore recommends reapproval of the following Manual material
without change:
Page 14-3-12, Par. (f), Art. 1, Sec. F.
Page 14-3-12, Par. (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) and (f), Art. 2, Sec. F.
Page 14-3-14, Par. (a), (b) and (c), Art. 5, Sec. G.
Report on Assignment 1 (c)
Review of Manual Material on Locomotive Terminals
D. C. Hastings (chairman, subcommittee), F, E. Austerman, A. E. Biermann, G. H.
Chabot, W. H. Giles, Wm. J. Hedley, F. A. Hess, J. E. Hoving, A. S. Krefting,
G. Lichtenwainer, J. L. Loida, L. L. Lyford, J. L. McQuarrie, J. C. Miller, H. L.
Scribner.
Your committee submits the following material with the recommendation that it be
adopted and published in the Manual in lieu of the existing material found in Part 4
of Chapter 14, pages 14-4-1 to 14-4-13, incl.
Yards and Terminals 455
LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS
A. GENERAL
1. Location and Arrangement
In the establishment or modification of any large railway terminal it is necessary to
determine whether separate locomotive terminals should be provided for freight and
passenger equipment, or whether both types should be handled in a single facility. Con-
venience, expedition, low unit operating costs and carrying charges involved in these
alternatives must be given proper consideration. Usually a single facility is more efficient
and produces lower unit operating costs. In the case where only one company is involved
which has a locomotive terminal that can be readily enlarged to meet all requirements,
economy will favor the retention of such terminal in service unless it is prohibitively
remote from either the passenger station or the center of freight activities.
2. Joint Terminal
Where the railway terminal is joint with two or more railways for either passenger
or freight service, or both, there are additional factors to be considered:
(a) Where only the passenger terminal is joint it is advisable to have it include a
joint locomotive terminal handling passenger equipment exclusively, together with shops
equipped to make all required running repairs, but there is no arbitrary rule to be applied.
All costs involved must have exhaustive analyses and be weighed against the manifestly
superior expedition, simplicity of operation and avoidance of conflicting movements of
power to and from the station.
(b) In the case of a joint freight terminal it may be advisable, as in joint passenger
terminals, to substitute a new joint freight locomotive terminal for several layouts unless
existing separate facilities are merely coordinated and delegated to joint management
where it will be advisable to rely upon the existing facilities.
3. New Terminal
A new locomotive terminal should be located to minimize (a) usage of tracks on
which there are other movements, (b) reverse or conflicting movements, (c) light engine
mileage in the movement of locomotives to and from their trains. In designing a locomo-
tive terminal layout a thorough study of the traffic and operating requirements of the
terminal should be made jointly by the engineering, transportation and mechanical depart-
ments. This study should include consideration of the following data, keeping future
expansion in mind:
Type and size of locomotives to be handled.
Number of locomotives handled in each direction daily, by classes.
Schedule of arrival and departure of locomotives, by classes.
Number of locomotives arriving during peak period.
Time within which locomotives arriving must be hostled, by classes.
Maximum number of locomotives in terminal at one time.
Number of locomotives repaired daily, by classes of work.
Number of locomotives under repair at one time, bj classes of work.
Amount of fuel (coal, diesel or fuel oil) issued daily.
Amount of water consumed daily.
Amount of sand consumed daily.
Number of men required to operate tin terminal.
456 Yards and Terminals
The locomotive terminal must be correlated to all other facilities for efficient handling
of each locomotive. Servicing facilities required for the various types of locomotives should
be arranged in an efficient sequence.
4. Site
The selection of a proper site requires a study of all factors affecting costs of con-
struction and operation, including tax rates; cost of preparing site; foundation condi-
tions and drainage; sewage disposal, water supply and electricity; relation to existing or
proposed yards and to passenger and freight stations; labor supply, including housing
facilities and transportation; and availability of public fire fighting apparatus and stations.
5. Track Layout
(a) All locomotives should preferably enter the locomotive terminal from the same
end; a separate exit should be provided for flexibility in movement to insure that the
terminal will not be tied up in case of trouble at the entrance.
(b) Entrance tracks should be so located and of such capacity as to permit the
prompt receipt of locomotives immediately on arrival, with space between those which
may have to wait their turn for servicing. Where climatic conditions permit outside
storage sufficient tracks 'should be provided near the exit for holding locomotives already
prepared for service.
(c) The layout should provide at least one runaround track for flexibility.
B. DIESEL AND DIESEL ELECTRIC TERMINAL FACILITIES
1. Shop Building
(a) The size of the building is determined by the length of units and the number
to be housed simultaneously. A rectangular structure is ideal to serve the requirements.
When diesel locomotives are pooled, as is the case on most heavily dieselized roads, the
back shop work will be done at one or more system shops, and the building for such work
will generally be much larger and have more facilities than the building for running
repairs at terminals located between such system shops. The structure, however, should
be so designed as to provide facilities for either running repairs or heavy repairs as out-
lined above, and should include a machine shop, store room, parts cleaning and parts-
conditioning room, wheel supply and storage, lunch and locker room, wash rooms, tool
rooms, toilets and office.
(b) Materials used in construction should be fire retardant.
(c) The number and length of tracks should be sufficient to accommodate all of
the locomotives to be housed at any one time. Stub-end heavy repair tracks may have
certain economic advantages, and if such a layout is used there should be at least one
through running repair track along side of the heavy repair tracks. The desirable distance
between track centers should not be less than 23 ft, which allows for a 12-ft wide working
platform.
(d) The pits should be of adequate length to accommodate the longest assembly
of locomotive units.
(e) Wheel storage facilities adjacent to repair shops should be provided to assure a
convenient supply of wheels, including wheels with their traction motors attached.
(f) The lubricating oil facilities may be handled in the repair shop proper or in a
separate structure. Fire-retardant construction 'should be employed. Meters should be
provided to measure accurately the lubricating oil delivered to the units. Facilities may
Yards and Terminals 457
be provided for reclaiming worn and dirty lubricating oil. The tanks for new lubricating
oil should be of sufficient sire to handle oil in carload lots. Tanks will be required for
new oil, worn and dirty oil and reclaimed oil.
(g) When pooled diesel locomotives receive schedule maintenance there will be no
need for them to enter the shop building for days at a time. If such conditions exist at
the terminal a track with an inspection pit adjacent to the shop building will in most
instances reduce the number of tracks in the shop building by at least one. Such a pit
should be long enough to accommodate several sets of diesel units and should be near
enough to the shop building for the shop supervisor to direct the activities of the employees
on this pit. Fueling and sanding facilities could be located along this track. With such an
arrangement it will mean that a locomotive may be placed on the pit track by the road
crew, at which point it will be spotted for the necessary fueling, sanding and other serv-
icing and can remain there until ordered for departure, at which time the road crew may
move the locomotive out of the engine terminal. This will result in real economy, since
hostling required within the shop building area will be eliminated.
2. Turning Facilities
Unless the locomotives to be handled are exclusively of the type with operating con-
trols at both ends, some form of turning facility such as a turntable, a balloon or loop
track, or a wye track must be provided.
3. Fuel Oil Stations
Fuel oil stations should be located to serve as many locomotives as possible on their
regular routes, either in the locomotive terminal or on the main tracks. Meters are
necessary to keep an accurate inventory of the oil received, disbursed and on hand.
4. Watering Facilities
Watering facilities should be provided to serve all locomotives entering and leaving
the terminal.
5. Inspection Pits
Inspection pits are usually located on the inbound track near the entrance to the
terminal, except such a pit as described in Sec. B, Art. 1, Para. g. These pits should have
(a) Suitable depth for inspection of the locomotives.
(b) Length not less than the longest locomotive to be inspected.
(c) Adequate drainage.
(d) Stairway for convenient access and/or tunnel direct to the inspectors' office.
(e) Fixtures for lighting and service outlets.
(f) Telephone supplemented by a pneumatic tube system for communication with
the shop supervisor's office.
6. Facilities for Locomotives in Turn-Around Service
At the ends of locomotive runs where the operation requires quick turnaround service,
facilities should be provided for standing locomotives, sanding, fueling and watering with
or without inspection pits.
7. Locomotive Washing Facilities
For diesel and diesel-elcctric locomotives, washing facilities on the shop lead track
will be found desirable. Brushes and spray pipes can be so arranged tli.it the operation i^
automatic when the locomotive shunts a track circuit at the entrance t" the washer
458 Yards and Terminals
Some hand washing of the locomotive may be necessary. A washing platform with or
without a pit to facilitate cleaning the underside of a locomotive may be found desirable.
8. Sanding Facilities
Sanding facilities should be provided to serve all locomotives entering and leaving
the terminal. Usually these facilities are 'situated adjacent to the fuel and water facilities
so that locomotives can be completely serviced at one location.
9. Portable Facilities
Portable servicing units consisting of a truck equipped with sand and fueling facilities
may be desirable for servicing diesel switch engines at a large terminal.
10. Blow-Down Facilities
Standard stone ballast grouted with cement or a concrete slab 'should be provided
on the outbound track for locomotives used in passenger service on which there are steam
generating units for train heating.
C. ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE TERMINAL FACILITIES
1. Shop Building
The size of the building is determined by the length of the locomotives and the
number to be housed simultaneously. A rectangular structure is ideal to serve the require-
ments. It should be so designed as to provide facilities for running repairs, heavy repairs,
machine shop store room, wheel supply and storage, lunch and locker room, wash rooms,
toilets and office. In most cases all heavy repair work on electric locomotives is done at
one centrally located system shop. The shop building at such a terminal will be much
larger and will be provided with facilities for handling heavy repair work on electric
locomotives. At terminals other than such a system shop, the bui'ding for handling electric
power will be small and will be provided only with such facilities as may be required
for running repairs. In many instances no shop building is necessary since electric locomo-
tives may be serviced on a pit track provided with the necessary watering, sanding and
fueling facilities. The number and length of tracks in the shop building should be sufficient
to accommodate all the locomotives to be housed at any one time. All running repair
tracks preferably should be through tracks, while tracks for heavy repairs may be stub
end. The electric trolley and other wires should be terminated outside of the shop building.
2. Turning Facilities
Since electric locomotives usually have operating controls at both ends, no turning
facility will be required.
3. Fuel Oil Stations
Fuel oil stations 'should be provided in order to furnish fuel oil for the electric loco-
motives that are equipped with steam generating units. These stations should be located
on the servicing track or on the inspection pit track so that the locomotive may be
serviced with fuel oil at the same time it is being inspected. To keep an accurate inventory
of the oil received, disbursed and on hand, meters should be provided.
4. Watering Facilities
Sufficient watering facilities should be provided to furnish water for the electric
locomotives that are equipped with steam generating units while on the pit track under-
going inspection.
Yards and Terminals 459
5. Inspection Pits
Inspection pits should be located on the inbound locomotive track. These pits should
have
(a) Suitable depth for inspection of the locomotives.
(b) Length not less than the longest locomotive to be inspected.
(c) Adequate drainage.
(d) Convenient accesses.
(e) Fixtures for lighting and service outlet's.
(f) Direct communication with the shop building office.
6. Facilities for Locomotives in Turn-Around Service
At the ends of electric locomotive runs where the operation requires quick turn-
around service, facilities should be provided for standing locomotives, for sanding, water-
ing, and for filling tanks with fuel oil where locomotives are equipped with steam gen-
erating units. Inspection pits may or may not be provided at such locations.
7. Locomotive Washing Facilities
Wa'shing facilities should be placed on the lead track when possible. Brushes and
spray pipes may be so arranged that the operation is automatic when the locomotive
shunts a track circuit at the entrance to the washer. Some hand washing of a locomotive
may be necessary. A washing platform with or without a wash pit to facilitate cleaning
the underside of a locomotive may be found desirable.
8. Sanding Facilities
Sanding facilities should be provided to serve all locomotives entering the terminal.
Usually these facilities are provided adjacent to the fuel and watering facilities so that
the electric locomotives can be completely serviced at one location.
9. Blow-Down Facilities
Standard stone ballast grouted with cement or a concrete slab should be provided
on the outbound track for locomotives used in passenger service on which there are steam
generating units for train heating.
D. STEAM LOCOMOTIVE TERMINAL FACILITIES
1. Enginehouse
The circular form of enginehouse is preferable under ordinary conditions for steam
locomotives. The 'structure should provide facilities for running repairs, heavy repairs,
machine shop, store room, wheel supply and storage, lunch and locker rooms, wash rooms,
tool rooms, toilets and office. The length of stall along center line of tracks should be at
least 20 ft greater than the over-all length of the locomotive and tender so as to provide
a trucking space 10 ft wide in front of the pilot and space in which to detach the tender
and provide a walkway between it and the engine without opening the door. The stall
angle of a circular enginehouse should be such that when extended beyond a half-circle
the pit tracks will line up across the turntable. Radial stub-end tracks on the side of the
turntable opposite the enginehouse and in line with pit tracks are sometimes desirable.
Crossovers should be so arranged that yard locomotives or others which do not
require turning may be serviced without crossing the turntable.
All approach and departure tracks to and from the turntable should line across the
460 Yards and Terminals
table with enginehouse tracks to permit convenient movement of dead locomotives or
carloads of supplies into or out of the enginehouse.
Sufficient tangent should be provided on all turntable approach tracks to permit all
engine trucks to be on straight track before passing onto turntable.
2. Turning Facilities
Other forms of turning facilities such a's a balloon or loop track, or a wye track, may
be provided.
3. Fueling Stations
(a) Coaling Stations
Coaling stations should be located to serve as many locomotives as possible on their
regular routes. There are two general locations for coaling stations, those at enginehouse
leads at terminals and those adjacent to main tracks between terminals. At terminals,
coaling stations should be located to serve both inbound and outbound tracks as recom-
mended for the engine terminal layout. Coal stations may be arranged readily to deliver
coal on one or more tracks. Each location should be studied separately on the most
suitable track arrangement for that particular installation selected.
(b) Fuel Oil Stations
At locations where oil is used as a fuel for steam locomotives, facilities must be pro-
vided for unloading, storing and delivering such oil. In cases where the fuel oil used is a
heavy type, facilities must be provided for heating such oil while being unloaded as well
as in storage so that pumping may be completed in a minimum length of time.
4. Watering Facilities
Sufficient watering facilities should be provided to serve all locomotives entering and
leaving the terminal.
5. Inspection Pits
Inspection pits should be provided on the inbound track or tracks near the entrance
to the terminal. The pits should have
(a) Suitable depth for inspection of the locomotives.
(b) Length not less than the longest locomotive to be inspected.
(c) Adequate drainage.
(d) Convenient accesses.
(e) Electrical fixtures and service outlets.
(f) Communications facilities with the enginehouse office.
6. Locomotive Washing Facilities
Facilities should be provided for washing locomotives between the cinder pit and
the turntable. Either a washing platform or pit should be constructed with adequate
drainage and illumination.
7. Sanding Facilities
Sanding facilities should be provided to serve all locomotives entering and leaving
the terminal. These facilities should be adjacent to the coaling or fueling station.
8. Cinder-Handling Facilities
Locomotive cinders must be disposed of, and facilities will have to be provided for
handling cinders. There are several types of cinder-handling facilities, including:
Yards and Terminals 46 1
(a) Cinders discharged directly on the track and removed bj shoveling.
(b) Shallow shoveling pits.
(c) Water pits, where cinders are discharged into pits containing water, from which
they are removed and loaded into cars by either a locomotive or overhead
crane.
(d) Mechanical plant where cinders are discharged into hopper's and thence into
buckets or continuous conveyors into cars.
The track arrangement in the cinder-handling facility must be studied to provide
sufficient standing capacity to accommodate all locomotives which cannot be immediately
serviced, and crossovers and other connections so that locomotives requiring preferred
attention may be dispatched ahead of others with a minimum of interference.
9. Blow-Off Facilities
If the number of engine's serviced justifies the installation of a separate blow-off pit,
it should be furnished. These blow-off pits may be located between the engine washing
facilities and the turntable, or on the outbound engine lead. The blow-off pit should be
of a permanent type of construction and should be provided with sufficient drainage. The
pit should be large enough to prevent overflowing when in use.
E. MISCELLANEOUS FACILITIES
1. Office
Adequate office facilities should be provided for the officer in charge of the terminal
and his staff.
2. Service Buildings
One or more structures of fire-retardant construction should be provided at a con-
venient location to house the following:
(a) Locker, toilet and washrooms for employees.
(b) Storehouse for flagging equipment, supplies, oil, lanterns, etc.
3. Communications Facilities
Adequate telephone and, if necessary, pneumatic-tube communications facilities should
be provided.
4. Lighting
The entire locomotive terminal area should be provided with adequate lighting.
5. Fire Protection
a Fire hydrants with hose houses and equipment should be located at various points
within the terminal so as to permit the use of at least two streams of water on any
structure.
(b) Water mains and hydrants should be located with due regard to future expansion
in the terminal.
(c) Water mains should be built in loops, it practicable.
(d) The terminal should be equipped with chemical extingushers conveniently placed
in afford protection, dspeciallj against oil and electric fires.
(ei Kite- roads should be provided tor access to all buildings b) lire righting equipment.
462 Yards and Terminals
6. General
Complete information on the design of shop buildings and other buildings required
in an engine terminal, together with pits and other appurtenances, will be found in Chap-
ter 6 — Buildings.
Report on Assignment 2
Classification Yards
Collaborating with Committee 16
R. F. Beck (chairman, subcommittee), M. H. Aldrich, J. D. Anderson, A. E. Biermann,
W. O. Boessneck, W. S. Broome, J. C. Bussey, H. P. Clapp, K. L. Clark, A. V. Das-
burg, H. C. Forman, W. H. Giles, H. J. Gordon, F. A. Hess, M. A. James, B. Lauben-
fels, Glen Lichtenwalner, H. J. McNally, C. E. Merriman, A. G. Neighbour, C. L.
Richard, G. L. Roberts, L. W. Robinson, W. C. Sadler, L. R. Shellenbarger, F. R.
Smith, R. A. Skooglun, P. P. Wagner, Jr., W. E. Webster, Jr.
Factors Affecting Humping Capacity
Your committee presents as iniormation the following report covering some of the
factors affecting humping capacity in classification yards, with the recommendation that
the subject be discontinued.
These factors may be grouped into four categories.
1. Providing cars to the hump lead ready for humping.
2. Classification rate of cars.
3. Correct placement of cars into classification tracks.
4. Prompt removal of cars from classification yard.
Other factors of a general nature influence humping capacity. A well designed facility
with adequate signalling, flexible communications, good lighting, and other beneficial
devices, will help increase the total number of cars handled. Coordination of effort and
team work are a prerequisite for maximum uniform capacity.
Both climate and weather conditions influence humping capacity. Wind, tempera-
ture, snow, sleet, prolonged fogs, and 'storms of unusual intensity disrupt and slow down
operations.
1. Providing Cars to the Hump Lead Ready for Humping
Consideration should be given to the time required to prepare the inbound cars
for movement to the hump. If practical, the interval of time between the receipt of cars
and movement to the hump should be limited to the time required to prepare and dis-
tribute the hump switch list. If the car inspection is accomplished on the approach hump
lead, the preparation of cars may be limited to bleeding of the air in the train line.
In some cases it may be advantageous to 'switch out cars that are not to be humped
before delivering cuts to the hump lead.
At some terminals the preponderance of inbound cars is from interchange or indus-
trial areas. In these terminals the information for preparation of the hump switch list is
generally not available and must be secured from cards on the cars by inspection in the
receiving yard. This information should be submitted promptly to the central yard office
preparing the switch lists.
Yards and Terminals 463
The receiving yard should be designed to reduce to the minimum the interference
between road and yard engines. A flexible track arrangement between the receiving yard
and the hump lead will permit advancing a cut of cars to the crest ready for humping
as 'soon as the preceding cut i? completed. This will increase humping capacity.
Where the length of the hump lead or receiving tracks is not a limiting factor, the
number of cars or tonnage should be consistent with the hump engine power available.
Uniform humping speeds can be maintained if this procedure is followed.
2. Classification Rate of Cars
This is commonly referred to as the humping rate and is the number of cars over
the cre'st per minute of actual humping operations. The track alinement, curvature, num-
ber of track per group, and the distance between leaving end of the group retarder and
clearance point affect the rate of classification. Likewise, track gradients from crest of
hump to the end of the classification yard, leaving speed from retarders, permissible
speed through switches, and capacity of the circuit and retarder controls should be
considered.
A scale on the hump lead may limit humping speed, especially if a large percentage
of cars is weighed. This reduction of the humping speed may be necessary to provide a
sufficient time interval to weigh individual cars on the scale. However, this condition
can be offset to some extent by the installation of a longer scale. Humping speeds may
also be lowered by weighing single car1-; from a cut of cars which otherwise would have
gone in a group to the same classification track.
The rolling resistance of cars has a definite bearing on the ability to classify quickly.
Cars of extremely high or low rolling resistance may overtake one another or fail to get
into the clear. When this occurs, humping operations may be interrupted, and trimming
or rehumping operations may be required.
Temperature has a decided influence on rolling resistance. Failure to bleed cars
thoroughly may increase rolling resistance because of dragging brake shoes.
The type of traffic handled, such as the ratio of empty and loaded cars, and the uni-
formity of equipment and commodity, is influential. The number of cars per cut also
affects the humping rate and may vary greatly in individual yards.
A track arrangement which permits direct and orderly handling of bad-order cars
will expedite humping operations. The proper maintenance of classification yard gradients
and alinement of tracks will improve the reliability of cars and improve the humping
rate.
3. Correct Placement of Cars into Classification Tracks
Incorrect switch lists or failure of operators to work equipment properly results in
incorrect classification. This can be minimized through proper supervision.
An assignment of classification tracks to secure the maximum spread of cars being
humped will reduce catch-ups and misrouted cars.
An insufficient number of classification tracks or failure to remove cars promptly from
the classification yard will frequently make it necessary to double up classifications. Car-
thus mixed must later be either rehumped or separated by flat switching at the lower end
of the classification yard.
A classification yard providing a track of proper length for each of the most ini
portant classifications will substantially reduce rehumpinL' operations. It is therefore
important that a range in the lengths of classification tracks be provided which will permit
flexibility in assignment.
464 Y ards and Terminals
Tracks that are too short for assigned classifications will result in frequently pull
downs, trimming and/or diversion of car's to other tracks.
Tracks that are too long for assigned classifications will accumulate an insufficient
number of cars between pull-downs and waste track space and engine time. Therefore,
the number of long tracks should be limited to operating requirements. In addition, the
speed of cars on long classification tracks is more difficult to control.
4. Prompt Removal of Cars from Classification Yard
Insufficient pull-down or inefficient departure operations can be limiting factors. If
cars can be removed from the classification yard quickly, in many instances the yard
capacity can be increased.
A track arrangement at the departure end of the classification yard which provides
flexibility and reduces interference will speed up car removal. Long leads to the interior
groups of classification tracks will lengthen the time required to move cars from the
classification yard to the departure yard.
The use of classification tracks for departure may slow operations.
Overspeed couplings resulting in broken or damaged equipment will slow operations.
This damage can often be reduced by proper gradients and releasing speeds from group
retarders.
Report on Assignment 3
Scales Used in Railway Service
Collaborating with Electrical Section, AAR
H. Phypers (chairman, subcommittee), W. P. Buchanan, A. C. Dasburg, H. M. Goodchild,
D. C. Hastings, H. W. Hem, F. A. Hess, M. A. James, V. C. Kennedy, B. R. Nelson,
C. L. Richard, H. H. Russell, R. F. Straw, A. L. Thurston, J. N. Todd.
Last year your committee presented as information a progress report on its study
of the subject "Weighing Freight Cars by the Two-Draft Method" (Proceedings, Vol. 58,
19S7, page 475). This report gave a resume of the application of two-draft weighing
of cars in motion over short weigh rail track scales 12.5 to 20 ft long, stressing some
essential requirements for successful operation.
Your committee now submits the following recommendations with respect to the
Specifications for the Manufacture and Installation of Two-Section, Knife-Edge Railway
Track Scales, to cover short-length scales for two-draft motion weighing:
Pages 14-5-38 to 14-5-55, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE MANUFACTURE AND INSTALLATION
OF TWO-SECTION, KNIFE-EDGE, RAILWAY TRACK SCALES
Reapprove with the following revisions:
Page 14-5-38
Art. 2, Sec. AA. Add sentence reading as follows: "For two-draft motion weighing*
on track scales up to 20 ft in length, the rated sectional capacity shall be 100 tons."
At bottom of page add the following footnote: "'Attention is directed to the fact
that motion weighing of freight cars by the two-draft method is a patented procedure.
Yards and Terminals 465
Page 14-5-41
Art. 2, Sec. C. Add sentence reading as follows: '"For scales designed for two-draft
motion weighing, the length shall not exceed 20 ft."
Page 14-5-45
Art. 1, Sec. F. In first sentence, following the words "rod type", add the words "or
equal".
Add third sentence reading as follows: 'Tor two-draft motion scales the rod-type
checks are preferable."
Table 2, Sec. F. Add new first line to table as follows: 100
20 25,000 60,000
Page 14-5-48
Art. 1, Sec. HH. Add to end of sentence, "except that on scales up to 20-ft in length
wide flange rolled girder sections may be used".
Page 14-5-49
Table 3, Sec. HH. Add new first line to table as follows: 100
20 21 10,000 E-60 835.5
Page 14-5-52
Art. 6, Sec. LL. Add new sentence after the words "surface of tracks" reading as
follows: "On scales up to 20 ft in length, designed for two-draft motion weighing, walls
shall extend 40 ft ahead of the scale and 50 ft beyond, and grade shall conform exactly
to grade of weigh rail."
Report on Assignment 4
Facilities for Cleaning and Conditioning Freight Cars
for Commodity Loading
A. E. Biermann (chairman, subcommittee), J. C. Bussey, W. H. Goold, J. E. Griffith,
D. C. Hastings, F. A. Hess, J. L. Loida, C. J. Morris, R. H. Peak, Jr., G. L. Roberts,
M. S. Rose.
This is a final report on a new assignment and is presented as information with the
recommendation that the subject be discontinued.
It ha's been common practice for a good many years to arbitrarily assign a track or
tracks in a yard for car cleaning purposes; however, as the demand for cleaner and
higher class cars increased, specialized facilities have been constructed. In order to deter-
mine the extent of the facilities constructed, a questionnaire was circulated among the
railroads represented on the committee and among 15 additional railroads not so repre-
sented. The replies indicated that serious consideration is and has been given to cleaning
facilities for all types of cars. Individual consideration has been given by many railroads
to the cleaning of certain types of cars at a specific location, depending on the nature
of the business at that point; however, facilities for the cleaning of box cars have been
installed at various points on a large number of railroads.
In order to make this report a's complete as possible, the various facilities brought
to the committee's attention is covered in the following, including those designed to clean
a specific type of ear.
466 Yards and Terminals
1. Tank Cars
In the early 1950's the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway constructed at Hobart,
Calif., a facility for the cleaning of tank cars which was fully described in the magazine,
Railway Age, issue of September 8, 1952.
2. Refrigerator Cars
Fig. 1 is a typical section through an installation made by the Chicago, Milwaukee,
St. Paul & Pacific Railroad at Milwaukee, Wis., to wash out and de-ice cars for future
loading at a local industry. The two reinforced concrete flumes are 2980 ft in length, and
the tracks are served by hot-water hydrants on approximately 90 ft centers. The hot
water, discharged through a slotted nozzle, is used both for deicing the bunkers and
cleaning the cars. Drains are located in the flumes at 250-ft intervals, and the drainage
system is discharged into an adjacent stream.
3. Hopper Cars
The Chesapeake & Ohio Railway reported on two installation's for the cleaning of
hopper cars. At Newport News, Va., a rotary car dumper is used to dump the cars, and
when in the inverted position, they are washed with water by men working on an elevated
platform built parallel to the dumper. The refuse in the car, together with the wash
water, is discharged into a steel sheet-pile-lined collection pit having a thick concrete
bottom, from where the solid refuse is recovered by a truck crane.
At Ashland, Ky., a proposed installation contemplates the construction of a concrete
settling basin approximately 40 ft long, adjacent to a section of track laid on a concrete
platform. Two elevated washing platforms will be installed, one on each side of the track,
from which the cars will be washed with water as they are slowly pushed across the
platform with their hopper doors open. After the water is drained from the settling basin
the 'solid refuse will be removed through use of a ramp constructed in one end of the
basin.
4. Stock Cars
Facilities required for the cleaning of stock cars, due to the nature of the refuse, are
trackage, disposal area, and storage area for the bedding material.
At Missoula, Mont., the Northern Pacific Railway facility consists of two tracks, one
2200 ft and the other 2000 ft in length, on 40-ft centers, with adequate disposal areas
available outside each track. The refuse is loaded from these areas by outside parties and
used as farm fertilizer. Access roads serve each of the disposal areas. The area between
the tracks is used as the storage site for the bedding material, which at this location is
sand.
A wye track arrangement is used by the Illinois Central Railroad at Tara, la., as a
combination stock car and packing house refuse car cleaning facility. The north leg,
1685 ft long, and the south leg, 1700 ft long, are used for stock car cleaning while the
west leg, 770 ft long, is used to unload and clean cars of the packing house refuse. A
timber retaining wall constructed outside the stock car cleaning tracks serves as a retainer
wall for the sand u'sed as bedding material. The refuse unloaded from the stock cars on
the inside of the track is disposed of by burying it in the area within the wye, as is the
refuse from the other cars. A crawler tractor with an angle dozer blade is used to spread
and bury the refuse, and in winter months the frozen refuse is loosened by a power
scarifier. A crawler crane is utilized to unload and stock pile the bedding 'sand. After the
Yards and Terminals 467
cars of packing house refuse have been unloaded, the draw bars, stirrups, and grab irons
are washed before the cars are returned for loading. Power and hand sprayers are main-
tained at the site for disinfecting cars when required.
5. Box Cars, Including Refrigerators
The cleaning of box cars requires that four items be given serious consideration.
These are: tracks, roadways, drainage and utilities.
Figs. 2 through 6 show typical sections of individual railroad's cleaning facilities. At
each of the locations shown on the sketches the cars are washed with water after the solid
debris is removed. The refuse in the cars is cleaned out by hand labor and loaded into
trucks for trucking to incinerators, public or private dumps, or if noncombustible, it is
used as filling material on the railroad's property. Several of the railroads reported that
private contractors are employed in car cleaning operations, including charitable organ-
izations which salvage certain materials from the cleaning operations. Paved roads along-
side the cleaning tracks facilitate the movement of the trucks, and as shown on the
sketches they are of ample width so that the trucks encounter no interference.
The paved gutters provide excellent drainage facilities during the working operations,
with catch basins varying in spacing from 90 to 400 ft center to center. At each facility
sufficient manholes are located on the drainage lines to insure proper maintenance. As
shown, several of the facilities have the outside rail elevated from two to three inches
to incline the car floor to the gutter to facilitate drainage in the car during the washing
operations. In connection with the drainage installations, several roads have settling basins
handling the wash water in order to prevent the silt from entering the main sewer
facilities.
Depending on the individual railroads preference, hot or cold water is used in the
washing operations at pressures from ISO to 400 psi. Stationary pumps are provided for
this purpose, while both portable and fixed hot water heaters are used. Water hydrants
are usually spaced at 90-ft centers, and in some cases air lines are provided to assist in
the cleaning operations.
Portable oil-fired, high-recovery steam boilers delivering steam to a high pressure
injector which induces a hot water stream at 180 deg F and 250 psi pressure are in use
at one location. The portable unit is moved from car to car where high pressure steam
and hot water washing is required. Ample fuel oil storage and a building for storage of
the units is provided. The units are also used to de-ice the bunkers of refrigerator cars.
Where heating units are used to dry the cars after washing, storage buildings are
provided for them.
Fig. 7 is a typical section through the three-track cleaning and conditioning facility
built by the Southern Pacific Lines, at Houston, Tex. The facility consists of the three
tracks, each having a capacity of 50 cars, two convex surface driveways, two concave
surface driveways, and sewer, air, and water lines. Two 400-psi electric water pumps
supply the required water pressure for cleaning operations. Rubbish is removed from the
cars and loaded into trucks for disposal in a borrow pit. As required, the cars are either
washed and/or repaired to upgrade them. Water hydrants are located at SO-ft intervals
along the three tracks in order to permit washing without interference with other opera-
tions. The facility is located adjacent to the rip tracks, with a material storage yard at
one end of the cleaning tracks. Power-operated platform trucks with trailer- are used bj
the carmen and mechanics to transport the tools and material- used in the conditioning
operations.
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Report on Assignment 6
Facilities for Loading and Unloading Rail-Truck
Freight Equipment
C. F. Parvin (chairman, subcommittee), W. O. Boessneck, W. S. Broome, Oscar Fischer,
S. W. George, G. F. Hand, Wra. J. Hedlev, F. A. Hess, B. Laubenfels, H. J. McNally,
J. L. McQuarrie, B. G. Packard, L. W. Robinson, R. E. Robinson, H. T. Roebuck,
W. C. Sadler.
This report is submitted as information. Previous reports on this subject may be
found in Vols. 56 and 57 of the Proceedings.
Continued investigation of this subject indicates a further increase in the number of
railroads moving highway semi-trailers on railroad cars. In all known cases, end loading
and unloading is used.
With more locations on individual railroad's being provided with this service and with
interchange of this traffic between railroads becoming more common, increasing use is
being made of portable ramps for loading and unloading.
Portable ramps eliminate the necessity of having cars arrive at destination headed
in a predetermined direction. In addition, it is a practical method of loading and unloading
where volume is small.
Experience gained to date has enabled this committee to offer the following additional
recommendations.
In connection with the installation of electric 'service, low level lighting to light the
underside of trailers should be so directed that it will not shine into the back up mirrors
of tractors used for placing semi-trailers by the end-loading method. Also, it is desirable
to provide outlets for connection of power tools to be used in securing and releasing of
semi-trailers from cars.
A small building should be located adjacent to the ramp for storage of parts, equip-
ment and tools. This is in addition to the office building previously recommended.
Attention is called to the necessity of providing sufficient parking area for trailer-.
Generally this traffic will vary from day to day, and at times there will be an excess of
trailers. In addition to idle semi-trailers awaiting peak business there may be outbound
semi-trailers delivered too late for loading the same day or inbound semi-trailers waiting
to be taken away.
To date mo'st rail-truck equipment has involved end loading and unloading of high-
way semi-trailers on railroad cars. At the present time there is an increasing use of, and
interest in, the movement of trailer bodies which can be removed from the truck chassis
and also unit containers which can be transferred from flat-bed highway trucks to railroad
flat cars.
The transfer may be made by crane, fork lift truck or by a roller and turntable
arrangement. The development of the trailer body or container method of handling rail-
truck equipment will require side loading facilities
Side-loading facilities are included in the report of Committee N as printed in Vol
56. By transferring only the trailer body or container to the railroad car and not the
entire chassis, modifications can be made. Principally the platforms need not be al
floor height as is the case where entire semi-trailer is handled on flat car. In sonic cases
where onlv the trailer body or container are transferred, existing team tracks with wid<
adjacent drives may be used.
476 Yards and Terminals
Report on Assignment 7
Design Data for Classification Yard Gradients
F. R. Smith (chairman, subcommittee), M. H. Aldrich, J. D. Anderson, F. E. Austerman,
R. F. Beck, W. O. Boessneck, H. P. Clapp, K. L. Clark, A. V. Dasburg, Oscar Fischer,
H. C. Forman, S. W. George, W. H. Giles, W. H. Goold, H. J. Gordon, J. E. Griffith,
D. C. Hastings, F. A. Hess, J. E. Hoving, M. A. James, B. Laubenfel's, L. L. Lyford,
J. L. McQuarrie, C. E. Merriman, J. C. Miller, C. J. Morris, A. G. Neighbour, B. G.
Packard, L. F. Pohl, L. W. Robinson, H. T. Roebuck, W. C. Sadler, H. L. Scribner,
R. A. Skooglun, R. F. Straw, J. N. Todd, P. P. Wagner, Jr., J. C. Warren, W. E.
Webster, Jr., C. F. Worden.
Your committee realizes that the present Manual material for the design of gradients
is sketchy and inadequate. In the Proceeding^ Vol. 33 and Vol. 34, there are reports
covering the basic principles of design at that time. Your committee has taken the best
material from those reports, as well as existing Manual material, and augmented it with
current data and design procedures for the preparation of the report submitted herewith
on gradient design from crest of hump to far end of classification yard. This report is
submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual to replace all material in Part 3 —
Freight Terminals under Sec. D, Art. 4 — Design of Gradients, commencing on page 14-3-7.
4. Design of Gradients
a. Objective
The ideal objective is the design of a series of gradients so that each car will roll to
and stop at the far end of the classification yard, or will roll to coupling at an acceptable
speed. The following objectives are the minimum to be expected:
(1) Deliver cai^s having a practical maximum rolling resistance to the clearance
point under adverse weather conditions.
(2) Deliver cars of most frequently occurring rolling resistance to the far end of
the yard.
(3) Permit maximum humping rate and acceptable coupling speeds.
The clearance point of a classification track is the point on that track closest to the
hump which will meet clearance requirements as set by the appropriate state law or by
management. Far end of the yard is the point on any classification track most distant
from the hump which it is desired that cars should reach.
b. Rolling Resistance
In designing grades for moving railroad cars under gravity, it is necessary to under-
stand what is meant by rolling resistance. It is caused by many external opposing factors,
such as car construction, track irregularities, turnouts, curves, speed, air friction, wind,
temperature, rain, snow, dirt, etc. The measured rolling resistance for the same car will
show a wide variation depending on whether the car is accelerating or decelerating because
of storing kinetic energy in the rotating wheels and axles or in using it up. In general,
rolling resistance can be defined as the summation of all these factors opposing the free
rolling of the car. Quite obviously the rolling resistance for any given car will vary
depending upon the factors that are working to oppose free rolling.
For gradient design purposes, rolling resistance is expressed in percent of grade
necessary to just overcome the opposing factors. For example, a car is said to be a 0.4
percent resistance car if, when placed on a 0.4 percent uniform tangent grade and given
;i small initial velocity, it keeps rolling without ncrelerating or decelerating.
Yards and Terminals 477
Recent tests indicate that the maximum rolling resistance of hard-rolling, brake-fre<
cars is 1.4 percent while the minimum rolling resistance of easy-rolling cars is 0.08 per-
cent. The most frequent rolling resistance is about 0.20 percent for loaded cars and about
0.35 percent for empty cars. For predicting the behavior of cars in any yard, relevant
brake-free data should be used.
c. Theory
The speed of a car rolling down a grade can be found at any point by means of the
expression h = 0.0334F" or fc = 0.0155v" where V is the speed of the car in miles per
hour, v h the speed of the car in feet per second and h is the velocity head of the car in
feet at the point under consideration and is the vertical distance shown in Fig. 1.
Safe throwing of switches, retarding, and weighing of cars make it necessary for the
designer to predetermine the spacing of cars as they roll from crest to clearance. This is
done by computing the time the car takes to reach a given point as follows:
The distance studied is divided into a number of increments depending on the
accuracy desired. The velocity head at the midpoint of each increment is computed or
scaled from a scale profile and by means of the velocity-head expressions or the graph
of Fig. 2, the velocity at the midpoint of each increment is obtained. The length of the
increment is then divided by the velocity corresponding to its midpoint to give the time
the car take's to roll through that particular increment. When these increment times are
added cumulatively, the position of the car at any time is known.
d. Design
Hump height for a classification track is the difference in elevation between the crest
of the hump and its defined clearance point.
The track on the receiving side of the hump should have adequate plus grade of
sufficient length to assure easy separation of single or multiple cuts. The vertical curve
at the hump 'should be of minimum length ; care should be taken to make certain that
the middle-ordinate for the chord equal in length to the distance between truck centers
will provide clearance for the lowest equipment that is expected to be humped and
prevent binding of car knuckles.
For proper operation of a switch the clear space between the rear end of one car
and the front end of the succeeding car should be not less than the length of the track
circuit protecting that switch. Track circuits are usually 55 to 58 ft long.
A track scale of proper length and location when installed on the hump requires a
gradient from the crest and over the scale which will provide sufficient time on the scale
alone for weighing of cars of maximum length, minimum length, or a mixture of both,
with due consideration of variations in rolling resistance. The grade should also be steep
enough and long enough to separate the cars quickly for proper spacing.
The gradient from the group (last) retarder through the classification tracks should
not produce unacceptable acceleration of easy-rolling tar- alter leaving the group retarder.
This gradient may result in deceleration of other cars, requiring the release of such cars
from the group retarder at higher speeds. The gradient within the switching area for a
group may be made decelerating for all cars to permit release at a higher speed for the
purpose of clearing ladders quicker and to provide more -pan- between cars for operating
switches and sendirg cars to adjacent tracks. Tin- design of this part of the hump profile
is important to obtain maximum humping capacity with minimum damage to car- and
contents.
478
Yards and Terminals
0.0%
— Rolling resistance loss
— h= Velocity head
Fig. 1.
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Speed in miles per hour
Fig. 2.
14
18
Yards and Terminals 47Q
The gradient through the group retarder should be sufficient to start most cars should
they be 'stopped in the retarder and should preferably be at least 0.8 percent.
The gradients between the crest and the track group are regulated by the hump
height, the length and location of retarders, the gradient selected through the group
retarder, the gradient required for the track scale and the desired speed of cars leaving
each of the retarders, as follows:
(1) There should be a sufficient length of retarder in each route to stop a 0.3 per-
cent resistance car of maximum gross weight in the group retarder when re-
leased from the crest at the design humping speed. If a pin-puller retarder is
used, its retarding effect should not be included in computing the amount of
retardation required between crest and clearance.
(2) The group retarder length should be sufficient to control heavy cars having
normal rolling resistance variation over the length of track on which cars are
classified. For example, a group retarder having a velocity head rating of 5.5 ft
would be sufficient to control heavy cars having a rolling resistance from 0.12
percent to 0.34 percent over a distance of 2500 ft from the leaving end of the
group retarder.
(3) The hump retarder should be of sufficient length to insure that a car of maxi-
mum gross weight having a 0.3 percent resistance will move through it, closed
to maximum retardation, and leave it at a speed which will permit stopping
in the group retarder when the car is uncoupled at the design humping speed.
The elevation at the lower end of the retarder should be such that the exit
speed (usually 8 to 14 mph) will permit adequate separation of cars between
the hump and group retarders.
Compensation for curve resistance may be made by compensating gradients, by addi-
tional speed, or by a combination of both. This factor is of major importance in the design
of gradients between the group retarder and clearance. Curvature through turnouts should
be included with other curvature when calculating curve resistance.
The following formulas may be used in designing hump yard gradients from the
crest of the hump to the clearance point of a classification track.
// = Hump height = S, Rn + S,R,h + ACh + S«fc— (VH)„
Hy—H—H,
#.,= Drop from leaving end of group retarder to clearance = SjR2e -f &a C, -f
Sw2 + a
Where,
Subscript "1" refers to the section between crest and leaving end of group retarder.
Subscript "2" refers to the section between leaving end of group retarder and clearance.
Subscript "A" refers to hard-rolling cars.
Subscript "e" refers to easy-rolling cars.
Quantities with no subscript refer to the area between crest and clearance.
5 = Distance in feet.
A — Curvature in degrees of central angle.
{VH)0 = Humping velocity head in feet.
R = Car rolling resistance expressed decimal l>
C = Curve resistance in feet of drop per degree ol central angle
480 Yards and Terminals
Sw» = Switch resistance in feet for switches beyond the group retarder. (Resistance of
switches in Section "1" is not included as a separate item since Ru, is made
higher than Ran to include switch resistance.)
a = Difference in feet between velocity head at clearance and velocity head at leav-
ing end of group retarder for easy-rolling cars. This will be a positive quantity
if car is accelerating and a negative quantity if car is decelerating.
The quantities to be substituted for the various symbols may be determined from tests
at yards now in operation.
Having determined the required vertical drops H and H*, these drops should be dis-
tributed in their respective areas best to meet the operating requirements. There is no
necessity for the curve compensation included in H2 to be applied entirely to the curve
itself and part or all of it may be put in advance of the curve.
If it is desired to deliver hard-rolling cars under adverse conditions to a point farther
down in the classification yard than just to the clearance point as defined herein, these
same formulas will apply by using such new point for all calculations instead of the
clearance point.
It will be noted that the expression for H provides a total drop which may be
different for each track, with the sides of the yard lower than the center because of the
greater curvature in the outside tracks. The following are practical methods of application.
(1) Grade the classification tracks so that each track has its proper amount of
curve compensation. This is done by determining the drop H2 for each track,
which will yield a yard cross section made up of a series of steps. This is not
objectionable, provided the difference in elevation between adjacent tracks is
not prohibitive. This method provides the most uniform rolling conditions
beyond the last retarder.
(2) Grade all tracks of the same group in one plane using the H corresponding to
the track having most curvature and H2 corresponding to the track having the
least curvature. This method requires higher releasing speeds at the group
retarder for the tracks having more curvature.
In yards handling both loads and empties, gradients below the group retarder must
„e provided on the basis of the easy-rolling cars unless such cars are so few that the
operation of the yard will not be slowed up appreciably by the necessity for bringing
them practically to a stop in the last retarder. The acceleration of easy-rolling cars after
leaving the group retarder should not be excessive so as to permit higher releasing speeds
at the group retarder.
The gradient of the body tracks should be about 0.12 percent adjusted to meet local
conditions, and any curves that there may be in the body tracks should be compensated
at the rate of 0.025 ft per deg of central angle unless such curve's are so located that there
would be no objection to the cars decelerating.
It is advisable to have an adverse grade in the body tracks just in advance of where
they join the ladders at the far end of the yard, with a rise of not less than the
equivalent of 4 mph.
Retardation is obtained from the equation:
(VH)B+a = H1+ (VH)„ — S1R,e—^C\
Where,
(VH) ;/,<; = Total retardation for hump and group retarder.
Yards and Terminals 481
e. Example
To illustrate the aforementioned principles, the following example for northern climates
is worked out analytically and the result's shown graphically in Fig. 3.
Lavdi I I )\l \
5, = 815 ft, 5, = 519 ft
A, = 22.65°, A,= 22.65°
Sw«= 0.24 ft (0.06 ft per turnout)
Desion Data
Rlh = 1.4'%, R,h — 0.9% 94 ft scale .55 ft from crest.
Rte = OJ$%, (VH)n = 0.2\ ft — 2.5 mph a = —0.67 ft corresponding to a ve-
.R,e = 0.12% locity of 6.0 mph at leaving
Ch. = 0.045, C, = 0.025 end of group retarder, and a
velocity of 4.0 mph at clear-
ance.
Solution
// =&.«!*+ SsUai +±Ch + SW.— (VH)„= (815) (0.014) + (519) (0.009)
+ (45.3) (0.045) + (0.24) — (0.21) = 18.15 ft, locating point "A" on the
profile
H*= SaRSt + A,C, + Swa+a = (519) (0.0012) + (22.65) (0.025) + (0.24)
— (0.67) =0.76 ft.
Fi= H-Ha = IS. 15 — 0.76 = 17.39 ft, locating point "B" on the profile.
Point C is located by using a 1.2 percent gradient between B and C.
Point E has been located by the 3.0 percent gradient because of scale requirements.
Point D is established after determining the lengths of the group and hump re-
retarders.
(VH),I+o = 17.39 + 0.21— (815) (0.003) — (22.65) (0.025) = 14.59 ft.
Let (VH)c = 5.50 ft, then (VH)„ = 9.09 ft.
Let the minimum exit velocity be 10 mph from the master retarder.
10 mph = 3.34 ft VH
Elevation of point D = —9.09 — (395) (0.003) — 3.34 + 0.21 = — 13.40 ft.
Having completed the ground profile, the resistance line of the unretarded 0.3 and
0.12 percent car is drawn, as shown in Fig. 3. To obtain the resistance line of
the fully retarded 0.3 percent car, point D' is plotted 3.34 feet above point D,
equal to the velocity head for 10 mph. Points C and B' are then plotted to
yield grades parallel to those of the resistance line of the unretarded car. The
total retardation required is 5.50 ft + 9.09 ft =14.59 ft. If, however, the
retardation furnished is greater than 14.59 ft, the hump height may be in-
creased to utilize l he lull capacity furnished and/or reduce the amount of
grading.
All rolling-resistance values used in the example are accepted empirical averages sus-
ceptible of modification after more research data are obtained. In analyzing an existing
yard or in designing a new one. the designer must recognize thai the same car will have
a different apparent rolling resistance in Section 1 than it will have in Section 2 because
it is generally accelerating in Section 1 and decelerating in Section 2. It is noted that this
fact has been considered in the example for both hard-rolling ear- and easj rolling cars
482
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Report of Committee 6 — Buildings
D. E. Perrine, Chairman,
S. G. Urban,
Vice Chairman,
D. W. Converse, Secretary,
CM. Ancel
W. F. Armstrong
S. M. Bielski
C. E. Booth
H. M. Booth
R. R. Cahae
H. M. Churc 11 (K)
C. E. Close
J. S. Cooper
F. D. Day
C. E. Defendorf
A. G. Dorland (E)
L. A. Durham, Jr.
V. E. Elshoff
T. J. Engle
R. L. Fletcher
I. G. Forbes
C. S. Graves
J. W. Gwyn
A. H. GUSTAFERRO
W. G. Harding
A. T. Hawk (E)
Wm. Hayduk
J. W. Hayes
J. F. Hendrickson
K. E. HORNUNG
B. J. Johnson, Jr.
T. M. Kelly
Earl Kimmel
S. E. KVENBERC
L. H. Laffoley
R. E. Ltxliston
G. H. McMillan
A. A. Melius
I. A. Moore
J. D. Moore, Jr.
G. A. Morison
L. S. Newman
W. C. Oest
G. H. Perry*
T. V. Pyle
C. L. Robinson
J. T. Rowan
A. B. Ryan
J. B. Schaub
J. T. SCHOENER
H. T. Seal
LOREN SHEDD
E. R. Shultz
R. C. Turnbell
J. W. Wagner
J. W. Westwood
O. G. Wilbur
N. H. Whliams
T. S. Williams
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Brief progress statement, presented as information page 484
2. Specifications for railway buildings.
Progress in study, but no report.
4. Wind loading for railway building structures.
Brief progress statement, presented as information page 48S
(>. Buildings and structures for hump classification yards with retarders, col-
laborating with Committee 14.
Brief progress statement, presented as information page 48S
7. Buildings to house maintenance-of-way tools, equipment and or personnel.
Final report, presented as information pace 485
.8. Fire retardant paints for railway building interiors.
Final report, presented as information page 489
Tin. Committee on Buildings,
D. F. Pi RRIN1 . Chairman
AREA Bulletin 539, November 19S7.
483
484 Buildings
MEMOIR
ILelanb Porter Kimball
Leland Porter Kimball, retired engineer of buildings of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad,
died at his home in Baltimore, Md., on April 11, 1957, in his 70th year after a long illness.
He is survived by his wife, Mvs. Mary Lee Kimball, 3 sons, 4 daughters and 20 grand-
children. .
Beginning his career in railroading in 1904 as a chainman on the Illinois Central, he
advanced rapidly to the position of chief draftsman, which he held until he joined the
service of the Baltimore & Ohio on August 1, 1918, as engineer of buildings at Cincinnati,
Ohio. He was transferred to Baltimore in September 1919 as engineer of buildings —
Eastern Lines, and in 1920 was made engineer of building's for the entire system, which
position he occupied until his retirement from active service on September 30, 1952.
From the time of his association with the AREA in 1919 until his retirement he was
sincerely interested in furthering its aims and was diligently active in its projects. Starting
as a member of Committee 23 — Shops and Locomotive Terminals, he served as vice
chairman during 1929 and 1931, and as chairman 1931 to 1933. In addition, he held
memberships in Committee 6 — Buildings, and Committee 26 — Standardization, wherein
he contributed valuable information to their assignments. Finally, in 1952, he became a
Life Member of the AREA, an honor which he was proud to accept and hold.
Along with his AREA membership, Mr. Kimball was an active member in the Engi-
neers Club of Baltimore. Fraternally, he was a member of Sharon Lodge No. 182, A. F.
and A. M. of Maryland and of Boumi Temple, A.A.O.N.M.S.
It is with a deep sense of appreciation by those who knew and worked with Mr.
Kimball, that this tribute is recorded with the American Railway Engineering Association.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
C. S. Grave's (chairman, subcommittee), C. M. Angel, S. M. Bielski, C. E. Booth, H. M.
Booth, R. R. Cahal, C. E. Close, F. D. Day, L. A. Durham, Jr., V. E. Elshoff, R. L.
Fletcher, I. G. Forbes, A. H. Gustaferro, J. F. Hendrickson, K. E. Hornung, T. M.
Kelly, R. E. Lilliston, L. S. Newman, W. C. Oest, G. H. Perrv, C. L. Robinson,
J. B. Schaub, Loren Shedd, R. C. Turnbell, O. G. Wilbur, N. H. Williams.
Your committee submits the following brief report of progress in the assembly of
information pertaining to the modernization of current Manual material in Part 10 —
Roofing and Siding, Chapter 6
Data and specifications for roofing and siding are being reviewed and rewritten as
necessary to comply with standard practices and with materials that are now manufac-
tured. Progress is being made in this work, and revised specifications will be submitted.
Buildings 485
Report on Assignment 4
Wind Loading for Railway Building Structures
C. E. Defendorf (chairman, subcommittee), W. F. Armstrong, F. D. Dav, T. J. Engle,
I. G. Forbes, W. G. Harding K. E. Hornung, Earl Kimmel, L. H. Laffoley, R. E.
Lilliston, G. H. McMillan, L. S. Newman, T. V. Pyle, A. B. Ryan, J. B. Schaub,
R. C. Turnbell, T. S. Williams.
Your committee submits the following report of progress on wind loading for rail
way building structures.
AAR Engineering Division research staff personnel have recently conducted wind-
loading tests on a 120-ft floodlight tower of the Santa Fe Railway at Clovis, X. M. These
tests included the measuring of strains in structural steel members coincidenl with the
measuring of wind velocities and directions.
Report will be made after the data are processed and the findings studied by the
committee.
Report on Assignment 6
Buildings and Structures for Hump Classification Yards
with Retarders
Collaborating with Committee 14
A. B. Ryan (chairman, subcommittee), W. F. Armstrong, C. E. Booth, J. S. Cooper,
C. E. Defendorf, T. J. Engle, R. L. Fletcher, C. S. Graves, J. W. Gwyn, J. W. Hayes,
J. F. Hendrickson, K. E. Hornung, B. J. Johnson, Jr., Earl Kimmel, A. A. Melius,
J. D. Moore, Jr., L. R. Morgan, G. A. Morison, W. C. Oest, C. L. Robinson, J. T.
Rowan, J. T. Schoener, H. T. Seal, E. R. Shultz, J. W. Westwood, T. S. Williams.
Your committee submits the following brief report of progress in assembly of data
pertaining to the above subject.
A draft of a report has been prepared which will be revised to incorporate valuable
information obtained during the inspection trips which have been made by the committee
recently to several new hump classification yards.
Report on Assignment 7
Buildings to House Maintenance-of-Way Tools, Equipment
and/or Personnel
H. M. Booth (chairman, subcommittee), W. F. Armstrong, D. W. Converse, S. M. Bielski,
J. S. Cooper, L. A. Durham, Jr., V. E. Elshoff, T. J. Engle, R. L. Fletcher, A. H.
Gustaferro. Wm. Hayduk, J. W. Hayes, J. F. Hendrickson, T. M. Kelly, Earl Kim
mel, S. E. Kvenherg, L. H. Laffolev, A. A. Melius, I. A. Moore, L. R. Morgan, G. A.
Morison, L. S. Newman, W. C. Oest, G. H. Perry, J. T. Rowan, Loren Shedd, E. R.
Shultz, R. C. Turnbull, J. W. Westwood, N. H. Williams.
Your committee submits the following report as information.
General
This report relate alone to tin- track department. Suggestions foi present-da) fad!
ities were obtained from a survey made by subcommittee members of the practices cur-
rently in effect on their railroads. While special buildings are general!) required, some
486 Buildings
roads have made use of small abandoned depots and other buildings, by remodeling these
structures into satisfactory tool houses when property located to serve their needs
efficiently.
Radical change's have been made in recent years in the maintenance-of-way depart-
ments of many railroads and maintenance organizations and practices are constantly
under study by others. Some roads have eliminated many track sections by extending
mileage of maintenance limits. Others have done away almost completely with sections by
setting up other types of maintenance organizations in an effort to get greater efficiency
from track forces. District or floating gangs assigned to do all the work on 30 to 75 miles
of track are in common use. These gangs are usually "bucket" gangs of 10 to 20 men and
are furnished with motor cars and highway trucks. Other roads now have in operation
the more recently developed mechanized surfacing gangs that do the on-line out-of-face
surfacing and tie renewal work on long sections of track on one or more divisions or
subdivision's in a year. They are usually housed in outfit cars or off-track trailers. Where
this method of track maintenance is in use the regular year-around force usually consists
of small floating gangs of 8 to 12 men in outfit cars or otherwise, assigned to 100 or 150
miles of track, which are supplemented only by small patrol gangs of 2 to 4 men assigned
to 30 to 40 miles to do the light work and miscellaneous jobs.
Buildings for tool houses for the track department will vary in size and extent, de-
pending on the requirements of the maintenance-of-way organization in use. The number
of men in the gang, the extent and number of power tools required to be protected from
weather and vandalism, the number of motor cars required and the necessity to house
highway motor trucks, are aH items for consideration. Weatherproof tool boxes are often
used for storage of such items as unit power tamper outfits. They reduce storage space
required in the tool house and are usually provided with handles for transportation to and
from the point u'sed.
Tool houses for the track department are of two basic types:
1. Roadway or on-line tool houses.
2. Tool houses for large yards and terminals.
The following items are important in making recommendations for new tool houses,
or conversion of existing structures to tool house use:
1. Efficiency on a user basis, space, facilities and location.
2. The initial cost, or cost of conversion, which must be as low as possible and meet
the requirements.
3. Maintenance requirements.
4. Attractiveness, since the building is usually located adjacent to main tracks.
5. Portability. Roadway tool houses frequently need to be portable to permit being
moved from one location to another, with or without dismiantling and with a
minimum of damage to building in making the move. It should be readily
expandable in at least one direction.
Roadway or On-Line Tool Houses
Site
The preferred location is near the center of present assigned maintenance limits or
where the predominance of work is expected to be done. It should be on a main or open
track to afford quick and easy movement of motor car's in either direction.
Consistent with other requirements, consideration should be given to availability of
Buildings 487
sewer, electric and water lines. A company telephone in a tool house will often result in
the saving of many man-hours and is a big help to supervision in emergencies or when
lineups are changed on short notice.
A location where suitable driveways can be built for highway trucks from an open
public roadway is important. Some railroads now, as standard practice, fence in tool
house areas with 5-ft high galvanized woven wire fence with lS-in high barbed wire tops.
The enclosure has a 12-ft wide drive-in gate for highway trucks and a service gate with
runway rails for on-track equipment, such as weed mowers, additional motor cars and
other equipment. This arrangement is very desirable at points vulnerable to pilferage.
Construction
Prefabricated buildings are recommended for roadway tool houses for the following
reasons:
1. Their cost is comparable with conventional types of buildings constructed entirely
on the site.
2. They can be assembled and erected in the field more rapidly and at less cost
than conventional buildings.
3. They can be moved from one location to another without dismantling. When
limited by size, many prefabricated buildings may be completely dismantled
and re-erected without loss of material.
4. Most prefabricated buildings are constructed of fire-resistant materials.
5. They are available in a wide range of sizes and materials, such as steel, gal-
vanized iron, aluminum, cement asbestos, wood and plywood.
Construction Details
At locations considered to be more or less temporary, the foundation may be placed
on treated pile butts with timber sills. With such foundations, floors of screening, gravel,
chat or cinders are usually used. Where fairly certain that the facility will be permanent,
a concrete footing should be used. Some railroads use 8-in thick walls to a depth of 6 in,
with two continuous Xo. 3 reinforcing rods. The survey indicated most railroads are now
using concrete footings and plain concrete floors. Others use cold-mix asphalt for floors
on a light crushed-stone base. Side walls 8 ft in height are satisfactory except when high-
way trucks are housed in the building. Most van-type trucks are about 9 ft 6 in high
and require a 10-ft door. In this event a 10-ft side wall placed on a 1 ft curb can be
used. This may give a more pleasing appearance than the use of 12-ft side walls, which
would be optional.
Gable-type roofs are recommended. A 4-in. in 12 pitch is satisfactory and customary.
Louvers can be provided in the gable ends, or roof ventilators may be used.
It is considered unnecessary in most locations to line inside walls of roadway tool
houses.
A survey revealed that most railroads prefer double-leaf swing doors for motor
cars having an opening from 6 ft 6 in to 7 ft wide. Others use an 8-ft wide sliding or
overhead type. Windows should be held to a minimum in Dumber. A steel window, 3 ft
9 in by 2 ft 9 in, is commonly Used that vent- inward and allows security bars to be
used on the outside.
Clothes lockers are now being demanded by labor in a great many localitii
lockers require considerable space, and to conserve it, some railroads are furnishing 1 ft
wide by 1 ft 6 in deep by 6 ft high steel lockers.
Lavatories and toilets are being provided only under unusual conditions
localities where required by law.
488 B uildings
Tool racks, shelves and bins should be provided for efficient storage and safe handling
of tools and supplies.
Gasoline must not be stored in tool house. An underground tank supplied with a
pump has some disadvantages. In some localities, oil companies will furni'sh an elevated
300-gal steel tank equipped with hose and lock and will deliver gasoline to tool house at
less expense than by company stores department if the cost of handling is considered.
Highway truck's can be supplied direct from the tank. Only in emergencies would truck
drivers be required to purchase gasoline by credit cards or otherwise.
One of the fundamental characteristics of an efficient track force is orderliness and
good housekeeping. This should start at the tool house and cannot be done unless a tool
house of sufficient size is provided to meet the demand for definite storage locations for
transportation equipment, power tools, hand tools, etc., in such a way as to permit easy,
safe and quick loading and unloading to reduce loss of time, confusion and accidents.
Lockers for personal clothing aid in the maintenance of a clean, orderly tool house. There
provision is considered a matter of policy.
Tool Houses for Large Yards and Terminals
Site
The preferred location is near the concentration of work for the section. It should
be located adjacent to an open track and should also be readily accessible from public
transportation, streets and roadways.
Consistent with other requirements, consideration should be given to availability of
sewer, electric, water and communications lines.
In many locations, the protection of supplies and equipment by suitable fencing or
enclosures is a necessity.
Construction
Building code requirements must be considered in the design and material selection.
Consideration must also be given to the industrial and sanitary codes. It is advisable
to construct large yard and terminal tool houses of a permanent type of material having
a low maintenance cost, good appearance and fire-resistant qualities.
As in the roadway tool house, the design must provide for safe, efficient stocking
and storage of tool's and supplies in tool racks, shelves and bins.
To maintain satisfactory employee relations and attract a better grade of labor,
often difficult to obtain in heavily populated areas, the adequacy of welfare facilities and
accessibility of the tool house for comfort and convenience of track labor should be
considered.
Floor plans are not included in this report due to the variance of requirements in
roadway, yard and terminal tool houses. In conclusion, the basic factors in track depart-
ment tool houses are summarized:
Site.
Building size to permit efficient and safe handling of supplies, tools, equipment and
personnel.
Building materials selected for durability and minimum maintenance.
Flexibility in regard to relocation or expansion.
Buildings 489
Report on Assignment 8
Fire-Retardant Paints for Railway Building Interiors
C. M. Angel (chairman, subcommittee), S. G. Urban, D. W. Converse, S. M. Bielski,
C. E. Booth, R. R. Cahal, J. W. Gwyn, W. G. Harding, Wm. Hayduk, B. J. John-
son, Jr., S. E. Kvenberg, R. E. Lilliston, G. H. McMillan, I. A. Moore, J. D. Moore,
Jr., G. H. Perry, T. V. Pyle, J. B. Schaub, J. T. Schoener, Loren Shedd, E. R. Shultz,
J. W. Wagner, J. W. Westvvood, and O. G. Wilbur
This report is submitted as information.
Introduction
The destructive force of fire has led present-day technicians to the field of developing
paint and compounds to retard the starting of fires, and to reduce their spread.
When approaching the problem of "Fire-Retardant Coatings for Railway Building
Interiors," it is of value first, to consider the flame-spread classification of building mate-
rials generally used in building construction. This would give the engineer an idea as to
the importance of fire-retardant coatings when coupled with flame-spread classification.
Flame-Spread Classification of Building Materials
The following flame-spread classifications of building materials have been developed
by the tunnel-type test method described in Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., Bulletin of
Research No. 32, dated September 1944.
Combustible Flame Spread
Materials Class Classification
Asbestos-cement board I 0
Foam glass I 8
Flame-resistant treated wall
fabric on unpainted plaster I 0-10
on painted plaster II 20-30
Asbestos-protected metal Ill 20-45
Mineral wool batt insulation
without exposed vapor seal II 10-20
with exposed vapor seal Ill 30-40
with exposed ordinary vapor seal IV 270
Red oak lumber IV 100
Douglas fir lumber IV 1000
White pine lumber IV 130
Yellow pine lumber IV 130
Plywood IV 100-180
Plastic wall tile IV 170
Pitchy pine lumber IV 180
Cellulose board V 225
Hair felt V 240
Veneered wood V 515
Canvass — in folds V 640
Cotton fabric— in folds V 1600-2500
In the above, the combustible class is identified as follows: I — Incombustible; II —
Fire Retardant; III — Slow-Burning; IV — Combustible, and V — Highly Combustible.
The flame-spread classification and combustible class indicates where consideration
should be given to fire-retardant coatings. The use of retardant coatings are not necessary
in combustible classes I, II, and III. However, they become important when dealing with
classifications IV and V.
490 Buildings
Fire-Retardant Coatings — Their Limitations
When considering the use of fire-retardant coatings, two things relating to fires
should be considered. One is fire spread and the other is termed fire resistance, or the
tendency of fire to penetrate a member or structure. The manner and extent to which
the spread of fire is retarded and in which penetration of fire is resisted are often closely
related.
It should be borne in mind that wood when exposed to fire develops a natural fire-
retardant coating, irrespective of the weather. The rate of transmission of heat through
wood may be improved slightly by fire-retardant treatment, but the most significant
benefit comes in reducing or delaying the spread of fire. All that can be expected of fire-
retardant treatments is to retard the burning and spread of fire to the point where the
wood will not continue to burn when the ignition source is removed or exhausted. How-
ever, after fires develop to large size and burn rapidly or for considerable periods, they
may overcome the resistance of fire-retarding coatings, but small fires can often be kept
small or even caused to die out by suitable coatings.
Interior Fire-Retardant Coatings
In general, two types of finishes are available. One type represents finishes so for-
mulated that they will not support combustion. The other type represents finishes which
may or may not be incombustible, but offers the added property of swelling or foaming
under moderate heat so that some insulation effect is obtained from them. In commer-
cially available coatings of today, the "intumescent" or swelling types suffer from a lack
of desirable properties as finishes. Most of the types marketed are water soluble, porous
and non-cleanable. In general appearance they are somewhat similar to whitewash and
offer only the advantages of intumescence.
Commercially available coatings of the first type have better properties, but even
these sacrifice film hardness, gloss retention, toughness and durability when compared
with conventional architectural or maintenance finishes. Much work is going on to improve
these properties, and current research offers considerable promise. It is also possible that
these improved coatings will be manufactured so that they do intumesce or swell and thus
combine fire-retardant properties and insulation properties. The extent or value of this
intumescence is yet to be determined.
In general, interior fire-retardant coatings can be grouped into the following broad
classifications:
Solutions of Water-Soluble Chemicals
Plain water solutions containing ammonium phosphates, mixtures of ammonium
sulfate and monoammonium phosphate borax and boric acid.
Suspensions of Chemicals in Water Solutions
This consists of an aqueous gel of sodium or diammonium alginate and fire retardant
chemicals. These chemicals consist of ammonium fire-retardant salts and mixtures of borax
and boric acid.
Linseed Oil Base Coatings
In this type of coating a portion of the pigment is replaced with finely ground borax.
Synthetic Resin Coatings
Synthetic resins, such as phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde, and dicyandiamide
in combination with ammonium phosphate
Buildings 49|
Casein and White Washcoatings
These are regarded as fire-retardant coatings when applied in heavy coats.
The foregoing gives a general description of the various interior fire-retardant coat-
ings. The following gives a more detailed formulation of the above classification and
government specifications.
Pigment Percentage by Weight
Formula A B C D
White lead* 41.0
Titanium-calcium 30.0
Lithopone ... 24.0
Zinc oxide
Borax 32.0
Raw linseed oil 22.8
Turpentine 3 .6
Japan drier 0.6
21.0
35.0
30.5
50.0
30.8
32.3
24.8
3.6
3.6
3.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
* Basic carbonated white lead.
Water Solutions of Fire-Retarding Chemicals
Sodium Silicate
Sodium silicate is an excellent fire retardant when freshly applied. The serious weak-
ness of both the straight sodium silicate coatings and the silicate coatings containing zinc
oxide, titanox, and iron oxide, as so far revealed in tests, is their instability.
The inclusion of pigments in the silicate formulations improves the appearance and
brushing properties of the preparations. The British recommended such pigmented sodium
silicate preparation for the protection of wood in attics against incendiary bomb fires.
The British formula is:
Sodium silicate solution — (Sp. Gr. 1.41 to 1.42 silica-soda ratio 3.2 to 3.4) 112 Lb
Kaolin 150 Lb
Water 100 Lb
Three to four coats of this preparation are required to give good protection. One
gallon will cover approximately 100 sq ft (four coats).
Alginate Preparations
A new type of fire-retardant coating developed at the Forest Products Laboratory
recently consists of finely ground fire-retardant chemical dissolved and suspended in an
aqueous sodium or ammonium alginate gel.
Three methods have been used for making these preparations. These methods, using
typical ammonium phosphate formulas, are described below:
Meth<>h 1 Parti by
Weight
Monoammonium phosphate 50
Two percent sodium alginate gel 50
Ml I SOD 2
Monoammonium phosphate 54
China clay 6
Two percent sodium alginate gel 40
Mi i in in J
Monoammonium phosphate
China clay 10.0
Drv sodium alginate '
492 Buildings
This same technique can be used to prepare such borax-boric acid formulations as the
following:
Parts by Weight
Formula 1 Formula 2
Borax (NasB.Or.lOrL.O) 25 22.5
Boric acid 25 22.5
Two percent alginate gel 50 50
China clay . . 5
Whitewash
Whitewash is generally regarded as having fire-retarding properties. Significant effec-
tiveness cannot, however, be obtained with a one-coat application. The following two
whitewash formulations that were tested gave moderate protection when three coats
were applied.
National Fire Protection Handbook (8th Edition) formula — page 424 —
Mix together 10 parts slacked lime, 1 part of portland cement, and sufficient salt
water to give a mixture of rather stiff consistency.
Formula 9 (Bulletin No. 304-D — National Lime Association) —
Casein — 5 lb
Borax — 5 lb
Lime paste — 8 gal (Approximately 8 gal of stiff lime paste are produced by slacking
25 lb of quicklime with 10 gal of water, or by soaking 50 lb of hydrated lime in 6 gal
of water.)
Casein Coatings
Casein coatings possess moderate fire-retardant effectiveness if at least three coats
are applied. The effectiveness is increased if borax is introduced into the formula.
It is to be noted that the degree of fire protection provided by three coats of white-
wash or casein coating is by no means comparable with that provided by three coats of
borax-linseed oil coating, sodium silicate, or the phosphate alginate preparations.
Government Specifications
The Government has specifications covering fire-retardant paints, as follows:
Paint Inside, Light Green, Semi-Gloss, Fire Retardant Specification JAN-P-701
Pounds per
Ingredients 100 Gallons
Titanium dioxide 250
Titanium — calcium pigment 225
Zinc oxide 170
Magnesium — silicate 90
Antimony oxide 100
Aluminum — stearate 8.5
Chromium — oxide — green 2.0
Alkyd resin solution 229
Paint thinner 281
Lead naphthenate drier 7.8
Cobalt naphthenate drier 1 .0
Maganese naphthenate drier 0.5
B uildings 493
Paint, Fire-Retardant (Binder For Anti-Sweat Coatings-Formula No. 34)
Specification MIL-P-1S144A
Pounds per
Ingredients 100 Gallons
Calcium carbonate 820
Antimony oxide 105
Resin — alkyd solution 320
Paint thinner 145
Lead naphthenate drier 2.8
Cobalt naphthenate drier 1.1
Paint, Fire-Retardant, Alkyd-Chlorinated Rubber, Yellow Gray, Semi-Gloss,
Formula No. 128 — Specification No. MIL-P-17974 (Ships)
Pounds per
Ingredients 100 Gallons
Titanium — calcium pigment 240
Titanium dioxide 175
Aluminum stearate 10
Lamp black 0.4
Yellow iron oxide 13
Zinc yellow 8
Alkyd resin 240
Chlorinated rubber solution 185
Turpentine 180
Xylene 75
Cobalt naphthenate drier 1.5
Epichlorohydrin 0.4
Paint, Interior, White and Tints, Fire-Retardant — Interior Fire-Retardant Paint
For Use on Wood, Plywood and Insulating Fiberboard Surfaces —
Specification No. TT-P-26-A
Pounds per
Ingredients 100 Gallons
Titanium dioxide 250
Titanium-calcium 235
Zinc oxide 170
Magnesium-silicate 90
Antimony oxide 100
Aluminum-stearate 8.5
Methyl — violet tones 0.2
Alkyd resin solution 229
Paint thinner 281
Lead naphthenate drier 7.S
Cobalt naphthenate drier 1 .0
Manganese naphthenate drier 0.5
Paint, Fire-Retardant, Alkyd-Chlorinated Rubber White, Semi-Gloss,
Formula No. 124 — Specification No. MIL-17970 (Ships)
Pounds per
Ingredients 100 Gallon-.
Titanium-Calcium pigment 240
Titanium dioxide 175
Aluminum-stearate 10
Alkyd resin 240
Chlorinated rubber solution 1 9 ;
Turpentine '
Xylene 75
Cobalt naphthenate drier
Epichlorophdrin
494 ^ Buildings
Tests
Specifications, formulas and other data concerning fire-retardant coatings have been
discussed in the foregoing. However, consideration should be given to the test details on
which the various fire-retardant coatings can be classified before they are placed on
interiors of buildings. This will guarantee the greatest amount of protection for the
expenditure.
Protection From Spontaneous Combustion Across A Fireproof
or Fire-Resistant Barrier
In a building, if a fire is raging in one partitioned area, it is conceivable that the walls
will become so hot that paint on adjacent compartments walls, not subject to direct flame
impingement, will burst into flames. The Navy has developed a reliable and reproducible
test to simulate this condition. In their test sheet, metal panels somewhat similar in profile
to an exercise dumbbell are painted on both sides with the fire-retardant coatings to be
tested. Film thickness is carefully measured, and the coatings are aged to designated times
to permit all solvents to leave. The panels are then clamped between two metal elec-
trodes, and a very high amperage (300) is passed through them. The panels become red
hot, and any tendency of the coatings to flash or spontaneously ignite is noted, from the
standpoints of time of ignition after the current starts, duration of the flash or flame,
and height of flame.
Flame Propagation on Combustible Substrates
This condition is obviously an indefinite one involving many variables, and accurate
correlation between laboratory tests and conflagration condition is obviously difficult. The
test most generally accepted is that conducted by the Underwriters' Laboratory in Chicago.
It involves a rather large flue or duct into which is fastened the substrate to be tested.
Gas flames are directed upon a part of the over-all length, for a measured time, and the
propagation of the flame is noted by the extent and rate of the burning which takes place
on the substrate. This test is run on a large scale (20 in by 25 ft), and actually simulates
conditions which might be encountered in buildings and structures.
Protection of Metal Structural Interior Members From Heat
Which Would Seriously Weaken Them and Promote Collapse
This problem is important in construction where roof and other structural members
are apt to be of unprotected steel. There is no method which will accurately evaluate the
ability of a finish to perform this function. The actual testing appears to be a relatively
simple problem, for it should be possible to insert finished structural steel members,
containing embedded thermocouples, into a very hot muffled furnace and plot the
temperature rise of the substrate.
Description of Six Other Methods of Test Used
To Evaluate Fire-Retardant Coatings
Test No. 1
A five-sided 4 by 4-ft box is constructed of the material to be used in the interior
structure. Two boxes are constructed. One is not painted, and the other is painted on the
interior with the proposed fire-retardant coating. They are placed on the ground with the
open box side close to ground, but exposed to the air. In each box is placed a measured
;tmount of combustible material soaked with a measured amount of oil or gasoline. The
combustible materials are ignited in each box at the same time. After the final glow has
stopped, a visual observation is made of the protection rendered by the fire-retardant
paint.
Buildings 495
Test No. 2
Fire-retardant properties can be determined l>\ using ' _• -in bj ' in by 3-in wooden
strips. They are suspended by strings tied around tacks in their ends, dipped intd tesl
paint, allowed to drain several minutes, then dried a minimum of 12 hr before testing.
Twelve of the specimens, weighed to the nearest 0.01 g, are placed in a criij, the flame
shield is lowered, and the burner is adjusted. The other part of the test is conducted in
accordance with ASTM method, serial designation E 160. After test the residue is weighed
and percentage of loss calculated.
Test No. 3
Further modification can be made of Test No. 2 by placing three specimens, each
H-in by y2-'m. by 3-in, side by side on the bottom of a wire crib, sheild lowered, and
Mekes' burner flame adjusted to 600 deg F at the point closest to the three specimens.
Flame is removed when specimens are afire. Time of exposure to flame before burning
is recorded; flame duration and glow duration after removal of burner are also recorded.
Any specimens which resisted the 600 deg F flame for 30 min are scraped, and the con-
dition of the underlying wood noted.
Test No. 4
One or more coats of fire-retardant paint are brushed on wooden strips 12 in long
by 5J4 wide by \i in thick. After allowing proper drying time, fire resistance is tested
by exposure to the flame of a blowtorch, adjusted to a constant temperature of 1100 deg F,
for 2 min at a distance of 3 in from metal end of the torch. Duration of burning, if any,
is recorded after removal of flame. After testing, the charred exterior is scraped to reveal
effects on underlying wood.
Test No. 5
The most practical and indicative test is to take wooden strips 12 in long, 1 in wide
and \\ in thick, and dry them in an electric oven for 8 hr at 250 deg F. Two coats of
the test paint are brushed on 48 hr apart, and allowed to dry a minimum of 48 hr; then
the specimens are placed in a ^-pint can, containing 10 g of cotton wiping waste and
75 g of denatured alcohol. These specimens, including an untreated strip as control, are
fastened in a perpendicular position and the alcohol in each can is ignited simultaneously
and allowed to burn for 22 min. The time required for the specimens to burn to the point
of collapsing is recorded, along with the progress of the burning, noting such details as
whether the coating contributed to the fire.
Test No. 6
This is a test for fire, glow and charcoal point determination. It was developed to
simulate conditions arising from a spark or live coal, by employing an electric heating
element with which a surface temperature of around 740 deg F can be maintained. At
this temperature the heating elements are a very bright red. For this test one control and
several coated specimens are prepared as for Test No. 2. They should be placed 1 in above
the electric coils and held at 600 deg F for 12 min. The fire, glow and charcoal points are
recorded.
Survey of Present Use of Fire-Retardant Paints by Various Railroads
A questionnaire was sent out to 27 railroads to find out which hive used fire-
retardant paints, and their thoughts concerning various points which may be of value
when their use is considered for a structure. The detail of the information received is as
follows:
496
Buildings
Yes
Does your railroad now use a fire-retardant paint? 8
Exterior use 3
Interior use 6
Tvpe of wood:
Untreated 9
Treated 5
100% Creosote 3
Pentachlorophenol 0
Mixed Oil and Creosote 1
Have any of your roundhouses been converted to diesel
shops? 22
Have other buildings been converted to diesel shops ? 17
Do they have wooden roofs? 23
Have you encountered heavy deposits of soot and oil in
diesel shop ceiling areas? 1Q
Do you recommend painting ceilings in shops and converted
roundhouses? 13
Fire-resistive paint 5
Fire-retardant paint 9
Other S
If answer is (Yes), how long should paint last?
Should it be cleaned ?
What would you consider an economical limit on cost of
paint per gallon ?
20
How much coverage must be obtained per gallon to be
economically sound ?
Conclusion
No
19
L3
10
3
3
5
5
10
3
3
3
(5
Years)
(3-5
' )
(4-5
' )
(5-10
' )
(7-10
' )
(7
' )
(10
1 )
(S3 .00)
4.00)
5.00)
5.50)
6.00)
7.00)
7.50)
9.00)
( 75 sqft
.( 80-100
(150
(200-250
(400-450
(450
(500
(300
No
Answer
0
11
11
15
19
19
19
19
0
0
1
5
17
15
19
13
0
14
IS
It can be generally stated that the work and tests conducted to measure the effective-
ness of fire-retardant coatings have been insufficient to determine how effective such
coatings would act in actual use; therefore, your committee can make no definite recom-
mendation as to which formulation or specification will produce the best protection to fire
hazard. Only the facts can be presented giving the chemical combinations which may be
suitable for the purpose intended. The selection must be based on individual tests before
the coatings are adopted for use. However, it must be borne in mind that all such coatings
Buildings 497
have their limitations, based upon the intensity and duration of the fire. All, at best, that
can be expected is to retard the burning and flame spread to a point where the wood will
not burn freely when the ignition source is removed or exhausted.
Tests have been made by Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., 207 E. Ohio Street,
Chicago 11, of some fire-retardant coatings.
Information on these tests can be obtained directly from Underwriters' Laboratories.
Also, the AAR, Research Center in Chicago has in process tests of some fire-retardant
coatings. Information on these tests will, no doubt, be made available in the near future.
Report of Committee 25 — Waterways and Harbors
A. L. Sams, Chairman,
F. B. Manning,
Vice Chairman,
(E) Member Emeritus.
Aki hi k Anderson
G.
II
Beasi.i v
G.
\Y
. Becki i<
G.
W
Benson
C.
.M
Bowman
A.
F.
Crowdi k
G.
K
Davis
B.
M
DORNBLATT
E.
H.
EC KEN BRINE
X.
E.
Ekrem
Benjamin Elkind (E)
OSCAE
: Fischer
R.
L.
Groover
C.
J.
Henry
B.
M
Howard
J.
E.
Inman
H.
F.
Kimball
Shu-:
r'lEN Li
G.
w
. Mahn, Jr.
S.
L.
Mapes
R. B. .Midkii i
J. G. Mum r
\\ J O'CONNELI
H. R. Peterson
C. VV. P]
R. C. Posi 1 1 s
J. G. Rom v
C. M. Seagram s
C. R. Shaw
W. D. Simpson
F. R. Spofford
G. L. Staley
A. B. Stone
J. G. Sutherland
W. R. Swatosh
P. V. Thelander
J. J. TlBBITS
G. A. Wolf
Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress in study, but no report.
2. Current policies, practices and developments dealing with navigation projects,
collaborating with AAR Committee on Waterway Projects.
No report.
3. Bibliography relating to benefits and costs of inland waterway projects
involving navigation.
Progress report, presented as information page 500
4. Economic analysis of a completed waterway project.
Progress in study, but no report.
5. Synopsis of that portion of the report by the Commission on Organization
of the Executive Branch of the Government (Hoover task force report) per-
taining to water resource development.
Final report page 500
6. Planning, construction and maintenance of rail-water transfer facilil
No report.
7. Relative merits and economics of construction materials used in waterfront
facilities.
Progress report, presented as information page 519
'I'm Ciimmiimi on Waterways vnd Haj
\ I ^\m^ Chairman.
\K'i \ Bulletin 539, Novembei 1955
400
500 Waterways and Harbors
Report on Assignment 3
Bibliography Relating to Benefits and Costs of Inland
Waterway Projects Involving Navigation
G. W. Becker (chairman, subcommittee), C. M. Bowman, A. F. Crowder, B. M. Dorn-
blatt, W. H. Eckenbrine, N. E. Ekrem, B. M. Howard, H. F. Kimball, R. B. Midkiff,
J. G. Miller, W. J. O'Connell, J. G. Roney, C. M. Seagraves, J. G. Sutherland, P. V.
Thelander.
Your committee submits the following report of progress which presents 5 additional
references not previously reported to the Association.
19S1
1. Maass, Arthur: Muddy Waters, The Army Engineers and the Nation's Rivers.
Published by Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
1955
2. Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government, Water
Resources and Power. A report to Congress June 1955. Set of 2 volumes, Government
Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C.
3. Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government Task
Force Report on Water Resources and Power, June 1955. Set of 3 volumes, Government
Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C.
1956
4. Moreell, Admiral Ben, (CEC) USN (Retired): Our Nation's Water Resources,
Policies and Politics. A series of 5 lectures given at the University of Chicago April 10,
May 1, 2, 3, 4, 1956. Can be purchased from The Baker and Taylor Company, Hillside,
N. J.
1957
5. Renshaw, Edward F.: The Measurement of Benefits from Public Investment in
Navigation Projects. Paper No. 5706, the University of Chicago Office of Agricultural
Research.
Report on Assignment 5
Synopsis of That Portion of the Report by the Commission
on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Gov-
ernment (Hoover Task Force Report) Pertaining
to Water Resource Development
J. J. Tibbits (chairman, subcommittee), Arthur Anderson, G. W. Benson, C. M. Bowman,
G. K. Davis, Benjamin Elkind, C. J. Henry, W. J. O'Connell, H. R. Peterson, R. C.
Postels, J. G. Roney, C. R. Shaw, F. R. Spofford, G. L. Staley, G. A. Wolf.
Your committee submits herewith a synopsis of Vol. 1 of the Report on Water
Resources and Power to the Congress of the United States by the Commission on Organ-
ization of the Executive Branch of the Government. No synopsis is submitted for Vol. 2,
which comprises the separate statements of the commissioners who dissented from the
report of the majority ;
This is a final report, submitted as information.
Waterways and Harbors 501
SYNOPSIS
The Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government was
created in accordance with Public Law 108, Eighty-third Congress, 1st Session, approved
July 10, 1953. The duties imposed upon the Commission, as expressed by a condensation
of the enactment, were defined as follows:
"The Commission shall study and investigate the present organization and
methods of operation of all departments, bureaus, agencies, boards, commissions,
offices, independent establishments, and instrumentalities of the Government except
the judiciary and the Congress of the United States to determine what changes
therein are necessary in their opinion to accomplish the purposes set forth in Section
1 of this act."
The declaration of policy referred to in Section 1 is as follows:
"It is hereby declared to be the policy of Congress to promote economy, effi-
ciency, and improved service in the transaction of the public business in the depart-
ments, bureaus, agencies, boards, commissions, offices, independent establishments,
and instrumentalities of the Executive Branch of the Government by —
"(1) recommending methods and procedures for reducing expenditures to the
lowest amount consistent with the efficient performance of essential services,
activities, and functions;
"(2) eliminating duplication and overlapping of services, activities, and func-
tions ;
"(3) consolidating services, activities, and functions of a similar nature;
"(4) abolishing services, activities, and functions not necessary to the efficient
conduct of government;
"(5) eliminating nonessential services, functions, and activities which are com-
petitive with private enterprise;
"(6) defining responsibilities of officials; and
"(7) relocating agencies now responsible directly to the President in depart-
ments or other agencies."
Regarding questions of policy and procedures, the law states, in addition to the
"Declared policy of Congress" that:
"The Final Report of the Commission may propose such constitutional amend-
ments, legislative enactments, and administrative actions as in its judgment are
necessary to carry out its recommendations."
The chairman of the Commission was Herbert Hoover. The associate members of
the Commission were Herbert Brownell, Jr., James A. Farley, Arthur S. Flemming, Styles
Bridges, John L. McClellan, Robert G. Storey, Clarence J. Broun, Chel Holifield, Joseph
P. Kennedy, Sidney A. Mitchell and Solomon C. Hollister.
In its analysis of the Executive Branch of the Government, the Commission made
a most exhaustive study of 16 divisions and subdivisions of that branch. They were Bud-
get and Accounting; Legal Services and Procedures; Intelligence Activities; Lending,
Guaranteeing, and Insurance Agencies; Federal Medical Services: Business Organization
of the Department of Defense; Overseas Economic Operations; Paperwork Management;
Personnel and Civil Service; Procurement; Real Property Management; Subsistence
ices; Use and Disposal of Federal Surplus Property; Business Enterprises in Competition
502 Waterways and Harbors
with Private Enterprise; Depot Utilization (Warehousing and Storage); and Water
Resources and Power.
It is upon the Commission's report to the Congress on Water Resources and Power,
and, more specifically, upon Vol. 1 of that report, that this synopsis is based. Vol. 2 of
the report contains the separate statements of Commissioners Brownell, Flemming, Farley
and Holifield in which they expressed dissents from the views of the majority and is not
included in this synopsis.
Most of the research for the study of the 16 divisions and subdivisions of the Execu-
tive Branch of the Government enumerated above was done by the "task force" method.
Under this procedure, the Commission selected groups or task forces of distinguished
citizens with extensive experience in the field under investigation.
Each task force, after a penetrating study of its respective division, submitted a
report incorporating its recommendations to the Commission. It was upon these task-
force reports that the Commission based its own conclusions and recommendations in
formulating its reports on each of the enumerated divisions and subdivisions of the
Executive Branch of the Government to the Congress.
The chairman of the task force charged with the study of Water Resources and
Power was Admiral Ben Moreell. The associate members comprised 26 citizens who were
prominent in the engineering, accounting, business, political, journalistic, economic and
legal professions.
Detailed investigations were made by the task force of more than 200 irrigation,
navigation, flood-control and power projects. Public hearings were held in 5 cities where
representatives of various interests from 30 states appeared in person or filed statements.
In more than 125 sessions, the task force undertook a searching examination of depart-
mental and congressional reports and inquired into the laws governing water resource
problems, including their historical background.
While the task force reported to the Commission, and its findings in large part were
made the basis of the Commission's report, the detailed information assembled by the
task force, comprising three volumes of some 1780 pages, was submitted by the Com-
mission to the Congress in a separate report.
The Commission's report to the Congress is divided into five parts:
Part I. The Magnitude of the Problem, National Water Policies and Administrative
Oiganization Problems Common to the Four Major Federal Activities.
Part II. Reclamation and Irrigation.
Part III. Flood Control.
Part IV. Navigation.
Part V. Power.
PART I. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM, NATIONAL WATER POLICIES
AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION PROBLEMS COMMON
TO THE FOUR MAJOR FEDERAL ACTIVITIES
The Commission studied the magnitude of water consumption together with esti-
mates of the Nation's future demands, indications of tightening supplies, competition
between the varied uses of water for domestic supply, irrigation, power, navigation,
recreation, pollution abatement, overlapping and conflicts of agencies, and defects in
methods of determining benefits from and justification of projects.
The Nation's water consumption was estimated by the U. S. Geological Survey, as
of 1950, at 180,000,000,000 gal per day of which 83,000,000,000 gal were used for indus-
Waterways and Harbors ' 503
try, 80,000,000,000 gal for irrigation and 17,000,000,000 gal for domestic purposes. In
addition, 1,100,000,000,000 gal per day pass through hydropower plants.
It is estimated that in the next 25 years water consumption for industrial use will
increase by 138,000,000,000 gal per day and for domestic use by 7,000,000,030 gal per day.
In studying the indications of tightening supplies, the Commission noted that, with
the increasing use of water due to the growth of population and other factors, there is
competition developing in some areas of the country for the use of available supplies.
This is especially noticeable in the western parts of the country where there are 25,800,000
acres of land under irrigation. The use of water for this purpose has, in some localities,
decreased the power potentials of streams, lowered their down-stream navigable depths
and interfered with fish and wild life.
In other parts of the country this competition for the use of water has made itself
felt in the increasing pollution of streams. Along the coasts, excessive withdrawals of sub-
surface water has resulted in the lowering of ground-water levels, with consequent
intrusion of salt water into fresh water supplies.
In its investigation of the overlapping and conflicts of the various Government
agencies concerned with w-ater resources and power the Commission uncovered numerous
weaknesses. At present, there are 25 Federal agencies having functions relating to water and
its use or control. They are the Corps of Engineers, the Bureau of Reclamation, the
Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Bureau of Land Management, the Geological Survey, the
Forest Service, the Agricultural Conservation Program Service, the Soil Conservation
Service, the Weather Bureau, the International Boundary and Water Commission (United
States and Mexico), the International Joint Commission (United States and Canada),
the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Farmers' Home Administration, the Coast Guard,
the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Bureau of Mines, the
Public Health Service, the National Park Service, the Bonneville Power Administration,
the Southwestern Power Administration, the Southeastern Power Administration, the
Rural Electrication Administration, the Federal Power Commission and the Atomic Energy
Commission.
Twelve of these agencies are concerned with flood-damage abatement; 9 are con-
cerned with irrigation; 8 with drainage; 7 with improvements to navigation; 9 with pol-
lution control; 10 with watershed treatment; 10 with recreation, fish and wild life con-
servation; 9 with power transmission and distribution; 15 with power generation and
13 with water supply.
Some of the inconsistencies and conflicts between agencies, as noted in the Commis-
sion's report, are as follows:
"The Bureau of Reclamation may investigate and survey reclamation proj-
ects without congressional authorization. The Corps of Engineers must have such
authorization either by congressional action or by congressional committees. The
Tennessee Valley Authority is required to have authorization by appropriations
committees only. The Secretary of Agriculture requires no special authorization^ for
individual headwaters flood control dams. The Department of Agriculture head-
waters tlood control dams are not coordinated with the Corps of Engineers down-
stream dams and they conflict as to fundamental data. Both the Bureau of Reclame
tion and Corps of Engineers have sought congressional authorization for the same
projects and have independently built multiple-purpose dams in the same rivet
drainage."
504 Waterways and Harbors
There is constant conflict and rivalry between the major Federal agencies with the
result that local interests play one agency against another to obtain the greatest benefits.
Further weaknesses uncovered by the Commission in connection with flood-control
projects were excessive estimates of benefits from and justifications of flood-control proj-
ects, inadequate hydrologic data, lack of uniformity in allocating the costs of Federal
multiple-purpose dams and lack of coordination between Government agencies, the States
and private enterprise in the development of river basins.
In order to provide a clear definition of the role and policies of the Federal Govern-
ment in the form of a consistent national water policy, the Commission proposes the
following:
Recommendation No. 1
"That the Congress adopt a national water policy on the following nine points:
"(a) That water resources should be developed to assure their optimum use
and their maximum contribution to the national economic growth, strength, and
general welfare.
"(b) That water resources development should be generally undertaken by
drainage areas — locally and regionally.
"(c) That the Federal Government should assume responsibility when par-
ticipation or initiative is necessary to further or safeguard the national interest or
to accomplish broad national objectives, where projects, because of size or com-
pexity or potential multiple-purposes or benefits, are beyond the means or the
needs of local or private enterprise. Under other circumstances the responsibility
for development should be discharged by State or local governments, or by local
organizations, or by private enterprise.
"(d) That in participation in water resources and power development, the
Federal Government without waiving its constitutional rights should take account
of the rights and laws of the separate States concerning appropriation, use, control,
and development of waters within their boundaries.
"(e) That the Federal Government should provide advisory assistance to those
local and State agencies that are undertaking water resource and power develop-
ment projects.
"(f) That before Congress authorizes or appropriates funds for Federal par-
ticipation in any water resource project, it should have substantial evidence that
the project is economically justified and financially feasible, and that such project
is essential to national interest.
"(g) That one Federal agency should be made responsible for collecting and
reviewing the adequacy of hydrologic data.
"(h) That all Federal agencies administering revenue-producing water resource
and power projects should pay all cash revenues to the Treasury as miscellaneous
receipts, and receive an annual appropriation for cash operating expenditures.
"(i) That regulation of rates for sale of electrical energy by all Federal agen-
cies be vested in the Federal Power Commission."
In its study of the organization required to implement a national water policy, the
Commission noted that on May 26, 1954, the President created the Committee on Water
Resources to review the entire subject. This Committee was composed of cabinet members
whose departments were concerned with any phase of water resource development. The
President, at the same time, also created an Interagency Committee on Water Resources
whose duties were to obtain increased coordination between agencies and resolve their
conflicts.
Waterways and Harbors 505
To streamline this organization, the Commission proposes the following:
"that the President's present Committee on Water Resources and the Inter
agency Committee on Water Resources be transformed into a Water Resource*
Board to be located in the Executive Office of the President. This Board is to be
created from among the Cabinet members, together with five public members,
presided over by a nonGovernment chairman; that the public members be recruited
from engineers, economists, and others of recognized abilities. The Board's primary
purpose would be to determine the broad policies for recommendation to the
President, and, with his approval, to the Congress. It would have the further duty
to devise methods of coordination of plans and actions of the agencies both at the
Washington level and in the field. With the resources of the Government agencies
available for data, the Board would require but little staff."
Recommendation No. 2
"That, without going into details, we recommend the creation of a Water
Resources Board upon the above basis."
In connection with strengthening the review functions of the Bureau of the Budget,
the Commission notes that at present, the Bureau is not adequately equipped to carry
out its responsibility of passing upon the merits of all water development projects pro-
posed by the Federal agencies. The Commission, therefore, proposes the following:
Recommendation No. 3
"That the staff conducting certain of the functions of the Bureau of the Budget
be strengthened by such professional staff as will enable it to fully perform the
function of evaluation of the merits of water development projects presented to
it for appropriations."
PART II. RECLAMATION AND IRRIGATION
Long before the Federal Government took an interest in irrigation, individual enter-
prise and local interests had started on the development of this phase of our water resource
program. Extensive irrigation had been developed by the Mormon Church in Utah before
the Civil War, and there was a local irrigation district established on the Gila River in the
Southwest before the war.
Federal participation in irrigation began with the Reclamation Act of 1902. This Act
established the Reclamation Service (revised later to the Bureau of Reclamation) in the
Department of the Interior and set up the Reclamation Fund to assist in the develop-
ment of irrigation. This is a revolving fund into which originally were paid the receipts
from the sale of public lands. Later, certain mineral and oil royalties were deposited in this
fund as well as certain electric power receipts from irrigation dams, and certain con-
tributions made by congressional appropriations.
The income of the Reclamation Fund was increased in 1938 by the assignment of
certain electric power receipts from projects paid for out of other funds, for example
the Columbia River project and the Central Valley project in California. The fund had
accumulated a total of about $833,000,000 as of June 30, 1952.
Federal interest in irrigation is justified by other factors than the basic ones of pro-
viding land for farmers or of increasing the food supply. The economy of the entire
country is benefited, not only by the increased value of the land made productive b)
506 Waterways and Harbors
irrigation, but also by the inevitable formation of villages and towns which arc form d
lo serve the farmer in furnishing his supplies, marketing his crops and which, later on,
serve as a nucleus for industry. Irrigation has fostered the establishment of thriving com-
munities in areas that might otherwise have been open only to sporadic development.
According to the 1950 census, there are about 25,800,000 acres under irrigation,
7,147,000 acres of which are under Federal projects. It is predicted that in the next 10 to
20 years, another 10,000,000 acres will be brought under irrigation, bringing the total
up to about 35,000,000 acres.
In examining the irrigation phase of water resource development, the Commission
discovered serious under-estimation of the costs of irrigation projects at the time of
authorization. As an example, the financial studies of 90 irrigation projects authorized
between 1903 and 1944 showed the following as of June 30, 1952:
Estimated total cost at the time of authorization $1,580,000,000
Estimated total cost to complete as of 1952 $3,317,770,000
Total expenditures to June 30, 1952 $1,968,933,800
It is obvious that there was a serious under-estimation in this 110 percent increase
in cost, although part of the increase can be attributed to the extension of the original
projects and rising prices. However, the Commission feels that if the Congress had been
better advised, at least a part of these projects would not have been authorized.
In its investigation of the recovery of costs, the Commission noted the following:
"Many of these projects are multiple-purpose, providing not only for irriga-
tion but electric power, and in some cases contribute water to navigation and
assist in flood control. The portion of cost of these 90 projects allocated to water
users was on June 30, 1952, $1,040,500,000. The farmers are to reimburse the Gov-
ernment for this cost, and up to the above date they had paid in about $95,-
300,000. The large amount remaining cannot be regarded as delinquent as the
payments are spread over a period of at least 40 years after their water supply
has been received."
Other phases of the irrigation problem studied by the Commission were the length
of time required to complete some of the projects, in some cases ranging up to 40 years
and the failure of certain projects.
As a result of its study of the reclamation and irrigation problems the Commission
indicates five conditions which are necessary for the success of such projects:
"1. They must have technical feasibility.
"2. They must be soundly financed.
"3. They must have fertile soil capable of agricultural production over long
periods of years.
"4. They must have an adequate and suitable water supply.
"5. There must be farmers available who are interested in and enthusiastic
for irrigation agriculture.
"Furthermore, experience shows that the farmers alone cannot bear the whole
cost of irrigation projects."
Up to June 30, 1952, the users of water for irrigation, although not yet in default,
have been able to repay only $95,300,000 of the $1,040,000,000 allocated for payment by
them Tt is evident that they will be under a great strain tn pay off the balance. Tbf truth
Waterways and Harbors 507
is that the farmers cannot bear these construction costs or interest, no matter how mui b
is charged off to other purposes or how low the rate of interest.
The Commission suggests a plan for consideration by the Water Resources Board
proposed in Recommendation No. 2:
"(a) That prior to the authorization of any Federal irrigation project, the
State or States concerned should be required to organize the area into an irrigation
district in the fashion long current in the West.
"(b) That the irrigation district become responsible for the portion of costs
assigned by the congress to the project for repayment.
"(c) That the irrigation district impose a tax on all residents of the district,
thus insuring that the other community beneficiaries share the burden and not the
farmer alone as is the case at present.
"(d) That all operating expenses of the irrigation district, except the operation
of the dam and major canals, should be borne by the irrigation district, instead
of charging them to the farmer."
In order to simplify the calculations of the direct and indirect benefits upon which
the Congress must rely in making authorizations and appropriations, the Commission
proposes:
"that justifications be based on the relation to the value per acre of similar
lands already under irrigation in similar regions. For instance, if similar lands
already irrigated are valued at $200 per acre, Congress could expect to get part
of such a sum back by district payments. If Congress should feel that the indirect
benefits to the community and the Nation justified larger Federal aid, then it
should be also on the acreage basis."
This method would serve to bring the amount of subsidy into the open in terms
comprehensible to the public.
To protect the Federal Government from under-estimations of cost and over-
estimations of benefits, the Commission proposes:
"Some part of losses arising therefrom should be borne by the irrigation
district.
"The State governments, however, have precisely the same type of interest in
the making of new commodities and new communities as has the Federal Govern-
ment. It would seem appropriate for. the State governments to assume some part
of the above-mentioned losses if any resulted."
In regard to acreage limitation the Commission has this to say:
"The Federal Government has in many instances limited the amount of
acreage that could be held in the Federal projects by any one farmer, usually to
160 acres. This limitation is enforced through control of the delivery of water to
the owner. The task force considers that a limitation of acreage is justified but
that the criteria for a family-sized farm should not be based on a rigid limitation
of acreage but nn a basis to meet local conditions."
Recommendation No. 4
"That the Congress amend presenl acreage limitation - to meel local
conditions in the ahovr manner."
508 Waterways and Harbors
In connection with revolving funds, the Commission finds that Congress has diverged
from the initial idea of a single reclamation revolving fund by the creation of several other
revolving funds. These funds are all intermixed with each other and their continuance
in this condition obscures the financing of projects and any subsidies involved.
To correct these inconsistencies, the Commission proposes:
Recommendation No. 5
"That the revolving funds be abolished and all moneys payable into these
funds be covered into the general fund of the Federal Treasury and all project
funds be appropriated by the Congress."
PART III. IFLOOD CONTROL
The Federal Government took its initial step into the field of flood control by the
enactment of the "Swamp Land Acts" of 1849 and 1850. Previously, flood control had
been regarded purely as a local matter. Later, in 1879, the Mississippi River Commission
was created by Congress. However, until 1890 this Commission confined itself to the
problems of navigation of the stream. In 1893, the California Debris Commission was
created to cope with the problems of control of debris from gold mining which interfered
with the navigation of streams and damaged farm lands. However, it was not until the
congressional act of March 1, 1917, that the Federal Government got into flood control
on a large scale, which has been greatly increased by later enactments.
At present, there are five Government agencies concerned with flood control, i.e., the
Corps of Engineers, the Bureau of Reclamation of the Department of the Interior, the
Soil Conservation Service of the Department of Agriculture, the Tennessee Valley Author-
ity and the International Boundary and Water Commission, United States and Mexico.
The Corps of Engineers has the major responsibility for flood control which includes
1033 authorized past and present projects, the total estimated cost of which is $11,100,-
000,000. A substantial proportion of this cost is properly chargeable to power, navigation
drainage, irrigation, recreation and other purposes. The ultimate program of the Corps
of Engineers, as contained in a forecast which appeared in the Congressional Record of
August 6, 1948, was approximately $12,300,000,000. In terms of 1953 prices this would
be about $15,200,000,000, which would be solely for flood control and includes projects
not yet authorized. In 1951, the Corps of Engineers estimated that the ultimate flood-
control program, when completed, will require a Federal expenditure of about $46,900,000
annually for maintenance and operation.
The Department of the Interior, through the Bureau of Reclamation, is indirectly
concerned with flood control. An element of flood control, together with irrigation, naviga-
tion and power is contained in the Bureau's large multiple-purpose dams and reservoirs.
Flood control water storage capacity has been provided in about 30 of the Bureau
of Reclamation reservoirs as of June 30, 1953. The cost allocable to flood control amounts
to approximately $238,000,000 for these projects.
The Department of Agriculture, through the Soil Conservation Service, was author-
ized, under the Flood Control Act of 1936, to participate in flood control by constructing
small dams in the headwaters of streams. As of December 1954, an incomplete canvass
of these minor dam projects showed that in the 1,548 districts canvassed, a total of
10,290 small watersheds, containing almost 427,000,000 acres, are considered in need
of the flood prevention and watershed protection program. The total cost of this pro-
gram is estimated to be in excess of $16, £00,000,000 and if new supplemental work is
Waterways and Harbors 509
added, the ultimate cost might exceed $25,000,000,000, some part of which would be
covered by local contributions.
The Tennessee Valley Authority, as authorized by the Tennessee Valley Authority
Act of 1933, is directed "in the operation of any dam or reservoir in its possession and
control to regulate the stream flow primarily for the purposes of promoting navigation
and controlling floods." Appropriations for flood control allocated to the Tennessee Valley
Authority through fiscal year 1954 totalled $183,700,000. It is recommended that these
flood control and other non-power functions be transferred to other Federal or States
agencies.
Taking under consideration the program of all the Government agencies engaged in
flood control, the Commission estimates that the total amount involved in these programs
might exceed $41,000,000,000, not including the Tennessee Valley Authority.
In 1824, the assignment to the Corps of Engineers of peacetime duties connected with
water resources began with improvements to navigation. As time went on, the Federal
civil-works program expanded steadily, and Congress continued to assign additional duties
to the Corps. It was called upon to construct lighthouses, railroads, the Panama Canal
and other large projects. The accomplishment of assignments such as these established the
Corps of Engineers as the major civil-works engineering agency of the Government.
The Corps comprises not only engineer officers but also a large staff of civilian em-
ployees. This organization operates out of 10 division and 41 district offices. The divisions
and districts have been designed to include complete drainage basins, groups of basins or
certain coastal areas.
Besides the division and district offices, the organization includes the following
special agencies under the supervision of the Chief of Engineers: the Mississippi River
Commission, the California Debris Commission, the Board of Engineers for Rivers and
Harbors, the Waterways Experiment Station and the Beach Erosion Board.
As of October 31, 1954, there were 116 engineer officers together with 26,445 civilian
employees engaged in the civil-works program.
In addition to administering the civil-works program, the Corps of Engineers also
constructs military projects for the Army and Air Force. The number of persons engaged
in this work on the above date was 1,056 officers, 4,791 other military personnel, and
26,659 civilians.
Thus, on the above date, there was a total of 59,067 persons under the direction
of the Corps of Engineers.
The Department of Agriculture has expanded its activities from its original flood
control methods by means of reforestation, vegetal land cover and the creation of local
soil conservation districts into a great program of constructing headwater dams as author-
ized by the Flood Control Act of 1916. This has resulted in conflicts and overlaps with
the Corps of Engineers.
Up to the end of 1054, the Department of Agriculture employed 934 engineers with
large staffs and, as of this date, had completed 212 projects, with another 112 under
constuction for which $42,230,629 had been appropriated through fiscal year 1054.
Concerning the flood-control program of the Soil Conservation Service of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the Commission makes the following appraisal:
"(a) The Soil Conservation Service has . . . under-estimated the cost of
providing storage capacity in headwater reservoirs.
"(b) Estimates of flood damages made by the Soil Conservation Service are,
in general, larger than those made by the Corps of Engineers."
510 Waterways and Harbors
Because of the competence of the Corps of Engineers, because its personnel is oper-
ating in all the drainage areas of the country, and because it is undesirable to maintain
another large engineering organization in the Federal Government, the Commission
proposes:
Recommendation No. 6
"That the construction of headwater dams in the flood-control program of the
Soil Conservation Service be transferred to the Corps of Engineers."
Summarizing the problems in flood-control development, it is found that there are
many flood-control projects which are largely, if not wholly, local in their utility.
A number of projects of doubtful value have been authorized which would probably
not have been approved if it were necessary for the local interests to provide a portion
of the funds for their construction.
It is recognized that there are certain basic Federal responsibilities in water resource
development. However, local communities, non-Federal agencies, and private businesses
which derive direct benefits from such development projects have an equally basic obliga-
tion to share the financial burden in proportion to the benefits received.
PART IV. NAVIGATION
It is obvious that civil-work, projects to improve navigation are necessary for the
national defense, the conservation of the national domain, and the promotion of inter-
national and interstate commerce.
Improvements to navigation were begun in the Colonial period. In 1630, the City of
Boston was engaged in harbor work. In 1820, funds for surveys of river improvements
were appropriated by the Congress and appropriations for these improvements were
initiated four years later. However, up to 1910, the total expenditures for this work were
only about $500,000,000.
In contrast, the total appropriations from 1910 to June 30, 1954, for river and harbor
improvement and maintenance, including canals, were in excess of $4,500,000,000. In addi-
tion, the States and municipalities have also undertaken navigation improvements or
made contributions to such improvements, the value of which it is impossible to estimate.
Although many Federal agencies have had a share in navigation improvement, the
Corps of Engineers has assumed the major responsibility for planning, constructing and
operating Federal navigation improvement projects, the only exception to this policy
being the Tennessee Valley Authority.
The activities of other Federal agencies have had their effect upon navigation through
the construction of dams for electric power and irrigation, and flood control by the
Bureau of Reclamation and the Department of Agriculture.
In regard to the questions of economic justification and evaluation of navigation
projects, about the only problems of justification of new projects in the Great Lakes
system, the Mississippi River drainage system, our inland and coastal canals and our
major coastal rivers are depth and maintenance.
The problems of justification of new projects and justification of the maintenance
of old projects are, for the most part, in the tributary streams of these river systems.
Because of changes in methods of transportation, a number of completed projects have
become obsolete, or traffic has dwindled to such an extent that their continued improve-
ment and maintenance is questionable.
Waterways and Harbors 5H
As early as June 24, 1926, 131 projects which had become obsolete, or through which
traffic had decreased to the degree where their continued maintenance was not justified,
were recommended for abandonment by the Chief of Engineers. This recommendation
has failed to receive any congressional action to date.
At present, the list of authorized rivers and harbors projects classified as "active"
make up a $3,600,000,C00, 15-year program. In addition, there are "inactive and deferred"
projects listed that would add another six years to this program.
On August 7, 1953, the Chief of Engineers sent a memorandum to the Secretary
of the Army in reference to "inactive" projects. The Commission suggests that an initial
step be taken in the de-authorization of obsolete or unsound projects by the adoption of
the proposal contained in this memorandum. A later estimate by the Corps of Engineers
in January 1955 would reduce the backlog of navigation and flood projects now authorized
by $976,600,000.
The Commission, therefore, proposes the following:
Recommendation No. 7
''That all projects declared obsolete or unsound by the Chief of Engineers
should be removed from congressional authorizations."
On the question of higher bridge clearances, there is a constant conflict between the
users of the inland waterways and the highway authorities and railroad companies. How-
ever, the present law compels the Corps of Engineers to favor the users of the waterways.
The Commission notes that:
"A recent report by the Department of Commerce revealed that at least 36
movable-span highway bridges in 17 States never have opened to accommodate
navigation, and 122 highway bridges in 25 States have not been opened for naviga-
tion for a year or longer. In addition, at least 119 movable-span railroad bridges
were not opened for navigation during the year, and at least two have never been
opened. These figures did not cover all of the States nor all of the railroads having
bridges over navigable waters."
In examining the question of the need for a "user charge" on the Nation's inland
waterways, the Commission considered the following factors:
The greater proportion of traffic over our inland waterways is in bulk commodities
such as coal, oil and ore. A traffic on large pleasure craft has also developed, for the most
part on inland canals, which benefits a relatively small number of individuals.
These waterways are maintained and operated by the Government at great annual
expense and at no charge to the users.
The principle of charging tolls for the use of inland canals was recognized very
early in this Nation's development. Ships passing through the Panama Canal pay tolls
for its use. Recent enactment of legislation which authorized the St. Lawrence Sea wax
also recognizes this principle by making it mandator) thai tolls be paid sufficient to
reimburse the Government for all costs incurred in its construction, operation and
maintenance.
There is no difference in the principle which requires the imposition oi tolls for tin-
use of the Panama Canal and the St. Lawrence Seaway which does not equally compel
the imposition of tolls for the use of our inland waterways.
The Commission, therefore, proposes:
512 Waterways and Harbors
Recommendation No. 8
"That Congress authorize a user charge on inland waterways except for smaller
pleasure craft, sufficient to cover maintenance and operation, and to authorize the
Interstate Commerce Commission to fix such charges."
PART V. POWER
The installed kilowatt capacity of electric generating plants in the United States,
including those for industrial production, as of December 31, 1953, were 107,353,000 kw.
Of this total, 87,053,000 kw were generated in privately owned plants, 11,358,000 kw were
generated in Federal plants and 8,942,000 kw in non-Federal, mostly municipal plants.
In 1933 Federal power comprised 0.7 percent of the total generating capacity of the
country. By 1953 it had risen to 12.4 percent and, with the completion of present author-
ized Federal programs, it is estimated that it will increase to 17 percent.
According to an estimate by the Federal Power Commission, the undeveloped hydro-
electric capacity of the Nation is approximately 88,000,000 kw. It is further estimated by
the commission that by 1975 the total demand of all generating plants, both public and
private, will have tripled.
The Federal Power Commission estimates that, in addition to the above, the total
industrial generation may increase from the more than 70,000,000,000 kw-hr generated in
1953 to about 150,000,000,000 kw-hr in 1975.
Based upon the foregoing, it is estimated that new utility plant generating capacity
of about 190,000,000 kw will be required by 1975. At present prices, this added installation
would amount to more than $35,000,000,000.
The development of Federal policies in connection with the generation of electric
power can be illustrated by a review of the major steps taken by the Government over
the years.
In 1902, Congress enacted the law creating the Reclamation Service, now known as
the Bureau of Reclamation, for the purpose of promoting development of irrigation in
the West. At the same time, Congress set up the Reclamation Fund into which, originally,
the receipts from the sales of public lands were deposited. Later, other Federal receipts
and royalties were deposited in this fund to encourage irrigation. Still later, proceeds
from the sale of power generated by Federal power installations were added to this fund.
In 1906, Public Law 103 was enacted by the first session of the 59th Congress, under
Section 5 of which, dams constructed for the storage of water required for irrigation were
authorized by the Government to produce electric power as a by-product and to sell such
power to municipalities. The first clause giving preference to public bodies in the purchase
of power generated at reclamation installations was contained in this law. This practice
was modified and extended by laws passed in 1933 and by later enactments.
In 1920, Congress passed the Federal Water Power Act which created the Federal
Water Power Commission made up of members of the Cabinet. This Act made it manda-
tory that licenses must be obtained for the construction of power plants on navigable
streams or on public lands.
In 1928, the Boulder Canyon Project Act was passed by Congress under which the
Federal Government was authorized to build the first large multiple-purpose dam on the
lower Colorado River for irrigation, flood control and the generating of power, now
known as Hoover Dam.
The act provided that before the project was built, the power should be sold for
delivery at the power plant on terms of a 50-year contract. This contract was designed
Waterways and Harbors 5_U
to return 4 percent on the Government's investment in power (revised later to 3 percent) ;
amortize the capital invested in the project over a period of 50 years and return a certain
percentage to the States in lieu of State taxes. This last provision was later revised to an
annual payment of $300,000 each to Arizona and Nevada. A later enactment was passed
creating the Lower Colorado River fund into which an annual payment of $500,000 is
made, thus making a total of $1,100,000 in addition to interest and amortization.
In 1030, Congress reorganized the Federal Power Commission as an independent
agency.
In 1933, the Tennessee Valley Authority was established as a corporation, inde-
pendent of all other agencies of the Federal Government. Its duties were to assume the
administration of the Muscle Shoals power and chemical plants built during World War I.
Its additional duties were to develop flood control, navigation, hydro-electric power and
other services for the Tennessee Valley and vicinity. No requirements as to amortization
or interest was made by Congress in creating the Authority.
In 1933, the Columbia River multiple-purpose projects were begun. These projects
included several large dams. The marketing of the electric power generated by these dams
is consolidated under the Bonneville Power Administration.
In 1934, the Parker Dam project below the Hoover Dam on the lower Colorado River
was begun.
In 1935, Congress authorized the Federal Power Commission to regulate rates and
establish accounting and reporting methods of private utilities engaged in interstate power,
and also some Government projects.
In 1935, as a relief measure, the Rural Electrification Administration was created in
the Department of Agriculture to promote the development of electric power in rural
areas. Farmer cooperatives may borrow money at 2 percent interest, with the principal
amortized over a period of 35 years. During the first 5 years both interest and payments
on the principal are deferred.
In 1935, the Central Valley project was begun. Four power plants are included in this
project.
In 1939, multiple-purpose dams under what is now known as the Southwestern
Power Administration were started.
In 1940, the Government made a radical departure from solely hydro-electric power
development to steam power generation by authorizing the Tennessee Valley Authority
to construct such plants.
In 1942, multiple-purpose dams were started under what is, at present, known as
the Southeastern Power Administration.
In 1955, generation of power from nuclear energy was begun by the Government
under the administration of the Atomic Energy Commission.
This succession of Federal enactments in the development of electric power has
resulted in many inconsistencies and conflicts. The Commission's report summarizes these
as follows:
"(a) Differences in the criteria used in 'estimation of benefits and justification'
for different projects.
"(b) Differences in interest rates between different projects which should be
paid the Federal Government on the capital invested.
"(c) Different methods between projects for determination of rates for sak
of power.
"(d) Inclusion of interest on capital during construction in the cost of some
projects and not in others.
514 Waterways and Harbors
"(e) Inclusion of supervisory expenditures during construction in the cost of
some projects and not in others.
"(f) Differences in the method of allocation to power of its part of the cost
of multiple-purpose dams."
For determining the degree of success of Federal power projects the Commission sets
up the following criteria:
"(a) That the Federal Government should receive three percent interest an-
nually upon its investment in order to assure return of its own borrowing cost on
loans of such length.
"(b) That the investment should be amortized in not more than 50 years for
hydro-electric plants and 35 years for steam plants.
"(c) That capital costs of each project should include all such costs as prelim-
inary investigation, design, acquisition of land and water rights, relocation of
facilities, etc., including supervision and interest on capital during construction.
"(d) That there should be annual provision for replacement of the plants
during the amortization periods.
"(e) That the projects should pay local taxes equal to those of private electric
utilities.
"(f) That the earnings of the Federal projects should include an amount equal
to the Federal tax exemption, based on the tax payments of private utiliites."
If calculated upon the above basis, the Federal power projects of the Tennessee Val-
ley Authority, the Columbia River Basin projects, the Hoover Dam, the Parker-Davis
Dams, the Southwestern Power Administration, the Southeastern Power Administration,
and the Central Valley Projects, instead of showing a profit as is now claimed, would,
as of June 30, 1953, show a deficit of $331,591,045.
It is apparent from the foregoing that these projects are being constructed, operated
and maintained by means of subsidies supported by general taxation. However, the tax
burden represented by these subsidies is not distributed to bear heaviest on those sections
which derive the most benefit from them. It is estimated that the total number of indi-
viduals who will receive direct benefits from the Federal power programs, when completed,
represent less than 10 percent of the entire population.
In the case of the States of New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, the injustice
and inequality of the distribution of the burden is even more marked. These three States,
with 20 percent of the Nation's population and whose taxes are 29 percent of the Nation's
total, receive no benefits whatever from the Federal power program.
The burden of taxation represented by these subsidies is thrown still further out of
balance by the preference clauses incorporated into the laws authorizing power projects.
As provided by these clauses, Federal power must be marketed preferentially to nonprofit
power agencies, mostly to cooperatives and municipal plants. The Federal power agencies
pay no Federal taxes and little, if any, State or local taxes. The nonprofit transmission
agencies are exempt from all Federal and most State and local taxes. Their securities are
also exempt from Federal taxes, and carry the lowest rates of interest. It is estimated
that revenues from the sales of Federal power in 1953 fell about 40 percent below the
value of the power due to these tax immunities and other uneconomical rate-making
practices.
In establishing their rates, the Federal agencies have taken advantage of their exemp-
tion from interstate and intrastate control. They are free from regulation by all State
Waterways and Harbors 515
and local laws and agencies. Except for certain amounts stipulated in the acts which
authorized the Hoover Dam and the Tennessee Valley Authority, no State or local taxes
are contributed by Federal power projects.
Rate-making practices between Federal agencies also show a wide variation. Rates
charged by private utilities engaged in interstate power transmission are regulated by the
Federal Power Commission. The Bureau of Reclamation is exempt from regulation by the
Federal Power Commission except for power sold by the Bureau for the Corps of Engi-
neers. Rates fixed by the Tennessee Valley Authority are exempt from regulation by the
Federal Power Commission or any State or local body.
The Hoover Commission insists that if Federal agencies continue to produce powet
in areas normally served by private utilities, they fix their rates using accepted rate-
making practices which would return, at least, the actual cost of production of the power
and include a fair share of Federal, State and local taxes.
In order to correct the above injustices and inconsistencies, the Commission proposes:
Recommendation No. 9
"That the Congress empower and direct the Federal Power Commission to fix
the rates on Government power sales at such levels as will —
"(a) Eliminate the inequities now imposed upon the great majority of the
people ;
"(b) Amortize and pay interest on the Federal investment in power, plus an
amount which will equal Federal tax exemption based upon the Federal taxes paid
by the private utilities; and
"(c) Provide payments in lieu of full taxes to the State and local government
equivalent to those the private utilities would pay."
In regard to the question of Federal steam power electric plants, the Commission
notes that the Tennessee Valley Authority, which was authorized to develop the Tennessee
River, with its main objectives the improvement of navigation and flood control, and
hydro-electric power as a by-product, has virtually completed its originally conceived
program. However, it has now begun expanding its activities into the field of steam-
■joncrated power. As presently planned, its program of steam plant construction con-
templates an ultimate capacity which will be three times that of the system's total hydro-
electric capacity.
Several Federal hydro-electric plants are located on streams having a wide variation
in flow. Power from these plants is mainly useful for "peaking" purposes, i.e., when it is
utilized to carry the short duration, high peaks of the power load. This function can best
be utilized by interconnecting them with existinir power systems.
The Commission, therefore, proposes:
Recommendation No. 10
"That the Government or it- agencies cease the building of steam plants and
provide for the equation of their power load- by interconnection with the grids
of neighboring power systems. '
In the sale of power from Federal power plants, the Commission finds that, as
demanded by the preference clauses in tnosl Federal power statutes, the. are providing
an increasing proportion of their power to preference customers, such as municipal plants
and cooperatives. In some cases it has been found that some Federal agencies air so
516 Waterways and Harbors
to serve preference customers that they have built uneconomic distribution lines and have
sold power to them at less than the cost of production.
In addition, serious inequities and discrimination between the citizens of the various
States have resulted from the exercise of the preference clause. For example, almost 85
percent of the power produced by the Columbia River Basin projects, as of 1953, was
received by the State of Washington, which has many preference customers. In contrast,
Oregon received less than 15 percent because most of its power transmission is services
by private utilities. The Commission insists that, in equity, Federal power should be dis-
tributed on equal terms to preference organizations and private utilities and their
customers.
The Commission finds also that Federal power transmission lines have been built
where private utility lines could have been used and that additional lines are proposed.
The Commission, therefore, proposes:
Recommendation No. 11
"(a) That the private utilities be permitted to purchase a fair share of
Federal power.
"(b) That no further building of transmission lines be undertaken where such
transmission service can be provided by non-Federal agencies."
In the area of Federal competition with private enterprise, the Commission notes
that such competition is more widespread in the field of power generation and distribution
than in any other governmental activity and that, by such competition, the Government
is repudiating the principles of our economic system which is based upon private enterprise.
The fact is that the Government is in the business of producing and transmitting
power as a result of the building of multiple-purpose dams necessary for various other
phases of water development. However, in order to reduce this competition in the gen-
eration and distribution of power, the Commission does not advocate the sale of the
electrical facilities in these multiple-purpose dams to private power companies. It does
suggest that the Federal Government could attain the desired result by the fixing of fair
rates, by eliminating the duplication of unnecessary functions and by ceasing to build
steam power plants.
As to the problem of future expansion of Government into the power field with
reduced competition with private enterprise, the Commission recognizes that the Nation
must continue to develop its water resources in the areas of irrigation, navigation and
flood control. A necessary part of these phases of water development is the construction
of multiple-purpose, water storage dams, a by-product of which is power.
The Government should assume the portions of the cost of these dams properly
allocable to navigation and flood control while any portion of the cost assigned to
irrigation should be paid for by the users.
In considering the power phase of multiple-purpose projects, the question naturally
arises as to whether the cost chargeable to power can be provided by private organizations,
by non-Federal power bodies or by combinations of both.
As an answer to this question, the Commission reviews the following facts:
Beginning with the Hoover Dam, many of the multiple-purpose projects were beyond
the technical or financial abilities of private organizations to provide the portion of cost
of allocated to power production. That condition does not obtain today.
Private companies and non-Federal public bodies can now borrow sufficient funds
for the construction of power plants due to the growth of savings in the hands of private
citizens and institutions. There is no need for Federal financing of power activities.
Waterways and Harbors 517
Federal power development might also be justified if private utilities could not be
regulated effectively, a condition which does not exist today.
Finally, the participation of the Federal Government in power development might
be considered necessary if sufficient power for the defense activities of the Government
could not be furnished by non-Federal sources. Quite the contrary is true.
So that there will be no further Federal participation in the financing of the major
Government power organizations, the following recommendations are made by the
Commission:
Recommendation No. 12
"That the Columbia River Basin system, the Hoover-Parker-Davis Dams Ad-
ministration, the Central Valley project of California, the Missouri River Basin
project, the Southwestern Power Administration, and Southeastern Power Admin-
istration all be incorporated under and made subject to the Government Corpora-
tion Control Act."
Recommendation No. 13
"That they and the Tennessee Valley Authority be required to secure their
capital for their future improvements, when authorized by the Congress, by issuing
their own securities to the public without subordinating the present Federal invest-
ment, thus relieving the taxpayers of this burden. (In such instance our Recom-
mendation No. 1-h should be amended so as not to apply to the interest and
amortization on such public issues and to allow them to pay these items from their
own funds.) "
Recommendation No. 14
"That representatives from the States concerned, as well as Federal representa-
tives, should be appointed to these boards."
Recommendation No. 15
"In respect to the power component of new multiple-purpose projects, we make
the following recommendation:
"(a) That private enterprise be offered the opportunity to provide the capital
for the electrical component of multiple-purpose dams and dispose of the power
through their own systems (they being subject to regulation of rates by Federal
and State authorities), but the management of the dams should remain in the
Federal Government.
"(b) That if such capital be not available, the power should be offered for
sale to the private utilities, the States, or the municipalities and cooperatives prior
to construction, on items that will protect the Federal interest."
Because of its expansion into the power field, the States are becoming more and
more dependent upon the Federal Government. What is vitally needed is for the State-
in the seven major Federal power regions to reassert their own independence.
In order to achieve this objective, the Commission proposes a plan based upon tin
Port of New York Authority, as follows:
"The Port of New York Authority offers a legal, financial and administrative
pattern for such action.
518 Waterways and Harbors ^_^
"Based on this pattern now tested by long experience, the States in these seven
major Federal power regions could —
"1. Set up a compact among themselves as provided in the Constitution;
"2. Take over the Federal Government's power business in their region,
agreeing:
(a) To pay interest on the Federal Government's investment in the power
segment of these multiple-purpose dams and other projects.
Ob) To pay back, to the Federal Government the capital invested for hydro-
electric installation over a period of SO years and for steam installations over a
period of 35 years.
(c) To pay to the Federal Government whatever sum in lieu of taxes that
might be agreed upon.
(d) To subscribe that part of the costs allocated to power in any future
Federal multiple-purpose projects in their regions and thus obtain that power with-
out paying interest or amortization to the Federal Government.
(e) To raise the capital for all these future needs by issuing to the public
their own securities in the same way as the Port of New York Authority has
found to be satisfactory and economical.
(f) To fix their own rates for power as the New York Port Authority fixes
the tolls through its tunnels.
"Such action would benefit the whole Nation by restoring State and local
government. It would relieve the intolerable burdens on the Federal budget. It
would check the rise of centralized government and bureaucratic control."
Waterways and Harbors 519
Report on Assignment 7
Relative Merits and Economics of Construction Materials
Used in Waterfront Facilities
S. T. Li (chairman, subcommittee), C. M. Bowman, A. F. Crowder, B. M. Dornblatt,
N. E. Ekrem, B. M. Howard, J. E. Inman, R. B. Midkiff, H. R. Peterson, R. C.
Postels, J. G. Roney, C. R. Shaw, F. R. Spofford, G. L. Staley, P. V. Thelander,
J. J. Tibbits, G. A. Wolf.
Your committee submits the following report of progress in 5 parts. Part 1 presents
criteria of relative merits of construction materials used in waterfront facilities on the
basis of inspection tests and service records, contributed by H. R. Peterson, chief engineer,
Northern Pacific; Part 2, criteria of comparative economics on the basis of annual or
capitalized cost methods, also contributed by Mr. Peterson; Part 3, information gathered
from various sources pertaining to service performance records on construction materials
used completely or partially under water surface in waterfront facilities in continental
United States in order to facilitate the applications of the criteria of relative merits and
of comparative economics, edited by the subcommittee chairman; Part 4, the life of steel
sheet piling and steel H-section bearing piles, contributed by Fred B. White, engineer,
Tennessee Coal and Iron Division, United States Steel Corporation; and Part 5, pressure-
treated timber in harbor structures, contributed by W. D. Keeney, district engineer,
American Wood Preservers Institute.
Part 1 — Criteria of Relative Merits of Construction Materials
Used in Waterfront Facilities on the Basis of Inspection
Tests and Service Records
By H. R. Peterson
Chief Engineer, Northern Pacific Railway
During the past, the Northern Pacific Railway has carried on a series of general
inspections of piles in the Seattle and Tacoma harbors for the purpose of studying condi-
tions of the piles and establishing a service record to reveal the trend of the longevity
of the piling. These marine inspections have been carried out periodically by competent
marine divers using two-way telephone equipment and a 250-w light to locate, inspect
and report the conditions of the piles.
The inspection consists of a thorough visual examination of each pile throughout
its entire length above the mud line, and the conditions of each pile are classified as good,
fair, bad or missing. A corresponding study of piling removed during or after the inspec-
tions has shown that the underwater inspections were 90 percent accurate. The results
of these studies indicate that the creosote-treated Douglas fir piles have an average service
life of 36 years in the teredo and limnoria infested coastal waters where untreated wood
piles are often completely destroyed by these marine borers within ;i year.
Because our use of concrete and steel piling in salt water is limited, our sen-ice
records on this material are scanty. However, our records do show that untreated Douglas
fir piling having a metal cylinder placed around the piling and set with concrete were
placed in the Puget Sound waters in 1882 and abandoned in 1910. Thi- service
life is misleading because at the time of the 1910 inspection, examination showed that
the metal cylinders had become detached and the concrete had fallen off of numerous
520 Waterways and Harbors
piles, leaving the wooden piling exposed and badly attacked by the marine borers. Steel
piling is not ordinarily used in salt water because of corrosion but it is being used in
fresh water installations with good success. However, as yet our service records are not
long enough to make direct comparisons.
A nose plate placed on the St. Louis River bridge at Duluth in 1Q28 still shows no
serious signs of corrosion.
Concrete piles in fresh water installations have lasted over SO years.
Examination of fresh water bridge piling and test records have shown creosoted
wood piles still in good condition after 37 years of service, and it is predicted that these
will last another 10 or IS years, whereas in these same areas the untreated pilings have
only lasted on an average of 10 to 15 years.
Reinforced concrete piles in waterfront structures are exposed to the following
unfavorable conditions:
1. Abrasion by floating objects and scouring sand.
2. Attack by pholads (rock -boring mollusks).
3. Chemical action of sea water on concrete. Sea water soaks into and subsequently
exudes from it. The magnesium salt in the sea water withdraws a portion of the lime
in the cement in the form of calcium salts and leaves a deposit of magnesium in its
place. It is this magnesia which constitutes the white substance deposited around the
larger particles of concrete. Sulphates may also react with the lime, forming CaSOi which
results in the gradual disintegration of the concrete. Most claims for durability in sea
water are not yet substantiated by longtime exposure.
4. 'Frost action on porous concrete.
5. Destructive action caused by rusting of reinforcing steel and spalling of concrete.
This is the most serious weakness of reinforced concrete piles when used on waterfront
structures. It is particularly serious in tidal water where alternate wetting and drying
occurs, especially if combined with thawing and freezing which accelerate the destructive
action. Rough waters also promote destructive action by keeping piles soaked with spray
on windy days and allowing them to dry out on calm days.
Quality of cements used, aggregates, water, and workmanship are important.
Predicting the life of steel piling involves uncertainties and complications depending
on the active agencies which bring about corrosion. In many cases, particularly in salt
water, abrasion enters in to complicate matters which otherwise could be handled satis-
factorily with coatings on the steel. Salt spray on that portion of steel above tide range
also constitutes a destructive agency.
Investigations have shown that the locality and nature of soil have a far greater
bearing on the corrosion of iron and steel products than difference in composition of the
material itself, and that the character of the soil, not the material, controls the rate of
corrosion.
Waterways and Harbors S21_
Part 2 — Criteria of Comparative Economics on the Basis
of Annual or Capitalized Cost Methods
By H. R. Peterson
Chief Engineer, Northern Pacific Railway
It is important that, when various engineering decisions are necessary in connection
with the construction of waterfront facilities, these decisions are not made on a basis
of wishful thinking but rather on the study and analyses of economic aspects relating to
the project under consideration. Normally, in the study of any proposed project, we are
confronted with several alternatives, and then a study of cost comparisons and revenues
pertaining to one plan with another plan or plans is necessary.
The various requirements of waterfront structures are such that each has its own
peculiarities wrhich prevent a universal comparative value for treated timber, concrete
or steel. Because the service requirements of each structure necessitate a definite design
for each individual case, it is necssary that the materials considered for use be adapted
to the complete fulfillment of the service demands before any comparison of the economic
value of the materials can be made. The economic comparative value of treated timber,
concrete and steel in the construction of waterfront facilities may be determined either
by annual or capitalized cost methods.
In computing the annual costs, it is desirable to know the following factors:
1. Initial costs, which should include cost of the development and promotion of the
project, the cost of the raw material, the cost of transportation of the material to the site
of use, the cost of placement of the material, and all other costs relating to the project.
In order that the initial costs are properly organized, they should first be enumerated by
specific jobs (material, labor, etc.), grouped into natural subdivisions, classified into types
of structural divisions, and finally consolidated into total costs.
2. The service life of the structure and of its component parts. Occasionally, early
obsolescence may be the determining factor in the selection of construction materials
since it is obviously unprofitable to build a costly structure which will be abandoned in
10 or 20 years.
3. Annual rate of interest for the service life period.
4. Maintenance costs.
5. Insurance costs.
6. Taxes.
The anual costs represent the annual payment required to extinguish an interest-
bearing debt during a period of years corresponding to the life of the material in service.
The capitalized cost method is used to set up a fund which represents the sum
of the initial cost of the structure, an amount on which the accumulated compound
interest, exclusive of the principal, will equal the initial cost at the end of the service life
of the structure, and the amount on which the simple interest equals the annual main-
tenance expense. Theoretically, with unchanging costs and interest rates, the total fund
so accumulated will build the structure and provide for its perpetual maintenance and
periodic replacement in kind.
The following table, computed from Northern Pacific records, U an example of the
annual cost and the capitalized cost comparison of wood, concrete and steel piling,
without considering maintenance, insurance and taxes.
522
Waterways and Harbors
Fresh Water Piling
Wood
Steel
Concrete
(ill,,:!,
Untreated
77. uli ,1
Wood
Cost of material per lin ft
Cost of placement per lin ft _ _.
$0.65
1.25
$1.02
1.25
$3 . 68
1.50
$5.00
2.00
$5.65
2.25
Total cost Material per lin ft
$1.90
$2.27
$5.18
$7.00
$7.90
Service life, years - _
12
45
75
75
35
$0,214
$0,128
SO. 206
$0,359
$0 . 482
Capitalized Cost
$1.90
2.386
$2.27
0.283
$5.18
0.135
$7.00
0.184
$7.90
1.7.36
$4,286
$2,553
$5,315
$7,184
$9,646
Sea-Water Piling
Wood
Steel
Concrete
Gunite
Untreated
Treated
Wood
Service life, years . . __
1
36
25
25
26
$1,995
$0,137
$0,367
$0,496
$0 . 549
Capitalized Cost at 5 Percent
$ 1.90
38.00
$2.27
0.472
$5.18
2.170
$7.00
2.933
$ 7.90
Capitalized replacement . . -
3.089
$39 . 90
$2,742
$7 . 350
$9 . 933
$10,989
Waterways and Harbors 523
Part 3 — Service Performance of Construction Materials Used
Completely or Partially Under Water in Waterfront
Facilities in Continental United States
Edited by Shu-t'ien Li
Transportation, Structural, and Hydraulic Engineering Consultant
After Subcommittee 7 was organized in the latter part of April 1957 for the inves-
tigation and report on this new assignment, it immediately proceeded with the planning
of the task and conducted a nationwide survey in the gathering of information for this
part of the report through communications to the various port authorities, harbor com-
missions, U. S. Army Engineer Divisions, and railroads having waterfront facilities. All
pertinent information contained in their letter replies is presented heroin in its original
wording, insofar as possible, to keep full authenticity. Also, reference is made to the
original sources to indicate the authority and to express your committee's appreciation
and acknowledgement of their furnishing most valuable unpublished information from
their long-time painstaking observations. Your committee considers that the availability
of such information thus made possible is of immense, timely importance. It is proposed
further to supplement this information for localities not covered herein and to collect
similar information from all available published sources in the ensuing year.
The collected information is divided into seven different geographical and climatic
shore and coastal regions, namely:
1. Great Lakes region,
2. New England coastal region,
3. North Atlantic coastal region,
4. South Atlantic coastal region,
5. Gulf coastal region,
6. South Pacific coastal region,
7. North Pacific coastal region.
1. GREAT LAKES REGION
(a) Duluth Minn., on Lake Superior, and other Northern Pacific fresh-water
localities; according to H. R. Peterson, chief engineer, Northern Pacific Rail-
way. To quote his communication of August 9, 1957:
". . . Steel piling is not ordinarily used in salt water because of corrosion but it is
being used in fresh water installations with good success. However, as yet our service
records are not long enough to make direct comparisons.
"A nose plate placed on the St. Louis River bridge at Duluth in 1°2S still shows do
serious signs of corrosion.
"Concrete piles in fresh water installations have lasted over SO years.
"Examination of fresh water bridge piling and test records have shown creosoted
wood piles still in good condition after 37 years of service, and it is predicted that these
will last another 10 or 15 years, whereas in these same areas the untreated pilings have
only lasted on an average of 10 to 15 years."
Mr. Peterson also gives the Following average service life for fresh-water piling from
Northern Pacific records:
Untreated wood 1- years
Treated wood 4S years
524 W a t erways and Harbors
Steel 75 years
Concrete 75 years
Gunite over wood 35 years
For further discussion by Mr. Peterson, see Parts 1 and 2 of this report.
(I)) Ashland, Wis., on Lake Superior; according to Donald F. Welker, president,
Board of Harbor Commissioners, Ashland, Wis. His note of July 10, 1957,
states :
"Ashland, Wis., harbor has one modern concrete ore dock (Soo Line) and one wooden
(C&NW Ry) ore dock. We also have three coal docks, wooden fronts and dirt filled,
with concrete floors; and several so-called docks that are piling remains of old saw mill
lumber docks. Our local construction is concrete and wood."
(c) Milwaukee, Wis., on Lake Michigan ; according to H. C. Brockel, municipal
port director, Board of Harbor Commissioners, City of Milwaltkee, Wis. His
letter of May 27, 1957, runs as follows:
"The Port of Milwaukee lies in northerly latitudes, as do all other Great Lakes
ports. We are confronted with severe winter weather conditions, and with a seasonal
temperature range from approximately 30 degrees below zero to 105 degrees above. We are
also confronted with some cyclical rise and fall of Great Lakes levels with the result that
dock structures and other water-front structures are exposed to irregular fluctuation of
water levels. We cannot depend on sustained immersion of structures for protection.
"For the past 20 years, all of our dock construction in Milwaukee harbor has been
standardized by use of steel sheet piling structures. We find that such structures are im-
pervious to frost action and are not subject to dry rot, as are tiniber dock structures
irregularly submerged and then exposed to the air.
"Expansion and contraction and frost penetration cause severe damage to concrete
bulkheads in this climate. Timber structures are subject to dry rot factors, and the aver-
age life cycle of timber docks in these waters has been only about 20 years. Steel sheet
piling structures have been found to have an indefinite tenure. The loss of section by
rusting is negligible and in fresh water we have no problems with electrolysis which is,
of course, a factor with steel structures in salt water.
"The foregoing is a broad resume of the reasons which have compelled us to direct
our design almost exclusively toward steel sheet piling dock structures."
Director H. C. Brockel's further communication of June 5, 1957, states:
"We note your inquiry as to whether concrete bulkheads might function better if
expansion and contraction joints were provided, and the face subject to water level
fluctuation were protected by iron plates. We regret to say that we have no personal
knowledge of such techniques and therefore cannot advise you as to their value.
"We would like to make the further point that many of the modern steel sheet piling
dock structures in this area are capped with concrete, for convenience in operation. How-
ever, it is the general practice to hold the concrete cap above the water line to prevent
destruction by frost action, as outlined in our letter of May 27."
(d) Milwaukee, Wis., on Lake Michigan; according to C. J. Morris, chief engineer,
Grand Trunk Western Railroad. His communication of June 12, 1957, contained
the following passage:
"The car ferry terminal and bulkhead wall at Milwaukee, Wis., of the Grand Trunk
Western Railroad consists of the usual transfer bridges or aprons founded on creosote
Waterways and Harbors 525
piling and timber, fenders and protection clusters, and in the main, steel sheet pile bulk-
head walls tied back to creosote pile and timber anchorages. We are programming a com-
plete replacement of these bulkhead walls with steel sheet piling and timber, this program
having been started in 1934. We anticipate no trouble for many years after this renewal
has been made. Fenders and pile clusters are constructed similar to those at Muskegon
(see below) and we encounter the same trouble with abrasion from the car ferries
maneuvering in and out of the slips, and frequent repairs are necessary to these facilities.
Complete renewal is usually required at about ten-year intervals."
(e) Muskegon, Mich, on Lake Michigan; according to C. J. Morris' communication
REFERRED TO IN (n) ABOVE!
"The car ferry terminal and wharf bulkhead wall at Muskegon, Mich, of the Grand
Trunk Western Railroad consists of the usual transfer bridge or apron founded on creosote
timber and piling with fenders constructed of creosote piling and walers faced with un-
treated oak and untreated pile clusters, the bulkhead walls containing the dock consisting
of steel sheet piling tied back by anchor rods, the creosote timber and pile anchorages.
The bulkhead walls have shown no signs of failure or deterioration. We also have a cel-
lular steel sheet pile breakwater at this point constructed around 1946 which shows no
signs of failure. The only trouble we encounter with this facility is due to heavy seas
from the northwest washing the stone filling material out of the cells of the breakwater.
We had initial installation of pile clusters around this facility constructed with creosote
fir piling and wrapped, but these clusters failed by breaking off near the bottom of the
lake and were replaced with untreated mixed hardwood piling. Some of the peripheral
piles in these clusters have had to be replaced on account of abrasion, but the facility as a
whole should last eight to ten years before complete replacement is required."
(f) Port Huron, Mich., on St. Clair River and Lake Huron; according to C. J.
Morris' communication referred to in (d) above:
"The existing wharf or bulkhead wall at Port Huron, Mich., of the Grand Trunk
Western Railroad on the St. Clair River was constructed in two stages, the last bein<_r in
1952. This consists of steel sheet piling tied back to creosote timber anchorages and
replaces a sheet pile dock wall which was gradually failing. This construction has given
no trouble and should be good for many years' service without any maintenance except
the occasional replacement of timber protection bolted to the top of the wall above the
water line.
"The present drawbridge protection for the Black River bridge at Port Huron con-
sists of pile clusters wrapped with cable. Critical clusters were renewed a few years ago
and should last from five to ten years, depending upon the amount of river traffic which
abrades the piles and wears out the cable wrapping."
(g) Detroit, Mich., on Detroit River; according to C. J. Morris' communication
referred to in (d) above:
"The wharf at Detroit, Mich., of the Grand Trunk Western Railroad was con-
structed partly in 1936 and the rest in 1946 as a tied bulkhead, using "Z" steel sheet
piling anchored back to a concrete building wall in the case of the 1936 construction and
a creosoted pile and timber anchorage in the case of the 1946 construction. This portion
of the bulkhead wall construction has shown no signs of deterioration or failure, although
there has been some localized ru-tiiiLr of the Steel sheet piling where cinders happened to
come in contact with same.
526
Waterways and Harbors
"The car ferry slip terminal at Detroit consists of a structural steel transfer bridge
or apron on a foundation of untreated timber and piling. Treated material was not used
for these foundations as it was anticipated changes would be made in the facility within
a period of five or ten years after it was constructed. The car ferry terminal was rebuilt
in 1949 and to date has given no trouble except for the usual abrasion and wearing out
of the timbers on the fenders and cluster piles against which the car ferries rub when
docking or embarking."
2. NEW ENGLAND COASTAL REGION
(a) Portland, Me., on the Atlantic; according to J. W. Wiggins, chief engineer,
Maine Central Railroad. His letter of July 19, 1957, states:
"The Maine Central Railroad has in its Portland Terminal two wharves, namely,
Wharf No. 1 and Wharf No. 3, which were constructed in 1930, using untreated fir. This
fir material gave approximately 20 years of satisfactory service, at the end of which
period we began to replace it with creosote-treated fir and hard pine. I have tabulated
below the percentage replacements which began in 1951, on a year-to-year basis, to the
present time, and extended into the future to a total of 100 percent replacements:
Wharf No. 1
Treated Timber Replacement Exclusive of Phing
Year
MBM
Percent
1951 . --. . ._.
118.9
118.9
4.6
101.2
23.7
0
0
73.8
73.8
03.5
20.6
1952 ...
20.6
1953
0.8
1954...
17.5
1955 ...
4.1
1956
1957
1958
12.7
1959...
12.7
19(H)
11.0
578.4
100.0
Wharf No. 1
Replacement of Treated Piles
Year
No. of Piles
Percent
1951
84
85
0
0
298
37
0
282
81
1210
4.0
1952...
4.1
1 953
1954 .. ._
1955...
14.4
1956..
1.7
1957.
1958
13.6
1959
3.9
I960 i" 1970
58.3
2077
100.0
Waterways and Harbors
5 27
Wharf No. 3
Treated Timber Replacement Exclusive of Piling
Year
MBM
/•. , . , nl
1952 -. .- -- -
209.3
209.3
38. fl
38 9
68.6
H . 1
69.5
69.5
69.5
26.5
1953
26.5
1 95 1
1.9
L955
1.9
1956 __ __
8.7
L957
2. 1
[958
8.8
1 '.I.V.I
8.8
1900
8.8
7X9.fi
MX) (i
Wharf No. 3
Replacement of Treated Piles
Year
Xn. of I'lh a
Hi placed
l'i rn nl
1956 .. ..
18
62
.5037
0.6
1 9.")7
2.0
1958 to 1970
97 . I
3117
LOO M
"The foregoing material does not include deck plank, which deck plank we art-
renewing with penta treated material."
(b) Boston, Massachusetts on the Atlantic; according to John Wm. Leslie, chd r
Engineering Division, New England Division, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army.
Mr. Leslie's communication dated 12 September, 1957, states:
"Information has been compiled in answer to your letter of August 17, 1057. Al-
though limited to one specific project, it is felt that the information given will be in
conformance with your requirement for this year's survey of performance records. The
project mentioned is the Army Base in Boston, Mass., which was constructed in less than
a year's time during 1917-1918, at a cost of approximately $22,000,000. The original
construction and subsequent reconstruction and repairs contain many of the featured
items mentioned in your letter. The following information compiled for the above project
is offered:
"a. Timber Piles — Timber piles installed were untreated.
"(1) An inspection made in 1933 revealed that the average cross-sectional area at the
low-water line was about 66 percent of the original area of the piles due to action by
marine borers. (At the time of the initial installation, marine borer activity in Boston
Harbor had been at a very low level for a number of years.)
"(2) In 1935, many of the damaged piles were replaced, while other- were repaired
by encasing the damaged portion in concrete. A sheet steel pile bulkhead was constructed,
and the inclosed area was tilled with sand to the top of the wood piles. No further
damage was reported on piles which remained covered by the sand till
528 Waterways and Harbors
"b. Precast Concrete Sheet Piles — In 1917-1918, a concrete sheet pile bulkhead was
constructed to retain solid fill. Two structures were built in the area with the top of the
concrete sheet piles exposed to tidal action on the outside face below decks which extend
out from the building. Recent inspections indicate the sheet piles to be in good condition.
"c. Concrete Piles, Cast in Place
"(1) Cast-in-place concrete piles constructed in 1918 were completely buried in fill
at that time. However, over a period of years the fill around the piles was washed out
by tidal action. By 1949, many cases were discovered of advanced and complete disin-
tegration caused by effects of sea water and frost action. The cast-in-place piles were
constructed in accordance with standard practice at that time, with the concrete being
batched on the site with graded aggregates delivered by barge.
"(2) The piles were driven through blue clay to refusal on ledge rock or compact
sand and gravel. Due to hard driving, rupture of the shell could have occurred, thereby
admitting sea water into the shell. Depositing of concrete into the shell without pumping
the shell dry prior to the placement of the concrete would result in a weaker concrete
more susceptible to early deterioration.
"(3) The concrete design mix and source of aggregates used for the cast-in-place
piling is not known, nor is information relative to the degree of control exercised during
construction operations. If a sloppy mix was used or if water was present in the shell,
filling of the shell with concrete would cause a water gain in the top portion of the pile,
thereby resulting in a weaker concrete. On the other hand, if the same concrete mix was
used for both the construction of the cast-in-place piles and the precast sheet piling,
(commented on above as being in good condition), evidence supports the adequacy of the
concrete mix.
"(4) Curing of the exposed portion of the piling presented a problem at that time
and since no curing of the portion above the fill was attempted, a less dense concrete
resulted, which was highly susceptible to disintegration as soon as the metal shell broke
down under the action of salt water.
"(5) Lack of sufficient cover over the steel spiral reinforcing in the exposed portion
subject to rising and falling tides with resulting oxidation, probably resulted in spalling
and accelerating the distintegration of the concrete.
"d. Steel Sheet Piles
"(1) In 1935, a steel sheet pile bulkhead was constructed around the entire perimeter
of the Army Base, (approximately 5600 lin ft). The steel sheet piles had a minimum
thickness of Y% in, were of deep arch section, and had heavy flange plates added to
increase their res:stance to bending.
"(2) In 1953, corrosion in the piles had advanced to such a point that holes were
occurring at and just below the low water line. In general, it was found that loss of metal
above and below this area was very little. The most serious corrosion condition was in
the area between 2 ft above to 2 ft below mean low water, and in the outside face (web)
of the sheet piles which project outward or towards the water. The corrosion was more
advanced on the piles which arch seaward as compared to those which arch landward,
and the holes were practically all in the web section of the outer piles.
"(3) Electric tests were made to determine the possible presence of stray currents in
the vicinity of the bulkhead. The tests showed the salt water to be positive (electrically)
to the sheet piling which would not be the case if stray currents were present and causing
the deterioration."
Waterways and Harb o r s 529
3. NORTH ATLANTIC COASTAL REGION
(a) New York area on the North and Easi Rivers and oh mi An win ; according
TO W. P. KlNNEMAN, CHIEF civil ENGINEER, RAYMOND CON( RJ H I'll l COMPANY. His
LETTER DATED JULY 10, 1057, CONTAINS Till. FOLLOWING INFORMATION:
■'. . . Our company was one of the earliest recognizing the value of precast piles for
use in wharfs, piers and railroad trestles. Back in the early days of concrete we found
it most difficult to sell concrete piles for use in structures where wood pCes had been used
for so many years. Most of the wood pile structures were not designed but built by
tradition. Timber was cheap and timber piles were loaded to a very low figure. Timber
connections were very poor, and most timber construction was limited by the ability of
the connections to transfer load. We were early pioneers in the use of precast concrete
piles and we have been even more interested in cast-in-place concrete piles.
"The performance of precast concrete piles under waterfront environment is no better
or worse than the quality of concrete that goes into the piles, and of course this concrete
is no better than the portland cement and aggregate that are available . . . we have
examples here in the New York area of concrete piles which are badly deteriorated and
show their first deterioration within five years after construction. All of the tests of the
Portland Cement Association and the Army Engineers through the Vicksburg Laboratory
have indicated that concrete piles in a northern climate in salt water with ice and freezing
and thawing are very vulnerable to deterioration. Only the best concrete made with all
the finesse known to the industry can successfully withstand the severe northern climate.
It can be done, however, but it does not mean that ordinary contractors with 1:2:4 con-
crete are going to accomplish it. In tropical waters concrete is ideal. We have many
structures in Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, built in the early twenties, which are still serv-
ing their purpose. Many of these did not have the best aggregate as the source was
limited.
"Here in New York most of the wharfs are on timber piles which will survive as long
as the harbor is polluted with sewage. When the treating plants are in full operation
I fear that the marine borers will invade the harbor and many wharves will have to be
replaced. Corrosion of steel piles is fairly severe and in spite of cathodic protection it
requires considerable extra steel to guarantee the long life of the pile. The further South
steel piles are more susceptible to oxidation. In Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, they will go
in five to ten years."
(hi New York, N. Y., and Jersey City, N. J., on mm. North River \m> im Atlantk .
AC-CORDING TO THE COMMUNICATION DATED Jll-Y .^, 1°57, FROM B. J. MlM MI, < IIII I
ENGINEER, THE CENTRAL RAILROAD OF Nl.W jERSl 5
"Untreated and Treated Timber — In all om piers, docks and waterfront work only
long leaf yellow pine material is used. All timber is treated. Piles are yellow pine, treated,
except for cluster and fender piles which are treated oak.
''Greenheart piles have been used in all our ferry rack construction at both the New
York and Jersey City Terminals. Because of their greater strength and wearing charac-
teristics they have proven far superior to either oak or yellow pine for similar use. The
only portion of the ferry racks wh re greenheart piles are not used is in the cluster at the
sea ends which come in contact with the fender beams of ferryboats, resulting in damage
thereto because of the hardness of the Greenheart, and treated oak piles are used tor thi>
purpose.
530 Waterways and Harbors
Stone Masonry — We do not use stone masonry in any of our construction; how-
ever, in our new design for bridge piers in tidal waters (mean tidal range is 4 ft 8 in)
we use a granite masonry facing around the piers between the tide range, to protect the
face of the piers.
"Steel and Sheet Piling — All structural steel is kept above high water. We have had
no experience with steel sheet piling.
"Plain and Reinforced Concrete — All our piers, docks, foundations, etc., both under
and above high water, under waterfront environments such as nonfreezing and freezing
climate, salt and fresh water, immersed, alternate wet and dry and tidal variations, are
of reinforced concrete.
"Precast and Prestressed Concrete — We have not used any precast or prestressed
concrete in any construction along our waterfront."
(c) Philadelphia District (including Atlantic coastal region of New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, and Delaware), Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army; according to com-
munication dated August 8, 1957, from C. F. Wicker, chief, Engineering Dtvi-
sion, U. S. Army Engineer District, Philadelphia:
"This District has not been involved in the construction of major waterfront transfer
facilities. The major portion of construction and maintenance is in the nature of shore
protection such as jetties, bulkheads and groins.
"There is attached a listing of various projects including some data relative thereto
which have been constructed in this area for your information." (See pages 531 and 532).
Waterways and Harbors
531
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Wate rways and Harbors
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Waterways and Harbors 533
(d) Baltimore, Md., on the Atlantic; according to the first communication dated
May 13, 1957, from F. L. Etchison, chief engineer, Western Maryland Railway
"first of all I might say that our water does not contain a heavy concentration of
salt, although it is very brackish at times. Weather conditions here are moderate. It gets
fairly cold at times during the winter; however, the Chesapeake Bay freezes over only
under the severest conditions which do not occur often.
"We have closed merchandise piers of two types. One type is a concrete sub-structure
supported on concrete piling. The other type is a timber sub-structure supported on wood
piling. The super-structures of both types are essentially the same — steel framing with
sheet metal covering and built-up roofs.
"In addition, we have a large reinforced concrete grain elevator, an open ore pier
and an open coal pier, all of which are supported on piles.
"Our barge slips, which number six in all, are of two types. The main slips are
double-track steel plate-girder bridges hinged at the shore end and supported on twin
pontoons out shore. The less important slips are double-track through truss spans hinged
at the shore and counterbalanced by a system of overhead levers and weights.
"It has been our experience that concrete piles will disintegrate at the water line
due principally to the brackish water and wave action. This, likewise, applies to any
concrete exposed to similar conditions. In several instances, we have made repairs by
encasing the defective concrete in a wrought iron shell which holds up very well.
"Untreated wood piles will decay at the water line because of the alternate wetting
and drying. In this case we usually cut the piles off below the water line, cap them and
bench up with treated timber. For a structure such as barge slip racks that require the
piling to extend above the water line, we use treated wood with very good results.
"At several places where the masonry actually sat on the river bottom, but needed
piling for support, we have used steel H piling. These piling are not subjected to the water
directly; air is kept from them and there is no wave action. Under these conditions, steel
H piling give very good service.
"We have very little steel sheet piling in use around the port. It has a relatively long
life under most conditions, but will eventually rust and corrode at the water line.
"Most of our shore protection, where needed, is accomplished by building treated
timber crib walls and filling with rock or a similar material that will not erode.
"The bottom flanges of our barge slips dip into the water frequently and require
attention periodically because of the tendency to rust and corrode. Experience has indicated
that wrought iron is the most serviceable material to use for pontoons.
"Steel framing on the piers requires paint every 10 to 12 years because of atmospheric
conditions prevailing. In the past we used galvanized sheathing but have recently switched
to saturated-asbestos-felt protected metal with the permanent color.
"We do not have any stone masonry, prestressed concrete or precast concrete, except
several concrete block bulidings, in use on thf waterfront."
In his second communication dated May 28, 1Q57, F. L. Etchison states:
"To date, we have not been bothered with marine borers in thi^ harbor and we have
no information available on the subject.
"We have not used any copper bearing steel piles or steel shed piling in any of our
sub-structures. Likewise, we have had no experience with anti-sea water cement."
534 Waterways and Harbors
4. SOUTH ATLANTIC COASTAL REGION
(a) Portsmouth and Norfolk, Va., Wilmington, N. C, Charleston, S. C, and Sa-
vannah, Ga., on the Atlantic; according to a second communication of May
28, 1957, from F. L. Etchison, formerly engineer maintenance of way of the
Atlantic Coast Line, now chief engineer of the Western Maryland Railway.
He recollected thus:
". . . before coming to the Western Maryland Railway, I was on the Coast Line for
30 years with most of the time being spent in the CaroMnas and Virginia as engineer
maintenance of way, with the problem of maintaining the port facilities at Portsmouth
and Norfolk, Va.; Wilmington, N. C; Charleston, S. C; and Savannah, Ga.
"Early in my work down there, while stationed at Charleston, the marine borers
were very prevalent and did considerable damage. The same condition also prevailed
in Savannah Harbor, which is located on the Savannah River, which water is brackish
on about 4-ft tide, but a certain times of the year does clear up with fresh water. At
Wilmington, which is located on the Cape Fear River, there is very little damage
because of the fresh water content. However, there was slight damage from them in the
Norfolk area.
"At all of the above locations, treated, long-leaf, yellow pine timber and piles were
used. Whenever untreated material was used in Savannah or Charleston, its life was
from one to three years. The limnoria would work between high and low water and the
teredo between the mud line and low water. The life of treated piling was from ten years
on up, depending upon the amount of creosote tar used in treating the piles.
"In 1930 or 1931, Mr. Robert Luntz was working with the Navy Department, from
Maine to Florida, relative to the damage being caused to the Navy's wooden bottom
boats. He and I experimented with pure copper foil, wrapping this around the piling,
in some cases solid and in others spiralling it with 2-, 4- and 6-in gaps, then also taking
scrap copper telegraph wire and spiralling the piling. All of the above piling was treated.
We found that unprotected piling driven at the same time had marine borers starting
within six months. Due to the wave action, the copper began to disappear from the
piling within from one to three years. However, until this happened, this piling was
not attacked by any borers, which indicated to us that any copper bearing material
would protect any structure in salt or brackish water.
"For your information, Mr. Luntz was formerly connected with the Charleston,
S. C, museum as doctor of Crustacea, and I believe he is now director of the Bears
Bluff Laboratories, Wadmalaw Island, S. C.
"Any steel sheet piling or steel members of any structures coming in contact with
the salt water in the Charleston and Savannah areas, which were made of just plain
steel, were subjected to severe corrosion.
"The above is given as added information which I picked up by experience in the
years I was down in that territory."
In his third communication dated July 1, 1957, F. L. Etchison further states:
"In my opinion, copper-bearing steel piles and sheet piles will give lower annual or
capitalized cost along the Atlantic Coast from Maryland to Georgia than ordinary steel
because of the greater life expectancy.
"We do not have any basis for comparing the relative merits and economies of
wrought iron and copper-bearing steel when used as a shell for concrete; however, we
do have a wrought iron installation on a movable bridge pier that has given excellent
service for approximately 18 years.
Waterways and Harbors 535
"Regarding the performance of copper-bearing steel in rather brackish water and
wrought iron in less brackish water, it is my opinion that the copper-bearing steel will
perform better in any brackish water and would be equal to wrought iron in fresh
water, although we do not have records to substantiate this thought.
''I am inclined to agree that side by side installations or accelerated laboratory tests
would provide valuable information on the subject."
Inquiry was addressed to Director G. Robert Lunz of the Bears Laboratories, Wad-
malaw Island, S. C. His return message, dated June 7, 1957, states:
". . . The work on the protection of piles and timbers to which Mr. Etchison
refers was never really completed to my satisfaction. I would be loathe to make any
claims for it. The data accumulated are too sparse to be of any real worth. After we
worked on the dock pilings I did go on to do work in the line of fouling study for the
Bureau of Ships, and the Bureau of Docks and Yards of the U. S. Navy. Reports on
this work were made to the respective Navy departments. Of course, I have my original
notes on this work, but I doubt that they could be released without clearance from
the Navy. I can assure you that there was no important discovery made in this
work . . ."
(b) SOUTHPORT, N. C. ON THE ATLANTIC J ACCORDING TO THE FIRST COMMUNICATION DATED
25 June 1957 from E. G. Long, Jr., assistant chief, Engineering Division, Wil-
mington District, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. To quote him:
". . . the Sunny Point Army Terminal, Southport, N. C, was constructed for the
Transportation Corps under the supervision of this office.
"This office commenced design on the Sunny Point Army Terminal in January
1952 —
"These three wharves were designed for the purpose of outloading ammunition
from rail and/or motor truck to ship. Prior to selection of the type of wharf and
approach trestle to be used at the Sunny Point Army Terminal, the two types of con-
struction listed below were considered:
1. Cellular steel piling filled with dredged material, with reinforced concrete deck.
2. Precast reinforced concrete piles, with reinforced concrete deck.
On the basis of economic study, soils consultant's report, and drilling report, the con-
crete pile type of construction was selected as best suited for the type of exposure
involved.
"The total construction cost for the three wharves and approach trestles thereto
was 58, 147,000. Construction was started in September 1953 and completed in October
1955.
"Comparative maintenance costs are not available. To date, however, there has
been no major maintenance required except repainting of the exterior metal work.
Routine maintenance and repair has been minimum.
"The Sunny Point Army Terminal considers the wharf structure to be entirely
adequate."
In his second communication dated 15 July 1957, Assistant Chief E. G. Long, Jr.
states:
"In answer to your questions regarding the cement used in the precast piles, in
extract of the specifications used is listed below:
"(3) Cement: Only one brand of cement shall be used for concrete. Cement
reclaimed from cleaning bags or leaking containers shall not be used. Cement shall
536 Waterways and Harbors
be used in the sequence of receipt of shipments, unless otherwise directed by the
Contracting Officer. Portland cement shall conform to Federal Specifications
SS-C-102a, Type I A, IIA, IIIA."
The contractor elected to use Type IA for the entire structure.
"The concrete was designed for a minimum allowable compressive strength at 28
days of 3750 psi."
(c) Charleston, S. C, on the Cooper River 15 miles from the Atlantic Ocean;
ACCORDING TO THE COMMUNICATION DATED 10 JUNE 1957 FROM WALTER M. BELL,
chief, Engineering Division, Charleston District, Corps of Engineers, U. S.
Army. To quote him:
"A reinforced concrete dock for the overseas shipment of ammunition during World
War II was completed in February 1942. The dock is located on the Cooper River at
Charleston, S. C, approximately 15 miles from the ocean. The salinity in this area
ranges from 0 to 15 parts per thousand. Zero salinity lasts for approximately 1 or 2 hr
at low tide.
"The length of the dock as constructed in 1942 was 1002 feet and an extension
of 473 ft was added in 1956. Both the original dock and the extension are the same type
of construction. Reinforced concrete caps on 10-ft centers and reinforced concrete beam
and slab superstructures were placed on 18-in octagonal reinforced concrete piles, 8 piles
to the bent with batter piles on alternate bents. The precast concrete piles were driven
to a bearing of 50 tons or better with a steam hammer delivering a minimum energy
of 15,000 ft-lb per blow as computed Iby the Engineering News-Record formula. The
piles, ranging in length from 45 to 80 ft, were not picked up until seven days after
casting or until the concrete had reached 3000 psi in compression. Expansion joints were
placed in the deck slab every 120 ft. The deck slab was poured in place with a pump-
crete machine using concrete mixed in a central mixing plant and hauled to the job site
in transit mix trucks.
"The design was based on a load of 1000 lb per sq ft on the dock; or H-15 load-
ing in lieu of 1000 lb per sq ft where it produced greater stress and E 60 loading on the
railroad tracks on the docks. The design working stresses were /<• = 1200 psi and
fs = 18,000 psi.
* * *
"This dock has been used continuously since 1942. During the war it was used by
the Army for loading ammunition and since then by the South Carolina States Ports
Authority for the loading and unloading of general cargoes and the Army Transportation
Depot for loading and unloading heavy equipment. With the exception of replacing
fender piles, there has been no maintenance of this dock since its construction."
(d) Savannah, Ga., on the Savannah River upstream from the saline front of the
Atlantic; according to information communicated on 18 June 1957 from
Charles F. Trainor, chief, Engineering Division, Savannah District, Corps of
Engineers, U. S. Army. The information reads:
"An anchored steel sheet pile bulkhead is the only waterfront structure of any
significance that has been constructed by the Savannah District at Savannah, Ga. The
bulkhead was constructed at the Engineer Yard for the District on the Savannah River
in 1953, and it is still in excellent condition without any initial or subsequent protective
treatment during this period. This bulkhead is upstream from the saline front; there-
fore, corrosion has not been a major problem ; however, the bulkhead has been subjected
to tidal action."
Waterways and Harbors
S3 1
(e) St. Marys, Ga., on the St. Marys River and the Atlantic; ACCORDING TO 1111
Communication dated 18 June 1957 from Charles F. Trainor, chief, Engineer-
ing DIVISION, Savannah District, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. His com-
munication states:
''Enclosed is . . . abstract of bids for construction of a reinforced concrete deck wharf
on precast concrete piling at the Kings Bay Ammunition Loading Terminal near St.
Marys, Ga., outlining in detail the construction materials used and the general cost of
this facility. Construction of the wharf was completed in November 1956. The life
expectancy of this structure is estimated to be 40 years."
The abstract is further condensed to indicate only the estimated quantities and the
unit prices of the lowest bid, as follows:
Abstract of Lowest Bid for the Construction of Wharf No. 2
AND Approaches, Kings Bay, Ga.
I), scription
Casting Concrete Piles:
a. 18-in
h. 20-in
c. 22-in
Driving ( 'oner, i, PiU s
a. 18-in
b. 20-in
C. 22-in
Cement adjustment (increase or decrease)
Withdrawal tests (added or omitted
Loading tests (added or omitted)
Fender piling; furnished and driven [overrun]
a. Treated Wood Piling
b. Greenheart Piling .
Withdrawing and re-driving undamaged fender piles
Eat. (Juan.
Unit
Unit l'ru-i
53,675
L.F.
I 1.2(1
76,057
L.F.
4 . 53
20.07 t
L.F.
5. is
.->3.C,7:.
L.F.
1.32
7C,0."»7
L.F.
1 .32
20.074
L.F.
1 .32
1
Bag
0.95
1
Kach
.-,00.00
1
Bach
500.00
100
L.F.
1 .so
100
L.F.
1.80
5
Each
100.00
(f) Jacksonville, Fla., Engineer District on the Atlantic; according to the com-
munication dated 7 June 1957 from Leo L. Burnet, assistant chief, Engineer-
ing Division, Jacksonville District, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. The fol-
lowing is the information given:
"The data furnished will include technical data obtained . . . by the Beach Erosion
Board, Office of the Chief of Engineers, as it relates to structures within the limits of
the Jacksonville, Fla., Engineer District.
"Permanent Structures: All of the earlier structures constructed by this District,
except a bascule highway bridge over the Intracoastal Waterway, are fresh water struc-
tures, related to navigation and flood control, completed in comparatively recent years
The earliest of such structures was Moss Bluff Lock and Dam, completed in 1925. Dur-
ing the period 1935 to 1941, three 250- by 50-ft navigation locks were constructed on
the Okeechobee Waterway and in the yi-ars 1935 and 193<> five hurricane gate stnw
tures with 50-ft gate openings were constructed in the alinement of Lake Okeechobe
Levee. Moss Bluff Lock is of concrete, equipped with wood.n gates. All of the other
navigation locks and all of the hurricane gate structures were designed to provide for
dewaterinu and routine maintenance, including clean-out, renewals and painting. Then-
have been no failures of the concrete, massive or reinforced, in an) of those structures,
and the ferrous surfaces have been protected by coatings. A bascule bridge, referred to
538 Waterways and Harbors
above, constructed across the Intracoastal Waterway by this District (Palm Valley
Bridge located about; 21 straight line miles S. E. of Jacksonville, Fla.), was constructed
of concrete, with a steel bascule twin leaf lift span and completed in 1937. The con-
crete of the bridge is still in good condition and the steel is subject to routine painting.
Therefore, with respect to the earlier structures constructed by this District, there is no
important service record data available on concrete and steel, and the data relating to
treated and untreated timber fender systems at those and other structures will be referred
to separately.
"Wood Construction:
"The Fender System at Moss Bluff Lock and Dam, completed in 1925, was con-
structed of creosote treated piles and timbers. In 1929 the upstream fenders were recon-
structed. The entire fender system was reconstructed in 1955. The state of the piles
and timbers was that a portion of the old upstream timbers were salvablc in 1955, but
the piles were all unsound or rotted off above water level. (Fresh water exposure).
"The Guide Fenders at Volusia Bar, in Lake George, on the St. Johns River, at the
river entrance into Lake George, were constructed of creosote treated piles and timbers
and completed in 1930-31. The fender system is subject to damage by barge collision
as well as from natural causes. Extensive repairs were made in 1939 and again in 1950.
The lower timbers, subject to rough water and a live flow of fresh water, were exten-
sively damaged by rot around bolts and back of countersunk washers. It is estimated
that about 50 percent of the piles and timlbers were replaced by the renewals of the
1939 and 1950 repair contracts. (Fresh water exposure).
"At Moore Haven Lock the fender system, completed in 1935, was constructed of
creosote-treated piles and timbers. The fender system is still in serviceable condition.
(Fresh water exposure).
"At Ortona Lock the fender system was constructed of asphalt painted piles and
yellow pine timbers. In 1951 the fender system was pronounced rotten throughout and
replaced by a creosote-treated pile and timber fender system. (Fresh water exposure,
constructed in 1935).
"At St. Lucie Lock, the timber guide wall, completed in 1941, was constructed of
creosote treated piles and timbers. It is still in a serviceable condition. (Fresh water
exposure.)
"At Palm Valley Bridge, the bridge fenders, completed in 1937, were constructed of
creosote-treated piles and timbers. The fenders are subject to tidal action and teredo
infestation, except as affected by heavy local rains. The fenders have suffered some dam-
age by colliding vessels, but they are still in a serviceable condition. (Salt water
exposure) .
"Steel Construction:
"In regard to steel construction and metal loss under various conditions of exposure
in the Jacksonville District, the known best service record data obtained by the Corps
of Engineers are that released by the Beach Erosion Board, Office of the Chief of
Engineers, in Technical Memorandums Nos. 10 and 12 . . .
"Technical Memorandum No. 10 pertains to five experimental steel pile groins con-
structed out from the Atlantic Ocean bu'lkheaded shore line at intervals along the north
naif of Palm Beach Island (Town of Palm Beach, Fla.). The groins, designated 112N,
121N, 131N, 135N and 139N, were built during January through April 1937. The steel
varies from deep to shallow section interlocked sheet piling. Various coatings were used,
Waterways and Harbors 539
and some groins were sheathed with creosote treated planking. All of the groins were
subject to heavy attack from the sea. The observations extended through 1946. The pur-
pose of the test was to determine the life expectancy of steel sheet piling in such semi-
tropical waters, in an area where there was a considerable movement of beach material
. . . (The Technical Memorandum contains conclusions.)
"Technical Memorandum No. 12 is based on an examination of 94 structures located
along the Atlantic Coast of the United States and the Gulf Coast of Florida to deter-
mine the rate of deterioration of steel sheet filing exposed to normal sea water or sea
water moderately diluted with fresh water. The examination and measurements covered
a 10 year period, 1936 to 1946, and the type of structures included harbor bulkheads,
beach bulkheads and groins and jetties . . ." (The Technical Memorandum contains
conclusions and metal losses.)
5. GULF COASTAL REGION
(a) Mobile, Ala., on Mobile Bay of the Gulf; according to the letter dated
1 July 1957 from W. C. Knox, chief, Construction Division, Mobile District,
Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. The letter reads:
"The service record on this facility (the Brookley Field-Ocean Terminal, Mobile,
Ala.), which was constructed in 1942, has been excellent. The structure is constructed of
reinforced concrete with concrete piling. Maintenance has involved only the resealing
of concrete slab deck joints and the replacing of treated timber fender piling."
(b) Orleans Levee District, La.; according to A. L. Willoz, chief engineer, The
Board of Levee Commissioners of the Orleans Levee District, an Agency of
the State of Louisiana. His communication of July 17, 1957, contains the
following information:
"... I can only give you general information as to the relative merits of materials
used in connection with our Board's levee work. I presume that you are referring to
materials used in structures such as bulkheads and seawalls.
"As you must be aware, our levees are made of earth material having a clay con-
tent and free from objectionable materials, such as, roots, stumps and the like. To protect
these levees from wave -wash along canals and streams, the water-side slope, until recent
years, was protected with wooden fences or revetments made of cypress lumber. As
cypress became difficult to obtain and expensive, we used creosoted treated pine lumber.
The objections to the use of lumber was the flammability of the material. Where the
area contained brush or weeds, particularly after they were cut, fires were set, which
eventually met our fences and ignited them, and resulted in several hundred feet being
destroyed on each occasion.
"Today we are using concrete paving on the water slopes, usually 4 in. in thickness
with light mesh reinforcing and extending at least 3 ft below the berm adjacent to the
water and the top above expected high water level.
"In cases along drainage canals, where adjacent property is exceptionally high in
value, and where the levee section is below standard, making it uneconomical to ex-
propriate property to afford a wider levee, we installed curtainwalls of interlocking steel
sheet piling, topped with reinforced concrete caps. Usually, we drove this wall to tin-
water side of the levee crown and placed the top of the cap at established levee grade.
Such a wall remains at grade, although the dirt back of it may subside, thus affording
a tight structure preventing water seepage through tin- levee and a substantial per-
manent free board above expected maximum water levels.
540 Waterways and Harbors
"Along Lake Pontchartrain we have used, since the year 1930, concrete seawalls
along a 7-mile perimeter, and have had no maintenance cost on these structures. We
have had erosion back of the walls, due to the use of concrete tongue and groove sheet-
ing being employed in these structures, which did not provide a tight joint. To prevent
this erosion we have placed riprap, oyster shells and clam shells behind these walls as
erosion took place, with the result that erosion is well under control.
"May I mention that these walls have withstood four hurricane since they have been
constructed.
"At the swimming beaches and amusements parks that we have constructed along
the lakesihore, in one case we have used interlocking steel sheet piling for groines to
hold the sand in position. In the other case, we used creosoted sheet pile bulkheads . . .
"In the case of the steel sheeting, it has seriously corroded above the water line
in eight years, due to the continual wetting and drying by the spray of the waves. Lake
Pontchartrain has brackish water, the source of the water being the Gulf of Mexico
and fresh water streams. The piling was of plain steel without a copper content. The
steel company chemists have analyzed the condition, and have admitted that a copper
content wou'ld have helped in reducing the corrosion above the water line.
"We did use steel sheeting with a copper content in two boat locks which were con-
nected with Lake Pontchartrain. The chambers of these locks, which we installed in
1929, have withstood corrosion exceedingly well. About three years ago, one of these
locks was abandoned, and the sheeting in the 400-ft chamber was removed and found
in such good condition that the contractor sold it for reuse on another project.
"Considering the experience we had with the steel sheet pile groines in the lake,
we have assumed the policy of using only concrete or creosoted lumber for structures
to be installed along the shore of Lake Pontchartrain.
"For your further information, we have creosoted bulkheads that have remained
in service, in good condition, well over 30 years."
(c) Lake Pontchartrain, La., on the Gulf Coast; according to W. P. Ktnneman,
CHIEF CIVIL ENGINEER, RAYMOND CONCRETE PlLE COMPANY. HlS LETTER OF JULY 10,
1957, BRINGS THIS INFORMATION:
". . . In recent years we have developed prestressed concrete cylinder piles, which
were used under the Lake Pontchartrain Bridge.
"We have found that with the spinning of the cylinder sections for the prestressed
pile we are able to get very high compressive strengths in the concrete and, we believe,
a concrete that will prove highly resistant to deterioration. Again this pile requires a
considerable amount of expert 'know how' and good material throughout.''
(d) New Orleans, La., on the Mississippi River; according to L. A. Loggins, chief
engineer, southern pacific llnes in texas and louisiana. hls commitnication
of June 4, 1957, states:
"On S. P. Lines in Texas and Louisiana, we have at present waterfront facilities at
Galveston, Tex. and New Orleans, La. At both locations, facilities consist primarily of
aprons and docks of timber construction.
"At New Orleans the facility is on the Mississippi River where the water is gen-
erally fresh. There is no record of marine borer damage. Piling in the dock were originally
cypress, were replaced about 20 years later with square cypress and again replaced in
about 20 years with creosoted pine. Heavy repairs to substructure were again made in
18 years. Records do not indicate just what percentage of the piling were replaced at
each of the renewals, but we do know not all piles were replaced."
Waterways and Harbors 541
(e) Galveston, Tex., on the Gulf; according to the same source of informaj ton
AS GIVEN IN (D) ABOVE. Mr. LoGGINS COMMUNICATES Till: FOLLOWING ACCOUN1 IN
THIS connection:
"At Galveston the main pier was built in 1001-1003 and consisted of creosoted
timber sheet pile bulkheads with shell and gravel fill supporting a timber floor and
sheds. A creosoted timber apron projected from the bulkhead and consisted of creosoted
pine piling and deck.
"Timber floor was replaced with concrete in 1022. Records indicate the first major
replacement of the timber bulkhead was undertaken in 1027-1920. This was again
replaced with concrete sheet piles in 1037-1030. Piling under apron were replaced after
a life of from 7 to 10 years. Some had a longer life, but the major portion hit within
those years.
"Short life of bulkheading and timber piles was generally due to marine borer
action, primarily limnoria. There was some teredo action, but generally limnoria action
was the cause for replacement. Piling and sheet pile timbers were given a 20-lb straight
creosote treatment.
"Some greenheart piling were used in the past but no definite information is avail-
able on their performance; however, our experience indicates limnoria will attack the
sapwood. Also, the sapwood will decay. Heartwood offers resistance to decay and
marine borers but for what period of time is not known.
"We have tested means of retarding marine borer action, such as encasing piles
from low water to mud line in sheet copper. None was found to be very effective or
economical.
"Concrete sheet piles used to replace timber in 1937-1030 were 8 by 16 in. in cross
section and had two 50-lb rails in each for reinforcement. To date there is very little
deterioration, little spalling having occurred. Due to inadequate length of piles and
failure of anchor rods, some movement of bulkhead piles has occurred and resulted in
some loss of fill, but physical condition of individual sheet piles is generally good."
(f) Port Arthur and Baytown, Texas on the Gulf Coast; according to W. P.
K.INNEMAN, CHIEF CIVIL ENGINEER, RAYMOND CONCRETE PlLE COMPANY. HlS COM
MUNICATION OF JULY 10, 1057 STATES:
"The performance of precast concrete piles under waterfront environment is no
better or worse than the quality of concrete that goes into the piles, and of course this
concrete is no better than the portland cement and aggregate that are available. We
have structures which were built in 1011 and 1017 in Port Arthur and in Baytown, Tex.,
which I believe are in good condition, and at least they are serving their purpose in
supporting the wharf . . ."
6. SOUTH PACIFIC COASTAL REGION
(a) Soi in Pacific Division, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army; according ro F. C.
Kendall, chief, Engxni i ring Division. Ili^ leti eb dated 22 May 1057 states:
"Waterfront construction by the Corps of Engineers in this division generally is
(unrined to breakwaters, jetties, seawalls, and groins. These arc generally of random
placed stone, which, if adequately maintained, have an indefinite life."
(hi Fori ui Los Angeles, Calif., on mi Pacific; uxordinc ro E \ Dockwetler,
miim ecarbob engineer, Harbor Department, Cm oi Los Vngeles Hi- virsi
letter of May 16, 1057, informs:
542 Waterways and Harbors
". . . In this connection (the field of the use of ... . concrete), our testing engineer,
Mr. C. M. Wakeman, is in the process of preparing an article for publication in the
Journal of the American Concrete Institute, entitled, "Use of Concrete in Marine
Environments."
In Mr. Dockweiler's second letter of July 8, 1957, he states:
''In reply to your specific questions, please be advised that both teredine and
crustacean borers are a problem to be reckoned with in Los Angeles Harbor. The solu-
tion to the difficulty with the crustacean class {Limnoria tripunctata Menzies) has yet to
be found.
"We have not found any inherent merit in the use of wrought iron rather than
mild steel in our marine environmental exposures. This was also confirmed at a recent
meeting of the Sea Horse Institute held June 10 to 14, at Wrightsville Beach, N. C."
(c) Port of San Francisco, Calif., on San Francisco Bay of the Pacific; according
to S. S. Gorman, chief engineer, Board of State Harbor Commissioners for the
Port of San Francisco. His communication dated July 19, 1957, furnishes the
following account of "life expectancies of construction materials:"
"The following data are furnished . . . regarding our experience with different types
of construction materials in the Port of San Francisco.
"Treated Timber Piles — Our creosoted piles are required to have a 12-lb treatment
and these piles have stood up very well in San Francisco Bay waters. We have had as
long as a 40-year useful life with some of these piles, but, in general, the maximum life
expectancy has been 35 years. In some cases, where treatment has not been proper or
where handling damage has occured, shorter lives have been experienced but, in general,
they have been very satisfactory. Where these piles are located near sewer outlets, their
lives have been indefinite . . .
"Untreated Timber Piles — These piles have, in some cases, become useless in as short
a time as one year, and, in other cases, not over five years. Where located near a sewer
outlet, however, they have had an indefinite life.
"Concrete Piles — We have many concrete piles in good condition which have had a
45-year life. Some with a 50-year life have required considerable maintenance in the last
5 years. This has been due primarily to a poor grade of concrete, causing deterioration
and spalling of concrete and exposure of reinforcing steel. Our present piles require a 1:7
mix which we believe will have an indefinite life. There is no evidence so far to indicate
that this type of pile will not have an indefinite life.
"The original concrete piles in this Port were really concrete cylinders approximately
3 ft in diameter. Some of these are over 55 years old and are still in satisfactory service.
However, many of them have had to be replaced due to the poor grade of concrete used
at the time of their pouring and due to poor workmanship.
"We have many concrete jackets approximately 4 in. in wall thickness which have
been placed around timber piles and which have been in place for approximately 50 years
and have given very satisfactory service and are continuing to do so.
"Steel Piles and Sheet Piles — We have no piles of this type of material in the Port
of San Francisco. The San Francisco Naval Shipyard, however, used both of these types
of piles in 1945, and I have not heard of any difficulties that they have experienced. You
could secure first hand information by communicating directly with the Public Works
Officer of the San Francisco Naval Shipyard.
Waterways and Harbors
543
"Wrought Iron — We have not used wrought iron in piles but have used it in pipe
exposed underneath the decks of our piers. Our experience with wrought iron has been
very satisfactory, and we have experienced useful lives of 30 years. Usually the hangers
which support the wrought iron have deteriorated and required replacement before the
pipe was in any need of maintenance.
"Concrete in Tidal Range — Concrete walls which have been exposed to salt water in
and above the tidal range have given very satisfactory service for as long as 45 years.
In some cases we have had to make repairs, but usually the concrete sections were rather
heavy and the workmanship fair so that this has not been a major maintenance item.
Our principal maintenance requirements in this type of work has been where the rein-
forcing steel was not properly spaced away from the faoe of the concrete, and corrosion
has caused the spalling of the concrete and the rusting of the steel.
"In our records there are no indications of the types of oement used in any of the
work prior to 1945 so I presume that they are of Type I cement. In recent years most of
our cements have been of Type I but in some cases we have used sulfate resistant cements.
The length of this experience has been relatively short so no definite conclusions can be
drawn regarding it."
(d) Oakland and Dumbarton, San Francisco Bay District, Calif., on the San Fran-
cisco Bay of the Pacific; according to W. M. Jaekle, chief engineer, Southern
Pacific Company. His communication dated June 11, 1957, states:
"We have records of creosoted timber piles in our piers and slips in the San Fran-
cisco Bay District. Attached herewith is information on the treated piling in these
structures."
Creosoted Timber Piling Used in Marine Waterfront Structures
of Southern Pacific Co.
Structure
J-D Auto SI
p
.'-c Auto Slip No. I
g-Q F, try Dock No. 7
Oakland Pier
Douglas Fir
Oakland Pier
Douglas 1 n
Oakland Pier
Species of material
Douglas Fir
Number of pieces
t>08
20!) in 1898
Hi 1 in 1921
1697
Date pile.-, installed
L924
18i)8 and 1921
L918
Preeei < atii e used
( !reosote
( hreosote
< Ireosote
12 to 11 lb.
Scattered i.v ,
1.' to 13 lb.
Scattered 50' ,
12 to 1 1 lb.
Piles affected by marine
borers -
Scattered 35' ,
Piles removed and cause
None
None
None
Remarks
1956 inspection
83 piles damage
to 90" , . '-v,
total piles Bboi
10', to
sIlOWS
1 50' I
of the
fi mil
( >f the remaining 209 piles
driven in 1898, 130 are
damaged 65' . to Uio' , .
\n additional km> piles
are damaged 60' , to80
Piles driven in 1921, 97
been damaged by
marine borers.
90 piles damaged 90' ! bj
in piles are dam-
..n' . bj borers; M3
piles damaged 20( . . lea^ -
ing 523 ii"i damaged and
:<, i showing indications of
borei attack,
544
Wat erways and Harbors
Creosoted Timber Piling Used in Marine Waterfront Structures
of Southern Pacific Co.
Structun
l-.l Ferry Slip
6 Trestlt Approach
Son Francisco Bay Bridgi
Loaction..
Oakland Pier
Dumbarton, Calif.
Species of material .
Douglas Fir
Douglas Fir
1100
1905 and 1929
2177
Date piles installed- ..
1931 to 1953
Creosote
12 to 14 11).
Net retention _ .
12 to 14 lb.
Piles affected bv marine borers
Scattered 35%
Scattered 20' ,
78 marine borers
3 mechanical damage
Remarks:
850 of 1905 piles damaged
65% to 100%.
Of 1929 piles 94 are damaged
10% to 30%,.
4f> piles damaged 90% to
100% by marine borers.
702 piles driven in 1931,
75 show slight borer action,
25 damaged 10% to 25%
t> damaged 25%, to 50%
12 damaged 50% to 75%,
14 damaged 75%, to 95%
240 piles driven in 1940,
20 show slight borer action,
6 damaged 5% to 25%
6 damaged 50%> to 75%.
Piles driven in 1948,
1 pile shows slight indication of
borer damage.
7. NORTH PACIFIC COASTAL REGION
(a) Port of Coos Bay, Ore. on the Pacific ; according to Allen G. Terry, manager-
engineer, Port Commission of Coos Bay. His first communication dated May 17,
1957, states:
". . . this is to advise that construction materials for waterfront facilities within the
Port of Coos Bay have consisted of creosote-treated piles and lumber, concrete encased
green piling, and lumber treated with two different water-borne preservatives.
"Our main ship channel is more than 15 miles in length, with bankia or teredo infest-
ing the seaward one-half and limnoria active for the entire length.
"To date, most dock owners in the upper bay area have used green Douglas fir
piling and untreated lumber for superstructure. The life of these piling varies from 6 to
12 years, depending on the location and activity of limnoria. Untreated lumber super-
structure has a usable life expectancy of 10 to 15 years.
"Piling for docks and other marine structures in areas where bankia are active con-
sists almost entirely of creosote-treated Douglas fir piling with 14-lb treatment. Caps,
stringers, and deck are most often untreated; but, in a few cases, creosote-treated caps
and stringers are in use.
"One dock upstream from the bankia limit has concrete encased green piling which
have given very good service for over 20 years.
"Creosote-treated Douglas fir piling (14 lb) have an almost unlimited life expec-
tancy in heavily marine-borer infested waters of Coos Bay if their tops and bolt holes are
properly prepared. I have personally pulled several hundred of these piling which were
Waterways and Harbors 545
driven in 1^22. and with the exception of center rot for 6 to 10 ft down, they were as
good as new. In fact. I should say superior to the treated piling now being supplied, as
the piles were of better grade and hand peeled. Machine peeling removes some of the
sapwood. particularly where sweep occurs, resulting in an inferior piling.
'The port of Coos Bay has recently completed the construction of a small boat basin
in the most heavily marine-borer infested part of the estuary. Dock materials consisted
of the following:
Piling were 14-lb creosote-treated Douglas fir with 13-in butts and 9-in tops.
Stringers were 12 -lb creosoted Douglas fir, incised.
Deck consists of Douglas fir treated with a water-borne preservative.
"When the cut-off was made on the dock piling, nine 1-in diameter holes were bored
about 3 in deep and filled with creosote oil. Heavy burlap was then placed over the tops
of the piling, soaked with creosote oil, and covered with Q0-lb tar paper tackel around
the edges.
"Treated caps were then placed upon the piling and drifted. Each drift was counter-
sunk at least 3 in and space filled with creosote oil. Later, plugs made from the treated
portion of pile-heads were driven atop the drift and sawn off flush with the top of the
cap. This procedure was also followed with the treated stringers in attaching them to
the caps.
•"In my opinion, creosoted piling with proper treatment of tops and bolt holes would
last indefinitely in Coos Bay. barring injury, of course.
"Reinforced concrete and steel piling have not been used in this area to my knowl-
edge. Initial cost of these is the main reason.''
In his second communication dated June 21. 1°57, Mr. Terry discusses floats:
"'. . . the Port of Coos Bay small boat basin was designed to accommodate 150 small
boats, and we are adding 400 lin ft more of floats in an attempt to keep pace with
demand. Mooring spaces on the additional floats will be filled immediately from a long
waiting list.
* * *
"Public boat basins are in their infancy on the West Coast, and we are all groping
for the most economical type of floats and construction. There is certainly an urgent
need for the acceleration of investigations in liirht metals, plastics, and other materials to
produce a durable and economical float.
"T shall advise you at some future date regarding our experience with the different
types of floats we install."
(b) TacOma and Seattle. Wash., on Puget Sound of tiik Pacific; ACCORDING to H. R.
Peterson, chief engineer. Northern PACIFIC Railway. To qxtote SIS COMMTJHICA-
tion of August o. 1q57:
"During the past, the Northern Pacific Railway has carried on a series of general
in-pections of piles in the Seattle and Tacoma harbors for the purpose of studying condi-
tions of the piles and establishing a service record to reveal the trend of the longevitj
of the pilinsr . . .
". . . The results of these studies indicate that the creosote-treated Douglas fir piles
have an average sen-ice life of 36 years in the teredo and limnora infested coastal waters
where untreated wood piles are often completely destroyed by these marine borers within
a year.
'"Because our use of concrete and steel nilinsx in -alt water is limited. OUI
546 Waterways and Harbors
records on this material are scanty. However, our records do show that untreated Douglas
fir piling having a metal cylinder placed around the piling and set with concrete were
placed in the Puget Sound waters in 1882 and abandoned in 1910. This 28-year service
life is misleading because at the time of the 1910 inspection, examination showed that the
metal cylinders had become detached and the concrete had fallen off of numerous piles,
leaving the wooden piling exposed and badly attacked by the marine borers. Steel piling
is not ordinarily used in salt water because of corrosion but it is being used in fresh
water installations with good success. However, as yet our service records are not long
enough to make direct comparisons."
Mr. Peterson also gives the following average service life for sea-water piling from
Northern Pacific records:
Untreated wood 1 year
Treated wood 36 years
Steel 25 years
Concrete 25 years
Gunite over wood 26 years
For further discussion by Mr. Peterson, see Parts 1 and 2 of this Report.
Part 4— The Life of Steel Sheet Piling and Steel H-Section
Bearing Piles
By Fred B. White
Engineer, Tennessee Coal & Iron Division, United States Steel Corporation
The problem of predicting the possible life of any permanent piling installation will,
upon investigation, be found to be fraught with uncertainties and complications. The
active agencies (oxygen, acids, alkalis, and saline solutions) which bring about corrosion
and destroy permanency, may carry on their work under two or more conditions in the
same installation, as piling may be partly exposed, partly in water and partly in earth.
These conditions may be expressed roughly as:
Case 1. Atmospheric
Case 2. Sub-soil
Case 3. Sub-soil, sub-aqueous
Case 4. Sub-aqueous.
Case 1. It has been well established that small additions of copper (0.20 percent
minimum) will double the life of ordinary carbon steel when subjected to atmospheric
corrosion. With an occasional coating of paint, acid-free tar, or emulsified asphalt, there
is no reason to believe that an indefinite life should not be expected with piling under
these conditions.
Case 2. This condition is probably the most uncertain and variable of any. The
Bureau of Standards' soil corrosion investigation has brought to light many important
facts and warrants a careful study by anyone interested in the effect on steel when buried
in soil. Their findings are described in Technical Paper No. 368 of the Bureau of Stand-
ards. More recent data on the same subject are contained in Research Bulletin No. 10-A,
Bureau of Standards, Soil Corrosion Investigation — An Analysis of the Relative Life of
Ferrous Materials, by V. V. Kendall, dated May 8, 1930. Briefly, these investigations
show that the locality and nature of the soil have a far greater bearing on the corrosion
of iron and steel products than difference in composition of the material itself, and that
Waterways and Harbors 547
the character of the soil, and not the material, controls the rate of corrosion. In some
localities, there is as much difference between upper and lower layers of soil as between
widely scattered soil; and the resistance offered by proper coating is the most important
factor.
Case 3. Sub-soil, sub-aqueous, combines the uncertainties of sub-soil conditions with
those of sub-aqueous and, wherever practical, corrosion activities probably can be re-
tarded by the use of heavy external coatings of paint, tar, or asphalt. Some of this coat-
ing will, in a great majority of cases, be abraded in the driving of piling but enough will
often remain to warrant the expense. In sands, jetting may relieve the abrasion to some
extent, while in gravels nothing generally can be gained by the use of coatings.
Case 4. Predictions as to life in total sub-aqueous conditions are generally more reliable
than for any of the other cases. In many instances, the piling is out of contact with the
atmosphere, and the effect of pure, or nearly pure, water is very small. Under such con-
ditions, it is probably safe to predict a life of 60 to 100 years for H-in minimum metal
and possibly one-half that life under the same conditions in salt water without protec-
tion. Certain coatings, when applicable, will undoubtedly increase the life in either fresh
or salt water.
Steel piling, when exposed and unprotected, is of course subject to some corrosion,
but evidence shows that the actual amount of deterioration from this cause has been
over-estimated. Damage to steel piling, especially in the case of sheet piling, caused by
abrasion by wind or water-borne sand should not be confused with corrosion.
In most structures where steel piling is used only a small portion of it requires
special consideration from the standpoint of corrosion. As stated above, if any portion is
to be submerged in water, it can be protected by proper paint application before installa-
tion. The portion extending above water or ground level can be kept free from corrosion,
either by painting or by encasing the piling in concrete.
Tests and inspections of steel driven into the ground indicate:
(1) That corrosion of the buried portion is greater near the ground surface and
decreases to a negligible amount at a short distance below the surface where
free oxygen is excluded from contact with the steel.
(2) That the rust which forms during the early stages of exposure, accumulating
on the surface of the steel, forms a protective coating. This accounts for the
continuous decrease in the rate of corrosion of buried steel.
Steel H-Section Bearing Piles
The low, unit working stresses found in steel bearing pile designs provided ample
safeguards against high stresses in the piles, in the event that through some unusual cir-
cumstances the loss of metal should be appreciably greater than that which many years'
experience over a wide range of conditions has indicated.
A variety of protective encasements for steel bearing piles, where they extend above
the low water line, are used as a protection against corrosion.
In their vertical position, steel bearing piles do not offer convenient paths for the
conduction of stray electric surface currents, so there is little likelihood of their being
damaged by electrolysis due to such currents.
Basically, the surface corrosion of steel is proportionate to the amount of moist
atmosphere and dissolved or free oxygen coming in contact with it. It is also well known
that the rate of corrosion slows up materially as soon as the steel takes on a film of
products of corrosion, which, in themselves, act as a protection for the metal underneath
548 Waterways and Harbors
These products of corrosion also permeate the ground, under certain conditions of earth
and moisture, for several inches, forming a dense non-porous and impervious encasement
around the steel.
Where steel piles are driven in sand, conditions are particularly favorable to the
formation of an impervious, insoluble coating of ferro-silicate as soon as the steel corrodes
slightly, thus forming an encasement which is effective in preventing further corrosion.
In subgrade structures such as foundations, it is apparent that fresh oxygen cannot
be brought to the steel either by penetration of air or by sub-surface water currents,
so no special protection for the steel is required.
In structures such as pile bents, which extend continuously from below a stream bed
up to points considerably above high water, some form of protective encasement is desir-
able in the zone of maximum corrosion, which is usually between the low and high water
marks. The encasement should begin at a point about 1 ft or more below low water and
extend up to a point above high water, where maintenance such as painting, as applied to
the balance of the structure, is practicable. Wide flange CBP section steel bearing piles,
protected as just stated, will certainly have a useful life at least equal to other types
of supports which have been generally used heretofore.
Steel bearing piles are, of course, immune from attack and destruction by various
types of borers, such as teredos, bankia, martesia, limnoria, sphaeroma, or other marine
organisms, as well as any kind of insects, such as ants or termites.
On account of its strength, elasticity, and uniformity, steel is universally considered
as the best building material. However, as there were doubts about its lasting qualities,
the adoption of steel for several types of structures has been delayed. At present, these
reasons have not the same weight as formerly. Reports gathered together on steel struc-
tures which have been exposed over a long period of years have shown that corrosion
does not cause deterioration as quickly as had been thought, where proper protection
has been provided.
The State of Nebraska tested some steel H-piles that had been in place over 25 years
in the Platte River. Every result showed that not even one percent loss in section had
occurred from corrosion. These piles had been installed without a protective coat of any
kind.
The examination of part of the steel piling under a bridge built in Garfield County
near Enid, Okla., about 34 years ago, showed the shop coat of paint was still intact
about 6 in under the ground and the piling was in exoellent condition. A little rust streak
occurred at the line of contact between ground and air was all that was exposed. The
report states the piling has not lost as much as one percent of its section due to corrosion.
Steel Sheet Piling
The possibility of corrosion offers no serious obstacle to the use of steel piling. This
is confirmed by the following reports of examinations of actual installations.
In 1031 a careful inspection was made of samples taken from some sheet piling that
was driven by the U. S. Engineers in 1912 in the bulkheads in the ship canal below
Buffalo, N. Y. The water at this point is polluted by sewage and industrial waste. The
sheet piling was pulled to make way for a new structure. It was found that the surface
of the samples which had been in contact with the earth fill was in excellent condition and
had only a very thin coating of rust scale. The surface exposed to the water showed
*** As this report is confined only to heretofore unpublished information, all otherwise published
information referred to in Mr. Fred B. White's communication will be included in next year's report.
Waterways and Harbors 549
somewhat more corrosion and, in addition, occasional pitting to a depth of about A in.
A sample taken from the bulkhead at about 7 ft below the lake level showed a loss
in weight of approximately 2.5 percent. Another sample was taken at lake level where
the piling was alternately wet and dry. The corrosion on the surface that had been in
contact with the fill was very slight, while most of the corrosion had taken place on the
surface that had been alternately wet and dry. The loss in weight due to corrosion as
compared with the original section was about 3.5 percent.
In 1°14, the City of Toronto, Canada, installed about 1500 tons of steel sheet piling
as dock bulkheads in connection with the Don River Diversion Project. In 1931, the city
constructed additional steel sheet piling wharves after a careful examination of the earlier
structures showed that corrosion on the exposed, submerged and buried portions of the
steel piling had been very slight.
Some steel sheet piling was recently examined at the site of the wartime shipbuilding
plant at Hog Island in the Delaware River near Philadelphia, Pa. This piling was driven
about 1917 and has had no maintenance by painting or other means since it was installed.
A portion of this piling may be found projecting about 1 ft above the surface of a sandy
beach. The exposed area has a very thin coating of rust, but no appreciable loss of section
was noted. The remainder of the piling is located in water and projects a few feet above
high tide. There were practically no signs of corrosion at high tide and immediately
below. The brand name was easily read. The Battelle Memorial Institute, which made a
laboratory examination of this piling, estimated its useful life from 60 to 100 years.
* * *
We believe there are ample examples of what can be expected of steel in salt water
in the State of Florida. The U. S. Engineers at Jacksonville are in a position to render
unbiased and irrefutable information on the matter. We quote, herewith, excerpt from
a report by the U. S. Engineers' office at Jacksonville to the Chief of Engineers at
Washington, dated November 20, 1934:
''St. Johns River, Jacksonville — North of Municipal Pier No. 1 — Sheet Piling Used
AP-14 — Estimated Life 30 years
"St. Johns River — Municipal Pier No. 1 — Sheet Piling Used AP-14 — Estimated
Life 35 years
"St. Johns River, Dredge Depot, Talleyrand Avenue at 22nd Street — Sheet Piling
Used Section AP-14 — Estimated Life 60 years
"St. Johns River, McCoys Creek Outlet— Sheet Piling Used Larrsen Section No. 1
— Estimated Life 56 years
"St. Johns River, Florida East Coast Railway Bridge Sheet Piling Used Section AP-
14 — Estimated Life 43 years"
Also, in 1937 the Corps of Engineers made an exhaustive examination of a sheet pile
of considerable age extracted from the City of Miami piers, and the deterioration of the
same throughout its length was very carefully recorded. No doubt this information is
available at the city engineer's office in Miami and also at the Corps of Engineers office
at Jacksonville.
Steel sheet piling has been used, generally, in salt wafer only since about 1014. The
installations at Key West, Fla., described below, afford the best available data on thu life
of this material in sea water.
The oldest and most interesting installation of steel sheel piling in sea water <>f which
the Corps of Engineers has record is at Key West, Fla., forming two bulkheads protecting
550 Waterways and Harbors
the abutments of a bridge of the Florida East Coast Railway. This piling, U. S. section
with jHs-in web, was purchased about 1905 and used in various cofferdams until 1910.
In 1910 the piling was driven in the present structure. To quote from report of the
inspection by Mr. R. H. Wilson, harbor engineer of Miami, and Colonel F. N. Alstaetler,
consulting engineer, in 1926: "The piles above water were in bad shape. The tops were
completely rusted through and when hit by a hammer near high tide, they broke through.
Between high and low tide they were in much better condition. Be'low low tide they
seemed to be in good shape and when hit near low tide with a sledge hammer, appeared
to be very solid. The outline of the piles below low tide were regular and showed no
deterioration as far as could be seen."
Examination of another bulkhead installation at Key West where fabricated piling
was purchased in 1906 and used in cofferdams until driven in the present location in
1914 revealed that, while the top of pile at a corner of this job was completely gone,
below low water each rivet and the edges and fillets of the angles were clearly defined,
indicating no apparent loss by corrosion.
Some interesting data on the subject of life of steel sheet piling in sea water were
obtained in 1929 by actually cutting out and measuring samples of steel plate and stee'l
sheet piling from an installation in sea water. This test was conducted by Capt. L. H.
Hewitt of the Beach Erosion Board of the U. S. War Department.
This installation is at the plant of the Long Island Lighting Company at Glenwood
Landing, Long Island, N. Y. The samples were cut out at the place of apparent maximum
corrosion — approximately 1 ft to 18 in below high tide level.
The results of this test are as follows:
Steel plate originally Y% in thick subjected to salt water action on one face only,
lost by corrosion s32 in since 1909.
Sheet steel piling originally ?/§ in thick also subjected to salt water action on one
face only, lost by corrosion 3/64 in since 1919.
4s ♦ ♦
The use of copper-bearing steel for sheet piling installations in salt water is increas-
ing. However, for the reason that the use of copper-bearing steel is so recent, there is
not much definite information available regarding the comparative life in salt water of
copper bearing and plain carbon steel. If copper-bearing steel is used in the manufacture
of the sheet piling, all accessories, such as steel wales, tie rods, bo'lts, etc., connected to
the piling should also be manufactured from steel having approximately the same copper
content. The use of wrought iron tie rods and bolts in combination with plain steel wales
and copper-bearing steel sheet piling would cause excessive corrosion at connections due
to electrolysis set up by the difference in potential resulting from the use of materials
having different chemical analyses.
Examination of present structures in sea water reveals the fact that corrosion is most
active above high water level, somewhat less between tide levels and still less active below
low tide level.
While there are differences of opinion as to the best coating for steel pi'!ing subject
to salt water corrosion, a coating of tar or asphalt applied as thick as possible seems to
offer the best protection.
Waterways and Harbors 551
Part 5 — Pressure-Treated Timber in Harbor Structures
By W. D. Keeney
District Engineer, American Wood Preservers Institute
Pressure- treated timber is one of the most important materials for waterfront and
port structures. Many of the largest modern terminals on all American coasts have exten-
sive areas of piers and wharves built wholly of pressure-treated timber or which contain
large quantities of treated timber in combinations with other durable materials. Each
material has its advantages and disadvantageous for a particular use in waterfront installa-
tions. None of the commercial materials when used in sea water can be classed as
permanent.
Marine piling investigations, published by the National Research Council, reported
extensive and elaborate examinations of structures conducted by Atwood and Johnson
in the principal ports of continental United States and the Caribbean. These investigations
show conclusively that all of the usual construction materials are subject to deterioration
in marine waters. Decay, corrosion, spalling, disintegration, electrolysis and decomposi-
tion all occur, and in most cases at an accelerated rate when the material affected by
them is in contact with sea water. Wood is no exception and requires protection from
decay and marine organisms when in contact with salt water. Pressure treatment by
approved processes and preservatives, however, transforms wood into a highly resistant
material that has demonstrated by actual service its suitability for use under the severest
conditions of exposure.
The design and eventual cost of piers and wharves is of permanent importance to
any port authority or other interests providing and operating marine terminal facilities.
A large portion of the expenditure for harbor development is required for pier and wharf
construction. It has generally been recognized that a pier of given capacity, with func-
tional facilities and equipment for handling cargos that may be attracted to it, will earn
the same revenue regardless of the materials from which it is built. Costs of construction,
therefore, must be kept in line with fixed charges to permit profitable operation.
Factors that determine the serviceability and economy of wharves and piers include:
1. Economical construction, taking into account the initial costs, fixed charges and
maintenance during its commercial life or period of service. The facility with
which repairs can be made, and the ease with which the installation can be
modified, revamped or strengthened for changing requirements also is important.
2. Adequate strength to carry all load concentrations imposed by commodities
handled over the deck, and substructures designed for supporting conveying
machinery, trucks and frequently railroad tracks.
3. Elasticity to prevent serious injury to vessels impinging on or striking against
the structure.
4. Resistance to horizontal forces imposed by vessels coming in contact with the
pier.
5. Nonobstruction to free flow of water and ice, and a minimum interference with
the tidal prism.
6. Effective protection against fire, and practicable means of controlling and con-
fining fires that may occur in flammable cargo.
7. Rapidity and simplicity of construction.
8. Practicability of salvage.
552 Waterways and Harbors
All of these requirements can be taken care of in properly designed piers of pressure-
treated wood as well as in those built of other materials, and for some of them wood
construction has particular advantages. Carefully graded lumber provides material with
dependable working stresses for proportioning pier members. The conventional platform
type of piers or marginal wharves is simple to erect and generally can be built at a sub-
stantial saving over comparable structures of other materials. Modifications in this type
can be made economically, and in the event of obsolescence, materials can be reclaimed.
The principal destroyers of unprotected wood in waterfront structures are decay and
marine borers. Decay occurs only in timber that projects above the water line, but all
wood submerged in or in contact with salt or brackish water must be considered liable
to attack by marine borers. Widespread attack to piling in New England coastal waters
first noted in the early 1930's, showed that changing conditions may bring on attack.
Service records shows that timber treated by an approved pressure process with an
appropriate preservative is protected from decay. When injected with adequate retentions
of creosote per cubic foot, treatable species of timber piles have resisted marine borer
attack for many years. In several instances when piers and other salt water installations
were dismantled after many years of service, creosoted piles that were driven in the
original construction have been salvaged for reuse.
Such service requires selection of a species of timber that is receptive to preservative
treatment and can be treated by an approved process to the net retentions of preservative
required for protection under the prevailing exposure. Both treatability and strength are
essential properties of the timber.
Southern yellow pine and Douglas fir are the principal American species supplying
structural lumber and the longer piles required for deep water piers and wharves. These
species comprise the greatest available stands of structural timber. Both species com-
bine high strength with treatability, and similar material cut from them has equivalent
stress ratings. No limitation should be placed on sapwood thickness on any wood to be
treated. Sapwood is equally as strong as heartwood, and takes treatment readily. Sapwood,
therefore, is highly desirable in timber that is to be treated. Minimum sapwood thickness
of 1 in is required by ASTM specifications for round timber piles that are to be treated.
Timber piles of these species and conforming in all respects to ASTM specifications
for round timber piles are readily available in the usual range of lengths requred for pier
and wharf construction. Scientific forest management of areas from which large saw
timber was logged years ago permitted the small trees to mature under favorable growing
conditions. 'Controlled harvesting of timber from these areas provide an ample supply of
piling for all needs.
Practical refusal treatments with creosote should be specified for piles which are to be
installed in coastal waters where borers are to be anticipated. This means generally 20 to
22 lb of creosote per cu ft of wood for Southern pine and approximately 14 lb for
Douglas fir.
These absorptions should be regarded as acceptable minimums. Any increase in them
that it is practicable to obtain in the usual treating cycle should be authorized by the
purchaser. The small cost of the additional preservative is the cheapest insurance that
can be bought, because the heaviest practicable retention of creosote or its solutions is
the most effective protection against all varieties of marine borers.
The most common type of timber wharf is the conventional pile-supported platform.
This type is used extensively not only for finger piers that project out normal to the
bank but also for marginal wharves which parallel the shore, and for aprons extending
water sides of solid core fills retained by sheet pile bulkheads.
Waterways and Harbors 553
The pile substructure fits well into practically all usual bottom conditions. Spacing
of the piles in a bent and spans between bents vary with the bearing for which piling
can be driven economically at the various sites. Hard driving to develop excessive load
bearing is seldom required, for except in shallow water the capacity of the piles will
depend on their competence as long columns and not on driving formulas.
Good design and construction practices contribute materially to the service life of
treated timber in salt water structures. Rear Admiral Joseph F. Jolly in "An Interim
Report — Navy Department Marine Borer Investigations," when he was chief of the
Bureau of Yards and Docks, stressed particularly the value of eliminating exposure of
dock members to the fullest degree possible. "The logical solution in design is the loca-
tion of the lower bracing at a minimum height of about V/z ft above low water level
for structures at sites where the tide range is less than 6 ft. The best timber designs
avoid cutting or boring the treated surface of members below high water level as far as
possible."
Batter piles advantageously spaced through pile substructures provide not only the
most practicable but also the most effective bracing. They transfer bracing loads directly
from the points of application to the ground without causing harmful distortion in the
support piles of the bent. Connections are made at or near the deck level where field
cuts can be protected from decay by practicable field treatment. Rigid decks too, aid
materially in preventing distortion of the substructure by lateral force without interfering
objectionably with the elasticity of the structure.
An adequately braced treated timber pier or wharf retains the desirable flexibility for
absorbing shocks from ships landing or disturbed by waves without injury to them. The
kinetic energy of a moving vessel is equal to the product of one-half its mass and the
square of its velocitv ( ). A 10,000-ton ship moving at onlv \l/2 ft per sec amounts
to 350 ft-tons, and at double this velocity to 1400 ft-tons. This energy must be expended
either in deflecting the wharf or displacing the ship. Unless the pier has a certain amount
of elasticity the ship is likely to be damaged by excessive impact.
The treated timber-concrete composite deck is especially adapted to dock and other
heavy duty floors that must resist wear or abrasion. It consists of a solid laminated
timber base with a concrete surface superimposed and integrally connected to the base,
so that the two materials act as a unit with an effective depth equal to the over-all
thickness of the assembly. The concrete mat, besides forming an excellent wearing sur-
face, distributes wheel or concentrated loads over wide areas, and also by virtue of the
shear connection becomes an effective part of the supporting medium. These decks form
rigid continuous slabs between expansion joints which are spaced from 200 to 300 ft
apart. They are extremely rigid and contribute materially to bracing the structures
against lateral forces.
A marginal pier 1800 by 68 ft with a composite treated-timber deck designed by the
Public Works Officer, Brooklyn Navy Yard was built at Floyd Bennett Field in New-
York. A large number of these decks have been constructed by the Navy at various
American and Caribbean bases. A deck of this design was also used on some apron
sections added to a filled-in marginal wharf of one of the large oil companies in New
York harbor. The treated timber-concrete composite deck has been tested in actual service
under a wide variety of climate and loading during the last two decades <>r more, and
has proved quite satisfactory. The slabs with bases of 2 by 6 in and 2 by 4 in plank
alternated, and topped with a 2>y2 to 4 in thickness of concrete are adequate for 20- to
24-ft spans of decks that carry the heaviest trucking or high load concentrations.
554 Waterways and Harbor;
The relieving platform bulkhead is a modification of the conventional trestle that is
particularly adapted to marginal wharves or those that more or less parallel the shore
line. They consist of the usual pile substructure sealed by a sheet pile retaining wall on
the land side. Piles are cut off usually from 5 to 7 ft below finished grade and decked
either with a platform of strong timber or reinforced concrete which is covered with an
earth fill usually 5 ft or more in depth. The deck fill is retained on the outboard side
by a gravity wall which also acts as a fascia for the structure.
Width of the trestle varies with the water depth to be maintained along the outboard
edge. A considerable height of riprap generally is deposited against the sea side of the
sheet pile wall to prevent scour and to balance thrusts from the backfill. The platform
width should be sufficient to contain the repose slopes of this riprap bank, and prevent
encroachment of the riprap on the water depth at the wharf side.
Approximately Al/2 miles of relieving platform bulkhead has been constructed in
recent years along the East River shore of Manhattan Island. This length of platform
supported on creosoted timber piles was built on the bulkhead line established by the
U. S. Engineer Corps which is usually from 100 to 250 ft from the former shore line.
The intervening filled-in space provides right-of-way for the East River Drive highway
and areas for industrial uses and parking. Besides retaining the fill the bulkhead provides
a docking wall for ships with a 20- to 30-ft draft.
In either the conventional trestle or the relieving platforms the open pile substruc-
tures interpose little obstruction to the free flow of currents. They do not affect materially
the amount of water flowing into and out of the harbor with the change of tide. Thus,
there is a minimum of interference with the tidal prism which aids materially in main-
taining channels.
Conformity with good practice requirements of the National Board of Fire Under-
writers for the construction and protection of piers and wharfs should be insisted on.
These safeguards have been proven effective by experience, and they are not difficult to
provide in any treated timber pier. Protection generally consists in underdeck fire walls
or bulkheads entirely across the substructure at intervals of 120 to 150 ft throughout
the substructure. These bulkheads frequently are formed by sheathing both sides of an
occasional bent with heavy plank or timber. These bulkheads should form a solid barrier
from the deck top to low water. Generally they are constructed of treated timber, as
otherwise they would be impaired quickly by decay. They prevent the spread of fire,
confining any fires that do start to small areas where they can be brought under control
by fire-fighting equipment. Ample hatches should be provided to permit ready access
through the deck to fire-fighting crews and hose lines. Through all pier sheds sprinkler
systems should be maintained in good condition. These systems, of course, are necessary
for controlling fires that may develop in cargos or stored commodities. For protection,
parts of the superstructure such as pier shed interiors can be constructed with timber
that has been pressure-treated with one of the recognized fire-retardant formulations.
Wood is singularly free from damage by the chemicals in sea water, nor does salt-
laden atmosphere affect it adversely. Timber pressure-treated with an appropriate
preservative is readily available to all sections of the country. Experience over long
periods of time show that service life of properly treated timber can be predicted and
consequent carrying charges computed with assurance. When realistic periods of sen-ice
are assumed for comparing different materials, treated timber proves economical in many
cases. Carning charges will be a minimum as a result of low first cost, durability and
low maintenance. These low costs frequently permit profitable operation that can not
always be achieved with more expensive installations.
Report of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses
D. S. Bechly, Chairman,
D. W. Musser,
Vice-Chairman,
E. R. Andrlik
E. D. BlLLMEYER
E. S. BlRKENWALD
E. T. Bond, Jr.
E. R. Bretscher
E. E. Burch
F. H. Cramer
T. F. Creed, Jr.
C. P. Cummins
A. C Danks, Jr.
J. W. Davidson
K. L. Deblois
W. E. Dowling
W. N. Downey
X. E. Ekrem
J. A. Erskine
A. T. Granger
A. R. Harris
R. H. Heinlen
W. B. KUERSTEINER
C. V. Lund
J. F. Marsh
James Michalos
P. L. Montgomery
\V. H. Munse
C. H. Newlin
X. M. Xewmark
A. L. PlEPMEIER
M. J. Plumb
E. W. Prentiss
H. C. Prince
C. A. Roberts
M. B. Scott
J. H. Shieber
A. P. Smith
C. B. Smith
F. W. Thompson
G. S. Vincent
J. R. Williams
W. M. Wilson (E)
J. D. Woodward
M. O. Woxland
L. T. Wyly
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Steel girder spans.
Progress report, presented as information page 556
2. Steel truss spans.
Progress report, presented as information page 556
3. Viaduct columns, collaborating with Committee 15.
Progress report, presented as information page 557
4. Longitudinal forces in bridge structures, collaborating with Committees 7,
8 and 15.
Progress report, presented as information page 557
5. Distribution of live load in bridge floors:
(a) Floors consisting of transverse beams.
(b) Floors consisting of longitudinal beams.
Progress report, presented as information pay.
6. Concrete structures, collaborating with Committee 8.
Progress report, presented as information page 558
7. Timber structures, collaborating with Committee 7
Progress report, presented as information page 558
The Committee on Impact and Bridge Stresses,
D. S. Bechly, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin S40, December 1957.
555
A
556 Impact and Bridge Stresses
Report on Assignment 1
Steel Girder Spans
M. J. Plumb (chairman, subcommittee), E. R. Andrlik, D. S. Bechly, E. R. Bretscher,
T. J. Creed, Jr., C. P. Cummins, W. E. Dowling, P. L. Montgomery, A. L. Piep-
meier, H. C. Prince, C. A. Roberts, J. H. Shieber, A. P. Smith, C. B. Smith.
A report on tests of nine steel girder spans and one beam span on the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy Railroad was published in Bulletin 537, June-July 1957, page 1.
This report covered the stresses in the flanges, webs and bracing produced by the
passage of steam and diesel locomotives at a complete range of speeds.
The report on these Burlington spans was the last of a series covering 37 steel
girder spans varying in length from 40 to 140 ft. The research staff of the AAR is
currently making a comparative analysis of data from all these reports, which will
provide information for the final report on this assignment.
Report on Assignment 2
Steel Truss Spans
E. S. Birkenwald (chairman, subcommittee), E. R. Andrlik, E. T. Bond, Jr., C. P.
Cummins, A. T. Granger, A. R. Harris, James Michalos, W. H. Munse, D. W.
Musser, M. J. Plumb, H. C. Prince, M. B. Scott, G. S. Vincent, L. T. Wyly.
During 1957 and the latter part of 1956, field tests were made as follows:
1. In certain members adjacent to the counterweight of a 133-ft Strauss trunnion
bascule bridge, at the request and expense of New York Central System. Static
stresses were obtained during the opening and closing of the bridge.
2. In certain members of the chords, diagonals, hangers and floor system of four
400-ft truss spans constructed in 1888, at the request and expense of the C&NW
Railroad and the CB&Q Railroad. Stresses were measured under regular slow
speed diesel operations.
3. On a three-span continuous deck truss bridge, 576 ft long, of the Southern
Pacific Company in Northern California. Stresses, direct and secondary, were
measured in chord and web members under regular high-speed diesel operation.
Test trains were used to determine synchronous speed. Deflection of the truss
was measured as well as vertical accelerations of the test locomotive as it crossed
the bridge.
When analysed, report on item 3 and reports on items 1 and 2, if warranted, will
be forthcoming.
Impact and Bridge Stresses 557
Report on Assignment 3
Viaduct Columns
Collaborating with Committee 15
A. T. Granger (chairman, subcommittee), E. D. Billmeyer, E. E. Burch, A. C. Danks,
Jr. N. E. Ekrem, J. F. Marsh, W. H. Munse, H. C. Prince, M. B. Scott, J. R.
Williams.
Analysis of the data obtained from tests conducted in 1956 on a steel viaduct on
the Genesee & Wyoming Railroad near Retsof, N. Y., has been completed. These tests
were made at the expense and request of that railroad to determine the direct and
bending stresses in certain members of the viaduct. Stresses in the columns and tower
bracing under static and dynamic loading were also measured to determine the effect
of braking and traction forces, and will be reported on next year.
Data from this report will furnish additional information toward the compilation
of a final report on this subject.
Report on Assignment 4
Longitudinal Forces in Bridge Structures
Collaborating with Committees 7, 8 and 15
J. A. Erskine (chairman, subcommittee), E. D. Billmever, E. T. Bond, Jr., T. F. Creed,
Jr., A. C. Danks, Jr., K. L. DeBlois, W. E. Dowling, W. B. Kuersteiner, C. V.
Lund, J. F. Marsh, A. L. Piepmeier, C. A. Roberts, F. W. Thompson, M. O. Wox-
land, L. T. Wyly.
During 1957 field tests were conducted on four ballasted-deck pile trestles located
on the Santa Fe Railway in Arizona. The longitudinal forces transmitted to the struc-
ture by traction and braking of heavily loaded trains were measured. A report on these
tests will be included in the report under Assignment 7.
A report on tests made prior to 1957 on pile trestles on the Seaboard Air Line
Railroad in Florida is scheduled for completion in 1958. Additional data on the effect
of traction and braking forces were also obtained from the tests on the steel viaduct
on the Genesee & Wyoming Railroad, reported on under Assignment 3.
Report on Assignment 5
Distribution of Live Load in Bridge Floors
(a) Floors Consisting of Transverse Beams
(b) Floors Consisting of Longitudinal Beams
N. M. Newmark (chairman, subcommittee), D. S. Bechly, E. S. Birkenwald, J. W.
Davidson, K. L. DeBlois, W. N. Downey, W. B. Kuersteiner, D. W. Musser, C. H.
Newlin, E. W. Prentiss, C. B. Smith.
An analytical study of the extensive amount of field data that has been accumulated
on this subject was started at the University of Illinois in June 1957. Existing literature
on the analytical and experimental aspects of the problem have been reviewed, certain
558 Impact and Bridge Stresses
of the test bridges have been inspected, and at present the work is concerned with
developing a method of studying the floor system of bridges having transverse floor
beams.
The purpose of this study is to develop a workable formula, based on the test
data, for axle load distribution to railroad bridge floors. This investigation at the Uni-
versity of Illinois is expected to extend over a period of two years.
Report on Assignment 6
Concrete Structures
Collaborating with Committee 8
P. L. Montgomery (chairman, subcommittee), J. W. Davidson, W. N. Downey, N. E.
Ekrem, J. A. Erskine, A. R. Harris, R. H. Heinlen, James Michalos, N. M. New-
mark, E. W. Prentiss, J. H. Shieber, A. P. Smith, F. W. Thompson, G. S. Vincent,
J. D. Woodward.
A report on the investigation of full-size reinforced concrete railway bridge slabs
was published in Bulletin 537, June-July 1957, page 133. This report included tests
made on six slabs at the Bureau of Reclamation Laboratory, Denver, Colo., and field
tests on two spans of a CB&Q bridge at Hunnewell, Mo. The behavior under static load
of two old deteriorated slabs and four new slabs, including one prestressed, pretentioned
slab, was determined in the laboratory. The field investigation determined the dynamic
effect on conventional reinforced and prestressed slabs under the passage of diesel
locomotives at a complete range of speeds.
In collaboration with Committee 8 — Masonry, tests are currently being conducted
at Lehigh University to determine the effect of repetitive loading on prestressed concrete
slabs.
Report on Assignment 7
Timber Structures
Collaborating with Committee 7
C. V. Lund (chairman, subcommittee), E. R. Bretscher, E. E. Burch, F. H. Cramer,
R. H. Heinlen, C. H. Newlin, J. R. Williams, J. D. Woodward, M. O. Woxland.
During 1957 the research staff of the Association of American Railroads conducted
tests on four ballasted-deck pile trestles located on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway in Arizona. Similar data were obtained in 1954 and 1955 on two ballasted-deck
pile trestles located on the Seaboard Air Line Railroad in Florida.
In these tests strains were measured in the stringers and piles under regularly oper-
ated trains over a wide range of speeds. The magnitude of the longitudinal forces
resisted by the piles, rails and the embankment behind the bulkheads was also measured.
Analysis of the data obtained on the Seaboard Air Line trestles is complete, and will be
reported on next year. Analysis of the data obtained on the Santa Fe trestles is scheduled
for completion in 1958.
Report of Committee 3 — Ties
L. C. Collister, Chairman,
L. P. Drew,
Vice Chairman,
W. E. Axi F-i.i
R. S. Belcher (E)
P. D. Brentlinclr
C. S. Burt
W. J. Burton (E)
G. B. Campbell
E. L. Collette
R. L. Cook
R. W. Cook
H. R. Duncan
T. H. Friedlin (E)
A. K. Frost
F. J. Fudge
W. E. Fuhr
R. F. Garner
L. E. GlNGERlCII
H. E. Grier
F. F. Hornig
B. D. Howe
M. J. Hubbard
R. P. Hughes
C. E. Jackman
W. R. Jacobson
H. W. Jensen
W. L. Kahler
L. W. Kistler
C. M. Long
T. O. Manion
H. B. Orr
R. A. Paschal
R. R. Poux
A. Price
R. B. Radkey
W. C. Reichow
N. B. Roberts
H. S. Ross
N. A. Salzano
C. V. Schutt
R. B. Smith
E. F. Snyder
L. S. Strohl
S. Thorvaldson
G. A. Williams
R. G. WlNTRICH
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress in study, but no report.
2. Extent of adherence to specifications.
Progress report, submitted as information
page 560
3. Substitutes for wood ties.
No report.
4. Tie renewals and costs per mile of maintained track.
The report on this assignment, consisting of the annual statistics compiled by
the Bureau of Railway Economics, AAR, and providing information about
tie renewals and cost data for 1956, was published in Bulletin 537, June-
July 1957.
5. Methods of retarding the splitting and mechanical wear of ties, including
stabilization of wood, collaborating with Committee 5 and NLMA.
Oral report to be made at annual meeting.
6. Bituminous coatings of ties for protection from the elements.
Progress in study, but no report.
7. Causes leading to the removal of ties.
Final report, submitted as information page 560
559
560 Ties
8. End splitting of cross and switch ties.
Progress in study, but no report.
o. Means for effecting greater utilization of timberland growth available for
cross tie production.
Progress in study, but no report.
The Committee on Ties,
L. C. Collister, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 540, December 1957.
Report on Assignment 2
Extent of Adherence to Specifications
P. D. BrentJlinger (chairman, subcommittee), C. S. Burt, R. L. Cook, H. R. Duncan,
A. K. Frost, F. J. Fudge, L. E. Gingerich, F. F. Hornig, R. P. Hughes, C. E. Jack-
man, L. W. Kistler, R. H. Paschal, A. Price.
Your committee submits the following report as information.
During 1956 your committee inspected, in seasoning yards, 1,500,000 oak, pine, gum
and mixed hardwood cross ties belonging to four railroad companies, produced in eight
different states and stored at four plants located in three states. The inspection trips
were made in June and September.
All of the ties inspected were well within the tolerable limits expected from visual
inspection. Two railroads were accepting ties on size classifications different from the
AREA Specifications for Ties, but the ties were within the sizes specified on the purchase
orders.
The yards of the treating companies storing the ties all were found to be in passable
or good condition in regard to stacking, ironing, drainage and general housekeeping.
Report on Assignment 7
Causes Leading To The Removal of Cross Ties
R. B. Radkey (chairman, subcommittee), W. E. Axcell, E. L. Collette, L. E. Gingerich,
C. M. Long, N. B. Roberts, H. S. Ross, R. B. Smith, L. S. Strohl, G. A. Williams.
Your committee submits this final report as information on the causes leading to
removal of treated main-track cross ties during the working seasons of 1955, 1956, and
1957.
Committee members, representing 10 different railroads, inspected 21,851 ties removed
from main tracks, recording the failure causes together with data on age, preservative
treatment, and track conditions. Table 1 is a summary of this inspection.
Considerable variation is noted in failure causes among the different timber species.
The major reasons for removal were splitting and decay in oak ties, decay and plate
cutting in pine ties, decay and splitting in gum ties, and splitting and decay in mixed
hardwood ties. Splitting and decay accounted for nearly 60 percent of the failures
inspected.
Ties
561
TABLE 1
Causes Leading to nemoval
of Treated Main T
rack Cross
Ties During 1955-56-57
Inspection Summary
OAK
PINE
CUM
MIXED HARDWOODS
TOTAL
Total Ties Inspected
13,667
3,976
2,536
1,672
21,851
Reason for Removal
Decay
24.6*
26.4*
53.5*
31.1*
28.8*
Crush or Shatter
5.2*
24.8*
6.9*
3.0*
8.9*
Plate Cut
12.7*
25.0*
6.2*
21.4*
14.8*
Broken
0.9*
0.1*
0.7*
0.4*
0.7*
Spike Kill
10.9*
7.7*
5.5*
3.5*
9.1*
Tamp Kill
2.3*
0.6*
1.3*
0.3*
1.7*
Split
39.1*
4.5*
19.2*
39.4*
30.5*
Natural Defects
2.0*
7.4*
1.5*
-
2.8*
Derailment or Dragging
Equipment
2.0*
1.5*
3.0*
o.e*
1.9*
Other
0.3*
2.0*
2.2*
0.1*
.8*
Total
100.0*
100.0*
100.0*
100.0*
100.0*
Age of Ties Removed
Average
23.2 Yrs. 21.7 Yrs . 21.9 Yrs . 21.6 Yrs.
2?."' Yrs
Youngest
5
9
7
8
5
Oldest
49
48
48
33
49
Preservative Treatment
Creosote or Creosote
Solution
96.6*
88.6*
67.9*
86.8*
Card Process or Zinc Cloride
1.7*
8.8*
18.3*
5.3*
Coal Tar or Water Gas Tar
1.7*
100.0*
2.&L
13.8*
100.0*
•. 1
100.0*
100.0*
Number of Railroads Reporting
10
9
9
5
562 Ties
A major portion of the ties were removed from main track under conditions of
115-lb or heavier rail, crushed rock ballast, both tangent and curve, train speeds up to
SO mph, and over 10 million gross tons of annuall traffic. Little or no correlation can
be seen between tonnage, speed, and track conditions of individual reports in regard to
failure causes or service life.
Cross ties are generally removed from main track on the basis of less than 3 years
life remaining, although extremes of ] to 7 years were reported. Only 3 of the 10 railroads
plan to reinstall a small percentage of the ties removed from main track.
Accumulation of data of this nature is time consuming, and the committee appre-
ciates the 652 man-hours its members spent in field inspection and office work required
to report on these 21,851 ties.
Your committee believes the tie-failure data in this report are typical of the tie
failures being encountered today and recommends this subject be closed. Perhaps in
10 years the nature of tie failures will have changed sufficiently to warrant another
investigation at that time.
Report of Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor
D. E. Rudisill, Chairman,
L. A. Locgins,
Vice Chairman,
L. C. Gilbert, Secretary,
Lem Adams (E)
A. D. Axderson
M. B. Allen
R. M. Balley
D. F. B.ARTLEt
J. F. Beaver
VV. H. Brameld (E)
E. J. Brown
R. H. Carpenter
A. B. Chaney
W. E. Chapman
P. A. Cosgrove
C G. Davis
L. R. Deavers
M. H. Dick
W. M. S. Dunn
J. E. Eisemann
H. J. Fast
J. L. Fergus
R. T. Fortin
R. L. Fox
W. H. Freeman
R. J. Gammie
C G. Grove*
V. C. Hanna
E. B. Harris
G. L. Harris
W. W. Hay
W. H. Hoar
T. B. Hutcheson
Claude Johnston
H. W. Kellogg
N. M. Kelly
H. E. KlRBY
R. L. Mays
J. S. McBride (E)
J. R. Miller
H. C. Minteer
J. P. Morrissev
G. M. O'Roubke
R. W. Pember
J. A. Pollard
C. T. Popma
R. R. Pregnall, Jr.
R. W. Preisendefer
M. S. Reid
H. W. Seeley
R. G. Simmons
J. S. Snyder
F. R. Spofford
John Stang
A. H. Sttmson
O. G. Strickland
P. V. Thelander
W. B. Throckmorton
W. H. Vance (E)
H. J. Weccheider
H. M. Williamson
H. E. Wilson
F. R. Woolford
C. R. Wright
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
* Died November 18, 1957.
To the American Railway Engineering Association :
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Analysis of operations of railways that have substantially reduced the cost
of labor required in maintenance of way work.
Progress report, presented as information page 564
3. Economics of securing maintenance of way labor from the Railroad Retire-
ment Board, compared to securing it from other sources.
Final report, presented as information page 579
4. Relative advantages of renewing ties in advance of out-of-face surfacing
with a mechanized tie gang, compared with renewing tics with a surfacing
gang.
No report.
5. Relative economy of housing maintenance forces in auto trailers and camp
cars.
Progress report, presented as information pace 586
563
564 Economics of Railway Labor
6. Potential maintenance economies to be effected by laying rail tight with
frozen joints, collaborating with Committee 5.
Final report, presented as information page 590
7. The specific and ultimate improvements in various types ot track mainte-
nance equipment that would provide the greatest economies in maintenance
practices, and how these potential economies would compare with present
costs.
Progress report, presented as information page 593
8. Most effective means of tie distribution, including design of a suitable
mechanized apparatus to unload ties from conventional gondola-type cars.
Final report, presented as information page 593
The Committee on Economics of Railway Labor,
D. E. Rudisill, Chairman.
ARKA Bulletin 540, Decemoer 1957.
Report on Assignment 2
Analysis of Operations of Railways That Have Substantially
Reduced the Cost of Labor Required in Maintenance
of Way Work
H. J. Weccheider (chairman, subcommittee), M. B. Allen, R. M. Bailey, E. J. Brown,
W. E. Chapman, W. M. S. Dunn, J. E. Eisemann, J. L. Fergus, R. L. Fox, W. H.
Freeman, L. C. Gilbert, Claude Johnston, N. M. Kelly, H. E. Kirby, R. L. Mays,
H. C. Minteer, J. P. Morrissey, G. M. O'Rourke, C. T. Popma, R. W. Preisendefer,
F. R. Spofford, John Stang, W. B. Throckmorton.
This report is submitted as information.
This year your committee is making the sixteenth report of a series on this subject,
which has been reassigned annually since 1935. In general, the current report touches on
various phases of maintenance principles of the Wabash Railroad, which indicate its
far-sightedness in reducing costs.
Data for the current study were obtained from statistical information on welded
rail practices and general maintenance principles supplied by the Wabash Railroad, and
from the committee's inspection trip on July 2 near Litchfiei'd, 111., about 40 miles
northeast of St. Louis on the St. Louis-Chicago main line. At this location the Wabash
arranged for members of Committee 22 to make a thorough inspection of its specialized
tie renewal and surfacing gang. This particular gang has made vast strides the past two
years from an economic standpoint.
In describing the operations observed during the inspection, this report includes:
1. Drawing illustrating the organization.
2. Tabulation of the equipment in order of use, the personnel engaged in each
operation, and description of their duties.
3. Photographs of the equipment.
Economics ol Railway Labor 565
Tie Renewal and Surfacing Gang
The operation inspected by the committee on July 2 consisted of a light tie renewal
and lift assignment on the southward main track, with all southbound trains being
detoured over the northward track. This location was being worked as part of a planned
five-year cycle.
The structure of the track being surfaced consists of 115-lb rail rolled in 1951,
laid on 7-U by 13-in double-shouldered tie plates and 8-ft 6-in ties spaced to provide
24 ties per 39-ft panel. The anchoring provides for 24 rail anchors per panel, with 20
of these applied to resist forward movement by traffic and 4 to serve as back-up anchors,
one of which was applied on each side of each joint. The rail is laid in conventional
39-ft lengths with 36-in 100-percent head-free joints punched 6-6-7-6-6, 1- by 6-in bolts
and 1-in lock washers. Ballast consists of J4~ to 1^-in slag to a depth of 12 in under
the ties.
One of the most satisfactory features noted in connection with the gang operation
in this double-track territory was the excellent cooperation between the maintenance of
way and operating departments; on most occasions the track on which the work was
being performed was taken out of service, and trains were detoured over the other track.
This procedure aids considerably in holding the cost of the operation to a minimum by
eliminating the need for making runoffs, removing equipment from the track and the
necessity for flagmen.
In regard to the gang's productivity, Wabash maintenance officers advised the com-
mittee that the best progress made in an 8 hr work period was the equivalent of 311
rail lengths or a total of 12,129 track feet tamped. This was not surprising, considering
the type of work done and the fine cooperation given the gang on the day of the inspec-
tion. In fact, all other figures given for doing the same type of work on a track taken
out of service for the day were between 10,000 and 11,000 track feet, with an average
of 225 ties per mile renewed. This included the ties renewed ahead by the switch and
crossing gang.
The Wabash considers the tie renewal and surfacing gang a specialized one, organized
to perform just the type of work it was doing at the time of the inspection. In other
words, in order to maintain the gang as a high-production unit and not let it deteriorate
to the status of a utility gang, the locations which might reduce maximum production.
such as road crossings, turnouts and other locations difficult to resurface and retimber,
are worked over in advance of this gang by other forces. Consequently, delays to the
mechanized gang are he'd to an absolute minimum. The work at crossing-; and through
turnouts is done a sufficient time ahead by one of the small truck gangs which take
care of the maintenance of approximately 40 miles of track each. This gang also dis-
tributes new ties and ballast, and disposes of old ties after the mechanized gang has
completed the job.
The track supervisor on whose track the gang is working has direct charge of the
surfacing gang and coordinates the activities of his truck gangs with those of the larger
gang. A gang foreman, a track liner foreman and an assistant foreman provide the super-
vision within the gang, which is comprised of six machine operators, a helper operator
and 18 laborers. This force is increased by two men if flagmen are required. The gang
is divided into three units: one for making tie renewals, another for raising and tamping
the track, and the third for lining.
The average pace of the gang while it is actually working is about 40 rail lengths
of completed track per hour.
566
Economics of Railway Labor
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Economics of Railway Labor
567
Tabulation of Equipment and Personnel, Tie Renewal and Surfacing Gang
Mechanized Equ ipment
1 Ballast Regulator.
1 Hydraulic Spike Puller 1 Laborer
1 Operator
1 Tie. Remover-Inserter.
1 Multiple Spike Driver. .
(1 Ballast Regulator)
This is same machine used in
advance of regular operation.
1 Automatic Jack Carrier
2 Power Tie Tampers.
1 Power Track Liner.
1 Laborer
1 Operator
2 Laborers
4 Laborers
1 Operator
1 Laborer
2 Laborers
1 Asst. Foreman
1 Laborer
2 Laborers
1 Gang Foreman
1 Laborer
2 Laborers
2 Operators
1 Operator Helper
1 Laborer
1 Operator
1 Lining Foreman
Description of Work
Used in advance of the regular operation to scoop
ballast away from the ends of ties to be removed
in preparation for the operation of tie removal,
(This same machine used to equalize ballast ahead
of tampers.)
Pulls line spikes from ties to be renewed. Removes
rail anchors adjacent to these ties and assists in
positioning new ties for insertion. (Special hold-
down spikes were removed in advance of the gang, i
Positions new ties perpendicular to track and
side of tie to be removed.
Machine lifts track slightly, removes old ties, inserts
new ties and then lowers track. Laborers take tie
plates off ties after track is lifted, shovel ballast
from end of tie in direction to be moved, move the
old tie to one side after removal, place new tie oppo-
site hole for insertion, drive follow-up strap into
prebored spike hole in new tie, set one tie plate on
new tie and anchor it with one wooden plug driven
into prebored spike hole in tie, remove follow-up
strap from tie after insertion and set other tie plate
on the tie under rail before track is lowered. Old
ties are left where they lay to be disposed of later.
Straighten tie plates in final position, nip ties, and
set line spikes. These men have a tool transporter
carrying spikes and extra tools.
This machine nips the ties and drives the spikes.
Fills in holes and equalizes ballast for tamping.
Digs jack holes.
Set jacks and raise track at joints and centers.
Sights for raise ahead and back for quarters.
Handles level board and assists in smoothing at
quarter, on one rail.
Set and handle quarter jacks.
Overall charge. Handles spot boards. Boards are
placed on top of grade stakes previously set by-
engineers. Two are used account of rapid progress
of gang.
Rides jack carrier and distributes jacks. A total
of 42 aluminum jacks in use, 21 per rail.
One at each side, remove jacks, one tie ahead of
tamper, and load them in jack carrier.
Tamp alternate ties.
Spells off operators, assists in servicing machines,
etc.
Replaces rail anchors previously removed and ad-
justs other rail anchors as required. A push truck
with water keg, a few miscellaneous tools and extra
rail anchors is kept moving by this man.
Line track using scope.
Personnel used:
2 Foremen
1 Assistant Foreman
6 Operators
1 Helper
18 Laborers
28
Note: Two additional laborers required as flagmen, when necessary.
568
Economics of Railway Labor
The track on which the gang was working the day of the committee's inspection
was the last S miles of a 13-mile stretch, and ties were marked for renewal as follows:
Tie Spot for Staunton and Worden (5 Mixes) MP 450.2 to MP 455.3
Mile
Total
Su n
and Road
Crossings
Insert by
Tie Gang
451 (0.8 mile). .-.
193
193
238
244
234
82
23
22
70
63
54
20
170
4.52 -
171
453 -- ---
168
454 . . . .--
181
455 .
180
456 (0.2 mile)-
62
The gang in the three months between April 1st and June 28th, 1957, surfaced and
tied 108 miles of track. Taking this into consideration and observing the working of this
gang in its smoothing operation, it is not surprising that the Wabash Railroad has vastly
improved the riding qualities of its main tracks in a short time.
(Text continued on page 572)
Spike puller.
Economics of Railway Labor
569
Tie remover -inserter.
Multiple spike driver.
570
Economics of Railway Labor
Ballast regulator.
Automatic jack carrier.
Economics of Railway Labor
571
V. •
Power tampers.
- • . '
Power track liner.
572
Economics of Railway Labor
Foreman lining track.
Welded Rail Practice— 1948 to 1957
The Wabash Railroad has been interested in welded rail since 1948 and has now
adopted the practice of weeding the major portion of all new rail to be laid, as well as
the practice of cropping suitable released relay rail and welding it into two-rail lengths.
In 1948, a two-mile test section of 115-lb continuous welded rail was laid in the
northward main track of a double-track line between St. Louis and Decatur, at Poag,
111., about IS miles from St. Louis. In these two miles there are 22 sections of rail vary-
ing from 858 ft (22 rails) to 1014 ft (26 rails) in length. These lengths were used to
avoid cutting welded rail for insulated joints. The track is tangent with a clean slag
ballast section having about 12 in of ballast under the ties. The rail is anchored with a
compression clip on the inside base of the rail on each tie, 24 per 39-ft rail. In each tie,
four rail-holding %- by 6-in cut spikes are used with 7$4- by 13-in AREA tie plates.
Temperature of rail when laid was about 92 deg F.
During the 9 years this test section has been in service, there has been no trouble
with expansion. During cold weather the gaps in bolted joints remain fairly uniform
at about Yi in. With air temperatures ranging from minus 10 deg to plus 110 deg, the
Wabash has not had a pull-apart, a kink, or a rail or weld failure in this test section.
Spot surfacing has been done by troweil tamping, which is the standard practice.
Early in 1957, this track was given an out-of-face running surface with a power tamper
on the existing ballast.
Although there is apparently a slight movement in the track structure, as indicated
by the opening and closing of the joint gaps, there has not been any mark to indicate
the rail has ever moved through the compression clips.
When the records of the cost of maintaining this test section were started it was
not thought that there would be any difference from bolted track so far as ballast or tie
renewals were concerned. It is apparent now that the rail and ballast renewal cycles
can be lengthened with welded rail and also that there is some saving in joint ties.
Economics of Railway Labor 573
Based on accurate records of the man-hours expended in maintaining this test sec-
tion, the Wabash officers are convinced there is an appreciable saving compared to bolted
track in a similar section having the same standard of maintenance.
Early in 1956 a twin-line welding plant was designed and constructed at Moberly,
Mo. The two welding machines, two normahzers, grinding stations and rail saws were
set up in spaces the size of box cars with the idea that the plant might be made portable
at some time in the future. It developed, however, that at this time a portable outfit
would not be economical because the long roller lines, rail ramps, etc., required for
handling long continuous welded rail, couto not be moved from place to place econom-
ically, and sufficient cars were not available to build the entire plant as a portable unit.
During 1956, 7.6 miles of continuous welded 115-lb rail were produced in lengths of
663 ft (17 rails) ; 15.5 miles of 132-lb rail were welded into 78-ft lengths; and approxi-
mately 15 miles of cropped control-cooled relay rail was welded into 72-ft lengths.
The cost per weld was $9.59 for the 78-ft 132-lb rail; $8.63 for the continuous
welded 115-lb rail; and $7.79 for the 72-ft cropped relay rail.
These costs inciluded the following during 1956:
(a) Cost of handling rail from storage plant to storage skids at saw plant and
for loading the welded rail. This is all labor, plus operating supplies for crane.
(b) Labor and material required to saw and weld the rail. The labor was for
moving rail from storage skids to saw plant, sawing, moving rail to welding
machines, cleaning rail ends, welding, normalizing, grinding, maintenance of
plant and handling gas cylinders. Included in the labor is a charge of 54 cents
per weld for services and traveling expenses of a representative of an outside
concern, supervising this operation.
(c) Material included saw blades, cutting and lubricating oil, oxygen, acetylene,
welding tips, magnaflux powder, grinding wheels and miscellaneous supplies.
During 1957 the costs included the above, except that the work was supervised by
Wabash employees and the charge included in the labor figure.
These costs do not include depreciation on plant and equipment or cost of water
and electricity for operating the plant.
A welded-rail length of 663 ft was selected as the most economical for use on the
Wabash, taking into consideration the equipment and cars available for handling and
laying and time required to close for trains on single track. It is also considered the
most suitable for its practice of relaying rail from its high-speed mains, in secondary
mains and then in branch line tracks. Cars were not available during 1956 for handling
continuous welded rail, and the 7.6 miles welded were laid near the welding plant where
it could be handled on push cars.
After operating the Moberly plant during 1956, it was found that improvements
could be made in the operations to reduce costs. As a result, progressive changes were
made in the welding set-up in 1957.
Previously, the relay rail was cropped and drilled at a plant located near the welding
plant. The cropping and drilling of relay rail are now done on the rail lines at the
welding plant, using the two power hack saws which are also used to square the ends
of new rail, and the three-gang horizontal drill from the cropping plant.
The acetylene and oxygen were delivered in cylinders during 1055. The road now
has an acetylene generator plant producing 4.5 cu ft of gas per lb of carbide. This twin-
generator outfit produces the acetylene at a cost considerably below the cost of cylinder
gas. Oxygen is now being delivered to the plant in automobile tank trailers, providing
574 Economics of Railway Labor
a simpler operation. A bank of manifolded oxygen cylinders, which is charged by trailer,
is available for stand-by operation while the trailer is disconnected from the welding
lines, or in case of delay in delivery of loaded trailer.
During 1956, the weld bulge on the base of the rail was not ground off, as it was
the thought that the tie spacing could be adjusted when a weld happened to fall on a tie
plate, but it worked out that about 75 percent of the welds were on the plates, and this
year the base is being ground with electric grinders. One grinder operator grinds bases
on both welding lines.
Twenty-eight gondola cars with ends removed have been equipped with double-deck
rollers to handle 24 strings of continuous welded rail, with anchorage against horizontal
movement in center car only.
The plant started welding on April 8, 1957, and by June 6 had completed the
welding of the 1 1 5 -lb rail. A total of 5860 welds were made at the rate of 15.3 per hr
(7.65 per line).
Cost of sawing, welding, materials and supplies, carbide for generating acetylene,
and oxygen was $4.88 per weld; cost of handling rail from storage piles to welding lines
and loading welded rail, was $0.59 per weld, making a tota'l of $5.47 per weld for labor
and material. This cost does not include depreciation on equipment.
Present Cost of Material ln 115-lb Bolted Joint
1 — pr. 6-hole angle bars $ 7.35
6— 1-in by 6-in H.T. track bolts 1.80
6 — spring washers 80
l — rail head bond 40
$10.35
The above cost of a bolted joint does not include labor of installation, applying
bond, cost of 'lubrication, or the cost of rail end hardening ($0.75), which is done by
company welders.
The force operating the twin line plant is as follows:
1 — Welding Foreman — Supervising
2 — Welders — Operating welding machines
2 — Welder Helpers — Operating welding machines
1 — Welder — Operating two normalizers
1 — Welder — Flame cleaning rail ends
1 — Welder — Trimming welds with torch
1 — 'Welder Helper — Operating winch
1 — Welder Helper — Charging acetylene generator
2 — Laborers — Feeding rails to saws
2 — Laborers — Feeding rails to welders
1 — Saw Operator — Operating two saws
2 — Grinders — Head
1 — Grinder — Base
2 — Grinders — Web, top of base and magnaifiux
20— Total
In the above operations the gas used per weld was as follows:
Acetylene — 61 cu ft
Oxygen — 71 cu ft
Economics of Railway Labor
575
Statistical Data and General Maintenance Principles
The Wabash operates 2400 miles of road serving the eastern states and ports through
connections at Buffalo and Niagara Falls, and the southern and western states through
connections at Chicago, St. Louis, Des Moines, Omaha and Kansas City. Operations in
Canada between the Niagara Frontier and Detroit are over lines of the Canadian
National Railways.
Mileage maintained in the United States is as follows:
tat Main
ind Mum
Sidi Trk.
Total
896
897
215
271 i
10
4
658
248
106
1830
1155
325
Total
2008
290
1012
:;:', in
Maximum speeds over primary main lines are: 78 mph for passenger and 50 mph
for freight trains. On secondary and branch lines, maximum speeds vary from 35 to
50 mph.
Heaviest tonnage moves to the east, and in general, 132-lb rail is standard on single
and eastward main tracks, with 115-lb rail in other primary main tracks. Thirteen-inch
tie plates are used with 132-lb rail and 12-in with 115-lb. Six-hole angle bars are used
with both weights of rail.
Secondary main lines are maintained with 112-lb and 110-lb rail, and branch 'lines
with 110-lb and lighter rail.
The following table shows the miles of various weights of rail in main tracks as of
January 1, 1957:
132-lb 136 miles
115-lb 348 miles
112-lb 702 miles
110-lb 437 miles
90-lb 385 miles
Less than 90-lb 290 miles
The average number of employees in service during 1956 was as follows:
Track Supervisors 39
Scale Inspectors & M. of W. Inspectors 6
B. & B. Foremen 27
B. & B. Carpenters 118
B. & B. Painters 11
Water Servicemen 22
B. & B. Helpers 30
Machine Operators 61
Machine Operator Helpers 11
Extra Gang Foremen 74
Section Foremen 158
Extra Gang Laborers 371
Section Men 426
Other M. of W. Laborers 8
1362
576 Economics of Railway Labor
For several years the Wabash lines east of the Mississippi River have been main-
tained on slag ballast obtained mostly from the Gary and Indiana Harbor areas. Lines
west of the river are maintained on chat ballast from Kansas and Oklahoma. Some
gravel ballast is purchased for use on branch line tracks, and pit-run gravel from com-
pany-owned pits is used for side tracks.
Mechanization of maintenance of way and structures operations started with rail
laying and surfacing gangs, and has been expanded and improved gradually. Together
with mechanization, the organization of gangs has been improved for more efficient and
economical operation by a continuing study of their procedures.
At this time, the Wabash has one combined surfacing and tie renewal gang which
handles all main line work on two of three divisions. On the other division, ties are
renewed ahead of surfacing by a mechanized gang. Tie renewals are also made by
mechanized tie renewal gangs on other lines where no out-of-face surfacing work is
planned.
Maintenance of Way work equipment is maintained in the field by division equip-
ment repairmen during the working season. These men have panel-body trucks equipped
with tools and spare parts for most common machines and motor cars. Heavy repairs
are made during the winter in a central equipment repair shop located in one end of the
locomotive shop at Decatur, LI. The work in this shop is performed by mechanical
department forces under supervision of the supervisor of work equipment.
Rail laying is performed by one gang equipped with modern machines, including
spike pullers, bolting machines, adzers, gaging machine, 40-ton crane, spike-driving ma-
chines and hydraulic bond applicators. This one gang can handle all of the rail laying,
including new and relay rail.
The effect of mechanization and organization of gangs has resulted in more eco-
nomical maintenance, but further reductions in the cost of maintenance have resulted
from continued improvements in drainage conditions and the elimination of soft spots
by grouting and driving poles and second-hand ties in the roadbed.
The replacement of old gravel and limestone ballast has given a solid and well-
drained ballast section which is easier to maintain and has considerably prolonged the
life of cross ties.
The installation of CTC, which will total 325 miles by the end of 1957, has made
it possible to retire 88 miles of second main track, reducing maintenance and providing
considerable track material for reuse.
About 1945 the Wabash started using maintenance gangs in trucks to handle the
heavier work on sections. They have 35 of these truck gangs covering an average of
42 miles of road each. In general, these gangs have a foreman and eight trackmen, with
the necessary tools for maintenance of track. The main-line sections, where supplemented
by truck gangs, have about 25 miles of main track, with these section forces stabilized
at a foreman and two men. The section gangs patrol their track on motor cars. The
section foreman is responsible for the condition of his section, and his supervisor plans
the work for the truck gang. The total number of sections on the railroad, including
yards and branch lines, is 140.
A method of trowel tamping was adopted about 1940 to handle spot surfacing with
speed and a minimum force, and the men have been trained in this procedure to produce
a high standard of surface economically, without disturbing the compacted tie bed.
All of the cross ties are banded into bundles at treating plants and distributed by
work train to point of use, resulting in an appreciable saving in cost of distribution
of ties.
Economics of Railway Labor
577
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578 Economics of Railway Labor
Costs of grading and bank widening have been reduced considerably by modern
power equipment. A yard-cleaning machine used to load and unload cars has also proven
very economical for bank, widening and salvaging ballast from abandoned second main
tracks.
Power equipment and tools have been provided for the bridge and building and the
signal and communications gangs.
The transportation of track, bridge and building, paint, signal and communications
forces has been switched from motor cars to highway trucks, leaving only a minimum
force to be moved by rail.
It has been the practice for many years to program maintenance work, including
rail, ballast and tie renewals to be performed during the proper seasons of the year,
and to set up the money required monthly to carry out the program. These programs,
with the appropriations required to complete them, give a firm basis for planning all
operations, and there has been no variation from them except in case of an extreme
change in revenue.
As information, the accompanying Table 1 outlines the yearly expenditures and
indicates their ratio to operating expenses, ballast, rail and ties, which, in turn, reflects
an exceptionally good performance. It has also been instrumental in offsetting the effects
of the 40-hour week and the ever-increasing cost of labor and materials:
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the operations inspected and information obtained, the Wabash Railroad
has effected substantial savings in labor and material through the following procedures:
(1) Careful planning in organizing men and equipment into the highly productive,
mechanized tie renewal and surfacing gang. (Based on actual mileage worked
over and the quality of work observed, the labor saving from a season's work
with this type of gang is tremendous.)
(2) Mechanization of rail laying and tie renewal gangs.
(3) Cooperation of departments in detouring trains around work operations so
far as practicable, resulting in substantial savings.
(4) Extensive study made in 1948 and practice started of adopting continuous
welded rail in the major portion of the new rail programs.
(5) Reorganizing section forces in a realistic manner, using truck gangs for heavy
track work. This was started in 1945.
(6) Continuous improvement in drainage conditions and special treatment given
the elimination of soft spots. Costs reduced in grading, bank widening and
salvaging ballast from abandoned second-main track through the use of mod-
ern power equipment and yard-cleaning machine.
(7) Installation of CTC, which will total 325 miles by the end of this year, result-
ing in the retirement of 88 miles of second-main track, reducing maintenance
and releasing considerable track material for reuse.
(8) Careful planning and programming of all maintenance work and rigid adher-
ence thereto, providing a firm basis for long-range planning.
Economics of Railway Labor 579
Report on Assignment 3
Economics of Securing Labor From The Railroad Retirement
Board, Compared to Securing It From Other Sources
W. W. Hay (chairman, subcommittee), Lem Adams, M. B. Allen, D. F. Bartley, W. H.
Brameld, R. H. Carpenter, A. B. Chaney, P. A. Cosgrove, W. M. S. Dunn, R. T.
■Fortin, R. L. Fox, L. C. Gilbert, C. G. Grove, V. C. Hanna, T. B. Hutchison, J. S.
McBride, H. C. Minteer, R. H. Pember, C. T. Popma, H. W. Seeley, J. S. Snyder,
W. H. Vance.
This study is an effort to determine the current practice in regard to securing labor
in the maintenance of way departments and to ascertain the economies (or lack of
economies) in securing that labor from the Railroad Retirement Board. Three principal
aspects of this problem have been considered: (1) procedures for securing labor as
advocated by the Board and as followed by individual railroads, (2) the possible savings
in payroll tax through the employment of persons on the unemployment rolls, and
(3) the economic value of labor secured from the Board as contrasted to that secured
from other sources.
The savings in payroll tax have been investigated principally by inquiries addressed
to the Retirement Board and to its regional offices. The procedure followed by individual
railroads and the economies of the type of labor secured were investigated by question-
naires sent to all members of Committee 22 and to the chief engineers of about 60 rail-
roads. A total of 38 replies to the questionnaire were received and prepared on a system
basis.
Background
The Railroad Unemployment Insurance Act, Public Law No. 722 — 75th Congress,
was enacted in 1939 "to regulate interstate commerce by establishing an unemployment
insurance system for individuals employed by certain employers engaged in interstate
commerce and for other purposes." The costs of all unemployment, sickness, and mater-
nity benefits as well as administrative expenses are paid solely by railroad management.
Initially a payroll tax of 3 percent provided for the fund. An amendment of 1948 put
in effect a sliding scale ranging from y2 percent of taxable payroll, when the balance
of the account is over $450 millions, to 3 percent when it falls below $250 millions.
The J^-percent rate remained in effect through 1955 when the account had dropped
from a peak in 1948 of $956 million to less than $400 million (due largely to increases
in benefits from $3.39 per day in 1948 to $7.08 per day in 1956). The 1956 rate was
increased to \l/2 percent and was further raised to 2 percent on January 1, 1957. There
is a likelihood that the rate will go still higher. According to Thomas M. Healy, Mem-
ber of the Board, "In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1955, tax contributions aggregated
$24 million and interest earnings were $11 million. Benefits payments amounted to $205
million and administrative costs $8 million — a deficit of expenditures over receipts of
$178 million."
Obviously, the more unemployed railroad personnel drawing unemployment com-
pensation, the more rapidly the account will be depleted — and the rate of payroll assess-
ment thereby increased. The burden on the account would be eased and assessments
held to a minimum if the railroads, insofar as practicable, would secure their new
employees from among those claimants on the Board's rolls. The Retirement Board has
given considerable attention and effort toward enabling and encouraging railroads to
secure new employees from among Board claimants. The railroads apparently are not
universally taking advantage of the procedure. Mr. Healy, speaking before the 1957
580
Economics ol Railway Labor
Annual Meeting of the AREA pointed out that in 1954 there were 126,000 experienced
persons on the unemployment rolls while in the same year, 158,000 new employees with
no previous railroad experience were hired by the railroads.
Procedure
The Railroad Unemployment Insurance Act requires the Board to take appropriate
steps to help reduce and prevent unemployment among railroad employees. The Board's
headquarters in Chicago operates through 7 regional offices and approximately 100 local
or district offices. These offices maintain lists of claimants and their qualifications. When
a railroad requests additional personnel, claimants are referred to it for employment.
State employment services cooperate with the Board. Railroad unemployment claim
agents (frequently the local on-line agent) with whom the employee registers his unem-
ployment claim also cooperate. They forward requests for personnel and often endeavor
to place men in other departments of their own railroads.
The Board tries to find work for claimants in other departments of their own rail-
road, helps the claimants to find jobs on other railroads in their own nieghborhood or
away from home (when they are willing to go), or to find work in other industries. The
Board also maintains information on employment conditions, hours, rates of pay, hiring
standards, etc., at any location.
To receive unemployment benefits, a railroad employee must have earned railroad
wages of at least $400 in the calendar year preceding the previous July. He cannot
receive benefits for 30 days if he fails without good cause to accept an offer of suitable
work or if he fails without good cause to report to an employment office when directed
by the Board.
The Board has asked the railroads to cooperate in carrying out the following five-
point program,
1. Recall all maintenance of way furloughees to the maximum possible extent.
2. Seek the transfers or conversions of furloughed employees in other departments
on their railroads — before (or after) they become claimants.
3. Call on unemployment claim agents with whom claimants register for unem-
ployment benefits and on the Railroad Retirement Board for the labor needed,
thereby insuring that preference be given to claimants.
4. Require hiring officials or so-called commissary companies to exhaust all claim-
ant possibilities before engaging persons with no previous railroad experience.
5. Notify the Board's offices of all discharges or voluntary quits, especially on
extra gangs.
Costs of Claimant Payments
From the standpoint of railroad tax assessment, the economics of hiring claimant
personnel are relatively simple. The following tabulation, derived from compilations pro-
vided by the Railroad Retirement Board, shows the burden to the railroads of supporting
unemployment benefits for the past three calendar years:
Payroll unemployment tax (on the first $350 of wages
per month)
Total contributions of all U. S. Railroads ($ millions)-..
Unemployment applications from all railroad employees
Benefit payments ($ millions for the fiscal year 1 July
to 30 June)
1954
0.50%
$ 23.3
281,536
* LM.fi
111, (iOO
$205 . 1
i . -o'';
$ 75.8
181.304
$105.5
2.00',
$133 . 2
Economics of Railway Labor 581
The big jump in railroad contributions in 1956 is largely occasioned by the increase
in rate of payroll tax. The decrease in claims paid is the result of cyclic fluctuations and
more especially of the Board's efforts to reduce the number of claimants.
When a non-claimant is hired instead of an available claimant, the cost is the regular
wages paid the new employee plus the unemployment benefits paid the claimant. For
example, instead of paying $1.60 per hour, the total cost of employing a non-claimant
is $1.60+0.80 or $2.40 per hour. It is the same as if the new employee were being
paid time-and-one-half for straight time. Also the new employee is establishing a future
liability against the employment insurance account as soon as he has earned $400 or
more. A special study made by the Board showed that 26,962 new non-claimant track
laborers had been hired during the period April 1, 1955 through December 31, 1955.
The extra cost per hour and per year for these new non-claimant employees can be
calculated by applying the local wage rates of a particular railroad. Using foregoing
rates, the extra cost per hour was $21,569 or $172,552 per day.
In another study, the Board reports the benefits per claim-day as averaging $4.00
(in 1956). In the same study, the Board estimates a saving of $50 in total benefits paid
to a claimant who is returned to a job, not including possible savings resulting from
the placement of potential claims before those are filed. In this connection it is inter-
esting to note that the Board reported 33,000 track laborers as active claimants as of
February 15, 1957 and 21,931 as of April 12, 1957. At $4.00 per day, the compensation
paid these claimants was costing the Unemployment Insurance Account $87,724 per day.
While the costs of employing non-claimant new labor are almost self-evident, it
should not immediately be assumed without further investigation that a 100-percent use
of claimant labor by the maintenance of way departments would eliminate the amount
of these costs incurred by maintenance of way labor. It is desirable to investigate the
performance of claimant labor and to determine if the turnover in that group is greater
or less than the turnover in non-claimant labor. Low work output and/or rapid labor
turnover could reduce or eliminate entirely the apparent savings through reductions in
unemployment benefit payments. It is also desirable to learn the extent to which Board
facilities and claimant labor are now being utilized by the railroads. A questionnaire to
individual railroads was used to obtain this data.
Questionnaire Results
The responses to the questionnaire were gratifying. Thirty-eight railroads returned
carefully prepared answers giving system data. One difficulty was immediately apparent.
Many railroads had no records of the claimants secured from the Board or of the dis-
position made of thoie so hired. The 26 roads that could provide numerical data consti-
tute a large enough sample to give a typical cross section of current practice.
Most railroads, it was found, obtain their additional maintenance of way labor by
the supervisor or foremen along the line or by that local officer contacting and working
with the Railroad Retirement Board, usually through the local agent for that part of
the line. Answers to the question of how labor is secured arc shown below. Many rail-
roads use a combination of methods.
582
Economics of Railway Labor
Method
X a in I a r
I', IT, III
a. Bysupervisor or foreman along line
b. By railroad's labor recruiter or personnel department's representative
c. By local agents along the line
d. By a, b, or c, through the Board
e. By a, b, or o through a labor contractor
f. By recall from furlough
27
71.1
15
39.5
s
13.2
27
71.1
3
7.0
7
18.4
The questions asked for the number of men requested or furnished by and hired
through the Railroad Board, and in addition the number of men furnished which the
railroads refused to hire and the reasons therefore. It is in these answers that the lack
of railroad records is most apparent. Fortunately the Retirement Board was able to
supplement these with a special compilation they prepared for the committee.
Item or Question
No of roads with no records
No. of roads with records
No. of roads which did not use claimant labor
No. of men hired through the Railroad Retirement Board
No. of men requested from the Railroad Retirement
Board
No. of men Railroad Retirement Board was unable to
furnish
No. of men furnished which the railroads rejected.
(Only 12 reported this item)
Percent not furnished of number requested
Percent rejected by railroads of number furnished
1954
12
26
8
9,527
12,675
3 , 49fi
12
26
8
10,628
14,822
3,863
12
26
8
13,717
20 , 906
3,891
Total
12
26
8
33,872
48,403
11,250
11,096
23.3
29.9
The Bureau of Unemployment and Sickness Insurance of the Railroad Retirement
Board has made a study for use in this report which shows the following referrals and
placements for various types of maintenance of way employees for the period July 1955
to April 1957.
Summary By Occupations For Sixty Major Railroads
July 1955 to April 1957
Referrals
Placements
Claimants
Non-Claimants
(Include PC'S*)
Total
Claivmnts
Xon-Clahnants
(Include PC'S*)
Total
39,439
18,142
57,581
21,339
14,601
35 , 940
6,614
1,857
8,471
3,037
1,243
4,290
B. and B. Workers (In-
clude water service)
1,129
344
1,473
370
172
542
Signal Workers
(Except signalmen)
59.5
218
813
192
103
295
TOTAL___
47,777
20,561
68,338
24 , 948
16,119
41,067
♦Potential claimants.
Economics of Railway Labor 583
The difference between the number of placements and the number of referrals, 27,271,
is the number which the railroads rejected for employment. The percentage rejections
is 39.9, 1% times that recorded by the questionnaire. This latter figure is more nearly
correct because of the larger sample; only 11 railroads reported this statistic.
Rejections to hire varied from no rejections by some roads to 954 out of 1272 or
approximately 75 percent on another. The principal reason was failure to pass the
physical examination by the applicant, but other reasons frequently cited included over-
age, drunk, when reporting for interview, inadequate clothing for weather conditions,
record of previous railroad dismissals for cause, and criminal records. In this connection,
replies indicated that all answering railroads maintain the same age and physical con-
dition requirement for Board referrals as for labor secured from other sources. An excep-
tion to this is made by a few roads which waive either the physical examination require-
ments or both when the referral is a furloughed employee from another department of
the same railroad. One railroad has reduced its rejection rate to a nominal number by
informing the Board in advance of its qualification requirements.
Twenty-six of the 38 reporting lines inform the Board when a referral refuses a job
offered him; 7 did not report; 5 didn't answer the question.
The questionnaire showed the disposition or working assignments of the referral
labor as 9.9 percent assigned to section gangs, 36.1 percent to permanent floating gangs,
and 52.0 percent to temporary floating gangs; a total of 88.1 percent going to floating
gangs. Corresponding values from the Board study were 10.4 percent and 87.6 percent.
Each study showed a 1.0 percent or fraction thereof each to bridge and building forces,
signal gangs, and others. The correspondence in percentages is close and indicates that
the maintenance of way department's interest in the problem is primarily in regard to
extra gang track laborers.
In answering the question as to the number of referrals from other departments
of the hiring railroad, 15 had no record, 11 reported none, 3 reported 10 to 15 percent,
3 reported more than 15 percent, and the remaining 6 were not using referral labor.
Referrals from other departments of the hiring road are probably a small percentage
of the total for most companies.
Twenty-five railroads said they had an arrangement to obtain labor when cut off
or furloughed from other departments, six said they did not, and seven claimed no
record or did not answer the question. It is possible that many furloughees go directly
into the maintenance of way department without using the Retirement Board as an
intermediary and hence do not become a statistic.
As to whether claimant labor had previous maintenance of way experience, 10 had
no record, 9 said less than 10 percent, 1 reported between 10 and 50 percent, 2 between
50 and 75 percent, and 12 reported 95 to 100 percent; 5 did not answer the question.
There is good evidence here that a large proportion of claimant labor has had previous
maintenance of way experience.
In regard to whether a man, when cut off from his regular job, can be required
to take a job in a lower rated position in which he holds seniority, of the 32 answer-
given, 22 said "no", 6 said "yes", 4 had no fixed policy. This and all similar cases
are covered by Section 4 of the Railroad Unemployment Insurance Act and are subject
to local interpretations, each case being considered on its merits. In general the act works
to avoid working a hardship on the individual employee.
Additional questions related to the duration and quality of the employee's service.
Thirteen railroads made no answer, three reported one week to one month, 11 reported
one month to three months, six reported three to six months, and five didn't know
584 Economics of Railway Labor
Two roads claimed to obtain some permanent employees. An average length of stay
would seem to be about two months with a scattering of extremes, depending upon
the source and type of employee.
As to reasons for leaving the job, 11 roads reported 75 to 100 percent left because
of force reductions and furloughs, 2 more placed 50 to 75 percent in the same grouping,
5 roads said 15 to 30 percent were dismissed for cause, usually intoxication, 9 roads did
not answer, 7 had no available data, and the remaining percentages were widely scat-
tered through the other categories, including recall to previous job and taking another
job elsewhere. These answers, taken with those of the preceding paragraph indicate that
claimant labor is likely to remain for a major part of the working season.
An evaluation of the work output of these men as compared with labor secured
from other sources was requested. It was the consensus of answers that 2 to 5 percent
might be considered better than average, another 10 percent worse than average, and
85 percent about average. Furthermore 5 percent were considered physically inadequate,
2 percent mentally inadequate, and about 5 percent not interested in the work, lazy,
and would rather be on relief. Since these latter percentages seem applicable to labor
from any other source, it appears that claimant labor is about average in productivity
and efficiency.
An attempt was made to determine the cost of labor turnover (a hire-and-fire)
figure. Sixteen roads didn't answer or had no figures available. Another 13 placed the
cost between $0.00 and $25.00; 3 placed it between $50.00 and $100.00, and 4 more
said $100.00 to $200.00. Most of these were estimates, but one road gave a special study
figure of $18.50, another quoted a railroad accounting department average of $95.00,
and a third quoted $200.00 as a figure arrived at by a special study made at Purdue
University. Obviously the low figures represent the direct, out-of-pocket costs of a
physical examination and some clerical time. The higher figures take into account train-
ing costs and, in some cases, separation pay. Evidently there is need for further study
on this point.
Discussion of Data
Despite a lack of factual data, the questionnaire indicates a general and widespread
cooperation with the Board and utilization of its facilities to secure additional mainte-
nance of way labor. Eight railroads do not make use of board facilities, but these are
either small roads with little labor turnover or are able to meet their needs by direct
recall of furloughed employees. They indicated they would use Board referrals if the
need arose. No opposition was expressed to the Board referrals as a source of labor or
to the aims of the Board.
There was some criticism voiced as regards certain details of the operation. The
Board has not always had enough claimants available to meet requests of individual
railroads in one locality while having a surplus in another. The Board may try to per-
suade surplus claimants to go to another locality but has little power to force them
to go. Another objection is the delay in having referrals appear after a request has been
made to the Board.
A large number, 30 percent, of referrals are undesirable prospects due principally to
physical incapacity and unfavorable records. The least desirable employees are likely to
become claimants when force reductions of temporary help occur. A special Board study
made for this report for a period of July 1, 1956 to February 28, 1957 showed that
discharged and suspended employees constitute approximately 4 percent of all who claim
Economics of Railway Labor 585
benefits but 21.1 percent of maintenance of way employees who claim benefits. The
large percentage of rejections is, therefore, not surprising.
After hiring, claimants are used primarily as temporary extra gang personnel. Refer-
rals are also placed in other jobs, but their percentage is trivial and the use is marginal.
Retirement Board referrals are about average as regards quality of work and dura-
tion of stay. These characteristics will vary from one locality to another. In and
through urban areas, a large percentage of derelict-type individuals are likely to be
encountered. Physical inadequacy is cited as a principal reason for poor performance.
However, labor secured in urban areas from labor contractors or by company recruiters
may not be any better. It should be noted, however, that Board referrals offer a high
percentage of personnel with some maintenance of way experience, many of whom prove
highly skilled. One road has expressed satisfaction with Indians secured annually from
a western reservation through the Board.
Offsetting the computed savings earlier is the cost of rehiring and retraining to fill
the vacancies of claimant labor who did not stay on the job. When the average stay
is only 3 weeks, a replacement will be required as often as 5 times during an 18-week
working season. At a minimum out-of-pocket cost to hire-and-fire of $9, this amounts
to $0.60 per day or $54 for an 18-week period. If the cost to hire-and-fire is taken as
$90.00, the daily and the 18-week costs will be 10 times as great.
If the claimant remains on the job an average of two months (9 weeks), only two
hirings will be required for the 18- week working season. At $9 per turnover, the cost
is $18 for the season or $0.20 per day. At an average of .SQ0 per turnover, corresponding
costs are $180 and $2.
Where the labor furnished by the Retirement Board in a particular area has a
markedly higher rate of turnover than labor that can be secured from other sources,
the economies of claimant labor are of limited extent. Although this study has gathered
no data on the subject, it is rather likely however, at least in urban areas, that non-
Board labor will have characteristics similar to those of the claimants referred by the
Board. Nevertheless, rate of turnover is a factor which the hiring road should not
overlook.
CONCLUSIONS
1. There is a significant economy in hiring claimants as new labor. This applies to
claimants supplied by railroad unemployment claim agents as well as claimant referrals
of the Railroad Retirement Board.
2. Some or all of that economy may be lost when the rate of turnover or/and the
costs to hire-and-fire are excessive. These vary from road to road and on portions of
individual roads.
3. The average work output of claimant labor and the average rate of turnover
are equivalent to that of labor secured from other sources.
4. About one third of the claimants referred by the Board are physically or other-
wise unemployable.
5. Most claimant labor is assigned to extra and floating gangs in the maintenance
of way department.
6. Railroads are generally giving preference to claimants and availing themselves
of the recruiting facilities of the Railroad Retirement Board. They should continue-
to do so.
This report is presented as information, with the recommendation that the subject
be discontinued.
586 Economics of Railway Labor
Report on Assignment 5
Relative Economy of Housing Maintenance Forces
in Auto Trailers and Camp Cars
M. S. Reid (chairman, subcommittee), Lem Adams, J. F. Beaver, W. H. Brameld,
P. A. Cosgrove, R. T. Fortin, W. H. Freeman, R. J. Gammie, E. B. Harris, L. A.
Loggins, R. L. Mays, H. C. Minteer, R. H. Pember, H. W. Seeley, R. G. Simmons,
J. S. Snyder, John Stang, W. B. Throckmorton, W. H. Vance, H. J. Weccheider,
H. M. Williamson, IF. R. Woolford, C. R. Wright.
During the past two years your committee has sent questionnaires to over SO
railroads to get comparative costs of housing maintenance forces in auto trailers as
compared to housing them in camp cars.
We have received a good many replies from the railroads contacted. However, only
a few of the railroads replying have trailers in service, and the reports received indicated
that most of the railroads that do have trailers have not had them in service a sufficient
length of time to furnish the comparative cost figures requested. The data received from
five of the railroads are presented in the accompanying tabulation.
Although a number of railroads now using trailers did not feel the trailers had
been in service a sufficient length of time to give a complete report, some did furnish
comments indicating the trailers appeared to be readily adapted to gangs of two men
up to ten men. One railroad that had a number of traliers was of the opinion that
trailers would be preferable to camp cars for small working units where the unit was
furnished automotive transportation to get to and from the job, and roads were
available.
Another railroad advised that it had been requested to park their trailers at regular
trailer camps by the sanitation department of certain cities. Another railroad that has
some of their larger gangs equipped with trailers advised that there had been some
agitation from the labor organizations to provide an additional trailer for welfare facil-
ities. Other railroads having only one or two trailers in service indicated the results were
encouraging, and they were planning on increasing their ownership of trailers for use
with small gangs.
The replies received from the various railroads on this subject indicate that the
railroads have not had trailers in service a sufficient length of time to make a good cost
study report.
It is the committee's recommendation that this subject be discontinued until more
trailers are in service on the railroads.
Economics of Railway Labor
587
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Economics of Railway L a bo r
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5Q0 Economics of Railway Labor
Report on Assignment 6
Potential Maintenance Economies to be Effected
By Laying Rail Tight with Frozen Joints
Collaborating with Committee 5
H. W. Seeley (chairman, subcommittee), A. D. Alderson, R. M. Bailey, R. H. Carpenter,
A. B. Chaney, W. E. Chapman, C. G. Davis, M. H. Dick, W. M. S. Dunn, H. J.
Fast, L. C. Gilbert, V. C. Hanna, W. W. Hay, H. W. Kellogg, H. E. Kirby, J. S.
McBride, R. H. Pember, J. A. Pollard, C. T. Popma, R. R. Pregnall, Jr., P. V.
Thelander, W. B. Throckmorton, H. J. Weccheider, H. M. Williamson, H. E. Wilson,
C. R. Wright.
Many railroads have laid rail tight, that is, without allowing any opening between
the rail ends for longitudinal expansion, in special locations such as in tunnels and
through station platforms and highway crossings. The purpose of this practice is to
reduce the impact of the wheels at the rail joints and thereby reduce rail end batter;
increase the life of rail, splices, joint ties, and ballast; and reduce the cost of main-
taining surface. During the last few years, some railroads have installed and several others
are considering the installation of stretches of standard-length rails laid tight with
higher-than-normal bolt tension to freeze the joints, in an effort to obtain some of the
advantages of continuous welded rail without the disadvantages which they feel continu-
ous welded rail has for them.
This report is based upon information furnished by 6 railroads which have a total
of about 24 miles of tight rail in track, and 18 railroads which have made studies of the
subject, some of which are considering laying tight rail in 1957.
The existing installations of rail laid tight with frozen joints have not been in service
for a sufficient length of time to prove definite and reliable conclusions. The number
of installations is too few to be representative of the varied conditions which will be
encountered on many railroads. The replies to the questionnaire circulated to railroads
indicated that considerable thought and study has been given to this subject. This report
summarizes the economic benefits that the various railroads anticipate they may derive
from laying rail tight with frozen joints.
Rail
The cost of new rail is increased by the mill charge for having the rail ends ground
square or undercut at the mill. Some railroads eliminate the end hardening of rail that
is to be laid tight, which more than offsets the grinding charge. Rail end beveling is
eliminated by most railroads on rail to be laid tight. It is anticipated that the service
life of rail in the original location will be increased, because of the reduction or elimina-
tion of rail end batter and surface bent rail. Tonnage of rail available for relay may
be increased, because reduction in rail end batter and fishing space wear may eliminate
the necessity for rail end cropping.
Rail laying labor costs may be increased, because of the bumping and increased
anchoring necessary to obtain and maintain tight joints. Some railroads, however, advise
that their rail laying force is so organized that the labor cost for laying rail tight with
frozen joints is no greater than for laying rail with normal expansion and bolt tension.
Increased service life of rail would result in reduced frequency of rail renewals which
would tend to offset increased rail laying costs.
Economics of Railway Labor 591
Joints
It is anticipated that the service life of joint bars will be increased, thus reducing
the frequency of installing reformed or oversize bars and resulting in savings in both
labor and material. The necessity for having "frozen" joints eliminates the cost of
Lubricating the joints. Tests are in progress to determine the efficiency of adhesive- to
assist in obtaining the initial "freeze" of the joint. Special treatment of the joint area
for this purpose may or may not offset the saving which results from elimination of the
joint lubrication.
Spikes
Most railroads use anchor or plate-holding spikes in addition to the rail-holding
-pikes when installing tight rail. Where normal rail would not be anchor spiked, the cost
of spikes and the labor for driving them would result in an increased installation cost.
Rail Anchoring
In general, the cost of anchoring tight rail will be higher in both labor and material
than rail laid with normal expansion and bolt tension, because it is not only necessary
to anchor against rail movement in both directions, regardless of direction of traffic, but
probably additional anchoring must be provided to resist rail movement due to expan-
sion and contraction. Most tight rail installations anchored with compression clips have
a compression clip on each tie except the joint ties. Where conventional rail base anchors
are used, all ties, except the joint ties, are boxed. There is considerable difference of
opinion as to the amount of anchoring and type of anchoring that is necessary. The
extent of the increased cost will depend upon what method is used and upon the indi-
vidual railroad's method of anchoring normal rail installations.
There may be some increase in the cost of maintaining anchoring, since it is essential
that any longitudinal movement of the rail must be prevented.
Cross Ties
It is expected by some railroads that the service life of the joint and shoulder ties
will be increased to some extent, because of the reduction in mechanical damage caused
by impact, movement of the tie in the ballast, and frequent tamping.
Ballast
Most railroads increase the ballast section in tight rail territory, but expect thai the
cost of the additional ballast will be offset by a reduction in the use of ballast resulting
from less frequent track raising.
Possible elimination of pumping joints may reduce the amount of ballast cleaning
required in some cases.
Signal Bonding
Some railroads eliminate the use of signal bond wires in tight rail territory, resulting
in a savings in labor and material in both rail laying and maintenance.
Rail End Welding and Grinding
The expected elimination of rail end batter would eliminate the necessity lor rail
end welding and -'rinding. Some railroads have had a few chipped joints which had
to be welded, but feel that development of improved methods of laying and maintaining
tight rail will result in the elimination of chipped joints.
592 Economics of Railway Labor
Out-of-Face Track Raising and Surfacing
Reports from railroads with tight rail installations indicate that the irequency of
out-of-face track raising and surfacing may be reduced considerably. This would result
in a considerable savings in labor as well as in better riding track.
Joint or Spot Surfacing
Some railroads report that no joint or spot surfacing has been required in tight rail
for periods up to three years, which indicates that considerable labor savings may be
expected from a reduction in this type of maintenance work.
Some railroads are of the opinion that tight rail should be laid only at moderate
temperatures and that heavy track work should be limited to days when the temperature
is relatively close to that at which the rail was laid. Others feel that, while these condi-
tions are desirable, they are not necessary and should not interfere with work programs
or result in increased cost of rail laying or maintenance work. Most railroads agree that
installing tight rail in extremely high or low temperatures is not desirable, because of
the maintenance problems that may develop when the opposite extreme temperature
occurs.
Committee 5 is conducting a service test on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad
which will provide a comparison of service and cost between tight rail and rail laid
with normal expansion and bolt tension. The AAR is conducting studies of some phases
of the subject. A number of railroads have indicated that they intend to install tight
rail stretches during 1057.
CONCLUSIONS
While it is generally recognized that there are increased costs resulting from laying
rail tight with frozen joints, railroads that are using this method or are planning to use
it anticipate that the savings in maintenance will more than offset the increased cost
of installation. Improved methods of laying tight rail and development of joint treat-
ment to promote "freezing" may eventually reduce the increased installation cost.
Experience with tight rail has been too limited to arrive at definite conclusions as
to what the economic benefits may be, but from the information now available, it
appears that there may be extensive potential maintenance economies to be effected In-
laying rail tight with frozen joints.
In view of the fact that it will take experience over a relatively long period of time
to develop information upon which to base definite conclusions as to the economic value
of laying rail tight with frozen joints, your committee recommends that this assignment
be deferred until further data are available, probably for about five years.
Economics of Railway Labor 593
Report on Assignment 7
The Specific and Ultimate Improvements in Various Types
of Track Maintenance Equipment that Would Provide
the Greatest Economies in Maintenance Practices,
and How these Potential Economies Would
Compare with Present Costs
P. A. Cosgrove (chairman, subcommittee), Lem Adams, R. M. Bailev, J. F. Beaver,
L. R. Deavers, J. E. Eisemann, J. H. Fast, R. T. Fortin, R. L. Fox, E. B. Harris,
G. L. Harris. W. H. Hoar, T. B. Hutcheson, Claude Johnston, H. W. Kellogg.
N. M. Kelly, L. A. Loggins, J. R. Miller, J. P. Morrissey, J. A. Pollard, R. W.
Preisendefer, R. G. Simmons, F. R. Spofford, John Stang, O. G. Strickland.
This is a progress report, submitted as information:
Questionnaires were sent to 40 railroads requesting that they furnish information
covering improvements to present track maintenance equipment as well as development
of new equipment which would provide economies in maintenance practices.
Replies were received from 18 railroads recommending improvements to 16 machines
now in use as well as recommending the development of 6 new machines in order to
perform some of the work now performed by labor. Economies in track maintenance
practices can be made if improvements and developments can be accomplished.
Continued research by manufacturers and railroads is required, based on conditions
while machines are actually at work. This research can be enhanced by suggestions
from me.i who actually operate and repair the equipment.
In general, the improvements suggested were the development of features which
would allow ready and rapid removal of on-track equipment, and the development of
off-track equipment.
In view of the fact there were so few railroads replying to the questionnaire and
because of the economies we feel can be made by further study, it is recommended the
subject be continued for another year, thereby permitting the committee to obtain
further recommendations from the reporting railroads.
Report on Assignment 8
Most Effective Means of Tie Distribution, Including Design
of a Suitable Mechanized Apparatus to Unload Ties
From Conventional Gondola-Type Cars
J. S. Snvder (chairman, subcommittee), A. D. Alderson, M. B. Allen, D. F. Bartley,
J. F. Beaver, R. H. Carpenter, W. E. Chapman, P. A. Cosgrove, C. G. Davis, M. H.
Dick, H. J. Fast, C. G Grove, V. C. Hanna, G. I. Harris, W. H. Hoar, H. W.
Kellogg, J. R. Miller, G. M. O'Rourke, J. A. Po'.lard, M. S. Reid, A. H. Stimson,
O. G. Strickland, H. M. Williamson, H. E. Wilson, F. R. Woolford.
This is a final report. >ubmitted as information.
The information compiled in this report is based on ;i questionnaire submitted to
railroads in the United States and Canada. Fifty-one railroads were requested to supply
data, and replies were received from 46.
.S94
Economics of Railway Labor
The questionnaire sent out by the committee requested that each road describe its
present methods of distributing cross ties from railroad cars to point of installation,
the rate of distribution, the man-hours involved for each method, and the cost of
specialized equipment when used. The committee also made inquiries concerning research
now being conducted by various roads to develop means of distributing cross ties from
railroad cars to point of application by the use of mechanical devices and specifically
for a mechanical device to distribute cross ties from a conventional gondola type car.
The following information and cost data were developed.
No. of
Railroads
h'( porting
Methods in Usi for Distributing
Tits to Point of Application
Cost in Man- Hours per Tie Distributed
Labor
Costs
Total Cost Including Work
Train and Equipment Charges
12
Trackmen unloading ties from gondolas in work
train service.
0.079
0.079 Labor
0.067 Work train
0.140
4
Trackmen unloading ties from stock cars or rough
freight box cars in work train service.
0.042
0.042 Labor
0.067 Work train
0.030 Loading charge
0.139
8
Trackmen unloading ties from gondolas on nearest
siding and distributing with motor car and push
trucks.
0.270
0.270
6
Trackmen unloading ties from assigned gondola
cars specially fitted for tie distribution work train
or local freight service.
O.O30
0.030 Labor
0.067 Work train
0.005 Equipment
0.102
7
Crawler crane or locomotive crane unloading ties
in bundles from work train and distributed by
trackmen with motor car and push car.
0.039
0.011 Labor unloading
0.028 Labor distributing
0.067 Work train
0.050 Banding*
0.005 Crane
0.161
^Several roads report bands are returned to the treating plant and used again, reducing band cost to
0.020 man-hours.
4
Crawler crane equipped with tie grapple unloading
ties from gondola cars in work train.
0.022
0.022 Labor
0.067 Work train
0.006 Equipment
0.095
3
Mechanical tie unloader unloading ties from
assigned gondolas specially fitted for mechanical
tie unloading.
0.011
0.011 Labor
0.067 Work train
0.015 Equipment
0.093
Twelve railroads reported using trackmen to distribute cross ties from gondola cars
in a work train or local freight train. In this method, the men are placed in the gondola
car in groups of three. Two men lift the tie onto the side of car and the third man
pushes it over the side of the car. The minimum force assigned to each work train was
1 foreman and 6 trackmen, and the maximum force assigned was 3 foremen and 16
trackmen. The average was 2 foremen and 12 trackmen. The minimum number of ties
reported unloaded per day was 1400 and the maximum was 4000. The average daily
production was 1850 ties distributed.
Economics of Railway Labor 595
The minimum number of man-hours required per tie distributed by this method
was 0.051 and the maximum was 0.133. The average number of man-hours required to
distribute ties by this method was 0.079 per tie. The maximum rate of 0.133 man-hours
per tie distributed was submitted by a large road using the I.B.M. method of cost
control and represents the system average for this method of tie unloading over a period
of six months. This may indicate that roads submitting estimated data tend to figure-
production high, resulting in cost figures below actual cost.
The work-train day varied from 8 to 12 hr, and an average of 5 hr track usage
was reported. The average work-train cost of $25 per hr was used in this study. To
transform the cost of work-train service into man-hours, the committee used a rate
of $2 per man-hour.
The average work-train cost for unloading ties is estimated at 0.067 man-hours per
tie distributed.
Stock or Box Cars Used for Distributing Ties
Four northern roads reported the use of rough freight and stock cars for the delivery
of cross ties. These roads report that they distribute ties at an average rate of 650 per
hr, using 2 foremen and 14 men with a work train. The labor cost for unloading ties
manually from this type of car averages 0.042 man-hours per tie. However, the treating
plants usually charge .°0.06 per tie (0.03 man-hours) for loading ties in stock or box
cars. It is the opinion of the committee that unloading ties from box or stock cars
would be very uncomfortable for the men in warm weather and would subject them
to creosote burns.
Ties Distributed by Motor Car and Push Truck
Where ties are distributed in limited quantities, eight railroads reported unloading
ties by trackmen from gondolas on the nearest siding and making the distribution with
motor car and push truck. The average force assigned to this work was 1 foreman and
4 men, and the average production was 280 ties per day. This was by far the costliest
method used, the average cost per tie being 0.27 man-hours.
The minimum labor cost was 0.20 man-hours and the maximum 0.46 man-hours
per tie distributed. Again the maximum rate for unloading ties by this method was the
result of cost studies over a period of 6 months using I.B.M. accounting methods.
Assigned Cars for Tie Distribution
Cars specially adapted and assigned for tie distribution are reported in use by six
railroads, and several other roads advise they are experimenting with this type of car.
The New York Central, Missouri Pacific, and Illinois Central have converted gon-
dola cars for this purpose. The principal features of each design are the multiple doors
or gates provided on each side of the gondola car, which permit a trackman to readily
slide a tie out of car as needed.
Ties are loaded in the Missouri Pacific and Illinois Central cars at right angle to the
car, and the trackman uses a special tie hook to facilitate unloading.
Ties in the New York Central car are loaded lengthwise with the car, and the
trackman unloading the car uses a lining bar or stone fork to pry the ties off the car
The Missouri Pacific cars have been enlarged to hold 400 grade 4 and 5 ties. Three
other roads report using flat cars with permanent bulkheads similar to pulp wood cars.
The Great Northern advises that it bundles the ties they ship in this manner. This per-
mits it to unload the tie bundles with a crane where tie renewals are light, or when the
596 Economics of Railway Labor
tie renewals are heavy, the band? are cut and trackmen readily slide the ties off the cars
as required.
The average labor cost for roads using special tie cars is 0.030 man-hours per tie
distributed. They report an average of 2 foremen and 10 men used on a work train,
and the rate of distribution is approximately 750 ties per hr. The cost of converting
gondolas for special tie cars is approximately $1300, and an equated cost of 0.005 man-
hours per tie was used for equipment costs. The cost of the empty car movement to the
treating plant was not considered in this study.
Crane Used to Unload Ties in Bundles
Seven roads, including one terminal road, advise they are receiving ties in bundles
from the treating plants and distributing the ties along the right-of-way with cranes in
work trains. The bundles of ties are set off as required, and later, section men distribute
them to point of app'.ication.
One road stated that it used bundled ties for new work, and a crane was used to
load the ties from revenue cars to dump trucks which placed them as needed at the
new work site. The terminal road using bundled ties stated that its ties had to be dis-
tributed as used, and locomotive cranes assigned to material yards handled tie bundles
from revenue cars to storage yard and later to motor cars and trailers for distribution
as needed. In some cases the crane and idler car distributed the ties to point of applica-
tion. The number of ties in each bundle vary with the size of the tie and the size of the
treating cylinder at the tie plant. The average bundle consists of 35 grade 4 and 5 ties
and 45 grade 1, 2, and 3 ties. The average cost of banding ties in bundles is $0.10 per
tie. When bands are returned to the treating plant and used again, the banding cost is
reduced to $0.04 per tie. The labor costs for distributing is 0.039 man-hours per tie,
but when unloaded with a work train and later distributed with trackmen with motor
cars and trailer, this cost increases to 0.161 man-hours per tie. The banding of ties in
bundles at the treating plant greatly facilitates the handling of ties for specific opera-
tions; however, the cost of banding greatly offsets the savings effected in tie distribution
costs when used in conjunction with a mechanized tie installing gang.
Tie Grapple with Crane Used for Tie Distribution
Four roads reported the effective use of a tie grapple and a crawler crane to unload
ties from drop end gondolas. The tie grapple has a capacity of y2 cord and is somewhat
similar in design to a clamshell bucket. It will pick up six to eight main track ties at
one time, and as the ties are distributed, the crane moves through the car. Running
the crane from car to car while unloading the ties in the entire train eliminates the
necessity of switching out the empty cars. In terminal areas a locomotive crane equipped
with a tie grapple has been found to be effective in distributing ties from a gondola
car attached to the crane.
The average labor cost for distributing ties in this manner is 0.022 man-hours per
tie, and including work train and equipment charges, the cost is 0.095 man-hours per tie.
Mechanical Tie Unloading Machine
The Central of Georgia, the Southern, and the New York Central have recently
started to distribute ties with a mechanical tie unloader and assigned special gondola cars.
Operation
This machine is designed to unload ties from special gondola cars as it moves through
the cars. The gondolas are built with an opening at floor level extending the length of the
Economics of Railway Labor 597
car, of sufficient height to permit passage of a tie. This opening is covered with hinged
doors except during the unloading operation. Running the length of the car are two pairs
of rails; the machine runs on one pair while the other pair carry the ties at a slightly
higher elevation. The ties are unloaded at right angles to the sides of the car and do not
require any special handling. Short connecting rails are provided so the machine may
pass from one car to the adjoining car. Removable bulkheads hold ties in place during
transit and are removed to permit passage of the machine. Each car holds about 400 ties.
The tie unloading machine moves into a car until its front end is against the ties.
A horizontal chain moves around sprockets located at each side of the front of the machine,
and is equipped with a "finger" which engages one end of the tie on the bottom of the
pile. As the chain revolves, this "finger" pushes the tie through the opening in the side
of the gondola car and, as it does so, the tie on top of the lower one being pushed, drops
down and is in position to be unloaded. The chain revolves at 100 rpm (225 ft per min
chain speed), and the machine will unload a car of 400 ties in 45 min.
The machine and controls are all hydraulic powered. By varying the engine speed,
ties may be placed close to the car or 5 or 6 ft away. By use of a signal system, a man
walking along side the car can signal the operator when to unload a tie as well as con-
trol the speed of the train by hand signals. Ties can be accurately placed at proper loca-
tion for installation. Also the design of the opening in the side of the car and the machine
itself combine to hold the tie in a horizontal position until it is clear of the car. This,
plus the fact that the ties are unloaded at floor level instead of over the side of the gon-
dola and, therefore, have a shorter distance to fall, makes it possible to control the placing
of ties more accurately. Since the ties are unloaded entirely by the machine, no one is
required to be close to the ties being unloaded, and the operation is performed with max-
imum safety for the men involved.
The cost data for distributing ties with the mechanical tie unloader and assigned
special tie cars are very limited, and it is estimated the labor charges for distribution to
be 0.011 man-hours per tie and the total cost, including work train and equipment
charges, 0.093 man-hours per tie distributed. This operation requires only two men. It
lends itself to using local freight service for tie distribution, and when this is done the work
train cost may be reduced.
The Santa Fe Railway is now progressing a mechanical tie unloading device which
requires the use of special tie cars, and the Southern Pacific is developing a means of
unloading ties from a conventional gondola car. Many other roads are studying the best
method for distributing ties and recognize the need for greater economies in this phase
of track maintenance. However, these studies have not progressed to the point where
definite recommendations or satisfactory cost data can be obtained, and for this reason
it may be advisable to restudy this subject in 1960.
CONCLUSION
The distribution of cross ties from the treating plant to the point of application is
primarily a material-handling problem, and there are many different phases of this prob-
lem that each road must evaluate before deciding which method is best for its operation.
The location of the treating plant which furnishes ties to any particular district; work
train terminals; the number of ties installed per year; traffic density; maintenance of way
organization ; and many other factors are involved that could not be treated in this study
but must be considered by each individual road. The committee believes that mechanical
material handling devices and assigned special tie cars can materially reduce the m<t of
tie distribution, and at the same time reduce personal injuries to trackmen and place the
ties rlovr to the point of application than whon this, work is done mannallv
Report of Committee 29 — Waterproofing
Henry Seitz, Chairman,
E. A. Johnson,
Vice Chairman,
W. H. Acker, Jr.
A. L. Becker
D. E. Bray
Lyle Bristow
R. J. Brueske
M. W. Bruns
W. H. Bunge
A. E. Cawood
R. A. M. Deal
0. E. Fort
E. T. Franzen
J. M. Gilmore
Nelson Handsakek
W. G. Harding
R. L. Mays
L. H. Needs \\i
H. J. Ornburn
H. A. Pas max
M. I'IKARSKY
R. D. Powrii;
C. W. Preston
W. E. Robey
F. S. Schubert
T. M. von Sprecki.x
J. W. Weber
C. A. Whipple (E)
H. J. WlI.KENS
K. B. Woods
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Raihvay Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report, including recommended revisions page 600
2. Waterproofing materials and their application to raihvay structures, col-
laborating with Committees 6, 8 and IS.
Progress report, presented as information pafje 601
1. Coatings for damproofing railway structures, collaborating with Committer-
6 and 8.
Brief progress report, presented as information page 602
AREA Bulletin S40, December 1957.
590
600
Waterproofing
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
E. A. Johnson (chairman, subcommittee), W. H. Acker, Jr., R. J. Brueske, M. W. Bruns,
E. T. Franzen, R. L. Mays, H. A. Pasman, R. D. Powrie, F. S. Schubert, T. M.
von Sprecken.
Your committee submits for adoption the following recommendations with respect
to Chapter 29 of the Manual.
Pages 29-2-1 to 29-2-13, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR MEMBRANE WATERPROOFING
Reapprove with the following changes:
Page 29-2-2. Revise Art. 2, Sec. B, item g to read:
"g. Solubility in carbon tetrachloride not less than 99 percent."
Page 29-2-3. Revise Art. 4. Coal Tar Pitch for Saturant and Mopping, to read as
follows:
4. Coal-Tar Pitch for Mopping.
Coal-Tar Pitch for mopping shall be homogeneous and free from vt ater. It shall
meet the following requirements:
For Use For Use
Above Ground Below Ground
a. Specific gravity at 77°/77° F (2S°/2S° C) ... .1.22 to 1.34 1.22 to 1.34
b. Softening point (cube in water method) 140° to 155° F 120° to 140° F
c. Flash point (Cleveland open cup) Min 248° F Min 248° F
d. Distillation Test:
Total distillate by weight 32° to 572° F
(0° to 300° C) MaxlOpercent Max 10 percent
Min 90 percent Min 90 percent
e. Specific gravity at 100°/60° F (38°/lS.S°C)
of total distillate to 572° F (300° C) Min 1.03 Min 1.03
f. Ductility at 77° F (25° C) 5 cm per min Min 50 cm Min 50 cm
g. Total bitumen soluble in carbon disulfide 72 percent to 72 percent to
85 percent 85 percent
h. Ash Max 0.5 percent Max 0.5 percent
Revise Art. 6. Creosote Primer, to read as follows:
6. Creosote Primer
Creosote primer for use with coal-tar pitch shall be a distillate of coal-gas tar or
coke-oven tar and shall conform to the following requirements:
a. Water Max 1 .0 percent
b. Consistency at 41° F (5° C) entirely fluid and crystal free*
c. Specific gravity 100°/60° F (38°/l5.5° C) Min 1.06 percent
d. Matter insoluble in benzol Max 0.5 percent
e. Distillation based on water-free oil:
Up to 410° F (210° C) Max 1.0 percent
Up to 455° F (235° C) Max 10.0 percent
Up to 671° F (355" C) Min 65.0 percent
f. Coke residue Max 2.0 percent
* The creosote shall be rated as crystal free if no crystals are formed when 100 ml of the sample
is maintained at a temperature of 41" F (5" C) for 3 hr, in a \?S ml Frlenmeyer flasV, with orrasional
stirring,
Waterproofin g 6CH
Page 29-2-4. Revise Art. 7, para, a, to read as follows:
a. Fabric shall consist of high-grade cotton cloth saturated thoroughly and uniformly
with asphalt when used with asphalt mopping and with coal tar when used with coal
tar pitch for mopping.
Report on Assignment 2
Waterproofing Materials and Their Application
to Railway Structures
Collaborating with Committees 6, 8, and 15
R. J. Brueske (chairman, subcommittee), A. L. Becker, D. E. Bray, W. H. Bunge, A. E.
Cawood, E. T. Franzen, B. J. Ornburn. M. Pikarsky, C. W. Preston, W. R. Weaver,
J. W. Weber.
Your committee submits the following progress report as information.
Waterproofing Materials
Your committee recently completed an investigation of the material on coal-tar
pitch and creosote primer in the Specifications for Membrane Waterproofing, Part 2,
Chapter 2Q. The proposed revisions developed are presented for adoption under the
report on Assignment 1.
Waterproofing Membranes
Waterproofing membranes tests continue to be carried on in Chicago by the AAR
research staff.
Results to date have shown that care must be taken to avoid overheating the asphalt
when applying the membrane. An overheated asphalt can seriously affect the performance
of the membrane. Each successive reheating of an asphalt will cause a loss of ductility,
and will also have an adverse effect on the membrane.
Last year, temperature recording gages were installed on a bridge of the Chicago &
Western Indiana Railroad to record the temperature range of the membrane waterproof-
ing, which on this particular bridge is covered by a minimum of 6 in of ballast under
the ties.
A preliminary analysis of the temperatures recorded last winter indicate that the
temperature of the membrane approaches the temperature of the air; however, there
is a time lag resulting in air temperatures of short duration not being equalled by the
temperature of the membrane. Upon completion of the test, data will have been obtained
that will indicate the temperature range to which a membrane waterproofing may be
subjected when compared with the temperature of the surrounding air.
Miscellaneous Materials
Your committee is investigating the specifications for several waterproofing materials
to determine their need of modernization.
One of the materials being investigated is insulating paper. AREA specifications
refer to both insulating paper and impervious paper interchangeably. We are endeavoring
to revise the specification for insulating paper and possibly substitute a term more
appropriate than the term "insulating paper."
We are also investigating the specification for asphalt block, asphalt plank, and
mastic. With the increasing popularity of bridges with steel plate decks, your <ommittee
602 W a t e r p r o ofing
has decided to investigate the necessity of providing a specification for an underlayment.
Our specification for a protective cover will also be given a thorough examination in
conjunction with the investigation of the asphalt blocks, asphalt plank, and mastic
specifications.
Report on Assignment 3
Coatings for Damproofing Railway Structures
Collaborating with Committees 6 and 8
F. S. Schubert (chairman, subcommittee), E. A. Johnson, Lvle Bristow, O. E. Fort,
J. M. Gilmore, W. G. Harding, L. H. Needham, W. E. Robey, H. J. Wilkens, K. B.
Wood.
The work on this assignment is being handled under contract with Purdue Univer-
sity, and progress has been delayed to determine the laboratory performance of three
special coating materials. The special project has been completed and a report has been
prepared.
Work on the basic assignment, consisting of measurement of water vaper diffusion
through free films of bituminous emulsions and construction of capillary absorption
apparatus, is progressing.
Report of Committee 17 — Wood Preservation
P. D. Brenti.ixc.er,
Chairman.
R. B. Radkey.
Vice Chairman,
A. B. Baker
\Y. \V. Barger
J. A. Barnes
A. S. Barr
R. S. Belcher (E)
W. S. Brown
Walter Buehler (E)
C. M. Burpee
C. S. Burt
G. L. Cain
G. B. Campbell
H. B. Carpenter
L. C. Collister
D. L. Davtes
R. F. Drietzler
H. R. Duncan
F. J. Fudge
H. W. FULWEILEK
R. R. GUNDERSON
H. M. Harlow
W. H. Hillis, Jr.
B. D. Howe
M. S. Hudson
R. P. Hughes
H. E. Hurst
W. R. Jacobson
M. F. jAEGEk
YV. L. Kaiilek
T. D. Kern
L. W. Kistler
A. J. Loom
P. B. Mayfield
J. W. McGlothi.in
G. L. P. Plow
R. R. Poux
M. H. Priddy
W. C. Reichow
A. P. Richards
W. B. Stombock
F. H. Taylor
H. C. Todd, Jr.
C. H. Wakefield
Committee
(K) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Specifications for wood preservatives.
Progress report, including recommended revisions page 604
3. Specifications for petroleum as a carrier for standard wood preservatives.
No report.
4. Specifications for preservative treatment of forest products, including
laminated timbers, collaborating with Committees 6 and 7.
Progress report, including recommended revisions page 60S
5. Conditioning of wood before preservative treatment.
Report on methods and processes submitted as information page oiO
6. Specifications for fire-retardant treatment of wood; collaborating with
Committees 6 and 7.
No report, assignment concluded.
7. Service test records of treated wood.
Results of service tests, submitted as information page < i
8. Destruction by marine organisms; methods of prevention.
Progress report, presented a- information page 62S
603
r>04 Wood Preservation
9. Destruction by termites; methods of prevention, collaborating with Com-
mittees 6 and 7.
Progress report, submitted as information page 62S
10. Incising forest products.
No report.
The Committee on Wood Preservation,
P. D. Brf.nti.inger, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 540, December 1957.
Report on Assignment 2
Specifications for Wood Preservatives
W. W. Barger (chairman, subcommittee), Walter Buehler, D. L. Davies, W. H. Ful-
weiler, M. S. Hudson, L. W. Kistler, P. B. Mayfield, A. P. Richards.
As indicated in the following, the report on this assignment is made up of five parts,
under two of which your committee presents recommendations for adoption and publica-
tion in the Manual.
Part 1 — Keep Up to Date Current Specifications for Preservatives
In last year's report, presented as information, your committee proposed the addi-
tion of a footnote to the specifications now appearing in the Manual for creosote-coal
tar solution (Proceedings, Vol. 58, 1957, page 552). The purpose of the note is to make
the specifications for this preservative more rigid when it is specified for the treatment
of wood to be used in marine waters.
Your committee now proposes that this recommendation be adopted for publication
in the Manual. Its specific recommendation is as follows:
Page 17-2-2
CREOSOTE— COAL TAR SOLUTION
Reapprove with the following note added as item 9 at bottom of the tabular
material:
Solutions for the treatment of marine structures shall be mixtures of coal-tar distillate
oil and coal tar in the approximate proportions given.
Part 2 — Review and Report on New Preservatives
Last year your committee submitted as information specifications for two salt
preservatives, namely, ammoniacal copper arsenite and chromated copper arsenate (Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 58, 1957, pages 552 to 554, inch).
We now present these two salt preservative specifications for adoption and publica-
tion in the Manual immediately following page 17-2-9.
Part 3 — Review Method of Sampling Creosote in Tank Cars
Your committee recommends further study of this subject with the thought of
including other preservatives in the study.
Part 4 — Study the Advisability of Establishing the Flash Point of Creosote
The committee recommends further study of this subject.
Wood Preservation 605
Part 5 — Review "Comments" after Preservative Specifications; Report on
Need for Comments with a View Toward Continuance, Deletion, or
Change of Title
The committee has studied this subject to some extent, hut ha.s not come to a definite
decision as to whether the comments should be retained, dropped or edited. Further study-
is recommended.
Report on Assignment 4
Specifications for Preservative Treatment of Forest Products,
Including Laminated Timbers
Collaborating with Committees 6 and 7
L. C. Collister (chairman, subcommittee), P. D. Brentlinger, C. S. Burt, D. L. Davies,
R. F. Dreitzler, H. R. Duncan, F. J. Fudge, W. H. Hillis, Jr., M. F. Jaeger, W. L.
Kahler, P. B. Mayfield, R. R. Poux, R. B. Radkey, W. C. Reichow.
Your committee has continued its study of specific requirements for preservative
treatment of wood and now presents two recommendations for adoption and publication
in the Manual — namely, the revision of the requirements for the treatment of posts to
include new preservatives, and the adoption of requirements for the treatment of
laminated timber.
The latter recommendation was developed because railway engineering and mainte-
nance officers are showing increased interest in the use of laminated timbers, which have
been proved practical and economical construction materials.
The specific recommendations of your committee are as follows:
Pages 17-4-1 to 17-4-18, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR TREATMENT
On page 17-4-15, delete the table of specific requirements for the preservative treat-
ment by pressure processes of posts and substitute therefor the new tables dealing with
the treatment of posts presented herewith on pages 606 to 608, incl
Insert following page 17-4-18 the new table of specific requirements for preservative
treatment by pressure processes of laminated timbers, presented herewith on page 60°.
606
Wood Preservation
Table i (Cont'eO-
Sl'K.cilie REQUIREMENTS l'OR PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT BY
Pressure Processes
(Posts)
Sruthern Pine
Ponderosa Pine
Jack Pine
CONDITIONING
Air-seasoning, or steaming, or
Air-seasoning or steaming (for
heating in the preservative or
ice-ccated or frozen posts only)
a combination.
or heating in the preservative
or a combination.*
Steaming
Temp. — deg F — min
max
259
2U0
Duration — hr — min
max
10
3
Vacuum
Inches at sea level — min
22
22
Duration — hr — min
1
1
max
3
2
Heating in preservative
Temp. — deg F — max
220
220
Duration — hr — max
TREATMENT
Expansion bath
Temp. — deg F — max
220
220
Final Steaming
Temp. — deg F — max
259
259
Duration — hr — max
3
3
Pressure --lb — max
200
ISO
RESULTS OF TREATMENT
Retention — lb per cu ft — min
Creosote and creosote
solutions
Creosote
6
6
Creosote-coal tar
6
6
Creosote-petroleum
7
7
Oil-borne preservatives
Pentachlorophenol
0.30
U.30
Water-borne preservatives
Ammoniacal copper arsenite
0.50
0.50
Chromated zinc chloride
1.00
1.00
Copperized chromated zinc
chloride
1.00
1.00
Tanalith
0.50
o.5o
Acid copper chromate
1.00
1.00
Chromated zinc arsenate
1.00
1.00
Penetration in inches or
percent of sapwood — min
2 or 85
1.5 or 85
Determination of penetration
A borer cere shall be taten from
A borer core shall be taken from
20 pieces in each charge. If 80
20 pieces in each charge. If 80
percent of borings meet the pene-
percent of borings meet the pene-
tration requirement the charge
tration requirement the charge
shall be accepted.
shall be accpeted.
PRESERVATIVES
All standard preservatives
All standard preservatives
listed above.
listed above.
♦Air seasoning is the preferred method of conditioning; however, when climatic conditions are
unfavorable or delivery will be delayed because of the conditioning requirements stated above,
the material may be steamed for a total of not more than six hours at temperatures not in
excess of 259°F.
Wood Preservation
o07
Table i (Cont'd)— Specific Requirements for Preservative Trkatmkni
by Pressure Processes
(Posts, Cont'd)
Lodgepole Pine
Red Pine
CONDITIONING
Air-seascning or steaming (for
Air- seasoning or steaming (for
ice-coated or frozen posts only)
ice-ccated or frozen posts only)
or heating in the preservative
or heating in the preservative
or a combination.*
or a combination.*
Steaming
Temp. — deg F — min
...
max
2li0
2U0
Duration — hr — min
max
3
3
Vacuum
Inches at sea level — min
22
22
Duration- -hr — min
1
i
max
2
2
Heating in preservative
Temp. — deg F — max
220
220
Duration — hr — max
TREATMENT
Expansion bath
Temp. — deg F — max
220
220
Final Steaming
Temp. --deg F — max
259
259
Duration — hr — max
3
3
Pressure — lb — max
150
150
RESULTS OF TREATMENT
Retention--lb per cu ft-min
Creosote and creosote
solutions
Creoscte
6
6
Creoscte-ccal tar
6
6
Creosote-petroleum
7
7
Oil-borne preservatives
Pentachlorophencl
0.30
.30
Water-borne preservatives
Ammoniacal copper arsenite
0.50
0.50
Chromated zinc chloride
1.00
1.00
Copperized chromated zinc
chloride
1.00
1.00
Tanalith
0.50
0.50
Acid copper chrcrr.ate
1.00
1.00
Chromated zinc arsenate
1.00
1.00
Penetration in inches cr
percent cf sapwood — min
1.25 or 35
2 cr 65
Determination of penetration
A borer core shall be taken from
A borer core shall be taken from
20 pieces in each charge. If 60
20 pieces in each charge. If 80
percent of borings meet the pene-
percent cf borings meet the pene-
tration requirement the charge
tration requirement the charge
shall be accepted.
shall be accepted.
PRESERVATIVES
All standard preservatives
All standard prest rvativea
listed abcve.
listed abcve.
♦Air seasoning is the preferred method rf conditioning; however, when climatic conditions are
unfavorable cr delivery will be delayed because of the conditioning requirements stated above,
the material may be steamed for a total of not more than six hours at temperatures not in
»K»1« of ?^90F.
608
Wood Preservation
Table 1 (Cont'd) — Specific Requirements for Preservative Treatment
by Pressure Processes
(Posts, Cont'd)
Pacific Coast
Douglas Fir
CONDITIONING
Air-se
asoning or steaming (with
salt t
reatments only) or heat-
ing in
the preservative or a
combination.
Steaming
Temp. — deg F — min
max
2ju6
Duration — hr — min
max
6
Vacuum
Inches at sea level — min
22
Duration — hr — min
i
max
...
Heating in preservative
Temp. — deg F — max
Seasoned; 210 and 6 hr.
Duration- -hr — max
Green
or partially seasoned;
220 and no time limit.
TREATMENT
Expansion bath
Temp. — deg F — max
220
Final 3teaming
Temp. — deg F — max
259
Duration — hr — max
3
Pressure — lb — max
150
RESULTS OF TREATMENT
Retention — lb per cu ft-min
Creosote and creosote
solutions
Creosote
6
Creosote-coal tar
6
Creosote-petroleum
7
Oil-borne preservatives
Pentachlorophenol
0.30
Water-borne preservatives
Ammoniacal copper arsenite
0.50
Chromated zinc chloride
1.00
Copperized chromated zinc
chloride
1.00
Tanalith
0.50
Acid copper chroma te
1.00
Chromated zinc arsenate
1.00
Penetration in inches or
percent of sapwood — min
1$% of sapwood
Determination of penetration
A bore
r core shall be taken from
20 pieces in each charge. If 80
percent of borings meet the pene-
tration requirement the charge
shall
x accepted.
PRESERVATIVES
All standard preservatives
listed
above .
Wood Preservation
600
Table 1 (Cont'd1) — Specific Requirements for Preservative Treatment
by Pressure Processes
(Glued Laminated Timber-.)
Pacific Coast
Southern Pine
Douglas Fir
OCNDITICNING
Since plued laminated timbers
Since glued
laminated timbers
are made of preconditioned
are made of f
recenditicned
material, no seasoning before
material, no
seasoning before
treatment is necessary
treatment is
necpssary.
Vacuum
Inches at sea level — mir.
22
22
Duration — hr — min
1
i
max
3
2
Heating in preservative
Temp. — deg F — max
not required
210
Duration — hr — max
TREATMENT
Expansion bath
Temp. — deg F — max
net permitted
220
Final steaming
Temp. — deg F — max
259
2k0
Duration- -hr — max
3
2
Pressure- -lb — max
200
150
Incising
not required
required
HESULTS CF TREATMENT
Retention — lb per cu ft — min
General Use Coastal Waters
General Use
Coastal Waters
Creosote and creosote
solutions
Creosote
Under 5 in thick
5 in and thicker
10 )
g <20 lb and refusal
Refusal
20 lb and refusal
Creosote-coal tar
Under 5 in thick
10, } 20 lb and refusal
Refusal
20 lb and refusal
5 In and thicker
8 )
Creosote-petroleum
Under 5 in thick
• \ Not recommended
Refusal
Not recommended
5 in and thicker
Oil-borne preservatives
Pentachlorophenol
0.50 ) Not recommended
0.50
Not recommended
Above Ground Ground Contact
Above Ground
Ground Contact
Water-borne preservatives
Zinc chloride
1.25 ) Not recommended
1.25
Not recommended
Chromated zinc chloride
0.75 ) 1.00
0.75
1.00
Tanalith
0.35 0.50
0.35
0.50
Copperized chromated zinc
chloride
0.75 l.oo
0.75
1.00
Acid copper chromate
0.50 1.00
0.50
1.00
Ammoniacal copper arsenite
0.30 0.50
0.30
0.50
Chromated copper arsenate
0.35 0.75
0.35
0.75
Chromated zinc arsenate
0.50 1.00
o.5o
1.00
Penetration in inches or
percent of sapvood
2.5 or 85*
Under 5 in thick, 3/8 in or 90
of sapvood i
n cuter 1 in. ever
5 in, 1/2 in
or 90% of sapwcod
in outer 1 in.
Determination of penetration
A borer core shall be taken from
A borer core
shall be taken from
20 pieces in each charge. If
the incised
faces of 20 pieces
80* of the bcrings meet the pene-
in each charge. If 80% of the
tration requirements the charge
borings meet
the penetration
shall be accepted.
requirements
be accepted.
the charge shall
610 Wood Preservation
Report on Assignment 5
Conditioning of Forest Products Before Preservative Treatment
M. S. Hudson (chairman, subcommittee), P. D. Brentlinger, L. C. Collister, H. R. Dun-
can, B. D. Howe, R. R. Poux, R. B. Radkey.
Activity in the conditioning of forest products before preservative treatment in the
past year has been largely confined to air seasoning and three methods of artificial sea-
soning, viz., kiln drying, controlled air seasoning, and vapor drying. The committee has
nothing now to report on air seasoning methods.
Kiln Drying of Cross Ties
Dr. J. B. Huffman of the University of Florida has prepared for the committee the
following brief resume of his work on the kiln drying of cross ties:
During the past two years a study to determine the feasibility of employing kiln
drying to prepare green cross ties for preservative treatment was conducted by the School
of Forestry, University of Florida, in cooperation with Koppers Company, Moore Dry
Kiln Company, and the Atlantic Coast Line and Seaboard Air Line Railroad Companies.
The initial phase of the work involved the kiln drying of four charges of red and
black gum cross ties employing four different kiln schedules. Each charge contained
approximately 250 cross ties. The last phase involved the drying of a single charge of
2016 ties in an industrial-size kiln. This charge was composed of 1875 red and black
gum, 54 red oak, 54 hickory, 22 beech and 11 elm ties. All of the ties were incised prior
to kiln drying.
The four kiln schedules employed during the initial phase ran for 11, 9, 7 and 3
days, respectively. The 3-day schedule appeared to be the most practical and, therefore,
was used for the large industrial-size charge. During the commercial run, drying condi-
tions within the kiln were established by setting the dry-bulb temperature at 230 deg F,
turning steam-spray lines off and keeping vents closed. The ventilating characteristics
of the kiln combined with the water emitted from the ties brought the wet-bulb reading
to approximately 170 deg F, giving a relative humidity of about 27 percent and an EMC
of 2.6 percent.
Steam consumed during the three days of drying the 2016 ties was metered at 210,807
lb or 104.6 lb per tie, and the electric power required came to 1311.0 kw-hr or 0.65
kw-hr per tie.
The results of this study indicate that it is feasible, from both a technical and
economic standpoint, to prepare green hardwood cross ties for preservative treatment
by kiln drying.
Based on an average of 140 sample ties, the water lost per tie during the 3-day
commercial run amounted to 55.4 lb. Roughly speaking, the kiln-dried moisture con-
tents were slightly more than one-half the initial or green moisture contents. The mois-
ture gradient (outer 1 in and core) for a typical sapwood black gum tie was 17.1, 37.5
and 46.2 percent moisture content, and for a 60-percent heartwood red gum tie was
15.4, 74.8 and 131.4 percent moisture content.
Observations have led to the conclusion that the surface checks, end checks and
splits in the kiln-dried ties are narrower and shorter than those normally found in air-
seasoned ties. Some collapse and internal checking were noted in heart-faced red gum
ties kiln dried for 7, 9, and 11 days, but these defects seldom reached serious proportions
Wood Preservation
611
in the ties kiln dried for 3 days. Of the 2875 red and black gum tics thai were kiln dried,
not one was doweled or rejected because of seasoning degrade.
Creosote retentions and penetrations measured during this study indicate that kiln-
dried ties will take preservative treatment in a manner equal to or better than air-sea-
soned ties. Several cooperators felt that the penetration was definitely better than found
in air-seasoned ties.
All of the kiln-dried ties were placed in main line tracks for future observation.
For further information concerning this study, the reader is referred to the following
reports:
(1) The kiln drying of gum cross ties. J. B. Huffman. Proceedings, AWPA, S3,
1957 (in press).
(2) Kiln drying of southern hardwood cross ties. J. B. Huffman. Presented at
Annual Meeting FPRS, June 1957. (To be published in Forest Products
Journal).
(3) The kiln drying of hickory ties. J. B. Huffman. Presented at Annual Meeting
RTA, Oct. 1957. (To be published in Crosstie Bulletin).
Controlled Air Seasoning
This process is currently being carried out at Baldwin, Fla. During the first six
months of this year it is estimated that the following amounts of timber were processed.
Bridge Ties
and Lumber
(FBM)
Gum and Fine
Xo. Units 500,000 1,500,000 300,000
Cross Ties Switch . Ties
(Number) (FBM)
Gum Gum
500,000 1,500,000
Vapor Drying
The amount of material conditioned by this process during the first six months of
this year is shown in the following table:
Railroad
Location of
'1' nnti mi Plant
Cross Ties
Switch Ties
Bridge Ties and Lumbt r
Sp< cii s
.Y ii mil, r
FBM
Specii a
/ B H
A.T&SF .
cc&o ....
( \V\Y< •
Albuquerque, X. M.
Spai tanburg, 8. C.
Spartanburg, S, C.
Salem, Va,
Spartanburg, S. < '.
Total
1 >ak,
Gum, T.
D. Hard-
woods
Oak
Oak, Gum
Oak,
Gum, T.
Ii. Hard-
woods
< >ak, < ium
328.808
26,342
38.828
326, 160
76,589
Oak,
Gum, T.
D. Hard-
woods
Gum
269,366
50 . 259
Oak,
Gum, T.
D. Hard-
win ids
Oak
78,157
107. L61
N&W
Southei ii
Oak
( lak, Pine
243,916
17 066
610 607
Oak
Oak
i ,800,670
149,700
79;"., 787
2 135,688
Operation of this process was also begun at Indianapolis, Ind., in Augusl l',:;7. and
work is underway on construction of a new vapor drying plant at Houston, Tex., by tin-
Texas & New Orleans Railway.
612 Wood Preservation
Report on Assignment 7
Service Test Records of Treated Wood
R. P. Hughes (chairman, subcommittee), A. B. Baker, A. S. Barr, W. S. Brown, C. M.
Burpee, W. H. Hillis, Jr., T. D. Kern, L. W. Kistler, G. L. P. Plow, R. R. Poux,
R. B. Radkey, W. C. Reichow, W. B. Stombock, F. H. Taylor.
Your committee submits the following reports on service test records of treated
wood :
1. Report of 1957 inspection of piling in old pier No. 3 formerly owned by the
New York Dock Company in East River near foot of Fulton Street, Brooklyn.
Inspection made by Ralph H. Mann, senior district engineer, American Wood-
Preservers Institute.
2. Report by the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway on service life of treated piling in
piers at Newport News, Va.
3. Report by Louisville & Nashville Railroad on 1957 inspection of piling in bridge
No. 4 on Self Creek Branch. Inspection made by J. G. Collum, supervisor
bridges and buildings, Louisville & Nashville.
4. Report of 1956 inspection of piling in Zeigler Shipyard, Mermentau, La., by
A. E. Behr, manager, Technical Department, Chapman Chemical Company.
5. Report on tests of service life of poles in REA-financed electric systems, by
John W. Kulp, technologist, Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, U. S.
Department of Agriculture.
Report of 1957 Inspection of Piling in Old Pier No. 3 — Formerly Owned
by the New York Dock Company in East River Near Foot of Fulton
Street, Brooklyn. Inspection Made by Ralph H. Mann, Senior
District Engineer, American Wood Preservers Institute
Number of piles — 661.
Length of piles — 45 to 75 ft.
Diameter of piles — 14 to 18 in at cut-off.
Kind of wood — Southern yellow pine.
Treatment — 16-lb straight distillate coal-tar creosote per cu ft.
Date of in-ertion — 1889.
Date of latest inspection — July 1957.
Number of years of service to date — 68.
Present condition of piling — Excellent.
This pier is situated on the Brooklyn side of the East River immediately south of the
Brooklyn Bridge. It was built in 1889 by the Jewell Milling Company, later the Hecker-
Jones-Jewell Milling Company, flour manufacturers.
In March 1909, 20 years after erection of the pier, Thomas Palmer, an official of
Hecker-Jones-Jewell Milling Company, reported that no repairs in the pier piling had
been necessary during that time, which he considered was a good record. The official
report, dated April 9, 1932, submitted to the New York Dock Company by the chief
engineer of that company showed the piles still to be in very good condition after
43 years.
During an inspection of this pier in October 1932, by Ralph H. Mann, increment
borings were taken, which disclosed splendid penetrations of creosote into the piling.
Wood Preservation
613
Over-all view of pier showing 68-year old piling. Picture taken July 9, 1957.
Inspection party at land end of pier. Note excellent condition of piling
after 68 years of service. Picture taken July 9, 1957.
614
Wood Preservation
- T-
Pile section at a point just above the high water mark, showing excellent
penetration (3 in, plus) of creosote. Picture taken July 9, 1957.
These borings, taken at points from 9 to 12 in below cut-off, showed sound wood and
the presence of free creosote.
An inspection of these piles in July 1957 disclosed them to be in an excellent state
of preservation. The accompanying photographs, taken July 9, 1957, attest to the con-
dition of these creosoted piles. Especially noteworthy is the condition of the piles at point
of cut-off, a point of vulnerability of wood piles in service.
Predicated upon the above records furnished Mr. Mann by L. E. Driver, former
chief engineer, New York Dock Company, these pressure-creosoted piles today are 68
years old. Their present condition indicates their utility for many additional years of
satisfactory service.
Increment borings disclose that these southern yellow pine piles, pressure-treated with
coal-tar creosote, had penetrations up to 3 in or more. The piles were treated in 1889.
The condition of these well-treated piles after 6S years is a splendid indication of the
preservative life of such materials in New York marine waters.
Report by hik Chesapeake and Ohio Railway on Service Life of Treated Piling
in Piers at Newport News, Va.
Pier 3 — Southern yellow pine piling treated with creosote in open-deck coal pier,
55 by 791 ft. Built in 1882, rebuilt in 1942. Maximum service life of piles was 60 years.
However, the outshore end was rebuilt in 1936, with the average life of piles estimated
to be 48 years, when consideration is given to maintenance renewals prior to 1936.
Wood Preservation 61 !
Pirr 4 — Southern yellow pine piling treated with creosote in double-deck merchan-
dise pier, 142 by 621 ft. Built in 1885. Major renewals mafic in 1937, replacing SO percent
of piles.
Pier 2 — Southern yellow pine piling treated with creosote in open-deck pier, 55 In
541 ft. Built in 1SQ4. Complete renewal of all piles in 1037.
Pier 5 — Southern yellow pine piling treated with creosote in covered freight pier,
143 by 747 ft. Built in 1897. Complete renewal of all piles in 1939^10.
Pier 8 — Southern yellow pine piling treated with creosote in covered freight pier,
213 by 818 ft. Built in 1898. About 60 percent of all piles renewed prior to 1Q44 when
pier was destroyed by fire.
Pier 6 — Southern yellow pine piling treated with creosote in covered freight pier,
162 by 700 ft. Built in 1897. Ninety percent of piles removed in 1940.
Pier 9 — Southern yellow pine piling treated with creosote in steel-frame coal pier,
70 by 1200 ft, with treated pile fender system. Built in 1014. Ten percent of fender piles
renewed in 1°50. Pier retired in 1951.
Records of retentions and analyses of the creosotes used are not available, but it is
safe to assume that treatment and preservatives used were in accordance with prevailing
practices at the time.
It is estimated that up to 1945, 75 percent of the original treated pine pile> were
replaced, with service life from 36 to 60 years, and an estimated average life of about
43 years.
Greenheart piling has been used in moderate quantities since 1936 at Newport News,
principally for fender systems. The oldest installation, made in 1Q36, is still in service and
in good condition.
Report by Louisville & Nashville Railroad on 1957 Inspection or Piling
in Bridge Xo. 4 on Self Creek Branch. Insection Made by J. G. C'oi.lum,
Supervisor Bridges & Buildings. Louisville & Nashville
Number of pile; — 112.
Kind of wood— Southern pine.
Treatment — 14 lb per cu ft creosote.
Analysis of creosote — The following is the average analysis of creosote received during
the first six months of 1017 and during 1018, as furnished by P. T. Vaughn, superintendent
treating plants, Louisville & Nashville:
First Six Months in 1017:
Distillation Percent
Up to 210° C 2.9
210-235° C 10.2
J70° C 21.0
15 C 10.1
IS 155 C 13.6
Residue above 355" C 4-2.2
During 1918:
Distillation Percent
Up to 210° C
210-235° C 2.6
:70° C i".o
270-315° C 11-7
315-355° C 10.4
Residue above 355° C
f > 1 6 Wood Preservation
The green piles were steamed as long as IS hr at pressure as high as 50 psi to pre-
pare the wood for treatment. A vacuum of 24 in was then maintained for 6 hr before
the cylinder was filled with creosote. The temperature of the preservative was 170 deg F,
and a pressure of 120 lb was maintained for 6 hr, or until the oil gage refused to move,
showing no further absorption for a 1-hr period.
Date of construction of bridge — 1918.
Date of last inspection — 1957.
Condition of piles at last inspection:
Bent 0—0. K.
Bent No. 1 — Piles Nos. 1 and 3 — 40 percent bad.
Bent No. 2 — Piles Nos. 2 and 4 — 20 percent bad.
Bent No. 3— Pile No. 1—50 percent bad.
Bent No. 4— Pile No. 3 — 30 percent bad.
Bents Nos. 5 and 6 — Tower bents — 4 piles each — All piles 0. K.
Bents Nos. 7 and S — Tower Bents — 4 piles each — Pile No. 3, Bent No. 8 — 25 per-
cent bad.
Bent No. 9 — Pile No. 2 — 40 percent bad.
Bent No. 10— All piles O. K.
Bent No. 11 — Piles Nos. 1 and 4 — 30 percent bad.
Bent No. 12 — Pile No. 1 — 20 percent bad. Pile No. 2 — 50 percent bad.
Bent No. 13— All piles O. K.
Bent No. 14 — Pile No. 2 — 25 percent bad.
Bent No. 15— All piles O. K.
Bent No. 16 — Pile No. 1 — 30 percent bad.
Bent No. 17 — Pile No. 1 — 60 percent bad.
Bent No. 18— Pile No. 1—20 percent bad. Pile No. 6—75 percent bad.
Bent No. 19—0. K.
Report of 1956 Inspection of Piling in Zeigler Shipyard, Mermentau, La.,
by E. A. Behr, Manager Technical Department, Chapman
Chemical Company
Number of Piles — 100.
Kind of Wood — Southern yellow pine.
Treatment — 12 lb per cu ft of 5 percent pentachlorophenol. The carrier used was a
residual crude oil, this being a very black, heavy, viscous shallow crude oil
from the Edgerly field near Vinton, La.
Date of Insertion — 1946.
Date of last inspection — 1956.
Condition of piles at last inspection — sound.
Wood Preservation 617
Report on Tests of Service Lite as Poles in REA-Financed Electrk Systems'
By John W. Kulpu
This report covers the inspection during 1954-56 of 37.52 poles in :>1 test installa-
tions located in 48 electric systems in 4 Southeastern, 9 Middle Western, and 2 Rocky
Mountain States.
Out of 1885 southern yellow pine poles in the test installations inspected. 1.7 percent
have been removed because of decay oi decay and termite attack alter 6 to 18 years
of service (average 15 years). The removed poles had been pressure treated with coal-tar
creosote or 50/50 creosote-petroleum oil. Approximately 1.7 percent of the 1854 southern
yellow pine poles that are still serviceable show decay or termite attack.
Approximately 2.4 percent of the 823 lodgepole pine test poles have been removed
or stubbed because of butt decay after 7 to 8 years of service. The failures were due to
insufficient quantity or quality of preservative or to inadequate penetration of preserva-
tive. One percent of the full-length-treated poles show groundline decay after 7 years of
service, and 6.1 percent of the butt-treated poles (all located in the semi-arid portions
of Montana and the Dakotas) have partly decayed tops after 5 to 8 years of service.
No failures have occurred in 455 Douglas-fir and 250 western larch test poles
during 3 to 11 years of service. Most of these poles were treated by pressure impreg-
nation.
Of the 173 butt-treated western redcedar poles inspected in Wisconsin and eastern
South Dakota, 29 percent have light to moderate shell-rot in their tops after service
periods of from 9 to 15 years.
After 13 years of service, 21 percent of the untreated northern white-cedar poles
in test had light top decay around spur marks, and all showed light to moderate decay
in the butts.
Table indicates that no significant changes took place in the Douglas-fir and west-
ern larch test poles. These poles have been in service for a short time, and most of
them are pressure treated.
A study of the lodgepole pine test installations brings out the following facts:
1. Approximately 6 percent of the butt-treated poles inspected in North and
South Dakota and Montana (between 100° and 120° west longitude) show de-
cay in the untreated tops after 5 to 8 years of service. This indicates a need for
full-length treatment in some areas of the so-called "semi-arid" region.
2. Approximately 2.4 percent of the 823 poles inspected have been removed or
stubbed because of butt decay after 7 to 8 years of service. Five of the 20
poles removed showed inadequate penetration of preservative, while the re-
mainder showed penetrations that met the requirements of specifications ap-
plicable at the time of treatment. Since decay in poles with adequate preserva
tive penetration was noted at or below the groundline in the treated wood,
it would appear that the failures were due to either insufficient retention or
low quality of the preservative used.
3. Approximately 1 percent of the serviceable poles treated full length show butt
decay.
The following facts an- significant in a study of the data on tin southern yellow
pine test poles:
1 The work reported here \\ ;•-- conducted in cooperation «iih Rural Electrification Idminislration,
Washington 25, D. C.
2 Technologist, Forest Products Laboratory (maintained i' Madison Wis., ir Deration with th<
University of Wisconsin), Forest Service, U. S. Department ol \griculture.
618 Wood Preservation
1. Thirty-two poles, or 1.7 percent of the 1885 poles inspected, have been re-
moved, mostly because of decay, after 7 to 18 years (average IS years) of
service. Only 5 poles failed with less than 13 years of service. Of the 32 re-
moved poles, 30 had been pressure treated with coal-tar creosote and 2 with
50/50 creosote-petroleum oil solution. Average preservative retentions were
reported to be about 8 lb per cu ft. None of the poles treated with other
preservatives had been in service more than 9 years. Twenty of the 32 re-
moved poles were from one installation in southern Georgia that is estimated
to have an average life of 20 years. Exterior groundline decay and some ter-
mite attack was observed in 40 percent of these poles during the first inspec-
tion after 13 years of service. The remaining 12 of the 32 pole failures were
scattered through S other installations in which over 95 percent of the service-
able poles were rated as sound after 6 to 18 years of service.
2. Approximately 1.7 percent of the serviceable poles show some decay or decay
and termite attack. Termite attack on test poles was observed only in southern
Georgia and eastern North Carolina.
With regard to the western redcedar test poles, it is significant that, after 9 to 15
years of service, about 28 percent of the butt-treated poles have light to moderate
sapwood decay in the untreated tops.
Of the 48 untreated northern white-cedar poles in service for 13 years, all have
considerable sapwood decay and light to moderate heartwood decay below ground, and
10 show light decay above the ground in the sapwood around spur holes.
A review of all poles inspected shows 5 to be eliminated from the test because of
lightning damage, 4 because of sleet damage, 2 because of windstorm, and 2 because
of damage by vehicles. The degree of checking in the poles increased somewhat since
the first inspection.
Discussion
In general, it is still too early to make comparisons between pole species, preserva-
tives, and treatments. Only southern yellow pine and western redcedar poles that were
pressure treated with straight coal-tar creosote have been in service more than 11 years.
Of the 1885 southern yellow pine poles inspected 1.7 percent have failed after an average
service period of 15 years. No failures of western redcedar poles have been reported.
The following general observations have been made on the basis of the data
obtained to date in the pole testing program:
1. Pole failures thus far appear to be mainly due to low-quality preservatives
or to low retentions of preservatives, although inadequate penetration of the
preservatives was also a factor, particularly in the case of lodgepole pine.
2. Significant top decay in butt-treated lodgepole pine poles is showing up after
5 to 10 years of service in some areas of the semi-arid region (between 100°
and 120° west longitude). This confirms the need for full-length treatment
of lodgepole pine poles in those areas.
3. Considerable sapwood decay is noted in the untreated tops of western red-
cedar poles after 9 to 15 years of service.
4. Untreated northern white-cedar poles are showing appreciable decay in the
butts and some decay in the tops after 13 years of service.
5. Except for one installation where the quality of the preservative was ques-
tionable, the percentage of southern yellow pine poles removed has been small.
The removals thus far have been due principally to decay.
Wood Preservation
610
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Wood Preservation 625
Report on Assignment 8
Destruction by Marine Organisms: Method of Prevention
Collaborating with Committees 6 and 7
A. P. Richards (chairman, subcommittee), W. Buehler, C. M. Burpee, G. L. Cain, R. F.
Dreitzler, R. R. Gunderson, H. M. Harlow, B. I). Howe, M. F. Jaeger, P. B.
Mayfield, F. H. Taylor, C. H. Wakefield.
The following report is submitted by your committee relative to the activities of
marine borers and methods of prevention.
TEST PILES AND SPECIMEN'S
Again, through the courtesy of W. M. Jaekle, chief engineer of the Southern Pacific
Company, the results of the latest inspections of these test pieces are presented.
Report of the December 31, 1956, Inspection of Specimens Furnished by the
Chemical Warfare Service and Placed in San Francisco Bay at the
Request of the Late Dr. Herman von Schrenk
Gate 25-1-A. Installed at Biological Station, Oakland Pier, July 1925, removed
1942, replaced 1946. The untreated pieces hung at this station, 1955-56, show heavy
limnoria and very light bankia attack, loss in weight 10 percent.
Xo. 2 (Creosote and 1 percent diphenylamine chlorarsine). Heavy limnoria attack.
Chemical Warfare Service Test Pieces Forwarded from Edgewood Arsenal
by Lt. Col. C. E. Brigham and Hung at Oakland Pier February 24,
1932, Removed 1942 and Replaced 1946
Specimen Treatment Condition
A-ll Creosote, 21.6 Ib/cu/ft Heavy limnoria attack
D-ll Creosote plus 2^% dinitrophenol 23.7 Ib/cu/ft Heavy limnoria attack
Report of December 31, 1956, Inspection of Specimens Furnished Through
Dr. H. von Schrenk and Col. Wm. G. Atwood and Installed
in the San Francisco Bay Area
Barrett Manufacturing Company Material placed at Station B, Pier 7, San Fran-
cisco, January 1923. Moved to Biological Station, Oakland Pier, Southern Pacific Co.,
December 1925. Removed 1942, replaced 1946. Total exposure to date 2Q years.
(P— Pine, F— Fir)
Treatment Condition
Coke oven original 50% destroyed
" " solids removed Heavy limnoria attack
" " acids removed " " "
" " bases removed " " "
Coke oven oil minus " " "
residue at 360° C
Coke oven oil minus " "
fraction 230-270
Coke oven oil minus " " "
fraction up to 230
Coke oven oil minus "
fraction 270-360
Gate
Specimen
B-» ..
. . P-l
P-2
P-3
P^
B-S ..
.. P-5
P-6
P-7
P-8
626
Wood Preservation
Gate
B-6
B-7
Treat in rut
Specimen
. P-9
P-10
P-11
P-12
. P-13
P-14
P-15
P-16
. F-l
F-2
F-3
F-4
F-5
F-6
F-7
F-8
F-9
F-10
F-ll
F-l 2
F-l 3
F-14
F-15
F-l 6
The untreated specimens at this station 1955-56 showed heavy Iimnoria and very
light bankia attack; loss in weight 10 percent.
These samples have been reported upon from time to time since their installation in
AREA Proceedings. In 1938, after 15 years exposure, it was stated that no attack by
marine borers had occurred. In 1942, after 19 years exposure, it was interesting to note
that all of the fir samples showed a light or very light Iimnoria attack, as did the pine
pane's treated with all of the variations of vertical retort oil. The only panels not show-
ing activity were pine, with coke oven with low boiling fractions removed and those
with solids and acids removed. The attack has been progressing gradually until the
present time when all of the panels show very heavy Iimnoria activity. It is interesting
to note that for practical purposes it has been practically impossible to differentiate as
to actual performance between the oils tested.
B-8
B-9 ...
B-10.
B-ll.
Vertical retort
original oil
t( it
minus solids
ii (i
minus acids
ti tt
minus bases
u a
minus residue
above 360°
ii it
minus fraction
230-270°
(( ii
minus fraction
up to 230° C
ii ii
minus fraction
270-360° C
Same as P-l
i< « p_2
« « p_3
« « P_4
« ,i p_5
" " P-6
i< « p_7
" " P-8
« « p_Q
" " P-10
" " P-11
« « p_12
« i< p_13
" " P-14
" " P-15
" " P-16
Condition
Heavy Iimnoria attack
ii a ii
50% destroyed
50% destroyed
Almost destroyed
Heavy Iimnoria attack
Almost destroyed
Almost destroyed
Heavy Iimnoria attack
Moderate Iimnoria attack
Heavy Iimnoria attack
Moderate Iimnoria attack
Heavy Iimnoria attack
Very heavy Iimnoria attack
Heavy Limnoria attack
50% destroyed
Heavv Iimnoria attack
UNIVERSITY OF OREGON CREOSOTE-COAL TAR SOLUTION
EVALUATION PROGRAM
During the past year the Oregon Forest Products Laboratory at Corvallis, Ore. has,
under the direction of Robert D. Graham, initiated a program which includes evaluation
of the following:
1. Effectiveness of an imported creosote and a domestic creosote-coal tar solution
for protecting wood specimens in marine waters.
2. Serviceability of treated Douglas fir and southern pine heartwoods and sap-
woods in marine waters.
Wood Preservation 62/
Samples will be exposed at two East Coast and four West Coast locations. Removals
will be made at 2 year intervals for 10 years.
TEST BOARD STUDIES
The regular program of marine borer test panel studies is beinj.' continued at the
William F. Clapp Laboratories, Inc., Duxbury, Mass., under which, by means of the
exposure of untreated wood panels at approximately 300 locations distributed around
the world, information is obtained regarding (1) species active, (2) extent of long time
activity, (3) breeding periods and the correlation between borer activity and physical
and chemical factors in the waters. The program is sponsored by a number of industrial
companies and the Navy Department under the direction of —
1. New England Marine Piling Investigation Committee, chairman, S. G. Phillips,
vice president — engineering, Boston & Maine Railroad.
2. The New York Harbor Marine Borer Research Committee, chairman, Roger
Gilman, director of port development, New York Port Authority.
3. The Navy Department, Bureau of Yards and Docks, and the Office of Naval
Research.
Some of the test panel assemblies have been redesigned so as to furnish additional
information regarding nonboring, surface-fouling organisms.
Results of these studies may be found in '"Tenth Progress Report on Marine Borer
Activity in Test Boards Operated During 1956", Report No. 10333, copies of which
may be obtained without charge from the William F. Clapp Laboratories, Inc.. Duxbury,
Mass.
MARINE BORER BIBLIOGRAPHY
During the past year Vol. II of "Marine Borers, a Preliminary Bibliography" has
been published through the efforts of the Technical Information Division of the Library
of Congress, the Office of Naval Research and the William F. Clapp Laboratories, Inc.
Both volumes are available without charge from the William F. Clapp Laboratories, Inc..
Duxbury, Mass., and contain annotated references to existing marine borer literature
from both the biological and engineering standpoints.
628 Wood Preservation
Report on Assignment 9
Destruction by Termites; Methods of Prevention
Collaborating with Committees 6 and 7
F. J. Fudge (chairman, subcommittee), W. Buehler, H. R. Duncan, W. H. Fulweiler,
H. M. Harlow, B. D. Howe, M. F. Jaeger, J. W. McGlothlin, A. P. Richards.
This is a progress report, submitted as information
Termite test stakes of red oak, Douglas fir and southern yellow pine have been
installed at the Austin Cary Forest of the School of Forestry, University of Florida,
Gainesville, Fla
The stakes of each species of wood were treated with nine preservatives using
three different retentions. The preservatives used were creosote, chromated zinc chloride,
tanalith, pentachlorophenol, copper napthenate, acid copper chromate, ammonical copper
arsenite, chromated zinc arsenate, and chromated copper arsenate.
Complete details of the treatments, analyses and installation will be presented in the
next report of your committee.
Report of Committee 27 — Maintenance of Way
Work Equipment
R. E. Buss
E.
1. M 1 K 1
L. B. Cann, Jk.
C.
W. Min in .ii.
G. R. Collier
E.
H. Ness
L. E. Conner
II
c. Nordstrom
J. W. Cummim-
V.
W. Oswalt, Sk.
F. L. Etciiison
P.
G. Petri
C L. Fero
T.
M. Pitt man
E. H. Fished
H.
C. Pottsmii n
S. E. Haines, Jk.
R.
S. Radspinner
W. T. Hammond
T.
J. Reagan
Haynii. Hiikm'.i iki.i
J.
E. Reynolds
R. A. HOSTETTER
J.
W. Risk
Herbert Huffman
R.
M. SCIIMIDL
X. W. Hutchison
F.
E. Short
R. K. Johnson
R.
J. Smith
M. E. Kerns
F.
N. Snyder
W. F. Kohl
M
. M. Stansbury
W. E. Kropp
R.
S. Stephens
Jack L argent
G.
M. Strach an
C. F. Lewis
M
. C. Taylor
H. F. LONGHELT
T.
H. Taylor
J. A. Mann
H.
A. TlIYNI.
Francis Martin
S.
E. Tracy
Paul Marten
J-
W. Warbritton
Harry Mayer
L.
B. Waterman
F. H. McKenney
F.
E. Yockey
Committee
A. W. Munt, Chairman,
S. H. Knight,
Vice Chairman,
F. L. Horn, Secretary
R. M. Baldock
R. E. Berggren
I. M. Boone
J. H. Brown
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Recommendations with respect to motor cars, push cars and trailers sub-
mitted for adoption page 630
2. Motor cars, trailer and push cars, collaborating with Signal Section, AAR,
Committee 10.
No report. See report on Assignment 1.
3. New developments in work equipment.
Progress report, presented as information page 631
4. Improvements to be made to existing work equipment.
Progress report, presented as information page 635
5. Diesel pile hammers.
Final report, presented as information page 636
6. Diesel engines vs. gasoline engines used in work equipment.
Final report, presented as information page 647
7. Number of units of work equipment to be repaired by field repairmen.
Progress report, presented as information page 640
629
630 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
S. Tie unloaders.
Final report, presented as information page 650
9. Basis for replacing automotive vehicles.
Final report, presented as information page 653
The Committee on Maintenance of Way Work Equipment,
A. W. Munt, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin S40, December 1957.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
S. H. Knight (chairman, subcommittee), R. E. Buss, G. R. Collier, IF. L. Horn, R. K.
Johnson, F. H. McKenney, R. M. Schmidl, R. J. Smith, S. E. Tracy.
Pages 27-2-1 to 27-2-21, incl.
MOTOR CARS, PUSH CARS AND TRAILERS
Reapprove with the following revisions:
Page 27-2-2. Revise Art. 5 (d) to read as follows:
(d) Demountable Wheels. — Insulated demountable plate wheel (16 in and 20
in) with hub for Its -in axle shall be made to the specifications and within the
tolerances shown in Fig. 3. Insulated demountable plate wheel (14 in) with hub
for lyg -in axle shall be as shown in Fig. 4. Insulated demountable plate wheel
(16 in) with hub for lfg-in axle shall be as shown in Fig. 5. Wheel tread and
flange for 14-in, 16-in, and 20-in wheels on motor cars, push cars and trailers
shall be as shown in Fig. 6. Insulated demountable plate wheel (16 in and 20 in)
with hub for 2-in axle shall be as shown in Fig. 13. Insulated demountable plate
wheel (16 in and 20 in) with hub for lie-in axle shall be as shown in Fig. 15.
One-quarter-inch plate wheels shall be used on Class MW-B and MW-C cars,
and fn-in plate wheels shall be used on Class MW-D, MW-E and MW-F cars.
Demountable wheel plates of cast steel, or equal, shall be furnished at the
purchaser's option. These wheel plates shall be designated to interchange with
14-in, 16-in and 20-in demountable wheels (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4), and shall con-
form to the general applicable tolerances shown therein.
Add new paragraph (e) to Art. 5, reading as follows:
(e) Axles. — Axle and end nut (Irs in) for Class MW-C and MW-D sec-
tion car are as shown in Fig. 7. Axle and end nut (lrs-in) for Class MW-A
and MW-B inspection car are as shown in Fig. 8. Axle and end nut (2 in) for
Class MW-E and MW-F heavy car are as shown in Fig. 14. Axle and end nut
(lH-in) for Class MW-E and MW-F heavy car are as shown in Fig. 16.
Redesignate present paragraphs (e) to (h) of Art. 5, as (f) to (i).
Page 27-2-7. Delete Fig. 2 — AREA shut-off cock for fuel lines on motor cars.
Page 27-2-11. Add the words "14-in," ahead of the words "16-in" in the caption
of Fig. 6.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
631
Report on Assignment 3
New Developments in Work Equipment
T. H. Taylor (chairman, subcommittee), R. M. Baldock, J. W. Cummings, F. L. Etchi-
son, R. A. Hostetter, Herbert Huffman, W. E. Kropp, Francis Martin, E. L. Mire,
E. H. Ness, J. E. Reynolds, F. N. Snyder.
Your committee submits the following report as information.
Portable Rail Drill
A new portable, light rail drill has been placed on the market. This drill has an
automatic feed adjustable for various size drills and rail web thickness. The machine is
equipped with a rapid-acting clamp enabling quick removal from the track.
The machine weighs 165 lb and is powered by a 234-hp gasoline engine.
Bridge Machine
A new machine for bridge work has been announced. This machine, designed for
one-man operation, has four pneumatically powered drills for simultaneous operation
and fully adjustable for drilling guard timber, ties, etc. The spiking hammer is mounted
on a counterweighted pivot support. It is also equipped with hand-operated air saw,
impact wrench and drill. An 85 cfm rotary air compressor is used to power all tools
as well as propulsion. It has four-wheel air brakes and a hydraulic turntable.
Track Surfacer
A new track surfacer introduced eliminate the use of a spot board in track raising
operations. The machine combines a tightly drawn steel wire 125 ft in length as a
Track surfacer.
632
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
referencing line with a power jack equipped with vibratory tamping head. The ends
of the wire are mounted on four-wheel carriages and are held apart by a series of two-
wheel buggies.
The power jack with vibratory tamper is used for raising the track and tamps
the tie to hold the raise ahead of a tamping machine.
The track surfacer may be readily removed from the track by two men.
Wheeled Tractor
A new medium-size wheel tractor has been announced. The new model is powered
by a 4-cylinder 143-hp diesel engine, S-speed transmission allowing speeds of 2.2 to
19.3 mph.
This machine is equipped with a planetary steering system which permits making
turns while maintaining full power on all four wheels. A double-drum power control
unit is available for operation of cable control equipment, as well as an 8-ft hydraulic
dozer blade. This machine may be operated on highways without special permits.
Spot Tamper
A new spot tamper has been announced. This tamper is equipped with hydraulic
jacks and rail clamps for use in spot surfacing work. The single head is equipped with
four air tampers; vertical and lateral movement is accomplished with hydraulic cylin-
Spot tamper.
ders. Pressure is applied to the tampers by individual air cyinders. A fluid motor is used
for propulsion. The design of the tamping head allows the use of this machine for
tamping turnouts, frogs and crossings.
Air is supplied by a 125-cfm rotary air compressor with the fluid pump direct-
connected to a 4-cylinder 45-hp gasoline engine used to power the air compressor.
Maintenance of W ay Work Equipment
633
Tie spacer, Type A.
Tie Spacer, Type A
A new tie spacer has been announced. This machine is capable of handling any tie
spacing and straightening work in connection with a tie renewal gang. The straightening
of the ties is accomplished by hydraulically operated tongs on one end of the machine.
The outside half of the tongs moves the tie to the fixed half of the tongs. Longitudinal
movement of the tie is accomplished by a magnetic brake gripping the rail; the entire
machine is then moved by hydraulic cylinders.
Power for the fluid pumps and 32-v generator is supplied by a 4-cylinder 25-hp
air-cooled engine. Approximate weight of the machine is 12,000 lb.
Tie Spacer, Type B
A new tie spacer has been announced. This machine is designed for use in spacing
and straightening slewed ties. Longitudinal movement of the ties is accomplished by
hydraulic operated devices that automatically clamp the rail when lowered hydraulically
to operating position. Ties may then be moved in either direction; a fluid motor is used
for propulsion.
Power for the fluid pumps is supplied by a 4-cylinder 35-hp air-cooled gasoline
engine. Approximate weight of the machine is 8,000 lb.
There are at present a number of other machines under development. No attempt
will be made to include these machines until they are finally placed on the market.
IMPROVEMENTS IN EXISTING EQUIPMENT
Improved Tamping Machine
The improved model of this tamper features hydraulic drive, controls and a split
tamping head mounted ahead of the forward wheels. The length of the drop of the
634
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Tie spacer, Type B.
Improved tamping machine.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 635
tamping head is now adjustable, allowing drops of 14 to 28 in. The weight of the
tamping head may be varied to meet all tamping conditions.
Features of the new machine include a 4-cycle 75-hp diesel engine, gear-type fluid
pumps, vane-type fluid motor for indexing, and automatic hydraulic brakes. Tamping-
head lift cylinders are of fine-grain cast iron with step-cut piston rings. Propulsion for
deadheading is accomplished through a four-speed transmission and reverse gear. Weight
of the machine is 27,000 lb.
Report on Assignment 4
Improvements to Be Made to Existing Work Equipment
R. E. Berggren (chairman, subcommittee), J. H. Brown, L. B. Cann, Jr., J. W. Cum-
mings, Herbert Huffman, W. E. Kropp, C. F. Lewis, J. A. Mann, V. W. Oswalt, Sr.,
P. G. Petri, R. S. Radspinner, T. J. Reagan, J. W. Warbritton,
This is a progress report, submitted as information, and is a continuation of the
progress reports submitted by this committee and found in Vol. 53, 1952, page 396;
Vol. 54, 1Q53, page 666; Vol. 55, 1954, page 502; Vol. 56, 1955, page 525; Vol. 57, 1956,
page 488, and Vol. 58, 1957, page 585. It covers changes in work equipment that this
committee has found to be practical and desirable.
Multiple Spike Driver
This is a four-wheel rail-mounted self-propelled machine designed to nip up a tie
and drive four spikes, one on each side of both rails.
Suggested improvements to this machine:
Increase the lifting distance and capacity of turntable system to get over obstructions
with greater clearance and reliability.
Track Jack and Tamper
This is a four-wheel rail-mounted self-propelled machine designed to raise track and
tamp both ends of two ties at point of raising to hold the track in position for tamping
in surfacing operations.
Suggested improvement to this machine:
1. Relocate throttle control to be nearer the operator so that he may have absolute
control when the machine is moving to get in clear.
2. Relocate ignition switch to be nearer the operator's position so engine may be
shut off readily in case of hose failure or other emergency.
Track Liner
This is a four-wheel rail-mounted self-propelled machine designed for lining track
in out-of-face surfacing, spot raising, major line-improvement programs or lining without
raising the track. Each wheel is made in two pieces, the flange half being moved away
from the rail head, toward the machine, on the side that rail is being sighted.
Suggested improvement to this machine:
1. Improve the holding feature of the latches on the flange section of the wheels
so that the latches will not jar out of position when machine is moving to gel In clear.
Released latches have caused derailments.
2. Relocate hand throttle to be more convenient to operator's position. Also apply
636 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
improved type of throttle, not of the wire and flexible type, that would be easier to
operate as well as last longer.
3. Install pressure gage in hydraulic line to show pressure exerted on shifting ram.
4. Apply hydraulically operated indexer to increase moving speed and reduce main-
tenance costs.
Spot Tamper
This is an off-track portable outfit consisting of an air compressor without reservoir
and four lightweight hand tamping tools.
Suggested improvement to the compressor:
Increase the capacity of the compressor to produce sufficient air to operate the four
tools continuously even when tools are somewhat worn.
Track Maintainer (Production Tamping Machine)
This is an on-track self-propelled machine designed for all types of tamping in out-
of-face surfacing, spot raising and smoothing of track.
Suggested improvement to this machine:
1. Increase the strength of the adjustable belt tubes on vibratory tamping unit to
eliminate bending. Bending of the tube stretches the belt unevenly and makes adjustment
difficult. A steel strap with adjustable projections to fit in tube ends has been proposed
to hold the tubes parallel.
2. Replace present lightweight sprocket and chain propelling mechanism with a
heavy-duty type of drive suitable for movement of the machine for considerable distance
between job locations.
3. Provide a single engine large enough to propel the machine as well as drive the
generators, instead of using two engines.
4. Provide an automatic electric control to shut off electric current to tamping
motors when generator voltage drops to a point of possible damage to motors.
Spike Puller — Hydraulic
This is an on-track lightweight machine non-self-propelled, designed for pulling
spikes by hydraulic power. Cylinder and jaw assembly is mounted on a transverse
carriage to permit pulling of spikes from both sides of both rails.
Suggested improvement to this machine:
Increase diameter of the threaded section of ball and socket mounting bolt to
eliminate breakage of the bolt.
Report on Assignment 5
Diesel Pile Hammers
J. W. Risk (chairman, subcommittee), F. L. Etchison, R. A. Hostetter, P. Martin, V. W.
Oswalt, P. G. Petri, T. J. Reagan, F. E. Short, R. S. Stephens, H, A, Thyng.
Your committee submits the following final report as information:
The main feature in pile driving has always been the use of a falling weight dropped
from the upper portion of a frame or tower structure. With the advent of the machine
age, the picture did not change very much, as only the hoisting technique was improved.
Starting with the simple power-driven winch, several attempts were made to perfect
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 637
the procedure of lifting heavy weights rapidly to a certain height; compressed air, gun
powder, steam and internal combustion have been tried. It was not until the middle
of the last century that the actual hammering operation was drastically changed when
an English engineer used steam as a pressure-producing device which aided the ramming
process. It seemed that the ideal solution had then been obtained where not only the
weight was lifted by steam but also the pressure through a valve-shifting arrangement
exerted a driving force on the pile in addition to the falling weight. This required the
use of tower, boiler, hose and hoisting tackles. In 1929, an internal combustion driver,
using kerosene as fuel, was designed and tested in Germany. In 1938, a pile-driving
machine of similar design was developed for use with diesel fuel.
As in so many inventions, simplicity of the design makes you wonder why the diesel
pile hammer was not developed sooner. The development, however, has been rapid, and
at this time diesel hammers are in use in some 50 countries. The manufacturers and
suppliers have not yet had time to gain, from actual performance, the experience of the
steam pile hammer manufacturers.
There are three manufacturers of diesel pile hammers using internal combustion for
weight lifting and producing a force acting on (the top of) the pile. For comparative
purposes, these are described as A, B, and C.
In connection with the following information, refer to illustrated principles of
operation, Positions 1, 2, 3, and 4, in the accompanying drawings.
TYPE A
Operation of the Machine
This diesel pile driver is a self-contained, free piston, ignition machine which operates
with an impact atomizing principle.
The hammer consists of the following major parts; the lower and upper cylinder,
striker head, ram or piston, fuel pump, and tripping device. The machine is of simple
design and delivers great energy compared to its low weight.
There are three sizes, as follows:
D DD DDD
Ram weight 1,1001b 2,750 lb 4,850 lb
Total weight (less anvil) 2.2201b 4,040 1b 8,800 lb
Anvil weight 600 lb 750 lb 1,150 lb
No. of blows per minute 50-60 50-60 50-60
Energy output per blow 9,100 ft-lh 22,500 ft-lb 30,700 ft-lb
Length 1 1 ft 12 ft 7 in 1 J ft 9 in
Length with piston extended 15 ft 1 S it 15 ft
Width 16 in 18^ in 25 in
Depth 20 in 25l/2 in 31 in
A long vertical cylinder contains a piston and is closed at the bottom with the
movable striker head resting on the pile cap. A fuel injection pump is attached to the
cylinder slightly above the striker. When starting the pile unit the piston is lifted up
(by winch or hoist), and through the ports the cylinder is fdled with air. Releasing the
piston results in a compression of the air ahead of the failing piston. Upon passing the
fuel pump a lever is actuated to deliver a measured amount of liquid fuel into the con-
cave bowl in the striker head. The injection is done so early that pressures, also tem-
peratures of the air, are so low as not to cause combustion of any part of the fuel. On
reaching the bottom position the piston imparts it- energy to the striker head, thus
driving the pile downwards. At the same time the convex part of the piston hits the oil
638
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
DIESEL PILE DRIVER TYPE A
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
POSITION t* EXHAUST
Hit gases developed bu (he combustion force
flit ram (piston) 1 upwards. Through Ihis ascent,
the exhaust holes 9 are freed; and the pressure
and exhaust qas below the ram decrease.
POSITION 2 : SCAVENGING
An equalization of pressure has taken place
through exhaust holes 9. Fresh air now streams
in Ihrough the exhaust holes 9 and scavenges
the cqlinder cavitu, 5 below the ram 1. The pump
lever 10 is freed bu, the ascendinq ram 1 and
rcluriis to the starling point. Willi this the posh
rod 11 qhdes with (he pump piston 12 inwards,
and the Diesel fuel passes through inlet 14 to
the pump cylinder 13.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
639
DIESEL RLE DRIVER TYPE A
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
POSITION 3- INJECTION.
The ram I descends of its own wciahl and activates
Hie pump lever 10. The push rod II with Hie pomp
pislon 12 15 forced downwards, while Ihe DieseJ
fuel m (he pump cuhndcr 1} is injected mlo the
concave ball pan 7 of Hit sinker 6 under
approiimalclu 1.5 atmosphere pressure
POSITION 4 s ATOMIZATION < BLOW.
Ihe ram 1 slnkr. wilh ils ball end 2 aquu.t the Mod fuel found
m Ihe concave pan 7 of the striker 6 Throuflh this blow, fhe
fuel is atomized and spraqed into the combustion chamber 6
and then burned in fhe hiqhlij compressed air caused bo Ihe
fallino. ram I . Simullaneousli) striker 6 is drrven downwards
with Hie pile Tnrouqh Ihe expansion of fhe exploding qas Ihe
ram is aqam thrown upwards while former pressure of abool
so lona Ions is simu/laneouslq eierled aoamsl fhe pit. A new
cuele begins
640
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Type A, Size DDD.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 641
in the concave bowl, causing it to break up into thousands of fine particles which are
sprayed into the annular portion of the combustion chamber. Here the highly compressed
air has reached such a temperature that ignition of the oil spray takes place exactly as in
a diesel motor. The chemical energy released produces such high combustion pressures
that the striker is subjected to an additional force, which is transmitted to the pile,
already moving downward, due to the initial impact by the piston. At the same time
the piston is thrown upwards, exhaust gases are released through the ports, and a fresh
charge is drawn in as the piston moves towards top position. The cycle starts again with
compression of the air by the falling piston, and is repeated at the rate of 50 to 60 cpm.
Kick-atomizing initiated by the piston impact does away with valve and regulating
arrangements, and at the same time ensures dependable and reliable equipment of the
utmost simplicity.
Starting Device
The starting device consists of a casting with the pawl and tripping cam assembly
connected to the wire rope of the crane. In lowering the tripping device the pawl guided
by the tripping cam assembly will grip into the starting ring groove of the piston. Then
the tripping device is lifted and with it the piston. On the outside of the upper cylinder
a stop is located which presses the tripping cam assembly into a lower position, releasing
the piston on its own. During this first free fall the pump lever is activated, and the
machine starts to work according to the cycle.
Lubrication
The lubrication of the fuel pump and the piston is done automatically. On the upper
end of the piston is an oil chamber which has to be filled once a day. Because of the
impact of the piston on the impact block, oil is thrown upwards in this oil chamber,
and four channels guide lubrication oil to the outside of the piston, lubricating the piston
and cylinder wall. The lubrication of the impact block has been proven best when done
manually, since very heavy shocks would hardly allow the attachment of any automatic
lubrication pump. It would be very difficult to determine if oil is flowing freely through
pipes and grease nipples, especially during cold weather periods. The manual method
allows the operator to control greasing of this part of the machine, and can easily be
done during operation.
Starting Aids
For starting in the morning or during cold-weather periods a starter plug is included
on the lower cylinder. Improved starting performance may be achieved by use of ether-
soaked cotton wool, which is placed in a starting (ether) plug receptacle located just
above the striker plate. The charge lasts from 10 to 20 blows, after which the machine
is usually warmed up sufficiently to ignite the diesel fuel. In starting the size D machine,
there is indicated the need for a further ether vapor supply than is afforded by a single
application of the ether-soaked cotton wool. Tests made on a Canadian railway with the
size D machine supports the use of a one-pint capacity ether dispenser, particularly in
temperatures lower than SO deg F. The fuel line from the dispenser is connected to the
starter plug and provides a continuous supply of ether until the hammer is warm enough
to operate with diesel fuel. The ether fuel line is equipped with a shut-off valve which
can be closed when ether is not required. Diesel fuel oil having a cetanc rating of <; Of
over is recommended. During cold periods, especially for the initial starting, the inside
of the machine (impact block, piston, cylinder wall) is extremely cold, and the compi
air will not reach the required temperature to explode the fuel, so it has been found
642 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
necessary to use ether as above described. The most desirable solution to overcome
starting problems when the machine is cold would be to use a diesel fuel with an additive,
requiring lower ignition temperature. One of the leading oil companies is developing such
a fuel, which it expects to have on the market in the near future.
Hammer Leads
The sizes D and DD diesel hammers can be equipped for use either in the type A
diesel hammer lead, which is of light structural design with two guiding tubes, or the
conventional steam hammer lead. The diesel hammer lead permits the advantage of
driving sheet piles with a properly guided hammer, since the machine works in front
of the lead. The lightweight hammer and leads permit the use of this equipment with
crawler cranes of less capacity. Transportation is made easier, since the diesel hammer lead
can be taken apart and shipped in several sections.
Hammers of type A, known as Delmag are manufactured by Delmag-iMaschinen-
fabrik, Reinhold Dornfeld, Esslingen a. N., Germany.
TYPE B
This machine is similiar to type A in that it has the two-cycle principle of opera-
tion. It is rugged and easily serviceable. The lubrication is effected by means of pumps
to the six different points on the hammer.
There are two sizes, as follows:
M MM
Ram weight 2,000 lb 2,800 lb
Total weight (less anvil) 5,100 lb 8,125 lb
Net weight with angle iron guides and universal driving cap 6,000 lb 9,025 lb
No. of blows per minute 48-52 48-52
Energy output per blow (average) 12,000 ft-lb 16,800 ft-lb
Length 11 ft Sin 14ft
Length with piston extended (incl. universal driving cap) 15 ft 8 in 17 ft 6 in
Width 20 in 20 in
Depth 23 in 25 in
Maximum stroke 8 ft 8 ft
These hammers operate in the conventional steam hammer leads or may be used
on a spud for driving sheet piling.
Starting Device
At this time the manufacturer advises that it has not had experience in the operation
of its diesel pile hammer at temperatures below approximately 10 deg F. This hammer
does not contain a starting plug as on type A, and the manufacturer suggests the follow-
ing starting procedures for extreme cold weather operation: Lower the pile hammer in
the leads and place it on a firm object, such as a previously driven pile, wood block,
or other object on which the exhaust ports of the hammer would be accessible from the
ground. Remove one exhaust port cap, raise the ram above the exhaust ports, and drop
in an ether-soaked wad of cotton. Trip the ram and allow the hammer to operate for a
short period of time to warm it up.
Hammers of type B, known as McKiernan-Terry, are manufactured by McKiernan-
Terry Corporation, Dover, N. J.
Maintenance of W a y Work Equipment
643
Type B, Size M.
044 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
TYPE C
This is a self-contained, free piston, compression ignition machine, operating on the
two-cycle principle with its work, output delivered in the form of three energy forces:
preloading by compression, impact, and expansion of combustion gases. The hammer
consists of the following major parts: cylinder, in two parts, upper and lower; ram or
piston; anvil; anvil guide; cylinder head; mechanical starting device; lube oil pump;
and fuel injection equipment.
The power stroke of the hammer (from point of impact to exhaust ports), is approxi-
mately one-fifth of the total stroke at full load. The air compressor operates for the full
stroke of the ram and is located at the upper end of the cylinder. A relatively large clear-
ance volume is located outside the upper cylinder and connected to the cylinder by ports.
The clearance volume is necessary in order to limit the maximum pressure in the ham-
mer. The hammer will bounce only on a pile at refusal if excessive fuel is injected, in
which case, the ram will enter the safety space, lifting the entire hammer.
The exhaust ports in the power cylinder have a slight lead over the intake ports,
and the port timing is such that at the end of the exhaust "blow down", the intake
ports are uncovered by the ram, allowing fresh air to enter the cylinder with a minimum
of mixing with the exhaust gases.
There are three sizes, as follows:
L LL LLL
Ram weight 1,460 lb 3,800 lb 5,000 lb
Total weight 3,600 lb 10,0001b 12,500 lb
No. of blows per minute 90-98 100-105 80-84
Energy output per blow 7,500 ft-lb 18,000 ft-lb 30,000-ft lb
Length 11 ft 6 in 12 ft 14 ft 6 in
Width 18 in 26 in 26 in
Depth 24 in 40 in 40 in
Operation of the Machine
The ram is accelerated downward by gravity and the expansion of air in the com-
pressor. During the downward stroke the ram forces a mixture of air and residual gases
through the exhaust ports, compresses the trapped air mixture to ignition temperature
and impacts. The expansion of the combustion gases drives the ram upward. On the
upstroke the ram uncovers the ports, allowing the gases to "blow down", then draws in
fresh air through the intake ports as it continues upward, simultaneously compressing
the air in the upper chamber to complete the cycle.
Fuel Injection System
Fuel oil is supplied to the injection pump by gravity flow from the fuel tank. A
replacement-type filter element is mounted inside the fuel tank for maximum protection
against damage. The fuel injection pump is operated by a bell crank-lever which has a
roller contacting the machined cam on the upper end of the ram. The fuel injectors, each
consisting of a nozzle and holder, are located at the lower end of the cylinder and injects
the fuel directly into the spherical-shaped combustion chambers in the anvil.
Starting Device
The starting device located at the rear of the hammer is an off-center linkage
mechanism designed to engage the ram for lifting and starting. This mechanism con-
sists of a lifting lever, latching lever, and linkage, a release lever and a latching block.
A wire rope is connected to the starting device housing and extends upward through the
M ai n t en ance of Way Work Equipment
645
Type C, Size LL.
646 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
starting device cover. The wire rope from the crane must be fitted into the open wedge
type socket and connected to the starting device rope. The hoist rope is then installed on
the hammer by removing one guide roller on the cylinder head, inserting the rope into
place, and replacing the roller. The latching block is actuated by pulling the latch rope
connected to the latching block operating lever. This latching block is spring loaded to
hold it in the "off" position when not in use.
Hydraulic Control System
The hammer is equipped with hydraulic controls to vary the amount of fuel delivered
by the fuel pump. These controls consist of a transmitter located at ground level, and
a receiver mounted on the hammer. The receiver actuates a bell crank, which in turn
operates the fuel pump control rack. The transmitter is connected with the receiver
through a length of high-pressure hydraulic hose. A self-sealing coupling, located on the
hammer, permits removal of the hose without loss of oil or admitting air into the system
while transporting the hammer. For most efficient operation, the hydraulic control trans-
mitter should be mounted in the crane cab and operated by the crane operator.
Lubrication
The ram and fuel-pump drive is lubricated by a single plunger lube oil pump, oper-
ated by the fuel pump bell crank lever. There are three points of lubrication: two in the
upper cylinder, and one at the bell crank lever shaft. The lube oil is supplied to the
pump by gravity flow from the lube oil tank and passes through a filter element located
inside the tank. The anvil is greased through four fittings located around the lower end
of the cylinder and two fittings on the anvil guide.
Starting Aids
An electric glow plug is provided for cold starting and also aids starting on a pile
in soft ground. Switch is located on a bracket with the hydraulic control transmitter.
Hammers of the type C, known as Link-Belt (formerly Syntron) are manufactured
by Link-Belt Speeder Corporation, Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
SUMMARY
The advantages of diesel pile hammers are in their mobility. Costs are minimized
by the elimination of coal or oil-fired boiler, air compressor, and appendages. Some are
of lighter weight than conventional hammers, reducing crane capacities assigned to this
service.
It is the feeling of this committee that the tendency toward simplicity, and toward
robust, and reliable equipment will bring the diesel pile hammer forward with the same
speed at which diesel equipment now is taking over in the railway transportation field.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 647
Report on Assignment 6
Diesel Engines vs. Gasoline Engines Used in Work Equipment
L. E. Conner (chairman, subcommittee), C. L. Fero, E. H. Fisher, Jack Largent, C. F.
Lewis, J. A. Mann, Harry Mayer, C. W. Mitchell, H. C. Nordstrom, H. C. Pottsmith,
R. S. Radspinner.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
Previous reports on diesel engines may be found in Vol. 47, lu4o, page 196, and
Vol. 50, 1949, page 345, of the Proceedings.
In the selection of an engine to power work equipment, the purchaser may, in cer-
tain cases, be offered the alternative of either a diesel or gasoline engine, and basically,
the decision to be made is whether the advantages of the diesel engine will outweigh its
higher initial cost compared to the gasoline engine.
Much has been said about the advantages and disadvantages of the diesel and gaso-
line engine in work equipment, and without exception priority in discussion is given to
the fuel economy of the diesel and lower initial cost of the gasoline engine.
The importance of fuel economy is proportional to the amount saved ; for example,
a large piece of work equipment will probably operate approximately 700 to 800 hr
annually on the northern railroads and 1300 to 1400 hr on the southern railroads, thus
giving the south an advantage in fuel economy.
Railway track maintenance is generally carried out by a self-contained group of
machines and labor, and the effectiveness of this gang depends on the reliability of the
machines. If one machine fails it will hold up the rest of the gang until necessary repairs
are carried out, and the cost of delay will outweigh the cost of repairs in many instances.
At one time the diesel was looked upon as a mystery, but over the years it has
proven itself to be less susceptible than the gasoline engine to involuntary stops. The
gasoline engine often stops because of petty troubles from the ignition system and car-
buretor, whereas the fuel injection equipment, the heart of the diesel engine, is more
reliable, and field service, if necessary, can be carried out on injectors and pumps. On
some engines no adjustments of the injectors are required. While the diesel engine will
operate for a longer period between overhauls, parts will cost more due to heavy con-
struction or special metals.
Operators and operating conditions make comparisons of this nature difficult to
make on railroad work equipment, but they can be made on machines where gasoline
engines have been replaced by diesel engines and worked under identical conditions. In
such cases the diesel has shown itself to be superior in dependability and lower main-
tenance. In one particular case the gasoline engine required an annual overhaul while
the diesel has now completed its third year without overhaul.
Gasoline engines use a 6- or 12-v electrical starting system, and without the use of
starting aids, can start at minus 15 deg F. Using a gas primer, these engines will start at
minus 25 deg F.
Diesel engines, using direct electric starting, require 12- or 24-v batteries, and some
form of starting aid is necessary to start at the lower temperatures. With glow phi-- 01
air box heaters the diesels can be started at zero deg F, and lower temperatures can be
reached with ether aids.
It should be remembered that batteries lose 40 percent of their efficienc) at zero
deg F, and unless batteries are kept fully charged, starting difficulties ma} be experienced
due to low cranking speed, ending in completely discharged batteries, To overcome cold
648 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
weather starting problems, some diesel engines are equipped with gasoline engine starting,
thus the diesel is supplied with sustained cranking effort.
The gasoline engine is both lighter and smaller than the diesel, but in the design
of new equipment this should not present any problems. In cases of repowering some
work equipment equipped with gasoline engines with diesel engines, some special engi-
neering may be necessary.
The advantages of the gasoline engine are:
1. Convenient; easy starting, simple operation.
2. Widely used.
3. Easily serviced.
4. Lower first cost.
The disadvantages are:
1. Power loss and valve troubles often resulting from combustion chamber
deposits.
2. Fire hazard in handling and storage of gasoline.
3. Shorter life than diesel engines.
The advantages of diesel engines are:
1. Higher engine efficiency.
2. Better part-load economy.
3. Low fire hazard in handling and storage of fuel.
4. Long engine life.
5. Good fuel distribution insured by injection system.
The disadvantages are:
1. Higher initial cost.
2. High compression makes 12- or 24-v electrical systems and starting aids
necessary.
3. Injectors may foul with excessive idling.
In work equipment requiring SO hp or more and operated 600 hr a year or more,
serious consideration should be given to diesel power. On equipment such as generators
or pumps that require continuous operation, consideration should be given to the diesel
when 25 hp or more is needed.
Summing up, the selection of either a gasoline or diesel engine will depend upon
application, dependability, maintenance, initial cost and availability of fuel, and these
qualities will be placed by the purchaser in their order of importance to him.
The diesel, where comparisons with gasoline engines have been made, has shown
itself to be superior in dependability and maintenance requirements. Unproductive labor
cost due to engine failure in work equipment can outweigh the additional expenditure
for a diesel engine in many cases.
The question when to assume the extra cost of diesel power is an economical one.
The greater efficiency and lower fuel cost of the diesel as against higher initial cost,
measured by the time used, are the principal factors in determining the answer.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 649
Report on Assignment 7
Number of Units of Work Equipment to be Repaired
by Field Repairmen
S. E. Haines, Jr. (chairman, subcommittee), R. M. Baldock, I. M. Boone, J. H. Hrown,
N. W. Hutchison, Jack Largent, H. C. Nordstrom, F. N. Snyder, M. M. Stansbury,
H. A. Thyng, J. W. Warbritton, L. B. Waterman.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
With the increase of mechanical work equipment on nearly every railroad, tin-
problem of how many units a field repairman can effectively maintain is becoming
more and more acute. Mechanical equipment used efficiently can save the railroads
money. Mechanical equipment waiting to be repaired and not used costs the railroads
money. It is extremely wasteful to have a repairman by each machine to repair it if it
should break down. It is also extremely wasteful to let expensive machinery sit idle for
a great length of time waiting to be repaired. Somewhere between these two extremes
lies the most satisfactory solution to the problem, and it is strictly a managerial decision.
In order to aid managements in making this decision, this report outlines the relevant
factors and submits a guide based on the judgment of the members of this committee.
Several factors affect the number of units a field repairman can maintain. The most
important factor is the repairman's skill and ability to repair all machines assigned to
him. Next is the operator's skill in diagnosing the source of trouble, so that the repair-
man can bring the proper tools and parts to the job. The attitude of the people using
the machine is reflected in the care they give it. Careful training of an operator previous
to handling any machine saves needless repair work.
Next in importance is the time the repairman spends in traveling to the machines.
The time spent in transit to and from a disabled machine is non-productive. The more
time spent traveling, the more money is wasted; therefore, a well-equipped repair truck
is preferable to a track motor car. The exception to this is the case in which the dis-
abled machine is not accessible by highway, and it is necessary to use a track motor car
or combination track motor car-highway truck.
The general condition of the work equipment on a railroad will determine the num-
ber of failures with which repairmen will have to cope; if the machines generally are
new or well maintained by an adequate supporting shop, overhauled as necessary,
and a preventive maintenance program is in effect, breakdowns will be kept to a mini-
mum. If the machines are older and worn and repaired only when they break down,
failures will be at a maximum.
New machines may fail within the warranty period. When this happens, a good
manufacturer's service policy is all important. Habitual failure of any parts on a new
machine must be remedied quickly by redesign, or the repairman will spend too much
time on the new machine. The ease of obtaining replacement parts determines the speed
with which the machine is returned to service.
Machines used by a well-trained operator will usually give good service for a rela-
tively long time with a minimum of maintenance. Machines used infrequently and by
more than one operator will often be difficult to use and maintain.
Finally, the number of men made idle by a machine due to it being out of service
determines the speed with which it must be repaired. For this reason, many railroads
station a repairman with large mechanized gangs, as one machine broken down can
cause serious train delays and loss of many man-hours.
t>50 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Your committee is studying a system of weighted units for various machines in
order to determine how many a good repairman can maintain. It is hoped that the
chart will be completed for next year's report.
Report on Assignment 8
Tie Unloaders
H. F. Longhelt (chairman, subcommittee), I. M. Boone, G. R. Collier, W. T. Hammond,
Haynie Hornbuckle, F. H. McKenney, E. L. Mire, E. H. Ness, T. M. Pittman,
M. M. Stansbury, G. M. Strachan.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
In the past few years, due to many factors, the handling of ties has become an
important matter on all railroads. This report does not endeavor to cover the many
methods of unloading ties in practice now, but describes the machines which have been
developed for this work and gives a description of their operation.
Tie Unloading Machine
This machine is powered by a 50-hp gasoline or diesel engine, driving two hydraulic
pumps. The machine is mounted on 6j4-in wheels, has four-wheel drive from a hydraulic
motor through cone-drive reduction, hydraulic brakes with manual parking brake,
sanding equipment and a hydraulically powered rail clamp. The machine weighs
7500 lb.
This tie unloading machine is designed to unload ties from specially built gondola
cars as it moves through the cars. The gondolas are built with openings at floor level,
extending the length of the car and having sufficient height to permit passage of a tie.
These openings are covered with hinged doors, except during the unloading operation.
On the floor of the car are two pairs of rails parallel to the sides. The machine runs
on one pair while the other pair supports the ties at a slightly higher elevation. Ties
are loaded loose at right angles to the sides of the car. Removable bulkheads hold the
ties in place during transit and are removed to permit passage of the machine. Each
car holds about 400 ties. The machine is carried on a flat car similar to those used for
rail cranes, and short connecting rails are provided so the machine may pass from the
flat car to the gondola and from one gondola to another.
The tie unloading machine moves into the tie car after the bulkhead has been
removed until its front end is against the ties. A horizontal chain moves around sprockets
located at each side of the front end of the machine and is equipped with a finger
which engages one end of the tie on the bottom of the pile. As the chain revolves, this
finger pushes the tie through the opening in the side of the gondola car, and as it does
so, the next tie drops down and is in position for unloading.
The machine and controls are all hydraulically powered. By varying the engine
speed, ties may be placed close to the car or 5 or 6 ft away. The ties may be placed
either perpendicular or parallel to the rail. The design of the opening in the side of the
car and the machine itself combine to hold the tie in horizontal position until it is clear
of the car. This, plus the fact the ties are unloaded at floor level instead of over the
side of the car, therefore, having a shorter distance to fall, makes it possible to control
the placing of the ties more accurately.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
651
Tie unloading machine.
By use of a system of hand signals or portable radio, a man walking alongside the
car can signal the operator when to unload a tie, as well as control the speed of the train.
Since the ties are unloaded entirely by the machine, no one is required to be close
to the ties while unloading; therefore, the operation is performed with a maximum
of safety to the men involved.
One railroad has 6 of these machines in service along with 36 especially adapted
tie cars. With these 6 machines, the road distributes over b00,000 ties per year, each tie
being unloaded from the car not more than 2 ft from the old tie which i; is to replace.
The system works on the basis of one operator using two machine-, alternating between
them. As one machine is being shipped to its new location, the other is being used to
unload ties. The tie cars make an average of two trips per week from the tl
plant. The frequency of loadings is affected by the location of the treating plant.
Quite frequently ties are unloaded directly irom local freight trains. When unload
ing this way. two to three cars per day are unloaded. However, ii a work train is mil
652
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Special gondola cars used with tie unloading machine.
ized, six to eight cars per day are unloaded. The average time to unload a car of 360 to
390 ties is 45 min.
This railroad figures the cost of a tie on the ground, in place for insertion in the
track, at approximately 5T/2 cents per tie. This figure includes depreciation on both the
tie unloading machine and the tie cars, maintenance on both, fuel, foreman, operator,
assistant operator and a portion of local freight's time.
Crane and Tie Grapple
This method of unloading ties utilizes a small crane of the crawler type equipped
with a tie grapple.
The ties are loaded loose in drop-end gondolas. The crane is on a flat car and
reaches over the end of the gondola to unload the ties.
One railroad has made time studies of the crane and tie grapple and has unloaded
451 ties in 43 min without damage to the ties. They did not encounter any difficulties
unloading resulting from the weight of the grapple. Their study revealed that a very
good job could be done at a train speed of y2 mph.
Tie Handling Machine
The tie handling machine consists of an air-cooled motor mounted on a angle iron
frame with a short stationary pipe boom and a system of pulleys. The machine weighs
345 lb and can be handled by four men. It can be suspended from the side of the car
until enough ties are removed to allow it to be placed on the car floor. The machine has
no swinging mechanism but lifts the tie to car side height and the men then push the
ties over the edge. The manufacturer claims it will unload 1800 ties in 8 hr.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 653
Small Pneumatic-Tired Crane
This machine is similar to a front-end loader except it has hydraulically operated
boom and 180 deg swinging capacity. It is powered by a 67-hp 6-cylinder gasoline
motor with torque converter. 4-wheel drive and hydraulic 4-\vhecl steering. This machine-
is mounted on large rubber tires, which enables it to walk over tracks or straddle rail-.
The overall length is 15 ft 2>l/2 in. The width of the machine with the wheels reversed
for straddling the rails is 8 ft 10K> in and with the wheels set for minimum width
it is S ft wide. The maximum load it can handle is 5000 lb.
This machine is multi-purpose and was not designed specifically for unloading ties,
but it is included in this report because it appears that a number of railroads intend
to conduct tests of unloading ties with this type of machine.
Most railroads have drop-end gondolas of 9 ft 6 in inside width. This machine's
minimum width of 8 ft will allow it to pass through the gondola. The plan is to have
the machine loaded on a flat car next to the drop-end gondola loaded with ties. The
machine will unload ties from the gondola until enough have been removed to allow
the end of the gondola to be lowered. It will then travel through the gondola unloading
the ties and in the same manner travel to the next gondola.
An advantage of the machine is that the boom swings 90 deg either right or left
without overhanging counterweights as on a crane; therefore, the type of drop-end
gondolas is not limited because of the height of the sides. Also, the machine can be used
for many other purposes when it is not needed for unloading ties.
Report on Assignment 9
Basis for Replacing Automotive Vehicles
W. F. Kohl (chairman, subcommittee), C. L. Fero, E. H. Fisher, W. T. Hammond,
Havnie Hornbuckle, Francis Martin, C. W. Mitchell, T. M. Pittman, J. E. Reynolds,
F. E. Short, G. M. Strachan.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
The large increase in the use of automotive vehicles in railroad service indicates a
need for the development of a definite replacement policy. The following data and
replacement formulas are offered as a guide in arriving at that policy. The values shown
in the replacement formulas are suggested average values and should be adjusted to fit
the requirements and conditions encountered on each individual railroad.
Service Life
For the average highway vehicle used by railroads under average conditions a
service life of 6 years and 72,000 miles for trucks, and 4 years and 72,000 mile- for
automobiles is indicated. In the absence of definite reliable records it is suggested that
these figures be used in setting up depreciation and replacement schedule-.
The following conditions will cause the service life to vary, and all should be taken
into consideration when replacement of a motor vehicle is under study. Under normal
conditions a motor vehicle should be replaced before it requires a general overhaul.
as in most cases the value of the vehicle will not be enhanced sufficient]] to justify
the cost.
1. Type of Service: A vehicle used in heavy, rough service, such .i- yard
struction, where the roads are poor, the loads heavy and the vehicle is operated in the
lower gears, can be expected to have a service life much shorter than the average. Con-
versely, a vehicle used in light service, where the roads are good, the loads light and
the speed moderate, can be expected to have a longer than average service life
654 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
2. General Condition: When a vehicle approaches retirement age, if it is found
to be in unusually good mechanical condition it should probably be retained in service
for an additional year or so. This will tend to offset the higher amortization and depre-
ciation costs of the vehicles replaced after shorter than average service life. However,
it must be remembered that older vehicles generally are more expensive to operate
and maintain.
3. Maintenance Setup: Vehicles which are well maintained can be expected to have
a longer than average service life, and their operating and maintenance costs will be
below the average.
4. Operation: Vehicles driven by careful, competent and considerate operators will
last longer than the average, will give better service and will have lower operating and
maintenance costs.
5. Obsolescence: Vehicles kept in service too long may become obsolete and repair
parts hard to obtain, making maintenance both difficult and expensive.
6. Collisions and Fires: Vehicles severely damaged in collisions or fires are seldom
repaired to their former condition and usually give continual trouble throughout their
remaining life. They should, therefore, be considered for immediate replacement.
In any replacement program, a sufficient number of vehicles should be replaced
each year to keep the depreciation account in normal balance; that is, if the replace-
ment cycle is set up for six years, then approximately one-sixth of the vehicles in service
should be replaced each year. If, of necessity, an unusual number of vehicles has to be
purchased in any one year, then the retirement of these vehicles should be spread over
two or three years in order to get future purchases and retirements on a more uniform
cycle.
Replacement Formula for Trucks — Based on Average Life Expectancy
of 6 Years and 72,000 Miles
Replace If Over 140 Points
Age — 1 point for each month
Mileage — 1 point for each 1000 miles
Debits for Special Conditions
For heavy service — add 24 points — — , — , —
For extra heavy service — add 48 points , , —
If engine needs general overhaul — add 12 points
If truck, except engine, needs general overhaul — add 12 points . ,
Total Debits
Credits for Special Conditions
For light service — deduct 24 points . ,
For extra light service — deduct 48 points ,
For extra good general condition — deduct 24 points . ,
Total Credits —
Net Total Retirement Points ,
Replacement Formula for Automobiles — Based on Average Life Expectancy
of 4 Years and 72,000 Miles
Replace If Over 140 Points
Age — iy2 points for each month
Mileage — 1 point for each 1000 miles
Debits for Special Conditions
For rough service — add 36 points , .
If needs general overhaul — add 36 points — . — . —
Total Debits -
Credits for Special Conditions
For light service — deduct 36 points ,
For extra good general condition — deduct 36 points
Total Credits
Net Total Retirement Points
Report of Committee 28 — Clearances
S. M. Dahl, Chairman,
J. G. Gkeenlee,
Vice Chairman,
C. 0. Bird
E. S. BlRKl.WV \l D
B. Bristov
W. T. Davis
J. E. Fanning
J. E. Good
R. L. Goss
A. R. Harris
W. F. Hart
J. D. Hudson
C. F. Intxekofer
M. L. Johnson
C. T. Kaikk*
W. P. KoBAT
J. E. Krome
J. W. McMili.en
E. E. Mnxs
\ G. Neighbour
R. C. NlSSEN
C E l'i i i RSON
W. F. Pom
A. D. Quackenbi sir
A. J. Rankin
W. S. Rav
J. C. SCHOLTZ
J. F. Smith
J. E. South
J. W. Wai.i.enh s
A. M. Weston
H. G. Whittet, Jr.
M. A. WOHESCHLAEGER
Com mitt ci'
Died August 16. 1957
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Clearances as affected by girders projecting above top of track rails, struc-
tures, third rail, signal and train control equipment, collaborating with
Signal and Electrical Sections, and with Mechanical and Operating-
Transportation Divisions, AAR.
Progress in study, but no report.
3. Review clearance diagrams for recommended practice, collaborating with
AREA committees concerned and the AAR Joint Committee on Clearances.
Progress report, including recommended revisions of clearance diagrams,
submitted as information page 656
4. Compilation of the railroad clearance requirements of the various states.
Progress report, bringing up to date the tabulation of the clearance require
ments of the various states page 660
5. Clearance allowances to provide for vertical and horizontal movements ol
equipment due to lateral play, wear and spring deflection, collaborating
with the Mechanical Division, AAR.
Progress report, presented as information page 661
0. Study of track centers in relation to current clearance problems, -n* h as
permissible size of car- and locomotives in interchange service, collaborating
with Committee 5 and the Joint Committee cm Clearances, \ \R
\cp reporl
656 Clearances
7. Methods of measuring high and wide shipments
Progress report, presented as information page .
The Committee on Clearances,
S. M. Dahi., Chair mini.
AREA Bulletin 540, December 1957.
Report on Assignment 3
Review Clearance Diagrams for Recommended Practice
Collaborating with AREA Committees Concerned and the AAR
Joint Committee on Clearances
J. E. South (chairman, subcommittee), E. S. Birkenwald, B. Bristow, S. M. Dahl,
W. T. Davis, J. E. Good, J. G. Greenlee, A. R. Harris, W. P. Kobat, J. E. Krome,
J. W. McMillen, R. C. Nissen, A. D. Quackenbush, A. M. Weston.
Your committee submits as information four revised clearance diagrams and one
new diagram, with the expectation that they will be submitted at a later date for
adoption and publication in the Manual.
These are as follows:
Fig. 5 (Manual page 28-2-5) — -Title has been revised from "Clearance Diagram
for Buildings and Sheds Adjacent to Side Tracks" to "Clearance Diagram for Structures
(Other than Platforms) Adjacent to Industrial Side Tracks". No special encroachment
for sheds is permitted other than that permitted in the upper corners by the 4-ft by
6-ft high triangles.
Fig. 6 (Manual page 28-2-6) — Title has been revised from "Clearance Diagram
for Warehouse and Enginehouse Doors" to "Clearance Diagram for Building Doors".
The height has been increased from 17 ft to 18 ft and the half width for building doors
increased from 7 ft to 8 ft.
Figs. 7 and 8 — Clearance Diagrams for Platforms (Manual page 28-2-7). Fig. 7 has
been revised to provide 8 ft 0 in from center line of track to high platform unless
clearance on other side conforms to Fig. 5. Maximum height of low platform has been
increased to 8 in and maximum height of high platform limited to 4 ft 0 in. Fig. 8
has been revised to limit height of platform to 4 ft 0 in.
These revisions will bring AREA clearance requirements more in line with the
requirements of the majority of the various states.
Fig. 0 — Clearance for Overhead Bridges and Other Structures Not Otherwise Pro-
vided for, is a proposed new diagram to indicate what the committee believes to be
the minimum clearance requirements for these structures.
Clearances
657
CLEARANCE DIAGRAM FOR STRUCTURES (OTHER THAN
PLATFORMS) ADJACENT TO INDUSTRIAL SIDE TRACKS
Plane of Top of
Running Rails
Fig. 5.
658
Clearances
CLEARANCE DIAGRAM FOR BUILDING DOORS
Bui Iding, Poors
£nginehouse Doora
Plane of Top of
Running Rails
o
Fig. 6.
fi'-o"
6'-6"
o
■
00
Clearances
659
CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS FOR PLATFORMS
High Platforms
5 1 de Tracks Only
Low Platforms
5'-3"
Plane of Top of
Running Ra:Is
6'-o"
3'-0" .1
1
'°o »
MAY 6E USED PROVIDED
CLEARANCE OF STRUCTURES
ON OTHER .SIDE OFTRACK5
CONFORMS TO FlG.5
Platforms other than those
serving Refrigerator Cars
Fig. 7.
h
I
cV
O
<
—
; >
UJ
T
UJ
IV
a
n
<
a
z
u
>
<
0
a
u
O
UJ
U-
or
Note (
Where 8-0" horizontal
clearance is not available,
{be height should not
exceed 3-3"
Plane of Top of
Running Rails
Hig,h Platforms serving
Refrigerator Cars
Fig. 8.
660
Clearances
CLEARANCE DIAGRAM FOR OVERHEAD BRIDGES AND OTHER
STRUCTURES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
l&'-O
I. 12-45
rTop of JHi&h Rail
Fig. 9.
l&'-O"
*V
■\
For 1 or 2
Tracks
For 3 or
MoreTracks
Report on Assignment 4
Compilation of the Railroad Clearance Requirements
of the Various States
M. A. Wohlschlaeger (chairman, subcommittee), S. M. Dan], J. G. Greenlee, R. L.
Goss, J. D. Hudson, C. F. Intlekofer, E. E. Mills, A. G. Neighbour, R. C. Nissen,
A. D. Quackenbush, A. J. Rankin, J. C. Scholtz, H. G. Whittet.
Your committee submits as information a tabulation of the clearance requirements
of the various states brought up to date as of December 1, 1957. In it we would call
attention to the fact that as a result of a recent order the clearance requirements of
the State of Delaware are shown for the first time; also that extensive revisions in
clearance requirement are shown for the State of Michigan.
STATE
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
2 u
4906
2215
4 3B3
75J4
4450
83!
295
5010
62'5
2742
1777
6657
8906
8479
3534
4292
!862
328
I74S
7176
1371
2 '4
09
19
3 28
194
C38
013
2 19
27!
120
5 14
2 99
3 89
3 70
1.54
187
08
058
0 76
3.13
3 65
SPACING
BETWEEN TRAC
s
Lt
-GA
L REQUIREMENTS-CLEARANCES
OVERHEAD CLEARANrFS
AOOPTEDCLEARANC
RULES OR
REGULATIONS
CLEARANCE
BASED ON
MAXIMUM
CAR SIZES
ll
14 0
•-:.:.-
14'- O
i4'.a
13'- 6
l4'-0
13-0
I3:0
13- 0
14'- 0"
14'- 0'
ISO'
14 -0"
15-0'
15-0
\s-6
I5'-C
15-0
15 0
iS-tf
13' 0
M'-O"
14 0
14 0
It- 0
14 0
14'- 17
13-6
14'- 0"
13 6
3 ft
13-6"
IS-O"
l4'-0"
14 tf
14'- 0"
r'iv
l*'-0"
13 6
14' 0"
3 0
13-0
13 0"
14 - 0"
14-0"
III ||i
?0L 5" 20 0-
17'- 0- 17'- 0
20-0" 20 0
17-0 ' 0
18-0" 18-0
l9'-0" 19'- O
20'-o"2p'-g;
15-0" I7:0
ISO" 17-0
Itf-O^lS'-O
17' 0"
14'- (J1 l4'-0"
P7-0* 17-0
20 8
;o'-o
20 0
20' 0
19 0
20-0
1 7-0
17-0
L9-0"
l4'-0"
J9i0
! - *
j 5
20 O
20'- 0
20 0
20'- 0
19 O
2 :■'<
I9'0
9 0
14'- 0"
19-0
1*1 »
1 1-6
IJ'-O
13-0
li-0
13' O
l3'-0
O O'
l3'-0
,'4'-C-
11
13 0
3-0
13 - 0"
13 6
13*0 -
l4'-0"
BRI
22-0
22-0
22-6
22-d
22J0
22'-"
2 2 [
22d;
22-d
22' 6
22 0
3GES
Yes
its
res
Yes
TUNNELS
2Z 0 Yes
23'- 0- Yes
22L6' Yes
2*0" Yes
22 O" i,
22:6" Yes
22- 0'
22MJ*
j22'-0"
22J6<>
2t-<S Yes
STRUCTURE.
22 -a Yes
22' 0- re;
22 6 Yes
.22-6" Yes
80-
22 0' '.-.
22-0" -
22-6 Yes
21-6"
22 0'
220" No
220"" -
iZ2
222-0" Yes
80'
22f/
22 0 No
I6--0-
17' 0- -
1 8-0"
'7' 0"
18-0'"
l7'-0"
18'- O"
"ST.,"'.
18'- O"
22- 0' ®
STRUCTURES
B 6
1-6"
8 6
8-6
e e
lO'-O
8-6
9-0
6-'..'
..'*'■
SIDE CLEARANCES
SIGNALS BRIDGES
TUNNELS
a
t
'878
I'-O"' 6'-6"
' 8
7-0" 6'- 8"
i
6-0" 7'- 8"
BO-Tlitj
- r-ff
I- 6"
8-6'
6' 5
8-6'
6 3
i -
8 0' 6 6-
80'
60 8 6'
B'-g1
8 0 6 6
B'-O"
'e'V' 90
B'-CT
8r6ir
5'-9"
7 0'
8-"f
14'- S
ij e
l4'-0
14-0"
14'- 0
13'- 6
14' 0
6 6-
8'-6"
! 6
8-6
e e
e'-d
8'-6
B C
8-6
S' 6
8.,'r
! 6
rei
Yes
Ves
Yes
No
Yes
No
PAT.S
* 3
* 2
6-6-
8'-3"
8 6
8-3
8' 6
80'
6'0"
80-
! 0-
SO
6-0
8 0
B'-O'
« 0
8 0
8 0
80
res
Jftl-
Yes
les
3 0 >e<
8' 0" Yes
8 0' Yes
to" Yes
8'-0" Yes
60
NGER
FREIGHT
r
6"
. e"
8"
8"
o*
8*
4 8- 4 0 7 3
5 S- . ' - - 4' <r 5' 9" '
4 > 4 2*6
5'-a" t" i:$ 4-d 5'-s" '
ii. 4-0' "m*^
4'-8" - - 4-(5 5-9"
4'-8"4 0- - !- -' «' 6'
'■'■ 5-8'*
■ "
5,-i"4,-*!e'-(!4'-d s'-r
8 6"
4 6' 8 0
4 6' 80
4'-6"8'-0"
4 € 8"
BETEBENCE
None
— if. ifi'm
Cose R-IOI2
Gen Order 26H
del.- f::
Statutes P
Order 214
Order 1871
®
Gen. Order 99
Gen Order 22
Statutes
Docket K-I26I
Statutes
Customary
None
Order 5CH38
Statutes
Statutes
Statutes
94ft
158
194(1
-
1955
-95:
'95:
920
1949
'936
935
1953
15S0
;r
'943'
10 8
,1010
10'. io
10-4"
5
15 6
5' f
14 *'
14-0
14 o
W'C
I'M
U 0
a'-s
14'- n
13-6
14-0
i4-o
130-
14'- 0-
ue-r
4
4"
4
4"
4"
4"
3 0 3 0 6 0
3-6* 3-0" 6-0
3 0 3 0' 6 0
3'-d3'o"e'd
3 0' 3 0' 6 0
3'-d3'-d6'-0
3'-d' ''O'e 0
2 « Noo,
2 8 None
j'-efs-ds'-d
3ff 6 6
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Caroi ina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Gen Order 24
Gen Order 100
Case 1159
Statutes
None
Order 2202J
None
None
Statutes
B. C 33"' OC
Statutes
Statutes
Order F-1746
Statutes
Statutes
Gen Order 66
I9SI
9:6
'947
(953
1913
95;
i'S5
1954
1942
1935
1949
925
1953
6939
SIOS
5877
828
956
2070
2598
7664
»62«
5262
6435
60'8
3383
0088
189
3349
3988
3503
5865
908
3 03
2 23
257
0 80
0 42
09C
1.13
334
2 02
2230
368
2 63
1.48
440
0 08
146
1 74
153
6 92
083
10-8
10 6'
O'-IO
15 1
14-0''
4-2
5' 5"
13-S1
14-0*
14-01
14-0"
1 3-0
4-C'
5-0"
I3-6"
4 0
4-0"
13 6'
l4'-0"
4-0"
13 0'
4-0"
15- 0"
13-er
14 0
4-0-
13-6'
15-0"
15-0"
I5-0"
13-0/
15" 0'
IS"-0"
l5'-0"
4-0
5 0"-
tf-r
I4-0"
14 0
14'- 0"
13 0"
w'-d
l4'-0"
13'- 6"
3 0
3-0'
13-6'
14'- 0"
14'- o
13-cr
4-0
'4 0
4 0
3 0"
17 - 0"
l7'-0-
20-0"
7-0"
13 0'
15 0'
;c y
IB'-O"
8 0
7:0'
17-0'
17'- 0"
20 0"
7'-0"
13'- gr
15-0"
20-0-
l8'-0"
8-0
7-0'
IS'-0*
20'- 0"
20 0
20-0"
13-0/
IB -0'j
80-0"
l9'-0"
18-0 4
20 0'
19'- 0"
Z0'-0"
200
20 - 0-
13 0
18 0"
20-0-
IB 0
20 0'
13 6
,4' C
13-0
t4'-d
14' 0
14-0"
IS-6"
14'- 0
1.30
14 ■ iv
14 0
13-6'
B'-O"
1 1 6
l3'-0"
13 0
13 - 0"
13-6"
13 0
1 1 6
13- 0"
B'-O"
13 - 0
13'- 0"
13-0
11-6
22-0
"2' :
22 '.
22-0
21 ■« '
210
21 0
22' 6
n^i
22 0
22 0
22 0
22 8
re!
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
22 0
23'- 0
220
23 C
2 1 6'*
21 0
21 0
22' 6
22-0
22 0
22 6
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
22-0
HHj"
22 0
22'- 6"
2 1 6"!
21 0
21-0
22' 6"
220
22 0
22 0"
22;0'
22-e,
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
17*0 " '
1 6-0"
17'- 0" v
■-•-o- "
l8'-0"
17-0"
1 7 0
16-0"
8-6
«'-6"
8 6'
8-6"
8-0
6-0-
6 6
8'- 6"
8-6
8-0
6-6"
8 6'
Yes
res
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Yer
6-6"
1 6"
6 6
8'-6*
6-0"
8 0
8 6'
9 0'
B 0
6-6"
8 6'
!'
8"
8"
1"
6"
6"
8
12
8
S'-O
4 8
4-8'
5-1"
5 '
4-8
4-6'
< 8'
W i'X -t'"0
40
?™ H 44J
4-0
TV
7l-i"9
1 9' 58 4 0
5'-9-
7 3'
S-9"
B 0
3'-6"
5 8"«
e
8 6
7 3"
3"
4"
4 6 601 4
4"
I'-j-J'-O-' 4-
4-6" tf-d 4"
4 6" 8 0" 4'
6'
I'l'M1 4'
4' 2' 01.4' 51.8
S-0" 3-0" 6'0
3 0' 30' 60
3' IT 3' d' 6' d
J'-O'J'-O 6'-0
3-d 3-d 62-0
] ') 6 6
4'o; 2L6' S'6
3 0' 3-0" 6 0"
8 6
•'"■
•'■«"
80
6 (I
rT
VI
B 6
« 0
8' 0-
B 0
8'-0"
8 0
B 0
|'-0"
8 0
8 0
7 6
8 0'
Yer
Ye.
No
No
Y-,
Yes
8' f Yes
«' 0- res
8 0 rei
B'-O" Ye.
8 0 No
8 1) No
•'■0 Yes
8 0 Yes
6 0
1 o- --
7 8
7-0
B 0
1 0
8 0
7 6
B IV
6 »
7 1
6 .1
B 0
1 8
R'O
' °.
7 8
6 5
1 «-
8-6
8 0
1 6
6 5'
« ft » ft
« J'
8 0 8 1
HO-
BO' 6 0
6 0' 8 0
B'-O'
8 6 8 6
8 0 6 0"
7 0
80 8 6
8 (2
8 0
n'o"
8 0
1 6
Virginia
©
1952
205
1 84
8' 0"
B'-cr
Yes * J g
No
JT
231
4-0
4-0'
5 U
4-6"
3-0''
20*-0"
70-0
20-0'
2U-0
4 0'
14-0
-
—
22 6"
Yes
22-6"
Yes
22-6'
Yes
IB-*-
8'*'
No
I t-
8'
■1 »
-
4 0
S'J'
-
-
3'cr
6 0-
5 <r
« r,-
8'LT
J'f
«■(!"
West Virginia
SenOrder 121
ra
64
5-0
5'-0"
5-0
tT-O"
no
K-n"
IJ'-O"
Wisconsin
Statutes
• •».*
540
285
-
4-0"
4 ■■ 0"
4-0"
4-0"
4;0"
4-0
4-0
4-0
4 0
4 0
14 0
14 0
4 0V
2? 0"
22 0'
No
ir-v
8 6
Ho
4 02
;■;
5 0 '
6 1-'
r:
8 ft
fl 6'
No
8 6
No
B 6-
Wyoming
locket 9287
455
008
088
4-0'
4-0P
5-0"
4-0'
4-0"
?'-oT
l-ll
20--C"
ffl'-O"
If
14-0"
H'- j"
IJ'-O"
22'- 0-
7'es
23'- 0 '
res
22 6"'
res
ir-o- "
8'-6"
res
1 -6-
jj^i.
,''-"
l'i
1 C"
! 9- '
4"
3'-0"
i'0-
S'-O'
l'-3"
«-o-
ves
I'-O-
res
w
6 I-
l'-6-
8-0-
>st of Columbia
Statutes
954
4-0-
4'-0"
5'-0"
40'
4'0"
—
8-0"
—
9-0"
—
—
13'-0"
??-0"
Yes
22L0"
Yes
22'-0"
Yes
Ifif-O"
8'- 6"
8"
4'--f,4-d
S'-7"
4"
3-di-o
6'ri"
8-0"
Yes
-■-o"
Yes
fl'-rf
Canada
■^NOOTHf?^!
■;'-;;
-
-
3-0"
3-0"
4 0"
s?-
3-0'
5 0"
5-0
80
8 J'
120 '
120
2? 0'
Yes
22 0
Yes
220
84i'
rei
4 0
6 0'
Yes
« n
Yes
LVii;
1 1
EXPLANATORY NOTES & "^"uToTdf r'nZ uToaT" °"L,6'-6"HM llVVUT- GENERAL NOTES
1 ^^J^m^TZcToT»D^77^mi^^rVZt^T^1s-&'M """"""""" "'"""* *""" """""""" Lt" ® "ff-oiiCuti/A 1(«rtL«. SSSm^SSSSSrJS^S!^ trZ' Jtor'i«^^*^«««if"«» w"""
i WHERE USED PRINCIPALLV IN LOAOIHC OR UNLOADING REFRICEPATOP CARS (TRACK CENTER 0'- 4':l4-0' SUPERELEVATED TRACK
1 Coninussion specifies clearances for structures over tracks . . 4-8'14-r Sine clearances are from center line or track
g NOW UNDER CONSIDERATION FOR REVISION StJ . , X-lXl aUT
.
i " "0 CLEARANCE
" TELL TAILS TO BE
\ OvERNEAO CLEAR
2 GENERAL RRACTI
B Requires tell
*r AR/>LI£S TO CO*
2.' ■ t ' 'JR OVER
'-;V;~*/< 22
son
m 21
Cma
TNA
AN 2?
h 18-
O"
•VITN /
O"
'U3L K
Sea
1913
ICE C
£5.
l?-lo~.l4-9'
\ ■• • Over /6'./S'-0J
\a"To4'-o" 7-6"
e Warehouse and Transfer
\Platforus 5-9"
\Over 4-0"for Reefers- 8'-C
® Overhead crossings and viaducts
@ Sufficient clearance to provide for the safett of ant emrlotee or servant in nornal
operation of railroad. revised g-l-5
. ,- -. :t "Ousts f'EMFr REVISED 12 2 S
REVISED 11-54
Rtvisto U-I-S7 REVISED 1! -17-51
Clearances 661
Report on Assignment 5
Clearance Allowances to Provide for Vertical and Horizontal
Movements of Equipment Due to Lateral Play,
Wear and Spring Deflection
Collaborating with the Mechanical Division, AAR
E. E. Mills (chairman, subcommittee), C. O. Bird, S. M. Dahl, W. T. Davis, K. L. Goss,
J. G. Greenlee, A. R. Harris, W. F. Hart, C. F. Intlekofer, M. L. Johnson, C. T.
Kaier, J. E. Krome, C. E. Peterson, W. S. Ray, M. A. Wohlschla.
Your committee submits the following progress report as information.
In the last report on this assignment (Proceedings, Vol. 57, 195o. page 549) a
method of ascertaining the lateral displacement of a moving car due to track irregularities
and the dynamic behavior of equipment was demonstrated. This current report con-
cerns a further study of this subject.
To avoid repetition, and to provide background for this discussion, the reader is
referred to the report entitled "Passenger Ride Comfort on Curved Track" and to the
1955 report of Committee 28, both of which will be found in the Proceedings, Vol. 56,
1955, beginning on pages 125 and 559, respectively.
Figs. 2 through 9 presented herewith show the results of an analysis of running-test
tracings on 8 passenger cars with different truck types. The angular variation cor-
responds to the angles A or C, as shown in Fig. 1. It will be noted that this variation
is a function of the speed.
Table 1 is a comparative tabulation of lateral displacements of the cars at a point
11 ft above the top of rail, based on the cars moving at 70 mph and at 3-in unbalanced
elevation.
Col. 3 gives the average displacement corresponding to the angle B, as shown in
Pig. 1, plus an appropriate amount of lateral play. The values in this column were
taken from the charts on pages 207 to 214, Vol. 56, 1955, Proceedings, adjusted to
reflect displacement at 11 ft above top of rail. In the absence of running tests, these
values can be obtained from a static test at any desired superelevation.
Col. 4 gives the angular variation, from the average, and corresponds to the angle A
or C, as shown in Fig. 1. These values are taken from the charts shown in Figs. 2
through 9.
Col. 5 is the lateral displacement, in inches, at a point 11 ft above the top of rail,
corresponding to the angular variations shown in Col. 4.
Col. 6 gives the ratio of values shown in Col. 5 to those shown in Col. 3. Stated
differently, this column gives the percentage to be added for track and equipment
irregularities.
Col. 7 gives the sum of Cols. 3 and 5 and represents the maximum lateral dis-
placement to be provided for in traversing a curve at 70 mph and at 3-in unbalanced
elevation. It should be borne in mind that these value- are displacements from the
perpendicular to the center line of the track as a result of tilting of the car body due
to unequal spring deflection and play in side bearings, and to displacement due to
swing-hanger movements and lateral play and wear in truck parts, They do not take
into account overhang on curves, superelevation and plaj between whirl and rail.
For other speeds and for other values of unbalance, the values can b< p
At equilibrium speed, the values in Col. 3 become zero, but there will be displacemenl
values in Col. 5 due to irregularities ol track and equipment,
062
Clearances
CO c\
1 .
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ch
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cm cj
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eg
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£
g
«
o
o
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o;
Clearances
663
[-Maximum Outward Variation
^Average Angle with Vertical
. / ^Minimum Inward Variation
Base Line (Car Vertical
Fig. I Typical Inclination Record - Running Test
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90 100 IIP I20o
90 100 HO
Fig 2— Vonolion in Roll Angle Due To Track and Equipment Irregularities
664
Clearances
2 0C
1 8
) 10
20 30 40 50 60
70
80
90
100
110
i:
0
dl aw
Inboard Hanger
1 6
1 4
%, 12
Normal Maximum Variation >.
o
9
2 10
o
0
0
-ua
/
/■>
CO „ ,
'
0
0 0
06
oo
0
o
04
02
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 8C
Speed-M.PH
Fig. 3 — Variation in Roll Angle Due To Track and Equipment Irregularities
90 100 110 120
00
Clearances
665
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 MO 120-
Ou
DL aw
(board Ha
riger
Norm
al Maxinu
m Variat
on
X °
•
•
/ (
1 o
1
> o o
/ <
o
•
•
<
>
1
>
02
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 MO 120
Speed-M PH
Fig 4 — Variation in Roll Angle Due To Track and Equipment Irregularities
b6o
Clearances
2 0'
V. . Jt
f
1 8
16
CMStPSP
, o
•
oo „
o
•
o o
o. 12
/
/
9 10
Normal Maximum Variation ^^^
/
°
°
0
£
/"
°
°
0 oo
f 0.8
/ *
°
.
«
06
/
04
*
02
00
'
04
02
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 HO 120
Speed-M.P.H.
Fig 5 — Variation in Roll Angle Due To Trgck and Equipment Irregulorities.
00
Clearances
667
?0.8
oz
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 . 80 90 100 10 120
Ro
[
CB.ao
II Stobiliz
)ome Cor
er
Norma
1 Moximu
t> Vanati
an -^
•
'
on
,r
» o
ooo o <
loo
j/
CO
o „
•
,
02
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Speed-M.PH
Fig 6 — Variation m Roll Angle Due To Track ond Equipment Irregularities.
668
Clearances
fc —
AT 8SF
Ro
1 Stobihz
er
/ "
.0
Normal Moximum Variation v
° °
/
/
~ —
/
/
"•'
^^_
-
/
/
08
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 8C
Speed-MPH
Fig 7 — Vanction in Roll Angle Due To Track and Equipment Irregularities
90 100 110 120
Clearances
b60
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 IIP 120 .
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Speed-M PH.
Fig 8— Vonation in Roll Angle Due To Track and Equipment Irregularities.
070
Clearances
20'
10 20 30 40 50 60 70^ 80 90 100 HO 120.
PRR.
Leaf Spring Truck
-epe~4oooo <x>
Normal Maximum Variation-
-ee — eo — ee — e&> ooo o
ooo
-eee — »>e-e-
ee-<ie — o oo
OOO O JO-
ooo o
« e<ie eee-
e — eo-<> coooco-
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 I2C
Speed-M.PH
Fig. 9 — Variation in Roll Ancle Due To Track ond Equipment Irregularities.
C 1 earances 671^
Report on Assignment 7
Methods of Measuring High and Wide Shipments
W. F. Hart (chairman, subcommittee), S. M. Dahl, J. G. Greenlee, C. O. Bird, W. P.
Kobat, J. W. McMillen, E. E. Mills, C. E. Peterson, W. F. Pohl, J. C. Scholtz,
J. F. Smith, J. W. Wallenius, A. M. Weston, H. G. Whittet.
Your committee submits the following initial report of progress.
The present practice is to have these measurements taken by car inspectors at
points of origin and interchange. Measurements are secured through the use of: straight
edges to define the plane of the top of track rails; and plumb line to define a vertical
offset from center line of track and car, supplemented with steel tape and level to
reference in the projections and height of the several points on the outline of the load.
One carrier has developed a telescopic rod which provides direct reading of the vertical
heights referred to the plane of the track rails. Fixed, direct-reading templates at desig-
nated locations especially maintained for the purpose are not employed.
Traffic imposes the necessity of taking these measurements in a great many cases
on industrial tracks at plant sites. It is necessary to utilize portable measuring devices
in such cases, and an accredited method should be developed.
Provision should be made to record the measurements on a prescribed form setting
forth all pertinent information as to the car and lading. Several carriers presently use
such a form and reproductions of two of them are presented herewith (Figs. 1 and 2).
It is the conclusion of your committee that:
1. A fixed measuring template be provided at important interchange points and
terminals readily and accurately to measure high and wide shipments. The
template should incorporate (a) location on a special track maintained at
satisfactory cross level, (b) fixed uprights located at a designated minimum
distance from center of track, (c) top movable leveling member to record
highest point on load, (d) movable leveling fingers to record side clearances
an intermediate heights, and (e) direct recording devices for all measurements
referred to plane of top of rails and center line of car.
2. Portable measuring devices be provided in securing measurements at locations
removed from terminals and interchange points, such devices to reflect readily
the plane of the top of track rails and planes normal thereto.
3. A uniform form be utilized in recording measurements and to reflect informa-
tion similar to that indicated on sample forms shown in Figs. 1 and 2, a copy
of this form to accompany waybill and car to be carded similarly.
4. That an approved method of securing the measurements on shipments under
discussion be incorporated in the car foreman's manual similar to those which
apply to measuring equipment.
Your committee is continuing the assignment with a view to developing economical
and acceptable measuring devices.
072
Clearances
FORM FOR REPORTING DIMENSIONS OF LADING ON OPEN TOP CARS „„71 x 9l
20M 12-10-54
Car Initials, numbers, type and class of each car
Type of Lading
Point Held
Destinat ion
Gross weight
Shipper
Consignee
Stencilled light weight
Net Weight
Stencilled load limit
Height above rail of center
of gravity car and lading
combined
Normal Route - (show junction and carriers involved)
DIMENSIONS
EQUIVALENT
WIDTH
Ft. In.
HEIGHT ABOVE
TOP OF RAIL
Ft . In.
Type of load - single load*, double or triple load, single
or double end overhang load.
•If single load, length of bearing surface on car floor
or distance between lateral blocking supports.
Over-all length of lading
Truck centers or bearing spacing
OVERHANG INFORMATION
"B" END
Len
,'th
Width
Height
Length
Width
Hei
ght
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In,
Ft.
In.
Clearance Route and Restrictions:
Reported By
Furnished To
Fig. 1.
Clearances
673
Length of C*r_
REPORT OF LOAD WHICH EXCEEDS LINE CLEARANCES
Kind
(If nwnhrr not known ahow kind and length to be ufc-d)
-Car Number
— Approximate Weight
To Mo"e From.
Routed Via.
Type of Load: Single
(Check One) Double end overhanging
Length of Overhang
Dial ance center to center of bea
Length of Overhang
ring 6^pe«
r
Length o( load
and Measure*...
!• riaa at lading »uch aa to aradade employe* paaaing over it? Yea_
Doea ahipment conform with A. A. R. Loading Rules? Yea
Remark*
_and Meaaiire*—
Mcaaured by_
Tide
Sent lo_
Title
Wide
Wide
Wide
Wide
Wide
MEMORANDA
Fig. 2.
Report of Committee 8 — Masonry
M. S. Norris, Chairman,
E. A. McLeod,
Vict Chairman,
X. M. Abel
J. H. Adams, Jr.
Lyle Bristow
J. G. Browder
M. W. Bruns
w
. G. Burkes
W. Lyle McDaniei,
A.
E. Cawood
L. M. Morris
M
\l Rid COBl RN ( E I
L. H. Needs \m
C.
('. CooKK
K. F. Xoli.
E.
J. Daily
J. R. X UTTER
VI.
H llAVhll
Roscoe Owen
G.
H. Davitt, Jr.
I (oh \i.d Patterson
J.
\V. Dolson
R. E. Paulson
B.
M. DORNBLATT
R. B. Peck
h.
H. Dow i
H. R. Perkins
G.
F. Kukri, y (E)
J. E. Peterson
YY
. J. ENEV
C. B. Porter
H.
J. En (.1.1
W. H. Robertson
J.
A Kkskim.
R. I. Rollings
J.
1 . Kstes
J. H. Sawyer, )h.
A.
B. Fowl. i.K
C. P. Scha.ni/
\Y
. J. GALLOW n
J. H. Shilbik
R.
W. GlLMORE
D. H. Shoemaker
J.
F. Halpin
C. H. Splitstone (E)
J.
S. Ham oi k
Anton Tedesko
A.
C. Johnson
R. A. Ullery
E.
VV. Kieckers
E. E. Vandegrift
K.
J. Klueh
Xeil Van Eenam
A.
P. Kouba
K. J. Wagoner
J.
A. Lahmer (E)*
C. A. Whipple (E)
A.
X. Laird
W. R. Wilson
E.
F. Manley
E. P. Wright
Committee
(E) Member Emeritu?.
* Deceased.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Brief progress report, submitting recommendations page 676
2. Principles of design of masonry structures, including design of masonry
culverts, collaborating with Committees 1, 5, 6, 7, 15, 28, 29 and 30.
Progress in study, but no report.
3. Foundations and earth pressures, collaborating with Committees 1, 6, 7,
IS and 30.
Report recommending adoption of specifications, and revisions of others,
previously published as information page t>76
5. Tunnel linings: Design, construction and maintenance, collaborating with
Committees 1, 5, 28 and 29.
Progress in study, but no report.
I »e of prestres ed concrete for railway structures, collaborating with
Committee 6.
P igress report, submitted as information; and recommendation submitted
for adoption and publication in the Manual pane o77
675
676 Masonry
7. Methods lor improving the quality of concrete and mortars, collaborating
with Committee 6.
Progress report, submitted as information page 678
8. Specifications for the construction and maintenance of masonry structures.
Final report, recommending revision of Manual page 687
10. Methods of construction with precast-concrete structural members, col-
laborating with Committee 6.
Progress report, submitted as information page 688
The Committee on Masonry,
M. S. Norris, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 540, December 1057.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
E. P. Wright (chairman, subcommittee), G. H. Dayett, Jr., D. H. Dowe, J. U. Estes,
A. C. Johnson, A. P. Kouba, E. A. McLeod, R. E. Paulson, R. B. Peck, R. A.
Ullery.
Your committee recommends the adoption of the additions and revisions to the
Manual as set forth in the reports on Assignments 3, 6 and 8.
Report on Assignment 3
Foundations and Earth Pressures
Collaborating with Committees 1, 6, 7, 15 and 30
R. B. Peck, (chairman, subcommittee), C. C. Cooke, G. H. Dayett, J. W. Dolson, B. M.
Dornblatt, J. A. Erskine, E. F. Manley, E. A. McLeod, R. F. Noll, Roscoe Owen,
W. H. Robertson, K. J. Wagoner, E. P. Wright.
Last year your committee presented as information a tentative draft of "Specifica-
tions for Design of Spread Footing Foundations" (Proceedings, Vol. 58, 1957, pages 633
to 648, incl.), and invited comments and criticisms thereon. These specifications, not
reproduced herein, are now submitted, with the recommendation that they be adopted
and published in the Manual under new Part 3 — Footing Foundations.
It is also recommended that the Specifications for Design of Retaining Walls in
Part 5 be reapproved with the revisions as set forth in the report published last year.
Masonry 677
Report on Assignment 6
Use of Prestressed Concrete for Railway Structures
Collaborating with Committee 6
I). H. Dowe (chairman, subcommittee), W. J. Enev, H. J. Engel, R. W. Gilmore, E. W.
Kieckers, R. I. Rollings, C. P. Schantz, W. R. Wilson.
Your committee submits the following report in two parts. Part 1 is a progress
report on the use of prestressed concrete, while Part 2 presents recommendations sub-
mitted for adoption and inclusion in the Manual.
Part 1
Prestressed concrete in this country has advanced to such an extent that it must
be given serious consideration as a material to be used in railroad construction, both
for buildings and bridges. In fact, it is being employed with much success in railroad
building work and to some extent in bridge work. Its use in building work has been
confined for the most part to precast units, such as prestressed beams and slabs. It is
also being used extensively for overhead highway bridges, and in a few instances spans
carrying railroad loadings have been constructed. Prestressed concrete piles are being
manufactured in increasing numbers, and it has been found that this type of pile is
less susceptible to damage in handling, will withstand harder driving, and often is less
expensive than the conventional precast concrete pile.
The use of pretensioned prestressed concrete is more common in railroad construc-
tion, particularly in building work where the beams and slabs can be manufactured
in a prestressing plant and shipped to the job site to be erected. The same is true for
bridge work where shorter spans are required. However, for spans of such length and
weight that they cannot be readily transported, it is necessary to perform the construc-
tion in the field, in which case the post-tension method of prestressing is used.
Because of the high initial cost of casting beds and forms for pretensioned pre-
stressed concrete, the real economy comes from the manufacture of large quantities of
the same or similar sections. For that reason it is realized that an effort must be made
by the railroads to standardize on certain beam and slab sections to be used generally
by the railroad industry for building construction and for short-span bridges. Pre-
stressed concrete piles have been more or less standardized by the manufacturers and
in many cases can be purchased from stock in the required size and length.
The American Railway Engineering Association fully realizes the necessity of speci-
fications to cover the design and construction of prestressed concrete structures, and an
assignment has been made to have such specifications prepared. It will, however, require
considerable time to assemble information to prepare these specifications, and until they
have been prepared and published, reference is made to the latest report of ACI-ASCE
Joint Committee 323, "Recommended Practice for Prestressed Concrete."
Part 2
Your committee recommends that Part 17, Chapter S of the Manual be renum-
bered as Part 18, and recommends for adoption and publication in the Manual a new
Part 17 — Prestressed Concrete Structures, with the following information:
SPECIFICATIONS FOR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Under preparation.
678 Masonry
Report on Assignment 7
Methods for Improving the Quality of Concrete and Mortars
Collaborating with Committee 6
R. A. Ullerv (chairman, subcommittee), Lyle Bristow, M. W. Bruns, W. G. Burres,
W. J. Galloway, J. F. Halpin, L. M. Morris, B. R. Perkins.
Your committee presents as information, the following report in two parts, as
follows:
Part 1 — Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete
Part 2 — The Measurement of Air Content of Plastic Concrete
Part 1 — Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete
In recent years many inorganic lightweight materials, both natural and processed,
have been introduced, marketed and used as concrete aggregates. Recognizing the poten-
tial advantages of low-density concrete as well as its limitations and the need for infor-
mation in this regard, it is the purpose of this paper to present a comparison of various
types of lightweight aggregates and the characteristics of concrete resulting from
their use.
In the early l°40's when considerably less lightweight aggregate was in use, an
attempt was made to have a standard specification which would cover all lightweight
aggregates. The American Society for Testing Materials then adopted "Specification for
Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete" designation C 130-42. As time passed it became
evident that a single specification was not satisfactory for all lightweight aggregates
because of the wide range in the properties of the various products and, too, because
lightweight concrete was used for different and unrelated purposes. The purpose or use
of the concrete could best be attained with much narrower limits for the properties
of the aggregate. After long consideration, it was decided to prepare standard specifica-
tions for lightweight aggregates based upon the end use, i.e., the reason or purpose in
using lightweight concrete. As a result, ASTM Specification C 130-42 was withdrawn
and replaced by the following three specifications:
1. "Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete" ASTM C 330-53T.
2. "Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete Masonry Units" ASTM C 331-S3T.
3. "Lightweight Aggregate for Insulating Concrete" ASTM C 332-54T.
Classification
Lightweight aggregates finding commercial acceptance today in the United States
might be roughly classified into two groups.
1. The extremely light materials, such as exfoliated vermiculite and expanded perlite,
weighing 3 to 25 lb per cu ft, and utilized in concretes where high insulating charac-
teristics are desirable. Concrete made from this type of aggregate usually has 28-day
compressive strength in the range of 100 to 1000 psi, the strength varying directly with
the amount of cement used. Because of their extreme bulk, aggregates of this nature
seldom are transported long distances in their expanded form but are shipped in the
raw state and processed in the areas where they are consumed.
2. The medium and high-strength aggregates include those weighing 30 to 70 lb
per cu ft and which produce concrete with 28-day compressive strengths of 1000 to
5000 psi.
Masonry 67«
Advantages and Uses
Approximately 40 percent of masonry blocks now produced in the United States
are of the lightweight type and are favored for superior insulating properties, decrease
in dead weight, and ease of handling, transporting and laying.
Lightweight aggregates are used extensively in multi-storied buildings in which the
weight of walls and floors is carried by a structural steel or reinforced concrete frame-
work. The substitution of a lightweight concrete for normal concrete in buildings of
this type results in the following advantages:
1. A reduction in the amount of structural and reinforcing steel needed.
2. Better heat and sound insulation in walls and floors.
3. Lower costs for the construction of concrete forms.
Lightweight aggregate has been used in place of conventional aggregates in the
concrete roadways of bridges, decreasing the quantity of structural steel required. Dur-
ing World War II, this aggregate was used in making concrete ships and barges, effect-
ing considerable savings in converting dead weight to cargo capacity.
The super-light aggregates have excellent heat-insulating qualities and find use in
non-load-bearing subfloors and insulating sections of walls and roofs. Another advan-
tage of concretes of this type is that they usually can be nailed or sawed.
Disadvantages
The major disadvantages of lightweight aggregates are a result, paradoxically, of the
physical qualities which make them weight-saving and good insulators.
Porosity of most aggregates requires changes in the usual formulas for water and
slump, and closer supervision of mixing. Very light aggregates have a tendency to float
out of the mortar and some coarse-aggregate concrete mixtures require the addition
of a fine aggregate like sand to prevent harsh working and serious bleeding.
As aggregates get lighter they become structurally weaker so that, in order to
maintain high strength, the strength of the matrix must be modified by adding more
cement. More cement is needed, also, to "wet" the greater aggregate surface area, due
to the regularity of the particles. Each application, however, has its own requisites
which call for a compromise on strength, weight-saving and insulation.
The cost of lightweight aggregates, except slag, is usually higher than for conven-
tional aggregates because of small production facilities and the additional processing that
is sometimes necessary in their preparation.
Types of Lightweight Aggregates
Lightweight aggregates are produced commercially by various processes, and descrip-
tions of methods of manufacture and general characteristics are listed below.
Expanded Slag
I >' ^cription of Manujacturr
Molten blast-furnace slag is treated by the application of a limited quantity of water
or steam by two methods:
1. The machine method employing the mechanical agitation between molten slag
and water.
2. The pit method in which a controlled flow of water is applied directly to a
stream of molten slag.
680 Masonry
Close control of water is important, as an excess will produce a granulated slag
which is fragile and unsuited for use as an aggregate whereas an insufficient quantity
will bring about the formation of a heavy product.
General Characteristics
Physically foamed slag is roughly cubical in shape, with an open cellular structure
consisting of many non-connecting cells surrounded by thin walls of slag. It is alkaline
in water and weighs between 40 lb and 70 lb per cu ft. It has a high insulating value,
desirable acoustical properties, great resistance to fire and is nailable.
Uses
Principally used in the manufacture of concrete masonry units, structural concrete
and concrete generally — also used in precast wall and roof panels.
Expanded Clays, Shales or Slate
Description of Manufacture
These materials require heating to a temperature near their fusion point, generally
1000 to 2000 deg F. Moisture and organic materials are vaporized, and the material is
converted to a semi-molten plastic mass. Escaping gases are trapped, forming cellular
structures and expanding the volume of the material about SO percent.
The crushing and firing operations are varied with different processes. In some
the material is fired to a clinker, then crushed and sized; the process is often reversed
with the crushing operation first, or a double-firing process may be u-ed where the
clay or shale is first crushed and fired, the resulting porosity being sealed by dusting
with fine siliceous material and refiring almost to fusion.
Rotary kilns and sintering are used commercially — the rotary kilns are generally
fired by natural gas or oil. In sintering, crushed coal is mixed with crushed raw material
and pelletized before firing.
Cooling may be quick quenching, relatively rapid or slow, with the slow cooling
resulting in a more crystalline product.
General Characteristics
Raw clay and shales suitable for bloated products are the common or low-grade
clays similar to those used for making brick, sewer pipe, etc., although non-bloating
materials have been used by the addition of an admixture.
The expanded product generally weighs about half as much as the material from
which it was produced, or from 40 to 60 lb per cu ft. It has high strength in com-
bination with the other advantages of lightweight aggregate.
Uses
In concrete requiring light weight and strength — buildings, bridge floors and piers,
concrete barges and boats, precast and prestressed concrete units.
Vermiculite
Description of Manufacture
Vermiculite is a hydrated magnesium aluminum silicate. The ore is a form of mica
and contains thousands of paper-thin sheets with water molecules between. When
charged in a furnace and heated to approximately 2000 deg F, the contained water is
volatilized, causing the sheets to separate and the granules to expand to 15 to 20 times
their original size.
Masonry 681
General Characteristics
It is a very light material weighing 6 to 10 lb per cu it, silvery in appearance and
resembling, as the name indicates, worm-like particles. It has good acoustical properties,
high heat insulation values, good fireproofing qualities and produces concrete weighing
from 25 to 50 lb per cu ft. Exfoliated vermiculite is used as a loose fill insulation and
as an aggregate in concrete and plaster.
Uses
Widespread use in plaster as a substitute for the usual sand aggregate — floor and
roof fill concrete where insulation is important.
Perli te
Description of Manufacture
Perlite is a volcanic glass similar in composition to obsidian and pitchstone but
characterized by its distinctive pearly luster, which expands greatly when subjected to
properly controlled heat because of entrapped pockets of gas.
General Characteristics
A white friable mass of macro and microscopic bubbles that gives a product weigh-
ing 3 to 40 lb per cu ft, depending on the perlite used. Mainly, the super-light perlites
have been developed. Because of their unusual low bulk density, excellent heat and
sound insulation results when used as a loose fill or when bonded into a panel or other
shape by cement or thermosetting adhesives. Perlite concrete as generally used in floor
or roof fill weighs between 35 and 65 lb per cu ft, depending on cement content.
Uses
In roof and floor fill where insulation is important, for fireproofing exposed struc-
tural steel and in plaster.
Pumice
Description of Production
Volcanic tuffs or lava, in the form of pumice, is the lightweight porous siliceous
glossy rock resulting from certain volcanic action. Its light weight and hence its value
for use as a lightweight aggregate arise from the numerous cells formed by water vapor
or gases evolved from the fused magma and frozen in during the cooling of the molten
lava. While generally used without further heat treatment by simply digging out the
mass of pumice and subjecting it to crushing and sizing, in some instances the crushed
pumice is heated to incipient fusion or vitrification to increase the compressive strength.
This can usually be accomplished by a slight surface fusion to seal holes and with only
a small increase in bulk density.
General Characteristics
Pumice weighs approximately 30 lb per cu ft for coarse sizes and 45 lb per cut ft
for fine, and when dry and graded is hard enough to be handled and mixed without
excessive breakdown. Compressive strength of 2000 to 3000 psi may be expected for
pumice concrete, and higher values are possible when sand is incorporal< <l
I -
Pumice concrete baa been wideh used in California in the construction of buildings;
it is also used in the manufacture ol slabs, hollow blocks and tile flooring
us: Masonry
Diatomite
Description o) Manufacture
Diatomite in the pure state is composed of siliceous shells of microscopic aquatic
plants (diatoms) . Pure diatomite weighs about 28 lb per cu ft, but mixtures of clay,
sand and gravel increases the weight. The pure deposits are used principally for insula-
tion and filter media where they get higher prices than possible with aggregate. It is a
matter of conjecture whether impure diatomites could be processed with the double-
tiring method to produce a good aggregate.
General Characteristics
Pure diatomite is light and chemically inert, but soft and friable. The high surface
area of the diatomite powder and the proportiion of voids present cause extremely
high absorption of water ; therefore, care is needed in mixing the concretes to avoid
excessive drying, shrinkage and cracking or checking during curing.
Use
As an insulating concrete similar to that made from vermiculite or perlite.
Cinders
Description of Manufacture
Cinders resulting from the combustion of coal are composed of the ash com-
ponents of the coal along with various quantities of unburned or partially-burned
combustible matter. Some cinder aggregates containing combuitible matter have un-
sound chemical properties and have caused deleterious expansion of the concrete in
which they have been used.
General Characteristics
Cinders containing a minimum amount of combustible material are satisfactory for
use in concrete. Cinder concrete is distinctly different from gravel or stone concrete in
strength and density, but has other valuable properties in addition to light weight, such
as fire resistance, low heat conductivity, good sound absorption and naiiabihty. It has
high water absorption and should be waterproofed in exterior use. Cinder concrete
weighs 110-115 lb per cu ft.
Uses
Principally used in concrete blocks or building units where moderate strength and
good acoustical qualities are required.
Summary
The use of lightweight aggregates in concrete presents a particular problem or mix
design. Aggregates are usually supplied as a composite of fine and coarse and it may
be necessary to alter the gradings as furnished to obtain a workable mix.
Air entrainment is advisable to improve workability and to reduce segregation
and bleeding. The amount of air-entraining agent required varies with the aggregate
and may be as high as six times that used in dense aggregates.
A considerable amount of research work is now being conducted with tests to deter-
mine density, strength, insulation and structural properties. Lacking definite engineering
data, the railroad engineer should resort to trial batches and tests as the best means
of determining mix design and suitability of a particular material.
Masonry 683
References
Of the many references available on this subject, the following two present basic
information:
1. National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Miscellaneous Publication No. 23,
"Lightweight Aggregates for Concretes."
2. Housing and Home Finance Agency 1940, "Lightweight Aggregate Concretes."
Part 2 — The Measurement of Air Content of Plastic Concrete
The use of air-entrained concrete has increased yearly on American railroads. Such
use insures structures and pavements with many times the resistance to the action of
freezing and thawing, salt application, and wetting and drying as ordinary concrete.
This improvement in the physical characteristics of the concrete is attributed to the
billions of tiny air bubbles formed by the air-entraining material. However, for such
air to be effective it must be in the concrete in proper and adequate quantities. To insure
that the concrete does contain the proper amount of air and that the concrete specifica-
tions are being fulfilled, railway engineers and inspectors must be familiar with the
recognized and approved methods of testing for the air content of freshly mixed con-
crete. The purpose of this paper is briefly to review accepted methods.
All methods of measuring air content of plastic concrete, including those estab-
lished as standards by the American Society for Testing Materials, are founded on
three general principles. These are:
1. Gravimetric Principle: The sum of the absolute volumes of the ingredients in a
known volume of concrete is calculated and subtracted from a measured gross volume.
2. Volumetric Principle: The volume of the entrained air is measured directly.
3. Pressure Principle: The volume of air is measured indirectly by the change in
volume it undergoes when subjected to a given pressure.
Although many different tests have been developed throughout the United States,
all use one of these three principles. End results are generally comparable.
Gravimetric Method
In the early history of air-entrained concrete the only air-content test was by the
gravimetric method (ASTM designation C 138—14). While generally satisfactory in the
laboratory, this method left much to be desired as a field test. It was not found suffi-
ciently exact, rapid, or practical for field use because its accuracy rests upon the accuracy
of a series of measurements. These include a concrete unit weight determination, specific
gravities of the materials — cement, sand and coarse aggregate, and the variable aggregate
absorptions. Variations in any of these may give questionable results.
Such limitations led to the development of other methods more adaptable to field
conditions. Two of the principal methods are the direct volumetric method and the
pressure method, neither of which requires weight measurement.
Volumetric Method
The volumetric test, defined in ASTM designation C 1 73 55T, is effective for
freshly mixed concrete containing any type of aggregate — dense, porous or lightweight
The volumetric air meter has two main parts a bowl for the concrete and a top
cover with a glass tube graduated to indicate air content. The bowl, of heavy machined
metal, has a capacity of at least 0.20 cu ft for use with normal structural or pavement
concrete. The metal cover has a volume roughly equal to that of the bowl. Its shape
684 Masonry
is that of a short cylinder topped by a truncated cone. On top of the cone is a glass-
lined metal or transparent plastic neck, calibrated and marked in percentages of the
volume of the bowl. The graduations start at zero at the top and range to 9 percent
at the bottom in increments of 0.5 percent. The upper end of the neck, while open, is
threaded and equipped with a screw cap and gasket so that it is watertight when closed.
The bowl and top are flanged where they join. A flexible gasket permits a watertight
seal when the top is connected with the provided lugs or clamps. A funnel with a spout
long enough to extend from the hole in the neck to a point just above the bottom of the
top is also needed.
The test is simple to perform. The bowl is filled in three equal layers of freshly
mixed concrete. The sample used should be as representative as possible ; otherwise the
test will not provide the true measure of air in the whole concrete mass. As each layer
is placed in the bowl, it is consolidated with 25 strokes of a standard, smooth 5^-in
round bullet-pointed rod. After each layer has been rodded the sides of the bowl are
tapped 10 to 15 times. The use of a tapper that will harm the bowl should be avoided.
A "two by two" or "two by four" short piece of lumber will do the job nicely.
After the third layer is consolidated, the excess concrete is struck off with a flat
steel bar until the surface is flush with the flange. Best results are obtained if succeeding
passes of the bar are made at right angles to one another, using short sawing motions
similar to a screeding action. When the surface is flush, the bowl flange is wiped clean.
A good wiping is essential because grains of sand left on the flange prevent the gasket
from adequately sealing the bowl and top.
With the bowl filled, the top is clamped on. A moistened gasket will insure a better
seal. The long-spouted funnel is inserted in the hole in the neck and water added
through it until visible in the transparent portion of the neck. The funnel is removed
and the water level is adjusted, using a rubber syringe, until the bottom of the
meniscus is level with the zero graduation on the glass or plastic. The neck is then
closed with the screw cap. A slight drop in the water level should occur as a little
pressure has been applied by the tightening of the cap. This is of no concern for the
cap will be removed before a reading is taken.
After the cap is on, the meter is inverted and agitated until the concrete slides free
from the bowl. The meter, righted, is next rolled back and forth while rocked at tbe
same time. This continues until all the air appears to have been removed from the
concrete. At this point the upright meter is jarred lightly to permit any remaining air
to rise to the top of the water. It can be noted that the water level has dropped. The
entire procedure is repeated until no further drop in the water column can be observed.
At this stage, the cap is removed. A calibrated cup, equal in volume to one percent
of the bowl volume, is filled with isopropyl alcohol. When added to the top of the
water in small amounts the alcohol dissipates the foam formed there.
All that remains is to take a reading of the water column, remembering to read
the bottom of the meniscus to the nearest 0.1 percent. This reading is the uncorrected
air content which must be increased by the quantity of alcohol used.
The volumetric method is obviously simple to perform. The apparatus is not
complicated and the reading is direct. No other measurements are needed and only
simple precautions are necessary. The sample of concrete selected should be representa-
tive of the entire mass of the concrete. Principal disadvantages are the time needed to
do the test and the physical effort needed to do the job properly.
A recent development in the measurement of air content of concrete by the
volumetric method is a new proprietary air indicator. This new device is small, about
Masonry 685
6 in long and of insignificant weight. It can be carried readily in a coat pocket. The
meter is a glass tube 1 in. in diameter by 2 or 3 in long, topped with a 34"m tube for
an additional 3 in. The small tube is graduated. Into the open end of the large tube
is a removable rubber cork containing a small brass cup in its inner face. Operating
procedure for this meter is similar to that previously described. Instead of concrete,
however, mortar (sand, cement and water) is used. The brass cup is filled and struck
off. The tube is partially filled with water or with isopropyl alcohol by holding it
upside down with a thumb over the small end. The stopper is inserted tightly and the
tube righted. More liquid is added carefully until the meniscus is level with the zero
line on the smaller tube. The top is sealed with the thumb once more and the tube
is violently shaken until all the mortar is free of the cup and liquid level ceases to fall.
By using alcohol, foam will not form. The air content is read as a direct percentage.
The reading obtained is for the air content of the mortar fraction and not of the
concrete. Since specifications require a certain amount of air in the concrete, a con-
version is needed. Concrete with a high mortar content will have a high air content —
that with a low mortar content, a low air content. Based upon the proportions of the
mix, the number of cubic feet of mortar in the given cubic yard of concrete must be
established. Tables accompanying the proprietary indicator provide the conversion from
the reading obtained on the mortar to that of the concrete.
Many agencies have been interested in this new meter, and many are using it as a
supplemental check to standard tests. It is a convenient and fast test and seems to give
values on the low side as compared to the standard tests. It does have certain limita-
tions. First, a representative specimen of mortar is difficult to obtain. Second, it is often
difficult to establish the mortar content of the concrete. Third, the quantity of material
used is very small and errors can quickly creep in.
Pressure Method
The pressure method is described in ASTM designation C 23 1-S6T. The principle
of this test is based on Boyle's law, which generally states that the volume occupied
by a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure applied to the gas. It is apparent that
the only compressible material in fresh concrete is the air contained therein. If a pres-
sure is applied to this air it will compress, and the concrete volume will decrease in
proportion to the quantity of air it contains. The equipment needed to perform this
test is described in the ASTM reference mentioned above. It is known as the water
type, as water is used in the test.
Another apparatus uses air pressure only. A known volume of air under a selected
pressure is applied to the sample of concrete and a reduction in pressure occurs which
indicates the air content of the concrete. This is called the Washington meter. In both
meters correction must be made for the porosity of the aggregate.
The water type perhaps is the most commonly used. The apparatus consists prin-
cipally of a bowl similar to that used in the volumetric test. It is a flanged, round-
bottomed bowl with a volume of 0.22 cu ft and is heavy enough to withstand the
applied pressures. The cover assembly is conical and fitted with a standpipe containing
either a graduated glass tube or an attached glass water gage. Graduations indicate air
contents by tenths of a percent through a suitable range of values. Also, on the cover
assembly there is an air gage, an air valve for the entry of air and a petcock for
bleeding off excess water. The standpipe is threaded at the top to receive a screw cap
Bowl and cover are flanged and faced with a flexible gasket to provide a seal when
the meter is assembled.
686 Masonry
A representative sample of concrete is selected and the bowl filled in three equal
layers, each layer being rodded 25 times with the standard tamping rod. The concrete
is struck off with the strike-off bar until it is level with the flange of the bowl. The
flange is carefully cleaned and the covier assembly clamped in position. The cap is
removed from the standpipe, and a metal tube is inserted. This tube serves the same
purpose as the long-spouted funnel in the volumetric test, that is, it permits water to
be poured in the apparatus with a minimum of disturbance to the concrete. As soon
as water appears in the standpipe, the tube can be withdrawn. At this point the
apparatus is tilted and the conical portion of the cover rapped with a mallet. This will
dislodge any large air bubbles trapped by the water along the cover surface. The pipe
can be filled directly until the bottom of the meniscus is level with the zero graduation
on the glass indicator. Should the tube be overfilled, water can be drained through
the petcock on the cover assembly. When the proper water level has been obtained, the
cap is screwed on. This places the water under slight pressure, and the level falls from
zero. This has no effect on the test for the pressure gage shows a small increment of
pressure appearing there also.
A small bicycle pump connected to the air valve provides pressure until the gage
registers the amount for which the apparatus has been calibrated. A description of this
calibration appears in the ASTM standards. It can be noted that as pressure is applied
through the water column to the concrete specimen, the air in the concrete is com-
pressed. The decrease in volume is reflected in the drop of the water level in the stand-
pipe. By increasing the pressure slightly above the exact gage pressure, it can be brought
to exact reading by tapping the sides of the bowl lightly with a mallet. The height
of the water column (or the air content) is read to the nearest division or half-division.
The pressure should then be released by removing the cap. The sides of the bowl
should be tapped. The water will not rise completely to the zero mark. The difference
between the reading taken under pressure and this final point is called the apparent
air content. After this is recorded, the cap is replaced, the pressure reapplied, and the
water level read once more. The pressure is released a second time and another apparent
air content computed. The final air content is the average of the two apparent air
contents. Note that no additional water was added for the second test. A further
correction must be made to the computed average air content. This is called he aggregate
correction factor and takes into consideration the water forced into the pores of the
aggregate by the applied pressure. The correction is determined in a separate test by
applying the calibrated pressure to a sample of fine and coarse aggregate in approxi-
mately the same amounts and moisture condition as they occur in the concrete. The
correction varies from approximately 0.15 to 1.0 percent for natural aggregates, depend-
ing on their porosity and moisture conditions.
The Washington air meter takes little time to operate in the field. No water is
added and no adjustment is required for changes in barometric pressure once the equip-
ment is calibrated. Readings are taken on the full range of the pressure gage instead of
just a single reading as in the water-type meter.
The Washington meter bowl has a capacity of 0.25 cu ft. It is filled with concrete
and struck off flush as in the other tests. The cover, clamped tightly to the top of the
bowl, contains an air chamber with a volume of approximately 20 cu in. The actual
volume must be determined. A connection valve at the bottom of the chamber opens
or closes an orifice leading to the concrete. The cover is fitted also with an air valve
and a pressure gage. To operate the meter, the connecting valve is closed, and a pre-
determined pressure is applied with a tire pump to the chamber. The connecting valve
Masonry 687
is then opened and the pressure equalizes in the chamber and bowl. The gage needle
drops in a new position. This reading shows the air content directly to the nearest 0.1
percent of volume. An aggregate correction must be applied here also.
The measurement of the air content of Irish concrete is neither difficult nor time
consuming. It is essential to good control of quality concrete. Those who use air-
entrained concrete in important work should recognize the need for such careful control
and do all in their power to see that frequent air measurements are made. Detailed
descriptions of the methods described may be found in the ASTM Standards under the
following designations:
C 138-44, Standard Method of Test for Weight per Cubic Foot, Yield, and Air
Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete.
C 173-55T, Tentative Method of Test for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete
by the Volumetric Method.
C 231-S6T, Tentative Method of Test for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete
by the Pressure Method.
Report on Assignment 8
Specifications for the Construction and Maintenance
of Masonry Structures
R. E. Paulson (chairman, subcommittee), A. E. Cawood, A. H. Fowler, J E. Peterson.
Your committee submits for adoption and publication in the Manual the following
recommendations with respect to Part 1, Chapter S:
8-1-1 to 8-1-26, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE AND REINFORCED
CONCRETE RAILROAD BRIDGES AND
OTHER STRUCTURES
Reapprove with the following revisions:
Pages 8-1-1 and 8-1-2. Delete Art. 1, Sec. B, and substitute the following:
1. Cement
Cement shall be portland cement meeting the requirements of ASTM Specification
C 150, or air-entraining portland cement meeting the requirements of ASTM Specifi-
cation C 175, or portland blast-furnace slag cement meeting the requirements of
ASTM Specification C 205, as specified by the engineer.
The entrainment of air in concrete shall be obtained by the use of air-entraining
portland cement, or by the use of an air-entraining admixture meeting the requirements
of ASTM Specification C 260 for portland cement concrete only. For air-entraining
of portland blast-furnace slag cement use Type IS-A cement, ASTM Specification
C 205.
The quality of cement and the methods of sampling and testing it shall be as
required by ASTM Specification C 150 for portland cement, C 175 for air-entraining
portland cement, or C 205 for portland blast-furnace slag cement.
688 Masonry
Report on Assignment 10
Methods of Construction with Precast-Concrete
Structural Members
Collaborating with Committee 6
A. P. Kouba (chairman, subcommittee), N. M. Abe], J. G. Browder, W. Lyle McDaniel,
J. H. Sawyer, Jr.
Your committee presents as information a report on "Use of Precast Concrete
Units in Railway Construction."
Use of Precast Concrete Units in Railway Construction
The use of precast concrete is expanding both here and abroad, and the railroads,
in the interest of the most economical construction, can use this type of construction
instead of the cast-in-place construction in certain fields. Wherever there is a long struc-
ture or structures frequently duplicated, or a structure that can be made into precast
units, it is quite possible that that structure can be built in this manner at a lower
cost.
Due to improved methods now prevailing in concrete construction, coupled with
improvement in reinforcing steel and concrete materials, many of the component parts
of a structure can now be cast as units. The precast units, cast and cured ahead of
time, can be quickly erected and interlocked in place, making for speedy and economical
construction. Various concrete manufacturers are now equipped with adequate casting
yards, cranies, forms, etc., that enables them to deliver clean, well formed units in
quantity that can be quickly erected. In many instances this type of construction
should be more economical and speedier than the cast-in-place construction.
Precast reinforced concrete units generally fall into the following classifications:
1. Bridge and Drainage Units
a. Piles e. Deck Slabs
b. Caps f. Curbs
c. Beams g. Culvert Pipe
d. Slabs h. Railing
2. Building Units
a. Small Buildings f. Girders
b. Beams g. Roof Slabs
c. Lintels h. Platform Slabs
d. Wall panels i. Roof Plank
e. Columns
3. M. of W. Units
a. Cribbing f. Property Markers
b. Mile Posts g. Platform Curbing
c. Whistle Posts h. Ties
d. Yard Markers i. Rail Supports
e. Fence Posts j. Poles
4. Signal Units
a. Battery Boxes c. Booths
b. Signal Houses d. Foundations
Masonry 689
With the advent of prestressed concrete, many of these units are now being cast
as prestressed units, with a saving of materials, weight and cost, and a resultant saving
in erection. Many units, such as roof slabs, are now cast with lightweight aggregates,
further adding to their economy and lightness.
The design and use of precast concrete units, considered by many as a result of
modern thinking and design, dates back over 40 years.
In 1015 the Southern Pacific Company built passenger train sheds in San Fran-
cisco and Los Angeles, Calif., using precast columns and roof slabs which have a fine
service, low maintenance cost record.
The Southern Pacific also built two 9-stall enginehouses using precast columns,
girders, roof and wall slabs, erected as structural units. These precast structures have
also given a good service performance.
In the early 1920's the Pennsylvania Railroad, in the east, built some concrete
enginehouses using precast units, columns, girders and roof slabs that gave only a fair
service life. However, improved controls and techniques are enlarging the use of precast
concrete units.
At this time the precast concrete units should show advantages over certain cast-in-
place units due to:
1. The better control of concrete manufacture.
2. Reduced cost due to repeated form use.
3. Efficient casting-yard layouts.
4. Well-planned material handling.
5. Better utilization of personnel.
o. Availability of units due to stockpiling.
7. More standardization and improvements in design.
8. Improved handling and placing.
o. More definite vibration when concrete is placed.
10. More efficient bar placing.
1 1. Better finishing.
12. Better curing of units.
In designing structures using precast units, they must be thoroughly investigated
for the various forces that will act on the structure, especially at all the joints of the
various units.
The concrete railroad tie is once again being considered in competition with the
treated timber cross tie. The regular reinforced concrete tie was given a thorough study,
and many ties of different designs were manufactured and installed in the 1920's.
These ties were all full size, were heavy to handle ( weighed 600 lb as against the
timber tie weight of 200 lb) and did not give too good a -piking area. Many of them
split near the center, and after the first wave of installation, their building and use was
generally discontinued.
However, with the entrance of prestressing reinforced concrete, with the resultant
saving and reduction of materials netting a lighter tie for easier handling with improved
manufacture for more durability, the subject of a prestressed concrete lie i- now being
given serious study as an experimental type.
The Mexican railroads have recently purchased and installed some prestressed con-
crete ties made in France and shipped to Mexico.
Report of Committee 24 — Cooperative Relations
with Universities
\V. S. Ai'trey E. C. Law m in
J. B. Babco k B. B. Lewis
George Baylor F. J. Lewis
T. A. Blair H. S. Loefflef
Armstrong Chinn R. E. Loomis
H. B. Christianson, Jk. E. E. Mam>
M. H. CORBYN R. VV. MlDDLETON
J/ R. P. Davis G. W. Mii i m
J. F. Davison C. H. Motmm:
G. H. Echols R. C. Nissen
O. W. Eshbach L. M. Ogilvie
E. W. Falanders W. A. Oliver
P. O. Ferris J. F. Pearce
E. I. Fiesenheiser J. E. Perry
C. G. Grove* R. B. Rice
G. V. Guerin W. T. Rice
W. E. Hiltebeitel R. W. Ripley
J. P. Hiltz, Jr. J. A. Rust
„. „ „ S. R. Hvrsh W. C. Sadler
W. H. HUFFMAN, A y jOHNSTON P. s. Settle, Jr.
Chairman, Q A Kellow H. O. Sharp
W. W. Hay, Frank Kerekes John Stang
Vice Chairman, H. E. Kirby R. J. Stone
W. S. Kerr, Secretary, T. R. Klingel D. W. Thai ax
M. B. ALLEN X. W. Kopp Committee
Died November 18, 1957.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Stimulate greater appreciation on the part of railway managements of
(a) the importance of bringing into the service selected graduates of colleges
and universities, and
(b) the necessity for providing adequate means for recruiting such grad-
uates and of retaining them in the service by establishing suitable pro-
grams for training and advancement.
Brief progress statement, presented as information page 692
2. Stimulate among college and university students a greater interest in the
science of transportation and its importance in the national economic struc-
ture, by cooperating with and contributing to the activities of student
organizations in colleges and universities.
Progress report, presented as information paiz>
3. The cooperative system of education, including summer employment in
railway service.
Brief progress statement, presented as information page 696
4. The role of engineering technicians in the railroad field.
Progress upon, presented as information page <>u;
Tin; Committee on Cooperativi Relations' with Universities,
W. H. Hi iimw. Chairman.
\K1. \ Bulk-tin 541. January 1958.
691
\
692 Cooperative Relations with Universities
MEMOIR
Cljarleg (fftorbou €>vo\)£
Charles Gordon Grove, retired area engineer. Pennsylvania Railroad, passed a\\a>
at St. Francis Hospital, Evanston, 111., on November 18, 1057, following a heart attack
six days earlier.
Mr. Grove was born in Muddy Creek Forks, York County, Pennsylvania on
December 20, 1890, and received his technical education at Pennsylvania State College,
obtaining his B.S. in Civil Engineering in 1912. In that year he joined the Pennsylvania
Railroad's Engineering Department, advancing successively through the various ranks,
being made chief engineer, maintenance of way, Western Region in 1940, chief engineer,
western region in 19S2, and area engineer in 19SS, retiring on July 1, 1°S7.
Mr. Grove joined the AREA in 1929, becoming a member of Committee 22 —
Economics of Railway Labor, in 1941 and of Committee 24 — Cooperative Relations with
Universities in 1947. He was chairman of the latter from 1951 to 1954.
He was elected a director of the Association in 1948, its junior vice president in
1951, senior vice president in 1952, and president in 1953.
Mr. Grove gave generously of his time to committee work and Association matters
and enjoyed an excellent reputation for his broad experience, judgment and administra-
tive ability. Members of Committee 24 sincerely regret his untimely passing and will
miss their pleasant and friendly association with him. He leaves behind a large circle
of associates and friends who feel deeply the loss in his passing.
A more complete memoir on Mr. Grove will appear in a subsequent issue of the
Bulletin.
Report on Assignment 1
Stimulate Greater Appreciation on the Part of Railway
Managements of
(a) the importance of bringing into the service selected graduates
of colleges and universities, and
(b) the necessity for providing adequate means for recruiting such
graduates and of retaining them in the service by establishing
suitable programs for training and advancement
J. F. Davison (chairman, subcommittee), M. B. Allen, G. H. Echols, C. G. Grove,
W. W. Hay, J. P. Hiltz, Jr., N. W. Kopp, E. C. Lawson, F. J. Lewis, C. H.
Mottier, R. B. Rice, W. T. Rice, R. W. Ripley, P. S. Settle.
This is a progress report, submitted as information.
While it is recognized that the prime function of this subcommittee is to persuade
railway managements to offer adequate salaries and promotional opportunities along
with properly designed and supervised training programs, as well as to find ways of
creating an interest in railroading among technically minded students, it is considered
that a positive contribution can be made through the provision of a guide or manual
of accepted practice in the recruitment and training of engineering staff. The action
proposed is based upon the universally accepted premise that the employee's attitude
C o o p e rative Relations with Universities 693
toward his work and his employer is greatly affected by his first contact with company
representatives and his first few months of work experience.
It is recognized that the preparation of a guide to successful recruitment practices
presents a very complex problem due to differences in management policies, company
organization and personnel administration. To assist individual companies in the devel-
opment of their own recruitment program and to provide a means of anticipating the
success of their efforts, it is proposed to develop answers to the following questions:
1. How should an actual recruitment program be conducted?
2. What special organization and training is required before a recruitment pro-
gram is undertaken?
3. What personnel, organization and administrative policies provide the best
climate for successful recruitment and employment of engineering personnel?
Report on Assignment 2
Stimulate Among College and University Students a Greater
Interest in the Science of Transportation and Its Importance
in the National Economic Structure, by Cooperating with
and Contributing to the Activities of Student Organiza-
tions in Colleges and Universities
B. B. Lewis (chairman, subcommittee), W. S. Autrey, T. A. Blair, R. P. Davis, E. W.
Falanders, G. V. Guerin, W. W. Hav, W. E. Hiltebeitel, W. S. Kerr. E. E. Mayo.
R. W. Middleton, G. W. Miller, J. E. Perry, J. A. Rust, John Stang.
This is a progress report, presented as information, and is made up of two parts.
as follows:
1. Suggestions of ideas to stimulate interest of students in the railway industry.
2. Reports from members of the committee advising of their activities during
the current year in connection with the objectives of the subcommittee.
Part 1
Your committee offers the following ideas, realizing that they arc nol new and
have been or are being used at different schools.
1. Talks by men from railroads. These talks are usually given at some student
organization meeting, such as student chapters of ASCE.
2. Movies or color slides — These can be shown at classes in transportation or
at student meetings.
3. Up-to-date, interesting literature and pictures made available foi students in
reading rooms and libraries.
4. Publicize any research which may be in progress for railways. This is par-
ticularly of interest if research is being carried on at the students' own school.
5. More railway research projects at the universities to increase student interest
in the industry.
Excerpts from letters of some members of Subcommittee .' concerning tin above
item- are as follows:
694 Cooperative Relations with Universities
II . E. Hiltebeitcl, supervisor methods and cost control, PRR: "Items 1 and 2
listed in your letter should encompass the progressive steps bung taken by railroads
in illation to traveling accommodations, maintenance methods, and streamlining of
organization. The men showing the movies and giving the talks should be in the 35
to 40-year age bracket so that they can advance their own enthusiasm for railroading
as a vocation as well as be able to point out both advantages and disadvantages to be
encountered in the field.
"The basic function of transportation is that of public service. The personal satis-
faction derived from 'keeping them on schedule', particularly when planes and buses
may be stopped or long delayed, is part of the 'craftman's pride' that seems to be
too much overlooked in the age of automation. Pride in a job well done is something
that should be reinstilled in every line of work. Whi'e this would probably not interest
tne majority in our field particularly, it should be relegated to its proper position and
importance.
"Advertise and emphasize the importance of transportation to the national economy,
both to college and high-school students. The railroads have been in the past and will
.ontinue to be in the future the backbone of the nation's transportation system. The
ieasons for this should be brought to the fore to point up the need for dedicated men
in the field. The need for broadminded adaptability to keep railroads in this enviable
position should present a great challenge to the right person."
R. P. Davis, dean emeritus, West Virginia University : Dean Davis points out that
many schools have been de-emphasizing railroad courses in the civil engineering cur-
ricula because railroading is considered a declining industry, and also in part because
of the rapid advances in other fields of civil engineering. The loss of ground is now
being accelerated by the influence of some engineering educators who are preaching
the gospel of more humanities, more mathematics, more of the physical sciences, and
less engineering.
There is a strong feeling among many civil engineering educators that the pendulum
is swinging too far away from engineering and toward pure science.
Dean Davis asks if the AREA, through our committee, may not have something
constructive to offer in the solution of this problem.
E. E. Mayo, v'ce president, Southern Pacific Pipe Lines, Inc., believes suggestions
have considerable merit. They would probably be effective in a period when engineering
graduates are plentiful. They will not be effective, however, when the college student
is fully aware of the opportunities and salaries prevalent in engineering fields other than
transportation.
W. W. Hay, professor of railway civil engineering, University of Illinois, suggests
that speakers, literature, and movies portray railways as a dynamic industry. Too often
railways cry the blues or protest against unfair regulatory treatment, matters which are
not of immediate interest to the student or which may prejudice him unfavorably.
Advocates university participation in railroad research — believes that certain projects
could be given to universities if for no other purpose than to further the public rela-
tions efforts of the railroads. Funds should be provided for research assistantships and
fellowships. These costs could well be charged to recruitment or to public relations and
advertising if the benefits from the research might not appear sufficiently attractive.
Cooperative Relations with Universities 69:
Part 2
G. H. Echols, chief engineer, Southern Railway System made the u^ual contacts
with prospective graduates at a number of engineering schools. He also entertained the
Student Chapter of ASCE. University of Tennessee, at a dinner in Knoxville. Tenn.
The dinner was held in the office cars of R. B. Midkiff, chief engineer maintenance
of way and structures, Southern, and W. H. Oglesby, general manager at Knoxville.
Also attending were co-op students of the Southern. Assistant Chief Engineer MW&S
J. E. Griffith, Division Superintendent D. D. Strench, and Assistant Division Super-
intendent Donald McLeod. Al! of the hosts present were graduates of Southern's student
training program and were in a position to explain to students the opportunities on
railroads and the advantages of the Southern's training system.
At another date the Student Chapter of ASCE from Georgia Tech was entertained,
using four office cars. Alter luncheon in the office cars the entire group was taken by
buses for inspection of Southern Railway facilities at Atlanta, which included the
Southern's new push-button yard.
Mr. Echols entertained graduate students at a luncheon.
F. J. Lewis, dean, School of Engineering, Vanderbilt University: Staff covered all
of the preparatory schools in Davidson County and approximately 75 other schools
Many of these speaking engagements were in the nature of career day meetings. These
included Austin Peay State College and Tennessee Polytechnic Institute, and will further
include Birmingham, Ala., and Atlanta, Ga., schools this year.
/. B. Babcock, professor of railway engineering, M.I.T., arranged for J. H. Bur-
dakin. assistant district engineer, Pennsylvania Railroad, to speak before the M.I.T.
ASCE Student Chapter. He spoke on "The Young Engineer in Railroading." He also
showed the slides on maintenance of way, etc., which were assembled by Committee 24.
Professor Babcock reports that the talk and slides were well received.
C. H. Mottier, vice president, Illinois Central, spoke to a group of Illinois University
students at Navy Pier.
H. S. Loeffler, assistant chief engineer, Great Northern, accompanied three groups
of engineering students from the University of Minnesota in making inspections of rail-
way yards and other miscellaneous railway facilities at Minneapolis during 1956. Ap-
proximately 50 engineering students participated in this inspection. In each instance the
groups of students were accompanied by an instructor in the College of Engineering
of the University. Several of the students disclosed their interest in employment in
railway engineering work.
R. W. Ripley, division engineer, Northern Pacific: December 1056 — Addressed
Studenl Chapter ASCE, North Dakota Agricultural College, subject, ''Careers in engi-
neering and careers in railroading in particular."
April l(j;7 — Group of North Dakota Agricultural College students were conducted
on a tour of Northern Pacific facilities at Dilworth and Fargo, N. I)., by D. H. KiiiLr.
division superintendent, R. M. Johnson, assistant superintendent, D. Peinovich, train-
master, and Mr. Ripley. The students inspected diesel repair facilities, car repair shops.
power bouse, -tore and yard operations, divisional offices, communications set-up, radio
dispatching <>i train-, and freighthouse operations.
W. W . Hay, professor of railway civil engineering, University of Illinois: October
1956 — Address to about 100 senior civil engineering students bj G M Magee, di
of engineering research. AAR.
696 Cooperative Relations with Universities
April 1°56 — Address to about 110 senior civil engineering students by J. M. Trissal
chief engineer, Illinois Central Railroad.
During the school year 1056-57, the large general set of color slides showing modern
railroad construction and maintenance of way practices, produced by the Association.
were shown to two different groups of about 50 students each on 2 different occasions
In addition, one of the Association's special set of slides was shown once to a smaller
group (about 20 students). In addition, 8 films on loan from railroads were shown to
5 different classes in transportation and railway civil engineering.
The Illinois Central provided a diesel locomotive, rail-detector car, airbrake car.
caboose and other equipment as part of the railway civil engineering exhibit at the
Engineering Open House last March. Pullman-Standard, American Brake Shoe, Union
Switch and Signal, General Motors, and other railway supply companies also assisted
with the exhibit. Six railroad-sponsored films were shown at the open house.
B. B. Lewis, professor railway engineering, Purdue University : Purdue seniors, on
their annual inspection trip, visited the Illinois Central Markham Yard. All of the civil
engineering sophomores made an inspection of the railway facilities in Lafayette, Ind.
The set of color slides showing modern railroad construction and maintenance of way
practices, produced by AREA Committee 24, was shown to approximately 100 under-
graduates.
Besides the above mentioned activities, many members were in direct contact with
several colleges and universities interviewing students for work on their respective
railroads.
Report on Assignment 3
The Cooperative System of Education, Including Summer
Employment in Railway Service
E. I. Fiesenheiser (chairman, subcommittee), J. B. Babcock, A. Chinn, O. W. Eshbach,
P. O. Ferris, W. W. Hay, A. V. Johnston, W. S. Kerr, T. R. Klingel, R. E. Loomis,
R. C. Nissen, L. M. Ogilvie, J. F. Pearce, R. J. Stone.
This is a brief progress report, submitted as information.
This subcommittee will process information surveys to determine the number of
universities and railroads which support cooperative work-study programs and the extent
of this support. Information will also be gathered concerning specific opportunities for
summer railroad work experience as well as information regarding students interested
in and available for this type of work. It is planned later to make this information
available to all universities and railroads interested. In this way the committee can
assist in making the necessary contacts between interested students and prospective
employers.
Cooperative Relations writ h Universities 697
Report on Assignment 4
The Role of Engineering Technicians in the Railroad Field
D. W. Tilman (chairman, subcommittee), George Baylor, M. H. Corbyn. H. B. Chris-
tianson, Jr., VV. W. Hav. S. R. Hursh, G. A. Kellow. Frank Kerekes, H. E. Kirby.
H. S. Loefner. W. A. Oliver. \V. C. Sadler. H. O. Sharp.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
Since there is an acute shortage of engineers and scientists, with no practical solu-
tion in sight for increasing the foreseeable supply of new college graduates during the
next 10 years, the only immediate solution is better utilization of the engineers and
scientists we now employ. The seriousness of this problem was recognized by President
Eisenhower when he established the President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers.
Ore of the first regional conferences organized under the auspices of the President's
Committee was held in Charleston, W. Ya., September 5 and 6, 1057. The conference
was sponsored by West Virginia University and the West Virginia Society of Profes-
sional Engineers. The purpose of the conference was to present and discuss how better
to utilize engineers, scientists and engineering technicians. Your subcommittee chairman
attended that conference.
One afternoon session was devoted to the subject of increased professional productiv-
ity by the use of engineering technicians. From the formal talks and ensuing discussions,
it is apparent that many industries are making wide use of technicians in such activities
as surveying, drafting, testing, inspecting, etc., to support graduate engineers. The engi-
neering technician program is growing rapidly, and the graduates of these two-year
post-high-school institutions are in great demand.
At the AREA convention in St. Louis last year, Committee 24 presented a report
on this assignment which may be found in Vol. 58 of the Proceedings, beginning on
page 664. Your committee recommends that you review its last year's report and give
serious consideration to the use of engineering technicians so as to make better use of
engineering graduates and help relieve the critical shortage.
Engineering technicians can satisfactorily perform many duties now done by col-
lege graduates. All of us should recognize the responsibility and opportunity to make
proper and more efficient use of the engineering talent we now have.
Report of Committee 15— Iron and Steel Structures
A. R. Harris, Chairman,
D. V. Messman,
Vice Chair man,
P. E. Adams
Raymond Archibald
R. C. Baker
H. A. Balke
Ethan Bali
J. L. Becki.i
L. S. Beedle
J. E. Bernhardt
E. S. BlRKENWALD
R. T. Blewitt
M. Block
H. F. Bober
R. N. Brodie
E. E. Birch
Abram Clark
J. G. Clark
Y. R. CoOLEDOK
R. P. Davis
W. E. Dowling
C. E. Ekberg
E. T. Franzen
R. W. Gustafson
C. D. Hanover, Jr.
J. M. Hayes
Alfred Hedefine
E. A. Johnson
M. L. Johnson
B. G. Johnston
R. L. Kennedy
J. C. King
M. L. Koehler
R. E. Kolm
L. R. Kubacki
M. B. Lagaard
Shu t'ien Li
F. H. Lovell
J. F. Marsh
F. M. Mastkrs
M. L. McCauley
I Wll S MlCHALOS
X. \V. Morgan
C. T. Morris (E)
Cornelius Neufelu
N. M. Nl.WMARk
J. C. Nichols
T. G. ONi u
R. E. Peck
G. H. Perkins
A. G. Rankin
W. S. Ray
C. A. Roberts
G. E. Robinson
C. H. Sandburg
T. C. Shedd
L. L. Shirey
C. E. Sloan
H. F. Smith
J. E. South
G. L. Stalky
H. C. Tammen (E)
W. M. Thatcher
E. K. Timby
C. Earl Webb
H. T. Welty (E)
A. J. Wilson
A. R. Wilson (E)
W. M. Wilson (E)
L. T. Wyly
Committee
<E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1 . Revision of Manual.
Revision of Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges, submitted for adop-
tion and publication in the Manual page 700
Revision of Rules for Rating Existing Iron and Steel Bridges, presented as
information page 701
2. Fatigue in high-strength steels; it- effed mi the current Specifications for
Steel Railway Bridges.
Final report, with Specifications for High-Strength Steel submitted for
adoption and publication in the Manual page 702
4. St rev- distribution in bridge frames
I .1 > Floorbeam hangers
(c) Model railway tru-s bridge.
Progress report, presented as information page 70<
5. Design of steel bridge details
No report.
f,00
700 Iron and Steel Structures
6. Preparation and painting of steel surfaces.
Progress report, presented as information page 704
7. Bibliography and technical explanation of various requirements in AREA
specifications relating to iron and steel structures.
Progress report, presented as information page 704
8. Specifications for design of corrugated metal culverts, including corrugated
metal arches.
No report.
10. Specifications for design of continuous bridges.
Final report, with Specifications submitted for adoption and publication in
the Manual page 705
11. Economics of various design loadings.
No report.
The Committee on Iron and Steel Structures,
A. R. Harris, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 541, January 1958.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
E. S. Birkenwald (chairman, subcommittee), J. L. Beckel, R. P. Davis, A. R. Harris,
J. F. Marsh, D. V. Messman, C. Neufeld, C. H. Sandberg, G. L. Staley.
Your committee submits for adoption the following recommendations with respect
to the Manual:
Pages 15-1-1 to 15-1-43, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL RAILWAY BRIDGES
Page 15-1-43, Appendix A.
Under "y .= yield point in tension", insert the value 46,000 (average of 47,000 for
1 to 1^2 in thick and 45,000 for 1J^ to 4 in thick) for high-strength steel over 1 in
thick, and the value 50,000 for high-strength steel up to and including 1 in thick,
between the values given for silicon and nickel steel.
In the sentence reading "From the parabolic formulas . . .". revise the words "Sec.
C, Art. 8," to read "Sec. C, Art. 1."
In the values for p in this sentence, insert between the values given for silicon steel
and nickel steel, the following: "= 22,000 for high-strength steel up to and including
1 in thick."
In the values for / in the last sentence, insert /= 1.67 for high-strength steel above
the value given for structural steel, and delete the / in the line giving the value for
structural steel.
Your committee presents as information the following recommendations with respect
to the Manual, to be considered for adoption one year hence:
Iron and Steel Structures 7(M
Pages 15-7-3 to 15-7-8, incl.
RULES FOR RATING EXISTING IRON AND STEEL BRIDGES
Page 15-7-0. Art. 14.
In the first paragraph, insert the value of k 0.7 of the yield point of high-strength
steel after the value of k for silicon steel.
In the second paragraph, delete the first sentence, and, in the second sentence, insert
after the words "silicon steel" in the third line the following words, "47,000 psi for
high-strength steel."
In the third paragraph, Sth line, insert the words, "high-strength steel" after the
words "silicon steel."
In the fourth paragraph, 3rd line, insert the words "not greater than 125 for high-
strength steel" after the words "silicon steel."
Page 15-17-7, Art. 14.
At the top of the page, insert between the formulas given for silicon and nickel
steel, the following:
High-strength steel
Up to and including 1 in thick .... — - — (24,000-0.66 —^ — - — (24,000-0.86 £J)
27,000 r/ 27,000 r1 J
Over 1 in thick — (22,000-0.66 !—) (22,000-0.86 —\
25,000 r ' 25,000 r /
In the first full paragraph, insert the value / = 1.28 for high-strength steel after the
value given for open-hearth steel and wrought iron.
In the second paragraph, insert between the formulas for silicon and nickel steel,
the following:
High-strength steel
k P \
Up to and including 1 in thick (27,000-7.5— )
27,000 b2 J
Over 1 in thick — (25,000-7.5 — ^
25,000 b2 J
In the third paragraph, insert below the values given for the various materials, the
following item:
High-strength steel 1 .8 k
In the third paragraph in the second last line, insert the words "72,000 psi for high
strength steel" after the words "bessemer steel."
Page 15-7-8, Art. 14.
At the top of the page in the lines starting "Open hearth or . . .", insert the words
"high-strength steel" after the words "silicon steel "
702 Iron and Steel Structures
Report on Assignment 2
Fatigue in High-Strength Steels; Its Effect on the Current
Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges
E. S. Birkenwald (chairman, subcommittee), R. C. Baker, Ethan Ball, R. T. Blewitt,
C. D. Hanover, Jr., Shu-t'ien Li, F. M. Masters, N. W. Morgan, C. Ncufeld, N. M.
Newmark, G. H. Perkins, L. L. Shirey, E. K. Timby, C. Earl Webb.
At the last Annual Meeting, your committee presented as information Specifications
for High-Strength Structural Steel for Riveted and Bolted Structures to replace the
current specifications for structural silicon steel and structural nickel steel; also specifica-
tions for the use of the high-strength structural steel, which covered the conditions
where this material is to be used, the permissible unit stresses, and other design and
workmanship considerations. It was pointed out that high-strength structural steel meet-
ing these specifications is for use in railway truss bridges where substantial tonnages are
involved and where the material will be used in truss members primarily, unless there
is an extreme need to reduce dead load.
Since the 1957 Annual Meeting, the committee has voted by greater than a two-
thirds majority of its voting members to modify Arts. 2 (b 2) and 2 (b 3) by com-
bining them to read as follows:
"(b 2) In the conditioning of surface imperfections, welding shall be done either
with a dry welding electrode conforming to classification E 7015 or E 7016 of the cur-
rent Specifications for Low Alloy Steel Arc-Welding Covered Electrodes (ASTM desig-
nation A 316), or the area to be welded shall be preheated to a temperature of not less
than 212 deg F."
While the original presentation provided for no welding for the conditioning of
surface imperfections unless such is agreed upon between the manufacturer and the
purchaser, it has been the experience of purchasers that the manufacturers are unwilling
to sell this or any other steel without welding for the conditioning of surface imperfec-
tions. Enough fatigue tests have been made of the high-strength steel to show that
welding for the conditioning of surface imperfections produces a higher endurance limit
than the effect of holes in the material, either drilled or subpunched and reamed. Con-
sequently, it was felt advisable to modify the Specifications for High-Strength Structural
Steel, which had been submitted as information.
Although several questions have been raised in regard to these specifications, none
has led to further revision.
Glenn B. Woodruff, consulting engineer, San Francisco, Calif., called attention to
the similarity of the specifications for the Kill von Kull Arch, in that no upper limit
is specified for the manganese content, which might lead to an erratic behavior of the
steel. It was pointed out that fixing the carbon and manganese limits, together with
superior present-day open-hearth practices, would avoid the troubles encountered with
the steel used in the Kill von Kull Arch ; furthermore, any material increase in the
percentage of manganese used would increase the cost of the product and might require
the use of alloying agents to meet the physical requirements specified, all of which the
manufacturer would want to avoid doing.
The Western Pacific Railroad Company, through Frank R. Woolford, chief engineer,
inquired as to where high-strength steel had been used in other structures. A list of
bridges, given below, was furnished, in which the bridges are shown in chronological
order to show the development of the specifications and how the minimum requirement
of manganese rontent was determined.
Iron and Steel Structures 703
Year
Built Bridge Manganese Content
1917 Ohio River, Louisville, Ky., PRR Avg. of 142 heats— 0.75
1932 Huey Long, New Orleans, La., SP & Hwy. ... Avg. of 225 heats — 1.11 with min
0.84 and max 1.40
1936 Cairo, 111., Hwy 86 of 114 heats greater than 1.15
1937 Wax Lake, SP Approximately LIS
1Q37 Chain Bridge, Washington, D. C Between 0.92and 1.35
1037 Port Huron, Mich Between 0.05 and
iu44 Pecos River, SP Approximately 1.15
1040 Mississippi River. Memphis, Tenn 164 to 505 heats greater than 1.15
1949 Cumberland River, Southern Between 0.70 and 0.97
1955 Philadelphia approach to new Delaware River
Bridge Specified not less than 1.15
1957 Mississippi River, New Orleans Specified not less than 1.15
Your committee now recommends adoption of the specifications presented as infor-
mation and published in the 1957 Proceedings, Vol. 58, pages 686 to 691. iml.. as
modified by the revision of Arts. 2 (b 2) and 2 (b 3) as stated above.
With adoption of these specifications, the work of the committee is completed, and
it is therefore recommended that this report be considered as final and the assignment
be discontinued.
Report on Assignment 4
Stress Distribution in Bridge Frames
(a) Floorbeam hangers
(c) Model railway truss bridge
C. H. Sandberg (chairman, subcommittee), E. F. Ball, J. E. Bernhardt, E. S. Birken-
wald, J. M. Haves, F. M. Masters, J. Michalos, N. W. Morgan, N. M. Newmark,
G. L. Staley, C. Earl Webb, L. T. Wyly.
Your committee submits the following report of progress.
The research project on the study and investigation of the causes and remedies
hi failures in floorbeam hangers in railway truss bridges and counterweight trusses of
bascu'e bridges was conducted at Purdue University under the direction of Prof. L. T.
Wyly, then research professor of structural engineering and head of department. The
three final reports are now ready for publishing and consist of the following: Statii
and Dynamic Tests of the Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railway Bridge at Erie, Kans .;
Static Tests on the Missouri-Kansas-Texas Bridge at Dennison, Tex.; and Static Tests
on the Texas & New Orleans Railway Bridge at Wax Lake. La. These reports all covet
measurements of live-load stresses in floorbeam bangers. The field work was done in
part by the AAR research staff and in part by Purdue University.
Work is now in progress <>n recommendations for changes in the specifications
covering the design of floorbeam hangers.
The model tru»- bridge is now erected on Northwestern Universitj propert) al
Emetson and Maple Avenues in Evanstcn. III. The jacking system for applying tin
loads will be erected shortly, and actual testing started the first part of 1958. This
project i- sponsored by Northwestern University, Association of American Railroads,
Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, and Bureau of Public Roads The project director i-
I, T. Wyly, professor of <ivil engineering, Northwestern University
704 Iron and Steel Structures
Report on Assignment 6
Preparation and Painting of Steel Surfaces
R. C. Baker (chairman, subcommittee), R. N. Brodie, A. R. Harris, J. C. Kinu, F. M.
Masters, N. W. Morgan, R. E. Peck, A. G. Rankin, W. S. Raw C. A Roberts,
L. L. Shirey, C. E. Sloan, C. E. Webb.
This is a progress report, submitted as information. During the year, committee
members, representatives from the AAR research staff, and the director of research.
Steel Structures Painting Council, inspected paint tests on two bridges of the Missouri
Pacific Railroad near Chester, 111., two bridges on the Seaboard Air Line Railroad near
Charleston, N. C, two bridges on the Southern Railroad, one near Charlotte, N. C,
and the other south of Atlanta, Ga., three bridges on the Santa Fe Railroad near Kansas
City and one bridge on the New York Central Railroad in Chicago near the AAR
Research Laboratory. Detailed reports covering these installations and inspections will
be presented next year.
An additional test installation was started on the Great Northern Railroad near
Breckenridge, S. Dak., with the purpose of evaluating the relative performance of paint-
ing steel structures that are cleaned and primed in the shop in contrast to those that
are shipped unpainted, weathered to remove mill scale and rusting, hand or power tool
cleaned and then painted. The bridge used for these tests consists of six open-deck
girder spans. Three of the spans were shipped unpainted and will be allowed to weather
for several months before cleaning and painting, except for the top areas of the upper
flange. The other three spans were primed and then coated with SSPC specification
paints.
The committee is cooperating with the Steel Structures Painting Council on labora-
tory tests being conducted at Mellon Institute to determine the best painting and
cleaning practice to use over welded joints, and another investigation to determine if
the iron oxide produced by the rusting of the steel can be used in the formulation of a
suitable paint for such surfaces.
Report on Assignment 7
Bibliography and Technical Explanation of Various Requirements
in the Specifications
E. K. Timby (chairman, subcommittee), P. E. Adams, Ethan Ball, J. E. Bernhardt,
R. N. Brodie, James G. Clark, R. P. Davis, J. M. Hayes, B. G. Johnston, F. M.
Masters, N. M. Newmark, G. E. Robinson, T. C. Shedd, J. E. South.
Your committee submits the following progress report, presented as information.
Work has proceeded actively on this assignment in connection with the Specifica-
tions for Steel Railway Bridges. Selection of the particular articles in the specifications
which require consideration is being made, the bibliography covering them is being
explored, alternate methods of providing the desired explanations are being studied,
and alternate methods for providing suitable references in the specifications to the
material to be prepared have been developed. In the meantime the bibliography and
explanation have been prepared tentatively for many of the articles.
It is anticipated that the work in connection with the Specifications for Steel
Railway Rn'dges will be completed during 1Q58.
Iron and Steel Structures 705
Report on Assignment 10
Specifications for Design of Continuous Bridges
J. F. Marsh (chairman, subcommittee), H. A. Balke, R. T. Blewitt, J. G. Clark, R. L.
Kennedy. Shu-t'ien Li, M. L. McCauley, J. C. Nichols, R. E. Peck, J. E. South.
Last year your committee presented as information tentative Specifications for
Design of Continuous Bridges (1957 Proceedings, Vol. 58, pages 694 to 696, incl.) and
invited comments and criticisms thereon. Several comments and criticisms were received,
but the committee felt that they were not sufficiently important to warrant any change
in the specifications.
These specifications, without revision, are now submitted with the recommendation
that they be adopted and published in the Manual.
Report of Committee 11 — Records and Accounts
G. R. Berquist
J. K. MORRISSEY
B. A. Bertenshaw (E)
B. F. Xauert
HWr
H. T. Bradley
F. H. Xeely
M. A. Bryant
J. H. O'Brien*
J. Bert Byars
C. F. Olson
Jf
C. E. Clonts
D. E. Pergrin
P. D. C«
A. T. Powell
Spencer Danby
E. F. Ray
C. R. Dolan
H. L. Restall
V. H. Doyle
F. A. Roberts
^^^
Bernard Firestone
C. S. ROBEY
jgj
W. S. Gates, Jr.
E. J. Rockefeller
&ft
M. M. Gerber
H. B. Sampson
H *■
W. M. Haoer
R. L. Sami i i i
JS
C. C. Haire (E)
J. E. SciIARPER
I sS
H. X. Halper
H. A. SlIlNKI.L
^ft sSs
J. H. Hande (E)
J. N. Smeaton
M Ib bHBi
K. A. Heiny
J. W. HlGGINS
J. B. Styles
J. R. Traylor
Morton Friedman.
Chairman,
L. W. Howard
R. D. Igou
W. H. Kiehl
E. L. Vogt
R. C. Watkins
H. C. Wertenberger
R. B. Aldridc
E.
E. M. Killough
W. C. Wieters
I*/Vf Chairman,
\V. A. Krauska
J. L. WlLLCOX
B. H. Moore,
Secretary,
C. E. Lex. Jr.
H. R. Williams
F. B. Baldwin (E)
W. M. Ludolph
Louis Wolf
S. H. Barnhart
C. B. Martin
M. C Wmi
Committee
(F.) Member Emeritus.
* Died May 31, 1957.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress in study, but no report.
2. Bibliography on subjects pertaining to records and accounts.
Progress report, submitted as information page 70°
3. Office and drafting practices.
Progress report submitting recommendations for adoption and publication
in the Manual page 7 1 3
4. Use of statistics in railway engineering.
No report.
5. Construction reports and propert) records.
Progress report, submitted as information page 7 id
6. Valuation and depreciation:
(a) Current developments in connection with regulatory bodies and units
Progress report, submitted as information page 736
(b) ICC valuation orders and reports.
Xo report.
(c) Development of depreciation data.
No report.
707
Records and Accounts
7. Revisions and interpretations of ICC accounting classifications.
Progress report, submitted as information page 740
8. Simplification of records to determine original costs of tracks to be used
in their retirements from the investment account.
Progress in study, but no report.
0. Simplification of annual reports on Form 588 to the Interstate Commerce
Commission, and underlying Completion Reports.
Progress in study, but no report.
10. Photography in railroad construction and maintenance, collaborating with
other interested committees.
Progress in study, but no report.
The Committee on Records and Accounts,
Morton Friedman, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 541, January 1958.
MEMOIR
Joseph Hartford O'Brien, office assistant to regional engineer in the Western
Region of The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, died on May 31, 1957, at the age of 57
years. He is survived by his wife, Mrs. Anne L. O'Brien, a son, John O. O'Brien, resid-
ing in Cincinnati, Ohio, and a daughter, Mrs. C. H. Pollihan, Jr., of St. Louis, Mo.
Another son, Reverend Joseph M. O'Brien, was ordained a priest in April 1957 and
is now in the Parish of Our Lady of Lourdes in St. Louis,
Mr. O'Brien was born in St. Louis, September 21, 1899, and attended local schools
through graduation. He entered the service of The Baltimore & Ohio as an accountant
in December 1945. He handled all accounting work in the construction of the new
Cone Yard layout at East St. Louis through 1946. In 1947, he moved to Cincinnati
to assume charge of accounting work in the Western Region under the supervision
of the regional engineer of the Baltimore & Ohio. In February 1949, he was promoted
to inspector of accounts, and in 1956 was promoted to office assistant to regional engi-
neer, Western Region, Cincinnati. This position he held until his death. In 1956, Mr.
O'Brien was appointed chairman of Accounting Committee for the Dayton Track Ele-
vation Program involving four railroads and the City of Dayton, Ohio, for the elimina-
tion of grade crossings in that city.
Mr. O'Brien was an active member of the American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion, as well as a member of Committee 11. He was chairman of Subcommittee 2,
Bibliography, and served conscientiously in that capacity. His friendliness and ability
to make friends made him a valuable and outstanding member. The committee and his
many associates have lost a good friend and energetic worker.
B. H. Moore, Chairman,
C. B. Martin,
R. L. Samuell,
Committee on Memoir.
Records and Accounts 709
MEMOIR
©ana ®li\icv ILple
Dana Oliver Lyle, retired valuation engineer of the Pennsylvania Railroad, died on
March 1, 1957, at Lankenau Hospital, Overbrook (Philadelphia), Pa. He is survived
by his wife, Mrs. Minnie May Lyle; his daughter, Mrs. Benjamin L. Hughes of Cleve-
land, Ohio; and two grandchildren, Elizabeth Lyle and David Hughes.
Mr. Lyle was born in Pomeroy, Ohio, September 2, 1878, the son of Boyd and
Jennie Lyle. He attended Ohio Northern University at Ada, Ohio, from which he
graduated as a Civil Engineer in 1903.
He entered railroad service in 1903 as a draftsman in the Real Estate Department
of the Pennsylvania Railroad, Lines West of Pittsburgh. In 1914, he was transferred
to valuation work and was instrumental in originating and putting into effect on the
Pennsylvania the many procedures necessary for the successful fulfillment of the Gov-
ernment's Primary Inventory and Valuation of the Railroads under the Valuation Act,
continuing in this work as valuation assistant to the valuation engineer through the
ensuing years. He was promoted to assistant valuation engineer at Pittsburgh in 1920
and transferred to Philadelphia in 1924, in the same capacity, following the consolida-
tion of the general offices. He was promoted to valuation engineer of the Pennsylvania
system in 1936 and, until his retirement on October 1, 1948, he continued the mal-
functions of the Valuation Department. He was considered from many viewpoints as
one of the deans of the railroad valuation profession.
Mr. Lyle became a member of the American Railway Engineering Association in
1935, and in 1939 became a member of Committee 11. He participated fully in the
work and, due to his long and extended experience in the engineering profession, his
gentlemanly and friendly personality, his sense of humor and accuracy, and his untiring
interest and regular attendance at meetings, he was a valuable and outstanding member
of this committee. He desired to exercise his talents from the ranks rather than from
an imposing office. The committee and his many associates have lost a sterling character.
• Spencer Danby, Chairman,
S. H. Barnhart,
B. H. Moore,
Committee on Memoir.
Report on Assignment 2
Bibliography on Subjects Pertaining to Records and Accounts
J. B. Byars (chairman, subcommittee), C. E. Clonts, C. E. Lex, Jr., B. H. Moore.
F. H. Neely, E. J. Rockefeller, J. E. Scharper, H. C. Wertenberger, W. C. Wieters.
L. Wolf.
Your committee presents as information the following bibliography of subjects
pertaining to railroad records and accounts for the period September 1956 to September
1957.
1. Depreciation and Amortization for Today's Interna] and External Reporting;
panel discussion, NACA Bulletin, Vol. 38, pp. 154-156, Sec. 3, September i
2. Fast Tax; Steel makes a New Pitch, by X. R. Regelmbal, Iron Vge, Septembei
6, 1956.
3. Tax Aid; Key to Future Steel Prices, Engineering News, Vol. 157, p
September 20. 195h.
710 Records and Accounts
Depredation is regarded not so much as a way of paying for what already is built
but as a way of financing the next project.
4. Re-examination of the 1954 Revenue Code; Depreciation Problems, by T. J.
Graves, Journal of Accountancy, Vol. 102, pp. 43-46, October, 1956.
An analysis of the code and regu'ations provisions on depreciation reveal shifts in
treasury policy suggesting possibilities of additional legislation.
5. New Fast Depreciation Order for Kansas Power and Light, Electrical World,
Vol. 140, p. 164, October 1, 1956.
State PUC permits utility to use normalized taxes and credit actual deferral to tax
reserve account.
6. Fast Write-Offs hold the Key; Baffling Dilemna of the Hypo Steel Co., Business
Week, pp. 86-88, October 13, 1956.
Steel industry got disappointment. Flemming announced that he wculd not ap-
prove any more tax write-offs for steel, at least until the Pentagon comes up with new
figures on defense mobilization needs.
7. Depreciation Rulings Favorable, Electric World, Vol. 146, p. 284, October 15,
1956.
Pennsylvania communications is only body to deny utilities use of tax savings
accruing from accelerated depreciation.
8. American Railroads, Green Light Ahead, Scholastic, Vol. 69, pp. 9-11, October
18, 1956.
9. Senator Byrd Urges Flemming not to Act on Fast Write-offs, Business Week,
p. 144, October 27, 1956.
10. Write down the Write-offs, Fortune, Vol. 54, p. 104, November 1956.
This article suggests doing away with the system whereby industries in "defense"
are given the privilege of writing off new plants at faster rate (usually five years) than
permitted under normal tax laws.
11. Drop-off Ahead on Rapid Write-off Benefits, Chemical Week, Vol. 79, p. 31,
November 17, 1956.
Annual provision for depreciation, obsolescence and depletion by 20 representative
chemical companies in millions of dollars, a tabulation 1951-1955.
12. Self-help on Depreciation, Steel, Vol. 139, pp. 99-101, November 19, 1956.
Industry can draw a more realistic profits picture by (1) more use of modern
accounting methods, (2) more use of indexes to allow for inflation in the cost of
depreciation.
13. Utility Spokesmen View Accelerated Depreciation; Arguments Heard by the
New York Public Service Commission, Public Utliities Fortnightly, p. 855, November
22, 1956.
The views of all principal utilities in respect to the account and rate-making
procedures which involved liberalized depreciation.
14. ODM Shuts Fast Write-off Doors to Aluminum, Leaves Twenty-two Industries,
Business Week, p. 133, December 1, 1956.
ODM wound up tax program for aluminum industry by closing out five-year write-
off privileges on sheet and fabricating facilities.
15. Accelerated Depreciation and Share Earnings, by O. Ely, Public Utilities Fort-
nightly, Vol. 58, pp. 992-995, December 20 ,1956.
Deals with the adoption of the special new methods of calculating depreciation
accruals in the tax returns of utilities.
Records and Accounts 711
16. White House Weighs Pros and Cons of Fast Write-offs, Steel Priorities, Business
Week, p. 83, December 22, 1956.
Steel wants another round of tax amortization.
17. Blanket No on Fast Write-offs, Business Week. p. 28, December 29, 1956.
ODM rejects all pending applications for production expansions.
18. Better Methods for Profits; Machinery and Allied Products Institute Survey
of Replacement and Depreciation Policies of Capital Goods Industries, Steel. Vol. 139,
p. 33, December 31, 1956.
Pick and shovel studies help metalworking firms evaluate their equipment needs and
properly depreciate purchases.
19. Steel Without Fast Write-offs, Business Week, p. 34, January 5, 1957.
Expansion will go on, despite the turndown of the industry's appeal for quick
amortization to finance new plant.
20. Tax-Equalization Proposal Rejected Again, Railway Age, Vol. 142, p. 10, Janu-
ary 7, 1957.
ICC action affirms its previous refusal to prescribe new railroad income account to
provide for equalization of income taxes over service life of facilities written off in five
years under quick amortization.
21. U. S. Writes Finis to Fast Write-offs, American Machinist, Vol. 101. p. 157,
January 14, 1957.
22. ODM Say No; Tax Help for Non-defense Needs Would He Contrary to the
Intent of the Rapid Tax Amortization Plan. Chemical and Engineering News. Vol. 35,
p. 29, January 14, 1957.
Steel's failure to get special tax treatment for its expansion plans has apparently
closed the door on similar hopes for government aid by the chemical producers and
other industries.
2^. Accountants as Regulatory Commissioners, Public Utilities Fortnightly, Vol. 59,
pp. 93-104, January 17, 1957.
An analysis of the growing importance of accountancy in the work of the regulatory
commissions.
24. Replacement and Depreciation; Survey by the Machinery and Allied Products
Institute, American Machinist, Vol. 101, p. 155, January 14, 1957.
25. Supplemental Note on Valuation and Depreciation, by M. R. Scharff, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Processing 83 (PO 1 No. 1184); pp. 1-11, February 1957.
26. Taxes, Industry Overpaying Due to Underdepreciation, Iron Age, Vol. 17Q.
p. 79, February 14, 1957.
27. IRS Restudies Depreciation Rules that Business Says Are Obsolete, Business
Week, p. 89, February 16, 1957.
28. Liquid Oxygen. Nitrogen Goal for Missiles Program Is Set Up. Rapid Anmiti/a
tion Available, Oil Paint and Drug Reporter, Vol. 171, p. 3, February 2>. 1957.
20. Find Depreciation Kate by Nomograph, bj I). S. Davis, Petroleum Refiner,
Vol. 36. p. 164, March 1957.
30. Chance for More Cash in Tax Write-offs; IRS to Rewrite Table of Useful Life
Assigned to Plant and Equipment. Business Week. pp. 28-29, March 2, 1957.
31. Fast Tax Certificates Ending, Public Utilities Fortnightly, Vol. 59, pp, 457-458,
March 28, 1957.
32. Equipment Replacement and Depreciation; Survey by Machinen and Mlu.l
Products Institute Management Review, Vol 16, pp \pril io>:
712 Records and Accounts
33. ODM Writes Off Write-offs, Steel. Vol. 140. p, 54, April 1, 1957.
34. Certificates of Necessity, Aviation Week, Vol. 66, p. 131, April 8, lu?7, and
p. 130, April 15, 1057.
35. Why We Must Limit Fast Tax Write-offs, by G. M. Humphrey, Iron Age, Vol.
179, pp. 67-70, April 18, 1957.
Look at depreciation problems and policies. Humphrey explains the Administration's
position in limiting fast write-offs for industry. At stake are tax cuts for special groups
against a general reduction for all taxpayers.
36. Depreciation Regulation, by J. W. Murphy, Concrete, Vol. 65, pp. 32-34, May
*957.
37. Humphreys Dissents Again, Business Week, p. I45, May 4, 1957.
38. Fast Tax Write-offs, Business Week, p. 52, May 11, 1957.
President Eisenhower and Senator Byrd favor legislation to virtually terminate
special tax write-off program.
39. Tax Write-offs; Who Takes the Rap?, Newsweek, Vol. 49, p. 81, May 20,
1957.
40. Fast Tax Write-offs Seen Doomed; Idaho Power Co., Electrical World, Vol. 147,
p. 80, May 20, 1957.
Political furor on Capitol Hill over Idaho Power Company getting rapid tax
amortization on its two new Snake River Plants has accelerated the drive to end the
program for giving tax benefits to expand industrial capacity.
41. Hell's Canyon Taxes; Rapid Write-offs, Public Utilities Fortnightly, Vol. 59,
p. 759-760, May 23, 1957.
Idaho Power Company has accused its congressional critics of "distortion of the
fact" in their recent attacks on the grant of federal tax benefits to the company.
42. Bookkeeping Changes no Cure-all, Railway Age, Vol. 142, p. 9, May 27, 1957.
This article questions if the ICC's accounting requirements need overhaul and what
has been the effect of the fast write-off program.
43. Depreciation by Nomograph, Pipe Line Industry, Vol. 6, p. 66, June 1957.
44. Life of Depreciable Property for Tax Purpose; Tabulation; Data Sheet, Air
Conditioning, Heating and Ventilating, Vol. 54, pp. 89-90, June 1957.
45. Let's Make Sense in our Depreciation Policies, by J. Barlow, Iron Age, Vol.
179, pp. 65-72, June 6, 1957.
46. Why the Hassle Over Fast Write-offs?, Electrical World, Vol. 148, pp. 47-50,
July 1, 1957.
Federal power proponents, using fast tax write-offs as their only new foil, have
managed to win passage of the Hell's Canyon Bill in the Senate.
47. Are Commissions Reversing Policy on Tax Deferments from Accelerated Depre-
ciation?, by F. M. Beatty, Public Utilities Fortnightly, Vol. 60, pp. 34-39, July 4, 1957.
This article deals with and explains accelerated depreciation and the best way to
handle the accounting treatment of resulting tax deferment.
48. These Are the Facts!, by T. E. Roach, Electrical West, Vol. 119, pp. 98-99,
August, 1957.
Public power politicians are deliberately trying to twist the granting of rapid
amortization certificates into a tax "giveaway" to electric companies. Nothing could be
further from the truth . . .
Records and Accounts 7U
Report on Assignment 3
Office and Drafting Practices
W. M. Ludolph (chairman, subcommittee), W. A. Krauska, A. T. Powell. H. B. Samp-
son, R. L. Samuell. H. A. Shinkle. J. R. Traylor. W. C. Wieters.
Your committee presents as information the Following report on methods of dupli-
cation and recommends that reference thereto be submitted for adoption and publication
in the Manual, as set forth at the end of the report.
Methods of Duplication
Duplication and copying are essential in every engineering office and range from
copies of large maps to copies of correspondence and forms.
Duplication falls into the following classes:
a. Printing
(1) Typesetting and printing presses
(2) Planograph
(a) Lithography
(b) Offset printiiK'
(3) Stencilling
b. Transfer Processes
(1) Copy press
(2) Gelatin plates
(3) Spirit transfer
c. Photographic reproductions
(1) Contact
(a) Direct
(b) Reflex
(2) Projection printing
d. Thermal sensitive paper
c. Electronic process
The most economical method depends upon the requirements of the job as well as
the equipment available. The following brief outline is given for guidance.
a. Printing
(1) By Typesetting and Printing Presses. This method is usually used for reproduc-
tion of forms and general instruction books, and is generally the most economical
method for large quantities.
(2) Planograph
fa) Lithography. This process, which originally used a stone and flat-bed press, has
special uses but has been superseded for the most part by offset printing.
(b) Offset Printing. The first step in this process is making a photographii negative
of the copy matter. The negative is then used to produce an image, to which printers
ink will adhere, on a metal plate which is placed on an offsel press The image i- trans
ferred to a rubber blanket and. as the press revolves, the paper i- fed in and squeezed
anainst the blanket, picking up the image. This process i> usualh lest expensive than
setting type and is used when a large number of copies is required.
714 Records and Accounts
The offset method has been so much simplified that typing with a special type-
writer ribbon can be done on a chemically treated cardboard or metal sheet, after which
the sheet or plate is again chemically treated so that printers ink adheres only to the
portion covered by the ink from the typewriter ribbon. This sheet can then be used on a
rotary or flat-type offset printing press, and practically an unlimited number of copies
can be produced. Line drawings may also be made on this plate and reproduced in a
like manner by the use of a special drafting ink.
(3) Stencilling. This is probably the most common and inexpensive method. The
stencils can be cut on a typewriter, then placed on a rotary machine, either hand or
electrically driven, and copies produced in a short time.
b. Transfer Processes
(1) Copy Press. This is an obsolete type of reproduction.
(2) Gelatin Plates. In this method the original is made with special copying ink.
pencil or typewriter ribbon. The original is pressed onto the gelatin plate where it leaves
an image. From this image a number of copies can be made by pressing on sheets of
special-finish paper one at a time.
Various colored inks and pencils are available for this process, and it is possible
to have as many as four colors reproduced at the same time.
(3) Spirit Transfer. In this method, the typing is carbon backed with copying car-
bon paper on the original which is then placed in a machine on a revolving cylinder.
A special-type paper is used, and either the original or the copy paper is moistened
with denatured alcohol or some other spirit as the copy paper goes through the machine.
When the copy paper comes in contact with the carbon backing, the image is trans-
ferred to the copy. This is quite a rapid process, but the number of copies obtainable
is limited.
c. Photographic Reproduction Processes
(1) Contact
Blueprint. The blueprint is the oldest of the photographic reproduction processes
used in drafting rooms. It consists of exposing to a light source, paper or other media
coated for the purpose, with the translucent original to be copied placed between it
and the light source for a proper period. The image is then developed, the developer
washed off and the print dried.
Diazo Dye Emulsion. In this process paper is coated with a dye-coupled emulsion
which is light sensitive. When subjected to a strong alkali the portions exposed to the
light bleach out, and on account of neutralization of the acid in the dye-coupled emul-
sion, the portion not exposed to light will be dyed a dark color and produce a positive
image. There are several colors available in this process, namely, black, sepia and blue.
There are two methods of developing these prints: one is by passing them through
a chamber of ammonia vapor and the other is by applying a small amount of alkaline
solution which only moistens the surface of the print.
Silver-Coated Media. There is a wide variety in the media which can be coated
and also in the purpose of the coating. These media vary from heavy cardboard to
tracing cloth. All these media require either a liquid developer or a developer which
will place a considerable amount of moisture on the print, and either a liquid or some
other means of neutralizing the developing action must be used.
These silver-coated media are very often used for making reflex prints from opaque
material or material which is printed on both sides, such as the pages of a book.
Equipment For Making Contact Prints. The sun frame method is seldom used, as
modern lighting has made it unnecessary to rely on the sun for light.
Records and Accounts 7l_S
The vacuum frame is a necessity where absolute contact is required, such as in
making silver prints on tracing cloth.
The desk machine for exposing prints is much faster than either the sun or vacuum
frames. Machines are available for processing the prints which can be used in conjunc-
tion with these printers. These processing machines are faster than processing each indi-
vidual print by hand.
Where a large amount of reproduction is to be done, a continuous machine is a
necessity. The machine should be selected which will meet requirements as to capacity
and the type of prints required. Some machines are equipped to process more than one
type of print.
(2) Projection Printing. This method has the advantage that reproductions can be
made to practically any scale regardless of the scale of the original, except that too
great a difference in scales will affect the legibility of the print. The photostat machine
will expose and process the paper prints. A separate dryer is required.
Another method is a camera and enlarger or viewer. This method is essentially
the same as the previous one except that film is usually used instead of paper, and the
prints are produced by projection with an enlarger. This includes microfilming.
Another machine of considerable interest is one which will photograph long draw-
ings on microfilm and, as required, will reproduce copies at full, one-half, or one-quarter
their original size. An electronic speed control is necessary to maintain register of the
drawing and film when the machine is in operation. This features makes it very
expensive.
</. Thermal Sensitive Paper
This process is probably the most versatile and convenient of any of the processes,
as both opaque material and translucent material can be copied. The machine for this
purpose consists essentially of a series of belts on rollers which pass the original and
print paper past an electric heating unit.
This machine produces a positive image on the coated paper which is permanent
unless subjected to a high temperature.
e. Electronic Process
There are a number of machines which will automatically produce a facsimile of an
original on copy paper, on gelatin or spirit hectograph masters, mimeograph stencils
and paper offset masters.
These machines function through a photo-electronic system which scans the original
and reproduces it on the master.
Several means are used to impress the image on the master. For example, when
the photo-electric eye encounters a dark area, a stylus is released with sufficient force
to deposit carbon on the master or punch a hole in a stencil. Also, electrical sparks are
used to perforate stencils.
The electronic devices will copy anything to which the photo-electric eye will
respond, including photographs.
By means of proper synchronization of the scanning and the recording devices,
masters can be made at anj distance electrical impulses <;m be transmitted.
Tin Records and Accounts
Manual Recommendations
Pages 11-1-1 to 11-1-4, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE DESIGN, ARRANGEMENT
AND PRINTING OF FORMS
Pages 11-1-3 and 11-1-4. Delete Art. 20 — Blueprint Reproductions, and Art. 21 —
Methods of Printing, renumbering present Arts. 22 to 24, incl., as Arts. 21 to 23. incl.,
and substitute the following as Art. 20.
20. Duplication
Duplication and copying are essential in every engineering office and range from
copies of large maps to copies of correspondence and forms. The most economical
method depends upon the requirements of the job as well as the equipment available.
For comments on the various types or means of duplication, and descriptions of
those best adapted for railroad use, see AREA Proceedings, Vol. 50, 1958, pages 713 to
715, incl.
Report on Assignment 5
Construction Reports and Property Records
W. S. Gates, Jr. chairman, subcommittee), R. B. Aldridge, F. B. Baldwin, C. R. Dolan,
V. H. Doyle, B. Firestone, H. N. Halper, K. A. Heiny, J. W. Higgins, R. D. Igou,
W. H. Kiehl, W. A. Krauska, C. E. Lex, Jr., B. F. Nauert, F. H. Neely, J. H.
O'Brien, D. E. Pergrin, H. A. Shinkle, J. N. Smeaton, E. L. Vogt, R. C. Watkins,
J. L. Willcox, L. Wolf, M. C. Wolf.
Equipment Property Records
This is a progress report, submitted as information.
1. Purpose of Study
To investigate the feasibility of the use of tabulating-machine equipment for an
equipment property record and to list advantages that might be developed in a study
of this method of record keeping over a manually posted equipment property record.
2. General Comment
In the initial review of sample tabulating-machine cards submitted for this study
it was seen that it would not be practical to attempt to set up an all-purpose card.
Many special conditions were found that relate to individual carriers, and with only 80
card columns available one soon runs out of columns. Therefore, the committee attempts
to cover only the basic requirements for an equipment property record installation and
supplement the data with a brief review of the data found in a study of actual
installations.
3. Basic Requirements for an Equipment
Property Record Tabulating Machine Card
Reduced to its simplest form an equipment tabulating machine card should provide
for the following:
Records and Accounts
a. Identification — unit or type.
b. Serial number.
c. Group or series Dumber.
(1. History of the unit.
(1) Purchase or original acquisition.
(2) Improvements, additions or betterments.
(3) Retirement of whole or parts.
e. Investment Account.
f. Number of units.
g. Costs.
4. Sample Layout of Basic Information
f\ , :
1 1
1 , 1 . . .
Identification
History of Unit
Investment Detail
Type
Unit No prop
hat
Retr
Project No
Class/A/C
No of Units] Reported Costa
" . it"
- 2
j
'3
i u'
1 2 3 U
5 6 7|8 9 O'l 2
3 U
5 6
7 8|9 0 1'2
3 It
5 6
7 8 9'0 1 2
3 It 5 6 7,8 9 O'l 2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0,0 0 O1^ 0
0 0
0 0
0 0.0 0 O'O
0 0
0 0
0 0 0i0 0 0
00 00000 0,00
1111
1 1 111 1 l'l 1
1 1
1 1
1 111 1 l'l
1 1
1 1
1 1 111 1 1
lllll'll 1,1 1
2 2 2 2|2 2 2i2 2 2i2 2
2 2
2 2
2 212 2 2.2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 ' 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
3 3 3'3 3 313 3
3 3
3 3
3 3!3 3 3'3
3 3
3 3
3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3t3 3 3'3 3
It h It h
a it U'li it am h
It b
It It
It It It U U It
It It
It U
It Ult'lt u u
it a it it U 'U it a lit u
5 5 5 5
5 5 5'5 5 515 5
5 5
5 5
5 5 5 5 5' 5
5 5
5 5
5 5 5i5 5 5
5 5'5 5 5'5 5 5,5 5
6 6 6 6
6 6 6|6 6 6|6 6
6 6
6 6
6 6-6 6 616
6 6
6 6
6 6 6,6 6 6
6 6|6 6 6,6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
7 7 7 ' 7 7 717 7
7 7
7 7
7 7 7 7 7' 7
7 7
7 7
7 7 7,777
7 7.7 7 7:7 7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8
8 8 8;8 8 8|8 8
8 8
8 8
8 8' 8 8 8' 8
8 8
8 8
8 8 8 8 8 8
8888 8,8 8888
,9999
o 9 o.o o 9,9 9
9 9
9 9
9 9 9 9 9[9
9 9
9 9
9 9 9 9 9 9
9^9 9 9j9 9 9,9 9
! (i)
(2) 1(3)
.(U)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
Explanation of the above and the purpose of each item is shown below
Remarks or Purpose
Item Columns
a. Identification
(1) Type 1 to 4
(2) Unit No 5 to 10
(3) Group 11 & 12
b. History of Unit
(4) Inst. (Installed) ... 13 & 14
(5) Retr. (Retired) IS & 16
(6) Project No 17 to 22
(7) Class 23 & 24
C Investment Detail
(Si A/C (Account) .... 25 \ 26
(0) No. of units 27 to <-n
(10) Reported costs 33 to 42
To indicate the kind of equipment, such
locomotive, car, work unit, etc.
Serial number assigned to unit.
Series classification.
Year unit was purchased, constructed or other-
wise acquired, or improved.
Year unit, or parts of unit, were removed from
service.
Project reference under which unit was ac-
quired, constructed, improved or retired, (AFE
or CR No)
Kind of project. (Acquisition, Improvement,
Retirement, etc.)
Equipment investment account (;i lo ^s jncl.)
Number of units.
Re< orded cost
116 Records and Accounts
5. Comments Concerning Information Displayed
(1) Type
Individual series of units vary widely both as to type and use. A key to this identi-
fication is useful for minimum identification. Without attempting to set up fixed
standards, examples are shown below:
LSTM —Loco Steam CRH —Hopper Car CRCO —Caboose
LDA —Loco Diesel '-A" CRHC —Covered Hopper AUTO —Automobile Highwaj
unit CRF — Fat Car TRUK —Truck-Highway
LDB —Loco Diesel "B" WKWR— Wrecker WKWC— Wheel Car
unit WKCS —Clam Shell CRTK —Tank Car
LEAC —Loco Elect "AC" WKPD — Pile Driver WKWS— Weed Spray Car
LEDC —Loco Elect "DC" CRD —Diner CRPC —Parlor Car
CRG —Gondola Car CRC —Coach CRBC —Business Car
If desired, standard MCB-AAR Mechanical Division designations can be used to
identify car types. In some cases it wil be desirable to use a two- or three-column
numerical code instead of the system indicated above.
(2) Unit No.
As indicated this shows the assigned equipment number. Units with assigned prefixes
(or suffixes) such as "X" cars, under the work equipment account, should show the
"X" in the first of the six assigned columns.
(3) Group
Equipment is usually acquired in series varying from a few units, to several hun-
dred or several thousand. Totals or summations of these will frequently be required,
so to facilitate sorting of the cards a special group identification column is provided.
This column will also be used as the identification on summary cards or tabulations
which do not require individual unit numbers.
(4) & (5) Year Installed or Retired
No comment necessary, needed to show service life, age, etc. Also used in sorting
and collating to keep card file in proper sequence.
(6) Project Number
AFE (or CR) reference under which the unit was acquired, improved or retired.
(7) Class
Type of project. (Purchase, A&B, Retirement, etc.)
(8) Account
Equipment investment accounts.
51 Steam Locomotives 55 (Open Account)
52 Other Locomotives 56 Floating Equipment
53 Freight Train Cars 57 Work Equipment
54 Passenger Train Cars 58 Miscellaneous Equipment
(9) Number of Units
Each property record equipment tabulating machine card for the individual unit
of equipment will have the number "1" indicated on the initial installation or final
Records and Accounts 7 1 n
retirement project card. "0" units will be indicated for improvements or retirements
involving less than a full unit. For summary cards the units in each of the series will
be gathered together to show totals.
(10) Reported Costs
Each card will carry the costs pertaining to each transaction for each unit. Summary
cards will show series totals.
6. Preparation of Card
There might be several methods of card preparation, one of which might be a
by-product of existing machine accounting procedures. Another would start with the
valuation section's completion reports as shewn below.
After the equipment completion report has been completed, in the usual manner,
it is passed to the "Card Punching Unit of the Machine Bureau" where a separate card
is prepared for each unit of equipment involved. Due to the fact that all the identifica-
tion elements (see Art. 3): a, c, d, e and f are identical on any individual project and
elements b and g are similar, except, for the last couple of digits, the punching opera-
tion is very rapid. The punching unit duplicates all but three or four card columns
from the "Header" card. Therefore, little manual punching is involved. A tabulated
total, controlled by series, will check both the units and costs involved and avoid the
need for individual card proof reading. All cards will be interpreted across the top of
the card, eliminating any necessity for reading "holes".
In case of a transfer from an existing manual record to a machine record, the
cumulative result, at a given date for each car in service, can be cut as the opening
set of cards. (See Cols. 40 to 55 of card sample on Road 3 of Appendix B. for an
example of this)
7. Filing of Cards
After punching, the individual cards are collated with previous cards in proper
sequence in the master file. This master file will, at all times, have the cards in sequence.
All cards relating to an individual unit will be in sequence of work. As series are retired,
the cards pertaining to those units are transferred to a retired file for historical purposes.
8. Purposes for Which the Record May Be Used
As the card contains several types of identifying factors, the sorting unit of the
tabulating machine can quickly arrange the cards in any desired sequence. Listing or
tabulated runs may be made on the tabulator to print such statements as:
a. Complete history of a series of cars showing tin- year and project reference for
installations, changes and current status as of date of the report.
b. Analysis by types or by series under each or any equipment account.
c. Tabulation to show the age of equipment in service arranged in groups oi
series.
d. Summary cards with series, group-, or year totals as input factors tor an elec-
tronic calculator per such purposes a- depreciation, reproduction or depreciated
costs, maintenance, estimates, etc.
e. Ledger values for retirements, leases or other purposes for individual cars,
groups or car series.
f. Yearly statements of car- in service.
720 Records and Accounts
K. Statement of equipment cost or values for insurance or property taxes.
h. Analysis of causes of retirements.
i. Studies to determine service lives and depreciation rates.
9. Advantages
Due to the selective sorting or assembling capacity of the tabulating-machine equip-
ment and the automatic production of summary cards as by-products in running tab-
ulated statements, the machine has certain advantages over manually posted records.
a. Manual punching (equivalent to manual posting) is performed only once for
each item and by the process described in Art. 6, is largely automatic.
b. Filing (equivalent to posting) of subsequent transactions on an existing unit
of equipment becomes a machined (Collator) operation and does not require
computation of totals.
c. Data of special type can be pulled out of file quickly.
d. The system can pick up the cumulative results of a manually posted record at
any selected cut-off date and does not require punching of the details of the
prior record. In this case details of the prior data remain on the original
record, and details of the subsequent data are set up on the cards.
e. Tabulated statements for any desired purpose can be reproduced by any of
several reproductive processes. Pencil tabulations, totalizing, typing, proof
reading, etc., will not be required.
f. Abstracting of data from the cards becomes a machine, not a manual process.
10. Closing Comment
The foregoing deals with the basic or minimum equipment tabulating machine
card. Additional information drawn from typical installations will be found in:
Appendix A — Identification of equipment unit by an alphabetical system using
trailer cards.
Appendix B — Road 1. Complete detailed system including extensive mechanical
department data.
Appendix B— Road 2. System designed to analyze the freight train car investment
account illustrates short cuts in punching operations.
Appendix B — Road 3. Basic system designed to produce, in addition, control data
for depreciation and trust or mortgage references. Shows starting point at
January 1, 1935.
An examination of the appendices shows that the system can readily be made to fit
most any carriers requirements.
APPENDIX A— IDENTIFICATION ON PROPERTY RECORD TITLE CARD
As mentioned in Art. 10 identification can be made of each car series on a title
card (or cards, if necessary) filed at the head of the cards for each series of cars. This
identification may be condensed or expanded as much as the carrier's record keeping
demands. To provide automatic sorting, certain card columns must match the illustrated
card, as follows:
Rec o r d s an d A ccounts
721
/ Identification
History of Dnit
\
( Type
Dnit No.
Oroiif
Inst
Project No.
Code
A/C
I
1 2 3 h
, 1
5 6 7,8 9 0
1 2
r
3 a $6
2 1
7 8'9 0 ll2
3U
56
7890123U5678 1
1111
2 2 2 2
1 1 ill 1 1
2 2 2|2 2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 |
11,1111
2 21 2 2 212
1 1
2 2
,.»-'"• )
9 9 9 9
1
9 9 9'9 9 9
1
9 9
9 9
9 9 9 9 9!9
I I
9 9
~ ' \
Col. 23 will be used for a control punch and Col. 24 for the title card order.
The car series instead of the car number will be punched in the Qnil No., Cols. 5 to
10. incl. A few examples follow:
Descriptions
40 Ton Comp Stock 40 Ft Pull Std
200 Cars
Equip Trust Series A 1947
35 Ton Steel Refr AC&F 270 Cars
Equip With Preco Fans
1st Mortg Bonds Due 1983
50 Ton All Steel Hoppers Pull Std
1000 Cars
Equip With IW Steel Wheels
Roller Bearings
Equip Trust Series 1951
It can readily be seen the description can be adjusted to fit any condition found
necessary. Some roads prefer to use codes tied in to an "A/C — Kind" column, 3 or 4
card columns wide. So long as the people using the tabulated reports have the code key
it makes for simpler machine and file handling. If many widely distributed tabulations
are to be made, the decoded method above has many advantages. In any case the
demands of the road must be ascertained before designing the system to be set up.
Type
Series
GP
Year
Project
Code
.1 C
CRSK
048000
24
47
016735
XI
53
048000
24
X2
53
CRRF
050000
67
38
0178.U
XI
53
050000
67
X2
53
050000
67
X3
53
CRH
000000
89
52
0214 73
XI
53
090000
090000
89
89
X2
X3
53
53
APPENDIX B— ROAD NO. 1
The letter which accompanied the sample tabulating cards and sample tabulated
statements said:
"We are maintaining our equipment cost records, unit record of property changes,
group reporting and, in the near future, will tabulate monthly addition and betterments
reports and the retirement report to the Auditor. In the planning stage is a tabulated
Subschedule B for the BV 588."
In setting up the system a numerical code was adopted instead of an alphabetical
code to conserve card column space. By the use of printed forms with proper column
headings and leader cards with decoded descriptions, the need for reference to code
sheets was kept to a minimum.
This road's system demonstrates the extreme flexibility of a tabulating equipment
property record. It consists of five separate cards, the first of which contains the infor-
mation that is needed for most purposes. Additional descriptive detail is spread on a
supplemental or second card. Accumulation of details oi Additions and Betterments,
renumbering, reclassification, etc., on a third card, the results oi which tan be brought
forward in cumulative form to the initial basic card. Account 58 Miscellaneous Equip
722 Records and Accounts
ment, was set up on a separate set of two cards because it would not lend itself to the
regular set. Collation of the cards is maintained by a common set of six columns for
the assigned equipment number. A sort on these six columns will bring all like numbers
together, and if followed by a sort on the "Kind" column will arrange the cards in
proper equipment account groups. All cards in each account and group will be in exact
numerical sequence.
This installation demonstrates a flexibility to meet the requirements of an individual
carrier. We find tabulating machine handling for the following classes of information:
1 . Identification number — Current, original and renumbering.
2. Acquisition status — New or secondhand.
3. Date references — Built, received, renumbered, recorded, and retired.
4. Costs — Original cost, Additions & Betterments, cost to date, reproduction cost,
depreciated cost, salvage recovered, service value.
5. Net changes (used in the change section of the system)— Material, labor, and
total. Debits, credits and net.
6. Retirement or depreciation factors — Cause of retirement, percent amortized,
service life, weight of metal parts, service value, disposition.
7. Mechanical Dept. data — Builder, AAR design, mechanical class, capacity, light
weight, special equipment, seating capacity, inside length, body style, engine
number, symbol.
S. Unit assignment — Using dept., point of use, stations, system line.
The above data originate in a wide variety of sources. By passing reports, or
notices, through the tabulating card punch section, a permanent record is created that,
by collation, can be brought into a common file where all matters relating to any
individual unit of equipment is made readily available.
Records and Acccunts
723
SYSTEM -
VALUATION MASTER
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J5 (1) fOUl*M£NT COMPIETION «E*OtT 4 UNIT tfCOtO Of •tC#«TY CHANGES
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Records and Accounts 725
APPENDIX B— ROAD NO. 2
This road's card was designed by the accounting department for use in an analysis
of its ledger account for freight train cars. The card has most of the items mentioned
as basic to an equipment property record card.
One of the reasons often given for not maintaining an individual equipment record
is the time consuming task of setting up the record in the first place. We are dealing
with series of a thousand cars or more. So we resign ourselves to a group record which,
after the passage of a few years, with many additions, betterments, retirements, reclassi-
fications, etc., often without regard to sequence, leaves us a confused record. It is hard
to determine just what happened to car number 105683, as that car was changed under
10 different AFE's spread over a period of 15 years.
The setting up of the initial set of individual cards (one for each car of a 1000 car
series) is very simple and consists of punching the car numbers in a deck of 1000 cards
and the punching of a single control card with the common information. The rest of
the work is performed by automatic machines into which 500 or 600 cards are fed at a
time and removed a few minutes later with the punching or interpreting completed.
For a 1000 card series, the punching of the car numbers would take 45 min, the machine
punching of common data 100 min, and the interpreting operation 200 min, or a total
of 6 hr. So the initial set of cards would be completed within a single working day.
An abstract of this road's instructions for this operation follows:
Manual Punching Automatic Operations
A. Control Card C. Gang Punching Machine
Punch manually in a single card. (Cols. Duplicate in the "B" cards all the
7 to 22 and 50 to 63) the following: data punched in the "A" set.
a. Group number n. Interpreting Machine
b. Month and year
. ,,„ , Interpret across the top of the card
c. AFE number .... . .
all the data punched except the AFE
number.
Note: Similar instructions were given
for status changes, A & B work, renumber-
B. Unit Cards ing 0f carSj group reclassifications, retire-
Punch a card with the individual car ments of parts or the entire car etc.
d. Equipment Trust No.
e. Loading device cost, (if any)
f. Average ledger value
number in each card. (Cols. 1 to 6)
726
Records and Accounts
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Records and Accounts
;j;
APPENDIX B— ROAD NO. 3
The tabulating machine card submitted by this road is an illustration of an applica
tion for a special purpose while retaining the basic elements indicated as required for
an Equipment Tabulating Record Card.
Basic Elements fob Equtpmeni Property Record Card
Card Columns Used
Item Report Road No. 3
a. Identification
(1) Type 1 to 4 23 to 25 (Numeriail Code)
(2) Unit No 5 to 10 28 to 33
(3) Group 11 & 12 19 to 21
b. History of Unit
(4) Installed 13 & 14 36 to 39 and 56 to 59
(5) Retired 15 & 16 68 to 71
(6) Project No 17 to 22 2 to 6 and 7 to 11
Class 23 & 24 Handled in "(6 "
c. Account
(8) Account No 25 & 26 12 & 13
(9) No. of Units 27 & 32 22
(10) Reported costs 33 to 42 40 to 47, 60 to 66 & 72 to 79
All the items have been provided for by a rearrangement to fit the needs of this
application. There are a number of additional items or factors provided for. one of the
most important of which is depreciation. This carrier uses all three of the depreciation
methods, (straight line, declining balance and sum-of-the-digits) and also special
amortization authorizations. This may be illustrated by showing a few sample items.
Depreciation Codes for Equipment
Code No. Type of handling
10
11
12
14
10
.u
34
51
57
65
10
30
36
■
Amortized
Depreciable
Depreciable
Depreciable
Depreciable
Depreciable
Depreciable
Amortized
Amortized
Amortized
Depreciable
Depreciable
Depreciable
Lightweight
Depreciable
Lightweight
(Class-Card Cols. 17 and 18)
Depreciation Type
Account 52 Other Locomotives
Road diesel
Straight line Road diesel
Sum-of-digits Road diesel
Sum-of-digits Road diesel
Account 53 Freight Train Cars
Item covered
(Korean War Item I
(Prior to 19541
(After 1953)
(Betterments after 1953)
.Straight line
.Declining balance
.Declining balance
Average rate (new)
New (after 1953)
Betterments (after 1953)
Act of 1940
Act of 1950 80% only
Act of 1950 other than 80%
Arc mint 54 Passenger Train Cars
.Straight line
.Straight line
Sum-of-digits
Sum-oi -digit!
Average rate
Minimum rate
New (after 1953)
Betterments (after i
The identification as to type is taken care of by a numerical code system. In brief,
numbers under 100— Locomotives; 100 Series — Freight Train Cars; 200 Series — Pas-
senger Train Cars; 300 Series— Floating Equipment, etc. In Account 58, Miscellaneous
Equipment, the first two numbers of the type indicate the maker of the unit and the
728 Records and Accounts
■o
last number the type or style of body, 0 — Sedan, 1 — Station Wagon. 7 Diesel Tractor.
vie.
A further refinement of identification is carried over into Cols. 26 and 27 under
the title "Prefix". In Accounts 56 and 57 we find 10 — Steamers, 30 — Tugs, AB-Air
Brake Instruction Car, PD — Pile Driver, etc. In Account 58 these columns are used to
indicate the state in which the unit is licensed. The unit number assigned to automobiles
and trucks is the last six digits of the motor number.
The "Trust Series Number" is another important requirement of this installation,
and 76 trust series have been identified. As it is necessary to annualize both declining
balance and sum-of-the-digits depreciation, the base year is punched in Cols. 48 and
49, which columns would otherwise be blank for units acquired in 1954 or later. Another
interesting provision is the code system for cause of retirement shown in Col. 67 where
1 — Dismantled 5 — Converted to other equipment classes
2 — Sold for reuse 6 — Sold as scrap
3 — Casualty on home line 7 — Dismantled on foreign lines
4 — Casualty on foreign lines 8 — Converted to roadway use.
In conclusion this installation demonstrates the application of the tabulating card
method to produce not only a property record but much other data as well. With
proper sorting of the cards tabulations, entries in detail form or in totals only, can
quickly be produced by the tabulator. A sample tabulation of two cars is presented
on page 735.
Records and Accounts
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Report on Assignment 6
Valuation and Depreciation
(a) Current Developments in Connection with Regulatory
Bodies and Courts
H. T. Bradley (chairman, subcommittee), R. B. Aldridge, S. H. Barnhart, G. R. Ber-
quist, J. B. Byars, C. E. Clonts, P. D. Coons, Spencer Danby, V. H. Dovle, W. S.
Gates, Jr., H. N. Halper, K. A. Heinv, J. W. ffiggins, L. W. Howard. R. D. Igou,
E. M. Killough, C. B. Martin, B. H. Moore, C. F. Olson. H. L. Restall. C. S. Robev.
E. J. Rockefeller, J. B. Styles, E. L. Vogt, H. R. Williams, M. C. Wolf.
This is a progress report, submitted as information.
Regulatory Bodies
During the year the Sections of Engineering, Land and Valuation Order No. 3 were
consolidated into one section under the direction of a single head. In reorganizing the
valuation functions it was necessary to reassign certain functions in order to utilize more
effectively the available personnel and bring the valuation work to a more current
status.
The valuation forces of the Bureau were engaged principally during the year in
railroad and pipe line work, preparing many tentative and final valuations on an annual
basis for all pipe line companies subject to their jurisdiction. During the year statements
were prepared showing elements of value for all Class I line-haul carriers and switching
and terminal companies as of January 1, 1956.
During 1956, Class I carriers charged Account 459, Valuation Expenses, $S06,696
contrasted with $764,375 for the year 1955.
As of October 1, 1957, 116 Class I line-haul carriers were practically on a current
basis in the filing of Form B.V. 588 with the Bureau with the following exceptions:
5 carriers not filing for the year 1954 and 16 for 1955. Of the returns due December 31,
1957, 8 carriers have filed. The Forms B.V. 588 enable the Bureau to carry into its
continuous inventories and records the changes in property and their costs subsequent
to the orginal valuation.
The backlog of valuation railroad work in the Bureau as of October 1, 1957, was
as follows:
Annual
588 Returns
Engineering Inventories 1,394
Land 938
Original Cost Summaries 7
In measuring progress of its valuation work, the Bureau was not able to reduce
the backlog of work which has been building up over the past several years, however,
it is believed that the Section of Valuation as now organized, and also the recruitment
and training of new personnel, will be able to reduce this backlog during the next 12
months. The total number of personnel engaged in valuation work in the Section of
Valuation on October 1, 1957, was 43, not including those field personnel which were
previously merged with the staff of the Bureau's Accounting Examiners.
Procedures followed by the ICC in making valuation reports of the railroads and
pipe lines were described by Chairman Clarke of the ICC at a hearing on October 23
before (he Antitrust Subcommittee of the House Judiciary Committee. The hearing was
Records and Accounts 737
held in connection with an inquiry which that subcommittee is making into matter*
pertaining to pipe line companies.
Mr. Clarke said the experience gained by the Commission in connection with it.s
valuation of the railroads, the field work for which was practically completed in 1920,
was used largely as the basis for the development of practical procedures, which started
in 1935, for ascertaining the initial valuation of pipe line properties as well as the
perpetuation of such inventories.
Submission of a tentative finding in nearly half the railroad valuations, according
to Mr. Clarke, constituted a signal "for an intensive effort to upset that finding and
to increase the total amount of the valuation." With few exceptions, he said, the rail-
roads extended cooperation to the Commission on all technical matters but when "the
final value became the issue, the Commission was confronted with a persistent attack on
its methods, its policies, and its decisions." As a result, Mr. Clarke said that the
method of handling valuation protests "was revised by resorting to joint conference
composed of representatives of the Commission's staff and rail industry technicians"
with the states being invited to participate. These joint conferences, he added, "gen-
erally resulted in partial, and in many instances in complete agreement on facts and
principles that were later incorporated in the records on which the Commission or
courts had to pass in determining value." Initial valuation of railroad properties, Mr.
Clarke said, was completed in 1933.
"The work of preparing the basic pipe line reports, as of December 31, 1947," Mr.
Clarke aded, "was comp'eted in the year 1952. The Commission has issued valuation
reports annually on all pipe lines subject to its jurisdiction subsequent to that date."
Mr. Clarke said that questions were raised by members of the subcommittee staff
concerning the participation by committees connected with the pipe line industry in the
establishment of guide prices. His answer to these questions was "the difficulties encoun-
tered in connection with finalizing valuations for railroad properties dictated the adher-
ence to committee procedures in carrying forward valuation activities pertaining to pipe
line properties." Mr. Clarke added that the principal function performed by industry
committees is to assist in the development of annual guide prices used in determining
current costs of reproduction new and costs of reproduction less depreciation and that
"the assistance of the committee members has been invaluable in the development of
annual guide prices because of their familiarity with the materials and prices and their
close contacts with manufacturers."
Elements of Value as of December 31, 1955
The Bureau of Accounts, Cost Finding and Valuation prepared its estimates for the
Class I carriers covering the standard elements of value as of December 31, 1955, and
released them January 2, 1957.
BV Form 588 Returns — Class II Railroads
On October 4, 1957, the Interstate Commerce Commission, through its secretary,
issued a notice relieving all Class II railroad and terminal companies, electric railways,
and water carriers shown on an attached list, of the necessity of filing reports on BV
Form 588 "Report of Property Changes", beginning with the year 1956, unless other-
wise notified. The attached list included 187 Class II railroad and terminal companies,
three electric railways, and two water carriers. This action does not relieve these carriers
from compliance with the other provisions of Valuation Order No. 3, Second ReviMtl
Issue, and Supplements thereto.
738 Records and Accounts
Ex Parte No. 206 — Increased Freight Rates,
Eastern, Western, and Southern Territories 1956
In this case the western and eastern railroads were united in a rate of return case
and asked for a 22 percent increase in freight rates or a sum that would produce an
approximate 6 percent rate of return. The southern lines asked for approximately 15
percent, which was based on increased costs without reference to rate of return. Valua-
tion testimony and a comprehensive rate of return exhibit in support of the carriers'
petition were fV.ed in this case. In its decision dated August 6, 1057, the Interstate Com-
merce Commission established a rate base for Class I line-haul carriers of approximately
$25 billion as of December 31, 1955. This figure was developed by using the Ex Parte
No. 175 method which it described as follows:
"In brief, the total value is computed on the basis of original costs except lands
and rights, working capital including materials and supplies, less recorded depreciation
and amortization, plus the present value of lands and rights."
Value computed by this method compares with a net investment of approximately
%21 billion and $32.5 billion using the Ex Parte No. 115 method. In support of its
conclusions, the Commission reviewed various decisions of the U. S. Supreme Court
from Smythe v. Ames in 1898 down to the Hope Gas Case in 1944. Commenting on
the rule of rate making based on these decisions, the Commission concluded:
"We do not construe these decisions as requiring us to prescribe reasonable rates
for individual railroads, because individual railroads must compete with each other for
traffic. However, it is clear that there is no statutory requirement or statement of policy
requiring the making of rates to yield a certain rate of return on investment either in
the United States as a whole, or in various rate territories."
Certain protestants contended that recorded depreciation used in the Ex Parte No.
175 method did not fully reflect the actual depreciation in the property because it did
not include depreciation on tracks and similar property which are treated as non-
depreciable under the accounting regulations of the Commission. This contention was
over-ruled by the Commission.
Report of the Committee on Valuation
National Association of Railroad and Utilities Commissioners
The above-named committee recently issued its annual report for 1957, consisting
of a text of 8 pages with an appendix of 16 pages which quotes excerpts from decisions
discussed in the text. Copies may be secured from the office of the Secretary, NARUC,
Box 684, Washington 4, D. C, at 75 cents per copy.
The report which covers the period June 1, 1956, through July 31, 1957, reviews
recent economic developments and notes that the gross national product increased 5.5
percent during the prior 12 months, about one-half of which represented higher physical
volume and the balance higher prices. The rate of growth has slackened in some sectors
of the economy while others have continued to expand. Interest rates are higher than
at any time in the last 25 years, which has caused preferred stocks and fixed interest
securities to decline in price.
With respect to rate base valuations, the report comments on the following
developments:
a. Legislative
Several State Legislatures took action on the method of establishing value in 1957.
Minnesota adopted "fair value" as a base and the State of Maine switched from "fair
Records and Accounts 739
value" to original cost. The number of States classified as "fair value" jurisdictions
remains at IS.
b. Commission and Court Action
The review of activities in this category reveals a great diversity of ideas and
methods among state commissions and courts for regulating rates. Cases reviewed were
mostly gas and telephone companies. For rate bases some states use original cost, some
cost of reproduction less depreciation, and others no rate base at all. The Indiana Public
Service Commission in a landmark decision in January 1957 made the following
observation.
''Depreciation is as much a cost of doing business as wages and salaries and other
obvious operating expenses; depreciation is the cost of plant or property consumed
from day to day in the production of services sold by a utility. Depreciation, or the
cost of the plant consumed, measured in current dollars, and related to other factors
as was done in the evidence presented herein tends to reflect a realistic picture of profits
in which there is no understatement of cost or overstatement of profits."
The Commission in this case ordered the company to accrue depreciation on the
basis of the cost of its property repriced in current dollars.
c. Accelerated Depreciation
With respect to this item, the report reviewed methods prescribed by various state
commissions for recording of deferred federal income taxes in connection with liberal-
ized depreciation under the provisions of Section 167 of the Internal Revenue Code of
1954. Of the 40 states reviewed 6 require utilities to report whatever taxes were paid,
10 states require tax deferrals to be recorded in surplus, 16 states prescribe that tax
deferrals accumulated should be recorded in a special reserve, and 8 states have no
definite policy.
Courts
To those who believe that original cost is not the sole criterion for rate-making
values, a decision made by the Supreme Court of Iowa September 17, 1957, in Iowa-
Illinois Gas and Electric Company v. City of Fort Dodge, Iowa, as reported in 85
N.W. 2d 28 is of considerable interest. Highlights of this decision are:
"Neither original cost, trended original cost nor reproduction cost are final ends in
themselves for public utility rate purposes, but only guides to be used in arriving at
'fair value'; and precise mathematical figures are not mandatory. * * * Original cost,
reproduction cost, and current value must be considered in fixing a public utility's rate
base. * * * Where construction costs have been substantially level for a long period
of time, original cost merits major consideration in fixing a public utility's rate base;
and where fluctuations of price levels have been sharp, but seem likely to balance out
over short term, a '50-50' weighting of original cost and reproduction costs is tenable; but
where construction costs have fallen more or less continuously over a substantial period
of time, or have risen more or less continuously over such a period, original cost can
be given weight only to extent that a return to same level appears reasonably im-
minent. * * * Under existing and prospective economic conditions, present fair value
of property used and useful by the utility in rendering public service to its customers
in Fort Dodge during 1954 would be fixed, for gas rate purposes, by giving 70 percent
weight to reproduction cost and 30 percent weight to original cost."
In recent Ex Parte rate cases, railroads have contended for a rate base using
approximately a 50-50 weighting of original cost and reproduction cost. To date the
Commission has relied solely on original cost.
740 Records and Accounts
Amortization of Defense Facilities
Amortization and income tax benefits resulting therefrom will run out in 1961.
Railroad managements have been considering plans to effect tax relief which will lessen
the impact of the loss of these benefits. One suggested method is to secure legislation
to increase depreciation charges by substituting replacement cost as the depreciation
base in place of original cost. Another proposal is to permit a deduction from income
at the time a facility is replaced equal to the difference between the cost of the new
facility and the original cost of the facility retired. Other proposals include the creation
of a tax free replacement fund and the use of a maximum life of 20 years for all rail-
road property. None of these plans has been fully developed.
Bulletin F
A revision of Bulletin F by the Internal Revenue Service has not yet been com-
pleted. Prior editions of Bulletin F have contained detailed schedules assigning service
lives to individual units of property. The generally accepted idea has been that this
bulletin should be used only as a guide, but it is alleged that some revenue agents have
construed it as a mandatory requirement for computing depreciation. There is a strong
feeling that service lives applicable to railroad property should be omitted from this
document.
Report on Assignment 7
Revisions and Interpretations of ICC Accounting
Classifications
M. M. Gerber (chairman, subcommittee), S. H. Barnhart, C. E. Clonts, C. R. Dolan,
B. Firestone, W. S. Gates, Jr., W. M. Hager, C. B. Martin, B. H. Moore, F. A.
Roberts, C. S. Robey, H. B. Sampson, J. R. Traylor, J. L. Willcox.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
ICC Docket No. 32153 — Proposed Modification of Uniform System of Accounts for
Railroad Companies, includes:
1. Modification of Profit and Loss, and Income Accounts.
2. Consideration of the matter of betterment accounting, and the related practice
in accounting for track repairs.
Order of the Interstate Commerce Commission dated June 24, 1957, makes the
proposed modification of Profit and Loss, and Income Accounts, effective January 1,
1958, subject to further order of the Commission on or before such effective date.
Under rules now in effect for betterment accounting, the cost of superior parts
applied as betterment; such as heavier rail or fastenings placed in track during repairs,
improved appliances installed in cars or locomotives during repairs; or superior parts
installed on bridges, buildings, and other structures during repairs; shall be charged to
repair expense to the extent that such cost does not exceed the cost as new at current
prices of the parts removed.
Representations have been made to the ICC that the accounting on the above basis
does not conform to generally accepted accounting practices of other industries in that
the cost of property actually removed is not cleared from property accounts, the cost
of property actually in use is not represented in property accounts, and provision is not
made currently in the accounts for depreciation of the track.
Records and Accounts 741_
In response to the invitation of the Commission for views or suggestions, the Ac-
counting Division of the Association of American Railroads, under date of June 28,
1957, submitted a presentation in behalf of its member roads supporting present better-
ment accounting and opposing substitution of write-out and write-in accounting with
depreciation, for track elements and minor items of property.
On August 21, 1957, the ICC prescribed, effective October 1, 1957, new regulations
to govern the destruction of records of railroad companies in place of the regulations
issued in 1945 and subsequently amended.
These regulations represent the minimum requirements for the retention of records
and are mandatory for all railroads. Longer periods of retention than prescribed by these
regulations are optional with the individual railroad.
Report of Committee 7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles
S. L. Goldberg, Chairman,
F. E. Schneider,
Vice Chairman,
W. L. Anderson
C. E. Atwater
H. A l still (E)
W. W. BOYER
T. P. Burc;i;ss
H. M. Church (E)
F. H. Cramer
E. M. CUMMINGS
B. E. Daniels
K. L. De Blois
P. R. Easi i s
J. T. Evans
W. A. Genereux
R. H. Gloss
G. J. Grantham
S. F. Grear (E)
R. E. Grieder
Nelson Handsaker
F. J. Hanrahan
J. F. HOLMBERG
W. C. Howe
V. T. HUCKABY
R. E. Jacobus
Milton Jarrell
R. P. A. Johnson
J. V. Johnston
W. D. Keenly
J. R. Kelly
H. G. Krih.i i
R. E. Kuehni ■!■
A. L. Lbacb
C. V. Lund
\V. B. Mackkn/h
F. W. Madison
F. B. Manning
L. J. Markwakdi
E. A. Matney
T. K. May
C. H. Newlln
W. H. O'Brien
W. A. Oliver
O. C. Rabbitt
D. V. Sartore
W. C. Schakel
A. H. Schmidt
B. J. Shadrake
Josef Sorkin
F. L. Thompson
L. W. Watson
Clifford Wendell
A. M. Westenhoff
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1 . Revision of Manual.
Progress report, submitted as information, with the intention of submitting
the material a year hence for adoption and publication in the Manual .... page 744
2. Grading rules and classification of lumber for railway uses; specifications
for structural timber, collaborating with other organizations interested.
No report.
Specifications for design of wood bridges and trestles.
Progress report, presented as information
page 761
4. Methods of fireproofing wood bridges and trestles including fire-retardant
paints, collaborating with Committees 6 and 17 and with the Fire Protection
and Insurance Section, AAR.
Progress report, presented as information page
5. Design of structural glued laminated wood bridges and trestles.
No report.
6. Design of timber-concrete composite decks, collaborating with Committee 8.
Progress report, submitted as information, with the intention of recommend-
ing in 1959 that the material be published in the Manual page 7U5
The Committee on Wood Bridges and Trestles,
S. L. Goldbf.rc. Chairman,
\RF\ Bulletin 541 January 1958.
. \3
744 Wood Bridges and Trestles
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
Milton Jarrell (chairman, subcommittee), C. E. Atwater, W. W. Boyer, F. H. Cramer,
B. E. Daniels, K. L. DeBlois, P. R. Eastes, N. Handsaker, J. V. Johnston, C. V.
Lund, W. B. Mackenzie, F. W. Madison, W. A. Oliver, O. C. Rabbitt, W. C.
Schakel, B. J. Shadrake, L. W. Watson, A. M. Westenhoff.
PLANS FOR OPEN-DECK PILE AND FRAMED TRESTLES
MULTIPLE-STORY TRESTLES AND BALLASTED
DECK PILE AND FRAMED TRESTLES
Your committee submits as information General Notes and the following plans:
Fig. 1 — Floor Plan for Open Deck Trestles
Fig. 2 — Floor Plan for Ballasted Deck Trestles
Fig. 3 — Bulkheads and Miscellaneous Details
Fig. 4 — Cap Stringer Fastening and Pile Top Protection
Fig. 5— Bent Details for Open-Deck Pile Trestles
Fig. 6 — Bent Details for Ballasted Deck Pile Trestles
Fig. 7 — Longitudinal Bracing
Fig. 8 — Details of Footings for Framed Bents
Fig. 9— Multiple-Story Trestle Bents
Fig. 10— Multiple-Story Trestle Bents
Fig. 11 — Walkway Handrail — Open Deck Trestles
Fig. 12 — Water Barrel and Refuge Platform — Open Deck Trestles
Fig. 13 — Track Car Platforms — Open Deck Trestles
Fig. 14— Walk and Handrail— Ballasted Deck Trestles
Fig. 15 — Water Barrel and Refuge Platform — Ballasted Deck Trestles
Fig. 16— Track Car Platform— Ballasted Deck Trestles
Comments on and criticisms of these plans are invited for the committee's guidance
for making any necessary changes and revisions.
Next year it is proposed to submit the plans and General Notes with the recom-
mendation that they be adopted and published in the Manual to replace obsolete
drawings, Figs. 1 to 8 incl., presently shown on pages 7-4-3 to 7-4-10, incl.. of the
Manual.
General Notes
For various combinations of loading, panel lengths, number and size of stringers,
number of piles and permissible working stresses, see Part 2, this chapter.
All lumber and piles shall be pressure treated in accordance with Chapter 17.
All lumber shall be framed and bored before treatment wherever possible.
Holes shall be bored the same diameter as the bolt and % in less than the nominal
diameter of drive spikes.
Lumber cut after treatment shall be painted with three coats of hot creosote oil.
Holes bored after treating shall be treated with hot creosote oil applied with a
pressure bolt hole treater.
Text continued on page 7fil.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
745
AMERICAN "PAIL WA> ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
F| 00R PI AN FOP or[N Dl
4i8 SPACER TIMBER
i:^:-::- :■: :■:
FOR alternate CAP- NOTE CI
NN -• 1 STRlNCEK FASTENING, ' * uiiAlil
INTERMEDIATE SPA
! -
will GOVERN
ELEVATION
J + DRVFT BOLTS
i*PACKiN& BOLTS
*
;
(J_ TRACK ft Tfi
•:
**. r»
LJ
HJH-LHhL •
J ill' Ut_J U '." ■ ' •' TO 5*Etrf]
^ RAi,
. I
SINGLE Rlf : '"«" r>:
INTO iTRING
10 w» -I >•
M » . , ...
JtBOL-i
PLAN (4 PLY CHORD)
I_J U U
^ * PACKING BOLT J
PLAN (3 PLY CHORD)
MATiC DIAGRAM
CONTINUOUS LAP-TiPE DECK- S Pll CHORD
746
Wood BridRCS and Trestles
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGlNFERiNG ASSOCIATION
FLOOR PLAN FOR BALLASTED DFCK TRE5TLL"
NOTE BAlLA&T BETAINEfl BOLTS TO
(>ASSthfW«*4n CENT Eft r>*
tLOnn pi :■'.■ .••■.- . ACE 1
HEAi, UP
BALLAST RETAINER
TTT
w^-TT^'nvf:i««»iB^v^sjujyiin.ii^y^BMir-».T>. im - ll^lfcwn PBB I jllM»*Jt*
wi
P
i
3
3'-0
-*— — * — -£* — *^~ *- * — *tjr
£_.1a,BOIT$ ^J FQH i _- T>_ PROTECTION £>
J ! ' iEE FiG 4
INTERMEDIATE J.PAN
ELK. VAT I ON
r-$_ TRACK
\&. toeSTlE
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
CONTINUOUS LAP TYPE DECK
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
NON- CONTINUOUS LAP-TYPE DECK
Wood Bridges and Trestles
747
FIG. 3
AMERICAN RAILWAY "2«G)N£FR1NG A590CWTTOH
BULKHEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS
t TRACK. 8. TRESTLE
> — *'tti
i m bulkhead
■f PLANKS
BULKHEAD, 6 PILE END BENT &. OPEN TIMBER DECK
^ TRACK 6i TRESTLE
s:
BASE OF RAIL
.ssC
4*« l'-IO DRIFT BOLT
-L . . 4*|47.
>**--.-,
finrorfiTOili^
14 . |4.»*4-0
CAP
BATTER 2.
PER FOOT —
BATTER t
PER FOOT
^^♦-r-8 DRIFT
BOLT
4-m BULK HEAD
PLANKS
BULKHEAD. 6 PILE END BENT Px BALLAST TIMBER DECK
NOTE:
LENGTH OF fc j_'»EAD Planks
shall conform to the fmbank-
went cross-sectio-..
wing Piles may be omitted
when heavier planks than
shown are used.
FOP. BALIASTED DECK TRESTlES
Z IMOR LESS SyPER-
Elevation, bents mav &e tut
LEVEL AND 4UPEH ELEVATION
rAKF,N ijP IN BALLAST
SUPER ELEVATION
WORKING POINTS FOR
<£. PILE'S ON
HORIZONTAL LINE
PROVISION FOR SUPER ELEVATION
74S
Wood Bridges and Trestles
FIG A
AWCRiCAK (WiLrti* ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
« AP STRINGER TASTENIN^ AND RLE TOP PROTECTION
CuT WASHER
VERTICAL ANGLE TVPE
J» BOLT OR j« WASHER
HEAD DRIVE SPIKE If7 PILE
INTERFERES
}•» BOLTS1
LL 4x4 • j ■?'-(
HORIZONTAL ANGLE TrP£
■J * BOLTS
2»-£ twisted BAJ?
NOTE' I INCH DIAMETER BA£S MAV BE
SUBSTITUTED FOR THE 2 * It 6ARS
STRAP TYPE
NOTF THF ABOrE CAP STRINGER
FASTENINGS MAY BC USED
AS AN ALTERNATE TO DRIFT
BOLTS AS SHOWN IN FIG. I
PLASTIC
CEMENT AREA
29-2IZ
(APPLY COLD)
2 LAYERS OF 4
OZ SATURATED
COTTON FABRIC
AREA 29-209
2 COATS OF HOT
CREOSOTE OIL TO
TOP OF PILE
PLASTIC CEWCNT
(APPLY COLD)
FASTEN SATURATED
COTTON FABRIC
WITH ROOFING NAILS
PILE TOP PROTECTION
Wood Bridges and Trestles
749
AMERICAN RAILWAY EN&INEERlNb AibOClATlON
BENT DETAILS FOR OPEN DECK PilE TRESTLES
4 . 14 . |4 -'
■
SPIKE SRlDS in B<>All JOINTS
HOTC f'ClA 6C. " INI ■-. rKll MAT 84 . ,.
iHiTCte OF I DM !>OlTc- A '»CkT SPiKF »it>S
re DETAIL A PU ttb 1
■ height men x aoo 6-*e mo«s sasm
BRACE /J t, EEtOW OOTlt+l OP O. "•■.
. iiiSESPONUlA* U«tS
W»EN h*|j utti T-A\ t 4RTAMM fXMin*
AS SHOWN S/ 0OTTE& J.INES
( ■ r • | I GROUNO LINE LE^ T»«'.
Than 8' OMiT -sWAt BRACING.
750
Wood Bridges and Trestles
FIG 6
AMERICAN fJAILWXy ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
BF.NT DETAILS TOR BALLASTED DFCK PILE TRESTLE
BASt OF RAIL
-BASE OF RAIL
NOTE FOR DETAILS OF
SPIKE GRIDS IN BftACl
JOINTS, SEE FI65
FOR DETAIL A, SEE FK3.7
FOR BASE OF RAIL TO GROUND
LINE. LESS THAN O', OMIT SWAY
BRACING
Wood Bridges and Trestles
751
fig. 7
AMEPlLMlvi -/.iLWAV EMGlNEERiNS ASSOOATiCN
. , .-ITUDIMAI r
4.6
4-8
HALF BENT ELEVATION
2 I
UJ 10 -I
^L-i'bolt
r-
BOLT
<j 1 4 ,^i- I2-I4- 2^0 BLOCK
1 TO FIT 6ETAEEN
J^ HORIZONTAL 6RACES
B~J
DETAIL AT 'A'
FRAMED
alternate: detail at u
,6-6 GiRT-
t~T»
'-■i' BOLTS
TION B-fcS
j_Q
4- a
/♦•6 SA5h)y
[brace j
SECTION C-C TioN D u
^Tjj^i^jm^' ^gj[
TYPICAL LONGIT BRACING fOK PILE. IKfcSlLtS TreiCAL LOMGlT BRAONG FC* FRaMll; ~nESTLt5
TRESTLES OVER lOOPT LONG AND 20FT HIGH
SHALL HAVE. CROSS BRACING EVERV THIRD BENTS OF All HEIGH
PANEL GiRTS iHALL EXTEND TO BANK SE- GIRT5 SAivae AS FOK HilE THlSTLl:
CURELY FASTENED TO 8EN.T AT GROUND 36ACINS shall gS PlAcSO As to mot
UNE. BUT SHALL NOT OBSTRUCT WATERWAY OBSTRUCT waterway
752
Wood Bridges and Trestles
FIG 8
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
DETAILS OF FOOTINGS FOR FRAMED BENTS
WHERE ANLH - . I
iSCOimjiOCKlu
i ~ -
---
Of uGa£l$
i.ONTlNuOub FOUNDATION*:.
MAH Kt uSc L .'. HEN LO-
ONDiTlOl ' .OH Ft
• vr rV-r ! rVr
NOTfL
BAT T F_ h pi L To
2j PEk' FT FUR BALLAST
?iKk ft FOR :-<-'.
ti i'.:.d PILE'S SHOWN
I i-Ek FT FCR BAlLAST
I PEK FT FOR OP| .
DET-K. TK
FRAME BENT ON CONCKt FE fT.DESFALS
. 1j_i
G POS I 6[lil
;■' '| l*C30LT
. DETAIL'S"
I
An
t*r- ,*?-, t-.ti ) r^i j?»-i:o dpift
■— ^l J_>°— — — 4 T," _ L— =— >— | _; _ L— — — I __; _ (———4. /''.I— — ALTERNATE DETAIL
5 POST BENT
FkAME BENT ON PILES
NOTE
.'. •, 6RACHNG FGK FKAI^FD
bENTS TO be 5.MILAK TO
FilE BFmTS.Fi&<
3 - I ? . I 2 JlW^
: : : ,_s__r __i_ jL^f,,,-!.- r^i
~^ ;.r...:r
f r floiH^J *._-J 1_iJ
6 POST BENT
FRAME BENT ON TIMBER BLOCKING
Wood Bridges and Trestles
753
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
MULTIPLE STORY TRESTLE BENTS
BASE OF RAIL
E3 □
NOTE
I FOR ALTERNATE DETAIL
USING SPIKE GRIDS IN
BRACE JOINTS SEE FIG 5
Z. FOR DETAILS B AND C SEE
FIG. 10.
3. SPACING OF POSTS SIMILAR
TO 5B4CING IN ONE STORT
TRESTLES.
4. SUPER ELEVATION ON
Cl/RVES TO BE FRAMED
IN POSTS.
6 P05T BENT
754
Wood Bridges and Trestles
riG. 10
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
MULTIPLE 5TORY TRESTLE BENTS
6ASE OF RAIL-y
\OTE;
I. SPACING Or POSTS
SIMILAR TO SPACING IN
3NE STOR^r TRE'.»';I5.
/ IPER ELEVATION ON '
. es TO BE
FRAMED IN POSTS.
5 POST BENT
Wood Bridges and Trestles
755
Flo. II
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
IL -.A£JDRAIL- OPEN DE<LK TRESTLES
AREA CLEARANCE DIAGRAM
4«6 post
DAP POST I OVER TIE
2 x 6 BRAC E
OAP TIE FOR BRACE
8 • S . I6-0 TIES
c-c varies with
tie spacing
ELEl/ATION
DETAILS OF WALK WITH WOOD
HANDRAIL
t TRACK
nr
NOTE
FOR NOTES C". AMLC
AND hWNDRuii, SEE
Fi6 12.
~^£= :;'•'£ • -~ -"'i :r
STRiNGE SS »NO PliES,
THXn SMOWN, |VWY B£ .S£D
SEE6FNERAI. NOTES
£»t> BRACE | j Kyi l!i
DAP TIE 1' Ur*
.- f, BRACE]
e»e ■ i6-o ties
C-C /ARIES WlTHr
TIE SPACING J
f°°i
STEE.
CABLE HANDRAIL
STEEL POST HANDftAlU
756
Wood Bridges and Trestles
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
WATER BARREL AND REFUGE PLATFORM-OPEN DECK TRESTLES
J'-OWN. t TRACK
l—AREA CLEARANCE
"> DIAGRAM
8'-0 MIN. t TRACK
■AREA CLEARANCE
DIAGRAM
2« 6 BRACES -
4 ■ 6 POST
-\\J' sa ±
U^J
A. ■ 6 POST ) \
DAP POST I I -*
OVER TIE
£h Lo
ELEVATION
E.LE\/ATION
6 - 8 ■ l7'-6 TIES
C.-C. VARIES WITH
TIE SPACING
m
^_ TRACK
2 PLANK-
Z-& HANDRAIL-
B - & • i4'-fe TIES
C.-C. VARIES WITH
TIE SPACING
BARREL PLATFORM
REFUGE PLATFORM
NOTES:
I WALKS ARE SHOWN ON ONE
SIDE OF BRIDGE ONLt PROVIDE
WALKS ON BOTH SIDES WHERE
. NEEDED.
2. GREATER CLEARANCE THAN
SHOWN IS TO BE PROVIDED
WHERE STATE OR OTHER
LAWS REQUIRE. INCREASE
CLEARANCE AS REQUIRED FOR
CURVED TRACK.
3. ALL FRAMING NOT BOLTED
SHALL BE ADEQUATELY SPIKED
4 AS ALTERNATE PLAN TO USING
LONG TIES, OUTRIGGERS PLACED
BETWEEN TIES WAY BE USED FOR
SUPPORT Of WALKS AND PLATFORMS.
5 LOCATION OF WATIR BARREL PLATFORM
SHALL BE AS SPECIFIED BY CMCF ENGINEER
ft OTHER COMBINATIONS 0F5TR|N6£RS AND PUES, THHH
-SHOWN M/>yB£ USED. SEf 6FN£R»L NOTfS.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
757
tlG II
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
TRACK CAR PLATFORMS-OPEN DECK TRESTLES
HOOK 80LT
SEE DETAIL
s 3-0 4-0 j'o e
LZ
| ^B^
mm i mm i
"^ 5 • i'-0 BOAT SPIKE.
lis :z^
"-P
te
LJ ! Lol
PLATFORM
STRINGER
u
8 .►
. :
CLE. VAT ION
SIDE VIEW
SCHEME A
USING LONG TIES
WHERE LENGTH OF MOTOR CARS IN USE REQUIRES LONGER PLATFORM,
ADOlTiONAL SUPPORT FOR LONG TIES OR A PLATFORM SEPARATE
FROM TRESTLE SHALL BE PROVIDED
OTHER COMBN/tl "a MGE05 AND PiLES TH/m £mo^\n NWYSE.St'D. SEE GENERAL
NOTES.
'! 'I
\ • 3 TO FIT I*- 1-0 LONG
STRINGER ' THREAD 4
-JT* I* HOLE-
HOOK BOLT
i IS - -> • 3 ■ J • I' 3
ELEVATION
ALL BOLTS 4* ,i
BOLT
SIDE VIEW
SCHEME B
UbiNG MANGERS
758
Wood Bridges and Trestles
FIG. 14
AMERICAN) RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
WALK AND HANDRAIL -BALLASTED DECK TRESTLES
AREA CLEARANCE DIA6RAM
4,4«S'0 POST
4x12 DECKIN6 -
SIDEWALK BLOCK 6xl2,2'-72-
M M M M M M MIT
W
Elevation
de tails or walk with wood
handrail
4x4x5-0 POST
2x6 HANDRAILS — —
cd
^ BOLTS-
NOTE
OTHERCONIBINATIONS 0
STRINGERS AND PILE'S
THAN SHOWN, MAY BE
USED. SEE GENERAL
NOTES.
* a
- ry~
hfe-ll
:-
f'.'u..
-£i ^ LA.
lp
rr
4x'4x5'-0POST
PLAN
TRACK <£.
LVW'RE ROPE
U HOOK BOLTS
BOLTS
CA BLE HANDRAI L
8-0 Ml N
TRAC K t
IL - 4*4«i POST
V \
*" — - WIRE ROPE
/ TH Ru HOOK BOLTS
J.
I I ,
s£
■.-''ftS'fc-* .
¥¥KM
N I
'-O1 L<^/ Lx
STEEL POST HANDRAIL
Wood Bridges and Trestles
759
FIG |5
AMERICAN RAILWAY EN&1NIEP1N6 ASSOCIATION
WATER BARREL AND REFUGE PLATFORM- BALLASTED DECK TRESTLES
8' 0 MINI (^ TRACK
?»* 6RAC£S
4.fc POST
4, 12 DECKING
I '(. POST-JT~3i^"
4« l? DECKIN & •
DAP POST
I OVER TIE
ELEVATION
ELEVATION
2 » . HANORAiL
t TRACK
2« 6 HANDRAIL
{.TRACK
PLAN
BARREL platform
Plan
REFUGE PLATFORM
NOTE :
1 WALKS ARE SHOWN ON ONE
SIDE OF BRiDGE ONLY PROVIDE
WALKS ON BCTh SiDES WHERE
NEEDED
2 GREATER CLEARANCE THAN
SHOWN IS TO BE PROVIDED
WHERE STATE OR OThEP
LAWS REQUIRE INCREASE
CLEARANCE AS REQUIRED FOR
CURVED TRACK
3 ALL FRAMING NOT BOLTED
SHALL BE ADEQUATE LT SPIKED
OTHER COMBINATIONS Of STRINGERS 4ND
«LES THAN SHOWN 'WAT BE USED. SEE
C£NE«AL NOTES.
760
W o o d Bridges and Trestles
FKE 14
AMERICAN RAILWAY ERGREERINO ASSOCIATION
TRACK CAR PLATFORM * BALLASTED DECK TR£S/L£S
DETAILS SHOWN ARE FOR W-O TRESTLX
SPANS. FOR OTHER SPAN LXNGTHS,
VARY DETAILS ACCORDINGLY.
FOR NOTES ON WALK AND HANDRAIL, SEE
FI6. 15
OTHER COMBINATIONS OF STRIN6ERS AND PILES
THAN SHOWN, WY&C USID. SEE &ENERAL
NtTT«S
Wood Bridges and Trestles 761
Each bolt shall have a square head, suitable type lock nut and 2 OG washers, with
a double-oil spring when shown on the plans.
Trestles on curves shall be built to follow the curve. Bents shall be placed on
radial lines and spaced to maintain standard panel lengths under the outside stringer.
Crushed-rock ballast shall be hard, durable stone and shall conform to size No, 4
of the National Bureau of Standards.
For use of protective coatings for hardware see Miscellaneous Part, this chapter.
For use of inner guard rails see Part 3, this chapter.
Report on Assignment 3
Specifications for Design of Wood Bridges and Trestles
C. V. Lund (chairman, subcommittee), W. L. Anderson, F. H. Cramer, F. J. Hanrahan,
R. P. A. Johnson, C. H. Newlin.
Report of Special Subcommittee Collaborating with AAR
Engineering Division Research Staff
Your committee presented in Bulletin 538 a report titled "Fatigue Resistance of
Quarter-Scale Bridge Stringers of Green and Dry Southern Pine" by Wayne C. Lewis
of the Forest Products Laboratory. This is the first progress report on a series of tests
being conducted in cooperation with the AAR on quarter-scale specimens of timber
bridge stringers. The report covers tests completed on untreated green and dry specimens
with and without artificial checking along the neutral axis simulating natural checks in
large timbers, and for one species only, namely southern pine. Tests on treated specimens
are in progress, and all tests will be repeated on Douglas fir specimens.
In 1949 your committee initiated a limited number of tests on the fatigue strength
of full-size stringers, conducted at Purdue University. These tests were reported to the
Association in a paper by Dr. J. L. Leggett, Jr., titled "Investigation of Fatigue
Strength of Railroad Timber Bridge Stringers" and printed in Vol. SS of the Pro-
ceedings.
The Purdue tests were the first tests of the kind ever attempted insofar as known.
Information developed from those tests indicated the need for a thorough study of the
behavior and strength of timber in repeated loading under controlled conditions, with
the many variables present in timber limited. It is the objective of the tests being
conducted at the Forest Products Laboratory to procure data for correlation to later
tests to be undertaken on full-size stringers at the AAR Research Laboratory.
This first progress report of the Forest Products Laboratory, like the tests conducted
at Purdue, directs attention to the importance of severe checking and of sloping grain
in any study of working stresses. Until the research program is much further advanced
your committee is offering no conclusions.
Your committee had expected to offer this year its report on the tests of bolted
timber joints conducted by the AAR research staff. Analysis of the data obtained is not
yet complete, however, and the report will be presented next year.
762 Wood Bridges and Trestles
Report on Assignment 4
Methods of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles,
Including Fire-Retardant Paints
Collaborating with Committees 6 and 17 and with the
Fire Protection and Insurance Section, AAR
B. E. Daniels (chairman, subcommittee), W. W. Boyer, W. A. Genereux, V. T. Huckaby,
R. E. Jacobus, J. V. Johnston, W. D. Keeney, J. R. Kelly, A. L. Leach, W. B.
Mackenzie, F. W. Madison, L. J. Markwardt, E. A. Matney, W. C. Schakel, F. E.
Schneider, F. L. Thompson.
This is a progress report, submitted as information, on an investigation of fire-
retardant coatings for use on timber trestles being conducted for your committee at the
AAR Research Center by the Engineering Division research staff. The investigation is
being carried out by S. K. Coburn, chemical engineer, assisted by K. J. Morris, under
the general direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research.
A. INTRODUCTION
For the past six years the chemical engineering staff has been carrying out funda-
mental investigations relating to the burning characteristics of treated timber. The pur-
pose of these studies was to develop enough valid information to facilitate the writing
of a specification covering the performance of fire-retardant coating materials recom-
mended for application on treated bridges and trestles.
Periodic reports describing progress in the research phase of the study have been
published, beginning with the one in the Proceeding, Vol. 55, page 135, detailing the
joint experimental field work of the AAR and the Santa Fe carried out under the super-
vision of C. H. Sandberg and L. C. Collister and under the general direction of T. A.
Blair. Subsequent reports may be found in the Proceedings, Vol. 55, page 567; Vol. 56,
page 636; Vol. 57, page 566; and Vol. 58, page 1170.
It is now possible to present experimental data which discriminate between timber
treated at different retentions with the same preservative, and between timber treated
with different preservatives at the same retention. By that is meant that a timber
specimen treated with creosote will burn with greater intensity than a timber specimen
treated with a 60:40 creosote:coal tar solution, at the same retention, when the two
test specimens are subjected to a standard fire test. Similar and significant differences
exist also when creosote: petroleum-treated timber is considered. Furthermore, when two
timber specimens containing the same preservative, at different retentions, are subjected
to the standard fire test they demonstrate significant differences. The conclusion drawn
from these results emphasizes the fact that timber intended for bridge and trestle con-
struction should be carefully examined as to its burning characteristics, in terms of its
retention, if it is to be used to evaluate potentially useful fire-retardant coating materials.
B. PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMENS
With the help of official timber inspectors, a quantity of southern yellow pine and
Douglas fir was selected that was free of pitch pockets, stains, and knots, and fulfilling
the requirements for "Grade B or better" timber. The wood was cut into specimens
measuring 1% by 5% by 18 in and sent to the U. S. Department of Agriculture's Forest
Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis., which treated the timber with creosote, and
with solutions consisting of a 60:40 mixture of creosote with coal tar and a 50:50
Woo d Bridges and Trestles
7b.<
Fig. 1 — Treating tank.
mixture of creosote and petroleum (physical constants met the specifications of the
American Wood Preservers Association). The treatment was carried out by W. J. Hegge
under the direct supervision of J. O. Blew, technologist Fig l shows the pilot treating
tank containing the tagged specimens whose ends were painted with a dye to indicate the
amount of sapwood and heartwood present.
764 Wood Bridges and Trestles
All treatments led to homogeneous retentions of 10, 20, and 30 lb per cu ft lor
each of tlir preservatives used. These retentions simulate those encountered in structural
bridge timbers. The need for treating to a retention as high as 30 lb per cu ft is due
to the observation that the preservative in piling concentrates in the sapwcod region.
Thus, a nominal retention of 16 11) per cu ft actually may be concentrated in the sap-
wood area to the extent of 30 to 40 lb per cu ft.
C. DESCRIPTION OF LABORATORY BURNING AND TEMPERATURE
MEASURING APPARATUS
1. Temperatures Reached in Field Tests
From joint field tests carried out by the AAR and Santa Fe Bridge Department
it was established that tumbleweed fires (see Fig. 2a) beneath ballasted or sealed decks
develop temperatures as high as 1805 deg F within 60 sec of ignition. Some of the test
data are shown in Fig. 2b. Note the various locations of the thermocouples on the
replica bent. It is evident from the temperatures shown a maximum is reached within
2 min. Thermocouples 2 and 3 (T.C. — 2 and T.C. — 3) were located at the same position;
one was fixed on the external surface of the pile while the other was placed beneath
the paint and in contact with the timber surface. It is evident from these two curves
that the coating ruptured and that relatively high internal temperatures were main-
tained as a resu'.t of a small fire developing beneath the coating. The external tempera-
ture was dropping rapidly since the tumbleweeds had been consumed some 5 min
earlier.
2. Fire Test Cabinet and Oscillograph
To reproduce in the laboratory the high temperatures observed in the field tests,
a fire test cabinet was developed for use in a laboratory hood. A standard fuel gas
available throughout the country and having a fixed heat content, such as propane,
is used to supply the standard fire.
Temperatures at various depths within a test specimen were determined through
the insertion of chromel-alumel thermocouples on the surface of the specimen and at
l/%-, %-, and ^2-in depths below the surface and reaching 2% in to the center of the
broad face. The thermocouples were attached to a 12-channel oscillograph through an
ice-point reference junction and recorded the test data on slowly moving film using
light reflected from mirror-vane galvanometers. The fire test cabinet, oscillograph and
fire test cabinet in action are shown in Fig. 3.
D. SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION
The present investigation is being carried out simultaneously in six phases. These
include studies in the following areas:
(1) Weight losses incurred by treated specimens, bare and coated, subjected to a
standard ignition period in the fire test cabinet.
(2) Magnitude of temperatures reached within a burning specimen.
(3) Evaporation rates and losses characteristic of various preservatives at various
retentions.
(4) Extraction of preservative from burned specimens and determination of ratio
of burned oil to burned wood.
(5) Toxicity studies on residual preservative obtained by extraction from burned
specimens.
(6) Drafting of performance specifications based on experimental data.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
765
Fig. 2a — End panel with tumbleweed (above) and after ignition (below).
766
Wood Bridges and Trestles
ABT 2
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NOTE THERMOCOUPLE NO 3 IS ON SURFACE
OF PILE AND UNOER FlREPROOFING
777? T77T, — V77
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ELEVATION
2OO0| r
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
A B C D
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TC. NO. 2
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T. C. NO. 3
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TC. NO. 2
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TC N
0 1 ? 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
TIME IN MINUTES
THERMOCOUPLES ON DUMP BENT
Fig. 2b — Location of thermocouples on end panel and temperatures reached
at maximum, and above and below coatings (T.C. No. 2 and T.C. No. 3).
Fig. 3 — Fire test cabinet with oscillograph.
Wood Bridges and Trestles 767
1. Weight Loss Incurred by Treated Specimens in Fire Test Cabinet
Timber specimens which had been quantitatively treated at the Forest Products
Laboratory were burned in the fire test cabinet 6 months after treatment and then
allowed to age for 18 months, following which additional specimens of similar reten-
tion were burned. A similar group of specimens (where available) were burned after
3 years of aging. The most useful criteria for evaluation of these specimens is weight
loss; this is expressed in terms of percent weight loss and in lb per cu ft loss. The
weights of the specimens are taken immediately prior to and following the standard
fire test. Five treated southern yellow pine specimens of each type were burned and the
arithmetical average used for plotting curves. The data presented in Figs. 4a, 4b, and
4c illustrate the results obtained under three sets of conditions. These were as follows:
(1) Timber was aged 6 months prior to burning and allowed to burn freely for
30 min before extinguishing, following a 5-min ignition period.
(2) Timber was aged for 18 months before burning. Following a S-min ignition
period, free burning time was restricted to 15 min.
(3) Timber which had been allowed to age for 3 years was subjected to a 5-min
ignition period and allowed to burn freely for 30 min.
Significant observations derived from the graphs are as follows:
Untreated timber (UNT) sustains a weight loss of 26 percent or 10 lb per cu ft
of wood.
In Fig. 4a 6-month-old timber at 30-lb retention clearly demonstrates the magni-
tude of differences which are encountered when timber treated with different preserva-
tives is studied. Specimens treated at 20-lb retentions show similar differentiation.
Timber treated to contain 10 lb of preservative shows no significant differences between
preservatives.
When the timber is allowed to age an additional 12 months (18 months old) and
subjected to the same 5-min ignition period, but restricted to a free burning period of
15 min in order to secure a direct comparison with untreated timber, the same relation-
ships between retention and preservative are evident, as seen in Fig. 4b. The free burning
time tends to lower the net losses but does not change the relationships.
After 3 years of aging some specimens of 30-lb retention again were ignited for
5 min and allowed to burn freely for 30 min before extinguishing. The results shown
in Fig. 4c indicate a greater loss than sustained in the 18-month aged specimens, due
to the longer free burning period, but significantly less weight loss than when the timbers
were relatively fresh and allowed to burn freely for 30 min.
It is evident in each case of specimens with high retentions that creosote-treated tim-
ber loses more weight than specimens treated with creosote solutions of coal tar and
petroleum. Freshly treated timber loses more weight than aged timbers. The fires in aged
timbers appear, subjectively, to burn less intensely and were easier to extinguish at the
conclusion of the free burning periods. If treated specimens are to be used for study
they should be kept in cool areas and stacked together with minimum access to air in
order to minimize the loss of low boiling preservative components by evaporation, else
correlations are extremely difficult to effect and misleading information will result.
To account for the constantly greater loss of weight in creosote-treated specimens
as opposed to creosote: petroleum-treated specimens one might consider the compositions
of the preservative solutions. The creosote solutions are composed principally of aromatic
compounds which have carbon to hydrogen ratios of 1:1 down to 1:0.7. When aliphatic
768
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Wood Bridges and Trestles 769
compounds, such as are present in petroleum and whose carbon to hydrogen ratio i-
more of the order of 1:2, are burned, they yield up to three times as much water as
do aromatic compounds during the course of combustion. Water is the best fire extin-
guishing agent available to man because it possesses the highest heat absorptive capacity
of any known substance. As a result of the water produced during the course of burn-
ing, the fire is forced to waste a significant number of heat units in turning it to steam.
This results in a relatively less intense fire for burning purposes. The water acts as a
coolant and moderating influence.
The important conclusion to be drawn from this work is that one cannot utili/e
with any degree of confidence information obtained from burning a coated specimen,
in order to evaluate its performance potential, when the identity and retention of the
preservative and the approximate date of treatment and condition of storage are uncer-
tain or unknown.
2. Temperature Studies
(a) Boiling Range of Creosote and Creosote Solutions
Since creosote and solutions of creosote with coal tar and creosote with petroleum
contain upwards of 200 identifiable compounds, it is readily apparent that creosote is
not a pure material. Examples of compounds which have been identified in the creosote
fraction as being among the lowest and highest boiling substances present are pyridine,
boiling at 239 deg F, and chrysene. boiling at 824 deg F. The boiling range of the most
toxic fraction of creosote is between 500 and 600 deg F, with varying degrees of toxicity
characteristic of the other fractions. This toxic range may vary somewhat in creosote
obtained from different coals, and by different processing methods.
Because of the wide boiling range of creosote, valuable information can be obtained
by determining the internal temperatures developed at various distances from the surface
of treated timber specimens subject to a simulated high-intensity fire (typified by burn-
ing tumbleweeds where temperatures as high as 1895 deg F have been observed). Since
wood is not a good conductor of heat, such high internal temperatures are unlikely to
be reached; however, from the standpoint of oil retention, it is necessary to learn
whether the temperatures are produced in the creosote boiling range. A means for
making such measurements has been developed. The data which follow illustrate the
problems created as a result of the internal temperatures observed in burning numerous
test specimens.
(b) Tempi-rut we Measurements in Variously Treated Wood at Three Retentions
The surface and internal temperatures of treated specimens burned in the fire test
cabinet were measured with chromcl-alumel thermocouples located at the mid-point
of the broad surface of the specimen and at depths of T/g in, J4 hi, and Jj in, respec-
tively. The igniting flame was derived from propane gas and developed a cabinet tem-
perature of 1500 deg F, and with a specimen present, between 1700 and 1S00 deg E
For burning test timbers ignition periods of 3 and 5 min were selected as representing
the kind of fires often encountered in the field.
Figs. 5a, 5b. 5c. and 5d illustrate the time — temperature relationships developed
luring a 5 -min ignition period. Figure 5a describes the temperatures reached in an
untreated southern yellow pine specimen (moisture content, 12 percent). Figs. 5b, 5c,
and 5d indicate the temperatures recorded for southern yellow pine specimens treated
with creosote, a 60:40 mixture of creosote and coal tar. and a 50:50 mixture of creosote
and petroleum. All specimens had aged 18 months prior to burning. The data used to
construct the curve- shown represent the arithmetical average from five specimens from
770
Wood Bridges and Trestles
1200
600-
SURFACE
MNCH
2
UNTREATED
Fig. 5a (Left) — Time: Temperature for
untreated specimens.
123 5 7 9 ii 13 Fig. 5b (below)— Time: Temperature for spec-
MIN imens treated with three different retentions of
5 min ignition creosote.
1 INCH
600-
» 8
„ 1
. 1 INCH
4
FACE
400-
- 1 INCH
2
12 3 5 7 9 II 13
MIN
5 MIN IGNITION
SURFACE
12 3 5 7 9 II 13
MIN
5 MIN IGNITION
12 3 5 7 9 |'|
MIN
5 MIN IGNITION
each category. A total of 45 specimens were burned — IS with each preservative and five
of each retention.
A rapid scanning of each of the graphs might lead to doubt that the high tem-
perature of 1800 deg F is being attained; however, the 1300 to 1500 deg F maximum
observed is indicative of the fact that the specimens are absorbing heat from the flame
as rapidly as it can be conducted to the interior or utilized in combustion. The untreated
specimen shown in Fig. 5a developed the lowest surface temperature, 1200 deg F, as
opposed to the 1300 to 1500 deg F recorded for each of the treated specimens. This
fact points out the heat contribution the burning oil makes to the maximum tempera-
ture reached. Within the specimen maximum temperatures are reached from 1 to 8 min
earlier than in the oil-treated specimens. Furthermore, when the gas is extinguished the
Wood Bridges and Trestles
771
MNCH
2
12 3 5 7 9 II 12
MiN
5 MIN IGNITION
12 3 5 7 9 II 13
MIN
5 MIN IGNITION
12 3 5 7 9 II 13
MIN
5 MIN IGNITION
Fig. 5c — Time: Temperature for specimens treated with three different
retentions of creosote: coal tar.
CP-IO L8S
I i i ' 5 7 9 l'l 13 IS
MIN
5 MIN IGNITION
12 3 5 7 9 II 13 15
MIN
5 MIN IGNITION
5 MIN IGNITION
Fig. 5d — Time: Temperature for specimens treated with three different
retentions of creosote: petroleum.
internal temperatures begin to drop almost at once. These differences in time relative
to temperature rise and fall are based on the absence of preservative.
A consideration of the data in Fig. 5b suggests certain generalizations, which find
parallels in Figs. 5c and 5d, respectively. Proceeding from the low-retention specimen
with 10 lb of oil per cu ft. where the temperatures tend to level off rapidly when the
gas is turned off, to the specimens of 20- and 30-lb retention, it is evident that increased
oil content leads to greater retention of heat and increasing internal temperatures.
772
Wood Bridges and Trestles
This observation is very significant since it supports the idea of longer-lived fires due
to tin- fact the internal temperatures fall within the boiling range of the preservative
oils and, therefore, aid in developing an increased outward flow of oil to the surface
where it is flashed and burned. These internal temperatures support and corroborate
the weight losses sustained by specimens with different rententions, as shown in Figs. 4a
and 4b, respectively.
Also from these data it is evident that the slope of the internal temperature curves
for creosote are greater than for the creosote solutions. This offers additional support
for the contention that creosote-treated timbers lose more weight than creosote: coal tar-
or creosote: petroleum-treated specimens.
In addition, it has been observed that specimens containing 10 lb of oil per cu ft
burn about IS min before extinguishing themselves; whereas specimens of 20-lb retention
extinguish themselves in about 30 min. Specimens having a retention of 30 lb of oil
would, if allowed, burn almost completely in a 90-min period. However, it was felt
that the intensity of the respective fires was directly related to their retentions, hence
all fires were extinguished after 30 min free burning time.
In combining the various time — temperature studies an interesting generalization
can be formulated from a consideration of the curves shown in Fig. Se. It is evident
that the highest temperatures observed (820 deg F) are reached by the specimens of
lowest retention, namely, those of 10-lb retention treated by the empty cell method.
When the empty cell method of treatment was continued, and the retention doubled
to 20 lb per cu ft, the maximum temperatures reached were 600 deg F. Restricting
the retention to 20 lb per cu ft but varying the treatment to the full cell method
resulted in a relatively low temperature of 475 deg F.
800-
200-
SURFACE
Fig. 5e — Time: Temperature relation-
ship between timbers of different reten-
tion and treatment.
i i i i I l l
12 3 5 7 9
MIN
5 MIN IGNITION
Wood Bridges and Trestles 773
These data are significant in that they point to the possibility that tires of greater
intensity may originate in timber obtained from empty cell treatments than from timber
treated by the full cell method. The explanation for this phenomenon lies in the fact
that empty-cell-treated timber, lying in storage for 18 months, still oozes air upon
being sawed in half. It is expansion of this retained air that is responsible for forcing
to the surface excessive quantities of preservative during the course of a fire. The oil
flashes and contributes to the over-all intensity of the flame.
The fact that timbers of 20-lb retention treated by the empty cell method develop
higher temperatures than timbers having the same retention, though treated by the full
cell method, offers further support for the air expansion idea of forcing larger volumes
of oil than would naturally migrate to the surface based on internal heating. However,
the fact that the temperature is lower than that observed for the 10-lb timbers is because
more oil is present to absorb the same quantity of initial heat supplied by the flames.
The "normal" response, if the term might be used, is that obtained from the full-
cell-treated timbers in which a normal heat transfer rate is established over a unit
period of time. Penetration or oil absorption of heat results in a lowering of oil viscosity
as well as volatilization of low boiling constituents. These volatile compounds develop
high internal pressures which force the oil to the surface where it is flashed.
Thus these data offer additional evidence for the conclusion advanced earlier — that
preservative retention plays a critically significant role in evaluation testing of fire-
retardant coatings; and it is vitally important that knowledge be available concerning
the preservative retention of the timber specimen being used in the test before extending
the derived information to field application.
(c) Internal Temperatures for Coated and Uncoated and Untreated Specimens
With a knowledge of how the respective preservatives (at the various retentions)
are related in terms of a "standard fire", it is now possible to measure, in a general
way, the degree of protection conferred on the specimens by a variety of proprietary
coating materials. There is plotted in Fig. 6 the internal temperatures developed ^4 hi
deep in specimens which are untreated (UNT), treated but uncoated (UNO, and
coated with two different types of paint systems. The timbers have a retention of 30 lb
per cut ft and were treated at the Santa Fe treating plant with a 50:50 creosote:
petroleum solution one month prior to the test. The coating represented by 101-8 is
a two-coat resin system; while the coating identified as 10 F-2 is an asphalt-based
product.
From these curves it is evident that the untreated timber assumed the highest
internal temperature — 650 deg F. The bare (UNC) treated specimen in the same period
of time reached only 500 deg F. suggesting the fad that the oils present were absorbing
the heat at a slower rate and acting as a heat sink. The coated specimens developed
temperatures of 100 and 150 deg lower than the uncoated specimen and almost 400 deg
less than the untreated specimen. All of these observations are discussed from the 7 min
point. The differences in the amount of insulation offered by the coatings is characteristic
of the respective coating compositions and application thickness as recommended bj
the manufacturers. What is most important is the fact that the internal temperatures
of the coated specimens reached into the boiling range of the preservative.
(d) Comparison of Surf nee Temperatures for Canted Specimens Freshly Treated
By Full and Empty Cell Processes (One Month Old) and an Aged Empty
Cell-Treated Specimen (18 Months old t
The plot of data shown in Fig. 7 was derived from a stud] to learn the behavior
of the same two-coat resin system when applied to a specimen containing 23 lb of oil
774
Wood Bridges and Trestles
800-
UNT
600
400
200
■ i i i
12 3 5 7 9 II 13 15
MIN
5 MIN IGNITION
Fig. 6 — Internal temperatures — one month
after treatment.
800-
600
400
200-
01-8
i i i i
■ i i
2 3 5 7 9 II 13 15
MIN
5 MIN IGNITION
Fig. 7 — Temperatures reached below coating on
aged and freshly treated wood.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
775
per cu ft (101-8) treated by the full cell process, and to a specimen containing 18 lb
of oil per cu ft treated by the empty cell process (101-10), both treatments carried out
at the Santa Fe treating plant. For comparison, a specimen was included which was
treated to a retention of 10 lb per cu ft by the empty cell process at the Forest Products
Laboratory and which had aged 18 months prior to coating. It is apparent that the
surface temperature at the maximum in each case was within the distilling range of the
oils — falling between 550 and 700 deg F. Both high-retention specimens absorbed slightly
more heat through the coating than did the aged 10-lb sample. This experience could
explain inconsistent results often noted in field trials, since it is not known how closely
the Santa Fe treatment approaches AWPA requirements.1 On the other hand the aged
10-lb specimen could have lost much of its volatile material during aging while the
Santa Fe treated specimens burned with greater intensity due to the presence of these
same volatile components which ignite readily wherever the coating may have ruptured.
(e) Comparison of Surface Temperatures Beneath Three Different Types of Coatings
Fig. 8 contains a plot of data developed from the temperatures reached beneath
the coatings of three different compositions. The timber was of 10-lb retention con-
taining a 50:50 creosote: petroleum mixture and was aged for 18 months before coating.
The products included a water-emulsion system (10 G-2), a solvent-based asphalt
derivative (F 2-2) and the same two-coat resin system mentioned earlier (101-5).
1 American Wood Preservers Association, 47, 219-220 (1951), Blew, Blain, Giddings.
000-
800
600
400
200
12 3 5 7
MIN
13 15
5 MIN IGNITION
Fig. 8 — Variation in insulation of different coatings
as indicated by temperatures.
776 Wood Bridges and Trestles
It is evident from the temperatures observed (900 deg F) that the F 2-2 system
absorbs a considerable quantity of heat. To resist successfully the internal pressures
developed as a result of this high heat input, the coating must possess considerable
tensile strength. That the coating has this characteristic is evident from the fact that
the temperature dropped rapidly once the propane flame in the cabinet was extinguished.
The 10 G-2 product also absorbed a large amount of heat, registering a temperature
close to 800 deg F. The extended period of high temperature was due to a slight rup-
ture in the coating resulting in combustion taking place beneath the coating. The most
resistance to the passage of heat was exhibited by the 101-5 system where the tempera-
ture reached a high of only 550 deg F.
In each instance the temperatures fell within the distilling range of the preservative,
and thus the respective coatings were called upon to exercise their inherent qualities
of tensile strength, elasticity, and the like. It should be understood that the most impor-
tant criterion for judgment and decision is the weight loss percent. Temperature data
are useful in predicting and explaining the behavior and response of a particular coating
system under study.
(f) Comparison of Surface Temperatures Beneath Two Different Coatings on
Freshly Treated Specimens (One Month Old)
When the same two-coat resin system (101-10) and the same asphalt-based coating
(F 2-6) were applied to freshly treated (empty cell process — -Santa Fe, one month old)
timber of 20-lb retention, several important similarities and differences were noted.
Reference to Fig. 0 shows that the F 2-6 coated specimen developed almost the same
1000
800
200-
12 3 5 7 9 II 13 15
MIN
5 MIN IGNITION
Fig. 9 — Temperature reached in freshly treated
wood at 20-lb retention.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
777
0
Fig. 10 — Coating on
aged wood of 10-lb reten-
tion.
Fig. 11 — Coating on
freshly treated wood of
20-lb retention.
surface temperature (800 deg F) as did the F 2-2 coated specimn on wood of 10-lb
retention noted in Fig. 8. At the same time the 101-10 system on freshly treated wood
reached a temperature of 700 deg F (Fig. 0) in contrast to a temperature of 525 dig F
(Fig. 8) when applied to aged wood of lower retention. The explanation for this
behavior is readily apparent from an examination of Figs. 10 and 11.
In Fig. 10 the two-coat resin system was applied to a test timber of 10-lb retention
after it had aged for 18 months. In Fig. 11 the same coating system w.is applied to a
timber which was freshly treated with a higher oil retention under empty cell conditions
where considerable residual air and volatile oil pressure existed. This combined internal
pressure forced oil into the coating thus saturating it with flammable constituents which
readily ignited.
The experimental data illustrated in Fig>. 8, °. 10 and 11 crystallize two significant
generalizations. Firstly, a fire-retardant coating system cannot be accepted or rejected
on the basis of a single test. Secondly, where freshly treated and aged timbers in new
and old bridge structures arc to be protected, use of these experimental findings must
enter into the design of any evaluation tests.
778 Wood Bridges and Trestles
(g) Surface and Internal Temperatures Developed Beneath Two Different Coating
Systems
Previous studies have dealt with the surface temperatures observed beneath differ-
er t coating systems. This study compares the internal temperatures developed in speci-
rmns coated with two products developed by the same manufacturer. The specimens
used were of 10-lb retention and had been treated with a 50:50 creosote-petroleum
mixture and then allowed to age 18 months. The coatings included the water emulsion
system (10 G-l) and the asphalt-based system (F 2-1). The experimental data are
plotted in Fig. 12.
From the surface temperatures it is evident that the water emulsion system appears
td be the better insulator by approximately 200 deg. Internally, at the T/&-m level,
the same relationship between coatings is evident with a temperature differential of
about 100 deg, while deeper within the wood the differential is about 50 deg, with the
temperature beginning to drop below the creosote distilling range.
Measurements such as these are important because they can aid in predicting the
difference between failure and success. A differential of only 100 deg may determine
if the heat input will result in temperatures above or below the critical distilling tem-
peratures of the preservative, thus resulting in internal pressure development and subse-
quent rupturing of the coating, or a containment of the oils and a retention of the
integrity of the coating, and, therefore result in complete protection.
(h) Surface and Internal Temperatures of Timber Treated in Different Fashions
Using the Same Protective Coating System
Further confirmation for the need to properly document the characteristics or his-
tory of the timber being protected is shown by a consideration of the temperatures
developed below a coating and within a specimen when it is coated with the asphalt-
based product mentioned earlier. The F 2-1 was applied to an empty cell-treated speci-
men of 10-lb retention (Forest Products Laboratory) and had been aged for 18 months
prior to painting. The F 2-5 and F 2-4 materials were applied to specimens of 20 lb
retention which were treated with a 50:50 creosote: petroleum mixture by empty cell
and full cell processes at the Santa Fe treating plant one month earlier. The specimens
were subjected to a 3-min ignition period. The temperatures developed are shown in
Fig. 13.
Once again it is evident that the maximum absorption of heat during a unit period
of time (such as a 3-min exposure to the propane flame) was obtained by specimens
containing the least amount of oil — the F 2-1 coated specimen (10-lb retention). The
specimens containing the most oil (F 2-5 and F 2-4) developed the lowest temperature
during the unit time of exposure. Note further that the same relationship existed within
the interior of the specimens at the *4-in and ^4-in depths. Also of interest is the fact
that a low-retention specimen could burn longer than a high-retention specimen because
the temperature of the oil is still in the distilling range of creosote in the F 2-1 system
at the %-m depth. This could serve as one explanation for a somewhat anomalous
situation.
(i) Comparison of Internal Temperatures for Similar Systems Exposed to Fires
of 3- and 5-Min Duration
Interesting results develop when the same coating systems are studied on similarly
treated timber where the ignition period is varied from 3 min to 5 min. The results
are plotted in Figs. 14 and 15. Included for comparison are the internal temperatures
developed within an untreated specimen (UNT) and a treated though uncoated speci-
Wood Bridges and Trestles
779
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Wood Bridges and Trestles
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Fig. 14 — Internal temperatures reached with 3- and 5-min
ignitions at Ys-in depth.
800-
600
400-
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Fig. 15 — Internal temperatures reached with 3- and 5-min
ignitions at ^4-in depth.
men (UNC) of the same retention as those with coatings. The timbers had been treated
at the Forest Products Laboratory 18 months earlier by the empty cell method to a
retention of 10 lb of oil per cu ft.
The data in Fig. 14 at the J^-in depth reveal the subtle differences which can
develop in the evaluation of a coating system and lead to dubious conclusions. The 10 G
and the F 2 systems assume reversed positions when compared in 3- and 5-min fires
The same relationship is evident in Fig. 15 at the %-va depth. It i- obvious that certain
basic changes occur characteristic of the respective coating compositions. The tempera-
tures reached in the untreated specimen are quite high, since there is no oil to act as a
heat reservoir or cooling agent. The temperature reached in the uncoated specimen is
Wood Bridges and Trestles
intermediate between that of the untreated and the coated specimens and parallels some-
what the data found for the F 2-2 coated specimen. The 10 G system apparently rup-
tures during the longer exposure period and allows a fire to start beneath the coating,
thus accounting for the higher internal temperatures observed.
Ih,-, particular coatings do not appear to offer too much insulation; however, by
iluir presence they exerl a restraining action, preventing the entire surface from igniting.
["his is evident from the weight loss data which definitely show a difference between
the coated and uncoated-though-treated specimens. The results from these experiments
demonstrate once again that insufficient testing might not reveal all of a coating's
i haracteristics.
3. Evaporation Studies
Paint technology is based primarily on the theories of adhesion. Some treated tim-
bers present dry, checked, and weathered surfaces which are ideal for the application
of paint. Where timbers are newly treated and exposed to the sun they bleed constantly.
\. black bodies, they reach temperatures of nearly 140 deg F forcing out oil and
volatilizing most of the lower boiling constituents of the preservative, leaving a poor
surface for paint. To learn what relationships exist between evaporation rate, preserva-
tive composition, and retention, treated specimens were subjected to an accelerated
weathering cycle. This included 16 hr exposure at 140 deg F in a laboratory oven fol-
lowed by 8 hr cooling to room temperature. This procedure was carried through 62
cycles, approximating 1000 hr at 140 deg F. The specimens measured \y2 by 2 by Sf^ in
and weighed approximately 200 g. They were weighed at frequent intervals. The loss
in weight due to evaporation was expressed in percent and in lb per cu ft. In this way
the retention relationship is made clear, and the individual preservative's behavior is
accurately expressed. Fig. 16 shows a typical specimen being weighed.
In Figs. 17a, 17b and 17c are plotted the respective weight losses and weight loss
percent for the preservatives and retentions indicated. The wood in each case was
southern yellow pine.
Considering the weight loss (solid lines) it is evident that the respective preserva-
tives evaporate at different rates. Furthermore, the different retentions vary in accordance
with their respective concentrations. It is interesting to observe that with creosote there
is a tendency for the evaporation rate to level off at the 40-percent mark whereas the
diluents of creosote, namely, coal tar and petroleum, influence the evaporation rate.
In the case of coal tar the loss is of a lower order of magnitude at the 30-lb retention.
The 10-lb retention on the other hand is influenced in the other direction. Where
petroleum is the diluent the loss of oil is slowed up considerably at the high retentions.
On an absolute basis, such as "lb per cu ft of oil lost", the figures can be expressed best
in tabular form as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 — Weight Loss in Pounds Per Cubic Foot of Preservative
60:40 50:50
Preservative Whole Creosote Creosote :Coal Tar Creosote: Petroleum
Original retention, lb/cu ft . . 30 20 10 30 20 10 30 20 10
Loss after 1000 hr, lb/cu ft . . 13 9 4 12 9.3 7 8.4 7 4.5
Residual retention, lb/cu ft . 17 11 6 18 10.7 3 21.6 13 5.5
It is evident from these data that a considerable quantity of oil can be lost by
evaporation before equilibrium is established. The quantity of oil remaining is some-
what surprising. For example, in the case of ties, which are generally treated to a 10-lb
Wood Bridges and Trestles
783
Fig. 16 — Determining evaporation loss.
retention, the residual oil content falls to between 6 and 3 lb per cu ft. Timber treated
to a 20-lb retention drops to retentions between 10.7 and 13 lb per cu ft. At the highest
retention the oil concentration can drop from 30 lb to as low as 17 lb per cu ft.
In general the creosote:petroleum mixtures evaporate at the lowest rate and retain
the largest residue of preservative; whereas the creosote:coal tar solution and the whole
creosote are somewhat comparable in net effects.
If coating a structure is contemplated, then the age of the timber and the oil con-
Wood Bridges and Trestles
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Wood Bridges and Trestles
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tent play an important role insofar as the condition of the surface is concerned. Where
the timber is old and the low-boiling oils have volatilized, due to time or facing directly
into the sun, the surface is dry and checked and affords a good mechanical anchor for
painting. However, if the timber is not too old, or the preservative has not lost all
of its volatile constituents, then the life of the paint might be endangered by the inter-
nal pressures developed when the sun plays on the coated surface and heats up the
oil, causing it to flow toward the surface. An accelerated evaporation test on a repre-
sentative piece or boring from the structure to be painted would yield valuable
information.
4. Extraction of Preservatives and Determination of Ratio of Burned Oil
to Burned Wood
(a) Distribution of Preservative
Two timbers were selected for analysis to determine the average and specific dis-
tribution of preservative in the 18 in long specimens used in this work. One was secured
from the Forest Products Laboratory treated group, and the other was taken from the
timber which had been treated at the Santa Fe treating plant. They were sectioned and
extracted with toluene and acetone and then dried to constant weight at 105 deg C.
The data in Table 2 indicate the retentions found.
Table 2 — Oil Rextextiox ix Various Sectioxs of Test Speclmexs
Identification Source Treatment
Forest Products Creosote
50:50
Santa Fe treating plant Creosote: Petroleum
Original
Retention
Lb/Cu Ft
7.4
27.7
Retention
at Time
of A nalysis
Lb/Cu Ft
3.0
27.6
Age
Months
18
Forest Products
Santa Fe
Distance
From Top of
Specimen — Inches
1st
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18 last
Distance
Retention
From Top of
Lb/Cu
Ft
Specimen — Inch,
7.1
2
3.7
5
3.6
8
3.0
11
4.1
14
4.0
17
3.8
3.7
3.7
7.7
Retention
Lb/Cu Ft
. 27.5
. 23.0
. 25.2
. 25.5
. 25.8
. 3S.3
Excluding first and last inch the aver-
age retention is 4.05
This compares favorably with $.9
Excluding the 17-in reading the aver-
age is 25.4
This compares favorably with 27.6
With the exception of the first 1 to 2 in from the specimen ends it is clearly evi-
dent that the oils are homogenously distributed throughout the specimens, and. one can,
therefore, expect uniform results in the evaluation of coating materials and the develop-
ment of internal temperatures.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
Fig. 18 — Oil and water extraction apparatus.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
787
Fig. 19 — Treated and untreated sections after extraction.
b. Extraction Data From Burned Specimens
In an effort to develop quantitative information relating to the ratio of wood and
preservative consumed, in a standard fire, treated timber was obtained from the Santa
Fe treating plant and the Forest Products Laboratory. The timber was of Grade B or
better and had no pitch pockets or rosin concentrations. These new specimens were of
the same dimensions. The treatment at the Forest Products Laboratory incorporated
AWI'A specified 50:50 creosote: petroleum solution. The treatment at the Santa Fe
treating plant was typical of what this road uses in its 50:50 creosote: petroleum treat-
ments.1 The Santa Fe-treated specimens were one month old when tested, while the
Forest Products-treated specimen was 18 months old. The timbers win burned in the
lin- test cabinet using the standard 5-min ignition. The data resulting from this experi
ment are shown in Table 3.
In order for the data to be fairly comparable the Santa Fe-treated specimen- urn
allowed to burn 15 min before being extinguished. It is interesting to note that regard-
1 American Wood Preservers \ i.ition. 47, 210-220 (1951). Blew, Blair, Giddings
Wood Bridges and Trestles
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Wood Bridges and Trestles 789
less of retention or age the weight loss developed in this short period was substantially
the same. No explanation is offered other than an insufficient number of specimens were
available for testing. Also it is possible that the "petroleums" used may not have been
comparable. Only a controlled test using both solutions for treating timber coming from
the same source at the same time could pinpoint the discrepancy. Data such as these
are illustrative of the care required in carrying out so-called comparable evaluation tests.
From past experience and reference to Fig. 4a one might assume a weight loss of
40 to 50 percent should have resulted in the case of the Santa Fe-treated high retention
specimens.
The moisture content found in each specimen was the same (4.36 to 4.9 percent).
The variation in wood to oil burned ranged from two to four times as much wood
as oil. The preservative loss ranged from one-fourth to one-third of the original reten-
tion. This is significant from a preservative as well as a strength-of-timber basis. More
useful information could have been obtained if more samples were available and longer
free burning times were allowed.
The implications derived from data of this type could aid in explaining the behavior
experienced beneath protective coatings when coated timbers are subject to the standard
fire test. This phase of the study is being continued.
5. Accelerated Weathering Tests
Once a protective coating shows promise in the standard fire test it is of interest
to learn what its behavior would be after exposure to the elements for an extended
period of time. To overcome the time element involved in field exposure, the coated
specimens were placed in an Atlas Weatherometer. This device burns carbon elements
which produce the same destructive ultra-violet rays present in natural sunlight. Fur-
ther, this machine at timed intervals can supply a water spray which wets the surface
of the exposed specimens. The weathering cycle selected is one recommended for paints
as described in the current ASTM standards. In this cycle light is played on the speci-
mens constantly for 102 min, after which the water spray is turned on for an 18-min
period. During this exposure period the surface temperature of the specimens reaches
140 deg F. On the back side, away from the light of the carbons, the surface tempera-
ture registers about 110 deg F. The cabinet temperature drops to about 80 deg F dur-
ing the time the water spray is on. The carbons produce light for 16 hr. following which
the machine is dark for 8 hr and assumes room temperature (average 70-80 deg F
throughout the year). This cycle is continued for 62 working days so that the specimens
have been exposed to ultra-violet light for a total of 1000 hr. The condition of the
various specimens is noted, their weight loss observed, and their behavior in the fire
test cabinet evaluated. Following the burning test the burned coatings are removed and
the specimen weight loss determined, after which the char is scraped away and the total
weight loss estimated. Micrometer measurements are made to determine loss in cross
sectional area as shown in Fig. 20. In Fig. 21 is shown a coating which failed in the
Weatherometer in less than 500 hr. Originally the product was black, but mineral con-
stituents were leached out and deposited on the surface by the washing and eroding
action of the water spray. This action allowed the bituminous vehicle to shrink and
leave numerous areas exposed and vulnerable to ignition. Fig. 22 indicates the nature
of damage that can occur beneath a coating which has ruptured and allowed a fire to
commence.
It is evident from the examples illustrated that some notion ol fire retardanl coating
performance for an unknown material can be obtained in the laboratory.
700
Wood B r i d ges and Trestles
Fig. 20 — Measuring wood loss due to char.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
7<M
&f$^fc
Fig. 21 (Above) — Example of failure in
Weatherometer. Fig. 22 (Right) — Wood burned
from fire beneath ruptured coating.
6. Toxicity
The primary purpose in using creosote as a preservative is for its toxic properties.
The experimental data presented earlier indicate that the maximum temperature devel-
oped in field fires as well as in laboratory fires was in the range of 1700 to 1895 deg F.
With some of the potentially useful coatings examined the internal temperatures near
the surface of the test specimen reached 500 deg F. This is in the range in which the
most toxic fraction of creosote is volatilized. It is of significant interest to evaluate the
residual potency of the creosote remaining in a timber which has been exposed to a
standard fire. Such information might lead to a test enabling the individual railroad tesl
department to take borings from a structure which has been exposed to fire and deter-
mine whether the charred timber sections are liable to rot or still retain sufficient
creosote to complete their useful service life.
To secure these data a cooperative arrangement has been effected with the research
laboratories of the United States Steel Corporation to carry out soil block tests, using
creosote secured from treated timber specimens which have been burned in the fire
test cabinet.
7. Product Evaluation
During the period in which these studies have been underwa) the staff has ex
amined approximately 40 different nre-retardanl coating compositions in some 60 diffei
WO nil Bridges and Trestles
1 s
Fig. 23— Examples of products evaluated in fire test cabinet.
Wood Bridges a nd Trestles
793
Fig. 23 (Con'td)
ent combinations. Fig. 2.5 shows a few of the products that have been evaluated. From
this large group only three products have the potential for beinn useful for application
to treated timber bridges. Exhaustive- evaluation tests have been carried out on these
products and are continuing, in order to develop useful data for the preparation of a
satisfactory performance specification. Meanwhile, these products offer an opportunitj
for the development of meaningful tests so that performance specification can be shaped
around that which is possible, within the realm of contemporary paint technology, and
not that which is desirable, thouuh at present economically impossible to achieve
704 W ood Bridges and Trestles
8. Tentative Performance Specification
for Fire-Retardant Coating Materials
The following is a preliminary outline of tentative specifications covering the per-
formance requirements of fire-retardant coating materials. They are based in part on
the experimental results reported herein, and in part on practical engineering requirements.
TENTATIVE PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR
FIRE-RETARDANT COATING MATERIALS
A. GENERAL
1 . Scope
2. Manufacture
3. Condition in Container
4. Application Requirements
B. PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
1. Specimen Requirements
2. Fire Test
3. Accelerated Weathering Tests
4. Fusee Test
5. Resistance to Brine Test
6. Vibration and Inspection Test
7. Resistance to Foot Traffic Test
Studies are in progress toward finalizing the respective test procedures. They will
be discussed in detail in a future report.
E. DISCUSSION; SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Proceeding somewhat in chronological order the following conclusions have been
reached as a result of the considerable amount of experimental data obtained, of which
only a portion have been detailed here.
1. Different species of wood impregnated with different preservatives at different
retentions behave differently when subjected to a standard fire simulating a
particular type of field experience.2
2. Evaluation testing must be carried out with treated timber of known history
or on timber secured from the site of interest and is known to be representative
of the structure to be protected.
3. Use of freshly treated timber can result in misleading information.
4. Under standard fire testing conditions creosote-treated specimens will lose more
weight than either 60:40 creosote:coal tar or 50:50 creosote: petroleum-treated
specimens, at retentions of 30 and 20 lb per cu ft.
5. In similar fashion a 60:40 creosote: coal tar-treated timber will lose more
weight than a 50:50 creosote: petroleum-treated timber.
6. At low retentions, such as 10 lb per cu ft, no significant difference is apparent.
7. When the timber in each retention and treatment is allowed to age up to three
years the weight loss relationship between treatments continued; however, the
order of magnitude of the loss is reduced due to loss of low boiling constituents
from the respective preservatives by evaporation.
- Standard condition means AAR Chemical Research Laboratory fire test cabinet — S-min ignition.
Wood Bridges and Trestles 795
8. When attempting to compare these data with data obtained from timber
treated in other treating plants, a possibility exists that one or the other may
not have been using AWPA P3 specified solutions.1
9. Protective coating integrity is a function of the insulation it confers to the
timber surface so that internal temperatures do not reach the boiling range
of the preservative oils.
10. The same protective coating system will confer different degrees of protection
when placed on aged timber as opposed to freshly treated timber.
11. Time of testing period, whether 3-min ignition or 5-min ignition, can result in
misleading conclusions. Always test for extreme period expected in service.
12. Aging of timber or evaporation of low-boiling constituents in preservative
influence protective coating adhesion.
13. Timbers with high preservative retentions require more time to reach the same
condition as adjacent timbers in structure with lower preservative retention.
Protective coating application in terms of thickness or coverage must be ade-
quately compensated.
14. If small-scale test specimens of treated timber are prepared for laboratory
evaluation then homogeneous distribution of preservative must be ascertained
by extraction procedures.
15. Ratio of wood to oil burned must be determined in order to have valid infor-
mation as to strength of wood and adequacy of preservative concentration to
enable the structure to perform safely throughout its expected service life.
It is evident that the factors used to formulate the tentative specifications are based
in part on the experimental data described in this report and embodied in the conclu-
sions above. Additional experimental work is being carried out to further establish the
facts required to prepare a complete performance specification for fire-retardant coatings.
Report on Assignment 6
Design of Timber-Concrete Composite Decks
Collaborating with Committee 8
W. A. Oliver (chairman, subcommittee), C. E. Atwater. T. P. Burgess, E. M. Cummings,
B. E. Daniels, W. A. Genereux, R. H. Gloss, G. J. Grantham. R. E. Grieder, N.
Handsaker. J. F. Holmberg, W. D. Keenev, R. E. Kuehner, T. K. May, W. H.
O'Brien, O. C. Rabbitt, D. V. Sartore, A. H. Schmidt, B. J. Shadrake, Josef Sorkin.
Your subcommittee is presenting as its report for this year a drawing showing Rec-
ommended Practice for Timber — Concrete Composite Decks. This is submitted as infor-
mation with the expectation that it will be presented next year for adoption and inclu-
sion in the Manual as Fig. 2 under Recommended Practice for Overhead Wood Highway
Bridge, page 7-M-4.
The drawing is presented herewith on page 796.
1 American Wood Preservers Association, 47, 219-220 (1951), Blew, Blair, Giddings.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
Report of Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast
A. P. Crosllv, Chairman,
G. B. Harris,
Vice Chairman,
J. E. Chubb, Secretary,
W. T. Adams
R. A. Anderson
E. W. Baumann
G. W. Becker
R. H. Beeder
F. H. Beighley
V. K. Bergman
I). W. Hi.aik
L! H. Bond
G. W. Brown
C. O. Bryant
J. G. Campbell
H. W. Clarke
B. S. Converse
M. G. Counter
M. W. Cox
B. H. Crosland
J. P. Datesm \\
MB. Davis
T. F. DeCapiteau
L. J. Deno
W. G. Dyer
C. E. Dysart
W. P. ESHBAUGH
J. B. Farris
J. G. Gilley
A. T. GOLDBECK
F. W. HlLLMAN (E)
H. O. Ireland
H. G. Johnson
L. V. Johnson
H. S. Leard
H. W. Legro (E)
R. R. Manion
P. G. Martin
G. D. Mayor
E. W. McCuskey
R. L. McDaniel
F. H. McGi [can
I'm i McKay
F. R. Naylor
J. A. Noble
G. W. Payne (E)
W. F. Petteys
J. W. Poulter
J. W. PURDY
C. W. Reeve
K. W. SCHOENEBERC
J. R. SCOFIELD
R. W. Scott
G. E. Shaw
L. D. Shelkey
H. F. Smith
G. S. Sowers
C E. Stoecker
J. W. Thomas
W. O. Trieschman
Stanton Walker
C. E. Webb
A. J. Wegmann
Charles Weiss
C. E. Whitmore, Jr.
J. C. Woods
J. D. Worthing
Committer
(E) Member Emeritus.
To The American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report, including recommended revision page 799
2. Physical properties of earth materials:
(a) Roadbed. Load capacity. Relation to ballast. Allowable pressures.
(b) Structural foundation beds, collaborating with Committees 6 and B
Progress report on soil pressure cells, presented as information page 799
3. Natural Waterways. Prevention of erosion.
Progress in study, but no report.
4. Culverts:
(a) Conditions requiring head walls, wing walls, inverts and aprons, and
requisites therefor.
Progress in study, but no report.
797
Roadway and Ballast
• Specifications for pipe lines for conveying flammable and non-flammable
substani es
Progress report, presented as information page 807
(i. Roadway: Formation and Protection.
(a) Roadbed stabilization.
Report on stability of cuts in fine sands and varved clays, presented as
information page 807
(b) Slope protection by use of additives.
Progress in study, but no report.
7. Tunnels:
(a) Ventilation; changes necessary for operation of diesel power.
Progress in study, but no report.
(b) Clearance; methods used to increase, collaborating with Committee 28.
No report.
8. Fences.
No report.
9. Roadway signs.
(a) Reflectorized and luminous roadway signs, collaborating with Com-
mittee 9, and the Signal Section, AAR.
Brief progress statement, presented as information page 815
(b) Develop standard close clearance warning sign.
Brief progress statement, presented as information page 816
10. Ballast:
(a) Tests.
Progress report, presented as information page 816
(b) Ballasting practices.
No report.
(c) Special types of ballast.
Progress report, presented as information page 826
(d) Specifications for sub-ballast.
Submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual page 835
11. Chemical control of vegetation, collaborating with Signal Section and
Communications Section, AAR.
Progress report, submitted as information page 836
Part 1 — Vegetation Control on Iowa Roadbeds page 836
Part 2— Railroad Weed Control, North Carolina College page 843
Part 3— Chemical Control of Vegetation— 1957 AAR Report page 851
The Committee on Roadway and Ballast,
A. P. Crosley, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 542, February 1958.
Roadway and Ballast 799
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
W. P. Eshbaugh (chairman, subcommittee). R. H. Beeder, J. E. Chubb. L. J. Deno,
J. B. Farris, R. R. Manion, G. D. Mavor, F. R. Navlor. K. W. Schoeneberg, L. I).
Shelkey, C. E. Webb.
Your committee recommends that the following editorial changes be made in Part
4, Chapter 1.
Page 1-4-5. Add the following:
SPECIFICATIONS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE CULVERT PIPE
See Part 10, Chapter 8.
Page 1-4-9. In the table at the top of page 1-4-9 of the Specifications for Cor-
rugated Metal Culverts, for the Nominal Diameter of 78 in, change the Length of Sheet
Before Forming from 1-134 to 1-137.
Report on Assignment 2
Physical Properties of Earth Material
(a) Roadbed. Load Capacity. Relation to Ballast. Allowable Pressures.
(b) Structural Foundation Beds, Collaborating with Committees 6 and 8.
R. R. Manion (chairman, subcommittee), C. E. Dysart. J. G. Gilley. J. VV. Poulter.
C. E. Stoecker, Charles Weiss.
Under this assignment your committee presents as information a report on soil pres-
sures as measured by pressure cells in the fill over a concrete culvert at the Louisville &
Nashville (formerly Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis), yard at Atlanta, Ga., as the
result of investigation conducted by the AAR research staff.
Soil Pressure Cells
Introduction
This is the first report on the use of soil pressure cells for measurement of static-
soil pressures and changes in static pressures that may occur over relatively long periods
of time under high embankments. The work is being conducted as part of an investiga-
tion of stresses in concrete culvert pipes sponsored by AREA Committee 30 — Impact
and Bridge Stresses. The measurement of pressures under embankments is sponsored by
AREA Committee 1. The investigation is being conducted by the research staff of the
Engineering Division of the Association of American Railroads under the general dire«
tion of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research, E. J. Ruble, research engineer
structures, and Rockwell Smith, research engineer roadway, and under the supervision
of F. P. Drew, assistant research engineer structures. M. F. Smucker, assistant elec-
trical engineer, is in charge of the instrumentation. Sampling and testing of construction
soils is under the supervision of G. L. Hinueber. assistanl research engineer roadway,
who also analyzed the data presented herein and prepared this report
SOO Roadway and Ballast
The test installation is located under the new L & N Railroad (NC&StL Rail-
wax i hump yard in Atlanta. Ga. SR-4 strain gages were cemented to the reinforcing
-Uil oi the seven tesl sections of the reinforced concrete culvert pipe at the time of
fabrication so that the stresses in the pipe could be determined. Provisions were also
made to measure strains in the pipe by the use of mechanical strain gapes. Readings
of the gages were taken at various times during filling operations and following com-
pletion of the fill over the pipe. The stresses in the pipe will be analyzed and the entire
project will be reported on by AREA Committee 30.
Purpose of Installation
Soil pressure cells are installed in earth masses to furnish direct information on the
development of stresses and changes in stresses that occur within the masses. It has
been possible in the past to measure stresses due to dynamic forces, but because of lack
of long-time reliability of the pressure cells, it has not been feasible to measure stresses
in earth masses due to static loads or changes in static loads over relatively long periods
of time. However, it is believed that certain recent modifications in design and construc-
tion of the pressure cells have increased their stability sufficiently to make these long-
time readings possible.
Modification of Pressure Cells
The main factors affecting the long-time stability of soil pressure cells are tempera-
ture changes, moisture, and instability or creep of SR-4 strain gages. An attempt has
been made to eliminate difficulties from these factors by making certain modifications
and alterations in design and construction of the pressure cells.
The soil pressure cells used in the test installations are of two different designs:
(1) the AAR soil pressure cell, and (2) the Waterways Experimental Station soil pres-
sure cell. The AAR cell includes two separate models: (a) AAR Type I cell — the original
AAR cell which has been modified and improved by the electrical research staff of the
Engineering Division, AAR; (b) AAR Type II cell — the original AAR cell modified
and rebuilt by Ruge-Deforest, Inc. The Waterways Experiment Station cell is the latest
design developed by the Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army.
The original design of ihe AAR pressure cell is illustrated and described in the
AREA Proceedings, Vol. 49, 1948, page 499.
In the AAR Type I pressure cell, bakelite strain gages are used, and the bridge is
temperature compensating. The bridge leads are brought out through a j4-hi tubing
compression fitting, and the cell is waterproofed with Petrosene wax, both inside and
out. The external wiring is a 3-conductor shielded cable. One cell has a dummy bridge
built into it as a standard to measure drift or creep or zero shift in the AAR cells.
In AAR Type II cells also, bakelite strain gages are used, and the bridge is tem-
perature compensated. The 4 leads of the bridge are brought out through a hermetic
seal, and the external wiring is a 4-conductor Signal Corps type of cable. The body
of the cell is waterproofed and sealed with Mitchel Rand bituminous potting compound.
The Waterways Experiment Station pressure cell is somewhat similar to the rebuilt
AAR cell with one major difference ; it has mercury confined in a thin cavity between
the base plate, which includes the diaphragm and a face plate which is welded to the
base plate at its perimeter. The soil pressure is transmitted to the diaphragm by the
mercury whereas the soil pressure is transmitted directly to the diaphragm in the AAR
cell. The Waterways Experiment Station cell utilizes four active bakelite gages, which
are temperature compensating, as does the rebuilt AAR cell. The gages are waterproofed
with Petrosene wax, and the bridge leads are brought out through a hermetic seal.
Roadway and Ballast 8CH
Pressure Cell Calibration
The modified and rebuilt AAR soil pressure cells were calibrated in a penumatic
chamber. Pressure was applied in increments, and readings were taken using a static
strain indicator. All cells showed a straight line calibration.
The Waterways Experiment Station cells were calibrated using pneumatic pressure
in a special pressure cell calibrating chamber devised by Waterways Experiment Station
personnel.
Description of Installation
After completion of the installation of the concrete pipe culvert, the fill was brought
up to approximately 5 ft above the top of the pipe. Trenches or holes of sufficient
width and length to prevent any possible arching action in the soil were dug at the
specified locations of the pressure cells so that the cells might be placed at their pre-
determined elevations. The ground was carefully leveled, and the cells were p'aced at
the proper elevations and in proper orientation. The soil was then carefully tamped
around the cells. Care was taken that no stones were next to either of the faces of the
pressure cells. The cells were covered with soil, and the filling operations were continued.
Eight pressure cells were installed, including four AAR Type I cells, (C-7, C-8,
C-9, and C-10), two AAR Type II cells (C-l and C-2), and two Waterways Experi-
ment Station cells (W.E.S. 45 and W.E.S. 4°). The location and orientation of each
of the pressure cells is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
Pressure cells C-9. C-10 and W. E. S. 49 are located 3 ft above the top of pipe
test section No. 1. Pressure cell C-9 is placed to measure longitudinal (in direction of
flow line) horizontal pressures on a vertical plane. Pressure cells W. E. S. 49 and C-10
are placed to measure vertical pressures on horizontal planes. Pressure cells C-7 and
W. E. S. 45 are located 3 ft above the top of pipe test section No. 8 and are placed
to measure vertical pressures on horizontal planes. Pressure cells C-l and C-8 are lo-
cated at the mid-height and 5 ft S in to the north of pipe test section No. 8. Then'
pressure cells are placed to measure lateral (transverse to flow line) horizontal pressures
on vertical planes. Pressure cell C-2 is located 5 ft 6 in above the top of pipe test
section No. 6 and is placed to measure vertical pressures on a horizontal plane.
Soil Tests
In-place density tests of the fill were taken at various stages of the filling opera-
tions so that an approximate average soil density for the test pipe overburden might
be determined. The average wet density is used when computing theoretical soil pres-
sures at the various positions of the soil pressure cells. In addition, samples of the fill
soil were sent to the laboratory where compaction tests, plasticity tests and grain-size
determinations were run.
The average of the in-place densities determined at various Stages during the filling
operations is 110 lb per cu ft. This includes the weight of the dry soil and moisture.
A Proctor moisture density test was run in the laboratory on a sample of the till
soil. Results of this test show a maximum dry density of 105.6 lb per cu ft at an
optimum moisture content of 17.3 percent. The standard Proctor curve is shown in
Fig. .v
Atterberg limit- tests prove the fill -oil to be non-pIasti<
The grain-size curve lor the fill soil, Fig. 1, -how- that it may be texturalh
i I i--ified as a sand.
802
R o a d w a y and B a 1 last
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Roadway and Ball a s t
80.*
PRESSURE CELL C-2-,
PRESSURE CELL
C-2
WES 45X ^"c-?
b
1
To,
PIPE #8
C-i^ vC-8
y
FIG. 2
PRESSURE CELL LOCATION
a ORIENTATION
■*- N
S04
Roadway and B a 1 last
94
92
90-
FI6. 3
STANDARD PROCTOR CURVE
N.C. 8 ST. L. RR.
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
PRESSURE CELL INSTALLATION
V dmox.s 105.6 p.cf.
OPTIMUM w* 17.3 %
10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
WATER CONTENT, w % OF DRY WEIGHT
Discussion
Pressure-cell readings were taken at various intervals during and following com-
pletion of construction of the fill over the concrete pipe culvert. Table 1 shows the
measured pressures from the various pressure cell readings and the corresponding height
of fill above the pressure cells at the time of readings. Theoretical pressures computed
for the various heights of fill are also shown.
It is interesting to note that the pressure from additional fill material apparently
is not always transmitted immediately to the pressure cells. However, after a period
of fill consolidation and adjustment the pressure is eventually transmitted to the soil
in contact with the pressure cells. This is probably best illustrated in the readings of
pressure cell C-2. It will be noted that the maximum height of fill was in place over
this pressure cell at the time of the July 1956 readings, but it wasn't until some time
after December 1056 that the full effect of the fill pressure was noted at the pressure-
cell location.
The AAR Type II pressure cells and the Waterways Experiment Station cells
appear to be functioning very well. The AAR Type I cells seem to function well in
the lower ranges, but as the height of the fill increases quite a deviation between re-
Roadwav and Ballast
805
FIG. 4
GRAIN SIZE CURVE
NC 8 ST L R.R
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
PRESSURE CELL INSTALLATION
O.I
DIAMETER, MM
corded and theoretical pressures is in evidence. Where this is true the recorded pres-
sures invariably exceed the theoretical pressures. Pressure cell C— 8 (AAR Type I)
recorded pressures faithfully as late as September 1956, at which time the maximum
height of fill was in place. However, subsequent readings have shown this pressure cell
inoperative. It is believed that moisture has entered the cell and grounded out the
gages. The readings on pressure cell C-9 (AAR Type I) have been rather erratic and
there is some indication that this cell may have also become inoperative. The failures
in operation and discrepancies in readings of the AAR Type I cells may be due to
moisture entering the cells. It is noted that all of the AAR Type II cells and W. E. S.
cells are working well. The bridge leads in these cells were brought out through a
hermetic seal. This type of seal was not used in the AAR Type I cells.
Readings have been taken at regular intervals on the inactive or dummy bridge
which was built into AAR Type I cell, C-7, to measure drift or creep or zero shift
in the AAR cells. These readings indicate that the strain gages have remained stable
thus far.
With the few exceptions previously noted, there i- generally good agreement
between measured and theoretical pressures.
Additional pressure cell readings will be taken from time to time for the purpose
of determining the long-time reliability of the cells to measure static pressures and
changes in static pressure-.
It i> hoped that the pressure eel] readings will give valuable information on -oil
pressures in earth masses which will be helpful in the design of underground structures
and the formulation of proper installation procedures,
806
R
oadway and Ball
a s t
TABLE 1
PRESSURE CELL DATA
Date of
Indicated
Theoretical
Pressure
Type
Pressure
Pressure
Height
of Fill
Pressure
Pressure
Cell No.
of Cell
Location
Measured
Reading
over
P.C
psi.
psi.
C-9
AAR I
Pipe #1
Longitudinal
6/21/5G
0
0
0
Horizontal
6/21/56
7/19/56
9/11/56
3'
3'
23'
0.8
0.6
1.5
1.0
1.0
7.9
12/18/56
7/10/57
23'
„,, Effect
S Ht
ive
10.7
No
Raiding
7.9
C-10
AAR I
Pipe #1
Vertical
6/21/56
6/21/56
7/19/56
9/11/56
0
3'
3'
23'
0
4.0
5.0
16.6
0
2.3
2.3
17 6
12/18/56
7/10/57
23'
9 ci Effective
" Ht.
19.1
33.2
17.6
19.1
W.E.S.
W.E.S.
Pipe #1
Vertical
6/21/56
0
0
0
49
6/21/56
7/19/56
9/11/56
3'
3'
23'
2.9
3.2
16.7
2.3
2.3
17.6
12/18/56
7/10/57
23'
25,Effect
Ht.
ive
17.3
20.3
17.6
19 1
C-7
AAR !
Pipe #8
Vertical
6/21/56
6/21/56
6/22/56
7/19/56
9/11/56
12/18/56
7/10/57
0
3'
3'
3'
26'
26'
33'
0
5.9
3.2
8.3
30.5
31.4
45.3
0
2.3
2.3
2.3
19.9
19.9
25.2
W.E.S.
W. E. S.
Pipe #8
Vertical
6/22/56
0
0
0
45
7/19/56
9/11/56
12/18/56
7/10/57
3'
26'
26'
33'
5.4
21.0
21.0
31.8
2.3
19.9
19.9
25.2
C-l
AAR II
Pipe #8
Lateral
6/19/56
0
0
0
Horizontal
6/19/56
6/21/56
7/19/56
9/11/56
12/18/56
7/10/57
3'-6"
10'
10'
32'-6"
32'-6"
38'-6"
0.5
2.6
3.3
7.4
7.0
9.8
0.4
3.4
3.4
11.1
11.1
13.3
C-8
AAR I
Pipe #8
Lateral
6/19/56
0
0
0
Horizontal
6/19/56
6/21/56
7/19/56
9/11/56
3'-6"
10'
10'
32'-6"
0.4
2.6
4.2
12.8
0.4
3.4
3.4
11.1
12/18/56
32'-6"
No
Reading
11.1
7/10/57
38'-6"
No Good-
Grounded
13.3
C-2
AAR 11
Pipe #6
Vertical
4/5/56
4/5/56
6/13/56
7/19/56
9/11/56
12/18/56
7/10/57
0
2'-6"
25'
35'
35'
35'
35'
0
2.0
19.4
21.6
22.3
25.7
28.1
0
1.9
19.1
26.8
26.8
26.8
26.8
Roadway and Ballast 807
Report on Assignment 5
Specifications for Pipe Lines for Conveying Flammable
and Non-Flammable Substances
K. W. Schoeneberg (chairman, subcommittee), L. H. Bond, G. W. Brown, H. W. Clarke.
M. G. Counter, J. W. Purdy, C. W. Reeve, R. W. Scott, A. J. Wegmann.
The Pipe Line Committee of the Construction Division, ASCE, was asked to appoint
a committee to make a study of pipeline crossings of railroads and highways with the
view of recommending a specification that would be acceptable to the many interests
and could be approved by the American Standards Association.
The AREA was asked to name representatives to serve on the C< mmittee and
since the subject is under the jurisdiction of Committee 1, that committee arranged
for representation. Committee IS also appointed a representative.
Several meetings have been held and subcommittees have been set up to review tin-
design, construction and maintenance of such pipe lines.
The Manual includes specifications for pipe line crossings under railway tracks
which, it is felt, are satisfactory, and it is largely the purpose of the AREA representa-
tives to see that there is no change that would adversely affect the railroads.
Report on Assignment 6
Roadway : Formation and Protection
(a) Roadbed Stabilization
(b) Slope Protection by Use of Additives
L. D. Shelkey (chairman, subcommittee), G. W. Becker, F. N. Beighley. B. H. Crosland.
H. O. Ireland, G. D. Mayor, G. S. Sowers, C. E. Stoecker.
Your committee reports this year on Assignment (a) only. The report consists of
soil studies for a line change on the Northern Pacific Railway and was prepared by
R. B. Peck and Don U. Deere of the University of Illinois.
Report on Assignment 6 (a)
Stability of Cuts in Fine Sands and Varved Clays,
Northern Pacific Railway, Noxon Rapids
Line Change, Montana
By Don U. Deere1 and Ralph B. Peck=
Introduction
Construction of the Noxon Rapids power development on the Clark Fork River in
western Montana has required the relocation of approximately 17 miles of the Northern
Pacific main line. The existing railroad follows the west bank of the river and i> estab
lished for the most part on terraces of sand and gravel or in rock cuts. With the excep-
1 Professor <>f civil engineering and of geology. University of Illinois.
2 Professor of foundation engineering, University of Illinois
Roadwav and Ballast
tion of one small slide area in varved clays, the line has been stable and free from
excessive maintenance for many years.
The line change involves two crossings of the river. Much of the construction
of the new railroad is at a considerable distance from the river in rugged terrain where
soil and foundation conditions are often unfavorable.
This report discusses a selected group of problems typical of the more prevalent
difficulties encountered on the line change.
Geological Setting
The development of the design of the line change was accompanied by a program
of test boring, soil sampling, and soil testing. Although many borings were included
in the early part of the exploratory program, the results served primarily to indicate
the complexity of the subsurface materials. It became apparent that the line change
would encounter extensive deposits of sand and gravel, thick beds of varved or massive
silts and clays and occasional rock outcrops. Attempts to correlate similar materials by
constructing soil profiles through successive borings, in the fashion usually followed by
civil engineers, were completely unsuccessful. The relationships did not become apparent
until geologic reconnaissance had established the general sequence of events in the
geologic development of the area.
The geologic history of the area is complex and is not yet known in detail. Never-
theless, even a tentative reconstruction of the principal geologic events is adequate for
an understanding of the character of the deposits.
The Clark Fork River flows in a north-northwesterly direction in a valley carved
by the ancestor of the present stream into the bedrock (argillite of pre-Cambrian age).
The situation after the formation of the bedrock valley is shown diagrammatically as
stage 1, Fig. 1. Formation of the bedrock valley was followed by a period in which
the valley was filled with coarse alluvial sediments, consisting of sand, gravel, and
boulders. The change in conditions that brought about aggradation in the valley rather
than down-cutting is not definitely known. Alden (U. S. G. S. Professional Paper 231,
1Q53) has pointed out that the mouth of the Clark Fork was blocked at least once and
probably twice during the glacial epoch by a lobe of the continental glacier moving
down the Purcell Trench from the north. The ice lobe constituted an effective dam,
impounding the drainage of the Clark Fork, and a lake, Glacial Lake Missoula, was
formed which backed up the waters along the river course a distance in excess of 100
miles. It is possible that the height of the ice dam increased slowly so that the lake
level also rose slowly and allowed the Clark Fork and its tributaries to maintain a
fairly high although decreasing gradient.
Although there is no indication that the valley of the Clark Fork itself was ever
invaded by glaciers, several of the tributary valleys to the north contained valley
glaciers. Meltwater from these valley glaciers supplied large quantities of sand and
gravel outwash to the Clark Fork. Thus, the Clark Fork under the increased load and
the decreasing gradient became a heavily laden braided stream which in the course
of time deposited a great thickness of sand and gravel. Conditions at the end of this
period of filling are indicated as stage 2, Fig. 1.
As the glacier which formed the dam at the mouth of the Clark Fork receded, the
impounded water escaped, the lake level dropped, and the river re-established itself.
Much of the sand and gravel deposited in the former stage was eroded away as the
river cut downward under the increased potential gradient. The channel that was formed
did not necessarily coincide with the former position of the channel, and in the down-
cutting, terraces were formed as shown in stage 3, Fig. 1.
Roadway and Ballast
809
Lake leve/*
Vorved clays \
Sr^=
\ • * ■ - ^ yjy — 1
X • '. P ' A. ■ ^3jr
\* ' ' \ J^
Stage 4
A
■ iTT?\
8
>>5y
e^ c
X
^A
o £ y
• • ,
v /
Present
t •
Fig. 1 — Stages in development of present valley of the Clark Fork River.
810 Roadway and Ballast
Following the downcutting, the river was again dammed by a second advance of
the glacier. This second advance may have been more rapid and of greater magnitude
than the first so that a large and deep lake was quickly formed. In this lake were
deposited silts and clays of great thickness. Most of the deposits were of a laminated
or varved character, but some portions were fairly massive. Occasional deposits of silt
and fine sand were brought in, either from the tributaries or as a consequence of density
currents. The end of the glacial lake stage is denoted by stage 4, Fig. 1.
The outlet for Lake Missoula was subsequently cut down by erosion following the
melting of the ice dam, and the river deposited an upper series of sands and gravels
on the lake sediments, particularly at the mouths of the tributaries, as shown in stage 5,
Fig. 1.
Following the deposition of the upper sands and gravels, the present stream began
a process of downcutting and terrace formation, excavating much of the material that
had previously existed in the bedrock valley. Final conditions are represented in the
diagram corresponding to the present time, Fig. 1.
It is apparent that a wide variety of results could be obtained from test borings
in the present valley, depending upon the location of the borings. For example, borings
made from approximately the same level might encounter nothing but gravel to great
depth, as at D (Fig. 1) ; might encounter substantial thicknesses of varved clay over
gravel, as at E; or might encounter nothing but varved clay over bedrock, as at F.
Borings made from radically different elevations, such as borings C and E, might en-
counter substantial thicknesses of varved clay overlying deep deposits of gravel. At first
glance it might be thought that the same strata had been encountered in both borings,
but obviously the varved clays in boring E cannot represent the same strata as those
in boring C. It is possible to encounter gravel over varved clays, as in boring A; or
nothing but varved clays with fine sand or silt inclusions, as in boring B.
The understanding gained by the geologic reconnaissance, together with a knowledge
of the general geologic history of the area, made possible the delineation of the sub-
surface conditions by the addition of a relatively small number of test borings. Without
the reconnaissance a very large number of additional borings would have been required,
and it is questionable whether a proper correlation of the various materials would have
been achieved.
A study of the proposed alinement and of the subsurface conditions indicated that
no unusual problems would be encountered in connection with either the upper or lower
sands and gravels. Serious problems might be anticipated with the varved clay deposits,
particularly with respect to the stability of cuts in the material. Problems were also
anticipated in the fine sands and silts included in the varved clay deposits, especially
where seepage would be likely to develop on account of flow on the varved clay layers,
as well as in cut sections where the sands and silts might exist as subgrade materials.
Selected examples of the difficulties will be described in the following sections.
Stability of Cuts in Varved Clay
At one point in the line change, the railroad must cross a ridge of varved clay in
a cut having a depth as great as 90 ft. In the north end of the cut the lower sands
and gravels occupy the full section, but the elevation of the contact between these
materials and the overlying varved clays descends toward the south below subgrade
level so there is as much as 65 ft of varved clays in the upper portions of the southern
end of the cut. The clays are of medium to stiff consistency with unconfined com-
pressive strengths ranging between about 0.5 to 1.5 tons per sq ft.
Roadway and Ballast 8H_
On the basis of conventional stability analyses and the assumption that the material
is a homogeneous clay the slopes could theoretically safely be established at 1^4 to 1
(horizontal to vertical). However, it was not considered advisable to use slopes so
steep for several reasons. Since the clay deposit contains thin partings of very fine sand
or silt at close intervals, ranging from a fraction of an inch to several inches, the
material is by no means homogeneous. Moreover, the more pervious partings tend to
permit a flow of water and may be the seat of hydrostatic pressures that would greatly
reduce the stability of the slopes at least during wet seasons.
Evidence that the long-time stability of slopes in the varved days would be much
less than that indicated on the basis of short-time compression tests was gained by a
study of both natural and artificial slopes in the formation within a few miles of the
line change. A reconnaissance indicated that no stable hillsides in the material could be
found with slopes steeper than 4 to 1. Most of the natural slopes, where originally
steepened by natural gullies, ranged between 5 to 1 and 6 to 1. Numerous highway cuts
in the varved clay were also examined. Their heights ranged from a few feet to as much
as 40 ft. Most of the slopes had originally been cut at 2 to 1 or iy2 to 1. A few had
been established as flat as 3 to 1. Nevertheless, without exception, these slopes had
experienced slumping. Often the slides were relatively shallow, but in many instances
they extended from 10 to 20 ft below the surface of the slope. Therefore, they could
not be classified as surficial phenomena.
It was also observed that very little water was required to produce evidence of
seepage in the thin silt or sand partings in the deposit. At one locality a recent high-
way cut had been made in a bank behind which had existed an old railroad cut. The
ridge of varved clay left between the two cuts should have been in a position to have
experienced almost perfect drainage. Yet each of the layers of silt or sand was damp,
even as late as midsummer.
Because of the field evidence, it was considered necessary to establish the deep cut
with side slopes not steeper than 4 to 1 with horizontal berms at suitable elevations
to permit removal of runoff from the slopes and to allow room for the operation of
grading machinery. It was also considered necessary to provide additional room for
cleanup operations at each side of the roadbed. The section finally adopted is shown in
Fig. 2.
Construction operations were begun on this cut in 1956. The cut was opened almost
to its full depth in the varved clays but at side slopes as steep as 1.5 to 1. According
to the stability computations based on short-time soil tests, the cut to the depth of its
initial excavation should have been stable. Nevertheless during the winter of 1956-57
extensive deep-seated slides developed as shown in the photograph. Fig. 3. This sliding
constituted decisive evidence that the flatter slopes were indeed essential for long-time
stability, and were not overconservative.
Even where the thickness of varved clay was as little as 10 ft at the top of a cut.
the clays showed signs of considerable instability when on slopes steeper than 3 to 1
or 4 to 1. Therefore, the decision was reached that all exposures of the varved clays,
except in very shallow cuts, would have to be laid back at the flatter slope.
Cuts in Fine Sand and Silt
In some localities the varved clay deposits contained beds or lenses oi extremely
fine sand or silt. Water seeping through the sand and silt tended to concentrate at the
base of these lenses near the upper surface of the underlying varved day. When a cut
exposed the contact between the overlying silts and underlying clays, seepage was
812
Roadway and Ballast
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Fig. 2 — Final cross section adopted for deep cuts in varved clay.
Fig. 3 — Slide in varved clay cut at temporary \yz to 1 slope.
strongly evident at the contact. Although the quantity of the seepage was moderate in
most cases, it was sufficient to produce marked instability of the silts and sands. Excava-
tion itself often proved difficult, and after the cuts were made, continued seepage pro-
duced constant removal of the fine sand and silt just above the contact and ultimate
disintegration of the slopes. The appearance of one such cut during construction is
shown in Fig. 4. It was concluded that the process could be stopped and the slope
rendered stable by blanketing the silts and sands with a coarse-grained filter through
which the water could escape without washing out the fine materials. Fortunately the
granular materials available from the upper and lower sand and gravel deposits had
grain-size characteristics ideally suited to serve as such filter materials. Blankets of the
filter material were placed with a horizontal width of at least 4 ft on the slopes of
silt and sand, which were established at 2 to 1. As an additional precaution an extra
width of cut was allowed on either side of the roadway for cleanup and maintenance
Roadway and Ballast
81.?
Fig. 4 — Cut in fine sand before slope protection. Note sloughing of sides
and small deltas in ditch. Below, Close-up view of delta. Note holes formed
by the subsurface erosion.
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purposes. A typical cross section of such a cut is shown in Fig. 5 together with the
grain-size curves for the fine material being protected and for the filter material placed
as the overlying blanket. Results were extremely successful, as indicated in Fig. 6, which
shows the same cut as Fig. 4 after treatment. Indeed the influence of the blanket was
so beneficial that it became routine in the contractor's operation to blanket all exposures
of fine sand and silt immediately, to prevent the beginning of erosion and thereby to
facilitate construction operations.
Protection of Silt Subgrades
Where the fine sand or silt deposits existed below subgrade level, considerable likeli-
hood existed of instability due to pumping of the truck structure under traffic and due
R 0 a d w ay and Ballast
815
Fig. 6 — Cut in fine sand after blanketing with sand and gravel.
to frost heaving. It was found advisable to overexacavate and to remove the undesirable
materials to a depth of 6 ft and to replace with the same sand and gravel materials that
had been utilized for the drainage blankets. During construction, before removal and
replacement of the fine sands and silts, subgrade conditions were virtually impassable
to construction equipment. By excavating ahead of construction with a dragline and
replacing with the sand and gravel, a stable base was established that proved beneficial
even during construction.
Acknowledgement
The Noxon Rapids project is being constructed for the Washington Water Power
Company. The designers are Ebasco Services, Inc., New York. H. R. Peterson is chief
engineer of the Northern Pacific Railway, for which the writers have served as
consultants.
Report on Assignment 9
Roadway Signs
(a) Reflectorized and Luminous Roadway Signs, Collaborating with
Committee 9, and the Signal Section, AAR
(b) Develop Standard Close Clearance Warning Sign
J. E. Chubb (chairman, subcommittee), M. B Davis, H. G. Johnson. Paul McKay,
J. R. Scofield, J. C. Woods.
Under Assignment (a) your committee presents as information a progress report
on the feasibility studies of new nuclear light sources thai the Armour Research Foun-
dation has been engaged to make.
One of the earliest commercial uses oi radioactivity in its naturally occurring forms
816 Roadway and Ballast
was for the production of light. Self-luminous watch dials have been available for several
decades. It was not until artificial radioisotopes were produced, however, that serious
thought was given to the use of radioactivity in light sources of relatively large size
and intensity. In recent years such things as deck markers for ships and standard light
sources for the calibration of instruments have appeared.
Light sources relying directly or indirectly on radioactivity for their excitation
possess many advantages and potential applications for the railroads, such as long life,
minimum servicing, and reliability. The question immediately arises as to why these
light sources are not in use if their principles are understood and there are such obvious
advantages to be gained. Two problems remain to be satisfactorily solved. First, in
general, the brightness of radioactive light sources in most cases is too low to be useful.
Second, radioactivity is a potential hazard, and widespread public use of sources of
activity must be based on a foolproof design which contains the isotopes or uses the
most innocuous types of isotopes.
Low light level applications, however, such as self-illuminated signs and signal lamps
are within the range of present-day technology. The ARF proposal for this research is
concerned with the mechanisms involved in the production of light by means of radio-
activity, together with the problems involved, and presents some ideas which show
promise.
Under Assignment (b) your committee reports progress in the gathering of informa-
tion for the development of a standard close clearance warning sign, which assignment
was given to Committee 1 shortly after the last annual meeting of the Association.
The committee fully recognizes the need to establish uniformity throughout the railroad
industry, and subcommittee 9, which has been given the assignment for study, develop-
ment and report, is assembling information concerning standards and practices now in
use or recommended by member roads. With this information a single recommended
standard will ultimately result and will be reported on at a later date.
Report on Assignment 10
Ballast
(a) Tests
(b) Ballasting Practices
(c) Special Types of Ballast
(d) Specification for Sub-ballast
R. H. Beeder (chairman, subcommittee), E. W. Bauman, J. G. Campbell, J. P. Dates-
man, A. T. Goldbeck, E. W. McCuskey, R. L. McDaniel, J. W. Thomas, Stanton
Walker, C. E. Webb.
Your committee reports this year on three of its assignments, namely (a) Tests,
(c) Special Types of Ballast, and (d) Specifications for Sub-ballast.
The report on Assignment (a) is submitted as information and is a progress report
on ballast tests being carried on at the Association of American Railroads Research
Center.
The report on Assignment (c) is submitted as information and consists of a report
prepared by the Association of American Railroads Research Center.
Report on Assignment (d) presents specifications for sub-ballast with the recom-
mendation that they be adopted and published in the Manual at the end of the present
ballast specifications and just ahead of plans showing recommended ballast sections.
Roadway and Ballast 817
Report on Assignment 10 (a)
Fifth Progress Report of Research Project on Ballasts
Introduction
This is the fifth progress report of the research project on ballasts which has been
conducted at the AAR Research Center. The tests are described in detail in AREA
Proceedings, Vol. 54, 1953, page 1140, and Vol. 56, 1955, page 177.
The research is sponsored by Committee 1 and has been performed and reported on
by G. L. Hinueber, assistant research engineer roadway of the research staff, Engineering
Division, AAR, under the general direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering
research, and Rockwell Smith, research engineer roadway.
In 1957, test results were reported on 13 ballast materials and since that time tests
have been completed on 4 additional ballasts. The results of the latter tests are reported
below. Following completion of tests on ballast sample No. 17, the oscillator test set-up
was dissassembled to make way for the track into the new AAR Engineering Research
Laboratory. The ballast research project has been transferred to the new laboratory,
and new test equipment has replaced the oscillator.
Tabulation of Test Results
Test results for all ballast materials tested previous to the printing of AREA Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 58, 1957, were reported in that publication. Only results of tests completed
since that report are presented herein.
Tables In through lq show results of complete sieve analyses on test aggregates
No. 14 through No. 17 before and after oscillator tests and before and after Los Angeles
abrasion tests.
Table 2 shows the percentage change in fineness modulus for oscillator and Los
Angeles abrasion tests. Table 2a shows the ratio of the percentage change in the fineness
modulus for the Los Angeles abrasion tests to the percentage change in the fineness
modulus for the oscillator tests.
Table 3 shows results of auxiliary tests, including specific gravity and absorption,
and sodium sulfate soundness. Results for all 17 test aggregates are included.
Table 4 shows test results of fines produced in the oscillator test for test aggregates
Nos. 12. 13, 14. 15, 16, and 17.
Discussion of Test Results
Graphs showing the relationships between degradation of test aggregates in Los
Angeles abrasion tests (both standard and modified) and degradation in the oscillator
tests were presented in the Fourth Progress Report of the Research Project on Ballasts
(AREA Proceedings, in Vol. 58, 1957, Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4. pages 750 to 753, incl.).
Data from Los Angeles abrasion tests and oscillator tests on test ballasts Nos. 14, 15,
16, and 17 have been plotted on these graphs and do not materially affect the relation-
ships previously noted in the 1057 report.
In addition to running the 5-cycle sodium sulfate soundness tests as required by
AREA ballast specifications, 10-cycle soundness tests were run on all available test
aggregates. The results of these tests are presented in Table 3. Two of the aggregates
tested, No. 1 and No. 17. showed losses -lightly in excess of the maximum allowable
10 perceni for the 5-cycle soundness test. Only one of these, No. 17. was available for
tin- 10-cycle soundness test. This test aggregate showed a considerably larger loss in
the 10-cycle soundness test. One tevt aggregate, No 15, showed a loss in the 5-cyde
818 Roadway and Ballast
soundness test moderately in excess of the maximum allowable 10 percent. Again, this
aggregate showed a considerable increase in loss for the 10-cycle soundness test. One
test aggregate, No, 8, showed a 5-cycle soundness loss considerably above 10 percent. Its
10-cycle soundness loss was quite a bit greater than its 5-cycle loss. One test aggregate.
No. Q, which has a poor held soundness history, passed the 5-cycle soundness test but
showed a considerable loss in the 10-cycle test. The results indicate the possibility that
the specified test for soundness may not be sufficiently severe to be used as an acceptance
test. The 5- and 10-cycle soundness tests will be continued on future test aggregates to
determine the adequacy of the present test procedure.
Tests results on fines produced in the oscillator test on test ballasts Nos. 12, 13,
14, 15, lb, and 17 are shown in Table 4. It is noted that test ballasts Nos. 15 and 17
yielded fines that exhibited plastic properties.
The fines from test ballast No. 14, which is a granite, had a 28-day unconfined
compressive strength of 8.1 psi in the cementing value test. This is the highest cementing
value of the fines from any of the 17 aggregates tested. The amount of fines produced
in the oscillator test on this ballast was so small, however, that this property is con-
sidered of little consequence.
None of the test ballasts reported on at this time yielded fines of exceptionally low
r.ermeabilit\ .
Description of New Ballast Test Installation
The new ballast test set-up is composed of a 10 ft by 30 ft by 3 ft thick rein-
forced concrete slab which provides a foundation for the equipment, a structural steel
loading frame which is bolted to the concrete and provides a reaction for the ballast
test machine, and the ballast test machine. A 4-in-thick, bituminous cushion has been
placed on top of the concrete to provide a more resilient base on which the ballast rests
so as to more closely simulate actual subgrade conditions in track.
The new test machine utilizes hydraulic jacks actuated by pulsating hydraulic
pressure to provide repeated loading to the ballast section being tested. The ballast test
section is composed of a 3 -tie section of track on 12 in of ballast. Two separate test
sections are provided adjacent to each other so that tests on two ballasts can be carried
out simultaneously. Loads up to 100,000 lb can be applied to each test section at a rate
of up to 400 applications per minute.
The new ballast test equipment has several advantages over the oscillator; larger
loads, up to 50 tons, can be applied; reduction of testing time due to these larger loads
is possible; load application can be controlled and maintained more accurately; and
the new equipment allows greater flexibility of testing procedure and requires a smaller
test sample.
In addition to the test program involving the test equipment described above, the
Los Angeles abrasion tests, and the auxiliary tests, including specific gravity and absorp-
tion, soundness tests, and tests on fines, will be continued with the eventual aim to
accept, revise or replace tests included in the present AREA ballast specifications.
Roadwav and Ballast
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Roadwav and Ballast
823
Table 2
PERCENT CHANGE IN FINENESS MODULUS
LAR on Orig. Gradation LAR on Specified Grad.
Complete Test
Sample
No.
Oscillator
Test
Complete
Test
20%
Test
No Abrasive
Charges
Complete
Test
20%
Test
14
2.21
23.6
6.5
12.5
22.0
7.4
15
3.39
43.4
13.4
22.1
42.7
14.6
*16
1.04
18.4
3. 1
6.0
21.6
3. 1
17
4.37
40.6
13.1
21.8
42.2
14.5
♦Specified No. of revolutions for com-
plete LAR test = 500. Specified No. of
revolutions for complete LAR test on
all other samples = 1000.
Table 2a
RATI0 % Change in F. M. LAR
% Change in F. M. Oscillator
LAR on Original Gradiation
Complete Test
LAR on Specified Gradiation
Sample
Complete
20%
No Abrasive
Complete
20%
No.
Test
Test
Charges
Test
Test
14
10.7
2.9
5.6
10.0
3.3
15
12.8
4.0
5.4
12.6
4.3
16
17.7
3.0
5.8
20.8
3.0
17
9.3
3.0
5.0
9.7
3.3
R o a <l w a y a n d Ballast
Toblo 3
AUX1L.1 A RY TEST RESULTS
Samplo
No.
Material
Specific Gravity
(Bulk ovor Dry )
Absorption
%
Sodium Sulfate Soundness
Test Lo.-i.'i (%)
5 Cyclos | 10 Cycles
1
Limcstono
2.(12
1.42
11.8
Nol Available
2
Slag
2.67
0.56
0.9
2.7
3
Gravel
2.64
2.12
10.0
r : t - 1 Available
4
Chat
2.55
1.38
3.7
10.4
5
Limestone
2.66
0.93
1.5
2.9
6
Trap Rock
2.97
0.36
0.9
1.1
7
Sand & Gravel
2.67
1.01
3.4
7.0
8
Limestone
2.55
3.88
24.2
38.1
9
Limestone
2.66
3.25
7.3
29.9
10
Slag
2.27
2.84
1.2
1.5
11
Slag
2.21
2.96
0.7
2.3
12
Limestone
2.64
1.28
2.7
3.9
13
Sand & Gravel
2.64
1.22
3.5
7.0
14
Granite
2.63
0.38
0.07
0.13
15
Limestone
2.51
1.32
15.8
26.4
16
Asphalt Coate
Limestone
1 2.45
1.20
1.8
8.0
17
Limestone
2.51
1.58
11.2
34.4
R o a d \v a v and Ballast
825
Table 4
TESTS ON FINES (-#40)
Sample
No.
Material
%-#40 Material
After Oscillator Test
Atterberg
Limits
LL. PL. PI
Permeability
(cm/sec)
Cementing Value
1-Day Strength
psl
28-Day Strength
pel
Llmestonfc
Slag
Gravel
Chat
Limeston^
Trap
Rock
S. and Gr
Limestone
Llmestom i
Slag
Slag
Limestone
S. andGr.
3ranite
Limeston
Asphalt
Coated
Xiineston
Limeston
1.6
2.0
1.6
1.2
1.7
0.5
18.0
5.2
2.6
3.7
1.7
2.5
29.8
0.7
2.4
0.1
IS. 8
Non
Non
Non
Non
Non
Non
28.9
24.5
Non
Non
Non
Non
Non
22.3
No
23.3
17.3 1.5
Plastio
Plastic
Plastic
PlasHo
Plastic
Plastic
9.6
8.2
19.3
ae.3
Plasi ,c
Plaat ic
Plasi i
Plastic
Plas
17. a
Tesljs
17.6
8.9xl0"4
1.8x10-3
2.6x10-5
6.8xl0-5
2.0xl0-5
1.6X10-4
9.0xl0-3
9.0x10-7
1.2 xlO"6
2.5X10-4
1.5xl0"4
5.7xl0-4
4. 9xl0_1
8. 6xl0-3
2. 2x10
1.3
5.2
2.5
5.8
0.5
2.5
0
0.9
0.8
2.2
2.9
1.2
0
3.6
0.8
Insufficient quantity
3.6
6.5
4.9
6.2
1.0
5.1
0
1.2
1.5
5.4
6.2
3.0
0
8. 1
1.5
produced
2. 2x10"
Roadway and Ballast
Report on Assignment 10 (c)
Special Types of Ballast
The 1958 budget for the Engineering Division, AAR, includes a Committee 1 spon-
sored item for asphalt ballast treatment. This will be part of the research work spon-
sored by the committee under the direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering
research, and Rockwell Smith, research engineer roadway, who prepared this report.
Much preliminary work was done in 1957 in cooperation with the Asphalt Institute
through a special project committee of that organization on asphalt ballast treatments
for railroads. The Asphalt Institute has also included substantial funds in its budget
for 1^58, and its project will be cooperative with the AAR Engineering Division. To ad-
minister the work, assign jointly owned equipment, and to determine policies of the
research project, a joint committee consisting of seven members of AREA Committee 1
and seven members from the asphalt industry representing the Institute has been ap-
pointed. In addition, a representative each of the AAR and the Institute research staffs
will function as ex-officio members.
The accompanying prints, Figs. 1 and 2, show the tentative design of the asphalt dis-
tributor and the chip spreader for the cover coat. These were developed by the manu-
facturers shown at the request of the Asphalt Institute and will be built in 1958 for
joint ownership of the AAR and the Institute. Utilization of the equipment on asphalt
ballast sections will be under the direction of the joint committee. The equipment is
also adaptable to roadway use outside the ballast section.
A previous test section one-half mile long with asphalt-penetrated ballast on the
Illinois Central near Manteno, 111., indicated that such treatment was very effective in
reducing checking and splitting of ties, reducing routine maintenance costs for seven
years as compared with the division average, reducing ballast requirements and ballast
fouling, increasing tie anchorage, giving protection against corrosion and protection for
the subgrade. The final report on this test project appears in the Proceedings, Vol. 55,
1954, page 664. As reported, the maintenance costs after the seventh year were high,
and the record shows that the higher required expenditures were in the rail joint areas.
The evidence obtained from the project indicated strongly that with reduced joint
surfacing the asphalt treatment would have remained economically serviceable for an
extended time. The present proposed tests are planned for welded rail sections, where
the rails are laid both in long lengths and in shorter 78- and 117-ft lengths, and where
rails are laid with tight joints and with conventional joints.
During the year observations were made and data obtained from the Santa Fe
Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad concerning their work in the treatment of
ballast and roadway sections. This work was done principally for the prevention of
ballast fouling and control of drifting sand, but as the applications on the ballast and
on the roadway were not separated, the entire work is reported as of interest even
where the matter discussed is technically more under the jurisdiction of Subcom-
mittee 6 — Roadway: Formation and Protection than the Ballast subcommittee.
Applications on the Santa Fe
Between Mile Post 2.4 and 6.9 south of Clovis, N. M., on the Carlsbad line, the
Santa Fe applied in 1956 asphalt and surplus oil to control the drifting of sand over
the tracks where such drifting had seriously affected operations for a number of years.
In places sand had drifted and been cleared from the track, resulting in effect in 15-
to 20-ft cuts. These areas required constant clearing very similar to clearing snow in
cut areas.
R o a (I w a v and Ballast
827
828
Roadway and Ballast
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Roadway and Ballast 829
Prior to asphalt treatment the sand banks were leveled, the track raised up to
AJ/t ft on sand and the section '"streamlined" with approximately 5 to 1 slopes on both
sides of the track to the right-of-way line, a total width of 100 it. On this area approxi
mately 35,000 gal of asphalt for the track section 12 to 14 ft wide and 170.000 gal
of oil were placed in 2 and 3 applications, using the Santa Fe designed spray car. This
amounted to about 0.8 gal per sq yd. The surplus oil was the fuel in storage for oil-
burning locomotives at the time of dieselization and was a heavy oil containing sludge
from the bottoms of the tanks. The asphalt was RC-1.
The streamlining of the section plus the oil and asphalt surface has been verj
effective in reducing maintenance work in keeping the line clear. The section was shaped
to leave 2 in or so between the base of rail and the treated ballast to permit wind t<>
blow under the rail and thereby eliminate the usual drifting caused by the rail itself.
However, on some sections of this project volcanic cinder ballast has been placed since
the treatment, and there is some sand drifting onto the track, as shown in the accom-
panying photographs. In general the effect of the smooth, tight surface of the treatment
plus the shape of the section has been very satisfactory, and it is estimated that it has
paid for itself in reducing maintenance within a year. For example, clearance cost for a
year prior to treatment was $45,000.
The penetration of the asphalt and oil averages about Y\ in, with the oil penetrating
slightly deeper than the asphalt. However, the oil surface is not as hard as that produced
by the asphalt, but both are very acceptable and both have sufficient stability to permit
traffic to move over them. This is shown in one of the pictures. In general, the work
covered 50 ft on each side of the track (Fig. 3).
In 1957 the Santa Fe stabilized another section of drifting sand near Williard,
N. M. The crushed rock ballast section was also treated after special dressing to provide
"windows" or "eyes" under the rail. Such shaping permits the movement of sand across
the tracks relatively without obstruction. A full section will permit deposition of such
wind-blown materials on the leeward side of the rails.
The railroad reported that this section, including passing track switch areas, had
been covered many times with drifted sand. The treatment covered a section from 100
to 600 ft in width. It was necessary to level off drifted areas adjacent to the tracks
prior to treatment. Figs. 4a and 4b show typical views.
The Santa Fe spray car was used on this project also. For widths up to 24 ft
outside the ballast section an extended spray bar is used (Fig. 5b). For greater widths
a horizontal nozzle is required, controlled by adjusting the elevation of the boom to
which it is fastened. This will provide a uniform application up to 100 ft from the
track. (Fig. 6a). For greater distances pipe and hose lines are fastened to the spray car.
and application is made through hand nozzles. Labor is required to move these long
lengths as the spray car is moved.
Both asphalt of grade RC-1 and surplus fuel oil was used on this project. The
track section proper received the asphalt as did some of the outside roadway. Material
was heated to 100-130 deg F by means of steam coils in the tank cars. Application-
were made at speeds up to 5 mph, spreading 5 to 6 gal per sec over a swath 16 ft wide
This is at the rate of 0.46 gal per sq yd. Rate of application was varied according to
conditions, but ran between l/2 and % gal per sq yd. For very loose, fine, dry sand
two applications of lighter quantities were required to prevent rolling and puddling and
provide good penetration. Penetration for both the asphalt and the nil ha- averaged
H in.
Roadway and Ballast
Sfe
Fig. 3.
Roadway and Ballast
831
Fig. 4a — Looking west through west passing track switch, which has
been blocked many times by being covered up with blown sand. Wide area to
right has been built up to level of top of roadbed by blown-in material.
When wind shifts to north at times this material has been going back across
track. Long fill in background has been asphalted.
Fig. 4b — Detail looking west through west switch, showing south side
of long fill. Small amount of sand in center passing track blown in while
coating was under way. Previously rail has been covered many times.
Results during 1957 have been very satisfactory. The ballast treatment has pre-
vented fouling of the ballast, and the roadway treatment has provided a smooth sur-
face, permitting wind-blown sands from outside the treatment to sweep across the
tracks with very little drifting.
A similar section averaging 60 ft in width, including the ballast section, and 1.083
miles in length was treated in 1055 near Cucamonga, Calif. Adjacent to this section
there are intensely cultivated orchards and grain fields with top soil condition vet)
loose and highly subject to wind erosion. This section was used as an experimental
project by the Santa Fe to develop methods and prove materials for future use as above.
It is estimated that 15.500 gal. all asphalt, of grades from RC-1 to MC-1 were used-
giving an average application of 0.43 gal per ^q yd. Costs were estimated as ^2,676,
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 5a — Ready for coating near west switch. This switch has been
blocked many times, requiring hand labor to clear. Posts at left are on road
giving access to property to left center, which will require considerable
special application on account of being used for autos and trucks.
\~" H
Fig. 5b — First coat being applied outside ballast section, 8-ft swath each
side at 5 to 6 gal per sec. Light color is reflection of bright sunlight on
very wet asphalt at 130 deg F, which has not yet finished penetration of
about y4 in and has not started curing account 5 mph speed of asphalt car.
Roadway and Ballast
833
Fig. 6a — Spraying out nearly 100 ft average by means of horizontal noz-
zel on swinging manifold. Trajectory easily controlled by raising, lowering
and swinging boom hydraulically.
Fig. 6b — Detail of atomization pattern of spray shown above. Applica-
tion very satisfactory and economical. Orifices are not the same as commer-
cial nozzles, and were designed through many experiments, not through any
mathematical theory.
including $1,318 for asphalt and $500 for work train service. This is $2,471 per mile
of 60 ft width. The Santa Fe estimates that with the newer equipment now in use
the costs of the project, except for the asphalt, would be about one-quarter of that
shown. It was concluded that asphalt graded RC-1 is in general the most satisfactory
for use on fine sands. Penetration averaged 1 in. A cover or seal coat was not required
on the ballast section in addition to the general treatment.
The project had been in service for two years at the time of this year's inspection.
It has functioned excellently in keeping the track clear of sand. The ballast section is
tight and has produced no special problems in maintenance. The section was shaped
low prior to asphalt application to provide openings between ballast and rail. This, as
in the other projects, has proved of value in keeping the track free of sand (Fig. 7>
At the time of the extension of facilities at the Edwards Air Force Base in Califor-
nia, a line revision was required on the Santa Fe. The new grade with nils up to IS tt
in height was built of fine sand, the only material available in the desert country on
the line. Vegetation is very sparse and very slow in starting, and prevailing winds ol
high velocity caused very appreciable damage to the fills by erosion. As an emergenc)
measure old ties were laid in a grid pattern as shown in Fig. 8. This measure was
Roadway and Ballast
I rf. I
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Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Roadway and Ballast 835
effective in eliminating severe erosion of the fill and was also effective in stopping wind-
blown material and to some extent in stimulating growth of vegetation. In other por-
tions of the revision asphalt was sprayed on the fill slopes; this too was effective. This
project differs from those discussed above in that protection here was required against
roadway erosion and not against deposition of material.
Union Pacific Applications
The Union Pacific in similar territory between Kelso and Yermo, Calif., has been
spraying track and roadway with asphalt emulsion containing 60 percent bitumen and
40 percent water. As in previously described applications the track was raised to pro-
vide a minimum of V/2 in between base of rail and the ballast. Application of the
emulsion extended to °0 ft on each side of the track. Application rate averaged 0.205 gal
per sq yd.
To procure adequate penetration, the asphalt material was heated to 200 deg F
and 2 applications at least 4 hr apart were made. As on other projects, there was a
tendency for the material to pond or roll up if placed in too large quantity. Also,
rather close control of the emulsion was required, as poor penetration was obtained by
cooler material and higher temperatures would solidify the asphalt content in pump
and hoses. About 15 miles of track were so treated, using 325,000 gal at a cost of
$0,107 per gal applied or $2,316.43 per mile. This work is reported to be very satisfactory
in controlling wind-blown material in sand territory.
For the cases cited very appreciable returns have been obtained from the expendi-
tures required. These are direct benefits in the reduction of maintenance. Other more
indirect benefits are obtained from increased visibility, reduced wear on equipment,
which can be very appreciable, reduced ballasting and surfacing, added tie life and
reduced corrosion on track and fittings. These can be very substantial, and it is the
purpose of the proposed 1958 research to obtain data that will permit full evaluations
of the various items.
Report on Assignment 10 (d)
Specifications for Sub-ballast
Your committee submits the following specifications for sub-ballast with the recom-
mendation that they be adopted and publlished in the Manual at the end of the present
ballast specifications, Part 2, Chapter 1, and just ahead of plans showing recommended
ballast sections.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR SUB-BALLAST
As in the case of ballast, a wide range of materials may be used as sub-ballast,
depending on economics and availability. Ordinarily, sub-ballast will not include superior
side-borrow materials but will be selected to conform to specifications and, therefore,
will consist of imported materials that are hauled to the job location.
The thickness of the sub-ballast to be placed on the completed subgrade may vary,
but excellent results have been obtained with a thickness of 12 in. Where practical,
sub-ballast should be placed in layers and thoroughly compacted in accordance with
standard practice for the formation of roadway so as to form a stable foundation for
the ballast.
Materials intended for use as sub-ballast shall conform to current ASTM Specifica
tions, designation D 1241.
Roadway and Ballast __
Report on Assignment 11
Chemical Control of Vegetation
Collaborating with Signal Section and Communications Section, AAR
C. E. Webb (chairman, subcommittee), C. R. Bergman. B. S. Converse, H. S. Leard,
P. G. Mil tin. W. F. Petteys, W. C. Trieschman.
The report on this assignment, presented as information, consists of three parts.
Part 1 is a report on vegetation control on Iowa roadbeds by W. E. Loomis and W. M.
N i u\e of Iowa State College. Part 2 is a report on railroad weed control by Glenn C.
Klingman and Merrill Wilcox of North Carolina State College. Part 3 is the report
of the AAR staff on field studies conducted during 1957. It was prepared by C. G.
Pa iris, agronomist and Rockwell Smith, research engineer roadway.
Attention is also called to the final report on railway roadbed vegetation control in
Montana as published in Bulletin 538, September-October 1957.
Part 1 — Vegetation Control on Iowa Roadbeds — 1957
By W. E. Loomis and W. M. Struve1
New chemicals, new combinations and changing weather conditions during 1957
added to the information obtained from roadbed vegetation control experiments at Ames
and Kanawha, Iowa. Three groups of experiments were run: extensive tests of chem-
icals and combinations on The Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway tracks at Kanawha,
and tests of herbicidal oils and continuing tests of treatments and spray programs at
Ames.
Treatments were applied to 2-rod strips, and a 1-rod check strip was left adjacent
to each plot. All treatments were replicated three times. Vegetation control was esti-
mated visually by comparison with the adjoining untreated plot. Independent estimates
of control were made by each of three experienced operators. The data included in the
tables are thus averages of three estimates on each of the three replications of the
particular treatment. Roadbed vegetation is highly variable, and the results are affected
by the extent to which resistant species were present on the individual plots, or by the
extent to which invaders were able to take advantage of the elimination of competing
species as a result of the chemical applications. These conditions are, however, those
present in most roadbed work, hence those treatments which did not give satisfactory
results under all plot conditions would not be expected to be uniformly successful in
general use.
Tests at Kanawha
The M & St L track at Kanawha is a typical feeder line, with light grading and
a thin ballast of sandy gravel and cinders. No systematic weed control has been prac-
ticed, and the area used was generally infested with native prairie and introduced
annual and perennial vegetation. A total of 13 species was listed as of frequent and
fairly uniform distribution. Of these, 5 were annuals and 8 were perennials. Another
14 species, all but 5 perennials, were present on many of the plots. These species are
listed in Table 1. Those most difficult to control are marked with an asterisk.
1 Professor and associate, respectively, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa.
Roadwav and Ballast
837
Common Name
Quack grass
Milkweed*
Whorled milkweed*
Devils shoestring*
Ground cherry*
Prairie rose
Violet
Dandelion
Witch grass
Green foxtail
Russian thistle
Prostrate spurge
Upright spurge
Big bluestem*
Little bluestem*
Sloughgrass*
Field bindweed
Goldenrod
Equisetum*
Bluegrass
Four-o'clock
Willow
Barnyard gr;i"
Crabgrass
Mexican nreweed
Common ragweed
Rough pigweed
Table 1 — Roadbed Plants at Kanawha
Scientific Name
Common Perennials
Agropyron repent
Asclepias syriaca
A. verticillata
Polygonum coccineum
Physalii heterophytta
Rosa arkansana
Viola sp.
Taraxacum officinale
Common Annuals
Panicum capillare
Setaria viridii
Salsola kali
Euphorbia supi'in
E. maculata
Less Common Perennials
Andropogon gerardi
A. sco partus
Spartina pectinata
Convolvulus arvensis
Solidago nemoralh
Equisetum sp.
Poa pratensis
Mirabilis nyctdglnea
Salix sp.
Less Common Annuals
Echinochloa crusgaUi
Digitaria sanguinalis
Kochia scoparia
Ambrosia artrmisiifoli i
Amaranthus retroflexus
Chlorate-CMU (monuron) has been our most dependable combination in Iowa
for several years. To determine whether dalapon-CMU might be equally useful we ran
a factorial experiment with two levels of dalapon, two of CMU, and four of Brushmix
(2.4-D plus 2,4,5-T). The results of the test, with only two rates of Brushmix included,
are shown in Table 2. Rainfall was heavy, nearly 10 in. in the two months following
the May 21 application, and weed control was generally poor.
838 Roadway and Ballast
Table 2 — Vegetation Control with Dalapon Mixtures
Percent
Dalapon Lb^ CMU Lb BruskmixLb Control
20 8 0 50
20 8 2 70
20 10 0 56
20 10 2 82
30 8 0 61
30 8 2 64
30 10 0 71
30 10 2 77
' All treatments are pounds actual chemical per acre.
The erratic results, from the addition of Brushmix for example, are largely due to
unequal distribution of susceptible species. Brushmix at 8 lb was not as good as at
2 lb, probably because the heavy application killed the tops too fast for satisfactory
translocation to the roots of perennial plants, but the differences were not significant
at the 5-percent level. Since only one treatment reached the 80-percent level of control,
these applications are considered unsatisfactory for the conditions of the experiment.
CMU-chlorate (Chlorea) mixtures were applied in varying proportions and in dry
pelleted form or in water solution and suspension. Rainfall as in the previous experi-
ment was about 1 in. in the first week and 10 in. in the first two months after applica-
tion. Results are shown in Table 3. All chemical rates are in pounds actual per acre.
Table 3 — CMU-Chlorate in Pellets and Solution
Percent
Chlorate Lb I A CMU Lb I A Form Control
100 6 Pellets 50
100 6 Solution 84
140 8.4 Pellets 79
140 8.4 Solution 95
200 5 Pellets 73
200 5 Solution 81
280 None Solution 57
480 None Solution 81
Under the severe conditions of this test the pelleted form of CMU-chlorate was not
satisfactory, even though the rainfall should have been favorable to this form of appli-
cation. The chlorate solution plus CMU at 5 and 6 lb gave 80 percent controls, as did
480 lb of chlorate alone. Weed cover on these plots on September 28 was largely
annual grasses which could have been eliminated by a second treatment with oil, or by
burning, where such treatment was considered cheaper than the heavier rate of CMU.
In a second, similar test, chlorate was supplied at 0, 90 and 120 lb per acre in
Chlorax, and CMU was added at 6, 8, or 10 lb actual per acre. Methoxone was used
at 2 lb per acre throughout. The results in Table 4 indicate again the need of 8 to 10 lb
actual CMU under these conditions and the moderate value of added chlorate. This
series of plots received 2 in of rain the first week and nearly 12 in between May 14
and July 31. Any indication of a beneficial effect of chlorate with such early and
continued rainfall is evidence for the value of this component in the mixture.
Roadway and Ballast 830
Table 4 — Chlorati ('Ml' Mixtures
Percent
Chlorate, Lb/ A CMU,Lb ! Control
0 6 56
0 8 75
0 10 80
00 6 63
00 8 68
00 10 87
120 b 77
120 8 85
120 10 85
A test of aminotriazole (ATA) with CMU and Methoxone indicated relativelj
little value for ATA under the conditions of this year's tests. All combinations with
10 lb CMU gave satisfactory to good control. ATA alone gave a 40 percent control.
while ATA at 6 and 10 lb per acre added to 10 lb CMU had no significant effect.
Simazin (2-chloro-4, 6-bis-(ethylamino)-s-triazine) was tried at 5 and 10 lb per
acre, alone and with chlorate and Methoxone. This experiment was accidentally retreated
by the railroad, and results were not conclusive. They suggest, however, that Simazin
will be worthy of more extensive trial if it proves to be cost competitive with CMU.
Control with Simazin 10, chlorate 00, Methoxone 2, was 84 percent, compared to 87
percent for CMU-chlorate at 10-00. In general, an all-season control of more than 80
percent is considered satisfactory, particularly in the first year of application.
Tests with Oils
The heavier aromatic oils have been recommended as inexpensive sprays for annual
weeds and for partial control of perennials since the first report on this project, and
are being used in increasing volume. Seven commercially available or experimental oils
were used at Ames this year in an attempt to determine more accurately the charac-
teristics of a good herbicidal oil. These seven are listed in Table 5 in the order of their
effectiveness in this test, together with the characteristics more commonly used to
describe such oils. In our past reports we have indicated that polycyclic aromatic com-
pounds may be expected to be most phytotoxic. Some estimate of this fraction may
be made by comparing boiling point ranges. Cox-77 with a high percentage of total
aromatics but a very low pour point might be low in polycyclic compounds. Agronyl-R.
in contrast, was less effective than might have been expected. The difficulty is due at
least in part to the high viscosity of this oil which prevents an effective coverage of
the vegetation.
Table 5 — Herbicidal Oils Used in 1057
Effectiveness Oil Gravity Pour, F Viscosity Aromatics
1 Conoco 8.4 10 44 57
2 L-8764 27.8 32 43 40
3 Cox-6 18.5 —15 37 65
4 Cox-60 22.1 42 52 54
5 Cox-77 23.8 —25 36
6 Agronyl-R 22.3 80 77 46
7 Lion HO-6 26.0 low 5 5
Oil sprays were applied oil July 6, and readings were made on August 16 and
September 29. The decrease in percentage control between the two readings is an index
of the persistence of the effect of the oil. All oils knocked down the vegetation and
840 Roadway and Ballast
killed mosl oi the annuals. The better oils killed or weakened many perennials and were
at leasl partially effective in preventing the germination of late annuals. The July 6
application is late when an all-season clean track is desired, but gives a better late
summer and winter control than a single application made at an earlier date. The
control figures are shown in Table 6. Differences among the oils were significant at the
S percent level.
Table 6 — Results With Herbicidal Oils
Percent Control Percent Recovery
Oil Aug. 16 Sept. 29 Aug. 16 to Sept. 29
Conoco Weed Oil 83 75 8
Stand. Ind. L-8764 82 74 8
Cox-6 78 71 7
Cox-60 73 64 9
Cox-77 70 57 13
Soconv Agronyl-R 62 47 15
Lion HO-6 57 46 11
Continued Treatments and Spray Systems
The control of roadbed vegetation is not an engineering operation to be completed
at one time, but requires year-by-year and month-by-month attention. This group of
experiments was started in 1953, and 1957 was the fifth year of uniform treatment. The
data for 1957 are included in Table 7 and some three-year average figures in Table 8.
Data for both chemicals and spray plans are highly significant. Spray plan 3 for the oil
treatment (L-8764) represents one oil sprayed at early growth and a second in mid-
>ummer.
Table 7 — Results of Continued Treatments
Spray Plans, Percent Control
Treatment Alt. Years Each Year Each Year -\- Oil 60 Days Later
TCA-40 13 11 91
TCA-40 ; chlorate-80 30 35 97
TCA-40; chlorate-80 + 2, 4-D-2. 13 12 96
Chlorate-160 27 56 97
Oil (L-8764 )-100 gal 32 35 89
CMU-10 87 87 95
CMU-20 94 97 99
CMU-10 ; chlorate-80 °0 02 98
Table 8 — Average Percent Control of Spray Plans — All Treatments
Yean Alt. Years Each Year Each Y ear -\- Oil
1^55 68 84 89
1956 461 73 95
1957 482 532 95
Avg.— 3 years 54 70 93
1 Nut sprayed in 1956.
- Reduced late season control in a wet year.
We feel that these tables contain the most useful information on roadbed vegetation
control for Midwest conditions that we have obtained to date. They emphasize the
dictum that the system is more important than the chemical, and indicate the possi-
bilities of reduced costs in properly planned programs, executed at the time of need
rather than at the convenience of the operator. For example, a 97 percent control was
Roadway and Ballast
841
Fig. 1 — CMU-10, chlorate-80 to 100 continued to be a stand;
of comparison for vegetation control. Check in background.
Fig. 2 — Vines (grape here) rooted outside the treated area can make trouble
if not controlled by brushkiller or other means.
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 3 — Local areas of particularly resistant weeds (devil's shoestring here)
should be spot treated.
Fig. A — Secondary treatments are of major importance when herbicides
with little residual effect are used. Foreground: TCA-chlorate plot rein-
fected by annuals. Background : the same treatment followed by an oil spray.
Similar results were obtained with chlorate alone (160 lb) followed by oil.
Roadway and Ballast 843
obtained either by a chlorate spray followed by oil or by 20 lb of CMU — at approxi-
mately twice the chemical cost of the combination treatment. A fully satisfactory con-
trol was obtained with two oil sprays alone at still lower cost, and three oil sprays
might be expected to have been as good as the best treatment, and considerably more
satisfactory than burning three to five times.
The results in a wet season have emphasized also the importance of all-season
control, either by the use of persistant chemicals or of repeated treatments as needed.
Failure to maintain continuous control permits annual weed seeds to build up on the
track until the removal of perennial species may result in more rather than fewer weeds,
with most or all of their undesirable effects. One advantage of the cheaper sprays, as
oils, is the reduced temptation to treat only the weedy areas. At least a few species may
be expected to grow on the untreated strips and to build up the weed seed population
of annual grasses, ragweed, spurges, fireweed, etc. Relieved of competition with
perennials, these species can be more troublesome than those they replace.
These spray plans have proved effective under conditions of only moderately long
summers with poor to good summer growing condition. They would need modification
in the Southeast, probably by the addition of a second oil or similar light spray, and a
single treatment might be adequate in regions of very dry summers. They emphasize
that satisfactory vegetation control on poorly ballasted roadbeds requires the prevention
of seed production by annual plants as well as the elimination of perennials.
Recommendations
We suggest that those in charge of the vegetation control program for a railroad
system plan to do four things:
1. Spray the tracks most heavily infested with resistant perennials with a "heavy"
spray. This spray will cost in the neighborhood of $100 a mile but will need to be
applied only occasionally — perhaps only once.
2. Follow up, in the first year, if necessary, and in subsequent years, with "light"
spray treatments repeated often enough to hold remaining perennials in check and to
prevent seed production by annuals.
3. Treat small areas of particularly persistant perennials heavily with soil sterilant
chemicals, as required. These occasional weed patches can probably be most economically
handled by local section crews.
4. Remember that vegetation control is a continuous problem, and have equipment,
either owned or contracted, to do the job when needed.
Part 2 — Railroad Weed Control
North Carolina State College
By Glenn C. Klingman and Merrill Wilcox'
Most of the Eastern United States has adequate rainfall and a long growing season
producing very heavy plant growth. This is especially true in the Southeast. Winn trees
are removed, brush, woody vines and strong perennial grasses soon infest the area. In
addition, there is sufficient rainfall quickly to leach most soil sterilants from the soil.
For these reasons the railroads' task of keeping their roadbeds clean i- particularly
difficult.
1 Professor of field crops and graduate Bssistant, respectively, North Carolina StaU College, Raleigh,
N '
R o a d w a y and Ballast
Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) is one of the most difficult plants in the South-
easl to control in the roadbed. Therefore this plant was chosen as one of the plants
deserving early consideration in an experimental program.
The Norfolk Southern Railway roadbed located in the suburbs of Charlotte, N. C,
was heavily infested with Bermuda grass. This was chosen as one experimental area.
The Durham & Southern Railway roadbed between Holly Springs and Apex was
lightlj but rather uniformity infested with Bermuda grass. In addition it had a rather
heavy infestation of woody plants including cowitch vine (Campsis radicans), poison
oak (Rhus toxicodendron), and blackberry (Rubus spp.)
The roadbed near Holly Springs is composed of coarse crushed granite. Cinders
have not been used for many years. The roadbed at Charlotte was underlain by cinders,
and considerable coarse sand has been added in the last few years.
Each plot was 4 rail lengths long and 16^ ft wide. Each treatment was replicated
three times. Tentative plans have been made to continue the experiment for several
years. It will be possible to alter the treatment on one-half of any plot, while main-
taining the original treatment on the other half.
A spray boom covering a swath 16^ ft wide was mounted on a small push car
drawn by a motor car. The 16^4-ft swath covered about 2 ft beyond each edge of the
ballast. Also this width covers 1 acre with each y2 mile of track, or 2 acres per mile
(Fig. 1).
The chemicals were applied on the dates, at the rates, and in the amount of spray
mixture shown in Tables 1 and 2. The amount of spray mixture was normally 33 gal
per acre or 66 gal per mile, unless there was a specific need for larger amounts.
Fig- 1 — Sprayer used for applying chemicals on test areas. Bicycle tire
with speedometer attachment operated on rail to record and maintain speed
desired.
Roadwav and Ballast
845
Table 1 — Charlotte, N. C, Norfolk Southern Railway, L957
Chemical* and Rale, Lb Active
Ingredient per Acre
(,'nl Spray
Per Acre
Per Treat.
Weed Ratings-, Oct. g, /.'<"..
Tr eat.
Number
Grass
Brotul-
h in , ,1
1 , . rni)i
Orast and
Br.-leaved
July 17-18
A uu. 7-8
1
Dalapon — 10
Dalapon — 10
33
7.0
3.0
5.0
2
Dalapon- — 40
2,4- D— 8
None
33
7.3
Si 7
8 . S
3
Dalapon— 20
2,4-D-^l
Dalapon— 20
2,4-D— 4
33
ti.7
6.0
... I
4
Dalapon — 10
2,4-D— 2
Dalapon — 10
2,4-D— 2
33
8.0
6.0
7.0
5
Dalapon — 10
2.4- D— 2
Diuron — 10
Dalapon — 10
2,4-D— 2
33
'i.7
6.0
6.4
6
Dalapon — 10
2,4-D— 2
Simazin — 10
Dalapon — 10
2,4-D— 2
33
6.7
7.7
7.2
7
Dalapon — 10
2,4,5-T— 2
Dalapon — 10
2,4,5-T— 2
33
6.3
5.7
6.0
8
Dalapon — 10
2(2,4,5-T)P— 2
Dalapon — 10
2(2,4,5-T)P— 2
33
7.0
4.7
S . 9
9
Dalapon — 10
TBA(354)— 4
Dalapon — 10
TBA (354)— 4
33
6.3
5.0
5.7
10
Dalapon — 10
Diuron — 10
Dalapon — 10
33
7.7
6.7
7.2
11
AT-5+W.A.
PBA (354)— 4
AT-5+W.A.
PBA (354)— 4
33
4.3
4.7
4.5
12
AT-5 + W.A.
PBA (354) — 4
Simazin — 10
AT-5 + W.A.
PBA (354)— 4
33
3.3
4.7
4.0
13
AT-5+W.A.
2,4-D— 2
AT-5 + W.A.
2,4-D— 2
33
2.7
7.7
S . 2
14
AT-5+W.A.
Dalapon — 10
AT-5 + W.A.
Dalapon — 10
33
7.7
7.0
7.4
15
Conoco Oil
None
100
7.7
3.3
10
Agronyl "R"
None
100
4.7
1.3
!..->
17
Agronyl "R"
Simazin — 10
None
100
6.0
t.;<
1.7
18
Agronyl "R"
Diuron — 10
None
100
5.0
6.8
5.7
19
Agronyl "R"
HCA— 2 gal/A
Agronvl "R"
HCA— 2 gal/A
50
5 . 3
5.7
."> . .">
L'(l
Agronvl "R"
PBA(103-A)— 10
Agronvl "K"
PBA(103-A)— 10
50
1.3
(1.7
L'l
Agronvl "R"
Mon.iron-TCA— 21
Agronyl "R"
Monuron-TCA — 21
50
8.3
8 0
8.2
22
Oilorax Liq.— 100 gal
Diuron — 10
None
100
7.0
7.3
7. 'J
23
Chlorax Liq.- — 50 gal
Diuron — 5
Chlorax Liq. .".(> gal
50
6.3
8.0
7.2
24
Erbon— 120
None
33
S . 3
7.7
8.0
■jr,
Diuron — 40
Nmic
33
1 7
1.8
1 ■■
346
Roadway and Ballast
Tabu ! Charlotte, N. C, Norfolk Southern Railway, 1957 (Continued)
Chemical' and Rate, Lb Aelivi
1 ni/n iiii ni per Am
dill Spini/
Pi r Am
Per Treat
Weed Ratings3, Oct
2, v.ir,7
.\ ii mln r
Grass
Broad-
h n> , il
Average
Grass and
Br.-leaved
July 17-1 ft
Aug 7-8
26
Simazin — 40
None
:«
3.0
6.3
4.7
27
I reabor— 872
Nolle
granular
6.3
7.3
6.8
28
Chlorea— 872
None
granular
6.3
5.7
6.0
29
Allan, lr. 2,4-D
872 lb commercial
preparation per acre
None
granular
8.0
7 .3
7.7
30
Check
None
l ,0
1.0
1.0
Least significant difference (0.05) to compare one chemical treatment
with another chemical treatment . . 2.12 _'.:?'.i
I easl significant difference (0.05) to compare the check plot with a
chemical treatment. 1.49 1.69
Coefficient of variability 24.3% 27.8%
'See Table 3 "Chemical Used".
-'Weed Ratings — 10, perfect control; 1. No control.
On the Holly Springs experiment, rain fell immediately following both applications.
It is believed that this considerably reduced the effectiveness of water-soluble leaf-
absorbed materials, especially those of the growth-regulator type. It must be added,
however, that this is a hazard of the area.
Results
The following observations are somewhat preliminary. It is believed that more
conclusive data will be available during 1958. Also, a number of the treatments in this
experiment are expected to give good control of the perennial weeds, especially after the
second year. Thereafter, it is hoped that the cost of maintenance can be reduced.
Each treatment will be discussed briefly. In some cases it will be desirable to
discuss several treatments as a group.
Dalapon applied twice at the rate of 10 lb per acre gave good grass control at
Charlotte and fair control at Holly Springs (treatment 1). As mentioned above the
latter location received rain immediately after both treatments. This treatment gave
very little broad-leaved weed control at either location.
All of the treatments which included dalapon in combinations with the "phenoxy"
and benzoic acid types of chemicals gave similar results. (Table 1, treatments 2 through
°; Table 2, treatments 2 through 8). One-half the total amount of dalapon-2 ,4-D
applied in split applications was equally as effective as one single heavy application
of the chemicals (Tables 1 and 2, treatments 2 and 4). Combined with dalapon. 2,4-D
amine (treatment 4) appeared to be equal to 2,4,5-T, 2(2,4,5-T) P and TBA for the con-
trol of the woody broad-leaved plants. When the same amount of chemical was applied,
it made no difference at Charlotte whether the chemical was applied all at one time or in
split applications; whereas at Holly Springs there was considerable difference in favor
of the split application. These differences will be of considerable interest in the second
year. The addition of diuron or Simazin to the above mixtures (treatments S and 6)
failed to show a real increase in effectiveness. It is possible that greater differences will
Roariwa y and Ballast
847
Table 2— Holly Springs, N. C, Durham & Southern & Railway, 1957
On mt'cal1 and Rati . Lb 1
Ingredu »t /" r Acri
Gal Spray
/'< r Am
I'.r Tnal.
ll'i i d Ratings2, Oct
. /. 1957
Treat.
X mill n r
Grass
Broa 1-
!, nail
Avt ragt
i 1 it il ml
.l/aj/ 70
./<///( ';
1
Dalapon — 10
Dalapon 10
.«
.->.()
2.(1
:< . 5
■>
Dalapon — 40
2,4-D— 8
None
33
1 .7
2.7
:i.7
:<
Dalapon — 20
2,4-D — 4
Dalapon — 20
2,4-D— 4
x\
.">.7
."> . 3
5.5
4
Dalapon — 10
2,4-D— 2
Dalapon — 10
2.4-D 2
33
1.3
3.7
in
•")
Dalapon — 10
2,4-D— 2
1 Huron — 10
Dalapon — 10
2.4-D 2
33
3.3
1.3
3.8
6
Dalapon — 10
2.4-D— 2
Siinazin — 10
Dalapon 10
2.4-D— 2
:«
3.7
3 . 3
3 . ;"i
7
Dalapon — 10
2,4,5-T -2
Dalapon — 10
2,4,5-T— 2
33
.'.A
3 . 3
3.3
8
Dalapon — 10
2 2,4,5-T)P— 2
Dalapon — 10
2(2,4,5-T)P— 2
:«
3.7
2.7
3.2
9
Dalapon — 10
Diuron — 10
I >alapon — 10
33
3.7
3 . :<
3.5
Hi
Dalapon — 10
Diuron — 10
Dalapon — 10
33
t.:<
3.0
3.7
I 1
AT-o+W.A.
PBA (354)— 4
AT-.-. + W. \.
PBA (354) — 1
33
2.7
1.7
M.7
12
AT-5+W.A.
2,4-D— 2
AT-5+W.A.
2.4-D 2
33
2.0
3.3
2 . 7
13
None
Agronyl "R"
Kin
5.0
2 . 3
3.7
14
None
< ' so < *il
100
3.7
2.0
2.9
15
Conoco Oil
HCA— 2 gal/ A
Conoco Oil
HCA 2 gal \
50
3.7
1.3
4.0
Iff
Conoco Oil
HCA— 2 sal/A
Siinazin — 10
Conoco < »il
HCA 2 gal \
50
1.3
:i.:i
3.8
17
( lonoco ' >il
1 1', \ IIIM-A) 111
Simazin — 10
( lonoco < »il
TBA(103-A)— 10
.->(!
."> . i i
i> . 7
5 . '.'
IK
( Jonoco Oil
Monuron-TCA 21
Conoco < >il
Monuron-TCA— 21
50
9.3
7.3
8.3
111
Cblora* Liq. 100 gal
I Huron —10
None
1011
5.0
1.3
1.7
.'II
< Iblorax Liq. 50 gal
Diuron 5
( Ihlorax Liq, 50 izal
Diuron 5
.-,(1
5.7
3.7
1.7
21
Erbon 120
None
30
8.3
8 1
8.3
22
Diuron lo
None
33
s o
.'..()
6.5
23
Simazin m
N ■
83
1.3
1.7
1.5
-•1
Ureabor 872
None
!m:iiiiiI:ii
7.7
8.3
8 (i
25*
Chlorea— 872
N
granular
S II
6.7
7 1
S4S
Roadwav and Ballast
Table 2 — Holly Springs, N. C, Durham & Southern Railway, 1957 (Continued)
Chemical1 and
I llt/l-i ill: II
late. Lb Aetivi
pi r .4rci
(ial Spray
Ptr Acre
Per Treat.
Weed Ratings', Ort. 1, 1957
Treat.
X umber
(Ira ■<■*
Broad-
band
A veragt
May 10
June 6
Br.-leaved
26s
'7
Atlacide-2,4-D
872 lb commercial
preparation per acre
Check
None
granular
None
7.7
1.0
7.3
1.0
7.:.
1.0
Least significant difference (0.05) to compare one chemcial treatment
with another chemical treatment 1.99
Least significant difference (0.05) to compare the check plot with a
chemical treatment 1.41
Coefficient of variability 24.6%
'See Table 3 "Chemicals Used".
2Weed Ratings — 10, perfect control; 1, No control.
3Granulars applied June 25, 1957 at Holly Springs.
1.53
30.7%
Table 3 — Chemicals Used
Chemical
Active
Ingredient
Trade Name
Provided by
71%
4#/gal
80'(
41b, gal
4 lb gal
2 lb, gal
4 lb 'gal
o0<-,
20%
3 lb gal
2 lb/gal
1.07 lb gal
41 b/gal
19,
401',
57' ,
P.
5Si;
.00%
100%
100%
Radapon
2,4-Dow Weed
Killer, Formula 40
Telvar DW
Simazin
Veon 100
Kuron
ACP Benzae 103-A
ACP-M-354
Weedazol
HCA Weed Killer
Concentrate
Compound 2990
Chlorax Liquid
Baron
Ureabor
Chlorea
Atlacide-2,4,D
Agronyl "R"
Conoco Weed
Spray Oil
Dow Chemical Company
Dow Chemical Company
2,4,5-T Amine
2(2,4,5-T)P (silvex)
Dow Chemical Company
PBA (Poly BAi
PBA (Polv BA)
HCA (Hexachloroacetone)
Monuron-TCA
General Chemical Division
Allied Chemical & Dye Corp.
Allied Chemical & Dye Corp.
Telvar W
2,4-D
Weed killing oil _
Roadway and Ballast 849
appear the second year. As previously stated, the effectiveness of this group of materials
was probably reduced by rain at Holly Springs.
Dalapon and diuron (Table 1, treatment 10; Table 2, treatment 9) gave good con-
trol of both grass and broad-leaved plants at Charlotte and only fair control of both
at Holly Springs.
Aminotriazole in combination with various chemicals (Table 1, treatments 11. 12.
13, 14; Table 2. treatments 11, 12) proved to be an effective control of woody broad-
leaved plants but gave little or no control of grasses. There appeared to be little or no
advantage in combining aminotriazole with PBA or 2,4-D (Table 1, treatment 11;
Table 2, treatments 11, 12) since all three of these chemicals controlled the broad-leaved
weeds but not the grasses. Aminotriazole and 2,4-D may have had a slight additive
effect toward the control of broad-leaved weeds (Table 1, treatment 13). The addition
of Simazin to aminotriazole and PBA (Table 1, treatment 12) appeared to be without
benefit, at least during the first season.
Aminotriazole in combination with dalapon (Table 1, treatment 14) appeared to be
an effective treatment. Apparently the aminotriazole controlled the broad-leaved weeds
and dalapon the grasses.
Sufficient oil was provided by each of two oil companies to treat one complete
experiment and part of the other. Therefore, one oil was used with the mixtures in one
experiment and the other oil in the mixtures in the other experiment. The oils gave a
very quick kill of all above ground growth. However, new growth soon appeared and
flourished. The addition of HCA appeared to give little or no better results at the end
of the season than the oil alone (Table 1, treatment 19; Table 2, treatment 15). The
addition of Simazin and diuron to the oil appeared to be without benefit during the
first season (Table 1, treatments 17, 18; Table 2, treatment 16).
The addition of monuron-TCA to the oil (Table 1, treatment 21; Table 2, treat-
ment 18) gave the quick kill of the oil followed by the long residual activity of the
monuron-TCA compound. This was one of the outstanding materials in both experi-
ments, giving excellent control of both grasses and broad-leaved weeds.
Chlorax liquid in combination with diuron (Table 1. treatments 22, 2i; Table 2.
treatments 19, 20) gave good control of both grasses and broad-leaved weeds at
Charlotte and fair control at Holly Springs. It appeared to make no difference whether
the chemical was applied as one heavy treatment, or whether two applications of the
some total amount of chemical was made. At Holly Springs the rains probably reduced
the effectiveness of this treatment.
Erbon (Table 1. treatment 24; Table 2, treatment 21) gave excellent control of
both broad-leaved weeds and grass at both locations (Fig. 2).
Diuron when applied alone at a heavy rate (Table 1. treatment 25; Table 2, treat-
ment 22) gave good control of grass and good control of broad-leaved weeds at
Charlotte, and only fair control of both at Holly Springs. The chemical effects will be
expected to carry into the succeeding year.
Simazin when applied alone at a heavy rate (Table 1, treatment 26; Table 2, treat-
ment 23) gave fair control of grass and good control of broad-leaved weeds at
Charlotte, and only fair control of both at Holly Springs. The chemical effects will be
expected to carry into the succeeding year.
Ureabor. Chlorea. Atlacide-2,4-D each applied separately as a granular material
gave good to excellent control of both grass and broad-leaved weeds (Fig. 3). In addi-
tion, all have fairly long residual activity that can be expected to carry over into the
next season. The 2.4-D in the Atlacide will be quickly decomposed by soil micro-
organisms, and will not be expected to carry into the second season.
SMI
R o a <1 u a v and Ballast
Fig. 2 — 120 lb Baron applied per acre May 10, photographed October 11.
Fig. 3 — 872 lb Chlorea applied per acre June 25, photographed October 11.
Roadway and Ballast
851
Part 3— Chemical Control of Vegetation— 1957 AAR Report
Railroads continue to use a great number of chemicals for the control of vegetation
on their rights-of-way. The AAR staff made field observations of results of such weed
and brush control on 22 railroads in the United States and Canada during 1057. These
observations were made in six of the seven regions as shown in Fig. 1. Results of specific
treatments are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. Several test sections were also followed
in six regions, the results of which are included in Table 3 through °. These data are
presented as information and are not intended as an endorsement of any specific chem-
ical treatment.
Numerous problems are encountered in formulating a good weed control program,
These include selecting the right herbicide for accomplishing a specific job required.
time of treatment, proper application, cost of treatment, type of vegetation and environ-
mental conditions involved. Previous reports have discussed these factors.
Considerable evidence indicates that a long-term system-wide weed-control program
is superior to one on a year to year basis. The initial expense of such a program may
be considered excessive, but often an appreciable cost reduction can be realized over
an extended period when the program is under the immdiate direction and supervision
of a capable and well-trained person. Its success is greatly determined by adequate
resources available for its execution as well as the manner in which the herbicide is
applied. Consideration should be given to the design and flexibility of spraying equip-
ment to accomplish proper applications of the chemicals now available.
Observations this season revealed that repeated treatments with contact and trans-
located herbicides are necessary in high rainfall areas. A single application of these
materials generally produces good initial effects, but reinfestation occurs during late
1 / / f p__
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R o adway and Ballast
Fie 2— Typical control obtained using soil sterilants around bridges in
Region 5. Treated spring, 1957 with Chlorea powder, V/z-2 lb/ 100 sq ft.
Picture, September 10, 1957.
Fig. 3— Nalco H-174 applied at 250 lb per acre on May 9 in Region 1.
Note check area to right. Picture taken August 15, 1957.
Roadwav and Ballast
853
Fig. A — Nalco H-174 applied January 1955 at 435 lb per acre for con-
trolling vegetation around communication poles in Region 6. Picture taken
April 4, 1957.
summer. A split application of translocated materials appears superior to a single treat-
ment when used at equivalent rates. The increase in results more than compensates
for the added work train cost. Spacing of split treatments is very important. The interval
between treatments generally depends upon climatic conditions, susceptibility of vegeta-
tive species, and reinfestation with annual species. Best results are obtained by retreating
before perennial species completely recover from initial application and after summer
annuals have germinated.
Continued use of one herbicide over a period of years may develop definite serious
weed problems. Results are often outstanding in eliminating susceptible species during
the first two years, allowing the growth of the more resistant species to flourish when
competition is decreased. It is advisable to alter the weed-control program when such
problems develop. Repeated spot treatments with soil sterilants may be used in areas
where scattered resistant species are found. The cost of spot treatments is often high,
but the elimination of such problem species may result in substantial savings.
The cost per mile of various types of chemical treatments differs greatly from one
railroad to another based upon rate per acre applied and width treated. It is estimated
that the average cost for controlling weeds and brush on railroads averages approxi-
mately S65 per mile. Of this amount, $3 to $5 is usually spent for work train cost,
leaving $60 to $62 for the purchase of chemicals. Table 10 contains a list of materials
used during 1957, showing the ranjje in prices f.o.b. plant. The cost of any specific
material is normalh within this price rant:i but i> subject to adjustment by commercial
applicators.
Materials Used
Chemical combinations wen- used quite extensively <>n main and branch lines in all
regions this year. Among materials most widely used were combinations of chlorate —
borate materials, chlorate- — borate-substituted urea compounds, chlorate — chloride, TCA —
S54
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 5 — Johnson grass control with Hexachloroacetone in Cox Hykil
in Region 3. Spot treatment applied mid-August, 1957. Picture taken October
14, 1957.
Fig. 6 — Garnet D applied June 24, 1957 at 200 gal per acre for the control
of trumpet vine in Region 3. Picture taken October 24, 1957.
Roadway and Ballast
855
Fig. 7 — Test area Region 5 — Treated June 14, 1956 with Radapon
Methoxone Chlorax No. 2. Re-treated June, 1957 with Chlorea 800. Picture
taken Sept. 10, 1957.
chlorate, and dalapon — phenoxy compounds. A single application of these materials
applied at recommended rates generally maintained good seasonal weed control in re-
gions 1, 2, 5 and 6. Considerable regrowth with late summer annuals occurred in some
areas of regions 1 and 2, especially where heavy rainfall occurred during July and
August. Combinations containing soil sterilants were somewhat more effective in con-
trolling these late summer annuals.
Two treatments were necessary in regions 3 and 4, especially where the dalapon —
phenoxy compounds were used. The long growing season, climatic condition and presence
of resistant species, such as Bermuda grass, Johnson grass, gopher apple and nut grass,
made control difficult with one application of this mixture.
Soil sterilants were used primarily around bridges, in yard areas and around com-
munication poles in all regions during 1957 (Figs. 2, 3 and 4). Materials used for these
purposes were Baron, Borate slurry, Concentrated Borascu, Chlorea, Nalco H-174,
Ureabor and Urox. These materials were generally effective in maintaining soil steriliza-
tion during the season. A late winter or early spring application of dry materials pro-
vided best results in high-rainfall areas. Fall applications gave best control in low-
rainfall areas. Excessive precipitation in some areas leached the chemical out of the
plant root zone, resulting in annual weed growth during late summer.
Weed killer oils continue to be used over much of the country with varied success.
Abnormal rainfall patterns influenced considerable regrowth where one application of oil
was applied in the midwest this season. A second application would have been of value
where regrowth was rank.
New Chemicals
One railroad used a spot treatment of hexachloroacetone in combination with oil for
the control of Johnson grass (Fig. S). Results indicate that this combination offers B
856
Roadway and B a 11 a s t
mww
-wi
Fig. 8 — Test area Region 5 — Treated June 16, 1956 with Radapon-
Methoxone-Monuron. Re-treated June 1957 with Chlorea 800. Picture taken
September 10, 1957.
Fig. 9 — Test area Region 5 — Treated June 20, 1956 with Methoxone
Chlorea No. 4. Picture taken September 11, 1957. Note wye not treated.
Roadway and Ballast
857
Fig. 10 — Test area, Region 5 — Treated June 20, 1956, with Methoxone
Chlorea No. 4. Picture taken September 11, 1957, after two seasons control.
Width of treatment, 14 ft.
great potential for the control of this specific type of vegetation. Test work revealed
that oil applied at the rate of 100 gal per acre with 2 percent HCA by volume when
vegetation was 8 to 10 in high eliminated approximately 85 to 90 percent of Johnson
grass with one application. A second spot application required approximately 25 gal per
acre and eliminated 98 to 99 percent of all Johnson grass. It appears advisable to use
repeated applications of this mixture for the best results.
A chemical, Garnet D, was used for the first time on one railroad for the control
of trumpet vine (Fig. 6). This chemical is a mixture of amino triazole and 2.4-D and
shows promise for the control of this particular species. The initial top kill was excep-
tionally good with very minor resprouting occurring late during the season. These new
shoots were abnormal in some instances, showing effects of 2,4-D and the absence of
chlorophyll. More information will be available next season following an early spring
inspection to determine the percentage of regrowth.
Another chemical, Simazin. was used in test work on railroads for the first time
this season. Simazin is a wettable powder, highly insoluble and contains 50 percent
active ingredient. Recommended rates center around 20 to 30 lb actual material. It is
best used when applied as a pre-emergence spray or early in the growing season. Results
indicate that it may have a potential use as a soil sterilant on railroads, applied alone
or in combination with a contact or translocated herbicide.
PDU-TCA, a chemical not yet released for commercial use, looked promising when
applied on test areas this year. It is a combination of phenyl dimethyl urea and
trkhloroacetate. This chemical combination was applied as a granular material as well
as a liquid spray. Results justify further evaluations of this product.
Roadway and Bal last
Fig. 11 — Test area, Region 4. Check plot in foreground. Baron applied
during May 8, 1957 at 120 lb per acre on plot in background. Picture taken
October 16, 1957.
Fig. 12 — Close-up of Baron test plot, Region 4. Treatment applied May
8, 1957. Picture taken October 16, 1957. Note Bermuda grass dead with no
appreciable regrowth.
Roadwav and Ballast
859
Fig. 13 — Off-track equipment applying chemical for brush control
in Region 3. Picture taken June 7, 1957.
Tests
A number of test sections some of which were initiated as early as 1953 were
followed in six regions during 1957 (Tables 3 through 9). In some areas these tests
were designed to control specific vegetative species while in other areas they were
directed toward general weed control. Certain test sections which were originally treated
at high rates were retreated with a maintenance doseage during 1957. Results were gen-
erally favorable with a reduction in cost for two years control.
One of the most extensive test sections evaluated covered 700 miles of branch lines
in region 5 (Table 8). The initial treatments were applied on these lines during June
1956 and re-treated in June 1957. A spring inspection revealed that chemical combina-
tions containing monuron continued to produce residual effects eleven months following
the original treatment. Of the 1956 treatments, Radapon-Methoxone-Chlorax No. 2
provided the best seasonal control, but some regrowth occurred during spring of 1957.
This test was re-treated with Methoxone-Chlorea 800, and results were very good to
excellent during early fall in 1957 (Fig. 7) Methoxone-Chlorea No. 3, Methoxone-
Chlorea No. 4 and Radapon-Methoxone-monuron produced considerable residual
effects during early spring of 1957. However, the Methoxone-Chlorea No. 3 and
Radapon-Methoxone-monuron tests contained some regrowth and were re-treated during
1957. Methoxone-Chlorea 800 was used on the Radapon-Methoxone-monuron test with
excellent results in September, 1957 (Fig. 8). The line treated with Methoxone-Chlorea
No. 3 was re-treated with Agronyl R oil. These treatments maintained good to very good
control during two seasons.
Methoxone-Chlorea No. 4 was the most outstanding treatment when inspected
during May 1957. This line was not re-treated during 1957 and maintained very good
control for two seasons (Figs. 9 and 10).
Other materials used in this test maintained control for short periods of time. The
line treated with Radapon-Methoxone and re-treated with Radapon — 2,4-D contained
860
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 14 — Brush in Region 1 not treated as compared to control
obtained in same general area as shown in Fig. 15. Picture taken September
19, 1957.
Fig. 15 — Brush on branch line Region 1 treated July 1956, with 2,4— D —
2,4,5-T. Fig. 14 same general area not treated. Picture taken September 19,
1957.
Road w a y a n d B a 1 last
861
Fig. 16 — Brush control in Region 2 using 2,4-D — 2,4,5-T.
Applied on August 12, 1957. Picture taken October 9, 1957.
considerable regrowth with Mexican fireweed, foxtail, knotweed and prostrate spurge.
These species apparently reinfested the area during late summer. Considerable regrowth
was present on branch lines re-treated with oil except the Ammate emulsion — monuron
test. The poor results obtained during 1956 on these lines influenced the heavy growth
during the spring of 1957. This growth was retarded by the oil applications but
recovered by September 1957.
A test in region 4 was designed to control Bermuda grass (Table 7). The original
treatments were applied during May 1956 and re-treated in May 1957. The higher rates
of most 1956 treatments were effective until mid-July and early August. Practically all
test plots were reinfested by October 1956 with Bermuda grass encroaching from the
edges of plot areas. The best 1956 treatment was Radapon-diuron (Telvar DW) applied
at the rate of 100 and 30 lb per acre, respectively. This particular treatment was not
re-treated during 1957 and maintained relatively good control for 14 months. Consid-
erable regrowth had occurred in this plot at the end of two seasons.
The most effective retreatment during the 1957 season was Baron at 120 lb per
acre applied on a plot originally treated with chlorate-Amizol-diuron at 60-5-5 lb,
respectively, (Figs. 11 and 12). This re-treatment maintained very good to excellent
control of Bermuda grass, trumpet vine, brambles, and honeysuckle throughout the 1957
season. The higher rates of other chemical combinations were effective in maintaining
seasonal control. Oil treatments eliminated annuals and retarded Bermuda grass until
after the heavy rains during July. The addition of hexachloroacetone (2 percent by
volume) to the oil treatments did not influence the seasonal control of Bermuda grass.
BRUSH CONTROL
Low-volatile ester formulations of 2,4-D — 2,4,5-T continue to be used for brush
control with ammate substituted in areas adjacent to crops or in states where the use
862
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 17 — Brush control Region 3 using Ammate. Treated August 1955
and re-treated August 1956. Picture taken July 30, 1957.
of phenoxy compounds are not permitted. Results of specific treatments were observed
in four regions this year including materials applied during 1Q54, 1955, 1956 and 1957.
One railroad employed the use of off-track equipment in applying chemicals for
brush control this year (Fig. 13). The cost of application with off-track equipment is
considerably greater. However, it is hoped that increased effectiveness in results will
compensate for the added cost. Two formulations of 2,4-D — 2,4,5-T were used; one
contained 2 lb per gal 2,4-D and 2 lb per gal 2,4,5-T, and the other 1% lb per gal
2,4-D and 2/3 lb per gal 2,4,5-T. Both formulations were applied in an oil emulsion.
The initial kill on all species was very good three months following treatment. No
appreciable differences in results were noted between the two formulations. The effec-
tiveness of these treatments cannot be determined until next year.
In region 1, where 2,4-D — 2,4,5-T was applied during 1956, very good control was
obtained during the second season (Figs. 14 and 15). Initial results of the 1957 treat-
ments in region 2 appear to be very good (Fig. 16). Considerable regrowth occurred
during 1957 in region 3 on areas treated with 2,4-D — 2,4,5-T during 1954 and re-
treated in 1956. Sweet gum constituted the major problem in this area and was quite
resistant. It is possible that better results would have been obtained by re-treating
during 1955 instead of 1956.
One railroad used ammate quite extensively in region 4 during 1954, 1955 and
1956. Considerable regrowth occurred in areas where one application was made either
during 1954, 1955 or 1956 and not followed by a re-treatment the succeeding year.
Results were more effective in areas treated in 1955 and re-treated during 1956 (Fig.
17). Most species except sweet gum were controlled with this type of treatment. It is
quite evident a second treatment is required to eliminate surviving species the year
following the original application.
Roadway and Ball a st
863
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IMui s Cooperative Weed Control Test in Region 5
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Vegetation
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June 11 24, 1956
August 20 23, L956
Re-treated: June 9 25, 1957
Date inspected: Sept. 10 12, 1957
,.,,.. | \|.1V || m. L957 Date inspected : Sept. 10 12, 1957
Predominant Bpeciea smooth brome grass, blue grass and quackgraes.
Other species Bmartweed, milkweed, horsetail, willow, buckbrush, knotweed, foxtai
and Mexican fireweed.
Weather' Foi Test No's I, 2 and 3— Avg. Max. Temp. 1957— Jan. 10.8°, Feb. -20°, Mar.
\|,i 52.7°, May 69.5°, June— 73°, July— 86.6°. Aug.— 79.5°.
Precipitation: 1957- Jan. .30", Feb. .51", Mar. — .13", Apr. — .98", May 3.21",
3.78'', July 2.20", Auk. -4.04".
For Test No's I. 5 and 6 Avg. Max. Temp: 1957 — Jan. — 10°, Feb.— 18.9°, Mar.
'. May -1.26",
.—21.8°, Mar.
May .95",
I grass,
-35.8°.
June
33.5°,
June
-37.8°,
June
Test
Y...
Kadapon (dalapon)-Methox-
one .MCP)
Re-treated with
Radapon
2,4-D
Radapon (dalapon)-Methox-
one-Chlorax No. 2
Re-treated with
Methoxone-Chlorea 800
Radapon-Methoxone Liquid +
monuron (Telvar.W)
Re-treated with
Methoxone-Chlorea 800
Methoxone-Chlorax No. 3-
monuron (Telvar W) (Same as
Methoxone-Chlorea No. 3)
Re-treated with
S/M Agronyl-R
Methoxone-Chlorea No. 4
Re-treated with
None
Rale Applied
Per A en
32.5 lb-1.63 lb
36.29"-1.81"
39.07"-]. 95"
58.68"-2.93"
40 11)
(i lb
20.64 lb-93.35 gal
21.24 lb-95.59 gal
19.44 lb-87.52 gal
17.18 lb-77.34 gal
185 gal
7.46-1.50-9.50 lb*
9.66-1.93-7.78 lb*
10.88-2.17-6.73 lb*
195 gal
200.4 gal-4.80 lb*
187.86 gal-4.50 lb*
219.8 gal-4.90 lb*
282.16 gal-5.46 lb*
83 gal
210.6 gal-8.85 lb*
193.87 gal-6.65 lb*
Miles
Treated
12.0
26.5
67.12
31.0
4.0
33.16
20.36
18.13
28.37
24 . 07
25 . 93
4 . 50
11.48
23
31.83
Very good during 1956 season.
Results fair to good May 14.
1957. Initial control following
re-treatment fair. Considerable
regrowth occurred on this line
by Sept. 1957. Species reinfect-
ing this area were Mexican fire-
weed, knotweed, horsetail, fox-
tail, and prostrate spurge,
some blue gr. and brome gr.
surviving.
Excellent during 1956 season.
Good control on May 14, 1957.
Results Sept., 1957 very good
to excellent. Spots of blue grass
surviving but chlorotic. Ab-
sence of annuals on this line.
Very good during 1956 season.
Verv good control on May 14,
1957. Control Sept., 1957, Ex-
cellent. No appreciable re-
growth.
Fair to excellent during 1956
season.
Results verv good, May 14,
1957. Control Sept., 1957 good
to very good. Some brome
grass encroaching along edges
of treated area. Few spots of
blue grass surviving.
Very good to excellent during
1956 season.
Results excellent, May 14,
1957. Control very good 15
months following treatment.
Some encroachment brome
grass and blue grass along edge
treated area. Scattered plants
of foxtail , prostrate spurge, and
pigweed in some areas.
R o a d \v a v and B a 1 1 a > t
ss;
Table 8 — Cooperative Weed Control Test in Rec.ion S (Continued)
Test
'I'n nt mi nl
Hull Applied
l'i i Am
Mile*
Treated
Results
t;
Chloras [Chlorate )-TCA No. 2
TCA)
98.1 lb 17. i.t; li>
113.5 lb 20.43 lb
.'7 34
1 1 .60
Fair during 1956 season.
Re-treated with
s M tgronyl-R
■.in gal
Control fair May 11. 1957.
Considerable regrowth with
blue grass and brome gr. when
inspected during Sept., 1957.
Apparently this treatmenl pro-
vided control fur only a short
period in 1957.
7
Radapon-Metbb one Liquid
38.29 lb 1.91 Hi
28 58
Very good during 1956 season.
Re-treated with
S M tgronyl 1{
88 sal
Results fair to good on Ma\ 1 1.
1957. Re-treatment maintained
good control for approximately
6 weeks. Area was reinfeeted
with brome grass, blue gr..
Mexican fireweed, foxtail, knot-
weed, Russian thistle and pig-
weed when inspected Sept. 12,
1957.
8
( lamel Vmino Triazole and
Methoxone i
7.0 Hi 1 1.0 lb
6.73 11' 13.58 P>
7.2 11) 14.3.-. II.
23 . '-' _.
1.7.'.
21.24
Fair during 1 !(.">•> season.
Re-treated with
S M Agronyl R
88 sal
Control fair May 15, 1957.
Some evidence of initial top
burn 1 mi t grasses had recovered
by Sept. 11. 1957. Some annu-
als such as fireweed and foxtail
infested area following treat-
ment.
9
TCAi l-Chh.rax #2
(Chlorate)
66.46 H> 23.93 lb
75.53 11. 27.19 It.
22 . 1 1
23.32
Poor during 1956 season.
Re-treated with
S M Agronyl-R
81 gal
Results poor May 15, 1957.
Grasses predominant <m this
line. Heavy growth blue grass
and brome grass when in-
spected Sept. 11, 1957.
10
An. mat ■ emulsion > Animate
X)+ monuron iTelvar \Y) +
176 gal oil Blurry
32.16 Hi 5.58 Hi
24.75 H> 6.04 11.
27.69 lb 8.1 lb
2 I . _'7
11.00
(iood during 1956 season.
Re-treated with
s M Agronyl-R
81 gal
Results fair (■> good Maj 15,
1957. General control on (In-
line considered good when in
spected Sept. 15, 1957. Diffi-
culties encountered during orig-
inal treatmenl in injecting
monuron-oil slurry in Animate
emulsion resulting in small
scattered areas not treated
with monuron, Considerable
regrowth oocurred in these
areas. Results very good where
monuron was included in
ment.
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Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail
C. E. Weller, Chair in mi,
*]. C. DeJarnette, Jr.,
Vice Chairman,
R. E. Dove, Secretary,
Frank Aikman, Jr.
S. H. Barlow
C. N. Billings
T. A. Blaik
Blair Blowers
C. B. Bronson
E. J. Brown
J. A. Bunjer
J. E. Campbell
H. B. Christianson
C. O. CONATSER
W. E. Cornell
L. S. Crane
F. W. Creedle
R. H. Egbert
A. G. Ellefson
D. T. Faries
P. O. Ferris
W. H. Freeman
R. J. Gammie
W. E. Gardner
E. P. Hackert
J. B. Hartranit
R. A. HOSTETTER
S. R. Hursh
T. B. Hutcheson
W. B. Jackson
W. J. Jones
A. B. Lewis
C. P. Martini
C. R. Merriman
B. M. Monaghan
Wm. Nuetzel
T. P. POLSON
F. L. Rees
E. F. Salisbury
R. A. Sharood
T. C. Shedd, Jr.
H. A. Siravo
R. P. WlNTON
Edward Wise, Jr.
Committee
Died November 10, 1957.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Fabrication.
Progress report on laboratory tests of continuous welded rail, presented
as information page 896
2. Laying.
Progress in study, but no report.
3. Fastenings.
Progress report, presented as information page °04
4. Maintenance.
Progress in study, but no report.
5. Economics.
Progress in study, but no report.
Tm. Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail,
C. E. Weller, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 542, February 1958.
895
806 Continuous Welded Rail
MEMOIR
fame* C. Bc^arnettc, 3fr.
James C. Dejarnette, Jr., chief engineer of the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac
Railroad, died in Richmond, Va., on November 10, 1957.
Mr. Dejarnette joined the AREA in 1941, and was a member of the Special Com-
mittee on Continuous Welded Rail from the time the committee was formed in 1951,
serving as vice chairman from 1956 until his death. He was also a member of Com-
mittee 1 — Roadway and Ballast from 1946 to 1952, and Committee 4 — Rail, from 1952
until his death.
Mr. Dejarnette was a great believer in continuous welded rail, and through his
leadership his railroad was one of the first to accept welded rail in this country. He gave
generously of his time to committee work, and because of his experience with the
subject he was often called upon as a spokesman for welded rail and to represent the
committee and its work.
The members of the committee sincerely regret his passing, and will miss his service
and friendlv association.
Report on Assignment 1
Fabrication
Wm. Nuetzel (chairman, subcommittee), S. H. Barlow, C. N. Billings, L. S. Crane,
F. W. Creedle, J. C. Dejarnette, Jr., R. H. Egbert, W. E. Gardner, J. B. Hartranft,
F. L. Rees, C. E. Weller, R. P. Winton.
Laboratory Tests of Continuous Welded Rails
By R. E. Cramer
Research Associate Professor, University of Illinois
Previous Laboratory Tests of Continuous Welded Rails
This laboratory has published four previous reports on continuous welded rails.
These were printed in the Proceedings of American Railway Engineering Association
as follows:
1st Report, Vol. 40, pages 687-713, 1939
2nd Report, Vol. 41, pages 737-755, 1940
3rd Report, Vol. 50, pages 510-512, 1949
4th Report, Vol. 55, pages 684-694, 1954
Test Specimens
For the present tests the Santa Fe Railway supplied 18 acetylene pressure welds
of 133 -lb section, high-silicon steel rails from 3 heats of steel with 0.62, 0.74, and 0.90
percent silicon content. The same railroad also supplied 12 specimens of electric flash
welds in 136-lb section of 0.64-percent silicon steel rails. Half of these latter specimens
were made with the rail ends saw cut and half were made with the rail ends flame cut.
The Development Laboratory of Linde Air Products Company supplied two
acetylene welded, 132-lb standard carbon-steel rails which were not normalized after
welding.
Continuous Welded Rail
897
The Du-Wel Steel Products Company also supplied 12 thermit weld specimens,
4 in new 136-lb standard carbon-steel rails. 4 in used 112-lb rails without bolt holes,
and 4 in used 112-lb rails with bolt holes in the rail webs. These thermit welds were
made in France.
Kind of Tests Made in Laboratory
The kind of tests made were rolling-load tests in either a 12-in stroke or 33-in
stroke rolling-load machine, bend tests in a 600,000-lb testing machine, and mechanical
tests of specimens with the welds at the mid-length of the specimen. Metallurgical tests
and hardness tests were also made of a few specimens.
Rolling-Load Tests in 12-In Machine
Fig. 1 shows a specimen which failed in the 12-in stroke rolling-load machine.
A wheel load of 60,000 lb is used on rails of 130-lb section or above, and 48,000 lb on
112-lb or 115-lb rail sections. The rail is supported as a cantilever, 2 in from the weld.
The wheel rolls 10 in beyond the weld, producing a bending moment at the weld
10 times the wheel load in inch pounds.
This is a very severe test, but sound rails have in all past tests run to 2 million
cycles, which is considered a run out. This test will produce transverse fissures in the
rail head if there is any small imperfection at the weld line inside the rail heads. Fig. 2a
shows the type of failures produced by this test in all the thermit welds from slag
entrapped at the side of the rail webs below the rail head. Fig. 1 shows this same
F«g. 1 — Thermit weld in 12-in stroke rolling machine after failure. Magniflux
powder shows crack through rail head and into rail web.
Continuous Welded Rail
*3«t3
Fig. 2 — a. Failed thermit weld starting in slag below rail head at side
of rail web. b. Failed acetylene weld starting near center of rail head.
failure in the rolling-load machine as a white line of magniflux powder extending
diagonally through the rail head down to the bottom of a bolt hole. This particular
specimen of used 112-lb rail failed at 250,800 cycles of 48,000-lb wheel load, and the
fracture shown in Fig. 2a contained the most trapped slag of any test specimen.
All available information on all tests made in the 12-in stroke rolling machine is
given in Table 1. It will be noted that all the thermit welds failed from slag trapped
under the rail heads. It is the writer's opinion that some change can be made in the
mold used for this weld which would prevent this difficulty.
It will also be noted from Table 1 that all the electric welds ran out to 2 million
cycles and had comparatively good mechanical properties. There was no appreciable dif-
ference between the specimens which had been flame cut and the ones which had saw-
cut ends. All the acetylene welds also ran out except A-22, which developed a large
tranverse fissure from a very small internal nucleus on the weld line. This specimen
broke at 1,959,200 cycles, which can still be considered a very high test value. The
fissure which developed in this specimen is shown in Fig. 2b. The nucleus was y± in
below the rail tread, near the center of the rail head.
Specimens for Mechanical Tests
It should be explained that specimens for mechanical properties were cut from the
welds which did not fail in rolling-load tests. These included three tensile specimens
from the bottom half of the rail head, six fatigue specimens from the rail webs, and
three charpy specimens from the rail base. All specimens had the weld line at their
mid-length or most critical section.
Rolling-Load Tests in 33-In Machine
Eight rolling-load tests were made in the 33-in stroke rolling machine which gives
maximum tension in the rail base. This machine was described in AREA Proceedings,
C o n t i n u o u s W e 1 d e <l Rail
89Q
Fig. 3 — Thermit weld in 33-in stroke rolling machine after failure. Rail is
supported only at bolt on left and block marked A.
Vol. 40. 1039, page 649. Fig. 3 shows the specimen in the testing machine. Wheel loads
of 00.000 lb were used for rails of 132-lb section or larger and 48,000 lb wheel loads
for 112-lb section. In Fig. 3 it will be noted that the rail was supported at only 2 points
marked A. which were 36-in apart. The other shorter blocks below the rail were there
for support when the specimen broke. When the wheel is directly over the weld the
bending moment is at a maximum. The wheel rolls 9-in beyond the right support to
the cantilever end of the specimen which reverses the stress to one-half the maximum
stress. The thermit specimen No. 10 shown in Fig. 3 developed a failure -tailing at slag
entrapped just below the rail head at the side of the rail web.
The results of all rolling-load tests with 33-in stroke rolling machines arc given in
Table 2. All the acetylene welds and all the electric welds ran to over 2 million cycles
without failure. The thermit weld in new 136-lb standard carbon rail failed from en-
trapped slag at 1.253,300 cycles. The thermit weld in 112-lb used rail failed at 59
cycles, also from entrapped slag at the weld. This kind of rolling-load test is designed
especial!) to tesl the weld in the rail base, but as shown by these results it also stressed
the rail heads high enough t<> cause these two failures.
Bend Tests of Welded Rails
Numerous bend tests were included in the first two reports on welded rails nun
tinned at the beginning of thi> report. Some of the tests <>t unwelded rails are repeated
000
Continuous Welded R .1 i I
Fig. A — Three thermit welds after bend tests, showing fractures.
in Table 3, together with new bend tests of unwelded chrome-vanadium and silicon
rails. Also included in Table 3 are bend tests of six electric welds, nine acetylene welds,
and six thermit welds. Three of the electric welds were saw cut and three were Same
cut. but the test results for both types gave about the same test values. It will be noted
that the two thermit welds in l^o-lb new rail also cave good bend test results. Fig. ^
shows the type of fractures produced in the bend tests of thermit welds. On the basis
of these tests and the rolling-load tests reported in Tables 1 and 2. the writer does not
consider the bend test as the best test for evaluating the quality of welded rails. The
same opinion would apply to fatigue bending tests or vibration fatigue tests of rail
welds. It is the writer's opinion that it is necessary to have the wheel load as applied
in the rolling-load machine, together with the bending produced in the rolling machines
to best judge the quality of rail welds.
Other Observations on Welded Rail
It has been observed that the method of grinding off the upset metal at rail welds
may weaken the welds. If the grinding wheels are not kept well dressed it is possible
to heat the surface of the rail steel so hot that when it cools it will become hard and
brittle. Such areas have tested as high as 600 Brinell hardness. This condition is likely
to develop only when the upset metal has cooled to air temperature before the grinding
is performed.
When making electric welds electrode burns may be produced where the electrodes
make contact with the rail. One failure from electrode burn is described in the AREA
Proceedings. Vol. 58, page %7-OoS.
One acetylene weld failure is described in this year"s report on failures in control-
cooled rails. [See report of Committee 4 — Rail]. In discussing this failure. R P. Winton.
[testing engineer maintenance of way. Norfolk & Western], advised that in any case
where the oxyacetylene flame has gone out during the pressure butt welding operation,
the weld should be cut out and the rails rewelded. He also stated that even finger prints
on the ends of the rails before acetylene welding may be detrimental to the weld.
(Text continued on page 904)
Continuous W c I <l < <l R
901
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004 Continuous Welded Rail
Summary
1. Rolling-load tests wen- made in the 12-in stroke machine on lour acetylene
welds, 4 electric wolds, and 4 thermit welds. All of the thermit welds failed in this
test. One acetylene weld also failed just below 2 million cycles, which would have been
the end of the test.
2. Table 1 lists the rolling-load tests in the 12-in stroke machine and mechanical
tests of some weld specimens.
3. Other rolling-load tests were made in a 33-in stroke rolling machine primarily to
test the welds in the rail bases. The results of these tests are given in Table 2. All the
acetylene and electric welds ran to over 2 million cycles without failure. Two thermit
welds developed failures in the rail heads.
4. Table 3 gives the results of bend tests of welded rails and rails without welds.
5. It is the writer's opinion that the rolling-load tests with the combination of
bending and heavy wheel loads is the best means of laboratory evaluating welds in
railroad rails.
6. A few other observations on possible causes of weld failures are listed, including
grinding burns, electrode burns, and cases where the flame goes out in oxyacetylene
welding.
Report on Assignment 3
Fastenings
Edward Wise, Jr. (chairman, subcommittee), J. E. Campbell, W. E. Cornell, J. C.
Dejarnette, Jr., A. G. Ellefson, E. P. Hackert, W. J. Jones, H. A. Siravo, C. E.
Weller.
This is a progress report submitted as information.
To ascertain the method of anchorage used with continuous welded rail laid across
long open-deck steel viaducts or long deck steel spans, a questionnaire was sent to all
members of the committee.
Of the 29 replies received to this questionnaire, 24 said they had no experience on
which to base a recommendation. One reply stated that if continuous welded rail were
used across bridges, 18 compression clips per 39-ft rail would be used. One reply
reported the use of continuous welded rail across a 700-ft span using compression clips
on every tie. Another reply stated that where a string of continuous welded rail was
centered on a 399-ft bridge, no anchorage was used on the bridge, but that hook bolts
were installed on every fourth tie on the bridge. Beyond the bridge at each end, all ties
were box anchored for a distance of about 380 ft.
Another reply stated that if they used continuous welded rail across bridges they
would provide welded angle-iron lugs on the bridge steel to hold such bridge ties as
bear against rail anchors, and adhere to their normal pattern for anchoring continuous
welded rail. Another reply stated that continuous welded rail was used on an 1800-ft
bridge with every fourth tie held in place by angle irons welded to tops of girders,
and the rail anchored to each tie with compression clips.
The committee does not believe there have been sufficient installations of continuous
welded rail across long bridges to reach any conclusions, but will continue its study,
hoping to obtain data that will enable conclusions to be made.
Report of Committee 4 — Rail
B. R. Meyers, Chairman,
L. S. Crane.
Vice Chairman,
A. P. Talbot. Secretary,
W. D. Almy
E. L. Anderson
S. H. Barlow
F. \V. Biltz
T. A. Blair
Blair Blowers
B. Bristow
C. B. Bronson (E)
R. M. Brown
J. A. Bin [i:k
E. E. Chapman (E)
C. J. Code
C. A. Colpitis
C. O. Conatser
W. J. Crvse
J. C. DeJarnette*
G. H. Echols
P. O. Ferris
E. B. Fields
L. E. GlNGERICH
J. K. Gloster
W. H. Hobbs
S. R. Hvrsh
J. C. Jacobs
W. M. Jaekle
K. K. Kessler
X. W. Kopp
C. C. Lathey
W. B. Leaf
h. s. loefpler
Lee Mayfield
Ray McBrian
C. E. Morgan
L. T. Nuckols
Embert Osland
W. H. Penfield (E)
G. L. P. Plow
R. B. Rhode
C. R. Riley
J. G. Roney
E. F. Salisbury
J. F. Shaffer
S. H. Shepley
A. A. Shillander
W. D. Simpson
G. L. Smith
J. S. Wearn
H. W. Whitmore
R. P. WlNTON
Edw. Wise, Jr.
J. E. Yewell
Committee
I E I Member Emeritus.
* Died November 10. 1957.
To the American Railway Engineering Association :
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Collaborate with AISI Technical Committee on Rail and Joint Bars in
research and other matters of mutual interest.
Progress report, including as Appendix 2-a, Report on Investigation of
Failures in Control-Cooled Railroad Rails page °07
3. Rail failure statistics covering (a) all failures; (b) transverse fissures;
(c) performance of control-cooled rail.
Progress report, including statistics on rail failures reported up to Decem-
ber 31, 1956 (on net ton basis) page 015
4. Rail end batter, causes and remedies.
Progress report, presented as information page 93S
5. Economic value of various sizes of rail.
Progress report, presented as information page 936
6. Service tests of various types of joint bars.
No report.
90S
906 Rail
7. Joint bar wear and failures; revision of design and specification for new
bars, including insulated joints, and bars for maintenance repairs.
Progress report, presented as information page 938
Appendix 7-a — Report on rolling-load tests of joint bars page 938
Appendix 7-b — Report on service test installation of joint bars with
improved metallurgy on the CB&Q Railroad at Fort Morgan, Colo page 946
S. Cause of shelly spots and head checks in rail. Methods for their preven-
tion.
Progress report, presented as information page 953
Appendix 8-a — Report on service tests of heat-treated and alloy steel
rails page 954
Appendix 8-b — Report on determination of plastic flow in rail head .... page 962
Appendix 8-c- — Report on shelly rail studies at the University of Illinois . page 975
9. Recent developments affecting rail section.
Progress report, presented as information page 981
10. Service performance and economics of 78-ft rail, specification for 78-ft
rail.
Progress report, presented as information page QQ2
11. Rail damage resulting from engine burns; prevalence; means of preven-
tion; repair by welding.
Progress report, presented as information page 100.^
The Committee on Rail,
B. R. Meyers, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 542, February 1958.
MEMOIR
3Tamesi Coleman BeSFarnette, 3fv.
James Coleman Dejarnette, Jr., chief engineer of the Richmond, Fredericksburg &
Potomac Railroad, died November 10, 1957, at the Retreat for the Sick Hospital,
Richmond, Va.
Mr. Dejarnette was born June 15, 1897, at Penola, Va., and was educated at
Ashland, Va., high school and Randolph-Macon College.
He started to work for the RF&P in 1917 as a rodman on the James River Branch
grade depression, subsequently being promoted successively to instrumentman, inspector,
resident engineer, assistant engineer construction and maintenance, supervisor track,
division engineer and, on November 1, 1950, chief engineer, which position he held at
the time of his death.
Mr. Dejarnette joined the American Railway Engineering Association in 1944;
was a member of Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast, 1946-1952; a member of Com-
mittee 4 — Rail, from 1952 until his death; and was vice chairman of the Special Com-
mittee on Continuous Welded Rail at the time of his death.
He is survived by his wife, Mrs. Jane Harrison Dejarnette, and two sons, James
Coleman Dejarnette IV, and Jacquelin Harrison Dejarnette.
He gave generously of his time and experience to the Rail committee, and his
passing leaves a place hard to fill in the hearts of Rail committee members.
Rail 907
Report on Assignment 2
Collaborate with AISI Technical Committee on Rail and Joint
Bars in Research and Other Matters of Mutual Interest
B. R. Meyers (chairman, subcommittee), T. A. Bunjer, C. J. Code, C. A. Colpitts,
L. S. Crane, W. J. Cruse, E. B. Fields, W. H. Hobbs, J. C. Jacobs, W. M. Jackie.
K. K Kessler, Ray McBrian, L. T. Nuckols, Embert Osland, G. L. Smith, R. P.
Winton.
This committee is continuing the sponsorship of two studies at the University of
Illinois which are reported on by Professor R. E. Cramer, as follows: (1) report on
'Investigation of Failures in Control-Cooled Railroad Rails," presented as Appendix
2-a, and (2) report on Shelly Rail, included as an appendix to the report on Assign-
ment 8.
The committee and the AISI are jointly reviewing and studying certain specifica-
tions in Chapter 4 of the Manual to determine ways and means of improving the prod-
ucts covered. As changes for improvements are developed they will be submitted for
adoption under Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Appendix 2-a
Investigation of Failures in Control-Cooled Railroad Rails
By R. E. Cramer
Research Associate Professor of Engineering Materials, University of Illinois
Organization and Acknowledgment
This investigation is financed equally by the Association of American Railroads and
the American Iron and Steel Institute.
Student assistants, Ray A. Dahman and Robert B. Hogue, have worked on this
investigation on a part-time basis.
Control-Cooled Rails Which Failed in Service
Since October 1, 1956, reports have been prepared on 35 failed control-cooled
rails. These reports go to the railroad engineers supplying the rails, and copies were
sent to the rail mills and the director of engineering research, AAR, for the Association's
rail-failure statistics.
Table 1 gives a summary of the 35 failures, and Table 2 lists each rail separately.
Transverse Fissures from Shatter Cracks
As will be noted in Tables 1 and 2, the number of transverse fissures from shatter
cracks has increased to 9. However. 8 of these were from the Algoma Mill rolled before
it developed tight-fitting lids late in 1950, and the other rail was rolled at the Gary
Mill in 1037 before that mill had tight-fitting lids for its control-cooling containers.
One of the shattered rails, No. "41. was quite unusual, as shown in the etched slice in
Fig. lb. In this slice there are 9 transverse shatter cracks but no longitudinal shatter
cracks, two of them being unusually large. The other rail in Fig. 1, No. 950, is an
opposite type with mostly longitudinal shatter cracks developed along segregation
streaks, with a few diagonal and enough transverse shatter cracks to develop a transverse
008 Rail
Table 1 — Summary of Failed Rails
Transverse Fissures from Shatter Cracks 8
Transverse Fissures from Hot-Torn Steel 6
Transverse Fissure from Silica Inclusion
Failure from Defective Weld
Detailed Fractures from Shelling
Shelling from Silicate Inclusion
Web Failure at Stamped Letter B
Detail Fracture from Head Check
Fracture from Welded Engine Burn
Base Break from Electrode Burn
Horizontal Split Head from Segregation
Bolt Hole Break
Vertical Split Head from Segregation
Pipe in Rail Web
Compound Fissure from Segregation
Total 34
fissure in service. This type of shatter cracked rail would have been a good candidate
for a vertical split head, but there was enough bending in the 100-lb rail to produce
the transverse fissure first.
Transverse Fissures From Hot Torn Steel
This type of failure still continues in rails rolled by certain mills up to 1952 as
shown in the following tabulation:
Steelton — one in 1951
Inland — one in 1948, two in 1952
Algoma — one in 1943, one in 1946.
It is surprising how long some rails with large cavities inside the rail heads, as shown
in Fig. 2, will last in service before they are detected. If we could receive the rails
from all the railroads which have failures due to hot torn steel, the number of such
failures reported in the AREA statistics would be somewhat larger.
Failure from Defective Weld — Rail No. 940
The fracture of this defective weld is shown in Fig. 3a. This picture shows the
saw marks made by the hack saw used to prepare the rail ends for welding. It is
apparent from this fracture that the rail heads were not properly welded together.
This picture does not show the exact origin of the fracture, but the rough, sudden
growth rings on both sides of the rail head indicate that it started somewhere near the
center of the smooth dark area. It was possible to photograph the saw marks only by
using oblique illumination.
Fig. 3b shows the same surface after polishing and etching with ammonium per
sulfate to study the degree of heat penetration. The rail web and center portion of the
head shows a coarse crystal structure which represents the large grains produced during
the normalizing of the weld. The fine-grained, dark rim around the surface of the head
has been reheated above 1300 deg F for only a short time. It will also be noted that
more heat has been applied on the right side of the rail head, and the light-colored
area shows weld deposited metal. This represents patching up a weld to pass inspection,
but this weld lasted only a little over a year in service. It is not believed that the
small hole near the right lower corner of the head, which the welder did not weld up,
played an important part in the failure of this weld.
Rail
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Fig. 1 — Two transverse fissures from shatter cracks,
a & b — Rail 941 with large transverse shatter cracks.
c & d — Rail 950 with a large number of longitudinal shatter cracks, several
diagonal and one transverse.
Transverse Fissure from Small Porosity
Fig. 4a shows a 90 percent transverse fissure from hot torn steel in rail No. 952,
which was the "B" rail from the ingot. Fig. 4b shows the location of the porosity in the
rail head on a cross section, and Fig. 4c shows an etched slice from the rail head at the
level of the nucleus of the fissure. This specimen represents a hot torn steel rail with
Rail
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Fig. 2 — Two transverse fissures from hot torn steel,
a & b — Rail 926, Steelton hot torn rail,
c & d — Rail 05.^. Inland hot turn rail.
very small porosiu which cannol be observed from examination of the fracture. One
observation was made will) the microscope, that the inclusions in the defective zone
had not been elongated during rolling of the rail as much as ordinarily occurs in sound
rail steel. One such inclusion is shown as Fig. 4d.
Detail Fractures from Shelling
Most of the seven detail fractures sent to the laboratory were obviou&Tj SUCfa
from the appearance of the fractures as received. One rail hail the detector car mark
012
Rail
Fig. 3 — Transverse fissure from patched up defective weld, rail 940.
a — Fracture as received. Oblique lighting to show saw marks. Note growth rings
and small hole.
b — Same surface polished and etched with ammonium persulfate. Shows deposit
weld metal on side of rail head and reheated areas.
broken off and the defect had to be located by laboratory methods. Such failures are
discussed in detail in the Sixteenth report on Shelly Rail Failures. [See report on
Assignment 8].
Web Failure at Stamped Letter B — Rail No. 942
This was a typical web failure from a notch in the rail web as shown in Fig. 5.
It was 112-lb rail section, and the letter B was stamped relatively deep. No spike maul
marks were found on the opposite side of the rail web which sometimes can be the
cause of web failures. In this case the rail base on the field side opposite this letter
was considerably worn, indicating that it had been rubbing against some type of steel
support. These conditions were such that a side pressure from locomotive or carwheels
in that direction could have developed high tensile stresses in the rail web at the letter B.
These could be rather high in the thin web of the 112-lb rail especially after the rail
web was pitted by corrosion during 13 years in service. The origin of most web cracks
can be easily located by observing the highest point along the crack, as the stresses in
service generally cause the cracks to progress downward from the origin toward the
rail base.
Other Types of Failures
The shelling from silicate inclusion is discussed in the report on shelly rails [see
report on Assignment 8] , and most of the other few types of failures are repeats which
have been discussed in previous annual reports.
Rail 949, reported as a base break from electrode burn, did not last long in service
as it was welded late in 1956 and failed in January 1957.
Fractures from welded engine burns do not appear to be much of a problem as only
two were received this year while it is known that many more railroads are now welding
their engine burns than a few years ago when the practice was considered as an experi-
mental procedure.
Rail
913
,4V
Fig. A — Large transverse fissure from hot torn steel, rail 952.
a — Ninety percent transverse fissure from porous nucleus,
b — Etched cross section of rail,
c — Etched longitudinal slice of rail head,
d — Inclusion not elongated during rolling. Not etched.
Mag. about 500 X.
»14
Rail
Fig. 5 — Web failure at stamped letter B, rail 942. Crack progressed
downward through base on both sides of origin, and rail then fractured up
through rail head.
Fig. 6 — Horizontal split head and vertical split head from segregation.
a— Failed rail No. 958.
b — Failed rail No. 960.
Fig. 6 shows two other types of failures received during the past year. Fig. 6a,
failed rail No. 958, is the bottom rail of an ingot. The defective area just below the
rail tread is considered to result from mill scale sticking to the bottom of the ingot
when it is removed from the mill soaking pit. This mill scale has been covered over by
good metal from the outside portion of the ingot as it was rolled down to rail size.
This failure was classified as a horizontal split head from a segregated area in the
rail head.
Fig. 6b is another type of failure resulting from segregation in the head of an "A''
rail, No. 960. It resulted in a vertical split head, as shown in the picture.
Conclusions
1. In general there are few failures from mill defects in the 1,000,000 or more rails
rolled each year during the last 10 years.
2. If all railroads would properly report their failures, the rail failure statistics
would be more valuable to both the mill metallurgists and the railroads.
Rail 915
Report on Assignment 3
Rail Failures Statistics, Covering (a) All Failures; (b) Transverse
Fissures; (c) Performance of Control-Cooled Rail
C. J. Code (chairman, subcommittee). S. H. Barlow. F. W. Biltz. B. Bristow, L. S.
Crane, C. O. Conatser, J. K. Gloster, W. H. Hobbs, \. W. KLopp, B. R. Meyers.
C. E. Morgan, L. T. Nuckols, Embert Osland, G. L. P. Plow. J. G. Roney. S. H.
Shepley. A. A. Shillander, H. F. Whitmore.
These statistics are based on the rail failures reported to December 31, 1°56, and
are submitted as information. They include the service and detected failures reported
by 59 railroads on all of their main-track railway mileage, which constitutes the major
part of the main-track in the United States and Canada. This report was prepared
by Kurt Kannowski, metallurgical engineer of the Association of American Railroads,
Engineering Division research staff, under the direction of G. M. Majiee, director of
engineering research.
The accompanying tables and diagrams have been prepared to indicate the extent
of the control of the transverse fissure problem that has been obtained by the use of
inntml-cooled rail and detector car testing, to give data on the quality of each years*
rollings for the various mills, and to show the types of failures that are occurring on
the various railroads as related to the mill producing the rail.
Au'ain the effect of the lack of data from three roads which had reported previously
can be noted on the statistics.
Transverse Fissure Failures
The number of service transverse fissure failures as shown by curve "A" of Fig. 1.
did not decrease as in previous years. Failure to reduce the number of service failures
was evidently not due to any lack of detector car testing, as indicated by the following:
Track Miles
Year No. of Roads Tested by
Tested Reporting Detector Cars
19S3 59 212,280
1054 56 201,134
1055 56 186,322
1056 50 1 96,882
Table 2 gives information on the number of detected transverse fissures as con-
trasted with the number of total detected transverse defects. This table records tin
failures from roads that verify the detected T.D.'s by breaking the rails for examina-
tion. The purpose of this table and curve "D" of Fig. 1 is to show the reduction in the
incidence of transverse fissures due to the increasing amount of control-cooled rail in
track (curve "B" includes all types of transverse defects). Several of the roads included
in this table have discontinued the practice of breaking defective rails for examination,
and the comparison of results with previous years is affected considerably,
Mill Performance
Figs. 2 and 3 show the quality of the rail from the various mills for each year's
rolling, as indicated by the failures which develop. Fig. 2, which gives the failures
during the first five years of service for all collectively, shows thai tin- failure rate has
declined steadily to the rollings of 1°4S, with a slight increase to 1950 followed by a
decrease this year. The increase can be attributed to the large number of detail fractures
916 Rail
and compound fissures, with a general reduction of the other types of failures. This
indicates the improvements made in mill quality, rail design, and railway maintenance
practices.
The accumulated failures by mills and year of rolling, shown on Fig. 3, show that
for certain mills and certain years the failure rate has been considerably above normal.
These instances have been explained in previous reports up to 1952. The high rate of
failures in the 1952 rolling of the Lackawanna mill is due to other head failures reported
by the New York Central, and the high rate in the 1953 rollings is due to the same
cause, together with an increase in other head failures reported by the Boston & Maine
and the Northern Pacific. The 1953 rollings also show a high rate of failures at the
Dominion mill, which is largely due to 50 percent increase in failures due to vertical
split heads and other head failures reported by the Canadian Pacific Railway. The
rollings for 1954 showed very little change from last year with the exception of the
Carnegie E. T. mill which had an increase due largely to an increase in CF's and DF's
on the Norfolk & Western and failures within the joint bar limits on the New York,
Chicago & St. Louis and the Pittsburgh & Lake Erie. The large increase for the Algoma
mill in the 1955 rollings is due to an increase in vertical split head failures, and failures
within joint bar limits reported by the Canadian Pacific. The Colorado mill shows an
increase of failures in 1951 rolling which is due largely to an increase of CF's and DF's
and other head failures on the Denver & Rio Grande Western, Southern Pacific, and
Union Pacific that occurred during 1955. The increase of failures reported by the
Canadian Pacific in the 1947 and 1949 rollings at the Dominion mill is due to a 50
percent increase in failures within joint bar limits and an increase of 17 other head
failures, respectively. The increase of failures shown at Inland mill in the 1946 and
1947 rollings is due to an increase in CF's and DF's reported by the Union Pacific.
The other increases in the failures at the Inland and Lackawanna mills are due to the
addition of data from the Chesapeake & Ohio which had not been reported last year.
Fig. 4, showing the control-cooled rail failures per 100 track miles, had a different
pattern last year in that the number of failures for 10 years of service had not declined
relative to that for 9 years. The same trend is shown this year. The interesting differ-
ence that was noted last year, in that the sharp increase in the number of failures after
6 years of service of previous years appeared after 7 years of service, shows this year
after 8 years of service. This confirms the theory that the 115 RE and 132 RE rail
sections introduced during 1948 rollings have been an important factor in reducing the
incidence of rail failures.
Types of Failures
Tables 6 and 7 give information on the types of failures in control-cooled rail.
Again it can be noted this year that the detail fractures and the failures within joint
bar limits are by far the outstanding types of failures. The number of track miles com-
pared to last years report has decreased by 3 percent, and the total failures of all types
have decreased by 15 percent, the failures within the joint bar limits have decreased
by 25 percent, and the CF's and DF's have decreased by 12 percent.
The above-mentioned decrease of failures within joint bar limits will become even
more pronounced as the new rail sections, bolt hole spacings and corrosion protection
becomes more extensive in track. The number of failures of this type that occur in
service or are detected by ultrasonic testing will be noted on Table 8 which was added
in 1954 for this purpose. Comparing this table with the data from the two previous
years, we note that 5,829,360 joints were inspected with defect detecting instruments in
Rail
917
1954; 6,755,219 in 1955; and 8,430,515 in 1956. As the first round of testing of this
type is completed on some of the first railroads to resort to it and other roads avail
themselves of it, a notable decrease in service failures within joint bar limits may be
expected in the future. Another factor in reducing this type of failure will be the
increasing amount of butt-welded rail.
The remaining, and by far the most important rail problem, is the increasing num-
ber of rail failures from detail fractures due to shelling. Considerable time and effort
in basic and practical research is being devoted to this problem.
All failures in control-cooled rail that are thought to be transverse fissures are sent
to the University of Illinois for verification by Professor Cramer as a part of the
cooperative rail failure investigation sponsored jointly by the AAR and the AISI. Table
9 shows the results to date of the examination of the submitted failures. Of these
transverse fissure failures, 81 percent were from hot torn steel, 4 percent from inclu-
sions, and 15 percent from shatter cracks due to improper control-cooling procedure.
4000C
36000
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1 62 roads since 1943, Table 1
\
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Includes transverse fissures ond on unknown
proportion of detoil fractures from shells
and head checks- 62 roads since 1943, Tabl«
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TRANSVERSE DEFECTS AS REPORTEO BY ALL RAILROADS.
918
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2 if
024
Rail
TONS OF RAILS AND TRACK MILES OF EACH YEAR'S ROLLINGS 1946
REPORTED BY 59 RAILROADS.
1955 INCL.
Year
Rolled
OH CONTROL COOLED ONLY
TONS
TRACK MILES
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1,342,436
1,533,329
1,407,756
1,254,278
1,311,038
1,229,261
987,006
1,207,782
823, 831
883,125
6,469.42
7,236.28
6,601.31
5,966.41
6,335.78
5,908.58
4,796.63
5,683.69
3,833.60
4,085.60
TOTAL
11,979,842
56,917.30
TABLE 4 - SERVICE AND DETECTED FAILURESOF ALL TYPES EXCEPT ENGINE BURN FAILURES
ACCUMULATED FROM DATE ROLLED TO DECEMBER 31, 1956 PER 100 AVERAGE
TRACK MILES, CONTROL COOLED RAIL ONLY, IN ALL ROLLINGS, FROM ALL MILLS.
Year
Rolled
YEARS OF SERVICE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1946
1.2
2.9
6.6
12.9
25.1
41.0
57.8
94.2
117
139
1947
0.9
3.1
6.5
13.6
25.5
39.6
62.5
83.4
106
1948
0.7
1.6
3.6
7.5
11.5
19.1
26.4
35.6
1949
1.7
4.1
7.2
10.0
15.8
21.7
28.8
1950
3.1
6.0
9.6
14.1
19.6
25.9
1951
2.0
3.4
5.0
10.4
16.3
1952
2.0
2.8
4.3
7.9
1953
0.8
2.0
4.0
1954
0.5
1.3
1955
0.7
Rail
925
TRACK MILKS BY MILL
1956 FAILURES
HO AD
ALC
CARN
rii[
i> M
, >in
IN1.D
LACKA
S I I 1 N
TKNN
TOTAL
EBFaEXCL.
EBEs ONLY
AT&SF
23J".
3451
237
6013
67
0
ACL
9
606
1119
1734
178
0
B&O
SSI
361
10
IK
740
2114
61
13
BiOCT
4
38
42
1
0
Ban Aroos
3
135
0
0
B&LE
16
96
0
0
Bos .-. Alb
129
129
i
0
BiM
36
46
137
13
0
CP
3932
728
92
4752
611
0
C of Ga.
305
305
4
0
CiO (Sys.)
31
SI
1120
660
212
122
2226
61
8
ClEI
146
22
168
10
0
cum
655
154
190
1000
10
0
CB&Q
1175
913
162
2250
2
0
CliL
101
43
111
0
0
CMStP&P
1326
383
1709
3
0
CRItP
119
880
289
1288
7
0
ccctaL
-P4E
513
S88
63
15
CiS
37-
378
2
10
D4H
261
261
9
0
D&RGU
493
493
29
0
Erk
SIS
274
25
105
922
1
1
FEC
28
'.in
41S
0
4
CTW
227
75
196
498
6
0
CS
470
782
282
257
1791
95
0
[C
1277
498
313
2088
18
0
JCL
173
173
2
0
KCS
j',y
34
1J
315
1
0
LIHR
33
33
0
0
LINE
43
43
0
0
LV
315
315
0
0
LI
0
0
0
LiS
51
1451
1502
79
2
Me. Cent.
96
96
1
0
iianssM
280
206
92
578
7
0
MKl
78
127
52
257
3
0
MP Lines
1207
635
185
245
2272
8
1
NCiStL
463
463
7
0
NVC-E
34
1111
1145
203
5
NYC-W
"j17
33
0
S58
41
11
mrcuu,
113
421
82
222
«-
111
0
NYNHtH
107
318
425
25
s
mrotw
0
0
0
N&W
978
417
1395
132
9
SP
494
417
102
198
1211
61
2
Piih
38!
283
84
1049
2298
42
8
P.ll
158
158
71
3
Riding
479
479
0
0
RF&P
196
196
2
0
Rjtland
4
4
0
0
31 L - SF
4K
775
813
10
0
SAL
3
830
617
1450
0
0
SP
34 S3
34 53
639
89
Sojthern
16
1 ",
616
1268
1915
40
6
TING
MS
112
797
7
0
TliP
321
135
456
0
0
L'P
2299
963
139
2108
0
Va
90
15b
j;-
16
0
WMil
148
234
382
4
u
TOTAL
3963
1
13.497
728
16,043 3926
3425
6552
7208
59.347
4872
192
SQJE The following railroad* did not n-uor
nlttcd from this table DL&W: and IHH.
926
Rail
LURES
R 100
CK MI.
EARS
CO CO
CO
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n > O w
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g >< 3 .2 £ £
§
33
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23
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Rail
927
TABLE 7 - ACCUMULATED FAILURES OF ALL TYPES FOR OH CONTROL COOLED RAIL, ONLY IN
ROLLING 1946 - 1955, INCL. , ACCUMULATED TO DECEMBER SI, 1956 SERVICE AND DETECTED,
SEGREGATED BY ROADS ^ND MILLS.
ROADS
TF
Ver
CF
&
YSH
HSH
Other
Broken
W
?b
Base
FAILURES TOTALS
EBFs
Excl.
EBFs Only
In.
Accum.
A'jcum.
UofI
DF
H_»ad
St.
Other
Total
Total
1956
ALGOMA
CP
10
12
266
9
276
97
564
34
729
1997
431
0
0
C&O (Sys.)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
TOTAL
10
12
2GG
9
276
97
564
34
730
Ui'.i-
431
0
0
CARNEGIE
B&O
0
23
13
10
10
3
56
16
2
133
24
33
■1
BftM
1
3
0
0
9
2
0
0
0
15
0
0
0
C&O (Sys.)
0
7
0
0
0
0
17
0
0
24
1
4
2
Erie
0
14
0
2
0
1
3
0
0
20
1
4
1
NYCi-StL
0
4
0
6
12
8
228
5
0
263
65
0
0
NYNHtH
0
3
1
8
0
1
46
0
0
59
18
4
2
NiW
0
378
4
14
38
1
54
22
7
518
89
25
6
PRR
0
14
1
5
7
3
56
0
1
87
14
121
1
P&LE
0
9
3
3
1
0
467
2
0
485
71
17
3
Va.
0
3
0
0
0
3
1
6
0
13
3
0
0
W Md.
0
2
1
0
0
9
1
0
0
13
3
0
0
TOTAL
1
460
23
48
77
31
929
51
10
1630
289
208
22
COLORADO
AT&SF
0
159
13
16
15
1
37
2
0
243
67
0
0
CB&Q
0
0
0
2
5
0
1
1
0
9
1
1
0
CRI&P
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
C&S
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
5
2
10
10
D&RGW
0
94
2
2
1
0
3
0
0
102
29
0
0
GN
0
2
3
0
3
0
2
0
0
10
2
0
0
MP Lines
0
3
8
5
5
2
11
1
0
35
2
15
0
NP
0
0
6
2
51
12
3
5
0
79
31
2
2
SP
0
378
83
258
230
47
834
338
15
2183
639
258
B9
T&NO
0
1
3
14
4
2
0
18
0
42
5
2
0
T&P
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
UP
0
6025
22
135
533
1
31
108
1
6856
1633
30
0
TOTAL
0
6664
140
434
85ii
67
923
473
16
9567
2411
319
101
028
Rail
TABLE 7 - CONTINUED
ROADS
TF
Ver
UofI
CF
&
DF
VSH
HSH
Other
Head
Broken
Web
Base
FAILURES TOTALS
EBFs Excl.
EBFs Only
In.
Jt.
Other
Accum.
Total
1956
Accum.
Total
1956
DOMINION
CP
0
0
53
3
45
6
261
8
26
402
160
0
0
TOTAL
0
0
53
3
45
6
261
8
26
402
160
0
0
GARY
AT&SF
0
0
0
2
3
0
11
0
0
16
0
0
0
B&O
0
1
7
0
2
1
9
3
0
23
4
38
1
C&O (Sys.)
2
126
9
5
8
4
24
12
0
190
35
31
3
C&EI
1
0
4
0
25
0
26
2
0
58
9
0
0
C&NW
0
5
1
1
19
7
59
3
3
98
10
0
0
CB&Q
0
0
1
4
2
0
3
0
0
10
1
0
0
CMStP&P
0
1
5
0
0
7
3
2
1
19
2
0
0
CR1&P
0
0
2
0
5
16
1
4
29
7
0
0
CCC&StL
0
12
5
3
30
4
550
31
2
637
63
20
15
Erie
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
GTW
1
0
13
1
2
6
9
1
34
3
0
0
GN
0
205
6
5
139
17
33
2
414
56
0
0
IC
0
12
4
3
5
3
18
0
53
9
7
0
KCS
0
0
2
4
0
1
0
0
8
1
0
0
L&N
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
MStP&SSTM
0
0
3
0
1
11
1
6
23
2
0
0
MKT
0
0
1
0
1
0
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
MP Lines
1
1
5
2
2
3
1071
3
3
1091
2
1
1
NYC-E
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
NYC-W
0
21
5
2
10
12
501
14
1
566
41
24
11
NYC&StL
0
1
3
1
8
3
110
7
2
135
26
0
0
NP
2
1
4
2
17
14
16
6
1
63
25
4
0
PRR
0
1
3
0
0
3
27
0
1
35
1
1
0
UP
0
1293
10
49
280
0
22
67
4
1725
403
20
0
TOTAL
7
1687
93
84
560
112
2497
169
31
5240
703
146
31
Rail
020
TABLE 7 - CONTINUED
ROADS
TF
Ve r
CF
&
VSH
HSU
Other
Broken
Web
Base
FA!
.IKES
TOTALS
E B Fs
Sxcl.
EBFs Only
In.
Accum.
L956
A :cum.
1956
L'..| I
DF
Head
Jt.
Other
Total
Total
INLAND
AT&SF
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
0
B&O
0
n
2
0
0
0
1
1
0
4
3
0
0
B&OCT
II
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
C&O (Sys.)
1
85
5
3
3
9
19
12
2
139
14
23
3
C&EI
0
0
2
0
7
0
0
0
1
10
1
4
0
C&NW
0
0
4
3
1
0
10
0
1
19
0
0
0
CB&Q
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
n
0
CMStPiP
0
0
5
1
0
5
2
0
0
13
1
0
0
CRI&F
1
0
0
1
2
6
(1
0
0
10
0
0
0
GTW
0
0
0
0
1
2
6
0
0
9
2
0
0
GN
0
15
10
1
17
0
2
0
2
47
26
0
0
IC
0
1
2
0
3
0
5
2
1
14
4
0
0
MSiP&SSTM
0
0
5
0
0
5
6
2
2
20
4
0
0
MKT
1
1
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
5
1
0
0
MP Lines
0
2
2
0
0
0
3
0
0
7
2
0
0
NYC&StL
0
1
2
1
1
4
15
0
0
24
5
0
0
NP
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
4
0
f)
0
PRR
0
0
0
0
0
1
9
1
0
11
0
0
II
StL-SF
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
2
1
0
0
UP
0
329
2
10
4
1
6
12
1
365
72
0
0
TOTAL
3
434
42
21
43
36
88
30
10
707
137
27
3
LACKAWANN
\
B&O
0
1
2
0
3
1
44
1
0
52
8
27
0
Bos&Alb
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
B&M
2
27
0
0
7
2
0
1
0
39
13
0
0
CP
0
0
2
3
48
0
23
0
11
87
20
0
1)
C&O (Sys.)
1
33
0
2
2
0
18
2
X)
58
4
1
0
C&NW
0
0
0
2
5
4
7
0
8
26
0
0
0
GTW
0
0
32
1
5
6
1
0
3
48
1
0
0
GN
0
15
3
1
52
1
14
2
1
89
11
0
0
LV
II
1
0
0
0
0
2
1
10
14
0
0
0
Me. Cent.
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
MStP&SStM
0
1
1
0
0
18
1
1
8
30
1
2
(1
NYC-E
t
58
13
5
35
2
711
4
3
835
202
11
5
NYC&StL
3
5
0
0
5
12
65
1
1
92
15
0
0
NP
0
0
0
1
3
12
11
1
1
29
5
1
11
Rutland
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
TOTAL
10
142
55
15
165
58
897
14
46
1402
282
42
5
030
Rail
TABLE 7- CONTINUED
ROADS
TF
Ver
CF
VSH
HSH
Othe r
Broken
W
sb
Base
FAILURES ^
)NI.V
ELI s i ■:
■ccl.
EBFs Only
In.
Accum.
Accum.
U.)fl
DF
Head
Jt.
Other
Tot ;il
1956
Total
1956
STEELTON
ACL
0
0
0
1
0
0
148
4
1
154
54
0
0
B&O
8
91
8
8
13
2
23
7
0
160
22
45
8
Ban Aroos
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
B&M
0
1
0
0
5
1
1
1
0
9
0
5
0
C&O (Sys.)
2
150
3
2
7
0
1
4
0
169
7
3
0
D&H
0
33
2
6
3
0
2
6
0
52
9
0
(1
FEC
o
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
JCL
0
0
2
0
0
o
1
2
0
5
2
0
0
LI
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NYNH&H
0
8
5
1
0
0
16
0
0
30
7
12
3
N&W
2
122
1
5
13
0
23
7
2
175
43
12
3
PRR
0
72
4
9
16
10
107
0
0
218
27
161
4
Reading
0
2
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
6
0
0
0
RF&P
1
8
0
1
3
0
25
0
0
38
2
0
0
SAL
0
0
4
1
0
3
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
Southern
0
2
0
0
1
6
6
0
0
15
3
0
0
Va
0
23
0
1
0
12
1
10
1
48
13
0
0
W Md
0
3
0
1
0
5
0
2
0
11
1
0
0
TOTAL
13
516
29
37
62
42
356
43
4
1102
190
239
18
TENNESSEE
0
0
1
3
324
9
3
347
124
8
0
ACL
B&LE
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
C of Ga
0
2
5
4
2
4
12
1
1
31
4
7
0
FEC
0
5
0
2
0
1
3
0
0
11
0
18
4
IC
0
3
3
3
6
0
6
0
0
21
5
0
0
L&N
0
131
16
36
16
7
71
35
0
312
79
10
2
MP Lines
0
0
0
1
0
1
4
0
0
6
2
3
fi
NC&StL
0
8
5
8
22
3
9
2
2
59
7
0
0
StL-SF
0
2
4
6
4
7
6
1
0
30
9
0
0
SAL
0
1
2
1
0
1
0
2
0
7
0
0
0
Southern
0
5
5
1
47
41
44
1
3
147
37
25
6
T&NO
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
9
6
IS
2
0
0
TOTAL
0
157
41
67
105
c.s
479
6ii
15
992
269
71
12
ALL MILLS
44
10072
742
7 is
2183
517
6994
882
888
23040
4872
1052
192
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Rail 935
Report on Assignment 4
Rail End Batter; Causes and Remedies
K. K. Kessler (chairman, subcommittee), E. L. Anderson, B. Blowers, B. Bristow, R. M.
Brown, C. J. Code, L. S. Crane, W. J. Cruse, J. K. Gloster, R. L. Groover, J. C.
Jacobs, C. C. Lathev, H. S. Loeffler, L. Mavfield, B. R. Meyers, C. E. Morgan,
E. E. Oviatt, G. L. P. Plow, R. B. Rhode, J. G. Ronev, G. L. Smith, A. P. Talbot,
R. P. Winton, J. E. Yewell.
This is a report, presented as information, on the progress made during 1957 on
this investigation, which was outlined in the Proceedings. Vol. 56, 1955, page 929. One
rolling-load machine has been in operation on this work continuously during 1957 at
the AAR Research Center. Thirteen rail joints, mostly built up with test welds made
by the . oxyacetylene welding method, have been subjected to 5.000,000 cycles of a
.^0,000-lb wheel load. The investigation as planned for oxyacetylene welding practices
has been completed. Metallurgical examination of these tests are in progress.
With the completion of the new engineering laboratory three more rolling-load
machines have been assigned to this project. Ten battered rail joints built up by electric
welding methods have already been subjected to rolling-load tests. Six rail joints have
been prepared with special electrodes and six joints consisting of battered high-silicon
rail ends have been built up by various welding methods.
936
Rail
Report on Assignment 5
Economic Value of Various Sizes of Rail
J. C. Jacobs (chairman, subcommittee), E. L. Anderson, S. H. Barlow, Blair Blowers.
C. A. Colpitts, C. O. Conatser, L. S. Crane, G. H. Echols, P. O. Ferris, L. E.
Gingerich, W. H. Hobbs, N. W. Kopp, W. B. Leaf, H. S. Loeffler, B. R. Mevers,
Embert Osland, R. E. Patterson, R. B. Rhode, J. G. Ronev, J. F. Shaffer, A. A.
Shillander, W. D. Simpson, R. R. Smith, A. P. Talbot, J. S. Wearn.
Your committee submits the following report of progress as information. It is a
continuation of Study A reflecting changes in the test mileage and computed to show
averages after 13 years. The labor and material averages are computed to compensate
for the decrease in test track mileage.
Study A
Result of Study of Illinois Central Railroad Northward Track,
Mattoon to Savoy, III., Test Sections of 112-lb and 131-lb Rail
112 -Lb Rail
M.P. 152.24-172.00 laid in 1042 and 1943
Original test included:
10.76 track miles
18 turnouts
1 railroad crossing
22 public road crossings
2 private grade crossings
24" joint bars
Changes in rail mileage.
1950— MP 152.09-152.24 laid in 115-lb,
0.15 miles added to test.
1952— M.P. 155.87-160.52 relaid in 132-lb,
4.65 miles dropped from test.
1953— M.P. 160.52-163.55 relaid in 132-lb,
3.03 miles dropped from test.
1954— M.P. 152.09-155.87 relaid in 132-lb,
3.78 miles dropped from test,
Average annual traffic density — 28,000,000
e;ross tons
131 -Lb Rail
M.P. 132.00-152.24 laid in 1944
Original test included:
20.24 track miles
21 turnouts
3 railroad crossings
22 public road crossings
6 private grade crossings
36" joint bars
Changes in rail mileage.
1950— MP 152.09-152.24 laid in 115-lb,
0.15 miles dropped from test.
Comparison of The Two Sections — Cost of Investment — 1944 Prices
Investment Charges per Mile
Item 112 Lb 131-Lb
Gross cost — rail and other track material $12,643 $14,413
Less estimated salvage Cr. 4,284 Cr. 5,01 1
Net Cost— rail and other track material $ 8,359 $ 9,402
Labor cost to lay 1,338 1,473
Total cost $ °,697 $10,875
Estimated life— based on 1956 condition 14 Yrs. 20 Yrs.
Annual Cost — rail and other track material $ 597 $ 470
Labor to lay 96 74
Interest at 6 percent* 839 953
Total annual investment cost $ 1,532 $ 1,497
* On gross outlay for material and labor.
Rail
937
Maintenance Labor and Material Per Mile
tit-Lb
t Si-Lb
M ih 9
M,l,s
Year
Main-
Man-
< 'TOSS
<■« Yd
Year
Main-
Man-
( 'row
Cu Yd
tained
llniirs
77, a
Kallast
tained
Hour*
1
Bailout
1943
19.76
2,480
710
028
1944
20.24
2,606
1 ,065
047
1944
19.70
413
o
17
L945
20.24
131
30
1945
19.70
701
230
25 1
L946
20 -'I
370
■ i
114
1946
19.70
1 , 166
410
579
1947.
20.24
748
172
301
1947
19.76
045
208
273
1948
2i >. 24
2 15
38
1S5
1948
19.70
1 . 005
180
294
1949
20.24
070
10
116
1949
19.70
1 . 574
541
423
1950
20.09
1 ,642
402
323
1950
19.91
094
174
159
L951
20. 09
614
59
52
1951
19.91
667
48
193
1952
20.09
1,144
62
304
1952
15.26
748
30
140
1953
20.09
1.089
13'.)
120
1953
12.23
1.110
91
292
1954
20 . 09
392
21
I'.Oi
8.45
543
44
83
1955
20.09
031
91
04
1955
8.45
Years
239
32
159
1956 ...
20.09
535
10
52
Total 13
11.985
2.727
3,491
10.817
2.1153
2,329
Average of 13 Years
1U-
U
/.;/-
Lb
Savings by Ust of
tSl-Lb
i 'hargt
1', ra hi
( 'hargt
/', 1 1 i III
i 'hargt
Percent
922
$1,051
210
S 032
269
I 269
54
32
14
832
$ 948
158
I 470
1 79
$ 179
59
30
1 1
90
$ 103
52
$ 1 56
90
$ 90
Cast at $1.14*.
Cross ties .. .
Cost at $3.01 *
Ballast (stone and slag) cu vd
Cost at $1.00*
30
45
25
Total Maintenance -
Percent ..
I nw-t merit charges
$1,952
$1,532
100
$1,003
-i 197
S3 , 1 00
100
$ 349
$ 35
100
Total Cost
$3,484
$ 384
11.0
♦Average prices 1943 1955.
Summary
At the beginning of this study the estimate of service life in the first location
was IS years for the 112-lb and 25 years for the 131-lb rail. It now appears that 20
years for the 131-lb will be more realistic.
The remainder of the 112-lb rail was removed during 1957 after 14 years of serv-
ice. Computations have been revised accordingly. The study will be continued with
respect to the 131-lb rail during the remainder of its life in the present location.
The greatest savings realized through the use of 1311b rail have been in cross ties,
possibly due to the use of long and heavier joint bars, larger tie plates and greater rail
rigidity. Cross ties in both sections are renewed in accordance with similar maintenance
standards and conditions.
938 Rail
Report on Assignment 7
Joint Bar Wear and Failures; Revision of Design and
Specifications for New Bars, Including Insulated
Joints, and Bars for Maintenance Repairs
Embert Osland (chairman, subcommittee), S. H. Barlow, T. A. Blair, Blair Blowers,
R. M. Brown, J. A. Burner, C. A. Colpitts, C. O. Conatser, L. S. Crane, J. C.
Dejarnette, E. B. Fields, L. E. Gingerich, R. L. Groover, W. H. Hobbs, S. R.
Hursh, L. R. Lamport, B. R. Mevers, C. E. Morgan, G. L. P. Plow, J. F. Schaffer,
S. H. Shepley, H. F. Whitmore.
This is a progress report, submitted as information.
Rolling-load tests of joint bars were continued at the University of Illinois, and
this year the tests were made on head-free bars with milled head easements. The results
of these tests are submitted in Appendix 7-a.
A final report on the service test installed in 1939 on the Burlington Railroad to
compare the performance of joint bars having their physical properties materially
increased through changes in metallurgy or heat treatment, prepared by Mr. Magee, is
submitted as Appendix 7-b.
Arrangements have been completed to secure the necessary material and do the
fabrication which we feel will lead to improvement in the performance of insulated
joints. A study is being conducted as to the most feasible procedure to follow in making
accelerated laboratory or rolling-load tests, which will be supplemented by service tests
in track.
To date there are no mills in the United States impressing head easements in head-
contact joint bars. Two Canadian mills have been furnishing such bars for several years,
and plans showing the easement which they provide have been submitted to steel mills
in the United States for their reaction and suggestions before revising Fig. 8 on page
4-1-13 of the AREA Manual. In cooperation with the steel mills a study is underway
to develop a standard shape for the oval holes in joint bars.
Appendix 7-a
Sixteenth Progress Report of the Rolling-Load Tests of Joint Bars
By R. S. Jensen
Assistant Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, University of Illinois
Introduction and Acknowledgment
This report covers tests of joint bars conducted during the past year in the Talbot
Laboratory, University of Illinois, as a part of the work of the Engineering Experiment
Station in cooperation with the American Railway Engineering Association Committee
on Rail under Assignment 7 — Joint Bar Wear and Failures; Revision of Design and
Specifications for New Bars, Including Insulated Joints, and Bars for Maintenance
Repairs. Embert Osland, office engineer, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, is
chairman of the subcommittee for this assignment. The work is sponsored and financed
by the Association of American Railroads.
Acknowledgment is made of the services of James Bryant and Elmer Hunt,
mechanicians in the Talbot Laboratory shops.
Rail 939
Testing Machines and Test Specimens
Joint bar tests were made in three 33 -in stroke rolling machines similar to the
one described in the AREA Proceedings, Vol. 40, 1939, page 649. The dimensions of the
test joint and method of loading are described in the Proceedings, Vol. 44, 1943, page
587. In all tests, the maximum bar bending stressess are obtained with the wheel load
at the joint gap and are 50 percent in value and reversed in sign with the wheel load
at the cantilever end of the stroke. The criterion for bar failure is taken to be the
number of cycles of loading to propagate a fatigue crack to l/2 of the bar height.
Results of Rolling-Load Tests
Rolling load tests have been completed on 19 joints using 36-in bars since the last
annual report was published, including 7 tests on 115 RE headfree bars and 12 tests
on 132 RE headfree bars. These bars had bolt hole spacings of 5%, 6l/2, and bl/2 in.
Both bar types were tested with easements milled in the laboratory on the top surface
of the bars, the easements having the form of a segment of a circle. The easements
were first milled with a 3-in diameter milling cutter to a length of l}4-in and to a
depth of 0.200 to 0.220 in on 115 RE bars for 6 joints. Of five tests completed on this
type of joint last year (joints 357-361), two bars failed through the center of the
easement, which indicated that the easement was apparently too deep. Consequently,
easements of the same shape, but of only one-half the depth or 0.110 in were milled
on bars for 6 joints of each group. Both shallow and deep easements were carried
completely over the top surface of the bar.
The chemical analyses of the heats from which these bars were manufactured are
as follows:
115 RE Bars— Heat 12-702, Serial 350, C 0.47, Mn 0.77, P 0.016, S 0.024, Si 0.14.
132 RE Bars— Heat 1-642, Serial 331, C 0.48, Mn 0.73, P 0.017, S 0.029, Si 0.13.
Data on these 19 joints are tabulated in Table 1, and physical properties, as deter-
mined by tensile tests on specimens cut from each failed bar, are listed in Table 2.
Hardness Tests on Joint Bars
Both Brinell and Rockwell B hardness readings were taken on upper and lower
fishing surfaces of all bars before testing, and Brinell readings were also taken on both
ends of the tensile specimens cut from the center of the head of each failed bar.
For the 115 RE headfree bars, the Brinell readings on the top fishing surfaces
ranged from 217 to 281, with an average hardness of 244; readings on the lower fishing
surfaces ranged from 199 to 273, with an average hardness of 235 for the 14 bars. Rock-
well B readings, converted to equivalent Brinell, averaged 64 points lower for these
bars, indicating some decarburization. The tensile specimens machined from the failed
bars showed Brinell hardnesses ranging from 233 to 258, with an average hardness
of 247.
For the 132 RE headfree bars, the Brinell readings OH the top fishing surfaces
ranged from 189 to 244, with an average hardness of 220; readings on the lower fishing
surfaces ranged from 197 to 252, with an average hardness of 228 for the 24 bars.
Rockwell B readings converted to equivalent Brinell averaged 52 points lower for these
bars. The tensile specimens machined from the failed bars showed Brinell hardnesses
ranging from 214 to 273, with an average hardness of 258.
940
Rail
Table 1 — Rolling-Load Tests of Joint Bars
Maximum Positive Bending Moment: 55,500-Lb Load — 500,000 In-Lb for 132-Lb Bars.
Maximum Positive Bending Moment: 44,400-Lb Load — 400,000 In-Lb for 115-Lb Bars.
Maximum negative bending moment is 50 per cent of positive moment.
Bolt Tension: 15000 Lb. Bolts: 1 In Diameter, Heat-treated, Prestressed.
Joint
No.
362
Cycles
for
Failure
Bar Fail a n
N = North
S = South
Surface
Hardness
Failed Bar
B II X
Hardness
on Tensile
Specimen
B II X
Bars: 115 RE headfree 36-in, Serial 350,
milled easements 0.220-in deep, hole spacing 5^-6^-6^ in.
373,900
N. Base Rail end.
241
238
(This gives an average of 294,000 cycles for 6 joints)
Depth of
Decarb.
from
Micrograph
Inches
0.009
Bars: 115 RE headreee 36-in, Serial 350,
milled easements 0.110 in deep, hole spacings 5 }4~6 H-(i }4 in.
363
250,000
364
173,300
365
697 , 900
- 366
323,300
367
481,000
368
169,000
349,080
N. Base Rail end — to bolt hole-
N. Top 1 in from rail end
N. Top 1 % in from rail end.-_
S. Base Rail end
S. Top 1 in from rail end
N. Base Rail end
Average for 6 joints
253
233
255
255
239
255
Bars: 132 RE headfree 36-in, Serial 331,
milled easements 0.220 in deep, hole spacing ^y%-§xA
-6 i/2 in.
369
810,600
370
837,100
371
167,900
372
857 , 200
373
572,600
374
424,400
611,630
N. Base
N. Base
S. Base
S. Base
N. Top
S. Top
Rail end
To bolt hole
Rail end
Rail end
Center of easement
Center of easement
Average for 6 joints
Slight
0.004
0.005
0.008
Slight
Slight
m
Bars: 132 RE headfree 36-in, Serial 331,
lied easements 0.110 in deep, hole spacing blA-6l/2-GlA in.
375
368,300
259 , 700
504 , 500
872 , 400
959 , 400
536,900
211
232
206
235
204
219
259
273
278
268
252
257
0.013
376
S. Base Rail end
0.007
377
S. Base To bolt hole
0.011
378
379
S. Base Rail end
0.012
0.007
380
0.007
Average for 6 joints
583,530
Rolling-Load Tests of 115 RE Headfree Bars with Milled Easements
Results of 7 tests of 115 RE headfree, 36-in bars with milled easements are listed
in Table 1. Joint 362, using 115-lb bars with deep easements, ran 373,900 cycles before
the north bar failed from the base. The other 5 joints of this type were reported last
year, so this test gives an average for the 6 joints with deep easements of 294,000
cycles.
The remaining 6 tests of 115 RE bars (joints 363-368) were completed after mill-
ing shallow easements on the bars with a 6-in diameter milling cutter, the easements
having the shape of a segment of a circle with a depth of 0.110 in.
The average cycles for failure for these 6 joints is 349,080 cycles, an average increase
pf 55,000 cycles over the bars with deep easements. Three bars failed from the base
Rail
941
Table 2 — Physical Properties of Joint Bars
Joint
Surfact
Hardm ss
Yield
Ti neilt
Reduction
Etonuatinn
Bar Type
Number
Hardness
on Teneilt
Spectrin n
Point
Sir, ngth
of Area
.'. In GJj.
B U S
/i // A
Pet
Pn
rc
%
115 RE HF
362N
281
248
74,700
110.000
16.0
18.0
363 N"
241
241
75,000
119,000
19.6
19. S
364 X
235
233
71.500
114.000
:,.' . 3
20.0
365N
231
255
77,300
11 2, 000
44.5
19.0
3668
254
258
77 , 700
1 24 , 000
44.0
17.0
3678
222
239
75 . 700
1 20 . 000
49 . i
19.0
368N
247
245
72,500
122.000
48.4
19.0
The following 4 specimens were machined from the base of the bar.
132 RE HF
362N
241
238
78,500
123,000
49 . 5
18.5
363 N
218
253
73 . 200
117, 000
52.4
19.5
366S
255
255
83 . 500
129,000
45.0
17.0
368 N
227
255
75,000
122,000
49.8
18.0
369 X
219
268
78.900
124.700
42.4
16.(1
370 X
237
268
76.000
122.500
46. (i
17.0
371S
223
263
81,800
1 27 , 200
45.9
18.0
372S
219
269
74,800
122.300
43.7
16.0
373 X
205
214
66.700
105,600
40.0
19.0
374S
219
245
76,000
121,200
42.7
17.0
3758
211
259
75.900
1 22 , 400
16.5
17..".
376S
215
251
75,300
120.000
48.6
19.0
377S
234
262
79.700
126.500
46.6
18.0
378S
241
238
79,000
120,000
49.0
18.0
379S
204
252
78.500
124.300
47.5
18.0
380S
219
257
76,700
123.300
44.7
16.5
The following 7 specimens were machined from the base of the bar.
369 X
370 X
371S
372S
376S
377S
378S
228
244
197
252
232
206
235
271
255
261
264
273
273
268
80.800
77,700
80,000
76 . 400
77.300
78 . 200
77 , 200
125. 200
126.. 500
1 25 . 300
123.300
121.200
126,000
119.700
44.3
36.9
46.6
44.9
48.0
48.0
48.7
16.0
15.0
17.0
17.0
18.0
17.0
19.0
AREA specifications for Quenched Carbon Steel Joint Bars:
Tensile strength, min — 100,000 psi
Yield Point, min — 70,000 psi
Reduction of Area, min — 25 percent
Elongation in 2 in, min — 12 percent
and three from the top bar surface. All of the base failures originated in the gouge
marks caused by the rail ends, and one of the cracks progressed upward to a bolt hole.
The top failures all started in heavy bearing areas outside of the milled easements.
Fig. 1 shows two of the failed bars with milled easements and the cracks which caused
failure.
Additional transverse cracks % in to y% in long were detected on the top surfaces
of the failed bar of joint 367 and the companion bars of joints 365 and 366, the cracks
occurring in areas of heavy bearing near the center of bar length just ouside of the
easement.
Micrographs of specimens from each failed bar reveal a fairly fine grain structure
for all bars, with some decarburization present up to depths of 0.009 in on four of the
bars. Fig. 2 shows micrographs from three failed bars which are typical. Physical
properties, listed in Table 2, are well above AREA specifications for these bars.
Rolling-Load Tests of 132 RE Headfree Bars with Milled Easements
Results of 12 tests of 132 RE headfree 36-in bars with milled easements are listed
in Table 1. Joints 369-374, using bars with easements milled to a depth of approximately
042
Rail
Fig. 1 — 115 RE bars with milled easements showing cracks.
Easements 1^2 in long, 0.110 in deep.
Rail
043
Fig. 2 — Micrographs from 115 RE bars. About 70X magnification, 2 percent
nital etch. a. Bar 363N ; b. Bar 364N ; c. Bar 365N.
0.220 in averaged 611,630 cycles for 6 joints. Four of the bars broke from the base,
three of these base failures originating in the gouge caused by the rail end, and the
fourth crack originating in an area of heavy bearing and progressing upward to a bolt
hole. The remaining two bars failed from the top surfaces, the cracks passing through
the centers of the milled easements, again indicating that the depth of 0.220 in for the
easement was too great. The upper part of Fig. 3 shows the crack passing through the
center of the deep easement on bar 374S.
For these bars with the deep easements, no additional cracks were detected on the
failed bars, and only one companion bar, 370S, revealed small transverse cracks on the
top surface in an area of heavy bearing.
Joints 375-380, using bars with shallow easements milled to a depth of about
0.110 in averaged 583,530 cycles for the 6 joints, approximately 28,000 cycles less than
the average for the 6 joints with bars with deep easements. Three of the failures were
from the base and three from the top. Two of the base failures started in gouge marks
caused by a rail end and the third base failure progressed to a bolt hole. The three
top failures all originated outside of the easements in areas of heavy bearing.
For this group of bars with shallow easements, only one additional transverse crack
was detected. Fig. 3 shows this crack on bar 375S, the crack extending across the bai
and downward to a depth of approximately J^-in.
Fig. 4 shows fractures from three of the 132 RE bars.
044
Rail
Fig. 3 — 132 RE bars with milled easements showing cracks. Easement
on Bar 374S, \yz in long, 0.220 in deep. Easement on Bar 375S, iy2 in long,
0.110 in deep.
Rail
945
^
370N
374S
375S
Fig. 4 — Fractures of 132 RE bars with milled easements.
Micrographs from specimens for each failed bar revealed a fine grain structure for
all bars, and some decarburization to depths of 0.01.^ in. Fig. 5 shows typical micro-
graphs from three of these bars. Physical properties, as indicated in Table 2, were
above AREA specifications except for the yield point value of one bar, 373N, which
fell slightly below the required value.
Summary
1. Seven tests using 115 RE bars with easements in the shape of a segment of a
circle milled in the laboratory on the top bar surfaces to depths of approximately
0 220 and 0.110 in were completed. Previous tests had indicated that the 0.220-in depth
of easement was too great. However, the shallow easements were effective in eliminating
gouging of the bars by the rail ends. Six joints with shallow easements averaged .<4o.0S0
i j cles
2. Twelve tests of joints using 1.^2 RE bars with the same type of milled easement
as for the US RE bars were completed. Two bars with deep (0.220 in) easements failed
through the center of the easement, indicating that the 0.220-in depth was too great.
The shallow easements were effective in preventing gouging of the bars. Average cycles
for failure for 6 joints with deep easements were 611,630, and average cycles for failure
for 6 joints with shallow easements were 583,530 cycles.
3. Micrographs taken on specimens cut from each failed bar revealed a line grain
structure and various amounts of decarburization up to depths of O.OU-in.
946
Rail
ipSS
Fig. 5 — Micrographs from 132 RE bars. About 70X magnification, 2 percent
nital etch. a. Bar 374S, b. Bar 375S, c, Bar 379S.
Appendix 7-b
Report on Service Test Installation of Rail Joint Bars
with Improved Metallurgy on the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy Railroad at
Fort Morgan, Colo.
In order to study possible means of eliminating crackage of joint bars in service
by improvement in physical properties, the Carnegie Illinois Steel Company (now United
States Steel Corporation), the Oxweld Railroad Service Company (now the Linde Com-
pany), the Rail Joint Company, and the Engineering Division research staff of the
Association of American Railroads cooperated with the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy
Railroad in a service test installation of rail joint bars with various metallurgies, in-
stalled in the main-line track of the Burlington Railroad at Fort Morgan, Colo., July
1939. This service test was terminated in May 1955, and the following is the final
report on this service test installation.
The test was placed in connection with the laying of new 112 RE rail rolled by
Colorado Fuel & Iron Corporation at Pueblo, Colo., in April 1939. The rail was control-
cooled, but not end-hardened. The test consisted of 100 pairs each of the following 5
types of joint bars or metallurgies:
Rail
947
Type 1 — B-34-1 section (head-contact design), rolled and finished by Carnegie-
Illinois Steel Corporation. These bars were given the usual commercial treat-
ment in accordance with AREA Specifications for quenched carbon steel
joint bars.
Type 2 — B-34-1 section, same heat and manufacture as Type 1. These were
shipped to the Burlington Galesburg Shops where the Oxweld Railroad Serv-
ice Company supervised the surface hardening of the top center of the bars
for about 3 in each side of center. The Brinell of the hardened area was
raised from about 200 to above 300.
Type 3 — B-34-1 section, same heat as Types 1 and 2, but water quenched from
1550 deg F for 40 sec and then drawn at 800 deg F for 1 hr.
Type 4 — B-34-1 section, rolled from rail steel billets, oil quenched from 1500
deg F for 60 sec and then drawn at 990 deg F for 2 hr.
Type 5 — B-53 section (headfree design), rolled and finished by Colorado Fuel
& Iron Corporation, to the usual specifications.
Comparative Chemistry and Properties
Type
S,rt.
B-34-1
B-34-1
B-34-1
B-34-1
B-53
0. 13
0.43
o. 13
0.71
Indeter-
minate
0.59
0.59
0.59
0.74
Treatment
Common nil quenched
Oxweld hard, top center
Water quen. and drawn -
< >il quen. and drawn
Common oil quenched
Approximati Averagi Properties
Yield
Point
711.400
80.400
94 . 490
103.773
Tensile
Sir, null'
111. 400
114.900
132,553
159..-) 17
Indeterminate
Elong.
19.5
R.A.
16.6
JO . o
47.2
16.8
43 . 5
16.0
38.5
Surf.
Brin.
220
300
298
321
All of the foregoing properties exceeded the AREA specification minumum require-
ments. Type 5 did not involve a test of metallurgy, but was the type bar being used
by the railroad on the adjoining new rail, and the test section was established for
comparison since it was a head-free type bar, whereas the remaining four types were
all of the head-contract type.
APPLICATION
The test bars were applied by a large rail laying gang which laid new rail from
M. P. 445 to 468 (test bars 460 to 461.8) in July 1939. Inch bolts with Triflex spring
washers were used and tightened with Nordberg bolt tightening machines, set to kick-off
at about 15,000 lb. Both machines were set by checking bolt extensions with an
extensometer.
At the time of application, quite a few nuts were found to freeze on the bolts
before tension against the joint bar had developed. These were cut out and replaced
Bolts were retightened by hand late in October and when rechecked in November
were found rather consistently at around 15,000 lb tension. Throughout the remaindei
of the test, the bolts were tightened in accordance with the usual maintenance practice
of the Burlington.
MEASUREMENTS
Extensive measurements were taken at the time of the installation or shortly there-
after to provide a basis for evaluating by subsequent measurements the performance of
948 Rail
the bars with relation to fulfilling their function in track. The installation extended
west from M. P. 460, and beginning with joint No. 3, which was the second joint west
of M. P. 460 on the south rail, every fifth joint (counting on both rails) was used as a
measured test joint, making the series 3, 8, 13, 18, etc. Thus, there were 20 test joints
on each test section. Some measurements were taken on all 20 of these joints, and
other measurements were taken only on the 10 test joints on the south rail. The
following measurements were taken:
1. On the rail before laying, fishing height between upper and lower fishing sur-
face at 11 in, 6 in and \l/2 in from the end on each side of both rail ends in thousandths
of an inch. These values are not the total fishing height, but represent variations from
a fixed, constant height.
2. Also on the rail before laying, upper or head fishing surface profiles. These were
made by placing a 36-in straight edge with two anvil blocks or legs, one at one end
of the straight edge located 31 in from the end of the rail and the other 6 in from the
other end of the straight edge located 5 in from the end of the rail. Thus, the 6-in
cantilever extended 1 in beyond the end of the rail and with a sliding dial micrometer,
readings in thousandths of an inch were taken 3 in, 1 in, y2 in, y^ in, and at the end
of both rails on both sides. The end reading was usually not exactly at the end, but
represents a maximum reading between the j4-in point and the end.
3. On the bars before laying, fishing height between upper and lower fishing surface
at 9 in, 6 in and I1/- in each side of center in thousandths of an inch. These values are
not the total fishing height, but represent variations from a fixed, constant height.
4. Also on the bars before laying, camber readings in thousandths of an inch at the
center of a 22-in straight edge placed along the top and bottom fishing surfaces, top
and bottom outer ribs and the back of the bar above the bolt holes. A span of 22 in
was used to avoid shear drag at each end of the bar.
5. Immediately after the rail was laid, base or no-load readings ot test bolts.
Readings in two ten-thousandths of an inch.
6. Also immediately after the rail was laid, preliminary bolt extensions. Readings in
two ten-thousandths of an inch.
7. After three months in service, rail running surface profile with 36-in straight edge
centered over the gap, reading in thousandths of an inch at 12 in, 6 in, 3 in, 2 in, 1 in,
% in from and at the end of each rail.
8. After three months in service, joint bar out-to-out measured in thousandths of
an inch at about 2 in from each end and at the center of both top and bottom ribs,
a total of six readings at each joint.
9. After three months in service, bolt extensions of the 200 test bolts applied to
measured test joints on the south rail. Readings shown are in two ten-thousandths of an
inch. The conversion factor for these bolts is about 780, that is, each two ten-thousandths
equals 780 lb tension.
During the progress of the test, certain of the readings were taken periodically and
reported in the AREA Rail Committee reports (see AREA Proceedings, Vol. 42, page
677, Vol. 43, page 603, Vol. 47, page 411, Vol. 50, page 514, Vol. 52, page 657, Vol. 53,
page 892, and Vol. 54, page 1239). At the conclusion of the service test, and on the
joint bars when removed, a complete set of all readings were repeated with the excep-
tion of the bolt tension measurements. The primary objective in taking bolt tension
measurements was to determine if a bolt tension of reasonable uniformity and amount
was being applied to the various types of bars included in the tests. Accordingly, the
only final bolt tension readings taken were limited in number and only on the free
Rail 949
length of bolts after they had been removed from track in order to determine whether
there had been any actual stretching or elongation of the bolts during the 16-year
service period. A complete set of the initial measurements was prepared and furnished
to all those involved in the tests shortly after it was installed. The measurements in-
cluded in this final report are those taken at the time the test was terminated, and
the measurements taken in the original report are shown only in the averages and are
not repeated in full.
DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS
Joint Bar Breakage
As previously stated, one of the primary objectives in the test was to determine
whether joint bar metallurgies of greater physical properties would prevent the develop-
ment of fatigue failures in the top mid-length of the joint bars. This type of failure
has occurred on various railways; in fact, this particular test location was selected
because such fatigue cracks had developed in epidemic proportions in joint bars installed
at this same location prior to the start of this service test. The design of the joint bar
used in the test was similar to that in which the fatigue cracks had previously developed
except for a slight change which was anticipated to give improved performance in this
respect.
During the test, the test joints were closely inspected at the times the measurements
were taken, but only a very few cracked bars were noted in any of the four test sec-
tions. However, when the bars were finally removed at the end of the 16-year test
period, they were very closely inspected for fatigue cracks at the midlengh of the top
fishing surface with the following results:
Type 1 — Three bars with cracks, two joints replaced.
Type 2 — Xo bars with cracks, five joints replaced.
Type 3 — Five bars with cracks, two joints replaced.
Type 4 — Twenty-four bars with cracks, four joints replaced.
Where the original bars had been replaced during the period of the test, it is
presumed that this was due to joint bar breakage, although this may not necessarily
have been the case. In any event it is obvious that increasing the physical properties
of the bar by different methods of heat treatment or by increasing the carbon content
was not effective in preventing the development of fatigue cracks. The largest number
of cracks developed in the Type 4 bars, which had the highest physical properties.
These results are compatible with the results obtained in the rolling-load tests, in which
joint bars that were quenched and drawn generally gave a low number of cycles for
failure. It appears that the surface strength of the bar is more important than the
interior physical properties, and probably the large number of cracks in the Type 4
bars was due to the higher drawing temperature as well as the longer duration of the
draw. However, it should be noted that all types of bars gave a long period of service
with only a relatively few cracks requiring joint replacement.
Joint Bar Wear
From the measurements of fishing height of the joint bars taken at various points
along the length of the bar before the bars were installed and at the conclusion of the
test, it is possible to determine the amount of loss of fishing height due to wear during
the 16-year test period. This loss is shown in the following tabulation:
Q50 Rail
Loss in Fishing Height of Joint Bars
9 In 6 In ll/2In Ctr. Ctr. V/zln 6 In 9 In
Type 1--HC Ordinary
'Chemistry 0.030 0.026 0.039 0.047 0.047 0.040 0.020 0.031
Tvpe 2 — HC Hardened
'Top Center 0.028 0.026 0.036 0.043 0.040 0.036 0.02S 0.032
Tvpe 3— HC Water
Quenched Drawn 0.033 0.020 0.037 0.042 0.042 0.034 0.022 0.025
Type 4— HC Rail Steel.
Oil Quenched and
Drawn 0.031 0.026 0.037 0.042 0.043 0.035 0.025 0.029
It will be noted that approximately 50 percent more wear occurred at the mid-
length of the bar than at the bar ends. Of most significance, however, is the comparison
of the amount of wear between the joint bars with the different metallurgies. Although
the surface Brinell for Types 3 and 4 approximated 300 as did the top center of the bar
for Type 2, nevertheless there was not a significant amount of difference in the amount
of wear for any of the four different types of bars. Type 1 bars with a surface Brinell
of about 220 showed approximately 10 percent more wear at the center of the bars
than the other three types having 35 percent higher Brinell.
Although the Brinell indentation was made on the surface of the bars, it was,
of course, necessary to grind away sufficient metal to obtain a smooth surface. Also,
the depth of the impression extends into the bar interior. For these two reasons, the
surface Brinell readings are not a true indication of hardness in the surface metal where
the fatigue cracks actually originate and most of the wear occurs.
The decrease in out-to-out distances of joint bars is also an indication of the
amount of joint bar wear, although it will also include the amount of rail fishing wear.
Measurements were taken on both top and bottom ribs of joint bars at mid-length
and near each end, as described above in Para. 8 under Measurements. The changes in
out-to-out distances, indicative of joint bar and rail fishing wear, are in reasonably
good agreement with the measurements of rail and joint bar fishing wear given in other
tables herein. It is interesting to note that in general there was somewhat more change
in out-to-out distances on the west ends of the bars. Just why this should be so on
single track with traffic in both directions is not fully understood. Perhaps generally
prevailing winds from the west may have been a factor in somewhat more corrosion
at the west end of the bars.
Joint Bar Bending
From the measurements showing the camber of the joint bars taken before they
were installed and at the conclusion of the tests and in conjunction with the loss in
fishing height, it is possible to determine to what extent the bars were bent during
their 16 years of service. The change in camber during the test period is shown in the
following tabulation:
Change in Camber of Joint Bars
Top Bottom Bottom
E W Back E W Top Rib Rib
Type 1 — 0.021 —0.018 —0.002 +0.004 +0.004 —0.004 —0.005
Tvpe 2 — 0.014 —0.009 +0.010 +0.015 +0.014 —0.004 —0.006
Type 3 — 0.016 — 0.016 + 0.002 + 0.015 + 0.012 + 0.004 + 0.003
Type 4 — 0.013 — 0.012 + 0.003 + 0.013 + 0.013 + 0.003 + 0.004
^__ Rail 9S1_
The measurements in the above tabulation "Back, Top Rib, and Bottom Rib" were
taken in the horizontal plane of the joint bar as it is positioned in track and indicate
the amount of change in lateral camber. It will be observed that this change was not
significant in any of the four types. The columns headed "Top and Bottom" show the
camber at the top and bottom of the bars in the vertical plane, the designations "E
and W" indicating whether the camber was measured east or west of the lip formed
on the fishing surface of the joint bars between rail ends. The plus and minus signs
indicate whether the deviation from the plane of measurement was towards the bar
(minus) or away from the bar (plus). The algebraic difference between the top and
bottom readings is comparable with the difference between the loss in fishing height
readings at the ends and center of the bars. Although this comparison does not show
an exact check the difference is not of sufficient amount to indicate any appreciable
bending of the bars beyond the yield point under the service conditions of the tests.
Rail Fishing Wear
The following tabulation shows the loss in fishing height of the rail due to wear
from the joint bars that developed during the 16-year test period:
Loss in Rail Fishing Height
East 11 In 6 In ll/2 In l%In
Tvpe 1 0.010 0.013 0.010 0.010
Type 2 0.014 0.015 0.022 0.021
Type 3 0.016 0.015 0.010 0.010
Type 4 0.015 0.014 0.010 0.018
Of principal interest here is the comparison of the amount of wear for the four
different metallurgies of the joint bars included in the test to determine whether the
bars of appreciably greater hardness (Types 3 and 4) showed more wear on the rail
ends than occurred with Type 1. It will be observed that there was no appreciable
difference between the four types of bars in this respect. It is interesting to note that
the amount of loss in rail fishing height was only about one-half of the loss in fishing
height of joint bars, and that the loss in the fishing height \Y2 in back from the rail
end was from V/2 to 2 times as great as it was at either 6 or 11 in back from the
rail end.
The readings taken to compare the profile of the fishing surface under the rail head,
as described in Para. 2 under Measurements, did not develop any significant information,
probably because the one foot supporting the straight edge, which was at 5 in from the
end of the rail, was, of course, affected by the amount of wear that occurred at this
location. The comparison of the averages between the initial and the final readings did
not indicate any appreciable change or any significant indication.
Joint Droop
The amount of sag or dip at the rail end is important as an indication of how well
the joint bars are supporting the rail ends. The amount of this was determined as from
under Measurements. Para. 7. and is given in the following tabulation for the four
types of joints at different periods of measurement throughout the service tests:
6 In
11 In
West
0.012
0.013
0.014
0.017
0.010
0.010
0.011
0.010
052 Rail
Rail End Sag of Joint y2 in From Rail Ends, in Inches
Oct. July Nov. Nov. May
1940 1943 1946 1950 1955
Type 1 0.004 0.011 0.02.5 0.015 0.020
Type 2 0.002 0.016 0.026 0.039 0.045
Type 3 0.002 0.012 0.028 0.026 0.037
Type 4 0.003 0.012 0.030 0.020 0.037
The above tabulation shows the average sag or dip in the rail surface profile at the
joints as measured at a point l/> in from each rail end with reference to a 36-in
straight edge placed along the center of the rail head with its mid-length over the
joint gap. The measurements shown are the average of readings taken on 20 joints in
each test section. Because the rail ends on all four test sections were built up by welding
in the summer of 1947 the value of this particular measurement was largely destroyed.
It will be noted that the readings of November 1946 before welding did not indicate
too much difference in the amount of joint droop in the different sections, although
even here the droop was somewhat less for Type 1 bars. For the readings in May 19SS
at the conclusion of the test the advantage was also for Type 1 bars. It should not
be concluded that the bars of Type 1 supported the joint and rail ends better than
those of Types 3 and 4 having greater hardness, but certainly there is no advantage
indicated for the harder bars in this respect.
Loss In Bolt Tension
As previously stated, the measurements of bolt tension were taken largely to insure
that bolt tensions of desired amount and of reasonable uniformity were being applied
for each of the four types of bars. These readings were not continued throughout the
16-year service period; however, at the conclusion of the tests after the bolts had been
removed from track, it was considered to be of interest to check the final no-load
length of several bolts with the original no-load length when they were installed 16
years previously. This would give an indication of whether there had been any actual
stretching of the bolts due to excessive bolt tension throughout the test period. Measure-
ments of bolt extensions were made on 53 bolts taken at random throughout the four
test sections. It was observed that in general there was no undue stretching of the bolts.
The maximum stretching found was 107 dial divisions, or about 0.02 in, and only two
bolts were stretched this amount. Most of the bolts had very little, if any, actual
elongation or stretching. In other test measurements it has been found that bolts even
as much as 1^8 in diameter may be excessively stretched with the use of power wrenches
if the applied torque is not properly controlled.
Conclusions
1. From this service test, including joint bars of different metallurgies, giving a
range of Brinell hardness on the average of 220 to 320 and during the 16-year service
test period carrying a total traffic of 220,000,000 gross tons, there was no indication
that the joint bars of higher Brinell would give any less rate of fishing surface wear
of the joints nor any longer service life.
2. There was no indication in this service test that the bars of higher hardness
would produce any appreciable difference in fishing wear of the rail ends.
3. During this service period there was a negligible number of visible cracks that
developed in the joint bars at the mid-length of the top fishing surface. However, a
close inspection of the bars following completion of the tests showed that more cracks
Rail 953
had developed in the bars of highest hardness and strength (Type 4) than in the other
sections, and the least number of cracks had developed in the bars of present AREA
chemistry and heat treatment. This is presumably due to a decrease in surface strength
as a result of drawing the Types 3 and 4 bars.
4. During this test it was found that there had been no appreciable stretching
of the 1-in heat-treated bolts used with the rail joint, which was an indication that the
maintenance practices of the railroad were satisfactory from the standpoint of tightening
track bolts by hand or machine tightening during the test period.
Report on Assignment 8
Causes of Shelly Spots and Head Checks in Rail :
Methods for Their Prevention
W. H. Hobbs (chairman, subcommittee), W. D. Almy, F. W. Biltz, T. A. Blair, B.
Bristow, C. J. Code, C. O. Conatser, L. S. Crane, W. J. Cruse, S. R. Hursh, W. M.
Jaekle, K. K. Kessler, C. C. Lathey, W. B. Leaf, Lee Mayfield, Ray McBrian,
B. R. Mevers, L. T. Nuckols, R. E. Patterson, J. G. Roney. W. D. Simpson,
J. S. Wear'n, Edw. Wise, J. E. Yewell.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
During the past year this investigation has been limited to that conducted by (a)
the Engineering Division, AAR, (b) the Pennsylvania Railroad, and (c) the University
of Illinois.
The AAR provides funds to support the work performed by its Engineering Divi-
sion, and the AAR and AISI jointly provide funds to support the work conducted by
the University of Illinois.
The Joint Contact Committee, consisting of members selected by the Rail com-
mittee and by the rail manufacturers, has met during the past year with the research
investigators for the purpose of reviewing and guiding the conduct of the research work.
That portion of the work conducted by the AAR Engineering Division research
staff is covered by report submitted by G. M. Magee which follows as Appendix 8-a.
This report covers inspections of service tests of heat-treated and alloy rail installa-
tions at 13 locations. There are five tests of heat-treated rail, three of chrome-vanadium
alloy, three of high-silicon rail, one of flame-hardened rail, and one of intermediate
manganese rail. Attention is called to the following statement in report on New York
Central service test of 127-lb DY chrome-vanadium, heat-treated and flame-hardened
rails, 7 deg 51 min curve, Cedar Run, Pa.:
"Contour tracings made during the May 1954 inspection and the May 1957 inspec-
tion have been compared with the as-rolled contour. The contour tracings show that
the chrome-vanadium and heat-treated rails have comparable resistance to abrasion and
plastic deformation, both being considerably better than flame-hardened or regular open-
hearth rails. On account of the curve wear, it has become necessary to remove the
standard and the flame-hardened rail this year."
The final report on Test No. 591, determination of plastic flow in rail head on the
Pennsylvania Railroad, prepared by C. J. Code, is included in this report as Appendix
8-b. This report includes the following conclusions which generally verify those reached
from previous examinations of failed rails:
1. On the high rail of the curves there is a flow of metal at the top gage corner
of the rail toward the gage side.
Q54 Rail
2. This flow of metal extends to a depth of *4 >" to Y% in below the rail surface.
3. The flow of metal toward the gage side extends back to the edge of the center
arc and beyond, probably to the center of the rail head.
4. The magnitude of deformation is positive evidence of shear stresses well beyond
the yield point of the steel.
That portion of work conducted by the University of Illinois is covered by report
prepared by Prof. R. E. Cramer, which is included in this report as Appendix 8-c. This
report covers the results of (1) rolling-load tests to produce shelling in chrome-vanadium
alloy rails, (2) Rolling-load tests of high-silicon rails, (3) detail fractures and shelling
produced in service, (4) rolling-load tests to produce detail fractures, and (5) possible
ways to prevent shelling failures.
Prof. Cramer summarizes his report as follows:
1. Three rolling-load tests are reported on chrome-vanadium rails. One specimen
ran 4,874,000 cycles. The second failed at 14,831,000 cycles — a record for this
type of rail. The third specimen from rail 1183 ran 2,857,000 cycles before it
developed shelling.
2. Seven rolling-load tests to produce shelling failures in high-silicon rails aver-
aged 2,277,000 cycles. Past tests of standard carbon steel rails have averaged
1,000,000 cycles in the same rolling-load test.
3. Results are given of the examination of several detail fractures and one shelly
rail from service.
4. Detail fractures were produced in four rails.
5. General considerations of ways to prevent shelly failures are again stated for
discussion and suggestions from committee members.
Appendix 8-a
Report on Inspections of Service Tests of Heat-Treated and
Alloy Rail in Shelly Territory Installations
During 1957 a number of service test installations of heat-treated, chrome-vanadium
and high-silicon rails were inspected in cooperation with the representatives of the
various rail producers and the representatives of the involved railroads. The majority
of these installations are on curves which had a previous history of rail failures due to
shelling. Annual rail contours, detailed records of the observed progress of the head
checks, flaking and shelly spots and photographs were made. A considerable improve-
ment in extending the service life and resistance to shelling was noted on the majority
of the installations.
Comprehensive descriptions of these installations may be found in the Proceedings,
Vol. 57, pages 830-850. A brief summary of the observations this year and descriptions
of new installations, are presented below.
Chesapeake & Ohio Railway Service Test of 132-Lb RE Heat-Treated Rail
This test installation has been described extensively in the Proceedings, Vol. 57,
page 833.
In the report of last year's inspection on May 1, 1956, it was stated that 236,000,000
gross tons of traffic had been carried over this test installation. This is incorrect because
Rail 955
of a misunderstanding. The correct figure for the 8-year period ending May 7, 1957,
is 214,000,000 gross tons.
There has been no great change in the condition of either type of rail in the hi^h
side of the curve. However, the black areas which accompany the head checks, and
are obviously progressions from the checks, confuse efforts to classify the progressive
developments which for the most part are very high on the gage corner of the rail.
Because of this high location, the black spots open up along the gage corner rather than
further down on the side of the rail head. Also, the black spots for the most part are
rather small. Subsequent curve wear tends to erase these areas which may have been
listed as small shells during previous inspections.
Only one heat-treated rail in the test remains clear of gage corner service develop-
ments. Head checks and black areas appear in the other five heat-treated rails.
At least two of the non-heat-treated rails have shelly spots in the gage corner, while
the condition of the developments in the other rails is somewhat confusing. Curve wear
since last year has minimized the condition noted as small shells last year, and these
spots might be labeled as black spots open in the gage corner of the head at the time
of this inspection.
One non-heat-treated rail showed only head checks with accompanying light black
areas, while medium flaking was noted in the other two non-heat-treated rails.
Except for the fact that slightly more plastic flow is noted in the non-heat-treated
than in the heat-treated rails in the low side of the curves, both types of rail are in
excellent condition.
Duluth, Missabe & Iron Range Railway Service Test of Chrome-
Vanadium Alloy Rail
This installation is extensively described in the Proceedings, Vol. 57, page 833.
At the date of this year's inspection, 92,000,000 gross tons of traffic had passed
over the curves at M. P. 3.93 and M. P. 3.58 and 89,000,000 gross tons of traffic over
the curves at M. P. 32.2 and M. P. 26.65. One standard control-cooled rail at M. P.
3.93 had to be removed on account of the two shelly spots reported last year, and two
other standard control-cooled rails showed severe shelling, which will be the cause of
their removal from track before the end of the ore season. The balance of the standard
control-cooled rails had medium to heavy flaking. The Cr-V rail showed head checks
on the majority of the rails. The curve at M. P. 32.2 had medium to heavy flaking
on the standard control-cooled rail. Two of the Cr-V rails had shown a beginning of a
black spot last year. This area had flaked out high on the gage corner about 1 in
square and 1/32 in thick. The balance of the Cr-V rail showed head checks. The curve
at M. P. 26.65 showed a large amount of abrasion and heavy flaking on the standard
control-cooled rail and was removed in the spring of 1957. The Cr-V rail showed some
curve wear and no gage corner defects. Curve oilers were noted to be in operation.
Great Northern Railway Service Test of 115 RE Heat-treated Rail
This installation is extensively reported in the Proceedings, Vol. 57, pages 837-850.
At the time of the inspection this year, 275,000,000 gross tons of traffic had passed
over the installation. The standard control-cooled rail had been removed on account
of shelling at 193,000,000 gross tons of traffic. All of the heat-treated rails have remained
in service and showed light to medium flaking intermittently throughout the curve.
One of the rails on the receiving end had a heavy flake last year which can be classified
as a light shell this year. Very little change could be observed as compared to last year.
056 Rail ___
Great Northern Railway Service Test of 115 RE High-Silicon Rail
This service test was installed to investigate the properties of high-silicon rail in
regard to its resistance to shelling and abrasion. Two locations, each with two com-
parable curves, were laid with high silicon rails on the high and the low side on one
of the curves of each location and standard control-cooled rails on the other curves.
These installations were described extensively in the Proceedings, Vol. 58, page 1028.
Due to the insufficient tonnage over these installations during the 1957 inspection,
no gage corner defects had developed.
Norfolk & Western Railway Service Test of 132 RE Heat-Treated Rail
A final report of the service test of 132-lb RE heat-treated rail at Kermit, W. Va.,
was given last year and may be found in the Proceedings, Vol. 58, pages 1030-1032.
Since 18 of the original 23 heat-treated rails still remain in service, an inspection was
made on May 1, 1957. At that time 352,000,000 gross tons of traffic had been carried
by this track.
As noted in previous reports covering the annual inspections of these test rails
the last of the non-heat-treated test rails was removed from service in October 1953.
Also one heat-treated rail was removed from the low side of the curve in October 1953
because of engine wheel burns. One heat-treated rail was removed from the high side
of the curve for the same reason in July 1954. Following the May 1956 inspection,
three additional heat-treated rails were removed from service due to developments in
the gage corner of the rail head. Therefore, only ten heat-treated test rails were still
in the low side of the curve and eight in the high side at the time of the inspection
this year.
Only one heat-treated rail appeared clear of gage corner developments. The driver
burn on the head 7 ft from the leaving end of this rail can still be noted. Flaking
black spots and shelling in various combinations are noted in the remaining seven
heat-treated high side rails.
132-Lb RE Heat-Treated Rail at Maher and Looney's Curve
These installations on a 6-deg curve near Maher, W. Va., at M. P. N481 + 210 ft
and on the 4-deg, 7-deg, 12-deg Looney's Curve at M. P. N455 -f 582 ft are described
extensively in the Proceedings, Vol. 57, pages 834-835.
The gross tonnage over the rails to the time of this inspection on May 8 and 9,
1957, was estimated at 122,000,000 for the 6-deg curve at Maher and 64,000,000 for
the 12-deg curve at Looney's Curve.
Sixty-six heat-treated rails were installed in both the high and low sides of the
6-deg curve at Maher. The rail oiler for this curve has not been operating properly
since the rails were installed.
Light head checks were noted in every rail except one in the high side of the curve
at the time of the May 24, 1955 inspection, and flaking was noted in 15 of the 66 rails.
At the time of the May 3, 1956 inspection, head checks were common to all the rails,
and some degree of flaking (light to medium) was observed in approximately 75 percent
of the high-side rails. No evidence of black spots or shelling was observed.
One rail was removed due to an indication recorded during a Sperry Car inspection
of the rails.
There was very little plastic deformation in any of the heat-treated rails in the
low side of this curve.
Rail 957
The compound 4-deg, 7-deg. 12-deg Looncy's Curve was laid with 55 heat-treated
rails in the high side of the curve and 54 in the low side. The rails are well lubricated
throughout the curve through the use of curve oilers. Gage rods were installed at regular
intervals throughout the curve for the purpose of maintaining the predetermined track
gage.
In the high side of the curve 44 of the 55 rails were apparently clear of gage
corner developments. Intermittent light flaking was observed in 6, medium flaking in 1,
black spots in 2 and small shells in 2 of the remaining 11 heat-treated rails.
Twelve of the 55 heat-treated rails in the low side of the curve showed evidence
of light crushing. Checking or cracking of the head surface in conjunction with the
plastic flow was noted in each of these 12 rails. This tendency toward crushing after
33 months of service is not abnormal since non-heat-treated rails normally lasted only
6 to 9 months in the low side of this curve.
New York Central System Service Test of 127 -Lb DY Chrome-Vanadium,
Heat-Treated and Flame-Hardened Rails 7 Deg 51 Min
Curve No. 242— Cedar Run, Pa.
The New York Central in July 1950 installed 11 manganese-chrome-vanadium rails,
4 heat-treated rails, 4 flame-hardened rails and 21 non-heat-treated regular rails, all
127-lb DY section in the 7 deg 51 min curve, No. 242, in its secondary freight track
north of Cedar Run, Pa. The rails were installed to compare the resistance to abrasion
as well as the resistance to shelling of these different types of rail.
Six chrome vanadium rails were installed in the middle of the curve in the high
side and five in the low side, followed by one heat-treated and one flame-hardened rail
in both the high and low sides at both the east and west ends of the chrome-vanadium
rails. The remainder of the curve and the spirals leaving each end of the curve were
laid with regular (open hearth) rails.
The chrome-vanadium rails were produced by the United States Steel Corporation
at the Illinois (Gary) mill. The heat-treated rails were rolled by Bethlehem Steel Com-
pany at Lackawanna and were fully heat-treated (oil quenched and tempered) at Steel-
ton. Two Illinois and two Lackawanna rails were flame-hardened by Railroad Products
Division, American Brake Shoe Company (Racor).
Traffic moves in both directions over these rails since they are in single-track ter-
ritory. Lubrication is supplied by curve oilers. The super elevation is 2J/2 in, and the
speed limit is 30 mph.
The rails were inspected on May 23, 1957, at which time they had carried approxi-
mately 130,136,000 gross tons of traffic.
The wheel slip markings which were so prominent several years ago in both the
high and low side rails throughout the curve could still be noted to some degree in
some of the rails.
In the high side of the curve light flaking was noted high on the gage corner
throughout the length of one of the two flame-hardened rails. Two small flaking spots
were noted in one chrome-vanadium rail, and another had a spot of light flaking and
one medium flaking spot. There were no apparent gage corner developments in the
other flame-hardened rail, the two heat-treated rails, the four remaining chrome-
vanadium rails or the adjacent regular (open hearth) rails.
The curve wear has become rather heavy, particularly in the flame-hardened and
regular rails. In fact, wheel flanges arc contacting the joint bars in some of the joints
involving these test rails. There is considerably less curve wear in the chrome-vanadium
958 Rail
and heat-treated rails. On account of the curve wear, it has become necessary to remove
the standard and the flame-hardened rail this year.
In the low side of the curve the regular (open hearth) and flame-hardened rails
show much more plastic deformation of the head metal than the chrome-vanadium or
the heat-treated rails.
Contour tracings made during the May 1954 inspection and the May 1957 inspec-
tion have been compared with the as-rolled contour. The contour tracings show that
the chrome-vanadium and heat-treated rails have comparable resistance to abrasion and
plastic deformation, both being considerably better than flame-hardened or regular open
hearth rails.
Intermediate Manganese Rail on the Texas & Pacific Railway
It has always been important to the railroad industry to have a type of rail,
such as the fully heat-treated rail, that can be used in locations requiring a more than
normal resistance to abrasion and shelling other than that required in the heavy
curvature and heavy tonnage applications. A more economic rail now used for this
intermediate type of service, is high-silicon rail. It is of interest to note that C. B
Bronson in the Railway Age magazine of August 31, 1929, called attention to the use
of medium manganese steel. In this issue of the magazine he points out the longer life
and wear resistance of this type of rail.
Considerable tonnage of this type of rail was used on various railroads. After a
time in track under severe service, a large number of failures occurred due to vertical
split heads. This type of failure was traced to a martensitic condition by H. H. Morgan
and J. R. Mooney in an article "Why Do Intermediate Manganese Steel Rails Fail?"
in the Railway Age magazine on March 8, 1930. These failures were attributed to the
steel-making and processing practices of that time. At a later date this type of rail
also developed a large number of transverse fissures which, of course, can be attributed
to the lack of control-cooling practices of that time.
With modern steel-making practices and the advent of control-cooling, it is believed
that the cause of the above failures can be eliminated. Bearing this in mind, two heats
of intermediate manganese rails were produced by the Tennessee Coal and Iron Com-
pany for the Texas & Pacific Railway in 1945. They are of 112 RE section and were
laid on a 2 deg curve and tangent track. At this location 120,247,000 gross tons of
traffic passed over it. Due to a relaying program the rail was removed from track,
cropped and pressure butt welded. It was relaid in tangent track on the main line at
M. P. 32 from Cypress, which is 268 miles from New Orleans. At this location an
additional gross tonnage of 9,340,000 had passed over it at the time of the last inspec-
tion. The contours on Figs. 1 and 2 were obtained at this inspection. They show the
original contour and the wear pattern. It is interesting to note that contours D and E
on Fig. 2, even though obtained on tangent track, show the wear pattern of its previous
location on the 2 deg curve.
The rails of these two heats are of the following chemistry:
C Mn P S Si
Specified Analysis 0.50/0.60 1.20/1.50 0.039 Max. 0.065 Max. 0.10/0.35
Ladle Analysis, heat 834190 ...0.57 1.20 0.027 0.032 0.140
Ladle Analysis, heat 889177 ...0.59 1.36 0.038 0.029 0.136
These two heats were tested according to standard specifications and showed no
shatter cracks or evidence of martensite. At the date of the inspection no failures as
Rail
959
RAIL CONTOURS
OF INTERMEDIATE MANGANESE RAIL
ON THE TEXAS AND PACIFIC RAILWAY CO.
112 RE RAIL ROLLED 1945 BY T.C.ai.
LOCATED IN TANGENT TRACK ON THE MAINLINE
AT MILE POST 32 FROM CYPRESS 332
MILES FROM NEW OREALNS
TOTAL TONNAGE OVER THIS RAIL
129,587,000 GROSS TONS
GAUGE
GAUGE
NORTH RAIL
FIGURE I
060
Rail
RAIL CONTOURS
OF INTERMEDIATE MANGANESE RAIL
ON THE TEXAS AND PACIFIC RAILWAY CO.
GAUGE
GAUGE
GAUGE
SOUTH RAIL
FIGURE 2
Rail 961_
experienced on the earlier intermediate manganese rails had occurred. It is believed that
the control cooling and improved steel-making practice has eliminated the split head
failures and transverse fissures. This is another type of steel which could be considered
in the application of rail on locations which have more than normal wear and still do
not justify the use of heat-treated rail from the economic standpoint. During the inspec-
tion it was also noted that no gage corner defects associated with shelling had developed.
Pennsylvania Railroad Service Test of 155-Lb PS High-Silicon Rail
On May 21, 1957, an inspection was made of this installation, which is described
extensively in the Proceedings, Vol. S3, page 1029. The tonnage over the test section
to the time of this inspection was approximately 90,000,000 gross tons.
These rails were laid on October 5-8, 1953, in the No. 1 eastbound track on Bixlers
curve near M. P. 164 just east of Lewiston, Pa. These high-silicon rails were laid in
groups of five rails alternately with groups of five rails of standard analysis on both
the high and low sides of the curve. All of the rails were end hardened at Steelton.
The previous 152-lb PS rail on this curve, after 12 years of service, had shown light
to medium flaking on the high side with some black spots and shelly spots. One of
these 152-lb PS rails, said to be the worst in the curve, contained eight light shelly
spots when it was removed. On the low side of the curve the previous 152-lb PS rail
at the time of removal was somewhat crushed, and the heads measured aboutjHs in wider
than as-rolled new.
At the time of this inspection, all of the standard analysis rails on the high side
of the curve showed intermittent light to medium flaking on the gage corner of the
rail heads. All but two of the high-silicon rails on the high side of the curve also
showed light to medium flaking on the gage corner of the rail heads. However, in each
case the flaking on the high-silicon rails appeared to be somewhat lighter than on the
adjacent standard analysis rails. The two high-silicon rails which did not show any
flaking did reveal head checks. No black spots or shelling were noted on either the
standard or the high-silicon rails.
On the low side of the curve neither the high-silicon nor standard analysis rails
appeared to show any appreciable crushing or plastic flow of head metal to the field
side. It is noted that these rails have been subjected to traffic primarily from the diesel-
powered trains whereas the previous 152-lb PS rails were primarily subjected to trains
which were steam powered. An opinion was expressed that these diesel trains might
have been operating at a higher speed around the curves and thus result in more load
on the high rails and relieve somewhat, the load on the low rails. This was also evi-
denced by some flange wear on the high rail. There appeared to be slightly more flange
wear on the standard rails than on the high-silicon rails. This difference in flange wear.
if it continues, will be illustrated by the periodic rail contour measurements
Pennsylvania Railroad Service Test of 140 PS Chrome-Vanadium
Alloy Rail
This test of 140 PS chrome-vanadium alloy rail is described extensively in the
Proceedings, Vol. 58, pages 1029-1030. It consists of 31 Cr-V rails on the high side inter-
spersed with standard control-cooled rails and 16 Cr-V rails interspersed with standard
control-cooled rails on the low side of a 3 deg 52 min curve east of Torrance, Pa.
During this year's inspection at 85.000,000 gross tons of traffic it was noted t ha t
very little change since last year had taken place. Two of the Cr-V rails had had a
black spot each of 3 in long on one and l]/2 in long on the other. Nn other gage cornel
062 Rail
development could be found. The standard rail had one rail with four black spots each
2 in long and another with a shell 3 in long and two black spots 1 in long. The standard
rails had head checks and light flaking. The end defects reported last year had not
developed further.
Pennsylvania Railroad Service Test of 140-Lb RE High-Silicon Rail
In June 1956, 140-lb RE rails rolled from a heat of the following analysis were
installed:
C Mn P Si
0.S3 percent 0.75 percent 0.03 percent 0.44 percent
At the following locations in No. 3 track which carries varied traffic, including
west-bound ore:
Location Curvature Superelevation Speed
Casner's Curve 2 ° 00' 4 in 60 mph
Stone House Curve 3° 13' 5^ in 55 mph
Mifflin Reverse 3 ° 15' 3 in 40 mph
5° 00' 4 in 40 mph
Insufficient traffic had been carried by the time of the May 21, 1957, inspection to
indicate any trend in service developments.
Appendix 8-b
Report on Pennsylvania Railroad M. of W. Test No. 591,
Determination of Plastic Flow in Rail Head
1. Purpose of Test
The purpose of the test was to determine the amount of plastic flow which takes
place in the gage corner of a rail on the high side of a curve under conditions which
produce shelling. For this purpose three rails were to be placed in the high side of a
sharp curve in three-track territory on the Middle Division.
2. Method
Brass pins 5/64 in by 54 in were inserted in holes drilled in the rail head. The rails
were prepared in the machine shop of the Altoona laboratory. It was found difficult
accurately to drill holes of such small diameter in the high-carbon rail steel. Therefore,
a special jig was prepared for this purpose.
In addition to the jig used for guiding the drill, it was necessary to obtain high
speed drills, 5/64 in diameter, and a speed-control clutch for use with the drill.
The accompanying drawing, dated June 1951, shows the layout of the holes with
respect to the cross section of the rail. The general object was to place the pins at right
angles to the surface of the rail head at various locations in the vicinity of the gage
corner.
It will be noted that four locations, "a", "b", "c" and "d" were chosen, beginning
with location "a" at the center of the >^-in fillet at the corner of the rail head, "b"
at the junction of the ^j-in fillet with l*4-in fillet, "c" at the mid-point of the 1*4 -in
fillet, and "d" at the junction of the 1% -in fillet with the 10-in head radius. These four
locations were repeated twice in the length of the rail.
Rail
3 Thru center of \ radius at
angle of 30°with hori3ontal
"b Thru center of 1<4 radius at
anqle of 60°with hori3ontal
1—0.7^-
C Thru center of l.£ radius^
midway .between Vand H"
73° with hori30ntal
d Thru center of 14 radius
0.7" from g£ of top of rail
4° from vertical
Direction of Traffic
"b, C| di a2 t>2 c2 d:
- 5.5'-|--4'-|» 4*4- 4-J* 4 X- 4 4- 4*4- 4'4- 5.5'-»
4-4- •
39'
PLASTIC FLOW IN 140RE RAIL HEAD
LOCATION OF 5/" DIA. BRASS PINS
fo4
OFFICE OF CHIEF ENGINEER, P.R.R.
PH1LA., PA. -JUNE, 1951
064 Rail
The rails were eventually laid on the Pittsburgh Division, No. 1 Track, Bolivar
Curve, M.P. 295.3. At this location the track was laid with 140-lb, 1948 rail, which in
August 1953, was showing flaking and light shelling.
This is a 4-deg curve with 4 in superelevation, authorized speed 45 mph, and carries
moderate to heavy eastward freight traffic. Records kept in connection with another test
indicate a tonnage of approximately 29,000,000 gross tons annually.
The three test rails were installed August 17, 1953.
3. Results
Throughout the life of the test, inspections were made at frequent intervals in
order to determine if any type of defect was developing in the rail at the location of
the pins, there being some concern that detail fractures might develop from the drilled
holes. There was no such development. Inspections were made by means of Magnaflux
powder. The only defect discovered was an indication of light flaking at the location
of the pins in a few cases.
In July 1956, Rail P8, which showed the most definite indication of flaking, was
removed from track and sent to the laboratory for examination. This rail was sectioned
at the center line of each of the pins. Mr. Pinney's report No. 9398, included herein,
dated December 5, 1956, covers examination of this rail and includes photographs show-
ing the position of the pins. The letter designation on each photograph indicates the
position of the pin.
In October 1956, a derailment damaged the remaining rails in this curve, and Rails
P3 and P6 were turned into the laboratory for similar examination. Mr. Pinney's two
reports, Nos. 9409 P-3 and 0409 P-6, also presented herein, dated April 19, 1957, cover
the examination of these remaining rails and include photographs showing the distortion
of the pins.
Only representative photographs are included with this report.
Table No. 1 shows measurements taken from the various photographic cross sec-
tions to show the deformation of the pins. The measurements were not made on all
photographs, but only on those which showed the pin fairly clearly throughout its length.
It will be noted that there was some longitudinal movement of the pin, as well as a
lateral movement, so that generally speaking neither a section taken at right angles
to the length of the rail, nor one parallel to the length of the rail shows the complete
alinement of the pin.
The exact amount of the deformation is probably not of great importance, although
the direction of the relative movement at various parts of the rail head may have
some significance. It will be noted that pins "b", "c" and "d", which were located at
either end and in the center of the 1*4 -in radius arc, show a lateral movement at the
end of the pin of 0.05 to 0.08 in, the average being about 0.07 in. Pins "a", on the
other hand, which were located at the center of the ^-in radius arc at an angle of
30 deg from horizontal, show a movement of 0.02 to 0.06 in, the average being 0.04 in.
It would, therefore, seem that the principal flow of metal is roughly parallel to the
tread of the wheel; that is, the head metal tends to flow toward the gage corner and
to be worn off when it reaches that corner.
It is also of interest to note that the maximum depth of visible movement is 0.20
to 0.40 in, so that in general it may be said that the flow of metal extends ]4 in to
Y% in below the surface of the rail head. It will be noted that this is the depth at
which the metal separation in a shelly spot is generally observed.
(Text Continued on page 975)
Rail
965
THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD
Report No. 9398
LABORATORY REPORT
Chemical and Physical Examination of Rail and Other Track Material
T.D. 4638 Altoona, Pa., December 5. io56
Sample No. 253755-57 , r»prn<!ftn!in0 140 -lb. . P.S. . Ste«lton. Bethlehem Steel
Company rail, rolled 1951. heat No. 81131-A7. which was removed from track
.containing Mr. Test No. 591. Plastic flow in rail head.
R«f«rrflH tn in CJC to MAP dated 7-27-56.
chemical analysis
PHYSICAL TESTS
.83 .80
1.01
Below
1.01
,030 .15
.030 |
136,150
sr
105^00 10.0
15.0
ol
I 'V lull
NOTE: The word "Borings" rtttrs il*o to Chippinp and other kinds of test (figments.
Brinell ; 285 '285 ! 277
Rockwell I
302
5
282 1302 I 302 I 291
ACCOMPANYING THIS REPORT ARE
Photograph of Original Fracturt
Photograph of Sulphur Pnr
Photograph of Etching
Photomicrographs
Pholographj ol Etching— Longitudinal
Photograph o< Owp Etcrnag- Sawtd End
Classification of Failure— M.W. Test No. 591 - "Plastic Flow"
REMARKS: — The following photographs are attached:
T-41380, 41381, 41382 and 41383 - showing 3/4" long brass pins inserted at
various angles on the gage-side of the head. See attached drawing, Plan 275,
dated June, 1951. All sections were cut vertical-transverse except the bottom
one, C-7, shown on print T-41383. This section was cut vertical-longitudinally.
T-41427 - Sulfur print. Segregation is indicated in the web center
(black streak).
The analysis of standard location "0" drillings shows 0.83% carbon and
"M" and "C" location drillings 1.01% carbon, indicating 21.6$ carbon segrega-
tion, which is excessive. The analysis is in line with the sulfur print,
the Brinell hardness tests and the physical properties.
The brass pins were inserted every four feet in the rail, as described in
the attached Plan 275, dated June, 1951, and "plastic flow" should be indicated
in each pin. The photographs show a slight deformation of the brass pins and
on this basis 3ome plastic flow may be present.
APPROVED: —
M. A. Pinney
ENGINEER OF TESTS
066
Rail
T. 41381
Plastic flow in rail head. (Each hole 34 in deep). C3 — Through center
of 1^4-in radius, midway between (b) and (d). D4 — Through center of 1%-
in radius, 0.7 in from center line of top of rail, 4 deg from vertical.
T. 41382
Plastic flow in rail head. (Each hole 34 in deep). A5 — Through center
of 34-in radius at angle of 30 deg with horizontal. B6 — Through center of
1^4-in radius at angle of 60 deg with horizontal.
T. 41383
Plastic flow in rail head. (Each hole 34 Jn deep). C7 — Through center
of l*4-in radius midway between (b) and (d). Note section cut longi-
tudinally. D8 — Through center of l*4-in radius 0.7 in from center line of
top of rail, 4 deg from vertical.
Rail
967
TABLE NO. 1
LATERAL DEFORMATION OF P. INS
Photo
Ho.
Original
Angle with
Horizontal
TU382 A- 5
30"
"41380 A-l
30°
TU554 A- 2
30°
Til 5 52 A-l
30°
W0332 B-6
60°
T4155A ii-2
60°
V41552 3-1
60°
TU555 c"2
73°
T/»13«3 0-8
96°
TW381 D-4
96°
Maximum Radius Max. Depth
Position
Middle of 3/8" radius corner
fillet arc.
Middle of 3/8" radius corner
fillet arc.
Middle of 3/8" radius corner
fillet arc.
Middle of 3/8" radius corner
fillet arc.
Junction of 3/8" radiu3 arc
with 1-1/4" radius arc.
Junction of 3/8" radius arc
with 1-1/4" radius arc.
Junction of 3/8" radius arc
with 1-1/ V radius arc .
Middle of 1-1/4" radius ire.
Junction of 1-1/4" radius arc
with 10" radius arc.
Junction of 1-1/4" radius arc .06"
with 10" radius arc.
Lateral
Movement
of Pin
Curvature
.78"
of Visible
Flow
Rail
No.
.04"
.25"
P-8
.06"
1.03"
.40"
P-8
.02"
1.82"
.27"
P-6
.04"
1.72"
.37"
P-6
.08"
.46"
.27"
P-8
.07"
.83"
.34"
P-6
.05"
.73"
.27"
P-6
.03"
.77"
.35"
P-6
.06"
.47"
.28"
P-8
.33"
.20" P-6
Q68
Rail
THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD
1-4-56 1M "',0'-1
Report No 2422
LABORATORY REPORT
Chemical and physical Examination of Rail and Other Track Material
Altoona, Pa.,
April 19,
T.D. 4638
Sample Nr> 254834-836 , rppr«<;»ntin0 140 lb. Carnegie rail, designated 3-P,
1950, 6 months, with heat and ingot number 07E-890-F15, which was removed
from track containing h.W. Test No. 591, Plastic Flow in Rail Head.
Referred to >o C.J.C. memo, to K.A.P. 12-10-56 -
-19 57
chemical analysis
PHYSICAL TESTS
.750
.750
.82
.012
.158
.031
Drop T til
Pw-min.ni
SM-lKhn
Lbi Ml
Sq In.
Rrlurton <t
Arta * ol
Original Sec.
NOTE: Tht word "Boringt" rtftra ilso to Chippingi ind other kindi of tost fragments
Bnnell 262 262
Rockwell
273
273
262
262
262
Ofi -\ Chem Analysis
, "I O M C
l-~N°/--1 Tensile Tests
Location .1 If „ „
266
ACCOMPANYING THIS REPORT ARE
Photograph ol Original Fractura
Photograph of Sulphur Print
Photos™ ph of Etching
Photomicrographs
Photograph! pj Etching— longitudinal
Photograph qj Deap Etchrag— Saarad fad
Classification of Failure —
remarks: — Rail - P-3 - The following photographs are attached:
T-41548 - Locations A-l & B-l, Vertical -transverse.
T-41549 '» B-l & C-l, " "
T-41550 - " A2 & B-2, " "
T-41551 " C-2 & D-2, " "
T-41596 ■ C-2 & D-2, Vertical-Longitudinal
For location and angle of pin insertion see attached drawing No. 275, marked
"Test 591 - Plastic Flow of Rail Head".
Prints are enlarged approximately 1-1/3 diameters. The upper portion of the
originally straight pins showed curvature, caused by cold working of the upper
gage side head metal in service.
The analysis of drillings taken at standard location "0" meets the chemical
requirements of Spec. C.E. 35(e). Those taken at location "M" show negligible
carbon segregation. The analysis and Brinell hardness tests are in agreement.
Our conclusion is the same as that originally reported on 10-5-56, report
9396. On the basis of pin curvature, some "plastic flow" is indicated.
APPROVED: —
kuz^L
EER OF TESTS
Rail
960
P3-A2
P3- B *
T. 41550
Plastic flow of rail head, rail P3 enlarged 1.3 diameters. (Each hole
34 in deep). A2 — Through center of 34-in radius at an angle of 30 deg with
horizontal. B2 — Through center of 1^-in radius at an angle of 60 deg with
horizontal.
P3- D 2
T. 41551
^):^d2-PihrCc,u7hTcentfrh Si** ralius, 0.7 in from center 1m. of top
of rail, 4 deg from vertical.
Rail
971
T. 41596
Rail P3. C2 and D2 — Longitudinal cuts through pin centers. Transverse
cuts of these pins are shown on photograph T. 41551.
972
Rail
THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD
Report No. 9409
LABORATORY REPORT
Chemical and physical examination of Rail and Other Track Material
T.D. 4638 Altoona, Pa., April 19, jq 57
Sample No. 254834-83Q t repreaentirnj T4Q "lb. Carnegie rail, riP^-jgnat.pH a_p>
1950 » 6 months, with heat and ingot numbers 06E-592-B4. which was removed
from ttrack containing M.W. Test No. 591, Plastic Flow in Rail Head
Referred to in C.J.C. memo, to K.A.P. 12-10-56
chemical analysis
PHYSICAL TESTS
.812
m .831
.83
.011 .17
.033
Drop T«t
P»tm<ft«ol
LM Mr
Raductxm 01
Ar«-» oi
Original Sec.
NOTE: Tht word Borings" rcftn alio to Chipping* and other hinds of tut fragments.
Btinell 273
Rockwell
273
255
262
262 262
262
.g -v Chem. Ana
[ H 1 0 M
^-n0/— ' Tensile 1
264
Chem. Analysis
ACCOMPANYING THIS REPORT ARE:-
Photograph of Original Fractu>
Photograph ot Sulphur Prin
Photograph of Etching
Photomicrographs
Photogr.phi of Etching— Longttudinaf
Photograph ot P—p Etching— Siwd End
Classification of Failure —
REMARKS. — Rail - 6-P
The following photographs are attached:
T-41552 - Location A-l & B-l
T-41553 - " C-l & D-l
T-41554 - " A-2 & B-2
T-41555 - " C-2 & D-2
Upper portions of the
275,
Prints are enlarged approximately 1-1/3 diameters,
originally straight pins show a slight curvature.
For location and angle of pin insertion, see attaching drawing No.
marked "Test 591 - Plastic Flow of Hail Head".
The analysis of drillings taken at standard location "0", meet the chemical
requirements of Spec.C.E.35(e). Those taken at "M" show negligible carbon
segregation and the analysis and the Brinell hardness are in agreement.
Our conclusion is the same as that originally reported in report 9398,
dated 3-5-56. On the basis of pin curvature, some plastic flow is indicated.
APPROVED r
T
EER Or TESTS
Rail
973
■■■■■
Pfe - 8 I
T. 41552
Plastic flow of rail head, rail P6 enlarged 1.3 diameters. (Each hole
3/4 in deep). Al — Through center of Y^-in radius at angle of 30 deg with
horizontal. Bl — Through center of 1^-in radius at angle of 60 deg with
horizontal.
U74
Rail
Pi, - C2
Pfc- DZ
T. 415SS
Plastic flow of rail head, rail P6 enlarged 1.3 diameters. (Each hole
3/i in deep). C2— Through center of 1^-in radius midway between (b) and
(d). D2— Through center of 1^-in radius 0.7 in from center line of top
of rail, 4 deg from vertical.
Rail 975
Photograph No. T41596 shows longitudinal sectioning of Rail P3 at locations C2
and D2. This photograph shows flow of the head of the pin longitudinally in the
direction of traffic.
4. Conclusions
The following conclusions of a general nature can be reached as a remit of this test.
Generally they verify conclusions reached from previous examinations of failed rails.
1. On the high rail of curves there is a flow of metal at the top gage corner of the
rail toward the gage side.
2. This flow of metal extends to a depth of ?4 in t0 ¥& hn below the rail surface.
3. The flow of metal toward the gage side extends back to the edge of the center
arc and beyond, probably to the center of the rail head.
4. The magnitude of deformation is positive evidence of shear stresses well beyond
the yield point of the steel.
This condition was demonstrated on the high rail of a 4-deg curve under moderately
heavy freight traffic after 75,000,000 gross tons. This was at a location of moderate
shelling on previous rail. Only light flaking had developed in the test rail at the time
of removal.
Appendix 8-c
Sixteenth Progress Report on Shelly Rail Studies
at the University of Illinois
By R. E. Cramer
Research Associate Professor, University of Illinois
Organization and Acknowledgment
The shelly rail investigation at this laboratory is financed equally by the Association
of American Railroads and the American Iron and Steel Institute.
John Finley, student test assistant, has worked on this investigation on a part-time
basis, and Marion Moore, mechanic, has operated the rolling-load machines.
Rolling-Load Tests to Produce Shelling
in Chrome-Vanadium Alloy Rails
Two cradle-type rolling-load machines are used to test rails for their resistance to
shelling. During the past year, one machine has been used to test 136-lb chrome-
vanadium alloy rails from the Colorado Mill rolled in May 1956 for the Southern
Pacific Company. Because these are Cr-V alloy rails, only three tests have been com-
pleted. Table 1 shows the chemical analysis, hardness and mechanical properties of these
rails. The test of 14,831.000 cycles of specimen 1181B is our longest rolling-load test
of any rail except the one specimen of chrome-vanadium rail heat-treated in the labora-
tory which ran to 21,000,000 cycles. Another specimen of this Cr-Y rail appears in
Table 2 of this report. Fig. 1 shows the shelling cracks produced in specimens 1181 \
and 1181B.
Q76
Rail
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II II
Rail
Q77
,.-*-.'•""■"
'•\
II8W\
I8IB *
H86-A
II86-B
Specimen
Number
1181A
1181B
11 86 A
1186B
1187A
1187B
1187-B
Fig. 1 — Shelly failures produced in rolling load tests.
Average Cycles of
Brinell 50,000-Lb
Size and kind of Rail Hardness Wheel Load
136-lb Chrome-vanadium rail 355 4,874,000
136-lb Chrome-vanadium rail 355 14,831,000
133-lb Extra-high-silicon rail 298 1,981,000
133-lb Extra-high-silicon rail 298 1.5 70,000
133-lb High-silicon rail 286 2,528,000
133-lb High-silicon rail 286 4.487,000
Rolling-Load Tests of High-Silicon Rails
Seven specimens of high-silicon rails were rolled to produce shilling. These speci-
mens, also shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1, averaged 2,277,000 cycles for failure, which
is somewhat higher than our previous average for high-silicon rails because one specimen
ran 4,487,000 cycles. However, the third specimen from this rail failed at 1,929,000
cycles which shows the uncertainty of testing a 7-in wheel path from a 3Q-ft rail.
Detail Fractures and Shelling Produced in Service
During the past year, seven detail fractures from shelling, one detail fracture from
head checks and one shelled chrome— vanadium rail have been examined at the labora-
078
Rail
Fig. 2 — Shelling produced in service. Chrome-vanadium rail No. 944.
a. Failed rail as received.
b. Cross section showing inclusion and shelling crack.
c. Shelling crack at 4 X mag. No etch. Note inclusions.
d. Shelling crack opened up showing longitudinal streaks.
tory. One of the seven rail failures from detail fractures from shelling, failed rail No.
943, was of unusual interest as it had broken into five pieces in service, causing a derail-
ment. Two pieces of the rail sent to the laboratory had three detail fractures on their
ends. The piece with a D.F. on each end was only about 2j/2 it long. One D.F. covered
about 25 percent of the rail head area and the other two about 40 percent. It is not
unusual to find several detail fractures from shelling in the same rail, but these are
usually located by detector cars before the rail fails in service.
One chrome-vanadium rail, a failed "B" rail No. 944, developed shelling after only
Rail 979
4 months of service. It had carried approximately 12 million gross tons of traffic as
the high rail of a 10-deg curve. This rail was thoroughly investigated by both this
laboratory and the Colorado Rail Mill laboratory. Fin. 2a shows the shelling on the
side of the rail head. Fig. 2b is a cross section showing one large inclusion in the centei
of the rail head and faintly showing the shelling crack at the upper right gage corner.
Fig. 2c is the gage corner at 4X magnification, unetched, Showing some smaller inclu-
sions. Fig. 2d is the shelling crack opened up showing streaks in the steel. It was agreed
by all who examined this rail that it was a "freak" failure caused by a considerable
amount of refractory silica or foreign material in the rail which was probably entrained
in the flowing metal during tapping into the ladle or pouring of the ingot molds. Due
to its lightness compared to molten steel, it should float to the surface and escape. How-
ever, someway, this material was entrapped by the freezing of the steel and appeared
in the "B" rail from this ingot. In this case, the inclusions were stragetically located
just under the rail tread and symmetrically spread around the gage corner in an ideal
condition to cause early shelling failure. This condition was not peculiar to the fact
that this was a chrome-vanadium alloy rail, as the same condition might sometime hap-
pen in a standard carbon steel rail, but so far as the writer is aware, no similar shelly
failure in standard carbon rails has ever been reported. This laboratory occasionally finds
transverse fissures which develop from refractory inclusions of considerable sizes. This
rail also had the refractory material distributed over a considerable length but so far
as is known, no other rails from the ingot were contaminated by the foreign material.
Rolling-Load Tests to Produce Detail Fractures
Although the laboratory rolling-load tests to produce detail fractures do not produce
very consistent results from different kinds of rail or from the same rail, they do produce
a type of failure almost identical to detail fractures as received from service. Fig. 3
shows four produced during the past year. Table 2 identifies the rails and shows their
Brinell hardness. The 7 percent detail fracture in chrome-vanadium rail 1181 caused
this hard, strong alloy rail to break off as a sudden fracture in the rolling-load machine.
This gives some indication of the brittleness of this steel or its notch sensitivity after
a crack has started.
The second specimen of chrome-vanadium steel, rail No. 1184, broke like some
of the test chrome-vanadium rails in service by both a shelling crack and general shat-
tering, as shown in Fig. 3. It appears that some specimens of chrome-vanadium rails
have transverse weaknesses which appear to be relatively greater than those in standard
carbon steel rails. The writer published some data on transverse Charpy values in AREA
Proceedings, Vol. 58, 1957, pages 969 and 970. In Table 1 of this present report arc
transverse endurance limit figures for two chrome-vanadium rails, Nos. 1181 and 1183.
The endurance limit as determined by Kt'-in diameter rotating beam specimens show
only a 25 percent reduction in the transverse specimens, while the Charpy tests showed
transverse reductions ranging from 62 to 75 percent. Transverse (harpy tests of standard
carbon steel rails were reduced 2.* to .*° percent while silicon steel Charpy tests were
47 and 49 percent less in the transverse direction than in the longitudinal direction.
All these tests and what has happened to a few chrome-vanadium tails in service
that developed early failures seem to indicate that there must be much more detailed
study made of failures in chrome vanadium rails. However, one should never lose
sight of the good service tests ami laboratory tests which have been reported on mosl
of the chrome vanadium test rails. At the present time, the good results in over
980
Rail
Table 2 — Rolling-Load Tests to Produce Detail Fractures
All tests used 50,000-Ib wheel load with slots 6 in long and 5 in below the rail tread
Spi ci-
>in ii
Number
Swi and Kind of Rail
.1 Pi rmii
Brinell
X ii mhi r
Cycles of
60,000-Lb
Win 1 1 Load
for I-'ml ur,
Kind ofFaUun
1181
136-lb Chrome- Vanadium
Colorado for SP
355
4,571 .000
7% D.F. from long shelling crack.
1184
I :-*♦>— It > Chrome-Vanadium
Colorado for SP
371
2 . 547 , 200
Shelling crack with general shattering
of steel.
1187
133-lb High-Silicon
Colorado for Santa Fe
286
2,901.200
10', D.F. from :i , in wide shelling (crack
% in deep).
1186
133-lb Extra-High-Silieon
Colorado for Santa Fe
298
1 .972,500
40'; D.F. from 1 Yi in shelling crack.
- - ~ -
1181
1184
1187— 1186
Fig. 3 — Specimens tested to produce detail fractures.
Cycles of
Specimen 50,000-Lb
Number Size and Kind of Rail Type of Fracture Wheel Load
1181 136-lb Chrome-Va. rail 7% D.F. from 1-in shelling crack ...4.571,000
1184 136-lb Chrome-Va. rail Shelling and gen. shattering 2,547.000
1187 133-lb High-silicon rail 10% D.F. from 34-in shelling crack .2,001,200
1186 133-lb Extra-high silicon rail . 40% D.F. from 1%-in shelling crack. 1,072.500
shadow the very few failures which have been found to date. It's just a research
engineer's nature to examine and describe the few unusual failures to find a logical
explanation for what happened.
Possible Ways to Prevent Shelling Failures
Just as a matter of review and to promote serious thought and discussion by Asso-
ciation members, the following considerations are listed:
Rail 981^
1. The most obvious method of reducing the development of shelling would be to
reduce wheel loads on the rails. It is usually considered that larger diameter wheels
would also give some relief.
2. A second method often recommended is to use stronger rail steels which are
less subject to plastic flow. It also would seem logical that standard rail steel would
give somewhat better service if it could be commercially produced without containing
segregation streaks with sizeable oxide inclusions. It is hoped that someday soon a few
test rails can be produced by either continuous casting or vacuum melting methods
which would be comparatively free of inclusions.
3. At present, three types of steel rails have been found which give improved
laboratory rolling-load tests, namely, high-silicon steel, chrome-vanadium alloy steel
and heat-treated carbon steel rails. All three steels are in service tests and are being
reported on regularly by the research staff of the Engineering Division, AAR. A few
of the chrome-vanadium alloy rails have failed early in service but these are exceptions,
because most test rails are still in service and their full life has not yet been determined.
Some heats of chrome-vanadium steel have not had any failures in service.
4. Take off curve oilers occasionally to allow a new area of rail head to receive
heaviest wheel loads before shelling cracks start. This is an inexpensive solution to the
shelling problem which has worked whenever tried. The writer believes all railroads
should try it.
Summary
1. Three rolling-load tests are reported on chrome-vanadium rails. One specimen
of rail 1181 ran 4,874,000 cycles. The other failed at 14,831,000 cycles— a record for
this type of rail. A third specimen from rail No. 1183 ran 2,857,000 cycles before it
developed shelling.
2. Seven rolling-load tests to produce shelling failures in high-silicon rails averaged
2,277,000 cycles. Past tests of standard carbon steel rails have averaged 1,000,000 cycles
in the same rolling-load test.
3. Results are given of the examination of several detail fractures and one shelly
rail from service.
4. Detail fractures were produced in four rails as summarized in Table 2 and Fig. 3.
5. General considerations of ways to prevent shelly failures are again stated for
discussion and suggestions from Association members.
Report on Assignment 9
Recent Developments Affecting Rail Section
W. J. Cruse (chairman, subcommittee), W. D. Almy, E. L. Anderson. S. H. Barlow,
F. W. Biltz, T. A. Blair, C. J. Code, L. S. Crane, P. O. Ferris, S. R. Hursh, W M
Jaekle, K. K. Kessler, C. C. Lathev, B. R. Meyers, Ray McBrian, R. B Rhode,
G. L. Smith, R. R. Smith. H. F. Whitmore, R. P. Winton, Edward Wise, Jr.
Two phases of the study of the Colorado Fuel & Iron Corp. rail sections have been
actively progressed by the AAR Engineering Division research staff this year for the
committee. First, a request was made upon the chief engineers of Member Roads to
have measurements made of the actual loss in height due to wear of rail being removed
from main line tangent track this year. The response to this request has been very
982 Rail
gratifying and a large amount of wear data has been furnished. As soon as all replies
are received, these data will be analyzed and reported next year. Preliminary inspection
of the data shows that the vertical loss in height due to wear has not exceeded % in
in most cases, and there is some indication that the amount of wear is more directly
related to years of service than to the traffic density ; also, that climate may be a factor.
Perhaps the head wear on tangent track may be found to be more a factor of corrosion
from rain or condensation than of traffic density.
The second phase of the study was the taking of rail contours on the Denver &
Rio Grande Western and the Santa Fe Railways on the new CF&I sections and on the
corresponding AREA sections. Contours were taken where possible on tangent and
curves. Unfortunately, it was not possible to find locations where both sections had
been in track the same period of time except in one instance. In some cases both
sections were in the same track, but not for the same period of time.
The contours obtained are shown in the accompanying figures compared to the
design contour of the new rail. The exact amount of wear is not too significant because
it is affected by variations along the track and contours were taken at only one location
on tangent and curve. However, comparison of the worn contour with the new contour
does show to what extent the metal is displaced by lack of wheel fit and gives some
indication of the amount of cold working and residual stresses set up thereby.
With reference to the 132 RE contours on the Santa Fe after nine years of service
(Fig. 1) those for the 1-deg, lS-min curve show a good wear pattern. The worn contour
is almost identical with the new contour on the high rail where shelling is of most con-
cern. For the tangent sections, the wear pattern on the north rail is good. On the south
rail, there is indication that the rail cant was somewhat greater than the nominal 1:40.
However, the concentration of pressure is on the field side where shelling has not oc-
curred. The wear contours for the 136 CF&I section on tangent track after two years
of service are good (Fig. 2). There is some indication of preliminary metal flow on the
gage side of the north rail.
On the Denver & Rio Grande Western, the wear contours for the 133 RE section
after eight years of service on a 1-deg curve (Fig. 3) show excellent wear patterns on
both high and low rails and also on the tangent location. The wear patterns for the
115 RE section after two years of service on an 8-deg curve (Fig. 4) are good for both
rails, and on the tangent section the wear pattern is perfect for the north rail, but for
the south rail there is evidence of pressure concentration on the gage corner due to
some local track condition, probably somewhat wide gage. For the 119 CF&I section
after the same period of service in the same 8-deg curve (Fig. 5) the wear patterns are
good and practically identical to those for the 115 RE in the same curve; in the tangent
location, it is evident that the original contour as rolled does not conform to the worn
contour as well as for the 115 RE section. For the 119 CF&I section (Fig. 6) after
one year of service in a 1-deg curve (the same curve as for the 133 RE contours) the
wear pattern indicates pressure concentration on the gage corner of both rails, and the
same condition is evident at the tangent location.
On the same railway, wear contours are shown for the 100 RE section after 26
years of service and for the 106 CF&I section after only a few months of service. The
wear patterns for the 100 RE (Fig. 7) show metal displacement at both gage and field
corners for both curve and tangent locations. This is typical of the older design rail
sections for which the top of rail was too flat to fit the contour to which the wheels
wear. Attention is directed to the small loss in height of rail head due to wear after
26 years of service. For the CF&I sections (Fig. 8) the amount of traffic carried had
Rail
98.<
not been sufficient to produce a discernible amount of wear on the tangent location,
but the curve location showed definite evidence of pressure concentration on the gage
corners of both rails.
The accompanying table shows the tonnage rolled of the various rail sections during
19S6 as reported by U. S. mills only. These data are of interest in studying the
standardization of rail sections.
RAIL CONTOURS ON THE
ATCHISON, TOPEKA & SANTA FE RY. CO.
132 R. E. Section Rolled August 1948
149, 000, 000 Gross Tons
Located Between M. P. 349 ami 350
West of Waynoka, Oklahoma
North
Rail
Gauge
1°15' Curve
1
South
Rail
Gauge
<~^.
144225 E15
Tangent
Fig. 1
984
Rai
RAIL CONTOURS ON THE
ATCHISON, TOPEKA & SANTA FE RY. CO.
136 C.F. &I. Section Rolled March 1955
72,000,000 Gross Tons
Located Between M. P. 366 and 375
West of Waynoka, Oklahoma
Gauge
Fig. 2
Rail
985
RAIL CONTOURS ON THE
DENVER & RIO GRANDE WESTERN R. R. CO.
133 R.E. Section Rolled June 1949
L20, 000, 000 Gross Tons
Located Between M. P. 359 and 360
at Glenwood Springs, Colorado
Gauge
1° Curve
Gauge
Tangent
Fig. 3
Q86
Rail
RAIL CONTOURS ON THE
DENVER fc RIO GRANDE WESTERN R. R. OO.
115 R.E. Section Rolled April 1955
32, 000, 000 Gross Tons
Located West End of Helper Yard Near M. P. 625
Gauge
8 Curve
Gauge
Tangent
Fig. 4
Rail
987
RAIL CONTOURS ON THE
DENVER & RIO GRANDE WESTERN R. R.
CO.
119 C. F.&I. Section Rolled May 1955
32, 000, 000 Gross Tons
Located West End of Helper Yard Near M.
P. 625
r ~*\ c
■^
1
High
Rail
Gauge
Low
Rail
^-^^^ 12 251 F3 ^^^ ^ _^
12251 B18
*~~-~-»»«^-— --"'"* 8° Curve
y"*^- ^^-^v s/^^
\ '
r
North
South
Ball
Gauge
Rail
V^^ 1262 E12 ^ V^^
1262 C14
" Tangent
Fig- 5
OSS
Rail
RAIL CONTOURS ON THE
DENVER & RIO GRANDE WESTERN R. R. CO.
119 C.F.&I. Section Rolled May 1956
15, 000, 000 Gross Tons
Located Between M. P. 359 and 360
at Glenwood Springs, Colorado
Low High
Rail Gauge Rail
^
^-^^^ 12 331 B13 ^_^-—^ ^--__^^
1° Curve
~~"\
[ 1 f
North South
Rail Gauge Rail
^-— _^^ 13338 E20 ^__— -^ ^-— ~^_^ 8342 D17
Tangent
Fig. 6
Rail
989
RAIL CONTOURS ON THE
DENVER & RIO GRANDE WESTERN R.R. CO.
100 R.E. Section Rolled January 1931
52, 000, 000 Groaa Tons
Located at Overpass Near Mile Post 7-4 m
Near Salt Lake City, Utah
Gauge
Gauge
Tangent
■■•■«■ 7
OQO
Rail
RAIL CONTOURS ON THE
DENVER & RIO GRANDE WESTERN R.R. CO.
106 C.F.&I. Section Rolled March 1957
200. 000 Gross Tons
Located at Overpass Near Mile Post 748
Near Salt Lake City, Utah
High
Rail
Gauge
2° Curve
Gauge
Tangent
South
Rail
Fig. 8
Rail
991
RAIL SECTIONS (85-LB. PER YD. AND OVER) AND NET TONS OF RAILS
ROLLED BY U. S. MILLS FOR U. S. RAILROADS DURING 1956
Excludes industrials, electric rapid transit lines, export, etc.
Rail
Section
85-ASCE
90-RA-A
90-ASCE
100-RA-A
100-RE
100-RA-B
100-ASCE
100-C&NW
100-NH
100-PS
100-REHF
105-DLW
105-NYC
107-NH
112-TR
112-RE
113-HF
115-RE
119-CF&I
127-NYC-M
129-TR
130-PS
130-RE
131-RE
132-RE
132-HT
133-RE
136-LV-M
136-CF&I
140-RE
155-PS
U. S.
Steel
Corp.
912
5,533
717
1,398
5,043
3,708
1,493
10,217
115,529
12,895
104,898
13,472
22,588
28,852
2,135
TC&I
Div.
U.S.S.
6,530
13,518
Beth.
Steel
Co.
900
1,050
1,150
3,150
750
3,300
650
700
600
3,200
650
1,750
3,050
800
58,948 49,800
11,150
1,800
7,950
2,350
101,209 54,850
Colo.
F&I
Co.
6,050
4,100
26,400
6,600
20,514
1,442
3,643
38,490
48,459
8,302
800
28,966
92,572
Inland
Steel
Co.
3,020
41,402
6,091
2,476
13,089
2,813
All
U.S.
Mills
1,812
16, 133
1,867
4,548
19,311
7,008
2,143
700
600
3,200
650
1,750
3,050
800
30,731
1,442
3,643
304, 169
54,550
24, 045
2, 476
1,800
7,950
2,350
282,348
800
45,251
4,100
121,210
55,252
B.735
Percent
of
Total
0.2
1.6
0.2
0.4
1.9
0.7
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
3.0
0.1
0.4
30.0
5.4
2.3
0.2
0.2
0.8
0.2
27.8
0. 1
4.5
0.4
11.9
5.4
0.9
329,390 186,255 186,700 243,188 68,891 1,014,424
100.0
092 Rail
Report on Assignment 10
Service Performance and Economics of 78-Ft Rail;
Specifications for 78-Ft Rail
Collaborating with Committee 5
S. H. Barlow (chairman, subcommittee), W. D. Almy, E. L. Anderson, T. A. Blair,
B. Bristow, L. S. Crane, J. C. Dejarnette, J. K. Gloster, S. H. Hursh, J. C. Jacobs,
W. M. Jaekle, N. W. Kopp, Rav McBrian, B. R. Meyers, R. E. Patterson, R. B.
Rhode, E. F. Salisbury, A. A. Shillander, W. D. Simpson, A. P. Talbot, R. P.
Winton, Edward Wise, Jr., J. E. Yewell.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
Service Tests
Test measurements were again made during July and August 1957, on the two
service installations of 78-ft rail begun in 1952 ; one of 133 RE section on the Penn-
sylvania Railroad between Hamlet and Hanna, Ind., and the other of 115 RE section
on the Chicago & North Western Railway near Calamus, Iowa.
The remainder of the test data pertains to an additional test of 78-ft rail installed
during August 1956 on the Illinois Central Railroad near Monee and Peotone, 111.
The field work, analysis of data and preparation of the test report were carried out
by the AAR Engineering Division research staff under the direction of G. M. Magee,
director of engineering research. This phase of the assignment is under the direct super-
vision of H. E. Durham, research engineer track, and members of his staff.
Discussion of Test Data
As previously expressed, it is the purpose of the tests on the Chicago & North
Western and the Pennsylvania to determine if the presence of greater joint gaps on
78-ft rail may create an increase in cost of maintaining the remaining joints, thereby
reducing the benefits due to the elimination of one-half the joints. Test measurements
obtained in July and August 1957 are indicated graphically in Figs. 1 to 6, incl.
On the Chicago & North Western both test sections have now been in service 9
years and have carried approximately 120 million gross tons of traffic, of which 70
million are since the first test readings. It is noted that the average pull-in of the
headfree joint bars (Fig. 1) on the 78-ft rail is about 20 percent less than on the 39-ft
rail. Camber measurements (Fig. 2) do not indicate any substantial difference in the
five-year period since the test was instituted in 1952. The average rail surface profiles
for 30 joints in both north and south rail (Fig. 3) show some increase in batter, but
there is no outstanding difference between the 78-ft rail and the 39-ft rail. The rail
temperature was relatively low when the joint gap measurements were obtained last
summer, hence there is no significant information to report on that feature. Comparison
between summer and winter joint gaps may be found in the Proceedings, Vol. 57, 1956,
page 862.
The Pennsylvania Railroad test sections, in service 7 years, have carried approxi-
mately 103 million gross tons of traffic, with 75 million since the first test readings.
The average out-to-out measurements of the head contact joint bars (Fig. 4) show the
pull-in of 78-ft rail, since the beginning of the test in 1952, to be almost identical to
that of the 39-ft rail. The camber measurements (Fig. 5) continue to show very little
change in droop of the joints. Rail surface profiles for joints (Fig. 6) show a slight
. Rail QQ<
increase in batter which is approximately the same for 78-ft and 39-fl rail The rail
temperature at the time of obtaining the joint gap measurements was high— an average
of 119 deg for the 78-ft rail and 110 deg for the 39-ft rail. Fig. 7 is a bar diagram
which may be compared with results during winter temperatures shown in Proceedings
Vol. 57, 1956, page 861.
The profiles of the rail welds (Figs. 3 and 6) are discussed in the Proceedings
Vol. 56, 1955, page 977. It will be noted that there is a slight reduction in height of the
welds, but the irregularities in surface are not materially changed.
Joint Gap Measurements on Illinois Central Railroad
The test installation of 78-ft rail in the southbound main of the Illinois Central
Railroad near Monee and Peotone, III., is discussed in the Proceedings, Vol 58 1957
pages 1048 to 1050. incl. Figs. 8 and 9 show summer and winter joint gap bar diagrams
for the two sections, M.P. 34.7-35.7 and M.P. 42-42.5.
Although the mile from M.P. 34.7 to M.P. 35.7 is established as the AAR test mile
the Y2 mile from M.P. 42 to M.P. 42.5 is again included in this report for purpose of
comparison. In the test mile, where the anchorage consists of alternate ties boxed par-
ticular attention is called to large percentage of summer gaps under 0.05 in and to the
uniformity of the winter gaps. The gaps in the mile, M.P. 42-42.5 (Fig. 0) lack the
uniformity of the test mile, indicating in part, at least, the effectiveness of the greater
amount of anchorage in the test mile. The lower average joint gap in the west rail
of mile 42-12.5 points to the desirability of laying when lower rail temperatures are
available, preterrably not over 90 deg as brought out in Proceedings, Vol. 57. 1956
pages 863 to 865. even though not always possible from a practical standpoint.
Maintenance
All test sections are well maintained. Both the Pennsylvania test miles were surfaced
in 1Q;>7 using crushed rock ballast. On the C&NW the 39-ft rail was surfaced in 1955
and the 78-ft rail in 1956 with crushed slag ballast on both sections. The test section
on the Illinois Central was surfaced shortly after laying in 1956.
Conclusions
After 9 and 7 years of service, respectively, the Chicago & North Western and
Pennsylvania test sections indicate approximately the same performance in the joints
of 39-ft and 78-ft rail. To date there is no evidence of additional maintenance required
on account of the difference in joint gaps. The test section on the Illinois Central will
require additional service period to permit proper appraisal of results. So far the rail
anchorage of 22 alternate ties boxed per 78-ft rail has given a more satisfactory rail gap
uniformity than in the earlier tests on the PRR and C&NW.
Acknowledgement
The Association gratefully acknowledges the cooperation and assistance rendered
by the Chicago & North Western Railway. Pennsylvania Railroad and [ffinois Central
Railroad in the conduct of the service tests.
004
Rail
.20
.18
.16
.14
.12
.10
.08
.06
.04
.02
0
.20
.18
.16
.14
.12
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.08
.06
.04
.02
0
39- ft Rail
(averaqe of 133 joints)
78-ft Rail
(averaqe of 64 joints)
North Rail
•• — • Top of Bars
o — ° Bottom of Bars
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,-0
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r
i
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i
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Fig. I. - Change in Out-to-Out Distances at Middle of Joint Bars,
C8NW Ry.
Rail
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(average of 133 joints)
78-ft Rail
(average of 63 joints)
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North Rail
^=-b^-
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South Rail
Legend ! o oAug., 52
• ©June, '5 3
o— — ojune, 54
x vAug./ 57
Note: Camber readings are taken 1/2 inch from
rail ends.
Fig. 2.— Top of Rail Camber in 34-1/2 inches,
C8NW, 1952.
QQ6
Rail
Q Q
+ I
ssipui u; uoi(DAai3
Rail
QQ7
20
.18
.16
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39-ft Rail
(average of 133 joints)
78-ft Rail
(average of 68 joints)
North Rail
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Penn. RR.
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Legend: ° oAug.,'52
• •June/53
0 o May '54
X XAugM57
Note.- Camber readings ore
rail ends.
taken 1/2 inch from
Fig.5.— Top of Rail Camber in 34-1/2 inches,
Penn RR, 1952
Rail
Q9Q
ssgsui ui uoiida»i3
1000
Rail
39-ft. Roil - 266 Joints
78-f I. Roil - 135 Joints
South Roil
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
- 30
c
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o.
£ io
a
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-£ 80
z
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Avg. Roil Temp 109
Avg. Joint Gap 0.069"
Anchored 12-4 per 39ft roil
an
fin,
Avg. Roil Temp 116°
Avg. Joint Gop 0.064"
Anchored 24-8 per 78ft rail
nfla
North Roil
Avg Roil Temp. 110°
Avg. joint Gop 0. 138
nnllllnn
Avg Roil Temp. 122*
Avg Joint Gop 0.112'
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Joint Gop in Hundredths of on Inch
Fig. 7. Joint Gap Measurements for 39-ft. and 78 - ft. 1 33 RE Rail
Penn. R.R , Miles 401 and 402, near Hanna.lnd.
July, 1957
Rail
1001
Summer August 9, 1957
West Roil -67 Joints
East Rail -67 Joints
Avg. Roil Temp 113
Avg. Joint Gap 0.02"
Rail laid tight at
about 110°, Aug. 13 a 14, 1956
rin _
Avg Roil Temp 113
Avg. Joint Gap 0.02"
Rail laid tight at
about l\0' Aug. 13 a 14, 1956
MP 34.7-357 has rail anchors boxed
on alternate tie6 (44 per 78 -ft roil)
J=L
Winter January 11,1957
Avg. Rail Temp. I*
Avg. Joint Gap 039"
n<
Avg. Rail Temp. 1°
Avg Joint Gap 0.40"
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Joint Gop in Hundredths o< on Inch
Fig.8 Summer and Winter Joint Gap Measurements in 78ft Rail MP 34.7-35.7
ICRR between Monee and Peotone, Illinois.
1002
Rail
Summer June 5, 1957
West Roil -34 Joints
Eost Roil -33 Joints
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100
90
80 [
70
60
50
40
30
20
Avg. Roil Temp. 104°
Avg. Joint Gop 0.10"
Roil loid tight ot 75*Aug. 16, 1956
Anchored
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Avg. Roil Temp. 104°
Avg. Joint Gop 0.26"
Roil laid tight ot H7°Aug.l5, 1956
22-8 per 78ft rail
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Winter January II, 1957
Avg. Rail Temp. —2°
Avg. Joint Gop 0.24"
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Avg. Roil Temp. -2°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.39"
OLD
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Joint Gop in Hundredths of on Inch
Fig. 9. Summer and Winter Joint Gap Measurements in 78ft Rail MP 42-42.5
ICRR between Monee and Peotone, Illinois.
Rail 100.^
Report on Assignment 11
Rail Damage Resulting from Engine Burns; Prevalence;
Means of Prevention; Repair by Welding
C. E. Morgan (chairman, subcommittee), E. L. Anderson, F. W. Blitz, T. A. Blair,
C. J. Code, C. A. Colpitts, L. S. Crane, W. J. Cruse, G. H. Echols, P. O. Ferris,
L. E. Gingerich, J. K. Gloster, J. C. Jacobs, K. K. Kessler, N. W. Kopp, Lee May-
field, Ray McBrian, B. R. Meyers, C. R. Riley, E. F. Salisbury, W. D. Simpson,
A. P. Talbot, R. P. Winton, Edward Wise, Jr.
The 1956 report included suggested specifications for the welding of engine driver
burns, and no changes are suggested at this time. The committee will continue to study
this matter to determine if welding techniques can be improved.
Our report for this year consists of a tabulation (see next page) showing the num-
ber of engine burns welded during 1956 by various roads, and the number of welded
engine burns which broke during 1956 on the respective roads. Wheel burns which have
been welded, but have also had joint bars applied, are not included in the tabulation.
1004
Rail
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Report of Committee 5 — Track
W. E. Cornell, Chairman,
Troy West, Vice Chairman,
A. F. Huber (E),
Secretary,
J. E. Armstrong, Jr.
W. G. Arn (E)*
Joiix Aver, Jr.
J. P. Barker
O. C. Benson
F. J. Bishop
M. C. BlTNER
T. R. Ki-incki
W. R. BjORKLUND
R. E. Kuston
J. R. Bowm \\
L. W. Leitze
E. G. Brisbin
C. J. McConai(;hv
R. J. Bruce
G. W. Mii.i.i.K
T. F. Burris
H. B. Orr
H. F. Busch
M. P. OVIATT
M. D. Carothers
J. S. Parsons
E. W. Caruthers (E)
L. A. Pelton
H. B. Christianson
C. E. Peterson
E. D. Cowlin
S. H. Poore
F. W. Creedle
j. M. Rankin
P. H. Croft
J. A. Reed
K. E. Dunn
M. K. RUPPERT
H. F. FlFIELD
J. M. Salmon, Jr.
R. M. Frey
R. D. Simpson
J. W. Fulmer
R. C. Slocomb
R. G. Garland
T. R. Snodc.rass
L. W. Green
G. R. Sproles
W. E. Griffiths
J. R. Talbott, Jr.
M. J. Hassan
J. B. Taylor
A. E. Haywood
R. E. Tew
C. C. Herrick
K. H. Von Kampen
A. B. Hlllman
S. J. Watson
A. E. Hinson
D. J. White
H. W. Jensen
J. B. Wilson
L. H. Jentoft
B. J. Worley
C. H. Johnson
M. J. Zeeman
C. N. King
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
* Died May 8, 1957.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report, submitting recommended editorial changes in Part 5 ... page 1007
2. Track, tools, collaborating with Purchases and Stores Division, AAR.
Part 1 — Manual recommendations page 1007
Part 2— Tests of AREA Rail Fork, Plan 10-57 page 100S
Part 3 — Standardization of Head Sizes for Lag Screws and Drive Spikes . page 100S
3. Plans lor switches, frogs, crossings, spring and slip switches, collaborating
with Signal Section, AAR.
Progress report, recommending adoption of Plans 325-58 and °12 58,
replacing previous issues of these plans, and revisions of paragraph 103
of the Specifications. Appendix A, to supersede present paragraph 103.
Appendix A-55 page 1008
Appendix 3-a — Service Tests of Designs of Manganese Steel Castings in
Crossings at McCook, III page 1010
Appendix 3-d — Track Gage and Flangewaj Width- for Operation of Diesel
Power on Curved Track. Final report page 101 1
1005
1006 Track
4. Prevention of damage resulting from brine drippings on track and struc-
tures, collaborating with Committee IS, and Mechanical Division, AAR.
Progress report, submitted as information, covering further studies of cor-
rosion inhibitors for use in refrigerator car ice bunkers page 1018
5. Design of tie plates, collaborating with Committees 3 and 4.
Progress report, presented as information, covering service tests of 7
designs of tie plates for the rail base width of 6 in page 1028
6. Hold-down fastenings for tie plates, including pads under plates; their
effect on tie wear, collaborating with Committee 3.
Progress report, presented as information, covering the service test installa-
tions of hold-down fastenings, tie pads, etc., on the Louisville & Nashville
Railroad and the Illinois Central Railroad page 1035
7. Effect of lubrication in preventing frozen rail joints and retarding cor-
rosion of rail and fastenings.
Progress report, offered as information, covering the 7-year service test of
metal preservatives on the Illinois Central Railroad page 1056
8. Laying rail tight with frozen joints.
Progress report, presented as information, covering service tests of tight
rail installations on the Louisville & Nashville, the Erie, and the Bessemer
& Lake Erie page 1060
0. Critical review of the subject of speed on curves as affected by present-
day equipment, collaborating with the AAR Joint Committee on Relation
Between Track and Equipment.
No report. Your committee will continue with the study of the present
AREA spiral.
10. Methods of heat treatment, including flame hardening, of bolted rail frogs
and split switches, together with methods of repair by welding.
Progress report, presented as information page 1076
11. Economies to be gained by the railroads from the more extensive use of
AREA trackwork plans.
No report. Your committee is continuing the study of this subject.
The Committee on Track,
W. E. Cornell, Chairman
AREA Bulletin 542, February 1958.
Track 1007
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
G. R. Sproles (chairman, subcommittee), John Aver. Jr., R. J. Bruce, M. D. Carothers,
P. H. Croft, H. F. Fifield, M. J. Hassan. C. C. Herrick, H. W. Jensen, L. A. Pelton,
M. J. Zeeman.
Your committee recommends that the following editorial changes be made in
Chapter 5 of the Manual:
Pages 5-5-1 to 5-5-3, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR LAYING RAIL
In the tabulation on page 5-5-1, under the heading "Class of Rail", change the
words "1st quality", wherever they appear, to "No. 1", and change the words "2nd
quality" to "No. 2".
These changes are desired to make the class-of-rail designations the same as in the
Specifications for Open-Hearth Steel Rail, Part 2, Chapter 4.
Report on Assignment 2
Track Tools
Collaborating with Committees 1 and 22 and with Purchases
and Stores Division, AAR
C. E. Peterson (chairman, subcommittee), O. C. Benson, F. J. Bishop, W. R. Bjorklund,
R. J. Bruce, T. F. Burris, E. W. Caruthers, W. E. Cornell, K. E. Dunn, A. E.
Haywood, C. X. King, C. J. McConaughy, G. W. Miller, M. P. Oviatt, R. C.
Slocomb, J. R. Talbot, Jr., Troy West. D. J. White, J. B. Wilson, B. J. Worley.
Part 1 — Manual Recommendations
Your committee submits the following recommendations with respect to the Manual
for adoption:
Pages 5-6-9 to 5-6-26, incl.
PLANS FOR TRACK TOOLS
Withdraw Plan 28-53— AREA Scythe, and Plan 29-53— AREA Snath, on page 5-
6-24. Also delete references to these plans in the list of plans on page 5-6-9 and in
Art. 9 on page 5-6-8 of the Specifications for Ash and Hickory Handles for Track Tools.
An investigation was made in regard to the use of the scythe on the railroads, and
it was found that very few are ordered. It has become obsolete because of the use oi
power mowers, chemical weed killers, etc.
There are few manufacturers that make the scythe, as it is a low-volume item.
Therefore, it has become difficult to find a manufacturer that can furnish the scythe
according to the AREA plan without charging a premium.
1008 Track
Part 2— Tests of AREA Rail Fork, Plan 10-57
The following is a progress report, submitted as information.
The AREA rail fork has been tested and found lacking in that the handle is not
lonji enough to permit turning a 13b-lb rail satisfactorily. A recommendation was made
that the length of the rail fork be increased from 40 in to 48 in. It was decided to
have 6 rail forks made up having an overall length of 48 in and to have them tested
on the Southern Pacific.
Also, an investigation is being made as to the possibility of using a riveted pipe
handle on the rail fork in place of the forged steel handle to reduce weight, maintenance
and initial cost.
Part 3 — Standardization of Head Size and Shape for Drive
Spikes and Lag Screws
It was decided that a ^-in square head similar to the head shown on the Pittsburgh
Screw and Bolt Corporation Dwg. 21-C-264 be recommended for application on all
drive and screw spikes. A drawing of the proposed %-in square-type head was pre-
pared and sent to the Signal Section, AAR, and the American Iron & Steel Institute
for their consideration.
The AAR Signal Section stated that the proposed %-in square-type head would
satisfactorily fill its requirements.
The AISI Technical Committee on Track Accessories progressed a study of the
proposed ^-in square-type head and reached the conclusion that this type of head can
be manufactured for various shank diameters from fyg in to ]§ in, incl., for all lengths
commonly used for drive screw spikes.
Predicated on the above information, a plan was prepared, and a canvass of all
Class I railroads is being conducted at the present time to see if it will be satisfactory
for their requirements before proceeding further.
The manufacturers pointed out that there has been very little use for screw spikes
on the major railroads in recent years; their use has been primarily limited to the
subways and elevated lines. Therefore, screw spikes can be disregarded.
The design of the lag screw has already been set by the American Standards
Association.
Report on Assignment 3
Plans for Switches, Frogs, Crossings, Spring and Slip Switches
Collaborating with Signal Section, AAR
M. J. Zeeman (chairman, subcommittee), O. C. Benson, W. R. Bjorklund, J. R. Bow-
man, R. J. Bruce, T. F. Burris, M. D. Carothers, E. W. Caruthers, H. B. Christian-
son, W. E. Cornell, E. D. Cowlin, F. W. Creedle, R. M. Frey, J. W. Fulmer, M. J.
Hassan, A. E. Havwood, A. B. Hillman, A. F. Huber, H. W. Jensen, C. H. John-
son, T. R. Klingel, R. E. Kuston, C. J. McConaughy, H. B. Orr, C. E. Peterson,
S. H. Poore, J. A. Reed, R. D. Simpson, R. C. Slocomb, T. R. Snodgrass, J. B.
Taylor, K. H. Von Kampen, Troy West, J. B. Wilson. B. J. Worley.
Your committee submits for approval as recommended practice and publication
in the Manual (Portfolio of Trackwork Plans) the following two plans and the with-
drawal of the previous issue of these plans:
RAIL
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NOTES
1_ (a) The fishing height of the filler shall not vary from that called
for bv the nominal tail section by more than 1/64" over or 1/52 less,
b) %dth of lillirs between rail webs shall not be more than 1/16"
over or under the dimensions called for ,
(c) Depth of the flangeway groove may be 1/16 under or vio over
(dTDouble" groove'' fillers permitted for rail sections 110 lb. and
and lighter.
1 BFINFORCTNG BARS— Web side of bar may be straight between
2~fhe?nd° of The upper^nd lower fish.ng fillet for rail sections 110 lb.
and lighter.
3— SPECIFICATIONS— See Appendix A.
American Railway Engineering Association
Construction and Maintenance Section
Association of American Railroads
STEEL FROG FILLERS
AND
REINFORCING BARS
PLAN NO. 325-58
TABLE A
BILL OF SWITCH TIES
FOF
TURNOUTS WITH
STRAIGHT SWITCHES
J
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TABLE B
BILL OF SWITCH TIES FOR TURNOUTS
rVlTl-
CURVED SWITCHES
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c
BILL OF SWITCH TIES FOR CROSSOVERS WITH
STRAIGHT SWITCHES
l
3 *
f.£
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FROM POINT OF SWITCH TO POINT OF SWITCH
Is
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TABLE
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3ILL OF SWITCH TIES FOR CROSSOVERS WITH CURVED SWITCHES
1
5 5
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|P
LENGTHS ANO QUANTITIES OF TIES
INCLUDES THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SWITCH TIES
FROM POINT OF SWITCH TO POINT OF SWITCH
\:
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■ re bued on locit.ng t.»
md frogi u indioled on
American Railway Engineering Association
BILLS OF SWITCH TIES
FOR TURNOUTS
AND
CROSSOVERS
PLAN NO. 912-58
Track 100«
Plan No. 325-58 — Steel Frog Fillers and Reinforcing Bars
The proposed changes are as follows:
(1) Data for 90 RA, 100 RE and 140 RE rails have been added.
(2) A note is added permitting the use of double-groove fillers for rails 110 ll>
and lighter.
(3) The notes have been rearranged.
Plan No. 912-58 — Bill of Switch Ties for Turnouts and Crossovers
The following changes are proposed:
(1) Distance X in Tables "C" and "D" which was shown incorrectly on the
previous issue has been corrected.
(2) Ties under the frogs in the crossover layout are not broken in the crossover
track, but between the heels of the frogs alternate ties in this track are
broken. Tables "C" and "D" have been corrected accordingly.
(3) A few minor corrections have been made in Tables "A" and "B" in lengths
of ties, quantities and board measure so that these details conform exactly
for the track lengths shown in Tables 'C" and "D".
(4) Minor changes for clarification have been made in the Notes.
Your committee also recommends for approval as recommended practice and pub-
lication in the Manual (Portfolio of Trackwork Plans) a revision of paragraph 103
of the Specifications, Appendix A, to supersede present paragraph 103, Appendix A-S5.
The proposed paragraph to read as follows:
103. Quality
Only No. 1 rails with "A" rails eliminated shall be used in special trackwork except
that ''A" rails and No. 2 rails are permitted for guard rails. All X-rayls are excluded.
The collaboration of the Standardization Committee of the Manganese Track Society
in the above recommended changes, as well as in other subjects under consideration for
future action, is gratefully acknowledged.
Your committee also submits, as information, the following two reports prepared
by the research staff of the Engineering Division, AAR:
Appendix 3-a — Service Tests of Designs of Manganese Steel Castings in Crossings
at McCook, 111.
Appendix 3-d — Track Gage and Flangeway Widths for Operation of Diesel Powei
on Curved Track.
It is planned to incorporate the basic data shown in Appendix 3d on some of the
plans now in the Trackwork Portfolio covering this subject for steam locomotives. We
hope to submit our recommendations next year, since we were unable to complete them
for presentation at this time.
1010 Track
Appendix 3-a
Service Tests of Designs of Manganese Steel Castings
in Crossings at McCook, 111.
This report, submitted as information, covers the service performance of the solid
manganese test castings in the crossings between the double-track lines of the Baltimore
& Ohio Chicago Terminal Railroad and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway at
McCook, 111.
Foreword
The progress report last year (Vol. 58, 1957, page 830), based on the inspection
of July 1956, indicated that only two of the three 1952 castings remained in service.
Since the beginning of this investigation in 1943, the height of all of the test castings
has been 6*4 in, the same as 110 RE rail.
USS Solid Pedestal Castings
The solid pedestal design that was not depth hardened on the tread corners was
previously reported as being retired after a service life of 3.60 years in the diamond
carrying eastward traffic on both sides. This casting was removed from service because
of the combined weakening effect of the cracks from the top to the bottom of the
casting.
On June 3, 1957, for the same defects as above described, the solid pedestal design
with depth hardening was retired after 4.44 years of service in the same crossing.
Originally, the Johnstown Works of USS had furnished duplicate castings to check
their relative serviceability. As indicated, the depth-hardened casting lasted 0.84 year
longer than the non-depth-hardened specimen. The records of the B&OCT indicate
that both the USS depth-hardened casting and the Ramapo casting which was also
depth hardened were first welded after 26 months of service, as compared with 18
months for the USS non-depth-hardened casting. The 8-month period is equivalent to
approximately 40 million gross tons of traffic on the USS depth-hardening casting.
Although the USS depth-hardened casting had more cracks at its retirement than the
unhardened specimen, it is judged that the major portion of the increase in life for the
depth-hardened one can be attributed to that treatment.
Ramapo Deepened Flangeway Casting
This casting, also depth hardened, was inspected July 10, 1957, after 4.76 years
of service in the crossing carrying westward traffic on both sides. The flangeway cracks
in this casting have progressed little during the last year. There was a total of 18 in
of cracks in the flangeways compared with 15 in a year earlier. Most of the cracks
were in the flangeway floor near the center line, with 6 in. in the fillets. This casting
is in reasonably good condition for the tonnage carried and should last several months
longer.
Acknowledgement
The Association is indebted to the B&OCT and the suppliers of the castings, and
extends thanks for their valuable contribution. The suppliers of the castings deserve
much of the credit for improving casting designs during the 14-year period in which
the life of castings was increased from about 18 months to over 6 years.
Track 1011
Appendix 3-d
Track Gage and Flangeway Widths for Operation of Diesel
Power on Curved Track
This is the final report on recommendations for widening gage on curves for diesel
operation where the use of steam power has been discontinued. Basic information is
included for future revisions to the Manual (Portfolio of Trackwork Plans). This inves-
tigation has been conducted by the AAR research staff under the general direction of
G. M. Magee, director of engineering research. This assignment was under the direct
supervision of H. E. Durham, research engineer track and his assistant, A. D. Van Sant,
and other track staff members.
Foreword
For almost a quarter century the American railroads have been replacing their steam
power with diesel-electric locomotives. A large proportion of the railroad mileage is
now completely dieselized, with the attendant retirement of the wayside facilities required
to operate the former steam locomotives. In prior years the large steam locomotives
with long rigid wheel bases required much more gage widening on the sharper curves
than is needed for the existing six-wheel truck road diesels. On many of the railroads
it was necessary to widen the gage of a 10-deg curve y2 to % in. All of the road
diesels with six-wheel trucks, 15 ft 6 in. in length, can operate on a 12-deg curve with
standard gage, and many of the units with shorter trucks can negotiate sharper curves
with standard gage.
Advantages of Less Gage Widening
By closing in the gage of curves to accommodate the most restrictive diesel on a
railroad, maintenance-of-way costs for curves and frogs can be reduced by increasing
the life of the inner rail on some of the curves and reducing the flangeway width on
frogs. It is common knowledge that on curves with wide gage, the false flanges of the
tread-worn hollow wheels ride along the field edge of the inner rail head and cause an
accelerated flow of the rail head metal to the field side. Manganese steel frogs, both
solid and insert types, have greater strength with 1% in wide flangeways than with
wider flangeways. Wheels crossing the wider flangeways cause more impacts and batter
at slow and moderate speeds than with the 1^-in flangeway. By maintaining a curve
to standard gage instead of Yz in wide or more, the frequency of readzing and regaging
can be reduced, which should increase the service life of the ties in the sharper curves.
While the AAR research staff has no test data on the lateral forces exerted on
curved track by diesel locomotives with respect to wide and standard gage, it is the
opinion that these forces will not be increased appreciably when the gage is reduced.
By closing the track gage on curves, the track play is reduced, and the angular displace-
ment of the trucks should be smaller than with wider gage formerly required by the
large steam locomotives.
Investigation of Road Diesels
In order to obtain basic information on the diesel power curve limitations from
which a general recommendation of gage widening could be determined, all four of the
principal diesel locomotive builders were requested to furnish the data required for their
diesels with six-wheel trucks. Four-wheel truck diesels are not restricted by the gage
of curved track. The diesels included in this investigation are listed in Table 1, which
1012
Track
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Track 1013
is a summary of the data furnished by the locomotive builders indicated, and in addi
tion, the maximum degree of unguarded curve as computed by the AAR research staff
for standard gage. All except one of the diesel units listed can operate on a 16-deg
unguarded curve with standard gage. It will be noted that most of the diesel locomo-
tives are limited to maximum curvature of 21 deg to 23 deg when hauling a train.
From the foregoing study with some revisions, a general-purpose graph showing track
gage and flangeways required was prepared.
Preparation of General-Purpose Graph
of Gage and Flangeways for Curved Track
Generous use was made of the material in the previous reports of Committee 5 —
Track, concerning the investigation of limiting curves for steam locomotives, as published
in the Proceedings, Vol. 22, page 679 and Vol. 23, page 614. Figs. 1 and 2, together with
the nomenclature, formulas and computations demonstrate the method used for deter-
mining the track gage and flangeways of curved track for the six-wheel truck diesels.
Xo correction was made in computing the middle ordinates for the unsymmetrical trucks.
This refinement would make little difference in the degree of curve, and the values used
are on the conservative side. Fig. 3 is the graph covering the diesels listed in Table 1.
In Fig. 3 the minimum track gage of 4 ft 8% in at the contact level of J4 m below the
top of rail provides % in track play for standard track gage, using a back-to-back
spacing of wheel flanges of 53^ in. For closer spacing of the wheels, the additional track
play was added to the total lateral play per axle. On this basis the average total equip-
ment clearance of the middle and end axles of the six-wheel trucks varied from Y% in
to Y& in. Because of the limiting curves of the diesels when hauling trains, Train Master
diesels 13 and 14 do not fully utilize all of the ^-in equipment clearance. Baldwin
diesel 6 (Fig. 3) with Y^-in lateral play, is limited to a 14-deg curve with J/$ in wide
gage. The limiting curve of each type of diesel unit was determined by the builder.
In the preparation of the general-purpose diagrams for guarded and unguarded
curves for diesels (Fig. 4), a more restrictive set of conditions was used. The com-
putations for all wheel bases from 11 ft 6 in to 15 ft 6 in were based on 42-in diameter
multiple and two-wear wrought and cast steel wheels (AREA Plan 793-52), 53^ in
back-to-back of flanges and Y% in average total lateral play of the middle and end
axles of the trucks. For both diagrams (Fig. 4), the minimum track gage at contact
level J4 in below top of rail is 4 ft &]/$ in, and the flange thickness at that level is
\y% in. The wheel flange distance Y\ in below top of rail determines the minimum gage
for unguarded curves and is 53^ in + 2Xl-Mi in = 56^ in. It will be noted from
Fig. 2 that the maximum degree of curvature for guarded curves is based on the flange-
way of the inner rail of the curve. This is because the unused clearance "b" between
the back face of the wheel flange and the guard rail gage line % in below top of rail
is larger than the distance "C" next to the outer running rail. The sketch in Fig. 2 is
greatly distorted for better clarity. The distance N, perpendicular to the long chord, is
equal to the flangeuay width -r- cos A. Because angle .1 is generally less than 3 deg,
cos A is never less than 0.99863. which is a close approximation.
The designation of gages and flangeways as being minimum merely indicates that
no arbitrary amount of clearance was included in the computations. The extra clearance
is not required, as the flexibility of the track is adequate to take care of the usual
tolerances in mounting wheels and the variations in the gage on curves.
In Fig. 4 the maximum curvature for a given wheel base and track gage is always
smaller in the diagram for the guarded curves. The notes in the lower portion of the
1014
Track
x-G(1rock goge)- W(wt\eei tlonge disionc«)-C
but G" W-Pdroch ploy)
• M> L*P-C
N ■ Flongewoy
M-N-T-b»L
FIG i - UNGUARDED CURVES
FIG 2 -INNER RAIL OF GUARDED CURVES
Nomenclature
A = Angle of flange with respect to the curve = one-half of the angle subtended by wheel base,
B.
B = Wheel base of 6-wheel truck.
D = Degree of curve.
G = Minimum gage of track on curves.
N = Minimum width of flangeway.
T = Thickness of flange 1/4" below top of rail = 1 3/8".
F = Flange room of end axles required on curves, 1/4" below top of rail.
C = Distance between working face of wheel flange and gage line 1/4" below top of rail,
b = Distance between the back face of the wheel flange and the guard rail gage line 1/4" below
top of rail. F = T + C + b.
Tables were prepared for F and C for angle A to 3°.
W = Wheel flange distance 1/4" below top of rail = 4'-8 1/8" (53 3/8" back-to-back of wheel
flanges).
P = Total track play = Actual track gage - 4'-8 1/8" for unguarded curves and (N-T-b) for
guarded curves. Additional clearance obtained by setting the wheels closer than 53 3/8"
can be added to the track play to determine the maximum degree of unguarded curve, but
not for the guarded curves.
L = Average total lateral play in middle and end axles of truck.
R = Radius of curve in feet.
M = Middle ordinate in chord length B.
Formulas
A = 0. 005 x B x D in degrees and decimals. F, C and b are functions of angle A (1)
Unguarded Curves
M = P + L - C (2)
Guarded Curves
Determine M from formula (2) or the following formula, whichever gives the smaller
value: M = (N - T - b) + L, which is (3)
equivalent to
M = (N - F + C) + L (4)
Generally, formulas (3) and (4) give the smaller values of M. Formula (4) was used in
the computations to eliminate preparation of a table of the "b" values
R = (B/2)2 ft (5)
2M
Note: Formula* (1) and (5) involve very small approximations.
Track
1015
Example of Computations for Alco PA-3 Diesel with 15 ft. 6 in. Truck, Item (1)
Table 1.
MAXIMUM UNGUARDED CURVE FOR 4 FT. 8 1/2 IN. GAGE
M = P + L - C Est. angle A = 16° x .0775 = 1.24°.
Fori. 24° A, C = 0. 007 in. , F = 1. 42 in. See table below.
M = 0.50 + 17/32 in. -.007 = 1. 024 in.
R = (S)2 = 6 £)2 = 360.375 = 352 ft. = 16° -20' Cv. Say 16°
2 1. 024
2M M in in.
MAXIMUM GUARDED CURVE FOR 4 FT. 8 1/2 IN. GAGE AND 1 7/8 IN. FLANGEWAY
M = N-F+ C+ L Est. A = 1. 24°, C and F as above.
M = 1.875-1.42 + 0.007 + 0.531 = 0. 993 in.
R = 360.375 = 363 ft. = 15° - 50' Cv. , Say 16° Cv.
Avg. total lateral, L = 17/32 In.
Bk. to Bk. of flanges 53 1/4 in.
Track play 1/2 in. for 4 ft. - 8 1/2 in. gage
Generally, angle A is estimated from
an assumed curve and a second com-
putation is required to obtain the exact
maximum curve. C and F are for a
42 in. dia. wheel.
0.
393
Angle A
C
F
Deg.
in.
in.
0. 0 deg.
0.000
1.38
0. 2 deg.
0.000
1.38
0. 4 deg.
0.001
1.38
0. 6 deg.
0.002
1.39
0. 8 deg.
0.003
1.40
1. 0 deg.
0.005
1.41
1. 2 deg.
0.007
1.42
1. 4 deg.
0.010
1.44
1. 6 deg.
0.013
1.46
1. 8 deg.
0.016
1.48
2. 0 deg.
0.020
1.49
2. 2 deg.
0.025
1.50
2. 4 deg.
0.029
1.52
2. 6 deg.
0.034
1.54
2. 8 deg.
0.040
1.56
3.0 deg.
0.046
1.58
figure explain the method for interpolating for other wheel bases and different amounts
of lateral play in the axles. If this figure is included in the AREA Portfolio of Track-
work Plans, it can be designated as Plan 792A.
Clearance Between Wheel Flanges and Guard Rails
By reference to Table 1, it will be observed there is a wide variation in the equip-
ment lateral play per axle and in the spacing of the wheels used by the locomotive
builders. No information in these categories was requested from the Member Roads,
but it is understood that a majority of the road diesels in service have a back-to-back
of flange spacing of 53% in. Some of the railroads have adopted for their diesels a
wheel spacing of 53% in. As previously mentioned, total track play is Y& in for standard
gage track, % in below top of rail, and 53^ in back-to-back spacing of flanges. With
the smaller wheel flange spacing, the track play is increased to % in, which is advan-
tageous for operating on sharper unguarded curves with less widening of the track gage.
1016
Track
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Maximum curve when hauling train
; Table 1 for locomotive data
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for
Trock Gage end Flonqewoy Widths for Operation of 6- wheel Truck Diesels on Curved Track
Pogroms ore based on o totol lateral ploy per oxle of -j- m ond 42-m dig wheels with o 4'-5f" back-to-bock spacing of flonges
Guarded Curves
Unguarded Curves
Degree of Curvatuie
40° 38' 36° 34° 32° 30° 26' 26° 24° 22° 20° 18' 16' 14° l2- l0- 8- 6° 4° 2° 0° | 40° 38° 36° 34° 32° 30° 26° 26' 24° 22° 20° 16° 16° 14° ,2° ,0° 8° 6' 4-
•For 4'-8 5/8" gage the flangeway is 1 7/8" for the inner rail and 2" for the outer rail
1. - Although the diagrams include the maximum gage of 4--9 1/4", most of the road diesels when hauling trains are limited to
r-^rdilgrir^Tnt^Tated for intermediate lengths of tntck wheel base. Track ^ge widening reared for diesels
having other than 3/8" average total lateral play of the middle and end axles, ^^^^^^Z?™**
drawing a line parallel with the curve for a given «-k wheel base an starUn * ^ ^ ew , -ne* ™ « ^ ^
play per axle. If the setting of the wheels is less than 53 3/8 back to back tne resu s
to tibe lateral play for interpolating values for the unguarded curves, but no, for ^^f^^™8- in curved track, 4'-9"
3 - For new work the 4-9 1/4" gage should not be exceeded. For economy m the maintenance of frogs m curv
gage and Z'-l/4" flangeway and corresponding curvature should not be exceeded. k on curve3 t0 reach
4. - Four wheel truck diesels with a maximum truck wheel base of 10' do not require w.den.ng of track gage
the limiting curve of the locomotives. widened for curvature. See Appendix A, Section 33
5. - 32e Plan Basic No. 790 for Dangeways and other data when gage is not widened tor .urva
for permissible variations in manufacture.
Fig. 4
American Railway Engineering Association
Construction and Maintenance Section
Association of American Railroads
GRAPHS SHOWING MINIMUM GAGE AND
FLANGEWAYS FOR CURVED TRACK
(Diesel Locomotives)
Track 1017
However, this close setting of the wheels with the greater track play may cause more
lateral hunting of the diesel trucks when operating on tangent track at the higher speeds.
The excess track play has no advantage when operating over guarded curves, frogs
and crossings. The clearance between the wheel flange and guard rail was studied by
comparing the wheel check gage distance ]4 in below top of rail and the guard check
gage of the track. The wheel check gage distance (in this instance) is the distance
back-to-back of flanges plus one flange thickness of \Y% in. The guard check gage of
track is equal to the actual gage of track less one flangeway width. The lead axle of a
six-wheel truck does most of the guiding, and the flange should be in contact with
the outer rail of curves. For the 53^ in wheel spacing, the leading wheel on the inner
rail of the curve conflicts with the guard face of the guard rail by J4 in f°r track
gages calculated for the normal S3^-in spacing. This condition causes the wheels to
exert large impacts on frogs, crossings and guard rails along the inner rail as well as wear
on these parts of the track structure. This arrangement does provide extra protection
for preventing the wheels from striking the frog points in the outer rail of curves.
The inside gage limit for mounting new wheels used on diesel locomotives is 53*4
in. By using a wheel spacing of no less than this limit, the conflict with the inner rail
guard rail, above described, is only % in- This should provide ample protection against
the wheel flanges striking the frog points in the outer rail of curves.
General Remarks
Because regaging curves to eliminate the wide gage required by the steam locomo-
tives will be carried out with rail relay work or transposition, several years will be
required to complete the work in the main tracks of a railroad. Once the gage has been
closed to suit diesel operation, future designs of locomotives should be built, if possible,
to operate with the same gage as for the six-wheel truck diesels. Those railroads now
operating large gas turbine engines or electric locomotives may require a wider gage
on curves than is needed for the diesels with six-wheel trucks of 15-ft 6-in wheel base.
Where a railroad has sharp curves in its main and branch lines, consideration should
be given to providing more than }i in lateral play per axle in the longest diesel truck
in order to have gage wider than standard on the minimum length of curved track.
Some railroads have standardized on four-wheel truck diesels and operate no units
with six-wheel trucks. Since on those railroads no gage widening is required for opera-
tion of the diesels on the curves, investigation should be made to determine if there are
any special passenger or freight cars that will require gage wider than standard on the
sharper curves over 12 to 14 deg.
Where railroads operate six -wheel truck diesels with the 15-ft 6-in wheel base, the
Mechanical Division, AAR, has advised that no further gage widening is required for
any of the passenger and freight cars having six-wheel trucks or eight-wheel trucks
as used on some of the large or long depressed-center cars.
Acknowledgement
The Association gratefully acknowledges the cooperation and assistance rendered by
Alco Products; Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton; Electro-Motive Division. GMC; Fairbanks.
Morse and Company; and the American Steel Foundries.
1018 Track
Report on Assignment 4
Prevention of Corrosion from Brine Drippings on Track
and Structures
Collaborating with Committee 15 and Mechanical Division, AAR
W. E. Griffiths (chairman, subcommittee), J. Ayer, Jr., M. C. Bitner, J. R. Bowman,
H. F. Busch, W. E. Cornell, P. H. Croft, L. W. Green, C. C. Herrick, J. S. Parsons,
Troy West.
This is a progress report, submitted as information, on an investigation of brine
corrosion inhibitors for use in refrigerator car ice bunkers being conducted for your
committee at the AAR Research Center by the Engineering Division research staff.
The study is being carried out by S. K. Coburn, research chemist, assisted by K. J.
Morris, chemist, under the general direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering
research.
Inherent in the philosophy of evaluation testing, such as the present search for an
economically effective non-toxic brine corrosion inhibitor, is the axiom that the labora-
tory tests be carried out under conditions and in an environment which simulates as
closely as possible the service conditions normally encountered. Appropriate modification
of test conditions often have to be made to make such laboratory evaluation possible.
It is necessary then to be selective and make modifications only in the areas where the
adjustments do not adversely effect the results.
As has been stated in previous reports, such a test has been developed and has
yielded valuable information. To carry out an evaluation of a single chemical composi-
tion requires a minimum of 90 to 120 days. With present space requirements precluding
the testing of more than three substances at a time, it became necessary to seek a rela-
tively simple and rapid screening test which would aid in discriminating between poten-
tially useful materials and potentially non-effective substances.
From the electrochemical literature, and more recently from the experience of in-
vestigators in the field of corrosion inhibition in the automotive anti-freeze field, a
method has been found which can yield worthwhile data in from 20 to 100 hr. It is
called the "time-potential" technique and is based on the fact that two different metals
(called electrodes) when immersed in salt water and connected by way of a potential
measuring device (a vacuum tube voltmeter) will act as a battery. The magnitude of
voltage or strength of the battery is a function of the respective positions of the metals
in a series called the galvanic series. For example, pure metals under standard condi-
tions may appear in the following order:
Potential
Metal (Volts)
Aluminum - — 1 .69
Zinc — 0.76
Iron — 0.44
Hydrogen on platinum 0.00
Copper -f 0.34
Gold +1.36
A battery could be made by connecting rods of zinc and copper and immersing
them in salt water. The voltage observed then would be the algebraic difference ( — 0.76
— ( •+ 0.34) = 1.1 v). Similarly, iron and zinc could form a battery whose capacity is
0.32 v. This is a rather weak battery; nevertheless it is an effective cell, as witness
Track 1010
the vast amount of galvanized sheet steel in every -day use. The iron or steel in this
system is more noble than the zinc since it lies closer to gold in the galvanic series than
does the zinc; therefore, zinc protects the steel and corrodes in preference to it.
When two such metals are connected, the one which rusts is called the anode; that
which does not rust is called the cathode. Thus, in the battery set up by zinc-coated
steel in a galvanized sheet the corroding zinc is the anode, while the protected steel is
the cathode. The anode of any metal system may be likened to a weak link in a chain.
On the surface of a large sheet of metal one can note areas of slight corrosion, and
areas in which the corrosion has been so severe that pitting or perforation has occurred.
The areas which have corroded most are called the weak or anodic areas. The relatively
bright or least corroded areas are the cathodic or resistant areas. A water film only one
molecule thick supplies a satisfactory electrical connection, and thus a battery is set up
on the surface of the metal sheet. Actually, numerous such galvanic batteries exist on
the surface and are in constant action. To facilitate the formation of rust, oxygen from
the air is necessary. Oxygen dissolves to some degree in water and thus can find its
way to the metal surface.
To prevent corrosion one must interrupt the battery circuit. A practical method is
to apply paint; thus the anodic and cathodic areas on a piece of metal are isolated by
the paint, which is a non-conductor. In time the paint may develop pinholes, allowing
moisture to penetrate beneath the film and reach the metal thus restoring the original
corrosive battery action.
Since painting is not economically attractive in this instance the use of chemical
substances called inhibitors has been selected as the means for interrupting the numer-
ous galvanic cells which develop as a result of brine deposits on the rails, etc. These
substances behave in characteristic fashion by absorbing or depositing themselves upon
the metal surface, or by changing the metal surface through a chemical reaction with it.
Some inhibitors react only at anodic sites or weak areas; others attach themselves to
the resistant or cathodic areas. Other materials react with the metal to form a new
compound and present a new surface which offers an excellent base for the application
of corrosion-resistant paint. It is evident that all of these systems interrupt the many
minute batteries existing on an active metal surface.
The inorganic inhibitors presently being investigated all are of the type which
adsorb or deposit on the anodic or corroding areas and are called anodic inhibitors.
They function by aiding in the formation of thin protective films. The measure of effec-
tiveness of the film is the change in battery voltage which develops between the iron
or steel electrode and a standard calomel electrode.
To utilize the time-potential technique disks of rail steel were prepared (0.5 in
thick and 0.75 in. in diameter). A copper wire to effect electrical connection was peened
in on one surface. The wire-disk couple then was encased in an epoxy resin leaving
one face exposed. This constituted the metallic anode which could corrode. It was
immersed in a beaker of 5 percent brine solution. In a similar beaker filled with the
same solution a standard electrode, or cathode, a calomel cell, was similarly immersed.
Both electrodes then were attached to a millivoltmeter. The two beakers were con-
nected by a wet-bridge or conductor. Air was bubbled through the beaker containing
the steel disk at a rate of 20 ml per min or 0.04 cu ft per hr. Various inhibitors in
different concentrations then were dissolved in the brine solution in which the disk was
immersed. Readings were taken at frequent intervals during the fust leu hours as well
as observations on the appearance of the surface of the test specimens. The physical
setup is shown in Fig. A.
1020
Track
Anode
C a tnod «
\\ WW \\ W\ \ W\W WV^
Bridge
Brine Solution
Encased Steel Disc
Fig. A.-E xperimental Apparatus
Uninhibited sodium chloride represents the most aggressive system. The pattern of
time versus potential for this system is shown in Fig. 1.
Note particularly how corrosion begins at once and how the potential drops sharply
within the first hour. From the slope of the curve away from the horizontal, and the
fact that rust is developing over the entire surface of the disk, one can conclude that
the brine system is an actively corroding system. Two specimens were run in different
containers at the same time. The similarity in results is indicative of the reproducibility
of the technique.
The curves shown in Fig. 2 were obtained by adding inhibitors whose performance
had been evaluated in the more valid cycling relative humidity test. From the surface
of the test disk it was observed that two small areas developed a few pits; otherwise
the surface was free from corrosion. The leveling of the curve in Fig. 2 for sodium
chromate verifies the fact that the material is acting as an inhibitor.
In similar fashion the polyphose system exerts an inhibiting effect after a short
time. The disk accumulated on its surface a white flocculent substance, but did not
develop any red rust deposit.
In Fig. 3 there is shown a graph comparing the inhibiting effectiveness of sodium
nitrite when used in two different concentrations. This material under certain conditions
is an excellent inhibitor. It is evident from these curves that under the experimental
conditions imposed the higher concentration begins to inhibit corrosion somewhat earlier
than does the lower concentration. For all practical purposes a small amount of rust
appeared in two small areas comprising no more than 10 percent of the total area of
the disk.
A proprietary material, known as Sand Banum, found by X-ray diffraction tech-
niques to contain sodium nitrite among other things, also exerted inhibiting action as
Track
1021
O-0.4
-0.5
«-06
CD
-0.7
5% Brme Solution
in Duplicote
2 3 4 10 20 30 40
Hours
Fig I Uninhibited Brine Solution— 5 Percent
-0.3
5% Brine Solution
0.4
•0.5
iv_^
^^---^ 1.0% Sodium Chromote
-O.G
i
-0.7
i
»T-'
t
1.0% Polyphos
0.5% Polyphos
i i i i
ii
3 4
Hours
20
Fig - 2 Comparison of Sodium Chromate and Two Concentrations
of Polyp hos.
5% Brine Solution
02
6 — — ^~ -~_ i% SodiumJJjtrile
03
04
1 1 1 ....
^\ 0 5% Sodium Nitrite
I
2 3 Hours 20
Fig. 3 Two Concentrations of Sodium Nitrite.
1022
Track
0)
|-0.3
o
5% Brine Solution
w
£-0.4
o
o
o
/A \l% Sand Bonum
0)
fc-0.5
0 5% Sand Banum
tr
i
i i i
i i i
2 Hours 20 30 40 60
Fig. 4. Two Concentrations of Sand Banum.
90
-03
5%
Brine
Solution
-0 4
1
1
-0.5
1%
Sodium Benzoate
-0.6
I
\
\ -
/
/
1%
Sodium Citrate
-07
-0.8
12 3 4
Hours
Fig- 5 Evaluation of Two Pure Compounds
20
noted from the horizontal and upward slopes of the time-potential curves. There was
a cream-colored gray-white deposit on the edge of the disks; otherwise the surface
remained bright. This observation is verified by the fact that the curves in Fig. 4 are
somewhat similar to those in Fig. 3.
In Fig. 5 are shown the curves of two pure compounds which are presently being
used as inhibitors in other media. Sodium citrate is being used presently in down-well
corrosion inhibition, while sodium benzoate is recommended for auto radiator inhibition
purposes.
It is apparent that in brine solutions, sodium benzoate in the concentration used, is
not too effective. However, the film it produces is a tightly adherent gray substance
covering half the surface of the disk. This film may be protective by nature, despite
the slope of the curve. It is, therefore, necessary to examine carefully this material
Track
1023
o 5% Bnne Solution
m
■o
2-0.3
o
a
1
E
i-0.4
u
o
0)
1 0 25% Diommonium Phosphate
£-0.5
/ J^--^\
IT
\ / / ^\ — ■ —
1
\\L/ ' 05% Diarnmonium Phosphate
o
>-0.6
i 1 1 1 1 i 1
2 3 20 40 60 80 100
Hours
Fig. 6a. Two Concentrations of Diarnmonium Posphate.
Fig.
6b — Diarnmonium phosphate
at 0.5 percent.
Fig. 6c — Rust removed.
because its toxic properties are quite low, it being used in certain foods as a bacteria]
preservative. The sodium citrate (used in soft drinks and candies) formed a gray film
which was relatively easy tu remove. No red rust wa> produced in either case, suggesting
that further attention be given to each of these products.
In Fie. 6a two concentrations of diarnmonium phosphate were used. From the slope
of the curves some inhibition is evident. After about 40 hr a dark gray tightly adherent
film formed on the surface of the disk. Later some yellow deposits appeared randomly
dispersed over the surface, as shown in Fig. 6b. Fig. 6c shows the appearance "I the
surface after the gray film was removed, indicating some IS to 20 discrete pits on an
otherwise clean uncorroded surface.
1024
Track
03
0.6
07
5% Brine Solution
UOP 2748-I27IB
UOP 2748-53
UOP 2448-II3B
20
Hours
40
60
80
100
Fig. 7a. Evaluation of Three UOP Products.
Fig. 7b — UOP-2448-113B at 0.03 percent and 0.1 percent.
A large number of organic chemical compositions are being used in oil refineries
as well as in inhibiting brine corrosion specifically in down-well applications. In the
latter case the inhibitor is functioning submerged in the absence of air. It was felt
worthwhile to evaluate some of the better known products in an attempt to learn
whether they would operate just as successfully against brine in the presence of air,
such as when a drop of brine deposits on rail. From the time-potential curves shown
in Fig. 7a it is evident each of the systems showed some merit. Only the data for con-
centrations of 0.1 percent are shown. However, experiments were carried out at lower
concentration (0.03 percent) with interesting results.
Track
1025
Fig. 7c — UOP-2748-1271B at 0.03 percent and 0.1 percent.
Fig. 7d— UOP-2748-53 at 0.03 percent and 0.1 percent.
Fig. 7b shows the disks for each of the concentrations tried (No. 2448 IIS B). At
the lower concentration no extensive surface damage developed other than a few minute
pits. At the higher concentration the area beneath the corrosion product was well etched.
Fig. 7c shows the disks after exposure to the No. 2748-1271 H system. The disk
immersed at the lower concentration showed slight pitting in a small area. At the
higher concentration the metal beneath the corrosion product was etched considerablj
The remaining area was unaffected.
1026
Track
■OS
5% Brine Solution
0.5% Sodium Molybdote
0.5% Kontol 121
0.5% Kontol 141
20 40 60 80 100
Hours
I 2 3
Fig. So. Comparison of Two Concentrations of Kontol with Sodium Molybdote
Fig. 8b — Sodium molybdate at 0.5
percent.
The last inhibitor studied, No. 2748-53, developed a well etched surface at the
lower concentration. However, at the higher concentration a gray, greasy, tightly ad-
herent film developed. This was not easily washed away and tended to remain firmly
attached to the metal.
It is evident from the time-potential curves and the appearance of the disks that
these materials should be studied further in the cycling relative-humidity test.
In Fig. 8a are shown the results of a study in which sodium molybdate, a product
with some potential utility, if only from an information standpoint, was compared
with another series of organic compounds. The sodium molybdate appears to have
offered some initial protection after which a breakdown in the protective film must
have developed. Verification of this dynamic activity is gained by viewing Fig. 8b.
Track
1027
Fig. 8c — Kontol-121 at 0.03 percent and 0.5 percent.
Fig. 8d — Kontol-141 at 0.5 percent.
Appearance-wise the disk seems to be entirely covered by a corrosion product. Actually,
a considerable amount of red rust formed in one area and then dropped off the disk.
In another location on the disk (approximately half the surface ana) a massive
formation of a corrosion product developed. Beneath it was evidence of the beginning
of another protective film which was black in color. It is apparent that a borderline
concentration was used, since the uncorroded area bore a fairlj large number of discrete
pits. It would be wise to try higher concentrations in studying the action of this
substance.
1028 Track
Fig. 8c shows a comparison between two concentrations of the same product
i K imtol— 1 21). In both instances more than half the surface area was corroded. Also
the area beneath the corrosion products showed deep pits. It is apparent this product
was not effective in the concentrations used. Higher concentrations would make the
material economically unattractive.
The disk shown in Fig. Sd exhibits a surface relatively free from extensive corro-
sion. From the curve in Fig. 8a there is an implication that corrosion has been arrested.
The corrosion product is easily removed, showing the existence of a thin gray film
revering the entire surface of the disk. Some slight pitting was evident in one area.
This product is worth studying further.
It is evident from the data presented that a screening tool is available which
enables the investigator to make a fairly rapid evaluation of potentially useful mate-
rials. Furthermore, there is the verification afforded by visual observation being sup-
ported by the time-potential curves. Vice versa there is the time-potential curve being
supported by the visual evidence.
An additional tool to speed up the work as well as to increase the volume of work
which can be handled is the receipt of the newly built corrosion cabinet. This instru-
ment enables one to select a variety of relative humidity cycles to operate on an auto-
matic basis through a considerable number of time cycles. It is hoped the cabinet in the
new corrosion laboratory will soon be in operation.
Report on Assignment 5
Design of Tie Plates
Collaborating with Committees 3 and 4
L. A. Pelton (chairman, subcommittee), J. E. Armstrong, Jr., O. C. Benson, E. G.
Brisbin, M. D. Carothers, W. E. Cornell, H. F. Fifield, J. W. Fulmer, C. C. Her-
rick, C. N. King, J. S. Parsons, R. D. Simpson, R. C. Slocomb, Troy West, M. J.
Zeeman.
This progress report, offered as information, covers service tests of seven designs
of tie plates for the rail base width of 6 in.
This investigation is being conducted by the AAR research staff under the general
direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research, and under the direct super-
vision of H. E. Durham, research engineer track.
Introduction
The test was installed in November 1944 on Mile 326 of the single-track main line
of the Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific Railway (Southern Railway System),
approximately 12 miles north of Chattanooga, Tenn. The installation consists of 7
designs of tie plates in 22 panels of track laid with new creosoted ties, stone ballast and
131 RE rail. Eight of the panels are on a short 6-deg curve having 6-in elevation. The
remaining 14 panels are on tangent track and are equally divided between oak and
pine ties. Stress measurements under traffic were made in 1945 and published in the
Proceedings, Vol. 47, 1946, pages 491-514. The last progress report on these tests was
published in Vol. 57, 1956, pages 700-707.
As stated in the last report the rail on the curve was relaid in December 1952, and
no regaging of the track has been done since that time. Gross tons of traffic during the
last service period, April 1955 to June 1957, increased from 228 to 278 million. Since
June 18, 1953, all trains have been hauled by diesel power.
Track
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1030 Track
Tie Abrasion
Table 1 is a summary of the plate cutting measurements for the 12.6-year service
period, November 1944 to June 1957. As indicated in the last report, the tests have
shown that cut anchor spikes do not effect a reduction in plate cutting, hence the data
for the curve are no longer subdivided to show two anchor spikes versus no anchor
spikes. During the last service period there has been no acceleration of the plate cutting
on the test curve or tangent sections.
The average depth of penetration for both rails of the curve ranged from 0.196 to
0.255 in. The latter figure is for the 12-in plates with transverse ribs, and includes the
cutting by the ribs. Average values shown for the 4 panels of 14-in tie plates on the
curve continue to show 25 percent greater plate cutting on the outer rail than on the
inner rail. This reflects the effect of train operation which is predominately above the
equilibrium speed of 38 mph. The average plate cutting of the 14-in tie plates in the
6-deg curve is 0.212 in or 0.076 in per 100 million gross tons of traffic. This is good
performance for a sharp curve. The average tie abrasion of the same 4 test panels of
the curve with hardwood ties was 39 percent greater than in the corresponding panels
with oak ties in the tangent. On tangent track the softwood ties were plate cut 35
percent deeper than the oak ties. A few of the softwood ties have been excluded from
the tie abrasion data because of crushing in the tie plate area. Panels 1 and 8 with the
831 and 405 A pattern tie plates on the 6-deg curve have a slight advantage by being
on the spirals of the curve.
Using the average tie abrasion values for the 4 panels of 14-in tie plates on the
6-deg curve, the average position of the tie plate load centroids for the outer and inner
rails of the 6-deg curve is 0.9 in and 0.3 in, respectively. On the inner rail the tie abra-
sion is almost equalized, the value at the gage end of the plates being only 6 percent
greater than at the field end. On this curve the problem of readzing and setting up the
rail is on the outer rail which also has plate cutting 25 percent deeper than that of the
inner rail. The special 16-in plates with 1^4-in eccentricity for use on curves (AREA
Plan 21) would be quite beneficial for the outer rail of the test curve.
In the last column of Table 1, the percentage of loose tie plates on the ties has
been shown for each test panel. For more than a decade in all service tests involving
tie plates, loose plates have been determined by striking them lightly with a hammer.
During that period it has been found that with cut spike construction, there was no
important difference in the depth of tie abrasion due to loose or tight tie plates.
Plate cutting on the curve continues to be moderate, considering the traffic of 278
million gross tons, because of favorable operating conditions. Tie abrasion in the tangent
has not been great due to moderate speed of 45 mph required on the adjacent curve.
Tie Plate Bending
The plate deflection measurements taken in 1957 indicated no appreciable permanent
bending of the tie plates. The 831-X design of plate, which is % in thinner than the
14-in tie plate covered by AREA Plan No. 12, may be expected to develop some bend-
ing, but the duration of the test has not been long enough to determine if permanent
bending will occur.
Gage of Track
Figs. 1 and 2 cover the record of track gage for the curve since regaging in June
1951 and for the tangent test panels since the beginning of the test, except that the
curves for the intervening years have been omitted for better clarity. After relaying
Track
1031
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Track 1033
the rail in December 1952, the average gage was % in wide on the 6-deg curve. The
average gage was about the same in April 1955 and had widened ft in more by June
1957. Gage widening since December 1952 due to rail wear' on the curve at the gaging
level % in below the top of rail was less than A in. As indicated in Fig. 1, the greatest
widening of gage has occurred at or near the joints in the outer rail, resulting in slight
irregularities of alinement. The elevation of the curve has increased an average of }i in
since April 1955. The average track gage on the two stretches in the tangent sections
has not changed materially since 1955 and is comparable to the gage in 1944. However,
many of the original gage irregularities have been accentuated.
An analysis of the causes of gage widening in the test location up to 1955 was pub-
lished in Vol. 57, 1956, page 703. Data obtained in 1957 indicate that unequal plate-
cutting has tended to widen the gage moderately on the outer rail. The 405-A tie plates
with the ribbed bottoms continue to show the least gage widening. This panel is on the
spiral of the curve.
Conclusions
The service period on the CNO&TP has not been of sufficient duration to develop
the advantage of the longer plates nor has it developed permanent bending in any of
the tie plate designs as might be expected with the thinner plates. The plates with ribbed
bottoms continue to act as a retardant to gage widening but show increased cutting of
the tie. The results from the fast 6-deg curve have demonstrated that the outer rail is
the chief maintenance problem as to the wear of the rail, ties and gage widening.
FINAL REPORT ON TIE PLATE BENDING, ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD
NEAR CURVE, TENN.
In last year's report on the AAR-IC tie plate design service tests near Curve and
Henning, Tenn. (Vol. 58, 1957, page 845), it was stated that the tests would be ter-
minated to permit relaying the 112-lb rail with 132 RE rail in the 4-deg test curve.
That report was complete except for inspecting the 8 tie plate designs remaining in the
4-deg test curve sections with creosoted oak ties in the southward main.
In connection with relaying the rail on the curve, December 27-28, 1956, the test
plates were inspected as they were released from the track. The 8 tie plate designs are
briefly described in Table 1, page 850, of the above reference. There were 1 design
each of 12-in and 13-in lengths and 6 of the 11-in length. There were no plates bent
except those designated as 419-X. These plates are similar to the 11-in AREA Plan
No. 4 plates, except for being % in thinner. Design 419-X has a iVin thickness at the
field shoulder compared with ih in for Plan No. 4. The 11-in 419-Y tie plates having
the same thickness as Plan No. 4 plates, were not bent. The 11-in and 13-in test plates
were in service from October 1944 to December 1956. During the 12.2-year period the
estimated gross tonnage carried amounted to 220 million. The corrosive conditions in
the southward main were not severe, and there was no evidence of brine corrosion.
The amount of plate bending was determined by laying a straight edge on the bot-
tom of the straight portion of the plates (next to the gage end) and measuring the
offset to the field end. There were 22 419-X plates in each rail of the test curve. Three
plates in the outer rail and 13 in the inner rail had offsets ranging from 0.02 to 0.25 in.
Only one plate was bent as much as % in, and it was in the inner rail. This specimen
was sent to the AAR Research Center for examination. Of the other 15 plates bent,
12 had offsets ranging from 0.02 in to 0.05 in and 3 from 0.06 to 0.10 in. Because the
419-X plates were originally machined from the 419 13-in design (similar to AREA
1034 Track
Plan No. 7) they had a straight surface on the bottom when installed in 1944. Conse-
quently, the offsets measured in 1956 represent the true bending except as influenced
bj corrosion and abrasion from the sand under the tie plates. The worst bent plate
(' ,-in offset) had a very uneven surface on the bottom as a result of corrosion and
abrasion by sand under it. The top of the plate had little pitting from the corrosion.
A short crack had formed at the corner of one of the field line spike holes in the plate
at the field edge of the rail base. No record was taken of the original weights of the
tie plates. The specimen plate after over 12 years of service weighed 10.28 lb as com-
pard to the estimated plan weight of 11.3 lb.
In July 1Q50 the original seven designs of 11- and 13-in plates on creosoted pine
ties were removed from the inner rail of the test curve at the time the 15-in special
plates for curves were included in the test. At that time 4 of the 419-X plates, 11-in
long, were found bent with offsets ranging from 0.13 to 0.21 in. In June 1954 it was
necessary to replace the softwood ties, and the original test plates were removed from
the outer rail and checked for bending. Only one 419-X plate was found bent moderately
with an offset of 0.06. In a relatively short service period 21 of 90 419-X tie plates
were permanently bent.
From this test, it is concluded that the AREA Plan thicknesses for plates for the
5J/2-in rail base are sufficient for a satisfactory service life, except possibly where there
is severe brine corrosion and heavy traffic density, amounting to much more than the
IC tonnage of approximately 18 million per year.
FATIGUE LIFE OF TIE PLATES FROM ROLLING-LOAD TESTS
In connection with the laboratory tests of tie wear with two 12-in-stroke rolling-
load machines, modified to make repeated load tests on tie pads and hold-down
fastenings, a record was kept of the number of loads imposed on several of the 14-in
tie plates and a few of the 12 -in tie plates for the 6-in rail base width (AREA Plan 12
with the 8-hole symmetrical punching and Plan 9 with the 6-hole staggered punching).
All of the tie plates had a flat bottom, and the tops of the short ties were dressed to
give an even bearing for the tie plates. As the majority of the tests were made with a
30,000-lb wheel load, which was also the tie plate load, the plate life is given in mil-
lions of cycles of that load magnitude. Five of the 14-in tie plates developed cracks in
12.1 to 26.0 million cycles, averaging 16.7 million. Two of the 12-in plates were found
cracked at the end of the first test of 5 million cycles.
Among the 14-in plates which did not develop cracks were two which had been
subjected to 45.0 million cycles of 30,000-lb wheel load of which 89 percent were made
with tie pads. Although the longitudinal bending stress in tie plates at the center line
of the rail base is increased by the pads, there was no evidence that the plate life was
reduced in these laboratory tests in which a constant drip of tap water was used.
Since in these laboratory tests the test conditions were precisely controlled, it is
logical to assume that the wide range of life before developing cracks was influenced
chiefly by the quality of the steel and fabrication.
Acknowledgement
The Association gratefully acknowledges the splendid assistance and cooperation
rendered by the Southern Railway and the Illinois Central.
Track 1035
Report on Assignment 6
Hold-Down Fastenings for Tie Plates, Including Pads Under
Plates; Their Effect on Tie Wear
Collaborating with Committee 3
J. S. Parsons (chairman, subcommittee), J. E. Armstrong, F. J. Bishop, M. C. Bitner,
J. R. Bowman, J. C. Brennan, E. W. Caruthers, H. B. Christianson, W. K. Cornell,
E. D. Cowlin, F. W. Creedle, R. G. Garland, L. H. Jentoft, T. R. Klingel, L. W.
Leitze, C. J. McConaughv, M. P. Oviatt, J. M. Rankin, J. A. Reed, M. K. Rup-
pert, J. M. Salmon, Jr., T. R. Snodgrass, R. W. Tew, Troy West.
This is a progress report, presented as information, covering the service test installa-
tions of hold-down fastenings, tie pads, etc., on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad and
the Illinois Central Railroad.
The investigation is being carried out by the AAR research staff under the genera,
direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research. H. E. Durham, research
engineer track, is in direct charge of this assignment and is being assisted by members
of his staff.
TEST ON THE LOUISVILLE & NASHVILLE RAILROAD
Foreword
These tests are being conducted primarily for the purpose of determining the effec-
tiveness and economy of various types of hold-down fastenings, tie pads, etc., as related
to tie life, regaging and readzing. The original test sections in the northward main
between London and East Bernstadt, Ky., were installed in August 1947 and are
described in the Proceedings, Vol. 50, 1949, pages 595-623. The traffic density was ap-
proximately 20 million gross tons annually through 1053 and 15.5 million gross tons
per year since 1953. Subsequent reports cover progress of the test, including addition:
and revisions, the last previous report being in Vol. 58, 1957, pages 852-877. The line
was completely dieselized in November 1956. Figs. 1 and 2 and Tables 1 and 2 give
the location and description of all the test sections.
Maintenance
After a careful inspection of all fastenings it was determined that their condition
did not warrant a general retightening. The maintenance work, performed in September
1957, was therefore limited to the elastic spikes in section 13 of the pine tangent and
AAR clips with screw spikes in section 17 of the oak tangent.
In section 13 of the pine tangent the elastic spikes were tapped down in all 89
plates still in the test, and it was necessary to reverse the stagger in 8 plates. One
broken spike was replaced. Prior maintenance of a limited nature was carried oul in
1951, 1952, and 1953. This prior wink, together with the 1957 work, makes 131 percent
maintenance carried out since the section was installed in 1047.
Due to a derailment in 1«55, 12 of the ties in section 17 of the oak tangent have
been removed from the test, leaving 35 test tics with AAR clips and screw spikes or
126 fastenings applied to the rail. This out-of-face retightening developed 28 stripped
spikes or 22 percent in the 35 remaining tics. When retightcned in 1953. 14 spikes wen
found stripped; of which 4 were in ties replaced in 1955. Spot maintenance was carried
out in 1951 and 1952, which together with the 1953 and 1057 tightening makes 216
percent total maintenance since installation in 1947.
(Text continued on page t040 I
1036
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10.? 9
Fig. 2- Plan of Test IrccK
TAIH-E 2. DESCRIPTION OF TEST SECTH>N> SHOWN IN FIG. 2.
Section
No. Of Creo.
Date
Hun ber and Type of Hold-Down Fastenings per Tie Plate and Tie Pad
No.
Oak Ties
Built
AREA Flat Bottom 14-in Tie Plates. 131-lb RE Rail
37
48
7-5U
2 each of cut spikes for line and anchors
-
48
6-52
Achuff sisal fiber pads, uncoated (Original Pads placed 7-50, Hurl 9el installed 6-52)
J9
22
7-50
Johns-Manville rubber-vegetable and asbestos fiber pads, uncoated (North 22 ties)
39
22
11-51
Johns -Manvi lie rubber-comp. pads with coaling on the bottom side, replacing original J M.
pads placed 7-50
4
24
7-50
Ta\ lor Fibre Company's rubber-vulcanized fiber laminated pa. Is (North 24 Lies]
40
24
5-56
Bird 5-ply LD pads (Jute), coated (on 1950 lies)
41
23
7-5H
Fabco pads, uncoated (North 23 ties)
41
12
7-51
Fabco pads with an oxidized asphalt coating compound on the bottom side. (These p
placed pads placed in 7-50 w ith Baker's K-2 cement on the itton Idi
41
12
7-50
Fabco pads coated on both sides with Raker's S-72 cement (South 12 ties)
42
48
7-50
Dunne Rubber Company's molded rubber pad, 1/8-in thick uncoated
43
47
7-50
2 each of cut spikes for line and Racor Studs for anchors
46
24
11-51
Racor rubber-fiber pad, ill
46
25
11-51
Racor rubber -lib. r pad with asphaltic coating on both 1 !
47
li
6-52
Burkart liber pads, coated dn botton ilde
53
13
6-55
Nox-Hust tie seals undei tie Pi k He approximate!) l - In thtck|
54
"
6-55
Railroad Rubber Products natural rubber pads 1/4-ln thick, uncoated. I •'. idled surfaces of
the south 10 ties were coated *ilh Super Seal, a liquid rubber Bealani
55
.15
6-55
Johns-Manville (iber-ru bo not coated
56
jr.
6-55
FaU-.. pads, bottom coaled. 1/4-ln thick on north 18 ties and 1/8-ln thick on south 18 tics
57
24
.
2 each of cut spikes for line and Spring- Loks lor anchors
571
Total
All pad sections haw 2 each of cut line and anchor spikes. All section*, except Nos. 46 and 47. were Installed »uh new
AREA Plan 12 tie plates. Sections 4fi and 47 haw SH 14-ln AREA Plan SB tie plaits. Plan SB *as withdraw D Iron, the
Manual In 1948.
Each test section has an oval tag on the north tie showing the section nun. ber, and every tenth tie from the north has a
smaller lag showing the tie number.
1040 Track
Gage of Test Curves
Gage of the test sections on the two 4^-deg curves is shown in Fig. 3. The special
tie plate fastenings in sections 14 to 17, incl., have continued to hold good gage since
installation in 1947. The excess gage widening in the north half of section 16 was caused
by changing out one rail in outer rail of the curve, September 1953. The five-year-old
tests of Racor pads and/or studs in sections 48 and 49 also have good gage. In many
of the cut spike sections the gage has not changed much in the past year, while in
others the irregularity has been increased. The scatter of the gage measurements in sec-
tions 18 and 19 with the Erie 13 in plates is a characteristic of the single shoulder
tie plates.
The short 4^-deg curve continues to have good gage in section 26 with the 13-in
DL&W double-shoulder, diamond-bottom tie plates and only 3 cut spikes per plate. The
previous regaging in section 21 with Fabco pads and in the north portion of section
25 has been influenced by a cross swing on the curve.
Fig. 4 shows the gage measurements on the 5-deg curve at East Bernstadt. The
irregularity of the gage has increased in some of the sections at the joints. A moderate
gage widening occurred during the last year in about one panel of track in section 53
and the north part of section 54. Many of the Achuff fiber pads show major damage,
but the gage widening the last year was less than that of the control section 37.
Tie Wear Measurements
The tie pad installations are still generally effective in protecting ties from abrasion
by the plates, hence the tie penetration readings were obtained in June and July 1957
only on those sections having hold-down fastenings and coatings on the adzed surfaces.
The results of those measurements are contained in Table 3. This year Columns (3)
give the percentage of maintenance work performed on the hold-down fastenings, instead
of percent af loose tie plates, as heretofore. For the service shown in gross tons of traffic,
the tie plate fastenings can be appraised as to efficiency for reducing tie wear and to
economy of their maintenance. The last previous table was reported in Vol. 55, pages
734-736, covering field data obtained in 1953.
Table 4 shows a comparison of the 1947 installations of hold-down fastenings and
coatings using section 2 with only cut line spikes for controls. The order of effectiveness
of the fastenings is still comparable with that in 1953 as reported in Vol. 55, page 737
with the through bolts showing up best, particularly on the oak ties. Included in the
best group in order of efficiency are the AAR spring rail clips, tie plate lock spikes (on
the long Al/2 -deg curve only), dowel studs and screw spikes with double-coil spring
washers in section 16. The next group includes round head cut spikes with single-coil
washers, elastic spikes, Oliver hold-down spikes with double-coil spring washers and
Oliver tie plate drive spikes with single-coil spring washers (on tangent only). The per-
formance of the Racor studs can best be appraised in the 5-deg curve at East Bernstadt
where the studs have reduced plate cutting about 40 percent.
Sections 2 and 9, with cut spike construction, may be used for comparison of tie
wear on curves and tangent portions of the tests. The tie wear on the long 4J^-deg
curve was approximately 22 percent greater on the outer rail than on the inner rail.
For both rails, the tie wear of creosoted oak ties on the long curve was 13 percent
greater than for oak ties on tangent track. In tangent track, the creosoted pine ties were
plate cut 17 percent more than the oak ties. The percentages have increased slightly
since penetration measurements were taken in 1953. In section 37, cut spike construc-
tion, on the 5-deg curve, the excess tie wear on the inner rail was 11 percent compared
Track
1041
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Track 1043
with 30 percent in 1953. This reduction may have been influenced by the higher speed
brought about by the complete changeover to diesel operation.
In Table 3 section 24 with Rails Company compression clips on alternate ties and
section 31 with G&H controls, No-Creep rail anchors on alternate ties were subdivided
as to the two kinds of construction to show differences in plate cutting. The com-
pression clips in section 24 showed the following percentages of excess wear over that
for ties without clips: 16 on curve and 10 on pine ties on tangent track with the ties
without clips having 6 percent more wear than those with clips on oak ties on tangent
track. On the anchored ties in section 31 (tangent track with oak ties), each tie plate
had one cut line spike and two Oliver tie plate drive spikes for anchors. The other ties
had two cut line spikes only. The excess wear of the anchored ties over the unanchored
ties was 8 percent.
Comparison of tie wear of 14-in versus 13 -in length plates may be made from the
values shown for sections 2i and 9 (Table 3). The ratio of the 13-in to 14-in length
is 0.93. The inverse ratios of the respective values of average plate cutting are as fol-
lows: creosoted oak ties in the long 4^-deg curve, 0.80; creosoted oak ties in tangent,
0.88; and creosoted pine ties in tangent, 1.10. The 1953 measurements showed these
ratios to be 0.°2, 0.Q4 and 1.10 respectively. The 1957 data show an improvement in
favor of the 14-in plates on the oak ties, both curve and tangent, with the ratios
remaining the same and unfavorable in the pine ties. These ratios may have been
distorted because of the variability of the ties in short sections 23, having one track
panel instead of two.
The adzed surface coatings in Table 3 show some evidence of reduction in tie plate
cutting compared with the control sections. The best results appear to have been ob-
tained in section 1.5, tangent track with the plates cemented to the ties before application
of the creosote. Table 4 shows the order of effectiveness of these materials. No con-
clusions as to the reduction in plate cutting in these short sections having 3 to 12 ties
are justified because of the variability of the wood ties.
A comparison of installations made subsequent to 1947 is shown in Table 5. Of
the adhesives, it will be noted that section }<}> with material applied under laboratory
conditions is showing good results although not conclusive considering the few ties in-
volved. Of the hold-down fastenings, the Racor studs in section 43 of the 5-deg curve
have continued to be effective by reducing tie wear 41 percent for the 7-year period.
The tie plate lock spikes in section 34 on tangent with oak ties reduced plate cutting
30 percent during the 8-year service period. Neither of these two sections has had any
normal maintenance expense tapping down the hold-down fastenings, except the Racor
studs were driven home in 1951 with an air hammer because they could not be driven
down to the proper position manually when the section was installed in 1Q50.
The adzed surface coatings in sections 50 and 52 (Table 5) show a 15 percent reduc-
tion in tie wear. No final conclusions should be made from the present data which are
based on a short service period and sections with only 24 ties. The Nordberg pegs in
section 51 showed practically no benefit. The pegs are in poor condition because of
tapping them down each year.
The plate cutting in section 35, where a heavy paddle coat of Koppers No. 16 seal-
ing compound was applied to all of the adzed surfaces before inserting the new ties, is
shown as 24 percent less than control section 2. This section had SH 13-in tie plates
with a waffle bottom which may have trapped the compound under the tie plates. This
maj have influenced plate cutting while the coating was confined by the waffle pattern.
Final appraisal of the efficiency of the coating as to reducing plate cutting of the 1950
creosoted oak ties should be withheld for a longer test period.
(Text continued on page 1048)
1044
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Track
TABLE 4. RELATIVE TIE WEAR OF THE 1947 TEST INSTALLATIONS WITH HOLD-
DOWN FASTENINGS AND COATINGS ON THE L. & N. R. R. , NEAR LONDON, KY.
(The average tie plate penetration for both rails in section 2 for each category has been used as
controls, or 100 percent. All tie plates are 13 in long with flat bottom, except as noted otherwise.)
Sect.
41/2°C1
Tan
Tan
Com-
No.
Description
Oak
Oak
Pine
posite
Hold-Down Fastenings
2
No anchor spikes (control section)
100
100
100
100
15
2 Thru bolts with s.c. spring washers (shop)
25
41
63
43
17
2 AAR spring rail clips with screw spikes
37
49
45
44
13
2 Tie plate lock spikes (N 12 ties)
45
-
-
-
11
2 Dowel studs with d.c. spring washers
44
55
45
48
14
2 Thru bolts with s.c. spring washers (field)
31
41
74
49
16
2 Screw spikes with d.c. spring washers
36
49
69
51
10
2 Round head cut spikes with s.c. spring washers
47
64
62
58
13
2 Elastic spikes
51
60
65
59
12
2 Oliver hold-down drive spikes with d.c. spring washers
56
66
64
62
22
2 Oliver tie plate drive spikes with s.c. spring washers
68 '
61
-
(b) 19
Erie s.s. dia. bot. tie plates with 2 screw spikes, d.c. washers
75
-
-
-
(a) 6
2 Cut spikes for line and 2 Racor studs for anchors
-
76
77
-
23
L&N std. , 14" plates with 2 each cut spikes for line and anchor
s 74
80
107
87
24
L&N alt. std., 14" plates, Rails Co. clips on alternate ties
78
83
100
87
9
2 Cut spikes (N. 10 pine ties excluded)
92
91
101
97
(c) 9
2 Cut spikes with rubber cushions N. 10 ties
-
-
92
-
(b)18
Erie single shoalder dia. bottom tie plates, no anchors
96
96
106
99
Tie Coatings and Adhesives
1.5
N.T. 442 and R. S. 216 cements attached in shop
89
62
61
71
1.1
Beckosol No. 40
81
65
81
76
1.2
AREA waterproofing asphalt
91
69
81
81
1.3
N.T. 442 cement applied in field
-
81
85
-
1.4
N.T. 442 and R. S. 216 cements applied in field
94
72
92
86
(a) This section was changed from 2 Racor Drive-Tight line spikes 12-1-49.
(b) The penetration data include partial cutting of the ribs on diamond bottom plates in sections
18 and 19.
(c) Rubber anchor spike cushions were added to N. 10 pine ties 12-13-49.
Track
1047
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104S Track
GENERAL INSPECTION
This year the Track committee held its spring meeting at Cincinnati, Ohio, on May
IS, 1957, and on the following day met at London, Ky., and inspected some of the test
sections during the 5-hr period between L&N trains Nos. 33 and 32. Forty-five Track
committee members and guests attended the inspection and luncheon. Six tie pads were
removed, photographed and inspected (Figs. 5-10). Two special fastenings, the Racor
studs and Spring Lags (section 57 in the 5-deg test curve) were pulled and examined.
The party walked over the three test curves and the southerly portion of the test
tangent. On the previous afternoon T. G. Gill, chief, Seasoning and Preservation Section,
Timber Engineering Company, and a member of the AAR research staff checked the two
sections (35 and 36) having the Koppers' No. 16 sealing compound applied to the hard-
wood ties to reduce checking, splitting and weathering of the timber. Mr. Gill also
served as the photographer during the Committee's visit.
A description of the conditions observed in Figs. 5 to 10, incl., has been included
in the titles. Fig. 5 shows one of the oldest Racor tie pads in this test, which was in
good condition after 5% years of service. The inspection made in Figs. 6 and 7 of the
1955 pads was to check the pad seal with the ties. The Fabco pad had a good seal after
23 months of service, but the J-M pad was not sealed. Figs. 8 and 9 were taken of the
Bird laminated pads on the long 4^2 -deg test curve. Both pads had a good seal with
the tie, although the pad in Fig. 9 was selected to represent the performance of a
damaged pad. The dual construction of Racor studs and pads in Fig. 10, section 48,
has provided good protection for the 5-year-old ties. Because of the limited time between
trains, no other specimens were removed from the track. The L&N furnished auto trans-
portation between London, Ky., and the test track.
During the week of June 17, 1957 members of the AAR research staff made a
detailed inspection of all the test installations and recorded the deficiencies, etc. During
a part of June and July 1957, measurements were made of tie abrasion in all sections,
except those having pads only. These data will be presented and discussed later.
Based on the service tests of varying length (as shown in years in the parentheses
following each pad designation), the following tie pads have shown the better per-
formance: Bird fiber-rubber (8 and 5) ; Fabco (10, 9, 7, 6, and 2) ; Bird 5 and 7-ply
duck-burlap (9 and 8); Burkart fiber (5); Dunne molded rubber (7); Racor fiber-
rubber (5.7 and 5); and Bird Vinyl pads (5). The two-year old pads in sections 54, 55
and 56 are satisfactory.
Tie Coating
Sections 35 and 36 were established in July 1950 when Koppers No. 16 sealing
compound was applied to the top and ends of new and existing creosoted hardwood
ties to investigate its capacity for retarding the splitting, checking and weathering of
the timber. In section 35, which included 120 new ties, the coating was applied to all
adzed surfaces before placing the ties and on top of the odd-numbered ties, leaving the
even-numbered ties for controls. In addition, the ends of the coated ties in the south
half of the section received an application of the coating. In section 36, consisting of
118 existing ties, the tops of all ties were coated and also the ends of the south 58 ties.
All coated ties were sprinkled with %-'m washed gravel for a protective covering. The
test sections are located in fast tangent track laid with 131 -lb rail, 6-hole joints and
13 -in waffle-bottom tie plates. The weather at the time of inspection was mild and dry,
although a light shower fell three days prior to the inspection and there was a very
(Text continued on page 1052)
Track
1049
r rs
Fig. 5 — South portion section 46, 14-in Racor tie pad, coated, 66 months
of service, inner rail, 5-deg curve. Pad was not sealed but the under-pad
area was clean. There was a little compression of the tie at the field end
of the tie plate but no abrasion. Pad was in good condition.
Fig. 6 — Section 55, 14-in Johns-Manville fiber-rubber pad, J/4 in thick,
bottom coated, 23 months of service, inner rail, 5-deg curve. Pad had no
bond with tie and some sand under it, but was in good condition. There was
no tie abrasion.
1050
Track
~*-+i
Fig. 7 — North portion section 56, 14-in Fabco fiber-rubber pad, % in
thick, bottom coated, 23 months of service, inner rail, 5-deg curve. Pad had
a good seal with the tie and was in good condition.
Fig. 8 — South portion section 4, 13-in Bird 5-ply duck-burlap tie pad,
coated, 105 months of service, outer rail, long 4y2-deg curve. Pad was about
80 percent sealed with good bond. Pad condition was good, except for a
small extrusion at the field end
Track
1051
Fig. 9 — South portion section 5, 13-in Bird 7-ply duck-felt pad, coated,
117 months of service, inner rail, long 4I/4-deg curve. This pad was delami-
nated and the top three plies were dislocated and torn. The bottom 4 plies
had kept about 80 percent of the plate area sealed with a good bond. There
was some compression of the springwood but no abrasion. This is one of the
oldest pads in this test.
Fig. 10 — Section 48, 14-in Racor fiber-rubber tie pad coated, 2 Racor
studs, 57 months of service, outer rail, long 4J/2-deg curve. Three-fourths
of the pad area was sealed and clean. Some of the debris in the picture
was dropped in removing the pad. The pad was in good condition.
1052
Track
light shower the night previous. In general, the weather during the spring was about
normal for the area and temperature on the day of inspection was about 75 deg.
The efficiency index of the coating for keeping the splits covered was determined
from the number of splits % in wide or larger on the top end faces of the ties. The
efficiency factors for the new ties in section 35 were obtained from the following
formula:
♦Efficiency, percent =100
[::
umber of checks in coated ties
umber of checks in uncoated ties.
Xioo.
Because all of the existing ties were coated in section 36, the original number of
splits in the ties before being coated was used for computing the efficiency factors.
Values of the coverage efficiency of the coating for the seven-year test are tabulated
below:
Section 35—1950 Ties
Percent
Category 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957
All coated ties 75 74 76 52 52 53 58
Ties coated on top only 70 63 73 48 45 47 53
Ties coated on top and ends 79 85 80 55 60 60 63
Section 36 — Existing Ties
Percent
Category 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957
All coated ties 82 82 70 48 55 48 48
Ties coated on top only 64 75 61 36 44 40 43
Ties coated on top and ends 97 89 79 60 66 56 54
Since the abrupt drop of efficiency factors in 1954, there has been little change.
These factors in 1957 for the ties coated on top only were 53 and 43 percent for the
1950 and existing ties, respectively, which is a slight increase over 1956 and no doubt
reflects the effect of the increase in moisture content of the ties.
Measurements of moisture content of the top J4 in of the ties were made with a
Delmhorst moisture detector to determine the efficiency of the coating for retaining the
moisture in the top portion of the ties. To compare the coated existing ties in section
36 with those not coated, moisture readings were taken in existing ties adjacent to
the south end of the section. These data are summarized in the table below in percent
of the weight of oven-dry wood.
Section 35 Section 36
1950 Ties Existing Ties
Date Coated Uncoated Difference Coated Uncoated Difference
July 1951 16.5 10.2 6.3
June 1952 20.6 10.9 9.7 29.8 12.3 17.5
July 1953 18.5 11.8 6.7 24.7 11.5 13.2
July 1954 11.9 9.3 2.6 12.2 8.8 3.4
June 1955 13.1 11.5 1.6 14.0 11.6 2.4
June 1956 13.6 9.1 4.5 15.6 8.0 7.6
May 1957 16.9 11.3 5.6 18.5 9.3 9.2
The average moisture content of the coated ties continues to be higher than for
uncoated ties with this difference being more pronounced for the existing ties than for
the 1950 ties. In 1957, the moisture content of the coated 1950 ties was about 50 per-
* The formula for efficiency was published in error by inverting the fraction in Vol. 58, 19S7,
page 856.
Track 1053
cent higher than that of the uncoated ties, and it was approximately double in the
coated existing ties as compared to the uncoated tics. The differential between the coated
and uncoated ties increased slightly for both sections in 1957 compared with 1956. The
increase in moisture content of the ties in both test sections since 1956 may have been
influenced by having more rainfall in the week before the 1957 inspection than in the
previous year.
The coverage efficiency factors for the 1950 ties have increased during the past year
whereas those of the existing ties have held steady. The better results continue to be
obtained from the installation of new ties in section 35.
Although four of the ties in section 36 have been replaced since 1956, for reasons
not pertinent to the test, the appearance of the ties and coatings has changed little
during the last few years. The 1957 examination and data seem to dictate that the test be
continued in both sections without further coating at this time.
Because of soft roadbed, these sections are surfaced out-of-face each year. In un-
loading and plowing the ballast, a portion of the coating was abraded off the ties. This
operation, together with normal deterioration, removed more of the coating from the
existing ties than from the 1950 ties.
Because the economy of coating existing ties that have already developed major
splits is doubtful, it is not planned to recoat the ties in section 36. Next year considera-
tion will be given to "patching" the coating on the 1950 ties in section 35. A record
will be made of all tie renewals in this section from which the average tie life can be
estimated and compared with the L&N experience without coatings in the same locality
or with the tie renewals in some of the comparable AAR-L&N test sections, as in
sections 2 and 9.
Tie Pads
Next year more information will be published on the tie pad tests.
With the two new custom built tie wear machines to be installed in the new AAR
Engineering Laboratory Building (No. 3) at the Research Center, valuable information
will be developed in making tests of the several tie pads and of the hold-down fastenings
later. The rolling-load tests of tie pads made in previous years were inconclusive because
of the lack of pulsating lateral forces on the rail.
It has been developed that the Compound No. 8, Tylife, which was tested in Sec-
tion 02, and which test was discontinued as indicated in Vol. 58, 1957, page 854, was
actually Compound No. 9. The developer of both compounds No. 8 and No. 9 states
that his licensee without his knowledge at that time substituted the cheaper No. 9 for
No. 8. Compound No. 9 is a water soluble material employing urea adhesive as its
principal ingredient and while indoor tests proved its worth, outdoor tests on the Erie
Railroad proved it had no value as a protective or adhesive. Compound No. 8 using
Resorcinol or Penacolite, has proven, when installed in spike-killed ties and in bridge
and switch timber, on several other railroads, to have a very useful as well as econom'c
value and can be recommended for such applications. The developer of Tylife No. 8
now controls the manufacturing of this product and in fairness to him this note is
inserted.
1054 Track
TEST OF HOLD DOWN FASTENINGS ON THE ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD
NORTH OF MANTENO, ILL.
Foreword
In May 1957 the AAR research staff obtained tie plate penetration measurements
in the middle main track of the Illinois Central where that railroad had installed in
1943 a test of hold-down fastenings in three miles of track laid with new ties and 131
RE rail, north of Manteno, 111. This test includes one mile each of creosoted pine, gum
and oak ties. Each mile is divided equally with two lengths of tie plates, and each
Yz mile includes seven arrangements of hold-down fastenings. The track is operated in
both directions carrying traffic which consists largely of passenger trains and the higher
speed freight trains. The last report on this service test was published in the Proceedings,
Vol. 57, 1956, page 733.
Tie Abrasion
The tie wear measurements obtained in May 1957 for the 19 test rails in the 3
miles of track are shown in Table 6 which gives a summary of these data and per-
centages of loose plates, loose double-coil spring washers and stripped screw spikes. The
traffic during the 12.6-year test period has been 178 million gross tons, an increase of
29 million since April 1955.
In the sections with pine ties and 13 -in tie plates, the rate of tie wear, with respect
to the control section without anchor spikes, was about the same as shown in the last
report, except that moderate increases in the rate occurred in the 2 sections having
4 screw spikes. Earlier in this test the screw spike sections with double-coil spring wash-
ers were more effective in reducing plate cutting. There is little difference in the plate
cutting now in corresponding sections with and without the washers. There is no doubt
that the variability in the condition of the pine ties in the short test sections has been
a major influence on the relative performance of the 7 arrangements of anchor spikes
on the pine ties with 13 -in tie plates. In the section with pine ties, 2 screw spikes and
14^-in tie plates, the tie wear of 61 percent of the control section indicates the anchor
spikes are still effective. From these tests and others being conducted by the AAR
research staff with the cooperation of the Member Roads, there is evidence that 4 anchor
spikes per plate are uneconomical.
The screw spikes and double-coil washers were fairly effective in the mile with gum
ties. In the mile with oak ties, the tie wear with the screw spikes ranged from 62 to
73 percent. A 30 to 40 percent reduction in plate cutting by the screw spikes in this
test is judged to be reasonably good performance.
These data are not satisfactory for comparing the plate cutting as to tie plate
length, because the 13-in design had a flat bottom and the 14^-in plate had a wave
bottom which accelerated the plate settlement during the early part of the test.
Based on the tie wear of all of the cut spike sections with 13-in plates, the gum
and oak ties had 39 and 41 percent less abrasion, respectively, than that of the pine
ties. The corresponding values for the 14)4 ~m plates are 23 and 37 percent. Averaging
the data for the two plate lengths, the tie wear was 31 and 39 percent less than that
of the pine ties for the gum and oak ties, respectively. Because of the short test sec-
tions, the relative plate cutting of the three species of wood may have been found to
be different by some of the Member Roads.
Maintenance of Way Report
The screw spikes were retightened out-of-face with power wrenches late in 1955.
The IC advised that approximately 20 percent of the hold-down fastenings were stripped
Track
1055
TABLE G - SERVICE TEST OF MECHANICAL WEAR OF TIES WITH TWO DESIGNS OF TIE PLATES
AND THREE KINOSOF TIES IN THE WEST RAIL OF THE MIDDLE MAIN TRACK OF THE ILLINOIS
CENTRAL SYSTEM, BETWEEN M. V. C-42ANDM.P. C-45, NORTH OF MANTENO, ILLINOIS
Tangent Track - Traffic in both directions. New 131
All ties 7 in. by 9 in. by 8 ft. (i in. renewed in 1943.
lb. RE rail »uh six-hole joints bud in 1013.
Kind of
Cross Ties
Number and Kind
of Anchor Spikes
per
Tie Plate
Tie Plate Penetration inO.00]
in. Octobei L944t0 May 1957
(178 Million Cress Tens)
Endol Tie Plates
§ s
- 5
(2 %
7 3/4 in. by 13 in. by 27/32 in. double shoulder tic plates, rolled circular crown, 1 40 ' cant,
flat bottom, level shoulder extensions, eccentricity 1 I in., AREA Plan No. 5B.
C-43
C-43
C-43
C-43
C-43
C-43
C-43
C-44
C-44
C-4 5
C-45
C-4 5
Creo. Pine
Creo. Pine
Creo. Pine
Creo. Pine
Creo. Pine
Creo. Pine
Creo. Pine
Creo. Gum
Creo. Gilm
Creo. Oak
Creo. Oak
Creo. Oak
None
4 S.S.
2 S.S.
4 S.S. withd.c. washers
2 S.S. with d.c. washers
4 Cut Spikes
2 Cut Spikes
None - — —
2 S.S. withd.c. washers
None —
2 S.S. with d.c. washers
2 Cut Spikes
235
216
184
21C
17 5
197
193
141
206
274
212
268
229
15! I
100
8]
1 11
250
2 15
203
240
194
232
211
1 12
88
1 11
loo
74
98
31
si
38
96
11
24
78
38
36
93
59
84
68
1 00
75
62
18
5
Kill
71
62
0
7
112
11
1/2 in. by 14 3/4 in. by 31/32 in double shoulder tie plates, rolled circular crown,
l:40icant, wave bottom, tapered shoulder extensions, eccentricity 1/2 in.,
Penna. R. R. Standard.
C-43
C-43
C-44
('- 11
C-45
C-45
C-45
Creo. Pine
Creo. Pine
Creo. Gum
Creo. Gum
Creo. Oak
Creo. Oak
Creo. Oak
None — —
2 S.S. with d.c. washers
None — — - —
2 S.S. with d.c. washers
None
2 S.S. with d.c. washers
2 Cut Spikes
201
134
162
122
LI 8
104
153
242
138
177
118
139
85
152
222
136
170
120
128
94
152
100
G8
61
35
22
1 00
64
71
9
7
100
50
73
5
7
119
77
'S.S. = Screw Spike. All tie plates have 15'lli in. dia. anchor spike holes.
in the pine ties, but they were holding well in the oak and gum ties. Because of crush-
ing and ring separation in the pine ties, a total of 6 ties was removed in 3 of the test
panels with 13-in plates.
General Remarks
In general, more than two-thirds of the tie pads purchased by the railroads have
been used on open-deck bridge ties, which are largely made of softwood. It appears
from this 10-year old test that (1) pads having a lon^ lasting seal are essential for
obtaining maximum softwood tie life, (2) some of the hold-down fastenings are less
effective in softwood ties than in hard wood and (3) tie pads with special hold-down
1056 Track
fastenings as in section 48, should have a longer service life than with cut spike
construction.
The tests have indicated that some of the adzed surface coatings have affected some
reduction in tie wear. However, a longer test period is required before conclusions are
justified.
Acknowledgement
The Association is indebted to the L&N and the IC for their excellent cooperation
and assistance in carrying out the service tests, and also is grateful to the supply
companies for the aid furnished by them.
Report on Assignment 7
Effect of Lubrication in Preventing Frozen Rail Joints
and Retarding Corrosion of Rail and Fastenings
R. G. Garland (chairman, subcommittee), John Ayer, Jr., E. G. Brisbin, T. F. Burris,
W. E. Cornell, W. E. Griffiths, G. W. Miller, L. A. Pelton, J. M. Rankin, M. K.
Ruppert, G. R. Sproles, R. E. Tew, Troy West, B. J. Worley.
This report of progress, offered as information, covers the 7-year service test of
some of the 1950 applications of metal preservatives in the northward main and a 4-
year investigation of the spray method of preserving joints in both main tracks of the
Illinois Central Railroad.
This investigation is being made by the AAR research staff under the general direc-
tion of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research. H. E. Durham, research engineer
track, is in direct charge of the field tests and is being assisted by other members of
his staff.
Introduction
This subject was last reported in the Proceedings, Vol. 58, 1957, page 878, and is
being continued to observe some of the 1950 applications to the joints in the northward
main and to develop the final results of the spray method of rail joint preservation used
in both main tracks of the IC in the vicinity of Chebanse and Ashkum, 111.
This report includes the measurement of the rail gaps during the last winter and the
results of the inspection made by the subcommittee August 28, 1957. During the last
service period of 13 months for both main tracks, the gross tons of traffic carried by
the northward and southward mains, respectively, was 32 and 21.5 million. Since August
1950 when the initial measurements were taken, the northward main has carried 220
million gross tons of traffic. Since September 1955, the southward main has carried 42
million gross tons of traffic. Fig. 1 shows the location and description of the 10 sections
installed in the 1950 rail of the northward main, except sections 3 and 10 which were
changed from brush coat to spray coat, July 1955, as indicated in Fig. 1. Spray coat
test sections in the southward main are located between mile posts 74 and 76, each
containing y2 mile of rail with numbers from 11-E and W to 12-E and 14-W.
Rail Joint Gaps
The last winter rail gap measurements taken February 20, 1957, are shown by the
bar diagrams in Fig. 2 for the sections in the northward main that have not been dis-
continued and in Fig. 3 for the spray sections on miles 75 and 76 of the southward main
which is laid with 1944 — 131 RE rail and 6-hole headfree joint bars.
Track
1057
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1058
Track
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0
e inn 3 S v2 M..e 66 (3-W)
Tc.oco 941, Spray Coot ( 53,54, 55)
Ra.l Temi l8° Avg Jo.nt Gop 0 24
n n n n n
XL
Sect.on 3 S '/j Mile 66 (East Roii)(3'E)
Borcole No 600, Spray Coat t'53,'54)
Roil Temp 18° Avg Joint Gop 0 24
n fl fl n n n
JO-
Section 6 N -2 Mile 68
No Lubncaton, No End Plugs
Roil Temp 19° Avg Jo.nt Gop 0 24"
Section 7 S 'z M.ie 75
Joints Pocked wiih Texoco 905 Grease
Plastic H 1n<i Plug'.
Rail Temp 20° Ajg Jon,: Got 0 29"
XL
H_J1
n n
JUL
XL
Secimn R N v2 Mile 76
Joints Po'ked with Petroioljm (Darki
Plastic h End Plugs
Ran Temp 20° Ava Jomt Gap 0 28"
Section to N \ Mile 77
Texaco TA-2420, Spray Coot(i953)
Rail Temt 16° Avg Jomt Gap 0 24"
Resprayea win RCX 236 (1954, 1955)
RJL
LUL
JLn
— — OJ 00 rO r*0 <? C in iTt OJ> O O — — <v CO rO fO^^T
Joint Gap in Hundredths of an inch
Fig. 2. Joint Gop Meosuremenls for Rail Jomt Lubrication Test, February 20,1957
IC.RR Chebanse to Donforth, III
Section 7 with the joints packed with Texaco 90S graphite grease, shown in Fig. 2,
continued to have a little better joint gap uniformity than the other sections shown
for the northward main. Sections 3-W, 3-E and 10 shown in the figure have not been
recently resprayed and, therefore, the rail gap patterns were not influenced appreciably
by the spray material used in those sections.
Fig. 3 includes the rail gap diagrams for four sections in the west rail and two in
the east rail of the southward main. Sections 11-W and 11— E are the respective control
sections, without lubrication, for the two rails. No section in the southward main had
much uniformity of rail gap width. A comparison of the rail gap patterns of the four
sections in the west rail for the last two winters indicates that section 11-W had less
rail gap uniformity in 19S7 and sections 12-W, 13-W and 14-W remained the same.
As indicated in previous reports, the lubricants and metal preservatives have not been
a significant factor in promoting rail gap uniformity.
Because the chief purpose of this test is now one of establishing the service life
of the several spray compounds with respect to arresting corrosion on the rail and joint,
the rail gap measurements have been discontinued.
Maintenance-of-Way Report
During the last service period the IC reported that all of the bolts in sections 1-10,
incl., were retightened. The number of loose bolts reported are as follows: (1) N.B.
Track
1059
West Roil, except as noted below - Southward Mom, 1944- 131 RE, 6-H HF Joint Bars
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
c l0
§ 0
l 90
c 80
£70
S 60
c 50
•? 40
0 30
_ 20
1 10
2 0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Section II N \ M,le 75 l""Wl
No LubnCOIion
Roil Temp 1 3° Avg Joint Gap 0 26"
H_n
n n n 0 n n
Secon n N 5^ Mile 75 (Cast Ra.l)(HE>
No Lubrication
Roil Temp 1 3° Avq Jomt Goo 0 2l"
n 11 n 11 11 n n n
Section 12 S '^Mile 75 (I2'W!
Texaco No 1965, Spray Coat ('55,56)
Rail Temp 13° Avg Jo.nl Gap 0 25"
Section 12 S \ Mile 75 (Eost Ra.l)(l2-E)
No Ox id No 20i Spray Coat ('561
Rail Temp 13 Avg Joint Gap 0.25
n n n n n fl n
EL
n n r, n
n n n
n n
Section 13 N JfcMile 76 (I3W)
Conoco No 151, Spray Coal ('55,'56)
Ran Temp 1 3 Avq Jomi Gap 0 26
Section 14 S V2Mile 76 04-w)
No -Ox -Id No 100, Sproy Cool ('55)
Rail Temp 13° Avg Joint Gap 0 27''
JLa
n n
n n n n n n n
n n
— — OJCorOrO^JtTJ-ltni^JOO — — OJOJrOiOT^T
Jomt Gop m Hundredths of on inch
Fig. 3 Joml Gop Measurements lor Rail Jomi Lubrication Test , Februorv 20,1957
ICRR Chebanse lo Danforth, III , 1944-131 RE Roil )
main; 2 in section 6 and 3 in section 8, total 5; (2) S.B. main; 1 in section 11-E, 2 in
section 12-W, total 3. The number of broken bolts reported are as follows: (1) N.B.
main; 2 in section 4; (2) S.B. main; 2 in section 11-E and 1 in 12-W, total 3. In this
test a loose bolt is denned as one that has no tension. There were no bolts missing or
stripped joints. During the 7-year test period in the northward main, sections 1-10,
inch, 4.65 miles long, had a total of 8 loose bolts, 6 broken bolts and no stripped joints.
The bolts in the northward main have been retightened on an annual basis with power
wrenches. This is good performance, especially for a track carrying over 300 million
gross tons per annum.
Inspection of Dismantled Joints
Eighteen committee members and guests attended the annual inspection on August
28, 1957. There were present eight representatives of six suppliers and eight representa-
tives of four railroads, exclusive of the CB&Q photographer and a member of the AAR
research staff. The Association extends its thanks to the CB&Q for the service of its
photographer.
Twelve joints were dismantled, photographed and inspected. These joints are shown
in Figs. 4 to 15, incl. A composite photograph showing the top and bottom of the joint
bars and rail ends was included in each figure, except during the rain, only the picture
1060 Track
of the top of bars was taken. Figs. 4 to 8, incl., cover joints in four sections of the 1950
installations of the northward main. Figs. 9 to 15, inch, show the results of preservation
by the spray method. The first group of five figures have added to the titles, comments
on the conditions observed. In Fig. 4 of the joint packed solid with the new formula
RMC plastic joint packing, the material had dried out appreciably and flaked out at
the ends of the joint bars. This indicates that the oil in the packing is being depleted,
and much less of the metal preservative will be exuded in the future. No fatigue cracks
were observed in the rail ends. Fig. 5 shows the condition of a joint that has had no
protection for seven years. There was no damaging corrosion observed. Figs. 6 and 7
show the condition of two joints packed with Texaco 905 grease and Plastic H end
plugs. These joints have had the best protection against corrosion in the 1950 installa-
tions. Although the percent of retained grease in these joints dropped from 66 to 20
during the past year of service, it is believed that the remaining film of grease on the
rail web together with the end plugs will provide good protection for several more years.
As shown in previous reports, the joint in Fig. 8, section 8, packed with Petrolatum
(Dark) had protection inferior to the joints packed with Texaco 905 graphite grease.
In all three packed joints, the bolts have had almost perfect protection against corrosion.
Figs. 9 to 15, incl., cover all of the tests in both main tracks where the spray
method was used. The joint in Fig. 9, section 3-E, was sprayed with Leadolene Barcote
No. 600 twice, and the figure shows the condition three years after the last coat was
applied. This protection is considered satisfactory for protecting the rail web two years
after two annual coats. In Fig. 10, section 3-W, with three annual coats of Texaco 941,
the protection should last another year without respraying. The rail web in Fig. 11, sec-
tion 10, should have one additional year of protection from corrosion before respraying.
The rail web protection in Figs. 12 and 13 with Texaco 1965 and Conoco 151, respec-
tively, should last another year without respraying. The joint in Fig. 14 had one spray
coat of No-Ox-Id 100 applied two years ago, and it is estimated the coating will pro-
vide two more years of protection to the rail web, or a total of four years service with
one coat application. It is conservatively estimated that the coating on the rail web
on the joint in Fig. 15 in section 12-E with No-Ox-Id 201 will provide another year
of protection from corrosion without respraying.
*Spray Method of Joint Preservation
During the past four years, seven spray compounds have been tested in the two IC
main tracks, and the foregoing inspection data provide basic information from which
the relative cost of the compounds per year for protecting the joints from damaging
corrosion can be determined. From the 12-year field investigation, it seems justified to
initially protect joints and bolts in new rail with at least a brush coat of the types of
metal preservatives that have given good performance in the AAR service tests, or
possibly other compounds proven to be effective and economical by the individual rail-
roads. Later, if corrosion and/or frozen joints are a problem, spray applications can be
made to control the condition.
Although the spray method of protecting rail joints has been under investigation
for only four years and no tests were made in old rail with badly frozen joints, the
results indicate that generally the more viscuous metal preservatives at room tempera-
*See Vol. 55, 1954, p. 749; Vol. 56, 1955, p. 860; Vol. 57, 1956, p. 735 and Vol. 58, 1957,
p. 878 for previous reports covering the spray method of rail joint preservation.
(Text continued on page 1067)
Track
1001
Fig. 4 — South portion section 1. Joint packed solid with RMC plastic
packing. The packing was dry and had vibrated out of 1 to 3 joint bar ends
in most of the joints. There was some of the exuded metal preservative on
the rail base for the middle half of the joint. The bolts were well preserved.
Because of the rain a photograph of the bottom of the joint bars was not
taken.
Fig. 5 — Section 6. No lubrication or end plugs. There was no damaging
corrosion on the joint. A small rust slab was noted at the north end of the
gage bar. Present condition will permit full take-up of headfree bars.
1062
Track
Fig. 6 — Section 7. Packed with Texaco 905 graphite grease and Plastic
H end plugs. This joint has the rail gap on a tie plate. Joint bars, rail ends
and bolts are well preserved except for some of the fishing areas. About
20 percent of the grease was left in the joint
Fig. 7 — Section 7. Packed with Texaco 905 graphite grease and Plastic
H end plugs. With the rail gap between the ties, the grease can whip out
when the gap is open. This joint was better preserved than the one in Fig. 6,
particularly on the bottom of the bars. This joint also had about 20 percent
of the grease left in it. The amount of grease that remained in joints of this
section in 1956 was about 66 percent. The joints in section 7 have had the
best protection during the 7-year test.
Track
106.1
Fig. 8 — Section 8. Packed with Stanolind Petrolatum (Dark) and Plastic
H end plugs. Because of its low melting point, most of the grease had run
out of the joint, leaving a thin protective film on the rail ends and part of
the bars. The bolts had good protection. These joints have had good pro-
tection from corrosion and weather but it was inferior to that provided in
section 7.
Fig. 9 — East rail section 3. Three years of service after two annual spray
coats of Leadolene Barcote No. 600.
1064
Track
Fig. 10 — West rail section 3. Two years of service after three
annual coats of Texaco 941.
Fig. 11 — Section 10. Two years of service after one spray coat of Texaco
TA-2420 and two annual coats of Texaco RCX-236.
Track
1065
Fig. 12 — Section 12-W. Thirteen months of service after two annual
spray coats of Texaco 1965 on 1944 rail, SB main.
Fig. 13 — Section 13-W. Thirteen months of service after two annual
spray coats of Conoco 151 on 1944 rail, SB main.
1066
Track
Fig. 14 — Section 14-W. Two years of service after the first spray coat
of No-Ox-Id 100 on 1944 rail, SB main.
Fig. 15 — Section 12-E. Fourteen months of service after the first spray
coat on No-Ox-Id 201 on 1944 rail, SB main.
Track 1067
ture, required fewer spray applications to establish a protective coating against corrosion
that would not require repeated annual spraying. For the purpose of this report the
heavier spray compounds are Texaco 1965, Leadolene Barcote 600 and No-Ox-Id 100
and 201. An exception to this statement is Texaco RCX-236. This is a heavy material
made of Texaco No. 55 and modified by adding a wetting agent. Because the Fairmont
W 61 spray machine did not always provide adequate heat for spraying the RCX-236
through the Spraying Systems Company V<i -in P. 3504 nozzle (which has been used
since August 1955), only the third and last spray coat in this section had the proper
atomization. Two coats with good atomization would have been adequate. This nozzle
is of the flat-jet type with an orifice of 3/64 in. It diverts the spray 40 deg upward
and develops a horizontal spray angle of 41 deg at 100 psi. All spray application work
with this nozzle involved pushing the nozzle into each end of the joint to the second
bolt. This method gave full coverage of the inside of the joints.
Spray materials like No-Ox-Id No. 100 were difficult to heat to the proper tem-
perature in summer time because the W 61 sprayer returned the unused oil to the tank
instead of having a by-pass to heat only the oil used plus a very slight flow back to
the tank. Some of the Member Roads and at least one supplier have another design
of sprayer which can heat efficiently the heavier materials in cooler weather. Incidentally,
one coat of Xo-Ox-Id No. 100 applied to the joints in the 1944 — 131-lb rail of the
southward main in 1955 is estimated to give protection against corrosion of the rail
web for four years.
Service Test in Brine Territory
In 1956 the chief engineer of the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad
very kindly offered to incorporate some of the suggestions of the AAR research staff
in providing protection for rail joints in its northward main (No. 1), 16 miles south
of Washington, D. C. where it was planned to change the rail on a 2-deg curve from
131 RE to 140 RE with 6-hole headfree joint bars. This track has heavy brine drip, and
it was agreed to have receiving end plugs in all joints to keep the end bolt from failir.c
from corrosion. In January 1057 the rail was laid and three methods of joint preserva-
tion were each successively applied to every third joint in each rail in order to have
comparable brine drip around the curve for the three variations of corrosion protection.
Sixty-six joints each had, (1) RMC plastic joint packing packed solid except 3 in at
the rail ends left for drainage and ventilation, (2) brush coat of Conoco Anti-Rust
Compound with Texaco Plastic "H" receiving end plugs and (3) receiving end plugs
made of approximately a 6-in length of RMC packing with no other preservative.
The rail relay work required two days with rain the first day and rail temperatures
varying from 35-deg to 45-deg. All of the preservatives were heated, but the water
and moisture on the cold rail ends made it impossible to obtain a good application
of brush coat of the Conoco Anti-Rust Compound, which is petrolatum based. The
plastic "H" end plugs were placed a few days after the rail relay. Passenger trains oper-
ate at maximum speed of 80 mph while freight trains comply with a 50 mph limit.
Annual gross tonnage carried by the No. 1 main is estimated at 25 million.
Periodically, the joints will be dismantled to observe the condition of the preserva-
tives and the extent of the protection provided against corrosion. No test measurements
on the joints will be made.
1068
Track
General Remarks
The RMC plastic packing has dried out to such an extent that there is not much
oil left to be exuded each summer. However, the packing will continue to give the joints
and bolts some protection from the elements.
In section 6 without lubrication and end plugs, there was no damaging corrosion
observed.
Section 7 with the joints packed with Texaco 90S and end plugs has provided good
protection for the joint and bolts for over seven years. While in the two joints inspected
only 20 percent of the grease remained, it is judged that the application will be effec-
tive for a few more years. Section 8 having the joints packed with Petrolatum (Dark)
has provided reasonably good protection for the joints and bolts but was inferior to
the performance of Texaco 90S grease in Section 7.
The spray method is satisfactory for preserving or unfreezing joints, but spraying
equipment should be designed to furnish more heat for using the heavier metal preserva-
tives in temperatures as low as 40 deg. While the quality of the protective coverage
obtained when joints are sprayed in freezing weather is inferior to warm weather appli-
cation, not all of the joint spraying operations on a railroad can be done under favorable
conditions.
The several rail joint spray applications have been appraised as the serviceability,
and the cost per joint per year can be determined. Metal preservatives that have per-
formed well in these tests which involved no brine corrosion, can be used where brine
or other types of severe corrosion exist except that it may be necessary to make more
frequent spray applications.
The conclusions concerning the discontinued test sections of the 1950 installations
have been published in Vol. 57, 1956, page 745.
The 4.65-mile test in the northward IC main has been in service for over seven
years. Only a few bolts have been found loose or broken, and there have been no
joints pulled in two. This track has 10 forward and 4 back-up anchors per rail which
appear to be adequate for controlling the rail creepage for the normal and reversed
train movements. It is concluded that the prevention of stripped joints was accom-
plished by having adequate rail anchorage and good maintenance of the bolt tension.
It is believed that the joint lubrication had little influence on eliminating stripped joints,
because one mile of the test track had no grease on the joints.
The inspections will be continued another year or two on the IC. The tests on the
RF&P will be observed a few years to establish the efficiency and serviceability of the
methods used. Next year it is planned to offer suggestions as to types of metal preserva-
tives suitable for joint preservation for adoption in the Manual as recommended
practice.
Acknowledgement
The Association is indebted to the IC and RF&P for their fine cooperation and
assistance rendered in the conduct of the field tests. Also the Association extends its
thanks to the suppliers for their valuable assistance.
Track 1069
Report on Assignment 8
Laying Rail Tight with Frozen Joints
J. B. Wilson (chairman, subcommittee), O. C. Benson, F. J. Bishop, M. C. Bitner,
H. F. Busch, H. B. Christianson, W. E. Cornell, P. H. Croft, J. W. Fulmer, L. W.
Green, A. B. Hillman, L. W. Leitze, M. P. Oviatt, J. M. Salmon, Jr., G. R. Sproles,
J. R. Talbot, Jr., Troy West, D. J. White.
This is a progress report, offered as information, covering service tests of tight
rail installations with high bolt tension versus rail laid with normal expansion and bolt
tension on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad and on the Erie Railroad, and tight rail
with and without end hardened and beveled rails on the Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad.
The AAR research staff is conducting the investigations under the general super-
vision of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research. H. E. Durham, research engineer
track, is in direct charge of the assignment.
TEST ON LOUISVILLE & NASHVILLE RAILROAD
Introduction
The tight and normal rail service test installations on the Louisville & Nashville
Railroad near Chapel Hill, Tenn., were first reported and fully described in the Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 57, 1956, pages 760-764. The rail, which is 132 RE section, has six-hole
head-free joint bars, 1^-in track bolts, and only the normal section with the ends
hardened and beveled. Rail anchorage in the tight rail is described in Fig. 2 of this
report. The L&N laid the tight rail in November 1953.
On August 22, 1957 the AAR research staff obtained a complete set of data ending
a service period of 1.04 years since August 8, 1956, the initial measurements having
been taken on October 12, 1955. The total traffic at the end of the second service period
amounted to approximately 29 million gross tons, with the tonnage northbound being
slightly greater than southbound.
Bolt Tension Measurements
As stated in previous reports, 45,000 lb tension was determined as the practical
maximum for the tight rail, and the power wrench has been set up periodically for
such tension since October 1955 when the AAR took initial readings.
At the end of the last service period, it was decided to postpone retightening the
joints in the tight rail. During the next winter, observation of the joints will determine
whether or not this prolonged period will open more joints. Five joints in the west rail
were checked on August 22, 1957, ending a 1.04 year service period. This will give data
for two years separately, while in the east rail the measurements will cover a two-year
period. The results of the bolt tension test are as follows:
Average Bolt Tension in 100 Lb Percent
Bolt Position Initial Final Loss Loss
Middle bolts 44.4 26.5 17.9 40.3
Intermediate bolts 45.8 34.6 11.2 24.2
End bolts 43.6 30.2 13.4 30.7
Average all bolts 44.6 30.4 14.2 31.8
The tension losses during this last service period were about 6 percent larger on
the intermediate and end bolts than were the losses on these same bolts in the previous
cycle. However, the middle bolts lost approximately the same amount of tension during
both service periods, even though the last period was 0.2 year longer.
1070 Track
The normal rail bolts were last retightened in June 1956 with a tension ranging
from 15.000 lb to 25,000 lb. No measurements are being taken of the bolt tension in
the normal rail.
Rail Joint Gaps and Cumulative Rail Creepage
Members of the L&N staff took the rail gap measurements of the tight rail and
the north 31 joints of the normal rail in December 1956, with rail temperature of 22
deg (Fig. 1). Figs. 2 and 3 show the results of the measurements of the rail creepage
and gaps taken in August 1957 by the AAR staff.
In the upper portion of Fig. 1, the bar diagram for the tight rail section indicated
14 joints had an average gap of 0.13 in at rail temperature of 22 deg. The measure-
ments of the gaps in the tight rail taken the previous winter at a rail temperature of
46 deg included 13 open joints with an average gap of 0.13 in. Only about one-half
of the joints open in the winter were repeaters. Between the two sets of measurements
the bolts were retightened to 45,000 lb, September 1956. It is planned to take readings
next winter without retightening the bolts in the tight rail to ascertain if the bolt tension
cycle can be increased to i$4 or 2 years.
Because only the north 31 joints were measured in December 1956 at a rail tem-
perature of 22 deg, the bar diagrams in the lower part of Fig. 1 are presented to show
that the data for the 31 joints in the preceding winter were indicative for the 210
joint normal rail test. In February 1956, the average gap in the whole test was about
the same as for the 31 joints. However, there were some minor differences in the rail
gap pattern.
The August 1957 measurements in Figs. 2 and 3 show a moderate amount of rail
creepage for both the tight and normal rail sections. The creepage of the normal rail
throughout a year is more than in the tight rail which has compression clips for anchors
and is confined at each end with eight panels of drive-on anchors, boxed on all except
joint ties. The normal rail has 8-8 drive-on anchors boxed per rail. The tight rail had
only 6 open joints with an average gap of 0.015 in at rail temperature 111 deg, com-
pared with 6 open joints averaging 0.075 in at rail temperature of 128 deg in August
1956. This improvement was probably influenced by retightening the bolts and closing
all the open joints in each of the two preceding years.
During the last service period, the slippage resistance of the normal joints has
decreased (Fig. 3) by virtue of a reduction of the average summer rail gap with a lower
rail temperature in 1957 than in 1956. The average gap reduced from 0.076 in to 0.06 in
with corresponding rail temperatures of 124 deg and 110 deg. There was not much
change in the rail gap pattern, except in 1957 there were fewer closed joints and more
in the 0.01 to 0.04 in increment.
Rail Surface Profiles and Joint Bar Pull-in
Fig. 4 in this report shows the progressive rail surface profiles of 20 joints in each
of the tight and normal rail sections. Since 10 out of the original 20 joints in the tight
rail had been built up by welding of the rail ends, it was necessary to supplement the
data with 10 additional joints. The surface profiles of the tight rail joints assumed a
different relative position this year as compared with last. The August 1956 data indi-
cated a bowing upward which was believed to be a result of the higher rail temperature
at the time of readings. The profiles taken in 1957 at temperatures similar to October
1955 indicate a definite drop from the 2-in points to the center. However, the bowup
is still present from the 2-in points outward to the ends. The normal rail profile indi-
(Text continued on page 1074)
Track
1071
Winter December 31,1956
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100-
90
80
<D
U
0)
a 60
c
S 50
o
O
- 40
c
o
Z 3°
1 20
E
2 10
Tight Rail
Ro'l Temp 22° Avg Jom* GopO.009'
2 1 1 Joi n t s
A/g Gap lor 14 Open joints 0.13"
No. of Open Joints
5 I
n -
Normal Rail
Rail Temp 22° Avg Joint Gap 0.2l"
North 31 Joints
Ul
Winter February 2,1956
Normal Roil
Rail Temp 48° Avg Joint Gap 0.18"
2!0 Joints
Normal Rail
Rail Temp 48° Avg Joint Gap 0.17"
North 31 Joints
£
a
Ooo--wwi<ii'i^»iflin ooo--NNioio^ymi()
Joint Gap m 0 01 in
Fig. I. Joint Gap Measurements for Tight and Normal Rail
L&N RR. neor Chapel Hill, Tenn
1072
Track
2 ■
i '
%
0
%
£ I
o ,
Noshville (IM . B.)
(Q) (b) (c)
— + 1830 ft. — 4- 1270 ft. -4- 1465ft
4095 ft (AAR)
«H
Tight Rail
JL*o 0 00
Track Profile -^
■Public Road Crossing
(S. B ) Birmingham — »-
West Rail
-J 645
East Rai
-4075 ft (AAR)
Normal Rail —
Note: Rail laid tight is anchored with compression clips as follows . (a). Field end of all tie plates,
except at the joints, (b). Field end of alternate tie plates, (c). Gage end of alternate tie plates
End zone onchoroge consists of 8 track panels with all ties boxed, except at the joints.
Fig. 2. Rail Creepage, Aug. 21, 1957
L 8 N RR, near Chapel Hill, Tenn.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Tight Rail
Rail Temp 111° A vg Joint Gap 0.004'
211 Joints
Avg Gap for 6 Open Joints 0.015"
6 Open Joints
XL
Normal Rail
Rail Temp 110° Avg Joint Gap 0.06"
2i0 Joints
n rn n „
o >a- <xi <t a> "* cr> ^ cti 5 92 *r &
o o o -
JO O t«
Mt\ii<)to^ifinin
1*1 <j <t
OO NWi|)lO
iirinifiO^Ofi
OO— — (MCVjrOfO
O 10
Joint Gap in 0.01 in.
Fig. 3. Joint Gap Measurements for Tight and Normal Rail, Aug. 21, 1957
LSN RR, near Chapel Hill, Tenn.
Track
1073
Distonce from Rail End in in
4 0 4
+ 0.02
-0.02
Two Way Traffic
Note: Profile elevations are the average of 20 joints, 10 in each rail.
Fig. 4. Rail Surface Profiles, L&N RR, near ChopeJ Hill, Tenn.
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
Tight Rail
Normal Rail
/> — °
^i i i i i i i i i
/ i i i i i i i i i
Note: Out-to-Oul measurements were taken at lop ond bottom of ends ond middle of joint bars in
twenty joints in each roil condition. Volues shown ore the mean of lop ond bottom of bars.
Fig 5. Averoge Pull-in of Joint Bor», L&N RR, neor Chapel Hill, Tenn.
1074 Track
cates very little change during the 22-month test period. The batter on the end-
hardened normal rail is 0.005 in, the same as last year, as compared with the non-
hardened tight rail value of 0.015 in.
Average pull-in or total joint wear is indicated in Fig. 5. Both the normal and
tight rail show relatively no increase in pull-in during the last period. It was thought
that the wear would be less on the tight rail, but the comparative amounts shown for
the first period were thought to be influenced by an interim tightening of the joints
on the normal rail. This test has been of too short duration for obtaining conclusive
joint wear measurements.
Rail End Chipping and Welding
During the last service period, the L&N built up by gas welding a total of 71
joints in the tight rail, 65 of which were in the AAR-L&N test section. This work was
necessary because of the break-out of the metal in the joints of the tight rail where
there was relatively deep chipping or flow of metal. This condition was apparently
aggravated by the heads of the rail being undercut too much when the rails were end
milled so that there was a concentration of the buckling force at the top of the section.
The building up of 65 joints in the AAR-L&N test has materially improved the rail
end condition, and little additional welding should be required in the next few months.
The normal rail has one rail end in one joint of a total of 210 that had a small
area of shallow chipping.
Maintenance-of-Way Report
The L&N has reported the maintenance costs for the tight rail section but not for
the normal rail. During the last service period ended in August 1957 only the bolts in
the tight rail were retightened once. During the first two service periods it was intended
to retighten all bolts on an annual basis, and there would be no appreciable difference
in this expense between the two test sections. Excluding the cost of retightening the
bolts in the tight rail because the normal rail bolts were not retightened until after
the end of the second service period, the following expense was reported for the tight
rail section. (The expense items have been prorated to include only the 211 joints in the
AAR-L&N test portion.)
Building up 65 joints by gas welding $144.50
Oiling, tightening and resetting compression clips 161.70
$306.20
There probably was no expense in the two above categories charged to the normal
rail test, because no welding was observed on the rail ends, and the boxed drive-on
anchors would need no maintenance.
INSTALLATION OF TIGHT VS. NORMAL RAIL ON THE ERIE RAILROAD
The Erie Railroad completed laying 1.74 track miles of 115 RE rail with 6-hole
long-toe joint bars, 13-in tie plates, 1-in track bolts, Improved Hipower spring washers
and an average of 35,000 lb bolt tension July 2, 1957. This test, as well as the normal
rail laid in April 1957, is in the eastward main near Crown Point, Ind., where the two
mains diverge to 52-ft centers to accommodate the difference in level of the two tracks.
Prior to the relay, the track was given a general raise and fairly heavy tie renewals.
Track 1075
In the tight rail, the crushed rock ballast shoulders were increased in width to the extent
of using additional ballast of 675 cu yd per mile of single-track roadbed section. The
Erie spaced the ties on 20-in centers. For anchoring the tight rail, an average of 19 ties
per panel were equipped with a compression clip on the gage side of each rail. The end
zone anchorage included 15 rails with the clips. The grade of both the normal rail
(which is west of the tight rail) and the tight rail is approximately 0.3 percent ascend-
ing eastward. All of the two test miles included in the AAR-Erie test are on tangent,
except in the mile with the frozen joints (between mile posts M-234.76 and M-235.76),
there is a 0-deg 15-min curve, 200 ft in length.
All of the 115 RE rail was laid with the same construction, except that clips were
used to anchor the tight rail and 8 forward and 2 back-up grip-type anchors were used
in the normal rail test mile which is located in the vicinity of the overhead crossing
of U. S. Highway No. 30. All rail ends were hardened and beveled, and in addition,
the tight rail was end milled with a slight undercut. Very few of the tight joints with
the rail from Steelton were found to remain open because of an off-square cut. The
normal rail was laid when the rail temperature ranged from 60 deg to 80 deg. In the
AAR test mile of tight rail the rail temperature of the south rail ranged from 66 deg
to 90 deg, averaging 80 deg and the other rail had corresponding temperatures of 70
deg, 111 deg and 97 deg. Because of the high rail temperature, one or two days after
laying the south rail 42 percent of the joints remained open; compared with 58 percent
for the north rail.
The test on the Erie will be conducted in a similar manner to the L&N test, except
that no bolt tension loss measurements will be made.
TIGHT RAIL TEST ON BESSEMER & LAKE ERIE RAILROAD
In October 1957 the B&LE laid one mile of tight rail in single-track CTC territory
at a location known as Filer Siding north of Grove City, Pa. The rail is 140 RE with
140 AREA six-hole head-contact joints, 1^-in bolts and plain 11/64 in thick carburized
plate washers with approximately 45,000 lb bolt tension. Tie plates are double shoulder,
8-by 14-in canted with two screw spikes and double-coil washers for hold-down fas-
tenings on each plate. The south one-half mile is laid with plain end rail, without end-
hardening and beveling, anchored with compression clips on every tie, except at joints,
placed alternately on gage and field side of each rail with two cut spikes for line in
every fourth tie only. The north one-half mile is laid with end-hardened and beveled
rail full box anchored with grip type anchors on all ties except joint ties with two cut
spikes for line in every tie. Prior to laying the rail, the track was prepared by plowing
out old rock ballast, renewing 708 ties and reballasting with 4 in of slag under ties.
Ties were spaced 22 per 39 ft rail before surfacing.
During the laying process all joints were tight, and every effort was made to keep
them tight at the time the anchorage was applied at rail temperatures varying from
40 deg to 80 deg. Contact surfaces of rail and joint bars were cleaned by wire brushing
prior to application. At about the center of the test mile there are two short curves,
with a portion of each type of construction being on curve. From each end of the tight
rail, 10 rail lengths were anchored by boxing every tie. The L&N test had the same
arrangement of end zone anchorage, except for being 2 rail lengths shorter.
Monuments were set to record rail movement at the ends and mid-points of each
type of construction, and it is also proposed to record top-of-rail profiles, pull-in of the
joint bars and joint gaps periodically. Joint gaps will insofar as possible be recorded
1076 Track
at maximum and minimum temperatures. A record of the cost of maintaining the joints
and rail anchorage in the two sections will be valuable information. It is not planned
to have, as controls, a test section of rail laid with normal expansion and bolt tension.
CONCLUSIONS
The data obtained from the test on the L&N indicate that tight rail laid without end
hardening and beveling will result in excessive batter and chipping of the rail ends. To
date it has not been possible to make a comparison with rail which has hardened and
beveled ends, but the new installation on the B&LE should provide valuable data insofar
as the treatment of rail ends is concerned as well as to clips versus drive-on rail
anchors.
Acknowledgement
The Association is indebted for the splendid assistance and cooperation given by
the L&N, Erie, and B&LE in conducting the tests under this assignment.
Report on Assignment 10
Methods of Heat Treatment, Including Flame Hardening
of Bolted Rail Frog and Split Switches, Together
with Methods of Repair by Welding
S. H. Poore (chairman, subcommittee), M. C. Bitner, J. R. Bowman, J. C. Brennan,
T. F. Burris, W. E. Cornell, F. W. Creedle, R. M. Frey, W. E. Griffiths, M. J.
Hassan, A. E. Haywood, C. C. Herrick, L. H. Jentoft, C. H. Johnson, T. R. Klingel,
H. B. Orr, C. E. Peterson, J. M. Salmon, Jr., R. D. Simpson, T. R. Snodgrass,
R. E. Tew, K. H. VonKampen, Troy West, D. J. White.
Service Tests of Simulated Crossing Units in the Milwaukee
Railroad at Mannheim, Illinois
This is a progress report, presented as information
Foreword
The installation of the 24 test units is described in the Proceedings; Vol. 56, 1955,
page 878. Subsequent reports in Vol. 57, 1956, page 878, and Vol. 58, 1957, page 903,
cover results of service tests from April 13, 1954 to June 19, 1956, involving 48 million
gross tons of traffic. This report covers the test period April 13, 1954, through May 31,
1957, during which there was approximately 82 million gross tons of traffic. A typical
panel of bolted rail construction made of the 132 RE section, of which there are three,
comprised of eight units each of simulated crossing flangeway intersections, is shown
in Fig. 1.
This investigation is being conducted by the AAR research staff under the general
direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research. H. E. Durham, research
engineer track, is in direct charge of the investigation and is being assisted by members
of his staff.
Maintenance of Units
The first grinding of the tread corners was done in 1955 to avoid chipping and the
development of cracks in both running and easer rails, at which time heavy grinding
was necessary on the tread corners of the unhardened units, and light grinding was
Track
1077
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required on the other units. Grinding was again necessary in May 1956. All units had
more flow in the transverse flangeways on the easer rails than on the running rails due
to false flanges of tread worn wheels. The units were last ground July 9, 1957, at which
time the flow was again greater on the easer rails than on the running rails. In addi-
tion to grinding the flangeway corners to normal contour, it was also necessary to
grind the flow from the gage side of the running rail on some of the receiving arms
and from between the running rail and the easer rail using a i3.* in thick stone.
Fabrication of the units involved cutting the running rails at the flangeway inter-
sections, but the easer rails were not cut in two. In 1957 three of the easer rails were
found broken at the flangeway. Two breaks were in the Cr-V units and one in the
middle Ramapo flame-hardened unit. These breaks are to be expected. In bolted rail
crossings it is the practice to cut all rails at the flangeways.
Rail Wear and Batter and Brinell Hardness
As previously described, measurements of rail wear and batter were made along
the center line of running rails at points 10 in from the ends of the units for the normal
rail head wear and cold-rolling effect on the rail steel. Measuring points Y± in each
side of the transverse flangeways were used to obtain the batter and work hardening
of the tread corners. Brinell readings include the hardness of the running rail surface
prior to installation of the units and on May 31, 1957. The rail height data also give
the results for the total service period. Table 1, in four parts, shows the results of the
test measurements for each of the panels and the average of the three panels.
In part 4 of Table 1, showing the average Brinell hardness for each group of three
units, there were no significant changes from the 1956 data. As indicated previously,
all of the work hardening on the tread corners had been accomplished prior to the
June 1956 measurements. Part 4 of Table 1 contains the averages for the three units
in each category and offers the best means of comparison, from which it is noted that
the rail wear and batter are generally consistent.
The trend of deceleration of the increase in receiving corner batter with respect to
traffic continued during the last service period. The total traffic increased 71 percent
whereas the receiving corner batter increased only 12 percent on the open-hearth con-
trol-cooled rail units and the flame-hardened units, 24 percent on the heat-treated units
and 28 percent on the used Cr-V rails. The rate of increase of batter on the leaving
corners during the third test period continues to be higher than on the corresponding
receiving corners.
Normal Head Wear Receiving Corner Batter
Category Inches Percent Inches Percent
O. H. C. C. units 0.025 100 0.106 100
All flame-hardened units 0.018 72 0.073 oQ
All heat-treated units 0.012 48 0.047 44
Used Cr-V rail units 0.013 52 0.046 43
In the flame-hardened group, the Ramapo units continue to have the lowest average
receiving corner batter of 0.058 in, or 55 percent of the control units, and the Cleve-
land units of the heat-treated group had the lowest average receiving corner batter of
0.044 in, or 41 percent of the control units.
Average increases in Brinell hardness readings due to cold rolling and work
hardening of the normal rail and tread corners are tabulated below:
(Text continued on page 1083)
Track
1070
TABLE 1. PART 1. SUMMARY OF RAIL HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS AND BRINELL HARDNESS
READINGS TAKEN ON THE THREE SIMULATED CROSSING INTERSECTION PANELS
IN THE MILWAUKEE ROAD AT MANNHEIM, ILLINOIS
WEST PANEL
Test period,
April 13,
1954 to May 31. 1957
Br
inel 1 Hardne ss
Rail Head Wear and Batter
Increase
Avg. Nor-
Wear Plus
Batter
Designation
mal Wear
Batte r
Only
F„ W.
of Unit
Location
in.
in.
in.
Initial
5-31-57
Normal
Corner
Flame Hardened Rail
Pettibone
Avg. Both Ends
.022
312
358
46
Mulliken
Rec. Cor.
.094
.072
307
375
68
Corporation
Lv. Cor.
.060
.038
309
364
55
Ramapo AJax Dlv.
Avg. Both Ends
.018
360
419
59
American Brake
Rec. Cor.
.078
.060
359
399
40
Shoe Company
Lv. Cor.
.049
.031
351
408
57
Weir-Kilby
Avg. Both Ends
.019
328
381
53
Rec. Cor.
.103
.084
302
351
49
Lv. Cor.
.051
.032
321
380
59
Heat Treated Rail
Cleveland Frog
Avg. Both Ends
.011
339
374
35
and Crossing
Rec. Cor.
.059
.048
340
390
50
Company
Lv. Cor.
.028
.017
344
387
43
Bethlehem Steel
Avg. Both Ends
.014
340
370
30
Company
Rec. Cor.
.062
.048
327
374
47
Lv. Cor.
.029
.015
337
387
50
United States
Avg. Both Ends
.014
310
363
53
Steel Corporation
Rec. Cor.
.061
.047
344
387
43
Lv. Cor.
.032
.018
347
387
40
Other Rails
Used Chrome
Avg. Both Ends
.014
366
374 .
8
Vanadium Rail
Rec. Cor.
.060
.046
366
359
-7
Lv. Cor.
.029
.015
366
368
2
C. C. Blue End
Avg. Both Ends
.024
256
292
36
Rail as Rolled
Rec. Cor.
.138
.114
249
302
53
Lv. Cor.
.080
.056
242
298
56
1080
Track
TADLE 1. PART 2. SUMMARY OF HAIL HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS AND 3RINICLL HARDNESS
READINGS TAKEN ON THE THREE SIMULATED CROSSING INTERSECTION PANELS
IN THE MILWAUKEE ROAD AT MANNHEIM, ILLINOIS.
CENTER PANEL
Test period,
April 13
1954 to May 31. 1957
Rail He
Brinell Hardness
Avg. Nor-
Wear Plus
Batter
nercc
Designation
mal Wear
"'.atter
Only
F. W.
of Unit
Location
in.
in.
in.
Initial
5-31-57
Normal
Corner
Flame Hardened Rail
Pettibone
Avg. Both Ends
.020
312
372
60
Mulliken
Rec. Cor.
.093
.073
315
364
49
Corporation
Lv. Cor.
.056
.036
324
375
51
Ramapo Ajax Div.
Avg. Both Ends
.016
338
394
56
American Brake
Rec. Cor.
.072
.056
308
402
34
Shoe Company
Lv. Cor.
,042
.026
351
3S5
34
Weir-Kilby
Avg. Both Ends
.016
321
375
54
Rec. Cor.
.105
.089
321
347
26
Lv. Cor.
.045
.029
324
373
49
Heat Treated Rail
Cleveland Frog
Avg. Both Ends
.011
336
372
36
and Crossing
Rec. Cor.
.051
.040
332
390
58
Company
Lv. Cor.
.027
.016
329
375
46
Bethlehem Steel
Avg. Both Ends
.008
337
3S1
44
Company
Rec. Cor.
.058
.050
340
337
47
Lv. Cor.
.027
.019
340
3S5
45
United States
Avg. Both Ends
.014
338
382
44
Steel Corporation
Rec. Cor.
.060
.046
323
385
62
Lv. Cor.
.032
.018
342
405
03
Other Rails
Used Chrome-
Avg. Both Ends
.014
I
3G2
375 •
13
Vanadium Rail
Rec. Cor.
.056
.042
359
308
9
Lv. Cor.
.029
.015
361
377
16
C. C. Blue End
Avg. Both Ends
.026
252
294
42
Rail as Rolled
Rec. Cor.
.129
.103
254
302
48
Lv. Cor.
.079 .053
i
255
302
47
Track
1081
TABLE 1. PART 3. SUMMARY OF RAIL HEIGHT MEASURFMENTS AND DRINELL HARDNESS
READINGS TAKEN ON THE THREE SIMULATED CROSSING INTERSECTION PANELS
IN THE MILWAUKEE ROAD AT MANNHEIM, ILLINOIS.
EAST PANEL
Test period, April 13, 1954 to May 31, 1957
Rail Head Wear and Batter
Brinell Hardness
Incre
Avg. Nor-
Wear Plus
Batter
Designation
mal Wear
Batter
Only
F. W.
of Unit
Location
in.
in.
in.
Initial
5-31-57
Normal
Corner
Flame Hardened Rail
Pettibone
Avg. Both Ends
.020
296
348
52
Mulliken
Rec. Cor.
.092
.072
311
364
53
Corporation
Lv. Cor.
.061
.041
302
364
62
Ramapo AJax Div.
Avg. Both Ends
.016
3:4
398
54
American Brake
Rec. Cor.
.076
.060
366
408
42
Shoe Company
Lv. Cor.
.043
.027
364
402
38
Weir-Kilby
Avg. Both Ends
.018
303
372
69
Rec. Cor.
.109
.091
290
366
76
Lv. Cor.
.052
.034
309
375
66
Heat Treated Rail
Cleveland Frog
Avg. Both Ends
.012
329
381
52
and Crossing
Rec. Cor.
.056
.044
337
390
53
Company
Lv. Cor.
.022
.010
334
380
46
Bethlehem Steel
Avg. Both Ends
.010
353
389
36
Company
Rec. Cor.
.061
.051
342
402
60
Lv. Cor.
.022
.012
324
380
56
United States
Avg. Both Ends
.012
304
368
64
Steel Corporation
Rec. Cor.
.060
.048
311
387
76
Lv. Cor.
.028
.016
332
399
G7
Other Rails
Used Chrome-
Avg. Both Ends
.012
361
384 •
23
Vanadium Rail
Rec. Cor.
.061
.049
366
359
-7
Lv. Cor.
.030
.018
366
366
0
C. C. Blue End
Avg. Both Ends
.025
246
298
52
Rail as Rolled
Rec. Cor.
.127
.102
245
298
53
Lv. Cor.
.074
.049
255
311
56
1082
Track
TABLE i. PART 4. SUMMARYOF RAIL HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS AND ERINELL HARDNESS
READINGS TAKEN ON THE THREE SIMULATED CROSSING INTERSECTION PANELS
IN THE MILWAUKEE ROAD AT MANNHEIM, ILLINOIS
AVG. OF 3 PANELS
Tes
t Period April 13, 1954 to May 31, 1957
Br inell Hardne s s
Rail
Increase
Avg. Nor-
Wear Plus
Batter
Designation
mal Wear
Batte r
Only
F.W.
of Unit
Location
in.
in.
in.
Initial
5-31-57
Normal
Corner
Flame Hardened Rail
Pettibone
Avg. Both Ends
.021
307
359
52
Mulliken
Rec. Cor.
.093
.072
311
368
57
Corporation
Lv. Cor.
.059
.038
312
368
56
Ramapo AJax Div.
Avg. Both Ends
.017
347
404
57
American Brake
Rec. Cor.
.075
.058
364
403
39
Shoe Company
Lv. Cor.
.045
.028
355
398
43
Weir-Kilby
Avg. Both Ends
.018
317
370
59
Rec. Cor.
.106
.088
304
355
51
Lv. Cor.
.049
.031
318
376
58
Heat Treated Rail
Cleveland Frog
Avg. Both Ends
.011
335
376
41
and Crossing
Rec. Cor.
.055
.044
336
390
54
Company
Lv. Cor.
.026
,015
336
381
45
Bethlehem Steel
Avg. Both Ends
.011
343
3 SO
37
Company
Rec. Cor.
.060
.049
336
388
52
Lv. Cor.
.026
.015
334
3S4
50
United States
Avg. Both Ends
.013
317
371
54
Steel Corporation
Rec. Cor.
.060
.047
326
3S6
60
Lv. Cor.
.031
.018
340
397
57
Oth3r Rails
Used Chrome -
Avg. Both Ends
.013
363
378
15
Vanadium Rail
Roc. Cor.
.059
.040
364
362
-2
Lv. Cor.
.029
.016
364
370
6
C. C. Blue End
Avg. Both Ends
.025
251
295
44
Rail as Rolled
Rec. Cor.
.131
.106
249
301
52
Lv. Cor.
.073
.053
251
304
53
Notes: All rail height measurements and Brinell readings wore taken on the longitudinal center line of
the running rail. The data taken 10 in. from both ends of each unit were used for determining the normal
head wear and work hardening of the running rail. Rail head wear and work hardening of the tread cor-
ners were based on the reading.-, taken 3/4 in. from the adjacent side of each flangeway.
Track 1083
Average Increase in Brinei.l Hardness Readings April 13, 1954 to May 31, 1957
Normal Tread Corners
Rail Receiving Leaving
0. H. C. C. units 44 52 53
All flame-hardened units 56 49 52
All heat-treated units 44 55 51
Used Cr-V rail units 15 — 2 6
As stated in a previous report, the work hardening on the rail and tread corners
was mostly developed in the first service period ended July 15, 1955.
The receiving corner batter on the Cr-V rails and heat-treated rails continues to
be about the same, and the average excess hardness of the latter rails is 26 Brinell
points. The corresponding average excess hardness of all the flame-hardened units is
13 points. The highest average Brinell hardness readings on the receiving corners were
403 on the Ramapo flame-hardened units and 390 on the CF&C units, compared with
362 for the Cr-V units and 301 for the OHCC units. During the last service period the
receiving corner batter increased percentagewise: 7 percent for the Ramapo units, 26
percent for the CF&C units and 28 percent for the Cr-V units.
Although the amount of batter when the measurements were taken on May 31, 1957
was not sufficient to warrant welding of the tread corners, it was deemed advisable to
proceed with the welding in 1957 to carry out at the earliest reasonable date one of the
most important phases of this assignment. Almost all of the receiving corners had batter
equivalent to a badly battered joint.
Welding
Following the taking of measurements on May 31, 1957, plans were made to progress
the welding and grinding of the battered tread corners which was done September 9-11,
1957, with the gas welds being made by a welder from the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy Railroad and the electric welds by a Milwaukee Road welder.
Welding procedures were based on experimental laboratory findings discussed in
Vol. 58, 1957, pages 904-945, incl. Table 2 describes the material used and the welding
procedures which were followed as precisely as possible throughout the welding which
was carried out under traffic of about five trains each working period. Table 2 is
identical to the program proposed in Table 4 of last year's report, except that (1)
The A. O. Smith Diamond Weld A electrode was substituted for discontinued rod SW
103, and the No. 170 RR electrode was a product of the National Cylinder Gas Co.
instead of the National Carbon Co. In Table 2, the name of the sponsor of the welding
procedures is shown in the "Description of Welding Rods" except (1), 4E was recom-
mended by Bethlehem Steel Company, (2) 6E by the Milwaukee Road and (3) 7AE,
AAR jointly with the International Rail Weld Corporation. As soon as possible after
the welding, grinding was done, and Brinell hardness readings were taken. The units
had carried approximately 90 million gross tons of traffic prior to the welding work.
Brinell hardness readings as taken following the welding and grinding are shown in
Table 3 and may be compared with those in Table 1 before welding. Because the batter
on the leaving tread corners was shallow on some of the units, the Brinell hardness
readings given for the ^j-in to 1-in points on the receiving' corners will serve best to
indicate the hardness of the weld deposited metal. The other readings on the tread
corners were taken for the purpose of locating the soft spot in the rail just beyond
the weld metal. In many cases the ties made it impossible to reach the soft spot with
the hardness tester. In all cases, where possible, the weld metal applied by the gas
1084
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Track
1085
'TABLE 3. BRINELL HARDNESS READINGS TAKEN ON THE THREE SIMULATED CROSS-
ING INTERSECTION PANELS AFTER REPAIRING BY WELDING, SEPTEMBER
9, 10, AND 11, 1957, ON THE MILWAUKEE ROAD AT MANNHEIM, ILLINOIS.
Designation
of Unit
Panel
Welding
Procedure
(See Table 2)
Point Designation
Receiving Corner
Leaving Corner
Distance
BUN
Distance
LUX
Distance BHN
O. H. C.C.
do
do
East
Center
West
1G
2G
GE
3 in.
3 in.
321
2Gt)
3/4 in. 293
1/2 in. 302
1/2 in. 2GG
1/2 in. 293
1/2 in. 340
1/2 in. J 252
1
U. S. S. H.T.
do
do
East
Center
West
2G
3E
•IE
3 in.
3 in.
3 in.
3 27
3S7
311
1/2 in.
3/4 in.
1/2 in.
3 21
359
332
I
1 '2 in. 1 387
1/2 in. i 321
1/2 in. j 332
Beth. H.T,
do
do
East
Center
West
1G
3E
4E
3 3/4 in. 1 311
2 1/2 in. 375
3 in. 3G4
1/2 in.
1 in.
1/2 in.
262
340
340
1/2 in. 293
1/2 in. 321
1/2 in. j 311
C. F&C. H.T.
do
do
East
Center
West
2G
IE
3E
3 in.
3 in.
2 in.
332
2G9
3G4
5/s in.
1/2 in.
1/2 in.
351
293
351
1/2 in.
1 1/2 in.
1/2 in.
347
217
332
Chrome-V.
do
do
East
Center
West
1AG
2AG
7AE
3 in.
3 in.
3 in.
259
2G5
402
1/2 in.
1/2 in.
1/2 in.
2SG
266
438
1/2 in.
1/2 in.
1/2 in.
229
332
367
W. -K. F. H.
do
do
East
Center
West
1G
IE
3E
3 1/4 in.
3 in.
3 in.
311
2G9
347
5/C in.
3/4 in.
3/4 in.
317
3S2
1/2 in.
1/2 in.
1/2 in.
321
269
321
Ramapo F. H.
do
do
East
Center
West
1G
2G
3E
3 in.
3 in.
3 in.
28 G
317
371
3/4 in.
1/2 in.
1 in.
327
347
327
3/4 in.
1/2 in.
1/2 in.
302
3G4
337
P.M. F.H.
do
do
East
Center
West
1G
3E
4E
2 1/2 in.
3 in.
3 in.
313
351
321
3/4 in.
1/2 in.
1/2 in.
302
302
302
3/4 in.
1/2 in.
1/2 in.
302
311
321
Notes: All welding and grinding were carried out under traffic. Brinell readings were taken
on the longitudinal cenlerline of running rail with distances measured from adjacent
side of llangeway.
method was in small patches on the heat-treated and flame-hardened units. In some
instances two units were welded by the gas method together in order to keep the heat
down to the minimum to avoid taking the temper out of the steel. Wit h lew exceptions,
the hardness of the welds on the receiving corners is less than before welding. The
notable exception is the Cr-V rail in the west panel on which National Cylinder Gas
Company, No. 170 RR rod was used. It is also noted that the hardness of all Ramapo
and I' M unit- was lower after welding than when the original readings were taken.
Two weeks after the welding was completed there was considerable How of metal on
some of tlie tread corners. Grinding was deferred until November <>. 1957, at which time
all units were ground and restored to the normal contour, Periodic observations will he
made to determine if further grinding i- needed, excessive battel has developed, or a
weld has failed.
1086 Track
During the progress of the welding, representatives of the Milwaukee Road and the
Burlington Road were on hand as were those of the welding companies who sponsored
several techniques and also some visitors from the railroads.
Acknowledgement
The Association is grateful to the Milwaukee Road, the Burlington Road and the
suppliers of the test units for their fine cooperation and assistance in conducting this
investigation. The valuable aid in the matter of developing and carrying out the field
welds by the following companies is acknowledged with thanks: Milwaukee Road
Burlington Road, Air Reduction Sales Company, Linde Air Products Company, Tclcwcld.
Inc., Bethlehem Steel Company, and the International Rail WeM Corporation.
PROCEEDINGS
PROGRAM
Fifty-Seventh Annual Meeting
Sherman Hotel
Chicago
Tuesday, March 11, 1958
Grand Ballroom — 9:30 to 12:00
Presidential Address — Ray McBrian, Director of Research, Denver & Rio Grande
Western Railroad.
Report of Executive Secretary — Neal D. Howard.
Report of Treasurer — A. B. Hillman, Chief Engineer, Chicago & Western Indiana and
Belt Railway of Chicago.
Greetings from the Signal Section. AAR. B. W. Molis (Chairman), Superintendent Sig-
nals and Communications, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad.
Greetings from the Electrical Section, AAR. P. B. Burley (Member Committee of Direc-
tion). Superintendent Communications and Electrical Engineer. Illinois Central
Railroad.
Greetings from the National Railway Appliances Association, W. H. Tudor (President),
International Harvester Company.
Keynote Address — Research Lights the Way, by Wm. T. Faricy, Chairman of the Board
and Chief Executive Officer, AAR.
Presentation of Honorary Membership Certificates to Wm. T. Faricy. and to Past Presi-
dents C. H. Mottier, T. A. Blair. C. J. Geyer, and posthumously, C. G. Grove.
Address — Teamwork in Research, by W. M. Keller, Vice President — Research, AAR.
Address — Highlights of Engineering Division Research (illustrated), by G. M. Magee,
Director of Engineering Research, AAR.
Grand Ballroom — 2:00 to 5:00
Bulletin
Reports of Committees Number
20— Contract Forms (2 :00) 539
Address — Value of the Knowledge of Contracts to the Engineer, by C. J..
Henry, Chief Engineer, Pennsylvania.
11 — Engineering and Valuation Records (2:25) 541
14 — Yards and Terminals (2:45) 539
Panel Discussion — Hump Yards, by Wm. J. Hedley, Chief Engineer, Wabash,
moderator; Martin Amoss, Superintendent Yards and Terminals. \Yu
York Central; G. W. Miller, Regional Engineer, Canadian Pacific; and
A. L. Essman, Chief Signal Engineer — System, Burlington.
16 — Economics of Railway Location and Operation (.^:.^5) 5.^°
Address— Engineering, Maintenance and Operating Benefits in Hi- Derived
from Increased Joint Use of Railway Facilities, by John \V Barriger,
President, Pittsburgh v^ Lake Erie.
1090 Program
Bulletin
Reports of Committees Number
25— Waterways and Harbors (4:15) 539
9— Highways (4:30) 539
Address — Computor Determination of Risk Factors in Different Types of
Grade Crossing Protection (illustrated), by G. M. Magee, Director of
Engineering Research, AAR.
Wednesday, March 12, 1958
George Bernard Shaw Room — 9:00 to 12:00
Bulletin
Reports of Committees Number
13— Water, Oil and Sanitation Services (9:00) 530
Address — Radioactivity and Railroads, by R. O. Bardwell, Nuclear Engineer,
Denver & Rio Grande Western.
24 — Cooperative Relations with Universities (9:40) 541
Address — One Way in Which Committee 24 Is Interesting Students in Rail-
roading (illustrated), by W. H. Huffman, Assistant Chief Engineer, Chi-
cago & North Western.
7— Wood Bridges and Trestles (10:05) 541
30— Impact and Bridge Stresses (10:20) 540
8— Masonry (10:30) 540
Address — Work of the Reinforced Concrete Research Council, by R. F.
Blanks, Chairman.
15— Iron and Steel Structures (11:05) 541
Address — Model Railway Truss Bridge (illustrated), by L. T. Wyly, Research
Professor of Civil Engineering, Northwestern Technological Institute.
28— Clearances (11:45) 540
ASSOCIATION LUNCHEON
Grand Ballroom 12 Noon
Address by G. B. Aydelott, President, Denver & Rio Grande Western, on Maintenance —
or Deferred Maintenance?
George Bernard Shaw Room — 2:30 to 5:05
Bulletin
Reports of Committees Number
29— Waterproofing (2:30) 540
17 — Wood Preservation (2:40) 540
6— Buildings (2:55) 539
Address — Legislative Situation as it Affects Engineering and Maintenance
of Way Departments, by R. G. May, Vice President, Operations and
Maintenance Department, AAR.
27 — Maintenance of Way Work Equipment (3:30) 540
22 — Economics of Railway Labor (4:00) 540
Address — Observations of Track Maintenance in France and Germany (illus-
trated), by T. F. Burris, Chief Engineer, System, Chesapeake & Ohio.
Address — Methods and Cost Control in the Maintenance of Way Depart-
ment, by M. C. Bitner, Manager Methods and Cost Control System,
Pennsylvania.
3— Ties (4:50) 540
Program 1091
Thursday, March 13, 1958
Grand Ballroom — 9:00 to 12:20
Bulletin
Reports of Committees Number
Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail (9:00) 542
Address — Observations of Continuous Welded Rail in France (illustrated),
by T. F. Burris, Chief Engineer, System, Chesapeake & Ohio.
4— Rail (9:20) 542
Address — Plastic Flow in Rail Heads (illustrated), by C. J. Code, Assistant
Chief Engineer — Tests, M. W., Pennsylvania.
Address — Rail Production and Rail Testing in Germany (illustrated), by
Kurt Kannowski, Metallurgical Engineer, AAR.
Address — Progress in Rail Research (illustrated), by G. M. Magee, Director
of Engineering Research, AAR.
5— Track (10:15) 542
1— Roadway and Ballast (10:55) 54?
Address — Ventilation System for Cascade Tunnel on Great Northern Railway
(illustrated), by G. V. Guerin, Chief Engineer, Great Northern.
Closing Business
Installation of officers
Adjournment
Afternoon — 2:00 to 5:00
Post-convention inspection of AAR Research Center
1002
R e p o r t of the Tellers
Report of the Tellers
Presented Wednesday Noon, March 12, 1958
We, the Committee of Tellers, appointed to canvass the ballots for officers and for
members of the Nominating Committee find the count of ballots as follows:
For President
B. R. Meyers 1.605
*For Vice President
E. J. Brown l 604
For Directors (first four men elected)
W. W. Hay 1.047
W. M. Jaekle °7°
T. F. Burris 84 3
T. M. von Sprecken 76°
J'. A. Bunjer 745
C. J. Henry 744
V. C. Hanna 600
F. L. Etchison 615
For Members of Nominating Committee (first five men elected)
W. L. Young 1,129
H. B. Christianson, Jr 968
H. W. Kellogg 872
W. E. Cornell 835
T. B. Hutcheson 776
D. E. Rudisill 774
L. V. Johnson 768
W. H. Huffman 747
F. J. Bishop 540
G. W. Patterson 541
The Committee of Tellers,
J. E. Wiggins, Chairman.
W. S. Autrey S. M. Jackson J. P. Rodgers
J. E. Barron R. K. Johnson C. W. Russell
R. O. Bardwell W. F. Kohl J. R. Rushmer
R. W. Bailey J. R. Latimer R. L. Samuell
R. E. Berggren J. de N. Macomb R. S. Stevens
W. H. Bunge Lee Mayfifld R. E. Skinner
R. E. Buss D. V. Messman H. E. Snyder
L. E. Conner H. L. McMuxlin M. C. Taylor
C. O. Coverley G. A. McRoberts T. A. Tennyson, Jr.
R. E. Coughlan C. H. Newlin H. A. Thyng
H. E. Dearinc, J. R. Oglesby S. E. Tracy
J. W. Fulmer W. C. Pinschmidt P. P. Wagner
C. J. Geyer R. S. Radspinner F. E. Yockey
N. W. Hutchison J. C. Roberts G. L. Zipperian
S. E. Haines, Jr.
' Under the provisions of the Constitution, F. R. Wool ford advances automatically from junior
yici- president to senior vice president.
PROCEEDINGS
Running Report of the Annual Meeting of the American Railway
Engineering Association (Construction and Maintenance Sec-
tion, Engineering Division, Association of American Rail-
roads), March 11-13, 1958, Hotel Sherman, Chicago,
Including Abstracts of All Discussions, All Formal
Action on Committee Presentations, Specific
Papers and Addresses Presented in Connec-
tion with Committee Reports, and Other
Official Business of the Association
Opening Session — March 11, 1957
President Ray McBrian,* Presiding
Presideni McBrian: Will the meeting please come to order.
The opening session of the 57th Annual Meeting convened at 9:30 am.
Executive Sfxrktary Neal D. Howard: President McBrian has asked me to ask
you to find your places quickly so we can begin our convention on time. He has like-
wise asked me to request the past presidents, officers, directors, and our special guests
here, at the beginning of the opening session, to take their places at the speakers' table.
The past presidents will be seated at the far end to my right, followed by our guests.
The directors will be at my left. Will you please take your places.
While the rest of you are assembling, I would like to remind those members of
committees that are holding lunches today to be sure to purchase their luncheon tickets
by 10:30 at the latest.
I see in the rear of the room a "big wheel" in the Sherman Hotel, who I know
wants to present our president with a gavel so that he can get started with the pro-
gram. I refer to the gentleman who is coming down the aisle, Mr. Daniel Amico, vice
president and general manager of the Sherman Hotel, who has something for Mr.
McBrian.
Mr. Amico: Thank you, Mr. Howard.
On days like today we have to keep up with financial conditions. With your per-
mission I would like to tell you a little story I heard outside.
Two Jewish boys were sunning themselves in Miami Beach.
Abe said, "Jake, how's by you?"
"By me it's no good. I am off 22 percent in the month of January. Then I'm
listening to all this talk about WI'A projects and Republican and Democratic Parties.
and at the end of the month of February I am off 62 percent."
Abe said, 'What could be worse than an atomic bomb hitting Miami Beach? Then
we would really be in bad shape. What could be worse?"
'"The month of March." [Laughter]
First. I would like to welcome you to our meat Citj of Chicago. Chicago i- a
'-'rv.it city. Furthermore. I would like to extend a welcome from our 2200 employees
who are here to take care of sour every want ami need.
* Director of Research, Denver & Rio Grande Western
1093
1004 Opening Session
\i this point I would like to present a gavel to your president as a little token
of remembrance. I hope that when the last sound of this gavel is heard the American
Railway Engineering Association will have had the most successful convention in its
history. [Applause]
President McBrian: With this new gavel I now ask, will the meeting please come
to order.
Members of the American Railway Engineering Association, ladies and guests:
This is the 57th Annual Meeting of the AREA and the concurrent 38th annual
meeting of the Construction and Maintenance Section of the Engineering Division of the
AAR. Welcome back to Chicago.
We meet here today in troubled and strenuous times, confronted with many prob-
lems as a nation, within our own industry, and in many cases as individuals. Accord-
ingly, we have felt it highly appropriate and desirable that we invoke Divine guidance
and help in our deliberations at this Annual Meeting. We have asked Dr. Charles C.
Knapp, pastor of the First Baptist Church of Evanston, 111., to do this in our behalf.
Dr. Knapp.
Invocation
Dr. Knapp: Let us bow in prayer.
Eternal God our Father, at the outset of these deliberations we pause to give Thee
thanks, Whose image we bear within our hearts, for this nation of ours and its privileges,
its freedoms and its responsibilities, and for the knowledge that to whom much is given
much is required.
We thank Thee, too, for the enterprises which bind us together, giving direction
and meaning to our days, and which call forth our best wisdom and our best effort.
Make us worthy of our trust, we pray, impatient of wrong and compromise, dedi-
cated to the common good. Guide us in Thine own unseen ways, and all men in posi-
tions of trust in community and industry and government. We pray for Thy Name's
sake. Amen.
President McBrian: Thank you, Dr. Knapp. We appreciate your petition in our
behalf. We shall be happy to have you remain with us as long es you desire or your
time will permit, if you are not afraid that our scientific and materialistic deliberations
will interrupt your thoughts on more important things. We want you to feel at liberty
to leave at any time. Thank you again for being with us.
Our meeting again is being held in unfamiliar surroundings as an Association, as we.
did in St. Louis in 1957, but friendly surroundings, back in Chicago, with facilities
adequate to a most successful convention. We have been offered the "run of the house"
by the management of this hotel, and we expect to take advantage of it.
This, combined with long and careful planning for this meeting on the part of
your officers and directors, your secretary's office and your Convention Arrangements
Committee, insures a successful convention, which will be both pleasant and profitable
for all of us.
We have a long and interesting program ahead of us, which will include reports
on 122 committee assignments and 18 special features. Combined with seeing the huge
exhibit of the National Railway Appliance Association at the Coliseum, you will be
busy people for the next two and a half days, especially if you did not avail yourself
of the opportunity to see much of the exhibit yesterday.
Opening Sessior 1095
Speaking of yesterday, you will be interested to know that the advance convention
registration taken at the Coliseum for your convenience included 551 railroad men and
423 guests, a total of 974.
We are glad that some of you brought your wives along to the convention, in
spite of the unfavorable economic conditions, and we are pleased that a number of
them are with us this morning in the balcony. We are glad you are here, and we Jiranl
you to know that you are welcome to attend any of our sessions in which you may be
particularly interested. Many of you will be especially interested in our closing business
session, beginning about 11:30 am on Thursday, when our new officers will be installed.
In the meantime, we hope you will have a pleasant time in Chicago, and enjoy the
special functions which have been arranged for you.
Before starting our program for this morning, I want to present to you those
sitting at our speakers' table. As I call their names I will appreciate their standing, and
remaining standing until all have been introduced.
Beginning the introductions, on my extreme right is Mr. C. H. Mottier, past
president of AREA, 194S-1949, vice president of the Illinois Central Railroad, Chicago.
Mr. T. A. Blair, past president of AREA, 1951-1952; chief engineer system, Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, Chicago.
Mr. C. J. Geyer, past president of AREA, 1952-1953; retired vice president, con-
struction and maintenance, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, Richmond, Va.
Mr. G. W. Miller, past president of AREA, 1954-1955; regional engineer, Eastern
Region. Canadian Pacific Railway, Toronto, Ont.
Mr. G. M. O'Rourke. past president of AREA, 1955-1956; assistant engineer main-
tenance of way, Illinois Central Railroad, Chicago.
Mr. Wm. J. Hedley, past president of AREA; 1956-1957, chief engineer, Wabash
Railroad, St. Louis, Mo.
Mr. F. R. Woolford, junior vice president of AREA; chief engineer, Western Pacific
Railroad, San Francisco, Calif.
Mr. B. R. Meyers, senior vice president, AREA; chief engineer, Chicago & North
Western Railway, Chicago.
Mr. E. G. Gehrke, assistant secretary, AREA.
You have all met Dr. Charles Knapp.
Mr. Xeal Howard, executive secretary, AREA.
Mr. A. B. Hillman, treasurer, AREA; chief engineer, Belt Railway; Chicago &
Western Indiana Railroad. Chicago.
Mr. E. J. Brown, director of AREA; chief engineer, Burlington Lines, Chicago.
Mr. W. W. Hay, director of AREA; professor of railway civil engineering. Uni-
versity of Illinois, Urbana. IU.
Mr. R. H. Beeder, director of AREA; assistant chief engineer system, Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, Chicago.
Mr. C. J. Code, director of AREA; assistant chief engineer — tests, maintenance of
way. Pennsylvania Railroad, Philadelphia, Pa.
Mr. G. H. Echols, director of AREA; chief engineer, Southern Railway System,
Washington, D. C.
Mr. L. A. Loggins, director of AREA; chief engineer, Southern Pacific Lines in
Texas and Louisiana. Houston, Tex,
We had hoped to introduce next Mr. R. R. Manion, director of AREA; assistant
vice president — operation. New York Central System, but he could not be here todaj
1096 Opening Session
Mi \\ <; Powrie, director of ARKA; chief engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul
& Pacific Railroad, Chicago.
Mr. A. V. Johnston, director of AREA; chief engineer, Canadian National Railways,
M nut real, Que.
Mr. W. H. Hobbs, director of AREA; chief engineer, Missouri Pacific Railroad,
St. Louis, Mo.
Mr. A. B. Stone, director of AREA; chief engineer, Norfolk & Western Railway,
Roanoke, Va.
Mr. J. C. Jacobs, director of AREA; engineer maintenance of way, Illinois Central
Railroad, Chicago. [Applause]
I purposely skipped three special guests at our speakers' table, because I want to
introduce them to you now. I refer to these gentlemen at my right who are the official
representatives of one of our brother organizations, the National Railway Appliance
Association, and two of our sister sections in the Engineering Division, AAR. I should
like first to present Mr. W. H. Tudor, president of the National Railway Appliance
Association and district sales manager, International Harvester Company, Omaha, Neb.
[Applause]
The second of these gentlemen whom I am privileged to introduce to you is Mr.
B. W. Molis, chairman of the Signal Section, Association of American Railroads, and
superintendent of signals and communications, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad,
Denver, Colo. [Applause]
The third gentleman whom it is a distinct honor to introduce to you is Mr. P. B.
Burley, member of the Committee of Direction, Signal Section, Association of American
Railroads, and superintendent communications and electrical engineer, Illinois Central
Railroad, Chicago. [Applause]
A little later on in our program I will call on these gentlemen for a few words
of greetings from their respective organizations.
The first official business to come before our Annual Meeting is consideration of the
minutes of our 1957 Annual Meeting, which were printed in Vol. 58 of the AREA Pro-
ceedings for 1957, a copy of which was furnished to each member.
Unless I hear some correction or objection to these minutes, we will dispense with
reading the 217 printed pages involved. Hearing no objections or corrections, I declare
the minutes approved as printed in the Proceedings.
Address of President Ray McBrian
It is customary that the president address you. We are now going through some
trying times, but I am sure that the next three days are going to give us one of the
most successful conventions we have ever had, with outstanding exhibits being presented
at the Coliseum.
This convention, as were those in the past, is the result of a lot of hard work and
planning by the executive secretary's office and the Committee on Convention Arrange-
ments. Neal Howard, Ed. Gehrke and their staff have again performed an outstanding
job in the planning and carrying out of the activities of our Association.
The Arrangements Committee, under the charge of Chairman R. A. Bardwell, is also
to be commended for its planning tor this convention, being held again in a strange
hotel.
Address of President McBrian 1097
This past year has been a good or.e for our Association. The members of our Hoard
have worked in harmony, ar.d we have found that we have strengthened our Associa-
tion in every manner, as will be noted from our executive secretary's report and from
the report of our treasurer.
Personally, it has been a real pleasure for me to have the opportunity to participate
in the official activities of our Association and to have had the wonderful support of
our Board of Direction.
We can begin our convention and our coming year with a high degree of satisfaction
in the knowledge that the long-standing service of the AREA to the AAR, as the Con-
struction and Maintenance Section of the Engineering Division of that Association,
will be continued in the future.
I am pleased to report that during the past year we, as your officers and members
of the Board of Direction, have had the opportunity to meet with Mr. W. T. Faricy,
chairman of the board and chief executive officer of the AAR, Mr. R. G. May, vice
president, Operations and Maintenance Department, and Mr. W. M. Keller, vice presi-
dent— research, and that as a result of these meetings we will have closer cooperation
than we have ever had in the past, with increasing responsibilities both in the field
of research and in the field of our operational engineering.
Last month, at a special meeting of the Board of Direction, the Board authorized
the creation of a new Research Committee. This new committee will have much respon-
sibility in the future in reviewing your suggested research projects, in aiding the officers
of the AAR to formulate research programs, and in securing the maximum research
effort for the least dollar expenditure.
Each of you as individuals will be called upon to suggest ideas in the research field,
and I am sure that each succeeding president can count upon the support of each mem-
ber of the AREA to contribute materially toward the research progress of the AAR.
Realizing that current conditions make it imperative to reduce operating costs, I am
also of the opinion that railroads should accelerate research programs, to bring about
greater economies and efficiencies, and thus contribute to the savings which must be
made.
Research As I See It
I am personally convinced that for the benefit of the railroad industry greater
research effort is required than ever before, and that we must enter immediately into
the field of basic and fundamental research as it pertains to transportation if we are
to compete and survive as an industry.
As an Association we have continued to move forward in the field of applied
research, through our recommendations for expanding the research programs of the
Engineering Division of the AAR under the direction of G. M. Magee. Our research
structure has been further expanded through the appointment of a vice president of
research, AAR, W. M. Keller, under whose capable guidance great progress should be
made in all fields. We, as the Engineering Division, AAR, and as individual engineers,
have a responsibility to contribute much to carrying out successfully this expanded
railroad research program.
Possibly I should give examples of what I think would typify fields of basii and
fundamental research which we as an Association could recommend and sponsor.
I recently attended a meeting oi the Institute of Solar TerreMial Research, which
has under Stud) the solar influence on long trim weather trends and the possibUit) ol
making long range weather forecasts. Much oi this research i- being sponsored i>\ agen-
1098 Opening Session
des in the field of transportation other than the railroads. Its possibilities in connection
with determining future economic conditions and evaluating future requirements for
railroad maintenance to me are fantastic. For example, it probably will be possible to
forecast those areas of the country where heavy snows or rains will influence main-
tenance of way work adversely. This, of course, would prepare us in advance for extra-
service maintenance expenditures in particular years.
As an economic tool for the railroads the results of this research will also have
great value. For example, the heavy sun-spot activity during the past year has resulted
in the forecast of a drouth in certain areas of our country during 1961 and 1962. This
means that such research, when practically completed, will enable the railroads to predict
the weather conditions in their particular areas of the country, and thus prepare for
such extra expenses and losses in business as might occur from drouths, floods, bad
weather, and so forth.
Another promising endeavor would be basic and fundamental research directed
toward establishing the merits of new and novel transport systems, so that the railroad
industry might prepare itself either to participate in them directly, or to meet the com-
petition resulting from them. Such research should be directed toward the development
of the general technical and economic charactristics of such transport systems.
In the generalized study it would be necessary to include all transport vehicles
that may be at least potentially of interest; to determine the physical principles which
characterize the functioning of the vehicles; to establish mathematical models for the
representative vehicles chosen for examination, which suitably define their dominant
characteristic ; to establish a similar generalized classification for payload, including the
influences of dollar value, speed, and pick-up and delivery patterns; and, finally, by
allowing the models of vehicle and payload to interact with the proper insertion of
realistic physical and economic values, to obtain an appreciation of the technical and
economic capabilities and limitations of each chosen vehicle under a wide range of
conditions.
You may be curious as to why I suggest such projects as research for the future.
It is generally concluded that man's first step in the conquest of space will be the
launching of further satellite vehicles, and that such vehicles could conceivably be used
for the transport of payloads from launching spaces located wherever desired, and dis-
patched to a landing facility, also wherever required, in this country.
This new form of transport should be an object of study for our railroads, both
from the standpoint of actual participation as a transport agency and to understand
what its competitive effects will be.
We as an Association of engineers, therefore, must give our support through our
sponsoring and suggesting ideas to the research agency of the AAR, and we must not
be so complacent as to leave it to the people who are carrying out research programs
suggested by us to further the research efforts in these expanding fields.
Also, as an Association we must not overlook the fact that we must be critical
of our own research programs and of the results which we have secured by whatever
agency that has made the studies. We must be ready to condemn our own erroneous
research efforts, and just as ready to accept research efforts of others which can be
successfully utilized and applied for improvements in the railroad industry, whether in
this country or in foreign lands.
This, then, as I see it, is our new responsibility in the research field and the horizon
for the American railroad industry.
Executive Secretary's Report 1099
I am sure that our efforts in this field will be most welcome and our surest ions
carefully considered, and that our recommendations as the Engineering Division of the
AAR will lend considerable weight to the selection of the actual research projects which
we will undertake in the future.
One more item of importance: I observed during my trip to Europs that the AREA
publications, technical reports and Manual are regarded there as a bible. We here do
not realize how important our actions are technically to the railroads of the world.
We should strive, therefore, to be alert to keep our activities and reports up to date, and
to recognize our responsibilities in the importance given to our reporting and our actions
as individuals and committees.
In closing, I would like to acknowledge the presence of our ladies in the balc< ny.
I am sure that your three days in Chicago are going to be very happy, and we hope
the activities planned for you will contribute toward making your stay a most pleasant
one. It is a pleasure to have you come to our meeting. I am sure most of you do not
care for the technical side of it, but we welcome your being here, as you give us added
inspiration, and we hope you will come often. [Applause]
President McBrian: The next official order of business is the report of our e.\ecu-
tive secretary, Mr. Neal Howard. Before calling for that report, I would like to :ay
that we have a hard-working and very highly competent secretary's staff. This is evi-
denced not only in the large volume of work which they handle regularly for our Asso-
ciation but. on top of that, the more than three months of intensive planning they have
done for every phase of this convention.
Mr. Howard, I shall be pleased if you will present your report at this time.
Executive Secretary's Report
Mr. President, officers of the American Railway Engineering Association, members
and guests:
I couldn't begin to present my entire report at this time. It covers some 14 to 15
pages in the March issue of the Bulletin, copies of which, incidentally, have been mailed
to all of you. and which you will find upon your return home.
However, there are a few significant things in that report, and I hope many of you
will find time to take a look at it when you get home, because these things should lie
very stimulating to you as members of this Association.
I am glad to say that once again your Association closes a healthy year. It tan
look back with considerable satisfaction upon the accomplishments of last year, and can
look forward with confidence to the year that lies ahead.
Despite the shift in the economy from one of fading inflation during tin- earlj hall
of 1957 to one of deepening recession during the latter half, and continuing at a 1< w
level at the present time, with anything but beneficial effects on many of our members
and on the Association and its operation, your Association has held its own in prac-
tically even field of its operations, and has actually continued to make gains in most
of the normal yardsticks for measurim: the well being of an association.
Among the more tangible contributions to this well being were, unmistakably, the
continued willingness of so many of you members to contribute voluntarily your time.
energy and in man} cases your personal funds to advance the object for whirh this
Association was established more than a century ago; the sound organizational basis upon
which it has continued to operate, under the direction of its officers and directors;
1100 Opening Ses s i o n
.Hid the continued confidence which it enjoys on the part of the railroad management>
of the country and, I hope and feel sure, on the part of the Association of American
Railroads.
Unquestionably, an important factor in the continued health of the Association is
the enviable reputation it continues to hold in the field of railway engineering and
maintenance, a reputation which automatically attracts to its membership in large
numbers each year men of character, ability and quality from the ranks of the railroads
of the United States, Canada and from many other countries of the world. I really wish
time permitted me to elaborate on many of these factors which I call evidences of
progress during the past year, but obviously time will not permit.
It can be said, however, that, stimulated by our annual meeting in St. Louis in
1957, under the able leadership of President Hedley, and the energy, charm, ability and
a lot of other fine qualities in his wife, Mrs. Hedley, and her contribution to that con-
vention, we had a good start for 1957 which really put us in our orbit for our work
during the past year.
Just a few statistics in which you will be interested. It is one thing to say in gen-
eralities that we have grown or are in good condition, and another thing to substan-
tiate it. One of the evidences of our well being in 1957 was the continued growth of
membership, extending an unbroken record of growth since 1944. Even though this
growth since 1949, the Golden Anniversary year of our Association, when nearly 700
new members were added, has been relatively small and continued small in 1957, it has
considerable significance in the light of conditions which prevailed in the railroad indus-
try over much of that period, which included a reduction in the total number of technical
employees in the engineering and maintenance departments of the railroads, and restricted
recruitment of technically trained college graduates, which resulted in a smaller field
from which to draw our membership.
As of February 1 of this year the membership stood at 3362, a net gain of 12.
I still get a bang out of our continued growth, even if the rate, under the conditions
which you all know the railroads and we as an Association operate today, was smaller
than those of the 4 preceding years, which ranged from a low of 20 to as many as 47
in 1956. But the picture is a little less unfavorable in view of the fact that since January
1, 1958, some 70 applications for membership have been accepted or are in the process
of being acted upon.
Our committees continue healthy and active. As of February 1, 1958, we had 1125
members serving on the Association's 23 committees. They occupy a total of 1246 places
on these committees. This compares with 1114 on committees last year.
I have had a lot of satisfaction from something that our vice president (I should
say the vice president, Operations and Maintenance Department of the AAR) has said
repeatedly during the past two years. While many others outside of our organization,
in a much less favorable position to comment, have talked about the inability of large
committees to function properly, our vice president of whom I speak has staunchly and
firmly backed up the type of organization that we have, with large committees and
large representations from the various railroads and from all parts of the country.
And so I think the fact that we do have as many as 1125 of our members actively
participating in our committee work is something that we might well be proud of. If
more outsiders would sit in on some of our committee meetings when they are actually
functioning, doing more than organizing or closing out their work, I think they would
be. amazed at the amount of work that is accomplished by these members at our
commit tee meetings.
Executive Secretary's Report 1101
Reference already has been made to the attention that has been given during the
past two years to the assignment of subjects and keeping them current and up to date.
We don't fool around with dead subjects.
This will amize you as it did me: During the past year a very careful canvass was
made of every subject handled by each and every one of our committees, not only with
the idea of suggesting possibilities of increasing the number of subjects to encompass
up to date things that are coming into being in this world, but also so that we could
weed out what has been called "dead wood."
Following that very careful investigation I feel very proud (as our Board does and
as the rest of you should) that there was not one subject taken away from any com-
mittee because that subject was considered outmoded or outdated or had been worked
out. So, I am confident that we are working along the right lines in our committees, and
that we are not wasting anybody's time.
Our committees range from a minimum of 30 to about 70, as you know. We had
73 committee meetings during the year, most of which were held in central locations.
This may call for reconsideration during the year immediately ahead in the interest of
economy and the well being of our Association as well as of its individual members
and our railroads, but I am sure our Board will take care of that matter, possibly at the
next meeting, which immediately follows this convention.
We continue to publish a great many publications, as you know. We hope they are
of great value. We know they will be to the extent that they are read.
Our Proceedings last year contained 1324 pages. I think our publication distribution
is a matter of interest to you. Aside from the widespread distribution we get through
our own membership, the secretary's office has mailed out to railroads, government
agencies, col'eges and universities and a number of other interested people, some 38,500
copies. When you think that these go out in batches ranging from one to 100, you can
appreciate they encompass a lot of packages. We hope it is an indication of the amount
of good that you people, our members, are doing through these reports.
Deviating from statistics for just a moment, I do want to say that I think one
of the most significant things that happened to this Association during the past year
was that, following the very searching investigation that was made of the AREA in all
of its aspects during the past two years, really looking for something wrong, we find
ourselves here, today, firmly entrenched again and continuing as the Construction and
Maintenance Section of the Engineering Division of the Association of American Rail-
roads. I hope you all feel as I do, that this represents reaffirmation of the confidence
the railroads and especially the Association of American Railroads has in this
organization.
It has contributed immeasurably to the welfare of the railroads in the past, and
if we can feel that we have the kind of backing in the future which we have had
from our parent uroup, the AAR, in the past, it ought to stimulate us to a lot of
increased activity and accomplishment in the days ahead.
Thank you very much [Applause |
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Howard.
The next order of business is the report of our Treasurer, Mr. A. B. Hillman, chief
engineer of the Chicago & Western Indiana and Belt Railway of Chicago, Mr Hillman.
j 102 Opening Session
Treasurer's Report
Last year your treasurer stated that it was expected that, financially, the Associa-
tion would have an abnormal year in 1957 with expenditures exceeding receipts by pos-
sibly as much as $12,000. This estimated unbalance in the budget was predicated on the
reprinting of a several year's supply of Manuals, and the printing of the new edition
of the Handbook of Instructions for Care and Operation of Maintenance of Way Equip-
ment. I am pleased to be able to report now that this large anticipated deficit did not
materialize, and was actually held to a loss for the year of only $4,401.26. This wide
difference between estimated deficit and actual deficit resulted from considerably higher
receipts than anticipated and slightly lower disbursements than expected.
At the same time it should be pointed out, as is indicated on the General Balance
Sheet of the Treasurer's Report, that the total assets of the Association at the end of
1957 were some $2,000 more than at the end of 1956 — due almost entirely to the
increased stock of reprinted Manuals carried as an asset in the inventory of the
Association.
Total receipts for 1957 were $85,429.3 1-$7,000 higher than anticipated, and $6,000
greater than total receipts in 1956. That receipts for 1957 were so high was really sur-
prising, because when the Budget for the year was approved last March, there was a
feeling that total receipts for the year would be no higher than those of 1956, and quite
probably would be somewhat lower.
The principal reasons for these high receipts in 1957 were the continued growth
in Association membership and a continued demand for Association publications.
Interest on the investments, which have been accumulated by the Association over
many years, amounted to $3,783.30 in 1957. This interest is an important item of revenue
each year because, without it, the Association would have incurred a deficit, or a larger
deficit, in many past years. Without this interest in 1957 the actual deficit of $4,401
would have been more than $8,000.
Disbursements for 1957 were $89,830, compared to $70,336 in 1956. This situation
was expected, since $10,800 was budgeted in 1957 for reprinting the Manual, and $7,400
for printing the Handbook of Instructions for Care and Operation of Maintenance of
Way Equipment— both of which items do not occur annually.
Total Disbursements for 1957 were $2,300 under those estimated. This was due to
economies effected in reprinting the Manual, to the amount of $1,000; an $800 under-
expenditure in postage, due to contemplated increases in postage rates early in the year,
which did not materialize until late in the year; expenditure of $900 less than contem-
plated for the 1957 Annual Meeting held in St. Louis; and a saving of $500 effected by
deferring the purchase of equipment for the secretary's office. Other disbursements closely
approximated budgeted figures, with the exception of those for Bulletins and Salaries,
which were somewhat higher.
As for 1958, the prospects for a good financial year are at this time not too encour-
aging. This must be said, especially if the Association proceeds with its plan to purchase
a sizable supply of Manual binders (which will be carried in the inventory at actual cash
value), and authorizes the publication of a large second edition of the Association's
Engineer Recruitment Brochure for distribution free to the engineering colleges and
universities of the United States and Canada, and to high school counselors. If at the
same time, as the result of continuing unfavorable business conditions, receipts for 1958
should fall off, the Association is faced with a probable deficit larger than that incurred
in 1957.
NRAA Exhibit 1103
Thus, it is well that the Association enjoyed exceptionally good years financially in
1954, 1955, and 1956, with an excess of Receipts over Expenditures in each of these
years, which provide a cushion to fall back on until, with improved economic condi-
tions, it can be expected that the annual budgets of the Association will be in balance.
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Hillman. We appreciate your continued
valuable service to the Association as its treasurer.
In view of the unusually heavy expenditures in 1957, primarily for the reprinting
of our Manual, and the publication of 11,000 copies of the new edition of the Hand-
book of Instructions for Care and Operation of Maintenance of Way Equipment, it is
gratifying that we went into the hole only about $4,400, and that you and our auditors
feel the Association is in a sound financial condition. Even the prospect of a further
deficit for the year 1958, as the result of the plans to produce special publications in that
year, does not concern me because I am certain that, following these years of extra-
ordinary expenditures, we will come back with an excess of receipts over disbursements.
Gentlemen, you have heard the reports of the secretary and the treasurer. I shall
be glad to entertain a motion that these reports be accepted.
[Motion was regularly made and seconded, was put to a vote, and carried. |
President McBrian: We are deeply indebted to the National Railway Appliances
Association and its individual member companies for the large and instructive exhibit
which they put on every third year in conjunction with our Annual Meeting, and we
are fortunate to have one of those exhibits in connection with our convention this year.
At this time I would like to present again Mr. W. H. Tudor, president of the
National Railway Appliances Association, and give him an opportunity to tell us some-
thing about the current exhibit should he desire to do so. Mr. Tudor.
Exhibit of National Railway Appliances Association
W. H. Tudor: This year is show year — the 37th exhibition of railroad equipment of
the National Railway Appliances Association. The exhibit opened yesterday morning at
9:00 am at the Coliseum. The entire available exhibit floor space has been taken up by
exhibitors, and we could not accommodate others wanting exhibit space. There are
113 firms exhibiting equipment this year, including 21 new ones.
We feel confident that when you visit the exhibit you will find many new and
improved products displayed by the firms which have been our regular exhibitors and
by the 21 new firms.
All firms exhibiting are members of this Association. I would also like to mention
that membership in our Association is based on written application. When membership
applications are received, full investigation is made of the company applying to deter-
mine its business status and products represented. It is our endeavor to have members
which have high-grade products and business reputations of the highest degree. Our
thinking is this is to give you men some assurance when you do business with members
of this Association that they are reliable business people.
Our total membership is 163, and the break-down is 113 exhibiting and 50 isso
ciate memberships. There is only one membership to each firm, and no individual mem-
bership to either exhibiting or associate member-
To assist your Association with the convention registration, we arranged for space
at the Colisum for your use yesterday, where your regular registration and other busi
1 104 Opening Session
ness pertaining to registrations was handled. This space was located just north of the
main entrance on the Wabash Ave. side.
At a convention as large as that of the AREA and an exhibit as large as that of
the NRAA, the majority of people attending are from out of town and are not ac-
quainted with Chicago transportation and locations. To assist them with transportation
between the Sherman Hotel and the Coliseum, the NRAA is furnishing scheduled bus
service during exhibition hours. The busses will be marked "To Railroad Exhibition"
and will go direct from the Sherman Hotel to the Coliseum and return. We believe this
service will be helpful to people attending the exhibit, as well as a time saver to those
who are on close schedules.
The 1Q58 convention issue of the AREA News sparkles with enthusiasm and reports
that your opening session, along with others, will feature "Research" as its theme. The
word "research" is no longer just a word used in industry today, it is a must. In the
past, very often a research department was started by management without any clear
definition of objectives. To the technical executives who headed the activities it may
never have seemed necessary to raise the question ; they know what research is and
assume mistakenly that management does too. They may never have asked management
to try to understand what can reasonably be expected from a given amount of technical
effort, and they may never have asked for the interest and guidance management should
give them.
In business today, management looks to research more than ever to make its opera-
tions profitable and successful. In its research activities today management makes "tech-
nical audits" seeking to determine: (1) What it expects of research and development
within the company; (2) how well research and development is doing its job; and
(3) how the performance of the research and development department can be improved.
Your industry was awarded the Franklin Institute Medal in research for Inven-
tions in Railway Engineering, and I would like to quote from the January issue of Time
Magazine:
"This year, for the first time, The Franklin Institute's coveted George R. Henderson
Medal — awarded for achievements in research in railroad technology — was NOT given
to an individual inventor or engineer. It was awarded to an association — the Association
of American Railroads.
"This award honors the contributions made by the Association's Mechanical and
Engineering Divisions to the advancement of railroad safety, progress and efficiency.
"These contributions are reflected in 02 patents which have resulted from the Asso-
ciation's research. Currently the Association has some Q6 projects under way at its
research center on the campus of the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago. And
it is planning additional facilities to expand this research.
"The railroad industry will continue its scientific research to provide transportation
service that is constantly increasing in efficiency and economy. — Association of American
Railroads, Washington, D. C."
We want to extend an invitation to you to visit the exhibit, and we believe that
when you visit the Coliseum you will see where research and development have been
active in producing new equipment, tools, supplies, processes and methods that you will
have the opportunity to evaluate for your own operations.
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Tudor. I am sure our members, and the
many other railroad men who are here in connection with our convention, will avail
themselves of the opportunity to see your splendid exhibit.
Greetings from Sisn a 1 and Electrical Sections, AAR 1105
We particularly appreciate the '"door-to-door" bus delivery service which your or-
ganization has provided between our convention headquarters and the Coliseum, which
will make it conveniently possible for our members to see your exhibit while participating
in our convention program to the fullest extent.
Greetings from the Signal and Electrical Sections, AAR
President McBrlan: I would like now to introduce to you Mr. Molis, the Chair-
man of the Signal Section. AAR. Mr. Molis, we will be glad to hear from you.
B. W. Molis: Mr. President, members, and guests: It is a privilege to extend to
each of you greetings and best wishes from the members of the Signal Section, with
the hope that you will have another very successful meeting with a large attendance.
I wish at this time, in behalf of the Signal Section, to invite each of you to attend
the Signal Section meeting that will be held in this city at the Morrison Hotel, September
19, 20, and 21.
There will be reports submitted by 12 standing committees and also timely talks
by important officers of railroads and manufacturing company representatives. There
will be panel discussions of certain phases of railway signaling and its associated appli-
ances. We request your presence and ask you to partake in these panel discussions and
become aware of our problems and their solutions; also, if any of you have problems
relating to signaling and will present them you will not only hear the discussion but
will no doubt be given an answer to your problems.
Ray, it is rather unusual that you in your capacity as president of the Association
and I. as chairman of the Signal Section, both come from the mile-high City of Denver.
I believe this is the first time in history that this has happened; possibly the reason
is that we are both employed by a very, very good railroad, the Denver & Rio Grande
Western.
Thank you.
President McBrian: Thank you very much, Mr. Molis.
We would now like to have a word from Mr. Burley, who represents the Electrical
Section. Mr. Burley.
P. B. Burley: President McBrian, members of the American Railway Engineering
Association and guests: The Electrical Section of the Engineering and Mechanical Divi-
sions of the Association of American Railroads extends its greetings to you on the
occasion of your 1958 meeting.
It is a foregone conclusion which no one can dispute that there is an abundance
of very valuable information to be presented in the reports that are part of your pro-
gram during the three days of this meeting, to the benefit of the railroads and to the
credit of those who helped to prepare them.
In partnership with your organization, the Electrical Section will continue to help
you serve our common objective, the welfare of the railroad transportation industry,
Thank you for the privilege of being with you at this opening session.
President McBrian: Thank you. Mr. Burley. It would be okay if you want to
put in a plug for the Illinois Central. [Laughter) As Mr. Burley came to the podium
he whispered, "Since this is the day for plugs, we ought to have a plug for the Illinois
Central."
I want both of you gentlemen to know thai we extend to you the good wishes <<i
mil- Association, and on behalf ol this Association maj I saj we deeplj appreciate youi
110b Opening Session
coming here. I hope that in turn you will convey our best wishes to your respective
organizations,
I would like to interrupt our proceedings at this point for a moment in order to
allow the Railway Age to take its usual convention photograph. We hope this can be
done quickly.
[The convention photograph was taken.]
President McBrian: Gentlemen, I want to thank all of you at the speakers' table.
You are now excused. We will now honor others in connection with the following im-
portant features of our program. By "the others" I refer to the keynote speaker at our
convention and the several officers of the Association of American Railroads, and key
division and section officers of the AAR in Chicago. All of these men have received
invitations to be with us this morning, and I shall be pleased if they will take the places
assigned to them at the speakers' table as those presently at the table retire.
I should now like to introduce these gentlemen to you. As I introduce each man
I will appreciate it if he will stand and remain standing until all have been introduced.
Please withhold your applause until all have been introduced.
Starting at my extreme right, Mr. R. S. Auten, assistant patent counsel, Association
of American Railroads, Chicago.
Mr. K. A. Carney, executive vice chairman, Patent Division, and director, Claims
Research Bureau, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. B. H. Smith, secretary, General Claims Division, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. G. G. Schwinn, district manager, Car Service Division, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. R. S. Glynn, director, Sanitation Research and Development, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. G. M. Magee, director of engineering research, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. A. R. Beatty, assistant vice president. Public Relations Department, AAR,
Washington, D.C.
Mr. W. M. Keller, vice president — research, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. R. G. May, vice president, Operations and Maintenance Department, AAR,
Washington, D. C.
Mr. D. P. Loomis, president, Association of American Railroads, Washington, D. C.
Having already introduced the men immediately to my right, with the exception
of one, I shall now continue by introducing those at my left.
Mr. F. Peronto, executive vice chairman, Mechanical Division, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. L. Donovan, assistant executive vice chairman, Mechanical Division, AAR,
Chicago.
Mr. F. H. Stremmel, secretary, Mechanical Division, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. A. I. Ciliske, executive vice chairman, Operating — -Transportation Division, AAR,
Chicago.
Mr. H. A. Eaton, secretary, Transportation Section, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. A. H. Grothmann, secretary, Communications Section, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. W. E. Todd, secretary, Freight Station Section, and secretary, Fire Protection
and Insurance Section, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. F. J. Parker, secretary, Operating Section, Association of American Railroads,
Chicago.
Mr. A. L. Batts, executive vice chairman, Freight Claim Division, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. R. E. O'Donnell, secretary, Freight Claim Division, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. C. A. Naffziger, director, Freight Loss and Damage Prevention Section, Asso-
ciation of American Railroads, Chicago.
Opening Session 1107
Mr. G. H. Ruhle, secretary, Freight Loss and Damage Prevention Section, AAR.
Chicago.
Mr. A. P. Kivl'n, chief engineer, Freight Loss and Damage Prevention Section, AAR,
Chicago.
We had hoped to introduce next Mr. R. H. C. Balliet, secretary of the Signal Sec-
tion, AAR, but he could not be here because of illness.
Mr. C. C. Elber, secretary, Electrical Section, AAR, Chicago. [Applause]
Thank you, gentlemen. We appreciate your being with us today, both so that we
might honor you and express our appreciation for the cooperation which exists between
our respective divisions and sections, and so that you in turn might help us honor our
keynote speaker.
Introduction of William T. Faricy
Presdent McBrian: We now come to the highlight of our Opening Session — an
address which we expect, both in tenor and substance, will set the "keynote" of our
entire convention and stimulate our thinking in the year ahead. Certainly, the subject
of the address is one close to my heart.
I refer to the address to be made by William T. Faricy, chairman of the Board
and chief executive officer of the Association of American Railroads.
I am sure Mr. Faricy needs no introduction to those here at the speakers' table,
some of whom have been a part of the AAR organization for as long as, or longer
than he. Likewise, I know that he needs no introduction to most of you in the audience,
who for many years have known him, by reputation at least, as the dynamic, genial
head of the AAR. So my reference to his business career and many achievements will
be brief.
I wish we could claim Mr. Faricy as an engineer — but we can't. He was graduated
with high honors from St. Paul College of Law in 1914, and immediately accepted
appointment as an attorney for the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha Railroad
(now a part of the Chicago & North Western), which started him on a railroad career
from which he deviated only once for a short period of time. Up the ladder he went,
from one position to another, until he became vice president and general counsel of the
North Western in 1944.
In 1947, with a background of law, finance and labor-management relations, he
was tailor-made for the job he was then to assume — the presidency of the Association
of American Railroads — a position he filled with distinction until July 26. 1957. On that
date he was elected chairman of the Board and chief executive officer of the Association,
with the stipulation on his part that he would terminate his service in this capacity on
April 1, 1958.
So, Mr. Faricy comes to us today almost at the close of his long railroad career.
In the breadth of his responsibilities as president of the AAR, and more recently as
chairman of the Board, he has been in constant contact with the work of the technical
divisions and sections of the Association. In these contacts, I am sure he has heard of
the AREA, and appreciates the effective way it has functioned in its capacity as the
Construction & Maintenance Section of the Engineering Division.
Certainly, it is not without significance that during Mr. Faricy 's administration the
research work of the AAR has expanded greatly, from that carried on l>y a small office
type organization, dependent almost entirely upon the laboratory Facilities of Others,
as recent as seven years ago, to a sizable, trained research staff, which is todaj housed
1108 Opening Session
in three modern laboratory buildings at the AAR Research Center on the campus i I
Illinois Tech, and the work of which is assisted by the laboratories and research per-
sonnel of six colleges and universities, several commercial organizations, and a large
number of railroads and railroad supply companies.
So, in our speaker today we have a man — a lawyer and administrator by training
and experience — who has become increasingly engineering and research minded, to
the point where he has been one of the principal motivating forces behind the enlarged
research activities of the AAR, and on the basis of the title of the address he is to
make to us this morning, "Research Lights the Way" — a title of his own choosing — he
undoubtedly feels that the future of the railroads would be greatly handicapped without
the light of adequate research in their behalf.
We are greatly honored that Mr. Faricy accepted our invitation to address us,
especially since, with his retirement as of April 1, this address is certain to be among
the last he will make in his present official capacity.
Mr. Faricy, we await with anticipation hearing what you have to say.
[The audience arose and applauded.]
Research Lights the Way
By William T. Faricy
Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer, Association of American Railroads
President McBrian, members of the American Railway Engineering Association,
fellow railroaders of AAR, ladies and gentlemen:
First of all, I want to thank Ray McBrian for that most gracious introduction.
You know, we have high regard for Ray McBrian at AAR. We regard him as one of
the most brilliant research minds in our entire industry.
During the year of his presidency several times I have had occasion to ask Ray
to come to Washington for quiet little talks about the future of our research, and
about the relations of the Association of American Railroads with your distinguished
organization, and I want to acknowledge now the deep debt we feel both to Ray as
your president and to you gentlemen of the organization itself.
During a business life of more than 42 years, devoted for the most part to rail-
roading but including a couple of years of experience in construction work, I have
been fortunate in having had a good deal more than the usual opportunity to observe
the work of the engineering profession. From this observation, I am fully persuaded
of the truth of A. M. Wellington's classic definition of an engineer as "a man who
can do well with one dollar that which any bungler can do after a fashion with two."
And of no engineers is this more true than it is of those whose professional labors have
been devoted to the building, operation and improvement of our nation's basic trans-
portation— the American railroads.
So it is with great pride, as well as real pleasure, that I avail myself of the privilege
of speaking to the membership of this distinguished professional organization. I make
no claim to proficiency in the art of engineering, but I believe there are few people
with greater appreciation of its contributions. And certainly anyone knowing the great
contribution which the AREA has made and is making to the AAR through being its
engineering arm would be shortsighted indeed to give support to any plan which would
interfere in any way with those activities which have worked so long and so well, and
Address of William T. Faricy HQQ
your Board of Direction is the body that we of AAR look to for the advice thai we
follow in your field.
Through the efforts of your group and of other railway engineering groups, there
has been developed on this continent the vast, intricate and efficient machine for the
production of transportation service which we know as the railroads. Fundamental in
this machine are the parts with which the members of the American Railway Engineering
Association are primarily concerned — the track with its appurtenant structures; tin-
signals and controls; the yards — and all the other facilities which make up the roadway.
The roadway of today represents more than a century of development and refine-
ment, study and observation, experiment and experience. Yet we have all heard it said
that there has been no change, that railroad track is the same today as it was yesterday.
To the unobservant eye and the uninformed mind there is a certain spacious plausibility
to such a statement. After all, it was as early as the 1830's that track assumed its essen-
tial form of parallel rails laid on crossties — but in the years since then every element
of that essentially correct structure has been profoundly modified, indeed transformed.
Light iron has been replaced by heavy steel. The rail itself has been so improved in
metallurgy and design as to multiply by many times its wearing life while reducing
its rate of breakage to a minor fraction of what it was even as recently as 30 years ago.
Yes, crossties are still of wood, but wood that has been so changed by chemical treat-
ment and so protected from mechanical wear that just in the last half century its service
life has been multiplied more than three times.
And these are but the beginnings of the changes in the roadway — changes which
have come about so steadily that they have largely escaped the notice of those who
take the familiar railroad for granted — which is. I believe, most of us Americans. From
the subgrade beneath to the air above the tracks, there have been profound changes.
These changes have included the use of stabilizing materials beneath the surface of the
earth to provide strong support for the roadway. Improved materials and methods of
ballasting have provided better drainage and riding qualities for the track. The number
of rail joints has been reduced, and the remaining joints have been greatly strengthened
and smoothed by improved fastenings. Continuous rail has been developed through
welding, while a like effect is sought by the still experimental method of laying track
with tight or "frozen" joints. Protective tie plates have become almost universal and tie
pads between plate and tie are in wide use.
Keeping pace with the changes in design and materials of the roadway and track
structures have been changes in the methods of construction and maintenance work.
Roadway maintenance is no longer the pick and shovel job it once was; rather, it is the
work of men making use of highly efficient machines — graders, ditchers and other earth-
moving machinery; machines to pull and drive spikes, to loosen and tighten nut-, to
remove and replace ties, to adze and bore ties; machines to clean and renew ballast,
to lay rail, to line up. tamp and surface track.
I was tremendously interested yesterdaj afternoon in seeing a wide variety of these
machines on exhibition at tin- Coliseum. It is an exhibition well worth anyone's trip
out there to see. It will be a revelation to many people, and not so much to your
members of tlii> organization who I know are familiar with these developments; but to
the uninitiated, like myself, it i> just a revelation to see these line machines thai are
on exhibition out there.
All these and a variety of other mechanical aids, operating both on and off the
tracks, bring to the wmk ol roadwaj maintenance the efficiency of a moving production
line operation.
1110 Opening Session
To these mechanical means of maintenance there have been added the marvels
of electronics. We now have detector devices to give advance warning of incipient defects
developing deep within the steel of rails; strain gage equipment for the measurement
of stresses and strains in rail or bridge structures; and, of course, the continuing day
by day protection of automatic signals and centralized traffic control, which so greatly
increase the carrying capacity and efficiency of railroad lines. To all this has now been
added the use of the air above the traks in a specialized communications system adapted
to railroad uses. This transmits messages by air, by induction and by space radio, in
addition to the familiar use of wires.
The modern railroad, then, is the result of the application of the combined knowl-
edge and creative efforts of engineers of many different trainings and talents — a list
of engineering specialties which goes on to and including those engineers who prepare
and state the problems for solution by electronic data computers.
Railroad technology, therefore, rests on a wide base of varied research. Some steps
in it have been the result of work of individual engineers, others of cooperative effort.
Some of these researches have been carried out in the laboratories of those companies
which supply the railroads with the tens of thousands of different items of materials
and equipment which they buy and use in the production of transportation service.
Other studies have been conducted in the laboratories of universities and technological
institutions. Still others are carried out by the individual railroads whose tracks and
operations provide what is, in effect, a 220,000-mile proving ground for testing new
devices and methods under controlled conditions.
Increasingly, railroad research has become a matter of organized and cooperative
effort. This trend was reconized when, last year, the Franklin Institute for the first time
gave its George R. Henderson medal to an association instead of to an individual. This
award was conferred upon the Association of American Railroads "in recognition of the
many achievements of the Mechanical and Engineering Divisions in the many fields of
railway engineering."
This award was made, at least in part, as a recognition of the work done at the
Research Center of the Association of American Railroads on the campus of the Illinois
Institute of Technology here in Chicago. This Center, which didn't even exist as late
as nine years ago, when I last had the honor of addressing this organization, is now
contributing significantly to the steady succession of improvements in the art of rail-
roading. But whether they are the contributions of the AAR Research Center, or of a
particular railroad or supply company, or even of an individual inventor, improvements
to every part of railroad plant and equipment and to every phase of railroad opera-
tion continue to flow from the drawing boards, the laboratories and the test tracks.
These improvements have raised railroad productivity per train, per car and per hour
of work to its highest point, and light the way to still greater performance.
As you all know, the demand for railroad services has declined in the past year.
Carloadings in September were nearly 10 percent below the corresponding month of the
preceding year. In October they were more than 11 percent below; in November,
nearly 14 percent below; in December and January they were nearly 16 percent down.
In February they were down more than 20 percent. This precipitate decline in freight
traffic demonstrates how vulnerable the railroads are to any serious dip in general busi-
ness activity. Railroad difficulties, however, antedated the current downturn in business
conditions and they will remain after the present recession has passed, unless corrected
by legislation. I use the word recession without apology because every observing person
can see what is happening to business. Of course, it will pass. In a free economy reces-
Address of William T. Faricy 1111
sions happen every few years. Fortunately, prolonged depressions, and we are not in
one now, don't happen very often.
I might take this occasion to deny the rumor going around that at cocktail parties
in Washington there is now a new drink called "Business on the Rocks." [Laughter |
Under present government policies as to transportation, the railroad industry as a
whole finds it impossible in good times to make sufficient earnings to accumulate the
financial strength necessary to bridge over the periods of declining business activity
without drastic curtailment of capital improvement programs and even of maintenance.
In not a single one of the 12 years since the end of World War II have the railroads
enjoyed the rate of return of as much as \l/z percent on their net investment. The aver-
age rate of return in that period has been only about 3^4 percent. In 1957 it dropped
to 3% percent and in 1958 it shows every sign of falling below 3 percent. With such
meager earnings even in good years it is not surprising that in the present dip in busi-
ness, railroad working capital — the money with which current operating costs must be
met — is down to only about enough to meet cash operating requirements for 23 days.
So it has been necessary not only to reduce forces and to reduce and omit dividends,
but also to curtail the program of capital improvement upon which the railroads have
spent an average of more than a billion dollars a year since the end of World War II.
Such a program can be sustained only by earnings or the prospect of earnings. In the
case of the railroads the earnings record is not such as to induce the investment of
additional equity capital. Depreciation allowances, which should be the major source
of funds for the replacement of plant and equipment, are unrealistically low in the
railroad industry, especially in times of inflation such as we have been experiencing.
This means that to a large extent the earnings of the railroads must be depended upon
to carry forward the program of capital investment which is so essential if railroads
are to continue to meet the needs of commerce and the demands of defense.
Speaking of inflation, I heard a story the other day about a fellow who was making
a talk on the subject. He got quite worked up, and wanted to bring before his audience
very forcibly just what had happened, so he pulled out a dollar bill. He held it up and
said, "The time was when this dollar bill was worth 100 cents. Then it went down
to a worth of only 80 cents. Then it got down to 50 cents. Now it is worth 47 cents.
Tomorrow — ". He got that far, and some guy in the front row got up and said, "Hey,
Mister, here's the 47 cents you talked about. Give me that dollar bill before it drops
any more." [Laughter]
The continuing unsatisfactory financial condition of the railroads is due to inequality
of regulation and taxation. This situation calls for correction and, I believe, will be
corrected. "When?" — you ask. That depends primarily on Congress and to only a
slightly lesser extent, on state legislatures. But the signs of an awakening public con-
sciousness of the unfairness of present governmental policies are so clear that 1 am
heartened enough to predict that many among this audience today will be working on
the railroads under far more enlightened public policies than those now governing us
But in the meantime, as the poet has said, "the wind, the storm and the rain." We face
today the task of providing the best, the most efficient, the most economical trans-
portation service possible with only the resources now at our command. Fundamental
among these resources is continued research technical research in more effective produc-
tion of transportation, commercial and customer research in more effective sale of the
service produced — in fact, research into every aspect of railroading
In the broad process of research in the mechanical and engineering fields, the
Research Center of the AAR will play an increasingly important part, The facilities oi
1112 Opening Session
this center have been expanded from one building opened in 1050, through a second
building completed in 1953, to a third building — the Engineering Laboratory — com-
pleted in 1057. This laboratory contains accelerated service testing equipment for axles,
diesel fuels and lubricants, rail and rail joints, rail welds, rail lubricants, soils and bal-
last, tie pads and tie plate fastenings, structural beams and girders and timber stringers,
including tests of corrosion, weathering and burning.
And 1 am now glad to announce, for the first time publicly, that today we are
exercising our option to acquire further land on the campus of the Illinois Institute of
Technology for the construction, possibly in 10.5Q, but almost certainly in 1060, of a
fourth building in the Research Center, this one to be known as the AAR Science Labora-
tory. This building will contain an electronics laboratory, will provide housing for
laboratories for metallurgical research, for analysis of gases and exhausts, for develop-
ment of new fuels and lubricants for locomotives and cars, and still will leave room
for a nuclear reactor whenever the AAR needs it, which Ray McBrian and I think
will be soon.
Nor are the activities of the AAR's Research Department confined to those con-
ducted at the Research Center. Studies are carried on in cooperation with railroads,
universities, colleges and technological institutions. An example is the project carried
on at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, under the joint sponsorship of the
Association of American Railroads, the Bureau of Public Roads and the U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers. In this project, Northwestern University was assisted in the acquisi-
tion of this expensive facility by the full cooperation of the various manufacturers who
furnished and donated equipment and materials. This project consists of a specially built
half-scale model of "a bridge to nowhere" as it has been called. You can see it out
of the left side windows of the elevated as you ride through Evanston. It is just beyond
the Davis St. stop of the Chicago & North Western. It is expected to resolve many
problems of bridge design and construction. The individual members of this bridge can
be tested to destruction, and will be, without damaging the entire structure. The loads
will be applied by hydraulic loading jacks with a total force of 4,200,000 lb. The effects
of such tremendous pressures will be measured by an optical system accurate to one
one-thousandth of an inch in any direction — a system so accurate that lateral displace-
ments are determined, not by reference to anything in the immediate surroundings, but
by sighting on the North Star. In addition to this optical system of observation, elec-
trical gages will measure strains in the steel in significant locations, the results being
tabulated and subsequently analyzed on Northwestern University's new IBM computer.
This testing facility, the largest of its kind in the world, will develop new informa-
tion on the complex members of bridge structures when loaded to their ultimate carry-
ing capacity. An immediate practical problem to be solved is the establishment of rules
for the guidance of bridge engineers in permitting train operation on truss spans which
have had the end posts or other members damaged by the side-swipe of misplaced
loads.
And this is just one example of the sweep and scope of railroad research. Research
has never been so important to the industry as it is now. Never has it carried such a
great responsibility as it does right now — notwithstanding the fact that the railroads
are currently realizing, on every front, the benefits of more than a century of accumu-
lated scientific development and technological research. Last month, when on my recom-
mendation and in recognition of drastically curtailed carloadings and revenues, the AAR
Board cut the rate of assessment by 20 percent, we preserved our research, now under
a vice president having that as his sole responsibility, at the high level of activity we
Address t>f William T. Faricy 1113
had planned for it. It would be false economy to do otherwise, as research is a j<>l>
that is never completed. Its complex and far-flung processes, as we know them today,
are comparatively new. But the constant search for ever better and more efficient trans-
portation of goods and people is as old as the railroads themselves, as old as the earliest
aspirations of the engineer's inquiring mind for a better structure than he then had.
That search has been carried forward by men of great vision, men of science and engi-
neering endowed with this type of mind that is never satisfied with things as they are.
These are the kind of men whom Carl Sandburg — that great son of Illinois — must
have had in mind when he wrote his poem on the builder. True, he wrote specifically
of the builder of the skyscraper, but he might as well have written of the railroad engi-
neer, the designer and constructor of railroads, bridges and buildings. One could para-
phrase Carl Sandburg's beautiful poem to make it fit exactly the railroad engineer. But
let us take it as it is and let your mind's eye do the paraphrasing and the transposing.
Here is what he wrote:
In the evening there is a sunset sonata
comes to the cities.
The skyscrapers throw their tall
lengths of walls into black bastions
on the red west.
And who made 'em? Who made the
skyscrapers ?
Man made 'em, the little two-legged
joker, Man.
Out of his head, out of his dreaming,
scheming skypiece,
Out of proud little diagrams that
danced softly in his head — Man
made the skyscrapers.
With his two hands, with shovels,
hammers, wheelbarrows, with engines,
conveyors, signal whistles, with
girders, steel,
Climbing on scaffolds and falsework
with blueprints, riding the beam
and dangling in mid-air to call
Come on, boys — Man made the
skyscrapers.
When one tall skyscraper is torn down
To make room for a taller one in
go up.
Who takes down and puts up those
Skyscrapers?
Man — the little two legged inker .
Man.
And what are thev saying on the
-k\ line?
1114 Opening Sessi'on
Tell it to us, skyscrapers around
Wacker Drive in Chicago.
Tall oblongs in orchestral confusion
from the Battery to the Brcnx,
Along Market Street to the Ferry
flashing the Golden Gate sumet.
Who are these tall witnesses? who
these high phantoms?
What can they tell of a thousand years
to come,
People and people rising and fading
with the springs and autumns, people
like leaves out of the earth in
spring, like leaves down the autumn
wind —
What shall a thousand years tell a
young tumultous restless people?
They have made these steel skeletons
like themselves —
Lean, tumultous, restless:
They have put up tall witnesses,
to fade in a cool midnight blue,
to rise in evening rainbow prints.
And, Mr. Sandburg, before "Man made his skyscraper" man had to make the rail-
road— and the particular kind of man who did most to throw those shining lines of
steel criss-crossing the continent was the engineer; the civil engineer; the mechanical engi-
neer, the electrical engineer, all the many different kinds of engineers who built and now
maintain these mighty ways of transportation serving the "restless people" of a young
nation. And when the story of a century or more to come is told, railroads still will
serve that people — and stand as witnesses to the dreams and the accomplishments of
the engineer.
[The audience arose and applauded.]
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Faricy, for being one of us at our Annual
Meeting this year, and for your stimulating address. We appreciate the compliments
you have paid our Association, and more especially the confidence you have expressed
in us in carrying forward the work of the Construction and Maintenance Section of
the AAR.
We are also encouraged by your announcement of the new AAR Science Labora-
tory to be constructed at the AAR Research Center, which is further evidence of the
growing appreciation on the part of railroad managements of the value of enlarged and
broadened programs of research on behalf of the railroad industry.
IMay I take this opportunity, Mr. Faricy, on behalf of myself and the Association,
to wish for you and Mrs. Faricy many years of health and happiness in your coming
retirement.
Honorary Members h.ips 1115
Presentation of Honorary Membership Certificates
President McBrian: The Constitution of our Association provides for the con-
ferring of Honorary Membership upon persons of acknowledged eminence in railway
engineering or management, upon endorsement of ten or more members and the
unanimous affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction.
At the present time, as is recorded in our Year Book Bulletin, the Association has
only three living Honorary Members — J. E. Armstrong, retired chief engineer, Canadian
Pacific Railway, who was president of the Association in 1934-1935; D. J. Brumley,
retired chief engineer, Chicago Terminal Improvements, Illinois Central Railroad, who
was president of the Association in 1927-1928, and Ralph Budd. former president of
the Burlington Lines and retired chairman, Chicago Transit Authority.
During the past year the Board of Direction conferred this honor on five addi-
tional men, included among whom is our keynote speaker on this occasion, Mr. W. T.
Faricy. If Mr. Faricy will arise, I should like to present him with this framed Certificate
of Honorary Membership, which reads:
"Honorary Membership has been conferred upon William Thomas Faricy by the
American Railway Engineering Association this twelfth day of November 1957, in recog-
nition of his able and stimulating leadership of the Association of American Railroads
and his outstanding service to the railroad industry." [Applause]
Mr. Faricy: Thank you very, very much, Ray. I shall treasure this honor as long
as I live. To be included in such a select list as the three men whose names you have
read, and others who I understand are to receive similar recognition, is indeed a very
great honor, and it leaves me very, very humble, and deeply appreciative.
Thank you very much.
President McBrian: Three of the others upon whom this honor has been con-
ferred are C. H. Mottier, vice president, Illinois Central Railroad, and president of the
AREA in 1948-1949; T. A. Blair, chief engineer system, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway, who was president of the Association in 1951-1952. and C. J. Geyer. retired
vice president, construction and maintenance, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, who was
president of this Association in 1952-1953. If these three past presidents will please come
to the speakers' table, I will be glad to present each of them with his Certificate of
Honorary Membership.
Mr. Mottier, Mr. Blair and Mr. Geyer, I congratulate you upon this honor which
has been conferred upon each of you, adding to the high honors which this Association
has bestowed on each of you in the past.
The Certificate which I have for each of you. which is beautifully framed, states
that this honor is bestowed upon each of you for "able and stimulating leadership in
this Association and outstanding service to the railroad industry and the engineering
profess'on." [Applause |
The fifth man upon whom the Board of Direction bestowed this honor last Novem-
ber was Charles G. Grove, retired area eneineer of the Pennsylvania Railroad and
president of the AREA in 1953-1954. Mr. Grove died on November 18, \'^7. s» days
after he was awarded this honor.
Since Mr. Grove is not here to receive his Certificate. Mr. S. R. Hursh. assistant
vice president. Pennsylvania Railroad, a long-time friend and co-worker of Mr. Grove,
has agreed to accept the certificate on his behalf, and to convey it safely to Mrs, Grove
I shall be glad if Mr. Hursh will accept Mr. Grove's Certificate at this time.
It reads: "Honorary Membership has been conferred upon Charles Gordon Grove
by the American Railway Engineering Association this twelfth day <>i November, 1957,
1116 Opening Session
in recognition of his able and stimulating leadership in this Association and his out-
standing service to the railroad industry and the engineering profession."
Mr. Hursh, I present this to you to deliver to Mrs. Grove.
S. R. Hursh [Pennsylvania!: Gentlemen, it is a distinct honor and pleasure to
receive this on behalf of Charles Gordon Grove. I knew him for over 40 years. In the
past 17 years we were intimately associated in our work. I know of no man of more
outstanding moral character and integrity.
This Association has been blessed over the past 58 years with outstanding men as
president — the four men who received this today as well as those in the past — and I
am sure that the younger people in this Association can look with pride to these who
have been our President, and can look forward to emulating the wise counsel that was
given to this Association by Mr. Grove.
Thank you. [Applause]
President McBrian: Effective January 1 of this year the Association of American
Railroads created a new Research Department and elected a vice president — research,
who will direct and have general supervision over the research activities of all its various
technical divisions and sections. That new vice president is William M. Keller, one of
the guests at our speakers' table, who has already been introduced to you.
In connection with the next feature on our program I wou'd like to tell you a little
something about him. Following graduation from Pennsylvania State College with an
ME degree, he immediately became connected with the Pennsylvania Railroad, where
he first served in various capacities in the test and mechanical departments. This led to
his being appointed foreman in charge of special work in 1041, to general foreman in
charge of freight and passenger car design in 1043, and to his promotion to assistant
mechanical engineer in charge of research in 1945.
In 1052 he left the Pennsylvania to become director of mechanical research, AAR.
and in 1055 he assumed the additional title of executive vice chairman of the Mechanical
Division. In January 1057 his responsibilities were further enlarged by the additional
title of assistant vice president, Operation and Maintenance Department, giving him a
three-title job at the time of his election as vice president — research.
I am pleased to present Mr. Keller to you at this time, who will speak to us on
"Teamwork in Research". Mr. Keller. [Applause |
Teamwork in Research
By William M. Keller
Vice President, Research, AAR
In all research work of broad scope there must be coordination. To have coordina-
tion in the highest degree there must be cooperation between personnel in the various
skills in the research laboratory. The stress analyst must work closely with the metal-
lurgist to accomplish the best results in the development of new parts and structures.
The chemist must work with the physicist, the electronics expert with the structural
engineer, and so on.
I suspect that John Donne summed up the idea of cooperation when he said, "No
man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the
main." Donne had in mind individual survival, but 1 am thinking of industry- survival—
Address of William M. Keller 1117
of the survival of a vital industry, beset with inequities in man) areas. These inequalities
act as a handicap to drag us down to the level of our less efficient competitors and
require, more than ever before, teamwork in the field of research.
When I say teamwork I mean also the coordination and cooperation of those who
conduct the research work with those who make actual use of the developments of the
laboratory in practical applications in the field. It would be most inaccurate to sa> we
do not now have this teamwork in a high degree. My appeal is to keep this teamwork
and expand it. Edison had his team mates in the development of the electric light. Pos
sibly without the encouragement of his associates he would have mown discouraged
and left this discovery for another to disclose. Paul Ehrlich had Shiga, Kadereit, Bcrtheim
and Miss Marquardt to help through the frustrating disappointment of 605 compounds
of arsenic before the successful 606th, which was given the prodigious name of diox)
diamino arsenobenzol dihydrochloride. Antony Leeuwenhoek, the janitor of Delft, chose
to go it alone in creating the microscope, but in the end he called in his friend Hoogvliet
and murmured ''Friend, be so good as to have those two letters on the table translated
into Latin and send them to the Royal Society in London." These last two letters closed
a series of communications he had with the Royal Society describing the design and
use of the microscope. Thus, through his cooperation a broad and new vista was opened
to scientific exploration, which constitutes his immeasurable gift to society. Thus you see,
teamwork is historically the pattern for the research scientist. Leeuwenhoek with this
microscope had discovered that when he drank hot coffee he killed the "wretched
beasties" as he called the microbes in his teeth, but it was about 200 years later that
Pasteur discovered how to protect against germs, using the same principle of heating
liquids. Science moved slowly in that period.
One example of perfect cooperation is the symphony orchestra. The violins speak
at the proper time — loudly or softly as required by the score. All other instrument sec-
tions respond to the conductor's interpretation of the composer's intent. The real master
of the performance is the composer. He pre-judges what the artists are to do. They have
no choice in the matter. The conductor merely assists them in working together to
bring into sound the composer's vision.
Cooperation in research can be considered as an analogy to the illustration of the
orchestra. Here, however, progress is the dictating element in research. The dedicated
personnel in research are looking for progress in their field just as the musician seeks
perfection. If our industry is to live, we have no choice but to make progress. The
progress made in the past 100 years in rail transportation should be considered only as
an interim improvement. The real progress lies ahead, and we must reach out quickly
to get it. Progress, then, is our motive in seeking better ways of doing things. The
research team, aided by both practical and theoretical advice we receive from AREA
Committees and individual members will be able to move speedily forward. Without
your cooperation and advice we would lag.
As a good example of research teamwork in action. I think of the AAR Joint
Committee on Relation Between Track and Equipment. In this committee the dual
problems of locomotives and cars and track are cooperatively studied. Here the engi-
neering and mechanical people mutually work out such matters as clearances, and rela-
tion of load t<> wheel diameter. It would seem likely that this important committee
will continue to augment its agenda. The comb} cast iron wheel produces such vibra
lions in the car Structure that it quickly wears out journal lx.\ lids, brake pins, brake
heads, brake hangers and other parts. While not so easy to pinpoint, certainly this
vibration is detrimental to the track. We have done some work in determining the
ins Opening Session
magnitude of stresses produced by wheels with flat spots. Projects such as these
prompted my thought that the docket of this committee will grow.
Since the earliest railroads were built we have greatly improved roadway con-
struction methods and materials. The use of treated ties, better tie plates, controlled
cooling of rails, improved splice bars, better drainage, and superior ballast have all con-
tributed to reduced need for maintenance, and have extended the life of track. I doubt
if any chief engineer or roadway maintenance officer mourns the passing of the steam
locomotive, for with it went the damaging dynamic augment of rod drivers, the cinder
discharge which fouled ballast, and the long rigid wheel bases which wore rails on
curves.
The diesel locomotive has been friendly to track and, combined with roadway-
improvements, the combination has greatly benefited the cause of reducing maintenance
cost, which has been of inestimable benefit to the railroads.
Research in the AAR is based in the first instance on cooperation. Research con-
ducted by 132 railroads at one laboratory is in itself an outstanding economic accom-
plishment. We will install this year at the AAR Research Center, at a cost of $160,000.
hydraulic pulsating equipment to be used for research on ballast, tie wear and struc-
tural spans. This will be the best equipment of its kind in the United States, and will
greatly accelerate research on these projects. It is very evident, however, that each
Member Road of the Association could not afford such an expenditure for this single
item, although the development of improved track would suffer without it. On the
mechanical side, we have a machine which simulates the road conditions encountered
by a journal bearing, which was installed several years ago. This machine has been
in constant use developing improved methods of lubricating journal bearings and revis-
ing the design of the bearing itself. The machine with its auxiliary equipment cost over
$100,000. Here again this equipment would tax the budget of individual railroads, but
the point is that when they receive the reports of the AAR Laboratory, each railroad
has everything they would have had if this equipment were individually owned. Thus,
the investment, while large, covers a wide area in providing data and permits the rail-
roads to get more research per dollar expended. This is the kind of teamwork among
railroads that will promote our progress.
The accomplishments of any research work are in direct proportion to the energy
and imagination available. Some discoveries were made by accident, but never without
imagination. We are anxious to find quick benefits but are aware that most results will
stem from long and tedious work. As improvement is built upon previous improvement,
the complexity of finding new advantages in any system increases greatly. To use the
terms of the calculus, we approach perfection as a limit. Perfection in roadway and
structures would be those which required no further attention after being built. How
far we are from that highly desirable, if somewhat unattainable goal is as well known
to you as it is to us. Our job is to get a lot closer to perfection, as we certainly can.
We know that the guidance obtained from your members will accelerate the pace.
In railroading about half of every dollar grossed is paid out in wages. Manpower
is required when any system needs repairs, adjusting or renewal. Consequently our
research must develop rails, ties, and roadway equipment that do not require so much
attention. A modern treated wood railroad tie has an ultimate life of 25 to 30 years.
This sounds rather satisfactory until consideration is given to the intervening attention
it receives. One of our problems is to reduce this attention requirement.
Since 1950, when the AAR Research Center was started with one building, we have
greatly expanded the facilities. I feel sure that you are all aware of the progress that
Address of G. M. Magee 1119
has been made in obtaining research equipment. We have added personnel having the
qualifications required to attack the problems we are exploring. Perhaps the most satis-
fying way of watching the team perform is to come out to the Research Center to see us
work as so many of you already have. The post-convention tour of the AAR Research
Center, which is described in the convention issue of the 1958 ARK A News, was ar-
ranged for this purpose. To those of you who have already paid us a visit. I will saj
come again. There are enough additions and new equipment to make the effort worth-
while. To those who have not seen the Research Center. I urge you to make a special
point of making such a visit on Thursday. It will be a good opportunity to see your
program being progressed. [Applause |
President McBrian: Thank you. Mr. Keller. We congratulate you upon your new
and important office. As the Construction and Maintenance Section sponsors through
our committees practically all of the research activities of the Kngineering Division, we
look forward to cooperating to the fullest extent in that teamwork which you have
called for, looking to bringing about through technical research and related activities
m iximum economies and other benefits to the railroads. We appreciate your being on
our program this morning, which has given many of our members an opportunity to
become acquainted with you.
The next and last feature of our morning session will be an illustrated talk by one
who is well known to all of us through his close cooperation in planning, directing and
carrying out the research programs of the various committees of our Association over
many years. I refer to Gerald Magee, director of engineering research, AAR, who needs
no introduction to you.
Accordingly, I present Mr. Magee, who will address us on "Highlights of Engineering
Division Research." Mr. Magee.
Highlights of Engineering Division Research
By G. M. Magee
Director of Engineering Research, AAR
The most momentous event in Engineering Division research during 1957 was the
completion of the Engineering Research Laboratory. This laboratory was completed
in July, and installation of test equipment was begun. The building is one story and
contains 23,000 sq ft of floor space. The building has welded steel framework with
the wall area consisting of buff -colored brick and a liberal area of green tinted glass
in aluminum sash. The total cost of the completed building was approximately S500.000.
Although considerable progress has been made in the installation of test equipment,
nevertheless a large amount of work remains to be done and, in fact, test equipment
costing S160,000 has been on order for 12 to 18 months, but has not yet been received.
When completed this building will afford unique and comprehensive facilities for
progressing the various Engineering research projects.
Space is provided in the Engineering Laboratory for research and development
work on detector cars, for housing the three Association-owned detector cars, for main-
tenance and machine shop work, and for loading and unloading detector cars fr< m flat
cars, including a 15-ton hydraulic lift. Also, a 560 ft long detector car test track \\.i>
provided at the Research Center laid with rails containing all of the various types of
rail defects. This track is used for checking the effectiveness of new developments and
11 20 Openings ess i o n
also for checking the performance of cars that have been rebuilt, repaired or overhauled.
In addition to work on the three AAR owned cars, repairs are made and new detection
equipment applied upon request to the 12 AAR type cars owned and operated by
Member Roads.
In the various research projects on roadway and ballast our research engineer road-
way, in collaboration with certain Member Roads, studied two new and interesting
phases of roadbed stabilization. One of these was the use of lignin liquor injections in
the roadbed to prevent frost heaves in the winter months in the northern areas. The
other was the use of asphalt sprayed on sand which had been specially sloped on the
roadway to prevent drifting from heavy winds in western areas. An arrangement has
been made with the Asphalt Institute for joint financing of the construction of two
special cars, one to serve as an asphalt distributor car and the other to distribute the
small stone dressing material for further experimental installations of asphalt-coated
ballast track similar to the one-half mile placed several years ago on the Illinois Central
north of Manteno.
An unusual facility for accelerated simulated testing of ballast is being provided
in the Engineering Laboratory, so far as I know the only one of its kind in the world.
In this facility a short length of track, 60 in long and containing three ties of usual
spacing with a full ballast cross section, can be subjected to repeated loading with an
Amsler pulsator and hydraulic jacks to give a load of 30,000 lb per tie. With this equip-
ment it is hoped to study the effect of ballast materials and gradation of stability and
wear and also the effect of binder materials. Water and dirt can be added to further
simulate exposure conditions. It is hoped that studies with this facility will be helpful
in learning how to reduce expenditures for cleaning ballast and lengthen the period
between resurfacing of track.
Of most interest during the year in weed control were the results obtained from
the use of contact killers supplemented with soil sterilants, such as chlorate or borate
compounds with substituted ureas. The advantages of this treatment have been imme-
diate control obtained with the contract killers with sustained control from the soil
sterilant, and in some cases good control has been obtained for periods of as long as
one year. Also, the results obtained with the combination of the contact killers and soil
sterilants have been found to be greater than the results with equivalent amounts of the
same chemicals used separately and at separate times.
In our research work on cross ties it was decided to terminate the joint AAR-
NLMA research project in 1957. It was concluded that the combined seasoning and
treating process for treating green ties had been developed as far as practical at the
present time and that this method did not appear to be economically justified unless
service performance of the 2000 ties seasoned and treated by this process for the Penn-
sylvania and Illinois Central Railroads should be found to be outstandingly good after-
several years service in track. Two phases of research work started in the joint AAR-
NLMA project are, however, being continued. One of these is the exposure tests of
various tie coating materials and the other is a further study of possible means of pro-
tecting the tie fibers under the tie plate area from chemical deterioration due to rusting
of the tie plates and spikes.
During the year work was started at the Research Center on means of controlling
the splitting of ties by the use of anti-splitting devices. Generally the program involves
the study of what causes the tie splitting, the holding power required to restrain it, the
holding power that may be expected from various anti-splitting devices, and, finally,
service tests of various types of devices that appear most promising.
Address of G. M. Magee 1121
Because of the interest in prestressed concrete ties, we decided that we should
develop as good a design as we could and get some of these installed in track for
observation of their service performance. Accordingly, during the year we had 36 ties
made, including 12 each of 3 different designs, each design having 3 ties of ordinary
and 3 of lightweight aggregates. One design was made to have the same resisting
strength at midlength as the conventional 7- by 9-in treated red oak cross ties. Stress
measurements in track have shown, with a centerbound tie condition, a bending moment
in as much as 400,000 in-lb can be developed at midlength of the tie. On the other
nand, the maximum bending moment that can develop under the rail for any condition
oi tamping is only about 100,000 in-lb. Accordingly, a second design of tie was made
wuh the center portion shaped in a triangular section with the V down, presuming that
with this shape the tie would not become centerbound and thus it would only be neces-
sary to provide a strength for 100,000 in-lb bending moment. The third design of tie
was on this same premise except that it was arbitrarily reduced in thickness 1 in
realizing that we were encroaching somewhat into the factor of safety in this design.
Static and repeated load tests on these six types of prestressed ties are now underway
at the Research Center, and upon their completion and depending upon the results
obtained we expect to have a small number of ties made for installation and observation
of service performance in track.
Of most interest in the rail research projects during the year have been further tests
on the butt welding of rail, shelly spot research, and building up of battered rail ends
by welding. Slow bend, repeated load and drop tests were completed on butt-welded
high-silicon rail, on acetylene pressure-welded rail with and without the bulge on the
base, and on thermit welds made by the Boutet process recently developed in France.
The results indicated that the high-silicon rail could be welded satisfactorily by either
the acetylene pressure or electric flash processes that it was immaterial whether or not
the bulge was ground from the base of the rail from the acetylene pressure welded rail,
and that better results were obtained with the Boutet process than with thermit welds
previously made, but still the results were not as favorable as for the acetylene pressure
or electric flash welding processes.
Dr. M. M. Frocht at IIT completed his second three-dimensional photo-elastic in-
vestigation to determine the internal direct stresses and shearing stresses resulting from
the contact pressure of the wheel on the rail. In translating the stresses from the model
to the full rail section it was necessary to make several assumptions which have not
been experimentally confirmed. If these assumptions are correct, it appears that for a
30,000-lb wheel load on a 33-in diameter car wheel with contact concentrated on the
gage corner the endurance strength of the steel is equaled or slightly exceeded. Rolling-
load tests are underway at the Research Center using an average worn wheel contour with
concentrated bearing on the gage corner of the rail, and if a shelly rail failure is devel-
oped with this wheel load or a slightly larger load the results will then substantiate Dr.
Frocht's formula and give us a definite yardstick that can be used in solving this per-
plexing question of just how much load we can permit on a car wheel without subjecting
the rail to undue dam
Considerable progress was made during the year in our program on study of means
of building up battered rail end- by acetylene and electric welding, usin^ various welding
rods and techniques. In the new Engineering Laboratory we now have lour 12-in stroke
rolling-load machines and another under construction that can be used on this work,
so the progress is beinj.' materially expedited. Rolling-load tests have now been completed
on all acetylene welds thai were scheduled in the program, but the metallurgical exam-
1122 Opening Session
inations have not been completed. So far the acetylene welds have given very good
l i mamc in the rolling-load machines whereas welds made by the electric process
have either failed by excessive flow or by development of transverse progressive frac-
tal i-> before the 5,000,000 cycle test with 30,000-lb wheel load was completed.
In our track research projects there is a lot of interest in laying rail tight with
frozen joints, and during the year we added two new test sections to our test program.
One of these is on the Erie Railroad near Crown Point, Ind. It is laid with 115 RE rail
and compromise one mile of tight rail and one mile of conventional rail for comparison.
In this installation compression clips were used to anchor the tight rail and grip type
anchors for the normal rail. Also, all rail ends were hardened and beveled and, in addi-
tion, the tight rail was end milled with a slight undercut. The other test is on the
B&LE with 140 RE rail. It consists of one mile of tight rail with no comparison section.
Special features in this test are that the rail for one-half of the test was end hardened
and beveled, and not on the other half. Compression clips were used to anchor the plain
end rail and grip type anchors, boxed on every tie for the end hardened rail. Thick
carburized solid washers were used with the track bolts in this test rather than spring
type washers. The service period has been too short on either of these two test installa-
tions or on the L&N installation to have developed very much information up to the
present time.
Progress was made during the year on analyzing the effectiveness of four different
types of crossing pads for absorbing impact effects. These tests were made in the double
track cross'ng of the B&OCT and Santa Fe crossing at McCook and included measure-
ments with electrical equipment of the pad compression and stresses in the flangeways,
base, and guard rail intersections of the crossing with each of the four different types
of pads included in the test as compared with no pads. Also, drop tests were made
at the Research Center using a special setup to load a short section of tie with a tie pad,
tie plate and short length of rail. In this setup the rail, tie plate and tie assembly are
supported on a 2-in thickness of celotex simulating the elasticity of the ballast. The tie
plate can be preloaded to simulate the pressure that comes from an advancing wheel
load, and a 100-lb weight is dropped a predetermined distance to simulate the added
impact effect at the rail joint. With electrical equipment the compression of the tie pad
is determined and also the impact load applied to the rail and the portion of the impact
load that is transmitted from the tie into what would be the ballast. Thus under care-
fully controlled laboratory conditions it is possible to make an accurate evaluation of
the effectiveness of a tie pad in absorbing the impact effects at rail joints.
A complete series of measurements was made on the service tests of various types
of tie plate fastenings on the L&N at London, Ky. Our repeated-load tests at the labora-
tory were delayed during the year because of transferring to the new Engineering Build-
ing and the substitution of new type testing machines for the improvised rolling-load
machines previously used. As yet construction of the new testing equipment has not
been completed. We are building one machine and the other has been contracted from
Krouse Testing Machine, Inc.
It was decided last summer to carry out the welding program planned for the
simulated service tests of crossing intersections made of heat-treated rail and installed
on the Milwaukee Railroad near Mannheim. This test includes three types of heat-
treated rail, three types of flame-hardened rail, a chrome-vanadium alloy rail and
ordinary control-cooled rail for comparison. The welding was completed, and measure-
ments of rail height and Brinell hardness were taken from which the performance of the
welds can be judged under continued traffic service,
Address of G. M. Magee 1123
Last fall an interesting series of measurements was made on a floodlight tower of
the Santa Fe Railway near Clovis, N. Mex. during relatively high wind. Stresses were
measured in the tower as well as the displacement of the top of the tower, which has
a height of 120 ft. The objective of these tests is to develop sufficient information for
the design of such structure with reference to the forces that are developed by maximum
wind pressure on the tower components.
An extensive series of tests was completed last year at the Research Center for the
Committee on Wood Bridges and Trestles to show the resistance to repeated loading oi
various types of fastenings for securing the sway bracing to the piling of the trestle
bents. These tests extended over a period of several years and included both treated
and untreated wood of both pine and fir.
Work was continued throughout the year on the possibility of inhibiting the brine
corrosion from refrigeration cars to protect the track and bridge structures from cor-
rosion therefrom. An important addition to our Engineering Laboratory facilities was
an accelerated corrosion test cabinet. The design of this cabinet resulted from research
carried out at General Motors Technical Center to improve the resistance of car fenders
to corrosion from salt applied to eliminate ice and snow on city streets. The Technical
Center very kindly gave us permission to have a similar test cabinet built for our use.
This cabinet provides a cyclic change of humidity which has been found to develop
the same type of rust scale that is found on rail and tie plates in track.
A study was completed for the Highway Committee of 2100 grade crossings on
the Rock Island to show the number of accidents that have occurred over a 14-year
period related to the characteristics of the crossing and grade crossing protection. This
was a cooperative study with the Rock Island, and an individual survey was made
of each crossing to obtain the characteristics of the crossing and crossing protection.
Accident records were taken from Rock Island files, and a contract was made with
Armour Research Foundation to have the data analyzed in its IBM computer to deter-
mine the risk factors for the various crossing characteristics and types of protection.
During the year the foundation was completed for the cooperative model bridge
test at Northwestern University at Evanston. The actual making of the tests is being
financed by the AAR, the Bureau of Public Roads and the Army Engineers. However,
many others contributed to the construction of the test facility. In addition to com-
pleting the foundation, the 100-ft long truss was also erected. However, considerable
work remains in installing the jacking system and the instrumentation before tests can
actually be started.
Treatment of the specimens, including three species of wood and nine different
preservatives, and three different retentions for each preservative, was completed at the
Foresl Products Laboratory, and the specimens were partialis buried in the termite
infested ground in the Austin Can Forest of the University of Florida, together with
untreated control specimens for comparison. It is expected that this te>t will continue
over a 15-year period.
The work on waterproofing of concrete consists of two phases. One phase is being
conducted at Purdue University and is aimed at determining the basic or fundamental
properties to be desired in a coating. This involves a study of the permeabilitj of water
and water vapors through the coatings and a Studj oi the flow process by which watei
may pass through cracks or pinhole- in the coatings The second phase is being con
ducted at the Research (inter and consists of tests m a speeialh designed apparatus to
determine the effectiveness of various types of bitumens and fabrics in maintaining a
waterproof seal over a crack that may form in concrete underneath it Considerabli
11 24 OpeningSe s si on
progress has been made on this work, and tests on a large number of materials have
been completed. Results have indicated that it may be practical to secure considerably
improved performance in this respect.
Our electrical staff was extremely busy during the year carrying out a heavy test
schedule. In addition to the tests of the floodlight tower previously mentioned, stress
measurements were carried out at the request of the Chicago & North Western Railway
on the large bridge of that railway across the Missouri River at Sioux City, Iowa.
Stress measurements were made on three continuous railroad bridges on the Southern
Pacific Railway: one, a three-span truss bridge; another, a three-span girder bridge; and
the third, a two-span girder bridge. These tests were the first ever conducted on this
type of railroad bridge. Stress measurements were also conducted on two timber trestles
on the Santa Fe Railway in Arizona to determine the stresses developed in stringers
and piles under static loading conditions as well as high-speed trains. The data secured
in these tests are being analyzed for the principal purpose of obtaining the magnitude
of stresses, the duration of time of the stresses, and the frequency of occurrence of the
maximum stresses. These data will also serve as a guide for fatigue testing of timber
stringers in the new hydraulic testing facility and controlled humidity room provided
for this purpose in the Engineering Laboratory.
At the request of the Canadian Pacific Railway, test measurements were made to
determine the lateral forces applied to the inner and outer rails of a 12 deg 30 min
curve near Nelson, B. C, under heavy Train Master type diesel locomotives. The loca-
tion of these tests was at a very scenic spot on the Columbia River. Special roller bear-
ing tie plates were used to measure the lateral forces with electric recording on oscil-
lographs. The vertical loads applied to both the inner and outer rails were also deter-
mined. Difficulty had been experienced with the operation of these locomotives on very
sharp curves. As constructed these locomotives had a lateral resistance arrangement in
each journal box consisting of a sheet of rubber vulcanized between two steel plates,
and lateral movement of the box could only occur by elastic shearing stress on the
rubber. It was found that by removing these rubber sandwiches and providing un-
restrained lateral in all of the boxes, the measured lateral forces on the ties were reduced
about one-half.
At the request of the Norfolk & Western Railway, the electrical staff made measure-
ments to determine the dynamic wheel loads under all types of the railway's steam
locomotives while being operated at maximum permissible speeds. In particular, infor-
mation was desired on the relation between the out-of-round of the driving wheels
and dynamic wheel loads in order to establish practical limits for car maintenance.
These tests developed information on impact effects that had not been previously
available.
Thus it will be observed that the Research Center engineering staff had a busy
year. I have not attempted to give you any detailed results of any of the investigations,
but only to give you a general picture of our activities, and I hope that for such of
these as meets your particular interest you will refer to the appropriate AREA com-
mittee report for a complete description and detailed results. I wish to thank you for
the privilege of giving this resume of our engineering research activities during the
past year. [Applause]
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Magee. We appreciate your highlight review
of the more important research projects of the Engineering Division, both under way
and contemplated in 1958.
Discussion 1125
May I take this opportunity to thank you, on behalf of our Board of Direction
and committees, for the diligence with which you and the members of your staff have
cooperated with us in carrying forward our research work. I am sure we can look
forward to a continuation of that cooperation in the large research program which we
hope can be carried out in the years immediately ahead.
Don't forget, a lot of us are coming out to pay your Research Center a visit on
Thursday afternoon. If any of you gentlemen in the audience did not indicate on your
registration card that you will make the inspection tour of the Research Center on
Thursday, and if now or later you decide to do so, leave your name with one of the
registration clerks on the mezzanine.
Gentlemen, this completes the program of our opening session. I am sure you have
both enjoyed and profited by it. Six of our committees have scheduled luncheons for
this noon. May I ask that those involved go directly to those luncheons so that we may
reconvene here promptly at 2 pm.
The first report this afternoon, that of Committee 20, will include an address by
C. J. Henry, chief engineer of the Pennsylvania Railroad, on "Value of the Knowledge
of Contracts to the Engineer."
The meeting is recessed until 2 pm.
[The meeting recessed at 12 o'clock noon.]
Afternoon Session — March 11, 1958
[The meeting reconvened at 2 pm. Vice President F. R. Woolford presiding.]
Vice President Woolford: Will the meeting please come to order.
You will recognize, I am sure, a slight rearrangement in the speakers' table for
this afternoon session. We have taken the ends from this morning's long table and
put them down here in front for the benefit of those in the audience who are near-
sighted, but. more importantly, to bring our committees nearer to the center of the
room as they present their reports. We are sorry that the Sherman Hotel does not
have a 4- or 6-in high platform on which this lower level speakers' table could be
raised, in order to give those committee members who must sit there a little "lift" ;
but the floor-level table is the best we could do.
Under the arrangements provided, may I ask that the chairman, vice chairman,
secretary and all subcommittee chairmen, especially those who will present reports,
take places at the main speakers' table, and that all the other members of the com-
mittee find places at the lower speakers' table, and then fill out as may be necessary
any vacant seats at the main speakers' table.
Our kick-off report this afternoon will be, as for several years in the past, thai
of Committee 20 — Contract Forms, of which W. D. Kirkpatrick, assistant to chief engi-
neer, Missouri Pacific Railroad, St. Louis, is chairman. Will Mr. Kirkpatrick and the
members of his committee please come to the platform and present their report.
While the members of the committee are coming to the platform, I want to invite
comments and criticism from the floor in connection with tin- presentation <>t all reports
This privilege is extended not only to the members of the Association but to any others
present, including our friends in the railway supply field. A limited amount of time
has been provided each committee for discussion, and a portable microphone, with a
monitor, has been provided in each main aisle for your use. Again this year each com-
mittee is providing the monitors from its personnel, a service which ut greath
appreciate.
1126 Contract Forms
Discussion on Contract Forms
[For report, see pp. 429-443]
[Vice President Woolford presiding.]
Chairman W. I). Kirkpatrick [Missouri Pacific] : Mr. President, members of the
Association and guests: Your Committee on Contract Forms has five subjects, all car-
ried over from last year. These reports appear in Bulletin 539, starting on page 429.
There is no report on Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
The first report of the Committee is on Assignment 3. There is no Assignment 2.
Assignment 3 covers Form of Lease Covering Subsurface Right to Mine Under Railway
Miscellaneous Physical Property. I. V. Wiley, assistant engineer, Milwaukee Road, is
chairman of the subcommittee.
Assignment 3 — Form of Lease Covering Subsurface Rights to Mine
Under Railway Miscellaneous Physical Property.
I. V. Wiley [Milwaukee Road] : Mr. Vice President, members of the Association
and guests:
Last year your committee presented, as information, a tentative draft of Form
of Lease Covering Subsurface Rights to Mine Under Railway Miscellaneous Physical
Property, and asked for suggestions and criticism thereon from the members. Acting
on the comments received, a number of revisions have been made, and the committee
now recommends the adoption of the revised form and its publication in the Manual.
Mr. Vice President, I move that this convention accept the form for publication
in Part 7 of Chapter 20 of the Manual.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote and carried.]
Mr. Wiley: Assignment No. 4 concerns the preparation of a form of agreement
to cover parallel occupancy of railway right-of-way and property by electric power
lines. Mr. E. M. Hastings, wire crossing engineer system, Chesapeake & Ohio, and chair-
man of the subcommittee, will present a progress report.
Assignment 4 — Form of Agreement Covering Parallel Occupancy of
Railway Right-of-Way Property by Electric Power Lines.
E. M. Hastings, Jr. [C & O] : Subcommittee 4's Assignment, to prepare a Form
of Agreement Covering Parallel Occupancy of Railway Right-of-Way Property by Elec-
tric Power Lines, has resulted in the tentative contract printed in Bulletin 593.
Your subcommittee has given a great deal of study to the content of this contract
to endeavor to make it as all-inclusive as possible. We will appreciate your review of
this tentative contract, and any comments, criticisms or additions that you may sug-
gest will be reviewed by the subcommittee with the ultimate goal of presenting this
Assignment as Manual material next year.
Since Mr. Clarence Young, assistant engineer, Baltimore & Ohio, could not be here
to present the report of Assignment 5, I shall present it for him.
Assignment 5 — Insurance Provisions Recommended for Various Forms
of Agreements.
Mr. Hastings: Your subcommittee has made several recommendations as the result
of studies of the types of insurance involved in various kinds of agreements. This infor-
mation has appeared in the Bulletins and is available to the committee and members
of the Association. Revision of our present Manual forms to incorporate our recom-
mendations will be carried out by subcommittee 1, and this is the final report of
subcommittee 5.
Address of C. J. Henry 1127
Mr. J. L. Perrier, division engineer, Chicago & North Western Railway, will present
the report on Assignment 6.
Assignment 6 — Form of Agreement for Construction and Maintenance
of Highway — Railway Grade Separation Structures for Public Roads.
J. L. Perrier [C & NW] : Your subcommittee has prepared a preliminary draft
of an agreement on this subject, which has been submitted to the members of the com-
mittee for further consideration. There are great differences in the practices and policies
among the states in matters pertaining to grade separation structures, and it is the pur-
pose of this assignment to prepare a form of agreement that can be used as a guide
in the preparation of agreements of this nature in all states.
Chairman Kirkpatrick: Our special feature, which is to be presented at this
time, is an address by Mr. C. J. Henry, chief engineer of the Pennsylvania Railroad,
who is a valued member of Committee 20 and whose wide knowledge and experience
make him especially qualified to speak on the subject, "Value of the Knowledge of
Contracts to the Engineer."
It gives me a great deal of pleasure to present to you Mr. Henry.
Value of the Knowledge of Contracts to the Engineer
By C. J. Henry
Chief Engineer, Pennsylvania Railroad
Mr. Vice President, Mr. Chairman, members of the AREA, members of the legal
profession (I have added the last on advice of counsel to circumvent possible pro-
fessional infringements) and guests:
When our chairman, Mr. Kirkpatrick, asked me to talk on "Value of the Knowl-
edge of Contracts to the Engineer", I frankly did not realize the scope of the subject.
When I did become conscious of it, I had to make a couple of assumptions. These
assumptions were that I should not exhaust all the ramifications of the subject; secondly,
it was only expected that I touch on part of the subject — not in the spirit of the small
boy in my home town who came in and told his mother that he had sat the old hen
on two dozen eggs.
"Why," she said, "you don't expect the old hen to hatch two dozen eggs, do you?"
"No," the boy replied, "but I just wanted to see the darned old thing spread
herself." [Laughter]
There was a time when an Engineer could limit his activities to matters of design,
construction and maintenance, leaving such extra curricula items as financial and legal
matters to others. Times have changed — the engineer of today must concern himself
not only with engineering detail, but with economics of the project, and the laws under
which the work may be progressed.
Each project has its particular problems, but it is a certainty that before the work
can be completed, contracts or agreements will be signed, and the engineer should be
qualified to direct the preparation of contracts that will satisfactorily protect the interests
of his employers.
To be able to do so a general knowledge of the laws pertinent to the project is a
must.
A contract may be defined a- a compact between two or more responsible parties
to do certain things for a legal consideration. Thus it appears that the parties to .i
1128 Contract Forms
contract in effect have prepared a law which creates rights and obligations enforceable
in a court of law. Blackstone defined a law as a "A rule of conduct enacted by the
sovereign power of a state permitting that what is right and prohibiting that what is
wrong." Therefore, the desirable principle to be followed in the preparation of any
contract or agreement is the "Golden Rule."
In other words the intent of all parties must be clearly spelled out and there
cannot be any ambiguities, otherwise the net results could be disputes and litigations
resulting in delays and excessive costs.
It reminds me of Shakespeare's play, Henry VI, fourth act, second scene, when
he caused the principal to state, "Let's begin by killing all lawyers."
The responsibility between the engineering and the legal profession is probably best
expressed by an address that was recently made by the Bishop of Birmingham before
a group of railroad men in England. He said: "You have done a wonderful thing.
You have gotten four nationalities to understand each other — the Englishman, who
loves his Bible and his beer; the Scotsman, who keeps the Sabbath and anything else
he can lay his hands on; the Welshman, who prays on Sunday and on his neighbors
the rest of the week, and the Irishman, who doesn't know what he wants but never
will be happy until he gets it. They have lived together a long while, and yet they
seem to have some difficulty in understanding each other." That is about the status
of the engineer and the lawyer.
The present-day relationship between engineering and law can best be illustrated
by describing the various problems encountered in a typical railroad construction project
recently completed. The engineering part of the work required surveys for and design
and construction of 12 miles of railroad — 5 bridges (one across a navigable stream),
4 highway grade crossings, relocation of approximately one mile of state highway, a
communications system, a signal system, placement of stone revetment along one-half
mile of river bank, approximately 1,000,000 cu yd of grading, property surveys, deed
descriptions and plans.
The legal part of the project required — ■
1. Interstate Commerce Commission hearings preliminary to the granting of the
order for the construction of the branch.
2. Public hearings preliminary to receipt of an order from the Corps of Engineers
for permission to cross the navigable stream.
3. Permission from the State Department of Forest and Waterways to cross the
streams.
4. Public Utility Commission order granting permission to cross the highways, and
specifying how costs of construction and maintenance were to be borne.
5. An Act by the State Legislature authorizing the relocation of the highway.
6. Court orders for condemnation of certain properties.
7. Interstate Commerce Commission approval of the signal systems.
8. FCC permit for the communications system.
9. Contract for an aerial survey.
10. Contract for grading.
11. Contract for the track construction.
12. Contract for the bridge construction.
13. Contract for materials.
14. Agreements with the various labor unions on matters incident to the work.
15. Agreements with various utility companies in regard to relocation of their
lines.
Address of C. J. Henry 1129
16. Preparation of the deeds.
All the duties of negotiating, outlining the terms of the agreements and contracts,
witnesses in various public hearings, were the responsibilities of the engineering
department.
Information of value to the railroad engineer concerning contracts and their uses
may be obtained from the proceedings of Committee 20 of the American Railway
Engineering Association.
Serving as a member on Committee 20 is a worthwhile experience and definite!)
a source of. education. Approximately 30 railroads are represented on this committee. Its
work has been divided into seven parts, namely —
Part I — Construction Agreements. Part 2 — Agreements Covering Passenger and
Freight Facilities. Part 3 — Electrical Agreements. Part A — Agreements Covering Tracks.
Part 5 — Agreements Covering Land. Part 6 — Flood Control Agreements. Part 7 — Mis-
cellaneous Agreements, covering forms of agreement for public use of railway property
by high pressure pipe lines, conduit facilities, for the unloading of petroleum gases,
agreement to permit subsurface exploration and for the sale of such items as coal, oil
and gas. In other words, nearly every phase of railroad contracts and agreements have
been covered by Committee 20.
The principal types of contract used in construction projects are unit price, lump
sum, cost plus, and participating fixed fee.
The type of the contract used is a matter of judgment predicated upon the local
job conditions. Time will not permit description of the relative merits of each form
of contract. Each, however, does necessitate detailed plans and specifications and full
coverage of each of the items indicated in the Committee 20 form of construction con-
tract. It seems desirable at this time that mention be made of certain construction
conditions that have been causes for litigation —
1. Subsurface conditions affecting the foundations of structures that cannot be deter-
mined definitely in advance of construction. The improved techniques for preliminary
underground exploration have enabled the engineer to make an educated guess about
subsoil conditions. But even such a guess is a possible risk which in all fairness should
be borne by the owner. Quite frequently attempts are made by the engineers to include
generally worded clauses to protect the owner against additional liability. Should actual
conditions prove to be different than those indicated in the initial bidding requirements,
your lawyer can point out many court cases that have been decided in favor of the
contractor where the generally worded clauses have been the subject of court action.
It is, therefore, prudent that the specifications be "clear-cut" as to who is to bear the
risk of the unexpected.
2. General clauses charging the contractor with the entire responsibility for unfore-
seen costs, besides being unfair, may also unnecessarily result in higher cost to the
owner since the contractors may be expected to make allowance for the unexpected
unless the owner stipulates he will assume responsibility therefor.
3. Delays are frequently the subject of dispute, and the engineer quite often writes
into the specifications provisions designed to make the contractor assume the added COSl
of such delays regardless of whether the delay may be traceable directly to the owner.
Such clauses are in direct conflict with the basic principles of contracts, and your legal
advisor can point out to you many court cases that have been decided in favor of the
contractor when such ambiguous wording is used in the writing of the specification!
4. Many contract- contain b clause stating the enginerr i- the anal arbiter in all
questions arising under the contract, and this is intended to protect the owner. Then
1130 Contract Forms
arc man) court cases on record where protection was not avoided by such a clause.
To minimize to the fullest extent possible this type of controversy, it is absolutely essen-
tial that the engineer use careful and precise language in the specifications and express
definitely what he has in mind.
Thus it is essential that the specifications be edited and re-edited to be sure that
the wording set down has a definite and precise meaning, to be certain that all necessary
nouns, verbs and punctuation have been included.
5. Quite often engineers in writing specifications indicate not only the results to be
accomplished, but also the methods by which the work is to be accomplished. The
prudence of such procedure is questionable, for it limits the bidders to a fixed procedure
and does not permit them to exercise their ingenuity. Contractors are ingenious people
and often when permitted some leeway can come up with construction methods that
result in definite savings for all concerned and at the same time advance the completion
date.
6. Extra work, orders are frequent sources of disputes and provisions must be
made in every contract for additional work. The wording should be clear and concise
and nothing left to the imagination as to how extra work will be handled.
Briefly summed up, knowledge of contracts and their administration is a must
for the engineer — and take your lawyer into your full confidence, for like it or not
he is the engineer's complement on any project. If you are to be "boss" of the job
it is imperative for you to know enough of the legal aspects to keep him working
for you.
I will conclude my remarks with the following story:
The attorneys for the two sides of a case in court had been allowed 15 min each
to argue. The attorney for the defense began his argument with a reference to the old
swimming hole of his boyhood days. He related in flowery words about the balmy air,
the singing birds, the joy of youth, and the delights of the cool water.
In the midst of his eloquence he was interrupted by the drawling voice of the
Judge, "Come out, Chauncey, and put on your clothes. Your 15 min are up." [Laughter]
And so, my friends, the next time someone says that the trouble with labor rela-
tions or workmen's compensation or labor legislation is that there is too much par-
ticipation therein by lawyers and courts, and that the solution is to "kill all the
lawyers", remember that he is indirectly, by this quotation, paying the legal profession
a high compliment. He is unwittingly recognizing, by this reference, the wellknown fact
that the lawyers have always stood and still stand against violence and arbitrary power
and all the things that communism preaches, and have always stood and still stand as
the guardians of individual freedom, individual rights of person and property, and the
fundamental right of all men peacefully to work out their common destinies as equals
before the law. [Applause]
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Henry. I know that all members of
the Association will value your remarks and your address. I, for one, think it was well
presented; an engineer should certainly know all the facts that you have presented.
Thank you, sir, for your contribution.
Chairman Kirkpatrick: Thank you, Mr. Henry, on behalf of Committee 20.
I would like to conclude by thanking the Association's secretary, Mr. Howard, and
his staff, the subcommittee chairmen of Committee 20, and all members of the com-
mittee for their efforts and splendid cooperation during the past three years of my
term as chairman.
Discussion 1131
As my last official act as chairman of Committee 20. I take great pleasure in
presenting to you my successor as Chairman, Mr. E. M. Hastings, of the Chesapeake &
Ohio Railway. Mr. Hastings, will you please stand? [Applause] Mr. Hastings will
make an outstanding chairman of this committee, and his attention to and interest in
our work has been well demonstrated by hi-* activities as vice chairman during the
past three years.
1 also wish at this time to introduce our new vice chairman, Mr. D. F. Lyons,
assistant engineer, Chicago, South Shore & South Bend Railroad. Mr. Lyons has been
a very active worker on the committee and will be of great assistance to Mr. Hastings.
Mr. Lyons, will you please stand. [Applause]
Mr. Vice President, this concludes our report.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Kirkpatrick and the members of your
committee, for the valuable work you are doing for the Association and the important
reports you have presented here today. As Mr. Henry has made clear, the knowledge
of contracts is of great value to the engineer. We appreciate and thank him for his
message.
Mr. Kirkpatrick, I wish especially to thank you for the able way in which you
have directed the efforts of your Committee for the past three years. We are glad to
welcome as the new chairman of Committee 20 Mr. Hastings, and as the new Vice
Chairman Mr. Lyons. I am sure that under their direction the work of your committee
will be in good hands during the year ahead.
Your committee is now excused, with the thanks of the Association.
Withdrawal of "General Emergency Recommendation" Sheet from Manual
Vice President Woolford: Many of you, especially holders of the AREA Manual,
will recall that with the onset of the Korean War in 19S0, with the shortage of or
restrictions placed on the use of strategic materials, the AREA Board adopted and had
placed in the front of the Manual a yellow sheet calling for or permitting the modifica-
tion of AREA specifications to minimize the use of these materials when this could be
done without affecting the safety of railroad operation.
With that emergency far past, the Board of Direction, acting for the Association
as a whole, voted at its meeting on August 2, 1957 to withdraw that sheet under the
authority granted it in the Constitution to withdraw material from the Manual between
regular Annual Meetings of the Association, subject to the ratification of such action
at the next Annual Meeting of the Association.
Accordingly, I will be glad to entertain a motion to the effect that the action of
the Board in this matter be approved by the Association. Do I hear such a motion?
[Motion was duly made, seconded, put to a vote, and carried!
Discussion on Records and Accounts
[For report, see pp. 707-741]
[Vice President Woolford presiding.!
Vice Presideni Woolford: The next report will be that of Committee 11 — Records
and Accounts, of which Mr. Morton Friedman, chief valuation engineer, New York
Central System. New York, is chairman. I will be glad if Chairman Friedman and the
members of his committee will come to the platform and present their report.
Ymi will note from the program presented in the February March issue of the
News that Committee ti h;is been given a new name Engineering and Valuation
1132 Records and Accounts
Records. However, since this new name does not become effective until the close of
this convention, for record purposes in the 1958 Proceedings we will refer to it here
by the name it has had for so many years — Records and Accounts.
Mr. Friedman, will you please proceed with the report of your committee.
Chairman Morton Friedman [New York Central] : Mr. Vice President, members
of the Association and guests:
The complete report of Committee 11 is printed in Bulletin 541, January 1958, on
pages 707 to 741, incl. The activities of the committee during the year included meet-
ings in June and September 1957 and January 1958, at which the assignments were
discussed and action recommended. Certain of our assignments have not reached the
stage at which reports can be presented to the Association, but the work is progressing,
and reports may be expected at the next convention.
During the year the Committee proposed the election of two of its most distinguished
retired members as Members Emeritus. The elections were approved by the Board
Committee on Personnel, and I am pleased to announce that Mr. Frank B. Baldwin,
retired valuation engineer of the Santa Fe, and Mr. Louis Wolf, retired assistant engineer,
Missouri Pacific, are now Members Emeritus of the committee.
Mr. Joseph H. O'Brien, office assistant to the regional engineer in the Western
Region of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, died on May 31, 1957. Mr. O'Brien was an
active member of the committee, and we have lost a good friend and an energetic
worker.
Mr. Dana Oliver Lyle, retired valuation engineer of the Pennsylvania Railroad and
a former member of the committee, died on March 1, 1957. He will be remembered
as a capable worker, as well as for his gentlemanly and friendly personality. Memoirs
to these men are presented in our report as printed in the Bulletin.
Mr. W. M. Ludolph, assistant engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific
Railroad, will now present the report on Assignment 3, Office and Drafting Practices.
At the conclusion of each report you are invited to discuss the report and ask questions
of the speaker.
Assignment 3 — Office and Drafting Practices.
W. M. Ludolph [Milwaukee Road] : Mr. Vice President, Mr. Chairman, members
and guests:
Your committee submits as information a report on methods of duplication, and
recommends that reference thereto be submitted for adoption and publication in the
Manual, as set forth at the end of the report.
I move that the recommended changes in the Manual be adopted.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Ludolph: I wish to introduce W. S. Gates, assistant to auditor-valuation,
Chicago & Illinois Midland Railroad, who will report on Assignment 5.
Assignment 5 — Construction Reports and Property Records.
W. S. Gates, Jr. [C&TM] : In a report concerning the Canadian Pacific's Integrated
Data Processing Center the president of this road said, "With this new equipment,
we move from the narrow concept of old methods, with a highly departmentalized
practice in the collection and processing of information, to the new concept of Inte-
grated Data Processing, based on system-wide integration to meet all requirements more
quickly, more fully, and less expensively." Mr. Leslie, vice president of accounting, adds,
"I.D.P. is a corporate program with tremendous possibilities that we have not even begun
Discussion 1133
to investigate." He also adds that they have investigated only 5 of the 40 fields they
already are aware of. He emphasizes, "Our I.D.P. section is a service organization,
whose relationship to the rest of the accounting department is no different than its
relationship to all other departments of the company."
I mention the Canadian Pacific's development because it points out that the tab-
ulating or electronic processing installation is a service unit which can be adapted to
serve all departments of the railroad and not just the accounting department, as people
are accustomed to think. However, if a department expects service it must become
acquainted with the machines' possibilities. This is especially true of engineering depart-
ments. We can not overemphasize that it would be wise to become well acquainted
with the people in charge of your railroads' processing center, so you might jointly
determine how they might be of service to you.
The report of Subcommittee 5 this year sets forth an illustration of such an installa-
tion. The conclusions printed on page 719 and the advantages on page 720 demonstrate
how what started out as a relatively simple task of indexing soon branched out into
many fields of active use. This rapid expansion of the scope of a machine installation,
once one gets into the tabulating machine field, is a usual rather than an unusual result.
The deeper one looks into this field the wider it becomes.
Are there any questions?
D. K. Van Ingen [New York Central] : Mr. Gates, can the system described for
equipment property records be used for roadway property ?
Mr. Gates: Yes. This system is applicable to any kind of property. The more
numerous the individual elements are, the more useful the installation will be. The
primary element of recording (punching) the basic information only once is the key
to the entire set-up. The only difference between an equipment and a roadway property
installation would be the nature of the data punched on the card to identify the
property involved.
Are there other questions? If not, Mr. H. T. Bradley, valuation engineer, Missouri
Pacific, will report on Assignment 6.
Assignment 6 — Valuation and Depreciation.
H. T. Bradley [Missouri Pacific]: Mr. Chairman, members and guests: One of the
items mentioned in the report of this subcommittee is the publication of the Elements
of Value for Class I Line-Haul Carriers as of December 31, 1955, by the Bureau of
Accounts, Cost Finding and Valuation of the Interstate Commerce Commission. On
February 25, 1958, this Bureau issued similar Elements of Value as of December 31,
1956.
This report is issued as information only.
Are there any questions?
Question: Mr. Bradley, in your subcommittee report last year you mentioned the
30 percent depreciation reserve required by the Internal Revenue Service as a condition
precedent to changing from retirement to depreciation accounting on road property. At
that time you though! legislative relief from this provision might be granted by Con-
gress. Are there any new developments in this connection?
Mi; Bradley: Yes. It is a very large subject at the present time. As the deduction
of 30 percent for past accrued depreciation forced on the railroad aggregated approxi-
mately \y2 billion dollars, this meant that an equal amount of service loss on retire-
ments of property constructed prior to the date of the changeover, which in most cases
was January 1, 1043, would be lost as an income tax deduction.
1 1 34 Records and Accounts
A bill, HR 8381, modifying this deduction, was passed by the House of Representa-
tives on January 28, 1958. The bill is now awaiting action by the U. S. Senate and
has been endorsed by the Treasury Department. The bill as drawn represents a com-
promise and, among other things, requires a deduction for depreciation sustained prior
to March 1, 1913, the date on which the income tax law first became effective.
I might say that the 30 percent deduction applied to depreciation prior to January 1,
1943. The method of computation is quite involved, but the net effect of this proposal
will be to reduce the 30 percent deduction to about 10 percent. The effective date of the
bill as drawn is January 1, 1956.
This concludes our report, Mr. Chairman.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Bradley. Your report will be received
as information.
Mr. Bradley: The report on Assignment 7 — Revisions and Interpretations of ICC
Accounting Classifications, will be presented by Mr. M. M. Gerber, accounting engineer,
Baltimore & Ohio Chicago Terminal, and chairman of the subcommittee.
Assignment 7 — Revisions and Interpretations of ICC Accounting Clas-
sifications.
M. M. Gerber [B&OTC] : Mr. President, members of the Association and guests:
ICC Docket No. 32153 — Proposed Modification of Uniform System of Accounts for
Railroad Companies, includes:
1. Modification of Profit and Loss and Income Accounts.
2. Consideration of the matter of betterment accounting, and the related practice
in accounting for track repairs.
The proposed modification of Profit and Loss, and Income Accounts became effec-
tive January 1, 1958, by orders of the Interstate Commerce Commission, November 20,
and December 19, 1957. As a consequence, the AAR Accounting Division issued Amend-
ment No. 6 to its publication of the ICC Uniform System of Accounts for Railroad
Companies to take care of the changes caused by the ICC orders.
On August 21, 1957, the ICC prescribed, effective October 1, 1957, new regulations
governing the destruction of records of railroad companies in place of the regulations
issued in 1945 and subsequently amended.
This report is presented as information only. Are there any questions?
J. E. Scharper [B & O] : Mr. Gerber, what is the present status of the proposal
to eliminate betterment accounting for the track elements and substitute depreciation
accounting therefor?
Mr. Gerber: Under notice of April 23, .1957, the Interstate Commerce Commission,
instituting an inquiry in the matter of betterment accounting, invited all interested
parties to submit, on or before July 1, 1Q57, written views or suggestions for consid-
eration, or requests for oral argument or public hearing.
Responses to that notice, which were timely filed on or before December 31, 1957,
as was permitted by an extension of time dated September 30, 1957, have presented
conflicting views about the financial consequence resulting from betterment accounting
in the past, and to be expected from its continuance into the future.
Upon consideration of such views and good cause appearing, the Commission has
extended to April 30, 1958, the time within which any interested person may file written
views or suggestions to be considered in this connection.
Discussion 1135
Chairman Friedman: Mr. Chairman, this concludes the report of Committee 11.
I wish to thank the subcommittee chairmen and members for their active participation
in these assignments, and I hope that during the coming year they will continue their
active interest in the committee's work.
Thank you.
Vice President Woolford: Mr. Friedman, under your direction your Committee
continues to present interesting and valuable reports, and we appreciate the work which
it has done during the past year. As has been aptly stated, proper records and account-
ing procedures are of vital importance in any engineering undertaking, and we look
continually to your committee to keep us informed on these important matters.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association. [Applause]
Discussion on Yards and Terminals
[For report, ,-ee pp. 445-482]
[Vice President Woolford presiding.]
Vice President Woolford: We will hear now from our Committee 14 — Yards and
Terminals. The chairman of this committee is Mr. F. A. Hess, division engineer, Indiana
Harbor Belt Railroad. Hammond, Ind. I shall be pleased if Mr. Hess and the other
members of his committee will come to the platform and present their report.
Again, may I ask the officers of the committee and all reporting subcommittee
chairmen to sit as near the podium as possible, in the interest of conserving time. I
would remind all of you in the audience that the privilege of the floor is yours to com-
ment on any reports of the committee, using the microphones which will be made
available to you for this purpose. When using the microphones, please state your name
and railroad for the benefit of the record.
Mr. Hess. I am pleased to turn the meeting over to you.
Chairman F. A. Hess [Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad] : Mr. President, members
of the Association and guests: Before proceeding with the presentation of our reports,
Committee 14 wishes to express its sorrow at the passing of one of its valued members
through death during the last year.
He is Clark Edward Merriman, who passed away October 31, 1957. Mr. Merriman
began his career in the engineering department of the Santa Fe in 1923. He spent several
years as maintenance engineer for the Toledo, Peoria & Western Railroad, and then
returned to the Santa Fe. At the time of his death he held the position of construction
engineer. He had been a member of the American Railway Engineering Association sina-
1938. A memoir in honor of Mr. Merriman will be recorded as a part of this report
MEMOIR
Clark <£bU)aru fflerriman
Committee 14 records with deep regrel the death o! ('. E. Merriman. construction
engineer, Atchison, Topeka S Santa Fe Railway, Topeka, Kans. Mr. Merriman suffe/ed
a coronary occlusion and passed away in Chicago on October 31, 1057, at the am- of 57.
He i- survived by his wife, Leona Johnson Merriman; a son, Clark Edward. Jr. oi
Glencoe, III.; two daughters, Nfancj Lee >i the bome and Mrs. Richard Hawkinson
oi San Francisco; and a sister, Mildred, of Topeka.
Born in Bloomington. III., he received his formal education it the Universit) ol
Wisconsin and entered engineering service oi the Santa Fe in 1923, continuing with
1136 Yards and Terminals
this road until August 1932, when he became maintenance engineer for the Toledo,
Peoria & Western Railroad. In April 1936 he returned to the Santa Fe, serving in
various responsible positions subsequently being appointed construction engineer in
March, 1947. Specializing in the design and construction of yards and terminal facilities,
Mr. Merriman gained recognition as an outstanding authority on the subject.
He had been a member of the American Railway Engineering Association since
1938 and had served on Committee 14 — Yards and Terminals since 1944. His continuous
and generous contributions to the work of Committee 14 and his friendliness and
helpfulness to its members will be long remembered. The Association has lost a valued
member and those with whom he was closely associated have lost a sincere friend.
Chairman Hess: Committee 14 has nine subcommittee reports and a panel dis-
cussion to present. The subcommittee reports appear in Bulletin 539, pages 445 to 482,
incl. Discussion from the floor is invited at the conclusion of each report.
In addition to the nine subcommittees making a report at this convention, we have
a small subcommittee collaborating with Joint Committee on Relation Between Track
and Equipment, AAR, to study the rollability of cars. An appropriation of $3,000 has
been approved by the AAR to progress the work in 1958. The preliminary research
work will be handled by Mr. G. M. Magee's staff at the AAR Research Center.
Mr. H. J McNally, regional engineer, New York Region, Pennsylvania Railroad,
Chairman of Subcommittee 1-A, will now present his report. Each subcommittee
chairman will introduce the following subcommittee chairman, giving his title and
railroad.
Assignment 1 (a) — .Review of Manual Material on LCL Freight
Facilities.
H. J. McNally [Pennsylvania] : Mr. Vice President, Mr. Chairman and members
of the Association: Your subcommittee has submitted a revision of Sec. E. LCL Freight
Facilities, beginning on page 14-3-9 of the Manual, and recommends that it be adopted
and that the Manual be revised accordingly. I so move.
An attempt has been made to list all of the questions necessary to be resolved by
an engineer in designing a freight house for the handling of less-than-carload freight.
The operations in freight houses for the handling of less-than-carload freight have been
materially changed in the past few years. Mechanization of necessity must be exploited
to its fullest extent. With this revision included in the Manual, when used by an engi-
neer for design purposes it can be expected that more efficient operations will result
from the facilities provided.
Are there any comments or questions from the floor regarding the revision? I will
attempt to answer any questions at this time.
Vice President Woolford: Mr. McNally has moved that this material be presented
as Manual material. Do I hear a second?
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. McNally: Mr. Fred Austerman, assistant chief engineer of the Chicago Union
Station Company, acting for the chairman of Subcommittee 1 (b), Mr. R. E. Robinson,
assistant chief clerk, maintenance, Santa Fe, will now present the report on Assignment
1 (b).
Assignment 1 (b) — Review of Manual Material on Width of Driveways
for Freight Houses, Team Yards, and Produce Terminals.
Fred E. Austerman [Chicago Union Station Co.] : Mr. President, members and
guests: In recent years at almost every session of our state legislatures, bills are dropped
Discussion 1137
into legislative hoppers to permit longer, heavier and taller trucks to operate over our
highways. The gains made by the common and contract carrier truckers to this end is a
matter of record.
Noting this tendency to relax restrictions in favor of longer truck-trailer combina-
tions, your committee conducted a survey to determine the extent of influence this has
had on the lengths of vehicles using our freight-house and team-yard facilities. Specifi-
cally, our purpose was to bring up to date the present Manual material on driveways,
to such extent as might be found desirable.
An analysis of the data obtained from spot surveys, involving actual measurements
of 2069 vehicles, substantiated the trend. Twenty years ago less than 2 percent of all
vehicles measured in a similar survey had a length greater than 35 ft. Today 11.5
percent fall in this category. It was concluded, however, that from an economic stand-
point the basic information contained in the Manual today is still pertinent.
Arc there any comments or questions on this report? If not, I move that the exist-
ing Manual material in Chapter 14, Part 3, relating to driveways, be reapproved without
change.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Austekman: Mr. D. C. Hastings, superintendent, Potomac Yard, Richmond,
Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad, and chairman of Subcommittee 1 (c), will now
present his report on "Review of Manual Material on Locomotive Terminals."
Assignment 1 (c) — Review of Manual Material on Locomotive Ter-
minals.
D. C. Hastings [RF&P] : Thank you, Mr. Austerman. Mr. Vice President, members
and guests of the Association:
In 1053 Part 4 of Chapter 14 of the AREA Manual entitled "Locomotive Ter-
minals" was revised and reapproved by the Association to incorporate the latest changes
for diesel and diesel-electric locomotives. Since that time your committee has been
working on this section of the Manual with the idea that a complete rearrangement
of the material would be desirable. Accordingly, Subcommittee 1 (c) has rearranged
all of the material and at the same time again brought it up to date.
The document opens with a short section of general topics. Following this the
document has been broken up into three sections covering all facilities required for
each of the following types of locomotives: Diesel and diesel-electric, electric, and steam.
Following the third section there has been added a miscellaneous section covering
all facilities required of a miscellaneous nature.
By arranging the material in the manner just outlined your committee feels that
those who are using the Manual will be able to select quickly the type of locomotive
terminal facility that they want to study and can then proceed to read the material
for that type only. The former method of arrangement did not provide this flexibility.
Mr. Vice President, your subcommittee recommends that the report on Assign-
ment 1 (c) be adopted as Manual material in lieu of the existing mat trial found in
Part 4 of Chapter 14, pages 14^-1 to 14-4-13, incl., and I so move.
|The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Hastings: Mr. R. F. Beck, system engineer, planning and development, Elgin,
Juliet & Eastern Railway, and chairman of Subcommittee 2, will present his report.
1138 Yards and Terminals
Assignment 2 — Classification Yards.
R. F. Hick [EJ&E]: Mr. Chairman, members and guests: As the number of
ret aider yards placed in operation increases, there is a definite need to examine in detail
the many factors affecting humping capacity. Our studies indicated that the factors
affecting humping capacity could be grouped into four main categories. It should be
clearly understood that engineering and operating problems are inseparable and must
be solved simultaneously. As an example, consider just one of the four categories in our
report affecting humping capacity, providing cars to the hump lead ready for humping.
The receiving yard should be designed to reduce to the minimum the interference
between road and yard engines. A flexible track arrangment between the receiving yard
and the hump lead will permit advancing a cut of cars to the crest ready for humping
as soon as the preceding cut is completed. This will increase humping capacity.
Where the length of the hump lead or receiving tracks is not a limiting factor, the
number of cars or tonnage should be consistent with the hump engine power available.
Uniform humping speeds can be maintained if this procedure is followed.
Many other engineering and operating factors are covered in this report.
The report on Assignment 3 — Scales Used in Railway Service will be given by the
subcommittee chairman, Mr. Hubert Phypers, supervisor of scales and weighing, Canadian
National Railway.
Assignment 3 — Scales Used in Railway Service.
Hubert Phypers [CNR]: A year ago this committee presented a report, as infor-
mation, on the subject "Weighing Freight Cars by the Two-Draft Method." After fur-
ther study, and a demand by railroads, industries and weighing bureaus, your committee
drafted revisions to the Specifications for the Manufacture and Installation of Two-
Section, Knife-Edge Railway Track Scales to cover two-draft, gravity-motion, uncoupled
weighing, using track scale with 20 ft long weighrail. These revisions may be found in
Bulletin 539, pages 464 and 465.
Your committee now recommends that these specifications be reapproved with the
changes noted in the report.
I so move.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Phypers: The committee intends to continue its study of two draft, gravity-
motion, uncoupled weighing and also two-draft, coupled-in-motion weighing, and to
report results at a future convention.
Mr. A. E. Biermann, principal assistant engineer, Terminal Railroad Association of
St. Louis, St. Louis, Mo., will present the next assignment.
Assignment 4 — Facilities for Cleaning and Conditioning Freight Cars
for Commodity Loading.
A. E. Biermann [TRRA of StL] : Mr. Chairman, members and guests: This report
is intended to bring to your attention certain of the various facilities constructed to
expedite the cleaning and conditioning of freight cars for commodity loading. Adequate
driveways, drainage and utility systems, are of prime importance in car-cleaning opera-
tions, and the drawings contained in the report illustrate how these factors have been
handled in various facilities.
This is a final report presented as information.
Mr. C. F. Parvin, engineer maintenance of way and structures, Pennsylvania Rail-
road, and chairman of Subcommittee 6 is unable to be present, so his report on facilities
Discussion 1139
for loading and unloading rail-truck freight equipment will be presented by Mr. B.
Laubenfels, assistant chief engineer, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad.
Assignment 6 — Facilities for Loading and Unloading Rail-Truck Freight
Equipment.
B. Laibenfels [CB&QJ: Mr. Chairman and gentlemen: The report of the sub-
committee on facilities for loading and unloading rail-truck freight equipment is given
to you as information, it is not a final report.
The report of Subcommittee 7 will be given by Mr. J. D. Anderson, assistant
engineer of track, Canadian Pacific Railway, in the absence of the subcommittee chair-
man, Mr. F. R. Smith, chief engineer, Union Railroad.
Assignment 7 — Design Data for Classification Yard Gradients.
J. D. Anderson [CPR] : Mr. Chairman, members and guests: Assignment 7 con-
cerns design data for classification yard gradients. Your subcommittee realizes that the
present Manual material for the design of gradients is sketchy and inadequate. In the
Proceedings, Vols. 33 and 34, there are reports covering the basic principles of design
at that time. Your committee has taken the best material from those reports, as well
as existing Manual material, and has augmented it with current data and design pro-
cedures for the preparation of the report submitted herewith on gradient design from
crest of hump to far end of classification yard.
Mr. Vice President, I move that this report be adopted for publication in the
Manual, to replace all material in Part 3, Freight Terminals, under Sec. D, Art. 4,
Design of Gradients, commencing on page 14-3-7.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Chairman Hess: Thanks to you, chairmen and chairmen's representatives, for your
reports, which I know took much personal time.
Panel Discussion on Hump Yards
Chairman Hess: This committee felt that in view of the great interest in hump
yards, a panel discussion on this subject would be of interest to the AREA members
and others concerned with developments in this field. The panel consists of Wm. J.
Hedley, chief engineer of the Wabash, as moderator; Martin Amoss, superintendent
of yards and terminals, New York Central; G. W. Miller, regional engineer, Canadian
Pacific, and A. L. Essman, chief signal engineer — system, Burlington.
Mr. Amoss will represent the operating people, Mr. Miller will handle the engineer-
ing phase, and Mr. Essman will represent the signalling phase. It gives me great
pleasure at this time to turn the meeting over to the panel.
Wm. J. Hedley [Wabash]: The subject of hump classification yards during the
more than 20 years of my membership on Committee 14 has been one of the most
important continuing subjects for discussion in the committee's sessions, and among the
mosl important things on which it has rendered reports from time to time. Some of
these reports are beinn presented today.
The importance of this subject ti> the railroad Industry is demonstrated by the
design and construction, during the period of 1950 to 1958, oi 45 hump classification
yards with car retarders by the railroads <>!" North America. The completion Hate for
B of those yards is 1958.
In the aggregate, these 45 modern yards, with their automation and othei ele<
1140 Yards and Terminals
tronic features, represent an expenditure in excess of 300 million dollars. That is a
big investment made by American railroads to help underwrite progress and efficiency in
the industry.
We are very fortunate to have with us today three experts, men who represent
three important phases of the design and construction of hump yards. Mr. Martin
Amoss worked on the design and construction of the first hump yard with car retarders,
the Gibson yard, built in 1924. He is primarily an operating man. He is now engaged
in the New York Central's biggest hump yard program.
Mr. George Miller, regional engineer, Canadian Pacific, has supervised the design
and construction of one large hump yard and is now supervising the design of another
one for the Canadian Pacific. I am sure you all know that Mr. Miller is a past president
of AREA.
Mr. A. L. Essman, chief signal engineer of the Burlington, is immediate past chair-
man of the Signal Section of the AAR and, incidentally, a recently elected member
of AREA. His most recent hump yard project at Cicero, a suburb of Chicago, was placed
in full operation last month. He is very much up to date on the subject of the signaling
and electronic features of hump yards.
My first question is to Mr. Amoss, and it is a big one:
When, where and why would you recommend the construction of a
hump classification yard?
Martin Amoss [New York Central] : That is a very big question. There are many
factors that have to be considered in deciding a thing of that kind. Briefly, I think
you should consider the need for the yard in two categories: The first is the classifica-
tion work that is necessary in a big terminal where there are a tremendous amount
of industry tracks and interchange of traffic. The second is classification of business
arriving at a point in road trains and being dispatched from there mainly in road trains.
These categories do overlap, of course.
In regard to providing for classification of road business mainly, I think you should
look for the point on the system where lines converge, where the traffic must be switched,
where you can't avoid it, and where you have no adequate classification operation to
take care of your needs. It should be a place where you can classify cars into large
groups that can be carried in trains just as far as possible without any intermediate
yardings. That is a very important function.
There is, of course, the question of economy of operation and service. Service is
the most important, of course, but often where you find that you can improve service
by providing an improved facility you also find that you can improve economy of
operation. They usually run hand in hand.
The terminals where heavy industries are handled are the places where you can't
avoid switching. Sometimes such terminals may possibly have from two to seven com-
paratively small yards that have to be used to classify cars. That, of course, means
hauling the cars, or at least a portion of them, from one yard to another. That is a
good spot for a hump classification yard.
What I have said so far may be considered only an opinion. So, you have to prove
it. There are many ways to measure where traffic originates, where it is going, the
desirable classifications and make-up of trains, etc. Sometimes this may be accelerated
by studying photostatic copies of bills or other data on which cars move. You can also
code the cars for the information you want, and then resort to IBM computors. That
helps you to get the job done.
Panel Discussion on Hump Yards 1141
In a general way I think that would lead to the selection of a location. Sometimes
you have to consider more than one location; but where you can't escape the switching
of cars, and where you have no adequate or efficient facility to do it, you will find
that is the place where a good, modern hump yard will provide better service and
more economies.
Mr. Hedley: Thank you, Mr. Amoss.
We will have an opportunity for questions from the floor, but first we would like
to hear at least once from each member of the panel.
I would like Mr. Miller to tell us how he would proceed to design a
hump yard, and what the principal engineering problems are that are encoun-
tered in planning and constructing such a facility.
G. W. Miller [Canadian Pacific] : Mr. Hedley, the design and construction of all
railway facilities required in connection with a hump yard certainly presents a great
challenge to the railway engineer. He is faced with almost every conceivable railroad
construction problem, and by the time the new yard is placed in operation, all phases
of railway construction and operation will have been dealt with.
There are no adequate text books on hump yards, and that is usually the first step
an engineer takes, namely, to review some of his books which he had at college, or some
that have come out more recently, so that he can review the problem.
We have the experience of a good many railroads during the past ten years, and
that is about the only basis on which we can proceed, that is, the experience we have
heard about or read about in articles that have appeared in a number of the technical
magazines recently.
The new hump yard will be used by many departments of the railroad, and it is
therefore necessary to obtain the advice and cooperation of all departments concerned.
A new, modern yard will probably cost in the vicinity of 15 million dollars, including
about 500 acres of land which might be worth 2 million dollars; 1 to 3 million yards
of grading — perhaps another million dollars; 100 miles of track and maybe 250 turn-
outs worth another 3 million dollars; a number of highway grade separation projects,
which may range from half a million to 2 million dollars; a car retarder system that
may cost 2 million dollars or more ; signals and interlocking plants, which may cost
another 2 million dollars; buildings, another million dollars, etc.
The initial steps in the construction of this new yard are very similar to the building
to a branch line, with which practically all engineers are familiar. Air photography
will help. The basic requirements of a hump yard, as most of you know, are that we
have three separate yards, one being a receiving yard, then a classification yard, and
finally a departure yard. This is basic in the operation of trains through the classification
yard system.
These tracks all have to be located to suit the area involved. No one layout of
tracks will be satisfactory in all locations. I have seen many plans of hump yards, and
I have seldom seen more than one or two that have similar conditions.
In addition to these three main yards, of course, we have the usual terminal
facilities, including car repair, cleaning of cars and icing, engine storage, caboose tracks,
stock tracks, and so on. This means that the engineer, in working up the layout of his
new yard, must consult with every department concerned. I think probably the secret
to the successful design of a hump yard is not only coordination of the efforts ol ill
concerned, but cooperation from the heads of each department.
An engineer who is not familiar with hump yard operations should review Com-
mittee 14 reports, perhaps confined to those of the last ten years, and in particular
1142 Yards and Terminals
to the report thai has just been presented to this convention. It contains a number
of most interesting views on a subject that is changing rapidly.
I noticed one suggestion in the report today which may already be out of date.
The committee has suggested that the gradient in classification tracks should be about
0.12 percent, yet we hear rumblings of suggestions that the gradients should be level
in the classification yards.
Eight years ago, when a yard was constructed in Montreal in which I had some
interest, we took the best advice available, and established the classification tracks on
a 0.22 percent grade. Obviously that is too steep for present-day conditions. At that
time we had push-button control of classification, but manual retardation. Now we
have automation entering the picture, and just how far automation will take the
engineer is hard to tell. Therefore, we must enter the picture as engineers, realizing
that in a year or two any design features which we may incorporate in the yard
could be out of date.
I hope we have leveled off on these changes, and I do hope, too, that the research
which has been carried out in many of the newer yards will be combined and presented
for the information of the engineering profession. There have been many special reports
submitted by various roads and various companies which, in my opinion, should all
be combined into a text that engineers can refer to.
There are other features that the engineer must consider in designing the yard.
One is whether he should have a high standard of construction. That is important too,
because the difference between new rail in one area as compared with partly worn
materials could have a decided effect on cost of maintenance. Should he specify light
rail and thin ballast, with inexpensive track fastenings, or go to the other extreme?
Here again good judgment is required, and it is my view that track between the
receiving yard and the classification yard, including the hump and all switching leads,
should be of the highest possible standard. That includes the switches, the track fas-
tenings, the ties and the ballast. We hope that by using good material in the construction
of these yards, very little maintenance will be needed.
During the design and construction stage the engineer will be faced with many
problems, and of necessity he will have to collaborate with others. We have com-
munication engineers, men qualified to handle electronics, air conditioning, electrical
engineers who must design circuits and good lighting of yards. There are many other
specialized branches of the engineering profession that must review the plans as the
yard proceeds.
So, my final remark and suggestion to any engineer is this: Be sure to get all the
advice you can. Take ample time, if you can, to design your yard before you begin
construction.
Mr. Heoley: Thank you, Mr. Miller.
Mr. Essman, from the signal engineer's point of view, what are the
particular problems encountered in the construction of a hump yard?
A. L. Essman [Burlington] : One of the first things is the early determination of
the type of system that you are going to use. For the purposes of this discussion, and
because of the limited time, I believe I should confine my remarks primarily to the
more modern type of yard, namely, the fully automatic type.
One of the first things that the signal engineer is concerned with is this: How much
room is he going to have to do the things he will have to do ? By that I mean, how
much space between the crest of the hump and the master retarder will there be?
Panel Discussion on Hump Yards 1 143
When you start measuring tangent rolling resistance, that space usually is the
governing factor. Then, when you start measuring the curve rolling resistance you are
concerned usually with the distance between the master retarder and the group retarders.
The number of cars that you can have in a cut depends on the available room that
you have to get your accurate measurements.
Another thing you have to consider is the type of switches. In a short-coupled
yard, it is often necessary to use lap switches in order to conserve as much room as
possible; this necessitates the cutting of rails, which all of you people dislike — and
we too, as far as that is concerned.
There are exacting requirements for the placing of insulated joints, not only from
the standpoint of locking the switches while the cars are over them, but also in con-
nection with the triggering of your radar and in the lengths of your cuts. Often this
requires odd-size rails, but nevertheless these requirements arc rather exact.
Concerning the type of rail, it is always well to determine early the section and
weight of rail to be used so that the manufacturer of the retarders can start fabricating
the devices needed for supporting the rails through the retarders.
Another feature is the automatic switching system, in which there are various
elaborations. Basically it is of the push-button type, but some roads use a perforated
tape to feed switching information into the route-selecting network. Others use punch
cards, the magnetic memory principle, and various other types of automatic control.
Consideration of these elaborations is very important because in the accumulation of
your weight information of the cuts and the rollability of the cars, that information
has to be tied into the network of automatic switching, and in some cases the informa-
tion accumulated at the crest of the hump must be stored until it can be used in the
group retarder. The automatic switching network is quite complicated and is the basic
network of your whole system.
Another thing that you must consider is the length of the track sections over your
switches. They must be long enough to prevent an extremely long car from straddling
a track circuit. In Cicero we have a minimum track section length of 57 ft 6 in.
There is now no wheel base that will straddle that length of section.
Another feature is the weigh rail. You must have a very firm foundation for the
rail that is accumulating the weight information so that that information can be
placed into the computer.
Car trucks have a tendency to remember that they have just negotiated a curve
and then must be straightened as soon as the car reaches tangent track by the use
of guard rails or other means.
Another feature is the track fullness. There are various means of accumulating
thi> information, but they are an integral part of the computer network.
Speaking of computers, you have to feed the information manually into most of
the computers we hear of today, but the retarder system is a little different from that.
It accumulates all the information it has to deal with automatically, such as the weight
of the car, the wind resistance, the distance it has to travel to its target or track
fullness, the curve rolling resistance, tangent rolling resistance, and others. All of this
is accumulated automatically and fed to the computer.
To get proper regulation of the car-, this computer must be fast. The modern
computers of today solve these problems at the rate of about one every millisecond.
You may wonder what is going to happen in the event the computer fails. During
its rest period it is automatically solving its test problem, and any time the solution
is different from the known answer, the computer kicks out, signals the operator that
1144 Yards and Terminals
the computer has failed, and it will not silence the alarm bell or extingush the indicator
light until the operator places the retarder lever in full retarding position.
Air conditioning is quite essential in the computer rooms in order to keep the
temperature constant which otherwise will vary because of the varying temperature
of the tubes. We had a little incident in our Cicero yard where we had the sunlight
coming in on the south side of the room, and during certain periods of the day certain
sections of the computer weren't performing quite the way they should. After we found
out why, we placed Venetian blinds on the windows and overcame that difficulty.
So much for the retarder section. There are other features of the yard that are
as important as the retarder itself, such as the hump signals. Oftentimes in sections
where the hump signal cannot be seen it is necessary to install repeaters. In some places
these can't be installed, which necessitates cab signals being placed on the humping
locomotives. In addition to that, there are the remotely controlled yard entrance
switches, all of which form an essential part of a well-rounded-out classification yard.
Mr. Hedley: Thank you, Mr. Essman.
I have another question I would like to ask Mr. Amoss: How do you go about
determining the results you have achieved when you have built and put into
operation a hump yard facility, that is, how do you determine the benefit
that has been obtained by the railroad either in efficiency or expedition of
service?
Mr. Amoss: When you recommend building a yard, of course, you have to justify
the recommendation. Often you will find that there are other yards that can be retired
or curtailed in their operation.
In checking what was forecast, you actually check against the figures that were
estimated in the first place. You would check your salvage. You would check the man-
power against what you had forecast would be needed. Often the diesel facility is
replaced with a new facility in a strategic location, and you have to check against the
cost of operating that facility. If you have a new car repair facility, you have to check
against the original estimate.
There are other auxiliary services. In some places there are stockyards, and some-
times there are quite a few main track changes and signal changes that are made in
conjunction with the yard in order to facilitate the use of the yard to the greatest
extent.
You have to check all these things against what you originally said would be the
force and facilities in each category. It is obvious that you have to be a little fussy
about what you say in the first place.
There is the matter of per diem savings, which is a controversial subject, but you
do check to determine whether the period for handling cars is about what you estimated
it to be. Often, by concentrating cars, you will find that there are train-mile savings.
If any train mile savings are forecast, you have to check against that.
All of these things are not easily done, because frequently from the time construc-
tion of the yard is begun up to the time it is completed there is a different flow_ of
traffic. It may be more and it may be less, and that affects it. There are conditions of
that kind which you have to make some allowance for.
In order to get your comparison you try to bring it back to the basis upon which
it was originally estimated, as well as what actually you are getting in the way of
economies and improved service and rates of pay, etc. You usually find out what the
saving is on the basis of current rates and what they would be on the basis of rates
in effect at the time the original forecast was made.
Yards and Terminals 1145
I hope that answers the question.
Mr. Hedley: Have your checks been of a satisfactory nature? Generally speaking,
have they satisfied the higher officers of the railroad?
Mr. Amoss: I would say so.
Mr. Hedley: I think that is quite important.
Does anyone have a question from the floor?
Mr. P. H. Linderoth [Milwaukee Road]: I would like to direct my question to
Mr. Essman. I understand from your preliminary remarks that you said auto-
mation limits the number of cars in the cut. Is that correct?
Mr. Essman: It limits it to a certain degree, Mr. Linderoth. If you want to get
accurate rolling characteristics of a car, first after it leaves the master you have to let it
build up speed so you can start measuring it. Then, the distance between the master
and the group in which you can put in a definite length of track circuit determines the
length of cut that you can measure accurately. However, if you want to have cuts in
excess of that, you can place averages into the computer and get reasonably good
results.
Mr. Linderoth: How do the averages get in there?
Mr. Essman: That is done by placing certain values into the computation after you
have studied the characteristics of the yard.
Mr. Linderoth: By the same token, then, would you say that a yard ar-
ranged for automatic operation slows up the number of cars that can be
humped, or is it about the same?
Mr. Essman: No, I would not say it would slow it up. Bear in mind that the end
result of this is the handling of the car. It is good, careful handling that you are after,
over-all.
Mr. Hedley: With an idea of reducing the damage; isn't that true?
Mr. Essman: That's right.
Mr. J. A. Balla [Pennsylvania]: I think one important thing has been omitted
in this discussion. Communications play a great part in retarder yards, both from an
operational and from an engineering standpoint. That is, getting communications both
to the hump and to the various yards, and also for the car inspectors and people out
in the yards. That is quite a major item in classification yards.
Mr. Hedley: Yes, I am sure you are right. It is unfortunate that uc don't have
unlimited time available here to discuss it. Communications, as has been mentioned,
is a very important part of a hump yard facility, but I don't think we have any more
time to give to the matter.
If there is another question from the floor, we will entertain it.
Mr. H. R. Wooton [Algoma Central Railway]: It is presumed that in most in-
stances a new hump yard is located some distance from the existing flat or original flat
yard. Has it proved more economical to make the new yard self-sufficient as
regards locomotive and car facilities, thus replacing entirely the existing
facilities, or is there some compromise considered most economical in these
cases?
Mr. Amoss: You have to study the specific location to see how you will come out.
Naturally, if the engine servicing facility is in the immediate vicinity of the yard where
most of the trains pull in and depart, that would seem t<> be the ideal thing, all other
things being considered equal.
That is as close to answering that question as I can come without studying the
1146 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
specific points of how far the engines would have to go, what it would cost to build
a new facility, and what you would make out of the deal.
Mr. Hedley: Again it is a matter of analyzing each individual problem on its own
merits; isn't that true?
Mr. Amoss: Yes, that is true.
Mr. Hedley: Are there any other questions?
E. T. Myers [Modern Railroads] : This may be a delicate question, but I am
wondering what the possibilities are of using a robot locomotive for
trimming.
Mr. Essman: With the facilities known to the art of signalling today, it is possible;
in fact, a locomotive can be geared to the computer and can do all the shoving that is
necessary for humping operations; that is, with features we know of today.
Mr. Hedley: If there are no other questions, on behalf of Committee 14 I want to
thank our panel of experts, Mr. Amoss, Mr. Miller and Mr. Essman, for giving us a
good boost in our presentation of Committee 14's report. [Applause |
Chairman Hess: That concludes the panel discussion.
[President McBrian resumed the Chair.]
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Hess, for another series of interesting reports
and important Manual recommendations. You have put in another year of hard work
for the Association, and the results achieved are evidenced in your reports.
May I thank also Mr. Hedley and the other members of his panel for the interest-
ing discussion which they presented with respect to hump yards.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Economics of Railway Location and Operation
[For report, see pp. 391-400]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: The next Committee to present its report is Committee 16 —
Economics of Railway Location and Operation, of which R. L. Milner, staff assistant to
chief engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, Huntington, W. Va., is chairman. Will
Chairman Milner and members of his committee please come to the platform and
present their report.
Mr. Milner, you may proceed.
R. L. Milner [C&O] : Mr. Chairman, members of the Association and guests:
During the past year our committee lost one of its oldest members, Miss Olive Wetzel
Dennis. A memoir prepared by Messrs. Nye, Blackman and Teal will be included in
that portion of the 1958 Volume of the Proceedings relating to Committee 16.
Miss Dennis was Member Emeritus of our committee since 1953. She became Life
Member of the Association in 1952. Her entire engineering career was in the Engineering
Department of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad from which she retired in 1951.
In her death the Association has lost a distinguished worker. Those who knew her
have lost a loyal friend,
Discussion 1147
MEMOIR
<^libc MtUtl Bcnni*
Miss Olive Wetzel Dennis, retired research engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad,
and Member Emeritus of Committee 16, American Railway Engineering Association,
died on November 5, 1957, in Baltimore, Md.
Miss Dennis was born in Thurlow. Pa., daughter of the late Dr. and Mrs. Charles
E. Dennis who moved to Baltimore when she was quite young.
Educated in the Baltimore public schools, Miss Dennis entered Goucher College
on a four-year scholarship where she was elected to Phi Beta Kappa; she received an
A.B. degree in 1908. On a fellowship from Goucher College she received a Master's
degree in 1909 at Columbia University. She attended University of Wisconsin and
Harvard during summer periods, 1913-17; she received a Civil Engineering degree in
1920 at Cornell University, being the second woman receiving such a degree from that
institution. Miss Dennis taught mathematics in Technical High School, Washington,
D. C. and was head of the department of mathematics in 1918-19,
Miss Dennis entered railroad service 'vith the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1920
as a draftsman in the bridge engineering department. Between 1921 and 1945 she was
engineer of service. On January 1, 1946, she was appointed research engineer on the
president's staff, which position she held until her retirement in 1951.
Miss Dennis became a member of the American Railway Engineering Association
in March 1927. She was a member of Committee 21 — Economics of Railway Operation,
between 1929 and 1938 and a member of Committee 16 — Economics of Railway Loca-
tion and Operation from 1938 to 1953. This latter committee is a consolidation of the
former Committee 16 — Economics of Railway Location, and Committee 21 — Economics
of Railway Operation. She was a regular and most valuable participant in the meetings
of the committee. Her contribution to the railroad industry was beneficial to all. Miss
Dennis became a Life Member of the Association in 1952 and Member Emeritus of
Committee 16 in 1953.
Her other professional activities included service as engineering consultant for Per-
sonnel Supply Section, Division of Personnel Office of Defense Transportation, in 1°43,
and collaboration with the author of the O.D.T. pamphlet "Survey of Jobs Suitable for
Women on Railroad 'A'," published in January 1944.
Miss Dennis was interested and a leader in a number of civic activities affecting
favorably the lives of many. In her death, the engineering profession, the American
Railway Engineering Association and those who have had the fortune of knov ing her
have lost a distinguished leader and loyal friend.
J. E. TEA]
C. H. Blackman
F. N. Nvi
Committer on Memoir
Chairman Mii.m.k: Your committee is reporting on four of its seven assignments.
These are presented on pages 391-400, Bulletin S39. Of these, one is a final report, sub-
mitted as information, while three are progress reports. The committee invites your
comment- at the conclusion of each presentation, and will lie glad to reply to an\
questions submitted therein.
Our first report is cm Assignment l and will be presented bj the subcommittee
chairman, George Rugge, assistant engineer, Santa Fe
ills Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
George Rtjgge: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members and guests: Your com-
mittee submits the following brief report of progress on revision of Chapter 16, Part 3,
Power.
The draft of Sec. C. Electric Locomotives, has been completed. Portions of Sec. D.
Oil-Electric Locomotives and Rail Cars have been drafted.
Information is being assembled on the application of data-processing equipment to
speed-time-distance calculations.
The committee is also taking cognizance of the development of atomic-powered
locomotives.
The report on Assignment 2 — Cost of Track Curvature, will be given by Subcom-
mittee Chairman L. P. Diamond, assistant engineer of research, Chesapeake & Ohio
Railroad.
Assignment 2 — Cost of Track Curvature.
L. P. Diamond [C&O] : We are analyzing the costs attributable to track curvature
with special reference now to those costs found in ICC Account 214 — Rail. This is a por-
tion of individual studies regarding the effects of track curvature on Account 212 — Ties,
Account 214 — Rail, Account 216 — Other Track Material, Account 218 — Ballast, and
Account 220 — Track Laying and Surfacing.
Studies of railwear measurements on the ball and gage-corner running surfaces of
rail as well as rail-end batter, are the means for analysis of the costs of track curvature
in Account 214 — Rail. Many thousands of railwear measurements were taken on tangent
and curved track up to 9 deg in both single and multiple track territories. Measurements
were made on 132-, 131-, 115-, and 112-lb rail laid new.
Grouping and analysis of these railwear measurements in rational subgroups of
1 deg intervals of track curvature, 0.4 percent intervals of track gradient (rise and fall),
each rail side in track, for each rail weight and for each type of traffic directionality
permits a thorough analysis of rail depreciation as well as projection of results of
sample measurements to similar portions or groups of portions of any railroad where
rail is laid new.
Analysis of rail depreciation was predicated upon a very general exponential rela-
tionship between railwear and traffic tonnage-time. The mathematical bases for the
analysis were the standard multiple regression techniques and associated response surfaces
generated therefrom.
The heavy labor of performing such a penetrating and incisive analysis of railwear
measurements was expedited by the use of Univac I. Considerable original programming
was written to process this problem on Univac.
The value and potential of use of a high-speed, large-scale digital computer in the
solution of complex operational research, scientific, and engineering problems with prac-
tical objectives, is a matter of interest here. At this moment the final systems design
and programming is being written to complete this problem.
Other factors, in addition to those mentioned earlier, doubtless have some effect
on railwear. These may be rail hardness, rail lubrication, corrosion films, etc. It is inter-
esting to note that as curvature and/or gradient increase, the influence of these addi-
tional factors on railwear are reduced to relatively minor importance.
Final analyses of these data are expected to yield information on costs of track
curvature in the rail account as well as the mechanism of railwear and associated studies
of rail depreciation per unit traffic tonnage-time under varying economic conditions.
Discussion 1149
Are there any comments or questions?
C. O. Bryant [Rock Island|: Do you think you can apply railwear measurements
to any part of your railroad with respect to grade, curves, etc.?
Mr. Diamond: These results can be applied to railroads with gradients between
roughly + 1.5 percent to — 1.5 percent, track alinements up to 9 deg of curvature, rail
weights of 112, 115, 131, 132, and 140 lb, traffic densities of roughly 5 million gross tons
per year to about 50 million gross tons per year. As far as the 131-lb rail is concerned,
the total traffic volume may be up to about 615 million gross tons, this for both single
and double track territories.
Any further questions?
G. M. Magee [AARJ: I am not quite sure what it is that you are trying to do
from what you said. Are you merely determining the amount of wear of rail as related
to these different factors? Is that the object of this analysis?
Mr. Diamond: The railwear measurements were made, and the objective of the
analysis is to determine relationships between railwear as measured under the various
conditions enumerated. Such data will enable us to predict railwear under various condi-
tions of traffic, tonnage and time.
Mr. Magee: That is the point I am not clear on. In other words, you are not trying
to determine the life of rail, but merely the amount of wear that would be expected
under these different conditions; is that right?
Mr. Diamond: That is right. You can also determine the amount of wear per gross
ton, or per year, as desired.
Mr. Magee: The reason I asked the question is that I have a considerable question
in my mind as to whether the amount of railwear is a very important factor in the life
of rail, except in some very special instances. Certainly this would be a very interesting
thing to know, and I will be interested in seeing the results you get from this study.
Mr. Diamond: Preliminary results do indicate that as the curvature increases and/or
gradient increases, the relationship between rail wear and traffic tonnage time becomes
more pronounced.
The primary objective of the particular study here is to determine the cost of
track curvature, and we believe we are on the right track.
Mr. Fred Nye, chairman of Subcommittee 4, and director of transportation and
economic research of the New York Central System, will present the report on Assign-
ment 4.
Assignment 4 — Economics of Various Types of Yard-to-Yard Car
Reporting.
V. N. Nye [NYC]: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members and guests: Your Sub-
committee 4 has studied yard-to-yard car reporting systems on many railroads. It-
report will be found in Bulletin 530. November 1057.
The subcommittee is of the opinion that the costs involved to provide or lease tele-
type circuits and to make business machines available to process the accumulated data
is well spent because:
1. It improves efficiency of yard operations and expedites classifications.
2. It provides a sound basis for better car distribution and enhances the utilization
of equipment, both power and rolling stock.
3. It serves freight sales, because shippers and consigners can always be prompt!)
informed as to the whereabouts of their ears, and
4. It provides, among other things, an up-to-date basis for freight sales analyses.
11 50 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Modern transportation on a large scale can be controlled only by up-to-date com-
munications and systematic analyses of data, to provide management with a tool
to keep its equipment in orderly movement, in trains, through yards and in terminal
placement. Yard-to-yard car reporting, controlled and evaluated at central processing
bureaus, is an effective method to accomplish this.
Our report is submitted as information, with the recommendation thai the subject
be discontinued.
Are there any questions?
B. E. Buterbatjgb I Frisco | : I would like to ask what railroads have car reporting
systems of this character.
Mr. Nye: Quite a few, and the number is growing. 1 believe it can be said that the
New Haven was the pioneer as equipment became available following the war. The
Erie has such a system; so do the Union Pacific and Southern Pacific acting coopera-
tively, and the Santa Fe, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Canadian
Pacific, the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern, and the Rock Island to name a few.
I am pleased to state that the New York Central has a system-wide network based
on 67 principal yards transmitting data to be processed at service bureaus in New York,
Cleveland, Indianapolis and Detroit.
J. A. Barnes [Chicago & North Western J : Do you know how such a system can
be extended to other uses?
Mr. Nye: The uses I mentioned are fundamental. In addition, on the N,ew York
Central, we transmit our car reporting punch cards to our auditor of car accounting,
where they are used in lieu of conductors' wheel reports and interchange reports in
determining per diem and in preparing operating statistics, and to our auditor of internal
revenues to insure collections on overhead traffic on which we have no other records to
rely upon. They are also being used to analyze freight traffic patterns throughout the
system, as a basis for yard locating and improvements.
Are there any other questions? If not, I will call on Tom Wofford, engineer of
design, Illinois Central, who will present the report on Assignment 6.
Assignment 6 — Economics of Improved Freight Stations and Facilities.
T. D. Wofford [IC]: Mr. Chairman, members of the Association and guests: Your
committee submits a report of progress in studying the economic factors relating to
construction of new freight house facilities and modernization of older installations.
A bibliography is being prepared to provide a source of reference material on all
aspects of freight station improvements undertaken by various railroads in recent years.
A partial list of articles relating to the subject, as reported in selected trade journals, is
included in our report.
It is planned to continue to review selected trade publications and other available
materials for further references and to combine them with those already reported into
a complete and convenient bibliography of articles of current application to the subject
of improved freight stations.
Your committee is circulating a questionnaire to gather data on specific freight
house improvements to develop more detailed information on the economic factors
involved in their location and operation. It is recommended that this subject be
continued.
Chairman Milner: I want to take this opportunity to thank the members of the
committee for the fine work they have done during the past year. While we have made
Address of John W. Barriger 1151
only four reports, there is a substantial amount of underlying work which was not
quite ready for presentation.
This does not quite conclude our presentation, although it does conclude the
presentation of subcommittee reports. Our committee has received a new assignment,
"Engineering, Maintenance and Operating Facilities to be Derived from Increased Joint
Use of Railway Facilities."
This is a most timely subject, with great potential for saving and net profit. At the
same time it was recognized to be a most difficult subject to handle effectively. It pro-
foundly concerns every railroad man, whether he is a manager, engineer, or otherwise
engaged in railroad operations.
Your committee, recognizing the problems that make successful handling of such a
subject difficult, was to a certain degree apprehensive about accepting it. However,
with the hope that full understanding of the subject would facilitate the gathering of
necessary data, and because of the fact that one of our members had an especially deep
interest in it, the committee has undertaken the assignment.
Mr. John W. Barriger, who has appeared as a speaker on the convention floor for
our committee before, is president of the Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad. He is also
a past chairman of Committee 16. He has agreed to direct this study, and today will
give you his views on the fuller aspects of this assignment.
Gentlemen, I present Mr. Barriger. [Applause]
Joint Facilities Revisited
By John W. Barriger
President, Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad
The subject you have asked me to discuss, "The engineering, maintenance and
operating benefits to be derived from the increased joint use of railway facilities,"
which I have shortened to "Joint Facilities Revisited," should be one of special im-
portance to the railroads in this year, 1958. This industry is in a critical condition due
to financial anemia brought on by over regulation.
Increased use of joint facility arrangements and joint services as a means for
making substantial reductions in operating expenses has much to commend it in this
emergency. It may be effected quickly, it obviates the curtailment of both service and
maintenance standards, and does not require large capital investments.
Some of the elder members of the AREA will recall the consolidation mandate of
the Transportation Act of 1920. However, so many obstacles were placed in the way
of railroad consolidation after 1920 that comparatively little was accomplished, and, in
response to repeated requests of the Interstate Commerce Commission, the requirements
of the Transportation Act in these respects were removed by the 1940 amendments.
Had the consolidation objectives of the 1920 law been fulfilled, corporate mergers
would have carried the joint use of railway property far beyond the coordinations that
can now be arranged between companies that must continue their operating independence.
However, the limitations of present circumstances should not cause us to neglect the
opportunities that coordination offers.
A crisis frequently requires a return to fundamental thinking. The thought of a
generation ago was that consolidation answered the problem of efficient operation and
economical use of railroad capital and property. A return to that viewpoint may soon
become essential for the survival in the United States of a privately owned and operated
railway system.
1152 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
When the seriousness of the railway problem required Congressional attention in
1020, and again in 1933, protection and improvement of railway earning power were
sought through the fundamental remedy of increased use of joint facilities and services.
This objective motivated the consolidation provisions of the Transportation Act of
1020 and the coordination provisions of the Emergency Transportation Act of 1933.
The latter sought to reach the objective through coordination, after Congress and the
railroads had turned away from large scale consolidations.
The 1933 law established the office of Federal Coordinator of Transportation, and
for three years that office worked in close cooperation with the railroads in studying
possibilities for the coordinated, or joint use, of railroad facilities and services through-
out the United States. The Coordinator's studies embraced all types of facilities and
phases of operation, from the smallest stations at common points to the complex facil-
ities within the largest railroad terminals. Many proposals for combining road improve-
ments of two or more railroads on the trackage of one were considered, as well as the
combination of shops, auxiliary services and administrative functions.
The difficulties of balancing the traffic effects of the changes, and of establishing
mutually satisfactory bases of compensation between landlord and tenant, prevented
the accomplishment of specific projects. Nevertheless, the Coordinator's studies did un-
cover many situations where joint use of facilities might be attractive under today's
conditions. Your respective files should contain information that could prove helpful
in making a realistic approach to your present opportunities.
Conditions have changed materially since the Transportation Act of 1920 and the
beginning of the coordination studies of 1933. Over the past quarter of a century, a
vast network of hard surfaced highways has been provided, which, together with the
development of other competitive forms of transportation, has diverted much freight
and passenger traffic from the rails. Duplicate rail routes between common competitive
points no longer have to be kept in order to provide service for the non-competitive
intermediate communities. Thousands of smaller stations have disappeared from the
railway map since 1930, and the importance of many others as contributors of freight
has shrunk materially. The diversion of the traffic of the smaller places to the highways
may now justify concentration of through movements on a single main line, either
through the means of consolidation or coordination.
Changed circumstances alter attitudes; accordingly, the joint use of main tracks
between the more important rail centers becomes less objectionable to the minor inter-
mediate communities that are deprived of train service. This permits, or makes less
objectionable, the abandonment of the trackage, or its declassification from "main" to
"branch" line status with the attendant savings in operating and maintenance costs.
Freight and passenger movements do not end at the physical boundaries of the
railways on which they originate; they have long been inter-company, nation-wide and
international in scope. Very early in their development, railways had to function as a
nationally unified system from the standpoint of both services and pricing, though still
possessed with the vitalizing characteristics of privately managed businesses. This ulti-
mately required the coordination of the commercial and operating practices of the
many companies extending over a quarter of a million miles of road and distributed
among many companies of varying sizes and classification.
A fundamental characteristic that has had a decisive influence, not only upon the
pattern of their physical development, but also upon their pricing practices, is that the
railroads produce an intangible service, a service that cannot be barrelled, baled or
boxed, and can only be used where and when it is provided. It cannot be stored or
Address of John W. Barriger 1153
saved — it must be produced at the point where needed, and as needed, and peak require-
ments cannot be met through inventory accumulation, but must be built into the
capacity of railway plant and its supply of equipment.
These basic characteristics required the construction of the great body of rail
mileage that interlaces every settled part of the continent. The extent of railroad
mileage and facilities were principally determined by the necessities of area and distances,
rather than by the volume of available traffic. The physical requirements have too often
exceeded the business required to support the scope of the operations called for by the
service provided. A geographically adequate system has therefore, from the outset,
possessed capacity in excess of potential traffic, except during the limited periods of
maximum industrial activity caused either by war or its after effects.
The cost of operating all businesses that produce intangible products is primarily
related to the burden of providing capacity to serve. In the case of a railroad, four-
fifths of its total cost, charges and expenses are directly related to the provision of
capacity, and only one-fifth to the extent of the use made of the full capacity available.
So, both from the standpoint of minimizing capital charges and operating expenses, the
greatest opportunity for efficient and profitable operation is to utilize available property
and equipment as intensively as possible.
Few industries have as high a proportion of investment to revenues produced as
have the railroads. Currently, the ratio is three to one, but it would be much higher
except for the fact of current inflation, which has affected revenues very much but
aggregate investment to a much lesser extent.
A so-called railroad problem has existed as long as the railroads themselves. Its
manifestations have varied at different periods, but the fundamental cause has invariably
been the difficulty of procuring the capital required — in earlier times for external and
in more recent decades for internal developments — and to find traffic adequate to utilize
fully the capacity of the existing plant and equipment.
The present fiscal anemia of the railroads has been caused by the traffic attrition
resulting from the over-regulation prescribed by the Interstate Commerce Act. This has
resulted in cartelization of the market for transportation and the consequent diversion
of tremendous totals of freight and passenger movements from the railroads to other
forms of transportation. A superficial observation is that a lesser volume of traffic
produced profitable operations in the past and should do so now. This is entirely errone-
ous because a much less favorable relationship now exists between rates and costs, or.
more technically, between the prices at which rail services are sold, measured in ton
miles and passenger miles, and the prices paid for wages and materials, measured by the
same units.
The problem of successful railroading, as is the case in other businesses, is a matter
of adapting production to sales, and plant and equipment to production. The wide
disparity between railway earning power and that of business in general is the result
of the regulatory restrictions under which railroads operate and the obstacles that are
placed in their way in pricing their product so as to give effect to their mass produc-
tion characteristics and the difficulty of adjusting their services to offset declining traffic.
The better fiscal status of the railroads in some parts of the country does not refute
this view. Their fiscal status is very largely due to the external circumstance of popula-
tion and economic growth. These have been sufficient to offset the losses to competitive
transportation and still leave a margin. The basic disease is still over regulation.
1154 nomics of Railway Location and Operation
1 he problem of adjusting plant and equipment, hence investment and operation,
to the service requirements and potential of the area covered, has been a basic factor
to the successful operation of railroads from the outset. It motivated the policies and
actions of early railroad builders and managers as much as it does today; in fact,
probablj more so, because they had freedom to operate in accordance with economic
principles. A primary manifestation of this is still found in our present railway systems
because they were formed by the successive mergers of many small companies. Common
use of the separate equipment and property of the constituent companies and the giving
up of competitive operations were the objectives to be achieved.
The importance of railroad consolidation hardly needs explanation or justification
before this well-informed audience, though our familiarity with the corporate arrange-
ments that contribute so much to the operation of our present system may cause us
to overlook the advantage of consolidation. However, continuing economic pressures
will force the railroads to look again at consolidation as a means of improved efficiency
and economy in the particularly difficult circumstances now confronting them.
You are all familiar with the accomplishments of the railroad industry through
dieselization. This type of motive power has almost completely replaced the steam loco-
motive. This was accomplished through an investment of approximately three and one-
half billion dollars. This investment provides economies of approximately one billion
dollars annually in comparison with the costs that would have been incurred with steam
operation. These savings represent virtually the entire earning power of the railroads
over the past ten years. The rapid dieselization of the American railroads and the related
improvements to physical plant and to cars that were necessary to obtain the benefits
of the new motive power required the expenditure of virtually the entire fiscal resources
of the railroad industry, including those generated by these improvements.
Savings of another billion dollars per year are urgently needed to preserve not
only the physical and financial integrity of the railroad industry, but also to pay for
its rapid modernization. It's not enough to get the patient out of bed and into a wheel
chair; he is not cured unless he can walk and run. The AREA, even more than most
other groups of railroad officers, is well aware of the enormous savings that could be
generated by major improvements, but it also knows equally well that such improve-
ments require large capital funds which few railroads either possess or may obtain in
amounts adequate for their needs.
There is just one way in which the American railroads can quickly generate a bil-
lion dollars of savings per year. That is through large scale consolidation. Using an
8-year average, 1950-57, and round sums, railway gross revenues have been $10 billion
per year and net railway operating income has been $1 billion per year. It is of sig-
nificance that American railroads attained the billion dollar total of net railway income
for the first time during the flood-tide of the war-induced traffic in 1916. Over-
regulation has held it at that level during the intervening 40-year period notwith-
standing the expansion of traffic, the enlargement and improvement of railway plant
and equipment and the great increase in the level of prices and wages.
I am firmly of the opinion that all of the 220,000 miles of American railroads
should be consolidated into a limited number of large systems, no more than twenty
as a maximum, and preferably a much smaller number. The competition of two, or
possibly three railroads, could well be provided at the principal centers, except possibly
in New England. I am confident that had the traffic of each recent year been moved
over railroad systems consolidated to this extent, not only would the service have been
much better, but there would have been a reduction of at least $1 billion per year
' Address of John W . Barriger 1155
in operating expenses. This is compared with the cost of operating over the existing
plant, diffused as it is among 113 Class I companies and many other smaller ones.
Routing over a reduced mileage, with fewer terminals, would provide the most economical
service and permit this saving.
This billion dollars is just what the railroads will need each year to modernize
their plant and revitalize their services. It would be practically free money, for only
incidental additional investment would be required to effectuate connections between
routes and yards and terminals of the presently separate companies that would be
merged. Thereafter, the resultant earning power could be utilized and capitalized to
create truly "Super-Railroads" that would be representative of the best of everything
applicable to rail transportation.
Consolidation faces great external political problems and great internal policy prob-
lems. These are beyond the scope of my assigned subject and perhaps your immediate
interests, but I mention them in order that you will not labor under the illusion that
the benefits of consolidation can be had for the mere asking.
An estimated 11 percent over-all reduction in operating expenses following national
consolidation of railroads would, of course, entail an equivalent force reduction, provided
traffic remained static. However, the vitalizing effect of the service improvements of
consolidation and the rate adjustments that would follow should enable the railroads
to recover more than an offsetting amount of traffic and would actually lead to a net
increase, rather than a decrease, in railroad employment over a near-term span of
years. The alternative to consolidation may be a continued traffic decline that will
displace a greater number of employees who will have little prospect of returning
to their former jobs except as the death or retirement of senior employees creates
vacancies.
My presentation here is not to be focused on consolidation, however, so I should
go no further in discussing that large and complex question. Consideration of consolida-
tion is, nevertheless, essential as a background for analyzing the possibilities of coor-
dination, since coordination is frequently suggested as a substitute for consolidation.
There are some parallels between them. The difference is, of course, that under con-
solidation, previously separate properties, organizations, traffic and operations are com-
pletely merged and extinguished as individuals entities, while under coordination, separate
facilities and services are used in common, but the companies themselves continue to
exist and operate as before. Occasionally, operations themselves are merged, but this
has been the exceptional case rather than the rule in previous coordinations.
Many instances exist where properties are used in common by two or more rail-
roads. They range from the simplest operations and smallest stations up to the great
jointly owned terminals that provide freight and passenger services in some of the
nation's largest cities. Every use of one railroad's tracks or property by another carrier,
or the creation of a separate company to own trackage or facilities and provide a con-
solidated operation, is an example of coordination.
Many joint facilities were initialh constructed to overcome the necessity of con-
structing parallel and duplicate facilities. In other instances, paralleling facilities of two
or more railroads have been pooled for joint use, with both ownerships remaining
intact. An illustration of this is the pairing of single track operations to provide the
improved flexibility, safety and expedition of train movement of a double track line.
Pooled freight and passenger train services, interchangeable tickets and consolidated ti< ket
offices are other familiar examples of coordination. Wherever extraordinarily expensive
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
route facilities are required, as in the case of terminals and at the crossings of major
waterways, added incentives exist for the joint use of facilities.
My discussion of the utilization of joint facilities has thus far been focused on
fixed property. I hardily need to remind you that the railroad freight car is the prime
example of a "joint" raliroad facility, since it can be and is utilized by any railroad
in the country. The joint use of a fixed property is, of course, limited to those who
have negotiated a special proprietary or tenancy privilege and have access to it. Freight
cars alone have complete universality of joint use. Passenger cars have the same capabil-
ities in this respect, but are used less in joint service.
Over the period of my railroad career, I have engaged in a number of comprehensive
studies of both coordination and consolidation. Based on this experience, it is my
considered opinion that the maximum savings to be gained from full-scale coordination
are only 10 percent of those obtainable from large-scale consolidation. This is to say
that coordination, maintaining the competitive traffic individuality of the present com-
panies, would produce economies of about $100 million a year. This figure could be
raised if there was something more than the ordinary coordination of existing facilities'.
If there was coordination of service through extensive pooling or of one railroad with-
drawing from competitive operations in one place or area in consideration of its rival
doing the same elsewhere, the savings through the joint use of property could be much
more. Perhaps this kind of coordination is out of the realm of the possible in more
than a few instances.
Each of you could undoubtedly list a large number of potential coordinations coming
within your direct knowledge. I could list them, too, but specific examples have no
place in this discussion. Their introduction would bring in an element of controversy
and would divert our attention from principles.
I would not minimize the obstacles to both consolidation or coordination. Each
of us can point to difficulties that have prevented the attainment of desirable coor-
dinations. Many of these obstacles continue to exist. However, the pressures are now
so great, and are so likely to be increased, that a new approach is called for. Both
the public and the politicians are more aware of railroad problems than ever before
and I detect a more sympathetic, if not a more understanding, approach. There should
be less public and political opposition than heretofore.
One of the beliefs that has prevented both coordination and consolidation is that
a maximum amount of railroad mileage had to be kept to serve each local community
by all existing routes, even by routes having the lightest traffic density. The emerging
pattern of highway development is changing this, and it is no longer necessary to
continue such a great mass of railroad mileage.
Another helpful development is that the diesel locomotive has greatly reduced
the number of points at which locomotive servicing and repairing take place. Car repair
points have also been concentrated. Improvements in signals and communications, and
the mechanization of accounting, have also brought about greater concentration of work.
AH of these developments, to name only a few, facilitate coordination.
The railroads are now being confronted, inexorably, with three choices: (1) reduc-
tion of the service, which means a partial liquidation of operations, (2) dismantling
of structures or deferring their maintenance, which means partial liquidation of the
property, or, and perhaps it is "and", (3) curtailment of earning power, with all its
concomitant effect, which amounts to fiscal liquidation. I would advise, if given the
choice, partial liquidation of the property, rather than risk the perils of service or fiscal
liquidation. Coordination offers the best opportunity for bringing about a partial
Address of John W . Barriger 1157
liquidation of property and facilities without impairment of service or of profits. Other-
wise, our railroads may suffer the ravages of all three forms of liquidation.
The vast rail network of America, especially in the more populous areas and
heavily industrialized districts, contains a pattern of trackage that is, on the whole,
excessive in relation to present needs. It contains much that is obsolete and inefficient.
Officers experienced in the operating and engineering departments can see many benefits
flowing from rearrangement of this pattern in a manner that will permit the abandon-
ment, or the shrinkage, of a considerable portion of it. The more intensive utilization
of the remainder would reduce expenses and improve the service.
The problem is not how to identify the projects, but how to accomplish the coor-
dination. Every joint facility arrangement on the railroads of the United States, and
they run into the tens of thousands, is covered by a written agreement that specifies
each party's rights, duties and privileges. These arrangements have been patiently nego-
tiated, frequently over long periods, and no doubt many of them accomplish what at
first seemed impossible. Having been employed by several different railroads, and by
railroads in different parts of the country, and by financial organizations having close
business relationships with many railroads, I am sometimes astonished at the suspicion
with which one railroad group will view another. Many a joint facility arrangement
has grown out of a catastrophe that has forced one line to use the facilities of another.
To the surprise of each company it has actually worked, and it has been made permanent
to the satisfaction of all concerned.
The great problem in working out a joint facility arrangement is how to assess
the benefits and divide the costs. Frequently there are situations that involve con-
petitive traffic, and there is a natural unwillingness on the part of one line to give up
an advantage to another. These can be easily visualized from your own experience.
I am not suggesting that these are not real problems. But did it ever occur to you
that maybe the other line would pay your price, or that you could make an offer
they could afford to accept? Have you ever asked for a joint study?
We must fortify ourselves against misgivings arising from unsuccessful efforts; we
must banish the ghosts of past failures that impede even trying; we must use new
resourcefulness and realize that times have changed and that the necessities are now
more compelling.
The civil engineering profession, so effectively embraced within AREA, represents
the men who have custody of the fixed property of our railroads. Their engineering
training should give them superior analytical ability and their positions should supply
them with knowledge of the opportunities. There is, therefore, no group of men within
the railroad industry that is better qualified to initiate more intensive utilization of
railroad property through increased use of joint facility arrangements.
Consolidation arrangements, or the initiation of consolidation studies, involve large
policy determinations, and few members of AREA carry responsibilities that would
permit them to propose such things, even if commended to their judgment. But coor-
dination through increased use of joint facilities is vastly different. There are many
small projects, and even some large ones, that you can initiate, and, if found worthy,
that you can recommend. I even venture to say that it is your duty to do so.
The longest journey begins with the first step. [Applause]
Chairman Milner: Thank you, Mr. Barriger, for these comprehensive and inspir-
ing remarks. This certainly is a fine beginning for our new assignment. I am sure your
remarks will stimulate an increased interest in such a important subject and the value
1158 Waterways and Harbors
of deriving the benefits of increased utilization of facilities which can be effected
through an extension of the joint use of them.
Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 16.
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Milner and members of your committee,
for your progressive thinking and continued progress on your committee assignments
during the past year. A knowledge of operating matters is of vital importance to
engineering officers, and I know that your committee of engineering officers, in turn,
can make a valuable contribution to the science of operation through your various
studies.
I also want to express to Mr. Barriger our thanks for his informative talk with
respect to the benefits to be derived from increased joint use of railway facilities.
Mr. Milner, your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
[Applause]
Discussion on Waterways and Harbors
[For report, see pp. 499-554]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: Will Committee 25 come to the platform, please.
We will hear now the report of our Committee 25 — Waterways and Harbors, of
which A. L. Sams, principal assistant engineer, Illinois Central Railroad, is chairman.
Chairman A. L. Sams [Illinois Central] : Mr. President, members and guests of
the Association: The report of Committee 25 will be found in Bulletin 535, beginning
at page 499. We are reporting on three of our seven assignments this year. Two are
progress reports and one is a final report. We invite comments and questions from the
floor as the reports are presented.
The first report is on Assignment 3 and will be presented by the subcommittee
chairman, Mr. G. W. Becker, special engineer — drainage, of the Rock Island Railroad.
Assignment 3 — Bibliography Relating to Benefits and Costs of Inland
Waterway Projects Involving Navigation.
G. W. Becker [Rock Island]: Mr. President, members and guests: In furtherance
of your committee's assignment, five additional items not previously reported to the
Association have been presented as information in this year's report.
Chairman Sams: Are there any questions on this report?
The next report is on Assignment 5, and will be presented by Mr. J. J. Tibbets,
assistant engineer, Erie Railroad, and chairman of this subcommittee.
Assignment 5 — Synopsis of That Portion of the Report by the Com-
mission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government
(Hoover Task Force Report) Pertaining to Water Resource Development.
J. J. Tibbits [Erie]: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members and guests: The
report on Assignment 5 appears in Bulletin 539, pages 500 to 518, incl.
The synopsis submitted covers Volume 1 of the "Report on Water Resources and
Power" which is, itself, a digest of the three volume report of the task force to the
Commission. The attention of members of AAR Committees on Waterway Projects is
invited to the latter publication as an invaluable reference in their studies of the estimated
costs and benefits of inland waterway improvements.
The Committee believes that the presentation of the synopsis is especially timely
in view of the possibility that some of the recommendations of the Hoover Commission
Discussion 1150
will be made the basis of legislation to be introduced in Congress in the not too distant
future.
As an example, the Department of Commerce, complying with the request of the
Bureau of the Budget, has undertaken a study of the question of the imposition of
charges for the use of navigation facilities provided by the Federal Government on
inland waterways in order to provide a basis for Congressional action with respect to
Recommendation No. 8 of the Hoover Commission Report on Water Resources and
Power.
This is a final report submitted as information.
Are there any questions from the floor?
Chairman Sams: Our last report is on Assignment 7 — Relative Merits and Eco-
nomics of Construction Materials Used in Waterfront Facilities. It will be presented by
the Subcommittee Chairman, Dr. Shu-t'ien Li, consulting engineer.
Assignment 7 — Relative Merits and Economics of Construction Mate-
rials Used in Waterfront Facilities.
Dr. Shu-t'ien Li: Mr. President, members and guests: Your committee submits its
first progress report on the 1957 Assignment 7 — Relative Merits and Economics of Con-
struction Materials Used in Waterfront Facilities, in 5 parts. Part 1 presents criteria
of relative merits of construction materials used in waterfront facilities on the basis of
inspection tests and service records, authored by your committee member, Mr. H. R.
Peterson, chief engineer, Northern Pacific; Part 2, criteria of comparative economics
on the basis of annual or capitalized cost methods, also authored by Mr. Peterson ;
Part 3, information gathered from various unpublished authentic sources pertaining to
service performance records on construction materials used completely or partially under
water surface in waterfront facilities in continental United States in order to facilitate
the application of the criteria of relative merits and of comparative economics, edited
by your subcommittee chairman; Part 4, the life of steel sheet piling and steel H-
section bearing piles, contributed by Mr. Fred B. White, engineer, Tennessee Coal and
Iron Division, United States Steel Corporation ; and Part 5, pressure-treated timber in
harbor structures, contributed by your associate, Mr. W. D. Keeney, district engineer
of Chicago, American Wood Preservers Institute.
You will notice in Part 3 that the collected information from unpublished sources
is divided into seven different geographical and climatic shore and coastal regions. To
bring this information to its maximum possible completeness for the benefit of all
American railroads, your committee is earnestly hoping that all engineering departments
of railroads having waterfront facilities will furnish their service performance records
on construction materials used therein. Your committee has several programs of research
and study on this particular assignment durinc the ensuing year and will report further
progress next year. The committee wishes to express its deep appreciation to Mr. Fred B.
White and Mr. W. D. Keeney for their valuable contributions. This completes your
committee's report which is submitted as information.
CHAIRMAN Sams: Mr. President, this concludes the report of our committee and
my term as its chairman. Before the committee leaves the rostrum, I want to introduce
the new chairman and vice chairman. The incoming chairman is Mr. F. B. Manning,
engineer, bridges and structures. Northern District, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway. The new
vice chairman is Mr. R. C. Postels, engineer maintenance of way, Minneapolis, St. Paul
& Sault Ste. Marie Railroad. I am sure they will have the cooperation of the members
of the committee and the officers of the Association just as I have had.
Thank you very much. [Applause]
1160 Highways
President McBrian: Thank you very much, Mr. Sams. Your committee has
presented two very interesting reports, both of which contain much valuable informa-
tion and material. I am sure those particularly interested in water resource development
and construction materials used in waterfront facilities will find both of these reports
well worth digesting and keeping at hand for reference.
We appreciate your direction of the work of Committee 25 for the past three years,
and welcome as your successor Mr. Manning and, as your new vice chairman, Mr.
Postels. We are sure they will carry forward the work of Committee 25 with distinction
to themselves and our Association.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association. [Applause]
Discussion on Highways
[For report, see pp. 401-406]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: The next and final Committee to be heard from today is
Committee 9 — Highways, of which C. I. Hartsell, division engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio
Railway, Saginaw, Mich., is chairman. Will Mr. Hartsell and the members of his com-
mittee please come to the platform and present their report.
Chairman C. I. Hartsell [C&O] : Mr. President, members of the Association,
ladies and guests: Committee 9's report for this year is published in Bulletin 539, pages
401 to 405 incl. We present two final reports, two progress reports and a special feature
in the form of a talk by the director of engineering research, Association of American
Railroads. We invite your questions and comments on the completion of each subcom-
mittee chairman's report on his assignment.
Subcommittee Chairman R. E. Nottingham, division engineer, Louisville & Nashville
Railroad, will present the progress report on Assignment 2.
Assignment 2 — Merits and Economics of Prefabricated Types of High-
way— Railway Grade Crossings.
R. E. Nottingham [L&N] : Your committee submits a report of progress in the
gathering of information on the original cost, maintenance expenses and service life of
various types of prefabricated materials for highway — railway grade crossings.
The report gives some additional information gathered by the committee on rubber
pad, metal open grating, timber panel and concrete slab installations now under traffic
test.
We do not consider that the information obtained so far warrants definite recom-
mendations. We offer the report as information. Your committee desires to continue this
assignment for further study and recommends the subjects be continued. Is there any
discussion ?
Subcommittee Chairman E. R. Englert, assistant division engineer, Louisville &
Nashville Railroad, will now present the report on Assignment 5.
Assignment 5 — Possible Changes in Existing Protection at Grade Cross-
ings Where Railroads Have Changed from Multiple-Track to Single-Track
Operation.
E. R. Englert [L&N]: Gentlemen: Committee 9 undertook this assignment because
when certain railroads had reduced multiple-track highway grade crossings to single-
track crossings, some public bodies had required retention of the same protection for
Discussion 1161
the single-track highway grade crossing as previously existed. The committee desired
to develop what changes in crossing protection would be actually justified.
In almost every instance one or more signals should be relocated to comply with
Manual recommendations for distance from the remaining track.
Where gates were in use on multiple tracks, they should be removed when the
number of tracks is reduced to a single track in order to reduce property investment,
reduce maintenance expense and to release material for use elsewhere.
The table on page 9-3-1 of the Manual lists crossing situations with recommended
protection, and we recommend the addition of the following footnote to that table:
"Where a multiple-track crossing is reduced to a single-track crossing, the signal shall,
when practicable, be converted to one of the types recommended for single-track
crossings."
I move that the footnote be added to page 9-3-1 and that the assignment be
terminated.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Englert: Mr. J. S. Felton, division engineer, Norfolk & Western, will make
his report on Assignment 7.
Assignment 7 — Sight Distances at Highway-Railway Grade Crossings.
J. S. Felton [N&W] : At the 1955 annual meeting your committee reported progress
on this subject and submitted sketches and tables which gave values for the area of
unobstructed vision at highway-railway grade crossings not protected by manual or
automatic protection. Further study of the subject convinced your committee that
although certain values could be determined theoretically, there was no assurance that
normal driver reaction could be predicted.
In addition to the human element, there are many variables which make it next
to impossible to determine with any degree of accuracy the sight distances that might
be considered adequate at highway-railway grade crossings. Various national and state
organizations dealing with safety have been contacted, but the committee does not feel
that the information received is of sufficient value to produce a solution to the problem.
The committee recommends that the subject be discontinued.
Mr. D. W. Hughes, signal engineer, Michigan Public Service Commission, will
present the report on Assignment 8.
Assignment 8 — Recommended Protection at Highway-Railway Grade
Crossings Where One-Way Traffic on the Highway Crosses One or More
Tracks on the Railway.
D. W. Hughes: Mr. President, distinguished guests, members and ladies: Through
a recent joint meeting, this subcommittee and Subcommittee "A" of AAR Signal Section
Committee VIII— Highway (irade Crossing Protection, drew up a series of crossing
situation plans showing the type of signal aspects to be employed where one-way or
divided highway construction crosses one or more tracks.
The two subcommittees agree, in the main, on the manner of presenting and
illustrating their recommended practice in the matter.
It is anticipated that all final preparations will be completed and the subject offered
to the 1959 Annual Meeting for your acceptance and inclusion in the Manual of the
plans and text.
This is a progress report.
Chairman Hartsell: Mr. President, Committee 9 for several years has been work-
ing on Assignment 3— Merits of Various Types of Highway-Railway Grade Crossing
1162 Highways
Protection. Some years ago Wm. J. Hedley reported to the convention the results of
his study of accidents on the Wabash Railroad. To supplement Mr. Hedley's findings,
a research project has been carried on by the Association of American Railroads Research
Center with the cooperation of the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad, represented
by Mr. M. H. Corbyn. The results of the project as of today will be presented by the
most able director of engineering research, AAR, Mr. G. M. Magee.
Computer Determination of Risk Factors for Different Types
of Grade Crossing Protection
By G. M. Magee
Director of Engineering Research, AAR
This research project has been conducted by the AAR Research Center staff for the
Highways committee and has as its objective the evaluation of different types of grade
crossing protection with respect to the characteristics of the grade crossing, the highway
traffic and the railway traffic. The committee suggested that we start with the crossings
on the Rock Island Railroad, collaborating with M. H. Corbyn, engineer of public works
on that road, in an analysis of crossings on that railroad. There were three reasons for
this suggestion. One was that Mr. Corbyn had been keeping an index of accidents at
grade crossings which would greatly simplify obtaining the accident data. Another was
that he was located in Chicago, making it convenient for conferences with our staff.
The third was that he had been a member of the committee for several years and was
thoroughly familiar with its objectives.
After several conferences with Mr. Corbyn it was decided to study the crossings
of that railroad in the state of Iowa. It was considered that the crossings in this state
would include a suitable variation in weather conditions, all types of grade crossing
protection, and a considerable variation in rail traffic density and highway traffic density.
Also, the number of crossings, 2291, seemed adequate to produce sufficient data for
analysis and yet the work required was within the possibilities of the approved budget
request.
In collaboration with Mr. Corbyn, two data-recording forms were prepared. One
was a highway grade crossing data form. It was designed so it would be practical to
have a survey made of each crossing to be analyzed, and an observer could quickly
note the essential features regarding the characteristics of the crossing, highway traffic,
rail traffic and crossing protection. This data sheet showed the location of the crossing
with respect to the nearest town and mile post location. The characteristics of the cross-
ing were recorded by noting the number of tracks, the number of lanes of highway
traffic, kind of roadway surface, alinement of highway, alinement of railway, grade
of highway, and visibility from highway. With reference to the characteristics of highway
traffic, the speed was recorded in three categories: fast, medium, or slow, and the volume
under five categories following the AASHO classifications of very light, light, moderate,
heavy and very heavy. For the characteristics of rail traffic, the speed was recorded in
three classifications as fast, medium or slow, and the volume to show the number of
trains daily. Finally, the type of crossing protection provided was also recorded.
The other recording sheet was the grade crossing accident record for the period
January 1, 1941, to December 31, 1956, for which period Mr. Corbyn had the accidents
classified and readily available. This form also showed the location of the crossing and
the type of protection from the records, together with the date of any change in pro-
Address of G. M. Magee 1163
tection during the period of analysis. In addition, for each crossing the date of accident.
number injured, number killed and relevant remarks were included. W. B. Throck-
morton, chief engineer of the Rock Island, very kindly agreed to assign one of his staff,
W. H. Hillis, Jr., to make a field survey and obtain the crossing data, and another
of his staff, J. M. Scaholm, to compile from the railroad records the data with respect
to grade crossing accidents for each crossing. A contract was made with the Rock Island
to reimburse the railroad for the cost of this work. The analysis of the record data was
started early last year, the highway survey being delayed until weather was suitable.
The work was progressed very expeditiously and by early fall the data were ready for
analysis.
It was decided to make a contract with Armour Research Foundation for the
analysis of the data because it has an IBM 650 computer available, a well-trained
and experienced staff to handle the analysis, and its proximity expedited any necessary
conferences during the course of the work. ARF began work on the analysis in August,
and the work was completed and final report submitted last week. It does not seem
to me that it would be appropriate for me to attempt to discuss the specific results
and conclusions contained in this report here today. I feel the report should first be
thoroughly reviewed by the committee. Also, it would be very difficult to do it justice
in the time available. However, it may be of interest to you to know the general pro-
cedure and steps followed in carrying out the analysis and some of the general conclu-
sions that were rather definitely indicated.
The first step in the analysis by ARF was to keypunch on one card for use in the
IBM computer all of the data shown on the highway grade crossing data form and the
grade crossing accident record form for each individual crossing of the 2291 included
in the survey. There were 91 crossings for which the protection had been changed dur-
ing the study period, and the cards for these 91 crossings were separated and grouped
for individual analysis. The remaining 2200 cards were then processed in the computer
in four steps. First, general summaries were prepared showing the distribution of the
various crossing characteristics. For example, the general summary showing the distribu-
tion of number of highway lanes at 2200 crossings showed they were practically all two
highway lane crossings. These general summaries aided in simplifying the analysis, obtain-
ing a true perspective of the data, and determining in the next step the statistical rela-
tionship between the number of accidents and crossing characteristics. An operations
research procedure known as Chi-square test of independence was utilized to determine
the significance of the various crossing characteristics with respect to accident rate. It
was decided that the following crossing characteristics were significant: (1) type of
protection, (2) volume of highway traffic, (3) number of tracks, and (4) the degree
of visibility. The remaining characteristics were excluded from the analysis for two
reasons. The type of highway surface and the speed of highway traffic, though well
correlated with the number of accidents, are also relatively well correlated with the
volume of highway traffic, hence their inclusion in the analysis would be redundant.
On the other hand, the grade of highways, the speed of rail traffic, and the volume >
of rail traffic have relatively weak correlations with the number of accidents and hence
they too were excluded.
The next step was the calculation of risk factors for the various crossing character-
istics. The risk factor for a given crossing was considered as the expected accident rate
at the crossing over a period of 16 years. It was derived by utilizing another operations
research procedure known as the method of regression analysis. The problem was to
determine the probable values of accident rates from crossing characteristics, whu h
required fitting a surface to the data obtained in the survey. It was desirable to choose
1164 Highways
the surface which on an average would give the best prediction for all the points. This
was done by utilizing the method of least squares. To obtain a meaningful picture of
accident rate as related type of protection, to highway traffic volume, to number of
tracks, and to visibility, a three-dimensional model was constructed from observational
data. Ninety-five percent confidence limits were calculated for each accident rate on the
assumption that the number of accidents follows the law of small numbers (the number
of occurrences of an event which has many opportunities to occur but which is ex-
tremely unlikely to occur at any given opportunity). These confidence limits are such
that the probability is 95 percent that the true accident rate is included within them.
The next step was the development of the prediction equation which was accomplished
by using the IBM computer.
From this prediction equation it is possible to predict the risk factor for any given
crossing characteristics. The results given for this formula, however, are most significant
for the crossbuck type of protection for which an adequate number of crossings were
included in the analysis to give a dependable evaluation of the influence of the number
of tracks, visibility, and highway traffic volume. By making a special study of the acci-
dent rate before and after improved type of protection was installed at 91 crossings,
it was possible by statistical analysis to arrive at some significant risk factors for the
relative benefit of some types of improved protection related to the crossbuck.
In addition to the specific data that have been obtained in this analysis, I think
the study has definitely shown the possibilities of arriving at significant risk factors by
computer analysis. It has also shown that in further studies, special efforts must be
made to obtain more data on crossings with improved types of protection. Also, in fur-
ther studies special efforts should be made to secure data at crossings having heavy
and very heavy traffic density, as very few of the crossings included in this analysis had
heavy highway traffic density and none had very heavy traffic density. Because of the
important effect of the highway traffic volume on the risk factor, it would be very
helpful to have more exact data on its amount at each crossing. I presume the results
of this study will be included in the next Highways committee report, and I am sure
those of you who are concerned with this subject will be interested in the results.
[Applause]
Chairman Hartsell: Thank you, Mr. Magee.
Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 9.
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Hartsell, for these further reports to the
Association on this important matter of grade crossings and grade crossing protection.
We of this Association have a vital interest in these matters and, in conjunction with the
Signal Section, AAR, should come up with thoroughly practical answers to the various
problems involved, which will be acceptable both to public regulatory bodies and the
railroads.
Thank you too, Mr. Magee, for your interesting comments on at least one of
many effective uses which the railroads may find for digital computors in speeding up
their work and arriving at reliable conclusions.
Mr. Hartsell, your committee is excused with the thanks of the Association.
Before adjourning this meeting for today, I want to announce that Mr. J. E.
Wiggins, Jr., engineer water supply, Southern Railway System, has been appointed by
your president as chairman of the Tellers Committee, to canvass the ballots cast for
the officers of the Association for the ensuing year. The ballots will be counted in the
Discussion 1165
Gold Room on the first floor tomorrow morning beginning at 8 am, looking to announc-
ing the names of the successful candidates at the annual luncheon tomorrow noon.
I know many of you would like to know the attendance figures. The attendance
figures given to me, including today, are as follows:
Railroad people: 1047. Supply men: 704. Total: 1751.
The meeting is now adjourned, to reconvene tomorrow morning at ° am in the
George Bernard Shaw Room, which is one floor below the level of the lobby, near the
Randolph Street entrance of the hotel.
[The meeting adjourned at 5:25 pm]
Morning Session — March 12, 1958
[The meeting reconvened at 9 am, President McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: The meeting will please come to order. It is important that
we begin on time. There will be seven reports heard this morning, then the luncheon,
and six more reports this afternoon.
The registration as of yesterday afternoon, given to us at the close of the session,
is as follows: Railroad people, 1047, supply people, 704, total, 1751.
Discussion on Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
[For report, see pp. 407-428]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: The first report this morning is that of Committee 13 — Water,
Oil and Sanitation Services, of which Mr. H. M. Schudlich, engineer of water service,
Northern Pacific, is chairman. I hope all members of the committee are here and will
come to the platform.
The privilege of the floor is extended to all members and guests, and I hope you
will avail yourselves of the opportunity should you desire to comment or raise ques-
tions concerning any reports. If you do, please go to the nearest microphone.
Mr. Schudlich, will you please take over and present your committee report.
Chairman H. M. Schudlich [Northern Pacific] : Thank you, Mr. President. Presi-
dent McBrian, members of the Association, and guests: During 1957, Committee 13
held four meetings, one of which was organizational and at which the detailed plans
for the year were discussed. At the other meetings the various subcommittee chairmen
reported their progress in the development of their assignments, and received suggestions
and criticisms from the committee membership.
Each of the assignments has been handled very capably, and those of you who
have Bulletin 539 with you will find the report of Committee 13 on pages 407 to 428
incl. The presentation of these reports will be brief summaries, but those who are inter-
ested in more detail will find the complete report in Bulletin 53Q. I am inviting per-
tinent comments from the audience, and the subcommittee chairman will answer any
questions you may care to ask.
Our first report is on Assignment 1, to be presented by the vice chairman of
Committee 13, Mr. D. C. Teal, superintendent water supply — system, Chesapeake &
Ohio.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
D. C. Teai. [C&O]: Mr. President, gentlemen of the Association: The railroads
started using welded steel water and oil storage tanks in the late 1930's, about the time
many roads were becoming dieselized. The welded joints provide much tighter and more
1166 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
leakproof tanks than was possible to obtain with the old riveted-joint type construction,
which is an improvement especially important in the storage of diesel fuel oil.
The present Manual specifications for welded steel water and oil storage tanks
were adopted in 1944 and were intended to serve as a guide for handling the erection
of steel tanks by contract. Realizing that improved methods and techniques have made
these specifications inadequate and incomplete, your committee has during the past two
years reviewed all pertinant information available, including current specifications of
the American Welding Society, the American Water Works Association, and others, and
has prepared new specifications, incorporating what we believe to be all desirable
features.
These revised specifications for welded steel tanks were presented to the Association
last year as information. Further changes have been made during the past year, so many
in fact that it was thought advisable to republish the specifications in their entirety.
The revised specifications appear in Bulletin 539 on pages 408 to 419, incl.
It is necessary at this time to call attention to three typographical errors in this
published report. On page 409, under Definitions, the seventh line now reads "Pur-
chaser shall mean the person, company or organization which purposes the tank." The
corrected sentence will read "Purchaser shall mean the person, company, or organization
which purchases the tank."
At the approximate middle of page 411 there is an explanation of the symbols
used in certain design formulas, the fourth one now reading: "r=:the latest radius of
gyration in inches." This should read: "r = the least radius of gyration in inches."
On page 414, under Art. 3 — Flat Tank Bottoms Resting Directly on Grade or Foun-
dations, and immediately following the italicized heading "Butt Joint Construction",
the sentence now reads "Joints shall be single welded from top side with complete pene-
tration, using backing strip % in thick or heavier tack welded to the inner side of the
plate." The end of this sentence should read: "tack welded to the under side of the
plate."
Mr. President, I move that the revised Specifications for Welded Steel Tanks for
Water and Oil Storage as now shown in Bulletin 539 on pages 408 to 419, with typo-
graphical errors corrected, be published in the Manual, replacing the present specifications
covering welded steel water and oil tanks, appearing on pages 13-3-17 to 13-3-21, incl.,
of the Manual.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Teal: This concludes the report of the Subcommittee on Revision of the
Manual. The report on Assignment 3, on page 420 of Bulletin 539, I will give in place
of the subcommittee chairman, J. M. Bates, assistant to chief engineer, Union Pacific,
who could not be here.
Assignment J — Federal and State Regulations Pertaining to Railway
Sanitation, Collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
Mr. Teal: This report consists of an explanation of the relationship between the
Public Health Service and the railroads. I won't try to excerpt or review any of it
because it is offered as information only.
I will now present Mr. C. E. DeGeer, assistant engineer water service and fuel
facilities, Great Northern, who will present the report on Assignment 4.
Assignment 4 — Cathodic Protection of Pipe Lines and Steel Storage
Tanks, Collaborating with Electrical Section, AAR.
C. E. DeGeer [GN]: Mr. President, members and guests: I am presenting the
Discussion 1167
report on Assignment 4 for Subcommittee Chairman W. F. Arksey, engineer water
service and fuel facilities, Great Northern, who could not be here.
This is the second half of the report on this subject and was to have been com-
pleted this year; however, we were unable to develop the information to our satisfaction
in time for this year's report and ask that the subject be continued until next year.
Several classes were attended which gave instruction in the use of various test
equipment for determining soil characteristics. The work to be complete includes the
development of simplified equations for converting test data into design principles for
protective systems.
The next report is on Assignment 5, and I would like to introduce Subcommittee-
Chairman R. A. Bardwell, engineer of tests, Chicago & Eastern Illinois.
Assignment 5 — Fuel Oil Additives and Equipment for Application.
R. A. Bardwell [C&EI] : The report this year enumerates further developments
in fuel additives, tests for fuel stability, and methods of application of additives by
railroads. The use of corrective stability additive, at a cost of % mil per gal of fuel,
was paid for by reduction of diesel injector repairs alone, in one case. Pour-point-
depressant use on several roads affords a considerable fuel price savings by permitting
the purchase and blending of high-pour-point fuels. Future use of residual blends for
railroad diesels may result in valve guttering and improper combustion, which can also
be corrected by the use of additives.
Assignment 6 will be presented by Subcommittee Chairman T. A. Tennyson, engi-
neer tests and sanitation, St. Louis Southwestern.
Assignment 6 — Railway Waste Disposal, Collaborating with Joint Com-
mittee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
T. A. Tennyson [St. Louis Southwestern]: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman and
gentlemen: Your subcommittee has continued to search for information on basic changes
in waste disposal regulations. Although such changes have not been found, there is a
tendency over the country toward more uniform water pollution laws. Also, the matter
of separation of oil from waste water where emulsions are involved has been under
study. The subcommittee will delay a report on this subject until further data on several
plants now in operation can be gathered.
This is presented as information, Mr. President.
Subcommittee Chairman H. E. Graham, superintendent water service, Illinois Central.
will now present the report on Assignment 8.
Assignment 8 — Acid Cleaning of Heat Exchanger Coils and Boilers.
H. E. Graham [Illinois Central]: Mr. President, members and guests: This report
covers the various procedures and materials used for the acid cleaning of Hash or con-
trolled recirculation type boilers and their appurtenances.
The subcommittee stressed that controlling the quality of the feedwater, so as to
reduce the scale and other deposits to a minimum, is the most effective means of keeping
steam generators clean and operating efficiently.
A study was made to determine the proper cleaning procedure for the different
kinds of acids, and the advantages and disadvantages ol each add were evaluated.
This report is presented as information
Mr. R. S. Glynn, director, Sanitation Research and Development, VAR, will now
present the report on Assignment 9.
1168 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
Assignment 9 — Disinfectants, Deodorants, Fumigants and Cleaning Ma-
terials, Collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
R. S. Glynn [AAR]: Mr. President and members: The part of this assignment
pertaining to cleaning materials was reported at the Annual Meeting last year. The
information necessary to handle the section on disinfectants has now been assembled
and will be submitted to the committee for approval as soon as a canvass of the industry
is made to determine present practices and current needs regarding disinfectants.
Mr. C. E. DeGeer, assistant engineer water service and fuel facilities, Great Northern,
chairman of Subcommittee 11, will now report on Assignment 11.
Assignment 11 — Methods of Heating Fuel Oil to Permit Wintertime
Use of High-Pour-Point "Economy" Grade Fuel Oils.
C. E. DeGeer [GN] : Mr. President, members and guests: Your committee under
this new assignment is now in the process of collecting data from various test installa-
tions to determine costs of heating, cost of installations, and the effects of heating on
fuel oil. The main test installation was completed only this February, and though it has
given us valuable data already, it is felt that the collection and analysis of these data
should be continued for another year.
Assignment 10 — Detection and Disposal of Radioactive Materials in Air,
Oil and Water Filters on Diesel Locomotives and Other Equipment.
Chairman Schudlich: Subcommittee Chairman Robin Bardwell will now present
the report on Assignment 10, after which he will present Committee 13's special feature.
Mr. Bardwell is nuclear engineer for the Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad and
is on Mr. McBrian's staff. He is without doubt the best qualified man in the Associa-
tion to speak on this subject — with the exception, of course, of our honorable president,
Mr. McBrian.
Mr. Bardwell comes from a family of engineers, all being very interested in the
Association's activities. His education terminated with postgraduate work in nucleonics
at the University of California.
I would now like to introduce Mr. Bardwell, who will report for Subcommittee 10
and then will speak on the subject, "Radioactivity and Railroads." Mr. Bardwell.
R. O. Bardwell [D&RGW]: Mr. President, I think practically all of the subcom-
mittee's report will be contained in the little "thank you" that I wish to give.
Radioactivity and Railroads
By R. O. Bardwell
Nuclear Engineer, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad
More than 60 years ago natural radioactivity was discovered by the Curies in
France. This year it has been estimated that American Industry will save 300 million
dollars through the use of radioactivity and radioisotopes. Radioactivity, as an indus-
trial tool, has come of age. Its situation could be likened to that of the science of elec-
tricity at the turn of the century. Its fundamental properties have been well investi-
gated. It is beginning to show the multitude of practical and profitable uses to which it
can be put.
In the science of measurement, the use of radioisotopes has proved particularly
fruitful. In steel rolling mills, paper mills, in fact, in practically any continuous rolling
process the radiation from a radioisotope can be used to measure and control the thick-
ness of the product. A similar application is that of the measurement and control of the
Address of R. Q. Bardwell 1169
density of tobacco in automatic cigarette making machines. Other typical applications
in this field include the measurement of liquid level; snow depth and water content;
density of liquids, solids and gases; and the volume of irregularly shaped or inaccessible
containers.
In the fields of chemistry, metallurgy and biology, radioisotopes have been used
as a tracer. That is, a tag which allows researchers to follow a particular element
through a reaction. Industrial applications of this technique include the tracing of
underground water flow and the detection of leaks in underground piping systems.
Radioisotopes can also be used as a direct source of power; atomic batteries and
lights come into this classification. Consideration has been given to the use of radio-
isotopes to supply the heat for small power plants. While expensive, this may have
application in remote areas.
The radiation from radioisotopes has been used to promote chemical reactions. High-
melting-point polyethylene plastic is manufactured in this way.
In the Rio Grande laboratory we have been actively pursuing profitable uses of
radioactivity. In the field of measurement we use cobalt-60 as a source of radiation for
radiography. Using this source, we can X-ray rail welds and track structures in the
field. We are also developing a method of measuring tie density with the hope that tie
inspection may be carried out with more speed and precision.
In the field of tracers we have made a number of interesting and profitable inves-
tigations. Slide 1 shows the percentage of sulfur entering diesel engine lube oil as a
function of sulfur content and treatment of the fuel oil. This result was obtained from
a test engine using fuel to which radioactive sulfur had been added.
In Slide 2 is seen a diesel engine subassembly including a radioactive wrist pin.
The subassembly was used in a test engine to determine the effectiveness of various
filters for inhibiting wear. Engine wear was measured by determining the rate of radio-
active build up in the engine lube oil.
In Slide 3 we see what appears to be a typical broken journal. Actually it is i small
steel rod which was broken by cyclic stress while in contact with molten zinc. This
type of failure led us to an investigation to find which of the elements in journal brass
alloy is most active in causing penetration failure during the occurence of a hot box.
By contacting samples of stressed steel with molten pools of the various elements in
their radioactive forms, we were able to obtain the "fingerprints" shown in Slides 4
and 5. These are photographic impressions of the radioactive material inside the steel
samples. The first shows the outline of zinc penetration; the second, antimony. We
hope that this investigation will lead us to a new formulation of journal brass alloy
which will not cause penetration failure in hot boxes.
In the field of utilizing the energy of radioisotopes directly we have the atomic
>witch lamp. This is a light source consisting of a hollow glass vessel containing radio-
active krypton gas. The inside of the glass is coated with a phosphor not unlike that
in a television picture tube. The atomic radiation from the krypton is converted into
light by the phosphor. The cost of the radioactive krypton in the light is but a few
dollars and it will 'burn" for years. The widespread use of such devices i- this is not
far off. [Mr. Bardwell then exhibited a glowing atomic switch-lamp lens].
Concerning the effects of radiation on matter, there are many interesting possibil-
ities. The irradiation of ties which have been chemically pretreated offers the possibility
of harder, longer-lived material.
The radiation treatment of coal to permit its use as a diesel fuel i^ i program o!
great interest to us. Slide 6 shows two micrographs — the first being normal powdered
1170
Water, Oil a nd Sanitation Services
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Slide 1
Slide 2
Address of R. O. B a r d w e 1 1
1171
Slide 3
X
Slide 4
1172
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
Slide 5
Slide 6
Address of R. O. Bardwell
1173
Slide 7
coal; the second, powdered coal after being irradiated. Slide 7 shows a vial of regular
fuel oil and a vial which contains the hyperfine coal suspension. If the amount of
suspended coal can be brought to 30 or 40 percent, a sizeable saving in fuel costs will
result.
An application of nuclear radiation of immediate interest to railroads is that of
radiation food processing. Waiting only for the approval of the Federal Pure Food and
Drug Administration is the radiation treatment of potatoes and onions to inhibit sprout-
ing, and the use of radiation to deinfestate grain. The radiation sterilization of food is
perhaps a few years further off as far as the general public is concerned. We have inves-
tigated the keeping properties of irradiated peaches. The possibility of using radiation
to deinfestate grain cars is also being investigated.
I have given you a few of the many possible uses to which this new tool can be
put. The technology of radioactivity and radioisotopes is no longer the private propertv
of nuclear scientists. A person with technical training can acquire a working knowledge
of the subject with a few weeks of training at one of our national laboratories or
major universities. There is no monopoly on the production of profitable ideas in this
field. Any of you, with your wealth of personal experience and knowledge of railroading,
can get into the game. [Applause]
Chairman Sciiudlicii: After Mr. Bardwell's very fine talk, I am sure there must lie
some questions from the audience, and I am sure he will be able to answer them.
1174
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
G. W. Miller [Canadian Pacific] : Is there any possibility of patent rights inter-
fering with the development of ideas such as you have given us, especially the atomic
switch lamp? As other devices come into the picture, are we going to be faced with
patents that will interfere with the free use of this type of thing?
Mr. Bardwell: This certainly may arise unless we think of the ideas first. One
hopeful thing in the patent picture is that a great many of the basic patents for the
use of radioisotopes for measuring and as tracers were patented in 1940, and have since
run out.
Mr. Miller: Has the government taken any interest to prevent restriction of the
use of this type of switch lamp in making it easier to manufacture without patent
troubles?
Mr. Bardwell: I don't have a specific answer to that. The government's interest
in patents in this field has been very great because of the tremendous amount of work
done under government auspices. It has made a considerable effort to release all the
patents acquired, particularly those resulting from military work.
President McBrian: Mr. Miller, may I answer your question partly? The basic
patent on the use of the isotope, as Robin said, may have been issued in 1940, but
the individual applications, such as mechanical design, is going to be up to the
individual.
For example, we are developing an entirely new switch lens, and as far as our
railroad is concerned it may be patentable. On the other hand, we have had manufac-
turers come to us with glowing tapes, instead of what Mr. Bardwell showed you. Cer-
tainly the tapes will be patented as far as their application is concerned, but not as far
as the principal use of the isotope is concerned.
Mr. Bardwell: Actually, the use of radioactive material as a light source was first
patented in 1905 for watch dials, and so on, so the fundamental principle is certainly
free for anyone's use.
Chairman Schudlich: Are those patents very far-reaching? Are they all-
inclusive ?
President McBrian: For example, Atlantic Refining Company — and the Texas
Company, too — before we ever started in the program of atomic energy, took out
basic patents on the use of isotopes. They were basic patents. The Atlantic Refining
Company and others have been permitting everybody, on application, to use them
without cost. They covered them as chemical processes long before we ever thought
about atomic energy.
B. R. Meyers [Chicago & North Western] : You said they might be available soon.
Can you be more specific about when "soon" will be?
Mr. Bardwell: I believe the New York Central Railroad now has in use SO of
these lights, of a somewhat more advanced design. They are available today. I should
have said they certainly will become less expensive as time goes on.
Chairman Schudlich: What is the cost now of a light like that?
Mr. Bardwell: I really can't give you the latest cost.
President McBrian: Let me answer that. Based on their having a half-life of ten
years, our management told us we could spend from $75 to $100 for such a lamp and
realize savings. That is what we are aiming for, namely, to have the complete cost of
the lamp be around $75, or less than $100, and that is what we have told the manu-
facturers.
Mr. Bardwell: As far as the material contained in the lamp is concerned, including
the radioisotope and all the raw materials, it doesn't cost over $15.
Discussion 1175
Chairman Schudlicii: Are there any other questions from the floor? If there are
no more questions, Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 13. I wish
to thank all of the subcommittee chairmen and members for their cooperation and
very able assistance during the past year.
I hope that our report next year will cover all of our assignments.
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Schudlich. You have taken over and aggres-
sively carried forward the work of Committee 13 during your first year as chairman.
This is evidenced by the many interesting reports which your committee has presented
here this morning.
It is true that with the passing of the steam locomotive your committee lost a
field for many assignments, but it is evident that with the advent of the diesel locomo-
tive, and now the atomic age, there is no dearth of new subjects for study by your
committee. The subject of Mr. Bardwell's address is an indication of at least one new
field of activity for your committee which I am sure you will not overlook.
With our appreciation, your committee is now excused with the thanks of the
Association.
Discussion on Cooperative Relations with Universities
[For report, see pp. 691-698]
[President McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: The second committee to make a report this morning is our
Committee 24 — Cooperative Relations with Universities, the chairman of which is Mr.
VV. H. Huffman, assistant chief engineer, Chicago & North Western Railway. Will Mr.
Huffman and the members of his Committee please come to the speakers' table and
make their report.
This committee, with 13 professorial members on its roster, provides one of the
more important contacts which our Association has with the colleges and universities
of the country, especially from the standpoint of interesting technical graduates in rail-
roading as a career, on the one hand, and in stimulating greater appreciation on the
part of railway managements to the importance of recruiting selected graduates from
the schools in order to form a future source of supply of supervisory and managerial
talent.
Mr. Huffman, will you proceed, please.
Chairman W. H. Huffman [C&NW] : Mr. President, members and guests:
The report of Committee 24 this morning will consist of short committee reports and
a brief illustrated presentation. This Committee is unique in that it does not have
Manual material — but that doesn't mean we do not have interesting and challenging
assignments.
Before proceeding with the presentation of our reports, Committee 24 wishes to
express its sorrow at the passing of two valued members during the past year.
Charles G. Grove passed away on November 18, 1957. His entire career was spent
with the Pennsylvania Railroad. He joined the AREA in 102<J. He was chairman of
Committee 24 from 1951 to 1954 and was president of this Association. 1953 1954. [See
Memoir section of these Proceedings for Mr. Grove's Memoir].
Ovid W. Eshbach passed away just one week ago yesterday, March 4. He joined
the faculty at Northwestern University shortly before the Technological Institute opened
in 1939, and served as dean until 1953, when he resigned to devote full time to teaching.
He again took over the duties of dean for two years in 1955, and was currently the
1176 Cooperative Relations with Universities
Walter P. Murphy Professor of Science Engineering at the Institute. He joined the
Association in 1941, and was a member of Committee 24 since that date.
The members of this committee sincerely regret the untimely passing of these two
illustrious men, and will miss their pleasant and friendly association with them.
The Committee reports for this year can be found in Bulletin 541, commencing
on page 691.
At this time I would like to call on Mr. S. R. Hursh, assistant vice president of the
Pennsylvania Railroad, who will give the report on Assignment 1 for Mr. J. F. Davison,
assistant to the chief engineer, Canadian National Railways, who is unable to be
present. Mr. Hursh.
Assignment 1 — Stimulate Greater Appreciation on the Part of Railway
Managements of (a) the Importance of Bringing into the Service Selected
Graduates of Colleges and Universities, and (b) the Necessity for Pro-
viding Adequate Means for Recruiting Such Graduates and of Retaining
Them in the Service by Establishing Suitable Programs for Training and
Advancement.
S. R. Hursh [Pennsylvania] : Mr. President, members of the Association and
guests: As indicated in its report, the efforts of this subcommittee are being directed
towards the development of a guide to assist railroads in recruiting engineering per-
sonnel from universities. Although Assignment 1 (b) is expressed in fairly general terms,
it was considered desirable to regard the preparation of this guide as a separate assign-
ment, with the result that it now appears as Assignment 1 (c) in the committee assign-
ments for 1958. Definite progress is being made and it is anticipated a report will be
made within the next few months which, it is hoped, will be helpful to individual rail-
roads in this phase of the engineering recruitment problem.
I would now like to introduce Professor B. B. Lewis of Purdue University, chair-
man of Subcommittee 2.
Assignment 2 — Stimulate Among College and University Students a
Greater Interest in the Science of Transportation and Its Importance in the
National Economic Structure by Cooperating with and Contributing to the
Activities of Student Organizations in Colleges and Universities.
Prof. B. B. Lewis [Purdue]: This is a progress report, submitted as information
in two parts.
Part 1 presents suggested ways to stimulate interest of students in the railway
industry, such as:
1. Talks by men from railroads.
2. Movies.
3. Up-to-date interesting literature and pictures.
4. Publicity of any research which may be in progress for railways. This is par-
ticularly effective if research is being carried on at the student's own school.
5. More railway research projects at universities.
Part 2 covers reports from members of the committee advising of their activities
during the current year in connection with the objectives of the subcommittee.
I would now like to call upon Prof. E. I. Fiesenheiser, Illinois Institute of Tech-
nology, who will report on Assignment 3.
Discussion 1177
Assignment 3 — The Cooperative System of Education, Including Sum-
mer Employment in Railway Service.
Prof. E. I. Fiesexheiser: Mr. President and gentlemen: The assignment of Sub-
committee 3 has to do with the cooperative system of education, including summer
employment in railway service. This brief report is presented as information.
This subcommittee is to process information surveys to determine the number of
universities and railroads that will support cooperative work-study programs and the
extent of this support. Information also is to be gathered concerning specific oppor-
tunities for summer railroad work experience, as well as information regarding students
interested in and available for this type of work. It is planned to make this information
available later to all universities and railroads that are interested. In this way the sub-
committee can assist in making the necessary contacts between interested students and
prospective employers.
I would now like to call upon Mr. A. V. Johnston, chief engineer of the Canadian
National Railways, who will give the report on Assignment 4 in place of the subcom-
mittee chairman. Mr. D. W. Tilman, principal assistant engineer, Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad, who is unable to be present today.
Assignment 4 — The Role of Engineering Technicians in the Railroad
Field.
A. Y. Johxstox [CNR]: An engineering technician is a young man who has com-
pleted two full years of post-high-school training which is intensive and highly prac-
tical in basic engineering. Even under present conditions, all of us should not overlook
the opportunity to make use of these engineering technicians. They can satisfactorily
perform some of the work now done by college graduates, thereby permitting more
efficient use of the engineering talent we have.
I would now like to introduce Mr. H. E. Kirby, cost engineer system. Chesapeake &
Ohio Railway, who will give a progress report covering revision of the Brochure "The
Railroad Field — a Challenge and Opportunity."
Assignment 5 — Revise the Brochure. "The Railroad Field — A Challenge
and Opportunity."
H. E. Kirby [C&O]: Mr. Chairman, members and guests: Most of you are prob-
ably familiar with the brochure, 'The Railroad Field — A Challenge and an Opportunity
for Young Engineers." This booklet was an aid in filling a long-felt need to present the
railroad engineering picture to undergraduate engineers in a highly competitive area.
It was prepared under the general direction of former Chairman R. J. Stone, vice
president operations, Frisco, who participated actively in the work, and it was the
immediate responsibility of a subcommittee which functioned under the able chairman-
ship of G. A. Kellow, special representative of vice president. Milwaukee Road. The
influence of this brochure has been felt. During the three years since its publication
upwards of 17.000 copies have been distributed to colleges and universities, to high-
school counselors, to railroads and to interested individuals.
Your current subcommittee was appointed la-t year tor the purpose of revising
in\ -ections of the brochure believed to offer opportunist - to keep the text material
abreast of technological advances, developments, and practices improved during the
interim. The assignment is being carried forward, collaborating with interested groups,
and the subcommittee expects to submit definite recommendations later this y<
Chairman Huffman: Thank you very much, gentlemen, for your reports. These
short summaries do not do justice to the many long hours thai you and your subcom-
mittees have spent in developing your assignments.
1178 Cooperative Relations with Universities
One Way in Which Committee 24 Is Interesting Students
in Railroading
By W. H. Huffman
Assistant Chief Engineer, Chicago & North Western Railway
As your program indicates, the subject of the next presentation is "One Way in
Which Committee 24 is Interesting Students in Railroading." The "one way" to be
described commenced in the fall of 1956 and concerned the development of color slides
showing railroad construction and maintenance work, together with other miscellaneous
railroad pictures. The idea was to make them available to colleges and universities for
class room and related activities.
The first stage was the accumulation of slides and the selection by classification
and groups. The second was the production of the sets in multiple, and the writing
of proper descriptive material. The third was the mailing of slide sets to certain colleges
and universities which desired to own and keep them for repeated use. The fourth stage,
still going on, is the filling of requests from other colleges and universities for the loan
of the slide sets for a limited time.
The sets developed are as follows:
130 slides covering broadly the more general aspects of railroad construction and
maintenance.
23 slides detailing the sequence of operations in the mechanized laying of 39-ft
rails.
58 slides showing the sequence in the welding and laying of continuous welded
rail.
37 slides depicting the series of operations in mechanized tie renewals and track
surfacing.
At this time I would like to show you a few of the slides that comprise these sets.
Please bear in mind they were developed primarily to show the embryo engineers and
not to seasoned railroaders like yourselves. The boys who see these slides have probably
never seen any railroad construction or maintenance projects and many have never
been on a train.
May I have the lights out please.
[The slides were then shown, Mr. Huffman reading the caption for each slide].
As indicated previously these slides, in sets, have been available for colleges and
universities since the late fall of 1956 and considerable use has been made by them of
this service. Besides the sets available for loan, 17 sets covering general aspects of railroad
construction and maintenance have been sold outright.
Another use, I believe, that can and should be made of these slides is by railroad
personnel, either recruitment officers or those speaking before junior groups of profes-
sional societies. I would like to quote, in part, a letter received by the secretary from
Mr. J. H. Brown, assistant chief engineer of the Frisco. I quote:
"A number of these slides were shown to civil engineering students at Washington
University in St. Louis at their ASCE meeting on the evening of November 20. The
enthusiastic reception and reactions of the students to this part of the program was
very gratifying to me and certainly should go a long way toward influencing them to
choose careers in the field of railroad engineering."
I, too, have had a similar experience at another meeting of the same type and I
would recommend, most strongly, that railroad engineers utilize these slides in their
recruitment efforts.
Discussion 1179
In behalf of the committee I would like to thank at this time all the railroad
officers who made possible the development of these series of slides by sending in a total
of over 1500 from which we made our selection. I would also like to thank Neal
Howard and his staff for the yeoman work they did in making these slide sets a reality.
Mr. President and audience, I appreciate your time and courteous attention. This
concludes the presentation by Committee 24. [Applause]
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Huffman.
As I stated before, your committee forms one of the most important contacts of our
Association with colleges and universities, and has an important responsibility to keep
the avenues of communication open between them and our industry. I am sure the
development and loan to the colleges of the slides, some of which you have just shown,
has proved and will continue to prove an important means to this end.
The development of the Engineer Recruitment Brochure by your Committee in
1955, and the subsequent distribution of approximately 25,000 copies to colleges and to
railroads in their recruitment efforts has been, I am sure, another important factor in
keeping these lines of communication open. I am sure that when your committci.
completes its work on a second edition of the brochure, and proposes its publication
and distribution to the Board of Direction, it will receive authority to do so.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Wood Bridges and Trestles
[For report, see pp. 743-796]
[President McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: From the subject of manpower we will turn in the following
five committee reports to be heard this morning, to the matter of structures and struc-
tural materials. The first committee to report on such subjects is our Committee 7 —
Wood Bridges and Trestles, the chairman of which is Mr. S. L. Goldberg, structural
engineer, Northern Pacific Railway, St. Paul, Minn., who is completing his first year as
chairman of the committee. Will Mr. Goldberg and the members of his committee please
come to the platform and report.
Chairman S. L. Goldberg [NP] : Mr. President, members of the Association, and
guests: The report of this committee will be found in Bulletin 541 beginning on page
743. An advance report of this committee concerning fatigue resistance of quarter-scale
bridge stringers of green and dry southern pine was published in Bulletin 538 beginning
on page 363.
Your committee is reporting on 4 of its 6 assignments. Three members of Commit-
tee 7 are manning microphones on the convention floor for the convenience of those
members wishing to comment or ask questions in connection with this committee's
presentations.
Mr. Milton Jarrell, assistant engineer of bridges and buildings, Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad, who is chairman of the subcommittee reporting on Assignment 1, Revision of
Manual, is unable to be with us today. Consequently, I will present that report at thi~
time.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Chairman Goldberg: The 8 folded inserts beginning on Manual page 7 4 3 have
been redrawn to Manual size sheets. Among some of the other changes and additions
that have been made are as follows:
1180 Wood Bridges and Trestles
1. One-inch bolts without timber connectors or J^-in bolts with timber connectors
are recommended for use in the fastening of sway, sash, and longitudinal bracing.
2. All reference to cast iron separators and their use to separate the different plys
of the chorded stringers have been eliminated. Solid packed chords are recommended
because they are more fire resistant.
3. Railing details have been revised to include the cable railing, the use of which
is popular among some maintenance men.
4. Details of a 4-pile and 4-post bent have been eliminated.
5. The batter for the outside piles of all pile bents have been reduced to 2 in 12
while the 2y2 in 12 batter for all framed and multiple-story bents has been retained.
6. Details for walk and handrail, water barrel and refuge platforms, and track car
platforms for ballasted deck trestles have been added.
This report is submitted as information. Comments and criticisms of the material
in this report are invited for the committee's guidance for making any necessary changes
and revisions prior to redrawing the details in ink and submitting them next year with
the recommendation that they be adopted and published in the Manual to replace Figs. 1
to 8 incl., presently shown on pages 7—4-3 to 7-4-10 incl.
Mr. C. V. Lund, assistant to chief engineer of the Milwaukee Road, who is chair-
man of the Special Subcommittee on Structural Tests, collaborating with the AAR
Research Staff, will now present the report we are submitting under Assignment 3 —
Specifications for Design of Wood Bridges and Trestles.
Assignment 3 — Specifications for Design of Wood Bridges and Trestles.
C. V. Lund [Milwaukee Road] : The progress report on Assignment 3 covering
tests of quarter-scale bridge stringers in repeated loading directs attention to the im-
portance of severe checking and sloping grain in stress-graded lumber. It should be
pointed out that the artificial checks in the test specimens are more severe than that
permitted in stringers meeting the grading rules for which he committee publishes work-
ing stresses. The artificial checks simulate the extreme of that found in stringers in
service. On the other hand, it should be noted that the test specimens do not contain
strength-reducing defects comparable in effect to that allowed in full-size stringers. Fur-
ther, the tests do not reflect the effects of increase in size on strength. Correlation will
be made with future tests on full-size stringers.
Fatigue strengths in the report are evaluated on the basis of 10 million cycles of
stress. The tests were carried to this maximum for research purposes and to fix limits
well beyond the range to which railroad bridge stringers would be subjected, except
under very unusual circumstances. It has generally been accepted that short-span bridges
ordinarily will not be subjected to over 2 million cycles of maximum stress, and fatigue
strengths would be somewhat higher for this condition.
Timber stringers in service are of variable moisture content, depending on climatic
conditions. It was decided to concentrate, in this investigation, on two moisture limits —
green timber and timber seasoned to 12 percent moisture content. These are the moisture
conditions for which almost all previous investigations have been undertaken and re-
ported, thus permitting the results of current research to be correlated with other pub-
l'shed data. Creosote-treated specimens will be treated in accordance with general practice.
Pending completion of the test program, your committee is offering no conclusions.
I will now introduce Mr. S. K. Coburn, chemical engineer on the AAR research
staff, who will give the report on Assignment 4.
Discussion 1181
Assignment 4 — Methods of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles.
Including Fire-Retardant Paints, Collaborating with Committees 6 and 17
and with the Fire Protection and Insurance Section, AAR.
S. K. Cobvrn [AARj: This assignment is a large order, as treated wood struc-
tures have been in use in this country for close to 110 years, with the railroads alone
owning some 1850 miles of treated timber briges.
Historically the Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering Association and
the American Wood-Preservers Association have listed in their indexes many studies and
experimental investigations concerned with ways and means for fireproofing treated
structures. None of these completely fitted the timber bridge situation.
Approximately six years ago the bridge department of the Santa Fe initiated field
tests on full-scale replicas of ballasted end and interior bridge panels in an effort to
arrive at a means for evaluating proprietary fire-retardant coating materials. The AAR
research staff was invited to participate in one such test in order to measure the tem-
peratures which developed in various locations on these replica structures during the
course of a raging tumbleweed fire.
With the help of those valuable data, and after considerable experimentation, an
efficient laboratory -size fire test cabinet was designed and built. Slide 1 [see Fig. 3,
page 766] illustrates the present fire test cabinet and the auxiliary temperature measuring
equipment.
Timber specimens which had been treated at the Forest Products Laboratory by
the full and empty-cell methods to contain creosote and mixtures of creosote with
petroleum and with coal tar, in retentions ranging from 10 to 30 lb per cu ft were
burned in quintuplicate in each of the nine systems investigated. From these studies it
has become possible to catalogue the burning characteristics of the various types of
treated timber used on the railroads of this country, Canada, and Mexico.
Among the subjects being studied is the weight lost by specimens during the course
of a 3- or 5-min fire. Slide 2 [see Fig. 4a, page 768] illustrates the differences in the
percent weight lost as shown by the top figures, and the lb per cu ft lost indicated
by the bottom set of figures in each column, found for timber which has been treated
with each of the preservative systems, and subjected for 5 min to flames reaching 1800
deg F, with allowance for a free burning period of 30 min. The differences are quite
evident and quantitatively significant, and bear an important relation to the way such
timber might react when protected by a fire-retardant coating.
Similar burning studies have been carried out with thermocouples inserted in the
timber at various distances from the surface to indicate the internal temperatures
reached enabling a comparison to be made with the boiling ranne for the respective
preservatives. An example of how the various treatments and retentions influence the
surface temperature is illustrated in Slide 3 [see Fig. Se, page 772 |. This shows the sur-
face temperatures developed in timber treated to retentions of 10 and 20 lb per cu ft
by the empty cell and full cell methods and covered by one of the better fire-retardant
coatings. These temperatures fall within the boiling ranw of creosote, which varies
from about 250 to 700 deg F. and demonstrates the wide variability encountered.
Evaporation studies play an important role and Slide 4 [see Fig. 17b, page 784]
indicates the rate and quantity of oil lost by timbers at different retentions. This slide,
containing data descriptive of creosote-coal tar systems, might be contrasted with that
for creosote-petroleum systems shown in Slide 5 [see Fig. 17c, page 7S4 J . This in turn
might be compared with the data obtained for creosote shown in Slide 6 [see Fit' 17a,
page 784].
1182
Wood Bridges and Trestles
63
56
38
WT. LOSSES, %
51
30
34
26
C C-A
CT CT-A
CP CP-A
UNT
5 MIN. IGNITION
Slide 8
Extraction studies leading to the determination of how much oil and how much
wood is being consumed in a standard fire reveal additional interesting and significant
facts.
All of this information is necessary for the preparation of an effective performance
specification, which will be one of the end products of this work. Further, it is neces-
sary that all of these various groups of data be organized and presented to the paint
formulator so that he will be in a better position to produce a protective coating which,
Discussion 1183
if it is not capable of handling every situation, will at least offer protection to some of
the preservative systems in use.
More recently attention has been given to the residual toxicity of the preservative
after a treated timber structure has been exposed to a fire. Soil block studies will soon
be underway to help interpret this phase of the problem.
To date some 40 different fire-retardant coating formulations in approximately 60
combinations have been evaluated. Accelerated weathering tests in the Weatherometer
followed by exposure in the fire test cabinet reveal inherent defects in coating formula-
tions and thus rule out many possibilities. Slide 7 [see Fig. 21, page 791] shows a failure
after less than 500 hr exposure in the Weatherometer.
Rounding out this subject is an effort at introducing into the timber along with
creosote proprietary materials which exert a snuffing action on fires. Preliminary studies
on timber which was treated last fall at the Forest Products Laboratory are promising.
Slide 8 illustrates our first attempt at measuring the magnitude of this improvement. The
Santa Fe also has obtained some favorable results with these materials in tests on their
full-scale replica structures.
In closing it should be mentioned that the paint industry is showing signs of interest,
and the information we have developed has been most helpful to them in clarifying the
problem and aiding them in the formulation of better fire-retardant coating compositions,
which are slowly making their way to the market.
Chairman Goldberg: Thank you, Mr. Coburn.
Prof. W. A. Oliver of the University of Illinois will now present the report on
Assignment 6.
Assignment 6 — Design of Timber-Concrete Composite Decks, Col-
laborating with Committee 8.
Prof. W. A. Oliver [U. of 111.] : This subcommittee is submitting as its report
for this year a drawing showing recommended design practice for timber-concrete com-
posite decks — composite wood and concrete for positive bending moment and composite
wood and steel for negative bending moment. This is presented this year as information.
However, the committee proposes to submit this drawing for inclusion in the Manual
next year. Consequently, we are requesting that you give the drawing your careful
consideration and let us have your suggestions for possible improvement of the designs
as presented.
I would also like to call to the attention of interested persons two reports which
have previously been presented as information by this subcommittee. A paper by T. K.
May of the West Coast Lumberman's Association entitled "Composite Timber-Concrete
Construction" will be found in Proceedings, Vol. 56, 1955, page 642. This paper covers
the development and use of this form of construction. A year ago we published as our
report a paper entitled "Design of Timber-Concrete Composite Decks" which can be
found in Proceedings, Vol. 58, 1957, page 678. This paper discusses the assumptions and
approximations made in the standard design procedures.
Chairman Goldberg: Thank you, Mr. Oliver.
President McBrian. this completes the report of Committee 7.
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Goldberg. The committee has a most im-
portant place in the work of our Association, and it is evident that your committee
realizes this in the material which it has presented for review and criticism during the
year, looking to its adoption at our 1959 convention for inclusion in the Manual. We
trust that you will keep up the good work, to the end that the railroad will derive
great benefit from the recommendations of your committee.
You are now excused, with the thanks of the Association.
1184 Impact and Bridge Stresses
Discussion on Impact and Bridge Stresses
[For report, see pp. 55S-SS8]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: The next report is that of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge
Stresses, of which Mr. D. S. Bechly, assistant to engineer of bridges, Illinois Central
Railroad, Chicago, is chairman. Will Mr. Bechly and the members of his Committee
please come to the platform and present their report.
Chairman D. S. Bechly [Illinois Central] : Mr. President, members of the Asso-
ciation and guests: One might say that Committee 30 constitutes the applied research
laboratory for the structural committees of the AREA. A large part of our work springs
from the requests of Committees 7, 8 and 15 for field and laboratory investigations to
determine the stresses in railroad bridges. Four of our assignments are carried on in
collaboration with these committees. The data obtained from these tests, most of which
are made under actual railroad loading, become a basis for the specifications for railroad
bridges and related structures that are developed by these committees and printed in
the Manual. Most of the testing is done by the research staff of the AAR, following
which their reports are reviewed and the conclusions drawn by Committee 30.
In 1957 we had 7 Association assignments. Next year this will be increased to 11
by the addition of 4 assignments that are in keeping with current trends in railroad
bridge design. The first of these is a study of the vibrational characteristics of rolling
stock and bridges, from which we hope to obtain information which will either substan-
tiate the present allowable depth-span ratios or indicate that these ratios may be
increased.
Second is the use of electronic computors for railroad bridge problems. This is a
field which appears to be limited only by the extent of one's imagination, and should
be of vast assistance in the solution of lengthy, laborious or repetitive problems.
The third and fourth, which will be Assocaition Assignments 10 and 11, are on
steel continuous structures and on the composite design of steel structures having concrete
decks. These two Assignments are in collaboration with Committees 15 and 18. Their
importance is obvious in light of the increasing demand for the use of structures of
these types by the railroads.
All seven of the Committee's current assignments are reported on this year in
Bulletin 540, pages 555 to 558. These are progress reports, and are presented as
information.
Mr. M. J. Plumb, of Plumb, Hubbard and Pikarsky, consulting engineers, who is
chariman of Subcommittee 1, will give the report on Assignment 1 — Steel Girder Spans.
Assignment 1 — Steel Girder Spans.
M. J. Plumb: Mr. President, members and guests of the Association: We were
pleased to have published this year a report covering the final 9 spans in our series of
tests on 37 girder spans. We have been actively working on the final summary report.
It has presented a challenge to take the wealth of test data we have and boil it down
to tables, charts and diagrams which can show you an accurate picture of our findings.
We plan to have this final report completed this year.
Subcommittee Chairman E. S. Birkenwald, engineer of bridges, Southern Railway
System, will now present the report on Assignment 2.
Discussion 1185
Assignment 2 — Steel Truss Spans
E. S. Birkenwald [Southern] : Mr. President, members of the Association and
guests: Since this assignment was established, numerous steel truss spans have been
tested to determine the amount of deflection, the action of floorbeam hangers and lateral
bracing, and the intensity of stresses in main members and secondary stresses. The
majority of the tests were made at the request of individual railroads for their own
specific reasons and while the data are available, no reports have been published. Only
a few reports on steel truss spans have been issued, since it was felt that preference
must be given to Assignment 1 — Steel Girder Spans, because girder spans far out-
number truss spans in railroad construction, and it is therefore important that research
information be available for these shorter spans. The complexity of the interaction of
truss members undoubtedly accounts for the delay in the issuance of reports on this
assignment, since it must be remembered that the AAR Research Staff available for this
work is small in size and must be used to produce results which will accomplish
maximum savings to the railroad industry in the shortest time.
It will be noted that during this year tests were made on a three-span continuous
deck-truss bridge 576 ft long on the Southern Pacific. Because of economies which can
be obtained by continuous span construction under certain conditions, widespread inter-
est has developed to the extent that Committee 15 has developed specifications for con-
tinuous bridges. This test will afford in part a suitable check to the specifications, and
for this reason, the analysis of the tests made have been progressed almost to completion.
It is anticipated that a report will be published on this bridge during this coming year.
Mr. D. W. Musser, design engineer, Erie Railroad, and vice chairman of Com-
mittee 30, will present the report on Assignment 3 in the absence of Subcommittee
Chairman A. T. Granger, professor and head of the department of civil engineering,
University of Tennessee.
Assignment 3 — Viaduct Columns, Collaborating with Committee 15.
D. W. Musser [Erie] : Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
Analysis of the data obtained from tests conducted in 1956 on a steel viaduct on the
Genessee & Wyoming Railroad near Retsof, N. Y., has been completed. These tests were
made at the expense and request of that railroad to determine the direct and bending
stresses in certain members of the viaduct. Stresses in the columns and tower bracing
under static and dynamic loading were also measured to determine the effect of braking
and traction forces. The report on these tests will be reviewed by the committee this
year.
Subcommittee Chairman J. A. Erskine, assistant bridge and building engineer, Gulf,
Mobile & Ohio Railroad, will now present the report on Assignment 4.
Assignment 4 — Longitudinal Forces in Bridge Structures, Collaborating
with Committees 7, 8, and 15.
J. A. Erskine [GM&O] : Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
During 1957, field tests were conducted on four ballasted-deck pile trestles located on
the Santa Fc Railroad in Arizona, at which time the longitudinal forces transmitted
to the structure by traction and braking of heavily loaded trains were measured on two
of these trestles. Progress was also made by the research staff in the analysis of field
data previously secured on two timber pile trestles on the Seaboard Air Line in Florida,
and on a steel viaduct on the Genessee & Wyoming Railroad in New York.
1186 Impact and Bridge Stresses
Tests have now been made on 13 structures constructed of steel, timber and con-
crete in various combinations. The fact that seems to be emerging from these tests is
that the longitudinal forces produced by the traction of locomotives and the braking
of trains are not transmitted in appreciable measure to the supporting structure, but
rather are resisted by compressive and tensile stresses in the running rails. It is, however,
too early to draw any final conclusions.
Fortunately, the instrumentation necessary to obtain tests on longitudinal forces
can often be conveniently added when tests are being made under other assignments,
and it is planned to continue the accumulation of data on this subject.
I would now like to introduce Prof. W. H. Munse of the Department of Civil
Engineering of the University of Illinois, who will present the report on Assignment 5
in the absence of Dr. N. M. Newmark, chairman of the subcommittee, and head of the
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois.
Assignment 5 — Distribution of Live Load in Bridge Floors: (a) Floors
Consisting of Transverse Beams, (b) Floors Consisting of Longitudinal
Beams.
Prof. W. H. Munse [U. of 111.] : Mr. President, members of the Association, and
guests: The AREA specifications provide empirical procedures for the distribution of
live loads to the floor systems of railroad bridges. However, since AAR field studies
have shown that the actual load distribution is not in complete agreement with the
design assumptions, Committee 30 has initiated a program to develop more realistic
distributions of load for the design of these floor systems.
The objectives of a study presently in progress under Assignment 5 are to determine
analytically the action of the train loads and then to compare these results with actual
field tests. After a satisfactory correlation has been obtained, simplifications of the
analytical procedures and recommendations for design specifications will be made.
The results of the field tests conducted several years ago by the AAR staff were
reported by Committee 30 in the Proceedings, Vol. 56, page 45. The tests included studies
on nine bridges embracing practically all types of bridge floor systems now in general
use. Analytical work which is now in progress at the University of Illinois utilizes a
simulated floor deck. From this analysis the percentage of the wheel loads transmitted
to each longitudinal girder or transverse floorbeam may be determined.
Results available to date appear very promising since the analysis has given a
distribution closely simulating the distribution obtained in one of the test bridges.
Subcommittee Chairman P. L. Montgomery, assistant designing engineer, Nickel
Plate Railroad, will present the report on Assignment 6.
Assignment 6 — Concrete Structures, Collaborating with Committee 8.
P. L. Montgomery [Nickel Plate]: Mr. President, members, and guests: Reports
on the laboratory tests of six reinforced concrete railroad bridge slabs under static loads,
and field tests of four slabs under dynamic loads were published in 1057. These tests
included both regular and prestressed concrete slabs. High points of this investigation
were:
(1) The ultimate load carried by the slabs tested in the laboratory was about
three times the design load.
(2) Impending failure due to overload was evident in the laboratory tests.
Discussion 1187
(3) Impact measured in the field was less than current design requirements, with
the lower impact values being recorded in the prestressed slabs.
(4) Further laboratory and field research on prestressed concrete is justified.
A progress report on prestressed concrete beams subjected to repetitive loading in
the Lehigh University laboratory has been approved by the committee for publication
in 1958.
Subcommittee Chairman C. V. Lund, assistant to chief engineer, Milwaukee Road,
will now give the report on Assignment 7.
Assignment 7 — Timber Structures, Collaborating with Committee 7.
C. V. Lund [Milwaukee RoadJ : Analysis of the data obtained from tests on the
Santa Fe of four ballasted-deck pile trestles carrying diesel locomotives is not yet com-
pleted. Results of the analysis to date, however, indicate the following:
(1) Maximum bending stresses in the stringers due to live load were very low,
in the order of 400 to 500 psi. The maximum stresses in the continuous stringers over
bents were generally greater than the stresses in the stringers at the center of the test
spans.
(2) Outside stringers located beneath the ballast timbers carry little live load.
(3) Braking of locomotives to a stop on the trestles produced very small bending
stresses in the piles. Heavy tractive effort produced negligible stresses.
This year the AAR Research Staff will conduct tests on the 60 ft long glued lam-
inated girders of a bridge located on a logging railroad near Longview, Wash, designed
for E 50 loading. These tests are most timely in view of the growing interest in glued
laminated construction.
Chairman Bechly: Thank you, gentlemen.
Mr. President, this concludes the report of our committee.
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Bechley. I congratulate your committee upon
the many important investigations and tests which it sponsors each year in the interest
of improved and more economical bridge construction and maintenance. These inves-
tigations, I know, are basic to much of the work of our Committee on Iron and Steel
Structures, and of great assistance to the structural department officers of many
individual railroads.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Masonry
[For report, see pp. 675-689]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: The next committee to report on structural matters is Com-
mittee 8 — Masonry, the chairman of which is Mr. M. S. Norris, regional engineer, Balti-
more & Ohio Railroad, Pittsburgh, who is completing his third year as chairman of
this committee. Mr. Norris, I shall appreciate it if you and the members of your com-
mittee will come to the platform and present your report. Mr. Norris.
CnAiRMAN M. S. Norris [B&O]: Mr. President, members of the association and
guests: Before proceeding with the presentation of the report of Committee 8 — Masonry,
I wish to express the deep sorrow felt by this committee at the passing of Mr. John A.
Lahmer, Member Emeritus of this Committee and Life Member of the Association.
Mr. Lahmer was the founder-chairman and a Member Emeritus of Committee 2Q —
Waterproofing, and that committee has prepared a memoir in which Committee 8
joins.
1188 Masonry
The report of Committee 8 — Masonry, will be found in Bulletin 540, published in
December 1957. In the interest of saving time I shall now introduce all of the Com-
mittee 8 subcommittee chairmen presenting reports at this meeting.
Dr. R. B. Peck, research professor of foundation engineering, University of Illinois,
who will report on Assignment 3 — Foundations and Earth Pressures.
Mr. D. H. Dowe, assistant engineer of bridges, Seaboard Air Line Railroad, who
will report on Assignment 6 — Use of Prestressed Concrete for Railway Structures.
Mr. R. A. Ullery, assistant to chief engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, who
will report on Assignment 7- — Methods for Improving the Quality of Concrete and
Mortars.
Mr. R. E. Paulson, assistant engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Rail-
road, who will report on Assignment 8 — Specifications for Construction and Maintenance
of Masonry Structures.
Mr. A. P. Kouba, assistant engineer, Pennsylvania Raliroad, who will report on
Assignment 10 — Methods of Construction of Precast-Concrete Structural Members.
Will these gentlemen please step up in order and present their reports.
Assignment 3 — Foundations and Earth Pressures, Collaborating with
Committees 1, 6, 7, 15, and 30.
Dr. R. B. Peck [U. of 111.]: Mr. President, members, and guests: This is the
Report on Assignment 3 — Foundations and Earth Pressures.
Last year your committee presented as information a tentative draft of "Specifica-
tions for Design of Spread Footing Foundations", and recommended revisions in
"Specifications for Design of Retaining Walls" in Part 5.
Your committee now recommends that these Specifications be adopted for publica-
tion in the Manual as new Part 3 — Footing Foundations; and that Part 5 be revised
and the part reapproved as a whole — and I so move.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried].
Assignment 6 — Use of Prestressed Concrete for Railway Structures,
Collaborating with Committee 6.
D. H. Dowe [Seaboard Air Line] : Mr. President, members and guests of the Asso-
ciation: The use of prestressed concrete in this country has increased to such an extent
that it was felt by the committee that the possibilities of its use in the railroad industry
should be brought to the attention of the members of the Association. Therefore, your
committee presents as information a progress report on the Use of Prestressed Concrete
for Railway Structures.
Your committee also feels that, although it may some time before specifications
for the design and construction of prestressed concrete are completed and approved,
recognition of this widely used material should be given in the Manual. Accordingly,
Mr. President, I move that Part 17 of Chapter 8 of the Manual be renumbered as
Part 18 and a new Part 17 — Prestressed Concrete Structures, be added, with the following
information:
Specifications for Design and Construction of Prestressed Concrete Structures.
Under preparation.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Assignment 7 — Methods for Improving the Quality of Concrete and
Mortars, Collaborating with Committee 6.
R. A. Ullery [B&LE:] Mr. President, members, and guests: Your committee pre-
sents, as information, a report on the methods of measuring the air content of plastic
concrete.
D i s c u > s i o n
It is now recognized that air in concrete greatly increases its resistance to the action
of freezing and thawing, salt application, and wetting and drying. However, for such
air to be effective, it must be in the concrete in proper and adequate amounts. To insure
that concrete does contain the proper amount oi air. railway engineers and inspectors
must be familiar with approved measuring methods. This paper reviews the three general
principles of measuring air. and describes methods for making field tests which, are
neither difficult nor time consuming and which will result in proper control for quality
cone:.
Your committee also presents, as information, a paper on lightweight aggregates
for concrete. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of lightweight concrete:
compares the various lightweight aggregates, such as expanded slag, clays, shales and
slate, vermicuhie. perlite. pumice, etc.: and describes the methods of manufacture, gen-
eral characteristics, and usage of each aggregate. This paper has been prepared in brief
factual form to provide busy railway engineers with a background knowledge of light-
weight con;:
Assignment 8 — SpeciEcations for the Construction and Maintenance of
Masonry Structures.
R. E. Pahisoh [Milwaukee Road]: Mr. President, members and guests of the
Association: Your committee submits for adoption and publication in the Manual the
following revisions to Chapter S. Part 1. "Specifications for Concrete and Reinforced
Concrete Railroad Bridges and Other Structure
Art. 1. Sec. B. pages S-l-1 and S-l-2. and substitute revised Art. 1. which
includes specifications for Portland blast-furnace slag cement; also reapprove Part 1 as
a whole.
Mr President. I so move.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. P&uisoh: This concludes the report on Assignmer.
Assignment 10 — Methods of Construction with Precast-Concrete Struc-
tural Members. Collaborating with Committee 6.
A P. Kouba [Pennsylvania] : Your committee presents as information a report on
"Use of Precast Concrete Units in Railway Construction." The committee feels, in view
of the increasing use of precast structures by railroads, that this information should be
made available to members of the .Association.
Chairmax Norms: Thank you. gentlemen.
-pedal feature of this report, it had been planned originally to have the chair-
man of the Reinforced Concrete Research Council. Mr. Robert F. Blanks, discuss the
current work of the Council; however, he is unable to be present.
re indeed fortunate to have with us instead Dr. Eivind Hognestad. manager
.jctural development of the Portland Cement Association, who will speak on this
subject.
The Reinforced Concrete Research Council
By Eivind Hognestad and Robert F. Blanks
The Reinforced Concrete Research Council was brought about by circurr
resulting from growth and development in the use of concrete as a structural material.
The birth of the Council is tied to a milepost in the history of structural concrete. To
understand the Council, therefore, we mu?t appreciate this milepost.
1190 Masonry ^
The classical theory of reinforced concrete design was developed some 60 years ago
when reinforced concrete was a revolutionary, new material. This theory is based on
idealized elastic behavior of the component materials — concrete and steel. Though over-
simplified, this elastic working stress theory has served us well indeed in the past. As
an example, the production of portland cement in the United States rose 30-fold, from
about 10 million barrels in 1900 to over 300 million barrels in 1956, as structural con-
crete grew from an engineer's toy to an important part of our technology.
On the other hand, through half a century of practical experience and laboratory
investigation, knowledge regarding the strength and behavior of concrete structures was
vastly improved. To some extent, this progress was reflected in design practice by
periodic adjustments and modifications of the elastic theory. Thus, the original simplicity
of the classical theory, based as it was a long time ago on a few fundamental assump-
tions, was largely lost. It became clear that the elastic theory was good enough in the
past, but entirely inadequate for the future.
This need for improvement, this need for a fundamental change to a new theory
of reinforced concrete design based on the actual inelastic properties of concrete and
reinforcing steel, was recognized in this country shortly after World War II. A sub-
committee of the Committee on Masonry and Reinforced Concrete was formed in the
Structural Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1944. It immediately
commenced a study of the adequacy of the new inelastic design theories, and it became
evident that a great deal of new experimental research was needed.
Such was the situation when the Reinforced Concrete Research Council was organ-
ized in 1948. Fundamental research in our universities had brought into being the
nucleus of a new design theory known as ultimate strength design. To develop this
theory to a stage of practical significance and usefulness these steps were needed: (1) an
organized cooperative effort, (2) scientific planning and guidance, and (3) economic
support of experimental investigations. In short, a hard push forward was required,
a push that could not be accomplished by any single one of the interests involved.
The formation of a Research Council was then approved by the Board of Directors
of the American Society of Civil Engineers early in 1947, and the organization and
financing of the Council were completed about a year later. The Council is an inde-
pendent organization under the sponsorship of the Engineering Foundation. It consists
of some two dozen representatives of technical societies, government agencies, trade
associations, outstanding engineering organizations, and several universities. The Ameri-
can Railway Engineering Association is represented by Mr. W. R. Wilson [assistant
engineer, Santa Fe], and the Association of American Railroads by Mr. E. J. Ruble
[research engineer structures].
The Council obtains funds from the Engineering Foundation and several interested
organizations, so that each contributor receives many times the research value of his
individual contribution. The total value of research sponsored by the Council is now
approaching $500,000. Thus, you and your railroads have received roughly $17 worth of
research for each dollar invested in the Reinforced Concrete Research Council by the
Association of American Railroads. Furthermore, this research work is guided by the
Council membership, all experts in their fields; and small task committees carefully
follow each individual investigation or project. The actual project work has usually
been done in universities, which through Council sponsorship not only get a laboratory
job well done, but also make a most valuable contribution to our Nation's future by
training the students to become scientists and engineers of tomorrow. The results of
Address by Eivind Hognestad 1191
projects sponsored by the Council are published in technical journals and also in a series
of Bulletins available free from the Engineering Foundation.
Organized in this manner, the Reinforced Concrete Research Council set out 10
years ago to push past a milepost in the history of reinforced concrete design. The
immediate broad objective was to reexamine critically the basis for reinforced concrete
design methods, and to develop a new theory of design into a workable form intended
to replace the elastic concepts that have been in use for many years. To reach this goal,
many research projects were initiated, sponsored, and carried to a successful completion.
We shall not dwell on the details of those projects here, we shall ask a more penetrating
question: What were the final effects on engineering practice?
In 1955, a Joint Committee on Ultimate Strength Design of the American Concrete
Institute and the American Society of Civil Engineers submitted a final report com-
pleting its assignment "To evaluate and correlate theories and data bearing on ultimate
strength design procedures with a view to establishing them as accepted practice." These
Joint Committee studies were based largely on experimental data and theories obtained
through Reinforced Concrete Research Council sponsorship. The Building Code Com-
mittee of the American Concrete Institute then took a historical step stated in one and
one-half lines under "Design Methods." This statement now appears in the 1956 ACI
Building Code as "The ultimate strength method of design may be used for the design
of reinforced concrete members." For ready reference, an abstract of the Joint Com-
mittee Report was appended to the Building Code.
Thus, an entire family of improved design concepts were developed and made
available for practical use. Better and more economical concrete structures have resulted,
even when customary materials and construction methods are used.
In addition, applications of ultimate strength design have already led to two trends
that hold great promise for the future. By its realistic and accurate appraisal of the
structural performance of unusual concretes and reinforcing steels, ultimate strength
design has opened a trend toward high-strength concretes and reinforcing steels. The
American Society for Testing Materials is now in the process of revising reinforcing
steel specifications. New steels with strengths about twice those now commonly used
will probably be included in the new specifications. This development, and the com-
panion trend toward high-strength concretes, are pointing toward the light, graceful,
and economical concrete buildings and bridges of tomorrow. New projects sponsored
by the Council are in progress to speed this development.
A second trend is related to the rapid growth of a new industry, the precast con-
crete industry. The potentialities of precasting go far beyond the mere concept of
casting a member at ground level rather than several stories up in the air, or in a fac-
tory on a river bank instead of in mid-stream. These potentialities result in large part
from the advantages of mechanized mass-production methods that permit repeated use
of forms and equipment, as well as the strict controls of manufacture necessary to use
high-quality materials to the best economic advantage. Careful design down to the
smallest detail becomes of great importance when a member is to be made not once,
but dozens and even hundreds of times; when heavy investments go into a mechanical
manufacturing process. Therefore, there is hardly any other way of designing for mass
production than to use every trick available in the field of structural concrete technology.
Only the best and most refined design procedures, such as those based on research
brought about by the Council, are good enough to mass produce products that will
perform the function intended in design perfectly, and nevertheless be as economical as
possible.
1192 Masonry
In this manner, the immediate broad objectives of the Reinforced Concrete Research
Council were accomplished, and the Council turned to other tasks. Soon after the
initial projects were underway, it became evident that the Council offered an unusual
opportunity to foster, correlate and sponsor other needed research in reinforced concrete.
A Joint Committee on Shear and Diagonal Tension of the American Concrete Institute
and the American Society of Civil Engineers was formed in 1950. A chain of research
projects was planned, sponsored, and completed as a result of cooperation between this
committe and the Council. This year the Joint Committee on Shear is preparing its final
report completing its assignment "to develop methods for designing reinforced concrete
members to resist shear and diagonal tension consistent with the new ultimate strength
design methods." Again, an important report is being based largely on test data and
theories developed through Council sponsorship.
Similar cooperation with technical committees led to projects directed toward im-
proved design methods for reinforced concrete floor and bridge slabs. The Council is
also sponsoring research in the field of prestressed concrete, folded plate structures, and
several other fields. It has been found that the Council can also function to shorten the
lag between research and practice by acting as liaison between research agencies and
technical committees of the American Railway Engineering Association, the American
Society of Civil Engineers, the American Concrete Institute, and similar organizations.
The scope of activities of the Council has accordingly been broadened to encompass the
entire field of reinforced concrete research.
We have reviewed the past and the present of the activities of the Reinforced Con-
crete Research Council. It seems fitting also to look at the future, though this can be
done only on the basis of the personal views of your speaker. Since the Council began
to function 10 years ago, research carried out by industry through trade associations has
increased greatly. For example, your Association of American Railroads has constructed
elaborate structural research facilities, and a large new structural laboratory is being
occupied this week at the Portland Cement Association Laboratories in the suburbs
north of Chicago. Though this increased research activity was catalyzed to a considerable
extent by the rewarding results of Council activity, it is fair to ask: Does the Council
have a future mission in spite of these changes on the research scene?
To your speaker, the answer is emphatically yes. Research results are today being
translated into practice at a rate peerless in the history of reinforced concrete. The
chains of tradition have been broken, and most gratifying progress is being made toward
better and more economical concrete structures. But this high-crested wave of activity
rose from several decades of basic research carried out slowly and on a small scale in our
Nation's universities, and the wave we see today must eventually die down. New waves
of the future can evolve only from basic research, from investigations in our universities,
in which immediate practical needs are subordinated to long-range progress.
To illustrate this, let us create an imaginary situation. Let us assume that the finest
practically inclined brains of the world were challenged over a hundred years ago to do
everything possible, regardless of costs, to improve artificial light. What activities would
have resulted? Elaborate studies of gases and fuels, of pumps, fixtures and burners,
of shades, lenses and mirrors, would have come about. But it took the penetrative
curiosity of a basic scientist to start a radically different and immeasurably more fruit-
ful path. It took the quiet genius of Michael Faraday to discover the principle of elec-
tromagnetic induction, which discovery not only led to improved light, but became the
basis of an entirely new technology.
Discussion 1193
The initial objective of the Reinforced Concrete Research Council was to improve
the elastic theory of reinforced concrete design. This activity was later broadened to
encompass the entire field of reinforced concrete research. It is today a policy of the
Council, in selecting proposals for sponsorship, to give preference to those projects which
are most likely to result in useful information of immediate practical value to the engi-
neering profession. Much research so directed remains to be done. Your speaker believes,
however, that the greatest mission of the Reinforced Concrete Research Council of the
future may well be to foster, sponsor, and correlate fundamental work in our univer-
sities, work directed toward provoking the radically new ideas destined to color our
tomorrow and the future beyond.
Thank you kindly for your attention. [Applause]
Chairman Norris: Dr. Hognestad said he would be glad to answer any questions
if there are any. If not, thank you very much, Dr. Hognestad.
As this is my last report as chairman of Committee 8 — Masonry, I wish to express
my thanks to the members of the committee for their fine cooperation during my term
as chairman.
At this time I should like to introduce the new chairman of Committee 8 — Masonry,
Mr. E. A. McLeod, assistant engineer of the New York Central System, and the new
vice chairman, Mr. D. H. Dowe, assistant engineer of bridges, Seaboard Air Line
Railroad. [Applause]
Mr. President, this completes the report of Committee 8 — Masonry.
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Norris. Under your able direction, Com-
mittee 8 has continued to make valuable reports to this Association each year, and
your present reports are no exception. We greatly appreciate the diligence with which
you have directed the work of Committee 8 during the past three years, and could be
concerned with your retirement as chairman were it not for the confidence we have
that your successor, Mr. McLeod, and your new vice chairman, Mr. Dowe, will carry
forward the work of Committee 8 with equal diligence.
May I thank you also, Dr. Hognestad, for your address, making us all the more
cognizant of the important work being carried out under the direction of the Reinforced
Concrete Research Council.
Mr. Norris, your Committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Iron and Steel Structures
[For report, see pp. 699-706]
[President Ray McBrian presiding. |
President McBrian: Winding up consideration of structural matters this morning,
we will hear next from our Committee 15 — Iron and Steel Structures, of which A. R.
Harris, engineer of bridges, Chicago & North Western Railway, Chicago, is chairman.
If Mr. Harris and the members of his committee will please come to the speakers' table,
we shall be glad to hear their reports at this time.
Mr. Harris is completing his three-year term as chairman of Committee 15 with
this presentation, and has the distinction of already having served a four-year term as
chairman of Committee 28 — Clearances, which he completed in 1953.
Mr. Harris, I am pleased to turn the meeting over to you.
Chairman A. R. Harris [C&NW] : Mr. President, members and guests: Committee
15 had three meetings in the past year, including an inspection trip to the Mackinac
1194 Iron and Steel Structures
Bridge. It is making a report on seven of the assignments, as shown on pages 699-705
of Bulletin 541.
As a special feature, at the conclusion of the subcommittee reports, Prof. L. T.
Wyly will give a talk entitled, "Model Railway Truss Bridge", a project at North-
western University. Committee 15 welcomes comments from the floor on any subcom-
mittee reports.
Mr. E. S. Birkenwald will present a single report covering Assignments 1 and 2,
and to make a logical presentation he will give the material on Assignment 2 before
that of Assignment 1.
Mr. E. K. Timby, subcommittee chairman for Assignment 7, will not be present
today ; therefore, I will read his report at the proper time.
As each subcommittee chairman concludes his report he will introduce the chairman
of the next subcommittee.
Will Mr. Birkenwald please report. He is engineer of bridges, Southern Railway.
Assignment 2 — Fatigue in High-Strength Steels; Its Effect on the Cur-
rent Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges.
E. S. Birkenwald [Southern] : Mr. President, members of the Association and
guests: Since the revision of Manual submitted in the committee's report for Assign-
ment 1 is entirely dependent upon the action taken by the Association in regard to
Assignment 2, it is proposed, if there is no objection, to consider Assignment 2 before
Assignment 1.
Specifications for High-Strength Structural Steel for Riveted and Bolted Structures
were presented to the Association at its 1957 Annual Meeting, and since that time have
laid over for a long enough period to have been discussed and considered for adoption.
While several questions have been raised in regard to these specifications, only one
criticism developed which caused the committee to make a modification of the specifica-
tions published in the 1957 Proceedings, Vol. 58, pages 686 to 691, incl. This modification
concerns conditioning of surface imperfections of the high-strength steel by welding.
The original Arts, (b 2) and (b 3) provided that no welding for the conditioning
of surface imperfections should be done, unless agreed upon between the manufacturer
and purchaser. Fatigue tests have demonstrated that the welding of these imperfections
impairs the endurance limit of the steel less than the presence of holes in the material
which are required in the fabrication of the metal. Because of the unwillingness of manu-
facturers to provide high-strength steel without conditioning of surface imperfections
by welding, it was felt advisable to combine Arts, (b 2) and (b 3) so as to require
the welding of surface imperfections.
If the report on Assignment 2 is accepted by the Association, the Specifications for
High-Strength Structural Steel for Riveted and Bolted Structures, published in the 1957
Proceedings, Vol. 58, pages 686 to 691, incl., modified by revision of articles (b 2)
and (b 3) as set forth in the current report on Assignment 2, will have been adopted
for publication and the assignment will then be concluded. It should again be pointed
out that in adopting the Specifications for High-Strength Steel, reference to the use of
and the specifications for structural silicon steel and structural nickel steel will be deleted
from the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges.
I therefore move that the report of the committee on Assignment 2 be accepted
and that the recommendations contained therein be approved and adopted.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Discussion 1195
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Mr. Birkenwald: Now that the recommendations of the committee in its report
on Assignment 2 have been adopted, it is in order to consider the report on Assignment
1 — Revision of Manual.
The first item deals with changes in Appendix A of the Specifications for Steel Rail-
way Bridges. Except for the correction of one typographical error, the revisions pro-
posed for Appendix A, presented for adoption and publication, provide for the ap-
propriate insertions to cover the use of high-strength steel. Attention is called to the
fact that values for structural silicon steel and structural nickel steel are still retained,
the reason for this being that they are needed in connection with the Rules for Rating
Existing Iron and Steel Bridges, the revision of which will be discussed subsequently.
I now move that the revisions shown on page 700, Bulletin 541, for Appendix A
of the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges be adopted for publication in the Manual.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Birkenwald: The balance of the revisions presented in the report on Assign-
ment 1 concern the Rules for Rating Existing Iron and Steel Bridges. These revisions
are inserted to permit the rating of bridges made of high-strength steel. Because of the
time element, it was not possible to obtain a letter ballot of the committee before the
issuance of its report on Assignment 1. These revisions are therefore presented as infor-
mation, to be considered for adoption one year hence.
Mr. President, this concludes the reports on Assignments 1 and 2. Mr. C. H. Sand-
berg, bridge engineer — system, Santa Fe, will present the report on Assignment 4 — Stress
Distribution in Bridge Frames.
Assignment 4 — Stress Distribution in Bridge Frames: (a) Floorbeam
Hangers, (c) Model Railway Truss Bridge.
C. H. Sandberg [Santa Fe] : Mr. President and gentlemen: Your subcommittee re-
ports progress on two assignments, (a) floorbeam hangers and (c) model railway truss
bridge. On the floorbeam hanger project all of the research work has been completed,
and there now remains only the printing of three final reports. The subcommittee is at
work on recommendations for changes in the specification covering floorbeam hangers.
Yesterday, in the keynote address by Mr. Faricy, he made mention of our model
railway truss bridge project that has now been erected in Evanston. Professor Wvlv
will tell you more about this project shortly. We are now at work getting the jacking
systems installed which will load this large test bridge.
This concludes our report of progress.
Mr. R. C. Baker, engineer of structures, Chicago & Eastern Illinois, will now report
on Assignment 6.
Assignment 6 — Preparation and Painting of Steel Surfaces.
R. C. Baker [C&EI]: Our progress report, submitted as information, on this As-
signment sets forth the research work on which reports will be published in the future.
The committee is continuing its cooperation with the Steel Structures Painting
Council, and we are very happy to report that Mr. John D. Keane was employed as
director of research by the Council June 1, 1957, succeeding Dr. Joseph Bigos.
From the interest shown at the recent meeting of the Council followed by a meet-
ing of the Research Committee, we are confident that the research work necessary to
complete this assignment will be carried out by the Council.
1196 Iron and Steel Structures
Assignment 7 — Bibliography and Technical Explanation of Various Re-
quirements in AREA Specifications Relating to Iron and Steel Structures.
Chairman Harris: Mr. E. K. Timby, consulting engineer, Howard, Needles, Tam-
men & Bergendoff, chairman of Subcommittee 7, is unable to be here today. His report
will be found on page 704 and is shown as information. It is anticipated that the work
in connection with the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges will be completed during
1958.
This assignment was brought about by questions from some of the younger mem-
bers of the committee as to the reasons for the various requirements in the specifica-
tions. For example, one of the requirements of the specifications concerns the depth
ratio, which is given as one-fifteenth of the span. Many members questioned whether
that is necessary and whether it should be changed.
In considering this question we had letters from some of the members, raising per-
haps as many as 25 questions about the various requirements of the specifications. We
expect to have a report in due time (I hope within the next year) that will go a long
way toward explaining some of these requirements.
The next report will be on Assignment 10, by Subcommittee Chairman J. F. Marsh,
DeLeuw Cather & Company.
Assignment 10 — Specifications for Design of Continuous Bridges.
J. F. Marsh [DeLeuw Cather & Co.] : Last year your committee presented as infor-
mation tentative Specifications for Design of Continuous Bridges (1957 Proceedings,
Vol. 58, pages 694 to 696, incl.) and invited comments and criticisms thereon. Several
comments and criticisms were received, but the committee felt that they were not
sufficiently important to warrant any change in the specifications.
These specifications, without revision, are now submitted with the recommendation
that they be adopted and published in the Manual.
Mr. President, I so move.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
[Past President Wm. J. Hedley assumed the chair.]
Chairman Harris: I might mention that Mr. Marsh has just returned from a trip
to Turkey. As I understand it, he made an inspection of the Turkish railway system.
It is hoped that he may have a report to make on his inspection trip at some future
meeting, or possibly at our next convention.
As a special feature of Committee 15's report we have asked Professor Wyly, of
Northwestern University, to give a talk on the truss bridge research project. Professor
Wyly.
Address of L. T. Wyly 1197
The Truss Bridge Research Project
By L. T. Wyly
Professor of Civil Engineering and Director of The Truss Bridge Research Project,
Northwestern University
Mr. Chairman and gentlemen of the Association: I greatly appreciate the privilege
of presenting a short report on the truss bridge research project before this assembly.
Fig. 1 is a photograph of the completed model bridge.
This project has been designated as a "Full-Scale Test on a Half-Scale Bridge" by
the Engineering News-Records.1
Cost of Project
The cost of this project for the five-year period ending January 1, 1959, is over
$500,000, of which industry and government are contributing $350,000, most of it already
spent, and Northwestern University is contributing $150,000. This is a much greater
expenditure than was originally planned. Every sponsor who has entered the project has
contributed valuable ideas, and each of these ideas has cost more money. As an example,
when the Bureau of Public Roads were invited to participate, their officers pointed out
that a single-track railway bridge bore little resemblance to a modern highway bridge.
Accordingly, a double-track railway bridge was substituted for a single-track bridge as a
prototype. Arrangements were made to include, at a suitable stage, a highway deck
having more stringers at closer spacing, and a concrete floor slab ; portal and sway brac-
ing to conform to highway vertical clearances; and provision to place loading jacks to
give either maximum bending moment or maximum end shear due to highway loads,
in the floorbeam. This change in size and features of the model doubled the cost of the
project.
Characteristics of the Investigation
The following characteristics of the investigation are considered essential:
1. The investigation must be both experimental and analytical.
2. Single variables should be studied, one at a time, under controlled conditions.
3. Studies are to include both elastic and plastic loading stages of the metal and
are to be carried to collapse of the member.
4. Instrumentation is to include optical, electrical and mechanical systems.
Advantage will be taken of certain recent technological developments:
Stress and Strain Measurement : The recent "photostress" and "metalfilm" techniques
being promoted by Mr. Tatnall will undoubtedly be used on special problems.
Displacement Measurement: The use of specialized transit and precision level instru-
ments known as "optical tooling" will permit the measurement of the linear and angular
deflections of the ends of the members to a high degree of accuracy.
Mechanical Computation: The use of an IBM 650 computer to solve equations will
greatly speed up an operation which has formerly been slow and tedious at best. The
accurate analysis of stresses in the trusses involves the solution of 16 equations for each
truss, or 32 for the bridge. For each different load on the structure the constants will
be different. However, one programming can be arranged to accommodate all loads,
hence, the mechanical solution of the equations can be accomplished for any loading in
a very short time.
1 January 30, 1958, issue.
1198
Iron and Steel Structures
Table 1
Sponsors :
The sponsors for this project are as follows:
Financial Sponsors:
The Association of American Railroads
The Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army
The Bureau of Public Roads
Northwestern University
Sponsors Contributing Materials and Services:
The Wisconsin Bridge & Iron Co.
Milwaukee, Wis.
The Bethlehem Steel Co.
Bethlehem, Pa.
The Case Foundation Co.
Roselle, 111.
The Charles Bruning Co.
Chicago
The Mississippi Valley Structural Steel Co.
Melrose Park, 111.
The Inland Steel Co.
Chicago
The R. C. Wieboldt Co.
Evanston, 111.
The Russell, Burdsall & Ward Bolt & Nut Co.
Port Chester, N. Y.
The Evanston Fuel and Material Co.
Evanston, 111.
The Taylor Forge and Pipe Works
Chicago
The John F. Beasley Construction Co.
Chicago
The George K. Garrett Co.
Philadelphia, Pa.
The Wrought Washer Manufacturing Co.
Milwaukee, Wis.
The Steelcraft Manufacturing Co.
Cincinnati, Ohio
The Aeroquip Corporation
Jackson, Mich.
Paul Rogers & Associates
Chicago
$.50,000 for 5 years
$50,000 for 5 years
$25,000 for 5 years
about $150,000 for 5 years
Contributed fabrication and erection of Model Bridge
Contributed entire hydraulic loading and weighing
system and high-strength bolts for end connections
of members.
Also: Furnished ASTM A242 Steel (Bethlehem me-
dium manganese) at cost.
Contributed drilling and placing of foundation
caissons.
Contributed optical tooling dock and instruments.
Contributed frame of steel building to house the
project.
Contributed ASTM A7 Steel for Model Bridge and
for test members.
Built foundations, contributing a substantial sum to
the project.
Contributed all the high-strength bolts used, except
those for end connections of bridge members.
Contributed mixing and hauling of concrete.
Contributed pipe for optical tooling dock.
Contributed erection of the steel building frame.
Contributed washers for high-strength bolts.
Contributed washers for high-strength bolts.
Contributed field office.
Contributed hydraulic hose and connections.
Contributed design of foundations.
This newly acquired facility in solving simultaneous linear equations suggests that
in the future less attention may be paid to methods of iteration and approximation, and
more to direct solution than formerly. This is not to imply, however, that the various
procedures of relaxation and successive approximation will not be still further developed
and used, particularly as a method of what might be called experimental analysis.
Description of The Model Bridge
The test bridge is a half-linear-scale model of a 200-ft span double-track railway
bridge. A very conscientious attempt has been made to apply the principle of similitude
to the design of all elements. Since it was found impossible to design one structure
which would be a scale model of both a railway and a highway bridge the railway
structure was taken as the prototype and plans then made to introduce, at a selected
stage of the investigation, the features peculiar to the highway bridge already enum-
erated. The project consists basically in building a high-strength steel, ASTM A 242,
model bridge, and in testing as an integral part of this model, members of ASTM A 7
steel which have been installed one at a time, in place of one of the high-strength mem-
bers. This will allow the study of any number of designs of member or connections.
In order for this procedure to work, it is necessary that the high-strength steel mem-
bers and connections carry without damage the loads which will cause collapse of the
Address of L. T. Wyly 1199
A 7 test member. This requirement necessitated the use of greatest care and foresight
possible in designing the model bridge members, especially end connections.
Many other special features are included which, taken altogether, made the work
of designing and building this model about the equivalent of designing and building 4
or 5 different, full-scale, 200-ft span bridges. Principal among these features are the
following:
Material: The great bulk of existing railway and highway bridges in the country
are composed of ordinary structural steel, A 7 or equivalent. However, there are many
bridges of high-strength steel, and the trend towards such construction is rising steadily.
The first phase of this investigation is concerned with the study of models of typical
members and connections of existing bridges. Initially, these will be of A 7 steel. Later
high-strength members will be tested. The second phase of the investigation will be
concerned with the study of high-strength members and connections embodying the
latest ideas of design, including whatever is learned in the first phase. We may summarize
the above:
Phase 1. Study of practice of the past generation should lead to improved rating
rules and suggest improved design of members and connections.
Phase 2. Study of latest developments in design and construction.
Loading: The model is designed for both railway and highway loading. It is also
designed for both working and ultimate loads.
Trusses: The trusses are different. Truss A is composed of the type of members
representing the great bulk of tonnage in existing older structure. Top chords and end
posts have angles turned out with solid cover plates on top and lacing on bottom ;
other members are laced top and bottom. Truss B is composed of the more modern
type of truss members having angles turned in and with perforated cover plates instead
of lacing.
Gussets: When testing A 7 members, it is desirable, to secure similitude, that the
gussets connecting the high-strength steel frame member be of the same relative size
as those connecting the A 7 member. When testing high-strength steel members, two
cases occur:
1. Large gussets connected by A 141 rivets. This is the practice which has usually
been followed in the past.
2. Small gussets connected by A 195—52 T high-strength rivets. This situation
undoubtedly represents future practice.
Shop Connections: In the original model bridge, high-strength bolts are used
throughout. The Wisconsin Bridge & Iron Co. suggested replacing shop rivets by high-
strength bolts to eliminate undesirable effects of heating of the thin steel sections.
Accordingly, ASTM A ?>25 high-strength bolts were used in the shop.
Field Connections: Where riveted connections are to be studied, rivets will hi' driven.
Where the design of the member is under study, it is planned to use bolts. All connec-
tions have been designed for rivets. Bolts have been accorded the same allowable loads
as rivets. In other words, an A 141 rivet and an A 325 bolt of the same nominal
diameter, have been considered equal. To represent the A 195— 52T high-strength rivet,
the A 354 bolt Grade B D has been used. This bolt has a rated yield strength about 50
percent larger, and an ultimate strength about 30 percent larger than the A 325 bolt.
This use of the A 354 bolt was adopted after completion of laboratory studies, as
follows:
1200
Iron and Steel Structures
1. Tests of individual bolts supplied by the Bethlehem Steel Company, by the
Russell, Burdsall & Ward Bolt and Nut Co., and by the Lamson-Sessions Co.
Reports are not yet published.
2. A test of a high-strength steel joint connected by A 325 bolts and by A 354
bolts. This has been recently published.2
Summary Table
Table 2 summarizes the combinations of material, gussets, and field connections for
the various cases listed above.
It is clear from the above that the end connections and gussets for each member
of the original high-strength steel bridge have been designed for two different sets of
gussets and connections.
Table 2
Phase
Prototype Structure
Model Specimens
Model Connections
High-Strength Frame
Connections
Steel
Design
Rivets
Bolts
Gussets
Rivets
Bolts
Gussets
1
A7 Steel or
equivalent
A7
Existing
A141
A325
A7 Small
A195
A354
A242 Small
A242 Steel or
equivalent
A242
Existing
A141
A3 25
A242 Large
A141
A354
A242 Large
2
A242 Steel or
equivalent
A242
Newer
Types
A195
A354
A242 Small
A195
A354
A242 Small
Quantities Involved
The model bridge is further described by the quantities in Table 3.
Loading and Weighing System
Load will be applied to the structure by means of 14 hydraulic jacks acting through
hemispherical bearings resting on the floorbeams. The jacks are fastened to large steel
slabs, each anchored by four rods to the concrete foundation cross girder below the
floorbeams. Each cross girder is in turn held by two anchorage caissons. There are 14
such caissons. It is estimated that 100 tons per jack or 1400 tons total will be required
to break the high-strength steel chords. In accordance with usual engineering practice in
such cases, a reserve strength of 50 percent of maximum expected load, i.e. 150 tons per
jack or 2100 tons total, has been provided in the capacity of the jacks. This 50 percent
excess has also been used in proportioning the capacity of the anchorage caissons, 3 ft
6 in. in diameter, cylindrical, and without bells, carried 72 ft below ground to hard pan.
The four end bearing caissons, which must carry the total load of superstructure and
all jacking loads, are also carried to hard pan.
There are two complete hydraulic piping systems, each independent of the other
with its own pump, and controls. Any jack can be connected to either system at any
time.
2 "Demonstration Test of An A 242 High-Strength Steel Specimen Connected by A 325 and by
A 354 Bolts" by Lawrence T. Wyly, Hugh E. Treanor and Herbert A. LaRoy. Supplement to AISC
National Engineering Conference Proceedings 1957 .
Address
of L. T. Wyly
1201
Table
3 — Quantities
.1 ? SUA
1 . ' St. , I
Total
Steel Weights*
L'l tons
3 tone
6 T . .11-
\> tons
48 tons
17 tons
20 tons
High-strength bolts
41' tons
A 325
A :<:>4 H D
65 tons
1(17 Ions
.50,000 pes.
22,000 pes.
Total.
72,000 pes.
Washers for high-strength bolts
i 1 1 ,000 pes.
Drawings, 24 x 36 or larger
Original design __ .. .
Total.. ..
130 sheets
1,040 cu. yd.
Reinforcing steel in foundations
1,400 cu. yd.
*Note: Does not include test coupon material and scrap.
The pumps are air-operated hydraulic units, operated by precise control equip-
ment designed to deliver varying load or to hold load constant as desired, at any stage,
within quite small limits.
Fig. 2 is a view inside the bridge. The diaphragm plates between stringers adjacent
to the floor beams are jack supports.
The load acting on each jack will be taken from the chart recording hydraulic pres-
sure in the line, at all times, modified by a calibration curve for the individual jack.
Based on rather extensive laboratory studies, it is expected that the error of load obtained
thus will not exceed 2 percent.
Laboratory Buildings
To house the project, a steel frame building is being erected. This is not yet com-
plete, but it is planned to glaze the sides to secure ample light. Hand-operated hoists
with trolleys running above the bridge will provide means for handling truss members.
A steel field office has also been provided.
Views Showing Construction
Views illustrating construction of the project are presented herewith in Figs. 3 to
12, incl.
Questions
Half a million dollars is a lot of money to be spent on one structural Investigation.
One question arises at once when this project is considered: "Is this experiment really
necessary? Could not satisfactory results be obtained by theoretical analyses based upon
the great mass of data already obtained by loading individual members in testing
machines?"
1202 Iron and Steel Structures
The principal difference between our modern world and that of the ancients is gen-
erally conceded to be traceable to our use of the scientific method. This is basically a
way of thought. It is popularly described as represented by four consecutive operations:
Observation of pertinent facts.
Hypothesis to explain the observed relations.
Experiment to study the observed relations under controlled conditions.
Verification or modification of the hypothesis, usually called a theory.
The behavior of the forces of nature is so complicated and various that it can sel-
dom be comprised within the limits of a simple formula. Consequently, it is our custom,
when attempting an analysis, to make certain simplifying assumptions. Upon the accuracy
of these assumptions, then, depends the truth or error of the analysis.
Max Frocht tells an interesting story to illustrate the point. One dark night a police-
man came upon a drunk walking around under a lamp post and looking at the ground.
The officer inquired, "What did you lose?" "A silver dollar" replied the drunk. The
policeman helped look but nothing was found. "Are you sure you lost the dollar here
under the light?" asked the policeman. "Oh, no, I lost it up the street a ways", answered
the drunk. "Then why look here?" asked the officer. "Well," replied the drunk, "I can
see better here."
I would say then, that it is necessary to experiment in order to make sure that we
are searching in the correct areas for the answers to our questions.
The second question asked usually is "What problems are to be studied first?"
One of the most important fields of study will undoubtedly be the performance of
riveted connections of truss members.
Another subject which is very important to bridge engineers is the performance of
damaged truss members, particularly end posts. Consequently this investigation is first
on the agenda. It is illustrated by Fig. 13. Six A 7 steel test members have been
fabricated, three for each truss. Each set consists of one control specimen; one for test
after a small amount of damage, one for test after a large amount of damage. One of
these test members is now erected in place in each truss at the north end.
Another question concerns the performance of the short, stiff columns which are
represented by end posts and top chords of heavy bridges, when tested as integral parts
of the truss, and carrying the bending which may be anticipated in such a case. Some
light on what may develop in this situation is offered by the results obtained several
years ago by Prof. John Hayes on tests of rolled H type steel members having very
large initial eccentricities. This study was made for the Column Research Council at
Purdue University.3
Of especial significance is the information shown in Mr. Hayes' Column Stress-Strain
Graphs, which are reproduced here in Fig. 14. These members were tested with flat
ends, a condition approaching but not realizing end fixity in the earlier loading stages.
Specimens C-0, C-l, C-2, having an II r of 63, exhibited little reduction in carrying
capacity in the plastic range. The reserve strength is large. Specimens COL and C-3
having an II r ratio of 103, however, buckled almost immediately on passing beyond the
elastic range. There is no reserve strength. Note that these are solid rolled members
and free from local weakness. This study holds out the promise that when we have
learned to avoid local failure, we should be able to greatly simplify the analyses and
design of the top chords and end posts of our bridges, and probably to make significant
economies at the same time.
8 Effect of Initial Eccentricities on Column Performance and Capacity, John M. Hayes, ASCE
Proc. Paper 1440, Nov. 1957.
Address of L. T. Wyly 1203
Intimately connected with the performance of compression members is the matter
of local failure induced, frequently in large part, by transverse shears arising from
initial or accidental eccentricities. Three photographs of bridge chord models after testing
to ultimate, axial stress, representing three consecutive periods of time and three different
philosophies of design, illustrate the above thesis. Fig. 15 shows a quarter scale model
of the chord A 9 of the Quebec Bridge. The year is 1908. A transverse shear of less
than 1 percent of axial load at collapse of the model was sufficient to cause failure of
the lacing and its connections. The ratio of ultimate axial stress in the model to yield
strength of the material was 56 percent. Fig. 16 shows a third-scale model of a chord
of the Metropolis Bridge. The year is 1916. Much research on the magnitude and
effect of shear in columns had been done since 1908, and the solid central transverse
plate and the heavy lacing used in the Metropolis model are adequate to prevent pre-
mature local failure. The ratio of ultimate axial stress in the model to yield strength
of the material is 94 percent. Fig. 17 shows a model of a chord of the Calcasieu River
Bridge. The year is 1952. Many of the disadvantages of lacing have been eliminated
by the use of perforated cover plates. However, local failure is again in evidence, and
the lateral deflection of the ribs at the center of the member indicates response to
transverse shear. The ratio of the ultimate axial stress in the model to the yield strength
of the material is 82 percent. It seems plain that initial or unintentional eccentricity,
transverse shear, and premature local failure of short columns are all closely related and
causally connected. From the start of this project, a rational study of these factors has
been planned as an important part of the experimental program.
The above list of problems illustrates the scope of the work, which is planned.
A notable advisory committee has been set up to represent the sponsors, to offer
advice and technical criticism, and to vote on expenditures. The personnel is listed below.
Advisory Committee
Arntzen, J. C, Mississippi Valley Structural Steel Company
Ball, E. F., Bethlehem Steel Company
Banks, R. B., Northwestern University
Erickson, E. L., Bureau of Public Roads
Higgins, T. R., American Institute of Steel Construction
Lindenlaub, E. W., Wisconsin Bridge & Iron Company
Martin, E. D., Inland Steel Company
Mullins, H. N., U. S. Army
Ruble, E. J., Association of American Railroads
Sandberg. C. H., chairman, American Railway Engineering Association
Acknowledgments
Professor Lawrence T. Wyly is project director. Harold B. Gotaas is dean of the
Technological Institute of Northwestern University and Robert B. Banks is chairman
of the Civil Engineering Department.
The bridge was designed by Professor Wyly, assisted by Research Associate Barry
Chamberlain of England. The design was reviewed by F. H. Cramer, consulting
engineer.
Mr. Cramer was also research associate in working out the many special require-
ments for shop plans, and in fabrication and erection of the Model Bridge.
(Text continued on page 1215)
1204
Iron and Steel Structures
Fig. 1 — Model bridge, general view.
Fig. 2 — Interior view.
Address of L. T. Wyly
1205
Fig. 3 — Drilling caissons.
.
Fig. 4 — Auger loaded.
1206
Iron and Steel Structures
Fig. 5 — Pit construction, showing caissons.
Fig. 6 — Concreting pit.
Address of L. T. Wyly
1207
Fig. 7 — Cross girders.
1208
Iron and Steel Structures
Fig. 8 — Foundations complete. Optical tooling posts in place.
Fig. 9 — Fabricating lower chord.
Address of L. T. Wyly
1209
Fig. 10 — Erected span. Joint L8, south end.
1210
Iron and Steel S tructur
Fig. 11— Joint L8, north end
Fig. 12— Building frame
over span.
Address of L. T. Wyly
1211
Fig. 13 — Damaged end post.
1212
Iron and Steel Structures
1 1
1
35
r^^
0
C-0-
30
C-l-
C*21
1
j
25
h
'cOL
m
« 20
w
M
-C-3
Average
1
10
5
[
0
0
Unit s
.0
troin
Dl
in
1
.002
inches per inch
i i i
.003 004 .005
on an 84 inch gage length
0 001 .002 .003 004
Unit stroin in inches per inch on on 141 inch gage length
Fig. 14 — Column stress-strain graphs, Hayes column tests.
Address of L. T. Wyly
1213
►^ - A>
mrn^^M*
Fig. 15— Model of Quebec Bridge Chord A9, year 1908.
HC '
■■-u&2£*~
Fig. 16 — Model of Metropolis Bridge chord, year 1916.
1214
Iron and Steel Structures
*-£
1 '1
1
1 ' m
^w'^ ft
«l|
J^
ilUMIUHlJl
ust <
pi
Fig. 17— Model of Calcasieu River Bridge chord, year 1952.
Discussion 1215
Mr. E. W. Lindenlaub, member of the Advisory Committee, Mr. Alex Mayer, vice
president and plant manager, and Mr. Mike Goske, manager of erection, all of the
Wisconsin Bridge and Iron Company, gave personal attention to all phases of construc-
tion of the model as well as contributing valuable suggestions.
The foundations were designed by Paul Rogers and Associates.
The hydraulic loading and weighing system was designed by Gerald C. Ward,
research associate, and Professor A. D. M. Lewis of Purdue, consulting engineer. Calibra-
tion studies by hydraulic jacks were made by Research Associate Herbert A. LaRoy,
who also was resident engineer on the foundation construction.
The optical instrumentation system was designed by Gerald Ward, assisted by
Charles Bruning Company, Inc.
Much wise counsel and valuable advice was contributed by the members of the
Advisory Committee at all stages. [Applause]
Chairman Harris: Mr. Hedley, this concludes the report of Committee 15.
This is the end of my term as chairman, and I want to express my appreciation
for the privilege of being allowed to serve as chairman of this committee. May I thank
the members of the committee for their help.
I would like to introduce at this time the new chairman, Mr. D. Y. Messman.
engineer of bridges, Central Lines, Southern Railway System. [Applause]
I also would like to introduce Mr. C. Xeufeld, engineer of bridges, Canadian Pacific,
the new vice chairman, but I don't see him here this morning.
Past President Hedley: Thank you, Mr. Harris, and thank you, Professor Wyly,
for the interesting and informative material that you have presented to us. I wish I had
more time to comment on the invaluable work which is carried on by Committee 15
in our behalf and that of the railroads.
Mr. Harris, I know that I speak for the entire Association when I thank you for
your effective direction of the work of Committee 15 for the past three years, adding
to your service at an earlier date as chairman of Committee 28.
We are glad to have Mr. Messman as your successor, and Mr. Neufeld as the new
vice chairman of Committee 15, and are assured that, on the basis of their work for
the committee in the past, they will carry forward the "unfinished business" of the
committee in a most creditable manner in the years immediately ahead.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion of Clearances
TFor report, see pp. 655-674]
[Past President Wm. J. Hedley presiding!
Past President Hedley: The last committee to report this morning is Committee
28 — Clearances, of which S. M. Dahl, assistant division engineer, Milwaukee Road, Mil-
waukee, is chairman. Will Mr. Dahl and the members of his committee please come
to the platform.
Mr. Dahl is completing hi> first year as chairman of this committee, and I know
they have had some pretty tough nuts to crack in endeavoring to reconcile their think-
ing with that of public agencies and the brotherhoods, while at the same time protecting
the interests of the railroads.
Mr. Dahl, you may proceed with the presentation of your committee.
1216 Clearances
Chairman S. M. Dahl [Milwaukee Road]: Mr. Past President, members and
guests: It is with deep regret that I announce the death of Mr. C. T. Kaier, division
engineer of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, who passed away on August 16,
1Q57. Mr. Kaier had been a member of the Association since 1937, and a member of
Committee 28 since 1956. This committee will remember him especially for the good
work he did in connection with freight car tests which were carried out on his railroad
and which provided much valuable data for this committee.
The report of Committee 28 is found in Bulletin 540, December 1957, beginning
at page 655. The committee will make reports on four of seven assignments.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual. Since no changes were proposed, there will be
no report.
Assignment 2 — Clearances as Affected by Girders Projecting Above Top of Track
Rails, Structures, Third Rail, Signal and Train Control Equipment, Collaborating with
Signal and Electrical Sections, and with Mechanical and Operating-Transportation Divi-
sions, AAR. No report this year.
Report on Assignment 3 — Review Clearance Diagrams for Recommended Practice,
Collaborating with AREA Committees Concerned and the AAR Joint Committee on
Clearances, will be presented by Mr. J. G. Greenlee, clearance engineer, Pennsylvania
Railroad, in the absence of Subcommittee Chairman J. E. South, assistant chief engineer-
structures, Pennsylvania Railroad.
Assignment 3 — Review Clearance Diagrams for Recommended Prac-
tice, Collaborating with AREA Committees Concerned and the AAR Joint
Committee on Clearances.
J. G. Greenlee [Pennsylvania] : Your committee is reviewing all the clearance dia-
grams in the Manual in light of the present-day conditions.
Submitted as information are four revised clearance diagrams and one new dia-
gram, with the expectation that they will be submitted at a later date for adoption
and publication in the Manual. In making this review your committee is working with
the AAR Joint Committee on Clearance.
The new diagram, Fig. 9, shows proposed clearance for overhead bridges and
other structures not otherwise provided for.
Your committee would appreciate any comments or suggestions from members of
the Association regarding these diagrams.
H. C. Minteer [Milwaukee Road]: May I ask a question? I noticed in the clear-
ance diagrams that you have maintained an 8-f t side clearance. What is the reason ?
Mr. Greenlee: In submitting the diagrams in this year's report, the present basic
8-ft clearance was retained pending outcome of studies now being made as to clearance
actually required.
Are there any other questions? If not, Mr. Chairman, Assignment 4 — Compilation
of the Railroad Clearance Requirement of Various States, will be presented by Sub-
committee Chairman M. A. Wohlschlaeger, assistant engineer, Missouri Pacific Railroad,
St. Louis.
Assignment 4 — Compilation of the Railroad Clearance Requirements of
the Various States.
M. A. Wohlschlaeger [MP] : Mr. President, members of the Association and
guests: Your committee submits as information a tabulation of the clearance require-
ments of the various states brought up to date as of December 1, 1957. In it we would
call attention to the fact that as a result of a recent order the clearance requirements
Discussion 1217
of the State of Delaware arc shown for the first time; also that extensive revisions in
clearance requirements are shown for the State of Michigan.
Subsequent to December 1, your committee received copies of clearance regulations
adopted by the States of Oklahoma and Montana. Requirements of these two states \\ill
appear in this Committee's next report.
The report on Assignment 5 — Clearance Allowances to Provide for Vertical and
Horizontal Movements of Equipment Due to Lateral Play, Wear and Spring Deflection,
Collaborating with the Mechanical Division, AAR, will be presented by Mr. E. E. Mills,
subcommittee chairman, and draftsman, Pennsylvania Railroad.
Assignment 5 — Clearance Allowances to Provide for Vertical and Hori-
zontal Movements of Equipment Due to Lateral Play, Wear and Spring
Deflection, Collaborating with the Mechanical Division, AAR.
E. E. Mills [Pennsylvania] : Mr. President, members of the Association and guests.
The report of this subcommittee supplements a previous report, found in the Proceed-
ings, Vol. 56, 1955. The latter report outlined a method of determining the average
lateral displacement of equipment on curves, while the report this year concerns allow-
ances to be made for track and equipment irregularities. This data are based on field
tests on passenger equipment of several railroads.
With this report, the analysis of the field test data on passenger cars has been com-
pleted, and your committee is proposing to submit material for inclusion in the Manual,
after due collaboration with the Mechanical Division, AAR.
Similar data are now being secured for freight cars. Bulletin 538, for September-
October 1957, contains a report of the Joint Committee on Relations Between Track
and Equipment of the Engineering and Mechanical Divisions, AAR, in collaboration
with Committee 28. This report concerns field tests on freight cars which were carried
out on the Lackawanna Railroad in 1955. These tests will be supplemented this year
with additional tests with different loadings and under different track conditions. The
results of these tests will be the subject of a future report.
There will be no report on Assignment 6 — Study of Track Centers in Relation to
Current Clearance Problems, Such as Permissible Size of Cars and Locomotives in Inter-
change Service, Collaborating with Committee 5 and the Joint Committee on Clearances.
Report on Assignment 7 — Methods of Measuring High and Wide Shipments, will
be made by Subcommittee Chairman W. F. Hart, division engineer, Union Pacific
Railroad.
Assignment 7 — Methods of Measuring High and Wide Shipments.
W. F. Hart [UP]: Present practices are to have measurements defining the out-
line of high and wide loads taken by car inspectors utilizing hand measuring devices.
Fixed templates at designated locations are not employed.
Traffic imposes the necessity of utilizing portable hand measuring devices, especially
at outlying plant sites where lading originates.
It is the conclusion that additionally a fixed direct reading device be provided at
important terminals and interchange points to provide reliable carded information
throughout routing.
Approved methods of securing and carding these measurements should be incor-
porated in the Car Inspector's Manual.
The assignment is being continued to the end of developing acceptable and eco-
nomical measuring devices.
1218 Annual Luncheon
Chairman Dahl: At this time I would like to make a plea, particularly to chief
engineers of railroads not now represented on the committee, to instruct their men who
handle clearance matters to apply for membership on Committee 28.
The Committee is badly in need of new members, due to deaths, retirements and
leaving railroad service. Because of the importance of clearance matters, we feel that
a greater number of railroads should be represented.
Mr. Past President, this concludes the report of Committee 28.
Past President Hedley: Thank you, Mr. Dahl.
In referring to the problem of reconciling the recommendations of your committee
with those of public agencies and the brotherhoods, when calling your committee to
the platform I might well have included the Mechanical Department of the AAR and
of the various railroads because of their definite interest in many aspects of clearances
from the standpoint of equipment. I hope your collaboration with the Mechanical
Department can be speeded up, knowing that you are anxious to come up with some
definite recommendations with respect to matters involving that department.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
This concludes the morning session. Before I recess the meeting for the Annual
Luncheon, which is about to be held in the Grand Ballroom, I would like to remind
you that the afternoon session will convene in this room at 2:30 pm, with a program
which will embrace the reports of six more committees and include an address by
R. G. May, vice president, Operations and Maintenance Department, AAR, on "The
Legislative Situation as it Affects Engineering and Maintenance of Way Departments."
The meeting is now recessed for the Annual Luncheon in the Grand Ballroom.
[The meeting recessed at 12 o'clock noon.]
Annual Luncheon
Grand Ballroom — 12 Noon
Wednesday, March 12, 1958
[The Annual Luncheon was held in the Grand Ballroom with a background of organ
music. At the main speaker's table were seated executives of various railroads and past
and present officers of the Association. At a long table immediately in front of the main
speaker's table were seated the chairman of the Association's 23 standing and special
committees. The total attendance at the luncheon was 1124.
After the luncheon, those assembled sang the National Anthem, following which
President McBrian introduced those at the main speaker's table and then those at the
chairmen's table. He also introduced the incoming committee chairmen, who were given
gavels. Then after announcing the results of the election of officers (see Teller's Report
appearing on page 1092), President McBrian introduced the speaker at the luncheon —
Mr. G. B. Aydelott, president of the Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad.]
Address of G. B. Avdelott 1210
Maintenance — or Deferred Maintenance
By G. B. Aydelott
President, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad
Mr. Chairman, distinguished guests, members and guests of the AREA:
In addition to the pleasure of being with you all today, it's a real delight to be
associated again with Ray McBrian and to share the same platform with him. Ray and
I have had a most pleasant association on the Rio Grande and the old Moffat railroad
over the past 22 years or so, and one of the singular impressions that has remained
with me all through this period when we would meet by chance or by necessity is that
of never having enough of a chance to listen to him for a long enough time. His mind
is a wonderful machine that performs without the usual impedances that I associate
with mental effort, and that performance has resulted in significant contributions of
material value to the Rio Grande and to the industry. I only hope that each of you
can have the opportunity to share his enthusiasm, to be taken out of this world for a
time, and to visualize with him the bright prospects before us. In spite of your mis-
givings over the current situation, you'll be an optimist after a session with Ray. All
of us on the Rio Grande were extremely pleased when Ray was welcomed into this
past year's additional responsibility in the AREA, because we're sure that while he has
been of service to the Association with his keen perspective, the Association has been
of tremendous benefit to him, and consequently the Rio Grande, because of its achieve-
ments, the breadth of its scope, and the wide approval given to the results of its
deliberations. And then too, I think that it's always a good thing for a scientist to rub
shoulders with the realistic approach of engineers.
Maintenance practices have certainly changed in the past couple of decades that
I have been associated with this part of the industry. Most of the changes were the
results of the application of new ideas to the work to be done, the development by
our friends, the suppliers, of some strange-looking albeit man-saving machinery, and by
the necessity for economies in the face of rising costs. Properties which had been run
down as a result of the great depression of the 10,^0's were rebuilt into strong, fine
physical properties and those that didn't suffer were maintained and improved even
more.
Now, what's the matter in this land of ours? Revenues which had begun to s'ip
last year, began to drop precipitously. At the same time costs of most materials and
supplies, ad valorem taxes, and the cost of labor have increased and are still increasing,
and it looks like the devastating wage increases of May and November of 1057 will be
repeated in 1058. You fellows don't need three guesses to find out what function is
going to be hit the hardest in the attempt to make ends meet.
What are some of the causes of this predicament? Maybe if we can correctly seek
them out and understand them, we can do something to cope with the situation and
to improve it. Of course, the present recession, or whatever you call it in your part
of the country, has taken its toll in freight shipments, especially in the heavy-goods
industries. This has adversely affected revenues. Inflation is taking its double toll at the
same time, so that from all present appearances the cost of living is increasing, elimi-
nating the possibility of a reduction in the variable part of the wage contract to ( ffsel
the increase contracted for in the fixed amount. But the most important cause of all
in this predicament, I believe, is the continuing lower share of the total movement
of freight handled by the railroads. That some of the diversion of traffic from railroads
1 220 Annual Luncheon
to other forms of transportation was suitable and proper is granted. But suitable and
proper have long since been exceeded, and the continuing artificial diversion of traffic
to other forms of transportation caused by ancient onerous regulative concepts suited
for monopoly is threatening our very existence. This is not new. This situation of over-
regulation, including compelled wasteful practices, as well as strangulation-type regula-
tion, has been a serious one for many years, but the generally increasing revenues of an
inflation-geared economy of the past decade or two have covered, even compelled, waste
and left something over. Now, though, in this sudden cessation of sufficient revenues
to cover, the evil is pointed up, and the situation is acute. These are only a few of all
those that could be listed, but they are the major ones.
Now, let's look at the cost picture. Materials and supplies have not yet shown signs
of price reductions. Rather, the contrary is the case except in some areas of new com-
petitive pricing in earth-moving equipment. We must recognize that most of these
higher costs, as well as our own direct costs, are the result of higher wages and sal-
aries, more benefits, higher payroll assessments. As the costs of local, county, and state
governments mount with little effort to retard them, indeed with encouragement from
many groups seeking to be all things to all people, taxes of all kinds are adding them-
selves to our cost list. New taxes are in effect and old bases have been expanded, and
the use of taxes collected to subsidize our competitors continues at an accelerated pace.
Why, in our town when a crash program to force a city income tax on the citizenry
on top of the Federal and State income taxes already in effect, and on top of both
state and city sales taxes, was defeated by petition of an aroused portion of the citizenry,
the city government closed the library on Sundays as a disciplinary measure for not
accepting the tax. But they continued to teach square dancing for adults, I am told,
by the Parks and Recreation Department, and sewing is taught to adults in the schools
once a week for 50 cents per week. And the almost sinister contribution to local city-
furnished facilities for air travel goes on.
Well, what's to be done about it? We have the problem — less revenue, higher costs,
little or no net income left over to pay for the use of capital or to improve the property.
On the revenue side of the picture something can be done. It is being attempted,
and you, each of you, can help just as you can help on the cost side of the picture.
To relieve the strangulation of over-regulation, we obviously need legislative help. All
of us are agreed that regulation of rate-making should include two things — regulation
to see that rates set by railroads are reasonably compensatory — that they are not set
below cost — and that they are not discriminatory as between shippers. It should not,
repeat not, go beyond that. We should be permitted to take advantage of the efficient
means of mass transportation that we represent, and when we can move tonnage for a
less cost than another mode of transportation, then we should be permitted to set rates
to attract the business in volume without regard to what such rates may do to another
form of transportation. We should be allowed to eliminate loss operations, operations
that are neither patronized nor necessary, and this should be a managerial determination,
not one of a board of politically appointed experts. We should be permitted to engage
in other forms of transportation whenever and wherever we think it would serve our
interests better, and not be restricted to substitute service only.
How do we get this legislative relief? By the action of our elected representatives
in the Congress and with support of the administrative body of the government to
encourage legislation to grant the relief. You must support this. Don't let this duty
of all of us fall only upon the associations or upon the railroad presidents. You and
your friends, your free-enterprise friends, must give vent to your feelings to your
Address of G. B . Ay delot t 1221
elected representatives. They are sensitive to your feelings in matters like this. They
are receptive to them. At the present time they may even be encouraged to act further
in an effort to restore free enterprise and equal opportunity to compete to the trans-
portation industry. Some of them have already introduced a bill to repeal the excise
taxes.
Locally you can assume your duties in resisting the constant move toward increased
taxation, and try to point the way toward an attempt at economy in government. You
can and should speak up every time you have the opportunity in opposition to more
and more benefits at taxpayers expenses to the customers of our competitors.
On the cost side what can you do ? A brief examination indicates that we have
very little chance to reduce wages and benefits as such immediately. The alternative?
More productivity per man, less men. This may not be nice to say out loud in public,
and it's certainly not nice to contemplate losing experienced, competent employes, espe-
cially in maintenance of way, the area where little duplication of pay or other feather-
bedding exists, but just the same, it is an economic necessity if we're going to stay-
alive. And while we're recommending more productivity for the labor force, let's recom-
mend it for the supervisory force, too. In this case, the word "more" means "more
quality" in our supervision, including ourselves.
Obviously we're going to get loss money to spend on maintenance of way and
structures. This means then, deferred maintenance — or does it? I'll guarantee it means
reduced maintenance, and reduced beyond the proportion of reduced revenue. Just match-
ing that doesn't match the cost and wage increases. How can we safely reduce main-
tenance? By the same methods you have been using for years, and, of course, some
new ones. You have always risen to these emergencies and surmounted them. Let me
encourage you to do it again. In your search for ways to help productivity, would you
be so kind as to include some of these?
Remember that it's people who do the work that cost you; so let's not forget that
people do not necessarily react to logic or to an engineer's heart's desire of cause and
effect, deductive reasoning. We have lived for some years now with regulation and
with labor contracts, and many of us have fallen into the evil ways of letting some of
these rigid guideposts be our excuse for less productivity in days of fat. We've even let
these restrictions to productivity make some of our decisions for us. We have generated
our thinking in a framework of this restricted thinking. I say we should all get closer
to our men and use some mental effort to see what makes them tick, why they have
prejudices, why they produce well if they do, and why they don't if they don't. You'd
be surprised how many an overtime slip has been filed because of a personal affront,
a neglect of a personal problem. It is reasonable to expect also that many a job has
been slowed down because of some of the same causes. Let's get back that personal
touch — that appeal to pride of accomplishment that exists in all of us.
Let's use people like Ray McBrian. Don't let them git away with just doing
research. Feed them problems so they'll point their research toward saving dollars instead
of just doing research. You'll be surprised at the amount of help you can get in many
areas, just by being friendly with research people.
Examine your maintenance standards. Perhaps some of them are the result of too
much tradition and too little of changed conditions. You cannot be content to do this
just mentally in the office or by resorting to brainstorming. You've got to get out where
the work is, both regular and extra work, and examine every operation, every move-
ment of each part of each job with a real inward look; and since you'll be in effect
1222 Annual Luncheon
criticizing your own people and your own programming, you have got to be objective
and impersonal and you have got to ask yourself and supervisors the questions, "What
is he doing; Why is he doing it; Why don't we do it like this?" Or better still, "Why
do we do it at all?" The woods are full of surprises if you really go into this one.
Don't hang onto the fetish of best quality without the best reason, the best cur-
rently productive reason. Nobody wants to stand the cost of maintaining track for 100
mph when you're only going to operate at 60. You may be demanding the best quality
in other areas because then you know you couldn't have done better. It would be better,
I would think, to have your neck out and try to furnish suitable quality instead of
best quality.
An important "how" to reduce maintenance expense I'd like to throw in here is for
you men personally. Increase your statures as supervisory officers of your- railroad com-
pany, not of your particular department. Rise above the desire to get all the money
you think you can wheedle out of a bad-tempered, would-be-track-expert of a general
manager or operating vice president, and instead assume your real responsibility of
cutting maintenance where you know it can be cut. If you leave the responsibility to
him to make the cut your attitude is wrong.
Let's learn to shut off our transmitters occasionally, and when we are through
talking to our men, turn on our listeners and really listen. Don't be the egotist who
knows all the answers. No one really succeeds alone, but needs the "no" from below as
well as from above.
Permit me to be an advocate of deferred maintenance as well as of reduced main-
tenance. Here's the case for it: In the first place, considerable maintenance can be
deferred without suffering, provided it is a result of a well thought out program on how
to extend the life of your track and structures. The fact that it can be deferred at all
is significant. Let's use this tool of reduced expense. Sure there's a day of reckoning
to face, but I'd a lot rather do a little deferring and face a day of reckoning in my
line of business than to stand flat-footed on principle and needlessly help my company
slide into the pit of foreclosure. You, since you represent the part of the property which
can have its expenditures manipulated the easiest, are in the position of being the life
net. I say you should step up with a gleam in your eye at the opportunities which exist
in these directions and make a positive appraisal of what can be done, a positive
approach towards programming necessarily deferred maintenance to produce certain
results instead of fearing what will happen if you do not get as much money as you
would like. Of course, this isn't easy, but what is these days.
We've looked at the problem and talked of a few solutions, a few ways to help in
these trying times. Why should we be concerned with this problem at all? Why should
we do anything except just slug along and reduce maintenance and defer maintenance
and wait it out until times turn better?
Just this — as revenue dollars are consumed — are tunneled away into seemingly bot-
tomless appetites — one fine day bond interest can't be covered from revenues and after
a while of that there isn't enough cash in the kitty to cover.
Do you think, "Oh hell, we'll just go into receivership again, wipe out the common
stockholders, and go through another reorganization"? Maybe not again, my friends.
Maybe this time there'll just be foreclosure and sale. Maybe this time there'll be a group
of people who will say, "let's have Federal funds to match ours and let this be a
governmental railroad."
Gloomy? Yes, but only to paint a picture of consequences. I urge you to adopt a
psychology of progress, a mental framework which will let you rise up and recognize
here in these times the opportunities available for you to do service for your companies.
Discussion 122.*
Afternoon Session — March 12, 1958
[The meeting reconvened at 2:.?0 pm. Vice President B. R. Meyers presiding.!
Vice President Meyers: The meeting will please come to order. We have a long
and very interesting program ahead of us this afternoon, so it is necessary that we begin
on time and that each committee adhere strictly to its time schedule if we are to adjourn
on time.
Discussion on Waterproofing
[For report, see pp. 599-602]
[Vice President B. R. Meyers presiding]
Vice President Meyers: Without further remarks I will call to the platform the
members of Committee 29 — Waterproofing, to make their reports. The chairman of the
committee, who is completing his three-year term as such, is Henry Seitz, structural
engineer. Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Baltimore. Md., to whom I am pleased to turn
over the microphone. Mr. Seitz.
Chairman Henry Seitz [B&OJ: Mr. Vice President, members of the Association
and guests: Before proceeding with the presentation of our report, Committee 20 wishes
to express our deep sorrow at the passing of Mr. John A. Lahmer on March 9, 1°57.
Mr. Lahmer was retired senior assistant engineer of the Missouri Pacific Railroad and
a Member Emeritus of this committee. A suitable memoir in his honor has been pre-
pared and will be included with the presentation of our committee report in the
Proceedings.
MEMOIR
3Tohn £Uop£<tus; Hammer
John Aloysius Lahmer, retired senior assistant engineer of the Missouri Pacific Rail-
road, passed away on March 9, 1957, and is survived by his wife, Mrs. Alice J. Lahmer
of St. Louis, Mo., a son, Lt. Col. John A. Lahmer, and a daughter, Mrs. Marylin
Judge.
Mr. Lahmer was born at Topeka, Kans.. on May 28, 187.?, the son of John and
Bertha C. Lahmer. He graduated from the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans., in
1895 with a Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering. In 1916 Mr. Lahmer and
Miss Alice Jehle were married.
Mr. Lahmer began his long and varied railroad engineering career immediately
after graduation from university when he entered the service of the K.C., P.&G. Ry..
now the Kansas City Southern Railway, as an axeman and rodman on location and
construction projects. Mr. Lahmer worked for several railroads in the states of Kansas,
Oklahoma, Missouri. Arkansas, Louisiana, Oregon, Washington and Utah on varied
engineering projects and entered the service of the Missouri Pacific on April 6. 1°14.
Mr. Lahmer devoted his efforts wholeheartedly and generously to the Missouri
Pacific, capably filling the positions of assistant engineer, drainage engineer, district
engineer, principal engineer and senior assistant engineer until his retirement from
active service on May 1, 1947.
In 1907, Mr. Lahmer became a member of the American Railway Engineering
Association and achieved Life Member status in 1942. He served generously and faith-
fully on various committees of the Association and was respected and admired for In-
ability, broad experience and judgment by all of his fellow committee members and
those who had the pleasure of working with him. He served on Committee 1 Ro.ulu;i\
1224 Waterproofing
and Ballast, 1920-1922, Committee 7— Wood Bridges and Trestles, 1910-1913, Commit-
tee 8 — Masonry, 1923 to 1952, becoming Member Emeritus of this committee May 24,
1054, Committee 16 — Economics of Railway Location and Operation, 1919-1920, Com-
mittee 26— Standardization, 1933-1942, and Committee 29— Waterproofing, 1932-1952,
serving as chairman 1932-1946, and becoming Member Emeritus, January 1954. He was
the organizer and first chairman of Committee 29, and his zealous efforts established a
firm foundation for the continuance of work in a field in which he was extremely
interested.
Mr. Lahmer was a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers and became
a Life Member in 1942. He also was a member of the Scottish Rite.
Mr. and Mrs. Lahmer were regular attendants at the Pilgrim Congregational Church
in St. Louis. Mr. Lahmer was deeply interested in current events and history and
retained a lively interest in many subjects besides his professional interests.
All of Mr. Lahmer's associates and friends sincerely regret his passing and feel
privileged to have known and associated with him during his career.
Chairman Seitz: The report of Committee 29 is printed in Bulletin 540 dated
December 1957. The committee has three assignments, and a report has been made on
each.
The report on Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual, will be given by Mr. E. A.
Johnson, engineer of bridges, Illinois Central Railroad.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
E. A. Johnson [Illinois Central] : Mr. Vice President, members of the Association,
and guests: The committee wishes to call especial attention to the revision of Art. 4 —
Coal-Tar Pitch for Mopping, and Art. 6 — Creosote Primer, of the Specifications for
Membrane Waterproofing. The requirements for these materials are now realistic.
I move that the specifications for Membrane Waterproofing be reapproved with
this revision and certain other minor ones.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Johnson: The report on Assignment 2 — Waterproofing Materials and Their
Application to Railway Structures, will be presented by Subcommittee Chairman R. J.
Brueske, assistant division engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad.
Assignment 2 — Waterproofing Materials and Their Application to Rail-
way Structures.
R. J. Brueske [Milwaukee Road]: Mr. President, fellow members, and guests:
This report is intended to familiarize you with the progress being made by your sub-
committee in its study of waterproofing materials and membranes.
This past year, we completed our investigation of the specifications for coal tar
pitch and creosote primer. The proposed specification changes are being handled under
Assignment 1.
Membrane Waterproofing studies continue to be carried out by the AAR Research
Staff at Chicago. Many variable factors, such as type of asphalt, type of material,
stretch, temperature changes, action under hydraulic head, and the number of plies of
material, are being taken into consideration. Tests have also been made recently using
synthetic asphalts and proprietary products.
Last year, temperature recording gages were installed on a bridge of the Chicago &
Western Indiana Railroad to record the temperature range of the membrane water-
proofing.
Discussion 1225
Results indicate the temperature of the membrane approaches the temperature of
the air with a slight time lag, resulting in air temperatures of short duration not being
equalled by the membrane.
We are now investigating the specifications for insulating paper, asphalt plank,
asphalt block, and mastic. Our specifications for a protective cover will also be reviewed.
With the increased use of bridges with steel plate decks, your committee is consid-
ering the necessity of providing a specification for an underlayment to protect the
membrane from uneven burrs or projections and/or to provide slope for drainage.
Subcommittee Chairman F. S. Schubert, resident engineer of the Chesapeake & Ohio
Railway, will present a report on Assignment 3 — Coatings for Dampproofing Railway
Structures.
Assignment 3 — Coatings for Dampproofing Railway Structures.
F. S. Schubert [C&O]: Under the direction of Dr. W. L. Dolch, research associate,
Purdue University, tests were made and report was written on the laboratory per-
formance of three special coating materials consisting of an epoxy resin, a phenolic resin
and a latex-cement combination.
Further work was done on the evaluation of the current AREA test method for
waterproofing coatings, and a report was written on the effect of etch time and of
wetting-drying cycles on standard concrete test blocks.
Revisions in the specifications for waterproofing coatings for exposed concrete sur-
faces have been recommended by your committee as a result of these tests.
Water content and ash content tests on bituminous emulsion materials have been
completed.
Apparatus for measuring water-vapor diffusion through free films of bituminous
emulsions and for measuring capillary penetration of treated porous materials have
been completed, and tests are being made on these emulsions. Measurements are being
made to determine the degree of wetting of bituminous films by water and the influence
of weathering of the films on this property.
Chairman Seitz: Our subcommittees are actively engaged in developing changes
required in our specifications in keeping abreast of the rapidly changing methods and
development of new materials in the waterproofing field. We feel highly optimistic
regarding our progress, and we welcome any suggestions or questions from members
of the Association.
This meeting ends my term as chairman of this committee. It has taken considerable
time and work; however, the work has been pleasant and interesting. I wish to thank
each member of the committee for his loyal and effective support. Because of their
wholehearted cooperation I feel we have made definite progress.
I also wish to thank Mr. Howard and his staff for their guidance and help in
carrying on the work of our committee.
At this time I would like to introduce to you the incoming chairman of this Com-
mittee, Mr. E. A. Johnson, engineer of bridges, Illinois Central Railroad, and the new
vice chairman, Mr. R. J. Brueske, assistant division engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St.
Paul and Pacific Railroad. [Applause]
Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 29.
Vice President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Seitz. It is good to see you are making
real progress on your projects being carried out at the Research Center and at Purdue
University. The results of your work will lie of meat value in protecting our structures.
1228 Wood Preservation
Assignment 5 — Conditioning of Forest Products Before Preservative
Treatment.
M. S. Hudson: This subcommittee, as Mr. BrentHnger has said, has concentrated
on the rapid methods of conditioning timber for treatment, that is, drying out the
water so that creosote or other preservative can be gotten into the wood. The old
classical method of air seasoning, as you know, takes a longer time than these more
rapid methods, and in the economy as it looked last year we knew it would be of
greatest interest if we concentrated on these rapid methods.
There has been one new development in this field, carried out jointly by the Uni-
versity of Florida, the Koppers Company, Moore Dry Kiln Company, and the Atlantic
Coast Line and Seaboard Air Line Railroad, on kiln drying of cross ties. Several charges
were dried, some in the University kiln and some in the commercial kiln of the Koppers
Company at Gainesville, Fla. These ties, which comprise species such as hickory, beech,
oak and gum, were dried in schedules varying from three days to one week, and after
drying they were treated. These ties have been placed in test tracks of these two
participating railroads. Since that time some ties have been dried during this past year
at Charleston, S. C, under Dr. Huffman's supervision.
The remaining part of the report is more or less a statistical table, giving the
number of ties that were treated by two other processes during the first six months
of 1957. These processes were controlled air seasoning, under which process about
500,000 ties were dried, and vapor drying, in which 750,000 ties were dried during the
first six months of 1957. I have no figures on how many controlled air seasoning ties
were run during the entire year, but there were around 2 million ties vapor dried
during the year.
This completes the report of Subcommittee 5.
Chairman Brentlinger: The next report deals with service test records of treated
wood. The next subject is very important, and your continued cooperation in supplying
test records to this subcommittee is appreciated. This year the report is on treated piling
service records, and will be presented by Subcommittee Chairman R. P. Hughes, inspec-
tor, treating plants department, Santa Fe.
Assignment 7 — Service Test Records of Treated Wood.
R. P. Hughes [Santa Fe]: Mr. President and gentlemen of the Association: Sub-
committee 7 submits the following progress reports on service test records of treated
wood:
1. Report of 1957 inspection of piling in old pier No. 3 in East River near foot
of Fulton St., Brooklyn, N. Y. These piles were treated in 1889 and were still in excel-
lent condition after 68 years of service.
2. Report by the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway on service life of treated piling in
piers at Newport News, Va.
3. Report by Louisville & Nashville Railroad on 1957 inspection of piling in Bridge
No. 4 on Self Creek Branch.
4. Report of 1956 inspection of piling in Zeigler Shipyard, Mermentau, La.
5. Report on tests of service life of piles in Rural Electrification Administration
financed electric systems.
This subcommittee again asks, if any of you have any service test records of treated
wood or know where any such records may be obtained, that you will write us so
that we may be able to give you an interesting report at the next convention.
Mr. President, this report is submitted as information.
Discussion 1229
Assignment 8 — Destruction by Marine Organisms, Methods of Pre-
vention.
Chairman Brentlinoer: Mr. A. P. Richards,, president of W. F. Clapp Labora-
tories, Inc., and chairman of Subcommittee 8 is unable to be here today. His report,
published in the Bulletin, is recommended for your reading. Keep in mind that the
appetite of the destructive sea organisms costs us about $50 million a year, and any-
thing we can do to cut this down will naturally reflect in our costs.
The final report. Destruction by Termites: Methods of Prevention, is a progress
report on the research project mentioned by Mr. Magee yesterday and in his slides
that were shown of the Gainesville plot area. Since Mr. F. J. Fudge, timber engineer,
New York Central, and chairman of this subcommittee, is unable to be here today, the
report will be presented by Mr. E. J. Ruble of the AAR Research Staff.
Assignment 9 — Destruction by Termites ; Methods of Prevention, Col-
laborating with Committees 6 and 7.
E. J. Ruble [AARJ: The destruction of timber by termites has become a rather
serious problem within recent years, as this destruction is spreading into our northern
states, as far north as Wisconsin. In order to determine the better preservatives as well
as the best retention to use, and the most economical retention to use to eliminate this
trouble, your committee recommended a project on this assignment. The research staff
worked with this committee, and we established and set up a program of tests at the
University of Florida, where termites are very bad.
The report covering these tests has now been prepared and is in the committee's
hands. It will be reviewed by the committee, and undoubtedly will be published some
time next summer.
The work consists essentially of treating under controlled conditions, three species
of wood with nine different preservatives with three retentions for each preservative.
We treated these specimens, which consist of 2- by 4- by 18-in stakes, under controlled
conditions at the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. The retentions we are
using are the retentions recommended by the present AREA specifications or the
American Wood-Preservers specifications.
We then used another retention which is 50 percent greater than this retention,
and also one about half of the recommended retention. At the present time 1296 stakes
have been installed. About 30 untreated control specimens also have been installed. It is
planned to leave these stakes in for about 15 years, with possibly an annual inspection
or an inspection every two years, and at the end of the 15 -year period we hope we can
establish the better preservatives as well as the most economical retentions.
Thank you.
Chairman Brentlinoer: This concludes the report of Committee 17.
Vice President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Brentlinger. Your committee has a very
important place in the work of our Association, and we appreciate its interest in pro-
ducing informative reports each year, and especially its interest in keeping up-to-date
the specifications of our Association dealing with preservatives and wood preservation
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
In order that the next speaker may catch a train, we are going to advance hi* talk
ahead of the report of the Committee on Buildings. I want to present to you now
one who really needs no introduction. He has already honored ii* by being i jruesl
at the speakers' table at our Annual Luncheon, and more importantly b) his member
12.30 Address of R. G. May
ship in our Association. I refer to Mr. R. G. May, vice president, Operations and Main-
tenance Department, Association of American Railroads, who in his capacity in Wash-
ington is in constant touch with the work of our Association. Mr. May.
Legislative Situation as it Affects Engineering and Maintenance
of Way Departments
By R. G. May
Vice President, Operations and Maintenance Department, Association of American Railroads
Mr. McBrian, members of the American Railway Engineering Association, distin-
guished guests, ladies and gentlemen:
I am especially pleased to be on your program for this 57th Annual Meeting of the
AREA. The opening session which emphasized research was appropriate and timely.
It was particularly appropriate coming at a time when the expanding research program
of the AAR, under Mr. Fancy's guidance, is well under way and the ultimate plan can
now be clearly visualized.
The AREA which serves as the Construction and Maintenance Section of the AAR
naturally is interested in the development of better methods, better materials and im-
proved means of meeting the construction and maintenance requirements of the American
railroads. Improved designs and materials are the natural products of research. Improved
methods can be based upon both research and experience. In the conduct of their work
engineers generally are not too familiar with outside influences relating to their problems.
Anything that affects the railroad industry has a direct effect upon the engineering and
maintenance aspects of a railroad. The inability of the railroad industry to make a fair
return on investment naturally affects capital expenditures for improvements and main-
tenance, which field is the real responsibility of the engineer.
We have taken pride in recent years in the expenditures made for improvements.
Perhaps the most serious aspect of low and declining railroad earnings is their inescapable
adverse effect upon the continuing, and essential, effort of the railroads to improve their
service and reduce costs by investment in improved plant and equipment. With railroad
earnings in their present state, equity financing for capital improvements is a practical
impossibility, equipment trust financing is increasingly costly, and relatively little money
is obtainable from depreciation accruals because of low and unrealistic depreciation rates
allowed on railroad plant and equipment.
Despite their continuing need, in the public interest, to carry on essential mod-
ernization and betterment programs, it now appears that railroad expenditures for im-
provement in 1958 will drop below the average of over $1 billion spent annually in
the postwar years, and far below the $1.4 billion spent in 1957.
Many of the most important and most vexing problems confronting the railroads
today stem directly from governmental transportation policies and practices. Perhaps
the major problems are those that are created by express provisions of statutory law
or are otherwise attributable to past policies of Congress. Some, however, result from
policies formulated and applied by the Interstate Commerce Commission (acting, of
course, under the Interstate Commerce Act and related statutes). Others are the result
of policies or practices of the executive branch of the government. Others result from
court interpretations. Still others are to be found in the actions of state and local
governments. Most, if not all, require action by the Congress or other legislative or
regulatory bodies to correct.
Address of R. G. May 1231
One would naturally think that with the concern of the Congress as to the present
plight of the railroad industry we might expect that proposed legislation leading to more
stringent regulation would not he enacted, especially when such enactment would result
in increased costs of operations and impairment of service. Several of the hills which
have been introduced would be particularly crippling in our efforts to provide efficient
and economical service if enacted. A brief review of some of these bills shows the results.
There is now pending what is known as the "power brake bill." This bill was recom-
mended by the Interstate Commerce Commission and would require the ICC to pre-
scribe, after hearing, rules, standards, and instructions for the installation, inspection,
maintenance and repair of power or train brakes.
The safety record of the American railroads so far as failures of train brakes arc
involved is excellent. The passage of this bill would give the Commission jurisdiction
over a legitimate field of managerial discretion where management has compelling
motives for maintaining the highest degree of safety and efficiency. It would inject more
regulation into an already over-regulated industry and would prevent the exercise of
initiative and acceptance of responsibility by management in an important area of
operations.
More recently there has been introduced a track motor car operating bill. In sub-
stance this bill requires all railroads to adopt operating rules for the movement of
track motor cars equivalent to the operating rules provided for the movement of trains.
It would require each carrier to file its rules and regulations with the Interstate Com-
merce Commission and, after approval by the Commission, such rules and regulations,
with any modifications the Commission may require, would become obligatory upon
the carrier. It also provides that such carrier can change the rules and regulations only
after the proposed changes have been filed and approved by the Interstate Commerce
Commission.
It can readily be seen that the passage of a bill which would empower the ICC to
amend, revise or modify the rules pertaining to the movement of track motor cars
would have a direct effect upon the operating rules pertaining to movement of trains.
Another bill which has been introduced is known as the ''hours of service bill."
This bill if enacted would:
1. Reduce the maximum permissible working period from 16 hr in a 24-hr period
to 14 hr for train and engine service employees.
2. Would include signal maintainers, with the same restrictions as would apply
to train and engine service employees.
.*. Would require an interim rest period in excess of 3 hr to lie considered as time
off duty and not applicable to hours of service.
Many local agreements on individual railroads are based upon the average time
used in operating over a division and provide for the use of the crew that has sufficient
time to turn at an away-from-homc terminal to be worked back to the home terminal
under the present 16-hr law. The utilization of motive power has been one of the chief
advantages of the dicsel locomotive. It is impossible to make a reasonable estimate of the
additional cost in capital expenditures for additional motive power or additional em-
ployees that would be required if this law should be enacted. It is reasonable to assume
that it is a financial burden this industry cannot stand, either now or under greatly
improved conditions.
The three bills that I have jusl mentioned arc indicative of the attempts being
made to further regulate railroad operations.
1232 Address of R . G . May
In addition to this type of legislation, the Congress has also been asked year after
year to increase benefits under the Railroad Retirement and Unemployment Insurance
Acts. There are now pending bills in both the Senate and House of Representatives
which would have this effect. Enactment of these bills would increase the level of
payroll taxes paid by the railroads to support both the retirement and unemployment
systems by more than SO percent. Such proposals are pressed despite the fact that
benefits under the Railroad Retirement and Unemployment Systems are already higher
than under the general social security and state unemployment systems, and that rail-
roads are already paying substantially greater retirement and unemployment taxes than
are their competitors.
Moreover, to add to the effect this legislation would have on further aggravating
the deteriorating railroad situation, we are also confronted with action by regulatory
agencies which would add to our operating costs. The ICC is presently considering
changes in the rules for inspection and testing of locomotives other than steam which
could result in tremendously increased operating costs to the railroad industry.
In April 1955 the Section of Locomotive Inspection issued its notice of rule making.
Included in the proposed rules were several which would place a financial burden upon
the railroads wholly inconsistent with the records attained for safe operation of diesel
locomotives. The Association spent considerable time and money preparing statements
to be filed with the ICC in opposition to the proposed rules. Hearings were conducted
in 1956 and the oral argument concluded in the fall of 1957. The facts presented, both
at the hearings and in the oral argument, show that the adoption of the proposed rules
is not necessary and would be unduly burdensome.
After filing of evidence in the locomotive inspection case covering rules for the
inspection and testing of locomotives other than steam, the Director of Locomotive
Inspection issued to his local inspectors an interpretation for the inspecting of locomo-
tives and filing of inspection reports which would require the railroads operating diesel
and electric locomotives in through-train service to revert to the practices of the steam
locomotive days by inspecting a locomotive at the end of a trip or day's work of the
engine crew. Hearings will be started in this case on March 31, and it is hoped that we
will be given full opportunity to present our side of the story.
The present plight of the railroad industry is of serious concern to the Congress,
to railroad executives and to railroad employees. For the first nine weeks of 1958 freight
carloadings are 18 percent below the corresponding period of one year ago. The cost
of labor and material continues to rise in face of decreased loadings to the extent of
about $870 million on an annual basis since November 1, 1956. In addition, on Novem-
ber 1, 1958, railroad wage costs will increase about $175 million annually.
The net working capital of railroads, out of which is paid current expenses, such
as wage, fuel, and material costs, has decreased to about $530 million. If we relate the
present net working capital of railroads to the requirements it presents a rather alarm-
ing picture. One month's cash operating expense requirements is estimated at $750 mil-
lion. The $530 million that the railroads now have in their working capital to meet the
operating expense requirements is equal to about two-thirds of one month's actual
expenses.
Let us just for the moment figure how far the present working capital of the rail-
road industry will go. We are unable to estimate the cost of the three very important
legislative proposals; namely, the power brake bill, the track car operating bill, and the
hours of service bill. We do have very rough estimates of the cost of the locomotive
inspection rules and the recent interpretation of the Director of Locomotive Inspection.
Discussion 1233
With the possibility of a 3 cents escalator in May that would add $75 million to
the wage costs, we have a definite commitment on November 1 that will increase wage
costs about $175 million annually. Thus it can be seen that the increased wage costs
will require approximately $250 million annually. In all probability the passage of any
one of the operating rules bills or unafavorable decisions by the Interstate Commerce
Commission in cases now pending which pertain to inspection and testing of locomotives
other than steam would be of sufficient magnitude to completely erode the balance of
the working capital after providing for increased wage costs.
On this note I would ask you, as practical business men, if this is not a serious
problem to everyone interested in the American railroads.
Thank you. [Applause]
Vice President Meyers: Thank you very much, Mr. May. We are glad to have
you bring us up-to-date on these important matters affecting the railroads and our
many members who are involved as construction and maintenance officers. We know
that the case of the railroads in each instance is in capable hands, but want you to
know that if assistance is needed from any of us, or from all of us as an Association,
we shall be glad to have you call upon us.
Thank you again for your participation in our Annual Meeting, and for your
address.
Discussion on Buildings
[For report, see pp. 483-498]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: Will the members of Committee 6, Buildings, please come
to the rostrum. The chairman of this Committee is Mr. D. E. Perrine, assistant chief
engineer, Chicago & Western Indiana Railroad and Belt Railway of Chicago.
Mr. Perrine, will you proceed, please.
Chairman D. E. Perrine [C&WI] : Mr. President, members and guests: During
the past-year Committee 6 lost one of its valued members, Mr. Laurence H. Laffoley,
engineer of hotels, Canadian Pacific Railway. A memoir in his honor has been prepared
and will be published with this report in the 195S Proceedings.
MEMOIR
llaurence 1&. ILaffolep
Laurence H. Laffoley, engineer of hotels, Canadian Pacific Railway Company, died
suddenly at his home on February 1, 1958 at Woodlands. Que., at the age of 63. He is
survived by his widow, Jean Ogilvy Laffoley ; two daughters, Mrs. D. G. Robertson
and Mrs. H. T. Oliver; two sisters, Lois and Mrs. S. Buchanan; and a brother, Eric.
Mr. Laffoley was born and educated in Montreal, and in 1916 received his Bachelor
of Science degree in Engineering from McGill University. He joined the Canadian
Pacific in 1912 and, except for military service from 1916 to 1918, spent his entire career
thereon in the office of the chief engineer at Montreal on railway building work. In
1937 he became assistant engineer of buildings and in 1946, engineer of buildings for
the system. In 1956, he was appointed engineer of hotels, in which post he was activel)
engaged up to the time of his death.
1234 Buildings
Mr. Laffolcy joined the AREA in 1922 and actively participated in the work of
five of the Association's committees, namely:
Committee 6 — Buildings, 1935 to the time of his death (chairman 1939 to 1942)
Committee 23 — Shops and Locomotive Terminals, 1923 to 1925 and 1929 to 1938
Committee 26 — Standardization, 1939 to 1942
Committee 28— Clearances, 1939 to 1942
Committee 20 — Waterproofing, 1938 to 1948
In 1954 and 1955, he served on the AREA Convention Arrangements Committee,
in the latter year as Chairman. In 1957 he was made a Life Member of the Association.
In addition to his AREA affiliation, Mr. Laffoley was a member of the Engineering
Institute of Canada, the Association of Professional Engineers of Quebec, the Canadian
Railway Club, Canadian Club, Mount Stephen Club and Kanawaki Golf Club.
He gave generously of his time to committee work and other activities of the
AREA. He enjoyed a fine reputation for his ability and assistance on committee work
and his warm and friendly personality. Members of the Building committee sincerely
regret his sudden passing and will, with his other friends in the AREA, miss their
pleasant associations with him.
Chairman Perrine: A memoir in honor of Mr. Leland P. Kimball, retired engineer
of buildings, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, is published on page 484, Bulletin 539,
November 1957. Mr. Kimball was very active in AREA from 1919 until his retirement
in 1952.
The complete report of Committee 6 appears in Bulletin 539, November 1957, pages
483-497.
Brief progress reports, presented as information on Assignments 1, 4 and 6, are
included in the report. We do not have a report on Assignment 2 — Specifications for
Railway Buildings.
Mr. M. H. Booth, division engineer, Frisco, Springfield, Mo., chairman of Sub-
committee 7, will give the report on Assignment 7.
Assignment 7 — Buildings to House Maintenance of Way Tools, Equip-
ment and/or Personnel.
H. M. Booth [Frisco]: Mr. President, members and guests: This assignment first
came up for study four years ago principally for the reason that very little has been
published in the proceedings on the subject for over 40 years. Our report reflects data
obtained from questionnaires sent to many railroads.
We all know that, particularly in the track department of many roads, maintenance
of way organizations and practices have been undergoing radical changes in the last
four years. Structures recommended today may not answer the requirements a year
from now. Hence the information given in the report is quite broad and general in
nature. Are there any questions please?
Chairman Perrine: Thank you, Mr. Booth.
Mr. C. M. Angel, engineer of tests, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, Huntington, W. Va.,
chairman of the subcommittee, will give the report on Assignment 8.
Assignment 8 — Fire-Retardant Paints for Railway Building Interiors.
C. M. Angel [C&O]: Mr. Chairman, members of the Association, and guests: In
presenting this report your committee can only furnish some general information on the
Discussion 1235
subject. It should be borne in mind that all that can be expected of fire-retardant treat-
ments or coatings are compounds to retard the burning and spread of fire to the point
where the material will not continue to burn when the ignition source is removed or
exhausted.
If further information on tests is desired on fire-retardant paints, it can be obtained
from tests conducted by the Underwriters Laboratories and the Association of American
Railroads Research Center, at Chicago.
It can be generally stated that the work and tests conducted to measure the effec-
tiveness of fire-retardant coatings have been insufficient to determine how effective such
coatings would act in actual use.
Mr. Chairman this report is presented as information.
Chairman Perrine: Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 6.
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Perrine. The Association appreciates the
progress which your committee has made and has in prospect on a number of very im-
portant subjects of interest to the railroads. Your committee is now excused with the
thanks of the Association.
Discussion of Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
[For report, see pp. 629-654]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: Continuing with our committee reports, we will now hear
from Committee 27 — Maintenance of Way Work Equipment, the chairman of which
is Mr. A. W. Munt, supervisor work equipment, Canadian Pacific Railway, Toronto.
Will Mr. Munt and the other members of his committee please come to the platform
and make their presentations at this time.
While the committee is coming up, may I announce that as of 2:30 pm the grand
total registration was 2178.
Chairman A. W. Munt [Canadian Pacific] : Mr. President, members of the Asso-
ciation and guests: Those who have Bulletin 540 with them will find the report of
Committee 27 on pages 62° to 654 incl. We are reporting on eight assignments, four
of which are progress reports and four of which are final reports. Seven of the reports
are submitted as information only, and one report contains recommended revisions for
inclusion in the Manual. The presentation of these reports is confined to brief sum-
maries, but this committee hopes that those who are interested in work equipment will
find the full reports both interesting and informative, and we suggest that they be read
in their entirety.
This committee invites pertinent comments from the audience. While we do not
pretend to know nearly all there is to be known about work equipment, the subcom-
mittee chairmen will do their best in an attempt to answer any questions you may
wish to ask.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual, was to have been presented by Subcommittee
Chairman S. H. Knight, fleet manager, Northern Pacific Railway, who is also vice
chairman of this Committee. Mr. Knight could not be present, so the report will be
presented by Mr. F. L. Horn, engineer of track. Terminal Railroad Association of St.
Louis.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
F. L. Horn [TRRA of StL] : The changes recommended for inclusion in the Manual
1236 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
this year, rather minor in nature, involve subject matter pertaining to motor cars, push
cars and trailers. The recommendations are as follows:
[Mr. Horn then read the recommendations of the committee as printed on page
630 of Bulletin 540, same page in this volume of the Proceedings, continuing as
follows] :
Mr. Horn: These recommendations have been approved by letter ballot of the
committee and are submitted for adoption. I move that the material as read be included
in the Manual.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Chairman Munt: Assignment 3 — New Developments in Work. Equipment. This,
next report is a continuing one, and one in which an effort is made to include a brief
description of all the new and important developments in the work equipment field
each year. A summary of this report will be presented by the Subcommittee Chairman
T. H. Taylor, supervisor — maintenance of way material and equipment, Northwestern
Region, Pennsylvania Railroad.
Assignment 3 — New Developments in Work Equipment
T. H. Taylor [Pennsylvania]: Mr. President, gentlemen: This assignment, as Mr.
Munt told you, covers a brief description of new developments in work equipment.
This year your subcommittee is reporting on seven new machines which have been
brought to its attention since the report of last year. Five of these machines are directly
applicable to track maintenance. These include a portable rail drill equipped with auto-
matic feed and rapid-acting rail clamp.
In this group is another unit called the track surfacer which eliminates use of a spot
board in track raising operations by use of a steel wire mounted on carriages and held
apart by buggies. A jack-tamper machine is used in conjunction with this arrangement
for raising the track and tamping the tie to hold the raise ahead of a tamping machine.
Another machine is a self-propelled spot tamper which is equipped with hydraulic
jacks and rail clamps and is designed for spot surfacing work. The design of the tamping
head also allows use of this machine for tamping turnouts, frogs and crossings.
Two other units described are tie spacing machines, one of which is equipped with
a magnetic brake for gripping the rail while the other uses a hydraulic rail clamping
device.
Other machines described in the report include a bridge machine designed "for one
man operation of four pneumatically powered drills for simultaneously drilling guard
timber, ties, etc., in bridge and building work.
There is also described a wheeled tractor which is diesel powered and is equipped
with a planetary steering system which permits turning of machine while maintaining
full power on all four wheels. Double-drum power control unit can also be added to
this unit for operation of cable control equipment as well as a dozer blade, for use in
general maintenance work.
This progress report is presented as information.
Chairman Munt: Assignment 4 — Improvements to be Made to Existing Work
Equipment. The next report covers a continuous study of ways and means to improve
existing work equipment. The report will be presented by Subcommittee Chairman
R. E. Berggren, supervisor maintenance of way and equipment, Illinois Central Railroad.
Assignment 4 — Improvements to be Made to Existing Work Equipment.
R. E. Berggren [IC] : This is a progress report, submitted as information, being
a continuation of reports submitted by this committee in previous years, and covers
Discussion 1237
changes in existing work equipment that the committee has found to be both desirable
and practical.
The current report is confined to several improvements which we suggest be made
to six machines to improve the operation, extend the life or to facilitate the maintenance
of the machines. These suggested improvements originated with members and others
who are directly concerned with the operation and maintenance of the machine.
These machines are:
Multiple spike driver
Track jack and tamper
Track liner
Spot tamper
Track maintainer (production tamping machine)
Hydraulic spike puller
All of the recommended improvements listed in the report were submitted to the
manufacturers of the equipment for their consideration. They expressed their gratitude
for these suggestions and advised that they would cooperate as far as possible in effecting
the desired improvements.
Chairman Munt: This next assignment covers an interesting study of a relatively
new piece of equipment — the diesel pile hammer. The report will be summarized by
Subcommittee Chairman J. W. Risk, superintendent work equipment, Canadian Xational
Railways, who, coming from Canada, will also tell you how to start the machine in
cold weather. [Laughter]
Assignment 5 — Diesel Pile Hammers.
J. W. Risk [Canadian National]: Mr. President, members and guests: The report
presented by your committee as information contains a complete description of the
three types of diesel pile hammers now on the market. They are described by letters A,
B, and C, and the manufacturer is identified at the conclusion of that portion of the
report dealing with each type.
Development of the diesel pile hammer has been rapid. They are now used in more
than 50 countries and the leading manufacturers of steam pile hammers on this con-
tinent are either manufacturing or preparing to manufacture diesel pile hammers. The
steam pile hammer, under certain conditions, has advantages, such as easier starting
and degree of control; the advantages of the diesel pile hammer are in its mobility,
elimination of coal or oil-fired boiler, air compressor and appendages. Some are of lighter
weight than conventional hammers, reducing crane capacities assigned to this service.
It is the feeling of the committee that the tendency toward simplicity and toward
robust and reliable equipment will bring the diesel pile hammer forward with the
same speed at which diesel equipment now is taking over in the railway transportation
field.
I have been directed to tell you how to start it. That is quite an order. However,
with the type A mentioned in the report, you can use a one-pint ether dispenser, par-
ticularlv on the N'o. 5. and it will do a very satisfactory job under any circumstances.
The manufacturer of this machine has developed an ether gun of such type that
you can inject ether into the pump. That u even better; at least they believe it will
be better than the dispenser.
We are satisfied that all these problems are going to be remedied and, as I said,
it is the feeling of the committee that the diesel pile hammer is here to staj
Thank vou.
1238 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Chairman Munt: Thank you, Mr. Risk. I didn't mean to put you on the spot.
Assignment 6 covers a study of the comparative merits of diesel engines and gasoline
engines. The report on this subject will be presented by Subcommittee Chairman L. E.
Conner, supervisor work equipment, Seaboard Air Line Railroad.
I don't see Mr. Conner here, so I will ask Mr. G. L. Zipperian, supervisor of work
equipment, Great Northern, if he will read the report.
Assignment 6 — Diesel Engines vs Gasoline Engines Used in Work
Equipment.
G. L. Zipperian [GN] : This is a final report and submitted as information. A
previous report on diesel engines may be found in Vol. 47, 1946, page 196 and Vol. SO,
1949, page 345.
The study of diesel engines versus gasoline engines by your committee indicates
that serious consideration should be given to the use of diesel engines on work equipment
where it is used 600 hr or more per year and requires 50 hp or greater.
On equipment such as generators and pumps that will receive considerable service
or continuous operation requiring 25 hp or greater, diesel engines should also be
considered.
Due to the rapid strides in development of small high-speed diesels in the past
several years and the availability of fuel and starting aids, the diesel engine has become
more popular and should be considered whenever the horse power and requirements will
permit, particularly since all major railroads on this continent are now practically fully
dieselized. The dieselization of work equipment blends in with this program.
Chairman Munt: The report on Assignment 7 is a progressive one, and Subcom-
mittee Chairman S. E. Haines, Jr., port facilities engineer, Reading Company, will out-
line the progress made on this assignment.
Assignment 7 — Number of Units of Work Equipment to be Repaired
by Field Repairmen.
S. E. Haines, Jr. [Reading] : Your committee has submitted the first portion of a
report outlining the number of units of work equipment to be repaired by field repair-
men. This report outlines some of the factors involved affecting the efficiency of field
repairmen. Naturally, a good repairman can maintain more machines in a satisfactory
condition than a poor repairman, and therefore ability is most important.
Aside from the ability of the repairman and the operator, probably the next most
important item is transportation to and from the work site. Time spent in traveling is
nonproductive. Any amount that travel time can be reduced will result in increased
efficiency. Our report points out this fact and gives some hints on how to reduce travel
time.
During this period we are all interested in saving money. One way to increase
efficiency without spending any money is to make sure the operator in the field states
clearly what is wrong with his machine. Nothing is more exasperating than to have
an operator phone the shop or repairman saying his machine is broken and then hang up
giving no clues as to what is wrong. Often a day's pay can be thrown away need-
lessly by requiring the repairman to travel far into the field to determine what parts
are required on a job, when a statement by the operator that he needs brake shoes or
something similar would save the trip.
Your committee is studying a system of units based upon mileage, territory, size of
machines,, etc., to determine just how many units the average repairman can be expected
Discussion 1239
to maintain. It is hoped this chart will be available at the end of the year for use by all.
However, the number of units assigned to each man is a managerial decision. The chart
will aid managements in making this decision.
Chairman Mint: Assignment 8 has to do with machines for unloading ties. This
report will be summarized by Subcommittee Chairman H. F. Longhelt, assistant to
division engineer, Illinois Central Railroad.
Assignment 8 — Tie Unloaders.
H. F. Longhelt [IC]: Mr. President and gentlemen: In the past few years, due
to many factors, the handling of ties before actual installation in the track has become
an important matter on all railroads. This report does not endeavor to cover the many
methods of unloading ties in practice now but describes the machines which have been
developed for this work and gives a description of their operation.
The report covers two machines which were specifically designed for unloading ties
and two machines which have been adapted to this use.
This is a final report submitted as information.
Chairman Mint: Assignment 9, the last report of this committee, will be pre-
sented by Subcommittee Chairman W. F. Kohl, superintendent scales and highway
equipment, Southern Railway System.
Assignment 9 — Basis for Replacing Automotive Vehicles.
W. F. Kohl [Southern]: The large use of automotive vehicles in railroad service
indicates a need for the development of a definite replacement policy. The data and
replacement formulas in our report are offered as a guide toward formulation of such
a policy. The values shown in the replacement formulas are suggested average values
and should be adjusted to fit the requirements and conditions encountered on each road.
For the average highway vehicle used by railroads under average conditions, a
service life of 6 years and 72.000 miles for trucks and 4 years and 72,000 miles for
automobiles is indicated. In the absence of definite reliable records, it is suggested that
these figures be used in setting up depreciation and replacement schedules.
There are many related conditions which will cause the service life to vary, and
these should be taken into consideration when replacement of a motor vehicle is under
study. Under normal conditions a motor vehicle should be replaced before it requires
a general overhaul, as in most cases the value of the vehicle will not be enhanced
sufficiently to justify the cost.
In any replacement program a sufficient number of vehicles should be replaced
each year to keep the depreciation account in normal balance. If an unusual number
of vehicles has to be purchased in any one year, then the retirement of these vehicles
should be spread over two or three years in order to get future purchases and replace-
ments on a more uniform cycle.
Chairman Mint: Mr. President, this completes the report of our committee.
Before leaving the podium. I would like to express my appreciation to the members
of this committee for their splendid support throughout the year. I would also like to
announce that Mr. S. H. Knight, who has been the very able vice chairman of this
Committee for the past two years, wishes to retire from that position at the close
of this convention. I wish to thank him most sincerely for all the help he has given u-
over the past two years.
The new vice chairman will be Mr. F. L. Horn, engineer of track. Terminal Rail
road Association of St. Louis, who is presently the secretary of this committee.
1240 Economics of Railway Labor
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Munt. Your committee has again presented
a number of interesting and informative reports, keeping us up to date, as in the past,
on this increasingly important matter of work equipment, which has become "big busi-
ness" in the operations of the construction and maintenance forces of the railroads. It is
well known to me that you have a hard-working committee, and we want you to know
that your efforts are appreciated.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association. [Applause]
Discussion of Economics of Railway Labor
[For report, see pp. 563-598]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: From the last series of reports, dealing with work equip-
ment and roadway machines, we turn now to the report of our committee that deals
largely with the economics and higher standards of work which can be effected through
the use of this work equipment and roadway machines. This is our Committee 22 —
Economics of Railway Labor, of which, for the past three years, Mr. D. E. Rudisill,
assistant chief engineer — maintenance, Pennsylvania Railroad, has been chairman. May
I ask Mr. Rudisill and the other members of his committee to come to the platform
and present their report.
Chairman D. E. Rudisill [Pennsylvania]: Mr. President, members and guests:
During the past year Committee 22 lost one of its most faithful members, Mr. C. G.
Grove, retired area engineer — construction of the Pennsylvania Railroad. His passing
is noted with regret, and appropriate memoirs have been prepared both by Committee
22, of which he was a member for many years, and by the Association itself. [The
latter memoir may be found in the Memoir section of these Proceedings.]
The committee has also learned of the death of Mr. W. H. Vance, retired assistant
engineer maintenance of way, Missouri Pacific Railroad, who was a member emeritus
of Committee 22. A committee has been appointed to prepare memoirs covering his
passing also.
MEMOIR
Cfjarleg (^orbon dlrobe
With profound regret, Committee 22 expresses its sorrow at the loss of an honored
member, Charles Gordon Grove. Mr. Grove, former area engineer of the Pennsylvania
and a past president of the American Railway Engineering Association, died on Novem-
ber 18, 1957, following a heart attack. He was born December 20, 1890, at Muddy
Creek Forks, York County, Pennsylvania, graduated from York Institute in 1908 and
from Penn State College (now Penn State University) in June 1912. Mr. Grove was
married on October 21, 1921, to Martha Caroline Shrodes, who survives him at their
home in Kenilworth, 111.
Except for a period of overseas service with the Armed Forces in World War I,
Mr. Grove devoted his professional career and loyalty to the Pennsylvania Railroad,
advancing through intermediate responsibilities to the position of chief engineer (later
area engineer) Western Region. He retired on July 1, 1957.
Mr. Grove joined the AREA in 1929. Among his many activities for the Associa-
tion was his membership in Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor. As a member
of Committee 22, Mr. Grove contributed unsparingly of his time and energy. He was
active as subcommittee member and served as chairman of numerous subcommittees.
Discussion 1241
His clear perception, unflinching integrity, and courteous consideration of the ideas and
opinions of his fellow committee members made him an effective and respected member.
Committee 22 has lost a wise counselor and friend, a man known and admired as an
able engineer and upright Christian gentleman.
A more extended memoir expressing the feelings of the entire Association appears
elsewhere in the Proceedings.
Chairman Ridisill: Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor, will present
reports on five subjects. The committee's report as a whole will be found in Bulletin
540, pages 563 to 507 incl. The committee will welcome questions or comments from
the floor at the close of each subcommittee report. In the interest of time each sub-
committee chairman will introduce the man who will follow him at the rostrum.
The first report will be on Assignment 2 — Analysis of Operations of Railways That
Have Substantially Reduced the Cost of Labor Required in Maintenance of Way Work,
and will be given by Subcommittee Chairman H. J. Weccheider, engineer maintenance
of way. Erie Railroad.
Assignment 2 — Analysis of Operations of Railways That Have Substan-
tially Reduced the Cost of Labor Required in Maintenance of Way Work.
H. J. Weccheider [Erie]: Mr. President, members of the Association and guests:
Our report this year is the sixteenth of a series. In previous years, studies have dealt
with interesting and progressive maintenance practices on 15 other roads. In general.
the current study covers various phases of maintenance principles on the Wabash Rail-
road.
Considerable data for the current report were obtained from statistical information
furnished by the Wabash on welded rail and general maintenance practices, but the
primary purpose of the trip that Committee 22 made to the railroad, was to make a
thorough inspection of its specialized tie renewal and surfacing gang which was at work
in the vicinity of Litchfield, 111.
Complete details of this mechanized operation comprise the major portion of this
report. In describing the operation of this gang, observed during the inspection, the
report includes:
1. Drawing illustrating the organization.
2. A tabulation of the equipment, in order of use, the personnel engaged in each
operation, and description of their duties.
v Photographs of the equipment.
The Wabash has vastly improved the riding qualities of its track through the gang's
excellent productivity and quality of work. In the three months between April 1st and
June 28th, 1957. this one gang had surfaced and tied 108 miles of track, or an average
of 1.71 miles per work-day. The highest footage covered in an 8-hr work period was
12,129 ft tamped, with an average tie renewal of 225 per mile. Other figures for doing
this same type of work on a track taken out of service range from 10,000 to 11,000 ft
per day.
This gang has been maintained as a high-production unit through the splendid
cooperation afforded by the operating department in detouring trains over the opposite
track from that being worked. Another outstanding and contributing factor is the man-
ner in which actual work delays are reduced to an absolute minimum. This is accom-
plished through advance planning by having a small truck gang take care of the work
1 240 Economics of Railway Labor
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Munt. Your committee has again presented
a number of interesting and informative reports, keeping us up to date, as in the past,
on this increasingly important matter of work equipment, which has become "big busi-
ness" in the operations of the construction and maintenance forces of the railroads. It is
well known to me that you have a hard-working committee, and we want you to know
that your efforts are appreciated.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association. [Applause]
Discussion of Economics of Railway Labor
[For report, see pp. S63-S98]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: From the last series of reports, dealing with work equip-
ment and roadway machines, we turn now to the report of our committee that deals
largely with the economics and higher standards of work which can be effected through
the use of this work equipment and roadway machines. This is our Committee 22 —
Economics of Railway Labor, of which, for the past three years, Mr. D. E. Rudisill,
assistant chief engineer — maintenance, Pennsylvania Railroad, has been chairman. May
I ask Mr. Rudisill and the other members of his committee to come to the platform
and present their report.
Chairman D. E. Rudisill [Pennsylvania] : Mr. President, members and guests:
During the past year Committee 22 lost one of its most faithful members, Mr. C. G.
Grove, retired area engineer — construction of the Pennsylvania Railroad. His passing
is noted with regret, and appropriate memoirs have been prepared both by Committee
22, of which he was a member for many years, and by the Association itself. [The
latter memoir may be found in the Memoir section of these Proceedings.]
The committee has also learned of the death of Mr. W. H. Vance, retired assistant
engineer maintenance of way, Missouri Pacific Railroad, who was a member emeritus
of Committee 22. A committee has been appointed to prepare memoirs covering his
passing also.
MEMOIR
Cfjarles Portion dlrobe
With profound regret, Committee 22 expresses its sorrow at the loss of an honored
member, Charles Gordon Grove. Mr. Grove, former area engineer of the Pennsylvania
and a past president of the American Railway Engineering Association, died on Novem-
ber 18, 1057, following a heart attack. He was born December 20, 1890, at Muddy
Creek Forks, York County, Pennsylvania, graduated from York Institute in 1908 and
from Penn State College (now Penn State University) in June 1912. Mr. Grove was
married on October 21, 1921, to Martha Caroline Shrodes, who survives him at their
home in Kenilworth, 111.
Except for a period of overseas service with the Armed Forces in World War I,
Mr. Grove devoted his professional career and loyalty to the Pennsylvania Railroad,
advancing through intermediate responsibilities to the position of chief engineer (later
area engineer) Western Region. He retired on July 1, 1957.
Mr. Grove joined the AREA in 1929. Among his many activities for the Associa-
tion was his membership in Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor. As a member
of Committee 22, Mr. Grove contributed unsparingly of his time and energy. He was
active as subcommittee member and served as chairman of numerous subcommittees.
Discussion 1241
His clear perception, unflinching integrity, and courteous consideration of the ideas and
opinions of his fellow committee members made him an effective and respected member.
Committee 22 has lost a wise counselor and friend, a man known and admired as an
able engineer and upright Christian gentleman.
A more extended memoir expressing the feelings of the entire Association appears
elsewhere in the Proceedings.
Chairman Rudisill: Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor, will present
reports on five subjects. The committee's report as a whole will be found in Bulletin
540, pages 563 to 597 incl. The committee will welcome questions or comments from
the floor at the close of each subcommittee report. In the interest of time each sub-
committee chairman will introduce the man who will follow him at the rostrum.
The first report will be on Assignment 2 — Analysis of Operations of Railways That
Have Substantially Reduced the Cost of Labor Required in Maintenance of Way Work,
and will be given by Subcommittee Chairman H. J. Weccheider, engineer maintenance
of way, Erie Railroad.
Assignment 2 — Analysis of Operations of Railways That Have Substan-
tially Reduced the Cost of Labor Required in Maintenance of Way Work.
H. J. Weccheider [Erie]: Mr. President, members of the Association and guests:
Our report this year is the sixteenth of a series. In previous years, studies have dealt
with interesting and progressive maintenance practices on 15 other roads. In general,
the current study covers various phases of maintenance principles on the Wabash Rail-
road.
Considerable data for the current report were obtained from statistical information
furnished by the Wabash on welded rail and general maintenance practices, but the
primary purpose of the trip that Committee 22 made to the railroad, was to make a
thorough inspection of its specialized tie renewal and surfacing gang which was at work
in the vicinity of Litchfield, 111.
Complete details of this mechanized operation comprise the major portion of this
report. In describing the operation of this gang, observed during the inspection, the
report includes:
1. Drawing illustrating the organization.
2. A tabulation of the equipment, in order of use, the personnel engaged in each
operation, and description of their duties.
3. Photographs of the equipment.
The Wabash has vastly improved the riding qualities of its track through the gang's
excellent productivity and quality of work. In the three months between April 1st and
June 28th, 1957. this one gang had surfaced and tied 10S miles of track, or an average
of 1.71 miles per work-day. The highest footage covered in an 8-hr work period was
12,129 ft tamped, with an average tie renewal of 225 per mile. Other figures for doing
this same type of work on a track taken out of service range from 10.000 to 11,000 ft
per day.
This gang has been maintained as a high-production unit through the splendid
cooperation afforded by the operating department in detouring trains over the opposite
track from that being worked. Another outstanding and contributing factor is the man-
ner in which actual work delays are reduced to an absolute minimum. This is accom-
plished through advance planning by having a small truck gang take can- of the work
1242 Economics of Railway Labor
at crossings and turnouts or at any other location where it is difficult to resurface and
retimber. This work is done sufficiently ahead of the arrival of the specialized Rang,
thus assuring maximum production daily.
Based on the operation inspected, the excellent condition of the railroad in general,
and the statistical information supplied, it is the consensus of this committee that the
Wabash Railroad has effected substantial savings in labor and material.
Committee 22 expresses sincere appreciation to the officers of the Wabash for their
whole-hearted cooperation in making possible this inspection trip and resulting report.
This report is submitted as information.
The next report will be on Assignment 3 by W. W. Hay, professor of railway civil
engineering, University of Illinois, subcommittee chairman.
Assignment 3 — Economics of Securing Maintenance of Way Labor from
the Railroad Retirement Board, Compared to Securing it From Other
Sources.
Prof. W. W. Hay [U. of 111.] : Mr. President, members of the Association and
guests: Assignment 3 is a study to determine the current practices in regard to securing
labor in the maintenance of way departments and to determine the economies, or lack
of economies, in securing that labor from claimants referred by the Railroad Retirement
Board.
The committee finds a significant economy in hiring claimants as new labor, but
some of that economy may be lost when rates of turnover and costs to "hire and fire"
are excessive. The average work output and labor turnover of claimants, most of whom
are assigned to extra and floating gangs in the maintenance of way departments, are
about the same as for labor secured from other sources. Of those referred by the Retire-
ment Board, about one-third are physically or otherwise unfit. Railroads should con-
tinue to give preference to claimants and avail themselves of the facilities of the Railroad
Retirement Board. By so doing the contributions which railroads must make to the
Board's unemployment fund will be kept to a minimum.
This report is presented as information with the recommendation that the subject
be discontinued.
The next report will be on Assignment 5 by Mr. M. S. Reid, engineer of mainte-
nance, Chicago & North Western Railway, subcommittee chairman.
Assignment 5 — Relative Economy of Housing Maintenance Forces in
Auto Trailers and Camp Cars.
M. S. Reid [C&NW] : Mr. President, members of the Association and guests: As
indicated in the report, this subcommittee attempted to work up comparative figures
on the cost of housing maintenance forces in auto trailers as compared to camp cars.
A questionnaire was sent to over 50 railroads and many replies were received. However,
only a few of the railroads replying had trailers in service, and the reports received
indicated that most of the railroads that did have trailers had not had them in service
a sufficient length of time to furnish the comparative cost figures requested. Five of
them were able to furnish sufficient data to make a partial comparison, and these data
are included in our report as printed in the Bulletin.
Comments received in a number of replies to the questionnaire indicate that trailers
would appear to be very desirable in small gangs from 2 to 12 men where these gangs
are furnished with trucks for transportation.
This report is presented as information.
Discussion 1243
The next report is on Assignment 6 by Subcommittee Chairman H. W. Seeley,
Engineer Maintenance of Way. Detroit, Toledo & Ironton Railroad.
Assignment 6 — Potential Maintenance Economies to be Effected by
Laying Rail Tight with Frozen Joints, Collaborating with Committee 5.
H. W. Seeley [DT&I]: In an effort to reduce the impact of the wheels at the rail
joints, and thereby reduce rail-end batter; increase the service life of rail, splices, joint
ties and ballast; and reduce the cost of maintaining surface, a number of railroads have
installed stretches of standard length rails laid tight with higher-than-normal bolt ten-
sion to freeze the joints. By eliminating the opening between the rail ends normally
provided to allow for longitudinal expansion of the rail, they anticipate obtaining some
of the advantages of continuous welded rail without the disadvantages which they feel
continuous welded rail has for them. The report summarizes the economic benefits that
the various railroads anticipate they may derive from laying rail tight with frozen
joints.
While it is generally recognized that there are increased costs involved in laying
rail tight with frozen joints, reports from the railroads indicate that the potential savings
resulting from increased material life and reduced maintenance, particularly surfacing
required, will more than offset the increased installation costs. Improved methods of
laying tight rail and the development of joint treatment to promote or speed up
''freezing" may eventually reduce the increased installation costs.
Experience with tight rail to date has been too limited to enable us to arrive at any
definite and accurate quantitative conclusion as to what the economic advantages and
disadvantages may be. AREA Committee 5 and the AAR are conducting service tests
of tight rail on the Louisville & Nashville, Erie, and Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroads,
which should eventually provide valuable information. Information now available from
railroads that have had tight rail installations in service for several years indicate that,
at least in some situations, there are extensive maintenance economies to be effected by
laying rail tight with frozen joints.
President McBrian: I have one question, Mr. Seeley. In your report you use the
word "adhesives." What do you mean by that word?
Mr. Seeley: I would say "glue." There is at least one and, I think, two types of
adhesive which are being developed, and I believe some of us saw an example of it
at the exhibit. That glue has actually been used on some railroads. It is a little early
to tell just how successful it will be.
President McBrian: Thank you.
Mr. Seeley: The next report will be on Assignment 8 by Subcommittee Chairman
J. S. Snyder, assistant regional engineer, Pennsylvania Railroad.
Assignment 8 — Most Effective Means of Tie Distribution. Including
Design of a Suitable Mechanized Apparatus to Unload Ties from Conven-
tional Gondola-Type Cars.
J. S. Snyder [Pennsylvania]: Subcommittee 8 submits its report on the most effec-
tive means of distributing tics, including the design of a suitable mechanized apparatus
to unload ties from conventional gondola type cars. It was compiled from reports
received from 46 roads in the United States and Canada. The response to our question-
naire was excellent, and the information received was most valuable.
The printed report gives detailed cost data for unloading ties by seven various
methods, and the man-hours for distributing ties varied from a maximum of 0.27 nun
hours per tie for trackmen distributing them with a track car and push irmk to a mini-
1244 Economics of Railway Labor
mum of 0.011 man-hours per tie using specially fitted gondola cars and a mechanical tie
unloader. Applying a $2.00 rate per hour for trackmen, the labor cost varies from 54
cents per tie for those distributed manually to a cost of 2.2 cents for ties distributed
by mechanical methods. Other methods of tie distribution varied between these two
extremes.
The distribution of cross ties from the treating plant to the point of application is
primarily a material handling problem, and there are many different phases of this
problem that each road must evaluate before deciding which method is best for its
operation. The location of the treating plant which furnishes ties to any particular
district; work train terminals; the number of ties installed per year; traffic density;
maintenance of way organization ; and many other factors are involved that could not
be treated in this study but must be considered by each individual road. The com-
mittee believes that mechanical material-handling devices and assigned special tie cars
can materially reduce the cost of tie distribution, and at the same time reduce personal
injuries to trackmen and place the ties closer to the point of application than when this
work is done manually. This is a final report submitted as information.
Chairman Rudisill: Committee 22 in the past has been most fortunate in being
able to offer, as part of their report, a special feature consisting of an address by some
member on a subject of interest to maintenance of way people in general. I think today
we are doubly fortunate in that we are able to present two speakers. I am sure both
subjects will be of unusual interest to railroaders.
The first speaker today will speak on "Observation on Track Maintenance in France
and Germany". He is Mr. T. F. Burris, chief engineer system, Chesapeake & Ohio
Railway.
Observation on Track Maintenance in France and Germany
By T. F. Burris
Chief Engineer System, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway
Mr. President, fellow members of the AREA and guests: Last November I found
it necessary to go to the Krupp Plant at Rheinhausen, Germany, to determine the
progress of equipment being manufactured by that concern for use on our coal dumping
facilities at our coal docks, Toledo, Ohio.
I thought that while we were in Germany, it might be a good opportunity to
observe, rather hurriedly, how railroad tracks in Europe are maintained. At that time,
I had no idea that I would be standing here today, trying to tell you of the things
that I had seen. Our party consisted of four C&O engineers. After spending three days
of intensive work with the Krupp people, Mr. Dunn and I left the others to take care
of the details while we went to inspect certain railroad maintenance work being done
in the vicinity of Cologne.
Our guides were two English-speaking Germans, one being what in this country
might be termed a district engineer, while the other might be termed a division engineer.
They proved to be very fine gentlemen and from all indications were quite capable
maintenance officers. About one-half way between Duisburg and Cologne, the railroad
parallels the highway, and we stopped to observe a gang of approximately ISO men
laying welded rail.
Previous to our arrival, the old track had been removed, the ballast cleaned and
spread on an even surface. We were told that many times a road roller is used to com-
pact the fresh ballast and give it good surface before placing ties. Reinforced concrete
Address of T. F. Burris 1245
ties were evenly spaced on the rolled ballast surface. Treated wooden shims about 34 in
thick and the size of the rail base, were placed on each tie to act as a cushion. The
welded rail, approximately 100 lb per yd, was distributed along the ends of the ties in
lengths of approximately 2100 ft. This rail was lifted and placed on the ties by a rather
large number of small hand-operated cranes or winches spaced about 30 ft apart. The
rail was held down by a device similar to a rail clip which fitted over an imbedded
bolt; it not only held the rail tight to the tie, but also held the rail to gage.
At another location, we observed the reconditioning of foul track in a deep cut
which we were told was the result of daylighting an old tunnel about six years ago.
This work was being done by using a Matisa ballast cleaner to cut the ballast to a depth
of about 12 in under the tie. The clean ballast was returned to the track and the track
raised to its former elevation by the use of Matisa machines. The Matisa machines
seem to have been used in Europe for some time and apparently are the only machines
they have, outside of a few very recently purchased American tamping equipment.
On Friday, November 8, we went from Duisburg to Bremen on the German National
Railroad, a distance of 210 kilometers. My observations of the track over which we
rode were as follows:
The rail was equivalent to 100-lb section, most of which was welded and secured
to the ties, which are spaced 25 in center to center, by spring clips or GEO construc-
tion, commonly referred to in Germany as cradles. The line, surface and cross levels
appeared excellent. The curves had transitions which rode excellently at a speed of 70
mph. In all instances the ballast sections were full. The cross ties were of different
types; some were of concrete, some of steel and some of wood. The housekeeping along
the railroad was excellent. The side drains and laterals appeared to afford adequate
drainage. All road crossings, regardless of importance or use, were protected by gates.
The surface of all road crossings were constructed of concrete slabs or timber.
I came away with the general feeling that I had observed a hand-built piece of
railroad, somewhat akin to a fine piece of hand-made furniture or a tailor-made suit.
Drainage structures, in most cases, were built of stone, in perfect condition and well
maintained. Right-of-ways were cleaned and the embankments were in perfect shape
and condition. The ballast line as far as I could see was perfect. They go to considerable
lengths in maintaining their railroad. Location posts are located about 100 m apart.
Permanent center-line stakes are located about every 75 ft and permanent grade stakes
about the same.
The German railroad is government-owned and has always been more concerned
with getting the most out of materials rather than the cost of labor. From our talks
with various people, and from all I saw, I am sure that they are now becoming increas-
ingly aware that some of the refinements they have previously practiced are not entirely
necessary to the operation of a good railroad. I have heard it expressed from time to
time that if their roads carry the loads that we in America carry, they would not be
able to maintain them in the existing manner. I am not so sure that this is absolutely
true, although it might be in many places.
I observed ore trains coming into the Ruhr Valley, and it is true that these cars
carried about Y2 the load that ore cars in the United States do; but by the same token,
they had only l/2 as many wheels; therefore, the wheel loads must have been more com-
parable than we at first realized.
We, of course, were asking many questions about their maintenance practices and
they were very willing to answer our questions, but if we were not careful, we found
ourselves answering questions rather than asking them.
1246
Economics of Railway Labor
Concrete and steel ties on the French National Railways.
I came away with the feeling that the German railroad officer is becoming much
more conscious of the cost of labor and that, like American railroads before him, is
giving consideration to mechanizing his railroad maintenance force.
A couple of days later, we went to Paris to observe maintenance of the French
railroads. In Paris we met Mr. J. Wescott, whom many of you men know, who graci-
ously arranged an appointment with the chief engineer of the National Railroads of
France.
Somewhere during the past 30 years of my work in railroading, I had acquired a
feeling that the railroads in the United States were about the best in the entire world.
Address of T. F. Burris
1247
View showing construction of French concrete and steel tie.
and that we had the best and most economical means of maintaining track. But, after
listening to the chief engineer of the French Railroads, whom I had the pleasure of
talking with for about 2 hr, I began to think that perhaps we should not be so smug
and that others have some good ideas also.
We rode several hundred miles on French railroads and, frankly, I have never
had a better ride. The French chief engineer told me that about five years ago, they
began a plan whereby they would renew certain portions of their railroad each year;
it was planned that their entire main line system would be renewed in this manner in a
period of 20 to 25 years, and that during the period they would not renew any part
of the track, except in the cases of emergency.
At renewal time, the track would be removed down to the subgrade and a new
track would be installed complete with rail, ties, fastenings and ballast. They would
then use recovered usable material for industrial tracks and expansion of yards, etc.
Under this program, all rail was to be welded, and once the track was surfaced, it was
to be kept that way by a process which we know as "spooning" or "shooting" track.
We on the C&O discarded this practice many years ago, although I think I'll have to
admit that some of our old and better foremen still practice spooning of track to a
limited degree.
The ballast used in both France and Germany is slightly larger than that used
on the C&O, top size being, I should say, 2Yz in. The material used for shooting is
considerably smaller.
The French use steel, wood, reinforced concrete and prestresscd concrete ties. They
have adopted within the last two years a form of reinforced concrete tie which is a
concrete block under each rail, held together with a T-shaped section of steel to pro-
1248
Economics of Railway Labor
Hold-down fastening in use on French National Railways.
vide for proper gauge. The chief engineer of the French railroad was very enthusiastic
about this new tie, and from all appearances, it would seem to have a desirable design.
In the first place, it provides as much bearing surface on the ballast as the ordinary-
tie. Certainly it would eliminate center-bound track and its two additional surfaces
pushing against the ballast section would tend to reduce lateral movement in welded
track. In both Germany and France, I saw very little use of tie plates, and almost no
conventional rail anchors and no cut spikes. Many of the railroad people in this country,
myself included, have been advocates of track construction in which the ballast, tie,
and tie plate should be one unit, while the rail should be free to move up and down
as a second unit. The French work on the theory that the rail, tie plate (if used) and
the tie should be one unit, and the ballast another. We have always thought that our
track became foul much quicker when the rail was fastened tightly to the tie.
The wonderful riding qualities of the tracks we rode on in France would lead me
to believe that there is considerable merit to the French method of maintenance. The
French railroad is also government-owned and they are also more interested in the cost
of material than in the cost of labor. Their railroad also gives the tailor-made appear-
ance which I know we in the United States cannot afford. All work that I observed
Address of M . C . B i t n e r 1249
in France was done by hand, although I was informed that they do have some M
tampers.
All railroad crossings are gate-protected, said gates being operated by a man and
his family who live in the little house provided at each crossing.
We observed many practices in both France and Germany, and I came away with
the feeling that we can always learn some little thing from the other man. I feel that
both the Franch and Germans have gone into their track construction very scientifically,
and that they have some very worthwhile thoughts and practices on their railroads.
[Applause]
Chairman Rudisitl: Thank you. Mr. Burris. for being willing to give your time
to come here today and contribute so immeasurably to Committee 22's report. Your
talk is very much appreciated by the committee, and I know it was most interestinz
to everyone who heard it.
The second address on our program today will be on the subject. "Methods and
Cost Control in the Maintenance of Way Department", by Mr. If. C. Bitner. manager,
methods and cost control — System. Pennsylvania Railroad.
Methods and Cost Control in the Maintenance of Way Department
By M. C. Bitner
Manager, Methods and Cost Control — System, Pennsylvania Railroad
Before discussing methods and cost control in the maintenance of way department,
it should be pointed out that this type of activity, known more broadly as industrial
engineering, has been in use for many years in companies outside the railroad industry,
and is recognized as a management tool necessary for the efficient operation of any
company. An industrial engineer is responsible for recommendations to line super-
vision of plans to reduce waste of labor, machines and material. In this activity he
develops and evaluates facts for the selection of those plans and also predicts the savings
that will be made. In addition, he checks the actual performance to determine whether
the anticipated cost reduction has been secured.
A maintenance of way methods and cost control department should furnish M. W
supervision at all levels, actual and predicted cost and performance reports. This con-
trol information is necessary for the most effective management of labor, machines and
material at the disposal of the supervisory personnel. To give a complete picture, these
reports should include labor, material, supplies, machinery maintenance and charges
from other departments, but this discussion will be confined to track labor.
Maintenance of way track supervision should be furnished the following cost infor-
mation for their entire territory and also for each subordinate working under them:
1. Total man-hours and money spent.
2 Man-hours, money spent, and quantity of work for each of the various kinds
of work performed. It is not possible nor practical to assign units for some
of the miscellaneous work done, but the man-hours and money for these
items should be furnished.
3. Man-hours per unit of work for each of the various types of work.
4. Standard man-hours per unit of work.
For the preparation and processing of these reports, it is necessary for the track
foreman to show on his work distribution report the type and quantity of work done.
1250 Economics of Railway Labor
who did the work, where it was done, and the man-hours at the various rates of pay
used in doing the work. The kinds, types, or items of work used in these reports should
be clearly defined and should be in sufficient number to cover practically all the work
done by the track department. These items should include miscellaneous work as well
as regular program work; for example, replacing broken rail, raising track, repairing
insulated joints, installing ties, cutting brush, unloading rail, patrolling track, etc. To
make true comparisons of unit costs, some of these items have to be further subdivided
to show kind of ballast and whether work is done by hand or machines. The Penn-
sylvania Railroad's Track Work Cost Control Reports have 169 different items, including
28 for work charged to other departments.
The cost figures in these statements should include all time paid for and should
match the payroll. The reports for each item of work should include all unproductive
time, such as time of foreman, flagmen, camp help, travel time, and all delays, including
rainy-days and train detention. The reports should be prepared, preferably by the
accounting department, from the track foreman's work distribution report, which is
used to prepare accounting department statements. The Pennsylvania Railroad account-
ing department prepares its own distribution reports and the cost-control reports with
electronic data processing machines from the same key-punched card, with information
in it secured from the track foreman's work distribution report. Thus the hours and
money on both sets of reports are the same. The chief engineer and each engineer
maintenance of way and structures, regional engineer, district engineer and track super-
visor on the Pennsylvania Railroad are furnished a monthly cost-control report, showing
all the information mentioned for his territory.
Every supervisory person from track foreman to chief engineer likes to have
management recognize him and give him credit when he is doing an efficient job. Cost
control provides management with a definite measurement of a person's ability to do
work at a minimum cost, and a good supervisor appreciates that such a report is fur-
nished. A poor supervisor soon recognizes that his costs are too high and that he must
find methods of reducing them. While this is the primary use of these cost-control re-
ports, they contain much other valuable information. They can be used to check the
amount of work done by hand when available machinery should have been used, to
assist in more accurate work programming, to locate excessive overtime on any territory
or for any item of work, to compare actual expenditures with budget allotments, and
to determine locations of excessive broken rails as a guide in preparing rail programs.
Cost reduction cannot be done intelligently unless the actual cost of all the various
kinds of work is known. In 1956 Class I railroads spent $354,000,000 for track laying
and surfacing. The cost of handling and installing the 23,646,000 ties and 1,731,000
tons of rail used, together with the cost of raising out-of-face 30 percent of the total
track mileage, amounted to approximately one-half of the $354,000,000. These three
items are usually considered the primary and most expensive part of track maintenance,
and most of the money spent developing new machines and new methods has been
devoted to reducing the cost of this work. However, it is just as important to reduce
the cost of doing the remaining $177,000,000 of miscellaneous track work. Cost-control
reports will show exactly how this money is being spent.
The second function of a methods and cost control department is the continual
development of improved methods to reduce the costs of doing work. Work simplifica-
tion is the most descriptive name for these studies, although they are more commonly
known as methods engineering, methods study, or process engineering. Work simplifica-
Address of M . C. Bitner 1251
tion can best be denned as the organized application of common sense to find easier
and better ways of doing work.
Work simplification is not difficult but requires an open mind and some training
in the use of the tools, charts, and techniques that are necessary. Many colleges and
universities offer two or three-week courses, which give the basic information required
for this work. Process charts, flow diagrams, right- and left-hand charts, work-activity
charts, work sampling, multi-activity charts, man and machine charts, micro-motion and
memo-motion are some of the charts and techniques used in work simplification. There
is insufficient time to explain these terms, but briefly the use of some of these techniques
in a method study will reveal whether unproductive time of men and machines can
be reduced.
The procedure in this work is first to make a study of the process, using one or
more of the available techniques to determine actual time of work done by men and
machines, broken down into sufficient detail for thorough analysis of the process. This
information is plotted on the appropriate chart or charts, which are then analyzed to
determine just how the unproductive time can be reduced. Revised charts are prepared
for the proposed new method, after which it is actually tried in the field. Sometimes
several tentative new methods are charted and even after the new method is tried in
the field, revisions may be made before the final gang organization and method instruc-
tions are recommended for use. It should be noted that the first chart of the original
method shows actual times, secured with stop watch or motion picture camera, and that
the final method is not issued to line supervision until it is actually tried in the field.
Time studies can be made with a stop watch or motion picture camera, but the
camera has many advantages for maintenance of way work. This is a fairly new tech-
nique which involves the use of a motion picture camera with a motor drive, taking
pictures at 60, 100 or 1000 frames a minute and projecting the pictures with a reversible
and variable speed projector, which can show each frame separately and has a counter
on it for obtaining actual time of each element of the operation. The appropriate charts
are made by viewing the film. The camera is especially valuable in gang study as it will
record the activities of several members and machines in the gang, which would other-
wise require several observers with stop watches. Rerunning the film as often as is
necessary will give undisputed information about the entire process and will often show
pertinent information not noticed by normal observation. When operated at 1000 frames
a minute, it is the only satisfactory method of studying processes where the cycle of
work is short.
People assigned to method study should not be influenced in the least by previous
methods of doing the work. For each process being studied and for each step in the
process, the following questions must be answered: why, what, who, where, when and
how. The answers to these questions will determine whether the process, or any step
of it, can be eliminated and whether it is being done at the right time, at the right place
and by the right person or machine. The "why" question is very important as it is
foolish to study a process that can be eliminated or perhaps greatly reduced in quantity.
An open mind is absolutely necessary for consideration of this "why" question, and
if you think the answer to it is easy, let us assume that you have been assigned to
make a method study of a spot surfacing organization and have to answer the "why"
question. Just why is spot surfacing done? It is not preventive maintenance, but instead
might be considered patching, and such work cannot be justified unless the over-all
cost of maintenance is reduced. This leads to the following questions: How much money
is being spent for spot surfacing? How much of it is being done because of lack of pre-
1252 Economics of Railway Labor
ventive maintenance resulting in poor rail, poor ties and insufficient out-of-facc raising?
What would be the over-all economics of using some of the spot surfacing money for
preventive maintenance?
After an improved method has been developed and approved, the most difficult
work is yet to be done. This consists of selling the new method to line supervision and
placing it in use, as it is only natural for people to resent being told how to work,
especially if they have been doing that type of work for years. This selling job is much
easier if line supervision has had a part in the method study and understands some
of the charts used in the study. However, the method engineer's job is not complete
until he has spent sufficient time in the field with the new method so that the track
foreman and other supervision thoroughly understand it.
Methods study and cost control are closely related, and both are required to obtain
the full benefit of each function. Cost-control statements show where and how money
is spent and thus furnish the basic information for determining the priority order of
method studies, for under most conditions the work that is costing the most money
should be studied first to determine whether cost reduction can be made either by
method improvement or elimination of some of the work. The results of improved
methods can only be accurately checked by cost-control statements which give the
complete cost of the job in question and also the cost of all other work. Cost-control
statements by themselves have limited value unless there is a methods department to
make the necessary studies of locations and kinds of work that show excessive costs.
Line supervision's primary responsibility is to obtain maximum production at minimum
cost. Men and machines are required to do the job, but to do it efficiently, supervision
should also be furnished cost-control information and improved methods of doing work.
A methods and cost control department furnishes this service to line supervision.
In conclusion, I wish to point out that this is not a new subject with these AREA
conventions, as the Economics of Railway Labor Committee submitted some excellent
reports and information on it during the early 1920's. This committee's report to the
1022 Convention, which gave in considerable detail just how to install a methods and
cost control department, reported the following reasons for such a department: "It is
sought to overcome waste and effect a large saving in maintenance costs by intro-
ducing a system of standardizing methods of performing the various items of work,
outlining the proper gang organization for such work, establishing time schedules or
units of measure of the work to be performed, and keeping records of the performance
with standards to determine the rating of the performance."
Since 1922 outside industries have found that methods and cost control are required
for efficient operation.
An actively supported and adequately staffed methods and cost control department
is an essential part of a modern railroad maintenance of way department. [Applause]
Chairman Rudisill: On behalf of Committee 22 may I thank Mr. Bitner for an
excellent talk on a very timely subject. It is one in which I believe the maintenance
of way people will become more interested as time goes on, and I can say from experi-
ence that it is surprising what these studies he makes turn up as to what some of our
gangs are doing and how they are spending their time.
This concludes my term of office as chairman of Committee 22. I wish to thank
the members of my committee for their wholehearted and enthusiastic support during
the past three years. Being chairman of this committee has been a pleasure, and I cer-
tainly hope that Mr. L. A. Loggins, chief engineer of the Southern Pacific Lines in
Discussion 1253
Texas and Louisiana, who becomes the new chairman, and Mr. J. E. Eiseman, district
engineer of the Santa Fe, who becomes vice chairman, will have as pleasant a three
years ahead of them as I have had in the past.
Thank you, Mr. President.
President McBrian: Thank you. Mr. Rudisill and your committee, for another
year's work culminating in the interesting and informative reports that have just been
presented. It is of vital importance that your committee continue to keep all members,
and the railroads, informed on even possible method or procedure to improve and
effect further economies in maintenance of way operations.
We are glad to welcome as the new chairman of your committee Mr. L. A. Log-
gins, Chief Engineer, Southern Pacific Lines in Texas and Louisiana, and your com-
mittee's new vice chairman, Mr. J. E. Eisemann, district engineer, Santa Fe, who we
feel will make a strong team in curving forward the effective work which has done
by your committee under your direction and that of your predecessors. Again, thank
you for your leadership of Committee 22 during the past three years. We also thank
Mr. Burris and Mr. Bitner for their talks.
Your committee is now excused with the thank? of the Association. [Applause]
Discussion on Ties
[For report, see pp. 559-562]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: The last report today will be that of Committee 3 — Ties, the
chairman of which is Mr. L. C. Collister, manager, Tie and Timber Treating Depart-
ment— System, Santa Fe, with headquarters at Topeka, Kans. Will Mr. Collister and
his committee members please come to the platform.
Chairman L. C. Collister [Santa Fe] : Mr. President, members and guests of the
Association :
The report of Committee 3 is printed in the December Bulletin 540. pages 559-562,
and in the June-July Bulletin 537, page 243.
The committee is reporting on four of its nine assignments.
The report on Assignment 2 will be presented by Subcommittee Chairman P. D.
Brentlinger, forester, Pennsylvania Railroad.
Assignment 2 — Extent of Adherence to Specifications
P. D. Brentlinger [Pennsylvania!: During 1957 the Tie committee inspected in
seasoning yards 1.5 million oak, pine, gum and mixed hardwood ties. These ties were
the property of four railroad companies and were produced in eight states.
The Tie committee throughout its long service to railroads checking stocks of ties
has covered many plants in many states. In the event any particular railroad wishes
the committee to report on the quality of it- ties, and how they conform to present
specifications, please contact Chairman Fudge, our new chairman, after t tiis- meeting.
Chairman Collister: The report on Assignment 4 will be presented bj Subcom-
mittee Chairman L. W. Kistler, tie and timber agent, Frisco.
Assignment 4 — Tie Renewals and Costs per Mile of Maintained Track.
L. W. KlSTXER [Frisco): According to the Bureau of Railway Economics, \AR
Annual Cross Tie Statistics, there were 23,249,449 new wood cross ties inserted in tracks
of the Class I railroads of the United States in 1°56. This was a decrease
ties or 2.71 percent from 1955.
1254 Ties
Four of the eight reporting regions reported increased and four decreased renewals,
and similarly four reported increased and four decreased equated gross ton miles per
track mile, but there was no relationship in 1056 between the changes in tie renewals
and equated gross miles for the individual groups.
In further comparing 1956 with 1955 the unit cost per tie increased 14 cents to
S3 .44 and the average renewals per mile decreased to 72, a reduction of 1. Likewise
the five-year average renewals per mile dropped from 82 to 79.
There are so many variables involved in interpreting these statistics, such as net
earnings, low cycles of renewals due to previous changes in preservatives or retentions
and other factors, that one must be extremely cautious in trying to evaluate them. The
important thing to note is the long-term trend. The estimated average life of ties for
the United States, using the 5-year average renewal rate of 79 ties per mile, is 38.19
years. About two decades ago we thought 20 years was pretty good.
Again your attention is called to the fact that the computed average life based on
the 5-year average of 55 ties in the New England region would be 54.58 years, whereas
based on 112 ties renewed in the Southwestern region it would be 27.25 years. Perhaps
some of this difference can be accounted for by the longer periods of higher tempera-
tures and humidity in the southern areas of the United States, but even this presents
us a challenge.
We do not have the complete answer as yet to cross tie preservation.
Chairman Collister: Mr. G. M. Magee, director of engineering research, AAR,
will summarize the work accomplished this year on the methods of retarding the splitting
and the mechanical wear of ties, including stabilization of wood, collaborating with
Committee 5 and the National Lumber Manufacturers Association.
AAR-NLMA Cross Tie Research
By G. M. Magee
Director of Engineering Research, AAR
Last year was the tenth year of the cooperative research project between the Asso-
ciation of American Railroads and the National Lumber Manufacturers Association in
an endeavor to find means of prolonging the service life of cross ties. From year to
year I have given you progress reports of the principal results in this investigation,
which has been carried out at the Timber Engineering Company Laboratory in Wash-
ington.
One of the most important phases of this activity has been the development of the
combined seasoning and treating method for cross ties to prevent or minimize the check-
ing and splitting that occurs during the seasoning period in the yard. As I advised you
last year, the Administration Committee did not consider that this process as developed
was as economical nor gave any better results than the vapor-drying process. Accord-
ingly, during the past year additional tests have been made with chemicals that might
perform the same function as the glycol previously used, yet at a lower cost.
It was thought that ammonia gas or ammonia gas derivatives might be the answer,
and a series of 19 experiments was made using these substances. A combination of
formamide and ethylene glycol in the amount of 10 percent of the creosote-coal tar solu-
tion gave excellent results in the first and second test. However, the repeated use of
this solution fortified with 5 percent of the chemicals after each charge, as used in the
combined seasoning and treating process, did not give satisfactory protection against
splitting.
Discussion 1255
Experiments with menthanol and menthanol with trichloroethylene were satis-
factory in drying green southern [line, but the rate of drying was too slow to be con-
sidered for commercial drying. It appeared to the Administration Committee that the
prospects did not look very promising for continuing further work on the combined
seasoning and treating process unless the performance of the ties treated by this process
and installed for service observation should indicate some very outstanding advantages
in this service use. Accordingly, it was decided to discontinue research on the further
development of the combined seasoning and treating process pending the outcome of the
service test installations.
The accelerated tie testing in the rolling-load machine at the TECO Laboratory
was completed on all of the combined seasoned and treated ties. In general, ties sea-
soned by the combined seasoning and treating process or by air drying resist tie plate
penetration equally well, providing the artificial drying process does not progress to the
point that severe honeycombing occurs in the tie. When this does occur, compression
failure of the tie develops when tested in the rolling-load machine.
Another important phase of this research project has been the outdoor exposure
tests of tie coatings at the TECO Laboratory. These exposure tests were continued
during the year with two inspections made at six-month intervals. Of particular interest
was the performance of one of the tie coatings which has been in this test for seven
years. The effectiveness of this tie coating remained relatively high during the first
three years of service. During the third and fourth annual inspection, its effectiveness
dropped somewhat. However, during the last three years there has not been any ap-
preciable change in the coating or in the ties. The coated ties still appear to be in mate-
rially better condition than the untreated control ties. This is an encouraging result,
as the economy of using tie coating materials will depend to a great extent upon the
number of years they will provide some real benefit in protecting the tie from the
progression of splitting and checking.
It was decided by the Tie committee to discontinue this work as a cooperative
project with the National Lumber Manufacturers Association at the end of 1957 and
to continue during 1958 only certain phases of the work under separate contract arrange-
ments. These included the continuation of the tie exposure test and research to develop
a chemical or material that could be applied under the tie plate area to protect the
wood from the chemical attack resulting from corrosion products of the tie plates and
spikes.
It was decided that the Research Center staff could continue the observations on
service performance of the combined seasoned and treated ties installed on the Santa Fe,
Pennsylvania and Illinois Central Railways. Accordingly, TECO was requested as the
final phase of the work under the joint agreement to devote the latter part of 1057
to the preparation of a single report encompassing all of the research activities during
the ten-year period. To date there have been no reports published, annual progress
reports having been furnished only to the Tie committee and XI.MA subscribers. It is
my understanding that this final report has been pretty well completed and will In-
available for inclusion, if desired, by the Tie committee in its annual report for 1958
Chairman Collister: The report on Assignment 7 will be presented by Subcom-
mittee Chairman R. B. Radkcy, engineer of ties and treatment, Illinois Central
Assignment 7 — Causes Leading to the Removal of Cross Ties.
R. B. Radkkv [IC|: Your committee submits this final report as information.
Committee members inspected over 21,000 ties removed from main tracks of 10
1256 Ties
railroads during the 1956 and 1957 work seasons. The major removal reasons were,
split and decay in oak, gum, and mixed hardwood ties; and decay and plate cut in
pine ties. Split and decay accounted for 60 percent of the failures seen.
You are referred to the published report for further details.
Your committee believes this report typical of tie failures encountered today and
recommends this subject be closed. Perhaps in 10 years a similar investigation will be
warranted.
Chairman Collister: This completes my term as chairman of Committee 3, and
I wish to express my appreciation to the chairmen of the subcommittees and to the
members of the committee for their fine cooperation which has made the work of this
committee a success.
I would like now to introduce the new chairman and vice chairman of the Com-
mittee, but due to unavoidable circumstances Mr. F. J. Fudge, timber engineer for the
New York Central System, who is the new chairman, was unable to be here.
Mr. W. E. Fuhr, principal assistant engineer for the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul &
Pacific Railroad, is the incoming vice chairman. [Applause]
I want to assure them of the continued cooperation of the Committee
Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 3.
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Collister. Suitable cross ties and their most
effective protection against decay and mechanical wear are matters of vital importance
in holding down maintenance of way costs, and we have been fortunate in having a
committee such as yours constantly studying these matters for many years — indeed,
if I am correct, since the organization of our Association in 1899.
Much has been accomplished in prolonging the life of wood cross ties over these
many years, but I am Sure your committee will agree that there are still unsolved
approaches to extending the life of ties still further, including methods not yet thought
of. So, there is still an important place for your committee in our Association, and we
are satisfied that its work will go forward under its new chairman, Mr. Fudge, and
its new vice chairman, Mr. Fuhr. We are sorry that Mr. Fudge could not be here
today.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
The presentation of the report of Committee 3 completes a long convention day,
but I am sure it is one that has proved most interesting and profitable to those who
have participated in it. Tomorrow we will continue with an equally interesting and
informative group of reports and addresses, beginning at 9 am in the Grand Ballroom.
Tomorrow's session will also include our Closing Business Session, with the installa-
tion of officers for the ensuing year. I shall look for you at 9 in the morning. The
meeting is now adjourned.
[The meeting adjourned at 5:20 pmj
Morning Session — March 13, 1958
[The meeting reconvened at 9 am. President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: The meeting will please come to order. This begins the final
technical session of our 57th Annual Meeting, which will be followed by our Annual
Closing Business Session beginning a little before noon.
Address of T. F. Burris 1257
Discussion on Continuous Welded Rail
I For report, Bee pp. 895—904]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBri.an: Our first committee to make a report this morning i> our
Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail, the chairman of which is Mr. C. E.
Weller, division engineer, Illinois Central Railroad, at Waterloo, Iowa. I will be glad
if Mr. Weller and the members of his committee will come to the platform and present
their report.
While the members of the committee are finding their places at the platform, 1
would like to remind you of the Open House at the AAR Research Center this after-
noon, beginning at 2 pm, and I would suggest that if any of you have not visited the
Center, and have the time to do so this afternoon, you will tind it very worth while.
Mr. Weller. will you begin, please.
Chairman C. E. Weller [Illinois Central |: Mr. President, members of the Asso-
ciation and guests: The report of your committee appears in Vol. 59, Bulletin 542,
published in February 1°5S. I would like to call your attention to the report on labora-
tory tests of continuous welded rail prepared by Prof. R. E. Cramer of the Universitj
of Illinois. I am sure you will find this report informative and interesting.
Instead of presenting our report, we will devote our entire time to our special
feature. We are fortunate in having with us a man who has spent some time this past
year on the European railroads, and he has agreed to give us this morning his observa-
tions of continuous welded rail in France.
It is my pleasure to introduce to you the chief engineer system. Chesapeake &
Ohio Railway, Mr. T. F. Burris.
Observation of Continuous Welded Rail in France
By T. F. Burris
Chief Engineer System, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway
Mr. President, fellow members of the AREA and guests: Last November, I found
it necessary to go to the Krupp Plant at Rheinhausen, Germany to determine the
progress of equipment being manufactured by that concern for use on our coal dumping
facilities at our coal docks, Toledo, Ohio.
I thought that while we were in Germany, that it might be a good opportunitj to
observe, rather hurriedly, how railroad tracks in Europe were maintained.
At that time, I had no idea that I would be standing here today, trying to tell yen
of the things that I had seen. Our party consisted of four C&O engineer.-. Alter
spending three days of intensive work with the Krupp people, Mr. Dunn and I left the
others to take care of the details while we went to inspect certain railroad maintenance
work being done in the vicinity of Cologne.
Our guides were two English-speaking Germans, one being what in this country
might be termed a district engineer, while the other might be termed a division engineer.
They proved to be very fine gentlemen and from all indications were quite capable
maintenance officers. About one-halt way between Duisburg and Cologne, the railroad
parallels the highway, and we stopped to observe a gang of approximately ISO men
laying welded rail.
Previous to our arrival, the old track had been removed, and the ballast cleaned
and spread on an even surface. We were told that many times a road roller is used
1258 Continuous Welded Rail
to compact the fresh ballast and give it good surface before placing ties. Reinforced
concrete ties were evenly spaced on the rolled ballast surface. Treated wooden shims
about l/4 in thick and the size of the rail base, were placed on each tie to act as a
cushion. The welded rail, approximately 100 lb per yd, was distributed along the ends
of the ties in lengths of approximately 2100 ft. This rail was lifted and placed on the
ties by a rather large number of small hand-operated cranes and winches spaced about
30 ft apart. The rail was held down by a device similar to a rail clip which fitted over
an imbedded bolt and not only held the rail tight to the tie, but also held the rail
to gage.
A couple of days later, we went to Paris to observe maintenance of the French
railroads. In Paris, we met Mr. J. Wescott, whom many of you men know, who
graciously arranged an appointment with the chief engineer of the National Railroads
of France.
Somewhere during the past 30 years of my work in railroading, I had acquired
a feeling that the railroads in the United States were about the best in the entire world,
and that we had the best and most economical means of maintaining track. But after
listening to the chief engineer of the French Railroads, whom I had the pleasure of
talking with for about two hours, I began to think that perhaps we should not be so
smug and that others have some good ideas also.
We rode several hundred miles on French railroads and, frankly, I have never had
a better ride. The French chief engineer told me that about five years ago, they began
a plan whereby they would renew certain portions of their railroad each year; it was
planned that their entire main line system would be renewed in this manner in a period
of 20 to 25 years, and that during the period they would not renew any part of the
track, except in cases of emergency.
In talking with this chief engineer, he informed me that the French Railroad is
using nothing but welded rail on its main line. This welding is done by two methods:
one is an electric method called LaSoudere Electrique; the other is the Alumino-Thermic
method, sometimes called the Boutet method.
We visited a permanent butt weld installation about 100 miles northeast of Paris.
This plant was a revelation in automation. The rails were stacked on a rack in the
manner in which they wanted them welded. Then, automatically, the rails were lifted
off this rack and placed on a conveyor roller which headed them toward the welding
plant. The first machine encountered was a wire brush which brushed the rail — top,
bottom and sides — for a distance of 1 ft from the end of the rail. The rail then pro-
ceeded on into the building and to the welding machine, where it was lined up and the
welding process started.
This welding process was not particularly fast. The interval from the time the power
was turned on until the time the upset was informed and the power turned off, was
approximately 4 min, with most of the time consumed in preheating the rail. This weld-
ing machine is automatically controlled, timed and actuated and requires one man to
operate. There are three stages of welding which requires a total time of 4 min:
1. Preheating
2. Sparking
3. Forging
In the preheating and sparking cycles, the rail is continually pulsating under a
constant movement. Since the preheating and sparking cycles take all but 5 sec of the
welding time, it can be plainly seen that the only time the rail ends are under pressure
Address of T. F. Burris 1259
is when they are being forged. This requires approximately 5 sec, and the pressure
applied is about 40,000 lb.
While the upset was still cherry-red, the rail was moved ahead, and the sides and
bottom of the base and sides and top of the head were automatically sheared off to
conform to the contour of the balance of the rail. As another rail was moved in and
the butt weld made, the rails moved ahead and in succession were examined for ver-
tical bends. If necessary, they were straightened with a hydraulic press. At the next rail
length, they were examined for horizontal line and, if necessary, were straightened with
a horizontal press. Any irregularities in the surface and gage side of the rail were
corrected at this point with a big hand file.
After the butt welds were made, the rail continued on the conveyor out of the
building and onto the platform. When the total length of the desired string had been
made, the rails were moved sideways off the conveyor and onto racks which were
slightly higher than a flat car level. When this rack, became full, it would contain about
a train load of rail. Flat cars were then run in on the track, adjacent to the platform
and metal skids fastened at one end were tipped over, so that the other end rested on
the flat car and the rails again slid sideways onto the cars.
These welds were the best that I have ever seen, after the rail had been in track
for some time, it was rather difficult when walking along the track to tell where the
welds wrere, and the French engineers tell us that they have had almost no weld failures.
The other method of welding rail can be done either in or out of track, but it
seems to me that its biggest advantage is the fact that it can be used to weld rail in
track. This method is called the Alumino-Thermic and is very similar in method to the
old Thermite weld that many of us are familiar with. The secret of this method, I am
told, is in the material which is used for the welding process. This material was devel-
oped by Boutet, and I understand it is being handled in this country by Mr. Wescott.
We visited the French railroad yard where this type of weld was being made, and
frankly, I was very favorably impressed. The rails were brought into proper alinement
and a mold was clamped around their ends. In this method of welding, it is necessary
that the ends of the rail be somewhere between J4 ar>d Ya in apart. There is an opening
in the top of the mold, and the ends of the rail are preheated through this opening with
a gasoline torch until they approach a dull cherry-red. A special compound is then
placed in the crucible, which is placed above the opening, after which this compound
is ignited. It immediately becomes molten and flows down into the mold. Very shortly
after the crucible is removed, the mold is taken from the rail ends and while the metal
is still cherry-red, a chisel is used to remove the excess metal. This method is used for
new as well as for old rail, and from our observations of this type of weld in the
balance of the yard, and in other yards and main line, it would seem to be satisfactory.
The results of weld tests which we saw indicate, to me at least, that failures of
welds made by this method should not occur. We were told that with about six to
eight of these crucibles and preheating machines. 16 nun could make about "0 welds
per day in 100-lb rail.
The practice of welding rail is much more prevalent in France and Germany than
in this country. I am convinced that they weld their rail there primarily because the)
feel it gives them a better railroad with better riding qualities.
I have somewhere gleaned the impression that in this country we are welding rail
primarily to reduce cost of labor in track maintenance. Perhaps we can gain much by the
use of welds from the reduction in material and labor cost as well as improving riding
qualities of our track. I presume that there are other railroadmen in this country that
1260
Continuous Welded Rail
This is a slide showing the expansion joint which they use at the end
of their welded sections. They tell us it is not necessary, that they use it
merely as a precaution. It seemed to me to be a pretty good design, but I
imagine it would require considerable maintenance where there is a great
deal of traffic.
feel the same as I do. Before making definite commitments, I would like to have a
10-mile stretch of welded rail for observation. If we are going to gain as many of the
benefits as we can by the use of welded rail, we should perhaps start at the mill and
instead of limiting the length of rails to be welded to 39 ft, we could weld rail of any
length which could be furnished, thus eliminating much of the mill scrap ends.
We observed many practices in both France and Germany, and I came away with
the feeling that we can always learn some little thing from the other man. I feel that
both the French and Germans have gone into their track construction very scientifically
and that they have some very worthwhile thoughts and practices on their railroads.
[Mr. Burris then showed a number of slides to illustrate his talk. One of them is
reproduced above]
Chairman Weller: Mr. Burris, in behalf of the Association and our committee
I want to thank you for taking time to come here and present this splendid talk.
During the past year your committee suffered the loss of one of its valued mem-
bers, Mr. J. C. Dejarnette. He was a member of the committee from the time it was
Discussion 1261
formed in 1951, and served as vice chairman from 1956 until his passing. He would
have assumed the chairmanship at this time.
This concludes my service as chairman of your committee. It has been a real
pleasure and experience, and a wonderful part of my education. At this time I would
like to introduce the new chairman, Mr. W. H. Freeman, engineer of track of the
Denver & Rio Grande Western. [Applause]
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Weller, for the additional information which
you have brought to us with respect to continuous welded rail; and thank you, Mr.
Burris, for your observations of continuous welded rail in France, which were most
interesting.
While it is recognized that the Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail is at
a standstill insofar as being able to come to any final conclusions on certain aspects
of the use of this type of rail is concerned, awaiting the results of actual experience
in track, the Board of Direction, shortly after the 1957 annual convention, reaffirmed
its belief that this Committee should remain intact and continue to report on all other
aspects of continuous welded rail, including any new welding methods developed.
To carry on this work, we are glad to welcome as the new chairman of the com-
mittee Mr. W. H. Freeman, of the Rio Grande, and as the new vice chairman of the
committee Mr. Rees, of the Santa Fe.
Mr. Weller, your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Rail
[For report, see pp. 905-1004]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: If the Rail committee will now come to the platform, we
shall be glad to hear its report. The chairman of this Committee is Mr. B. R. Meyers,
chief engineer of the Chicago & North Western Railway. With reports to be made on
eight assignments, and with three addresses. I don't know how Chairman Meyers
expects to get all of this into the 55 min allotted to his committee, but I am sure
he will.
Mr. Meyers, you may proceed with your presentation.
Chairman B. R. Meyers [C&NW]: Mr. President, members and guests: The report
of Committee 4 begins on page 905 of Bulletin 542.
During the last year we lost one member by death and seven members for other
reasons.
With sorrow we call your attention to the memoir for Mr. Dejarnette. Jr.. former
chief engineer of the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad, who died "ii
November 10, 1957, which memoir is included as a part of our report.
Nine guest members will become active members at the close of this convention.
In order to conserve time for the special features on our program, we will nun
tion only the subcommittees that have oral remarks to make in connection with their.
reports in the Bulletin.
Assignment 2 — Collaborate with AISI Technical Committee on Rail and
Joint Bars in Research and Other Matters of Mutual Interest.
Chairman Meyers: I will call first upon Mr. Cramer to briefly summarize his
investigation of failures in control-cooled rails, which is included in the report of Sub-
committee 2 as Appendix 2 (a).
1262 Rail
Investigation of Failures in Control-Cooled Railroad Rails
By R. E. Cramer
Research Associate Professor, University of Illinois
This investigation of failures in control-cooled rails is financed by both the Asso-
ciation of American Railroads and the rail manufacturers Technical Committee on Rail.
During the past year we examined 34 failed control-cooled rails. Eight of these
rails had developed transverse fissures from shatter cracks. All were produced at the
Algoma Mill before they were using tight lids on their cooling boxes.
Slide 1 — Two Transverse Fissures From Shatter Cracks [See Fig. 1, page 910]
This slide shows two of the fissures from shatter cracks together with etched slices
from the rail heads. These two rails represent extreme conditions, as in slice b all the
shatter cracks are transverse in the rail while in slice d the shatter cracks are all in the
longitudinal direction in the rail head.
Slide 2 — Transverse Fissures From Hot Torn Steel [See Fig. 2, page 911]
This year we found 6 transverse fissures from hot torn steel in the rails from three
different rail mills which reheat their rail blooms. This slide shows two fissures which
developed in these rails and etched slices from the rail heads showing porosity in the
steel which we classify as hot torn steel.
Slide 3 — Failure From Defective Weld [See Fig. 3, page 912]
This slide shows in part a the fracture of a failed acetylene pressure weld which
reveals the saw marks made on the rail ends before the weld was made. In part b the
rail has been etched to reveal that welding rod was deposited on the right side to patch
up the weld. This weld should have been cut out and the rails rewelded because it
lasted only about a year in service.
Slide 4 — Horizontal and Vertical Split Heads [See Fig. 6, page 914]
This slide shows in part a, an extreme example of a horizontal split head which
originated in a streak of mill scale trapped in the rail head. This was the bottom rail
of an ingot and more of the rail should have been cropped off and discarded.
Part b of this slide shows a typical vertical split head which has developed from
segregation in an "A" rail from the top of a rail ingot.
Slide S — Web Failure At Stamped Letter B [See Fig. 5, page 914]
It is rather unusual to find web failures starting at the numbers and letters stamped
into rail webs for identification. In this case, a crack started at the top of the letter B
and developed into a sizable failure. This letter was stamped unusually deep.
Assignment 3 — Failure Statistics, Covering (a) All Failures; (b) Trans-
verse Fissures; (c) Performance of Control-Cooled Rail.
Chairman Meyers: Mr. C. J. Code, assistant chief engineer — tests, Pennsylvania,
chairman of Subcommittee 3, will highlight his report on rail failure statistics.
C. J. Code [Pennsylvania] : I want briefly to call your attention to the fact that the
chart shown as Fig. 4 [page 920] in the report of Subcommittee 3 continues to show
evidence of the good performance of the new rail sections adopted in 1947. While some
of the new sections were rolled in 1947 and a very small quantity in 1946, the first year
of general use was 1948, and a comparison of Fig. 4 with the similar chart for previous
years clearly shows the better performance of the rail, beginning with the 1948 rolling.
Di sc ujssi o n 1263
A comparison of Table 6 [page 926], accumulated failures, and failures per 100 track
miles in rollings 1946 to 1955, from date rolled to December 31, 1956, with a similar
table published in the 1948 proceedings ten years ago, is of interest. The tables are not
completely comparable because the earlier table includes engine burn fractures, which
are excluded from the current table. Prior to 1945 less attention had been paid to engine
burn fractures, and up until about that time they had been less readily subject to loca-
tion by detector car, so that the distortion due to this factor may not be as important
as might otherwise seem to be the case.
The total failures of all types are reduced from 8.71 per hundred track mile years
to 6.94. Web failures outside the joint, which were the principal weakness of the old
sections, have been reduced from a total of 3265 to 882, or from 1.52 per hundred track
mile years to 0.27. Web failures within the joint show an increase in total, from 5686
to 69°4, but a reduction per hundred track mile years from 2.64 to 2.11.
I would venture to forecast that this reduction will show up to a much greater
extent in about two years when more of the rail of the earlier sections has been
eliminated from this report.
Compound fissures and detail fractures show an increase from 3,336 to 10,072, or
from 1.55 to 3.04 per hundred track mile years, and this type of failure continues to be
our greatest unsolved problem in rail failures.
As is frequently the case an unusually heavy incidence of certain types of failures
on certain railroads tends to make the total situation look less favorable than would
otherwise be the case. Anyone who is sufficiently interested may trace this situation by
reference to Table 7 [pages 927 to 930].
Assignment 5 — Economic Value of Various Sizes of Rail.
Chairman Meyers: Mr. J. C. Jacobs, engineer maintenance of way, Illinois Cen-
tral, chairman of Subcommittee 5, has some remarks to make with regard to his report
on "Economic Value of Various Sizes of Rail".
J. C. Jacobs [IC] : This report is a continuation of Study A reflecting changes in
the test mileage and computed to show averages after 13 years. It contains all infor-
mation pertaining to maintenance costs up to and including the year 1956. It is sub-
mitted as information.
The last of the 112-lb rail was removed in 1957 after 14 years of service. Computa-
tions have been revised accordingly. It is the intention that the study will be continued
with respect to the 131 -lb rail during the remainder of its life in the present location
The greatest savings realized through the use of 1311b rail have been in cross ties,
possibly due to the use of long and heavier joint bars, larger tie plates and greater rail
rigidity. Cross ties in both sections are renewed in accordance with similar mainte-
nance standards and conditions.
Assignment 8 — Causes of Shelly Spots and Head Checks in Rail: Meth-
ods for Their Prevention.
Chairman Meyers: Mr. W. H. Hobbs, chief engineer, Missouri Pacific. Subcom-
mittee 8 chairman, will report on shelly rail.
W. H. Hobbs [MP]: Mr. President, members and guests: During the past year
this investigation has been limited to that conducted by (a) the Engineering Division.
AAR, (b) Pennsylvania Railroad, and (c) the University of Illinois.
That portion of the work conducted by the AAR Engineering Division research
staff is covered by report submitted by G. M. Magee, which is included in our report
as Appendix 8-a.
1264 Rail
This report covers inspections of service tests of heat-treated and alloy rail installa-
tions at 13 locations. There are five tests of heat-treated rail, three of chrome-vanadium
alloy, three of high-silicon rail, one of flame-hardened rail and one of intermediate-
manganese rail. Test records show that the chrome-vanadium and heat-treated rails
have comparable resistance to abrasion and plastic deformation, both being considerably
better than flame-hardened or regular open-hearth rails.
The final report of Test No. 591, Determination of Plastic Flow in Rail Head on
the Pennsylvania Railroad, prepared by Mr. C. J. Code, is included in our report as
Appendix 8-b. Mr. Code will address the Convention on this subject.
That portion of work conducted by the University of Illinois is covered by report
prepared by Prof. R. E. Cramer, which is included in our report as Appendix 8-c.
This report covers the results of (1) rolling-load tests to produce shelling in chrome-
vanadium alloy rails, (2) rolling-load tests of high-silicon rails, (3) detail fractures and
shelling produced in service, (4) rolling-load tests to produce detail fractures, and
(5) explanation of shelling failures.
Prof. Cramer summarizes his report as follows:
1. Three rolling-load tests are reported on chrome-vanadium rails. One specimen
ran 4,874,000 cycles. The second failed at 14,831,000 cycles — a record for this
type of rail. The third specimen ran 2,857,000 cycles before it developed
shelling.
2. Seven rolling-load tests to produce shelling failures in high-silicon rails aver-
aged 2,277,000 cycles. Past tests of standard carbon steel rails have averaged
1,000,000 cycles in the same rolling load test.
3. Results are given of the examination of several detail fractures and one shelly
rail from service.
4. Detail fractures were produced in four rails as summarized in Table 2 and
Figure 3 of the report.
5. A discussion is presented as to the method of growth of shelling failures and
detail fractures.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
Chairman Meyers: Mr. C. J. Code, assistant chief engineer — tests of the Penn-
sylvania Railroad, has made a very interesting study on plastic flow in rail heads, and
as the first special feature on our program Mr. Code will now discuss this subject.
Plastic Flow in Rail Head
By C. J. Code
Assistant Chief Engineer — Tests, Pennsylvania Railroad
I am reminded of our good friend George Hoover, who died during the past month
or so, who was once waiting in our office to see the chief engineer. He overheard someone
make the remark that there were a couple of peddlers outside to see the chief. He arose
and said, "Peddlers? How about calling them ambassadors of industry?"
So, whether you call them ambassadors of industry or salesmen or peddlers, they
are all our friends.
Probably most of you remember the old definition of the difference between a
salesman and an engineer. A salesman starts out knowing very little about a great
many things, and continues to learn less and less about more and more, until finally
he knows practically nothing about almost everything.
Address of C. J. Code
1265
Slide 1.
Slide 2.
The engineer starts out knowing a great deal about a few things, and continues
learning more and more about less and less until finally he knows practically everything
about almost nothing. [Laughter]
You are all familiar to some extent, I am sure, with the plastic flow of metal in
the rail head, although you may not think of it by that name. The lip which forms
along the edge of the rail head, particularly on the low side of curves, is a commonly
recognized evidence of flow.
This has always seemed to me to be associated with the formation of the shelly
spots with which we are so much concerned.
Slide 1 shows a detail fracture from shelling with the typical more or less horizontal
separation of metal about 34 in below the top of the rail. In this slide there is no specific
evidence of the flow of metal. Slide 2 shows another detail fracture from shelling in
which the metal above the shell extends out somewhat beyond the gage face of the
rail head. The familiar lip due to flow on the opposite side of the rail is evident.
Several years ago in one of our Rail committee discussions on the cause of shelling,
I suggested the possibility of studying the flow of metal in the rail head by inserting
pins of a different metal in the rail. Professor Cramer lost no time in trying this out in
the laboratory, and the results of his tests on the rolling-load machine are given in the
February 1°52 Bulletin. The service tests I am about to describe took a little longer.
In order to demonstrate by a service test in track that there is flow of the metal
on the gage side of the head of rails on the high side of curves and that this phenomenon
is associated with shelling, a test was carried out in which brass pin.- wire placed per-
pendicular to the surface of the rail at several points around the gage comer of the rail
head. These pins were spotted at 4-ft intervals throughout the length of three rails.
Slide 3 [see page 963] shows the location of the pin- with respect to the cross section
of the rail head. The diagram at the bottom of the slide shows how these pin- were
distributed throughout the length of the rail. Three rail- equipped with pin- in this
fashion were placed in the high side of a 4-deg curve on our Pittsburgh Region in
19S3.
The rail- were w ah lied carefully throughout the time the) were in track to deled
possible formation of defects or fracture- caused by the presence of the pin in tin rail
head, but none were found.
After approximately three yean oi service these rail- were taken out ot track and
1266 Rail
sectioned at the locations of pins to show the deformation in the pin. Slide 4 [see
page 969] shows the sections at the "a" and "b" locations, and you cart see that the
top of the pin bends toward the gage side of the rail. Slide 5 [see page 970] similarly
shows the pins at the "c" and "d" locations nearer the center of the rail head, and
these pins also show definite deformation toward the gage side of the rail.
The reason that this flow of metal toward the gage side is not always recognized
is that, under ordinary circumstances, the overflowed metal is ground off by the wheel
flanges as fast as it forms.
The presence of permanent deformation such as this is positive evidence that
stresses have been experienced well beyond the yield point of the material, otherwise no
such permanent deformation would be present.
You will notice on slide 5 that the top of the pin tends to disappear toward the
top surface of the rail. The reason for this is that the metal flowed longitudinally along
the rail head as well as laterally, so that the pin was distorted in two planes and the
section at right angles does not show the complete length of the pin. Slide 6 [see page
971], sections taken longitudinally through two of the pins, shows the deformation of the
pins in a longitudinal direction. The longitudinal deformation was in the direction of
traffic, i.e., the metal flowed with the movement of the wheels.
Slide 7 [see page 967] shows in tabular form the maximum lateral movement
measured at the top end of several of the pins, the radius of curvature of the pin and
the maximum depth of visible flow. This maximum depth runs from J4 to }i in and
corresponds very closely with the zone in which the crack forms in connection with
shelly rails.
You might say that this test merely demonstrates something that we already knew
to be the case, nevertheless there seems to me to be a tendency to fail to recognize the
fact that metal in the head of the rail is stressed beyond the yield point, in other words,
is overstressed by wheel loads of existing magnitude. This seems to me to be a very
important factor in connection with the formation of shells.
Apparently when the metal flows beyond a certain point, a separation takes place.
This is the phenomenon we know as shelling. It is probably not as simple as that, and
there are certainly other factors which contribute to shelling. However, this seems to me
to be the primary factor, i.e., that the material is overstressed by today's wheel loads.
The primary remedy would seem to lie in resisting any tendency to increase wheel
loads and in working toward the development of a rail steel at an economical price
which will resist to the greatest extent this tendency to flow under heavy stress.
[Applause]
Chairman Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Code. I am sure that your remarks and
report on this same subject in the Bulletin will be of interest and assistance to all
maintenance of way people.
Kurt Kannowski of the AAR research staff was in Europe last year, and he
found some very interesting things over there. The members of the Rail committee
thought you would like to hear a few remarks from him. Mr. Kannowski.
Address of Kurt Kannowski 1267
Rail Production and Rail Testing in Germany
By Kurt Kannowski
Metallurgical Engineer, AAR
I would like to express my appreciation to the AREA and AAR for giving me the
opportunity to observe rail testing and rail production in Germany.
There is no question that in general aspects we are ahead in production of rail
tonnages and in design, but my observations lead me to believe that there are details of
German rail production methods which are superior to ours and are also adaptable to
our methods. These include rolling rails in 60-meter lengths, roller straightening, and
rail chemistry to produce abrasion resisting steels.
The usual reaction of the American engineer is that these superior production
methods are possible there because of the lower carbon rail chemistry used, the lack
of control colling and the lighter weight rail design. But during my visit to the Rhein-
hausen steel plant, which is the largest rail producer, I observed rail rolled to our
chemistry in a 130-lb section in 60-meter lengths, control cooled in a Sandberg fur-
nace and roller straightened. The advantage of getting longer than 39-ft rails does not
have to be pointed out to you. The objection of not having control-cooling facilities
for long rails, of course, is eliminated by the use of the Sandberg furnace.
My question as to the limits of using this furnace in our large tonnage production
facilities was answered by the statement that it is not necessary to use this furnace since
vacuum casting could accomplish the same thing. The production of longer rail, of course,
necessitates the use of roller straightening which reduces the cost and produces a straight
rail. Incidentally, I noted that roller straightening results in a perfect inspection condi-
tion in that it removes all scale and thus eliminated the alibi of not finding defects
because of scale.
A large tonnage of rail is still made in Germany by bessemer methods and to
lower carbon chemistry than ours, but a considerable tonnage is produced to our
chemistry by open-hearth methods. Their special rail steels of interest to us are abrasion-
resisting types with an intermediate manganese chemistry made by the open-hearth
process, and an electric furnace steel of 0.50 to 0.60 percent carbon and 2.00 percent
manganese.
In rail design we are ahead of them. Their latest section, the S64a, is an adaptation
of our 132 RE rail. It is of interest to note that their International Joint Contact
Committee on Rail has standardized on three international rail sections.
During my visit on the German Federal Railways many items of interest were
noted. I was particularly interested in their rail failure detection devices. The rail defects
found in their track and in their laboratories are the same as ours. Their wheel loads
are lighter, but the traffic density is higher.
Slide 1 shows one of the left-overs from the last war. while Slide 2 shows one
of their more recent diesel hydraulic locomotives. Slide 3 shows a representative section
of track with prestressed concrete ties and continuous welded rail. This rail is butt
welded by the electric flash process. On Slide 4 you will note the grinding of one of
these welds. The closure welds are made by the thermit weld process as noted on Slide 5.
In the period 1949 to 1956, 2,650,463 flash welds and 1,139,889 themit welds were made
on rail on the German Federal Railways. Incidentally this section that you observed has
had no maintenance for five years, according to the section foreman.
The above observations were made while touring the railroad on their ultrasonic
(Text continued on page 1273)
1268
Rail
Slide 1.
Slide 2.
Address of Kurt Kannowski
1260
Slide 3.
Slide 5.
Slide 6.
Address of Kurt Kannowski
1271
Slide 7.
Slide 8.
1272
Rail
Slide 9.
Slide 10.
Discussion
1273
Slide 11.
detector car as seen on Slide 6. This rail failure detector car has been in use on these
railways for approximately two years. It is based on the ultrasonic principal, using 90,
70 and 35 deg angle probes as noted in the test carriage on Slides 7 and 8. It is to be
noted that this car is of particular interest to us in that it tests at a maximum speed
of 40 mph for all defects through the head of the rail into the bottom of the base
and throughout the entire rail length. This includes defects in joint bar areas, butt welds,
built up battered rail ends and welded engine burns. On Slide 9 you will note the signal
on the instrument in the car of a rail joint and bolt holes while running at 40 mph.
This distinct and clear indication is also recorded on a photo-sensitive tape along with
kilometer posts and tie locations.
On Slide 10 you will note a battery of the instruments and the operator who watches
their adjustment. This equipment is still in an experimental stage, but the results are
such that a second car is now under construction, with many new developments. Slide
11 shows Dr. Martin and Dr. Werner and the crew who developed this car, and our
detector car engineer. Mr. H. W. Keevil who feels that this car is very adaptable to
our railroad system, even though the recording device may not be practicable for our
use.
I don't think it is necessary to call to your attention that the detector cars avail-
able to us now do not detect and test all the defects mentioned, and do not operate al
these speeds while testing. This car was rated the best recently on a test track near
Strassburg in comparison with all other test equipment available to the European
railroads. [Applause]
Chairman MEYERS: I think you will all agree that the things Mr. Kanimu-ki -aw
are very interesting, and I am sure you also agree that we should step up our research
in this count r\ .
Thank you. Mr. Kannowski.
1274 Rail
In connection with research, I would like to say that the Rail committee has eight
research projects now in progress, two of which are jointly financed by the American
Iron and Steel Institute.
As the third and final special feature of our report, Mr. G. M. Magee, director
of engineering research, AAR, will make a brief report on these projects sponsored by
the Rail committee.
Rail Research Projects
By G. M. Magee
Director of Engineering Research, AAR
Your chairman has asked me to comment on the research projects being carried
out by the AAR Research Center engineering staff for the Rail committee. For Sub-
committee 4 — Rail End Batter; Causes and Remedies, K. K. Kessler, chairman, we
are conducting rolling-load tests at the laboratory simulating service wheel loads, except
on an accelerated basis and with carefully controlled conditions, to compare the effec-
tiveness and performance of various welding procedures for building up battered rail
ends. These procedures include both electric arc and acetylene welding with different
types of electrodes and various welding techniques.
For the past several years only one 12-in rolling-load machine was available for
this work and progress was slow. However, with completion of the new Engineering
Laboratory we have four machines available which will materially expedite the pro-
gram. A 30,000-lb wheel load on a 33-in diameter wheel is being used for the rolling-
load tests which is comparable to the maximum wheel loading that would normally
be encountered in service. A full test is 5 million cycles with this wheel loading or 10
million wheel passages over the welded area. Thus this test is equivalent to 300 million
gross tons of traffic carried and taking into account the high wheel loading, this is
probably as much loading as the rail would ever get in service.
The program set up by the committee on acetylene welding methods has been
pretty well completed insofar as rolling-load tests are concerned, but considerable metal-
lurgical work remains to be done. We still have much work remaining to be done on
the electric welding methods. In general, the acetylene welding methods utilizing alloy
rods have given good test performance. All of the electric welds that have been tested
so far have either developed detail fractures or excessive flow and batter before the
5 million cycle test was completed.
In my remarks Tuesday I did not make clear the fact that the statement pertaining
to the better results we have obtained in the acetylene compared to the electric welding
pertained only to the matter of building up battered rail ends, and not to the butt
welding of rail, where all of our work so far has indicated the welds made by either
method— either the acetylene pressure or the electric flash — are quite good.
The work for Subcommittee 6 — Service Tests of Joint Bars, T. A. Blair, chairman,
consists of periodic measurements of rails end batter, joint droop and fishing surface
wear of various designs of joint bars for the 115 RE rail section on the Chicago &
North Western and for the 132 RE rail section on the Santa Fe Railway. No measure-
ments were made on these two test installations last year because the rate of batter
and joint bar wear is progressing slowly and in view of the shortage of help last year,
it was considered advisable to postpone these measurements until 1958.
The work for Subcommittee 7 — Rolling Load Tests of Joint Bars, Embert Osland,
Address of G. M. Magee 1275
chairman, has been carried on under a cooperative agreement with the University of
Illinois at the Engineering Experiment Station of the University by R. S. Jensen, now
assistant professor of theoretical and applied mechanics. Following completion of the
new Engineering Building, the rolling-load machines were transferred to it from the
University. This transfer necessarily resulted in some delay in the test program. Before
this transfer was made and since the last published report, rolling-load tests were com-
pleted on 19 joints, completing scheduled tests on 24 rail joints, 12 having 115 RE
headfree bars and 12 having 132 RE headfree bars.
The objective of these tests was to determine whether a change in the easement
on the top midlength of the bars from the formerly used double reversed curve contour
to a semi-circular contour would be helpful. The original program called for these ease-
ments to be milled to a length of \l/> in and a depth of 0.22 in. Failure of tin- first
few bars tested through the easement indicated that this might be too great a depth ;
accordingly, six joints for each rail section had the easement milled to a depth of
0.11 in. The results were not substantially different for the 0.11 compared to the 0.22 in
deep easement nor were they significantly better than results obtained on the shape
of easement formerly used.
In the work for Subcommittee 8 — Causes of Shelly Spots and Head Checks in
Rail; Methods for Their Prevention, W. H. Hobbs, chairman, our metallurgical engineer
has continued his inspections of the service tests on the various railways of heat-treated
and alloy rail. Rolling-load tests have been continued at the University of Illinois under
a cooperative agreement with the University and the American Iron and Steel Institute
by Prof. R. E. Cramer. Also, we have started at the Research Center a rolling-load
test set up to simulate the condition of wheel bearing of the leading wheel of a truck
on the outside or high rail of a curve with the contact pressure concentrated at the gage
corner of the rail. For this test, the rolling-load machine was equipped with a car wheel
turned to have the contour of an average worn wheel in service. In the three-dimen-
sional photo-elastic study made by Dr. M. M. Frocht for these wheel bearing conditions
and based upon assumptions in translation from the plastic model to the full-sized rails
and wheel which may or may not be correct. Dr. Frocht concluded that a load of
30,000 lb on a 33-in wheel should develop internal direct stresses and shearing stresses
about equal to the endurance limit of the rail steel. We have started this rolling-load
test, therefore, with a 30.000-lb wheel load, and if in the test we find that this is the
endurance limit of the rail steel, then this will confirm the photo-elastic results and
cive us a reliable yardstick to use in calculating the permissible wheel load for various
diameters of car wheels with respect to the development of shelly failures.
In the work for Subcommittee 9 — Recent Developments Affecting Rail Sections,
W. J. Cruse, chairman, our principal work during the year has been in connection with
studies of the CF&I rail sections. Inasmuch as the principal change in these sections
over the 115 and 132 RE sections involve an increase in depth of head, data wen
requested and received from Member Roads showing the amount of metal actually
worn from the top of rail removed from main line tangent track last year. Also, mil
contour measurements were taken on the CF&I sections and corresponding AREA sec-
tions on two railroads and presented with comments in the Rail committee report this
year.
In our work for Subcommittee 10 — Service Performance and Economics of 78-Ft
Rail. S. H. Barlow, chairman, measurements were made by the staff during the year
on the service test installation of 78-ft rail for the 133 RE section on the Pennsylvania
Railroad near Hamlet, Ind., on the 115 RE installation on the Chicago & North Western
1276 Track
Railway near Calamus, Iowa, and on the Illinois Central installation of 132 RE rail
near Monee, 111.
The objective of these measurements is to obtain data on the expansion opening
and uniformity of expansion opening with the 78-ft rail compared to the 39-ft length
and to develop data that may be useful in determining the method of laying 78-ft rail
with respect to atmospheric temperature and expansion allowance. Another objective
is to make measurements of batter, droop and fishing surface wear at the rail joints
on the 78- and 39-ft rail to see whether the 50 percent reduction in number of joints
will result in more expansion movement, batter, and wear at the remaining joints with
the 78-ft rail. If this is found to be true, some of the advantages in the elimination
of one-half the rail joints would be lost. However, the measurements made so far, as
included in the report this year, have not indicated this to be the case.
This concludes my comments on the research work we have underway for the Rail
committee. Thank you. [Applause]
Chairman Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Magee.
This completes my term as chairman of the Rail committee, and I would now like
to introduce Mr. Stanley Crane, mechanical research engineer of the Southern Railway
System, as the incoming chairman of the Rail committee. [Applause]
Also, Mr. W. J. Cruse, engineer maintenance of way of the Great Northern Railway,
the new vice chairman of the Rail committee. [Applause]
I want to thank the members of the Rail committee, and particularly Mr. Crane
and the subcommittee chairmen, for their support during the last three years. I also
would like to acknowledge the most helpful assistance furnished by the AAR research
staff and by Professor Cramer of the University of Illinois.
Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 4.
President McBrian: Thank you very much, Mr. Meyers. It is unfortunate that
our program schedule could not give you more time to present your subcommittee
reports, because I know all of us would have been interested in a more detailed presenta-
tion. On the other hand, since all of these reports are available to our members in the
February Bulletin and will be presented in full in the 1958 Proceedings, I am glad that
you turned over most of the time of your committee for the very interesting addresses
by Mr. Code, Mr. Kannowski and Mr. Magee.
We appreciate your service to the Association over the past three years as chairman
of the Rail committee, which you now give up for a "more important job", and we
are glad to welcome as your successor Mr. Crane, and Mr. Cruse as the new vice
chairman of your committee.
The committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Track
[For report, see pp. 1005-1086]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: The next committee to report is our Committee 5 — Track,
the chairman of which is Mr. W. E. Cornell, engineer of track, Nickel Plate Road, at
Cleveland. Will Chairman Cornell and the other members of the Track committee please
come to the speakers' table and make their report.
In view of the sizable number of assignments on which Committee 5 will report,
it will be appreciated if the chairmen of the reporting subcommittees will take their
Discussion 1277
places as near the podium as possible in order to avoid any unnecessary loss of time
in coming to the rostrum to make their presentations.
I would remind the audience again that the aisle microphones are for your use in
commenting on any of the material presented, should you desire to do so.
Mr. Cornell, you may proceed with the presentation of your report.
CnAiRMAX W. E. Cornell [Nickel Plate] : President McBrian, members of the
AREA and guests: At this time it is my sad duty to report the passing during the past
year of a member of your Track committee, a past chairman and a Member Emeritus.
W. G. Am, better known perhaps to most of us as "Colonel" Arn, who died on May 8,
1957. Colonel Arn was retired special engineer for the Illinois Central Railroad, and
during his active years he gave freely of his time and energy to this Association so that
others might benefit from his knowledge, his experience and his example of leadership.
A memoir to Mr. Arn will appear in the Proceedings.
MEMOIR
Milltam (SoMrep £rn
William Godfrey Arn, retired special engineer of the Illinois Central Railroad, died
on May 8th. 1957, at Alexian Brothers Rest Home, Signal Mountain, Tenn.
He was born February 7, 1877, in Terre Haute, Ind., son of Godfrey and Elizabeth
Van Brunt Arn. He attended schools in Scottsboro, Ala., and in 1897 was graduated
from Rose Polytechnic Institute. He served four years (two terms) as alumni member
of the board of directors of his college and also at one time was president of the alumni
association.
After graduation he became associated with the Louisville & Nashville Railroad.
Later he was with Southern Bitulitic Company as superintendent and after that joined
the Missouri Pacific Railroad as assistant engineer. In 1907 he entered the service of the
Illinois Central Railroad as assistant engineer in charge of construction of the Birming-
ham terminal. Later he became resident engineer, roadmaster. assistant engineer main-
tenance of way, assistant chief engineer of Chicago terminal improvements, and at the
time of his retirement, special engineer.
He joined the American Railway Engineering Association in 1910, becoming a Life
Member in 1954. He served on Committees 6 — Buildings. 14 — Yards and Terminals.
26 — Standardization, and 5 — Track. He served as vice chairman and chairman of Com-
mittee 5 and was elected Member Emeritus of this committee in 1953
He served with the Army Engineers in both world wars and was promoted to
lieutenant colonel in April 1919.
Col. Arn was a life member of the American Society of Civil Engineers and a past
president of the Illinois section. He was also a life member of the Western Society of
Engineers and served as trustee for two years.
In the Society of Military Engineers he was a past president of the Chicago section
and past national vice president. He was vice president of the Chicago chapter, Militar)
Order World War I. He was a member and pasl vice commander of Castle Post,
American Legion. He was also a 32nd degree Mason and a Shriner, a member of the
Woodlawn Methodist Church, and belonged to numerous other clubs and associations
His name appeared in "Who's Who in America", 1928-19.U ; "Who's Who in Chicago",
1926; and "Who's Who in Engineering", 1922-1923.
He is survived by six sisters: Mrs. L. W. Rorex and Mrs. J. B. Jarvi\. Pomona,
1278 Track
Col.; Mrs. John E. Redmond, West Palm Beach, Fla.; Mrs. John L. Henderson, Cowan,
Tenn.; Mrs. E. M. Davis, Gulfport, Miss.; and Mrs. Ross D. Miller of Denver, Col.
Col. Am served his country in two world wars, and received the following citation
after World War I: "Major William Godfrey Arn, 13th Engineers, for exceptionally
meritorious and conspicuous services at Verdun, France. American Expeditionary Forces
in testimony thereof, and as an expression of appreciation of these services, I award him
this citation. Signed John J. Pershing, Commander in Chief, April 19th, 1919."
Col. Arn was respected and greatly admired by all who had the privilege of working
with him and will long be remembered by his associates and friends because of his
devotion, loyalty, and genial personality.
Chairman Cornell: The report of Committee 5 will be found in Bulletin 542,
pages 1005 through 1086. Your committee's report today will cover nine of our eleven
assignments. It is hoped that any of you who care to comment from the floor will feel
free to do so, both in asking questions and making suggestions. It is my feeling that
your questions and suggestions give the chairman of any committee a feeling of
accomplishment.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual
Chairman Cornell: Under Assignment 1 we recommend editorial changes in Specifi-
cations for Laying Rail, Manual pages 5-5-1 to 5-5-3, to show class of rail designation
as No. 1 rail and No. 2 rail, to agree with that shown in the Rail committee specifica-
tions instead of our present designation of "first quality" rail and "second quality"
rail.
Our next report today will be on Assignment 2. This report will be given by Mr.
C. E. Peterson, assistant engineer, Santa Fe, chairman of the Subcommittee.
Assignment 2 — Track Tools, Collaborating with Committees 1 and 22
and with Purchases and Stores Division, AAR.
C. E. Peterson [Santa Fe] : Mr. President, Mr. Chairman and members of the
Association: An investigation was made in regard to the use of the scythe on the rail-
roads, and it was found that very few are ordered. It has become obsolete because
of the use of power mowers, chemical weed killers, and so forth.
There are few manufacturers who make the scythe, as it is a low-volume item.
Therefore, it has become difficult to find a manufacturer who can furnish the scythe
according to the AREA plan without charging a premium. Accordingly, your committee
submits the following recommendations with respect to the Manual for adoption:
Withdraw Plan 28-53-AREA Scythe, and Plan 29-53-AREA Snath, page 5-6-24.
Also delete references to these plans in the list of plans on page 5-6-9 and in Art. 9 on
page 5-6-8 of Specifications for Ash and Hickory Handles for Track Tools.
Mr. President, I so move.
[The motion was duly seconded.]
C. J. Code [Pennsylvania]: I would like to make a few remarks about this matter.
When the matter came to my attention I inquired into our purchases of scythes over
the past two years, and found that, in spite of the fact that we have power mowers and
weed burners and weed chemicals, we still use a good many scythes and snaths.
I talked to some of my friends on other railroads and, as nearly as I can find out,
the situation on other roads is pretty much the same, but they are a little loath to talk
about it for fear someone will jump down their throats and say they should not be
using any hand tools any more.
Discussion 1279
I grant you there aren't very many left to use them, but some of them are still
used. In spite of the fact that you can't buy a scythe mack- exactly according to the
plan, it seems to me it serves as a good guide and is something against which you can
measure the quality of whatever scythe is offered to you. Incidentally, I find there are
a good many people who don't know what a snath is. I would like to suggest that the
committee reconsider the withdrawal of this plan.
President McBrian: We have a motion and a second. Is there further discussion?
All in favor of withdrawing the plan, say "aye"; opposed, "no". The motion is lost.
Mr. Peterson: The following is a progress report, submitted as information:
The AREA rail fork has been tested and found lacking in that the handle is not
long enough to permit turning a 136-lb rail satisfactorily. A recommendation was made
that the length of the rail fork be increased from 40 in to 48 in. It was decided to
have six rail forks made up having an overall length of 48 in and to have them tested
on the Southern Pacific.
Also, an investigation is being made as to the possibility of using a riveted pipe
handle on the rail fork in place of the forged steel handle to reduce weight, maintenance
and initial cost.
In connection with the standardization of head size and shape for drive spikes and
lag screws, it was decided that a ^-in square head similar to the head shown on the
Pittsburgh Screw and Bolt Corporation Dwg. 21-C-264 be recommended for applica-
tion on all drive and screw spikes. A drawing of the proposed 7A-in square-type head
was prepared and sent to the Signal Section, AAR, and the American Iron & Steel
Institute for their consideration.
The AAR Signal Section stated that the proposed J^-in square-type head would
satisfactorily fill its requirements.
The AISI Technical Committee on Track Accessories progressed a study of the
proposed %-in square-type head and reached the conclusion that this type of head can
be manufactured for various shank diameters from 5/8 in to 15/16 in, incl., for all
lengths commonly used for drive screw spikes.
Predicated on the above information, a plan was prepared, and a canvass of all
Class I railroads is being conducted at the present time to see if it will be satisfactory
for their requirements before proceeding further.
The manufacturers pointed out that there has been very little use for screw spikes
on the major railroads in recent years; their use has been primarily limited to the sub-
ways and elevated lines. Therefore, screw spikes can be disregarded.
The design of the law screw has already been se' by the American Standards
Association.
This completes the report on Assignment 2.
Mr. M. J. Zeeman, engineer of track design. Santa Fe Railway, will present the
report on Assignment 3.
Assignment 3 — Plans for Switches, Frogs, Crossings, Spring and Slip
Switches, Collaborating with Signal Section, AAR.
M. J. Zeeman [Santa Fe]: Mr. President, Mr. chairman, members and guests:
Your committee submits for approval as recommended practice and publication in the
Portfolio of Trackwork Plans (which is part of the Manual) two plans, one for steel
frog fillers and reinforcing bars and the other showing bill of switch ties for turnouts
and crossovers. These two plans are in the Portfolio, but the} muv have been brought
up to date, and the changes in each plan are shown in our printed report on page
1009.
1280 Track
Therefore, Mr. President, I move the adoption of Plan No. 32S-S8, Steel Frog
Fillers and Reinforcing Bars, and Plan No. 912-58, Bill of Switch Ties for Turnouts
and Crossovers, as recommended practice and publication in the Manual (Portfolio of
Trackwork Plans) and the withdrawal of the previous issue of these plans.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Zeeman: Your committee also recommends for your approval a revision of
para. 103 of the Specifications, Appendix A, concerning the use of "A" rails for guard
rails. It is believed that, for guard rail purposes, "A" rails can well be used.
Therefore, Mr. President, I move the adoption as recommended practice and for
publication in the Manual (Portfolio of Trackwork Plans) revised para. 103 of the
Specifications, Appendix A, shown on page 1009 under "103. Quality", to supersede
present para. 103.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried!
Mr. Zeeman: The collaboration of our Associate members, the manufacturers, in
our work, covering all subjects, is gratefully acknowledged.
Your committee also submits two reports prepared by the research staff of the
Engineering Division, AAR, these being Appendix 3-a — Service Tests of Manganese Steel
Castings in Crossings at McCook, 111., and Appendix 3-d — Track Gage and Flangeway
Widths for Operation of Diesel Power on Curved Track.
We wish to emphasize particularly that this second report contains valuable infor-
mation on securing greater economy in life of rails and fastenings, ties, turnouts and
railroad crossings by reducing the excess gage on curved track made possible due to
diesel operation. We plan to incorporate the basic data shown in Appendix 3-d on
some of the plans now in the Trackwork Portfolio for steam locomotives only, and
hope to submit our recommendations to you at next year's meeting.
Mr. President, these two reports are submitted as information.
This concludes the report on Assignment 3.
The report on Assignment 4 will be presented by Subcommittee Chairman Vv . E.
Griffiths, chief engineer, Central Region, Canadian National.
Chairman Cornell: I learned just a few moments ago that Mr. Griffiths has been
unavoidably detained, so I will make a few comments regarding his report.
Assignment 4 — Prevention of Corrosion from Brine Drippings on Track
and Structures, Collaborating with Committee 15, and Mechanical Division,
AAR.
Chairman Cornell: This subcommittee is continuing its study both in the research
laboratory and by actual field tests on the Canadian National Railway. The research
laboratory is also reviewing something that perhaps will be interesting to those of you
who happen to be chemically-minded, and that is the work being done by the experi-
menters in the field of inhibitors in antifreeze compounds in automotive vehicles.
This concludes the report of Assignment 4.
The next report will be on Assignment 5. The chairman of this subcommittee, Mr.
L. A. Pelton, district engineer, Pennsylvania, will give the report.
Assignment 5 — Design of Tie Plates, Collaborating with Committees J
and 4.
L. A. Pelton [Pennsylvania] : This report on the work done by the AAR research
staff covers: (1) Progress on service test of tie plates for 6-in rail base conducted on
the Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific Railway, and (2) the final report on service
test of tie plates for Sj^-in rail base conducted on the Illinois Central.
Discussion 1281
The test on the CNO&TP was installed in November 1944 on single main line
track approximately 12 miles north of Chattanooga, Tenn. Seven designs of tie plates
are contained in 22 test panels of track, divided between 6-deg curve, tangent track with
oak ties, and tangent track with pine ties. Traffic since the test was installed has
averaged about 22 million gross ton per year.
Average values for the 14-in tie plates on the curve continue to show 25 percent
greater plate cutting on the outer rail than on the inner rail, and 39 percent greater
on the outer rail than on the tangent with oak ties. On the tangent the soft wood
pine ties are plate cut 35 percent more than the oak ties. While the tie plate abra-
sion on the inner rail of the curve is practically equalized between the gage and the
field end, the outer rail plates have 56 percent more abrasion on the field end than
on the gage end. The special AREA 16-in tie plate with 1 J^-in eccentricity lor use
on curves would be beneficial on the outer rail of this curve.
Tie plate deflection measurements taken in 1957 indicate no appreciable permanent
bending.
Unequal plate cutting has tended to widen the gage moderately on the outer rail.
Tie plates with the ribbed bottoms show the least gage widening.
The service period on this test has not been of sufficient duration to develop the
advantage of longer tie plates, nor has it developed any permanent bending of any tie
plate design.
In concluding the AAR-Illinois Central srevice test near Curve, Tenn., the eight
tie plate designs were examined for bending. The only' plates found bent were the 11 -in
plates, designated as 41Q-X, having a 9/16 in thickness at the field shoulder. This is
y$ in thinner than the AREA Plan No. 4 tie plates. Thirty-six percent of the 419-X
plates used in this test were bent. Eighty-one percent of these were on the inner rail.
The service period of this test was 12.2 years and the estimated gross tonnage was 220
million, with no evidence of brine corrosion.
It is concluded from this test that the AREA Plan thicknesses of tie plates for the
5 y2 -in rail base are sufficient in most cases for a satisfactory service life. The report
on Assignment 6 will be given by Subcommittee Chairman J. S. Parsons, assistant chief
engineer maintenance of way. Erie Railroad.
Assignment 6 — Hold-Down Fastenings for Tie Plates, Including Pads
Under Plates; Their Effect on Tie Wear, Collaborating with Committee 3.
J. S. Parsons [Erie]: As-ignment 6 is primarily concerned with determining the
most economical and effective methods for extending the service life of lie- by reducing
plate cuttinL' and the frequency of regaging and readzing curves by the use of special
hold flown fastenings, tit- coatings, tic pads, etc.
The report as submitted this year is still in the nature of a progress report. It
covers the tenth annual inspection of the service tests on the Louisville & Nashville
Railroad which is cooperating with this committee and the AAR research st.ifi under
the direcl charge of H E. Durham, research engineer track. In the same category i- a
test of hold-down fastenings on the Illinois Central Railroad north of Manlcno. III.
The tests on the Louisville & Nashville were started in August 1947, and addition- and
revisions have been made in subsequent years No new tesl sections were added in
During Ma> 1957 the \\k research staff made a detailed inspection of all the tests
involved, and the report as submitted indicates in clear form the more important results
of the inspection oJ the tie pad-, tie seals, tie coating and hold down fastenings, The
1282 Track
report contains interesting information which should be of considerable value when
considering ways and means of adding to tie life.
Generally speaking, and of considerable interest, it has been developed that more
than two-thirds of the tie pads purchased by the railroads have been used on open-
deck bridge ties, which are largely of softwood, and it appears from our ten-year-old
test that: (1) pads having a long lasting seal are essential for obtaining maximum soft-
wood tie life (2) some of the hold-down fastenings are less effffective in softwood ties
than in hardwood, and (3) tie pads with special hold-down fastenings should have a
longer service life than with cut spike construction.
The tests have indicated that some of the adzed surface coatings have effected
some reduction in tie wear. The committee feels, however, that a longer test period is
required before definite conclusions can be justified.
A further inspection will be made during May or June of this year and the findings
published as our 1958 report.
Chairman Cornell: In the absence of Subcommittee Chairman R. G. Garland,
roadmaster, Santa Fe, the report on Assignment 7 will be read by Mr. Peterson.
Assignment 7 — Effect of Lubrication in Preventing Frozen Rail Joints
and Retarding Corrosion of Rail and Fastenings.
C. E. Peterson [Santa Fe] : Our investigations have disclosed that it seems jus-
tifiable to initially protect joints and bolts with a brush coat of metal preservative
when laying new rail. Later, if corrosion and frozen joints become a problem, spray
applications can be made to control the condition for less than 10 cents per joint.
Seven different spraying compounds having a wide range of viscosity have been
tested on both new and old rail. The thinner materials were found to be effective
for unfreezing joints, but generally had a short service life for arresting corrosion. The
most effective compounds for protecting the rail web from corrosion appear to be those
having a petrolatum base. One such material was used 2 years ago on 11 year old 131-lb
rail, and it should be effective for another two years.
Chairman Cornell: Subcommittee Chairman J. B. Wilson, chief engineer, Georgia
Railroad, will now present the report on Assignment 8.
Assignment 8 — Laying Rail Tight with Frozen Joints.
J. B. Wilson [Georgia Railroad] : Mr. President, members and guests: At the
present time the subcommittee has three sections of tight rail under observation. They
are on three different railroads and vary in rail section and rail characteristics.
The tight section on the Louisville & Nashville was laid with 132 RE rail with
6-hole headfree joints, 1^-in track bolts tightened to a tension of 45,000 lb. The rails
were not end hardened or beveled as were the rails in the adjoining normal section be-
cause the L&N wanted to have the same hardness throughout the entire tight rail sec-
tion, thereby simulating one long rail. Initial measurements were taken by the AAR
research staff in October 1955. The tight rail section was inspected on December 31,
1956 by L&N officers. Fourteen joints out of a total of 211 were found to be open with
a rail temperature of 22 deg, the average opening being 0.13 in. A check of 31 rails
laid with normal opening made at the same time showed an average joint opening of
0.21 in.
During the last service period, the L&N built up by gas welding 71 joints in the
tight rail, which is approximately one-third of the joints in the test section. This work
was necessary because of the break-out of the metal in the joint where there was rela-
tively deep chipping or flow of metal. This condition was apparently aggravated by
Discussion 1283
the heads of the rail having been undercut excessively in the mill so that there was a
concentration of the bucking force at the top of the section. The normal-bevel end-
hardened rail had only one chipped joint out of a total of 210 joints. The data obtained
from this test section indicate that tight rail laid without end hardening and beveling
results in excessive batter and chipping of rail ends.
During the past year the Erie Railroad tight laid 1.74 miles of US RE rail near
Crown Point, Ind., adjoining a similar section of normally laid rail, using 6-hole long-
toe joint bars with 1-in track bolts each with an average of .^5,000 lb tension. All rails
in both the tight and normal sections were end hardened and beveled. The light rail
was also end milled with a slight undercut. Prior to the laying of the rail, the track
was given a general raising, and fairly heavy tie renewals were made. Ties were spaced
on 20-in centers. For anchoring the tight rail, an average of 19 ties per panel were
equipped with compression clips on gage side. The grade on both test sections is approxi-
mately 0.3 percent.
On October 1057, the Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad laid 2 miles of tight rail in
single-track CTC territory North of Grove City, Pa. The rail is 140 RE section with
AREA 6-hole head-contact joints; l^s-in bolts each having approximately 45,000 lb bolt
tension. The south y2 mile is laid with plain-end rail, without end hardening and
beveling, anchored with compression clips on every tie, except at joints, placed alter-
nately on gage and field side of each rail. The north y2 mile is laid with end-hardened
and beveled rail, fully box anchored with grip-type anchors on all ties except at joints.
Ties are spaced 22 per 39-ft rail.
From the three test sections I have briefly described, the subcommittee on laying
rail tight with frozen joints expects to secure some very interesting and worthwhile data.
There will be no report on Assignment 9.
Subcommittee Chairman S. H. Poore, assistant engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio, will
now present the report on Assignment 10.
Assignment 10 — Methods of Heat Treatment, Including Flame Hard-
ening of Bolted Rail Frogs and Split Switches, Together with Methods of
Repair by Welding.
S. H. Poore [C&O] : This assignment was started in 1954 by the installation of 24
test units in three panels on the Milwaukee Road at Mannheim, 111.
There are nine flame-hardened panels, nine completely heat-treated panels, three
chrome-vanadium panels and three non-treated panels of ordinary control-cooled rail for
control purposes, all of 132-lb rail.
As reported a year ago experimental welding techniques were carried out in the
laboratory on samples of the material used in making the crossing panels.
In September 1957 welding was done on the panels in track both by gas and electric
methods. The welds were ground as soon as possible after welding and hardness readings
taken for the record.
We have been accumulating field data and trying out methods now for three years.
Your subcommittee hopes during the coming year to at least make some partial evalua-
tion of the data at hand and arrive at some conclusions as to relative life and value of
flame hardening and heat treating, together with recommendations as to methods of
repair.
Chairman Cornell: As you were told, there were no reports on Assignments 9
or 11. Your committee is continuing the study of these subject*, and I feel we will have
something for you next year.
1 284 Roadway and Ballast
Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 5.
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Cornell. With the aid of the research staff,
the manufacturers of special trackwork and track tools, and the generous cooperation
on the part of many railroads in arranging for service tests, your committee continues
to present valuable reports each year on a wide range of assignments. The large number
of your assignments which call for assistance on the part of the AAR research staff,
and the results that are being secured through this assistance, are further testimony to
the value of our committees having intimate contact with and assistance from Mr.
Magee and members of his staff.
Our thanks to your committee and to all those persons and agencies that have
worked with it in producing the fine reports which have been presented here this
morning.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Roadway and Ballast
[For report, see pp. 797-894]
[President Ray McBrian presiding.]
President McBrian: The last committee to be heard from on our 1958 convention
program is our Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast, of which Mr. A. P. Crosley, engi-
neer maintenance of way of the Reading Company at Philadelphia is chairman. Will
Mr. Crosley and the members of his committee please present their report at this time.
Mr. Crosley, I am pleased to turn the meeting over to you.
Chairman A. P. Crosley [Reading] : Mr. President, members of the AREA and
guests. This year your committee reports on 7 of 11 assignments. The reports will be
found in Bulletin 542, February 1°58, pages 7Q7 to 8Q3 incl.
While the time allotted is limited, the committee solicits comments, suggestions and
criticisms of its report that you may care to offer. Members of the committee are sitting
with you and will be glad to bring you a portable microphone if you desire to comment.
We shall endeavor to answer any questions you may have and if we are unable to do so
at this time, we shall certainly attempt to find the answer. Please feel free to make
remarks following presentation of each subcommittee report.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Chairman Crosley: The change recommended is purely editorial in nature, involving
no addition, deletion or change in the recommended practice of material appearing in
the Manual; hence it does not require approval of the Convention.
Assignment 2 — Physical Properties of Earth Materials : (a) Roadbed,
Load Capacity, Relation to Ballast, Allowable Pressures ; (b) Structural
Foundation Beds, Collaborating with Committees 6 and 8.
Chairman Crosley: Owing to the absence of Mr. R. R. Manion, assistant vice
president — operation, New York Central System, chairman of the subcommittee, I will
call attention to the report on soil pressure cells, page 79°. This is the first report on
the use of soil pressure cells for measurement of static soil pressures and changes in
static pressures that may occur over relatively long periods of time under high embank-
ments. The work is being conducted as part of an investigation of stresses in concrete
culvert pipes sponsored by AREA Committee 30. The measurements of stresses under
embankments is sponsored by Committee 1. The investigation is being conducted by
Discussion 1285
the research staff of the Engineering Division of the Association oi American Railroads
under the general direction of G. M. Magoe, director of engineering research.
Soil pressure cells are installed in earth masses to furnish direct information on the
development of stresses and changes in stress that occur within the masses.
Readings have been taken at regular intervals. Thus far, with few exceptions, there
is generally good agreement between measured and theoretical pressures.
It is hoped that the pressure cell readings will give valuable information on soil
pressures in earth masses which will be helpful in the design of underground structures
and the formulation of proper installation procedures.
This is a progress report submitted as information.
The report on Assignment S will be presented by Mr. K. W. Schoeneberg, division
engineer, Frisco.
Assignment 5 — Specifications for Pipe Lines for Conveying Flammable
and N on-Flammable Substances.
K. W. Schoeneberg [Frisco]: Under assignment S your committee presents as infor-
mation a progress report on its activities and studies relative to pipe line crossings under
railroads and longitudinal occupancy of pipe lines on railroad right-of-wa> .
The Pipe Line Committee of the Construction Division, American Society of Civil
Engineers, was asked to appoint a committee to make a study of pipeline crossings of
railroads and highways with the view of recommending a specification that would be
acceptable to the many interests such as, railroads, highway departments, pipeline com-
panies, oil and gas transmission and distribution companies, American Petroleum Insti-
tute, and others, and which could be approved by the American Standards Association.
The AREA was asked to name representatives to serve on the Committee, and
since the subject is under the jurisdiction of Committee 1, this committee arranged for
representation. Committee 15 also appointed a representative.
Several meetings have been held and subcommittees have been -el up to review
the design, construction and maintenance of such pipelines.
The AREA Manual includes specifications for pipeline crossings under railway
tracks which, it is felt, are satisfactory, and it is largely the purpose of the AREA
representatives to see that there is no change that would adversely affect the railroads.
Substantial progress is being made by your committee on its studies pertaining to
the ever growing problem of longitudinal or parallel occupancy of pipelines OD railroad
right-of-ways. These studies could easily be conceived as leading to specifications othei
than what now appears in the first paragraph, page l-5-o of the Manual, relating to
this subject.
This is a progress report presented as information only.
Chairman Crosley: I would now like to introduce to you Mr. L. D. Shelkey.
assistant engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie, who will report to you on Assignment 6.
Assignment 6 — Roadway : Formation and Protection; (a) Roadbed Stab-
ilization; (b) Slope Protection by Use of Additives.
L. D. Shelkey [B&LE]: Your committee reports this year on Assignment (a) only.
The report, submitted as information, consists ol soil studies for a line change on the
Northern Pacific Railway and was prepared b) R. B. Peck and Don U Deere of the
University of Illinois.
This report represents work under the cooperative investigation with committee
sponsorship, between the Engineering Division, AAR, and the Engineering Experiment
Station of the University of Illinois, under the direction of (1 M Magee, director oi
1286 Roadway and Ballast
engineering research, AAR, and Dr. R. B. Peck, professor of foundation engineering
of the university. Rockwell Smith, research engineer roadway, was in direct charge
of the work for the Engineering Division.
This concludes the report on Assignment 6.
The report on Assignment 9 will be presented by Subcommittee Chairman J. E.
Chubb, assistant to general manager — industrial development, Pennsylvania Railroad.
Assignment 9 — Roadway Signs: (a) Reflectorized and Luminous Road-
way Signs, Collaborating with Committee 9 and the Signal Section, AAR;
(b) Develop Standard Close Clearance Warning Sign.
J. E. Chubb [Pennsylvania] : Under Assignment 9 (a) your committee presents as
information a progress report on the feasibility studies of new nuclear light sources that
the Armour Research Foundation has been engaged to make.
One of the earliest commercial uses of radioactivity in its naturally occurring forms
was for the production of light. Self-luminous watch dials have been available for sev-
eral decades. It was not until artificial radioisotopes were produced, however, that
serious thought was given to the use of radioactivity in light sources of relatively large
size and intensity. In recent years such things as deck markers for ships and standard
light sources for the calibration of instruments have appeared.
Light sources relying directly or indirectly on radioactivity for their excitation
possess many advantages and potential applications for the railroads, such as long life,
minimum servicing and reliability. The question immediately arises as to why these
light sources are not in use if their principles are understood and there are such obvious
advantages to be gained. Two problems remain to be satisfactorily solved. First, in
general, the brightness of radioactive light sources in most cases is too low to be useful.
Second, radioactivity is a potential hazard, and widespread public use of sources of
activity must be based on a foolproof design which contains the isotopes or uses the
most innocuous types of isotopes.
Low light level applications, however, such as self-illuminated signs and signal
lamps are within the range of present-day technology. The ARF proposal for this re-
search is concerned with the mechanisms involved in the production of light by means
of radioactivity, together with the problems involved, and presents some ideas which
show promise.
Under Assignment (b) your committee reports progress in the gathering of infor-
mation for the development of a standard close clearance warning sign, which assign-
ment was given to Committee 1 shortly after the last annual meeting of the Associa-
tion. The committee fully recognizes the need to establish uniformity throughout the
railroad industry, and Subcommittee 9, which has been given the assignment for study,
development and report, is assembling information concerning standards and practices
now in use or recommended by member roads. With this information a single recom-
mended standard will ultimately result and will be reported on at a later date.
Chairman Crosley: Mr. R. H. Beeder, assistant chief engineer system, Santa Fe,
chairman of Subcommittee 10, will now make his report.
Assignment 10 — Ballast: (a) Tests; (b) Ballasting Practices; (c) Spe-
cial Types of Ballast; (d) Specification for Sub-ballast.
R. H. Beeder [Santa Fe] : Your Committee reports this year on three of its projects
under Assignment 10 — Ballast.
The report on Assignment 10 (a) — Tests, is submitted as information and is the
Discussion 1287
fifth report on the progress of the oscillator ballast tests conducted at the Research
Center of the Association of American Railroads. Test results have been completed on
17 ballast materials and, although the work was temporarily interrupted by transferring
it to the new laboratory building, it is continuing with new and improved test equipment.
The report on Assignment 10 (c) — Special Types of Ballast, is submitted as infor-
mation to cover the procedures, types of equipment and results obtained in coating
ballast sections with asphalt on the Santa Fe and Union Pacific. Additional tests are
planned this year with improved spraying and chip-spreading equipment under the
administration of a joint committee consisting of seven members of Committee 1 and
seven members from the asphalt industry representing The Asphalt Institute.
Your committee fulfills its job under Assignment 10 (d) — Specifications for Sub-
ballast, by recommending that materials intended for use as sub-ballast shall conform to
current ASTM Specifications, designation D 1241, which gives specifications for six
successful gradations. Mr. President, I move that the Specifications for Sub-ballast as
set forth on page 835 of Bulletin 542, be adopted and published in the Manual.
[The motion was regularly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Chairman Crosley: The report on Assignment 11 will be presented by Mr. C. E.
Webb, engineer of tests, Southern Railway System.
Assignment 11 — Chemical Control of Vegetation, Collaborating with
Signal Section and Communications Section, AAR.
C. E. Webb [Southern] : The progress report appearing in the Bulletin consists of
three parts. Parts 1 and 2 cover the results of the investigations of the University of
Iowa and the University of North Carolina, respectively. Part 3 covers the results of
field observations by the AAR staff.
In the investigations at the University of Iowa, chlorate and CMU has been the
most dependable single treatment for weed control for several years, but this treatment
is expensive. It has been demonstrated that equally satisfactory results may be achieved
with two oil sprays, 60 days apart, or any one of several chemical sprays followed by
an oil spray 60 days later. This emphasizes that satisfactory weed control requires a
prevention of seed production by annuals, as well as the elimination of perennials; and
that in Iowa, this can be achieved by a double spray system at lower cost.
At the University of North Carolina, nearly 30 compounds were investigated in
1957, and since this was the first year that the program was significantly expanded, the
residual effect of many compounds cannot be evaluated until this year. Several com-
pounds, including additives for oil, appeared to show considerable promise for win I
control in this area.
Heavy rainfall in this area reduced the effectiveness of many compounds, particu-
larly the soil-sterilant class and water-soluble leaf-absorbed material. This, however,
must be considered a hazard of the area and restricts the use of compounds which have
been found effective in other areas with less rainfall.
The AAR staff made field observations of weed and brush control on 22 railroads
in the United States and Canada, which are summarized in several tables in the report.
These tables list practically all of the chemical formulations which are on the market
today, and show the rates of application, date applied, weather conditions, type of
vegetation, and results obtained.
The ester formulations of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T continu* to be und for brush control.
with ammate substituted for areas adjacent to crops, or in those states where the phenoxj
compounds are not permitted. A summary of the performance of these compounds is
included in these tables.
1288 Roadway and Ballast
A selected group of test areas were also observed to determine relative performance
of formulations in different sections and on specific types of vegetation. There is also
a table showing the trade name, composition, recommended rate, cost of material, and
cost per acre for treatment of the formulations listed in these summaries.
A satisfactory weed control program is dependent on the balance of many factors,
such as type of vegetation, time of treatment, application, and cost of treatment. It is
believed that the data contained in these summaries will provide useful information on
the performance of a given weed killer in a given area, and will aid in the selection
of the appropriate weed killer formulation.
It is hoped that as this work continues, recommendations may be made on specific
weed problems in each of the seven sections into which the United States and Canada
have been divided.
This report is presented as information only.
Chairman Crosley: Under Assignment 7 — Tunnels, for some time this committee
has had under study the assignment of ventilation of tunnels, particularly the necessity
for a change which might be required by reason of diesel operation.
There has not been much data available. While the matter was being studied, the
Great Northern, through its operation of diesel power in its Cascade Tunnel, felt that
some action should be taken. We are very fortunate in that Mr. G. V. Guerin, chief
engineer of the Great Northern Railway, is with us and will speak to us on this sub-
ject, illustrating his remarks with slides. Mr. Guerin.
Ventilation System for Cascade Tunnel on Great Northern Railway
By G. V. Guerin
Chief Engineer, Great Northern Railway
Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, fellow members of AREA, ladies and guests: It is a
pleasure to be here today to present this little talk to you. I am afraid you may find
it somewhat windy.
In January 1929 our company completed a tunnel through the main ridge of the
Cascade Mountains about 100 miles east of Seattle, Wash. This tunnel is the longest
one in the Western Hemisphere, and is not less than 8 miles in length. It is constructed
for single track. The alinement is tangent and the bore is concrete lined. The grade is
uniformly 1.57 percent ascending from the west to the east, with the summit being at
the east portal. That is also the summit of our crossing of the Cascade range.
The east portal is 634 ft higher than the west portal. Concurrently with the con-
struction of the tunnel, a section of track 73 miles long was electrified, extending from
Wenatchee on the east, up the east slope, through the tunnel and down the west slope
to the town of Snohomish on the west. There are 2.2 percent grades on each side of
the tunnel.
During World War II, because of the shortage of electric power, we had on occa-
sion to run diesel engines through our tunnel. In doing so it was found that the trailing
units of diesel locomotives, which were usually four units in length, would heat up
because the air in the tunnel, without doors at the portals, travels along with the trains,
and invariably before the diesel engines pass through the tunnel the rear units would
cut out because of overheating.
As we neared completion of going to dieselization for all of our power in 1954,
our management felt that a good many economies might be realized if we could
Address of G. V . Guerin 1289
eliminate the electric operation and operate diese] locomotives through from St. Paul
to Seattle. In this connection the International Engineering Company of San Francisco
was employed to make a two-part study. One was the design of a ventilation system
which would overcome the heating of diesel units as they passed through the tunnel,
and the second was. with the increased use of diesel power, a diesel system thai also
might be used to flush the tunnels after the passing of the trains.
This company also was requested to make a study of the economics to justify our
own preliminary thoughts in the matter.
The study was completed in the spring of 1055. was presenter! to our Hoard, and
was immediately approved. In July 1055 a contract was awarded to Morrison-Knudson
Company to proceed with the construction immediately, in order to meet a deadline
of July 31, 1056, when our long-term contract for electric power would be ended.
Work was interrupted during the winter because of very severe weather conditions.
I think the snowfall that winter was about 500 in at each portal of the tunnel.
In making the study many different tunnel ventilation systems were investigated,
but none was found that was suitable for our situation, because it was rather unique.
We made quite a few tests and found that a door had to be placed at one of the portals
to direct the air in the proper direction and in the proper quantity regardless of which
end was used for installation of the ventilation system.
It simmered down to two proposals for installing a ventilation system— that is, an
installation at either the west or the east portal. It would have been more desirable to
install the ventilation system at the west portal, because in that manner the additional
air needed could have been blown past the east-bound trains, and after the train had
cleared the tunnel, the tunnel would automatically have been flushed of gases. This,
however, would require about 1,000.000 cu ft of air per minute at a water pressure
around 15 or 16 in or more, and that quantity was too large to be considered.
The plan finally adopted was to install a ventilation system at the east portal of
the tunnel and blow the air against an eastbound train. This requires 200,000 cu ft
of air per minute at a water pressure of about 18 to 23 in, depending upon the speed
of the train. It was estimated that 500,000 cu ft of air per minute at 7 in of water
gage would be required to flush the tunnel after the passage of the train, and this
would require around 25 min.
The estimated cost of the ventilation system was .V500.0C0. hut due to the remote
location and the difficulties in construction and the small working space, the tunnel
ventilation system finally cost around $750,000.
Briefly, the principal units of the ventilation system consist of two 2 -stage axial
flow fans. They have reversible, 6 in diameter propellers; they have close-off doors and
steel transition ducts, and they are each powered by an 800 hp a < direct -drive blower.
They are designed to deliver 200,000 cu ft of air per minute at 18 in of water, and
262,500 cu ft of air per minute at 7 in of water with a speed of 1150 rpm. Of course,
an elaborate switch gear, and supervisory control goes with the entire system, particularl)
for operating the fans.
We had a source of power consisting of a 110-kv line passing tighl over the easl
portal; but because of the severe climatic conditions it was felt advisable to provide a
diesel-electric standby unit in case of power failure. Accordingly, we installed one diesel-
electric generating unit. 180 hp. with auxiliary equipment for automatic operation. The
control system is remote. The supervisory controls are located in our depot at Scenic,
which is about a quarter mile west of the west portal of the tunnel and i- operated
entirely by our operator in the depot at thai point.
/ • i I continued on pan
1200
Roadway and Ballast
— .10 S'
SKETCH SHOWING
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
VENTILATION SYSTEM
SEPT. 1957
General view of ventilation facilities at east portal.
Address of G. V. Guerin
1291
East portal with door closed. Machinery building at left.
East portal with door open.
1292
Roadway and Ballast
Fans, steel transition ducts, face of concrete transition ducts,
and side view of east portal extension.
GRAPHIC CHART SHOWING A COMPLETE VENTILATION
SEQUENCE FOR AN EASTWARD FREIGHT TRAIN THROUGH
THE CASCADE TUNNEL- TRAIN CONSIST • 4142 TONS • IIP CARS • 8 DIESEL UNITS
TRAIN SPEED • 18.7 MPH
TRAIN PASSES THROUGH PORTAL
Address of G V. Guerin 1293
During the tests it was found that we bad to put a door on one end of the tunnel,
and that door would probabl) bave to be installed on the end when- the ventilation
system was installed. In this case, with the ventilation system at the east end. we placed
a verticle, limp door at that point, which required an extension to the east portal of the
tunnel to accommodate it. This door i> counterweighted hut is driven and operated both
up and down by power. It has a safety mechanism with a magnetil dutch, and any
time the power goes off the clutch will disengage and the counterweights will open the
door. It also has a braking arrangement, hydraulic, similar to the Dynaflow or Hydro-
matic, which brakes the door and keeps its opening action uniform in case the clutch
is disengaged. During normal operation it takes about 25 sec for the floor to open
and close.
We also have had to construct some concrete transition ducts at the south wall
of the old tunnel for the entrance of the air into the tunnel blower. Then there was a
machinery house to house the fan motors and the die-el venerating unit, switch gear
and miscellaneous equipment.
The sequence of operation is relative!) .-imple. We only open the ventilation
for an eastbound train, because it is coming up the grade. As the eastbound train
passes the Scenic depot, the operator at that point actuates the controls, starts oik
fan and closes the portal door. Incidentally, the fan and the door are tied together
so that the door is always open when the fan is not running.
The train then enters the tunnel, and air is blown against it until the train reaches
a point about 3250 ft west of the east portal. At that point it actuates a signal circuit
which shuts off the fan and opens the door and allows the train to pass out of the
east portal.
A a point 65 ft east of the east portal we have another signal, and as the last car
of an eastbound train passes that point the signal circuit again actuates the ventilation
system, closes the door, starts one fan, and 30 seconds later the second fan is started
We use two fans only for flushing.
We do not use the fans while a westbound train is in the tunnel because it is
drifting down the 1.57 percent grade, and we leave it to the judgment of the operator
at Scenic whether to start the fans after the train has passed through the west portal
for the flushing operation. Usually he flushes the tunnel if he has time.
[At this point Mr. Guerin showed a number of slides, six of which are reproduced
herein.]
Time is too short to go into the many details of this ventilation system. The electric
controls are quite involved, and they are arranged to do any number of things, such
as to cut in the die-el electric generator set, reverse the fan- if we want to suck the air
out instead of pushing it out. and so forth.
We have now hid about a year and a half of experience with the ventilation system,
and we find its operation to be entirely satisfactory. We are jusl completing a study of
the savings in operating expenses which, as I said in tore, were estimated to in- si
million per year. It i- believed that these savings will be entirelj realized or exceeded
when the study i- completed.
Thank you. [Applause]
Chairman Crosley: Before we excuse Mr Guerin I am sure he will be glad to
answer any questions. Are there any questions anyone would like to ask?
Mr Guerin, on behalf of Committee 1 I want to thank you for your most inter-
esting and informative talk I am rare that should others encounter a similar problem.
they will be better prepared ii they work out the answer- based on your experience
1294 Closing Business
Mr. President, we have stayed within our time limit. This concludes the report
of Committee 1 and also my term as chairman. I want to thank the Association for
the opportunity of having had a chance to serve as chairman of this committee. I want
to thank the members of this committee for the valuable assistance they have given me.
Now, may I introduce those who will take over. These men are most willing and
able to carry on the work of the committee to the best interests of the Association.
Mr. G. B. Harris, assistant engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio, chairman.
Mr. J. E. Chubb, assistant to general manager-industrial development, Pennsylvania
Railroad, vice chairman.
Mr. F. H. McGuigan, bridge construction engineer, Missouri Pacific, secretary.
[Applause]
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Crosley. This is one of the few times we are
winding up the last session either on schedule or a little ahead of time. Mr. Crosley,
we thank you and your committee members for a most interesting report. Your com-
mittee, again with the cooperation of the Engineering Division Research Staff, con-
tinues to carry forward a wide range of projects of interest and value to our members
and the railroads.
I especially want to thank you, Mr. Crosley, for the able direction which you have
given to this work as chairman for the past two years, and to thank you for your
contribution to the work of Committee 1 over many years.
It will take good men to fill your shoes in the year ahead, but we are sure that we
have them in your new chairman, Mr. Harris, and your new vice chairman, Mr. Chubb,
whom we welcome to their new jobs. Thank you again.
Your committee is excused with the thanks of the Association.
Closing Business
President McBrian: Having completed the formal presentations of all our tech-
nical committees, we will now begin our closing business session, which will include the
installation of our new officers for the coming year.
Before beginning that session, however, I want to thank everyone who has par-
ticipated in our program, and also all those who contributed to the work of the Asso-
ciation during the past year.
No one could have sat through these sessions of the past two and a half days, as
I have and as many of you have, without appreciating the amount of work that has
been done by our committees and the Engineering Division Research Staff, and the
wealth of information which they have brought together in the interest of each of us
personally and that of our railroads.
It is indeed fortunate that, through our Annual Proceedings, everything that has
transpired here will be made available to those of our members who could not attend
the convention, and thus form a permanent part of the record of our Association.
Just a couple of announcements or reminders before we begin our closing business
session. One of these is the inspection of the AAR Research Center this afternoon on the
campus of Illinois Tech, beginning at 2 pm, where Mr. Magee and the members of his
staff will be pleased to show you their facilities, including the new Engineering Labora-
tory, and answer any questions you may wish to raise with respect to their equipment
or the work that is being carried out.
Secondly, I would like to remind all members of the Board of Direction, including
the newly elected and retiring members, that they are invited to a luncheon today imme-
diately following the close of this meeting, in the Louis XVI Room, with members
Closing Business 1295
of the Convention Arrangements Committee. Immediately following this luncheon,
members of the Board will hold their post-convention meeting in the Gold Room.
I now call to order the closing business session of this convention. Is there any
other business to come before us?
You may be interested to know that the grand total attendance at this convention
was 2239. You also will be interested to know that the ladies' registration totaled 353,
of whom 241 went to the ladies' tea, 266 went on the bus trip, and 221 went to the
South Shore Country Club.
Is there any other business to come before this meeting?
Past President Blair: Mr. President, may I have the privilege of the floor?
My good friend Ray, on behalf of the American Railway Engineering Association
it is my great pleasure to present you with a plaque. It reads: "The American Railway
Engineering Association records its grateful appreciation to Ray McBrian for his able
administration of the affairs of the Association during his term as President, 1957-1958."
This, Ray, will serve to remind you and Mrs. McBrian over the years of our appre-
ciation, and more especially it will remind you of the joy you got out of serving your
fellow engineers. [Applause]
President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Blair. I humbly accept and express my deep
appreciation and gratitude for this beautiful plaque. It means much to me that I have
been so honored by the Association; again may I express my deep appreciation.
The close of our Annual Meeting each year brings with it not only satisfaction but
also some regrets, because each year at this time we bring to an end the service of
several members of our Board of Direction. This year the annual meeting marks the
end of service on the Board of Past President G. M. O'Rourke, assistant engineer
maintenance of way of the Illinois Central, under the clause in our Constitution which
sets forth that the past presidents remain on the Board for only two years following
the completion of their term of office as president.
The Association is deeply indebted to Mr. O'Rourke for his long, interested and
valuable service to it in an official capacity. In his leaving the Board we shall miss his
wise counsel and advice. I shall be greatly pleased if Mr. O'Rourke will stand and be
recognized. [Applause]
The terms of office of four of our Directors also terminate with the close of this
annual meeting. These members are: E. J. Brown, chief engineer, Burlington Lines;
W. W. Hay, professor of railway civil engineering, University of Illinois; R. H. Beeder,
assistant chief engineer system, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, and C. J. Code,
assistant chief engineer — tests, Pennsylvania Railroad.
Two of these men will remain on the Board, as announced at the Annual Luncheon
yesterday — Mr. Brown, having been advanced to junior vice president, and Professor
Hay, having been re-elected to the Board for a term of three years.
All of these men have rendered invaluable service to our Association both as mem-
bers and in their official capacities on the Board, and anything I might say could not
adequately express our appreciation. Mr. Brown and Professor Hay will be recognised
a little later. At this time, if the two men who are leaving the Board are present,
I would be pleased if they would stand and be recognized. [Applause]
It is impossible to express my appreciation adequately to all who have contributed
to the success of this convention, but I do want to express my special appreciation to
our secretary and his staff for their detailed planning of this meeting, and t" Chairman
Bardwell and the members of the Committee on Convention Arrangements for the
diligence and efficiency with which they have carried out these plans. Only those of you
1 296 Closing Business
who have watched this committee at work, from 6 or 7 in the morning until 11 or 12
at night, as I have, can appreciate the contribution its members have made to the smooth
running of this convention.
I also want to thank the group of ladies who, under the direction of Mrs. Howard,
gave so generously of their time to plan and carry out the social features of our con-
vention for the ladies. Mrs. McBrian joins me in saying to all of you, most sincerely,
"We thank you."
It is now my great pleasure as your retiring president to introduce to you the
Association's new officers for the coming year. Our senior vice president for the year
ahead is Mr. F. R. Woolford, chief engineer, Western Pacific Railroad, who under the
Constitution automatically advances to this position from that of junior vice president.
Mr. Woolford, will you please come to the platform. [Applause]
Your newly elected junior vice president is Mr. E. J. Brown, chief engineer, Bur-
lington Lines, who has been a director of our Association since March 1955. Mr. Brown,
will you please come to the platform and stand here with Mr. Woolford? [Applause]
Mr. Woolford and Mr. Brown, I congratulate you on your further elevation to high
office in our Association, with the further obligations and opportunities which this affords
you for still greater service to the Association. May I wish for both of you every
success in your further efforts in behalf of the Association.
As was announced yesterday at the Annual Luncheon, as your president for the
year ahead you have elected Mr. B. R. Meyers, chief engineer of the Chicago & North
Western Railway. I have asked Past Presidents Mottier and Geyer to escort Mr. Meyers
to the platform. [Applause]
Mr. Meyers, it is with pride and pleasure that I proclaim you the newly elected
president of the American Railway Engineering Association. Because of your long
service to the Association in many capacities, you are highly deserving of this added
recognition which has been shown you, and as an engineer and administrator you are
well qualified for this high office.
Accordingly, I turn over my responsibilities to you with the greatest of confidence
in your ability to carry forward the objects of our Association in the year ahead.
As one symbol of your office, I want to present you with this solid gold emblem
of the Association, which bears the engraved words on the back, "B. R. Meyers, Presi-
dent 1958-1959". I know you will wear this emblem with distinction. [Applause]
[President-Elect Meyers assumed the chair.]
President- Elect Meyers: Thank you, Ray. I feel quite humble this morning.
This is a high honor. In fact, I consider it the highest honor that a railroad engineer
can receive from his associates.
I also recognize the heavy responsibility. We have a difficult year ahead. We must
step up our research to improve our materials, and develop ways and means to reduce
our unit costs and our labor costs. I can't do this alone, but with the continued help
of the office of the secretary, the research staff, the members of this Association, the
counsel of the officers and Board of Directors, and the help of my good wife who is
sitting in the balcony, we will do our best to carry on this fine Association's work.
Thank you very much. [Applause]
W. H. Huffman [Chicago & North Western]: Mr. President-elect, may I have
the floor? This is a switch — getting my boss to move over while I do the talking!
[Laughter]
Around November of last year Neal Howard approached me and advised me of
the past practice of presenting to the President-elect a gavel made of either wood or
Closing Business 1297
metal, possibly having some significance, and suitabh inscribed on a metal hand. Those
were Mr. Howard's words.
A gavel as such was relatively simple, but what stopped us at least momentarily
were the words "possiblj having -time significance." A group of us in the office got
together in a little skull session, and with a minimum of research we found that Mr
Meyers was not only to be the 58th president of the American Railway Engineering
Association but the first president from the Chicago & North Western Railway.
In 1Q50 or so, when we were excavating for a diesel facility foundation near the
Chicago River, at the site of our original passenger terminal, we uncovered a number
of very odd-shaped rails. After corresponding with the Smithsonian Institute in Wash-
ington we found that those rails had been made in England in 1857, over 100 years
ago. How we got them I don't know, but we did uncover them and they were no doubt
used on our property.
This gavel, which I will soon present to Mr. Meyers, is made of a piece of this
rail — not only made of it. but in a true half-scale section, complete with the wood filler
block, which was an integral part of its design. The significance, therefore, is that the
first president of this Association from the Chicago & North Western now has a gavel
made from one of the first pieces of rail ever used by the Chicago & North Western.
On behalf of the Engineering Department of the Chicago & North Western Railway.
I take great pleasure in presenting this gavel to Mr. Meyers, and to wish him a most
successful year in guiding the destinies of this great Association. [Applause]
President-Elect Meyers: Thank you, Heinie. I am glad you wished me luck,
because you are going to have to work harder this next year. [Laughter and Applause]
This is really something! It has a nice inscription on it which says, "To B. R.
Meyers, President, AREA, 1958-1959, from Your Friends of the C & NW." Thank you
very much, Heinie.
It is now my pleasure and privilege to present to you the four men whom you
have elected as members of your Board of Direction. As I call their names I would
appreciate their coming forward and standing in front of the speakers' table.
W. W. Hay, professor of railway civil engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.
W. M. Jaekle, chief engineer, Southern Pacific Company. San Francisco. Calif.
T. Fred Burris, chief engineer — system, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, Huntington,
W. Va.
T. M. von Sprecken. assistant to chief engineer. Southern Railway System, Wash-
ington, D. C.
Professor Hay, I congratulate you upon your re-election as a director of this
Association.
Mr. Jaekle, and Mr. von Sprecken, I congratulate you upon your election as new
members of the Board of Direction. It is a hifdi honor and responsibility which you
assume, but I know you will meet its responsibilities and that you will enjoy your
association with the Board for the next three years. Evidently Mr. Burris has Stepped
out of the room.
Is there any further business to come before this convention? It not. I now declare
the 57th Annual Meeting of the American Railway Engineering Association adjourned
[The meeting adjourned at 12 o'clock noon].
MEMOIRS
MEMOIR
Jfranfc &aton ILapng
Died March 10, 1957
Frank Rawn Layng, retired vice president and chief engineer of the Bessemer & Lake
Erie Railroad and the forty-first president of the American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion, died at the Doctors' Hospital in Coral Gables, Fla., on March 10, following surgery.
Funeral services were held on March 14 at the First Methodist Church of Greenville, Pa.,
where he and Mrs. Layng had made their home for many years. His identity with the
Bessemer & Lake Erie covered almost 57 years; it started when he was hired as a drafts-
man at the turn of the century and he was a member of the Board of^Directors at the
time of his death.
Mr. Layng was born at Salem, Ohio, the son of Frank R. Layng and Emma Estelle
(Tower) Layng, on September 9, 1878. He was educated in the public schools of Pitts-
F. R. Layng
burgh, Pa., but his formal education in engineering at the Western University of Penn-
sylvania (now the University of Pittsburgh) was terminated at the end of his freshman
year (in June 1897). Thereafter he obtained his first railway experience as a ehainman
and later field draftsman on the Allegheny Valley Railroad (now a part of the Pennsyl-
vania Railroad). Transferring to the Bessemer & Lake Eric in July 1900, he continued
to serve as a draftsman (in the office of the chiei engineer) until November 1902, when
he was advanced to assistant engineer in charge of the drafting room and the engineer
corps. Following a few months as engineer of bridges in 1905 and 1906, he was appointed
engineer of track in charge of both construction and maintenance, and it was during the
22 years that he occupied this position that he established a reputation as a progressive
railway maintenance engineer who possessed outstanding resourcefulness and initiative
Because the Bessemer & Lake Erie is essentially an ore carrier with what might In-
said to be almost an assured volume of traffic, and because this traffic increased markedly
both in total tonnage and intensity of wheel loads with the growth of the steel industry,
1301
1302 Memoir
Mr. Layng was afforded unusual opportunities to put into practice his ideas with respect
to improved track construction and forward looking maintenance practices. He made the
most of these opportunities. While not always the first to try an innovation or a new
appliance, he was unusually receptive to suggestions submitted to him. In addition, he
was always trying out his own ideas on others and earnestly solicited their opinions of
what he was doing, frequently inviting them to visit his railroad so that he could get
first-hand reactions to what they saw.
His opportunities were still further expanded when he became chief engineer in 1931
(following three years assistant chief engineer) as he was then able to exercise greater
leadership with respect to grade and line revision, improved terminal facilities, new bridges
and greater strength and refinement of the track structure itself. His interests were many,
but he was also capable of a high degree of concentration along a given fine! of study.
This was illustrated in his committee work for the American Railway Engineering Asso-
ciation, of which he became a member in 1909. Thus, he was a member of the Committee
on Ties from 1910 to 1923, serving as chairman for the last four years of that period.
And it was during his chairmanship, in the face of rather formidable opposition, that
the committee succeeded in effecting the adoption of new specifications for cross ties
embodying what was then considered a radical change in the system of designating tie
sizes that had been initiated by the United States Railroad Administration during World
War I.
In 1925, in preparation for a broadening of his responsibilities, he became identified
with committee work of an entirely different character, namely, that of the Committee
on Economics of Railway Location and Operation, of which he remained a member until
1938 and served as chairman for 11 years. To the Committee on Rail, of which he was a
member for six years, he brought the results of his own painstaking studies of the benefits
to accrue from the use of heavy rail on a line carrying heavy traffic. His service with the
Committee on Cooperative Relations with Universities, undertaken at a time when he
might have looked forward to a lightening of his Association duties, and continued in the
face of impaired health, evinced a deep sense of responsibility to the railway industry in
an attack on a serious and perplexing problem.
Mr. Layng served as a member of the AREA Board of Direction from March 1938
to March 1941 and, following two years as vice president, he occupied the office of
president through the war year from March 1944 to March 1945. In this connection,
he earned the unique and unfortunate distinction of having been the only AREA president
surviving his full term of office who was denied the honor of presiding at an annual
convention. During the course of preparations for the convention to be held in March
1945, the AREA received notice from the Association of American Railroads that it had
instructed all of its divisions to abandon all annual meetings scheduled for 1945, with
the obvious implication that corresponding action on the part of the AREA would be
appreciated. The Board of Direction agreed to this suggestion, but when it was proposed
that the Board also duplicate the action taken late in 1942 on the occasion of the post-
ponement of the 1943 convention, namely, to extend the terms of all members of the
Board, including the officers, for one year, President Layng insisted that no such action
be taken in spite of the fact that failure so to act denied him the highly coveted honor
of serving as the Association's president during a convention.
In 1946 Mr. Layng became vice president as well as chief engineer of the Bessemer &
Lake Erie, but relinquished both positions in 1948 to become consulting engineer, which
position he retained until his retirement in 1950 from all duties except those of a director
of the corporation. >
Memoir 1303
In addition to his participation in the work of the AREA, he was active in a number
of other railway and engineering organizations. He was a member of the Pittsburgh
Railway Club, the New York. Railway Club, the Greenville Railway Club, the American
Iron and Steel Institute, and the Engineers Society of Western Pennsylvania, an Honorary
Member of the Roadmasters' and Maintenance of Way Association, and a Life Member
of the American Society of Civil Engineers. He also found time to become an active and
valuable participant in the affairs of the community in which he lived. He belongs 1 to
the Round Table and Greenville Business Men's Association, was president of the Green-
ville Hospital Board of Directors from 1918 to 1932, and president of the Greenville
Board of Education from 1918 to 1929. He also served for several years as chairman of
the Board of Stewards of the First Methodist Church and on the architectural counseling
committee during the course of a church rebuilding program.
He was married on January 19, 1905, to Belle Kennedy (Chase) Layng. In addition
to Mrs. Layng, he is survived by three children, Frank C. Layng and Mrs. Evelyn Miller,
both of Meadville, Pa., and Dr. Edwin T. Layng of Summitt, N. J., and five grand-
children.
By those who knew Frank Layng through business contacts or casual acquaintance
he will be remembered for his courteousness, his consideration of the rights of others, and
his ability to sustain his own convictions with a quiet firmness — he had no patience with
arrogance or crass aggressiveness. By those who knew him intimately he will always be
revered for bis sincere interest in the aims and hopes of others, his desire to be helpful,
and for his many acts of kindness.
W. S. Lacher, Chairman,
A. R. Wilson
Armstrong Chxnn
C. H. Mottier
F. S. SCHWINN
Committee on Memoir.
MEMOIR
Charles <&ort>cm <&robe
Died November 18, 1957
Charles G. Grove, retired area engineer of the Northwestern Region of the Penn-
sylvania Railroad, and former president of the American Railway Engineering Asso-
ciation, died at St. Francis Hospital, Evanston, 111., following a heart attack on Novem-
ber 18, 1957. He was 66 years old.
Mr. Grove was born December 20, 1890, at Muddy Creek Forks, York County, Pa.,
the son of Alexander M. and Barbara E. Grove. He graduated from York Institute in
1908, and received his Bachelor of Science degree in Civil Engineering at Pennsylvania
State College (now Pennsylvania State University) in June 1912.
Mr. Grove was a member of the Presbyterian Church, of Phi Kappa Psi social
fraternity, of Masonic orders, the Roadmas'ters' and Maintenance of Way Association
Charles Gordon Grove
of America, the Maintenance of Way Club of Chicago, the Western Society of Engineers,
and the Western Railway Club.
On October 21, 1921, he was married to Martha Caroline Shrodes, who survives
him at their home in Kenilworth, 111.
Mr. Grove's entire professional career of 45 years was spent with the Pennsylvania
Railroad, to which he gave loyal and unstinting service. The continuity of this service
was broken only by the period June 1918 to June 1919, when he, as a 1st Lieutenant,
served with distinction in the 104th Engineers, 29th Division, United States Expeditionary
Forces in France.
Following his graduation from college in 1912, Mr. Grove entered the service of
the Pennsylvania Railroad as a rodman in the chief engineer's office. From this begin-
1304
Memoir 1305
ning, he advanced successively through the responsibilities of transitman, assistant super-
visor and supervisor, to become a division engineer. Later he assumed the responsibilities
of division superintendent, superintendent of passenger transportation, and again <li\i
sion superintendent at various locations, and, in June of 1940 he was appointed engineer
maintenance of way at Indianapolis. In October 1940 he became chief engineer main-
tenance of way, Western Region, and in June 1952 was advanced to chief engineer of
that region. This latter title was subsequently changed to that of area engineer on
November 1, 1955, following major changes in the reorganization of his railroad at that
time. He held this position until his retirement on July 1, 1957.
Mr. Grove became a member of the American Railway Engineering Association in
1929 when he was division engineer at Terre Haute, Ind. He was a member of Com-
mittee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor, from 1941 to the time of his death, and of
Committee 24 — Cooperative Relations with Universities, since 1°47. He was chairman
of the latter committee from March 1951 to March 1954.
In 1948 Mr. Grove was elected a member of the Board of Direction; was elected
junior vice president in 1951, senior vice president in 1952, and president in 1953. In his
capacity as president of the AREA, he was also chairman of the Construction and Main-
tenance Section, Engineering Division, AAR, and of the Engineering Division as a whole.
Upon his retirement from railroad service he was made a Life Member of the Associa-
tion, having been a member for 29 years. On November 12, 1957, he was elected
Honorary Member of the Association by the Board of Direction, an honor of which
he was not to learn because of his illness.
In 1946 Mr. Grove was appointed a member of the Engineering Division Research
Committee, AAR, and in 1954 he was further appointed to represent the AAR, through
AREA Committee 24, in the American Society for Engineering Education. Although
having relinquished both of these responsibilities with his retirement, he was engaged
in preparing a report on his stewardship as the AAR-AREA representative in the latter
organization at the time of his heart attack.
Both in an official capacity and otherwise, Mr. Grove's opinion and wise counsel
were much sought after, which enlarged his contribution to the well-being of the Asso-
ciation. In all of his activities within and on behalf of the Association, modesty was
one of Mr. Grove's outstanding characteristics. Although the railroad for which he
worked — in terms of traffic handled — was the greatest railroad in America, and in spite
of his love for and loyalty to that railroad, he always showed the utmost consideration
for the ideas and opinions of his fellow engineers representing smaller railroads.
Mr. Grove was deeply interested in and concerned with the problem of securing
adequate and properly trained young men for the railroad industry. He made numerous
recruiting tours of universities for his railroad and gave addresses at many, presenting
the challenge and responsibilities of railroading as a career.
In his recruitment efforts he was always honest and forthright with those he inter-
viewed, and told them not only of the pleasure and rewards in railroading — for the
right kind of men — but also of its demands. And he always emphasized that, in .--fleeting
men, he considered their moral and spiritual qualifications as important as their other
qualifications. Typical of this, he once wrote: "A civil engineering graduate may come
away from his college with a brilliant scholastic record behind him. and yet, because
he lacks certain qualities, may be poorly fitted f<>r the battle of life, Far more important
than the courses given by the college or university is the development of iharacter,
integrity, and responsibility."
1306 Memoir
Chief among Mr. Grove's non-professional activities was his loyal and loving service
to his God and church. Whenever his duties moved him to a new community, he imme-
diately affiliated himself with the activity of the local church. During his recent years
in Chicago, Mr. Grove was an elder and chief usher in the Fourth Presbyterian Church,
and with his retirement from railroad service he devoted even more of his time to the
work of his church.
Throughout his life, Mr. Grove possessed those habits and virtues which are best
expressed by the word "character." As a young man, he early displayed the energy
and devotion to duty which characterized him throughout his life. His ideals of right
and wrong were clear cut, and he never hesitated to take a definite stand for what he
believed to be right. In his relationship with his associates and employees working
under him, he was uncompromising in his demand for a like devotion to duty, although
he had learned to make allowance for the normal frailties of mankind. He had a deep
sense of loyalty and responsibility, and was a capable, conscientious engineer. To those
who knew him best however, he was great, not as an engineer, but as a Christian
gentleman and as a friend.
The American Railway Engineering Association and the entire profession have
suffered a grievous loss in the passing of Charles Gordon Grove. His memory will long
be admired and cherished for his wise guidance and counsel as an engineer and as a
member of this organization, for his forthright adherence to principle, and for his devo-
tion and loyalty to those persons and things to which he was allied. The Association
takes this occasion to express its realization of that loss.
W. W. Hay, Chairman,
T. A. Blair
C. J. Code
H. S. LOEFFLER
C. H. MOTTIER
G. M. O'ROTJRKE
Committee on Memoir.
MEMOIR
Mlillnm piMro iililtsrr
Died February 3, 19S8
Mr. Wiltsee, retired chief engineer of the Norfolk & Western Railway and past
president of the American Railway Engineering Association, was born in Cincinnati,
Ohio, May 30, 1878. He is survived by his wife, Agnes G., and two daughters, Mrs.
Walter L. Young and Mrs. Peyton Keller, all of Roanoke, and one son, Donald, of
Blacksburg, Va., ten grandchildren and two great-grandchildren.
Mr. Wiltsee was a graduate of Hartwell High School, Cincinnati, and pursued
private study and instruction in the civil engineering course used at Ohio State
University.
He began his engineering career with the Burke Engineering Company of Cin-
cinnati, and while so employed was in charge of an engineering party making surveys
William Pharo Wiltsee
for development of coal properties in Southeastern Kentucky. Later, he was associated
with the United States Army, Department of Engineers, and made surveys along the
Ohio and Big Sandy Rivers. In April 1900, he left Government service to join the Cin-
cinnati, Portsmouth & Virginia Railway (now the Norfolk & Western's Cincinnati Dis-
trict) as resident engineer, and before that line was purchased by the Norfolk \ Western
in 1901 he had become assistant engineer in charge of maintenance. After the CP&V
was purchased by the Norfolk & Western in March 1901, he was transferred to Roanoke
as draftsman in the office of engineer maintenance of way, and in December of that
year he moved to Radford, Va., as chief draftsman of branch lines for the railway.
Promoted to assistant engineer of branch lines in July 1002, he moved to Kenova,
W. Va., to supervise the construction of the railway's Big Sandy Line In March 1912,
he moved to Norfolk, Va., and supervised the massive jobs of rebuilding yards and
1307
1308 Memoir
buildings at Lamberts Point, Ya., and of constructing Coal Pier No. 4; also large mer-
chandise piers were started under his direction while at Norfolk, Va. He was promoted
to acting chief engineer in February 1923, and was appointed chief engineer in January
1024. During his 24 years in this capacity he supervised the design and construction
of improvements and additions which practically rebuilt a major portion of the railway.
Despite the demands of his career, Mr. Wiltsee devoted much time to his com-
munity. His activities included the presidency of the Roanoke Hospital Association and
the chairmanship of Roanoke's first Board of Zoning Appeals, and Roanoke County's
first Planning Commission. He was the first president of the Hospital Service Associa-
tion of Roanoke (now Blue Cross and Blue Shield), and was president emeritus at his
death.
He was a member of St. John's Episcopal Church of Roanoke, serving intermittently
as vestryman and at one time as senior warden. He also served as finance chairman.
At the time of his retirement he was a member of the American Wood Preservers'
Association, Railway Tie Association, Life Member American Society of Civil Engineers
(past chairman of Virginia Section), member American Society for Testing Materials,
and member Roadmasters' and Maintenance of Way Association, of which he was presi-
dent in 1921. He was chairman of the AAR Committee on Automatic Train Control.
1927-1932.
Mr. Wiltsee was active in a number of AREA committees after becoming a member
on September 14, 1907. He was chairman of Committee 5 — Track, 1919-1925, and was
a director of the Association for the years 1922-1926; junior vice president 1931-1932;
senior vice president 1932-1933, and president 1933-1934. He was past president on the
Board of Direction during the years 1934-1939, and was made a Life Member in 1943.
In commenting editorially on Mr. Wiltsee's passing, The Roanoke Times said in
part: "Mr. Wiltsee took a profound interest in the affairs of Roanoke and community,
and his participation in numerous civic activities gave his city the benefit of wise counsel
and vigorous leadership . . . His death . . . takes from us one whose life and char-
acter exhibited the highest qualities of citizenship. In the task of building a better
community he contributed generously and effectively. His fellow-citizens will remember
him with gratitude and esteem."
Mr. Wiltsee lived an active, creative and rewarding life, both in his railroad career
and in his community. He was a man of friendly personality, clear perception, high
purpose, and steadfast loyalty to his work and to his friends. He enjoyed the respect
and esteem of everyone with whom he came in contact. He had a rich life, and when
he died at age 79, the engineering profession and the community where he served and
lived so long suffered a loss difficult to replace.
A. B. Stone, Chairman,
J. E. Armstrong, Sr.
R. C. Bardwell
A. R. Wilson
W. L. Young
Committee on Memoir
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE SECRETARY
March 1, 1958
To the Members:
Once more your Association closes a healthy year, and can look ahead with con-
fidence. Despite the shift in the national economy from one of fading inflation during
the first half of the year to one of deepening recession during the latter half, and
continuing at a low level as of the date of this report, with anything but beneficial
effects on many of its members and its own operations, the Association held its own
in all important respects, and actually continued to make gains in some of the normal
yardsticks of well being.
Among the more tangible contributions to its well being were, unmistakably, the
continued willingness of so many of its members to contribute voluntarily of their
time, energy, and in most cases personal funds, to advance the object for which the
Association was established more than a half century ago ; the sound organizational
basis upon which it has continued to operate under the direction of its officers and
directors; and the continued confidence which it has enjoyed on the part of railroad
managements, and on the part of the Association of American Railroads for which it
functions as the Construction & Maintenance Section of its Engineering Division. And,
unquestionably, an important factor in the continued health of the Association is the
enviable reputation which it continues to hold in the field of railway engineering and
maintenance, a reputation which automatically attracts to its membership in large
numbers each year men of character, quality and ability from the ranks of the railroads
of the United States, Canada, and many countries of the world.
Of all of these elements which have entered into the favorable position of the Asso-
ciation during the past year possibly no one of them has contributed more than the
constant diligence on the part of its officers and directors to uphold the high profes-
sional standards of the Association, improve its procedures, encourage membership
participation in its committee work, broaden the field of its usefulness to its members
and the railroads through alertness to the ever changing conditions, and willingness to
embark on new fields of study through its committees and the maximum effective use
of research.
To these ends the Board of Direction made many important decisions and con-
tributions during the past year. Among these, it turned down several suggestions which
would have tended to commercialize some of its committee reports and convention
activities; it arranged for all committee chairman to meet with the chairmen of Board
Committees early in the Association year to review with them, and especially new
chairmen, the Information and Rules for the Guidance of Committees, and Style Stand
ards, and to iron out policy or jurisdictional questions which had arisen within or
between a number of committee-; subsequently it made extensive revisions in and
additions to the Information and Rule- for amplification or clarification, and to improve
practices and procedures; it authorized the reprinting of 1200 copies of the Manual of
Recommended Practice to replenish the Association's depleted supply; it subsequently
authorized and encouraged the -ale of individual chapters of the Manual to committee
members under a plan which will see these chapters kepi up to date without charge,
thus greatly enhancing the usefulness of the Manual to these with specialized interests,
who for various reasons had not chosen to purchase the entire Manual; it authorized
the publication of a General Subjects lnde\ tor the Manual, to he made available free
to current holders and future purchasers of the Manual, deciding upon tlii- a- a pra<
1309
1310 Report of Executive Secretary
Committees of the Board of Direction
1957-1958
Outline of Work
G. H. Echols (chairman), B. R. Meyers, Wm. J. Hedley, A. V. Johnston, J. C. Jacobs
Personnel of Committees
R. H. Beeder (chairman), W. H. Hobbs, A. B. Stone, F. R. Woolford, L. A. Loggins
Publications
E. J. Brown (chairman), R. H. Beeder, R. R. Manion, A. B. Stone, W. H. Hobbs
Manual
C. J. Code (chairman), G. M. O'Rourke, L. A. Loggins, W. W. Hay
Membership
R. R. Manion (chairman), G. M. O'Rourke, G. H. Echols, W. G. Powrie, A. V. Johnston
Finance
B. R. Meyers (chairman), E. J. Brown, W. G. Powrie
Special AREA Services
F. R. Woolford (chairman), C. J. Code, J. C. Jacobs, Wm. J. Hedley, W. W. Hay
tical substitute for an impractical complete alphabetical index; it approved for incor-
poration in the 1958 March Bulletin of the Association a plan which — in the list of
members by railroads — will show the committee affiliation of members by means of
committee numbers, in parentheses, following their names; it initiated and fostered
plans for a successful convention in 1958; and early in 1958, as a result of careful
consideration, it created a new Special Board Committee on Research, with the view
of enabling the Board to function more intelligently, directly and expeditiously with
respect to the research of the Engineering Division of the AAR, within the new Depart-
ment of Research established by that Association in December 1957, with a new vice
president — research, in charge.
Furthermore, in 1957, the Association derived the first full year's benefit from two
measures initiated late in 1956. One of these requires each committee chairman to
maintain on a special form the activity record of all members on his committee, as
reflected by attendance at meetings, participation in committee and subcommittee cor-
respondence, and the execution of committee letter ballots — in a continuing effort to
stimulate committee member activity, and at the same time, where necessary, to remove
inactive members from committee rosters.
The other measure was the assigning to all standing committees, effective with
the start of the 1957 Association year, a new assignment designated "A — Recommenda-
tions for Further Study and Research", to replace the less formal way in which most
committees had previously developed suggestions for new assignments. The purpose
of this assignment is to insure that each committee will give adequate attention to
ferreting out and proposing for study all subjects which show promise of important
improvements over existing practices.
Report of Executive Secretary 1311
Convention at St. Louis a Big Success
One of the highlights of the Association year was its annual convention at St. Louis,
Mo., March 4-6, the first convention of the Association ever to be held outside of
Chicago, and one which interrupted a run of 28 consecutive conventions at the Palmer
House.
The 1057 convention was held at the Sheraton-Jefferson Hotel, with four other
hotels cooperating in housing members and guests, and, breaking a precedent of many
years, was started on a Monday, instead of a Tuesday. The total registration at the
convention was 1012 members and 701 guests — a total of 1803 — not including the regis-
tration of 380 women. This registration compares with the record non-exhibit yeai
attendance in 1956, at the Palmer House, of 2092, which included 1162 members and
030 guests, but the fact that it was smaller — as was expected — was at no time in
evidence.
The program for the 1957 convention, which was in no way affected by the new
convention headquarters or smaller attendance, included reports on 135 of the 185
assignments of committees, and 19 special features in the form of addresses, illustrated
papers, panel discussions, and motion picture presentations.
Stimulated by the convention, and by constant encouragement on the part of the
Board of Direction, committee work continued at a high level throughout the year.
This is reflected in subsequent comments in this report with respect to both committee
activities and the reports of committees as published in the Association's Bulletins —
and is certain to be reflected in the success of the 1958 convention.
AAR Reaffirms Confidence in AREA
Among the many things respecting the Association during 1957 for which members
have cause for satisfaction, possibly the most important was the outcome of the search-
ing analysis which was made of it in its capacity as the Construction & Maintenance
Section of the Association of American Railroads — carried out as a part of the over-all
organizational and management study authorized by the AAR for its entire organization,
by an outside agency. This outcome, which, among other things saw the AREA con-
tinued as the Construction and Maintenance Section of the Engineering Division — in
spite of "thinking" to the contrary at one stage by the "investigators" — reaffirmed, in
effect, the confidence of the AAR in the AREA as the best qualified agency to function
as its Construction & Maintenance Section, continuing a relationship which was first
established in 1919 with the American Railway Association, and reestablished in 1034
with the Association of American Railroads when that organization became the
successor to the ARA.
Decision respecting the foregoing was incorporated in action taken bj the AAR
Board of Directors on December 20, 1957, which at the same time established a new
Research Department of the AAR under a vice president — research, and was the more
significant because it called for no change in the AREA as an organization, or in its
long-standing procedures and practices based upon the development and promulgation
of specifications, standard plans and recommended practices through organized commit-
tees, supported in their work by the research staff of the Engineering Division <>! the
AAR.
Thus, it has been well said that the AREA, at the close of its 58th year as an
Association, and its 38th year of affiliation with the AAR and its predecessor, the \K V
can well be proud of itself as a working organization, which withstood the test «>i i
searching examination and was found "not wanting "
1312 Report of Executive Secretary
MEMBERSHIP
Reverting to some of the more tangible evidences of the well being of the Associa-
tion during 1957, reference is first made to the continued growth of membership, extend-
ing an unbroken record of growth since 1944. Even though this growth since 1949 (the
Centennial Year of the Association, when nearly 700 new members were added) has
been relatively small, and continued small in 1957, it has considerable significance in
the lighl of conditions which have prevailed in the railroad industry over much of this
period, which have included a reduction in the total number of technical employees in
the engineering and maintenance departments of many railroads and restricted recruit-
ment of technically trained college graduates — with the resultant smaller field from which
to draw Association memberships.
As of February 1, 1958, the membership in the Association stood at 3362, a net
gain of 12. This gain was smaller than those of any of the four preceding years, which
ranged from a low of 20 to as much as 47 in 1946, but the picture is a little less
unfavorable in the light of the fact that as of the date of this report as to member-
ship— February 1, 1958, 14 additional applications for membership were in the process
of being acted upon.
The record with regard to Junior Members as a group was again on the unfavor-
able side, as the year ended February 1, 1958, saw the number of Junior Members in
the Association decline still further to 101, from a total of 144 as of the same date in
1957, continuing the decline which took place in each preceding year back to that ended
February 1, 1953, when Junior Membership was at a peak figure of 261.
This further decline of 43 Juniors during the past year came about through the
transfer of 27 to the grade of Member and the dropping of 39 because of failure to pay
dues or to transfer to the grade of Member upon reaching the age of 30, while only
23 new Junior Members were taken into the Association.
As has been stated in this report for the past two years, the answer to this continu-
ing decline in the number of Junior Members in the Association has, obviously, not
been found, although the principal reasons for the decline are quite evident. One of
these is the sizable number of Junior Members who leave railroad service each year,
and about which little can be done. Another is that of the sizable number of technical
graduates who enter railroad service each year, not enough apply for Junior Membership
in the Association.
While many of those joining the Association each year do so entirely on their
own initiative, it continues to be evident that many others making application do so
only upon the invitation or suggestion of their superior officers. Thus, the importance
that chief engineering and maintenance officers encourage membership among the qualified
men on their respective roads, including the younger technical men who come into their
employ. It is equally evident that the interest of the chief engineering and maintenance
officers on many roads has been an important factor in holding Association members
on these roads, a situation which has made the difference between the continued growth
in Association membership and a state of status quo, or decline.
A striking example of the effect of the attitude of top engineering and maintenance
officers on the number of Association members on their railroads is seen in the fact that,
as a result of the interest generated by the chief engineer of one large railroad during
1957, 29 qualified men from his railroad submitted applications for membership in the
14 months immediately prior to February 1, 1958. On another large road, due solely
to the interest shown by top engineering and maintenance officers, 18 men made
application for membership in the year ended February 1, 1958.
Report of Executive Secretary 1313
These two examples alone clearly indicate that there are many railroad men who,
although qualified in every respect, hesitate to initiate affiliation with an association
such as the AREA without an invitation, or at least a suggestion, that they do so —
preferably from a higher officer. If such is the case, it would appear that it would be
a boon to the Association if more top engineering and maintenance officers would extend
an invitation, or make that "suggestion" to qualified men on their staffs.
Specific changes in the status of membership in the Association during the past
year are detailed in the following tabulation.
Membership
(February 1, 1957, to February 1, 1958)
Members on the rolls February 1, 1957 3350
New members 204
Reinstatements 34
3588
Deceased 45
Resigned 40
Dropped 98
Net Loss Juniors (transferred 27 ; dropped 39 ; additions 2i) 43
226
Net gain 12
Membership February 1, 1958 3362
Membership Classification as of February 1
1952 1953 1954 1955
Life 361 375 401 436
Member 2284 2312 2366 2381
Associate 288 289 270 274
Junior 257 261 220 187
956
1957
1958
465
470
469
!414
2478
2524
261
258
268
163
144
101
Totals 3190 3237 3257 3278 3303 3350 3362
During the year ended February 1, 1958, there was a total of 44 deaths among the
membership, as is indicated in the roster of deceased members at the end of this report.
This long list includes two past presidents, who were also past committee chairmen;
five other former committee chairmen; one current vice chairman, and many others
who contributed greatly to the work of the Association.
The two past presidents were Frank Rawn Layng (1944-1945), former chief engi-
neer of the Bessemer & Lake Erie, and consulting engineer of that road at the time
of his retirement, who died on March 10, 1957, and Charles Gordon Grove (1953-1054),
retired area engineer of the Pennsylvania, who died on November 18, 1957. A memoir
on Mr. Layng appeared in Bulletin 537, for June-July 1957, and one on Mr. Grove in
Bulletin 542, for February 1958. Both of these memoirs will be reprinted in the 1958
Proceedings.
The former committee chairmen who died during the year were W. G. Arm, retired
special engineer, Illinois Central, who was chairman of Committee 5 — Track, 1940 to
1945; L. P. Kimball, former engineer of buildings of the Baltimore & Ohio, who was
chairman of Committee 23 — Shops and Locomotive Terminals, 1931 to 1934; J. A. Lab
mer, retired senior assistant engineer of the Missouri Pacific, who was chairman of
Committee 29 — Waterproofing, 1032 to 1946; B. R. Leffler, retired bridge engineer. New
1314 Report of Executive Secretary
York Central, who was chairman of Committee IS — Iron and Steel Structures, 1927
to 1929, and H. C. Lorenz, retired assistant engineer, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &
St. Louis, who was chairman of Committee 6 — Buildings, 1945 to 1948. The current
vice chairman who died was J. C. Dejarnette, chief engineer of the Richmond, Fred-
ericksburg & Potomac, who was vice chairman of the Special Committee on Continuous
Welded Rail.
Among the others who died were Olive W. Dennis, retired research engineer of the
Baltimore & Ohio, a member since 1927, and one of the two women members of the
Association ; and A. K. Shurtleff , who at the time of his retirement was group engineer,
President's Conference Committee, and who, from 1917 to 1929, served as assistant
secretary of the AREA. He was also a director of the AREA, 1913 to 1915.
While his death occurred subsequent to the end of the membership year covered
by this report, it is appropriate to record here, with a deep sense of loss, the death,
on February 3, 1958, of W. P. Wiltsee, retired chief engineer of the Norfolk & Western,
who was president of the Association 1933-1934.
ACTIVITIES OF COMMITTEES
Membership on Committees
On February 1, 1958, 1125 members (including 57 Members Emeritus) were serving
on the Association's 23 standing and special committees, occupying a total of 1246 places
on these committees, since a number of members serve on two committees. This com-
pares with 1114 members who occupied 1247 places on committees on the same date
in 1957; with 1132 members who occupied 1253 places on committees in 1956; and
with 1078 members who served in 1213 places on committees three years ago.
Again, practically all committees carried "guest" members on their rosters — mem-
bers awaiting definite assignment to the committees with the official roster change to
become effective at the time of the 1958 convention, but who were permitted to par-
ticipate unofficially in committee work. In addition, a considerable number of "visitors''
attended committee meetings with the permission of the chairmen. These included re-
tired members, Junior Members, interested outsiders, and members of the Association
generally, who for one reason or another wished to participate in specific meetings or
inspections made in connection therewith.
The foregoing figures with respect to the number of members on committee rosters
as of February 1, 1958, reflect the addition of 166 new committee members to, and
the deletion of 167 members from, the 1957 rosters — a turnover of more than 13 per-
cent, which is higher than it has been for many years. This large turnover reflects the
continuing desire of members and their roads to be represented on committees, and,
at the same time, the feeling of the Board of Direction that committee members who
cannot or do not participate in committee work by attendance, correspondence, and
the execution of letter ballots, should be dropped from committee rosters. This latter
feeling was implemented during 1957 by the committee member activity record charts
maintained by all committee chairmen, largely on the basis of which the Board Com-
mittee on Personnel developed the approved personnel of all committees for 1958.
Work of Committees
The work of committees during 1957 again followed largely the normal pattern
of preparing progress and information reports; of revising and refining material appear-
ing in the Association's Manual of Recommended Practice; of developing new Manual
material ; and of carrying out special projects relating to their assignments.
Report of Executive Secretary 13 15
Indicative of the interest among committees in keeping their Manual material up
to date is the fact that all but five of the Association's 21 committees which have chap-
ters in the Manual developed Manual recommendations during 1957, to be presented
to the 1957 convention. Work on new or revised Trackwork Plans was again at a mini-
mum during the year in view of the extensive overhauling of the Portfolio of Track-
work Plans in 1954 and 1955, and resulted in the issuing of only two appendix sheets
and two contents sheets in 1957.
The accompanying table reflects the classification of material contained in the com-
mittee reports to be presented to the 1958 convention, compared with the material
presented to the seven immediately previous conventions.
Classification of Material in Committee Reports
(Figures shown indicate the number of Manual documents affected or new reports)
1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Revisions of Manual
with or without re-
approval 20 19 257 14 24 18 20 17
Reapproval of Manual
material without re-
visions 5 2 243 1 0 0 1 1
New Manual material. 5 6 12 9 10 1 1 6 5
New Manual material
—tentative 2 8 6 7 6 4 5 4
Information 57 43 49 59 53 46 51 55
Reports on research
work 23 15 18 23 26 19 19 19
Reports on service
tests 1 10 13 10 10 9 o 11
Statistical data 3 9 5 4 3 4 4 3
Analytical studies . . . . 2 2 5 3 2 5 6 5
Bibliographies 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
Brief reports of progress 8 16 11 17 16 15 18 IS
129 132 621 149 153 134 142 141
More Attention to Subject Assignments
While the committees of the Association have always attempted to keep alert to
changes within the industry and to propose new subject assignments currently to deal
with new problems warranting investigation, the informal way in which this has been
handled by most committees gave rise to a feeling on the part of the Board of Direction
that more formal and specific attention be given to this matter. As a result, a new
assignment, "A. Recommendations for Further Study and Research", which was given
to each standing committee effective with the start of the Association year following
the 1957 convention. Under the impetus provided by this new assignment, almost ever)
committee developed more suggestions for new assignments than in an\ previous year,
from which a total of 44 new subjects were assigned to the 2i standing and special
committees for investigation during 1958. This number of new assignments is almost
double the new subjects assigned to committees in 1057 (23), and also in 1956 (25).
Under their new assignment, committees were called upon to analyze all of their
current assignments and to recommend the dropping or early termination <>f anj assign
ments which they felt had been "worked out", or which held little promise of producing
effective results. In spite of a careful analysis in this regard, not a single lormn
assignment was dropped.
1316 Report of Executive Secretary
Committee Meetings
Seventy-three full committee meetings were held during the year ended March 1,
1958, this number including a number of luncheon meetings held during the 1957 Annual
Meeting. Desirably, a number of committees held their first meetings in January and
February, prior to the 1957 convention, and again held meetings prior to the 1958
convention in order to get an early start on their new year's work. Many of the com-
mittee meetings throughout the year were supplemented by inspection trips to see
facilities, structures, or practices relating to their work.
The total of 73 full committee meetings held during the past year compares with
70 meetings held during the year ended March 1, 1957, with 66 meetings held during
the year ended March 1, 1956, the 67 meetings held in 1954, and the 76 meetings held
in 1953. During the year ended March 1, 1958, 2 committees each held 5 meetings, 4
committees each held 4 meetings, 10 committees each held 3 meetings, 7 committees
held only 2 meetings, and 1 committee held only 1 meeting.
Of the 73 meetings held in 1957, 30 were held in Chicago; 14 in St. Louis, Mo.;
2 each were held in New Orleans, La., St. Paul, Minn., Memphis, Tenn., Philadelphia,
Pa., Baltimore, Md., and Lafayette, Ind.; and 17 were held in as many different widely
separated cities.
The large number of meetings held in Chicago and St. Louis reflects the long-
standing policy of the Association, emphasized to committees each year by the Board
of Direction, that committee and subcommittee meetings should be held at points most
convenient to the majority of members to hold down traveling time and expense, but
may be held elsewhere to permit inspections important to the work of committees or
subcommittees, or for other controlling reasons.
PUBLICATIONS
The seven monthly Bulletins of the Association ending with the February 1958
issue contain 1324 pages of text matter and illustrations, exclusive of advertising, in
addition to 18 inserts of one kind or another. This compares with 1349 pages in the
seven Bulletins (one in two parts) ending with the February 1957 issue, and with the
1116 pages for the seven Bulletins ending with the February 1956 issues. The com-
mittee reports published for presentation at the March 1958 Annual Meeting occupied
698 pages in Bulletins 539 to 542, incl. This compares with 871 pages devoted to com-
mittee reports in comparable Bulletins of the previous year (which included 150 pages
of text for the new edition of the Handbook of Instructions for Care and Operation
of Maintenance of Way Equipment), and with 572 pages devoted to committee reports
in the comparable Bulletins for 1955.
To the number of Bulletin pages devoted to committee reports during the past year
should be added the 388 pages of reports on research projects sponsored by AREA com-
mittees, or groups in which AREA committees are interested, which appeared in Bulle-
tins 537 and 538, for June-July 1957, and September-October 1957. These 388 pages
reporting on research projects compare with 344 pages devoted to the same type of
material the previous year.
The Annual Supplement to the Manual issued in 1957, incorporating all of the
recommendations of committees affecting Manual material adopted at the 1957 Annual
Meeting, included a total of 147 sheets. At the same time, it called for the removal
of 138 existing sheets from the Manual, leaving a net gain of 9 sheets in the Manual
as revised. The 147-page Manual Supplement in 1957 compares with the 102-page
Supplement issued in 1956.
Report of Executive Secretary 1317
The Annual Supplement to the Portfolio of Trackwork Plans issued in 1957 was
again very limited in size, including only 4 sheets. This small Supplement, and the fact
that no Supplement to the Portfolio was issued in 1956, resulted from the practically
complete revision of the entire portfolio in 1955. The four sheets in the 1957 Supplement
included 2 appendix sheets covering revisions in the AREA Specifications for Special
Trackwork, and 2 Table of Contents Sheets.
Engineer Recruitment Brochure
Again during 1957, wide distribution was made of the engineer recruitment brochure,
"The Railroad Field — A Challenge and Opportunity for Young Engineers", developed
by Committee 24 during 1955, and of which 25,000 copies were printed to assist the
railroads in attracting into their service young technically trained men from the grad-
uating classes of the engineering schools of the country. Supplementing the distribution
of the brochure in the two previous years, 4408 copies were distributed in 1957 — 3232
to colleges and universities, 442 to high school counselors, 184 to other interested
individuals, and 550 to railroads.
The total distribution for the three years ended December 31, 1957, was 16,684,
which was nearly 1700 in excess of the contemplated distribution of 5000 copies each
year through 1957. This excess of contemplated distribution would not have been pos-
sible if it had not been for the courtesy of the Association of American Railroads in
turning back to the AREA, on request, some 2000 of the 10,000 copies originally made
available to it for distribution. This courtesy is herein acknowledged, because by thus
assisting the AREA to meet demands for copies of the brochure in 1957, it practically
eliminated further distribution of the brochure by the AAR during that year to
important people on its mailing lists.
In anticipation of depletion of the supply of brochures by early 1958, Committee
24 had a special subcommittee working on a revised edition, during 1957. If this new
edition is authorized by the Board of Direction, it is expected that it will be published
late in 1958.
Distribution of Publications
In the Calendar Year 1957 the Association continued widespread distribution of its
publications over and above those going to its own large membership. This distribution,
up about 7600 over the previous year, was approximately 38,500 copies, 32,140 of
which were sold from the secretary's office to, among others, the American railroads,
colleges and universities, students, Government agencies, engineers in industry generally,
and railroad men in foreign countries. The remaining 6360 copies included 3674 copies
of the Engineer Recruitment Brochure sent out free to engineering colleges, universities
and high school counselors from the secretary's office, and approximately 2500 reprints
of research reports as published by the AREA, which were made available to the AAR
research staff.
Large as was the distribution of publications in 1957, it continues to reflect the
refusal on the part of the Association to fill many foreign orders received which were
not given clearance by the Office of International Trade at Washington, D. C.
Following is a tabulation of the publication sales made in 1957.
1318 Report of Executive Secretary
Sales of Association Publication — 1957
Specifications (Bridge) 1 ,600
Manual chapters 836
Manual specifications and partial chapters 1,126
Manual specifications, large orders (more than 100) 10,600
Bulletins 1,684
Bulletin reprints 331
Special reprints in large orders (100 or more) 4,100
Proceedings 175
Consolidated Proceedings indexes 22
Revisions to Manual 566
Manuals (complete) and separate fillers 167
Revisions to Portfolio of Trackwork Plans 947
Complete Portfolios of Trackwork Plans 89
Individual track plans 586
Instructions for Mixing and Placing Concrete 12
Federal Valuation of Railroads 44
Achievement of Grade Crossing Protection 12
J. A. Given booklets 2i
Engineer recruitment brochure 550
Maintenance of Way Equipment Handbooks 8,671
32,141
FINANCES
The Report of the Treasurer, Financial Statement, General Balance Sheet, and
Statement of Cash Receipts and Disbursements for the calendar year 1957, all of which
are presented herein, indicate that the Association continues in a sound financial con-
dition, even though Disbursements exceeded Receipts during the year by $4401.24. This
can be said because the total assets of the Association were some $2000 higher at the
end of the calendar year 1957 than in 1956, due entirely to the reprinted stock of
Manuals available for future sales. A comparison of the Receipts and Disbursements
for the past two years is presented below:
1956 1957
Receipts $79,351.11 $85,429.31
Disbursements 70,336.17 89,830.57
$ 9,014.04 $ 4,401.26
Reviewing the financial picture briefly, Receipts for 1957 exceeded those of 1956
by $6078. This increase was accounted for by the sale of copies of the new edition of
the Handbook of Instructions for Care and Operation of Maintenance of Way Equip-
ment, which became available for sale early in the year. Revenues from the sale of the
Handbook amounted to $6420.
It is gratifying that the other Receipts items continued at a high level, comparable
to those of 1956. That they did was due to the continued growth in the membership
of the Association, with Membership Receipts $900 more in 1957 than in 1956; a con-
tinued heavy demand for all of the publications of the Association from other than
members; and a continuing interest by railway supply companies in the Bulletin of the
Association as an advertising medium. Total Receipts for the year were some $7000
higher than estimated, which was contrary to expectations in the light of the anticipated
general decline in business, which actually occurred during the latter half of the year.
Disbursements for 1957 were $19,500 higher than those of 1956, due primarily
Report of Executive Secretary 1310
to the abnormal expenditure of $7400 for the printing of the Handbook of Instructions
for Care and Operation of Maintenance of Way Equipment, and $10,800 for printing
a five-year supply of Manual fillers to replace the depleted supply of the previous edi-
tion. All other disbursement items closely approximated those oi 1956, with the excep
tion of those for Bulletins and Salaries, which were somewhat higher.
Total Disbursements amounted to $89,830 — $2300 under the Total Disbursements
estimated for the year, despite the fact that charges against Bulletins exceeded estimated
charges by $1000. That Total Disbursements were not higher was due to economies
amounting to $1000 effected in the reprinting of the Manual; an $800 under expendi-
ture of the amount estimated for postage, due to the delayed effective date of contem-
plated increases in postal rates in 1957; an expenditure of $900 less than estimated for
the 1QS7 Annual Meeting at St. Louis; and a saving of $500 in Extraordinary Expendi-
tures, brought about chiefly by deferring the purchase of equipment for the Secretary's
office.
It is well that the Association enjoyed — in large part due to its continued growth
in membership and the continued demand for its publications — exceptionally good years
financially in 1954, 1955 and 1956, with an excess of Receipts over Expenditures in
each of these years. This is especially so in the light of the deficit incurred in 1°57.
and a further slight deficit anticipated in 1958 as the result of the purchase of a several
year's supply of Manual binders, if for no other cause. Of course, if expected normal
receipts should fall off on the one hand, and the Board of Direction should subse-
quently authorize the publication of a new edition of the Engineer Recruitment Brochure
in 1958, on the other hand, to be distributed for the most part free, then the small
presently anticipated deficit in 1958 could become appreciable, possibly as much as
$5000.
Comparison of Receipts and Disbursements for a 20-Year Period
Receipts Disbursements Net Gain
1938 $28,422.00 $23,394.00 $ 5,028.00
1939 28,189.00 23.847.00 4.342.00
1940 28,272.00 26,451.00 1,821.00
1941 $2,433.00 29,384.00 3.040.00
1042 U .500.00 26,602.00 4.S08.00
1043 28.736.00 23,809.00 4.027.00
1944 W.492.00 26.534.00 3,958.00
1945 32,305.00 20.305.00 3.000.00
1946 28.836.00 34,583.00 5,747.00*
1947 46.993.00 46,989.00 4.00
1948 57.741.00 53.062.00 4.070.00
1949 62,081 .00 57.075.00 5.005.00
1950 50.752.00 51,795.00 7,957.00
1951 60,045.00 62,369.00 76.00
1052 77,514.00 76,964.00 550.00
1953 73,033.07 82,067 86 Q.034.70*
1054 85,748.99 68,003.03 1 7,745.96
1955 80,177.21 73,923.18 6,254.03
1956 79,53 1 1 1 70,336 17 o.oi 4 ,94
1957 85.420.31 J30.57 4,401.26*
• Defii il
1320 Report of Executive Secretary
RESEARCH WORK
In 1957, the research activities of the Association, sponsored by its committees and
carried out by or through the Engineering Division research staff of the AAR, reached
a new high. These activities were carried out under an approved budget of $476,845,
practically all of which was expended, along with an additional sum amounting to
$208,500 to complete and partially equip the new Engineering Laboratory at the AAR
Research Center in Chicago. The approved 1957 budget compares with the approved
budget of $365,050 in 1956 (reduced from a budget request of $438,815), plus $352,500
in that year for the construction of the new Engineering Laboratory.
Convinced of the value of technical research, and determined to expand it in
1958, financial conditions permitting, and at the same time strengthen the entire AAR
research organization, the AAR Board of Directors, late in November 1957, approved
an Engineering Division Research Budget for 1958 in the amount of $570,609. Later
in 1957, $45,000 was approved for work on two new projects not included in the
originally submitted and approved budget — one to investigate the possibilities and prac-
ticability of the brazing, or diffusion welding process, of joining rails together to produce
multiple lengths, or to provide closure welds between stretches of continuous welded rail
in track ($30,000), and the other involving feasibility studies on nuclear light sources,
especially for illuminating certain types of roadway signs, such as clearance, close clear-
ance, speed restriction, etc. In addition, in January 1958, authorization was received to
carry over $160,000 of unexpended funds for the payment of equipment ordered in 1956
and 1957, but not delivered.
These sizable over-all expenditures authorized for Engineering Division research
in 1958 are, of course, in addition to expenditures authorized for research to be carried
out by the Mechanical Division, AAR, and for Detector Car Development, for Container
and Loading Research, for Railroad Sanitation Research, and for the Operation and
Maintenance of the Research Center — expenditures which, in the aggregate, amount to
approximately $800,000.
Thus, for 1958, the AAR has authorized in excess of $1,500,000 for technical
research and related expenditures.
But as this report is being written — in the light of the unfavorable economic con-
ditions prevailing in the country, and in the railway industry in particular — the entire
operations of the AAR as contemplated for 1958, including its research program, are
being reappraised by the Association's officers, which may result in a delayed start on
some of the research contemplated, and to even the indefinite deferral of work on some
projects until economic conditions improve.
But that the railroads intend to engage in an increasing amount of research through
the auspices of the AAR — in search of improved materials and methods, further econ-
omies, and better service — is seen not alone in the size of the research expenditures
authorized for 1958, but also in the creation, late in 1957, of a Research Department
within the Association, under the direction of a new vice president-research.
The approved 1958 Engineering Division Research Budget, with projects grouped
according to sponsoring committees or specific classifications, is presented herewith.
This shows projects to .be continued or initiated in 1958, and the amount appropriated
for each, compared with 1957 and 1956.
Since the authorization of this budget, as the result of a careful review of all of
the projects included therein, in the light of somewhat changed conditions, the Engi-
neering Division research staff, under the direction of the director of engineering research,
Report of Executive Secretary 1321
recommended to the AREA Board of Direction certain adjustments in the approved list
of projects, but holding to the total authorized expenditure of $570,609.
These recommendations, which were approved by the Board of Direction, and
subsequently by the vice president-research, include five additional projects, reductions
in the amounts previously authorized for five projects, the deferring of two projects,
and the elimination of one project. All of these changes, including the five new projects
authorized, are shown in footnotes appended to the tabulation of the originally approved
1Q58 Engineering Division Research Budget.
Total Allotments for Research Work, Engineering Division, AAR,
1041-1958
1041 S 05,150 1950 S204.045
1942 87,932 1951 <54,770
1943 98.445 1952 381,400
1944 109,050 1953 364,100
1045 138,110 1054 (as modified) 351,307
1046 150,510 1055 351,653
1947 234,428 1956 365.050
1948 291,840 1057 476,845
1949 372,457 1958 570.600
Engineering Division Allotments for Research 1956-1958
1956
Committee on Rail Budget
Transverse Fissure Investigation $ 5,600
Shelly Spots Investigation 9,850
Rail Failure Statistics 8,950
Service Tests of Joint Bars 3,225
Rolling-Load Tests of Joint Bars 11,725
Rail Design Investigation 2,500
Welding Battered Rail Ends 11 .000
Tests with 78-ft Rail 5.000
1957
1958
Budget
Budget
$ 5,600
$ 6,350
10.500
15.650
9,900
10,550
3,325
3,550
13.700
15,000
2,500
4,300
12,000
14.700
5,500
6,100
Total $ 57,850 S 63.025 S 76,200
Committee on Track
Tie Plate Design $ 4,400
Bolt Tension and Joint Lubrication 4,500
Corrosion from Brine Drippings 13,000
Manganese Frog Design 4.000
Tie Plate Fastenings 1 7,600
Welding Carbon Steel Frogs and Switches 6,400
Laying Rail Tight with Frozen Joints 5,100
$ 4,600
$ 3,100
4.400
4.300
15,000
1S.500
3.000
1 1 .650
10.100
10.300
6.200
7,100
4.700
4,800
Total S 55,000 $57,000 $68,750
Relation Between Track and Equipment
Jack-Knifing of Diesel Locomotives $ 4,000
Relation Wheel Load to Wheel Diameter 5.000
Ride Comfort — New Type Trains 5.000
Clearance Requirements 4,000
Wheel Slippage on Axle from Lateral Thrusts
♦Rolling Resistance of Freight Cars
♦Signal Shunting by Motor Cars and Lightweight Equip-
ment
♦Tracking Tests of Trainmaster Locomotives
20,000
$ S.000
5,000
5.000
4,000
10,000
3,000
3.000
3,000
2.000
3,000
Total $18,000 $32,000 $34,000
* New Projects in 19S8.
1322 Report of Executive Secretary
1956 1957 1958
Budget Budget Budget
Committee on Roadway and Ballast
Roadbed Stabilization $ 24,000 $ 25,820 $ 20,300
Ballast Tests 8,000 10,600 24,300
Vegetation Control by Chemicals 12,300 14,300 16,300
♦Performance of Filter Materials in Subdrains 6,200'
♦Erosion Control for Outlet Structures 3,100
Total $44,300 $50,720 $ 70,200
Committee on Ties
Wear and Splitting of Ties $ 10,000 $ 10,000 $
Anti-Splitting Devices for Ties o,000 10,000
♦Chemical Deterioration of Wood Ties Resulting From
Iron Rust 5,000
*Tie Coatings 2,500
♦Service Tests of Laminated Ties and Combined Seasoned
and Treated Ties 1 ,000
Total $ 10,000 $ 16,000 $ 18,500
Committee on Highways
Grade Crossing Study $ 8,000
Total $ 8,000
Structural Projects
Bridge Impact Investigation $ 70,000
Stress in Bridge Frames 10,500
Riveted and Bolted Structural Joints 8,000
Column Research Council 1 ,000
Steel Structures Painting Council 8,000
Timber Stringer Tests 1,500
Fire Retardant Coatings — Performance 0,000
Concrete Deterioration 10,500
Reinforced Concrete Research Council 4,000
Strength of Timber Bolted Joints 3,000
Tests of Membrane Waterproofing Material 6,500
Tests of Bituminous Materials 6,100
Wind Loads on Buildings 1 ,000
Timber Bearing Tests
Welding Research Council
Fatigue of Prestressed Concrete Beams
Distribution of Axle Loads
♦Deflections and Depth Ratios of Bridges
♦Electronic Calculation of Bridge Stresses
♦Study of Expansion, Contraction and Control of Joints
in Concrete and Masonry Block Buildings
♦Study of New Structural Systems for Railway Buildings
♦Investigation of Infra-Red Rav Heating of Buildings
♦Treating Pile Cut-Offs
♦Hardening of Timber
♦Preparation of Standard Bridge Plans
♦Bearings for Concrete Bridges
♦Scour Around Foundations
♦Corrosion of Deck Plates
♦Columns With Perforated Cover Plates
$ 88,000
$ 00,000
10,500
10,500
10,000
10,0002
5,000
1,000
10,000
1 0,000''
5,700
6,200
12,200
15,000'
12,400
12,400
5,000
5,000
2,700
8,100
8,100
3,200
7,200
3,800
4,000
6,400
5,700
6,000
10.000r'
7,000
10,000"
6,200
6,200
3,0007
5,0008
2,000
2,700
5,200
1,000
Total $140,000 $202,200 $230,200
New Projects in 1958.
Report of Executive Secretary 1323
Committee on Wood Preservation
Termite Control Investigation $ 1,000 $ 4,000 $ 1,000
Total $ 1,000 $ 4,000 $ 1 ,000
Administration
Research Office S 3X. 000 S 43,000 $ 62, 75<J
Total $ 38,000 S 43,000 S 62.750
Grand Total $365,050 $476,845 >"0,60Q
ADDITIONAL PROJECTS
Deflections and Depth Ratios of Bridge* SN.-'ou
Electronic Calculation oi Bridge Stresses — $12,000.
Bearings for Concrete Bridges — $3,000.
Scour Around Foundations — $5,000.
Corrosion of Deck Plates— $3,000.
APPROVED PROJECTS, WITH REDUCED APPROPRIATIONS
1 Performance of Filter Materials in Subdrains- from $6,200 to $3,000.
- Riveted and Bolted Structural Joints— from $10,000 to $8,000.
3 Steel Structures Painting Council — from $10,000 to $8,000.
6 Welding Research Council — from $10,000 to $6,000.
* Fire-Retardant Coatings — Performance — from $15,000 to $13,000.
APPROVED PROJECTS DEFERRED
7 Study of Expansion, Contraction and Control of Joints in Concrete and Masonry Block Buildings —
$3,000.
8 Study of New Structural Systems for Railway Buildigs — $5,000.
PROJECT ELIMINATED
6 Fatigue of Prestressed Concrete Beams $10,000.
The foregoing report indicates unmistakably that the Association, in 1957, had
another fruitful and otherwise satisfactory year. Steering the same course that brought
this about, coupled with the continued interest and support of its members and the
railroads, and alertness on the part of its officers to meet new responsibilities and chal-
lenges, there is every reason to believe that the Association will have an equally
productive and otherwise satisfactory year in 1958.
Respectfully submitted,
Neal D. Howard,
Executive Secretary.
Beceatfeb members
E. Y. Allen
Retired Chief Engineer, Reading Company, Philadelphia, Pa.
W. G. Arn
Retired Special Engineer, Illinois Central Railroad, Signal Mountain, I .in,
E. J. Bayer
Retired District Engineer, New York Central System, Gallon, Ohio
B. F. Beckm \\
Fori Smith, Ark.
G. H. Burgess
Retired President, Tennessee, Mabama & Georgia Railway, \<» Y.rk \ \
1324 Report of Executive Secretary
F. W. Campbell
Engineer Maintenance of Way, Central Region, Canadian National Railways, Toronto, Ont.
R. N. Chipman
Manager, Weed Killer Department, General Chemical Division, Allied Chemical & Dye Corp.,
New York, N. V.
T. Crawford
Division Engineer, Southern Railway System, Somerset, Ky.
J. C. DeJarnette, Jr.
Chief Engineer, Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad, Richmond, Va.
Miss Olive W. Dennis
Retired Research Engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Baltimore, Md.
P. W. Elmore
Division Engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Washington, Ind.
F. A. Ernst
Division Engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Pittsburgh, Pa.
L. D. Freeman
Middletown, N. Y.
L. D. Garis
Retired General Bridge Inspector, Chicago & North Western System, Park Ridge, 111.
C. G. Grove
Retired Area Engineer, Pennsylvania Railroad, Chicago, 111.
F. M. Hawthorne
Retired Engineer, Pennsylvania Railroad, Merion Station, Montgomery County, Pa.
E. B. HlLLEGASS
Retired Roadmaster, Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, Sumter, S. C.
C. E. Jacobson
Bridge Designer, State Highway Department of Georgia, College Park, Ga.
C. T. Kaier
Assistant Engineer of Structures, Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad, Hoboken, N. J.
L. P. Kimball
Retired Engineer of Buildings, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Baltimore, Md.
C. S. Kirkpatrick
Retired Chief Engineer, Missouri Pacific Lines, Houston, Tex.
A. H. W. Klasing
Inspector, Missouri Pacific Railroad, St. Louis, Mo.
W. B. Knight
Retired Division Engineer, Boston & Albany Railroad, Springfield, Mass.
J. A. Lahmer
Retired Senior Assistant Engineer, Missouri Pacific Railroad, St. Louis, Mo.
F. R. Layng
Retired Consulting Engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, Greenville, Pa.
Report of Executive Secretary 1325
B. R. Leffler
Retired Bridge Engineer, New York Central System, Emmons, Pa.
J. E. LOCKHART
Retired Division Engineer, Louisville & Nashville Railroad, Knoxville, Tenn.
H. C. Lorenz
Retired Assistant Engineer, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Railway, Bellevue, Ky.
W. S. McFetridge
Retired Consulting Engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, Greenville, Pa.
C. E. Merriman
Construction Engineer, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, Topeka, Kans.
Joseph Mullen
President, Southern Acid & Sulphur Company, St. Louis, Mo.
W. A. Murray
Retired Engineer Maintenance of Way, New York Central System; Boston & Albany Railroad,
Cape Elizabeth, Me.
P. J. Neff
President, Missouri Pacific Railroad, St. Louis, Mo.
C. B. NlEHAUS
Retired Land & Tax Agent, Central of Georgia Railway, Savannah, Ga.
J. H. O'Brien
Office Assistant to Regional Engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Cincinnati, Ohio
G. H. Perry
Assistant Engineer of Structures, Pennsylvania Railroad, Philadelphia, Pa.
E. Pharand
Retired Superintendent of Work Equipment, Canadian National Railways, Toronto, Ont.
G. E. RlGHTER
Retired Division Engineer, Erie Railroad, Matamoras, Pa.
C. J. Rist
Retired Engineer Maintenance of Way, Pere Marquette Railway, Grosse Point Park, Mich.
A. K. Shurtleff
Geneva, 111.
A. A. SlREL
Retired Assistant Research Engineer — Structures, Association of American Railroads, Santa Barbara, Calif.
H. W. Stanley
Retired President and Chairman of Board, Tennessee Central Railway, Nashville, Tenn.
W. D. Wakren
Retired Division Engineer, New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, St. Petersburg, Fla.
P. H. Winchester
Retired Division Engineer, New York Central System, Syracuse, N J
J. S. WORLEY
Retired Professor of Transportation Engineering. University of Michigan, \nn tibor, Midi
1326 Report of Executive Secretary
FINANCIAL STATEMENT FOR CALENDAR YEAR ENDING
DECEMBER 31, 1957
Balance on hand January 1, 1957 $150,366.83
RECEIPTS
Membership Account
Entrance Fees $ 2,260.00
Dues 43,084.74 $ 45,344.74
Sale of Publications
Proceedings 1,365.10
Bulletins 2,216.70
Manuals 6,696.27
Specifications 8,672.06
Track Plans 1,396.55
Research Reports 8,620.89 28,967.57
Advertising
Publications 6,714.82
Interest Account
Interest on Investments 3,783.30
Miscellaneous 618.88
Total $85,429.31
DISBURSEMENTS
Salaries $24,283.54
Proceedings 13,922.74
Bulletins 14,907.49
Stationery and printing 3,088.30
Rent, light etc 1,140.00
Supplies 358.48
Postage 1 ,714.94
Audit 400.00
Pensions 1,467.00
Social security, unemployment tax and insurance . . 1,034.28
Manual 13,289.01
Track plans 106.65
Committee and officers expense 618.53
Annual meeting expense 2,592.72
News letter 2,548.50
Miscellaneous 753.39
Brochure 200.00
Handbook 7,405.00
Total $ 89,830.57
Excess of Disbursements over Receipts 4,401.26
Loss on sale of securities 301.00
Balance on hand December 31, 1957 $145,664.57
Report of Treasurer 1327
REPORT OF THE TREASURER
To the Members:
Balance on hand January 1, 1057 $150,366.83
Receipts during 1957 s 85,429.3 1
Paid out on audited vouchers 89,830.57
Excess of disbursements over receipts 4,401 .26
Loss from sale of bonds 301.00 4,702.26
Balance on hand December 31, 1957 $145,664.57
Consisting of bonds at cost $143,887.89
Cash in Northern Trust Company Bank 1.751.68
Petty cash '. 25.00 $145,664.57
We have made an examination of the accounts of the American Railway Engineer-
ing Association for the year ending December 31, 1957, and find them to be in accordance
with the foregoing statement.
C. A. Bic k.
P. D. Mitchell,
Auditors.
GENERAL BALANCE SHEET
Assets 1957 1956
Due from members $ 48.00 $ 88.00
Due from sale of publications 131.20 31.60
Due from sale of advertising 1,147.80 1,066.80
Due from prepaid postage 51.95 12.69
Furniture and fixtures 1,495.00 1 .406.00
Inventory of publications (estimated) 500.00 500.00
Inventory of Manuals 8,080.00 1 .758.40
Inventory of track plans 1,852.50 2,490.50
Inventory of binders, index and chapters 92.00 5.45
Inventory of paper stock 1,344.00 442.00
Investment (cost) 143,887.89 151,140.77
Interest accrued on investments 402.82 458.78
Cash in Northern Trust Companv Bank 1,751.68 cr. 798.94
Petty Cash 25.00 25.00
Total $160,809.84 $158,622.05
Liabilities
Members dues paid in advance $ 031.29 $ 559.80
Surplus 160.178.55 158,062.25
Total $160,800.84 $158,622.05
STATEMENT OF CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS YEAR 1057
Cash in Bank, January 1. 1057 Cr. $798.94
Receipts
From members, sale of publications, interest, etc $85,429.31
From sale of securities 6,95 1 .88
$91,582.25
Disbursements
Audited Vouchers
Cash in Bank December 31, 1057 $1,751.68
American Railway Engineering
Association
CONSTITUTION
Revised to December 2, 1955
Article I
Name, Object and Location
1. Name
The name of this Association shall be the AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING
ASSOCIATION.
2. Object
The object of the Association shall be the advancement of knowledge pertaining
to the scientific and economic location, construction, operation and maintenance of
railways.
3. Means to be Used
The means to be used for this purpose shall be:
(a) The investigation of matters pertaining to the object of the Association through
Standing and Special Committees.
(b) Meeting for the presentation and discussion of papers, and for action on the
recommendations of committees.
(c) The publication of papers, reports and discussions.
4. Conclusions
The conclusions adopted by the Association shall be recommendatory.
5. Location
The office of the Association shall be located in Chicago, 111.
Article II
Membership
1. Classes
The membership of this Association shall be divided into five classes: Members.
Life Members, Honorary Members, Associates and Junior Members.
2. Qualifications
A. General
(a) An applicant to be eligible for membership in any class other than that of
Junior Member shall be not less than 25 years of age.
(b) To be eligible for membership in any class, or for retention of membership as a
Member, an Associate or a Junior Member, a person shall not be engaged directly or
primarily in the sale to the railways of appliances, supplies, patents or patented services.
(c) The right to membership shall not be terminated by retirement from active
•service.
1328
Constitution 1329
(d) In determining the eligibility for membership in any class, graduation in engineer-
ing from a school of recognized standing shall be considered as equivalent to three years
of active practice, and satisfactory completion of each year of work in such school,
without graduation, shall be considered as equivalent to one-half year of active practice.
(e) In determining the eligibility for Member under Section B (a) of this Article,
each year of practical experience in engineering, or in science related thereto, prior to
employment on a railway, if such experience were of the same specialized character as
the current work of the applicant, shall be considered as equivalent to one year of
railway service.
B. Member
A Member shall be:
(a) An engineer or officer in the service of a railway corporation that is a common
carrier, who has had not less than five years' experience in the location, construction,
operation or maintenance of railways.
(b) A dean, professor, assistant professor, or equivalent in engineering in a university
or college of recognized standing, or an instructor or equivalent in such university or
college, who, with an engineering degree, has had at least two years' experience in
teaching engineering.
(c) An engineer or member of a public board, commission or other official agency
who, in the discharge of his regular duties, deals with railway problems.
(d) An editor of a trade or technical magazine who, in the discharge of his regular
duties, deals with railway problems, and who has had the equivalent of five years'
engineering or railway experience.
(e) A consulting engineer, engaged in private practice, or an engineer in his employ
or in the employ of a consulting engineering organization, who has had the equivalent
of five years' engineering experience.
C. Life Member
A Life Member shall be a Member or an Associate who has paid dues for 35 years,
or who has been retired under a recognized retirement plan and has paid dues for not
less than 25 years.
D. Honorary Member
(a) An Honorary Member shall be a person of acknowledged eminence in railway
engineering or management.
(b) The number of Honorary Members shall be limited to ten.
E. Associate
An Associate shall be:
(a) An engineer of a railway which is essentially an adjunct of an industry, or
which is used primarily to transport the products and materials of an industry to and
from a railway which is a common carrier.
(b) A person qualified by training and experience to cooperate with Members in the
object of this Association, but who is not qualified to become a Member.
F. Junior Member
(a) A Junior Member shall be not less than 21 years of age and shall be an
engineering employee of a railway corporation who has had not less than three years
of experience in the location, construction, operation or maintenance of railways.
(b) His membership in this classification in the Association shall terminate at the
end of the calendar year in which he becomes 30 years of age.
(c) He may make application for membership other than as a Junior Member at
any time when he becomes eligible to do so.
l.UO Constitution
3. Transfers
The Board of Direction shall transfer from one class of membership to another,
or may remove from membership, any person whose qualifications so change as to
warrant such action.
4. Rights
(a) Members, and Life Members who were formerly Members, shall have all the
rights and privileges of the Association. Life Members who were formerly Associates
shall continue to have all the rights and privileges of Associates.
(b) Honorary Members shall have all the rights and privileges of the Association
except those of holding elective office, provided, however, that Members or Life Members
who are elected Honorary Members shall retain all the rights and privileges of the
Association.
(c) Associates and Junior Members shall have all the rights and privileges of the
Association except those of voting and holding elective office.
Article III
Admission, Resignation, Expulsion and Reinstatement
1. Charter Membership
The Charter Membership of this Association consists of all persons elected to mem-
bership before March IS, 1900.
2. Application for Membership
(a) A person desirous of membership in this Association shall make application
upon the form provided by the Board of Direction. In the event that Junior Membership
is desired, the applicant shall so state.
(b) The applicant shall give the names of at least three Members of this Asso-
ciation to whom personally known. Each of these Members shall be requested by the
Executive Secretary of the Association to certify to a personal knowledge of the applicant
with an opinion of the applicant's qualifications for membership.
(c) If an applicant is not personally known to as many as three Members of this
Association, the names of well-known persons engaged in railway or allied professional
work to whom he is personally known shall be substituted, as necessary, to provide a
total of at least three references. Each of these persons shall be requested by the Executive
Secretary of the Association to certify to a personal knowledge of the applicant, with an
opinion of the applicant's qualifications for membership.
(d) No further action shall be taken upon the application until replies have been
received from at least three of the persons named by the applicant as references.
3. Election to Membership
(a) Upon completion of the application in accordance with Section 2 of this Article
the Board of Direction through its Membership Committee shall consider the application
and make such investigation as it may consider desirable or necessary.
(b) Upon completion of such consideration and investigation, each member of the
Board of Direction shall be supplied with the required information, together with the
recommendation of the Membership Committee as to the class of membership, if any,
to which the applicant is eligible, and the admission of the applicant shall be canvassed by
ballot among the members of the Board of Direction.
Constitution 1331
(c) In the event that an application has been made under the provisions of Section 2,
Paragraphs (a) and (b) of this Article, a two-thirds aifirmative vote of the entire Board
of Direction shall be required for election.
(d) In the event that an application has been made under the provisions of Section
2, Paragraphs (a) and (c) of this Article, a unanimous affirmative vote of the entire
Board of Direction shall be required for election.
4. Subscription to the Constitution
An applicant for any class of membership in this Association shall declare his willing-
ness to abide by the Constitution of the Association in his application for membership.
5. Honorary Member
A proposal for Honorary Membership shall be endorsed by ten or more Members
of the Association and a copy furnished each member of the Board of Direction. The
nominee shall be declared an Honorary Member upon receiving a unanimous vote of the
entire Board of Direction.
6. Resignation
The Board of Direction shall accept the resignation, tendered in writing, of any
person holding membership in the Association whose obligations to the Association have
been fulfilled.
7. Expulsion
Charges of misconduct on the part of anyone holding membership in this Association,
if in writing and signed by ten or more Members, may be submitted to the Board of
Direction for examination and action. If, in the opinion of the Board action is war-
ranted, the person complained of shall be served with a copy of such charges and shall
be given an opportunity to answer them to the Board of Direction. After such oppor-
tunity has been given, the Board of Direction shall take final action. A two-thirds
aifirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction shall be required for expulsion.
8. Reinstatement
(a) A person having been a Member, an Associate or a Junior Member of this
Assocition and having resigned such membership while in good standing may be
reinstated by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction.
(b) A person having been a Member, an Associate or a Junior Member of this
Association and having forfeited membership under the provisions of Article IV, Section
3. may, upon such conditions as may be fixed by the Board, be reinstated by a two-thirds
affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction.
Article IV
Dues
1. Entrance Fee
(a) An entrance fee of $10 shall be payable to the Association with each application
for membership other than Junior Membership. This sum shall be returned to an applicant
not elected.
(b) No entrance fee shall be required for Junior Membership, except that a Junior
Member, in transferring to another class of membership, shall pay the entrance fee
prescribed for other classes of Membership
\M2 Constitution
2. Annual Dues
(a) The annual dues for each Member and each Associate shall be $15.
(b) The annual dues for each Junior Member shall be $5.
(c) Life Members and Honorary Members shall be exempt from the payment of
dues. Life Members desiring to continue to receive the Bulletins and Proceedings of the
Association may do so by paying a subscription fee prescribed by the Board of Direction.
3. Arrears
A person whose dues are not paid before April 1 of the current year shall be notified
by the Executive Secretary. If the dues are still unpaid on July 1, further notice shall be
given, informing the person that he is not in good standing in the Association. If the dues
remain unpaid by October 1, the person shall be notified that he will no longer receive
the publications of the Association. If the dues are not paid by December 31, the person
shall forfeit membership without further action or notice, except as provided for in
Section 4 of this Article.
4. Remission of Dues
The Board of Direction may extend the time of payment of dues, and may remit
the dues of any Member, Associate or Junior Member who, for good reason, is unable
to pay them.
Article V
Officers
1. Officers
(a) The officers of the Association shall be a President, two Vice Presidents,
twelve Directors, an Executive Secretary and a Treasurer.
(b) The President, the Vice Presidents and the Directors, together with the two
latest living Past Presidents continuing to be Members, shall constitute the Board of
Direction, in which the government of the Association shall be vested; they shall act
as the trustees and have the custody of all property belonging to the Association. The
President, the Vice Presidents and the Directors shall be Members.
(c) The Executive Secretary and the Treasurer shall be appointed by the Board of
Direction.
2. Term of Office
The term of office of the President shall be one year, of the Vice Presidents two
years and of the Directors three years. The term of each shall begin at the close of
the annual convention at which elected and continue until a successor is qualified.
All other officers and employees shall hold office or position at the pleasure of the Board
of Direction.
3. Officers Elected Annully
(a) There shall be elected at each annual convention a President, one Vice President
and four Directors.
(b) The candidates for President and for Vice President shall be selected from
the members or past members of the Board of Direction.
4. Conditions of Re-election of Officers
A President shall be ineligible for re-election, except as provided for in Section 5 (e)
of this Article. Vice Presidents and Directors shall be ineligible for re-election to the same
office, except as provided for in Section 5 (e) of this Article, until, at least one full
term has elapsed after the end of their respective terms.
Constitution 1333
5. Vacancies in Offices
(a) If a vacancy should occur in the office of President, as set forth in Section 6
of this Article, the senior Vice President shall immediately and automatically become
President for the unexpired term.
(b) If a vacancy should occur in the office of the senior Vice President, due to
advancement under Section 5 (a) of this Article, or for reasons set forth in Section 6
of this Article, the junior Vice President shall automatically become senior Vice President
for the unexpired term.
(c) If a vacancy should occur in the office of the junior Vice President, due to
advancement under Section 5 (b) of this Article, or for reasons set forth in Section 6
of this Article, the Board of Direction shall by the affirmative vote of two-thirds of its
entire membership, select a junior Vice President from the members or past members
of the Board of Direction.
(d) A vacancy in the office of Director, due to advancement of a Director to junior
Vice President under Section 5 (c) of this Article, or for reasons set forth in Section 6
of this Article, shall be filled by the Board of Direction by the affirmative vote of
two-thirds of its entire membership.
(e) An incumbent in any office for an unexpired term shall be eligible for re-election
to the office held; provided, however, that anyone selected to fill a vacancy as Director
shall be eligible for election to that office, excepting that such appointee filling out an
unexpired term of two years or more shall be considered as coming within the provisions
of Section 4 of this Article.
6. Vacation of Office
(a) In the event of the death of an elected officer, or his resignation from office,
or if he should cease to be a Member of the Association as provided in Section 2 (B),
Article II; Section 6 or 7, Article III; or Section 3, Article IV, the office shall be con-
sidered as vacated.
(b) In the event of the disability of an officer or neglect in the performance of duty
by an officer, the Board of Direction, by the affirmative vote of two-thirds of its entire
membership shall have the power to declare the office vacant.
Article VI
Nomination and Election or Officers
1. Nominating Committee
(a) There shall be a Nominating Committee composed of the five latest living Past
Presidents of the Association, who are Members, and five Members who are not
officers.
(b) The five Members who are not Past Presidents shall be elected annually for a
term of one year, when the officers of the Association are elected.
(c) The senior Past President who is a member of the committee shall be the
chairman of the committee. In the absence of the senior Past President from a meeting
of the committee the Past President next in seniority present shall act as chairman
2. Method of Nominating
(a) Prior to December 1 of each year the chairman shall call a meeting of the
committee at a convenient place, at which nominees for the several elective offices
shall be selected as follows:
1334 Constitution
Number of Candi-
Nutnber of Candi- dates to be
dates to be named elected at the
by the Nominating Annual Election
Office to be Filled Committee of Officers
President 1 1
Vice President 1 1
Directors 8 4
Nominating Committee 10 5
(b) The chairman of the Nominating Committee shall send the names of the
nominees to the President and Executive Secretary not later than December 15 of the
same year, and the Executive Secretary shall report the names of these nominees to the
members of the Association not later than January 1 following.
(c) At any time between January 1 and February 1 any ten or more Members
may send to the Executive Secretary additional nominations for any elective office for
the ensuing year signed by such Members.
(d) If any person nominated shall be found by the Board of Direction to be
ineligible for the office for which nominated, or should a nominee decline such nomination,
his name shall be withdrawn. The Board of Direction may fill any vacancies that may
occur in the list of nominees up to the time the ballots are sent out.
3. Ballots Issued
Not less than thirty days prior to each annual convention, the Executive Secretary
shall issue a ballot to each voting Member of record who has paid his dues to or beyond
December 31 of the previous year, listing the several candidates to be voted upon. When
there is more than one candidate for any office, the names shall be arranged on the
ballot in the order that shall be determined by lot by the Nominating Committee. The
ballot shall be accompanied by a statement giving for each candidate his record of
membership and activities in this Association.
4. Substitution of Names
Members may remove names from the printed ballot list and may substitute the name
or names of any other person or persons eligible for any office, but the number of names
voted for each office on the ballot must not exceed the number to be elected at that
time to such office.
5. Ballots
(a) Ballots shall be placed in an envelope, sealed and endorsed with the name of
the voter, and mailed to or deposited with the Executive Secretary at any time previous
to the closure of the polls.
(b) A voter may withdraw his ballot, and cast another, at any time before the polls
close.
(c) Ballots received in unendorsed envelopes, or from persons not qualified to vote,
shall not be counted.
(d) The ballots and envelopes shall be preserved for not less than ten days after
the vote is canvassed.
6. Closure of Polls
The polls shall be closed at 12 o'clock noon on the second day of the annual conven-
tion, and the ballots shall be counted by tellers appointed by the presiding officer.
Constitution 1335
7. Election
(a) The persons who shall receive the highest number of votes for the offices for
which they are candidates shall be declared elected.
(b) In case of a tie between two or more candidates for the same office, the
Members present at the annual convention shall elect the officer by ballot from the
candidates so tied.
(c) The presiding officer shall announce at the convention the names of the officers
elected in accordance with this Article.
Article VII
Management
1. President
The President shall have general supervision of the affairs of the Association, shall
preside at meetings of the Association and of the Board of Direction, and, by virtue
of his office, shall be a member of all committees, except the Nominating Committee.
2. Vice Presidents
The Vice Presidents, in order of seniority, shall preside at meetings in the absence
of the President.
3. Treasurer
The Treasurer shall pay all bills of the Association when properly certified by the
Executive Secretary and approved by the Finance Committee. He shall make an annual
report as to the financial condition of the Association and such other reports as may be
called for by the Board of Direction.
4. Executive Secretary
The Executive Secretary, under the direction of the President and Board of Direc-
tion shall be the Executive Officer of the Association and shall attend the meetings of the
Association and of the Board of Direction, prepare the business therefor, and record the
proceedings thereof. The Executive Secretary shall see that all money due the Associa-
tion is collected, is credited to the proper accounts, and is deposited in the designated
depository of the Association, with receipt to the Treasurer therefor. He shall personally
certify to the accuracy of all bills and vouchers on which money is to be paid. He shall
invest all funds of the Association not needed for current disbursements, as shall be
ecommended by the Finance Committee and approved by the Board of Direction, with
notification to the Treasurer of such investments. The Executive Secretary shall conduct
the correspondence of the Association, make an annual report to the Association, and
perform such other duties as the Board of Direction may prescribe.
5. Auditing of Accounts
The financial accounts of the Association shall be audited annually by an accountant
or accountants approved by and under the direction of the Finance Committee.
6. Board of Direction
(a) The Board of Direction shall manage the affairs of the Association, and shall
have full power to control and regulate all matters not otherwise provided for in the
Constitution.
1336 Constitution
(b) The Board of Direction shall meet within thirty days after each annual
convention, and at such other times as the President may direct. Special meetings shall
be called on request, in writing, of five members of the Board of Direction.
(c) Seven members of the Board of Direction shall constitute a quorum.
(d) At the first meeting of the Board of Direction after the annual convention, the
following committees, each consisting of not less than three members, shall be appointed
by the President from the Board of Direction, and they shall report to and perform
their duties under the supervision of the Board of Direction.
Finance
Publications
Outline of Work of Committees
Personnel of Committees
Membership
Manual
Other special committees may be appointed by the President at his discretion.
7. Duties of the Committees of the Board of Direction
(a) Finance Committee
The Finance Committee shall have immediate supervision of the accounts and
financial affairs of the Association; shall approve all bills before payment, and shall
make recommendations to the Board of Direction as to the investment of funds and
other financial matters. The Finance Committee shall not have the power to incur
debts or other obligations binding the Association, nor authorize the payment of money
other than the amounts necessary to meet ordinary current expenses of the Association,
except by authority of the Board of Direction.
(b) Publication Committee
The Publication Committee shall have general supervision over the publications of
the Association. The Publication Committee shall not have the power to incur debts
or other obligations binding the Association, nor authorize the payment of money except
by authority of the Board of Direction.
(c) Committee on Outline of Work of Committees
The Committee on Outline of Work of Committees shall review and pass upon the
recommendations of standing and special committees for subjects to be investigated,
considered and reported on by these committees during the ensuing year, and shall report
thereon to the Board of Direction for its approval.
(d) Committee on Personnel of Committees
The Committee on Personnel of Committees shall review and pass upon applications
of members for appointment to standing and special committees. It also shall appoint
the chairman and vice chairman of such committees and make a report thereon to the
Board of Direction for its approval.
(e) Membership Committee
The Membership Committee shall make investigation of applicants for membership
and shall make recommendations to the Board of Direction with reference thereto.
(f) Manual Committee
The Manual Committee, with the assistance of the Publications Committee, shall
have general supervision over the Manual.
8. Standing Committees
The Board of Direction may appoint standing committees to investigate, consider
and report upon questions pertaining to railway location, construction, operation and
maintenance.
Constitution 1337
9. Special Committees
The Board of Direction may appoint special committees to examine into and report
upon any subject connected with the objects of this Association.
10. Discussion by Non-Members
The Board of Direction may invite discussions of reports from persons not members
of the Association.
11. Sanction of Act of Board of Direction
An act of the Board of Direction which shall have received the expressed or implied
sanction of the membership at the next annual convention of the Association shall be
deemed to be the act of the Association.
Article VIII
Meetings
1. Annual Convention
(a) The Annual Convention of the Association shall be held in the City of Chicago,
111., or in such other city as may be determined by the affirmative vote of two-thirds
of the entire membership of the Board of Direction. The convention shall open on the
second Tuesday in the month of March, or on the third Tuesday if the month of March
has five Tuesdays, excepting that some other opening day in March may be designated
by the affirmative vote of two-thirds of the entire membership of the Board of Direction
(b) The Executive Secretary shall notify all members of the Association of the tim<
and place of the annual convention at least 30 days in advance thereof.
(c) The order of business at the annual convention of the Association shall be:
Reading of the minutes of the last meeting
Address of the President
Reports of the Executive Secretary and the Treasurer
Reports of committees
Unfinished business
New business
Installation of officers
Adjournment
(d) This order of business may be changed by a majority vote of Members present
(e) The proceedings shall be governed by "Robert's Rules of Order" except as
otherwise herein provided.
(f) Discussions shall be limited to Members and to those others invited by the
presiding officer to speak.
2. Special Meetings
Special meetings of the Associations may be called by the Board of Directions on its
own initiative, and may be so called by the Board of Direction upon written request
of 100 Members. The request shall state the purpose of such meeting.
The call for such special meeting shall be issued not less than ten days in advance
of the proposed date of such meeting and shall state the purpose and place of the
meeting. No other business shall be taken up at such meeting.
3. Quorum
Twenty-five Members shall constitute a quorum at all meetings of the Association.
1 as Constitution
Article IX
Amendment
1. Amendment
Proposed amendment of this Constitution shall be made in writing, shall be signed
by not less than ten Members, and shall be acted upon in the following manner:
The amendment shall be presented to the Executive Secretary, who shall send a
copy to each member of the Board of Direction as soon as received. If a majority of
the entire Board of Direction so votes, the matter shall be submitted to the Association
by letter ballot.
Sixty days after the date of issue of the letter ballot, the Board of Direction shall
canvass the ballots which have been received, and if two-thirds of such ballots are in
the affirmative the amendment shall be declared adopted and shall become effective imme-
diately. The result of the letter ballot shall be announced to members of the Association.
Information and Rules for the Guidance of Committees
The following information and rules for the guidance of committees are designed
to obtain the maximum benefits from the efforts of the members who make up the
personnel of such committees. They are designed to effect a continuity of effort in
committee work throughout the entire year, under a plan whereby the personnel of the
committees and their respective assignments for investigation and report are set up and
made public on or before the beginning of the calendar year, thus enabling the work
to be continued without interruption, although the new personnel and subject assign-
ments do not become officially effective until the beginning of the "Association Year,"
which starts with the close of the annual meeting.
The rules also take into account the fact that the publication of the committee
reports must be spread out over a period of four months (November through February),
to facilitate printing and to give members of the Association a reasonable length of time
in which to study such reports in advance of the annual meeting.
SUBJECT ASSIGNMENTS
Reassigned Annually
The assignments for investigation and report of each committee shall be reviewed
annually. To this end, each committee shall review suggestions for new subjects sub-
mitted by its Subcommittee A, by other members of the committee, or by others, and
such suggestions as receive the approval of the committee shall be submitted by the
committee chairman to the executive secretary of the Association not later than October
1. Each suggestion shall be accompanied by brief explanation of the purpose and scope
of each proposed assignment, or change in the wording of present assignments. At the
same time, the committee chairman shall submit the committee's recommendations cover-
ing the withdrawal or continuation of current assignments, with a brief statement of the
reason or reasons therefor.
The recommendations received from the various committees shall be assembled and
forwarded to the Board Committee on Outline of Work, which has the responsibility
of authorizing the subject assignments to the various committees. Deviations from as-
signments thus authorized may be made during the course of the year only upon author-
ity of the Board Committee on Outline of Work. However, this is not to be construed
as preventing any committee from proposing additional urgent assignments at any time
during the year, upon which it feels work should be begun promptly.
Scope of Assignments of Committees 22 and 27
The scope of assignments of Committee 12 will encompass studies relating to the
economics of various types of work equipment as used by the labor forces to which
they are assigned, including the labor savings that may be effected, production, and
quality of work.
The scope of assignments of Committee 21 will encompass studies involving the
mechanical features, operating characteristics, development and maintenance of work
equipment, and fuels, lubricants, etc., necessary for its operation; also pertaining to
such labor aspects as the selection and training of equipment operators, maintaincrs and
repair forces.
(Revised and amplified November I, 1957).
1 ,,<,
1340 Information for Committees
Either or both committees may include in their considerations and reports factors
of design or operation that affect productivity or quality of work, and such economic
aspects as first cost, obsolescence, life, depreciation, and maintenance and repair costs
as may be necessary to the comprehensive development of their respective assignments.
In the case of an overlapping assignment, the assignment should normally be handled
by the committee principally affected in the light of the foregoing paragraphs, with the
other committee collaborating.
COMMITTEE PERSONNEL
Reorganized Annually
The personnel of each committee shall be reorganized annually. It is desirable that
10 percent of the membership be changed each year. Members who do not attend meet-
ings of the committee, who do not render service by correspondence, or who do not
return letter ballots will be dropped. To this end the chairman of the committee shall
submit to the secretary's office not later than October 1 the current Committee Member
Activity Record Chart, filled out in full regarding each member, and showing in the
appropriate columns which members he recommends be dropped because of delinquency
in service to the committee, or for other reasons, and those members he recommends be
continued on the committee. The chart, at the bottom, should also list any members
he recommends for appointment to the committee, whether previously carried as "guest"
members or not.
The recommendations received from the various committees shall be assembled and
forwarded to the Board Committee on Personnel, which has the duty of appointing
the committee personnel.
No additions to the personnel of committees will be made during the year following
the official closing of committee rosters, October 1, except as provided for in the rules
applying to "Guests."
Members who desire appointment to a committee should make application through
the committee chairman or the executive secretary on the prescribed form.
Chairmen, Vice Chairmen and Subcommittee Chairmen
Chairmen, vice chairmen and subcommittee chairmen must hold the grade of
Member in the Association, and be in active service of their respective companies or
organizations (not retired).
The term of chairman and vice chairman shall be three years in each position, and
will normally start at the beginning of the Association year, at the close of an annual
meeting. However, the term of office of vice chairman will be shorter if he is appointed
to fill a vacancy in the position of vice chairman. Chairmen completing their three-year
term shall recommend to the Board Committee on Personnel nominees for the chair-
manship and vice chairmanship, with assurance of acceptances from such nominees if
appointed by the Board Committee. The term of office of subcommittee chairman may
be more than three years.
In the event of a vacancy in the office of chairman, the office sha'll be filled by the
vice chairman, subject to the approval of the Board Committee on Personnel. The three-
year term of office of the chairman so approved, or of a new appointee shall be con-
sidered as having started as of the end of the immediately preceding convention if the
appointment is made prior to the time the committee's report is due in the secretary's
office, and as becoming effective as of the end of the next convention if the appointment
is made after the committee's report is due in the secretary's office.
Information for Committees 1341
In the event of a vacancy in the office of vice chairman, it shall be the duty of thi-
Board Committee on Personnel to fill the vacancy. The term of office of the vice chair-
man so appointed shall be considered as having started as of the end of the immediately
preceding convention if the appointment is made prior to the time the committee's report
is due in the secretary's office, and as becoming effective as of the end of the next
convention if the appointment is made after the committee's report is due in the secre-
tary's office.
Committee Secretary
Any chairman may appoint a secretary with duties usually encompassed by such
office.
Size of Committees*
The total membership of any committee shall be limited to 70, including Members,
Associates, and Junior Members, but not counting retired members, even though gain-
fully employed.
In determining the membership of a committee, railroads having no more than 50
Association members may have not more than 2 members on any committee ; railroads
having 51 to 100 members may have not more than 3 members on any committee;
railroads having more than 100 members may have not more than 4 members on any
committee.
No college, university or other institution of learning shall have more than 2 mem-
bers on any committee, and no manufacturer or supply company or other organization
shall have more than 1 Member or Associate member on any committee.
Retired Members
Members who have retired from active service under normal retirement procedure,
regardless of whether they undertake other employment (other than sales to the rail-
roads), may serve on committees and subcommittees a maximum of three years fol-
lowing retirement, but cannot hold the office of chairman, vice chairman, or subcom-
mittee chairman, and have no voting rights. Their presence on the committee roster
shall not be counted in the application of the rules affecting the total number of mem-
bers permitted on committees, the number of associates permitted on a committee, or
the rules having bearing upon the number of members on committees permitted from
any railroad, supply company, or other organization. Following termination of their
service on committees, retired members may continue to attend committee meetings as
"visitors" subject to the approval of the committee chairman involved.
Associate Members*
No company will be permitted to have more than one Associate member on ID)
committee, and company representation shall not necessarily be continuing. However,
in the event that a railroad member on a committee becomes associated with a manu-
facturer or supply company (in other than a sales capacity) after retirement from
railroad service on pension, and thus automatically becomes an Associate member, be
shall not be deprived of membership on the committee during the period of three yean,
M^ applying any of the rules under tht headings: Size of Committees and Ass.<iaie Memben,
see paragraph under heading "Retired Members." and third last paragraph under heading Mcmtx-r
Emeritus."
1342 Information for Committees
following his retirement from railroad service. As regards the voting rights of Associate
Members on committees, see "Voting in Committees."
The membership of Associates on a committee shall be limited to 10 percent of
the total membership of the committee. Committees with Associates in excess of 10
percent of their total membership are not required to reduce the number of Associates
immediately for the purpose of complying with this rule, but no Associates may be
added as long as the proportion of Associates exceeds 10 percent, except as may be
occasioned by the exception provided in the preceding paragraph or the exceptions set
forth under "Retired Members" and "Member Emeritus."
Member Emeritus
This class of committee membership was established in 1953 in order to permit
recognition of long-sustained meritorious service of committee members to committees,
following their retirement and the termination of their regular membership on committees.
To be eligible for this honor, a member must be in good standing in the Association
as a Member, Honorary Member, Associate, or Life Member, and must have:
(a) Retired under normal retirement procedure from active service in the company
with which he has been connected.
(b) Served on the committee at least 10 years. (Executive secretary's office can
furnish service record on any retired committee member.)
(c) Resigned from the committee or have been removed from the committee under
the rule that retired members can remain on a committee only three years following
the date of their retirement.
(d) Rendered outstanding service to the committee over a period of years.
(e) Been proposed by at least five committee members in writing and voted the
honor by a two-thirds affirmative letter ballot of all members of the committee, includ-
ing Associates, retired members and Junior Members — -the letter ballots to be returnable
to the executive secretary's office within 60 days. (Secretary's office can furnish sample
type (letter ballot).
The number of such members permitted on any committee will be limited to five.
Furthermore, his election as Member Emeritus must be affirmed by the Board Com-
mittee on Personnel through the executive secretary's office.
Having been elected as Member Emeritus, the member's name will continue to appear
on the roster of the committee, and he will have all the rights and privileges of members
except that of voting (i.e., can serve on subcommittees, should he desire, in order that
the committee might benefit from his knowledge and experience) . Likewise, his name
will continue to be shown in the printed roster of the committee appearing in the Bulle-
tins of the Association, and in the Assignments Pamphlet, in each case suitably
designated as Member Emeritus. However, the names of Members Emeritus will not be
designated by an "E" or otherwise in the alphabetical listing, railroad listing, Honorary
Member listing, or Life Member listing in the March Bulletin.
Members Emeritus will not be counted in the application of the rules affecting the
total number of members permitted on committees, the number of associates permitted
on a committee, the rules having bearing upon the number of members on committees
permitted from any railroad, supply company, or other organization, or the number
of years that a retired member may serve on a committee. Any Emeritus title will
terminate with the death of the recipient, or in the event of the termination of his mem-
bership in the Association for other reasons.
Information for Committees
Nothing in these rules will prevent extending the honor of Member Emeritus to a
retired committee member who may have taken up, or who subsequent!) takes up, other
employment following his official retirement.
Tangible evidence of this honor will be given to those so named in the form of
a pocket card, similar in form to a railroad pass, signed and sent out by the committee
chairmen.
"Guests" and "Visitors"
The previously stated rule under Committee Personnel Reorganized Annually, that
"no additions to the personnel of committees will be made during the year following Un-
official closing of committee rosters, October 1, except as provided for under the rules
applying to Guests," does not preclude the attendance at committee meetings of other
members of the Association, and non-members of the Association, as "Visitors,"' with the
approval of committee chairmen.
If there are vacancies on a committee roster after the official closing of committee
rosters on October 1, (i.e., less than 70), or if vacancies occur during the following year,
or are definitely in prospect at the end of that year, Association members (including
Junior members), with the approval of committee chairmen and the Board Committee
on Personnel, can be appointed as "guests" of that committee. As such, they may attend
committee meetings and participate in the committee's activities, unofficially, looking
to becoming regularly assigned members at the beginning of the next Association year
(March) .
"Guests" must always be designated as such on the rosters maintained by the com-
mittees and the secretary's office, but their names will not appear in published com-
mittee or subcommittee reports. Creation of this class of committee affiliation is not
intended to increase the size of any committee beyond the 70 maximum set by the Board,
but rather to make it possible to add to "short" rosters between official roster changes
(Furthermore, one need not be either a "regular member" or a "guest" of a com-
mittee to attend its meetings from time to time. With the approval of the committee
chairman, who must be consulted as regards any specific meeting, any AREA member
(including Junior Members), or any non-member may sit in on the meeting as a
"visitor", listen to all deliberations and participate in discussions.
Service on More Than One Committee
No member of the Association shall serve on more than one committee, except that
a member may serve on two committees if one or both of the committees are among the
following: Committee 3 — Ties; Committee 7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles; Committee
17 — Wood Preservation; Committee 20 — Contract Forms; Committee 24 Cooperative
Relations with Universities; Committee 25 — Waterways and Harbors; Committee 28 —
Clearances; Committee 29 — Waterproofing; Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge St
and the Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail
COMMITTEE ORGANIZATION AND PROCED1 Kl
Organizing the Committees
The new assignments and personnel of committees shall become effective with Un-
close of the annual meeting in March. However, the pamphlet containing this in-
tion is issued not later than January 1 in order that committee- ma\ be reorganized
immediately after January 1 for the new year's work, if reorganization has not already
1344 Information for Committees
been effected. Usually this information will be available to the chairmen in tentative
form at least 30 days in advance of publication.
It is the duty of the committee chairman to notify new members promptly of their
appointment and to notify old members of their reappointment or release. It is also his
duty to reorganize the subcommittees without delay. However, in the Association year
in which his term as chairman expires, he should call on his successor for advice and
assistance in this regard.
Subcommittees
In general, the committees are organized to conduct their work by the appointment
of one subcommittee for each subject assignment. If deemed advisable, any subject may
be subdivided into several parts and a separate subcommittee assigned to each part.
Committees may find it of advantage to create a subcommittee on personnel.
Subcommittee chairmen should make a report on the status of their work at each
committee meeting. If they cannot be present at any meeting, they should submit such
report to the chairman in writing, to be read to the meeting, or should arrange for
some member of their subcommittee, or of the AAR research staff to report for the
subcommittee. This rule should be followed even though the subcommittee has little or
nothing to report at any particular meeting.
Organization Charts
The chairman shall furnish the executive secretary of the Association two copies of
the organization chart (schedule of subcommittee assignments and personnel) of his
committee, and shall advise him currently of any subsequent revisions thereof. This chart
may be in the form regularly used by committees, but should not be in the form of a
blueprint, on which it is difficult to make corrections. White prints are acceptable. These
charts should be in the hands of the executive secretary by February 1, and should be
prepared with the greatest care to insure the accuracy of initials and names.
The names of "guest" members on committees, if any, (not "visitors") should appear
on the charts, but should be clearly designated as such. These names may be arranged
either alphabetically among the members or grouped at the bottom of the chart as
desired by the various committees. Names of "visitors" should not appear on or be
subsequently added to these charts. Charts should also list (a) names of all committee
members who are collaborators with other AREA committees, and (b) separately, the
names of all non-members of the committee who are collaborators from other AREA
committees and other organizations.
Handbook for Committee Chairmen
For the assistance and guidance of committee chairmen in the conduct of their
committee work, the Association has published a small mimeographed "Handbook for
Committee Chairmen", which contains the following material:
Procedures that Can Be Adopted by Committee Chairmen to Stimulate the
Most Eeffective Committee Work.
Procedures Designed to Expedite the Conduct of Committee Meetings,
Stimulate Greater Interest in Them, and Produce the Most Effective Results.
Report of a Well Conducted Committee Meeting.
Copies of this handbook are available to committee chairmen from the executive
secretary's office.
Information for Committees 1345
Voting in Committees
Voting in committees and subcommittees on all Association matters, except as may
be of a social nature, or on ballots for Member Emeritus of the committee, shall be the
prerogative of active Members only; not retired Members, Associates, or Jutu
COMMITTEE AND SUBCOMMITTEK M II. TINGS
Location and Number
Most committees find it possible to conduct their work effectively with a maximum
of three meetings each year. While these meetings can be held at any time to fit in best
with the work of each committee, the trend in recent years has been for committees to
hold their first (organization) meeting each year in January or February in order to
get an early start on their new year's work, and not wait until after the annual con-
vention in March.
Subcommittee meetings can likewise be held whenever desired, either independent
of full committee meetings or in conjunction therewith. The latter plan has the advan-
tage of minimizing travel time and possibly total time away from members' offices.
Where subcommittee meetings are held in conjunction with general committee meetings,
they may be held immediately before or after such meetings, or during such meetings
if desirable, in recesses specifically called by the committee chairman for this purpose.
Committee meetings or subcommittee meetings should be held at points most
convenient to the majority of members in order to hold down traveling time and expense,
except that meetings may be held elsewhere to permit inspections important to the work
of the committee or subcommittee. Meetings should be held where no charge is made
for meeting rooms, chairmen assuring themselves in this regard before making definite
commitments, since the Association has no funds to defray meeting room costs.*
Notices and Minutes
Committee chairmen shall send out, or arrange to have sent out. well in advance
of meetings, copies of notices of all committee meetings to both committee member-
and collaborators. Two copies of all such notices should be sent to the secretary's office
as early as possible for publication of meeting dates and places in the AREA News. In
this latter regard, and especially if mailing of official notices is to be delayed, chairmen
should give the secretary's office advance information about meetings, if possible. It
should be kept in mind that the deadline for material for any issue of the News is the
twentieth day of the month immediately preceding the date of issue.
Meeting notices, generally, should include or be accompanied by an agenda, prefei
ably in timetable order, for the benefit of any members who may not be able to be in
attendance the full time of any meeting. They should also include as much information
as possible relative to any inspection trips or other features planned.
Minutes of all committee meetings should be prepared as soon as possible following
meetings, and copies should be sent to all committee members and collaborators — with
two copies to the secretary's office.
•Conference Room 1218 at Association headquarter- In Chicago, which will accommodate 20 to
30 people, is available for committee and subcommittee meeting to the oxtrnt thai it h;is tint already
been committed for other use. Arran«ement.s for the use of this room should be made through the
secretary's office.
II Information for Committees
Reporting on Inspection Trips
In order that highlights of all committee inspection trips may be published in the
News, committee chairmen should send detailed information concerning such trips to the
secretary's office, or arrange to have such information sent, as soon as possible after the
completion of such trips, keeping in mind that the deadline for news to appear in any
issue of the News is the twentieth day of the month preceding the date of issue.
Included among details furnished should be the name of the host or hosts (com-
panies or company representatives) on the occasion, the facilities or operations observed,
and separately, the number of members and gue-ts who participated.
COLLABORATION
Between AREA Committees and with AAR Committees
Subjects, the nature of which clearly indicates the possibility of overlapping interest
of two or more AREA committees, or the interest of committees of other groups with
which the Association has agreed to collaborate, carry an appended clause reading:
"collaborating with " It is the duty of the chairmen of sub-
committees having an assignment carrying this instruction to take the initiative in effect-
ing such collaboration — by arranging for the appointment of a representative of the
other interested group, should such be mutually decided as desirable, or by setting up
an arrangement whereby the collaborating group will review and criticize any reports
submitted to it. If a representative or collaborator is appointed, he should be kept fully
advised of all activity of the subcommittee involved. Regardless of whether the assign-
ment specifically mentions collaboration, committees should be on the alert to obtain
the advice and assistance of other AREA committees or interested groups in dealing with
any subject that imposes any questions of possible overlapping interest or responsibility.
The reports of subcommittees involving collaboration should be submitted to col-
laborators or collaborating groups whether they are for information only or involve
specifications or recommended practice, and should be submitted as far in advance of
filing date as possible. If they cannot be submitted prior to the committee's filing date
for any reason, they should be submitted as soon thereafter as possible, and in any
event prior to the annuall meeting, so that if the collaborators, or the groups they repre-
sent, desire to comment thereon or to take exception thereto in any respect, such can
be done in writing to the committee chairman or subcommittee chairman involved prior
to the annual meeting, or in written or oral form at the annual meeting.
A committee undertaking revision of its Manual chapter should request collaboration
of any committee that participated in the original development and adoption of the
material under revision. The executive secretary of the Association will provide informa-
tion concerning such previous collaboration.
If an AREA committee or subcommittee is asked to collaborate with another AREA
committee, or with committees of any of the sections or divisions of the AAR, it shall
appoint a representative to implement this collaboration, if such is mutually decided as
desirable, or it should agree, without a specific collaborator, to review and criticize any
reports submitted to it. Committee members appointed to collaborate with any other
AREA or AAR committees should report currently to their own committees on any
matters of interest resulting from the collaboration.
The names of all collaborators, whether to or from a committee, should be shown
separately on the committee's organization chart, as set forth under "Organization
Chart,"
Information for Committees 1347
With Other Organizations
Many AREA committees appoint from their membership representatives to serve
as collaborators on committees of the American Standards Association, the American
Society for Testing Materials, the American Concrete Institute, or other outside organ-
izations, these representatives acting either directly for the AREA committees or in behalf
of the Association of American Railroads which may hold membership in the organ-
izations involved. In all such cases, representation in these other organizations, either
initially or otherwise, is handled through the AREA executive secretary's office. Thus
AREA committee nominations for representatives on these outside committees, or for
changes in representatives, are made through the executive secretary's office, which trans-
mits the nominations to the organizations, secures their acceptance, notifies those inter-
ested, and makes official record thereof.
Beyond this point the representatives carry on their collaboration independent of
the executive secretary's office, but each AREA committee should keep on its organiza-
tion chart a record of all of the organizations with which it collaborates, and the
names of its collaborators, as set forth under "Organization Chart''.
Committee members appointed to collaborate with other organizations should report
currently to their own committees on any matters of interest resulting from tin-
collaboration.
WORK OF THE COMMITTEES
Objectives
The objectives of the Association are advanced through the work of the committees
in two ways — (1) the development of useful information pertinent to their assignments
to be presented to the Association "as information," and (2) the formulation of recom-
mended practices to be submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual.
Planning the Work
In pursuing the work on any assignment, the first step is necessarily one of fact
finding, including (a) a study of available literature on the subject, particularly reports
of previous investigations, (b) a compilation of current practice, especially recent changes
in practice, and (c) resort to original tests or experimentation, after a canvass of all
other sources of information indicates that research work is necessary.
Collection of Data
Committees are privileged to obtain data or information in any proper way. If
desired, the executive secretary will mail circulars of inquiry, or questionnaires, prepared
by committees. Where sufficient information can be secured from members of the com-
mittee, they alone should receive letters of inquiry or questionnaires. Where a bro
representation of railroads is necessary or desirable, such letters of inquiry <>r question-
naires may be sent to the appropriate officer within the engineering and maintenance
of way departments of selected additional roads or of all \\K Member Roads.
Only in special cases should communications of any kind be sent to officers in other
than the Engineering and Maintenance of Way Departments (presidents or chief executive
officers, chief operating officers, chief mechanical officers, etc.), and then only over the
signature of, or with the explicit permission of, the heads of the appropriate .\\K
department, division or section, such to be arranged for through the executive
Offb e
1348 Information for Committees
Circulars of inquiry or questionnaires should be brief and concise; the questions
contained therein should be specific and pertinent, and not of such general or involved
character as to preclude the possibility of obtaining satisfactory and prompt response;
should specify to whom answers are to be sent; and should be furnished in duplicate
so that a copy can be retained by persons replying.
Research
It is primarily the responsibility of Subcommittee A of each committee to bring
together recommendations for further study and research on the part of the committee,
based upon suggestions received from other members of the Association, or as the result
of its own observations within or without the railroad industry. Any recommendations
for assignments in the following year which call for research appropriations should be
processed with the committee early in the Association year, beginning with the close
of the annual meeting in March, in order that any proposal for research approved by
the committee, can be in the hands of the director of engineering research, AAR, by
July 1, with supporting data, as outlined in the following paragraph.
All recommendations for research appropriations, with supporting data must be in
the hands of the director of engineering research, with copy to the executive secretary,
AREA, by Jully 1. These recommendations must be accompanied by a supporting state-
ment setting forth: (a) the nature of the information sought; (b) how the railroads are
adversely affected by the lack of this information; (c) the estimated cost of the inves-
tigation; (d) the estimated time to complete the work; (e) the basis for assuming that
the investigation will produce the data desired; and (f) an estimate of the savings to be
realized or other advantages to accrue from the successful completion of the investigation.
A request for funds to continue or complete an investigation shall include also a state-
ment of the results obtained to date.
Maintaining Manual Up to Date
Each committee shall critically review the material in its chapter of the Manual at
such intervals as to insure that it is kept up to date. It shall resubmit all Manual
material for revision or reapproval at intervals of not more than 10 years. This rule,
however, is not intended to encourage the reapproval of documents only at 10-year
intervals. On the contrary, and especially since each document in the Manuail carries a
reapproval line under its heading, committees are urged to recommend the reapproval
of documents each time that revisions (major or minor) are proposed, using some such
wording as "Reapprove with the following revisions". If such reapproval is not requested
specifically when revisions are recommended, the document will continue to carry its
previous adoption or reapproval line.
However, since two or more sheets must be issued in a Supplement every time a
document is reapproved without revisions, to correct the document date and the contents
page or pages, it is recommended that, in the interest of avoiding unnecessary printing
costs, documents which do not require revisions should not be offered for reapproval
at intervals of less than 8 or 10 years.
Group Revisions in Specific Years
While it is a healthy situation for committees to be constantly on the alert to
improve their respective documents in the Manual, and while some revisions in Manual
material will be of a character that will require that they be made at the earliest possible
Information for Committees 1 340
date, many changes will be of an editorial or less important character and will not
demand that they be made immediately.
Accordingly, in the interest of economy, committees should, so far as possible,
group their revisions in any specific document, or anywhere in their respective chapters,
looking to submitting them as a group at intervals of two or three years or more, rather
than separately year after year — thus avoiding the necessity for reissuing the same Manual
pages, including contents pages, in successive years, to the greatest extent possible.
NATURE AND PREPARATION OF REPORTS
Form of Report
It is important that committee reports be prepared in accordance with the following
instructions pertaining thereto, and the StyleStandards for committee reports, as detailed
on following pages in this pamphlet.
Reports on All Assignments Not Necessary
Committees should pursue their investigations on all assignments but are expected to
present progress or final reports for publication only on assignments with respect to
which pertinent information has been developed.
Reports on Assignment A should not be submitted for publication.
Reports on Assignment A
In the case of Assignment A — Recommendations for further study and research, two
reports on recommendations shall be made to the committee each year; (1) early in the
Association year with respect to any proposed new assignments involving appropriations
for the conduct of research work, as set forth in detail under "Research", on page 17;
and (2) late in the summer or early fall, covering recommendations with respect to new
assignments for study which do not call for research appropriations. This latter report
should also include recommendations as to whether any existing assignments can be, or
should be, discontinued. Neither of the reports on Assignment A will be presented in the
Bulletins of the Association, or orally at conventions.
Nature of Report
Whether the report on any particular assignment should take the form of "informa-
tion" or a "recommended practice," depends largely on the nature of the assignment.
Some assignments will be fulfilled completely by the presentation of information; others
call for information in support of appended recommendations that are submitted for
adoption. In still other cases, the primary objective is a comprehensive statement of
recommended practices, but the development of these recommended practices may entail
investigation or research work, the results of which are of such importance as to warrant
their presentation as information prior to the submission of the recommendations. In
some cases, it may be advisable to submit materiail in the form of recommended practice,
but as information only, with a view to inviting suggestions and criticism that may serve
as the basis for revisions prior to the resubmission of the material for adoption it B
later date. This, however, is not mandatory.
When the work has been completed on am assignment, the committee should request
of the Board Committee on Outline of Work that the assignment be discontinued. Its
last report on such an assignment should be designated as "final report" only when the
1350 Information for Committees
committee does not contemplate further study of the subject in the near or foreseeable
future ; otherwise, the report should be designated as a "progress report", with the recom-
mendation that the subject be discontinued until there are further developments.
Writing of Committee Reports*
Many progress or finail reports, whether based on research or other investigation,
best lend themselves to written presentation in orderly sequence or chronological arrange-
ment, ending with any conclusions or recommendations which may have been arrived at.
However, in most cases, and especially in the case of long reports, to conserve the time
of members who may or may not be interested in the details of the study involved, it is
recommended that reports be introduced with a brief highlight summary statement
of the background, purpose and extent of the study, as may be desirable, and including
a synopsis of any conclusions, recommendations or other results — this flatter material
to supplement a more detailed presentation elsewhere in the reports.
Reports of information, supplementing previous reports of progress, should make
reference to the previous reports by Proceedings volumes, year and page number, and
may include a brief review of material previously presented, but should avoid extended
repetition of such material.
Use of Trade Names
Committee reports which are based upon physical research or field tests carried out
by or through the research staff of the Engineering Division, AAR, may use trade names
or manufacturers' names in referring to products, machines, devices or processes under
test, in accordance with rules in effect with the AAR Engineering Division research staff.
No other committee reports, however, shalll contain the trade names of products, machines,
devices or processes, nor the names of manufacturers, in either text or cut captions, unless
in each instance approval is secured from the Board Committee on Publications prior
to the publication of the reports. To seek such approval, a committee must submit five
copies of the report in question to the executive secretary's office, for transmission to the
members of the Board Committee, six weeks prior to the scheduled filing date of the
report. If time does not permit a ruling upon the request of the committee prior to the
publication date of the report in question, the report of the committee must either be
altered to eliminate the trade names or terms involved, or be withdrawn, at the discre-
tion of the committee which prepared it.
Trade or manufacturers' names are not to be used anywhere in the Manual of Rec-
ommended Practice, the Portfolio of Trackwork Plans, the Handbook of Instructions for
Care and Operation of Maintenance of Way Equipment, or other comparable publications
of the Association.
Illustrations in Committee Reports
Committees may use illustrations within their reports, both photographs and line
drawings, to the extent necessary to enhance the value of their reports, or to preclude
detailed descriptions or the presentation of detailed data which would otherwise be
required. For the physical requirements of such illustrations, see "Illustrations" under
Style Standards. No illus! rations, within themselves, shall show trade or manufacturers'
names; neither shall the captions for such illustrations use trade or manufacturers' names,
without prior approval on the part of the Board Committee on Publications, as is set
forth under "Use of Trade Names".
See also Style Standards for Committee Reports.
Information for Committees 1351
Nature of Manual Material*
The material adopted by the Association for publication in the Manual shall be
considered Recommended Practice, but shall not be binding on the members. Recom-
mended Practice, as defined by the Board of Direction (May 20, 1936) is a material,
device, plan, specification or practice recommended to the railways for use as required,
either exactly as presented or with such modifications as may be necessary or desirable
to meet the needs of individual railways, but in either event, with a view to promoting
efficiency or economy, or both, in the location, construction, operation or maintenance
of railways.
Printing of Manual Material*
Material offered for adoption and publication in the Manual, except as noted herein,
should be submitted in full, regardless of its publication in previous years, unless the
material in question appeared in substantially identical form not more than one year
before being submitted for adoption. Such material shall appear in the report of the
committee that is published not less than 30 days before the annual meeting at which
it is to be presented. Recommended revisions of Manual material, if extensive, shall
include only the proposed material, which shall be printed in full in the report of the com-
mittee. Manual material recommended for reapproval, or for deletion, shall be presented
by title and page reference only. Likewise, plans, specifications or other documents of
other organizations recommended for adoption by the AREA shall be presented by title
and serial designation only, e.g., current ASTM specifications, designation D 17.
When entirely new material is offered for inclusion in the Manual, the committee
sponsoring it should state specifically in its report the exact location the material is to
have in the Manual.
Letter Ballot Required of Committee*
Any action recommended by a committee with respect to the adoption, revision,
reapproval or withdrawal of Manual material must have received prior endorsement
by the committee in the form of an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the voting mem-
bership of the committee, such vote to be taken by letter ballot. Associates, Junior
members, Members Emeritus, and retired members on a committee are not entitled to
vote. Thus, it is imperative that committee members promptly consider and vote on all
letter ballots, seeking the advice of other committee members or specifically qualified
officers on their own roads if in doubt as to whether to vote for or against a proposal.
If a member votes in the negative on any Manual proposal, it is encumbent upon
him to state the reason or reasons therefor.
PUBLICATION OF REPORTS
Dates for Filing Complete Committee Reports
To insure the orderly publication of the reports in the four winter Bulletins of the
Association — November-February, incl. — in accordance with a pmlotermined schedule, it
is necessary that chairmen file complete reports with the executive secretary of the Asso-
ciation on or before the dates specified in the Committee Assignments for Study and
Research pamphlet.
* Same applies to Portfolio of Track work Plans.
1352 Information for Committees
Reports to be published in the June-July and September-October issues of the Bulle-
tin shall be submitted in the same manner by committee chairmen, or by members of the
AAR research staff in their behalf, as other reports, on a schedule worked out with the
secretary's office.
The manuscript of the report must be furnished in duplicate, preferably double spaced.
Piecemeal filing of reports by subcommittee chairmen is permissible only under special
arrangement (in writing) with the executive secretary of the Association.
The regular annual reports of committees — to appear in the winter Bulletins of the
Association — must in each case include an introductory statement, or committee chair-
man's report, embodying the personnel and list of assignments of the committee, as set
forth under Style Standards for Committee Reports, pages 24 to 26, incl.
Portrait Photographs of Committee Chairmen
During his first year as chairman, each chairman must furnish the secretary's office
a portrait photograph of himself to be used with the reports of his committee as pub-
lished in the Bulletins and Proceedings while he is chairman. If this has not been done
prior to the filing of the committee's report, it must be done at that time. The photograph
furnished need be of no special size, but should be black and white, clear, and an acceptable
likeness of the chairman. These photographs will be returned to chairmen upon request.
PRESENTATION OF REPORTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS
Presentation of Reports
Reports offered as information should be presented by title or by a brief highlight
outline of the contents. Material submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual*
may be presented by reading the title and subtitles, but the presiding officer may, upon
request, authorize the reading of specific portions of the material being offered.
Since both the degree of effectiveness with which a report is received by those
assembled in annual convention, and the accuracy with which it can be reported in the
Proceedings, depend upon the Clarity with which the oral presentation is made to the
meeting, it is desirable that committee members write out and read their presentations,
and that they speak directly and distinctly into the microphone at the rostrum, raising
or lowering the microphone as may be necessary to that end. In the event that written
presentations are read, a copy of such presentations should be given to the executive
secretary or to the convention reporter before the speaker leaves the rostrum.
Visual Presentations
The use of illustrations in the form of slides, motion pictures, etc., as a part of or in
conjunction with committee presentations, whether reports or special features, shall be
governed by the following rule:
Films** produced by supply companies, manufacturers, and supply organizations
depicting their products or services in any form are not to be used in connection with
committee presentations, either supplementing committee reports or as special features,
at annual meetings, and the use of trade association films is not encouraged. However,
under special conditions, where a committee desires to use a trade association film in
* Same applies to Portfolio of Trackwork Plans.
** Wherever the word "film" is used, it applies as well to slides and any other form of visual
presentation.
Information for Committees 1353
connection with its presentation, the matter must be referred to the Board Committee
on Publications for approval, through the executive secretary's office, by January 1 of
the year inquestion, in order that a ruling may be secured prior to the publication of the
convention program in the AREA News. Trade association films to be considered under
this rule must be of an educational, rather than of a sales-promotion type, mu-t make
no direct or indirect comparisons with other products or services, and may make refer-
ence to the associations which produced them in only an innocuous way.
Oral Discussions
Comments on or criticisms of any report may be offered from the floor. When
necessary to insure accuracy, or upon request, the speaker's remarks will be submitted
to him in writing before publication in the Proceedings, for the correction of diction,
misstatements, and errors of reporting, but not for the elimination of remarks.
Written Discussions
Written discussions of published reports will be transmitted to the chairman of the
interested committee who will read or present them by title or in abstract at the con-
vention. Written discussions will be published in the Proceedings as a part of the
discussion of the committee reports.
Action on Reports
No formal action is to be taken by the convention on material submitted a-
information, whether in the form of a progress or final report.
Action on material submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual will be one
of the following:
(a) Adoption as a whole as presented.
(b) Affirmative action on the amendment of a part or parts of the material pre-
sented, followed by adoption as a whole as amended.
(c) Adoption of a part, complete in itself, and referring the remainder back to the
committee for further consideration.
(d) Recommittal with or without instructions.
Note. — An amendment which affects underlying principles, if adopted, shall <>!' itsell
constitute a recommittal of such part of the report as the committee considers affected.
The Chair will decline to entertain amendments which in his opinion are primaril)
a matter of editing.
MISCELLANEOUS
Memoirs
The Association has developed a complete set of rules with reaped t<> memoirs in
committee reports or elsewhere in its publications, covering the scope, preparation and
presentation of such memoirs. Copy of these rules, as well as the Association servia
record of any deceased member, can be secured from the executive secretary's offio
1354 Information for Committees
Letter Ballot of Membership
When and as required between annual meetings, recommendations for the adoption,
deletion, revision or reapproval of Manual material shall be submitted to letter ballot
of the Members of the Association under the following limitations:
(a) That the letter ballot shall be taken only after the Board of Direction
has recognized the necessity for such emergency action, and
(b) That the propositions submitted by the committee shall have the approval
of a special committee of the Board of Direction appointed by the President for
that purpose, both as to the substance of the material offered and also as to the
circumstances attending the consideration of the material by the committee.
The Board of Direction, acting under the provisions of paragraphs 6 (a) and 11 of
Article VII of the AREA constitution, has the authority to amend, delete or revise
Manual material at any time, subject to later confirmation or rejection by the member-
ship, submission to the membership to be effected either by means of a letter ballot
immediately following such Board action, or by a motion presented at the annual
meeting.
Review by Association of American Railroads*
All material adopted for publication in the Manual and all recommendations for the
revision or withdrawal of Manual material shall be referred to the vice president, Opera-
tions and Maintenance Department, Association of American Railroads, for review,
before distribution is made thereof to holders or purchasers of the Manual, or parts
thereof.
Publication and Distribution of Annual Supplement to Manual*
Revisions of or additions to the Manual authorized by action at each convention
will be published annually in the form of loose-leaf sheets which will be made available
to all holders of the Manual. These supplemental sheets will be accompanied by instruc-
tions for insertion of the new sheets and the withdrawal of sheets that have been
superseded, as well as those sheets that have been withdrawn by action of the
Association.
In order that committee members who have purchased individual Chapters of the
Manual in connection with their committee work may keep these separate Chapters up
to date, the secretary's office will make available to them annually, through their com-
mittee chairmen, those supplement sheets required to this end.
Publication of Abstracts by Technical Journals
The following rules will govern the releasing of material for publication in technical
journals:
Committee reports to be presented at an annual meeting will not be released for
publication until after presentation to the annual meeting. Special articles, contributed
by members and others, on which no action by the Association is necessary, will be
released for publication in technical journals only after issuance in a Bulletin; provided,
application therefor is made in writing and proper credit is given the Association, authors
or committees presenting such material.
Same applies to Portfolio of Trackwork Plans.
INDEX OF PROCEEDINGS, VOL. 59, 1958
Accounting, ICC classifications, revisions
and interpretations, Tin, 1 1 3 1
Aggregates, lightweight, for concrete, 678,
1188
Agreement forms, electric power lines,
parallel occupancy "i" right-of-way
by, 135, L126
—highway railway grade separation
structures for public mads, construc-
tion and maintenance <>r, 143, 11 -7
— insurance provisions recommended for
various, in which federal-aid highway
funds arc eligible to participate, 139,
1128
— subsurface rights to mine under rail-
way miscellaneous physical property,
l.asc for, 430, 1126
Air content Of plastic concrete, measure-
ment of, 683, 1188
AmOSS, Martin, panel discussion <>n bump
yards, 1139
Annual luncheon, 1218
Annual meeting, closing business, 1294
— invocation, 1094
— opening- session, 1093
— program of, 1089
Arn, YV. <;., memoir, 1277
Asphalt-treated ballast. 826, 1286
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Pe, asphalt-
treated ballast tests, 826, 1286
— longitudinal forces in ballasted-deck pile
trestles, 557, 558, 1185, 1187
— manganese crossing test, 1010, 1279
Automotive vehicles, work equipment, re-
placement basis, 653, 1239
Aydelott, '1. B., address maintenance or
deferred maintenance, 1219
Baker, L. <>., roadbed vegetation control
in Montana, 291
Ballast, research project on, progress re-
port. 817, 1286
special types, asphalt treated, 826, L286
sub. specifications, 835. 1286
Baltimore and Ohio Chicago Terminal,
manganese crossing test, 1010, 127:1
Bardwell, R. <>., address, radioactivity and
railroads, 1168
Barriger, John \\\. address, join! facilities
revisited, 1151
mer and Lake Brie, rail, laid with
tight joints, service test, 1075, 12^2
Bibliography, freight station Improve-
ments, 399, 1 150
1 See Bridges, steel 1
i See Records and Accounts >
i See Waterways and 1 [a rbi
Bitner, M. •'.. address, methods and cost
control in the maintenance of waj
department, 1249
Blair, T. A., honorary membership certi-
ficate presented, 1 1 1 ■">
Blanks, Robert 1-'.. address, the reinforced
concrete research council, L189
Boilers, acid cleaning of, 124, 1167
1 '.ridge floors, distribution of live load In,
557, 1186
Bridge frames, stress distribution In,
floorbeam hangers, model railway
truss bridge, 703, 1 195
Bridge slabs, reinforced concrete, field in-
vestigation of, 216, 558, 1 186
— laboratory tests of, L33, 558, 1186
Bridge stringers, quarter-scale green and
dry southern pine, fatigue resistance
of, 363, 1180
Bridges, concrete and reinforced concrete,
and other structures, specifications,
revisions, 687, 1189
-continuous, specifications for the design
of, 705, 1196
— steel and iron, rules for rating existing
specifications, revisions, 701, lilt.".
— steel, bibliography and technical ex-
planation of various requirements, 704,
i 196
— specifications, effect Of fatigue in high-
strength steels on, 702, 1191
— specifications, revisions, 700, 1195
— wood, trestles, revisions of plans for,
7) 1, 1179
Brine drippings, prevention of damage
from to track structure, 1018, 1280
Buildings, report^and discussion, 183, 1233
— for tools, equipment, personnel, 185,
123 4
— wind loading on railway, 185, 12::::
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, tests of
full-size concrete bridge slabs. 133,
558, 1186
Burley, P. B., greetings from Electrical
Section, 1105
Burris, T. P., address, observations of
continuous welded rail in France,
127,7
— address. Observations Oil track mainte-
nance in Prance and Germany, 1211
Camp cars and trailers, relative economy
in housing maintenance forct
1242
Car reporting, yard-to-yard, 894, 1149
<'ars, freight, facilities for cleaning and
conditioning for commodity loading.
165, 1138
motor-, push and trailers, specifications,
r.\ isions, 680, I
< 'at hoi be protection of pipe lines and steel
storage tanks, 121, 11 66
( 'hemic;, 1 control of 1 egetal ion, \ \ I
search project, B61, 1287
Index
Chesapeake and Ohio, Bervice test of rail,
954, L263
< Miit-.iK' • and North Western, 78-ft rati
tests, 992
tests "ii steel truss spans, 556, 1185
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, impact
tests, concrete bridge slabs, 216, 558,
1 186
— girder spans, 1, 556, 1184
steel truss spans, 556, 1185
— service tests of joint bars, 946
Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific,
service tests of welded simulated
crossing intersections, 1076, 1283
Classification yards (See Yards, classifica-
tion)
Clearance, close, warning sign for, 816,
1286
— high and wide shipments, method of
measuring, 671, 1217
Clearance allowances, vertical and hori-
zontal movements of equipment due
to lateral play, wear and spring de-
flection, 661, 1217
Clearance requirements, freight cars on
curved and tangent track, effect of
spring travel, height of center of
gravity, and speed on, 305
Clearances, report and discussion, 655,
1215
— diagrams, structures adjacent to side
tracks, 657, 1216
— building doors, 658, 1216
— platforms, 659, 1216
— overhead bridges and other struc-
tures, 660, 1216
— requirements of the various states, 660,
1216
Closing business, 1294
Code, C. J., address, plastic flow in rail
head, 1264
College graduates, establishing suitable
programs for training and advance-
ment in railway service for, 692, 1176
— stimulate greater appreciation of rail-
way management to importance of
securing selected, 692, 1176
— stimulate greater interest in science of
transportation, 693, 1176
College students, cooperative system of
education, 696, 1177
— summer employment of, 696, 1177
Committees, information for, 1339
Concrete, lightweight aggregates for, 678,
1188
— plastic, measurement of air content of,
683, 1188
— precast, use of units in railway con-
struction, 688, 1189
— precast structural members, methods of
construction with. 688, 1189
— prestressed, use of in railway struc-
tures, 677, 1188
Concrete and mortars, methods of improv-
ing quality of, 678, 1188
Concrete and reinforced concrete railroad
bridges and other structures, specifi-
cations, revisions, 687, 1189
Concrete bridge slabs, laboratory tests of
full-size reinforced, 133, 558, 1186
—field tests of, on CB&Q, 216, 588, 1186
Concrete-timber composite decks, design,
795, 1183
Constitution, 1328
Continuous bridges, design specifications,
705, 1196
Continuous Welded Hail, report and dis-
cussion, 895, 1257
— fastenings for, 904, 1257
— laboratory tests of, 896, 1257
— observations of in France, by T. P. Bur-
ns, 1257
Contract Forms, report and discussion,
429, 1126
— (See Agreement forms)
Cooperative Relations with Universities,
report and discussion, 691, 1175
— one way in which committee is Interest-
ing students in railroading, 1178
Courts and regulatory bodies, current de-
velopments in valuation and deprecia-
tion, 736, 1133
Cost control and methods in the mainte-
nance of way departments, by M. C.
Bitner, 1249
Cramer, R. E., investigation of failures
in control-cooled rails, 907, 1262
— laboratory tests of continuous welded
rail, 896, 1257
— shelly rail studies, progress report, 975,
1263
Cross tie research, AAR-NLMA, by G. M.
Magee, 1254
Crossings, highway-railway grade, pre-
fabricated, merits and economies of,
402, 1160
— protection at existing, when changed
from multiple to single-track opera-
tion, 403, 1160
— protection recommended where one-way
traffic crosses one or more tracks,
405, 1161
— risk factor determination for different
types, 1162
— sight distances at, 404, 1161
— signals at, recommended use of, 404,
1161
Crossings, railway, plans for, 1008, 1279
— service tests of manganese castings,
1010, 1279
— service tests of simulated, 1076, 1283
Culvert pipe, reinforced concrete, specifi-
cations, revisions, 799, 1284
Culverts, concrete pipe, earth pressures
on, 799, 1284
Curvature, track, cost of, 392, 114 8
Cuts, stability of in fine sands and varved
clays, 807, 1285
D
Dampprooflng, coatings for railway struc-
tures, 602, 1225
Deere, Don U., stability of cuts in fine
sands and varved clays, 807, 1285
DeJarnette, J. C, memoir, 896, 906
Dennis, Olive W., memoir, 1147
Diesel engines versus gasoline engines in
work equipment, 647, 1238
Index
Diesel locomotives, detection and disposal
of radioactive materials In Biters of,
127, 1168
l Hesel pile hammers, 636, l 287
Drafting practices, methods of duplica-
tion, 713, 716, l 132
Drive spikes, standardization of heads for,
1008, 1278
Driveways, width of, freight houses, team
yards and produce terminals, 149,
1136
Duluth, Missabe and Iron Flange, service
t.sts of alloy rail, 955, 1 263
E
Earth materials, physical properties of,
799, 1284
Economics nt" Railway Labor, report and
discussion, 563, 1240
Economics of Railway Location and < >p-
eration, report and discussion, 391,
1146
Emergency recommendation sheet, with-
drawn from Manual. 1131
Engine wheel burns, repair of by welding,
1003
Engineering technicians, role of in the
railroad field, 697, 1177
Equipment property records, 716, 1132
Erie, rail laid tight versus normal joints,
service test, 107 1, 1 282
Essman, A. L., panel discussion on hump
yards. 1139
Faricy, W. T.. address, research lights the
way, 1108
— honorary membershi] rtiflcate pre-
sented, in:.
Federal and state regulations pertaining
to railway sanitation. 120, 1166
Fireprooflng, wood bridges and trestles.
761', 1181
Fire-retardant coatings for wood, tenta-
tive performance specifications, 794,
1181
Fire-retardant paints, building interiors,
wood bridges and trestles, 76-2, 1181
Flangeway widths ami track gage tor
diesel operation on curved track 1011,
ll'7!i
Forest products, conditioning before treat-
ment, 6Hl, 1 JL'S
Forest Products Laboratory, tests of
quarter-scale southern pine bridge
stringers, 363, 761, i L80
Foundations, spread footing, masonry,
specifications, 676, i 188
Freight cars, facilities for cleaning and
conditioning for commodity loading,
165, I1S8
Freight houses, width of driveways for,
149, 1136
Freight stations, and facilities, economics
of Improved, 399, i 150
Freight terminal facilities, LCL, revisions,
I 16, L186
Frogs, plans for, L008, I 279
Fuel oil, methods of heating to permit
economy-grade in winter, 127, 1168
Fuel oil additives, and equipment for ap-
plication, 121, 1167
Gage, track, and flangeway widths, foi
operation of diesels on curved track,
1011, 127!)
Genesee ami Wyoming, tests on steel via-
duct columns. ."..".7, 1185
Geyer, C .1.. honorary membership certi-
ficate presented, I i i ■ >
Girder spans, steel, tests id", 1, 556, 1181
Grade crossings (See Crossings, High-
way Railwaj Grade)
Creat Northern, service tests of rail, 955,
1263
— ventilation system for Cascade Tunnel,
by c. V. Guerin, 1288
Grove, C. <;., honorary membership certi-
ficate presented posthumously, 1 1 1 .">
— memoirs, 692, 1240, 1301
Guerin, '•. v.. address, ventilation system
for Cascade Tunnel on Great North-
ern, 1288
H
Harris, L. A., effect of fabricated edge
conditions on brittle fracture of struc-
tural steels, 2 I.".
Meat exchanger coils, acid cleaning of,
12 1. 116 7
Medley, Win. J., panel discussion on hump
yards, 1139
Henry, C. J., address, value of contracts
to the engineer, 1127
High-strength steel, fatigue in, effect on
current specifications for steel rail-
wax- bridges, 702, 1194
Highway traffic, one-way, crossing one or
more tracks, protection recommended,
hi:.. 1161
Highways, report and discussion, 101,
11611
Hlllman, A. B., report of treasurer, 1102
13 27
Hognestad, E., address, the reinforced
concrete research council. 1 1 mi
Honorary memberships, certificates pre-
sented, in"'
Hoover Task Force report, synopsis per-
taining to water resource develop-
ment, ."aio. 1 IBS
Howard, x. l>., executive secretary's
1 itement and report, L099, 1 ■"■'
Huffman, W, H.. address, one way Com-
mittee 21 is Interesting students In
railroading, 1 1 7^
Mump yards, factors affecting capacity,
16 2. 1138
panel discussion on. by urn. .1. Hedley,
Martin amoss, 1 ;. \\ . Miller, \ 1
man, 1 1 89
Index
[nformation Cor committees, 1339
[CC accounting classifications, revisions
and Interpretations, TJO, 1134
Illinois Central, economic value of various
sizes of rail, service test, 936, 1263
—hold-down fastenings, service test, 1054,
1281
rail joint lubrication service test, 1056,
I 282
78-ft rail, service tests and economics
of, 992
— tie plate bending-, service test, 1033,
1280
Impact and Bridge Stresses, report and
discussion, 555, 1184
—bridge, tests on CB&Q, 1, 556, 1184
— bridge,' steel truss spans, tests on NYC,
556, 1185
— bridge, steel truss spans, tests on CB
&Q, 556, 1185
— bridge, steel truss spans, tests on SP,
556, 1185
— concrete bridge slabs, 133, 558, 1186
— field investigation of, 216, 558, 1186
— live load in bridge floors, distribution,
557, 1186
— ballasted-deck pile trestles, longitudinal
forces, tests on AT&SP, SAL and
Genesee & Wyoming-, 557, 558, 1185,
1187
— viaduct columns, tests on Genesee and
Wyoming, 557, 1185
Invocation, annual meeting, 1094
Iron and Steel Structures, report and dis-
cussion, 699, 1193
Jensen, K. S., rolling load tests of joint
bars, progress report, 938
Joint bars, service tests of, 946
— wear and failures of, 938
Joint facilities revisited, by John W. Bar-
riger, 1151
K
Kannowski, Kurt, address, rail production
and rail testing in Germany, 1267
Keeney, W. D., pressure-treated timbers
in harbor structures, 551, 1159
Keller, W. M., address, teamwork in re-
search, 1116
Kimball, I.,. P., memoir, 484
EOingman, <!lenn C., railroad weed con-
trol. 843, 1287
Knapp, Dr. C. C, invocation, 1094
Labor, economics of securing from Rail-
road Retirement Board, compared to
other sources, 579, 124 2
Laffoley, L. H., memoir, 1238
Lag screws, standardization of heads for,
1008, 1278
Lahmer, J. A., memoir, 1223
Laminated timbers, preservative treat-
ment of, specifications, revisions, 605,
1227
Layng-, P. K.. memoir, 1301
Li, Shu-t'ien, service performance of con-
struction materials used completely
or partially under water in water-
front facilities, 523, 1159
Loomis, W. E., vegetation control on
Iowa roadbeds, 836, 1287
Lewis, Wayne C, fatigue resistance of
quarter-scale bridge stringers of
green and dry southern pine, 363,
761, 1180
Locomotives, electric, oil-electric, rail
cars, 392, 1148
Louisville and Nashville, hold-down fas-
tenings for tie plates, including- tie
pads, service test, 1035, 1281
— rail, laying tight with frozen joints,
service test, 1069, 1282
— soil pressure study on concrete pipe
culverts, 799, 1284
Lubrication tests to prevent rail joint
freezing, and to prevent corrosion,
1056, 1282
Luncheon, annual, 1218
Lyle, D. O., memoir, 709
M
Magee, G. M., addresses, AAR-NLMA
cross tie research, 1254
— computor determination of risk factors
for different types of grade crossing
protection, 1162
— highlights of Engineering Division re-
search, 1119
— rail research projects, 1274
Maintenance equipment, track, ultimate
improvements in various types to
provide greatest economies, 593
Maintenance forces, relative economy of
housing in auto trailers and camp
oars, 586, 1242
Maintenance of way departments, as af-
fected by legislative situation, by
R. G. May, 1230
Maintenance of way work, analysis of op-
erations on the Wabash, 564, 1241
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment,
report and discussion, 629, 1235
Maintenance or deferred maintenance, by
G. B. Aydelott, 1219
Manual, withdrawal of general emergency
sheet from, 1131
Marine organisms, preventing damage by,
625, 1129
Marine piling-, service test records of
treated, 612, 1228
Masonry, report and discussion, 675, 1187
— design of retaining walls, specifications,
676, 1188
Masonry foundations, spread footing,
specifications, 676, 1188
May, R. G., address, legislative situation
as it affects maintenance of way de-
partments, 1230
McBrian, Ray, president's address, 1096
Index
Measuring high and wide shipments,
methods of, 671, 1217
Membrane waterproofing, revisions of
specifications, 600, 122 I
Miller, G. W., panel discussion on hump
yards, 113!)
Molis, B. W., greetings from Signal Sec-
tion, 1105
Motor cars, specifications, revisions, 630,
1235
Mottier, C. 11., honorary membership cer-
tificate presented, 1115
Preservative treatment, conditioning for-
est products before, 610, 1 228
Preservative treatment <>f forest products,
revisions of specifications, 605, 1227
Preservatives, wood, specifications, revi-
sions, 604, 1226
President's address, 1096
Prestressed concrete, use of in railway
structures, 677, liss
Program of annual meeting, 1089
Property ivcm-ils, equipment, 716, 11::^'
N
Newmark, N. M., effect of fabricated edge
conditions on brittle fracture of struc-
tural steels, 245
New York Central, service test of rail,
957, 1263
— tests on steel truss spans, 556, 1185
Norfolk and Western, service tests of rail,
956, 1263
Northern Pacific, study of stability of
cuts in fine sand and varved clays,
807, 1285
NRAA exhibit, 1103
Nuclear light sources for roadway signs,
815, 1286
o
O'Brien, J. H., memoir, 708
Office and drafting practices, methods of
duplication, 713, 716, 1132
Painting and preparation of steel bridge
surfaces, 704, 1195
Paints, flre-retardant for building inte-
riors, 489, 1234
Peck, Ralph B., stability of cuts in fine
sands and varved clays, 807, 1285
Pennsylvania, rail, alloy steel, service
tests, 961, 1263
— rail heads, plastic flow in, determi-
nation of, 962, 1263
— 78-ft rail service tests, 992
Peterson, H. R., criteria of relative merits
of construction materials used in
waterfront facilities, on basis of in-
spection tests and service records,
519, 1159
— on basis of annual or capitalized cosl
methods, 521, 1159
Pile hammers, diesel, 636, 1237
Pipe, concrete culvert reinforced, revision
to specification, 799, 1284
Pipe line crossings under railway tracks,
807, 1285
Pipe lines, cathodic protection of, 121,
1166
Poles, in rka electric systems, Bervice
test report, 617, 1228
Pre-cast concrete units, use of in railway
construction, 688, 1189
Radioactive substances, in air, oil and
water filters on diesel locomotives,
detection and disposal of, 427, 1168
Radioactivity and railroads, by R. O.
Bardwell, 1168
Rail, report and discussion, 905. 1261
— control-cooled, investigation of failures
in, by R. E. Cramer, 126 2
— continuous welded (See continuous
welded rail)
Rail, control-cooled, investigation of fail-
ures in, 907, 1261
— economic value of various sizes, 936,
1263
— end batter of, cause and remedies, 935
— engine burns, repair of by welding, 1003
Rail, failure statistics, 915, 1262
Rail, flow in head of, test to determine
on curve, 962, 1263
— laid tight, with frozen joints, service
test, 1069, 1282
Rail, laying, specifications, revisions, 1007,
1278
— laying tight with frozen joints, poten-
tial maintenance economies of, 590,
1243
— production and testing in Germany, by
K. Kannowski, 1267
— research projects, by G. M. Magee. 127 1
— 78-ft, service and economics of, 992
Rail, shelly, progress reports on service
tests of alloy, 954, 1263
— shelly spots and head checks, methods
of prevention, 953, 1263
Rail, shelly, study, progress report, by
R. E. Cramer, 975, 1263
Rail head, plastic flow in, by C. J. Code,
1264
Rail joints, lubrication tests, 1056, 1282
Rail sections, recent developments affect-
ing, 981
Rail-truck freight equipment, facilities
for loading and unloading, 17"., 1139
Railroad Retirement Hoard, economics of
securing labor from, compared to
other sources, 579, 1242
Records and Accounts, report and discus-
sion, 707, 1131
— bibliography, 709, 1 181
Reinforced Concrete Research Council, by
B. Hognestad and R. k. Blanks, 1189
Regulatory bodies and courts, current de-
velopments in valuation and deprecia-
tion, 786, l 138
Reports and records, property, equipment,
716, 1132
Index
alng walls, design, masonry, specifi-
cations, 676, i L88
Research highlights of Engineering Divi-
. bj <:. M. Magee, 1119
lights the way, by W. T. Parley, 1108
i. imwork In, by W. M. Keller, 1116
Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac,
rail joint lubrication service tests,
nit;;, 1282
Roadway sign, standard close clearance
warning, 816, 1286
Roadway and Ballast, report and discus-
sion, 797, 1 28 I
Sanitation, federal and state regulations,
120, 1166
Scales, track, two-section knife edge, spec-
ifications, revisions, 464, 1138
Screws, lag, standardization of heads for,
1008, 1278
Seaboard Air Line, longitudinal forces in
ballasted-deck pile trestles, 557, 558,
1185, 1187
Secretary, executive, statement and re-
port of, 1099, 1309
Sight distances at highway-railway grade
crossings, 404, 1161
Signals, highway grade crossing (See
Crossings, highway— railway grade)
Sign, close clearance warning, 816, 1286
Signs, roadway, nuclear light sources for,
815, 1286
Southern, service tests of tie plate, 1028,
1280
Southern Pacific, tests on steel truss
spans, 556, 1185
Spikes, drive, standardization of heads
for, 1008, 1278
Spread footing foundations, 676, 1188
Steel, high-strength, effect of fatigue in
on current steel railway bridge spec-
ifications, 702, 1194
— structural, effect of fabricated edge
conditions on brittle fracture of, 245
Struve, W. M., vegetation control on Iowa
roadbeds, 836, 1287
Students, one way in which Committee 24
is interesting them in railroading,
1178
Sub-ballast, specifications, 835, 1286
Switches, plans for, 1008, 1279
Terminals, LCL, freight facilities, revi-
sions, 4 46, 1136
Terminals, produce, width of driveways
for, 449, 1136
Termites, destruction by, prevention, 628,
1229
Texas md Pacific, service test of rail,
958, 1263
Tie plates, hold-down fastenings for, in-
cluding pads, tests of, 1035, 128]
— rolling-load tests of, 1034, 1280
— service tests, 1028, 1033, 1280
Tie distribution, mechanized apparatus to
unload ties from gondola-type cars,
593, 1243
Tie unloaders, 650, 1239
Ties, report and discussion, 559, 1253
— adherence to specifications, 560, 1253
— removal, causes for, 560, 1255
- — -most effective type of mechanical ap-
paratus to unload and distribute, 593,
1243
— renewal statistics and costs, 243
Timber, pressure-treated, in harbor struc-
tures, 551, 1159
Timber-concrete composite decks, design,
795, 1183
Toois, track, plans, revisions, 1007, 1278
— tests, 1008, 1278
Track and equipment, joint committee on
relation between, report of, 305
Track, report and discussion, 1005, 1276
Track curvature, cost of, 392, 1148
Track maintenance in France and Ger-
many, by T. P. Burris, 124 4
Track structure, prevention of damage to
from brine drippings, 1018, 1280
Track tools, plans, revisions, 1007, 1278
— tests, 1008, 1278
Trackwork plans, revisions, 1008, 1279
Trailers, auto, and camp cars, relative
economy in housing maintenance
forces, 586, 124 2
— highway, facilities for loading and un-
loading on freight cars, 475, 1139
Treasurer, statement and report of, 1102,
1327
Treated wood piling, service test records,
612, 1228
Treated wood poles, service life, 617
Trestles, open-deck pile and framed, mul-
tiple-story, ballasted-deck pile and
framed, plans, revisions, 744, 1179
Truss bridge research project, 1197
Tudor, W. H., greetings from NRAA,
1103
Tunnel, Cascade, ventilation system for,
by G. V. Guerin, 1288
Tanks, steel storage, cathodic protection
of, 421, 1166
— welded, water or oil storage, specifica-
tions. 409, 1165
Team yards, width of driveways for, 449,
1136
Technicians, engineering, role of in the
railroad field, 697, 1177
Tellers, report of, 1092
Terminals, locomotives, facilities, revi-
sions, 445, 1137
V
"Vegetation, chemical control of roadbed,
836, 1287
—in Iowa, 836, 843, 851, 1287
— in Montana, 291
(See also weed and brush control)
"Ventilation system for Cascade Tunnel on
Great Northern, by G. V. Guerin,
1288
Index
w
Wabash, analysis of maintenance opera-
tions, 564, 1241
Waste disposal, 124, 1167
Water, Oil and Sanitation Service, report
and discussion, hit, 1165
Water resource development, synopsis of
Hoover Task Force report, 500, 1158
Waterfront facilities, relative merits of
construction materials used, on basis
of inspection tests and service rec-
ords, 519
- — on basis of annual or capitalized cost
methods, 521, 1 L59
— servict performance of materials c -
pletely or partially under water in
waterfront facilities, 523, 1159
— sbeet steel piling and steel H-section
bearing piles, life of, 546, 1159
— timber, pressure-treated, use of, 551,
1159
Waterproofing, report and discussion, 599,
122:^
— membrane, specifications, revisions, 600,
122 1
Waterproofing materials, application to
railway structures, 601, 122 1
Waterways and Harbors, report and dis-
cussion. 199, 1158
— bibliography, 500, 1158
Weed control, chemical, study at North
Carolina State College, 843, 1287
Weed and brush control, AAR research
project, 851, 128 7
White. F. B.. the life of sheet piling and
steel H-section bearing piles, 546,
1159
Wilcox, Merrill, railroad weed control,
843, 1287
Wiltsee, W. P., memoir, 1307
Wind loading for railway building struc-
tures, 485, 1233
Wood Bridges and Ti • - ties, report and
discussion, 7 1 ::. 1 1 7 ;*
— design, specifications tests, 761, 1180
-methods of flreprooflng, fire retardant
paints, 762, 1181
Wood Preservation, report and disci;
603, 1226
marine organisms, methods t«> prevent
destruction by, 625, 1229
ina line piling, service record, 612, 1228
— termites, destruction by, method* to
prevent. 628, 1229
-I poll 3, •■ n Ice life, 61 7
Wood preservatives, new, and specifica-
tions revisions, 604, 1226
Work equipment, automotive Vehicles,
basis lor replacing, 653, 1239
• 1 versus gasoline engines, 647, 12::s
— improvements In existing, 633, 1236
— improvements to be made in existing,
635, 1236
— motor cars, push cars arid ti
specifications, revisions, 630, 1235
— new developments in, 631, 1236
— repaired by field repairmen, number of
units. 649, 1238
— tie unloaders, 650, 1239
— units repaired by field repairman, eco-
nomic number of, 64 9, 1238
Wyly, L. T., address, the truss bridge
research project, 1218
Yards, classification, design data for
gradients, revisions, 476, 1139
— classification, factors affecting humping
capacity, 462, 1138
— hum]), panel discussion, 1139
Yards and Terminals, report and discus-
sion, 445, 1135
Yard-to-yard car reporting, 39 1, 11 19
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